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rhythm
By [14]Shelley Esaak, About.com Guide
See More About:
* [15]art definitions
* [16]principles of design
Definition:
(noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in
words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take
what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something
you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat.
A pattern has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the
colors of a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from
one component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying
movement. Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're
placed one next to the other.
Really, it's easier to "see" rhythm in just about anything other than
the visual arts. Literally-minded types should stick to music for
rhythm.
Pronunciation: rih·them
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rhythm
By [14]Shelley Esaak, About.com Guide
See More About:
* [15]art definitions
* [16]principles of design
Definition:
(noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in
words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take
what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something
you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat.
A pattern has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the
colors of a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from
one component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying
movement. Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're
placed one next to the other.
Really, it's easier to "see" rhythm in just about anything other than
the visual arts. Literally-minded types should stick to music for
rhythm.
Pronunciation: rih·them
Related Articles
* [17]Guitar Strumming 101 - Strumming Pattern Exercise Number One
* [18]From a Father to His Children - Clement Clarke Moore
* [19]Music clip art and instruments and musicians and musical notes
plus other m...
* [20]Pittsburgh Arts Summer Camps - Performing & Visual Arts Summer
Programs in ...
* [21]United Kingdom Travel by Interest - Find History, Art, Theatre,
Music and M...
[22]Shelley Esaak
[23]Shelley Esaak
Art History Guide
* [24]Sign up for my Newsletter
* [25]My Blog
* [26]My Forum
Explore Art History
Must Reads
* [27]60-Second Artist Bios
* [28]What Is Art?
* [29]Leonardo da Vinci Paintings
* [30]Teaching Tool: Picturing America
* [31]Timeline: Modern Art Movements
Most Popular
[32]The Last Supper[33]The Sistine Chapel Ceiling[34]What are the
Elements of Art?[35]What Is Art?[36]Art History Jobs - Fellowship and
Internship Postings
See More About:
* [37]art definitions
* [38]principles of design
By Category
* [39]Artists A to Z
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7. Art History Glossary - R - rhythm>
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[1]Click Here
[2]ArtLex Art Dictionary
,ø¤º°`°ºº¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø
,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°
r rhythm - A visual tempo or beat. The [3]principle of design that
refers to a regular repetition of [4]elements of art to produce the
look and feel of [5]movement. It is often achieved through the careful
placement of repeated components which invite the viewer's eye to jump
rapidly or glide smoothly from one to the next.
In any [6]artwork, it is possible to distinguish between rhythm of
[7]color, [8]line, and [9]form. In the continuity of the three comes
the whole rhythm of that work.
Rhythm unites the [10]visual culture with [11]music, but in visual
culture, rhythm is more evident in the [12]applied arts than in the
[13]fine arts. In the former, it is often the foremost means of
[14]aesthetic [15]expression.
Rhythm originated in the Greek word rhymthmos, meaning measured flow,
which they passed into Latin as rhythmus, meaning movement in [16]time.
Its first uses in English were literary, in reference to themetrical
rhyming of verses. English speakers began to use rhythm concerning
repetition of musical beats in the late 18th century, and about visual
elements in the same period.
Each [17]artist, every [18]period, every [19]culture produces a
characteristic sort of rhythm. Recognizing a work's rhythmical
peculiarities often aids in [20]identify the culture or [21]time in
which it was produced, if not the individual artist who produced it.
Rhythm's importance can be demonstrated by noting how many important
rhythmic cycles we observe in [22]nature -- consider the alternating
tension and relaxation in the heart's beating or in the ocean's waves,
the revolutions of the earth around the sun, the comings and goings of
generations. Each of us has personal rhythms to our days, weeks, and
years. Life, indeed, would be chaotic without rhythm. Participating in
the tempo of this flow gives us excitement and calm, yearning and
contentment, yin and yang. It is natural that we would employ rhythms
to organize and [23]unify our works, much as they do the rest of our
experience.
There are several types of visual rhythm. These include:
regular rhythms - The background design behind this text has a
regular rhythm. (In the following examples, let the letters A, B,
etc. stand for visual elements of any sort)
AB-AB-AB is the most common type. Picture alternating stripes of two
colors, for instance. (In English prosody, a student of poetry might
read this as either "iambs" or "trochees". An iamb is a metrical
foot consisting of two syllables, the first syllable accented, the
second accented, as in AB-AB-AB. It becomes trochaic meter if the
accenting is reversed, as in AB-AB-AB.)
Some more examples:
ABC-ABC-ABC (In English prosody, a student of poetry might read this
as "anapests" or "dactyls". An anapest is a metrical foot consisting
of three syllables, the first two syllables unaccented, the third
accented, as in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL. A dactyl consists of three
syllables, the first accented, the second and third unaccented, as
in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL.)
ABBB-ABBB-ABBB
ABCB-ABCB-ABCB
ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA
alternating rhythms -
some examples:
ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE-ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE-
ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF-ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF-
ABCD-DCCBBA-ABCD-DCCBBA
progressive rhythms - Progression occurs when there is a gradual
increase or decrease in the size, number, color, or some other
quality of the elements repeated.
some examples:
AB-AABB-AAABBB-AAAABBBB
AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB
AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-
ABC-ABD-ABE-ABF-ABG-ABH-ABI
flowing rhythms -
random rhythms -
Each of these types of rhythm might be altered periodically. [24]Music
theory might be defined as the study of rhythms and their periodic
alterations.
Example of works displaying rhythm:
[rhythm_matis.danc1.th.jpg]
see thumbnail to left Henri Matisse (French, 1869-1954), [25]Dance
(first version), 1909, [26]oil on [27]canvas, 8 feet 6 1/2 inches x
12 feet 9 1/2 inches (259.7 x 390.1 cm), Museum of
[e3_3_1_8d_french_art20.jpg] Modern Art, NY.
Matisse painted a second version of see thumbnail to right [28]Dance
in 1910, [29]oil on [30]canvas, 102 x 154 inches (260 x 391 cm),
Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia.
Dance, together with Music, was commissioned by S.I.Shchukin to
[31]decorate the staircase in his Moscow mansion. Matisse took the
[32]motif of the round dance, used as a [33]symbol back as far as
French [34]Renaissance, to represent the [35]rhythm and
[36]expression of the 20th century. The spaciousness and expressive
[37]lines [38]emphasize the dynamics of the [39]figures.
[40]Simplified and schematic [41]forms intensify the [42]brightness
and [43]resonance of the three colors -- red, blue and green. See
[44]music. Dance, Matisse once said, meant "life and rhythm." See
[45]dance, [46]music, and [47]movement.
[destij_mond.broadwa.th.gif]
see thumbnail to left Piet Mondrian (Dutch, 1872-1944), [48]Broadway
Boogie Woogie. 1942-43, [49]oil on [50]canvas, 50 x 50 inches (127 x
127 cm), at the Museum of Modern Art, New York. See [51]De Stijl and
[52]grid.
[3L00164.jpg]
see thumbnail to right Paul Klee (Swiss, 1879-1940),
[53]Rhythmisches (In Rhythm), 1930, [54]oil on woven jute, 69.6 x
50.5 cm, Georges Pompidou Center, Paris. See [55]Bauhaus and
[56]Swiss art.
[femns_taeuber_circles_th.jpg]
see thumbnail to left Sophie Taeuber-Arp (Swiss, 1889-1943; to
France 1928), [57]Composition of Circles and Overlapping Angles
(Composition à cercles et à bras superposés), 1930, [58]oil on
[59]canvas, 19 1/2 x 25 1/4 inches (49.5 x 64.1 cm), Museum of
Modern Art, NY. See [60]feminism and feminist art.
[40x10pixel.space.gif]
[femns_taeuber_echelon_th.jpg]
see thumbnail to right Sophie Taeuber-Arp, [61]Echelonnement désaxé,
1934, [62]gouache on [63]paper, 13 7/8 X 10 5/8 inches (35.1 X 27
cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY.
[bauhau_aalber.walldes.th.jpg]
see thumbnail to left Anni Albers (born Analise Fleischman, married
Josef Albers) (German, 1899-1994), [64]Design for Wall Hanging,
1926, [65]gouache and [66]pencil on paper, 14 x 11 1/2 inches (35.6
x 29.2 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. See [67]Bauhaus and
[68]textile.
Quote:
"Rhythm and harmony find their way into the inward places of the
soul."
Plato (427?-327? BCE), Greek philosopher. The Republic, Book III,
401d, as translated by B. Jowett, 1901. See [69]harmony.
Also see [70]animation, [71]arrangement, [72]chronology, [73]cinema,
[74]composition, [75]dance, [76]direction, [77]egg-and-dart,
[78]eurythmy, [79]four-dimensional, [80]harmonic sequence, [81]harmony,
[82]kinetic, [83]juxtaposition, [84]measure, [85]metamorphosis,
[86]mobile, [87]movement, [88]obsession, [89]pattern, [90]periodicity,
[91]music, [92]sequence, [93]space-time, [94]time, and [95]whirligig.
[96][grid.1.gif]
[97]ArtLex Art Dictionary
[98]Copyright © 1996- current year delahunt(at)artlex.com
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* [13]Discuss in my Forum
rhythm
By [14]Shelley Esaak, About.com Guide
See More About:
* [15]art definitions
* [16]principles of design
Definition:
(noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in
words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take
what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something
you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat.
A pattern has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the
colors of a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from
one component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying
movement. Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're
placed one next to the other.
Really, it's easier to "see" rhythm in just about anything other than
the visual arts. Literally-minded types should stick to music for
rhythm.
Pronunciation: rih·them
Related Articles
* [17]Guitar Strumming 101 - Strumming Pattern Exercise Number One
* [18]From a Father to His Children - Clement Clarke Moore
* [19]Music clip art and instruments and musicians and musical notes
plus other m...
* [20]Pittsburgh Arts Summer Camps - Performing & Visual Arts Summer
Programs in ...
* [21]United Kingdom Travel by Interest - Find History, Art, Theatre,
Music and M...
[22]Shelley Esaak
[23]Shelley Esaak
Art History Guide
* [24]Sign up for my Newsletter
* [25]My Blog
* [26]My Forum
Explore Art History
Must Reads
* [27]60-Second Artist Bios
* [28]What Is Art?
* [29]Leonardo da Vinci Paintings
* [30]Teaching Tool: Picturing America
* [31]Timeline: Modern Art Movements
Most Popular
[32]The Last Supper[33]The Sistine Chapel Ceiling[34]What are the
Elements of Art?[35]What Is Art?[36]Art History Jobs - Fellowship and
Internship Postings
See More About:
* [37]art definitions
* [38]principles of design
By Category
* [39]Artists A to Z
* [40]Art History 101
* [41]Timelines of Art History
* [42]Ancient Art History
* [43]Medieval Art History
* [44]Renaissance Art History
* [45]Modern Art History
* [46]Contemporary Art History
* [47]Images / Picture Galleries
* [48]Types of Visual Art
* [49]Art by Location / Culture
* [50]Art Museums / Galleries
About.com Special Features
[51]Dinosaur Discoveries of the Decade
The top 10 fossil discoveries between 2000 and 2010. [52]More >
[53]How to Ace the GRE
Being well prepared is the first step; here are more essential
suggestions. [54]More >
[55]About.com
[56]Art History
1. [57]Home
2. [58]Education
3. [59]Art History
4. [60]Art History 101
5. [61]Art History Glossary
6. [62]Words Beginning With R
7. Art History Glossary - R - rhythm>
* [63]Most Popular
* [64]Latest Articles
Add to:
* [65]iGoogle
* [66]My Yahoo!
* [67]RSS
* [68]Advertising Info
* [69]News & Events
* [70]Work at About
* [71]SiteMap
* [72]All Topics
* [73]Reprints
* [74]Help
* [75]User Agreement
* [76]Ethics Policy
* [77]Patent Info.
* [78]Privacy Policy
* [79]Our Story
* [80]Write for About
©2010 About.com, a part of [81]The New York Times Company.
All rights reserved.
Références
[1]Click Here
[2]ArtLex Art Dictionary
,ø¤º°`°ºº¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø
,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°
r rhythm - A visual tempo or beat. The [3]principle of design that
refers to a regular repetition of [4]elements of art to produce the
look and feel of [5]movement. It is often achieved through the careful
placement of repeated components which invite the viewer's eye to jump
rapidly or glide smoothly from one to the next.
In any [6]artwork, it is possible to distinguish between rhythm of
[7]color, [8]line, and [9]form. In the continuity of the three comes
the whole rhythm of that work.
Rhythm unites the [10]visual culture with [11]music, but in visual
culture, rhythm is more evident in the [12]applied arts than in the
[13]fine arts. In the former, it is often the foremost means of
[14]aesthetic [15]expression.
Rhythm originated in the Greek word rhymthmos, meaning measured flow,
which they passed into Latin as rhythmus, meaning movement in [16]time.
Its first uses in English were literary, in reference to themetrical
rhyming of verses. English speakers began to use rhythm concerning
repetition of musical beats in the late 18th century, and about visual
elements in the same period.
Each [17]artist, every [18]period, every [19]culture produces a
characteristic sort of rhythm. Recognizing a work's rhythmical
peculiarities often aids in [20]identify the culture or [21]time in
which it was produced, if not the individual artist who produced it.
Rhythm's importance can be demonstrated by noting how many important
rhythmic cycles we observe in [22]nature -- consider the alternating
tension and relaxation in the heart's beating or in the ocean's waves,
the revolutions of the earth around the sun, the comings and goings of
generations. Each of us has personal rhythms to our days, weeks, and
years. Life, indeed, would be chaotic without rhythm. Participating in
the tempo of this flow gives us excitement and calm, yearning and
contentment, yin and yang. It is natural that we would employ rhythms
to organize and [23]unify our works, much as they do the rest of our
experience.
There are several types of visual rhythm. These include:
regular rhythms - The background design behind this text has a
regular rhythm. (In the following examples, let the letters A, B,
etc. stand for visual elements of any sort)
AB-AB-AB is the most common type. Picture alternating stripes of two
colors, for instance. (In English prosody, a student of poetry might
read this as either "iambs" or "trochees". An iamb is a metrical
foot consisting of two syllables, the first syllable accented, the
second accented, as in AB-AB-AB. It becomes trochaic meter if the
accenting is reversed, as in AB-AB-AB.)
Some more examples:
ABC-ABC-ABC (In English prosody, a student of poetry might read this
as "anapests" or "dactyls". An anapest is a metrical foot consisting
of three syllables, the first two syllables unaccented, the third
accented, as in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL. A dactyl consists of three
syllables, the first accented, the second and third unaccented, as
in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL.)
ABBB-ABBB-ABBB
ABCB-ABCB-ABCB
ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA
alternating rhythms -
some examples:
ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE-ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE-
ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF-ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF-
ABCD-DCCBBA-ABCD-DCCBBA
progressive rhythms - Progression occurs when there is a gradual
increase or decrease in the size, number, color, or some other
quality of the elements repeated.
some examples:
AB-AABB-AAABBB-AAAABBBB
AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB
AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-
ABC-ABD-ABE-ABF-ABG-ABH-ABI
flowing rhythms -
random rhythms -
Each of these types of rhythm might be altered periodically. [24]Music
theory might be defined as the study of rhythms and their periodic
alterations.
Example of works displaying rhythm:
[rhythm_matis.danc1.th.jpg]
see thumbnail to left Henri Matisse (French, 1869-1954), [25]Dance
(first version), 1909, [26]oil on [27]canvas, 8 feet 6 1/2 inches x
12 feet 9 1/2 inches (259.7 x 390.1 cm), Museum of
[e3_3_1_8d_french_art20.jpg] Modern Art, NY.
Matisse painted a second version of see thumbnail to right [28]Dance
in 1910, [29]oil on [30]canvas, 102 x 154 inches (260 x 391 cm),
Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia.
Dance, together with Music, was commissioned by S.I.Shchukin to
[31]decorate the staircase in his Moscow mansion. Matisse took the
[32]motif of the round dance, used as a [33]symbol back as far as
French [34]Renaissance, to represent the [35]rhythm and
[36]expression of the 20th century. The spaciousness and expressive
[37]lines [38]emphasize the dynamics of the [39]figures.
[40]Simplified and schematic [41]forms intensify the [42]brightness
and [43]resonance of the three colors -- red, blue and green. See
[44]music. Dance, Matisse once said, meant "life and rhythm." See
[45]dance, [46]music, and [47]movement.
[destij_mond.broadwa.th.gif]
see thumbnail to left Piet Mondrian (Dutch, 1872-1944), [48]Broadway
Boogie Woogie. 1942-43, [49]oil on [50]canvas, 50 x 50 inches (127 x
127 cm), at the Museum of Modern Art, New York. See [51]De Stijl and
[52]grid.
[3L00164.jpg]
see thumbnail to right Paul Klee (Swiss, 1879-1940),
[53]Rhythmisches (In Rhythm), 1930, [54]oil on woven jute, 69.6 x
50.5 cm, Georges Pompidou Center, Paris. See [55]Bauhaus and
[56]Swiss art.
[femns_taeuber_circles_th.jpg]
see thumbnail to left Sophie Taeuber-Arp (Swiss, 1889-1943; to
France 1928), [57]Composition of Circles and Overlapping Angles
(Composition à cercles et à bras superposés), 1930, [58]oil on
[59]canvas, 19 1/2 x 25 1/4 inches (49.5 x 64.1 cm), Museum of
Modern Art, NY. See [60]feminism and feminist art.
[40x10pixel.space.gif]
[femns_taeuber_echelon_th.jpg]
see thumbnail to right Sophie Taeuber-Arp, [61]Echelonnement désaxé,
1934, [62]gouache on [63]paper, 13 7/8 X 10 5/8 inches (35.1 X 27
cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY.
[bauhau_aalber.walldes.th.jpg]
see thumbnail to left Anni Albers (born Analise Fleischman, married
Josef Albers) (German, 1899-1994), [64]Design for Wall Hanging,
1926, [65]gouache and [66]pencil on paper, 14 x 11 1/2 inches (35.6
x 29.2 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. See [67]Bauhaus and
[68]textile.
Quote:
"Rhythm and harmony find their way into the inward places of the
soul."
Plato (427?-327? BCE), Greek philosopher. The Republic, Book III,
401d, as translated by B. Jowett, 1901. See [69]harmony.
Also see [70]animation, [71]arrangement, [72]chronology, [73]cinema,
[74]composition, [75]dance, [76]direction, [77]egg-and-dart,
[78]eurythmy, [79]four-dimensional, [80]harmonic sequence, [81]harmony,
[82]kinetic, [83]juxtaposition, [84]measure, [85]metamorphosis,
[86]mobile, [87]movement, [88]obsession, [89]pattern, [90]periodicity,
[91]music, [92]sequence, [93]space-time, [94]time, and [95]whirligig.
[96][grid.1.gif]
[97]ArtLex Art Dictionary
[98]Copyright © 1996- current year delahunt(at)artlex.com
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Rhythm in Art
Take a look at this definition of Rhythm in Art. As noted in the
definition, it can be likened to rhythm in music, and can be said to be
a "patterened repitition" What do you think?
Is rhythm a "visual beat?"
(noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in
words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take
what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something
you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat. A pattern
has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the colors of
a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from one
component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying movement.
Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're placed one
next to the other.
it's sometimes easier to comprehend rhythm in just about anything other
than the visual arts, but once understood, heightened sensitivity to
this aspect can animate design and art making it visually interactive.
"Rhythm of the Hills" by Judy Neale
"Rhythm Joie De Vivre" by Robert Delaunay
This very graphic and design-oriented painting uses repeated circles,
half-circles, joined shapes and contrasting colors to create movement.
"Although trained in fine arts in Paris, Delaunay worked in set design
before beginning his painting career in 1905. He found his initial
influences in the Neo-Impressionists, but gradually moved on to join
Der Blaue Reiter in 1911. His Paris cityscapes began to take on a
distinctive style that studied the effect of contrasting color
patterning. Delaunay's unique method spurred friend and poet, Guillaume
Apollinaire, to place his paintings in a new movement, which he called
Orphism." - World Wide Art Resources
Tamara De Limpicka's "The Model"
This piece which is a very graphically-designed painting, in which the
raised right arm drives the eyes to the right side of the model's
torso; the focal point of the right breast then captures the viewer's
attention, and directs it with a "pointer"... a triangular fold in the
model's garment pulling the viewer to the left arm of the figure. The
curve of the left arm uses the multiple pointers of the model's fingers
to direct the eye strongly to the left into the garment's
downward-sweeping folds, and down the highlighted leg. As if that were
not enough to invest the piece with rhythm, the artist then uses a
strong graphical "s" shape in the background to reinforce the motion
using the model's shadow to create a feeling of movement as part of the
pattern in the background. The overall positioning of the figure
creates visual torque, creating a feeling of anticipated movement
adding to the dynamicism of the design
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rhythm
By [14]Shelley Esaak, About.com Guide
See More About:
* [15]art definitions
* [16]principles of design
Definition:
(noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in
words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take
what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something
you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat.
A pattern has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the
colors of a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from
one component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying
movement. Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're
placed one next to the other.
Really, it's easier to "see" rhythm in just about anything other than
the visual arts. Literally-minded types should stick to music for
rhythm.
Pronunciation: rih·them
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[1]Click Here
[2]ArtLex Art Dictionary
,ø¤º°`°ºº¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø
,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°
r rhythm - A visual tempo or beat. The [3]principle of design that
refers to a regular repetition of [4]elements of art to produce the
look and feel of [5]movement. It is often achieved through the careful
placement of repeated components which invite the viewer's eye to jump
rapidly or glide smoothly from one to the next.
In any [6]artwork, it is possible to distinguish between rhythm of
[7]color, [8]line, and [9]form. In the continuity of the three comes
the whole rhythm of that work.
Rhythm unites the [10]visual culture with [11]music, but in visual
culture, rhythm is more evident in the [12]applied arts than in the
[13]fine arts. In the former, it is often the foremost means of
[14]aesthetic [15]expression.
Rhythm originated in the Greek word rhymthmos, meaning measured flow,
which they passed into Latin as rhythmus, meaning movement in [16]time.
Its first uses in English were literary, in reference to themetrical
rhyming of verses. English speakers began to use rhythm concerning
repetition of musical beats in the late 18th century, and about visual
elements in the same period.
Each [17]artist, every [18]period, every [19]culture produces a
characteristic sort of rhythm. Recognizing a work's rhythmical
peculiarities often aids in [20]identify the culture or [21]time in
which it was produced, if not the individual artist who produced it.
Rhythm's importance can be demonstrated by noting how many important
rhythmic cycles we observe in [22]nature -- consider the alternating
tension and relaxation in the heart's beating or in the ocean's waves,
the revolutions of the earth around the sun, the comings and goings of
generations. Each of us has personal rhythms to our days, weeks, and
years. Life, indeed, would be chaotic without rhythm. Participating in
the tempo of this flow gives us excitement and calm, yearning and
contentment, yin and yang. It is natural that we would employ rhythms
to organize and [23]unify our works, much as they do the rest of our
experience.
There are several types of visual rhythm. These include:
regular rhythms - The background design behind this text has a
regular rhythm. (In the following examples, let the letters A, B,
etc. stand for visual elements of any sort)
AB-AB-AB is the most common type. Picture alternating stripes of two
colors, for instance. (In English prosody, a student of poetry might
read this as either "iambs" or "trochees". An iamb is a metrical
foot consisting of two syllables, the first syllable accented, the
second accented, as in AB-AB-AB. It becomes trochaic meter if the
accenting is reversed, as in AB-AB-AB.)
Some more examples:
ABC-ABC-ABC (In English prosody, a student of poetry might read this
as "anapests" or "dactyls". An anapest is a metrical foot consisting
of three syllables, the first two syllables unaccented, the third
accented, as in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL. A dactyl consists of three
syllables, the first accented, the second and third unaccented, as
in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL.)
ABBB-ABBB-ABBB
ABCB-ABCB-ABCB
ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA
alternating rhythms -
some examples:
ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE-ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE-
ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF-ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF-
ABCD-DCCBBA-ABCD-DCCBBA
progressive rhythms - Progression occurs when there is a gradual
increase or decrease in the size, number, color, or some other
quality of the elements repeated.
some examples:
AB-AABB-AAABBB-AAAABBBB
AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB
AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-
ABC-ABD-ABE-ABF-ABG-ABH-ABI
flowing rhythms -
random rhythms -
Each of these types of rhythm might be altered periodically. [24]Music
theory might be defined as the study of rhythms and their periodic
alterations.
Example of works displaying rhythm:
[rhythm_matis.danc1.th.jpg]
see thumbnail to left Henri Matisse (French, 1869-1954), [25]Dance
(first version), 1909, [26]oil on [27]canvas, 8 feet 6 1/2 inches x
12 feet 9 1/2 inches (259.7 x 390.1 cm), Museum of
[e3_3_1_8d_french_art20.jpg] Modern Art, NY.
Matisse painted a second version of see thumbnail to right [28]Dance
in 1910, [29]oil on [30]canvas, 102 x 154 inches (260 x 391 cm),
Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia.
Dance, together with Music, was commissioned by S.I.Shchukin to
[31]decorate the staircase in his Moscow mansion. Matisse took the
[32]motif of the round dance, used as a [33]symbol back as far as
French [34]Renaissance, to represent the [35]rhythm and
[36]expression of the 20th century. The spaciousness and expressive
[37]lines [38]emphasize the dynamics of the [39]figures.
[40]Simplified and schematic [41]forms intensify the [42]brightness
and [43]resonance of the three colors -- red, blue and green. See
[44]music. Dance, Matisse once said, meant "life and rhythm." See
[45]dance, [46]music, and [47]movement.
[destij_mond.broadwa.th.gif]
see thumbnail to left Piet Mondrian (Dutch, 1872-1944), [48]Broadway
Boogie Woogie. 1942-43, [49]oil on [50]canvas, 50 x 50 inches (127 x
127 cm), at the Museum of Modern Art, New York. See [51]De Stijl and
[52]grid.
[3L00164.jpg]
see thumbnail to right Paul Klee (Swiss, 1879-1940),
[53]Rhythmisches (In Rhythm), 1930, [54]oil on woven jute, 69.6 x
50.5 cm, Georges Pompidou Center, Paris. See [55]Bauhaus and
[56]Swiss art.
[femns_taeuber_circles_th.jpg]
see thumbnail to left Sophie Taeuber-Arp (Swiss, 1889-1943; to
France 1928), [57]Composition of Circles and Overlapping Angles
(Composition à cercles et à bras superposés), 1930, [58]oil on
[59]canvas, 19 1/2 x 25 1/4 inches (49.5 x 64.1 cm), Museum of
Modern Art, NY. See [60]feminism and feminist art.
[40x10pixel.space.gif]
[femns_taeuber_echelon_th.jpg]
see thumbnail to right Sophie Taeuber-Arp, [61]Echelonnement désaxé,
1934, [62]gouache on [63]paper, 13 7/8 X 10 5/8 inches (35.1 X 27
cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY.
[bauhau_aalber.walldes.th.jpg]
see thumbnail to left Anni Albers (born Analise Fleischman, married
Josef Albers) (German, 1899-1994), [64]Design for Wall Hanging,
1926, [65]gouache and [66]pencil on paper, 14 x 11 1/2 inches (35.6
x 29.2 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. See [67]Bauhaus and
[68]textile.
Quote:
"Rhythm and harmony find their way into the inward places of the
soul."
Plato (427?-327? BCE), Greek philosopher. The Republic, Book III,
401d, as translated by B. Jowett, 1901. See [69]harmony.
Also see [70]animation, [71]arrangement, [72]chronology, [73]cinema,
[74]composition, [75]dance, [76]direction, [77]egg-and-dart,
[78]eurythmy, [79]four-dimensional, [80]harmonic sequence, [81]harmony,
[82]kinetic, [83]juxtaposition, [84]measure, [85]metamorphosis,
[86]mobile, [87]movement, [88]obsession, [89]pattern, [90]periodicity,
[91]music, [92]sequence, [93]space-time, [94]time, and [95]whirligig.
[96][grid.1.gif]
[97]ArtLex Art Dictionary
[98]Copyright © 1996- current year delahunt(at)artlex.com
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Rhythm in Art
Take a look at this definition of Rhythm in Art. As noted in the
definition, it can be likened to rhythm in music, and can be said to be
a "patterened repitition" What do you think?
Is rhythm a "visual beat?"
(noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in
words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take
what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something
you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat. A pattern
has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the colors of
a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from one
component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying movement.
Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're placed one
next to the other.
it's sometimes easier to comprehend rhythm in just about anything other
than the visual arts, but once understood, heightened sensitivity to
this aspect can animate design and art making it visually interactive.
"Rhythm of the Hills" by Judy Neale
"Rhythm Joie De Vivre" by Robert Delaunay
This very graphic and design-oriented painting uses repeated circles,
half-circles, joined shapes and contrasting colors to create movement.
"Although trained in fine arts in Paris, Delaunay worked in set design
before beginning his painting career in 1905. He found his initial
influences in the Neo-Impressionists, but gradually moved on to join
Der Blaue Reiter in 1911. His Paris cityscapes began to take on a
distinctive style that studied the effect of contrasting color
patterning. Delaunay's unique method spurred friend and poet, Guillaume
Apollinaire, to place his paintings in a new movement, which he called
Orphism." - World Wide Art Resources
Tamara De Limpicka's "The Model"
This piece which is a very graphically-designed painting, in which the
raised right arm drives the eyes to the right side of the model's
torso; the focal point of the right breast then captures the viewer's
attention, and directs it with a "pointer"... a triangular fold in the
model's garment pulling the viewer to the left arm of the figure. The
curve of the left arm uses the multiple pointers of the model's fingers
to direct the eye strongly to the left into the garment's
downward-sweeping folds, and down the highlighted leg. As if that were
not enough to invest the piece with rhythm, the artist then uses a
strong graphical "s" shape in the background to reinforce the motion
using the model's shadow to create a feeling of movement as part of the
pattern in the background. The overall positioning of the figure
creates visual torque, creating a feeling of anticipated movement
adding to the dynamicism of the design
Welcome to
DesignerNet
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[42]Create a Ning Network! »
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Rhythm, pattern, color, and texture in art and poetry
In this lesson, students will discover the meaning of "rhythm,"
"patterns," "color," and "texture" through the performance and modeled
analysis of a class "symphony." Students will also evaluate the impact
of each element on the whole work and note personal reactions and
connections to this art form. Students will then work in small groups
to apply the same elements and personal evaluation and connections to a
historical work of visual art. At the end of the lesson, students will
reflect on ways these two experiences are similar.
A lesson plan for grade 7 Visual Arts Education and English Language
Arts
By [17]Carol Horne
Learn more
Related pages
* [18]Old Hat, New Hat: 3-D Pattern Hats: After students read Old
Hat, New Hat by Jan and Stan Berenstain, they create their own new
3-D hats.
* [19]Rhythm stars: This lesson will introduce the main components of
rhythm: quarter, eighth, and sixteenth notes.
* [20]How do I express what I believe? - Part 2: This is the second
in a three-part lesson series seeking to examine belief systems and
how they impact culture in the United States. This lesson, "How do
I express what I believe?" requires 3 sessions at 40 minutes each
to complete. The lesson series also seeks to let students examine
their own personal belief system. In this lesson, the student will
learn about the American tradition of the Face Jug/Pot and how it
is used to express belief. The student will also create a Face
Jug/Pot to express his/her belief, and this pot will be used in the
third lesson entitled. "How do I present what I believe?"
Related topics
* Learn more about [21]arts, [22]color, [23]hands-on, [24]patterns,
[25]rhythm, and [26]texture.
Help
Please read our [27]disclaimer for lesson plans.
Legal
The text of this page is copyright ©2008. See [28]terms of use. Images
and other media may be licensed separately; see captions for more
information and [29]read the fine print.
[30]Creative Commons License
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Learning outcomes
Students will:
* learn to identify examples of "rhythm," "patterns," "color," and
"texture" in order to analyze a whole class symphony of various
sounds and movements.
* learn to apply these same elements to a work of visual art.
* evaluate the overall impact of each element and will investigate
their personal reactions and connections to both of these art
forms.
* learn to reflect on the similarities of their analyses of both of
these art forms.
Teacher planning
Time required for lesson
85 minutes
Materials/resources
* Adjust space for class to "perform" assigned individual movements
as a whole group standing in one long line as the teacher stands in
front of students to "conduct." If this is not possible, make sure
students have enough space to "perform" as they stand alongside
their desks.
* Write variety of individual sounds and movements on index cards to
distribute to each student, e.g. "bark like a dog; make a whooshing
sound as you move like a wave; high-five and yell, `Yeah!'; whistle
like an admirer; click your heels and say, `There's no place like
home!'; sing the first bar of the Friskies' `Meow, meow, meow,
meow' song; frog hop as you `ribbitt' twice; etc.
* Set up a tape recorder and blank tape cued to record the class
"symphony."
* Make two overhead transparencies and two hard copies per student of
the graphic organizer titled, "Elements of Art-Making Connections!"
for analysis of the elements of "rhythm and patterns," "color,"
"texture," etc. (See attachment of a blank copy.) You will also
need a transparency pen.
* Pre-select a poster, transparency, or website image of a work of
visual art preferrably from a historical period familiar to
students and a narrative piece. (See "Relevant Web Sites" below for
a suggested link to "Cleopatra and the Peasant.")
* Complete a graphic organizer for the selected work of visual art to
use as a suggested "answer key" for easy reference during small
group facilitation. (See "Attachments" below for a suggested key of
possible answers for "Elements of Art - Cleopatra and the Peasant"
art image.)
Technology resources
Student computers with color monitors and Internet connection
bookmarked at the site of the selected work of visual art. (optional)
A classroom computer with color monitor and Internet connection set on
site of selected work of visual art and connected to an LCD projector,
which projects computer image onto classroom screen. (optional)
Pre-activities
No previous knowledge is needed for the opening "symphony" activity.
However, to integrate social studies, students should be familiar with
the general historical context of the work of visual art used in the
second activity. If the "Cleopatra and the Peasant" piece is used, for
instance, it would be helpful if students have had some background in
the ancient Egyptian period prior to the viewing of this piece. If you
are using another historical narrative piece, select one for which
students have had some previous study.
If your students will be accessing the Internet to view the visual art
at a selected website, students should have obtained permission to use
the Internet. They should also know how to go to bookmarked sites.
Students should also have had some experience with small group
collaboration with their peers.
Students should have experience with writing one-sentence summaries for
information presented textually or orally.
Activities
Because of the variety of activities, this lesson will work well as a
block period, or it may be divided into two consecutive class periods.
Initiating Activity - Whole Class "Symphony" (40 minutes)
1. Because we want to create an atmosphere of discovery and an air of
mystery, the teacher will distribute one prepared index card to
each student on which some type of sound is written without undue
explanation.
2. Next, line up your students in a straight line facing you, and
position yourself in front of them as the "conductor," if space
permits. Explain now that the whole class will create a "symphony"
using the assigned sounds while you conduct students' coming in,
out, and level of volume. Briefly teach the students the signals
indicated by the conductor's hand and arm movements for: making
their sound/motion; decreasing the sound; increasing the sound;
cutting the sound off; etc.
3. As a practice, point to each student individually to try out his
assigned sound/motion along with your signals. Next, explain that
at times there may be solos, duets, trios, etc., or times when the
whole group will perform together. Those determinations will be
indicated by the conductor, so students must watch the conductor
carefully.
4. After students understand their "assignment," you, the conductor,
will proceed to conduct a class symphony as you see fit. Before you
start, explain that this production will be tape recorded. (Turn on
your tape recorder when ready.) As you begin, experiment with
different combinations of single, small group, and larger group
participation as well as crescendo/decrescendo effects. You may
also include periods of silence. Remember the elements you want to
elicit in this improvised piece are: rhythm/patterns, color, and
texture, which are discussed below. After several minutes of
composing/performing, turn off the tape recorder. (See also another
way of doing this activity described in "Supplemental
Resources/Information for Teachers" section below.)
5. As students return to their seats, distribute copies of the blank
"Elements of Art" graphic organizer to be used for an analysis of
the class performance. (See "Attachments" below.) Using your
overhead transparency and pen, prepare to conduct a whole class
explanation/discussion of each element listed.
6. You will need to explain each of the specialized vocabulary terms
below in the suggested ways.
Elements for Musical Composition:
Rhythm/Patterns
These are listed together because patterns help to create rhythm.
Rhythm is created with the recurrence (pattern) of varying stresses
and tone lengths. These may be balanced against a steady,
underlying succession of beats.
Color
You should be accepting of students' definitions here, but you may
explain that "color" is created musically through such qualities as
vitality, vividness, or interest. Musically speaking, "color"
refers to the timbre, or tonal quality of the voice/instrument or
the effect created by the combination of such qualities.
Texture
Explain that in music, "texture" is created by contrasts of rich,
smooth, melodic, lyrical tones vs. stiff, staccato, harsh tones.
7. Before playing back the recording of the production, you may assign
one-third of the class to listen for examples of rhythm and
patterns, another one-third of the class can listen for examples of
color, and the remaining one-third can listen for examples of
texture. As they listen, they should note examples on their charts.
8. Next, ask students to share their examples of each element.
Facilitate their sharing in light of the meaning of each element,
remembering that your present objective is to help students to
understand the meanings of all the elements and analyze examples
from a musical piece. As examples are shared and discussed, model
writing them on your overhead transparency; engage students by
asking them to fill in examples for each element on their charts
throughout the class discussion.
9. To review the elements and encourage students to engage in mental
evaluation of their performance, ask students to assess which
element they believe had the greatest impact on their overall
performance. Did their piece seem to emphasize rhythm and pattern?
Or did "color" or "texture" make the greatest impact, in their
opinion? Get the students to explain and record their choices on
their graphic organizers.
10. Last, to allow students to make this experience personally
relevant, invite them to write single words that might describe
their feelings or emotions toward their symphony. (Examples might
be: exciting, interesting, invigorating, stimulating, etc.) In the
last column, invite students to note something from their personal
experience that the class symphony reminds them of. It could be a
personal experience or feeling, or it might be one they've read
about or seen portrayed in a movie or real life of a friend.
Second Activity: Analyze the Elements in Visual Art (35 minutes)
1. Make a transition to the next activity by arranging students for
partner or small group collaboration. If you are remaining in the
classroom, arrange students in small groups of three to five with
desks facing one another to encourage collaboration. If students
are at computer stations, pair them up to encourage collaboration.
2. The teacher will need to use an overhead projector to initiate
modeling of analysis of elements on the second overhead
transparency of the graphic organizer.
3. Introduce the selected work of art and artist as you display the
painting or image. (Ask students to navigate to the bookmarked
website, if they are at computer stations.) Initiate discussion
through use of a "hook" question. For example, if you are using the
"Cleopatra and the Peasant" painting by Eugene Delacroix, ask: "Why
do you think there is a little snake coiling out of the basket of
plums?" As students brainstorm possibilities, work in bits of
historical information. For example, remind them of who Cleopatra
was and the culture and time in which she lived.
(Note: Refer to "Supplemental Information" below. Also, if you
access the Ackland Online website listed below under "Relevant
Websites," background information about the painting will be
provided.) Through questioning and discussion, develop the story
behind the painting.
4. You may also mention that the painting was created in Europe in the
1800's. You may ask if students can locate clues in the painting to
illustrate this fact. (Cleopatra was portrayed in this painting as
a 19th century European woman in style of dress and ethnicity, for
example, rather than an ancient Egyptian woman who lived during
ancient Roman times.)
5. As you continue to develop the history of the story, initiate one
possible answer under each of the first three columns of the
graphic organizer for "rhythm/patterns," "color," and "texture."
Students may copy these onto their charts.
6. Take this opportunity to weave in a review and explanation of the
terms below and how they relate to analysis of a work of visual
art.
Definitions of Elements for Visual Art:
Rhythm/Patterns
The recurrence of lines, colors, and shapes (perhaps in a pattern)
to create movement within a work of art.
Color
Qualities brought out by the use of hues (colors) and their
variations.
Texture
Use of materials, such as paint, to create the impression of a
feature, (e.g. satin, glass, or fur); or the use of real materials
within the work of art, (e.g. hair, leather, or metal.)
7. After students have an understanding of the information in the
painting and the elements and have written at least one example of
each element on their charts, direct the small groups or partners
to continue with their analyses. They should also discuss and
complete the last three sections in which they evaluate which
element had the greatest impact on the work of art as a whole,
explore their personal feelings, and note their personal
connections to the art.
8. During partner/group discussion time, the teacher should circulate
to facilitate the above activities.
9. Within the last few minutes of this activity, ask students to share
examples of answers recorded on their graphic organizers.
Reflection Activity (10 minutes)
1. Facilitate a five-minute discussion of similarities of the symphony
and work of visual art with the whole group through questioning.
(Examples: "In what ways are symphonies like visual art?")
Encourage students to refer to their two charts. Assist them in
making oral connections between these two art forms.
2. On a slip of notebook paper during the remaining five minutes, have
students write "exit slips," meaning they will get to exit your
class after they have handed you their "tickets," or exit slips,
out of class.
3. On the slip of paper ask students to answer the following question
in one concise sentence: "What did I learn today about the elements
of art in music AND in visual art?" The teacher can gain insight
about the kinds of things the students learned as a result of the
day's lesson by reading the exits slips. The teacher may elect to
give the students some type of daily credit for completing the
slips satisfactorily.
Assessment
The following two types of assessments may be used in addition to
teacher observation:
1. Two completed graphic organizers titled, "Elements of Art," one for
the symphony activity and the other for the visual art activity.
The teacher may collect these and give credit for quality of
answers or for participation (completion.)
2. Exit slip - This is the reflection the students made at the end of
the lesson during which they were asked to summarize in one
statement something they learned about the elements of both a
musical composition and a work of visual art. The teacher can
quickly assess the level of understanding by reading and assessing
the quality of these answers for a daily grade.
Supplemental information
Alternate "symphony" activity:
One other way to conduct this initiating activity is for the teacher
NOT to be the conductor. Instead, assign sounds on cards as previously
described and tell students to begin making their sounds together and
continue until you indicate for them to stop. At first, the combined
sounds will not be coordinated. However, as time goes along, the
students will naturally begin to add their own rhythms,
loudness/softness, etc. In the follow-up analysis of this musical
production, it could be pointed out how the first part lacked the
elements listed on the chart; but as the "music" proceeded, these
elements became evident.
Historical Background for the Life of Cleopatra:
Cleopatra became queen of ancient Egypt in 51 B.C. Though she lacked
beauty, she was intelligent, witty, charming, ambitious, and concerned
about the well-being of her subjects. Cleopatra developed loyal and
romantic relationships with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, great Roman
leaders.
Antony aspired to rule Rome alone and, due to the wealth of Egypt,
hoped to obtain financial aid from Cleopatra. They fell in love and
Cleopatra had several children by Antony. Cleopatra's ambition was for
her children to become rulers of Rome. Because Antony gave preferential
treatment to his children by Cleopatra, other Roman leaders became
jealous. They thought Cleopatra was greedy and had too much control
over Antony.
A war broke out between the two of them and Octavian, Antony's former
brother-in-law and one of the rival rulers of Rome. As Octavian came
after Cleopatra and Antony, she spread a rumor that she had committed
suicide. When Antony heard the report, he stabbed himself. He later
died in her arms.
When Cleopatra's attempts to make up to Octavian failed, she put a
poisonous snake on her arm and indeed did commit suicide. Antony's and
Cleopatra's love story has taken many dramatic and artistic forms
through the ages.
In the painting, "Cleopatra and the Peasant," the peasant is shown as
suggesting to Cleopatra (or enticing her by his slight smile and her
serious expression of consideration) with the idea of taking her life
with a snake. The peasant is holding a basket of plums under his
leopard pelt. A snake is emerging from the plums.
A jpg image of Cleopatra by Delacroix along with credit information has
been provided as an attachment below.
Related websites
Color image of "Cleopatra and the Peasant," by Eugene Delacroix:
Ackland Museum Online:
Comments
For special needs students, such as LD, the teacher may provide a hard
copy for each of the two completed "Elements of Art" graphic
organizers, saving time for the student in copying information onto the
charts.
Enrichment can be provided by encouraging students to formulate their
own questions about either work of art (musical, as in the class
symphony, or the historical work of visual art,) and their elements.
Allow students to conduct their own research to answer these questions
using CD ROMS, Internet art sites, NC Wise Owl, a research site, which
has been included under "Relevant Websites," etc.
North Carolina Curriculum Alignment
Visual Arts Education (2001)
Grade 7
* Goal 1: The learner will develop critical and creative thinking
skills and perceptual awareness necessary for understanding and
producing art.
+ [41]Objective 1.06: Recognize and discuss the use of multiple
senses in visual arts.
* Goal 2: The learner will develop skills necessary for understanding
and applying media, techniques, and processes.
+ [42]Objective 2.02: Explore and identify the unique properties
and potential of materials using proper vocabulary and
terminology.
* Goal 3: The learner will organize the components of a work into a
cohesive whole through knowledge of organizational principles of
design and art elements.
+ [43]Objective 3.03: Explore and discuss that diverse solutions
are preferable to predetermined visual solutions.
+ [44]Objective 3.04: Explore and discuss the value of intuitive
perceptions in the problem-solving process.
* Goal 5: The learner will understand the visual arts in relation to
history and cultures.
+ [45]Objective 5.02: Describe characteristics of specific works
of art that belong to a particular culture, time and place.
* Goal 7: The learner will perceive connections between visual arts
and other disciplines.
+ [46]Objective 7.01: Explain connections, similarities and
differences between the visual arts and other disciplines.
+ [47]Objective 7.03: Compare characteristics of visual arts
within a particular historical period or style with ideas,
issues or themes in other disciplines.
The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
LEARN NC, a program of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
[48]School of Education, finds the most innovative and successful
practices in K-12 education and makes them available to the teachers
and students of North Carolina -- and the world.
[49]About LEARN NC | [50]Site map | [51]Search | [52]Staff |
[53]Partners | [54]Legal | [55]Help | [56]Contact us
For more great resources for K-12 teaching and learning, visit us on
the web at www.learnnc.org.
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rhythm game using body percussion
[61][print.gif] Printable Version for your convenience!
Title - rhythm game using body percussion
By - Michelle L. Miller
Primary Subject - Music
Secondary Subjects -
Grade Level - 4-8
Objective: Students will be able to accurately write and count rhythms.
Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of
two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the
board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for
each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole
notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for
half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap
fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth
notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and
their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board
and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests.
Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding.
To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3
teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to
the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then
plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat
pat snap snap palms up--
quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest).
Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play
for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only
need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately
gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one
done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect
answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The
whole lesson takes about 30 minutes.
Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as
performed by teacher.
Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills
development and have fun at the same time!!
NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love
it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and
counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well.
Have fun!!
E-Mail [62]Michelle L. Miller!
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[13][icon_ruler.gif] Math [14][icon_book.gif] Language Arts
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[17][icon_art.gif] Art [18][icon_laptop.gif] Computers & Internet
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Join LPP Newsletter: _________________________ Subscribe!
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rhythm game using body percussion
[61][print.gif] Printable Version for your convenience!
Title - rhythm game using body percussion
By - Michelle L. Miller
Primary Subject - Music
Secondary Subjects -
Grade Level - 4-8
Objective: Students will be able to accurately write and count rhythms.
Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of
two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the
board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for
each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole
notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for
half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap
fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth
notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and
their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board
and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests.
Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding.
To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3
teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to
the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then
plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat
pat snap snap palms up--
quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest).
Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play
for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only
need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately
gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one
done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect
answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The
whole lesson takes about 30 minutes.
Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as
performed by teacher.
Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills
development and have fun at the same time!!
NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love
it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and
counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well.
Have fun!!
E-Mail [62]Michelle L. Miller!
*
* [63]Lesson Plans |
* [64]Teaching Degrees |
* [65]Articles & Blogs |
* [66]Forums |
* [67]Contribute |
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* [33]Biorhythms Index
* [34]Glossary
Biorhythms
[35]View Asthma Slideshow
[36]Asthma Slideshow View Asthma Slideshow
[37]Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow View Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow
[38]Worst Cities for Asthma, 2009 Slideshow Pictures of the Worst
Cities for Asthma Slideshow
Medical Author: [39]William C. Shiel, Jr., MD, FACP, FACR
Medical Editor: [40]Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD
* [41]What are biologic rhythms?
* [42]How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness?
* [43]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms?
* [44]Angina
* [45]Heart attack
* [46]High blood pressure (hypertension)
* [47]Hay fever (allergic rhinitis)
* [48]Asthma
* [49]Can the "body clock" affect diagnostic testing?
* [50]Can drug therapy be matched to the "body clock?"
* [51]Chronobiology: marking time, making progress
What are biologic rhythms?
What are biologic rhythms? In essence, they're the rhythms of life. All
forms of life on earth, including our bodies, respond rhythmically to
the regular cycles of the sun, moon, and seasons.
For example, as night turns into day, vital body functions, including
heart rate and [52]blood pressure, speed up in anticipation of
increased physical activity. These and other predictable fluctuations
in body function, taking place during specific time cycles, are our
biologic rhythms. They are regulated by "biologic clock" mechanisms
located in the brain.
Although biologic rhythms can be "reprogrammed" by environmental
influences (such as when a person regularly works the night shift and
sleeps during the day), they are genetically "hard-wired" into our
cells, tissues, and organs.
Medical chronobiologists have found that biologic rhythms can affect
the severity of disease symptoms, diagnostic test results, and even the
body's response to drug therapy. Now these investigators are working to
discover how the rhythms of life can be used to improve the practice of
medicine - and your health.
These time-related medical observations, and others still in the
exciting process of discovery, are rooted in chronobiology (chronos -
time; bios - life; logos - science), the study of biologic rhythms.
How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness?
Among the various biologic rhythm cycles that medical chronobiologists
study, the 24-hour day/night-activity/rest cycle is considered a key
chronobiologic factor in medical [53]diagnosis and treatment. Formally
known as the [54]circadian rhythm, it's also referred to as the "body
clock."
Why is the 24-hour body clock so important?
Because so many of our normal body functions follow daily patterns of
speeding up and slowing down, intensifying and diminishing, in
alignment with circadian rhythm. Interestingly, so do the symptoms of a
number of [55]chronic disorders:
Allergic rhinitis: (nasal inflammation associated with hay fever)
Symptoms of sneezing, [56]runny nose, and stuffy nose are typically
worse in the early waking hours than later during the day.
Asthma: In most patients, symptoms are more than 100 times as likely to
occur in the few hours prior to awakening than during the day.
Stable angina: [57]Chest pain and [58]electrocardiographic (ECG, EKG)
abnormalities are most common during the first 4 to 6 hours after
awakening.
[59]Prinzmetal's angina: ECG abnormalities are most common during
[60]sleep; chest pain can occur even while at rest.
Heart attack: Heart attack most commonly occurs in the early waking
hours.
Stroke: [61]Strokes most commonly occur in the early waking hours.
Hypertension: The highest blood pressure readings typically occur from
late morning to middle afternoon; lowest occur during early sleep.
Therapy now exists that works with your body clock; consult your
physician about this treatment. Clinical studies are underway to
further this research.
[62]Rheumatoid arthritis: RA symptoms are most intense upon awakening.
[63]Osteoarthritis: Symptoms of osteoarthritis worsen in the afternoon
and evening.
Ulcer disease: The pain typically occurs after stomach emptying,
following daytime meals, and in the very early morning, disrupting
sleep.
[64]Epilepsy: Seizures often occur only at particular times of the day
or night; individual patterns differ among patients.
* 1
* [65]2
* [66]3
* [67]4
* [68]5
* [69]6
* [70]7
* [71]8
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* [73]Biorhythms Index
* [74]Glossary
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biorhythms? »
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(methotrexate and hydroxychloroquine to prevent joint destruction
and promote remission).
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Biorhythms
[96]Hay Fever »
What is hay fever? What are the symptoms and signs?
Hay fever is a misnomer. Hay is not a usual cause of this problem, and
it does not cause fever. Early descriptions of sneezing, nasal
congestion, and eye irritation while harvesting field hay promoted this
popular term. Allergic rhinitis is the correct term used to describe
this allergic reaction, and many different substances cause the
allergic symptoms noted in hay fever. Rhinitis means "irritation of the
nose" and is a derivative of rhino, meaning nose. Allergic rhinitis
which occurs during a specific season is called "seasonal allergic
rhinitis." When it occurs throughout the year, it is called "perennial
allergic rhinitis."
Symptoms of allergic rhinitis, or hay fever, frequently include nasal
congestion, a clear runny nose, sneezing, nose and eye itching, and
excess tear production in the eyes. Postnasal dripping of clear mucus
frequently causes a cough. Loss of the sense ...
[97]Read the Hay Fever article »
Featured on MedicineNet
* [98]Tips to Ease Nighttime Pain
* [99]Check Your Fibromyalgia Symptoms
* [100]Depression Tips Slideshow
* [101]Are You at Risk for Diabetic Nerve Pain?
Top 10
Biorhythms Related Articles
* [102]Chemo Infusion and Chemoembolization of Liver
* [103]Chemotherapy
* [104]Chemotherapy Treatment for Breast Cancer
* [105]Heart Attack
* [106]High Blood Pressure
* [107]Osteoarthritis
* [108]Radiation Therapy
* [109]Radiation Therapy for Breast Cancer
* [110]Rheumatoid Arthritis
* [111]Stroke
* [112]Complete List »
New on MedicineNet
* [113]Michael C. Hall Has Hodgkin's
* [114]Cryptosporidiosis Causes
* [115]Shigella Infection Symptoms
* [116]Lymphedema Causes
* [117]C-Reactive Protein (CRP)
* [118]Sinus Headache Treatment
* [119]Pictures Slideshows Interactive Slideshows
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rhythm game using body percussion
[61][print.gif] Printable Version for your convenience!
Title - rhythm game using body percussion
By - Michelle L. Miller
Primary Subject - Music
Secondary Subjects -
Grade Level - 4-8
Objective: Students will be able to accurately write and count rhythms.
Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of
two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the
board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for
each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole
notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for
half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap
fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth
notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and
their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board
and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests.
Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding.
To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3
teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to
the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then
plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat
pat snap snap palms up--
quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest).
Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play
for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only
need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately
gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one
done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect
answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The
whole lesson takes about 30 minutes.
Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as
performed by teacher.
Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills
development and have fun at the same time!!
NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love
it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and
counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well.
Have fun!!
E-Mail [62]Michelle L. Miller!
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* [33]Biorhythms Index
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Biorhythms
[35]View Asthma Slideshow
[36]Asthma Slideshow View Asthma Slideshow
[37]Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow View Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow
[38]Worst Cities for Asthma, 2009 Slideshow Pictures of the Worst
Cities for Asthma Slideshow
Medical Author: [39]William C. Shiel, Jr., MD, FACP, FACR
Medical Editor: [40]Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD
* [41]What are biologic rhythms?
* [42]How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness?
* [43]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms?
* [44]Angina
* [45]Heart attack
* [46]High blood pressure (hypertension)
* [47]Hay fever (allergic rhinitis)
* [48]Asthma
* [49]Can the "body clock" affect diagnostic testing?
* [50]Can drug therapy be matched to the "body clock?"
* [51]Chronobiology: marking time, making progress
What are biologic rhythms?
What are biologic rhythms? In essence, they're the rhythms of life. All
forms of life on earth, including our bodies, respond rhythmically to
the regular cycles of the sun, moon, and seasons.
For example, as night turns into day, vital body functions, including
heart rate and [52]blood pressure, speed up in anticipation of
increased physical activity. These and other predictable fluctuations
in body function, taking place during specific time cycles, are our
biologic rhythms. They are regulated by "biologic clock" mechanisms
located in the brain.
Although biologic rhythms can be "reprogrammed" by environmental
influences (such as when a person regularly works the night shift and
sleeps during the day), they are genetically "hard-wired" into our
cells, tissues, and organs.
Medical chronobiologists have found that biologic rhythms can affect
the severity of disease symptoms, diagnostic test results, and even the
body's response to drug therapy. Now these investigators are working to
discover how the rhythms of life can be used to improve the practice of
medicine - and your health.
These time-related medical observations, and others still in the
exciting process of discovery, are rooted in chronobiology (chronos -
time; bios - life; logos - science), the study of biologic rhythms.
How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness?
Among the various biologic rhythm cycles that medical chronobiologists
study, the 24-hour day/night-activity/rest cycle is considered a key
chronobiologic factor in medical [53]diagnosis and treatment. Formally
known as the [54]circadian rhythm, it's also referred to as the "body
clock."
Why is the 24-hour body clock so important?
Because so many of our normal body functions follow daily patterns of
speeding up and slowing down, intensifying and diminishing, in
alignment with circadian rhythm. Interestingly, so do the symptoms of a
number of [55]chronic disorders:
Allergic rhinitis: (nasal inflammation associated with hay fever)
Symptoms of sneezing, [56]runny nose, and stuffy nose are typically
worse in the early waking hours than later during the day.
Asthma: In most patients, symptoms are more than 100 times as likely to
occur in the few hours prior to awakening than during the day.
Stable angina: [57]Chest pain and [58]electrocardiographic (ECG, EKG)
abnormalities are most common during the first 4 to 6 hours after
awakening.
[59]Prinzmetal's angina: ECG abnormalities are most common during
[60]sleep; chest pain can occur even while at rest.
Heart attack: Heart attack most commonly occurs in the early waking
hours.
Stroke: [61]Strokes most commonly occur in the early waking hours.
Hypertension: The highest blood pressure readings typically occur from
late morning to middle afternoon; lowest occur during early sleep.
Therapy now exists that works with your body clock; consult your
physician about this treatment. Clinical studies are underway to
further this research.
[62]Rheumatoid arthritis: RA symptoms are most intense upon awakening.
[63]Osteoarthritis: Symptoms of osteoarthritis worsen in the afternoon
and evening.
Ulcer disease: The pain typically occurs after stomach emptying,
following daytime meals, and in the very early morning, disrupting
sleep.
[64]Epilepsy: Seizures often occur only at particular times of the day
or night; individual patterns differ among patients.
* 1
* [65]2
* [66]3
* [67]4
* [68]5
* [69]6
* [70]7
* [71]8
* [72]Next »
* [73]Biorhythms Index
* [74]Glossary
Next: [75]What are examples of specific diseases affected by
biorhythms? »
[76]Printer-Friendly Format | [77]Email to a Friend
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* [78]Chemotherapy - Get information on chemotherapy treatment for
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Chemotherapy is a type of cancer treatment often given along with
radiation therapy and surgery.
* [79]Rheumatoid Arthritis - Learn more about rheumatoid arthritis,
an autoimmune disease that causes chronic joint inflammation, which
has symptoms that include stiffness, fever, muscle and joint aches,
loss of appetite, and fatigue. Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis
incorporates the use of first-line drugs (aspirin and
corticosteroids for pain and inflammation) and second-line drugs
(methotrexate and hydroxychloroquine to prevent joint destruction
and promote remission).
* [80]Radiation Therapy -
[81]Read more Biorhythms related articles »
Latest Medical News
* [82]Nightly Snacking May Speed Weight Gain
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Health Solutions From Our Sponsors
* [94]Osteoporosis Info
* [95]Overactive Bladder Rx
Biorhythms
[96]Hay Fever »
What is hay fever? What are the symptoms and signs?
Hay fever is a misnomer. Hay is not a usual cause of this problem, and
it does not cause fever. Early descriptions of sneezing, nasal
congestion, and eye irritation while harvesting field hay promoted this
popular term. Allergic rhinitis is the correct term used to describe
this allergic reaction, and many different substances cause the
allergic symptoms noted in hay fever. Rhinitis means "irritation of the
nose" and is a derivative of rhino, meaning nose. Allergic rhinitis
which occurs during a specific season is called "seasonal allergic
rhinitis." When it occurs throughout the year, it is called "perennial
allergic rhinitis."
Symptoms of allergic rhinitis, or hay fever, frequently include nasal
congestion, a clear runny nose, sneezing, nose and eye itching, and
excess tear production in the eyes. Postnasal dripping of clear mucus
frequently causes a cough. Loss of the sense ...
[97]Read the Hay Fever article »
Featured on MedicineNet
* [98]Tips to Ease Nighttime Pain
* [99]Check Your Fibromyalgia Symptoms
* [100]Depression Tips Slideshow
* [101]Are You at Risk for Diabetic Nerve Pain?
Top 10
Biorhythms Related Articles
* [102]Chemo Infusion and Chemoembolization of Liver
* [103]Chemotherapy
* [104]Chemotherapy Treatment for Breast Cancer
* [105]Heart Attack
* [106]High Blood Pressure
* [107]Osteoarthritis
* [108]Radiation Therapy
* [109]Radiation Therapy for Breast Cancer
* [110]Rheumatoid Arthritis
* [111]Stroke
* [112]Complete List »
New on MedicineNet
* [113]Michael C. Hall Has Hodgkin's
* [114]Cryptosporidiosis Causes
* [115]Shigella Infection Symptoms
* [116]Lymphedema Causes
* [117]C-Reactive Protein (CRP)
* [118]Sinus Headache Treatment
* [119]Pictures Slideshows Interactive Slideshows
[120]Adult Skin Problems Slideshow
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You are here: [24]BBC > [25]Science & Nature > [26]Human Body & Mind >
[27]Sleep > Daily Rhythm Test
Daily Rhythm Test
Our internal body clock governs our daily or circadian rhythm - telling
us when to wake up and when to feel sleepy. Circadian comes from the
Latin circa, meaning about and dies, meaning day.
This test will produce a chart showing your natural sleeping and waking
pattern over a 24 hour period. If you're having problems sleeping it
could be your natural body clock is at odds with your routine.
1) Do you consider yourself a morning person or an evening person?
(_) Evening
(_) More evening than morning
(_) Cant tell
(_) More morning than evening
(_) Morning
2) At what time of day do you feel at your best?
(_) 5am - 9am
(_) 9am - 11am
(_) 11am - 5pm
(_) 5pm - 10pm
(_) 10pm - 1am
3) Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, if you were
entirely free to plan your day - at what time would you go to bed?
(_) 8pm - 9pm
(_) 9pm - 10.15pm
(_) 10.15pm - 12.30am
(_) 12.30am - 1.45am
(_) 1.45am - 3am
4) Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, if you were
entirely free to plan your day - at what time would you get up?
(_) 5.00am - 6.30am
(_) 6.30am - 7.45am
(_) 7.45am - 9.45am
(_) 9.45am - 11.00am
(_) 11.00am - Midday
View results
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rhythm game using body percussion
[61][print.gif] Printable Version for your convenience!
Title - rhythm game using body percussion
By - Michelle L. Miller
Primary Subject - Music
Secondary Subjects -
Grade Level - 4-8
Objective: Students will be able to accurately write and count rhythms.
Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of
two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the
board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for
each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole
notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for
half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap
fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth
notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and
their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board
and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests.
Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding.
To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3
teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to
the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then
plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat
pat snap snap palms up--
quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest).
Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play
for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only
need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately
gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one
done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect
answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The
whole lesson takes about 30 minutes.
Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as
performed by teacher.
Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills
development and have fun at the same time!!
NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love
it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and
counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well.
Have fun!!
E-Mail [62]Michelle L. Miller!
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Medical Author: [39]William C. Shiel, Jr., MD, FACP, FACR
Medical Editor: [40]Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD
* [41]What are biologic rhythms?
* [42]How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness?
* [43]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms?
* [44]Angina
* [45]Heart attack
* [46]High blood pressure (hypertension)
* [47]Hay fever (allergic rhinitis)
* [48]Asthma
* [49]Can the "body clock" affect diagnostic testing?
* [50]Can drug therapy be matched to the "body clock?"
* [51]Chronobiology: marking time, making progress
What are biologic rhythms?
What are biologic rhythms? In essence, they're the rhythms of life. All
forms of life on earth, including our bodies, respond rhythmically to
the regular cycles of the sun, moon, and seasons.
For example, as night turns into day, vital body functions, including
heart rate and [52]blood pressure, speed up in anticipation of
increased physical activity. These and other predictable fluctuations
in body function, taking place during specific time cycles, are our
biologic rhythms. They are regulated by "biologic clock" mechanisms
located in the brain.
Although biologic rhythms can be "reprogrammed" by environmental
influences (such as when a person regularly works the night shift and
sleeps during the day), they are genetically "hard-wired" into our
cells, tissues, and organs.
Medical chronobiologists have found that biologic rhythms can affect
the severity of disease symptoms, diagnostic test results, and even the
body's response to drug therapy. Now these investigators are working to
discover how the rhythms of life can be used to improve the practice of
medicine - and your health.
These time-related medical observations, and others still in the
exciting process of discovery, are rooted in chronobiology (chronos -
time; bios - life; logos - science), the study of biologic rhythms.
How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness?
Among the various biologic rhythm cycles that medical chronobiologists
study, the 24-hour day/night-activity/rest cycle is considered a key
chronobiologic factor in medical [53]diagnosis and treatment. Formally
known as the [54]circadian rhythm, it's also referred to as the "body
clock."
Why is the 24-hour body clock so important?
Because so many of our normal body functions follow daily patterns of
speeding up and slowing down, intensifying and diminishing, in
alignment with circadian rhythm. Interestingly, so do the symptoms of a
number of [55]chronic disorders:
Allergic rhinitis: (nasal inflammation associated with hay fever)
Symptoms of sneezing, [56]runny nose, and stuffy nose are typically
worse in the early waking hours than later during the day.
Asthma: In most patients, symptoms are more than 100 times as likely to
occur in the few hours prior to awakening than during the day.
Stable angina: [57]Chest pain and [58]electrocardiographic (ECG, EKG)
abnormalities are most common during the first 4 to 6 hours after
awakening.
[59]Prinzmetal's angina: ECG abnormalities are most common during
[60]sleep; chest pain can occur even while at rest.
Heart attack: Heart attack most commonly occurs in the early waking
hours.
Stroke: [61]Strokes most commonly occur in the early waking hours.
Hypertension: The highest blood pressure readings typically occur from
late morning to middle afternoon; lowest occur during early sleep.
Therapy now exists that works with your body clock; consult your
physician about this treatment. Clinical studies are underway to
further this research.
[62]Rheumatoid arthritis: RA symptoms are most intense upon awakening.
[63]Osteoarthritis: Symptoms of osteoarthritis worsen in the afternoon
and evening.
Ulcer disease: The pain typically occurs after stomach emptying,
following daytime meals, and in the very early morning, disrupting
sleep.
[64]Epilepsy: Seizures often occur only at particular times of the day
or night; individual patterns differ among patients.
* 1
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* [73]Biorhythms Index
* [74]Glossary
Next: [75]What are examples of specific diseases affected by
biorhythms? »
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[96]Hay Fever »
What is hay fever? What are the symptoms and signs?
Hay fever is a misnomer. Hay is not a usual cause of this problem, and
it does not cause fever. Early descriptions of sneezing, nasal
congestion, and eye irritation while harvesting field hay promoted this
popular term. Allergic rhinitis is the correct term used to describe
this allergic reaction, and many different substances cause the
allergic symptoms noted in hay fever. Rhinitis means "irritation of the
nose" and is a derivative of rhino, meaning nose. Allergic rhinitis
which occurs during a specific season is called "seasonal allergic
rhinitis." When it occurs throughout the year, it is called "perennial
allergic rhinitis."
Symptoms of allergic rhinitis, or hay fever, frequently include nasal
congestion, a clear runny nose, sneezing, nose and eye itching, and
excess tear production in the eyes. Postnasal dripping of clear mucus
frequently causes a cough. Loss of the sense ...
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Journal Article [33]Printable view
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Journal [34]Surgery Today
Publisher Springer Japan
ISSN 0941-1291 (Print) 1436-2813 (Online)
Issue [35]Volume 17, Number 3 / May, 1987
Category Short Communication
DOI 10.1007/BF02470602
Pages 209-212
Subject Collection [36]Medicine
SpringerLink Date Thursday, July 20, 2006
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Short Communication
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Jun Narumi^1 Contact Information , Kozo Suma^1, Hidemi Kaneko^1,
Yasuo Takeuchi^1, Kenji Inoue^1, Kenji Shiroma^1 and Yuji Koyama^1
(1) Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, 2nd Hospital of Tokyo
Women's Medical College, 2-1-10 Nishiogu, Arakawaku, 116 Tokyo, Japan
Received: 7 April 1986
Abstract The postoperative deep body temperature rhythms of fifteen
patients who received aorto-coronary bypass surgery (group I), and of
seven patients who received non-cardiac major surgery (group II), were
studied. Postoperative patients, especially those who received
aortocoronary bypass surgery, showed greatly disturbed deep body
temperature rhythm. There existed infradian and ultradian rhythm in
both groups, and there existed two patients in group I who did not show
sinusoidal rhythm. The patients of group I also showed a longer period
of rhythm than did those of group II. The mesor and amplitude of the
patients in group I showed a greater individual variation than did
those in group II. The acrophase of both groups deviated widely. The
patients who underwent cardiac surgery needed a longer time for
temperature rhythm recovery than did those who underwent general
surgery.
Key Words deep body temperature rhythm - intensive care
unit - post-operative patients
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rhythm game using body percussion
[61][print.gif] Printable Version for your convenience!
Title - rhythm game using body percussion
By - Michelle L. Miller
Primary Subject - Music
Secondary Subjects -
Grade Level - 4-8
Objective: Students will be able to accurately write and count rhythms.
Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of
two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the
board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for
each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole
notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for
half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap
fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth
notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and
their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board
and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests.
Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding.
To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3
teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to
the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then
plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat
pat snap snap palms up--
quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest).
Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play
for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only
need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately
gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one
done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect
answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The
whole lesson takes about 30 minutes.
Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as
performed by teacher.
Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills
development and have fun at the same time!!
NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love
it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and
counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well.
Have fun!!
E-Mail [62]Michelle L. Miller!
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© 1996 - 2010 HotChalk, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Last Modified
December 23, 2009
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Please manually type in our email address to contact us (to prevent
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62. mailto:Michellelmiller@avon.net
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Digest [3]Health and Medical Slideshows
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Biorhythms
[35]View Asthma Slideshow
[36]Asthma Slideshow View Asthma Slideshow
[37]Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow View Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow
[38]Worst Cities for Asthma, 2009 Slideshow Pictures of the Worst
Cities for Asthma Slideshow
Medical Author: [39]William C. Shiel, Jr., MD, FACP, FACR
Medical Editor: [40]Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD
* [41]What are biologic rhythms?
* [42]How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness?
* [43]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms?
* [44]Angina
* [45]Heart attack
* [46]High blood pressure (hypertension)
* [47]Hay fever (allergic rhinitis)
* [48]Asthma
* [49]Can the "body clock" affect diagnostic testing?
* [50]Can drug therapy be matched to the "body clock?"
* [51]Chronobiology: marking time, making progress
What are biologic rhythms?
What are biologic rhythms? In essence, they're the rhythms of life. All
forms of life on earth, including our bodies, respond rhythmically to
the regular cycles of the sun, moon, and seasons.
For example, as night turns into day, vital body functions, including
heart rate and [52]blood pressure, speed up in anticipation of
increased physical activity. These and other predictable fluctuations
in body function, taking place during specific time cycles, are our
biologic rhythms. They are regulated by "biologic clock" mechanisms
located in the brain.
Although biologic rhythms can be "reprogrammed" by environmental
influences (such as when a person regularly works the night shift and
sleeps during the day), they are genetically "hard-wired" into our
cells, tissues, and organs.
Medical chronobiologists have found that biologic rhythms can affect
the severity of disease symptoms, diagnostic test results, and even the
body's response to drug therapy. Now these investigators are working to
discover how the rhythms of life can be used to improve the practice of
medicine - and your health.
These time-related medical observations, and others still in the
exciting process of discovery, are rooted in chronobiology (chronos -
time; bios - life; logos - science), the study of biologic rhythms.
How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness?
Among the various biologic rhythm cycles that medical chronobiologists
study, the 24-hour day/night-activity/rest cycle is considered a key
chronobiologic factor in medical [53]diagnosis and treatment. Formally
known as the [54]circadian rhythm, it's also referred to as the "body
clock."
Why is the 24-hour body clock so important?
Because so many of our normal body functions follow daily patterns of
speeding up and slowing down, intensifying and diminishing, in
alignment with circadian rhythm. Interestingly, so do the symptoms of a
number of [55]chronic disorders:
Allergic rhinitis: (nasal inflammation associated with hay fever)
Symptoms of sneezing, [56]runny nose, and stuffy nose are typically
worse in the early waking hours than later during the day.
Asthma: In most patients, symptoms are more than 100 times as likely to
occur in the few hours prior to awakening than during the day.
Stable angina: [57]Chest pain and [58]electrocardiographic (ECG, EKG)
abnormalities are most common during the first 4 to 6 hours after
awakening.
[59]Prinzmetal's angina: ECG abnormalities are most common during
[60]sleep; chest pain can occur even while at rest.
Heart attack: Heart attack most commonly occurs in the early waking
hours.
Stroke: [61]Strokes most commonly occur in the early waking hours.
Hypertension: The highest blood pressure readings typically occur from
late morning to middle afternoon; lowest occur during early sleep.
Therapy now exists that works with your body clock; consult your
physician about this treatment. Clinical studies are underway to
further this research.
[62]Rheumatoid arthritis: RA symptoms are most intense upon awakening.
[63]Osteoarthritis: Symptoms of osteoarthritis worsen in the afternoon
and evening.
Ulcer disease: The pain typically occurs after stomach emptying,
following daytime meals, and in the very early morning, disrupting
sleep.
[64]Epilepsy: Seizures often occur only at particular times of the day
or night; individual patterns differ among patients.
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congestion, and eye irritation while harvesting field hay promoted this
popular term. Allergic rhinitis is the correct term used to describe
this allergic reaction, and many different substances cause the
allergic symptoms noted in hay fever. Rhinitis means "irritation of the
nose" and is a derivative of rhino, meaning nose. Allergic rhinitis
which occurs during a specific season is called "seasonal allergic
rhinitis." When it occurs throughout the year, it is called "perennial
allergic rhinitis."
Symptoms of allergic rhinitis, or hay fever, frequently include nasal
congestion, a clear runny nose, sneezing, nose and eye itching, and
excess tear production in the eyes. Postnasal dripping of clear mucus
frequently causes a cough. Loss of the sense ...
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Journal Article [33]Printable view
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Journal [34]Surgery Today
Publisher Springer Japan
ISSN 0941-1291 (Print) 1436-2813 (Online)
Issue [35]Volume 17, Number 3 / May, 1987
Category Short Communication
DOI 10.1007/BF02470602
Pages 209-212
Subject Collection [36]Medicine
SpringerLink Date Thursday, July 20, 2006
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Short Communication
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Jun Narumi^1 Contact Information , Kozo Suma^1, Hidemi Kaneko^1,
Yasuo Takeuchi^1, Kenji Inoue^1, Kenji Shiroma^1 and Yuji Koyama^1
(1) Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, 2nd Hospital of Tokyo
Women's Medical College, 2-1-10 Nishiogu, Arakawaku, 116 Tokyo, Japan
Received: 7 April 1986
Abstract The postoperative deep body temperature rhythms of fifteen
patients who received aorto-coronary bypass surgery (group I), and of
seven patients who received non-cardiac major surgery (group II), were
studied. Postoperative patients, especially those who received
aortocoronary bypass surgery, showed greatly disturbed deep body
temperature rhythm. There existed infradian and ultradian rhythm in
both groups, and there existed two patients in group I who did not show
sinusoidal rhythm. The patients of group I also showed a longer period
of rhythm than did those of group II. The mesor and amplitude of the
patients in group I showed a greater individual variation than did
those in group II. The acrophase of both groups deviated widely. The
patients who underwent cardiac surgery needed a longer time for
temperature rhythm recovery than did those who underwent general
surgery.
Key Words deep body temperature rhythm - intensive care
unit - post-operative patients
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Rhythms and Body Clock
Circadian Rhythm
From the Latin circa (about) dies (a day), the circadian rhythm is the
twenty-four-hour cycle of light/dark, wakefulness/sleep to which most
human physiologic processes are set. At regular intervals each day, the
body tends to become hungry, tired, active, listless, energized. Body
temperature, heart-beat, blood pressure, hormone levels, and urine flow
rise and fall in this relatively predictable, rhythmic pattern - a
pattern initiated and governed by exposure to sunlight and darkness.
Experiments where humans were placed in isolation chambers, cut off
from all potential environmental cues, have shown that, in the absence
of natural daylight, rhythms are still maintained. But in the absence
of the day light, the rhythms tend to deviate from 24 hours. For
instance, the rhythms was found to expand to 24-30 hours, thus
disrupting the biological processes over a long period of time.
The fact that animals and humans can continue to function according to
daily and annual rhythms in the absence of external environmental
stimuli means that animals and humans possess some kind of biological
clock, which act as a backup mechanism in case it cannot get the proper
stimuli from the natural events such as sunshine.
This behavior can be illustrated by our clocks. Let us say, our clock
is running slow. Over a period of time, the clock may lag the actual
time because of this defect. Usually, we will reset the clock when it
gets far out of sync by other external stimuli like a radio or phone
time. Now, if we do not have access to this external synchronizing
signal, the clock can get far out of line with the reality. Our body
clocks functions the same way. The biological clock can keep the time;
but in the absence of correction from the day/light cycle provided by
the sun, the biological clock tend go out of sync affecting our
physical and mental health. A similar thing happens when we travel
across time zones; we tend to experience what is known as "jet lag".
However, in the absence of natural light our body clocks may lose or
gain a little time. This in turn could lead to the desynchronization of
different rhythms. For example, in the absence of sufficient
environmental light the sleep-wake and associated rest-activity rhythms
may lengthen to a cycle of between 30 and 48 hours, while the
temperature rhythm may remain at a period of, say, 25 hours. Such
desynchronization of the body's intricate rhythms is suspected to
trigger problems: hormonal imbalances, sleep disorders and mood
disturbances.
Circannual Rhythm
Circannual rhythm is the annual or yearly cycle used by all living
things.
Circaseptan Rhythm
Circaseptan rhythm is a seven-day cycle in which the biological
processes of life, including disease symptoms and development, resolve.
Many physicians believe that transplant patients tend to have more
rejection episodes seven, fourteen, twenty-one, and twenty-eight days
after surgery. They further believe that medications administered to
the patients at particular times may be more effective than at other
times. These are all related to the circaseptan rhythm.
How does the brain know when it is light or dark?
Deep within the brain, inside the hypothalamus, lie two clusters of
cells (i.e., neurons) called the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN). Each of
these SCN is composed of more than 8,000 neurons. The SCN act as the
body's circadian pacemaker. In mammals, the SCN appear to get their
information from photoreceptors in the retina, which transmit signals
about light and dark through the optic nerves to the hypothalamus. Once
these messages enter the SCN, a series of physiological reactions takes
place.
What happens after the light/dark signal reaches the SCN?
We are not sure. The pathway from the retina through the optic nerves
to the SCN extends further to reach the pineal gland, which lies
adjacent to the hypothalamus above the brain stem. Stimulated by the
message it receives from the SCN, the pineal gland either secretes its
main hormone, melatonin, or inhibits melatonin's release, which may
result in the production of serotonin as was explained before.
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rhythm game using body percussion
[61][print.gif] Printable Version for your convenience!
Title - rhythm game using body percussion
By - Michelle L. Miller
Primary Subject - Music
Secondary Subjects -
Grade Level - 4-8
Objective: Students will be able to accurately write and count rhythms.
Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of
two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the
board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for
each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole
notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for
half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap
fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth
notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and
their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board
and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests.
Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding.
To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3
teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to
the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then
plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat
pat snap snap palms up--
quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest).
Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play
for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only
need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately
gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one
done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect
answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The
whole lesson takes about 30 minutes.
Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as
performed by teacher.
Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills
development and have fun at the same time!!
NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love
it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and
counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well.
Have fun!!
E-Mail [62]Michelle L. Miller!
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* [41]What are biologic rhythms?
* [42]How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness?
* [43]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms?
* [44]Angina
* [45]Heart attack
* [46]High blood pressure (hypertension)
* [47]Hay fever (allergic rhinitis)
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* [49]Can the "body clock" affect diagnostic testing?
* [50]Can drug therapy be matched to the "body clock?"
* [51]Chronobiology: marking time, making progress
What are biologic rhythms?
What are biologic rhythms? In essence, they're the rhythms of life. All
forms of life on earth, including our bodies, respond rhythmically to
the regular cycles of the sun, moon, and seasons.
For example, as night turns into day, vital body functions, including
heart rate and [52]blood pressure, speed up in anticipation of
increased physical activity. These and other predictable fluctuations
in body function, taking place during specific time cycles, are our
biologic rhythms. They are regulated by "biologic clock" mechanisms
located in the brain.
Although biologic rhythms can be "reprogrammed" by environmental
influences (such as when a person regularly works the night shift and
sleeps during the day), they are genetically "hard-wired" into our
cells, tissues, and organs.
Medical chronobiologists have found that biologic rhythms can affect
the severity of disease symptoms, diagnostic test results, and even the
body's response to drug therapy. Now these investigators are working to
discover how the rhythms of life can be used to improve the practice of
medicine - and your health.
These time-related medical observations, and others still in the
exciting process of discovery, are rooted in chronobiology (chronos -
time; bios - life; logos - science), the study of biologic rhythms.
How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness?
Among the various biologic rhythm cycles that medical chronobiologists
study, the 24-hour day/night-activity/rest cycle is considered a key
chronobiologic factor in medical [53]diagnosis and treatment. Formally
known as the [54]circadian rhythm, it's also referred to as the "body
clock."
Why is the 24-hour body clock so important?
Because so many of our normal body functions follow daily patterns of
speeding up and slowing down, intensifying and diminishing, in
alignment with circadian rhythm. Interestingly, so do the symptoms of a
number of [55]chronic disorders:
Allergic rhinitis: (nasal inflammation associated with hay fever)
Symptoms of sneezing, [56]runny nose, and stuffy nose are typically
worse in the early waking hours than later during the day.
Asthma: In most patients, symptoms are more than 100 times as likely to
occur in the few hours prior to awakening than during the day.
Stable angina: [57]Chest pain and [58]electrocardiographic (ECG, EKG)
abnormalities are most common during the first 4 to 6 hours after
awakening.
[59]Prinzmetal's angina: ECG abnormalities are most common during
[60]sleep; chest pain can occur even while at rest.
Heart attack: Heart attack most commonly occurs in the early waking
hours.
Stroke: [61]Strokes most commonly occur in the early waking hours.
Hypertension: The highest blood pressure readings typically occur from
late morning to middle afternoon; lowest occur during early sleep.
Therapy now exists that works with your body clock; consult your
physician about this treatment. Clinical studies are underway to
further this research.
[62]Rheumatoid arthritis: RA symptoms are most intense upon awakening.
[63]Osteoarthritis: Symptoms of osteoarthritis worsen in the afternoon
and evening.
Ulcer disease: The pain typically occurs after stomach emptying,
following daytime meals, and in the very early morning, disrupting
sleep.
[64]Epilepsy: Seizures often occur only at particular times of the day
or night; individual patterns differ among patients.
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Symptoms of allergic rhinitis, or hay fever, frequently include nasal
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Journal Article [33]Printable view
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Journal [34]Surgery Today
Publisher Springer Japan
ISSN 0941-1291 (Print) 1436-2813 (Online)
Issue [35]Volume 17, Number 3 / May, 1987
Category Short Communication
DOI 10.1007/BF02470602
Pages 209-212
Subject Collection [36]Medicine
SpringerLink Date Thursday, July 20, 2006
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Short Communication
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Jun Narumi^1 Contact Information , Kozo Suma^1, Hidemi Kaneko^1,
Yasuo Takeuchi^1, Kenji Inoue^1, Kenji Shiroma^1 and Yuji Koyama^1
(1) Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, 2nd Hospital of Tokyo
Women's Medical College, 2-1-10 Nishiogu, Arakawaku, 116 Tokyo, Japan
Received: 7 April 1986
Abstract The postoperative deep body temperature rhythms of fifteen
patients who received aorto-coronary bypass surgery (group I), and of
seven patients who received non-cardiac major surgery (group II), were
studied. Postoperative patients, especially those who received
aortocoronary bypass surgery, showed greatly disturbed deep body
temperature rhythm. There existed infradian and ultradian rhythm in
both groups, and there existed two patients in group I who did not show
sinusoidal rhythm. The patients of group I also showed a longer period
of rhythm than did those of group II. The mesor and amplitude of the
patients in group I showed a greater individual variation than did
those in group II. The acrophase of both groups deviated widely. The
patients who underwent cardiac surgery needed a longer time for
temperature rhythm recovery than did those who underwent general
surgery.
Key Words deep body temperature rhythm - intensive care
unit - post-operative patients
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Rhythms and Body Clock
Circadian Rhythm
From the Latin circa (about) dies (a day), the circadian rhythm is the
twenty-four-hour cycle of light/dark, wakefulness/sleep to which most
human physiologic processes are set. At regular intervals each day, the
body tends to become hungry, tired, active, listless, energized. Body
temperature, heart-beat, blood pressure, hormone levels, and urine flow
rise and fall in this relatively predictable, rhythmic pattern - a
pattern initiated and governed by exposure to sunlight and darkness.
Experiments where humans were placed in isolation chambers, cut off
from all potential environmental cues, have shown that, in the absence
of natural daylight, rhythms are still maintained. But in the absence
of the day light, the rhythms tend to deviate from 24 hours. For
instance, the rhythms was found to expand to 24-30 hours, thus
disrupting the biological processes over a long period of time.
The fact that animals and humans can continue to function according to
daily and annual rhythms in the absence of external environmental
stimuli means that animals and humans possess some kind of biological
clock, which act as a backup mechanism in case it cannot get the proper
stimuli from the natural events such as sunshine.
This behavior can be illustrated by our clocks. Let us say, our clock
is running slow. Over a period of time, the clock may lag the actual
time because of this defect. Usually, we will reset the clock when it
gets far out of sync by other external stimuli like a radio or phone
time. Now, if we do not have access to this external synchronizing
signal, the clock can get far out of line with the reality. Our body
clocks functions the same way. The biological clock can keep the time;
but in the absence of correction from the day/light cycle provided by
the sun, the biological clock tend go out of sync affecting our
physical and mental health. A similar thing happens when we travel
across time zones; we tend to experience what is known as "jet lag".
However, in the absence of natural light our body clocks may lose or
gain a little time. This in turn could lead to the desynchronization of
different rhythms. For example, in the absence of sufficient
environmental light the sleep-wake and associated rest-activity rhythms
may lengthen to a cycle of between 30 and 48 hours, while the
temperature rhythm may remain at a period of, say, 25 hours. Such
desynchronization of the body's intricate rhythms is suspected to
trigger problems: hormonal imbalances, sleep disorders and mood
disturbances.
Circannual Rhythm
Circannual rhythm is the annual or yearly cycle used by all living
things.
Circaseptan Rhythm
Circaseptan rhythm is a seven-day cycle in which the biological
processes of life, including disease symptoms and development, resolve.
Many physicians believe that transplant patients tend to have more
rejection episodes seven, fourteen, twenty-one, and twenty-eight days
after surgery. They further believe that medications administered to
the patients at particular times may be more effective than at other
times. These are all related to the circaseptan rhythm.
How does the brain know when it is light or dark?
Deep within the brain, inside the hypothalamus, lie two clusters of
cells (i.e., neurons) called the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN). Each of
these SCN is composed of more than 8,000 neurons. The SCN act as the
body's circadian pacemaker. In mammals, the SCN appear to get their
information from photoreceptors in the retina, which transmit signals
about light and dark through the optic nerves to the hypothalamus. Once
these messages enter the SCN, a series of physiological reactions takes
place.
What happens after the light/dark signal reaches the SCN?
We are not sure. The pathway from the retina through the optic nerves
to the SCN extends further to reach the pineal gland, which lies
adjacent to the hypothalamus above the brain stem. Stimulated by the
message it receives from the SCN, the pineal gland either secretes its
main hormone, melatonin, or inhibits melatonin's release, which may
result in the production of serotonin as was explained before.
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Disorder[185]Can ADHD Turn Into Bipolar?[186]Is Bipolar
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Abusive?[193]Parttime Bipolar Girlfriend[194]How Can I Help My Bipolar
Wife?[195]Marijuana?[196]Possible Klonopin Addiction[197]Bipolar
Wife[198]A Test For Bipolar Disorder?[199]Did I Cause My Daughter's
Depression?[200]How Can I Help My Alcoholic Unmedicated Bipolar
Girlfriend?[201]Treatment is Too Much Trouble[202]Bipolar
Illness[203]HMO Blues[204]Problem Child[205]Helping Someone with
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Friendship[208]How Can I Help My Friend?[209]What To Treat
First?[210]Bipolar Chat Rooms?[211]Bipolar or Just Moody?[212]Alone and
Bipolar[213]More Than Friends?[214]Merlin writes:[215]Suzanne writes:
[216]Blog Entries
[217]The Stigma of "Disorder": Wisdom from Therese Borchard[218]Where
There is Life, There is Hope, Depression and Why Suicide is Not an
Option.[219]Living Bipolar: Do you Know Your Triggers?[220]Research
Suggests Mindfulness Reduces Bipolar Relapse[221]Marijuana Makes it
Worse, Revisited[222]Getting Unstuck from the Cycle of Bipolar
Disorder[223]Of Othello and Delusional Jealousy[224]Why it May be Good
If Your Kid has ADHD or Bipolar Genes[225]Bipolar Disorder in Children?
Yes![226]Misdiagnosing Bipolar Disorder: What's at Stake[227]The Link
Between Bipolar Disorder and Anger[228]Star Wars, Stigma, and Carrie
Fisher[229]Bipolar Disorder: What's in a Label?[230]Spotlight on a Live
Journal[231]Mental Health: Our Troubled Teenagers[232]Depression and
Its Meanings[233]Teenage Depression and Consequences[234]Celebrities
Also Have Bipolar Disorder [235]Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Personality
Disorder or Bipolar Disorder?[236]One Strategy You Need to Know for
Bipolar Disorder[237]Personality Disorders and Bipolar Disorder[238]Do
You Have a Bipolar Crisis Kit?[239]Are You at Risk for Depression?
Here's One Way to Find Out[240]Bipolar Mood Swings? 4 Steps to Nip Them
in the Bud[241]Bipolar Disorder: 5 Steps to Sleep [242]Bipolar
Disorder, Treating the Whole Person[243]Handling Difficult Emotions:
The Path Less Traveled[244] To Do: 3 Steps to Healing When You're
Feeling Blue [245]Depression: How We Get Stuck and What Can
Help[246]Break Free from the Mental Recession or Depression by Doing
Less[247]Feeling Depressed? Here's 1 practice that could begin to turn
it around[248]How you can be triggered into depressionwithout even
knowing it[249]Marijuana Makes It Worse: Severe Mental
Illnesses[250]Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation device for
treatment-resistant Major Depression just approved by the
FDA[251]National Depression Screening Day is just around the corner
(October 10th!)[252]Press "D" for Depression Therapy[253]Few People Who
Are Depressed Receive Mental Health Services[254]Pleasure...Depressions
Kryptonite?[255]We've all heard of dental floss, but mental floss to
prevent stress, anxiety, and depression? [256]Three things you can do
immediately when you find yourself getting depressed[257]An Interview
with Yulonda Brown on Surviving Abuse and Bipolar
Disorder[258]Depression: A New Frontier in It's Treatment[259]Our
Bipolar Topic Center has been Updated[260]Feeling Depressed: Influenced
by the Attitudes and Opinions of Others?[261]Bipolar kids see
aggression when it isn't there[262]Bipolar Disorder and the Need for
Psychoeducation[263]Disentangling Rapid-Cycling Bipolar From Borderline
[264]Videos
[265]Bipolar Disorder Video[266]Major Depression Video[267]Bipolar
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Trials so Important[276]Bipolar Disorder: Why Did it Take so Long to
Get Diagnosed?[277]Balancing Bipolar Disorder[278]The Road to Recovery
from Bipolar Disorder[279]Advice for Someone Recently Diagnosed with
Bipolar Disorder[280]How to Find Information about Bipolar
Disorder[281]Are There Genetic Risk Factors for Bipolar
Disorder[282]Does Bipolar Disorder Affect Children?[283]Getting Help
for Family Members of Bipolar Patients Video[284]Types of Depression
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Body Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder
Rashmi Nemade, Ph.D. & Mark Dombeck, Ph.D. Updated: Aug 7th 2009
Nervous system, endocrine, and/or immune system difficulties may
conspire to affect one of the less measurable causes of bipolar
disorders: disturbances in body rhythms. As discussed earlier, the
hypothalamus is the link between the nervous and endocrine systems.
Given that the nervous system is also associated with the immune
system, it is possible that the hypothalamus exerts its effect on the
immune system as well. Thus, the combination of these systems can alter
body biochemistry, contributing to shifts in body rhythms such as the
circadian, seasonal, and social rhythms.
Circadian Rhythm and Bipolar Disorder
[441]advertisement
The circadian rhythm is the 24-hour cycle of the body, the exact length
of which is determined by the amount of light that the hypothalamus
senses in a day-night cycle. The name "circadian" refers to a period of
time that is "around a day long". Clear patterns of brain wave activity
and hormone production are coupled to this cycle. When the circadian
rhythm is upset (as can be the case with jet lag and sleep problems)
mood disturbances can result. It is known that in some people sleep
deprivation causes mania, whereas in others it can alleviate the
symptoms of depression. Thus, regulation of circadian rhythm is
important for managing bipolar symptoms and mood episodes.
Dysregulation of this system is typically experienced as a powerful
source of stress.
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) and Bipolar Disorder
Similar to circadian rhythms but longer in duration are seasonal
rhythms. These are determined by the amount of daylight experienced
within a given season. Dysregulation of seasonal rhythms has been
linked with Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD; also known as winter
depression). SAD-affected individuals begin to feel increasingly
depressed as the amount of light disappears during the winter. Their
depression lifts as springtime approaches and the days lengthen. During
times of the year with long days, these people typically experience no
undue mood disturbance.
Social Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder
Both circadian and seasonal rhythms can affect individuals' social
rhythms. The social rhythm comprises of a daily routine such as waking
up at a specific time, going to school or work, and interacting with
family members, friends, peers and colleagues. Even healthy people can
experience mood changes when their social rhythms are disturbed by
insomnia, seasonal changes or work schedules. It is no great leap to
see that if someone is susceptible to bipolar disorder, a change in
their body rhythms might constitute sufficient stress to precipitate
bipolar symptoms.
When considering the possible causes of bipolar disorders, it is
necessary to bear in mind the complex nature of mood polarity. It is
likely that that the problem originates in multiple biologic systems -
the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems with a basis in the genetic
machinery that regulates these systems. For example, a gene important
in the function of the hypothalamus may become mutated or infected by a
retrovirus leading to deregulation of neurotransmitters, hormones,
and/or immune components. The resulting change is measurable as
biochemical imbalances in either the brain or body but these
biochemical imbalances are not necessarily causing the underlying
dysfunction, but instead may simply be themselves symptoms or links in
a chain of causes that lead to bipolar illness.
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[15]rhythm engine
[16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am
rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its
the only way
always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret
Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London
[18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django
100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the
musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good
players!
If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere
else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out
there and support these guys books are not always the answer
LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL
WORKSHOPS
Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010
Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt,
these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate
directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt
Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of
this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a
chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and
non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play
this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of
techniques and musical ideas.
These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts
Council England.
WORKSHOPS £35
o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz
double bass.
o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except
beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the
masters themselves
Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from
13.30 - 15.30
Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com
Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227
[20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records
January Workshops at a Glance:
Sunday 17 January
Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance
Battersea
Monday 18 January
Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Tuesday 19 January
Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Wednesday 20 January
Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
South Kensington
Thursday 21 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea
Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Friday 22 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Saturday 23 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea
Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith
Sunday 24 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea
We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to
happen.
ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT
WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS
AND STUDENTS
SUNDAY 17th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk
Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching
himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then
added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a
composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and
one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays
Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions.
An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted
musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz
scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg,
Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu
Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others.
[23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the
opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY
17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at
[25]www.wegottickets.com
MONDAY 18th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is
popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his
music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients,
intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst
retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive.
Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music,
their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous,
humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will
be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY
18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[27]www.wegottickets.com
TUESDAY 19th JANUARY
Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[28]www.quecumbar.co.uk
A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of
this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for
these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more
advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to
any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind,
multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span
violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy
musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later
swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de
Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired
by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger,
and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he
studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked
closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo
DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of
orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance
instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania
and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene.
[29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com
[31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com
Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO
on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from
[32]www.wegottickets.com
WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry
Place
London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on
today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy
Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more
contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at
numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus
has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His
virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which
fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson.
[34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl
[36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ;
Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy
Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[39]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel
Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in
Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was
spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where
he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and
non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the
world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane
Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light
and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid
Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his
own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are
acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured
on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona.
[40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com
Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER
TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[42]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[43]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from
Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also
studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has
worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has
recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists
including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego
Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and
James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha
[45]www.bielballestertrio.com
Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY
21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[46]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first
learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy
masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style
that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a
young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs,
demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond
his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with
bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy
Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg,
Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada
with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this
music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label,
El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in
Spain.
[49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com
[51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic
Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th
JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah
Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier:
Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter:
German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY
24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli
Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin;
Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND
FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo
Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani
van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at
[53]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy
Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246
King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk
Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line).
Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous
Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he
began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and
released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous
CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist,
he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with
modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with
its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself
to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour.
[55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette
Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
(Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi
Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion;
Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from
[56]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London
SW11 3JB
SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk
Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar
master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite
family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and
Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a
style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive
and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic
Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style
and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he
loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions
and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django
tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo
touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes
Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of
performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after
master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy.
He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of
15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing
competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with
"Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of
the top 1.4% of entrants.
"...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to
applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard;
"It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again",
Zutphen Paper.
[58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier
Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary
Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar;
Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass.
SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy,
guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie
Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th
birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and
stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with
unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their
Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating
in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo,
Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple
stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill,
technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate
café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music
was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of
Gypsy Swing,
WORKSHOP VENUES:
Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
17 Queensberry Place
London SW7 2DT
[60]www.institut-francais.org.uk
Tube: South Kensington
How to get there:
From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line
its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6
Jazz Cafe POSK
The Polish Cultural Centre
238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London
W6 0RF
Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line
Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost
next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same.
There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus
that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction.
Thomas's School
28-40 Battersea High Street,
London SW11 3JB
[63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Royal Academy of Dance
36 Battersea Square, Battersea,
London SW11 3RA
[64]www.rad.org.uk
[65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Le QuecumBar & Brasserie
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3HX
[66]www.quecumbar.co.uk
[67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
How to find us by Bus Route 170:
The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction
or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station.
(A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station
about £10)
170 from Victoria Station:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off
the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on
to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and
Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right
170 from Clapham Junction:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk
forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side
of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea
High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the
right
By Train:
Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk
or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from,
Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch
the 170 bus
By Car:
Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends
London Airports:
Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct
train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return
Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx
or train to central London
Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to
Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District
Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any
eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street
Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch
the 170 bus.
Map of where Le QuecumBar is:
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3 HX:
[68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud
to have the support of our world class musician patrons:
Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie
John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg
[69]quecumbar
Posts: 3
Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm
Location: London
+ [70]E-mail quecumbar
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[15]rhythm engine
[16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am
rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its
the only way
always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret
Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London
[18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django
100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the
musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good
players!
If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere
else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out
there and support these guys books are not always the answer
LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL
WORKSHOPS
Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010
Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt,
these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate
directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt
Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of
this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a
chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and
non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play
this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of
techniques and musical ideas.
These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts
Council England.
WORKSHOPS £35
o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz
double bass.
o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except
beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the
masters themselves
Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from
13.30 - 15.30
Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com
Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227
[20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records
January Workshops at a Glance:
Sunday 17 January
Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance
Battersea
Monday 18 January
Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Tuesday 19 January
Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Wednesday 20 January
Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
South Kensington
Thursday 21 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea
Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Friday 22 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Saturday 23 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea
Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith
Sunday 24 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea
We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to
happen.
ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT
WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS
AND STUDENTS
SUNDAY 17th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk
Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching
himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then
added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a
composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and
one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays
Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions.
An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted
musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz
scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg,
Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu
Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others.
[23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the
opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY
17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at
[25]www.wegottickets.com
MONDAY 18th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is
popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his
music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients,
intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst
retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive.
Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music,
their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous,
humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will
be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY
18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[27]www.wegottickets.com
TUESDAY 19th JANUARY
Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[28]www.quecumbar.co.uk
A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of
this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for
these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more
advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to
any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind,
multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span
violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy
musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later
swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de
Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired
by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger,
and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he
studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked
closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo
DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of
orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance
instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania
and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene.
[29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com
[31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com
Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO
on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from
[32]www.wegottickets.com
WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry
Place
London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on
today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy
Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more
contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at
numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus
has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His
virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which
fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson.
[34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl
[36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ;
Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy
Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[39]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel
Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in
Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was
spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where
he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and
non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the
world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane
Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light
and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid
Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his
own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are
acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured
on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona.
[40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com
Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER
TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[42]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[43]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from
Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also
studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has
worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has
recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists
including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego
Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and
James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha
[45]www.bielballestertrio.com
Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY
21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[46]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first
learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy
masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style
that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a
young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs,
demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond
his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with
bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy
Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg,
Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada
with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this
music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label,
El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in
Spain.
[49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com
[51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic
Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th
JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah
Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier:
Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter:
German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY
24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli
Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin;
Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND
FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo
Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani
van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at
[53]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy
Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246
King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk
Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line).
Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous
Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he
began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and
released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous
CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist,
he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with
modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with
its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself
to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour.
[55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette
Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
(Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi
Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion;
Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from
[56]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London
SW11 3JB
SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk
Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar
master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite
family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and
Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a
style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive
and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic
Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style
and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he
loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions
and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django
tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo
touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes
Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of
performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after
master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy.
He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of
15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing
competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with
"Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of
the top 1.4% of entrants.
"...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to
applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard;
"It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again",
Zutphen Paper.
[58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier
Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary
Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar;
Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass.
SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy,
guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie
Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th
birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and
stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with
unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their
Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating
in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo,
Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple
stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill,
technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate
café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music
was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of
Gypsy Swing,
WORKSHOP VENUES:
Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
17 Queensberry Place
London SW7 2DT
[60]www.institut-francais.org.uk
Tube: South Kensington
How to get there:
From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line
its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6
Jazz Cafe POSK
The Polish Cultural Centre
238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London
W6 0RF
Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line
Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost
next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same.
There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus
that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction.
Thomas's School
28-40 Battersea High Street,
London SW11 3JB
[63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Royal Academy of Dance
36 Battersea Square, Battersea,
London SW11 3RA
[64]www.rad.org.uk
[65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Le QuecumBar & Brasserie
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3HX
[66]www.quecumbar.co.uk
[67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
How to find us by Bus Route 170:
The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction
or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station.
(A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station
about £10)
170 from Victoria Station:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off
the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on
to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and
Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right
170 from Clapham Junction:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk
forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side
of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea
High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the
right
By Train:
Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk
or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from,
Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch
the 170 bus
By Car:
Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends
London Airports:
Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct
train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return
Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx
or train to central London
Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to
Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District
Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any
eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street
Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch
the 170 bus.
Map of where Le QuecumBar is:
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3 HX:
[68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud
to have the support of our world class musician patrons:
Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie
John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg
[69]quecumbar
Posts: 3
Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm
Location: London
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(WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
* Biblio. Data
* [2]Description
* [3]Claims
* [4]National Phase
* [5]Notices
* [6]Documents
Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau
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__________________________________________________________________
Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.:
PCT/US1999/000569
Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999
IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01)
Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake
Village, CA 91361 (US).
Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US).
Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box
640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US).
Priority Data:
09/013,353 26.01.1998 US
Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument
provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a
user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30)
corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a
series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture
controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of
which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical
note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along
with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed
musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the
selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities
also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure
table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or
automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played
along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then
be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system.
A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of
phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm
engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that
phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity
information and may contain polyphonic information.
Designated States: JP.
European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB,
GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE).
Publication Language: English (EN)
Filing Language: English (EN)
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[15]rhythm engine
[16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am
rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its
the only way
always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret
Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London
[18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django
100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the
musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good
players!
If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere
else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out
there and support these guys books are not always the answer
LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL
WORKSHOPS
Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010
Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt,
these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate
directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt
Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of
this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a
chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and
non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play
this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of
techniques and musical ideas.
These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts
Council England.
WORKSHOPS £35
o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz
double bass.
o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except
beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the
masters themselves
Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from
13.30 - 15.30
Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com
Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227
[20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records
January Workshops at a Glance:
Sunday 17 January
Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance
Battersea
Monday 18 January
Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Tuesday 19 January
Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Wednesday 20 January
Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
South Kensington
Thursday 21 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea
Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Friday 22 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Saturday 23 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea
Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith
Sunday 24 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea
We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to
happen.
ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT
WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS
AND STUDENTS
SUNDAY 17th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk
Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching
himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then
added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a
composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and
one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays
Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions.
An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted
musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz
scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg,
Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu
Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others.
[23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the
opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY
17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at
[25]www.wegottickets.com
MONDAY 18th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is
popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his
music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients,
intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst
retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive.
Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music,
their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous,
humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will
be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY
18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[27]www.wegottickets.com
TUESDAY 19th JANUARY
Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[28]www.quecumbar.co.uk
A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of
this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for
these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more
advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to
any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind,
multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span
violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy
musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later
swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de
Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired
by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger,
and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he
studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked
closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo
DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of
orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance
instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania
and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene.
[29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com
[31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com
Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO
on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from
[32]www.wegottickets.com
WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry
Place
London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on
today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy
Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more
contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at
numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus
has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His
virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which
fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson.
[34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl
[36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ;
Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy
Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[39]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel
Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in
Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was
spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where
he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and
non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the
world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane
Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light
and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid
Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his
own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are
acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured
on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona.
[40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com
Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER
TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[42]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[43]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from
Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also
studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has
worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has
recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists
including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego
Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and
James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha
[45]www.bielballestertrio.com
Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY
21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[46]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first
learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy
masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style
that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a
young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs,
demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond
his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with
bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy
Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg,
Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada
with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this
music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label,
El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in
Spain.
[49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com
[51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic
Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th
JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah
Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier:
Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter:
German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY
24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli
Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin;
Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND
FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo
Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani
van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at
[53]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy
Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246
King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk
Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line).
Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous
Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he
began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and
released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous
CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist,
he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with
modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with
its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself
to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour.
[55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette
Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
(Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi
Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion;
Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from
[56]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London
SW11 3JB
SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk
Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar
master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite
family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and
Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a
style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive
and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic
Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style
and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he
loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions
and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django
tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo
touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes
Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of
performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after
master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy.
He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of
15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing
competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with
"Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of
the top 1.4% of entrants.
"...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to
applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard;
"It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again",
Zutphen Paper.
[58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier
Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary
Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar;
Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass.
SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy,
guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie
Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th
birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and
stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with
unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their
Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating
in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo,
Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple
stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill,
technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate
café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music
was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of
Gypsy Swing,
WORKSHOP VENUES:
Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
17 Queensberry Place
London SW7 2DT
[60]www.institut-francais.org.uk
Tube: South Kensington
How to get there:
From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line
its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6
Jazz Cafe POSK
The Polish Cultural Centre
238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London
W6 0RF
Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line
Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost
next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same.
There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus
that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction.
Thomas's School
28-40 Battersea High Street,
London SW11 3JB
[63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Royal Academy of Dance
36 Battersea Square, Battersea,
London SW11 3RA
[64]www.rad.org.uk
[65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Le QuecumBar & Brasserie
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3HX
[66]www.quecumbar.co.uk
[67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
How to find us by Bus Route 170:
The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction
or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station.
(A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station
about £10)
170 from Victoria Station:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off
the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on
to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and
Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right
170 from Clapham Junction:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk
forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side
of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea
High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the
right
By Train:
Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk
or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from,
Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch
the 170 bus
By Car:
Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends
London Airports:
Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct
train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return
Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx
or train to central London
Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to
Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District
Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any
eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street
Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch
the 170 bus.
Map of where Le QuecumBar is:
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3 HX:
[68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud
to have the support of our world class musician patrons:
Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie
John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg
[69]quecumbar
Posts: 3
Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm
Location: London
+ [70]E-mail quecumbar
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31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com
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(WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
* Biblio. Data
* [2]Description
* [3]Claims
* [4]National Phase
* [5]Notices
* [6]Documents
Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau
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__________________________________________________________________
Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.:
PCT/US1999/000569
Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999
IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01)
Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake
Village, CA 91361 (US).
Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US).
Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box
640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US).
Priority Data:
09/013,353 26.01.1998 US
Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument
provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a
user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30)
corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a
series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture
controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of
which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical
note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along
with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed
musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the
selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities
also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure
table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or
automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played
along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then
be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system.
A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of
phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm
engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that
phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity
information and may contain polyphonic information.
Designated States: JP.
European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB,
GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE).
Publication Language: English (EN)
Filing Language: English (EN)
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A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event
by David Lindsay
Copyright 2002. All right reserved.
In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and
musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can
be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods
of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present
paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm.
Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with
the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the
genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from
them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during
which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During
replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and
so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event.
Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates
to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present
approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation
process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA
dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins
generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our
scope.
The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known.
The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform
rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand,
and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.)
A C G T
T G C A
These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also
obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by
three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with
rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three:
A C G T
|| ||| ||| ||
T G C A
In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be
broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the
dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of
events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological
organisms--play a determining role.
Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to
break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy.
Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower
than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as
governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call
this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows
the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is
constant, by the following coefficients:
A=2
C=3
G=3
T=2
Given an arbitrary DNA sequence:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes:
2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2
Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state
constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation
is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA
molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich
regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In
vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation
progresses away from the initiation site:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
-------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can
be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event.
H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based
stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four
sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation
differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins,
which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that
constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated
above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four:
2332 2222 2232
Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its
expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two
opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a
replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond
breakage are activated simultaneously:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
|| ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm
expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger --
will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied
equally to molecular processes or musical ones.
Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the
case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and
indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is
varied its energy profile.
The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could,
for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient
to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate,
while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster
of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the
governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and
unstressed "beats," such that:
A=2=unstressed beat (-)
C=3=stressed beat (´)
G=3=stressed beat (´)
T=2=unstressed beat (-)
Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It
should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not
founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any
other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to
scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation
process.
Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy
profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close
observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating
music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given
the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if
any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may
cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication
will suffice.
Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would
facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such
cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry.
In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the
origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward
resonance.
Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to
fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA
strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to
transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for
example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will
tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which
is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering
a suspension bridge.
The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and
non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because
it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in
comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the
properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate
the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription.
1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences,"
Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts
(Sept. 1995).
For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting
and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here.
[2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles.
For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here.
website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan
University.
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[15]rhythm engine
[16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am
rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its
the only way
always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret
Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London
[18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django
100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the
musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good
players!
If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere
else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out
there and support these guys books are not always the answer
LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL
WORKSHOPS
Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010
Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt,
these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate
directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt
Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of
this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a
chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and
non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play
this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of
techniques and musical ideas.
These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts
Council England.
WORKSHOPS £35
o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz
double bass.
o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except
beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the
masters themselves
Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from
13.30 - 15.30
Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com
Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227
[20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records
January Workshops at a Glance:
Sunday 17 January
Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance
Battersea
Monday 18 January
Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Tuesday 19 January
Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Wednesday 20 January
Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
South Kensington
Thursday 21 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea
Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Friday 22 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Saturday 23 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea
Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith
Sunday 24 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea
We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to
happen.
ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT
WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS
AND STUDENTS
SUNDAY 17th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk
Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching
himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then
added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a
composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and
one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays
Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions.
An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted
musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz
scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg,
Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu
Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others.
[23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the
opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY
17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at
[25]www.wegottickets.com
MONDAY 18th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is
popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his
music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients,
intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst
retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive.
Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music,
their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous,
humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will
be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY
18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[27]www.wegottickets.com
TUESDAY 19th JANUARY
Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[28]www.quecumbar.co.uk
A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of
this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for
these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more
advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to
any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind,
multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span
violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy
musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later
swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de
Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired
by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger,
and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he
studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked
closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo
DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of
orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance
instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania
and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene.
[29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com
[31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com
Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO
on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from
[32]www.wegottickets.com
WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry
Place
London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on
today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy
Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more
contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at
numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus
has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His
virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which
fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson.
[34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl
[36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ;
Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy
Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[39]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel
Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in
Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was
spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where
he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and
non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the
world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane
Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light
and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid
Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his
own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are
acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured
on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona.
[40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com
Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER
TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[42]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[43]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from
Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also
studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has
worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has
recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists
including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego
Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and
James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha
[45]www.bielballestertrio.com
Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY
21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[46]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first
learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy
masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style
that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a
young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs,
demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond
his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with
bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy
Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg,
Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada
with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this
music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label,
El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in
Spain.
[49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com
[51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic
Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th
JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah
Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier:
Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter:
German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY
24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli
Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin;
Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND
FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo
Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani
van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at
[53]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy
Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246
King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk
Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line).
Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous
Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he
began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and
released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous
CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist,
he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with
modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with
its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself
to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour.
[55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette
Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
(Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi
Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion;
Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from
[56]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London
SW11 3JB
SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk
Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar
master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite
family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and
Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a
style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive
and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic
Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style
and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he
loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions
and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django
tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo
touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes
Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of
performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after
master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy.
He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of
15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing
competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with
"Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of
the top 1.4% of entrants.
"...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to
applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard;
"It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again",
Zutphen Paper.
[58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier
Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary
Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar;
Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass.
SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy,
guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie
Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th
birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and
stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with
unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their
Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating
in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo,
Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple
stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill,
technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate
café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music
was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of
Gypsy Swing,
WORKSHOP VENUES:
Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
17 Queensberry Place
London SW7 2DT
[60]www.institut-francais.org.uk
Tube: South Kensington
How to get there:
From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line
its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6
Jazz Cafe POSK
The Polish Cultural Centre
238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London
W6 0RF
Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line
Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost
next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same.
There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus
that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction.
Thomas's School
28-40 Battersea High Street,
London SW11 3JB
[63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Royal Academy of Dance
36 Battersea Square, Battersea,
London SW11 3RA
[64]www.rad.org.uk
[65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Le QuecumBar & Brasserie
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3HX
[66]www.quecumbar.co.uk
[67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
How to find us by Bus Route 170:
The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction
or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station.
(A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station
about £10)
170 from Victoria Station:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off
the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on
to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and
Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right
170 from Clapham Junction:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk
forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side
of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea
High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the
right
By Train:
Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk
or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from,
Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch
the 170 bus
By Car:
Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends
London Airports:
Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct
train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return
Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx
or train to central London
Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to
Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District
Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any
eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street
Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch
the 170 bus.
Map of where Le QuecumBar is:
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3 HX:
[68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud
to have the support of our world class musician patrons:
Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie
John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg
[69]quecumbar
Posts: 3
Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm
Location: London
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24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com
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(WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
* Biblio. Data
* [2]Description
* [3]Claims
* [4]National Phase
* [5]Notices
* [6]Documents
Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau
* [7]Link
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__________________________________________________________________
Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.:
PCT/US1999/000569
Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999
IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01)
Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake
Village, CA 91361 (US).
Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US).
Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box
640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US).
Priority Data:
09/013,353 26.01.1998 US
Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument
provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a
user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30)
corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a
series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture
controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of
which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical
note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along
with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed
musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the
selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities
also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure
table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or
automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played
along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then
be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system.
A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of
phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm
engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that
phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity
information and may contain polyphonic information.
Designated States: JP.
European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB,
GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE).
Publication Language: English (EN)
Filing Language: English (EN)
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Références
A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event
by David Lindsay
Copyright 2002. All right reserved.
In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and
musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can
be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods
of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present
paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm.
Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with
the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the
genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from
them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during
which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During
replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and
so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event.
Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates
to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present
approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation
process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA
dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins
generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our
scope.
The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known.
The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform
rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand,
and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.)
A C G T
T G C A
These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also
obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by
three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with
rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three:
A C G T
|| ||| ||| ||
T G C A
In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be
broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the
dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of
events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological
organisms--play a determining role.
Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to
break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy.
Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower
than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as
governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call
this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows
the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is
constant, by the following coefficients:
A=2
C=3
G=3
T=2
Given an arbitrary DNA sequence:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes:
2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2
Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state
constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation
is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA
molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich
regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In
vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation
progresses away from the initiation site:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
-------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can
be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event.
H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based
stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four
sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation
differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins,
which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that
constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated
above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four:
2332 2222 2232
Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its
expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two
opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a
replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond
breakage are activated simultaneously:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
|| ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm
expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger --
will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied
equally to molecular processes or musical ones.
Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the
case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and
indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is
varied its energy profile.
The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could,
for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient
to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate,
while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster
of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the
governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and
unstressed "beats," such that:
A=2=unstressed beat (-)
C=3=stressed beat (´)
G=3=stressed beat (´)
T=2=unstressed beat (-)
Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It
should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not
founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any
other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to
scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation
process.
Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy
profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close
observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating
music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given
the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if
any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may
cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication
will suffice.
Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would
facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such
cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry.
In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the
origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward
resonance.
Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to
fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA
strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to
transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for
example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will
tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which
is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering
a suspension bridge.
The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and
non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because
it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in
comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the
properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate
the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription.
1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences,"
Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts
(Sept. 1995).
For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting
and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here.
[2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles.
For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here.
website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan
University.
Références
Liens visibles
Liens cachés :
CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project
[1]CRE Personnel
What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project?
The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful
way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented
music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision,
continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional
deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of
different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to
yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an
editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising
context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to
drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software
consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data
(e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that
represents these programs and data visually.
Expressive timing
One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently
commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained
control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or
rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say,
tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with
these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in
the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we
can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes
slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat).
All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in
human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with
manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a
musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in
rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this
project.
Composition and combination techniques
Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its
facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include
making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering
different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and
heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and
most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of
such structures.
Applications
Here are some possible applications of CRE:
* Anything that any standard drum machine does
* Automated percussion tracks with "human feel"
* A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the
same rhythms with "human feel"
* Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable
(e.g. the 30-second commercial)
* Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with
irrationally-related durations
* Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at
will, in real time
* Making a program that improvises by "driving around in
rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine
listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or
invention according to some combination of generative processes)
* Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without
altering the tree structure.
Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since
this list provides checkpoints for the software development.
__________________________________________________________________
Page maintained by Vijay Iyer
Last modified July 15, 1996
__________________________________________________________________
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[15]rhythm engine
[16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am
rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its
the only way
always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret
Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London
[18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django
100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the
musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good
players!
If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere
else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out
there and support these guys books are not always the answer
LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL
WORKSHOPS
Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010
Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt,
these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate
directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt
Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of
this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a
chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and
non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play
this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of
techniques and musical ideas.
These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts
Council England.
WORKSHOPS £35
o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz
double bass.
o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except
beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the
masters themselves
Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from
13.30 - 15.30
Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com
Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227
[20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records
January Workshops at a Glance:
Sunday 17 January
Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance
Battersea
Monday 18 January
Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Tuesday 19 January
Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Wednesday 20 January
Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
South Kensington
Thursday 21 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea
Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Friday 22 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Saturday 23 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea
Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith
Sunday 24 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea
We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to
happen.
ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT
WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS
AND STUDENTS
SUNDAY 17th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk
Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching
himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then
added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a
composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and
one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays
Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions.
An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted
musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz
scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg,
Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu
Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others.
[23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the
opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY
17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at
[25]www.wegottickets.com
MONDAY 18th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is
popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his
music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients,
intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst
retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive.
Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music,
their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous,
humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will
be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY
18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[27]www.wegottickets.com
TUESDAY 19th JANUARY
Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[28]www.quecumbar.co.uk
A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of
this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for
these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more
advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to
any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind,
multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span
violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy
musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later
swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de
Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired
by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger,
and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he
studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked
closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo
DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of
orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance
instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania
and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene.
[29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com
[31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com
Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO
on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from
[32]www.wegottickets.com
WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry
Place
London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on
today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy
Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more
contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at
numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus
has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His
virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which
fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson.
[34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl
[36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ;
Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy
Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[39]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel
Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in
Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was
spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where
he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and
non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the
world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane
Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light
and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid
Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his
own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are
acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured
on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona.
[40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com
Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER
TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[42]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[43]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from
Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also
studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has
worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has
recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists
including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego
Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and
James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha
[45]www.bielballestertrio.com
Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY
21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[46]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first
learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy
masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style
that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a
young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs,
demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond
his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with
bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy
Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg,
Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada
with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this
music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label,
El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in
Spain.
[49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com
[51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic
Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th
JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah
Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier:
Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter:
German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY
24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli
Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin;
Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND
FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo
Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani
van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at
[53]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy
Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246
King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk
Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line).
Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous
Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he
began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and
released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous
CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist,
he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with
modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with
its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself
to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour.
[55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette
Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
(Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi
Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion;
Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from
[56]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London
SW11 3JB
SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk
Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar
master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite
family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and
Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a
style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive
and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic
Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style
and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he
loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions
and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django
tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo
touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes
Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of
performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after
master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy.
He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of
15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing
competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with
"Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of
the top 1.4% of entrants.
"...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to
applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard;
"It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again",
Zutphen Paper.
[58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier
Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary
Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar;
Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass.
SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy,
guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie
Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th
birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and
stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with
unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their
Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating
in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo,
Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple
stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill,
technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate
café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music
was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of
Gypsy Swing,
WORKSHOP VENUES:
Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
17 Queensberry Place
London SW7 2DT
[60]www.institut-francais.org.uk
Tube: South Kensington
How to get there:
From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line
its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6
Jazz Cafe POSK
The Polish Cultural Centre
238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London
W6 0RF
Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line
Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost
next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same.
There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus
that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction.
Thomas's School
28-40 Battersea High Street,
London SW11 3JB
[63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Royal Academy of Dance
36 Battersea Square, Battersea,
London SW11 3RA
[64]www.rad.org.uk
[65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Le QuecumBar & Brasserie
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3HX
[66]www.quecumbar.co.uk
[67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
How to find us by Bus Route 170:
The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction
or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station.
(A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station
about £10)
170 from Victoria Station:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off
the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on
to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and
Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right
170 from Clapham Junction:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk
forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side
of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea
High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the
right
By Train:
Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk
or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from,
Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch
the 170 bus
By Car:
Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends
London Airports:
Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct
train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return
Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx
or train to central London
Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to
Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District
Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any
eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street
Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch
the 170 bus.
Map of where Le QuecumBar is:
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3 HX:
[68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud
to have the support of our world class musician patrons:
Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie
John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg
[69]quecumbar
Posts: 3
Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm
Location: London
+ [70]E-mail quecumbar
+ [71]Website
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(WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
* Biblio. Data
* [2]Description
* [3]Claims
* [4]National Phase
* [5]Notices
* [6]Documents
Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau
* [7]Link
+ [8]Permanent Link
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__________________________________________________________________
Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.:
PCT/US1999/000569
Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999
IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01)
Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake
Village, CA 91361 (US).
Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US).
Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box
640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US).
Priority Data:
09/013,353 26.01.1998 US
Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument
provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a
user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30)
corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a
series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture
controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of
which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical
note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along
with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed
musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the
selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities
also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure
table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or
automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played
along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then
be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system.
A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of
phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm
engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that
phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity
information and may contain polyphonic information.
Designated States: JP.
European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB,
GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE).
Publication Language: English (EN)
Filing Language: English (EN)
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Références
A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event
by David Lindsay
Copyright 2002. All right reserved.
In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and
musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can
be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods
of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present
paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm.
Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with
the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the
genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from
them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during
which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During
replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and
so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event.
Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates
to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present
approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation
process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA
dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins
generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our
scope.
The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known.
The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform
rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand,
and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.)
A C G T
T G C A
These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also
obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by
three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with
rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three:
A C G T
|| ||| ||| ||
T G C A
In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be
broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the
dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of
events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological
organisms--play a determining role.
Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to
break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy.
Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower
than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as
governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call
this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows
the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is
constant, by the following coefficients:
A=2
C=3
G=3
T=2
Given an arbitrary DNA sequence:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes:
2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2
Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state
constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation
is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA
molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich
regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In
vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation
progresses away from the initiation site:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
-------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can
be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event.
H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based
stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four
sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation
differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins,
which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that
constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated
above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four:
2332 2222 2232
Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its
expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two
opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a
replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond
breakage are activated simultaneously:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
|| ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm
expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger --
will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied
equally to molecular processes or musical ones.
Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the
case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and
indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is
varied its energy profile.
The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could,
for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient
to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate,
while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster
of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the
governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and
unstressed "beats," such that:
A=2=unstressed beat (-)
C=3=stressed beat (´)
G=3=stressed beat (´)
T=2=unstressed beat (-)
Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It
should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not
founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any
other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to
scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation
process.
Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy
profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close
observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating
music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given
the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if
any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may
cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication
will suffice.
Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would
facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such
cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry.
In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the
origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward
resonance.
Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to
fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA
strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to
transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for
example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will
tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which
is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering
a suspension bridge.
The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and
non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because
it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in
comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the
properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate
the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription.
1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences,"
Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts
(Sept. 1995).
For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting
and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here.
[2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles.
For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here.
website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan
University.
Références
Liens visibles
Liens cachés :
CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project
[1]CRE Personnel
What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project?
The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful
way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented
music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision,
continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional
deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of
different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to
yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an
editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising
context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to
drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software
consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data
(e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that
represents these programs and data visually.
Expressive timing
One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently
commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained
control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or
rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say,
tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with
these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in
the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we
can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes
slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat).
All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in
human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with
manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a
musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in
rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this
project.
Composition and combination techniques
Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its
facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include
making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering
different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and
heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and
most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of
such structures.
Applications
Here are some possible applications of CRE:
* Anything that any standard drum machine does
* Automated percussion tracks with "human feel"
* A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the
same rhythms with "human feel"
* Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable
(e.g. the 30-second commercial)
* Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with
irrationally-related durations
* Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at
will, in real time
* Making a program that improvises by "driving around in
rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine
listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or
invention according to some combination of generative processes)
* Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without
altering the tree structure.
Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since
this list provides checkpoints for the software development.
__________________________________________________________________
Page maintained by Vijay Iyer
Last modified July 15, 1996
__________________________________________________________________
[2]Up to Vijay's page
[3]Up to CNMAT homepage
[4]Send mail to the CRE group
[5]Send mail to Vijay Iyer
Références
4. mailto:cdm@icsi.berkeley.edu
5. mailto:vijay@cnmat.berkeley.edu
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[15]Jennifer Wagaman
Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students
Lesson Ideas Involving Rhythm for Young Students
[16]Dec 16, 2008 [17]Jennifer Wagaman
Be creative and resourceful when teaching kindergarten students about
rhythm.
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Teaching rhythm to Kindergarten students can be a fun way to get
students moving around the classroom. When writing lesson plans with
the objective towards learning rhythm, consider not only the manner in
which you teach the students, but which songs would provide the best
lesson opportunity, as well as which songs will work for the short
attention span the students have.
How to Teach Rhythm
Use the body demonstrate the beat, also called body percussion, will
help students feel the beat and learn the rhythm. This can involve
having the students clap, tap, or stomp their feet while singing. This
reinforces beat in a tactile manner, and helps the students stay
focused on what you are doing. You can also use any opportunity you
have to get the students up and moving about the room while singing
songs. Although this does take decent [18]classroom management skills,
it may also help your student's behavior as they are not required to
sit still throughout the class period.
What Songs Teach Rhythm
Teaching children about rhythm can be a great time to introduce some
fun songs. Lessons involving rhythm can be taught with any song that
has a steady beat, which basically means that most songs are good to
teach rhythm. Pick songs that the students either already know or are
easy to teach, as this will ensure that they already know the basic
rhythm.
Some good songs to use for teaching rhythm include songs like Engine
Engine Number Nine, and Skip to My Lou. For Engine Engine Number Nine,
after teaching the song, have the students form a train and move around
the room to the beat of the train in the song. For Skip to My Lou, have
the students walk, march, or skip around the room to the beat of the
song.
Keep Attention Span in Mind
Because a Kindergarten age child has a relatively short attention span,
keep your songs short and varied. Do several songs per class period. It
is better to do 3 five minute songs, assuming a 20 minute class period,
than to spend 15 minutes on one song. So once again, choose songs that
are either easy to teach, or that the students are already somewhat
familiar with.
Do not be afraid to experiment with your class as you teach the concept
of rhythm. Reflect on your lesson after you have taught it, decide
where there is room for improvement, and work to improve it for the
next class you teach it to.
You may also be interested in using [19]STOMP to teach rhythm in the
classroom.
Read more [20]tips for music teachers.
The copyright of the article Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students
in [21]Arts Education is owned by [22]Jennifer Wagaman. Permission to
republish Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in print or online
must be granted by the author in writing.
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[rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png]
Ideas for Teaching Rhythm, Mary R. Vogt Ideas for Teaching Rhythm
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[comment_icon_f1.png] What do you think about this article?
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Comments
Apr 15, 2009 7:59 AM
Guest :
I particularly like the idea of reflecting on the lesson after its
implementation. Reflection and teaching reflectively should be
encouraged among music teachers.
Cheers
Mark Minott
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1 Comment:
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Reference
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* [37]how to teach rhythm
* [38]teaching rhythm to kindergarten students
* [39]lesson ideas for teaching rhythm
* [40]what songs will teach rhythm
* [41]teaching music to kindergarten students
* [42]reflection on how a lesson went
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Gypsy Jazz and Django Reinhardt Discussion Area
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[12]rhythm engine
A support group for my Gypsy Rhythm book. Ask questions about Gypsy
Rhythm technique, share your own learning experiences, and learn new
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Moderator: [13]Michael Horowitz
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[15]rhythm engine
[16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am
rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its
the only way
always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret
Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London
[18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django
100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the
musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good
players!
If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere
else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out
there and support these guys books are not always the answer
LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL
WORKSHOPS
Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010
Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt,
these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate
directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt
Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of
this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a
chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and
non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play
this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of
techniques and musical ideas.
These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts
Council England.
WORKSHOPS £35
o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz
double bass.
o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except
beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the
masters themselves
Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from
13.30 - 15.30
Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com
Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227
[20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records
January Workshops at a Glance:
Sunday 17 January
Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance
Battersea
Monday 18 January
Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Tuesday 19 January
Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Wednesday 20 January
Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
South Kensington
Thursday 21 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea
Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Friday 22 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Saturday 23 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea
Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith
Sunday 24 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea
We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to
happen.
ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT
WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS
AND STUDENTS
SUNDAY 17th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk
Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching
himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then
added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a
composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and
one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays
Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions.
An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted
musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz
scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg,
Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu
Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others.
[23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the
opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY
17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at
[25]www.wegottickets.com
MONDAY 18th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is
popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his
music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients,
intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst
retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive.
Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music,
their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous,
humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will
be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY
18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[27]www.wegottickets.com
TUESDAY 19th JANUARY
Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[28]www.quecumbar.co.uk
A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of
this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for
these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more
advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to
any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind,
multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span
violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy
musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later
swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de
Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired
by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger,
and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he
studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked
closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo
DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of
orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance
instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania
and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene.
[29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com
[31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com
Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO
on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from
[32]www.wegottickets.com
WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry
Place
London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on
today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy
Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more
contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at
numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus
has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His
virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which
fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson.
[34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl
[36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ;
Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy
Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[39]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel
Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in
Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was
spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where
he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and
non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the
world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane
Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light
and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid
Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his
own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are
acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured
on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona.
[40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com
Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER
TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[42]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[43]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from
Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also
studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has
worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has
recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists
including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego
Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and
James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha
[45]www.bielballestertrio.com
Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY
21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[46]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first
learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy
masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style
that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a
young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs,
demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond
his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with
bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy
Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg,
Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada
with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this
music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label,
El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in
Spain.
[49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com
[51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic
Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th
JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah
Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier:
Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter:
German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY
24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli
Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin;
Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND
FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo
Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani
van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at
[53]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy
Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246
King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk
Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line).
Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous
Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he
began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and
released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous
CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist,
he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with
modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with
its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself
to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour.
[55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette
Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
(Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi
Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion;
Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from
[56]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London
SW11 3JB
SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk
Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar
master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite
family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and
Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a
style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive
and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic
Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style
and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he
loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions
and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django
tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo
touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes
Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of
performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after
master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy.
He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of
15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing
competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with
"Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of
the top 1.4% of entrants.
"...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to
applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard;
"It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again",
Zutphen Paper.
[58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier
Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary
Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar;
Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass.
SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy,
guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie
Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th
birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and
stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with
unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their
Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating
in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo,
Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple
stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill,
technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate
café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music
was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of
Gypsy Swing,
WORKSHOP VENUES:
Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
17 Queensberry Place
London SW7 2DT
[60]www.institut-francais.org.uk
Tube: South Kensington
How to get there:
From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line
its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6
Jazz Cafe POSK
The Polish Cultural Centre
238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London
W6 0RF
Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line
Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost
next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same.
There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus
that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction.
Thomas's School
28-40 Battersea High Street,
London SW11 3JB
[63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Royal Academy of Dance
36 Battersea Square, Battersea,
London SW11 3RA
[64]www.rad.org.uk
[65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Le QuecumBar & Brasserie
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3HX
[66]www.quecumbar.co.uk
[67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
How to find us by Bus Route 170:
The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction
or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station.
(A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station
about £10)
170 from Victoria Station:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off
the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on
to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and
Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right
170 from Clapham Junction:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk
forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side
of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea
High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the
right
By Train:
Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk
or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from,
Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch
the 170 bus
By Car:
Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends
London Airports:
Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct
train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return
Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx
or train to central London
Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to
Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District
Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any
eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street
Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch
the 170 bus.
Map of where Le QuecumBar is:
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3 HX:
[68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud
to have the support of our world class musician patrons:
Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie
John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg
[69]quecumbar
Posts: 3
Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm
Location: London
+ [70]E-mail quecumbar
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[15]rhythm engine
[16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am
rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its
the only way
always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret
Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London
[18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django
100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the
musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good
players!
If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere
else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out
there and support these guys books are not always the answer
LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL
WORKSHOPS
Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010
Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt,
these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate
directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt
Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of
this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a
chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and
non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play
this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of
techniques and musical ideas.
These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts
Council England.
WORKSHOPS £35
o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz
double bass.
o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except
beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the
masters themselves
Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from
13.30 - 15.30
Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com
Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227
[20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records
January Workshops at a Glance:
Sunday 17 January
Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance
Battersea
Monday 18 January
Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Tuesday 19 January
Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Wednesday 20 January
Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
South Kensington
Thursday 21 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea
Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Friday 22 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Saturday 23 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea
Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith
Sunday 24 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea
We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to
happen.
ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT
WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS
AND STUDENTS
SUNDAY 17th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk
Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching
himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then
added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a
composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and
one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays
Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions.
An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted
musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz
scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg,
Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu
Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others.
[23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the
opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY
17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at
[25]www.wegottickets.com
MONDAY 18th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is
popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his
music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients,
intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst
retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive.
Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music,
their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous,
humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will
be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY
18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[27]www.wegottickets.com
TUESDAY 19th JANUARY
Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[28]www.quecumbar.co.uk
A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of
this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for
these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more
advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to
any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind,
multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span
violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy
musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later
swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de
Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired
by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger,
and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he
studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked
closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo
DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of
orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance
instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania
and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene.
[29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com
[31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com
Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO
on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from
[32]www.wegottickets.com
WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry
Place
London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on
today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy
Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more
contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at
numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus
has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His
virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which
fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson.
[34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl
[36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ;
Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy
Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[39]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel
Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in
Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was
spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where
he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and
non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the
world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane
Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light
and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid
Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his
own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are
acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured
on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona.
[40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com
Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER
TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[42]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[43]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from
Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also
studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has
worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has
recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists
including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego
Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and
James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha
[45]www.bielballestertrio.com
Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY
21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[46]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first
learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy
masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style
that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a
young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs,
demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond
his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with
bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy
Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg,
Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada
with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this
music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label,
El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in
Spain.
[49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com
[51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic
Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th
JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah
Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier:
Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter:
German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY
24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli
Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin;
Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND
FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo
Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani
van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at
[53]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy
Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246
King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk
Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line).
Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous
Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he
began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and
released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous
CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist,
he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with
modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with
its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself
to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour.
[55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette
Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
(Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi
Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion;
Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from
[56]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London
SW11 3JB
SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk
Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar
master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite
family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and
Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a
style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive
and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic
Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style
and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he
loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions
and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django
tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo
touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes
Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of
performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after
master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy.
He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of
15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing
competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with
"Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of
the top 1.4% of entrants.
"...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to
applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard;
"It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again",
Zutphen Paper.
[58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier
Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary
Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar;
Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass.
SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy,
guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie
Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th
birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and
stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with
unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their
Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating
in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo,
Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple
stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill,
technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate
café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music
was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of
Gypsy Swing,
WORKSHOP VENUES:
Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
17 Queensberry Place
London SW7 2DT
[60]www.institut-francais.org.uk
Tube: South Kensington
How to get there:
From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line
its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6
Jazz Cafe POSK
The Polish Cultural Centre
238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London
W6 0RF
Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line
Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost
next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same.
There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus
that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction.
Thomas's School
28-40 Battersea High Street,
London SW11 3JB
[63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Royal Academy of Dance
36 Battersea Square, Battersea,
London SW11 3RA
[64]www.rad.org.uk
[65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Le QuecumBar & Brasserie
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3HX
[66]www.quecumbar.co.uk
[67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
How to find us by Bus Route 170:
The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction
or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station.
(A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station
about £10)
170 from Victoria Station:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off
the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on
to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and
Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right
170 from Clapham Junction:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk
forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side
of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea
High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the
right
By Train:
Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk
or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from,
Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch
the 170 bus
By Car:
Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends
London Airports:
Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct
train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return
Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx
or train to central London
Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to
Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District
Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any
eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street
Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch
the 170 bus.
Map of where Le QuecumBar is:
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3 HX:
[68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud
to have the support of our world class musician patrons:
Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie
John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg
[69]quecumbar
Posts: 3
Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm
Location: London
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(WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
* Biblio. Data
* [2]Description
* [3]Claims
* [4]National Phase
* [5]Notices
* [6]Documents
Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau
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__________________________________________________________________
Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.:
PCT/US1999/000569
Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999
IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01)
Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake
Village, CA 91361 (US).
Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US).
Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box
640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US).
Priority Data:
09/013,353 26.01.1998 US
Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument
provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a
user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30)
corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a
series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture
controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of
which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical
note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along
with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed
musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the
selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities
also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure
table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or
automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played
along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then
be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system.
A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of
phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm
engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that
phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity
information and may contain polyphonic information.
Designated States: JP.
European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB,
GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE).
Publication Language: English (EN)
Filing Language: English (EN)
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[15]rhythm engine
[16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am
rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its
the only way
always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret
Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London
[18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django
100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the
musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good
players!
If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere
else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out
there and support these guys books are not always the answer
LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL
WORKSHOPS
Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010
Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt,
these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate
directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt
Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of
this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a
chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and
non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play
this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of
techniques and musical ideas.
These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts
Council England.
WORKSHOPS £35
o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz
double bass.
o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except
beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the
masters themselves
Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from
13.30 - 15.30
Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com
Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227
[20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records
January Workshops at a Glance:
Sunday 17 January
Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance
Battersea
Monday 18 January
Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Tuesday 19 January
Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Wednesday 20 January
Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
South Kensington
Thursday 21 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea
Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Friday 22 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Saturday 23 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea
Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith
Sunday 24 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea
We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to
happen.
ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT
WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS
AND STUDENTS
SUNDAY 17th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk
Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching
himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then
added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a
composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and
one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays
Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions.
An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted
musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz
scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg,
Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu
Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others.
[23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the
opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY
17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at
[25]www.wegottickets.com
MONDAY 18th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is
popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his
music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients,
intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst
retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive.
Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music,
their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous,
humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will
be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY
18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[27]www.wegottickets.com
TUESDAY 19th JANUARY
Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[28]www.quecumbar.co.uk
A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of
this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for
these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more
advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to
any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind,
multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span
violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy
musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later
swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de
Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired
by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger,
and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he
studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked
closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo
DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of
orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance
instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania
and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene.
[29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com
[31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com
Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO
on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from
[32]www.wegottickets.com
WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry
Place
London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on
today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy
Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more
contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at
numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus
has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His
virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which
fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson.
[34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl
[36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ;
Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy
Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[39]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel
Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in
Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was
spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where
he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and
non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the
world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane
Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light
and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid
Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his
own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are
acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured
on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona.
[40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com
Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER
TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[42]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[43]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from
Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also
studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has
worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has
recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists
including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego
Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and
James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha
[45]www.bielballestertrio.com
Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY
21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[46]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first
learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy
masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style
that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a
young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs,
demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond
his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with
bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy
Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg,
Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada
with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this
music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label,
El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in
Spain.
[49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com
[51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic
Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th
JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah
Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier:
Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter:
German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY
24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli
Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin;
Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND
FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo
Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani
van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at
[53]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy
Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246
King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk
Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line).
Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous
Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he
began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and
released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous
CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist,
he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with
modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with
its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself
to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour.
[55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette
Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
(Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi
Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion;
Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from
[56]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London
SW11 3JB
SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk
Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar
master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite
family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and
Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a
style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive
and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic
Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style
and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he
loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions
and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django
tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo
touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes
Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of
performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after
master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy.
He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of
15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing
competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with
"Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of
the top 1.4% of entrants.
"...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to
applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard;
"It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again",
Zutphen Paper.
[58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier
Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary
Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar;
Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass.
SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy,
guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie
Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th
birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and
stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with
unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their
Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating
in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo,
Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple
stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill,
technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate
café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music
was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of
Gypsy Swing,
WORKSHOP VENUES:
Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
17 Queensberry Place
London SW7 2DT
[60]www.institut-francais.org.uk
Tube: South Kensington
How to get there:
From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line
its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6
Jazz Cafe POSK
The Polish Cultural Centre
238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London
W6 0RF
Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line
Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost
next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same.
There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus
that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction.
Thomas's School
28-40 Battersea High Street,
London SW11 3JB
[63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Royal Academy of Dance
36 Battersea Square, Battersea,
London SW11 3RA
[64]www.rad.org.uk
[65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Le QuecumBar & Brasserie
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3HX
[66]www.quecumbar.co.uk
[67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
How to find us by Bus Route 170:
The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction
or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station.
(A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station
about £10)
170 from Victoria Station:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off
the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on
to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and
Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right
170 from Clapham Junction:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk
forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side
of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea
High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the
right
By Train:
Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk
or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from,
Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch
the 170 bus
By Car:
Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends
London Airports:
Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct
train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return
Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx
or train to central London
Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to
Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District
Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any
eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street
Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch
the 170 bus.
Map of where Le QuecumBar is:
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3 HX:
[68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud
to have the support of our world class musician patrons:
Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie
John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg
[69]quecumbar
Posts: 3
Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm
Location: London
+ [70]E-mail quecumbar
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24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com
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(WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
* Biblio. Data
* [2]Description
* [3]Claims
* [4]National Phase
* [5]Notices
* [6]Documents
Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau
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__________________________________________________________________
Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.:
PCT/US1999/000569
Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999
IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01)
Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake
Village, CA 91361 (US).
Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US).
Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box
640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US).
Priority Data:
09/013,353 26.01.1998 US
Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument
provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a
user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30)
corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a
series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture
controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of
which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical
note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along
with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed
musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the
selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities
also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure
table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or
automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played
along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then
be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system.
A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of
phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm
engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that
phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity
information and may contain polyphonic information.
Designated States: JP.
European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB,
GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE).
Publication Language: English (EN)
Filing Language: English (EN)
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Références
A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event
by David Lindsay
Copyright 2002. All right reserved.
In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and
musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can
be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods
of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present
paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm.
Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with
the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the
genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from
them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during
which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During
replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and
so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event.
Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates
to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present
approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation
process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA
dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins
generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our
scope.
The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known.
The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform
rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand,
and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.)
A C G T
T G C A
These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also
obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by
three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with
rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three:
A C G T
|| ||| ||| ||
T G C A
In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be
broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the
dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of
events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological
organisms--play a determining role.
Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to
break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy.
Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower
than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as
governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call
this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows
the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is
constant, by the following coefficients:
A=2
C=3
G=3
T=2
Given an arbitrary DNA sequence:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes:
2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2
Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state
constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation
is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA
molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich
regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In
vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation
progresses away from the initiation site:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
-------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can
be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event.
H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based
stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four
sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation
differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins,
which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that
constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated
above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four:
2332 2222 2232
Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its
expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two
opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a
replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond
breakage are activated simultaneously:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
|| ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm
expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger --
will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied
equally to molecular processes or musical ones.
Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the
case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and
indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is
varied its energy profile.
The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could,
for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient
to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate,
while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster
of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the
governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and
unstressed "beats," such that:
A=2=unstressed beat (-)
C=3=stressed beat (´)
G=3=stressed beat (´)
T=2=unstressed beat (-)
Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It
should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not
founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any
other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to
scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation
process.
Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy
profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close
observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating
music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given
the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if
any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may
cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication
will suffice.
Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would
facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such
cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry.
In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the
origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward
resonance.
Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to
fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA
strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to
transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for
example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will
tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which
is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering
a suspension bridge.
The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and
non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because
it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in
comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the
properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate
the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription.
1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences,"
Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts
(Sept. 1995).
For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting
and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here.
[2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles.
For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here.
website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan
University.
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[15]rhythm engine
[16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am
rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its
the only way
always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret
Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London
[18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django
100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the
musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good
players!
If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere
else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out
there and support these guys books are not always the answer
LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL
WORKSHOPS
Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010
Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt,
these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate
directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt
Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of
this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a
chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and
non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play
this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of
techniques and musical ideas.
These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts
Council England.
WORKSHOPS £35
o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz
double bass.
o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except
beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the
masters themselves
Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from
13.30 - 15.30
Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com
Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227
[20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records
January Workshops at a Glance:
Sunday 17 January
Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance
Battersea
Monday 18 January
Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Tuesday 19 January
Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Wednesday 20 January
Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
South Kensington
Thursday 21 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea
Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Friday 22 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Saturday 23 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea
Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith
Sunday 24 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea
We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to
happen.
ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT
WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS
AND STUDENTS
SUNDAY 17th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk
Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching
himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then
added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a
composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and
one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays
Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions.
An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted
musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz
scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg,
Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu
Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others.
[23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the
opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY
17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at
[25]www.wegottickets.com
MONDAY 18th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is
popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his
music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients,
intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst
retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive.
Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music,
their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous,
humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will
be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY
18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[27]www.wegottickets.com
TUESDAY 19th JANUARY
Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[28]www.quecumbar.co.uk
A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of
this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for
these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more
advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to
any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind,
multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span
violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy
musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later
swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de
Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired
by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger,
and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he
studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked
closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo
DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of
orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance
instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania
and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene.
[29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com
[31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com
Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO
on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from
[32]www.wegottickets.com
WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry
Place
London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on
today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy
Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more
contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at
numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus
has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His
virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which
fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson.
[34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl
[36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ;
Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy
Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[39]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel
Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in
Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was
spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where
he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and
non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the
world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane
Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light
and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid
Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his
own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are
acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured
on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona.
[40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com
Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER
TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[42]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[43]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from
Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also
studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has
worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has
recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists
including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego
Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and
James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha
[45]www.bielballestertrio.com
Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY
21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[46]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first
learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy
masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style
that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a
young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs,
demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond
his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with
bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy
Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg,
Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada
with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this
music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label,
El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in
Spain.
[49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com
[51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic
Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th
JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah
Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier:
Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter:
German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY
24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli
Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin;
Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND
FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo
Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani
van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at
[53]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy
Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246
King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk
Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line).
Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous
Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he
began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and
released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous
CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist,
he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with
modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with
its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself
to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour.
[55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette
Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
(Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi
Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion;
Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from
[56]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London
SW11 3JB
SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk
Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar
master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite
family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and
Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a
style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive
and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic
Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style
and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he
loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions
and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django
tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo
touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes
Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of
performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after
master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy.
He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of
15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing
competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with
"Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of
the top 1.4% of entrants.
"...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to
applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard;
"It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again",
Zutphen Paper.
[58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier
Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary
Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar;
Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass.
SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy,
guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie
Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th
birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and
stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with
unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their
Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating
in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo,
Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple
stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill,
technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate
café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music
was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of
Gypsy Swing,
WORKSHOP VENUES:
Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
17 Queensberry Place
London SW7 2DT
[60]www.institut-francais.org.uk
Tube: South Kensington
How to get there:
From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line
its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6
Jazz Cafe POSK
The Polish Cultural Centre
238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London
W6 0RF
Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line
Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost
next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same.
There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus
that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction.
Thomas's School
28-40 Battersea High Street,
London SW11 3JB
[63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Royal Academy of Dance
36 Battersea Square, Battersea,
London SW11 3RA
[64]www.rad.org.uk
[65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Le QuecumBar & Brasserie
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3HX
[66]www.quecumbar.co.uk
[67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
How to find us by Bus Route 170:
The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction
or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station.
(A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station
about £10)
170 from Victoria Station:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off
the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on
to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and
Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right
170 from Clapham Junction:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk
forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side
of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea
High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the
right
By Train:
Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk
or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from,
Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch
the 170 bus
By Car:
Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends
London Airports:
Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct
train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return
Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx
or train to central London
Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to
Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District
Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any
eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street
Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch
the 170 bus.
Map of where Le QuecumBar is:
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3 HX:
[68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud
to have the support of our world class musician patrons:
Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie
John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg
[69]quecumbar
Posts: 3
Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm
Location: London
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20. mailto:info@quecumbar.co.uk
24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com
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(WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
* Biblio. Data
* [2]Description
* [3]Claims
* [4]National Phase
* [5]Notices
* [6]Documents
Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau
* [7]Link
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__________________________________________________________________
Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.:
PCT/US1999/000569
Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999
IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01)
Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake
Village, CA 91361 (US).
Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US).
Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box
640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US).
Priority Data:
09/013,353 26.01.1998 US
Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument
provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a
user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30)
corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a
series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture
controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of
which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical
note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along
with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed
musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the
selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities
also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure
table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or
automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played
along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then
be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system.
A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of
phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm
engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that
phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity
information and may contain polyphonic information.
Designated States: JP.
European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB,
GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE).
Publication Language: English (EN)
Filing Language: English (EN)
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Références
A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event
by David Lindsay
Copyright 2002. All right reserved.
In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and
musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can
be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods
of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present
paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm.
Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with
the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the
genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from
them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during
which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During
replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and
so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event.
Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates
to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present
approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation
process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA
dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins
generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our
scope.
The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known.
The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform
rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand,
and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.)
A C G T
T G C A
These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also
obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by
three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with
rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three:
A C G T
|| ||| ||| ||
T G C A
In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be
broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the
dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of
events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological
organisms--play a determining role.
Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to
break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy.
Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower
than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as
governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call
this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows
the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is
constant, by the following coefficients:
A=2
C=3
G=3
T=2
Given an arbitrary DNA sequence:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes:
2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2
Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state
constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation
is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA
molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich
regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In
vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation
progresses away from the initiation site:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
-------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can
be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event.
H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based
stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four
sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation
differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins,
which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that
constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated
above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four:
2332 2222 2232
Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its
expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two
opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a
replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond
breakage are activated simultaneously:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
|| ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm
expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger --
will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied
equally to molecular processes or musical ones.
Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the
case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and
indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is
varied its energy profile.
The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could,
for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient
to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate,
while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster
of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the
governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and
unstressed "beats," such that:
A=2=unstressed beat (-)
C=3=stressed beat (´)
G=3=stressed beat (´)
T=2=unstressed beat (-)
Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It
should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not
founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any
other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to
scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation
process.
Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy
profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close
observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating
music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given
the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if
any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may
cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication
will suffice.
Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would
facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such
cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry.
In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the
origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward
resonance.
Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to
fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA
strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to
transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for
example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will
tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which
is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering
a suspension bridge.
The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and
non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because
it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in
comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the
properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate
the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription.
1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences,"
Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts
(Sept. 1995).
For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting
and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here.
[2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles.
For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here.
website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan
University.
Références
Liens visibles
Liens cachés :
CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project
[1]CRE Personnel
What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project?
The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful
way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented
music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision,
continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional
deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of
different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to
yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an
editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising
context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to
drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software
consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data
(e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that
represents these programs and data visually.
Expressive timing
One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently
commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained
control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or
rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say,
tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with
these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in
the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we
can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes
slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat).
All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in
human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with
manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a
musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in
rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this
project.
Composition and combination techniques
Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its
facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include
making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering
different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and
heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and
most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of
such structures.
Applications
Here are some possible applications of CRE:
* Anything that any standard drum machine does
* Automated percussion tracks with "human feel"
* A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the
same rhythms with "human feel"
* Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable
(e.g. the 30-second commercial)
* Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with
irrationally-related durations
* Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at
will, in real time
* Making a program that improvises by "driving around in
rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine
listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or
invention according to some combination of generative processes)
* Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without
altering the tree structure.
Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since
this list provides checkpoints for the software development.
__________________________________________________________________
Page maintained by Vijay Iyer
Last modified July 15, 1996
__________________________________________________________________
[2]Up to Vijay's page
[3]Up to CNMAT homepage
[4]Send mail to the CRE group
[5]Send mail to Vijay Iyer
Références
4. mailto:cdm@icsi.berkeley.edu
5. mailto:vijay@cnmat.berkeley.edu
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[15]rhythm engine
[16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am
rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its
the only way
always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret
Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London
[18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django
100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the
musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good
players!
If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere
else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out
there and support these guys books are not always the answer
LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL
WORKSHOPS
Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010
Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt,
these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate
directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt
Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of
this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a
chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and
non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play
this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of
techniques and musical ideas.
These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts
Council England.
WORKSHOPS £35
o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz
double bass.
o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except
beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the
masters themselves
Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from
13.30 - 15.30
Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com
Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227
[20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records
January Workshops at a Glance:
Sunday 17 January
Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance
Battersea
Monday 18 January
Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Tuesday 19 January
Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Wednesday 20 January
Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
South Kensington
Thursday 21 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea
Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Friday 22 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Saturday 23 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea
Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith
Sunday 24 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea
We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to
happen.
ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT
WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS
AND STUDENTS
SUNDAY 17th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk
Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching
himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then
added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a
composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and
one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays
Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions.
An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted
musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz
scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg,
Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu
Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others.
[23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the
opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY
17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at
[25]www.wegottickets.com
MONDAY 18th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is
popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his
music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients,
intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst
retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive.
Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music,
their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous,
humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will
be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY
18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[27]www.wegottickets.com
TUESDAY 19th JANUARY
Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[28]www.quecumbar.co.uk
A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of
this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for
these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more
advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to
any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind,
multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span
violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy
musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later
swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de
Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired
by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger,
and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he
studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked
closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo
DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of
orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance
instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania
and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene.
[29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com
[31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com
Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO
on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from
[32]www.wegottickets.com
WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry
Place
London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on
today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy
Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more
contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at
numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus
has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His
virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which
fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson.
[34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl
[36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ;
Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy
Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[39]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel
Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in
Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was
spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where
he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and
non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the
world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane
Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light
and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid
Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his
own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are
acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured
on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona.
[40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com
Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER
TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[42]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[43]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from
Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also
studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has
worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has
recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists
including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego
Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and
James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha
[45]www.bielballestertrio.com
Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY
21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[46]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first
learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy
masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style
that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a
young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs,
demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond
his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with
bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy
Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg,
Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada
with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this
music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label,
El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in
Spain.
[49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com
[51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic
Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th
JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah
Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier:
Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter:
German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY
24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli
Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin;
Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND
FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo
Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani
van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at
[53]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy
Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246
King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk
Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line).
Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous
Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he
began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and
released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous
CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist,
he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with
modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with
its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself
to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour.
[55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette
Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
(Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi
Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion;
Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from
[56]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London
SW11 3JB
SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk
Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar
master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite
family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and
Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a
style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive
and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic
Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style
and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he
loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions
and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django
tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo
touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes
Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of
performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after
master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy.
He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of
15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing
competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with
"Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of
the top 1.4% of entrants.
"...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to
applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard;
"It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again",
Zutphen Paper.
[58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier
Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary
Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar;
Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass.
SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy,
guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie
Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th
birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and
stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with
unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their
Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating
in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo,
Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple
stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill,
technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate
café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music
was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of
Gypsy Swing,
WORKSHOP VENUES:
Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
17 Queensberry Place
London SW7 2DT
[60]www.institut-francais.org.uk
Tube: South Kensington
How to get there:
From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line
its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6
Jazz Cafe POSK
The Polish Cultural Centre
238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London
W6 0RF
Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line
Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost
next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same.
There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus
that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction.
Thomas's School
28-40 Battersea High Street,
London SW11 3JB
[63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Royal Academy of Dance
36 Battersea Square, Battersea,
London SW11 3RA
[64]www.rad.org.uk
[65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Le QuecumBar & Brasserie
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3HX
[66]www.quecumbar.co.uk
[67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
How to find us by Bus Route 170:
The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction
or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station.
(A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station
about £10)
170 from Victoria Station:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off
the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on
to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and
Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right
170 from Clapham Junction:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk
forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side
of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea
High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the
right
By Train:
Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk
or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from,
Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch
the 170 bus
By Car:
Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends
London Airports:
Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct
train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return
Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx
or train to central London
Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to
Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District
Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any
eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street
Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch
the 170 bus.
Map of where Le QuecumBar is:
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3 HX:
[68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud
to have the support of our world class musician patrons:
Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie
John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg
[69]quecumbar
Posts: 3
Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm
Location: London
+ [70]E-mail quecumbar
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(WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
* Biblio. Data
* [2]Description
* [3]Claims
* [4]National Phase
* [5]Notices
* [6]Documents
Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau
* [7]Link
+ [8]Permanent Link
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__________________________________________________________________
Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.:
PCT/US1999/000569
Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999
IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01)
Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake
Village, CA 91361 (US).
Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US).
Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box
640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US).
Priority Data:
09/013,353 26.01.1998 US
Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument
provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a
user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30)
corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a
series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture
controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of
which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical
note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along
with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed
musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the
selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities
also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure
table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or
automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played
along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then
be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system.
A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of
phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm
engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that
phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity
information and may contain polyphonic information.
Designated States: JP.
European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB,
GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE).
Publication Language: English (EN)
Filing Language: English (EN)
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Références
A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event
by David Lindsay
Copyright 2002. All right reserved.
In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and
musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can
be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods
of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present
paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm.
Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with
the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the
genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from
them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during
which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During
replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and
so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event.
Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates
to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present
approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation
process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA
dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins
generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our
scope.
The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known.
The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform
rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand,
and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.)
A C G T
T G C A
These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also
obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by
three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with
rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three:
A C G T
|| ||| ||| ||
T G C A
In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be
broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the
dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of
events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological
organisms--play a determining role.
Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to
break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy.
Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower
than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as
governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call
this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows
the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is
constant, by the following coefficients:
A=2
C=3
G=3
T=2
Given an arbitrary DNA sequence:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes:
2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2
Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state
constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation
is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA
molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich
regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In
vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation
progresses away from the initiation site:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
-------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can
be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event.
H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based
stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four
sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation
differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins,
which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that
constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated
above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four:
2332 2222 2232
Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its
expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two
opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a
replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond
breakage are activated simultaneously:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
|| ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm
expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger --
will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied
equally to molecular processes or musical ones.
Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the
case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and
indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is
varied its energy profile.
The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could,
for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient
to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate,
while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster
of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the
governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and
unstressed "beats," such that:
A=2=unstressed beat (-)
C=3=stressed beat (´)
G=3=stressed beat (´)
T=2=unstressed beat (-)
Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It
should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not
founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any
other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to
scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation
process.
Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy
profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close
observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating
music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given
the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if
any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may
cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication
will suffice.
Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would
facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such
cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry.
In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the
origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward
resonance.
Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to
fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA
strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to
transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for
example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will
tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which
is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering
a suspension bridge.
The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and
non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because
it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in
comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the
properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate
the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription.
1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences,"
Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts
(Sept. 1995).
For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting
and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here.
[2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles.
For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here.
website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan
University.
Références
Liens visibles
Liens cachés :
CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project
[1]CRE Personnel
What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project?
The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful
way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented
music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision,
continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional
deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of
different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to
yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an
editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising
context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to
drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software
consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data
(e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that
represents these programs and data visually.
Expressive timing
One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently
commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained
control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or
rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say,
tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with
these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in
the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we
can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes
slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat).
All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in
human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with
manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a
musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in
rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this
project.
Composition and combination techniques
Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its
facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include
making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering
different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and
heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and
most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of
such structures.
Applications
Here are some possible applications of CRE:
* Anything that any standard drum machine does
* Automated percussion tracks with "human feel"
* A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the
same rhythms with "human feel"
* Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable
(e.g. the 30-second commercial)
* Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with
irrationally-related durations
* Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at
will, in real time
* Making a program that improvises by "driving around in
rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine
listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or
invention according to some combination of generative processes)
* Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without
altering the tree structure.
Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since
this list provides checkpoints for the software development.
__________________________________________________________________
Page maintained by Vijay Iyer
Last modified July 15, 1996
__________________________________________________________________
[2]Up to Vijay's page
[3]Up to CNMAT homepage
[4]Send mail to the CRE group
[5]Send mail to Vijay Iyer
Références
4. mailto:cdm@icsi.berkeley.edu
5. mailto:vijay@cnmat.berkeley.edu
#[1]Suite101: Arts Education
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[15]Jennifer Wagaman
Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students
Lesson Ideas Involving Rhythm for Young Students
[16]Dec 16, 2008 [17]Jennifer Wagaman
Be creative and resourceful when teaching kindergarten students about
rhythm.
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[rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png]
Teaching rhythm to Kindergarten students can be a fun way to get
students moving around the classroom. When writing lesson plans with
the objective towards learning rhythm, consider not only the manner in
which you teach the students, but which songs would provide the best
lesson opportunity, as well as which songs will work for the short
attention span the students have.
How to Teach Rhythm
Use the body demonstrate the beat, also called body percussion, will
help students feel the beat and learn the rhythm. This can involve
having the students clap, tap, or stomp their feet while singing. This
reinforces beat in a tactile manner, and helps the students stay
focused on what you are doing. You can also use any opportunity you
have to get the students up and moving about the room while singing
songs. Although this does take decent [18]classroom management skills,
it may also help your student's behavior as they are not required to
sit still throughout the class period.
What Songs Teach Rhythm
Teaching children about rhythm can be a great time to introduce some
fun songs. Lessons involving rhythm can be taught with any song that
has a steady beat, which basically means that most songs are good to
teach rhythm. Pick songs that the students either already know or are
easy to teach, as this will ensure that they already know the basic
rhythm.
Some good songs to use for teaching rhythm include songs like Engine
Engine Number Nine, and Skip to My Lou. For Engine Engine Number Nine,
after teaching the song, have the students form a train and move around
the room to the beat of the train in the song. For Skip to My Lou, have
the students walk, march, or skip around the room to the beat of the
song.
Keep Attention Span in Mind
Because a Kindergarten age child has a relatively short attention span,
keep your songs short and varied. Do several songs per class period. It
is better to do 3 five minute songs, assuming a 20 minute class period,
than to spend 15 minutes on one song. So once again, choose songs that
are either easy to teach, or that the students are already somewhat
familiar with.
Do not be afraid to experiment with your class as you teach the concept
of rhythm. Reflect on your lesson after you have taught it, decide
where there is room for improvement, and work to improve it for the
next class you teach it to.
You may also be interested in using [19]STOMP to teach rhythm in the
classroom.
Read more [20]tips for music teachers.
The copyright of the article Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students
in [21]Arts Education is owned by [22]Jennifer Wagaman. Permission to
republish Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in print or online
must be granted by the author in writing.
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[rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png]
Ideas for Teaching Rhythm, Mary R. Vogt Ideas for Teaching Rhythm
[rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png]
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[comment_icon_f1.png] What do you think about this article?
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Comments
Apr 15, 2009 7:59 AM
Guest :
I particularly like the idea of reflecting on the lesson after its
implementation. Reflection and teaching reflectively should be
encouraged among music teachers.
Cheers
Mark Minott
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1 Comment:
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Reference
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* [37]how to teach rhythm
* [38]teaching rhythm to kindergarten students
* [39]lesson ideas for teaching rhythm
* [40]what songs will teach rhythm
* [41]teaching music to kindergarten students
* [42]reflection on how a lesson went
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Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics
[1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics
Browse by soundtrack Search in soundtracks Browse by artist name
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[0.gif]
- Rhythm of Life Lyrics
Ensemble:
Daddy started out in San Francisco,
Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean,
Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy,
Spread the picture on a wider screen."
And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons
Ready to be hooked on new religions.
Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife.
Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life."
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee,
Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge,
Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton,
Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Fly, fly, fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Swim, swim, swim to Daddy
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy,
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life,
Of life, of life, of life.
Yeah! Yeah! Yeah!
Man!
Related for [56]Sweet Charity:
sheet music [57]Buy Musical Sheet Music
cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD
dvd [59]Buy Musical DVD Links:
[60]Broadway Musicals
Lyrics Scroller
[61]Add/correct lyrics | [62]Request lyrics | [63]Links |
[64]Privacy | [65]Contact us © STLyrics.com 2002 -
Références
Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics
[1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics
Browse by soundtrack Search in soundtracks Browse by artist name
[2]A [3]B [4]C [5]D [6]E [7]F [8]G [9]H [10]I [11]J [12]K [13]L [14]M
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[53]Y [54]Z [55]#
[0.gif]
- Rhythm of Life Lyrics
Ensemble:
Daddy started out in San Francisco,
Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean,
Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy,
Spread the picture on a wider screen."
And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons
Ready to be hooked on new religions.
Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife.
Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life."
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee,
Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge,
Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton,
Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Fly, fly, fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Swim, swim, swim to Daddy
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy,
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life,
Of life, of life, of life.
Yeah! Yeah! Yeah!
Man!
Related for [56]Sweet Charity:
sheet music [57]Buy Musical Sheet Music
cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD
dvd [59]Buy Musical DVD Links:
[60]Broadway Musicals
Lyrics Scroller
[61]Add/correct lyrics | [62]Request lyrics | [63]Links |
[64]Privacy | [65]Contact us © STLyrics.com 2002 -
Références
[1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif]
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles
Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life.
Music Of Other Climes. Part 2
Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the
elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time
of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm
so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early
Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language,
instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect
rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything
we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may
be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as
the most graceful.
Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ,
and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed
that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not
the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was
apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres,
and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D,
of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can
see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from
the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical
sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation
in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one
great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last.
It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that
comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical
colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life.
Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a
world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense,
so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the
individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not
yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or
hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to
the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature.
Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine
principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt,
thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles,
there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek
people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until
there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks.
As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a
prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become.
When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is
without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the
Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the
world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But
the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being
without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of
what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we
receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given.
We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and
bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has
seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or
artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth
and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new
birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of
music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will
become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure
from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all
that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely,
or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the
harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that
is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back
into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall
you receive the best.
With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the
progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under
the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most
external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the
coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is
sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful
roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention
to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is
that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it
did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national
religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian
Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of
the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change
from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked
change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the
curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much
to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There
were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them
were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even
under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have
expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century
A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to
produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable
success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the
work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called
good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth
century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and
Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new
foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the
centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may
truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by
the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in
modern times.
Continue to:
* prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes
* [44]Table of Contents
* next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3
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Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics
[1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics
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- Rhythm of Life Lyrics
Ensemble:
Daddy started out in San Francisco,
Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean,
Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy,
Spread the picture on a wider screen."
And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons
Ready to be hooked on new religions.
Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife.
Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life."
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee,
Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge,
Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton,
Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Fly, fly, fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Swim, swim, swim to Daddy
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy,
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life,
Of life, of life, of life.
Yeah! Yeah! Yeah!
Man!
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles
Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life.
Music Of Other Climes. Part 2
Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the
elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time
of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm
so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early
Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language,
instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect
rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything
we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may
be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as
the most graceful.
Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ,
and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed
that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not
the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was
apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres,
and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D,
of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can
see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from
the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical
sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation
in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one
great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last.
It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that
comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical
colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life.
Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a
world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense,
so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the
individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not
yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or
hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to
the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature.
Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine
principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt,
thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles,
there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek
people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until
there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks.
As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a
prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become.
When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is
without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the
Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the
world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But
the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being
without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of
what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we
receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given.
We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and
bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has
seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or
artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth
and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new
birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of
music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will
become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure
from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all
that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely,
or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the
harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that
is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back
into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall
you receive the best.
With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the
progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under
the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most
external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the
coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is
sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful
roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention
to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is
that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it
did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national
religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian
Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of
the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change
from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked
change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the
curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much
to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There
were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them
were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even
under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have
expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century
A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to
produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable
success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the
work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called
good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth
century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and
Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new
foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the
centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may
truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by
the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in
modern times.
Continue to:
* prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes
* [44]Table of Contents
* next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3
Tags
[46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics,
[51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music,
[56]vibration
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Keeping the rhythm of life in sync
May 28, 2008
Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the
heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the
rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as
cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per
minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or
physical stress.
The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical
system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed
electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the
heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be
too fast, too slow, or irregular.
All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal
heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people
may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal
rhythm and not even know it.
Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest
pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath,
swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur
because of abnormal heart rhythm.
To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its
relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an
electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time
at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by
placing electrodes on the skin.
Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be
difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case,
other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which
electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart
catheterization.
Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of
electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or
implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows
doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside
the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are
causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing
temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively
destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia.
Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when
the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not
functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can
be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to
resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some
of its pumping function.
Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of
dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The
device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and
delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm.
Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent
disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to
their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular
Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced
treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help
restore the rhythm of life.
Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs
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* [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 1 / 5 (1)
"...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that
provides the rhythm of life..."
Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is
just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood
through our system of vessels.
It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood
circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever
smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after
supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to
become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable
of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy
and thin pipes.
It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all
about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word
"pump" to describe the heart.
What about "metronome"?
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* [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 4 / 5 (1)
Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you
don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong.
Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels,
and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and
also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood
return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY
used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to
the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation.
As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick,
as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the
thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow
loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if
this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some
reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive
pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation"
or taking a highschool biology class.
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May 28, 2008 [69]all stories
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Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics
[1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics
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- Rhythm of Life Lyrics
Ensemble:
Daddy started out in San Francisco,
Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean,
Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy,
Spread the picture on a wider screen."
And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons
Ready to be hooked on new religions.
Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife.
Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life."
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee,
Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge,
Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton,
Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Fly, fly, fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Swim, swim, swim to Daddy
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy,
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life,
Of life, of life, of life.
Yeah! Yeah! Yeah!
Man!
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles
Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life.
Music Of Other Climes. Part 2
Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the
elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time
of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm
so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early
Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language,
instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect
rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything
we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may
be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as
the most graceful.
Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ,
and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed
that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not
the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was
apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres,
and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D,
of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can
see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from
the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical
sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation
in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one
great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last.
It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that
comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical
colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life.
Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a
world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense,
so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the
individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not
yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or
hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to
the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature.
Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine
principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt,
thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles,
there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek
people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until
there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks.
As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a
prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become.
When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is
without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the
Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the
world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But
the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being
without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of
what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we
receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given.
We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and
bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has
seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or
artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth
and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new
birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of
music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will
become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure
from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all
that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely,
or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the
harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that
is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back
into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall
you receive the best.
With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the
progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under
the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most
external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the
coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is
sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful
roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention
to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is
that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it
did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national
religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian
Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of
the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change
from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked
change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the
curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much
to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There
were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them
were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even
under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have
expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century
A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to
produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable
success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the
work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called
good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth
century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and
Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new
foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the
centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may
truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by
the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in
modern times.
Continue to:
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* [44]Table of Contents
* next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3
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[46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics,
[51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music,
[56]vibration
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Keeping the rhythm of life in sync
May 28, 2008
Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the
heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the
rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as
cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per
minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or
physical stress.
The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical
system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed
electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the
heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be
too fast, too slow, or irregular.
All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal
heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people
may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal
rhythm and not even know it.
Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest
pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath,
swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur
because of abnormal heart rhythm.
To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its
relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an
electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time
at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by
placing electrodes on the skin.
Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be
difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case,
other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which
electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart
catheterization.
Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of
electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or
implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows
doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside
the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are
causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing
temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively
destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia.
Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when
the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not
functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can
be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to
resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some
of its pumping function.
Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of
dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The
device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and
delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm.
Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent
disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to
their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular
Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced
treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help
restore the rhythm of life.
Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs
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* [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 1 / 5 (1)
"...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that
provides the rhythm of life..."
Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is
just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood
through our system of vessels.
It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood
circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever
smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after
supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to
become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable
of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy
and thin pipes.
It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all
about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word
"pump" to describe the heart.
What about "metronome"?
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* [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 4 / 5 (1)
Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you
don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong.
Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels,
and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and
also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood
return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY
used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to
the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation.
As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick,
as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the
thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow
loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if
this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some
reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive
pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation"
or taking a highschool biology class.
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Rhythm Of Life lyrics
(Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life
Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life
Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon
Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you
I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus)
If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain
Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it
The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus)
Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down
(repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade)
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Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics
[1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics
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- Rhythm of Life Lyrics
Ensemble:
Daddy started out in San Francisco,
Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean,
Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy,
Spread the picture on a wider screen."
And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons
Ready to be hooked on new religions.
Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife.
Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life."
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee,
Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge,
Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton,
Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Fly, fly, fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Swim, swim, swim to Daddy
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy,
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life,
Of life, of life, of life.
Yeah! Yeah! Yeah!
Man!
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Références
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles
Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life.
Music Of Other Climes. Part 2
Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the
elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time
of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm
so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early
Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language,
instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect
rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything
we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may
be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as
the most graceful.
Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ,
and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed
that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not
the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was
apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres,
and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D,
of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can
see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from
the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical
sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation
in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one
great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last.
It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that
comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical
colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life.
Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a
world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense,
so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the
individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not
yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or
hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to
the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature.
Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine
principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt,
thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles,
there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek
people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until
there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks.
As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a
prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become.
When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is
without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the
Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the
world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But
the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being
without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of
what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we
receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given.
We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and
bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has
seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or
artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth
and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new
birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of
music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will
become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure
from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all
that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely,
or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the
harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that
is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back
into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall
you receive the best.
With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the
progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under
the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most
external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the
coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is
sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful
roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention
to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is
that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it
did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national
religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian
Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of
the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change
from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked
change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the
curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much
to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There
were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them
were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even
under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have
expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century
A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to
produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable
success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the
work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called
good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth
century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and
Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new
foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the
centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may
truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by
the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in
modern times.
Continue to:
* prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes
* [44]Table of Contents
* next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3
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[51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music,
[56]vibration
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Keeping the rhythm of life in sync
May 28, 2008
Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the
heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the
rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as
cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per
minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or
physical stress.
The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical
system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed
electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the
heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be
too fast, too slow, or irregular.
All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal
heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people
may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal
rhythm and not even know it.
Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest
pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath,
swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur
because of abnormal heart rhythm.
To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its
relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an
electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time
at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by
placing electrodes on the skin.
Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be
difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case,
other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which
electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart
catheterization.
Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of
electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or
implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows
doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside
the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are
causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing
temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively
destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia.
Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when
the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not
functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can
be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to
resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some
of its pumping function.
Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of
dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The
device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and
delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm.
Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent
disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to
their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular
Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced
treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help
restore the rhythm of life.
Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs
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* [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 1 / 5 (1)
"...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that
provides the rhythm of life..."
Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is
just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood
through our system of vessels.
It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood
circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever
smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after
supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to
become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable
of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy
and thin pipes.
It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all
about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word
"pump" to describe the heart.
What about "metronome"?
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* [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 4 / 5 (1)
Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you
don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong.
Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels,
and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and
also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood
return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY
used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to
the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation.
As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick,
as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the
thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow
loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if
this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some
reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive
pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation"
or taking a highschool biology class.
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Rhythm Of Life lyrics
(Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life
Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life
Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon
Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you
I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus)
If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain
Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it
The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus)
Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down
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May 19, 2008
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5 most recent columns
January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By
Diego Schapira
December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara
Wheeler
December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice.
By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos
November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns
November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist.
By Helen Oosthuizen
Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony
By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli ()
1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro
When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving
rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each
producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with
other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this
metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and
around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in
which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful
presence.
I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets
and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human
civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this
planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other
parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately
grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not
empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and
sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the
universe is not threatening for me as before.
Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office,
when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an
echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture
each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity
arising randomly, above the background sound.
Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny
and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of
sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific
scenarios I could never imagine before.
2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso
Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a
patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome.
That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances,
making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a
person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made
unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying
aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those
dangerous noises.
When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she
told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy
session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands.
His sounds were so emotionally intense that their
message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in
a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it
safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with
overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his
together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards,
listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy
session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal
interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside.
My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he
developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to
process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge
amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people,
without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds.
In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional
experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a
Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds
were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they
liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty
words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their
painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light
pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes.
Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the
roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors'
desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both
situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these
dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by
fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event
with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was
grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist.
I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work
with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may
experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to
be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with
and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities
available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and
therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing:
the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the
environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing
amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness
necessary for improving quality of life.
3rd Movement: Trio
In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea
which considers that a good development of each system is possible when
there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its
environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant
interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual
perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system.
Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of
structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with
rhythm entrainment and music.
As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not
determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced
by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective
readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the
structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration.
To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes
schema to structure and order internal and external events using
rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are
self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal
structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically
determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow
an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a
caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal
patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by
comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As
Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with
sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge
our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas
are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human
beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the
emotional response to music.
Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the
metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical
behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because
they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to
understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our
sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be
the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the
most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion,
and metaphorical thinking.
Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration.
Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer,
because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes
separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological
situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They
do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the
capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and
integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory.
There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas
about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a
conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could
answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music
itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which
is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks.
And, thus, they can still feel joy.
4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio
All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the
efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of
criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of
mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared
my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my
dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy,
particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the
highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute
named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to
train psychologists and physicians in this field.
This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and
with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music.
References
Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music:
The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers.
Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the
Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University
Press.
Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning,
Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of
Illinois.
To cite this page:
Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A
World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy.
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Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics
[1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics
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- Rhythm of Life Lyrics
Ensemble:
Daddy started out in San Francisco,
Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean,
Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy,
Spread the picture on a wider screen."
And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons
Ready to be hooked on new religions.
Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife.
Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life."
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee,
Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge,
Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton,
Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Fly, fly, fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Swim, swim, swim to Daddy
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy,
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life,
Of life, of life, of life.
Yeah! Yeah! Yeah!
Man!
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles
Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life.
Music Of Other Climes. Part 2
Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the
elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time
of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm
so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early
Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language,
instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect
rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything
we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may
be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as
the most graceful.
Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ,
and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed
that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not
the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was
apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres,
and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D,
of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can
see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from
the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical
sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation
in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one
great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last.
It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that
comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical
colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life.
Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a
world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense,
so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the
individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not
yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or
hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to
the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature.
Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine
principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt,
thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles,
there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek
people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until
there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks.
As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a
prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become.
When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is
without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the
Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the
world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But
the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being
without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of
what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we
receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given.
We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and
bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has
seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or
artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth
and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new
birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of
music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will
become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure
from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all
that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely,
or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the
harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that
is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back
into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall
you receive the best.
With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the
progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under
the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most
external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the
coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is
sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful
roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention
to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is
that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it
did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national
religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian
Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of
the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change
from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked
change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the
curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much
to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There
were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them
were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even
under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have
expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century
A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to
produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable
success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the
work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called
good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth
century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and
Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new
foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the
centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may
truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by
the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in
modern times.
Continue to:
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[46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics,
[51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music,
[56]vibration
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Keeping the rhythm of life in sync
May 28, 2008
Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the
heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the
rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as
cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per
minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or
physical stress.
The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical
system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed
electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the
heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be
too fast, too slow, or irregular.
All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal
heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people
may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal
rhythm and not even know it.
Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest
pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath,
swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur
because of abnormal heart rhythm.
To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its
relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an
electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time
at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by
placing electrodes on the skin.
Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be
difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case,
other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which
electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart
catheterization.
Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of
electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or
implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows
doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside
the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are
causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing
temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively
destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia.
Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when
the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not
functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can
be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to
resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some
of its pumping function.
Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of
dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The
device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and
delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm.
Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent
disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to
their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular
Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced
treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help
restore the rhythm of life.
Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs
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* [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 1 / 5 (1)
"...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that
provides the rhythm of life..."
Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is
just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood
through our system of vessels.
It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood
circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever
smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after
supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to
become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable
of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy
and thin pipes.
It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all
about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word
"pump" to describe the heart.
What about "metronome"?
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Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you
don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong.
Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels,
and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and
also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood
return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY
used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to
the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation.
As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick,
as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the
thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow
loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if
this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some
reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive
pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation"
or taking a highschool biology class.
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Rhythm Of Life lyrics
(Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life
Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life
Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon
Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you
I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus)
If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain
Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it
The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus)
Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down
(repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade)
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May 19, 2008
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5 most recent columns
January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By
Diego Schapira
December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara
Wheeler
December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice.
By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos
November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns
November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist.
By Helen Oosthuizen
Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony
By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli ()
1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro
When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving
rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each
producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with
other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this
metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and
around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in
which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful
presence.
I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets
and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human
civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this
planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other
parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately
grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not
empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and
sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the
universe is not threatening for me as before.
Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office,
when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an
echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture
each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity
arising randomly, above the background sound.
Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny
and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of
sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific
scenarios I could never imagine before.
2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso
Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a
patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome.
That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances,
making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a
person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made
unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying
aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those
dangerous noises.
When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she
told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy
session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands.
His sounds were so emotionally intense that their
message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in
a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it
safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with
overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his
together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards,
listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy
session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal
interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside.
My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he
developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to
process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge
amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people,
without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds.
In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional
experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a
Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds
were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they
liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty
words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their
painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light
pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes.
Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the
roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors'
desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both
situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these
dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by
fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event
with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was
grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist.
I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work
with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may
experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to
be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with
and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities
available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and
therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing:
the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the
environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing
amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness
necessary for improving quality of life.
3rd Movement: Trio
In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea
which considers that a good development of each system is possible when
there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its
environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant
interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual
perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system.
Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of
structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with
rhythm entrainment and music.
As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not
determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced
by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective
readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the
structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration.
To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes
schema to structure and order internal and external events using
rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are
self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal
structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically
determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow
an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a
caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal
patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by
comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As
Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with
sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge
our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas
are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human
beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the
emotional response to music.
Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the
metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical
behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because
they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to
understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our
sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be
the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the
most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion,
and metaphorical thinking.
Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration.
Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer,
because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes
separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological
situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They
do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the
capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and
integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory.
There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas
about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a
conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could
answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music
itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which
is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks.
And, thus, they can still feel joy.
4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio
All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the
efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of
criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of
mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared
my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my
dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy,
particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the
highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute
named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to
train psychologists and physicians in this field.
This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and
with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music.
References
Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music:
The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers.
Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the
Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University
Press.
Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning,
Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of
Illinois.
To cite this page:
Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A
World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy.
Moderated discussion
Add your comments and responses to this essay in our Moderated
Discussions. Contributions should be e-mailed to either [13]Joke Bradt
or [14]Thomas Wosch
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Iambic Pentameter: The Rhythm of Life?
Sunday March 22, 2009
[bencrystal.jpg]
Does the thought of [23]iambic pentameter terrify you? I remember being
baffeled by it at school myself because I got bogged down in counting
syllables and working out where the stresses go but, I now know that
this is a very technical way of studying iambic pentameter.
In later life, Ive grown to love iambic pentameter. Theres something
beautiful about it that I cant put my finger on. I know for sure that
its in the speaking because on the page it is inert. When you [24]speak
those words aloud, they literally jump off the tongue and the rhythm is
the easiest of all meters to find.
I asked Ben Crystal about this [25]in our interview a few months ago.
He said that iambic pentameter is the rhythm of our English language
and of our bodies a line of that poetry has the same rhythm as our
heartbeat. A line of iambic pentameter fills the human lung perfectly,
so its the rhythm of speech.
I think this is true. When you [26]learn how to speak verse, you soon
discover that its a very instinctive rhythm. Once you relax and go with
the flow, it comes naturally. And, strange as it might sound, classic
iambic pentameter lines like If music be the food of love, play on and
Now is the winter of our discontent do happen to fit a single breath
perfectly if spoken with passion.
So, if youre having trouble with iambic pentameter, remember that its
designed to be spoken, not studied. Open your mouth and speak aloud
those great words.
Photo of Ben Crystal © Scott Wishart
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Comments
March 30, 2009 at 2:29 pm
[33](1) [34]Kent Richmond says:
In doing verse translations of five Shakespeare plays, I have
had to learn how Shakespeares iambic pentameter works in order
to give my translations the feel of the original. One of the
beauties of iambic pentameter is that the poet can temporarily
relax the meter without violating it. In this series of made-up
and rather prosaic lines, the first line is straight-ahead
iambic pentameter. The second and third lines, if read
independently, are less obviously iambic pentameter, yet they do
not violate the rhythm. The fourth line is clearly unmetrical
and removes the sense that we are listening to verse.
1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes,
2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. (trochaic
start; feminine ending)
3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. (Two spondees to
start; feminine ending)
4. Dont you ever hit your little sister. (unmetrical)
Shakespeare, at least in the plays I have translated, did not
write verse lines with the rhythm of (4). To make this line
sound a bit more like Shakespeares iambic pentameter, we need to
make a few alterations to line 4.
1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes,
2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters.
3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest.
4. Dont ever hit that little girl again.
To make the whole passage sound like prose, we need to change
the first line a little.
Then her mother took the kids clothes shopping, planning to buy
them all some warmer sweaters. No! No! No! No she bellowed at
the oldest. Dont you ever hit your little sister.
The first and fourth lines now have trochaic feet exposed in the
wrong places, and most editors would print such a passage as
prose. Shakespeares iambic pentameter certainly places
constraints on what rhythms are allowed, yet it allows for
flexibility and naturalness. Take a look at George Wrights book
titled Shakespeares Metrical Art to see the techniques
Shakespeare employed.
April 11, 2009 at 8:25 pm
[35](2) Dave says:
The words literally jump off the tongue? I'd like to see that!
[36]Leave a Comment
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* [37]Introducing Iambic Pentameter
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Références
Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics
[1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics
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- Rhythm of Life Lyrics
Ensemble:
Daddy started out in San Francisco,
Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean,
Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy,
Spread the picture on a wider screen."
And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons
Ready to be hooked on new religions.
Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife.
Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life."
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee,
Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge,
Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton,
Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Fly, fly, fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Swim, swim, swim to Daddy
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy,
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life,
Of life, of life, of life.
Yeah! Yeah! Yeah!
Man!
Related for [56]Sweet Charity:
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cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD
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Références
Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics
[1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics
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[0.gif]
- Rhythm of Life Lyrics
Ensemble:
Daddy started out in San Francisco,
Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean,
Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy,
Spread the picture on a wider screen."
And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons
Ready to be hooked on new religions.
Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife.
Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life."
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee,
Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge,
Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton,
Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Fly, fly, fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Swim, swim, swim to Daddy
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy,
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life,
Of life, of life, of life.
Yeah! Yeah! Yeah!
Man!
Related for [56]Sweet Charity:
sheet music [57]Buy Musical Sheet Music
cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD
dvd [59]Buy Musical DVD Links:
[60]Broadway Musicals
Lyrics Scroller
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles
Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life.
Music Of Other Climes. Part 2
Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the
elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time
of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm
so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early
Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language,
instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect
rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything
we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may
be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as
the most graceful.
Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ,
and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed
that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not
the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was
apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres,
and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D,
of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can
see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from
the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical
sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation
in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one
great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last.
It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that
comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical
colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life.
Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a
world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense,
so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the
individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not
yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or
hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to
the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature.
Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine
principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt,
thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles,
there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek
people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until
there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks.
As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a
prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become.
When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is
without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the
Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the
world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But
the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being
without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of
what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we
receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given.
We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and
bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has
seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or
artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth
and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new
birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of
music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will
become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure
from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all
that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely,
or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the
harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that
is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back
into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall
you receive the best.
With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the
progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under
the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most
external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the
coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is
sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful
roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention
to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is
that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it
did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national
religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian
Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of
the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change
from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked
change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the
curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much
to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There
were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them
were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even
under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have
expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century
A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to
produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable
success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the
work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called
good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth
century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and
Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new
foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the
centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may
truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by
the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in
modern times.
Continue to:
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* next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3
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[46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics,
[51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music,
[56]vibration
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Références
Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics
[1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics
Browse by soundtrack Search in soundtracks Browse by artist name
[2]A [3]B [4]C [5]D [6]E [7]F [8]G [9]H [10]I [11]J [12]K [13]L [14]M
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[27]Z [28]#
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[53]Y [54]Z [55]#
[0.gif]
- Rhythm of Life Lyrics
Ensemble:
Daddy started out in San Francisco,
Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean,
Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy,
Spread the picture on a wider screen."
And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons
Ready to be hooked on new religions.
Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife.
Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life."
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee,
Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge,
Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton,
Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Fly, fly, fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Swim, swim, swim to Daddy
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy,
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life,
Of life, of life, of life.
Yeah! Yeah! Yeah!
Man!
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles
Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life.
Music Of Other Climes. Part 2
Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the
elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time
of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm
so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early
Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language,
instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect
rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything
we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may
be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as
the most graceful.
Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ,
and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed
that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not
the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was
apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres,
and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D,
of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can
see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from
the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical
sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation
in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one
great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last.
It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that
comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical
colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life.
Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a
world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense,
so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the
individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not
yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or
hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to
the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature.
Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine
principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt,
thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles,
there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek
people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until
there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks.
As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a
prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become.
When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is
without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the
Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the
world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But
the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being
without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of
what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we
receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given.
We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and
bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has
seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or
artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth
and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new
birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of
music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will
become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure
from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all
that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely,
or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the
harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that
is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back
into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall
you receive the best.
With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the
progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under
the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most
external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the
coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is
sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful
roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention
to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is
that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it
did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national
religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian
Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of
the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change
from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked
change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the
curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much
to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There
were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them
were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even
under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have
expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century
A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to
produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable
success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the
work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called
good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth
century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and
Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new
foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the
centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may
truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by
the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in
modern times.
Continue to:
* prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes
* [44]Table of Contents
* next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3
Tags
[46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics,
[51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music,
[56]vibration
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Keeping the rhythm of life in sync
May 28, 2008
Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the
heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the
rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as
cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per
minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or
physical stress.
The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical
system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed
electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the
heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be
too fast, too slow, or irregular.
All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal
heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people
may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal
rhythm and not even know it.
Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest
pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath,
swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur
because of abnormal heart rhythm.
To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its
relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an
electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time
at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by
placing electrodes on the skin.
Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be
difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case,
other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which
electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart
catheterization.
Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of
electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or
implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows
doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside
the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are
causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing
temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively
destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia.
Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when
the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not
functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can
be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to
resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some
of its pumping function.
Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of
dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The
device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and
delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm.
Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent
disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to
their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular
Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced
treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help
restore the rhythm of life.
Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs
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* [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 1 / 5 (1)
"...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that
provides the rhythm of life..."
Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is
just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood
through our system of vessels.
It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood
circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever
smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after
supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to
become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable
of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy
and thin pipes.
It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all
about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word
"pump" to describe the heart.
What about "metronome"?
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* [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 4 / 5 (1)
Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you
don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong.
Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels,
and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and
also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood
return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY
used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to
the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation.
As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick,
as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the
thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow
loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if
this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some
reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive
pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation"
or taking a highschool biology class.
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- Rhythm of Life Lyrics
Ensemble:
Daddy started out in San Francisco,
Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean,
Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy,
Spread the picture on a wider screen."
And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons
Ready to be hooked on new religions.
Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife.
Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life."
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee,
Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge,
Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton,
Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Fly, fly, fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Swim, swim, swim to Daddy
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy,
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life,
Of life, of life, of life.
Yeah! Yeah! Yeah!
Man!
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles
Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life.
Music Of Other Climes. Part 2
Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the
elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time
of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm
so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early
Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language,
instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect
rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything
we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may
be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as
the most graceful.
Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ,
and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed
that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not
the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was
apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres,
and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D,
of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can
see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from
the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical
sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation
in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one
great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last.
It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that
comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical
colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life.
Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a
world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense,
so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the
individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not
yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or
hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to
the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature.
Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine
principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt,
thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles,
there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek
people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until
there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks.
As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a
prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become.
When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is
without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the
Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the
world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But
the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being
without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of
what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we
receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given.
We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and
bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has
seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or
artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth
and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new
birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of
music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will
become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure
from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all
that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely,
or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the
harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that
is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back
into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall
you receive the best.
With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the
progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under
the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most
external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the
coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is
sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful
roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention
to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is
that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it
did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national
religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian
Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of
the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change
from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked
change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the
curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much
to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There
were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them
were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even
under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have
expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century
A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to
produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable
success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the
work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called
good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth
century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and
Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new
foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the
centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may
truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by
the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in
modern times.
Continue to:
* prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes
* [44]Table of Contents
* next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3
Tags
[46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics,
[51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music,
[56]vibration
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Keeping the rhythm of life in sync
May 28, 2008
Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the
heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the
rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as
cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per
minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or
physical stress.
The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical
system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed
electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the
heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be
too fast, too slow, or irregular.
All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal
heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people
may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal
rhythm and not even know it.
Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest
pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath,
swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur
because of abnormal heart rhythm.
To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its
relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an
electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time
at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by
placing electrodes on the skin.
Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be
difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case,
other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which
electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart
catheterization.
Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of
electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or
implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows
doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside
the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are
causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing
temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively
destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia.
Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when
the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not
functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can
be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to
resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some
of its pumping function.
Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of
dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The
device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and
delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm.
Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent
disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to
their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular
Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced
treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help
restore the rhythm of life.
Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs
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* [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 1 / 5 (1)
"...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that
provides the rhythm of life..."
Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is
just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood
through our system of vessels.
It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood
circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever
smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after
supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to
become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable
of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy
and thin pipes.
It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all
about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word
"pump" to describe the heart.
What about "metronome"?
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* [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 4 / 5 (1)
Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you
don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong.
Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels,
and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and
also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood
return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY
used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to
the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation.
As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick,
as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the
thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow
loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if
this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some
reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive
pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation"
or taking a highschool biology class.
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May 28, 2008 [69]all stories
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Rhythm Of Life lyrics
(Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life
Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life
Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon
Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you
I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus)
If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain
Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it
The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus)
Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down
(repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade)
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Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics
[1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics
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- Rhythm of Life Lyrics
Ensemble:
Daddy started out in San Francisco,
Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean,
Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy,
Spread the picture on a wider screen."
And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons
Ready to be hooked on new religions.
Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife.
Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life."
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee,
Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge,
Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton,
Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Fly, fly, fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Swim, swim, swim to Daddy
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy,
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life,
Of life, of life, of life.
Yeah! Yeah! Yeah!
Man!
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[2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]The Rhythm Of Life / [5]books
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles
Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life.
Music Of Other Climes. Part 2
Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the
elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time
of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm
so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early
Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language,
instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect
rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything
we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may
be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as
the most graceful.
Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ,
and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed
that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not
the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was
apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres,
and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D,
of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can
see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from
the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical
sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation
in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one
great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last.
It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that
comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical
colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life.
Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a
world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense,
so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the
individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not
yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or
hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to
the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature.
Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine
principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt,
thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles,
there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek
people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until
there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks.
As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a
prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become.
When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is
without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the
Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the
world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But
the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being
without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of
what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we
receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given.
We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and
bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has
seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or
artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth
and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new
birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of
music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will
become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure
from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all
that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely,
or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the
harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that
is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back
into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall
you receive the best.
With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the
progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under
the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most
external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the
coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is
sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful
roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention
to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is
that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it
did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national
religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian
Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of
the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change
from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked
change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the
curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much
to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There
were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them
were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even
under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have
expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century
A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to
produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable
success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the
work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called
good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth
century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and
Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new
foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the
centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may
truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by
the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in
modern times.
Continue to:
* prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes
* [44]Table of Contents
* next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3
Tags
[46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics,
[51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music,
[56]vibration
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Keeping the rhythm of life in sync
May 28, 2008
Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the
heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the
rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as
cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per
minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or
physical stress.
The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical
system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed
electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the
heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be
too fast, too slow, or irregular.
All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal
heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people
may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal
rhythm and not even know it.
Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest
pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath,
swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur
because of abnormal heart rhythm.
To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its
relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an
electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time
at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by
placing electrodes on the skin.
Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be
difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case,
other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which
electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart
catheterization.
Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of
electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or
implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows
doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside
the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are
causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing
temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively
destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia.
Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when
the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not
functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can
be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to
resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some
of its pumping function.
Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of
dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The
device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and
delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm.
Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent
disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to
their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular
Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced
treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help
restore the rhythm of life.
Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs
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* [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 1 / 5 (1)
"...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that
provides the rhythm of life..."
Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is
just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood
through our system of vessels.
It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood
circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever
smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after
supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to
become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable
of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy
and thin pipes.
It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all
about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word
"pump" to describe the heart.
What about "metronome"?
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* [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 4 / 5 (1)
Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you
don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong.
Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels,
and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and
also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood
return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY
used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to
the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation.
As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick,
as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the
thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow
loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if
this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some
reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive
pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation"
or taking a highschool biology class.
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Rhythm Of Life lyrics
(Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life
Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life
Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon
Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you
I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus)
If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain
Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it
The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus)
Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down
(repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade)
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May 19, 2008
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5 most recent columns
January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By
Diego Schapira
December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara
Wheeler
December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice.
By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos
November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns
November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist.
By Helen Oosthuizen
Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony
By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli ()
1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro
When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving
rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each
producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with
other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this
metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and
around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in
which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful
presence.
I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets
and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human
civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this
planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other
parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately
grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not
empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and
sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the
universe is not threatening for me as before.
Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office,
when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an
echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture
each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity
arising randomly, above the background sound.
Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny
and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of
sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific
scenarios I could never imagine before.
2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso
Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a
patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome.
That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances,
making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a
person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made
unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying
aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those
dangerous noises.
When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she
told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy
session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands.
His sounds were so emotionally intense that their
message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in
a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it
safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with
overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his
together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards,
listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy
session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal
interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside.
My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he
developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to
process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge
amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people,
without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds.
In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional
experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a
Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds
were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they
liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty
words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their
painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light
pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes.
Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the
roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors'
desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both
situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these
dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by
fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event
with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was
grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist.
I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work
with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may
experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to
be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with
and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities
available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and
therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing:
the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the
environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing
amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness
necessary for improving quality of life.
3rd Movement: Trio
In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea
which considers that a good development of each system is possible when
there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its
environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant
interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual
perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system.
Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of
structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with
rhythm entrainment and music.
As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not
determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced
by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective
readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the
structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration.
To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes
schema to structure and order internal and external events using
rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are
self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal
structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically
determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow
an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a
caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal
patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by
comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As
Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with
sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge
our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas
are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human
beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the
emotional response to music.
Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the
metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical
behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because
they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to
understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our
sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be
the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the
most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion,
and metaphorical thinking.
Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration.
Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer,
because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes
separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological
situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They
do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the
capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and
integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory.
There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas
about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a
conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could
answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music
itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which
is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks.
And, thus, they can still feel joy.
4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio
All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the
efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of
criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of
mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared
my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my
dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy,
particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the
highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute
named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to
train psychologists and physicians in this field.
This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and
with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music.
References
Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music:
The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers.
Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the
Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University
Press.
Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning,
Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of
Illinois.
To cite this page:
Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A
World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy.
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Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics
[1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics
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- Rhythm of Life Lyrics
Ensemble:
Daddy started out in San Francisco,
Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean,
Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy,
Spread the picture on a wider screen."
And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons
Ready to be hooked on new religions.
Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife.
Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life."
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee,
Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge,
Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton,
Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Fly, fly, fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Swim, swim, swim to Daddy
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy,
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life,
Of life, of life, of life.
Yeah! Yeah! Yeah!
Man!
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles
Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life.
Music Of Other Climes. Part 2
Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the
elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time
of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm
so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early
Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language,
instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect
rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything
we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may
be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as
the most graceful.
Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ,
and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed
that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not
the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was
apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres,
and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D,
of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can
see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from
the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical
sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation
in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one
great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last.
It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that
comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical
colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life.
Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a
world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense,
so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the
individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not
yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or
hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to
the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature.
Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine
principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt,
thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles,
there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek
people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until
there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks.
As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a
prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become.
When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is
without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the
Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the
world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But
the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being
without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of
what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we
receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given.
We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and
bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has
seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or
artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth
and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new
birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of
music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will
become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure
from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all
that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely,
or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the
harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that
is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back
into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall
you receive the best.
With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the
progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under
the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most
external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the
coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is
sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful
roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention
to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is
that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it
did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national
religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian
Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of
the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change
from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked
change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the
curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much
to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There
were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them
were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even
under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have
expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century
A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to
produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable
success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the
work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called
good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth
century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and
Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new
foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the
centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may
truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by
the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in
modern times.
Continue to:
* prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes
* [44]Table of Contents
* next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3
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[46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics,
[51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music,
[56]vibration
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Keeping the rhythm of life in sync
May 28, 2008
Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the
heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the
rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as
cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per
minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or
physical stress.
The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical
system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed
electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the
heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be
too fast, too slow, or irregular.
All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal
heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people
may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal
rhythm and not even know it.
Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest
pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath,
swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur
because of abnormal heart rhythm.
To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its
relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an
electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time
at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by
placing electrodes on the skin.
Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be
difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case,
other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which
electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart
catheterization.
Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of
electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or
implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows
doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside
the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are
causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing
temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively
destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia.
Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when
the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not
functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can
be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to
resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some
of its pumping function.
Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of
dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The
device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and
delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm.
Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent
disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to
their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular
Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced
treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help
restore the rhythm of life.
Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs
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* [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 1 / 5 (1)
"...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that
provides the rhythm of life..."
Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is
just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood
through our system of vessels.
It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood
circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever
smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after
supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to
become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable
of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy
and thin pipes.
It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all
about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word
"pump" to describe the heart.
What about "metronome"?
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* [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 4 / 5 (1)
Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you
don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong.
Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels,
and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and
also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood
return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY
used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to
the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation.
As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick,
as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the
thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow
loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if
this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some
reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive
pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation"
or taking a highschool biology class.
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May 28, 2008 [69]all stories
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Rhythm Of Life lyrics
(Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life
Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life
Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon
Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you
I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus)
If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain
Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it
The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus)
Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down
(repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade)
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May 19, 2008
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5 most recent columns
January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By
Diego Schapira
December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara
Wheeler
December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice.
By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos
November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns
November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist.
By Helen Oosthuizen
Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony
By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli ()
1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro
When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving
rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each
producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with
other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this
metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and
around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in
which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful
presence.
I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets
and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human
civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this
planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other
parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately
grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not
empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and
sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the
universe is not threatening for me as before.
Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office,
when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an
echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture
each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity
arising randomly, above the background sound.
Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny
and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of
sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific
scenarios I could never imagine before.
2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso
Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a
patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome.
That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances,
making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a
person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made
unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying
aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those
dangerous noises.
When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she
told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy
session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands.
His sounds were so emotionally intense that their
message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in
a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it
safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with
overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his
together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards,
listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy
session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal
interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside.
My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he
developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to
process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge
amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people,
without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds.
In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional
experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a
Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds
were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they
liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty
words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their
painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light
pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes.
Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the
roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors'
desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both
situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these
dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by
fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event
with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was
grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist.
I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work
with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may
experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to
be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with
and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities
available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and
therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing:
the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the
environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing
amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness
necessary for improving quality of life.
3rd Movement: Trio
In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea
which considers that a good development of each system is possible when
there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its
environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant
interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual
perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system.
Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of
structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with
rhythm entrainment and music.
As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not
determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced
by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective
readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the
structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration.
To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes
schema to structure and order internal and external events using
rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are
self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal
structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically
determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow
an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a
caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal
patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by
comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As
Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with
sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge
our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas
are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human
beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the
emotional response to music.
Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the
metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical
behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because
they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to
understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our
sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be
the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the
most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion,
and metaphorical thinking.
Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration.
Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer,
because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes
separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological
situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They
do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the
capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and
integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory.
There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas
about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a
conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could
answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music
itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which
is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks.
And, thus, they can still feel joy.
4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio
All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the
efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of
criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of
mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared
my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my
dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy,
particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the
highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute
named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to
train psychologists and physicians in this field.
This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and
with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music.
References
Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music:
The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers.
Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the
Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University
Press.
Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning,
Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of
Illinois.
To cite this page:
Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A
World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy.
Moderated discussion
Add your comments and responses to this essay in our Moderated
Discussions. Contributions should be e-mailed to either [13]Joke Bradt
or [14]Thomas Wosch
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Iambic Pentameter: The Rhythm of Life?
Sunday March 22, 2009
[bencrystal.jpg]
Does the thought of [23]iambic pentameter terrify you? I remember being
baffeled by it at school myself because I got bogged down in counting
syllables and working out where the stresses go but, I now know that
this is a very technical way of studying iambic pentameter.
In later life, Ive grown to love iambic pentameter. Theres something
beautiful about it that I cant put my finger on. I know for sure that
its in the speaking because on the page it is inert. When you [24]speak
those words aloud, they literally jump off the tongue and the rhythm is
the easiest of all meters to find.
I asked Ben Crystal about this [25]in our interview a few months ago.
He said that iambic pentameter is the rhythm of our English language
and of our bodies a line of that poetry has the same rhythm as our
heartbeat. A line of iambic pentameter fills the human lung perfectly,
so its the rhythm of speech.
I think this is true. When you [26]learn how to speak verse, you soon
discover that its a very instinctive rhythm. Once you relax and go with
the flow, it comes naturally. And, strange as it might sound, classic
iambic pentameter lines like If music be the food of love, play on and
Now is the winter of our discontent do happen to fit a single breath
perfectly if spoken with passion.
So, if youre having trouble with iambic pentameter, remember that its
designed to be spoken, not studied. Open your mouth and speak aloud
those great words.
Photo of Ben Crystal © Scott Wishart
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Comments
March 30, 2009 at 2:29 pm
[33](1) [34]Kent Richmond says:
In doing verse translations of five Shakespeare plays, I have
had to learn how Shakespeares iambic pentameter works in order
to give my translations the feel of the original. One of the
beauties of iambic pentameter is that the poet can temporarily
relax the meter without violating it. In this series of made-up
and rather prosaic lines, the first line is straight-ahead
iambic pentameter. The second and third lines, if read
independently, are less obviously iambic pentameter, yet they do
not violate the rhythm. The fourth line is clearly unmetrical
and removes the sense that we are listening to verse.
1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes,
2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. (trochaic
start; feminine ending)
3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. (Two spondees to
start; feminine ending)
4. Dont you ever hit your little sister. (unmetrical)
Shakespeare, at least in the plays I have translated, did not
write verse lines with the rhythm of (4). To make this line
sound a bit more like Shakespeares iambic pentameter, we need to
make a few alterations to line 4.
1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes,
2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters.
3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest.
4. Dont ever hit that little girl again.
To make the whole passage sound like prose, we need to change
the first line a little.
Then her mother took the kids clothes shopping, planning to buy
them all some warmer sweaters. No! No! No! No she bellowed at
the oldest. Dont you ever hit your little sister.
The first and fourth lines now have trochaic feet exposed in the
wrong places, and most editors would print such a passage as
prose. Shakespeares iambic pentameter certainly places
constraints on what rhythms are allowed, yet it allows for
flexibility and naturalness. Take a look at George Wrights book
titled Shakespeares Metrical Art to see the techniques
Shakespeare employed.
April 11, 2009 at 8:25 pm
[35](2) Dave says:
The words literally jump off the tongue? I'd like to see that!
[36]Leave a Comment
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* [37]Introducing Iambic Pentameter
* [38]Iambic Pentameter - How to Study Iambic Pentameter
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What is music rhythm?
The music rhythm is the beat. It is the most important element in
music. It drives the music forward. It is the gasoline of music.
Rhythms can be simple or complicated.
Essential music vocabulary
Meter
It's the way we group the beats. We group eggs by the dozen. We group
days by the week. We also group beats into two's or three's. That's
meter.
Rhythm
The beat. The beat can be even or uneven, steady or unsteady.
Note Values
Long and short sounds in music are represented by notes. White notes
have longer sounds than black notes.
Tempo
This is the speed of the music.
Time Signature
This is a number that appears at the beginning of the music. The top
number tells you how many beats are in each measure (bar) and the
bottom number tells you what kind of a note gets one beat. The most
common times signatures are 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, and 6/8.
Whole music notes
These notes are whole notes. Each note is four beats long.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[14][whole.gif]
Half music notes
Here are half notes. Did you see the stems? These notes are twice as
fast as whole notes. These note are two beats long.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[15][half.gif]
Quarter music notes
These notes are black. They are quarter notes. Each quarter note gets
one beat. How many beats are in each measure? If you guessed four,
you'd be right!
Click the image to hear the note value.
[16][quarter.gif]
Eighth music notes
These are eighth notes. Notice how the stems are connected by a beam.
These notes move twice as fast as quarter notes. Two note are played
for each beat of music.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[17][eighth_.gif]
Combining Note Values
In 4/4 time, different note values can be combined in each measure as
long as they equal four beats. Click the examples to hear the rhythm
patterns:
[18][combo2.gif]
[19][combo3.gif]
[20][combo4.gif]
Music tempo
Tempo means speed. Musicians use Italian terms for different tempos.
Here is a melody fragment. Click the image to hear the tune:
[21][example.gif]
Click the words below to hear this tune played at different tempos.
Slow Medium Fast
Largo Largo is the slowest tempo.
Adagio Largo means slow or leisurely.
Andante Andante means a walking pace.
Moderato Moderato is medium. It is not too fast or too slow.
Allegro Allegro is fast. It means cheerful in Italian.
Vivace Vivace is quick and lively.
Presto Presto is very fast.
Meter
Meter is how we hear the groupings of beats in music. Music will be in
an even meter (groupings of 2's or 4's) or an odd meter (groupings of
3's).
Even Meters Are Groupings of 2 Beats A [22]march is played in a meter
of 2, which makes it an even meter. That means you will hear the beats
of the march move in patterns of two's.
Odd Meters Are Groupings of 3 Beats A [23]waltz is played in a meter of
three, which makes it an odd meter. That means you will hear the beats
of the waltz move in patterns of three's.
Can you hear meter in music? Click the examples below to identify
whether you hear the music moving in groups of two's or three's.
[24]Example 1 [25]Example 2 [26]Example 3 [27]Example 4 [28]Example 5
Time Signatures
The time signature helps us group the notes so we don't get lost. It's
the way we organize beats in music. It's like grouping eggs by the
dozen or days by the week. The top number tells us how many beats we
can have in one measure. In 4/4 time we have four beats in each
measure. What was the time signature in all of all the examples above?
Remember this: A beat is not the same thing as a note. Notes can have
more or less than one beat. A whole note in 4/4 time has four beats. A
half note in 4/4 time has two beats. An eighth note in 4/4 time has
just 1/2 beat. It takes two eighth notes to make one beat in 4/4 time.
Time signatures and meter: The time signature will tell you the music's
meter. If you can divide the top number by two, the music is in an even
meter. If you can divide the top number by three, the music is in an
odd meter.
Let's look at some popular time signatures and see if we can add up the
beats in each measure.
4/4 Time (Common Time)
[Common_time.gif]
Did you notice the number at the beginning of all the examples above?
That's the time signature. It's 4/4. That means that there are four
beats in each measure and the quarter note gets one beat. This time
signature is also called Common Time because it is the most popular
time signature in music.
Listen to [29]Somewhere Over the Rainbow from The Wizard of Oz. It's in
4/4 time. Each measure equals four beats. It is in an even meter.
[30][rainbow.gif]
3/4 Time (Waltz Time) [Three_four.gif]
A 3/4 time signature would only have three beats per measure. Here is
what it looks like.
Listen to [31]America played in 3/4 time. 3/4 is also called waltz
time. Did you notice the dots after some of the notes. Dotes make the
notes longer. This song is in an odd meter because there are three
beats per measure.
[32][amaerica.gif]
2/4 Time [Two_four.gif]
A 2/4 time signature has just two beats per measure. It looks like
this.
Listen to [33]You're a Grand Old Flag in 2/4 time. Do you see the line
connecting the last two notes. It is called a tie. What is the meter of
this song? Look at the time signature for your answer.
[34][grand.gif]
6/8 Time [Six_eight.gif]
A 6/8 time signature has six beats per measure. The bottom number is 8.
This tells you that the eighth note gets one beat.
Do you recognize the song [35]Follow the Yellow Brick Road from The
Wizard of Oz? It's in 6/8 time. This song goes fast, making it sound
like 2/4 rather than 6/8 time. This time signature can sound like an
even or odd meter because you can divide 6 by 2 or 3.
[36][wizaed.gif]
Drums online games
* [37]Drums music machine free online game
* [38]Drums player online music machine
* [39]Restore rhythm online ear training
* [40]Drums map movie
* [41]Drums editor online game
Music piano and guitar online games
* [42]Computer play a note pitch ear training. You try to understand
it and type c,d,e,f,g...
* [43]Computer show a note you try to understand it play keyboard
* [44]Music machine ear training
* [45]Piano music machine free online game you can compose melody and
play it. Try compose melody. This is very easy.
* [46]Music free online game. Try to repeat music.
* [47]Note pair online game. Find all notes. This game is very useful
for music memory improvement.
* [48]Notes shooter online game. Try to recognize note as fast as you
can.
* [49]Piano note free online teacher
* [50]Sound memory improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to
repeat it.
* [51]Drag music online game. Compose melody by notes.
* [52]Piano note editor. Compose melody. Use mouse for composing.
* [53]Find error at the melody online game. The computer play melody
then replace one note. Try to find error
Music machines
* [54]Orchestra quiz online music
* [55]Music quiz for kids
* [56]Virtual band
Music games for kids
* [57]Rainbow piano for kids. Computer show the color. Kids need to
press correct note.
* [58]Can you play jingle bells? Look at the note sheet and play.
* [59]Piano keyboard online game. Download piano keyboard movie on to
your computer and play.
Metronomes and fork
* [60]Light metronome online movie
* [61]Metronome online movie
* [62]Guitar tuning fork its help tune guitar
Guitar online games
* [63]Guitar music machine
* [64]Guitar chord finder
* [65]Guitar online chords
* [66]Guitar chords
* [67]Basic guitar chords and how it
* [68]Guitar chords machine with sound
* [69]Guitar scales
__________________________________________________________________
Free music games [70]AbabaSoft.com/music
Copyright © 1998 -
Références
Drums games, piano games, guitar games
[1]Drums games. Music games
Drums online games
[2]Drums music machine
free online music game
[3]Drums player
Online music machine
[4]Drums map
Drum flash movie
[5]Music machine
Ear music training
[6]Drums editor
Online drum game
Music online games
[7]Music Free online game
Try to repeat music.
[8]Ear training 01
Free music game
[9]Piano note
Free online teacher
[10]Chords piano
Write chords. then play the melody.
[11]Sound memory
Improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it.
[12]Draw lessons
How to draw free lessons
[13]Online games
Actions, Shooter, Logic online games
[acleardot.gif] [acleardot.gif]
What is music rhythm?
The music rhythm is the beat. It is the most important element in
music. It drives the music forward. It is the gasoline of music.
Rhythms can be simple or complicated.
Essential music vocabulary
Meter
It's the way we group the beats. We group eggs by the dozen. We group
days by the week. We also group beats into two's or three's. That's
meter.
Rhythm
The beat. The beat can be even or uneven, steady or unsteady.
Note Values
Long and short sounds in music are represented by notes. White notes
have longer sounds than black notes.
Tempo
This is the speed of the music.
Time Signature
This is a number that appears at the beginning of the music. The top
number tells you how many beats are in each measure (bar) and the
bottom number tells you what kind of a note gets one beat. The most
common times signatures are 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, and 6/8.
Whole music notes
These notes are whole notes. Each note is four beats long.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[14][whole.gif]
Half music notes
Here are half notes. Did you see the stems? These notes are twice as
fast as whole notes. These note are two beats long.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[15][half.gif]
Quarter music notes
These notes are black. They are quarter notes. Each quarter note gets
one beat. How many beats are in each measure? If you guessed four,
you'd be right!
Click the image to hear the note value.
[16][quarter.gif]
Eighth music notes
These are eighth notes. Notice how the stems are connected by a beam.
These notes move twice as fast as quarter notes. Two note are played
for each beat of music.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[17][eighth_.gif]
Combining Note Values
In 4/4 time, different note values can be combined in each measure as
long as they equal four beats. Click the examples to hear the rhythm
patterns:
[18][combo2.gif]
[19][combo3.gif]
[20][combo4.gif]
Music tempo
Tempo means speed. Musicians use Italian terms for different tempos.
Here is a melody fragment. Click the image to hear the tune:
[21][example.gif]
Click the words below to hear this tune played at different tempos.
Slow Medium Fast
Largo Largo is the slowest tempo.
Adagio Largo means slow or leisurely.
Andante Andante means a walking pace.
Moderato Moderato is medium. It is not too fast or too slow.
Allegro Allegro is fast. It means cheerful in Italian.
Vivace Vivace is quick and lively.
Presto Presto is very fast.
Meter
Meter is how we hear the groupings of beats in music. Music will be in
an even meter (groupings of 2's or 4's) or an odd meter (groupings of
3's).
Even Meters Are Groupings of 2 Beats A [22]march is played in a meter
of 2, which makes it an even meter. That means you will hear the beats
of the march move in patterns of two's.
Odd Meters Are Groupings of 3 Beats A [23]waltz is played in a meter of
three, which makes it an odd meter. That means you will hear the beats
of the waltz move in patterns of three's.
Can you hear meter in music? Click the examples below to identify
whether you hear the music moving in groups of two's or three's.
[24]Example 1 [25]Example 2 [26]Example 3 [27]Example 4 [28]Example 5
Time Signatures
The time signature helps us group the notes so we don't get lost. It's
the way we organize beats in music. It's like grouping eggs by the
dozen or days by the week. The top number tells us how many beats we
can have in one measure. In 4/4 time we have four beats in each
measure. What was the time signature in all of all the examples above?
Remember this: A beat is not the same thing as a note. Notes can have
more or less than one beat. A whole note in 4/4 time has four beats. A
half note in 4/4 time has two beats. An eighth note in 4/4 time has
just 1/2 beat. It takes two eighth notes to make one beat in 4/4 time.
Time signatures and meter: The time signature will tell you the music's
meter. If you can divide the top number by two, the music is in an even
meter. If you can divide the top number by three, the music is in an
odd meter.
Let's look at some popular time signatures and see if we can add up the
beats in each measure.
4/4 Time (Common Time)
[Common_time.gif]
Did you notice the number at the beginning of all the examples above?
That's the time signature. It's 4/4. That means that there are four
beats in each measure and the quarter note gets one beat. This time
signature is also called Common Time because it is the most popular
time signature in music.
Listen to [29]Somewhere Over the Rainbow from The Wizard of Oz. It's in
4/4 time. Each measure equals four beats. It is in an even meter.
[30][rainbow.gif]
3/4 Time (Waltz Time) [Three_four.gif]
A 3/4 time signature would only have three beats per measure. Here is
what it looks like.
Listen to [31]America played in 3/4 time. 3/4 is also called waltz
time. Did you notice the dots after some of the notes. Dotes make the
notes longer. This song is in an odd meter because there are three
beats per measure.
[32][amaerica.gif]
2/4 Time [Two_four.gif]
A 2/4 time signature has just two beats per measure. It looks like
this.
Listen to [33]You're a Grand Old Flag in 2/4 time. Do you see the line
connecting the last two notes. It is called a tie. What is the meter of
this song? Look at the time signature for your answer.
[34][grand.gif]
6/8 Time [Six_eight.gif]
A 6/8 time signature has six beats per measure. The bottom number is 8.
This tells you that the eighth note gets one beat.
Do you recognize the song [35]Follow the Yellow Brick Road from The
Wizard of Oz? It's in 6/8 time. This song goes fast, making it sound
like 2/4 rather than 6/8 time. This time signature can sound like an
even or odd meter because you can divide 6 by 2 or 3.
[36][wizaed.gif]
Drums online games
* [37]Drums music machine free online game
* [38]Drums player online music machine
* [39]Restore rhythm online ear training
* [40]Drums map movie
* [41]Drums editor online game
Music piano and guitar online games
* [42]Computer play a note pitch ear training. You try to understand
it and type c,d,e,f,g...
* [43]Computer show a note you try to understand it play keyboard
* [44]Music machine ear training
* [45]Piano music machine free online game you can compose melody and
play it. Try compose melody. This is very easy.
* [46]Music free online game. Try to repeat music.
* [47]Note pair online game. Find all notes. This game is very useful
for music memory improvement.
* [48]Notes shooter online game. Try to recognize note as fast as you
can.
* [49]Piano note free online teacher
* [50]Sound memory improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to
repeat it.
* [51]Drag music online game. Compose melody by notes.
* [52]Piano note editor. Compose melody. Use mouse for composing.
* [53]Find error at the melody online game. The computer play melody
then replace one note. Try to find error
Music machines
* [54]Orchestra quiz online music
* [55]Music quiz for kids
* [56]Virtual band
Music games for kids
* [57]Rainbow piano for kids. Computer show the color. Kids need to
press correct note.
* [58]Can you play jingle bells? Look at the note sheet and play.
* [59]Piano keyboard online game. Download piano keyboard movie on to
your computer and play.
Metronomes and fork
* [60]Light metronome online movie
* [61]Metronome online movie
* [62]Guitar tuning fork its help tune guitar
Guitar online games
* [63]Guitar music machine
* [64]Guitar chord finder
* [65]Guitar online chords
* [66]Guitar chords
* [67]Basic guitar chords and how it
* [68]Guitar chords machine with sound
* [69]Guitar scales
__________________________________________________________________
Free music games [70]AbabaSoft.com/music
Copyright © 1998 -
Références
[1]CAT.INIST
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Titre du document / Document title
Effects of pre-exercise listening to slow and fast rhythm music on
supramaximal cycle performance and selected metabolic variables
Auteur(s) / Author(s)
YAMAMOTO T.^ (1) ; OHKUWA T.^ (2) ; ITOH H.^ (2) ; KITOH M.^ (3) ;
TERASAWA J.^ (3) ; TSUDA T.^ (3) ; KITAGAWA S.^ (3) ; SATO Y.^ (1) ;
Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s)
^(1) Research Center of Health, Physical Fitness and Sports, Nagoya
University, 464-8601, JAPON
^(2) Department of General studies, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON
^(3) Department of Applied Chemistry, Nagoya Institute of Technology,
Showa-ku, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON
Résumé / Abstract
We examined the effect of listening to two different types of music
(with slow and fast rhythm), prior to supramaximal cycle exercise, on
performance, heart rate, the concentration of lactate and ammonia in
blood, and the concentration of catecholamines in plasma. Six male
students participated in this study. After listening to slow rhythm or
fast rhythm music for 20 min, the subjects performed supramaximal
exercise for 45 s using a cycle ergometer. Listening to slow and fast
rhythm music prior to supramaximal exercise did not significantly
affect the mean power output. The plasma norepinephrine concentration
immediately before the end of listening to slow rhythm music was
significantly lower than before listening (p < 0.05). The plasma
epinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to
fast rhythm music was significantly higher than before listening (p <
0.05). The type of music had no effect on blood lactate and ammonia
levels or on plasma catecholamine levels following exercise. In
conclusion, listening to slow rhythm music decreases the plasma
norepinephrine level, and listening to fast rhythm music increases the
plasma epinephrine level. The type of music has no impact on power
output during exercise.
Revue / Journal Title
Archives of physiology and biochemistry ISSN 1381-3455
Source / Source
2003, vol. 111, n^o3, pp. 211-214 [4 page(s) (article)] (14 ref.)
Langue / Language
Anglais
Revue : Français
Editeur / Publisher
Taylor & Francis, Basingstoke, ROYAUME-UNI (1995) (Revue)
Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords
Dopamine agonist ; Neurotransmitter ; Catecholamine ; Human ; Bicycle
ergometer ; Music ; Rhythm ; Dopamine ; Norepinephrine ; Epinephrine ;
Physical performance ; Heart rate ; Physical exercise ;
Mots-clés français / French Keywords
Stimulant dopaminergique ; Neurotransmetteur ; Catécholamine ; Homme ;
Bicyclette ergométrique ; Musique ; Rythme ; Dopamine ; Noradrénaline ;
Adrénaline ; Performance physique ; Rythme cardiaque ; Exercice
physique ;
Mots-clés espagnols / Spanish Keywords
Estimulante dopaminérgico ; Neurotransmisor ; Catecolamina ; Hombre ;
Bicicleta ergométrica ; Música ; Ritmo ; Dopamina ; Noradrenalina ;
Adrenalina ; Rendimiento físico ; Ritmo cardíaco ; Ejercicio físico ;
Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords
Slow music ; fast music ; epinephrine ; norepinephrine ; dopamine ;
supramaximal exercise ; power output ; lactate ; ammonia ; heart rate ;
Localisation / Location
INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 827, 35400011637312.0030
Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 15397711
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[USEMAP]
Drums games, piano games, guitar games
[1]Drums games. Music games
Drums online games
[2]Drums music machine
free online music game
[3]Drums player
Online music machine
[4]Drums map
Drum flash movie
[5]Music machine
Ear music training
[6]Drums editor
Online drum game
Music online games
[7]Music Free online game
Try to repeat music.
[8]Ear training 01
Free music game
[9]Piano note
Free online teacher
[10]Chords piano
Write chords. then play the melody.
[11]Sound memory
Improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it.
[12]Draw lessons
How to draw free lessons
[13]Online games
Actions, Shooter, Logic online games
[acleardot.gif] [acleardot.gif]
What is music rhythm?
The music rhythm is the beat. It is the most important element in
music. It drives the music forward. It is the gasoline of music.
Rhythms can be simple or complicated.
Essential music vocabulary
Meter
It's the way we group the beats. We group eggs by the dozen. We group
days by the week. We also group beats into two's or three's. That's
meter.
Rhythm
The beat. The beat can be even or uneven, steady or unsteady.
Note Values
Long and short sounds in music are represented by notes. White notes
have longer sounds than black notes.
Tempo
This is the speed of the music.
Time Signature
This is a number that appears at the beginning of the music. The top
number tells you how many beats are in each measure (bar) and the
bottom number tells you what kind of a note gets one beat. The most
common times signatures are 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, and 6/8.
Whole music notes
These notes are whole notes. Each note is four beats long.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[14][whole.gif]
Half music notes
Here are half notes. Did you see the stems? These notes are twice as
fast as whole notes. These note are two beats long.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[15][half.gif]
Quarter music notes
These notes are black. They are quarter notes. Each quarter note gets
one beat. How many beats are in each measure? If you guessed four,
you'd be right!
Click the image to hear the note value.
[16][quarter.gif]
Eighth music notes
These are eighth notes. Notice how the stems are connected by a beam.
These notes move twice as fast as quarter notes. Two note are played
for each beat of music.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[17][eighth_.gif]
Combining Note Values
In 4/4 time, different note values can be combined in each measure as
long as they equal four beats. Click the examples to hear the rhythm
patterns:
[18][combo2.gif]
[19][combo3.gif]
[20][combo4.gif]
Music tempo
Tempo means speed. Musicians use Italian terms for different tempos.
Here is a melody fragment. Click the image to hear the tune:
[21][example.gif]
Click the words below to hear this tune played at different tempos.
Slow Medium Fast
Largo Largo is the slowest tempo.
Adagio Largo means slow or leisurely.
Andante Andante means a walking pace.
Moderato Moderato is medium. It is not too fast or too slow.
Allegro Allegro is fast. It means cheerful in Italian.
Vivace Vivace is quick and lively.
Presto Presto is very fast.
Meter
Meter is how we hear the groupings of beats in music. Music will be in
an even meter (groupings of 2's or 4's) or an odd meter (groupings of
3's).
Even Meters Are Groupings of 2 Beats A [22]march is played in a meter
of 2, which makes it an even meter. That means you will hear the beats
of the march move in patterns of two's.
Odd Meters Are Groupings of 3 Beats A [23]waltz is played in a meter of
three, which makes it an odd meter. That means you will hear the beats
of the waltz move in patterns of three's.
Can you hear meter in music? Click the examples below to identify
whether you hear the music moving in groups of two's or three's.
[24]Example 1 [25]Example 2 [26]Example 3 [27]Example 4 [28]Example 5
Time Signatures
The time signature helps us group the notes so we don't get lost. It's
the way we organize beats in music. It's like grouping eggs by the
dozen or days by the week. The top number tells us how many beats we
can have in one measure. In 4/4 time we have four beats in each
measure. What was the time signature in all of all the examples above?
Remember this: A beat is not the same thing as a note. Notes can have
more or less than one beat. A whole note in 4/4 time has four beats. A
half note in 4/4 time has two beats. An eighth note in 4/4 time has
just 1/2 beat. It takes two eighth notes to make one beat in 4/4 time.
Time signatures and meter: The time signature will tell you the music's
meter. If you can divide the top number by two, the music is in an even
meter. If you can divide the top number by three, the music is in an
odd meter.
Let's look at some popular time signatures and see if we can add up the
beats in each measure.
4/4 Time (Common Time)
[Common_time.gif]
Did you notice the number at the beginning of all the examples above?
That's the time signature. It's 4/4. That means that there are four
beats in each measure and the quarter note gets one beat. This time
signature is also called Common Time because it is the most popular
time signature in music.
Listen to [29]Somewhere Over the Rainbow from The Wizard of Oz. It's in
4/4 time. Each measure equals four beats. It is in an even meter.
[30][rainbow.gif]
3/4 Time (Waltz Time) [Three_four.gif]
A 3/4 time signature would only have three beats per measure. Here is
what it looks like.
Listen to [31]America played in 3/4 time. 3/4 is also called waltz
time. Did you notice the dots after some of the notes. Dotes make the
notes longer. This song is in an odd meter because there are three
beats per measure.
[32][amaerica.gif]
2/4 Time [Two_four.gif]
A 2/4 time signature has just two beats per measure. It looks like
this.
Listen to [33]You're a Grand Old Flag in 2/4 time. Do you see the line
connecting the last two notes. It is called a tie. What is the meter of
this song? Look at the time signature for your answer.
[34][grand.gif]
6/8 Time [Six_eight.gif]
A 6/8 time signature has six beats per measure. The bottom number is 8.
This tells you that the eighth note gets one beat.
Do you recognize the song [35]Follow the Yellow Brick Road from The
Wizard of Oz? It's in 6/8 time. This song goes fast, making it sound
like 2/4 rather than 6/8 time. This time signature can sound like an
even or odd meter because you can divide 6 by 2 or 3.
[36][wizaed.gif]
Drums online games
* [37]Drums music machine free online game
* [38]Drums player online music machine
* [39]Restore rhythm online ear training
* [40]Drums map movie
* [41]Drums editor online game
Music piano and guitar online games
* [42]Computer play a note pitch ear training. You try to understand
it and type c,d,e,f,g...
* [43]Computer show a note you try to understand it play keyboard
* [44]Music machine ear training
* [45]Piano music machine free online game you can compose melody and
play it. Try compose melody. This is very easy.
* [46]Music free online game. Try to repeat music.
* [47]Note pair online game. Find all notes. This game is very useful
for music memory improvement.
* [48]Notes shooter online game. Try to recognize note as fast as you
can.
* [49]Piano note free online teacher
* [50]Sound memory improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to
repeat it.
* [51]Drag music online game. Compose melody by notes.
* [52]Piano note editor. Compose melody. Use mouse for composing.
* [53]Find error at the melody online game. The computer play melody
then replace one note. Try to find error
Music machines
* [54]Orchestra quiz online music
* [55]Music quiz for kids
* [56]Virtual band
Music games for kids
* [57]Rainbow piano for kids. Computer show the color. Kids need to
press correct note.
* [58]Can you play jingle bells? Look at the note sheet and play.
* [59]Piano keyboard online game. Download piano keyboard movie on to
your computer and play.
Metronomes and fork
* [60]Light metronome online movie
* [61]Metronome online movie
* [62]Guitar tuning fork its help tune guitar
Guitar online games
* [63]Guitar music machine
* [64]Guitar chord finder
* [65]Guitar online chords
* [66]Guitar chords
* [67]Basic guitar chords and how it
* [68]Guitar chords machine with sound
* [69]Guitar scales
__________________________________________________________________
Free music games [70]AbabaSoft.com/music
Copyright © 1998 -
Références
[1]CAT.INIST
[2][USEMAP:bandeau-haut-droit.gif]
logo CNRS
[3]logo INIST
[4]En savoir plus sur CAT.INIST ?
© INIST Diffusion S.A.
Service Clients / Customer Service
2, allée du parc de Brabois
F-54514 Vandoeuvre Cedex France
Tél : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.64
Fax : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.66
Courriel : [5]infoclient@inist.fr
[6]Accueil / Home Imprimer / Print [7]Contact / Contact
Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [8]Email Print
[9]Bookmark and Share [10]Mendeley Back
Titre du document / Document title
Effects of pre-exercise listening to slow and fast rhythm music on
supramaximal cycle performance and selected metabolic variables
Auteur(s) / Author(s)
YAMAMOTO T.^ (1) ; OHKUWA T.^ (2) ; ITOH H.^ (2) ; KITOH M.^ (3) ;
TERASAWA J.^ (3) ; TSUDA T.^ (3) ; KITAGAWA S.^ (3) ; SATO Y.^ (1) ;
Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s)
^(1) Research Center of Health, Physical Fitness and Sports, Nagoya
University, 464-8601, JAPON
^(2) Department of General studies, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON
^(3) Department of Applied Chemistry, Nagoya Institute of Technology,
Showa-ku, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON
Résumé / Abstract
We examined the effect of listening to two different types of music
(with slow and fast rhythm), prior to supramaximal cycle exercise, on
performance, heart rate, the concentration of lactate and ammonia in
blood, and the concentration of catecholamines in plasma. Six male
students participated in this study. After listening to slow rhythm or
fast rhythm music for 20 min, the subjects performed supramaximal
exercise for 45 s using a cycle ergometer. Listening to slow and fast
rhythm music prior to supramaximal exercise did not significantly
affect the mean power output. The plasma norepinephrine concentration
immediately before the end of listening to slow rhythm music was
significantly lower than before listening (p < 0.05). The plasma
epinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to
fast rhythm music was significantly higher than before listening (p <
0.05). The type of music had no effect on blood lactate and ammonia
levels or on plasma catecholamine levels following exercise. In
conclusion, listening to slow rhythm music decreases the plasma
norepinephrine level, and listening to fast rhythm music increases the
plasma epinephrine level. The type of music has no impact on power
output during exercise.
Revue / Journal Title
Archives of physiology and biochemistry ISSN 1381-3455
Source / Source
2003, vol. 111, n^o3, pp. 211-214 [4 page(s) (article)] (14 ref.)
Langue / Language
Anglais
Revue : Français
Editeur / Publisher
Taylor & Francis, Basingstoke, ROYAUME-UNI (1995) (Revue)
Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords
Dopamine agonist ; Neurotransmitter ; Catecholamine ; Human ; Bicycle
ergometer ; Music ; Rhythm ; Dopamine ; Norepinephrine ; Epinephrine ;
Physical performance ; Heart rate ; Physical exercise ;
Mots-clés français / French Keywords
Stimulant dopaminergique ; Neurotransmetteur ; Catécholamine ; Homme ;
Bicyclette ergométrique ; Musique ; Rythme ; Dopamine ; Noradrénaline ;
Adrénaline ; Performance physique ; Rythme cardiaque ; Exercice
physique ;
Mots-clés espagnols / Spanish Keywords
Estimulante dopaminérgico ; Neurotransmisor ; Catecolamina ; Hombre ;
Bicicleta ergométrica ; Música ; Ritmo ; Dopamina ; Noradrenalina ;
Adrenalina ; Rendimiento físico ; Ritmo cardíaco ; Ejercicio físico ;
Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords
Slow music ; fast music ; epinephrine ; norepinephrine ; dopamine ;
supramaximal exercise ; power output ; lactate ; ammonia ; heart rate ;
Localisation / Location
INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 827, 35400011637312.0030
Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 15397711
Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [11]Email Print
[12]Bookmark and Share [13]Mendeley Back
_______________________________
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7. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20Cat@inist.fr
[USEMAP]
Basic Music Theory. Copyright Neil Hawes 1997
Rhythm
* Rhythm in music is dependent on the fact that humans recognise a
[1]beat occurring at a regular interval.
* Rhythm in music is more than just a [2]beat, however; it is the way
that sounds with differing lengths (or gaps between them) and
accents can combine to produce patterns in time which contain a
[3]beat.
+ These sounds do not have to be particularly musical; rhythms
can be made by striking almost anything, as long as there can
be difference in accent.
+ Differences in accent can mean different sounds or just
different loudness (i.e. amplitudes) of sounds
* It is common to speak of a particular rhythm, referring to a
pattern of [4]note lengths which occurs in a piece of music.
+ It is important to understand that the rhythm is defined by
the pattern; the overall speed of it could vary from
performance to performance, but the rhythm would still be the
same.
+ The speed or tempo of a piece of music is indicated by a
[5]metronome marking and/or a [6]direction word or phrase; its
rhythm is specified by various [7]note lengths creating
[8]beats within [9]bars.
* Modern songs often include [10]syncopation in their rhythm
__________________________________________________________________
[11]Mail me
[12]Copyright and disclaimer
[13]Content and structure of these pages
[14]Return to top
Références
11. mailto:website@neilhawes.com
Drums games, piano games, guitar games
[1]Drums games. Music games
Drums online games
[2]Drums music machine
free online music game
[3]Drums player
Online music machine
[4]Drums map
Drum flash movie
[5]Music machine
Ear music training
[6]Drums editor
Online drum game
Music online games
[7]Music Free online game
Try to repeat music.
[8]Ear training 01
Free music game
[9]Piano note
Free online teacher
[10]Chords piano
Write chords. then play the melody.
[11]Sound memory
Improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it.
[12]Draw lessons
How to draw free lessons
[13]Online games
Actions, Shooter, Logic online games
[acleardot.gif] [acleardot.gif]
What is music rhythm?
The music rhythm is the beat. It is the most important element in
music. It drives the music forward. It is the gasoline of music.
Rhythms can be simple or complicated.
Essential music vocabulary
Meter
It's the way we group the beats. We group eggs by the dozen. We group
days by the week. We also group beats into two's or three's. That's
meter.
Rhythm
The beat. The beat can be even or uneven, steady or unsteady.
Note Values
Long and short sounds in music are represented by notes. White notes
have longer sounds than black notes.
Tempo
This is the speed of the music.
Time Signature
This is a number that appears at the beginning of the music. The top
number tells you how many beats are in each measure (bar) and the
bottom number tells you what kind of a note gets one beat. The most
common times signatures are 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, and 6/8.
Whole music notes
These notes are whole notes. Each note is four beats long.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[14][whole.gif]
Half music notes
Here are half notes. Did you see the stems? These notes are twice as
fast as whole notes. These note are two beats long.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[15][half.gif]
Quarter music notes
These notes are black. They are quarter notes. Each quarter note gets
one beat. How many beats are in each measure? If you guessed four,
you'd be right!
Click the image to hear the note value.
[16][quarter.gif]
Eighth music notes
These are eighth notes. Notice how the stems are connected by a beam.
These notes move twice as fast as quarter notes. Two note are played
for each beat of music.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[17][eighth_.gif]
Combining Note Values
In 4/4 time, different note values can be combined in each measure as
long as they equal four beats. Click the examples to hear the rhythm
patterns:
[18][combo2.gif]
[19][combo3.gif]
[20][combo4.gif]
Music tempo
Tempo means speed. Musicians use Italian terms for different tempos.
Here is a melody fragment. Click the image to hear the tune:
[21][example.gif]
Click the words below to hear this tune played at different tempos.
Slow Medium Fast
Largo Largo is the slowest tempo.
Adagio Largo means slow or leisurely.
Andante Andante means a walking pace.
Moderato Moderato is medium. It is not too fast or too slow.
Allegro Allegro is fast. It means cheerful in Italian.
Vivace Vivace is quick and lively.
Presto Presto is very fast.
Meter
Meter is how we hear the groupings of beats in music. Music will be in
an even meter (groupings of 2's or 4's) or an odd meter (groupings of
3's).
Even Meters Are Groupings of 2 Beats A [22]march is played in a meter
of 2, which makes it an even meter. That means you will hear the beats
of the march move in patterns of two's.
Odd Meters Are Groupings of 3 Beats A [23]waltz is played in a meter of
three, which makes it an odd meter. That means you will hear the beats
of the waltz move in patterns of three's.
Can you hear meter in music? Click the examples below to identify
whether you hear the music moving in groups of two's or three's.
[24]Example 1 [25]Example 2 [26]Example 3 [27]Example 4 [28]Example 5
Time Signatures
The time signature helps us group the notes so we don't get lost. It's
the way we organize beats in music. It's like grouping eggs by the
dozen or days by the week. The top number tells us how many beats we
can have in one measure. In 4/4 time we have four beats in each
measure. What was the time signature in all of all the examples above?
Remember this: A beat is not the same thing as a note. Notes can have
more or less than one beat. A whole note in 4/4 time has four beats. A
half note in 4/4 time has two beats. An eighth note in 4/4 time has
just 1/2 beat. It takes two eighth notes to make one beat in 4/4 time.
Time signatures and meter: The time signature will tell you the music's
meter. If you can divide the top number by two, the music is in an even
meter. If you can divide the top number by three, the music is in an
odd meter.
Let's look at some popular time signatures and see if we can add up the
beats in each measure.
4/4 Time (Common Time)
[Common_time.gif]
Did you notice the number at the beginning of all the examples above?
That's the time signature. It's 4/4. That means that there are four
beats in each measure and the quarter note gets one beat. This time
signature is also called Common Time because it is the most popular
time signature in music.
Listen to [29]Somewhere Over the Rainbow from The Wizard of Oz. It's in
4/4 time. Each measure equals four beats. It is in an even meter.
[30][rainbow.gif]
3/4 Time (Waltz Time) [Three_four.gif]
A 3/4 time signature would only have three beats per measure. Here is
what it looks like.
Listen to [31]America played in 3/4 time. 3/4 is also called waltz
time. Did you notice the dots after some of the notes. Dotes make the
notes longer. This song is in an odd meter because there are three
beats per measure.
[32][amaerica.gif]
2/4 Time [Two_four.gif]
A 2/4 time signature has just two beats per measure. It looks like
this.
Listen to [33]You're a Grand Old Flag in 2/4 time. Do you see the line
connecting the last two notes. It is called a tie. What is the meter of
this song? Look at the time signature for your answer.
[34][grand.gif]
6/8 Time [Six_eight.gif]
A 6/8 time signature has six beats per measure. The bottom number is 8.
This tells you that the eighth note gets one beat.
Do you recognize the song [35]Follow the Yellow Brick Road from The
Wizard of Oz? It's in 6/8 time. This song goes fast, making it sound
like 2/4 rather than 6/8 time. This time signature can sound like an
even or odd meter because you can divide 6 by 2 or 3.
[36][wizaed.gif]
Drums online games
* [37]Drums music machine free online game
* [38]Drums player online music machine
* [39]Restore rhythm online ear training
* [40]Drums map movie
* [41]Drums editor online game
Music piano and guitar online games
* [42]Computer play a note pitch ear training. You try to understand
it and type c,d,e,f,g...
* [43]Computer show a note you try to understand it play keyboard
* [44]Music machine ear training
* [45]Piano music machine free online game you can compose melody and
play it. Try compose melody. This is very easy.
* [46]Music free online game. Try to repeat music.
* [47]Note pair online game. Find all notes. This game is very useful
for music memory improvement.
* [48]Notes shooter online game. Try to recognize note as fast as you
can.
* [49]Piano note free online teacher
* [50]Sound memory improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to
repeat it.
* [51]Drag music online game. Compose melody by notes.
* [52]Piano note editor. Compose melody. Use mouse for composing.
* [53]Find error at the melody online game. The computer play melody
then replace one note. Try to find error
Music machines
* [54]Orchestra quiz online music
* [55]Music quiz for kids
* [56]Virtual band
Music games for kids
* [57]Rainbow piano for kids. Computer show the color. Kids need to
press correct note.
* [58]Can you play jingle bells? Look at the note sheet and play.
* [59]Piano keyboard online game. Download piano keyboard movie on to
your computer and play.
Metronomes and fork
* [60]Light metronome online movie
* [61]Metronome online movie
* [62]Guitar tuning fork its help tune guitar
Guitar online games
* [63]Guitar music machine
* [64]Guitar chord finder
* [65]Guitar online chords
* [66]Guitar chords
* [67]Basic guitar chords and how it
* [68]Guitar chords machine with sound
* [69]Guitar scales
__________________________________________________________________
Free music games [70]AbabaSoft.com/music
Copyright © 1998 -
Références
[1]CAT.INIST
[2][USEMAP:bandeau-haut-droit.gif]
logo CNRS
[3]logo INIST
[4]En savoir plus sur CAT.INIST ?
© INIST Diffusion S.A.
Service Clients / Customer Service
2, allée du parc de Brabois
F-54514 Vandoeuvre Cedex France
Tél : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.64
Fax : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.66
Courriel : [5]infoclient@inist.fr
[6]Accueil / Home Imprimer / Print [7]Contact / Contact
Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [8]Email Print
[9]Bookmark and Share [10]Mendeley Back
Titre du document / Document title
Effects of pre-exercise listening to slow and fast rhythm music on
supramaximal cycle performance and selected metabolic variables
Auteur(s) / Author(s)
YAMAMOTO T.^ (1) ; OHKUWA T.^ (2) ; ITOH H.^ (2) ; KITOH M.^ (3) ;
TERASAWA J.^ (3) ; TSUDA T.^ (3) ; KITAGAWA S.^ (3) ; SATO Y.^ (1) ;
Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s)
^(1) Research Center of Health, Physical Fitness and Sports, Nagoya
University, 464-8601, JAPON
^(2) Department of General studies, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON
^(3) Department of Applied Chemistry, Nagoya Institute of Technology,
Showa-ku, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON
Résumé / Abstract
We examined the effect of listening to two different types of music
(with slow and fast rhythm), prior to supramaximal cycle exercise, on
performance, heart rate, the concentration of lactate and ammonia in
blood, and the concentration of catecholamines in plasma. Six male
students participated in this study. After listening to slow rhythm or
fast rhythm music for 20 min, the subjects performed supramaximal
exercise for 45 s using a cycle ergometer. Listening to slow and fast
rhythm music prior to supramaximal exercise did not significantly
affect the mean power output. The plasma norepinephrine concentration
immediately before the end of listening to slow rhythm music was
significantly lower than before listening (p < 0.05). The plasma
epinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to
fast rhythm music was significantly higher than before listening (p <
0.05). The type of music had no effect on blood lactate and ammonia
levels or on plasma catecholamine levels following exercise. In
conclusion, listening to slow rhythm music decreases the plasma
norepinephrine level, and listening to fast rhythm music increases the
plasma epinephrine level. The type of music has no impact on power
output during exercise.
Revue / Journal Title
Archives of physiology and biochemistry ISSN 1381-3455
Source / Source
2003, vol. 111, n^o3, pp. 211-214 [4 page(s) (article)] (14 ref.)
Langue / Language
Anglais
Revue : Français
Editeur / Publisher
Taylor & Francis, Basingstoke, ROYAUME-UNI (1995) (Revue)
Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords
Dopamine agonist ; Neurotransmitter ; Catecholamine ; Human ; Bicycle
ergometer ; Music ; Rhythm ; Dopamine ; Norepinephrine ; Epinephrine ;
Physical performance ; Heart rate ; Physical exercise ;
Mots-clés français / French Keywords
Stimulant dopaminergique ; Neurotransmetteur ; Catécholamine ; Homme ;
Bicyclette ergométrique ; Musique ; Rythme ; Dopamine ; Noradrénaline ;
Adrénaline ; Performance physique ; Rythme cardiaque ; Exercice
physique ;
Mots-clés espagnols / Spanish Keywords
Estimulante dopaminérgico ; Neurotransmisor ; Catecolamina ; Hombre ;
Bicicleta ergométrica ; Música ; Ritmo ; Dopamina ; Noradrenalina ;
Adrenalina ; Rendimiento físico ; Ritmo cardíaco ; Ejercicio físico ;
Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords
Slow music ; fast music ; epinephrine ; norepinephrine ; dopamine ;
supramaximal exercise ; power output ; lactate ; ammonia ; heart rate ;
Localisation / Location
INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 827, 35400011637312.0030
Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 15397711
Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [11]Email Print
[12]Bookmark and Share [13]Mendeley Back
_______________________________
Rechercher dans CAT.INIST / Search in CAT.INIST
Google
Custom Search
Références
5. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20CAT.INIST.FR
7. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20Cat@inist.fr
[USEMAP]
Basic Music Theory. Copyright Neil Hawes 1997
Rhythm
* Rhythm in music is dependent on the fact that humans recognise a
[1]beat occurring at a regular interval.
* Rhythm in music is more than just a [2]beat, however; it is the way
that sounds with differing lengths (or gaps between them) and
accents can combine to produce patterns in time which contain a
[3]beat.
+ These sounds do not have to be particularly musical; rhythms
can be made by striking almost anything, as long as there can
be difference in accent.
+ Differences in accent can mean different sounds or just
different loudness (i.e. amplitudes) of sounds
* It is common to speak of a particular rhythm, referring to a
pattern of [4]note lengths which occurs in a piece of music.
+ It is important to understand that the rhythm is defined by
the pattern; the overall speed of it could vary from
performance to performance, but the rhythm would still be the
same.
+ The speed or tempo of a piece of music is indicated by a
[5]metronome marking and/or a [6]direction word or phrase; its
rhythm is specified by various [7]note lengths creating
[8]beats within [9]bars.
* Modern songs often include [10]syncopation in their rhythm
__________________________________________________________________
[11]Mail me
[12]Copyright and disclaimer
[13]Content and structure of these pages
[14]Return to top
Références
11. mailto:website@neilhawes.com
[jazz-blues-pianist-3.jpg]
[1]Home: jazz improvisation : pop blues| [2]Pop music videos| [3]Pop
blues jazz albums| [4]Jazz improvisation - harmony| [5]Lingua italiana|
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Rhythm and swing
* Swing jazz rhythm
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Improvisation and music harmony : MIOP
* [14]Jazz improvisation and music harmony : summary
* [15]Music harmony concepts
* [16]Scales, modes to improvise
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* [18]Jazz melody and improvisation
* Swing jazz rhythm
* [19]Jazz techniques : practice
Swing jazz rhythm in improvisation
Swing is very important in improvisation. This word means stressing the
upbeat.
If you also give a "sliding" or "retardation" between notes, you can
create the real swing jazz rhythm, which was born at the beginning of
the XX century about. When you stress an upbeat you make perhaps a
"swinging" rhythmics, (also being without a dragging or a sliding
between notes), for modern rhythm too, (such as pop and rhythm and
blues).
* When you play swing music, that is Dixieland, blues, ragtime,
swing, bebop, cool jazz, hard bop, you have to follow this scheme:
basic rhythmic pattern
...in this way:
swing jazz rhythm pattern
Learn swing jazz rhythm
In order to learn how to swing, you simply have to learn how to reason
in up beat and stressing with it constantly. In other words, swing
means "stressing the upbeat" with an implied octaves triplets clef.
It's so a rhythm "sliding" effect created : the meaning of the American
word "swing" is just similar to "sliding", "waving" or "rocking".
* For example these measures :
how to learn jazz swing
..must be played (in general) in this way:
fundamental jazz swing rhythm
In other words Swing has offbeat (upbeat) accents and an eighth-note
triplets rhythmic base.
Learning jazz swing
Learning swing very well and have the ability to improvise, stressing
and giving the right accent of phrases needs much time to practice it.
Above all, you must pay attention at the beginning to stress upbeat
octave notes constantly and to stop when you realize you are making the
contrary. While stressing notes on your instrument, I suggest to upbeat
by your foot, so that you can emphasize this rhythmic accent better.
You have to get used to reason in upbeat, beginning all over again, as
since we were children we have been starting clapping hands in
downbeat. Swing-jazz rhythm can be so learned naturally after studying
constantly in this direction.
* You need some months to learn swing rhythm on your instrument. I
remember you to stress always the upbeats.
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| PIVA IT09999181002
Références
Drums games, piano games, guitar games
[1]Drums games. Music games
Drums online games
[2]Drums music machine
free online music game
[3]Drums player
Online music machine
[4]Drums map
Drum flash movie
[5]Music machine
Ear music training
[6]Drums editor
Online drum game
Music online games
[7]Music Free online game
Try to repeat music.
[8]Ear training 01
Free music game
[9]Piano note
Free online teacher
[10]Chords piano
Write chords. then play the melody.
[11]Sound memory
Improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it.
[12]Draw lessons
How to draw free lessons
[13]Online games
Actions, Shooter, Logic online games
[acleardot.gif] [acleardot.gif]
What is music rhythm?
The music rhythm is the beat. It is the most important element in
music. It drives the music forward. It is the gasoline of music.
Rhythms can be simple or complicated.
Essential music vocabulary
Meter
It's the way we group the beats. We group eggs by the dozen. We group
days by the week. We also group beats into two's or three's. That's
meter.
Rhythm
The beat. The beat can be even or uneven, steady or unsteady.
Note Values
Long and short sounds in music are represented by notes. White notes
have longer sounds than black notes.
Tempo
This is the speed of the music.
Time Signature
This is a number that appears at the beginning of the music. The top
number tells you how many beats are in each measure (bar) and the
bottom number tells you what kind of a note gets one beat. The most
common times signatures are 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, and 6/8.
Whole music notes
These notes are whole notes. Each note is four beats long.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[14][whole.gif]
Half music notes
Here are half notes. Did you see the stems? These notes are twice as
fast as whole notes. These note are two beats long.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[15][half.gif]
Quarter music notes
These notes are black. They are quarter notes. Each quarter note gets
one beat. How many beats are in each measure? If you guessed four,
you'd be right!
Click the image to hear the note value.
[16][quarter.gif]
Eighth music notes
These are eighth notes. Notice how the stems are connected by a beam.
These notes move twice as fast as quarter notes. Two note are played
for each beat of music.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[17][eighth_.gif]
Combining Note Values
In 4/4 time, different note values can be combined in each measure as
long as they equal four beats. Click the examples to hear the rhythm
patterns:
[18][combo2.gif]
[19][combo3.gif]
[20][combo4.gif]
Music tempo
Tempo means speed. Musicians use Italian terms for different tempos.
Here is a melody fragment. Click the image to hear the tune:
[21][example.gif]
Click the words below to hear this tune played at different tempos.
Slow Medium Fast
Largo Largo is the slowest tempo.
Adagio Largo means slow or leisurely.
Andante Andante means a walking pace.
Moderato Moderato is medium. It is not too fast or too slow.
Allegro Allegro is fast. It means cheerful in Italian.
Vivace Vivace is quick and lively.
Presto Presto is very fast.
Meter
Meter is how we hear the groupings of beats in music. Music will be in
an even meter (groupings of 2's or 4's) or an odd meter (groupings of
3's).
Even Meters Are Groupings of 2 Beats A [22]march is played in a meter
of 2, which makes it an even meter. That means you will hear the beats
of the march move in patterns of two's.
Odd Meters Are Groupings of 3 Beats A [23]waltz is played in a meter of
three, which makes it an odd meter. That means you will hear the beats
of the waltz move in patterns of three's.
Can you hear meter in music? Click the examples below to identify
whether you hear the music moving in groups of two's or three's.
[24]Example 1 [25]Example 2 [26]Example 3 [27]Example 4 [28]Example 5
Time Signatures
The time signature helps us group the notes so we don't get lost. It's
the way we organize beats in music. It's like grouping eggs by the
dozen or days by the week. The top number tells us how many beats we
can have in one measure. In 4/4 time we have four beats in each
measure. What was the time signature in all of all the examples above?
Remember this: A beat is not the same thing as a note. Notes can have
more or less than one beat. A whole note in 4/4 time has four beats. A
half note in 4/4 time has two beats. An eighth note in 4/4 time has
just 1/2 beat. It takes two eighth notes to make one beat in 4/4 time.
Time signatures and meter: The time signature will tell you the music's
meter. If you can divide the top number by two, the music is in an even
meter. If you can divide the top number by three, the music is in an
odd meter.
Let's look at some popular time signatures and see if we can add up the
beats in each measure.
4/4 Time (Common Time)
[Common_time.gif]
Did you notice the number at the beginning of all the examples above?
That's the time signature. It's 4/4. That means that there are four
beats in each measure and the quarter note gets one beat. This time
signature is also called Common Time because it is the most popular
time signature in music.
Listen to [29]Somewhere Over the Rainbow from The Wizard of Oz. It's in
4/4 time. Each measure equals four beats. It is in an even meter.
[30][rainbow.gif]
3/4 Time (Waltz Time) [Three_four.gif]
A 3/4 time signature would only have three beats per measure. Here is
what it looks like.
Listen to [31]America played in 3/4 time. 3/4 is also called waltz
time. Did you notice the dots after some of the notes. Dotes make the
notes longer. This song is in an odd meter because there are three
beats per measure.
[32][amaerica.gif]
2/4 Time [Two_four.gif]
A 2/4 time signature has just two beats per measure. It looks like
this.
Listen to [33]You're a Grand Old Flag in 2/4 time. Do you see the line
connecting the last two notes. It is called a tie. What is the meter of
this song? Look at the time signature for your answer.
[34][grand.gif]
6/8 Time [Six_eight.gif]
A 6/8 time signature has six beats per measure. The bottom number is 8.
This tells you that the eighth note gets one beat.
Do you recognize the song [35]Follow the Yellow Brick Road from The
Wizard of Oz? It's in 6/8 time. This song goes fast, making it sound
like 2/4 rather than 6/8 time. This time signature can sound like an
even or odd meter because you can divide 6 by 2 or 3.
[36][wizaed.gif]
Drums online games
* [37]Drums music machine free online game
* [38]Drums player online music machine
* [39]Restore rhythm online ear training
* [40]Drums map movie
* [41]Drums editor online game
Music piano and guitar online games
* [42]Computer play a note pitch ear training. You try to understand
it and type c,d,e,f,g...
* [43]Computer show a note you try to understand it play keyboard
* [44]Music machine ear training
* [45]Piano music machine free online game you can compose melody and
play it. Try compose melody. This is very easy.
* [46]Music free online game. Try to repeat music.
* [47]Note pair online game. Find all notes. This game is very useful
for music memory improvement.
* [48]Notes shooter online game. Try to recognize note as fast as you
can.
* [49]Piano note free online teacher
* [50]Sound memory improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to
repeat it.
* [51]Drag music online game. Compose melody by notes.
* [52]Piano note editor. Compose melody. Use mouse for composing.
* [53]Find error at the melody online game. The computer play melody
then replace one note. Try to find error
Music machines
* [54]Orchestra quiz online music
* [55]Music quiz for kids
* [56]Virtual band
Music games for kids
* [57]Rainbow piano for kids. Computer show the color. Kids need to
press correct note.
* [58]Can you play jingle bells? Look at the note sheet and play.
* [59]Piano keyboard online game. Download piano keyboard movie on to
your computer and play.
Metronomes and fork
* [60]Light metronome online movie
* [61]Metronome online movie
* [62]Guitar tuning fork its help tune guitar
Guitar online games
* [63]Guitar music machine
* [64]Guitar chord finder
* [65]Guitar online chords
* [66]Guitar chords
* [67]Basic guitar chords and how it
* [68]Guitar chords machine with sound
* [69]Guitar scales
__________________________________________________________________
Free music games [70]AbabaSoft.com/music
Copyright © 1998 -
Références
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Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [8]Email Print
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Titre du document / Document title
Effects of pre-exercise listening to slow and fast rhythm music on
supramaximal cycle performance and selected metabolic variables
Auteur(s) / Author(s)
YAMAMOTO T.^ (1) ; OHKUWA T.^ (2) ; ITOH H.^ (2) ; KITOH M.^ (3) ;
TERASAWA J.^ (3) ; TSUDA T.^ (3) ; KITAGAWA S.^ (3) ; SATO Y.^ (1) ;
Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s)
^(1) Research Center of Health, Physical Fitness and Sports, Nagoya
University, 464-8601, JAPON
^(2) Department of General studies, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON
^(3) Department of Applied Chemistry, Nagoya Institute of Technology,
Showa-ku, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON
Résumé / Abstract
We examined the effect of listening to two different types of music
(with slow and fast rhythm), prior to supramaximal cycle exercise, on
performance, heart rate, the concentration of lactate and ammonia in
blood, and the concentration of catecholamines in plasma. Six male
students participated in this study. After listening to slow rhythm or
fast rhythm music for 20 min, the subjects performed supramaximal
exercise for 45 s using a cycle ergometer. Listening to slow and fast
rhythm music prior to supramaximal exercise did not significantly
affect the mean power output. The plasma norepinephrine concentration
immediately before the end of listening to slow rhythm music was
significantly lower than before listening (p < 0.05). The plasma
epinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to
fast rhythm music was significantly higher than before listening (p <
0.05). The type of music had no effect on blood lactate and ammonia
levels or on plasma catecholamine levels following exercise. In
conclusion, listening to slow rhythm music decreases the plasma
norepinephrine level, and listening to fast rhythm music increases the
plasma epinephrine level. The type of music has no impact on power
output during exercise.
Revue / Journal Title
Archives of physiology and biochemistry ISSN 1381-3455
Source / Source
2003, vol. 111, n^o3, pp. 211-214 [4 page(s) (article)] (14 ref.)
Langue / Language
Anglais
Revue : Français
Editeur / Publisher
Taylor & Francis, Basingstoke, ROYAUME-UNI (1995) (Revue)
Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords
Dopamine agonist ; Neurotransmitter ; Catecholamine ; Human ; Bicycle
ergometer ; Music ; Rhythm ; Dopamine ; Norepinephrine ; Epinephrine ;
Physical performance ; Heart rate ; Physical exercise ;
Mots-clés français / French Keywords
Stimulant dopaminergique ; Neurotransmetteur ; Catécholamine ; Homme ;
Bicyclette ergométrique ; Musique ; Rythme ; Dopamine ; Noradrénaline ;
Adrénaline ; Performance physique ; Rythme cardiaque ; Exercice
physique ;
Mots-clés espagnols / Spanish Keywords
Estimulante dopaminérgico ; Neurotransmisor ; Catecolamina ; Hombre ;
Bicicleta ergométrica ; Música ; Ritmo ; Dopamina ; Noradrenalina ;
Adrenalina ; Rendimiento físico ; Ritmo cardíaco ; Ejercicio físico ;
Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords
Slow music ; fast music ; epinephrine ; norepinephrine ; dopamine ;
supramaximal exercise ; power output ; lactate ; ammonia ; heart rate ;
Localisation / Location
INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 827, 35400011637312.0030
Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 15397711
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[USEMAP]
Basic Music Theory. Copyright Neil Hawes 1997
Rhythm
* Rhythm in music is dependent on the fact that humans recognise a
[1]beat occurring at a regular interval.
* Rhythm in music is more than just a [2]beat, however; it is the way
that sounds with differing lengths (or gaps between them) and
accents can combine to produce patterns in time which contain a
[3]beat.
+ These sounds do not have to be particularly musical; rhythms
can be made by striking almost anything, as long as there can
be difference in accent.
+ Differences in accent can mean different sounds or just
different loudness (i.e. amplitudes) of sounds
* It is common to speak of a particular rhythm, referring to a
pattern of [4]note lengths which occurs in a piece of music.
+ It is important to understand that the rhythm is defined by
the pattern; the overall speed of it could vary from
performance to performance, but the rhythm would still be the
same.
+ The speed or tempo of a piece of music is indicated by a
[5]metronome marking and/or a [6]direction word or phrase; its
rhythm is specified by various [7]note lengths creating
[8]beats within [9]bars.
* Modern songs often include [10]syncopation in their rhythm
__________________________________________________________________
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Rhythm and swing
* Swing jazz rhythm
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* Swing jazz rhythm
* [19]Jazz techniques : practice
Swing jazz rhythm in improvisation
Swing is very important in improvisation. This word means stressing the
upbeat.
If you also give a "sliding" or "retardation" between notes, you can
create the real swing jazz rhythm, which was born at the beginning of
the XX century about. When you stress an upbeat you make perhaps a
"swinging" rhythmics, (also being without a dragging or a sliding
between notes), for modern rhythm too, (such as pop and rhythm and
blues).
* When you play swing music, that is Dixieland, blues, ragtime,
swing, bebop, cool jazz, hard bop, you have to follow this scheme:
basic rhythmic pattern
...in this way:
swing jazz rhythm pattern
Learn swing jazz rhythm
In order to learn how to swing, you simply have to learn how to reason
in up beat and stressing with it constantly. In other words, swing
means "stressing the upbeat" with an implied octaves triplets clef.
It's so a rhythm "sliding" effect created : the meaning of the American
word "swing" is just similar to "sliding", "waving" or "rocking".
* For example these measures :
how to learn jazz swing
..must be played (in general) in this way:
fundamental jazz swing rhythm
In other words Swing has offbeat (upbeat) accents and an eighth-note
triplets rhythmic base.
Learning jazz swing
Learning swing very well and have the ability to improvise, stressing
and giving the right accent of phrases needs much time to practice it.
Above all, you must pay attention at the beginning to stress upbeat
octave notes constantly and to stop when you realize you are making the
contrary. While stressing notes on your instrument, I suggest to upbeat
by your foot, so that you can emphasize this rhythmic accent better.
You have to get used to reason in upbeat, beginning all over again, as
since we were children we have been starting clapping hands in
downbeat. Swing-jazz rhythm can be so learned naturally after studying
constantly in this direction.
* You need some months to learn swing rhythm on your instrument. I
remember you to stress always the upbeats.
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Références
Drums games, piano games, guitar games
[1]Drums games. Music games
Drums online games
[2]Drums music machine
free online music game
[3]Drums player
Online music machine
[4]Drums map
Drum flash movie
[5]Music machine
Ear music training
[6]Drums editor
Online drum game
Music online games
[7]Music Free online game
Try to repeat music.
[8]Ear training 01
Free music game
[9]Piano note
Free online teacher
[10]Chords piano
Write chords. then play the melody.
[11]Sound memory
Improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it.
[12]Draw lessons
How to draw free lessons
[13]Online games
Actions, Shooter, Logic online games
[acleardot.gif] [acleardot.gif]
What is music rhythm?
The music rhythm is the beat. It is the most important element in
music. It drives the music forward. It is the gasoline of music.
Rhythms can be simple or complicated.
Essential music vocabulary
Meter
It's the way we group the beats. We group eggs by the dozen. We group
days by the week. We also group beats into two's or three's. That's
meter.
Rhythm
The beat. The beat can be even or uneven, steady or unsteady.
Note Values
Long and short sounds in music are represented by notes. White notes
have longer sounds than black notes.
Tempo
This is the speed of the music.
Time Signature
This is a number that appears at the beginning of the music. The top
number tells you how many beats are in each measure (bar) and the
bottom number tells you what kind of a note gets one beat. The most
common times signatures are 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, and 6/8.
Whole music notes
These notes are whole notes. Each note is four beats long.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[14][whole.gif]
Half music notes
Here are half notes. Did you see the stems? These notes are twice as
fast as whole notes. These note are two beats long.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[15][half.gif]
Quarter music notes
These notes are black. They are quarter notes. Each quarter note gets
one beat. How many beats are in each measure? If you guessed four,
you'd be right!
Click the image to hear the note value.
[16][quarter.gif]
Eighth music notes
These are eighth notes. Notice how the stems are connected by a beam.
These notes move twice as fast as quarter notes. Two note are played
for each beat of music.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[17][eighth_.gif]
Combining Note Values
In 4/4 time, different note values can be combined in each measure as
long as they equal four beats. Click the examples to hear the rhythm
patterns:
[18][combo2.gif]
[19][combo3.gif]
[20][combo4.gif]
Music tempo
Tempo means speed. Musicians use Italian terms for different tempos.
Here is a melody fragment. Click the image to hear the tune:
[21][example.gif]
Click the words below to hear this tune played at different tempos.
Slow Medium Fast
Largo Largo is the slowest tempo.
Adagio Largo means slow or leisurely.
Andante Andante means a walking pace.
Moderato Moderato is medium. It is not too fast or too slow.
Allegro Allegro is fast. It means cheerful in Italian.
Vivace Vivace is quick and lively.
Presto Presto is very fast.
Meter
Meter is how we hear the groupings of beats in music. Music will be in
an even meter (groupings of 2's or 4's) or an odd meter (groupings of
3's).
Even Meters Are Groupings of 2 Beats A [22]march is played in a meter
of 2, which makes it an even meter. That means you will hear the beats
of the march move in patterns of two's.
Odd Meters Are Groupings of 3 Beats A [23]waltz is played in a meter of
three, which makes it an odd meter. That means you will hear the beats
of the waltz move in patterns of three's.
Can you hear meter in music? Click the examples below to identify
whether you hear the music moving in groups of two's or three's.
[24]Example 1 [25]Example 2 [26]Example 3 [27]Example 4 [28]Example 5
Time Signatures
The time signature helps us group the notes so we don't get lost. It's
the way we organize beats in music. It's like grouping eggs by the
dozen or days by the week. The top number tells us how many beats we
can have in one measure. In 4/4 time we have four beats in each
measure. What was the time signature in all of all the examples above?
Remember this: A beat is not the same thing as a note. Notes can have
more or less than one beat. A whole note in 4/4 time has four beats. A
half note in 4/4 time has two beats. An eighth note in 4/4 time has
just 1/2 beat. It takes two eighth notes to make one beat in 4/4 time.
Time signatures and meter: The time signature will tell you the music's
meter. If you can divide the top number by two, the music is in an even
meter. If you can divide the top number by three, the music is in an
odd meter.
Let's look at some popular time signatures and see if we can add up the
beats in each measure.
4/4 Time (Common Time)
[Common_time.gif]
Did you notice the number at the beginning of all the examples above?
That's the time signature. It's 4/4. That means that there are four
beats in each measure and the quarter note gets one beat. This time
signature is also called Common Time because it is the most popular
time signature in music.
Listen to [29]Somewhere Over the Rainbow from The Wizard of Oz. It's in
4/4 time. Each measure equals four beats. It is in an even meter.
[30][rainbow.gif]
3/4 Time (Waltz Time) [Three_four.gif]
A 3/4 time signature would only have three beats per measure. Here is
what it looks like.
Listen to [31]America played in 3/4 time. 3/4 is also called waltz
time. Did you notice the dots after some of the notes. Dotes make the
notes longer. This song is in an odd meter because there are three
beats per measure.
[32][amaerica.gif]
2/4 Time [Two_four.gif]
A 2/4 time signature has just two beats per measure. It looks like
this.
Listen to [33]You're a Grand Old Flag in 2/4 time. Do you see the line
connecting the last two notes. It is called a tie. What is the meter of
this song? Look at the time signature for your answer.
[34][grand.gif]
6/8 Time [Six_eight.gif]
A 6/8 time signature has six beats per measure. The bottom number is 8.
This tells you that the eighth note gets one beat.
Do you recognize the song [35]Follow the Yellow Brick Road from The
Wizard of Oz? It's in 6/8 time. This song goes fast, making it sound
like 2/4 rather than 6/8 time. This time signature can sound like an
even or odd meter because you can divide 6 by 2 or 3.
[36][wizaed.gif]
Drums online games
* [37]Drums music machine free online game
* [38]Drums player online music machine
* [39]Restore rhythm online ear training
* [40]Drums map movie
* [41]Drums editor online game
Music piano and guitar online games
* [42]Computer play a note pitch ear training. You try to understand
it and type c,d,e,f,g...
* [43]Computer show a note you try to understand it play keyboard
* [44]Music machine ear training
* [45]Piano music machine free online game you can compose melody and
play it. Try compose melody. This is very easy.
* [46]Music free online game. Try to repeat music.
* [47]Note pair online game. Find all notes. This game is very useful
for music memory improvement.
* [48]Notes shooter online game. Try to recognize note as fast as you
can.
* [49]Piano note free online teacher
* [50]Sound memory improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to
repeat it.
* [51]Drag music online game. Compose melody by notes.
* [52]Piano note editor. Compose melody. Use mouse for composing.
* [53]Find error at the melody online game. The computer play melody
then replace one note. Try to find error
Music machines
* [54]Orchestra quiz online music
* [55]Music quiz for kids
* [56]Virtual band
Music games for kids
* [57]Rainbow piano for kids. Computer show the color. Kids need to
press correct note.
* [58]Can you play jingle bells? Look at the note sheet and play.
* [59]Piano keyboard online game. Download piano keyboard movie on to
your computer and play.
Metronomes and fork
* [60]Light metronome online movie
* [61]Metronome online movie
* [62]Guitar tuning fork its help tune guitar
Guitar online games
* [63]Guitar music machine
* [64]Guitar chord finder
* [65]Guitar online chords
* [66]Guitar chords
* [67]Basic guitar chords and how it
* [68]Guitar chords machine with sound
* [69]Guitar scales
__________________________________________________________________
Free music games [70]AbabaSoft.com/music
Copyright © 1998 -
Références
[1]CAT.INIST
[2][USEMAP:bandeau-haut-droit.gif]
logo CNRS
[3]logo INIST
[4]En savoir plus sur CAT.INIST ?
© INIST Diffusion S.A.
Service Clients / Customer Service
2, allée du parc de Brabois
F-54514 Vandoeuvre Cedex France
Tél : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.64
Fax : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.66
Courriel : [5]infoclient@inist.fr
[6]Accueil / Home Imprimer / Print [7]Contact / Contact
Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [8]Email Print
[9]Bookmark and Share [10]Mendeley Back
Titre du document / Document title
Effects of pre-exercise listening to slow and fast rhythm music on
supramaximal cycle performance and selected metabolic variables
Auteur(s) / Author(s)
YAMAMOTO T.^ (1) ; OHKUWA T.^ (2) ; ITOH H.^ (2) ; KITOH M.^ (3) ;
TERASAWA J.^ (3) ; TSUDA T.^ (3) ; KITAGAWA S.^ (3) ; SATO Y.^ (1) ;
Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s)
^(1) Research Center of Health, Physical Fitness and Sports, Nagoya
University, 464-8601, JAPON
^(2) Department of General studies, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON
^(3) Department of Applied Chemistry, Nagoya Institute of Technology,
Showa-ku, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON
Résumé / Abstract
We examined the effect of listening to two different types of music
(with slow and fast rhythm), prior to supramaximal cycle exercise, on
performance, heart rate, the concentration of lactate and ammonia in
blood, and the concentration of catecholamines in plasma. Six male
students participated in this study. After listening to slow rhythm or
fast rhythm music for 20 min, the subjects performed supramaximal
exercise for 45 s using a cycle ergometer. Listening to slow and fast
rhythm music prior to supramaximal exercise did not significantly
affect the mean power output. The plasma norepinephrine concentration
immediately before the end of listening to slow rhythm music was
significantly lower than before listening (p < 0.05). The plasma
epinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to
fast rhythm music was significantly higher than before listening (p <
0.05). The type of music had no effect on blood lactate and ammonia
levels or on plasma catecholamine levels following exercise. In
conclusion, listening to slow rhythm music decreases the plasma
norepinephrine level, and listening to fast rhythm music increases the
plasma epinephrine level. The type of music has no impact on power
output during exercise.
Revue / Journal Title
Archives of physiology and biochemistry ISSN 1381-3455
Source / Source
2003, vol. 111, n^o3, pp. 211-214 [4 page(s) (article)] (14 ref.)
Langue / Language
Anglais
Revue : Français
Editeur / Publisher
Taylor & Francis, Basingstoke, ROYAUME-UNI (1995) (Revue)
Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords
Dopamine agonist ; Neurotransmitter ; Catecholamine ; Human ; Bicycle
ergometer ; Music ; Rhythm ; Dopamine ; Norepinephrine ; Epinephrine ;
Physical performance ; Heart rate ; Physical exercise ;
Mots-clés français / French Keywords
Stimulant dopaminergique ; Neurotransmetteur ; Catécholamine ; Homme ;
Bicyclette ergométrique ; Musique ; Rythme ; Dopamine ; Noradrénaline ;
Adrénaline ; Performance physique ; Rythme cardiaque ; Exercice
physique ;
Mots-clés espagnols / Spanish Keywords
Estimulante dopaminérgico ; Neurotransmisor ; Catecolamina ; Hombre ;
Bicicleta ergométrica ; Música ; Ritmo ; Dopamina ; Noradrenalina ;
Adrenalina ; Rendimiento físico ; Ritmo cardíaco ; Ejercicio físico ;
Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords
Slow music ; fast music ; epinephrine ; norepinephrine ; dopamine ;
supramaximal exercise ; power output ; lactate ; ammonia ; heart rate ;
Localisation / Location
INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 827, 35400011637312.0030
Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 15397711
Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [11]Email Print
[12]Bookmark and Share [13]Mendeley Back
_______________________________
Rechercher dans CAT.INIST / Search in CAT.INIST
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Basic Music Theory. Copyright Neil Hawes 1997
Rhythm
* Rhythm in music is dependent on the fact that humans recognise a
[1]beat occurring at a regular interval.
* Rhythm in music is more than just a [2]beat, however; it is the way
that sounds with differing lengths (or gaps between them) and
accents can combine to produce patterns in time which contain a
[3]beat.
+ These sounds do not have to be particularly musical; rhythms
can be made by striking almost anything, as long as there can
be difference in accent.
+ Differences in accent can mean different sounds or just
different loudness (i.e. amplitudes) of sounds
* It is common to speak of a particular rhythm, referring to a
pattern of [4]note lengths which occurs in a piece of music.
+ It is important to understand that the rhythm is defined by
the pattern; the overall speed of it could vary from
performance to performance, but the rhythm would still be the
same.
+ The speed or tempo of a piece of music is indicated by a
[5]metronome marking and/or a [6]direction word or phrase; its
rhythm is specified by various [7]note lengths creating
[8]beats within [9]bars.
* Modern songs often include [10]syncopation in their rhythm
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* [19]Jazz techniques : practice
Swing jazz rhythm in improvisation
Swing is very important in improvisation. This word means stressing the
upbeat.
If you also give a "sliding" or "retardation" between notes, you can
create the real swing jazz rhythm, which was born at the beginning of
the XX century about. When you stress an upbeat you make perhaps a
"swinging" rhythmics, (also being without a dragging or a sliding
between notes), for modern rhythm too, (such as pop and rhythm and
blues).
* When you play swing music, that is Dixieland, blues, ragtime,
swing, bebop, cool jazz, hard bop, you have to follow this scheme:
basic rhythmic pattern
...in this way:
swing jazz rhythm pattern
Learn swing jazz rhythm
In order to learn how to swing, you simply have to learn how to reason
in up beat and stressing with it constantly. In other words, swing
means "stressing the upbeat" with an implied octaves triplets clef.
It's so a rhythm "sliding" effect created : the meaning of the American
word "swing" is just similar to "sliding", "waving" or "rocking".
* For example these measures :
how to learn jazz swing
..must be played (in general) in this way:
fundamental jazz swing rhythm
In other words Swing has offbeat (upbeat) accents and an eighth-note
triplets rhythmic base.
Learning jazz swing
Learning swing very well and have the ability to improvise, stressing
and giving the right accent of phrases needs much time to practice it.
Above all, you must pay attention at the beginning to stress upbeat
octave notes constantly and to stop when you realize you are making the
contrary. While stressing notes on your instrument, I suggest to upbeat
by your foot, so that you can emphasize this rhythmic accent better.
You have to get used to reason in upbeat, beginning all over again, as
since we were children we have been starting clapping hands in
downbeat. Swing-jazz rhythm can be so learned naturally after studying
constantly in this direction.
* You need some months to learn swing rhythm on your instrument. I
remember you to stress always the upbeats.
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[8]Home: [9]Basic Music Theory Elements: Music Theory Rhythm
"Music Theory Rhythm"
"Your Journey in Music Rhythm"
Introduction:
Your journey to learn and master the music theory rhythm begins in this
section of the Music Learning Workshop. The music rhythm workshop
provides us with the basics needed to get rhythm down cold. below we
link to the beginner series of lessons.
We start with the essential building blocks of how to fundamentally
know rhythm and then expand our knowledge of rhythm music theory and
know how until we achieve mastery.
Learning Pyramid
The Basic Building Blocks of Rhythm
Rhythm forms the basis of music theory. It is what all other musical
elements are based upon. You can only survive so long in your musical
journey without the essential building block of rhythm.
Ask professional musicians: what one element of music do you find to be
most important? The answer will often be rhythm. As it is the one thing
that is least forgiven by the listener.
Our learning approach assumes a level of maturity in the student. Often
it is related to the age of about 8 years old. However, with proper
guidance younger ages can use the materials. We don't take a single
element to explore, but instead take a bigger picture and zero in on
the elements that make it work.
When we teach notes names or values we do it all at once, because it is
very important that you know how all of them are related right at the
start. This allows you jump start and accelerate your learning process.
Whatâs really neat is that if you get hung up you can go back and see
exactly what that single thing is and how it relates to other items in
context.
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Beginning Rhythm Music Theory Lessons
The sequence of lessons below are designed specifically for the newbie
music student. They start with an overview approach of just looking at
music components such as what is a measure a note in definition. We
then follow the approach detailed above.
Take your time
Beginning Rhythm
[11]Rhythm Definitions
[12]Note Symbols
[13]Note Symbols Practice
[14]Note Time Value
[15]Time Signatures
[16]Counting Rhythm Beats
[17]Counting Rhythm Using Rests
[18]Counting Rhythm Duple Pattern
[19]Counting Rhythm Quadruple Pattern
[20]Counting Rhythm Triplet pattern
[21]Note Relationships
[22]Reference Chart Beat vs Time
There is no hurry, it is far more important that you understand the
concepts than to rush through them to get to the next one. The better
you understand each step the easier the next one will be.
Start with some terms we will need to become familiar with when
discussing rhythm and music theory and move on through the lessons to
build up on the previous group of knowledge.
This outline shows the components of rhythm available on this site that
you can start learning.
This sequence is designed to quickly lead you through the basics of
what is needed to learn rhythm music theory.
The Music Learning Workshop "Get It Down Cold" Workbooks will be
available soon to lead you through the process.
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Beginning Rhythm
* [45]Rhythm Definitions
* [46]Note Symbols
* [47]Note Symbols Practice
* [48]Note Time Value
* [49]Time Signatures
* [50]Rhythm Counting Beats
* [51]Rhythm Counting Rests
* [52]Rhythm Duple Pattern
* [53]Rhythm Quadruple Pattern
* [54]Rhythm Triplet Pattern
* [55]Note Relationships
* [56]Rhythm Beat Chart
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With
Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from
Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications.
Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature
This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no
one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of
it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may
relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he
requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and
anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the
same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the
same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual
training, recitation, gymnastics, and play.
Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized
with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle
which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of
every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in
the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of
work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there
is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their
appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less
of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to
anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else
it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from
which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle
with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of
salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting
from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human
[40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important
changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality.
The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief
from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this
tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary
conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified
by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries. . . .
When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in
recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious
rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and
the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and
more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak.
Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with
instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is
laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of
activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to
elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to
primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which
threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving
mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. -
Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20.
. . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area
of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a
ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight
years in [42]duration are superposed.
. . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of
buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the
rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the
production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing
weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of
rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135.
Continue to:
* prev: [43]Rhythm In Nature
* [44]Table of Contents
* next: [45]The Cycle Of A Generation
Tags
[46]sociology, [47]communication, [48]congenial groups, [49]cycles of
change, [50]democracy, [51]factors of society, [52]government,
[53]heredity, [54]human nature, [55]institutions, [56]location,
[57]natural selection, [58]organizations, [59]population, [60]primary
groups, [61]social classes
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* [15]Finance
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* [17]Cooking
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With
Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from
Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications.
Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature
This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no
one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of
it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may
relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he
requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and
anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the
same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the
same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual
training, recitation, gymnastics, and play.
Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized
with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle
which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of
every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in
the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of
work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there
is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their
appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less
of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to
anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else
it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from
which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle
with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of
salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting
from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human
[40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important
changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality.
The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief
from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this
tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary
conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified
by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries. . . .
When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in
recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious
rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and
the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and
more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak.
Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with
instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is
laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of
activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to
elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to
primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which
threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving
mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. -
Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20.
. . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area
of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a
ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight
years in [42]duration are superposed.
. . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of
buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the
rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the
production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing
weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of
rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135.
Continue to:
* prev: [43]Rhythm In Nature
* [44]Table of Contents
* next: [45]The Cycle Of A Generation
Tags
[46]sociology, [47]communication, [48]congenial groups, [49]cycles of
change, [50]democracy, [51]factors of society, [52]government,
[53]heredity, [54]human nature, [55]institutions, [56]location,
[57]natural selection, [58]organizations, [59]population, [60]primary
groups, [61]social classes
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Cultural
Towards Lefebvrian Socio-Nature? A Film about Rhythm, Nature and Science
By [17]James Evans and [18]Phil Jones, School of Environment and
Development, University of Manchester School of Geography, Earth and
Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham (April 2008)
__________________________________________________________________
Section: [19]Cultural
Subjects: [20]Environment And Society, [21]Geography, [22]Urban
Geography, [23]Cultural Geography.
Key Topics: [24]nature , [25]representation.
Abstract
The first thing you will notice about this article is that it is
actually a film. We did not set out to make a film, it just ended up
that way. We started out making music out of environmental data,
wondering why we only ever look at scientific data, why we do not
listen to it. Wandering around the city passing through the transformed
landscapes of channelised rivers and broken industrial spaces, we
wanted to reveal the socio-natural rhythms of this hybrid city. The
text you see below represents the shooting script for a film that
explores Lefebvre's notion of rhythmanalysis in the context of
socio-natural rhythms. The video accompanying it is far more
interesting, including the environmental music that we produced by
feeding scientific data through samplers and drum machines. The video
questions the nature of scientific representation and whether the
notion of rhythmanalysis can be stretched to explore rhythms beyond the
human. Furthermore, the process of actually making the video,
submitting it to this journal, and responding to the referees' comments
made us question the very nature of what constitutes an academic paper
in the twenty-first century. The accompanying commentary is our attempt
to deal with these issues.
To link to the film please go to
DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00107.x
This article abstract has been viewed 5348 times.
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* [44]Postcolonialism, Representation, and the City
Topicality, the essence of good journalism, is perhaps less
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* [46]The Immaterial City: Representation, Imagination, and Media
Technologies
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It may seem strange to include a chapter on the production of
nature in a volume about economic geography. ...
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With
Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from
Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications.
Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature
This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no
one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of
it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may
relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he
requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and
anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the
same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the
same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual
training, recitation, gymnastics, and play.
Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized
with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle
which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of
every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in
the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of
work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there
is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their
appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less
of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to
anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else
it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from
which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle
with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of
salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting
from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human
[40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important
changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality.
The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief
from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this
tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary
conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified
by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries. . . .
When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in
recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious
rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and
the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and
more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak.
Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with
instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is
laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of
activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to
elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to
primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which
threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving
mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. -
Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20.
. . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area
of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a
ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight
years in [42]duration are superposed.
. . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of
buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the
rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the
production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing
weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of
rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135.
Continue to:
* prev: [43]Rhythm In Nature
* [44]Table of Contents
* next: [45]The Cycle Of A Generation
Tags
[46]sociology, [47]communication, [48]congenial groups, [49]cycles of
change, [50]democracy, [51]factors of society, [52]government,
[53]heredity, [54]human nature, [55]institutions, [56]location,
[57]natural selection, [58]organizations, [59]population, [60]primary
groups, [61]social classes
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Cultural
Towards Lefebvrian Socio-Nature? A Film about Rhythm, Nature and Science
By [17]James Evans and [18]Phil Jones, School of Environment and
Development, University of Manchester School of Geography, Earth and
Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham (April 2008)
__________________________________________________________________
Section: [19]Cultural
Subjects: [20]Environment And Society, [21]Geography, [22]Urban
Geography, [23]Cultural Geography.
Key Topics: [24]nature , [25]representation.
Abstract
The first thing you will notice about this article is that it is
actually a film. We did not set out to make a film, it just ended up
that way. We started out making music out of environmental data,
wondering why we only ever look at scientific data, why we do not
listen to it. Wandering around the city passing through the transformed
landscapes of channelised rivers and broken industrial spaces, we
wanted to reveal the socio-natural rhythms of this hybrid city. The
text you see below represents the shooting script for a film that
explores Lefebvre's notion of rhythmanalysis in the context of
socio-natural rhythms. The video accompanying it is far more
interesting, including the environmental music that we produced by
feeding scientific data through samplers and drum machines. The video
questions the nature of scientific representation and whether the
notion of rhythmanalysis can be stretched to explore rhythms beyond the
human. Furthermore, the process of actually making the video,
submitting it to this journal, and responding to the referees' comments
made us question the very nature of what constitutes an academic paper
in the twenty-first century. The accompanying commentary is our attempt
to deal with these issues.
To link to the film please go to
DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00107.x
This article abstract has been viewed 5348 times.
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J Public Health Policy. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2008 July
24.
Published in final edited form as:
[7]J Public Health Policy. 2006; 27(1): 2-12.
doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200061.
PMCID: PMC2483431
NIHMSID: NIHMS58476
[8]Copyright notice and [9]Disclaimer
Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature
Elena N. Naumova^*
^*Address for Correspondence: Department of Public Health and Family
Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Avenue,
Boston, MA 02111, USA. E-mail: elena.naumova/at/tufts.edu
Small right arrow pointing to: The publisher's final edited version of
this article is available at [10]J Public Health Policy.
Small right arrow pointing to: See other articles in PMC that [11]cite
the published article.
Abstract
Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course
of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences.
Understanding seasonal fluctuations in diseases patterns presents us
with a major challenge. To develop efficient strategies for disease
prevention and control, we need to grasp the main determinants of
temporal variations and their interactions. This paper will introduce
the notion of seasonality by outlining several of its factors, using as
illustrations respiratory and enteric water- or food-borne infections.
Keywords: seasonality, water-borne infection, food-borne infection,
respiratory infection
* [12] Other Sectionsv
+ [13]Abstract
+ [14]Introduction
+ [15]Notion of Seasonality
+ [16]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [17]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [18]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [19]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [20]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [21]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [22]References
Introduction
Now let us consider the seasons and the way we can predict whether it
is going to be a healthy or an unhealthy year.
(Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 10)^[23]1
Seasonal fluctuations in birth and death, in sickness and health, are
the haunting mysteries of mankind. People have made predictions from
winds, tides, birds' migrations, spring blooms, sunsets, and
constellations in hope of grasping the future. The complexity and
uncertainty of ancient and modern means of prediction make us wonder to
what extent we are able to understand the rhythm of nature. One might
argue the future cannot be known, but from a practical point of view, a
better understanding of changes in disease occurrences is essential for
building efficient strategies for disease prevention and control.
Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course
of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences.
Since Hippocrates, observers worldwide have noted and documented marked
fluctuations in the incidence of many diseases. In the modern view, the
main determinants of temporal variations in disease manifestation are
evolving host susceptibility, periodicity in pathogen abundance and
transmissibility, and the ever-changing environment that can support or
repress a host or pathogen. Interactions among these factors
responsible for seasonal variation are interwoven into the intricate
fabric of life.
For many diseases, explanations for self-sustained oscillations still
remain elusive. We lack adequate methods and sufficient analytical
tools for comprehensive examination of seasonality in public health
field studies. A dearth of observations, recorded over long periods at
fine resolution, compounded by an enormous number of factors associated
with periodic changes, obscure our ability to understand disease
variation. Urgent need for effective strategies to prevent and control
a spread of emerging infections in the rapidly changing world, however,
demands a deeper insight into the cyclic nature of diseases.
This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality and outline several
factors associated with seasonality using as illustrations enteric
water- or food-borne infections and respiratory infections. Then I
propose a framework for systematic evaluation of seasonal oscillations.
In every part of this presentation, and most importantly, I wish to
stimulate discussion on this challenging topic.
* [24] Other Sectionsv
+ [25]Abstract
+ [26]Introduction
+ [27]Notion of Seasonality
+ [28]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [29]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [30]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [31]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [32]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [33]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [34]References
Notion of Seasonality
Every disease occurs at any season of the year but some of them more
frequently occur and are of greater severity at certain times.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 19)
Seasonality, as noted above, refers to the cyclic appearance of events
over a period of time. A seasonal pattern may appear as a tight cluster
of isolated outbreaks that occurred during a relatively short time
period, then spreading over a wide geographic area.
For example, in a temporal curve of enteric infection cases (i.e.
giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, or rotavirus infections), a compact
cluster of outbreaks is followed by a long interval of low incidence.
Systematic recurrence of such sequences forms a seasonal pattern
typical of a specific pathogen in a given population and in a given
locality. A seasonal increase in enteric or respiratory infection often
produces a well-defined oscillating curve that starts to rise in one
season and declines over the next one.
The three main features characterize seasonality:
* a point in time when a seasonal curve reaches its maximum,
* an amplitude from peak to nadir, and
* a duration of a seasonal increase defined by a shape of a curve.
(The shape of a seasonal pattern reflects how fast a temporal curve
reaches its peak and declines to nadir over a course of a full
cycle. Depending on the length of a cycle whether it is one year or
a half of a year, a seasonal curve would have one or two peaks.)
Seasonal patterns, described by these three characteristics, may vary
for different diseases, different locations, or different
subpopulations. Many viral and bacterial infections in humans show
marked seasonal changes. In some diseases, like salmonellosis and
influenza, annual oscillations explain up to 60% of variability. Such
impact should not be ignored and deserves a proper examination.
* [35] Other Sectionsv
+ [36]Abstract
+ [37]Introduction
+ [38]Notion of Seasonality
+ [39]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [40]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [41]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [42]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [43]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [44]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [45]References
Diseases Seasonal Patterns
Diseases vary in their relationships one with another; some are
opposed, some are mutually agreeable.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 3)
Differences in diseases peaks reflect different etiology, heterogeneity
in host susceptibility, or route of transmission. In temperate
climates, Campylobacter and Salmonella infections are known to rise in
summer, giardiasis in early fall, and rotavirus infection in
mid-winter, etc. Interestingly, for the same infectious agent,
infections recorded in two different locations may present a different
pattern of incidence. A seasonal pattern for cryptosporidiosis in the
United States exhibits one late summer peak ([46]1); in contrast, in
the United Kingdom, two seasonal peaks are seen ([47]2). The UK picture
reflects two dominant sources of exposure: one from animals in the late
spring, and another from humans in the fall ([48]3).
Close temporal clustering of seasonal peaks in diseases that share
similar sources of exposure suggests dominant routes of transmissions.
Peaks in water-borne cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis often cluster
after a summer peak in ambient temperature. Such synchronization in
disease manifestation can be governed by environmental and social
factors. In some instances, periodicity of a given infection observed
in a particular population may be not present in another. A seasonal
peak in cryptosporidiosis cases observed in the general population is
not apparent in the immunocompromized HIV-positive gay men, even though
the incidence of cryptosporidiosis in HIV-positive population is very
high. This suggests differences in dominant routes of transmission.
Seasonal patterns can change over time. After intense vaccination
campaigns in the 1950s and 1970s in the United Kingdom, the patterns of
measles and pertussis changed, with the high rates of disease usually
seen when children were attending school diminishing for measles and
practically disappearing for pertusis ([49]4). Explanations for these
phenomena remain elusive. A departure from a systematically observed
pattern could reflect the evolution of a pathogen or a change in herd
immunity. A simple rule to remember is that a discovery hides in
outliers.
Faced with an abundance of causal agents, a bare observation of a rise
in the incidence of non-specific enteritis should be interpreted with
caution. A seasonal pattern can represent a mix of temporal curves.
Imagine two periodic curves of similar intensity, but one peaks in a
spring and another in a fall; the sum of these two curves might lose
the appearance of seasonality, covering two distinctly seasonal
phenomena.
Some infections are very rare. Their seasonal patterns are difficult to
examine because the relevant data must be collected over a very long
time and/or aggregated over large spatial units. Precision in
evaluating seasonality can thus be jeopardized by time-dependent and/or
space-dependent confounders.
Seasonal fluctuations can be found beyond infectious diseases; chronic
somatic diseases also exhibit substantial temporal variations.
Plausibly, exacerbations in chronic conditions are driven by infectious
agents or environmental changes. Understanding the interplay of an
infection and a chronic disease may lead to better control for both.
* [50] Other Sectionsv
+ [51]Abstract
+ [52]Introduction
+ [53]Notion of Seasonality
+ [54]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [55]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [56]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [57]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [58]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [59]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [60]References
Seasonal Host Susceptibility
When the weather is seasonable and the crops ripen at the regular
times, diseases are regular in their appearance...
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 8)
Poor nutrition directly affects host susceptibility. In places of food
scarcity, researchers suspect that temporal patterns in birth weight
and preterm delivery result from seasonal variations in food
availability ([61]5). In general, due to a less developed immune
system, young children are susceptible to infection; their immune
response may be further weakened by seasonal cutbacks in essential
micronutrients and vitamins.
Anemnestic responses to an antigen determine whether an infection
recurs. Short-lived immune memory together with seasonal changes in
pathogen transmissibility contribute further to the complexity of
seasonal patterns. Even a perfectly healthy person can experience a
change in susceptibility to infection due to stress, injuries, or
trauma. The probability of a marked impact of such factors on disease
seasonality is virtually unknown.
* [62] Other Sectionsv
+ [63]Abstract
+ [64]Introduction
+ [65]Notion of Seasonality
+ [66]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [67]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [68]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [69]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [70]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [71]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [72]References
Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
Some diseases are produced by the manner of life that is followed;
others by the life-giving air we breathe.
(Hippocrates. The Nature of Man, 9)
Temperature, humidity, and precipitation -- the defining factors of
seasons -- are important determinants of pathogens' survival. Changes
influence pathogens' potency and life expectancy, resulting in temporal
fluctuations in pathogens' abundance. In many instances, seasonal
changes in pathogen survival and transmission are inseparably related
to both biological and social aspects of our lives. They are
synchronized by weather. High ambient temperature, for example,
provides a supportive environment for food-borne pathogens, favoring
their multiplication in food and on food preparation surfaces ([73]6).
Food contamination is believed to be a significant mode of transmission
for infections caused by Salmonella and Campylobacter ([74]7);
therefore, during warm weather, the risk for food-borne diseases
increases ([75]8).
Seasonal changes in level of contamination, availability of potable
water, sanitation and hygiene practices, as well as crowding and
person-to-person contacts, affect pathogens' transmissibility.
Worldwide, water use differs from season to season ([76]9). In
temperate climates, warm weather leads to higher water consumption and
encourages outdoor activities -- swimming, camping, and recreational
water use. In tropical regions, contamination of surface water
increases during wet seasons. Although spread of pathogens via food is
certainly possible, contaminated water is the dominant source of
exposure for enteric infections caused by protozoa Cryptosporidium and
Giardia ([77]10 --[78]12). Depending on locality, outbreaks of
cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis associated with drinking or
recreational water frequently occur during warm or wet seasons
([79]13,[80]14).
With the onset of cooler weather, the "heating season" marks a change
in indoor air quality. Inadequate and poorly designed ventilation in
crowded public places and urban transit systems may boost exposure to
air-borne pathogens by increasing their concentration in stagnant air
and by re-circulating contaminated air. Higher relative humidity may
also affect the stability of air-borne droplets in which viruses travel
from person to person.
* [81] Other Sectionsv
+ [82]Abstract
+ [83]Introduction
+ [84]Notion of Seasonality
+ [85]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [86]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [87]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [88]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [89]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [90]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [91]References
Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
You will find, as a general rule, that the constitutions and the habits
of a people follow the nature of the land where they live.
(Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 24)
Diseases do not watch calendars. Their incidence rises and falls
because of changes in factors associated with the diseases. However, in
every culture all social events are synchronized by calendars; and
every calendar reflects the cyclic rhythm of nature.
Traditional celebrations and gatherings observed by communities
according to calendars affect pathogen transmission. Holidays, social
activities, and seasonal travel are often associated with changes in
food consumption and preparation, and are therefore associated with
changes in disease incidence. Preparing meat on a barbecue increases
the risk of Campylobacter infection ([92]15,[93]16) and foreign travel
increases the risk for enteric infections. Aggregation of children in
schools, daycare centers, and summer camps, reflecting school
calendars, facilitates rapid exchange of pathogens. There are marked
seasonal variations in transmission, and thus the incidence of enteric
and respiratory infections.
* [94] Other Sectionsv
+ [95]Abstract
+ [96]Introduction
+ [97]Notion of Seasonality
+ [98]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [99]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [100]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [101]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [102]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [103]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [104]References
Climate Change, Extreme Weather Events, and Disease Seasonality
The changes of the seasons are especially liable to beget diseases, as
are great changes from heat to cold, or cold to heat in any season.
Other changes in the weather have similarly severe effects.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 1)
As weather affects human health by creating favorable conditions for
pathogen proliferation and transmission, severe weather can affect the
timing and intensity of infectious outbreaks, and natural disasters
lead to drastic changes in population structure and pathogen ecology.
Catastrophic events like tsunamis, hurricanes, devastating floods, and
heat waves that cause deaths, population displacement, and
infrastructural damage may have dramatic effects on the incidence of
infections and their seasonal patterns.
Recent work has shown highly significant associations between extreme
precipitation and water-borne disease outbreaks ([105]17). Heavy
precipitation, rapid snowmelt, and floods flush animal wastes from the
land into surface waters and may overwhelm drinking and wastewater
treatment systems. The latter leads to discharges in watersheds of
untreated human wastes. As a result, pathogens can appear in drinking
and recreational water in very high concentrations ([106]18,[107]19). A
rapid snowmelt, resultant runoff, and filtration system failure at the
overloaded local drinking water treatment plant were implicated in the
largest known water-borne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis, which occurred
in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1993 ([108]20). This outbreak happened in
April, not within the usual seasonal peak for cryptosporidiosis cases.
A flood, which also resulted from a rapid snowmelt, has been linked
with a similar increased incidence of diarrhea ([109]21).
Experts expect that global climate change will increase climate
variability and the frequency of extreme precipitation events in
temperate regions ([110]22,[111]23). "Global warming" may also increase
the frequency and magnitude of other extreme weather events, such as
heat waves and droughts, and thereby have profound effects on public
health ([112]24,[113]25). In a comprehensive study conducted in the
United Kingdom that described a short-term link between temperature and
food poisoning, the authors also hypothesized that climate change could
lead to changes in rates of food poisoning ([114]26).
Integration of environmental parameters into disease forecasting and
warning systems could allow public health officials to alert the
populace when specific meteorological conditions pose predictable risks
to health ([115]27). Simple messages about proper food preparation and
refrigeration and the risks of using contaminated recreational waters
could, for example, be provided before, during, and after extreme
events. Better understanding of disease seasonality would also help to
predict outbreaks of infections triggered by climate variability.
* [116] Other Sectionsv
+ [117]Abstract
+ [118]Introduction
+ [119]Notion of Seasonality
+ [120]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [121]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [122]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [123]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [124]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [125]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [126]References
Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy
to Public Health Thinking
Desperate cases need the most desperate remedies.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, I, 6)
At first, seasonal fluctuations should be systematically described.
This requires a framework with sound definitions and analytic tools
suitable for routine use by public health professionals. In public
health sciences, the existing methodology currently lacks methods and
tests for assessing complex interactions in the time-dependent factors
responsible for disease seasonality.
Next, reliable data with fine temporal resolution are a must. The vast
majority of epidemiological studies have examined seasonal patterns of
infections using quarterly or monthly data. This coarse temporal
aggregation can thwart an otherwise detailed, accurate, and
comprehensive analysis of seasonal patterns and may even be misleading
([127]28). Examination of daily or weekly rates can substantially
improve evaluation of seasonal curves, but a systematic approach for
using at least weekly aggregates is needed.
Finally, reluctance to apply sophisticated mathematical models in
public health studies must be overcome. Underlying processes in disease
manifestation and spread are complex and multifaceted. Causal pathways
are often obscured. To disentangle causal effects of many factors
within the circular processes of self-sustaining oscillations demands
the careful building of sound conceptual models of seasonality; models
that can be tested. The emerging fields of computational epidemiology
and intelligent data mining will complement established work in
philosophy of science and mathematical biology to become an essential
part of thinking in public health and policy.
Acknowledgments
I thank Drs Eileen O'Neil and Beth Rosenberg for their thoughtful
suggestions, and the support of funding agencies: the National
Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (U19AI062627), and the
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R01ES013171).
Footnotes
^1Hippocrates' citations are taken from: Lloyd, GER, editor.
Hippocratic Writings. Trans. Chadwick J and Mann WN. London: Penguin;
1978.
* [128] Other Sectionsv
+ [129]Abstract
+ [130]Introduction
+ [131]Notion of Seasonality
+ [132]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [133]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [134]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [135]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [136]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [137]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [138]References
References
1. Naumova EN, Chen JT, Griffiths JK, Matyas BT, Estes-Smargiassi SA,
Morris RD. Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and
spatial variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis.
Public Health Rep. 2000;115(5):436-47. [[139]PubMed]
2. Naumova EN, Christodouleas J, Hunter PR, Syed Q. Effect of
precipitation on seasonal variability in cryptosporidiosis recorded by
the North West England surveillance system in 1990 --1999. J Water
Health. 2005;3(2):185-96. [[140]PubMed]
3. McLauchlin J, Amar C, Pedraza-Diaz S, Nichols GL. Molecular
epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in the United Kingdom:
results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in 1,705 fecal samples from
humans and 105 fecal samples from livestock animals. J Clin Microbiol.
2000;38(11):3984-90. [[141]PubMed]
4. Anderson RM, May RM. Infectious Diseases of Humans. New York: Oxford
University Press; 2004.
5. Fallis G, Hilditch J. A comparison of seasonal variation in
birthweights between rural Zaire and Ontario. Can J Public Health.
1989;80(3):205-8. [[142]PubMed]
6. Kusumaningrum HD, Riboldi G, Hazeleger WC, Beumer RR. Survival of
foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces and cross-contamination
to foods. Int J Food Microbiol. 2003;85(3):227-36. [[143]PubMed]
7. Mead PS, Slutsker L, Dietz V, McCaig LF, Bresee JS, Shapiro C, et
al. Food-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect
Dis. 1999;5(5):607-25. [[144]PubMed]
8. Kovats RS, Edwards SJ, Hajat S, Armstrong BG, Ebi KL, Menne B. The
effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series analysis of
salmonellosis in ten European countries. Epidemiol Infect.
2004;132(3):443-53. [[145]PubMed]
9. Gofti-Laroche L, Gratacap-Cavallier B, Genoulaz O, Joret JC,
Hartemann P, Seigneurin JM, et al. A new analytical tool to assess
health risks associated with the virological quality of drinking water
(EMIRA study). Water Sci Technol. 2001;43(12):39-48. [[146]PubMed]
10. Pruss A. Review of epidemiological studies on health effects from
exposure to recreational water. Int J Epidemiol. 1998;27(1):1-9.
[[147]PubMed]
11. Rose JB, Huffman DE, Riley K, Farrah SR, Lukasik JO, Hamann CL.
Reduction of enteric microorganisms at the Upper Occoquan Sewage
Authority Water Reclamation Plant. Water Environ Res.
2001;73(6):711-20. [[148]PubMed]
12. Rose JB, Slifko TR. Giardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and
their impact on foods: a review. J Food Prot. 1999;62(9):1059-70.
[[149]PubMed]
13. Barwick RS, Levy DA, Craun GF, Beach MJ, Calderon RL. Surveillance
for waterborne-disease outbreaks -- United States, 1997 --1998. MMWR
CDC Surveill Summ. 2000;49(4):1-21. [[150]PubMed]
14. Clavel A, Alivares JL, Fleta J, Castillo J, Varea M, Ramos FJ, et
al. Seasonality of cryptosporidiosis in children. Eur J Clin Microbiol
Inf Dis. 1996;15:77-9.
15. Kapperud G, Skjerve E, Bean NH, Ostroff SM, Lassen J. Risk factors
for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of a case --control
study in southeastern Norway. J Clin Microbiol. 1992;30(12):3117-21.
[[151]PubMed]
16. Neimann J, Engberg J, Molbak K, Wegener HC. A case --control study
of risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections in Denmark.
Epidemiol Infect. 2003;130(3):353-66. [[152]PubMed]
17. Curriero FC, Patz JA, Rose JB, Lele S. The association between
extreme precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United
States, 1948 --1994. Am J Pub Health. 2001;91(8):1194-9. [[153]PubMed]
18. Fayer R, Trout JM, Lewis EJ, Xiao L, Lal A, Jenkins MC, et al.
Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay.
Parasitol Res. 2002;88(11):998-1003. [[154]PubMed]
19. Kistemann T, Classen T, Koch C, Dangendorf F, Fischeder R, Gebel J,
et al. Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during
extreme rainfall and runoff. Appl Environ Microbiol.
2002;68(5):2188-97. [[155]PubMed]
20. MacKenzie WR, Hoxie NJ, Proctor ME, Gradus MS, Blair KA, Peterson
DE, et al. A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of Cryptosporidium infection
transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med.
1994;331(3):161-7. [[156]PubMed]
21. Wade TJ, Sandhu SK, Levy D, Lee S, LeChevallier MW, Katz L, et al.
Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the incidence of
gastrointestinal symptoms? Am J Epidemiol. 2004;159(4):398-405.
[[157]PubMed]
22. World Health Organization. Using climate to predict infectious
disease outbreaks: a review. World Health Organization; Geneva,
Switzerland: 2004. Publication no. WHO/SDE/OEH/04.01.
23. Easterling DR, Evans JL. Observed variability and trends in extreme
climate events. Bull Am Meteorol Soc. 2000;81:417-25.
24. Charron D, Thomas M, Waltner-Toews D, Aramini J, Edge T, Kent R, et
al. Vulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a
review. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004;67(20 --22):1667-77.
[[158]PubMed]
25. Patz JA, Epstein PR, Burke TA, Balbus JM. Global climate change and
emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996;275(3):217-23. [[159]PubMed]
26. Bentham G, Langford IH. Climate change and the incidence of food
poisoning in England and Wales. Int J Biometeorol. 1995;39(2):81-6.
[[160]PubMed]
27. Ebi KL, Schmier JK. A stitch in time: improving public health early
warning systems for extreme weather events. Epidemiol Rev.
2005;27:115-21. [[161]PubMed]
28. da Silva Lopes ACB. Spurious deterministic seasonality and
auto-correlation corrections with quarterly data: further Monte Carlo
results. Empir Econ. 1999;24(2):341-59.
__________________________________________________________________
PubMed articles by these authors
* [162]Naumova, E.
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Ecol Lett. 2006 Apr; 9(4):467-84.
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* [175]PubMed
* [176]Taxonomy
* [177]Taxonomy Tree
* [178]Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial
variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis.
Public Health Rep. 2000 Sep-Oct; 115(5):436-47.
[Public Health Rep. 2000]
* [179]Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in
cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance
system in 1990-1999.
J Water Health. 2005 Jun; 3(2):185-96.
[J Water Health. 2005]
* [180]Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in
the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in
1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from
livestock animals.
J Clin Microbiol. 2000 Nov; 38(11):3984-90.
[J Clin Microbiol. 2000]
[181]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [182]A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between
rural Zaire and Ontario.
Can J Public Health. 1989 May-Jun; 80(3):205-8.
[Can J Public Health. 1989]
[183]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [184]Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces
and cross-contamination to foods.
Int J Food Microbiol. 2003 Aug 25; 85(3):227-36.
[Int J Food Microbiol. 2003]
* [185]ReviewFood-related illness and death in the United States.
Emerg Infect Dis. 1999 Sep-Oct; 5(5):607-25.
[Emerg Infect Dis. 1999]
* [186]The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series
analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries.
Epidemiol Infect. 2004 Jun; 132(3):443-53.
[Epidemiol Infect. 2004]
[187]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [188]A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with
the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study).
Water Sci Technol. 2001; 43(12):39-48.
[Water Sci Technol. 2001]
* [189]ReviewReview of epidemiological studies on health effects from
exposure to recreational water.
Int J Epidemiol. 1998 Feb; 27(1):1-9.
[Int J Epidemiol. 1998]
* [190]ReviewGiardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their
impact on foods: a review.
J Food Prot. 1999 Sep; 62(9):1059-70.
[J Food Prot. 1999]
* [191]Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks--United States,
1997-1998.
MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000 May 26; 49(4):1-21.
[MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000]
[192]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [193]Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of
a case-control study in southeastern Norway.
J Clin Microbiol. 1992 Dec; 30(12):3117-21.
[J Clin Microbiol. 1992]
* [194]A case-control study of risk factors for sporadic
campylobacter infections in Denmark.
Epidemiol Infect. 2003 Jun; 130(3):353-66.
[Epidemiol Infect. 2003]
[195]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [196]The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne
disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948-1994.
Am J Public Health. 2001 Aug; 91(8):1194-9.
[Am J Public Health. 2001]
* [197]Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay.
Parasitol Res. 2002 Nov; 88(11):998-1003.
[Parasitol Res. 2002]
* [198]Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during
extreme rainfall and runoff.
Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002 May; 68(5):2188-97.
[Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002]
* [199]A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of cryptosporidium infection
transmitted through the public water supply.
N Engl J Med. 1994 Jul 21; 331(3):161-7.
[N Engl J Med. 1994]
* [200]Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the
incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms?
Am J Epidemiol. 2004 Feb 15; 159(4):398-405.
[Am J Epidemiol. 2004]
[201]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [202]ReviewVulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change
in Canada: a review.
J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004 Oct 22-Nov 26; 67(20-22):1667-77.
[J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004]
* [203]Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases.
JAMA. 1996 Jan 17; 275(3):217-23.
[JAMA. 1996]
* [204]Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England
and Wales.
Int J Biometeorol. 1995 Nov; 39(2):81-6.
[Int J Biometeorol. 1995]
[205]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [206]ReviewA stitch in time: improving public health early warning
systems for extreme weather events.
Epidemiol Rev. 2005; 27():115-21.
[Epidemiol Rev. 2005]
[207]See more articles cited in this paragraph
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With
Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from
Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications.
Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature
This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no
one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of
it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may
relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he
requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and
anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the
same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the
same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual
training, recitation, gymnastics, and play.
Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized
with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle
which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of
every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in
the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of
work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there
is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their
appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less
of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to
anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else
it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from
which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle
with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of
salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting
from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human
[40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important
changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality.
The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief
from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this
tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary
conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified
by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries. . . .
When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in
recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious
rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and
the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and
more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak.
Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with
instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is
laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of
activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to
elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to
primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which
threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving
mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. -
Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20.
. . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area
of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a
ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight
years in [42]duration are superposed.
. . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of
buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the
rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the
production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing
weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of
rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135.
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[53]heredity, [54]human nature, [55]institutions, [56]location,
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Cultural
Towards Lefebvrian Socio-Nature? A Film about Rhythm, Nature and Science
By [17]James Evans and [18]Phil Jones, School of Environment and
Development, University of Manchester School of Geography, Earth and
Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham (April 2008)
__________________________________________________________________
Section: [19]Cultural
Subjects: [20]Environment And Society, [21]Geography, [22]Urban
Geography, [23]Cultural Geography.
Key Topics: [24]nature , [25]representation.
Abstract
The first thing you will notice about this article is that it is
actually a film. We did not set out to make a film, it just ended up
that way. We started out making music out of environmental data,
wondering why we only ever look at scientific data, why we do not
listen to it. Wandering around the city passing through the transformed
landscapes of channelised rivers and broken industrial spaces, we
wanted to reveal the socio-natural rhythms of this hybrid city. The
text you see below represents the shooting script for a film that
explores Lefebvre's notion of rhythmanalysis in the context of
socio-natural rhythms. The video accompanying it is far more
interesting, including the environmental music that we produced by
feeding scientific data through samplers and drum machines. The video
questions the nature of scientific representation and whether the
notion of rhythmanalysis can be stretched to explore rhythms beyond the
human. Furthermore, the process of actually making the video,
submitting it to this journal, and responding to the referees' comments
made us question the very nature of what constitutes an academic paper
in the twenty-first century. The accompanying commentary is our attempt
to deal with these issues.
To link to the film please go to
DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00107.x
This article abstract has been viewed 5348 times.
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J Public Health Policy. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2008 July
24.
Published in final edited form as:
[7]J Public Health Policy. 2006; 27(1): 2-12.
doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200061.
PMCID: PMC2483431
NIHMSID: NIHMS58476
[8]Copyright notice and [9]Disclaimer
Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature
Elena N. Naumova^*
^*Address for Correspondence: Department of Public Health and Family
Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Avenue,
Boston, MA 02111, USA. E-mail: elena.naumova/at/tufts.edu
Small right arrow pointing to: The publisher's final edited version of
this article is available at [10]J Public Health Policy.
Small right arrow pointing to: See other articles in PMC that [11]cite
the published article.
Abstract
Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course
of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences.
Understanding seasonal fluctuations in diseases patterns presents us
with a major challenge. To develop efficient strategies for disease
prevention and control, we need to grasp the main determinants of
temporal variations and their interactions. This paper will introduce
the notion of seasonality by outlining several of its factors, using as
illustrations respiratory and enteric water- or food-borne infections.
Keywords: seasonality, water-borne infection, food-borne infection,
respiratory infection
* [12] Other Sectionsv
+ [13]Abstract
+ [14]Introduction
+ [15]Notion of Seasonality
+ [16]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [17]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [18]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [19]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [20]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [21]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [22]References
Introduction
Now let us consider the seasons and the way we can predict whether it
is going to be a healthy or an unhealthy year.
(Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 10)^[23]1
Seasonal fluctuations in birth and death, in sickness and health, are
the haunting mysteries of mankind. People have made predictions from
winds, tides, birds' migrations, spring blooms, sunsets, and
constellations in hope of grasping the future. The complexity and
uncertainty of ancient and modern means of prediction make us wonder to
what extent we are able to understand the rhythm of nature. One might
argue the future cannot be known, but from a practical point of view, a
better understanding of changes in disease occurrences is essential for
building efficient strategies for disease prevention and control.
Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course
of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences.
Since Hippocrates, observers worldwide have noted and documented marked
fluctuations in the incidence of many diseases. In the modern view, the
main determinants of temporal variations in disease manifestation are
evolving host susceptibility, periodicity in pathogen abundance and
transmissibility, and the ever-changing environment that can support or
repress a host or pathogen. Interactions among these factors
responsible for seasonal variation are interwoven into the intricate
fabric of life.
For many diseases, explanations for self-sustained oscillations still
remain elusive. We lack adequate methods and sufficient analytical
tools for comprehensive examination of seasonality in public health
field studies. A dearth of observations, recorded over long periods at
fine resolution, compounded by an enormous number of factors associated
with periodic changes, obscure our ability to understand disease
variation. Urgent need for effective strategies to prevent and control
a spread of emerging infections in the rapidly changing world, however,
demands a deeper insight into the cyclic nature of diseases.
This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality and outline several
factors associated with seasonality using as illustrations enteric
water- or food-borne infections and respiratory infections. Then I
propose a framework for systematic evaluation of seasonal oscillations.
In every part of this presentation, and most importantly, I wish to
stimulate discussion on this challenging topic.
* [24] Other Sectionsv
+ [25]Abstract
+ [26]Introduction
+ [27]Notion of Seasonality
+ [28]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [29]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [30]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [31]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [32]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [33]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [34]References
Notion of Seasonality
Every disease occurs at any season of the year but some of them more
frequently occur and are of greater severity at certain times.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 19)
Seasonality, as noted above, refers to the cyclic appearance of events
over a period of time. A seasonal pattern may appear as a tight cluster
of isolated outbreaks that occurred during a relatively short time
period, then spreading over a wide geographic area.
For example, in a temporal curve of enteric infection cases (i.e.
giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, or rotavirus infections), a compact
cluster of outbreaks is followed by a long interval of low incidence.
Systematic recurrence of such sequences forms a seasonal pattern
typical of a specific pathogen in a given population and in a given
locality. A seasonal increase in enteric or respiratory infection often
produces a well-defined oscillating curve that starts to rise in one
season and declines over the next one.
The three main features characterize seasonality:
* a point in time when a seasonal curve reaches its maximum,
* an amplitude from peak to nadir, and
* a duration of a seasonal increase defined by a shape of a curve.
(The shape of a seasonal pattern reflects how fast a temporal curve
reaches its peak and declines to nadir over a course of a full
cycle. Depending on the length of a cycle whether it is one year or
a half of a year, a seasonal curve would have one or two peaks.)
Seasonal patterns, described by these three characteristics, may vary
for different diseases, different locations, or different
subpopulations. Many viral and bacterial infections in humans show
marked seasonal changes. In some diseases, like salmonellosis and
influenza, annual oscillations explain up to 60% of variability. Such
impact should not be ignored and deserves a proper examination.
* [35] Other Sectionsv
+ [36]Abstract
+ [37]Introduction
+ [38]Notion of Seasonality
+ [39]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [40]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [41]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [42]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [43]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [44]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [45]References
Diseases Seasonal Patterns
Diseases vary in their relationships one with another; some are
opposed, some are mutually agreeable.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 3)
Differences in diseases peaks reflect different etiology, heterogeneity
in host susceptibility, or route of transmission. In temperate
climates, Campylobacter and Salmonella infections are known to rise in
summer, giardiasis in early fall, and rotavirus infection in
mid-winter, etc. Interestingly, for the same infectious agent,
infections recorded in two different locations may present a different
pattern of incidence. A seasonal pattern for cryptosporidiosis in the
United States exhibits one late summer peak ([46]1); in contrast, in
the United Kingdom, two seasonal peaks are seen ([47]2). The UK picture
reflects two dominant sources of exposure: one from animals in the late
spring, and another from humans in the fall ([48]3).
Close temporal clustering of seasonal peaks in diseases that share
similar sources of exposure suggests dominant routes of transmissions.
Peaks in water-borne cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis often cluster
after a summer peak in ambient temperature. Such synchronization in
disease manifestation can be governed by environmental and social
factors. In some instances, periodicity of a given infection observed
in a particular population may be not present in another. A seasonal
peak in cryptosporidiosis cases observed in the general population is
not apparent in the immunocompromized HIV-positive gay men, even though
the incidence of cryptosporidiosis in HIV-positive population is very
high. This suggests differences in dominant routes of transmission.
Seasonal patterns can change over time. After intense vaccination
campaigns in the 1950s and 1970s in the United Kingdom, the patterns of
measles and pertussis changed, with the high rates of disease usually
seen when children were attending school diminishing for measles and
practically disappearing for pertusis ([49]4). Explanations for these
phenomena remain elusive. A departure from a systematically observed
pattern could reflect the evolution of a pathogen or a change in herd
immunity. A simple rule to remember is that a discovery hides in
outliers.
Faced with an abundance of causal agents, a bare observation of a rise
in the incidence of non-specific enteritis should be interpreted with
caution. A seasonal pattern can represent a mix of temporal curves.
Imagine two periodic curves of similar intensity, but one peaks in a
spring and another in a fall; the sum of these two curves might lose
the appearance of seasonality, covering two distinctly seasonal
phenomena.
Some infections are very rare. Their seasonal patterns are difficult to
examine because the relevant data must be collected over a very long
time and/or aggregated over large spatial units. Precision in
evaluating seasonality can thus be jeopardized by time-dependent and/or
space-dependent confounders.
Seasonal fluctuations can be found beyond infectious diseases; chronic
somatic diseases also exhibit substantial temporal variations.
Plausibly, exacerbations in chronic conditions are driven by infectious
agents or environmental changes. Understanding the interplay of an
infection and a chronic disease may lead to better control for both.
* [50] Other Sectionsv
+ [51]Abstract
+ [52]Introduction
+ [53]Notion of Seasonality
+ [54]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [55]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [56]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [57]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [58]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [59]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [60]References
Seasonal Host Susceptibility
When the weather is seasonable and the crops ripen at the regular
times, diseases are regular in their appearance...
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 8)
Poor nutrition directly affects host susceptibility. In places of food
scarcity, researchers suspect that temporal patterns in birth weight
and preterm delivery result from seasonal variations in food
availability ([61]5). In general, due to a less developed immune
system, young children are susceptible to infection; their immune
response may be further weakened by seasonal cutbacks in essential
micronutrients and vitamins.
Anemnestic responses to an antigen determine whether an infection
recurs. Short-lived immune memory together with seasonal changes in
pathogen transmissibility contribute further to the complexity of
seasonal patterns. Even a perfectly healthy person can experience a
change in susceptibility to infection due to stress, injuries, or
trauma. The probability of a marked impact of such factors on disease
seasonality is virtually unknown.
* [62] Other Sectionsv
+ [63]Abstract
+ [64]Introduction
+ [65]Notion of Seasonality
+ [66]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [67]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [68]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [69]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [70]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [71]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [72]References
Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
Some diseases are produced by the manner of life that is followed;
others by the life-giving air we breathe.
(Hippocrates. The Nature of Man, 9)
Temperature, humidity, and precipitation -- the defining factors of
seasons -- are important determinants of pathogens' survival. Changes
influence pathogens' potency and life expectancy, resulting in temporal
fluctuations in pathogens' abundance. In many instances, seasonal
changes in pathogen survival and transmission are inseparably related
to both biological and social aspects of our lives. They are
synchronized by weather. High ambient temperature, for example,
provides a supportive environment for food-borne pathogens, favoring
their multiplication in food and on food preparation surfaces ([73]6).
Food contamination is believed to be a significant mode of transmission
for infections caused by Salmonella and Campylobacter ([74]7);
therefore, during warm weather, the risk for food-borne diseases
increases ([75]8).
Seasonal changes in level of contamination, availability of potable
water, sanitation and hygiene practices, as well as crowding and
person-to-person contacts, affect pathogens' transmissibility.
Worldwide, water use differs from season to season ([76]9). In
temperate climates, warm weather leads to higher water consumption and
encourages outdoor activities -- swimming, camping, and recreational
water use. In tropical regions, contamination of surface water
increases during wet seasons. Although spread of pathogens via food is
certainly possible, contaminated water is the dominant source of
exposure for enteric infections caused by protozoa Cryptosporidium and
Giardia ([77]10 --[78]12). Depending on locality, outbreaks of
cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis associated with drinking or
recreational water frequently occur during warm or wet seasons
([79]13,[80]14).
With the onset of cooler weather, the "heating season" marks a change
in indoor air quality. Inadequate and poorly designed ventilation in
crowded public places and urban transit systems may boost exposure to
air-borne pathogens by increasing their concentration in stagnant air
and by re-circulating contaminated air. Higher relative humidity may
also affect the stability of air-borne droplets in which viruses travel
from person to person.
* [81] Other Sectionsv
+ [82]Abstract
+ [83]Introduction
+ [84]Notion of Seasonality
+ [85]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [86]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [87]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [88]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [89]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [90]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [91]References
Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
You will find, as a general rule, that the constitutions and the habits
of a people follow the nature of the land where they live.
(Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 24)
Diseases do not watch calendars. Their incidence rises and falls
because of changes in factors associated with the diseases. However, in
every culture all social events are synchronized by calendars; and
every calendar reflects the cyclic rhythm of nature.
Traditional celebrations and gatherings observed by communities
according to calendars affect pathogen transmission. Holidays, social
activities, and seasonal travel are often associated with changes in
food consumption and preparation, and are therefore associated with
changes in disease incidence. Preparing meat on a barbecue increases
the risk of Campylobacter infection ([92]15,[93]16) and foreign travel
increases the risk for enteric infections. Aggregation of children in
schools, daycare centers, and summer camps, reflecting school
calendars, facilitates rapid exchange of pathogens. There are marked
seasonal variations in transmission, and thus the incidence of enteric
and respiratory infections.
* [94] Other Sectionsv
+ [95]Abstract
+ [96]Introduction
+ [97]Notion of Seasonality
+ [98]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [99]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [100]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [101]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [102]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [103]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [104]References
Climate Change, Extreme Weather Events, and Disease Seasonality
The changes of the seasons are especially liable to beget diseases, as
are great changes from heat to cold, or cold to heat in any season.
Other changes in the weather have similarly severe effects.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 1)
As weather affects human health by creating favorable conditions for
pathogen proliferation and transmission, severe weather can affect the
timing and intensity of infectious outbreaks, and natural disasters
lead to drastic changes in population structure and pathogen ecology.
Catastrophic events like tsunamis, hurricanes, devastating floods, and
heat waves that cause deaths, population displacement, and
infrastructural damage may have dramatic effects on the incidence of
infections and their seasonal patterns.
Recent work has shown highly significant associations between extreme
precipitation and water-borne disease outbreaks ([105]17). Heavy
precipitation, rapid snowmelt, and floods flush animal wastes from the
land into surface waters and may overwhelm drinking and wastewater
treatment systems. The latter leads to discharges in watersheds of
untreated human wastes. As a result, pathogens can appear in drinking
and recreational water in very high concentrations ([106]18,[107]19). A
rapid snowmelt, resultant runoff, and filtration system failure at the
overloaded local drinking water treatment plant were implicated in the
largest known water-borne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis, which occurred
in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1993 ([108]20). This outbreak happened in
April, not within the usual seasonal peak for cryptosporidiosis cases.
A flood, which also resulted from a rapid snowmelt, has been linked
with a similar increased incidence of diarrhea ([109]21).
Experts expect that global climate change will increase climate
variability and the frequency of extreme precipitation events in
temperate regions ([110]22,[111]23). "Global warming" may also increase
the frequency and magnitude of other extreme weather events, such as
heat waves and droughts, and thereby have profound effects on public
health ([112]24,[113]25). In a comprehensive study conducted in the
United Kingdom that described a short-term link between temperature and
food poisoning, the authors also hypothesized that climate change could
lead to changes in rates of food poisoning ([114]26).
Integration of environmental parameters into disease forecasting and
warning systems could allow public health officials to alert the
populace when specific meteorological conditions pose predictable risks
to health ([115]27). Simple messages about proper food preparation and
refrigeration and the risks of using contaminated recreational waters
could, for example, be provided before, during, and after extreme
events. Better understanding of disease seasonality would also help to
predict outbreaks of infections triggered by climate variability.
* [116] Other Sectionsv
+ [117]Abstract
+ [118]Introduction
+ [119]Notion of Seasonality
+ [120]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [121]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [122]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [123]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [124]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [125]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [126]References
Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy
to Public Health Thinking
Desperate cases need the most desperate remedies.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, I, 6)
At first, seasonal fluctuations should be systematically described.
This requires a framework with sound definitions and analytic tools
suitable for routine use by public health professionals. In public
health sciences, the existing methodology currently lacks methods and
tests for assessing complex interactions in the time-dependent factors
responsible for disease seasonality.
Next, reliable data with fine temporal resolution are a must. The vast
majority of epidemiological studies have examined seasonal patterns of
infections using quarterly or monthly data. This coarse temporal
aggregation can thwart an otherwise detailed, accurate, and
comprehensive analysis of seasonal patterns and may even be misleading
([127]28). Examination of daily or weekly rates can substantially
improve evaluation of seasonal curves, but a systematic approach for
using at least weekly aggregates is needed.
Finally, reluctance to apply sophisticated mathematical models in
public health studies must be overcome. Underlying processes in disease
manifestation and spread are complex and multifaceted. Causal pathways
are often obscured. To disentangle causal effects of many factors
within the circular processes of self-sustaining oscillations demands
the careful building of sound conceptual models of seasonality; models
that can be tested. The emerging fields of computational epidemiology
and intelligent data mining will complement established work in
philosophy of science and mathematical biology to become an essential
part of thinking in public health and policy.
Acknowledgments
I thank Drs Eileen O'Neil and Beth Rosenberg for their thoughtful
suggestions, and the support of funding agencies: the National
Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (U19AI062627), and the
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R01ES013171).
Footnotes
^1Hippocrates' citations are taken from: Lloyd, GER, editor.
Hippocratic Writings. Trans. Chadwick J and Mann WN. London: Penguin;
1978.
* [128] Other Sectionsv
+ [129]Abstract
+ [130]Introduction
+ [131]Notion of Seasonality
+ [132]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [133]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [134]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [135]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [136]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [137]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [138]References
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* [162]Naumova, E.
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* [178]Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial
variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis.
Public Health Rep. 2000 Sep-Oct; 115(5):436-47.
[Public Health Rep. 2000]
* [179]Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in
cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance
system in 1990-1999.
J Water Health. 2005 Jun; 3(2):185-96.
[J Water Health. 2005]
* [180]Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in
the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in
1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from
livestock animals.
J Clin Microbiol. 2000 Nov; 38(11):3984-90.
[J Clin Microbiol. 2000]
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analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries.
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[Epidemiol Infect. 2004]
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[Epidemiol Rev. 2005]
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Circadian rhythm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search
"Human clock" redirects here. For the online clock, see [8]Humanclock.
Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological
parameters.
A circadian rhythm is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical,
physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including
[9]plants, [10]animals, [11]fungi and [12]cyanobacteria (see
[13]bacterial circadian rhythms). The term "circadian", coined by
[14]Franz Halberg,^[15][1] comes from the [16]Latin [17]circa,
"around", and diem or dies, "day", meaning literally "approximately one
day". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily,
[18]tidal, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called
[19]chronobiology.
Circadian rhythms are [20]endogenously generated, and can be entrained
by external cues, called [21]zeitgebers, the primary one of which is
[22]daylight.
Contents
* [23]1 History
* [24]2 Criteria
* [25]3 Origin
* [26]4 Importance in animals
+ [27]4.1 Impact of light-dark cycle
+ [28]4.2 Arctic animals
+ [29]4.3 Butterfly migration
* [30]5 Biological clock in mammals
+ [31]5.1 Determining the human circadian rhythm
+ [32]5.2 Outside the "master clock"
* [33]6 Light and the biological clock
* [34]7 Enforced longer cycles
* [35]8 Human health
+ [36]8.1 Disruption
+ [37]8.2 Effect of drugs
* [38]9 See also
* [39]10 References
+ [40]10.1 Bibliography
+ [41]10.2 Notes
* [42]11 External links
[[43]edit] History
The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th
century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under
[44]Alexander the Great, described [45]diurnal leaf movements of the
[46]tamarind tree.^[47][2] The first modern observation of endogenous
circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [48]Jean-Jacques
d'Ortous de Mairan in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the
movement of the leaves of the plant [49]Mimosa pudica continued even
when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
In 1918, J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining
24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light
and changes in temperature.^[50][3] [51]Joseph Takahashi discovered the
genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.^[52][4]^[53][5]
[[54]edit] Criteria
To differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from
coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met: 1)
the rhythms persist in the absence of cues, 2) they persist equally
precisely over a range of temperatures, and 3) the rhythms can be
adjusted to match the local time:
* The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant
dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this
criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those "apparent"
rhythms that are merely responses to external periodic cues. A
rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been
tested in conditions without external periodic input.
* The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e., it maintains the same
period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this
criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological
rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway.
At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a
circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely
coincidental.
* The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The
rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms
from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to
resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of
estimating the local time. Travel across [55]time zones illustrates
the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that
it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next.
Until rhythms are reset, a person usually experiences [56]jet lag.
[[57]edit] Origin
[58]Question book-new.svg
This section needs additional [59]citations for [60]verification.
Please help [61]improve this article by adding [62]reliable references.
Unsourced material may be [63]challenged and [64]removed. (October
2007)
Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have
originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the
replicating of DNA from high [65]ultraviolet radiation during the
daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus
[66]Neurospora, which exists today, retains this [67]clock-regulated
mechanism.
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise
and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to
the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in
regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in
coordinating with the environment.^[68][6] This is suggested by the
maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after
several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,^[69][7]
as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the
experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian
rhythms in quail.^[70][8]
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic
[71]cyanobacteria. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian
clock of Synechococcus elongatus can be reconstituted in vitro with
just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has
been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the
addition of [72]ATP. Previous explanations of the [73]prokaryotic
circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription /
translation feedback mechanism.
It is an unanswered question whether circadian clocks in eukaryotic
organisms require translation/transcription-derived oscillations, for,
although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the
same basic architecture (input - [74]central oscillator - output), they
do not share any [75]homology. This implies probable independent
origins.
In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [76]Seymour Benzer first identified a
genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a
model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behaviour:
one had a shorter period, another had a longer one, and the third had
none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named
[77]period.^[78][9] The same gene was identified to be defective in the
sleep disorder FASPS ([79]Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome) in
human beings thirty years later, underscoring the conserved nature of
the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic
components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions
result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in
periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a
specific time of the day.
A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter
half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian
clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is
cell-autonomous.^[80][10] At the same time, different cells may
communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of
electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the
brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for
these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronize the
peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time
of the day as relayed by the [81]eyes travels to the clock in the
brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be
synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body
temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the
biological clock.
[[82]edit] Importance in animals
Circadian rhythmicity is present in the [83]sleeping and feeding
patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear
patterns of core body temperature, [84]brain wave activity, [85]hormone
production, cell regeneration and other biological activities. In
addition, [86]photoperiodism, the physiological reaction of organisms
to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and
the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation
of day length.
" Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food
availability or predator activity is crucial for survival of many
species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the
photoperiod ('daylength') is the most predictive environmental cue for
the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing
of migration, hibernation and reproduction.^[87][11] "
[[88]edit] Impact of light-dark cycle
The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals, including
humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function
with a [89]freerunning rhythm. Each "day", their sleep cycle is pushed
back or forward, depending on whether their [90]endogenous period is
shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that each day
reset the rhythms are called [91]Zeitgebers (from the German, Time
Givers).^[92][12] It is interesting to note that totally-blind
subterranean mammals (e.g., [93]blind mole rat Spalax sp.) are able to
maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external
stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors
(detect light) are still functional; as well, they do surface
periodically.^[[94]citation needed]
Freerunning organisms that normally have one consolidated sleep episode
will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues,
but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light/dark
cycle in nature. The sleep-wake rhythm may, in these circumstances,
become out of phase with other circadian or [95]ultradian rhythms such
as [96]temperature and [97]digestion.^[[98]citation needed]
Recent research has influenced the design of [99]spacecraft
environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been
found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.^[[100]citation needed]
[[101]edit] Arctic animals
Norwegian researchers at the [102]University of Tromsø have shown that
some Arctic animals ([103]ptarmigan, [104]reindeer) show circadian
rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and
sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at [105]70 degrees North
showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter, and spring, but not in
the summer. Reindeer at [106]78 degrees North showed such rhythms only
autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other Arctic animals as
well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and
the constant dark of winter.^[107][13]^[108][14]
However, another study in northern Alaska found that [109]ground
squirrels and [110]porcupines strictly maintained their circadian
rhythms through 82 days and nights of sunshine. The researchers
speculate that these two small mammals see that the apparent distance
between the sun and the horizon is shortest once a day, and, thus, a
sufficient signal to adjust by.^[111][15]
[[112]edit] Butterfly migration
The navigation of the fall migration of the [113]Eastern North American
monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) to their overwintering grounds in
central Mexico uses a time-compensated sun compass that depends upon a
circadian clock in their antennae.^[114][16]^[115][17]
[[116]edit] Biological clock in mammals
Diagram illustrating the influence of light and darkness on circadian
rhythms and related [117]physiology and behaviour through the
[118]suprachiasmatic nucleus in humans.
The primary circadian "clock" in [119]mammals is located in the
[120]suprachiasmatic nucleus (or nuclei) ([121]SCN), a pair of distinct
groups of [122]cells located in the [123]hypothalamus. Destruction of
the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep-wake rhythm.
The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The
[124]retina of the eyes contains not only "classical"
[125]photoreceptors but also photoresponsive retinal [126]ganglion
cells. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called
[127]melanopsin, follow a pathway called the [128]retinohypothalamic
tract, leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and
cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external
cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on the lengths of the day
and night from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the
[129]pineal gland, a tiny structure shaped like a [130]pine cone and
located on the [131]epithalamus. In response the pineal secretes the
hormone [132]melatonin. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs
during the day and its presence provides information about
night-length.
The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter
and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard
have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a
23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural
solar day-night cycle on the planet [133]Mars).^[134][18]
[[135]edit] Determining the human circadian rhythm
The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's
circadian rhythm are
* melatonin secretion by the pineal gland and
* core body temperature.
For temperature studies, people must remain awake but calm and
semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are
taken continuously. The average human adult's temperature reaches its
minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake
time, though variation is great among normal [136]chronotypes.
Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime.
Its onset in dim light, dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO), at about
21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Its major
[137]metabolite can also be measured in morning urine. Both DLMO and
the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or
saliva have been used as circadian markers.
However, newer research indicates that the melatonin offset may be the
most reliable marker. Benloucif et al. in Chicago in 2005 found that
melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated
with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found
that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly
correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In
addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable
and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.^[138][19]
One method used for measuring melatonin offset is to analyse a sequence
of urine samples throughout the morning for the presence of the
melatonin [139]metabolite 6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s). Laberge et al.
in Quebec in 1997 used this method in a study that confirmed the
frequently found delayed circadian phase in healthy
adolescents.^[140][20]
[[141]edit] Outside the "master clock"
More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and
cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the "master
clock". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the
[142]oesophagus, [143]lungs, [144]liver, [145]pancreas, [146]spleen,
[147]thymus, and the [148]skin.^[149][21] Though oscillators in the
skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven so
far.^[150][22]^[151][23] There is some evidence that also the olfactory
bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting
that also these structures may be weak oscillators.
Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding
rather than to [152]light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to
have freerunning rhythms.
[[153]edit] Light and the biological clock
Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [154]phase
response curve (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or
delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required
[155]illuminance vary from species to species and lower light levels
are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm in humans are higher than
the levels usually used in artificial lighting in homes. According to
some researchers^[156][24] the illumination intensity that excites the
circadian system has to reach up to 1000 [157]lux striking the retina.
In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or colour) of light is a
factor in the entrainment of the body clock. [158]Melanopsin is most
efficiently excited by blue light, 420-440 nm^[159][25] according to
some researchers while others have reported 470-485 nm.
It is thought that the direction of the light may have an effect on
entraining the circadian rhythm;^[160][24] light coming from above,
resembling an image of a bright sky, has greater effect than light
entering our eyes from below.
[[161]edit] Enforced longer cycles
Modern research under very controlled conditions has shown the human
period for adults to be just slightly longer than 24 hours on average.
Czeisler et al. at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults
of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes.
The "clock" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's
rotation.^[162][26]
The 28-hour day is presented as a concept of [163]time
management.^[164][27] It builds on the fact that the week of seven days
at 24 hours and a "week" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of
168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require
staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours.
Each "day" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern.
Studies by [165]Nathaniel Kleitman^[166][28] in 1938 and by
[167]Derk-Jan Dijk and [168]Charles Czeisler^[169][29]^[170][30] in
1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep-wake cycles,
in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a
month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day,^[171][31]
this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake
episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about
24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of
circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including
[172]sleep latency and other functions.^[173][32]
Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people
preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli
like daylight and timekeeping. Early investigators determined the human
circadian period to be 25 hours or more. They went to great lengths to
shield subjects from time cues and daylight, but they were not aware of
the effects of indoor electric lights. The subjects were allowed to
turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted
to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase.
These results became well known.^[174][26] Researchers allowed subjects
to keep electric lighting on in the evening, as it was thought at that
time that a couple of 60W bulbs would not have a resetting effect on
the circadian rhythms of humans. More recent research^[[175]citation
needed] has shown that adults have a built-in day, which averages just
over 24 hours, that indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms and
that most people attain their best-quality sleep during their
[176]chronotype-determined sleep periods.
[[177]edit] Human health
Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may
significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse
reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with
[178]angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) may reduce
nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [179]left ventricular
(reverse) remodelling.^[[180]citation needed]
A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms.
A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during
the day, a [181]power-nap, does not have any effect on normal circadian
rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve
productivity.^[182][33]^[183][34]
There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the
human circadian rhythm, such as [184]seasonal affective disorder (SAD),
[185]delayed sleep phase syndrome (DSPS) and other [186]circadian
rhythm disorders.^[187][35] Circadian rhythms also play a part in the
[188]reticular activating system, which is crucial for maintaining a
state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep-wake cycle
may be a sign or complication of [189]uremia,^[190][36] [191]azotemia
or [192]acute renal failure.
[[193]edit] Disruption
Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers
have experienced the condition known as [194]jet lag, with its
associated symptoms of [195]fatigue, disorientation and [196]insomnia.
A number of other disorders, for example [197]bipolar disorder and some
[198]sleep disorders, are associated with irregular or pathological
functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that
circadian rhythm disturbances found in [199]bipolar disorder are
positively influenced by [200]lithium's effect on clock
genes.^[201][37]
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have
significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside
the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of
cardiovascular disease [202][2] The suppression of melatonin production
associated with the disruption of the circadian rhythm may increase the
risk of developing cancer.^[203][38]^[204][39]
[[205]edit] Effect of drugs
Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside
the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such
as [206]cocaine.^[207][40]^[208][41] Moreover, genetic manipulations of
clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.^[209][42]
[[210]edit] See also
* [211]Actigraphy (also known as Actimetry)
* [212]Advanced sleep phase syndrome
* [213]ARNTL
* [214]ARNTL2
* [215]Bacterial circadian rhythms
* [216]Chronobiology
* [217]Chronotype
* [218]Circadian oscillator
* [219]Circadian rhythm sleep disorders
* [220]Cryptochrome
* [221]CRY1 and [222]CRY2, the cryptochrome family genes
* [223]Delayed sleep phase syndrome
* [224]Diurnal cycle
* [225]Jet lag
* [226]Light effects on circadian rhythm
* [227]PER1, [228]PER2, and [229]PER3, the period family genes
* [230]Power-nap
[[231]edit] References
[[232]edit] Bibliography
* Aschoff J (ed.) (1965) Circadian Clocks. North Holland Press,
Amsterdam
* Avivi A, Albrecht U, Oster H, Joel A, Beiles A, Nevo E. 2001.
Biological clock in total darkness: the Clock/MOP3 circadian system
of the blind subterranean mole rat. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
98:13751-13756.
* Avivi A, Oster H, Joel A, Beiles A, Albrecht U, Nevo E. 2002.
Circadian genes in a blind subterranean mammal II: conservation and
uniqueness of the three Period homologs in the blind subterranean
mole rat, Spalax ehrenbergi superspecies. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
99:11718-11723.
* Ditty JL, Williams SB, Golden SS (2003) A cyanobacterial circadian
timing mechanism. Annu Rev Genet 37:513-543
* Dunlap JC, Loros J, DeCoursey PJ (2003) Chronobiology: Biological
Timekeeping. Sinauer, Sunderland
* Dvornyk V, Vinogradova ON, Nevo E (2003) Origin and evolution of
circadian clock genes in prokaryotes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
100:2495-2500
* Koukkari WL, Sothern RB (2006) Introducing Biological Rhythms.
Springer, New York
* Martino T, Arab S, Straume M, Belsham DD, Tata N, Cai F, Liu P,
Trivieri M, Ralph M, Sole MJ. Day/night rhythms in gene expression
of the normal murine heart. J Mol Med. 2004 Apr;82(4):256-64. Epub
2004 Feb 24. PMID: 14985853
* Refinetti R (2006) Circadian Physiology, 2nd ed. CRC Press, Boca
Raton
* Takahashi JS, Zatz M (1982) Regulation of circadian rhythmicity.
Science 217:1104-1111
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[[372]edit] External links
* [373]Circadian rhythm at the [374]Open Directory Project
* Leloup J.C. (2009). "Circadian clocks and phosphorylation: Insights
from computational modeling". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 4 (3): 290-303.
[375]doi:[376]10.2478/s11535-009-0025-1.
* Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A (2007). "Evolutionary mechanisms
of circadian clocks". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 2 (2): 233-253.
[377]doi:[378]10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z.
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With
Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from
Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications.
Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature
This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no
one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of
it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may
relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he
requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and
anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the
same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the
same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual
training, recitation, gymnastics, and play.
Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized
with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle
which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of
every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in
the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of
work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there
is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their
appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less
of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to
anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else
it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from
which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle
with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of
salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting
from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human
[40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important
changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality.
The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief
from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this
tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary
conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified
by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries. . . .
When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in
recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious
rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and
the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and
more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak.
Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with
instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is
laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of
activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to
elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to
primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which
threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving
mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. -
Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20.
. . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area
of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a
ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight
years in [42]duration are superposed.
. . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of
buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the
rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the
production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing
weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of
rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135.
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Cultural
Towards Lefebvrian Socio-Nature? A Film about Rhythm, Nature and Science
By [17]James Evans and [18]Phil Jones, School of Environment and
Development, University of Manchester School of Geography, Earth and
Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham (April 2008)
__________________________________________________________________
Section: [19]Cultural
Subjects: [20]Environment And Society, [21]Geography, [22]Urban
Geography, [23]Cultural Geography.
Key Topics: [24]nature , [25]representation.
Abstract
The first thing you will notice about this article is that it is
actually a film. We did not set out to make a film, it just ended up
that way. We started out making music out of environmental data,
wondering why we only ever look at scientific data, why we do not
listen to it. Wandering around the city passing through the transformed
landscapes of channelised rivers and broken industrial spaces, we
wanted to reveal the socio-natural rhythms of this hybrid city. The
text you see below represents the shooting script for a film that
explores Lefebvre's notion of rhythmanalysis in the context of
socio-natural rhythms. The video accompanying it is far more
interesting, including the environmental music that we produced by
feeding scientific data through samplers and drum machines. The video
questions the nature of scientific representation and whether the
notion of rhythmanalysis can be stretched to explore rhythms beyond the
human. Furthermore, the process of actually making the video,
submitting it to this journal, and responding to the referees' comments
made us question the very nature of what constitutes an academic paper
in the twenty-first century. The accompanying commentary is our attempt
to deal with these issues.
To link to the film please go to
DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00107.x
This article abstract has been viewed 5348 times.
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* [42]The Environment of the City ... or the Urbanization of Nature
The question that now begins to gnaw at your mind is more
anguished: outside Penthesilea does an outside ...
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* [44]Postcolonialism, Representation, and the City
Topicality, the essence of good journalism, is perhaps less
important for the longer-term perspectives ...
By Anthony D. King
From [45]Companion to the City
* [46]The Immaterial City: Representation, Imagination, and Media
Technologies
J.-K. Huysmans's À Rebours (Against Nature) is a fictional study of
a certain type of dandy in the latter ...
By James Donald
From [47]Companion to the City
* [48]The Production of Nature
It may seem strange to include a chapter on the production of
nature in a volume about economic geography. ...
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From [49]A Companion to Economic Geography
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J Public Health Policy. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2008 July
24.
Published in final edited form as:
[7]J Public Health Policy. 2006; 27(1): 2-12.
doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200061.
PMCID: PMC2483431
NIHMSID: NIHMS58476
[8]Copyright notice and [9]Disclaimer
Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature
Elena N. Naumova^*
^*Address for Correspondence: Department of Public Health and Family
Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Avenue,
Boston, MA 02111, USA. E-mail: elena.naumova/at/tufts.edu
Small right arrow pointing to: The publisher's final edited version of
this article is available at [10]J Public Health Policy.
Small right arrow pointing to: See other articles in PMC that [11]cite
the published article.
Abstract
Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course
of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences.
Understanding seasonal fluctuations in diseases patterns presents us
with a major challenge. To develop efficient strategies for disease
prevention and control, we need to grasp the main determinants of
temporal variations and their interactions. This paper will introduce
the notion of seasonality by outlining several of its factors, using as
illustrations respiratory and enteric water- or food-borne infections.
Keywords: seasonality, water-borne infection, food-borne infection,
respiratory infection
* [12] Other Sectionsv
+ [13]Abstract
+ [14]Introduction
+ [15]Notion of Seasonality
+ [16]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [17]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [18]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [19]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [20]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [21]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [22]References
Introduction
Now let us consider the seasons and the way we can predict whether it
is going to be a healthy or an unhealthy year.
(Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 10)^[23]1
Seasonal fluctuations in birth and death, in sickness and health, are
the haunting mysteries of mankind. People have made predictions from
winds, tides, birds' migrations, spring blooms, sunsets, and
constellations in hope of grasping the future. The complexity and
uncertainty of ancient and modern means of prediction make us wonder to
what extent we are able to understand the rhythm of nature. One might
argue the future cannot be known, but from a practical point of view, a
better understanding of changes in disease occurrences is essential for
building efficient strategies for disease prevention and control.
Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course
of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences.
Since Hippocrates, observers worldwide have noted and documented marked
fluctuations in the incidence of many diseases. In the modern view, the
main determinants of temporal variations in disease manifestation are
evolving host susceptibility, periodicity in pathogen abundance and
transmissibility, and the ever-changing environment that can support or
repress a host or pathogen. Interactions among these factors
responsible for seasonal variation are interwoven into the intricate
fabric of life.
For many diseases, explanations for self-sustained oscillations still
remain elusive. We lack adequate methods and sufficient analytical
tools for comprehensive examination of seasonality in public health
field studies. A dearth of observations, recorded over long periods at
fine resolution, compounded by an enormous number of factors associated
with periodic changes, obscure our ability to understand disease
variation. Urgent need for effective strategies to prevent and control
a spread of emerging infections in the rapidly changing world, however,
demands a deeper insight into the cyclic nature of diseases.
This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality and outline several
factors associated with seasonality using as illustrations enteric
water- or food-borne infections and respiratory infections. Then I
propose a framework for systematic evaluation of seasonal oscillations.
In every part of this presentation, and most importantly, I wish to
stimulate discussion on this challenging topic.
* [24] Other Sectionsv
+ [25]Abstract
+ [26]Introduction
+ [27]Notion of Seasonality
+ [28]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [29]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [30]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [31]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [32]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [33]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [34]References
Notion of Seasonality
Every disease occurs at any season of the year but some of them more
frequently occur and are of greater severity at certain times.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 19)
Seasonality, as noted above, refers to the cyclic appearance of events
over a period of time. A seasonal pattern may appear as a tight cluster
of isolated outbreaks that occurred during a relatively short time
period, then spreading over a wide geographic area.
For example, in a temporal curve of enteric infection cases (i.e.
giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, or rotavirus infections), a compact
cluster of outbreaks is followed by a long interval of low incidence.
Systematic recurrence of such sequences forms a seasonal pattern
typical of a specific pathogen in a given population and in a given
locality. A seasonal increase in enteric or respiratory infection often
produces a well-defined oscillating curve that starts to rise in one
season and declines over the next one.
The three main features characterize seasonality:
* a point in time when a seasonal curve reaches its maximum,
* an amplitude from peak to nadir, and
* a duration of a seasonal increase defined by a shape of a curve.
(The shape of a seasonal pattern reflects how fast a temporal curve
reaches its peak and declines to nadir over a course of a full
cycle. Depending on the length of a cycle whether it is one year or
a half of a year, a seasonal curve would have one or two peaks.)
Seasonal patterns, described by these three characteristics, may vary
for different diseases, different locations, or different
subpopulations. Many viral and bacterial infections in humans show
marked seasonal changes. In some diseases, like salmonellosis and
influenza, annual oscillations explain up to 60% of variability. Such
impact should not be ignored and deserves a proper examination.
* [35] Other Sectionsv
+ [36]Abstract
+ [37]Introduction
+ [38]Notion of Seasonality
+ [39]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [40]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [41]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [42]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [43]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [44]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [45]References
Diseases Seasonal Patterns
Diseases vary in their relationships one with another; some are
opposed, some are mutually agreeable.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 3)
Differences in diseases peaks reflect different etiology, heterogeneity
in host susceptibility, or route of transmission. In temperate
climates, Campylobacter and Salmonella infections are known to rise in
summer, giardiasis in early fall, and rotavirus infection in
mid-winter, etc. Interestingly, for the same infectious agent,
infections recorded in two different locations may present a different
pattern of incidence. A seasonal pattern for cryptosporidiosis in the
United States exhibits one late summer peak ([46]1); in contrast, in
the United Kingdom, two seasonal peaks are seen ([47]2). The UK picture
reflects two dominant sources of exposure: one from animals in the late
spring, and another from humans in the fall ([48]3).
Close temporal clustering of seasonal peaks in diseases that share
similar sources of exposure suggests dominant routes of transmissions.
Peaks in water-borne cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis often cluster
after a summer peak in ambient temperature. Such synchronization in
disease manifestation can be governed by environmental and social
factors. In some instances, periodicity of a given infection observed
in a particular population may be not present in another. A seasonal
peak in cryptosporidiosis cases observed in the general population is
not apparent in the immunocompromized HIV-positive gay men, even though
the incidence of cryptosporidiosis in HIV-positive population is very
high. This suggests differences in dominant routes of transmission.
Seasonal patterns can change over time. After intense vaccination
campaigns in the 1950s and 1970s in the United Kingdom, the patterns of
measles and pertussis changed, with the high rates of disease usually
seen when children were attending school diminishing for measles and
practically disappearing for pertusis ([49]4). Explanations for these
phenomena remain elusive. A departure from a systematically observed
pattern could reflect the evolution of a pathogen or a change in herd
immunity. A simple rule to remember is that a discovery hides in
outliers.
Faced with an abundance of causal agents, a bare observation of a rise
in the incidence of non-specific enteritis should be interpreted with
caution. A seasonal pattern can represent a mix of temporal curves.
Imagine two periodic curves of similar intensity, but one peaks in a
spring and another in a fall; the sum of these two curves might lose
the appearance of seasonality, covering two distinctly seasonal
phenomena.
Some infections are very rare. Their seasonal patterns are difficult to
examine because the relevant data must be collected over a very long
time and/or aggregated over large spatial units. Precision in
evaluating seasonality can thus be jeopardized by time-dependent and/or
space-dependent confounders.
Seasonal fluctuations can be found beyond infectious diseases; chronic
somatic diseases also exhibit substantial temporal variations.
Plausibly, exacerbations in chronic conditions are driven by infectious
agents or environmental changes. Understanding the interplay of an
infection and a chronic disease may lead to better control for both.
* [50] Other Sectionsv
+ [51]Abstract
+ [52]Introduction
+ [53]Notion of Seasonality
+ [54]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [55]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [56]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [57]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [58]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [59]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [60]References
Seasonal Host Susceptibility
When the weather is seasonable and the crops ripen at the regular
times, diseases are regular in their appearance...
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 8)
Poor nutrition directly affects host susceptibility. In places of food
scarcity, researchers suspect that temporal patterns in birth weight
and preterm delivery result from seasonal variations in food
availability ([61]5). In general, due to a less developed immune
system, young children are susceptible to infection; their immune
response may be further weakened by seasonal cutbacks in essential
micronutrients and vitamins.
Anemnestic responses to an antigen determine whether an infection
recurs. Short-lived immune memory together with seasonal changes in
pathogen transmissibility contribute further to the complexity of
seasonal patterns. Even a perfectly healthy person can experience a
change in susceptibility to infection due to stress, injuries, or
trauma. The probability of a marked impact of such factors on disease
seasonality is virtually unknown.
* [62] Other Sectionsv
+ [63]Abstract
+ [64]Introduction
+ [65]Notion of Seasonality
+ [66]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [67]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [68]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [69]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [70]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [71]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [72]References
Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
Some diseases are produced by the manner of life that is followed;
others by the life-giving air we breathe.
(Hippocrates. The Nature of Man, 9)
Temperature, humidity, and precipitation -- the defining factors of
seasons -- are important determinants of pathogens' survival. Changes
influence pathogens' potency and life expectancy, resulting in temporal
fluctuations in pathogens' abundance. In many instances, seasonal
changes in pathogen survival and transmission are inseparably related
to both biological and social aspects of our lives. They are
synchronized by weather. High ambient temperature, for example,
provides a supportive environment for food-borne pathogens, favoring
their multiplication in food and on food preparation surfaces ([73]6).
Food contamination is believed to be a significant mode of transmission
for infections caused by Salmonella and Campylobacter ([74]7);
therefore, during warm weather, the risk for food-borne diseases
increases ([75]8).
Seasonal changes in level of contamination, availability of potable
water, sanitation and hygiene practices, as well as crowding and
person-to-person contacts, affect pathogens' transmissibility.
Worldwide, water use differs from season to season ([76]9). In
temperate climates, warm weather leads to higher water consumption and
encourages outdoor activities -- swimming, camping, and recreational
water use. In tropical regions, contamination of surface water
increases during wet seasons. Although spread of pathogens via food is
certainly possible, contaminated water is the dominant source of
exposure for enteric infections caused by protozoa Cryptosporidium and
Giardia ([77]10 --[78]12). Depending on locality, outbreaks of
cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis associated with drinking or
recreational water frequently occur during warm or wet seasons
([79]13,[80]14).
With the onset of cooler weather, the "heating season" marks a change
in indoor air quality. Inadequate and poorly designed ventilation in
crowded public places and urban transit systems may boost exposure to
air-borne pathogens by increasing their concentration in stagnant air
and by re-circulating contaminated air. Higher relative humidity may
also affect the stability of air-borne droplets in which viruses travel
from person to person.
* [81] Other Sectionsv
+ [82]Abstract
+ [83]Introduction
+ [84]Notion of Seasonality
+ [85]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [86]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [87]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [88]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [89]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [90]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [91]References
Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
You will find, as a general rule, that the constitutions and the habits
of a people follow the nature of the land where they live.
(Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 24)
Diseases do not watch calendars. Their incidence rises and falls
because of changes in factors associated with the diseases. However, in
every culture all social events are synchronized by calendars; and
every calendar reflects the cyclic rhythm of nature.
Traditional celebrations and gatherings observed by communities
according to calendars affect pathogen transmission. Holidays, social
activities, and seasonal travel are often associated with changes in
food consumption and preparation, and are therefore associated with
changes in disease incidence. Preparing meat on a barbecue increases
the risk of Campylobacter infection ([92]15,[93]16) and foreign travel
increases the risk for enteric infections. Aggregation of children in
schools, daycare centers, and summer camps, reflecting school
calendars, facilitates rapid exchange of pathogens. There are marked
seasonal variations in transmission, and thus the incidence of enteric
and respiratory infections.
* [94] Other Sectionsv
+ [95]Abstract
+ [96]Introduction
+ [97]Notion of Seasonality
+ [98]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [99]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [100]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [101]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [102]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [103]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [104]References
Climate Change, Extreme Weather Events, and Disease Seasonality
The changes of the seasons are especially liable to beget diseases, as
are great changes from heat to cold, or cold to heat in any season.
Other changes in the weather have similarly severe effects.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 1)
As weather affects human health by creating favorable conditions for
pathogen proliferation and transmission, severe weather can affect the
timing and intensity of infectious outbreaks, and natural disasters
lead to drastic changes in population structure and pathogen ecology.
Catastrophic events like tsunamis, hurricanes, devastating floods, and
heat waves that cause deaths, population displacement, and
infrastructural damage may have dramatic effects on the incidence of
infections and their seasonal patterns.
Recent work has shown highly significant associations between extreme
precipitation and water-borne disease outbreaks ([105]17). Heavy
precipitation, rapid snowmelt, and floods flush animal wastes from the
land into surface waters and may overwhelm drinking and wastewater
treatment systems. The latter leads to discharges in watersheds of
untreated human wastes. As a result, pathogens can appear in drinking
and recreational water in very high concentrations ([106]18,[107]19). A
rapid snowmelt, resultant runoff, and filtration system failure at the
overloaded local drinking water treatment plant were implicated in the
largest known water-borne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis, which occurred
in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1993 ([108]20). This outbreak happened in
April, not within the usual seasonal peak for cryptosporidiosis cases.
A flood, which also resulted from a rapid snowmelt, has been linked
with a similar increased incidence of diarrhea ([109]21).
Experts expect that global climate change will increase climate
variability and the frequency of extreme precipitation events in
temperate regions ([110]22,[111]23). "Global warming" may also increase
the frequency and magnitude of other extreme weather events, such as
heat waves and droughts, and thereby have profound effects on public
health ([112]24,[113]25). In a comprehensive study conducted in the
United Kingdom that described a short-term link between temperature and
food poisoning, the authors also hypothesized that climate change could
lead to changes in rates of food poisoning ([114]26).
Integration of environmental parameters into disease forecasting and
warning systems could allow public health officials to alert the
populace when specific meteorological conditions pose predictable risks
to health ([115]27). Simple messages about proper food preparation and
refrigeration and the risks of using contaminated recreational waters
could, for example, be provided before, during, and after extreme
events. Better understanding of disease seasonality would also help to
predict outbreaks of infections triggered by climate variability.
* [116] Other Sectionsv
+ [117]Abstract
+ [118]Introduction
+ [119]Notion of Seasonality
+ [120]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [121]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [122]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [123]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [124]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [125]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [126]References
Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy
to Public Health Thinking
Desperate cases need the most desperate remedies.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, I, 6)
At first, seasonal fluctuations should be systematically described.
This requires a framework with sound definitions and analytic tools
suitable for routine use by public health professionals. In public
health sciences, the existing methodology currently lacks methods and
tests for assessing complex interactions in the time-dependent factors
responsible for disease seasonality.
Next, reliable data with fine temporal resolution are a must. The vast
majority of epidemiological studies have examined seasonal patterns of
infections using quarterly or monthly data. This coarse temporal
aggregation can thwart an otherwise detailed, accurate, and
comprehensive analysis of seasonal patterns and may even be misleading
([127]28). Examination of daily or weekly rates can substantially
improve evaluation of seasonal curves, but a systematic approach for
using at least weekly aggregates is needed.
Finally, reluctance to apply sophisticated mathematical models in
public health studies must be overcome. Underlying processes in disease
manifestation and spread are complex and multifaceted. Causal pathways
are often obscured. To disentangle causal effects of many factors
within the circular processes of self-sustaining oscillations demands
the careful building of sound conceptual models of seasonality; models
that can be tested. The emerging fields of computational epidemiology
and intelligent data mining will complement established work in
philosophy of science and mathematical biology to become an essential
part of thinking in public health and policy.
Acknowledgments
I thank Drs Eileen O'Neil and Beth Rosenberg for their thoughtful
suggestions, and the support of funding agencies: the National
Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (U19AI062627), and the
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R01ES013171).
Footnotes
^1Hippocrates' citations are taken from: Lloyd, GER, editor.
Hippocratic Writings. Trans. Chadwick J and Mann WN. London: Penguin;
1978.
* [128] Other Sectionsv
+ [129]Abstract
+ [130]Introduction
+ [131]Notion of Seasonality
+ [132]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [133]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [134]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [135]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [136]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [137]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [138]References
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__________________________________________________________________
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* [175]PubMed
* [176]Taxonomy
* [177]Taxonomy Tree
* [178]Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial
variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis.
Public Health Rep. 2000 Sep-Oct; 115(5):436-47.
[Public Health Rep. 2000]
* [179]Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in
cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance
system in 1990-1999.
J Water Health. 2005 Jun; 3(2):185-96.
[J Water Health. 2005]
* [180]Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in
the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in
1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from
livestock animals.
J Clin Microbiol. 2000 Nov; 38(11):3984-90.
[J Clin Microbiol. 2000]
[181]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [182]A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between
rural Zaire and Ontario.
Can J Public Health. 1989 May-Jun; 80(3):205-8.
[Can J Public Health. 1989]
[183]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [184]Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces
and cross-contamination to foods.
Int J Food Microbiol. 2003 Aug 25; 85(3):227-36.
[Int J Food Microbiol. 2003]
* [185]ReviewFood-related illness and death in the United States.
Emerg Infect Dis. 1999 Sep-Oct; 5(5):607-25.
[Emerg Infect Dis. 1999]
* [186]The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series
analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries.
Epidemiol Infect. 2004 Jun; 132(3):443-53.
[Epidemiol Infect. 2004]
[187]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [188]A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with
the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study).
Water Sci Technol. 2001; 43(12):39-48.
[Water Sci Technol. 2001]
* [189]ReviewReview of epidemiological studies on health effects from
exposure to recreational water.
Int J Epidemiol. 1998 Feb; 27(1):1-9.
[Int J Epidemiol. 1998]
* [190]ReviewGiardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their
impact on foods: a review.
J Food Prot. 1999 Sep; 62(9):1059-70.
[J Food Prot. 1999]
* [191]Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks--United States,
1997-1998.
MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000 May 26; 49(4):1-21.
[MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000]
[192]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [193]Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of
a case-control study in southeastern Norway.
J Clin Microbiol. 1992 Dec; 30(12):3117-21.
[J Clin Microbiol. 1992]
* [194]A case-control study of risk factors for sporadic
campylobacter infections in Denmark.
Epidemiol Infect. 2003 Jun; 130(3):353-66.
[Epidemiol Infect. 2003]
[195]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [196]The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne
disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948-1994.
Am J Public Health. 2001 Aug; 91(8):1194-9.
[Am J Public Health. 2001]
* [197]Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay.
Parasitol Res. 2002 Nov; 88(11):998-1003.
[Parasitol Res. 2002]
* [198]Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during
extreme rainfall and runoff.
Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002 May; 68(5):2188-97.
[Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002]
* [199]A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of cryptosporidium infection
transmitted through the public water supply.
N Engl J Med. 1994 Jul 21; 331(3):161-7.
[N Engl J Med. 1994]
* [200]Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the
incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms?
Am J Epidemiol. 2004 Feb 15; 159(4):398-405.
[Am J Epidemiol. 2004]
[201]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [202]ReviewVulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change
in Canada: a review.
J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004 Oct 22-Nov 26; 67(20-22):1667-77.
[J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004]
* [203]Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases.
JAMA. 1996 Jan 17; 275(3):217-23.
[JAMA. 1996]
* [204]Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England
and Wales.
Int J Biometeorol. 1995 Nov; 39(2):81-6.
[Int J Biometeorol. 1995]
[205]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [206]ReviewA stitch in time: improving public health early warning
systems for extreme weather events.
Epidemiol Rev. 2005; 27():115-21.
[Epidemiol Rev. 2005]
[207]See more articles cited in this paragraph
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Circadian rhythm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search
"Human clock" redirects here. For the online clock, see [8]Humanclock.
Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological
parameters.
A circadian rhythm is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical,
physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including
[9]plants, [10]animals, [11]fungi and [12]cyanobacteria (see
[13]bacterial circadian rhythms). The term "circadian", coined by
[14]Franz Halberg,^[15][1] comes from the [16]Latin [17]circa,
"around", and diem or dies, "day", meaning literally "approximately one
day". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily,
[18]tidal, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called
[19]chronobiology.
Circadian rhythms are [20]endogenously generated, and can be entrained
by external cues, called [21]zeitgebers, the primary one of which is
[22]daylight.
Contents
* [23]1 History
* [24]2 Criteria
* [25]3 Origin
* [26]4 Importance in animals
+ [27]4.1 Impact of light-dark cycle
+ [28]4.2 Arctic animals
+ [29]4.3 Butterfly migration
* [30]5 Biological clock in mammals
+ [31]5.1 Determining the human circadian rhythm
+ [32]5.2 Outside the "master clock"
* [33]6 Light and the biological clock
* [34]7 Enforced longer cycles
* [35]8 Human health
+ [36]8.1 Disruption
+ [37]8.2 Effect of drugs
* [38]9 See also
* [39]10 References
+ [40]10.1 Bibliography
+ [41]10.2 Notes
* [42]11 External links
[[43]edit] History
The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th
century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under
[44]Alexander the Great, described [45]diurnal leaf movements of the
[46]tamarind tree.^[47][2] The first modern observation of endogenous
circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [48]Jean-Jacques
d'Ortous de Mairan in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the
movement of the leaves of the plant [49]Mimosa pudica continued even
when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
In 1918, J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining
24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light
and changes in temperature.^[50][3] [51]Joseph Takahashi discovered the
genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.^[52][4]^[53][5]
[[54]edit] Criteria
To differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from
coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met: 1)
the rhythms persist in the absence of cues, 2) they persist equally
precisely over a range of temperatures, and 3) the rhythms can be
adjusted to match the local time:
* The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant
dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this
criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those "apparent"
rhythms that are merely responses to external periodic cues. A
rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been
tested in conditions without external periodic input.
* The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e., it maintains the same
period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this
criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological
rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway.
At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a
circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely
coincidental.
* The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The
rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms
from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to
resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of
estimating the local time. Travel across [55]time zones illustrates
the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that
it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next.
Until rhythms are reset, a person usually experiences [56]jet lag.
[[57]edit] Origin
[58]Question book-new.svg
This section needs additional [59]citations for [60]verification.
Please help [61]improve this article by adding [62]reliable references.
Unsourced material may be [63]challenged and [64]removed. (October
2007)
Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have
originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the
replicating of DNA from high [65]ultraviolet radiation during the
daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus
[66]Neurospora, which exists today, retains this [67]clock-regulated
mechanism.
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise
and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to
the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in
regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in
coordinating with the environment.^[68][6] This is suggested by the
maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after
several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,^[69][7]
as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the
experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian
rhythms in quail.^[70][8]
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic
[71]cyanobacteria. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian
clock of Synechococcus elongatus can be reconstituted in vitro with
just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has
been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the
addition of [72]ATP. Previous explanations of the [73]prokaryotic
circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription /
translation feedback mechanism.
It is an unanswered question whether circadian clocks in eukaryotic
organisms require translation/transcription-derived oscillations, for,
although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the
same basic architecture (input - [74]central oscillator - output), they
do not share any [75]homology. This implies probable independent
origins.
In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [76]Seymour Benzer first identified a
genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a
model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behaviour:
one had a shorter period, another had a longer one, and the third had
none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named
[77]period.^[78][9] The same gene was identified to be defective in the
sleep disorder FASPS ([79]Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome) in
human beings thirty years later, underscoring the conserved nature of
the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic
components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions
result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in
periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a
specific time of the day.
A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter
half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian
clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is
cell-autonomous.^[80][10] At the same time, different cells may
communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of
electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the
brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for
these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronize the
peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time
of the day as relayed by the [81]eyes travels to the clock in the
brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be
synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body
temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the
biological clock.
[[82]edit] Importance in animals
Circadian rhythmicity is present in the [83]sleeping and feeding
patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear
patterns of core body temperature, [84]brain wave activity, [85]hormone
production, cell regeneration and other biological activities. In
addition, [86]photoperiodism, the physiological reaction of organisms
to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and
the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation
of day length.
" Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food
availability or predator activity is crucial for survival of many
species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the
photoperiod ('daylength') is the most predictive environmental cue for
the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing
of migration, hibernation and reproduction.^[87][11] "
[[88]edit] Impact of light-dark cycle
The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals, including
humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function
with a [89]freerunning rhythm. Each "day", their sleep cycle is pushed
back or forward, depending on whether their [90]endogenous period is
shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that each day
reset the rhythms are called [91]Zeitgebers (from the German, Time
Givers).^[92][12] It is interesting to note that totally-blind
subterranean mammals (e.g., [93]blind mole rat Spalax sp.) are able to
maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external
stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors
(detect light) are still functional; as well, they do surface
periodically.^[[94]citation needed]
Freerunning organisms that normally have one consolidated sleep episode
will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues,
but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light/dark
cycle in nature. The sleep-wake rhythm may, in these circumstances,
become out of phase with other circadian or [95]ultradian rhythms such
as [96]temperature and [97]digestion.^[[98]citation needed]
Recent research has influenced the design of [99]spacecraft
environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been
found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.^[[100]citation needed]
[[101]edit] Arctic animals
Norwegian researchers at the [102]University of Tromsø have shown that
some Arctic animals ([103]ptarmigan, [104]reindeer) show circadian
rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and
sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at [105]70 degrees North
showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter, and spring, but not in
the summer. Reindeer at [106]78 degrees North showed such rhythms only
autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other Arctic animals as
well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and
the constant dark of winter.^[107][13]^[108][14]
However, another study in northern Alaska found that [109]ground
squirrels and [110]porcupines strictly maintained their circadian
rhythms through 82 days and nights of sunshine. The researchers
speculate that these two small mammals see that the apparent distance
between the sun and the horizon is shortest once a day, and, thus, a
sufficient signal to adjust by.^[111][15]
[[112]edit] Butterfly migration
The navigation of the fall migration of the [113]Eastern North American
monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) to their overwintering grounds in
central Mexico uses a time-compensated sun compass that depends upon a
circadian clock in their antennae.^[114][16]^[115][17]
[[116]edit] Biological clock in mammals
Diagram illustrating the influence of light and darkness on circadian
rhythms and related [117]physiology and behaviour through the
[118]suprachiasmatic nucleus in humans.
The primary circadian "clock" in [119]mammals is located in the
[120]suprachiasmatic nucleus (or nuclei) ([121]SCN), a pair of distinct
groups of [122]cells located in the [123]hypothalamus. Destruction of
the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep-wake rhythm.
The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The
[124]retina of the eyes contains not only "classical"
[125]photoreceptors but also photoresponsive retinal [126]ganglion
cells. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called
[127]melanopsin, follow a pathway called the [128]retinohypothalamic
tract, leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and
cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external
cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on the lengths of the day
and night from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the
[129]pineal gland, a tiny structure shaped like a [130]pine cone and
located on the [131]epithalamus. In response the pineal secretes the
hormone [132]melatonin. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs
during the day and its presence provides information about
night-length.
The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter
and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard
have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a
23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural
solar day-night cycle on the planet [133]Mars).^[134][18]
[[135]edit] Determining the human circadian rhythm
The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's
circadian rhythm are
* melatonin secretion by the pineal gland and
* core body temperature.
For temperature studies, people must remain awake but calm and
semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are
taken continuously. The average human adult's temperature reaches its
minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake
time, though variation is great among normal [136]chronotypes.
Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime.
Its onset in dim light, dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO), at about
21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Its major
[137]metabolite can also be measured in morning urine. Both DLMO and
the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or
saliva have been used as circadian markers.
However, newer research indicates that the melatonin offset may be the
most reliable marker. Benloucif et al. in Chicago in 2005 found that
melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated
with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found
that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly
correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In
addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable
and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.^[138][19]
One method used for measuring melatonin offset is to analyse a sequence
of urine samples throughout the morning for the presence of the
melatonin [139]metabolite 6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s). Laberge et al.
in Quebec in 1997 used this method in a study that confirmed the
frequently found delayed circadian phase in healthy
adolescents.^[140][20]
[[141]edit] Outside the "master clock"
More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and
cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the "master
clock". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the
[142]oesophagus, [143]lungs, [144]liver, [145]pancreas, [146]spleen,
[147]thymus, and the [148]skin.^[149][21] Though oscillators in the
skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven so
far.^[150][22]^[151][23] There is some evidence that also the olfactory
bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting
that also these structures may be weak oscillators.
Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding
rather than to [152]light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to
have freerunning rhythms.
[[153]edit] Light and the biological clock
Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [154]phase
response curve (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or
delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required
[155]illuminance vary from species to species and lower light levels
are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm in humans are higher than
the levels usually used in artificial lighting in homes. According to
some researchers^[156][24] the illumination intensity that excites the
circadian system has to reach up to 1000 [157]lux striking the retina.
In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or colour) of light is a
factor in the entrainment of the body clock. [158]Melanopsin is most
efficiently excited by blue light, 420-440 nm^[159][25] according to
some researchers while others have reported 470-485 nm.
It is thought that the direction of the light may have an effect on
entraining the circadian rhythm;^[160][24] light coming from above,
resembling an image of a bright sky, has greater effect than light
entering our eyes from below.
[[161]edit] Enforced longer cycles
Modern research under very controlled conditions has shown the human
period for adults to be just slightly longer than 24 hours on average.
Czeisler et al. at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults
of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes.
The "clock" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's
rotation.^[162][26]
The 28-hour day is presented as a concept of [163]time
management.^[164][27] It builds on the fact that the week of seven days
at 24 hours and a "week" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of
168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require
staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours.
Each "day" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern.
Studies by [165]Nathaniel Kleitman^[166][28] in 1938 and by
[167]Derk-Jan Dijk and [168]Charles Czeisler^[169][29]^[170][30] in
1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep-wake cycles,
in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a
month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day,^[171][31]
this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake
episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about
24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of
circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including
[172]sleep latency and other functions.^[173][32]
Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people
preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli
like daylight and timekeeping. Early investigators determined the human
circadian period to be 25 hours or more. They went to great lengths to
shield subjects from time cues and daylight, but they were not aware of
the effects of indoor electric lights. The subjects were allowed to
turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted
to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase.
These results became well known.^[174][26] Researchers allowed subjects
to keep electric lighting on in the evening, as it was thought at that
time that a couple of 60W bulbs would not have a resetting effect on
the circadian rhythms of humans. More recent research^[[175]citation
needed] has shown that adults have a built-in day, which averages just
over 24 hours, that indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms and
that most people attain their best-quality sleep during their
[176]chronotype-determined sleep periods.
[[177]edit] Human health
Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may
significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse
reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with
[178]angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) may reduce
nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [179]left ventricular
(reverse) remodelling.^[[180]citation needed]
A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms.
A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during
the day, a [181]power-nap, does not have any effect on normal circadian
rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve
productivity.^[182][33]^[183][34]
There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the
human circadian rhythm, such as [184]seasonal affective disorder (SAD),
[185]delayed sleep phase syndrome (DSPS) and other [186]circadian
rhythm disorders.^[187][35] Circadian rhythms also play a part in the
[188]reticular activating system, which is crucial for maintaining a
state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep-wake cycle
may be a sign or complication of [189]uremia,^[190][36] [191]azotemia
or [192]acute renal failure.
[[193]edit] Disruption
Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers
have experienced the condition known as [194]jet lag, with its
associated symptoms of [195]fatigue, disorientation and [196]insomnia.
A number of other disorders, for example [197]bipolar disorder and some
[198]sleep disorders, are associated with irregular or pathological
functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that
circadian rhythm disturbances found in [199]bipolar disorder are
positively influenced by [200]lithium's effect on clock
genes.^[201][37]
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have
significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside
the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of
cardiovascular disease [202][2] The suppression of melatonin production
associated with the disruption of the circadian rhythm may increase the
risk of developing cancer.^[203][38]^[204][39]
[[205]edit] Effect of drugs
Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside
the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such
as [206]cocaine.^[207][40]^[208][41] Moreover, genetic manipulations of
clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.^[209][42]
[[210]edit] See also
* [211]Actigraphy (also known as Actimetry)
* [212]Advanced sleep phase syndrome
* [213]ARNTL
* [214]ARNTL2
* [215]Bacterial circadian rhythms
* [216]Chronobiology
* [217]Chronotype
* [218]Circadian oscillator
* [219]Circadian rhythm sleep disorders
* [220]Cryptochrome
* [221]CRY1 and [222]CRY2, the cryptochrome family genes
* [223]Delayed sleep phase syndrome
* [224]Diurnal cycle
* [225]Jet lag
* [226]Light effects on circadian rhythm
* [227]PER1, [228]PER2, and [229]PER3, the period family genes
* [230]Power-nap
[[231]edit] References
[[232]edit] Bibliography
* Aschoff J (ed.) (1965) Circadian Clocks. North Holland Press,
Amsterdam
* Avivi A, Albrecht U, Oster H, Joel A, Beiles A, Nevo E. 2001.
Biological clock in total darkness: the Clock/MOP3 circadian system
of the blind subterranean mole rat. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
98:13751-13756.
* Avivi A, Oster H, Joel A, Beiles A, Albrecht U, Nevo E. 2002.
Circadian genes in a blind subterranean mammal II: conservation and
uniqueness of the three Period homologs in the blind subterranean
mole rat, Spalax ehrenbergi superspecies. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
99:11718-11723.
* Ditty JL, Williams SB, Golden SS (2003) A cyanobacterial circadian
timing mechanism. Annu Rev Genet 37:513-543
* Dunlap JC, Loros J, DeCoursey PJ (2003) Chronobiology: Biological
Timekeeping. Sinauer, Sunderland
* Dvornyk V, Vinogradova ON, Nevo E (2003) Origin and evolution of
circadian clock genes in prokaryotes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
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* Koukkari WL, Sothern RB (2006) Introducing Biological Rhythms.
Springer, New York
* Martino T, Arab S, Straume M, Belsham DD, Tata N, Cai F, Liu P,
Trivieri M, Ralph M, Sole MJ. Day/night rhythms in gene expression
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* Refinetti R (2006) Circadian Physiology, 2nd ed. CRC Press, Boca
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* Takahashi JS, Zatz M (1982) Regulation of circadian rhythmicity.
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* Tomita J, Nakajima M, Kondo T, Iwasaki H (2005) No
transcription-translation feedback in circadian rhythm of KaiC
phosphorylation. Science 307: 251-254
* Moore-Ede, Martin C., Sulszman, Frank M., and Fuller, Charles A.
(1982) "The Clocks that Time Us: Physiology of the Circadian Timing
System." Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. [233]ISBN
0-674-13581-4.
[[234]edit] Notes
Centre
2. [237]^ Bretzl H. Botaniche Forchungen des Alexanderzuges. Leipzig:
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(1994). "Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential
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[[372]edit] External links
* [373]Circadian rhythm at the [374]Open Directory Project
* Leloup J.C. (2009). "Circadian clocks and phosphorylation: Insights
from computational modeling". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 4 (3): 290-303.
[375]doi:[376]10.2478/s11535-009-0025-1.
* Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A (2007). "Evolutionary mechanisms
of circadian clocks". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 2 (2): 233-253.
[377]doi:[378]10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z.
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January 2, 2006
Universal Timing
Life's Natural Rhythm
Nature's natural rhythms orchestrate when day turns to night, when
flowers must bloom, and provides the cue for when it is time for red
and brown leaves to fall from trees. As human beings, our own inner
rhythm is attuned to this universal sense of timing. Guided by the
rising and setting of the sun, changes in temperature, and our own
internal rhythm, we know when it is time to sleep, eat, or be active.
While our minds and spirits are free to focus on other pursuits, our
breath and our heartbeat are always there to remind us of life's
pulsing rhythm that moves within and around us.
Moving to this rhythm, we know when it is time to stop working and when
to rest. Pushing our bodies to work beyond their natural rhythm
diminishes our ability to renew and recharge. A feeling much like jet
lag lets us know when we've overridden our own natural rhythm. When we
feel the frantic calls of all we want to accomplish impelling us to
move faster than is natural for us, we may want to breathe deeply
instead and look at nature moving to its own organic timing: birds
flying south, leaves shedding, or snow falling. A walk in nature can
also let us re-attune is to her organic rhythm, while allowing us to
move back in time with our own. When we move to our natural rhythm, we
can achieve all we need to do with less effort.
We may even notice that our soul moves to its own internal, natural
rhythm - especially when it comes to our personal evolution. Comparing
ourselves to others is unnecessary. Our best guide is to move to our
own internal timing, while keeping time with the rhythm of nature.
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With
Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from
Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications.
Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature
This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no
one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of
it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may
relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he
requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and
anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the
same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the
same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual
training, recitation, gymnastics, and play.
Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized
with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle
which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of
every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in
the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of
work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there
is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their
appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less
of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to
anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else
it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from
which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle
with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of
salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting
from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human
[40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important
changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality.
The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief
from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this
tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary
conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified
by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries. . . .
When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in
recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious
rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and
the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and
more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak.
Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with
instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is
laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of
activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to
elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to
primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which
threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving
mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. -
Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20.
. . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area
of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a
ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight
years in [42]duration are superposed.
. . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of
buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the
rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the
production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing
weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of
rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135.
Continue to:
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[53]heredity, [54]human nature, [55]institutions, [56]location,
[57]natural selection, [58]organizations, [59]population, [60]primary
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Cultural
Towards Lefebvrian Socio-Nature? A Film about Rhythm, Nature and Science
By [17]James Evans and [18]Phil Jones, School of Environment and
Development, University of Manchester School of Geography, Earth and
Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham (April 2008)
__________________________________________________________________
Section: [19]Cultural
Subjects: [20]Environment And Society, [21]Geography, [22]Urban
Geography, [23]Cultural Geography.
Key Topics: [24]nature , [25]representation.
Abstract
The first thing you will notice about this article is that it is
actually a film. We did not set out to make a film, it just ended up
that way. We started out making music out of environmental data,
wondering why we only ever look at scientific data, why we do not
listen to it. Wandering around the city passing through the transformed
landscapes of channelised rivers and broken industrial spaces, we
wanted to reveal the socio-natural rhythms of this hybrid city. The
text you see below represents the shooting script for a film that
explores Lefebvre's notion of rhythmanalysis in the context of
socio-natural rhythms. The video accompanying it is far more
interesting, including the environmental music that we produced by
feeding scientific data through samplers and drum machines. The video
questions the nature of scientific representation and whether the
notion of rhythmanalysis can be stretched to explore rhythms beyond the
human. Furthermore, the process of actually making the video,
submitting it to this journal, and responding to the referees' comments
made us question the very nature of what constitutes an academic paper
in the twenty-first century. The accompanying commentary is our attempt
to deal with these issues.
To link to the film please go to
DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00107.x
This article abstract has been viewed 5348 times.
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anguished: outside Penthesilea does an outside ...
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Topicality, the essence of good journalism, is perhaps less
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By Anthony D. King
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* [46]The Immaterial City: Representation, Imagination, and Media
Technologies
J.-K. Huysmans's À Rebours (Against Nature) is a fictional study of
a certain type of dandy in the latter ...
By James Donald
From [47]Companion to the City
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It may seem strange to include a chapter on the production of
nature in a volume about economic geography. ...
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J Public Health Policy. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2008 July
24.
Published in final edited form as:
[7]J Public Health Policy. 2006; 27(1): 2-12.
doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200061.
PMCID: PMC2483431
NIHMSID: NIHMS58476
[8]Copyright notice and [9]Disclaimer
Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature
Elena N. Naumova^*
^*Address for Correspondence: Department of Public Health and Family
Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Avenue,
Boston, MA 02111, USA. E-mail: elena.naumova/at/tufts.edu
Small right arrow pointing to: The publisher's final edited version of
this article is available at [10]J Public Health Policy.
Small right arrow pointing to: See other articles in PMC that [11]cite
the published article.
Abstract
Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course
of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences.
Understanding seasonal fluctuations in diseases patterns presents us
with a major challenge. To develop efficient strategies for disease
prevention and control, we need to grasp the main determinants of
temporal variations and their interactions. This paper will introduce
the notion of seasonality by outlining several of its factors, using as
illustrations respiratory and enteric water- or food-borne infections.
Keywords: seasonality, water-borne infection, food-borne infection,
respiratory infection
* [12] Other Sectionsv
+ [13]Abstract
+ [14]Introduction
+ [15]Notion of Seasonality
+ [16]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [17]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [18]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [19]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [20]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [21]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [22]References
Introduction
Now let us consider the seasons and the way we can predict whether it
is going to be a healthy or an unhealthy year.
(Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 10)^[23]1
Seasonal fluctuations in birth and death, in sickness and health, are
the haunting mysteries of mankind. People have made predictions from
winds, tides, birds' migrations, spring blooms, sunsets, and
constellations in hope of grasping the future. The complexity and
uncertainty of ancient and modern means of prediction make us wonder to
what extent we are able to understand the rhythm of nature. One might
argue the future cannot be known, but from a practical point of view, a
better understanding of changes in disease occurrences is essential for
building efficient strategies for disease prevention and control.
Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course
of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences.
Since Hippocrates, observers worldwide have noted and documented marked
fluctuations in the incidence of many diseases. In the modern view, the
main determinants of temporal variations in disease manifestation are
evolving host susceptibility, periodicity in pathogen abundance and
transmissibility, and the ever-changing environment that can support or
repress a host or pathogen. Interactions among these factors
responsible for seasonal variation are interwoven into the intricate
fabric of life.
For many diseases, explanations for self-sustained oscillations still
remain elusive. We lack adequate methods and sufficient analytical
tools for comprehensive examination of seasonality in public health
field studies. A dearth of observations, recorded over long periods at
fine resolution, compounded by an enormous number of factors associated
with periodic changes, obscure our ability to understand disease
variation. Urgent need for effective strategies to prevent and control
a spread of emerging infections in the rapidly changing world, however,
demands a deeper insight into the cyclic nature of diseases.
This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality and outline several
factors associated with seasonality using as illustrations enteric
water- or food-borne infections and respiratory infections. Then I
propose a framework for systematic evaluation of seasonal oscillations.
In every part of this presentation, and most importantly, I wish to
stimulate discussion on this challenging topic.
* [24] Other Sectionsv
+ [25]Abstract
+ [26]Introduction
+ [27]Notion of Seasonality
+ [28]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [29]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [30]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [31]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [32]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [33]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [34]References
Notion of Seasonality
Every disease occurs at any season of the year but some of them more
frequently occur and are of greater severity at certain times.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 19)
Seasonality, as noted above, refers to the cyclic appearance of events
over a period of time. A seasonal pattern may appear as a tight cluster
of isolated outbreaks that occurred during a relatively short time
period, then spreading over a wide geographic area.
For example, in a temporal curve of enteric infection cases (i.e.
giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, or rotavirus infections), a compact
cluster of outbreaks is followed by a long interval of low incidence.
Systematic recurrence of such sequences forms a seasonal pattern
typical of a specific pathogen in a given population and in a given
locality. A seasonal increase in enteric or respiratory infection often
produces a well-defined oscillating curve that starts to rise in one
season and declines over the next one.
The three main features characterize seasonality:
* a point in time when a seasonal curve reaches its maximum,
* an amplitude from peak to nadir, and
* a duration of a seasonal increase defined by a shape of a curve.
(The shape of a seasonal pattern reflects how fast a temporal curve
reaches its peak and declines to nadir over a course of a full
cycle. Depending on the length of a cycle whether it is one year or
a half of a year, a seasonal curve would have one or two peaks.)
Seasonal patterns, described by these three characteristics, may vary
for different diseases, different locations, or different
subpopulations. Many viral and bacterial infections in humans show
marked seasonal changes. In some diseases, like salmonellosis and
influenza, annual oscillations explain up to 60% of variability. Such
impact should not be ignored and deserves a proper examination.
* [35] Other Sectionsv
+ [36]Abstract
+ [37]Introduction
+ [38]Notion of Seasonality
+ [39]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [40]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [41]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [42]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [43]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [44]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [45]References
Diseases Seasonal Patterns
Diseases vary in their relationships one with another; some are
opposed, some are mutually agreeable.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 3)
Differences in diseases peaks reflect different etiology, heterogeneity
in host susceptibility, or route of transmission. In temperate
climates, Campylobacter and Salmonella infections are known to rise in
summer, giardiasis in early fall, and rotavirus infection in
mid-winter, etc. Interestingly, for the same infectious agent,
infections recorded in two different locations may present a different
pattern of incidence. A seasonal pattern for cryptosporidiosis in the
United States exhibits one late summer peak ([46]1); in contrast, in
the United Kingdom, two seasonal peaks are seen ([47]2). The UK picture
reflects two dominant sources of exposure: one from animals in the late
spring, and another from humans in the fall ([48]3).
Close temporal clustering of seasonal peaks in diseases that share
similar sources of exposure suggests dominant routes of transmissions.
Peaks in water-borne cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis often cluster
after a summer peak in ambient temperature. Such synchronization in
disease manifestation can be governed by environmental and social
factors. In some instances, periodicity of a given infection observed
in a particular population may be not present in another. A seasonal
peak in cryptosporidiosis cases observed in the general population is
not apparent in the immunocompromized HIV-positive gay men, even though
the incidence of cryptosporidiosis in HIV-positive population is very
high. This suggests differences in dominant routes of transmission.
Seasonal patterns can change over time. After intense vaccination
campaigns in the 1950s and 1970s in the United Kingdom, the patterns of
measles and pertussis changed, with the high rates of disease usually
seen when children were attending school diminishing for measles and
practically disappearing for pertusis ([49]4). Explanations for these
phenomena remain elusive. A departure from a systematically observed
pattern could reflect the evolution of a pathogen or a change in herd
immunity. A simple rule to remember is that a discovery hides in
outliers.
Faced with an abundance of causal agents, a bare observation of a rise
in the incidence of non-specific enteritis should be interpreted with
caution. A seasonal pattern can represent a mix of temporal curves.
Imagine two periodic curves of similar intensity, but one peaks in a
spring and another in a fall; the sum of these two curves might lose
the appearance of seasonality, covering two distinctly seasonal
phenomena.
Some infections are very rare. Their seasonal patterns are difficult to
examine because the relevant data must be collected over a very long
time and/or aggregated over large spatial units. Precision in
evaluating seasonality can thus be jeopardized by time-dependent and/or
space-dependent confounders.
Seasonal fluctuations can be found beyond infectious diseases; chronic
somatic diseases also exhibit substantial temporal variations.
Plausibly, exacerbations in chronic conditions are driven by infectious
agents or environmental changes. Understanding the interplay of an
infection and a chronic disease may lead to better control for both.
* [50] Other Sectionsv
+ [51]Abstract
+ [52]Introduction
+ [53]Notion of Seasonality
+ [54]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [55]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [56]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [57]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [58]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [59]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [60]References
Seasonal Host Susceptibility
When the weather is seasonable and the crops ripen at the regular
times, diseases are regular in their appearance...
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 8)
Poor nutrition directly affects host susceptibility. In places of food
scarcity, researchers suspect that temporal patterns in birth weight
and preterm delivery result from seasonal variations in food
availability ([61]5). In general, due to a less developed immune
system, young children are susceptible to infection; their immune
response may be further weakened by seasonal cutbacks in essential
micronutrients and vitamins.
Anemnestic responses to an antigen determine whether an infection
recurs. Short-lived immune memory together with seasonal changes in
pathogen transmissibility contribute further to the complexity of
seasonal patterns. Even a perfectly healthy person can experience a
change in susceptibility to infection due to stress, injuries, or
trauma. The probability of a marked impact of such factors on disease
seasonality is virtually unknown.
* [62] Other Sectionsv
+ [63]Abstract
+ [64]Introduction
+ [65]Notion of Seasonality
+ [66]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [67]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [68]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [69]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [70]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [71]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [72]References
Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
Some diseases are produced by the manner of life that is followed;
others by the life-giving air we breathe.
(Hippocrates. The Nature of Man, 9)
Temperature, humidity, and precipitation -- the defining factors of
seasons -- are important determinants of pathogens' survival. Changes
influence pathogens' potency and life expectancy, resulting in temporal
fluctuations in pathogens' abundance. In many instances, seasonal
changes in pathogen survival and transmission are inseparably related
to both biological and social aspects of our lives. They are
synchronized by weather. High ambient temperature, for example,
provides a supportive environment for food-borne pathogens, favoring
their multiplication in food and on food preparation surfaces ([73]6).
Food contamination is believed to be a significant mode of transmission
for infections caused by Salmonella and Campylobacter ([74]7);
therefore, during warm weather, the risk for food-borne diseases
increases ([75]8).
Seasonal changes in level of contamination, availability of potable
water, sanitation and hygiene practices, as well as crowding and
person-to-person contacts, affect pathogens' transmissibility.
Worldwide, water use differs from season to season ([76]9). In
temperate climates, warm weather leads to higher water consumption and
encourages outdoor activities -- swimming, camping, and recreational
water use. In tropical regions, contamination of surface water
increases during wet seasons. Although spread of pathogens via food is
certainly possible, contaminated water is the dominant source of
exposure for enteric infections caused by protozoa Cryptosporidium and
Giardia ([77]10 --[78]12). Depending on locality, outbreaks of
cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis associated with drinking or
recreational water frequently occur during warm or wet seasons
([79]13,[80]14).
With the onset of cooler weather, the "heating season" marks a change
in indoor air quality. Inadequate and poorly designed ventilation in
crowded public places and urban transit systems may boost exposure to
air-borne pathogens by increasing their concentration in stagnant air
and by re-circulating contaminated air. Higher relative humidity may
also affect the stability of air-borne droplets in which viruses travel
from person to person.
* [81] Other Sectionsv
+ [82]Abstract
+ [83]Introduction
+ [84]Notion of Seasonality
+ [85]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [86]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [87]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [88]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [89]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [90]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [91]References
Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
You will find, as a general rule, that the constitutions and the habits
of a people follow the nature of the land where they live.
(Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 24)
Diseases do not watch calendars. Their incidence rises and falls
because of changes in factors associated with the diseases. However, in
every culture all social events are synchronized by calendars; and
every calendar reflects the cyclic rhythm of nature.
Traditional celebrations and gatherings observed by communities
according to calendars affect pathogen transmission. Holidays, social
activities, and seasonal travel are often associated with changes in
food consumption and preparation, and are therefore associated with
changes in disease incidence. Preparing meat on a barbecue increases
the risk of Campylobacter infection ([92]15,[93]16) and foreign travel
increases the risk for enteric infections. Aggregation of children in
schools, daycare centers, and summer camps, reflecting school
calendars, facilitates rapid exchange of pathogens. There are marked
seasonal variations in transmission, and thus the incidence of enteric
and respiratory infections.
* [94] Other Sectionsv
+ [95]Abstract
+ [96]Introduction
+ [97]Notion of Seasonality
+ [98]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [99]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [100]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [101]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [102]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [103]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [104]References
Climate Change, Extreme Weather Events, and Disease Seasonality
The changes of the seasons are especially liable to beget diseases, as
are great changes from heat to cold, or cold to heat in any season.
Other changes in the weather have similarly severe effects.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 1)
As weather affects human health by creating favorable conditions for
pathogen proliferation and transmission, severe weather can affect the
timing and intensity of infectious outbreaks, and natural disasters
lead to drastic changes in population structure and pathogen ecology.
Catastrophic events like tsunamis, hurricanes, devastating floods, and
heat waves that cause deaths, population displacement, and
infrastructural damage may have dramatic effects on the incidence of
infections and their seasonal patterns.
Recent work has shown highly significant associations between extreme
precipitation and water-borne disease outbreaks ([105]17). Heavy
precipitation, rapid snowmelt, and floods flush animal wastes from the
land into surface waters and may overwhelm drinking and wastewater
treatment systems. The latter leads to discharges in watersheds of
untreated human wastes. As a result, pathogens can appear in drinking
and recreational water in very high concentrations ([106]18,[107]19). A
rapid snowmelt, resultant runoff, and filtration system failure at the
overloaded local drinking water treatment plant were implicated in the
largest known water-borne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis, which occurred
in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1993 ([108]20). This outbreak happened in
April, not within the usual seasonal peak for cryptosporidiosis cases.
A flood, which also resulted from a rapid snowmelt, has been linked
with a similar increased incidence of diarrhea ([109]21).
Experts expect that global climate change will increase climate
variability and the frequency of extreme precipitation events in
temperate regions ([110]22,[111]23). "Global warming" may also increase
the frequency and magnitude of other extreme weather events, such as
heat waves and droughts, and thereby have profound effects on public
health ([112]24,[113]25). In a comprehensive study conducted in the
United Kingdom that described a short-term link between temperature and
food poisoning, the authors also hypothesized that climate change could
lead to changes in rates of food poisoning ([114]26).
Integration of environmental parameters into disease forecasting and
warning systems could allow public health officials to alert the
populace when specific meteorological conditions pose predictable risks
to health ([115]27). Simple messages about proper food preparation and
refrigeration and the risks of using contaminated recreational waters
could, for example, be provided before, during, and after extreme
events. Better understanding of disease seasonality would also help to
predict outbreaks of infections triggered by climate variability.
* [116] Other Sectionsv
+ [117]Abstract
+ [118]Introduction
+ [119]Notion of Seasonality
+ [120]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [121]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [122]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [123]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [124]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [125]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [126]References
Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy
to Public Health Thinking
Desperate cases need the most desperate remedies.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, I, 6)
At first, seasonal fluctuations should be systematically described.
This requires a framework with sound definitions and analytic tools
suitable for routine use by public health professionals. In public
health sciences, the existing methodology currently lacks methods and
tests for assessing complex interactions in the time-dependent factors
responsible for disease seasonality.
Next, reliable data with fine temporal resolution are a must. The vast
majority of epidemiological studies have examined seasonal patterns of
infections using quarterly or monthly data. This coarse temporal
aggregation can thwart an otherwise detailed, accurate, and
comprehensive analysis of seasonal patterns and may even be misleading
([127]28). Examination of daily or weekly rates can substantially
improve evaluation of seasonal curves, but a systematic approach for
using at least weekly aggregates is needed.
Finally, reluctance to apply sophisticated mathematical models in
public health studies must be overcome. Underlying processes in disease
manifestation and spread are complex and multifaceted. Causal pathways
are often obscured. To disentangle causal effects of many factors
within the circular processes of self-sustaining oscillations demands
the careful building of sound conceptual models of seasonality; models
that can be tested. The emerging fields of computational epidemiology
and intelligent data mining will complement established work in
philosophy of science and mathematical biology to become an essential
part of thinking in public health and policy.
Acknowledgments
I thank Drs Eileen O'Neil and Beth Rosenberg for their thoughtful
suggestions, and the support of funding agencies: the National
Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (U19AI062627), and the
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R01ES013171).
Footnotes
^1Hippocrates' citations are taken from: Lloyd, GER, editor.
Hippocratic Writings. Trans. Chadwick J and Mann WN. London: Penguin;
1978.
* [128] Other Sectionsv
+ [129]Abstract
+ [130]Introduction
+ [131]Notion of Seasonality
+ [132]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [133]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [134]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [135]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [136]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [137]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [138]References
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__________________________________________________________________
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* [175]PubMed
* [176]Taxonomy
* [177]Taxonomy Tree
* [178]Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial
variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis.
Public Health Rep. 2000 Sep-Oct; 115(5):436-47.
[Public Health Rep. 2000]
* [179]Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in
cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance
system in 1990-1999.
J Water Health. 2005 Jun; 3(2):185-96.
[J Water Health. 2005]
* [180]Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in
the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in
1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from
livestock animals.
J Clin Microbiol. 2000 Nov; 38(11):3984-90.
[J Clin Microbiol. 2000]
[181]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [182]A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between
rural Zaire and Ontario.
Can J Public Health. 1989 May-Jun; 80(3):205-8.
[Can J Public Health. 1989]
[183]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [184]Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces
and cross-contamination to foods.
Int J Food Microbiol. 2003 Aug 25; 85(3):227-36.
[Int J Food Microbiol. 2003]
* [185]ReviewFood-related illness and death in the United States.
Emerg Infect Dis. 1999 Sep-Oct; 5(5):607-25.
[Emerg Infect Dis. 1999]
* [186]The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series
analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries.
Epidemiol Infect. 2004 Jun; 132(3):443-53.
[Epidemiol Infect. 2004]
[187]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [188]A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with
the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study).
Water Sci Technol. 2001; 43(12):39-48.
[Water Sci Technol. 2001]
* [189]ReviewReview of epidemiological studies on health effects from
exposure to recreational water.
Int J Epidemiol. 1998 Feb; 27(1):1-9.
[Int J Epidemiol. 1998]
* [190]ReviewGiardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their
impact on foods: a review.
J Food Prot. 1999 Sep; 62(9):1059-70.
[J Food Prot. 1999]
* [191]Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks--United States,
1997-1998.
MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000 May 26; 49(4):1-21.
[MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000]
[192]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [193]Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of
a case-control study in southeastern Norway.
J Clin Microbiol. 1992 Dec; 30(12):3117-21.
[J Clin Microbiol. 1992]
* [194]A case-control study of risk factors for sporadic
campylobacter infections in Denmark.
Epidemiol Infect. 2003 Jun; 130(3):353-66.
[Epidemiol Infect. 2003]
[195]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [196]The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne
disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948-1994.
Am J Public Health. 2001 Aug; 91(8):1194-9.
[Am J Public Health. 2001]
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Parasitol Res. 2002 Nov; 88(11):998-1003.
[Parasitol Res. 2002]
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extreme rainfall and runoff.
Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002 May; 68(5):2188-97.
[Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002]
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transmitted through the public water supply.
N Engl J Med. 1994 Jul 21; 331(3):161-7.
[N Engl J Med. 1994]
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incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms?
Am J Epidemiol. 2004 Feb 15; 159(4):398-405.
[Am J Epidemiol. 2004]
[201]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [202]ReviewVulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change
in Canada: a review.
J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004 Oct 22-Nov 26; 67(20-22):1667-77.
[J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004]
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* [204]Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England
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[Int J Biometeorol. 1995]
[205]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [206]ReviewA stitch in time: improving public health early warning
systems for extreme weather events.
Epidemiol Rev. 2005; 27():115-21.
[Epidemiol Rev. 2005]
[207]See more articles cited in this paragraph
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Circadian rhythm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search
"Human clock" redirects here. For the online clock, see [8]Humanclock.
Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological
parameters.
A circadian rhythm is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical,
physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including
[9]plants, [10]animals, [11]fungi and [12]cyanobacteria (see
[13]bacterial circadian rhythms). The term "circadian", coined by
[14]Franz Halberg,^[15][1] comes from the [16]Latin [17]circa,
"around", and diem or dies, "day", meaning literally "approximately one
day". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily,
[18]tidal, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called
[19]chronobiology.
Circadian rhythms are [20]endogenously generated, and can be entrained
by external cues, called [21]zeitgebers, the primary one of which is
[22]daylight.
Contents
* [23]1 History
* [24]2 Criteria
* [25]3 Origin
* [26]4 Importance in animals
+ [27]4.1 Impact of light-dark cycle
+ [28]4.2 Arctic animals
+ [29]4.3 Butterfly migration
* [30]5 Biological clock in mammals
+ [31]5.1 Determining the human circadian rhythm
+ [32]5.2 Outside the "master clock"
* [33]6 Light and the biological clock
* [34]7 Enforced longer cycles
* [35]8 Human health
+ [36]8.1 Disruption
+ [37]8.2 Effect of drugs
* [38]9 See also
* [39]10 References
+ [40]10.1 Bibliography
+ [41]10.2 Notes
* [42]11 External links
[[43]edit] History
The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th
century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under
[44]Alexander the Great, described [45]diurnal leaf movements of the
[46]tamarind tree.^[47][2] The first modern observation of endogenous
circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [48]Jean-Jacques
d'Ortous de Mairan in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the
movement of the leaves of the plant [49]Mimosa pudica continued even
when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
In 1918, J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining
24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light
and changes in temperature.^[50][3] [51]Joseph Takahashi discovered the
genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.^[52][4]^[53][5]
[[54]edit] Criteria
To differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from
coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met: 1)
the rhythms persist in the absence of cues, 2) they persist equally
precisely over a range of temperatures, and 3) the rhythms can be
adjusted to match the local time:
* The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant
dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this
criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those "apparent"
rhythms that are merely responses to external periodic cues. A
rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been
tested in conditions without external periodic input.
* The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e., it maintains the same
period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this
criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological
rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway.
At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a
circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely
coincidental.
* The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The
rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms
from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to
resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of
estimating the local time. Travel across [55]time zones illustrates
the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that
it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next.
Until rhythms are reset, a person usually experiences [56]jet lag.
[[57]edit] Origin
[58]Question book-new.svg
This section needs additional [59]citations for [60]verification.
Please help [61]improve this article by adding [62]reliable references.
Unsourced material may be [63]challenged and [64]removed. (October
2007)
Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have
originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the
replicating of DNA from high [65]ultraviolet radiation during the
daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus
[66]Neurospora, which exists today, retains this [67]clock-regulated
mechanism.
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise
and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to
the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in
regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in
coordinating with the environment.^[68][6] This is suggested by the
maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after
several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,^[69][7]
as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the
experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian
rhythms in quail.^[70][8]
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic
[71]cyanobacteria. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian
clock of Synechococcus elongatus can be reconstituted in vitro with
just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has
been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the
addition of [72]ATP. Previous explanations of the [73]prokaryotic
circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription /
translation feedback mechanism.
It is an unanswered question whether circadian clocks in eukaryotic
organisms require translation/transcription-derived oscillations, for,
although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the
same basic architecture (input - [74]central oscillator - output), they
do not share any [75]homology. This implies probable independent
origins.
In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [76]Seymour Benzer first identified a
genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a
model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behaviour:
one had a shorter period, another had a longer one, and the third had
none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named
[77]period.^[78][9] The same gene was identified to be defective in the
sleep disorder FASPS ([79]Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome) in
human beings thirty years later, underscoring the conserved nature of
the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic
components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions
result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in
periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a
specific time of the day.
A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter
half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian
clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is
cell-autonomous.^[80][10] At the same time, different cells may
communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of
electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the
brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for
these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronize the
peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time
of the day as relayed by the [81]eyes travels to the clock in the
brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be
synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body
temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the
biological clock.
[[82]edit] Importance in animals
Circadian rhythmicity is present in the [83]sleeping and feeding
patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear
patterns of core body temperature, [84]brain wave activity, [85]hormone
production, cell regeneration and other biological activities. In
addition, [86]photoperiodism, the physiological reaction of organisms
to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and
the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation
of day length.
" Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food
availability or predator activity is crucial for survival of many
species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the
photoperiod ('daylength') is the most predictive environmental cue for
the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing
of migration, hibernation and reproduction.^[87][11] "
[[88]edit] Impact of light-dark cycle
The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals, including
humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function
with a [89]freerunning rhythm. Each "day", their sleep cycle is pushed
back or forward, depending on whether their [90]endogenous period is
shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that each day
reset the rhythms are called [91]Zeitgebers (from the German, Time
Givers).^[92][12] It is interesting to note that totally-blind
subterranean mammals (e.g., [93]blind mole rat Spalax sp.) are able to
maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external
stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors
(detect light) are still functional; as well, they do surface
periodically.^[[94]citation needed]
Freerunning organisms that normally have one consolidated sleep episode
will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues,
but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light/dark
cycle in nature. The sleep-wake rhythm may, in these circumstances,
become out of phase with other circadian or [95]ultradian rhythms such
as [96]temperature and [97]digestion.^[[98]citation needed]
Recent research has influenced the design of [99]spacecraft
environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been
found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.^[[100]citation needed]
[[101]edit] Arctic animals
Norwegian researchers at the [102]University of Tromsø have shown that
some Arctic animals ([103]ptarmigan, [104]reindeer) show circadian
rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and
sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at [105]70 degrees North
showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter, and spring, but not in
the summer. Reindeer at [106]78 degrees North showed such rhythms only
autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other Arctic animals as
well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and
the constant dark of winter.^[107][13]^[108][14]
However, another study in northern Alaska found that [109]ground
squirrels and [110]porcupines strictly maintained their circadian
rhythms through 82 days and nights of sunshine. The researchers
speculate that these two small mammals see that the apparent distance
between the sun and the horizon is shortest once a day, and, thus, a
sufficient signal to adjust by.^[111][15]
[[112]edit] Butterfly migration
The navigation of the fall migration of the [113]Eastern North American
monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) to their overwintering grounds in
central Mexico uses a time-compensated sun compass that depends upon a
circadian clock in their antennae.^[114][16]^[115][17]
[[116]edit] Biological clock in mammals
Diagram illustrating the influence of light and darkness on circadian
rhythms and related [117]physiology and behaviour through the
[118]suprachiasmatic nucleus in humans.
The primary circadian "clock" in [119]mammals is located in the
[120]suprachiasmatic nucleus (or nuclei) ([121]SCN), a pair of distinct
groups of [122]cells located in the [123]hypothalamus. Destruction of
the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep-wake rhythm.
The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The
[124]retina of the eyes contains not only "classical"
[125]photoreceptors but also photoresponsive retinal [126]ganglion
cells. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called
[127]melanopsin, follow a pathway called the [128]retinohypothalamic
tract, leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and
cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external
cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on the lengths of the day
and night from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the
[129]pineal gland, a tiny structure shaped like a [130]pine cone and
located on the [131]epithalamus. In response the pineal secretes the
hormone [132]melatonin. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs
during the day and its presence provides information about
night-length.
The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter
and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard
have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a
23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural
solar day-night cycle on the planet [133]Mars).^[134][18]
[[135]edit] Determining the human circadian rhythm
The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's
circadian rhythm are
* melatonin secretion by the pineal gland and
* core body temperature.
For temperature studies, people must remain awake but calm and
semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are
taken continuously. The average human adult's temperature reaches its
minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake
time, though variation is great among normal [136]chronotypes.
Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime.
Its onset in dim light, dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO), at about
21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Its major
[137]metabolite can also be measured in morning urine. Both DLMO and
the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or
saliva have been used as circadian markers.
However, newer research indicates that the melatonin offset may be the
most reliable marker. Benloucif et al. in Chicago in 2005 found that
melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated
with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found
that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly
correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In
addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable
and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.^[138][19]
One method used for measuring melatonin offset is to analyse a sequence
of urine samples throughout the morning for the presence of the
melatonin [139]metabolite 6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s). Laberge et al.
in Quebec in 1997 used this method in a study that confirmed the
frequently found delayed circadian phase in healthy
adolescents.^[140][20]
[[141]edit] Outside the "master clock"
More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and
cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the "master
clock". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the
[142]oesophagus, [143]lungs, [144]liver, [145]pancreas, [146]spleen,
[147]thymus, and the [148]skin.^[149][21] Though oscillators in the
skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven so
far.^[150][22]^[151][23] There is some evidence that also the olfactory
bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting
that also these structures may be weak oscillators.
Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding
rather than to [152]light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to
have freerunning rhythms.
[[153]edit] Light and the biological clock
Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [154]phase
response curve (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or
delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required
[155]illuminance vary from species to species and lower light levels
are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm in humans are higher than
the levels usually used in artificial lighting in homes. According to
some researchers^[156][24] the illumination intensity that excites the
circadian system has to reach up to 1000 [157]lux striking the retina.
In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or colour) of light is a
factor in the entrainment of the body clock. [158]Melanopsin is most
efficiently excited by blue light, 420-440 nm^[159][25] according to
some researchers while others have reported 470-485 nm.
It is thought that the direction of the light may have an effect on
entraining the circadian rhythm;^[160][24] light coming from above,
resembling an image of a bright sky, has greater effect than light
entering our eyes from below.
[[161]edit] Enforced longer cycles
Modern research under very controlled conditions has shown the human
period for adults to be just slightly longer than 24 hours on average.
Czeisler et al. at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults
of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes.
The "clock" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's
rotation.^[162][26]
The 28-hour day is presented as a concept of [163]time
management.^[164][27] It builds on the fact that the week of seven days
at 24 hours and a "week" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of
168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require
staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours.
Each "day" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern.
Studies by [165]Nathaniel Kleitman^[166][28] in 1938 and by
[167]Derk-Jan Dijk and [168]Charles Czeisler^[169][29]^[170][30] in
1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep-wake cycles,
in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a
month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day,^[171][31]
this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake
episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about
24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of
circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including
[172]sleep latency and other functions.^[173][32]
Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people
preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli
like daylight and timekeeping. Early investigators determined the human
circadian period to be 25 hours or more. They went to great lengths to
shield subjects from time cues and daylight, but they were not aware of
the effects of indoor electric lights. The subjects were allowed to
turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted
to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase.
These results became well known.^[174][26] Researchers allowed subjects
to keep electric lighting on in the evening, as it was thought at that
time that a couple of 60W bulbs would not have a resetting effect on
the circadian rhythms of humans. More recent research^[[175]citation
needed] has shown that adults have a built-in day, which averages just
over 24 hours, that indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms and
that most people attain their best-quality sleep during their
[176]chronotype-determined sleep periods.
[[177]edit] Human health
Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may
significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse
reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with
[178]angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) may reduce
nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [179]left ventricular
(reverse) remodelling.^[[180]citation needed]
A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms.
A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during
the day, a [181]power-nap, does not have any effect on normal circadian
rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve
productivity.^[182][33]^[183][34]
There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the
human circadian rhythm, such as [184]seasonal affective disorder (SAD),
[185]delayed sleep phase syndrome (DSPS) and other [186]circadian
rhythm disorders.^[187][35] Circadian rhythms also play a part in the
[188]reticular activating system, which is crucial for maintaining a
state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep-wake cycle
may be a sign or complication of [189]uremia,^[190][36] [191]azotemia
or [192]acute renal failure.
[[193]edit] Disruption
Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers
have experienced the condition known as [194]jet lag, with its
associated symptoms of [195]fatigue, disorientation and [196]insomnia.
A number of other disorders, for example [197]bipolar disorder and some
[198]sleep disorders, are associated with irregular or pathological
functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that
circadian rhythm disturbances found in [199]bipolar disorder are
positively influenced by [200]lithium's effect on clock
genes.^[201][37]
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have
significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside
the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of
cardiovascular disease [202][2] The suppression of melatonin production
associated with the disruption of the circadian rhythm may increase the
risk of developing cancer.^[203][38]^[204][39]
[[205]edit] Effect of drugs
Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside
the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such
as [206]cocaine.^[207][40]^[208][41] Moreover, genetic manipulations of
clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.^[209][42]
[[210]edit] See also
* [211]Actigraphy (also known as Actimetry)
* [212]Advanced sleep phase syndrome
* [213]ARNTL
* [214]ARNTL2
* [215]Bacterial circadian rhythms
* [216]Chronobiology
* [217]Chronotype
* [218]Circadian oscillator
* [219]Circadian rhythm sleep disorders
* [220]Cryptochrome
* [221]CRY1 and [222]CRY2, the cryptochrome family genes
* [223]Delayed sleep phase syndrome
* [224]Diurnal cycle
* [225]Jet lag
* [226]Light effects on circadian rhythm
* [227]PER1, [228]PER2, and [229]PER3, the period family genes
* [230]Power-nap
[[231]edit] References
[[232]edit] Bibliography
* Aschoff J (ed.) (1965) Circadian Clocks. North Holland Press,
Amsterdam
* Avivi A, Albrecht U, Oster H, Joel A, Beiles A, Nevo E. 2001.
Biological clock in total darkness: the Clock/MOP3 circadian system
of the blind subterranean mole rat. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
98:13751-13756.
* Avivi A, Oster H, Joel A, Beiles A, Albrecht U, Nevo E. 2002.
Circadian genes in a blind subterranean mammal II: conservation and
uniqueness of the three Period homologs in the blind subterranean
mole rat, Spalax ehrenbergi superspecies. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
99:11718-11723.
* Ditty JL, Williams SB, Golden SS (2003) A cyanobacterial circadian
timing mechanism. Annu Rev Genet 37:513-543
* Dunlap JC, Loros J, DeCoursey PJ (2003) Chronobiology: Biological
Timekeeping. Sinauer, Sunderland
* Dvornyk V, Vinogradova ON, Nevo E (2003) Origin and evolution of
circadian clock genes in prokaryotes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
100:2495-2500
* Koukkari WL, Sothern RB (2006) Introducing Biological Rhythms.
Springer, New York
* Martino T, Arab S, Straume M, Belsham DD, Tata N, Cai F, Liu P,
Trivieri M, Ralph M, Sole MJ. Day/night rhythms in gene expression
of the normal murine heart. J Mol Med. 2004 Apr;82(4):256-64. Epub
2004 Feb 24. PMID: 14985853
* Refinetti R (2006) Circadian Physiology, 2nd ed. CRC Press, Boca
Raton
* Takahashi JS, Zatz M (1982) Regulation of circadian rhythmicity.
Science 217:1104-1111
* Tomita J, Nakajima M, Kondo T, Iwasaki H (2005) No
transcription-translation feedback in circadian rhythm of KaiC
phosphorylation. Science 307: 251-254
* Moore-Ede, Martin C., Sulszman, Frank M., and Fuller, Charles A.
(1982) "The Clocks that Time Us: Physiology of the Circadian Timing
System." Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. [233]ISBN
0-674-13581-4.
[[234]edit] Notes
Centre
2. [237]^ Bretzl H. Botaniche Forchungen des Alexanderzuges. Leipzig:
Teubner, 1903.
3. [238]^ Danchin, Antoine. [239]"Important dates 1900-1919".
HKU-Pasteur Research Centre (Paris).
0.html. Retrieved 2008-01-12.
4. [241]^ "Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock".
Chicago Tribune. April 29, 1994.
5. [242]^ Vitaterna, M.H.; King, D.P.; Chang, A.M.; Kornhauser, J.M.;
Lowrey, P.L.; McDonald, J.D.; Dove, W.F.; Pinto, L.H. et al.
(1994). "Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential
for circadian behavior.". Science 264 (264): 719-725.
[243]doi:[244]10.1126/science.8171325.
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circadian clocks" (Abstract). Chronobiology international 20 (6):
901-919. [247]doi:[248]10.1081/CBI-120026099. [249]ISSN
[250]0742-0528. [251]PMID [252]14680135.
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[274]"Circadian Rhythms, or Not, in Arctic Reindeer". A Blog around
the Clock. ScienceBlogs.com.
_in_ar_1.php. Retrieved 2007-11-24.
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[277]"Small Arctic Mammals Entrain to Something during the Long
Summer Day". A Blog Around the Clock. ScienceBlogs.com.
rain_t.php. Retrieved 2007-11-26.
16. [279]^ Merlin C, Gegear RJ, Reppert SM. (2009). Antennal Circadian
Clocks Coordinate Sun Compass Orientation in Migratory Monarch
Butterflies. Science 325: 1700-1704.
[280]doi:[281]10.1126/science.1176221
17. [282]^ Kyriacou CP. (2009). Unraveling Traveling. Science
325:1629-1630 [283]doi:[284]10.1126/science.1178935
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Kronauer, Charles A. Czeisler (2007-08-08). [286]"Plasticity of the
Intrinsic Period of the Human Circadian Timing System". PLoS ONE 2
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[290]17684566. [291]PMC [292]1934931.
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L'Hermite-Baleriaux, M.; Zee, P.C. (2005). [295]"Stability of
melatonin and temperature as circadian phase markers and their
relation to sleep times in humans". J Biol Rhythms (Chicago,
Illinois, USA: Center for Sleep and Circadian Biology, Departments
of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine)
20 (2): 178-88. [296]doi:[297]10.1177/0748730404273983. [298]PMID
[299]15834114.
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Montplaisir, J. (1997). [302]"Phase delay of 6-sulphatoxymelatonin
in normal adolescents". Sleep Research (Québec, Canada: Centre
d'etude du Sommeil, Hopital du Sacre-Coeur, Département de
Psychologie, Département de Pharmacologie, Departement de
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issn=19979287. Retrieved 2007-12-18.
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Oct.: Expression of the Circadian Clock Genes clock and period1 in
Human Skin
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Low-dose UVB Rays Alter the mRNA Expression of the Circadian Clock
Genes in cultured Human Keratinocytes
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Extraocular Circadian Phototransduction in Humans
24. ^ [307]^a [308]^b Semjonova, Milena (2003). [309]"Healthy Lighting,
from a lighting designer's perspective". Milena Lighting Design.
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"Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment",
Biochemistry. 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8.
26. ^ [312]^a [313]^b [314]"Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour".
1999.
Retrieved 2007-09-23. "The variation between our subjects, with a
95 percent level of confidence, was no more than plus or minus 16
minutes, a remarkably small range."
27. [316]^ Digital Beat Productions (1997). [317]"28 Hour Day".
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Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
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of the circadian rhythm of sleep propensity serves to consolidate
sleep and wakefulness in humans". Neurosci Lett 166 (1): 63.
[321]doi:[322]10.1016/0304-3940(94)90841-9. [323]PMID
[324]8190360.
30. [325]^ Dijk, Derk-Jan; Czeisler Charles (1995). [326]"Contribution
of the Circadian Pacemaker and the Sleep Homeostat to Sleep
Propensity, Sleep Structure, Electrocephalographic Slow Waves, and
Sleep Spindle Activity in Humans". J. Neurosci 15 (5): 3526.
[327]PMID [328]7751928.
31. [330]^ Cromie, William J. (1999-07-15). [331]"Human Biological
Clock Set Back an Hour". The Harvard University Gazette.
Retrieved 2008-02-19.
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Oxford University Press. [335]ISBN [336]0195129571.
pg=RA1-PA65&dq=experimenting+with+the+28+hour+day&source=bl&ots=9R4
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to nighttime sleep". The prevalence of daytime napping and its
relationship to nighttime sleep. Behavioral medicine. 2001.
Retrieved 2008-11-11.
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Levels Among College Students". Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive
Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students. Liberty
University. 2007.
3.htm. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
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Sleep. Serendip. 2007.
ml. Retrieved 2007-09-19.
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[348]"Renal Failure, Acute". eMedicine from WebMD.
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To Help Cells' Clocks Keep On Tickin'
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Bouvard V, Altieri A, Benbrahim-Tallaa L, Cogliano V, WHO
International Agency for Research on Cancer Monograph Working
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gland is critical for circadian Period1 expression in the striatum
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Neuropsychopharmacology 28 (12): 2117-23.
[357]doi:[358]10.1038/sj.npp.1300254. [359]PMID [360]12865893.
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"Involvement of the pineal gland in diurnal cocaine reward in
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[[372]edit] External links
* [373]Circadian rhythm at the [374]Open Directory Project
* Leloup J.C. (2009). "Circadian clocks and phosphorylation: Insights
from computational modeling". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 4 (3): 290-303.
[375]doi:[376]10.2478/s11535-009-0025-1.
* Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A (2007). "Evolutionary mechanisms
of circadian clocks". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 2 (2): 233-253.
[377]doi:[378]10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z.
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January 2, 2006
Universal Timing
Life's Natural Rhythm
Nature's natural rhythms orchestrate when day turns to night, when
flowers must bloom, and provides the cue for when it is time for red
and brown leaves to fall from trees. As human beings, our own inner
rhythm is attuned to this universal sense of timing. Guided by the
rising and setting of the sun, changes in temperature, and our own
internal rhythm, we know when it is time to sleep, eat, or be active.
While our minds and spirits are free to focus on other pursuits, our
breath and our heartbeat are always there to remind us of life's
pulsing rhythm that moves within and around us.
Moving to this rhythm, we know when it is time to stop working and when
to rest. Pushing our bodies to work beyond their natural rhythm
diminishes our ability to renew and recharge. A feeling much like jet
lag lets us know when we've overridden our own natural rhythm. When we
feel the frantic calls of all we want to accomplish impelling us to
move faster than is natural for us, we may want to breathe deeply
instead and look at nature moving to its own organic timing: birds
flying south, leaves shedding, or snow falling. A walk in nature can
also let us re-attune is to her organic rhythm, while allowing us to
move back in time with our own. When we move to our natural rhythm, we
can achieve all we need to do with less effort.
We may even notice that our soul moves to its own internal, natural
rhythm - especially when it comes to our personal evolution. Comparing
ourselves to others is unnecessary. Our best guide is to move to our
own internal timing, while keeping time with the rhythm of nature.
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[1]Daniel Elazar Papers Index [2][USEMAP:nav-back.gif]
American Political Culture
The Generational Rhythm of American Politics
The American Mosaic, Chapter 2
Daniel J. Elazar
It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States
combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount
of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no
less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space.
Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location
within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less
pinpointed.
This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is
structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of
generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to
the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast
developments with great success. At the same time he has applied
that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that
very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs.
Early Studies of Generational Rhythms
Students of society have noted the succession of generations since
ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology
on generational measures.
The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear
time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning
of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs.
It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the
individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the
starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon
and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon
operating in history.^2
Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational
basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first
recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the
system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third
and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the
Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average
generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full
generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical
scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression,
"forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5
Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The
"generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity
of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a
common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a
time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces
time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new
judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation
and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7
Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have
beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the
founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central
interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of
its beginnings and its ancestry.
Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were
the first to articulate systematic theories of generational
progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte
viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the
thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in
shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the
unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the
aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social
cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that
"History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of
Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle
phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences
appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals
comes to dominate society.^9
These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical
verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years
of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop
the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed
the principle that generations are articulated through historical
events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained.
Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a
fourfold classification of generations as preparatory,
revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10
Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11
Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that
generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific
study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and
heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation
century.^13
After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the
succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of
social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between
contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who
are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his
student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked
on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and
Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm
Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri
Peyre (1948).^16
More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused
on problems of intergenerational differences and the political
socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes
or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund
Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study
of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their
study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963)
focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966)
studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957)
utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in
Israel and the United States, respectively.^20
All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a
comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of
their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and
those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving
many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the
studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two
parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the
people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact,
both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined
that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The
linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive
theory.
None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a
generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black
box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods.
Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of
three generations.
Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining
way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an
empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is
somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin.
Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature,
art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of
eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular
basis.
Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to
embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under
the heading of "a generation".
Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History
A number of theories of political cycles in American history have
been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of
American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational
thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a
series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based
on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective
governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect
"concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of
property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the
wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid
movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories
include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter
Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical
theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the
"more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments"
using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process.
Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the
interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United
States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical
periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23
Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the
manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work.
Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in
presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the
House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual
party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in
American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of
an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American
history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in
length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes
that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device
since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable
directions.
Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his
emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by
using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of
voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state
vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates
five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s)
and the present.
Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the
level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five
periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of
stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of
approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing
already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an
established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in
turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis
to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment
occurs in every generation.
While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with
American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he
begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three
of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive
happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning
point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that
Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a
generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts
as follows:
1787-1801-1816
1816-1829-1841
1841-1861-1869
1869-1901-1918
1918-1931-?
The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the
beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them
primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles
rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have
been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational
patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the
following pattern:
1790-1796/1800
1800-1824/1828
1828-1824/1860
1860-1888/1896
1896-1932
His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to
that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their
significance in the periodization process.
Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although
even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if
it is schematized as follows:
1789-1820
1828
1856-1860
1893/1894
1932
Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized
as follows:
1896-1912
1912-1920-1932-1952
1952
Pomper also offers election dates and no more:
1836
1864-1876
1876-1892/1896
1928/1932-1952
1952-1964
None of these are complete theories and all must be considered
within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit.
Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough
approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the
commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United
States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The
revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of
generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson
Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods
of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named:
e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era.
In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers
developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the
federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could
not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however,
the American people were treated to a display of federal activity --
and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by
FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the
mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth
of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the
mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper
understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United
States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow
of time and events.)
The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its
own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human
time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible
pattern in the progression of political events in the United States
over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not
happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events
in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in
cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the
biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human
life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is
substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though
the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this
phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26
The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind
another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit
decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every
government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on
the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on
the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of
attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be
supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that
being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons
who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive
generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a
fixed moment, as individuals do now....
What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the
same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a
constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A
generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case,
would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to
contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for
14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily
deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of
their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at
that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated
from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of
climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors.
Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that
23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a
society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the
ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as
follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all
ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half
will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every
year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly
have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half
of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time
will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest
integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the
representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself
assembled, can validly extend a debt.
On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a
perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every
constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of
34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not
of right.
The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that
would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to
his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French
Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the
sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making
on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every
nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme,
Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one
which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one
way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure
of location in time.
Human Social Rhythms
As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural
measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a
common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the
"lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does
appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account
for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely
and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation
in any particular civil society and chart the relations among
generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical
patterns of its politics.
During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years,
averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people
will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then
pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every
individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in
which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited.
Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she
begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime
between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at
which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life"
ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and
political roles as are given to mature men and women in society.
Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a
person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention,
if not physically, considered ready for retirement.
Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an
individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first
fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially
powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote,
and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After
attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period
of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be
translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among
those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s
before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on
the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become
serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are
able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the
scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be
defined as the ending of one's serious political career without
suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's
30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential
influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise
influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political
leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds
forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship.
The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle
of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young
people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters
actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people
in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then
declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to
"retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28
In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each
individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society
is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a
common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any
particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its
history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical
record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and
the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at
the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In
the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed
leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in
power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age
and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a
result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly
established.
Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults
settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and
in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational
progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and
purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began
more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed
from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the
door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to
begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of
the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their
patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby
allowing a new generation to assume the reins.
Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they
establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in
social and political life than that found in the simple processes of
human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were
equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the
biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by
locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace
the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of
organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings
are recorded in history, we can do just that.
Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the
progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins
of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is
shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the
impact of the change and encourages new political action to
assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new
generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at
the most four generations are alive at any given time creates
certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of
grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of
inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact
help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In
this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is
socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and
politically unmanageable.
Generations, Centuries and Events
Since the founding of the first European settlements along the
Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations
of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series
of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the
twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three
generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain
distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense
recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th
century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of
American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in
which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century
stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th
century is the century of the United States as a world power.
Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as
chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European
history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have
begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing
point, thus:
a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603)
and the 17th century began with the opening of the American
frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between
the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of
the times.
b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty
of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which
eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the
Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration
for both countries.
c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the
War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era
of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff).
d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the
inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak
of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land
frontier.
Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments
that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show
every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then
dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are
immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the
nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged
during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation
under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a
century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn,
the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments
having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic
society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated
American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments
disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently
in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments
that will replace them.
The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth
generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the
past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators
have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just
when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of
generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was
ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal
intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of
the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of
alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the
generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life
so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began
after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided
over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the
renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence.
The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be
delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression
will be related to major forces and factors shaping American
history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the
principal challenges facing the American people in each generation
and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing
forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of
critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization
in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial,
ethnic and religious groups.
One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate.
Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with
such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for
analytical purposes than life ever is.
The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the
period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old
World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany,
but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually
every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original
thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native
Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies,
and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate
nation with its own civilization.
The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century,
which, from the first American recognition of common continental
interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for
Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent
American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism,
successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and
established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The
idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the
political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans.
The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations,
beginning at the point where America turned its back on European
entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced
them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an
industrialized continental nation with a strong national government;
abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world
power ready for overseas involvements.
The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century --
reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the
arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with
the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding
over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the
results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the
industrial revolution.
As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with
the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the
United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished
relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first
generation of the transformation of society as a result of the
application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new
frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse
of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically
dominant although economically weakened. The results of these
phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder
of the generation.
Generations and Frontier Stages
The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are
products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In
American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if
not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and
centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American
frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other
historical and political phenomena.
Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has
been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of
human control over the natural environment and the utilization of
the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control,
i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American
society is a product of this commitment which is virtually
self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one
frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier
situation that has created the major social and economic changes
which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's
political institutions.
America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages
to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the
metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic
frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled
with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been
decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American
life within that stage.
The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the
historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted
from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the
end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on
the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American
continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the
products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the
westward movement on a basically rural population interested in
settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a
socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits
in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was
dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an
active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and
still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in
Alaska.
Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth
the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and
spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation
into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the
spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's
economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented
the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States,
where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater
part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it
first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the
beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands
of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally
superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth
generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the
end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various
localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant
characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities
from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into
independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and
social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their
existence and growth.
By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth,
in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is
characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society
through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that
encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large
metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from
atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the
accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further
changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with
their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered
a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like
the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological
frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on
a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation.
After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly
and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and
pace of development across the country.
The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by
the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to
be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The
late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash
from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism
challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s,
ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution,
and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth
premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of
resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were
saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over.
By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was
emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the
metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers,
satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new
data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large
belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated
by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not
connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and
small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single
metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different
purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern
coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found
in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its
early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges,
initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its
renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of
financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American
economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of
Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West.
Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues
of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new
frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement
patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its
own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns
and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands
themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between
the points of generational division and the shifts in the various
frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater
detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as
part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are
closely related to the opening of new centuries.
Generations and Economic Periods
One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a
continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to
meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a
result, the governments of the United States have always maintained
a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in
the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to
era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the
governmental response. These changes have also developed on a
generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the
founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic
policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth
generation of American history) the American government continued a
semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the
nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government
involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during
which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in
which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the
outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful
competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a
generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially
unregulated by government.
Demands for government regulation that built up during the last
generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of
intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first
generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the
eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active
government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system.
Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around
toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less
government intervention.
Centuries, Generations and Federalism
The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can
also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first
generation of American history brought the introduction of federal
principles through the contracts and covenants that established the
colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through
Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the
seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a
local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of
national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose
strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly,
concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in
the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and
crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and
then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century.
The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has
been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society.
Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal
with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques
have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These
new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed
have been major elements in the concrete response to the
generation's challenges.
Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship
The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and
their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the
challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of
American history and politics. The changes in those relationships
also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries.
British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious
pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through
giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular
territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as
indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In
the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized
in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian
differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery.
Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism
was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones
existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste
system was in the making.
During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and
sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the
original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the
virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation.
Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new
lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was
abolished in the North.
The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial
establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was
almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant
immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new
post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through
the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration
reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to
reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was
reaffirmed through the institution of segregation.
From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open
pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The
barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants
began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those
barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by
the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape
up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the
twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but
those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of
American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say,
to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American
culture.
While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been
presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the
generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted
descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some
cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary
period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational
responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New
Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political
dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the
Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era.
The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses
Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular
challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its
own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and
the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In
some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could
act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In
others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the challenges changes from century to century.
During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the
tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various
colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related
to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence
of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially
related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American
national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been
essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society
and the assumption of an American role in world affairs.
The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the
initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which,
objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively
recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing
recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors
such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in
voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with
mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to
public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters
does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet
existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular
progression of political events revolving around the development of
a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its
response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and
responses that gives each generation its particular character. While
the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external --
or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is
primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation
themselves.
In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has
taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each
colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its
sisters, and the other science independence when a common national
constitution created a common national politics. In some cases,
particularly after independence when the nation could act
decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other,
particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the political challenges that have dominated the
American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a
new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating
the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the
19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope,
wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the
20th century, they have essentially related to the
metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an
American role in world affairs.
In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within
each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and
new generations is marked by several decisive political actions,
often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature
is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old
generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and
opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a
time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues
they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political
action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population
change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political
activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur
the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the
direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders
to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the
generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many
quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of
governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to
the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five
years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with
digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so
that they will achieve greater success and at the same time
integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The
end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify
and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the
issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for
political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be
recognized.
The Bench Marks of American Political History:
Critical Elections and New Deals
In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a
particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a
system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can
also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political
history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune
with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds;
first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a
particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of
intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government
initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each
generation.
The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections
A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the
sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period
of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The
generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this
pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which
brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs
of voters, shifting them from one political party to another.
Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a
"critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of
electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound
readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the
community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are
formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result
of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide
electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency
from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one
major element to another.
Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that
there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the
allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively
long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public
opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the
1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with
a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In
consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats
have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters
identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority
party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order
to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and
representatives to win control of Congress.
The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968,
only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled
the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a
military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the
"normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his
party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in
1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after
twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the
Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the
Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems,
won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular
Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a
Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his
victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition
and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a
period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White
House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the
Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the
GOP controlled the Senate.
A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a
nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent
and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on
a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical
loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations,
personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of
the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are
nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders
(or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate
state parties which form the two national confederations known as
the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties
are confederations of the state parties, so is the national
coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional
coalitions.
Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and
thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the
electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to
remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead
to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution,
too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems
attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the
dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary
inroads in the various electoral groups.
Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces
opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in
public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in
the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party
that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means
certain that the majority party will even win all the national
elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and
usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a
limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its
losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The
states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as
bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend
its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority
coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for
national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards
for the party faithful during the years of national "famine."
As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent
electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their
changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with
each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find
the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass
and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in
importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed
and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the
realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment
of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a
reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad
electoral groups.^33
While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state
and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon
only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election.
Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make
embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become
fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional
elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional
election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical
elections."^34
The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the
development of the institution of the popularly elected president.
Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of
electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize
presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited
apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and
the House of Representatives.
Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part
of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the
use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on
the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The
generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem.
It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not
so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a
disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as
did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current
during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the
end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that
they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant
percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and
alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues
lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote
as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children
came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the
majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational
buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the
guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file"
alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of
each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the
ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from
balance to majority.
"New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity
The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of
innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind
usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin
Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as
the historical watersheds they are.
In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S.
Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform
activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for
their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian
Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over
a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that
enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way
the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems
of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his
Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind
because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the
moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was
cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic
U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly
the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use
the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came
Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for
all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B.
Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as
it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s.
The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted
approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of
governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of
the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for
another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon
to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational
consolidation.
The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years
between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in
Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of
extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President
Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to
resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial
presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its
power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic
problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led
the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill
the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the
hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states
and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington
before undertaking any activities.
The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an
"outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community
marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth
in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by
many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation,
usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time.
President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's
international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to
shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of
infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the
Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and
localities. These were all to become principal issues during the
period of generational build-up.
The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to
the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the
American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the
tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that
followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By
the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on
behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were
referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues
of the new generation.
Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been
invariably preceded by critical elections through which the
reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to
generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die --
determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either
by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting
them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as
unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to
majority status. These critical elections, which attain their
visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and
interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which
face them.
Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the
party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series
of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the
Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the
1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had
become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the
Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans.
Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the
majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times
and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats
picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in
1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party
coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen
it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The
old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent
severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted
and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the
Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the
programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing
period for the Democratic coalition.
To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in
American politics is not to suggest that events move in any
lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same
as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the
"normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence
we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them
for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too
can be done that gives the theory its power.
Summary
Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of
American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical
understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more
interest to European social philosophers than American social
scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the
question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics,
often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their
theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation
rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to
understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human
social rhythms generally.
Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their
internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries
represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them.
The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation,
constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to
them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical
elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political
history recurring on a generational basis.
Notes
1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by
Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970);
Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational
Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979).
2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the
Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973).
3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5
(Garden City: Doubleday, 1987).
4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday,
1987).
5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a
generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse
11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers,
chapter 32, verse 13.
7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11;
chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte
(London: G. Bell, 1896).
9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive
(London, 1862).
10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani
(Milano: Monanni, 1929).
11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen,
der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4.
(1875), pp. 36-41.
12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on
Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds.,
Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline
(Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in
History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane,
Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp.,
1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1990).
13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method.
14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933).
15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti,
ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and
Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales
(Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in
der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F.
Schoeningh, 1933).
16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der
Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926);
Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and
Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig,
1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris:
Boivin, 1948).
17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the
Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger,
1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4
(1972): 564-78.
18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the
Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956).
19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin,
American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970).
20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and
Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield,
Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970).
21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939).
22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago:
Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the
Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key,
Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961);
Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968);
Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1989).
23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party
System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210.
24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of
Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the
years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of
American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur
Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co.
1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to
conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the
article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using
liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the
generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written
as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something
which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best
reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government
from the Civil War to the New Deal.
25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first
presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American
Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no.
1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns
Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also
Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University
Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992).
26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789.
27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years
old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve
in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President.
28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and
Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman
H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and
the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary
M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney
Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American
Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for
the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris
Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in
America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W.
Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get
Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb
and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda
Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber,
Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership
(Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey,
Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.:
Brooks/Cole, 1989).
29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with
special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in
The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York:
Macmillan, 1961).
30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965):
Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the
Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989).
31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18.
32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections
in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability,"
Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171.
33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate
(Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James
L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and
Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical
Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York:
Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?"
in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party
Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American
Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press
of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed.,
Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and
Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise
Institute, 1983).
34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American
Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party
System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony;
David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization,
Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter,
Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American
Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of
Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985).
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American Political Culture
The Generational Rhythm of American Politics
The American Mosaic, Chapter 2
Daniel J. Elazar
It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States
combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount
of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no
less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space.
Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location
within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less
pinpointed.
This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is
structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of
generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to
the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast
developments with great success. At the same time he has applied
that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that
very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs.
Early Studies of Generational Rhythms
Students of society have noted the succession of generations since
ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology
on generational measures.
The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear
time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning
of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs.
It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the
individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the
starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon
and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon
operating in history.^2
Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational
basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first
recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the
system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third
and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the
Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average
generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full
generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical
scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression,
"forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5
Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The
"generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity
of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a
common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a
time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces
time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new
judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation
and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7
Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have
beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the
founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central
interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of
its beginnings and its ancestry.
Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were
the first to articulate systematic theories of generational
progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte
viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the
thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in
shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the
unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the
aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social
cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that
"History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of
Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle
phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences
appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals
comes to dominate society.^9
These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical
verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years
of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop
the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed
the principle that generations are articulated through historical
events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained.
Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a
fourfold classification of generations as preparatory,
revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10
Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11
Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that
generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific
study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and
heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation
century.^13
After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the
succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of
social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between
contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who
are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his
student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked
on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and
Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm
Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri
Peyre (1948).^16
More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused
on problems of intergenerational differences and the political
socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes
or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund
Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study
of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their
study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963)
focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966)
studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957)
utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in
Israel and the United States, respectively.^20
All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a
comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of
their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and
those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving
many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the
studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two
parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the
people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact,
both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined
that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The
linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive
theory.
None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a
generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black
box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods.
Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of
three generations.
Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining
way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an
empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is
somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin.
Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature,
art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of
eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular
basis.
Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to
embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under
the heading of "a generation".
Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History
A number of theories of political cycles in American history have
been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of
American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational
thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a
series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based
on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective
governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect
"concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of
property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the
wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid
movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories
include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter
Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical
theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the
"more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments"
using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process.
Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the
interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United
States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical
periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23
Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the
manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work.
Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in
presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the
House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual
party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in
American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of
an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American
history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in
length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes
that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device
since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable
directions.
Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his
emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by
using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of
voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state
vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates
five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s)
and the present.
Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the
level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five
periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of
stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of
approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing
already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an
established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in
turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis
to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment
occurs in every generation.
While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with
American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he
begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three
of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive
happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning
point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that
Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a
generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts
as follows:
1787-1801-1816
1816-1829-1841
1841-1861-1869
1869-1901-1918
1918-1931-?
The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the
beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them
primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles
rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have
been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational
patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the
following pattern:
1790-1796/1800
1800-1824/1828
1828-1824/1860
1860-1888/1896
1896-1932
His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to
that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their
significance in the periodization process.
Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although
even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if
it is schematized as follows:
1789-1820
1828
1856-1860
1893/1894
1932
Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized
as follows:
1896-1912
1912-1920-1932-1952
1952
Pomper also offers election dates and no more:
1836
1864-1876
1876-1892/1896
1928/1932-1952
1952-1964
None of these are complete theories and all must be considered
within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit.
Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough
approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the
commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United
States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The
revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of
generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson
Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods
of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named:
e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era.
In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers
developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the
federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could
not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however,
the American people were treated to a display of federal activity --
and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by
FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the
mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth
of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the
mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper
understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United
States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow
of time and events.)
The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its
own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human
time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible
pattern in the progression of political events in the United States
over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not
happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events
in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in
cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the
biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human
life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is
substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though
the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this
phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26
The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind
another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit
decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every
government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on
the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on
the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of
attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be
supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that
being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons
who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive
generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a
fixed moment, as individuals do now....
What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the
same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a
constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A
generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case,
would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to
contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for
14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily
deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of
their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at
that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated
from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of
climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors.
Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that
23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a
society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the
ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as
follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all
ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half
will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every
year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly
have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half
of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time
will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest
integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the
representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself
assembled, can validly extend a debt.
On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a
perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every
constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of
34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not
of right.
The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that
would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to
his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French
Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the
sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making
on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every
nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme,
Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one
which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one
way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure
of location in time.
Human Social Rhythms
As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural
measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a
common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the
"lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does
appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account
for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely
and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation
in any particular civil society and chart the relations among
generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical
patterns of its politics.
During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years,
averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people
will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then
pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every
individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in
which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited.
Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she
begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime
between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at
which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life"
ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and
political roles as are given to mature men and women in society.
Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a
person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention,
if not physically, considered ready for retirement.
Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an
individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first
fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially
powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote,
and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After
attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period
of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be
translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among
those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s
before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on
the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become
serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are
able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the
scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be
defined as the ending of one's serious political career without
suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's
30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential
influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise
influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political
leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds
forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship.
The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle
of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young
people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters
actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people
in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then
declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to
"retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28
In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each
individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society
is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a
common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any
particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its
history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical
record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and
the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at
the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In
the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed
leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in
power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age
and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a
result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly
established.
Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults
settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and
in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational
progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and
purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began
more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed
from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the
door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to
begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of
the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their
patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby
allowing a new generation to assume the reins.
Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they
establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in
social and political life than that found in the simple processes of
human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were
equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the
biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by
locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace
the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of
organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings
are recorded in history, we can do just that.
Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the
progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins
of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is
shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the
impact of the change and encourages new political action to
assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new
generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at
the most four generations are alive at any given time creates
certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of
grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of
inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact
help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In
this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is
socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and
politically unmanageable.
Generations, Centuries and Events
Since the founding of the first European settlements along the
Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations
of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series
of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the
twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three
generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain
distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense
recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th
century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of
American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in
which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century
stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th
century is the century of the United States as a world power.
Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as
chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European
history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have
begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing
point, thus:
a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603)
and the 17th century began with the opening of the American
frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between
the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of
the times.
b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty
of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which
eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the
Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration
for both countries.
c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the
War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era
of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff).
d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the
inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak
of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land
frontier.
Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments
that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show
every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then
dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are
immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the
nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged
during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation
under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a
century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn,
the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments
having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic
society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated
American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments
disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently
in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments
that will replace them.
The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth
generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the
past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators
have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just
when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of
generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was
ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal
intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of
the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of
alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the
generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life
so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began
after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided
over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the
renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence.
The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be
delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression
will be related to major forces and factors shaping American
history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the
principal challenges facing the American people in each generation
and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing
forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of
critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization
in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial,
ethnic and religious groups.
One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate.
Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with
such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for
analytical purposes than life ever is.
The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the
period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old
World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany,
but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually
every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original
thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native
Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies,
and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate
nation with its own civilization.
The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century,
which, from the first American recognition of common continental
interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for
Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent
American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism,
successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and
established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The
idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the
political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans.
The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations,
beginning at the point where America turned its back on European
entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced
them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an
industrialized continental nation with a strong national government;
abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world
power ready for overseas involvements.
The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century --
reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the
arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with
the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding
over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the
results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the
industrial revolution.
As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with
the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the
United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished
relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first
generation of the transformation of society as a result of the
application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new
frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse
of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically
dominant although economically weakened. The results of these
phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder
of the generation.
Generations and Frontier Stages
The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are
products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In
American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if
not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and
centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American
frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other
historical and political phenomena.
Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has
been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of
human control over the natural environment and the utilization of
the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control,
i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American
society is a product of this commitment which is virtually
self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one
frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier
situation that has created the major social and economic changes
which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's
political institutions.
America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages
to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the
metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic
frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled
with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been
decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American
life within that stage.
The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the
historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted
from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the
end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on
the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American
continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the
products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the
westward movement on a basically rural population interested in
settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a
socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits
in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was
dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an
active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and
still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in
Alaska.
Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth
the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and
spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation
into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the
spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's
economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented
the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States,
where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater
part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it
first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the
beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands
of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally
superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth
generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the
end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various
localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant
characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities
from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into
independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and
social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their
existence and growth.
By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth,
in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is
characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society
through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that
encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large
metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from
atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the
accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further
changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with
their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered
a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like
the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological
frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on
a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation.
After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly
and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and
pace of development across the country.
The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by
the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to
be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The
late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash
from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism
challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s,
ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution,
and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth
premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of
resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were
saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over.
By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was
emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the
metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers,
satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new
data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large
belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated
by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not
connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and
small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single
metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different
purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern
coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found
in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its
early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges,
initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its
renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of
financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American
economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of
Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West.
Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues
of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new
frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement
patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its
own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns
and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands
themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between
the points of generational division and the shifts in the various
frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater
detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as
part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are
closely related to the opening of new centuries.
Generations and Economic Periods
One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a
continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to
meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a
result, the governments of the United States have always maintained
a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in
the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to
era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the
governmental response. These changes have also developed on a
generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the
founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic
policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth
generation of American history) the American government continued a
semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the
nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government
involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during
which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in
which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the
outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful
competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a
generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially
unregulated by government.
Demands for government regulation that built up during the last
generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of
intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first
generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the
eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active
government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system.
Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around
toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less
government intervention.
Centuries, Generations and Federalism
The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can
also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first
generation of American history brought the introduction of federal
principles through the contracts and covenants that established the
colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through
Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the
seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a
local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of
national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose
strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly,
concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in
the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and
crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and
then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century.
The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has
been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society.
Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal
with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques
have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These
new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed
have been major elements in the concrete response to the
generation's challenges.
Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship
The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and
their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the
challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of
American history and politics. The changes in those relationships
also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries.
British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious
pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through
giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular
territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as
indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In
the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized
in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian
differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery.
Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism
was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones
existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste
system was in the making.
During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and
sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the
original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the
virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation.
Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new
lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was
abolished in the North.
The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial
establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was
almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant
immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new
post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through
the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration
reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to
reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was
reaffirmed through the institution of segregation.
From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open
pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The
barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants
began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those
barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by
the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape
up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the
twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but
those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of
American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say,
to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American
culture.
While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been
presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the
generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted
descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some
cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary
period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational
responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New
Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political
dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the
Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era.
The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses
Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular
challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its
own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and
the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In
some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could
act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In
others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the challenges changes from century to century.
During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the
tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various
colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related
to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence
of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially
related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American
national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been
essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society
and the assumption of an American role in world affairs.
The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the
initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which,
objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively
recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing
recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors
such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in
voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with
mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to
public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters
does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet
existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular
progression of political events revolving around the development of
a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its
response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and
responses that gives each generation its particular character. While
the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external --
or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is
primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation
themselves.
In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has
taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each
colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its
sisters, and the other science independence when a common national
constitution created a common national politics. In some cases,
particularly after independence when the nation could act
decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other,
particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the political challenges that have dominated the
American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a
new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating
the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the
19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope,
wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the
20th century, they have essentially related to the
metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an
American role in world affairs.
In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within
each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and
new generations is marked by several decisive political actions,
often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature
is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old
generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and
opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a
time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues
they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political
action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population
change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political
activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur
the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the
direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders
to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the
generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many
quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of
governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to
the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five
years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with
digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so
that they will achieve greater success and at the same time
integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The
end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify
and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the
issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for
political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be
recognized.
The Bench Marks of American Political History:
Critical Elections and New Deals
In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a
particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a
system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can
also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political
history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune
with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds;
first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a
particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of
intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government
initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each
generation.
The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections
A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the
sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period
of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The
generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this
pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which
brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs
of voters, shifting them from one political party to another.
Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a
"critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of
electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound
readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the
community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are
formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result
of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide
electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency
from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one
major element to another.
Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that
there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the
allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively
long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public
opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the
1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with
a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In
consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats
have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters
identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority
party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order
to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and
representatives to win control of Congress.
The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968,
only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled
the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a
military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the
"normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his
party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in
1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after
twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the
Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the
Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems,
won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular
Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a
Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his
victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition
and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a
period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White
House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the
Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the
GOP controlled the Senate.
A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a
nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent
and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on
a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical
loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations,
personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of
the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are
nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders
(or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate
state parties which form the two national confederations known as
the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties
are confederations of the state parties, so is the national
coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional
coalitions.
Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and
thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the
electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to
remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead
to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution,
too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems
attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the
dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary
inroads in the various electoral groups.
Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces
opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in
public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in
the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party
that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means
certain that the majority party will even win all the national
elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and
usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a
limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its
losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The
states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as
bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend
its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority
coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for
national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards
for the party faithful during the years of national "famine."
As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent
electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their
changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with
each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find
the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass
and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in
importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed
and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the
realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment
of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a
reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad
electoral groups.^33
While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state
and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon
only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election.
Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make
embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become
fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional
elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional
election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical
elections."^34
The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the
development of the institution of the popularly elected president.
Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of
electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize
presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited
apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and
the House of Representatives.
Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part
of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the
use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on
the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The
generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem.
It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not
so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a
disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as
did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current
during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the
end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that
they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant
percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and
alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues
lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote
as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children
came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the
majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational
buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the
guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file"
alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of
each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the
ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from
balance to majority.
"New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity
The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of
innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind
usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin
Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as
the historical watersheds they are.
In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S.
Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform
activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for
their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian
Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over
a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that
enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way
the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems
of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his
Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind
because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the
moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was
cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic
U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly
the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use
the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came
Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for
all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B.
Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as
it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s.
The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted
approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of
governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of
the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for
another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon
to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational
consolidation.
The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years
between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in
Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of
extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President
Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to
resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial
presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its
power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic
problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led
the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill
the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the
hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states
and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington
before undertaking any activities.
The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an
"outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community
marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth
in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by
many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation,
usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time.
President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's
international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to
shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of
infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the
Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and
localities. These were all to become principal issues during the
period of generational build-up.
The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to
the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the
American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the
tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that
followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By
the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on
behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were
referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues
of the new generation.
Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been
invariably preceded by critical elections through which the
reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to
generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die --
determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either
by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting
them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as
unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to
majority status. These critical elections, which attain their
visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and
interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which
face them.
Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the
party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series
of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the
Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the
1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had
become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the
Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans.
Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the
majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times
and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats
picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in
1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party
coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen
it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The
old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent
severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted
and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the
Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the
programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing
period for the Democratic coalition.
To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in
American politics is not to suggest that events move in any
lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same
as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the
"normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence
we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them
for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too
can be done that gives the theory its power.
Summary
Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of
American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical
understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more
interest to European social philosophers than American social
scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the
question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics,
often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their
theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation
rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to
understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human
social rhythms generally.
Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their
internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries
represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them.
The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation,
constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to
them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical
elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political
history recurring on a generational basis.
Notes
1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by
Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970);
Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational
Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979).
2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the
Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973).
3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5
(Garden City: Doubleday, 1987).
4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday,
1987).
5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a
generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse
11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers,
chapter 32, verse 13.
7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11;
chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte
(London: G. Bell, 1896).
9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive
(London, 1862).
10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani
(Milano: Monanni, 1929).
11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen,
der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4.
(1875), pp. 36-41.
12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on
Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds.,
Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline
(Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in
History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane,
Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp.,
1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1990).
13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method.
14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933).
15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti,
ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and
Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales
(Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in
der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F.
Schoeningh, 1933).
16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der
Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926);
Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and
Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig,
1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris:
Boivin, 1948).
17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the
Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger,
1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4
(1972): 564-78.
18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the
Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956).
19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin,
American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970).
20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and
Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield,
Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970).
21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939).
22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago:
Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the
Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key,
Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961);
Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968);
Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1989).
23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party
System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210.
24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of
Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the
years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of
American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur
Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co.
1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to
conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the
article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using
liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the
generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written
as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something
which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best
reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government
from the Civil War to the New Deal.
25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first
presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American
Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no.
1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns
Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also
Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University
Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992).
26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789.
27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years
old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve
in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President.
28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and
Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman
H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and
the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary
M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney
Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American
Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for
the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris
Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in
America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W.
Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get
Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb
and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda
Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber,
Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership
(Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey,
Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.:
Brooks/Cole, 1989).
29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with
special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in
The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York:
Macmillan, 1961).
30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965):
Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the
Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989).
31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18.
32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections
in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability,"
Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171.
33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate
(Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James
L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and
Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical
Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York:
Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?"
in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party
Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American
Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press
of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed.,
Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and
Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise
Institute, 1983).
34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American
Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party
System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony;
David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization,
Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter,
Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American
Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of
Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985).
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Titre du document / Document title
Rhythms of the secular : The politics of modernizing Arab poetic
forms = Rythmes du séculaire : la politique de modernisation des formes
poétiques arabes
Auteur(s) / Author(s)
FURANI Khaled^ (1) ;
Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s)
^(1) Tel-Aviv University, ISRAEL
Résumé / Abstract
In this article, I ethnographically trace how Arab, mainly Palestinian,
poets have modernized their literary tradition during the last seven
decades. Shortly after the 1948 Israeli occupation of Palestine, the
reign of the classical Arabic ode collapsed, and the modern forms of
free verse and, later, the prose poem became dominant. Aiming to
contribute to the ethnography of modernity, I examine how poets have
adopted and abandoned poetic forms by analyzing their narratives on
rhythm. I explore the political salience of rhythmical transformations
and argue that the secular has been a vital and complex force in the
modern abandonment of metrical discipline. The secular affects how
poets seek to modernize their rhythm, vocabulary, and relation to
public. It also affects, I conclude, the ways in which anthropologists
can and do write about modernity.
Revue / Journal Title
American ethnologist ISSN 0094-0496
Source / Source
2008, vol. 35, n^o2, pp. 290-307 [18 page(s) (article)] (2 p.1/4)
Langue / Language
Anglais
Editeur / Publisher
American Ethnological Society, Washington, DC, ETATS-UNIS (1974)
(Revue)
Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords
Rhythm ; Transformation ; Modernization ; Poet ; Modernity ; Poetry ;
Israel ; Palestine ; Near East ;
Mots-clés français / French Keywords
Forme poétique ; Tradition littéraire ; Arabe palestinien ; Rythme ;
Transformation ; Modernisation ; Poète ; Modernité ; Poésie ; Israël ;
Palestine ; Proche-Orient ;
Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords
poetic form ; modernity and secularism ; Palestine-Israel ;
Localisation / Location
INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 16902, 35400019805879.0070
Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 20449527
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[1]Daniel Elazar Papers Index [2][USEMAP:nav-back.gif]
American Political Culture
The Generational Rhythm of American Politics
The American Mosaic, Chapter 2
Daniel J. Elazar
It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States
combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount
of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no
less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space.
Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location
within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less
pinpointed.
This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is
structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of
generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to
the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast
developments with great success. At the same time he has applied
that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that
very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs.
Early Studies of Generational Rhythms
Students of society have noted the succession of generations since
ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology
on generational measures.
The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear
time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning
of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs.
It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the
individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the
starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon
and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon
operating in history.^2
Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational
basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first
recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the
system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third
and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the
Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average
generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full
generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical
scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression,
"forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5
Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The
"generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity
of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a
common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a
time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces
time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new
judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation
and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7
Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have
beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the
founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central
interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of
its beginnings and its ancestry.
Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were
the first to articulate systematic theories of generational
progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte
viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the
thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in
shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the
unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the
aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social
cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that
"History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of
Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle
phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences
appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals
comes to dominate society.^9
These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical
verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years
of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop
the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed
the principle that generations are articulated through historical
events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained.
Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a
fourfold classification of generations as preparatory,
revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10
Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11
Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that
generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific
study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and
heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation
century.^13
After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the
succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of
social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between
contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who
are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his
student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked
on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and
Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm
Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri
Peyre (1948).^16
More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused
on problems of intergenerational differences and the political
socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes
or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund
Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study
of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their
study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963)
focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966)
studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957)
utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in
Israel and the United States, respectively.^20
All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a
comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of
their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and
those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving
many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the
studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two
parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the
people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact,
both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined
that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The
linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive
theory.
None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a
generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black
box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods.
Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of
three generations.
Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining
way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an
empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is
somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin.
Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature,
art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of
eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular
basis.
Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to
embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under
the heading of "a generation".
Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History
A number of theories of political cycles in American history have
been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of
American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational
thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a
series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based
on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective
governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect
"concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of
property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the
wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid
movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories
include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter
Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical
theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the
"more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments"
using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process.
Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the
interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United
States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical
periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23
Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the
manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work.
Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in
presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the
House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual
party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in
American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of
an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American
history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in
length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes
that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device
since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable
directions.
Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his
emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by
using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of
voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state
vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates
five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s)
and the present.
Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the
level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five
periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of
stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of
approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing
already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an
established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in
turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis
to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment
occurs in every generation.
While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with
American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he
begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three
of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive
happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning
point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that
Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a
generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts
as follows:
1787-1801-1816
1816-1829-1841
1841-1861-1869
1869-1901-1918
1918-1931-?
The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the
beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them
primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles
rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have
been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational
patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the
following pattern:
1790-1796/1800
1800-1824/1828
1828-1824/1860
1860-1888/1896
1896-1932
His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to
that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their
significance in the periodization process.
Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although
even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if
it is schematized as follows:
1789-1820
1828
1856-1860
1893/1894
1932
Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized
as follows:
1896-1912
1912-1920-1932-1952
1952
Pomper also offers election dates and no more:
1836
1864-1876
1876-1892/1896
1928/1932-1952
1952-1964
None of these are complete theories and all must be considered
within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit.
Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough
approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the
commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United
States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The
revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of
generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson
Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods
of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named:
e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era.
In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers
developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the
federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could
not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however,
the American people were treated to a display of federal activity --
and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by
FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the
mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth
of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the
mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper
understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United
States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow
of time and events.)
The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its
own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human
time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible
pattern in the progression of political events in the United States
over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not
happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events
in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in
cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the
biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human
life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is
substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though
the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this
phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26
The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind
another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit
decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every
government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on
the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on
the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of
attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be
supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that
being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons
who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive
generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a
fixed moment, as individuals do now....
What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the
same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a
constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A
generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case,
would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to
contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for
14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily
deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of
their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at
that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated
from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of
climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors.
Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that
23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a
society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the
ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as
follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all
ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half
will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every
year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly
have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half
of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time
will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest
integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the
representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself
assembled, can validly extend a debt.
On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a
perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every
constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of
34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not
of right.
The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that
would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to
his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French
Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the
sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making
on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every
nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme,
Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one
which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one
way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure
of location in time.
Human Social Rhythms
As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural
measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a
common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the
"lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does
appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account
for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely
and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation
in any particular civil society and chart the relations among
generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical
patterns of its politics.
During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years,
averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people
will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then
pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every
individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in
which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited.
Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she
begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime
between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at
which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life"
ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and
political roles as are given to mature men and women in society.
Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a
person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention,
if not physically, considered ready for retirement.
Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an
individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first
fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially
powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote,
and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After
attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period
of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be
translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among
those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s
before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on
the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become
serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are
able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the
scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be
defined as the ending of one's serious political career without
suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's
30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential
influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise
influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political
leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds
forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship.
The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle
of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young
people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters
actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people
in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then
declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to
"retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28
In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each
individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society
is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a
common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any
particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its
history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical
record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and
the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at
the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In
the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed
leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in
power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age
and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a
result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly
established.
Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults
settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and
in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational
progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and
purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began
more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed
from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the
door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to
begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of
the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their
patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby
allowing a new generation to assume the reins.
Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they
establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in
social and political life than that found in the simple processes of
human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were
equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the
biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by
locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace
the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of
organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings
are recorded in history, we can do just that.
Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the
progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins
of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is
shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the
impact of the change and encourages new political action to
assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new
generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at
the most four generations are alive at any given time creates
certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of
grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of
inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact
help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In
this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is
socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and
politically unmanageable.
Generations, Centuries and Events
Since the founding of the first European settlements along the
Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations
of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series
of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the
twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three
generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain
distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense
recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th
century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of
American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in
which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century
stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th
century is the century of the United States as a world power.
Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as
chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European
history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have
begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing
point, thus:
a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603)
and the 17th century began with the opening of the American
frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between
the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of
the times.
b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty
of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which
eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the
Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration
for both countries.
c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the
War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era
of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff).
d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the
inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak
of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land
frontier.
Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments
that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show
every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then
dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are
immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the
nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged
during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation
under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a
century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn,
the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments
having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic
society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated
American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments
disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently
in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments
that will replace them.
The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth
generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the
past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators
have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just
when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of
generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was
ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal
intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of
the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of
alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the
generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life
so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began
after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided
over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the
renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence.
The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be
delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression
will be related to major forces and factors shaping American
history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the
principal challenges facing the American people in each generation
and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing
forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of
critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization
in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial,
ethnic and religious groups.
One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate.
Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with
such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for
analytical purposes than life ever is.
The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the
period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old
World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany,
but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually
every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original
thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native
Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies,
and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate
nation with its own civilization.
The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century,
which, from the first American recognition of common continental
interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for
Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent
American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism,
successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and
established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The
idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the
political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans.
The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations,
beginning at the point where America turned its back on European
entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced
them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an
industrialized continental nation with a strong national government;
abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world
power ready for overseas involvements.
The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century --
reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the
arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with
the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding
over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the
results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the
industrial revolution.
As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with
the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the
United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished
relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first
generation of the transformation of society as a result of the
application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new
frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse
of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically
dominant although economically weakened. The results of these
phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder
of the generation.
Generations and Frontier Stages
The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are
products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In
American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if
not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and
centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American
frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other
historical and political phenomena.
Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has
been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of
human control over the natural environment and the utilization of
the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control,
i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American
society is a product of this commitment which is virtually
self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one
frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier
situation that has created the major social and economic changes
which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's
political institutions.
America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages
to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the
metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic
frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled
with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been
decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American
life within that stage.
The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the
historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted
from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the
end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on
the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American
continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the
products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the
westward movement on a basically rural population interested in
settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a
socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits
in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was
dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an
active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and
still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in
Alaska.
Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth
the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and
spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation
into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the
spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's
economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented
the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States,
where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater
part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it
first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the
beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands
of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally
superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth
generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the
end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various
localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant
characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities
from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into
independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and
social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their
existence and growth.
By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth,
in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is
characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society
through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that
encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large
metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from
atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the
accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further
changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with
their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered
a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like
the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological
frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on
a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation.
After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly
and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and
pace of development across the country.
The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by
the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to
be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The
late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash
from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism
challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s,
ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution,
and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth
premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of
resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were
saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over.
By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was
emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the
metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers,
satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new
data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large
belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated
by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not
connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and
small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single
metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different
purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern
coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found
in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its
early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges,
initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its
renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of
financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American
economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of
Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West.
Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues
of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new
frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement
patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its
own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns
and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands
themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between
the points of generational division and the shifts in the various
frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater
detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as
part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are
closely related to the opening of new centuries.
Generations and Economic Periods
One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a
continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to
meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a
result, the governments of the United States have always maintained
a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in
the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to
era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the
governmental response. These changes have also developed on a
generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the
founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic
policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth
generation of American history) the American government continued a
semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the
nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government
involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during
which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in
which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the
outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful
competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a
generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially
unregulated by government.
Demands for government regulation that built up during the last
generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of
intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first
generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the
eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active
government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system.
Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around
toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less
government intervention.
Centuries, Generations and Federalism
The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can
also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first
generation of American history brought the introduction of federal
principles through the contracts and covenants that established the
colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through
Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the
seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a
local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of
national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose
strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly,
concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in
the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and
crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and
then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century.
The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has
been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society.
Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal
with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques
have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These
new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed
have been major elements in the concrete response to the
generation's challenges.
Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship
The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and
their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the
challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of
American history and politics. The changes in those relationships
also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries.
British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious
pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through
giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular
territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as
indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In
the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized
in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian
differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery.
Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism
was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones
existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste
system was in the making.
During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and
sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the
original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the
virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation.
Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new
lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was
abolished in the North.
The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial
establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was
almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant
immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new
post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through
the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration
reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to
reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was
reaffirmed through the institution of segregation.
From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open
pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The
barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants
began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those
barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by
the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape
up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the
twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but
those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of
American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say,
to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American
culture.
While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been
presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the
generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted
descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some
cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary
period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational
responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New
Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political
dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the
Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era.
The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses
Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular
challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its
own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and
the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In
some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could
act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In
others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the challenges changes from century to century.
During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the
tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various
colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related
to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence
of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially
related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American
national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been
essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society
and the assumption of an American role in world affairs.
The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the
initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which,
objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively
recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing
recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors
such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in
voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with
mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to
public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters
does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet
existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular
progression of political events revolving around the development of
a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its
response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and
responses that gives each generation its particular character. While
the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external --
or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is
primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation
themselves.
In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has
taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each
colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its
sisters, and the other science independence when a common national
constitution created a common national politics. In some cases,
particularly after independence when the nation could act
decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other,
particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the political challenges that have dominated the
American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a
new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating
the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the
19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope,
wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the
20th century, they have essentially related to the
metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an
American role in world affairs.
In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within
each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and
new generations is marked by several decisive political actions,
often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature
is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old
generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and
opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a
time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues
they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political
action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population
change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political
activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur
the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the
direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders
to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the
generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many
quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of
governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to
the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five
years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with
digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so
that they will achieve greater success and at the same time
integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The
end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify
and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the
issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for
political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be
recognized.
The Bench Marks of American Political History:
Critical Elections and New Deals
In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a
particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a
system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can
also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political
history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune
with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds;
first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a
particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of
intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government
initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each
generation.
The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections
A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the
sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period
of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The
generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this
pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which
brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs
of voters, shifting them from one political party to another.
Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a
"critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of
electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound
readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the
community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are
formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result
of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide
electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency
from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one
major element to another.
Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that
there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the
allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively
long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public
opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the
1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with
a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In
consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats
have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters
identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority
party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order
to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and
representatives to win control of Congress.
The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968,
only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled
the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a
military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the
"normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his
party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in
1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after
twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the
Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the
Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems,
won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular
Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a
Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his
victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition
and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a
period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White
House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the
Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the
GOP controlled the Senate.
A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a
nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent
and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on
a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical
loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations,
personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of
the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are
nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders
(or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate
state parties which form the two national confederations known as
the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties
are confederations of the state parties, so is the national
coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional
coalitions.
Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and
thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the
electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to
remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead
to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution,
too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems
attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the
dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary
inroads in the various electoral groups.
Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces
opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in
public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in
the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party
that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means
certain that the majority party will even win all the national
elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and
usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a
limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its
losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The
states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as
bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend
its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority
coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for
national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards
for the party faithful during the years of national "famine."
As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent
electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their
changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with
each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find
the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass
and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in
importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed
and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the
realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment
of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a
reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad
electoral groups.^33
While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state
and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon
only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election.
Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make
embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become
fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional
elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional
election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical
elections."^34
The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the
development of the institution of the popularly elected president.
Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of
electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize
presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited
apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and
the House of Representatives.
Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part
of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the
use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on
the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The
generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem.
It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not
so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a
disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as
did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current
during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the
end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that
they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant
percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and
alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues
lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote
as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children
came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the
majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational
buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the
guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file"
alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of
each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the
ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from
balance to majority.
"New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity
The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of
innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind
usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin
Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as
the historical watersheds they are.
In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S.
Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform
activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for
their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian
Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over
a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that
enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way
the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems
of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his
Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind
because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the
moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was
cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic
U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly
the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use
the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came
Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for
all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B.
Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as
it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s.
The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted
approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of
governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of
the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for
another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon
to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational
consolidation.
The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years
between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in
Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of
extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President
Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to
resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial
presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its
power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic
problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led
the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill
the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the
hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states
and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington
before undertaking any activities.
The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an
"outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community
marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth
in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by
many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation,
usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time.
President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's
international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to
shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of
infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the
Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and
localities. These were all to become principal issues during the
period of generational build-up.
The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to
the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the
American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the
tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that
followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By
the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on
behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were
referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues
of the new generation.
Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been
invariably preceded by critical elections through which the
reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to
generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die --
determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either
by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting
them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as
unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to
majority status. These critical elections, which attain their
visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and
interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which
face them.
Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the
party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series
of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the
Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the
1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had
become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the
Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans.
Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the
majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times
and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats
picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in
1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party
coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen
it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The
old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent
severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted
and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the
Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the
programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing
period for the Democratic coalition.
To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in
American politics is not to suggest that events move in any
lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same
as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the
"normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence
we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them
for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too
can be done that gives the theory its power.
Summary
Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of
American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical
understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more
interest to European social philosophers than American social
scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the
question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics,
often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their
theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation
rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to
understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human
social rhythms generally.
Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their
internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries
represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them.
The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation,
constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to
them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical
elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political
history recurring on a generational basis.
Notes
1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by
Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970);
Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational
Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979).
2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the
Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973).
3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5
(Garden City: Doubleday, 1987).
4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday,
1987).
5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a
generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse
11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers,
chapter 32, verse 13.
7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11;
chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte
(London: G. Bell, 1896).
9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive
(London, 1862).
10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani
(Milano: Monanni, 1929).
11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen,
der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4.
(1875), pp. 36-41.
12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on
Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds.,
Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline
(Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in
History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane,
Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp.,
1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1990).
13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method.
14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933).
15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti,
ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and
Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales
(Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in
der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F.
Schoeningh, 1933).
16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der
Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926);
Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and
Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig,
1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris:
Boivin, 1948).
17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the
Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger,
1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4
(1972): 564-78.
18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the
Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956).
19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin,
American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970).
20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and
Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield,
Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970).
21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939).
22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago:
Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the
Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key,
Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961);
Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968);
Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1989).
23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party
System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210.
24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of
Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the
years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of
American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur
Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co.
1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to
conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the
article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using
liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the
generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written
as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something
which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best
reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government
from the Civil War to the New Deal.
25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first
presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American
Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no.
1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns
Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also
Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University
Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992).
26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789.
27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years
old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve
in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President.
28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and
Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman
H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and
the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary
M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney
Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American
Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for
the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris
Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in
America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W.
Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get
Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb
and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda
Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber,
Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership
(Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey,
Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.:
Brooks/Cole, 1989).
29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with
special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in
The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York:
Macmillan, 1961).
30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965):
Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the
Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989).
31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18.
32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections
in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability,"
Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171.
33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate
(Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James
L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and
Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical
Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York:
Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?"
in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party
Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American
Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press
of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed.,
Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and
Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise
Institute, 1983).
34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American
Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party
System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony;
David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization,
Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter,
Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American
Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of
Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985).
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Titre du document / Document title
Rhythms of the secular : The politics of modernizing Arab poetic
forms = Rythmes du séculaire : la politique de modernisation des formes
poétiques arabes
Auteur(s) / Author(s)
FURANI Khaled^ (1) ;
Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s)
^(1) Tel-Aviv University, ISRAEL
Résumé / Abstract
In this article, I ethnographically trace how Arab, mainly Palestinian,
poets have modernized their literary tradition during the last seven
decades. Shortly after the 1948 Israeli occupation of Palestine, the
reign of the classical Arabic ode collapsed, and the modern forms of
free verse and, later, the prose poem became dominant. Aiming to
contribute to the ethnography of modernity, I examine how poets have
adopted and abandoned poetic forms by analyzing their narratives on
rhythm. I explore the political salience of rhythmical transformations
and argue that the secular has been a vital and complex force in the
modern abandonment of metrical discipline. The secular affects how
poets seek to modernize their rhythm, vocabulary, and relation to
public. It also affects, I conclude, the ways in which anthropologists
can and do write about modernity.
Revue / Journal Title
American ethnologist ISSN 0094-0496
Source / Source
2008, vol. 35, n^o2, pp. 290-307 [18 page(s) (article)] (2 p.1/4)
Langue / Language
Anglais
Editeur / Publisher
American Ethnological Society, Washington, DC, ETATS-UNIS (1974)
(Revue)
Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords
Rhythm ; Transformation ; Modernization ; Poet ; Modernity ; Poetry ;
Israel ; Palestine ; Near East ;
Mots-clés français / French Keywords
Forme poétique ; Tradition littéraire ; Arabe palestinien ; Rythme ;
Transformation ; Modernisation ; Poète ; Modernité ; Poésie ; Israël ;
Palestine ; Proche-Orient ;
Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords
poetic form ; modernity and secularism ; Palestine-Israel ;
Localisation / Location
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Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 20449527
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Title: The Rhythm of Political Oratory
Author: [14]Varvara Danilina
Email: [15]click here to access email
Degree Awarded: Moscow State University , Department of Foreigh
Languages
Degree Date: 2002
Linguistic Subfield(s): Discourse Analysis
Sociolinguistics
Subject Language(s): [16]English
Director(s): [17]Ludmila Minaeva
___________________________________
Abstract:
My doctoral dissertation was completed after four years of research on
the rhythm of British and American political oratory. I sought to
establish the rhythmic norm for political public speech and to find
out, whether any deviations from this norm (i.e. from an expected
rhythmic model) influence listeners and provoke their verbal reactions
or bursts of applause. To accomplish this task I used a variety of
linguistic and rhetorical methods, and drew upon social psychology and
political science.
There is no single linguistic perspective on speech rhythm. For
instance, such distinguished scholars as D. Crystal and D. Abercrombie
regard it as a purely phonetic phenomenon. At the same time, according
to Moscow University school of thought, to which I belong, speech
rhythm is created by a blend of phonetics, syntax and meaning of an
utterance. As a result of my research, I established rhythmic
regularities for political oratory at five levels.
Firstly, I analyzed pauses that divide the stream of speech into
segments (syntagmas), and classified all the pauses into syntactic,
rhetorical or unintentional (unintentional pauses are caused by
hesitation, deliberation, stammering, interruptions by listeners, etc).
Secondly, I established the relative frequency of short, medium and
long syntagmas between pauses, and thirdly, analyzed the rhythmic
structures constituted by linear sequences of syntagmas. Fourthly, I
studied the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables inside
syntagmas. And finally, I considered all kinds of repetitions, both
rhetorical and unintentional. This method of rhythmic analysis is based
on earlier analytical models designed by my university colleagues. My
own contribution consisted in adapting this method to the study of
public speech, describing the typical rhythm of political oratory, and
challenging some popular assumptions about speech rhythm.
As for the impact of speech rhythm upon listeners, I started by
analyzing audiences in order to understand psychological, social and
political conditions of that process. G. Le Bon, Z. Freud and other
scholars demonstrated conclusively that members of a crowd (and the
audience of a public speech is a crowd) are connected with each other
and with their leader (in our case, a speaker) by strong subconscious
ties. However, the degree of unity or polarization of an audience may
differ. Besides, each audience can be characterized according to
several other criteria that determine listeners' responsiveness and the
nature of their responses: their emotional state, the level of
expertise in a particular subject, the demographic and social
characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, social status, occupation,
education), the existing evaluation of discussed issues, which is
largely determined by listeners' ideologies, and finally, the attitude
to the speaker, which can be positive, negative or indifferent. I have
applied this model of audience analysis to determine peculiarities of
the British parliamentary audience in October 1996, and of the US
Congress in the aftermath of September 11, 2001.
To analyze the reactions of these audiences to the rhythm of Prime
Minister Major and President Bush's parliamentary addresses I used M.
Atkinson's version of the conversation analysis method. I showed the
two speeches as dialogues between the speakers and their listeners, and
singled out phrases and syntagmas that immediately preceded audience
responses, such as cheering, booing, laughter or bursts of applause.
These phrases and syntagmas happened to be quite similar in terms of
rhythm to other stretches of speech in the same addresses. Moreover,
there proved to be little rhythmic difference between John Major and
George Bush's speeches. In short, my research demonstrated that there
is no direct interconnection between the rhythm of a public address and
audience responses.
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[1]Daniel Elazar Papers Index [2][USEMAP:nav-back.gif]
American Political Culture
The Generational Rhythm of American Politics
The American Mosaic, Chapter 2
Daniel J. Elazar
It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States
combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount
of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no
less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space.
Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location
within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less
pinpointed.
This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is
structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of
generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to
the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast
developments with great success. At the same time he has applied
that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that
very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs.
Early Studies of Generational Rhythms
Students of society have noted the succession of generations since
ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology
on generational measures.
The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear
time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning
of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs.
It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the
individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the
starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon
and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon
operating in history.^2
Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational
basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first
recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the
system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third
and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the
Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average
generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full
generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical
scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression,
"forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5
Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The
"generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity
of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a
common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a
time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces
time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new
judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation
and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7
Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have
beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the
founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central
interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of
its beginnings and its ancestry.
Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were
the first to articulate systematic theories of generational
progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte
viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the
thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in
shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the
unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the
aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social
cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that
"History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of
Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle
phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences
appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals
comes to dominate society.^9
These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical
verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years
of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop
the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed
the principle that generations are articulated through historical
events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained.
Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a
fourfold classification of generations as preparatory,
revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10
Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11
Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that
generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific
study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and
heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation
century.^13
After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the
succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of
social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between
contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who
are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his
student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked
on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and
Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm
Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri
Peyre (1948).^16
More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused
on problems of intergenerational differences and the political
socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes
or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund
Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study
of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their
study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963)
focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966)
studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957)
utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in
Israel and the United States, respectively.^20
All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a
comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of
their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and
those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving
many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the
studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two
parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the
people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact,
both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined
that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The
linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive
theory.
None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a
generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black
box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods.
Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of
three generations.
Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining
way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an
empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is
somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin.
Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature,
art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of
eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular
basis.
Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to
embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under
the heading of "a generation".
Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History
A number of theories of political cycles in American history have
been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of
American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational
thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a
series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based
on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective
governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect
"concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of
property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the
wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid
movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories
include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter
Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical
theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the
"more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments"
using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process.
Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the
interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United
States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical
periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23
Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the
manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work.
Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in
presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the
House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual
party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in
American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of
an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American
history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in
length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes
that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device
since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable
directions.
Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his
emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by
using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of
voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state
vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates
five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s)
and the present.
Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the
level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five
periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of
stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of
approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing
already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an
established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in
turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis
to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment
occurs in every generation.
While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with
American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he
begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three
of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive
happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning
point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that
Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a
generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts
as follows:
1787-1801-1816
1816-1829-1841
1841-1861-1869
1869-1901-1918
1918-1931-?
The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the
beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them
primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles
rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have
been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational
patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the
following pattern:
1790-1796/1800
1800-1824/1828
1828-1824/1860
1860-1888/1896
1896-1932
His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to
that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their
significance in the periodization process.
Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although
even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if
it is schematized as follows:
1789-1820
1828
1856-1860
1893/1894
1932
Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized
as follows:
1896-1912
1912-1920-1932-1952
1952
Pomper also offers election dates and no more:
1836
1864-1876
1876-1892/1896
1928/1932-1952
1952-1964
None of these are complete theories and all must be considered
within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit.
Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough
approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the
commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United
States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The
revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of
generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson
Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods
of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named:
e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era.
In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers
developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the
federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could
not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however,
the American people were treated to a display of federal activity --
and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by
FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the
mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth
of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the
mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper
understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United
States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow
of time and events.)
The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its
own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human
time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible
pattern in the progression of political events in the United States
over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not
happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events
in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in
cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the
biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human
life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is
substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though
the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this
phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26
The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind
another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit
decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every
government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on
the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on
the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of
attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be
supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that
being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons
who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive
generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a
fixed moment, as individuals do now....
What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the
same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a
constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A
generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case,
would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to
contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for
14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily
deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of
their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at
that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated
from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of
climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors.
Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that
23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a
society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the
ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as
follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all
ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half
will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every
year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly
have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half
of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time
will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest
integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the
representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself
assembled, can validly extend a debt.
On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a
perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every
constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of
34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not
of right.
The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that
would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to
his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French
Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the
sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making
on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every
nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme,
Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one
which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one
way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure
of location in time.
Human Social Rhythms
As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural
measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a
common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the
"lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does
appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account
for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely
and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation
in any particular civil society and chart the relations among
generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical
patterns of its politics.
During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years,
averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people
will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then
pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every
individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in
which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited.
Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she
begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime
between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at
which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life"
ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and
political roles as are given to mature men and women in society.
Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a
person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention,
if not physically, considered ready for retirement.
Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an
individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first
fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially
powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote,
and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After
attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period
of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be
translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among
those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s
before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on
the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become
serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are
able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the
scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be
defined as the ending of one's serious political career without
suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's
30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential
influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise
influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political
leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds
forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship.
The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle
of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young
people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters
actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people
in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then
declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to
"retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28
In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each
individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society
is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a
common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any
particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its
history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical
record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and
the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at
the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In
the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed
leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in
power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age
and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a
result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly
established.
Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults
settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and
in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational
progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and
purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began
more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed
from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the
door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to
begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of
the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their
patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby
allowing a new generation to assume the reins.
Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they
establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in
social and political life than that found in the simple processes of
human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were
equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the
biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by
locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace
the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of
organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings
are recorded in history, we can do just that.
Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the
progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins
of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is
shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the
impact of the change and encourages new political action to
assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new
generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at
the most four generations are alive at any given time creates
certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of
grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of
inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact
help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In
this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is
socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and
politically unmanageable.
Generations, Centuries and Events
Since the founding of the first European settlements along the
Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations
of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series
of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the
twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three
generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain
distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense
recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th
century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of
American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in
which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century
stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th
century is the century of the United States as a world power.
Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as
chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European
history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have
begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing
point, thus:
a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603)
and the 17th century began with the opening of the American
frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between
the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of
the times.
b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty
of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which
eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the
Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration
for both countries.
c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the
War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era
of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff).
d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the
inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak
of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land
frontier.
Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments
that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show
every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then
dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are
immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the
nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged
during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation
under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a
century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn,
the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments
having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic
society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated
American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments
disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently
in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments
that will replace them.
The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth
generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the
past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators
have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just
when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of
generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was
ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal
intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of
the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of
alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the
generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life
so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began
after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided
over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the
renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence.
The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be
delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression
will be related to major forces and factors shaping American
history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the
principal challenges facing the American people in each generation
and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing
forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of
critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization
in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial,
ethnic and religious groups.
One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate.
Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with
such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for
analytical purposes than life ever is.
The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the
period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old
World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany,
but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually
every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original
thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native
Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies,
and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate
nation with its own civilization.
The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century,
which, from the first American recognition of common continental
interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for
Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent
American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism,
successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and
established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The
idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the
political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans.
The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations,
beginning at the point where America turned its back on European
entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced
them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an
industrialized continental nation with a strong national government;
abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world
power ready for overseas involvements.
The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century --
reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the
arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with
the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding
over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the
results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the
industrial revolution.
As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with
the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the
United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished
relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first
generation of the transformation of society as a result of the
application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new
frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse
of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically
dominant although economically weakened. The results of these
phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder
of the generation.
Generations and Frontier Stages
The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are
products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In
American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if
not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and
centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American
frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other
historical and political phenomena.
Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has
been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of
human control over the natural environment and the utilization of
the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control,
i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American
society is a product of this commitment which is virtually
self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one
frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier
situation that has created the major social and economic changes
which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's
political institutions.
America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages
to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the
metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic
frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled
with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been
decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American
life within that stage.
The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the
historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted
from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the
end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on
the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American
continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the
products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the
westward movement on a basically rural population interested in
settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a
socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits
in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was
dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an
active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and
still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in
Alaska.
Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth
the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and
spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation
into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the
spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's
economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented
the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States,
where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater
part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it
first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the
beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands
of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally
superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth
generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the
end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various
localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant
characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities
from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into
independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and
social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their
existence and growth.
By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth,
in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is
characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society
through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that
encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large
metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from
atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the
accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further
changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with
their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered
a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like
the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological
frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on
a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation.
After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly
and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and
pace of development across the country.
The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by
the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to
be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The
late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash
from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism
challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s,
ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution,
and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth
premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of
resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were
saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over.
By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was
emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the
metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers,
satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new
data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large
belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated
by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not
connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and
small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single
metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different
purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern
coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found
in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its
early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges,
initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its
renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of
financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American
economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of
Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West.
Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues
of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new
frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement
patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its
own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns
and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands
themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between
the points of generational division and the shifts in the various
frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater
detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as
part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are
closely related to the opening of new centuries.
Generations and Economic Periods
One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a
continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to
meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a
result, the governments of the United States have always maintained
a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in
the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to
era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the
governmental response. These changes have also developed on a
generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the
founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic
policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth
generation of American history) the American government continued a
semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the
nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government
involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during
which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in
which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the
outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful
competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a
generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially
unregulated by government.
Demands for government regulation that built up during the last
generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of
intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first
generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the
eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active
government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system.
Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around
toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less
government intervention.
Centuries, Generations and Federalism
The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can
also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first
generation of American history brought the introduction of federal
principles through the contracts and covenants that established the
colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through
Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the
seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a
local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of
national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose
strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly,
concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in
the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and
crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and
then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century.
The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has
been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society.
Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal
with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques
have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These
new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed
have been major elements in the concrete response to the
generation's challenges.
Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship
The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and
their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the
challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of
American history and politics. The changes in those relationships
also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries.
British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious
pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through
giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular
territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as
indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In
the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized
in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian
differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery.
Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism
was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones
existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste
system was in the making.
During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and
sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the
original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the
virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation.
Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new
lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was
abolished in the North.
The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial
establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was
almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant
immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new
post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through
the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration
reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to
reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was
reaffirmed through the institution of segregation.
From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open
pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The
barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants
began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those
barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by
the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape
up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the
twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but
those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of
American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say,
to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American
culture.
While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been
presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the
generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted
descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some
cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary
period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational
responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New
Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political
dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the
Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era.
The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses
Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular
challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its
own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and
the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In
some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could
act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In
others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the challenges changes from century to century.
During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the
tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various
colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related
to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence
of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially
related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American
national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been
essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society
and the assumption of an American role in world affairs.
The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the
initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which,
objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively
recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing
recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors
such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in
voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with
mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to
public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters
does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet
existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular
progression of political events revolving around the development of
a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its
response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and
responses that gives each generation its particular character. While
the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external --
or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is
primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation
themselves.
In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has
taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each
colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its
sisters, and the other science independence when a common national
constitution created a common national politics. In some cases,
particularly after independence when the nation could act
decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other,
particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the political challenges that have dominated the
American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a
new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating
the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the
19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope,
wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the
20th century, they have essentially related to the
metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an
American role in world affairs.
In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within
each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and
new generations is marked by several decisive political actions,
often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature
is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old
generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and
opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a
time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues
they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political
action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population
change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political
activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur
the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the
direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders
to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the
generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many
quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of
governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to
the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five
years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with
digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so
that they will achieve greater success and at the same time
integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The
end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify
and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the
issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for
political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be
recognized.
The Bench Marks of American Political History:
Critical Elections and New Deals
In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a
particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a
system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can
also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political
history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune
with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds;
first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a
particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of
intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government
initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each
generation.
The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections
A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the
sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period
of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The
generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this
pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which
brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs
of voters, shifting them from one political party to another.
Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a
"critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of
electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound
readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the
community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are
formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result
of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide
electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency
from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one
major element to another.
Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that
there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the
allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively
long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public
opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the
1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with
a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In
consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats
have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters
identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority
party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order
to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and
representatives to win control of Congress.
The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968,
only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled
the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a
military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the
"normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his
party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in
1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after
twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the
Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the
Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems,
won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular
Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a
Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his
victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition
and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a
period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White
House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the
Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the
GOP controlled the Senate.
A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a
nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent
and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on
a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical
loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations,
personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of
the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are
nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders
(or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate
state parties which form the two national confederations known as
the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties
are confederations of the state parties, so is the national
coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional
coalitions.
Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and
thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the
electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to
remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead
to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution,
too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems
attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the
dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary
inroads in the various electoral groups.
Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces
opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in
public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in
the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party
that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means
certain that the majority party will even win all the national
elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and
usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a
limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its
losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The
states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as
bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend
its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority
coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for
national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards
for the party faithful during the years of national "famine."
As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent
electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their
changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with
each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find
the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass
and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in
importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed
and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the
realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment
of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a
reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad
electoral groups.^33
While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state
and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon
only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election.
Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make
embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become
fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional
elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional
election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical
elections."^34
The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the
development of the institution of the popularly elected president.
Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of
electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize
presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited
apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and
the House of Representatives.
Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part
of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the
use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on
the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The
generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem.
It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not
so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a
disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as
did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current
during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the
end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that
they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant
percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and
alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues
lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote
as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children
came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the
majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational
buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the
guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file"
alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of
each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the
ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from
balance to majority.
"New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity
The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of
innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind
usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin
Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as
the historical watersheds they are.
In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S.
Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform
activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for
their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian
Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over
a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that
enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way
the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems
of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his
Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind
because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the
moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was
cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic
U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly
the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use
the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came
Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for
all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B.
Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as
it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s.
The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted
approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of
governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of
the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for
another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon
to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational
consolidation.
The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years
between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in
Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of
extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President
Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to
resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial
presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its
power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic
problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led
the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill
the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the
hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states
and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington
before undertaking any activities.
The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an
"outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community
marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth
in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by
many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation,
usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time.
President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's
international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to
shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of
infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the
Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and
localities. These were all to become principal issues during the
period of generational build-up.
The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to
the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the
American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the
tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that
followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By
the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on
behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were
referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues
of the new generation.
Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been
invariably preceded by critical elections through which the
reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to
generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die --
determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either
by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting
them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as
unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to
majority status. These critical elections, which attain their
visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and
interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which
face them.
Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the
party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series
of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the
Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the
1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had
become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the
Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans.
Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the
majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times
and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats
picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in
1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party
coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen
it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The
old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent
severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted
and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the
Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the
programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing
period for the Democratic coalition.
To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in
American politics is not to suggest that events move in any
lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same
as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the
"normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence
we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them
for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too
can be done that gives the theory its power.
Summary
Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of
American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical
understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more
interest to European social philosophers than American social
scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the
question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics,
often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their
theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation
rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to
understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human
social rhythms generally.
Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their
internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries
represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them.
The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation,
constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to
them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical
elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political
history recurring on a generational basis.
Notes
1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by
Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970);
Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational
Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979).
2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the
Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973).
3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5
(Garden City: Doubleday, 1987).
4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday,
1987).
5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a
generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse
11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers,
chapter 32, verse 13.
7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11;
chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte
(London: G. Bell, 1896).
9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive
(London, 1862).
10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani
(Milano: Monanni, 1929).
11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen,
der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4.
(1875), pp. 36-41.
12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on
Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds.,
Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline
(Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in
History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane,
Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp.,
1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1990).
13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method.
14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933).
15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti,
ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and
Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales
(Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in
der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F.
Schoeningh, 1933).
16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der
Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926);
Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and
Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig,
1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris:
Boivin, 1948).
17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the
Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger,
1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4
(1972): 564-78.
18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the
Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956).
19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin,
American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970).
20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and
Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield,
Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970).
21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939).
22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago:
Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the
Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key,
Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961);
Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968);
Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1989).
23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party
System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210.
24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of
Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the
years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of
American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur
Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co.
1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to
conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the
article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using
liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the
generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written
as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something
which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best
reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government
from the Civil War to the New Deal.
25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first
presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American
Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no.
1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns
Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also
Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University
Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992).
26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789.
27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years
old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve
in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President.
28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and
Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman
H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and
the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary
M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney
Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American
Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for
the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris
Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in
America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W.
Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get
Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb
and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda
Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber,
Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership
(Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey,
Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.:
Brooks/Cole, 1989).
29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with
special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in
The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York:
Macmillan, 1961).
30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965):
Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the
Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989).
31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18.
32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections
in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability,"
Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171.
33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate
(Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James
L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and
Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical
Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York:
Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?"
in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party
Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American
Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press
of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed.,
Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and
Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise
Institute, 1983).
34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American
Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party
System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony;
David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization,
Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter,
Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American
Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of
Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985).
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Titre du document / Document title
Rhythms of the secular : The politics of modernizing Arab poetic
forms = Rythmes du séculaire : la politique de modernisation des formes
poétiques arabes
Auteur(s) / Author(s)
FURANI Khaled^ (1) ;
Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s)
^(1) Tel-Aviv University, ISRAEL
Résumé / Abstract
In this article, I ethnographically trace how Arab, mainly Palestinian,
poets have modernized their literary tradition during the last seven
decades. Shortly after the 1948 Israeli occupation of Palestine, the
reign of the classical Arabic ode collapsed, and the modern forms of
free verse and, later, the prose poem became dominant. Aiming to
contribute to the ethnography of modernity, I examine how poets have
adopted and abandoned poetic forms by analyzing their narratives on
rhythm. I explore the political salience of rhythmical transformations
and argue that the secular has been a vital and complex force in the
modern abandonment of metrical discipline. The secular affects how
poets seek to modernize their rhythm, vocabulary, and relation to
public. It also affects, I conclude, the ways in which anthropologists
can and do write about modernity.
Revue / Journal Title
American ethnologist ISSN 0094-0496
Source / Source
2008, vol. 35, n^o2, pp. 290-307 [18 page(s) (article)] (2 p.1/4)
Langue / Language
Anglais
Editeur / Publisher
American Ethnological Society, Washington, DC, ETATS-UNIS (1974)
(Revue)
Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords
Rhythm ; Transformation ; Modernization ; Poet ; Modernity ; Poetry ;
Israel ; Palestine ; Near East ;
Mots-clés français / French Keywords
Forme poétique ; Tradition littéraire ; Arabe palestinien ; Rythme ;
Transformation ; Modernisation ; Poète ; Modernité ; Poésie ; Israël ;
Palestine ; Proche-Orient ;
Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords
poetic form ; modernity and secularism ; Palestine-Israel ;
Localisation / Location
INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 16902, 35400019805879.0070
Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 20449527
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Title: The Rhythm of Political Oratory
Author: [14]Varvara Danilina
Email: [15]click here to access email
Degree Awarded: Moscow State University , Department of Foreigh
Languages
Degree Date: 2002
Linguistic Subfield(s): Discourse Analysis
Sociolinguistics
Subject Language(s): [16]English
Director(s): [17]Ludmila Minaeva
___________________________________
Abstract:
My doctoral dissertation was completed after four years of research on
the rhythm of British and American political oratory. I sought to
establish the rhythmic norm for political public speech and to find
out, whether any deviations from this norm (i.e. from an expected
rhythmic model) influence listeners and provoke their verbal reactions
or bursts of applause. To accomplish this task I used a variety of
linguistic and rhetorical methods, and drew upon social psychology and
political science.
There is no single linguistic perspective on speech rhythm. For
instance, such distinguished scholars as D. Crystal and D. Abercrombie
regard it as a purely phonetic phenomenon. At the same time, according
to Moscow University school of thought, to which I belong, speech
rhythm is created by a blend of phonetics, syntax and meaning of an
utterance. As a result of my research, I established rhythmic
regularities for political oratory at five levels.
Firstly, I analyzed pauses that divide the stream of speech into
segments (syntagmas), and classified all the pauses into syntactic,
rhetorical or unintentional (unintentional pauses are caused by
hesitation, deliberation, stammering, interruptions by listeners, etc).
Secondly, I established the relative frequency of short, medium and
long syntagmas between pauses, and thirdly, analyzed the rhythmic
structures constituted by linear sequences of syntagmas. Fourthly, I
studied the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables inside
syntagmas. And finally, I considered all kinds of repetitions, both
rhetorical and unintentional. This method of rhythmic analysis is based
on earlier analytical models designed by my university colleagues. My
own contribution consisted in adapting this method to the study of
public speech, describing the typical rhythm of political oratory, and
challenging some popular assumptions about speech rhythm.
As for the impact of speech rhythm upon listeners, I started by
analyzing audiences in order to understand psychological, social and
political conditions of that process. G. Le Bon, Z. Freud and other
scholars demonstrated conclusively that members of a crowd (and the
audience of a public speech is a crowd) are connected with each other
and with their leader (in our case, a speaker) by strong subconscious
ties. However, the degree of unity or polarization of an audience may
differ. Besides, each audience can be characterized according to
several other criteria that determine listeners' responsiveness and the
nature of their responses: their emotional state, the level of
expertise in a particular subject, the demographic and social
characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, social status, occupation,
education), the existing evaluation of discussed issues, which is
largely determined by listeners' ideologies, and finally, the attitude
to the speaker, which can be positive, negative or indifferent. I have
applied this model of audience analysis to determine peculiarities of
the British parliamentary audience in October 1996, and of the US
Congress in the aftermath of September 11, 2001.
To analyze the reactions of these audiences to the rhythm of Prime
Minister Major and President Bush's parliamentary addresses I used M.
Atkinson's version of the conversation analysis method. I showed the
two speeches as dialogues between the speakers and their listeners, and
singled out phrases and syntagmas that immediately preceded audience
responses, such as cheering, booing, laughter or bursts of applause.
These phrases and syntagmas happened to be quite similar in terms of
rhythm to other stretches of speech in the same addresses. Moreover,
there proved to be little rhythmic difference between John Major and
George Bush's speeches. In short, my research demonstrated that there
is no direct interconnection between the rhythm of a public address and
audience responses.
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Afrobeat
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search
Question book-new.svg
This article does not [8]cite any [9]references or sources.
Please help [10]improve this article by adding citations to
[11]reliable sources. Unsourced material may be [12]challenged and
[13]removed. (September 2008)
Afrobeat is a combination of [14]Yoruba music, [15]jazz, [16]highlife,
and [17]funk [18]rhythms, fused with [19]percussion and [20]vocal
styles, popularized in [21]Africa in the 1970s. Its main creator was
the [22]Nigerian multi-[23]instrumentalist and [24]bandleader [25]Fela
Kuti who used it to revolutionise musical structure as well as the
political context in his native Nigeria. It was Kuti who coined the
term "afrobeat" upon his return from a U.S. tour with his group Nigeria
70 (formerly Koola Lobitos).
The new sound hailed from a club that he established called the
Afro-Shrine. Upon arriving in Nigeria, Kuti also changed the name of
his group to Fela Ransome-Kuti & Africa 70. The band maintained a
five-year residency in the Afro-Shrine from 1970 to 1975 while afrobeat
thrived among Nigerian youth. Afrobeat is now one of the most
recognisable music genres in the world and has influenced as many
Western musicians as it has African ones with its exuberant style and
polyrhythms.
Contents
* [26]1 Origins
* [27]2 Influence
* [28]3 Instrumentation
* [29]4 Today
* [30]5 External links
[[31]edit] Origins
Afrobeat originated from the southern part of [32]Nigeria in the 1960s
where Kuti experimented with many different forms of contemporary music
of the time. Prevalent in him and Lagbaja's music are native African
harmonies and rhythms, taking different elements and combining,
modernizing and improvising upon them. [33]Politics are essential to
afrobeat, since founder Kuti used social criticism to pave the way for
social change. His message can be described as confrontational and
controversial, which can be related to the political climate of most of
the African countries in the 1960s, many of which were dealing with
political injustice and military corruption while recovering from the
transition from colonial governments to self-determination. As the
genre spread throughout the African continent many bands took up the
style. The recordings of these bands and their songs were rarely heard
or exported outside the originating countries but many can now be found
on compilation albums and CDs from specialist record shops.
[[34]edit] Influence
Many jazz musicians have been attracted to afrobeat. From [35]Roy Ayers
in the seventies to [36]Randy Weston in the nineties, there have been
collaborations which have resulted in albums such as Africa: Centre of
the World by Roy Ayers, released on the Polydor label in 1981. In 1994
[37]Branford Marsalis, the American jazz saxophonist, included samples
of Fela's "Beast of No Nation" on his Buckshot leFonque album. The new
generation of DJs and musicians of the 2000s who have fallen in love
with both Kuti's material and other rare releases have made
compilations and remixes of these recordings, thus re-introducing the
genre to new generations of listeners and fans of afropop and groove.
Afrobeat has profoundly influenced important contemporary producers and
musicians like [38]Brian Eno and [39]David Byrne, who credit Fela Kuti
as an essential muse. Both worked on [40]Talking Heads'
highly-acclaimed 1980 album [41]Remain In Light which brought
polyrhythmic afrobeat influences to Western music. More recently, the
horn section of [42]Antibalas have been guest musicians on [43]TV On
The Radio's highly-acclaimed 2008 album [44]Dear Science, as well as on
British band [45]Foals' 2008 album [46]Antidotes.
[[47]edit] Instrumentation
Big band (15 to 30 pieces: Fela-era afrobeat) and energetic
performances
* Lead vocals (may play sax/key solos as well)
* Chorus vocals (may include horn players)
* Rhythm guitar(s) (plays funk strumming pattern)
* Tenor guitar (plays a finger-picked osinato groove)
* [48]Bass guitar
* [49]Drum set, generally in the form [50]polyrhythmic percussion
* Saxophone(s)
* Trumpet(s)
* Trombone(s)
* Organ/keyboards
* Rhythm [51]conga #1
* Rhythm [52]conga #2
* Solo (lead) [53]conga
* [54]Akuba: a set of 3 small stick-hit congas (play
flourishes/solos, and ostinatos). Also mistakenly called "gbedu".
* "Sticks"/[55]claves (plays ostinato)
* [56]Shekere
[[57]edit] Today
There are several active afrobeat bands worldwide today.
Modern afrobeat bands/artistes include:
* [58]Kokolo (band), New York City Afrobeat/Afrofunk group formed by
songwriter/producer Ray Lugo
* [59]Nomo, [60]Ann Arbor based group that weaves various styles into
a primarily Afrobeat sound.
* [61]Chicago Afrobeat Project Chicago based collective that uses
afrobeat as a springboard and has an incendiary live show.
* [62]Afrodizz, an eight-piece band from [63]Montreal, [64]Canada
formed by jazz guitarist Gabriel Aldama
* [65]The Afromotive, an Asheville, NC based multiracial seven-piece
afrobeat band featuring thirty-third generation djembe player Adama
Dembele from Cote d`Ivoire, West Africa.
* [66]Tony Allen, the man who held the drum chair during Fela's
productive "Africa 70" phase, and whose drumming was, according to
[67]James Brown's autobiography, the influence behind his
'discovery' of funk.^[[68]citation needed]
* [69]Antibalas, [70]Brooklyn, New York based multiracial Afrobeat
Orchestra formed by baritone saxophonist Martin Perna
* [71]Aphrodesia, San Francisco based group, first American group to
perform with Femi Kuti at The Shrine in Lagos, Nigeria.
* [72]Ayetoro, a group led by Nigerian pianist/composer [73]Funsho
Ogundipe
* [74]Bebe cool lives in Uganda famous for his reggea mixed with
luganda pop and English making an Afrobeat rhythm in Uganda known
as Luga flow.He also lives in kampala.
* [75]Chopteeth, an international 14 piece outfit based in Washington
D.C., with former members of Busta Rhymes, The Temptations, The
Four Tops, and Gladys Knight & the Pips.
* [76]Femi Kuti (Fela's first son and a saxophonist) and the Positive
Force
* [77]Seun Kuti (another of Kuti's sons, saxophonist now fronting his
father's last and late band)
* [78]Dele Sosimi's Gbedu Resurrection Dele is a former keyboardist
and musical director of Fela's band. He cofounded Femi Kuti's
Positive Force.
* [79]Zozo Afrobeat A thirteen-member group based in NYC, founded by
Kaleta, former Fela guitarist.
* [80]Baba Ken and the Afro-Groove Connexion Oakland based
multiracial afrobeat ensemble led by Nigerian bassist, Baba Ken
Okulolo, founding member of the seminal 1970's afrofunk/afrorock
band, Monomono.
* [81]Jose Chameleone famous in East, central and South Africa.He
stays and live is Uganda in kampala city.He sing pop and Afro beat
music.He is one of the most famous artists of Afro beat in Africa
and the whole world.
* [82]Afrobeat Down Los Angeles based Afrobeat ensemble (est. 2002)
working with former Fela Africa '70 member and catalyst of entire
afrobeat movement, Sandra Izsadore.
* [83]Weird MC Rap artiste who occasionally experinments with
Afrobeat rhythm.
* [84]Vibe Squad A Ghanaian music crew formed by EaZZY Da Opemfour
made of Prego, Culchar, Wizzy Wii and Richie.
* [85]Gnl zamba rap artist in Uganda one of the most successful rap
afrobeat star in East Africa and central Africa.He is known for his
rhythm of 2 pac shakur
* [86]Mr. Something Something Canadian afrobeat group
* [87]Crime Scene Infunkstigation A 10-piece Afrobeat/Funk/Hip Hop
group based out of Calgary, AB
[[88]edit] External links
* [89]KOKOLO on Myspace
* [90]KOKOLO on YouTube
* [91]KOKOLO Official Homepage
* [92]The Afrobeat Blog
* [93]The Unofficial Seun Kuti Fan-Site - Unofficial fan-site for
Seun Kuti & Egypt 80 with news, videos, music, pictures and much
more]
* [94]The Shrine The Unofficial Website for Fela Kuti, Femi Kuti and
Afrobeat Music
* [95]BBC Afrobeat Documentary
[96]v o [97]d o [98]e
Genres of [99]African popular music
Afrobeat · [100]Apala · [101]Benga · [102]Bikutsi · [103]Cape Jazz ·
[104]Chimurenga · [105]Fuji · [106]Highlife · [107]Hiplife ·
[108]Isicathamiya · [109]Jit · [110]Jùjú · [111]Kizomba · [112]Kuduro ·
[113]Kwaito · [114]Kwela · [115]Makossa · [116]Maloya ·
[117]Marrabenta · [118]Mbalax · [119]Mbaqanga · [120]Mbube ·
[121]Morna · [122]Palm-wine · [123]Raï · [124]Sakara · [125]Sega ·
[126]Soukous/Congo/Lingala/Rumba · [127]Taarab
[128]v o [129]d o [130]e
[131]Funk music
[132]Acid jazz o Afrobeat o [133]Brit funk o [134]Funk metal o
[135]Deep Funk o [136]Drumfunk o [137]Free funk o [138]Funkcore o
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[143]Jazz-funk o [144]Liquid funk o [145]Neurofunk o [146]Nu-funk o
[147]P-Funk o [148]Post-disco o [149]Punk-funk o [150]Skweee
Related
[151]List of funk musicians o [152]Minneapolis sound
[154]Categories: [155]Funk genres | [156]African American music in
Africa
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[1]Daniel Elazar Papers Index [2][USEMAP:nav-back.gif]
American Political Culture
The Generational Rhythm of American Politics
The American Mosaic, Chapter 2
Daniel J. Elazar
It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States
combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount
of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no
less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space.
Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location
within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less
pinpointed.
This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is
structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of
generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to
the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast
developments with great success. At the same time he has applied
that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that
very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs.
Early Studies of Generational Rhythms
Students of society have noted the succession of generations since
ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology
on generational measures.
The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear
time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning
of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs.
It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the
individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the
starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon
and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon
operating in history.^2
Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational
basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first
recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the
system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third
and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the
Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average
generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full
generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical
scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression,
"forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5
Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The
"generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity
of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a
common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a
time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces
time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new
judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation
and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7
Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have
beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the
founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central
interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of
its beginnings and its ancestry.
Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were
the first to articulate systematic theories of generational
progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte
viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the
thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in
shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the
unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the
aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social
cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that
"History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of
Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle
phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences
appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals
comes to dominate society.^9
These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical
verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years
of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop
the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed
the principle that generations are articulated through historical
events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained.
Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a
fourfold classification of generations as preparatory,
revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10
Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11
Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that
generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific
study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and
heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation
century.^13
After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the
succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of
social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between
contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who
are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his
student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked
on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and
Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm
Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri
Peyre (1948).^16
More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused
on problems of intergenerational differences and the political
socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes
or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund
Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study
of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their
study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963)
focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966)
studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957)
utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in
Israel and the United States, respectively.^20
All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a
comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of
their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and
those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving
many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the
studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two
parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the
people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact,
both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined
that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The
linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive
theory.
None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a
generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black
box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods.
Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of
three generations.
Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining
way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an
empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is
somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin.
Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature,
art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of
eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular
basis.
Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to
embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under
the heading of "a generation".
Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History
A number of theories of political cycles in American history have
been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of
American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational
thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a
series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based
on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective
governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect
"concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of
property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the
wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid
movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories
include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter
Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical
theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the
"more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments"
using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process.
Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the
interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United
States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical
periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23
Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the
manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work.
Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in
presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the
House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual
party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in
American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of
an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American
history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in
length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes
that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device
since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable
directions.
Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his
emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by
using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of
voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state
vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates
five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s)
and the present.
Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the
level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five
periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of
stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of
approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing
already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an
established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in
turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis
to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment
occurs in every generation.
While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with
American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he
begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three
of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive
happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning
point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that
Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a
generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts
as follows:
1787-1801-1816
1816-1829-1841
1841-1861-1869
1869-1901-1918
1918-1931-?
The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the
beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them
primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles
rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have
been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational
patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the
following pattern:
1790-1796/1800
1800-1824/1828
1828-1824/1860
1860-1888/1896
1896-1932
His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to
that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their
significance in the periodization process.
Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although
even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if
it is schematized as follows:
1789-1820
1828
1856-1860
1893/1894
1932
Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized
as follows:
1896-1912
1912-1920-1932-1952
1952
Pomper also offers election dates and no more:
1836
1864-1876
1876-1892/1896
1928/1932-1952
1952-1964
None of these are complete theories and all must be considered
within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit.
Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough
approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the
commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United
States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The
revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of
generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson
Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods
of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named:
e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era.
In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers
developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the
federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could
not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however,
the American people were treated to a display of federal activity --
and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by
FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the
mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth
of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the
mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper
understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United
States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow
of time and events.)
The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its
own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human
time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible
pattern in the progression of political events in the United States
over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not
happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events
in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in
cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the
biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human
life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is
substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though
the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this
phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26
The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind
another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit
decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every
government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on
the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on
the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of
attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be
supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that
being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons
who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive
generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a
fixed moment, as individuals do now....
What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the
same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a
constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A
generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case,
would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to
contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for
14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily
deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of
their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at
that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated
from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of
climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors.
Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that
23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a
society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the
ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as
follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all
ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half
will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every
year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly
have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half
of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time
will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest
integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the
representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself
assembled, can validly extend a debt.
On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a
perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every
constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of
34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not
of right.
The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that
would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to
his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French
Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the
sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making
on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every
nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme,
Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one
which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one
way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure
of location in time.
Human Social Rhythms
As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural
measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a
common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the
"lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does
appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account
for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely
and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation
in any particular civil society and chart the relations among
generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical
patterns of its politics.
During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years,
averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people
will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then
pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every
individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in
which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited.
Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she
begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime
between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at
which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life"
ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and
political roles as are given to mature men and women in society.
Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a
person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention,
if not physically, considered ready for retirement.
Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an
individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first
fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially
powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote,
and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After
attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period
of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be
translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among
those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s
before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on
the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become
serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are
able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the
scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be
defined as the ending of one's serious political career without
suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's
30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential
influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise
influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political
leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds
forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship.
The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle
of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young
people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters
actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people
in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then
declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to
"retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28
In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each
individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society
is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a
common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any
particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its
history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical
record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and
the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at
the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In
the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed
leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in
power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age
and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a
result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly
established.
Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults
settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and
in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational
progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and
purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began
more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed
from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the
door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to
begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of
the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their
patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby
allowing a new generation to assume the reins.
Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they
establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in
social and political life than that found in the simple processes of
human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were
equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the
biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by
locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace
the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of
organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings
are recorded in history, we can do just that.
Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the
progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins
of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is
shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the
impact of the change and encourages new political action to
assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new
generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at
the most four generations are alive at any given time creates
certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of
grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of
inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact
help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In
this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is
socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and
politically unmanageable.
Generations, Centuries and Events
Since the founding of the first European settlements along the
Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations
of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series
of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the
twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three
generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain
distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense
recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th
century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of
American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in
which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century
stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th
century is the century of the United States as a world power.
Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as
chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European
history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have
begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing
point, thus:
a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603)
and the 17th century began with the opening of the American
frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between
the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of
the times.
b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty
of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which
eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the
Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration
for both countries.
c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the
War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era
of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff).
d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the
inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak
of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land
frontier.
Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments
that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show
every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then
dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are
immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the
nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged
during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation
under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a
century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn,
the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments
having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic
society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated
American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments
disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently
in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments
that will replace them.
The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth
generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the
past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators
have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just
when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of
generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was
ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal
intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of
the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of
alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the
generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life
so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began
after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided
over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the
renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence.
The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be
delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression
will be related to major forces and factors shaping American
history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the
principal challenges facing the American people in each generation
and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing
forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of
critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization
in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial,
ethnic and religious groups.
One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate.
Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with
such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for
analytical purposes than life ever is.
The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the
period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old
World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany,
but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually
every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original
thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native
Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies,
and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate
nation with its own civilization.
The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century,
which, from the first American recognition of common continental
interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for
Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent
American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism,
successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and
established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The
idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the
political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans.
The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations,
beginning at the point where America turned its back on European
entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced
them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an
industrialized continental nation with a strong national government;
abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world
power ready for overseas involvements.
The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century --
reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the
arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with
the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding
over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the
results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the
industrial revolution.
As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with
the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the
United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished
relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first
generation of the transformation of society as a result of the
application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new
frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse
of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically
dominant although economically weakened. The results of these
phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder
of the generation.
Generations and Frontier Stages
The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are
products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In
American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if
not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and
centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American
frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other
historical and political phenomena.
Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has
been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of
human control over the natural environment and the utilization of
the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control,
i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American
society is a product of this commitment which is virtually
self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one
frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier
situation that has created the major social and economic changes
which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's
political institutions.
America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages
to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the
metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic
frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled
with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been
decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American
life within that stage.
The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the
historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted
from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the
end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on
the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American
continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the
products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the
westward movement on a basically rural population interested in
settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a
socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits
in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was
dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an
active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and
still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in
Alaska.
Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth
the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and
spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation
into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the
spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's
economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented
the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States,
where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater
part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it
first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the
beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands
of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally
superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth
generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the
end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various
localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant
characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities
from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into
independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and
social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their
existence and growth.
By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth,
in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is
characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society
through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that
encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large
metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from
atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the
accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further
changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with
their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered
a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like
the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological
frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on
a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation.
After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly
and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and
pace of development across the country.
The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by
the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to
be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The
late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash
from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism
challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s,
ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution,
and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth
premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of
resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were
saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over.
By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was
emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the
metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers,
satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new
data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large
belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated
by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not
connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and
small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single
metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different
purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern
coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found
in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its
early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges,
initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its
renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of
financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American
economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of
Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West.
Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues
of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new
frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement
patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its
own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns
and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands
themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between
the points of generational division and the shifts in the various
frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater
detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as
part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are
closely related to the opening of new centuries.
Generations and Economic Periods
One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a
continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to
meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a
result, the governments of the United States have always maintained
a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in
the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to
era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the
governmental response. These changes have also developed on a
generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the
founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic
policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth
generation of American history) the American government continued a
semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the
nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government
involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during
which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in
which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the
outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful
competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a
generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially
unregulated by government.
Demands for government regulation that built up during the last
generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of
intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first
generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the
eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active
government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system.
Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around
toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less
government intervention.
Centuries, Generations and Federalism
The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can
also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first
generation of American history brought the introduction of federal
principles through the contracts and covenants that established the
colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through
Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the
seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a
local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of
national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose
strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly,
concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in
the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and
crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and
then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century.
The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has
been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society.
Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal
with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques
have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These
new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed
have been major elements in the concrete response to the
generation's challenges.
Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship
The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and
their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the
challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of
American history and politics. The changes in those relationships
also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries.
British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious
pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through
giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular
territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as
indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In
the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized
in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian
differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery.
Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism
was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones
existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste
system was in the making.
During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and
sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the
original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the
virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation.
Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new
lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was
abolished in the North.
The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial
establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was
almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant
immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new
post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through
the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration
reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to
reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was
reaffirmed through the institution of segregation.
From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open
pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The
barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants
began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those
barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by
the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape
up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the
twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but
those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of
American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say,
to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American
culture.
While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been
presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the
generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted
descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some
cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary
period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational
responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New
Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political
dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the
Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era.
The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses
Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular
challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its
own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and
the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In
some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could
act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In
others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the challenges changes from century to century.
During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the
tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various
colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related
to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence
of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially
related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American
national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been
essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society
and the assumption of an American role in world affairs.
The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the
initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which,
objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively
recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing
recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors
such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in
voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with
mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to
public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters
does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet
existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular
progression of political events revolving around the development of
a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its
response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and
responses that gives each generation its particular character. While
the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external --
or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is
primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation
themselves.
In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has
taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each
colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its
sisters, and the other science independence when a common national
constitution created a common national politics. In some cases,
particularly after independence when the nation could act
decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other,
particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the political challenges that have dominated the
American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a
new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating
the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the
19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope,
wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the
20th century, they have essentially related to the
metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an
American role in world affairs.
In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within
each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and
new generations is marked by several decisive political actions,
often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature
is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old
generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and
opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a
time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues
they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political
action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population
change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political
activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur
the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the
direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders
to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the
generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many
quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of
governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to
the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five
years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with
digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so
that they will achieve greater success and at the same time
integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The
end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify
and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the
issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for
political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be
recognized.
The Bench Marks of American Political History:
Critical Elections and New Deals
In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a
particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a
system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can
also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political
history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune
with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds;
first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a
particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of
intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government
initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each
generation.
The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections
A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the
sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period
of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The
generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this
pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which
brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs
of voters, shifting them from one political party to another.
Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a
"critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of
electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound
readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the
community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are
formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result
of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide
electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency
from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one
major element to another.
Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that
there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the
allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively
long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public
opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the
1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with
a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In
consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats
have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters
identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority
party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order
to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and
representatives to win control of Congress.
The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968,
only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled
the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a
military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the
"normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his
party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in
1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after
twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the
Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the
Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems,
won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular
Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a
Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his
victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition
and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a
period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White
House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the
Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the
GOP controlled the Senate.
A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a
nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent
and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on
a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical
loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations,
personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of
the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are
nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders
(or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate
state parties which form the two national confederations known as
the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties
are confederations of the state parties, so is the national
coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional
coalitions.
Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and
thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the
electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to
remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead
to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution,
too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems
attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the
dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary
inroads in the various electoral groups.
Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces
opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in
public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in
the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party
that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means
certain that the majority party will even win all the national
elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and
usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a
limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its
losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The
states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as
bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend
its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority
coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for
national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards
for the party faithful during the years of national "famine."
As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent
electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their
changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with
each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find
the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass
and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in
importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed
and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the
realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment
of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a
reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad
electoral groups.^33
While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state
and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon
only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election.
Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make
embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become
fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional
elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional
election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical
elections."^34
The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the
development of the institution of the popularly elected president.
Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of
electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize
presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited
apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and
the House of Representatives.
Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part
of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the
use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on
the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The
generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem.
It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not
so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a
disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as
did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current
during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the
end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that
they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant
percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and
alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues
lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote
as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children
came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the
majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational
buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the
guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file"
alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of
each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the
ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from
balance to majority.
"New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity
The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of
innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind
usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin
Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as
the historical watersheds they are.
In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S.
Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform
activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for
their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian
Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over
a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that
enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way
the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems
of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his
Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind
because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the
moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was
cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic
U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly
the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use
the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came
Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for
all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B.
Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as
it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s.
The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted
approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of
governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of
the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for
another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon
to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational
consolidation.
The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years
between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in
Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of
extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President
Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to
resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial
presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its
power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic
problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led
the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill
the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the
hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states
and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington
before undertaking any activities.
The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an
"outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community
marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth
in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by
many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation,
usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time.
President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's
international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to
shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of
infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the
Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and
localities. These were all to become principal issues during the
period of generational build-up.
The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to
the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the
American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the
tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that
followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By
the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on
behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were
referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues
of the new generation.
Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been
invariably preceded by critical elections through which the
reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to
generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die --
determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either
by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting
them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as
unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to
majority status. These critical elections, which attain their
visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and
interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which
face them.
Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the
party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series
of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the
Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the
1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had
become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the
Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans.
Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the
majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times
and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats
picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in
1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party
coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen
it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The
old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent
severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted
and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the
Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the
programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing
period for the Democratic coalition.
To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in
American politics is not to suggest that events move in any
lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same
as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the
"normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence
we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them
for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too
can be done that gives the theory its power.
Summary
Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of
American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical
understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more
interest to European social philosophers than American social
scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the
question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics,
often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their
theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation
rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to
understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human
social rhythms generally.
Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their
internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries
represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them.
The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation,
constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to
them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical
elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political
history recurring on a generational basis.
Notes
1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by
Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970);
Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational
Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979).
2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the
Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973).
3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5
(Garden City: Doubleday, 1987).
4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday,
1987).
5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a
generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse
11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers,
chapter 32, verse 13.
7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11;
chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte
(London: G. Bell, 1896).
9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive
(London, 1862).
10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani
(Milano: Monanni, 1929).
11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen,
der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4.
(1875), pp. 36-41.
12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on
Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds.,
Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline
(Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in
History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane,
Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp.,
1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1990).
13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method.
14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933).
15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti,
ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and
Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales
(Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in
der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F.
Schoeningh, 1933).
16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der
Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926);
Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and
Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig,
1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris:
Boivin, 1948).
17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the
Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger,
1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4
(1972): 564-78.
18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the
Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956).
19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin,
American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970).
20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and
Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield,
Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970).
21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939).
22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago:
Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the
Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key,
Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961);
Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968);
Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1989).
23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party
System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210.
24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of
Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the
years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of
American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur
Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co.
1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to
conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the
article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using
liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the
generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written
as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something
which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best
reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government
from the Civil War to the New Deal.
25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first
presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American
Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no.
1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns
Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also
Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University
Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992).
26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789.
27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years
old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve
in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President.
28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and
Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman
H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and
the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary
M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney
Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American
Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for
the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris
Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in
America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W.
Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get
Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb
and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda
Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber,
Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership
(Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey,
Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.:
Brooks/Cole, 1989).
29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with
special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in
The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York:
Macmillan, 1961).
30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965):
Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the
Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989).
31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18.
32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections
in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability,"
Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171.
33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate
(Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James
L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and
Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical
Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York:
Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?"
in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party
Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American
Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press
of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed.,
Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and
Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise
Institute, 1983).
34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American
Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party
System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony;
David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization,
Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter,
Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American
Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of
Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985).
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American Political Culture
The Generational Rhythm of American Politics
The American Mosaic, Chapter 2
Daniel J. Elazar
It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States
combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount
of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no
less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space.
Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location
within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less
pinpointed.
This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is
structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of
generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to
the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast
developments with great success. At the same time he has applied
that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that
very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs.
Early Studies of Generational Rhythms
Students of society have noted the succession of generations since
ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology
on generational measures.
The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear
time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning
of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs.
It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the
individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the
starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon
and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon
operating in history.^2
Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational
basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first
recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the
system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third
and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the
Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average
generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full
generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical
scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression,
"forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5
Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The
"generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity
of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a
common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a
time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces
time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new
judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation
and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7
Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have
beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the
founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central
interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of
its beginnings and its ancestry.
Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were
the first to articulate systematic theories of generational
progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte
viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the
thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in
shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the
unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the
aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social
cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that
"History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of
Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle
phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences
appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals
comes to dominate society.^9
These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical
verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years
of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop
the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed
the principle that generations are articulated through historical
events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained.
Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a
fourfold classification of generations as preparatory,
revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10
Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11
Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that
generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific
study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and
heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation
century.^13
After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the
succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of
social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between
contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who
are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his
student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked
on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and
Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm
Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri
Peyre (1948).^16
More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused
on problems of intergenerational differences and the political
socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes
or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund
Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study
of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their
study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963)
focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966)
studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957)
utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in
Israel and the United States, respectively.^20
All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a
comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of
their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and
those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving
many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the
studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two
parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the
people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact,
both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined
that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The
linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive
theory.
None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a
generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black
box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods.
Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of
three generations.
Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining
way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an
empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is
somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin.
Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature,
art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of
eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular
basis.
Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to
embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under
the heading of "a generation".
Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History
A number of theories of political cycles in American history have
been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of
American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational
thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a
series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based
on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective
governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect
"concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of
property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the
wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid
movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories
include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter
Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical
theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the
"more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments"
using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process.
Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the
interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United
States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical
periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23
Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the
manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work.
Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in
presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the
House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual
party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in
American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of
an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American
history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in
length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes
that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device
since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable
directions.
Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his
emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by
using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of
voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state
vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates
five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s)
and the present.
Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the
level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five
periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of
stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of
approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing
already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an
established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in
turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis
to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment
occurs in every generation.
While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with
American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he
begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three
of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive
happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning
point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that
Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a
generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts
as follows:
1787-1801-1816
1816-1829-1841
1841-1861-1869
1869-1901-1918
1918-1931-?
The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the
beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them
primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles
rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have
been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational
patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the
following pattern:
1790-1796/1800
1800-1824/1828
1828-1824/1860
1860-1888/1896
1896-1932
His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to
that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their
significance in the periodization process.
Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although
even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if
it is schematized as follows:
1789-1820
1828
1856-1860
1893/1894
1932
Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized
as follows:
1896-1912
1912-1920-1932-1952
1952
Pomper also offers election dates and no more:
1836
1864-1876
1876-1892/1896
1928/1932-1952
1952-1964
None of these are complete theories and all must be considered
within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit.
Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough
approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the
commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United
States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The
revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of
generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson
Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods
of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named:
e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era.
In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers
developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the
federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could
not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however,
the American people were treated to a display of federal activity --
and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by
FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the
mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth
of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the
mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper
understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United
States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow
of time and events.)
The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its
own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human
time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible
pattern in the progression of political events in the United States
over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not
happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events
in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in
cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the
biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human
life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is
substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though
the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this
phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26
The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind
another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit
decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every
government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on
the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on
the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of
attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be
supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that
being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons
who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive
generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a
fixed moment, as individuals do now....
What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the
same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a
constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A
generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case,
would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to
contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for
14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily
deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of
their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at
that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated
from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of
climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors.
Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that
23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a
society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the
ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as
follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all
ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half
will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every
year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly
have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half
of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time
will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest
integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the
representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself
assembled, can validly extend a debt.
On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a
perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every
constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of
34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not
of right.
The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that
would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to
his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French
Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the
sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making
on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every
nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme,
Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one
which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one
way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure
of location in time.
Human Social Rhythms
As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural
measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a
common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the
"lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does
appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account
for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely
and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation
in any particular civil society and chart the relations among
generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical
patterns of its politics.
During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years,
averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people
will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then
pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every
individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in
which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited.
Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she
begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime
between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at
which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life"
ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and
political roles as are given to mature men and women in society.
Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a
person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention,
if not physically, considered ready for retirement.
Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an
individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first
fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially
powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote,
and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After
attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period
of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be
translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among
those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s
before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on
the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become
serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are
able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the
scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be
defined as the ending of one's serious political career without
suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's
30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential
influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise
influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political
leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds
forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship.
The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle
of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young
people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters
actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people
in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then
declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to
"retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28
In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each
individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society
is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a
common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any
particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its
history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical
record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and
the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at
the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In
the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed
leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in
power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age
and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a
result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly
established.
Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults
settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and
in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational
progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and
purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began
more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed
from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the
door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to
begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of
the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their
patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby
allowing a new generation to assume the reins.
Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they
establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in
social and political life than that found in the simple processes of
human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were
equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the
biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by
locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace
the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of
organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings
are recorded in history, we can do just that.
Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the
progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins
of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is
shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the
impact of the change and encourages new political action to
assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new
generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at
the most four generations are alive at any given time creates
certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of
grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of
inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact
help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In
this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is
socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and
politically unmanageable.
Generations, Centuries and Events
Since the founding of the first European settlements along the
Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations
of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series
of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the
twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three
generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain
distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense
recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th
century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of
American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in
which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century
stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th
century is the century of the United States as a world power.
Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as
chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European
history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have
begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing
point, thus:
a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603)
and the 17th century began with the opening of the American
frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between
the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of
the times.
b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty
of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which
eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the
Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration
for both countries.
c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the
War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era
of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff).
d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the
inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak
of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land
frontier.
Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments
that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show
every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then
dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are
immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the
nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged
during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation
under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a
century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn,
the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments
having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic
society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated
American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments
disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently
in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments
that will replace them.
The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth
generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the
past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators
have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just
when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of
generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was
ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal
intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of
the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of
alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the
generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life
so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began
after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided
over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the
renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence.
The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be
delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression
will be related to major forces and factors shaping American
history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the
principal challenges facing the American people in each generation
and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing
forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of
critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization
in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial,
ethnic and religious groups.
One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate.
Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with
such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for
analytical purposes than life ever is.
The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the
period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old
World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany,
but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually
every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original
thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native
Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies,
and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate
nation with its own civilization.
The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century,
which, from the first American recognition of common continental
interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for
Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent
American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism,
successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and
established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The
idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the
political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans.
The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations,
beginning at the point where America turned its back on European
entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced
them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an
industrialized continental nation with a strong national government;
abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world
power ready for overseas involvements.
The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century --
reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the
arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with
the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding
over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the
results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the
industrial revolution.
As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with
the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the
United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished
relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first
generation of the transformation of society as a result of the
application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new
frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse
of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically
dominant although economically weakened. The results of these
phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder
of the generation.
Generations and Frontier Stages
The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are
products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In
American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if
not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and
centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American
frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other
historical and political phenomena.
Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has
been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of
human control over the natural environment and the utilization of
the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control,
i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American
society is a product of this commitment which is virtually
self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one
frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier
situation that has created the major social and economic changes
which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's
political institutions.
America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages
to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the
metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic
frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled
with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been
decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American
life within that stage.
The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the
historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted
from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the
end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on
the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American
continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the
products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the
westward movement on a basically rural population interested in
settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a
socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits
in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was
dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an
active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and
still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in
Alaska.
Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth
the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and
spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation
into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the
spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's
economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented
the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States,
where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater
part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it
first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the
beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands
of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally
superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth
generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the
end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various
localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant
characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities
from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into
independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and
social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their
existence and growth.
By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth,
in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is
characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society
through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that
encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large
metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from
atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the
accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further
changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with
their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered
a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like
the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological
frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on
a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation.
After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly
and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and
pace of development across the country.
The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by
the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to
be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The
late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash
from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism
challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s,
ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution,
and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth
premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of
resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were
saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over.
By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was
emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the
metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers,
satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new
data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large
belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated
by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not
connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and
small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single
metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different
purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern
coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found
in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its
early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges,
initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its
renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of
financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American
economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of
Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West.
Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues
of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new
frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement
patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its
own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns
and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands
themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between
the points of generational division and the shifts in the various
frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater
detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as
part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are
closely related to the opening of new centuries.
Generations and Economic Periods
One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a
continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to
meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a
result, the governments of the United States have always maintained
a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in
the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to
era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the
governmental response. These changes have also developed on a
generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the
founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic
policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth
generation of American history) the American government continued a
semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the
nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government
involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during
which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in
which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the
outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful
competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a
generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially
unregulated by government.
Demands for government regulation that built up during the last
generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of
intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first
generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the
eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active
government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system.
Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around
toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less
government intervention.
Centuries, Generations and Federalism
The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can
also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first
generation of American history brought the introduction of federal
principles through the contracts and covenants that established the
colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through
Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the
seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a
local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of
national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose
strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly,
concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in
the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and
crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and
then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century.
The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has
been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society.
Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal
with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques
have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These
new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed
have been major elements in the concrete response to the
generation's challenges.
Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship
The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and
their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the
challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of
American history and politics. The changes in those relationships
also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries.
British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious
pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through
giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular
territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as
indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In
the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized
in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian
differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery.
Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism
was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones
existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste
system was in the making.
During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and
sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the
original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the
virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation.
Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new
lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was
abolished in the North.
The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial
establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was
almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant
immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new
post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through
the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration
reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to
reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was
reaffirmed through the institution of segregation.
From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open
pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The
barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants
began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those
barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by
the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape
up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the
twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but
those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of
American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say,
to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American
culture.
While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been
presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the
generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted
descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some
cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary
period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational
responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New
Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political
dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the
Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era.
The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses
Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular
challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its
own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and
the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In
some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could
act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In
others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the challenges changes from century to century.
During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the
tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various
colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related
to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence
of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially
related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American
national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been
essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society
and the assumption of an American role in world affairs.
The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the
initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which,
objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively
recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing
recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors
such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in
voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with
mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to
public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters
does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet
existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular
progression of political events revolving around the development of
a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its
response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and
responses that gives each generation its particular character. While
the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external --
or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is
primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation
themselves.
In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has
taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each
colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its
sisters, and the other science independence when a common national
constitution created a common national politics. In some cases,
particularly after independence when the nation could act
decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other,
particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the political challenges that have dominated the
American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a
new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating
the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the
19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope,
wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the
20th century, they have essentially related to the
metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an
American role in world affairs.
In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within
each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and
new generations is marked by several decisive political actions,
often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature
is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old
generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and
opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a
time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues
they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political
action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population
change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political
activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur
the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the
direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders
to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the
generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many
quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of
governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to
the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five
years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with
digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so
that they will achieve greater success and at the same time
integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The
end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify
and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the
issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for
political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be
recognized.
The Bench Marks of American Political History:
Critical Elections and New Deals
In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a
particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a
system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can
also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political
history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune
with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds;
first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a
particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of
intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government
initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each
generation.
The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections
A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the
sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period
of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The
generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this
pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which
brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs
of voters, shifting them from one political party to another.
Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a
"critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of
electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound
readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the
community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are
formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result
of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide
electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency
from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one
major element to another.
Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that
there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the
allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively
long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public
opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the
1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with
a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In
consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats
have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters
identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority
party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order
to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and
representatives to win control of Congress.
The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968,
only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled
the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a
military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the
"normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his
party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in
1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after
twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the
Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the
Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems,
won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular
Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a
Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his
victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition
and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a
period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White
House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the
Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the
GOP controlled the Senate.
A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a
nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent
and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on
a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical
loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations,
personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of
the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are
nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders
(or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate
state parties which form the two national confederations known as
the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties
are confederations of the state parties, so is the national
coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional
coalitions.
Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and
thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the
electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to
remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead
to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution,
too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems
attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the
dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary
inroads in the various electoral groups.
Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces
opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in
public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in
the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party
that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means
certain that the majority party will even win all the national
elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and
usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a
limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its
losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The
states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as
bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend
its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority
coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for
national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards
for the party faithful during the years of national "famine."
As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent
electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their
changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with
each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find
the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass
and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in
importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed
and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the
realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment
of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a
reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad
electoral groups.^33
While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state
and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon
only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election.
Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make
embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become
fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional
elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional
election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical
elections."^34
The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the
development of the institution of the popularly elected president.
Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of
electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize
presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited
apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and
the House of Representatives.
Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part
of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the
use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on
the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The
generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem.
It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not
so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a
disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as
did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current
during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the
end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that
they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant
percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and
alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues
lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote
as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children
came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the
majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational
buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the
guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file"
alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of
each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the
ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from
balance to majority.
"New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity
The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of
innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind
usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin
Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as
the historical watersheds they are.
In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S.
Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform
activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for
their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian
Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over
a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that
enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way
the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems
of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his
Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind
because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the
moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was
cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic
U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly
the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use
the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came
Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for
all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B.
Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as
it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s.
The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted
approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of
governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of
the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for
another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon
to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational
consolidation.
The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years
between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in
Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of
extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President
Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to
resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial
presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its
power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic
problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led
the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill
the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the
hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states
and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington
before undertaking any activities.
The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an
"outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community
marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth
in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by
many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation,
usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time.
President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's
international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to
shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of
infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the
Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and
localities. These were all to become principal issues during the
period of generational build-up.
The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to
the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the
American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the
tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that
followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By
the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on
behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were
referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues
of the new generation.
Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been
invariably preceded by critical elections through which the
reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to
generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die --
determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either
by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting
them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as
unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to
majority status. These critical elections, which attain their
visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and
interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which
face them.
Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the
party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series
of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the
Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the
1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had
become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the
Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans.
Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the
majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times
and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats
picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in
1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party
coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen
it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The
old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent
severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted
and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the
Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the
programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing
period for the Democratic coalition.
To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in
American politics is not to suggest that events move in any
lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same
as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the
"normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence
we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them
for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too
can be done that gives the theory its power.
Summary
Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of
American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical
understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more
interest to European social philosophers than American social
scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the
question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics,
often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their
theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation
rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to
understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human
social rhythms generally.
Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their
internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries
represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them.
The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation,
constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to
them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical
elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political
history recurring on a generational basis.
Notes
1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by
Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970);
Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational
Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979).
2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the
Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973).
3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5
(Garden City: Doubleday, 1987).
4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday,
1987).
5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a
generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse
11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers,
chapter 32, verse 13.
7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11;
chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte
(London: G. Bell, 1896).
9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive
(London, 1862).
10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani
(Milano: Monanni, 1929).
11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen,
der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4.
(1875), pp. 36-41.
12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on
Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds.,
Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline
(Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in
History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane,
Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp.,
1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1990).
13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method.
14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933).
15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti,
ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and
Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales
(Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in
der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F.
Schoeningh, 1933).
16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der
Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926);
Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and
Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig,
1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris:
Boivin, 1948).
17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the
Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger,
1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4
(1972): 564-78.
18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the
Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956).
19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin,
American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970).
20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and
Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield,
Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970).
21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939).
22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago:
Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the
Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key,
Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961);
Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968);
Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1989).
23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party
System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210.
24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of
Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the
years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of
American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur
Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co.
1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to
conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the
article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using
liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the
generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written
as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something
which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best
reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government
from the Civil War to the New Deal.
25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first
presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American
Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no.
1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns
Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also
Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University
Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992).
26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789.
27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years
old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve
in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President.
28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and
Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman
H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and
the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary
M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney
Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American
Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for
the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris
Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in
America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W.
Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get
Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb
and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda
Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber,
Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership
(Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey,
Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.:
Brooks/Cole, 1989).
29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with
special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in
The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York:
Macmillan, 1961).
30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965):
Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the
Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989).
31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18.
32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections
in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability,"
Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171.
33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate
(Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James
L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and
Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical
Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York:
Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?"
in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party
Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American
Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press
of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed.,
Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and
Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise
Institute, 1983).
34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American
Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party
System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony;
David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization,
Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter,
Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American
Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of
Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985).
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Titre du document / Document title
Rhythms of the secular : The politics of modernizing Arab poetic
forms = Rythmes du séculaire : la politique de modernisation des formes
poétiques arabes
Auteur(s) / Author(s)
FURANI Khaled^ (1) ;
Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s)
^(1) Tel-Aviv University, ISRAEL
Résumé / Abstract
In this article, I ethnographically trace how Arab, mainly Palestinian,
poets have modernized their literary tradition during the last seven
decades. Shortly after the 1948 Israeli occupation of Palestine, the
reign of the classical Arabic ode collapsed, and the modern forms of
free verse and, later, the prose poem became dominant. Aiming to
contribute to the ethnography of modernity, I examine how poets have
adopted and abandoned poetic forms by analyzing their narratives on
rhythm. I explore the political salience of rhythmical transformations
and argue that the secular has been a vital and complex force in the
modern abandonment of metrical discipline. The secular affects how
poets seek to modernize their rhythm, vocabulary, and relation to
public. It also affects, I conclude, the ways in which anthropologists
can and do write about modernity.
Revue / Journal Title
American ethnologist ISSN 0094-0496
Source / Source
2008, vol. 35, n^o2, pp. 290-307 [18 page(s) (article)] (2 p.1/4)
Langue / Language
Anglais
Editeur / Publisher
American Ethnological Society, Washington, DC, ETATS-UNIS (1974)
(Revue)
Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords
Rhythm ; Transformation ; Modernization ; Poet ; Modernity ; Poetry ;
Israel ; Palestine ; Near East ;
Mots-clés français / French Keywords
Forme poétique ; Tradition littéraire ; Arabe palestinien ; Rythme ;
Transformation ; Modernisation ; Poète ; Modernité ; Poésie ; Israël ;
Palestine ; Proche-Orient ;
Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords
poetic form ; modernity and secularism ; Palestine-Israel ;
Localisation / Location
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Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 20449527
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[1]Daniel Elazar Papers Index [2][USEMAP:nav-back.gif]
American Political Culture
The Generational Rhythm of American Politics
The American Mosaic, Chapter 2
Daniel J. Elazar
It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States
combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount
of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no
less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space.
Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location
within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less
pinpointed.
This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is
structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of
generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to
the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast
developments with great success. At the same time he has applied
that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that
very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs.
Early Studies of Generational Rhythms
Students of society have noted the succession of generations since
ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology
on generational measures.
The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear
time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning
of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs.
It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the
individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the
starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon
and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon
operating in history.^2
Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational
basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first
recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the
system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third
and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the
Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average
generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full
generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical
scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression,
"forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5
Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The
"generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity
of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a
common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a
time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces
time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new
judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation
and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7
Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have
beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the
founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central
interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of
its beginnings and its ancestry.
Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were
the first to articulate systematic theories of generational
progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte
viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the
thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in
shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the
unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the
aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social
cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that
"History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of
Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle
phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences
appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals
comes to dominate society.^9
These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical
verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years
of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop
the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed
the principle that generations are articulated through historical
events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained.
Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a
fourfold classification of generations as preparatory,
revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10
Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11
Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that
generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific
study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and
heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation
century.^13
After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the
succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of
social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between
contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who
are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his
student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked
on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and
Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm
Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri
Peyre (1948).^16
More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused
on problems of intergenerational differences and the political
socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes
or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund
Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study
of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their
study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963)
focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966)
studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957)
utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in
Israel and the United States, respectively.^20
All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a
comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of
their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and
those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving
many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the
studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two
parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the
people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact,
both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined
that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The
linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive
theory.
None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a
generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black
box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods.
Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of
three generations.
Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining
way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an
empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is
somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin.
Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature,
art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of
eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular
basis.
Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to
embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under
the heading of "a generation".
Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History
A number of theories of political cycles in American history have
been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of
American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational
thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a
series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based
on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective
governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect
"concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of
property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the
wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid
movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories
include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter
Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical
theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the
"more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments"
using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process.
Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the
interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United
States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical
periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23
Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the
manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work.
Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in
presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the
House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual
party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in
American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of
an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American
history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in
length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes
that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device
since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable
directions.
Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his
emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by
using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of
voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state
vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates
five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s)
and the present.
Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the
level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five
periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of
stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of
approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing
already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an
established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in
turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis
to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment
occurs in every generation.
While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with
American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he
begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three
of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive
happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning
point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that
Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a
generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts
as follows:
1787-1801-1816
1816-1829-1841
1841-1861-1869
1869-1901-1918
1918-1931-?
The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the
beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them
primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles
rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have
been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational
patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the
following pattern:
1790-1796/1800
1800-1824/1828
1828-1824/1860
1860-1888/1896
1896-1932
His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to
that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their
significance in the periodization process.
Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although
even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if
it is schematized as follows:
1789-1820
1828
1856-1860
1893/1894
1932
Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized
as follows:
1896-1912
1912-1920-1932-1952
1952
Pomper also offers election dates and no more:
1836
1864-1876
1876-1892/1896
1928/1932-1952
1952-1964
None of these are complete theories and all must be considered
within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit.
Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough
approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the
commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United
States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The
revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of
generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson
Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods
of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named:
e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era.
In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers
developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the
federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could
not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however,
the American people were treated to a display of federal activity --
and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by
FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the
mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth
of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the
mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper
understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United
States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow
of time and events.)
The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its
own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human
time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible
pattern in the progression of political events in the United States
over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not
happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events
in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in
cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the
biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human
life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is
substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though
the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this
phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26
The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind
another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit
decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every
government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on
the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on
the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of
attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be
supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that
being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons
who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive
generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a
fixed moment, as individuals do now....
What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the
same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a
constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A
generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case,
would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to
contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for
14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily
deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of
their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at
that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated
from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of
climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors.
Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that
23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a
society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the
ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as
follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all
ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half
will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every
year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly
have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half
of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time
will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest
integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the
representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself
assembled, can validly extend a debt.
On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a
perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every
constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of
34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not
of right.
The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that
would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to
his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French
Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the
sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making
on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every
nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme,
Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one
which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one
way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure
of location in time.
Human Social Rhythms
As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural
measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a
common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the
"lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does
appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account
for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely
and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation
in any particular civil society and chart the relations among
generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical
patterns of its politics.
During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years,
averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people
will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then
pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every
individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in
which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited.
Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she
begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime
between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at
which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life"
ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and
political roles as are given to mature men and women in society.
Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a
person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention,
if not physically, considered ready for retirement.
Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an
individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first
fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially
powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote,
and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After
attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period
of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be
translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among
those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s
before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on
the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become
serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are
able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the
scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be
defined as the ending of one's serious political career without
suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's
30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential
influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise
influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political
leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds
forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship.
The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle
of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young
people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters
actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people
in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then
declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to
"retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28
In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each
individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society
is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a
common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any
particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its
history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical
record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and
the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at
the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In
the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed
leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in
power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age
and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a
result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly
established.
Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults
settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and
in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational
progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and
purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began
more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed
from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the
door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to
begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of
the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their
patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby
allowing a new generation to assume the reins.
Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they
establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in
social and political life than that found in the simple processes of
human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were
equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the
biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by
locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace
the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of
organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings
are recorded in history, we can do just that.
Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the
progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins
of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is
shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the
impact of the change and encourages new political action to
assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new
generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at
the most four generations are alive at any given time creates
certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of
grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of
inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact
help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In
this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is
socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and
politically unmanageable.
Generations, Centuries and Events
Since the founding of the first European settlements along the
Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations
of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series
of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the
twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three
generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain
distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense
recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th
century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of
American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in
which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century
stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th
century is the century of the United States as a world power.
Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as
chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European
history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have
begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing
point, thus:
a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603)
and the 17th century began with the opening of the American
frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between
the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of
the times.
b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty
of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which
eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the
Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration
for both countries.
c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the
War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era
of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff).
d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the
inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak
of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land
frontier.
Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments
that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show
every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then
dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are
immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the
nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged
during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation
under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a
century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn,
the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments
having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic
society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated
American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments
disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently
in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments
that will replace them.
The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth
generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the
past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators
have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just
when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of
generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was
ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal
intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of
the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of
alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the
generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life
so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began
after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided
over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the
renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence.
The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be
delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression
will be related to major forces and factors shaping American
history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the
principal challenges facing the American people in each generation
and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing
forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of
critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization
in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial,
ethnic and religious groups.
One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate.
Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with
such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for
analytical purposes than life ever is.
The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the
period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old
World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany,
but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually
every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original
thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native
Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies,
and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate
nation with its own civilization.
The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century,
which, from the first American recognition of common continental
interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for
Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent
American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism,
successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and
established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The
idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the
political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans.
The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations,
beginning at the point where America turned its back on European
entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced
them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an
industrialized continental nation with a strong national government;
abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world
power ready for overseas involvements.
The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century --
reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the
arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with
the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding
over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the
results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the
industrial revolution.
As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with
the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the
United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished
relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first
generation of the transformation of society as a result of the
application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new
frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse
of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically
dominant although economically weakened. The results of these
phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder
of the generation.
Generations and Frontier Stages
The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are
products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In
American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if
not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and
centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American
frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other
historical and political phenomena.
Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has
been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of
human control over the natural environment and the utilization of
the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control,
i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American
society is a product of this commitment which is virtually
self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one
frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier
situation that has created the major social and economic changes
which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's
political institutions.
America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages
to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the
metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic
frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled
with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been
decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American
life within that stage.
The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the
historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted
from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the
end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on
the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American
continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the
products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the
westward movement on a basically rural population interested in
settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a
socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits
in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was
dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an
active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and
still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in
Alaska.
Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth
the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and
spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation
into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the
spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's
economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented
the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States,
where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater
part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it
first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the
beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands
of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally
superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth
generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the
end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various
localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant
characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities
from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into
independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and
social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their
existence and growth.
By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth,
in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is
characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society
through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that
encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large
metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from
atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the
accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further
changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with
their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered
a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like
the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological
frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on
a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation.
After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly
and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and
pace of development across the country.
The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by
the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to
be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The
late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash
from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism
challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s,
ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution,
and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth
premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of
resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were
saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over.
By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was
emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the
metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers,
satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new
data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large
belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated
by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not
connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and
small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single
metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different
purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern
coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found
in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its
early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges,
initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its
renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of
financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American
economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of
Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West.
Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues
of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new
frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement
patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its
own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns
and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands
themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between
the points of generational division and the shifts in the various
frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater
detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as
part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are
closely related to the opening of new centuries.
Generations and Economic Periods
One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a
continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to
meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a
result, the governments of the United States have always maintained
a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in
the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to
era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the
governmental response. These changes have also developed on a
generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the
founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic
policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth
generation of American history) the American government continued a
semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the
nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government
involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during
which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in
which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the
outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful
competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a
generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially
unregulated by government.
Demands for government regulation that built up during the last
generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of
intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first
generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the
eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active
government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system.
Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around
toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less
government intervention.
Centuries, Generations and Federalism
The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can
also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first
generation of American history brought the introduction of federal
principles through the contracts and covenants that established the
colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through
Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the
seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a
local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of
national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose
strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly,
concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in
the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and
crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and
then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century.
The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has
been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society.
Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal
with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques
have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These
new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed
have been major elements in the concrete response to the
generation's challenges.
Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship
The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and
their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the
challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of
American history and politics. The changes in those relationships
also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries.
British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious
pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through
giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular
territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as
indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In
the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized
in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian
differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery.
Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism
was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones
existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste
system was in the making.
During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and
sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the
original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the
virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation.
Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new
lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was
abolished in the North.
The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial
establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was
almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant
immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new
post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through
the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration
reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to
reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was
reaffirmed through the institution of segregation.
From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open
pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The
barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants
began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those
barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by
the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape
up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the
twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but
those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of
American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say,
to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American
culture.
While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been
presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the
generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted
descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some
cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary
period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational
responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New
Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political
dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the
Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era.
The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses
Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular
challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its
own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and
the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In
some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could
act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In
others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the challenges changes from century to century.
During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the
tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various
colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related
to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence
of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially
related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American
national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been
essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society
and the assumption of an American role in world affairs.
The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the
initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which,
objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively
recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing
recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors
such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in
voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with
mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to
public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters
does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet
existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular
progression of political events revolving around the development of
a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its
response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and
responses that gives each generation its particular character. While
the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external --
or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is
primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation
themselves.
In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has
taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each
colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its
sisters, and the other science independence when a common national
constitution created a common national politics. In some cases,
particularly after independence when the nation could act
decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other,
particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the political challenges that have dominated the
American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a
new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating
the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the
19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope,
wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the
20th century, they have essentially related to the
metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an
American role in world affairs.
In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within
each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and
new generations is marked by several decisive political actions,
often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature
is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old
generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and
opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a
time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues
they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political
action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population
change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political
activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur
the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the
direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders
to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the
generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many
quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of
governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to
the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five
years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with
digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so
that they will achieve greater success and at the same time
integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The
end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify
and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the
issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for
political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be
recognized.
The Bench Marks of American Political History:
Critical Elections and New Deals
In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a
particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a
system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can
also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political
history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune
with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds;
first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a
particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of
intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government
initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each
generation.
The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections
A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the
sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period
of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The
generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this
pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which
brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs
of voters, shifting them from one political party to another.
Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a
"critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of
electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound
readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the
community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are
formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result
of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide
electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency
from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one
major element to another.
Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that
there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the
allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively
long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public
opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the
1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with
a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In
consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats
have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters
identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority
party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order
to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and
representatives to win control of Congress.
The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968,
only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled
the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a
military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the
"normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his
party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in
1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after
twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the
Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the
Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems,
won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular
Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a
Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his
victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition
and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a
period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White
House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the
Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the
GOP controlled the Senate.
A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a
nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent
and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on
a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical
loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations,
personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of
the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are
nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders
(or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate
state parties which form the two national confederations known as
the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties
are confederations of the state parties, so is the national
coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional
coalitions.
Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and
thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the
electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to
remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead
to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution,
too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems
attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the
dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary
inroads in the various electoral groups.
Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces
opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in
public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in
the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party
that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means
certain that the majority party will even win all the national
elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and
usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a
limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its
losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The
states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as
bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend
its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority
coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for
national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards
for the party faithful during the years of national "famine."
As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent
electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their
changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with
each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find
the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass
and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in
importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed
and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the
realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment
of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a
reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad
electoral groups.^33
While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state
and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon
only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election.
Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make
embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become
fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional
elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional
election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical
elections."^34
The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the
development of the institution of the popularly elected president.
Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of
electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize
presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited
apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and
the House of Representatives.
Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part
of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the
use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on
the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The
generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem.
It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not
so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a
disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as
did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current
during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the
end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that
they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant
percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and
alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues
lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote
as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children
came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the
majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational
buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the
guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file"
alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of
each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the
ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from
balance to majority.
"New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity
The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of
innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind
usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin
Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as
the historical watersheds they are.
In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S.
Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform
activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for
their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian
Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over
a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that
enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way
the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems
of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his
Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind
because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the
moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was
cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic
U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly
the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use
the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came
Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for
all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B.
Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as
it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s.
The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted
approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of
governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of
the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for
another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon
to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational
consolidation.
The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years
between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in
Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of
extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President
Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to
resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial
presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its
power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic
problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led
the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill
the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the
hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states
and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington
before undertaking any activities.
The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an
"outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community
marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth
in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by
many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation,
usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time.
President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's
international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to
shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of
infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the
Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and
localities. These were all to become principal issues during the
period of generational build-up.
The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to
the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the
American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the
tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that
followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By
the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on
behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were
referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues
of the new generation.
Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been
invariably preceded by critical elections through which the
reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to
generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die --
determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either
by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting
them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as
unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to
majority status. These critical elections, which attain their
visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and
interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which
face them.
Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the
party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series
of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the
Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the
1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had
become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the
Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans.
Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the
majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times
and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats
picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in
1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party
coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen
it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The
old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent
severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted
and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the
Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the
programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing
period for the Democratic coalition.
To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in
American politics is not to suggest that events move in any
lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same
as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the
"normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence
we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them
for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too
can be done that gives the theory its power.
Summary
Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of
American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical
understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more
interest to European social philosophers than American social
scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the
question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics,
often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their
theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation
rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to
understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human
social rhythms generally.
Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their
internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries
represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them.
The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation,
constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to
them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical
elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political
history recurring on a generational basis.
Notes
1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by
Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970);
Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational
Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979).
2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the
Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973).
3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5
(Garden City: Doubleday, 1987).
4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday,
1987).
5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a
generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse
11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers,
chapter 32, verse 13.
7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11;
chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte
(London: G. Bell, 1896).
9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive
(London, 1862).
10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani
(Milano: Monanni, 1929).
11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen,
der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4.
(1875), pp. 36-41.
12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on
Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds.,
Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline
(Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in
History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane,
Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp.,
1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1990).
13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method.
14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933).
15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti,
ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and
Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales
(Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in
der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F.
Schoeningh, 1933).
16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der
Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926);
Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and
Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig,
1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris:
Boivin, 1948).
17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the
Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger,
1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4
(1972): 564-78.
18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the
Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956).
19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin,
American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970).
20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and
Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield,
Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970).
21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939).
22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago:
Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the
Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key,
Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961);
Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968);
Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1989).
23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party
System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210.
24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of
Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the
years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of
American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur
Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co.
1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to
conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the
article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using
liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the
generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written
as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something
which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best
reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government
from the Civil War to the New Deal.
25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first
presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American
Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no.
1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns
Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also
Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University
Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992).
26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789.
27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years
old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve
in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President.
28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and
Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman
H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and
the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary
M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney
Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American
Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for
the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris
Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in
America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W.
Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get
Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb
and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda
Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber,
Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership
(Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey,
Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.:
Brooks/Cole, 1989).
29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with
special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in
The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York:
Macmillan, 1961).
30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965):
Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the
Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989).
31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18.
32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections
in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability,"
Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171.
33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate
(Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James
L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and
Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical
Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York:
Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?"
in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party
Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American
Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press
of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed.,
Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and
Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise
Institute, 1983).
34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American
Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party
System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony;
David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization,
Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter,
Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American
Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of
Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985).
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Titre du document / Document title
Rhythms of the secular : The politics of modernizing Arab poetic
forms = Rythmes du séculaire : la politique de modernisation des formes
poétiques arabes
Auteur(s) / Author(s)
FURANI Khaled^ (1) ;
Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s)
^(1) Tel-Aviv University, ISRAEL
Résumé / Abstract
In this article, I ethnographically trace how Arab, mainly Palestinian,
poets have modernized their literary tradition during the last seven
decades. Shortly after the 1948 Israeli occupation of Palestine, the
reign of the classical Arabic ode collapsed, and the modern forms of
free verse and, later, the prose poem became dominant. Aiming to
contribute to the ethnography of modernity, I examine how poets have
adopted and abandoned poetic forms by analyzing their narratives on
rhythm. I explore the political salience of rhythmical transformations
and argue that the secular has been a vital and complex force in the
modern abandonment of metrical discipline. The secular affects how
poets seek to modernize their rhythm, vocabulary, and relation to
public. It also affects, I conclude, the ways in which anthropologists
can and do write about modernity.
Revue / Journal Title
American ethnologist ISSN 0094-0496
Source / Source
2008, vol. 35, n^o2, pp. 290-307 [18 page(s) (article)] (2 p.1/4)
Langue / Language
Anglais
Editeur / Publisher
American Ethnological Society, Washington, DC, ETATS-UNIS (1974)
(Revue)
Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords
Rhythm ; Transformation ; Modernization ; Poet ; Modernity ; Poetry ;
Israel ; Palestine ; Near East ;
Mots-clés français / French Keywords
Forme poétique ; Tradition littéraire ; Arabe palestinien ; Rythme ;
Transformation ; Modernisation ; Poète ; Modernité ; Poésie ; Israël ;
Palestine ; Proche-Orient ;
Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords
poetic form ; modernity and secularism ; Palestine-Israel ;
Localisation / Location
INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 16902, 35400019805879.0070
Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 20449527
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Title: The Rhythm of Political Oratory
Author: [14]Varvara Danilina
Email: [15]click here to access email
Degree Awarded: Moscow State University , Department of Foreigh
Languages
Degree Date: 2002
Linguistic Subfield(s): Discourse Analysis
Sociolinguistics
Subject Language(s): [16]English
Director(s): [17]Ludmila Minaeva
___________________________________
Abstract:
My doctoral dissertation was completed after four years of research on
the rhythm of British and American political oratory. I sought to
establish the rhythmic norm for political public speech and to find
out, whether any deviations from this norm (i.e. from an expected
rhythmic model) influence listeners and provoke their verbal reactions
or bursts of applause. To accomplish this task I used a variety of
linguistic and rhetorical methods, and drew upon social psychology and
political science.
There is no single linguistic perspective on speech rhythm. For
instance, such distinguished scholars as D. Crystal and D. Abercrombie
regard it as a purely phonetic phenomenon. At the same time, according
to Moscow University school of thought, to which I belong, speech
rhythm is created by a blend of phonetics, syntax and meaning of an
utterance. As a result of my research, I established rhythmic
regularities for political oratory at five levels.
Firstly, I analyzed pauses that divide the stream of speech into
segments (syntagmas), and classified all the pauses into syntactic,
rhetorical or unintentional (unintentional pauses are caused by
hesitation, deliberation, stammering, interruptions by listeners, etc).
Secondly, I established the relative frequency of short, medium and
long syntagmas between pauses, and thirdly, analyzed the rhythmic
structures constituted by linear sequences of syntagmas. Fourthly, I
studied the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables inside
syntagmas. And finally, I considered all kinds of repetitions, both
rhetorical and unintentional. This method of rhythmic analysis is based
on earlier analytical models designed by my university colleagues. My
own contribution consisted in adapting this method to the study of
public speech, describing the typical rhythm of political oratory, and
challenging some popular assumptions about speech rhythm.
As for the impact of speech rhythm upon listeners, I started by
analyzing audiences in order to understand psychological, social and
political conditions of that process. G. Le Bon, Z. Freud and other
scholars demonstrated conclusively that members of a crowd (and the
audience of a public speech is a crowd) are connected with each other
and with their leader (in our case, a speaker) by strong subconscious
ties. However, the degree of unity or polarization of an audience may
differ. Besides, each audience can be characterized according to
several other criteria that determine listeners' responsiveness and the
nature of their responses: their emotional state, the level of
expertise in a particular subject, the demographic and social
characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, social status, occupation,
education), the existing evaluation of discussed issues, which is
largely determined by listeners' ideologies, and finally, the attitude
to the speaker, which can be positive, negative or indifferent. I have
applied this model of audience analysis to determine peculiarities of
the British parliamentary audience in October 1996, and of the US
Congress in the aftermath of September 11, 2001.
To analyze the reactions of these audiences to the rhythm of Prime
Minister Major and President Bush's parliamentary addresses I used M.
Atkinson's version of the conversation analysis method. I showed the
two speeches as dialogues between the speakers and their listeners, and
singled out phrases and syntagmas that immediately preceded audience
responses, such as cheering, booing, laughter or bursts of applause.
These phrases and syntagmas happened to be quite similar in terms of
rhythm to other stretches of speech in the same addresses. Moreover,
there proved to be little rhythmic difference between John Major and
George Bush's speeches. In short, my research demonstrated that there
is no direct interconnection between the rhythm of a public address and
audience responses.
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[1]Daniel Elazar Papers Index [2][USEMAP:nav-back.gif]
American Political Culture
The Generational Rhythm of American Politics
The American Mosaic, Chapter 2
Daniel J. Elazar
It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States
combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount
of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no
less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space.
Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location
within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less
pinpointed.
This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is
structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of
generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to
the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast
developments with great success. At the same time he has applied
that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that
very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs.
Early Studies of Generational Rhythms
Students of society have noted the succession of generations since
ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology
on generational measures.
The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear
time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning
of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs.
It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the
individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the
starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon
and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon
operating in history.^2
Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational
basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first
recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the
system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third
and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the
Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average
generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full
generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical
scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression,
"forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5
Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The
"generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity
of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a
common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a
time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces
time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new
judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation
and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7
Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have
beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the
founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central
interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of
its beginnings and its ancestry.
Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were
the first to articulate systematic theories of generational
progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte
viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the
thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in
shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the
unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the
aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social
cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that
"History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of
Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle
phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences
appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals
comes to dominate society.^9
These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical
verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years
of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop
the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed
the principle that generations are articulated through historical
events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained.
Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a
fourfold classification of generations as preparatory,
revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10
Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11
Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that
generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific
study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and
heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation
century.^13
After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the
succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of
social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between
contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who
are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his
student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked
on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and
Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm
Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri
Peyre (1948).^16
More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused
on problems of intergenerational differences and the political
socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes
or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund
Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study
of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their
study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963)
focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966)
studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957)
utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in
Israel and the United States, respectively.^20
All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a
comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of
their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and
those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving
many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the
studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two
parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the
people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact,
both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined
that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The
linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive
theory.
None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a
generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black
box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods.
Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of
three generations.
Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining
way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an
empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is
somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin.
Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature,
art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of
eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular
basis.
Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to
embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under
the heading of "a generation".
Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History
A number of theories of political cycles in American history have
been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of
American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational
thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a
series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based
on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective
governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect
"concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of
property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the
wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid
movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories
include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter
Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical
theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the
"more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments"
using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process.
Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the
interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United
States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical
periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23
Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the
manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work.
Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in
presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the
House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual
party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in
American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of
an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American
history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in
length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes
that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device
since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable
directions.
Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his
emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by
using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of
voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state
vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates
five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s)
and the present.
Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the
level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five
periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of
stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of
approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing
already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an
established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in
turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis
to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment
occurs in every generation.
While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with
American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he
begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three
of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive
happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning
point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that
Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a
generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts
as follows:
1787-1801-1816
1816-1829-1841
1841-1861-1869
1869-1901-1918
1918-1931-?
The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the
beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them
primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles
rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have
been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational
patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the
following pattern:
1790-1796/1800
1800-1824/1828
1828-1824/1860
1860-1888/1896
1896-1932
His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to
that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their
significance in the periodization process.
Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although
even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if
it is schematized as follows:
1789-1820
1828
1856-1860
1893/1894
1932
Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized
as follows:
1896-1912
1912-1920-1932-1952
1952
Pomper also offers election dates and no more:
1836
1864-1876
1876-1892/1896
1928/1932-1952
1952-1964
None of these are complete theories and all must be considered
within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit.
Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough
approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the
commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United
States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The
revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of
generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson
Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods
of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named:
e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era.
In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers
developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the
federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could
not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however,
the American people were treated to a display of federal activity --
and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by
FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the
mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth
of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the
mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper
understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United
States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow
of time and events.)
The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its
own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human
time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible
pattern in the progression of political events in the United States
over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not
happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events
in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in
cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the
biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human
life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is
substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though
the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this
phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26
The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind
another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit
decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every
government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on
the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on
the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of
attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be
supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that
being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons
who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive
generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a
fixed moment, as individuals do now....
What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the
same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a
constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A
generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case,
would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to
contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for
14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily
deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of
their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at
that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated
from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of
climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors.
Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that
23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a
society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the
ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as
follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all
ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half
will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every
year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly
have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half
of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time
will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest
integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the
representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself
assembled, can validly extend a debt.
On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a
perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every
constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of
34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not
of right.
The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that
would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to
his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French
Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the
sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making
on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every
nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme,
Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one
which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one
way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure
of location in time.
Human Social Rhythms
As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural
measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a
common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the
"lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does
appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account
for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely
and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation
in any particular civil society and chart the relations among
generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical
patterns of its politics.
During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years,
averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people
will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then
pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every
individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in
which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited.
Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she
begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime
between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at
which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life"
ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and
political roles as are given to mature men and women in society.
Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a
person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention,
if not physically, considered ready for retirement.
Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an
individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first
fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially
powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote,
and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After
attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period
of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be
translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among
those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s
before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on
the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become
serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are
able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the
scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be
defined as the ending of one's serious political career without
suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's
30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential
influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise
influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political
leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds
forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship.
The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle
of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young
people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters
actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people
in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then
declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to
"retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28
In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each
individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society
is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a
common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any
particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its
history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical
record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and
the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at
the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In
the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed
leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in
power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age
and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a
result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly
established.
Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults
settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and
in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational
progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and
purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began
more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed
from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the
door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to
begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of
the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their
patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby
allowing a new generation to assume the reins.
Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they
establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in
social and political life than that found in the simple processes of
human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were
equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the
biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by
locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace
the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of
organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings
are recorded in history, we can do just that.
Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the
progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins
of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is
shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the
impact of the change and encourages new political action to
assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new
generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at
the most four generations are alive at any given time creates
certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of
grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of
inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact
help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In
this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is
socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and
politically unmanageable.
Generations, Centuries and Events
Since the founding of the first European settlements along the
Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations
of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series
of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the
twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three
generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain
distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense
recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th
century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of
American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in
which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century
stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th
century is the century of the United States as a world power.
Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as
chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European
history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have
begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing
point, thus:
a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603)
and the 17th century began with the opening of the American
frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between
the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of
the times.
b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty
of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which
eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the
Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration
for both countries.
c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the
War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era
of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff).
d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the
inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak
of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land
frontier.
Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments
that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show
every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then
dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are
immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the
nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged
during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation
under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a
century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn,
the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments
having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic
society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated
American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments
disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently
in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments
that will replace them.
The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth
generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the
past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators
have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just
when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of
generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was
ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal
intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of
the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of
alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the
generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life
so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began
after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided
over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the
renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence.
The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be
delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression
will be related to major forces and factors shaping American
history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the
principal challenges facing the American people in each generation
and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing
forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of
critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization
in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial,
ethnic and religious groups.
One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate.
Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with
such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for
analytical purposes than life ever is.
The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the
period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old
World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany,
but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually
every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original
thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native
Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies,
and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate
nation with its own civilization.
The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century,
which, from the first American recognition of common continental
interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for
Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent
American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism,
successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and
established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The
idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the
political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans.
The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations,
beginning at the point where America turned its back on European
entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced
them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an
industrialized continental nation with a strong national government;
abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world
power ready for overseas involvements.
The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century --
reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the
arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with
the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding
over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the
results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the
industrial revolution.
As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with
the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the
United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished
relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first
generation of the transformation of society as a result of the
application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new
frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse
of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically
dominant although economically weakened. The results of these
phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder
of the generation.
Generations and Frontier Stages
The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are
products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In
American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if
not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and
centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American
frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other
historical and political phenomena.
Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has
been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of
human control over the natural environment and the utilization of
the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control,
i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American
society is a product of this commitment which is virtually
self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one
frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier
situation that has created the major social and economic changes
which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's
political institutions.
America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages
to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the
metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic
frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled
with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been
decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American
life within that stage.
The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the
historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted
from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the
end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on
the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American
continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the
products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the
westward movement on a basically rural population interested in
settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a
socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits
in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was
dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an
active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and
still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in
Alaska.
Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth
the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and
spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation
into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the
spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's
economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented
the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States,
where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater
part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it
first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the
beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands
of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally
superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth
generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the
end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various
localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant
characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities
from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into
independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and
social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their
existence and growth.
By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth,
in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is
characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society
through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that
encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large
metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from
atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the
accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further
changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with
their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered
a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like
the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological
frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on
a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation.
After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly
and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and
pace of development across the country.
The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by
the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to
be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The
late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash
from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism
challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s,
ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution,
and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth
premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of
resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were
saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over.
By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was
emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the
metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers,
satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new
data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large
belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated
by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not
connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and
small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single
metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different
purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern
coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found
in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its
early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges,
initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its
renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of
financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American
economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of
Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West.
Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues
of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new
frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement
patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its
own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns
and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands
themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between
the points of generational division and the shifts in the various
frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater
detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as
part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are
closely related to the opening of new centuries.
Generations and Economic Periods
One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a
continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to
meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a
result, the governments of the United States have always maintained
a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in
the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to
era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the
governmental response. These changes have also developed on a
generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the
founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic
policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth
generation of American history) the American government continued a
semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the
nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government
involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during
which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in
which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the
outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful
competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a
generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially
unregulated by government.
Demands for government regulation that built up during the last
generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of
intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first
generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the
eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active
government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system.
Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around
toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less
government intervention.
Centuries, Generations and Federalism
The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can
also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first
generation of American history brought the introduction of federal
principles through the contracts and covenants that established the
colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through
Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the
seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a
local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of
national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose
strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly,
concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in
the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and
crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and
then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century.
The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has
been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society.
Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal
with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques
have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These
new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed
have been major elements in the concrete response to the
generation's challenges.
Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship
The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and
their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the
challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of
American history and politics. The changes in those relationships
also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries.
British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious
pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through
giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular
territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as
indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In
the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized
in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian
differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery.
Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism
was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones
existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste
system was in the making.
During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and
sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the
original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the
virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation.
Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new
lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was
abolished in the North.
The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial
establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was
almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant
immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new
post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through
the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration
reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to
reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was
reaffirmed through the institution of segregation.
From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open
pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The
barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants
began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those
barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by
the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape
up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the
twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but
those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of
American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say,
to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American
culture.
While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been
presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the
generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted
descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some
cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary
period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational
responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New
Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political
dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the
Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era.
The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses
Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular
challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its
own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and
the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In
some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could
act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In
others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the challenges changes from century to century.
During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the
tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various
colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related
to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence
of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially
related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American
national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been
essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society
and the assumption of an American role in world affairs.
The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the
initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which,
objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively
recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing
recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors
such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in
voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with
mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to
public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters
does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet
existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular
progression of political events revolving around the development of
a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its
response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and
responses that gives each generation its particular character. While
the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external --
or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is
primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation
themselves.
In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has
taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each
colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its
sisters, and the other science independence when a common national
constitution created a common national politics. In some cases,
particularly after independence when the nation could act
decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other,
particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the political challenges that have dominated the
American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a
new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating
the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the
19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope,
wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the
20th century, they have essentially related to the
metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an
American role in world affairs.
In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within
each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and
new generations is marked by several decisive political actions,
often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature
is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old
generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and
opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a
time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues
they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political
action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population
change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political
activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur
the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the
direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders
to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the
generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many
quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of
governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to
the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five
years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with
digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so
that they will achieve greater success and at the same time
integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The
end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify
and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the
issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for
political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be
recognized.
The Bench Marks of American Political History:
Critical Elections and New Deals
In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a
particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a
system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can
also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political
history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune
with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds;
first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a
particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of
intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government
initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each
generation.
The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections
A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the
sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period
of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The
generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this
pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which
brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs
of voters, shifting them from one political party to another.
Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a
"critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of
electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound
readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the
community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are
formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result
of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide
electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency
from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one
major element to another.
Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that
there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the
allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively
long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public
opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the
1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with
a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In
consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats
have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters
identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority
party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order
to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and
representatives to win control of Congress.
The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968,
only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled
the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a
military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the
"normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his
party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in
1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after
twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the
Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the
Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems,
won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular
Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a
Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his
victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition
and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a
period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White
House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the
Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the
GOP controlled the Senate.
A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a
nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent
and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on
a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical
loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations,
personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of
the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are
nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders
(or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate
state parties which form the two national confederations known as
the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties
are confederations of the state parties, so is the national
coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional
coalitions.
Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and
thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the
electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to
remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead
to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution,
too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems
attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the
dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary
inroads in the various electoral groups.
Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces
opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in
public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in
the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party
that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means
certain that the majority party will even win all the national
elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and
usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a
limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its
losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The
states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as
bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend
its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority
coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for
national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards
for the party faithful during the years of national "famine."
As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent
electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their
changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with
each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find
the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass
and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in
importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed
and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the
realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment
of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a
reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad
electoral groups.^33
While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state
and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon
only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election.
Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make
embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become
fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional
elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional
election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical
elections."^34
The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the
development of the institution of the popularly elected president.
Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of
electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize
presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited
apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and
the House of Representatives.
Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part
of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the
use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on
the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The
generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem.
It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not
so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a
disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as
did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current
during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the
end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that
they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant
percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and
alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues
lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote
as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children
came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the
majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational
buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the
guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file"
alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of
each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the
ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from
balance to majority.
"New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity
The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of
innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind
usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin
Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as
the historical watersheds they are.
In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S.
Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform
activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for
their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian
Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over
a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that
enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way
the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems
of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his
Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind
because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the
moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was
cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic
U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly
the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use
the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came
Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for
all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B.
Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as
it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s.
The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted
approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of
governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of
the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for
another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon
to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational
consolidation.
The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years
between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in
Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of
extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President
Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to
resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial
presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its
power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic
problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led
the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill
the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the
hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states
and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington
before undertaking any activities.
The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an
"outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community
marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth
in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by
many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation,
usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time.
President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's
international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to
shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of
infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the
Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and
localities. These were all to become principal issues during the
period of generational build-up.
The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to
the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the
American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the
tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that
followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By
the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on
behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were
referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues
of the new generation.
Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been
invariably preceded by critical elections through which the
reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to
generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die --
determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either
by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting
them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as
unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to
majority status. These critical elections, which attain their
visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and
interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which
face them.
Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the
party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series
of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the
Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the
1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had
become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the
Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans.
Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the
majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times
and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats
picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in
1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party
coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen
it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The
old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent
severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted
and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the
Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the
programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing
period for the Democratic coalition.
To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in
American politics is not to suggest that events move in any
lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same
as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the
"normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence
we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them
for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too
can be done that gives the theory its power.
Summary
Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of
American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical
understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more
interest to European social philosophers than American social
scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the
question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics,
often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their
theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation
rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to
understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human
social rhythms generally.
Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their
internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries
represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them.
The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation,
constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to
them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical
elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political
history recurring on a generational basis.
Notes
1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by
Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970);
Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational
Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979).
2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the
Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973).
3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5
(Garden City: Doubleday, 1987).
4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday,
1987).
5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a
generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse
11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers,
chapter 32, verse 13.
7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11;
chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte
(London: G. Bell, 1896).
9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive
(London, 1862).
10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani
(Milano: Monanni, 1929).
11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen,
der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4.
(1875), pp. 36-41.
12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on
Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds.,
Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline
(Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in
History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane,
Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp.,
1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1990).
13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method.
14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933).
15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti,
ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and
Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales
(Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in
der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F.
Schoeningh, 1933).
16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der
Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926);
Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and
Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig,
1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris:
Boivin, 1948).
17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the
Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger,
1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4
(1972): 564-78.
18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the
Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956).
19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin,
American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970).
20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and
Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield,
Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970).
21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939).
22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago:
Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the
Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key,
Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961);
Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968);
Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1989).
23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party
System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210.
24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of
Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the
years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of
American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur
Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co.
1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to
conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the
article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using
liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the
generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written
as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something
which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best
reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government
from the Civil War to the New Deal.
25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first
presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American
Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no.
1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns
Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also
Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University
Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992).
26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789.
27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years
old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve
in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President.
28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and
Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman
H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and
the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary
M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney
Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American
Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for
the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris
Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in
America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W.
Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get
Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb
and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda
Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber,
Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership
(Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey,
Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.:
Brooks/Cole, 1989).
29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with
special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in
The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York:
Macmillan, 1961).
30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965):
Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the
Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989).
31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18.
32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections
in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability,"
Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171.
33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate
(Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James
L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and
Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical
Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York:
Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?"
in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party
Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American
Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press
of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed.,
Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and
Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise
Institute, 1983).
34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American
Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party
System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony;
David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization,
Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter,
Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American
Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of
Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985).
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Titre du document / Document title
Rhythms of the secular : The politics of modernizing Arab poetic
forms = Rythmes du séculaire : la politique de modernisation des formes
poétiques arabes
Auteur(s) / Author(s)
FURANI Khaled^ (1) ;
Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s)
^(1) Tel-Aviv University, ISRAEL
Résumé / Abstract
In this article, I ethnographically trace how Arab, mainly Palestinian,
poets have modernized their literary tradition during the last seven
decades. Shortly after the 1948 Israeli occupation of Palestine, the
reign of the classical Arabic ode collapsed, and the modern forms of
free verse and, later, the prose poem became dominant. Aiming to
contribute to the ethnography of modernity, I examine how poets have
adopted and abandoned poetic forms by analyzing their narratives on
rhythm. I explore the political salience of rhythmical transformations
and argue that the secular has been a vital and complex force in the
modern abandonment of metrical discipline. The secular affects how
poets seek to modernize their rhythm, vocabulary, and relation to
public. It also affects, I conclude, the ways in which anthropologists
can and do write about modernity.
Revue / Journal Title
American ethnologist ISSN 0094-0496
Source / Source
2008, vol. 35, n^o2, pp. 290-307 [18 page(s) (article)] (2 p.1/4)
Langue / Language
Anglais
Editeur / Publisher
American Ethnological Society, Washington, DC, ETATS-UNIS (1974)
(Revue)
Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords
Rhythm ; Transformation ; Modernization ; Poet ; Modernity ; Poetry ;
Israel ; Palestine ; Near East ;
Mots-clés français / French Keywords
Forme poétique ; Tradition littéraire ; Arabe palestinien ; Rythme ;
Transformation ; Modernisation ; Poète ; Modernité ; Poésie ; Israël ;
Palestine ; Proche-Orient ;
Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords
poetic form ; modernity and secularism ; Palestine-Israel ;
Localisation / Location
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Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 20449527
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Title: The Rhythm of Political Oratory
Author: [14]Varvara Danilina
Email: [15]click here to access email
Degree Awarded: Moscow State University , Department of Foreigh
Languages
Degree Date: 2002
Linguistic Subfield(s): Discourse Analysis
Sociolinguistics
Subject Language(s): [16]English
Director(s): [17]Ludmila Minaeva
___________________________________
Abstract:
My doctoral dissertation was completed after four years of research on
the rhythm of British and American political oratory. I sought to
establish the rhythmic norm for political public speech and to find
out, whether any deviations from this norm (i.e. from an expected
rhythmic model) influence listeners and provoke their verbal reactions
or bursts of applause. To accomplish this task I used a variety of
linguistic and rhetorical methods, and drew upon social psychology and
political science.
There is no single linguistic perspective on speech rhythm. For
instance, such distinguished scholars as D. Crystal and D. Abercrombie
regard it as a purely phonetic phenomenon. At the same time, according
to Moscow University school of thought, to which I belong, speech
rhythm is created by a blend of phonetics, syntax and meaning of an
utterance. As a result of my research, I established rhythmic
regularities for political oratory at five levels.
Firstly, I analyzed pauses that divide the stream of speech into
segments (syntagmas), and classified all the pauses into syntactic,
rhetorical or unintentional (unintentional pauses are caused by
hesitation, deliberation, stammering, interruptions by listeners, etc).
Secondly, I established the relative frequency of short, medium and
long syntagmas between pauses, and thirdly, analyzed the rhythmic
structures constituted by linear sequences of syntagmas. Fourthly, I
studied the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables inside
syntagmas. And finally, I considered all kinds of repetitions, both
rhetorical and unintentional. This method of rhythmic analysis is based
on earlier analytical models designed by my university colleagues. My
own contribution consisted in adapting this method to the study of
public speech, describing the typical rhythm of political oratory, and
challenging some popular assumptions about speech rhythm.
As for the impact of speech rhythm upon listeners, I started by
analyzing audiences in order to understand psychological, social and
political conditions of that process. G. Le Bon, Z. Freud and other
scholars demonstrated conclusively that members of a crowd (and the
audience of a public speech is a crowd) are connected with each other
and with their leader (in our case, a speaker) by strong subconscious
ties. However, the degree of unity or polarization of an audience may
differ. Besides, each audience can be characterized according to
several other criteria that determine listeners' responsiveness and the
nature of their responses: their emotional state, the level of
expertise in a particular subject, the demographic and social
characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, social status, occupation,
education), the existing evaluation of discussed issues, which is
largely determined by listeners' ideologies, and finally, the attitude
to the speaker, which can be positive, negative or indifferent. I have
applied this model of audience analysis to determine peculiarities of
the British parliamentary audience in October 1996, and of the US
Congress in the aftermath of September 11, 2001.
To analyze the reactions of these audiences to the rhythm of Prime
Minister Major and President Bush's parliamentary addresses I used M.
Atkinson's version of the conversation analysis method. I showed the
two speeches as dialogues between the speakers and their listeners, and
singled out phrases and syntagmas that immediately preceded audience
responses, such as cheering, booing, laughter or bursts of applause.
These phrases and syntagmas happened to be quite similar in terms of
rhythm to other stretches of speech in the same addresses. Moreover,
there proved to be little rhythmic difference between John Major and
George Bush's speeches. In short, my research demonstrated that there
is no direct interconnection between the rhythm of a public address and
audience responses.
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[11]reliable sources. Unsourced material may be [12]challenged and
[13]removed. (September 2008)
Afrobeat is a combination of [14]Yoruba music, [15]jazz, [16]highlife,
and [17]funk [18]rhythms, fused with [19]percussion and [20]vocal
styles, popularized in [21]Africa in the 1970s. Its main creator was
the [22]Nigerian multi-[23]instrumentalist and [24]bandleader [25]Fela
Kuti who used it to revolutionise musical structure as well as the
political context in his native Nigeria. It was Kuti who coined the
term "afrobeat" upon his return from a U.S. tour with his group Nigeria
70 (formerly Koola Lobitos).
The new sound hailed from a club that he established called the
Afro-Shrine. Upon arriving in Nigeria, Kuti also changed the name of
his group to Fela Ransome-Kuti & Africa 70. The band maintained a
five-year residency in the Afro-Shrine from 1970 to 1975 while afrobeat
thrived among Nigerian youth. Afrobeat is now one of the most
recognisable music genres in the world and has influenced as many
Western musicians as it has African ones with its exuberant style and
polyrhythms.
Contents
* [26]1 Origins
* [27]2 Influence
* [28]3 Instrumentation
* [29]4 Today
* [30]5 External links
[[31]edit] Origins
Afrobeat originated from the southern part of [32]Nigeria in the 1960s
where Kuti experimented with many different forms of contemporary music
of the time. Prevalent in him and Lagbaja's music are native African
harmonies and rhythms, taking different elements and combining,
modernizing and improvising upon them. [33]Politics are essential to
afrobeat, since founder Kuti used social criticism to pave the way for
social change. His message can be described as confrontational and
controversial, which can be related to the political climate of most of
the African countries in the 1960s, many of which were dealing with
political injustice and military corruption while recovering from the
transition from colonial governments to self-determination. As the
genre spread throughout the African continent many bands took up the
style. The recordings of these bands and their songs were rarely heard
or exported outside the originating countries but many can now be found
on compilation albums and CDs from specialist record shops.
[[34]edit] Influence
Many jazz musicians have been attracted to afrobeat. From [35]Roy Ayers
in the seventies to [36]Randy Weston in the nineties, there have been
collaborations which have resulted in albums such as Africa: Centre of
the World by Roy Ayers, released on the Polydor label in 1981. In 1994
[37]Branford Marsalis, the American jazz saxophonist, included samples
of Fela's "Beast of No Nation" on his Buckshot leFonque album. The new
generation of DJs and musicians of the 2000s who have fallen in love
with both Kuti's material and other rare releases have made
compilations and remixes of these recordings, thus re-introducing the
genre to new generations of listeners and fans of afropop and groove.
Afrobeat has profoundly influenced important contemporary producers and
musicians like [38]Brian Eno and [39]David Byrne, who credit Fela Kuti
as an essential muse. Both worked on [40]Talking Heads'
highly-acclaimed 1980 album [41]Remain In Light which brought
polyrhythmic afrobeat influences to Western music. More recently, the
horn section of [42]Antibalas have been guest musicians on [43]TV On
The Radio's highly-acclaimed 2008 album [44]Dear Science, as well as on
British band [45]Foals' 2008 album [46]Antidotes.
[[47]edit] Instrumentation
Big band (15 to 30 pieces: Fela-era afrobeat) and energetic
performances
* Lead vocals (may play sax/key solos as well)
* Chorus vocals (may include horn players)
* Rhythm guitar(s) (plays funk strumming pattern)
* Tenor guitar (plays a finger-picked osinato groove)
* [48]Bass guitar
* [49]Drum set, generally in the form [50]polyrhythmic percussion
* Saxophone(s)
* Trumpet(s)
* Trombone(s)
* Organ/keyboards
* Rhythm [51]conga #1
* Rhythm [52]conga #2
* Solo (lead) [53]conga
* [54]Akuba: a set of 3 small stick-hit congas (play
flourishes/solos, and ostinatos). Also mistakenly called "gbedu".
* "Sticks"/[55]claves (plays ostinato)
* [56]Shekere
[[57]edit] Today
There are several active afrobeat bands worldwide today.
Modern afrobeat bands/artistes include:
* [58]Kokolo (band), New York City Afrobeat/Afrofunk group formed by
songwriter/producer Ray Lugo
* [59]Nomo, [60]Ann Arbor based group that weaves various styles into
a primarily Afrobeat sound.
* [61]Chicago Afrobeat Project Chicago based collective that uses
afrobeat as a springboard and has an incendiary live show.
* [62]Afrodizz, an eight-piece band from [63]Montreal, [64]Canada
formed by jazz guitarist Gabriel Aldama
* [65]The Afromotive, an Asheville, NC based multiracial seven-piece
afrobeat band featuring thirty-third generation djembe player Adama
Dembele from Cote d`Ivoire, West Africa.
* [66]Tony Allen, the man who held the drum chair during Fela's
productive "Africa 70" phase, and whose drumming was, according to
[67]James Brown's autobiography, the influence behind his
'discovery' of funk.^[[68]citation needed]
* [69]Antibalas, [70]Brooklyn, New York based multiracial Afrobeat
Orchestra formed by baritone saxophonist Martin Perna
* [71]Aphrodesia, San Francisco based group, first American group to
perform with Femi Kuti at The Shrine in Lagos, Nigeria.
* [72]Ayetoro, a group led by Nigerian pianist/composer [73]Funsho
Ogundipe
* [74]Bebe cool lives in Uganda famous for his reggea mixed with
luganda pop and English making an Afrobeat rhythm in Uganda known
as Luga flow.He also lives in kampala.
* [75]Chopteeth, an international 14 piece outfit based in Washington
D.C., with former members of Busta Rhymes, The Temptations, The
Four Tops, and Gladys Knight & the Pips.
* [76]Femi Kuti (Fela's first son and a saxophonist) and the Positive
Force
* [77]Seun Kuti (another of Kuti's sons, saxophonist now fronting his
father's last and late band)
* [78]Dele Sosimi's Gbedu Resurrection Dele is a former keyboardist
and musical director of Fela's band. He cofounded Femi Kuti's
Positive Force.
* [79]Zozo Afrobeat A thirteen-member group based in NYC, founded by
Kaleta, former Fela guitarist.
* [80]Baba Ken and the Afro-Groove Connexion Oakland based
multiracial afrobeat ensemble led by Nigerian bassist, Baba Ken
Okulolo, founding member of the seminal 1970's afrofunk/afrorock
band, Monomono.
* [81]Jose Chameleone famous in East, central and South Africa.He
stays and live is Uganda in kampala city.He sing pop and Afro beat
music.He is one of the most famous artists of Afro beat in Africa
and the whole world.
* [82]Afrobeat Down Los Angeles based Afrobeat ensemble (est. 2002)
working with former Fela Africa '70 member and catalyst of entire
afrobeat movement, Sandra Izsadore.
* [83]Weird MC Rap artiste who occasionally experinments with
Afrobeat rhythm.
* [84]Vibe Squad A Ghanaian music crew formed by EaZZY Da Opemfour
made of Prego, Culchar, Wizzy Wii and Richie.
* [85]Gnl zamba rap artist in Uganda one of the most successful rap
afrobeat star in East Africa and central Africa.He is known for his
rhythm of 2 pac shakur
* [86]Mr. Something Something Canadian afrobeat group
* [87]Crime Scene Infunkstigation A 10-piece Afrobeat/Funk/Hip Hop
group based out of Calgary, AB
[[88]edit] External links
* [89]KOKOLO on Myspace
* [90]KOKOLO on YouTube
* [91]KOKOLO Official Homepage
* [92]The Afrobeat Blog
* [93]The Unofficial Seun Kuti Fan-Site - Unofficial fan-site for
Seun Kuti & Egypt 80 with news, videos, music, pictures and much
more]
* [94]The Shrine The Unofficial Website for Fela Kuti, Femi Kuti and
Afrobeat Music
* [95]BBC Afrobeat Documentary
[96]v o [97]d o [98]e
Genres of [99]African popular music
Afrobeat · [100]Apala · [101]Benga · [102]Bikutsi · [103]Cape Jazz ·
[104]Chimurenga · [105]Fuji · [106]Highlife · [107]Hiplife ·
[108]Isicathamiya · [109]Jit · [110]Jùjú · [111]Kizomba · [112]Kuduro ·
[113]Kwaito · [114]Kwela · [115]Makossa · [116]Maloya ·
[117]Marrabenta · [118]Mbalax · [119]Mbaqanga · [120]Mbube ·
[121]Morna · [122]Palm-wine · [123]Raï · [124]Sakara · [125]Sega ·
[126]Soukous/Congo/Lingala/Rumba · [127]Taarab
[128]v o [129]d o [130]e
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[132]Acid jazz o Afrobeat o [133]Brit funk o [134]Funk metal o
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Related
[151]List of funk musicians o [152]Minneapolis sound
[154]Categories: [155]Funk genres | [156]African American music in
Africa
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* ____________________ Go
12 12/2006 [38]Compose to a Vertical Rhythm
by [39]Richard Rutter
* [40]Article
* [41]29 comments
"Space in typography is like time in music. It is infinitely divisible,
but a few proportional intervals can be much more useful than a
limitless choice of arbitrary quantities." So says the typographer
Robert Bringhurst, and just as regular use of time provides rhythm in
music, so regular use of space provides rhythm in typography, and
without rhythm the listener, or the reader, becomes disorientated and
lost.
On the Web, vertical rhythm - the spacing and arrangement of text as
the reader descends the page - is contributed to by three factors: font
size, line height and margin or padding. All of these factors must
calculated with care in order that the rhythm is maintained.
The basic unit of vertical space is line height. Establishing a
suitable line height that can be applied to all text on the page, be it
heading, body copy or sidenote, is the key to a solid dependable
vertical rhythm, which will engage and guide the reader down the page.
To see this in action, I've created [42]an example with headings,
footnotes and sidenotes.
Establishing a suitable line height
The easiest place to begin determining a basic line height unit is with
the font size of the body copy. For [43]the example I've chosen 12px.
To ensure readability the body text will almost certainly need some
leading, that is to say spacing between the lines. A line-height of
1.5em would give 6px spacing between the lines of body copy. This will
create a total line height of 18px, which becomes our basic unit.
Here's the CSS to get us to this point:
1. body {
2. font-size: 75%;
3. }
4.
5. html>body {
6. font-size: 12px;
7. }
8.
9. p {
10. line-height 1.5em;
11. }
12. Source: [44]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/1.txt
There are many ways to size text in CSS and the above approach provides
and accessible method of achieving the pixel-precision solid typography
requires. By way of explanation, the first font-size reduces the body
text from the 16px default (common to most browsers and OS set-ups)
down to the 12px we require. This rule is primarily there for Internet
Explorer 6 and below on Windows: the percentage value means that the
text will scale predictably should a user bump the text size up or
down. The second font-size sets the text size specifically and is
ignored by IE6, but used by Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other
modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels.
Spacing between paragraphs
With our rhythmic unit set at 18px we need to ensure that it is
maintained throughout the body copy. A common place to lose the rhythm
is the gaps set between margins. The default treatment by web browsers
of paragraphs is to insert a top- and bottom-margin of 1em. In our case
this would give a spacing between the paragraphs of 12px and hence
throw the text out of rhythm. If the rhythm of the page is to be
maintained, the spacing of paragraphs should be related to the basic
line height unit. This is achieved simply by setting top- and
bottom-margins equal to the line height.
In order that typographic integrity is maintained when text is resized
by the user we must use ems for all our vertical measurements,
including line-height, padding and margins.
1. p {
2. font-size:1em;
3. margin-top: 1.5em;
4. margin-bottom: 1.5em;
5. }
6. Source: [45]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/2.txt
Browsers set margins on all block-level elements (such as headings,
lists and blockquotes) so a way of ensuring that typographic attention
is paid to all such elements is to reset the margins at the beginning
of your style sheet. You could use a rule such as:
1. body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl
ockquote,th,td {
2. margin:0;
3. padding:0;
4. }
5. Source: [46]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/3.txt
Alternatively you could look into using the [47]Yahoo! UI Reset style
sheet which removes most default styling, so providing a solid
foundation upon which you can explicitly declare your design
intentions.
Variations in text size
When there is a change in text size, perhaps with a heading or
sidenotes, the differing text should also take up a multiple of the
basic leading. This means that, in our example, every diversion from
the basic text size should take up multiples of 18px. This can be
accomplished by adjusting the line-height and margin accordingly, as
described following.
Headings
Subheadings in the [48]example page are set to 14px. In order that the
height of each line is 18px, the line-height should be set to 18 ÷ 14
= 1.286. Similarly the margins above and below the heading must be
adjusted to fit. The temptation is to set heading margins to a simple
1em, but in order to maintain the rhythm, the top and bottom margins
should be set at 1.286em so that the spacing is equal to the full 18px
unit.
1. h2 {
2. font-size:1.1667em;
3. line-height: 1.286em;
4. margin-top: 1.286em;
5. margin-bottom: 1.286em;
6. }
7. Source: [49]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/4.txt
One can also set asymmetrical margins for headings, provided the
margins combine to be multiples of the basic line height. In our
example, a top margin of 1½ lines is combined with a bottom margin of
half a line as follows:
1. h2 {
2. font-size:1.1667em;
3. line-height: 1.286em;
4. margin-top: 1.929em;
5. margin-bottom: 0.643em;
6. }
7. Source: [50]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/5.txt
Also in our example, the main heading is given a text size of 18px,
therefore the line-height has been set to 1em, as has the margin:
1. h1 {
2. font-size:1.5em;
3. line-height: 1em;
4. margin-top: 0;
5. margin-bottom: 1em;
6. }
7. Source: [51]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/6.txt
Sidenotes
Sidenotes (and other supplementary material) are often set at a smaller
size to the basic text. To keep the rhythm, this smaller text should
still line up with body copy, so a calculation similar to that for
headings is required. In our example, the sidenotes are set at 10px and
so their line-height must be increased to 18 ÷ 10 = 1.8.
1. .sidenote {
2. font-size:0.8333em;
3. line-height:1.8em;
4. }
5. Source: [52]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/7.txt
Borders
One additional point where vertical rhythm is often lost is with the
introduction of horizontal borders. These effectively act as shims
pushing the subsequent text downwards, so a two pixel horizontal border
will throw out the vertical rhythm by two pixels. A way around this is
to specify horizontal lines using background images or, as in our
example, specify the width of the border in ems and adjust the padding
to take up the slack.
The design of the footnote in our example requires a 1px horizontal
border. The footnote contains 12px text, so 1px in ems is 1 ÷ 12
= 0.0833. I have added a margin of 1½ lines above the border
(1.5 × 18 ÷ 12 = 2.5ems), so to maintain the rhythm the border +
padding must equal a ½ (9px). We know the border is set to 1px, so the
padding must be set to 8px. To specify this in ems we use the familiar
calculation: 8 ÷ 12 = 0.667.
Hit me with your rhythm stick
Composing to a vertical rhythm helps engage and guide the reader down
the page, but it takes typographic discipline to do so. It may seem
like a lot of fiddly maths is involved (a few divisions and
multiplications never hurt anyone) but good type setting is all about
numbers, and it is this attention to detail which is the key to
success.
Like what you read?
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* or
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Comments
* [55]12/12/2006
Wow this is a good article.
* [57]12/12/2006
[58]Will
thanks so much, this is great.
* [59]12/12/2006
Interesting stuff. Also worth reading Eric Meyer's post on unitless
line-heights:
* [61]12/12/2006
It's worth mentioning that IE6 and below can go a bit extreme when
resizing fonts set as ems.
You can fix this by applying font-size: 100% to html. Don't know
why this works, it just does.
Oh, if you're working in quirks mode you'll also need to apply it
to thead, tbody and tfoot, beacuse the fix doesn't inherit (don't
apply it to table unless you want table to inherit font-sizes). You
don't need thead, tbody or tfoot in your tables as tbody is
implied.
Obviously, you can't then apply your own font-sizes to html or
tbody etc, else you'll overwrite the fix, which is why I chose
those particular elements as they're rarely used for font-sizes.
Jake.
* [63]12/12/2006
[64]Mike Stenhouse donotremove.co.uk
Hmmmmm, interesting! I've not tried this but I think there might be
an easier way to set those heights... What if the line-height is
set to, say, 1.5em on the body and 1 (unit-less - it's valid!) on
each descendant element? Or maybe some variation on that. It might
force the 18px to inherit into the children without awkward
calculations.
* [65]12/12/2006
Great article, Richard! Web typography--like all
typography--deserves this level of detailed thinking, and I hope to
see more designers embracing it.
* [67]12/12/2006
[68]michael h
Good introduction to typography theory, but I am convinced that the
Owen Briggs method is the best approach to sizing.
* [69]13/12/2006
I've been working on something similar recently, and I've
discovered that if you set the line-height in pixels, most browsers
will still scale it proportionally along with the text. As IE6's
numbers fall off, I hope we can leave all this black magic scaling
math behind and go back to setting font sizes in pixels and letting
the browsers handle the scaling.
* [71]13/12/2006
Mike - you're right about being able to simplify the line-height
specifications, but it doesn't require setting unitless
line-heights. In the example I use, I've set the font-size to be
12px on the body and calculated line-heights for all the subsequent
elements. As I required one line height - 18px - for all elements I
can remove the multiple statements and simply set line-height:1.5em
on the body. The calculated line-height of 18px is inherited by all
elements on the page. I've modifed the example to show this
(checked in Firefox, Safari and IE6):
However the maths would still need to be performed to calculate the
correct margins, so while the extra line-height specifications are
not strictly necessary (at least while the same line height for all
text is required) you unfortunately don't save much on the
calculations.
* [73]13/12/2006
Jake - the extreme text sizing in IE can be fixed by applying any
percentage font size to the body - it doesn't have to be 100%
(hence my use of 75% fixed this too).
You're right about the tables though. This rule does the job nicely
to inherit the text size:
table, thead, tbody, tr, th, td {font-size:1em}
* [75]13/12/2006
[76]GreLI
In the article next rule is used to reset margins:
body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl
ockquote,th,td {
margin:0;
padding:0;
}
I think it easier to use universal selector (* { margin: 0;
padding: 0 }) instead.
To fix table font-size inheritance it's enough to set
table { font-size: 1em }
Opera AFAIK don't change font-size if it set in pixels, but it can
zoom pages (so does IE7).
* [77]13/12/2006
GreLI - using the universal selector like that to zero all margins
and padding can cause unpredictable results in some form controls
(e.g. SELECT elements) in certain browsers.
Rich - great article; now all someone needs to do is knock up a
nice little app that spits out the right line-heights and margins
for the elements you tell it... :)
* [79]13/12/2006
It's unfortunate that pretty much no one composes with a scale when
publishing for the web. Your article is a great step forward.
Also overlooked are line lengths. Since the beginning of the web,
It has been a standard practice to expand the line lengths out with
the width of the browser (like your site is currently :), causing
line lengths to expand way too long. If an optimal line length for
print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even
smaller.
* [81]14/12/2006
I don't see it mentioned in the comments yet, but your quote above:
"...Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which
allow users to resize text sized in pixels."
is not correct, as IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in
pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized.
* [83]18/12/2006
If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths
for web should be even smaller.
You're right to mention line length as something that is
overlooked, but on the screen it is not as simple as setting the
measure in ems as their are more factors involved (screen size,
liquid layouts, etc). Also I'd disagree that web line lengths
should be shorter on the web. My personal preference would be for
them to be longer - I find short line lengths on screen extremely
hard work to read. That's just my opinion though.
IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout
can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized.
If you think of the reasons for changing text size then zooming a
layout is just another form of resizing text and achieves the same
goal.
* [85]20/12/2006
Theodore, I think you would enjoy Richard's article entitled
"Choose a comfortable measure" over at webtypography.net :)
1.2/
* [87]22/12/2006
[88]Rachel Maxim
You've said in a few pages what has taken me years to figure out
and refine :) - great info!
* [89]23/12/2006
I really enjoyed this article. I have read your Elements of....for
the web, as well as your blog about sizing text in ems. I have
really been looking in to using this and getting the best `flow'
with my typography. I also ordered the book Elements of Typographic
Style just to give a better understanding.
I think its a common misconception that text on the web will always
look bland, and you have proved that it can have rhythm and style.
* [91]02/01/2007
I've just been using some of these techniques on a client's site
who needed 8 tabs all the same width, which fill the available
space - I had it working fine in Firefox, but the tabs didn't fill
the space in Safari or IE. I found that you really have to do the
maths, rather than just use trial and error - they all round the
numbers slightly differently. Once I'd checked my calculations,
rather than tinkered with the numbers, it works fine everywhere, at
least at standard font size.
One other correction from someone's comment earlier on - you can
resize text in IE7 - click the page icon at top right. Why you need
both this and the ability to zoom, I'm not sure, but it's there at
any rate.
* [93]03/01/2007
[94]Ben G
Can you set the margin above or below headings or paragraphs to
less than your 18px base measurement? Won't margin collapsing cause
whichever the largest margin is to take effect?
Ben
* [95]31/01/2009
[96]Daniel
I've been using this article as the basis for designing my site
with some "vertical rhythm". Everything is going well except with
forms (input, textarea, etc.). I just haven't been able to use css
to maintain the vertical rhythm (based on total line height of
18px).
Any advise or insight as to how to get forms to play nicely?
* [97]15/02/2009
[98]Silver Firefly
I wanted to clarify something about the default browser text size
and using the em unit. The article was a tad misleading when it
covered the default browser text size and the em unit. A lot of
designers have it in their heads that an em is equivalent to 16
pixels. An em is not equivalent to 16 pixels. It is equivalent to
whatever is set in the user's browser, which is commonly 16px but
depending on the user, it can be 20px or 12px or whatever they have
set in their browser's settings. I hope after reading that
statement, designers will start to realise that they have little
control over how their website appears in other users' browsers.
The majority of the control lies in the user's hands. Other than
that, the article was very good.
* [99]17/04/2009
Great article... and AWESOME site design. Inspirational!
* [101]27/04/2009
Typesetting for websites is the future, like all things
content-related. The Google knows it :). Thank you for that useful
post. You webdesigners take care of your text!
* [103]05/06/2009
[104]bonfield
Inline bolding of elements (I'm using Helvetica, e.g.) seems to add
a px of height on any line that uses it, and that subtly throws off
the vertical rhythm for each line and it can add up depending
-- anybody else run into this and solve it?
* [105]18/06/2009
[106]Anonymous
Does this truly keep the vertical rhythm? If you zoom in on the
example, you'll see that the descender of the letter g in the H1
header "New England" crosses your rhythm marker's background line,
while a lowercase g in the following paragraph does not. There
appears to be some fudging going on.
* [107]08/07/2009
I find it humorous that this site itself does not compose to a
vertical rhythm. I've seen very few online that do. It's so
difficult to implement across browsers it is usually brushed aside
except for in the most simple design schemes.
* [109]03/08/2009
[110]eric
I've yet to see any empirical evidence that "vertical rhythm"
applied to this degree has any impact on how well a reader is able
to extract signal from the noise of the page.
Meanwhile, I've seen many, many examples of mis-applied "vertical
rhythms" resulting in squashed headings where the underlning on a
link impinges on the text below. Which just looks clunky.
When you've got something other than an aesthetic opinion from the
margins -- maybe some actual data -- then I'll be interested in
expending the effort needed to support real vertical rhythm. Until
then, I just don't see how it's cost-effective.
* [111]02/09/2009
Now, that was the kind of article I was looking for. That goes a
lot deeper than I've been into the realms of line-spacing, leading
(no kerning here though - can we do kerning with css?).
I love the analogy to musical rhythym > therefore probably
following on to mathematics/geometry/proportion. That is a great
lead-in. Is there any room for the `golden ratio' in web design? Do
graphic designers use it with/without realising it? Just that I
haven't seen it discussed in the myriad pages concerning page
layout/design that I've read so far...
Thanks,
Darren
Impress us
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About the author
[114]Richard Rutter
Richard Rutter is a user experience consultant and director of
[115]Clearleft. He runs an ongoing project called [116]The Elements of
Typographic Style Applied to the Web, where he extols the virtues of
good web typography. Richard occasionally blogs at [117]Clagnut, where
he writes about design, accessibility and web standards issues, as well
as his passion for music and mountain biking.
[118]More information
Related articles
* [119]Real Fonts and Rendering: The New Elephant in the Room
22/12/2009 by [120]Jeffrey Zeldman
* [121]Spruce It Up
19/12/2009 by [122]Jonathan Snook
* [123]Designing For The Switch
16/12/2009 by [124]Mark Boulton
* [125]Type-Inspired Interfaces
07/12/2009 by [126]Dan Mall
* [127]A Festive Type Folly
17/12/2008 by [128]Jon Tan
* [129]Increase Your Font Stacks With Font Matrix
17/12/2007 by [130]Richard Rutter
* [131]Typesetting Tables
07/12/2007 by [132]Mark Boulton
* [133]Knockout Type - Thin Is Always In
17/12/2006 by [134]Shaun Inman
* [135]An Explanation of Ems
02/12/2005 by [136]Richard Rutter
[137]Article archives...
In association with:
[138]Perch - a really little cms
* 24 ways is an [139]edgeofmyseat.com production.
* Edited by [140]Drew McLellan and [141]Brian Suda.
* Design delivered by [142]Made by Elephant.
* Possible only with the help of [143]our terrific authors.
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12 12/2006 [38]Compose to a Vertical Rhythm
by [39]Richard Rutter
* [40]Article
* [41]29 comments
"Space in typography is like time in music. It is infinitely divisible,
but a few proportional intervals can be much more useful than a
limitless choice of arbitrary quantities." So says the typographer
Robert Bringhurst, and just as regular use of time provides rhythm in
music, so regular use of space provides rhythm in typography, and
without rhythm the listener, or the reader, becomes disorientated and
lost.
On the Web, vertical rhythm - the spacing and arrangement of text as
the reader descends the page - is contributed to by three factors: font
size, line height and margin or padding. All of these factors must
calculated with care in order that the rhythm is maintained.
The basic unit of vertical space is line height. Establishing a
suitable line height that can be applied to all text on the page, be it
heading, body copy or sidenote, is the key to a solid dependable
vertical rhythm, which will engage and guide the reader down the page.
To see this in action, I've created [42]an example with headings,
footnotes and sidenotes.
Establishing a suitable line height
The easiest place to begin determining a basic line height unit is with
the font size of the body copy. For [43]the example I've chosen 12px.
To ensure readability the body text will almost certainly need some
leading, that is to say spacing between the lines. A line-height of
1.5em would give 6px spacing between the lines of body copy. This will
create a total line height of 18px, which becomes our basic unit.
Here's the CSS to get us to this point:
1. body {
2. font-size: 75%;
3. }
4.
5. html>body {
6. font-size: 12px;
7. }
8.
9. p {
10. line-height 1.5em;
11. }
12. Source: [44]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/1.txt
There are many ways to size text in CSS and the above approach provides
and accessible method of achieving the pixel-precision solid typography
requires. By way of explanation, the first font-size reduces the body
text from the 16px default (common to most browsers and OS set-ups)
down to the 12px we require. This rule is primarily there for Internet
Explorer 6 and below on Windows: the percentage value means that the
text will scale predictably should a user bump the text size up or
down. The second font-size sets the text size specifically and is
ignored by IE6, but used by Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other
modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels.
Spacing between paragraphs
With our rhythmic unit set at 18px we need to ensure that it is
maintained throughout the body copy. A common place to lose the rhythm
is the gaps set between margins. The default treatment by web browsers
of paragraphs is to insert a top- and bottom-margin of 1em. In our case
this would give a spacing between the paragraphs of 12px and hence
throw the text out of rhythm. If the rhythm of the page is to be
maintained, the spacing of paragraphs should be related to the basic
line height unit. This is achieved simply by setting top- and
bottom-margins equal to the line height.
In order that typographic integrity is maintained when text is resized
by the user we must use ems for all our vertical measurements,
including line-height, padding and margins.
1. p {
2. font-size:1em;
3. margin-top: 1.5em;
4. margin-bottom: 1.5em;
5. }
6. Source: [45]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/2.txt
Browsers set margins on all block-level elements (such as headings,
lists and blockquotes) so a way of ensuring that typographic attention
is paid to all such elements is to reset the margins at the beginning
of your style sheet. You could use a rule such as:
1. body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl
ockquote,th,td {
2. margin:0;
3. padding:0;
4. }
5. Source: [46]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/3.txt
Alternatively you could look into using the [47]Yahoo! UI Reset style
sheet which removes most default styling, so providing a solid
foundation upon which you can explicitly declare your design
intentions.
Variations in text size
When there is a change in text size, perhaps with a heading or
sidenotes, the differing text should also take up a multiple of the
basic leading. This means that, in our example, every diversion from
the basic text size should take up multiples of 18px. This can be
accomplished by adjusting the line-height and margin accordingly, as
described following.
Headings
Subheadings in the [48]example page are set to 14px. In order that the
height of each line is 18px, the line-height should be set to 18 ÷ 14
= 1.286. Similarly the margins above and below the heading must be
adjusted to fit. The temptation is to set heading margins to a simple
1em, but in order to maintain the rhythm, the top and bottom margins
should be set at 1.286em so that the spacing is equal to the full 18px
unit.
1. h2 {
2. font-size:1.1667em;
3. line-height: 1.286em;
4. margin-top: 1.286em;
5. margin-bottom: 1.286em;
6. }
7. Source: [49]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/4.txt
One can also set asymmetrical margins for headings, provided the
margins combine to be multiples of the basic line height. In our
example, a top margin of 1½ lines is combined with a bottom margin of
half a line as follows:
1. h2 {
2. font-size:1.1667em;
3. line-height: 1.286em;
4. margin-top: 1.929em;
5. margin-bottom: 0.643em;
6. }
7. Source: [50]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/5.txt
Also in our example, the main heading is given a text size of 18px,
therefore the line-height has been set to 1em, as has the margin:
1. h1 {
2. font-size:1.5em;
3. line-height: 1em;
4. margin-top: 0;
5. margin-bottom: 1em;
6. }
7. Source: [51]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/6.txt
Sidenotes
Sidenotes (and other supplementary material) are often set at a smaller
size to the basic text. To keep the rhythm, this smaller text should
still line up with body copy, so a calculation similar to that for
headings is required. In our example, the sidenotes are set at 10px and
so their line-height must be increased to 18 ÷ 10 = 1.8.
1. .sidenote {
2. font-size:0.8333em;
3. line-height:1.8em;
4. }
5. Source: [52]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/7.txt
Borders
One additional point where vertical rhythm is often lost is with the
introduction of horizontal borders. These effectively act as shims
pushing the subsequent text downwards, so a two pixel horizontal border
will throw out the vertical rhythm by two pixels. A way around this is
to specify horizontal lines using background images or, as in our
example, specify the width of the border in ems and adjust the padding
to take up the slack.
The design of the footnote in our example requires a 1px horizontal
border. The footnote contains 12px text, so 1px in ems is 1 ÷ 12
= 0.0833. I have added a margin of 1½ lines above the border
(1.5 × 18 ÷ 12 = 2.5ems), so to maintain the rhythm the border +
padding must equal a ½ (9px). We know the border is set to 1px, so the
padding must be set to 8px. To specify this in ems we use the familiar
calculation: 8 ÷ 12 = 0.667.
Hit me with your rhythm stick
Composing to a vertical rhythm helps engage and guide the reader down
the page, but it takes typographic discipline to do so. It may seem
like a lot of fiddly maths is involved (a few divisions and
multiplications never hurt anyone) but good type setting is all about
numbers, and it is this attention to detail which is the key to
success.
Like what you read?
* [53]Tweet this article
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* [54]Leave a comment
Comments
* [55]12/12/2006
Wow this is a good article.
* [57]12/12/2006
[58]Will
thanks so much, this is great.
* [59]12/12/2006
Interesting stuff. Also worth reading Eric Meyer's post on unitless
line-heights:
* [61]12/12/2006
It's worth mentioning that IE6 and below can go a bit extreme when
resizing fonts set as ems.
You can fix this by applying font-size: 100% to html. Don't know
why this works, it just does.
Oh, if you're working in quirks mode you'll also need to apply it
to thead, tbody and tfoot, beacuse the fix doesn't inherit (don't
apply it to table unless you want table to inherit font-sizes). You
don't need thead, tbody or tfoot in your tables as tbody is
implied.
Obviously, you can't then apply your own font-sizes to html or
tbody etc, else you'll overwrite the fix, which is why I chose
those particular elements as they're rarely used for font-sizes.
Jake.
* [63]12/12/2006
[64]Mike Stenhouse donotremove.co.uk
Hmmmmm, interesting! I've not tried this but I think there might be
an easier way to set those heights... What if the line-height is
set to, say, 1.5em on the body and 1 (unit-less - it's valid!) on
each descendant element? Or maybe some variation on that. It might
force the 18px to inherit into the children without awkward
calculations.
* [65]12/12/2006
Great article, Richard! Web typography--like all
typography--deserves this level of detailed thinking, and I hope to
see more designers embracing it.
* [67]12/12/2006
[68]michael h
Good introduction to typography theory, but I am convinced that the
Owen Briggs method is the best approach to sizing.
* [69]13/12/2006
I've been working on something similar recently, and I've
discovered that if you set the line-height in pixels, most browsers
will still scale it proportionally along with the text. As IE6's
numbers fall off, I hope we can leave all this black magic scaling
math behind and go back to setting font sizes in pixels and letting
the browsers handle the scaling.
* [71]13/12/2006
Mike - you're right about being able to simplify the line-height
specifications, but it doesn't require setting unitless
line-heights. In the example I use, I've set the font-size to be
12px on the body and calculated line-heights for all the subsequent
elements. As I required one line height - 18px - for all elements I
can remove the multiple statements and simply set line-height:1.5em
on the body. The calculated line-height of 18px is inherited by all
elements on the page. I've modifed the example to show this
(checked in Firefox, Safari and IE6):
However the maths would still need to be performed to calculate the
correct margins, so while the extra line-height specifications are
not strictly necessary (at least while the same line height for all
text is required) you unfortunately don't save much on the
calculations.
* [73]13/12/2006
Jake - the extreme text sizing in IE can be fixed by applying any
percentage font size to the body - it doesn't have to be 100%
(hence my use of 75% fixed this too).
You're right about the tables though. This rule does the job nicely
to inherit the text size:
table, thead, tbody, tr, th, td {font-size:1em}
* [75]13/12/2006
[76]GreLI
In the article next rule is used to reset margins:
body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl
ockquote,th,td {
margin:0;
padding:0;
}
I think it easier to use universal selector (* { margin: 0;
padding: 0 }) instead.
To fix table font-size inheritance it's enough to set
table { font-size: 1em }
Opera AFAIK don't change font-size if it set in pixels, but it can
zoom pages (so does IE7).
* [77]13/12/2006
GreLI - using the universal selector like that to zero all margins
and padding can cause unpredictable results in some form controls
(e.g. SELECT elements) in certain browsers.
Rich - great article; now all someone needs to do is knock up a
nice little app that spits out the right line-heights and margins
for the elements you tell it... :)
* [79]13/12/2006
It's unfortunate that pretty much no one composes with a scale when
publishing for the web. Your article is a great step forward.
Also overlooked are line lengths. Since the beginning of the web,
It has been a standard practice to expand the line lengths out with
the width of the browser (like your site is currently :), causing
line lengths to expand way too long. If an optimal line length for
print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even
smaller.
* [81]14/12/2006
I don't see it mentioned in the comments yet, but your quote above:
"...Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which
allow users to resize text sized in pixels."
is not correct, as IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in
pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized.
* [83]18/12/2006
If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths
for web should be even smaller.
You're right to mention line length as something that is
overlooked, but on the screen it is not as simple as setting the
measure in ems as their are more factors involved (screen size,
liquid layouts, etc). Also I'd disagree that web line lengths
should be shorter on the web. My personal preference would be for
them to be longer - I find short line lengths on screen extremely
hard work to read. That's just my opinion though.
IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout
can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized.
If you think of the reasons for changing text size then zooming a
layout is just another form of resizing text and achieves the same
goal.
* [85]20/12/2006
Theodore, I think you would enjoy Richard's article entitled
"Choose a comfortable measure" over at webtypography.net :)
1.2/
* [87]22/12/2006
[88]Rachel Maxim
You've said in a few pages what has taken me years to figure out
and refine :) - great info!
* [89]23/12/2006
I really enjoyed this article. I have read your Elements of....for
the web, as well as your blog about sizing text in ems. I have
really been looking in to using this and getting the best `flow'
with my typography. I also ordered the book Elements of Typographic
Style just to give a better understanding.
I think its a common misconception that text on the web will always
look bland, and you have proved that it can have rhythm and style.
* [91]02/01/2007
I've just been using some of these techniques on a client's site
who needed 8 tabs all the same width, which fill the available
space - I had it working fine in Firefox, but the tabs didn't fill
the space in Safari or IE. I found that you really have to do the
maths, rather than just use trial and error - they all round the
numbers slightly differently. Once I'd checked my calculations,
rather than tinkered with the numbers, it works fine everywhere, at
least at standard font size.
One other correction from someone's comment earlier on - you can
resize text in IE7 - click the page icon at top right. Why you need
both this and the ability to zoom, I'm not sure, but it's there at
any rate.
* [93]03/01/2007
[94]Ben G
Can you set the margin above or below headings or paragraphs to
less than your 18px base measurement? Won't margin collapsing cause
whichever the largest margin is to take effect?
Ben
* [95]31/01/2009
[96]Daniel
I've been using this article as the basis for designing my site
with some "vertical rhythm". Everything is going well except with
forms (input, textarea, etc.). I just haven't been able to use css
to maintain the vertical rhythm (based on total line height of
18px).
Any advise or insight as to how to get forms to play nicely?
* [97]15/02/2009
[98]Silver Firefly
I wanted to clarify something about the default browser text size
and using the em unit. The article was a tad misleading when it
covered the default browser text size and the em unit. A lot of
designers have it in their heads that an em is equivalent to 16
pixels. An em is not equivalent to 16 pixels. It is equivalent to
whatever is set in the user's browser, which is commonly 16px but
depending on the user, it can be 20px or 12px or whatever they have
set in their browser's settings. I hope after reading that
statement, designers will start to realise that they have little
control over how their website appears in other users' browsers.
The majority of the control lies in the user's hands. Other than
that, the article was very good.
* [99]17/04/2009
Great article... and AWESOME site design. Inspirational!
* [101]27/04/2009
Typesetting for websites is the future, like all things
content-related. The Google knows it :). Thank you for that useful
post. You webdesigners take care of your text!
* [103]05/06/2009
[104]bonfield
Inline bolding of elements (I'm using Helvetica, e.g.) seems to add
a px of height on any line that uses it, and that subtly throws off
the vertical rhythm for each line and it can add up depending
-- anybody else run into this and solve it?
* [105]18/06/2009
[106]Anonymous
Does this truly keep the vertical rhythm? If you zoom in on the
example, you'll see that the descender of the letter g in the H1
header "New England" crosses your rhythm marker's background line,
while a lowercase g in the following paragraph does not. There
appears to be some fudging going on.
* [107]08/07/2009
I find it humorous that this site itself does not compose to a
vertical rhythm. I've seen very few online that do. It's so
difficult to implement across browsers it is usually brushed aside
except for in the most simple design schemes.
* [109]03/08/2009
[110]eric
I've yet to see any empirical evidence that "vertical rhythm"
applied to this degree has any impact on how well a reader is able
to extract signal from the noise of the page.
Meanwhile, I've seen many, many examples of mis-applied "vertical
rhythms" resulting in squashed headings where the underlning on a
link impinges on the text below. Which just looks clunky.
When you've got something other than an aesthetic opinion from the
margins -- maybe some actual data -- then I'll be interested in
expending the effort needed to support real vertical rhythm. Until
then, I just don't see how it's cost-effective.
* [111]02/09/2009
Now, that was the kind of article I was looking for. That goes a
lot deeper than I've been into the realms of line-spacing, leading
(no kerning here though - can we do kerning with css?).
I love the analogy to musical rhythym > therefore probably
following on to mathematics/geometry/proportion. That is a great
lead-in. Is there any room for the `golden ratio' in web design? Do
graphic designers use it with/without realising it? Just that I
haven't seen it discussed in the myriad pages concerning page
layout/design that I've read so far...
Thanks,
Darren
Impress us
Name _________________________
Email _________________________
Website _________________________
Message
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
Be friendly / use [113]Textile
Preview Submit
About the author
[114]Richard Rutter
Richard Rutter is a user experience consultant and director of
[115]Clearleft. He runs an ongoing project called [116]The Elements of
Typographic Style Applied to the Web, where he extols the virtues of
good web typography. Richard occasionally blogs at [117]Clagnut, where
he writes about design, accessibility and web standards issues, as well
as his passion for music and mountain biking.
[118]More information
Related articles
* [119]Real Fonts and Rendering: The New Elephant in the Room
22/12/2009 by [120]Jeffrey Zeldman
* [121]Spruce It Up
19/12/2009 by [122]Jonathan Snook
* [123]Designing For The Switch
16/12/2009 by [124]Mark Boulton
* [125]Type-Inspired Interfaces
07/12/2009 by [126]Dan Mall
* [127]A Festive Type Folly
17/12/2008 by [128]Jon Tan
* [129]Increase Your Font Stacks With Font Matrix
17/12/2007 by [130]Richard Rutter
* [131]Typesetting Tables
07/12/2007 by [132]Mark Boulton
* [133]Knockout Type - Thin Is Always In
17/12/2006 by [134]Shaun Inman
* [135]An Explanation of Ems
02/12/2005 by [136]Richard Rutter
[137]Article archives...
In association with:
[138]Perch - a really little cms
* 24 ways is an [139]edgeofmyseat.com production.
* Edited by [140]Drew McLellan and [141]Brian Suda.
* Design delivered by [142]Made by Elephant.
* Possible only with the help of [143]our terrific authors.
* Grab our [144]RSS feed and follow us on [145]Twitter for daily
updates.
* Hosted by [146]Memset.
*
*
*
*
Références
[1]Home > [2]Articles > [3]Web Design & Development > [4]Usability
[5]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm
[6]Jason Cranford Teague
* By [7]Jason Cranford Teague
* Dec 23, 2009
[8]Toggle Open Article Table of Contents [9]Article Contents
[10]Close Table of Contents [11]Article Contents
1. [12]Web Measurements
2. [13]Type Size & Line Height
3. [14]Type Space
4. Text Alignment
[15]Close Table of Contents
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[28]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm
Dec 23, 2009
[29]Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers: Creating Meaning through
Syntax
Jul 23, 2009
[30]Designing Webbed Environments: The Importance of the Define and
Design Phases
May 12, 2006
[31]Creating Web Pages for Screen, Print, and Email
Apr 28, 2006
[32]How to Style Forms in CSS
Mar 17, 2006
[33]What Are CSS Sprites?
Mar 3, 2006
[34]Ten Things You Can Do with CSS (That You Might Not Have Known You
Could Do)
Dec 22, 2005
[35]Fluid Web Typography [36]Fluid Web Typography
Nov 24, 2009
[37]Fluid Web Typography, Adobe Reader [38]Fluid Web Typography, Adobe
Reader
Nov 24, 2009
[39]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers
[40]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers
Jun 30, 2009
[41]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers, Adobe
Reader [42]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web
Designers, Adobe Reader
Jun 30, 2009
[43]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, 4th
Edition [44]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual
QuickStart Guide, 4th Edition
Oct 17, 2006
[45]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide,
Adobe Reader, 4th Edition [46]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth
Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, Adobe Reader, 4th Edition
Oct 17, 2006
[47]DHTML and CSS Advanced: Visual QuickPro Guide [48]DHTML and CSS
Advanced: Visual QuickPro Guide
Dec 15, 2004
[49]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 3rd
Edition [50]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual
QuickStart Guide, 3rd Edition
Feb 20, 2004
[51]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 2nd
Edition [52]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual
QuickStart Guide, 2nd Edition
May 30, 2001
[53]10 Last-minute Gifts for Web Designers
By on December 17, 2009 1 Comment
Q: What do I get for the Web designer who has everything?
The short answer is real estate.
The slightly longer answer is, anything that helps spark their
creativity.
The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah,
Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [54]Saturnalia
myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift
giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has
everything they need to actually make Web sites?
Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect.
[55]Choosing the Right Color Value
By on December 14, 2009 No Comments
Q: Should I use Hex or RGB values to define colors in CSS?
The short answer is RGB.
The slightly longer answer is that Hex values have become the de
facto standard for use in CSS code and both developers and
designers are used to them.
The long answer is that, in the final design on the screen,
there is no difference between using Hex or RGB values in your
code. Which system you use is really a matter of you own
personal preference (and those of the team you are working with)
as to whether or not you use Hex or RGB values to define colors.
[56]Expand Your Font Repertoire
By on November 30, 2009 No Comments
Q: Are there alternatives to Arial, Times, and Georgia for Web
designers?
The short answer is YES!
The slightly longer answer is that most designers use Arial,
Times, or Georgia, and, to a lesser degree, Verdana, Trebuchet
MS, Courier, and Comic Sans because they think that's all they
have at their disposal, but they are wrong.
The long answer is that the core Web fonts (the one listed above
plus Impact and Web Dings) are used because they are almost
guaranteed to be installed on the vast majority of computers
your designs are likely to be installed on. One fact of life in
Web design is that unless the end user's computer has access to
the font file, then the browser cannot use it.
[57]Pixels or Ems in Your Web Designs
By on November 18, 2009 No Comments
Q: What is the practical difference between px (pixel) and em
(pronounced m)? When is it best to use one over the other?
The short answer is that pixels measure dimensions relative to
the screen while ems measure dimensions relative to type size.
The slightly longer answer is that pixels are the natural unit
for measuring dimensions on a screen and are often used when
precise design is required. Ems are the natural unit for
measuring type and used when you want to allow maximum design
flexibility.
[58]To CSS Reset or Not to CSS Reset
By on November 10, 2009 No Comments
Question: Which Global Reset for CSS Should I Use?
The short answer is the simplest one possible.
The slightly longer answer is that you should reset some styles,
but do so with a good reason.
The long answer is that the exact CSS reset you choose will
depend on the needs of your design. I like to keep my own reset
simple, relying on adding styles to specific tags as needed.
However, there are several styles that are inconsistent or (in
my opinion) poorly set in most browsers.
[59]HTML 5 NOW!
By on August 25, 20092 Comments
Q: Can I start using HTML 5 now?
The short answer is, yes.
The slightly longer answer is, you can use some of the new
features, but you will need to do a little [60]kludging to get
it to work.
The long answer is that HTML is a mark-up language meant to
indicate the structure of a document. HTML 5 is the next
evolutionary step in mark-up languages for the Web, but it is
not implemented on most browsers that your audiences are likely
to be using and it may be some time before it is. That said,
there are some things you can do now to prepare for the future.
[61]Big Things Ahead for HTML 5
By on August 17, 2009 No Comments
Q: Will HTML5 or XHTML5 be the next big thing or just another
collection of past standards and browser war fodder?
The short answer is that, yes, [62]HTML 5 is the next big thing.
The slightly longer answer is that it's going to be a while
before you have to start worrying about HTML 5.
The long answer is that, as with all standards, before it
becomes relevant, the browser makers have to implement it and
then you'll have to wait even longer before legacy browsers are
no longer an issue. So, you have some time before you have to
run out and buy a new HTML 5 Visual QuickStart Guide. The good
news is that HTML 5 has gone to great lengths to stay backwards
compatible, so you can begin to learn and implement it today.
[63]Everyone is a Web Designer
By on August 10, 2009 No Comments
Q: What is a Web Designer anymore? It was easier to make Web
sites all by yourself, even 5 years ago, but now there is just
too much technology for one person to handle. If I want to make
a Web site for a very small business, don't have I to be web
"developer" now?
The short answer is that everybody is a Web designer now.
The slightly longer answer is that Web designers are
practitioners of a highly specialized discipline that requires
years of study to truly master.
The long answer is that a good Web designer is a good designer,
and this can come "naturally" or from training, but is not
medium-dependent. However, a professional Web designer has to
understand the medium well enough to know its strengths and
limitations. Any designer can pump out something that looks
brilliant when displayed in a Web browser window, but is slow to
load, static when loaded, and completely unusable.
[64]Frames are Dead, Long Live Iframes!
By on July 24, 2009 No Comments
Q: Is there a suitable alternative to frames? My wife is
president of a local woman's club. She and I administer the
club's web site, and the ladies like the list of links down one
side of the pages. But I read that frames have been deprecated.
Regardless, I want to keep the site simple.
The short answer is yes-- use iframes.
The slightly longer answer is no, not exactly, but we can get
close.
The long answer is there are a variety of ways to add content to
your Web pages, but the question is: once it's on the page what
are you going to do with it (or to it)?
[65]Q: If I ask ten different web designers what pixel dimensions to
use for web pages and whether to make them fixed-width or
"stretchy," I get ten different answers. What's your answer, and
why?
By on July 20, 2009 No Comments
The short answer is fixed at 974 pixels (px) wide.
The slightly longer answer is whatever it takes to get the job
done.
The long answer is that asking a Web designer what size a Web
page should be is like asking a painter what size a canvas
should be or an architect how large a a building should be.
While it's not purely a matter of taste--there are certain
physical and ergonomic constraints--personal preference accounts
for the wide variety of answers you might hear.
[66]Ask me, ask me, ask me
By on July 1, 2009 No Comments
Do you have a question about Web standards, CSS, JavaScript,
Ajax, interaction design, user experience, or Web typography?
Maybe you just want to know "How'd they do that?" Ask me
questions, and each week I will select a question to answer via
my Peachpit.com blog.
[67]Ask the Web Designer: Why Can't I Use Any Font I Want in My Web
Designs?
By on June 30, 2009 No Comments
The short answer is that you can.
The slightly longer answer is that you can't, at least not in
any meaningful way yet.
The long answer is that the ability to download fonts has
actually been a part of the CSS standard (the language used to
create Web designs) for over 10 years. The snag comes with what
font formats a given browser supports.
[NOTE: You may want to stop reading now, as the rest of this
explanation might make your eyes bleed in frustration.]
[68]Fluid Web Typography
This chapter is from the book
[69]Fluid Web Typography
Jason Cranford Teague shows how giving careful consideration to the
measurements and scale you are designing for is what separates good Web
typography from great Web typography.
Text Alignment
Text alignment is generally taken for granted on the Web--left
alignment suits most purposes most of the time. In order to create a
sense of rhythm and movement on your page, helping to guide the
reader's eye around and adding visual interest to the page, a little
alignment variation can go a long way.
Set body text alignment to minimize gaps and maximize scanning
Text alignment in Web pages is, by default, to the left, with ragged
edges on the right. Justified text--sometimes called newspaper columns,
where both edges of the text are aligned--is rare on the Web.
text-align: left;
text-align: justify;
In print, justified text is created using a variety of techniques
including word spacing, letterspacing, hyphenation, and glyph
reshaping. In addition, well-formed justification is calculated on a
paragraph level to prevent "rivers" of white space flowing down the
middle. On the Web, unfortunately, justification is simply created by
adding small amounts of space between words. On the screen, where you
can only add whole pixels, this often results in uncomfortably large
amounts of space between some words, especially in narrower columns.
Hyphenation is inexplicably absent from CSS. While it is proposed for
inclusion in CSS 3, no work has currently been done on it.
When choosing to use left or justified alignment, keep in mind these
factors:
* Justified text is often seen as more formal and structured, while
left alignment is more informal and approachable.
* Justified text reinforces the grid structure of a page but can be
harder to scan, since it often creates rivers of white space
throughout the text, which interrupts the eye path.
* Left-aligned text adds an element of white space to the right edge,
softening the overall appearance of the page.
Combining Alignments
[70]craigmod.com
Craig Mod combines right-and left-justified columns of text to create
motion and rhythm around his page.
[71]04-17.jpg
[72]Click to view larger image
Center or right-justify text for effect and variety
More rarely used, centering or right-justifying text can create a
specific feeling on the page.
text-align: center;
text-align: right;
Centering and right aligning text is integrally dependent on the design
you are creating and how you want your readers to scan the page. While
using a variety of justifications helps create rhythm and motion on
your page, it can quickly seem cluttered or obnoxious. Always have a
specific purpose for the variance of alignment, and use it sparingly.
Here are a few ideas:
* Bulleted or numbered lists should not be centered or right aligned,
as this makes them harder to scan by moving the beginning of each
line around.
* Center section or module titles/headers if you want to make your
site look a little different. Generally, section titles are best
when left aligned, but centering them gives your designs a unique
feel and may also improve scannability.
* Right-align text in the left column of a page or table if it helps
show a closer relationship between the elements in adjacent
columns.
Centered Section Titles
[73]jontangerine.com
Jon Tangerine combines centered subheadings with justified text in his
blog (detail shown) to create solid structure with visual movement.
[74]04-18.jpg
[75]Click to view larger image
Increase margins for longer quotations and style the citation
Short quotes of less than three lines are included in a paragraph
surround by quotation marks, requiring no other special formatting. In
HTML, the blockquote tag is used to set off a block of text as a
quotation, generally of two lines of text or longer. The quotation
should be styled to distinguish it from other text by indenting its
left and right margins and increasing the top and bottom margins. The
amount of left/right indentation is based on the width of the column
and then adjusted so that it does not conflict with any other indents.
A good measure to offset blockquotes is to double the font size (2em),
although more or less space may be required for wider or narrower
columns:
blockquote { margin: 2em; }
note.jpg In this chapter, we are only considering spacing issues with
blockquotes and citations. Chapters 5 and 6 offer other ways to style
text, including weights, italics, backgrounds, and borders. These can
be deployed to creatively display longer quotations.
This will clearly space the blockquote away from the rest of the text,
but it's also up to the copywriter to make it clear that the text is a
quote and to supply its source, possibly using the cite tag, which
indicates a citation. Turning the cite tag into a block-level element
and right-aligning it when it is included in a blockquote creates a
strong style.
blockquote cite {
display: block;
text-align: right; }
Blockquote Ideas
[76]css-tricks.com/examples/Blockquotes
CSS-Tricks has a page of blockquote ideas with sample code.
The code above will force any text marked by the citation tag to a new
line and right-align it.
[77]04-20.jpg
[78]Click to view larger image
Set footnotes and scientific or mathematical annotations using positioning
rather than vertical alignment
Vertical text alignment allows you to adjust the position of inline
text in relation to its natural baseline, shifting it up or down. For
footnotes, mathematics, and scientific notation, it will not be enough
to simply raise or lower the characters; you will also need to reduce
their size relative to the surrounding text. These styles can be
applied to the superscript and subscript tags, setting the vertical
position to the baseline and then setting a position relative to that:
sup, sub { font-size: .5em;
vertical-align: baseline;
position: relative; }
sup { top: -.65em; }
sup.math { top: -.8em }
sub { top: .2em; }
Although vertical-align provides several values to set the vertical
position of the text, these have proved to be unreliable in
multi-column layouts. The exact values will vary depending on the font,
and you may also need to add some left/right margins to add breathing
room.
[79]04-21.jpg
[80]Click to view larger image
Type Inspirations: Jon Tangerine
Beautiful typographic contrast.
Insightful typography editorials.
[81]jontangerine.com
Jon is a designer living in Bristol, UK, with some of the cleanest pure
Web typography I've seen. On top of this, his information and opinions
on Web typography are required reading for anyone interested in the
ongoing issues we face.
[82]04-22.jpg
[83]Click to view larger image
How he does it:
Jon uses a font stack of Web safe fonts, including Cochin, Baskerville,
and Palatino Linotype, down to Georgia. He then combines a wide variety
of sizes, styles, weights, and colors all scaled and spaced within a
strong grid to provide clear eye paths and legible text.
[84]04-25.jpg
[85]Click to view larger image
[86]04-26.jpg
[87]Click to view larger image
[88]04-27.jpg
[89]Click to view larger image
[90]04-28.jpg
[91]Click to view larger image
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[119]Jason Teague [120]10 Last-minute Gifts for Web Designers
By [121]Jason Cranford Teague on December 17, 2009 1 Comment
Q: What do I get for the Web designer who has everything?
The short answer is real estate.
The slightly longer answer is, anything that helps spark their
creativity.
The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah,
Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [122]Saturnalia
myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift
giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has
everything they need to actually make Web sites?
Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect.
[123]Kara Murphy [124]Just in time for the holidays: Our video-a-day
giveaway
By [125]Kara Murphy on December 16, 2009 No Comments
It's the holiday season, and I bet some of you are already
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learn something new in the field of Web design, development,
presentation, branding, and much more, then you're in luck.
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12 12/2006 [38]Compose to a Vertical Rhythm
by [39]Richard Rutter
* [40]Article
* [41]29 comments
"Space in typography is like time in music. It is infinitely divisible,
but a few proportional intervals can be much more useful than a
limitless choice of arbitrary quantities." So says the typographer
Robert Bringhurst, and just as regular use of time provides rhythm in
music, so regular use of space provides rhythm in typography, and
without rhythm the listener, or the reader, becomes disorientated and
lost.
On the Web, vertical rhythm - the spacing and arrangement of text as
the reader descends the page - is contributed to by three factors: font
size, line height and margin or padding. All of these factors must
calculated with care in order that the rhythm is maintained.
The basic unit of vertical space is line height. Establishing a
suitable line height that can be applied to all text on the page, be it
heading, body copy or sidenote, is the key to a solid dependable
vertical rhythm, which will engage and guide the reader down the page.
To see this in action, I've created [42]an example with headings,
footnotes and sidenotes.
Establishing a suitable line height
The easiest place to begin determining a basic line height unit is with
the font size of the body copy. For [43]the example I've chosen 12px.
To ensure readability the body text will almost certainly need some
leading, that is to say spacing between the lines. A line-height of
1.5em would give 6px spacing between the lines of body copy. This will
create a total line height of 18px, which becomes our basic unit.
Here's the CSS to get us to this point:
1. body {
2. font-size: 75%;
3. }
4.
5. html>body {
6. font-size: 12px;
7. }
8.
9. p {
10. line-height 1.5em;
11. }
12. Source: [44]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/1.txt
There are many ways to size text in CSS and the above approach provides
and accessible method of achieving the pixel-precision solid typography
requires. By way of explanation, the first font-size reduces the body
text from the 16px default (common to most browsers and OS set-ups)
down to the 12px we require. This rule is primarily there for Internet
Explorer 6 and below on Windows: the percentage value means that the
text will scale predictably should a user bump the text size up or
down. The second font-size sets the text size specifically and is
ignored by IE6, but used by Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other
modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels.
Spacing between paragraphs
With our rhythmic unit set at 18px we need to ensure that it is
maintained throughout the body copy. A common place to lose the rhythm
is the gaps set between margins. The default treatment by web browsers
of paragraphs is to insert a top- and bottom-margin of 1em. In our case
this would give a spacing between the paragraphs of 12px and hence
throw the text out of rhythm. If the rhythm of the page is to be
maintained, the spacing of paragraphs should be related to the basic
line height unit. This is achieved simply by setting top- and
bottom-margins equal to the line height.
In order that typographic integrity is maintained when text is resized
by the user we must use ems for all our vertical measurements,
including line-height, padding and margins.
1. p {
2. font-size:1em;
3. margin-top: 1.5em;
4. margin-bottom: 1.5em;
5. }
6. Source: [45]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/2.txt
Browsers set margins on all block-level elements (such as headings,
lists and blockquotes) so a way of ensuring that typographic attention
is paid to all such elements is to reset the margins at the beginning
of your style sheet. You could use a rule such as:
1. body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl
ockquote,th,td {
2. margin:0;
3. padding:0;
4. }
5. Source: [46]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/3.txt
Alternatively you could look into using the [47]Yahoo! UI Reset style
sheet which removes most default styling, so providing a solid
foundation upon which you can explicitly declare your design
intentions.
Variations in text size
When there is a change in text size, perhaps with a heading or
sidenotes, the differing text should also take up a multiple of the
basic leading. This means that, in our example, every diversion from
the basic text size should take up multiples of 18px. This can be
accomplished by adjusting the line-height and margin accordingly, as
described following.
Headings
Subheadings in the [48]example page are set to 14px. In order that the
height of each line is 18px, the line-height should be set to 18 ÷ 14
= 1.286. Similarly the margins above and below the heading must be
adjusted to fit. The temptation is to set heading margins to a simple
1em, but in order to maintain the rhythm, the top and bottom margins
should be set at 1.286em so that the spacing is equal to the full 18px
unit.
1. h2 {
2. font-size:1.1667em;
3. line-height: 1.286em;
4. margin-top: 1.286em;
5. margin-bottom: 1.286em;
6. }
7. Source: [49]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/4.txt
One can also set asymmetrical margins for headings, provided the
margins combine to be multiples of the basic line height. In our
example, a top margin of 1½ lines is combined with a bottom margin of
half a line as follows:
1. h2 {
2. font-size:1.1667em;
3. line-height: 1.286em;
4. margin-top: 1.929em;
5. margin-bottom: 0.643em;
6. }
7. Source: [50]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/5.txt
Also in our example, the main heading is given a text size of 18px,
therefore the line-height has been set to 1em, as has the margin:
1. h1 {
2. font-size:1.5em;
3. line-height: 1em;
4. margin-top: 0;
5. margin-bottom: 1em;
6. }
7. Source: [51]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/6.txt
Sidenotes
Sidenotes (and other supplementary material) are often set at a smaller
size to the basic text. To keep the rhythm, this smaller text should
still line up with body copy, so a calculation similar to that for
headings is required. In our example, the sidenotes are set at 10px and
so their line-height must be increased to 18 ÷ 10 = 1.8.
1. .sidenote {
2. font-size:0.8333em;
3. line-height:1.8em;
4. }
5. Source: [52]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/7.txt
Borders
One additional point where vertical rhythm is often lost is with the
introduction of horizontal borders. These effectively act as shims
pushing the subsequent text downwards, so a two pixel horizontal border
will throw out the vertical rhythm by two pixels. A way around this is
to specify horizontal lines using background images or, as in our
example, specify the width of the border in ems and adjust the padding
to take up the slack.
The design of the footnote in our example requires a 1px horizontal
border. The footnote contains 12px text, so 1px in ems is 1 ÷ 12
= 0.0833. I have added a margin of 1½ lines above the border
(1.5 × 18 ÷ 12 = 2.5ems), so to maintain the rhythm the border +
padding must equal a ½ (9px). We know the border is set to 1px, so the
padding must be set to 8px. To specify this in ems we use the familiar
calculation: 8 ÷ 12 = 0.667.
Hit me with your rhythm stick
Composing to a vertical rhythm helps engage and guide the reader down
the page, but it takes typographic discipline to do so. It may seem
like a lot of fiddly maths is involved (a few divisions and
multiplications never hurt anyone) but good type setting is all about
numbers, and it is this attention to detail which is the key to
success.
Like what you read?
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Comments
* [55]12/12/2006
Wow this is a good article.
* [57]12/12/2006
[58]Will
thanks so much, this is great.
* [59]12/12/2006
Interesting stuff. Also worth reading Eric Meyer's post on unitless
line-heights:
* [61]12/12/2006
It's worth mentioning that IE6 and below can go a bit extreme when
resizing fonts set as ems.
You can fix this by applying font-size: 100% to html. Don't know
why this works, it just does.
Oh, if you're working in quirks mode you'll also need to apply it
to thead, tbody and tfoot, beacuse the fix doesn't inherit (don't
apply it to table unless you want table to inherit font-sizes). You
don't need thead, tbody or tfoot in your tables as tbody is
implied.
Obviously, you can't then apply your own font-sizes to html or
tbody etc, else you'll overwrite the fix, which is why I chose
those particular elements as they're rarely used for font-sizes.
Jake.
* [63]12/12/2006
[64]Mike Stenhouse donotremove.co.uk
Hmmmmm, interesting! I've not tried this but I think there might be
an easier way to set those heights... What if the line-height is
set to, say, 1.5em on the body and 1 (unit-less - it's valid!) on
each descendant element? Or maybe some variation on that. It might
force the 18px to inherit into the children without awkward
calculations.
* [65]12/12/2006
Great article, Richard! Web typography--like all
typography--deserves this level of detailed thinking, and I hope to
see more designers embracing it.
* [67]12/12/2006
[68]michael h
Good introduction to typography theory, but I am convinced that the
Owen Briggs method is the best approach to sizing.
* [69]13/12/2006
I've been working on something similar recently, and I've
discovered that if you set the line-height in pixels, most browsers
will still scale it proportionally along with the text. As IE6's
numbers fall off, I hope we can leave all this black magic scaling
math behind and go back to setting font sizes in pixels and letting
the browsers handle the scaling.
* [71]13/12/2006
Mike - you're right about being able to simplify the line-height
specifications, but it doesn't require setting unitless
line-heights. In the example I use, I've set the font-size to be
12px on the body and calculated line-heights for all the subsequent
elements. As I required one line height - 18px - for all elements I
can remove the multiple statements and simply set line-height:1.5em
on the body. The calculated line-height of 18px is inherited by all
elements on the page. I've modifed the example to show this
(checked in Firefox, Safari and IE6):
However the maths would still need to be performed to calculate the
correct margins, so while the extra line-height specifications are
not strictly necessary (at least while the same line height for all
text is required) you unfortunately don't save much on the
calculations.
* [73]13/12/2006
Jake - the extreme text sizing in IE can be fixed by applying any
percentage font size to the body - it doesn't have to be 100%
(hence my use of 75% fixed this too).
You're right about the tables though. This rule does the job nicely
to inherit the text size:
table, thead, tbody, tr, th, td {font-size:1em}
* [75]13/12/2006
[76]GreLI
In the article next rule is used to reset margins:
body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl
ockquote,th,td {
margin:0;
padding:0;
}
I think it easier to use universal selector (* { margin: 0;
padding: 0 }) instead.
To fix table font-size inheritance it's enough to set
table { font-size: 1em }
Opera AFAIK don't change font-size if it set in pixels, but it can
zoom pages (so does IE7).
* [77]13/12/2006
GreLI - using the universal selector like that to zero all margins
and padding can cause unpredictable results in some form controls
(e.g. SELECT elements) in certain browsers.
Rich - great article; now all someone needs to do is knock up a
nice little app that spits out the right line-heights and margins
for the elements you tell it... :)
* [79]13/12/2006
It's unfortunate that pretty much no one composes with a scale when
publishing for the web. Your article is a great step forward.
Also overlooked are line lengths. Since the beginning of the web,
It has been a standard practice to expand the line lengths out with
the width of the browser (like your site is currently :), causing
line lengths to expand way too long. If an optimal line length for
print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even
smaller.
* [81]14/12/2006
I don't see it mentioned in the comments yet, but your quote above:
"...Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which
allow users to resize text sized in pixels."
is not correct, as IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in
pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized.
* [83]18/12/2006
If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths
for web should be even smaller.
You're right to mention line length as something that is
overlooked, but on the screen it is not as simple as setting the
measure in ems as their are more factors involved (screen size,
liquid layouts, etc). Also I'd disagree that web line lengths
should be shorter on the web. My personal preference would be for
them to be longer - I find short line lengths on screen extremely
hard work to read. That's just my opinion though.
IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout
can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized.
If you think of the reasons for changing text size then zooming a
layout is just another form of resizing text and achieves the same
goal.
* [85]20/12/2006
Theodore, I think you would enjoy Richard's article entitled
"Choose a comfortable measure" over at webtypography.net :)
1.2/
* [87]22/12/2006
[88]Rachel Maxim
You've said in a few pages what has taken me years to figure out
and refine :) - great info!
* [89]23/12/2006
I really enjoyed this article. I have read your Elements of....for
the web, as well as your blog about sizing text in ems. I have
really been looking in to using this and getting the best `flow'
with my typography. I also ordered the book Elements of Typographic
Style just to give a better understanding.
I think its a common misconception that text on the web will always
look bland, and you have proved that it can have rhythm and style.
* [91]02/01/2007
I've just been using some of these techniques on a client's site
who needed 8 tabs all the same width, which fill the available
space - I had it working fine in Firefox, but the tabs didn't fill
the space in Safari or IE. I found that you really have to do the
maths, rather than just use trial and error - they all round the
numbers slightly differently. Once I'd checked my calculations,
rather than tinkered with the numbers, it works fine everywhere, at
least at standard font size.
One other correction from someone's comment earlier on - you can
resize text in IE7 - click the page icon at top right. Why you need
both this and the ability to zoom, I'm not sure, but it's there at
any rate.
* [93]03/01/2007
[94]Ben G
Can you set the margin above or below headings or paragraphs to
less than your 18px base measurement? Won't margin collapsing cause
whichever the largest margin is to take effect?
Ben
* [95]31/01/2009
[96]Daniel
I've been using this article as the basis for designing my site
with some "vertical rhythm". Everything is going well except with
forms (input, textarea, etc.). I just haven't been able to use css
to maintain the vertical rhythm (based on total line height of
18px).
Any advise or insight as to how to get forms to play nicely?
* [97]15/02/2009
[98]Silver Firefly
I wanted to clarify something about the default browser text size
and using the em unit. The article was a tad misleading when it
covered the default browser text size and the em unit. A lot of
designers have it in their heads that an em is equivalent to 16
pixels. An em is not equivalent to 16 pixels. It is equivalent to
whatever is set in the user's browser, which is commonly 16px but
depending on the user, it can be 20px or 12px or whatever they have
set in their browser's settings. I hope after reading that
statement, designers will start to realise that they have little
control over how their website appears in other users' browsers.
The majority of the control lies in the user's hands. Other than
that, the article was very good.
* [99]17/04/2009
Great article... and AWESOME site design. Inspirational!
* [101]27/04/2009
Typesetting for websites is the future, like all things
content-related. The Google knows it :). Thank you for that useful
post. You webdesigners take care of your text!
* [103]05/06/2009
[104]bonfield
Inline bolding of elements (I'm using Helvetica, e.g.) seems to add
a px of height on any line that uses it, and that subtly throws off
the vertical rhythm for each line and it can add up depending
-- anybody else run into this and solve it?
* [105]18/06/2009
[106]Anonymous
Does this truly keep the vertical rhythm? If you zoom in on the
example, you'll see that the descender of the letter g in the H1
header "New England" crosses your rhythm marker's background line,
while a lowercase g in the following paragraph does not. There
appears to be some fudging going on.
* [107]08/07/2009
I find it humorous that this site itself does not compose to a
vertical rhythm. I've seen very few online that do. It's so
difficult to implement across browsers it is usually brushed aside
except for in the most simple design schemes.
* [109]03/08/2009
[110]eric
I've yet to see any empirical evidence that "vertical rhythm"
applied to this degree has any impact on how well a reader is able
to extract signal from the noise of the page.
Meanwhile, I've seen many, many examples of mis-applied "vertical
rhythms" resulting in squashed headings where the underlning on a
link impinges on the text below. Which just looks clunky.
When you've got something other than an aesthetic opinion from the
margins -- maybe some actual data -- then I'll be interested in
expending the effort needed to support real vertical rhythm. Until
then, I just don't see how it's cost-effective.
* [111]02/09/2009
Now, that was the kind of article I was looking for. That goes a
lot deeper than I've been into the realms of line-spacing, leading
(no kerning here though - can we do kerning with css?).
I love the analogy to musical rhythym > therefore probably
following on to mathematics/geometry/proportion. That is a great
lead-in. Is there any room for the `golden ratio' in web design? Do
graphic designers use it with/without realising it? Just that I
haven't seen it discussed in the myriad pages concerning page
layout/design that I've read so far...
Thanks,
Darren
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About the author
[114]Richard Rutter
Richard Rutter is a user experience consultant and director of
[115]Clearleft. He runs an ongoing project called [116]The Elements of
Typographic Style Applied to the Web, where he extols the virtues of
good web typography. Richard occasionally blogs at [117]Clagnut, where
he writes about design, accessibility and web standards issues, as well
as his passion for music and mountain biking.
[118]More information
Related articles
* [119]Real Fonts and Rendering: The New Elephant in the Room
22/12/2009 by [120]Jeffrey Zeldman
* [121]Spruce It Up
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* [123]Designing For The Switch
16/12/2009 by [124]Mark Boulton
* [125]Type-Inspired Interfaces
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* [127]A Festive Type Folly
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* [129]Increase Your Font Stacks With Font Matrix
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* [131]Typesetting Tables
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* [133]Knockout Type - Thin Is Always In
17/12/2006 by [134]Shaun Inman
* [135]An Explanation of Ems
02/12/2005 by [136]Richard Rutter
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[1]Home > [2]Articles > [3]Web Design & Development > [4]Usability
[5]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm
[6]Jason Cranford Teague
* By [7]Jason Cranford Teague
* Dec 23, 2009
[8]Toggle Open Article Table of Contents [9]Article Contents
[10]Close Table of Contents [11]Article Contents
1. [12]Web Measurements
2. [13]Type Size & Line Height
3. [14]Type Space
4. Text Alignment
[15]Close Table of Contents
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* [27]Blogs
[28]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm
Dec 23, 2009
[29]Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers: Creating Meaning through
Syntax
Jul 23, 2009
[30]Designing Webbed Environments: The Importance of the Define and
Design Phases
May 12, 2006
[31]Creating Web Pages for Screen, Print, and Email
Apr 28, 2006
[32]How to Style Forms in CSS
Mar 17, 2006
[33]What Are CSS Sprites?
Mar 3, 2006
[34]Ten Things You Can Do with CSS (That You Might Not Have Known You
Could Do)
Dec 22, 2005
[35]Fluid Web Typography [36]Fluid Web Typography
Nov 24, 2009
[37]Fluid Web Typography, Adobe Reader [38]Fluid Web Typography, Adobe
Reader
Nov 24, 2009
[39]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers
[40]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers
Jun 30, 2009
[41]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers, Adobe
Reader [42]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web
Designers, Adobe Reader
Jun 30, 2009
[43]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, 4th
Edition [44]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual
QuickStart Guide, 4th Edition
Oct 17, 2006
[45]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide,
Adobe Reader, 4th Edition [46]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth
Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, Adobe Reader, 4th Edition
Oct 17, 2006
[47]DHTML and CSS Advanced: Visual QuickPro Guide [48]DHTML and CSS
Advanced: Visual QuickPro Guide
Dec 15, 2004
[49]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 3rd
Edition [50]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual
QuickStart Guide, 3rd Edition
Feb 20, 2004
[51]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 2nd
Edition [52]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual
QuickStart Guide, 2nd Edition
May 30, 2001
[53]10 Last-minute Gifts for Web Designers
By on December 17, 2009 1 Comment
Q: What do I get for the Web designer who has everything?
The short answer is real estate.
The slightly longer answer is, anything that helps spark their
creativity.
The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah,
Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [54]Saturnalia
myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift
giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has
everything they need to actually make Web sites?
Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect.
[55]Choosing the Right Color Value
By on December 14, 2009 No Comments
Q: Should I use Hex or RGB values to define colors in CSS?
The short answer is RGB.
The slightly longer answer is that Hex values have become the de
facto standard for use in CSS code and both developers and
designers are used to them.
The long answer is that, in the final design on the screen,
there is no difference between using Hex or RGB values in your
code. Which system you use is really a matter of you own
personal preference (and those of the team you are working with)
as to whether or not you use Hex or RGB values to define colors.
[56]Expand Your Font Repertoire
By on November 30, 2009 No Comments
Q: Are there alternatives to Arial, Times, and Georgia for Web
designers?
The short answer is YES!
The slightly longer answer is that most designers use Arial,
Times, or Georgia, and, to a lesser degree, Verdana, Trebuchet
MS, Courier, and Comic Sans because they think that's all they
have at their disposal, but they are wrong.
The long answer is that the core Web fonts (the one listed above
plus Impact and Web Dings) are used because they are almost
guaranteed to be installed on the vast majority of computers
your designs are likely to be installed on. One fact of life in
Web design is that unless the end user's computer has access to
the font file, then the browser cannot use it.
[57]Pixels or Ems in Your Web Designs
By on November 18, 2009 No Comments
Q: What is the practical difference between px (pixel) and em
(pronounced m)? When is it best to use one over the other?
The short answer is that pixels measure dimensions relative to
the screen while ems measure dimensions relative to type size.
The slightly longer answer is that pixels are the natural unit
for measuring dimensions on a screen and are often used when
precise design is required. Ems are the natural unit for
measuring type and used when you want to allow maximum design
flexibility.
[58]To CSS Reset or Not to CSS Reset
By on November 10, 2009 No Comments
Question: Which Global Reset for CSS Should I Use?
The short answer is the simplest one possible.
The slightly longer answer is that you should reset some styles,
but do so with a good reason.
The long answer is that the exact CSS reset you choose will
depend on the needs of your design. I like to keep my own reset
simple, relying on adding styles to specific tags as needed.
However, there are several styles that are inconsistent or (in
my opinion) poorly set in most browsers.
[59]HTML 5 NOW!
By on August 25, 20092 Comments
Q: Can I start using HTML 5 now?
The short answer is, yes.
The slightly longer answer is, you can use some of the new
features, but you will need to do a little [60]kludging to get
it to work.
The long answer is that HTML is a mark-up language meant to
indicate the structure of a document. HTML 5 is the next
evolutionary step in mark-up languages for the Web, but it is
not implemented on most browsers that your audiences are likely
to be using and it may be some time before it is. That said,
there are some things you can do now to prepare for the future.
[61]Big Things Ahead for HTML 5
By on August 17, 2009 No Comments
Q: Will HTML5 or XHTML5 be the next big thing or just another
collection of past standards and browser war fodder?
The short answer is that, yes, [62]HTML 5 is the next big thing.
The slightly longer answer is that it's going to be a while
before you have to start worrying about HTML 5.
The long answer is that, as with all standards, before it
becomes relevant, the browser makers have to implement it and
then you'll have to wait even longer before legacy browsers are
no longer an issue. So, you have some time before you have to
run out and buy a new HTML 5 Visual QuickStart Guide. The good
news is that HTML 5 has gone to great lengths to stay backwards
compatible, so you can begin to learn and implement it today.
[63]Everyone is a Web Designer
By on August 10, 2009 No Comments
Q: What is a Web Designer anymore? It was easier to make Web
sites all by yourself, even 5 years ago, but now there is just
too much technology for one person to handle. If I want to make
a Web site for a very small business, don't have I to be web
"developer" now?
The short answer is that everybody is a Web designer now.
The slightly longer answer is that Web designers are
practitioners of a highly specialized discipline that requires
years of study to truly master.
The long answer is that a good Web designer is a good designer,
and this can come "naturally" or from training, but is not
medium-dependent. However, a professional Web designer has to
understand the medium well enough to know its strengths and
limitations. Any designer can pump out something that looks
brilliant when displayed in a Web browser window, but is slow to
load, static when loaded, and completely unusable.
[64]Frames are Dead, Long Live Iframes!
By on July 24, 2009 No Comments
Q: Is there a suitable alternative to frames? My wife is
president of a local woman's club. She and I administer the
club's web site, and the ladies like the list of links down one
side of the pages. But I read that frames have been deprecated.
Regardless, I want to keep the site simple.
The short answer is yes-- use iframes.
The slightly longer answer is no, not exactly, but we can get
close.
The long answer is there are a variety of ways to add content to
your Web pages, but the question is: once it's on the page what
are you going to do with it (or to it)?
[65]Q: If I ask ten different web designers what pixel dimensions to
use for web pages and whether to make them fixed-width or
"stretchy," I get ten different answers. What's your answer, and
why?
By on July 20, 2009 No Comments
The short answer is fixed at 974 pixels (px) wide.
The slightly longer answer is whatever it takes to get the job
done.
The long answer is that asking a Web designer what size a Web
page should be is like asking a painter what size a canvas
should be or an architect how large a a building should be.
While it's not purely a matter of taste--there are certain
physical and ergonomic constraints--personal preference accounts
for the wide variety of answers you might hear.
[66]Ask me, ask me, ask me
By on July 1, 2009 No Comments
Do you have a question about Web standards, CSS, JavaScript,
Ajax, interaction design, user experience, or Web typography?
Maybe you just want to know "How'd they do that?" Ask me
questions, and each week I will select a question to answer via
my Peachpit.com blog.
[67]Ask the Web Designer: Why Can't I Use Any Font I Want in My Web
Designs?
By on June 30, 2009 No Comments
The short answer is that you can.
The slightly longer answer is that you can't, at least not in
any meaningful way yet.
The long answer is that the ability to download fonts has
actually been a part of the CSS standard (the language used to
create Web designs) for over 10 years. The snag comes with what
font formats a given browser supports.
[NOTE: You may want to stop reading now, as the rest of this
explanation might make your eyes bleed in frustration.]
[68]Fluid Web Typography
This chapter is from the book
[69]Fluid Web Typography
Jason Cranford Teague shows how giving careful consideration to the
measurements and scale you are designing for is what separates good Web
typography from great Web typography.
Text Alignment
Text alignment is generally taken for granted on the Web--left
alignment suits most purposes most of the time. In order to create a
sense of rhythm and movement on your page, helping to guide the
reader's eye around and adding visual interest to the page, a little
alignment variation can go a long way.
Set body text alignment to minimize gaps and maximize scanning
Text alignment in Web pages is, by default, to the left, with ragged
edges on the right. Justified text--sometimes called newspaper columns,
where both edges of the text are aligned--is rare on the Web.
text-align: left;
text-align: justify;
In print, justified text is created using a variety of techniques
including word spacing, letterspacing, hyphenation, and glyph
reshaping. In addition, well-formed justification is calculated on a
paragraph level to prevent "rivers" of white space flowing down the
middle. On the Web, unfortunately, justification is simply created by
adding small amounts of space between words. On the screen, where you
can only add whole pixels, this often results in uncomfortably large
amounts of space between some words, especially in narrower columns.
Hyphenation is inexplicably absent from CSS. While it is proposed for
inclusion in CSS 3, no work has currently been done on it.
When choosing to use left or justified alignment, keep in mind these
factors:
* Justified text is often seen as more formal and structured, while
left alignment is more informal and approachable.
* Justified text reinforces the grid structure of a page but can be
harder to scan, since it often creates rivers of white space
throughout the text, which interrupts the eye path.
* Left-aligned text adds an element of white space to the right edge,
softening the overall appearance of the page.
Combining Alignments
[70]craigmod.com
Craig Mod combines right-and left-justified columns of text to create
motion and rhythm around his page.
[71]04-17.jpg
[72]Click to view larger image
Center or right-justify text for effect and variety
More rarely used, centering or right-justifying text can create a
specific feeling on the page.
text-align: center;
text-align: right;
Centering and right aligning text is integrally dependent on the design
you are creating and how you want your readers to scan the page. While
using a variety of justifications helps create rhythm and motion on
your page, it can quickly seem cluttered or obnoxious. Always have a
specific purpose for the variance of alignment, and use it sparingly.
Here are a few ideas:
* Bulleted or numbered lists should not be centered or right aligned,
as this makes them harder to scan by moving the beginning of each
line around.
* Center section or module titles/headers if you want to make your
site look a little different. Generally, section titles are best
when left aligned, but centering them gives your designs a unique
feel and may also improve scannability.
* Right-align text in the left column of a page or table if it helps
show a closer relationship between the elements in adjacent
columns.
Centered Section Titles
[73]jontangerine.com
Jon Tangerine combines centered subheadings with justified text in his
blog (detail shown) to create solid structure with visual movement.
[74]04-18.jpg
[75]Click to view larger image
Increase margins for longer quotations and style the citation
Short quotes of less than three lines are included in a paragraph
surround by quotation marks, requiring no other special formatting. In
HTML, the blockquote tag is used to set off a block of text as a
quotation, generally of two lines of text or longer. The quotation
should be styled to distinguish it from other text by indenting its
left and right margins and increasing the top and bottom margins. The
amount of left/right indentation is based on the width of the column
and then adjusted so that it does not conflict with any other indents.
A good measure to offset blockquotes is to double the font size (2em),
although more or less space may be required for wider or narrower
columns:
blockquote { margin: 2em; }
note.jpg In this chapter, we are only considering spacing issues with
blockquotes and citations. Chapters 5 and 6 offer other ways to style
text, including weights, italics, backgrounds, and borders. These can
be deployed to creatively display longer quotations.
This will clearly space the blockquote away from the rest of the text,
but it's also up to the copywriter to make it clear that the text is a
quote and to supply its source, possibly using the cite tag, which
indicates a citation. Turning the cite tag into a block-level element
and right-aligning it when it is included in a blockquote creates a
strong style.
blockquote cite {
display: block;
text-align: right; }
Blockquote Ideas
[76]css-tricks.com/examples/Blockquotes
CSS-Tricks has a page of blockquote ideas with sample code.
The code above will force any text marked by the citation tag to a new
line and right-align it.
[77]04-20.jpg
[78]Click to view larger image
Set footnotes and scientific or mathematical annotations using positioning
rather than vertical alignment
Vertical text alignment allows you to adjust the position of inline
text in relation to its natural baseline, shifting it up or down. For
footnotes, mathematics, and scientific notation, it will not be enough
to simply raise or lower the characters; you will also need to reduce
their size relative to the surrounding text. These styles can be
applied to the superscript and subscript tags, setting the vertical
position to the baseline and then setting a position relative to that:
sup, sub { font-size: .5em;
vertical-align: baseline;
position: relative; }
sup { top: -.65em; }
sup.math { top: -.8em }
sub { top: .2em; }
Although vertical-align provides several values to set the vertical
position of the text, these have proved to be unreliable in
multi-column layouts. The exact values will vary depending on the font,
and you may also need to add some left/right margins to add breathing
room.
[79]04-21.jpg
[80]Click to view larger image
Type Inspirations: Jon Tangerine
Beautiful typographic contrast.
Insightful typography editorials.
[81]jontangerine.com
Jon is a designer living in Bristol, UK, with some of the cleanest pure
Web typography I've seen. On top of this, his information and opinions
on Web typography are required reading for anyone interested in the
ongoing issues we face.
[82]04-22.jpg
[83]Click to view larger image
How he does it:
Jon uses a font stack of Web safe fonts, including Cochin, Baskerville,
and Palatino Linotype, down to Georgia. He then combines a wide variety
of sizes, styles, weights, and colors all scaled and spaced within a
strong grid to provide clear eye paths and legible text.
[84]04-25.jpg
[85]Click to view larger image
[86]04-26.jpg
[87]Click to view larger image
[88]04-27.jpg
[89]Click to view larger image
[90]04-28.jpg
[91]Click to view larger image
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[65]Open Access Research
A possible connection between psychosomatic symptoms and daily rhythmicity in
growth hormone secretion in healthy Japanese students
Mitsuo Nagane^1 [66]email , Kazunori Yoshimura^2 [67]email , Shu-Ichi
Watanabe^3 [68]email and Masahiko Nomura^4 [69]email
^1 Department of Educational Physiology, Chiba University, Chiba
263-8522, Japan
^2 Department of Rehabilitation, Nihon Institute of Medical Science,
Japan
^3 Department of Physiology, Saitama Medical University, Japan
^4 International Education and Training Center, Saitama Medical
University, Japan
[email.gif] author email [email-ca.gif] corresponding author email
Journal of Circadian Rhythms 2009, 7:10doi:10.1186/1740-3391-7-10
The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be
Received: 3 February 2009
Accepted: 5 August 2009
Published: 5 August 2009
© 2009 Nagane et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
Abstract
Background
Students suffering from psychosomatic symptoms, including drowsiness
and feelings of melancholy, often have basic lifestyle problems. The
aim of this study was to investigate whether psychosomatic complaints
may be related to circadian dysfunction.
Methods
We examined 15 healthy students (4 men and 11 women) between 21 and 22
years old. To assess the presence of psychosomatic symptoms among the
subjects, we developed a self-assessment psychosomatic complaints
questionnaire consisting of five items pertaining to physical symptoms
and five items concerning mental symptoms. The subjects rated their
psychosomatic symptoms twice a day (08:00 and 20:00 h). We also
assessed growth hormone secretion patterns by fluorescence enzyme
immunoassay (FEIA). Salivary samples were collected from the subjects
at home five times a day (20:00, 24:00, 04:00, 08:00, and 12:00 h) in
Salivette tubes.
Results
The results indicated a relationship between the self-assessment scores
and the salivary levels of growth hormone. Subjects with high
self-assessment scores showed significant variability in growth hormone
secretion over the day, whereas subjects with low self-assessment
scores did not.
Conclusion
Psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with circadian dysfunction, as
inferred from blunted rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion.
Background
Japanese students suffering from psychosomatic disorders, such as those
involving mood and sleep, may exhibit basic problems in their
lifestyle, including deleterious changes in their living environment
and dietary or lifestyle disturbances [[72]1]. In particular, staying
up late is associated with decreased appetite and missed breakfast the
following morning, irregular bowel movements and sleepiness. Perhaps
the biggest problem facing today's Japanese students is their lack of
daily physical exercise, brought on by stressful academic courses over
long periods of time, too much television and computer games and
increased automobile use [[73]2]. Many Japanese youngsters stay up late
at night [[74]3].
A circadian pacemaker in the central nervous system regulates human
sleep cycles, hormone secretion, subject alertness, objective
performance levels and other physiologic functions over a 24-h period.
Core body temperature, plasma cortisol, and plasma melatonin are three
variables frequently used to estimate the phase of the human pacemaker
[[75]4], although many other hormones, including growth hormone,
exhibit daily rhythmicity. Technical advances that make the assessment
of biomarkers in saliva possible have enabled researchers to
non-invasively study biosocial processes related to stress in
naturalistic contexts. Chiappin et al [[76]5] showed the usefulness and
possibility of salivary hormone analysis containing growth hormone.
Rantonen [[77]6] found a linear correlation between salivary and serum
growth hormone.
Carroll et al. [[78]7] described negative effects of growth hormone
insufficiency on psychological well-being, including reduced vitality
and energy, depressed mood, emotional lability, impaired self-control,
anxiety, and increased social isolation. Patients with growth hormone
deficiencies report decreased energy levels, greater emotional
lability, increased difficulties with sexual relationships and a
greater sense of social isolation than control subjects [[79]8].
However, no direct relationship has been shown between growth hormone
deficiency and psychometrically measured depression, apathy or
psychosomatic well-being [[80]9].
The purpose of the present study was to investigate individual
variation in the levels of growth hormone in healthy subjects and to
examine the relationship between an individual's hormone profile and
his or her psychosomatic complaints.
Methods
The subjects and self-assessment questionnaire
Fifteen subjects (4 men and 11 women) without major medical disorders
ranging in age from 21 to 22 years participated in this study. The
study design was approved by the Ethics Committee of Chiba University,
Japan, and informed consent was obtained from all subjects. A
self-assessment questionnaire concerning psychosomatic symptoms was
developed in accordance with data from the Health Behavior in
School-Aged Children (HBSC) study of the WHO [[81]10]. The
questionnaire for this study contained five items related to physical
symptoms and five items pertaining to mental symptoms (Table [82]1).
The questionnaire was used to measure each individual's psychosomatic
symptoms at home twice each day (08:00 and 20:00 h). The items were
rated on a 4-point scale, with 1 = not true at all and 4 = completely
true. The total score for the 10-item scale ranged from 10 to 40, with
higher scores indicating a greater degree of psychosomatic complaints.
The subjects were allocated post hoc (median split) to a High (n = 7)
or Low (n = 8) Self-Assessment Group based on their total morning score
(with higher scores corresponding to lower self-assessment).
[83]Table 1. Morning and evening psychosomatic condition scores
collected from the self-assessment psychosomatic complaint
questionnaire
Sample collection
Saliva was collected into Salivette tubes (Sarstedt, Germany) using
polyester swabs from the subjects' mouths following 2 min of chewing.
Samples were collected five times a day at home (20:00, 24:00, 04:00,
08:00, and 12:00 h). Both the day of sampling and the preceding day
were required to be normal days (i.e., without special events or
stressful circumstances). After sample collection, the saliva was
stored at -20°C until being analysed.
Salivary growth hormone assay
On the day of testing, the samples were centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for 10
min to remove all mucin. A standard fluorescent determination
immunoassay was used to assess the growth hormone concentrations in
each sample. To avoid inter-assay variability, all determinations were
performed in a single series. In the first step, 96-well fluoro-nunc
plates (Nunc, Black MicroWell 137101, Denmark) were pre-coated with 100
µl of anti-growth hormone antibody (Quartett, 2071800210, Germany) and
incubated for 1.5 h at room temperature. After incubation, the plate
was washed three times with phosphate-buffered saline and blocked for 1
h. After washing, 100 µl of saliva or a standard solution was dispensed
into each well and left for 1.5 h. After washing, primary antibody
(Funakoshi, FU47500254, Japan) was added to the plates and incubated
for 1.5 h. Next, incubation with a secondary antibody (Novus
Biologicals, NB120-7112, USA) was performed for 1 h. After washing,
rabbit anti-ovine immunoglobulin (Amersham Biosciences, ECF Western
Blotting Reagent Pack, USA) was added. After 20 min of incubation, the
plate was scanned using a Fluoromark Microplate Fluorometer (Bio-Rad,
USA) with excitation at 485 nm and emission at 590 nm.
Data analysis
The significance of differences between group means was tested by
analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by protected t tests when
appropriate. The presence of daily rhythmicity in salivary growth
hormone was tested by ANOVA and by the cosinor procedure [[84]11].
Results
Self-assessment psychosomatic complaints questionnaire
A factorial repeated measures ANOVA (high/low self-assessment versus
morning/evening self-assessment scores) was conducted. ANOVA results
showed significant differences (p < .05) between morning and evening
self-assessment scores. Post hoc analyses revealed that, as shown in
Table [85]1, the high self-assessment group (total 19.00) differed
significantly from the low self-assessment group (total 32.75) in terms
of their morning scores (Welch's t-test, t = -3.96, df = 7.57, p <
0.01). The low self-assessment group subjects complained of negative
psychosomatic conditions including being easily irritated (p < .05),
feeling melancholy (p < .05), having a desire to rest (p < .05), and
feeling anxious (p < .01).
Assessment of daily rhythmicity of salivary growth hormone secretion
We collected saliva profiles from 15 healthy students (4 men and 11
women). The amplitude of salivary growth hormone, defined as the
difference between the highest and lowest salivary concentrations, was
used to produce a standardisation, or Z, score. As shown in Figure
[86]1, noticeable variation was observed in the hormonal rhythms of the
subjects, including differences in the salivary growth hormone
secretion profiles of the high and low self-assessment groups. Cosinor
analysis revealed no significant 24-hour rhythmicity in the secretion
profiles of either group (p > .50), but a repeated measures ANOVA
identified statistically significant (p < .05) time-related variations
for growth hormone in the high self-assessment group. The secretion
profile of the low self-assessment group did not exhibit the typical,
sharp peak in the early morning [[87]12], and ANOVA showed no
time-related variation (p > .10). At 08:00 h, salivary growth hormone
levels were significantly lower (p < .05) in the low self-assessment
group than in the high self-assessment group.
[88]thumbnail Figure 1. Daily variation in salivary level of growth
hormone in the high and low self-assessment groups. The results are
presented as means ± S.E.M. * p < .05.
Discussion
Psychosocial factors have been previously shown to affect the
psychosomatic symptoms reported by Japanese school children [[89]13].
Psychosomatic symptoms, which are largely mediated by the autonomic
nervous system, are strongly influenced by an individual's lifestyle,
and the current so-called 24-h society in Japan may have changed the
environmental conditions of students. More than 80% of school refusal
cases (school phobia) suffer from sleep disorders, with a tendency
towards day/night reversal and easy fatigability, especially during the
period immediately following their school social life [[90]14]. Thus,
impairment in circadian rhythmicity may be a cause of school refusal in
Japan. The present study was the first step in an attempt to
investigate this hypothesis.
Our assessment of salivary growth hormone secretion was not sensitive
enough to detect significant daily rhythmicity, but the highest level
measured in the subjects of our high self-assessment group occurred
earlier in the day than the peak of the daily rhythm measured in a
previous study [[91]15]. Peak hormonal secretions often shift to the
morning if an activity continues long into the night. A link between
deficiency of growth hormone and reduced quality of life or well-being
has been reported by many researchers [[92]7].
Our results indicate a relationship between the self-assessment scores
and the levels of growth hormone. Subjects with high self-assessment
scores in the morning showed significant variability in growth hormone
secretion during the day, whereas subjects with low self-assessment
scores did not. Thus, psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with
hormonal rhythms related to basic lifestyle habits.
Nocturnal melatonin secretion can be suppressed by exposure to light on
the order of several hundred lux, such as ordinary room light [[93]16].
Thus, a subject's pattern of melatonin secretion may reflect his or her
life rhythm, and melatonin secretion appears to be an important index
of circadian rhythmicity. Based on our previous finding that growth
hormone and melatonin exhibit similar daily rhythmicity [[94]17], we
believe that estimates of the state of the central circadian clock can
be most accurate if they are based on the analysis of the secretion
patterns of both melatonin and growth hormone.
Some limitations of our study must be emphasized. First, it is possible
that the sleep-disrupting effect of waking at 00.00 and 04.00 to
produce a saliva sample had a disruptive effect on hormonal secretion.
Second, we observed a larger difference in terms of gender than has
been previously described [[95]18], with women having sevenfold higher
serum growth hormone concentrations than men during the day. Though we
did not directly examine sex differences in growth hormone secretion,
we recognise it as an important topic for further research.
Conclusion
Psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with circadian dysfunction, as
inferred from blunted rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors' contributions
MN designed the experiments, collected data and wrote the manuscript.
KY managed the laboratory and adjusted the schedule of subjects. SW
participated in the design of the study and performed statistical
analysis. MN supervised the study. All authors read and approved the
final version of the article.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported in part by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific
Research (C) from the Japanese Ministry of Education to Nagane M.
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Neurosci Lett 1998, 252:91-94. [137]PubMed Abstract |
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validity of growth hormone as an index of the biological rhythm in
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12 12/2006 [38]Compose to a Vertical Rhythm
by [39]Richard Rutter
* [40]Article
* [41]29 comments
"Space in typography is like time in music. It is infinitely divisible,
but a few proportional intervals can be much more useful than a
limitless choice of arbitrary quantities." So says the typographer
Robert Bringhurst, and just as regular use of time provides rhythm in
music, so regular use of space provides rhythm in typography, and
without rhythm the listener, or the reader, becomes disorientated and
lost.
On the Web, vertical rhythm - the spacing and arrangement of text as
the reader descends the page - is contributed to by three factors: font
size, line height and margin or padding. All of these factors must
calculated with care in order that the rhythm is maintained.
The basic unit of vertical space is line height. Establishing a
suitable line height that can be applied to all text on the page, be it
heading, body copy or sidenote, is the key to a solid dependable
vertical rhythm, which will engage and guide the reader down the page.
To see this in action, I've created [42]an example with headings,
footnotes and sidenotes.
Establishing a suitable line height
The easiest place to begin determining a basic line height unit is with
the font size of the body copy. For [43]the example I've chosen 12px.
To ensure readability the body text will almost certainly need some
leading, that is to say spacing between the lines. A line-height of
1.5em would give 6px spacing between the lines of body copy. This will
create a total line height of 18px, which becomes our basic unit.
Here's the CSS to get us to this point:
1. body {
2. font-size: 75%;
3. }
4.
5. html>body {
6. font-size: 12px;
7. }
8.
9. p {
10. line-height 1.5em;
11. }
12. Source: [44]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/1.txt
There are many ways to size text in CSS and the above approach provides
and accessible method of achieving the pixel-precision solid typography
requires. By way of explanation, the first font-size reduces the body
text from the 16px default (common to most browsers and OS set-ups)
down to the 12px we require. This rule is primarily there for Internet
Explorer 6 and below on Windows: the percentage value means that the
text will scale predictably should a user bump the text size up or
down. The second font-size sets the text size specifically and is
ignored by IE6, but used by Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other
modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels.
Spacing between paragraphs
With our rhythmic unit set at 18px we need to ensure that it is
maintained throughout the body copy. A common place to lose the rhythm
is the gaps set between margins. The default treatment by web browsers
of paragraphs is to insert a top- and bottom-margin of 1em. In our case
this would give a spacing between the paragraphs of 12px and hence
throw the text out of rhythm. If the rhythm of the page is to be
maintained, the spacing of paragraphs should be related to the basic
line height unit. This is achieved simply by setting top- and
bottom-margins equal to the line height.
In order that typographic integrity is maintained when text is resized
by the user we must use ems for all our vertical measurements,
including line-height, padding and margins.
1. p {
2. font-size:1em;
3. margin-top: 1.5em;
4. margin-bottom: 1.5em;
5. }
6. Source: [45]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/2.txt
Browsers set margins on all block-level elements (such as headings,
lists and blockquotes) so a way of ensuring that typographic attention
is paid to all such elements is to reset the margins at the beginning
of your style sheet. You could use a rule such as:
1. body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl
ockquote,th,td {
2. margin:0;
3. padding:0;
4. }
5. Source: [46]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/3.txt
Alternatively you could look into using the [47]Yahoo! UI Reset style
sheet which removes most default styling, so providing a solid
foundation upon which you can explicitly declare your design
intentions.
Variations in text size
When there is a change in text size, perhaps with a heading or
sidenotes, the differing text should also take up a multiple of the
basic leading. This means that, in our example, every diversion from
the basic text size should take up multiples of 18px. This can be
accomplished by adjusting the line-height and margin accordingly, as
described following.
Headings
Subheadings in the [48]example page are set to 14px. In order that the
height of each line is 18px, the line-height should be set to 18 ÷ 14
= 1.286. Similarly the margins above and below the heading must be
adjusted to fit. The temptation is to set heading margins to a simple
1em, but in order to maintain the rhythm, the top and bottom margins
should be set at 1.286em so that the spacing is equal to the full 18px
unit.
1. h2 {
2. font-size:1.1667em;
3. line-height: 1.286em;
4. margin-top: 1.286em;
5. margin-bottom: 1.286em;
6. }
7. Source: [49]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/4.txt
One can also set asymmetrical margins for headings, provided the
margins combine to be multiples of the basic line height. In our
example, a top margin of 1½ lines is combined with a bottom margin of
half a line as follows:
1. h2 {
2. font-size:1.1667em;
3. line-height: 1.286em;
4. margin-top: 1.929em;
5. margin-bottom: 0.643em;
6. }
7. Source: [50]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/5.txt
Also in our example, the main heading is given a text size of 18px,
therefore the line-height has been set to 1em, as has the margin:
1. h1 {
2. font-size:1.5em;
3. line-height: 1em;
4. margin-top: 0;
5. margin-bottom: 1em;
6. }
7. Source: [51]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/6.txt
Sidenotes
Sidenotes (and other supplementary material) are often set at a smaller
size to the basic text. To keep the rhythm, this smaller text should
still line up with body copy, so a calculation similar to that for
headings is required. In our example, the sidenotes are set at 10px and
so their line-height must be increased to 18 ÷ 10 = 1.8.
1. .sidenote {
2. font-size:0.8333em;
3. line-height:1.8em;
4. }
5. Source: [52]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/7.txt
Borders
One additional point where vertical rhythm is often lost is with the
introduction of horizontal borders. These effectively act as shims
pushing the subsequent text downwards, so a two pixel horizontal border
will throw out the vertical rhythm by two pixels. A way around this is
to specify horizontal lines using background images or, as in our
example, specify the width of the border in ems and adjust the padding
to take up the slack.
The design of the footnote in our example requires a 1px horizontal
border. The footnote contains 12px text, so 1px in ems is 1 ÷ 12
= 0.0833. I have added a margin of 1½ lines above the border
(1.5 × 18 ÷ 12 = 2.5ems), so to maintain the rhythm the border +
padding must equal a ½ (9px). We know the border is set to 1px, so the
padding must be set to 8px. To specify this in ems we use the familiar
calculation: 8 ÷ 12 = 0.667.
Hit me with your rhythm stick
Composing to a vertical rhythm helps engage and guide the reader down
the page, but it takes typographic discipline to do so. It may seem
like a lot of fiddly maths is involved (a few divisions and
multiplications never hurt anyone) but good type setting is all about
numbers, and it is this attention to detail which is the key to
success.
Like what you read?
* [53]Tweet this article
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* [54]Leave a comment
Comments
* [55]12/12/2006
Wow this is a good article.
* [57]12/12/2006
[58]Will
thanks so much, this is great.
* [59]12/12/2006
Interesting stuff. Also worth reading Eric Meyer's post on unitless
line-heights:
* [61]12/12/2006
It's worth mentioning that IE6 and below can go a bit extreme when
resizing fonts set as ems.
You can fix this by applying font-size: 100% to html. Don't know
why this works, it just does.
Oh, if you're working in quirks mode you'll also need to apply it
to thead, tbody and tfoot, beacuse the fix doesn't inherit (don't
apply it to table unless you want table to inherit font-sizes). You
don't need thead, tbody or tfoot in your tables as tbody is
implied.
Obviously, you can't then apply your own font-sizes to html or
tbody etc, else you'll overwrite the fix, which is why I chose
those particular elements as they're rarely used for font-sizes.
Jake.
* [63]12/12/2006
[64]Mike Stenhouse donotremove.co.uk
Hmmmmm, interesting! I've not tried this but I think there might be
an easier way to set those heights... What if the line-height is
set to, say, 1.5em on the body and 1 (unit-less - it's valid!) on
each descendant element? Or maybe some variation on that. It might
force the 18px to inherit into the children without awkward
calculations.
* [65]12/12/2006
Great article, Richard! Web typography--like all
typography--deserves this level of detailed thinking, and I hope to
see more designers embracing it.
* [67]12/12/2006
[68]michael h
Good introduction to typography theory, but I am convinced that the
Owen Briggs method is the best approach to sizing.
* [69]13/12/2006
I've been working on something similar recently, and I've
discovered that if you set the line-height in pixels, most browsers
will still scale it proportionally along with the text. As IE6's
numbers fall off, I hope we can leave all this black magic scaling
math behind and go back to setting font sizes in pixels and letting
the browsers handle the scaling.
* [71]13/12/2006
Mike - you're right about being able to simplify the line-height
specifications, but it doesn't require setting unitless
line-heights. In the example I use, I've set the font-size to be
12px on the body and calculated line-heights for all the subsequent
elements. As I required one line height - 18px - for all elements I
can remove the multiple statements and simply set line-height:1.5em
on the body. The calculated line-height of 18px is inherited by all
elements on the page. I've modifed the example to show this
(checked in Firefox, Safari and IE6):
However the maths would still need to be performed to calculate the
correct margins, so while the extra line-height specifications are
not strictly necessary (at least while the same line height for all
text is required) you unfortunately don't save much on the
calculations.
* [73]13/12/2006
Jake - the extreme text sizing in IE can be fixed by applying any
percentage font size to the body - it doesn't have to be 100%
(hence my use of 75% fixed this too).
You're right about the tables though. This rule does the job nicely
to inherit the text size:
table, thead, tbody, tr, th, td {font-size:1em}
* [75]13/12/2006
[76]GreLI
In the article next rule is used to reset margins:
body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl
ockquote,th,td {
margin:0;
padding:0;
}
I think it easier to use universal selector (* { margin: 0;
padding: 0 }) instead.
To fix table font-size inheritance it's enough to set
table { font-size: 1em }
Opera AFAIK don't change font-size if it set in pixels, but it can
zoom pages (so does IE7).
* [77]13/12/2006
GreLI - using the universal selector like that to zero all margins
and padding can cause unpredictable results in some form controls
(e.g. SELECT elements) in certain browsers.
Rich - great article; now all someone needs to do is knock up a
nice little app that spits out the right line-heights and margins
for the elements you tell it... :)
* [79]13/12/2006
It's unfortunate that pretty much no one composes with a scale when
publishing for the web. Your article is a great step forward.
Also overlooked are line lengths. Since the beginning of the web,
It has been a standard practice to expand the line lengths out with
the width of the browser (like your site is currently :), causing
line lengths to expand way too long. If an optimal line length for
print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even
smaller.
* [81]14/12/2006
I don't see it mentioned in the comments yet, but your quote above:
"...Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which
allow users to resize text sized in pixels."
is not correct, as IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in
pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized.
* [83]18/12/2006
If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths
for web should be even smaller.
You're right to mention line length as something that is
overlooked, but on the screen it is not as simple as setting the
measure in ems as their are more factors involved (screen size,
liquid layouts, etc). Also I'd disagree that web line lengths
should be shorter on the web. My personal preference would be for
them to be longer - I find short line lengths on screen extremely
hard work to read. That's just my opinion though.
IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout
can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized.
If you think of the reasons for changing text size then zooming a
layout is just another form of resizing text and achieves the same
goal.
* [85]20/12/2006
Theodore, I think you would enjoy Richard's article entitled
"Choose a comfortable measure" over at webtypography.net :)
1.2/
* [87]22/12/2006
[88]Rachel Maxim
You've said in a few pages what has taken me years to figure out
and refine :) - great info!
* [89]23/12/2006
I really enjoyed this article. I have read your Elements of....for
the web, as well as your blog about sizing text in ems. I have
really been looking in to using this and getting the best `flow'
with my typography. I also ordered the book Elements of Typographic
Style just to give a better understanding.
I think its a common misconception that text on the web will always
look bland, and you have proved that it can have rhythm and style.
* [91]02/01/2007
I've just been using some of these techniques on a client's site
who needed 8 tabs all the same width, which fill the available
space - I had it working fine in Firefox, but the tabs didn't fill
the space in Safari or IE. I found that you really have to do the
maths, rather than just use trial and error - they all round the
numbers slightly differently. Once I'd checked my calculations,
rather than tinkered with the numbers, it works fine everywhere, at
least at standard font size.
One other correction from someone's comment earlier on - you can
resize text in IE7 - click the page icon at top right. Why you need
both this and the ability to zoom, I'm not sure, but it's there at
any rate.
* [93]03/01/2007
[94]Ben G
Can you set the margin above or below headings or paragraphs to
less than your 18px base measurement? Won't margin collapsing cause
whichever the largest margin is to take effect?
Ben
* [95]31/01/2009
[96]Daniel
I've been using this article as the basis for designing my site
with some "vertical rhythm". Everything is going well except with
forms (input, textarea, etc.). I just haven't been able to use css
to maintain the vertical rhythm (based on total line height of
18px).
Any advise or insight as to how to get forms to play nicely?
* [97]15/02/2009
[98]Silver Firefly
I wanted to clarify something about the default browser text size
and using the em unit. The article was a tad misleading when it
covered the default browser text size and the em unit. A lot of
designers have it in their heads that an em is equivalent to 16
pixels. An em is not equivalent to 16 pixels. It is equivalent to
whatever is set in the user's browser, which is commonly 16px but
depending on the user, it can be 20px or 12px or whatever they have
set in their browser's settings. I hope after reading that
statement, designers will start to realise that they have little
control over how their website appears in other users' browsers.
The majority of the control lies in the user's hands. Other than
that, the article was very good.
* [99]17/04/2009
Great article... and AWESOME site design. Inspirational!
* [101]27/04/2009
Typesetting for websites is the future, like all things
content-related. The Google knows it :). Thank you for that useful
post. You webdesigners take care of your text!
* [103]05/06/2009
[104]bonfield
Inline bolding of elements (I'm using Helvetica, e.g.) seems to add
a px of height on any line that uses it, and that subtly throws off
the vertical rhythm for each line and it can add up depending
-- anybody else run into this and solve it?
* [105]18/06/2009
[106]Anonymous
Does this truly keep the vertical rhythm? If you zoom in on the
example, you'll see that the descender of the letter g in the H1
header "New England" crosses your rhythm marker's background line,
while a lowercase g in the following paragraph does not. There
appears to be some fudging going on.
* [107]08/07/2009
I find it humorous that this site itself does not compose to a
vertical rhythm. I've seen very few online that do. It's so
difficult to implement across browsers it is usually brushed aside
except for in the most simple design schemes.
* [109]03/08/2009
[110]eric
I've yet to see any empirical evidence that "vertical rhythm"
applied to this degree has any impact on how well a reader is able
to extract signal from the noise of the page.
Meanwhile, I've seen many, many examples of mis-applied "vertical
rhythms" resulting in squashed headings where the underlning on a
link impinges on the text below. Which just looks clunky.
When you've got something other than an aesthetic opinion from the
margins -- maybe some actual data -- then I'll be interested in
expending the effort needed to support real vertical rhythm. Until
then, I just don't see how it's cost-effective.
* [111]02/09/2009
Now, that was the kind of article I was looking for. That goes a
lot deeper than I've been into the realms of line-spacing, leading
(no kerning here though - can we do kerning with css?).
I love the analogy to musical rhythym > therefore probably
following on to mathematics/geometry/proportion. That is a great
lead-in. Is there any room for the `golden ratio' in web design? Do
graphic designers use it with/without realising it? Just that I
haven't seen it discussed in the myriad pages concerning page
layout/design that I've read so far...
Thanks,
Darren
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About the author
[114]Richard Rutter
Richard Rutter is a user experience consultant and director of
[115]Clearleft. He runs an ongoing project called [116]The Elements of
Typographic Style Applied to the Web, where he extols the virtues of
good web typography. Richard occasionally blogs at [117]Clagnut, where
he writes about design, accessibility and web standards issues, as well
as his passion for music and mountain biking.
[118]More information
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[5]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm
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* Dec 23, 2009
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1. [12]Web Measurements
2. [13]Type Size & Line Height
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The slightly longer answer is, anything that helps spark their
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The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah,
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By on December 14, 2009 No Comments
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By on November 30, 2009 No Comments
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your designs are likely to be installed on. One fact of life in
Web design is that unless the end user's computer has access to
the font file, then the browser cannot use it.
[57]Pixels or Ems in Your Web Designs
By on November 18, 2009 No Comments
Q: What is the practical difference between px (pixel) and em
(pronounced m)? When is it best to use one over the other?
The short answer is that pixels measure dimensions relative to
the screen while ems measure dimensions relative to type size.
The slightly longer answer is that pixels are the natural unit
for measuring dimensions on a screen and are often used when
precise design is required. Ems are the natural unit for
measuring type and used when you want to allow maximum design
flexibility.
[58]To CSS Reset or Not to CSS Reset
By on November 10, 2009 No Comments
Question: Which Global Reset for CSS Should I Use?
The short answer is the simplest one possible.
The slightly longer answer is that you should reset some styles,
but do so with a good reason.
The long answer is that the exact CSS reset you choose will
depend on the needs of your design. I like to keep my own reset
simple, relying on adding styles to specific tags as needed.
However, there are several styles that are inconsistent or (in
my opinion) poorly set in most browsers.
[59]HTML 5 NOW!
By on August 25, 20092 Comments
Q: Can I start using HTML 5 now?
The short answer is, yes.
The slightly longer answer is, you can use some of the new
features, but you will need to do a little [60]kludging to get
it to work.
The long answer is that HTML is a mark-up language meant to
indicate the structure of a document. HTML 5 is the next
evolutionary step in mark-up languages for the Web, but it is
not implemented on most browsers that your audiences are likely
to be using and it may be some time before it is. That said,
there are some things you can do now to prepare for the future.
[61]Big Things Ahead for HTML 5
By on August 17, 2009 No Comments
Q: Will HTML5 or XHTML5 be the next big thing or just another
collection of past standards and browser war fodder?
The short answer is that, yes, [62]HTML 5 is the next big thing.
The slightly longer answer is that it's going to be a while
before you have to start worrying about HTML 5.
The long answer is that, as with all standards, before it
becomes relevant, the browser makers have to implement it and
then you'll have to wait even longer before legacy browsers are
no longer an issue. So, you have some time before you have to
run out and buy a new HTML 5 Visual QuickStart Guide. The good
news is that HTML 5 has gone to great lengths to stay backwards
compatible, so you can begin to learn and implement it today.
[63]Everyone is a Web Designer
By on August 10, 2009 No Comments
Q: What is a Web Designer anymore? It was easier to make Web
sites all by yourself, even 5 years ago, but now there is just
too much technology for one person to handle. If I want to make
a Web site for a very small business, don't have I to be web
"developer" now?
The short answer is that everybody is a Web designer now.
The slightly longer answer is that Web designers are
practitioners of a highly specialized discipline that requires
years of study to truly master.
The long answer is that a good Web designer is a good designer,
and this can come "naturally" or from training, but is not
medium-dependent. However, a professional Web designer has to
understand the medium well enough to know its strengths and
limitations. Any designer can pump out something that looks
brilliant when displayed in a Web browser window, but is slow to
load, static when loaded, and completely unusable.
[64]Frames are Dead, Long Live Iframes!
By on July 24, 2009 No Comments
Q: Is there a suitable alternative to frames? My wife is
president of a local woman's club. She and I administer the
club's web site, and the ladies like the list of links down one
side of the pages. But I read that frames have been deprecated.
Regardless, I want to keep the site simple.
The short answer is yes-- use iframes.
The slightly longer answer is no, not exactly, but we can get
close.
The long answer is there are a variety of ways to add content to
your Web pages, but the question is: once it's on the page what
are you going to do with it (or to it)?
[65]Q: If I ask ten different web designers what pixel dimensions to
use for web pages and whether to make them fixed-width or
"stretchy," I get ten different answers. What's your answer, and
why?
By on July 20, 2009 No Comments
The short answer is fixed at 974 pixels (px) wide.
The slightly longer answer is whatever it takes to get the job
done.
The long answer is that asking a Web designer what size a Web
page should be is like asking a painter what size a canvas
should be or an architect how large a a building should be.
While it's not purely a matter of taste--there are certain
physical and ergonomic constraints--personal preference accounts
for the wide variety of answers you might hear.
[66]Ask me, ask me, ask me
By on July 1, 2009 No Comments
Do you have a question about Web standards, CSS, JavaScript,
Ajax, interaction design, user experience, or Web typography?
Maybe you just want to know "How'd they do that?" Ask me
questions, and each week I will select a question to answer via
my Peachpit.com blog.
[67]Ask the Web Designer: Why Can't I Use Any Font I Want in My Web
Designs?
By on June 30, 2009 No Comments
The short answer is that you can.
The slightly longer answer is that you can't, at least not in
any meaningful way yet.
The long answer is that the ability to download fonts has
actually been a part of the CSS standard (the language used to
create Web designs) for over 10 years. The snag comes with what
font formats a given browser supports.
[NOTE: You may want to stop reading now, as the rest of this
explanation might make your eyes bleed in frustration.]
[68]Fluid Web Typography
This chapter is from the book
[69]Fluid Web Typography
Jason Cranford Teague shows how giving careful consideration to the
measurements and scale you are designing for is what separates good Web
typography from great Web typography.
Text Alignment
Text alignment is generally taken for granted on the Web--left
alignment suits most purposes most of the time. In order to create a
sense of rhythm and movement on your page, helping to guide the
reader's eye around and adding visual interest to the page, a little
alignment variation can go a long way.
Set body text alignment to minimize gaps and maximize scanning
Text alignment in Web pages is, by default, to the left, with ragged
edges on the right. Justified text--sometimes called newspaper columns,
where both edges of the text are aligned--is rare on the Web.
text-align: left;
text-align: justify;
In print, justified text is created using a variety of techniques
including word spacing, letterspacing, hyphenation, and glyph
reshaping. In addition, well-formed justification is calculated on a
paragraph level to prevent "rivers" of white space flowing down the
middle. On the Web, unfortunately, justification is simply created by
adding small amounts of space between words. On the screen, where you
can only add whole pixels, this often results in uncomfortably large
amounts of space between some words, especially in narrower columns.
Hyphenation is inexplicably absent from CSS. While it is proposed for
inclusion in CSS 3, no work has currently been done on it.
When choosing to use left or justified alignment, keep in mind these
factors:
* Justified text is often seen as more formal and structured, while
left alignment is more informal and approachable.
* Justified text reinforces the grid structure of a page but can be
harder to scan, since it often creates rivers of white space
throughout the text, which interrupts the eye path.
* Left-aligned text adds an element of white space to the right edge,
softening the overall appearance of the page.
Combining Alignments
[70]craigmod.com
Craig Mod combines right-and left-justified columns of text to create
motion and rhythm around his page.
[71]04-17.jpg
[72]Click to view larger image
Center or right-justify text for effect and variety
More rarely used, centering or right-justifying text can create a
specific feeling on the page.
text-align: center;
text-align: right;
Centering and right aligning text is integrally dependent on the design
you are creating and how you want your readers to scan the page. While
using a variety of justifications helps create rhythm and motion on
your page, it can quickly seem cluttered or obnoxious. Always have a
specific purpose for the variance of alignment, and use it sparingly.
Here are a few ideas:
* Bulleted or numbered lists should not be centered or right aligned,
as this makes them harder to scan by moving the beginning of each
line around.
* Center section or module titles/headers if you want to make your
site look a little different. Generally, section titles are best
when left aligned, but centering them gives your designs a unique
feel and may also improve scannability.
* Right-align text in the left column of a page or table if it helps
show a closer relationship between the elements in adjacent
columns.
Centered Section Titles
[73]jontangerine.com
Jon Tangerine combines centered subheadings with justified text in his
blog (detail shown) to create solid structure with visual movement.
[74]04-18.jpg
[75]Click to view larger image
Increase margins for longer quotations and style the citation
Short quotes of less than three lines are included in a paragraph
surround by quotation marks, requiring no other special formatting. In
HTML, the blockquote tag is used to set off a block of text as a
quotation, generally of two lines of text or longer. The quotation
should be styled to distinguish it from other text by indenting its
left and right margins and increasing the top and bottom margins. The
amount of left/right indentation is based on the width of the column
and then adjusted so that it does not conflict with any other indents.
A good measure to offset blockquotes is to double the font size (2em),
although more or less space may be required for wider or narrower
columns:
blockquote { margin: 2em; }
note.jpg In this chapter, we are only considering spacing issues with
blockquotes and citations. Chapters 5 and 6 offer other ways to style
text, including weights, italics, backgrounds, and borders. These can
be deployed to creatively display longer quotations.
This will clearly space the blockquote away from the rest of the text,
but it's also up to the copywriter to make it clear that the text is a
quote and to supply its source, possibly using the cite tag, which
indicates a citation. Turning the cite tag into a block-level element
and right-aligning it when it is included in a blockquote creates a
strong style.
blockquote cite {
display: block;
text-align: right; }
Blockquote Ideas
[76]css-tricks.com/examples/Blockquotes
CSS-Tricks has a page of blockquote ideas with sample code.
The code above will force any text marked by the citation tag to a new
line and right-align it.
[77]04-20.jpg
[78]Click to view larger image
Set footnotes and scientific or mathematical annotations using positioning
rather than vertical alignment
Vertical text alignment allows you to adjust the position of inline
text in relation to its natural baseline, shifting it up or down. For
footnotes, mathematics, and scientific notation, it will not be enough
to simply raise or lower the characters; you will also need to reduce
their size relative to the surrounding text. These styles can be
applied to the superscript and subscript tags, setting the vertical
position to the baseline and then setting a position relative to that:
sup, sub { font-size: .5em;
vertical-align: baseline;
position: relative; }
sup { top: -.65em; }
sup.math { top: -.8em }
sub { top: .2em; }
Although vertical-align provides several values to set the vertical
position of the text, these have proved to be unreliable in
multi-column layouts. The exact values will vary depending on the font,
and you may also need to add some left/right margins to add breathing
room.
[79]04-21.jpg
[80]Click to view larger image
Type Inspirations: Jon Tangerine
Beautiful typographic contrast.
Insightful typography editorials.
[81]jontangerine.com
Jon is a designer living in Bristol, UK, with some of the cleanest pure
Web typography I've seen. On top of this, his information and opinions
on Web typography are required reading for anyone interested in the
ongoing issues we face.
[82]04-22.jpg
[83]Click to view larger image
How he does it:
Jon uses a font stack of Web safe fonts, including Cochin, Baskerville,
and Palatino Linotype, down to Georgia. He then combines a wide variety
of sizes, styles, weights, and colors all scaled and spaced within a
strong grid to provide clear eye paths and legible text.
[84]04-25.jpg
[85]Click to view larger image
[86]04-26.jpg
[87]Click to view larger image
[88]04-27.jpg
[89]Click to view larger image
[90]04-28.jpg
[91]Click to view larger image
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The Peachpit offices join the Google 3D Warehouse, courtesy of
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[119]Jason Teague [120]10 Last-minute Gifts for Web Designers
By [121]Jason Cranford Teague on December 17, 2009 1 Comment
Q: What do I get for the Web designer who has everything?
The short answer is real estate.
The slightly longer answer is, anything that helps spark their
creativity.
The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah,
Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [122]Saturnalia
myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift
giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has
everything they need to actually make Web sites?
Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect.
[123]Kara Murphy [124]Just in time for the holidays: Our video-a-day
giveaway
By [125]Kara Murphy on December 16, 2009 No Comments
It's the holiday season, and I bet some of you are already
thinking of your New Year's resolutions. If one of them is to
learn something new in the field of Web design, development,
presentation, branding, and much more, then you're in luck.
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[32]Journal of Circadian Rhythms
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[65]Open Access Research
A possible connection between psychosomatic symptoms and daily rhythmicity in
growth hormone secretion in healthy Japanese students
Mitsuo Nagane^1 [66]email , Kazunori Yoshimura^2 [67]email , Shu-Ichi
Watanabe^3 [68]email and Masahiko Nomura^4 [69]email
^1 Department of Educational Physiology, Chiba University, Chiba
263-8522, Japan
^2 Department of Rehabilitation, Nihon Institute of Medical Science,
Japan
^3 Department of Physiology, Saitama Medical University, Japan
^4 International Education and Training Center, Saitama Medical
University, Japan
[email.gif] author email [email-ca.gif] corresponding author email
Journal of Circadian Rhythms 2009, 7:10doi:10.1186/1740-3391-7-10
The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be
Received: 3 February 2009
Accepted: 5 August 2009
Published: 5 August 2009
© 2009 Nagane et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
Abstract
Background
Students suffering from psychosomatic symptoms, including drowsiness
and feelings of melancholy, often have basic lifestyle problems. The
aim of this study was to investigate whether psychosomatic complaints
may be related to circadian dysfunction.
Methods
We examined 15 healthy students (4 men and 11 women) between 21 and 22
years old. To assess the presence of psychosomatic symptoms among the
subjects, we developed a self-assessment psychosomatic complaints
questionnaire consisting of five items pertaining to physical symptoms
and five items concerning mental symptoms. The subjects rated their
psychosomatic symptoms twice a day (08:00 and 20:00 h). We also
assessed growth hormone secretion patterns by fluorescence enzyme
immunoassay (FEIA). Salivary samples were collected from the subjects
at home five times a day (20:00, 24:00, 04:00, 08:00, and 12:00 h) in
Salivette tubes.
Results
The results indicated a relationship between the self-assessment scores
and the salivary levels of growth hormone. Subjects with high
self-assessment scores showed significant variability in growth hormone
secretion over the day, whereas subjects with low self-assessment
scores did not.
Conclusion
Psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with circadian dysfunction, as
inferred from blunted rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion.
Background
Japanese students suffering from psychosomatic disorders, such as those
involving mood and sleep, may exhibit basic problems in their
lifestyle, including deleterious changes in their living environment
and dietary or lifestyle disturbances [[72]1]. In particular, staying
up late is associated with decreased appetite and missed breakfast the
following morning, irregular bowel movements and sleepiness. Perhaps
the biggest problem facing today's Japanese students is their lack of
daily physical exercise, brought on by stressful academic courses over
long periods of time, too much television and computer games and
increased automobile use [[73]2]. Many Japanese youngsters stay up late
at night [[74]3].
A circadian pacemaker in the central nervous system regulates human
sleep cycles, hormone secretion, subject alertness, objective
performance levels and other physiologic functions over a 24-h period.
Core body temperature, plasma cortisol, and plasma melatonin are three
variables frequently used to estimate the phase of the human pacemaker
[[75]4], although many other hormones, including growth hormone,
exhibit daily rhythmicity. Technical advances that make the assessment
of biomarkers in saliva possible have enabled researchers to
non-invasively study biosocial processes related to stress in
naturalistic contexts. Chiappin et al [[76]5] showed the usefulness and
possibility of salivary hormone analysis containing growth hormone.
Rantonen [[77]6] found a linear correlation between salivary and serum
growth hormone.
Carroll et al. [[78]7] described negative effects of growth hormone
insufficiency on psychological well-being, including reduced vitality
and energy, depressed mood, emotional lability, impaired self-control,
anxiety, and increased social isolation. Patients with growth hormone
deficiencies report decreased energy levels, greater emotional
lability, increased difficulties with sexual relationships and a
greater sense of social isolation than control subjects [[79]8].
However, no direct relationship has been shown between growth hormone
deficiency and psychometrically measured depression, apathy or
psychosomatic well-being [[80]9].
The purpose of the present study was to investigate individual
variation in the levels of growth hormone in healthy subjects and to
examine the relationship between an individual's hormone profile and
his or her psychosomatic complaints.
Methods
The subjects and self-assessment questionnaire
Fifteen subjects (4 men and 11 women) without major medical disorders
ranging in age from 21 to 22 years participated in this study. The
study design was approved by the Ethics Committee of Chiba University,
Japan, and informed consent was obtained from all subjects. A
self-assessment questionnaire concerning psychosomatic symptoms was
developed in accordance with data from the Health Behavior in
School-Aged Children (HBSC) study of the WHO [[81]10]. The
questionnaire for this study contained five items related to physical
symptoms and five items pertaining to mental symptoms (Table [82]1).
The questionnaire was used to measure each individual's psychosomatic
symptoms at home twice each day (08:00 and 20:00 h). The items were
rated on a 4-point scale, with 1 = not true at all and 4 = completely
true. The total score for the 10-item scale ranged from 10 to 40, with
higher scores indicating a greater degree of psychosomatic complaints.
The subjects were allocated post hoc (median split) to a High (n = 7)
or Low (n = 8) Self-Assessment Group based on their total morning score
(with higher scores corresponding to lower self-assessment).
[83]Table 1. Morning and evening psychosomatic condition scores
collected from the self-assessment psychosomatic complaint
questionnaire
Sample collection
Saliva was collected into Salivette tubes (Sarstedt, Germany) using
polyester swabs from the subjects' mouths following 2 min of chewing.
Samples were collected five times a day at home (20:00, 24:00, 04:00,
08:00, and 12:00 h). Both the day of sampling and the preceding day
were required to be normal days (i.e., without special events or
stressful circumstances). After sample collection, the saliva was
stored at -20°C until being analysed.
Salivary growth hormone assay
On the day of testing, the samples were centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for 10
min to remove all mucin. A standard fluorescent determination
immunoassay was used to assess the growth hormone concentrations in
each sample. To avoid inter-assay variability, all determinations were
performed in a single series. In the first step, 96-well fluoro-nunc
plates (Nunc, Black MicroWell 137101, Denmark) were pre-coated with 100
µl of anti-growth hormone antibody (Quartett, 2071800210, Germany) and
incubated for 1.5 h at room temperature. After incubation, the plate
was washed three times with phosphate-buffered saline and blocked for 1
h. After washing, 100 µl of saliva or a standard solution was dispensed
into each well and left for 1.5 h. After washing, primary antibody
(Funakoshi, FU47500254, Japan) was added to the plates and incubated
for 1.5 h. Next, incubation with a secondary antibody (Novus
Biologicals, NB120-7112, USA) was performed for 1 h. After washing,
rabbit anti-ovine immunoglobulin (Amersham Biosciences, ECF Western
Blotting Reagent Pack, USA) was added. After 20 min of incubation, the
plate was scanned using a Fluoromark Microplate Fluorometer (Bio-Rad,
USA) with excitation at 485 nm and emission at 590 nm.
Data analysis
The significance of differences between group means was tested by
analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by protected t tests when
appropriate. The presence of daily rhythmicity in salivary growth
hormone was tested by ANOVA and by the cosinor procedure [[84]11].
Results
Self-assessment psychosomatic complaints questionnaire
A factorial repeated measures ANOVA (high/low self-assessment versus
morning/evening self-assessment scores) was conducted. ANOVA results
showed significant differences (p < .05) between morning and evening
self-assessment scores. Post hoc analyses revealed that, as shown in
Table [85]1, the high self-assessment group (total 19.00) differed
significantly from the low self-assessment group (total 32.75) in terms
of their morning scores (Welch's t-test, t = -3.96, df = 7.57, p <
0.01). The low self-assessment group subjects complained of negative
psychosomatic conditions including being easily irritated (p < .05),
feeling melancholy (p < .05), having a desire to rest (p < .05), and
feeling anxious (p < .01).
Assessment of daily rhythmicity of salivary growth hormone secretion
We collected saliva profiles from 15 healthy students (4 men and 11
women). The amplitude of salivary growth hormone, defined as the
difference between the highest and lowest salivary concentrations, was
used to produce a standardisation, or Z, score. As shown in Figure
[86]1, noticeable variation was observed in the hormonal rhythms of the
subjects, including differences in the salivary growth hormone
secretion profiles of the high and low self-assessment groups. Cosinor
analysis revealed no significant 24-hour rhythmicity in the secretion
profiles of either group (p > .50), but a repeated measures ANOVA
identified statistically significant (p < .05) time-related variations
for growth hormone in the high self-assessment group. The secretion
profile of the low self-assessment group did not exhibit the typical,
sharp peak in the early morning [[87]12], and ANOVA showed no
time-related variation (p > .10). At 08:00 h, salivary growth hormone
levels were significantly lower (p < .05) in the low self-assessment
group than in the high self-assessment group.
[88]thumbnail Figure 1. Daily variation in salivary level of growth
hormone in the high and low self-assessment groups. The results are
presented as means ± S.E.M. * p < .05.
Discussion
Psychosocial factors have been previously shown to affect the
psychosomatic symptoms reported by Japanese school children [[89]13].
Psychosomatic symptoms, which are largely mediated by the autonomic
nervous system, are strongly influenced by an individual's lifestyle,
and the current so-called 24-h society in Japan may have changed the
environmental conditions of students. More than 80% of school refusal
cases (school phobia) suffer from sleep disorders, with a tendency
towards day/night reversal and easy fatigability, especially during the
period immediately following their school social life [[90]14]. Thus,
impairment in circadian rhythmicity may be a cause of school refusal in
Japan. The present study was the first step in an attempt to
investigate this hypothesis.
Our assessment of salivary growth hormone secretion was not sensitive
enough to detect significant daily rhythmicity, but the highest level
measured in the subjects of our high self-assessment group occurred
earlier in the day than the peak of the daily rhythm measured in a
previous study [[91]15]. Peak hormonal secretions often shift to the
morning if an activity continues long into the night. A link between
deficiency of growth hormone and reduced quality of life or well-being
has been reported by many researchers [[92]7].
Our results indicate a relationship between the self-assessment scores
and the levels of growth hormone. Subjects with high self-assessment
scores in the morning showed significant variability in growth hormone
secretion during the day, whereas subjects with low self-assessment
scores did not. Thus, psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with
hormonal rhythms related to basic lifestyle habits.
Nocturnal melatonin secretion can be suppressed by exposure to light on
the order of several hundred lux, such as ordinary room light [[93]16].
Thus, a subject's pattern of melatonin secretion may reflect his or her
life rhythm, and melatonin secretion appears to be an important index
of circadian rhythmicity. Based on our previous finding that growth
hormone and melatonin exhibit similar daily rhythmicity [[94]17], we
believe that estimates of the state of the central circadian clock can
be most accurate if they are based on the analysis of the secretion
patterns of both melatonin and growth hormone.
Some limitations of our study must be emphasized. First, it is possible
that the sleep-disrupting effect of waking at 00.00 and 04.00 to
produce a saliva sample had a disruptive effect on hormonal secretion.
Second, we observed a larger difference in terms of gender than has
been previously described [[95]18], with women having sevenfold higher
serum growth hormone concentrations than men during the day. Though we
did not directly examine sex differences in growth hormone secretion,
we recognise it as an important topic for further research.
Conclusion
Psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with circadian dysfunction, as
inferred from blunted rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors' contributions
MN designed the experiments, collected data and wrote the manuscript.
KY managed the laboratory and adjusted the schedule of subjects. SW
participated in the design of the study and performed statistical
analysis. MN supervised the study. All authors read and approved the
final version of the article.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported in part by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific
Research (C) from the Japanese Ministry of Education to Nagane M.
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[63]Open Access [64]Highly Access Research
Daily rhythm of cerebral blood flow velocity
Deirdre A Conroy^1 [65]email , Arthur J Spielman^1^,2 [66]email and
Rebecca Q Scott^3 [67]email
^1 Department of Psychology, The Graduate School and University Center
of the City University of New York, New York, USA
^2 Department of Neurology and Neuroscience, New York Presbyterian
Hospital, New York, USA
^3 Department of Health Psychology, Albert Einstein Medical College at
Yeshiva University, Bronx, USA
[email.gif] author email [email-ca.gif] corresponding author email
Journal of Circadian Rhythms 2005, 3:3doi:10.1186/1740-3391-3-3
The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be
Received: 21 December 2004
Accepted: 10 March 2005
Published: 10 March 2005
© 2005 Conroy et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
Abstract
Background
CBFV (cerebral blood flow velocity) is lower in the morning than in the
afternoon and evening. Two hypotheses have been proposed to explain the
time of day changes in CBFV: 1) CBFV changes are due to
sleep-associated processes or 2) time of day changes in CBFV are due to
an endogenous circadian rhythm independent of sleep. The aim of this
study was to examine CBFV over 30 hours of sustained wakefulness to
determine whether CBFV exhibits fluctuations associated with time of
day.
Methods
Eleven subjects underwent a modified constant routine protocol. CBFV
from the middle cerebral artery was monitored by chronic recording of
Transcranial Doppler (TCD) ultrasonography. Other variables included
core body temperature (CBT), end-tidal carbon dioxide (EtCO2), blood
pressure, and heart rate. Salivary dim light melatonin onset (DLMO)
served as a measure of endogenous circadian phase position.
Results
A non-linear multiple regression, cosine fit analysis revealed that
both the CBT and CBFV rhythm fit a 24 hour rhythm (R^2 = 0.62 and R^2 =
0.68, respectively). Circadian phase position of CBT occurred at 6:05
am while CBFV occurred at 12:02 pm, revealing a six hour, or 90 degree
difference between these two rhythms (t = 4.9, df = 10, p < 0.01). Once
aligned, the rhythm of CBFV closely tracked the rhythm of CBT as
demonstrated by the substantial correlation between these two measures
(r = 0.77, p < 0.01).
Conclusion
In conclusion, time of day variations in CBFV have an approximately 24
hour rhythm under constant conditions, suggesting regulation by a
circadian oscillator. The 90 degree-phase angle difference between the
CBT and CBFV rhythms may help explain previous findings of lower CBFV
values in the morning. The phase difference occurs at a time period
during which cognitive performance decrements have been observed and
when both cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events occur more
frequently. The mechanisms underlying this phase angle difference
require further exploration.
Background
It has been well documented that cerebral blood flow velocity (CBFV) is
lower in sleep [[70]1-[71]7] and in the morning shortly after awakening
[[72]8-[73]10] than in the afternoon or evening. Generally accepted
theories about the time of day changes in CBFV attribute the fall in
CBFV to the physiological processes of the sleep period and the
increase during the day to waking processes. The low CBFV in the
morning is thought to be a consequence of the fall in the overall
reduced metabolic level [[74]8,[75]10
,[76]11] and reduced cognitive processing [[77]12]. Additionally, the
reduced physical activity [[78]13], reduced body temperature, and the
recumbent sleeping position have also been proposed as contributors
[[79]14] to the decline in CBFV and analogous brain processes.
An alternative to these explanations that attribute changes in CBFV to
sleep and wake dependent processes is that this pattern of fluctuation
reflects an endogenous process with circadian rhythmicity. The decline
of CBFV across the sleep period and rise after subjects are awakened in
the morning resemble the endogenous circadian changes in core body
temperature (CBT), a reliable index of endogenous circadian
rhythmicity. Both patterns are low during sleep, start to rise in the
morning, reach their peak in the late afternoon, and then drop during
the sleep period.
The aim of this study was to examine CBFV over ~30 hours of sustained
wakefulness to unmask and quantify contributions of the endogenous
circadian system. By not permitting sleep, the evoked changes dependent
on this change of state will not contribute to the observed CBFV
changes. We hypothesized that time of day changes in CBFV are due to
endogenous circadian regulation. Previous studies have been limited by
several factors. First, the environmental conditions (light level) and
the behavior of the subject (sleep, meals, and caffeine intake) were
not controlled [[80]15,[81]13,[82]1
,[83]16]. Second, CBFV measurements were obtained at only a few
circadian points. For example, Ameriso et al. [[84]15] and Qureshi et
al. [[85]16] assessed CBFV between 6-8 am, 1-3 pm, and 7-9 pm. Diamant
et al [[86]13] assessed CBFV during the first 15 minutes of every hour
across a 24 hour period. Given these brief time periods, the findings
are only a schematic of the 24 hour profile. Third, primary output
markers of the endogenous circadian pacemaker (such as core body
temperature and melatonin production) were not assessed.
We employed the "constant routine" protocol, which was designed
specifically to unmask underlying circadian rhythms in constant
conditions [[87]17]. CBFV was collected by Transcranial Doppler (TCD)
ultrasonography for the entire study period. Core body temperature and
salivary dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO) were measured for
determination of circadian phase. Continuous electroencephalography
(EEG) was performed to ensure wakefulness across the study.
Additionally, measurements of blood pressure, heart rate, and end tidal
carbon dioxide (Et[CO2]), three of the main regulators of CBFV, were
collected every half hour.
Methods
Subject selection
Twelve subjects (10 men and 2 women; ages 19-38, mean 28 years) agreed
to participate. One subject discontinued her participation because of a
headache 15 hours into the study. Subjects were in good health, as
assessed by medical history, semi-structured clinical interview, and
physical exam. Information regarding menstrual cycle was not obtained
from female subjects. Subjects also underwent an independent standard
cerebrovascular assessment and were determined to be normal. They
reported no symptoms of sleep problems (such as insomnia, obstructive
sleep apnea, narcolepsy, or restless legs syndrome).
Subjects that were selected to participate kept to a designated
sleep-wake schedule (that was negotiated from the subject's typical
pattern) and filled out a sleep diary for the two weeks prior to the
time in the laboratory. According to sleep diary reports, bedtimes
ranged from 10:30 pm to 1:00 am and waketimes ranged from 6:00 am to
10:00 am. Alcohol and caffeine intake was discontinued for the entire
week before the study. During the data collection, subjects were not
permitted either alcohol or caffeine. All subjects were non-smokers.
Laboratory constant routine protocol
The study protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Boards of
New York Presbyterian Hospital - Weill Medical College of Cornell
University and The City College of New York. Subjects gave written and
informed consent before participating. Subjects arrived at the sleep
laboratory between 9:30 am and 10:00 am. They were oriented to the
study procedures and to their bedroom. Electrodes were placed on the
subject's head and face as they sat in a chair next to the bed. Data
collection began at 11 am. Subjects remained in bed and awake in a semi
recumbent position for 30 hours in an established "constant routine"
(CR) protocol. Subjects remained in low (<25 lux) light levels which
have been shown to have little or no entraining effect on the circadian
pacemaker [[88]18]. They were not allowed to get out of bed to urinate.
Instead they urinated in private in a urinal or bedpan. Subjects
remained awake from 11:00 a.m. on Day 1 until 5 p.m. on Day 2.
Throughout the study, subjects were provided small meals (Ensure ^®
liquid formula plus one-quarter nutritional food bar) every 2 hours.
Subject's typical total food and liquid intake for a day and a quarter
were divided into 15 relatively equal portions. Only one subject
participated in the CR per 30-hour period.
This protocol represents a modified CR in two ways. First, subjects
were allowed to watch television and were therefore were not in "time
isolation." Television content was monitored so that subjects were not
exposed to programs with highly emotional themes. Second, subjects
needing to defecate were allowed to go to the bathroom, which was
located a few steps away from the bedside. We chose this method as an
alternative to using the bedpan to ensure subject's comfort and study
compliance. Three subjects (subjects 05, 06, and 10) got out of bed
once at 3:30, 21:30, and 15:30, respectively, to defecate. One subject,
subject 12, got out of bed twice, at 22:30 and 6:35. Subject 10 used
the bathroom only during the adaptation period. A paired-samples t-test
was conducted to evaluate the impact of getting out of bed to defecate
on subject's CBT and CBFV values. The CBT and CBFV values in the two
hours before getting up were compared to the two hours after the
subject got up. Subjects 5 showed a slight decrease in CBT from before
(M = 98.12, SD = 0.14) to after the subject returned to the bed (M =
97.91, SD = 0.08), t(3) = -5.17, p = .014). Subject 6 showed a decline
in CBFV from before (M = 56.14, SD = 2.3) to after the subject returned
to the bed (M = 45.67, SD = 3.7), t(3) = 5.49, p = 0.012). There were
no other significant differences detected between these two time
periods for subject 5's CBFV, subject 6's CBT, or for both times
subject 12 got out of the bed. By visual inspection, the overall shape
of the curves in these subjects was not affected and therefore these
subject's data were included in subsequent analyses.
Transcranial Doppler ultrasound recordings
The current study utilized TCD ultrasonography to measure cerebral
blood flow velocity. TCD is a non-invasive instrument (consisting of
one or two 2-Mhz transducers fitted to a headband, MARC500, Spencer
Technologies, Nicolet Biomedical Inc) that is used predominantly as a
diagnostic tool to assess cerebral hemodynamics in normal and
pathological conditions. TCD ultrasonography is predicated on a theory
that involves the measurement of moving objects when combined with
radar. When the instrument emits the sound wave, it is reflected by the
blood cells that are moving in the vector of the sound wave [[89]19].
CBFV was measured using either the right or left middle cerebral artery
(MCA) using TCD sonography (TCD: DWL Multidop X-2, DWL Elektronische
Systeme GmbH, D-78354 Sipplingen/Germany) through the temporal window.
An observer who was present continuously during the recordings
evaluated the quality of the signal. This enabled long-term recording
of CBFV throughout the study. Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT) of the
signal was used to analyze the velocity spectra. The mean velocity of
the MCA was obtained from the integral of the maximal TCD frequency
shifts over one beat divided by the corresponding beat interval and
expressed in cm/sec. Analysis was conducted off line.
Measurement of standard markers of the circadian pacemaker
Body temperature recordings
Core body temperature was recorded at 1-minute intervals with an
indwelling rectal probe (MiniMitter, Co. Bend, OR). A wire lead
connected the sensor out of the rectum to a data collection system worn
on the belt. Temperature readings were collected and saved into the
device and monitored at hourly intervals by the investigator. After the
study, the recordings were visually inspected and artifacts resulting
from removal or malfunction of the probe were excluded from further
analysis.
Salivary melatonin
Salivary samples of 3 ml were collected every hour from 11:00 a.m. on
Day 1 to 4:00 p.m. on Day 2. Ten of these samples were used only for
the determination of the timing of the salivary dim light melatonin
onset (DLMO). For nine subjects, salivary DLMO was assessed across a
ten-hour time window that included the ten hours before the CBT
minimum. Immediately after collection, each saliva sample was frozen
and stored at -20°C. Saliva samples were assayed using Bühlmann
Melatonin Radio Immunoassay (RIA) test kit for direct melatonin in
human saliva (American Laboratory Products Co., Windham, NH). Analysis
was conducted at New York State Institute for Basic Research. Salivary
DLMO time was selected based on two criteria. The saliva sample needed
to have melatonin concentration 3 pg/ml or above and later samples
needed to show higher levels (Bühlmann laboratories). Second, the 3
pg/ml threshold needed to occur within 6-10 hours before core body
temperature minimum [[90]20].
Polygraphic recordings
Electroencephalography (EEG) was continually assessed across the 30
hours to ensure that subjects maintained wakefulness. The following
montage was used according to the international 10-20 system: C3-A2,
C4-A1, O1-A2, O2-A1, ROC-A1, LOC-A2, and submentalis electromyogram
(EMG). One channel of electrocardiogram was continuously recorded by
monitoring from two electrodes (one on each side of the body at the
shoulder chest junction). The EEG software (Rembrant Sleep Collection
Software Version 7.0) was used for data acquisition and display of the
signals on a personal computer. Throughout the CR, the investigator
(DAC) monitored the quality of the recordings. The recordings were
scored by RQS and DAC.
Blood pressure, heart rate, and end-tidal CO2
An automated blood pressure cuff was placed on the bicep of the subject
and inflated two times each hour in order to determine changes in blood
pressure and heart rate over time. Blood pressure and heart rate in one
subject (02) was recorded via a finger blood pressure monitor (Omron
Marshall Products, Model F-88). Blood pressure and heart rate in
subjects 03, 04, 05, 06, and 07 were recorded with Omron Healthcare,
Inc, Vernon Hills, Illinois 60061 Model # HEM-705CP Rating: DC 6V 4W
Serial No: 2301182L. Blood pressure and heart rate for subjects 08, 09
and 10 was recorded with a similar blood pressure monitor (CVS Pharmacy
Inc, Woonsocket, RI 02895 Model # 1086CVS). Blood pressure and heart
rate recordings were not measured in subjects 11 and 12. Et[CO2 ]was
continuously obtained. A nasal cannula for monitoring expired gases was
placed under the nose. Relative changes in carbon dioxide content were
measured by an Ohmeda 4700 Oxicap (BOC healthcare). Mean Et[CO2 ]levels
were analyzed off-line. Et[CO2 ]recordings were not measured in
subjects 11 and 12.
Data Analyses
Data reduction and statistical procedures
CBT and CBFV values were first subjected to data rejection. All CBT
values less than 96 degrees were determined to be artifact and were
rejected. All CBFV values less than 20 cm/sec were determined to be
artifact according to the clinical criteria set by the staff
neurologist. Data reduction was accomplished by averaging into one
minute, 30 minute or hourly bins. Correlations presented here were
performed on mean values in 30 minute bins. To ensure that circadian
measurements were made under basal conditions, the first five hours of
the constant routine were excluded from all analyses to eliminate
effects of study adaptation. The last hour was excluded to eliminate
confounding effects such as expectation effects.
The data are presented in this article in three ways. First, CBT and
CBFV values were plotted according to time of day (Figures [91]1 and
[92]2). Second, CBFV values were aligned according to the CBT nadir
(Figure [93]3) and third, the CBFV nadir was aligned to the CBT nadir
(Figure [94]4). To align CBFV to the CBT circadian nadir as shown in
Figure [95]3, the CBT nadir of each individual subject was set to
circadian time 0, or 0°. The CBFV value that corresponded to the CBT
nadir was then also set to 0. Each half hour data point after the
temperature nadir and corresponding CBFV values were then set to a
circadian degree. There were a total of 48 data points across the 24
hour period. Therefore, each data point was equal to 7.5 degrees so
that each data point would accumulate to 360°. Lastly, mean values were
obtained for CBT and CBFV at each circadian degree.
[96]thumbnail Figure 1. 24-hour Cosine Curve fit to Mean Core Body
Temperature (°F). Time course of CBT according to time of day. Shown is
a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/- SEM) of CBT (blue
diamonds) fit with a 24-hour cosine curve (purple squares). Time of day
is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate shows CBT values (degrees F).
The vertical line indicates where the data was double plotted. Also
displayed in the upper right corner is the non-linear cosine curve fit
for mean CBT, R^2 = 0.62. The overall mean circadian phase position of
the minimum was 6:05 am.
[97]thumbnail Figure 2. 24-hour Cosine Curve fit to Mean Cerebral Blood
Flow Velocity (cm/sec). Time course of CBFV according to time of day.
Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/- SEM) of
CBFV (blue diamonds) fit with a 24-hour cosine curve (purple squares).
Time of day is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate shows CBFV values
(cm/sec). The vertical line indicates where the data was double
plotted. Also displayed in the upper right corner is the non-linear
cosine curve fit for mean CBFV, R^2 = 0.67. The overall mean circadian
phase position of the minimum was 12:02 pm.
[98]thumbnail Figure 3. Mean CBT and CBFV Aligned to CBT Nadir. Time
course of mean CBFV and mean CBT aligned to the nadir of CBT and then
averaged. Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels
(+/-SEM) of CBT (purple squares) and CBFV (blue circles) aligned to the
phase of the circadian temperature cycle. Circadian time in degrees is
shown on the abscissa. The ordinate on the left shows CBT values
(degrees F) and CBFV (cm/sec) on the right. The vertical line indicates
the CBT nadir.
[99]thumbnail Figure 4. Mean CBT and CBFV Aligned to Their Respective
Nadir. Time course of mean CBFV and mean CBT aligned to each of their
respective nadirs and then averaged. Shown is a double plot of the
group (n = 11) mean levels (+/-SEM) of CBT (purple squares) and CBFV
(blue circles) aligned to the phase of the circadian temperature cycle.
Circadian time in degrees is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate on the
left shows CBT values (degrees F) and CBFV (cm/sec) on the right. The
vertical line indicates both the CBT nadir and the CBFV nadir. The
correlation coefficient between the aligned rhythms is 0.77 (p < 0.01).
To align the CBFV nadir to the CBT nadir, first, the lowest value of
CBT and the lowest value of CBFV were identified and set to circadian
time 0, or 0°. Each half hour data point after the CBT nadir and CBFV
nadir were then set to a circadian degree. There were a total of 48
data points across the 24 hour period. Therefore, each data point was
equal to 7.5 degrees so that each data point would accumulate to 360°.
Lastly, mean values were obtained for CBT and CBFV at each circadian
degree.
Estimation of circadian phase
A 24-hour non-linear multiple regression -cosine curve fit analysis was
performed on the CBT and CBFV data (SAS Institute, Cary, NC). This
technique constrains the circadian period of CBT and CBFV to be within
24 hours. This technique used the following equations: model cbt =
&avg_cbt + r * cos((2 * 3.1415) * (hours-&max_cbt)/24; model cbfv =
&avg_cbt + r * cos((2 * 3.1415) * (hours-&max_cbfv)/24, where & =
constants that center the curve at the actual average for each series
(vertical centering) and the predicted maximum at the actual maximum
(horizontal centering); r = the amplitude of the cosine wave. An
additional analysis was performed which also yielded the estimated
clock time for the CBT nadir and CBFV nadir (Synergy software,
Kaleidagraph Version 3.6). Third, the minimum of the circadian rhythm
of CBT and salivary DLMO were also used as markers of the endogenous
circadian phase. A paired t-test was used to determine the overall
phase difference between CBT and CBFV.
Results
Eleven subjects completed the protocol. The TCD probe was placed on
either the right or left temple, whichever gave the better signal. Mean
isonation depth of the TCD signal was 56.5 mm for the right MCA and
55.6 mm for the left MCA (range 53-60 mm). The constant routine ranged
from 28 to 30 hours in duration. Polygraphic recordings confirmed
sustained wakefulness across essentially the entire protocol in all but
one subject. Subjects that had difficulty remaining awake were
monitored closely and aroused when needed by engagement in
conversation. Results from the polygraphic recordings are not presented
here. We do not present the results of the polygraphic recordings
because, for the purposes of this study, these recordings were used
solely to monitor whether subjects were awake or asleep. The first five
hours and the final hour of data from the constant routine were
excluded from analysis.
Core body temperature, cerebral blood flow velocity and the 24-hour day
A 24 hour non-linear multiple regression, cosine fit analysis revealed
that the overall mean CBT rhythm (n = 11) fit a 24 hour cosine rhythm
(R^2 = 0.62, p < 0.01), Figure [100]1. The mean CBT across all subjects
was 98.6 °F (+/- 0.03 °F). Figure [101]2 shows that a 24-hour
non-linear multiple regression, cosine analysis fit a 24 hour cosine
rhythm (R^2 = 0.67, p < 0.01), Figure [102]2. The mean CBFV across
subjects was 40.6 cm/sec (+/- 0.54 cm/sec). Salivary DLMO occurred 7.7
hours prior to the CBT nadir in nine subjects, which served only as a
secondary measure of endogenous circadian phase position in those
subjects. The mean salivary melatonin concentration across the ten hour
window was 15.3 pg/ml (+/-3.05 pg/ml).
CBFV rhythm is 90 degrees out of phase with the CBT rhythm
The overall mean circadian position of CBT occurred at 6:05 am and the
mean position of CBFV occurred at 12:02 pm (Figure [103]3), yielding a
6 hour or 90 degree statistically significant difference (t = 4.9, DF =
10, p < 0.01). In individual subject data, the differences ranged from
0 to 8.5 hours. In eight subjects, the CBFV phase occurred later than
the respective CBT phase, with mean difference of 5.2 hours. In two
subjects, the CBFV nadir occurred earlier than the respective CBT
nadir, with a mean difference of 6 hours. In one subject, there was no
difference between the phase of CBT and CBFV. However, this subject's
CBT rhythm was highly unusual, with the nadir occurring at 11:35 am on
Day 2. Nevertheless, we felt the most appropriate way to present the
data was to include this subject in the overall analysis. When the
phase of CBFV was shifted so that the lowest value was aligned to the
lowest CBT value, the two parameters were highly correlated (see Figure
[104]4; r = 0.77, n = 98, p < 0.01). While the difference in the two
rhythms variability was large, Fisher's z-transformed values revealed
that the amplitudes of the two parameters were similar. The amplitude
of CBFV yielded a z score of 4.25 and CBT yielded a z score of 3.06.
Blood pressure recordings and systemic hemodynamic variables
A Pearson correlation revealed a positive relationship between CBT and
heart rate (r = 0.40, p < 0.01) across the 24 hour period. Diastolic
blood pressure (DBP) and CBT showed a negative correlation (r = -0.30,
p < 0.05). Et[CO2 ]showed a trend towards a direct relationship with
CBFV (r = 0.24, p = 0.10). Blood pressure, heart rate, and Et[CO2
]served only as regulators of CBFV and were not analyzed according to
circadian phase.
Discussion
This study is the first to use the constant routine (CR) protocol to
determine whether the endogenous circadian pacemaker contributes to the
previously reported diurnal changes in CBFV. The current work
demonstrates that, with limited periodic external stimuli and a
constant posture, there is 24-hour rhythmicity in CBFV. Subjects showed
a cycle of approximately 24 hours in CBT, which has been previously
demonstrated with the CR [[105]21].
Figure [106]3 illustrates the intricate relationship between the
rhythms across the study period. At approximately the CBT acrophase,
the relationship between the two rhythms undergoes a transition.
Between 180 and 240 degrees, CBFV is still rising and CBT is changing
directions (first rising, reaching its peak and then falling). This
period between 180 and 240 has been described as a "wake maintenance
zone", a time in the circadian cycle during which humans are less
likely to fall asleep [[107]22]. In our subjects, the CBT is near its
zenith or just starting to fall at this time and CBFV is still steadily
rising. Higher values in CBT and CBFV are associated with activation
and therefore these two endogenous rhythms may be promoting wakefulness
during this "wake maintenance zone". However, at the end of this
transition period, CBT is falling and CBFV is still rising, perhaps
reflecting continued activation of the cerebral cortex. Whereas the
two-process model predicts increased tendency to sleep as CBT falls
[[108]23], our finding may provide the mechanism by which wakefulness
is effortlessly maintained before bedtime.
Figure [109]3 further illustrates that as wakefulness is extended past
the subject's habitual bedtime (approximately 270 degrees), the two
rhythms decline together. Between 0 and 60 degrees, CBFV steadily
declines and CBT is steadily rising. The lower CBFV values in the
morning may play a role in cognitive performance impairments [[110]24],
particularly the 3-4.5 hour phase difference in neurobehavioral
functioning relative to the CBT rhythm that has been previously
demonstrated in constant routine protocols [[111]25].
Earlier studies using simultaneous EEG and TCD to continuously measure
CBFV across the sleep period have concluded that, except for periods of
REM sleep, [[112]26
,[113]27], there is a linear decline in CBFV across the night during
periods of non-REM sleep [[114]1,[115]28]. Other groups utilizing these
techniques simultaneously speculated that the decline in CBFV through
the night was a "decoupling" of cerebral electrical activity and
cerebral perfusion during non-REM sleep [[116]8-[117]10]. In all
studies [[118]1,[119]8-[120]10,[121]28], CBFV values were lower in the
morning during wakefulness than during wakefulness prior to sleep at
night. The current findings show that the decline in CBFV is present
during wakefulness in the night time hours and therefore may not be
attributed solely to sleep and associated changes that normally
influence CBFV (including factors such as the shift to recumbency, and
reduced activity, metabolic rate and respiratory rate).
Moreover, our interaction with the subjects and the monitoring of EEG
for signs of sleep resulted in no sleep in all but one subject. The one
exception was in a subject who lapsed into brief periods of sleep.
Therefore, the fall in CBFV in 10 out of 11 subjects cannot be
explained by the occurrence of non-REM sleep. It is possible, however,
that the decline of CBFV across the night and early morning may be
secondary to the sleep deprivation that is part of the constant
routine. Brain imaging studies across sustained periods of wakefulness
have shown significant decreases in absolute regional cerebral glucose
metabolic rate in several areas of the brain [[122]29-[123]34].
The drop in CBT which preceded the parallel fall in CBFV needs to be
considered as a possible explanation for the CBFV changes. The fall in
CBT during sleeping hours is attributed in part to sleep-associated
changes and in part to strong regular circadian forces independent of
the sleep period. CBT is, in fact, one of the key and most extensively
studied indices of the circadian phase. It is also known that CBT is
highly correlated with brain temperature and brain metabolic rate
[[124]35]. Imaging studies have documented the intimate relation
between brain activity and increased metabolic rate and oxygen delivery
through perfusion. Therefore, it is plausible that CBT is a direct
influence on CBFV or an index of decreased metabolic need for blood
flow. The prevailing hypothesis that there is tight coupling of normal
neuronal activity and blood flow was formulated over 100 years ago
[[125]36]. The drop in CBFV may be a consequence of the lowered
cerebral activity secondary to lowered brain temperature. In contrast,
two studies of exercise-induced hyperthermia showing decreased global
and middle cerebral artery CBFV [[126]37
,[127]38] do not support this hypothesized direct relationship between
the two variables. However, one of the main purported mechanisms for
the fall in CBFV in these exercise studies, the hyperventilation
induced lowering of Pa[CO2], is unlikely present during waking while
lying in bed at night. Therefore, CBT declines remain a plausible
explanation for the portion of the 24 hours when CBFV declined.
Mechanisms of CBFV regulation
This protocol allowed the unique opportunity to evaluate blood
pressure, heart rate, and Et[CO2 ]in the absence of sleep, in subjects
with constant posture, and highly restricted movements. While blood
pressure clearly falls during sleep in normal individuals, the absence
of sleep in the current study obviates the explanation that CBFV
declines are secondary to lowered blood pressure. Furthermore, we
sampled blood pressure throughout the day and night and found a weak
inverse relationship between DBP and CBT. This finding is in contrast
to a careful study of circadian influence on blood pressure in the
absence of sleep which showed no change in blood pressure during the
descending portion of the body temperature curve [[128]39].
Nevertheless, our finding was weak and likely does not provide the
explanation for the CBFV changes. The small-inverse relationship
between Et [CO2 ]and CBT is similar to that found by Spengler et al.
[[129]40], who showed a consistent but small amplitude circadian rhythm
in mean end-tidal Et[CO2 ]on a CR protocol. Et[CO2 ]showed a trend
towards a direct relationship with CBFV, which is consistent with
previous studies showing that changes in Et[CO2 ]are associated with
changes in CBFV [[130]41
,[131]42]. Heart rate was correlated with CBT, consistent with the
findings of Van Dongen et al [[132]39].
Clinical correlation
The approximate 6 hour (90 degree) phase angle difference between the
CBFV and CBT suggests that CBFV continues to decline into the early to
mid-morning hours. This finding is consistent with a time window in the
morning during which several physiological changes have been observed.
For example, cerebral vasomotor reactivity to hypocapnia, hypercapnia,
and normoventilation has been found to be most reduced in the morning
[[133]15
,[134]16]. It is tempting to suggest that the the low CBFV values in
the morning may also help explain the well established diurnal
variation of the onset of cerebrovascular accidents (CVAs) [[135]43]. A
meta-analyses of 11,816 publications between 1966 to 1997 found that
there was a 49% increased risk of strokes between 6 am and 12 pm
[[136]44]. This time period is in agreement with studies on myocardial
infarction (MI) and sudden death [[137]45]. The increased incidence of
these events has been attributed, in part, to the surge of blood
pressure [[138]13,[139]46,[140]47] and platelet aggregability
[[141]48,[142]49] in the morning when patients are getting out of bed.
Our results demonstrate that even in the absence of surges in blood
pressure, the phase of CBFV reaches its lowest values during the hours
before 12 pm. This further suggests that the endogenous rhythm of CBFV
may be associated with the risk of CVAs in the late morning hours even
without changes in posture or activity.
Conclusion
Overall, the results demonstrate that CBFV, in the absence of sleep,
exhibits properties of a circadian rhythm, as it rises and falls across
a 24 hour period. The 6 hour (90 degree) phase angle difference in the
CBFV rhythm with respect to the CBT rhythm may help explain previous
findings of lower CBFV values in the morning. The phase difference
occurs at a time period during which cognitive performance decrements
have been observed and when both cardiovascular and cerebrovascular
events occur more frequently. The mechanisms underlying this phase
angle difference require further exploration.
List of abbreviations
CBFV Cerebral Blood Flow Velocity
CBT Core Body Temperature
TCD Transcranial Doppler
EtCO2 End tidal Carbon Dioxide
DLMO Dim Light Melatonin Onset
EEG Electroencephalogram
MCA Middle Cerebral Artery
FFT Fast Fourier Transformation
CR Constant routine
EMG Electromyogram
SBP Systolic Blood Pressure
DBP Diastolic Blood Pressure
CVA Cerebrovascular accident
MI Myocardial infarction
Competing interests
The author(s) declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors' contributions
DAC coordinated, carried out, analyzed, and interpreted the study. AJS
participated in the analysis and interpretation of the findings. DAC
drafted the manuscript and AJS provided final approval of this version.
RQS participated in data collection and data analysis. DAC and AJS
co-designed the study. All authors read and approved the final
manuscript.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the volunteer participants who completed
this extremely difficult protocol, to the research assistants: Jason
Birnbaum, Will Carias, RN, Laura Diaz, Boris Dubrovsky, Mathew Ebben,
Ph.D., Carrie Hildebrand, Lars Ross, Greg Sahlem, Mathew Tucker, Ayesha
Udin, to those who helped with the data analysis: Scott Campbell, Ph.D.
of New York Presbyterian Hospital, White Plains, Abdeslem ElIdrissi,
Ph.D. of The Institute for Basic Research, Staten Island, NY, Larry
Krasnoff, Ph.D. of Digitas, New York, and Andrew Scott, MBA, to those
who provided their expert advice: William Fishbein, Ph.D. of The City
College of New York, Paul Glovinsky, Ph.D. of The Sleep Disorders
Center, Albany, NY, Margaret Moline, Ph.D. of Eisai, Inc, Charles
Pollak, MD of The Center for Sleep Medicine, New York Presbyterian
Hospital-Cornell, and Alan Segal, MD of The Department of Neurology,
New York Presbyterian Hospital, and to others who helped make this
study possible: Stacy Goldstein, Neil B. Kavey, MD, Igor Ougorets, MD,
and Jerry Titus.
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12 12/2006 [38]Compose to a Vertical Rhythm
by [39]Richard Rutter
* [40]Article
* [41]29 comments
"Space in typography is like time in music. It is infinitely divisible,
but a few proportional intervals can be much more useful than a
limitless choice of arbitrary quantities." So says the typographer
Robert Bringhurst, and just as regular use of time provides rhythm in
music, so regular use of space provides rhythm in typography, and
without rhythm the listener, or the reader, becomes disorientated and
lost.
On the Web, vertical rhythm - the spacing and arrangement of text as
the reader descends the page - is contributed to by three factors: font
size, line height and margin or padding. All of these factors must
calculated with care in order that the rhythm is maintained.
The basic unit of vertical space is line height. Establishing a
suitable line height that can be applied to all text on the page, be it
heading, body copy or sidenote, is the key to a solid dependable
vertical rhythm, which will engage and guide the reader down the page.
To see this in action, I've created [42]an example with headings,
footnotes and sidenotes.
Establishing a suitable line height
The easiest place to begin determining a basic line height unit is with
the font size of the body copy. For [43]the example I've chosen 12px.
To ensure readability the body text will almost certainly need some
leading, that is to say spacing between the lines. A line-height of
1.5em would give 6px spacing between the lines of body copy. This will
create a total line height of 18px, which becomes our basic unit.
Here's the CSS to get us to this point:
1. body {
2. font-size: 75%;
3. }
4.
5. html>body {
6. font-size: 12px;
7. }
8.
9. p {
10. line-height 1.5em;
11. }
12. Source: [44]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/1.txt
There are many ways to size text in CSS and the above approach provides
and accessible method of achieving the pixel-precision solid typography
requires. By way of explanation, the first font-size reduces the body
text from the 16px default (common to most browsers and OS set-ups)
down to the 12px we require. This rule is primarily there for Internet
Explorer 6 and below on Windows: the percentage value means that the
text will scale predictably should a user bump the text size up or
down. The second font-size sets the text size specifically and is
ignored by IE6, but used by Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other
modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels.
Spacing between paragraphs
With our rhythmic unit set at 18px we need to ensure that it is
maintained throughout the body copy. A common place to lose the rhythm
is the gaps set between margins. The default treatment by web browsers
of paragraphs is to insert a top- and bottom-margin of 1em. In our case
this would give a spacing between the paragraphs of 12px and hence
throw the text out of rhythm. If the rhythm of the page is to be
maintained, the spacing of paragraphs should be related to the basic
line height unit. This is achieved simply by setting top- and
bottom-margins equal to the line height.
In order that typographic integrity is maintained when text is resized
by the user we must use ems for all our vertical measurements,
including line-height, padding and margins.
1. p {
2. font-size:1em;
3. margin-top: 1.5em;
4. margin-bottom: 1.5em;
5. }
6. Source: [45]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/2.txt
Browsers set margins on all block-level elements (such as headings,
lists and blockquotes) so a way of ensuring that typographic attention
is paid to all such elements is to reset the margins at the beginning
of your style sheet. You could use a rule such as:
1. body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl
ockquote,th,td {
2. margin:0;
3. padding:0;
4. }
5. Source: [46]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/3.txt
Alternatively you could look into using the [47]Yahoo! UI Reset style
sheet which removes most default styling, so providing a solid
foundation upon which you can explicitly declare your design
intentions.
Variations in text size
When there is a change in text size, perhaps with a heading or
sidenotes, the differing text should also take up a multiple of the
basic leading. This means that, in our example, every diversion from
the basic text size should take up multiples of 18px. This can be
accomplished by adjusting the line-height and margin accordingly, as
described following.
Headings
Subheadings in the [48]example page are set to 14px. In order that the
height of each line is 18px, the line-height should be set to 18 ÷ 14
= 1.286. Similarly the margins above and below the heading must be
adjusted to fit. The temptation is to set heading margins to a simple
1em, but in order to maintain the rhythm, the top and bottom margins
should be set at 1.286em so that the spacing is equal to the full 18px
unit.
1. h2 {
2. font-size:1.1667em;
3. line-height: 1.286em;
4. margin-top: 1.286em;
5. margin-bottom: 1.286em;
6. }
7. Source: [49]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/4.txt
One can also set asymmetrical margins for headings, provided the
margins combine to be multiples of the basic line height. In our
example, a top margin of 1½ lines is combined with a bottom margin of
half a line as follows:
1. h2 {
2. font-size:1.1667em;
3. line-height: 1.286em;
4. margin-top: 1.929em;
5. margin-bottom: 0.643em;
6. }
7. Source: [50]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/5.txt
Also in our example, the main heading is given a text size of 18px,
therefore the line-height has been set to 1em, as has the margin:
1. h1 {
2. font-size:1.5em;
3. line-height: 1em;
4. margin-top: 0;
5. margin-bottom: 1em;
6. }
7. Source: [51]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/6.txt
Sidenotes
Sidenotes (and other supplementary material) are often set at a smaller
size to the basic text. To keep the rhythm, this smaller text should
still line up with body copy, so a calculation similar to that for
headings is required. In our example, the sidenotes are set at 10px and
so their line-height must be increased to 18 ÷ 10 = 1.8.
1. .sidenote {
2. font-size:0.8333em;
3. line-height:1.8em;
4. }
5. Source: [52]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/7.txt
Borders
One additional point where vertical rhythm is often lost is with the
introduction of horizontal borders. These effectively act as shims
pushing the subsequent text downwards, so a two pixel horizontal border
will throw out the vertical rhythm by two pixels. A way around this is
to specify horizontal lines using background images or, as in our
example, specify the width of the border in ems and adjust the padding
to take up the slack.
The design of the footnote in our example requires a 1px horizontal
border. The footnote contains 12px text, so 1px in ems is 1 ÷ 12
= 0.0833. I have added a margin of 1½ lines above the border
(1.5 × 18 ÷ 12 = 2.5ems), so to maintain the rhythm the border +
padding must equal a ½ (9px). We know the border is set to 1px, so the
padding must be set to 8px. To specify this in ems we use the familiar
calculation: 8 ÷ 12 = 0.667.
Hit me with your rhythm stick
Composing to a vertical rhythm helps engage and guide the reader down
the page, but it takes typographic discipline to do so. It may seem
like a lot of fiddly maths is involved (a few divisions and
multiplications never hurt anyone) but good type setting is all about
numbers, and it is this attention to detail which is the key to
success.
Like what you read?
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Comments
* [55]12/12/2006
Wow this is a good article.
* [57]12/12/2006
[58]Will
thanks so much, this is great.
* [59]12/12/2006
Interesting stuff. Also worth reading Eric Meyer's post on unitless
line-heights:
* [61]12/12/2006
It's worth mentioning that IE6 and below can go a bit extreme when
resizing fonts set as ems.
You can fix this by applying font-size: 100% to html. Don't know
why this works, it just does.
Oh, if you're working in quirks mode you'll also need to apply it
to thead, tbody and tfoot, beacuse the fix doesn't inherit (don't
apply it to table unless you want table to inherit font-sizes). You
don't need thead, tbody or tfoot in your tables as tbody is
implied.
Obviously, you can't then apply your own font-sizes to html or
tbody etc, else you'll overwrite the fix, which is why I chose
those particular elements as they're rarely used for font-sizes.
Jake.
* [63]12/12/2006
[64]Mike Stenhouse donotremove.co.uk
Hmmmmm, interesting! I've not tried this but I think there might be
an easier way to set those heights... What if the line-height is
set to, say, 1.5em on the body and 1 (unit-less - it's valid!) on
each descendant element? Or maybe some variation on that. It might
force the 18px to inherit into the children without awkward
calculations.
* [65]12/12/2006
Great article, Richard! Web typography--like all
typography--deserves this level of detailed thinking, and I hope to
see more designers embracing it.
* [67]12/12/2006
[68]michael h
Good introduction to typography theory, but I am convinced that the
Owen Briggs method is the best approach to sizing.
* [69]13/12/2006
I've been working on something similar recently, and I've
discovered that if you set the line-height in pixels, most browsers
will still scale it proportionally along with the text. As IE6's
numbers fall off, I hope we can leave all this black magic scaling
math behind and go back to setting font sizes in pixels and letting
the browsers handle the scaling.
* [71]13/12/2006
Mike - you're right about being able to simplify the line-height
specifications, but it doesn't require setting unitless
line-heights. In the example I use, I've set the font-size to be
12px on the body and calculated line-heights for all the subsequent
elements. As I required one line height - 18px - for all elements I
can remove the multiple statements and simply set line-height:1.5em
on the body. The calculated line-height of 18px is inherited by all
elements on the page. I've modifed the example to show this
(checked in Firefox, Safari and IE6):
However the maths would still need to be performed to calculate the
correct margins, so while the extra line-height specifications are
not strictly necessary (at least while the same line height for all
text is required) you unfortunately don't save much on the
calculations.
* [73]13/12/2006
Jake - the extreme text sizing in IE can be fixed by applying any
percentage font size to the body - it doesn't have to be 100%
(hence my use of 75% fixed this too).
You're right about the tables though. This rule does the job nicely
to inherit the text size:
table, thead, tbody, tr, th, td {font-size:1em}
* [75]13/12/2006
[76]GreLI
In the article next rule is used to reset margins:
body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl
ockquote,th,td {
margin:0;
padding:0;
}
I think it easier to use universal selector (* { margin: 0;
padding: 0 }) instead.
To fix table font-size inheritance it's enough to set
table { font-size: 1em }
Opera AFAIK don't change font-size if it set in pixels, but it can
zoom pages (so does IE7).
* [77]13/12/2006
GreLI - using the universal selector like that to zero all margins
and padding can cause unpredictable results in some form controls
(e.g. SELECT elements) in certain browsers.
Rich - great article; now all someone needs to do is knock up a
nice little app that spits out the right line-heights and margins
for the elements you tell it... :)
* [79]13/12/2006
It's unfortunate that pretty much no one composes with a scale when
publishing for the web. Your article is a great step forward.
Also overlooked are line lengths. Since the beginning of the web,
It has been a standard practice to expand the line lengths out with
the width of the browser (like your site is currently :), causing
line lengths to expand way too long. If an optimal line length for
print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even
smaller.
* [81]14/12/2006
I don't see it mentioned in the comments yet, but your quote above:
"...Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which
allow users to resize text sized in pixels."
is not correct, as IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in
pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized.
* [83]18/12/2006
If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths
for web should be even smaller.
You're right to mention line length as something that is
overlooked, but on the screen it is not as simple as setting the
measure in ems as their are more factors involved (screen size,
liquid layouts, etc). Also I'd disagree that web line lengths
should be shorter on the web. My personal preference would be for
them to be longer - I find short line lengths on screen extremely
hard work to read. That's just my opinion though.
IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout
can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized.
If you think of the reasons for changing text size then zooming a
layout is just another form of resizing text and achieves the same
goal.
* [85]20/12/2006
Theodore, I think you would enjoy Richard's article entitled
"Choose a comfortable measure" over at webtypography.net :)
1.2/
* [87]22/12/2006
[88]Rachel Maxim
You've said in a few pages what has taken me years to figure out
and refine :) - great info!
* [89]23/12/2006
I really enjoyed this article. I have read your Elements of....for
the web, as well as your blog about sizing text in ems. I have
really been looking in to using this and getting the best `flow'
with my typography. I also ordered the book Elements of Typographic
Style just to give a better understanding.
I think its a common misconception that text on the web will always
look bland, and you have proved that it can have rhythm and style.
* [91]02/01/2007
I've just been using some of these techniques on a client's site
who needed 8 tabs all the same width, which fill the available
space - I had it working fine in Firefox, but the tabs didn't fill
the space in Safari or IE. I found that you really have to do the
maths, rather than just use trial and error - they all round the
numbers slightly differently. Once I'd checked my calculations,
rather than tinkered with the numbers, it works fine everywhere, at
least at standard font size.
One other correction from someone's comment earlier on - you can
resize text in IE7 - click the page icon at top right. Why you need
both this and the ability to zoom, I'm not sure, but it's there at
any rate.
* [93]03/01/2007
[94]Ben G
Can you set the margin above or below headings or paragraphs to
less than your 18px base measurement? Won't margin collapsing cause
whichever the largest margin is to take effect?
Ben
* [95]31/01/2009
[96]Daniel
I've been using this article as the basis for designing my site
with some "vertical rhythm". Everything is going well except with
forms (input, textarea, etc.). I just haven't been able to use css
to maintain the vertical rhythm (based on total line height of
18px).
Any advise or insight as to how to get forms to play nicely?
* [97]15/02/2009
[98]Silver Firefly
I wanted to clarify something about the default browser text size
and using the em unit. The article was a tad misleading when it
covered the default browser text size and the em unit. A lot of
designers have it in their heads that an em is equivalent to 16
pixels. An em is not equivalent to 16 pixels. It is equivalent to
whatever is set in the user's browser, which is commonly 16px but
depending on the user, it can be 20px or 12px or whatever they have
set in their browser's settings. I hope after reading that
statement, designers will start to realise that they have little
control over how their website appears in other users' browsers.
The majority of the control lies in the user's hands. Other than
that, the article was very good.
* [99]17/04/2009
Great article... and AWESOME site design. Inspirational!
* [101]27/04/2009
Typesetting for websites is the future, like all things
content-related. The Google knows it :). Thank you for that useful
post. You webdesigners take care of your text!
* [103]05/06/2009
[104]bonfield
Inline bolding of elements (I'm using Helvetica, e.g.) seems to add
a px of height on any line that uses it, and that subtly throws off
the vertical rhythm for each line and it can add up depending
-- anybody else run into this and solve it?
* [105]18/06/2009
[106]Anonymous
Does this truly keep the vertical rhythm? If you zoom in on the
example, you'll see that the descender of the letter g in the H1
header "New England" crosses your rhythm marker's background line,
while a lowercase g in the following paragraph does not. There
appears to be some fudging going on.
* [107]08/07/2009
I find it humorous that this site itself does not compose to a
vertical rhythm. I've seen very few online that do. It's so
difficult to implement across browsers it is usually brushed aside
except for in the most simple design schemes.
* [109]03/08/2009
[110]eric
I've yet to see any empirical evidence that "vertical rhythm"
applied to this degree has any impact on how well a reader is able
to extract signal from the noise of the page.
Meanwhile, I've seen many, many examples of mis-applied "vertical
rhythms" resulting in squashed headings where the underlning on a
link impinges on the text below. Which just looks clunky.
When you've got something other than an aesthetic opinion from the
margins -- maybe some actual data -- then I'll be interested in
expending the effort needed to support real vertical rhythm. Until
then, I just don't see how it's cost-effective.
* [111]02/09/2009
Now, that was the kind of article I was looking for. That goes a
lot deeper than I've been into the realms of line-spacing, leading
(no kerning here though - can we do kerning with css?).
I love the analogy to musical rhythym > therefore probably
following on to mathematics/geometry/proportion. That is a great
lead-in. Is there any room for the `golden ratio' in web design? Do
graphic designers use it with/without realising it? Just that I
haven't seen it discussed in the myriad pages concerning page
layout/design that I've read so far...
Thanks,
Darren
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About the author
[114]Richard Rutter
Richard Rutter is a user experience consultant and director of
[115]Clearleft. He runs an ongoing project called [116]The Elements of
Typographic Style Applied to the Web, where he extols the virtues of
good web typography. Richard occasionally blogs at [117]Clagnut, where
he writes about design, accessibility and web standards issues, as well
as his passion for music and mountain biking.
[118]More information
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[1]Home > [2]Articles > [3]Web Design & Development > [4]Usability
[5]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm
[6]Jason Cranford Teague
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* Dec 23, 2009
[8]Toggle Open Article Table of Contents [9]Article Contents
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1. [12]Web Measurements
2. [13]Type Size & Line Height
3. [14]Type Space
4. Text Alignment
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[28]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm
Dec 23, 2009
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[53]10 Last-minute Gifts for Web Designers
By on December 17, 2009 1 Comment
Q: What do I get for the Web designer who has everything?
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The slightly longer answer is, anything that helps spark their
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By on December 14, 2009 No Comments
Q: Should I use Hex or RGB values to define colors in CSS?
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By on November 30, 2009 No Comments
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[57]Pixels or Ems in Your Web Designs
By on November 18, 2009 No Comments
Q: What is the practical difference between px (pixel) and em
(pronounced m)? When is it best to use one over the other?
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[58]To CSS Reset or Not to CSS Reset
By on November 10, 2009 No Comments
Question: Which Global Reset for CSS Should I Use?
The short answer is the simplest one possible.
The slightly longer answer is that you should reset some styles,
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[59]HTML 5 NOW!
By on August 25, 20092 Comments
Q: Can I start using HTML 5 now?
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The short answer is that, yes, [62]HTML 5 is the next big thing.
The slightly longer answer is that it's going to be a while
before you have to start worrying about HTML 5.
The long answer is that, as with all standards, before it
becomes relevant, the browser makers have to implement it and
then you'll have to wait even longer before legacy browsers are
no longer an issue. So, you have some time before you have to
run out and buy a new HTML 5 Visual QuickStart Guide. The good
news is that HTML 5 has gone to great lengths to stay backwards
compatible, so you can begin to learn and implement it today.
[63]Everyone is a Web Designer
By on August 10, 2009 No Comments
Q: What is a Web Designer anymore? It was easier to make Web
sites all by yourself, even 5 years ago, but now there is just
too much technology for one person to handle. If I want to make
a Web site for a very small business, don't have I to be web
"developer" now?
The short answer is that everybody is a Web designer now.
The slightly longer answer is that Web designers are
practitioners of a highly specialized discipline that requires
years of study to truly master.
The long answer is that a good Web designer is a good designer,
and this can come "naturally" or from training, but is not
medium-dependent. However, a professional Web designer has to
understand the medium well enough to know its strengths and
limitations. Any designer can pump out something that looks
brilliant when displayed in a Web browser window, but is slow to
load, static when loaded, and completely unusable.
[64]Frames are Dead, Long Live Iframes!
By on July 24, 2009 No Comments
Q: Is there a suitable alternative to frames? My wife is
president of a local woman's club. She and I administer the
club's web site, and the ladies like the list of links down one
side of the pages. But I read that frames have been deprecated.
Regardless, I want to keep the site simple.
The short answer is yes-- use iframes.
The slightly longer answer is no, not exactly, but we can get
close.
The long answer is there are a variety of ways to add content to
your Web pages, but the question is: once it's on the page what
are you going to do with it (or to it)?
[65]Q: If I ask ten different web designers what pixel dimensions to
use for web pages and whether to make them fixed-width or
"stretchy," I get ten different answers. What's your answer, and
why?
By on July 20, 2009 No Comments
The short answer is fixed at 974 pixels (px) wide.
The slightly longer answer is whatever it takes to get the job
done.
The long answer is that asking a Web designer what size a Web
page should be is like asking a painter what size a canvas
should be or an architect how large a a building should be.
While it's not purely a matter of taste--there are certain
physical and ergonomic constraints--personal preference accounts
for the wide variety of answers you might hear.
[66]Ask me, ask me, ask me
By on July 1, 2009 No Comments
Do you have a question about Web standards, CSS, JavaScript,
Ajax, interaction design, user experience, or Web typography?
Maybe you just want to know "How'd they do that?" Ask me
questions, and each week I will select a question to answer via
my Peachpit.com blog.
[67]Ask the Web Designer: Why Can't I Use Any Font I Want in My Web
Designs?
By on June 30, 2009 No Comments
The short answer is that you can.
The slightly longer answer is that you can't, at least not in
any meaningful way yet.
The long answer is that the ability to download fonts has
actually been a part of the CSS standard (the language used to
create Web designs) for over 10 years. The snag comes with what
font formats a given browser supports.
[NOTE: You may want to stop reading now, as the rest of this
explanation might make your eyes bleed in frustration.]
[68]Fluid Web Typography
This chapter is from the book
[69]Fluid Web Typography
Jason Cranford Teague shows how giving careful consideration to the
measurements and scale you are designing for is what separates good Web
typography from great Web typography.
Text Alignment
Text alignment is generally taken for granted on the Web--left
alignment suits most purposes most of the time. In order to create a
sense of rhythm and movement on your page, helping to guide the
reader's eye around and adding visual interest to the page, a little
alignment variation can go a long way.
Set body text alignment to minimize gaps and maximize scanning
Text alignment in Web pages is, by default, to the left, with ragged
edges on the right. Justified text--sometimes called newspaper columns,
where both edges of the text are aligned--is rare on the Web.
text-align: left;
text-align: justify;
In print, justified text is created using a variety of techniques
including word spacing, letterspacing, hyphenation, and glyph
reshaping. In addition, well-formed justification is calculated on a
paragraph level to prevent "rivers" of white space flowing down the
middle. On the Web, unfortunately, justification is simply created by
adding small amounts of space between words. On the screen, where you
can only add whole pixels, this often results in uncomfortably large
amounts of space between some words, especially in narrower columns.
Hyphenation is inexplicably absent from CSS. While it is proposed for
inclusion in CSS 3, no work has currently been done on it.
When choosing to use left or justified alignment, keep in mind these
factors:
* Justified text is often seen as more formal and structured, while
left alignment is more informal and approachable.
* Justified text reinforces the grid structure of a page but can be
harder to scan, since it often creates rivers of white space
throughout the text, which interrupts the eye path.
* Left-aligned text adds an element of white space to the right edge,
softening the overall appearance of the page.
Combining Alignments
[70]craigmod.com
Craig Mod combines right-and left-justified columns of text to create
motion and rhythm around his page.
[71]04-17.jpg
[72]Click to view larger image
Center or right-justify text for effect and variety
More rarely used, centering or right-justifying text can create a
specific feeling on the page.
text-align: center;
text-align: right;
Centering and right aligning text is integrally dependent on the design
you are creating and how you want your readers to scan the page. While
using a variety of justifications helps create rhythm and motion on
your page, it can quickly seem cluttered or obnoxious. Always have a
specific purpose for the variance of alignment, and use it sparingly.
Here are a few ideas:
* Bulleted or numbered lists should not be centered or right aligned,
as this makes them harder to scan by moving the beginning of each
line around.
* Center section or module titles/headers if you want to make your
site look a little different. Generally, section titles are best
when left aligned, but centering them gives your designs a unique
feel and may also improve scannability.
* Right-align text in the left column of a page or table if it helps
show a closer relationship between the elements in adjacent
columns.
Centered Section Titles
[73]jontangerine.com
Jon Tangerine combines centered subheadings with justified text in his
blog (detail shown) to create solid structure with visual movement.
[74]04-18.jpg
[75]Click to view larger image
Increase margins for longer quotations and style the citation
Short quotes of less than three lines are included in a paragraph
surround by quotation marks, requiring no other special formatting. In
HTML, the blockquote tag is used to set off a block of text as a
quotation, generally of two lines of text or longer. The quotation
should be styled to distinguish it from other text by indenting its
left and right margins and increasing the top and bottom margins. The
amount of left/right indentation is based on the width of the column
and then adjusted so that it does not conflict with any other indents.
A good measure to offset blockquotes is to double the font size (2em),
although more or less space may be required for wider or narrower
columns:
blockquote { margin: 2em; }
note.jpg In this chapter, we are only considering spacing issues with
blockquotes and citations. Chapters 5 and 6 offer other ways to style
text, including weights, italics, backgrounds, and borders. These can
be deployed to creatively display longer quotations.
This will clearly space the blockquote away from the rest of the text,
but it's also up to the copywriter to make it clear that the text is a
quote and to supply its source, possibly using the cite tag, which
indicates a citation. Turning the cite tag into a block-level element
and right-aligning it when it is included in a blockquote creates a
strong style.
blockquote cite {
display: block;
text-align: right; }
Blockquote Ideas
[76]css-tricks.com/examples/Blockquotes
CSS-Tricks has a page of blockquote ideas with sample code.
The code above will force any text marked by the citation tag to a new
line and right-align it.
[77]04-20.jpg
[78]Click to view larger image
Set footnotes and scientific or mathematical annotations using positioning
rather than vertical alignment
Vertical text alignment allows you to adjust the position of inline
text in relation to its natural baseline, shifting it up or down. For
footnotes, mathematics, and scientific notation, it will not be enough
to simply raise or lower the characters; you will also need to reduce
their size relative to the surrounding text. These styles can be
applied to the superscript and subscript tags, setting the vertical
position to the baseline and then setting a position relative to that:
sup, sub { font-size: .5em;
vertical-align: baseline;
position: relative; }
sup { top: -.65em; }
sup.math { top: -.8em }
sub { top: .2em; }
Although vertical-align provides several values to set the vertical
position of the text, these have proved to be unreliable in
multi-column layouts. The exact values will vary depending on the font,
and you may also need to add some left/right margins to add breathing
room.
[79]04-21.jpg
[80]Click to view larger image
Type Inspirations: Jon Tangerine
Beautiful typographic contrast.
Insightful typography editorials.
[81]jontangerine.com
Jon is a designer living in Bristol, UK, with some of the cleanest pure
Web typography I've seen. On top of this, his information and opinions
on Web typography are required reading for anyone interested in the
ongoing issues we face.
[82]04-22.jpg
[83]Click to view larger image
How he does it:
Jon uses a font stack of Web safe fonts, including Cochin, Baskerville,
and Palatino Linotype, down to Georgia. He then combines a wide variety
of sizes, styles, weights, and colors all scaled and spaced within a
strong grid to provide clear eye paths and legible text.
[84]04-25.jpg
[85]Click to view larger image
[86]04-26.jpg
[87]Click to view larger image
[88]04-27.jpg
[89]Click to view larger image
[90]04-28.jpg
[91]Click to view larger image
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[117]Peachpit in 3D
By [118]Rebecca Freed on December 30, 2009 No Comments
The Peachpit offices join the Google 3D Warehouse, courtesy of
Real World Google SketchUp 7 author Mike Tadros.
[119]Jason Teague [120]10 Last-minute Gifts for Web Designers
By [121]Jason Cranford Teague on December 17, 2009 1 Comment
Q: What do I get for the Web designer who has everything?
The short answer is real estate.
The slightly longer answer is, anything that helps spark their
creativity.
The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah,
Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [122]Saturnalia
myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift
giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has
everything they need to actually make Web sites?
Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect.
[123]Kara Murphy [124]Just in time for the holidays: Our video-a-day
giveaway
By [125]Kara Murphy on December 16, 2009 No Comments
It's the holiday season, and I bet some of you are already
thinking of your New Year's resolutions. If one of them is to
learn something new in the field of Web design, development,
presentation, branding, and much more, then you're in luck.
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[65]Open Access Research
A possible connection between psychosomatic symptoms and daily rhythmicity in
growth hormone secretion in healthy Japanese students
Mitsuo Nagane^1 [66]email , Kazunori Yoshimura^2 [67]email , Shu-Ichi
Watanabe^3 [68]email and Masahiko Nomura^4 [69]email
^1 Department of Educational Physiology, Chiba University, Chiba
263-8522, Japan
^2 Department of Rehabilitation, Nihon Institute of Medical Science,
Japan
^3 Department of Physiology, Saitama Medical University, Japan
^4 International Education and Training Center, Saitama Medical
University, Japan
[email.gif] author email [email-ca.gif] corresponding author email
Journal of Circadian Rhythms 2009, 7:10doi:10.1186/1740-3391-7-10
The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be
Received: 3 February 2009
Accepted: 5 August 2009
Published: 5 August 2009
© 2009 Nagane et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
Abstract
Background
Students suffering from psychosomatic symptoms, including drowsiness
and feelings of melancholy, often have basic lifestyle problems. The
aim of this study was to investigate whether psychosomatic complaints
may be related to circadian dysfunction.
Methods
We examined 15 healthy students (4 men and 11 women) between 21 and 22
years old. To assess the presence of psychosomatic symptoms among the
subjects, we developed a self-assessment psychosomatic complaints
questionnaire consisting of five items pertaining to physical symptoms
and five items concerning mental symptoms. The subjects rated their
psychosomatic symptoms twice a day (08:00 and 20:00 h). We also
assessed growth hormone secretion patterns by fluorescence enzyme
immunoassay (FEIA). Salivary samples were collected from the subjects
at home five times a day (20:00, 24:00, 04:00, 08:00, and 12:00 h) in
Salivette tubes.
Results
The results indicated a relationship between the self-assessment scores
and the salivary levels of growth hormone. Subjects with high
self-assessment scores showed significant variability in growth hormone
secretion over the day, whereas subjects with low self-assessment
scores did not.
Conclusion
Psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with circadian dysfunction, as
inferred from blunted rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion.
Background
Japanese students suffering from psychosomatic disorders, such as those
involving mood and sleep, may exhibit basic problems in their
lifestyle, including deleterious changes in their living environment
and dietary or lifestyle disturbances [[72]1]. In particular, staying
up late is associated with decreased appetite and missed breakfast the
following morning, irregular bowel movements and sleepiness. Perhaps
the biggest problem facing today's Japanese students is their lack of
daily physical exercise, brought on by stressful academic courses over
long periods of time, too much television and computer games and
increased automobile use [[73]2]. Many Japanese youngsters stay up late
at night [[74]3].
A circadian pacemaker in the central nervous system regulates human
sleep cycles, hormone secretion, subject alertness, objective
performance levels and other physiologic functions over a 24-h period.
Core body temperature, plasma cortisol, and plasma melatonin are three
variables frequently used to estimate the phase of the human pacemaker
[[75]4], although many other hormones, including growth hormone,
exhibit daily rhythmicity. Technical advances that make the assessment
of biomarkers in saliva possible have enabled researchers to
non-invasively study biosocial processes related to stress in
naturalistic contexts. Chiappin et al [[76]5] showed the usefulness and
possibility of salivary hormone analysis containing growth hormone.
Rantonen [[77]6] found a linear correlation between salivary and serum
growth hormone.
Carroll et al. [[78]7] described negative effects of growth hormone
insufficiency on psychological well-being, including reduced vitality
and energy, depressed mood, emotional lability, impaired self-control,
anxiety, and increased social isolation. Patients with growth hormone
deficiencies report decreased energy levels, greater emotional
lability, increased difficulties with sexual relationships and a
greater sense of social isolation than control subjects [[79]8].
However, no direct relationship has been shown between growth hormone
deficiency and psychometrically measured depression, apathy or
psychosomatic well-being [[80]9].
The purpose of the present study was to investigate individual
variation in the levels of growth hormone in healthy subjects and to
examine the relationship between an individual's hormone profile and
his or her psychosomatic complaints.
Methods
The subjects and self-assessment questionnaire
Fifteen subjects (4 men and 11 women) without major medical disorders
ranging in age from 21 to 22 years participated in this study. The
study design was approved by the Ethics Committee of Chiba University,
Japan, and informed consent was obtained from all subjects. A
self-assessment questionnaire concerning psychosomatic symptoms was
developed in accordance with data from the Health Behavior in
School-Aged Children (HBSC) study of the WHO [[81]10]. The
questionnaire for this study contained five items related to physical
symptoms and five items pertaining to mental symptoms (Table [82]1).
The questionnaire was used to measure each individual's psychosomatic
symptoms at home twice each day (08:00 and 20:00 h). The items were
rated on a 4-point scale, with 1 = not true at all and 4 = completely
true. The total score for the 10-item scale ranged from 10 to 40, with
higher scores indicating a greater degree of psychosomatic complaints.
The subjects were allocated post hoc (median split) to a High (n = 7)
or Low (n = 8) Self-Assessment Group based on their total morning score
(with higher scores corresponding to lower self-assessment).
[83]Table 1. Morning and evening psychosomatic condition scores
collected from the self-assessment psychosomatic complaint
questionnaire
Sample collection
Saliva was collected into Salivette tubes (Sarstedt, Germany) using
polyester swabs from the subjects' mouths following 2 min of chewing.
Samples were collected five times a day at home (20:00, 24:00, 04:00,
08:00, and 12:00 h). Both the day of sampling and the preceding day
were required to be normal days (i.e., without special events or
stressful circumstances). After sample collection, the saliva was
stored at -20°C until being analysed.
Salivary growth hormone assay
On the day of testing, the samples were centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for 10
min to remove all mucin. A standard fluorescent determination
immunoassay was used to assess the growth hormone concentrations in
each sample. To avoid inter-assay variability, all determinations were
performed in a single series. In the first step, 96-well fluoro-nunc
plates (Nunc, Black MicroWell 137101, Denmark) were pre-coated with 100
µl of anti-growth hormone antibody (Quartett, 2071800210, Germany) and
incubated for 1.5 h at room temperature. After incubation, the plate
was washed three times with phosphate-buffered saline and blocked for 1
h. After washing, 100 µl of saliva or a standard solution was dispensed
into each well and left for 1.5 h. After washing, primary antibody
(Funakoshi, FU47500254, Japan) was added to the plates and incubated
for 1.5 h. Next, incubation with a secondary antibody (Novus
Biologicals, NB120-7112, USA) was performed for 1 h. After washing,
rabbit anti-ovine immunoglobulin (Amersham Biosciences, ECF Western
Blotting Reagent Pack, USA) was added. After 20 min of incubation, the
plate was scanned using a Fluoromark Microplate Fluorometer (Bio-Rad,
USA) with excitation at 485 nm and emission at 590 nm.
Data analysis
The significance of differences between group means was tested by
analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by protected t tests when
appropriate. The presence of daily rhythmicity in salivary growth
hormone was tested by ANOVA and by the cosinor procedure [[84]11].
Results
Self-assessment psychosomatic complaints questionnaire
A factorial repeated measures ANOVA (high/low self-assessment versus
morning/evening self-assessment scores) was conducted. ANOVA results
showed significant differences (p < .05) between morning and evening
self-assessment scores. Post hoc analyses revealed that, as shown in
Table [85]1, the high self-assessment group (total 19.00) differed
significantly from the low self-assessment group (total 32.75) in terms
of their morning scores (Welch's t-test, t = -3.96, df = 7.57, p <
0.01). The low self-assessment group subjects complained of negative
psychosomatic conditions including being easily irritated (p < .05),
feeling melancholy (p < .05), having a desire to rest (p < .05), and
feeling anxious (p < .01).
Assessment of daily rhythmicity of salivary growth hormone secretion
We collected saliva profiles from 15 healthy students (4 men and 11
women). The amplitude of salivary growth hormone, defined as the
difference between the highest and lowest salivary concentrations, was
used to produce a standardisation, or Z, score. As shown in Figure
[86]1, noticeable variation was observed in the hormonal rhythms of the
subjects, including differences in the salivary growth hormone
secretion profiles of the high and low self-assessment groups. Cosinor
analysis revealed no significant 24-hour rhythmicity in the secretion
profiles of either group (p > .50), but a repeated measures ANOVA
identified statistically significant (p < .05) time-related variations
for growth hormone in the high self-assessment group. The secretion
profile of the low self-assessment group did not exhibit the typical,
sharp peak in the early morning [[87]12], and ANOVA showed no
time-related variation (p > .10). At 08:00 h, salivary growth hormone
levels were significantly lower (p < .05) in the low self-assessment
group than in the high self-assessment group.
[88]thumbnail Figure 1. Daily variation in salivary level of growth
hormone in the high and low self-assessment groups. The results are
presented as means ± S.E.M. * p < .05.
Discussion
Psychosocial factors have been previously shown to affect the
psychosomatic symptoms reported by Japanese school children [[89]13].
Psychosomatic symptoms, which are largely mediated by the autonomic
nervous system, are strongly influenced by an individual's lifestyle,
and the current so-called 24-h society in Japan may have changed the
environmental conditions of students. More than 80% of school refusal
cases (school phobia) suffer from sleep disorders, with a tendency
towards day/night reversal and easy fatigability, especially during the
period immediately following their school social life [[90]14]. Thus,
impairment in circadian rhythmicity may be a cause of school refusal in
Japan. The present study was the first step in an attempt to
investigate this hypothesis.
Our assessment of salivary growth hormone secretion was not sensitive
enough to detect significant daily rhythmicity, but the highest level
measured in the subjects of our high self-assessment group occurred
earlier in the day than the peak of the daily rhythm measured in a
previous study [[91]15]. Peak hormonal secretions often shift to the
morning if an activity continues long into the night. A link between
deficiency of growth hormone and reduced quality of life or well-being
has been reported by many researchers [[92]7].
Our results indicate a relationship between the self-assessment scores
and the levels of growth hormone. Subjects with high self-assessment
scores in the morning showed significant variability in growth hormone
secretion during the day, whereas subjects with low self-assessment
scores did not. Thus, psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with
hormonal rhythms related to basic lifestyle habits.
Nocturnal melatonin secretion can be suppressed by exposure to light on
the order of several hundred lux, such as ordinary room light [[93]16].
Thus, a subject's pattern of melatonin secretion may reflect his or her
life rhythm, and melatonin secretion appears to be an important index
of circadian rhythmicity. Based on our previous finding that growth
hormone and melatonin exhibit similar daily rhythmicity [[94]17], we
believe that estimates of the state of the central circadian clock can
be most accurate if they are based on the analysis of the secretion
patterns of both melatonin and growth hormone.
Some limitations of our study must be emphasized. First, it is possible
that the sleep-disrupting effect of waking at 00.00 and 04.00 to
produce a saliva sample had a disruptive effect on hormonal secretion.
Second, we observed a larger difference in terms of gender than has
been previously described [[95]18], with women having sevenfold higher
serum growth hormone concentrations than men during the day. Though we
did not directly examine sex differences in growth hormone secretion,
we recognise it as an important topic for further research.
Conclusion
Psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with circadian dysfunction, as
inferred from blunted rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors' contributions
MN designed the experiments, collected data and wrote the manuscript.
KY managed the laboratory and adjusted the schedule of subjects. SW
participated in the design of the study and performed statistical
analysis. MN supervised the study. All authors read and approved the
final version of the article.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported in part by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific
Research (C) from the Japanese Ministry of Education to Nagane M.
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[63]Open Access [64]Highly Access Research
Daily rhythm of cerebral blood flow velocity
Deirdre A Conroy^1 [65]email , Arthur J Spielman^1^,2 [66]email and
Rebecca Q Scott^3 [67]email
^1 Department of Psychology, The Graduate School and University Center
of the City University of New York, New York, USA
^2 Department of Neurology and Neuroscience, New York Presbyterian
Hospital, New York, USA
^3 Department of Health Psychology, Albert Einstein Medical College at
Yeshiva University, Bronx, USA
[email.gif] author email [email-ca.gif] corresponding author email
Journal of Circadian Rhythms 2005, 3:3doi:10.1186/1740-3391-3-3
The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be
Received: 21 December 2004
Accepted: 10 March 2005
Published: 10 March 2005
© 2005 Conroy et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
Abstract
Background
CBFV (cerebral blood flow velocity) is lower in the morning than in the
afternoon and evening. Two hypotheses have been proposed to explain the
time of day changes in CBFV: 1) CBFV changes are due to
sleep-associated processes or 2) time of day changes in CBFV are due to
an endogenous circadian rhythm independent of sleep. The aim of this
study was to examine CBFV over 30 hours of sustained wakefulness to
determine whether CBFV exhibits fluctuations associated with time of
day.
Methods
Eleven subjects underwent a modified constant routine protocol. CBFV
from the middle cerebral artery was monitored by chronic recording of
Transcranial Doppler (TCD) ultrasonography. Other variables included
core body temperature (CBT), end-tidal carbon dioxide (EtCO2), blood
pressure, and heart rate. Salivary dim light melatonin onset (DLMO)
served as a measure of endogenous circadian phase position.
Results
A non-linear multiple regression, cosine fit analysis revealed that
both the CBT and CBFV rhythm fit a 24 hour rhythm (R^2 = 0.62 and R^2 =
0.68, respectively). Circadian phase position of CBT occurred at 6:05
am while CBFV occurred at 12:02 pm, revealing a six hour, or 90 degree
difference between these two rhythms (t = 4.9, df = 10, p < 0.01). Once
aligned, the rhythm of CBFV closely tracked the rhythm of CBT as
demonstrated by the substantial correlation between these two measures
(r = 0.77, p < 0.01).
Conclusion
In conclusion, time of day variations in CBFV have an approximately 24
hour rhythm under constant conditions, suggesting regulation by a
circadian oscillator. The 90 degree-phase angle difference between the
CBT and CBFV rhythms may help explain previous findings of lower CBFV
values in the morning. The phase difference occurs at a time period
during which cognitive performance decrements have been observed and
when both cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events occur more
frequently. The mechanisms underlying this phase angle difference
require further exploration.
Background
It has been well documented that cerebral blood flow velocity (CBFV) is
lower in sleep [[70]1-[71]7] and in the morning shortly after awakening
[[72]8-[73]10] than in the afternoon or evening. Generally accepted
theories about the time of day changes in CBFV attribute the fall in
CBFV to the physiological processes of the sleep period and the
increase during the day to waking processes. The low CBFV in the
morning is thought to be a consequence of the fall in the overall
reduced metabolic level [[74]8,[75]10
,[76]11] and reduced cognitive processing [[77]12]. Additionally, the
reduced physical activity [[78]13], reduced body temperature, and the
recumbent sleeping position have also been proposed as contributors
[[79]14] to the decline in CBFV and analogous brain processes.
An alternative to these explanations that attribute changes in CBFV to
sleep and wake dependent processes is that this pattern of fluctuation
reflects an endogenous process with circadian rhythmicity. The decline
of CBFV across the sleep period and rise after subjects are awakened in
the morning resemble the endogenous circadian changes in core body
temperature (CBT), a reliable index of endogenous circadian
rhythmicity. Both patterns are low during sleep, start to rise in the
morning, reach their peak in the late afternoon, and then drop during
the sleep period.
The aim of this study was to examine CBFV over ~30 hours of sustained
wakefulness to unmask and quantify contributions of the endogenous
circadian system. By not permitting sleep, the evoked changes dependent
on this change of state will not contribute to the observed CBFV
changes. We hypothesized that time of day changes in CBFV are due to
endogenous circadian regulation. Previous studies have been limited by
several factors. First, the environmental conditions (light level) and
the behavior of the subject (sleep, meals, and caffeine intake) were
not controlled [[80]15,[81]13,[82]1
,[83]16]. Second, CBFV measurements were obtained at only a few
circadian points. For example, Ameriso et al. [[84]15] and Qureshi et
al. [[85]16] assessed CBFV between 6-8 am, 1-3 pm, and 7-9 pm. Diamant
et al [[86]13] assessed CBFV during the first 15 minutes of every hour
across a 24 hour period. Given these brief time periods, the findings
are only a schematic of the 24 hour profile. Third, primary output
markers of the endogenous circadian pacemaker (such as core body
temperature and melatonin production) were not assessed.
We employed the "constant routine" protocol, which was designed
specifically to unmask underlying circadian rhythms in constant
conditions [[87]17]. CBFV was collected by Transcranial Doppler (TCD)
ultrasonography for the entire study period. Core body temperature and
salivary dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO) were measured for
determination of circadian phase. Continuous electroencephalography
(EEG) was performed to ensure wakefulness across the study.
Additionally, measurements of blood pressure, heart rate, and end tidal
carbon dioxide (Et[CO2]), three of the main regulators of CBFV, were
collected every half hour.
Methods
Subject selection
Twelve subjects (10 men and 2 women; ages 19-38, mean 28 years) agreed
to participate. One subject discontinued her participation because of a
headache 15 hours into the study. Subjects were in good health, as
assessed by medical history, semi-structured clinical interview, and
physical exam. Information regarding menstrual cycle was not obtained
from female subjects. Subjects also underwent an independent standard
cerebrovascular assessment and were determined to be normal. They
reported no symptoms of sleep problems (such as insomnia, obstructive
sleep apnea, narcolepsy, or restless legs syndrome).
Subjects that were selected to participate kept to a designated
sleep-wake schedule (that was negotiated from the subject's typical
pattern) and filled out a sleep diary for the two weeks prior to the
time in the laboratory. According to sleep diary reports, bedtimes
ranged from 10:30 pm to 1:00 am and waketimes ranged from 6:00 am to
10:00 am. Alcohol and caffeine intake was discontinued for the entire
week before the study. During the data collection, subjects were not
permitted either alcohol or caffeine. All subjects were non-smokers.
Laboratory constant routine protocol
The study protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Boards of
New York Presbyterian Hospital - Weill Medical College of Cornell
University and The City College of New York. Subjects gave written and
informed consent before participating. Subjects arrived at the sleep
laboratory between 9:30 am and 10:00 am. They were oriented to the
study procedures and to their bedroom. Electrodes were placed on the
subject's head and face as they sat in a chair next to the bed. Data
collection began at 11 am. Subjects remained in bed and awake in a semi
recumbent position for 30 hours in an established "constant routine"
(CR) protocol. Subjects remained in low (<25 lux) light levels which
have been shown to have little or no entraining effect on the circadian
pacemaker [[88]18]. They were not allowed to get out of bed to urinate.
Instead they urinated in private in a urinal or bedpan. Subjects
remained awake from 11:00 a.m. on Day 1 until 5 p.m. on Day 2.
Throughout the study, subjects were provided small meals (Ensure ^®
liquid formula plus one-quarter nutritional food bar) every 2 hours.
Subject's typical total food and liquid intake for a day and a quarter
were divided into 15 relatively equal portions. Only one subject
participated in the CR per 30-hour period.
This protocol represents a modified CR in two ways. First, subjects
were allowed to watch television and were therefore were not in "time
isolation." Television content was monitored so that subjects were not
exposed to programs with highly emotional themes. Second, subjects
needing to defecate were allowed to go to the bathroom, which was
located a few steps away from the bedside. We chose this method as an
alternative to using the bedpan to ensure subject's comfort and study
compliance. Three subjects (subjects 05, 06, and 10) got out of bed
once at 3:30, 21:30, and 15:30, respectively, to defecate. One subject,
subject 12, got out of bed twice, at 22:30 and 6:35. Subject 10 used
the bathroom only during the adaptation period. A paired-samples t-test
was conducted to evaluate the impact of getting out of bed to defecate
on subject's CBT and CBFV values. The CBT and CBFV values in the two
hours before getting up were compared to the two hours after the
subject got up. Subjects 5 showed a slight decrease in CBT from before
(M = 98.12, SD = 0.14) to after the subject returned to the bed (M =
97.91, SD = 0.08), t(3) = -5.17, p = .014). Subject 6 showed a decline
in CBFV from before (M = 56.14, SD = 2.3) to after the subject returned
to the bed (M = 45.67, SD = 3.7), t(3) = 5.49, p = 0.012). There were
no other significant differences detected between these two time
periods for subject 5's CBFV, subject 6's CBT, or for both times
subject 12 got out of the bed. By visual inspection, the overall shape
of the curves in these subjects was not affected and therefore these
subject's data were included in subsequent analyses.
Transcranial Doppler ultrasound recordings
The current study utilized TCD ultrasonography to measure cerebral
blood flow velocity. TCD is a non-invasive instrument (consisting of
one or two 2-Mhz transducers fitted to a headband, MARC500, Spencer
Technologies, Nicolet Biomedical Inc) that is used predominantly as a
diagnostic tool to assess cerebral hemodynamics in normal and
pathological conditions. TCD ultrasonography is predicated on a theory
that involves the measurement of moving objects when combined with
radar. When the instrument emits the sound wave, it is reflected by the
blood cells that are moving in the vector of the sound wave [[89]19].
CBFV was measured using either the right or left middle cerebral artery
(MCA) using TCD sonography (TCD: DWL Multidop X-2, DWL Elektronische
Systeme GmbH, D-78354 Sipplingen/Germany) through the temporal window.
An observer who was present continuously during the recordings
evaluated the quality of the signal. This enabled long-term recording
of CBFV throughout the study. Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT) of the
signal was used to analyze the velocity spectra. The mean velocity of
the MCA was obtained from the integral of the maximal TCD frequency
shifts over one beat divided by the corresponding beat interval and
expressed in cm/sec. Analysis was conducted off line.
Measurement of standard markers of the circadian pacemaker
Body temperature recordings
Core body temperature was recorded at 1-minute intervals with an
indwelling rectal probe (MiniMitter, Co. Bend, OR). A wire lead
connected the sensor out of the rectum to a data collection system worn
on the belt. Temperature readings were collected and saved into the
device and monitored at hourly intervals by the investigator. After the
study, the recordings were visually inspected and artifacts resulting
from removal or malfunction of the probe were excluded from further
analysis.
Salivary melatonin
Salivary samples of 3 ml were collected every hour from 11:00 a.m. on
Day 1 to 4:00 p.m. on Day 2. Ten of these samples were used only for
the determination of the timing of the salivary dim light melatonin
onset (DLMO). For nine subjects, salivary DLMO was assessed across a
ten-hour time window that included the ten hours before the CBT
minimum. Immediately after collection, each saliva sample was frozen
and stored at -20°C. Saliva samples were assayed using Bühlmann
Melatonin Radio Immunoassay (RIA) test kit for direct melatonin in
human saliva (American Laboratory Products Co., Windham, NH). Analysis
was conducted at New York State Institute for Basic Research. Salivary
DLMO time was selected based on two criteria. The saliva sample needed
to have melatonin concentration 3 pg/ml or above and later samples
needed to show higher levels (Bühlmann laboratories). Second, the 3
pg/ml threshold needed to occur within 6-10 hours before core body
temperature minimum [[90]20].
Polygraphic recordings
Electroencephalography (EEG) was continually assessed across the 30
hours to ensure that subjects maintained wakefulness. The following
montage was used according to the international 10-20 system: C3-A2,
C4-A1, O1-A2, O2-A1, ROC-A1, LOC-A2, and submentalis electromyogram
(EMG). One channel of electrocardiogram was continuously recorded by
monitoring from two electrodes (one on each side of the body at the
shoulder chest junction). The EEG software (Rembrant Sleep Collection
Software Version 7.0) was used for data acquisition and display of the
signals on a personal computer. Throughout the CR, the investigator
(DAC) monitored the quality of the recordings. The recordings were
scored by RQS and DAC.
Blood pressure, heart rate, and end-tidal CO2
An automated blood pressure cuff was placed on the bicep of the subject
and inflated two times each hour in order to determine changes in blood
pressure and heart rate over time. Blood pressure and heart rate in one
subject (02) was recorded via a finger blood pressure monitor (Omron
Marshall Products, Model F-88). Blood pressure and heart rate in
subjects 03, 04, 05, 06, and 07 were recorded with Omron Healthcare,
Inc, Vernon Hills, Illinois 60061 Model # HEM-705CP Rating: DC 6V 4W
Serial No: 2301182L. Blood pressure and heart rate for subjects 08, 09
and 10 was recorded with a similar blood pressure monitor (CVS Pharmacy
Inc, Woonsocket, RI 02895 Model # 1086CVS). Blood pressure and heart
rate recordings were not measured in subjects 11 and 12. Et[CO2 ]was
continuously obtained. A nasal cannula for monitoring expired gases was
placed under the nose. Relative changes in carbon dioxide content were
measured by an Ohmeda 4700 Oxicap (BOC healthcare). Mean Et[CO2 ]levels
were analyzed off-line. Et[CO2 ]recordings were not measured in
subjects 11 and 12.
Data Analyses
Data reduction and statistical procedures
CBT and CBFV values were first subjected to data rejection. All CBT
values less than 96 degrees were determined to be artifact and were
rejected. All CBFV values less than 20 cm/sec were determined to be
artifact according to the clinical criteria set by the staff
neurologist. Data reduction was accomplished by averaging into one
minute, 30 minute or hourly bins. Correlations presented here were
performed on mean values in 30 minute bins. To ensure that circadian
measurements were made under basal conditions, the first five hours of
the constant routine were excluded from all analyses to eliminate
effects of study adaptation. The last hour was excluded to eliminate
confounding effects such as expectation effects.
The data are presented in this article in three ways. First, CBT and
CBFV values were plotted according to time of day (Figures [91]1 and
[92]2). Second, CBFV values were aligned according to the CBT nadir
(Figure [93]3) and third, the CBFV nadir was aligned to the CBT nadir
(Figure [94]4). To align CBFV to the CBT circadian nadir as shown in
Figure [95]3, the CBT nadir of each individual subject was set to
circadian time 0, or 0°. The CBFV value that corresponded to the CBT
nadir was then also set to 0. Each half hour data point after the
temperature nadir and corresponding CBFV values were then set to a
circadian degree. There were a total of 48 data points across the 24
hour period. Therefore, each data point was equal to 7.5 degrees so
that each data point would accumulate to 360°. Lastly, mean values were
obtained for CBT and CBFV at each circadian degree.
[96]thumbnail Figure 1. 24-hour Cosine Curve fit to Mean Core Body
Temperature (°F). Time course of CBT according to time of day. Shown is
a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/- SEM) of CBT (blue
diamonds) fit with a 24-hour cosine curve (purple squares). Time of day
is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate shows CBT values (degrees F).
The vertical line indicates where the data was double plotted. Also
displayed in the upper right corner is the non-linear cosine curve fit
for mean CBT, R^2 = 0.62. The overall mean circadian phase position of
the minimum was 6:05 am.
[97]thumbnail Figure 2. 24-hour Cosine Curve fit to Mean Cerebral Blood
Flow Velocity (cm/sec). Time course of CBFV according to time of day.
Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/- SEM) of
CBFV (blue diamonds) fit with a 24-hour cosine curve (purple squares).
Time of day is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate shows CBFV values
(cm/sec). The vertical line indicates where the data was double
plotted. Also displayed in the upper right corner is the non-linear
cosine curve fit for mean CBFV, R^2 = 0.67. The overall mean circadian
phase position of the minimum was 12:02 pm.
[98]thumbnail Figure 3. Mean CBT and CBFV Aligned to CBT Nadir. Time
course of mean CBFV and mean CBT aligned to the nadir of CBT and then
averaged. Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels
(+/-SEM) of CBT (purple squares) and CBFV (blue circles) aligned to the
phase of the circadian temperature cycle. Circadian time in degrees is
shown on the abscissa. The ordinate on the left shows CBT values
(degrees F) and CBFV (cm/sec) on the right. The vertical line indicates
the CBT nadir.
[99]thumbnail Figure 4. Mean CBT and CBFV Aligned to Their Respective
Nadir. Time course of mean CBFV and mean CBT aligned to each of their
respective nadirs and then averaged. Shown is a double plot of the
group (n = 11) mean levels (+/-SEM) of CBT (purple squares) and CBFV
(blue circles) aligned to the phase of the circadian temperature cycle.
Circadian time in degrees is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate on the
left shows CBT values (degrees F) and CBFV (cm/sec) on the right. The
vertical line indicates both the CBT nadir and the CBFV nadir. The
correlation coefficient between the aligned rhythms is 0.77 (p < 0.01).
To align the CBFV nadir to the CBT nadir, first, the lowest value of
CBT and the lowest value of CBFV were identified and set to circadian
time 0, or 0°. Each half hour data point after the CBT nadir and CBFV
nadir were then set to a circadian degree. There were a total of 48
data points across the 24 hour period. Therefore, each data point was
equal to 7.5 degrees so that each data point would accumulate to 360°.
Lastly, mean values were obtained for CBT and CBFV at each circadian
degree.
Estimation of circadian phase
A 24-hour non-linear multiple regression -cosine curve fit analysis was
performed on the CBT and CBFV data (SAS Institute, Cary, NC). This
technique constrains the circadian period of CBT and CBFV to be within
24 hours. This technique used the following equations: model cbt =
&avg_cbt + r * cos((2 * 3.1415) * (hours-&max_cbt)/24; model cbfv =
&avg_cbt + r * cos((2 * 3.1415) * (hours-&max_cbfv)/24, where & =
constants that center the curve at the actual average for each series
(vertical centering) and the predicted maximum at the actual maximum
(horizontal centering); r = the amplitude of the cosine wave. An
additional analysis was performed which also yielded the estimated
clock time for the CBT nadir and CBFV nadir (Synergy software,
Kaleidagraph Version 3.6). Third, the minimum of the circadian rhythm
of CBT and salivary DLMO were also used as markers of the endogenous
circadian phase. A paired t-test was used to determine the overall
phase difference between CBT and CBFV.
Results
Eleven subjects completed the protocol. The TCD probe was placed on
either the right or left temple, whichever gave the better signal. Mean
isonation depth of the TCD signal was 56.5 mm for the right MCA and
55.6 mm for the left MCA (range 53-60 mm). The constant routine ranged
from 28 to 30 hours in duration. Polygraphic recordings confirmed
sustained wakefulness across essentially the entire protocol in all but
one subject. Subjects that had difficulty remaining awake were
monitored closely and aroused when needed by engagement in
conversation. Results from the polygraphic recordings are not presented
here. We do not present the results of the polygraphic recordings
because, for the purposes of this study, these recordings were used
solely to monitor whether subjects were awake or asleep. The first five
hours and the final hour of data from the constant routine were
excluded from analysis.
Core body temperature, cerebral blood flow velocity and the 24-hour day
A 24 hour non-linear multiple regression, cosine fit analysis revealed
that the overall mean CBT rhythm (n = 11) fit a 24 hour cosine rhythm
(R^2 = 0.62, p < 0.01), Figure [100]1. The mean CBT across all subjects
was 98.6 °F (+/- 0.03 °F). Figure [101]2 shows that a 24-hour
non-linear multiple regression, cosine analysis fit a 24 hour cosine
rhythm (R^2 = 0.67, p < 0.01), Figure [102]2. The mean CBFV across
subjects was 40.6 cm/sec (+/- 0.54 cm/sec). Salivary DLMO occurred 7.7
hours prior to the CBT nadir in nine subjects, which served only as a
secondary measure of endogenous circadian phase position in those
subjects. The mean salivary melatonin concentration across the ten hour
window was 15.3 pg/ml (+/-3.05 pg/ml).
CBFV rhythm is 90 degrees out of phase with the CBT rhythm
The overall mean circadian position of CBT occurred at 6:05 am and the
mean position of CBFV occurred at 12:02 pm (Figure [103]3), yielding a
6 hour or 90 degree statistically significant difference (t = 4.9, DF =
10, p < 0.01). In individual subject data, the differences ranged from
0 to 8.5 hours. In eight subjects, the CBFV phase occurred later than
the respective CBT phase, with mean difference of 5.2 hours. In two
subjects, the CBFV nadir occurred earlier than the respective CBT
nadir, with a mean difference of 6 hours. In one subject, there was no
difference between the phase of CBT and CBFV. However, this subject's
CBT rhythm was highly unusual, with the nadir occurring at 11:35 am on
Day 2. Nevertheless, we felt the most appropriate way to present the
data was to include this subject in the overall analysis. When the
phase of CBFV was shifted so that the lowest value was aligned to the
lowest CBT value, the two parameters were highly correlated (see Figure
[104]4; r = 0.77, n = 98, p < 0.01). While the difference in the two
rhythms variability was large, Fisher's z-transformed values revealed
that the amplitudes of the two parameters were similar. The amplitude
of CBFV yielded a z score of 4.25 and CBT yielded a z score of 3.06.
Blood pressure recordings and systemic hemodynamic variables
A Pearson correlation revealed a positive relationship between CBT and
heart rate (r = 0.40, p < 0.01) across the 24 hour period. Diastolic
blood pressure (DBP) and CBT showed a negative correlation (r = -0.30,
p < 0.05). Et[CO2 ]showed a trend towards a direct relationship with
CBFV (r = 0.24, p = 0.10). Blood pressure, heart rate, and Et[CO2
]served only as regulators of CBFV and were not analyzed according to
circadian phase.
Discussion
This study is the first to use the constant routine (CR) protocol to
determine whether the endogenous circadian pacemaker contributes to the
previously reported diurnal changes in CBFV. The current work
demonstrates that, with limited periodic external stimuli and a
constant posture, there is 24-hour rhythmicity in CBFV. Subjects showed
a cycle of approximately 24 hours in CBT, which has been previously
demonstrated with the CR [[105]21].
Figure [106]3 illustrates the intricate relationship between the
rhythms across the study period. At approximately the CBT acrophase,
the relationship between the two rhythms undergoes a transition.
Between 180 and 240 degrees, CBFV is still rising and CBT is changing
directions (first rising, reaching its peak and then falling). This
period between 180 and 240 has been described as a "wake maintenance
zone", a time in the circadian cycle during which humans are less
likely to fall asleep [[107]22]. In our subjects, the CBT is near its
zenith or just starting to fall at this time and CBFV is still steadily
rising. Higher values in CBT and CBFV are associated with activation
and therefore these two endogenous rhythms may be promoting wakefulness
during this "wake maintenance zone". However, at the end of this
transition period, CBT is falling and CBFV is still rising, perhaps
reflecting continued activation of the cerebral cortex. Whereas the
two-process model predicts increased tendency to sleep as CBT falls
[[108]23], our finding may provide the mechanism by which wakefulness
is effortlessly maintained before bedtime.
Figure [109]3 further illustrates that as wakefulness is extended past
the subject's habitual bedtime (approximately 270 degrees), the two
rhythms decline together. Between 0 and 60 degrees, CBFV steadily
declines and CBT is steadily rising. The lower CBFV values in the
morning may play a role in cognitive performance impairments [[110]24],
particularly the 3-4.5 hour phase difference in neurobehavioral
functioning relative to the CBT rhythm that has been previously
demonstrated in constant routine protocols [[111]25].
Earlier studies using simultaneous EEG and TCD to continuously measure
CBFV across the sleep period have concluded that, except for periods of
REM sleep, [[112]26
,[113]27], there is a linear decline in CBFV across the night during
periods of non-REM sleep [[114]1,[115]28]. Other groups utilizing these
techniques simultaneously speculated that the decline in CBFV through
the night was a "decoupling" of cerebral electrical activity and
cerebral perfusion during non-REM sleep [[116]8-[117]10]. In all
studies [[118]1,[119]8-[120]10,[121]28], CBFV values were lower in the
morning during wakefulness than during wakefulness prior to sleep at
night. The current findings show that the decline in CBFV is present
during wakefulness in the night time hours and therefore may not be
attributed solely to sleep and associated changes that normally
influence CBFV (including factors such as the shift to recumbency, and
reduced activity, metabolic rate and respiratory rate).
Moreover, our interaction with the subjects and the monitoring of EEG
for signs of sleep resulted in no sleep in all but one subject. The one
exception was in a subject who lapsed into brief periods of sleep.
Therefore, the fall in CBFV in 10 out of 11 subjects cannot be
explained by the occurrence of non-REM sleep. It is possible, however,
that the decline of CBFV across the night and early morning may be
secondary to the sleep deprivation that is part of the constant
routine. Brain imaging studies across sustained periods of wakefulness
have shown significant decreases in absolute regional cerebral glucose
metabolic rate in several areas of the brain [[122]29-[123]34].
The drop in CBT which preceded the parallel fall in CBFV needs to be
considered as a possible explanation for the CBFV changes. The fall in
CBT during sleeping hours is attributed in part to sleep-associated
changes and in part to strong regular circadian forces independent of
the sleep period. CBT is, in fact, one of the key and most extensively
studied indices of the circadian phase. It is also known that CBT is
highly correlated with brain temperature and brain metabolic rate
[[124]35]. Imaging studies have documented the intimate relation
between brain activity and increased metabolic rate and oxygen delivery
through perfusion. Therefore, it is plausible that CBT is a direct
influence on CBFV or an index of decreased metabolic need for blood
flow. The prevailing hypothesis that there is tight coupling of normal
neuronal activity and blood flow was formulated over 100 years ago
[[125]36]. The drop in CBFV may be a consequence of the lowered
cerebral activity secondary to lowered brain temperature. In contrast,
two studies of exercise-induced hyperthermia showing decreased global
and middle cerebral artery CBFV [[126]37
,[127]38] do not support this hypothesized direct relationship between
the two variables. However, one of the main purported mechanisms for
the fall in CBFV in these exercise studies, the hyperventilation
induced lowering of Pa[CO2], is unlikely present during waking while
lying in bed at night. Therefore, CBT declines remain a plausible
explanation for the portion of the 24 hours when CBFV declined.
Mechanisms of CBFV regulation
This protocol allowed the unique opportunity to evaluate blood
pressure, heart rate, and Et[CO2 ]in the absence of sleep, in subjects
with constant posture, and highly restricted movements. While blood
pressure clearly falls during sleep in normal individuals, the absence
of sleep in the current study obviates the explanation that CBFV
declines are secondary to lowered blood pressure. Furthermore, we
sampled blood pressure throughout the day and night and found a weak
inverse relationship between DBP and CBT. This finding is in contrast
to a careful study of circadian influence on blood pressure in the
absence of sleep which showed no change in blood pressure during the
descending portion of the body temperature curve [[128]39].
Nevertheless, our finding was weak and likely does not provide the
explanation for the CBFV changes. The small-inverse relationship
between Et [CO2 ]and CBT is similar to that found by Spengler et al.
[[129]40], who showed a consistent but small amplitude circadian rhythm
in mean end-tidal Et[CO2 ]on a CR protocol. Et[CO2 ]showed a trend
towards a direct relationship with CBFV, which is consistent with
previous studies showing that changes in Et[CO2 ]are associated with
changes in CBFV [[130]41
,[131]42]. Heart rate was correlated with CBT, consistent with the
findings of Van Dongen et al [[132]39].
Clinical correlation
The approximate 6 hour (90 degree) phase angle difference between the
CBFV and CBT suggests that CBFV continues to decline into the early to
mid-morning hours. This finding is consistent with a time window in the
morning during which several physiological changes have been observed.
For example, cerebral vasomotor reactivity to hypocapnia, hypercapnia,
and normoventilation has been found to be most reduced in the morning
[[133]15
,[134]16]. It is tempting to suggest that the the low CBFV values in
the morning may also help explain the well established diurnal
variation of the onset of cerebrovascular accidents (CVAs) [[135]43]. A
meta-analyses of 11,816 publications between 1966 to 1997 found that
there was a 49% increased risk of strokes between 6 am and 12 pm
[[136]44]. This time period is in agreement with studies on myocardial
infarction (MI) and sudden death [[137]45]. The increased incidence of
these events has been attributed, in part, to the surge of blood
pressure [[138]13,[139]46,[140]47] and platelet aggregability
[[141]48,[142]49] in the morning when patients are getting out of bed.
Our results demonstrate that even in the absence of surges in blood
pressure, the phase of CBFV reaches its lowest values during the hours
before 12 pm. This further suggests that the endogenous rhythm of CBFV
may be associated with the risk of CVAs in the late morning hours even
without changes in posture or activity.
Conclusion
Overall, the results demonstrate that CBFV, in the absence of sleep,
exhibits properties of a circadian rhythm, as it rises and falls across
a 24 hour period. The 6 hour (90 degree) phase angle difference in the
CBFV rhythm with respect to the CBT rhythm may help explain previous
findings of lower CBFV values in the morning. The phase difference
occurs at a time period during which cognitive performance decrements
have been observed and when both cardiovascular and cerebrovascular
events occur more frequently. The mechanisms underlying this phase
angle difference require further exploration.
List of abbreviations
CBFV Cerebral Blood Flow Velocity
CBT Core Body Temperature
TCD Transcranial Doppler
EtCO2 End tidal Carbon Dioxide
DLMO Dim Light Melatonin Onset
EEG Electroencephalogram
MCA Middle Cerebral Artery
FFT Fast Fourier Transformation
CR Constant routine
EMG Electromyogram
SBP Systolic Blood Pressure
DBP Diastolic Blood Pressure
CVA Cerebrovascular accident
MI Myocardial infarction
Competing interests
The author(s) declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors' contributions
DAC coordinated, carried out, analyzed, and interpreted the study. AJS
participated in the analysis and interpretation of the findings. DAC
drafted the manuscript and AJS provided final approval of this version.
RQS participated in data collection and data analysis. DAC and AJS
co-designed the study. All authors read and approved the final
manuscript.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the volunteer participants who completed
this extremely difficult protocol, to the research assistants: Jason
Birnbaum, Will Carias, RN, Laura Diaz, Boris Dubrovsky, Mathew Ebben,
Ph.D., Carrie Hildebrand, Lars Ross, Greg Sahlem, Mathew Tucker, Ayesha
Udin, to those who helped with the data analysis: Scott Campbell, Ph.D.
of New York Presbyterian Hospital, White Plains, Abdeslem ElIdrissi,
Ph.D. of The Institute for Basic Research, Staten Island, NY, Larry
Krasnoff, Ph.D. of Digitas, New York, and Andrew Scott, MBA, to those
who provided their expert advice: William Fishbein, Ph.D. of The City
College of New York, Paul Glovinsky, Ph.D. of The Sleep Disorders
Center, Albany, NY, Margaret Moline, Ph.D. of Eisai, Inc, Charles
Pollak, MD of The Center for Sleep Medicine, New York Presbyterian
Hospital-Cornell, and Alan Segal, MD of The Department of Neurology,
New York Presbyterian Hospital, and to others who helped make this
study possible: Stacy Goldstein, Neil B. Kavey, MD, Igor Ougorets, MD,
and Jerry Titus.
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Rhythm and Meter in English Poetry
English poetry employs five basic rhythms of varying stressed (/) and
unstressed (x) syllables. The meters are iambs, trochees, spondees,
anapests and dactyls. In this document the stressed syllables are
marked in boldface type rather than the tradition al "/" and "x." Each
unit of rhythm is called a "foot" of poetry.
The meters with two-syllable feet are
* IAMBIC (x /) : That time of year thou mayst in me behold
* TROCHAIC (/ x): Tell me not in mournful numbers
* SPONDAIC (/ /): Break, break, break/ On thy cold gray stones, O
Sea!
Meters with three-syllable feet are
* ANAPESTIC (x x /): And the sound of a voice that is still
* DACTYLIC (/ x x): This is the forest primeval, the murmuring pines
and the hemlock (a trochee replaces the final dactyl)
Each line of a poem contains a certain number of feet of iambs,
trochees, spondees, dactyls or anapests. A line of one foot is a
monometer, 2 feet is a dimeter, and so on--trimeter (3), tetrameter
(4), pentameter (5), hexameter (6), heptameter (7), and o ctameter (8).
The number of syllables in a line varies therefore according to the
meter. A good example of trochaic monometer, for example, is this poem
entitled "Fleas":
Adam
Had'em.
Here are some more serious examples of the various meters.
iambic pentameter (5 iambs, 10 syllables)
* That time | of year | thou mayst | in me | behold
trochaic tetrameter (4 trochees, 8 syllables)
* Tell me | not in | mournful | numbers
anapestic trimeter (3 anapests, 9 syllables)
* And the sound | of a voice | that is still
dactylic hexameter (6 dactyls, 17 syllables; a trochee replaces the
last dactyl)
* This is the | forest pri | meval, the | murmuring | pine and the |
hemlocks
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12 12/2006 [38]Compose to a Vertical Rhythm
by [39]Richard Rutter
* [40]Article
* [41]29 comments
"Space in typography is like time in music. It is infinitely divisible,
but a few proportional intervals can be much more useful than a
limitless choice of arbitrary quantities." So says the typographer
Robert Bringhurst, and just as regular use of time provides rhythm in
music, so regular use of space provides rhythm in typography, and
without rhythm the listener, or the reader, becomes disorientated and
lost.
On the Web, vertical rhythm - the spacing and arrangement of text as
the reader descends the page - is contributed to by three factors: font
size, line height and margin or padding. All of these factors must
calculated with care in order that the rhythm is maintained.
The basic unit of vertical space is line height. Establishing a
suitable line height that can be applied to all text on the page, be it
heading, body copy or sidenote, is the key to a solid dependable
vertical rhythm, which will engage and guide the reader down the page.
To see this in action, I've created [42]an example with headings,
footnotes and sidenotes.
Establishing a suitable line height
The easiest place to begin determining a basic line height unit is with
the font size of the body copy. For [43]the example I've chosen 12px.
To ensure readability the body text will almost certainly need some
leading, that is to say spacing between the lines. A line-height of
1.5em would give 6px spacing between the lines of body copy. This will
create a total line height of 18px, which becomes our basic unit.
Here's the CSS to get us to this point:
1. body {
2. font-size: 75%;
3. }
4.
5. html>body {
6. font-size: 12px;
7. }
8.
9. p {
10. line-height 1.5em;
11. }
12. Source: [44]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/1.txt
There are many ways to size text in CSS and the above approach provides
and accessible method of achieving the pixel-precision solid typography
requires. By way of explanation, the first font-size reduces the body
text from the 16px default (common to most browsers and OS set-ups)
down to the 12px we require. This rule is primarily there for Internet
Explorer 6 and below on Windows: the percentage value means that the
text will scale predictably should a user bump the text size up or
down. The second font-size sets the text size specifically and is
ignored by IE6, but used by Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other
modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels.
Spacing between paragraphs
With our rhythmic unit set at 18px we need to ensure that it is
maintained throughout the body copy. A common place to lose the rhythm
is the gaps set between margins. The default treatment by web browsers
of paragraphs is to insert a top- and bottom-margin of 1em. In our case
this would give a spacing between the paragraphs of 12px and hence
throw the text out of rhythm. If the rhythm of the page is to be
maintained, the spacing of paragraphs should be related to the basic
line height unit. This is achieved simply by setting top- and
bottom-margins equal to the line height.
In order that typographic integrity is maintained when text is resized
by the user we must use ems for all our vertical measurements,
including line-height, padding and margins.
1. p {
2. font-size:1em;
3. margin-top: 1.5em;
4. margin-bottom: 1.5em;
5. }
6. Source: [45]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/2.txt
Browsers set margins on all block-level elements (such as headings,
lists and blockquotes) so a way of ensuring that typographic attention
is paid to all such elements is to reset the margins at the beginning
of your style sheet. You could use a rule such as:
1. body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl
ockquote,th,td {
2. margin:0;
3. padding:0;
4. }
5. Source: [46]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/3.txt
Alternatively you could look into using the [47]Yahoo! UI Reset style
sheet which removes most default styling, so providing a solid
foundation upon which you can explicitly declare your design
intentions.
Variations in text size
When there is a change in text size, perhaps with a heading or
sidenotes, the differing text should also take up a multiple of the
basic leading. This means that, in our example, every diversion from
the basic text size should take up multiples of 18px. This can be
accomplished by adjusting the line-height and margin accordingly, as
described following.
Headings
Subheadings in the [48]example page are set to 14px. In order that the
height of each line is 18px, the line-height should be set to 18 ÷ 14
= 1.286. Similarly the margins above and below the heading must be
adjusted to fit. The temptation is to set heading margins to a simple
1em, but in order to maintain the rhythm, the top and bottom margins
should be set at 1.286em so that the spacing is equal to the full 18px
unit.
1. h2 {
2. font-size:1.1667em;
3. line-height: 1.286em;
4. margin-top: 1.286em;
5. margin-bottom: 1.286em;
6. }
7. Source: [49]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/4.txt
One can also set asymmetrical margins for headings, provided the
margins combine to be multiples of the basic line height. In our
example, a top margin of 1½ lines is combined with a bottom margin of
half a line as follows:
1. h2 {
2. font-size:1.1667em;
3. line-height: 1.286em;
4. margin-top: 1.929em;
5. margin-bottom: 0.643em;
6. }
7. Source: [50]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/5.txt
Also in our example, the main heading is given a text size of 18px,
therefore the line-height has been set to 1em, as has the margin:
1. h1 {
2. font-size:1.5em;
3. line-height: 1em;
4. margin-top: 0;
5. margin-bottom: 1em;
6. }
7. Source: [51]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/6.txt
Sidenotes
Sidenotes (and other supplementary material) are often set at a smaller
size to the basic text. To keep the rhythm, this smaller text should
still line up with body copy, so a calculation similar to that for
headings is required. In our example, the sidenotes are set at 10px and
so their line-height must be increased to 18 ÷ 10 = 1.8.
1. .sidenote {
2. font-size:0.8333em;
3. line-height:1.8em;
4. }
5. Source: [52]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/7.txt
Borders
One additional point where vertical rhythm is often lost is with the
introduction of horizontal borders. These effectively act as shims
pushing the subsequent text downwards, so a two pixel horizontal border
will throw out the vertical rhythm by two pixels. A way around this is
to specify horizontal lines using background images or, as in our
example, specify the width of the border in ems and adjust the padding
to take up the slack.
The design of the footnote in our example requires a 1px horizontal
border. The footnote contains 12px text, so 1px in ems is 1 ÷ 12
= 0.0833. I have added a margin of 1½ lines above the border
(1.5 × 18 ÷ 12 = 2.5ems), so to maintain the rhythm the border +
padding must equal a ½ (9px). We know the border is set to 1px, so the
padding must be set to 8px. To specify this in ems we use the familiar
calculation: 8 ÷ 12 = 0.667.
Hit me with your rhythm stick
Composing to a vertical rhythm helps engage and guide the reader down
the page, but it takes typographic discipline to do so. It may seem
like a lot of fiddly maths is involved (a few divisions and
multiplications never hurt anyone) but good type setting is all about
numbers, and it is this attention to detail which is the key to
success.
Like what you read?
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Comments
* [55]12/12/2006
Wow this is a good article.
* [57]12/12/2006
[58]Will
thanks so much, this is great.
* [59]12/12/2006
Interesting stuff. Also worth reading Eric Meyer's post on unitless
line-heights:
* [61]12/12/2006
It's worth mentioning that IE6 and below can go a bit extreme when
resizing fonts set as ems.
You can fix this by applying font-size: 100% to html. Don't know
why this works, it just does.
Oh, if you're working in quirks mode you'll also need to apply it
to thead, tbody and tfoot, beacuse the fix doesn't inherit (don't
apply it to table unless you want table to inherit font-sizes). You
don't need thead, tbody or tfoot in your tables as tbody is
implied.
Obviously, you can't then apply your own font-sizes to html or
tbody etc, else you'll overwrite the fix, which is why I chose
those particular elements as they're rarely used for font-sizes.
Jake.
* [63]12/12/2006
[64]Mike Stenhouse donotremove.co.uk
Hmmmmm, interesting! I've not tried this but I think there might be
an easier way to set those heights... What if the line-height is
set to, say, 1.5em on the body and 1 (unit-less - it's valid!) on
each descendant element? Or maybe some variation on that. It might
force the 18px to inherit into the children without awkward
calculations.
* [65]12/12/2006
Great article, Richard! Web typography--like all
typography--deserves this level of detailed thinking, and I hope to
see more designers embracing it.
* [67]12/12/2006
[68]michael h
Good introduction to typography theory, but I am convinced that the
Owen Briggs method is the best approach to sizing.
* [69]13/12/2006
I've been working on something similar recently, and I've
discovered that if you set the line-height in pixels, most browsers
will still scale it proportionally along with the text. As IE6's
numbers fall off, I hope we can leave all this black magic scaling
math behind and go back to setting font sizes in pixels and letting
the browsers handle the scaling.
* [71]13/12/2006
Mike - you're right about being able to simplify the line-height
specifications, but it doesn't require setting unitless
line-heights. In the example I use, I've set the font-size to be
12px on the body and calculated line-heights for all the subsequent
elements. As I required one line height - 18px - for all elements I
can remove the multiple statements and simply set line-height:1.5em
on the body. The calculated line-height of 18px is inherited by all
elements on the page. I've modifed the example to show this
(checked in Firefox, Safari and IE6):
However the maths would still need to be performed to calculate the
correct margins, so while the extra line-height specifications are
not strictly necessary (at least while the same line height for all
text is required) you unfortunately don't save much on the
calculations.
* [73]13/12/2006
Jake - the extreme text sizing in IE can be fixed by applying any
percentage font size to the body - it doesn't have to be 100%
(hence my use of 75% fixed this too).
You're right about the tables though. This rule does the job nicely
to inherit the text size:
table, thead, tbody, tr, th, td {font-size:1em}
* [75]13/12/2006
[76]GreLI
In the article next rule is used to reset margins:
body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl
ockquote,th,td {
margin:0;
padding:0;
}
I think it easier to use universal selector (* { margin: 0;
padding: 0 }) instead.
To fix table font-size inheritance it's enough to set
table { font-size: 1em }
Opera AFAIK don't change font-size if it set in pixels, but it can
zoom pages (so does IE7).
* [77]13/12/2006
GreLI - using the universal selector like that to zero all margins
and padding can cause unpredictable results in some form controls
(e.g. SELECT elements) in certain browsers.
Rich - great article; now all someone needs to do is knock up a
nice little app that spits out the right line-heights and margins
for the elements you tell it... :)
* [79]13/12/2006
It's unfortunate that pretty much no one composes with a scale when
publishing for the web. Your article is a great step forward.
Also overlooked are line lengths. Since the beginning of the web,
It has been a standard practice to expand the line lengths out with
the width of the browser (like your site is currently :), causing
line lengths to expand way too long. If an optimal line length for
print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even
smaller.
* [81]14/12/2006
I don't see it mentioned in the comments yet, but your quote above:
"...Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which
allow users to resize text sized in pixels."
is not correct, as IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in
pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized.
* [83]18/12/2006
If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths
for web should be even smaller.
You're right to mention line length as something that is
overlooked, but on the screen it is not as simple as setting the
measure in ems as their are more factors involved (screen size,
liquid layouts, etc). Also I'd disagree that web line lengths
should be shorter on the web. My personal preference would be for
them to be longer - I find short line lengths on screen extremely
hard work to read. That's just my opinion though.
IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout
can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized.
If you think of the reasons for changing text size then zooming a
layout is just another form of resizing text and achieves the same
goal.
* [85]20/12/2006
Theodore, I think you would enjoy Richard's article entitled
"Choose a comfortable measure" over at webtypography.net :)
1.2/
* [87]22/12/2006
[88]Rachel Maxim
You've said in a few pages what has taken me years to figure out
and refine :) - great info!
* [89]23/12/2006
I really enjoyed this article. I have read your Elements of....for
the web, as well as your blog about sizing text in ems. I have
really been looking in to using this and getting the best `flow'
with my typography. I also ordered the book Elements of Typographic
Style just to give a better understanding.
I think its a common misconception that text on the web will always
look bland, and you have proved that it can have rhythm and style.
* [91]02/01/2007
I've just been using some of these techniques on a client's site
who needed 8 tabs all the same width, which fill the available
space - I had it working fine in Firefox, but the tabs didn't fill
the space in Safari or IE. I found that you really have to do the
maths, rather than just use trial and error - they all round the
numbers slightly differently. Once I'd checked my calculations,
rather than tinkered with the numbers, it works fine everywhere, at
least at standard font size.
One other correction from someone's comment earlier on - you can
resize text in IE7 - click the page icon at top right. Why you need
both this and the ability to zoom, I'm not sure, but it's there at
any rate.
* [93]03/01/2007
[94]Ben G
Can you set the margin above or below headings or paragraphs to
less than your 18px base measurement? Won't margin collapsing cause
whichever the largest margin is to take effect?
Ben
* [95]31/01/2009
[96]Daniel
I've been using this article as the basis for designing my site
with some "vertical rhythm". Everything is going well except with
forms (input, textarea, etc.). I just haven't been able to use css
to maintain the vertical rhythm (based on total line height of
18px).
Any advise or insight as to how to get forms to play nicely?
* [97]15/02/2009
[98]Silver Firefly
I wanted to clarify something about the default browser text size
and using the em unit. The article was a tad misleading when it
covered the default browser text size and the em unit. A lot of
designers have it in their heads that an em is equivalent to 16
pixels. An em is not equivalent to 16 pixels. It is equivalent to
whatever is set in the user's browser, which is commonly 16px but
depending on the user, it can be 20px or 12px or whatever they have
set in their browser's settings. I hope after reading that
statement, designers will start to realise that they have little
control over how their website appears in other users' browsers.
The majority of the control lies in the user's hands. Other than
that, the article was very good.
* [99]17/04/2009
Great article... and AWESOME site design. Inspirational!
* [101]27/04/2009
Typesetting for websites is the future, like all things
content-related. The Google knows it :). Thank you for that useful
post. You webdesigners take care of your text!
* [103]05/06/2009
[104]bonfield
Inline bolding of elements (I'm using Helvetica, e.g.) seems to add
a px of height on any line that uses it, and that subtly throws off
the vertical rhythm for each line and it can add up depending
-- anybody else run into this and solve it?
* [105]18/06/2009
[106]Anonymous
Does this truly keep the vertical rhythm? If you zoom in on the
example, you'll see that the descender of the letter g in the H1
header "New England" crosses your rhythm marker's background line,
while a lowercase g in the following paragraph does not. There
appears to be some fudging going on.
* [107]08/07/2009
I find it humorous that this site itself does not compose to a
vertical rhythm. I've seen very few online that do. It's so
difficult to implement across browsers it is usually brushed aside
except for in the most simple design schemes.
* [109]03/08/2009
[110]eric
I've yet to see any empirical evidence that "vertical rhythm"
applied to this degree has any impact on how well a reader is able
to extract signal from the noise of the page.
Meanwhile, I've seen many, many examples of mis-applied "vertical
rhythms" resulting in squashed headings where the underlning on a
link impinges on the text below. Which just looks clunky.
When you've got something other than an aesthetic opinion from the
margins -- maybe some actual data -- then I'll be interested in
expending the effort needed to support real vertical rhythm. Until
then, I just don't see how it's cost-effective.
* [111]02/09/2009
Now, that was the kind of article I was looking for. That goes a
lot deeper than I've been into the realms of line-spacing, leading
(no kerning here though - can we do kerning with css?).
I love the analogy to musical rhythym > therefore probably
following on to mathematics/geometry/proportion. That is a great
lead-in. Is there any room for the `golden ratio' in web design? Do
graphic designers use it with/without realising it? Just that I
haven't seen it discussed in the myriad pages concerning page
layout/design that I've read so far...
Thanks,
Darren
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About the author
[114]Richard Rutter
Richard Rutter is a user experience consultant and director of
[115]Clearleft. He runs an ongoing project called [116]The Elements of
Typographic Style Applied to the Web, where he extols the virtues of
good web typography. Richard occasionally blogs at [117]Clagnut, where
he writes about design, accessibility and web standards issues, as well
as his passion for music and mountain biking.
[118]More information
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[1]Home > [2]Articles > [3]Web Design & Development > [4]Usability
[5]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm
[6]Jason Cranford Teague
* By [7]Jason Cranford Teague
* Dec 23, 2009
[8]Toggle Open Article Table of Contents [9]Article Contents
[10]Close Table of Contents [11]Article Contents
1. [12]Web Measurements
2. [13]Type Size & Line Height
3. [14]Type Space
4. Text Alignment
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[28]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm
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[53]10 Last-minute Gifts for Web Designers
By on December 17, 2009 1 Comment
Q: What do I get for the Web designer who has everything?
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The slightly longer answer is, anything that helps spark their
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The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah,
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myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift
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[55]Choosing the Right Color Value
By on December 14, 2009 No Comments
Q: Should I use Hex or RGB values to define colors in CSS?
The short answer is RGB.
The slightly longer answer is that Hex values have become the de
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designers are used to them.
The long answer is that, in the final design on the screen,
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[56]Expand Your Font Repertoire
By on November 30, 2009 No Comments
Q: Are there alternatives to Arial, Times, and Georgia for Web
designers?
The short answer is YES!
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[57]Pixels or Ems in Your Web Designs
By on November 18, 2009 No Comments
Q: What is the practical difference between px (pixel) and em
(pronounced m)? When is it best to use one over the other?
The short answer is that pixels measure dimensions relative to
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The slightly longer answer is that pixels are the natural unit
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[58]To CSS Reset or Not to CSS Reset
By on November 10, 2009 No Comments
Question: Which Global Reset for CSS Should I Use?
The short answer is the simplest one possible.
The slightly longer answer is that you should reset some styles,
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The long answer is that the exact CSS reset you choose will
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[59]HTML 5 NOW!
By on August 25, 20092 Comments
Q: Can I start using HTML 5 now?
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The slightly longer answer is, you can use some of the new
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there are some things you can do now to prepare for the future.
[61]Big Things Ahead for HTML 5
By on August 17, 2009 No Comments
Q: Will HTML5 or XHTML5 be the next big thing or just another
collection of past standards and browser war fodder?
The short answer is that, yes, [62]HTML 5 is the next big thing.
The slightly longer answer is that it's going to be a while
before you have to start worrying about HTML 5.
The long answer is that, as with all standards, before it
becomes relevant, the browser makers have to implement it and
then you'll have to wait even longer before legacy browsers are
no longer an issue. So, you have some time before you have to
run out and buy a new HTML 5 Visual QuickStart Guide. The good
news is that HTML 5 has gone to great lengths to stay backwards
compatible, so you can begin to learn and implement it today.
[63]Everyone is a Web Designer
By on August 10, 2009 No Comments
Q: What is a Web Designer anymore? It was easier to make Web
sites all by yourself, even 5 years ago, but now there is just
too much technology for one person to handle. If I want to make
a Web site for a very small business, don't have I to be web
"developer" now?
The short answer is that everybody is a Web designer now.
The slightly longer answer is that Web designers are
practitioners of a highly specialized discipline that requires
years of study to truly master.
The long answer is that a good Web designer is a good designer,
and this can come "naturally" or from training, but is not
medium-dependent. However, a professional Web designer has to
understand the medium well enough to know its strengths and
limitations. Any designer can pump out something that looks
brilliant when displayed in a Web browser window, but is slow to
load, static when loaded, and completely unusable.
[64]Frames are Dead, Long Live Iframes!
By on July 24, 2009 No Comments
Q: Is there a suitable alternative to frames? My wife is
president of a local woman's club. She and I administer the
club's web site, and the ladies like the list of links down one
side of the pages. But I read that frames have been deprecated.
Regardless, I want to keep the site simple.
The short answer is yes-- use iframes.
The slightly longer answer is no, not exactly, but we can get
close.
The long answer is there are a variety of ways to add content to
your Web pages, but the question is: once it's on the page what
are you going to do with it (or to it)?
[65]Q: If I ask ten different web designers what pixel dimensions to
use for web pages and whether to make them fixed-width or
"stretchy," I get ten different answers. What's your answer, and
why?
By on July 20, 2009 No Comments
The short answer is fixed at 974 pixels (px) wide.
The slightly longer answer is whatever it takes to get the job
done.
The long answer is that asking a Web designer what size a Web
page should be is like asking a painter what size a canvas
should be or an architect how large a a building should be.
While it's not purely a matter of taste--there are certain
physical and ergonomic constraints--personal preference accounts
for the wide variety of answers you might hear.
[66]Ask me, ask me, ask me
By on July 1, 2009 No Comments
Do you have a question about Web standards, CSS, JavaScript,
Ajax, interaction design, user experience, or Web typography?
Maybe you just want to know "How'd they do that?" Ask me
questions, and each week I will select a question to answer via
my Peachpit.com blog.
[67]Ask the Web Designer: Why Can't I Use Any Font I Want in My Web
Designs?
By on June 30, 2009 No Comments
The short answer is that you can.
The slightly longer answer is that you can't, at least not in
any meaningful way yet.
The long answer is that the ability to download fonts has
actually been a part of the CSS standard (the language used to
create Web designs) for over 10 years. The snag comes with what
font formats a given browser supports.
[NOTE: You may want to stop reading now, as the rest of this
explanation might make your eyes bleed in frustration.]
[68]Fluid Web Typography
This chapter is from the book
[69]Fluid Web Typography
Jason Cranford Teague shows how giving careful consideration to the
measurements and scale you are designing for is what separates good Web
typography from great Web typography.
Text Alignment
Text alignment is generally taken for granted on the Web--left
alignment suits most purposes most of the time. In order to create a
sense of rhythm and movement on your page, helping to guide the
reader's eye around and adding visual interest to the page, a little
alignment variation can go a long way.
Set body text alignment to minimize gaps and maximize scanning
Text alignment in Web pages is, by default, to the left, with ragged
edges on the right. Justified text--sometimes called newspaper columns,
where both edges of the text are aligned--is rare on the Web.
text-align: left;
text-align: justify;
In print, justified text is created using a variety of techniques
including word spacing, letterspacing, hyphenation, and glyph
reshaping. In addition, well-formed justification is calculated on a
paragraph level to prevent "rivers" of white space flowing down the
middle. On the Web, unfortunately, justification is simply created by
adding small amounts of space between words. On the screen, where you
can only add whole pixels, this often results in uncomfortably large
amounts of space between some words, especially in narrower columns.
Hyphenation is inexplicably absent from CSS. While it is proposed for
inclusion in CSS 3, no work has currently been done on it.
When choosing to use left or justified alignment, keep in mind these
factors:
* Justified text is often seen as more formal and structured, while
left alignment is more informal and approachable.
* Justified text reinforces the grid structure of a page but can be
harder to scan, since it often creates rivers of white space
throughout the text, which interrupts the eye path.
* Left-aligned text adds an element of white space to the right edge,
softening the overall appearance of the page.
Combining Alignments
[70]craigmod.com
Craig Mod combines right-and left-justified columns of text to create
motion and rhythm around his page.
[71]04-17.jpg
[72]Click to view larger image
Center or right-justify text for effect and variety
More rarely used, centering or right-justifying text can create a
specific feeling on the page.
text-align: center;
text-align: right;
Centering and right aligning text is integrally dependent on the design
you are creating and how you want your readers to scan the page. While
using a variety of justifications helps create rhythm and motion on
your page, it can quickly seem cluttered or obnoxious. Always have a
specific purpose for the variance of alignment, and use it sparingly.
Here are a few ideas:
* Bulleted or numbered lists should not be centered or right aligned,
as this makes them harder to scan by moving the beginning of each
line around.
* Center section or module titles/headers if you want to make your
site look a little different. Generally, section titles are best
when left aligned, but centering them gives your designs a unique
feel and may also improve scannability.
* Right-align text in the left column of a page or table if it helps
show a closer relationship between the elements in adjacent
columns.
Centered Section Titles
[73]jontangerine.com
Jon Tangerine combines centered subheadings with justified text in his
blog (detail shown) to create solid structure with visual movement.
[74]04-18.jpg
[75]Click to view larger image
Increase margins for longer quotations and style the citation
Short quotes of less than three lines are included in a paragraph
surround by quotation marks, requiring no other special formatting. In
HTML, the blockquote tag is used to set off a block of text as a
quotation, generally of two lines of text or longer. The quotation
should be styled to distinguish it from other text by indenting its
left and right margins and increasing the top and bottom margins. The
amount of left/right indentation is based on the width of the column
and then adjusted so that it does not conflict with any other indents.
A good measure to offset blockquotes is to double the font size (2em),
although more or less space may be required for wider or narrower
columns:
blockquote { margin: 2em; }
note.jpg In this chapter, we are only considering spacing issues with
blockquotes and citations. Chapters 5 and 6 offer other ways to style
text, including weights, italics, backgrounds, and borders. These can
be deployed to creatively display longer quotations.
This will clearly space the blockquote away from the rest of the text,
but it's also up to the copywriter to make it clear that the text is a
quote and to supply its source, possibly using the cite tag, which
indicates a citation. Turning the cite tag into a block-level element
and right-aligning it when it is included in a blockquote creates a
strong style.
blockquote cite {
display: block;
text-align: right; }
Blockquote Ideas
[76]css-tricks.com/examples/Blockquotes
CSS-Tricks has a page of blockquote ideas with sample code.
The code above will force any text marked by the citation tag to a new
line and right-align it.
[77]04-20.jpg
[78]Click to view larger image
Set footnotes and scientific or mathematical annotations using positioning
rather than vertical alignment
Vertical text alignment allows you to adjust the position of inline
text in relation to its natural baseline, shifting it up or down. For
footnotes, mathematics, and scientific notation, it will not be enough
to simply raise or lower the characters; you will also need to reduce
their size relative to the surrounding text. These styles can be
applied to the superscript and subscript tags, setting the vertical
position to the baseline and then setting a position relative to that:
sup, sub { font-size: .5em;
vertical-align: baseline;
position: relative; }
sup { top: -.65em; }
sup.math { top: -.8em }
sub { top: .2em; }
Although vertical-align provides several values to set the vertical
position of the text, these have proved to be unreliable in
multi-column layouts. The exact values will vary depending on the font,
and you may also need to add some left/right margins to add breathing
room.
[79]04-21.jpg
[80]Click to view larger image
Type Inspirations: Jon Tangerine
Beautiful typographic contrast.
Insightful typography editorials.
[81]jontangerine.com
Jon is a designer living in Bristol, UK, with some of the cleanest pure
Web typography I've seen. On top of this, his information and opinions
on Web typography are required reading for anyone interested in the
ongoing issues we face.
[82]04-22.jpg
[83]Click to view larger image
How he does it:
Jon uses a font stack of Web safe fonts, including Cochin, Baskerville,
and Palatino Linotype, down to Georgia. He then combines a wide variety
of sizes, styles, weights, and colors all scaled and spaced within a
strong grid to provide clear eye paths and legible text.
[84]04-25.jpg
[85]Click to view larger image
[86]04-26.jpg
[87]Click to view larger image
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[89]Click to view larger image
[90]04-28.jpg
[91]Click to view larger image
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[117]Peachpit in 3D
By [118]Rebecca Freed on December 30, 2009 No Comments
The Peachpit offices join the Google 3D Warehouse, courtesy of
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[119]Jason Teague [120]10 Last-minute Gifts for Web Designers
By [121]Jason Cranford Teague on December 17, 2009 1 Comment
Q: What do I get for the Web designer who has everything?
The short answer is real estate.
The slightly longer answer is, anything that helps spark their
creativity.
The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah,
Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [122]Saturnalia
myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift
giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has
everything they need to actually make Web sites?
Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect.
[123]Kara Murphy [124]Just in time for the holidays: Our video-a-day
giveaway
By [125]Kara Murphy on December 16, 2009 No Comments
It's the holiday season, and I bet some of you are already
thinking of your New Year's resolutions. If one of them is to
learn something new in the field of Web design, development,
presentation, branding, and much more, then you're in luck.
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[65]Open Access Research
A possible connection between psychosomatic symptoms and daily rhythmicity in
growth hormone secretion in healthy Japanese students
Mitsuo Nagane^1 [66]email , Kazunori Yoshimura^2 [67]email , Shu-Ichi
Watanabe^3 [68]email and Masahiko Nomura^4 [69]email
^1 Department of Educational Physiology, Chiba University, Chiba
263-8522, Japan
^2 Department of Rehabilitation, Nihon Institute of Medical Science,
Japan
^3 Department of Physiology, Saitama Medical University, Japan
^4 International Education and Training Center, Saitama Medical
University, Japan
[email.gif] author email [email-ca.gif] corresponding author email
Journal of Circadian Rhythms 2009, 7:10doi:10.1186/1740-3391-7-10
The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be
Received: 3 February 2009
Accepted: 5 August 2009
Published: 5 August 2009
© 2009 Nagane et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
Abstract
Background
Students suffering from psychosomatic symptoms, including drowsiness
and feelings of melancholy, often have basic lifestyle problems. The
aim of this study was to investigate whether psychosomatic complaints
may be related to circadian dysfunction.
Methods
We examined 15 healthy students (4 men and 11 women) between 21 and 22
years old. To assess the presence of psychosomatic symptoms among the
subjects, we developed a self-assessment psychosomatic complaints
questionnaire consisting of five items pertaining to physical symptoms
and five items concerning mental symptoms. The subjects rated their
psychosomatic symptoms twice a day (08:00 and 20:00 h). We also
assessed growth hormone secretion patterns by fluorescence enzyme
immunoassay (FEIA). Salivary samples were collected from the subjects
at home five times a day (20:00, 24:00, 04:00, 08:00, and 12:00 h) in
Salivette tubes.
Results
The results indicated a relationship between the self-assessment scores
and the salivary levels of growth hormone. Subjects with high
self-assessment scores showed significant variability in growth hormone
secretion over the day, whereas subjects with low self-assessment
scores did not.
Conclusion
Psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with circadian dysfunction, as
inferred from blunted rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion.
Background
Japanese students suffering from psychosomatic disorders, such as those
involving mood and sleep, may exhibit basic problems in their
lifestyle, including deleterious changes in their living environment
and dietary or lifestyle disturbances [[72]1]. In particular, staying
up late is associated with decreased appetite and missed breakfast the
following morning, irregular bowel movements and sleepiness. Perhaps
the biggest problem facing today's Japanese students is their lack of
daily physical exercise, brought on by stressful academic courses over
long periods of time, too much television and computer games and
increased automobile use [[73]2]. Many Japanese youngsters stay up late
at night [[74]3].
A circadian pacemaker in the central nervous system regulates human
sleep cycles, hormone secretion, subject alertness, objective
performance levels and other physiologic functions over a 24-h period.
Core body temperature, plasma cortisol, and plasma melatonin are three
variables frequently used to estimate the phase of the human pacemaker
[[75]4], although many other hormones, including growth hormone,
exhibit daily rhythmicity. Technical advances that make the assessment
of biomarkers in saliva possible have enabled researchers to
non-invasively study biosocial processes related to stress in
naturalistic contexts. Chiappin et al [[76]5] showed the usefulness and
possibility of salivary hormone analysis containing growth hormone.
Rantonen [[77]6] found a linear correlation between salivary and serum
growth hormone.
Carroll et al. [[78]7] described negative effects of growth hormone
insufficiency on psychological well-being, including reduced vitality
and energy, depressed mood, emotional lability, impaired self-control,
anxiety, and increased social isolation. Patients with growth hormone
deficiencies report decreased energy levels, greater emotional
lability, increased difficulties with sexual relationships and a
greater sense of social isolation than control subjects [[79]8].
However, no direct relationship has been shown between growth hormone
deficiency and psychometrically measured depression, apathy or
psychosomatic well-being [[80]9].
The purpose of the present study was to investigate individual
variation in the levels of growth hormone in healthy subjects and to
examine the relationship between an individual's hormone profile and
his or her psychosomatic complaints.
Methods
The subjects and self-assessment questionnaire
Fifteen subjects (4 men and 11 women) without major medical disorders
ranging in age from 21 to 22 years participated in this study. The
study design was approved by the Ethics Committee of Chiba University,
Japan, and informed consent was obtained from all subjects. A
self-assessment questionnaire concerning psychosomatic symptoms was
developed in accordance with data from the Health Behavior in
School-Aged Children (HBSC) study of the WHO [[81]10]. The
questionnaire for this study contained five items related to physical
symptoms and five items pertaining to mental symptoms (Table [82]1).
The questionnaire was used to measure each individual's psychosomatic
symptoms at home twice each day (08:00 and 20:00 h). The items were
rated on a 4-point scale, with 1 = not true at all and 4 = completely
true. The total score for the 10-item scale ranged from 10 to 40, with
higher scores indicating a greater degree of psychosomatic complaints.
The subjects were allocated post hoc (median split) to a High (n = 7)
or Low (n = 8) Self-Assessment Group based on their total morning score
(with higher scores corresponding to lower self-assessment).
[83]Table 1. Morning and evening psychosomatic condition scores
collected from the self-assessment psychosomatic complaint
questionnaire
Sample collection
Saliva was collected into Salivette tubes (Sarstedt, Germany) using
polyester swabs from the subjects' mouths following 2 min of chewing.
Samples were collected five times a day at home (20:00, 24:00, 04:00,
08:00, and 12:00 h). Both the day of sampling and the preceding day
were required to be normal days (i.e., without special events or
stressful circumstances). After sample collection, the saliva was
stored at -20°C until being analysed.
Salivary growth hormone assay
On the day of testing, the samples were centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for 10
min to remove all mucin. A standard fluorescent determination
immunoassay was used to assess the growth hormone concentrations in
each sample. To avoid inter-assay variability, all determinations were
performed in a single series. In the first step, 96-well fluoro-nunc
plates (Nunc, Black MicroWell 137101, Denmark) were pre-coated with 100
µl of anti-growth hormone antibody (Quartett, 2071800210, Germany) and
incubated for 1.5 h at room temperature. After incubation, the plate
was washed three times with phosphate-buffered saline and blocked for 1
h. After washing, 100 µl of saliva or a standard solution was dispensed
into each well and left for 1.5 h. After washing, primary antibody
(Funakoshi, FU47500254, Japan) was added to the plates and incubated
for 1.5 h. Next, incubation with a secondary antibody (Novus
Biologicals, NB120-7112, USA) was performed for 1 h. After washing,
rabbit anti-ovine immunoglobulin (Amersham Biosciences, ECF Western
Blotting Reagent Pack, USA) was added. After 20 min of incubation, the
plate was scanned using a Fluoromark Microplate Fluorometer (Bio-Rad,
USA) with excitation at 485 nm and emission at 590 nm.
Data analysis
The significance of differences between group means was tested by
analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by protected t tests when
appropriate. The presence of daily rhythmicity in salivary growth
hormone was tested by ANOVA and by the cosinor procedure [[84]11].
Results
Self-assessment psychosomatic complaints questionnaire
A factorial repeated measures ANOVA (high/low self-assessment versus
morning/evening self-assessment scores) was conducted. ANOVA results
showed significant differences (p < .05) between morning and evening
self-assessment scores. Post hoc analyses revealed that, as shown in
Table [85]1, the high self-assessment group (total 19.00) differed
significantly from the low self-assessment group (total 32.75) in terms
of their morning scores (Welch's t-test, t = -3.96, df = 7.57, p <
0.01). The low self-assessment group subjects complained of negative
psychosomatic conditions including being easily irritated (p < .05),
feeling melancholy (p < .05), having a desire to rest (p < .05), and
feeling anxious (p < .01).
Assessment of daily rhythmicity of salivary growth hormone secretion
We collected saliva profiles from 15 healthy students (4 men and 11
women). The amplitude of salivary growth hormone, defined as the
difference between the highest and lowest salivary concentrations, was
used to produce a standardisation, or Z, score. As shown in Figure
[86]1, noticeable variation was observed in the hormonal rhythms of the
subjects, including differences in the salivary growth hormone
secretion profiles of the high and low self-assessment groups. Cosinor
analysis revealed no significant 24-hour rhythmicity in the secretion
profiles of either group (p > .50), but a repeated measures ANOVA
identified statistically significant (p < .05) time-related variations
for growth hormone in the high self-assessment group. The secretion
profile of the low self-assessment group did not exhibit the typical,
sharp peak in the early morning [[87]12], and ANOVA showed no
time-related variation (p > .10). At 08:00 h, salivary growth hormone
levels were significantly lower (p < .05) in the low self-assessment
group than in the high self-assessment group.
[88]thumbnail Figure 1. Daily variation in salivary level of growth
hormone in the high and low self-assessment groups. The results are
presented as means ± S.E.M. * p < .05.
Discussion
Psychosocial factors have been previously shown to affect the
psychosomatic symptoms reported by Japanese school children [[89]13].
Psychosomatic symptoms, which are largely mediated by the autonomic
nervous system, are strongly influenced by an individual's lifestyle,
and the current so-called 24-h society in Japan may have changed the
environmental conditions of students. More than 80% of school refusal
cases (school phobia) suffer from sleep disorders, with a tendency
towards day/night reversal and easy fatigability, especially during the
period immediately following their school social life [[90]14]. Thus,
impairment in circadian rhythmicity may be a cause of school refusal in
Japan. The present study was the first step in an attempt to
investigate this hypothesis.
Our assessment of salivary growth hormone secretion was not sensitive
enough to detect significant daily rhythmicity, but the highest level
measured in the subjects of our high self-assessment group occurred
earlier in the day than the peak of the daily rhythm measured in a
previous study [[91]15]. Peak hormonal secretions often shift to the
morning if an activity continues long into the night. A link between
deficiency of growth hormone and reduced quality of life or well-being
has been reported by many researchers [[92]7].
Our results indicate a relationship between the self-assessment scores
and the levels of growth hormone. Subjects with high self-assessment
scores in the morning showed significant variability in growth hormone
secretion during the day, whereas subjects with low self-assessment
scores did not. Thus, psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with
hormonal rhythms related to basic lifestyle habits.
Nocturnal melatonin secretion can be suppressed by exposure to light on
the order of several hundred lux, such as ordinary room light [[93]16].
Thus, a subject's pattern of melatonin secretion may reflect his or her
life rhythm, and melatonin secretion appears to be an important index
of circadian rhythmicity. Based on our previous finding that growth
hormone and melatonin exhibit similar daily rhythmicity [[94]17], we
believe that estimates of the state of the central circadian clock can
be most accurate if they are based on the analysis of the secretion
patterns of both melatonin and growth hormone.
Some limitations of our study must be emphasized. First, it is possible
that the sleep-disrupting effect of waking at 00.00 and 04.00 to
produce a saliva sample had a disruptive effect on hormonal secretion.
Second, we observed a larger difference in terms of gender than has
been previously described [[95]18], with women having sevenfold higher
serum growth hormone concentrations than men during the day. Though we
did not directly examine sex differences in growth hormone secretion,
we recognise it as an important topic for further research.
Conclusion
Psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with circadian dysfunction, as
inferred from blunted rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors' contributions
MN designed the experiments, collected data and wrote the manuscript.
KY managed the laboratory and adjusted the schedule of subjects. SW
participated in the design of the study and performed statistical
analysis. MN supervised the study. All authors read and approved the
final version of the article.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported in part by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific
Research (C) from the Japanese Ministry of Education to Nagane M.
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[63]Open Access [64]Highly Access Research
Daily rhythm of cerebral blood flow velocity
Deirdre A Conroy^1 [65]email , Arthur J Spielman^1^,2 [66]email and
Rebecca Q Scott^3 [67]email
^1 Department of Psychology, The Graduate School and University Center
of the City University of New York, New York, USA
^2 Department of Neurology and Neuroscience, New York Presbyterian
Hospital, New York, USA
^3 Department of Health Psychology, Albert Einstein Medical College at
Yeshiva University, Bronx, USA
[email.gif] author email [email-ca.gif] corresponding author email
Journal of Circadian Rhythms 2005, 3:3doi:10.1186/1740-3391-3-3
The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be
Received: 21 December 2004
Accepted: 10 March 2005
Published: 10 March 2005
© 2005 Conroy et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
Abstract
Background
CBFV (cerebral blood flow velocity) is lower in the morning than in the
afternoon and evening. Two hypotheses have been proposed to explain the
time of day changes in CBFV: 1) CBFV changes are due to
sleep-associated processes or 2) time of day changes in CBFV are due to
an endogenous circadian rhythm independent of sleep. The aim of this
study was to examine CBFV over 30 hours of sustained wakefulness to
determine whether CBFV exhibits fluctuations associated with time of
day.
Methods
Eleven subjects underwent a modified constant routine protocol. CBFV
from the middle cerebral artery was monitored by chronic recording of
Transcranial Doppler (TCD) ultrasonography. Other variables included
core body temperature (CBT), end-tidal carbon dioxide (EtCO2), blood
pressure, and heart rate. Salivary dim light melatonin onset (DLMO)
served as a measure of endogenous circadian phase position.
Results
A non-linear multiple regression, cosine fit analysis revealed that
both the CBT and CBFV rhythm fit a 24 hour rhythm (R^2 = 0.62 and R^2 =
0.68, respectively). Circadian phase position of CBT occurred at 6:05
am while CBFV occurred at 12:02 pm, revealing a six hour, or 90 degree
difference between these two rhythms (t = 4.9, df = 10, p < 0.01). Once
aligned, the rhythm of CBFV closely tracked the rhythm of CBT as
demonstrated by the substantial correlation between these two measures
(r = 0.77, p < 0.01).
Conclusion
In conclusion, time of day variations in CBFV have an approximately 24
hour rhythm under constant conditions, suggesting regulation by a
circadian oscillator. The 90 degree-phase angle difference between the
CBT and CBFV rhythms may help explain previous findings of lower CBFV
values in the morning. The phase difference occurs at a time period
during which cognitive performance decrements have been observed and
when both cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events occur more
frequently. The mechanisms underlying this phase angle difference
require further exploration.
Background
It has been well documented that cerebral blood flow velocity (CBFV) is
lower in sleep [[70]1-[71]7] and in the morning shortly after awakening
[[72]8-[73]10] than in the afternoon or evening. Generally accepted
theories about the time of day changes in CBFV attribute the fall in
CBFV to the physiological processes of the sleep period and the
increase during the day to waking processes. The low CBFV in the
morning is thought to be a consequence of the fall in the overall
reduced metabolic level [[74]8,[75]10
,[76]11] and reduced cognitive processing [[77]12]. Additionally, the
reduced physical activity [[78]13], reduced body temperature, and the
recumbent sleeping position have also been proposed as contributors
[[79]14] to the decline in CBFV and analogous brain processes.
An alternative to these explanations that attribute changes in CBFV to
sleep and wake dependent processes is that this pattern of fluctuation
reflects an endogenous process with circadian rhythmicity. The decline
of CBFV across the sleep period and rise after subjects are awakened in
the morning resemble the endogenous circadian changes in core body
temperature (CBT), a reliable index of endogenous circadian
rhythmicity. Both patterns are low during sleep, start to rise in the
morning, reach their peak in the late afternoon, and then drop during
the sleep period.
The aim of this study was to examine CBFV over ~30 hours of sustained
wakefulness to unmask and quantify contributions of the endogenous
circadian system. By not permitting sleep, the evoked changes dependent
on this change of state will not contribute to the observed CBFV
changes. We hypothesized that time of day changes in CBFV are due to
endogenous circadian regulation. Previous studies have been limited by
several factors. First, the environmental conditions (light level) and
the behavior of the subject (sleep, meals, and caffeine intake) were
not controlled [[80]15,[81]13,[82]1
,[83]16]. Second, CBFV measurements were obtained at only a few
circadian points. For example, Ameriso et al. [[84]15] and Qureshi et
al. [[85]16] assessed CBFV between 6-8 am, 1-3 pm, and 7-9 pm. Diamant
et al [[86]13] assessed CBFV during the first 15 minutes of every hour
across a 24 hour period. Given these brief time periods, the findings
are only a schematic of the 24 hour profile. Third, primary output
markers of the endogenous circadian pacemaker (such as core body
temperature and melatonin production) were not assessed.
We employed the "constant routine" protocol, which was designed
specifically to unmask underlying circadian rhythms in constant
conditions [[87]17]. CBFV was collected by Transcranial Doppler (TCD)
ultrasonography for the entire study period. Core body temperature and
salivary dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO) were measured for
determination of circadian phase. Continuous electroencephalography
(EEG) was performed to ensure wakefulness across the study.
Additionally, measurements of blood pressure, heart rate, and end tidal
carbon dioxide (Et[CO2]), three of the main regulators of CBFV, were
collected every half hour.
Methods
Subject selection
Twelve subjects (10 men and 2 women; ages 19-38, mean 28 years) agreed
to participate. One subject discontinued her participation because of a
headache 15 hours into the study. Subjects were in good health, as
assessed by medical history, semi-structured clinical interview, and
physical exam. Information regarding menstrual cycle was not obtained
from female subjects. Subjects also underwent an independent standard
cerebrovascular assessment and were determined to be normal. They
reported no symptoms of sleep problems (such as insomnia, obstructive
sleep apnea, narcolepsy, or restless legs syndrome).
Subjects that were selected to participate kept to a designated
sleep-wake schedule (that was negotiated from the subject's typical
pattern) and filled out a sleep diary for the two weeks prior to the
time in the laboratory. According to sleep diary reports, bedtimes
ranged from 10:30 pm to 1:00 am and waketimes ranged from 6:00 am to
10:00 am. Alcohol and caffeine intake was discontinued for the entire
week before the study. During the data collection, subjects were not
permitted either alcohol or caffeine. All subjects were non-smokers.
Laboratory constant routine protocol
The study protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Boards of
New York Presbyterian Hospital - Weill Medical College of Cornell
University and The City College of New York. Subjects gave written and
informed consent before participating. Subjects arrived at the sleep
laboratory between 9:30 am and 10:00 am. They were oriented to the
study procedures and to their bedroom. Electrodes were placed on the
subject's head and face as they sat in a chair next to the bed. Data
collection began at 11 am. Subjects remained in bed and awake in a semi
recumbent position for 30 hours in an established "constant routine"
(CR) protocol. Subjects remained in low (<25 lux) light levels which
have been shown to have little or no entraining effect on the circadian
pacemaker [[88]18]. They were not allowed to get out of bed to urinate.
Instead they urinated in private in a urinal or bedpan. Subjects
remained awake from 11:00 a.m. on Day 1 until 5 p.m. on Day 2.
Throughout the study, subjects were provided small meals (Ensure ^®
liquid formula plus one-quarter nutritional food bar) every 2 hours.
Subject's typical total food and liquid intake for a day and a quarter
were divided into 15 relatively equal portions. Only one subject
participated in the CR per 30-hour period.
This protocol represents a modified CR in two ways. First, subjects
were allowed to watch television and were therefore were not in "time
isolation." Television content was monitored so that subjects were not
exposed to programs with highly emotional themes. Second, subjects
needing to defecate were allowed to go to the bathroom, which was
located a few steps away from the bedside. We chose this method as an
alternative to using the bedpan to ensure subject's comfort and study
compliance. Three subjects (subjects 05, 06, and 10) got out of bed
once at 3:30, 21:30, and 15:30, respectively, to defecate. One subject,
subject 12, got out of bed twice, at 22:30 and 6:35. Subject 10 used
the bathroom only during the adaptation period. A paired-samples t-test
was conducted to evaluate the impact of getting out of bed to defecate
on subject's CBT and CBFV values. The CBT and CBFV values in the two
hours before getting up were compared to the two hours after the
subject got up. Subjects 5 showed a slight decrease in CBT from before
(M = 98.12, SD = 0.14) to after the subject returned to the bed (M =
97.91, SD = 0.08), t(3) = -5.17, p = .014). Subject 6 showed a decline
in CBFV from before (M = 56.14, SD = 2.3) to after the subject returned
to the bed (M = 45.67, SD = 3.7), t(3) = 5.49, p = 0.012). There were
no other significant differences detected between these two time
periods for subject 5's CBFV, subject 6's CBT, or for both times
subject 12 got out of the bed. By visual inspection, the overall shape
of the curves in these subjects was not affected and therefore these
subject's data were included in subsequent analyses.
Transcranial Doppler ultrasound recordings
The current study utilized TCD ultrasonography to measure cerebral
blood flow velocity. TCD is a non-invasive instrument (consisting of
one or two 2-Mhz transducers fitted to a headband, MARC500, Spencer
Technologies, Nicolet Biomedical Inc) that is used predominantly as a
diagnostic tool to assess cerebral hemodynamics in normal and
pathological conditions. TCD ultrasonography is predicated on a theory
that involves the measurement of moving objects when combined with
radar. When the instrument emits the sound wave, it is reflected by the
blood cells that are moving in the vector of the sound wave [[89]19].
CBFV was measured using either the right or left middle cerebral artery
(MCA) using TCD sonography (TCD: DWL Multidop X-2, DWL Elektronische
Systeme GmbH, D-78354 Sipplingen/Germany) through the temporal window.
An observer who was present continuously during the recordings
evaluated the quality of the signal. This enabled long-term recording
of CBFV throughout the study. Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT) of the
signal was used to analyze the velocity spectra. The mean velocity of
the MCA was obtained from the integral of the maximal TCD frequency
shifts over one beat divided by the corresponding beat interval and
expressed in cm/sec. Analysis was conducted off line.
Measurement of standard markers of the circadian pacemaker
Body temperature recordings
Core body temperature was recorded at 1-minute intervals with an
indwelling rectal probe (MiniMitter, Co. Bend, OR). A wire lead
connected the sensor out of the rectum to a data collection system worn
on the belt. Temperature readings were collected and saved into the
device and monitored at hourly intervals by the investigator. After the
study, the recordings were visually inspected and artifacts resulting
from removal or malfunction of the probe were excluded from further
analysis.
Salivary melatonin
Salivary samples of 3 ml were collected every hour from 11:00 a.m. on
Day 1 to 4:00 p.m. on Day 2. Ten of these samples were used only for
the determination of the timing of the salivary dim light melatonin
onset (DLMO). For nine subjects, salivary DLMO was assessed across a
ten-hour time window that included the ten hours before the CBT
minimum. Immediately after collection, each saliva sample was frozen
and stored at -20°C. Saliva samples were assayed using Bühlmann
Melatonin Radio Immunoassay (RIA) test kit for direct melatonin in
human saliva (American Laboratory Products Co., Windham, NH). Analysis
was conducted at New York State Institute for Basic Research. Salivary
DLMO time was selected based on two criteria. The saliva sample needed
to have melatonin concentration 3 pg/ml or above and later samples
needed to show higher levels (Bühlmann laboratories). Second, the 3
pg/ml threshold needed to occur within 6-10 hours before core body
temperature minimum [[90]20].
Polygraphic recordings
Electroencephalography (EEG) was continually assessed across the 30
hours to ensure that subjects maintained wakefulness. The following
montage was used according to the international 10-20 system: C3-A2,
C4-A1, O1-A2, O2-A1, ROC-A1, LOC-A2, and submentalis electromyogram
(EMG). One channel of electrocardiogram was continuously recorded by
monitoring from two electrodes (one on each side of the body at the
shoulder chest junction). The EEG software (Rembrant Sleep Collection
Software Version 7.0) was used for data acquisition and display of the
signals on a personal computer. Throughout the CR, the investigator
(DAC) monitored the quality of the recordings. The recordings were
scored by RQS and DAC.
Blood pressure, heart rate, and end-tidal CO2
An automated blood pressure cuff was placed on the bicep of the subject
and inflated two times each hour in order to determine changes in blood
pressure and heart rate over time. Blood pressure and heart rate in one
subject (02) was recorded via a finger blood pressure monitor (Omron
Marshall Products, Model F-88). Blood pressure and heart rate in
subjects 03, 04, 05, 06, and 07 were recorded with Omron Healthcare,
Inc, Vernon Hills, Illinois 60061 Model # HEM-705CP Rating: DC 6V 4W
Serial No: 2301182L. Blood pressure and heart rate for subjects 08, 09
and 10 was recorded with a similar blood pressure monitor (CVS Pharmacy
Inc, Woonsocket, RI 02895 Model # 1086CVS). Blood pressure and heart
rate recordings were not measured in subjects 11 and 12. Et[CO2 ]was
continuously obtained. A nasal cannula for monitoring expired gases was
placed under the nose. Relative changes in carbon dioxide content were
measured by an Ohmeda 4700 Oxicap (BOC healthcare). Mean Et[CO2 ]levels
were analyzed off-line. Et[CO2 ]recordings were not measured in
subjects 11 and 12.
Data Analyses
Data reduction and statistical procedures
CBT and CBFV values were first subjected to data rejection. All CBT
values less than 96 degrees were determined to be artifact and were
rejected. All CBFV values less than 20 cm/sec were determined to be
artifact according to the clinical criteria set by the staff
neurologist. Data reduction was accomplished by averaging into one
minute, 30 minute or hourly bins. Correlations presented here were
performed on mean values in 30 minute bins. To ensure that circadian
measurements were made under basal conditions, the first five hours of
the constant routine were excluded from all analyses to eliminate
effects of study adaptation. The last hour was excluded to eliminate
confounding effects such as expectation effects.
The data are presented in this article in three ways. First, CBT and
CBFV values were plotted according to time of day (Figures [91]1 and
[92]2). Second, CBFV values were aligned according to the CBT nadir
(Figure [93]3) and third, the CBFV nadir was aligned to the CBT nadir
(Figure [94]4). To align CBFV to the CBT circadian nadir as shown in
Figure [95]3, the CBT nadir of each individual subject was set to
circadian time 0, or 0°. The CBFV value that corresponded to the CBT
nadir was then also set to 0. Each half hour data point after the
temperature nadir and corresponding CBFV values were then set to a
circadian degree. There were a total of 48 data points across the 24
hour period. Therefore, each data point was equal to 7.5 degrees so
that each data point would accumulate to 360°. Lastly, mean values were
obtained for CBT and CBFV at each circadian degree.
[96]thumbnail Figure 1. 24-hour Cosine Curve fit to Mean Core Body
Temperature (°F). Time course of CBT according to time of day. Shown is
a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/- SEM) of CBT (blue
diamonds) fit with a 24-hour cosine curve (purple squares). Time of day
is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate shows CBT values (degrees F).
The vertical line indicates where the data was double plotted. Also
displayed in the upper right corner is the non-linear cosine curve fit
for mean CBT, R^2 = 0.62. The overall mean circadian phase position of
the minimum was 6:05 am.
[97]thumbnail Figure 2. 24-hour Cosine Curve fit to Mean Cerebral Blood
Flow Velocity (cm/sec). Time course of CBFV according to time of day.
Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/- SEM) of
CBFV (blue diamonds) fit with a 24-hour cosine curve (purple squares).
Time of day is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate shows CBFV values
(cm/sec). The vertical line indicates where the data was double
plotted. Also displayed in the upper right corner is the non-linear
cosine curve fit for mean CBFV, R^2 = 0.67. The overall mean circadian
phase position of the minimum was 12:02 pm.
[98]thumbnail Figure 3. Mean CBT and CBFV Aligned to CBT Nadir. Time
course of mean CBFV and mean CBT aligned to the nadir of CBT and then
averaged. Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels
(+/-SEM) of CBT (purple squares) and CBFV (blue circles) aligned to the
phase of the circadian temperature cycle. Circadian time in degrees is
shown on the abscissa. The ordinate on the left shows CBT values
(degrees F) and CBFV (cm/sec) on the right. The vertical line indicates
the CBT nadir.
[99]thumbnail Figure 4. Mean CBT and CBFV Aligned to Their Respective
Nadir. Time course of mean CBFV and mean CBT aligned to each of their
respective nadirs and then averaged. Shown is a double plot of the
group (n = 11) mean levels (+/-SEM) of CBT (purple squares) and CBFV
(blue circles) aligned to the phase of the circadian temperature cycle.
Circadian time in degrees is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate on the
left shows CBT values (degrees F) and CBFV (cm/sec) on the right. The
vertical line indicates both the CBT nadir and the CBFV nadir. The
correlation coefficient between the aligned rhythms is 0.77 (p < 0.01).
To align the CBFV nadir to the CBT nadir, first, the lowest value of
CBT and the lowest value of CBFV were identified and set to circadian
time 0, or 0°. Each half hour data point after the CBT nadir and CBFV
nadir were then set to a circadian degree. There were a total of 48
data points across the 24 hour period. Therefore, each data point was
equal to 7.5 degrees so that each data point would accumulate to 360°.
Lastly, mean values were obtained for CBT and CBFV at each circadian
degree.
Estimation of circadian phase
A 24-hour non-linear multiple regression -cosine curve fit analysis was
performed on the CBT and CBFV data (SAS Institute, Cary, NC). This
technique constrains the circadian period of CBT and CBFV to be within
24 hours. This technique used the following equations: model cbt =
&avg_cbt + r * cos((2 * 3.1415) * (hours-&max_cbt)/24; model cbfv =
&avg_cbt + r * cos((2 * 3.1415) * (hours-&max_cbfv)/24, where & =
constants that center the curve at the actual average for each series
(vertical centering) and the predicted maximum at the actual maximum
(horizontal centering); r = the amplitude of the cosine wave. An
additional analysis was performed which also yielded the estimated
clock time for the CBT nadir and CBFV nadir (Synergy software,
Kaleidagraph Version 3.6). Third, the minimum of the circadian rhythm
of CBT and salivary DLMO were also used as markers of the endogenous
circadian phase. A paired t-test was used to determine the overall
phase difference between CBT and CBFV.
Results
Eleven subjects completed the protocol. The TCD probe was placed on
either the right or left temple, whichever gave the better signal. Mean
isonation depth of the TCD signal was 56.5 mm for the right MCA and
55.6 mm for the left MCA (range 53-60 mm). The constant routine ranged
from 28 to 30 hours in duration. Polygraphic recordings confirmed
sustained wakefulness across essentially the entire protocol in all but
one subject. Subjects that had difficulty remaining awake were
monitored closely and aroused when needed by engagement in
conversation. Results from the polygraphic recordings are not presented
here. We do not present the results of the polygraphic recordings
because, for the purposes of this study, these recordings were used
solely to monitor whether subjects were awake or asleep. The first five
hours and the final hour of data from the constant routine were
excluded from analysis.
Core body temperature, cerebral blood flow velocity and the 24-hour day
A 24 hour non-linear multiple regression, cosine fit analysis revealed
that the overall mean CBT rhythm (n = 11) fit a 24 hour cosine rhythm
(R^2 = 0.62, p < 0.01), Figure [100]1. The mean CBT across all subjects
was 98.6 °F (+/- 0.03 °F). Figure [101]2 shows that a 24-hour
non-linear multiple regression, cosine analysis fit a 24 hour cosine
rhythm (R^2 = 0.67, p < 0.01), Figure [102]2. The mean CBFV across
subjects was 40.6 cm/sec (+/- 0.54 cm/sec). Salivary DLMO occurred 7.7
hours prior to the CBT nadir in nine subjects, which served only as a
secondary measure of endogenous circadian phase position in those
subjects. The mean salivary melatonin concentration across the ten hour
window was 15.3 pg/ml (+/-3.05 pg/ml).
CBFV rhythm is 90 degrees out of phase with the CBT rhythm
The overall mean circadian position of CBT occurred at 6:05 am and the
mean position of CBFV occurred at 12:02 pm (Figure [103]3), yielding a
6 hour or 90 degree statistically significant difference (t = 4.9, DF =
10, p < 0.01). In individual subject data, the differences ranged from
0 to 8.5 hours. In eight subjects, the CBFV phase occurred later than
the respective CBT phase, with mean difference of 5.2 hours. In two
subjects, the CBFV nadir occurred earlier than the respective CBT
nadir, with a mean difference of 6 hours. In one subject, there was no
difference between the phase of CBT and CBFV. However, this subject's
CBT rhythm was highly unusual, with the nadir occurring at 11:35 am on
Day 2. Nevertheless, we felt the most appropriate way to present the
data was to include this subject in the overall analysis. When the
phase of CBFV was shifted so that the lowest value was aligned to the
lowest CBT value, the two parameters were highly correlated (see Figure
[104]4; r = 0.77, n = 98, p < 0.01). While the difference in the two
rhythms variability was large, Fisher's z-transformed values revealed
that the amplitudes of the two parameters were similar. The amplitude
of CBFV yielded a z score of 4.25 and CBT yielded a z score of 3.06.
Blood pressure recordings and systemic hemodynamic variables
A Pearson correlation revealed a positive relationship between CBT and
heart rate (r = 0.40, p < 0.01) across the 24 hour period. Diastolic
blood pressure (DBP) and CBT showed a negative correlation (r = -0.30,
p < 0.05). Et[CO2 ]showed a trend towards a direct relationship with
CBFV (r = 0.24, p = 0.10). Blood pressure, heart rate, and Et[CO2
]served only as regulators of CBFV and were not analyzed according to
circadian phase.
Discussion
This study is the first to use the constant routine (CR) protocol to
determine whether the endogenous circadian pacemaker contributes to the
previously reported diurnal changes in CBFV. The current work
demonstrates that, with limited periodic external stimuli and a
constant posture, there is 24-hour rhythmicity in CBFV. Subjects showed
a cycle of approximately 24 hours in CBT, which has been previously
demonstrated with the CR [[105]21].
Figure [106]3 illustrates the intricate relationship between the
rhythms across the study period. At approximately the CBT acrophase,
the relationship between the two rhythms undergoes a transition.
Between 180 and 240 degrees, CBFV is still rising and CBT is changing
directions (first rising, reaching its peak and then falling). This
period between 180 and 240 has been described as a "wake maintenance
zone", a time in the circadian cycle during which humans are less
likely to fall asleep [[107]22]. In our subjects, the CBT is near its
zenith or just starting to fall at this time and CBFV is still steadily
rising. Higher values in CBT and CBFV are associated with activation
and therefore these two endogenous rhythms may be promoting wakefulness
during this "wake maintenance zone". However, at the end of this
transition period, CBT is falling and CBFV is still rising, perhaps
reflecting continued activation of the cerebral cortex. Whereas the
two-process model predicts increased tendency to sleep as CBT falls
[[108]23], our finding may provide the mechanism by which wakefulness
is effortlessly maintained before bedtime.
Figure [109]3 further illustrates that as wakefulness is extended past
the subject's habitual bedtime (approximately 270 degrees), the two
rhythms decline together. Between 0 and 60 degrees, CBFV steadily
declines and CBT is steadily rising. The lower CBFV values in the
morning may play a role in cognitive performance impairments [[110]24],
particularly the 3-4.5 hour phase difference in neurobehavioral
functioning relative to the CBT rhythm that has been previously
demonstrated in constant routine protocols [[111]25].
Earlier studies using simultaneous EEG and TCD to continuously measure
CBFV across the sleep period have concluded that, except for periods of
REM sleep, [[112]26
,[113]27], there is a linear decline in CBFV across the night during
periods of non-REM sleep [[114]1,[115]28]. Other groups utilizing these
techniques simultaneously speculated that the decline in CBFV through
the night was a "decoupling" of cerebral electrical activity and
cerebral perfusion during non-REM sleep [[116]8-[117]10]. In all
studies [[118]1,[119]8-[120]10,[121]28], CBFV values were lower in the
morning during wakefulness than during wakefulness prior to sleep at
night. The current findings show that the decline in CBFV is present
during wakefulness in the night time hours and therefore may not be
attributed solely to sleep and associated changes that normally
influence CBFV (including factors such as the shift to recumbency, and
reduced activity, metabolic rate and respiratory rate).
Moreover, our interaction with the subjects and the monitoring of EEG
for signs of sleep resulted in no sleep in all but one subject. The one
exception was in a subject who lapsed into brief periods of sleep.
Therefore, the fall in CBFV in 10 out of 11 subjects cannot be
explained by the occurrence of non-REM sleep. It is possible, however,
that the decline of CBFV across the night and early morning may be
secondary to the sleep deprivation that is part of the constant
routine. Brain imaging studies across sustained periods of wakefulness
have shown significant decreases in absolute regional cerebral glucose
metabolic rate in several areas of the brain [[122]29-[123]34].
The drop in CBT which preceded the parallel fall in CBFV needs to be
considered as a possible explanation for the CBFV changes. The fall in
CBT during sleeping hours is attributed in part to sleep-associated
changes and in part to strong regular circadian forces independent of
the sleep period. CBT is, in fact, one of the key and most extensively
studied indices of the circadian phase. It is also known that CBT is
highly correlated with brain temperature and brain metabolic rate
[[124]35]. Imaging studies have documented the intimate relation
between brain activity and increased metabolic rate and oxygen delivery
through perfusion. Therefore, it is plausible that CBT is a direct
influence on CBFV or an index of decreased metabolic need for blood
flow. The prevailing hypothesis that there is tight coupling of normal
neuronal activity and blood flow was formulated over 100 years ago
[[125]36]. The drop in CBFV may be a consequence of the lowered
cerebral activity secondary to lowered brain temperature. In contrast,
two studies of exercise-induced hyperthermia showing decreased global
and middle cerebral artery CBFV [[126]37
,[127]38] do not support this hypothesized direct relationship between
the two variables. However, one of the main purported mechanisms for
the fall in CBFV in these exercise studies, the hyperventilation
induced lowering of Pa[CO2], is unlikely present during waking while
lying in bed at night. Therefore, CBT declines remain a plausible
explanation for the portion of the 24 hours when CBFV declined.
Mechanisms of CBFV regulation
This protocol allowed the unique opportunity to evaluate blood
pressure, heart rate, and Et[CO2 ]in the absence of sleep, in subjects
with constant posture, and highly restricted movements. While blood
pressure clearly falls during sleep in normal individuals, the absence
of sleep in the current study obviates the explanation that CBFV
declines are secondary to lowered blood pressure. Furthermore, we
sampled blood pressure throughout the day and night and found a weak
inverse relationship between DBP and CBT. This finding is in contrast
to a careful study of circadian influence on blood pressure in the
absence of sleep which showed no change in blood pressure during the
descending portion of the body temperature curve [[128]39].
Nevertheless, our finding was weak and likely does not provide the
explanation for the CBFV changes. The small-inverse relationship
between Et [CO2 ]and CBT is similar to that found by Spengler et al.
[[129]40], who showed a consistent but small amplitude circadian rhythm
in mean end-tidal Et[CO2 ]on a CR protocol. Et[CO2 ]showed a trend
towards a direct relationship with CBFV, which is consistent with
previous studies showing that changes in Et[CO2 ]are associated with
changes in CBFV [[130]41
,[131]42]. Heart rate was correlated with CBT, consistent with the
findings of Van Dongen et al [[132]39].
Clinical correlation
The approximate 6 hour (90 degree) phase angle difference between the
CBFV and CBT suggests that CBFV continues to decline into the early to
mid-morning hours. This finding is consistent with a time window in the
morning during which several physiological changes have been observed.
For example, cerebral vasomotor reactivity to hypocapnia, hypercapnia,
and normoventilation has been found to be most reduced in the morning
[[133]15
,[134]16]. It is tempting to suggest that the the low CBFV values in
the morning may also help explain the well established diurnal
variation of the onset of cerebrovascular accidents (CVAs) [[135]43]. A
meta-analyses of 11,816 publications between 1966 to 1997 found that
there was a 49% increased risk of strokes between 6 am and 12 pm
[[136]44]. This time period is in agreement with studies on myocardial
infarction (MI) and sudden death [[137]45]. The increased incidence of
these events has been attributed, in part, to the surge of blood
pressure [[138]13,[139]46,[140]47] and platelet aggregability
[[141]48,[142]49] in the morning when patients are getting out of bed.
Our results demonstrate that even in the absence of surges in blood
pressure, the phase of CBFV reaches its lowest values during the hours
before 12 pm. This further suggests that the endogenous rhythm of CBFV
may be associated with the risk of CVAs in the late morning hours even
without changes in posture or activity.
Conclusion
Overall, the results demonstrate that CBFV, in the absence of sleep,
exhibits properties of a circadian rhythm, as it rises and falls across
a 24 hour period. The 6 hour (90 degree) phase angle difference in the
CBFV rhythm with respect to the CBT rhythm may help explain previous
findings of lower CBFV values in the morning. The phase difference
occurs at a time period during which cognitive performance decrements
have been observed and when both cardiovascular and cerebrovascular
events occur more frequently. The mechanisms underlying this phase
angle difference require further exploration.
List of abbreviations
CBFV Cerebral Blood Flow Velocity
CBT Core Body Temperature
TCD Transcranial Doppler
EtCO2 End tidal Carbon Dioxide
DLMO Dim Light Melatonin Onset
EEG Electroencephalogram
MCA Middle Cerebral Artery
FFT Fast Fourier Transformation
CR Constant routine
EMG Electromyogram
SBP Systolic Blood Pressure
DBP Diastolic Blood Pressure
CVA Cerebrovascular accident
MI Myocardial infarction
Competing interests
The author(s) declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors' contributions
DAC coordinated, carried out, analyzed, and interpreted the study. AJS
participated in the analysis and interpretation of the findings. DAC
drafted the manuscript and AJS provided final approval of this version.
RQS participated in data collection and data analysis. DAC and AJS
co-designed the study. All authors read and approved the final
manuscript.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the volunteer participants who completed
this extremely difficult protocol, to the research assistants: Jason
Birnbaum, Will Carias, RN, Laura Diaz, Boris Dubrovsky, Mathew Ebben,
Ph.D., Carrie Hildebrand, Lars Ross, Greg Sahlem, Mathew Tucker, Ayesha
Udin, to those who helped with the data analysis: Scott Campbell, Ph.D.
of New York Presbyterian Hospital, White Plains, Abdeslem ElIdrissi,
Ph.D. of The Institute for Basic Research, Staten Island, NY, Larry
Krasnoff, Ph.D. of Digitas, New York, and Andrew Scott, MBA, to those
who provided their expert advice: William Fishbein, Ph.D. of The City
College of New York, Paul Glovinsky, Ph.D. of The Sleep Disorders
Center, Albany, NY, Margaret Moline, Ph.D. of Eisai, Inc, Charles
Pollak, MD of The Center for Sleep Medicine, New York Presbyterian
Hospital-Cornell, and Alan Segal, MD of The Department of Neurology,
New York Presbyterian Hospital, and to others who helped make this
study possible: Stacy Goldstein, Neil B. Kavey, MD, Igor Ougorets, MD,
and Jerry Titus.
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Rhythm and Meter in English Poetry
English poetry employs five basic rhythms of varying stressed (/) and
unstressed (x) syllables. The meters are iambs, trochees, spondees,
anapests and dactyls. In this document the stressed syllables are
marked in boldface type rather than the tradition al "/" and "x." Each
unit of rhythm is called a "foot" of poetry.
The meters with two-syllable feet are
* IAMBIC (x /) : That time of year thou mayst in me behold
* TROCHAIC (/ x): Tell me not in mournful numbers
* SPONDAIC (/ /): Break, break, break/ On thy cold gray stones, O
Sea!
Meters with three-syllable feet are
* ANAPESTIC (x x /): And the sound of a voice that is still
* DACTYLIC (/ x x): This is the forest primeval, the murmuring pines
and the hemlock (a trochee replaces the final dactyl)
Each line of a poem contains a certain number of feet of iambs,
trochees, spondees, dactyls or anapests. A line of one foot is a
monometer, 2 feet is a dimeter, and so on--trimeter (3), tetrameter
(4), pentameter (5), hexameter (6), heptameter (7), and o ctameter (8).
The number of syllables in a line varies therefore according to the
meter. A good example of trochaic monometer, for example, is this poem
entitled "Fleas":
Adam
Had'em.
Here are some more serious examples of the various meters.
iambic pentameter (5 iambs, 10 syllables)
* That time | of year | thou mayst | in me | behold
trochaic tetrameter (4 trochees, 8 syllables)
* Tell me | not in | mournful | numbers
anapestic trimeter (3 anapests, 9 syllables)
* And the sound | of a voice | that is still
dactylic hexameter (6 dactyls, 17 syllables; a trochee replaces the
last dactyl)
* This is the | forest pri | meval, the | murmuring | pine and the |
hemlocks
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Meter (poetry)
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In [15]poetry, the meter (or metre) is the basic [16]rhythmic structure
of a [17]verse. Many traditional [18]verse forms prescribe a specific
verse meter, or a certain set of meters alternating in a particular
order. [19]Prosody is a more general [20]linguistic term, that includes
poetical meter but also the rhythmic aspects of [21]prose, whether
formal or informal. The [22]scansion of a [23]poem is the analysis of
its metrical structure.
Contents
* [24]1 Fundamentals
+ [25]1.1 Feet
+ [26]1.2 Caesurae
+ [27]1.3 Metric variations
+ [28]1.4 Enumeration
* [29]2 Meter in various languages
+ [30]2.1 Sanskrit
+ [31]2.2 Greek and Latin
+ [32]2.3 Classical Arabic
o [33]2.3.1 The Arabic Meters
+ [34]2.4 Old English
+ [35]2.5 Modern English
o [36]2.5.1 Metrical systems
o [37]2.5.2 Frequently-used meters
+ [38]2.6 French
+ [39]2.7 Spanish
+ [40]2.8 Italian
+ [41]2.9 Ottoman Turkish
+ [42]2.10 Brazilian Portuguese
* [43]3 History
* [44]4 Dissent
* [45]5 Notes
* [46]6 See also
[[47]edit] Fundamentals
The meter usually depends on [48]acoustic properties of the [49]spoken
words, such as the [50]length or [51]stress of their [52]syllables,
independently of their meaning. The sound attributes that determine the
meter may vary from language to language, and sometimes between poetic
traditions.
[[53]edit] Feet
In most [54]Western classical poetic traditions, the meter of a verse
can be described as a sequence of [55]feet, each foot being a specific
sequence of syllable types -- such as unstressed/stressed (the norm for
[56]English poetry) or long/short (as in most classical [57]Latin and
[58]Greek poetry).
The most common meter in English poetry, the so-called [59]iambic
pentameter, is a sequence of five [60]iambic feet or iambs, each
consisting of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one
("da-DUM") :
So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see,
So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.
da
DUM
da
DUM
da
DUM
da
DUM
da
DUM
This approach to analyzing and classifying meters originates from
[61]ancient Greek tragedians and poets such as [62]Homer, [63]Pindar,
[64]Hesiod, and [65]Sappho.
[[66]edit] Caesurae
Another component of a verse's meter are the [67]caesurae (literally,
cuts), which are pauses inserted between certain syllables of the
verse. In Latin and Greek poetry, a caesura is a break within a foot
caused by the end of a word. In English poetry, a caesura refers to a
break within a line, for example:
Till the Spinner of the Years Said 'Now!' And each one hears, And
consumation comes, and jars two hemispheres.
The caesura would be the 'Now!'
[[68]edit] Metric variations
Poems with a well-defined overall metric pattern often have a few lines
that violate that pattern. A common variation is the inversion of a
foot, which turns an iamb ("da-DUM") into a [69]trochee ("DUM-da").
Another common variation is a headless verse, which lacks the first
syllable of the first foot. Yet a third variation is [70]catalexis,
where the end of a line is shortened by a foot, or two or part thereof
- an example of this is at the end of each verse in Keats' 'La Belle
Dame sans Merci':
'And on thy cheeks a fading rose (4 feet)
Fast withereth too' (2 feet)
[[71]edit] Enumeration
In [72]South Asian and Indian traditions where syllabic scripts are
used metric patterns are enumerated using two symbols, a [73]breve and
a [74]macron (or 'u' and '-'), to represent syllables of one time unit
and two time units respectively. They are named 'Laghu' and 'Guru'. A
meter is defined by specifying the count of time units for each line,
number of lines, position of Laghu and Guru, and sequence of these
symbols in each line..
[[75]edit] Meter in various languages
[[76]edit] Sanskrit
Main article: [77]Sanskrit prosody
Main article: [78]Vedic meter
Classical Sanskrit and Vedic Sanskrit use meters for most ancient
treatises that are set to verse. Prominent Vedic meters include
Gayatri, Ushnik, Anushtupa, Brhati, Pankti, Tristubh and Jagati. The
basic meter for epic verse is the Sloka. Sanskrit meter is
quantitative, similar in general principles to classical Greek and
Latin meter. The [79]Bhagavad Gita is mainly written in anustupa (with
some vasanta-tilaka sections) interspersed with some [80]Tristubh. For
example, when [81]Krishna reveals his divinity to [82]Arjuna the meter
changes to [83]Tristubh. [84]Tristubh is the most prevalent meter of
the ancient [85]Rigveda, accounting for roughly 40% of its verses
[[86]edit] Greek and Latin
The metrical "feet" in the classical languages were based on the length
of time taken to pronounce each syllable, which were categorized
according to their [87]weight as either "long" syllables or "short"
syllables (indicated as daa and duh below). These are also called
"heavy" and "light" syllables, respectively, to distinguish from long
and short vowels. The foot is often compared to a musical measure and
the long and short syllables to whole notes and half notes. In English
poetry, feet are determined by emphasis rather than length, with
stressed and unstressed syllables serving the same function as long and
short syllables in classical meter.
The basic unit in Greek and Latin prosody is a [88]mora, which is
defined as a single short syllable. A long syllable is equivalent to
two moras. A long syllable contains either a long vowel, a
[89]diphthong, or a short vowel followed by two or more consonants.
Various rules of [90]elision sometimes prevent a grammatical syllable
from making a full syllable, and certain other lengthening and
shortening rules (such as [91]correption) can create long or short
syllables in contexts where one would expect the opposite.
The most important Classical meter is the [92]dactylic hexameter, the
meter of Homer and Virgil. This form uses verses of six feet. The first
four feet are [93]dactyls (daa-duh-duh), but can be [94]spondees
(daa-daa). The fifth foot is almost always a dactyl. The sixth foot is
either a spondee or a [95]trochee (daa-duh). The initial syllable of
either foot is called the ictus, the basic "beat" of the verse. There
is usually a [96]caesura after the ictus of the third foot. The opening
line of the [97]Æneid is a typical line of dactylic hexameter:
Arma vi | rumque ca | no, Troi | ae qui | primus ab | oris
("I sing of arms and the man, who first from the shores of
Troy. . . ")
In this example, the first and second feet are dactyls; their first
syllables, "Ar" and "rum" respectively, contain short vowels, but count
as long because the vowels are both followed by two consonants. The
third and fourth feet are spondees, the first of which is divided by
the main [98]caesura of the verse. The fifth foot is a dactyl, as is
nearly always the case. The final foot is a spondee.
The dactylic hexameter was imitated in English by [99]Henry Wadsworth
Longfellow in his poem [100]Evangeline:
This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the
hemlocks,
Bearded with moss, and in garments green, indistinct in the
twilight,
Stand like Druids of old, with voices sad and prophetic,
Stand like harpers hoar, with beards that rest on their bosoms.
Also important in Greek and Latin poetry is the [101]dactylic
pentameter. This was a line of verse, made up of two equal parts, each
of which contains two dactyls followed by a long syllable, which counts
as a half foot. In this way, the number of feet amounts to five in
total. Spondees can take the place of the dactyls in the first half,
but never in the second. The long syllable at the close of the first
half of the verse always ends a word, giving rise to a [102]caesura.
Dactylic pentameter is never used in isolation. Rather, a line of
dactylic pentameter follows a line of dactylic hexameter in the
[103]elegiac [104]distich or [105]elegiac couplet, a form of verse that
was used for the composition of elegies and other [106]tragic and
solemn verse in the Greek and Latin world, as well as love poetry that
was sometimes light and cheerful. An example from [107]Ovid's
[108]Tristia:
Vergili | um vi | di tan | tum, nec a | mara Ti | bullo
Tempus a | miciti | ae || fata de | dere me | ae.
("I saw only Vergil, greedy Fate gave Tibullus no time for
me.")
The Greeks and Romans also used a number of [109]lyric meters, which
were typically used for shorter poems than elegiacs or hexameter. In
[110]Aeolic verse, one important line was called the
[111]hendecasyllabic, a line of eleven syllables. This meter was used
most often in the [112]Sapphic stanza, named after the Greek poet
[113]Sappho, who wrote many of her poems in the form. A hendecasyllabic
is a line with a never-varying structure: two trochees, followed by a
dactyl, then two more trochees. In the Sapphic [114]stanza, three
hendecasyllabics are followed by an "Adonic" line, made up of a dactyl
and a trochee. This is the form of [115]Catullus 51 (itself an homage
to Sappho 31):
Ille | mi par | esse de | o vi | detur;
ille, | si fas | est, supe | rare | divos,
qui se | dens ad | versus i | denti | dem te
spectat et | audit
("He seems to me to be like a god; if it is permitted, he
seems above the gods, he who sitting across from you gazes
at you and listens to you.")
The Sapphic stanza was imitated in [116]English by [117]Algernon
Charles Swinburne in a poem he simply called Sapphics:
Saw the white implacable Aphrodite,
Saw the hair unbound and the feet unsandalled
Shine as fire of sunset on western waters;
Saw the reluctant...
[[118]edit] Classical Arabic
The metrical system of Classical Arabic poetry, like those of classical
Greek and Latin, is based on the weight of syllables classified as
either "long" or "short."
A short syllable contains a short vowel with no following consonants.
For example, the word kataba, which syllabifies as ka-ta-ba, contains
three short vowels. A long syllable contains either a long vowel, or a
short vowel followed by a consonant as is the case in the word maktubun
which syllabifies as mak-tu-bun. These are the only syllable types
possible in Arabic phonology which, by and large, does not allow a
syllable to end in more than one consonant or a consonant to occur in
the same syllable after a long vowel. In other words, with very few
exceptions, syllables of the type -ak- or -akr- are not found in
classical Arabic.
Each verse consists of a certain number of metrical feet (tafa`il or
ajza') and a certain combination of possible feet constitutes a meter
(baHr.)
The traditional Arabic practice for writing out a poem's meter is to
use a concatenation of various derivations of the verbal root F-`-L (
f+e+l+). Thus, the following hemistich
qifa nabki min dhikra Habibin wamanzili
q+f+a+ n+b+k+ m+n+ dkk+r+j+ hkb+y+b+=+ w+m+n+z+l+1+
Would be traditionally scanned as
Fa`ulun mafa`ilun fa`ulun mafa`ilun
f+e+w+l+n+ m+f+a+e+y+l+n+ f+e+w+l+n+ m+f+a+e+l+n+
Which, according to the system more current in the west, can be
represented as:
u-- u--- u-- u-u-
[[119]edit] The Arabic Meters
Classical Arabic has sixteen established metres. Though each of them
allows for a certain amount of variation, their basic patterns are as
follows, using "-" for a long syllable, "u" for a short one, "x" for a
syllable that can be long or short and "o" for a position that can
either contain one long or two shorts:
The T-.awil (a+l+tjw+y+l+):
u-x u-x- u-x u-u-
f+e+w+l+n+ m+f+a+e+y+l+n+ f+e+w+l+n+ m+f+a+e+y+l+n+
The Madid (a+l+m+d+y+d+):
xu-- xu- xu-
f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ f+a+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+n+
The Basit-. (a+l+b+s+y+tj):
x-u- xu- x-u- uu-
m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+n+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+e+l+n+
The Kamil (a+l+k+a+m+l+):
o-u- o-u- o-u-
m+t+f+a+e+l+n+ m+t+f+a+e+l+n+ m+t+f+a+e+l+n+
The Wafir (a+l+w+a+f+r+):
u-o- u-o- u--
m+f+a+e+l+t+n+ m+f+a+e+l+t+n+ f+e+w+l+n+
The Hajaz (a+l+h+g+z+):
u--x u--x
m+f+a+e+y+l+n+ m+f+a+e+y+l+n+
The Rajaz (a+l+r+g+z+):
x-u- x-u- x-u-
m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+
The Ramal (a+l+r+m+l+):
xu-- xu-- xu-
f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ f+a+e+l+n+
The Sari` (a+l+s+r+y+e+):
xxu- xxu- -u-
m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+n+
The MunsariH (a+l+m+n+s+r+hk):
x-u- -x-u -uu-
m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+'+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+
The Khafif (a+l+x+f+y+f+):
xu-- x-u- xu--
f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+n+
The Mud-.ari` (a+l+m+dda+r+e+):
u-x x-u--
m+f+a+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+n+
The Muqtad-.ib (a+l+m+q+t+ddb+):
xu- u- uu-
f+a+e+l+a+t+'+ m+f+t+e+l+n+
The Mujtathth (a+l+m+g+t+tk):
x-u- xu--
m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+n+
The Mutadarik (a+l+m+t+d+a+r+k+):
o- o- o- o- (Here, each "o" can also be "xu")
f+a+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+n+
The Mutaqarib (a+l+m+t+q+a+r+b+):
u-x u-x u-x u-
f+e+w+l+n+ f+e+w+l+n+ f+e+w+l+n+ f+e+w+l+
[[120]edit] Old English
The metric system of [121]Old English poetry was different from that of
modern English, and more related to the verse forms of most of older
[122]Germanic languages. It used [123]alliterative verse, a metrical
pattern involving varied numbers of syllables but a fixed number
(usually four) of strong stresses in each line. The unstressed
syllables were relatively unimportant, but the caesurae played a major
role in [124]Old English poetry.
[[125]edit] Modern English
Most English meter is classified according to the same system as
Classical meter with an important difference. English is an accentual
language, and therefore beats and offbeats (stressed and unstressed
syllables) take the place of the long and short syllables of classical
systems. In most English verse, the meter can be considered as a sort
of back beat, against which natural speech rhythms vary expressively.
The most common characteristic feet of English verse are the [126]iamb
in two syllables and the [127]anapest in three. (See [128]Foot
(prosody) for a complete list of the metrical feet and their names.)
[[129]edit] Metrical systems
The number of metrical systems in English is not agreed upon.^[130][1]
The four major types^[131][2] are: [132]accentual verse,
[133]accentual-syllabic verse, [134]syllabic verse and
[135]quantitative verse. The [136]alliterative verse of Old English
could also be added to this list, or included as a special type of
accentual verse. Accentual verse focuses on the number of stresses in a
line, while ignoring the number of offbeats and syllables;
accentual-syllabic verse focuses on regulating both the number of
stresses and the total number of syllables in a line; syllabic verse
only counts the number of syllables in a line; quantitative verse
regulates the patterns of long and short syllables (this sort of verse
is often considered alien to English).^[137][3] It is to be noted,
however, that the use of foreign meters in English is all but
exceptional.^[138][4]
[[139]edit] Frequently-used meters
The most frequently encountered meter of English verse is the
[140]iambic pentameter, in which the metrical norm is five iambic feet
per line, though metrical substitution is common and rhythmic
variations practically inexhaustible. [141]John Milton's [142]Paradise
Lost, most [143]sonnets, and much else besides in English are written
in iambic pentameter. Lines of unrhymed iambic pentameter are commonly
known as [144]blank verse. Blank verse in the English language is most
famously represented in the plays of [145]William Shakespeare and the
great works of Milton, though [146]Tennyson ([147]Ulysses, [148]The
Princess) and [149]Wordsworth ([150]The Prelude) also make notable use
of it.
A rhymed pair of lines of iambic pentameter make a [151]heroic couplet,
a [152]verse form which was used so often in the eighteenth century
that it is now used mostly for humorous effect (although see [153]Pale
Fire for a non-trivial case). The most famous writers of heroic
couplets are [154]Dryden and [155]Pope.
Another important meter in English is the [156]ballad meter, also
called the "common meter", which is a four line stanza, with two pairs
of a line of [157]iambic tetrameter followed by a line of [158]iambic
trimeter; the [159]rhymes usually fall on the lines of trimeter,
although in many instances the tetrameter also rhymes. This is the
meter of most of the Border and Scots or English ballads. In
[160]hymnody it is called the "common meter", as it is the most common
of the named [161]hymn meters used to pair many hymn lyrics with
melodies, such as [162]Amazing Grace:^[163][5]
Amazing Grace! how sweet the sound
That saved a wretch like me;
I once was lost, but now am found;
Was blind, but now I see.
[164]Emily Dickinson is famous for her frequent use of ballad meter:
Great streets of silence led away
To neighborhoods of pause;
Here was no notice -- no dissent --
No universe -- no laws.
[[165]edit] French
In [166]French poetry, meter is determined solely by the number of
syllables in a line, because it is considered as less important than
rhymes. A silent 'e' counts as a syllable before a consonant, but is
elided before a vowel (where [167]h aspiré counts as a consonant). At
the end of a line, the "e" remains unelided but is hypermetrical
(outside the count of syllables, like a feminine ending in English
verse), in that case, the rhyme is also called "feminine", whereas it
is called "masculine" in the other cases.
The most frequently encountered meter in Classical French poetry is the
[168]alexandrine, composed of two [169]hemistiches of six syllables
each. Two famous alexandrines are
La fille de Minos et de Pasiphaë
([170]Jean Racine)
(the daughter of Minos and Pasiphae), and
Waterloo ! Waterloo ! Waterloo ! Morne plaine!
([171]Victor Hugo)
(Waterloo! Waterloo! Waterloo! Gloomy plain!)
Classical French poetry also had a complex set of [172]rules for rhymes
that goes beyond how words merely sound. These are usually taken into
account when describing the meter of a poem.
[[173]edit] Spanish
In [174]Spanish poetry the meter is determined by the number of
syllables the verse has. Still it is the phonetic accent in the last
word of the verse that decides the final count of the line. If the
accent of the final word is at the last syllable, then the poetic rule
states that one syllable shall be added to the actual count of
syllables in the said line, thus having a higher number of poetic
syllables than the number of grammatical syllables. If the accent lies
on the second to last syllable of the last word in the verse, then the
final count of poetic syllables will be the same as the grammatical
number of syllables. Furthermore, if the accent lies on the third to
last syllable, then one syllable is subtracted from the actual count,
having then less poetic syllables than grammatical syllables.
Interestingly, Spanish poetry uses poetic licenses, unique to Romance
languages, to change the number of syllables by manipulating mainly the
vowels in the line. For example:
Cuando salí de Collores,
fue en una jaquita baya,
por un sendero entre mayas,
arropás de cundiamores...
This stanza from Valle de Collores by [175]Luis Llorens Torres, uses
eight poetic syllables. Given that all words at the end of each line
have their phonetic accent on the second to last syllables, no
syllables in the final count is either added or subtracted. Still in
the second and third verse the grammatical count of syllables is nine.
Poetic licenses permit the union of two vowels that are next to each
other but in different syllables and count them as one. "Fue en..." has
actually two syllables, but applying this license both vowels unite and
form only one, giving the final count of eight syllables. "Sendero
entre..." has five grammatical syllables, but uniting the "o" from
"sendero" and the first "e" from "entre", gives only four syllables,
permitting it to have eight syllables in the verse as well. This
license is called a [176]synalepha (Spanish: [177]sinalefa). There are
many types of licenses, used either to add or subtract syllables, that
may be applied when needed after taking in consideration the poetic
rules of the last word. Yet all have in common that they only
manipulate vowels that are close to each other and not interrupted by
consonants.
Some common meters in Spanish verse are:
* [178]Septenary: A line with the seven poetic syllables
* [179]Octosyllable: A line with eight poetic syllables. This meter
is commonly used in romances, narrative poems similar to English
ballads, and in most proverbs.
* [180]Hendecasyllable: A line with eleven poetic syllables. This
meter plays a similar role to pentameter in English verse. It is
commonly used in sonnets, among other things.
* [181]Alexandrine: A line consisting of twelve syllables.
[[182]edit] Italian
In Italian poetry, meter is determined solely by the position of the
last accent in a line. Syllables are enumerated with respect to a verse
which ends with a paroxytone, so that a Septenary (having seven
syllables) is defined as a verse whose last accent falls on the sixth
syllable: it may so contain eight syllables (Ei fu. Siccome immobile)
or just six (la terra al nunzio sta). Moreover, when a word ends with a
vowel and the next one starts with a vowel, they are considered to be
in the same syllable: so Gli anni e i giorni consists of only four
syllables ("Gli an" "ni e i" "gior" "ni"). Even-syllabic verses have a
fixed stress pattern. Because of the mostly [183]trochaic nature of the
Italian language, verses with an even number of syllables are far
easier to compose, and the [184]Novenary is usually regarded as the
most difficult verse.
Some common meters in Italian verse are:
* Sexenary: A line whose last stressed syllabe is on the fifth, with
a fixed stress on the second one as well (Al Re Travicello /
Piovuto ai ranocchi, Giusti)
* [185]Septenary: A line whose last stressed syllable is the sixth
one.
* [186]Octosyllable: A line whose last accent falls on the seventh
syllable. More often than not, the secondary accents fall on the
first, third and fifth syllable, especially in nursery rhymes for
which this meter is particularly well-suited.
* [187]Hendecasyllable: A line whose last accent falls on the tenth
syllable. It therefore usually consists of eleven syllables; there
are various kinds of possible accentations . It is used in sonnets,
in ottava rima, and in many other works. [188]The Divine Comedy, in
particular, is composed entirely of hendecasyllables, whose main
stress pattern is 4th and 10th syllable.
[[189]edit] Ottoman Turkish
In the [190]Ottoman Turkish language, the structures of the poetic foot
(t+f+e+l+ tef'ile) and of poetic meter (w+z+n+ vezin) were indirectly
borrowed from the [191]Arabic poetic tradition through the medium of
the [192]Persian language.
[193]Ottoman poetry, also known as Dîvân poetry, was generally written
in quantitative, [194]mora-timed meter. The [195]moras, or syllables,
are divided into three basic types:
* Open, or [196]light, syllables (açik hece) consist of either a
short [197]vowel alone, or a [198]consonant followed by a short
vowel
+ Examples: a-dam ("man"); zir-ve ("summit, peak")
* Closed, or heavy, syllables (kapali hece) consist of either a long
vowel alone, a consonant followed by a long vowel, or a short vowel
followed by a consonant
+ Examples: Â-dem ("[199]Adam"); kâ-fir ("non-Muslim"); at
("horse")
* Lengthened, or superheavy, syllables (meddli hece) count as one
closed plus one open syllable and consist of a vowel followed by a
[200]consonant cluster, or a long vowel followed by a consonant
+ Examples: kürk ("fur"); âb ("water")
In writing out a poem's poetic meter, open syllables are symbolized by
"." and closed syllables are symbolized by "-". From the different
syllable types, a total of sixteen different types of poetic foot--the
majority of which are either three or four syllables in length--are
constructed, which are named and scanned as follows:
fa` (-) fe ul (. -) fa` lün (- -) fe i lün (. . -)
fâ i lün (- . -) fe û lün (. - -) mef' û lü (- - .) fe i lâ tün
(. . - -)
fâ i lâ tün (- . - -) fâ i lâ tü (- . - .) me fâ i lün (. - . -)
me fâ' î lün (. - - -)
me fâ î lü (. - - .) müf te i lün (- . . -) müs tef i lün (- - .
-) mü te fâ i lün (. . - . -)
These individual poetic feet are then combined in a number of different
ways, most often with four feet per line, so as to give the poetic
meter for a line of verse. Some of the most commonly used meters are
the following:
* me fâ' î lün / me fâ' î lün / me fâ' î lün / me fâ' î lün
. - - - / . - - - / . - - - / . - - -
Ezelden sah-i `ask-.uñ bende-i fermaniyüz cana
Mah-.abbet mülkinüñ sultan-i `ali-saniyüz cana Oh beloved, since the
origin we have been the slaves of the shah of love
Oh beloved, we are the famed sultan of the heart's domain^[201][6]
--[202]Bâkî (1526-1600)
* me fâ i lün / fe i lâ tün / me fâ i lün / fe i lün
. - . - / . . - - / . - . - / . . -
H-.ata' o nerkis-i sehladadir sözümde degil
Egerçi her süh-.anim bi-bedel begendiremem Though I may fail to please
with my matchless verse
The fault lies in those languid eyes and not my words
--Seyh Gâlib (1757-1799)
* fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lün
- . - - / - . - - / - . - - / - . -
Bir seker h-.and ile bezm-i sevka cam ettiñ beni
Nim s-.un peymaneyi sak-.i tamam ettiñ beni At the gathering of desire
you made me a wine-cup with your sugar smile
Oh saki, give me only half a cup of wine, you've made me drunk
enough^[203][7]
--[204]Nedîm (1681?-1730)
* fe i lâ tün / fe i lâ tün / fe i lâ tün / fe i lün
. . - - / . . - - / . . - - / . . -
Men ne h-.acet ki k-.ilam derd-i dilüm yara `ayan
K-.amu derd-i dilümi yar bilübdür bilübem What use in revealing my
sickness of heart to my love
I know my love knows the whole of my sickness of heart
--[205]Fuzûlî (1483?-1556)
* mef' û lü / me fâ î lü / me fâ î lü / fâ û lün
- - . / . - - . / . - - . / - - .
Sevk-.uz ki dem-i bülbül-i seydada nihanuz
H-.unuz ki dil-i gonçe-i h-.amrada nihanuz We are desire hidden in the
love-crazed call of the nightingale
We are blood hidden in the crimson heart of the unbloomed rose^[206][8]
--[207]Nesâtî (?-1674)
[[208]edit] Brazilian Portuguese
Meters were extensively explored in Brazilian literature, notably
during [209]Parnassianism. The most notable ones were:
* Redondilha menor: composed of 5 syllables.
* Redondilha maior: composed of 7 syllables.
* [210]Decasyllable (decassílabo): composed of 10 syllables. Mostly
used in [211]Parnassian [212]sonnets.
+ Heroic (heróico): stresses on the sixth and tenth syllables.
+ [213]Sapphic (sáfico): stresses on the fourth, eighth and
tenth syllables.
+ Martelo: stresses on the third, sixth and tenth syllables.
+ Gaita galega or moinheira: stresses on the fourth, seventh and
tenth syllables.
* [214]Hendecasyllable (dodecassílabo): composed of 12 syllables.
+ [215]Alexandrine (alexandrino): divided into two
[216]hemistiches.
* Barbarian (bárbaro): composed of 13 or more syllables.
+ Lucasian (lucasiano): composed of 16 feet, divided into two
[217]hemistiches of 8 syllables each.
[[218]edit] History
Further information: [219]History of poetry
Metrical texts are first attested in early [220]Indo-European
languages. The earliest known unambiguously metrical texts, and at the
same time the only metrical texts with a claim of dating to the
[221]Late Bronze Age, are the hymns of the [222]Rigveda. That the texts
of the [223]Ancient Near East (Sumerian, Egyptian or Semitic) should
not exhibit meter is surprising, and may be partly due to the nature of
[224]Bronze Age writing. There were, in fact, attempts to reconstruct
metrical qualities of the poetic portions of the [225]Hebrew Bible,
e.g. by [226]Gustav Bickell^[227][9] or [228]Julius Ley^[229][10], but
they remained inconclusive^[230][11] (see [231]Biblical poetry). Early
Iron Age metrical poetry is found in the Iranian [232]Avesta and in the
Greek works attributed to [233]Homer and [234]Hesiod.
[235]Latin verse survives from the [236]Old Latin period (ca. 2nd c.
BC), in the [237]Saturnian meter. [238]Persian poetry arises in the
[239]Sassanid era. [240]Tamil poetry of the early centuries AD may be
the earliest known non-Indo-European metrical texts (with the possible
exception of the Chinese [241]Shi Jing). The oldest surviving fragment
of [242]Germanic poetry is the verse on one of the [243]Gallehus horns
(ca. AD 400). [244]Irish and [245]Arabic poetry both have early records
dating from about the 6th century.
[246]Medieval poetry was metrical without exception, spanning
traditions as diverse as European [247]Minnesang, [248]Trouvère or
[249]Bardic poetry, Classical [250]Persian and [251]Sanskrit poetry,
[252]Tang dynasty [253]Chinese poetry or the [254]Japanese [255]Heian
period [256]Man'yoshu. Renaissance and Early Modern poetry in Europe is
characterized by a return to templates of Classical Antiquity, a
tradition begun by [257]Petrarca's generation and continued into the
time of [258]Shakespeare and [259]Milton.
[[260]edit] Dissent
Not all poets accept the idea that meter is a fundamental part of
poetry. Twentieth century [261]American poets [262]Marianne Moore,
[263]William Carlos Williams, and [264]Robinson Jeffers, were poets who
believed that meter was imposed into poetry by man, not a fundamental
part of its nature. In an essay titled "Robinson Jeffers, & The Metric
Fallacy" [265]Dan Schneider echoes Jeffers' sentiments: "What if
someone actually said to you that all music was composed of just 2
notes? Or if someone claimed that there were just 2 colors in creation?
Now, ponder if such a thing were true. Imagine the clunkiness &
mechanicality of such music. Think of the visual arts devoid of not
just color, but sepia tones, & even shades of gray." Jeffers called his
technique "rolling stresses".
Moore went even further than Jeffers, openly declaring her poetry was
written in syllabic form, and wholly denying meter. These syllabic
lines from her famous poem [266]"Poetry" illustrate her contempt for
meter, and other poetic tools (even the syllabic pattern of this poem
does not remain perfectly consistent):
nor is it valid
to discriminate against "business
documents and
school-books": all these phenomena are important. One must
make a distinction
however: when dragged into prominence by
half poets, the result is not poetry
Williams tried to form poetry whose subject matter was centered on the
lives of common people. He came up with the concept of the
[267]variable foot. Williams spurned traditional meter in most of his
poems, preferring what he called "colloquial idioms." Another poet that
turned his back on traditional concepts of meter was Britain's
[268]Gerard Manley Hopkins. Hopkins' major innovation was what he
called [269]sprung rhythm. He claimed most poetry was written in this
older rhythmic structure inherited from the Norman side of the English
literary heritage, based on repeating groups of two or three syllables,
with the stressed syllable falling in the same place on each
repetition. Sprung rhythm is structured around feet with a variable
number of syllables, generally between one and four syllables per foot,
with the stress always falling on the first syllable in a foot.
[[270]edit] Notes
1. [271]^ For example, [272]Robert Wallace, in his 1993 essay
'[273]Meter in English (essay)' asserts that there is only one
meter in English: Accentual-Syllabic. The essay is reprinted in
[274]David Baker (editor), [275]Meter in English, A Critical
Engagement, University of Arkansas Press, 1996. [276]ISBN
1-55728-444-X.
2. [277]^ see for example, [278]Paul Fussell, [279]Poetic Meter and
Poetic Form, McGraw Hill, 1965, revised 1979. [280]ISBN
0-07-553606-4.
3. [281]^ [282]Charles O. Hartman writes that quantitative meters
"continue to resist importation in English" ([283]Free Verse: An
Essay on Prosody, Northwestern University Press, 1980. [284]ISBN
0-8101-1316-3, page 34).
4. [285]^ According to [286]Leonardo Malcovati (Prosody in England and
Elsewhere: A Comparative Approach, Gival Press, 2006. [287]ISBN
1-928589-26-X), '[very] little of it is native'.
5. [288]^ The [289]ballad meter commonality among a wide range of song
lyrics allow words and music to be interchanged seamlessly between
various songs, such as [290]Amazing Grace, the Ballad of
[291]Gilligan's Isle, [292]House of the Rising Sun, theme from the
[293]Mickey Mouse Club, and others.
6. [294]^ Andrews, Walter G. Ottoman Lyric Poetry: An Anthology.
[295]ISBN 0-292-70472-0. p. 93.
7. [296]^ Ibid. p. 134.
8. [297]^ Ibid. p. 131.
9. [298]^ "Metrices biblicae regulae exemplis illustratae", 1879,
"Carmina Vet. Test. metrice", 1882
10. [299]^ "Leitfaden der Metrik der hebräischen Poesie", 1887
11. [300]^ the [301]Catholic Encyclopedia s.v. Hebrew Poetry of the Old
Testament calls them 'Procrustean'.
[[302]edit] See also
* [303]Foot (prosody)
* [304]Meter (music)
* [305]List of classical meters.
[307]Categories: [308]Poetic devices | [309]Prosody
Hidden categories: [310]Articles needing additional references from
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Rhythm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search
For other uses, see [8]Rhythm (disambiguation).
Rhythm (from [9]greek rhuthµo'*s - rhythmos, "any measured flow or
movement, symmetry") is the variation of the length and accentuation of
a series of sounds or other events.
Contents
* [10]1 Rhythm in linguistics
* [11]2 Origins of human appreciation of rhythm
* [12]3 Rhythm notation and the oral tradition
+ [13]3.1 African music
+ [14]3.2 Indian music
+ [15]3.3 Western music
* [16]4 Types
* [17]5 See also
* [18]6 Notes
* [19]7 Sources
* [20]8 Further reading
[[21]edit] Rhythm in linguistics
The study of rhythm, stress, and [22]pitch in [23]speech is called
[24]prosody; it is a topic in [25]linguistics. Narmour (1980,
p. 147-53) describes three categories of prosodic rules which create
rhythmic successions which are additive (same duration repeated),
cumulative (short-long), or countercumulative (long-short). Cumulation
is associated with closure or relaxation, countercumulation with
openness or tension, while additive rhythms are open-ended and
repetitive. Richard Middleton points out this method cannot account for
[26]syncopation and suggests the concept of [27]transformation.
A [28]rhythmic unit is a [29]durational pattern which occupies a period
of time equivalent to a [30]pulse or pulses on an underlying [31]metric
level, as opposed to a [32]rhythmic gesture which does not (DeLone et
al. (Eds.), 1975
[[33]edit] Origins of human appreciation of rhythm
In his series How Music Works, [34]Howard Goodall presents theories
that rhythm recalls how we walk and the heartbeat we heard in the womb.
More likely is that a simple pulse or [35]di-dah beat recalls the
footsteps of another person. Our sympathetic urge to dance is designed
to boost our energy levels in order to cope with someone, or some
animal chasing us - a fight or flight response. From a less darwinist
perspective, perceiving rhythm is the ability to master the otherwise
invisible dimension, time. Rhythm is possibly also rooted in courtship
ritual.^[36][1]
Neurologist [37]Oliver Sacks posits that human affinity for rhythm is
fundamental, so much that a person's sense of rhythm cannot be lost in
the way that music and language can (e.g. by [38]stroke). In addition,
he states that [39]chimpanzees and other animals show no similar
appreciation for rhythm.^[40][2]
[[41]edit] Rhythm notation and the oral tradition
Worldwide there are many different approaches to passing on rhythmic
phrases and patterns, as they exist in traditional music, from
generation to generation.
[[42]edit] African music
In the [43]Griot tradition of Africa everything related to music has
been passed on orally. [44]Babatunde Olatunji (1927-2003), a Nigerian
drummer who lived and worked in the [45]United States, developed a
simple series of spoken sounds for teaching the rhythms of the hand
drum. He used six vocal sounds: Goon Doon Go Do Pa Ta. There are three
basic sounds on the drum, but each can be played with either the left
or the right hand. This simple system is now used worldwide,
particularly by [46]Djembe players.
[[47]edit] Indian music
Indian music has also been passed on orally. Tabla players would learn
to speak complex rhythm patterns and phrases before attempting to play
them. [48]Sheila Chandra, an English pop singer of Indian descent, made
performances based around her singing these patterns. In [49]Indian
Classical music, the [50]Tala of a composition is the rhythmic pattern
over which the whole piece is structured.
[[51]edit] Western music
Standard [52]music notation contains rhythmic information and is
adapted specifically for drums and percussion instruments. The drums
are generally used to keep other instruments in 'time'. They do this by
supplying beats/strikes in time at a certain pace, i.e. 70 beats per
minute (bpm). In [53]Rock music, a drum beat is used to keep a
[54]bass/[55]guitar line in time.
[[56]edit] Types
In [57]Western music, rhythms are usually arranged with respect to a
[58]time signature, partially signifying a meter. The speed of the
underlying [59]pulse is sometimes called the [60]beat. The [61]tempo is
a measure of how quickly the pulse repeats. The tempo is usually
measured in 'beats per minute' (bpm); 60 bpm means a speed of one beat
per second. The length of the meter, or metric unit (usually
corresponding with [62]measure length), is usually grouped into either
two or three beats, being called [63]duple meter and [64]triple meter,
respectively. If each beat is divided by two or four, it is [65]simple
meter, if by three (or six) [66]compound meter. According to [67]Pierre
Boulez, beat structures beyond four are "simply not natural".^[68][3].
His reference is to western European music.
Standard notation of a clave pattern on audio clip clave pattern.ogg
[69]Syncopated rhythms are rhythms that accent parts of the beat not
already stressed by [70]counting. Playing simultaneous rhythms in more
than one time signature is called [71]polymeter. See also
[72]polyrhythm. In recent years, rhythm and meter have become an
important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these
areas includes books by [73]Maury Yeston, [74]Fred Lerdahl and [75]Ray
Jackendoff, [76]Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty, William Rothstein,
and Joel Lester.
Grid notation of single a clave pattern
Some [77]genres of music make different use of rhythm than others. Most
Western music is based on [78]subdivision, while non-Western music uses
more [79]additive rhythm. [80]African music makes heavy use of
[81]polyrhythms, and [82]Indian music uses [83]complex cycles such as 7
and 13, while [84]Balinese music often uses complex [85]interlocking
rhythms. By comparison, a lot of Western [86]classical music is fairly
rhythmically (or metrically) simple; it stays in a [87]simple meter
such as 4/4 or 3/4 and makes little use of [88]syncopation.
[89]Clave is a common underlying rhythm in [90]African, [91]Cuban
music, and [92]Brazilian music.
[93]Claves
(Submit) Play sound
Four beats followed by three Clave patterns
__________________________________________________________________
Problems listening to this file? See [94]media help.
In the 20th century, [95]composers like [96]Igor Stravinsky, [97]Bela
Bartok, [98]Philip Glass, and [99]Steve Reich wrote more rhythmically
complex music using [100]odd meters, and techniques such as
[101]phasing and [102]additive rhythm. At the same time, modernists
such as [103]Olivier Messiaen and his pupils used increased complexity
to disrupt the sense of a regular beat, leading eventually to the
widespread use of [104]irrational rhythms in [105]New Complexity. This
use may be explained by a comment of [106]John Cage's^[[107]where?]
where he notes that regular rhythms cause sounds to be heard as a group
rather than individually; the irregular rhythms highlight the rapidly
changing pitch relationships that would otherwise be subsumed into
irrelevant rhythmic groupings (Sandow 2004, p. 257). [108]LaMonte Young
also wrote music in which the sense of a regular beat is absent because
the music consists only of long sustained tones ([109]drones). In the
1930s, [110]Henry Cowell wrote music involving multiple simultaneous
periodic rhythms and collaborated with [111]Léon Thérémin to invent the
[112]Rhythmicon, the first electronic [113]rhythm machine, in order to
perform them. Similarly, [114]Conlon Nancarrow wrote for the
[115]player piano.
[[116]edit] See also
* [117]Meter (music)
* [118]Prosody (linguistics)
* [119]Riddim
* [120]Morse Code
* [121]Soul (music)
* [122]Time scale (music)
* [123]Timing (linguistics)
[[124]edit] Notes
1. [125]^ [126]Mithen, Steven (2005). [127]The Singing Neanderthals:
The Origins of Music, Language, Mind and Body.. London: Weidenfeld
& Nicolson.. [128]ISBN [129]0297643177.
2. [131]^ [132]Jon Stewart, [133]Oliver Sacks. (2009-06-29). [134]The
Daily Show with Jon Stewart. [Television production]. Comedy
Central.
itle=oliver-sacks. "People often tried to teach their dogs to
dance--it doesn't work."
3. [136]^ In [137]Discovering Music: Rhythm with [138]Leonard Slatkin
at 5:05
[[139]edit] Sources
* Hasty, Christopher (1997). Meter as Rhythm. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. [140]ISBN 0-19-510066-2.
* London, Justin (2004). Hearing in Time: Psychological Aspects of
Musical Meter. [141]ISBN 0-19-516081-9.
* Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music.
Philadelphia: Open University Press. [142]ISBN 0-335-15275-9.
* Narmour (1980). Cited in DeLone et al. (Eds.) (1975). Aspects of
Twentieth-Century Music. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall. [143]ISBN 0-13-049346-5.
* Sandow, Greg (2004). "A Fine Madness", The Pleasure of Modernist
Music. [144]ISBN 1-58046-143-3.
* Yeston, Maury (1976). "The Stratification of Musical Rhythm".
[[145]edit] Further reading
* McGaughey, William (2001). "Rhythm and Self-Consciousness: New
Ideals for an Electronic Civilization". Minneapolis: Thistlerose
Publications. [146]ISBN 0-9605630-4-0.
* Honing, H. (2002). [147]"Structure and interpretation of rhythm and
timing." Tijdschrift voor Muziektheorie [Dutch Journal of Music
Theory] 7(3): 227-232.
* Lewis, Andrew (2005). Rhythm--What it is and How to Improve Your
Sense of It. San Francisco: [148]RhythmSource Press. [149]ISBN
978-0-9754667-0-4.
* Williams, C. F. A., The Aristoxenian Theory of Musical Rhythm,
(Cambridge Library Collection - Music), Cambridge University Press;
1st edition, 2009.
* Toussaint, G. T., "The geometry of musical rhythm," In J. Akiyama,
M. Kano, and X. Tan, editors, Proceedings of the Japan Conference
on Discrete and Computational Geometry, Vol. 3742, Lecture Notes in
Computer Science, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2005, pp. 198-212.
[150]v o [151]d o [152]e
[153]Musical notation and [154]development
[155]Staff
[156]Bar & Bar line · [157]Clef · [158]Da capo · [159]Dal segno ·
[160]Key signature · [161]Ledger line · [162]Musical mode ·
[163]Musical scale · [164]Rehearsal letter · [165]Repeat sign ·
[166]Time signature · [167]Transposition · [168]Transposing instrument
[169]G (treble) clef symbol
[170]Notes
[171]Accidental ([172]Flat · [173]Natural · [174]Sharp) · [175]Dotted
note · [176]Grace note · [177]Note value ([178]Beam · [179]Note head ·
[180]Stem) · [181]Pitch · [182]Rest · [183]Interval · [184]Letter
notation
[185]Articulation
[186]Dynamics · [187]Ornament ([188]Trill · [189]Mordent · [190]Grace
note) · [191]Ossia · [192]Portato · [193]Accent · [194]Legato ·
[195]Tenuto · [196]Marcato · [197]Staccato · [198]Staccatissimo ·
[199]Tie · [200]Slur · [201]Fermata
[202]Development
[203]Coda · [204]Exposition · [205]Harmony · [206]Melody · [207]Motif ·
[208]Recapitulation · Rhythm ([209]Beat · [210]Meter · [211]Tempo) ·
[212]Theme · [213]Tonality · [214]Atonality
Related
[215]Chord chart · [216]Figured bass · [217]Graphic notation ·
[218]Lead sheet · [219]Eye music · [220]Modern musical symbols ·
[221]Neume · [222]Tablature
[224]Categories: [225]Rhythm | [226]Greek loanwords
Hidden categories: [227]Vague or ambiguous geographic scope
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Rhythm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search
For other uses, see [8]Rhythm (disambiguation).
Rhythm (from [9]greek rhuthµo'*s - rhythmos, "any measured flow or
movement, symmetry") is the variation of the length and accentuation of
a series of sounds or other events.
Contents
* [10]1 Rhythm in linguistics
* [11]2 Origins of human appreciation of rhythm
* [12]3 Rhythm notation and the oral tradition
+ [13]3.1 African music
+ [14]3.2 Indian music
+ [15]3.3 Western music
* [16]4 Types
* [17]5 See also
* [18]6 Notes
* [19]7 Sources
* [20]8 Further reading
[[21]edit] Rhythm in linguistics
The study of rhythm, stress, and [22]pitch in [23]speech is called
[24]prosody; it is a topic in [25]linguistics. Narmour (1980,
p. 147-53) describes three categories of prosodic rules which create
rhythmic successions which are additive (same duration repeated),
cumulative (short-long), or countercumulative (long-short). Cumulation
is associated with closure or relaxation, countercumulation with
openness or tension, while additive rhythms are open-ended and
repetitive. Richard Middleton points out this method cannot account for
[26]syncopation and suggests the concept of [27]transformation.
A [28]rhythmic unit is a [29]durational pattern which occupies a period
of time equivalent to a [30]pulse or pulses on an underlying [31]metric
level, as opposed to a [32]rhythmic gesture which does not (DeLone et
al. (Eds.), 1975
[[33]edit] Origins of human appreciation of rhythm
In his series How Music Works, [34]Howard Goodall presents theories
that rhythm recalls how we walk and the heartbeat we heard in the womb.
More likely is that a simple pulse or [35]di-dah beat recalls the
footsteps of another person. Our sympathetic urge to dance is designed
to boost our energy levels in order to cope with someone, or some
animal chasing us - a fight or flight response. From a less darwinist
perspective, perceiving rhythm is the ability to master the otherwise
invisible dimension, time. Rhythm is possibly also rooted in courtship
ritual.^[36][1]
Neurologist [37]Oliver Sacks posits that human affinity for rhythm is
fundamental, so much that a person's sense of rhythm cannot be lost in
the way that music and language can (e.g. by [38]stroke). In addition,
he states that [39]chimpanzees and other animals show no similar
appreciation for rhythm.^[40][2]
[[41]edit] Rhythm notation and the oral tradition
Worldwide there are many different approaches to passing on rhythmic
phrases and patterns, as they exist in traditional music, from
generation to generation.
[[42]edit] African music
In the [43]Griot tradition of Africa everything related to music has
been passed on orally. [44]Babatunde Olatunji (1927-2003), a Nigerian
drummer who lived and worked in the [45]United States, developed a
simple series of spoken sounds for teaching the rhythms of the hand
drum. He used six vocal sounds: Goon Doon Go Do Pa Ta. There are three
basic sounds on the drum, but each can be played with either the left
or the right hand. This simple system is now used worldwide,
particularly by [46]Djembe players.
[[47]edit] Indian music
Indian music has also been passed on orally. Tabla players would learn
to speak complex rhythm patterns and phrases before attempting to play
them. [48]Sheila Chandra, an English pop singer of Indian descent, made
performances based around her singing these patterns. In [49]Indian
Classical music, the [50]Tala of a composition is the rhythmic pattern
over which the whole piece is structured.
[[51]edit] Western music
Standard [52]music notation contains rhythmic information and is
adapted specifically for drums and percussion instruments. The drums
are generally used to keep other instruments in 'time'. They do this by
supplying beats/strikes in time at a certain pace, i.e. 70 beats per
minute (bpm). In [53]Rock music, a drum beat is used to keep a
[54]bass/[55]guitar line in time.
[[56]edit] Types
In [57]Western music, rhythms are usually arranged with respect to a
[58]time signature, partially signifying a meter. The speed of the
underlying [59]pulse is sometimes called the [60]beat. The [61]tempo is
a measure of how quickly the pulse repeats. The tempo is usually
measured in 'beats per minute' (bpm); 60 bpm means a speed of one beat
per second. The length of the meter, or metric unit (usually
corresponding with [62]measure length), is usually grouped into either
two or three beats, being called [63]duple meter and [64]triple meter,
respectively. If each beat is divided by two or four, it is [65]simple
meter, if by three (or six) [66]compound meter. According to [67]Pierre
Boulez, beat structures beyond four are "simply not natural".^[68][3].
His reference is to western European music.
Standard notation of a clave pattern on audio clip clave pattern.ogg
[69]Syncopated rhythms are rhythms that accent parts of the beat not
already stressed by [70]counting. Playing simultaneous rhythms in more
than one time signature is called [71]polymeter. See also
[72]polyrhythm. In recent years, rhythm and meter have become an
important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these
areas includes books by [73]Maury Yeston, [74]Fred Lerdahl and [75]Ray
Jackendoff, [76]Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty, William Rothstein,
and Joel Lester.
Grid notation of single a clave pattern
Some [77]genres of music make different use of rhythm than others. Most
Western music is based on [78]subdivision, while non-Western music uses
more [79]additive rhythm. [80]African music makes heavy use of
[81]polyrhythms, and [82]Indian music uses [83]complex cycles such as 7
and 13, while [84]Balinese music often uses complex [85]interlocking
rhythms. By comparison, a lot of Western [86]classical music is fairly
rhythmically (or metrically) simple; it stays in a [87]simple meter
such as 4/4 or 3/4 and makes little use of [88]syncopation.
[89]Clave is a common underlying rhythm in [90]African, [91]Cuban
music, and [92]Brazilian music.
[93]Claves
(Submit) Play sound
Four beats followed by three Clave patterns
__________________________________________________________________
Problems listening to this file? See [94]media help.
In the 20th century, [95]composers like [96]Igor Stravinsky, [97]Bela
Bartok, [98]Philip Glass, and [99]Steve Reich wrote more rhythmically
complex music using [100]odd meters, and techniques such as
[101]phasing and [102]additive rhythm. At the same time, modernists
such as [103]Olivier Messiaen and his pupils used increased complexity
to disrupt the sense of a regular beat, leading eventually to the
widespread use of [104]irrational rhythms in [105]New Complexity. This
use may be explained by a comment of [106]John Cage's^[[107]where?]
where he notes that regular rhythms cause sounds to be heard as a group
rather than individually; the irregular rhythms highlight the rapidly
changing pitch relationships that would otherwise be subsumed into
irrelevant rhythmic groupings (Sandow 2004, p. 257). [108]LaMonte Young
also wrote music in which the sense of a regular beat is absent because
the music consists only of long sustained tones ([109]drones). In the
1930s, [110]Henry Cowell wrote music involving multiple simultaneous
periodic rhythms and collaborated with [111]Léon Thérémin to invent the
[112]Rhythmicon, the first electronic [113]rhythm machine, in order to
perform them. Similarly, [114]Conlon Nancarrow wrote for the
[115]player piano.
[[116]edit] See also
* [117]Meter (music)
* [118]Prosody (linguistics)
* [119]Riddim
* [120]Morse Code
* [121]Soul (music)
* [122]Time scale (music)
* [123]Timing (linguistics)
[[124]edit] Notes
1. [125]^ [126]Mithen, Steven (2005). [127]The Singing Neanderthals:
The Origins of Music, Language, Mind and Body.. London: Weidenfeld
& Nicolson.. [128]ISBN [129]0297643177.
2. [131]^ [132]Jon Stewart, [133]Oliver Sacks. (2009-06-29). [134]The
Daily Show with Jon Stewart. [Television production]. Comedy
Central.
itle=oliver-sacks. "People often tried to teach their dogs to
dance--it doesn't work."
3. [136]^ In [137]Discovering Music: Rhythm with [138]Leonard Slatkin
at 5:05
[[139]edit] Sources
* Hasty, Christopher (1997). Meter as Rhythm. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. [140]ISBN 0-19-510066-2.
* London, Justin (2004). Hearing in Time: Psychological Aspects of
Musical Meter. [141]ISBN 0-19-516081-9.
* Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music.
Philadelphia: Open University Press. [142]ISBN 0-335-15275-9.
* Narmour (1980). Cited in DeLone et al. (Eds.) (1975). Aspects of
Twentieth-Century Music. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall. [143]ISBN 0-13-049346-5.
* Sandow, Greg (2004). "A Fine Madness", The Pleasure of Modernist
Music. [144]ISBN 1-58046-143-3.
* Yeston, Maury (1976). "The Stratification of Musical Rhythm".
[[145]edit] Further reading
* McGaughey, William (2001). "Rhythm and Self-Consciousness: New
Ideals for an Electronic Civilization". Minneapolis: Thistlerose
Publications. [146]ISBN 0-9605630-4-0.
* Honing, H. (2002). [147]"Structure and interpretation of rhythm and
timing." Tijdschrift voor Muziektheorie [Dutch Journal of Music
Theory] 7(3): 227-232.
* Lewis, Andrew (2005). Rhythm--What it is and How to Improve Your
Sense of It. San Francisco: [148]RhythmSource Press. [149]ISBN
978-0-9754667-0-4.
* Williams, C. F. A., The Aristoxenian Theory of Musical Rhythm,
(Cambridge Library Collection - Music), Cambridge University Press;
1st edition, 2009.
* Toussaint, G. T., "The geometry of musical rhythm," In J. Akiyama,
M. Kano, and X. Tan, editors, Proceedings of the Japan Conference
on Discrete and Computational Geometry, Vol. 3742, Lecture Notes in
Computer Science, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2005, pp. 198-212.
[150]v o [151]d o [152]e
[153]Musical notation and [154]development
[155]Staff
[156]Bar & Bar line · [157]Clef · [158]Da capo · [159]Dal segno ·
[160]Key signature · [161]Ledger line · [162]Musical mode ·
[163]Musical scale · [164]Rehearsal letter · [165]Repeat sign ·
[166]Time signature · [167]Transposition · [168]Transposing instrument
[169]G (treble) clef symbol
[170]Notes
[171]Accidental ([172]Flat · [173]Natural · [174]Sharp) · [175]Dotted
note · [176]Grace note · [177]Note value ([178]Beam · [179]Note head ·
[180]Stem) · [181]Pitch · [182]Rest · [183]Interval · [184]Letter
notation
[185]Articulation
[186]Dynamics · [187]Ornament ([188]Trill · [189]Mordent · [190]Grace
note) · [191]Ossia · [192]Portato · [193]Accent · [194]Legato ·
[195]Tenuto · [196]Marcato · [197]Staccato · [198]Staccatissimo ·
[199]Tie · [200]Slur · [201]Fermata
[202]Development
[203]Coda · [204]Exposition · [205]Harmony · [206]Melody · [207]Motif ·
[208]Recapitulation · Rhythm ([209]Beat · [210]Meter · [211]Tempo) ·
[212]Theme · [213]Tonality · [214]Atonality
Related
[215]Chord chart · [216]Figured bass · [217]Graphic notation ·
[218]Lead sheet · [219]Eye music · [220]Modern musical symbols ·
[221]Neume · [222]Tablature
[224]Categories: [225]Rhythm | [226]Greek loanwords
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[1]Daniel Laberge music
Rhythm explained
including
27 rhythm exercises
by Daniel Laberge
Rhythm figure
Hi rhythm lovers,
I've devised these exercises in the early seventies while teaching
music.
I could not find any existing book that saw rhythm the way I did.
This method is based on "rhythmic figures" or rhythm possibilities.
Each one lasts one beat.
I simply counted the rhythmic possibilities one could encounter for
each type of beat divisions.
There are:
o Four rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by two
o Eight rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by three
o Sixteen rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by four
I composed the exercises back then and used them for my teaching, but I
only wrote the theory that goes along in 2002.
The book is called "Rhythm explained" and I am gradually placing its
content here.
Each exercise is preceded by a lesson, with graphic representations,
and includes an audio rendition to help you.
You can choose between three speeds.
For jazz musicians, the binary exercises also have a swing or double
swing performance. Go to the bottom of the page for a link to the swing
version.
Choose among the following exercises:
Beat exercises
[2]Rhythm exercise 1-1
Featured figures
[3][onequarternote1.gif] [4] [onehalfnote1.gif] [5]
[dottedhalfnote1.gif] [6] [wholenote1.gif]
[7]Rhythm exercise 1-2
Featured figures
[8][quarternoterest1.gif] [9] [halfnoterest1.gif] [10]
[wholenoterest1.gif]
[11]Rhythm exercise 1-3
Featured figures
[12][quarternoterest1.gif] [13] [halfnoterest1.gif] [14]
[dottedhalfnoterest1.gif] [15] [wholenoterest1.gif]
Binary beat division
The binary family is large as it includes:
o Division by two
o Division by four
o Part of division by six
o Division by eight
This section is concerned with the simple division by two.
Any binary beat has two alternating parts: the downbeat and the upbeat.
Binary beat
[binarybeat1.gif]
As you can see, there are only two places in a beat
where events or notes can be positioned or played:
o The downbeat
o The upbeat
How
rhythmic
possibilities
work
This means that for any given beat you can have
any of the four following possibilities:
1 o Only one event on the downbeat.
2 o Events on both the downbeat and the upbeat.
3 o No event at all.
4 o Only one event on the upbeat.
[possibilitiesbytwosimple1.gif]
The rhythmic figure used to represent a binary beat is called:
TWO EIGHTH NOTES
[masterfigurebinary1.gif]
Binary
master
rhythmic
figure
Simple binary rhythmic figures
4 possibilities:
o 2 Primary
o 2 Secondary
[possibilitiesbytwo1.gif]
Secondary rhythmic figures lack the event that falls on the beat.
There is a secondary figure for each primary one.
Because the beat is so important, secondary figures have appeared after
the primary ones had been well established.
The absence of event falling on the beat can be due to a silence or a
sound that is held over from the preceding beat.
Because of this, there are two ways to notate secondary figures:
o With a rest
o With a tie
[primarysecondary1.gif]
Primary
and
secondary
rhythmic
figures
Choose among the following exercises:
Binary exercises
PRIMARY
[16]Rhythm exercise 2-1
Featured figure
[17][twoeighthnotes2.gif]
[18]Rhythm exercise 2-2
Featured figures
[19][twoeighthnotes2.gif] [20] [quarternoterest2.gif]
SECONDARY
[21]Rhythm exercise 2-3
Featured figure
[22][dottedquarternoteeighth2.gif]
[23]Rhythm exercise 2-4
Featured figure
[24][eighthnotesyncopationa2.gif]
[25]Rhythm exercise 2-5
Featured figure
[26][twoeighttieonequarter2.gif]
MULTIPLE SYNCOPATIONS
[27]Rhythm exercise 2-6
Featured figure
[28][doublesyncopationa2.gif]
Ternary beat division
The ternary family is small as it includes:
o Division by three
o Part of division by six
Everything goes in thirds in ternary music.
Any ternary beat has one downbeat and two upbeats.
Ternary beat
[ternarybeat1.gif]
The rhythmic figure used to represent a ternary beat is called:
THREE EIGHTH NOTES
[masterfigureternary1.gif]
Ternary
master
rhythmic
figure
Writing
ternary
rhythm
In ternary music writing, each eighth note is worth one third of a
beat.
Since two eighth notes always equal one quarter note, these now equal
two thirds of a beat.
It takes a dotted quarter note to represent one beat.
[ternarywriting1.gif]
Ternary rhythmic figures
8 possibilities:
o 4 Primary
o 4 Secondary
[possibilitiesbythree1.gif]
Choose among the following exercises:
Ternary exercises
PRIMARY
[29]Rhythm exercise 3-1
Featured figure
[30][threeeighth2.gif]
[31]Rhythm exercise 3-2
Featured figure
[32][onequarteroneeighth2.gif]
[33]Rhythm exercise 3-3
Featured figure
[34][oneeighthonequarter2.gif]
SECONDARY
[35]Rhythm exercise 3-1s
Featured figure
[36][8threst2eighth2.gif] OR [37] [tie3eighth2.gif]
[38]Rhythm exercise 3-2s
Featured figure
[39][quarternoterestoneeighth2.gif] OR [40]
[tiequarternote1eighth.gif]
[41]Rhythm exercise 3-3s
Featured figure
[42][8threst1quarternote2.gif] OR [43] [tie1eighth1quarter2.gif]
Division by four
Beats divided by four are part of the binary family.
Everything goes in quarters in this feel.
Beat
divided
by
four
[binarybeat2.gif]
The rhythmic figure used to represent a beat divided by four
is called:
FOUR SIXTEENTH NOTES
[masterfigurebyfour1.gif]
Division
by four
master
rhythmic
figure
Binary rhythmic figures
16 possibilities:
o 8 Primary
o 8 Secondary
[possibilitiesbyfour1.gif]
Choose among the following exercises:
Division by four exercises
PRIMARY
[44]Rhythm exercise 4-1
Featured figure
[45][foursixteenth2.gif]
[46]Rhythm exercise 4-2
Featured figure
[47][oneeighthtwosixteenth2.gif]
[48]Rhythm exercise 4-3
Featured figure
[49][twosixteenthoneeighth2.gif]
[50]Rhythm exercise 4-4
Featured figure
[51][dottedeighthonesixteenth2.gif]
[52]Rhythm exercise 4-5
Featured figure
[53][onesixteenthdottedeighth2.gif]
[54]Rhythm exercise 4-6
Featured figure
[55][16th8th16th2.gif]
SECONDARY
[56]Rhythm exercise 4-1s
Featured figure
[57][16threst3sixteenth2.gif] OR [58] [tiefoursixteenth2.gif]
[59]Rhythm exercise 4-2s
Featured figure
[60][8threst2sixteenth2.gif] OR [61] [tie1eighth2sixteenth2.gif]
[62]Rhythm exercise 4-3s
Featured figure
[63][16threst1sixteenth1eighth2.gif] OR [64]
[tie2sixteenth1eighth2.gif]
[65]Rhythm exercise 4-4s
Featured figure
[66][dotted8threst1sixteenth2.gif] OR [67]
[tiedottereight1sixteenth2.gif]
[68]Rhythm exercise 4-5s
Featured figure
[69][16threstdotted8th.gif] OR [70] [tie16thdotted8th2.gif]
[71]Rhythm exercise 4-6s
Featured figure
[72][16threst1eighth1sixteenth2.gif] OR [73]
[tieone16thone8thone16th2.gif]
[74]Bugs, problems
and comments [75]Daniel Laberge music
Références
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Rhythm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search
For other uses, see [8]Rhythm (disambiguation).
Rhythm (from [9]greek rhuthµo'*s - rhythmos, "any measured flow or
movement, symmetry") is the variation of the length and accentuation of
a series of sounds or other events.
Contents
* [10]1 Rhythm in linguistics
* [11]2 Origins of human appreciation of rhythm
* [12]3 Rhythm notation and the oral tradition
+ [13]3.1 African music
+ [14]3.2 Indian music
+ [15]3.3 Western music
* [16]4 Types
* [17]5 See also
* [18]6 Notes
* [19]7 Sources
* [20]8 Further reading
[[21]edit] Rhythm in linguistics
The study of rhythm, stress, and [22]pitch in [23]speech is called
[24]prosody; it is a topic in [25]linguistics. Narmour (1980,
p. 147-53) describes three categories of prosodic rules which create
rhythmic successions which are additive (same duration repeated),
cumulative (short-long), or countercumulative (long-short). Cumulation
is associated with closure or relaxation, countercumulation with
openness or tension, while additive rhythms are open-ended and
repetitive. Richard Middleton points out this method cannot account for
[26]syncopation and suggests the concept of [27]transformation.
A [28]rhythmic unit is a [29]durational pattern which occupies a period
of time equivalent to a [30]pulse or pulses on an underlying [31]metric
level, as opposed to a [32]rhythmic gesture which does not (DeLone et
al. (Eds.), 1975
[[33]edit] Origins of human appreciation of rhythm
In his series How Music Works, [34]Howard Goodall presents theories
that rhythm recalls how we walk and the heartbeat we heard in the womb.
More likely is that a simple pulse or [35]di-dah beat recalls the
footsteps of another person. Our sympathetic urge to dance is designed
to boost our energy levels in order to cope with someone, or some
animal chasing us - a fight or flight response. From a less darwinist
perspective, perceiving rhythm is the ability to master the otherwise
invisible dimension, time. Rhythm is possibly also rooted in courtship
ritual.^[36][1]
Neurologist [37]Oliver Sacks posits that human affinity for rhythm is
fundamental, so much that a person's sense of rhythm cannot be lost in
the way that music and language can (e.g. by [38]stroke). In addition,
he states that [39]chimpanzees and other animals show no similar
appreciation for rhythm.^[40][2]
[[41]edit] Rhythm notation and the oral tradition
Worldwide there are many different approaches to passing on rhythmic
phrases and patterns, as they exist in traditional music, from
generation to generation.
[[42]edit] African music
In the [43]Griot tradition of Africa everything related to music has
been passed on orally. [44]Babatunde Olatunji (1927-2003), a Nigerian
drummer who lived and worked in the [45]United States, developed a
simple series of spoken sounds for teaching the rhythms of the hand
drum. He used six vocal sounds: Goon Doon Go Do Pa Ta. There are three
basic sounds on the drum, but each can be played with either the left
or the right hand. This simple system is now used worldwide,
particularly by [46]Djembe players.
[[47]edit] Indian music
Indian music has also been passed on orally. Tabla players would learn
to speak complex rhythm patterns and phrases before attempting to play
them. [48]Sheila Chandra, an English pop singer of Indian descent, made
performances based around her singing these patterns. In [49]Indian
Classical music, the [50]Tala of a composition is the rhythmic pattern
over which the whole piece is structured.
[[51]edit] Western music
Standard [52]music notation contains rhythmic information and is
adapted specifically for drums and percussion instruments. The drums
are generally used to keep other instruments in 'time'. They do this by
supplying beats/strikes in time at a certain pace, i.e. 70 beats per
minute (bpm). In [53]Rock music, a drum beat is used to keep a
[54]bass/[55]guitar line in time.
[[56]edit] Types
In [57]Western music, rhythms are usually arranged with respect to a
[58]time signature, partially signifying a meter. The speed of the
underlying [59]pulse is sometimes called the [60]beat. The [61]tempo is
a measure of how quickly the pulse repeats. The tempo is usually
measured in 'beats per minute' (bpm); 60 bpm means a speed of one beat
per second. The length of the meter, or metric unit (usually
corresponding with [62]measure length), is usually grouped into either
two or three beats, being called [63]duple meter and [64]triple meter,
respectively. If each beat is divided by two or four, it is [65]simple
meter, if by three (or six) [66]compound meter. According to [67]Pierre
Boulez, beat structures beyond four are "simply not natural".^[68][3].
His reference is to western European music.
Standard notation of a clave pattern on audio clip clave pattern.ogg
[69]Syncopated rhythms are rhythms that accent parts of the beat not
already stressed by [70]counting. Playing simultaneous rhythms in more
than one time signature is called [71]polymeter. See also
[72]polyrhythm. In recent years, rhythm and meter have become an
important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these
areas includes books by [73]Maury Yeston, [74]Fred Lerdahl and [75]Ray
Jackendoff, [76]Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty, William Rothstein,
and Joel Lester.
Grid notation of single a clave pattern
Some [77]genres of music make different use of rhythm than others. Most
Western music is based on [78]subdivision, while non-Western music uses
more [79]additive rhythm. [80]African music makes heavy use of
[81]polyrhythms, and [82]Indian music uses [83]complex cycles such as 7
and 13, while [84]Balinese music often uses complex [85]interlocking
rhythms. By comparison, a lot of Western [86]classical music is fairly
rhythmically (or metrically) simple; it stays in a [87]simple meter
such as 4/4 or 3/4 and makes little use of [88]syncopation.
[89]Clave is a common underlying rhythm in [90]African, [91]Cuban
music, and [92]Brazilian music.
[93]Claves
(Submit) Play sound
Four beats followed by three Clave patterns
__________________________________________________________________
Problems listening to this file? See [94]media help.
In the 20th century, [95]composers like [96]Igor Stravinsky, [97]Bela
Bartok, [98]Philip Glass, and [99]Steve Reich wrote more rhythmically
complex music using [100]odd meters, and techniques such as
[101]phasing and [102]additive rhythm. At the same time, modernists
such as [103]Olivier Messiaen and his pupils used increased complexity
to disrupt the sense of a regular beat, leading eventually to the
widespread use of [104]irrational rhythms in [105]New Complexity. This
use may be explained by a comment of [106]John Cage's^[[107]where?]
where he notes that regular rhythms cause sounds to be heard as a group
rather than individually; the irregular rhythms highlight the rapidly
changing pitch relationships that would otherwise be subsumed into
irrelevant rhythmic groupings (Sandow 2004, p. 257). [108]LaMonte Young
also wrote music in which the sense of a regular beat is absent because
the music consists only of long sustained tones ([109]drones). In the
1930s, [110]Henry Cowell wrote music involving multiple simultaneous
periodic rhythms and collaborated with [111]Léon Thérémin to invent the
[112]Rhythmicon, the first electronic [113]rhythm machine, in order to
perform them. Similarly, [114]Conlon Nancarrow wrote for the
[115]player piano.
[[116]edit] See also
* [117]Meter (music)
* [118]Prosody (linguistics)
* [119]Riddim
* [120]Morse Code
* [121]Soul (music)
* [122]Time scale (music)
* [123]Timing (linguistics)
[[124]edit] Notes
1. [125]^ [126]Mithen, Steven (2005). [127]The Singing Neanderthals:
The Origins of Music, Language, Mind and Body.. London: Weidenfeld
& Nicolson.. [128]ISBN [129]0297643177.
2. [131]^ [132]Jon Stewart, [133]Oliver Sacks. (2009-06-29). [134]The
Daily Show with Jon Stewart. [Television production]. Comedy
Central.
itle=oliver-sacks. "People often tried to teach their dogs to
dance--it doesn't work."
3. [136]^ In [137]Discovering Music: Rhythm with [138]Leonard Slatkin
at 5:05
[[139]edit] Sources
* Hasty, Christopher (1997). Meter as Rhythm. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. [140]ISBN 0-19-510066-2.
* London, Justin (2004). Hearing in Time: Psychological Aspects of
Musical Meter. [141]ISBN 0-19-516081-9.
* Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music.
Philadelphia: Open University Press. [142]ISBN 0-335-15275-9.
* Narmour (1980). Cited in DeLone et al. (Eds.) (1975). Aspects of
Twentieth-Century Music. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall. [143]ISBN 0-13-049346-5.
* Sandow, Greg (2004). "A Fine Madness", The Pleasure of Modernist
Music. [144]ISBN 1-58046-143-3.
* Yeston, Maury (1976). "The Stratification of Musical Rhythm".
[[145]edit] Further reading
* McGaughey, William (2001). "Rhythm and Self-Consciousness: New
Ideals for an Electronic Civilization". Minneapolis: Thistlerose
Publications. [146]ISBN 0-9605630-4-0.
* Honing, H. (2002). [147]"Structure and interpretation of rhythm and
timing." Tijdschrift voor Muziektheorie [Dutch Journal of Music
Theory] 7(3): 227-232.
* Lewis, Andrew (2005). Rhythm--What it is and How to Improve Your
Sense of It. San Francisco: [148]RhythmSource Press. [149]ISBN
978-0-9754667-0-4.
* Williams, C. F. A., The Aristoxenian Theory of Musical Rhythm,
(Cambridge Library Collection - Music), Cambridge University Press;
1st edition, 2009.
* Toussaint, G. T., "The geometry of musical rhythm," In J. Akiyama,
M. Kano, and X. Tan, editors, Proceedings of the Japan Conference
on Discrete and Computational Geometry, Vol. 3742, Lecture Notes in
Computer Science, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2005, pp. 198-212.
[150]v o [151]d o [152]e
[153]Musical notation and [154]development
[155]Staff
[156]Bar & Bar line · [157]Clef · [158]Da capo · [159]Dal segno ·
[160]Key signature · [161]Ledger line · [162]Musical mode ·
[163]Musical scale · [164]Rehearsal letter · [165]Repeat sign ·
[166]Time signature · [167]Transposition · [168]Transposing instrument
[169]G (treble) clef symbol
[170]Notes
[171]Accidental ([172]Flat · [173]Natural · [174]Sharp) · [175]Dotted
note · [176]Grace note · [177]Note value ([178]Beam · [179]Note head ·
[180]Stem) · [181]Pitch · [182]Rest · [183]Interval · [184]Letter
notation
[185]Articulation
[186]Dynamics · [187]Ornament ([188]Trill · [189]Mordent · [190]Grace
note) · [191]Ossia · [192]Portato · [193]Accent · [194]Legato ·
[195]Tenuto · [196]Marcato · [197]Staccato · [198]Staccatissimo ·
[199]Tie · [200]Slur · [201]Fermata
[202]Development
[203]Coda · [204]Exposition · [205]Harmony · [206]Melody · [207]Motif ·
[208]Recapitulation · Rhythm ([209]Beat · [210]Meter · [211]Tempo) ·
[212]Theme · [213]Tonality · [214]Atonality
Related
[215]Chord chart · [216]Figured bass · [217]Graphic notation ·
[218]Lead sheet · [219]Eye music · [220]Modern musical symbols ·
[221]Neume · [222]Tablature
[224]Categories: [225]Rhythm | [226]Greek loanwords
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[1]Daniel Laberge music
Rhythm explained
including
27 rhythm exercises
by Daniel Laberge
Rhythm figure
Hi rhythm lovers,
I've devised these exercises in the early seventies while teaching
music.
I could not find any existing book that saw rhythm the way I did.
This method is based on "rhythmic figures" or rhythm possibilities.
Each one lasts one beat.
I simply counted the rhythmic possibilities one could encounter for
each type of beat divisions.
There are:
o Four rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by two
o Eight rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by three
o Sixteen rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by four
I composed the exercises back then and used them for my teaching, but I
only wrote the theory that goes along in 2002.
The book is called "Rhythm explained" and I am gradually placing its
content here.
Each exercise is preceded by a lesson, with graphic representations,
and includes an audio rendition to help you.
You can choose between three speeds.
For jazz musicians, the binary exercises also have a swing or double
swing performance. Go to the bottom of the page for a link to the swing
version.
Choose among the following exercises:
Beat exercises
[2]Rhythm exercise 1-1
Featured figures
[3][onequarternote1.gif] [4] [onehalfnote1.gif] [5]
[dottedhalfnote1.gif] [6] [wholenote1.gif]
[7]Rhythm exercise 1-2
Featured figures
[8][quarternoterest1.gif] [9] [halfnoterest1.gif] [10]
[wholenoterest1.gif]
[11]Rhythm exercise 1-3
Featured figures
[12][quarternoterest1.gif] [13] [halfnoterest1.gif] [14]
[dottedhalfnoterest1.gif] [15] [wholenoterest1.gif]
Binary beat division
The binary family is large as it includes:
o Division by two
o Division by four
o Part of division by six
o Division by eight
This section is concerned with the simple division by two.
Any binary beat has two alternating parts: the downbeat and the upbeat.
Binary beat
[binarybeat1.gif]
As you can see, there are only two places in a beat
where events or notes can be positioned or played:
o The downbeat
o The upbeat
How
rhythmic
possibilities
work
This means that for any given beat you can have
any of the four following possibilities:
1 o Only one event on the downbeat.
2 o Events on both the downbeat and the upbeat.
3 o No event at all.
4 o Only one event on the upbeat.
[possibilitiesbytwosimple1.gif]
The rhythmic figure used to represent a binary beat is called:
TWO EIGHTH NOTES
[masterfigurebinary1.gif]
Binary
master
rhythmic
figure
Simple binary rhythmic figures
4 possibilities:
o 2 Primary
o 2 Secondary
[possibilitiesbytwo1.gif]
Secondary rhythmic figures lack the event that falls on the beat.
There is a secondary figure for each primary one.
Because the beat is so important, secondary figures have appeared after
the primary ones had been well established.
The absence of event falling on the beat can be due to a silence or a
sound that is held over from the preceding beat.
Because of this, there are two ways to notate secondary figures:
o With a rest
o With a tie
[primarysecondary1.gif]
Primary
and
secondary
rhythmic
figures
Choose among the following exercises:
Binary exercises
PRIMARY
[16]Rhythm exercise 2-1
Featured figure
[17][twoeighthnotes2.gif]
[18]Rhythm exercise 2-2
Featured figures
[19][twoeighthnotes2.gif] [20] [quarternoterest2.gif]
SECONDARY
[21]Rhythm exercise 2-3
Featured figure
[22][dottedquarternoteeighth2.gif]
[23]Rhythm exercise 2-4
Featured figure
[24][eighthnotesyncopationa2.gif]
[25]Rhythm exercise 2-5
Featured figure
[26][twoeighttieonequarter2.gif]
MULTIPLE SYNCOPATIONS
[27]Rhythm exercise 2-6
Featured figure
[28][doublesyncopationa2.gif]
Ternary beat division
The ternary family is small as it includes:
o Division by three
o Part of division by six
Everything goes in thirds in ternary music.
Any ternary beat has one downbeat and two upbeats.
Ternary beat
[ternarybeat1.gif]
The rhythmic figure used to represent a ternary beat is called:
THREE EIGHTH NOTES
[masterfigureternary1.gif]
Ternary
master
rhythmic
figure
Writing
ternary
rhythm
In ternary music writing, each eighth note is worth one third of a
beat.
Since two eighth notes always equal one quarter note, these now equal
two thirds of a beat.
It takes a dotted quarter note to represent one beat.
[ternarywriting1.gif]
Ternary rhythmic figures
8 possibilities:
o 4 Primary
o 4 Secondary
[possibilitiesbythree1.gif]
Choose among the following exercises:
Ternary exercises
PRIMARY
[29]Rhythm exercise 3-1
Featured figure
[30][threeeighth2.gif]
[31]Rhythm exercise 3-2
Featured figure
[32][onequarteroneeighth2.gif]
[33]Rhythm exercise 3-3
Featured figure
[34][oneeighthonequarter2.gif]
SECONDARY
[35]Rhythm exercise 3-1s
Featured figure
[36][8threst2eighth2.gif] OR [37] [tie3eighth2.gif]
[38]Rhythm exercise 3-2s
Featured figure
[39][quarternoterestoneeighth2.gif] OR [40]
[tiequarternote1eighth.gif]
[41]Rhythm exercise 3-3s
Featured figure
[42][8threst1quarternote2.gif] OR [43] [tie1eighth1quarter2.gif]
Division by four
Beats divided by four are part of the binary family.
Everything goes in quarters in this feel.
Beat
divided
by
four
[binarybeat2.gif]
The rhythmic figure used to represent a beat divided by four
is called:
FOUR SIXTEENTH NOTES
[masterfigurebyfour1.gif]
Division
by four
master
rhythmic
figure
Binary rhythmic figures
16 possibilities:
o 8 Primary
o 8 Secondary
[possibilitiesbyfour1.gif]
Choose among the following exercises:
Division by four exercises
PRIMARY
[44]Rhythm exercise 4-1
Featured figure
[45][foursixteenth2.gif]
[46]Rhythm exercise 4-2
Featured figure
[47][oneeighthtwosixteenth2.gif]
[48]Rhythm exercise 4-3
Featured figure
[49][twosixteenthoneeighth2.gif]
[50]Rhythm exercise 4-4
Featured figure
[51][dottedeighthonesixteenth2.gif]
[52]Rhythm exercise 4-5
Featured figure
[53][onesixteenthdottedeighth2.gif]
[54]Rhythm exercise 4-6
Featured figure
[55][16th8th16th2.gif]
SECONDARY
[56]Rhythm exercise 4-1s
Featured figure
[57][16threst3sixteenth2.gif] OR [58] [tiefoursixteenth2.gif]
[59]Rhythm exercise 4-2s
Featured figure
[60][8threst2sixteenth2.gif] OR [61] [tie1eighth2sixteenth2.gif]
[62]Rhythm exercise 4-3s
Featured figure
[63][16threst1sixteenth1eighth2.gif] OR [64]
[tie2sixteenth1eighth2.gif]
[65]Rhythm exercise 4-4s
Featured figure
[66][dotted8threst1sixteenth2.gif] OR [67]
[tiedottereight1sixteenth2.gif]
[68]Rhythm exercise 4-5s
Featured figure
[69][16threstdotted8th.gif] OR [70] [tie16thdotted8th2.gif]
[71]Rhythm exercise 4-6s
Featured figure
[72][16threst1eighth1sixteenth2.gif] OR [73]
[tieone16thone8thone16th2.gif]
[74]Bugs, problems
and comments [75]Daniel Laberge music
Références
Liens visibles
74. javascript:;
Liens cachés :
#[1]ORGY IN RHYTHM - Atom [2]ORGY IN RHYTHM - RSS
IFRAME:
IN+RHYTHM&publishMode=PUBLISH_MODE_BLOGSPOT&navbarType=BLACK&layoutType
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ORGY IN RHYTHM
[6]JAZZ HIP TRIO - JAZZ EN RELIEF
Jazz Hip Trio for Riviera France from 1967.
Jean-Bernard Eisinger Piano ; Roger Luccioni Bass ;Daniel Humair Drums.
More beautiful music from France on this the first Jazz Hip Trio LP.
"Orange Boom" was the big tune back in the day but the rest is just
fabulous.
Needless to say.....All Killer No Filler
Another first in public blogland here at OIR.
[7]12 comments made-how about you? 12.1.10
[8]MAL WALDRON - TOKYO BOUND
Mal Waldron for RCA Victor Japan from 1970.
Mal Waldron-Piano;Takeshi Inomata-Drums;Yasuo Arakawa-Bass
Tremendous all killer trio date with Waldron joined by a top flight
Japanese rhythm section on four original compositions which only saw a
release in Japan.Check out the rocking intensity of "Rock One For Jimbo
San" and "Japanese Island" which builds from an ominous brooding intro
into a marvellous modal waltz."Atomic Energy" blows up with a headlong
banging vamp from Waldron's left hand while the right runs all over the
keys and then to close "Mount Fujiyama" a more introspective rumination
and dissection of the tune's theme.
Inomata's drumming is a revelation throughout the session intricate yet
swinging with fantastic use of cymbals.(Don't forget to check out
Inomata's Sound of Sounds lp also recorded in 1970 which I posted
[9]here during the summer)
Respect to El Goog for introducing me to this great album.I finally
picked a copy up from Japan via ebay last month - not cheap but worth
every penny.
Very highly recomnmended.
[10]37 comments made-how about you? 20.12.09
[11]THE HERBIE HANCOCK TRIO
Herbie Hancock for Sony Japan from 1977.
Herbie Hancock-Piano;Ron Carter-Bass;Tony Williams-Drums
The big three keep it strictly acoustic for this Japanese only release
from CBS Sony. 4 originals from Herb plus a rapid romp through
"Milestones"...tough stuff.
The first V.S.O.P. tour triggered a flood of recording activity in July
1977, but only a fraction of it was released in the U.S. This session,
recorded in San Francisco just days before the Quintet concerts in
Berkeley and San Diego, finds Herbie Hancock, Ron Carter and Tony
Williams mixing it up sans the horns and the results are more
reflective and cerebral than the full Quintet concerts. Hancock is
thoroughly in control of the agenda while Williams throws in those
meter-fracturing flurries that keep everyone on their toes. There is a
startling re-interpretation of "Speak like a Child" which is
significantly tougher and busier than the wistful Blue Note version, as
well as challenging Hancock originals like "Watcha Waiting For" and
"Watch It." This is uncompromising acoustic jazz, commercial anathema
in the electronic '70s -and thus, only Japan got to hear it. Richard S.
Ginell.
[12]16 comments made-how about you? 13.12.09
[13]JAZZ HIP TRIO - PORTRAITS
Jazz Hip Trio for Riviera France from 1968.
Jean-Bernard Eisinger Piano ; Roger Luccioni Bass ;Daniel Humair Drums.
Piano trios are the theme for my the next few posts and what better way
to start than with some beautiful music from France on it's first time
out in blogland here at OIR.
10 original compositions which grow and grow on repeated listening -
get past the "Sidewinder" influenced dance floor intro tune "Bat Rock"
and you're in for a swinging set of subtle trio sounds.Of course it's
gotta be......
All Killer No Filler
[14]23 comments made-how about you? 6.12.09
[15]THE DIAMOND FIVE - BRILLIANT !
The Diamond Five for Fontana from 1964.
Personnel: Cees Slinger: piano; Harry Verbeke: tenor sax; Cees Smal:
trumpet, cornet and valve trombone; Jacques Schols: bass; Johnny
Engels: drums.
Please check the comments as Chazz has also ripped The Five
Diamonds-Finally After Forty Years cd reissue from Japan and will be
posting the link shortly.Over to you Chazz!
I don't post donations at OIR but just had to make an exception when
this was winged across the pond to me from Chazz Katz.It's a very rare
piece of hard bop from Holland which made a blink and miss it reissue
on cd some years ago in Japan (original vinyl goes for silly money
anywhere between $600-$1000) and has never appeared in blogland
before.Here's the notes and cheers to Chazz for his rip!
Nice work chap - All Killer No Filler!
The Diamond Five, a Dutch quintet led by pianist Cees Slinger, was
founded in 1959 and lasted until 1965. They were based at the
Sheherazade Club in Amsterdam and were quite popular, playing all over
Holland and accompanying expatriate American musicians on their visits
to Amsterdam. However, when the club closed its doors due to a shift in
popular interest from jazz to rock music, the quintet disbanded. This
1964 recording is their only session available on CD. The music is hard
bop on the surface, but is neither formulaic nor a copy of the genres
imported from the U.S.
The musicians are quite unique in their style. Slinger plays sparse
notes on his solos, utilizing well-placed pauses in the music to create
melodic hard bop with hints of more forward-looking styles. The other
outstanding soloist is tenor saxophonist Harry Verbeke, whose solos (in
contrast to that of the leader) are filled with a multitude of notes
played in the modal vein. The others are also quite stellar, the bass
and the drums providing a loose bluesy support and horn man Cees Smal
adding something unique with the sounds of his different horns,
switching between valve trombone, cornet and trumpet.
[16]26 comments made-how about you? 26.11.09
[17]BOBBY HUTCHERSON - CIRRUS
Bobby Hutcherson for Blue Note from 1974.
Hutch is playing four sets in London this weekend so Katonah from
Private Press and I will be propping up the bar for his late spot at
Scotts tomorrow night.
So here's a 3rd repost for his evergreen "Cirrus" ....All Killer No
Filler.
This was my very first Bobby Hutcherson post here at OIR back in may
2006.It was ripped from my vinyl copy @192 in those days-I've reupped
it @320 this time and taken it from the superb Mosaic Select box
set.Here's my original narrative:
Cirrus finds Bobby Hutcherson resuming his partnership with tenor
saxophonist Harold Land, and the results are marvellous. The pair work
with pianist Bill Henderson, trumpeter Woody Shaw, bassist Ray
Drummond, drummer Larry Hancock, saxophonist/flautist Emmanuel Boyd and
percussionist Kenneth Nash on this set of originals.The album starts
with a great version of Woody Shaw's "Rosewood" while the rest of the
set is written by Hutcherson and includes "Even Later".Highlight of the
lp for me is the atmospheric and brooding "Zuri Dance" - what a corker
!
[18]36 comments made-how about you? 13.11.09
[19]DAVE PIKE - LET THE MINSTRELS PLAY ON
Dave Pike for Muse from 1978.
Vibraphone - Dave Pike / Bass - Luther Hughes / Cello - Luther Hughes /
Drums - Ted Hawkes / Guitar - Ron Eschete / Keyboards , Sax - Tom
Ranier / Vocals - Carol Eschete.
KGML has just posted "Spirits Samba" so dug the lp out for those who
would like to hear more.
Picked this up in Tony Monson's Disc Empire in the early 80s after
hearing Chris Bangs spinning "Swan Lake" and found it had yet another
bona fide jazz dance classic to be featured in the shape of "Spirits
Samba".
Here's an apathetic review from amg:
Some Afro-Latin, some fusion and things in between from vibist Dave
Pike. Pike is a good player, but sometimes his arrangements bog down
between pop and jazz. His style is more remniscent of Red Norvo, with
its lighter, less aggressive and flowing lines.
[20]12 comments made-how about you? 12.11.09
[21]RANDY WESTON - BLUE MOSES
Randy Weston For CTI from 1972.
Arranged By - Don Sebesky;Bass - Bill Wood (2) (tracks: B1) , Ron
Carter ;Drums - Bill Cobham ;English Horn, Clarinet, Flute - George
Marge ;Flugelhorn - Alan Rubin , John Frosk , Marvin Stamm ;Flute -
Hubert Laws ;French Horn - Brooks Tillotson , James Buffington ;Oboe,
Clarinet, Flute - Romeo Penque ;Piano - Randy Weston
Saxophone [Tenor] - Grover Washington, Jr ;Synthesizer [Moog] - David
Horowitz
Trombone - Garnett Brown , Warren Covington , Wayne Andre ;Trombone -
Paul Faulise
Trumpet - Freddie Hubbard ;Vocals - Madasme Meddah
Super heavyweight banger from CTI - trust Randy Weston to dispense with
Creed Taylor's saccharine stylings.All Killer blah blah blah....
Another underwhelming review from Mr Yannow:
Randy Weston's most popular record, this Lp (which he had mixed
feelings about) features Weston not only on piano but electric
keyboards. Backed by Don Sebesky arrangements and assisted by trumpeter
Freddie Hubbard and tenor-saxophonist Grover Washington Jr., Weston
plays quite well on four of his compositions; best-known are "Ganawa
(Blue Moses)" and "Marrakesh Blues." The music retains the African feel
of most of Weston's latter-day playing but also has some commercial
touches that do not hurt the performances. This rewarding date has not
yet been reissued on CD. ~ Scott Yanow, All Music Guide
Fantastic cover art from Pete Turner - I highly recommend his book[22]
here.
[23]16 comments made-how about you? 7.11.09
[24]BLACKCLASSICAL - 1ST BIRTHDAY MEGAMIX
Blackclassical has taken off his flat cap ,put the racing pigeons away
and is celebrating his first year on t'interwebs with a mighty mp3 mash
up of spiritual jazz goodness[25] here.Proof indeed that it's not all
grim up north.
Happy Birthday you old bastard - now get the lagers in and make sure
they've got vodka tops you tightarse.
[26]3 comments made-how about you? 6.11.09
[27]TUBBT HAYES - TUBBS IN N.Y.
Tubby Hayes for Fontana from 1961.
Saxophone [Tenor] - Tubby Hayes; Bass - George Duvivier; Drums - Dave
Bailey ;Piano - Horace Parlan ;
Trumpet - Clark Terry;Vibraphone - Eddie Costa
Another first in blogland for this British vinyl rarity at OIR with
Tubbs keeping heavy company in NYC . Apparently there was legal
wrangling about who owns the masters so don't hold your breath waiting
for a cd issue.The last one got pulled pronto upon release in 1990.
The swaggering "A Pint Of Bitter" was my very first exposure to Hayes
back in the early 80s - I just love that tune - but the rest is just as
good with flat out romps through "Opus Ocean" and "Airegin" plus a
wonderfuly swinging "Soon" . Nice!
[28]26 comments made-how about you? 31.10.09
[29]TUBBY HAYES QUARTET - TUBBY'S GROOVE
Tubby Hayes for Tempo from 1960.
Tubby Hayes (ts), Terry Shannon (p), Phil Bates (b), Phil Seamen (d).
"Tin Tin Deo" killin' it every time for me on this rare piece of
British wax from 50 years ago.
Simon Spillet has written a fascinating piece on Tubby at[30]
Jazzscript and here's his take on this album:
I think it's one of Tubby's best ever studio recordings and catches him
very much in his prime. I suppose that the stand-out track for me has
to be Sunny Monday with its unaccompanied tenor choruses. The tone is
big, the rhythmic delivery is full of confidence and the sheer
enthusiasm shines through half a century on.
[31]23 comments made-how about you? 30.10.09
[32]STAFFAN ABELEEN QUINTET -PERSEPOLIS
Staffan Abeleen for Philips Sweden from 1964.
Staffan Abeleen-Piano ; Lasse Farnlof - Trumpet ; Bjorn Netz - Tenor ;
Bjorn Alke - Bass ; Bosse Skoglund - Drums
More top draw business from Sweden making a first appearance in
blogland.Modal to bossa to ballads this one's got the lot:
ALL KILLER NO FILLER
[33]15 comments made-how about you? 15.10.09
[34]BERNT ROSENGREN BIG BAND - FIRST MOVES
Bernt Rosengren for EMI Sweden from 1977.
Bassoon, Horn - Lars Bagge/Clarinet, Clarinet [Bass], Saxophone
[Soprano, Alto, Baritone] - Lennart Jansson /Congas - Johnny Martinez ,
René Martinez , Sabu Martinez
Cornet , Flugelhorn - Lars Färnlöf /Drums - Leif Wennerström/Flute,
Saxophone -Bernt Rosengren /Horn [English], Saxophone - Tommy Koverhult
/ Percussion - Okay Temiz / Piano - Claes-Göran Fagerstedt / Piano,
Piano [Electric] - Bobo Stenson / Saxophone [Baritone] - Gunnar
Bergsten / Saxophone [Tenor] - Anders Lindskog / Trombone - Jan Jansson
, Janus Miezek , Lars Olofsson , Lennart Löfgren / Trombone [Bass] -
Sven Larsson /Trumpet - Björn Borg /Trumpet , Flugelhorn - Bertil
Lövgren , Maffy Falay / Bass - Torbjörn Hultcrantz
Back over to Sweden for this killer big band session led by Bernt
Rosengren and featuring some big names such as a pre-ECM Bobo
Stenson,the wonderful Lars Farnlof and none other than the mighty Sabu
Martinez.
Check out the percussion destruction of "Felicidade" with Sabu plus
sons Johnny and Rene Martinez beating the crap out of the Jobim bossa
standard... Murdah!!!
[35]19 comments made-how about you? 1.10.09
[36]JAZZ QUINTET 60
Jazz Quintet 60 from 1962 for Metronome Denmark.
Allan Botschinsky (tp), Niels Husum (ts), Bent Axen (p), Niels-Henning
Orsted Pedersen (b), Bjarne Rostvold (ds).
Legendary Scandinavian rarity (Check the second mortgage prices on
[37]Popsike) from Denmark featuring a who's who of the Danish Jazz
scene from the past 50 years.
First time it's has been posted in public blogland so don't sleep on
this one :
ALL KILLER NO FILLER !
[38]27 comments made-how about you? 27.9.09
[39]STAFFAN ABELEEN QUINTET - DOWNSTREAM
Staffan Abeleen Quintet for Philips Sweden from 1966.
Staffan Abeleen - Piano ; Lasse Farnlof - Trumpet ; Bjorn Netz - Sax ;
Bosse Skugland - Drums ; Paul Danielsson - Bass.
All compositions by Lars Farnlof
Scandinavia is the destination for my next batch of posts and what
better way to start than with this superb album by The Staffen Abeleen
Quintet playing the compositions of the wonderful Lars Farnlof.
Another first appearance in blogland but let the music do the talking
...
ALL KILLER NO FILLER
[40]15 comments made-how about you? 19.9.09
[41]ARCHIE SHEPP & THE FAMILY OF PERCUSSION - HERE COMES THE FAMILY
I have had lots of requests for a repost of this bomb from Archie Shepp
and The Family of Percussion - so here it is.
First posted at OIR september 2006.
The Family of Percussion (Peter Giger,Trilok Gurtu,Doug Hammond and Tom
Nicholas)are joined by Archie Shepp on this hard to find 1980 release
from Nagara in Germany.
On "Here Comes the Family"the Family establish the basic form of the
piece with their rhythmic and vocal opening with Shepp's flute
fluttering above it all.Then he lets rip with what the liner notes call
'Poetic Recitation'but would probably be called rapping these days over
a funky percussive backdrop .This tune is why the lp remains in such
demand - a big play list favourite of djs world wide.
Next up is Shepp's "Street Song" the best cut on the lp for me,on which
he blows his tenor freely over the drums,congas,bells and gongs.The
piece ends in a crescendo of percussion culminating in a gong crash
which fades into silence."Euterpe's Favorit"has Shepp back on flute
with the family weaving a mystical feel behind him on
bells,whistles,water pipes,gongs,rattles and drums.
"Ardopetori"starts side 2 with a mid tempo infectious rhythm
established by shakers and log drum which builds slowly with Shepp
soloing freely again on tenor.
"For Ti Roro"wraps it up and begins with the gentle,caribean sounds of
steel drums until Shepp's soprano bursts in with a frenzy of
excitement.This is the most free track with all the musicians reacting
to each otherboth collectively and singularly until it finishes
fittingly with the sound of the congas.
This came out on lp and cd but quickly dissapeared without trace.if you
want a copy you gonna have to dig hard and have deep pockets!
[42]18 comments made-how about you?
[43]HIROSHI SUZUKI - CAT
Hiroshi Suzuki for Columbia Japan from 1975.
Hiroshi Suzuki-Trombone ; Hiromasa Suzuki-Keyboards ; Akira
Ishikawa-Drums ; Takeru Muraoka-Sax ; Kunimitsu Inaba-Bass
More super rare J Jazz making a first appearance in blogland and this
is an absolute beauty made up of 5 long cuts that hit the perfect
balance between jazz and fusion.Acoustic bass meshed with subtle funky
drums topped with lashings of Rhodes,trombone and sax deliver a really
stretched out understated rolling groove.
The album just grows and grows with repeated listening and it's a big
favourite over here at Bacoso's Big Top - no surprise that it's
ALL KILLER NO FILLER !
[44]34 comments made-how about you? 7.9.09
[45]T. INOMATA & SOUND L.T.D. - SOUNDS OF SOUND L.T.D.
Takeshi Inomata for Columbia Japan from 1970.
Takeshi Inomata (Drums & Percussion) Jun Suzuki (Electric Bass)
Shigetok Kamiya (Electric Guitar) Ryo Kawasaki (Electric Guitar)
Sho Imai (Trombone & Bass Trombone) Shigemichi Dohmoto (Trombone & Bass
Trombone)
Takao Uematsu (Tenor Sax & Soprano Sax)
Fantastic lp of funky jazz from the Columbia issued Groovy Sound
Series.
No idea who plays on it as the credits are all in Japanese but it's a
monster session.
Check out "Mustache" and "Tak's Tune" for some severe beats from
drummer/leader Takeshi Inomata.
All Killer No Filler - Highly Recommended!
[46]22 comments made-how about you? 29.8.09
[47]HIDEO SHIRAKI - IN FIESTA
Hideo Shiraki for Teichiku Japan from 1961.
Rare super tough hard bop session from Japan featuring the killer koto
led and drum driven bomb "In Fiesta".
Reissued in Japan by Kyoto Jazz Massive for Think in a blink and miss
it moment back in 2005 but now out of print.
The old Dusty Groove blurb:
A brilliant early album from Japanese drummer Hideo Shiraki a jazz
session that bristles with the same intensity as key late 50s work by
Benny Golson or Gigi Gryce! Although Hideo's leading the group on
drums, his work on the kit is remarkably subtle done with the
snappingly rhythmic style that marked some of Golson's best modern
experiments of a few years before not nearly as bombastic as his stint
with Art Blakey, and more in the rhythmically stepping quality of his
work with Art Farmer in the Jazztet. Key players on the session include
Hidehiko Matsumoto on tenor and flute and Yuzuru Sera on piano both of
whom give the album a fluid grace that's really beautiful soulful edges
that allow the record to stand equally next to anything coming out of
the US at the time. One track features a bit of koto at the start --
echoing Shiraki's later world jazz experiments but most of the set is
straight modern hardbop, with tracks that include "Blue Romeo", "Etude
No 1", "Just One Or Eight", "You Don't Know What Love Is", and Benny
Golson's "Five Spot After Dark".
[48]14 comments made-how about you? 18.8.09
[49]LLOYD MCNEILL - TREASURES
Lloyd McNeill for Baobab from 1976.
Lloyd McNeill-Flute ; Dom Salvador-Piano ; Cecil McBee-Bass ; Portinho
, Brian Brake-Drums ; Ray Armando-Percussion.
One for the flute freaks on a private press out of NYC.
Heavy Brazilian infuences at work on this wonderful spiritual jazz
session from the great Lloyd McNeill.Two originals,one standard and a
cracking version of Salvador's "Salvation Army" which featured on Dom's
'76 Muse debut "Minha Familia"(Available at [50]Ile Oxumare).
Here's some info on Lloyd McNeill from the excellent [51]Hipwax:
The first thing to know about Lloyd McNeill is that his are the very
best soul-jazz flute LPs, and each is first-rate, a masterpiece of
self-direction. The second thing to know is there is much more to him
than his recorded legacy. He is one of those incredible,
super-sensitive people who excels at every artistic idiom and endeavor;
making wonderful music is just part of his flowing creativity. A
professor (at Rutgers University, earlier Dartmouth), he has much to
say about music and creativity as well as an impeccable gift for saying
it...sensibly. McNeill's writings on his musical experiences provide
invaluable documents of "the period" (late 1960s-1970s) as well as a
rare glimpse at the joy of a relatively unsung master.
McNeill has played with jazz legends --Andrew White (his longtime
collaborator/producer), Eric Dolphy, Sabu Martinez, Mulatu Astatke,
among many others-- and he has had a significant hand in the arts scene
of Washington, D.C. The major galleries of art, including those of the
Smithsonian, sponsored multi-media "happenings" that soared far above
the hippie caricature of acid rock with light show. During the first
flowering of post-Civil Rights, African-American culture, the Lloyd
McNeill Quartet's improvisitory, simultaneuous jazz and large-scale
painting "happened" while a lucky, perhaps unsuspecting public drank it
in.
McNeill believes his influences and their results in his art, music,
and poetry are inseparable and mutually reinforcing. Time spent with
Picasso in Cannes, 1965 led to new expressions in all three, for
instance. And when one brushes against a force such as Picasso, just
the idea of "meeting Picasso" has a certain momentum, never mind the
inevitable casting of rays of a different kind of light. Canvas, vinyl,
the stage, paper, and books of poetry offer a few key imprints of
McNeill, and McNeill consistently pays tribute to many illustrious
peers.
There are six albums, all produced and entirely under the artist's
control. Each title surpasses anything comparable on the major labels,
even Blue Note. The Black Jazz label may be roughly similar in style,
but Asha and Baobab are wholly Lloyd McNeill. The records reflect none
of the usual external trends from the decade in which they were
recorded; all sound like 1971 rather than 1979. The final record even
reprises the first (the exotic, broodingly moody "Asha"), and the sound
throughout remains somewhat interchangeable and timeless. But each
record has its own themes and currents, and even improvisation has its
signatures and fingerprints.
Buying: Long out of print, collectors items, Lloyd McNeill records
should be snapped up on sight. Hip Wax is pleased to offer two titles
for which limited stock remains [52]here.
Warning - McNeill lps can be damaging to the [53]wallet.
[54]29 comments made-how about you? 14.8.09
[55]If Spike Lee Did Movies In Audio...
Greg's back on the mix with his old mucker Monohub - another mashed up
bomb in memory of Coltrane and the late,great George Russell.Grab it
[56]HERE.
Here's the blurb from big daddy himself:
I did a version of this a while back and was planning to publish on
July 17th as a memorial to the day that John Coltrane died, but, a
combination of lack of time, work commitments and other things got in
the way...
Anyway I redid it and am glad that i did as it's much better than the
original. This one strictly for the heads... and defo not for the feint
hearted. If you liked the Black State of Vietnam mix then this is for
you...
So as i said; In respect of John Coltrane and George Russell. Much
thanks to Monohub too although he plays down his part in this, his
genius did have a lot to do with it...
[57]1 comments made-how about you? 3.8.09
[58]SADAO WATANABE AND CHARLIE MARIANO - IBERIAN WALTZ
Sadao and Charlie for Tact Japan from 1967.
Sadao Watanabe (as) , Charlie Mariano (as) , Masabumi Kikuchi (p) ,
Masanaga Harada (b) , Masahiko Togashi (ds) , Fumio Watanabe (ds)
This received a "Japan Jazz Award" on release.
Some severe blowing on this double alto led sextet featuring a young
band of soon to be Japanese jazz luminaries.
The fast and furious "Palisades" was comped on the Sleepwalker Shibuya
Jazz Classics.However the 16 minute title cut is the stand out tune an
intense modal waltz with a Spanish tinge featuring coruscating solos
from Mariano and Watanabe - hard core stuff.
Recommended.
[59]16 comments made-how about you? 28.7.09
[60]JAMES MARENTIC SEXTET - NIMBUS
James Marentic for Discovery from 1982.
James Marentic-Sax/Flute; Tom Harrell -Trumpet/Flugelhorn; Slide
Hampton-Trombone; Larry Willis-Piano; Anthony Cox-Bass; Victor
Lewis-Drums.
Storming post hard bop outing for Mr Marentic and his all star band.
Check out the banging latin romp "Baile de las Cucharachas " which
kicks off the lp in fine style and the Coltrane inspired "Nimbus".
"Aphrodesia" has the inspiration of Kenny Dorham stamped all over it
and no prizes for guessing who "Mr Silver I Presume" is aimed at
If you enjoyed Tom Harrell's "Aurora" post then this should be right up
your street,round your corner and down your block!
[61]8 comments made-how about you? 23.7.09
[62]CARTER JEFFERSON - THE RISE OF ATLANTIS
Carter Jefferson for Timeless from 1978.
Terrific post bop album with latin influences -All Killer No Filler!
John Hicks (Piano), Terumasa Hino (Trumpet), Woody Shaw (Producer),
Clint Houston (Bass), Victor Lewis (Drums),Carter Jefferson (Sax ),
Lani Groves (Vocals), Shunzo Ohno (Trumpet), Steve Thornton
(Percussion), Harry Whitaker (Piano)
Here's the customary underwhelming AMG review :
Tenor saxophonist Carter Jefferson made somewhat of a name for himself
when trumpeter Woody Shaw chose him as a member of his first working
quintet. Shaw is the producer of this album, Jefferson's fine debut
(and evidently only) recording as a leader. Taking a cue from Shaw, the
saxophonist sticks essentially to a quintet of trumpet and sax backed
by all-star rhythm sections. Three of the tracks include hard bop
trumpeter Terumasa Hino while the other three feature little-known
Japanese trumpeter Shunzo Ono. Most of the tunes are firmly in the
school of hard bop, the sort of music that Woody Shaw played so well.
While there is not any new ground broken, it is all performed
competently enough. While not as emotionally charged as his work with
Shaw, Jefferson impresses with a fluid, mobile attack that shows a
solid grasp of his material. If the groups seem to be sometimes merely
going through the motions, there are nonetheless enough fine moments to
make this a worthwhile purchase.AMG.
A reliable and advanced soloist who spent most of his career as a
sideman, Carter Jefferson is best-remembered for his association with
Woody Shaw during 1977-1980. Jefferson started on clarinet and played
alto before settling on tenor, going on tour early in the backup bands
of the Temptations, the Supremes, and Little Richard. In 1971, he moved
to New York to attend New York University and soon spent two years with
Mongo Santamaria and a period in 1973 as a member of Art Blakey's Jazz
Messengers. After his important stint with Woody Shaw (with whom he
recorded several times), Jefferson worked with many top players,
including Elvin Jones, Roy Haynes, Cedar Walton, Jerry Gonzalez & the
Fort Apache Band, Malachi Thompson, and Jack Walrath's Masters of
Suspense. His premature death in Poland after emergency surgery was a
major loss. Carter Jefferson only led one record, The Rise of Atlantis,
on the Timeless label in 1978. AMG.
[63]33 comments made-how about you? 10.7.09
[64]JULIO GUTIERREZ - PROGRESSIVE LATIN
Julio Gutierrez for Gema from 1960.
The title says it all for this groundbreaking heavyweight descarga
session...Highly recommended.
Has anyone out there got a copy of Gutierrez's "Havana BC" they want to
sell me?If so leave me a message in the comments.
Progressive Latin should be considered a classic of Latin jazz if it
isn't already. "Cosa Buena" cooks, and "Closing Time" is a slower bossa
nova with flute and horns that captures the mood of a good night out at
its end. "Yambambe," an Afro rhythm behind mostly piano, sounds more
sophisticated than its simple construction. "El Altiplano" is supposed
to be an Incan melody with Afro elements. In any case, vocal
interjections pave the way for a longer descarga where a variety of
intriguing elements (horns, flute piano, even organ) work together in
their own weird ways and combinations. The "Route 66" theme arrangement
is a coup; the sax and flute are recorded gorgeously, and the piano and
conga pace it ideally, with brief drum solo breaks. "Sad City" is a
haunting flute piece, while "Guantanamera" has an interesting change
but there is only so much one can expect from this tune. "Malaguena" is
another long descarga that gets a little wild. Progressive Latin is
something of a masterpiece from the great arranger Julio Gutierrez.
Tony Wilds
What impressed me most about this album is Julio's use of space and the
length of the tunes, considering that in the era when it was recorded,
2 1/2 minute tunes were standard. Great musicians like El Negro Vivar
(trumpet) and Chombo Silva (sax) were able to beautifully stretch out
over an almost post-bop/Afro-Cuban jazz setting. There is some serious
blowing on this disc. This is another essential Latin jazz gem from the
late 50s/early 60s.
Jose Rizo
[65]22 comments made-how about you? 4.7.09
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Rhythm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search
For other uses, see [8]Rhythm (disambiguation).
Rhythm (from [9]greek rhuthµo'*s - rhythmos, "any measured flow or
movement, symmetry") is the variation of the length and accentuation of
a series of sounds or other events.
Contents
* [10]1 Rhythm in linguistics
* [11]2 Origins of human appreciation of rhythm
* [12]3 Rhythm notation and the oral tradition
+ [13]3.1 African music
+ [14]3.2 Indian music
+ [15]3.3 Western music
* [16]4 Types
* [17]5 See also
* [18]6 Notes
* [19]7 Sources
* [20]8 Further reading
[[21]edit] Rhythm in linguistics
The study of rhythm, stress, and [22]pitch in [23]speech is called
[24]prosody; it is a topic in [25]linguistics. Narmour (1980,
p. 147-53) describes three categories of prosodic rules which create
rhythmic successions which are additive (same duration repeated),
cumulative (short-long), or countercumulative (long-short). Cumulation
is associated with closure or relaxation, countercumulation with
openness or tension, while additive rhythms are open-ended and
repetitive. Richard Middleton points out this method cannot account for
[26]syncopation and suggests the concept of [27]transformation.
A [28]rhythmic unit is a [29]durational pattern which occupies a period
of time equivalent to a [30]pulse or pulses on an underlying [31]metric
level, as opposed to a [32]rhythmic gesture which does not (DeLone et
al. (Eds.), 1975
[[33]edit] Origins of human appreciation of rhythm
In his series How Music Works, [34]Howard Goodall presents theories
that rhythm recalls how we walk and the heartbeat we heard in the womb.
More likely is that a simple pulse or [35]di-dah beat recalls the
footsteps of another person. Our sympathetic urge to dance is designed
to boost our energy levels in order to cope with someone, or some
animal chasing us - a fight or flight response. From a less darwinist
perspective, perceiving rhythm is the ability to master the otherwise
invisible dimension, time. Rhythm is possibly also rooted in courtship
ritual.^[36][1]
Neurologist [37]Oliver Sacks posits that human affinity for rhythm is
fundamental, so much that a person's sense of rhythm cannot be lost in
the way that music and language can (e.g. by [38]stroke). In addition,
he states that [39]chimpanzees and other animals show no similar
appreciation for rhythm.^[40][2]
[[41]edit] Rhythm notation and the oral tradition
Worldwide there are many different approaches to passing on rhythmic
phrases and patterns, as they exist in traditional music, from
generation to generation.
[[42]edit] African music
In the [43]Griot tradition of Africa everything related to music has
been passed on orally. [44]Babatunde Olatunji (1927-2003), a Nigerian
drummer who lived and worked in the [45]United States, developed a
simple series of spoken sounds for teaching the rhythms of the hand
drum. He used six vocal sounds: Goon Doon Go Do Pa Ta. There are three
basic sounds on the drum, but each can be played with either the left
or the right hand. This simple system is now used worldwide,
particularly by [46]Djembe players.
[[47]edit] Indian music
Indian music has also been passed on orally. Tabla players would learn
to speak complex rhythm patterns and phrases before attempting to play
them. [48]Sheila Chandra, an English pop singer of Indian descent, made
performances based around her singing these patterns. In [49]Indian
Classical music, the [50]Tala of a composition is the rhythmic pattern
over which the whole piece is structured.
[[51]edit] Western music
Standard [52]music notation contains rhythmic information and is
adapted specifically for drums and percussion instruments. The drums
are generally used to keep other instruments in 'time'. They do this by
supplying beats/strikes in time at a certain pace, i.e. 70 beats per
minute (bpm). In [53]Rock music, a drum beat is used to keep a
[54]bass/[55]guitar line in time.
[[56]edit] Types
In [57]Western music, rhythms are usually arranged with respect to a
[58]time signature, partially signifying a meter. The speed of the
underlying [59]pulse is sometimes called the [60]beat. The [61]tempo is
a measure of how quickly the pulse repeats. The tempo is usually
measured in 'beats per minute' (bpm); 60 bpm means a speed of one beat
per second. The length of the meter, or metric unit (usually
corresponding with [62]measure length), is usually grouped into either
two or three beats, being called [63]duple meter and [64]triple meter,
respectively. If each beat is divided by two or four, it is [65]simple
meter, if by three (or six) [66]compound meter. According to [67]Pierre
Boulez, beat structures beyond four are "simply not natural".^[68][3].
His reference is to western European music.
Standard notation of a clave pattern on audio clip clave pattern.ogg
[69]Syncopated rhythms are rhythms that accent parts of the beat not
already stressed by [70]counting. Playing simultaneous rhythms in more
than one time signature is called [71]polymeter. See also
[72]polyrhythm. In recent years, rhythm and meter have become an
important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these
areas includes books by [73]Maury Yeston, [74]Fred Lerdahl and [75]Ray
Jackendoff, [76]Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty, William Rothstein,
and Joel Lester.
Grid notation of single a clave pattern
Some [77]genres of music make different use of rhythm than others. Most
Western music is based on [78]subdivision, while non-Western music uses
more [79]additive rhythm. [80]African music makes heavy use of
[81]polyrhythms, and [82]Indian music uses [83]complex cycles such as 7
and 13, while [84]Balinese music often uses complex [85]interlocking
rhythms. By comparison, a lot of Western [86]classical music is fairly
rhythmically (or metrically) simple; it stays in a [87]simple meter
such as 4/4 or 3/4 and makes little use of [88]syncopation.
[89]Clave is a common underlying rhythm in [90]African, [91]Cuban
music, and [92]Brazilian music.
[93]Claves
(Submit) Play sound
Four beats followed by three Clave patterns
__________________________________________________________________
Problems listening to this file? See [94]media help.
In the 20th century, [95]composers like [96]Igor Stravinsky, [97]Bela
Bartok, [98]Philip Glass, and [99]Steve Reich wrote more rhythmically
complex music using [100]odd meters, and techniques such as
[101]phasing and [102]additive rhythm. At the same time, modernists
such as [103]Olivier Messiaen and his pupils used increased complexity
to disrupt the sense of a regular beat, leading eventually to the
widespread use of [104]irrational rhythms in [105]New Complexity. This
use may be explained by a comment of [106]John Cage's^[[107]where?]
where he notes that regular rhythms cause sounds to be heard as a group
rather than individually; the irregular rhythms highlight the rapidly
changing pitch relationships that would otherwise be subsumed into
irrelevant rhythmic groupings (Sandow 2004, p. 257). [108]LaMonte Young
also wrote music in which the sense of a regular beat is absent because
the music consists only of long sustained tones ([109]drones). In the
1930s, [110]Henry Cowell wrote music involving multiple simultaneous
periodic rhythms and collaborated with [111]Léon Thérémin to invent the
[112]Rhythmicon, the first electronic [113]rhythm machine, in order to
perform them. Similarly, [114]Conlon Nancarrow wrote for the
[115]player piano.
[[116]edit] See also
* [117]Meter (music)
* [118]Prosody (linguistics)
* [119]Riddim
* [120]Morse Code
* [121]Soul (music)
* [122]Time scale (music)
* [123]Timing (linguistics)
[[124]edit] Notes
1. [125]^ [126]Mithen, Steven (2005). [127]The Singing Neanderthals:
The Origins of Music, Language, Mind and Body.. London: Weidenfeld
& Nicolson.. [128]ISBN [129]0297643177.
2. [131]^ [132]Jon Stewart, [133]Oliver Sacks. (2009-06-29). [134]The
Daily Show with Jon Stewart. [Television production]. Comedy
Central.
itle=oliver-sacks. "People often tried to teach their dogs to
dance--it doesn't work."
3. [136]^ In [137]Discovering Music: Rhythm with [138]Leonard Slatkin
at 5:05
[[139]edit] Sources
* Hasty, Christopher (1997). Meter as Rhythm. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. [140]ISBN 0-19-510066-2.
* London, Justin (2004). Hearing in Time: Psychological Aspects of
Musical Meter. [141]ISBN 0-19-516081-9.
* Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music.
Philadelphia: Open University Press. [142]ISBN 0-335-15275-9.
* Narmour (1980). Cited in DeLone et al. (Eds.) (1975). Aspects of
Twentieth-Century Music. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall. [143]ISBN 0-13-049346-5.
* Sandow, Greg (2004). "A Fine Madness", The Pleasure of Modernist
Music. [144]ISBN 1-58046-143-3.
* Yeston, Maury (1976). "The Stratification of Musical Rhythm".
[[145]edit] Further reading
* McGaughey, William (2001). "Rhythm and Self-Consciousness: New
Ideals for an Electronic Civilization". Minneapolis: Thistlerose
Publications. [146]ISBN 0-9605630-4-0.
* Honing, H. (2002). [147]"Structure and interpretation of rhythm and
timing." Tijdschrift voor Muziektheorie [Dutch Journal of Music
Theory] 7(3): 227-232.
* Lewis, Andrew (2005). Rhythm--What it is and How to Improve Your
Sense of It. San Francisco: [148]RhythmSource Press. [149]ISBN
978-0-9754667-0-4.
* Williams, C. F. A., The Aristoxenian Theory of Musical Rhythm,
(Cambridge Library Collection - Music), Cambridge University Press;
1st edition, 2009.
* Toussaint, G. T., "The geometry of musical rhythm," In J. Akiyama,
M. Kano, and X. Tan, editors, Proceedings of the Japan Conference
on Discrete and Computational Geometry, Vol. 3742, Lecture Notes in
Computer Science, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2005, pp. 198-212.
[150]v o [151]d o [152]e
[153]Musical notation and [154]development
[155]Staff
[156]Bar & Bar line · [157]Clef · [158]Da capo · [159]Dal segno ·
[160]Key signature · [161]Ledger line · [162]Musical mode ·
[163]Musical scale · [164]Rehearsal letter · [165]Repeat sign ·
[166]Time signature · [167]Transposition · [168]Transposing instrument
[169]G (treble) clef symbol
[170]Notes
[171]Accidental ([172]Flat · [173]Natural · [174]Sharp) · [175]Dotted
note · [176]Grace note · [177]Note value ([178]Beam · [179]Note head ·
[180]Stem) · [181]Pitch · [182]Rest · [183]Interval · [184]Letter
notation
[185]Articulation
[186]Dynamics · [187]Ornament ([188]Trill · [189]Mordent · [190]Grace
note) · [191]Ossia · [192]Portato · [193]Accent · [194]Legato ·
[195]Tenuto · [196]Marcato · [197]Staccato · [198]Staccatissimo ·
[199]Tie · [200]Slur · [201]Fermata
[202]Development
[203]Coda · [204]Exposition · [205]Harmony · [206]Melody · [207]Motif ·
[208]Recapitulation · Rhythm ([209]Beat · [210]Meter · [211]Tempo) ·
[212]Theme · [213]Tonality · [214]Atonality
Related
[215]Chord chart · [216]Figured bass · [217]Graphic notation ·
[218]Lead sheet · [219]Eye music · [220]Modern musical symbols ·
[221]Neume · [222]Tablature
[224]Categories: [225]Rhythm | [226]Greek loanwords
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[1]Daniel Laberge music
Rhythm explained
including
27 rhythm exercises
by Daniel Laberge
Rhythm figure
Hi rhythm lovers,
I've devised these exercises in the early seventies while teaching
music.
I could not find any existing book that saw rhythm the way I did.
This method is based on "rhythmic figures" or rhythm possibilities.
Each one lasts one beat.
I simply counted the rhythmic possibilities one could encounter for
each type of beat divisions.
There are:
o Four rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by two
o Eight rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by three
o Sixteen rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by four
I composed the exercises back then and used them for my teaching, but I
only wrote the theory that goes along in 2002.
The book is called "Rhythm explained" and I am gradually placing its
content here.
Each exercise is preceded by a lesson, with graphic representations,
and includes an audio rendition to help you.
You can choose between three speeds.
For jazz musicians, the binary exercises also have a swing or double
swing performance. Go to the bottom of the page for a link to the swing
version.
Choose among the following exercises:
Beat exercises
[2]Rhythm exercise 1-1
Featured figures
[3][onequarternote1.gif] [4] [onehalfnote1.gif] [5]
[dottedhalfnote1.gif] [6] [wholenote1.gif]
[7]Rhythm exercise 1-2
Featured figures
[8][quarternoterest1.gif] [9] [halfnoterest1.gif] [10]
[wholenoterest1.gif]
[11]Rhythm exercise 1-3
Featured figures
[12][quarternoterest1.gif] [13] [halfnoterest1.gif] [14]
[dottedhalfnoterest1.gif] [15] [wholenoterest1.gif]
Binary beat division
The binary family is large as it includes:
o Division by two
o Division by four
o Part of division by six
o Division by eight
This section is concerned with the simple division by two.
Any binary beat has two alternating parts: the downbeat and the upbeat.
Binary beat
[binarybeat1.gif]
As you can see, there are only two places in a beat
where events or notes can be positioned or played:
o The downbeat
o The upbeat
How
rhythmic
possibilities
work
This means that for any given beat you can have
any of the four following possibilities:
1 o Only one event on the downbeat.
2 o Events on both the downbeat and the upbeat.
3 o No event at all.
4 o Only one event on the upbeat.
[possibilitiesbytwosimple1.gif]
The rhythmic figure used to represent a binary beat is called:
TWO EIGHTH NOTES
[masterfigurebinary1.gif]
Binary
master
rhythmic
figure
Simple binary rhythmic figures
4 possibilities:
o 2 Primary
o 2 Secondary
[possibilitiesbytwo1.gif]
Secondary rhythmic figures lack the event that falls on the beat.
There is a secondary figure for each primary one.
Because the beat is so important, secondary figures have appeared after
the primary ones had been well established.
The absence of event falling on the beat can be due to a silence or a
sound that is held over from the preceding beat.
Because of this, there are two ways to notate secondary figures:
o With a rest
o With a tie
[primarysecondary1.gif]
Primary
and
secondary
rhythmic
figures
Choose among the following exercises:
Binary exercises
PRIMARY
[16]Rhythm exercise 2-1
Featured figure
[17][twoeighthnotes2.gif]
[18]Rhythm exercise 2-2
Featured figures
[19][twoeighthnotes2.gif] [20] [quarternoterest2.gif]
SECONDARY
[21]Rhythm exercise 2-3
Featured figure
[22][dottedquarternoteeighth2.gif]
[23]Rhythm exercise 2-4
Featured figure
[24][eighthnotesyncopationa2.gif]
[25]Rhythm exercise 2-5
Featured figure
[26][twoeighttieonequarter2.gif]
MULTIPLE SYNCOPATIONS
[27]Rhythm exercise 2-6
Featured figure
[28][doublesyncopationa2.gif]
Ternary beat division
The ternary family is small as it includes:
o Division by three
o Part of division by six
Everything goes in thirds in ternary music.
Any ternary beat has one downbeat and two upbeats.
Ternary beat
[ternarybeat1.gif]
The rhythmic figure used to represent a ternary beat is called:
THREE EIGHTH NOTES
[masterfigureternary1.gif]
Ternary
master
rhythmic
figure
Writing
ternary
rhythm
In ternary music writing, each eighth note is worth one third of a
beat.
Since two eighth notes always equal one quarter note, these now equal
two thirds of a beat.
It takes a dotted quarter note to represent one beat.
[ternarywriting1.gif]
Ternary rhythmic figures
8 possibilities:
o 4 Primary
o 4 Secondary
[possibilitiesbythree1.gif]
Choose among the following exercises:
Ternary exercises
PRIMARY
[29]Rhythm exercise 3-1
Featured figure
[30][threeeighth2.gif]
[31]Rhythm exercise 3-2
Featured figure
[32][onequarteroneeighth2.gif]
[33]Rhythm exercise 3-3
Featured figure
[34][oneeighthonequarter2.gif]
SECONDARY
[35]Rhythm exercise 3-1s
Featured figure
[36][8threst2eighth2.gif] OR [37] [tie3eighth2.gif]
[38]Rhythm exercise 3-2s
Featured figure
[39][quarternoterestoneeighth2.gif] OR [40]
[tiequarternote1eighth.gif]
[41]Rhythm exercise 3-3s
Featured figure
[42][8threst1quarternote2.gif] OR [43] [tie1eighth1quarter2.gif]
Division by four
Beats divided by four are part of the binary family.
Everything goes in quarters in this feel.
Beat
divided
by
four
[binarybeat2.gif]
The rhythmic figure used to represent a beat divided by four
is called:
FOUR SIXTEENTH NOTES
[masterfigurebyfour1.gif]
Division
by four
master
rhythmic
figure
Binary rhythmic figures
16 possibilities:
o 8 Primary
o 8 Secondary
[possibilitiesbyfour1.gif]
Choose among the following exercises:
Division by four exercises
PRIMARY
[44]Rhythm exercise 4-1
Featured figure
[45][foursixteenth2.gif]
[46]Rhythm exercise 4-2
Featured figure
[47][oneeighthtwosixteenth2.gif]
[48]Rhythm exercise 4-3
Featured figure
[49][twosixteenthoneeighth2.gif]
[50]Rhythm exercise 4-4
Featured figure
[51][dottedeighthonesixteenth2.gif]
[52]Rhythm exercise 4-5
Featured figure
[53][onesixteenthdottedeighth2.gif]
[54]Rhythm exercise 4-6
Featured figure
[55][16th8th16th2.gif]
SECONDARY
[56]Rhythm exercise 4-1s
Featured figure
[57][16threst3sixteenth2.gif] OR [58] [tiefoursixteenth2.gif]
[59]Rhythm exercise 4-2s
Featured figure
[60][8threst2sixteenth2.gif] OR [61] [tie1eighth2sixteenth2.gif]
[62]Rhythm exercise 4-3s
Featured figure
[63][16threst1sixteenth1eighth2.gif] OR [64]
[tie2sixteenth1eighth2.gif]
[65]Rhythm exercise 4-4s
Featured figure
[66][dotted8threst1sixteenth2.gif] OR [67]
[tiedottereight1sixteenth2.gif]
[68]Rhythm exercise 4-5s
Featured figure
[69][16threstdotted8th.gif] OR [70] [tie16thdotted8th2.gif]
[71]Rhythm exercise 4-6s
Featured figure
[72][16threst1eighth1sixteenth2.gif] OR [73]
[tieone16thone8thone16th2.gif]
[74]Bugs, problems
and comments [75]Daniel Laberge music
Références
Liens visibles
74. javascript:;
Liens cachés :
#[1]ORGY IN RHYTHM - Atom [2]ORGY IN RHYTHM - RSS
IFRAME:
IN+RHYTHM&publishMode=PUBLISH_MODE_BLOGSPOT&navbarType=BLACK&layoutType
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ORGY IN RHYTHM
[6]JAZZ HIP TRIO - JAZZ EN RELIEF
Jazz Hip Trio for Riviera France from 1967.
Jean-Bernard Eisinger Piano ; Roger Luccioni Bass ;Daniel Humair Drums.
More beautiful music from France on this the first Jazz Hip Trio LP.
"Orange Boom" was the big tune back in the day but the rest is just
fabulous.
Needless to say.....All Killer No Filler
Another first in public blogland here at OIR.
[7]12 comments made-how about you? 12.1.10
[8]MAL WALDRON - TOKYO BOUND
Mal Waldron for RCA Victor Japan from 1970.
Mal Waldron-Piano;Takeshi Inomata-Drums;Yasuo Arakawa-Bass
Tremendous all killer trio date with Waldron joined by a top flight
Japanese rhythm section on four original compositions which only saw a
release in Japan.Check out the rocking intensity of "Rock One For Jimbo
San" and "Japanese Island" which builds from an ominous brooding intro
into a marvellous modal waltz."Atomic Energy" blows up with a headlong
banging vamp from Waldron's left hand while the right runs all over the
keys and then to close "Mount Fujiyama" a more introspective rumination
and dissection of the tune's theme.
Inomata's drumming is a revelation throughout the session intricate yet
swinging with fantastic use of cymbals.(Don't forget to check out
Inomata's Sound of Sounds lp also recorded in 1970 which I posted
[9]here during the summer)
Respect to El Goog for introducing me to this great album.I finally
picked a copy up from Japan via ebay last month - not cheap but worth
every penny.
Very highly recomnmended.
[10]37 comments made-how about you? 20.12.09
[11]THE HERBIE HANCOCK TRIO
Herbie Hancock for Sony Japan from 1977.
Herbie Hancock-Piano;Ron Carter-Bass;Tony Williams-Drums
The big three keep it strictly acoustic for this Japanese only release
from CBS Sony. 4 originals from Herb plus a rapid romp through
"Milestones"...tough stuff.
The first V.S.O.P. tour triggered a flood of recording activity in July
1977, but only a fraction of it was released in the U.S. This session,
recorded in San Francisco just days before the Quintet concerts in
Berkeley and San Diego, finds Herbie Hancock, Ron Carter and Tony
Williams mixing it up sans the horns and the results are more
reflective and cerebral than the full Quintet concerts. Hancock is
thoroughly in control of the agenda while Williams throws in those
meter-fracturing flurries that keep everyone on their toes. There is a
startling re-interpretation of "Speak like a Child" which is
significantly tougher and busier than the wistful Blue Note version, as
well as challenging Hancock originals like "Watcha Waiting For" and
"Watch It." This is uncompromising acoustic jazz, commercial anathema
in the electronic '70s -and thus, only Japan got to hear it. Richard S.
Ginell.
[12]16 comments made-how about you? 13.12.09
[13]JAZZ HIP TRIO - PORTRAITS
Jazz Hip Trio for Riviera France from 1968.
Jean-Bernard Eisinger Piano ; Roger Luccioni Bass ;Daniel Humair Drums.
Piano trios are the theme for my the next few posts and what better way
to start than with some beautiful music from France on it's first time
out in blogland here at OIR.
10 original compositions which grow and grow on repeated listening -
get past the "Sidewinder" influenced dance floor intro tune "Bat Rock"
and you're in for a swinging set of subtle trio sounds.Of course it's
gotta be......
All Killer No Filler
[14]23 comments made-how about you? 6.12.09
[15]THE DIAMOND FIVE - BRILLIANT !
The Diamond Five for Fontana from 1964.
Personnel: Cees Slinger: piano; Harry Verbeke: tenor sax; Cees Smal:
trumpet, cornet and valve trombone; Jacques Schols: bass; Johnny
Engels: drums.
Please check the comments as Chazz has also ripped The Five
Diamonds-Finally After Forty Years cd reissue from Japan and will be
posting the link shortly.Over to you Chazz!
I don't post donations at OIR but just had to make an exception when
this was winged across the pond to me from Chazz Katz.It's a very rare
piece of hard bop from Holland which made a blink and miss it reissue
on cd some years ago in Japan (original vinyl goes for silly money
anywhere between $600-$1000) and has never appeared in blogland
before.Here's the notes and cheers to Chazz for his rip!
Nice work chap - All Killer No Filler!
The Diamond Five, a Dutch quintet led by pianist Cees Slinger, was
founded in 1959 and lasted until 1965. They were based at the
Sheherazade Club in Amsterdam and were quite popular, playing all over
Holland and accompanying expatriate American musicians on their visits
to Amsterdam. However, when the club closed its doors due to a shift in
popular interest from jazz to rock music, the quintet disbanded. This
1964 recording is their only session available on CD. The music is hard
bop on the surface, but is neither formulaic nor a copy of the genres
imported from the U.S.
The musicians are quite unique in their style. Slinger plays sparse
notes on his solos, utilizing well-placed pauses in the music to create
melodic hard bop with hints of more forward-looking styles. The other
outstanding soloist is tenor saxophonist Harry Verbeke, whose solos (in
contrast to that of the leader) are filled with a multitude of notes
played in the modal vein. The others are also quite stellar, the bass
and the drums providing a loose bluesy support and horn man Cees Smal
adding something unique with the sounds of his different horns,
switching between valve trombone, cornet and trumpet.
[16]26 comments made-how about you? 26.11.09
[17]BOBBY HUTCHERSON - CIRRUS
Bobby Hutcherson for Blue Note from 1974.
Hutch is playing four sets in London this weekend so Katonah from
Private Press and I will be propping up the bar for his late spot at
Scotts tomorrow night.
So here's a 3rd repost for his evergreen "Cirrus" ....All Killer No
Filler.
This was my very first Bobby Hutcherson post here at OIR back in may
2006.It was ripped from my vinyl copy @192 in those days-I've reupped
it @320 this time and taken it from the superb Mosaic Select box
set.Here's my original narrative:
Cirrus finds Bobby Hutcherson resuming his partnership with tenor
saxophonist Harold Land, and the results are marvellous. The pair work
with pianist Bill Henderson, trumpeter Woody Shaw, bassist Ray
Drummond, drummer Larry Hancock, saxophonist/flautist Emmanuel Boyd and
percussionist Kenneth Nash on this set of originals.The album starts
with a great version of Woody Shaw's "Rosewood" while the rest of the
set is written by Hutcherson and includes "Even Later".Highlight of the
lp for me is the atmospheric and brooding "Zuri Dance" - what a corker
!
[18]36 comments made-how about you? 13.11.09
[19]DAVE PIKE - LET THE MINSTRELS PLAY ON
Dave Pike for Muse from 1978.
Vibraphone - Dave Pike / Bass - Luther Hughes / Cello - Luther Hughes /
Drums - Ted Hawkes / Guitar - Ron Eschete / Keyboards , Sax - Tom
Ranier / Vocals - Carol Eschete.
KGML has just posted "Spirits Samba" so dug the lp out for those who
would like to hear more.
Picked this up in Tony Monson's Disc Empire in the early 80s after
hearing Chris Bangs spinning "Swan Lake" and found it had yet another
bona fide jazz dance classic to be featured in the shape of "Spirits
Samba".
Here's an apathetic review from amg:
Some Afro-Latin, some fusion and things in between from vibist Dave
Pike. Pike is a good player, but sometimes his arrangements bog down
between pop and jazz. His style is more remniscent of Red Norvo, with
its lighter, less aggressive and flowing lines.
[20]12 comments made-how about you? 12.11.09
[21]RANDY WESTON - BLUE MOSES
Randy Weston For CTI from 1972.
Arranged By - Don Sebesky;Bass - Bill Wood (2) (tracks: B1) , Ron
Carter ;Drums - Bill Cobham ;English Horn, Clarinet, Flute - George
Marge ;Flugelhorn - Alan Rubin , John Frosk , Marvin Stamm ;Flute -
Hubert Laws ;French Horn - Brooks Tillotson , James Buffington ;Oboe,
Clarinet, Flute - Romeo Penque ;Piano - Randy Weston
Saxophone [Tenor] - Grover Washington, Jr ;Synthesizer [Moog] - David
Horowitz
Trombone - Garnett Brown , Warren Covington , Wayne Andre ;Trombone -
Paul Faulise
Trumpet - Freddie Hubbard ;Vocals - Madasme Meddah
Super heavyweight banger from CTI - trust Randy Weston to dispense with
Creed Taylor's saccharine stylings.All Killer blah blah blah....
Another underwhelming review from Mr Yannow:
Randy Weston's most popular record, this Lp (which he had mixed
feelings about) features Weston not only on piano but electric
keyboards. Backed by Don Sebesky arrangements and assisted by trumpeter
Freddie Hubbard and tenor-saxophonist Grover Washington Jr., Weston
plays quite well on four of his compositions; best-known are "Ganawa
(Blue Moses)" and "Marrakesh Blues." The music retains the African feel
of most of Weston's latter-day playing but also has some commercial
touches that do not hurt the performances. This rewarding date has not
yet been reissued on CD. ~ Scott Yanow, All Music Guide
Fantastic cover art from Pete Turner - I highly recommend his book[22]
here.
[23]16 comments made-how about you? 7.11.09
[24]BLACKCLASSICAL - 1ST BIRTHDAY MEGAMIX
Blackclassical has taken off his flat cap ,put the racing pigeons away
and is celebrating his first year on t'interwebs with a mighty mp3 mash
up of spiritual jazz goodness[25] here.Proof indeed that it's not all
grim up north.
Happy Birthday you old bastard - now get the lagers in and make sure
they've got vodka tops you tightarse.
[26]3 comments made-how about you? 6.11.09
[27]TUBBT HAYES - TUBBS IN N.Y.
Tubby Hayes for Fontana from 1961.
Saxophone [Tenor] - Tubby Hayes; Bass - George Duvivier; Drums - Dave
Bailey ;Piano - Horace Parlan ;
Trumpet - Clark Terry;Vibraphone - Eddie Costa
Another first in blogland for this British vinyl rarity at OIR with
Tubbs keeping heavy company in NYC . Apparently there was legal
wrangling about who owns the masters so don't hold your breath waiting
for a cd issue.The last one got pulled pronto upon release in 1990.
The swaggering "A Pint Of Bitter" was my very first exposure to Hayes
back in the early 80s - I just love that tune - but the rest is just as
good with flat out romps through "Opus Ocean" and "Airegin" plus a
wonderfuly swinging "Soon" . Nice!
[28]26 comments made-how about you? 31.10.09
[29]TUBBY HAYES QUARTET - TUBBY'S GROOVE
Tubby Hayes for Tempo from 1960.
Tubby Hayes (ts), Terry Shannon (p), Phil Bates (b), Phil Seamen (d).
"Tin Tin Deo" killin' it every time for me on this rare piece of
British wax from 50 years ago.
Simon Spillet has written a fascinating piece on Tubby at[30]
Jazzscript and here's his take on this album:
I think it's one of Tubby's best ever studio recordings and catches him
very much in his prime. I suppose that the stand-out track for me has
to be Sunny Monday with its unaccompanied tenor choruses. The tone is
big, the rhythmic delivery is full of confidence and the sheer
enthusiasm shines through half a century on.
[31]23 comments made-how about you? 30.10.09
[32]STAFFAN ABELEEN QUINTET -PERSEPOLIS
Staffan Abeleen for Philips Sweden from 1964.
Staffan Abeleen-Piano ; Lasse Farnlof - Trumpet ; Bjorn Netz - Tenor ;
Bjorn Alke - Bass ; Bosse Skoglund - Drums
More top draw business from Sweden making a first appearance in
blogland.Modal to bossa to ballads this one's got the lot:
ALL KILLER NO FILLER
[33]15 comments made-how about you? 15.10.09
[34]BERNT ROSENGREN BIG BAND - FIRST MOVES
Bernt Rosengren for EMI Sweden from 1977.
Bassoon, Horn - Lars Bagge/Clarinet, Clarinet [Bass], Saxophone
[Soprano, Alto, Baritone] - Lennart Jansson /Congas - Johnny Martinez ,
René Martinez , Sabu Martinez
Cornet , Flugelhorn - Lars Färnlöf /Drums - Leif Wennerström/Flute,
Saxophone -Bernt Rosengren /Horn [English], Saxophone - Tommy Koverhult
/ Percussion - Okay Temiz / Piano - Claes-Göran Fagerstedt / Piano,
Piano [Electric] - Bobo Stenson / Saxophone [Baritone] - Gunnar
Bergsten / Saxophone [Tenor] - Anders Lindskog / Trombone - Jan Jansson
, Janus Miezek , Lars Olofsson , Lennart Löfgren / Trombone [Bass] -
Sven Larsson /Trumpet - Björn Borg /Trumpet , Flugelhorn - Bertil
Lövgren , Maffy Falay / Bass - Torbjörn Hultcrantz
Back over to Sweden for this killer big band session led by Bernt
Rosengren and featuring some big names such as a pre-ECM Bobo
Stenson,the wonderful Lars Farnlof and none other than the mighty Sabu
Martinez.
Check out the percussion destruction of "Felicidade" with Sabu plus
sons Johnny and Rene Martinez beating the crap out of the Jobim bossa
standard... Murdah!!!
[35]19 comments made-how about you? 1.10.09
[36]JAZZ QUINTET 60
Jazz Quintet 60 from 1962 for Metronome Denmark.
Allan Botschinsky (tp), Niels Husum (ts), Bent Axen (p), Niels-Henning
Orsted Pedersen (b), Bjarne Rostvold (ds).
Legendary Scandinavian rarity (Check the second mortgage prices on
[37]Popsike) from Denmark featuring a who's who of the Danish Jazz
scene from the past 50 years.
First time it's has been posted in public blogland so don't sleep on
this one :
ALL KILLER NO FILLER !
[38]27 comments made-how about you? 27.9.09
[39]STAFFAN ABELEEN QUINTET - DOWNSTREAM
Staffan Abeleen Quintet for Philips Sweden from 1966.
Staffan Abeleen - Piano ; Lasse Farnlof - Trumpet ; Bjorn Netz - Sax ;
Bosse Skugland - Drums ; Paul Danielsson - Bass.
All compositions by Lars Farnlof
Scandinavia is the destination for my next batch of posts and what
better way to start than with this superb album by The Staffen Abeleen
Quintet playing the compositions of the wonderful Lars Farnlof.
Another first appearance in blogland but let the music do the talking
...
ALL KILLER NO FILLER
[40]15 comments made-how about you? 19.9.09
[41]ARCHIE SHEPP & THE FAMILY OF PERCUSSION - HERE COMES THE FAMILY
I have had lots of requests for a repost of this bomb from Archie Shepp
and The Family of Percussion - so here it is.
First posted at OIR september 2006.
The Family of Percussion (Peter Giger,Trilok Gurtu,Doug Hammond and Tom
Nicholas)are joined by Archie Shepp on this hard to find 1980 release
from Nagara in Germany.
On "Here Comes the Family"the Family establish the basic form of the
piece with their rhythmic and vocal opening with Shepp's flute
fluttering above it all.Then he lets rip with what the liner notes call
'Poetic Recitation'but would probably be called rapping these days over
a funky percussive backdrop .This tune is why the lp remains in such
demand - a big play list favourite of djs world wide.
Next up is Shepp's "Street Song" the best cut on the lp for me,on which
he blows his tenor freely over the drums,congas,bells and gongs.The
piece ends in a crescendo of percussion culminating in a gong crash
which fades into silence."Euterpe's Favorit"has Shepp back on flute
with the family weaving a mystical feel behind him on
bells,whistles,water pipes,gongs,rattles and drums.
"Ardopetori"starts side 2 with a mid tempo infectious rhythm
established by shakers and log drum which builds slowly with Shepp
soloing freely again on tenor.
"For Ti Roro"wraps it up and begins with the gentle,caribean sounds of
steel drums until Shepp's soprano bursts in with a frenzy of
excitement.This is the most free track with all the musicians reacting
to each otherboth collectively and singularly until it finishes
fittingly with the sound of the congas.
This came out on lp and cd but quickly dissapeared without trace.if you
want a copy you gonna have to dig hard and have deep pockets!
[42]18 comments made-how about you?
[43]HIROSHI SUZUKI - CAT
Hiroshi Suzuki for Columbia Japan from 1975.
Hiroshi Suzuki-Trombone ; Hiromasa Suzuki-Keyboards ; Akira
Ishikawa-Drums ; Takeru Muraoka-Sax ; Kunimitsu Inaba-Bass
More super rare J Jazz making a first appearance in blogland and this
is an absolute beauty made up of 5 long cuts that hit the perfect
balance between jazz and fusion.Acoustic bass meshed with subtle funky
drums topped with lashings of Rhodes,trombone and sax deliver a really
stretched out understated rolling groove.
The album just grows and grows with repeated listening and it's a big
favourite over here at Bacoso's Big Top - no surprise that it's
ALL KILLER NO FILLER !
[44]34 comments made-how about you? 7.9.09
[45]T. INOMATA & SOUND L.T.D. - SOUNDS OF SOUND L.T.D.
Takeshi Inomata for Columbia Japan from 1970.
Takeshi Inomata (Drums & Percussion) Jun Suzuki (Electric Bass)
Shigetok Kamiya (Electric Guitar) Ryo Kawasaki (Electric Guitar)
Sho Imai (Trombone & Bass Trombone) Shigemichi Dohmoto (Trombone & Bass
Trombone)
Takao Uematsu (Tenor Sax & Soprano Sax)
Fantastic lp of funky jazz from the Columbia issued Groovy Sound
Series.
No idea who plays on it as the credits are all in Japanese but it's a
monster session.
Check out "Mustache" and "Tak's Tune" for some severe beats from
drummer/leader Takeshi Inomata.
All Killer No Filler - Highly Recommended!
[46]22 comments made-how about you? 29.8.09
[47]HIDEO SHIRAKI - IN FIESTA
Hideo Shiraki for Teichiku Japan from 1961.
Rare super tough hard bop session from Japan featuring the killer koto
led and drum driven bomb "In Fiesta".
Reissued in Japan by Kyoto Jazz Massive for Think in a blink and miss
it moment back in 2005 but now out of print.
The old Dusty Groove blurb:
A brilliant early album from Japanese drummer Hideo Shiraki a jazz
session that bristles with the same intensity as key late 50s work by
Benny Golson or Gigi Gryce! Although Hideo's leading the group on
drums, his work on the kit is remarkably subtle done with the
snappingly rhythmic style that marked some of Golson's best modern
experiments of a few years before not nearly as bombastic as his stint
with Art Blakey, and more in the rhythmically stepping quality of his
work with Art Farmer in the Jazztet. Key players on the session include
Hidehiko Matsumoto on tenor and flute and Yuzuru Sera on piano both of
whom give the album a fluid grace that's really beautiful soulful edges
that allow the record to stand equally next to anything coming out of
the US at the time. One track features a bit of koto at the start --
echoing Shiraki's later world jazz experiments but most of the set is
straight modern hardbop, with tracks that include "Blue Romeo", "Etude
No 1", "Just One Or Eight", "You Don't Know What Love Is", and Benny
Golson's "Five Spot After Dark".
[48]14 comments made-how about you? 18.8.09
[49]LLOYD MCNEILL - TREASURES
Lloyd McNeill for Baobab from 1976.
Lloyd McNeill-Flute ; Dom Salvador-Piano ; Cecil McBee-Bass ; Portinho
, Brian Brake-Drums ; Ray Armando-Percussion.
One for the flute freaks on a private press out of NYC.
Heavy Brazilian infuences at work on this wonderful spiritual jazz
session from the great Lloyd McNeill.Two originals,one standard and a
cracking version of Salvador's "Salvation Army" which featured on Dom's
'76 Muse debut "Minha Familia"(Available at [50]Ile Oxumare).
Here's some info on Lloyd McNeill from the excellent [51]Hipwax:
The first thing to know about Lloyd McNeill is that his are the very
best soul-jazz flute LPs, and each is first-rate, a masterpiece of
self-direction. The second thing to know is there is much more to him
than his recorded legacy. He is one of those incredible,
super-sensitive people who excels at every artistic idiom and endeavor;
making wonderful music is just part of his flowing creativity. A
professor (at Rutgers University, earlier Dartmouth), he has much to
say about music and creativity as well as an impeccable gift for saying
it...sensibly. McNeill's writings on his musical experiences provide
invaluable documents of "the period" (late 1960s-1970s) as well as a
rare glimpse at the joy of a relatively unsung master.
McNeill has played with jazz legends --Andrew White (his longtime
collaborator/producer), Eric Dolphy, Sabu Martinez, Mulatu Astatke,
among many others-- and he has had a significant hand in the arts scene
of Washington, D.C. The major galleries of art, including those of the
Smithsonian, sponsored multi-media "happenings" that soared far above
the hippie caricature of acid rock with light show. During the first
flowering of post-Civil Rights, African-American culture, the Lloyd
McNeill Quartet's improvisitory, simultaneuous jazz and large-scale
painting "happened" while a lucky, perhaps unsuspecting public drank it
in.
McNeill believes his influences and their results in his art, music,
and poetry are inseparable and mutually reinforcing. Time spent with
Picasso in Cannes, 1965 led to new expressions in all three, for
instance. And when one brushes against a force such as Picasso, just
the idea of "meeting Picasso" has a certain momentum, never mind the
inevitable casting of rays of a different kind of light. Canvas, vinyl,
the stage, paper, and books of poetry offer a few key imprints of
McNeill, and McNeill consistently pays tribute to many illustrious
peers.
There are six albums, all produced and entirely under the artist's
control. Each title surpasses anything comparable on the major labels,
even Blue Note. The Black Jazz label may be roughly similar in style,
but Asha and Baobab are wholly Lloyd McNeill. The records reflect none
of the usual external trends from the decade in which they were
recorded; all sound like 1971 rather than 1979. The final record even
reprises the first (the exotic, broodingly moody "Asha"), and the sound
throughout remains somewhat interchangeable and timeless. But each
record has its own themes and currents, and even improvisation has its
signatures and fingerprints.
Buying: Long out of print, collectors items, Lloyd McNeill records
should be snapped up on sight. Hip Wax is pleased to offer two titles
for which limited stock remains [52]here.
Warning - McNeill lps can be damaging to the [53]wallet.
[54]29 comments made-how about you? 14.8.09
[55]If Spike Lee Did Movies In Audio...
Greg's back on the mix with his old mucker Monohub - another mashed up
bomb in memory of Coltrane and the late,great George Russell.Grab it
[56]HERE.
Here's the blurb from big daddy himself:
I did a version of this a while back and was planning to publish on
July 17th as a memorial to the day that John Coltrane died, but, a
combination of lack of time, work commitments and other things got in
the way...
Anyway I redid it and am glad that i did as it's much better than the
original. This one strictly for the heads... and defo not for the feint
hearted. If you liked the Black State of Vietnam mix then this is for
you...
So as i said; In respect of John Coltrane and George Russell. Much
thanks to Monohub too although he plays down his part in this, his
genius did have a lot to do with it...
[57]1 comments made-how about you? 3.8.09
[58]SADAO WATANABE AND CHARLIE MARIANO - IBERIAN WALTZ
Sadao and Charlie for Tact Japan from 1967.
Sadao Watanabe (as) , Charlie Mariano (as) , Masabumi Kikuchi (p) ,
Masanaga Harada (b) , Masahiko Togashi (ds) , Fumio Watanabe (ds)
This received a "Japan Jazz Award" on release.
Some severe blowing on this double alto led sextet featuring a young
band of soon to be Japanese jazz luminaries.
The fast and furious "Palisades" was comped on the Sleepwalker Shibuya
Jazz Classics.However the 16 minute title cut is the stand out tune an
intense modal waltz with a Spanish tinge featuring coruscating solos
from Mariano and Watanabe - hard core stuff.
Recommended.
[59]16 comments made-how about you? 28.7.09
[60]JAMES MARENTIC SEXTET - NIMBUS
James Marentic for Discovery from 1982.
James Marentic-Sax/Flute; Tom Harrell -Trumpet/Flugelhorn; Slide
Hampton-Trombone; Larry Willis-Piano; Anthony Cox-Bass; Victor
Lewis-Drums.
Storming post hard bop outing for Mr Marentic and his all star band.
Check out the banging latin romp "Baile de las Cucharachas " which
kicks off the lp in fine style and the Coltrane inspired "Nimbus".
"Aphrodesia" has the inspiration of Kenny Dorham stamped all over it
and no prizes for guessing who "Mr Silver I Presume" is aimed at
If you enjoyed Tom Harrell's "Aurora" post then this should be right up
your street,round your corner and down your block!
[61]8 comments made-how about you? 23.7.09
[62]CARTER JEFFERSON - THE RISE OF ATLANTIS
Carter Jefferson for Timeless from 1978.
Terrific post bop album with latin influences -All Killer No Filler!
John Hicks (Piano), Terumasa Hino (Trumpet), Woody Shaw (Producer),
Clint Houston (Bass), Victor Lewis (Drums),Carter Jefferson (Sax ),
Lani Groves (Vocals), Shunzo Ohno (Trumpet), Steve Thornton
(Percussion), Harry Whitaker (Piano)
Here's the customary underwhelming AMG review :
Tenor saxophonist Carter Jefferson made somewhat of a name for himself
when trumpeter Woody Shaw chose him as a member of his first working
quintet. Shaw is the producer of this album, Jefferson's fine debut
(and evidently only) recording as a leader. Taking a cue from Shaw, the
saxophonist sticks essentially to a quintet of trumpet and sax backed
by all-star rhythm sections. Three of the tracks include hard bop
trumpeter Terumasa Hino while the other three feature little-known
Japanese trumpeter Shunzo Ono. Most of the tunes are firmly in the
school of hard bop, the sort of music that Woody Shaw played so well.
While there is not any new ground broken, it is all performed
competently enough. While not as emotionally charged as his work with
Shaw, Jefferson impresses with a fluid, mobile attack that shows a
solid grasp of his material. If the groups seem to be sometimes merely
going through the motions, there are nonetheless enough fine moments to
make this a worthwhile purchase.AMG.
A reliable and advanced soloist who spent most of his career as a
sideman, Carter Jefferson is best-remembered for his association with
Woody Shaw during 1977-1980. Jefferson started on clarinet and played
alto before settling on tenor, going on tour early in the backup bands
of the Temptations, the Supremes, and Little Richard. In 1971, he moved
to New York to attend New York University and soon spent two years with
Mongo Santamaria and a period in 1973 as a member of Art Blakey's Jazz
Messengers. After his important stint with Woody Shaw (with whom he
recorded several times), Jefferson worked with many top players,
including Elvin Jones, Roy Haynes, Cedar Walton, Jerry Gonzalez & the
Fort Apache Band, Malachi Thompson, and Jack Walrath's Masters of
Suspense. His premature death in Poland after emergency surgery was a
major loss. Carter Jefferson only led one record, The Rise of Atlantis,
on the Timeless label in 1978. AMG.
[63]33 comments made-how about you? 10.7.09
[64]JULIO GUTIERREZ - PROGRESSIVE LATIN
Julio Gutierrez for Gema from 1960.
The title says it all for this groundbreaking heavyweight descarga
session...Highly recommended.
Has anyone out there got a copy of Gutierrez's "Havana BC" they want to
sell me?If so leave me a message in the comments.
Progressive Latin should be considered a classic of Latin jazz if it
isn't already. "Cosa Buena" cooks, and "Closing Time" is a slower bossa
nova with flute and horns that captures the mood of a good night out at
its end. "Yambambe," an Afro rhythm behind mostly piano, sounds more
sophisticated than its simple construction. "El Altiplano" is supposed
to be an Incan melody with Afro elements. In any case, vocal
interjections pave the way for a longer descarga where a variety of
intriguing elements (horns, flute piano, even organ) work together in
their own weird ways and combinations. The "Route 66" theme arrangement
is a coup; the sax and flute are recorded gorgeously, and the piano and
conga pace it ideally, with brief drum solo breaks. "Sad City" is a
haunting flute piece, while "Guantanamera" has an interesting change
but there is only so much one can expect from this tune. "Malaguena" is
another long descarga that gets a little wild. Progressive Latin is
something of a masterpiece from the great arranger Julio Gutierrez.
Tony Wilds
What impressed me most about this album is Julio's use of space and the
length of the tunes, considering that in the era when it was recorded,
2 1/2 minute tunes were standard. Great musicians like El Negro Vivar
(trumpet) and Chombo Silva (sax) were able to beautifully stretch out
over an almost post-bop/Afro-Cuban jazz setting. There is some serious
blowing on this disc. This is another essential Latin jazz gem from the
late 50s/early 60s.
Jose Rizo
[65]22 comments made-how about you? 4.7.09
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About Rhythmweb
A Grassroots Network
[dada01a.jpg] (at left: World Unity Drum Festival, Club Dada, Dallas,
August 1994. My son Jules, shown at age 12 at left)
Rhythmweb started in December of 1996, as a reflection of my virtual
search for music and musicians on the Web, and as an excuse to woodshed
web design. Since then we have been amazed by the reponse we have
recieved, from all corners of the globe. From the Mid-East to
Australia, and from South Africa to Europe to New Orleans to Brazil to
Papua, NewGuinea, musicians are connecting. Truly, rhythm is a
universal language, love of music a universal love. Thanks to all our
new friends for connecting with us.
Our mission is to further the use of rhythm, music, and percussion &
related arts as a healing tool. We LOVE music. We LOVE the Web. When
our schedule permits, we surf several [kids097.jpg] hours a night, then
we post the fruits of our travels...
Every time we meet someone interesting with a rhythm related website,
we post a link. Some very worthwhile friendships have evolved along the
way, and we've discovered lots of good music.
We have since integrated affiliate links to CDs, books, and so forth,
but our basic mission remains the same. We are NOT a bunch of suits,
drooling e-commerce. We're musicians, artists. We believe it's
important for people at the grassroots level to network during this
crucial moment in history. If you'll notice, the vast majority of links
on rhythmweb are GRASSROOTS musicians, trying to get over in this new
economy. You will see no big over-rated stars from the conglomerate
record companies. Plenty of that elsewhere.
[eric_october03-01b-225.jpg] There are also fan pages and correspondent
pages here, on a large number of working musicians. Thanks very much to
all for your help. We are actively seeking musicians in various parts
of the world to drop us a line now and then, and let us know what the
percussion scene is like in your area. If you have a drum lesson you'd
like to share with our readers, please let us know, and perhaps we can
steer you some traffic in return.
If you have an instrument, a CD, or a DVD you'd like for us to review,
we may do that too, time permitting; please drop us a line about it.
And to the thousands of hobbyist , semi-pro and professional
percussionists who come seeking info, and bringing life and enthusiasm,
welcome. Don't hesitate to introduce yourself, and send us some
feedback, and some links.
Drum on,
Stu
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Rhythm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search
For other uses, see [8]Rhythm (disambiguation).
Rhythm (from [9]greek rhuthµo'*s - rhythmos, "any measured flow or
movement, symmetry") is the variation of the length and accentuation of
a series of sounds or other events.
Contents
* [10]1 Rhythm in linguistics
* [11]2 Origins of human appreciation of rhythm
* [12]3 Rhythm notation and the oral tradition
+ [13]3.1 African music
+ [14]3.2 Indian music
+ [15]3.3 Western music
* [16]4 Types
* [17]5 See also
* [18]6 Notes
* [19]7 Sources
* [20]8 Further reading
[[21]edit] Rhythm in linguistics
The study of rhythm, stress, and [22]pitch in [23]speech is called
[24]prosody; it is a topic in [25]linguistics. Narmour (1980,
p. 147-53) describes three categories of prosodic rules which create
rhythmic successions which are additive (same duration repeated),
cumulative (short-long), or countercumulative (long-short). Cumulation
is associated with closure or relaxation, countercumulation with
openness or tension, while additive rhythms are open-ended and
repetitive. Richard Middleton points out this method cannot account for
[26]syncopation and suggests the concept of [27]transformation.
A [28]rhythmic unit is a [29]durational pattern which occupies a period
of time equivalent to a [30]pulse or pulses on an underlying [31]metric
level, as opposed to a [32]rhythmic gesture which does not (DeLone et
al. (Eds.), 1975
[[33]edit] Origins of human appreciation of rhythm
In his series How Music Works, [34]Howard Goodall presents theories
that rhythm recalls how we walk and the heartbeat we heard in the womb.
More likely is that a simple pulse or [35]di-dah beat recalls the
footsteps of another person. Our sympathetic urge to dance is designed
to boost our energy levels in order to cope with someone, or some
animal chasing us - a fight or flight response. From a less darwinist
perspective, perceiving rhythm is the ability to master the otherwise
invisible dimension, time. Rhythm is possibly also rooted in courtship
ritual.^[36][1]
Neurologist [37]Oliver Sacks posits that human affinity for rhythm is
fundamental, so much that a person's sense of rhythm cannot be lost in
the way that music and language can (e.g. by [38]stroke). In addition,
he states that [39]chimpanzees and other animals show no similar
appreciation for rhythm.^[40][2]
[[41]edit] Rhythm notation and the oral tradition
Worldwide there are many different approaches to passing on rhythmic
phrases and patterns, as they exist in traditional music, from
generation to generation.
[[42]edit] African music
In the [43]Griot tradition of Africa everything related to music has
been passed on orally. [44]Babatunde Olatunji (1927-2003), a Nigerian
drummer who lived and worked in the [45]United States, developed a
simple series of spoken sounds for teaching the rhythms of the hand
drum. He used six vocal sounds: Goon Doon Go Do Pa Ta. There are three
basic sounds on the drum, but each can be played with either the left
or the right hand. This simple system is now used worldwide,
particularly by [46]Djembe players.
[[47]edit] Indian music
Indian music has also been passed on orally. Tabla players would learn
to speak complex rhythm patterns and phrases before attempting to play
them. [48]Sheila Chandra, an English pop singer of Indian descent, made
performances based around her singing these patterns. In [49]Indian
Classical music, the [50]Tala of a composition is the rhythmic pattern
over which the whole piece is structured.
[[51]edit] Western music
Standard [52]music notation contains rhythmic information and is
adapted specifically for drums and percussion instruments. The drums
are generally used to keep other instruments in 'time'. They do this by
supplying beats/strikes in time at a certain pace, i.e. 70 beats per
minute (bpm). In [53]Rock music, a drum beat is used to keep a
[54]bass/[55]guitar line in time.
[[56]edit] Types
In [57]Western music, rhythms are usually arranged with respect to a
[58]time signature, partially signifying a meter. The speed of the
underlying [59]pulse is sometimes called the [60]beat. The [61]tempo is
a measure of how quickly the pulse repeats. The tempo is usually
measured in 'beats per minute' (bpm); 60 bpm means a speed of one beat
per second. The length of the meter, or metric unit (usually
corresponding with [62]measure length), is usually grouped into either
two or three beats, being called [63]duple meter and [64]triple meter,
respectively. If each beat is divided by two or four, it is [65]simple
meter, if by three (or six) [66]compound meter. According to [67]Pierre
Boulez, beat structures beyond four are "simply not natural".^[68][3].
His reference is to western European music.
Standard notation of a clave pattern on audio clip clave pattern.ogg
[69]Syncopated rhythms are rhythms that accent parts of the beat not
already stressed by [70]counting. Playing simultaneous rhythms in more
than one time signature is called [71]polymeter. See also
[72]polyrhythm. In recent years, rhythm and meter have become an
important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these
areas includes books by [73]Maury Yeston, [74]Fred Lerdahl and [75]Ray
Jackendoff, [76]Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty, William Rothstein,
and Joel Lester.
Grid notation of single a clave pattern
Some [77]genres of music make different use of rhythm than others. Most
Western music is based on [78]subdivision, while non-Western music uses
more [79]additive rhythm. [80]African music makes heavy use of
[81]polyrhythms, and [82]Indian music uses [83]complex cycles such as 7
and 13, while [84]Balinese music often uses complex [85]interlocking
rhythms. By comparison, a lot of Western [86]classical music is fairly
rhythmically (or metrically) simple; it stays in a [87]simple meter
such as 4/4 or 3/4 and makes little use of [88]syncopation.
[89]Clave is a common underlying rhythm in [90]African, [91]Cuban
music, and [92]Brazilian music.
[93]Claves
(Submit) Play sound
Four beats followed by three Clave patterns
__________________________________________________________________
Problems listening to this file? See [94]media help.
In the 20th century, [95]composers like [96]Igor Stravinsky, [97]Bela
Bartok, [98]Philip Glass, and [99]Steve Reich wrote more rhythmically
complex music using [100]odd meters, and techniques such as
[101]phasing and [102]additive rhythm. At the same time, modernists
such as [103]Olivier Messiaen and his pupils used increased complexity
to disrupt the sense of a regular beat, leading eventually to the
widespread use of [104]irrational rhythms in [105]New Complexity. This
use may be explained by a comment of [106]John Cage's^[[107]where?]
where he notes that regular rhythms cause sounds to be heard as a group
rather than individually; the irregular rhythms highlight the rapidly
changing pitch relationships that would otherwise be subsumed into
irrelevant rhythmic groupings (Sandow 2004, p. 257). [108]LaMonte Young
also wrote music in which the sense of a regular beat is absent because
the music consists only of long sustained tones ([109]drones). In the
1930s, [110]Henry Cowell wrote music involving multiple simultaneous
periodic rhythms and collaborated with [111]Léon Thérémin to invent the
[112]Rhythmicon, the first electronic [113]rhythm machine, in order to
perform them. Similarly, [114]Conlon Nancarrow wrote for the
[115]player piano.
[[116]edit] See also
* [117]Meter (music)
* [118]Prosody (linguistics)
* [119]Riddim
* [120]Morse Code
* [121]Soul (music)
* [122]Time scale (music)
* [123]Timing (linguistics)
[[124]edit] Notes
1. [125]^ [126]Mithen, Steven (2005). [127]The Singing Neanderthals:
The Origins of Music, Language, Mind and Body.. London: Weidenfeld
& Nicolson.. [128]ISBN [129]0297643177.
2. [131]^ [132]Jon Stewart, [133]Oliver Sacks. (2009-06-29). [134]The
Daily Show with Jon Stewart. [Television production]. Comedy
Central.
itle=oliver-sacks. "People often tried to teach their dogs to
dance--it doesn't work."
3. [136]^ In [137]Discovering Music: Rhythm with [138]Leonard Slatkin
at 5:05
[[139]edit] Sources
* Hasty, Christopher (1997). Meter as Rhythm. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. [140]ISBN 0-19-510066-2.
* London, Justin (2004). Hearing in Time: Psychological Aspects of
Musical Meter. [141]ISBN 0-19-516081-9.
* Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music.
Philadelphia: Open University Press. [142]ISBN 0-335-15275-9.
* Narmour (1980). Cited in DeLone et al. (Eds.) (1975). Aspects of
Twentieth-Century Music. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall. [143]ISBN 0-13-049346-5.
* Sandow, Greg (2004). "A Fine Madness", The Pleasure of Modernist
Music. [144]ISBN 1-58046-143-3.
* Yeston, Maury (1976). "The Stratification of Musical Rhythm".
[[145]edit] Further reading
* McGaughey, William (2001). "Rhythm and Self-Consciousness: New
Ideals for an Electronic Civilization". Minneapolis: Thistlerose
Publications. [146]ISBN 0-9605630-4-0.
* Honing, H. (2002). [147]"Structure and interpretation of rhythm and
timing." Tijdschrift voor Muziektheorie [Dutch Journal of Music
Theory] 7(3): 227-232.
* Lewis, Andrew (2005). Rhythm--What it is and How to Improve Your
Sense of It. San Francisco: [148]RhythmSource Press. [149]ISBN
978-0-9754667-0-4.
* Williams, C. F. A., The Aristoxenian Theory of Musical Rhythm,
(Cambridge Library Collection - Music), Cambridge University Press;
1st edition, 2009.
* Toussaint, G. T., "The geometry of musical rhythm," In J. Akiyama,
M. Kano, and X. Tan, editors, Proceedings of the Japan Conference
on Discrete and Computational Geometry, Vol. 3742, Lecture Notes in
Computer Science, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2005, pp. 198-212.
[150]v o [151]d o [152]e
[153]Musical notation and [154]development
[155]Staff
[156]Bar & Bar line · [157]Clef · [158]Da capo · [159]Dal segno ·
[160]Key signature · [161]Ledger line · [162]Musical mode ·
[163]Musical scale · [164]Rehearsal letter · [165]Repeat sign ·
[166]Time signature · [167]Transposition · [168]Transposing instrument
[169]G (treble) clef symbol
[170]Notes
[171]Accidental ([172]Flat · [173]Natural · [174]Sharp) · [175]Dotted
note · [176]Grace note · [177]Note value ([178]Beam · [179]Note head ·
[180]Stem) · [181]Pitch · [182]Rest · [183]Interval · [184]Letter
notation
[185]Articulation
[186]Dynamics · [187]Ornament ([188]Trill · [189]Mordent · [190]Grace
note) · [191]Ossia · [192]Portato · [193]Accent · [194]Legato ·
[195]Tenuto · [196]Marcato · [197]Staccato · [198]Staccatissimo ·
[199]Tie · [200]Slur · [201]Fermata
[202]Development
[203]Coda · [204]Exposition · [205]Harmony · [206]Melody · [207]Motif ·
[208]Recapitulation · Rhythm ([209]Beat · [210]Meter · [211]Tempo) ·
[212]Theme · [213]Tonality · [214]Atonality
Related
[215]Chord chart · [216]Figured bass · [217]Graphic notation ·
[218]Lead sheet · [219]Eye music · [220]Modern musical symbols ·
[221]Neume · [222]Tablature
[224]Categories: [225]Rhythm | [226]Greek loanwords
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[1]Daniel Laberge music
Rhythm explained
including
27 rhythm exercises
by Daniel Laberge
Rhythm figure
Hi rhythm lovers,
I've devised these exercises in the early seventies while teaching
music.
I could not find any existing book that saw rhythm the way I did.
This method is based on "rhythmic figures" or rhythm possibilities.
Each one lasts one beat.
I simply counted the rhythmic possibilities one could encounter for
each type of beat divisions.
There are:
o Four rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by two
o Eight rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by three
o Sixteen rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by four
I composed the exercises back then and used them for my teaching, but I
only wrote the theory that goes along in 2002.
The book is called "Rhythm explained" and I am gradually placing its
content here.
Each exercise is preceded by a lesson, with graphic representations,
and includes an audio rendition to help you.
You can choose between three speeds.
For jazz musicians, the binary exercises also have a swing or double
swing performance. Go to the bottom of the page for a link to the swing
version.
Choose among the following exercises:
Beat exercises
[2]Rhythm exercise 1-1
Featured figures
[3][onequarternote1.gif] [4] [onehalfnote1.gif] [5]
[dottedhalfnote1.gif] [6] [wholenote1.gif]
[7]Rhythm exercise 1-2
Featured figures
[8][quarternoterest1.gif] [9] [halfnoterest1.gif] [10]
[wholenoterest1.gif]
[11]Rhythm exercise 1-3
Featured figures
[12][quarternoterest1.gif] [13] [halfnoterest1.gif] [14]
[dottedhalfnoterest1.gif] [15] [wholenoterest1.gif]
Binary beat division
The binary family is large as it includes:
o Division by two
o Division by four
o Part of division by six
o Division by eight
This section is concerned with the simple division by two.
Any binary beat has two alternating parts: the downbeat and the upbeat.
Binary beat
[binarybeat1.gif]
As you can see, there are only two places in a beat
where events or notes can be positioned or played:
o The downbeat
o The upbeat
How
rhythmic
possibilities
work
This means that for any given beat you can have
any of the four following possibilities:
1 o Only one event on the downbeat.
2 o Events on both the downbeat and the upbeat.
3 o No event at all.
4 o Only one event on the upbeat.
[possibilitiesbytwosimple1.gif]
The rhythmic figure used to represent a binary beat is called:
TWO EIGHTH NOTES
[masterfigurebinary1.gif]
Binary
master
rhythmic
figure
Simple binary rhythmic figures
4 possibilities:
o 2 Primary
o 2 Secondary
[possibilitiesbytwo1.gif]
Secondary rhythmic figures lack the event that falls on the beat.
There is a secondary figure for each primary one.
Because the beat is so important, secondary figures have appeared after
the primary ones had been well established.
The absence of event falling on the beat can be due to a silence or a
sound that is held over from the preceding beat.
Because of this, there are two ways to notate secondary figures:
o With a rest
o With a tie
[primarysecondary1.gif]
Primary
and
secondary
rhythmic
figures
Choose among the following exercises:
Binary exercises
PRIMARY
[16]Rhythm exercise 2-1
Featured figure
[17][twoeighthnotes2.gif]
[18]Rhythm exercise 2-2
Featured figures
[19][twoeighthnotes2.gif] [20] [quarternoterest2.gif]
SECONDARY
[21]Rhythm exercise 2-3
Featured figure
[22][dottedquarternoteeighth2.gif]
[23]Rhythm exercise 2-4
Featured figure
[24][eighthnotesyncopationa2.gif]
[25]Rhythm exercise 2-5
Featured figure
[26][twoeighttieonequarter2.gif]
MULTIPLE SYNCOPATIONS
[27]Rhythm exercise 2-6
Featured figure
[28][doublesyncopationa2.gif]
Ternary beat division
The ternary family is small as it includes:
o Division by three
o Part of division by six
Everything goes in thirds in ternary music.
Any ternary beat has one downbeat and two upbeats.
Ternary beat
[ternarybeat1.gif]
The rhythmic figure used to represent a ternary beat is called:
THREE EIGHTH NOTES
[masterfigureternary1.gif]
Ternary
master
rhythmic
figure
Writing
ternary
rhythm
In ternary music writing, each eighth note is worth one third of a
beat.
Since two eighth notes always equal one quarter note, these now equal
two thirds of a beat.
It takes a dotted quarter note to represent one beat.
[ternarywriting1.gif]
Ternary rhythmic figures
8 possibilities:
o 4 Primary
o 4 Secondary
[possibilitiesbythree1.gif]
Choose among the following exercises:
Ternary exercises
PRIMARY
[29]Rhythm exercise 3-1
Featured figure
[30][threeeighth2.gif]
[31]Rhythm exercise 3-2
Featured figure
[32][onequarteroneeighth2.gif]
[33]Rhythm exercise 3-3
Featured figure
[34][oneeighthonequarter2.gif]
SECONDARY
[35]Rhythm exercise 3-1s
Featured figure
[36][8threst2eighth2.gif] OR [37] [tie3eighth2.gif]
[38]Rhythm exercise 3-2s
Featured figure
[39][quarternoterestoneeighth2.gif] OR [40]
[tiequarternote1eighth.gif]
[41]Rhythm exercise 3-3s
Featured figure
[42][8threst1quarternote2.gif] OR [43] [tie1eighth1quarter2.gif]
Division by four
Beats divided by four are part of the binary family.
Everything goes in quarters in this feel.
Beat
divided
by
four
[binarybeat2.gif]
The rhythmic figure used to represent a beat divided by four
is called:
FOUR SIXTEENTH NOTES
[masterfigurebyfour1.gif]
Division
by four
master
rhythmic
figure
Binary rhythmic figures
16 possibilities:
o 8 Primary
o 8 Secondary
[possibilitiesbyfour1.gif]
Choose among the following exercises:
Division by four exercises
PRIMARY
[44]Rhythm exercise 4-1
Featured figure
[45][foursixteenth2.gif]
[46]Rhythm exercise 4-2
Featured figure
[47][oneeighthtwosixteenth2.gif]
[48]Rhythm exercise 4-3
Featured figure
[49][twosixteenthoneeighth2.gif]
[50]Rhythm exercise 4-4
Featured figure
[51][dottedeighthonesixteenth2.gif]
[52]Rhythm exercise 4-5
Featured figure
[53][onesixteenthdottedeighth2.gif]
[54]Rhythm exercise 4-6
Featured figure
[55][16th8th16th2.gif]
SECONDARY
[56]Rhythm exercise 4-1s
Featured figure
[57][16threst3sixteenth2.gif] OR [58] [tiefoursixteenth2.gif]
[59]Rhythm exercise 4-2s
Featured figure
[60][8threst2sixteenth2.gif] OR [61] [tie1eighth2sixteenth2.gif]
[62]Rhythm exercise 4-3s
Featured figure
[63][16threst1sixteenth1eighth2.gif] OR [64]
[tie2sixteenth1eighth2.gif]
[65]Rhythm exercise 4-4s
Featured figure
[66][dotted8threst1sixteenth2.gif] OR [67]
[tiedottereight1sixteenth2.gif]
[68]Rhythm exercise 4-5s
Featured figure
[69][16threstdotted8th.gif] OR [70] [tie16thdotted8th2.gif]
[71]Rhythm exercise 4-6s
Featured figure
[72][16threst1eighth1sixteenth2.gif] OR [73]
[tieone16thone8thone16th2.gif]
[74]Bugs, problems
and comments [75]Daniel Laberge music
Références
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Liens cachés :
#[1]ORGY IN RHYTHM - Atom [2]ORGY IN RHYTHM - RSS
IFRAME:
IN+RHYTHM&publishMode=PUBLISH_MODE_BLOGSPOT&navbarType=BLACK&layoutType
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ORGY IN RHYTHM
[6]JAZZ HIP TRIO - JAZZ EN RELIEF
Jazz Hip Trio for Riviera France from 1967.
Jean-Bernard Eisinger Piano ; Roger Luccioni Bass ;Daniel Humair Drums.
More beautiful music from France on this the first Jazz Hip Trio LP.
"Orange Boom" was the big tune back in the day but the rest is just
fabulous.
Needless to say.....All Killer No Filler
Another first in public blogland here at OIR.
[7]12 comments made-how about you? 12.1.10
[8]MAL WALDRON - TOKYO BOUND
Mal Waldron for RCA Victor Japan from 1970.
Mal Waldron-Piano;Takeshi Inomata-Drums;Yasuo Arakawa-Bass
Tremendous all killer trio date with Waldron joined by a top flight
Japanese rhythm section on four original compositions which only saw a
release in Japan.Check out the rocking intensity of "Rock One For Jimbo
San" and "Japanese Island" which builds from an ominous brooding intro
into a marvellous modal waltz."Atomic Energy" blows up with a headlong
banging vamp from Waldron's left hand while the right runs all over the
keys and then to close "Mount Fujiyama" a more introspective rumination
and dissection of the tune's theme.
Inomata's drumming is a revelation throughout the session intricate yet
swinging with fantastic use of cymbals.(Don't forget to check out
Inomata's Sound of Sounds lp also recorded in 1970 which I posted
[9]here during the summer)
Respect to El Goog for introducing me to this great album.I finally
picked a copy up from Japan via ebay last month - not cheap but worth
every penny.
Very highly recomnmended.
[10]37 comments made-how about you? 20.12.09
[11]THE HERBIE HANCOCK TRIO
Herbie Hancock for Sony Japan from 1977.
Herbie Hancock-Piano;Ron Carter-Bass;Tony Williams-Drums
The big three keep it strictly acoustic for this Japanese only release
from CBS Sony. 4 originals from Herb plus a rapid romp through
"Milestones"...tough stuff.
The first V.S.O.P. tour triggered a flood of recording activity in July
1977, but only a fraction of it was released in the U.S. This session,
recorded in San Francisco just days before the Quintet concerts in
Berkeley and San Diego, finds Herbie Hancock, Ron Carter and Tony
Williams mixing it up sans the horns and the results are more
reflective and cerebral than the full Quintet concerts. Hancock is
thoroughly in control of the agenda while Williams throws in those
meter-fracturing flurries that keep everyone on their toes. There is a
startling re-interpretation of "Speak like a Child" which is
significantly tougher and busier than the wistful Blue Note version, as
well as challenging Hancock originals like "Watcha Waiting For" and
"Watch It." This is uncompromising acoustic jazz, commercial anathema
in the electronic '70s -and thus, only Japan got to hear it. Richard S.
Ginell.
[12]16 comments made-how about you? 13.12.09
[13]JAZZ HIP TRIO - PORTRAITS
Jazz Hip Trio for Riviera France from 1968.
Jean-Bernard Eisinger Piano ; Roger Luccioni Bass ;Daniel Humair Drums.
Piano trios are the theme for my the next few posts and what better way
to start than with some beautiful music from France on it's first time
out in blogland here at OIR.
10 original compositions which grow and grow on repeated listening -
get past the "Sidewinder" influenced dance floor intro tune "Bat Rock"
and you're in for a swinging set of subtle trio sounds.Of course it's
gotta be......
All Killer No Filler
[14]23 comments made-how about you? 6.12.09
[15]THE DIAMOND FIVE - BRILLIANT !
The Diamond Five for Fontana from 1964.
Personnel: Cees Slinger: piano; Harry Verbeke: tenor sax; Cees Smal:
trumpet, cornet and valve trombone; Jacques Schols: bass; Johnny
Engels: drums.
Please check the comments as Chazz has also ripped The Five
Diamonds-Finally After Forty Years cd reissue from Japan and will be
posting the link shortly.Over to you Chazz!
I don't post donations at OIR but just had to make an exception when
this was winged across the pond to me from Chazz Katz.It's a very rare
piece of hard bop from Holland which made a blink and miss it reissue
on cd some years ago in Japan (original vinyl goes for silly money
anywhere between $600-$1000) and has never appeared in blogland
before.Here's the notes and cheers to Chazz for his rip!
Nice work chap - All Killer No Filler!
The Diamond Five, a Dutch quintet led by pianist Cees Slinger, was
founded in 1959 and lasted until 1965. They were based at the
Sheherazade Club in Amsterdam and were quite popular, playing all over
Holland and accompanying expatriate American musicians on their visits
to Amsterdam. However, when the club closed its doors due to a shift in
popular interest from jazz to rock music, the quintet disbanded. This
1964 recording is their only session available on CD. The music is hard
bop on the surface, but is neither formulaic nor a copy of the genres
imported from the U.S.
The musicians are quite unique in their style. Slinger plays sparse
notes on his solos, utilizing well-placed pauses in the music to create
melodic hard bop with hints of more forward-looking styles. The other
outstanding soloist is tenor saxophonist Harry Verbeke, whose solos (in
contrast to that of the leader) are filled with a multitude of notes
played in the modal vein. The others are also quite stellar, the bass
and the drums providing a loose bluesy support and horn man Cees Smal
adding something unique with the sounds of his different horns,
switching between valve trombone, cornet and trumpet.
[16]26 comments made-how about you? 26.11.09
[17]BOBBY HUTCHERSON - CIRRUS
Bobby Hutcherson for Blue Note from 1974.
Hutch is playing four sets in London this weekend so Katonah from
Private Press and I will be propping up the bar for his late spot at
Scotts tomorrow night.
So here's a 3rd repost for his evergreen "Cirrus" ....All Killer No
Filler.
This was my very first Bobby Hutcherson post here at OIR back in may
2006.It was ripped from my vinyl copy @192 in those days-I've reupped
it @320 this time and taken it from the superb Mosaic Select box
set.Here's my original narrative:
Cirrus finds Bobby Hutcherson resuming his partnership with tenor
saxophonist Harold Land, and the results are marvellous. The pair work
with pianist Bill Henderson, trumpeter Woody Shaw, bassist Ray
Drummond, drummer Larry Hancock, saxophonist/flautist Emmanuel Boyd and
percussionist Kenneth Nash on this set of originals.The album starts
with a great version of Woody Shaw's "Rosewood" while the rest of the
set is written by Hutcherson and includes "Even Later".Highlight of the
lp for me is the atmospheric and brooding "Zuri Dance" - what a corker
!
[18]36 comments made-how about you? 13.11.09
[19]DAVE PIKE - LET THE MINSTRELS PLAY ON
Dave Pike for Muse from 1978.
Vibraphone - Dave Pike / Bass - Luther Hughes / Cello - Luther Hughes /
Drums - Ted Hawkes / Guitar - Ron Eschete / Keyboards , Sax - Tom
Ranier / Vocals - Carol Eschete.
KGML has just posted "Spirits Samba" so dug the lp out for those who
would like to hear more.
Picked this up in Tony Monson's Disc Empire in the early 80s after
hearing Chris Bangs spinning "Swan Lake" and found it had yet another
bona fide jazz dance classic to be featured in the shape of "Spirits
Samba".
Here's an apathetic review from amg:
Some Afro-Latin, some fusion and things in between from vibist Dave
Pike. Pike is a good player, but sometimes his arrangements bog down
between pop and jazz. His style is more remniscent of Red Norvo, with
its lighter, less aggressive and flowing lines.
[20]12 comments made-how about you? 12.11.09
[21]RANDY WESTON - BLUE MOSES
Randy Weston For CTI from 1972.
Arranged By - Don Sebesky;Bass - Bill Wood (2) (tracks: B1) , Ron
Carter ;Drums - Bill Cobham ;English Horn, Clarinet, Flute - George
Marge ;Flugelhorn - Alan Rubin , John Frosk , Marvin Stamm ;Flute -
Hubert Laws ;French Horn - Brooks Tillotson , James Buffington ;Oboe,
Clarinet, Flute - Romeo Penque ;Piano - Randy Weston
Saxophone [Tenor] - Grover Washington, Jr ;Synthesizer [Moog] - David
Horowitz
Trombone - Garnett Brown , Warren Covington , Wayne Andre ;Trombone -
Paul Faulise
Trumpet - Freddie Hubbard ;Vocals - Madasme Meddah
Super heavyweight banger from CTI - trust Randy Weston to dispense with
Creed Taylor's saccharine stylings.All Killer blah blah blah....
Another underwhelming review from Mr Yannow:
Randy Weston's most popular record, this Lp (which he had mixed
feelings about) features Weston not only on piano but electric
keyboards. Backed by Don Sebesky arrangements and assisted by trumpeter
Freddie Hubbard and tenor-saxophonist Grover Washington Jr., Weston
plays quite well on four of his compositions; best-known are "Ganawa
(Blue Moses)" and "Marrakesh Blues." The music retains the African feel
of most of Weston's latter-day playing but also has some commercial
touches that do not hurt the performances. This rewarding date has not
yet been reissued on CD. ~ Scott Yanow, All Music Guide
Fantastic cover art from Pete Turner - I highly recommend his book[22]
here.
[23]16 comments made-how about you? 7.11.09
[24]BLACKCLASSICAL - 1ST BIRTHDAY MEGAMIX
Blackclassical has taken off his flat cap ,put the racing pigeons away
and is celebrating his first year on t'interwebs with a mighty mp3 mash
up of spiritual jazz goodness[25] here.Proof indeed that it's not all
grim up north.
Happy Birthday you old bastard - now get the lagers in and make sure
they've got vodka tops you tightarse.
[26]3 comments made-how about you? 6.11.09
[27]TUBBT HAYES - TUBBS IN N.Y.
Tubby Hayes for Fontana from 1961.
Saxophone [Tenor] - Tubby Hayes; Bass - George Duvivier; Drums - Dave
Bailey ;Piano - Horace Parlan ;
Trumpet - Clark Terry;Vibraphone - Eddie Costa
Another first in blogland for this British vinyl rarity at OIR with
Tubbs keeping heavy company in NYC . Apparently there was legal
wrangling about who owns the masters so don't hold your breath waiting
for a cd issue.The last one got pulled pronto upon release in 1990.
The swaggering "A Pint Of Bitter" was my very first exposure to Hayes
back in the early 80s - I just love that tune - but the rest is just as
good with flat out romps through "Opus Ocean" and "Airegin" plus a
wonderfuly swinging "Soon" . Nice!
[28]26 comments made-how about you? 31.10.09
[29]TUBBY HAYES QUARTET - TUBBY'S GROOVE
Tubby Hayes for Tempo from 1960.
Tubby Hayes (ts), Terry Shannon (p), Phil Bates (b), Phil Seamen (d).
"Tin Tin Deo" killin' it every time for me on this rare piece of
British wax from 50 years ago.
Simon Spillet has written a fascinating piece on Tubby at[30]
Jazzscript and here's his take on this album:
I think it's one of Tubby's best ever studio recordings and catches him
very much in his prime. I suppose that the stand-out track for me has
to be Sunny Monday with its unaccompanied tenor choruses. The tone is
big, the rhythmic delivery is full of confidence and the sheer
enthusiasm shines through half a century on.
[31]23 comments made-how about you? 30.10.09
[32]STAFFAN ABELEEN QUINTET -PERSEPOLIS
Staffan Abeleen for Philips Sweden from 1964.
Staffan Abeleen-Piano ; Lasse Farnlof - Trumpet ; Bjorn Netz - Tenor ;
Bjorn Alke - Bass ; Bosse Skoglund - Drums
More top draw business from Sweden making a first appearance in
blogland.Modal to bossa to ballads this one's got the lot:
ALL KILLER NO FILLER
[33]15 comments made-how about you? 15.10.09
[34]BERNT ROSENGREN BIG BAND - FIRST MOVES
Bernt Rosengren for EMI Sweden from 1977.
Bassoon, Horn - Lars Bagge/Clarinet, Clarinet [Bass], Saxophone
[Soprano, Alto, Baritone] - Lennart Jansson /Congas - Johnny Martinez ,
René Martinez , Sabu Martinez
Cornet , Flugelhorn - Lars Färnlöf /Drums - Leif Wennerström/Flute,
Saxophone -Bernt Rosengren /Horn [English], Saxophone - Tommy Koverhult
/ Percussion - Okay Temiz / Piano - Claes-Göran Fagerstedt / Piano,
Piano [Electric] - Bobo Stenson / Saxophone [Baritone] - Gunnar
Bergsten / Saxophone [Tenor] - Anders Lindskog / Trombone - Jan Jansson
, Janus Miezek , Lars Olofsson , Lennart Löfgren / Trombone [Bass] -
Sven Larsson /Trumpet - Björn Borg /Trumpet , Flugelhorn - Bertil
Lövgren , Maffy Falay / Bass - Torbjörn Hultcrantz
Back over to Sweden for this killer big band session led by Bernt
Rosengren and featuring some big names such as a pre-ECM Bobo
Stenson,the wonderful Lars Farnlof and none other than the mighty Sabu
Martinez.
Check out the percussion destruction of "Felicidade" with Sabu plus
sons Johnny and Rene Martinez beating the crap out of the Jobim bossa
standard... Murdah!!!
[35]19 comments made-how about you? 1.10.09
[36]JAZZ QUINTET 60
Jazz Quintet 60 from 1962 for Metronome Denmark.
Allan Botschinsky (tp), Niels Husum (ts), Bent Axen (p), Niels-Henning
Orsted Pedersen (b), Bjarne Rostvold (ds).
Legendary Scandinavian rarity (Check the second mortgage prices on
[37]Popsike) from Denmark featuring a who's who of the Danish Jazz
scene from the past 50 years.
First time it's has been posted in public blogland so don't sleep on
this one :
ALL KILLER NO FILLER !
[38]27 comments made-how about you? 27.9.09
[39]STAFFAN ABELEEN QUINTET - DOWNSTREAM
Staffan Abeleen Quintet for Philips Sweden from 1966.
Staffan Abeleen - Piano ; Lasse Farnlof - Trumpet ; Bjorn Netz - Sax ;
Bosse Skugland - Drums ; Paul Danielsson - Bass.
All compositions by Lars Farnlof
Scandinavia is the destination for my next batch of posts and what
better way to start than with this superb album by The Staffen Abeleen
Quintet playing the compositions of the wonderful Lars Farnlof.
Another first appearance in blogland but let the music do the talking
...
ALL KILLER NO FILLER
[40]15 comments made-how about you? 19.9.09
[41]ARCHIE SHEPP & THE FAMILY OF PERCUSSION - HERE COMES THE FAMILY
I have had lots of requests for a repost of this bomb from Archie Shepp
and The Family of Percussion - so here it is.
First posted at OIR september 2006.
The Family of Percussion (Peter Giger,Trilok Gurtu,Doug Hammond and Tom
Nicholas)are joined by Archie Shepp on this hard to find 1980 release
from Nagara in Germany.
On "Here Comes the Family"the Family establish the basic form of the
piece with their rhythmic and vocal opening with Shepp's flute
fluttering above it all.Then he lets rip with what the liner notes call
'Poetic Recitation'but would probably be called rapping these days over
a funky percussive backdrop .This tune is why the lp remains in such
demand - a big play list favourite of djs world wide.
Next up is Shepp's "Street Song" the best cut on the lp for me,on which
he blows his tenor freely over the drums,congas,bells and gongs.The
piece ends in a crescendo of percussion culminating in a gong crash
which fades into silence."Euterpe's Favorit"has Shepp back on flute
with the family weaving a mystical feel behind him on
bells,whistles,water pipes,gongs,rattles and drums.
"Ardopetori"starts side 2 with a mid tempo infectious rhythm
established by shakers and log drum which builds slowly with Shepp
soloing freely again on tenor.
"For Ti Roro"wraps it up and begins with the gentle,caribean sounds of
steel drums until Shepp's soprano bursts in with a frenzy of
excitement.This is the most free track with all the musicians reacting
to each otherboth collectively and singularly until it finishes
fittingly with the sound of the congas.
This came out on lp and cd but quickly dissapeared without trace.if you
want a copy you gonna have to dig hard and have deep pockets!
[42]18 comments made-how about you?
[43]HIROSHI SUZUKI - CAT
Hiroshi Suzuki for Columbia Japan from 1975.
Hiroshi Suzuki-Trombone ; Hiromasa Suzuki-Keyboards ; Akira
Ishikawa-Drums ; Takeru Muraoka-Sax ; Kunimitsu Inaba-Bass
More super rare J Jazz making a first appearance in blogland and this
is an absolute beauty made up of 5 long cuts that hit the perfect
balance between jazz and fusion.Acoustic bass meshed with subtle funky
drums topped with lashings of Rhodes,trombone and sax deliver a really
stretched out understated rolling groove.
The album just grows and grows with repeated listening and it's a big
favourite over here at Bacoso's Big Top - no surprise that it's
ALL KILLER NO FILLER !
[44]34 comments made-how about you? 7.9.09
[45]T. INOMATA & SOUND L.T.D. - SOUNDS OF SOUND L.T.D.
Takeshi Inomata for Columbia Japan from 1970.
Takeshi Inomata (Drums & Percussion) Jun Suzuki (Electric Bass)
Shigetok Kamiya (Electric Guitar) Ryo Kawasaki (Electric Guitar)
Sho Imai (Trombone & Bass Trombone) Shigemichi Dohmoto (Trombone & Bass
Trombone)
Takao Uematsu (Tenor Sax & Soprano Sax)
Fantastic lp of funky jazz from the Columbia issued Groovy Sound
Series.
No idea who plays on it as the credits are all in Japanese but it's a
monster session.
Check out "Mustache" and "Tak's Tune" for some severe beats from
drummer/leader Takeshi Inomata.
All Killer No Filler - Highly Recommended!
[46]22 comments made-how about you? 29.8.09
[47]HIDEO SHIRAKI - IN FIESTA
Hideo Shiraki for Teichiku Japan from 1961.
Rare super tough hard bop session from Japan featuring the killer koto
led and drum driven bomb "In Fiesta".
Reissued in Japan by Kyoto Jazz Massive for Think in a blink and miss
it moment back in 2005 but now out of print.
The old Dusty Groove blurb:
A brilliant early album from Japanese drummer Hideo Shiraki a jazz
session that bristles with the same intensity as key late 50s work by
Benny Golson or Gigi Gryce! Although Hideo's leading the group on
drums, his work on the kit is remarkably subtle done with the
snappingly rhythmic style that marked some of Golson's best modern
experiments of a few years before not nearly as bombastic as his stint
with Art Blakey, and more in the rhythmically stepping quality of his
work with Art Farmer in the Jazztet. Key players on the session include
Hidehiko Matsumoto on tenor and flute and Yuzuru Sera on piano both of
whom give the album a fluid grace that's really beautiful soulful edges
that allow the record to stand equally next to anything coming out of
the US at the time. One track features a bit of koto at the start --
echoing Shiraki's later world jazz experiments but most of the set is
straight modern hardbop, with tracks that include "Blue Romeo", "Etude
No 1", "Just One Or Eight", "You Don't Know What Love Is", and Benny
Golson's "Five Spot After Dark".
[48]14 comments made-how about you? 18.8.09
[49]LLOYD MCNEILL - TREASURES
Lloyd McNeill for Baobab from 1976.
Lloyd McNeill-Flute ; Dom Salvador-Piano ; Cecil McBee-Bass ; Portinho
, Brian Brake-Drums ; Ray Armando-Percussion.
One for the flute freaks on a private press out of NYC.
Heavy Brazilian infuences at work on this wonderful spiritual jazz
session from the great Lloyd McNeill.Two originals,one standard and a
cracking version of Salvador's "Salvation Army" which featured on Dom's
'76 Muse debut "Minha Familia"(Available at [50]Ile Oxumare).
Here's some info on Lloyd McNeill from the excellent [51]Hipwax:
The first thing to know about Lloyd McNeill is that his are the very
best soul-jazz flute LPs, and each is first-rate, a masterpiece of
self-direction. The second thing to know is there is much more to him
than his recorded legacy. He is one of those incredible,
super-sensitive people who excels at every artistic idiom and endeavor;
making wonderful music is just part of his flowing creativity. A
professor (at Rutgers University, earlier Dartmouth), he has much to
say about music and creativity as well as an impeccable gift for saying
it...sensibly. McNeill's writings on his musical experiences provide
invaluable documents of "the period" (late 1960s-1970s) as well as a
rare glimpse at the joy of a relatively unsung master.
McNeill has played with jazz legends --Andrew White (his longtime
collaborator/producer), Eric Dolphy, Sabu Martinez, Mulatu Astatke,
among many others-- and he has had a significant hand in the arts scene
of Washington, D.C. The major galleries of art, including those of the
Smithsonian, sponsored multi-media "happenings" that soared far above
the hippie caricature of acid rock with light show. During the first
flowering of post-Civil Rights, African-American culture, the Lloyd
McNeill Quartet's improvisitory, simultaneuous jazz and large-scale
painting "happened" while a lucky, perhaps unsuspecting public drank it
in.
McNeill believes his influences and their results in his art, music,
and poetry are inseparable and mutually reinforcing. Time spent with
Picasso in Cannes, 1965 led to new expressions in all three, for
instance. And when one brushes against a force such as Picasso, just
the idea of "meeting Picasso" has a certain momentum, never mind the
inevitable casting of rays of a different kind of light. Canvas, vinyl,
the stage, paper, and books of poetry offer a few key imprints of
McNeill, and McNeill consistently pays tribute to many illustrious
peers.
There are six albums, all produced and entirely under the artist's
control. Each title surpasses anything comparable on the major labels,
even Blue Note. The Black Jazz label may be roughly similar in style,
but Asha and Baobab are wholly Lloyd McNeill. The records reflect none
of the usual external trends from the decade in which they were
recorded; all sound like 1971 rather than 1979. The final record even
reprises the first (the exotic, broodingly moody "Asha"), and the sound
throughout remains somewhat interchangeable and timeless. But each
record has its own themes and currents, and even improvisation has its
signatures and fingerprints.
Buying: Long out of print, collectors items, Lloyd McNeill records
should be snapped up on sight. Hip Wax is pleased to offer two titles
for which limited stock remains [52]here.
Warning - McNeill lps can be damaging to the [53]wallet.
[54]29 comments made-how about you? 14.8.09
[55]If Spike Lee Did Movies In Audio...
Greg's back on the mix with his old mucker Monohub - another mashed up
bomb in memory of Coltrane and the late,great George Russell.Grab it
[56]HERE.
Here's the blurb from big daddy himself:
I did a version of this a while back and was planning to publish on
July 17th as a memorial to the day that John Coltrane died, but, a
combination of lack of time, work commitments and other things got in
the way...
Anyway I redid it and am glad that i did as it's much better than the
original. This one strictly for the heads... and defo not for the feint
hearted. If you liked the Black State of Vietnam mix then this is for
you...
So as i said; In respect of John Coltrane and George Russell. Much
thanks to Monohub too although he plays down his part in this, his
genius did have a lot to do with it...
[57]1 comments made-how about you? 3.8.09
[58]SADAO WATANABE AND CHARLIE MARIANO - IBERIAN WALTZ
Sadao and Charlie for Tact Japan from 1967.
Sadao Watanabe (as) , Charlie Mariano (as) , Masabumi Kikuchi (p) ,
Masanaga Harada (b) , Masahiko Togashi (ds) , Fumio Watanabe (ds)
This received a "Japan Jazz Award" on release.
Some severe blowing on this double alto led sextet featuring a young
band of soon to be Japanese jazz luminaries.
The fast and furious "Palisades" was comped on the Sleepwalker Shibuya
Jazz Classics.However the 16 minute title cut is the stand out tune an
intense modal waltz with a Spanish tinge featuring coruscating solos
from Mariano and Watanabe - hard core stuff.
Recommended.
[59]16 comments made-how about you? 28.7.09
[60]JAMES MARENTIC SEXTET - NIMBUS
James Marentic for Discovery from 1982.
James Marentic-Sax/Flute; Tom Harrell -Trumpet/Flugelhorn; Slide
Hampton-Trombone; Larry Willis-Piano; Anthony Cox-Bass; Victor
Lewis-Drums.
Storming post hard bop outing for Mr Marentic and his all star band.
Check out the banging latin romp "Baile de las Cucharachas " which
kicks off the lp in fine style and the Coltrane inspired "Nimbus".
"Aphrodesia" has the inspiration of Kenny Dorham stamped all over it
and no prizes for guessing who "Mr Silver I Presume" is aimed at
If you enjoyed Tom Harrell's "Aurora" post then this should be right up
your street,round your corner and down your block!
[61]8 comments made-how about you? 23.7.09
[62]CARTER JEFFERSON - THE RISE OF ATLANTIS
Carter Jefferson for Timeless from 1978.
Terrific post bop album with latin influences -All Killer No Filler!
John Hicks (Piano), Terumasa Hino (Trumpet), Woody Shaw (Producer),
Clint Houston (Bass), Victor Lewis (Drums),Carter Jefferson (Sax ),
Lani Groves (Vocals), Shunzo Ohno (Trumpet), Steve Thornton
(Percussion), Harry Whitaker (Piano)
Here's the customary underwhelming AMG review :
Tenor saxophonist Carter Jefferson made somewhat of a name for himself
when trumpeter Woody Shaw chose him as a member of his first working
quintet. Shaw is the producer of this album, Jefferson's fine debut
(and evidently only) recording as a leader. Taking a cue from Shaw, the
saxophonist sticks essentially to a quintet of trumpet and sax backed
by all-star rhythm sections. Three of the tracks include hard bop
trumpeter Terumasa Hino while the other three feature little-known
Japanese trumpeter Shunzo Ono. Most of the tunes are firmly in the
school of hard bop, the sort of music that Woody Shaw played so well.
While there is not any new ground broken, it is all performed
competently enough. While not as emotionally charged as his work with
Shaw, Jefferson impresses with a fluid, mobile attack that shows a
solid grasp of his material. If the groups seem to be sometimes merely
going through the motions, there are nonetheless enough fine moments to
make this a worthwhile purchase.AMG.
A reliable and advanced soloist who spent most of his career as a
sideman, Carter Jefferson is best-remembered for his association with
Woody Shaw during 1977-1980. Jefferson started on clarinet and played
alto before settling on tenor, going on tour early in the backup bands
of the Temptations, the Supremes, and Little Richard. In 1971, he moved
to New York to attend New York University and soon spent two years with
Mongo Santamaria and a period in 1973 as a member of Art Blakey's Jazz
Messengers. After his important stint with Woody Shaw (with whom he
recorded several times), Jefferson worked with many top players,
including Elvin Jones, Roy Haynes, Cedar Walton, Jerry Gonzalez & the
Fort Apache Band, Malachi Thompson, and Jack Walrath's Masters of
Suspense. His premature death in Poland after emergency surgery was a
major loss. Carter Jefferson only led one record, The Rise of Atlantis,
on the Timeless label in 1978. AMG.
[63]33 comments made-how about you? 10.7.09
[64]JULIO GUTIERREZ - PROGRESSIVE LATIN
Julio Gutierrez for Gema from 1960.
The title says it all for this groundbreaking heavyweight descarga
session...Highly recommended.
Has anyone out there got a copy of Gutierrez's "Havana BC" they want to
sell me?If so leave me a message in the comments.
Progressive Latin should be considered a classic of Latin jazz if it
isn't already. "Cosa Buena" cooks, and "Closing Time" is a slower bossa
nova with flute and horns that captures the mood of a good night out at
its end. "Yambambe," an Afro rhythm behind mostly piano, sounds more
sophisticated than its simple construction. "El Altiplano" is supposed
to be an Incan melody with Afro elements. In any case, vocal
interjections pave the way for a longer descarga where a variety of
intriguing elements (horns, flute piano, even organ) work together in
their own weird ways and combinations. The "Route 66" theme arrangement
is a coup; the sax and flute are recorded gorgeously, and the piano and
conga pace it ideally, with brief drum solo breaks. "Sad City" is a
haunting flute piece, while "Guantanamera" has an interesting change
but there is only so much one can expect from this tune. "Malaguena" is
another long descarga that gets a little wild. Progressive Latin is
something of a masterpiece from the great arranger Julio Gutierrez.
Tony Wilds
What impressed me most about this album is Julio's use of space and the
length of the tunes, considering that in the era when it was recorded,
2 1/2 minute tunes were standard. Great musicians like El Negro Vivar
(trumpet) and Chombo Silva (sax) were able to beautifully stretch out
over an almost post-bop/Afro-Cuban jazz setting. There is some serious
blowing on this disc. This is another essential Latin jazz gem from the
late 50s/early 60s.
Jose Rizo
[65]22 comments made-how about you? 4.7.09
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About Rhythmweb
A Grassroots Network
[dada01a.jpg] (at left: World Unity Drum Festival, Club Dada, Dallas,
August 1994. My son Jules, shown at age 12 at left)
Rhythmweb started in December of 1996, as a reflection of my virtual
search for music and musicians on the Web, and as an excuse to woodshed
web design. Since then we have been amazed by the reponse we have
recieved, from all corners of the globe. From the Mid-East to
Australia, and from South Africa to Europe to New Orleans to Brazil to
Papua, NewGuinea, musicians are connecting. Truly, rhythm is a
universal language, love of music a universal love. Thanks to all our
new friends for connecting with us.
Our mission is to further the use of rhythm, music, and percussion &
related arts as a healing tool. We LOVE music. We LOVE the Web. When
our schedule permits, we surf several [kids097.jpg] hours a night, then
we post the fruits of our travels...
Every time we meet someone interesting with a rhythm related website,
we post a link. Some very worthwhile friendships have evolved along the
way, and we've discovered lots of good music.
We have since integrated affiliate links to CDs, books, and so forth,
but our basic mission remains the same. We are NOT a bunch of suits,
drooling e-commerce. We're musicians, artists. We believe it's
important for people at the grassroots level to network during this
crucial moment in history. If you'll notice, the vast majority of links
on rhythmweb are GRASSROOTS musicians, trying to get over in this new
economy. You will see no big over-rated stars from the conglomerate
record companies. Plenty of that elsewhere.
[eric_october03-01b-225.jpg] There are also fan pages and correspondent
pages here, on a large number of working musicians. Thanks very much to
all for your help. We are actively seeking musicians in various parts
of the world to drop us a line now and then, and let us know what the
percussion scene is like in your area. If you have a drum lesson you'd
like to share with our readers, please let us know, and perhaps we can
steer you some traffic in return.
If you have an instrument, a CD, or a DVD you'd like for us to review,
we may do that too, time permitting; please drop us a line about it.
And to the thousands of hobbyist , semi-pro and professional
percussionists who come seeking info, and bringing life and enthusiasm,
welcome. Don't hesitate to introduce yourself, and send us some
feedback, and some links.
Drum on,
Stu
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RR-interval irregularity precedes ventricular fibrillation in ST elevation
acute myocardial infarction
[38]Miguel E. Lemmert, MD[39]a[40] Corresponding Author Information
[41]email address , [42]Mohamed Majidi, MD[43]a, [44]Mitchell
W. Krucoff, MD[45]*, [46]Sebastiaan C.A.M. Bekkers, MD[47]a, [48]Harry
J.G.M. Crijns, MD, PhD, FHRS[49]a, [50]Hein J.J. Wellens, MD, PhD,
FHRS[51]a, [52]Andrzej S. Kosinski, PhD[53]*, [54]Anton P.M. Gorgels,
MD, PhD, FHRS[55]a
Received 9 August 2009; accepted 15 September 2009. published online 22
September 2009.
Background
Sudden cardiac arrest is a leading cause of death in industrialized
countries, and ischemic ventricular fibrillation (VF) is a frequent
cause.
Objective
The purpose of this study was to determine whether patients with ST
elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) who develop ischemic VF show
more overall RR-interval irregularity (RRI) than do STEMI patients
without ischemic VF.
Methods
Ischemic VF was identified in 41 patients from 1,473 digital 12-lead
Holter recordings from three separate STEMI studies. Continuous 3-lead
and 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG) snapshots recorded every minute
were compared between all ischemic VF patients and 123 random patients
without ischemic VF. Time intervals from start of Holter to ischemic VF
and equivalent intervals in the controls were used for calculations.
ECG variables related to conduction intervals and severity of ischemia
were measured using the most ischemic 12-lead ECG. RRI was calculated
as the square root of the mean squared differences of successive RR
intervals. For RRI, all QRS complexes, including ventricular ectopic
beats, were used.
Results
No baseline differences were observed between the study and control
groups, except for male preponderance among ischemic VF patients (90%
vs 72%, P = .019). QRS interval, ECG ischemia severity, RRI, and number
of ventricular ectopic beats were significantly associated with
ischemic VF. Multivariate analysis revealed RRI (odds ratio 1.006, 95%
confidence interval 1.001-1.010, P = .016) and ST deviation score (odds
ratio 1.073, 95% confidence interval 1.041-1.106, P <.001) as the only
statistically significant predictors of ischemic VF.
Conclusion
In the period before ischemic VF, RRI and ST deviation score are
associated with ischemic VF in STEMI patients. These findings could
have important pathophysiologic and clinical implications.
Keywords: [56]Cardiac arrest, [57]Electrocardiography, [58]Myocardial
infarction, [59]Sudden death, [60]Ventricular fibrillation
Abbreviations: [61]AUC, [62]area under receiver operating
characteristic curve, [63]AV, [64]atrioventricular, [65]ECG,
[66]electrocardiogram, [67]HRV, [68]heart rate variability, [69]IQR,
[70]interquartile range, [71]ROC, [72]receiver operating
characteristic, [73]RRI, [74]RR-interval irregularity, [75]STEMI,
[76]ST elevation myocardial infarction, [77]VF, [78]ventricular
fibrillation
Article Outline
o [79]Abstract
o [80]Introduction
o [81]Methods
o [82]Patient population
o [83]ECG data
o [84]RRI and ventricular ectopic beats
o [85]Twelve-lead ECG measurements
o [86]Statistical analysis
o [87]Results
o [88]Baseline characteristics and laboratory values
o [89]ECG characteristics
o [90]Cutoff values
o [91]Discussion
o [92]Baseline characteristics
o [93]Single 12-lead ECG measurements
o [94]Continuous ECG measurements
o [95]RRI and total number of ventricular ectopic beats
o [96]Heart rate variability
o [97]Study limitations
o [98]Clinical implications and future research
o [99]Conclusion
o [100]Acknowledgment
o [101]References
o [102]Copyright
Introduction
[103]return to Article Outline
Sudden cardiac arrest is one of the leading causes of death in
industrialized countries, and ischemic ventricular fibrillation (VF) is
one of the most frequent causes.[104]1, [105]2 To date, research aimed
at predicting VF has predominantly focused on the postmyocardial
infarction stage and nonischemic conditions. Familial history of sudden
death recently was demonstrated to be an important risk factor for VF
in an ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) population,[106]3
suggesting that genetic factors are involved and that predisposition to
ischemic VF differs among patients. Inhomogeneity of intramyocardial
conduction velocity plays a role as a substrate for reentrant
ventricular arrhythmias and sudden death during acute ischemia.[107]4,
[108]5, [109]6, [110]7, [111]8
In the current study, we introduce the novel electrocardiographic (ECG)
parameter of overall RR-interval irregularity (RRI), which is measured
by taking all QRS complexes into account, irrespective of their origin.
A greater RRI could lead to increased inhomogeneity of conduction
velocities and refractory periods, facilitating ischemic VF.
Using single 12-lead ECGs, our group recently demonstrated longer PR
and QRS conduction intervals in first STEMI patients developing
ischemic VF.[112]9 This finding supports the concept of increased
inhomogeneity in conduction velocity and calls upon further elucidation
of the concept. Thus, we tested the hypothesis that cardiac rhythm
characteristics preceding ischemic VF are different from those in
ischemic patients without VF, particularly with regard to the novel ECG
parameter RRI.
Methods
[113]return to Article Outline
Patient population
A retrospective database consisting of 1,473 24-hour Holter recordings
was retrieved from the ECG core laboratory of the Duke Clinical
Research Institute (Durham, NC, USA). The database consists of Holter
recordings from STEMI patients who were included in three separate
safety-efficacy STEMI studies between April 2002 and November 2003. The
database includes all analyzable Holter recordings from two cohorts
(CASTEMI[114]10 and EMERALD,[115]11 n = 1,031) treated with direct
percutaneous coronary intervention and one cohort treated with
thrombolytic therapy (RAPSODY, n = 442). All of these patients were
older than 18 years, had presented with diagnostic ST elevation on
standard ECG, and had symptom duration <= 6 hours. As part of the study
protocols, all patients were connected to 24-hour digital 12-lead
Holter recorders immediately after hospital admission, prior to any
therapeutic intervention in the hospital.
For the current study, all 1,473 Holter recordings were examined for
ischemic VF. Ischemic VF was defined as irregular undulations of
varying shape and amplitude on ECG without discrete QRS or T waves. To
ensure the ischemic nature of the VF, only patients with VF that
occurred before percutaneous coronary intervention and/or in the
presence of persisting ST deviation were included in the study.
Patients in whom VF occurred in conjunction with ECG signs of
reperfusion were considered to have reperfusion VF rather than ischemic
VF and were not included in the study (n = 5). Patients who showed
regular monomorphic ventricular tachycardias rather than VF also were
excluded from the study (n = 19).
Forty-one patients (2.8%) with ischemic VF were identified (study
group). For comparison, for each VF patient, three patients without
ischemic VF (control group) were selected, only matched for the
original study cohort. Selection was done randomly using the
statistical software SPSS for Windows (release 12.0.1, SPSS, Inc.,
Chicago, IL, USA), providing a total of 123 control patients.
Clinical descriptors noted include baseline characteristics (gender,
age, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, current
smoking, and history of acute myocardial infarction), coronary
angiographic data (culprit lesion), and plasma levels of cardiac
enzymes.
ECG data
Holter recordings (DR180+, NorthEast Monitoring, Maynard, MA, USA)
consisted of digital 24-hour 3-lead recordings (leads V5, V1, and III),
with a complete Mason-Likar 12-lead ECG (calibration 10 mm/mV, speed 25
mm/s) available every minute and featured designated analysis software
(Holter 5 LX Analysis version 5.2, NorthEast Monitoring). For each VF
patient, the time interval from start of recording to onset of ischemic
VF and the equivalent time interval in the three matched controls were
used for analysis, disregarding the residual recording time.
Computerized labeling of QRS complexes and RR intervals on Holter
recordings was reviewed and corrected on a beat-to-beat basis by a
trained physician (M.E.L.).
RRI and ventricular ectopic beats
For this analysis, we introduce RRI as a novel parameter. RRI was
calculated using the designated software's capability to calculate
heart rate variability (HRV). HRV is the variation in heart rate
resulting from sympathetic and vagal influences on the sinus node. HRV
disregards all ECG complexes other than sinus beats. Using continuous
3-lead Holter recordings, the software is capable of several HRV
measurements within the time domain.
Similar to standard HRV measurements, RRI calculations were performed
using the three leads of the Holter recordings. Contrary to standard
HRV measurements, RRI takes all ECG complexes, irrespective of their
origin, into account, including (episodes of) atrial fibrillation or
atrial flutter, paced rhythms, and supraventricular and ventricular
complexes. To enable RRI measurements by the software, all ECG
complexes were manually labeled as sinus beats. Time intervals before
onset of ischemic VF frequently were short. Therefore, the square root
of the mean squared differences of successive RR intervals method was
used because it reflects short-term variations in RR intervals, as
previously described in detail.[116]12 For the software to perform HRV
measurements and thus RRI measurements, a minimum of 5 minutes of
recording time is required.
The total number of ventricular ectopic beats was counted for each
patient, again during the time interval from start of recording to
onset of ischemic VF and the equivalent time interval in the control
patients.
Twelve-lead ECG measurements
Our group recently showed significant differences in PR and QRS
conduction intervals as well as severity of ischemia between VF
patients and control patients. For this reason, similar measurements
were made in the current study using the designated software, which
features electronic calipers for 12-lead ECGs. For each patient, one
12-lead ECG showing the most pronounced ST-segment deviation was used
because these ECGs are expected to be the best representation of
ischemia-induced conduction defects. The measurements have been
described previously,[117]9 with the difference that, because of the
digital ECG data and the accompanying Holter software, the measurements
were done using the electronic calipers of the analysis software
instead of manually.
Statistical analysis
Data analysis and case-control randomization were performed using SPSS
for Windows (release 12.0.1). Continuous variables are expressed as
median and interquartile range (IQR) and categorical variables as
percentages. For comparison of continuous variables, a Student's t-test
for normally distributed data or a Mann-Whitney test or Wilcoxon
signed-rank test for non-normally distributed data was used. For
comparison of categorical variables, a Pearson chi-square test or
Fisher exact test was used. All statistical tests were two-tailed, and
P <.05 was considered significant. ECG characteristics showing a
significant univariate relation with the occurrence of VF but lacking
multicollinearity (defined as r > 0.4) were included in multivariate
logistic regression. Variables were removed stepwise from the model
when P was >.10. Variables with P <.05 in the final model were
considered independent contributors and are reported in the results. In
the final model, tests were done for interactions between main
predictors. The predictive accuracy of the final model is reported as
the area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (AUC).
Cutoff values for ECG characteristics by which most VF patients can be
correctly classified are identified by applying the Pythagorean theorem
to ROC curves, which is a mathematical determination of the cutoff
value with the graphically shortest distance to a sensitivity and
specificity of 1.
Results
[118]return to Article Outline
Baseline characteristics and laboratory values
No statistically significant differences regarding baseline
characteristics and laboratory values were found between the VF
patients and the controls, except for a significantly higher percentage
of males among the VF patients (90% vs 72%, P = .019; [119]Table 1).
Table 1.
Baseline characteristics of the study population
Ischemic VF (n = 41) No ischemic VF (n = 123) P value
Age (years) 61 (54-71) 59 (52-71) .54
Male 90 72 .019
Anterior wall infarction 31 29 .84
Culprit artery .32
Left anterior descending branch 20 21
Right coronary artery 77 66
Left circumflex branch 3 13
Comorbidity/risk factor
Diabetes mellitus 10 18 .32
Hypertension 39 42 .71
Hypercholesterolemia 33 26 .41
Smoking 38 38 1
Prior myocardial infarction 11 11 1
Original study cohort .30
CASTEMI[120]10 3 97
EMERALD[121]11 3 97
RAPSODY 2 98
Laboratory values
Initial CK 1.6 (0.3-10.3) 2.6 (0.7-6.9) .70
Post PCI CK 8.1 (5.6-21.9) 10.1 (5.0-14.5) .75
Initial CK-MB 3.1 (1.7-7.7) 4.2 (0.6-7.6) .77
Post PCI CK-MB 6.9 (2.0-11.0) 8.5 (4.1-13.1) .41
Post PCI troponin-T 50.9 (27.5-74.2) 15.4 (8.2-61.8) 1
Note: Information on the culprit artery was available for 127 patients
from the PCI cohorts (CASTEMI and EMERALD). For the thrombolytics
cohort (RAPSODY), the distinction between anterior wall infarctions and
nonanterior wall infarctions was available.
Values are given as median (interquartile range) or percent.
CK = creatine kinase; CK-MB = creatine kinase-MB isoenzyme; PCI =
percutaneous coronary intervention; VF = ventricular fibrillation.
ECG characteristics
ECG characteristics are listed in [122]Table 2. All patients were in
sinus rhythm, except for six (four VF patients, two controls) with
atrial fibrillation, which precluded assessment of sinus rate and PR
interval. One VF patient had a paced rhythm during part of the Holter
recording. One VF patient and two control patients showed
atrioventricular (AV) nodal escape rhythms. Two additional control
patients had high-degree AV block.
Table 2.
ECG characteristics of the study population
Ischemic VF (n = 41) No ischemic VF (n = 123) P value
Sinus rate (min-1) 74 (62-85) 73 (65-85) .719
PQ (ms) 177 (160-216) 164 (153-181) .055
QRS (ms) 103 (88-115) 93 (83-104) .018
QTc Bazett (ms) 417 (390-446) 414 (396-414) .822
Peak ST deviation (mm) 7 (5-10) 4 (2-7) <.001
Grade of ischemia 3 (2-3) 2 (2-3) .004
No. of leads with ST deviation 10 (9-11) 7 (4-10) <.001
STdev (mm) 36 (26-50) 20 (11-30) <.001
Measuring time (minutes) 29 (16-57) 29 (16-57) N/A
Total no. of ventricular ectopic beats 73 (19-268) 19 (2-106) .006
RRI (ms) 132 (100-197) 73 (39-122) <.001
RRI-5 min (ms) 186 (97-237) 44 (22-101) <.001
Values are given as median (interquartile range).
RRI = RR-interval irregularity; RRI-5 min = RR-interval irregularity in
the last 5 minutes of measuring time; STdev = ST deviation score, the
sum of all ST deviations on 12-lead ECG; VF = ventricular fibrillation.
With regard to measurements using single 12-lead ECGs, VF patients
showed a longer QRS interval [103 ms (IQR 88-115 ms) vs 93 ms (IQR
83-104 ms), P = .018] and a larger amount of ischemia, as measured by
peak ST deviation, grade of ischemia,[123]13 total number of leads with
ST deviation, and ST deviation score.
With regard to continuous ECG measurements, the median measuring time
was 29 minutes (IQR 16-57 minutes). Because the requirement of at least
5 minutes of recording time prior to ischemic VF could not be met, the
computer software did not allow RRI measurement in three VF patients
and subsequently nine control patients. VF patients showed a higher RRI
[132 ms (IQR 100-197 ms) vs 73 ms (IQR 39-122 ms), P <.001] and more
ventricular ectopic beats [73 (IQR 19-268) vs 19 (2-106), P = .006].
Excluding the recordings with atrial fibrillation from the analysis,
did not affect the results regarding the RRI measurements.
Logistic regression was applied, with presence of ischemic VF as the
dependent variable and variables showing univariate significance (QRS
interval, ST deviation score, total number of ventricular ectopic
beats, RRI) as the independent variables. Because we recently showed ST
deviation score to be an independent predictor of ischemic VF[124]9 and
we wanted to correct for multicollinearity between the variables
measuring the amount of ischemia, ST deviation score was the only
ischemia parameter entered in the logistic regression. This
multivariate analysis revealed that only a higher RRI (odds ratio
1.006, 95% confidence interval 1.001-1.010, P = .016) and a higher ST
deviation score (odds ratio 1.073, 95% confidence interval 1.041-1.106,
P <.001) were independently associated with an increased chance of
ischemic VF ([125]Table 3). The interpretation of these odds ratios is
that an increase in RRI of 1 ms corresponds to an increased chance of
ischemic VF of 0.6%.
Table 3.
Multivariate analysis of the study population
Odds ratio 95% Confidence interval P value
RR-interval irregularity (ms) 1.006 1.001-1.010 .016
STdev (mm) 1.073 1.041-1.106 <.001
Area under the receiver operating characteristic curve is 0.835.
STdev = ST deviation score, the sum of all ST deviations on 12-lead
ECG.
For our study population, this means that, based on only RRI
measurements, patients who developed VF had a 41.5% (1.006 ^ [132 ms -
73 ms] = 1.415) more chance of doing so than the patients who did not
develop VF. Similarly, an increase in ST deviation score of 1 mm
implies an increased chance of ischemic VF of 7.3%. The predictive
accuracy of this model assessed by the AUC was 0.835.
In addition, to examine a fixed and shortest possible time frame prior
to ischemic VF, RRI was measured in the last 5 minutes of measuring
time. This showed an even more marked difference in RRI between VF and
control patients [186 ms (97-237 ms) vs 44 ms (22-101 ms), P <.001].
Multivariate analysis using this RRI of the last 5 minutes yielded an
RRI odds ratio of 1.012 (95% confidence interval 1.007-1.018, P <.001),
with a predictive model accuracy (AUC) of 0.896 (not shown in
[126]Table 3). Of note, measurement of RRI in the last 5 minutes was
not possible in 7 VF patients and 27 controls because occasional
artifact during this time period in these patients reduced the
analyzable recording time to less than the required 5 minutes.
Cutoff values
Based on the optimal (mathematical) balance between sensitivity and
specificity, cutoff values for RRI and the ST deviation score were
identified. According to these criteria, the cutoff value for RRI is
110 ms, with sensitivity of 74% and specificity of 75%. The cutoff
value for the ST deviation score is 27 mm, yielding sensitivity of 74%
and specificity of 70%.
Discussion
[127]return to Article Outline
To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to show that
heart rate irregularity, measured as the novel parameter RRI, plays a
significant role preceding ischemic VF on continuous ECG recordings
retrieved from a large STEMI database.
Baseline characteristics
No differences in baseline characteristics were found, except for male
preponderance in the VF patients. This is not in accordance with
previous research in which no gender difference with regard to ischemic
VF or sudden cardiac arrest was found.[128]9, [129]14, [130]15,
[131]16, [132]17, [133]18 Our finding could be an observation by
chance, due to multiple exploratory tests that in no way are related to
any hypothesis tested in this study.
Single 12-lead ECG measurements
The significantly longer QRS interval and the larger amount of ischemia
in the VF patients are in agreement with our previous findings on
single 12-lead STEMI ECGs.[134]9 Briefly, in that study we found longer
conduction intervals in VF patients that may, depending on the site of
the occlusion and amount of ischemia, indicate an inhomogeneity in
conduction velocity providing the substrate for ischemic VF. The
current study adds a continuous aspect to the period preceding ischemic
VF. In a multivariate regression model including continuous ECG
measurements, only RRI and the amount of ischemia appear to be
independently associated with the occurrence of ischemic VF.
Continuous ECG measurements
The parameters related specifically to the continuous ECG measurements
are RRI and total number of ventricular ectopic beats.
RRI and total number of ventricular ectopic beats
RRI is a novel and unique ECG parameter that combines into a single
parameter the multitude of ECG complexes and rhythms occurring in the
acute phase of a STEMI by measuring RRI resulting from all such
complexes. Examples of large and small RRIs are shown in [135]Figure 1.
[136]View full-size image. [137]View Large Image
[138]Download to PowerPoint [139]Standard image available
Figure 1. RR-interval irregularity (RRI) in ventricular fibrillation
(VF) patient (A) and matched control patient (B). Primarily due to
irregular runs of ventricular ectopic beats, the VF patient had an RRI
of 257 ms prior to the ischemic VF (red arrow), whereas the control
patient had an RRI of 20 ms in the equivalent time interval. Green
complexes indicate sinus beats; red complexes indicate ventricular
ectopic beats; blue complexes indicate artifact (not used for any
calculations).
To our knowledge, the only continuous ECG parameter suggested to be
associated with ischemic VF occurring in the acute phase of a STEMI is
an increased number of ventricular ectopic beats prior to ischemic
VF.[140]19 However, the predictive value of these so-called warning
arrhythmias has been questioned by other researchers.[141]20, [142]21
In our study population, we were able to reproduce the finding that
frequent ventricular ectopic beats represent a harbinger of ischemic
VF. These previously reported contradictory results may be explained by
our additional finding that the total number of ventricular ectopic
beats was not an independent predictor of ischemic VF. RRI was the only
independent continuous ECG predictor of ischemic VF, suggesting that
the mere presence of ventricular ectopic beats is less important than
rhythm irregularity.
The manner in which RRI is associated with ischemic VF could be as
follows. RRI leads to inhomogeneity in conduction velocity and
refractory periods. Beat-to-beat changes in refractoriness, induced by
RRI, may become pronounced in ischemic areas due to ischemia-related
postrepolarization refractoriness, an effect suggested by our data to
be even more pronounced in the final 5 minutes preceding ischemic VF.
Subsequent, relatively shortly coupled beats may block or conduct
slowly in these areas and instantaneously create a substrate vulnerable
to ischemic VF. Shortly coupled beats do not necessarily induce reentry
and VF; rather, they set the stage.
The finding that the number of leads showing ST deviation was
associated with ischemic VF might indicate a role for more widespread
myocardial ischemia rather than merely local severity of ischemia. This
could add to the heterogeneity of postrepolarization refractoriness.
Although not an independent predictor, this concept is supported by a
larger region at risk associated with VF found in a previous study
using coronary angiography.[143]16
Heart rate variability
The RRI measurements were performed using the software's mathematical
capabilities to calculate HRV. Although technically possible, actual
HRV measurements are not reported here. HRV has been recognized as a
marker of the relationship between the autonomic nervous system and
cardiac mortality. A decreased HRV has been proposed as a predictor of
ventricular arrhythmias and sudden death in different patient
populations, mostly consisting of patients in the postmyocardial
infarction phase or with nonischemic cardiac diseases.[144]12, [145]22,
[146]23, [147]24, [148]25 Most studies attributing a predictive role to
HRV were specifically designed to measure this parameter for
sufficiently long periods of sinus rhythm in a chronic care setting.
The current study relates to a completely different clinical situation,
not only because of its acutely ischemic population but also because of
the relatively short measuring times with frequent ventricular ectopy.
Thus, the clinical meaning of standard HRV measurements would be
questionable in our study population.
Study limitations
The population studied was a selected population because all patients
survived until hospital admission. Therefore, whether our findings can
be generalized to the situation outside the hospital is not known.
The study variables were derived from three separate studies, so
possibly the study population was not homogeneous. In spite of this,
the association we found between RRI, amount of ischemia, and ischemic
VF was very consistent across studies.
All patients were derived from STEMI intervention trials who met
certain ST-segment criteria for inclusion. Therefore, whether the
results are applicable to non-STEMI patients or patients with demand
ischemia rather than supply ischemia is not known.
Finally, we have no information on use of medication. However, in a
previous study we found no influence of any type of medication on
development of ischemic VF.[149]9 Furthermore, it is more likely that
medications such as beta-blocking agents would influence RR-interval
duration rather than RRI. In this regard, it should be noted that there
was no difference in sinus rate between VF patients and control
patients.
However, it should be taken into account that the current database of
Holter recordings prior to ischemic VF is unique in its size and
possibly the best available.
Clinical implications and future research
The results of this study are important for a better understanding of
ischemic VF. Moreover, it provides simple variables with possible
implications for clinical use. There is an increased need for
monitoring high-risk cardiac patients outside the hospital setting, and
the development of monitoring devices with alarm features has been
advocated by our group and others.[150]26, [151]27, [152]28
When incorporated within the algorithms of arrhythmia sensing devices,
a warning predictor of ischemic VF could lead to improved early
identification of individuals at risk. The predictive accuracy of 0.835
by multivariate analysis was high ([153]Table 3). This indicates that
RRI and the ST deviation score may be useful as predictors of ischemic
VF in STEMI patients. The cutoff value for RRI is 110 ms, with
sensitivity of 74% and specificity of 75%. The cutoff value for the ST
deviation score is 27 mm, yielding sensitivity of 74% and specificity
of 70%. Because false-positive identification of STEMI patients at risk
for ischemic VF is preferable to false-negative failure to identify, it
could be speculated that different (ranges of) cutoff values with
higher sensitivities at the cost of lower specificities should be
chosen. Sensitivities of (approximately) 80% and 90% and corresponding
cutoff values for RRI and the ST deviation score are shown in
[154]Figure 2, [155]Figure 3.
[156]View full-size image. [157]View Large Image
[158]Download to PowerPoint [159]Standard image available
Figure 2. Sensitivity and specificity for all cutoff values for
RR-interval irregularity (RRI).
[160]View full-size image. [161]View Large Image
[162]Download to PowerPoint [163]Standard image available
Figure 3. Sensitivity and specificity for all cutoff values for the ST
deviation score (STdev).
This study was aimed at STEMI patients who suffer from supply ischemia.
One could speculate whether the results can be extrapolated to patients
suffering from demand ischemia due to a severe stenosis. In that case,
RRI could play a similar role in these patients, leading to ischemic VF
(e.g., during exercise or diminished blood supply during sleep).
Because the majority of sudden cardiac arrests occurs outside the
hospital, a warning predictor of ischemic VF could be useful in
patients with known coronary artery disease. The model proposed in the
current study could serve as an ischemia model that could be used in
future research studying patients who are potential victims of ischemic
VF due to demand ischemia. Such populations are currently being studied
by our group.
Conclusion
[164]return to Article Outline
Overall RRI and the amount of ischemia are suggested to be useful
predictors of ischemic VF occurring in the acute phase of STEMI.
Acknowledgments
[165]return to Article Outline
We thank W.R. Dassen, PhD, for statistical advice.
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[166]return to Article Outline
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antiarrhythmic therapy--lessons from clinical trials. Am J Cardiol.
1996;4A:28-33.
[175]8. 8Pratt CM, Moye LA. The Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial:
background, interim results and implications. Am J Cardiol.
1990;4:20B-29B.
[176]9. 9Lemmert ME, de Jong JS, van Stipdonk AM,
et al. Electrocardiographic factors playing a role in ischemic
ventricular fibrillation in ST elevation myocardial infarction are
related to the culprit artery. Heart Rhythm. 2008;1:71-78.
[177]10. 10Bar FW, Tzivoni D, Dirksen MT, et al. Results of the first
clinical study of adjunctive CAldaret (MCC-135) in patients undergoing
primary percutaneous coronary intervention for ST-Elevation Myocardial
Infarction: the randomized multicentre CASTEMI study. Eur Heart J.
2006;21:2516-2523.
[178]11. 11Stone GW, Webb J, Cox DA, et al.Enhanced Myocardial Efficacy
and Recovery by Aspiration of Liberated Debris (EMERALD)
Investigators Distal microcirculatory protection during percutaneous
coronary intervention in acute ST-segment elevation myocardial
infarction: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2005;293:1063-1072.
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[180]12. 12Heart rate variability: standards of measurement,
physiological interpretation and clinical use (Task Force of the
European Society of Cardiology and the North American Society of Pacing
and Electrophysiology). Circulation. 1996;5:1043-1065.
[181]13. 13Birnbaum Y, Sclarovsky S. The grades of ischemia on the
presenting electrocardiogram of patients with ST elevation acute
myocardial infarction. J Electrocardiol. 2001;34(Suppl):17-26.
[182]Abstract | [183]Full-Text PDF (306 KB) | [184]CrossRef
[185]14. 14Behar S, Goldbourt U, Reicher-Reiss H, et al. Prognosis of
acute myocardial infarction complicated by primary ventricular
fibrillation (Principal Investigators of the SPRINT Study). Am J
Cardiol. 1990;17:1208-1211.
[186]15. 15Brezins M, Elyassov S, Elimelech I, et al. Comparison of
patients with acute myocardial infarction with and without ventricular
fibrillation. Am J Cardiol. 1996;8:948-950.
[187]16. 16Gheeraert PJ, Henriques JP, De Buyzere ML,
et al. Out-of-hospital ventricular fibrillation in patients with acute
myocardial infarction: coronary angiographic determinants. J Am Coll
Cardiol. 2000;1:144-150.
[188]17. 17Ruiz-Bailén M, Hoyos EAd, Ruiz-Navarro S, et al. Ventricular
fibrillation in acute myocardial infarction in Spanish patients:
results of the ARIAM database. Crit Care Med. 2003;8:2144-2151.
[189]18. 18Thompson CA, Yarzebsky J, Goldberg RJ, et al. Changes over
time in the incidence and case-fatality rates of primary ventricular
fibrillation complicating acute myocardial infarction: perspectives
from the Worcester Heart Attack Study. Am Heart J. 2000;6:1014-1021.
[190]19. 19Lown B. Sudden cardiac death--1978. Circulation.
1979;7:1593-1599.
[191]20. 20Lie KI, Wellens HJ, Downar E, et al. Observations on
patients with primary ventricular fibrillation complicating acute
myocardial infarction. Circulation. 1975;5:755-759.
[192]21. 21El-Sherif N, Myerburg RJ, Scherlag BJ,
et al. Electrocardiographic antecedents of primary ventricular
fibrillation (Value of the R-on-T phenomenon in myocardial infarction).
Br Heart J. 1976;4:415-422.
[193]22. 22Fauchier L, Babuty D, Cosnay P, et al. Prognostic value of
heart rate variability for sudden death and major arrhythmic events in
patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol.
1999;5:1203-1207.
[194]23. 23Hermida JS, Leenhardt A, Cauchemez B, et al. Decreased
nocturnal standard deviation of averaged NN intervals (An independent
marker to identify patients at risk in the Brugada Syndrome). Eur Heart
J. 2003;22:2061-2069.
[195]24. 24Carpeggiani C, L'Abbate A, Landi P, et al. Early assessment
of heart rate variability is predictive of in-hospital death and major
complications after acute myocardial infarction. Int J Cardiol.
2004;3:361-368.
[196]25. 25Reed MJ, Robertson CE, Addison PS. Heart rate variability
measurements and the prediction of ventricular arrhythmias. QJM.
2005;2:87-95.
[197]26. 26Wellens HJ, Gorgels AP, de Munter H. Cardiac arrest outside
of a hospital: how can we improve results of resuscitation?.
Circulation. 2003;15:1948-1950.
[198]27. 27Arzbaecher R, Jenkins J, Burke M, et al. Database testing of
a subcutaneous monitor with wireless alarm. J Electrocardiol.
2006;4(Suppl):S50-S53.
[199]28. 28Fischell TA, Fischell DR, Fischell RE, et al. Real-time
detection and alerting for acute ST-segment elevation myocardial
ischemia using an implantable, high-fidelity, intracardiac electrogram
monitoring system with long-range telemetry in an ambulatory porcine
model. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;11:2306-2314.
[200]a Department of Cardiology, Maastricht University Medical Center,
Maastricht, The Netherlands
[201]* Duke University Medical Center/Duke Clinical Research Institute,
Durham, North Carolina, USA
[202]Corresponding Author Information Address reprint requests and
correspondence: Dr. Miguel E. Lemmert, Maastricht University Medical
Center, Department of Cardiology, PO Box 5800, 6202 AZ Maastricht, The
Netherlands
This research was supported by an unrestricted grant from Philips
Healthcare, Seattle, Washington.
PII: S1547-5271(09)01043-1
doi:10.1016/j.hrthm.2009.09.024
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Rhythm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search
For other uses, see [8]Rhythm (disambiguation).
Rhythm (from [9]greek rhuthµo'*s - rhythmos, "any measured flow or
movement, symmetry") is the variation of the length and accentuation of
a series of sounds or other events.
Contents
* [10]1 Rhythm in linguistics
* [11]2 Origins of human appreciation of rhythm
* [12]3 Rhythm notation and the oral tradition
+ [13]3.1 African music
+ [14]3.2 Indian music
+ [15]3.3 Western music
* [16]4 Types
* [17]5 See also
* [18]6 Notes
* [19]7 Sources
* [20]8 Further reading
[[21]edit] Rhythm in linguistics
The study of rhythm, stress, and [22]pitch in [23]speech is called
[24]prosody; it is a topic in [25]linguistics. Narmour (1980,
p. 147-53) describes three categories of prosodic rules which create
rhythmic successions which are additive (same duration repeated),
cumulative (short-long), or countercumulative (long-short). Cumulation
is associated with closure or relaxation, countercumulation with
openness or tension, while additive rhythms are open-ended and
repetitive. Richard Middleton points out this method cannot account for
[26]syncopation and suggests the concept of [27]transformation.
A [28]rhythmic unit is a [29]durational pattern which occupies a period
of time equivalent to a [30]pulse or pulses on an underlying [31]metric
level, as opposed to a [32]rhythmic gesture which does not (DeLone et
al. (Eds.), 1975
[[33]edit] Origins of human appreciation of rhythm
In his series How Music Works, [34]Howard Goodall presents theories
that rhythm recalls how we walk and the heartbeat we heard in the womb.
More likely is that a simple pulse or [35]di-dah beat recalls the
footsteps of another person. Our sympathetic urge to dance is designed
to boost our energy levels in order to cope with someone, or some
animal chasing us - a fight or flight response. From a less darwinist
perspective, perceiving rhythm is the ability to master the otherwise
invisible dimension, time. Rhythm is possibly also rooted in courtship
ritual.^[36][1]
Neurologist [37]Oliver Sacks posits that human affinity for rhythm is
fundamental, so much that a person's sense of rhythm cannot be lost in
the way that music and language can (e.g. by [38]stroke). In addition,
he states that [39]chimpanzees and other animals show no similar
appreciation for rhythm.^[40][2]
[[41]edit] Rhythm notation and the oral tradition
Worldwide there are many different approaches to passing on rhythmic
phrases and patterns, as they exist in traditional music, from
generation to generation.
[[42]edit] African music
In the [43]Griot tradition of Africa everything related to music has
been passed on orally. [44]Babatunde Olatunji (1927-2003), a Nigerian
drummer who lived and worked in the [45]United States, developed a
simple series of spoken sounds for teaching the rhythms of the hand
drum. He used six vocal sounds: Goon Doon Go Do Pa Ta. There are three
basic sounds on the drum, but each can be played with either the left
or the right hand. This simple system is now used worldwide,
particularly by [46]Djembe players.
[[47]edit] Indian music
Indian music has also been passed on orally. Tabla players would learn
to speak complex rhythm patterns and phrases before attempting to play
them. [48]Sheila Chandra, an English pop singer of Indian descent, made
performances based around her singing these patterns. In [49]Indian
Classical music, the [50]Tala of a composition is the rhythmic pattern
over which the whole piece is structured.
[[51]edit] Western music
Standard [52]music notation contains rhythmic information and is
adapted specifically for drums and percussion instruments. The drums
are generally used to keep other instruments in 'time'. They do this by
supplying beats/strikes in time at a certain pace, i.e. 70 beats per
minute (bpm). In [53]Rock music, a drum beat is used to keep a
[54]bass/[55]guitar line in time.
[[56]edit] Types
In [57]Western music, rhythms are usually arranged with respect to a
[58]time signature, partially signifying a meter. The speed of the
underlying [59]pulse is sometimes called the [60]beat. The [61]tempo is
a measure of how quickly the pulse repeats. The tempo is usually
measured in 'beats per minute' (bpm); 60 bpm means a speed of one beat
per second. The length of the meter, or metric unit (usually
corresponding with [62]measure length), is usually grouped into either
two or three beats, being called [63]duple meter and [64]triple meter,
respectively. If each beat is divided by two or four, it is [65]simple
meter, if by three (or six) [66]compound meter. According to [67]Pierre
Boulez, beat structures beyond four are "simply not natural".^[68][3].
His reference is to western European music.
Standard notation of a clave pattern on audio clip clave pattern.ogg
[69]Syncopated rhythms are rhythms that accent parts of the beat not
already stressed by [70]counting. Playing simultaneous rhythms in more
than one time signature is called [71]polymeter. See also
[72]polyrhythm. In recent years, rhythm and meter have become an
important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these
areas includes books by [73]Maury Yeston, [74]Fred Lerdahl and [75]Ray
Jackendoff, [76]Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty, William Rothstein,
and Joel Lester.
Grid notation of single a clave pattern
Some [77]genres of music make different use of rhythm than others. Most
Western music is based on [78]subdivision, while non-Western music uses
more [79]additive rhythm. [80]African music makes heavy use of
[81]polyrhythms, and [82]Indian music uses [83]complex cycles such as 7
and 13, while [84]Balinese music often uses complex [85]interlocking
rhythms. By comparison, a lot of Western [86]classical music is fairly
rhythmically (or metrically) simple; it stays in a [87]simple meter
such as 4/4 or 3/4 and makes little use of [88]syncopation.
[89]Clave is a common underlying rhythm in [90]African, [91]Cuban
music, and [92]Brazilian music.
[93]Claves
(Submit) Play sound
Four beats followed by three Clave patterns
__________________________________________________________________
Problems listening to this file? See [94]media help.
In the 20th century, [95]composers like [96]Igor Stravinsky, [97]Bela
Bartok, [98]Philip Glass, and [99]Steve Reich wrote more rhythmically
complex music using [100]odd meters, and techniques such as
[101]phasing and [102]additive rhythm. At the same time, modernists
such as [103]Olivier Messiaen and his pupils used increased complexity
to disrupt the sense of a regular beat, leading eventually to the
widespread use of [104]irrational rhythms in [105]New Complexity. This
use may be explained by a comment of [106]John Cage's^[[107]where?]
where he notes that regular rhythms cause sounds to be heard as a group
rather than individually; the irregular rhythms highlight the rapidly
changing pitch relationships that would otherwise be subsumed into
irrelevant rhythmic groupings (Sandow 2004, p. 257). [108]LaMonte Young
also wrote music in which the sense of a regular beat is absent because
the music consists only of long sustained tones ([109]drones). In the
1930s, [110]Henry Cowell wrote music involving multiple simultaneous
periodic rhythms and collaborated with [111]Léon Thérémin to invent the
[112]Rhythmicon, the first electronic [113]rhythm machine, in order to
perform them. Similarly, [114]Conlon Nancarrow wrote for the
[115]player piano.
[[116]edit] See also
* [117]Meter (music)
* [118]Prosody (linguistics)
* [119]Riddim
* [120]Morse Code
* [121]Soul (music)
* [122]Time scale (music)
* [123]Timing (linguistics)
[[124]edit] Notes
1. [125]^ [126]Mithen, Steven (2005). [127]The Singing Neanderthals:
The Origins of Music, Language, Mind and Body.. London: Weidenfeld
& Nicolson.. [128]ISBN [129]0297643177.
2. [131]^ [132]Jon Stewart, [133]Oliver Sacks. (2009-06-29). [134]The
Daily Show with Jon Stewart. [Television production]. Comedy
Central.
itle=oliver-sacks. "People often tried to teach their dogs to
dance--it doesn't work."
3. [136]^ In [137]Discovering Music: Rhythm with [138]Leonard Slatkin
at 5:05
[[139]edit] Sources
* Hasty, Christopher (1997). Meter as Rhythm. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. [140]ISBN 0-19-510066-2.
* London, Justin (2004). Hearing in Time: Psychological Aspects of
Musical Meter. [141]ISBN 0-19-516081-9.
* Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music.
Philadelphia: Open University Press. [142]ISBN 0-335-15275-9.
* Narmour (1980). Cited in DeLone et al. (Eds.) (1975). Aspects of
Twentieth-Century Music. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall. [143]ISBN 0-13-049346-5.
* Sandow, Greg (2004). "A Fine Madness", The Pleasure of Modernist
Music. [144]ISBN 1-58046-143-3.
* Yeston, Maury (1976). "The Stratification of Musical Rhythm".
[[145]edit] Further reading
* McGaughey, William (2001). "Rhythm and Self-Consciousness: New
Ideals for an Electronic Civilization". Minneapolis: Thistlerose
Publications. [146]ISBN 0-9605630-4-0.
* Honing, H. (2002). [147]"Structure and interpretation of rhythm and
timing." Tijdschrift voor Muziektheorie [Dutch Journal of Music
Theory] 7(3): 227-232.
* Lewis, Andrew (2005). Rhythm--What it is and How to Improve Your
Sense of It. San Francisco: [148]RhythmSource Press. [149]ISBN
978-0-9754667-0-4.
* Williams, C. F. A., The Aristoxenian Theory of Musical Rhythm,
(Cambridge Library Collection - Music), Cambridge University Press;
1st edition, 2009.
* Toussaint, G. T., "The geometry of musical rhythm," In J. Akiyama,
M. Kano, and X. Tan, editors, Proceedings of the Japan Conference
on Discrete and Computational Geometry, Vol. 3742, Lecture Notes in
Computer Science, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2005, pp. 198-212.
[150]v o [151]d o [152]e
[153]Musical notation and [154]development
[155]Staff
[156]Bar & Bar line · [157]Clef · [158]Da capo · [159]Dal segno ·
[160]Key signature · [161]Ledger line · [162]Musical mode ·
[163]Musical scale · [164]Rehearsal letter · [165]Repeat sign ·
[166]Time signature · [167]Transposition · [168]Transposing instrument
[169]G (treble) clef symbol
[170]Notes
[171]Accidental ([172]Flat · [173]Natural · [174]Sharp) · [175]Dotted
note · [176]Grace note · [177]Note value ([178]Beam · [179]Note head ·
[180]Stem) · [181]Pitch · [182]Rest · [183]Interval · [184]Letter
notation
[185]Articulation
[186]Dynamics · [187]Ornament ([188]Trill · [189]Mordent · [190]Grace
note) · [191]Ossia · [192]Portato · [193]Accent · [194]Legato ·
[195]Tenuto · [196]Marcato · [197]Staccato · [198]Staccatissimo ·
[199]Tie · [200]Slur · [201]Fermata
[202]Development
[203]Coda · [204]Exposition · [205]Harmony · [206]Melody · [207]Motif ·
[208]Recapitulation · Rhythm ([209]Beat · [210]Meter · [211]Tempo) ·
[212]Theme · [213]Tonality · [214]Atonality
Related
[215]Chord chart · [216]Figured bass · [217]Graphic notation ·
[218]Lead sheet · [219]Eye music · [220]Modern musical symbols ·
[221]Neume · [222]Tablature
[224]Categories: [225]Rhythm | [226]Greek loanwords
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Références
Liens visibles
Liens cachés :
[1]Daniel Laberge music
Rhythm explained
including
27 rhythm exercises
by Daniel Laberge
Rhythm figure
Hi rhythm lovers,
I've devised these exercises in the early seventies while teaching
music.
I could not find any existing book that saw rhythm the way I did.
This method is based on "rhythmic figures" or rhythm possibilities.
Each one lasts one beat.
I simply counted the rhythmic possibilities one could encounter for
each type of beat divisions.
There are:
o Four rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by two
o Eight rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by three
o Sixteen rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by four
I composed the exercises back then and used them for my teaching, but I
only wrote the theory that goes along in 2002.
The book is called "Rhythm explained" and I am gradually placing its
content here.
Each exercise is preceded by a lesson, with graphic representations,
and includes an audio rendition to help you.
You can choose between three speeds.
For jazz musicians, the binary exercises also have a swing or double
swing performance. Go to the bottom of the page for a link to the swing
version.
Choose among the following exercises:
Beat exercises
[2]Rhythm exercise 1-1
Featured figures
[3][onequarternote1.gif] [4] [onehalfnote1.gif] [5]
[dottedhalfnote1.gif] [6] [wholenote1.gif]
[7]Rhythm exercise 1-2
Featured figures
[8][quarternoterest1.gif] [9] [halfnoterest1.gif] [10]
[wholenoterest1.gif]
[11]Rhythm exercise 1-3
Featured figures
[12][quarternoterest1.gif] [13] [halfnoterest1.gif] [14]
[dottedhalfnoterest1.gif] [15] [wholenoterest1.gif]
Binary beat division
The binary family is large as it includes:
o Division by two
o Division by four
o Part of division by six
o Division by eight
This section is concerned with the simple division by two.
Any binary beat has two alternating parts: the downbeat and the upbeat.
Binary beat
[binarybeat1.gif]
As you can see, there are only two places in a beat
where events or notes can be positioned or played:
o The downbeat
o The upbeat
How
rhythmic
possibilities
work
This means that for any given beat you can have
any of the four following possibilities:
1 o Only one event on the downbeat.
2 o Events on both the downbeat and the upbeat.
3 o No event at all.
4 o Only one event on the upbeat.
[possibilitiesbytwosimple1.gif]
The rhythmic figure used to represent a binary beat is called:
TWO EIGHTH NOTES
[masterfigurebinary1.gif]
Binary
master
rhythmic
figure
Simple binary rhythmic figures
4 possibilities:
o 2 Primary
o 2 Secondary
[possibilitiesbytwo1.gif]
Secondary rhythmic figures lack the event that falls on the beat.
There is a secondary figure for each primary one.
Because the beat is so important, secondary figures have appeared after
the primary ones had been well established.
The absence of event falling on the beat can be due to a silence or a
sound that is held over from the preceding beat.
Because of this, there are two ways to notate secondary figures:
o With a rest
o With a tie
[primarysecondary1.gif]
Primary
and
secondary
rhythmic
figures
Choose among the following exercises:
Binary exercises
PRIMARY
[16]Rhythm exercise 2-1
Featured figure
[17][twoeighthnotes2.gif]
[18]Rhythm exercise 2-2
Featured figures
[19][twoeighthnotes2.gif] [20] [quarternoterest2.gif]
SECONDARY
[21]Rhythm exercise 2-3
Featured figure
[22][dottedquarternoteeighth2.gif]
[23]Rhythm exercise 2-4
Featured figure
[24][eighthnotesyncopationa2.gif]
[25]Rhythm exercise 2-5
Featured figure
[26][twoeighttieonequarter2.gif]
MULTIPLE SYNCOPATIONS
[27]Rhythm exercise 2-6
Featured figure
[28][doublesyncopationa2.gif]
Ternary beat division
The ternary family is small as it includes:
o Division by three
o Part of division by six
Everything goes in thirds in ternary music.
Any ternary beat has one downbeat and two upbeats.
Ternary beat
[ternarybeat1.gif]
The rhythmic figure used to represent a ternary beat is called:
THREE EIGHTH NOTES
[masterfigureternary1.gif]
Ternary
master
rhythmic
figure
Writing
ternary
rhythm
In ternary music writing, each eighth note is worth one third of a
beat.
Since two eighth notes always equal one quarter note, these now equal
two thirds of a beat.
It takes a dotted quarter note to represent one beat.
[ternarywriting1.gif]
Ternary rhythmic figures
8 possibilities:
o 4 Primary
o 4 Secondary
[possibilitiesbythree1.gif]
Choose among the following exercises:
Ternary exercises
PRIMARY
[29]Rhythm exercise 3-1
Featured figure
[30][threeeighth2.gif]
[31]Rhythm exercise 3-2
Featured figure
[32][onequarteroneeighth2.gif]
[33]Rhythm exercise 3-3
Featured figure
[34][oneeighthonequarter2.gif]
SECONDARY
[35]Rhythm exercise 3-1s
Featured figure
[36][8threst2eighth2.gif] OR [37] [tie3eighth2.gif]
[38]Rhythm exercise 3-2s
Featured figure
[39][quarternoterestoneeighth2.gif] OR [40]
[tiequarternote1eighth.gif]
[41]Rhythm exercise 3-3s
Featured figure
[42][8threst1quarternote2.gif] OR [43] [tie1eighth1quarter2.gif]
Division by four
Beats divided by four are part of the binary family.
Everything goes in quarters in this feel.
Beat
divided
by
four
[binarybeat2.gif]
The rhythmic figure used to represent a beat divided by four
is called:
FOUR SIXTEENTH NOTES
[masterfigurebyfour1.gif]
Division
by four
master
rhythmic
figure
Binary rhythmic figures
16 possibilities:
o 8 Primary
o 8 Secondary
[possibilitiesbyfour1.gif]
Choose among the following exercises:
Division by four exercises
PRIMARY
[44]Rhythm exercise 4-1
Featured figure
[45][foursixteenth2.gif]
[46]Rhythm exercise 4-2
Featured figure
[47][oneeighthtwosixteenth2.gif]
[48]Rhythm exercise 4-3
Featured figure
[49][twosixteenthoneeighth2.gif]
[50]Rhythm exercise 4-4
Featured figure
[51][dottedeighthonesixteenth2.gif]
[52]Rhythm exercise 4-5
Featured figure
[53][onesixteenthdottedeighth2.gif]
[54]Rhythm exercise 4-6
Featured figure
[55][16th8th16th2.gif]
SECONDARY
[56]Rhythm exercise 4-1s
Featured figure
[57][16threst3sixteenth2.gif] OR [58] [tiefoursixteenth2.gif]
[59]Rhythm exercise 4-2s
Featured figure
[60][8threst2sixteenth2.gif] OR [61] [tie1eighth2sixteenth2.gif]
[62]Rhythm exercise 4-3s
Featured figure
[63][16threst1sixteenth1eighth2.gif] OR [64]
[tie2sixteenth1eighth2.gif]
[65]Rhythm exercise 4-4s
Featured figure
[66][dotted8threst1sixteenth2.gif] OR [67]
[tiedottereight1sixteenth2.gif]
[68]Rhythm exercise 4-5s
Featured figure
[69][16threstdotted8th.gif] OR [70] [tie16thdotted8th2.gif]
[71]Rhythm exercise 4-6s
Featured figure
[72][16threst1eighth1sixteenth2.gif] OR [73]
[tieone16thone8thone16th2.gif]
[74]Bugs, problems
and comments [75]Daniel Laberge music
Références
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ORGY IN RHYTHM
[6]JAZZ HIP TRIO - JAZZ EN RELIEF
Jazz Hip Trio for Riviera France from 1967.
Jean-Bernard Eisinger Piano ; Roger Luccioni Bass ;Daniel Humair Drums.
More beautiful music from France on this the first Jazz Hip Trio LP.
"Orange Boom" was the big tune back in the day but the rest is just
fabulous.
Needless to say.....All Killer No Filler
Another first in public blogland here at OIR.
[7]12 comments made-how about you? 12.1.10
[8]MAL WALDRON - TOKYO BOUND
Mal Waldron for RCA Victor Japan from 1970.
Mal Waldron-Piano;Takeshi Inomata-Drums;Yasuo Arakawa-Bass
Tremendous all killer trio date with Waldron joined by a top flight
Japanese rhythm section on four original compositions which only saw a
release in Japan.Check out the rocking intensity of "Rock One For Jimbo
San" and "Japanese Island" which builds from an ominous brooding intro
into a marvellous modal waltz."Atomic Energy" blows up with a headlong
banging vamp from Waldron's left hand while the right runs all over the
keys and then to close "Mount Fujiyama" a more introspective rumination
and dissection of the tune's theme.
Inomata's drumming is a revelation throughout the session intricate yet
swinging with fantastic use of cymbals.(Don't forget to check out
Inomata's Sound of Sounds lp also recorded in 1970 which I posted
[9]here during the summer)
Respect to El Goog for introducing me to this great album.I finally
picked a copy up from Japan via ebay last month - not cheap but worth
every penny.
Very highly recomnmended.
[10]37 comments made-how about you? 20.12.09
[11]THE HERBIE HANCOCK TRIO
Herbie Hancock for Sony Japan from 1977.
Herbie Hancock-Piano;Ron Carter-Bass;Tony Williams-Drums
The big three keep it strictly acoustic for this Japanese only release
from CBS Sony. 4 originals from Herb plus a rapid romp through
"Milestones"...tough stuff.
The first V.S.O.P. tour triggered a flood of recording activity in July
1977, but only a fraction of it was released in the U.S. This session,
recorded in San Francisco just days before the Quintet concerts in
Berkeley and San Diego, finds Herbie Hancock, Ron Carter and Tony
Williams mixing it up sans the horns and the results are more
reflective and cerebral than the full Quintet concerts. Hancock is
thoroughly in control of the agenda while Williams throws in those
meter-fracturing flurries that keep everyone on their toes. There is a
startling re-interpretation of "Speak like a Child" which is
significantly tougher and busier than the wistful Blue Note version, as
well as challenging Hancock originals like "Watcha Waiting For" and
"Watch It." This is uncompromising acoustic jazz, commercial anathema
in the electronic '70s -and thus, only Japan got to hear it. Richard S.
Ginell.
[12]16 comments made-how about you? 13.12.09
[13]JAZZ HIP TRIO - PORTRAITS
Jazz Hip Trio for Riviera France from 1968.
Jean-Bernard Eisinger Piano ; Roger Luccioni Bass ;Daniel Humair Drums.
Piano trios are the theme for my the next few posts and what better way
to start than with some beautiful music from France on it's first time
out in blogland here at OIR.
10 original compositions which grow and grow on repeated listening -
get past the "Sidewinder" influenced dance floor intro tune "Bat Rock"
and you're in for a swinging set of subtle trio sounds.Of course it's
gotta be......
All Killer No Filler
[14]23 comments made-how about you? 6.12.09
[15]THE DIAMOND FIVE - BRILLIANT !
The Diamond Five for Fontana from 1964.
Personnel: Cees Slinger: piano; Harry Verbeke: tenor sax; Cees Smal:
trumpet, cornet and valve trombone; Jacques Schols: bass; Johnny
Engels: drums.
Please check the comments as Chazz has also ripped The Five
Diamonds-Finally After Forty Years cd reissue from Japan and will be
posting the link shortly.Over to you Chazz!
I don't post donations at OIR but just had to make an exception when
this was winged across the pond to me from Chazz Katz.It's a very rare
piece of hard bop from Holland which made a blink and miss it reissue
on cd some years ago in Japan (original vinyl goes for silly money
anywhere between $600-$1000) and has never appeared in blogland
before.Here's the notes and cheers to Chazz for his rip!
Nice work chap - All Killer No Filler!
The Diamond Five, a Dutch quintet led by pianist Cees Slinger, was
founded in 1959 and lasted until 1965. They were based at the
Sheherazade Club in Amsterdam and were quite popular, playing all over
Holland and accompanying expatriate American musicians on their visits
to Amsterdam. However, when the club closed its doors due to a shift in
popular interest from jazz to rock music, the quintet disbanded. This
1964 recording is their only session available on CD. The music is hard
bop on the surface, but is neither formulaic nor a copy of the genres
imported from the U.S.
The musicians are quite unique in their style. Slinger plays sparse
notes on his solos, utilizing well-placed pauses in the music to create
melodic hard bop with hints of more forward-looking styles. The other
outstanding soloist is tenor saxophonist Harry Verbeke, whose solos (in
contrast to that of the leader) are filled with a multitude of notes
played in the modal vein. The others are also quite stellar, the bass
and the drums providing a loose bluesy support and horn man Cees Smal
adding something unique with the sounds of his different horns,
switching between valve trombone, cornet and trumpet.
[16]26 comments made-how about you? 26.11.09
[17]BOBBY HUTCHERSON - CIRRUS
Bobby Hutcherson for Blue Note from 1974.
Hutch is playing four sets in London this weekend so Katonah from
Private Press and I will be propping up the bar for his late spot at
Scotts tomorrow night.
So here's a 3rd repost for his evergreen "Cirrus" ....All Killer No
Filler.
This was my very first Bobby Hutcherson post here at OIR back in may
2006.It was ripped from my vinyl copy @192 in those days-I've reupped
it @320 this time and taken it from the superb Mosaic Select box
set.Here's my original narrative:
Cirrus finds Bobby Hutcherson resuming his partnership with tenor
saxophonist Harold Land, and the results are marvellous. The pair work
with pianist Bill Henderson, trumpeter Woody Shaw, bassist Ray
Drummond, drummer Larry Hancock, saxophonist/flautist Emmanuel Boyd and
percussionist Kenneth Nash on this set of originals.The album starts
with a great version of Woody Shaw's "Rosewood" while the rest of the
set is written by Hutcherson and includes "Even Later".Highlight of the
lp for me is the atmospheric and brooding "Zuri Dance" - what a corker
!
[18]36 comments made-how about you? 13.11.09
[19]DAVE PIKE - LET THE MINSTRELS PLAY ON
Dave Pike for Muse from 1978.
Vibraphone - Dave Pike / Bass - Luther Hughes / Cello - Luther Hughes /
Drums - Ted Hawkes / Guitar - Ron Eschete / Keyboards , Sax - Tom
Ranier / Vocals - Carol Eschete.
KGML has just posted "Spirits Samba" so dug the lp out for those who
would like to hear more.
Picked this up in Tony Monson's Disc Empire in the early 80s after
hearing Chris Bangs spinning "Swan Lake" and found it had yet another
bona fide jazz dance classic to be featured in the shape of "Spirits
Samba".
Here's an apathetic review from amg:
Some Afro-Latin, some fusion and things in between from vibist Dave
Pike. Pike is a good player, but sometimes his arrangements bog down
between pop and jazz. His style is more remniscent of Red Norvo, with
its lighter, less aggressive and flowing lines.
[20]12 comments made-how about you? 12.11.09
[21]RANDY WESTON - BLUE MOSES
Randy Weston For CTI from 1972.
Arranged By - Don Sebesky;Bass - Bill Wood (2) (tracks: B1) , Ron
Carter ;Drums - Bill Cobham ;English Horn, Clarinet, Flute - George
Marge ;Flugelhorn - Alan Rubin , John Frosk , Marvin Stamm ;Flute -
Hubert Laws ;French Horn - Brooks Tillotson , James Buffington ;Oboe,
Clarinet, Flute - Romeo Penque ;Piano - Randy Weston
Saxophone [Tenor] - Grover Washington, Jr ;Synthesizer [Moog] - David
Horowitz
Trombone - Garnett Brown , Warren Covington , Wayne Andre ;Trombone -
Paul Faulise
Trumpet - Freddie Hubbard ;Vocals - Madasme Meddah
Super heavyweight banger from CTI - trust Randy Weston to dispense with
Creed Taylor's saccharine stylings.All Killer blah blah blah....
Another underwhelming review from Mr Yannow:
Randy Weston's most popular record, this Lp (which he had mixed
feelings about) features Weston not only on piano but electric
keyboards. Backed by Don Sebesky arrangements and assisted by trumpeter
Freddie Hubbard and tenor-saxophonist Grover Washington Jr., Weston
plays quite well on four of his compositions; best-known are "Ganawa
(Blue Moses)" and "Marrakesh Blues." The music retains the African feel
of most of Weston's latter-day playing but also has some commercial
touches that do not hurt the performances. This rewarding date has not
yet been reissued on CD. ~ Scott Yanow, All Music Guide
Fantastic cover art from Pete Turner - I highly recommend his book[22]
here.
[23]16 comments made-how about you? 7.11.09
[24]BLACKCLASSICAL - 1ST BIRTHDAY MEGAMIX
Blackclassical has taken off his flat cap ,put the racing pigeons away
and is celebrating his first year on t'interwebs with a mighty mp3 mash
up of spiritual jazz goodness[25] here.Proof indeed that it's not all
grim up north.
Happy Birthday you old bastard - now get the lagers in and make sure
they've got vodka tops you tightarse.
[26]3 comments made-how about you? 6.11.09
[27]TUBBT HAYES - TUBBS IN N.Y.
Tubby Hayes for Fontana from 1961.
Saxophone [Tenor] - Tubby Hayes; Bass - George Duvivier; Drums - Dave
Bailey ;Piano - Horace Parlan ;
Trumpet - Clark Terry;Vibraphone - Eddie Costa
Another first in blogland for this British vinyl rarity at OIR with
Tubbs keeping heavy company in NYC . Apparently there was legal
wrangling about who owns the masters so don't hold your breath waiting
for a cd issue.The last one got pulled pronto upon release in 1990.
The swaggering "A Pint Of Bitter" was my very first exposure to Hayes
back in the early 80s - I just love that tune - but the rest is just as
good with flat out romps through "Opus Ocean" and "Airegin" plus a
wonderfuly swinging "Soon" . Nice!
[28]26 comments made-how about you? 31.10.09
[29]TUBBY HAYES QUARTET - TUBBY'S GROOVE
Tubby Hayes for Tempo from 1960.
Tubby Hayes (ts), Terry Shannon (p), Phil Bates (b), Phil Seamen (d).
"Tin Tin Deo" killin' it every time for me on this rare piece of
British wax from 50 years ago.
Simon Spillet has written a fascinating piece on Tubby at[30]
Jazzscript and here's his take on this album:
I think it's one of Tubby's best ever studio recordings and catches him
very much in his prime. I suppose that the stand-out track for me has
to be Sunny Monday with its unaccompanied tenor choruses. The tone is
big, the rhythmic delivery is full of confidence and the sheer
enthusiasm shines through half a century on.
[31]23 comments made-how about you? 30.10.09
[32]STAFFAN ABELEEN QUINTET -PERSEPOLIS
Staffan Abeleen for Philips Sweden from 1964.
Staffan Abeleen-Piano ; Lasse Farnlof - Trumpet ; Bjorn Netz - Tenor ;
Bjorn Alke - Bass ; Bosse Skoglund - Drums
More top draw business from Sweden making a first appearance in
blogland.Modal to bossa to ballads this one's got the lot:
ALL KILLER NO FILLER
[33]15 comments made-how about you? 15.10.09
[34]BERNT ROSENGREN BIG BAND - FIRST MOVES
Bernt Rosengren for EMI Sweden from 1977.
Bassoon, Horn - Lars Bagge/Clarinet, Clarinet [Bass], Saxophone
[Soprano, Alto, Baritone] - Lennart Jansson /Congas - Johnny Martinez ,
René Martinez , Sabu Martinez
Cornet , Flugelhorn - Lars Färnlöf /Drums - Leif Wennerström/Flute,
Saxophone -Bernt Rosengren /Horn [English], Saxophone - Tommy Koverhult
/ Percussion - Okay Temiz / Piano - Claes-Göran Fagerstedt / Piano,
Piano [Electric] - Bobo Stenson / Saxophone [Baritone] - Gunnar
Bergsten / Saxophone [Tenor] - Anders Lindskog / Trombone - Jan Jansson
, Janus Miezek , Lars Olofsson , Lennart Löfgren / Trombone [Bass] -
Sven Larsson /Trumpet - Björn Borg /Trumpet , Flugelhorn - Bertil
Lövgren , Maffy Falay / Bass - Torbjörn Hultcrantz
Back over to Sweden for this killer big band session led by Bernt
Rosengren and featuring some big names such as a pre-ECM Bobo
Stenson,the wonderful Lars Farnlof and none other than the mighty Sabu
Martinez.
Check out the percussion destruction of "Felicidade" with Sabu plus
sons Johnny and Rene Martinez beating the crap out of the Jobim bossa
standard... Murdah!!!
[35]19 comments made-how about you? 1.10.09
[36]JAZZ QUINTET 60
Jazz Quintet 60 from 1962 for Metronome Denmark.
Allan Botschinsky (tp), Niels Husum (ts), Bent Axen (p), Niels-Henning
Orsted Pedersen (b), Bjarne Rostvold (ds).
Legendary Scandinavian rarity (Check the second mortgage prices on
[37]Popsike) from Denmark featuring a who's who of the Danish Jazz
scene from the past 50 years.
First time it's has been posted in public blogland so don't sleep on
this one :
ALL KILLER NO FILLER !
[38]27 comments made-how about you? 27.9.09
[39]STAFFAN ABELEEN QUINTET - DOWNSTREAM
Staffan Abeleen Quintet for Philips Sweden from 1966.
Staffan Abeleen - Piano ; Lasse Farnlof - Trumpet ; Bjorn Netz - Sax ;
Bosse Skugland - Drums ; Paul Danielsson - Bass.
All compositions by Lars Farnlof
Scandinavia is the destination for my next batch of posts and what
better way to start than with this superb album by The Staffen Abeleen
Quintet playing the compositions of the wonderful Lars Farnlof.
Another first appearance in blogland but let the music do the talking
...
ALL KILLER NO FILLER
[40]15 comments made-how about you? 19.9.09
[41]ARCHIE SHEPP & THE FAMILY OF PERCUSSION - HERE COMES THE FAMILY
I have had lots of requests for a repost of this bomb from Archie Shepp
and The Family of Percussion - so here it is.
First posted at OIR september 2006.
The Family of Percussion (Peter Giger,Trilok Gurtu,Doug Hammond and Tom
Nicholas)are joined by Archie Shepp on this hard to find 1980 release
from Nagara in Germany.
On "Here Comes the Family"the Family establish the basic form of the
piece with their rhythmic and vocal opening with Shepp's flute
fluttering above it all.Then he lets rip with what the liner notes call
'Poetic Recitation'but would probably be called rapping these days over
a funky percussive backdrop .This tune is why the lp remains in such
demand - a big play list favourite of djs world wide.
Next up is Shepp's "Street Song" the best cut on the lp for me,on which
he blows his tenor freely over the drums,congas,bells and gongs.The
piece ends in a crescendo of percussion culminating in a gong crash
which fades into silence."Euterpe's Favorit"has Shepp back on flute
with the family weaving a mystical feel behind him on
bells,whistles,water pipes,gongs,rattles and drums.
"Ardopetori"starts side 2 with a mid tempo infectious rhythm
established by shakers and log drum which builds slowly with Shepp
soloing freely again on tenor.
"For Ti Roro"wraps it up and begins with the gentle,caribean sounds of
steel drums until Shepp's soprano bursts in with a frenzy of
excitement.This is the most free track with all the musicians reacting
to each otherboth collectively and singularly until it finishes
fittingly with the sound of the congas.
This came out on lp and cd but quickly dissapeared without trace.if you
want a copy you gonna have to dig hard and have deep pockets!
[42]18 comments made-how about you?
[43]HIROSHI SUZUKI - CAT
Hiroshi Suzuki for Columbia Japan from 1975.
Hiroshi Suzuki-Trombone ; Hiromasa Suzuki-Keyboards ; Akira
Ishikawa-Drums ; Takeru Muraoka-Sax ; Kunimitsu Inaba-Bass
More super rare J Jazz making a first appearance in blogland and this
is an absolute beauty made up of 5 long cuts that hit the perfect
balance between jazz and fusion.Acoustic bass meshed with subtle funky
drums topped with lashings of Rhodes,trombone and sax deliver a really
stretched out understated rolling groove.
The album just grows and grows with repeated listening and it's a big
favourite over here at Bacoso's Big Top - no surprise that it's
ALL KILLER NO FILLER !
[44]34 comments made-how about you? 7.9.09
[45]T. INOMATA & SOUND L.T.D. - SOUNDS OF SOUND L.T.D.
Takeshi Inomata for Columbia Japan from 1970.
Takeshi Inomata (Drums & Percussion) Jun Suzuki (Electric Bass)
Shigetok Kamiya (Electric Guitar) Ryo Kawasaki (Electric Guitar)
Sho Imai (Trombone & Bass Trombone) Shigemichi Dohmoto (Trombone & Bass
Trombone)
Takao Uematsu (Tenor Sax & Soprano Sax)
Fantastic lp of funky jazz from the Columbia issued Groovy Sound
Series.
No idea who plays on it as the credits are all in Japanese but it's a
monster session.
Check out "Mustache" and "Tak's Tune" for some severe beats from
drummer/leader Takeshi Inomata.
All Killer No Filler - Highly Recommended!
[46]22 comments made-how about you? 29.8.09
[47]HIDEO SHIRAKI - IN FIESTA
Hideo Shiraki for Teichiku Japan from 1961.
Rare super tough hard bop session from Japan featuring the killer koto
led and drum driven bomb "In Fiesta".
Reissued in Japan by Kyoto Jazz Massive for Think in a blink and miss
it moment back in 2005 but now out of print.
The old Dusty Groove blurb:
A brilliant early album from Japanese drummer Hideo Shiraki a jazz
session that bristles with the same intensity as key late 50s work by
Benny Golson or Gigi Gryce! Although Hideo's leading the group on
drums, his work on the kit is remarkably subtle done with the
snappingly rhythmic style that marked some of Golson's best modern
experiments of a few years before not nearly as bombastic as his stint
with Art Blakey, and more in the rhythmically stepping quality of his
work with Art Farmer in the Jazztet. Key players on the session include
Hidehiko Matsumoto on tenor and flute and Yuzuru Sera on piano both of
whom give the album a fluid grace that's really beautiful soulful edges
that allow the record to stand equally next to anything coming out of
the US at the time. One track features a bit of koto at the start --
echoing Shiraki's later world jazz experiments but most of the set is
straight modern hardbop, with tracks that include "Blue Romeo", "Etude
No 1", "Just One Or Eight", "You Don't Know What Love Is", and Benny
Golson's "Five Spot After Dark".
[48]14 comments made-how about you? 18.8.09
[49]LLOYD MCNEILL - TREASURES
Lloyd McNeill for Baobab from 1976.
Lloyd McNeill-Flute ; Dom Salvador-Piano ; Cecil McBee-Bass ; Portinho
, Brian Brake-Drums ; Ray Armando-Percussion.
One for the flute freaks on a private press out of NYC.
Heavy Brazilian infuences at work on this wonderful spiritual jazz
session from the great Lloyd McNeill.Two originals,one standard and a
cracking version of Salvador's "Salvation Army" which featured on Dom's
'76 Muse debut "Minha Familia"(Available at [50]Ile Oxumare).
Here's some info on Lloyd McNeill from the excellent [51]Hipwax:
The first thing to know about Lloyd McNeill is that his are the very
best soul-jazz flute LPs, and each is first-rate, a masterpiece of
self-direction. The second thing to know is there is much more to him
than his recorded legacy. He is one of those incredible,
super-sensitive people who excels at every artistic idiom and endeavor;
making wonderful music is just part of his flowing creativity. A
professor (at Rutgers University, earlier Dartmouth), he has much to
say about music and creativity as well as an impeccable gift for saying
it...sensibly. McNeill's writings on his musical experiences provide
invaluable documents of "the period" (late 1960s-1970s) as well as a
rare glimpse at the joy of a relatively unsung master.
McNeill has played with jazz legends --Andrew White (his longtime
collaborator/producer), Eric Dolphy, Sabu Martinez, Mulatu Astatke,
among many others-- and he has had a significant hand in the arts scene
of Washington, D.C. The major galleries of art, including those of the
Smithsonian, sponsored multi-media "happenings" that soared far above
the hippie caricature of acid rock with light show. During the first
flowering of post-Civil Rights, African-American culture, the Lloyd
McNeill Quartet's improvisitory, simultaneuous jazz and large-scale
painting "happened" while a lucky, perhaps unsuspecting public drank it
in.
McNeill believes his influences and their results in his art, music,
and poetry are inseparable and mutually reinforcing. Time spent with
Picasso in Cannes, 1965 led to new expressions in all three, for
instance. And when one brushes against a force such as Picasso, just
the idea of "meeting Picasso" has a certain momentum, never mind the
inevitable casting of rays of a different kind of light. Canvas, vinyl,
the stage, paper, and books of poetry offer a few key imprints of
McNeill, and McNeill consistently pays tribute to many illustrious
peers.
There are six albums, all produced and entirely under the artist's
control. Each title surpasses anything comparable on the major labels,
even Blue Note. The Black Jazz label may be roughly similar in style,
but Asha and Baobab are wholly Lloyd McNeill. The records reflect none
of the usual external trends from the decade in which they were
recorded; all sound like 1971 rather than 1979. The final record even
reprises the first (the exotic, broodingly moody "Asha"), and the sound
throughout remains somewhat interchangeable and timeless. But each
record has its own themes and currents, and even improvisation has its
signatures and fingerprints.
Buying: Long out of print, collectors items, Lloyd McNeill records
should be snapped up on sight. Hip Wax is pleased to offer two titles
for which limited stock remains [52]here.
Warning - McNeill lps can be damaging to the [53]wallet.
[54]29 comments made-how about you? 14.8.09
[55]If Spike Lee Did Movies In Audio...
Greg's back on the mix with his old mucker Monohub - another mashed up
bomb in memory of Coltrane and the late,great George Russell.Grab it
[56]HERE.
Here's the blurb from big daddy himself:
I did a version of this a while back and was planning to publish on
July 17th as a memorial to the day that John Coltrane died, but, a
combination of lack of time, work commitments and other things got in
the way...
Anyway I redid it and am glad that i did as it's much better than the
original. This one strictly for the heads... and defo not for the feint
hearted. If you liked the Black State of Vietnam mix then this is for
you...
So as i said; In respect of John Coltrane and George Russell. Much
thanks to Monohub too although he plays down his part in this, his
genius did have a lot to do with it...
[57]1 comments made-how about you? 3.8.09
[58]SADAO WATANABE AND CHARLIE MARIANO - IBERIAN WALTZ
Sadao and Charlie for Tact Japan from 1967.
Sadao Watanabe (as) , Charlie Mariano (as) , Masabumi Kikuchi (p) ,
Masanaga Harada (b) , Masahiko Togashi (ds) , Fumio Watanabe (ds)
This received a "Japan Jazz Award" on release.
Some severe blowing on this double alto led sextet featuring a young
band of soon to be Japanese jazz luminaries.
The fast and furious "Palisades" was comped on the Sleepwalker Shibuya
Jazz Classics.However the 16 minute title cut is the stand out tune an
intense modal waltz with a Spanish tinge featuring coruscating solos
from Mariano and Watanabe - hard core stuff.
Recommended.
[59]16 comments made-how about you? 28.7.09
[60]JAMES MARENTIC SEXTET - NIMBUS
James Marentic for Discovery from 1982.
James Marentic-Sax/Flute; Tom Harrell -Trumpet/Flugelhorn; Slide
Hampton-Trombone; Larry Willis-Piano; Anthony Cox-Bass; Victor
Lewis-Drums.
Storming post hard bop outing for Mr Marentic and his all star band.
Check out the banging latin romp "Baile de las Cucharachas " which
kicks off the lp in fine style and the Coltrane inspired "Nimbus".
"Aphrodesia" has the inspiration of Kenny Dorham stamped all over it
and no prizes for guessing who "Mr Silver I Presume" is aimed at
If you enjoyed Tom Harrell's "Aurora" post then this should be right up
your street,round your corner and down your block!
[61]8 comments made-how about you? 23.7.09
[62]CARTER JEFFERSON - THE RISE OF ATLANTIS
Carter Jefferson for Timeless from 1978.
Terrific post bop album with latin influences -All Killer No Filler!
John Hicks (Piano), Terumasa Hino (Trumpet), Woody Shaw (Producer),
Clint Houston (Bass), Victor Lewis (Drums),Carter Jefferson (Sax ),
Lani Groves (Vocals), Shunzo Ohno (Trumpet), Steve Thornton
(Percussion), Harry Whitaker (Piano)
Here's the customary underwhelming AMG review :
Tenor saxophonist Carter Jefferson made somewhat of a name for himself
when trumpeter Woody Shaw chose him as a member of his first working
quintet. Shaw is the producer of this album, Jefferson's fine debut
(and evidently only) recording as a leader. Taking a cue from Shaw, the
saxophonist sticks essentially to a quintet of trumpet and sax backed
by all-star rhythm sections. Three of the tracks include hard bop
trumpeter Terumasa Hino while the other three feature little-known
Japanese trumpeter Shunzo Ono. Most of the tunes are firmly in the
school of hard bop, the sort of music that Woody Shaw played so well.
While there is not any new ground broken, it is all performed
competently enough. While not as emotionally charged as his work with
Shaw, Jefferson impresses with a fluid, mobile attack that shows a
solid grasp of his material. If the groups seem to be sometimes merely
going through the motions, there are nonetheless enough fine moments to
make this a worthwhile purchase.AMG.
A reliable and advanced soloist who spent most of his career as a
sideman, Carter Jefferson is best-remembered for his association with
Woody Shaw during 1977-1980. Jefferson started on clarinet and played
alto before settling on tenor, going on tour early in the backup bands
of the Temptations, the Supremes, and Little Richard. In 1971, he moved
to New York to attend New York University and soon spent two years with
Mongo Santamaria and a period in 1973 as a member of Art Blakey's Jazz
Messengers. After his important stint with Woody Shaw (with whom he
recorded several times), Jefferson worked with many top players,
including Elvin Jones, Roy Haynes, Cedar Walton, Jerry Gonzalez & the
Fort Apache Band, Malachi Thompson, and Jack Walrath's Masters of
Suspense. His premature death in Poland after emergency surgery was a
major loss. Carter Jefferson only led one record, The Rise of Atlantis,
on the Timeless label in 1978. AMG.
[63]33 comments made-how about you? 10.7.09
[64]JULIO GUTIERREZ - PROGRESSIVE LATIN
Julio Gutierrez for Gema from 1960.
The title says it all for this groundbreaking heavyweight descarga
session...Highly recommended.
Has anyone out there got a copy of Gutierrez's "Havana BC" they want to
sell me?If so leave me a message in the comments.
Progressive Latin should be considered a classic of Latin jazz if it
isn't already. "Cosa Buena" cooks, and "Closing Time" is a slower bossa
nova with flute and horns that captures the mood of a good night out at
its end. "Yambambe," an Afro rhythm behind mostly piano, sounds more
sophisticated than its simple construction. "El Altiplano" is supposed
to be an Incan melody with Afro elements. In any case, vocal
interjections pave the way for a longer descarga where a variety of
intriguing elements (horns, flute piano, even organ) work together in
their own weird ways and combinations. The "Route 66" theme arrangement
is a coup; the sax and flute are recorded gorgeously, and the piano and
conga pace it ideally, with brief drum solo breaks. "Sad City" is a
haunting flute piece, while "Guantanamera" has an interesting change
but there is only so much one can expect from this tune. "Malaguena" is
another long descarga that gets a little wild. Progressive Latin is
something of a masterpiece from the great arranger Julio Gutierrez.
Tony Wilds
What impressed me most about this album is Julio's use of space and the
length of the tunes, considering that in the era when it was recorded,
2 1/2 minute tunes were standard. Great musicians like El Negro Vivar
(trumpet) and Chombo Silva (sax) were able to beautifully stretch out
over an almost post-bop/Afro-Cuban jazz setting. There is some serious
blowing on this disc. This is another essential Latin jazz gem from the
late 50s/early 60s.
Jose Rizo
[65]22 comments made-how about you? 4.7.09
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About Rhythmweb
A Grassroots Network
[dada01a.jpg] (at left: World Unity Drum Festival, Club Dada, Dallas,
August 1994. My son Jules, shown at age 12 at left)
Rhythmweb started in December of 1996, as a reflection of my virtual
search for music and musicians on the Web, and as an excuse to woodshed
web design. Since then we have been amazed by the reponse we have
recieved, from all corners of the globe. From the Mid-East to
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Papua, NewGuinea, musicians are connecting. Truly, rhythm is a
universal language, love of music a universal love. Thanks to all our
new friends for connecting with us.
Our mission is to further the use of rhythm, music, and percussion &
related arts as a healing tool. We LOVE music. We LOVE the Web. When
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Every time we meet someone interesting with a rhythm related website,
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but our basic mission remains the same. We are NOT a bunch of suits,
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record companies. Plenty of that elsewhere.
[eric_october03-01b-225.jpg] There are also fan pages and correspondent
pages here, on a large number of working musicians. Thanks very much to
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And to the thousands of hobbyist , semi-pro and professional
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Drum on,
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ABSTRACT
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BOOKMARK ARTICLE
RR-interval irregularity precedes ventricular fibrillation in ST elevation
acute myocardial infarction
[38]Miguel E. Lemmert, MD[39]a[40] Corresponding Author Information
[41]email address , [42]Mohamed Majidi, MD[43]a, [44]Mitchell
W. Krucoff, MD[45]*, [46]Sebastiaan C.A.M. Bekkers, MD[47]a, [48]Harry
J.G.M. Crijns, MD, PhD, FHRS[49]a, [50]Hein J.J. Wellens, MD, PhD,
FHRS[51]a, [52]Andrzej S. Kosinski, PhD[53]*, [54]Anton P.M. Gorgels,
MD, PhD, FHRS[55]a
Received 9 August 2009; accepted 15 September 2009. published online 22
September 2009.
Background
Sudden cardiac arrest is a leading cause of death in industrialized
countries, and ischemic ventricular fibrillation (VF) is a frequent
cause.
Objective
The purpose of this study was to determine whether patients with ST
elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) who develop ischemic VF show
more overall RR-interval irregularity (RRI) than do STEMI patients
without ischemic VF.
Methods
Ischemic VF was identified in 41 patients from 1,473 digital 12-lead
Holter recordings from three separate STEMI studies. Continuous 3-lead
and 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG) snapshots recorded every minute
were compared between all ischemic VF patients and 123 random patients
without ischemic VF. Time intervals from start of Holter to ischemic VF
and equivalent intervals in the controls were used for calculations.
ECG variables related to conduction intervals and severity of ischemia
were measured using the most ischemic 12-lead ECG. RRI was calculated
as the square root of the mean squared differences of successive RR
intervals. For RRI, all QRS complexes, including ventricular ectopic
beats, were used.
Results
No baseline differences were observed between the study and control
groups, except for male preponderance among ischemic VF patients (90%
vs 72%, P = .019). QRS interval, ECG ischemia severity, RRI, and number
of ventricular ectopic beats were significantly associated with
ischemic VF. Multivariate analysis revealed RRI (odds ratio 1.006, 95%
confidence interval 1.001-1.010, P = .016) and ST deviation score (odds
ratio 1.073, 95% confidence interval 1.041-1.106, P <.001) as the only
statistically significant predictors of ischemic VF.
Conclusion
In the period before ischemic VF, RRI and ST deviation score are
associated with ischemic VF in STEMI patients. These findings could
have important pathophysiologic and clinical implications.
Keywords: [56]Cardiac arrest, [57]Electrocardiography, [58]Myocardial
infarction, [59]Sudden death, [60]Ventricular fibrillation
Abbreviations: [61]AUC, [62]area under receiver operating
characteristic curve, [63]AV, [64]atrioventricular, [65]ECG,
[66]electrocardiogram, [67]HRV, [68]heart rate variability, [69]IQR,
[70]interquartile range, [71]ROC, [72]receiver operating
characteristic, [73]RRI, [74]RR-interval irregularity, [75]STEMI,
[76]ST elevation myocardial infarction, [77]VF, [78]ventricular
fibrillation
Article Outline
o [79]Abstract
o [80]Introduction
o [81]Methods
o [82]Patient population
o [83]ECG data
o [84]RRI and ventricular ectopic beats
o [85]Twelve-lead ECG measurements
o [86]Statistical analysis
o [87]Results
o [88]Baseline characteristics and laboratory values
o [89]ECG characteristics
o [90]Cutoff values
o [91]Discussion
o [92]Baseline characteristics
o [93]Single 12-lead ECG measurements
o [94]Continuous ECG measurements
o [95]RRI and total number of ventricular ectopic beats
o [96]Heart rate variability
o [97]Study limitations
o [98]Clinical implications and future research
o [99]Conclusion
o [100]Acknowledgment
o [101]References
o [102]Copyright
Introduction
[103]return to Article Outline
Sudden cardiac arrest is one of the leading causes of death in
industrialized countries, and ischemic ventricular fibrillation (VF) is
one of the most frequent causes.[104]1, [105]2 To date, research aimed
at predicting VF has predominantly focused on the postmyocardial
infarction stage and nonischemic conditions. Familial history of sudden
death recently was demonstrated to be an important risk factor for VF
in an ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) population,[106]3
suggesting that genetic factors are involved and that predisposition to
ischemic VF differs among patients. Inhomogeneity of intramyocardial
conduction velocity plays a role as a substrate for reentrant
ventricular arrhythmias and sudden death during acute ischemia.[107]4,
[108]5, [109]6, [110]7, [111]8
In the current study, we introduce the novel electrocardiographic (ECG)
parameter of overall RR-interval irregularity (RRI), which is measured
by taking all QRS complexes into account, irrespective of their origin.
A greater RRI could lead to increased inhomogeneity of conduction
velocities and refractory periods, facilitating ischemic VF.
Using single 12-lead ECGs, our group recently demonstrated longer PR
and QRS conduction intervals in first STEMI patients developing
ischemic VF.[112]9 This finding supports the concept of increased
inhomogeneity in conduction velocity and calls upon further elucidation
of the concept. Thus, we tested the hypothesis that cardiac rhythm
characteristics preceding ischemic VF are different from those in
ischemic patients without VF, particularly with regard to the novel ECG
parameter RRI.
Methods
[113]return to Article Outline
Patient population
A retrospective database consisting of 1,473 24-hour Holter recordings
was retrieved from the ECG core laboratory of the Duke Clinical
Research Institute (Durham, NC, USA). The database consists of Holter
recordings from STEMI patients who were included in three separate
safety-efficacy STEMI studies between April 2002 and November 2003. The
database includes all analyzable Holter recordings from two cohorts
(CASTEMI[114]10 and EMERALD,[115]11 n = 1,031) treated with direct
percutaneous coronary intervention and one cohort treated with
thrombolytic therapy (RAPSODY, n = 442). All of these patients were
older than 18 years, had presented with diagnostic ST elevation on
standard ECG, and had symptom duration <= 6 hours. As part of the study
protocols, all patients were connected to 24-hour digital 12-lead
Holter recorders immediately after hospital admission, prior to any
therapeutic intervention in the hospital.
For the current study, all 1,473 Holter recordings were examined for
ischemic VF. Ischemic VF was defined as irregular undulations of
varying shape and amplitude on ECG without discrete QRS or T waves. To
ensure the ischemic nature of the VF, only patients with VF that
occurred before percutaneous coronary intervention and/or in the
presence of persisting ST deviation were included in the study.
Patients in whom VF occurred in conjunction with ECG signs of
reperfusion were considered to have reperfusion VF rather than ischemic
VF and were not included in the study (n = 5). Patients who showed
regular monomorphic ventricular tachycardias rather than VF also were
excluded from the study (n = 19).
Forty-one patients (2.8%) with ischemic VF were identified (study
group). For comparison, for each VF patient, three patients without
ischemic VF (control group) were selected, only matched for the
original study cohort. Selection was done randomly using the
statistical software SPSS for Windows (release 12.0.1, SPSS, Inc.,
Chicago, IL, USA), providing a total of 123 control patients.
Clinical descriptors noted include baseline characteristics (gender,
age, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, current
smoking, and history of acute myocardial infarction), coronary
angiographic data (culprit lesion), and plasma levels of cardiac
enzymes.
ECG data
Holter recordings (DR180+, NorthEast Monitoring, Maynard, MA, USA)
consisted of digital 24-hour 3-lead recordings (leads V5, V1, and III),
with a complete Mason-Likar 12-lead ECG (calibration 10 mm/mV, speed 25
mm/s) available every minute and featured designated analysis software
(Holter 5 LX Analysis version 5.2, NorthEast Monitoring). For each VF
patient, the time interval from start of recording to onset of ischemic
VF and the equivalent time interval in the three matched controls were
used for analysis, disregarding the residual recording time.
Computerized labeling of QRS complexes and RR intervals on Holter
recordings was reviewed and corrected on a beat-to-beat basis by a
trained physician (M.E.L.).
RRI and ventricular ectopic beats
For this analysis, we introduce RRI as a novel parameter. RRI was
calculated using the designated software's capability to calculate
heart rate variability (HRV). HRV is the variation in heart rate
resulting from sympathetic and vagal influences on the sinus node. HRV
disregards all ECG complexes other than sinus beats. Using continuous
3-lead Holter recordings, the software is capable of several HRV
measurements within the time domain.
Similar to standard HRV measurements, RRI calculations were performed
using the three leads of the Holter recordings. Contrary to standard
HRV measurements, RRI takes all ECG complexes, irrespective of their
origin, into account, including (episodes of) atrial fibrillation or
atrial flutter, paced rhythms, and supraventricular and ventricular
complexes. To enable RRI measurements by the software, all ECG
complexes were manually labeled as sinus beats. Time intervals before
onset of ischemic VF frequently were short. Therefore, the square root
of the mean squared differences of successive RR intervals method was
used because it reflects short-term variations in RR intervals, as
previously described in detail.[116]12 For the software to perform HRV
measurements and thus RRI measurements, a minimum of 5 minutes of
recording time is required.
The total number of ventricular ectopic beats was counted for each
patient, again during the time interval from start of recording to
onset of ischemic VF and the equivalent time interval in the control
patients.
Twelve-lead ECG measurements
Our group recently showed significant differences in PR and QRS
conduction intervals as well as severity of ischemia between VF
patients and control patients. For this reason, similar measurements
were made in the current study using the designated software, which
features electronic calipers for 12-lead ECGs. For each patient, one
12-lead ECG showing the most pronounced ST-segment deviation was used
because these ECGs are expected to be the best representation of
ischemia-induced conduction defects. The measurements have been
described previously,[117]9 with the difference that, because of the
digital ECG data and the accompanying Holter software, the measurements
were done using the electronic calipers of the analysis software
instead of manually.
Statistical analysis
Data analysis and case-control randomization were performed using SPSS
for Windows (release 12.0.1). Continuous variables are expressed as
median and interquartile range (IQR) and categorical variables as
percentages. For comparison of continuous variables, a Student's t-test
for normally distributed data or a Mann-Whitney test or Wilcoxon
signed-rank test for non-normally distributed data was used. For
comparison of categorical variables, a Pearson chi-square test or
Fisher exact test was used. All statistical tests were two-tailed, and
P <.05 was considered significant. ECG characteristics showing a
significant univariate relation with the occurrence of VF but lacking
multicollinearity (defined as r > 0.4) were included in multivariate
logistic regression. Variables were removed stepwise from the model
when P was >.10. Variables with P <.05 in the final model were
considered independent contributors and are reported in the results. In
the final model, tests were done for interactions between main
predictors. The predictive accuracy of the final model is reported as
the area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (AUC).
Cutoff values for ECG characteristics by which most VF patients can be
correctly classified are identified by applying the Pythagorean theorem
to ROC curves, which is a mathematical determination of the cutoff
value with the graphically shortest distance to a sensitivity and
specificity of 1.
Results
[118]return to Article Outline
Baseline characteristics and laboratory values
No statistically significant differences regarding baseline
characteristics and laboratory values were found between the VF
patients and the controls, except for a significantly higher percentage
of males among the VF patients (90% vs 72%, P = .019; [119]Table 1).
Table 1.
Baseline characteristics of the study population
Ischemic VF (n = 41) No ischemic VF (n = 123) P value
Age (years) 61 (54-71) 59 (52-71) .54
Male 90 72 .019
Anterior wall infarction 31 29 .84
Culprit artery .32
Left anterior descending branch 20 21
Right coronary artery 77 66
Left circumflex branch 3 13
Comorbidity/risk factor
Diabetes mellitus 10 18 .32
Hypertension 39 42 .71
Hypercholesterolemia 33 26 .41
Smoking 38 38 1
Prior myocardial infarction 11 11 1
Original study cohort .30
CASTEMI[120]10 3 97
EMERALD[121]11 3 97
RAPSODY 2 98
Laboratory values
Initial CK 1.6 (0.3-10.3) 2.6 (0.7-6.9) .70
Post PCI CK 8.1 (5.6-21.9) 10.1 (5.0-14.5) .75
Initial CK-MB 3.1 (1.7-7.7) 4.2 (0.6-7.6) .77
Post PCI CK-MB 6.9 (2.0-11.0) 8.5 (4.1-13.1) .41
Post PCI troponin-T 50.9 (27.5-74.2) 15.4 (8.2-61.8) 1
Note: Information on the culprit artery was available for 127 patients
from the PCI cohorts (CASTEMI and EMERALD). For the thrombolytics
cohort (RAPSODY), the distinction between anterior wall infarctions and
nonanterior wall infarctions was available.
Values are given as median (interquartile range) or percent.
CK = creatine kinase; CK-MB = creatine kinase-MB isoenzyme; PCI =
percutaneous coronary intervention; VF = ventricular fibrillation.
ECG characteristics
ECG characteristics are listed in [122]Table 2. All patients were in
sinus rhythm, except for six (four VF patients, two controls) with
atrial fibrillation, which precluded assessment of sinus rate and PR
interval. One VF patient had a paced rhythm during part of the Holter
recording. One VF patient and two control patients showed
atrioventricular (AV) nodal escape rhythms. Two additional control
patients had high-degree AV block.
Table 2.
ECG characteristics of the study population
Ischemic VF (n = 41) No ischemic VF (n = 123) P value
Sinus rate (min-1) 74 (62-85) 73 (65-85) .719
PQ (ms) 177 (160-216) 164 (153-181) .055
QRS (ms) 103 (88-115) 93 (83-104) .018
QTc Bazett (ms) 417 (390-446) 414 (396-414) .822
Peak ST deviation (mm) 7 (5-10) 4 (2-7) <.001
Grade of ischemia 3 (2-3) 2 (2-3) .004
No. of leads with ST deviation 10 (9-11) 7 (4-10) <.001
STdev (mm) 36 (26-50) 20 (11-30) <.001
Measuring time (minutes) 29 (16-57) 29 (16-57) N/A
Total no. of ventricular ectopic beats 73 (19-268) 19 (2-106) .006
RRI (ms) 132 (100-197) 73 (39-122) <.001
RRI-5 min (ms) 186 (97-237) 44 (22-101) <.001
Values are given as median (interquartile range).
RRI = RR-interval irregularity; RRI-5 min = RR-interval irregularity in
the last 5 minutes of measuring time; STdev = ST deviation score, the
sum of all ST deviations on 12-lead ECG; VF = ventricular fibrillation.
With regard to measurements using single 12-lead ECGs, VF patients
showed a longer QRS interval [103 ms (IQR 88-115 ms) vs 93 ms (IQR
83-104 ms), P = .018] and a larger amount of ischemia, as measured by
peak ST deviation, grade of ischemia,[123]13 total number of leads with
ST deviation, and ST deviation score.
With regard to continuous ECG measurements, the median measuring time
was 29 minutes (IQR 16-57 minutes). Because the requirement of at least
5 minutes of recording time prior to ischemic VF could not be met, the
computer software did not allow RRI measurement in three VF patients
and subsequently nine control patients. VF patients showed a higher RRI
[132 ms (IQR 100-197 ms) vs 73 ms (IQR 39-122 ms), P <.001] and more
ventricular ectopic beats [73 (IQR 19-268) vs 19 (2-106), P = .006].
Excluding the recordings with atrial fibrillation from the analysis,
did not affect the results regarding the RRI measurements.
Logistic regression was applied, with presence of ischemic VF as the
dependent variable and variables showing univariate significance (QRS
interval, ST deviation score, total number of ventricular ectopic
beats, RRI) as the independent variables. Because we recently showed ST
deviation score to be an independent predictor of ischemic VF[124]9 and
we wanted to correct for multicollinearity between the variables
measuring the amount of ischemia, ST deviation score was the only
ischemia parameter entered in the logistic regression. This
multivariate analysis revealed that only a higher RRI (odds ratio
1.006, 95% confidence interval 1.001-1.010, P = .016) and a higher ST
deviation score (odds ratio 1.073, 95% confidence interval 1.041-1.106,
P <.001) were independently associated with an increased chance of
ischemic VF ([125]Table 3). The interpretation of these odds ratios is
that an increase in RRI of 1 ms corresponds to an increased chance of
ischemic VF of 0.6%.
Table 3.
Multivariate analysis of the study population
Odds ratio 95% Confidence interval P value
RR-interval irregularity (ms) 1.006 1.001-1.010 .016
STdev (mm) 1.073 1.041-1.106 <.001
Area under the receiver operating characteristic curve is 0.835.
STdev = ST deviation score, the sum of all ST deviations on 12-lead
ECG.
For our study population, this means that, based on only RRI
measurements, patients who developed VF had a 41.5% (1.006 ^ [132 ms -
73 ms] = 1.415) more chance of doing so than the patients who did not
develop VF. Similarly, an increase in ST deviation score of 1 mm
implies an increased chance of ischemic VF of 7.3%. The predictive
accuracy of this model assessed by the AUC was 0.835.
In addition, to examine a fixed and shortest possible time frame prior
to ischemic VF, RRI was measured in the last 5 minutes of measuring
time. This showed an even more marked difference in RRI between VF and
control patients [186 ms (97-237 ms) vs 44 ms (22-101 ms), P <.001].
Multivariate analysis using this RRI of the last 5 minutes yielded an
RRI odds ratio of 1.012 (95% confidence interval 1.007-1.018, P <.001),
with a predictive model accuracy (AUC) of 0.896 (not shown in
[126]Table 3). Of note, measurement of RRI in the last 5 minutes was
not possible in 7 VF patients and 27 controls because occasional
artifact during this time period in these patients reduced the
analyzable recording time to less than the required 5 minutes.
Cutoff values
Based on the optimal (mathematical) balance between sensitivity and
specificity, cutoff values for RRI and the ST deviation score were
identified. According to these criteria, the cutoff value for RRI is
110 ms, with sensitivity of 74% and specificity of 75%. The cutoff
value for the ST deviation score is 27 mm, yielding sensitivity of 74%
and specificity of 70%.
Discussion
[127]return to Article Outline
To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to show that
heart rate irregularity, measured as the novel parameter RRI, plays a
significant role preceding ischemic VF on continuous ECG recordings
retrieved from a large STEMI database.
Baseline characteristics
No differences in baseline characteristics were found, except for male
preponderance in the VF patients. This is not in accordance with
previous research in which no gender difference with regard to ischemic
VF or sudden cardiac arrest was found.[128]9, [129]14, [130]15,
[131]16, [132]17, [133]18 Our finding could be an observation by
chance, due to multiple exploratory tests that in no way are related to
any hypothesis tested in this study.
Single 12-lead ECG measurements
The significantly longer QRS interval and the larger amount of ischemia
in the VF patients are in agreement with our previous findings on
single 12-lead STEMI ECGs.[134]9 Briefly, in that study we found longer
conduction intervals in VF patients that may, depending on the site of
the occlusion and amount of ischemia, indicate an inhomogeneity in
conduction velocity providing the substrate for ischemic VF. The
current study adds a continuous aspect to the period preceding ischemic
VF. In a multivariate regression model including continuous ECG
measurements, only RRI and the amount of ischemia appear to be
independently associated with the occurrence of ischemic VF.
Continuous ECG measurements
The parameters related specifically to the continuous ECG measurements
are RRI and total number of ventricular ectopic beats.
RRI and total number of ventricular ectopic beats
RRI is a novel and unique ECG parameter that combines into a single
parameter the multitude of ECG complexes and rhythms occurring in the
acute phase of a STEMI by measuring RRI resulting from all such
complexes. Examples of large and small RRIs are shown in [135]Figure 1.
[136]View full-size image. [137]View Large Image
[138]Download to PowerPoint [139]Standard image available
Figure 1. RR-interval irregularity (RRI) in ventricular fibrillation
(VF) patient (A) and matched control patient (B). Primarily due to
irregular runs of ventricular ectopic beats, the VF patient had an RRI
of 257 ms prior to the ischemic VF (red arrow), whereas the control
patient had an RRI of 20 ms in the equivalent time interval. Green
complexes indicate sinus beats; red complexes indicate ventricular
ectopic beats; blue complexes indicate artifact (not used for any
calculations).
To our knowledge, the only continuous ECG parameter suggested to be
associated with ischemic VF occurring in the acute phase of a STEMI is
an increased number of ventricular ectopic beats prior to ischemic
VF.[140]19 However, the predictive value of these so-called warning
arrhythmias has been questioned by other researchers.[141]20, [142]21
In our study population, we were able to reproduce the finding that
frequent ventricular ectopic beats represent a harbinger of ischemic
VF. These previously reported contradictory results may be explained by
our additional finding that the total number of ventricular ectopic
beats was not an independent predictor of ischemic VF. RRI was the only
independent continuous ECG predictor of ischemic VF, suggesting that
the mere presence of ventricular ectopic beats is less important than
rhythm irregularity.
The manner in which RRI is associated with ischemic VF could be as
follows. RRI leads to inhomogeneity in conduction velocity and
refractory periods. Beat-to-beat changes in refractoriness, induced by
RRI, may become pronounced in ischemic areas due to ischemia-related
postrepolarization refractoriness, an effect suggested by our data to
be even more pronounced in the final 5 minutes preceding ischemic VF.
Subsequent, relatively shortly coupled beats may block or conduct
slowly in these areas and instantaneously create a substrate vulnerable
to ischemic VF. Shortly coupled beats do not necessarily induce reentry
and VF; rather, they set the stage.
The finding that the number of leads showing ST deviation was
associated with ischemic VF might indicate a role for more widespread
myocardial ischemia rather than merely local severity of ischemia. This
could add to the heterogeneity of postrepolarization refractoriness.
Although not an independent predictor, this concept is supported by a
larger region at risk associated with VF found in a previous study
using coronary angiography.[143]16
Heart rate variability
The RRI measurements were performed using the software's mathematical
capabilities to calculate HRV. Although technically possible, actual
HRV measurements are not reported here. HRV has been recognized as a
marker of the relationship between the autonomic nervous system and
cardiac mortality. A decreased HRV has been proposed as a predictor of
ventricular arrhythmias and sudden death in different patient
populations, mostly consisting of patients in the postmyocardial
infarction phase or with nonischemic cardiac diseases.[144]12, [145]22,
[146]23, [147]24, [148]25 Most studies attributing a predictive role to
HRV were specifically designed to measure this parameter for
sufficiently long periods of sinus rhythm in a chronic care setting.
The current study relates to a completely different clinical situation,
not only because of its acutely ischemic population but also because of
the relatively short measuring times with frequent ventricular ectopy.
Thus, the clinical meaning of standard HRV measurements would be
questionable in our study population.
Study limitations
The population studied was a selected population because all patients
survived until hospital admission. Therefore, whether our findings can
be generalized to the situation outside the hospital is not known.
The study variables were derived from three separate studies, so
possibly the study population was not homogeneous. In spite of this,
the association we found between RRI, amount of ischemia, and ischemic
VF was very consistent across studies.
All patients were derived from STEMI intervention trials who met
certain ST-segment criteria for inclusion. Therefore, whether the
results are applicable to non-STEMI patients or patients with demand
ischemia rather than supply ischemia is not known.
Finally, we have no information on use of medication. However, in a
previous study we found no influence of any type of medication on
development of ischemic VF.[149]9 Furthermore, it is more likely that
medications such as beta-blocking agents would influence RR-interval
duration rather than RRI. In this regard, it should be noted that there
was no difference in sinus rate between VF patients and control
patients.
However, it should be taken into account that the current database of
Holter recordings prior to ischemic VF is unique in its size and
possibly the best available.
Clinical implications and future research
The results of this study are important for a better understanding of
ischemic VF. Moreover, it provides simple variables with possible
implications for clinical use. There is an increased need for
monitoring high-risk cardiac patients outside the hospital setting, and
the development of monitoring devices with alarm features has been
advocated by our group and others.[150]26, [151]27, [152]28
When incorporated within the algorithms of arrhythmia sensing devices,
a warning predictor of ischemic VF could lead to improved early
identification of individuals at risk. The predictive accuracy of 0.835
by multivariate analysis was high ([153]Table 3). This indicates that
RRI and the ST deviation score may be useful as predictors of ischemic
VF in STEMI patients. The cutoff value for RRI is 110 ms, with
sensitivity of 74% and specificity of 75%. The cutoff value for the ST
deviation score is 27 mm, yielding sensitivity of 74% and specificity
of 70%. Because false-positive identification of STEMI patients at risk
for ischemic VF is preferable to false-negative failure to identify, it
could be speculated that different (ranges of) cutoff values with
higher sensitivities at the cost of lower specificities should be
chosen. Sensitivities of (approximately) 80% and 90% and corresponding
cutoff values for RRI and the ST deviation score are shown in
[154]Figure 2, [155]Figure 3.
[156]View full-size image. [157]View Large Image
[158]Download to PowerPoint [159]Standard image available
Figure 2. Sensitivity and specificity for all cutoff values for
RR-interval irregularity (RRI).
[160]View full-size image. [161]View Large Image
[162]Download to PowerPoint [163]Standard image available
Figure 3. Sensitivity and specificity for all cutoff values for the ST
deviation score (STdev).
This study was aimed at STEMI patients who suffer from supply ischemia.
One could speculate whether the results can be extrapolated to patients
suffering from demand ischemia due to a severe stenosis. In that case,
RRI could play a similar role in these patients, leading to ischemic VF
(e.g., during exercise or diminished blood supply during sleep).
Because the majority of sudden cardiac arrests occurs outside the
hospital, a warning predictor of ischemic VF could be useful in
patients with known coronary artery disease. The model proposed in the
current study could serve as an ischemia model that could be used in
future research studying patients who are potential victims of ischemic
VF due to demand ischemia. Such populations are currently being studied
by our group.
Conclusion
[164]return to Article Outline
Overall RRI and the amount of ischemia are suggested to be useful
predictors of ischemic VF occurring in the acute phase of STEMI.
Acknowledgments
[165]return to Article Outline
We thank W.R. Dassen, PhD, for statistical advice.
References
[166]return to Article Outline
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[200]a Department of Cardiology, Maastricht University Medical Center,
Maastricht, The Netherlands
[201]* Duke University Medical Center/Duke Clinical Research Institute,
Durham, North Carolina, USA
[202]Corresponding Author Information Address reprint requests and
correspondence: Dr. Miguel E. Lemmert, Maastricht University Medical
Center, Department of Cardiology, PO Box 5800, 6202 AZ Maastricht, The
Netherlands
This research was supported by an unrestricted grant from Philips
Healthcare, Seattle, Washington.
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Liens cachés :
Wheeler English
Lines & Rhymes: Rhythm
from The teachers and Writers Handbook of Poetic Forms, edited by Ron
Padgett.
and your text, Elements of Literature, Second Course (Holt, Rinehart)
Rhythm is a musical quality produced by the repetition of stressed and
unstressed syllables. Rhythm occurs in all forms of language, both
written and spoken, but is particularly important in poetry
The most obvious king of rhythm is the regular repetition of stressed
and unstessed syllables found in some poetry.
Writers also create rhythm by repeating words and phrases or even by
repeating whole lines and sentences, as Walt Whitman does in "Song of
Myself":
I hear the sound I love, the soung of the hyman voice,
I hear all sounds running together, combined, fused, or following,
Sounds of the city and sounds out of the city, sounds of the day and
night,
Talkative young ones to those that like them, the loud laugh of
work-people at their meals...
[yellowrose_l.jpg]
[whitedaisy1_l.jpg]
People often use a combination of two words to describe regular rhythm
or meter. For example, you might refer to the meter of a sonnet as
iambic pentameter The first word, such as iambic, refers to the beat
pattern, in this case an unaccented syllable followed by an accented
syllable (the most common in English). The second refers to the length
of the line. In the case of pentameter we mean five feet (or ten
syllables, long.
Below are some commonly used words to describe the meter of regular
poetry.
The most common units ("feet") of rhythm in English are:
The iamb, consisting of two syllables, only the second accented (as in
"good-bye")
The trochee, two syllables, only the first accented (as in "awful")
The anapest, three syllables, with only the third stressed (as in
"Halloween")
The dactyl, one stressed syllable followed by two unstressed (as in
"wonderful")
The spondee, two consecutive syllables that are both stressed (as in
"big deal")
Many American poets in the past thirty years have written poetry using
everyday language, and because much American speech is iambic in
pattern, the poetry shows a lot of iambic rhythm.
[golddaisy_l.jpg]
Rhythm (or "measure") in writing is like the beat in music. In poetry,
rhythm implies that certain words are produced more force- fully than
others, and may be held for longer duration. The repetition of a
pattern of such emphasis is what produces a "rhythmic effect." The word
rhythm comes from the Greek, meaning "measured motion."
In speech, we use rhythm without consciously creating recognizable
patterns. For example, almost every telephone conversation ends
rhythmically, with the conversants understanding as much by rhythm as
by the meaning of the words, that it is time to hang up. Frequently
such conversations end with Conversant A uttering a five- or
six-syllable line, followed by Conversant B's five to six syllables,
followed by A's two- to four-syllable line, followed by B's two to four
syllables, and so on until the receivers are cradled.
Well I gotta go now.
Okay, see you later.
Sure, pal. So long.
See you. Take care.
Bye bye.
Bye bye.
In poems, as in songs, a rhythm may be obvious or muted. A poem like
Vachel Lindsay's "The Congo" consciously recreates the rhythms of a
tribal dance:
Fat black bucks in a wine-barrel room
Barrel-house kings, with feet unstable,
Sagged and reeled and pounded on the table,
Pounded on the table,
Beat an empty barrel with the handle of a broom,
Hard as they were able
Boom, boom, BOOM,
With a silk umbrella and the handle of a broom,
Boomlay, boomlay, boomlay, BOOM.
On the other hand, some "free verse" has underlying rhythmical patterns
that, while variable and not "regular" like Vachel Lindsay's, do
nonetheless give a feeling of unity to the work. For example, read
aloud the following lines a few times:
A chimney, breathing a little smoke.
The sun, I can't see
making a bit of pink
I can't quite see in the blue.
The pink of five tulips
at five P.M. on the day before March first.
-From "February" by James Schuyler
[1]suggested
assignments
[2]project
[3]rhythm
[4]rhyme
[5]repetition
[6]figures of speech
[7]schoolnotes
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[11]48-49 | 2007 : Temps, corps, techniques et esthétique
Le corps, le rythme et l'esthétique sociale chez André Leroi-Gourhan
Alexandra Bidet
p. 15-38
[12]Résumé | | [13]Citation | [14]Auteur
Résumés
[15]Français [16]English
L'oeuvre d'André Leroi-Gourhan est traversée par une anthropologie du
rythme. Celle-ci ne part pas d'une socialité constituée, de rythmes
dits « sociaux », mais inscrit au contraire l'analyse de la rythmicité
dans une approche de l'homme comme être vivant, comme totalité
indivise. Elle pose en des termes renouvelés le problème classique du
groupement des hommes et des liens entre l'individu et son milieu. Avec
la question de la genèse de la socialité, c'est le lien entre
corporéité et socialité, entre affect et symbole, qui est ici au coeur
d'une approche du rythme comme « insertion dans l'existence ».
The entire works of Leroi-Gourhan are embedded in an anthropology of
rhythm. The latter does not originate from a constituted sociality,
from rhythms said to be "social", but on the contrary the analysis of
rhythmic is part of an approach of Man as a living being, as an
indivisible whole. It renews the classical question of the grouping of
humans and of the relationships between the individual and his
background. With the question of the genesis of sociality, it is the
link between corporeity and sociality, between affect and symbol, which
are here at the heart of an approach of rhythm as an "insertion into
existence".
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Ce document sera publié en ligne en texte intégral en juin 2010.
Plan
De la corporéité aux rythmes
Du rythme comme « insertion affective » : rythme et valeurs
Leroi-Gourhan et Lévi-Strauss :
rythmicité et théorie du symbolisme
De l'efficacité de l'esthétique sociale :
une pensée pragmatique
Le social comme « charnière »
« L'homme est une création du désir, non pas une création du besoin. »
G. Bachelard, La Psychanalyse du feu, cité par A. Leroi-Gourhan (1982 :
180).
« On connaît mieux les échanges de prestige que les échanges
quotidiens,
les prestations rituelles que les services banaux, la circulation des
monnaies dotales
que celle des légumes, beaucoup mieux la pensée des sociétés que leur
corps [...]. Alors que Durkheim et Mauss ont luxueusement défendu le
"fait social total", ils ont supposé l'infrastructure techno-économique
connue » (Leroi-Gourhan 1964 : 210).
Le rythme serait-il rétif à toute forme de pensée ? On a pu souligner
la polysémie de la notion de rythme, les apories des démarches qui
visent à lui assigner une origine, ou encore l'existence d'un
« panrythmisme » spontané prompt à déceler du rythme en toutes choses
(Sauvanet & Wunenburger 1996). Dans l'anthropologie, l'archéologie et
l'ethnologie préhistorique d'André Leroi-Gourhan, une place majeure est
accordée à la rythmicité et aux ry (...)
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Alexandra Bidet, « Le corps, le rythme et l'esthétique sociale chez
André Leroi-Gourhan », Techniques & Culture [En ligne], 48-49 | 2007,
mis en ligne le 13 juin 2010, Consulté le 18 janvier 2010. URL :
[20]Haut de page
Auteur
[21]Alexandra Bidet
Chargée de recherches
[22]Haut de page
Droits d'auteur
Tous droits réservés
[23]Haut de page
[24]Sommaire - [25]Document suivant
Navigation
Index
* [26]Auteur
* [27]Index de mots-clés
* [28]Index géographique
Derniers numéros
* [29]51 | 2009
Des Choses, des gestes, des mots
* [30]50 | 2008
Les natures de l'homme
* [31]48-49 | 2007
Temps, corps, techniques et esthétique
Numéros en texte intégral
* [32]45 | 2005
Apprendre la mer
* [33]43-44 | 2004
Mythes. L'origine des manières de faire
* [34]42 | 2003
Du virtuel@l'âge du fer.com
* [35]41 | 2003
Briques : le cru et le cuit
* [36]40 | 2003
Efficacité technique, efficacité sociale
* [37]39 | 2002
Sports et corps en jeu
* [38]38 | 2002
La céruse
[39]Tous les numéros
Sommaires
* [40]37 | 2001
L'araire en Himalaya
* [41]35-36 | 2001
Traversées
* [42]34 | 2000
Soieries médiévales
* [43]33 | 1999
Entre histoire et tradition
* [44]31-32 | 1999
Dynamique des pratiques alimentaires
* [45]30 | 1998
Labyrinthe
* [46]29 | 1998
De la Chines et des Andes
* [47]28 | 1997
Accès aux savoirs d'autrui
* [48]27 | 1996
Du chat cuit au Chaco
* [49]25-26 | 1996
Les objets de la médecine
* [50]23-24 | 1995
Cultures de bêtes... 0utils qui pensent ?
* [51]22 | 1995
Varia
* [52]21 | 1994
Atouts et outils de l'ethnologie des techniques
* [53]20 | 1993
Variables et constantes
* [54]19 | 1993
Itinéraires, escales
* [55]17-18 | 1992
Préhistoire et ethnologie, le geste retrouvé
* [56]16 | 1991
Des Machines et des hommes
* [57]15 | 1991
Du soufflé à la forge
* [58]14 | 1990
Inde
* [59]13 | 1990
Corpus
* [60]12 | 1989
Symboles et procès techniques
* [61]11 | 1988
Persistances et Innovations
* [62]10 | 1988
D'autres idées pour observer
* [63]9 | 1987
Des idées pour observer
* [64]8 | 2006
Techniques moyen-orientales
* [65]7 | 2006
De l'Himalaya au haut Atlas. De l'Asir aux Andes
* [66]6 | 1986
Par où passe la technologie II
* [67]5 | 1985
Par où passe la technologie I
* [68]4 | 1985
Aspects des agricultures insolites de l'Amérique indienne
* [69]3 | 1984
"Des choses dont la recherche est laborieuse..."
* [70]2 | 1983
Actes de la table ronde "Technologie culture"
* [71]1 | 1983
Actes de la table ronde "Technologie culture"
Syndication
* RSS [72]Fil des numéros
* RSS [73]Fil des documents
Lettres d'information
* [74]La Lettre de Revues.org
Affiliations/partenaires
* [75]Revues.org
* [76]Logo FMSH
ISSN électronique 1952-420X
[77]Plan du site - [78]Flux de syndication
[79]Nous adhérons à Revues.org - [80]Édité avec Lodel - [81]Accès
réservé
__________________________________________________________________
* [82]Revues.org
*
[-- Publications --................................................
...............................]
* [83]Calenda
* [84]Hypothèses
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* [88]Cléo
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#[1]Techniques & Culture, Numéros [2]Techniques & Culture, Documents
[3]Navigation - [4]Plan du site
[5]Techniques & Culture
Revue semestrielle d'anthropologie des techniques
Langue du site [Français] OK
[6]Accueil > [7]Numéros > [8]48-49 > Le corps, le rythme et
l'esthétique(...)
____________________ (Submit) Chercher
[9]Sommaire - [10]Document suivant
[11]48-49 | 2007 : Temps, corps, techniques et esthétique
Le corps, le rythme et l'esthétique sociale chez André Leroi-Gourhan
Alexandra Bidet
p. 15-38
[12]Résumé | | [13]Citation | [14]Auteur
Résumés
[15]Français [16]English
L'oeuvre d'André Leroi-Gourhan est traversée par une anthropologie du
rythme. Celle-ci ne part pas d'une socialité constituée, de rythmes
dits « sociaux », mais inscrit au contraire l'analyse de la rythmicité
dans une approche de l'homme comme être vivant, comme totalité
indivise. Elle pose en des termes renouvelés le problème classique du
groupement des hommes et des liens entre l'individu et son milieu. Avec
la question de la genèse de la socialité, c'est le lien entre
corporéité et socialité, entre affect et symbole, qui est ici au coeur
d'une approche du rythme comme « insertion dans l'existence ».
The entire works of Leroi-Gourhan are embedded in an anthropology of
rhythm. The latter does not originate from a constituted sociality,
from rhythms said to be "social", but on the contrary the analysis of
rhythmic is part of an approach of Man as a living being, as an
indivisible whole. It renews the classical question of the grouping of
humans and of the relationships between the individual and his
background. With the question of the genesis of sociality, it is the
link between corporeity and sociality, between affect and symbol, which
are here at the heart of an approach of rhythm as an "insertion into
existence".
[17]Haut de page
[18]Signaler ce document
Ce document sera publié en ligne en texte intégral en juin 2010.
Plan
De la corporéité aux rythmes
Du rythme comme « insertion affective » : rythme et valeurs
Leroi-Gourhan et Lévi-Strauss :
rythmicité et théorie du symbolisme
De l'efficacité de l'esthétique sociale :
une pensée pragmatique
Le social comme « charnière »
« L'homme est une création du désir, non pas une création du besoin. »
G. Bachelard, La Psychanalyse du feu, cité par A. Leroi-Gourhan (1982 :
180).
« On connaît mieux les échanges de prestige que les échanges
quotidiens,
les prestations rituelles que les services banaux, la circulation des
monnaies dotales
que celle des légumes, beaucoup mieux la pensée des sociétés que leur
corps [...]. Alors que Durkheim et Mauss ont luxueusement défendu le
"fait social total", ils ont supposé l'infrastructure techno-économique
connue » (Leroi-Gourhan 1964 : 210).
Le rythme serait-il rétif à toute forme de pensée ? On a pu souligner
la polysémie de la notion de rythme, les apories des démarches qui
visent à lui assigner une origine, ou encore l'existence d'un
« panrythmisme » spontané prompt à déceler du rythme en toutes choses
(Sauvanet & Wunenburger 1996). Dans l'anthropologie, l'archéologie et
l'ethnologie préhistorique d'André Leroi-Gourhan, une place majeure est
accordée à la rythmicité et aux ry (...)
[19]Haut de page
Pour citer cet article
Référence électronique
Alexandra Bidet, « Le corps, le rythme et l'esthétique sociale chez
André Leroi-Gourhan », Techniques & Culture [En ligne], 48-49 | 2007,
mis en ligne le 13 juin 2010, Consulté le 18 janvier 2010. URL :
[20]Haut de page
Auteur
[21]Alexandra Bidet
Chargée de recherches
[22]Haut de page
Droits d'auteur
Tous droits réservés
[23]Haut de page
[24]Sommaire - [25]Document suivant
Navigation
Index
* [26]Auteur
* [27]Index de mots-clés
* [28]Index géographique
Derniers numéros
* [29]51 | 2009
Des Choses, des gestes, des mots
* [30]50 | 2008
Les natures de l'homme
* [31]48-49 | 2007
Temps, corps, techniques et esthétique
Numéros en texte intégral
* [32]45 | 2005
Apprendre la mer
* [33]43-44 | 2004
Mythes. L'origine des manières de faire
* [34]42 | 2003
Du virtuel@l'âge du fer.com
* [35]41 | 2003
Briques : le cru et le cuit
* [36]40 | 2003
Efficacité technique, efficacité sociale
* [37]39 | 2002
Sports et corps en jeu
* [38]38 | 2002
La céruse
[39]Tous les numéros
Sommaires
* [40]37 | 2001
L'araire en Himalaya
* [41]35-36 | 2001
Traversées
* [42]34 | 2000
Soieries médiévales
* [43]33 | 1999
Entre histoire et tradition
* [44]31-32 | 1999
Dynamique des pratiques alimentaires
* [45]30 | 1998
Labyrinthe
* [46]29 | 1998
De la Chines et des Andes
* [47]28 | 1997
Accès aux savoirs d'autrui
* [48]27 | 1996
Du chat cuit au Chaco
* [49]25-26 | 1996
Les objets de la médecine
* [50]23-24 | 1995
Cultures de bêtes... 0utils qui pensent ?
* [51]22 | 1995
Varia
* [52]21 | 1994
Atouts et outils de l'ethnologie des techniques
* [53]20 | 1993
Variables et constantes
* [54]19 | 1993
Itinéraires, escales
* [55]17-18 | 1992
Préhistoire et ethnologie, le geste retrouvé
* [56]16 | 1991
Des Machines et des hommes
* [57]15 | 1991
Du soufflé à la forge
* [58]14 | 1990
Inde
* [59]13 | 1990
Corpus
* [60]12 | 1989
Symboles et procès techniques
* [61]11 | 1988
Persistances et Innovations
* [62]10 | 1988
D'autres idées pour observer
* [63]9 | 1987
Des idées pour observer
* [64]8 | 2006
Techniques moyen-orientales
* [65]7 | 2006
De l'Himalaya au haut Atlas. De l'Asir aux Andes
* [66]6 | 1986
Par où passe la technologie II
* [67]5 | 1985
Par où passe la technologie I
* [68]4 | 1985
Aspects des agricultures insolites de l'Amérique indienne
* [69]3 | 1984
"Des choses dont la recherche est laborieuse..."
* [70]2 | 1983
Actes de la table ronde "Technologie culture"
* [71]1 | 1983
Actes de la table ronde "Technologie culture"
Syndication
* RSS [72]Fil des numéros
* RSS [73]Fil des documents
Lettres d'information
* [74]La Lettre de Revues.org
Affiliations/partenaires
* [75]Revues.org
* [76]Logo FMSH
ISSN électronique 1952-420X
[77]Plan du site - [78]Flux de syndication
[79]Nous adhérons à Revues.org - [80]Édité avec Lodel - [81]Accès
réservé
__________________________________________________________________
* [82]Revues.org
*
[-- Publications --................................................
...............................]
* [83]Calenda
* [84]Hypothèses
* [85]La Lettre
* [86]Enquêtes Revues.org
* [87]Léo, le blog
* [88]Cléo
Références
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#[1]Techniques & Culture, Numéros [2]Techniques & Culture, Documents
[3]Navigation - [4]Plan du site
[5]Techniques & Culture
Revue semestrielle d'anthropologie des techniques
Langue du site [Français] OK
[6]Accueil > [7]Numéros > [8]48-49 > Le corps, le rythme et
l'esthétique(...)
____________________ (Submit) Chercher
[9]Sommaire - [10]Document suivant
[11]48-49 | 2007 : Temps, corps, techniques et esthétique
Le corps, le rythme et l'esthétique sociale chez André Leroi-Gourhan
Alexandra Bidet
p. 15-38
[12]Résumé | | [13]Citation | [14]Auteur
Résumés
[15]Français [16]English
L'oeuvre d'André Leroi-Gourhan est traversée par une anthropologie du
rythme. Celle-ci ne part pas d'une socialité constituée, de rythmes
dits « sociaux », mais inscrit au contraire l'analyse de la rythmicité
dans une approche de l'homme comme être vivant, comme totalité
indivise. Elle pose en des termes renouvelés le problème classique du
groupement des hommes et des liens entre l'individu et son milieu. Avec
la question de la genèse de la socialité, c'est le lien entre
corporéité et socialité, entre affect et symbole, qui est ici au coeur
d'une approche du rythme comme « insertion dans l'existence ».
The entire works of Leroi-Gourhan are embedded in an anthropology of
rhythm. The latter does not originate from a constituted sociality,
from rhythms said to be "social", but on the contrary the analysis of
rhythmic is part of an approach of Man as a living being, as an
indivisible whole. It renews the classical question of the grouping of
humans and of the relationships between the individual and his
background. With the question of the genesis of sociality, it is the
link between corporeity and sociality, between affect and symbol, which
are here at the heart of an approach of rhythm as an "insertion into
existence".
[17]Haut de page
[18]Signaler ce document
Ce document sera publié en ligne en texte intégral en juin 2010.
Plan
De la corporéité aux rythmes
Du rythme comme « insertion affective » : rythme et valeurs
Leroi-Gourhan et Lévi-Strauss :
rythmicité et théorie du symbolisme
De l'efficacité de l'esthétique sociale :
une pensée pragmatique
Le social comme « charnière »
« L'homme est une création du désir, non pas une création du besoin. »
G. Bachelard, La Psychanalyse du feu, cité par A. Leroi-Gourhan (1982 :
180).
« On connaît mieux les échanges de prestige que les échanges
quotidiens,
les prestations rituelles que les services banaux, la circulation des
monnaies dotales
que celle des légumes, beaucoup mieux la pensée des sociétés que leur
corps [...]. Alors que Durkheim et Mauss ont luxueusement défendu le
"fait social total", ils ont supposé l'infrastructure techno-économique
connue » (Leroi-Gourhan 1964 : 210).
Le rythme serait-il rétif à toute forme de pensée ? On a pu souligner
la polysémie de la notion de rythme, les apories des démarches qui
visent à lui assigner une origine, ou encore l'existence d'un
« panrythmisme » spontané prompt à déceler du rythme en toutes choses
(Sauvanet & Wunenburger 1996). Dans l'anthropologie, l'archéologie et
l'ethnologie préhistorique d'André Leroi-Gourhan, une place majeure est
accordée à la rythmicité et aux ry (...)
[19]Haut de page
Pour citer cet article
Référence électronique
Alexandra Bidet, « Le corps, le rythme et l'esthétique sociale chez
André Leroi-Gourhan », Techniques & Culture [En ligne], 48-49 | 2007,
mis en ligne le 13 juin 2010, Consulté le 18 janvier 2010. URL :
[20]Haut de page
Auteur
[21]Alexandra Bidet
Chargée de recherches
[22]Haut de page
Droits d'auteur
Tous droits réservés
[23]Haut de page
[24]Sommaire - [25]Document suivant
Navigation
Index
* [26]Auteur
* [27]Index de mots-clés
* [28]Index géographique
Derniers numéros
* [29]51 | 2009
Des Choses, des gestes, des mots
* [30]50 | 2008
Les natures de l'homme
* [31]48-49 | 2007
Temps, corps, techniques et esthétique
Numéros en texte intégral
* [32]45 | 2005
Apprendre la mer
* [33]43-44 | 2004
Mythes. L'origine des manières de faire
* [34]42 | 2003
Du virtuel@l'âge du fer.com
* [35]41 | 2003
Briques : le cru et le cuit
* [36]40 | 2003
Efficacité technique, efficacité sociale
* [37]39 | 2002
Sports et corps en jeu
* [38]38 | 2002
La céruse
[39]Tous les numéros
Sommaires
* [40]37 | 2001
L'araire en Himalaya
* [41]35-36 | 2001
Traversées
* [42]34 | 2000
Soieries médiévales
* [43]33 | 1999
Entre histoire et tradition
* [44]31-32 | 1999
Dynamique des pratiques alimentaires
* [45]30 | 1998
Labyrinthe
* [46]29 | 1998
De la Chines et des Andes
* [47]28 | 1997
Accès aux savoirs d'autrui
* [48]27 | 1996
Du chat cuit au Chaco
* [49]25-26 | 1996
Les objets de la médecine
* [50]23-24 | 1995
Cultures de bêtes... 0utils qui pensent ?
* [51]22 | 1995
Varia
* [52]21 | 1994
Atouts et outils de l'ethnologie des techniques
* [53]20 | 1993
Variables et constantes
* [54]19 | 1993
Itinéraires, escales
* [55]17-18 | 1992
Préhistoire et ethnologie, le geste retrouvé
* [56]16 | 1991
Des Machines et des hommes
* [57]15 | 1991
Du soufflé à la forge
* [58]14 | 1990
Inde
* [59]13 | 1990
Corpus
* [60]12 | 1989
Symboles et procès techniques
* [61]11 | 1988
Persistances et Innovations
* [62]10 | 1988
D'autres idées pour observer
* [63]9 | 1987
Des idées pour observer
* [64]8 | 2006
Techniques moyen-orientales
* [65]7 | 2006
De l'Himalaya au haut Atlas. De l'Asir aux Andes
* [66]6 | 1986
Par où passe la technologie II
* [67]5 | 1985
Par où passe la technologie I
* [68]4 | 1985
Aspects des agricultures insolites de l'Amérique indienne
* [69]3 | 1984
"Des choses dont la recherche est laborieuse..."
* [70]2 | 1983
Actes de la table ronde "Technologie culture"
* [71]1 | 1983
Actes de la table ronde "Technologie culture"
Syndication
* RSS [72]Fil des numéros
* RSS [73]Fil des documents
Lettres d'information
* [74]La Lettre de Revues.org
Affiliations/partenaires
* [75]Revues.org
* [76]Logo FMSH
ISSN électronique 1952-420X
[77]Plan du site - [78]Flux de syndication
[79]Nous adhérons à Revues.org - [80]Édité avec Lodel - [81]Accès
réservé
__________________________________________________________________
* [82]Revues.org
*
[-- Publications --................................................
...............................]
* [83]Calenda
* [84]Hypothèses
* [85]La Lettre
* [86]Enquêtes Revues.org
* [87]Léo, le blog
* [88]Cléo
Références
Liens visibles
Liens cachés :
Not Found
The requested URL /dossiers/chronobiologie.php was not found on this
server.
__________________________________________________________________
Apache/1.3.29 Server at www.placedubienetre.com Port 80
#[1]Syndiquer tout le site : Liberté et psychiatrie
[2]Liberté et psychiatrie
Liberté et psychiatrie
Un espace de réflexion et de recherche - Paris
Articles les plus récents
Articles les plus récents
[3]Monsieur le Président, devenez camusien !, par Michel Onfray
mardi 24 novembre 2009 par [4]LIBERTE et PSYCHIATRIE
1 2 Monsieur le Président, je vous fais une lettre, que vous lirez
peut-être, si vous avez le temps. Vous venez de manifester votre désir
d'accueillir les cendres d'Albert Camus au Panthéon, ce temple de la
République au fronton duquel, chacun le sait, se trouvent inscrites ces
paroles : « Aux (...)
[5]suite
[6]Les soins d'accompagnement en psychiatrie
dimanche 8 novembre 2009 par [7]Frédéric VACHER
La finalité des soins en psychiatrie ne s'est jamais limitée à masquer
ou dissimuler les symptômes de la psychose et de la schizophrénie. Et,
même si cette première étape est nécessaire, elle ne vise qu'à établir
un dialogue entre la personne malade et les soignants. Ensuite, à
partir de ce lien, les soignants vont accompagner le malade et l'aider
à reconstruire un environnement qui lui permette de vivre en harmonie
avec lui-même et avec les autres.
[8]suite
[9]Santé mentale et travail
samedi 12 septembre 2009 par [10]Frédéric VACHER
La souffrance mentale au travail est une réalité de plus en plus
répandue. Aujourd'hui, elle est devenue un enjeu majeur de santé
publique dans les pays industrialisés. L'inadéquation entre ce qui est
demandé aux salariés et leur environnement de travail produit des
effets nocifs sur la santé psychique.
[11]suite
[12]Soins aides-soignants en psychiatrie
dimanche 31 mai 2009 par [13]Florent VENUAT
L'entretien infirmier, la toilette et la mise sous contentions.
[14]suite
[15]Projet de loi "Hôpital, patients, santé et territoires" - HPST - Les
mandarins et les directeurs
dimanche 31 mai 2009 par [16]Frédéric VACHER
Le 18 mars dernier, après plusieurs semaines de débat, le projet de loi
"Hôpital, patients, santé et territoires" (HPST) a été adopté par
l'Assemblée nationale. Le Sénat l'examinera dans le courant du mois de
mai. L'adoption de cette loi donnera lieu à des évolutions importantes
dans le fonctionnement du système hospitalier français, et notamment
dans le domaine de la psychiatrie avec la fin de la sectorisation.
[17]suite
[18]Évolution de la pratique aide-soignante en psychiatrie
dimanche 31 mai 2009 par [19]Florent VENUAT
La psychiatrie a suscité pendant longtemps beaucoup d'interrogations,
de fantasmes et de valeurs négatives. Ce n'est qu'au cours des
dernières décennies que le "fou" a acquis le statut de malade mental.
De même, l'évolution du métier a permis au soignant de passer du statut
de "gardien de fou" à celui d'un professionnel reconnu pour ses
compétences de soin.
[20]suite
[21]Rôle de l'aide-soignant en psychiatrie
dimanche 31 mai 2009 par [22]Florent VENUAT
Il est sûrement plus gratifiant et rassurant de soigner le corps que
l'esprit : la guérison du patient est plus concrète. En psychiatrie, à
défaut de guérir, les soignants soulagent et préviennent les risques.
[23]suite
[24]Réforme de l'hospitalisation d'office et sécurisation des hôpitaux
psychiatriques
dimanche 31 mai 2009 par [25]Frédéric VACHER
Le 2 décembre 2008, Nicolas Sarkozy s'est rendu au Centre hospitalier
Erasme, à Antony (92). Cette première visite d'un président de la
République aux personnels d'un hôpital psychiatrique a été pour lui
l'occasion de rendre hommage à l'engagement et au dévouement de tous
les professionnels qui y travaillent. Dans son discours, Nicolas
Sarkozy a également annoncé une réforme de l'hospitalisation d'office
et un aménagement des conditions liées aux sorties d'essai, et dévoilé
les moyens qui seront alloués à la sécurisation des établissements
psychiatriques.
[26]suite
[27]Le souci de l'humain, un défi pour la psychiatrie
samedi 30 mai 2009 par [28]Frédéric VACHER
Le 50e anniversaire de l'Association de santé mentale (ASM 13) a été
l'occasion d'organiser un congrès à Paris sur le thème "Le souci de
l'humain". Un défi pour la psychiatrie". Plus encore qu'il y a quelques
décennies, le souci de l'humain constitue un défi pour la société
contemporaine. Défi pratique, théorique et éthique, la psychiatrie est
la seule discipline médicale à se trouver confrontée avec autant
d'acuité à une problématique typiquement humaine, celle de la liberté.
[29]suite
[30]L'expertise psychiatrique, entre la clinique et la justice
mardi 11 novembre 2008 par [31]Frédéric VACHER
Dans le cadre de l'année européenne du dialogue interculturel, le Parc
de la Villette a organisé à Paris les 15 et 16 septembre 2008 un
congrès international sur le thème "Culture psychiatrique et culture
judiciaire, relire Michel Foucault". Ces journées ont été l'occasion de
redécouvrir le point de vue de ce philosophe sur la place de la folie
dans la société.
[32]suite
10/62 Articles
1 | [33]2 | [34]3 | [35]4 | [36]5 | [37]6 | [38]7 |[39]>
Annonces générales :
*
+ [40]Monsieur le Président, devenez camusien !, par Michel
Onfray
+ [41]Atelier d'écriture Magic Plum
+ [42]Qui sommes-nous ?
+ [43]Revue « Soins Psychiatrie »
Dernières brèves
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[11]48-49 | 2007 : Temps, corps, techniques et esthétique
Le corps, le rythme et l'esthétique sociale chez André Leroi-Gourhan
Alexandra Bidet
p. 15-38
[12]Résumé | | [13]Citation | [14]Auteur
Résumés
[15]Français [16]English
L'oeuvre d'André Leroi-Gourhan est traversée par une anthropologie du
rythme. Celle-ci ne part pas d'une socialité constituée, de rythmes
dits « sociaux », mais inscrit au contraire l'analyse de la rythmicité
dans une approche de l'homme comme être vivant, comme totalité
indivise. Elle pose en des termes renouvelés le problème classique du
groupement des hommes et des liens entre l'individu et son milieu. Avec
la question de la genèse de la socialité, c'est le lien entre
corporéité et socialité, entre affect et symbole, qui est ici au coeur
d'une approche du rythme comme « insertion dans l'existence ».
The entire works of Leroi-Gourhan are embedded in an anthropology of
rhythm. The latter does not originate from a constituted sociality,
from rhythms said to be "social", but on the contrary the analysis of
rhythmic is part of an approach of Man as a living being, as an
indivisible whole. It renews the classical question of the grouping of
humans and of the relationships between the individual and his
background. With the question of the genesis of sociality, it is the
link between corporeity and sociality, between affect and symbol, which
are here at the heart of an approach of rhythm as an "insertion into
existence".
[17]Haut de page
[18]Signaler ce document
Ce document sera publié en ligne en texte intégral en juin 2010.
Plan
De la corporéité aux rythmes
Du rythme comme « insertion affective » : rythme et valeurs
Leroi-Gourhan et Lévi-Strauss :
rythmicité et théorie du symbolisme
De l'efficacité de l'esthétique sociale :
une pensée pragmatique
Le social comme « charnière »
« L'homme est une création du désir, non pas une création du besoin. »
G. Bachelard, La Psychanalyse du feu, cité par A. Leroi-Gourhan (1982 :
180).
« On connaît mieux les échanges de prestige que les échanges
quotidiens,
les prestations rituelles que les services banaux, la circulation des
monnaies dotales
que celle des légumes, beaucoup mieux la pensée des sociétés que leur
corps [...]. Alors que Durkheim et Mauss ont luxueusement défendu le
"fait social total", ils ont supposé l'infrastructure techno-économique
connue » (Leroi-Gourhan 1964 : 210).
Le rythme serait-il rétif à toute forme de pensée ? On a pu souligner
la polysémie de la notion de rythme, les apories des démarches qui
visent à lui assigner une origine, ou encore l'existence d'un
« panrythmisme » spontané prompt à déceler du rythme en toutes choses
(Sauvanet & Wunenburger 1996). Dans l'anthropologie, l'archéologie et
l'ethnologie préhistorique d'André Leroi-Gourhan, une place majeure est
accordée à la rythmicité et aux ry (...)
[19]Haut de page
Pour citer cet article
Référence électronique
Alexandra Bidet, « Le corps, le rythme et l'esthétique sociale chez
André Leroi-Gourhan », Techniques & Culture [En ligne], 48-49 | 2007,
mis en ligne le 13 juin 2010, Consulté le 18 janvier 2010. URL :
[20]Haut de page
Auteur
[21]Alexandra Bidet
Chargée de recherches
[22]Haut de page
Droits d'auteur
Tous droits réservés
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[24]Sommaire - [25]Document suivant
Navigation
Index
* [26]Auteur
* [27]Index de mots-clés
* [28]Index géographique
Derniers numéros
* [29]51 | 2009
Des Choses, des gestes, des mots
* [30]50 | 2008
Les natures de l'homme
* [31]48-49 | 2007
Temps, corps, techniques et esthétique
Numéros en texte intégral
* [32]45 | 2005
Apprendre la mer
* [33]43-44 | 2004
Mythes. L'origine des manières de faire
* [34]42 | 2003
Du virtuel@l'âge du fer.com
* [35]41 | 2003
Briques : le cru et le cuit
* [36]40 | 2003
Efficacité technique, efficacité sociale
* [37]39 | 2002
Sports et corps en jeu
* [38]38 | 2002
La céruse
[39]Tous les numéros
Sommaires
* [40]37 | 2001
L'araire en Himalaya
* [41]35-36 | 2001
Traversées
* [42]34 | 2000
Soieries médiévales
* [43]33 | 1999
Entre histoire et tradition
* [44]31-32 | 1999
Dynamique des pratiques alimentaires
* [45]30 | 1998
Labyrinthe
* [46]29 | 1998
De la Chines et des Andes
* [47]28 | 1997
Accès aux savoirs d'autrui
* [48]27 | 1996
Du chat cuit au Chaco
* [49]25-26 | 1996
Les objets de la médecine
* [50]23-24 | 1995
Cultures de bêtes... 0utils qui pensent ?
* [51]22 | 1995
Varia
* [52]21 | 1994
Atouts et outils de l'ethnologie des techniques
* [53]20 | 1993
Variables et constantes
* [54]19 | 1993
Itinéraires, escales
* [55]17-18 | 1992
Préhistoire et ethnologie, le geste retrouvé
* [56]16 | 1991
Des Machines et des hommes
* [57]15 | 1991
Du soufflé à la forge
* [58]14 | 1990
Inde
* [59]13 | 1990
Corpus
* [60]12 | 1989
Symboles et procès techniques
* [61]11 | 1988
Persistances et Innovations
* [62]10 | 1988
D'autres idées pour observer
* [63]9 | 1987
Des idées pour observer
* [64]8 | 2006
Techniques moyen-orientales
* [65]7 | 2006
De l'Himalaya au haut Atlas. De l'Asir aux Andes
* [66]6 | 1986
Par où passe la technologie II
* [67]5 | 1985
Par où passe la technologie I
* [68]4 | 1985
Aspects des agricultures insolites de l'Amérique indienne
* [69]3 | 1984
"Des choses dont la recherche est laborieuse..."
* [70]2 | 1983
Actes de la table ronde "Technologie culture"
* [71]1 | 1983
Actes de la table ronde "Technologie culture"
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#[1]Syndiquer tout le site : Liberté et psychiatrie
[2]Liberté et psychiatrie
Liberté et psychiatrie
Un espace de réflexion et de recherche - Paris
Articles les plus récents
Articles les plus récents
[3]Monsieur le Président, devenez camusien !, par Michel Onfray
mardi 24 novembre 2009 par [4]LIBERTE et PSYCHIATRIE
1 2 Monsieur le Président, je vous fais une lettre, que vous lirez
peut-être, si vous avez le temps. Vous venez de manifester votre désir
d'accueillir les cendres d'Albert Camus au Panthéon, ce temple de la
République au fronton duquel, chacun le sait, se trouvent inscrites ces
paroles : « Aux (...)
[5]suite
[6]Les soins d'accompagnement en psychiatrie
dimanche 8 novembre 2009 par [7]Frédéric VACHER
La finalité des soins en psychiatrie ne s'est jamais limitée à masquer
ou dissimuler les symptômes de la psychose et de la schizophrénie. Et,
même si cette première étape est nécessaire, elle ne vise qu'à établir
un dialogue entre la personne malade et les soignants. Ensuite, à
partir de ce lien, les soignants vont accompagner le malade et l'aider
à reconstruire un environnement qui lui permette de vivre en harmonie
avec lui-même et avec les autres.
[8]suite
[9]Santé mentale et travail
samedi 12 septembre 2009 par [10]Frédéric VACHER
La souffrance mentale au travail est une réalité de plus en plus
répandue. Aujourd'hui, elle est devenue un enjeu majeur de santé
publique dans les pays industrialisés. L'inadéquation entre ce qui est
demandé aux salariés et leur environnement de travail produit des
effets nocifs sur la santé psychique.
[11]suite
[12]Soins aides-soignants en psychiatrie
dimanche 31 mai 2009 par [13]Florent VENUAT
L'entretien infirmier, la toilette et la mise sous contentions.
[14]suite
[15]Projet de loi "Hôpital, patients, santé et territoires" - HPST - Les
mandarins et les directeurs
dimanche 31 mai 2009 par [16]Frédéric VACHER
Le 18 mars dernier, après plusieurs semaines de débat, le projet de loi
"Hôpital, patients, santé et territoires" (HPST) a été adopté par
l'Assemblée nationale. Le Sénat l'examinera dans le courant du mois de
mai. L'adoption de cette loi donnera lieu à des évolutions importantes
dans le fonctionnement du système hospitalier français, et notamment
dans le domaine de la psychiatrie avec la fin de la sectorisation.
[17]suite
[18]Évolution de la pratique aide-soignante en psychiatrie
dimanche 31 mai 2009 par [19]Florent VENUAT
La psychiatrie a suscité pendant longtemps beaucoup d'interrogations,
de fantasmes et de valeurs négatives. Ce n'est qu'au cours des
dernières décennies que le "fou" a acquis le statut de malade mental.
De même, l'évolution du métier a permis au soignant de passer du statut
de "gardien de fou" à celui d'un professionnel reconnu pour ses
compétences de soin.
[20]suite
[21]Rôle de l'aide-soignant en psychiatrie
dimanche 31 mai 2009 par [22]Florent VENUAT
Il est sûrement plus gratifiant et rassurant de soigner le corps que
l'esprit : la guérison du patient est plus concrète. En psychiatrie, à
défaut de guérir, les soignants soulagent et préviennent les risques.
[23]suite
[24]Réforme de l'hospitalisation d'office et sécurisation des hôpitaux
psychiatriques
dimanche 31 mai 2009 par [25]Frédéric VACHER
Le 2 décembre 2008, Nicolas Sarkozy s'est rendu au Centre hospitalier
Erasme, à Antony (92). Cette première visite d'un président de la
République aux personnels d'un hôpital psychiatrique a été pour lui
l'occasion de rendre hommage à l'engagement et au dévouement de tous
les professionnels qui y travaillent. Dans son discours, Nicolas
Sarkozy a également annoncé une réforme de l'hospitalisation d'office
et un aménagement des conditions liées aux sorties d'essai, et dévoilé
les moyens qui seront alloués à la sécurisation des établissements
psychiatriques.
[26]suite
[27]Le souci de l'humain, un défi pour la psychiatrie
samedi 30 mai 2009 par [28]Frédéric VACHER
Le 50e anniversaire de l'Association de santé mentale (ASM 13) a été
l'occasion d'organiser un congrès à Paris sur le thème "Le souci de
l'humain". Un défi pour la psychiatrie". Plus encore qu'il y a quelques
décennies, le souci de l'humain constitue un défi pour la société
contemporaine. Défi pratique, théorique et éthique, la psychiatrie est
la seule discipline médicale à se trouver confrontée avec autant
d'acuité à une problématique typiquement humaine, celle de la liberté.
[29]suite
[30]L'expertise psychiatrique, entre la clinique et la justice
mardi 11 novembre 2008 par [31]Frédéric VACHER
Dans le cadre de l'année européenne du dialogue interculturel, le Parc
de la Villette a organisé à Paris les 15 et 16 septembre 2008 un
congrès international sur le thème "Culture psychiatrique et culture
judiciaire, relire Michel Foucault". Ces journées ont été l'occasion de
redécouvrir le point de vue de ce philosophe sur la place de la folie
dans la société.
[32]suite
10/62 Articles
1 | [33]2 | [34]3 | [35]4 | [36]5 | [37]6 | [38]7 |[39]>
Annonces générales :
*
+ [40]Monsieur le Président, devenez camusien !, par Michel
Onfray
+ [41]Atelier d'écriture Magic Plum
+ [42]Qui sommes-nous ?
+ [43]Revue « Soins Psychiatrie »
Dernières brèves
* Nouvelles brèves
+ 7 décembre 2009 [44]Promotion d'un soin relationnel infirmier
en psychiatrie
+ 11 novembre 2009 [45]GO TO CHINA
Navigation
* [46]Accueil du site
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* [52]Ressource humaine
+ [53]Santé mentale et travail
* [54]Culture
+ [55]Monsieur le Président, devenez camusien !, par Michel
Onfray
* [56]Psychiatrie
+ [57]Société
+ [58]Santé Mentale
+ [59]Psychothérapies
+ [60]Pédopsychiatrie
+ [61]Anorexie
+ [62]Congrès
* [63]Les soins
+ [64]Soins Infirmiers
+ [65]Psychomotricité
+ [66]Ergothérapie
+ [67]Aides-Soignants
* [68]CATTP
+ [69]Ateliers
+ [70]Ecriture
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[13]Suppression du ministère : les soutiens se multiplient
18 Janvier 2010 Par [14]Eric Fassin
Communiqué : Le 4 décembre 2009, un collectif de chercheurs dont le
travail porte sur les nations et les nationalismes, sur l'immigration,
l'asile et les minorités visibles, ainsi que sur le racisme et la
xénophobie, s'élevait contre l'organisation étatique d'un « grand
débat » sur l'identité nationale, en soulignant combien les
« dérapages » étaient inscrits, non seulement dans une telle mise en
scène, mais plus fondamentalement dans l'institutionnalisation de cette
politique par un ministère.
[15]Lire la suite
Edition : [16]En finir avec le ministère de l'immigration et de
l'identité nationale
[17]Haïti sous le charme.
18 Janvier 2010 Par [18]Nola Tularosa
© Nola Tularosa
[19]Lire la suite
[20]La charte change
11 Janvier 2010 Par [21]Géraldine Delacroix
Journal et Club à la fois, Mediapart a pour ambition de susciter et
faire vivre le débat démocratique. Pour cela, chaque abonné dispose
d'un blog, où publier librement ses points de vue, informations,
vidéos, liens... Comme les articles du journal, chaque billet de blog
peut être commenté par les abonnés. Ces derniers peuvent également se
regrouper pour faire paraître ensemble des Editions participatives sur
les thèmes de leur choix.
[22]Lire la suite
* [23]Faites vos voeux avec Mediapart
* [24]mobile.mediapart.fr. Pour nous lire partout, toujours
[25]Le cahier spécial de Mediapart dans les kiosques
16 Décembre 2009 Par [26]La rédaction de Mediapart
[27]Lire la suite
MEDIAVU'
[28]Voyage en Bretagne
Par :
Claude Le Gall
«Voyageur et curieux, humaniste porteur de sa culture authentique,
Claude Le Gall appartient à cette race de photographes qui pratiquent
l'image fixe pour se constituer un territoire et dire serein
[29]Lire la suite
[30]Marre de voir les banques se goinfrer !
18 Janvier 2010 Par [31]fracar
Sur le modèle du groupe de pression de citoyens américains "Move your
money", je pense que nous devons en France faire aussi pression sur nos
institutions bancaires !
[32]Lire la suite
[33]avec Antigone
18 Janvier 2010 Par [34]marie cosnay
18 avril 2009
[35]Lire la suite
[36]AVE CESAR ! regard sur la France de Sarkozy vue par le cinéma
17 Janvier 2010 Par [37]Vingtras
Etant membre de l'Académie des arts et techniques du cinéma,j'ai reçu à
mi-décembre 2009,une centaine de DVD des films français (ou étrangers)
sortis sur nos écrans lors de l'année en cours.
[38]Lire la suite
[39]Pourquoi pas ...
18 Janvier 2010 Par [40]bertrandbuchs
[41]Lire la suite
[42]Victor Hugo sera à Mardi ça fait désordre 1e 19Janvier à 20h
17 Janvier 2010 Par [43]François Bernheim
Victor Hugo sera à Mardi ça fait désordre 1e 19Janvier à 20h
[44]Lire la suite
[45]Hervé Novelli est-il plus soluble dans son « identité régionale » que
dans la cancoillotte ?
17 Janvier 2010 Par [46]Raphael JORNET
Cancoillotte.jpg (suite de chroniques préélectorales ordinaires d'un
électeur potentiel dans la Région Centre. C`est ça ou rien. Je ne vous
demande pas de choisir, vous seriez capable de choisir « rien ! »)
Aujourd'hui: de l'importance de la cancoillotte en milieu chevrier.
Entre deux coups de Chinon, revenons à Hervé Novelli.
Episode 2. Novelli le retour. Comme dans Alien.
Non, ce n'est pas une obsession. Pas d'acharnement, ni de harcèlement
moral. C'est citoyen.
Pardon? Vous me demandez quoi?... Non même pas, il n'est pas mon type
d'homme !
Mais j'ai trois vraies bonnes raisons de lui coller aux baskets:
[47]Lire la suite
[48]Identité nationale: pourquoi et comment la Ligue débat-elle ?
18 Janvier 2010 Par [49]Charles Conte
Nombreux sont ceux qui refusent de participer au débat sur l'identité
nationale initié par Éric Besson au motif que ce débat est une
grossière opération électorale
[50]Lire la suite
Edition : [51]Comment Faire Société
* [52]Mentions légales |
* [53]Charte éditoriale |
* [54]CGV |
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[6]Accueil > [7]Numéros > [8]48-49 > Le corps, le rythme et
l'esthétique(...)
____________________ (Submit) Chercher
[9]Sommaire - [10]Document suivant
[11]48-49 | 2007 : Temps, corps, techniques et esthétique
Le corps, le rythme et l'esthétique sociale chez André Leroi-Gourhan
Alexandra Bidet
p. 15-38
[12]Résumé | | [13]Citation | [14]Auteur
Résumés
[15]Français [16]English
L'oeuvre d'André Leroi-Gourhan est traversée par une anthropologie du
rythme. Celle-ci ne part pas d'une socialité constituée, de rythmes
dits « sociaux », mais inscrit au contraire l'analyse de la rythmicité
dans une approche de l'homme comme être vivant, comme totalité
indivise. Elle pose en des termes renouvelés le problème classique du
groupement des hommes et des liens entre l'individu et son milieu. Avec
la question de la genèse de la socialité, c'est le lien entre
corporéité et socialité, entre affect et symbole, qui est ici au coeur
d'une approche du rythme comme « insertion dans l'existence ».
The entire works of Leroi-Gourhan are embedded in an anthropology of
rhythm. The latter does not originate from a constituted sociality,
from rhythms said to be "social", but on the contrary the analysis of
rhythmic is part of an approach of Man as a living being, as an
indivisible whole. It renews the classical question of the grouping of
humans and of the relationships between the individual and his
background. With the question of the genesis of sociality, it is the
link between corporeity and sociality, between affect and symbol, which
are here at the heart of an approach of rhythm as an "insertion into
existence".
[17]Haut de page
[18]Signaler ce document
Ce document sera publié en ligne en texte intégral en juin 2010.
Plan
De la corporéité aux rythmes
Du rythme comme « insertion affective » : rythme et valeurs
Leroi-Gourhan et Lévi-Strauss :
rythmicité et théorie du symbolisme
De l'efficacité de l'esthétique sociale :
une pensée pragmatique
Le social comme « charnière »
« L'homme est une création du désir, non pas une création du besoin. »
G. Bachelard, La Psychanalyse du feu, cité par A. Leroi-Gourhan (1982 :
180).
« On connaît mieux les échanges de prestige que les échanges
quotidiens,
les prestations rituelles que les services banaux, la circulation des
monnaies dotales
que celle des légumes, beaucoup mieux la pensée des sociétés que leur
corps [...]. Alors que Durkheim et Mauss ont luxueusement défendu le
"fait social total", ils ont supposé l'infrastructure techno-économique
connue » (Leroi-Gourhan 1964 : 210).
Le rythme serait-il rétif à toute forme de pensée ? On a pu souligner
la polysémie de la notion de rythme, les apories des démarches qui
visent à lui assigner une origine, ou encore l'existence d'un
« panrythmisme » spontané prompt à déceler du rythme en toutes choses
(Sauvanet & Wunenburger 1996). Dans l'anthropologie, l'archéologie et
l'ethnologie préhistorique d'André Leroi-Gourhan, une place majeure est
accordée à la rythmicité et aux ry (...)
[19]Haut de page
Pour citer cet article
Référence électronique
Alexandra Bidet, « Le corps, le rythme et l'esthétique sociale chez
André Leroi-Gourhan », Techniques & Culture [En ligne], 48-49 | 2007,
mis en ligne le 13 juin 2010, Consulté le 18 janvier 2010. URL :
[20]Haut de page
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[21]Alexandra Bidet
Chargée de recherches
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* [29]51 | 2009
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* [35]41 | 2003
Briques : le cru et le cuit
* [36]40 | 2003
Efficacité technique, efficacité sociale
* [37]39 | 2002
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Labyrinthe
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De la Chines et des Andes
* [47]28 | 1997
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Du chat cuit au Chaco
* [49]25-26 | 1996
Les objets de la médecine
* [50]23-24 | 1995
Cultures de bêtes... 0utils qui pensent ?
* [51]22 | 1995
Varia
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Atouts et outils de l'ethnologie des techniques
* [53]20 | 1993
Variables et constantes
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Itinéraires, escales
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Des Machines et des hommes
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Inde
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Techniques moyen-orientales
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De l'Himalaya au haut Atlas. De l'Asir aux Andes
* [66]6 | 1986
Par où passe la technologie II
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Aspects des agricultures insolites de l'Amérique indienne
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#[1]Syndiquer tout le site : Liberté et psychiatrie
[2]Liberté et psychiatrie
Liberté et psychiatrie
Un espace de réflexion et de recherche - Paris
Articles les plus récents
Articles les plus récents
[3]Monsieur le Président, devenez camusien !, par Michel Onfray
mardi 24 novembre 2009 par [4]LIBERTE et PSYCHIATRIE
1 2 Monsieur le Président, je vous fais une lettre, que vous lirez
peut-être, si vous avez le temps. Vous venez de manifester votre désir
d'accueillir les cendres d'Albert Camus au Panthéon, ce temple de la
République au fronton duquel, chacun le sait, se trouvent inscrites ces
paroles : « Aux (...)
[5]suite
[6]Les soins d'accompagnement en psychiatrie
dimanche 8 novembre 2009 par [7]Frédéric VACHER
La finalité des soins en psychiatrie ne s'est jamais limitée à masquer
ou dissimuler les symptômes de la psychose et de la schizophrénie. Et,
même si cette première étape est nécessaire, elle ne vise qu'à établir
un dialogue entre la personne malade et les soignants. Ensuite, à
partir de ce lien, les soignants vont accompagner le malade et l'aider
à reconstruire un environnement qui lui permette de vivre en harmonie
avec lui-même et avec les autres.
[8]suite
[9]Santé mentale et travail
samedi 12 septembre 2009 par [10]Frédéric VACHER
La souffrance mentale au travail est une réalité de plus en plus
répandue. Aujourd'hui, elle est devenue un enjeu majeur de santé
publique dans les pays industrialisés. L'inadéquation entre ce qui est
demandé aux salariés et leur environnement de travail produit des
effets nocifs sur la santé psychique.
[11]suite
[12]Soins aides-soignants en psychiatrie
dimanche 31 mai 2009 par [13]Florent VENUAT
L'entretien infirmier, la toilette et la mise sous contentions.
[14]suite
[15]Projet de loi "Hôpital, patients, santé et territoires" - HPST - Les
mandarins et les directeurs
dimanche 31 mai 2009 par [16]Frédéric VACHER
Le 18 mars dernier, après plusieurs semaines de débat, le projet de loi
"Hôpital, patients, santé et territoires" (HPST) a été adopté par
l'Assemblée nationale. Le Sénat l'examinera dans le courant du mois de
mai. L'adoption de cette loi donnera lieu à des évolutions importantes
dans le fonctionnement du système hospitalier français, et notamment
dans le domaine de la psychiatrie avec la fin de la sectorisation.
[17]suite
[18]Évolution de la pratique aide-soignante en psychiatrie
dimanche 31 mai 2009 par [19]Florent VENUAT
La psychiatrie a suscité pendant longtemps beaucoup d'interrogations,
de fantasmes et de valeurs négatives. Ce n'est qu'au cours des
dernières décennies que le "fou" a acquis le statut de malade mental.
De même, l'évolution du métier a permis au soignant de passer du statut
de "gardien de fou" à celui d'un professionnel reconnu pour ses
compétences de soin.
[20]suite
[21]Rôle de l'aide-soignant en psychiatrie
dimanche 31 mai 2009 par [22]Florent VENUAT
Il est sûrement plus gratifiant et rassurant de soigner le corps que
l'esprit : la guérison du patient est plus concrète. En psychiatrie, à
défaut de guérir, les soignants soulagent et préviennent les risques.
[23]suite
[24]Réforme de l'hospitalisation d'office et sécurisation des hôpitaux
psychiatriques
dimanche 31 mai 2009 par [25]Frédéric VACHER
Le 2 décembre 2008, Nicolas Sarkozy s'est rendu au Centre hospitalier
Erasme, à Antony (92). Cette première visite d'un président de la
République aux personnels d'un hôpital psychiatrique a été pour lui
l'occasion de rendre hommage à l'engagement et au dévouement de tous
les professionnels qui y travaillent. Dans son discours, Nicolas
Sarkozy a également annoncé une réforme de l'hospitalisation d'office
et un aménagement des conditions liées aux sorties d'essai, et dévoilé
les moyens qui seront alloués à la sécurisation des établissements
psychiatriques.
[26]suite
[27]Le souci de l'humain, un défi pour la psychiatrie
samedi 30 mai 2009 par [28]Frédéric VACHER
Le 50e anniversaire de l'Association de santé mentale (ASM 13) a été
l'occasion d'organiser un congrès à Paris sur le thème "Le souci de
l'humain". Un défi pour la psychiatrie". Plus encore qu'il y a quelques
décennies, le souci de l'humain constitue un défi pour la société
contemporaine. Défi pratique, théorique et éthique, la psychiatrie est
la seule discipline médicale à se trouver confrontée avec autant
d'acuité à une problématique typiquement humaine, celle de la liberté.
[29]suite
[30]L'expertise psychiatrique, entre la clinique et la justice
mardi 11 novembre 2008 par [31]Frédéric VACHER
Dans le cadre de l'année européenne du dialogue interculturel, le Parc
de la Villette a organisé à Paris les 15 et 16 septembre 2008 un
congrès international sur le thème "Culture psychiatrique et culture
judiciaire, relire Michel Foucault". Ces journées ont été l'occasion de
redécouvrir le point de vue de ce philosophe sur la place de la folie
dans la société.
[32]suite
10/62 Articles
1 | [33]2 | [34]3 | [35]4 | [36]5 | [37]6 | [38]7 |[39]>
Annonces générales :
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Onfray
+ [41]Atelier d'écriture Magic Plum
+ [42]Qui sommes-nous ?
+ [43]Revue « Soins Psychiatrie »
Dernières brèves
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en psychiatrie
+ 11 novembre 2009 [45]GO TO CHINA
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[13]Suppression du ministère : les soutiens se multiplient
18 Janvier 2010 Par [14]Eric Fassin
Communiqué : Le 4 décembre 2009, un collectif de chercheurs dont le
travail porte sur les nations et les nationalismes, sur l'immigration,
l'asile et les minorités visibles, ainsi que sur le racisme et la
xénophobie, s'élevait contre l'organisation étatique d'un « grand
débat » sur l'identité nationale, en soulignant combien les
« dérapages » étaient inscrits, non seulement dans une telle mise en
scène, mais plus fondamentalement dans l'institutionnalisation de cette
politique par un ministère.
[15]Lire la suite
Edition : [16]En finir avec le ministère de l'immigration et de
l'identité nationale
[17]Haïti sous le charme.
18 Janvier 2010 Par [18]Nola Tularosa
© Nola Tularosa
[19]Lire la suite
[20]La charte change
11 Janvier 2010 Par [21]Géraldine Delacroix
Journal et Club à la fois, Mediapart a pour ambition de susciter et
faire vivre le débat démocratique. Pour cela, chaque abonné dispose
d'un blog, où publier librement ses points de vue, informations,
vidéos, liens... Comme les articles du journal, chaque billet de blog
peut être commenté par les abonnés. Ces derniers peuvent également se
regrouper pour faire paraître ensemble des Editions participatives sur
les thèmes de leur choix.
[22]Lire la suite
* [23]Faites vos voeux avec Mediapart
* [24]mobile.mediapart.fr. Pour nous lire partout, toujours
[25]Le cahier spécial de Mediapart dans les kiosques
16 Décembre 2009 Par [26]La rédaction de Mediapart
[27]Lire la suite
MEDIAVU'
[28]Voyage en Bretagne
Par :
Claude Le Gall
«Voyageur et curieux, humaniste porteur de sa culture authentique,
Claude Le Gall appartient à cette race de photographes qui pratiquent
l'image fixe pour se constituer un territoire et dire serein
[29]Lire la suite
[30]Marre de voir les banques se goinfrer !
18 Janvier 2010 Par [31]fracar
Sur le modèle du groupe de pression de citoyens américains "Move your
money", je pense que nous devons en France faire aussi pression sur nos
institutions bancaires !
[32]Lire la suite
[33]avec Antigone
18 Janvier 2010 Par [34]marie cosnay
18 avril 2009
[35]Lire la suite
[36]AVE CESAR ! regard sur la France de Sarkozy vue par le cinéma
17 Janvier 2010 Par [37]Vingtras
Etant membre de l'Académie des arts et techniques du cinéma,j'ai reçu à
mi-décembre 2009,une centaine de DVD des films français (ou étrangers)
sortis sur nos écrans lors de l'année en cours.
[38]Lire la suite
[39]Pourquoi pas ...
18 Janvier 2010 Par [40]bertrandbuchs
[41]Lire la suite
[42]Victor Hugo sera à Mardi ça fait désordre 1e 19Janvier à 20h
17 Janvier 2010 Par [43]François Bernheim
Victor Hugo sera à Mardi ça fait désordre 1e 19Janvier à 20h
[44]Lire la suite
[45]Hervé Novelli est-il plus soluble dans son « identité régionale » que
dans la cancoillotte ?
17 Janvier 2010 Par [46]Raphael JORNET
Cancoillotte.jpg (suite de chroniques préélectorales ordinaires d'un
électeur potentiel dans la Région Centre. C`est ça ou rien. Je ne vous
demande pas de choisir, vous seriez capable de choisir « rien ! »)
Aujourd'hui: de l'importance de la cancoillotte en milieu chevrier.
Entre deux coups de Chinon, revenons à Hervé Novelli.
Episode 2. Novelli le retour. Comme dans Alien.
Non, ce n'est pas une obsession. Pas d'acharnement, ni de harcèlement
moral. C'est citoyen.
Pardon? Vous me demandez quoi?... Non même pas, il n'est pas mon type
d'homme !
Mais j'ai trois vraies bonnes raisons de lui coller aux baskets:
[47]Lire la suite
[48]Identité nationale: pourquoi et comment la Ligue débat-elle ?
18 Janvier 2010 Par [49]Charles Conte
Nombreux sont ceux qui refusent de participer au débat sur l'identité
nationale initié par Éric Besson au motif que ce débat est une
grossière opération électorale
[50]Lire la suite
Edition : [51]Comment Faire Société
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[8]Programme -|- [9]Horaire des sessions
Programme de la Formation continuée en Rythme
Objectif
La performance et lintégration rythmiques sont intimement liée au corps
en mouvement : lexpérience personnelle ainsi que des recherches
scientifiques le prouvent. Or il se fait que, dans notre enseignement
musical, non seulement le travail du rythme est extrêmement négligé,
mais en plus lapproche corporelle est quasi totalement absente.
Lobjectif de cette formation est de remédier à cette carence en
proposant une sensibilisation à la réalité rythmique dans une
perspective pédagogique alternative et complémentaire.
Premier temps
Pour cette raison, le point de départ de cette formation consiste en
une prise de conscience et une acceptation du corps et de ses
mouvements. Celle-ci a lieu de manière non directive et en situation,
cest-à-dire quon veille à laisser à chacun la possibilité de se
découvrir par lui-même en organisant des activités propices à cet
effet.
On privilégie donc le travail corporel, la redécouverte des messages
venant de lintérieur: une ouverture aux sensations kinesthésiques, à la
gravitation, à la sensation de poids qui en découle, à léquilibre. Une
prise de conscience pour chaque individu de son tonus musculaire et de
lagitation ou linertie qui en résultent dans lexécution de certains
mouvements. Une attention aux rythmes fondamentaux du corps comme la
respiration ou les battements cardiaques mais aussi aux fluctuations de
la vigilance, aux rythmes circhoraux, circadiens etc. Finalement, un
examen des résistances du corps, des blocages psychomoteurs inhibant la
transmission des informations rythmiques, une exploration de laise ou
du malaise des différentes parties du corps dans le geste rythmé.
Deuxième temps
On sattache ensuite petit à petit à retrouver le lien entre cette
expérience motrice et la pratique rythmique. Il sagit de développer un
nouvel apprentissage au travers du vécu rythmique, de construire,
fonder une élaboration rythmique sur cette base solide de sensations
corporelles et psychologiques. Il faut bien comprendre que celle-ci
doit demeurer toujours la condition préalable à toute tentative
daborder lune ou lautre forme de complexité rythmique. On restera donc
sans cesse vigilant vis-à-vis de cette tentation à "se faire illusion",
à se prouver par une forme de coercition sur soi-même quon est capable
de réaliser telle ou telle gageure, quand il ne sagit la plupart du
temps que dune contrefaçon dénuée de sens. Tout rythme - aussi complexe
soit-il - devra toujours prendre sa source (et son sens) dans
lexpérience vécue de la pulsation fondamentale.
Dans cette perspective de rencontre entre corps et rythme, que
signifient un temps fort, une syncope, un contretemps du point de vue
corporel ? À quelles sensations correspondent la pulsation binaire, la
pulsation ternaire ? Quelles valeurs rythmiques, quels tempos se
marient le mieux avec les différentes parties du corps? Dans quels cas
le corps simplique-t-il tout entier, en partie? Quels rapports
rythmiques existe-t-il entre les différents segments corporels ? Et par
extension: quels sont les gestes qui peuvent aider dans la prise de
conscience - et la réalisation - de tel ou tel rythme ? Quelle est la
représentation mentale élémentaire qui fait associer tel mouvement,
telle attitude à tel phénomène rythmique?
Troisième temps
Vient ensuite le moment de cette formation où est abordé le travail sur
le rythme lui-même, cest-à-dire lexamen des relations existant entre
les différents éléments dun rythme et leur interaction: linfluence de
laccentuation, le statut du contretemps, la notion dunités ou
densembles rythmiques, le rôle de la hauteur, la polyrythmie etc. On
sattache alors à développer en parallèle la faculté dintériorisation
rythmique. On apprend à sentir sans nécessairement exprimer, à imaginer
tout ce qui est implicite dans un rythme en se bornant à ne laisser
apparaître que certains éléments. Ainsi, pour chaque interprète, le
rythme devra demeurer un tout signifiant vécu intérieurement, mais dont
une partie seulement sera rendue sonore.
On sattache ici à percevoir, à analyser, à pratiquer des exemples
rythmiques sur base des expériences vécues au cours des sessions
précédentes. On y aborde les problèmes de division de la pulsation (en
2, 3, 4, 5 etc.), de juxtapositions de telles divisions, de leurs
mélanges (2 contre 3 etc.); les différentes polyrythmies résultant de
la superposition dune autre pulsation à la pulsation de base
(groupement par 3 croches en 4/4 par exemple); linfluence de
laccentuation et de la durée ainsi que des paramètres non rythmiques
comme la hauteur, le timbre, la courbe mélodique ou lharmonie sur la
perception dun rythme; enfin la composition de rythmes en cycles - la
genèse donc de la structure, de la forme rythmique et son appréhension
pratique.
Quatrième temps
Finalement, on envisage lexpérience rythmique acquise pendant les
phases précédentes sous langle de la pratique instrumentale et
pédagogique de chacun.
Sur le plan instrumental, on examine à quels niveaux gestuels ou
moteurs se situe larticulation du vécu rythmique de lindividu par
rapport à son instrument. Le rythme se ressent-il au niveau du
diaphragme, de la glotte, de la langue ou bien au niveau de lépaule, du
coude, de lavant-bras, du poignet, des doigts ? Quel est le rapport
entre le geste instrumental et le rythme produit ? Certains mouvements
concomitants sont-ils favorables à lexécution signifiante de certains
rythmes ? Est visé ici le travail de jonction entre lexpérience
rythmique et la pratique instrumentale en vue de linterprétation, une
interprétation qui ne résulte plus seulement dune obédience stylistique
ou dune interrogation rationnelle, mais qui émane, en outre, dune
expérience personnelle, dun vécu chargé de sens.
Sur le plan pédagogique, on se pose la question des modalités selon
lesquelles ce savoir peut se transmettre denseignant (riche de son
acquis) à enseigné (inexpérimenté par définition). On envisage les
aptitudes de base à développer chez lenfant au vu de sa compétence
rythmique ainsi que les exercices adaptés à cet effet. On évoque les
différentes situations dapprentissage susceptibles de favoriser
lintégration rythmique de lélève. Intervient également la question de
lattitude de lenseignant vis-à-vis de la matière dispensée ainsi que
celle du rapport enseignant - enseigné le plus approprié à lacquisition
des compétences, à la passation du savoir. On passe finalement en revue
toute une série de situations concrètes vécues par les uns et les
autres dans la perspective dune meilleure adaptation de lapproche
pédagogique de lenseignant aux besoins de lélève. On évoque les cas
difficiles en tentant de les comprendre et dy apporter des éléments de
solution. On tente de dégager des exemples étudiés une philosophie et
une méthodologie générales de lenseignement du rythme
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[6]Les super-héros inspirent de nouveau Cryptologic
Par corinne en date du 15 décembre 2009
Cryptologic, l'un des plus populaires développeurs de jeux en ligne,
est surtout connu pour ses jeux issus des adaptations. Avec ses
machines à sous en ligne basées sur des films, des super-héros et
d'autres formes de culture pop, Cryptologic a une empreinte unique sur
les jeux de casino en ligne. Pour bien finir l'année, Cryptologic lance
trois nouvelles machines à sous inspirées du monde du film.
La machine à sous Superman est la première à être lancée. Comme le
héros du même nom, ce jeu possède des capacités surnaturelles. Grâce à
ses 50 lignes de paiement, la machine à sous offre aux joueurs beaucoup
de chances de gagner. Avec les intrigues de la bande dessinée, les
joueurs seront en mesure de s'engager dans la poursuite romantique de
Louis Lane, tout en sauvant Metropolis de la furie de Lex Luthor. Le
nouveau jeu offre aussi aux joueurs des possibilités multiples de
gagner des tours gratuits et des parties bonus.
Le deuxième jeu qui sera propulsé par Cryptologic est Braveheart. Basé
sur le populaire film de Mel Gibson, le jeu racontera l'histoire de la
lutte pour la libération écossaise. Le joueur accumule des points au
fur et à mesure que le combat progresse. Les paiements varient en
fonction des jackpots proposés, qui sont très généreux.
Et, enfin, le jeu le plus insolite de l'ensemble: Forrest Gump. Le
célèbre proverbe "La vie est comme une boîte de chocolats - on ne sait
jamais ce qu'on recevra", ne pouvait être plus vrai. Basé sur le drame
historique, la machine à sous Forrest Gump garantit aux joueurs une
expérience très agréable.
Ajouté dans [7]actualités, [8]jeux casino, [9]machine à sous |
[10]Commentaire »
[11]Les machines à sous connaissent une bonne saison
Par corinne en date du 10 décembre 2009
Les analystes de Wall Street sont revenus de la dernière Global Gaming
Expo avec une vision optimiste sur l'industrie des machines à sous de
Nevada. Il reste à voir si cette attitude se traduit par une croissance
des ventes et des revenus dans le secteur de la fabrication des
matériels de jeu.
Pourtant, les analystes ont indiqué qu'au lendemain de la G2E, les
investisseurs étaient plus optimistes quant aux entreprises de machines
à sous, que jamais auparavant.
"Les opérateurs de casino semblaient plus optimistes en se promenant
dans les salles de l'exposition", a opiné l'analyste Justin Sebastiano
dans une note de recherche. "Nous croyons que cette meilleure humeur
était le résultat d'une combinaison des nouveaux concepts de jeu de
cette année et des budgets plus élevés pour les machines à sous en
2010."
Les fabricants de machines à sous n'ont pas connu des périodes
extrêmement prolifiques cette dernière décennie. Jusqu'en 2005, les
opérateurs de casino ajoutaient des machines à sous utilisant les
tickets TITO ( Ticket-In Ticket-Out). Mais le fléchissement de
l'économie au cours des deux dernières années a déterminé les casinos
d'échanger les anciens jeux pour de nouveaux produits.
L'analyste Todd Eilers de Roth Capital Partners fait connaître que MGM
Mirage et Harrah's Entertainment ont décidé de remplacer en 2010 les
machines à sous de leurs casinos en proportion de 2% jusqu'à 10%. Un
autre complexe (non précisé par Eilers) envisage de remplacer jusqu'à
40% de sa plateforme d'anciennes machines à sous.
"Le signe le plus encourageant cette année est que les exploitants de
casinos cherchaient en fait à acheter des jeux et de la technologie par
rapport à l'année dernière quand ils faisaient simplement une visite à
G2E", a précisé Eilers.
Les deux analystes estiment, d'ailleurs, que les jeux de G2E 2009
étaient de loin supérieurs à ceux proposés au salon il y a un an.
Sebastiano apprécie que les machines à sous de Bally Technologies, WMS
Industries et International Gaming Technology ont été impressionnantes.
"La plupart des investisseurs et des exploitants de casinos ont été
déçus par les jeux présentés à G2E l'an dernier", a déclaré Sebastiano.
"Ce n'est pas de même avec la G2E de cette année. A notre avis,
l'optimisme a été engendré par quelques jeux accrocheurs".
Les fabricants de machines à sous ont présenté plusieurs tendances et
thèmes communs, tels que les jeux en communauté avancés, les jeux Roue
multiple, des graphiques 3D ou des jeux personnalisés.
Ajouté dans [12]actualités, [13]machine à sous | [14]Commentaire »
[15]Une société de Las Vegas crée les machines à sous adaptées au rythme du
joueur
Par corinne en date du 29 septembre 2009
La Commission des Jeux du Nevada a récemment autorisé une société basée
à Las Vegas qui s'emploie à développer des machines à sous d'une
qualité technique supérieure. Ces machines à sous pourront correspondre
aux différents rythmes souhaités par les joueurs.
Pour arriver à respecter le rythme de chaque joueur, le jeu sera doté
d'un programme personnalisé qui suivra la manière de jouer et le temps
que chaque joueur passe devant la machine à sous. Ainsi, la machine
pourrait fonctionner à un rythme plus lent, avec des récompenses moins
élevées pour ceux qui cherchent à jouer plus longtemps. Le slot peut
également fonctionner à un rythme plus rapide et proposer des
récompenses plus élevées.
"Quand les joueurs entrent dans un casino, ils ont une idée assez
précise sur le type de jeu qu'ils veulent jouer, mais personne n'est
capable de leur dire comment trouver le jeu qui leur convient", a
expliqué John Acres, le PDG de Talo Nevada, la société en cause.
"Certains joueurs ne savent même pas ce qu'ils veulent vraiment,
jusqu'à ce qu'ils essaient quelque chose", a ajouté Acres.
Demandé si un programme de jeu personnalisé pourrait modifier le taux
de paiement des machines à sous, Acres a répondu qu'une machine
pourrait offrir des récompenses rapidement ou lentement, tout en
gardant un pourcentage de remboursement programmé.
John Acres, fondateur d'Acres Gaming, est connu pour avoir inventé le
système moderne de suivi du jeu aux machines à sous. Il a également
fondé Gaming Standards Association et a inventé une ligne de vélos.
Acres Gaming est une compagnie spécialisée dans le développement de
concepts et technologies liés au bonus des jeux et au suivi des
machines à sous fabriquées par plusieurs sociétés.
La Commission des Jeux du Nevada a autorisé Talo Nevada en tant que
fabricant et distributeur.
Ajouté dans [16]actualités, [17]machine à sous | [18]Commentaires (*) »
[19]Les casinos de France lancent "Magic Casinos Jackpot"
Par corinne en date du 20 septembre 2009
Pour enrayer la baisse constante de leurs gains et faire face à la
concurrence croissante, les casinos terrestres de France ont adopté une
attitude combative, lançant un jackpot commun. C'est la première fois
dans leur histoire que plus de la moitié des casinos français se
donnent la main pour réaliser un projet d'une telle ampleur.
Pour créer "Magic Casinos Jackpot", 100 des 197 casinos de France,
ainsi que les groupes Barrière, Tranchant, Joa et Eméraude, ont formé
une alliance de conjoncture qui profitera aux joueurs. Seul le groupe
Partouche s'est tenu à l'écart, préférant faire cavalier seul devant la
menace des jeux en ligne et la concurrence des monopoles d'Etat.
Dans les établissements nommés, 331 machines à sous ont été reliées
pour former un réseau national, comparable à la loterie. Les dimensions
du réseau permettra au jackpot d'atteindre même 5 millions d'euros au
moment où il sera décroché.
Le jackpot sera tout le temps affiché sur un bandeau qui surmonte les
machines à sous faisant partie du réseau. Ce n'est pas donc un secret
que le premier jackpot a dépassé 350.000 euros, quelques heures après
son lancement.
L'investissement a coûté 10 millions d'euros. La performance technique
est aussi remarquable, la faisabilité du réseau étant antérieurement
testé à plus petite échelle. Les casinos inclus dans le projet sont
reconnaissables grâce à une inscription "Magic Casinos Jackpot"
affichée sur le mur frontal. Chacun de ces casinos héberge 2 à 8
machines à sous connectées au réseau.
Alors que le domaine casinotier est une profession individualiste par
tradition, les présidents des quatre groupes associés ont salué "une
alliance historique, une grande première".
La démarche devrait aider à revitaliser les casinos frappés par la
crise. Les 197 casinos de France ont enregistré pour leur dernier
exercice une baisse du produit brut des jeux de 8.4% par rapport à
l'exercice antérieur.
La crise ne cesse de toucher notamment le secteur des machines à sous
et c'est à juste raison que les casinotiers ont mis les points sur les
"i", par un projet qui augmente l'attractivité des slots.
Bien qu'il n'ait pas fait front commun avec les autres, le groupe
Partouche a une initiative similaire - Mégapot - qui date d'avant le
projet de ses confrères.
Ajouté dans [20]casino, [21]jackpots, [22]machine à sous |
[23]Commentaire (1) »
[24]Les films de Hollywood inspirent les machines à sous de PartyCasino
Par corinne en date du 2 septembre 2009
PartyCasino a des nouvelles réjouissantes quant à son répertoire de
machines à sous. Le casino a ajouté sur sa liste de jeux des machines à
sous vidéo inspirés des films hollywoodiens. Avec des productions
telles que "The Godfather", "Rambo", "The terminator", "Gone with the
Wind" et de beaux jackpots, ces jeux ont le succès garanti parmi tous
les types de joueurs!
Les nouvelles machines à sous ont 20 lignes de paiement et 5 rouleaux.
La mise minimale est de 0.01 $/£/EUR et les jackpots sont soit fixes
soit progressifs, en fonction du jeu choisi. Les jeux sont dotés de
symboles scatter, wild et des symboles qui déclenchent des tours
gratuits. Pour les jeux qu'ils préfèrent, les clients du casino peuvent
choisir la fonction Auto-play.
Chaque jeu a une fonction spéciale, grâce à laquelle on peut gagner de
l'argent supplémentaire et des tours gratuits. Chaque niveau de ces
jeux bonus a de merveilleux graphismes et engendre autant d'adrénaline
que les films eux-mêmes.
Ajouté dans [25]machine à sous | [26]Commentaire »
[27]Nouvelle machine à sous Wealth Spa lancée par Microgaming
Par corinne en date du 11 août 2009
En accord avec les tendances de l'été, Microgaming lance la nouvelle
machine à sous vidéo Wealth Spa, ce qui démontre, en outre, leur
engagement à l'innovation et au développement des jeux haut de gamme.
Wealth Spa est une machine à sous à 5 rouleaux et 20 lignes de
paiement, avec une offre de bonus portant sur une expérience spa de
luxe. Grâce à un éventail de symboles wild et scatters, le joueur
pourra accumuler des jetons d'or très précieux. Ces jetons ouvriront
une série de bonus sur cinq niveaux, chaque niveau ayant fait l'objet
d'un minutieux processus de design.
Les jetons d'or sont crédités lorsqu'ils apparaissent sur le cinquième
rouleau. Ils peuvent être utilisés pour accéder immédiatement au jeu
bonus ou peuvent être gardés pour atteindre un niveau plus élevé.
L'apparition d'un seul jeton déclenche le premier jeu bonus - Smoothie
Bonus, deux jetons déclenchent le Bonus Hot Stone, trois jetons
occasionnent le jeu bonus Body Wax, tandis que les quatre jetons d'or
apparus sur les rouleaux ouvrent la voie vers le jeu bonus Bath Oil.
Cinq jetons vont déclencher automatiquement le Bonus Massage, pendant
lequel les joueurs peuvent gagner 25 tours gratuits et la chance de
remporter le jackpot.
Roger Raatgever, le chef de direction de Microgaming a commenté: "A
Microgaming, nous cherchons toujours à créer de nouveaux jeux de haute
qualité; l'année passée, nous avons lancé des jeux de casino originaux
tels MySlot et Great Galaxy Grab. Notre dernier jeu Wealth Spa offre
des bonus sur plusieurs niveaux, une qualité des graphiques inégalée et
un jeu vraiment passionnant."
Wealth Spa représente une nouvelle expérience de jeu divertissante,
avec un éventail de paris qui vont de 0,01 à 0,25 par ligne. Pour la
mise minimale, les prix vont jusqu'à 12,500.00 jetons, tandis que les
prix provenus des bonus vont de 2,800.00 à 25,000.00 jetons.
Ajouté dans [28]machine à sous | [29]Commentaires (*) »
[30]Qu'est-ce qui fait l'attrait des machines à sous?
Par corinne en date du 6 août 2009
Avez-vous jamais réfléchi si tout l'arsenal d'une machine à sous - les
images, les sifflets, les personnages, les feux clignotants, la
musique, les boutons - avait quelque chose à voir avec l'argent que
vous y placez, pour gagner ou perdre la mise? Tout autre appareil
pourrait faire la même chose avec cet argent, mais personne ne
passerait des heures devant un tel appareil, s'il n'était pas pour les
feux étincelants, les images avec des fruits, et l'idée d'un gros
jackpot. Donc, la question qui se pose c'est: qu'est ce qui rend les
machines à sous si attrayantes?
Louis Weigele, le président du Conseil du jeu problématique d'Ohio,
nous offre une explication. Voilà, donc, l'argument d'un psychologue:
Les joueurs sont divisés en deux camps: les joueurs actifs (action
gamblers) et les joueurs "fuyards" (escape gamblers).
Les joueurs actifs sont les personnes qui aiment vraiment jouer, sentir
l'émotion du jeu, affronter d'autres joueurs et défier le hasard. En
général, on les voit sur les pistes des courses, assis aux tables de
poker ou de blackjack.
L'autre grand groupe, dit Weigele, est celui des joueurs "fuyards" qui
passent souvent des heures entières devant une machine à sous vidéo.
"Ils n'aiment pas vraiment jouer, ils jouent simplement pour passer le
temps", estime le psychologue, en parlant des joueurs problématiques.
En fait, les machines à sous ne sont pas de simples appareils. Elles
peuvent évoquer une histoire, le sujet d'un film de succès, une
personnalité. Les jeux sont conçus englobant beaucoup de stimuli, pour
captiver et maintenir l'attention du joueur. Il ne s'agit pas que d'y
mettre de l'argent et attendre. Les joueurs font des choix, recherchent
des combinaisons gagnantes et décident d'augmenter leurs mises ou
d'encaisser le gain.
La participation active est essentielle pour les joueurs. Les joueurs
qui contrôlent physiquement une machine à sous sont susceptibles de
miser plus d'argent que les autres aux paris subsidiaires.
Ajouté dans [31]machine à sous, [32]études | [33]Commentaires (*) »
[34]Nouvelle machine à sous "La Fiesta"
Par corinne en date du 15 juin 2009
Les machines à sous basées sur des thèmes mexicains ont gagné une
grande popularité. Certes, cela a à voir avec la vivacité de la culture
mexicaine et ses symboles faciles à reconnaître. Maintenant, une
nouvelle machine à sous célèbre la culture et la civilisation
mexicaines, à travers des symboles tels que: la piñata, les roses, les
maracas, les trompettes, les guitares et les belles femmes. Les joueurs
qui gardent le son pendant qu'ils jouent auront l'occasion d'écouter de
la musique en style mexicain.
Le jeu compte 5 rouleaux et 25 lignes de paiement. Les paris vont de
0.01$ à 10$, respectant tous les budgets. Même sans disposer d'un
jackpot progressif, La Fiesta offre un jackpot fixé à 10.000$. Celui-ci
est payé lorsque cinq symboles piñata apparaissent sur une ligne
payante active. Pour un pari maximal, le paiement correspondant est de
100.000$.
Mais qu'est-ce qu'une piñata? Une piñata est un jouet mexicain,
d'habitude sous la forme d'un animal. Le symbole piñata de la machine à
sous "La Fiesta" est un cochon. Il fonctionne comme un symbole wild et
peut remplacer tout autre symbole, à l'exception de la rose, qui est un
scatter. Quand il substitue d'autres symboles pour former une
combinaison gagnante, les paiements sont doublés. Si vous avez la
chance de tomber sur une combinaison gagnante avec des symboles piñata,
vous serez les témoins d'un drôle de spectacle: le petit cochon se
mettra à danser devant vous et des feux d'artifices éclateront derrière
lui.
Trois ou plusieurs symboles piñata apparaissant n'importe où sur les
rouleaux déclenchent un jeu bonus. Ceci peut être joué jusqu'à trois
fois.
"La Fiesta" a été lancée par la société Vegas Technology. Le même
fournisseur de logiciels de jeu a créé dernièrement trois autres
machines à sous. Sur le marché des jeux en ligne, La Fiesta concurrence
avec un jackpot progressif - Jackpot Piñata, lancé par Real Time
Gaming.
Ajouté dans [35]machine à sous | [36]Commentaires (*) »
[37]Le groupe Joa lance un casino en ligne
Par corinne en date du 15 juin 2009
Après avoir changé son visage commercial, l'ex groupe Moliflor -
rébaptisé Joa(casinos), se prépare à lancer en France un casino en
ligne. Initiative très courageuse, voire hardie, sur un marché encore
fermé aux sites de jeux.
En effet, tous les grands casinotiers français sont sur le bloc de
départ dans la course qui sera lancée le 1er janvier 2010. Le groupe de
Lucien Barrière a choisi de faire les essais au Royaume-Uni, avec un
site en 3D qui a tout pour remporter des succès. C'est la voie la plus
sage, mais qui n'a pas convenu à Partouche. Impatients, les dirigeants
du groupe n'ont plus attendu la date de l'ouverture officielle du
marché et ont choisi le chemin sans détours. Le groupe offre d'orès et
déjà des services de jeux aux internautes français. L'autre élément de
la "trinité" - Tranchant - est toujours en attente.
Joa ne leur cède en rien. Les prévisions de la future législation
française en domaine concernent les paris sportifs, les courses
hippiques et le poker en ligne. Le sujet des casinos en ligne, avec
toute la suite de jeux qu'on y trouve, reste flou... Mais cela n'a pas
empêché Joa d'agir. Disponible pour le moment en mode démo (mode fun,
avec de l'argent virtuel), Joa-online.com propose des parties de poker,
mais également tous les autres jeux qu'on trouve dans un casino
terrestre.
La course sur le marché en ligne est à peine au début et elle ne sera
pas gagnée d'avance par un acteur ou autre. Le "lifting" subi par l'ex
Moliflor, qui a avalé 2.5 millions d'euros, a été la première étape.
Pour tenir tête à ses forts concurrents, Joa devra innover. Affaire à
suivre.
Ajouté dans [38]casino en ligne | [39]Commentaire »
[40]Mythes et fausses impressions sur les machines à sous
Par corinne en date du 6 janvier 2009
Puisqu'elles sont des jeux de hasard par excellence, les machines à
sous ont laissé créer autour d'elles un complexe de mythes qui essayent
d'expliquer les gains et les pertes. Voilà les plus entendues:
On dit que:
Les meilleures machines à sous sont tenues ensemble dans la salle
Il serait stupide d'un casino de cantonner ses meilleures machines à
sous dans un seul endroit. Celles-ci sont répandues dans la salle, pour
que les gens puissent voir les autres gagner. C'est justement l'une des
principales raisons qui déterminent les gens de jouer plus longtemps.
Voyons: continueriez-vous à jouer s'il n'y avait pas un autour de vous
qui gagne?
Les machines à sous ont des périodes cycliques de gains
Cela ne pourrait pas être plus loin de la vérité. Chaque tournoiement
des rouleaux est aléatoire et ne suit aucun schéma. Si une machine
semble payer plus ou moins à de certains moments, c'est grâce aux
numéros aléatoires générés. Mais ce n'est pas une garantie que tout va
continuer de la même manière pour la prochaine période de temps!
Tirer la manche est mieux qu'appuyer sur le bouton
C'est exactement la même chose, tirer un levier ou appuyer sur un
bouton aboutira toujours au même résultat. Tout ce qu'on fait, dans les
deux cas, est d'envoyer un petit signal électrique pour démarrer le
jeu, donc la façon dont on le fait n'a aucune importance, vous obtenez
toujours le même résultat.
Seulement les machines mécaniques sont des machines à sous véritables
Les slots mécaniques ne sont meilleurs que parce qu'ils peuvent être
trompés. Ils fonctionnent sur le même principe que toute autre machine
à sous. En fait, les machines électroniques offrent de meilleurs
paiements, des jackpots plus élevés, plus de variété dans les jeux,
plus de lignes de paiement et plus de rouleaux. Ces jeux sont
supérieurs aux jeux mécaniques et montrent les avantages de la nouvelle
technologie.
On peut augmenter ses chances en appuyant sur le bouton au bon moment
Même si c'est un peu vrai avec la génération de nombres aléatoires, les
chances d'agir à ce "bon moment" sont à des milliards contre vous. Les
machines à sous génèrent des centaines de nombres aléatoires par
seconde, calculez, donc, vos chances de tomber sur la micro-seconde
gagnante!
Mon slot préféré paie davantage
Tout le monde a, sans doute, une machine à sous préférée sur laquelle
on a gagné. Mais il s'agit toujours de la chance de se trouver là au
moment opportun. Cette même machine qui a offert un prix à quelqu'un a
pris de l'argent de l'autrui. Avoir une machine favorite est une
question de chois, mais assurez-vous que c'est une machine qui
correspond à votre style de jeu. Et renoncez à l'idée qu'elle paie plus
que les autres!
Ajouté dans [41]machine à sous | [42]Commentaires (*) »
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[6]Les super-héros inspirent de nouveau Cryptologic
Par corinne en date du 15 décembre 2009
Cryptologic, l'un des plus populaires développeurs de jeux en ligne,
est surtout connu pour ses jeux issus des adaptations. Avec ses
machines à sous en ligne basées sur des films, des super-héros et
d'autres formes de culture pop, Cryptologic a une empreinte unique sur
les jeux de casino en ligne. Pour bien finir l'année, Cryptologic lance
trois nouvelles machines à sous inspirées du monde du film.
La machine à sous Superman est la première à être lancée. Comme le
héros du même nom, ce jeu possède des capacités surnaturelles. Grâce à
ses 50 lignes de paiement, la machine à sous offre aux joueurs beaucoup
de chances de gagner. Avec les intrigues de la bande dessinée, les
joueurs seront en mesure de s'engager dans la poursuite romantique de
Louis Lane, tout en sauvant Metropolis de la furie de Lex Luthor. Le
nouveau jeu offre aussi aux joueurs des possibilités multiples de
gagner des tours gratuits et des parties bonus.
Le deuxième jeu qui sera propulsé par Cryptologic est Braveheart. Basé
sur le populaire film de Mel Gibson, le jeu racontera l'histoire de la
lutte pour la libération écossaise. Le joueur accumule des points au
fur et à mesure que le combat progresse. Les paiements varient en
fonction des jackpots proposés, qui sont très généreux.
Et, enfin, le jeu le plus insolite de l'ensemble: Forrest Gump. Le
célèbre proverbe "La vie est comme une boîte de chocolats - on ne sait
jamais ce qu'on recevra", ne pouvait être plus vrai. Basé sur le drame
historique, la machine à sous Forrest Gump garantit aux joueurs une
expérience très agréable.
Ajouté dans [7]actualités, [8]jeux casino, [9]machine à sous |
[10]Commentaire »
[11]Les machines à sous connaissent une bonne saison
Par corinne en date du 10 décembre 2009
Les analystes de Wall Street sont revenus de la dernière Global Gaming
Expo avec une vision optimiste sur l'industrie des machines à sous de
Nevada. Il reste à voir si cette attitude se traduit par une croissance
des ventes et des revenus dans le secteur de la fabrication des
matériels de jeu.
Pourtant, les analystes ont indiqué qu'au lendemain de la G2E, les
investisseurs étaient plus optimistes quant aux entreprises de machines
à sous, que jamais auparavant.
"Les opérateurs de casino semblaient plus optimistes en se promenant
dans les salles de l'exposition", a opiné l'analyste Justin Sebastiano
dans une note de recherche. "Nous croyons que cette meilleure humeur
était le résultat d'une combinaison des nouveaux concepts de jeu de
cette année et des budgets plus élevés pour les machines à sous en
2010."
Les fabricants de machines à sous n'ont pas connu des périodes
extrêmement prolifiques cette dernière décennie. Jusqu'en 2005, les
opérateurs de casino ajoutaient des machines à sous utilisant les
tickets TITO ( Ticket-In Ticket-Out). Mais le fléchissement de
l'économie au cours des deux dernières années a déterminé les casinos
d'échanger les anciens jeux pour de nouveaux produits.
L'analyste Todd Eilers de Roth Capital Partners fait connaître que MGM
Mirage et Harrah's Entertainment ont décidé de remplacer en 2010 les
machines à sous de leurs casinos en proportion de 2% jusqu'à 10%. Un
autre complexe (non précisé par Eilers) envisage de remplacer jusqu'à
40% de sa plateforme d'anciennes machines à sous.
"Le signe le plus encourageant cette année est que les exploitants de
casinos cherchaient en fait à acheter des jeux et de la technologie par
rapport à l'année dernière quand ils faisaient simplement une visite à
G2E", a précisé Eilers.
Les deux analystes estiment, d'ailleurs, que les jeux de G2E 2009
étaient de loin supérieurs à ceux proposés au salon il y a un an.
Sebastiano apprécie que les machines à sous de Bally Technologies, WMS
Industries et International Gaming Technology ont été impressionnantes.
"La plupart des investisseurs et des exploitants de casinos ont été
déçus par les jeux présentés à G2E l'an dernier", a déclaré Sebastiano.
"Ce n'est pas de même avec la G2E de cette année. A notre avis,
l'optimisme a été engendré par quelques jeux accrocheurs".
Les fabricants de machines à sous ont présenté plusieurs tendances et
thèmes communs, tels que les jeux en communauté avancés, les jeux Roue
multiple, des graphiques 3D ou des jeux personnalisés.
Ajouté dans [12]actualités, [13]machine à sous | [14]Commentaire »
[15]Une société de Las Vegas crée les machines à sous adaptées au rythme du
joueur
Par corinne en date du 29 septembre 2009
La Commission des Jeux du Nevada a récemment autorisé une société basée
à Las Vegas qui s'emploie à développer des machines à sous d'une
qualité technique supérieure. Ces machines à sous pourront correspondre
aux différents rythmes souhaités par les joueurs.
Pour arriver à respecter le rythme de chaque joueur, le jeu sera doté
d'un programme personnalisé qui suivra la manière de jouer et le temps
que chaque joueur passe devant la machine à sous. Ainsi, la machine
pourrait fonctionner à un rythme plus lent, avec des récompenses moins
élevées pour ceux qui cherchent à jouer plus longtemps. Le slot peut
également fonctionner à un rythme plus rapide et proposer des
récompenses plus élevées.
"Quand les joueurs entrent dans un casino, ils ont une idée assez
précise sur le type de jeu qu'ils veulent jouer, mais personne n'est
capable de leur dire comment trouver le jeu qui leur convient", a
expliqué John Acres, le PDG de Talo Nevada, la société en cause.
"Certains joueurs ne savent même pas ce qu'ils veulent vraiment,
jusqu'à ce qu'ils essaient quelque chose", a ajouté Acres.
Demandé si un programme de jeu personnalisé pourrait modifier le taux
de paiement des machines à sous, Acres a répondu qu'une machine
pourrait offrir des récompenses rapidement ou lentement, tout en
gardant un pourcentage de remboursement programmé.
John Acres, fondateur d'Acres Gaming, est connu pour avoir inventé le
système moderne de suivi du jeu aux machines à sous. Il a également
fondé Gaming Standards Association et a inventé une ligne de vélos.
Acres Gaming est une compagnie spécialisée dans le développement de
concepts et technologies liés au bonus des jeux et au suivi des
machines à sous fabriquées par plusieurs sociétés.
La Commission des Jeux du Nevada a autorisé Talo Nevada en tant que
fabricant et distributeur.
Ajouté dans [16]actualités, [17]machine à sous | [18]Commentaires (*) »
[19]Les casinos de France lancent "Magic Casinos Jackpot"
Par corinne en date du 20 septembre 2009
Pour enrayer la baisse constante de leurs gains et faire face à la
concurrence croissante, les casinos terrestres de France ont adopté une
attitude combative, lançant un jackpot commun. C'est la première fois
dans leur histoire que plus de la moitié des casinos français se
donnent la main pour réaliser un projet d'une telle ampleur.
Pour créer "Magic Casinos Jackpot", 100 des 197 casinos de France,
ainsi que les groupes Barrière, Tranchant, Joa et Eméraude, ont formé
une alliance de conjoncture qui profitera aux joueurs. Seul le groupe
Partouche s'est tenu à l'écart, préférant faire cavalier seul devant la
menace des jeux en ligne et la concurrence des monopoles d'Etat.
Dans les établissements nommés, 331 machines à sous ont été reliées
pour former un réseau national, comparable à la loterie. Les dimensions
du réseau permettra au jackpot d'atteindre même 5 millions d'euros au
moment où il sera décroché.
Le jackpot sera tout le temps affiché sur un bandeau qui surmonte les
machines à sous faisant partie du réseau. Ce n'est pas donc un secret
que le premier jackpot a dépassé 350.000 euros, quelques heures après
son lancement.
L'investissement a coûté 10 millions d'euros. La performance technique
est aussi remarquable, la faisabilité du réseau étant antérieurement
testé à plus petite échelle. Les casinos inclus dans le projet sont
reconnaissables grâce à une inscription "Magic Casinos Jackpot"
affichée sur le mur frontal. Chacun de ces casinos héberge 2 à 8
machines à sous connectées au réseau.
Alors que le domaine casinotier est une profession individualiste par
tradition, les présidents des quatre groupes associés ont salué "une
alliance historique, une grande première".
La démarche devrait aider à revitaliser les casinos frappés par la
crise. Les 197 casinos de France ont enregistré pour leur dernier
exercice une baisse du produit brut des jeux de 8.4% par rapport à
l'exercice antérieur.
La crise ne cesse de toucher notamment le secteur des machines à sous
et c'est à juste raison que les casinotiers ont mis les points sur les
"i", par un projet qui augmente l'attractivité des slots.
Bien qu'il n'ait pas fait front commun avec les autres, le groupe
Partouche a une initiative similaire - Mégapot - qui date d'avant le
projet de ses confrères.
Ajouté dans [20]casino, [21]jackpots, [22]machine à sous |
[23]Commentaire (1) »
[24]Les films de Hollywood inspirent les machines à sous de PartyCasino
Par corinne en date du 2 septembre 2009
PartyCasino a des nouvelles réjouissantes quant à son répertoire de
machines à sous. Le casino a ajouté sur sa liste de jeux des machines à
sous vidéo inspirés des films hollywoodiens. Avec des productions
telles que "The Godfather", "Rambo", "The terminator", "Gone with the
Wind" et de beaux jackpots, ces jeux ont le succès garanti parmi tous
les types de joueurs!
Les nouvelles machines à sous ont 20 lignes de paiement et 5 rouleaux.
La mise minimale est de 0.01 $/£/EUR et les jackpots sont soit fixes
soit progressifs, en fonction du jeu choisi. Les jeux sont dotés de
symboles scatter, wild et des symboles qui déclenchent des tours
gratuits. Pour les jeux qu'ils préfèrent, les clients du casino peuvent
choisir la fonction Auto-play.
Chaque jeu a une fonction spéciale, grâce à laquelle on peut gagner de
l'argent supplémentaire et des tours gratuits. Chaque niveau de ces
jeux bonus a de merveilleux graphismes et engendre autant d'adrénaline
que les films eux-mêmes.
Ajouté dans [25]machine à sous | [26]Commentaire »
[27]Nouvelle machine à sous Wealth Spa lancée par Microgaming
Par corinne en date du 11 août 2009
En accord avec les tendances de l'été, Microgaming lance la nouvelle
machine à sous vidéo Wealth Spa, ce qui démontre, en outre, leur
engagement à l'innovation et au développement des jeux haut de gamme.
Wealth Spa est une machine à sous à 5 rouleaux et 20 lignes de
paiement, avec une offre de bonus portant sur une expérience spa de
luxe. Grâce à un éventail de symboles wild et scatters, le joueur
pourra accumuler des jetons d'or très précieux. Ces jetons ouvriront
une série de bonus sur cinq niveaux, chaque niveau ayant fait l'objet
d'un minutieux processus de design.
Les jetons d'or sont crédités lorsqu'ils apparaissent sur le cinquième
rouleau. Ils peuvent être utilisés pour accéder immédiatement au jeu
bonus ou peuvent être gardés pour atteindre un niveau plus élevé.
L'apparition d'un seul jeton déclenche le premier jeu bonus - Smoothie
Bonus, deux jetons déclenchent le Bonus Hot Stone, trois jetons
occasionnent le jeu bonus Body Wax, tandis que les quatre jetons d'or
apparus sur les rouleaux ouvrent la voie vers le jeu bonus Bath Oil.
Cinq jetons vont déclencher automatiquement le Bonus Massage, pendant
lequel les joueurs peuvent gagner 25 tours gratuits et la chance de
remporter le jackpot.
Roger Raatgever, le chef de direction de Microgaming a commenté: "A
Microgaming, nous cherchons toujours à créer de nouveaux jeux de haute
qualité; l'année passée, nous avons lancé des jeux de casino originaux
tels MySlot et Great Galaxy Grab. Notre dernier jeu Wealth Spa offre
des bonus sur plusieurs niveaux, une qualité des graphiques inégalée et
un jeu vraiment passionnant."
Wealth Spa représente une nouvelle expérience de jeu divertissante,
avec un éventail de paris qui vont de 0,01 à 0,25 par ligne. Pour la
mise minimale, les prix vont jusqu'à 12,500.00 jetons, tandis que les
prix provenus des bonus vont de 2,800.00 à 25,000.00 jetons.
Ajouté dans [28]machine à sous | [29]Commentaires (*) »
[30]Qu'est-ce qui fait l'attrait des machines à sous?
Par corinne en date du 6 août 2009
Avez-vous jamais réfléchi si tout l'arsenal d'une machine à sous - les
images, les sifflets, les personnages, les feux clignotants, la
musique, les boutons - avait quelque chose à voir avec l'argent que
vous y placez, pour gagner ou perdre la mise? Tout autre appareil
pourrait faire la même chose avec cet argent, mais personne ne
passerait des heures devant un tel appareil, s'il n'était pas pour les
feux étincelants, les images avec des fruits, et l'idée d'un gros
jackpot. Donc, la question qui se pose c'est: qu'est ce qui rend les
machines à sous si attrayantes?
Louis Weigele, le président du Conseil du jeu problématique d'Ohio,
nous offre une explication. Voilà, donc, l'argument d'un psychologue:
Les joueurs sont divisés en deux camps: les joueurs actifs (action
gamblers) et les joueurs "fuyards" (escape gamblers).
Les joueurs actifs sont les personnes qui aiment vraiment jouer, sentir
l'émotion du jeu, affronter d'autres joueurs et défier le hasard. En
général, on les voit sur les pistes des courses, assis aux tables de
poker ou de blackjack.
L'autre grand groupe, dit Weigele, est celui des joueurs "fuyards" qui
passent souvent des heures entières devant une machine à sous vidéo.
"Ils n'aiment pas vraiment jouer, ils jouent simplement pour passer le
temps", estime le psychologue, en parlant des joueurs problématiques.
En fait, les machines à sous ne sont pas de simples appareils. Elles
peuvent évoquer une histoire, le sujet d'un film de succès, une
personnalité. Les jeux sont conçus englobant beaucoup de stimuli, pour
captiver et maintenir l'attention du joueur. Il ne s'agit pas que d'y
mettre de l'argent et attendre. Les joueurs font des choix, recherchent
des combinaisons gagnantes et décident d'augmenter leurs mises ou
d'encaisser le gain.
La participation active est essentielle pour les joueurs. Les joueurs
qui contrôlent physiquement une machine à sous sont susceptibles de
miser plus d'argent que les autres aux paris subsidiaires.
Ajouté dans [31]machine à sous, [32]études | [33]Commentaires (*) »
[34]Nouvelle machine à sous "La Fiesta"
Par corinne en date du 15 juin 2009
Les machines à sous basées sur des thèmes mexicains ont gagné une
grande popularité. Certes, cela a à voir avec la vivacité de la culture
mexicaine et ses symboles faciles à reconnaître. Maintenant, une
nouvelle machine à sous célèbre la culture et la civilisation
mexicaines, à travers des symboles tels que: la piñata, les roses, les
maracas, les trompettes, les guitares et les belles femmes. Les joueurs
qui gardent le son pendant qu'ils jouent auront l'occasion d'écouter de
la musique en style mexicain.
Le jeu compte 5 rouleaux et 25 lignes de paiement. Les paris vont de
0.01$ à 10$, respectant tous les budgets. Même sans disposer d'un
jackpot progressif, La Fiesta offre un jackpot fixé à 10.000$. Celui-ci
est payé lorsque cinq symboles piñata apparaissent sur une ligne
payante active. Pour un pari maximal, le paiement correspondant est de
100.000$.
Mais qu'est-ce qu'une piñata? Une piñata est un jouet mexicain,
d'habitude sous la forme d'un animal. Le symbole piñata de la machine à
sous "La Fiesta" est un cochon. Il fonctionne comme un symbole wild et
peut remplacer tout autre symbole, à l'exception de la rose, qui est un
scatter. Quand il substitue d'autres symboles pour former une
combinaison gagnante, les paiements sont doublés. Si vous avez la
chance de tomber sur une combinaison gagnante avec des symboles piñata,
vous serez les témoins d'un drôle de spectacle: le petit cochon se
mettra à danser devant vous et des feux d'artifices éclateront derrière
lui.
Trois ou plusieurs symboles piñata apparaissant n'importe où sur les
rouleaux déclenchent un jeu bonus. Ceci peut être joué jusqu'à trois
fois.
"La Fiesta" a été lancée par la société Vegas Technology. Le même
fournisseur de logiciels de jeu a créé dernièrement trois autres
machines à sous. Sur le marché des jeux en ligne, La Fiesta concurrence
avec un jackpot progressif - Jackpot Piñata, lancé par Real Time
Gaming.
Ajouté dans [35]machine à sous | [36]Commentaires (*) »
[37]Le groupe Joa lance un casino en ligne
Par corinne en date du 15 juin 2009
Après avoir changé son visage commercial, l'ex groupe Moliflor -
rébaptisé Joa(casinos), se prépare à lancer en France un casino en
ligne. Initiative très courageuse, voire hardie, sur un marché encore
fermé aux sites de jeux.
En effet, tous les grands casinotiers français sont sur le bloc de
départ dans la course qui sera lancée le 1er janvier 2010. Le groupe de
Lucien Barrière a choisi de faire les essais au Royaume-Uni, avec un
site en 3D qui a tout pour remporter des succès. C'est la voie la plus
sage, mais qui n'a pas convenu à Partouche. Impatients, les dirigeants
du groupe n'ont plus attendu la date de l'ouverture officielle du
marché et ont choisi le chemin sans détours. Le groupe offre d'orès et
déjà des services de jeux aux internautes français. L'autre élément de
la "trinité" - Tranchant - est toujours en attente.
Joa ne leur cède en rien. Les prévisions de la future législation
française en domaine concernent les paris sportifs, les courses
hippiques et le poker en ligne. Le sujet des casinos en ligne, avec
toute la suite de jeux qu'on y trouve, reste flou... Mais cela n'a pas
empêché Joa d'agir. Disponible pour le moment en mode démo (mode fun,
avec de l'argent virtuel), Joa-online.com propose des parties de poker,
mais également tous les autres jeux qu'on trouve dans un casino
terrestre.
La course sur le marché en ligne est à peine au début et elle ne sera
pas gagnée d'avance par un acteur ou autre. Le "lifting" subi par l'ex
Moliflor, qui a avalé 2.5 millions d'euros, a été la première étape.
Pour tenir tête à ses forts concurrents, Joa devra innover. Affaire à
suivre.
Ajouté dans [38]casino en ligne | [39]Commentaire »
[40]Mythes et fausses impressions sur les machines à sous
Par corinne en date du 6 janvier 2009
Puisqu'elles sont des jeux de hasard par excellence, les machines à
sous ont laissé créer autour d'elles un complexe de mythes qui essayent
d'expliquer les gains et les pertes. Voilà les plus entendues:
On dit que:
Les meilleures machines à sous sont tenues ensemble dans la salle
Il serait stupide d'un casino de cantonner ses meilleures machines à
sous dans un seul endroit. Celles-ci sont répandues dans la salle, pour
que les gens puissent voir les autres gagner. C'est justement l'une des
principales raisons qui déterminent les gens de jouer plus longtemps.
Voyons: continueriez-vous à jouer s'il n'y avait pas un autour de vous
qui gagne?
Les machines à sous ont des périodes cycliques de gains
Cela ne pourrait pas être plus loin de la vérité. Chaque tournoiement
des rouleaux est aléatoire et ne suit aucun schéma. Si une machine
semble payer plus ou moins à de certains moments, c'est grâce aux
numéros aléatoires générés. Mais ce n'est pas une garantie que tout va
continuer de la même manière pour la prochaine période de temps!
Tirer la manche est mieux qu'appuyer sur le bouton
C'est exactement la même chose, tirer un levier ou appuyer sur un
bouton aboutira toujours au même résultat. Tout ce qu'on fait, dans les
deux cas, est d'envoyer un petit signal électrique pour démarrer le
jeu, donc la façon dont on le fait n'a aucune importance, vous obtenez
toujours le même résultat.
Seulement les machines mécaniques sont des machines à sous véritables
Les slots mécaniques ne sont meilleurs que parce qu'ils peuvent être
trompés. Ils fonctionnent sur le même principe que toute autre machine
à sous. En fait, les machines électroniques offrent de meilleurs
paiements, des jackpots plus élevés, plus de variété dans les jeux,
plus de lignes de paiement et plus de rouleaux. Ces jeux sont
supérieurs aux jeux mécaniques et montrent les avantages de la nouvelle
technologie.
On peut augmenter ses chances en appuyant sur le bouton au bon moment
Même si c'est un peu vrai avec la génération de nombres aléatoires, les
chances d'agir à ce "bon moment" sont à des milliards contre vous. Les
machines à sous génèrent des centaines de nombres aléatoires par
seconde, calculez, donc, vos chances de tomber sur la micro-seconde
gagnante!
Mon slot préféré paie davantage
Tout le monde a, sans doute, une machine à sous préférée sur laquelle
on a gagné. Mais il s'agit toujours de la chance de se trouver là au
moment opportun. Cette même machine qui a offert un prix à quelqu'un a
pris de l'argent de l'autrui. Avoir une machine favorite est une
question de chois, mais assurez-vous que c'est une machine qui
correspond à votre style de jeu. Et renoncez à l'idée qu'elle paie plus
que les autres!
Ajouté dans [41]machine à sous | [42]Commentaires (*) »
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[6]Les super-héros inspirent de nouveau Cryptologic
Par corinne en date du 15 décembre 2009
Cryptologic, l'un des plus populaires développeurs de jeux en ligne,
est surtout connu pour ses jeux issus des adaptations. Avec ses
machines à sous en ligne basées sur des films, des super-héros et
d'autres formes de culture pop, Cryptologic a une empreinte unique sur
les jeux de casino en ligne. Pour bien finir l'année, Cryptologic lance
trois nouvelles machines à sous inspirées du monde du film.
La machine à sous Superman est la première à être lancée. Comme le
héros du même nom, ce jeu possède des capacités surnaturelles. Grâce à
ses 50 lignes de paiement, la machine à sous offre aux joueurs beaucoup
de chances de gagner. Avec les intrigues de la bande dessinée, les
joueurs seront en mesure de s'engager dans la poursuite romantique de
Louis Lane, tout en sauvant Metropolis de la furie de Lex Luthor. Le
nouveau jeu offre aussi aux joueurs des possibilités multiples de
gagner des tours gratuits et des parties bonus.
Le deuxième jeu qui sera propulsé par Cryptologic est Braveheart. Basé
sur le populaire film de Mel Gibson, le jeu racontera l'histoire de la
lutte pour la libération écossaise. Le joueur accumule des points au
fur et à mesure que le combat progresse. Les paiements varient en
fonction des jackpots proposés, qui sont très généreux.
Et, enfin, le jeu le plus insolite de l'ensemble: Forrest Gump. Le
célèbre proverbe "La vie est comme une boîte de chocolats - on ne sait
jamais ce qu'on recevra", ne pouvait être plus vrai. Basé sur le drame
historique, la machine à sous Forrest Gump garantit aux joueurs une
expérience très agréable.
Ajouté dans [7]actualités, [8]jeux casino, [9]machine à sous |
[10]Commentaire »
[11]Les machines à sous connaissent une bonne saison
Par corinne en date du 10 décembre 2009
Les analystes de Wall Street sont revenus de la dernière Global Gaming
Expo avec une vision optimiste sur l'industrie des machines à sous de
Nevada. Il reste à voir si cette attitude se traduit par une croissance
des ventes et des revenus dans le secteur de la fabrication des
matériels de jeu.
Pourtant, les analystes ont indiqué qu'au lendemain de la G2E, les
investisseurs étaient plus optimistes quant aux entreprises de machines
à sous, que jamais auparavant.
"Les opérateurs de casino semblaient plus optimistes en se promenant
dans les salles de l'exposition", a opiné l'analyste Justin Sebastiano
dans une note de recherche. "Nous croyons que cette meilleure humeur
était le résultat d'une combinaison des nouveaux concepts de jeu de
cette année et des budgets plus élevés pour les machines à sous en
2010."
Les fabricants de machines à sous n'ont pas connu des périodes
extrêmement prolifiques cette dernière décennie. Jusqu'en 2005, les
opérateurs de casino ajoutaient des machines à sous utilisant les
tickets TITO ( Ticket-In Ticket-Out). Mais le fléchissement de
l'économie au cours des deux dernières années a déterminé les casinos
d'échanger les anciens jeux pour de nouveaux produits.
L'analyste Todd Eilers de Roth Capital Partners fait connaître que MGM
Mirage et Harrah's Entertainment ont décidé de remplacer en 2010 les
machines à sous de leurs casinos en proportion de 2% jusqu'à 10%. Un
autre complexe (non précisé par Eilers) envisage de remplacer jusqu'à
40% de sa plateforme d'anciennes machines à sous.
"Le signe le plus encourageant cette année est que les exploitants de
casinos cherchaient en fait à acheter des jeux et de la technologie par
rapport à l'année dernière quand ils faisaient simplement une visite à
G2E", a précisé Eilers.
Les deux analystes estiment, d'ailleurs, que les jeux de G2E 2009
étaient de loin supérieurs à ceux proposés au salon il y a un an.
Sebastiano apprécie que les machines à sous de Bally Technologies, WMS
Industries et International Gaming Technology ont été impressionnantes.
"La plupart des investisseurs et des exploitants de casinos ont été
déçus par les jeux présentés à G2E l'an dernier", a déclaré Sebastiano.
"Ce n'est pas de même avec la G2E de cette année. A notre avis,
l'optimisme a été engendré par quelques jeux accrocheurs".
Les fabricants de machines à sous ont présenté plusieurs tendances et
thèmes communs, tels que les jeux en communauté avancés, les jeux Roue
multiple, des graphiques 3D ou des jeux personnalisés.
Ajouté dans [12]actualités, [13]machine à sous | [14]Commentaire »
[15]Une société de Las Vegas crée les machines à sous adaptées au rythme du
joueur
Par corinne en date du 29 septembre 2009
La Commission des Jeux du Nevada a récemment autorisé une société basée
à Las Vegas qui s'emploie à développer des machines à sous d'une
qualité technique supérieure. Ces machines à sous pourront correspondre
aux différents rythmes souhaités par les joueurs.
Pour arriver à respecter le rythme de chaque joueur, le jeu sera doté
d'un programme personnalisé qui suivra la manière de jouer et le temps
que chaque joueur passe devant la machine à sous. Ainsi, la machine
pourrait fonctionner à un rythme plus lent, avec des récompenses moins
élevées pour ceux qui cherchent à jouer plus longtemps. Le slot peut
également fonctionner à un rythme plus rapide et proposer des
récompenses plus élevées.
"Quand les joueurs entrent dans un casino, ils ont une idée assez
précise sur le type de jeu qu'ils veulent jouer, mais personne n'est
capable de leur dire comment trouver le jeu qui leur convient", a
expliqué John Acres, le PDG de Talo Nevada, la société en cause.
"Certains joueurs ne savent même pas ce qu'ils veulent vraiment,
jusqu'à ce qu'ils essaient quelque chose", a ajouté Acres.
Demandé si un programme de jeu personnalisé pourrait modifier le taux
de paiement des machines à sous, Acres a répondu qu'une machine
pourrait offrir des récompenses rapidement ou lentement, tout en
gardant un pourcentage de remboursement programmé.
John Acres, fondateur d'Acres Gaming, est connu pour avoir inventé le
système moderne de suivi du jeu aux machines à sous. Il a également
fondé Gaming Standards Association et a inventé une ligne de vélos.
Acres Gaming est une compagnie spécialisée dans le développement de
concepts et technologies liés au bonus des jeux et au suivi des
machines à sous fabriquées par plusieurs sociétés.
La Commission des Jeux du Nevada a autorisé Talo Nevada en tant que
fabricant et distributeur.
Ajouté dans [16]actualités, [17]machine à sous | [18]Commentaires (*) »
[19]Les casinos de France lancent "Magic Casinos Jackpot"
Par corinne en date du 20 septembre 2009
Pour enrayer la baisse constante de leurs gains et faire face à la
concurrence croissante, les casinos terrestres de France ont adopté une
attitude combative, lançant un jackpot commun. C'est la première fois
dans leur histoire que plus de la moitié des casinos français se
donnent la main pour réaliser un projet d'une telle ampleur.
Pour créer "Magic Casinos Jackpot", 100 des 197 casinos de France,
ainsi que les groupes Barrière, Tranchant, Joa et Eméraude, ont formé
une alliance de conjoncture qui profitera aux joueurs. Seul le groupe
Partouche s'est tenu à l'écart, préférant faire cavalier seul devant la
menace des jeux en ligne et la concurrence des monopoles d'Etat.
Dans les établissements nommés, 331 machines à sous ont été reliées
pour former un réseau national, comparable à la loterie. Les dimensions
du réseau permettra au jackpot d'atteindre même 5 millions d'euros au
moment où il sera décroché.
Le jackpot sera tout le temps affiché sur un bandeau qui surmonte les
machines à sous faisant partie du réseau. Ce n'est pas donc un secret
que le premier jackpot a dépassé 350.000 euros, quelques heures après
son lancement.
L'investissement a coûté 10 millions d'euros. La performance technique
est aussi remarquable, la faisabilité du réseau étant antérieurement
testé à plus petite échelle. Les casinos inclus dans le projet sont
reconnaissables grâce à une inscription "Magic Casinos Jackpot"
affichée sur le mur frontal. Chacun de ces casinos héberge 2 à 8
machines à sous connectées au réseau.
Alors que le domaine casinotier est une profession individualiste par
tradition, les présidents des quatre groupes associés ont salué "une
alliance historique, une grande première".
La démarche devrait aider à revitaliser les casinos frappés par la
crise. Les 197 casinos de France ont enregistré pour leur dernier
exercice une baisse du produit brut des jeux de 8.4% par rapport à
l'exercice antérieur.
La crise ne cesse de toucher notamment le secteur des machines à sous
et c'est à juste raison que les casinotiers ont mis les points sur les
"i", par un projet qui augmente l'attractivité des slots.
Bien qu'il n'ait pas fait front commun avec les autres, le groupe
Partouche a une initiative similaire - Mégapot - qui date d'avant le
projet de ses confrères.
Ajouté dans [20]casino, [21]jackpots, [22]machine à sous |
[23]Commentaire (1) »
[24]Les films de Hollywood inspirent les machines à sous de PartyCasino
Par corinne en date du 2 septembre 2009
PartyCasino a des nouvelles réjouissantes quant à son répertoire de
machines à sous. Le casino a ajouté sur sa liste de jeux des machines à
sous vidéo inspirés des films hollywoodiens. Avec des productions
telles que "The Godfather", "Rambo", "The terminator", "Gone with the
Wind" et de beaux jackpots, ces jeux ont le succès garanti parmi tous
les types de joueurs!
Les nouvelles machines à sous ont 20 lignes de paiement et 5 rouleaux.
La mise minimale est de 0.01 $/£/EUR et les jackpots sont soit fixes
soit progressifs, en fonction du jeu choisi. Les jeux sont dotés de
symboles scatter, wild et des symboles qui déclenchent des tours
gratuits. Pour les jeux qu'ils préfèrent, les clients du casino peuvent
choisir la fonction Auto-play.
Chaque jeu a une fonction spéciale, grâce à laquelle on peut gagner de
l'argent supplémentaire et des tours gratuits. Chaque niveau de ces
jeux bonus a de merveilleux graphismes et engendre autant d'adrénaline
que les films eux-mêmes.
Ajouté dans [25]machine à sous | [26]Commentaire »
[27]Nouvelle machine à sous Wealth Spa lancée par Microgaming
Par corinne en date du 11 août 2009
En accord avec les tendances de l'été, Microgaming lance la nouvelle
machine à sous vidéo Wealth Spa, ce qui démontre, en outre, leur
engagement à l'innovation et au développement des jeux haut de gamme.
Wealth Spa est une machine à sous à 5 rouleaux et 20 lignes de
paiement, avec une offre de bonus portant sur une expérience spa de
luxe. Grâce à un éventail de symboles wild et scatters, le joueur
pourra accumuler des jetons d'or très précieux. Ces jetons ouvriront
une série de bonus sur cinq niveaux, chaque niveau ayant fait l'objet
d'un minutieux processus de design.
Les jetons d'or sont crédités lorsqu'ils apparaissent sur le cinquième
rouleau. Ils peuvent être utilisés pour accéder immédiatement au jeu
bonus ou peuvent être gardés pour atteindre un niveau plus élevé.
L'apparition d'un seul jeton déclenche le premier jeu bonus - Smoothie
Bonus, deux jetons déclenchent le Bonus Hot Stone, trois jetons
occasionnent le jeu bonus Body Wax, tandis que les quatre jetons d'or
apparus sur les rouleaux ouvrent la voie vers le jeu bonus Bath Oil.
Cinq jetons vont déclencher automatiquement le Bonus Massage, pendant
lequel les joueurs peuvent gagner 25 tours gratuits et la chance de
remporter le jackpot.
Roger Raatgever, le chef de direction de Microgaming a commenté: "A
Microgaming, nous cherchons toujours à créer de nouveaux jeux de haute
qualité; l'année passée, nous avons lancé des jeux de casino originaux
tels MySlot et Great Galaxy Grab. Notre dernier jeu Wealth Spa offre
des bonus sur plusieurs niveaux, une qualité des graphiques inégalée et
un jeu vraiment passionnant."
Wealth Spa représente une nouvelle expérience de jeu divertissante,
avec un éventail de paris qui vont de 0,01 à 0,25 par ligne. Pour la
mise minimale, les prix vont jusqu'à 12,500.00 jetons, tandis que les
prix provenus des bonus vont de 2,800.00 à 25,000.00 jetons.
Ajouté dans [28]machine à sous | [29]Commentaires (*) »
[30]Qu'est-ce qui fait l'attrait des machines à sous?
Par corinne en date du 6 août 2009
Avez-vous jamais réfléchi si tout l'arsenal d'une machine à sous - les
images, les sifflets, les personnages, les feux clignotants, la
musique, les boutons - avait quelque chose à voir avec l'argent que
vous y placez, pour gagner ou perdre la mise? Tout autre appareil
pourrait faire la même chose avec cet argent, mais personne ne
passerait des heures devant un tel appareil, s'il n'était pas pour les
feux étincelants, les images avec des fruits, et l'idée d'un gros
jackpot. Donc, la question qui se pose c'est: qu'est ce qui rend les
machines à sous si attrayantes?
Louis Weigele, le président du Conseil du jeu problématique d'Ohio,
nous offre une explication. Voilà, donc, l'argument d'un psychologue:
Les joueurs sont divisés en deux camps: les joueurs actifs (action
gamblers) et les joueurs "fuyards" (escape gamblers).
Les joueurs actifs sont les personnes qui aiment vraiment jouer, sentir
l'émotion du jeu, affronter d'autres joueurs et défier le hasard. En
général, on les voit sur les pistes des courses, assis aux tables de
poker ou de blackjack.
L'autre grand groupe, dit Weigele, est celui des joueurs "fuyards" qui
passent souvent des heures entières devant une machine à sous vidéo.
"Ils n'aiment pas vraiment jouer, ils jouent simplement pour passer le
temps", estime le psychologue, en parlant des joueurs problématiques.
En fait, les machines à sous ne sont pas de simples appareils. Elles
peuvent évoquer une histoire, le sujet d'un film de succès, une
personnalité. Les jeux sont conçus englobant beaucoup de stimuli, pour
captiver et maintenir l'attention du joueur. Il ne s'agit pas que d'y
mettre de l'argent et attendre. Les joueurs font des choix, recherchent
des combinaisons gagnantes et décident d'augmenter leurs mises ou
d'encaisser le gain.
La participation active est essentielle pour les joueurs. Les joueurs
qui contrôlent physiquement une machine à sous sont susceptibles de
miser plus d'argent que les autres aux paris subsidiaires.
Ajouté dans [31]machine à sous, [32]études | [33]Commentaires (*) »
[34]Nouvelle machine à sous "La Fiesta"
Par corinne en date du 15 juin 2009
Les machines à sous basées sur des thèmes mexicains ont gagné une
grande popularité. Certes, cela a à voir avec la vivacité de la culture
mexicaine et ses symboles faciles à reconnaître. Maintenant, une
nouvelle machine à sous célèbre la culture et la civilisation
mexicaines, à travers des symboles tels que: la piñata, les roses, les
maracas, les trompettes, les guitares et les belles femmes. Les joueurs
qui gardent le son pendant qu'ils jouent auront l'occasion d'écouter de
la musique en style mexicain.
Le jeu compte 5 rouleaux et 25 lignes de paiement. Les paris vont de
0.01$ à 10$, respectant tous les budgets. Même sans disposer d'un
jackpot progressif, La Fiesta offre un jackpot fixé à 10.000$. Celui-ci
est payé lorsque cinq symboles piñata apparaissent sur une ligne
payante active. Pour un pari maximal, le paiement correspondant est de
100.000$.
Mais qu'est-ce qu'une piñata? Une piñata est un jouet mexicain,
d'habitude sous la forme d'un animal. Le symbole piñata de la machine à
sous "La Fiesta" est un cochon. Il fonctionne comme un symbole wild et
peut remplacer tout autre symbole, à l'exception de la rose, qui est un
scatter. Quand il substitue d'autres symboles pour former une
combinaison gagnante, les paiements sont doublés. Si vous avez la
chance de tomber sur une combinaison gagnante avec des symboles piñata,
vous serez les témoins d'un drôle de spectacle: le petit cochon se
mettra à danser devant vous et des feux d'artifices éclateront derrière
lui.
Trois ou plusieurs symboles piñata apparaissant n'importe où sur les
rouleaux déclenchent un jeu bonus. Ceci peut être joué jusqu'à trois
fois.
"La Fiesta" a été lancée par la société Vegas Technology. Le même
fournisseur de logiciels de jeu a créé dernièrement trois autres
machines à sous. Sur le marché des jeux en ligne, La Fiesta concurrence
avec un jackpot progressif - Jackpot Piñata, lancé par Real Time
Gaming.
Ajouté dans [35]machine à sous | [36]Commentaires (*) »
[37]Le groupe Joa lance un casino en ligne
Par corinne en date du 15 juin 2009
Après avoir changé son visage commercial, l'ex groupe Moliflor -
rébaptisé Joa(casinos), se prépare à lancer en France un casino en
ligne. Initiative très courageuse, voire hardie, sur un marché encore
fermé aux sites de jeux.
En effet, tous les grands casinotiers français sont sur le bloc de
départ dans la course qui sera lancée le 1er janvier 2010. Le groupe de
Lucien Barrière a choisi de faire les essais au Royaume-Uni, avec un
site en 3D qui a tout pour remporter des succès. C'est la voie la plus
sage, mais qui n'a pas convenu à Partouche. Impatients, les dirigeants
du groupe n'ont plus attendu la date de l'ouverture officielle du
marché et ont choisi le chemin sans détours. Le groupe offre d'orès et
déjà des services de jeux aux internautes français. L'autre élément de
la "trinité" - Tranchant - est toujours en attente.
Joa ne leur cède en rien. Les prévisions de la future législation
française en domaine concernent les paris sportifs, les courses
hippiques et le poker en ligne. Le sujet des casinos en ligne, avec
toute la suite de jeux qu'on y trouve, reste flou... Mais cela n'a pas
empêché Joa d'agir. Disponible pour le moment en mode démo (mode fun,
avec de l'argent virtuel), Joa-online.com propose des parties de poker,
mais également tous les autres jeux qu'on trouve dans un casino
terrestre.
La course sur le marché en ligne est à peine au début et elle ne sera
pas gagnée d'avance par un acteur ou autre. Le "lifting" subi par l'ex
Moliflor, qui a avalé 2.5 millions d'euros, a été la première étape.
Pour tenir tête à ses forts concurrents, Joa devra innover. Affaire à
suivre.
Ajouté dans [38]casino en ligne | [39]Commentaire »
[40]Mythes et fausses impressions sur les machines à sous
Par corinne en date du 6 janvier 2009
Puisqu'elles sont des jeux de hasard par excellence, les machines à
sous ont laissé créer autour d'elles un complexe de mythes qui essayent
d'expliquer les gains et les pertes. Voilà les plus entendues:
On dit que:
Les meilleures machines à sous sont tenues ensemble dans la salle
Il serait stupide d'un casino de cantonner ses meilleures machines à
sous dans un seul endroit. Celles-ci sont répandues dans la salle, pour
que les gens puissent voir les autres gagner. C'est justement l'une des
principales raisons qui déterminent les gens de jouer plus longtemps.
Voyons: continueriez-vous à jouer s'il n'y avait pas un autour de vous
qui gagne?
Les machines à sous ont des périodes cycliques de gains
Cela ne pourrait pas être plus loin de la vérité. Chaque tournoiement
des rouleaux est aléatoire et ne suit aucun schéma. Si une machine
semble payer plus ou moins à de certains moments, c'est grâce aux
numéros aléatoires générés. Mais ce n'est pas une garantie que tout va
continuer de la même manière pour la prochaine période de temps!
Tirer la manche est mieux qu'appuyer sur le bouton
C'est exactement la même chose, tirer un levier ou appuyer sur un
bouton aboutira toujours au même résultat. Tout ce qu'on fait, dans les
deux cas, est d'envoyer un petit signal électrique pour démarrer le
jeu, donc la façon dont on le fait n'a aucune importance, vous obtenez
toujours le même résultat.
Seulement les machines mécaniques sont des machines à sous véritables
Les slots mécaniques ne sont meilleurs que parce qu'ils peuvent être
trompés. Ils fonctionnent sur le même principe que toute autre machine
à sous. En fait, les machines électroniques offrent de meilleurs
paiements, des jackpots plus élevés, plus de variété dans les jeux,
plus de lignes de paiement et plus de rouleaux. Ces jeux sont
supérieurs aux jeux mécaniques et montrent les avantages de la nouvelle
technologie.
On peut augmenter ses chances en appuyant sur le bouton au bon moment
Même si c'est un peu vrai avec la génération de nombres aléatoires, les
chances d'agir à ce "bon moment" sont à des milliards contre vous. Les
machines à sous génèrent des centaines de nombres aléatoires par
seconde, calculez, donc, vos chances de tomber sur la micro-seconde
gagnante!
Mon slot préféré paie davantage
Tout le monde a, sans doute, une machine à sous préférée sur laquelle
on a gagné. Mais il s'agit toujours de la chance de se trouver là au
moment opportun. Cette même machine qui a offert un prix à quelqu'un a
pris de l'argent de l'autrui. Avoir une machine favorite est une
question de chois, mais assurez-vous que c'est une machine qui
correspond à votre style de jeu. Et renoncez à l'idée qu'elle paie plus
que les autres!
Ajouté dans [41]machine à sous | [42]Commentaires (*) »
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[6]Les super-héros inspirent de nouveau Cryptologic
Par corinne en date du 15 décembre 2009
Cryptologic, l'un des plus populaires développeurs de jeux en ligne,
est surtout connu pour ses jeux issus des adaptations. Avec ses
machines à sous en ligne basées sur des films, des super-héros et
d'autres formes de culture pop, Cryptologic a une empreinte unique sur
les jeux de casino en ligne. Pour bien finir l'année, Cryptologic lance
trois nouvelles machines à sous inspirées du monde du film.
La machine à sous Superman est la première à être lancée. Comme le
héros du même nom, ce jeu possède des capacités surnaturelles. Grâce à
ses 50 lignes de paiement, la machine à sous offre aux joueurs beaucoup
de chances de gagner. Avec les intrigues de la bande dessinée, les
joueurs seront en mesure de s'engager dans la poursuite romantique de
Louis Lane, tout en sauvant Metropolis de la furie de Lex Luthor. Le
nouveau jeu offre aussi aux joueurs des possibilités multiples de
gagner des tours gratuits et des parties bonus.
Le deuxième jeu qui sera propulsé par Cryptologic est Braveheart. Basé
sur le populaire film de Mel Gibson, le jeu racontera l'histoire de la
lutte pour la libération écossaise. Le joueur accumule des points au
fur et à mesure que le combat progresse. Les paiements varient en
fonction des jackpots proposés, qui sont très généreux.
Et, enfin, le jeu le plus insolite de l'ensemble: Forrest Gump. Le
célèbre proverbe "La vie est comme une boîte de chocolats - on ne sait
jamais ce qu'on recevra", ne pouvait être plus vrai. Basé sur le drame
historique, la machine à sous Forrest Gump garantit aux joueurs une
expérience très agréable.
Ajouté dans [7]actualités, [8]jeux casino, [9]machine à sous |
[10]Commentaire »
[11]Les machines à sous connaissent une bonne saison
Par corinne en date du 10 décembre 2009
Les analystes de Wall Street sont revenus de la dernière Global Gaming
Expo avec une vision optimiste sur l'industrie des machines à sous de
Nevada. Il reste à voir si cette attitude se traduit par une croissance
des ventes et des revenus dans le secteur de la fabrication des
matériels de jeu.
Pourtant, les analystes ont indiqué qu'au lendemain de la G2E, les
investisseurs étaient plus optimistes quant aux entreprises de machines
à sous, que jamais auparavant.
"Les opérateurs de casino semblaient plus optimistes en se promenant
dans les salles de l'exposition", a opiné l'analyste Justin Sebastiano
dans une note de recherche. "Nous croyons que cette meilleure humeur
était le résultat d'une combinaison des nouveaux concepts de jeu de
cette année et des budgets plus élevés pour les machines à sous en
2010."
Les fabricants de machines à sous n'ont pas connu des périodes
extrêmement prolifiques cette dernière décennie. Jusqu'en 2005, les
opérateurs de casino ajoutaient des machines à sous utilisant les
tickets TITO ( Ticket-In Ticket-Out). Mais le fléchissement de
l'économie au cours des deux dernières années a déterminé les casinos
d'échanger les anciens jeux pour de nouveaux produits.
L'analyste Todd Eilers de Roth Capital Partners fait connaître que MGM
Mirage et Harrah's Entertainment ont décidé de remplacer en 2010 les
machines à sous de leurs casinos en proportion de 2% jusqu'à 10%. Un
autre complexe (non précisé par Eilers) envisage de remplacer jusqu'à
40% de sa plateforme d'anciennes machines à sous.
"Le signe le plus encourageant cette année est que les exploitants de
casinos cherchaient en fait à acheter des jeux et de la technologie par
rapport à l'année dernière quand ils faisaient simplement une visite à
G2E", a précisé Eilers.
Les deux analystes estiment, d'ailleurs, que les jeux de G2E 2009
étaient de loin supérieurs à ceux proposés au salon il y a un an.
Sebastiano apprécie que les machines à sous de Bally Technologies, WMS
Industries et International Gaming Technology ont été impressionnantes.
"La plupart des investisseurs et des exploitants de casinos ont été
déçus par les jeux présentés à G2E l'an dernier", a déclaré Sebastiano.
"Ce n'est pas de même avec la G2E de cette année. A notre avis,
l'optimisme a été engendré par quelques jeux accrocheurs".
Les fabricants de machines à sous ont présenté plusieurs tendances et
thèmes communs, tels que les jeux en communauté avancés, les jeux Roue
multiple, des graphiques 3D ou des jeux personnalisés.
Ajouté dans [12]actualités, [13]machine à sous | [14]Commentaire »
[15]Une société de Las Vegas crée les machines à sous adaptées au rythme du
joueur
Par corinne en date du 29 septembre 2009
La Commission des Jeux du Nevada a récemment autorisé une société basée
à Las Vegas qui s'emploie à développer des machines à sous d'une
qualité technique supérieure. Ces machines à sous pourront correspondre
aux différents rythmes souhaités par les joueurs.
Pour arriver à respecter le rythme de chaque joueur, le jeu sera doté
d'un programme personnalisé qui suivra la manière de jouer et le temps
que chaque joueur passe devant la machine à sous. Ainsi, la machine
pourrait fonctionner à un rythme plus lent, avec des récompenses moins
élevées pour ceux qui cherchent à jouer plus longtemps. Le slot peut
également fonctionner à un rythme plus rapide et proposer des
récompenses plus élevées.
"Quand les joueurs entrent dans un casino, ils ont une idée assez
précise sur le type de jeu qu'ils veulent jouer, mais personne n'est
capable de leur dire comment trouver le jeu qui leur convient", a
expliqué John Acres, le PDG de Talo Nevada, la société en cause.
"Certains joueurs ne savent même pas ce qu'ils veulent vraiment,
jusqu'à ce qu'ils essaient quelque chose", a ajouté Acres.
Demandé si un programme de jeu personnalisé pourrait modifier le taux
de paiement des machines à sous, Acres a répondu qu'une machine
pourrait offrir des récompenses rapidement ou lentement, tout en
gardant un pourcentage de remboursement programmé.
John Acres, fondateur d'Acres Gaming, est connu pour avoir inventé le
système moderne de suivi du jeu aux machines à sous. Il a également
fondé Gaming Standards Association et a inventé une ligne de vélos.
Acres Gaming est une compagnie spécialisée dans le développement de
concepts et technologies liés au bonus des jeux et au suivi des
machines à sous fabriquées par plusieurs sociétés.
La Commission des Jeux du Nevada a autorisé Talo Nevada en tant que
fabricant et distributeur.
Ajouté dans [16]actualités, [17]machine à sous | [18]Commentaires (*) »
[19]Les casinos de France lancent "Magic Casinos Jackpot"
Par corinne en date du 20 septembre 2009
Pour enrayer la baisse constante de leurs gains et faire face à la
concurrence croissante, les casinos terrestres de France ont adopté une
attitude combative, lançant un jackpot commun. C'est la première fois
dans leur histoire que plus de la moitié des casinos français se
donnent la main pour réaliser un projet d'une telle ampleur.
Pour créer "Magic Casinos Jackpot", 100 des 197 casinos de France,
ainsi que les groupes Barrière, Tranchant, Joa et Eméraude, ont formé
une alliance de conjoncture qui profitera aux joueurs. Seul le groupe
Partouche s'est tenu à l'écart, préférant faire cavalier seul devant la
menace des jeux en ligne et la concurrence des monopoles d'Etat.
Dans les établissements nommés, 331 machines à sous ont été reliées
pour former un réseau national, comparable à la loterie. Les dimensions
du réseau permettra au jackpot d'atteindre même 5 millions d'euros au
moment où il sera décroché.
Le jackpot sera tout le temps affiché sur un bandeau qui surmonte les
machines à sous faisant partie du réseau. Ce n'est pas donc un secret
que le premier jackpot a dépassé 350.000 euros, quelques heures après
son lancement.
L'investissement a coûté 10 millions d'euros. La performance technique
est aussi remarquable, la faisabilité du réseau étant antérieurement
testé à plus petite échelle. Les casinos inclus dans le projet sont
reconnaissables grâce à une inscription "Magic Casinos Jackpot"
affichée sur le mur frontal. Chacun de ces casinos héberge 2 à 8
machines à sous connectées au réseau.
Alors que le domaine casinotier est une profession individualiste par
tradition, les présidents des quatre groupes associés ont salué "une
alliance historique, une grande première".
La démarche devrait aider à revitaliser les casinos frappés par la
crise. Les 197 casinos de France ont enregistré pour leur dernier
exercice une baisse du produit brut des jeux de 8.4% par rapport à
l'exercice antérieur.
La crise ne cesse de toucher notamment le secteur des machines à sous
et c'est à juste raison que les casinotiers ont mis les points sur les
"i", par un projet qui augmente l'attractivité des slots.
Bien qu'il n'ait pas fait front commun avec les autres, le groupe
Partouche a une initiative similaire - Mégapot - qui date d'avant le
projet de ses confrères.
Ajouté dans [20]casino, [21]jackpots, [22]machine à sous |
[23]Commentaire (1) »
[24]Les films de Hollywood inspirent les machines à sous de PartyCasino
Par corinne en date du 2 septembre 2009
PartyCasino a des nouvelles réjouissantes quant à son répertoire de
machines à sous. Le casino a ajouté sur sa liste de jeux des machines à
sous vidéo inspirés des films hollywoodiens. Avec des productions
telles que "The Godfather", "Rambo", "The terminator", "Gone with the
Wind" et de beaux jackpots, ces jeux ont le succès garanti parmi tous
les types de joueurs!
Les nouvelles machines à sous ont 20 lignes de paiement et 5 rouleaux.
La mise minimale est de 0.01 $/£/EUR et les jackpots sont soit fixes
soit progressifs, en fonction du jeu choisi. Les jeux sont dotés de
symboles scatter, wild et des symboles qui déclenchent des tours
gratuits. Pour les jeux qu'ils préfèrent, les clients du casino peuvent
choisir la fonction Auto-play.
Chaque jeu a une fonction spéciale, grâce à laquelle on peut gagner de
l'argent supplémentaire et des tours gratuits. Chaque niveau de ces
jeux bonus a de merveilleux graphismes et engendre autant d'adrénaline
que les films eux-mêmes.
Ajouté dans [25]machine à sous | [26]Commentaire »
[27]Nouvelle machine à sous Wealth Spa lancée par Microgaming
Par corinne en date du 11 août 2009
En accord avec les tendances de l'été, Microgaming lance la nouvelle
machine à sous vidéo Wealth Spa, ce qui démontre, en outre, leur
engagement à l'innovation et au développement des jeux haut de gamme.
Wealth Spa est une machine à sous à 5 rouleaux et 20 lignes de
paiement, avec une offre de bonus portant sur une expérience spa de
luxe. Grâce à un éventail de symboles wild et scatters, le joueur
pourra accumuler des jetons d'or très précieux. Ces jetons ouvriront
une série de bonus sur cinq niveaux, chaque niveau ayant fait l'objet
d'un minutieux processus de design.
Les jetons d'or sont crédités lorsqu'ils apparaissent sur le cinquième
rouleau. Ils peuvent être utilisés pour accéder immédiatement au jeu
bonus ou peuvent être gardés pour atteindre un niveau plus élevé.
L'apparition d'un seul jeton déclenche le premier jeu bonus - Smoothie
Bonus, deux jetons déclenchent le Bonus Hot Stone, trois jetons
occasionnent le jeu bonus Body Wax, tandis que les quatre jetons d'or
apparus sur les rouleaux ouvrent la voie vers le jeu bonus Bath Oil.
Cinq jetons vont déclencher automatiquement le Bonus Massage, pendant
lequel les joueurs peuvent gagner 25 tours gratuits et la chance de
remporter le jackpot.
Roger Raatgever, le chef de direction de Microgaming a commenté: "A
Microgaming, nous cherchons toujours à créer de nouveaux jeux de haute
qualité; l'année passée, nous avons lancé des jeux de casino originaux
tels MySlot et Great Galaxy Grab. Notre dernier jeu Wealth Spa offre
des bonus sur plusieurs niveaux, une qualité des graphiques inégalée et
un jeu vraiment passionnant."
Wealth Spa représente une nouvelle expérience de jeu divertissante,
avec un éventail de paris qui vont de 0,01 à 0,25 par ligne. Pour la
mise minimale, les prix vont jusqu'à 12,500.00 jetons, tandis que les
prix provenus des bonus vont de 2,800.00 à 25,000.00 jetons.
Ajouté dans [28]machine à sous | [29]Commentaires (*) »
[30]Qu'est-ce qui fait l'attrait des machines à sous?
Par corinne en date du 6 août 2009
Avez-vous jamais réfléchi si tout l'arsenal d'une machine à sous - les
images, les sifflets, les personnages, les feux clignotants, la
musique, les boutons - avait quelque chose à voir avec l'argent que
vous y placez, pour gagner ou perdre la mise? Tout autre appareil
pourrait faire la même chose avec cet argent, mais personne ne
passerait des heures devant un tel appareil, s'il n'était pas pour les
feux étincelants, les images avec des fruits, et l'idée d'un gros
jackpot. Donc, la question qui se pose c'est: qu'est ce qui rend les
machines à sous si attrayantes?
Louis Weigele, le président du Conseil du jeu problématique d'Ohio,
nous offre une explication. Voilà, donc, l'argument d'un psychologue:
Les joueurs sont divisés en deux camps: les joueurs actifs (action
gamblers) et les joueurs "fuyards" (escape gamblers).
Les joueurs actifs sont les personnes qui aiment vraiment jouer, sentir
l'émotion du jeu, affronter d'autres joueurs et défier le hasard. En
général, on les voit sur les pistes des courses, assis aux tables de
poker ou de blackjack.
L'autre grand groupe, dit Weigele, est celui des joueurs "fuyards" qui
passent souvent des heures entières devant une machine à sous vidéo.
"Ils n'aiment pas vraiment jouer, ils jouent simplement pour passer le
temps", estime le psychologue, en parlant des joueurs problématiques.
En fait, les machines à sous ne sont pas de simples appareils. Elles
peuvent évoquer une histoire, le sujet d'un film de succès, une
personnalité. Les jeux sont conçus englobant beaucoup de stimuli, pour
captiver et maintenir l'attention du joueur. Il ne s'agit pas que d'y
mettre de l'argent et attendre. Les joueurs font des choix, recherchent
des combinaisons gagnantes et décident d'augmenter leurs mises ou
d'encaisser le gain.
La participation active est essentielle pour les joueurs. Les joueurs
qui contrôlent physiquement une machine à sous sont susceptibles de
miser plus d'argent que les autres aux paris subsidiaires.
Ajouté dans [31]machine à sous, [32]études | [33]Commentaires (*) »
[34]Nouvelle machine à sous "La Fiesta"
Par corinne en date du 15 juin 2009
Les machines à sous basées sur des thèmes mexicains ont gagné une
grande popularité. Certes, cela a à voir avec la vivacité de la culture
mexicaine et ses symboles faciles à reconnaître. Maintenant, une
nouvelle machine à sous célèbre la culture et la civilisation
mexicaines, à travers des symboles tels que: la piñata, les roses, les
maracas, les trompettes, les guitares et les belles femmes. Les joueurs
qui gardent le son pendant qu'ils jouent auront l'occasion d'écouter de
la musique en style mexicain.
Le jeu compte 5 rouleaux et 25 lignes de paiement. Les paris vont de
0.01$ à 10$, respectant tous les budgets. Même sans disposer d'un
jackpot progressif, La Fiesta offre un jackpot fixé à 10.000$. Celui-ci
est payé lorsque cinq symboles piñata apparaissent sur une ligne
payante active. Pour un pari maximal, le paiement correspondant est de
100.000$.
Mais qu'est-ce qu'une piñata? Une piñata est un jouet mexicain,
d'habitude sous la forme d'un animal. Le symbole piñata de la machine à
sous "La Fiesta" est un cochon. Il fonctionne comme un symbole wild et
peut remplacer tout autre symbole, à l'exception de la rose, qui est un
scatter. Quand il substitue d'autres symboles pour former une
combinaison gagnante, les paiements sont doublés. Si vous avez la
chance de tomber sur une combinaison gagnante avec des symboles piñata,
vous serez les témoins d'un drôle de spectacle: le petit cochon se
mettra à danser devant vous et des feux d'artifices éclateront derrière
lui.
Trois ou plusieurs symboles piñata apparaissant n'importe où sur les
rouleaux déclenchent un jeu bonus. Ceci peut être joué jusqu'à trois
fois.
"La Fiesta" a été lancée par la société Vegas Technology. Le même
fournisseur de logiciels de jeu a créé dernièrement trois autres
machines à sous. Sur le marché des jeux en ligne, La Fiesta concurrence
avec un jackpot progressif - Jackpot Piñata, lancé par Real Time
Gaming.
Ajouté dans [35]machine à sous | [36]Commentaires (*) »
[37]Le groupe Joa lance un casino en ligne
Par corinne en date du 15 juin 2009
Après avoir changé son visage commercial, l'ex groupe Moliflor -
rébaptisé Joa(casinos), se prépare à lancer en France un casino en
ligne. Initiative très courageuse, voire hardie, sur un marché encore
fermé aux sites de jeux.
En effet, tous les grands casinotiers français sont sur le bloc de
départ dans la course qui sera lancée le 1er janvier 2010. Le groupe de
Lucien Barrière a choisi de faire les essais au Royaume-Uni, avec un
site en 3D qui a tout pour remporter des succès. C'est la voie la plus
sage, mais qui n'a pas convenu à Partouche. Impatients, les dirigeants
du groupe n'ont plus attendu la date de l'ouverture officielle du
marché et ont choisi le chemin sans détours. Le groupe offre d'orès et
déjà des services de jeux aux internautes français. L'autre élément de
la "trinité" - Tranchant - est toujours en attente.
Joa ne leur cède en rien. Les prévisions de la future législation
française en domaine concernent les paris sportifs, les courses
hippiques et le poker en ligne. Le sujet des casinos en ligne, avec
toute la suite de jeux qu'on y trouve, reste flou... Mais cela n'a pas
empêché Joa d'agir. Disponible pour le moment en mode démo (mode fun,
avec de l'argent virtuel), Joa-online.com propose des parties de poker,
mais également tous les autres jeux qu'on trouve dans un casino
terrestre.
La course sur le marché en ligne est à peine au début et elle ne sera
pas gagnée d'avance par un acteur ou autre. Le "lifting" subi par l'ex
Moliflor, qui a avalé 2.5 millions d'euros, a été la première étape.
Pour tenir tête à ses forts concurrents, Joa devra innover. Affaire à
suivre.
Ajouté dans [38]casino en ligne | [39]Commentaire »
[40]Mythes et fausses impressions sur les machines à sous
Par corinne en date du 6 janvier 2009
Puisqu'elles sont des jeux de hasard par excellence, les machines à
sous ont laissé créer autour d'elles un complexe de mythes qui essayent
d'expliquer les gains et les pertes. Voilà les plus entendues:
On dit que:
Les meilleures machines à sous sont tenues ensemble dans la salle
Il serait stupide d'un casino de cantonner ses meilleures machines à
sous dans un seul endroit. Celles-ci sont répandues dans la salle, pour
que les gens puissent voir les autres gagner. C'est justement l'une des
principales raisons qui déterminent les gens de jouer plus longtemps.
Voyons: continueriez-vous à jouer s'il n'y avait pas un autour de vous
qui gagne?
Les machines à sous ont des périodes cycliques de gains
Cela ne pourrait pas être plus loin de la vérité. Chaque tournoiement
des rouleaux est aléatoire et ne suit aucun schéma. Si une machine
semble payer plus ou moins à de certains moments, c'est grâce aux
numéros aléatoires générés. Mais ce n'est pas une garantie que tout va
continuer de la même manière pour la prochaine période de temps!
Tirer la manche est mieux qu'appuyer sur le bouton
C'est exactement la même chose, tirer un levier ou appuyer sur un
bouton aboutira toujours au même résultat. Tout ce qu'on fait, dans les
deux cas, est d'envoyer un petit signal électrique pour démarrer le
jeu, donc la façon dont on le fait n'a aucune importance, vous obtenez
toujours le même résultat.
Seulement les machines mécaniques sont des machines à sous véritables
Les slots mécaniques ne sont meilleurs que parce qu'ils peuvent être
trompés. Ils fonctionnent sur le même principe que toute autre machine
à sous. En fait, les machines électroniques offrent de meilleurs
paiements, des jackpots plus élevés, plus de variété dans les jeux,
plus de lignes de paiement et plus de rouleaux. Ces jeux sont
supérieurs aux jeux mécaniques et montrent les avantages de la nouvelle
technologie.
On peut augmenter ses chances en appuyant sur le bouton au bon moment
Même si c'est un peu vrai avec la génération de nombres aléatoires, les
chances d'agir à ce "bon moment" sont à des milliards contre vous. Les
machines à sous génèrent des centaines de nombres aléatoires par
seconde, calculez, donc, vos chances de tomber sur la micro-seconde
gagnante!
Mon slot préféré paie davantage
Tout le monde a, sans doute, une machine à sous préférée sur laquelle
on a gagné. Mais il s'agit toujours de la chance de se trouver là au
moment opportun. Cette même machine qui a offert un prix à quelqu'un a
pris de l'argent de l'autrui. Avoir une machine favorite est une
question de chois, mais assurez-vous que c'est une machine qui
correspond à votre style de jeu. Et renoncez à l'idée qu'elle paie plus
que les autres!
Ajouté dans [41]machine à sous | [42]Commentaires (*) »
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Logo Inventeurs Fous
InventeursFous.com, version mobile !
Invention n°68 : Easy Dance Machine
Publiée le 2003-04-18
Note de: 7.9/10
(64 notes)
4 sur 5
Une invention de
[1]Chandon
Je suis très heureux de vous présenter encore une fois une invention
destinée à résoudre un de ces innombrables petits riens qui vous
pourrit la vie. Et l'Easy Dance Machine sonne assurément la fin d'un
des fléaux de la vie sociale : la danse.
Ah, qui n'a pas éprouvé, adolescent(e), l'intense frustation de ne pas
oser aborder quelqu'un qui vous avait tapé dans l'oeil lors d'une
soirée... Mais rien à faire : pas moyen de l'inviter sur la piste, vous
êtes un peu comme un bloc de 2 tonnes de granit à qui on demanderait de
danser le limbo... Si seulement vous aviez le sens du rythme ! Et pas
question de passer pour ridicule devant tous vos soi-disant amis qui
n'attendent que ça pour vous chambrer ! Il doit pourtant bien y avoir
un moyen, nom de nom !!!
[edm2.jpg]
Et oui, l'Easy Dance Machine est un dispositif d'aide à la danse, se
composant d'électrodes à coller sur les muscles des jambes, reliées à
un petit appareil style pager que l'on accroche à la ceinture qui
contient les commandes.
Lors d'une danse, l'appareil va délivrer automatiquement des impulsions
électriques aux muscles des jambes, les faisant bouger au rythme de la
musique (un peu comme les spots lumineux). Ainsi, plus besoin de passer
de longues heures à apprendre à danser : avec le EDM, 5 mn de mise en
place, et à vous les joies de la danse !
Pour aller un peu plus dans le détail, rappelez vous cet ingénieur
français Cristophe Cayrol qui a inventé un appareil destiné à repérer
les mines et à faire dévier instantanément la jambe pour éviter de
marcher dessus. Vous y êtes ? Bon, maintenant rappellez vous le
téléshopping d'hier où il y avait la nana avec ses électrodes pour
faire maigrir. Vous visualisez ? Bon, et bien prenez le tout, secouez
dans un sac, et servez chaud.
Détail de l'appareil :
Celui-ci se compose d'un petit boitier de commande relié à 3 séries
d'électrodes : une pour vérifier la fréquence cardiaque, et 2 x 8 à
positionner sur chaque jambe, sur les muscles indiqués dans la notice.
L'ordinateur embarqué reçoit le rythme de la musique via un micro,
analyse le signal sonore et le converti en impulsions électriques, une
fois identifié le type de danse (815 tempos différents sont embarqués,
ce qui prend environ 0,02 sec à l'ordinateur pour se caler).
[edm1.jpg]
1. ventouse en matériau anti-allergénique contenant l'électrode, à
placer sur le muscle
2. cable transportant le flux électrique, isolé, avec gaîne en kevlar
3. capteur relié à l'électrode, délivrant les impulsions électriques
en fonction du signal émis
4. écran à cristaux liquides rétro-éclairé, contenant les informations
suivantes :
- rythme cardiaque (fonction d'alerte suivant un seuil
paramétrable)
- témoin de charge. La batterie lithium/ion vous permet de danser
environ 2 heures
- durée de danse
- rythme/intensité de danse sous forme de graphique
5. bouton marche/arrêt ergonomique
6. molette de contrôle de l'intensité du signal électrique fourni.
Suivant les individus, la réaction à l'intensité peut varier.
7. micro enregistrant le rythme et le restituant sous forme de signaux
électriques à l'ordinateur embarqué
8. batterie lithium/ion
9. molette de contrôle du rythme. Par défaut, le rythme généré est
automatiquement calqué sur celui reçu par le micro. Néanmoins, pour
des raisons de confort, vous pouvez vous même faire varier ce
rythme selon vos besoins.
10. trappe de sortie du cablage électrique. Tout le circuit électrique
est bien entendu isolé et résistant aux frottements ainsi qu'à
l'humidité ambiante.
11. clip permettant d'accrocher le boitier de contrôle à la ceinture, à
l'instar d'un téléphone portable.
La boîte contient :
- 17 électrodes souples à coller sur des endroits précis
- boitier de commande avec écran à cristaux liquides
- notice d'installation pour la pose des électrodes
- un cd de test pour s'entrainer chez soi avant le grand soir.
ATTENTION !
Ne pas oublier d'éteindre l'appareil entre 2 danses : imaginez, vous
avez fini une danse, et vous allez servir un punch à votre cavalièr(e).
Hélas, la musique reprend au moment où vous lui donnez le verre, et
vous n'aviez pas coupé l'appareil ! Catastrophe ! Vous vous remettez à
danser instantanément, renversant du punch de partout, et en
particulier sur la zoulie robe de soirée de la dame (ou le costume du
gars, au choix)!
Plus class, ne coupez pas l'appareil mais mettez le sur 'intensity
low'. Vous garderez légèrement le rythme, style le type méga cool qui
ne peut s'empêcher de danser en entendant de la musique. Effet assuré !
De plus, l'EDM possède une double fonction, puisque qu'il muscle dans
le même temps vos jambes ! A vous les jambes galbées et musclées, sans
effort !
Au fait, n'oubliez pas de bouger le haut du corps en rythme, pour ne
pas avoir trop l'air d'une marionnette...
Une future version 'Luxe' est prévue avec un système de cartes mémoire
pouvant s'insérer sur l'appareil. Ces cartes seront chargées avec un
style de danse (par exemple la carte "Michael Jackson" ou la carte
"John Travolta") et vous permettront de danser "à la manière de" sur
tous les rythmes.
Vous pourrez vous échanger ainsi les cartes, les collectionner...(il
est prévu quelques cartes rares comme la mythique carte "Yvette Horner"
ou la carte "Patrick Hernandez")
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[6]Les super-héros inspirent de nouveau Cryptologic
Par corinne en date du 15 décembre 2009
Cryptologic, l'un des plus populaires développeurs de jeux en ligne,
est surtout connu pour ses jeux issus des adaptations. Avec ses
machines à sous en ligne basées sur des films, des super-héros et
d'autres formes de culture pop, Cryptologic a une empreinte unique sur
les jeux de casino en ligne. Pour bien finir l'année, Cryptologic lance
trois nouvelles machines à sous inspirées du monde du film.
La machine à sous Superman est la première à être lancée. Comme le
héros du même nom, ce jeu possède des capacités surnaturelles. Grâce à
ses 50 lignes de paiement, la machine à sous offre aux joueurs beaucoup
de chances de gagner. Avec les intrigues de la bande dessinée, les
joueurs seront en mesure de s'engager dans la poursuite romantique de
Louis Lane, tout en sauvant Metropolis de la furie de Lex Luthor. Le
nouveau jeu offre aussi aux joueurs des possibilités multiples de
gagner des tours gratuits et des parties bonus.
Le deuxième jeu qui sera propulsé par Cryptologic est Braveheart. Basé
sur le populaire film de Mel Gibson, le jeu racontera l'histoire de la
lutte pour la libération écossaise. Le joueur accumule des points au
fur et à mesure que le combat progresse. Les paiements varient en
fonction des jackpots proposés, qui sont très généreux.
Et, enfin, le jeu le plus insolite de l'ensemble: Forrest Gump. Le
célèbre proverbe "La vie est comme une boîte de chocolats - on ne sait
jamais ce qu'on recevra", ne pouvait être plus vrai. Basé sur le drame
historique, la machine à sous Forrest Gump garantit aux joueurs une
expérience très agréable.
Ajouté dans [7]actualités, [8]jeux casino, [9]machine à sous |
[10]Commentaire »
[11]Les machines à sous connaissent une bonne saison
Par corinne en date du 10 décembre 2009
Les analystes de Wall Street sont revenus de la dernière Global Gaming
Expo avec une vision optimiste sur l'industrie des machines à sous de
Nevada. Il reste à voir si cette attitude se traduit par une croissance
des ventes et des revenus dans le secteur de la fabrication des
matériels de jeu.
Pourtant, les analystes ont indiqué qu'au lendemain de la G2E, les
investisseurs étaient plus optimistes quant aux entreprises de machines
à sous, que jamais auparavant.
"Les opérateurs de casino semblaient plus optimistes en se promenant
dans les salles de l'exposition", a opiné l'analyste Justin Sebastiano
dans une note de recherche. "Nous croyons que cette meilleure humeur
était le résultat d'une combinaison des nouveaux concepts de jeu de
cette année et des budgets plus élevés pour les machines à sous en
2010."
Les fabricants de machines à sous n'ont pas connu des périodes
extrêmement prolifiques cette dernière décennie. Jusqu'en 2005, les
opérateurs de casino ajoutaient des machines à sous utilisant les
tickets TITO ( Ticket-In Ticket-Out). Mais le fléchissement de
l'économie au cours des deux dernières années a déterminé les casinos
d'échanger les anciens jeux pour de nouveaux produits.
L'analyste Todd Eilers de Roth Capital Partners fait connaître que MGM
Mirage et Harrah's Entertainment ont décidé de remplacer en 2010 les
machines à sous de leurs casinos en proportion de 2% jusqu'à 10%. Un
autre complexe (non précisé par Eilers) envisage de remplacer jusqu'à
40% de sa plateforme d'anciennes machines à sous.
"Le signe le plus encourageant cette année est que les exploitants de
casinos cherchaient en fait à acheter des jeux et de la technologie par
rapport à l'année dernière quand ils faisaient simplement une visite à
G2E", a précisé Eilers.
Les deux analystes estiment, d'ailleurs, que les jeux de G2E 2009
étaient de loin supérieurs à ceux proposés au salon il y a un an.
Sebastiano apprécie que les machines à sous de Bally Technologies, WMS
Industries et International Gaming Technology ont été impressionnantes.
"La plupart des investisseurs et des exploitants de casinos ont été
déçus par les jeux présentés à G2E l'an dernier", a déclaré Sebastiano.
"Ce n'est pas de même avec la G2E de cette année. A notre avis,
l'optimisme a été engendré par quelques jeux accrocheurs".
Les fabricants de machines à sous ont présenté plusieurs tendances et
thèmes communs, tels que les jeux en communauté avancés, les jeux Roue
multiple, des graphiques 3D ou des jeux personnalisés.
Ajouté dans [12]actualités, [13]machine à sous | [14]Commentaire »
[15]Une société de Las Vegas crée les machines à sous adaptées au rythme du
joueur
Par corinne en date du 29 septembre 2009
La Commission des Jeux du Nevada a récemment autorisé une société basée
à Las Vegas qui s'emploie à développer des machines à sous d'une
qualité technique supérieure. Ces machines à sous pourront correspondre
aux différents rythmes souhaités par les joueurs.
Pour arriver à respecter le rythme de chaque joueur, le jeu sera doté
d'un programme personnalisé qui suivra la manière de jouer et le temps
que chaque joueur passe devant la machine à sous. Ainsi, la machine
pourrait fonctionner à un rythme plus lent, avec des récompenses moins
élevées pour ceux qui cherchent à jouer plus longtemps. Le slot peut
également fonctionner à un rythme plus rapide et proposer des
récompenses plus élevées.
"Quand les joueurs entrent dans un casino, ils ont une idée assez
précise sur le type de jeu qu'ils veulent jouer, mais personne n'est
capable de leur dire comment trouver le jeu qui leur convient", a
expliqué John Acres, le PDG de Talo Nevada, la société en cause.
"Certains joueurs ne savent même pas ce qu'ils veulent vraiment,
jusqu'à ce qu'ils essaient quelque chose", a ajouté Acres.
Demandé si un programme de jeu personnalisé pourrait modifier le taux
de paiement des machines à sous, Acres a répondu qu'une machine
pourrait offrir des récompenses rapidement ou lentement, tout en
gardant un pourcentage de remboursement programmé.
John Acres, fondateur d'Acres Gaming, est connu pour avoir inventé le
système moderne de suivi du jeu aux machines à sous. Il a également
fondé Gaming Standards Association et a inventé une ligne de vélos.
Acres Gaming est une compagnie spécialisée dans le développement de
concepts et technologies liés au bonus des jeux et au suivi des
machines à sous fabriquées par plusieurs sociétés.
La Commission des Jeux du Nevada a autorisé Talo Nevada en tant que
fabricant et distributeur.
Ajouté dans [16]actualités, [17]machine à sous | [18]Commentaires (*) »
[19]Les casinos de France lancent "Magic Casinos Jackpot"
Par corinne en date du 20 septembre 2009
Pour enrayer la baisse constante de leurs gains et faire face à la
concurrence croissante, les casinos terrestres de France ont adopté une
attitude combative, lançant un jackpot commun. C'est la première fois
dans leur histoire que plus de la moitié des casinos français se
donnent la main pour réaliser un projet d'une telle ampleur.
Pour créer "Magic Casinos Jackpot", 100 des 197 casinos de France,
ainsi que les groupes Barrière, Tranchant, Joa et Eméraude, ont formé
une alliance de conjoncture qui profitera aux joueurs. Seul le groupe
Partouche s'est tenu à l'écart, préférant faire cavalier seul devant la
menace des jeux en ligne et la concurrence des monopoles d'Etat.
Dans les établissements nommés, 331 machines à sous ont été reliées
pour former un réseau national, comparable à la loterie. Les dimensions
du réseau permettra au jackpot d'atteindre même 5 millions d'euros au
moment où il sera décroché.
Le jackpot sera tout le temps affiché sur un bandeau qui surmonte les
machines à sous faisant partie du réseau. Ce n'est pas donc un secret
que le premier jackpot a dépassé 350.000 euros, quelques heures après
son lancement.
L'investissement a coûté 10 millions d'euros. La performance technique
est aussi remarquable, la faisabilité du réseau étant antérieurement
testé à plus petite échelle. Les casinos inclus dans le projet sont
reconnaissables grâce à une inscription "Magic Casinos Jackpot"
affichée sur le mur frontal. Chacun de ces casinos héberge 2 à 8
machines à sous connectées au réseau.
Alors que le domaine casinotier est une profession individualiste par
tradition, les présidents des quatre groupes associés ont salué "une
alliance historique, une grande première".
La démarche devrait aider à revitaliser les casinos frappés par la
crise. Les 197 casinos de France ont enregistré pour leur dernier
exercice une baisse du produit brut des jeux de 8.4% par rapport à
l'exercice antérieur.
La crise ne cesse de toucher notamment le secteur des machines à sous
et c'est à juste raison que les casinotiers ont mis les points sur les
"i", par un projet qui augmente l'attractivité des slots.
Bien qu'il n'ait pas fait front commun avec les autres, le groupe
Partouche a une initiative similaire - Mégapot - qui date d'avant le
projet de ses confrères.
Ajouté dans [20]casino, [21]jackpots, [22]machine à sous |
[23]Commentaire (1) »
[24]Les films de Hollywood inspirent les machines à sous de PartyCasino
Par corinne en date du 2 septembre 2009
PartyCasino a des nouvelles réjouissantes quant à son répertoire de
machines à sous. Le casino a ajouté sur sa liste de jeux des machines à
sous vidéo inspirés des films hollywoodiens. Avec des productions
telles que "The Godfather", "Rambo", "The terminator", "Gone with the
Wind" et de beaux jackpots, ces jeux ont le succès garanti parmi tous
les types de joueurs!
Les nouvelles machines à sous ont 20 lignes de paiement et 5 rouleaux.
La mise minimale est de 0.01 $/£/EUR et les jackpots sont soit fixes
soit progressifs, en fonction du jeu choisi. Les jeux sont dotés de
symboles scatter, wild et des symboles qui déclenchent des tours
gratuits. Pour les jeux qu'ils préfèrent, les clients du casino peuvent
choisir la fonction Auto-play.
Chaque jeu a une fonction spéciale, grâce à laquelle on peut gagner de
l'argent supplémentaire et des tours gratuits. Chaque niveau de ces
jeux bonus a de merveilleux graphismes et engendre autant d'adrénaline
que les films eux-mêmes.
Ajouté dans [25]machine à sous | [26]Commentaire »
[27]Nouvelle machine à sous Wealth Spa lancée par Microgaming
Par corinne en date du 11 août 2009
En accord avec les tendances de l'été, Microgaming lance la nouvelle
machine à sous vidéo Wealth Spa, ce qui démontre, en outre, leur
engagement à l'innovation et au développement des jeux haut de gamme.
Wealth Spa est une machine à sous à 5 rouleaux et 20 lignes de
paiement, avec une offre de bonus portant sur une expérience spa de
luxe. Grâce à un éventail de symboles wild et scatters, le joueur
pourra accumuler des jetons d'or très précieux. Ces jetons ouvriront
une série de bonus sur cinq niveaux, chaque niveau ayant fait l'objet
d'un minutieux processus de design.
Les jetons d'or sont crédités lorsqu'ils apparaissent sur le cinquième
rouleau. Ils peuvent être utilisés pour accéder immédiatement au jeu
bonus ou peuvent être gardés pour atteindre un niveau plus élevé.
L'apparition d'un seul jeton déclenche le premier jeu bonus - Smoothie
Bonus, deux jetons déclenchent le Bonus Hot Stone, trois jetons
occasionnent le jeu bonus Body Wax, tandis que les quatre jetons d'or
apparus sur les rouleaux ouvrent la voie vers le jeu bonus Bath Oil.
Cinq jetons vont déclencher automatiquement le Bonus Massage, pendant
lequel les joueurs peuvent gagner 25 tours gratuits et la chance de
remporter le jackpot.
Roger Raatgever, le chef de direction de Microgaming a commenté: "A
Microgaming, nous cherchons toujours à créer de nouveaux jeux de haute
qualité; l'année passée, nous avons lancé des jeux de casino originaux
tels MySlot et Great Galaxy Grab. Notre dernier jeu Wealth Spa offre
des bonus sur plusieurs niveaux, une qualité des graphiques inégalée et
un jeu vraiment passionnant."
Wealth Spa représente une nouvelle expérience de jeu divertissante,
avec un éventail de paris qui vont de 0,01 à 0,25 par ligne. Pour la
mise minimale, les prix vont jusqu'à 12,500.00 jetons, tandis que les
prix provenus des bonus vont de 2,800.00 à 25,000.00 jetons.
Ajouté dans [28]machine à sous | [29]Commentaires (*) »
[30]Qu'est-ce qui fait l'attrait des machines à sous?
Par corinne en date du 6 août 2009
Avez-vous jamais réfléchi si tout l'arsenal d'une machine à sous - les
images, les sifflets, les personnages, les feux clignotants, la
musique, les boutons - avait quelque chose à voir avec l'argent que
vous y placez, pour gagner ou perdre la mise? Tout autre appareil
pourrait faire la même chose avec cet argent, mais personne ne
passerait des heures devant un tel appareil, s'il n'était pas pour les
feux étincelants, les images avec des fruits, et l'idée d'un gros
jackpot. Donc, la question qui se pose c'est: qu'est ce qui rend les
machines à sous si attrayantes?
Louis Weigele, le président du Conseil du jeu problématique d'Ohio,
nous offre une explication. Voilà, donc, l'argument d'un psychologue:
Les joueurs sont divisés en deux camps: les joueurs actifs (action
gamblers) et les joueurs "fuyards" (escape gamblers).
Les joueurs actifs sont les personnes qui aiment vraiment jouer, sentir
l'émotion du jeu, affronter d'autres joueurs et défier le hasard. En
général, on les voit sur les pistes des courses, assis aux tables de
poker ou de blackjack.
L'autre grand groupe, dit Weigele, est celui des joueurs "fuyards" qui
passent souvent des heures entières devant une machine à sous vidéo.
"Ils n'aiment pas vraiment jouer, ils jouent simplement pour passer le
temps", estime le psychologue, en parlant des joueurs problématiques.
En fait, les machines à sous ne sont pas de simples appareils. Elles
peuvent évoquer une histoire, le sujet d'un film de succès, une
personnalité. Les jeux sont conçus englobant beaucoup de stimuli, pour
captiver et maintenir l'attention du joueur. Il ne s'agit pas que d'y
mettre de l'argent et attendre. Les joueurs font des choix, recherchent
des combinaisons gagnantes et décident d'augmenter leurs mises ou
d'encaisser le gain.
La participation active est essentielle pour les joueurs. Les joueurs
qui contrôlent physiquement une machine à sous sont susceptibles de
miser plus d'argent que les autres aux paris subsidiaires.
Ajouté dans [31]machine à sous, [32]études | [33]Commentaires (*) »
[34]Nouvelle machine à sous "La Fiesta"
Par corinne en date du 15 juin 2009
Les machines à sous basées sur des thèmes mexicains ont gagné une
grande popularité. Certes, cela a à voir avec la vivacité de la culture
mexicaine et ses symboles faciles à reconnaître. Maintenant, une
nouvelle machine à sous célèbre la culture et la civilisation
mexicaines, à travers des symboles tels que: la piñata, les roses, les
maracas, les trompettes, les guitares et les belles femmes. Les joueurs
qui gardent le son pendant qu'ils jouent auront l'occasion d'écouter de
la musique en style mexicain.
Le jeu compte 5 rouleaux et 25 lignes de paiement. Les paris vont de
0.01$ à 10$, respectant tous les budgets. Même sans disposer d'un
jackpot progressif, La Fiesta offre un jackpot fixé à 10.000$. Celui-ci
est payé lorsque cinq symboles piñata apparaissent sur une ligne
payante active. Pour un pari maximal, le paiement correspondant est de
100.000$.
Mais qu'est-ce qu'une piñata? Une piñata est un jouet mexicain,
d'habitude sous la forme d'un animal. Le symbole piñata de la machine à
sous "La Fiesta" est un cochon. Il fonctionne comme un symbole wild et
peut remplacer tout autre symbole, à l'exception de la rose, qui est un
scatter. Quand il substitue d'autres symboles pour former une
combinaison gagnante, les paiements sont doublés. Si vous avez la
chance de tomber sur une combinaison gagnante avec des symboles piñata,
vous serez les témoins d'un drôle de spectacle: le petit cochon se
mettra à danser devant vous et des feux d'artifices éclateront derrière
lui.
Trois ou plusieurs symboles piñata apparaissant n'importe où sur les
rouleaux déclenchent un jeu bonus. Ceci peut être joué jusqu'à trois
fois.
"La Fiesta" a été lancée par la société Vegas Technology. Le même
fournisseur de logiciels de jeu a créé dernièrement trois autres
machines à sous. Sur le marché des jeux en ligne, La Fiesta concurrence
avec un jackpot progressif - Jackpot Piñata, lancé par Real Time
Gaming.
Ajouté dans [35]machine à sous | [36]Commentaires (*) »
[37]Le groupe Joa lance un casino en ligne
Par corinne en date du 15 juin 2009
Après avoir changé son visage commercial, l'ex groupe Moliflor -
rébaptisé Joa(casinos), se prépare à lancer en France un casino en
ligne. Initiative très courageuse, voire hardie, sur un marché encore
fermé aux sites de jeux.
En effet, tous les grands casinotiers français sont sur le bloc de
départ dans la course qui sera lancée le 1er janvier 2010. Le groupe de
Lucien Barrière a choisi de faire les essais au Royaume-Uni, avec un
site en 3D qui a tout pour remporter des succès. C'est la voie la plus
sage, mais qui n'a pas convenu à Partouche. Impatients, les dirigeants
du groupe n'ont plus attendu la date de l'ouverture officielle du
marché et ont choisi le chemin sans détours. Le groupe offre d'orès et
déjà des services de jeux aux internautes français. L'autre élément de
la "trinité" - Tranchant - est toujours en attente.
Joa ne leur cède en rien. Les prévisions de la future législation
française en domaine concernent les paris sportifs, les courses
hippiques et le poker en ligne. Le sujet des casinos en ligne, avec
toute la suite de jeux qu'on y trouve, reste flou... Mais cela n'a pas
empêché Joa d'agir. Disponible pour le moment en mode démo (mode fun,
avec de l'argent virtuel), Joa-online.com propose des parties de poker,
mais également tous les autres jeux qu'on trouve dans un casino
terrestre.
La course sur le marché en ligne est à peine au début et elle ne sera
pas gagnée d'avance par un acteur ou autre. Le "lifting" subi par l'ex
Moliflor, qui a avalé 2.5 millions d'euros, a été la première étape.
Pour tenir tête à ses forts concurrents, Joa devra innover. Affaire à
suivre.
Ajouté dans [38]casino en ligne | [39]Commentaire »
[40]Mythes et fausses impressions sur les machines à sous
Par corinne en date du 6 janvier 2009
Puisqu'elles sont des jeux de hasard par excellence, les machines à
sous ont laissé créer autour d'elles un complexe de mythes qui essayent
d'expliquer les gains et les pertes. Voilà les plus entendues:
On dit que:
Les meilleures machines à sous sont tenues ensemble dans la salle
Il serait stupide d'un casino de cantonner ses meilleures machines à
sous dans un seul endroit. Celles-ci sont répandues dans la salle, pour
que les gens puissent voir les autres gagner. C'est justement l'une des
principales raisons qui déterminent les gens de jouer plus longtemps.
Voyons: continueriez-vous à jouer s'il n'y avait pas un autour de vous
qui gagne?
Les machines à sous ont des périodes cycliques de gains
Cela ne pourrait pas être plus loin de la vérité. Chaque tournoiement
des rouleaux est aléatoire et ne suit aucun schéma. Si une machine
semble payer plus ou moins à de certains moments, c'est grâce aux
numéros aléatoires générés. Mais ce n'est pas une garantie que tout va
continuer de la même manière pour la prochaine période de temps!
Tirer la manche est mieux qu'appuyer sur le bouton
C'est exactement la même chose, tirer un levier ou appuyer sur un
bouton aboutira toujours au même résultat. Tout ce qu'on fait, dans les
deux cas, est d'envoyer un petit signal électrique pour démarrer le
jeu, donc la façon dont on le fait n'a aucune importance, vous obtenez
toujours le même résultat.
Seulement les machines mécaniques sont des machines à sous véritables
Les slots mécaniques ne sont meilleurs que parce qu'ils peuvent être
trompés. Ils fonctionnent sur le même principe que toute autre machine
à sous. En fait, les machines électroniques offrent de meilleurs
paiements, des jackpots plus élevés, plus de variété dans les jeux,
plus de lignes de paiement et plus de rouleaux. Ces jeux sont
supérieurs aux jeux mécaniques et montrent les avantages de la nouvelle
technologie.
On peut augmenter ses chances en appuyant sur le bouton au bon moment
Même si c'est un peu vrai avec la génération de nombres aléatoires, les
chances d'agir à ce "bon moment" sont à des milliards contre vous. Les
machines à sous génèrent des centaines de nombres aléatoires par
seconde, calculez, donc, vos chances de tomber sur la micro-seconde
gagnante!
Mon slot préféré paie davantage
Tout le monde a, sans doute, une machine à sous préférée sur laquelle
on a gagné. Mais il s'agit toujours de la chance de se trouver là au
moment opportun. Cette même machine qui a offert un prix à quelqu'un a
pris de l'argent de l'autrui. Avoir une machine favorite est une
question de chois, mais assurez-vous que c'est une machine qui
correspond à votre style de jeu. Et renoncez à l'idée qu'elle paie plus
que les autres!
Ajouté dans [41]machine à sous | [42]Commentaires (*) »
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Logo Inventeurs Fous
InventeursFous.com, version mobile !
Invention n°68 : Easy Dance Machine
Publiée le 2003-04-18
Note de: 7.9/10
(64 notes)
4 sur 5
Une invention de
[1]Chandon
Je suis très heureux de vous présenter encore une fois une invention
destinée à résoudre un de ces innombrables petits riens qui vous
pourrit la vie. Et l'Easy Dance Machine sonne assurément la fin d'un
des fléaux de la vie sociale : la danse.
Ah, qui n'a pas éprouvé, adolescent(e), l'intense frustation de ne pas
oser aborder quelqu'un qui vous avait tapé dans l'oeil lors d'une
soirée... Mais rien à faire : pas moyen de l'inviter sur la piste, vous
êtes un peu comme un bloc de 2 tonnes de granit à qui on demanderait de
danser le limbo... Si seulement vous aviez le sens du rythme ! Et pas
question de passer pour ridicule devant tous vos soi-disant amis qui
n'attendent que ça pour vous chambrer ! Il doit pourtant bien y avoir
un moyen, nom de nom !!!
[edm2.jpg]
Et oui, l'Easy Dance Machine est un dispositif d'aide à la danse, se
composant d'électrodes à coller sur les muscles des jambes, reliées à
un petit appareil style pager que l'on accroche à la ceinture qui
contient les commandes.
Lors d'une danse, l'appareil va délivrer automatiquement des impulsions
électriques aux muscles des jambes, les faisant bouger au rythme de la
musique (un peu comme les spots lumineux). Ainsi, plus besoin de passer
de longues heures à apprendre à danser : avec le EDM, 5 mn de mise en
place, et à vous les joies de la danse !
Pour aller un peu plus dans le détail, rappelez vous cet ingénieur
français Cristophe Cayrol qui a inventé un appareil destiné à repérer
les mines et à faire dévier instantanément la jambe pour éviter de
marcher dessus. Vous y êtes ? Bon, maintenant rappellez vous le
téléshopping d'hier où il y avait la nana avec ses électrodes pour
faire maigrir. Vous visualisez ? Bon, et bien prenez le tout, secouez
dans un sac, et servez chaud.
Détail de l'appareil :
Celui-ci se compose d'un petit boitier de commande relié à 3 séries
d'électrodes : une pour vérifier la fréquence cardiaque, et 2 x 8 à
positionner sur chaque jambe, sur les muscles indiqués dans la notice.
L'ordinateur embarqué reçoit le rythme de la musique via un micro,
analyse le signal sonore et le converti en impulsions électriques, une
fois identifié le type de danse (815 tempos différents sont embarqués,
ce qui prend environ 0,02 sec à l'ordinateur pour se caler).
[edm1.jpg]
1. ventouse en matériau anti-allergénique contenant l'électrode, à
placer sur le muscle
2. cable transportant le flux électrique, isolé, avec gaîne en kevlar
3. capteur relié à l'électrode, délivrant les impulsions électriques
en fonction du signal émis
4. écran à cristaux liquides rétro-éclairé, contenant les informations
suivantes :
- rythme cardiaque (fonction d'alerte suivant un seuil
paramétrable)
- témoin de charge. La batterie lithium/ion vous permet de danser
environ 2 heures
- durée de danse
- rythme/intensité de danse sous forme de graphique
5. bouton marche/arrêt ergonomique
6. molette de contrôle de l'intensité du signal électrique fourni.
Suivant les individus, la réaction à l'intensité peut varier.
7. micro enregistrant le rythme et le restituant sous forme de signaux
électriques à l'ordinateur embarqué
8. batterie lithium/ion
9. molette de contrôle du rythme. Par défaut, le rythme généré est
automatiquement calqué sur celui reçu par le micro. Néanmoins, pour
des raisons de confort, vous pouvez vous même faire varier ce
rythme selon vos besoins.
10. trappe de sortie du cablage électrique. Tout le circuit électrique
est bien entendu isolé et résistant aux frottements ainsi qu'à
l'humidité ambiante.
11. clip permettant d'accrocher le boitier de contrôle à la ceinture, à
l'instar d'un téléphone portable.
La boîte contient :
- 17 électrodes souples à coller sur des endroits précis
- boitier de commande avec écran à cristaux liquides
- notice d'installation pour la pose des électrodes
- un cd de test pour s'entrainer chez soi avant le grand soir.
ATTENTION !
Ne pas oublier d'éteindre l'appareil entre 2 danses : imaginez, vous
avez fini une danse, et vous allez servir un punch à votre cavalièr(e).
Hélas, la musique reprend au moment où vous lui donnez le verre, et
vous n'aviez pas coupé l'appareil ! Catastrophe ! Vous vous remettez à
danser instantanément, renversant du punch de partout, et en
particulier sur la zoulie robe de soirée de la dame (ou le costume du
gars, au choix)!
Plus class, ne coupez pas l'appareil mais mettez le sur 'intensity
low'. Vous garderez légèrement le rythme, style le type méga cool qui
ne peut s'empêcher de danser en entendant de la musique. Effet assuré !
De plus, l'EDM possède une double fonction, puisque qu'il muscle dans
le même temps vos jambes ! A vous les jambes galbées et musclées, sans
effort !
Au fait, n'oubliez pas de bouger le haut du corps en rythme, pour ne
pas avoir trop l'air d'une marionnette...
Une future version 'Luxe' est prévue avec un système de cartes mémoire
pouvant s'insérer sur l'appareil. Ces cartes seront chargées avec un
style de danse (par exemple la carte "Michael Jackson" ou la carte
"John Travolta") et vous permettront de danser "à la manière de" sur
tous les rythmes.
Vous pourrez vous échanger ainsi les cartes, les collectionner...(il
est prévu quelques cartes rares comme la mythique carte "Yvette Horner"
ou la carte "Patrick Hernandez")
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#[1]jeux machine à sous et casino gratuit RSS Feed
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[6]Les super-héros inspirent de nouveau Cryptologic
Par corinne en date du 15 décembre 2009
Cryptologic, l'un des plus populaires développeurs de jeux en ligne,
est surtout connu pour ses jeux issus des adaptations. Avec ses
machines à sous en ligne basées sur des films, des super-héros et
d'autres formes de culture pop, Cryptologic a une empreinte unique sur
les jeux de casino en ligne. Pour bien finir l'année, Cryptologic lance
trois nouvelles machines à sous inspirées du monde du film.
La machine à sous Superman est la première à être lancée. Comme le
héros du même nom, ce jeu possède des capacités surnaturelles. Grâce à
ses 50 lignes de paiement, la machine à sous offre aux joueurs beaucoup
de chances de gagner. Avec les intrigues de la bande dessinée, les
joueurs seront en mesure de s'engager dans la poursuite romantique de
Louis Lane, tout en sauvant Metropolis de la furie de Lex Luthor. Le
nouveau jeu offre aussi aux joueurs des possibilités multiples de
gagner des tours gratuits et des parties bonus.
Le deuxième jeu qui sera propulsé par Cryptologic est Braveheart. Basé
sur le populaire film de Mel Gibson, le jeu racontera l'histoire de la
lutte pour la libération écossaise. Le joueur accumule des points au
fur et à mesure que le combat progresse. Les paiements varient en
fonction des jackpots proposés, qui sont très généreux.
Et, enfin, le jeu le plus insolite de l'ensemble: Forrest Gump. Le
célèbre proverbe "La vie est comme une boîte de chocolats - on ne sait
jamais ce qu'on recevra", ne pouvait être plus vrai. Basé sur le drame
historique, la machine à sous Forrest Gump garantit aux joueurs une
expérience très agréable.
Ajouté dans [7]actualités, [8]jeux casino, [9]machine à sous |
[10]Commentaire »
[11]Les machines à sous connaissent une bonne saison
Par corinne en date du 10 décembre 2009
Les analystes de Wall Street sont revenus de la dernière Global Gaming
Expo avec une vision optimiste sur l'industrie des machines à sous de
Nevada. Il reste à voir si cette attitude se traduit par une croissance
des ventes et des revenus dans le secteur de la fabrication des
matériels de jeu.
Pourtant, les analystes ont indiqué qu'au lendemain de la G2E, les
investisseurs étaient plus optimistes quant aux entreprises de machines
à sous, que jamais auparavant.
"Les opérateurs de casino semblaient plus optimistes en se promenant
dans les salles de l'exposition", a opiné l'analyste Justin Sebastiano
dans une note de recherche. "Nous croyons que cette meilleure humeur
était le résultat d'une combinaison des nouveaux concepts de jeu de
cette année et des budgets plus élevés pour les machines à sous en
2010."
Les fabricants de machines à sous n'ont pas connu des périodes
extrêmement prolifiques cette dernière décennie. Jusqu'en 2005, les
opérateurs de casino ajoutaient des machines à sous utilisant les
tickets TITO ( Ticket-In Ticket-Out). Mais le fléchissement de
l'économie au cours des deux dernières années a déterminé les casinos
d'échanger les anciens jeux pour de nouveaux produits.
L'analyste Todd Eilers de Roth Capital Partners fait connaître que MGM
Mirage et Harrah's Entertainment ont décidé de remplacer en 2010 les
machines à sous de leurs casinos en proportion de 2% jusqu'à 10%. Un
autre complexe (non précisé par Eilers) envisage de remplacer jusqu'à
40% de sa plateforme d'anciennes machines à sous.
"Le signe le plus encourageant cette année est que les exploitants de
casinos cherchaient en fait à acheter des jeux et de la technologie par
rapport à l'année dernière quand ils faisaient simplement une visite à
G2E", a précisé Eilers.
Les deux analystes estiment, d'ailleurs, que les jeux de G2E 2009
étaient de loin supérieurs à ceux proposés au salon il y a un an.
Sebastiano apprécie que les machines à sous de Bally Technologies, WMS
Industries et International Gaming Technology ont été impressionnantes.
"La plupart des investisseurs et des exploitants de casinos ont été
déçus par les jeux présentés à G2E l'an dernier", a déclaré Sebastiano.
"Ce n'est pas de même avec la G2E de cette année. A notre avis,
l'optimisme a été engendré par quelques jeux accrocheurs".
Les fabricants de machines à sous ont présenté plusieurs tendances et
thèmes communs, tels que les jeux en communauté avancés, les jeux Roue
multiple, des graphiques 3D ou des jeux personnalisés.
Ajouté dans [12]actualités, [13]machine à sous | [14]Commentaire »
[15]Une société de Las Vegas crée les machines à sous adaptées au rythme du
joueur
Par corinne en date du 29 septembre 2009
La Commission des Jeux du Nevada a récemment autorisé une société basée
à Las Vegas qui s'emploie à développer des machines à sous d'une
qualité technique supérieure. Ces machines à sous pourront correspondre
aux différents rythmes souhaités par les joueurs.
Pour arriver à respecter le rythme de chaque joueur, le jeu sera doté
d'un programme personnalisé qui suivra la manière de jouer et le temps
que chaque joueur passe devant la machine à sous. Ainsi, la machine
pourrait fonctionner à un rythme plus lent, avec des récompenses moins
élevées pour ceux qui cherchent à jouer plus longtemps. Le slot peut
également fonctionner à un rythme plus rapide et proposer des
récompenses plus élevées.
"Quand les joueurs entrent dans un casino, ils ont une idée assez
précise sur le type de jeu qu'ils veulent jouer, mais personne n'est
capable de leur dire comment trouver le jeu qui leur convient", a
expliqué John Acres, le PDG de Talo Nevada, la société en cause.
"Certains joueurs ne savent même pas ce qu'ils veulent vraiment,
jusqu'à ce qu'ils essaient quelque chose", a ajouté Acres.
Demandé si un programme de jeu personnalisé pourrait modifier le taux
de paiement des machines à sous, Acres a répondu qu'une machine
pourrait offrir des récompenses rapidement ou lentement, tout en
gardant un pourcentage de remboursement programmé.
John Acres, fondateur d'Acres Gaming, est connu pour avoir inventé le
système moderne de suivi du jeu aux machines à sous. Il a également
fondé Gaming Standards Association et a inventé une ligne de vélos.
Acres Gaming est une compagnie spécialisée dans le développement de
concepts et technologies liés au bonus des jeux et au suivi des
machines à sous fabriquées par plusieurs sociétés.
La Commission des Jeux du Nevada a autorisé Talo Nevada en tant que
fabricant et distributeur.
Ajouté dans [16]actualités, [17]machine à sous | [18]Commentaires (*) »
[19]Les casinos de France lancent "Magic Casinos Jackpot"
Par corinne en date du 20 septembre 2009
Pour enrayer la baisse constante de leurs gains et faire face à la
concurrence croissante, les casinos terrestres de France ont adopté une
attitude combative, lançant un jackpot commun. C'est la première fois
dans leur histoire que plus de la moitié des casinos français se
donnent la main pour réaliser un projet d'une telle ampleur.
Pour créer "Magic Casinos Jackpot", 100 des 197 casinos de France,
ainsi que les groupes Barrière, Tranchant, Joa et Eméraude, ont formé
une alliance de conjoncture qui profitera aux joueurs. Seul le groupe
Partouche s'est tenu à l'écart, préférant faire cavalier seul devant la
menace des jeux en ligne et la concurrence des monopoles d'Etat.
Dans les établissements nommés, 331 machines à sous ont été reliées
pour former un réseau national, comparable à la loterie. Les dimensions
du réseau permettra au jackpot d'atteindre même 5 millions d'euros au
moment où il sera décroché.
Le jackpot sera tout le temps affiché sur un bandeau qui surmonte les
machines à sous faisant partie du réseau. Ce n'est pas donc un secret
que le premier jackpot a dépassé 350.000 euros, quelques heures après
son lancement.
L'investissement a coûté 10 millions d'euros. La performance technique
est aussi remarquable, la faisabilité du réseau étant antérieurement
testé à plus petite échelle. Les casinos inclus dans le projet sont
reconnaissables grâce à une inscription "Magic Casinos Jackpot"
affichée sur le mur frontal. Chacun de ces casinos héberge 2 à 8
machines à sous connectées au réseau.
Alors que le domaine casinotier est une profession individualiste par
tradition, les présidents des quatre groupes associés ont salué "une
alliance historique, une grande première".
La démarche devrait aider à revitaliser les casinos frappés par la
crise. Les 197 casinos de France ont enregistré pour leur dernier
exercice une baisse du produit brut des jeux de 8.4% par rapport à
l'exercice antérieur.
La crise ne cesse de toucher notamment le secteur des machines à sous
et c'est à juste raison que les casinotiers ont mis les points sur les
"i", par un projet qui augmente l'attractivité des slots.
Bien qu'il n'ait pas fait front commun avec les autres, le groupe
Partouche a une initiative similaire - Mégapot - qui date d'avant le
projet de ses confrères.
Ajouté dans [20]casino, [21]jackpots, [22]machine à sous |
[23]Commentaire (1) »
[24]Les films de Hollywood inspirent les machines à sous de PartyCasino
Par corinne en date du 2 septembre 2009
PartyCasino a des nouvelles réjouissantes quant à son répertoire de
machines à sous. Le casino a ajouté sur sa liste de jeux des machines à
sous vidéo inspirés des films hollywoodiens. Avec des productions
telles que "The Godfather", "Rambo", "The terminator", "Gone with the
Wind" et de beaux jackpots, ces jeux ont le succès garanti parmi tous
les types de joueurs!
Les nouvelles machines à sous ont 20 lignes de paiement et 5 rouleaux.
La mise minimale est de 0.01 $/£/EUR et les jackpots sont soit fixes
soit progressifs, en fonction du jeu choisi. Les jeux sont dotés de
symboles scatter, wild et des symboles qui déclenchent des tours
gratuits. Pour les jeux qu'ils préfèrent, les clients du casino peuvent
choisir la fonction Auto-play.
Chaque jeu a une fonction spéciale, grâce à laquelle on peut gagner de
l'argent supplémentaire et des tours gratuits. Chaque niveau de ces
jeux bonus a de merveilleux graphismes et engendre autant d'adrénaline
que les films eux-mêmes.
Ajouté dans [25]machine à sous | [26]Commentaire »
[27]Nouvelle machine à sous Wealth Spa lancée par Microgaming
Par corinne en date du 11 août 2009
En accord avec les tendances de l'été, Microgaming lance la nouvelle
machine à sous vidéo Wealth Spa, ce qui démontre, en outre, leur
engagement à l'innovation et au développement des jeux haut de gamme.
Wealth Spa est une machine à sous à 5 rouleaux et 20 lignes de
paiement, avec une offre de bonus portant sur une expérience spa de
luxe. Grâce à un éventail de symboles wild et scatters, le joueur
pourra accumuler des jetons d'or très précieux. Ces jetons ouvriront
une série de bonus sur cinq niveaux, chaque niveau ayant fait l'objet
d'un minutieux processus de design.
Les jetons d'or sont crédités lorsqu'ils apparaissent sur le cinquième
rouleau. Ils peuvent être utilisés pour accéder immédiatement au jeu
bonus ou peuvent être gardés pour atteindre un niveau plus élevé.
L'apparition d'un seul jeton déclenche le premier jeu bonus - Smoothie
Bonus, deux jetons déclenchent le Bonus Hot Stone, trois jetons
occasionnent le jeu bonus Body Wax, tandis que les quatre jetons d'or
apparus sur les rouleaux ouvrent la voie vers le jeu bonus Bath Oil.
Cinq jetons vont déclencher automatiquement le Bonus Massage, pendant
lequel les joueurs peuvent gagner 25 tours gratuits et la chance de
remporter le jackpot.
Roger Raatgever, le chef de direction de Microgaming a commenté: "A
Microgaming, nous cherchons toujours à créer de nouveaux jeux de haute
qualité; l'année passée, nous avons lancé des jeux de casino originaux
tels MySlot et Great Galaxy Grab. Notre dernier jeu Wealth Spa offre
des bonus sur plusieurs niveaux, une qualité des graphiques inégalée et
un jeu vraiment passionnant."
Wealth Spa représente une nouvelle expérience de jeu divertissante,
avec un éventail de paris qui vont de 0,01 à 0,25 par ligne. Pour la
mise minimale, les prix vont jusqu'à 12,500.00 jetons, tandis que les
prix provenus des bonus vont de 2,800.00 à 25,000.00 jetons.
Ajouté dans [28]machine à sous | [29]Commentaires (*) »
[30]Qu'est-ce qui fait l'attrait des machines à sous?
Par corinne en date du 6 août 2009
Avez-vous jamais réfléchi si tout l'arsenal d'une machine à sous - les
images, les sifflets, les personnages, les feux clignotants, la
musique, les boutons - avait quelque chose à voir avec l'argent que
vous y placez, pour gagner ou perdre la mise? Tout autre appareil
pourrait faire la même chose avec cet argent, mais personne ne
passerait des heures devant un tel appareil, s'il n'était pas pour les
feux étincelants, les images avec des fruits, et l'idée d'un gros
jackpot. Donc, la question qui se pose c'est: qu'est ce qui rend les
machines à sous si attrayantes?
Louis Weigele, le président du Conseil du jeu problématique d'Ohio,
nous offre une explication. Voilà, donc, l'argument d'un psychologue:
Les joueurs sont divisés en deux camps: les joueurs actifs (action
gamblers) et les joueurs "fuyards" (escape gamblers).
Les joueurs actifs sont les personnes qui aiment vraiment jouer, sentir
l'émotion du jeu, affronter d'autres joueurs et défier le hasard. En
général, on les voit sur les pistes des courses, assis aux tables de
poker ou de blackjack.
L'autre grand groupe, dit Weigele, est celui des joueurs "fuyards" qui
passent souvent des heures entières devant une machine à sous vidéo.
"Ils n'aiment pas vraiment jouer, ils jouent simplement pour passer le
temps", estime le psychologue, en parlant des joueurs problématiques.
En fait, les machines à sous ne sont pas de simples appareils. Elles
peuvent évoquer une histoire, le sujet d'un film de succès, une
personnalité. Les jeux sont conçus englobant beaucoup de stimuli, pour
captiver et maintenir l'attention du joueur. Il ne s'agit pas que d'y
mettre de l'argent et attendre. Les joueurs font des choix, recherchent
des combinaisons gagnantes et décident d'augmenter leurs mises ou
d'encaisser le gain.
La participation active est essentielle pour les joueurs. Les joueurs
qui contrôlent physiquement une machine à sous sont susceptibles de
miser plus d'argent que les autres aux paris subsidiaires.
Ajouté dans [31]machine à sous, [32]études | [33]Commentaires (*) »
[34]Nouvelle machine à sous "La Fiesta"
Par corinne en date du 15 juin 2009
Les machines à sous basées sur des thèmes mexicains ont gagné une
grande popularité. Certes, cela a à voir avec la vivacité de la culture
mexicaine et ses symboles faciles à reconnaître. Maintenant, une
nouvelle machine à sous célèbre la culture et la civilisation
mexicaines, à travers des symboles tels que: la piñata, les roses, les
maracas, les trompettes, les guitares et les belles femmes. Les joueurs
qui gardent le son pendant qu'ils jouent auront l'occasion d'écouter de
la musique en style mexicain.
Le jeu compte 5 rouleaux et 25 lignes de paiement. Les paris vont de
0.01$ à 10$, respectant tous les budgets. Même sans disposer d'un
jackpot progressif, La Fiesta offre un jackpot fixé à 10.000$. Celui-ci
est payé lorsque cinq symboles piñata apparaissent sur une ligne
payante active. Pour un pari maximal, le paiement correspondant est de
100.000$.
Mais qu'est-ce qu'une piñata? Une piñata est un jouet mexicain,
d'habitude sous la forme d'un animal. Le symbole piñata de la machine à
sous "La Fiesta" est un cochon. Il fonctionne comme un symbole wild et
peut remplacer tout autre symbole, à l'exception de la rose, qui est un
scatter. Quand il substitue d'autres symboles pour former une
combinaison gagnante, les paiements sont doublés. Si vous avez la
chance de tomber sur une combinaison gagnante avec des symboles piñata,
vous serez les témoins d'un drôle de spectacle: le petit cochon se
mettra à danser devant vous et des feux d'artifices éclateront derrière
lui.
Trois ou plusieurs symboles piñata apparaissant n'importe où sur les
rouleaux déclenchent un jeu bonus. Ceci peut être joué jusqu'à trois
fois.
"La Fiesta" a été lancée par la société Vegas Technology. Le même
fournisseur de logiciels de jeu a créé dernièrement trois autres
machines à sous. Sur le marché des jeux en ligne, La Fiesta concurrence
avec un jackpot progressif - Jackpot Piñata, lancé par Real Time
Gaming.
Ajouté dans [35]machine à sous | [36]Commentaires (*) »
[37]Le groupe Joa lance un casino en ligne
Par corinne en date du 15 juin 2009
Après avoir changé son visage commercial, l'ex groupe Moliflor -
rébaptisé Joa(casinos), se prépare à lancer en France un casino en
ligne. Initiative très courageuse, voire hardie, sur un marché encore
fermé aux sites de jeux.
En effet, tous les grands casinotiers français sont sur le bloc de
départ dans la course qui sera lancée le 1er janvier 2010. Le groupe de
Lucien Barrière a choisi de faire les essais au Royaume-Uni, avec un
site en 3D qui a tout pour remporter des succès. C'est la voie la plus
sage, mais qui n'a pas convenu à Partouche. Impatients, les dirigeants
du groupe n'ont plus attendu la date de l'ouverture officielle du
marché et ont choisi le chemin sans détours. Le groupe offre d'orès et
déjà des services de jeux aux internautes français. L'autre élément de
la "trinité" - Tranchant - est toujours en attente.
Joa ne leur cède en rien. Les prévisions de la future législation
française en domaine concernent les paris sportifs, les courses
hippiques et le poker en ligne. Le sujet des casinos en ligne, avec
toute la suite de jeux qu'on y trouve, reste flou... Mais cela n'a pas
empêché Joa d'agir. Disponible pour le moment en mode démo (mode fun,
avec de l'argent virtuel), Joa-online.com propose des parties de poker,
mais également tous les autres jeux qu'on trouve dans un casino
terrestre.
La course sur le marché en ligne est à peine au début et elle ne sera
pas gagnée d'avance par un acteur ou autre. Le "lifting" subi par l'ex
Moliflor, qui a avalé 2.5 millions d'euros, a été la première étape.
Pour tenir tête à ses forts concurrents, Joa devra innover. Affaire à
suivre.
Ajouté dans [38]casino en ligne | [39]Commentaire »
[40]Mythes et fausses impressions sur les machines à sous
Par corinne en date du 6 janvier 2009
Puisqu'elles sont des jeux de hasard par excellence, les machines à
sous ont laissé créer autour d'elles un complexe de mythes qui essayent
d'expliquer les gains et les pertes. Voilà les plus entendues:
On dit que:
Les meilleures machines à sous sont tenues ensemble dans la salle
Il serait stupide d'un casino de cantonner ses meilleures machines à
sous dans un seul endroit. Celles-ci sont répandues dans la salle, pour
que les gens puissent voir les autres gagner. C'est justement l'une des
principales raisons qui déterminent les gens de jouer plus longtemps.
Voyons: continueriez-vous à jouer s'il n'y avait pas un autour de vous
qui gagne?
Les machines à sous ont des périodes cycliques de gains
Cela ne pourrait pas être plus loin de la vérité. Chaque tournoiement
des rouleaux est aléatoire et ne suit aucun schéma. Si une machine
semble payer plus ou moins à de certains moments, c'est grâce aux
numéros aléatoires générés. Mais ce n'est pas une garantie que tout va
continuer de la même manière pour la prochaine période de temps!
Tirer la manche est mieux qu'appuyer sur le bouton
C'est exactement la même chose, tirer un levier ou appuyer sur un
bouton aboutira toujours au même résultat. Tout ce qu'on fait, dans les
deux cas, est d'envoyer un petit signal électrique pour démarrer le
jeu, donc la façon dont on le fait n'a aucune importance, vous obtenez
toujours le même résultat.
Seulement les machines mécaniques sont des machines à sous véritables
Les slots mécaniques ne sont meilleurs que parce qu'ils peuvent être
trompés. Ils fonctionnent sur le même principe que toute autre machine
à sous. En fait, les machines électroniques offrent de meilleurs
paiements, des jackpots plus élevés, plus de variété dans les jeux,
plus de lignes de paiement et plus de rouleaux. Ces jeux sont
supérieurs aux jeux mécaniques et montrent les avantages de la nouvelle
technologie.
On peut augmenter ses chances en appuyant sur le bouton au bon moment
Même si c'est un peu vrai avec la génération de nombres aléatoires, les
chances d'agir à ce "bon moment" sont à des milliards contre vous. Les
machines à sous génèrent des centaines de nombres aléatoires par
seconde, calculez, donc, vos chances de tomber sur la micro-seconde
gagnante!
Mon slot préféré paie davantage
Tout le monde a, sans doute, une machine à sous préférée sur laquelle
on a gagné. Mais il s'agit toujours de la chance de se trouver là au
moment opportun. Cette même machine qui a offert un prix à quelqu'un a
pris de l'argent de l'autrui. Avoir une machine favorite est une
question de chois, mais assurez-vous que c'est une machine qui
correspond à votre style de jeu. Et renoncez à l'idée qu'elle paie plus
que les autres!
Ajouté dans [41]machine à sous | [42]Commentaires (*) »
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Logo Inventeurs Fous
InventeursFous.com, version mobile !
Invention n°68 : Easy Dance Machine
Publiée le 2003-04-18
Note de: 7.9/10
(64 notes)
4 sur 5
Une invention de
[1]Chandon
Je suis très heureux de vous présenter encore une fois une invention
destinée à résoudre un de ces innombrables petits riens qui vous
pourrit la vie. Et l'Easy Dance Machine sonne assurément la fin d'un
des fléaux de la vie sociale : la danse.
Ah, qui n'a pas éprouvé, adolescent(e), l'intense frustation de ne pas
oser aborder quelqu'un qui vous avait tapé dans l'oeil lors d'une
soirée... Mais rien à faire : pas moyen de l'inviter sur la piste, vous
êtes un peu comme un bloc de 2 tonnes de granit à qui on demanderait de
danser le limbo... Si seulement vous aviez le sens du rythme ! Et pas
question de passer pour ridicule devant tous vos soi-disant amis qui
n'attendent que ça pour vous chambrer ! Il doit pourtant bien y avoir
un moyen, nom de nom !!!
[edm2.jpg]
Et oui, l'Easy Dance Machine est un dispositif d'aide à la danse, se
composant d'électrodes à coller sur les muscles des jambes, reliées à
un petit appareil style pager que l'on accroche à la ceinture qui
contient les commandes.
Lors d'une danse, l'appareil va délivrer automatiquement des impulsions
électriques aux muscles des jambes, les faisant bouger au rythme de la
musique (un peu comme les spots lumineux). Ainsi, plus besoin de passer
de longues heures à apprendre à danser : avec le EDM, 5 mn de mise en
place, et à vous les joies de la danse !
Pour aller un peu plus dans le détail, rappelez vous cet ingénieur
français Cristophe Cayrol qui a inventé un appareil destiné à repérer
les mines et à faire dévier instantanément la jambe pour éviter de
marcher dessus. Vous y êtes ? Bon, maintenant rappellez vous le
téléshopping d'hier où il y avait la nana avec ses électrodes pour
faire maigrir. Vous visualisez ? Bon, et bien prenez le tout, secouez
dans un sac, et servez chaud.
Détail de l'appareil :
Celui-ci se compose d'un petit boitier de commande relié à 3 séries
d'électrodes : une pour vérifier la fréquence cardiaque, et 2 x 8 à
positionner sur chaque jambe, sur les muscles indiqués dans la notice.
L'ordinateur embarqué reçoit le rythme de la musique via un micro,
analyse le signal sonore et le converti en impulsions électriques, une
fois identifié le type de danse (815 tempos différents sont embarqués,
ce qui prend environ 0,02 sec à l'ordinateur pour se caler).
[edm1.jpg]
1. ventouse en matériau anti-allergénique contenant l'électrode, à
placer sur le muscle
2. cable transportant le flux électrique, isolé, avec gaîne en kevlar
3. capteur relié à l'électrode, délivrant les impulsions électriques
en fonction du signal émis
4. écran à cristaux liquides rétro-éclairé, contenant les informations
suivantes :
- rythme cardiaque (fonction d'alerte suivant un seuil
paramétrable)
- témoin de charge. La batterie lithium/ion vous permet de danser
environ 2 heures
- durée de danse
- rythme/intensité de danse sous forme de graphique
5. bouton marche/arrêt ergonomique
6. molette de contrôle de l'intensité du signal électrique fourni.
Suivant les individus, la réaction à l'intensité peut varier.
7. micro enregistrant le rythme et le restituant sous forme de signaux
électriques à l'ordinateur embarqué
8. batterie lithium/ion
9. molette de contrôle du rythme. Par défaut, le rythme généré est
automatiquement calqué sur celui reçu par le micro. Néanmoins, pour
des raisons de confort, vous pouvez vous même faire varier ce
rythme selon vos besoins.
10. trappe de sortie du cablage électrique. Tout le circuit électrique
est bien entendu isolé et résistant aux frottements ainsi qu'à
l'humidité ambiante.
11. clip permettant d'accrocher le boitier de contrôle à la ceinture, à
l'instar d'un téléphone portable.
La boîte contient :
- 17 électrodes souples à coller sur des endroits précis
- boitier de commande avec écran à cristaux liquides
- notice d'installation pour la pose des électrodes
- un cd de test pour s'entrainer chez soi avant le grand soir.
ATTENTION !
Ne pas oublier d'éteindre l'appareil entre 2 danses : imaginez, vous
avez fini une danse, et vous allez servir un punch à votre cavalièr(e).
Hélas, la musique reprend au moment où vous lui donnez le verre, et
vous n'aviez pas coupé l'appareil ! Catastrophe ! Vous vous remettez à
danser instantanément, renversant du punch de partout, et en
particulier sur la zoulie robe de soirée de la dame (ou le costume du
gars, au choix)!
Plus class, ne coupez pas l'appareil mais mettez le sur 'intensity
low'. Vous garderez légèrement le rythme, style le type méga cool qui
ne peut s'empêcher de danser en entendant de la musique. Effet assuré !
De plus, l'EDM possède une double fonction, puisque qu'il muscle dans
le même temps vos jambes ! A vous les jambes galbées et musclées, sans
effort !
Au fait, n'oubliez pas de bouger le haut du corps en rythme, pour ne
pas avoir trop l'air d'une marionnette...
Une future version 'Luxe' est prévue avec un système de cartes mémoire
pouvant s'insérer sur l'appareil. Ces cartes seront chargées avec un
style de danse (par exemple la carte "Michael Jackson" ou la carte
"John Travolta") et vous permettront de danser "à la manière de" sur
tous les rythmes.
Vous pourrez vous échanger ainsi les cartes, les collectionner...(il
est prévu quelques cartes rares comme la mythique carte "Yvette Horner"
ou la carte "Patrick Hernandez")
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JEUX DE RYTHME
1. La machine: A partir de sons déjà trouvés ou spontanément, une
personne propose un geste et un son très répititifs constituant le
départ d'une machine. Les autres personnes s'ajoutent à la structure
progressivement. On peut ajouter des contraintes d'espace (se
toucher ou être éloignés) de positions (allongé, debout, assis, ou
alterner...), de types de sons,... Une fois que la machine tourne,
on peut lui prêter des intentions, des rythmes, retirer ou ajouter
des éléments, l'arrêter, la démarrer, l'emballer, la rallentir à
l'extrême, la déplacer...
2. On choisit un son commun ou chaque personne choisit un son
personnel. Sur une mesure de quatre temps (plus tard, on pourra
changer), chacun répète ce son sur chaque temps. Petit à petit, on
retirera un son, puis deux, puis,... On pourra ajouter des sons,
changer de son. La cellule rythmique ainsi créée évoluera.
Variante: plutôt que de partir d'un son par temps et de "vider" les
temps, on part en plaçant un son sur le temps de son choix. La
cellule peut également évoluer.
On a intêret à varier les types de sons en hauteur, et qualité (ex:
oum, kissa, pipila, kss, chouk, tchi, zing,...). On peut penser à
des imitations d'instruments, d'animaux,...
3. Si la cellule ainsi inventée plaît, on l'enregistre ou on la
note. Elle pourra servir de refrain autour duquel on inventera des
couplets ou d'ostinato sur lequel se soperposeront de nouveaux
rythmes ou textes. On pourra la varier et en inventer d'autres...
On peut aussi la jouer en canon.
4. On peut par ce principe partir avec l'idée d'imiter une horloge,
un attelage, une locomotive, une machine, une section rythmique,
etc,...Ces cellules peuvent comme les précédentes être rallenties,
accélérées...
5. En cercle, faire circuler un son associé à un geste. On peut
changer de geste, de son, de sens,...
Variante: même travail avecun rythme
Variante: une personne pense à quelque chose, le traduit en rythme,
le passe dans le cercle. A la fin, on dit ce que cela évoquait.
6. Un groupe invente un rythme et le propose en avançant six fois.
L'autre ou les autres groupes l'imite à partir de la troisième fois.
On change les rôles.
Variante, en deux temps: une personne propose un geste, repris par
le groupe, repris par le groupe. Si ça marche, le groupe le propose
aux autres qui l'imitent.
7. Faire passer une chaussure en rythme. Changer de sens sur un
signe. Le faire les yeux fermés.
8. Dans le noir, une personne fait un rythme avec une lampe de
poche. Les autres l'imitent en son ou en lumière.
9. En le faisant bien partir du ventre, se passer un son en rythme.
-"mh",
-"ha",
-"mh ha ..."
-composer de petits rythmes à se faire passer: "mh mh ha", "mh ha
mh"
-y ajouter un claquement de mains ou de pieds. On peut aussi faire
de petites séquences rythmiques avec pied gauche, pied droit, mains.
-construire un tapis sonore collectif sur lequel on peut
improviser.(à tour de rôle ou librement)
10. Faire le travail du 1. sur un cadre imposé:
[La%20voi1.gif]
ou
[La%20voi2.gif]
on peut inventer diverses formules, changer de voyelles ou de sons à
chaque changement de mesure ou de nuance. On peut jouer en canon ou
improviser sur cette structure. On peut changer de hauteur ou non.
On peut le faire sur le mode parlé. On peut alterner....
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[3]Le CNRS : Centre national de la recherche scientique
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Vous êtes ici :
[4]CNRS > [5]Presse > [6]Journal du CNRS > [7]La musique, pourquoi elle
rythme nos vies / N°209 Juin 2007 / La musique > [8]La musique,
pourquoi elle rythme nos vies
Espace presse > Le journal du CNRS
[9]Retour au sommaire
La symphonie neuronale
L'été arrive et nous rejoue ses tempos endiablés, mélodies fredonnées
et autres airs cadencés. Cette année encore, la Fête de la musique est
célébrée dans plus de 120 pays. D'où nous vient ce goût pour la
musique, partagé par toutes les cultures à toutes les époques ? « La
musique offre aux passions le moyen de jouir d'elles-mêmes », disait
Nietzsche dans Le gai savoir. Parfois angoissante, souvent apaisante ou
stimulante, elle influence les comportements humains. Impossible donc
de limiter cet art aux seules sensations auditives ! Alors, des
chercheurs du CNRS déjouent les cheminements perceptifs et cognitifs à
l'uvre. Ils analysent les signes révélateurs des émotions produites et
les processus cérébraux activés par ce langage non verbal, décryptent
ce qui apparaît être une véritable stratégie commune de perception
Depuis janvier 2006, une grande partie de ces spécialistes français de
la musique ont d'ailleurs regroupé leurs savoir-faire dans un projet
financé par l'Agence nationale de la recherche (ANR) et intitulé « La
spécificité de la musique : contribution de la musique à l'étude des
bases neurales et cognitives de la mémoire humaine et applications
thérapeutiques ». En effet, étudier la musique sous le rapport de la
biologie permet, au-delà des enseignements musicaux, de mieux saisir
comment fonctionne le cerveau.
Qui n'a jamais eu de frissons dès les premières notes d'un morceau ?
Intriguée, Stéphanie Khalfa, chercheuse CNRS au Laboratoire de
neurophysiologie et neuropsychologie de l'Inserm, à Marseille, examine
les réponses physiologiques du corps humain aux différentes musiques
chez cinquante sujets. « Des changements apparaissent très tôt, une à
trois secondes après le début de l'écoute. Ils révèlent des émotions de
gaieté ou de peur. Les muscles zygomatiques au niveau des pommettes
faciales s'activent, la pression sanguine varie et on observe une
micro-transpiration au niveau des paumes des mains », explique-t-elle.
Quant à notre respiration, elle est entraînée par le tempo mais réagit
peu aux autres caractéristiques musicales, comme les graves et aigus ou
le volume. De plus, après un stress psychologique induit, une musique
apaisante mélodie d'ambiance lente, harmonique et au tempo régulier
diminue significativement la concentration sanguine en hormone de
stress, dite cortisol, au bout d'un quart d'heure d'écoute. La musique
adoucirait donc les murs ? « Toutes n'ont pas cet effet bénéfique,
précise Stéphanie Khalfa. Une musique comportant des disparités de
rythme et des dissonances, comme la techno, augmente le stress, même
lorsqu'elle est appréciée. »
cerveau
__________________________________________________________________
© D'après P. Plateaux, Cerveau & Psycho n° 19
__________________________________________________________________
D'autres chercheurs, au Laboratoire d'études de l'apprentissage et du
développement (LEAD)^1 de Dijon, ont observé des réponses émotionnelles
à la musique instrumentale dès 250 millisecondes d'écoute. Ces émotions
ne sont pas seulement la conséquence d'effets de surface (explosion
sonore, forte dissonance) mais résultent de traitements cognitifs très
élaborés, de l'harmonie notamment.
Mais par quels processus neuronaux une mélodie peut-elle ainsi stimuler
nos émotions ? Les oreilles captent les mouvements de molécules d'air
créés par l'instrument de musique ou les baffles du haut-parleur, puis
les transforment en influx nerveux. Ensuite, des réseaux distincts du
système nerveux central de l'organisme réagissent à l'écoute musicale
et au style de musique. Séverine Samson, professeure de psychologie à
l'université de Lille et neuropsychologue à l'hôpital de la Salpêtrière
à Paris, collabore avec le laboratoire CNRS de neurosciences cognitives
et imagerie cérébrale (Lena). Elle observe des patients épileptiques
ayant subi une ablation de certaines zones cérébrales pour le
traitement de leurs crises. Résultat : « L'amygdale est essentielle à
la perception de la peur induite par l'écoute musicale, une lésion
d'une seule amygdale entraîne un fort déficit dans le traitement de ce
stimulus. Lorsqu'il s'agit de juger des dissonances désagréables dans
l'harmonie d'un morceau, ce sont là des structures proches de
l'hippocampe qui jouent un rôle déterminant. »
cerveau
[10]schéma musique
__________________________________________________________________
© D'après D. Bailly, Cerveau & Psycho n° 7
Cliquez sur l'image pour l'agrandir.
__________________________________________________________________
Paroles et musique
Là où s'arrête le pouvoir des mots commence celui de la musique, disait
Richard Wagner Les effets d'une mélodie sur notre cerveau sont souvent
étudiés à la lumière de ceux d'un matériel sonore complexe mieux connu
: le langage. Ces systèmes perceptifs sont liés, mais distincts.
D'ailleurs, près de 5 % de la population est « amusicale » congénitale
: ces personnes n'ont aucun problème cognitif ou de langage mais ont
des problèmes de perception musicale. Par exemple, elles ne détectent
pas une fausse note. Depuis plusieurs années, les chercheurs de
l'Institut de neurosciences cognitives de la Méditerranée (INCM)^2 à
Marseille effectuent des études comparatives entre langage et musique
grâce aux techniques d'imagerie, par électroencéphalogramme (EEG) et
par résonance magnétique fonctionnelle (IRMf), celle-ci mesurant
l'activité cérébrale selon la consommation d'oxygène des zones du
cerveau. Ainsi, selon Mireille Besson, directrice de recherche à
l'INCM, « le rythme et les règles de l'harmonie ou du contrepoint
sollicitent des zones de l'hémisphère gauche souvent attribuées au
langage, en particulier à la syntaxe. Mais le timbre de l'instrument
stimulerait plutôt l'hémisphère droit. » Bref, la perception du langage
comme de la musique s'effectue par étapes, explique Daniele Schön,
chercheuse à l'INCM. « Par exemple, dans l'apprentissage d'une langue
étrangère, le cerveau segmente d'abord les informations sonores. Puis,
du sens est attribué aux chaînes des sons. » Résultat étonnant : la
vitesse d'émergence d'un mot est multipliée par trois si l'information
est chantée plutôt que parlée ! « D'où l'intérêt des comptines
destinées aux jeunes enfants », note Daniele Schön. La quantité
d'informations extraite est énorme durant la première minute, puis elle
augmente lentement.
La mémoire entre en jeu
Si plusieurs réseaux neuronaux sont impliqués dans la perception de la
musique, comment le cerveau parvient-il à traiter la complexité de
l'information musicale ? Les scientifiques savent aujourd'hui qu'il
élabore une stratégie basée sur la familiarité, l'apprentissage
implicite et la mémoire. Démonstration : Barbara Tillmann, chargée de
recherche dans l'unité « Neurosciences sensorielles, comportement,
cognition »^3 de Lyon, s'est intéressée à la reconnaissance de mélodies
familières. « Après 500 millisecondes d'écoute, les jugements de
familiarité des auditeurs se différencient pour des morceaux musicaux
connus ou non. » Les réseaux neuronaux impliqués lors de cette
perception de la familiarité musicale sont similaires à ceux activés
par les odeurs familières, selon ses résultats publiés en février dans
la revue Cerebral Cortex^4.
femme
__________________________________________________________________
© E. Perrin/CNRS Photothèque
Une langue étrangère est apprise trois fois plus vite si elle est
chantée. Pour observer les zones cérébrales activées, cette femme porte
un casque muni de 32 électrodes. Les variations électriques du cerveau
(électroencéphalogramme) sont alors reproduites en 3D.
__________________________________________________________________
Une part de mémoire à court terme spécifiquement auditive influe
également. Laurent Demany, chercheur au laboratoire bordelais «
Mouvement adaptation cognition »^5, a observé un phénomène paradoxal dû
à cette mémoire. Il a constaté qu'il est possible d'entendre
consciemment un mouvement mélodique (un changement de hauteur tonale)
entre deux sons successifs alors que pourtant le premier de ces sons a
été masqué par un ensemble d'autres sons simultanés et n'a pas été
perçu consciemment ! « Cela peut se produire même si les deux sons
successifs sont séparés par plusieurs secondes de silence, et s'ils ne
sont pas présentés à la même oreille. Le cerveau relie automatiquement
des sons dans le temps et détecte des changements indépendamment de
l'attention et de la conscience », explique-t-il. « Cette mémoire
auditive est hypersensible aux changements de fréquence, et donc de
hauteur tonale », précise le chercheur : dans un délai d'une
demi-seconde à deux secondes, la mémoire à court terme oublie plus vite
l'intensité d'un son que sa hauteur.
Après quinze secondes d'écoute d'un morceau musical, un autre processus
de mémoire entre en jeu, comme l'a montré Barbara Tillmann : il nous
devient plus facile de discriminer avec précision les autres
caractéristiques de cet extrait (mélodie, harmonie, etc.). Notre
mémoire musicale aurait donc tendance à se bonifier avec le temps
d'écoute. Pour détecter les capacités d'apprentissage de notre cerveau,
Barbara Tillmann a utilisé avec Bénédicte Poulin-Charronnat, chercheuse
au LEAD à Dijon, une nouvelle grammaire musicale établissant des règles
d'écriture de suites de notes. Elles ont créé des séquences de cinq et
six notes, fréquentes ou impossibles d'après cette grammaire. Elles ont
alors testé la sensibilité de quarante personnes à ces règles
musicales. « Dans 60 % des cas, les transgressions aux règles suivies
sont détectées en moins d'un quart d'heure d'écoute. Les auditeurs ne
s'en rendent pas compte, mais ils ont saisi certaines des
caractéristiques de la nouvelle structure musicale », commente
Bénédicte Poulin-Charronnat. Cet apprentissage implicite existe au sein
de chaque culture, où une musique environnante est omniprésente.
Nous sommes tous des musiciens en herbe
Mais alors, il n'y aurait aucune différence entre musiciens et
non-musiciens, dès lors que chacun perçoit de manière implicite et
rapide la musique ? En fait, les experts sont plus performants pour
distinguer la dimension élémentaire du son musical (la hauteur, la
durée ou l'intensité), mais lorsqu'il s'agit de comprendre des
structures des extraits, la perception musicale des experts et des
non-experts est proche. Ainsi, d'après Emmanuel Bigand, directeur du
LEAD, qui a mené de nombreux tests entre musiciens et non-musiciens, «
les novices ont des connaissances très sophistiquées, même s'ils ne
savent pas les exprimer ». « Et ce dès l'âge de six ans », annonce le
directeur de recherche. Pour le découvrir, il a analysé avec son équipe
les attentes perceptives qui se forment automatiquement à l'écoute d'un
morceau de musique (tâche d'amorçage).
Bilan : tous les auditeurs, issus du conservatoire ou non, anticipent
les mêmes structures musicales complexes (harmoniques, par exemple). De
plus, en situation de découverte, la forme d'un morceau est
difficilement détectée si sa durée dépasse les trente secondes, même si
l'on est musicien de haut niveau. C'est en situation d'écoute répétée
que cette forme se précise. Une écoute passive quotidienne de musique
permet donc un apprentissage implicite, dont le traitement est plus
précis et plus rapide chez les musiciens.
Mireille Besson, de l'INCM, a cherché avec son équipe à préciser cette
sensibilité affinée : « Si la même mélodie est jouée un tout petit peu
plus aiguë ou un tout petit peu plus grave (d'un cinquième de ton,
c'est-à-dire d'un cinquième de la différence entre do et ré par
exemple), cette différence est facilement perçue par les musiciens mais
pas par les non-musiciens » (72 % des non-musiciens ne la perçoivent
pas, contre 35 % des musiciens). Cela relève-t-il d'une prédisposition
génétique ? Vingt enfants inexpérimentés ont suivi un entraînement à la
musique. Bilan : en six mois, ils ont développé les mêmes capacités
auditives que celles connues chez des enfants ayant suivi quatre ans de
conservatoire. L'oreille musicale n'est donc pas innée, elle s'acquiert
! François Madurell est musicologue, responsable du groupe Museco à
l'Observatoire musical français et collaborateur du LEAD. Selon lui,
ces résultats confirment l'idée que « la ségrégation entre musique pour
auditeurs profanes et musique savante relève de connotations sociales.
Les représentations liées à certains répertoires peuvent provoquer des
refus, mais il n'y a pas d'obstacle cognitif. Par exemple, les
réticences face à la musique de chambre dépendent souvent de facteurs
extérieurs à la musique, comme la tenue vestimentaire des musiciens,
les codes de comportement lors du concert et le sentiment que cette
musique est destinée à des catégories sociales privilégiées. »
Quant à l'oreille absolue, elle consiste à « identifier la hauteur
précise d'un son et à le nommer sans l'aide d'une note de référence. De
grands musiciens ne l'ont pas, elle serait davantage liée à un
apprentissage instrumental précoce, avant quatre ans. » Elle favorise
la reconnaissance de chaque note sans influer sur la perception et
l'appréciation d'un morceau dans son ensemble. Parfois même, l'oreille
absolue est ressentie comme une gêne durant l'écoute musicale. Pour
François Madurell, la qualité de l'oreille du futur musicien pourrait
dépendre du type d'apprentissage. Les méthodes traditionnelles reposent
sur un couplage « visuo-moteur » : l'élève associe la lecture d'une
note à un geste sur l'instrument. « Des apprentissages privilégiant
d'autres couplages (audition/chant et audition/action motrice) seraient
plus propices au développement de l'écoute intérieure et de
l'intelligence musicale. » Bref, l'enseignement de la musique permet de
développer la rapidité d'analyse et la sensibilité des musiciens. Mais
les capacités de perception lors de l'écoute restent très proches entre
experts et profanes.
Thérapies musicales
Si la musique adoucit les murs, soigne-elle les maux ? Que pensent nos
chercheurs de la musicothérapie ? Des études récentes menées chez des
enfants dyslexiques (problèmes de lecture et d'écriture) et des
personnes souffrant de la maladie d'Alzheimer démontrent peu à peu
l'intérêt de la musique à stimuler le cerveau. Mireille Besson et
Michel Habib, de l'INCM de Marseille, ont fait écouter à des jeunes
dyslexiques de dix ans des comptines, en variant la hauteur tonale.
enfant dyslex
__________________________________________________________________
© E. Perrin/CNRS Photothèque
Etude de la perception musicale des sons graves à aigus d'un enfant
dyslexique.
__________________________________________________________________
« Même lorsque la variation de hauteur est très perceptible par des
enfants qui lisent normalement, 45 % des enfants dyslexiques ne
l'entendent pas. » Après un entraînement phonologique de huit semaines,
leur perception auditive est améliorée. « Ils ne font plus d'erreur sur
ces grandes variations d'un demi-ton, seulement 3 % d'entre eux se
trompent encore. Cette sensibilité sonore augmente leurs capacités de
lecture. Pourquoi ? Peut-être parce que s'ils ne reconnaissent pas les
différences entre certains sons de leur langue, ils ne les repèrent pas
à l'écrit », propose la chercheuse. D'autres résultats montrent
également de fortes relations entre la sensibilité des dyslexiques à la
prosodie, c'est-à-dire à la musique du langage (intonation des voix,
etc.), et le développement des capacités de lecture. La musique
pourrait alors pallier certains troubles de la dyslexie en favorisant
la sensibilité auditive. Et ce, sans confronter l'enfant à son déficit,
à la différence des entraînements actuels basés sur des exercices de
langage.
À l'université de Caen, Hervé Platel, professeur de neuropsychologie,
étudie des patients déments Alzheimer en clinique. « Malgré les
troubles avérés du langage et des concepts sémantiques, certaines
capacités musicales sont conservées », explique Hervé Platel. Pour
savoir si un apprentissage musical est encore possible chez ces
patients, le chercheur leur a organisé six séances d'une heure et demie
d'enseignement de chansons nouvelles. « Ils sont effectivement capables
de restituer une mélodie lorsqu'on les aide à retrouver les paroles de
la chanson. Maintenant, il faut déterminer quels substrats cérébraux
sont alors activés, car l'apprentissage ne s'effectue pas pour des
textes présentés sans mélodie. » À suivre donc Décidément, la musique
n'a pas fini de jouer avec notre corps et notre esprit !
Aude Olivier
Du disque dur au disque d'or
piano
__________________________________________________________________
© L. Médard/CNRS Photothèque
Jean-Claude Risset, Médaille d'or du CNRS, est l'un des pionniers de
l'informatique musicale et de la synthèse sonore.
__________________________________________________________________
Il y a cinquante ans, dans l'enceinte des célèbres laboratoires Bell
Telephone dans le New Jersey, Max Mathews réalisait le premier
enregistrement numérique et aussi la première pièce musicale
synthétisée par un ordinateur, une composition de 17 secondes. Mathews,
ingénieur et musicien américain, avait compris avant tout le monde que
ces énormes calculateurs ouvraient un champ d'exploration musicale
illimité. Très vite, s'est formé autour de lui un groupe de pionniers
de l'informatique musicale. Au carrefour de la programmation, de
l'acoustique, de la psychologie de la perception auditive et de la
musique contemporaine, ce groupe hétéroclite a découvert la synthèse
sonore, c'est-à-dire les procédés pour créer des sons à partir de
programmes informatiques. Jean-Claude Risset, Médaille d'or du CNRS en
1999, qui avait rejoint les laboratoires Bell en 1964, figure parmi ces
pionniers. Ce chercheur et compositeur participera plus tard à la
création de l'Ircam (Institut de recherche et coordination
acoustique/musique) avec Pierre Boulez, avant de rejoindre le
Laboratoire de mécanique et d'acoustique (LMA) du CNRS à Marseille, où
il travaille actuellement. « Ce n'étaient pas tellement les
applications commerciales de ces travaux qui nous motivaient à cette
époque. Nous cherchions surtout à créer une nouvelle musique avec de
nouvelles sonorités. Étant donné que tous les sons peuvent être décrits
par des nombres, l'ordinateur permet non seulement de composer avec des
sons, mais aussi de composer les sons eux-mêmes. » Jean-Claude Risset
crée alors quelques-unes des premières uvres musicales importantes,
comme la suite Little Boy, qui ne comprend que des sons synthétiques
n'existant pas dans le monde réel.
Dans le même temps, il poursuit son travail de synthèse sonore et
élabore un important catalogue de sons synthétiques. Au fil des ans,
les progrès de l'informatique musicale suivent de près l'accroissement
de la puissance des ordinateurs. En 1967, John Chowning met au point la
synthèse musicale par modulation de fréquence, un procédé simple pour
créer et contrôler le timbre des sons. Cette invention, dont le brevet
est l'un des plus lucratifs de l'université Stanford, permet
l'apparition des premiers synthétiseurs Yamaha, qui ne sont autre chose
que des ordinateurs dédiés exclusivement à la musique. C'est ainsi que
l'informatique musicale, qui était jusque-là un domaine réservé à la
musique d'avant-garde, prend d'assaut la scène pop sous l'impulsion de
groupes comme Kraftwerk, puis de la techno et de tous ses avatars. À
présent, la synthèse sonore est à la portée de quiconque possède un PC,
et les catalogues de sons en accès libre sont extraordinairement
fournis.
Cependant, la recherche en informatique musicale découvre constamment
de nouvelles possibilités. Ainsi, au LMA, l'équipe de Daniel Arfib et
Jean-Claude Risset cherche à sortir l'informatique musicale de son
environnement virtuel en inventant des instruments de musique basés sur
l'ordinateur. « Ces instruments utilisent des périphériques comme des
joysticks ou des tablettes graphiques. Nous essayons ensuite que le jeu
sur ces instruments soit aussi fin que celui sur un instrument
classique. Pour cela, il faut que les informations qui reviennent à
l'utilisateur (le feed-back visuel et auditif) lorsqu'il manipule
l'instrument soient adaptées et cohérentes », explique Daniel Arfib.
Perpétuant l'esprit des pionniers de l'informatique musicale, ces
travaux sont à la fois une tentative pour repousser les limites
technologiques et une exploration artistique d'avant-garde.
S.E.
CONTACTS :
Jean-Claude Risset, [11]jcrisset@lma.cnrs-mrs.fr
Daniel Arfib, [12]arfib@lma.cnrs-mrs.fr
Glossaire
Tempo : il détermine la vitesse d'exécution d'une pièce musicale. Il
est traditionnellement indiqué par des termes italiens comme largo pour
un tempo lent, andante pour un tempo modéré ou allegro pour un tempo
rapide.
Rythme : c'est l'un des éléments qui permettent de caractériser une
phrase musicale. Le rythme détermine la durée des notes les unes par
rapport aux autres. Lorsqu'on parle d'un rythme dans le sens d'une
forme musicale (valse, tango, bossa), il s'agit d'une brève cellule
rythmique qui se répète et donne son caractère à la pièce.
Dissonance : elle correspond à un ensemble de sons dont la succession
ou la simultanéité est désagréable ou bien produit un effet de tension
musicale qui est parfois recherché. L'impression de dissonance varie
selon le courant culturel, l'époque et les individus.
Harmonie : c'est l'art d'enchaîner des accords, de combiner des sons
entre eux pour les rendre agréables à l'oreille.
Contrepoint : méthode de composition dans laquelle on donne plus
d'importance à la mélodie qu'à la combinaison de plusieurs sons
superposés.
Timbre : comparé souvent à la couleur, il représente la différence
perçue par l'auditeur entre deux sons de même hauteur et de même
intensité. Le timbre est formé par le rapport entre les différents
harmoniques de la note jouée ou chantée.
Hauteur : la hauteur d'un son est liée à sa fréquence, c'est-à-dire à
la vitesse de vibration du son dans l'air mesurée en hertz. Plus la
fréquence est élevée, plus le son « monte » dans les aigus ; plus la
fréquence est faible, plus il « descend » dans les graves.
Intensité : elle correspond au volume d'un son fort ou faible mesuré en
décibels (dBA) selon l'amplitude de la vibration produite.
Écoute intérieure : capacité d'entendre ce que l'on va jouer avant de
le jouer.
Notes :
1. Laboratoire CNRS / Université Dijon.
2. Institut CNRS / Université Aix-Marseille-II.
3. Unité CNRS / Université Lyon-I.
4. Cerebral Cortex Advance Access, 8 fév. 2007,
DOI:10.1093/cercor/bhl173.
5. Laboratoire CNRS / Universités Bordeaux-I et II.
Contact
> Stéphanie Khalfa,
[13]skhalfa@skhalfa.com
> Séverine Samson,
[14]severine.samson@univ-lille3.fr
> Mireille Besson,
[15]mireille.besson@incm.cnrs-mrs.fr
> Daniele Schön,
[16]daniele.schon@incm.cnrs-mrs.fr
> Barbara Tillmann,
[17]btillmann@olfac.univ-lyon1.fr
> Laurent Demany,
[18]laurent.demany@psyac.u-bordeaux2.fr
> Bénédicte Poulin-Charronnat,
[19]benedicte.poulin@u-bourgogne.fr
> Emmanuel Bigand,
[20]bigand@u-bourgogne.fr
> François Madurell,
[21]francois.madurell@free.fr
> Hervé Platel,
[22]herve.platel@unicaen.fr
__________________________________________________________________
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[3]Le CNRS : Centre national de la recherche scientique
Moteur de recherche
Rechercher ________________ [ok.gif]-Submit
__________________________________________________________________
Vous êtes ici :
[4]CNRS > [5]Presse > [6]Journal du CNRS > [7]La musique, pourquoi elle
rythme nos vies / N°209 Juin 2007 / La musique > [8]La musique,
pourquoi elle rythme nos vies
Espace presse > Le journal du CNRS
[9]Retour au sommaire
La symphonie neuronale
L'été arrive et nous rejoue ses tempos endiablés, mélodies fredonnées
et autres airs cadencés. Cette année encore, la Fête de la musique est
célébrée dans plus de 120 pays. D'où nous vient ce goût pour la
musique, partagé par toutes les cultures à toutes les époques ? « La
musique offre aux passions le moyen de jouir d'elles-mêmes », disait
Nietzsche dans Le gai savoir. Parfois angoissante, souvent apaisante ou
stimulante, elle influence les comportements humains. Impossible donc
de limiter cet art aux seules sensations auditives ! Alors, des
chercheurs du CNRS déjouent les cheminements perceptifs et cognitifs à
l'uvre. Ils analysent les signes révélateurs des émotions produites et
les processus cérébraux activés par ce langage non verbal, décryptent
ce qui apparaît être une véritable stratégie commune de perception
Depuis janvier 2006, une grande partie de ces spécialistes français de
la musique ont d'ailleurs regroupé leurs savoir-faire dans un projet
financé par l'Agence nationale de la recherche (ANR) et intitulé « La
spécificité de la musique : contribution de la musique à l'étude des
bases neurales et cognitives de la mémoire humaine et applications
thérapeutiques ». En effet, étudier la musique sous le rapport de la
biologie permet, au-delà des enseignements musicaux, de mieux saisir
comment fonctionne le cerveau.
Qui n'a jamais eu de frissons dès les premières notes d'un morceau ?
Intriguée, Stéphanie Khalfa, chercheuse CNRS au Laboratoire de
neurophysiologie et neuropsychologie de l'Inserm, à Marseille, examine
les réponses physiologiques du corps humain aux différentes musiques
chez cinquante sujets. « Des changements apparaissent très tôt, une à
trois secondes après le début de l'écoute. Ils révèlent des émotions de
gaieté ou de peur. Les muscles zygomatiques au niveau des pommettes
faciales s'activent, la pression sanguine varie et on observe une
micro-transpiration au niveau des paumes des mains », explique-t-elle.
Quant à notre respiration, elle est entraînée par le tempo mais réagit
peu aux autres caractéristiques musicales, comme les graves et aigus ou
le volume. De plus, après un stress psychologique induit, une musique
apaisante mélodie d'ambiance lente, harmonique et au tempo régulier
diminue significativement la concentration sanguine en hormone de
stress, dite cortisol, au bout d'un quart d'heure d'écoute. La musique
adoucirait donc les murs ? « Toutes n'ont pas cet effet bénéfique,
précise Stéphanie Khalfa. Une musique comportant des disparités de
rythme et des dissonances, comme la techno, augmente le stress, même
lorsqu'elle est appréciée. »
cerveau
__________________________________________________________________
© D'après P. Plateaux, Cerveau & Psycho n° 19
__________________________________________________________________
D'autres chercheurs, au Laboratoire d'études de l'apprentissage et du
développement (LEAD)^1 de Dijon, ont observé des réponses émotionnelles
à la musique instrumentale dès 250 millisecondes d'écoute. Ces émotions
ne sont pas seulement la conséquence d'effets de surface (explosion
sonore, forte dissonance) mais résultent de traitements cognitifs très
élaborés, de l'harmonie notamment.
Mais par quels processus neuronaux une mélodie peut-elle ainsi stimuler
nos émotions ? Les oreilles captent les mouvements de molécules d'air
créés par l'instrument de musique ou les baffles du haut-parleur, puis
les transforment en influx nerveux. Ensuite, des réseaux distincts du
système nerveux central de l'organisme réagissent à l'écoute musicale
et au style de musique. Séverine Samson, professeure de psychologie à
l'université de Lille et neuropsychologue à l'hôpital de la Salpêtrière
à Paris, collabore avec le laboratoire CNRS de neurosciences cognitives
et imagerie cérébrale (Lena). Elle observe des patients épileptiques
ayant subi une ablation de certaines zones cérébrales pour le
traitement de leurs crises. Résultat : « L'amygdale est essentielle à
la perception de la peur induite par l'écoute musicale, une lésion
d'une seule amygdale entraîne un fort déficit dans le traitement de ce
stimulus. Lorsqu'il s'agit de juger des dissonances désagréables dans
l'harmonie d'un morceau, ce sont là des structures proches de
l'hippocampe qui jouent un rôle déterminant. »
cerveau
[10]schéma musique
__________________________________________________________________
© D'après D. Bailly, Cerveau & Psycho n° 7
Cliquez sur l'image pour l'agrandir.
__________________________________________________________________
Paroles et musique
Là où s'arrête le pouvoir des mots commence celui de la musique, disait
Richard Wagner Les effets d'une mélodie sur notre cerveau sont souvent
étudiés à la lumière de ceux d'un matériel sonore complexe mieux connu
: le langage. Ces systèmes perceptifs sont liés, mais distincts.
D'ailleurs, près de 5 % de la population est « amusicale » congénitale
: ces personnes n'ont aucun problème cognitif ou de langage mais ont
des problèmes de perception musicale. Par exemple, elles ne détectent
pas une fausse note. Depuis plusieurs années, les chercheurs de
l'Institut de neurosciences cognitives de la Méditerranée (INCM)^2 à
Marseille effectuent des études comparatives entre langage et musique
grâce aux techniques d'imagerie, par électroencéphalogramme (EEG) et
par résonance magnétique fonctionnelle (IRMf), celle-ci mesurant
l'activité cérébrale selon la consommation d'oxygène des zones du
cerveau. Ainsi, selon Mireille Besson, directrice de recherche à
l'INCM, « le rythme et les règles de l'harmonie ou du contrepoint
sollicitent des zones de l'hémisphère gauche souvent attribuées au
langage, en particulier à la syntaxe. Mais le timbre de l'instrument
stimulerait plutôt l'hémisphère droit. » Bref, la perception du langage
comme de la musique s'effectue par étapes, explique Daniele Schön,
chercheuse à l'INCM. « Par exemple, dans l'apprentissage d'une langue
étrangère, le cerveau segmente d'abord les informations sonores. Puis,
du sens est attribué aux chaînes des sons. » Résultat étonnant : la
vitesse d'émergence d'un mot est multipliée par trois si l'information
est chantée plutôt que parlée ! « D'où l'intérêt des comptines
destinées aux jeunes enfants », note Daniele Schön. La quantité
d'informations extraite est énorme durant la première minute, puis elle
augmente lentement.
La mémoire entre en jeu
Si plusieurs réseaux neuronaux sont impliqués dans la perception de la
musique, comment le cerveau parvient-il à traiter la complexité de
l'information musicale ? Les scientifiques savent aujourd'hui qu'il
élabore une stratégie basée sur la familiarité, l'apprentissage
implicite et la mémoire. Démonstration : Barbara Tillmann, chargée de
recherche dans l'unité « Neurosciences sensorielles, comportement,
cognition »^3 de Lyon, s'est intéressée à la reconnaissance de mélodies
familières. « Après 500 millisecondes d'écoute, les jugements de
familiarité des auditeurs se différencient pour des morceaux musicaux
connus ou non. » Les réseaux neuronaux impliqués lors de cette
perception de la familiarité musicale sont similaires à ceux activés
par les odeurs familières, selon ses résultats publiés en février dans
la revue Cerebral Cortex^4.
femme
__________________________________________________________________
© E. Perrin/CNRS Photothèque
Une langue étrangère est apprise trois fois plus vite si elle est
chantée. Pour observer les zones cérébrales activées, cette femme porte
un casque muni de 32 électrodes. Les variations électriques du cerveau
(électroencéphalogramme) sont alors reproduites en 3D.
__________________________________________________________________
Une part de mémoire à court terme spécifiquement auditive influe
également. Laurent Demany, chercheur au laboratoire bordelais «
Mouvement adaptation cognition »^5, a observé un phénomène paradoxal dû
à cette mémoire. Il a constaté qu'il est possible d'entendre
consciemment un mouvement mélodique (un changement de hauteur tonale)
entre deux sons successifs alors que pourtant le premier de ces sons a
été masqué par un ensemble d'autres sons simultanés et n'a pas été
perçu consciemment ! « Cela peut se produire même si les deux sons
successifs sont séparés par plusieurs secondes de silence, et s'ils ne
sont pas présentés à la même oreille. Le cerveau relie automatiquement
des sons dans le temps et détecte des changements indépendamment de
l'attention et de la conscience », explique-t-il. « Cette mémoire
auditive est hypersensible aux changements de fréquence, et donc de
hauteur tonale », précise le chercheur : dans un délai d'une
demi-seconde à deux secondes, la mémoire à court terme oublie plus vite
l'intensité d'un son que sa hauteur.
Après quinze secondes d'écoute d'un morceau musical, un autre processus
de mémoire entre en jeu, comme l'a montré Barbara Tillmann : il nous
devient plus facile de discriminer avec précision les autres
caractéristiques de cet extrait (mélodie, harmonie, etc.). Notre
mémoire musicale aurait donc tendance à se bonifier avec le temps
d'écoute. Pour détecter les capacités d'apprentissage de notre cerveau,
Barbara Tillmann a utilisé avec Bénédicte Poulin-Charronnat, chercheuse
au LEAD à Dijon, une nouvelle grammaire musicale établissant des règles
d'écriture de suites de notes. Elles ont créé des séquences de cinq et
six notes, fréquentes ou impossibles d'après cette grammaire. Elles ont
alors testé la sensibilité de quarante personnes à ces règles
musicales. « Dans 60 % des cas, les transgressions aux règles suivies
sont détectées en moins d'un quart d'heure d'écoute. Les auditeurs ne
s'en rendent pas compte, mais ils ont saisi certaines des
caractéristiques de la nouvelle structure musicale », commente
Bénédicte Poulin-Charronnat. Cet apprentissage implicite existe au sein
de chaque culture, où une musique environnante est omniprésente.
Nous sommes tous des musiciens en herbe
Mais alors, il n'y aurait aucune différence entre musiciens et
non-musiciens, dès lors que chacun perçoit de manière implicite et
rapide la musique ? En fait, les experts sont plus performants pour
distinguer la dimension élémentaire du son musical (la hauteur, la
durée ou l'intensité), mais lorsqu'il s'agit de comprendre des
structures des extraits, la perception musicale des experts et des
non-experts est proche. Ainsi, d'après Emmanuel Bigand, directeur du
LEAD, qui a mené de nombreux tests entre musiciens et non-musiciens, «
les novices ont des connaissances très sophistiquées, même s'ils ne
savent pas les exprimer ». « Et ce dès l'âge de six ans », annonce le
directeur de recherche. Pour le découvrir, il a analysé avec son équipe
les attentes perceptives qui se forment automatiquement à l'écoute d'un
morceau de musique (tâche d'amorçage).
Bilan : tous les auditeurs, issus du conservatoire ou non, anticipent
les mêmes structures musicales complexes (harmoniques, par exemple). De
plus, en situation de découverte, la forme d'un morceau est
difficilement détectée si sa durée dépasse les trente secondes, même si
l'on est musicien de haut niveau. C'est en situation d'écoute répétée
que cette forme se précise. Une écoute passive quotidienne de musique
permet donc un apprentissage implicite, dont le traitement est plus
précis et plus rapide chez les musiciens.
Mireille Besson, de l'INCM, a cherché avec son équipe à préciser cette
sensibilité affinée : « Si la même mélodie est jouée un tout petit peu
plus aiguë ou un tout petit peu plus grave (d'un cinquième de ton,
c'est-à-dire d'un cinquième de la différence entre do et ré par
exemple), cette différence est facilement perçue par les musiciens mais
pas par les non-musiciens » (72 % des non-musiciens ne la perçoivent
pas, contre 35 % des musiciens). Cela relève-t-il d'une prédisposition
génétique ? Vingt enfants inexpérimentés ont suivi un entraînement à la
musique. Bilan : en six mois, ils ont développé les mêmes capacités
auditives que celles connues chez des enfants ayant suivi quatre ans de
conservatoire. L'oreille musicale n'est donc pas innée, elle s'acquiert
! François Madurell est musicologue, responsable du groupe Museco à
l'Observatoire musical français et collaborateur du LEAD. Selon lui,
ces résultats confirment l'idée que « la ségrégation entre musique pour
auditeurs profanes et musique savante relève de connotations sociales.
Les représentations liées à certains répertoires peuvent provoquer des
refus, mais il n'y a pas d'obstacle cognitif. Par exemple, les
réticences face à la musique de chambre dépendent souvent de facteurs
extérieurs à la musique, comme la tenue vestimentaire des musiciens,
les codes de comportement lors du concert et le sentiment que cette
musique est destinée à des catégories sociales privilégiées. »
Quant à l'oreille absolue, elle consiste à « identifier la hauteur
précise d'un son et à le nommer sans l'aide d'une note de référence. De
grands musiciens ne l'ont pas, elle serait davantage liée à un
apprentissage instrumental précoce, avant quatre ans. » Elle favorise
la reconnaissance de chaque note sans influer sur la perception et
l'appréciation d'un morceau dans son ensemble. Parfois même, l'oreille
absolue est ressentie comme une gêne durant l'écoute musicale. Pour
François Madurell, la qualité de l'oreille du futur musicien pourrait
dépendre du type d'apprentissage. Les méthodes traditionnelles reposent
sur un couplage « visuo-moteur » : l'élève associe la lecture d'une
note à un geste sur l'instrument. « Des apprentissages privilégiant
d'autres couplages (audition/chant et audition/action motrice) seraient
plus propices au développement de l'écoute intérieure et de
l'intelligence musicale. » Bref, l'enseignement de la musique permet de
développer la rapidité d'analyse et la sensibilité des musiciens. Mais
les capacités de perception lors de l'écoute restent très proches entre
experts et profanes.
Thérapies musicales
Si la musique adoucit les murs, soigne-elle les maux ? Que pensent nos
chercheurs de la musicothérapie ? Des études récentes menées chez des
enfants dyslexiques (problèmes de lecture et d'écriture) et des
personnes souffrant de la maladie d'Alzheimer démontrent peu à peu
l'intérêt de la musique à stimuler le cerveau. Mireille Besson et
Michel Habib, de l'INCM de Marseille, ont fait écouter à des jeunes
dyslexiques de dix ans des comptines, en variant la hauteur tonale.
enfant dyslex
__________________________________________________________________
© E. Perrin/CNRS Photothèque
Etude de la perception musicale des sons graves à aigus d'un enfant
dyslexique.
__________________________________________________________________
« Même lorsque la variation de hauteur est très perceptible par des
enfants qui lisent normalement, 45 % des enfants dyslexiques ne
l'entendent pas. » Après un entraînement phonologique de huit semaines,
leur perception auditive est améliorée. « Ils ne font plus d'erreur sur
ces grandes variations d'un demi-ton, seulement 3 % d'entre eux se
trompent encore. Cette sensibilité sonore augmente leurs capacités de
lecture. Pourquoi ? Peut-être parce que s'ils ne reconnaissent pas les
différences entre certains sons de leur langue, ils ne les repèrent pas
à l'écrit », propose la chercheuse. D'autres résultats montrent
également de fortes relations entre la sensibilité des dyslexiques à la
prosodie, c'est-à-dire à la musique du langage (intonation des voix,
etc.), et le développement des capacités de lecture. La musique
pourrait alors pallier certains troubles de la dyslexie en favorisant
la sensibilité auditive. Et ce, sans confronter l'enfant à son déficit,
à la différence des entraînements actuels basés sur des exercices de
langage.
À l'université de Caen, Hervé Platel, professeur de neuropsychologie,
étudie des patients déments Alzheimer en clinique. « Malgré les
troubles avérés du langage et des concepts sémantiques, certaines
capacités musicales sont conservées », explique Hervé Platel. Pour
savoir si un apprentissage musical est encore possible chez ces
patients, le chercheur leur a organisé six séances d'une heure et demie
d'enseignement de chansons nouvelles. « Ils sont effectivement capables
de restituer une mélodie lorsqu'on les aide à retrouver les paroles de
la chanson. Maintenant, il faut déterminer quels substrats cérébraux
sont alors activés, car l'apprentissage ne s'effectue pas pour des
textes présentés sans mélodie. » À suivre donc Décidément, la musique
n'a pas fini de jouer avec notre corps et notre esprit !
Aude Olivier
Du disque dur au disque d'or
piano
__________________________________________________________________
© L. Médard/CNRS Photothèque
Jean-Claude Risset, Médaille d'or du CNRS, est l'un des pionniers de
l'informatique musicale et de la synthèse sonore.
__________________________________________________________________
Il y a cinquante ans, dans l'enceinte des célèbres laboratoires Bell
Telephone dans le New Jersey, Max Mathews réalisait le premier
enregistrement numérique et aussi la première pièce musicale
synthétisée par un ordinateur, une composition de 17 secondes. Mathews,
ingénieur et musicien américain, avait compris avant tout le monde que
ces énormes calculateurs ouvraient un champ d'exploration musicale
illimité. Très vite, s'est formé autour de lui un groupe de pionniers
de l'informatique musicale. Au carrefour de la programmation, de
l'acoustique, de la psychologie de la perception auditive et de la
musique contemporaine, ce groupe hétéroclite a découvert la synthèse
sonore, c'est-à-dire les procédés pour créer des sons à partir de
programmes informatiques. Jean-Claude Risset, Médaille d'or du CNRS en
1999, qui avait rejoint les laboratoires Bell en 1964, figure parmi ces
pionniers. Ce chercheur et compositeur participera plus tard à la
création de l'Ircam (Institut de recherche et coordination
acoustique/musique) avec Pierre Boulez, avant de rejoindre le
Laboratoire de mécanique et d'acoustique (LMA) du CNRS à Marseille, où
il travaille actuellement. « Ce n'étaient pas tellement les
applications commerciales de ces travaux qui nous motivaient à cette
époque. Nous cherchions surtout à créer une nouvelle musique avec de
nouvelles sonorités. Étant donné que tous les sons peuvent être décrits
par des nombres, l'ordinateur permet non seulement de composer avec des
sons, mais aussi de composer les sons eux-mêmes. » Jean-Claude Risset
crée alors quelques-unes des premières uvres musicales importantes,
comme la suite Little Boy, qui ne comprend que des sons synthétiques
n'existant pas dans le monde réel.
Dans le même temps, il poursuit son travail de synthèse sonore et
élabore un important catalogue de sons synthétiques. Au fil des ans,
les progrès de l'informatique musicale suivent de près l'accroissement
de la puissance des ordinateurs. En 1967, John Chowning met au point la
synthèse musicale par modulation de fréquence, un procédé simple pour
créer et contrôler le timbre des sons. Cette invention, dont le brevet
est l'un des plus lucratifs de l'université Stanford, permet
l'apparition des premiers synthétiseurs Yamaha, qui ne sont autre chose
que des ordinateurs dédiés exclusivement à la musique. C'est ainsi que
l'informatique musicale, qui était jusque-là un domaine réservé à la
musique d'avant-garde, prend d'assaut la scène pop sous l'impulsion de
groupes comme Kraftwerk, puis de la techno et de tous ses avatars. À
présent, la synthèse sonore est à la portée de quiconque possède un PC,
et les catalogues de sons en accès libre sont extraordinairement
fournis.
Cependant, la recherche en informatique musicale découvre constamment
de nouvelles possibilités. Ainsi, au LMA, l'équipe de Daniel Arfib et
Jean-Claude Risset cherche à sortir l'informatique musicale de son
environnement virtuel en inventant des instruments de musique basés sur
l'ordinateur. « Ces instruments utilisent des périphériques comme des
joysticks ou des tablettes graphiques. Nous essayons ensuite que le jeu
sur ces instruments soit aussi fin que celui sur un instrument
classique. Pour cela, il faut que les informations qui reviennent à
l'utilisateur (le feed-back visuel et auditif) lorsqu'il manipule
l'instrument soient adaptées et cohérentes », explique Daniel Arfib.
Perpétuant l'esprit des pionniers de l'informatique musicale, ces
travaux sont à la fois une tentative pour repousser les limites
technologiques et une exploration artistique d'avant-garde.
S.E.
CONTACTS :
Jean-Claude Risset, [11]jcrisset@lma.cnrs-mrs.fr
Daniel Arfib, [12]arfib@lma.cnrs-mrs.fr
Glossaire
Tempo : il détermine la vitesse d'exécution d'une pièce musicale. Il
est traditionnellement indiqué par des termes italiens comme largo pour
un tempo lent, andante pour un tempo modéré ou allegro pour un tempo
rapide.
Rythme : c'est l'un des éléments qui permettent de caractériser une
phrase musicale. Le rythme détermine la durée des notes les unes par
rapport aux autres. Lorsqu'on parle d'un rythme dans le sens d'une
forme musicale (valse, tango, bossa), il s'agit d'une brève cellule
rythmique qui se répète et donne son caractère à la pièce.
Dissonance : elle correspond à un ensemble de sons dont la succession
ou la simultanéité est désagréable ou bien produit un effet de tension
musicale qui est parfois recherché. L'impression de dissonance varie
selon le courant culturel, l'époque et les individus.
Harmonie : c'est l'art d'enchaîner des accords, de combiner des sons
entre eux pour les rendre agréables à l'oreille.
Contrepoint : méthode de composition dans laquelle on donne plus
d'importance à la mélodie qu'à la combinaison de plusieurs sons
superposés.
Timbre : comparé souvent à la couleur, il représente la différence
perçue par l'auditeur entre deux sons de même hauteur et de même
intensité. Le timbre est formé par le rapport entre les différents
harmoniques de la note jouée ou chantée.
Hauteur : la hauteur d'un son est liée à sa fréquence, c'est-à-dire à
la vitesse de vibration du son dans l'air mesurée en hertz. Plus la
fréquence est élevée, plus le son « monte » dans les aigus ; plus la
fréquence est faible, plus il « descend » dans les graves.
Intensité : elle correspond au volume d'un son fort ou faible mesuré en
décibels (dBA) selon l'amplitude de la vibration produite.
Écoute intérieure : capacité d'entendre ce que l'on va jouer avant de
le jouer.
Notes :
1. Laboratoire CNRS / Université Dijon.
2. Institut CNRS / Université Aix-Marseille-II.
3. Unité CNRS / Université Lyon-I.
4. Cerebral Cortex Advance Access, 8 fév. 2007,
DOI:10.1093/cercor/bhl173.
5. Laboratoire CNRS / Universités Bordeaux-I et II.
Contact
> Stéphanie Khalfa,
[13]skhalfa@skhalfa.com
> Séverine Samson,
[14]severine.samson@univ-lille3.fr
> Mireille Besson,
[15]mireille.besson@incm.cnrs-mrs.fr
> Daniele Schön,
[16]daniele.schon@incm.cnrs-mrs.fr
> Barbara Tillmann,
[17]btillmann@olfac.univ-lyon1.fr
> Laurent Demany,
[18]laurent.demany@psyac.u-bordeaux2.fr
> Bénédicte Poulin-Charronnat,
[19]benedicte.poulin@u-bourgogne.fr
> Emmanuel Bigand,
[20]bigand@u-bourgogne.fr
> François Madurell,
[21]francois.madurell@free.fr
> Hervé Platel,
[22]herve.platel@unicaen.fr
__________________________________________________________________
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[4]CNRS > [5]Presse > [6]Journal du CNRS > [7]La musique, pourquoi elle
rythme nos vies / N°209 Juin 2007 / La musique > [8]La musique,
pourquoi elle rythme nos vies
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[9]Retour au sommaire
La symphonie neuronale
L'été arrive et nous rejoue ses tempos endiablés, mélodies fredonnées
et autres airs cadencés. Cette année encore, la Fête de la musique est
célébrée dans plus de 120 pays. D'où nous vient ce goût pour la
musique, partagé par toutes les cultures à toutes les époques ? « La
musique offre aux passions le moyen de jouir d'elles-mêmes », disait
Nietzsche dans Le gai savoir. Parfois angoissante, souvent apaisante ou
stimulante, elle influence les comportements humains. Impossible donc
de limiter cet art aux seules sensations auditives ! Alors, des
chercheurs du CNRS déjouent les cheminements perceptifs et cognitifs à
l'uvre. Ils analysent les signes révélateurs des émotions produites et
les processus cérébraux activés par ce langage non verbal, décryptent
ce qui apparaît être une véritable stratégie commune de perception
Depuis janvier 2006, une grande partie de ces spécialistes français de
la musique ont d'ailleurs regroupé leurs savoir-faire dans un projet
financé par l'Agence nationale de la recherche (ANR) et intitulé « La
spécificité de la musique : contribution de la musique à l'étude des
bases neurales et cognitives de la mémoire humaine et applications
thérapeutiques ». En effet, étudier la musique sous le rapport de la
biologie permet, au-delà des enseignements musicaux, de mieux saisir
comment fonctionne le cerveau.
Qui n'a jamais eu de frissons dès les premières notes d'un morceau ?
Intriguée, Stéphanie Khalfa, chercheuse CNRS au Laboratoire de
neurophysiologie et neuropsychologie de l'Inserm, à Marseille, examine
les réponses physiologiques du corps humain aux différentes musiques
chez cinquante sujets. « Des changements apparaissent très tôt, une à
trois secondes après le début de l'écoute. Ils révèlent des émotions de
gaieté ou de peur. Les muscles zygomatiques au niveau des pommettes
faciales s'activent, la pression sanguine varie et on observe une
micro-transpiration au niveau des paumes des mains », explique-t-elle.
Quant à notre respiration, elle est entraînée par le tempo mais réagit
peu aux autres caractéristiques musicales, comme les graves et aigus ou
le volume. De plus, après un stress psychologique induit, une musique
apaisante mélodie d'ambiance lente, harmonique et au tempo régulier
diminue significativement la concentration sanguine en hormone de
stress, dite cortisol, au bout d'un quart d'heure d'écoute. La musique
adoucirait donc les murs ? « Toutes n'ont pas cet effet bénéfique,
précise Stéphanie Khalfa. Une musique comportant des disparités de
rythme et des dissonances, comme la techno, augmente le stress, même
lorsqu'elle est appréciée. »
cerveau
__________________________________________________________________
© D'après P. Plateaux, Cerveau & Psycho n° 19
__________________________________________________________________
D'autres chercheurs, au Laboratoire d'études de l'apprentissage et du
développement (LEAD)^1 de Dijon, ont observé des réponses émotionnelles
à la musique instrumentale dès 250 millisecondes d'écoute. Ces émotions
ne sont pas seulement la conséquence d'effets de surface (explosion
sonore, forte dissonance) mais résultent de traitements cognitifs très
élaborés, de l'harmonie notamment.
Mais par quels processus neuronaux une mélodie peut-elle ainsi stimuler
nos émotions ? Les oreilles captent les mouvements de molécules d'air
créés par l'instrument de musique ou les baffles du haut-parleur, puis
les transforment en influx nerveux. Ensuite, des réseaux distincts du
système nerveux central de l'organisme réagissent à l'écoute musicale
et au style de musique. Séverine Samson, professeure de psychologie à
l'université de Lille et neuropsychologue à l'hôpital de la Salpêtrière
à Paris, collabore avec le laboratoire CNRS de neurosciences cognitives
et imagerie cérébrale (Lena). Elle observe des patients épileptiques
ayant subi une ablation de certaines zones cérébrales pour le
traitement de leurs crises. Résultat : « L'amygdale est essentielle à
la perception de la peur induite par l'écoute musicale, une lésion
d'une seule amygdale entraîne un fort déficit dans le traitement de ce
stimulus. Lorsqu'il s'agit de juger des dissonances désagréables dans
l'harmonie d'un morceau, ce sont là des structures proches de
l'hippocampe qui jouent un rôle déterminant. »
cerveau
[10]schéma musique
__________________________________________________________________
© D'après D. Bailly, Cerveau & Psycho n° 7
Cliquez sur l'image pour l'agrandir.
__________________________________________________________________
Paroles et musique
Là où s'arrête le pouvoir des mots commence celui de la musique, disait
Richard Wagner Les effets d'une mélodie sur notre cerveau sont souvent
étudiés à la lumière de ceux d'un matériel sonore complexe mieux connu
: le langage. Ces systèmes perceptifs sont liés, mais distincts.
D'ailleurs, près de 5 % de la population est « amusicale » congénitale
: ces personnes n'ont aucun problème cognitif ou de langage mais ont
des problèmes de perception musicale. Par exemple, elles ne détectent
pas une fausse note. Depuis plusieurs années, les chercheurs de
l'Institut de neurosciences cognitives de la Méditerranée (INCM)^2 à
Marseille effectuent des études comparatives entre langage et musique
grâce aux techniques d'imagerie, par électroencéphalogramme (EEG) et
par résonance magnétique fonctionnelle (IRMf), celle-ci mesurant
l'activité cérébrale selon la consommation d'oxygène des zones du
cerveau. Ainsi, selon Mireille Besson, directrice de recherche à
l'INCM, « le rythme et les règles de l'harmonie ou du contrepoint
sollicitent des zones de l'hémisphère gauche souvent attribuées au
langage, en particulier à la syntaxe. Mais le timbre de l'instrument
stimulerait plutôt l'hémisphère droit. » Bref, la perception du langage
comme de la musique s'effectue par étapes, explique Daniele Schön,
chercheuse à l'INCM. « Par exemple, dans l'apprentissage d'une langue
étrangère, le cerveau segmente d'abord les informations sonores. Puis,
du sens est attribué aux chaînes des sons. » Résultat étonnant : la
vitesse d'émergence d'un mot est multipliée par trois si l'information
est chantée plutôt que parlée ! « D'où l'intérêt des comptines
destinées aux jeunes enfants », note Daniele Schön. La quantité
d'informations extraite est énorme durant la première minute, puis elle
augmente lentement.
La mémoire entre en jeu
Si plusieurs réseaux neuronaux sont impliqués dans la perception de la
musique, comment le cerveau parvient-il à traiter la complexité de
l'information musicale ? Les scientifiques savent aujourd'hui qu'il
élabore une stratégie basée sur la familiarité, l'apprentissage
implicite et la mémoire. Démonstration : Barbara Tillmann, chargée de
recherche dans l'unité « Neurosciences sensorielles, comportement,
cognition »^3 de Lyon, s'est intéressée à la reconnaissance de mélodies
familières. « Après 500 millisecondes d'écoute, les jugements de
familiarité des auditeurs se différencient pour des morceaux musicaux
connus ou non. » Les réseaux neuronaux impliqués lors de cette
perception de la familiarité musicale sont similaires à ceux activés
par les odeurs familières, selon ses résultats publiés en février dans
la revue Cerebral Cortex^4.
femme
__________________________________________________________________
© E. Perrin/CNRS Photothèque
Une langue étrangère est apprise trois fois plus vite si elle est
chantée. Pour observer les zones cérébrales activées, cette femme porte
un casque muni de 32 électrodes. Les variations électriques du cerveau
(électroencéphalogramme) sont alors reproduites en 3D.
__________________________________________________________________
Une part de mémoire à court terme spécifiquement auditive influe
également. Laurent Demany, chercheur au laboratoire bordelais «
Mouvement adaptation cognition »^5, a observé un phénomène paradoxal dû
à cette mémoire. Il a constaté qu'il est possible d'entendre
consciemment un mouvement mélodique (un changement de hauteur tonale)
entre deux sons successifs alors que pourtant le premier de ces sons a
été masqué par un ensemble d'autres sons simultanés et n'a pas été
perçu consciemment ! « Cela peut se produire même si les deux sons
successifs sont séparés par plusieurs secondes de silence, et s'ils ne
sont pas présentés à la même oreille. Le cerveau relie automatiquement
des sons dans le temps et détecte des changements indépendamment de
l'attention et de la conscience », explique-t-il. « Cette mémoire
auditive est hypersensible aux changements de fréquence, et donc de
hauteur tonale », précise le chercheur : dans un délai d'une
demi-seconde à deux secondes, la mémoire à court terme oublie plus vite
l'intensité d'un son que sa hauteur.
Après quinze secondes d'écoute d'un morceau musical, un autre processus
de mémoire entre en jeu, comme l'a montré Barbara Tillmann : il nous
devient plus facile de discriminer avec précision les autres
caractéristiques de cet extrait (mélodie, harmonie, etc.). Notre
mémoire musicale aurait donc tendance à se bonifier avec le temps
d'écoute. Pour détecter les capacités d'apprentissage de notre cerveau,
Barbara Tillmann a utilisé avec Bénédicte Poulin-Charronnat, chercheuse
au LEAD à Dijon, une nouvelle grammaire musicale établissant des règles
d'écriture de suites de notes. Elles ont créé des séquences de cinq et
six notes, fréquentes ou impossibles d'après cette grammaire. Elles ont
alors testé la sensibilité de quarante personnes à ces règles
musicales. « Dans 60 % des cas, les transgressions aux règles suivies
sont détectées en moins d'un quart d'heure d'écoute. Les auditeurs ne
s'en rendent pas compte, mais ils ont saisi certaines des
caractéristiques de la nouvelle structure musicale », commente
Bénédicte Poulin-Charronnat. Cet apprentissage implicite existe au sein
de chaque culture, où une musique environnante est omniprésente.
Nous sommes tous des musiciens en herbe
Mais alors, il n'y aurait aucune différence entre musiciens et
non-musiciens, dès lors que chacun perçoit de manière implicite et
rapide la musique ? En fait, les experts sont plus performants pour
distinguer la dimension élémentaire du son musical (la hauteur, la
durée ou l'intensité), mais lorsqu'il s'agit de comprendre des
structures des extraits, la perception musicale des experts et des
non-experts est proche. Ainsi, d'après Emmanuel Bigand, directeur du
LEAD, qui a mené de nombreux tests entre musiciens et non-musiciens, «
les novices ont des connaissances très sophistiquées, même s'ils ne
savent pas les exprimer ». « Et ce dès l'âge de six ans », annonce le
directeur de recherche. Pour le découvrir, il a analysé avec son équipe
les attentes perceptives qui se forment automatiquement à l'écoute d'un
morceau de musique (tâche d'amorçage).
Bilan : tous les auditeurs, issus du conservatoire ou non, anticipent
les mêmes structures musicales complexes (harmoniques, par exemple). De
plus, en situation de découverte, la forme d'un morceau est
difficilement détectée si sa durée dépasse les trente secondes, même si
l'on est musicien de haut niveau. C'est en situation d'écoute répétée
que cette forme se précise. Une écoute passive quotidienne de musique
permet donc un apprentissage implicite, dont le traitement est plus
précis et plus rapide chez les musiciens.
Mireille Besson, de l'INCM, a cherché avec son équipe à préciser cette
sensibilité affinée : « Si la même mélodie est jouée un tout petit peu
plus aiguë ou un tout petit peu plus grave (d'un cinquième de ton,
c'est-à-dire d'un cinquième de la différence entre do et ré par
exemple), cette différence est facilement perçue par les musiciens mais
pas par les non-musiciens » (72 % des non-musiciens ne la perçoivent
pas, contre 35 % des musiciens). Cela relève-t-il d'une prédisposition
génétique ? Vingt enfants inexpérimentés ont suivi un entraînement à la
musique. Bilan : en six mois, ils ont développé les mêmes capacités
auditives que celles connues chez des enfants ayant suivi quatre ans de
conservatoire. L'oreille musicale n'est donc pas innée, elle s'acquiert
! François Madurell est musicologue, responsable du groupe Museco à
l'Observatoire musical français et collaborateur du LEAD. Selon lui,
ces résultats confirment l'idée que « la ségrégation entre musique pour
auditeurs profanes et musique savante relève de connotations sociales.
Les représentations liées à certains répertoires peuvent provoquer des
refus, mais il n'y a pas d'obstacle cognitif. Par exemple, les
réticences face à la musique de chambre dépendent souvent de facteurs
extérieurs à la musique, comme la tenue vestimentaire des musiciens,
les codes de comportement lors du concert et le sentiment que cette
musique est destinée à des catégories sociales privilégiées. »
Quant à l'oreille absolue, elle consiste à « identifier la hauteur
précise d'un son et à le nommer sans l'aide d'une note de référence. De
grands musiciens ne l'ont pas, elle serait davantage liée à un
apprentissage instrumental précoce, avant quatre ans. » Elle favorise
la reconnaissance de chaque note sans influer sur la perception et
l'appréciation d'un morceau dans son ensemble. Parfois même, l'oreille
absolue est ressentie comme une gêne durant l'écoute musicale. Pour
François Madurell, la qualité de l'oreille du futur musicien pourrait
dépendre du type d'apprentissage. Les méthodes traditionnelles reposent
sur un couplage « visuo-moteur » : l'élève associe la lecture d'une
note à un geste sur l'instrument. « Des apprentissages privilégiant
d'autres couplages (audition/chant et audition/action motrice) seraient
plus propices au développement de l'écoute intérieure et de
l'intelligence musicale. » Bref, l'enseignement de la musique permet de
développer la rapidité d'analyse et la sensibilité des musiciens. Mais
les capacités de perception lors de l'écoute restent très proches entre
experts et profanes.
Thérapies musicales
Si la musique adoucit les murs, soigne-elle les maux ? Que pensent nos
chercheurs de la musicothérapie ? Des études récentes menées chez des
enfants dyslexiques (problèmes de lecture et d'écriture) et des
personnes souffrant de la maladie d'Alzheimer démontrent peu à peu
l'intérêt de la musique à stimuler le cerveau. Mireille Besson et
Michel Habib, de l'INCM de Marseille, ont fait écouter à des jeunes
dyslexiques de dix ans des comptines, en variant la hauteur tonale.
enfant dyslex
__________________________________________________________________
© E. Perrin/CNRS Photothèque
Etude de la perception musicale des sons graves à aigus d'un enfant
dyslexique.
__________________________________________________________________
« Même lorsque la variation de hauteur est très perceptible par des
enfants qui lisent normalement, 45 % des enfants dyslexiques ne
l'entendent pas. » Après un entraînement phonologique de huit semaines,
leur perception auditive est améliorée. « Ils ne font plus d'erreur sur
ces grandes variations d'un demi-ton, seulement 3 % d'entre eux se
trompent encore. Cette sensibilité sonore augmente leurs capacités de
lecture. Pourquoi ? Peut-être parce que s'ils ne reconnaissent pas les
différences entre certains sons de leur langue, ils ne les repèrent pas
à l'écrit », propose la chercheuse. D'autres résultats montrent
également de fortes relations entre la sensibilité des dyslexiques à la
prosodie, c'est-à-dire à la musique du langage (intonation des voix,
etc.), et le développement des capacités de lecture. La musique
pourrait alors pallier certains troubles de la dyslexie en favorisant
la sensibilité auditive. Et ce, sans confronter l'enfant à son déficit,
à la différence des entraînements actuels basés sur des exercices de
langage.
À l'université de Caen, Hervé Platel, professeur de neuropsychologie,
étudie des patients déments Alzheimer en clinique. « Malgré les
troubles avérés du langage et des concepts sémantiques, certaines
capacités musicales sont conservées », explique Hervé Platel. Pour
savoir si un apprentissage musical est encore possible chez ces
patients, le chercheur leur a organisé six séances d'une heure et demie
d'enseignement de chansons nouvelles. « Ils sont effectivement capables
de restituer une mélodie lorsqu'on les aide à retrouver les paroles de
la chanson. Maintenant, il faut déterminer quels substrats cérébraux
sont alors activés, car l'apprentissage ne s'effectue pas pour des
textes présentés sans mélodie. » À suivre donc Décidément, la musique
n'a pas fini de jouer avec notre corps et notre esprit !
Aude Olivier
Du disque dur au disque d'or
piano
__________________________________________________________________
© L. Médard/CNRS Photothèque
Jean-Claude Risset, Médaille d'or du CNRS, est l'un des pionniers de
l'informatique musicale et de la synthèse sonore.
__________________________________________________________________
Il y a cinquante ans, dans l'enceinte des célèbres laboratoires Bell
Telephone dans le New Jersey, Max Mathews réalisait le premier
enregistrement numérique et aussi la première pièce musicale
synthétisée par un ordinateur, une composition de 17 secondes. Mathews,
ingénieur et musicien américain, avait compris avant tout le monde que
ces énormes calculateurs ouvraient un champ d'exploration musicale
illimité. Très vite, s'est formé autour de lui un groupe de pionniers
de l'informatique musicale. Au carrefour de la programmation, de
l'acoustique, de la psychologie de la perception auditive et de la
musique contemporaine, ce groupe hétéroclite a découvert la synthèse
sonore, c'est-à-dire les procédés pour créer des sons à partir de
programmes informatiques. Jean-Claude Risset, Médaille d'or du CNRS en
1999, qui avait rejoint les laboratoires Bell en 1964, figure parmi ces
pionniers. Ce chercheur et compositeur participera plus tard à la
création de l'Ircam (Institut de recherche et coordination
acoustique/musique) avec Pierre Boulez, avant de rejoindre le
Laboratoire de mécanique et d'acoustique (LMA) du CNRS à Marseille, où
il travaille actuellement. « Ce n'étaient pas tellement les
applications commerciales de ces travaux qui nous motivaient à cette
époque. Nous cherchions surtout à créer une nouvelle musique avec de
nouvelles sonorités. Étant donné que tous les sons peuvent être décrits
par des nombres, l'ordinateur permet non seulement de composer avec des
sons, mais aussi de composer les sons eux-mêmes. » Jean-Claude Risset
crée alors quelques-unes des premières uvres musicales importantes,
comme la suite Little Boy, qui ne comprend que des sons synthétiques
n'existant pas dans le monde réel.
Dans le même temps, il poursuit son travail de synthèse sonore et
élabore un important catalogue de sons synthétiques. Au fil des ans,
les progrès de l'informatique musicale suivent de près l'accroissement
de la puissance des ordinateurs. En 1967, John Chowning met au point la
synthèse musicale par modulation de fréquence, un procédé simple pour
créer et contrôler le timbre des sons. Cette invention, dont le brevet
est l'un des plus lucratifs de l'université Stanford, permet
l'apparition des premiers synthétiseurs Yamaha, qui ne sont autre chose
que des ordinateurs dédiés exclusivement à la musique. C'est ainsi que
l'informatique musicale, qui était jusque-là un domaine réservé à la
musique d'avant-garde, prend d'assaut la scène pop sous l'impulsion de
groupes comme Kraftwerk, puis de la techno et de tous ses avatars. À
présent, la synthèse sonore est à la portée de quiconque possède un PC,
et les catalogues de sons en accès libre sont extraordinairement
fournis.
Cependant, la recherche en informatique musicale découvre constamment
de nouvelles possibilités. Ainsi, au LMA, l'équipe de Daniel Arfib et
Jean-Claude Risset cherche à sortir l'informatique musicale de son
environnement virtuel en inventant des instruments de musique basés sur
l'ordinateur. « Ces instruments utilisent des périphériques comme des
joysticks ou des tablettes graphiques. Nous essayons ensuite que le jeu
sur ces instruments soit aussi fin que celui sur un instrument
classique. Pour cela, il faut que les informations qui reviennent à
l'utilisateur (le feed-back visuel et auditif) lorsqu'il manipule
l'instrument soient adaptées et cohérentes », explique Daniel Arfib.
Perpétuant l'esprit des pionniers de l'informatique musicale, ces
travaux sont à la fois une tentative pour repousser les limites
technologiques et une exploration artistique d'avant-garde.
S.E.
CONTACTS :
Jean-Claude Risset, [11]jcrisset@lma.cnrs-mrs.fr
Daniel Arfib, [12]arfib@lma.cnrs-mrs.fr
Glossaire
Tempo : il détermine la vitesse d'exécution d'une pièce musicale. Il
est traditionnellement indiqué par des termes italiens comme largo pour
un tempo lent, andante pour un tempo modéré ou allegro pour un tempo
rapide.
Rythme : c'est l'un des éléments qui permettent de caractériser une
phrase musicale. Le rythme détermine la durée des notes les unes par
rapport aux autres. Lorsqu'on parle d'un rythme dans le sens d'une
forme musicale (valse, tango, bossa), il s'agit d'une brève cellule
rythmique qui se répète et donne son caractère à la pièce.
Dissonance : elle correspond à un ensemble de sons dont la succession
ou la simultanéité est désagréable ou bien produit un effet de tension
musicale qui est parfois recherché. L'impression de dissonance varie
selon le courant culturel, l'époque et les individus.
Harmonie : c'est l'art d'enchaîner des accords, de combiner des sons
entre eux pour les rendre agréables à l'oreille.
Contrepoint : méthode de composition dans laquelle on donne plus
d'importance à la mélodie qu'à la combinaison de plusieurs sons
superposés.
Timbre : comparé souvent à la couleur, il représente la différence
perçue par l'auditeur entre deux sons de même hauteur et de même
intensité. Le timbre est formé par le rapport entre les différents
harmoniques de la note jouée ou chantée.
Hauteur : la hauteur d'un son est liée à sa fréquence, c'est-à-dire à
la vitesse de vibration du son dans l'air mesurée en hertz. Plus la
fréquence est élevée, plus le son « monte » dans les aigus ; plus la
fréquence est faible, plus il « descend » dans les graves.
Intensité : elle correspond au volume d'un son fort ou faible mesuré en
décibels (dBA) selon l'amplitude de la vibration produite.
Écoute intérieure : capacité d'entendre ce que l'on va jouer avant de
le jouer.
Notes :
1. Laboratoire CNRS / Université Dijon.
2. Institut CNRS / Université Aix-Marseille-II.
3. Unité CNRS / Université Lyon-I.
4. Cerebral Cortex Advance Access, 8 fév. 2007,
DOI:10.1093/cercor/bhl173.
5. Laboratoire CNRS / Universités Bordeaux-I et II.
Contact
> Stéphanie Khalfa,
[13]skhalfa@skhalfa.com
> Séverine Samson,
[14]severine.samson@univ-lille3.fr
> Mireille Besson,
[15]mireille.besson@incm.cnrs-mrs.fr
> Daniele Schön,
[16]daniele.schon@incm.cnrs-mrs.fr
> Barbara Tillmann,
[17]btillmann@olfac.univ-lyon1.fr
> Laurent Demany,
[18]laurent.demany@psyac.u-bordeaux2.fr
> Bénédicte Poulin-Charronnat,
[19]benedicte.poulin@u-bourgogne.fr
> Emmanuel Bigand,
[20]bigand@u-bourgogne.fr
> François Madurell,
[21]francois.madurell@free.fr
> Hervé Platel,
[22]herve.platel@unicaen.fr
__________________________________________________________________
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PRENDRE CONTACT AVEC LE RYTHME
Lorsqu'on débute au piano, comme sur n'importe quel autre instrument,
on est rapidement mis en déroute par le rythme : problème de mise en
place, de compréhension des différentes figures rythmiques ou bien
d'indépendance entre la main droite et la main gauche.
Cette leçon vous propose d'aborder sous différents angles, le problème
délicat du rythme.
Harpiste Egyptien
La naissance du rythme
Il est difficile de savoir comment est apparu le rythme. L'homme
primitif a-t-il été inspiré par le rythme de ses pieds, au cours d'une
longue marche sur la piste ? La périodicité d'un geste de travail a
t-elle créé en lui un écho dans le domaine des sons ? Ou bien,
bondissant de joie autour d'une proie chèrement conquise, a-t-il
découvert dans la régularité de ses détentes musculaires une volupté
qui lui a révélé le principe de la danse et du rythme ? S'il a heurté
ses paumes en cadence, est-ce pour donner du relief à ses essais
chorégraphiques ou pour encourager ceux de son entourage ?
Autant d'interrogations et de problèmes insolubles soulevés parmi les
spécialistes, encore aujourd'hui sans réponse.
Si les bas-reliefs, les sculptures et les peintures nous apportent
quelques révélations sur la vie sociale des hommes dans l'antiquité la
plus reculée, si, sur toute la surface de la terre, les peuples qui
s'ignoraient faisaient au même instant les mêmes découvertes musicales
en inventant à peu près les mêmes instruments, rien ne nous a été
apporté par nos ancêtres sur la naissance du rythme.
L'écriture musicale
L'écriture musicale proche de celle que nous connaissons aujourd'hui
est apparue après le Moyen Age, après bien des interdits et des
bouleversements idéologiques. Elle est devenue rapidement pour les
compositeurs un moyen "intellectuel" pour repousser les limites de la
pensée. Il y a peu encore, le rythme était considéré par les
compositeurs comme un accessoire de second plan, privilégiant les
écritures mélodiques, les recherches harmoniques et les orchestrations
savantes. L'arrivée des rythmes jazz au début du XXème siècle a
bouleversé la vision, la conception et l'inspiration de nombreux
compositeurs classiques : Stravinsky, Milhaud, Gershwin... les rythmes
modernes étaient nés.
Orgue Portatif du Moyen-Age
La liberté d'exécution face au rythme
En écrivant un [12]rythme nous radicalisons sa vie, nous le structurons
suivant un concept mathématique de division du temps par 2 (système
[13]binaire) ou par 3 (système [14]ternaire). Par-là même, nous
éradiquons le côté instinctif du rythme qui est relié à la vie, au côté
naturel.
Si vous écoutez les chants des oiseaux ou des insectes dans la nature,
vous vous apercevrez que leurs expressions sont simples ou bien
complexes et que leurs cadences rythmiques sont parfaites. D'ailleurs,
le compositeur Stravinsky avait été sensible à cette écoute naturelle
des sons et s'en était inspiré dans ses compositions.
Le plus difficile pour nous est donc d'apporter aux figures rythmiques
écrites une liberté d'exécution la plus naturelle possible sans nous
éloigner de l'original. Nous devons ressentir une sorte de détachement
de soi face au rythme pour le maîtriser et l'intégrer. La liberté dans
le rythme n'est pas due à une sorte de hasard, ni réservée à des êtres
privilégiés d'un don surnaturel. Il existe bien sûr des personnes plus
sensibles que d'autres à la perception rythmique. Il faut, je crois,
aimer avant tout le rythme.
Nous pouvons aborder le rythme de deux manières :
* 1 - ORALEMENT : aujourd'hui encore, dans un grand nombre d'école en
Inde, le rythme est transmis entre le maître et l'élève de manière
orale. Il n'y a pas d'écriture ou simplement quelques repères
basiques. Les résultats sont souvent rapides et étonnants. Le
niveau atteint dans la précision comme dans la complexité et
l'inventivité dépasse de loin les rythmes basiques qu'utilisent au
quotidien les musiciens occidentaux.
Il n'y a pas de limite propre à un rythme oral... seul le travail
de l'imaginaire, de l'imitation (répétition de motif) et la
capacité à mémoriser sont mis en avant.
* 2 - PAR ECRIT : pour asseoir le rythme nous l'entourons de mesure
cyclique en 2, 3, 4 [15]temps ou bien plus. Cela nous aide à mieux
ressentir les figures rythmiques dans un espace défini.
Cette approche demande une analyse (compréhension), une
mémorisation et une interprétation au stade final.
D'une manière générale, le rythme dans la musique moderne est
souvent répétitif, tandis que, dans la musique classique, il est
plutôt évolutif.
Pourquoi le rythme est-t-il une des matières musicales les plus difficiles à
comprendre et à restituer ?
Si la lecture de notes est assez mécanique et consiste avant tout à
lire et à mémoriser la position des signes sur une [16]portée,
enseigner le rythme est par contre une tâche bien plus difficile, qui
demande certaines qualités : la réflexion, la perception, l'écoute et
la sensibilité. Chaque personne qui le souhaite peut, demain, lire de
la musique, mais il n'en sera pas de même avec le rythme.
Trop souvent, les professeurs abordent les contraintes de son
apprentissage avec maladresse ou avec superficialité, de peur de
décourager et de faire fuir leur élève.
Le rapport au tempo
Le rythme écrit répond à des divisions du temps par 2 ([17]croche), 3
([18]triolet), 4 ([19]double-croche), 6 ([20]sextolet), etc.
Hélas, nous n'avons pas dans nos têtes un tic tac qui résonne et qui
nous raccorde par un lien magique à l'univers des tempos rythmiques...
sinon, que ferions-nous de cet objet si redoutable qu'est le métronome
?.. ;-))
De plus, la musique ne se contente pas de l'interprétation d'un rythme
bien carré... il faut lui apporter la vie... c'est à dire le rendre
vivant, en l'interprétant.
La plupart d'entre vous ont déjà entendu une boîte à rythmes. Que
remarquez-vous ? le tempo ne bouge pas, il est immuable pendant une
durée ininterrompue.
En musique moderne, il faut se rapprocher le plus possible de cette
pulsation robotique mais sans excès ou si vous préférez sans trop de
rigueur, sinon votre jeu d'instrumentiste risque de perdre toute
"chaleur humaine", ce qui rendrait la musique rigide et froide (sauf
pour les musiques composées volontairement dans ce sens avec
l'utilisation de machines électroniques : boîtes à rythmes,
séquenceurs).
Vous devez ressentir la pulsation, le [21]tempo comme une respiration
intérieure que vous portez en vous plus qu'elle ne vous transporte
(risque d'accélération ou de ralentissement du tempo). Vous devez avoir
un sentiment de liberté face au rythme.
Nous résumons... Vous Résumez...
L'exécution d'un rythme passe par plusieurs phases, à savoir :
* 1) Connaître la valeur des différentes figures rythmiques par
rapport à l'unité de temps. Exemple : que vaut la croche ou la
double-croche par rapport à l'unité de temps, etc.
* 2) La mise en place des différentes figures rythmiques :
indépendance des 2 mains (un rythme différent sur les 2 mains à
assembler)
* 3) La maîtrise des différentes figures rythmiques : l'aisance, la
domination du rythme les figures sont dissoutes en vous... vous les
possédez. Vous devez avoir un sentiment de liberté face à elles,
sans aucun frein, sauf votre capacité technique propre à les
restituer à une certaine vitesse.
* 4) L'interprétation des différentes figures rythmiques : rendre
aussi vivants que possible les rythmes sans les dénaturer (le
langage musical a quelques noms singuliers pour définir cet état :
[22]swing (musique jazz), [23]groove (musique funk), [24]rubato
(tempo libre en musique classique), [25]pêche (orchestration),
etc.)
SUITE : [26]MES PREMIERS RYTHMES ECRITS
.
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La santé, le bien-être et la forme intellectuelle et physique ne sont
pas le fruit du hasard. C'est une question d'investissement personnel
mais un investissement dans des limites raisonnables. Faire de
l'escercice est bon pour la santé, vous le savez déjà .une alimentation
saine est essentielle .vous le savez également. Etre détendu est bon
pour le moral. On ne vous apprend rien. Vous voulez être actif et
prendre soin de votre santé avant qu'il soit trop tard mais ne savez
par où commencer..
Exercice physique alimentation et relaxation tels sont les trois
piliers de la santé.Il aide à atteindre l'indispensable équilibre entre
le corps et l'esprit.
Exercice physique:
tous les médecins vous le diront : « un sport d'endurance régulier
comme la natation ou le vélo est une véritable fontaine de jouvence,
car il accroit l'irrigation des cellules réduit ou prévient les risque
de calcification des vaisseaux et augmente les performances. Alors,
pratiquer un sport et mener une vie active c'est poser les premiers
jalons de la santé et du bien être.
Alimentation:
manger sain, c'est tout simplement s'alimenter de façon équilibrée.
Cela signifier avant tout avoir un régime alimentaire varié. Consommer
régulièrement des produis à base de céréale ou viande, mais sans
abuser, et ne pas priver Totalement de sucre, de sel ou de plat
contenant des matière grasse. Tout est une question de dosage. Une
alimentation variée permet de couvrir les besoins de l'organisme en
proténes, en vitamines, minéraux et oligoéléments des nutriments
vitaux... (Voir la pyramide alimentaire)
Relaxation :
trouver la sérénité outre la forme physique et une alimentation
équilibrée il faut, pour jouir d'un organisme en parfait santé, être
capable de se déconnecter du monde extérieur, d'être à l'agréables
moments de détente, de reconstitua ses forces et faire de même coup
obstacle au stress. Alors pratiquer régulièrement des escercices de
relaxation mentale et coporelle et le meilleur moyen pour prévenir
voire éliminer le stress .l' objectif est de supprimer les tentions
musculaire et les blocages physiques et psychique de et à l'équilibre
intérieur et comme méthode de relaxation en trouve : la méditation, le
yoga, l'entraînement autogére, la respiration et la relaxation
musculaire progressive sachant que : La nature est un exemple permanant
d'équilibre : elle suscite certains états D'âme, génère des besoins
physiques et des produits alimentaires saisonniers Printemps, été,
automne, hiver : nous vivons au rythme de la nature. Les trois piliers
(Exercice, alimentation et relaxation se complètent et se renforcent
mutuellement et permettent ainsi d'éviter bien des maux.
[47]< Précédent [48]Suivant >
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Ecrit par j.lamnate pour Selwane.com
La santé, le bien-être et la forme intellectuelle et physique ne sont
pas le fruit du hasard. C'est une question d'investissement personnel
mais un investissement dans des limites raisonnables. Faire de
l'escercice est bon pour la santé, vous le savez déjà .une alimentation
saine est essentielle .vous le savez également. Etre détendu est bon
pour le moral. On ne vous apprend rien. Vous voulez être actif et
prendre soin de votre santé avant qu'il soit trop tard mais ne savez
par où commencer..
Exercice physique alimentation et relaxation tels sont les trois
piliers de la santé.Il aide à atteindre l'indispensable équilibre entre
le corps et l'esprit.
Exercice physique:
tous les médecins vous le diront : « un sport d'endurance régulier
comme la natation ou le vélo est une véritable fontaine de jouvence,
car il accroit l'irrigation des cellules réduit ou prévient les risque
de calcification des vaisseaux et augmente les performances. Alors,
pratiquer un sport et mener une vie active c'est poser les premiers
jalons de la santé et du bien être.
Alimentation:
manger sain, c'est tout simplement s'alimenter de façon équilibrée.
Cela signifier avant tout avoir un régime alimentaire varié. Consommer
régulièrement des produis à base de céréale ou viande, mais sans
abuser, et ne pas priver Totalement de sucre, de sel ou de plat
contenant des matière grasse. Tout est une question de dosage. Une
alimentation variée permet de couvrir les besoins de l'organisme en
proténes, en vitamines, minéraux et oligoéléments des nutriments
vitaux... (Voir la pyramide alimentaire)
Relaxation :
trouver la sérénité outre la forme physique et une alimentation
équilibrée il faut, pour jouir d'un organisme en parfait santé, être
capable de se déconnecter du monde extérieur, d'être à l'agréables
moments de détente, de reconstitua ses forces et faire de même coup
obstacle au stress. Alors pratiquer régulièrement des escercices de
relaxation mentale et coporelle et le meilleur moyen pour prévenir
voire éliminer le stress .l' objectif est de supprimer les tentions
musculaire et les blocages physiques et psychique de et à l'équilibre
intérieur et comme méthode de relaxation en trouve : la méditation, le
yoga, l'entraînement autogére, la respiration et la relaxation
musculaire progressive sachant que : La nature est un exemple permanant
d'équilibre : elle suscite certains états D'âme, génère des besoins
physiques et des produits alimentaires saisonniers Printemps, été,
automne, hiver : nous vivons au rythme de la nature. Les trois piliers
(Exercice, alimentation et relaxation se complètent et se renforcent
mutuellement et permettent ainsi d'éviter bien des maux.
[47]< Précédent [48]Suivant >
[49][ Retour ]
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Ecrit par j.lamnate pour Selwane.com
La santé, le bien-être et la forme intellectuelle et physique ne sont
pas le fruit du hasard. C'est une question d'investissement personnel
mais un investissement dans des limites raisonnables. Faire de
l'escercice est bon pour la santé, vous le savez déjà .une alimentation
saine est essentielle .vous le savez également. Etre détendu est bon
pour le moral. On ne vous apprend rien. Vous voulez être actif et
prendre soin de votre santé avant qu'il soit trop tard mais ne savez
par où commencer..
Exercice physique alimentation et relaxation tels sont les trois
piliers de la santé.Il aide à atteindre l'indispensable équilibre entre
le corps et l'esprit.
Exercice physique:
tous les médecins vous le diront : « un sport d'endurance régulier
comme la natation ou le vélo est une véritable fontaine de jouvence,
car il accroit l'irrigation des cellules réduit ou prévient les risque
de calcification des vaisseaux et augmente les performances. Alors,
pratiquer un sport et mener une vie active c'est poser les premiers
jalons de la santé et du bien être.
Alimentation:
manger sain, c'est tout simplement s'alimenter de façon équilibrée.
Cela signifier avant tout avoir un régime alimentaire varié. Consommer
régulièrement des produis à base de céréale ou viande, mais sans
abuser, et ne pas priver Totalement de sucre, de sel ou de plat
contenant des matière grasse. Tout est une question de dosage. Une
alimentation variée permet de couvrir les besoins de l'organisme en
proténes, en vitamines, minéraux et oligoéléments des nutriments
vitaux... (Voir la pyramide alimentaire)
Relaxation :
trouver la sérénité outre la forme physique et une alimentation
équilibrée il faut, pour jouir d'un organisme en parfait santé, être
capable de se déconnecter du monde extérieur, d'être à l'agréables
moments de détente, de reconstitua ses forces et faire de même coup
obstacle au stress. Alors pratiquer régulièrement des escercices de
relaxation mentale et coporelle et le meilleur moyen pour prévenir
voire éliminer le stress .l' objectif est de supprimer les tentions
musculaire et les blocages physiques et psychique de et à l'équilibre
intérieur et comme méthode de relaxation en trouve : la méditation, le
yoga, l'entraînement autogére, la respiration et la relaxation
musculaire progressive sachant que : La nature est un exemple permanant
d'équilibre : elle suscite certains états D'âme, génère des besoins
physiques et des produits alimentaires saisonniers Printemps, été,
automne, hiver : nous vivons au rythme de la nature. Les trois piliers
(Exercice, alimentation et relaxation se complètent et se renforcent
mutuellement et permettent ainsi d'éviter bien des maux.
[47]< Précédent [48]Suivant >
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[28]Diffusion de colloques
[p.gif] [29]2e colloque international sur l'écologie industrielle
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[p.gif] [30]Colloque 30e anniversaire du Code des professions (Office
des professions du Québec)
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d'anthropologie, U. de. Montréal - Eurocos)
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(RISES, Université Lyon 3)
La Lettre de L'Agora
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communauté qui est en cause, mais aussi l'appartenance à l'univers, à
la terre, à l'eau, à tout ce qui vit, à toute l'humanité. (Jean Vanier)
[38][e_franco_160.gif]
[p.gif]
[39][ic_doc_r.gif] Les promesses contestées de la pédagogie en
Francophonie Marc Chevrier [spacer.gif]
[40][ic_doc_r.gif] 2009, année de la monnaie et de la solidarité
locales? Jacques Dufresne [spacer.gif]
[41][ic_dossier_r.gif] Pic Pétrolier [spacer.gif]
[42][ic_dossier_r.gif] Google [spacer.gif]
[43][ic_doc_r.gif] La Francophonie c'est Facebook Jacques Dufresne
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[45][ic_doc_r.gif] Le tremblement de terre de san Francisco (1906)
William James [spacer.gif]
[46][ic_doc_r.gif] Les policiers en crise outillés pour choisir la vie
Josée Descôteaux [spacer.gif]
[47][ic_doc_r.gif] Comment doit-on comprendre le recours collectif
intenté contre Loto-Québec? Pierre Desjardins [spacer.gif]
[48][ic_doc_r.gif] Immigration et santé au Canada [spacer.gif]
[49][ic_doc_r.gif] Copán (Honduras) [spacer.gif]
Lectures
La corruption du meilleur engendre le pire
[50][Cayley - 2.jpg]
Cet ouvrage posthume est la clef de voûte de l'oeuvre d'Ivan Illich. Il
allait de soi qu'il confie l'essentiel de sa pensée à un ami dans le
cadre d'un dialogue. Le commentaire de l'éditeur est juste: «Ces
entretiens constituent une sorte de "testament spirituel" qui éclaire
l'ensemble de l'oeuvre d'Ivan Illich. Il pose l'histoire du bon
Samaritain et son acte de miséricorde spontanée - sans considération
d'origine ni de religion - comme le véritable fondement d'une éthique
capable d'unir au lieu de diviser.Un essai d'une force et d'une
perspicacité rares à l'heure où les différentes croyances s'affrontent
et se combattent.» [51]>>
[spacer.gif?OpenImageResource]
Dossier
Rythme
[spacer.gif?OpenImageResource]
«Il y a rythme lorsqu'une structure évolue de manière périodique sur
fond d'altération novatrice. L'intérêt actuel croissant pour le fait
rythmique vient probablement de ce qu'il réunit en lui, paradoxalement,
les traits propres aux structures rigides, qui l'apparente à un
mécanisme, et les conditions de la variation, de la novation, de la
création d'effets différenciés; qu'il se tient aussi à mi-chemin d'une
approche objectivante qui vise à le quantifier et d'une phénoménologie,
puisque le travail de l'altérité dans la répétition ne se mesure jamais
mieux qu'à travers le filtre de la réceptivité « esthétique » d'un
sujet (sensation, émotion, affect).»
Jean-Jacques Wunenburger, Les rythmes, Lectures et théories, Ouvrage
collectif, Centre culturel international de Cerizy, Conversciences,
L'Harmattan, Paris 1992.
Enjeux
Pour Ludwig Klages, il y a entre le rythme et la mesure une différence
de nature, semblable à celle qui sépare le vivant du mécanique. Voici
un commentaire sur La nature du rythme, de Ludwig Klages, dont la
première traduction française vient de paraître. (La nature du rythme,
Ludwig Klages, préfacé et traduit par Olivier Hanse, éd. L'Harmattan,
2004)
«Pour notre auteur, le rythme fait appel à un rapport vivant et non à
une objectivation du donné. Le réduire à un objet de pensée, à l'instar
du sujet posant l'extériorité du monde, c'est en trahir la nature :
réifier la chose, c'est la penser en dehors d'elle-même. Par sa
perpétuelle mobilité, échappant à toute fixité, il tient plus en effet
du phénomène que du fait. En questionner l'expérience seul fait sens :
l'approche phénoménologique sera de fait plus appropriée (bien que ne
sous-tendant pas un ego transcendantal comme chez Husserl). Elle invite
en un premier temps à une psychologie descriptive.
L'écoute, activité complexe où les différents caractères du son
(timbre, intonation, intensité) sont interdépendants, est emblématique
du vécu comme jeu du percept et de l'affect. Elle est transie par le
mouvement rythmique (ce que la psychologie gestalt modélise comme loi
de ségrégation des unités) alors que l'analyse décompose la
pluridimensionnalité esthétique du rythme en mécanique de la mesure. La
division en intervalles réguliers traduit bien plutôt l'esprit qui
découpe à son gré que le mouvement ; elle substitue à une perception
qualitative un temps inertiel, dont Max Scheler fait la racine de
l'hyper-sublimation de notre civilisation. Le seul caractère répétitif
manifeste bien à cet égard l'image de l'homme-machine, parangon d'une
histoire qui se finirait dans et par les masses.
La différence entre rythme et mesure n'est en fait pas de degré mais de
nature. Certes ils peuvent se superposer mais cela n'a rien de
permanent ou d'obligé. Bien plus, le phénomène de continuité qu'anime
le rythme reste inaccessible à l'entendement, à l'image du flux et
reflux de la vague qu'on ne peut que suivre mais non prédire. Car le
rythme traduit essentiellement une modulation du mouvement en
interaction avec un ensemble, en cela il renouvelle tandis que la
mesure ne fait que répéter, faisant abstraction de la richesse du
matériau qu'il soit sonore, pictural, chorégraphique ou architectural.
Il est bel et bien à la vérité le pouls du divers ondoyant.
Ce serait néanmoins contresens de déduire que Klages interprète la
psychologie en fonction de sa métaphysique du vital : l'élaboration
créatrice va du senti et du perçu au créé spirituel toujours neuf, à
l'Erlebnis (vécu). Bien plus, la confusion entre mesure et rythme est
surtout révélatrice de celle entre esprit et vie, caractéristique de la
Modernité logocentrique. Le rythme, à l'instar de la couleur, de la
texture ou encore de la gestualité, est bien le refoulé de l'Occident.
Or ce courant d'énergie vitale nous replonge dans l'humus prolifique
qui précède et détermine toute idée, dans cet insaisissable monde de la
vie (Lebenswelt). L'antagonisme chez Klages entre rythme et mesure,
comme entre corps spiritualisé et esprit, loin de toute opposition
manichéenne, appelle bien plutôt à faire de la vie l'aventure de la
raison artistique.
Car nous sommes englobés dans les rythmes, traversés de part en part
par eux ; les romantiques avaient fort à propos reconnu là la marque
d'une correspondance de l'âme et du monde. L'intuition donatrice n'est
dès lors en rien éïdétique, elle n'est pas vision des essences
génériques mais ouverture à la transcendance de la Vie, au sens
cosmique de la nature : « même cet échange, celui entre le corps vivant
et un monde extérieur qui se détache perpétuellement de lui, ne
pourrait avoir lieu sans la capacité de fusion que l'être vivant a par
l'intermédiaire de son âme » (p. 97). L'extase de la phénomènalité, née
du contact de l'âme avec une image démonique (du grec daemon, génie
familier, être intermédiaire entre humain et divin), se donne comme
libération non du corps mais de l'esprit. Transformant l'organisme
humain en épiphanie de l'homme, elle manifeste la vitalité universelle
: "Car le surnaturel, rappellera Péguy dans son poème Ève, est lui-même
charnel". »
Source: Boris Chapuis,[52] texte complet.
Essentiel
Les deux plus célèbres définitions:
«L'ordre dans le mouvement» Platon
«La périodicité perçue.» Matila C. Ghyka.
Commentaire de Pierre Sauvanet sur ces deux définitions: «Qu'y a-t-il
de commun entre elles? Est-il vraiment possible, voire souhaitable
d'arriver à une définition de «le rythme». Paul Valéry lui-même a
échoué dans cette tâche et il fut le seul à avouer son échec. »1
Voici l'une des leçons que Valéry a tirée de son échec: «Il ne faut pas
mêler et encore moins confondre période et rythme. Il n'est pas exact
de dire rythme des flots, rythme du coeur -etc.»^ 2 Certes, tout rythme
est d'essence périodique, mais la réciproque n'est pas vraie. Toute
période n'est pas rythmique. Il faut, en effet, que l'être vivant
composé soit de la partie.»^3
Définition de Pierre Sauvanet ^4
«Voici maintenant une définition du rythme qui s'applique à la fois à
l'approche de tout ce qu'on comprend d'habitude sous le mot rythme, et
à l'étude du rythme singulier dans un domaine précis. Voici donc, non
pas une, mais deux définitions. Selon la définition générale, on
conviendra d'appeler rythme "tout phénomène, perçu ou agi, auquel on
peut attribuer au moins deux des qualités suivantes: structure,
périodicité, mouvement." Et selon une définition restreinte: "Tout
phénomène, perçu ou agi, auquel on peut attribuer chacune de ces trois
qualités."»
1- Pierre Sauvanet, Le rythme encore une définition, in Les rythmes,
Lectures et théories, Ouvrage collectif, sous la direction de
Jean-Jacques Wunenburger, Centre culturel international de Cerizy,
Conversciences, L'Harmattan, Paris 1992.
2- Valéry, Cahiers, in Oeuvres, Pleiade, Tome 1, p.1282
3-id., p 1355
4-Pierre Sauvanet, Le rythme encore une définition, in Les rythmes,
Lectures et théories, Ouvrage collectif, sous la direction de
Jean-Jacques Wunenburger, Centre culturel international de Cerizy,
Conversciences, L'Harmattan, Paris 1992. p.238
Documentation
Michel Cornu, [53]Temps et musique
Ghyka, M.C. Essai sur le rythme, Gallimard 1938.
Meschonnic H. La critique du rythme, Verdier 1982.
Edgar Willems, Le rythme musical, P.U.F. 1954. Ce livre contient une
liste des définitions du rythme à ce jour.
Paul Fraisse, Structure et rythme.
Cahiers de musiques traditionnelles, Vol 10, 1997 Rythmes, Georg
Éditeur
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[55]Le rythme en littérature
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[p.gif] À lire également sur ce sujet
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Littératures
[56]La recherche d'une identité
Bernard Courteau
Culture, francité, poème, Nelligan, Beauchemin, St-Denys Garneau,
écriture, rythme
L'homme dont la conscience est plus grande que le pouvoir des mots se
fait naturellement poète.
[57]Ce que Poussin pensait de Virgile
Le Magasin pittoresque
Virgile, Scarron, génie, harmonie, rythme
Divers
[58]Au commencement était le rythme
Boris Chapuis
Rythme, Klages, D.H.Lawrence,
Commentaire de la première traduction française de La nature du rythme,
Ludwig Klages, préfacé et traduit par Olivier Hanse, éd. L'Harmattan,
2004, 116 p., 11,80 EUR.
[59]Quand des yeux tendres nous contemplent
Rabindranath Tagore
Destin, poète, rythme, mots, coeur, changement, amour, amitié,
solitude, union
« Quand le destin d'humeur changeante nous accorde des faveurs
nouvelles ; quand le fleuve des plaisirs, naguère desséché, inonde
soudain notre vie... »
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[15][drapeau-5.gif] - [16][drapeau-3.gif] - [17][drapeau-6.gif]
[drapeau-1.gif] [18]Léconomie allemande se contracte au rythme le plus rapide
depuis 1987
(CEP News) Francfort - La production totale de léconomie allemande a
reculé pour un troisième trimestre consécutif, cette fois au rythme le
plus rapide en plus de 20 ans, a rapporté vendredi lagence fédérale de
statistique Destatis.Selon les estimations préliminaires, léconomie
allemande sest contractée de 2,1 % par rapport au trimestre précédent,
tandis que les économistes sattendaient à un meilleur résultat de -1,8
%. Au trimestre précédent, léconomie sétait contractée de 0,5 %. Le
recul du quatrième trimestre est le
[19]croissance pib par trimestre - [20]actualite sur l economie pour
cette semaine - [21]sujet de francais du 2eme trimestre 2am
[drapeau-1.gif] [22]Laugmentation des coûts de main-doeuvre ralentit tout
comme la productivité grimpe aux États-Unis
Laugmentation de 1,3 % affichée au trimestre précédent a été révisée en
hausse à + 1,5 %.Le coût unitaire de la main-doeuvre augmenté de 1,8 %
au rythme annuel, ceci malgré laugmentation de 2,8 % attendue par le
consensus. Au rythme trimestriel, lestimation préliminaire du coût
unitaire de main-doeuvre a été révisée en baisse à 2,6 % de 2,8 %.Le
nombre dheures de travail a fléchi de 8,4 % au cours du trimestre, en
baisse de la contraction de 3,4
[23]pib etats unis croissance trimestre - [24]pib etat unis
augmentation - [25]productivite preliminaire etats unis
[drapeau-1.gif] [26]Léconomie de France sest contractée de 1,2 % au T4, selon
des statisticiens rebelles
Le PIB de la France au quatrième trimestre sest contracté de 1,2 %
comparativement au T3, selon des statisticiens de lInsee qui ont ignoré
lembargo sur les données.Le résultat saligne aux attentes consensuelles
dune contraction de 1,2 % au T4 après la croissance de 0,1 % au T3.De
plus, la croissance annuelle aurait gagné 0,7 % comparativement à 2007,
soit un contraste particulier à la contraction de 0,9 % attendue et la
croissance de 0,6 % affichée
[27]croissance pib par trimestre - [28]croissance pib france - [29]taux
de croissance france donnees historiques
[drapeau-1.gif] [30]Le PIB de la zone euro se contracte à un rythme record au
quatrième trimestre
(CEP News) Francfort - Léconomie de la zone euro sest contractée à un
rythme record à la fin de 2008, suggérant que la récession actuelle
dans lunion monétaire sera à la fois profonde et prolongée.Selon les
estimations préliminaires dEurostat, la production sest contractée de
1,5 %, un record, au quatrième trimestre. Les économistes sattendaient
à un recul moins prononcé de 1,3 % après le repli de 0,2 % observé au
trimestre précédent.LAllemagne a pavé la voie en se contractant de
[31]croissance pib par trimestre - [32]taux de change en moyenne
trimestre - [33]sujet de francais du 2eme trimestre 2am
[drapeau-1.gif] [34]Le PIB des États-Unis diminue moins que prévu au
quatrième trimestre
La contraction du PIB pour le quatrième trimestre de 2008 sest établie
à 3,8 % contre les attentes médianes dun recul de 5,5 %. Au trimestre
précédent, le PIB avait diminué de 0,5 %, résultat qui na pas été
révisé.Au premier trimestre de 1982, le PIB sétait contracté de 6,4
%.Il sagit dun troisième trimestre de croissance négative depuis le
début de la crise du crédit en août 2007, alors quon avait observé une
contraction de 0,2 % au troisième
[35]croissance et pib des etats unis 2008 - [36]contraction et
expansions de volatilite - [37]taux de change en moyenne trimestre
[drapeau-1.gif] [38]Les cotes de crédit des États-Unis et du Royaume-Uni sont
« mises à lépreuve »
Lagence dévaluation du crédit Moodys dit que les cotes de crédit AAA
des États-Unis et du Royaume-Uni sont « mises à lépreuve » à cause des
chocs à la croissance économique, tandis que celles de lAllemagne, du
Canada, de la France et de la Scandinavie, tout aussi de AAA, ne sont «
relativement pas mises à lépreuve. » EKFCEP Newswires - CEP News ©
2008. Tous droits réservés. www.economicnews.ca
[39]perspectives mises en chantier france 2009 - [40]le royaume unis
apres la crise economique 2008 - [41]taux de croissance du pib des
etats unis en 2008
[drapeau-1.gif] [42]La NABE prévoit une croissance « supérieure à la tendance
» aux États-Unis en 2010
Léconomie américaine pourrait connaître une croissance « supérieure à
la tendance » en 2010, selon les dernières prévisions de la National
Association of Business Economics (NABE).Les prévisions tablent sur une
contraction de 5 % du produit intérieur brut au premier trimestre de
2009, suivie dune autre contraction, de 1,7 % celle-là, résultant en
une croissance de positive de 0,9 % pour lannée entière.« La bonne
nouvelle est que lactivité économique devrait saccroître durant la
seconde moitié de
[43]pib etats unis croissance trimestre - [44]les previsions de
croissance en france 2009 - [45]previsions croissance m3 2009
[drapeau-6.gif] [46]Etats-Unis - Productivité - définitif (14h30) 3T
Les gains de productivité ont progressé à un rythme plus élevé que
prévu aux Etats-Unis au troisième trimestre, selon des chiffres publiés
aujourd'hui par le Département du Travail. La productivité a augmenté
de 1,3% en rythme annuel sur le trimestre clos fin septembre, alors que
le consensus prévoyait une hausse de 0,9%, très inférieure aux ga
[47]que ce passe t il aujourd hui en etats unis - [48]forum crise etats
unis - [49]pib usa 3t 2009
[drapeau-6.gif] [50]Etats-Unis - PIB - données définitives 1T
La croissance américaine a été révisée en hausse à 1,0% au premier
trimestre (en rythme annuel), au lieu de 0,9% annoncé précédemment, a
indiqué jeudi le département du Commerce, ce qui devrait renforcer
l'espoir que les Etats-Unis échappent pour l'instant à la
récession.C'est une révision conforme aux attentes des analystes. Au
trimest
[51]pib des etats unis en 2006 - [52]etats unis pib - [53]pib etats
unis 2006
[drapeau-6.gif] [54]Etats-Unis - PIB - données préliminaires (14h30) 2T
La croissance américaine renoue avec la croissance: le Produit
intérieur brut (PIB) américain a en effet progressé de 3,3% au
deuixième trimestre en rythme annualisé, selon les nouvelles
estimations publiées jeudi par le département du Commerce. Les
estimations initiales tablaient sur une croissance de 1,9% sur un an,
alors que les économistes anti
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[drapeau-1.gif] [18]Léconomie allemande se contracte au rythme le plus rapide
depuis 1987
(CEP News) Francfort - La production totale de léconomie allemande a
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[19]croissance pib par trimestre - [20]actualite sur l economie pour
cette semaine - [21]sujet de francais du 2eme trimestre 2am
[drapeau-1.gif] [22]Laugmentation des coûts de main-doeuvre ralentit tout
comme la productivité grimpe aux États-Unis
Laugmentation de 1,3 % affichée au trimestre précédent a été révisée en
hausse à + 1,5 %.Le coût unitaire de la main-doeuvre augmenté de 1,8 %
au rythme annuel, ceci malgré laugmentation de 2,8 % attendue par le
consensus. Au rythme trimestriel, lestimation préliminaire du coût
unitaire de main-doeuvre a été révisée en baisse à 2,6 % de 2,8 %.Le
nombre dheures de travail a fléchi de 8,4 % au cours du trimestre, en
baisse de la contraction de 3,4
[23]pib etats unis croissance trimestre - [24]pib etat unis
augmentation - [25]productivite preliminaire etats unis
[drapeau-1.gif] [26]Léconomie de France sest contractée de 1,2 % au T4, selon
des statisticiens rebelles
Le PIB de la France au quatrième trimestre sest contracté de 1,2 %
comparativement au T3, selon des statisticiens de lInsee qui ont ignoré
lembargo sur les données.Le résultat saligne aux attentes consensuelles
dune contraction de 1,2 % au T4 après la croissance de 0,1 % au T3.De
plus, la croissance annuelle aurait gagné 0,7 % comparativement à 2007,
soit un contraste particulier à la contraction de 0,9 % attendue et la
croissance de 0,6 % affichée
[27]croissance pib par trimestre - [28]croissance pib france - [29]taux
de croissance france donnees historiques
[drapeau-1.gif] [30]Le PIB de la zone euro se contracte à un rythme record au
quatrième trimestre
(CEP News) Francfort - Léconomie de la zone euro sest contractée à un
rythme record à la fin de 2008, suggérant que la récession actuelle
dans lunion monétaire sera à la fois profonde et prolongée.Selon les
estimations préliminaires dEurostat, la production sest contractée de
1,5 %, un record, au quatrième trimestre. Les économistes sattendaient
à un recul moins prononcé de 1,3 % après le repli de 0,2 % observé au
trimestre précédent.LAllemagne a pavé la voie en se contractant de
[31]croissance pib par trimestre - [32]taux de change en moyenne
trimestre - [33]sujet de francais du 2eme trimestre 2am
[drapeau-1.gif] [34]Le PIB des États-Unis diminue moins que prévu au
quatrième trimestre
La contraction du PIB pour le quatrième trimestre de 2008 sest établie
à 3,8 % contre les attentes médianes dun recul de 5,5 %. Au trimestre
précédent, le PIB avait diminué de 0,5 %, résultat qui na pas été
révisé.Au premier trimestre de 1982, le PIB sétait contracté de 6,4
%.Il sagit dun troisième trimestre de croissance négative depuis le
début de la crise du crédit en août 2007, alors quon avait observé une
contraction de 0,2 % au troisième
[35]croissance et pib des etats unis 2008 - [36]contraction et
expansions de volatilite - [37]taux de change en moyenne trimestre
[drapeau-1.gif] [38]Les cotes de crédit des États-Unis et du Royaume-Uni sont
« mises à lépreuve »
Lagence dévaluation du crédit Moodys dit que les cotes de crédit AAA
des États-Unis et du Royaume-Uni sont « mises à lépreuve » à cause des
chocs à la croissance économique, tandis que celles de lAllemagne, du
Canada, de la France et de la Scandinavie, tout aussi de AAA, ne sont «
relativement pas mises à lépreuve. » EKFCEP Newswires - CEP News ©
2008. Tous droits réservés. www.economicnews.ca
[39]perspectives mises en chantier france 2009 - [40]le royaume unis
apres la crise economique 2008 - [41]taux de croissance du pib des
etats unis en 2008
[drapeau-1.gif] [42]La NABE prévoit une croissance « supérieure à la tendance
» aux États-Unis en 2010
Léconomie américaine pourrait connaître une croissance « supérieure à
la tendance » en 2010, selon les dernières prévisions de la National
Association of Business Economics (NABE).Les prévisions tablent sur une
contraction de 5 % du produit intérieur brut au premier trimestre de
2009, suivie dune autre contraction, de 1,7 % celle-là, résultant en
une croissance de positive de 0,9 % pour lannée entière.« La bonne
nouvelle est que lactivité économique devrait saccroître durant la
seconde moitié de
[43]pib etats unis croissance trimestre - [44]les previsions de
croissance en france 2009 - [45]previsions croissance m3 2009
[drapeau-6.gif] [46]Etats-Unis - Productivité - définitif (14h30) 3T
Les gains de productivité ont progressé à un rythme plus élevé que
prévu aux Etats-Unis au troisième trimestre, selon des chiffres publiés
aujourd'hui par le Département du Travail. La productivité a augmenté
de 1,3% en rythme annuel sur le trimestre clos fin septembre, alors que
le consensus prévoyait une hausse de 0,9%, très inférieure aux ga
[47]que ce passe t il aujourd hui en etats unis - [48]forum crise etats
unis - [49]pib usa 3t 2009
[drapeau-6.gif] [50]Etats-Unis - PIB - données définitives 1T
La croissance américaine a été révisée en hausse à 1,0% au premier
trimestre (en rythme annuel), au lieu de 0,9% annoncé précédemment, a
indiqué jeudi le département du Commerce, ce qui devrait renforcer
l'espoir que les Etats-Unis échappent pour l'instant à la
récession.C'est une révision conforme aux attentes des analystes. Au
trimest
[51]pib des etats unis en 2006 - [52]etats unis pib - [53]pib etats
unis 2006
[drapeau-6.gif] [54]Etats-Unis - PIB - données préliminaires (14h30) 2T
La croissance américaine renoue avec la croissance: le Produit
intérieur brut (PIB) américain a en effet progressé de 3,3% au
deuixième trimestre en rythme annualisé, selon les nouvelles
estimations publiées jeudi par le département du Commerce. Les
estimations initiales tablaient sur une croissance de 1,9% sur un an,
alors que les économistes anti
[55]pib etats unis - [56]pib par etats americains - [57]pib 2t 2009
Charts
EUR USD
Tag Cloud
[58]previsions taux de change usd [59]goldtoday us [60]convertion des
franc suisse en euros [61]cuantos euros es un marco [62]valeur du rand
an franc cfa [63]monnaie d echange euro dollars [64]current us dollar
to philippine peso exchange [65]change dirham cad [66]echanges euros
contre dinar algerien [67]exchange rate pound kenya schillings
* Forex Analysis
+ [68]Euro / Dollar
+ [69]British Pound / Dollar
+ [70]Dollar / Swiss Franc
+ [71]Dollar / Yen
+ [72]Euro / Yen
+ [73]US Dollar / Canadian Dollar
*
+ [74]Euro / Canadian Dollar
+ [75]Australian dollar / US Dollar
+ [76]British Pound / Yen
+ [77]Euro / British Pound
+ [78]Euro / Swiss Franc
+ [79]Euro / Australian dollar
* Trading Tools
+ [80]Correlation
+ [81]Forex pivot points
+ [82]Forex volatility
+ [83]Adjust the position sizing
+ [84]Forex calendar
+ [85]Pip Value
* Forum
+ [86]Forex discussions
+ [87]Forex brokers
+ [88]Trading platform
+ [89]Forex News
+ [90]Forex Books
+ [91]Softwares
* Converter
+ [92]US Dollar
+ [93]Euro
+ [94]Yuan Renminbi
+ [95]Australian Dollar
+ [96]Canadian Dollar
+ [97]Baht (Thailand)
*
+ [98]Iraqi Dinar
+ [99]Naira (Nigeria)
+ [100]Philippine Peso
+ [101]Colombian Peso
+ [102]UAE Dirham
+ [103]Rupiah (Indonesia)
© www.Mataf.net 2002 - 2010.
[104]Contact | Author : [105]Arnaud Jeulin
Mataf.net is an information site on the foreign exchange market. We can
not guarantee the information available on this site, but if you notice
a mistake you can contact us, we will do our best to correct it.
Our advice is only informative, they only reflects our vision of the
market. They are based on our experience on forex, we can not hold the
truth. You are responsible for the use of such boards.
It is prohibited to publish, reproduce or distribute in any way or any
of the content of the website Mataf.net, whether in written, graphic or
image, without our express permission.
[106]Analyse d'audience
Références
12. javascript:change_lang('en');
13. javascript:change_lang('es');
14. javascript:change_lang('fr');
15. javascript:change_lang('it');
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17. javascript:change_lang('fo');
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#[1]Technical analysis in english RSS Feed [2]Analyses technique en
français RSS Feed
[3]Forex
[4]Home [5]Forum [6]Forex Analysis [7]Charts [8]Tools [9]Converter
[10]Trade Now
[11]mataf
pib etats unis croissance trimestre
Filter by language:
[12][drapeau-2.gif] - [13][drapeau-4.gif] - [14][drapeau-1.gif] -
[15][drapeau-5.gif] - [16][drapeau-3.gif] - [17][drapeau-6.gif]
[drapeau-1.gif] [18]Léconomie allemande se contracte au rythme le plus rapide
depuis 1987
(CEP News) Francfort - La production totale de léconomie allemande a
reculé pour un troisième trimestre consécutif, cette fois au rythme le
plus rapide en plus de 20 ans, a rapporté vendredi lagence fédérale de
statistique Destatis.Selon les estimations préliminaires, léconomie
allemande sest contractée de 2,1 % par rapport au trimestre précédent,
tandis que les économistes sattendaient à un meilleur résultat de -1,8
%. Au trimestre précédent, léconomie sétait contractée de 0,5 %. Le
recul du quatrième trimestre est le
[19]croissance pib par trimestre - [20]actualite sur l economie pour
cette semaine - [21]sujet de francais du 2eme trimestre 2am
[drapeau-1.gif] [22]Laugmentation des coûts de main-doeuvre ralentit tout
comme la productivité grimpe aux États-Unis
Laugmentation de 1,3 % affichée au trimestre précédent a été révisée en
hausse à + 1,5 %.Le coût unitaire de la main-doeuvre augmenté de 1,8 %
au rythme annuel, ceci malgré laugmentation de 2,8 % attendue par le
consensus. Au rythme trimestriel, lestimation préliminaire du coût
unitaire de main-doeuvre a été révisée en baisse à 2,6 % de 2,8 %.Le
nombre dheures de travail a fléchi de 8,4 % au cours du trimestre, en
baisse de la contraction de 3,4
[23]pib etats unis croissance trimestre - [24]pib etat unis
augmentation - [25]productivite preliminaire etats unis
[drapeau-1.gif] [26]Léconomie de France sest contractée de 1,2 % au T4, selon
des statisticiens rebelles
Le PIB de la France au quatrième trimestre sest contracté de 1,2 %
comparativement au T3, selon des statisticiens de lInsee qui ont ignoré
lembargo sur les données.Le résultat saligne aux attentes consensuelles
dune contraction de 1,2 % au T4 après la croissance de 0,1 % au T3.De
plus, la croissance annuelle aurait gagné 0,7 % comparativement à 2007,
soit un contraste particulier à la contraction de 0,9 % attendue et la
croissance de 0,6 % affichée
[27]croissance pib par trimestre - [28]croissance pib france - [29]taux
de croissance france donnees historiques
[drapeau-1.gif] [30]Le PIB de la zone euro se contracte à un rythme record au
quatrième trimestre
(CEP News) Francfort - Léconomie de la zone euro sest contractée à un
rythme record à la fin de 2008, suggérant que la récession actuelle
dans lunion monétaire sera à la fois profonde et prolongée.Selon les
estimations préliminaires dEurostat, la production sest contractée de
1,5 %, un record, au quatrième trimestre. Les économistes sattendaient
à un recul moins prononcé de 1,3 % après le repli de 0,2 % observé au
trimestre précédent.LAllemagne a pavé la voie en se contractant de
[31]croissance pib par trimestre - [32]taux de change en moyenne
trimestre - [33]sujet de francais du 2eme trimestre 2am
[drapeau-1.gif] [34]Le PIB des États-Unis diminue moins que prévu au
quatrième trimestre
La contraction du PIB pour le quatrième trimestre de 2008 sest établie
à 3,8 % contre les attentes médianes dun recul de 5,5 %. Au trimestre
précédent, le PIB avait diminué de 0,5 %, résultat qui na pas été
révisé.Au premier trimestre de 1982, le PIB sétait contracté de 6,4
%.Il sagit dun troisième trimestre de croissance négative depuis le
début de la crise du crédit en août 2007, alors quon avait observé une
contraction de 0,2 % au troisième
[35]croissance et pib des etats unis 2008 - [36]contraction et
expansions de volatilite - [37]taux de change en moyenne trimestre
[drapeau-1.gif] [38]Les cotes de crédit des États-Unis et du Royaume-Uni sont
« mises à lépreuve »
Lagence dévaluation du crédit Moodys dit que les cotes de crédit AAA
des États-Unis et du Royaume-Uni sont « mises à lépreuve » à cause des
chocs à la croissance économique, tandis que celles de lAllemagne, du
Canada, de la France et de la Scandinavie, tout aussi de AAA, ne sont «
relativement pas mises à lépreuve. » EKFCEP Newswires - CEP News ©
2008. Tous droits réservés. www.economicnews.ca
[39]perspectives mises en chantier france 2009 - [40]le royaume unis
apres la crise economique 2008 - [41]taux de croissance du pib des
etats unis en 2008
[drapeau-1.gif] [42]La NABE prévoit une croissance « supérieure à la tendance
» aux États-Unis en 2010
Léconomie américaine pourrait connaître une croissance « supérieure à
la tendance » en 2010, selon les dernières prévisions de la National
Association of Business Economics (NABE).Les prévisions tablent sur une
contraction de 5 % du produit intérieur brut au premier trimestre de
2009, suivie dune autre contraction, de 1,7 % celle-là, résultant en
une croissance de positive de 0,9 % pour lannée entière.« La bonne
nouvelle est que lactivité économique devrait saccroître durant la
seconde moitié de
[43]pib etats unis croissance trimestre - [44]les previsions de
croissance en france 2009 - [45]previsions croissance m3 2009
[drapeau-6.gif] [46]Etats-Unis - Productivité - définitif (14h30) 3T
Les gains de productivité ont progressé à un rythme plus élevé que
prévu aux Etats-Unis au troisième trimestre, selon des chiffres publiés
aujourd'hui par le Département du Travail. La productivité a augmenté
de 1,3% en rythme annuel sur le trimestre clos fin septembre, alors que
le consensus prévoyait une hausse de 0,9%, très inférieure aux ga
[47]que ce passe t il aujourd hui en etats unis - [48]forum crise etats
unis - [49]pib usa 3t 2009
[drapeau-6.gif] [50]Etats-Unis - PIB - données définitives 1T
La croissance américaine a été révisée en hausse à 1,0% au premier
trimestre (en rythme annuel), au lieu de 0,9% annoncé précédemment, a
indiqué jeudi le département du Commerce, ce qui devrait renforcer
l'espoir que les Etats-Unis échappent pour l'instant à la
récession.C'est une révision conforme aux attentes des analystes. Au
trimest
[51]pib des etats unis en 2006 - [52]etats unis pib - [53]pib etats
unis 2006
[drapeau-6.gif] [54]Etats-Unis - PIB - données préliminaires (14h30) 2T
La croissance américaine renoue avec la croissance: le Produit
intérieur brut (PIB) américain a en effet progressé de 3,3% au
deuixième trimestre en rythme annualisé, selon les nouvelles
estimations publiées jeudi par le département du Commerce. Les
estimations initiales tablaient sur une croissance de 1,9% sur un an,
alors que les économistes anti
[55]pib etats unis - [56]pib par etats americains - [57]pib 2t 2009
Charts
EUR USD
Tag Cloud
[58]previsions taux de change usd [59]goldtoday us [60]convertion des
franc suisse en euros [61]cuantos euros es un marco [62]valeur du rand
an franc cfa [63]monnaie d echange euro dollars [64]current us dollar
to philippine peso exchange [65]change dirham cad [66]echanges euros
contre dinar algerien [67]exchange rate pound kenya schillings
* Forex Analysis
+ [68]Euro / Dollar
+ [69]British Pound / Dollar
+ [70]Dollar / Swiss Franc
+ [71]Dollar / Yen
+ [72]Euro / Yen
+ [73]US Dollar / Canadian Dollar
*
+ [74]Euro / Canadian Dollar
+ [75]Australian dollar / US Dollar
+ [76]British Pound / Yen
+ [77]Euro / British Pound
+ [78]Euro / Swiss Franc
+ [79]Euro / Australian dollar
* Trading Tools
+ [80]Correlation
+ [81]Forex pivot points
+ [82]Forex volatility
+ [83]Adjust the position sizing
+ [84]Forex calendar
+ [85]Pip Value
* Forum
+ [86]Forex discussions
+ [87]Forex brokers
+ [88]Trading platform
+ [89]Forex News
+ [90]Forex Books
+ [91]Softwares
* Converter
+ [92]US Dollar
+ [93]Euro
+ [94]Yuan Renminbi
+ [95]Australian Dollar
+ [96]Canadian Dollar
+ [97]Baht (Thailand)
*
+ [98]Iraqi Dinar
+ [99]Naira (Nigeria)
+ [100]Philippine Peso
+ [101]Colombian Peso
+ [102]UAE Dirham
+ [103]Rupiah (Indonesia)
© www.Mataf.net 2002 - 2010.
[104]Contact | Author : [105]Arnaud Jeulin
Mataf.net is an information site on the foreign exchange market. We can
not guarantee the information available on this site, but if you notice
a mistake you can contact us, we will do our best to correct it.
Our advice is only informative, they only reflects our vision of the
market. They are based on our experience on forex, we can not hold the
truth. You are responsible for the use of such boards.
It is prohibited to publish, reproduce or distribute in any way or any
of the content of the website Mataf.net, whether in written, graphic or
image, without our express permission.
[106]Analyse d'audience
Références
12. javascript:change_lang('en');
13. javascript:change_lang('es');
14. javascript:change_lang('fr');
15. javascript:change_lang('it');
16. javascript:change_lang('pt');
17. javascript:change_lang('fo');
Not Found
The requested URL /Nicolas/OeuvresNic/Deutschland.html was not found on
this server.
Additionally, a 404 Not Found error was encountered while trying to use
an ErrorDocument to handle the request.
__________________________________________________________________
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#[1]Technical analysis in english RSS Feed [2]Analyses technique en
français RSS Feed
[3]Forex
[4]Home [5]Forum [6]Forex Analysis [7]Charts [8]Tools [9]Converter
[10]Trade Now
[11]mataf
pib etats unis croissance trimestre
Filter by language:
[12][drapeau-2.gif] - [13][drapeau-4.gif] - [14][drapeau-1.gif] -
[15][drapeau-5.gif] - [16][drapeau-3.gif] - [17][drapeau-6.gif]
[drapeau-1.gif] [18]Léconomie allemande se contracte au rythme le plus rapide
depuis 1987
(CEP News) Francfort - La production totale de léconomie allemande a
reculé pour un troisième trimestre consécutif, cette fois au rythme le
plus rapide en plus de 20 ans, a rapporté vendredi lagence fédérale de
statistique Destatis.Selon les estimations préliminaires, léconomie
allemande sest contractée de 2,1 % par rapport au trimestre précédent,
tandis que les économistes sattendaient à un meilleur résultat de -1,8
%. Au trimestre précédent, léconomie sétait contractée de 0,5 %. Le
recul du quatrième trimestre est le
[19]croissance pib par trimestre - [20]actualite sur l economie pour
cette semaine - [21]sujet de francais du 2eme trimestre 2am
[drapeau-1.gif] [22]Laugmentation des coûts de main-doeuvre ralentit tout
comme la productivité grimpe aux États-Unis
Laugmentation de 1,3 % affichée au trimestre précédent a été révisée en
hausse à + 1,5 %.Le coût unitaire de la main-doeuvre augmenté de 1,8 %
au rythme annuel, ceci malgré laugmentation de 2,8 % attendue par le
consensus. Au rythme trimestriel, lestimation préliminaire du coût
unitaire de main-doeuvre a été révisée en baisse à 2,6 % de 2,8 %.Le
nombre dheures de travail a fléchi de 8,4 % au cours du trimestre, en
baisse de la contraction de 3,4
[23]pib etats unis croissance trimestre - [24]pib etat unis
augmentation - [25]productivite preliminaire etats unis
[drapeau-1.gif] [26]Léconomie de France sest contractée de 1,2 % au T4, selon
des statisticiens rebelles
Le PIB de la France au quatrième trimestre sest contracté de 1,2 %
comparativement au T3, selon des statisticiens de lInsee qui ont ignoré
lembargo sur les données.Le résultat saligne aux attentes consensuelles
dune contraction de 1,2 % au T4 après la croissance de 0,1 % au T3.De
plus, la croissance annuelle aurait gagné 0,7 % comparativement à 2007,
soit un contraste particulier à la contraction de 0,9 % attendue et la
croissance de 0,6 % affichée
[27]croissance pib par trimestre - [28]croissance pib france - [29]taux
de croissance france donnees historiques
[drapeau-1.gif] [30]Le PIB de la zone euro se contracte à un rythme record au
quatrième trimestre
(CEP News) Francfort - Léconomie de la zone euro sest contractée à un
rythme record à la fin de 2008, suggérant que la récession actuelle
dans lunion monétaire sera à la fois profonde et prolongée.Selon les
estimations préliminaires dEurostat, la production sest contractée de
1,5 %, un record, au quatrième trimestre. Les économistes sattendaient
à un recul moins prononcé de 1,3 % après le repli de 0,2 % observé au
trimestre précédent.LAllemagne a pavé la voie en se contractant de
[31]croissance pib par trimestre - [32]taux de change en moyenne
trimestre - [33]sujet de francais du 2eme trimestre 2am
[drapeau-1.gif] [34]Le PIB des États-Unis diminue moins que prévu au
quatrième trimestre
La contraction du PIB pour le quatrième trimestre de 2008 sest établie
à 3,8 % contre les attentes médianes dun recul de 5,5 %. Au trimestre
précédent, le PIB avait diminué de 0,5 %, résultat qui na pas été
révisé.Au premier trimestre de 1982, le PIB sétait contracté de 6,4
%.Il sagit dun troisième trimestre de croissance négative depuis le
début de la crise du crédit en août 2007, alors quon avait observé une
contraction de 0,2 % au troisième
[35]croissance et pib des etats unis 2008 - [36]contraction et
expansions de volatilite - [37]taux de change en moyenne trimestre
[drapeau-1.gif] [38]Les cotes de crédit des États-Unis et du Royaume-Uni sont
« mises à lépreuve »
Lagence dévaluation du crédit Moodys dit que les cotes de crédit AAA
des États-Unis et du Royaume-Uni sont « mises à lépreuve » à cause des
chocs à la croissance économique, tandis que celles de lAllemagne, du
Canada, de la France et de la Scandinavie, tout aussi de AAA, ne sont «
relativement pas mises à lépreuve. » EKFCEP Newswires - CEP News ©
2008. Tous droits réservés. www.economicnews.ca
[39]perspectives mises en chantier france 2009 - [40]le royaume unis
apres la crise economique 2008 - [41]taux de croissance du pib des
etats unis en 2008
[drapeau-1.gif] [42]La NABE prévoit une croissance « supérieure à la tendance
» aux États-Unis en 2010
Léconomie américaine pourrait connaître une croissance « supérieure à
la tendance » en 2010, selon les dernières prévisions de la National
Association of Business Economics (NABE).Les prévisions tablent sur une
contraction de 5 % du produit intérieur brut au premier trimestre de
2009, suivie dune autre contraction, de 1,7 % celle-là, résultant en
une croissance de positive de 0,9 % pour lannée entière.« La bonne
nouvelle est que lactivité économique devrait saccroître durant la
seconde moitié de
[43]pib etats unis croissance trimestre - [44]les previsions de
croissance en france 2009 - [45]previsions croissance m3 2009
[drapeau-6.gif] [46]Etats-Unis - Productivité - définitif (14h30) 3T
Les gains de productivité ont progressé à un rythme plus élevé que
prévu aux Etats-Unis au troisième trimestre, selon des chiffres publiés
aujourd'hui par le Département du Travail. La productivité a augmenté
de 1,3% en rythme annuel sur le trimestre clos fin septembre, alors que
le consensus prévoyait une hausse de 0,9%, très inférieure aux ga
[47]que ce passe t il aujourd hui en etats unis - [48]forum crise etats
unis - [49]pib usa 3t 2009
[drapeau-6.gif] [50]Etats-Unis - PIB - données définitives 1T
La croissance américaine a été révisée en hausse à 1,0% au premier
trimestre (en rythme annuel), au lieu de 0,9% annoncé précédemment, a
indiqué jeudi le département du Commerce, ce qui devrait renforcer
l'espoir que les Etats-Unis échappent pour l'instant à la
récession.C'est une révision conforme aux attentes des analystes. Au
trimest
[51]pib des etats unis en 2006 - [52]etats unis pib - [53]pib etats
unis 2006
[drapeau-6.gif] [54]Etats-Unis - PIB - données préliminaires (14h30) 2T
La croissance américaine renoue avec la croissance: le Produit
intérieur brut (PIB) américain a en effet progressé de 3,3% au
deuixième trimestre en rythme annualisé, selon les nouvelles
estimations publiées jeudi par le département du Commerce. Les
estimations initiales tablaient sur une croissance de 1,9% sur un an,
alors que les économistes anti
[55]pib etats unis - [56]pib par etats americains - [57]pib 2t 2009
Charts
EUR USD
Tag Cloud
[58]previsions taux de change usd [59]goldtoday us [60]convertion des
franc suisse en euros [61]cuantos euros es un marco [62]valeur du rand
an franc cfa [63]monnaie d echange euro dollars [64]current us dollar
to philippine peso exchange [65]change dirham cad [66]echanges euros
contre dinar algerien [67]exchange rate pound kenya schillings
* Forex Analysis
+ [68]Euro / Dollar
+ [69]British Pound / Dollar
+ [70]Dollar / Swiss Franc
+ [71]Dollar / Yen
+ [72]Euro / Yen
+ [73]US Dollar / Canadian Dollar
*
+ [74]Euro / Canadian Dollar
+ [75]Australian dollar / US Dollar
+ [76]British Pound / Yen
+ [77]Euro / British Pound
+ [78]Euro / Swiss Franc
+ [79]Euro / Australian dollar
* Trading Tools
+ [80]Correlation
+ [81]Forex pivot points
+ [82]Forex volatility
+ [83]Adjust the position sizing
+ [84]Forex calendar
+ [85]Pip Value
* Forum
+ [86]Forex discussions
+ [87]Forex brokers
+ [88]Trading platform
+ [89]Forex News
+ [90]Forex Books
+ [91]Softwares
* Converter
+ [92]US Dollar
+ [93]Euro
+ [94]Yuan Renminbi
+ [95]Australian Dollar
+ [96]Canadian Dollar
+ [97]Baht (Thailand)
*
+ [98]Iraqi Dinar
+ [99]Naira (Nigeria)
+ [100]Philippine Peso
+ [101]Colombian Peso
+ [102]UAE Dirham
+ [103]Rupiah (Indonesia)
© www.Mataf.net 2002 - 2010.
[104]Contact | Author : [105]Arnaud Jeulin
Mataf.net is an information site on the foreign exchange market. We can
not guarantee the information available on this site, but if you notice
a mistake you can contact us, we will do our best to correct it.
Our advice is only informative, they only reflects our vision of the
market. They are based on our experience on forex, we can not hold the
truth. You are responsible for the use of such boards.
It is prohibited to publish, reproduce or distribute in any way or any
of the content of the website Mataf.net, whether in written, graphic or
image, without our express permission.
[106]Analyse d'audience
Références
12. javascript:change_lang('en');
13. javascript:change_lang('es');
14. javascript:change_lang('fr');
15. javascript:change_lang('it');
16. javascript:change_lang('pt');
17. javascript:change_lang('fo');
Not Found
The requested URL /Nicolas/OeuvresNic/Deutschland.html was not found on
this server.
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an ErrorDocument to handle the request.
__________________________________________________________________
Apache/1.3.27 Server at www.entretemps.asso.fr Port 80
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#[1]Technical analysis in english RSS Feed [2]Analyses technique en
français RSS Feed
[3]Forex
[4]Home [5]Forum [6]Forex Analysis [7]Charts [8]Tools [9]Converter
[10]Trade Now
[11]mataf
pib etats unis croissance trimestre
Filter by language:
[12][drapeau-2.gif] - [13][drapeau-4.gif] - [14][drapeau-1.gif] -
[15][drapeau-5.gif] - [16][drapeau-3.gif] - [17][drapeau-6.gif]
[drapeau-1.gif] [18]Léconomie allemande se contracte au rythme le plus rapide
depuis 1987
(CEP News) Francfort - La production totale de léconomie allemande a
reculé pour un troisième trimestre consécutif, cette fois au rythme le
plus rapide en plus de 20 ans, a rapporté vendredi lagence fédérale de
statistique Destatis.Selon les estimations préliminaires, léconomie
allemande sest contractée de 2,1 % par rapport au trimestre précédent,
tandis que les économistes sattendaient à un meilleur résultat de -1,8
%. Au trimestre précédent, léconomie sétait contractée de 0,5 %. Le
recul du quatrième trimestre est le
[19]croissance pib par trimestre - [20]actualite sur l economie pour
cette semaine - [21]sujet de francais du 2eme trimestre 2am
[drapeau-1.gif] [22]Laugmentation des coûts de main-doeuvre ralentit tout
comme la productivité grimpe aux États-Unis
Laugmentation de 1,3 % affichée au trimestre précédent a été révisée en
hausse à + 1,5 %.Le coût unitaire de la main-doeuvre augmenté de 1,8 %
au rythme annuel, ceci malgré laugmentation de 2,8 % attendue par le
consensus. Au rythme trimestriel, lestimation préliminaire du coût
unitaire de main-doeuvre a été révisée en baisse à 2,6 % de 2,8 %.Le
nombre dheures de travail a fléchi de 8,4 % au cours du trimestre, en
baisse de la contraction de 3,4
[23]pib etats unis croissance trimestre - [24]pib etat unis
augmentation - [25]productivite preliminaire etats unis
[drapeau-1.gif] [26]Léconomie de France sest contractée de 1,2 % au T4, selon
des statisticiens rebelles
Le PIB de la France au quatrième trimestre sest contracté de 1,2 %
comparativement au T3, selon des statisticiens de lInsee qui ont ignoré
lembargo sur les données.Le résultat saligne aux attentes consensuelles
dune contraction de 1,2 % au T4 après la croissance de 0,1 % au T3.De
plus, la croissance annuelle aurait gagné 0,7 % comparativement à 2007,
soit un contraste particulier à la contraction de 0,9 % attendue et la
croissance de 0,6 % affichée
[27]croissance pib par trimestre - [28]croissance pib france - [29]taux
de croissance france donnees historiques
[drapeau-1.gif] [30]Le PIB de la zone euro se contracte à un rythme record au
quatrième trimestre
(CEP News) Francfort - Léconomie de la zone euro sest contractée à un
rythme record à la fin de 2008, suggérant que la récession actuelle
dans lunion monétaire sera à la fois profonde et prolongée.Selon les
estimations préliminaires dEurostat, la production sest contractée de
1,5 %, un record, au quatrième trimestre. Les économistes sattendaient
à un recul moins prononcé de 1,3 % après le repli de 0,2 % observé au
trimestre précédent.LAllemagne a pavé la voie en se contractant de
[31]croissance pib par trimestre - [32]taux de change en moyenne
trimestre - [33]sujet de francais du 2eme trimestre 2am
[drapeau-1.gif] [34]Le PIB des États-Unis diminue moins que prévu au
quatrième trimestre
La contraction du PIB pour le quatrième trimestre de 2008 sest établie
à 3,8 % contre les attentes médianes dun recul de 5,5 %. Au trimestre
précédent, le PIB avait diminué de 0,5 %, résultat qui na pas été
révisé.Au premier trimestre de 1982, le PIB sétait contracté de 6,4
%.Il sagit dun troisième trimestre de croissance négative depuis le
début de la crise du crédit en août 2007, alors quon avait observé une
contraction de 0,2 % au troisième
[35]croissance et pib des etats unis 2008 - [36]contraction et
expansions de volatilite - [37]taux de change en moyenne trimestre
[drapeau-1.gif] [38]Les cotes de crédit des États-Unis et du Royaume-Uni sont
« mises à lépreuve »
Lagence dévaluation du crédit Moodys dit que les cotes de crédit AAA
des États-Unis et du Royaume-Uni sont « mises à lépreuve » à cause des
chocs à la croissance économique, tandis que celles de lAllemagne, du
Canada, de la France et de la Scandinavie, tout aussi de AAA, ne sont «
relativement pas mises à lépreuve. » EKFCEP Newswires - CEP News ©
2008. Tous droits réservés. www.economicnews.ca
[39]perspectives mises en chantier france 2009 - [40]le royaume unis
apres la crise economique 2008 - [41]taux de croissance du pib des
etats unis en 2008
[drapeau-1.gif] [42]La NABE prévoit une croissance « supérieure à la tendance
» aux États-Unis en 2010
Léconomie américaine pourrait connaître une croissance « supérieure à
la tendance » en 2010, selon les dernières prévisions de la National
Association of Business Economics (NABE).Les prévisions tablent sur une
contraction de 5 % du produit intérieur brut au premier trimestre de
2009, suivie dune autre contraction, de 1,7 % celle-là, résultant en
une croissance de positive de 0,9 % pour lannée entière.« La bonne
nouvelle est que lactivité économique devrait saccroître durant la
seconde moitié de
[43]pib etats unis croissance trimestre - [44]les previsions de
croissance en france 2009 - [45]previsions croissance m3 2009
[drapeau-6.gif] [46]Etats-Unis - Productivité - définitif (14h30) 3T
Les gains de productivité ont progressé à un rythme plus élevé que
prévu aux Etats-Unis au troisième trimestre, selon des chiffres publiés
aujourd'hui par le Département du Travail. La productivité a augmenté
de 1,3% en rythme annuel sur le trimestre clos fin septembre, alors que
le consensus prévoyait une hausse de 0,9%, très inférieure aux ga
[47]que ce passe t il aujourd hui en etats unis - [48]forum crise etats
unis - [49]pib usa 3t 2009
[drapeau-6.gif] [50]Etats-Unis - PIB - données définitives 1T
La croissance américaine a été révisée en hausse à 1,0% au premier
trimestre (en rythme annuel), au lieu de 0,9% annoncé précédemment, a
indiqué jeudi le département du Commerce, ce qui devrait renforcer
l'espoir que les Etats-Unis échappent pour l'instant à la
récession.C'est une révision conforme aux attentes des analystes. Au
trimest
[51]pib des etats unis en 2006 - [52]etats unis pib - [53]pib etats
unis 2006
[drapeau-6.gif] [54]Etats-Unis - PIB - données préliminaires (14h30) 2T
La croissance américaine renoue avec la croissance: le Produit
intérieur brut (PIB) américain a en effet progressé de 3,3% au
deuixième trimestre en rythme annualisé, selon les nouvelles
estimations publiées jeudi par le département du Commerce. Les
estimations initiales tablaient sur une croissance de 1,9% sur un an,
alors que les économistes anti
[55]pib etats unis - [56]pib par etats americains - [57]pib 2t 2009
Charts
EUR USD
Tag Cloud
[58]previsions taux de change usd [59]goldtoday us [60]convertion des
franc suisse en euros [61]cuantos euros es un marco [62]valeur du rand
an franc cfa [63]monnaie d echange euro dollars [64]current us dollar
to philippine peso exchange [65]change dirham cad [66]echanges euros
contre dinar algerien [67]exchange rate pound kenya schillings
* Forex Analysis
+ [68]Euro / Dollar
+ [69]British Pound / Dollar
+ [70]Dollar / Swiss Franc
+ [71]Dollar / Yen
+ [72]Euro / Yen
+ [73]US Dollar / Canadian Dollar
*
+ [74]Euro / Canadian Dollar
+ [75]Australian dollar / US Dollar
+ [76]British Pound / Yen
+ [77]Euro / British Pound
+ [78]Euro / Swiss Franc
+ [79]Euro / Australian dollar
* Trading Tools
+ [80]Correlation
+ [81]Forex pivot points
+ [82]Forex volatility
+ [83]Adjust the position sizing
+ [84]Forex calendar
+ [85]Pip Value
* Forum
+ [86]Forex discussions
+ [87]Forex brokers
+ [88]Trading platform
+ [89]Forex News
+ [90]Forex Books
+ [91]Softwares
* Converter
+ [92]US Dollar
+ [93]Euro
+ [94]Yuan Renminbi
+ [95]Australian Dollar
+ [96]Canadian Dollar
+ [97]Baht (Thailand)
*
+ [98]Iraqi Dinar
+ [99]Naira (Nigeria)
+ [100]Philippine Peso
+ [101]Colombian Peso
+ [102]UAE Dirham
+ [103]Rupiah (Indonesia)
© www.Mataf.net 2002 - 2010.
[104]Contact | Author : [105]Arnaud Jeulin
Mataf.net is an information site on the foreign exchange market. We can
not guarantee the information available on this site, but if you notice
a mistake you can contact us, we will do our best to correct it.
Our advice is only informative, they only reflects our vision of the
market. They are based on our experience on forex, we can not hold the
truth. You are responsible for the use of such boards.
It is prohibited to publish, reproduce or distribute in any way or any
of the content of the website Mataf.net, whether in written, graphic or
image, without our express permission.
[106]Analyse d'audience
Références
12. javascript:change_lang('en');
13. javascript:change_lang('es');
14. javascript:change_lang('fr');
15. javascript:change_lang('it');
16. javascript:change_lang('pt');
17. javascript:change_lang('fo');
Not Found
The requested URL /Nicolas/OeuvresNic/Deutschland.html was not found on
this server.
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an ErrorDocument to handle the request.
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this server.
Not Found
The requested URL /v3/oeuvre-critiquerythme.html was not found on this
server.
Additionally, a 301 Moved Permanently error was encountered while
trying to use an ErrorDocument to handle the request.
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Apache/2.2.3 (CentOS) Server at www.editions-verdier.fr Port 80
#[1]next [2]Wikipédia (fr) [3]copyright [4]Flux RSS de Wikipédia
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#[1]Technical analysis in english RSS Feed [2]Analyses technique en
français RSS Feed
[3]Forex
[4]Home [5]Forum [6]Forex Analysis [7]Charts [8]Tools [9]Converter
[10]Trade Now
[11]mataf
pib etats unis croissance trimestre
Filter by language:
[12][drapeau-2.gif] - [13][drapeau-4.gif] - [14][drapeau-1.gif] -
[15][drapeau-5.gif] - [16][drapeau-3.gif] - [17][drapeau-6.gif]
[drapeau-1.gif] [18]Léconomie allemande se contracte au rythme le plus rapide
depuis 1987
(CEP News) Francfort - La production totale de léconomie allemande a
reculé pour un troisième trimestre consécutif, cette fois au rythme le
plus rapide en plus de 20 ans, a rapporté vendredi lagence fédérale de
statistique Destatis.Selon les estimations préliminaires, léconomie
allemande sest contractée de 2,1 % par rapport au trimestre précédent,
tandis que les économistes sattendaient à un meilleur résultat de -1,8
%. Au trimestre précédent, léconomie sétait contractée de 0,5 %. Le
recul du quatrième trimestre est le
[19]croissance pib par trimestre - [20]actualite sur l economie pour
cette semaine - [21]sujet de francais du 2eme trimestre 2am
[drapeau-1.gif] [22]Laugmentation des coûts de main-doeuvre ralentit tout
comme la productivité grimpe aux États-Unis
Laugmentation de 1,3 % affichée au trimestre précédent a été révisée en
hausse à + 1,5 %.Le coût unitaire de la main-doeuvre augmenté de 1,8 %
au rythme annuel, ceci malgré laugmentation de 2,8 % attendue par le
consensus. Au rythme trimestriel, lestimation préliminaire du coût
unitaire de main-doeuvre a été révisée en baisse à 2,6 % de 2,8 %.Le
nombre dheures de travail a fléchi de 8,4 % au cours du trimestre, en
baisse de la contraction de 3,4
[23]pib etats unis croissance trimestre - [24]pib etat unis
augmentation - [25]productivite preliminaire etats unis
[drapeau-1.gif] [26]Léconomie de France sest contractée de 1,2 % au T4, selon
des statisticiens rebelles
Le PIB de la France au quatrième trimestre sest contracté de 1,2 %
comparativement au T3, selon des statisticiens de lInsee qui ont ignoré
lembargo sur les données.Le résultat saligne aux attentes consensuelles
dune contraction de 1,2 % au T4 après la croissance de 0,1 % au T3.De
plus, la croissance annuelle aurait gagné 0,7 % comparativement à 2007,
soit un contraste particulier à la contraction de 0,9 % attendue et la
croissance de 0,6 % affichée
[27]croissance pib par trimestre - [28]croissance pib france - [29]taux
de croissance france donnees historiques
[drapeau-1.gif] [30]Le PIB de la zone euro se contracte à un rythme record au
quatrième trimestre
(CEP News) Francfort - Léconomie de la zone euro sest contractée à un
rythme record à la fin de 2008, suggérant que la récession actuelle
dans lunion monétaire sera à la fois profonde et prolongée.Selon les
estimations préliminaires dEurostat, la production sest contractée de
1,5 %, un record, au quatrième trimestre. Les économistes sattendaient
à un recul moins prononcé de 1,3 % après le repli de 0,2 % observé au
trimestre précédent.LAllemagne a pavé la voie en se contractant de
[31]croissance pib par trimestre - [32]taux de change en moyenne
trimestre - [33]sujet de francais du 2eme trimestre 2am
[drapeau-1.gif] [34]Le PIB des États-Unis diminue moins que prévu au
quatrième trimestre
La contraction du PIB pour le quatrième trimestre de 2008 sest établie
à 3,8 % contre les attentes médianes dun recul de 5,5 %. Au trimestre
précédent, le PIB avait diminué de 0,5 %, résultat qui na pas été
révisé.Au premier trimestre de 1982, le PIB sétait contracté de 6,4
%.Il sagit dun troisième trimestre de croissance négative depuis le
début de la crise du crédit en août 2007, alors quon avait observé une
contraction de 0,2 % au troisième
[35]croissance et pib des etats unis 2008 - [36]contraction et
expansions de volatilite - [37]taux de change en moyenne trimestre
[drapeau-1.gif] [38]Les cotes de crédit des États-Unis et du Royaume-Uni sont
« mises à lépreuve »
Lagence dévaluation du crédit Moodys dit que les cotes de crédit AAA
des États-Unis et du Royaume-Uni sont « mises à lépreuve » à cause des
chocs à la croissance économique, tandis que celles de lAllemagne, du
Canada, de la France et de la Scandinavie, tout aussi de AAA, ne sont «
relativement pas mises à lépreuve. » EKFCEP Newswires - CEP News ©
2008. Tous droits réservés. www.economicnews.ca
[39]perspectives mises en chantier france 2009 - [40]le royaume unis
apres la crise economique 2008 - [41]taux de croissance du pib des
etats unis en 2008
[drapeau-1.gif] [42]La NABE prévoit une croissance « supérieure à la tendance
» aux États-Unis en 2010
Léconomie américaine pourrait connaître une croissance « supérieure à
la tendance » en 2010, selon les dernières prévisions de la National
Association of Business Economics (NABE).Les prévisions tablent sur une
contraction de 5 % du produit intérieur brut au premier trimestre de
2009, suivie dune autre contraction, de 1,7 % celle-là, résultant en
une croissance de positive de 0,9 % pour lannée entière.« La bonne
nouvelle est que lactivité économique devrait saccroître durant la
seconde moitié de
[43]pib etats unis croissance trimestre - [44]les previsions de
croissance en france 2009 - [45]previsions croissance m3 2009
[drapeau-6.gif] [46]Etats-Unis - Productivité - définitif (14h30) 3T
Les gains de productivité ont progressé à un rythme plus élevé que
prévu aux Etats-Unis au troisième trimestre, selon des chiffres publiés
aujourd'hui par le Département du Travail. La productivité a augmenté
de 1,3% en rythme annuel sur le trimestre clos fin septembre, alors que
le consensus prévoyait une hausse de 0,9%, très inférieure aux ga
[47]que ce passe t il aujourd hui en etats unis - [48]forum crise etats
unis - [49]pib usa 3t 2009
[drapeau-6.gif] [50]Etats-Unis - PIB - données définitives 1T
La croissance américaine a été révisée en hausse à 1,0% au premier
trimestre (en rythme annuel), au lieu de 0,9% annoncé précédemment, a
indiqué jeudi le département du Commerce, ce qui devrait renforcer
l'espoir que les Etats-Unis échappent pour l'instant à la
récession.C'est une révision conforme aux attentes des analystes. Au
trimest
[51]pib des etats unis en 2006 - [52]etats unis pib - [53]pib etats
unis 2006
[drapeau-6.gif] [54]Etats-Unis - PIB - données préliminaires (14h30) 2T
La croissance américaine renoue avec la croissance: le Produit
intérieur brut (PIB) américain a en effet progressé de 3,3% au
deuixième trimestre en rythme annualisé, selon les nouvelles
estimations publiées jeudi par le département du Commerce. Les
estimations initiales tablaient sur une croissance de 1,9% sur un an,
alors que les économistes anti
[55]pib etats unis - [56]pib par etats americains - [57]pib 2t 2009
Charts
EUR USD
Tag Cloud
[58]previsions taux de change usd [59]goldtoday us [60]convertion des
franc suisse en euros [61]cuantos euros es un marco [62]valeur du rand
an franc cfa [63]monnaie d echange euro dollars [64]current us dollar
to philippine peso exchange [65]change dirham cad [66]echanges euros
contre dinar algerien [67]exchange rate pound kenya schillings
* Forex Analysis
+ [68]Euro / Dollar
+ [69]British Pound / Dollar
+ [70]Dollar / Swiss Franc
+ [71]Dollar / Yen
+ [72]Euro / Yen
+ [73]US Dollar / Canadian Dollar
*
+ [74]Euro / Canadian Dollar
+ [75]Australian dollar / US Dollar
+ [76]British Pound / Yen
+ [77]Euro / British Pound
+ [78]Euro / Swiss Franc
+ [79]Euro / Australian dollar
* Trading Tools
+ [80]Correlation
+ [81]Forex pivot points
+ [82]Forex volatility
+ [83]Adjust the position sizing
+ [84]Forex calendar
+ [85]Pip Value
* Forum
+ [86]Forex discussions
+ [87]Forex brokers
+ [88]Trading platform
+ [89]Forex News
+ [90]Forex Books
+ [91]Softwares
* Converter
+ [92]US Dollar
+ [93]Euro
+ [94]Yuan Renminbi
+ [95]Australian Dollar
+ [96]Canadian Dollar
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Vous avez dit prose?
__________________________________________________________________
[1]Poétique de la prose ou prose poétique ?
Le rythme contre le prosaïsme
__________________________________________________________________
[2]Du mélange des genres
__________________________________________________________________
[3]Du rythme avant toute chose...
__________________________________________________________________
[4]Le rythme de l'écriture de Duras : prosaïque, dit-elle ?
[5]Forcément prosaïque
[6]Poème, forcément
[7]...et pour cela préfère la voix
[8][USEMAP:bandeau2.jpg]
[9]Dossier : Vous avez dit prose?
__________________________________________________________________
Poétique de la prose ou prose poétique ?
Le rythme contre le prosaïsme
Sylvie Freyermuth
Université du Luxembourg
FLSHASE, UR IPSE
Correspondant du Centre de Recherche sur l'Imaginaire, Université
Grenoble 3, E.A. 610
Professeur associé au Centre Écritures, Université Paul Verlaine-Metz,
E.A. 3943
[10]Sylvie.Freyermuth@uni.lu
Résumé : Il est singulier de constater que le changement de classe
syntaxique du lexème poétique opère un glissement sémantique non
négligeable, compliqué encore par la distinction du genre. Alors que le
substantif féminin la poétique met l'accent sur l'action de créer - en
prose ou en vers, du reste - et les caractères esthétiques d'une
oeuvre, le substantif masculin le poétique, dérivé de l'adjectif
poétique, se cantonne comme ce dernier au domaine de la poésie. De
plus, lorsqu'on fait le choix de fédérer en une catégorie commune - la
prose - un ensemble hétérogène de textes, dont la nature et la visée
pragmatique sont très diverses, pour les opposer à un autre ensemble de
textes qui serait caractérisé par le « poétique », on n'est pas loin
d'une position réductrice qui consiste à tirer cette dernière catégorie
du côté de la versification, critère a priori discriminant le plus apte
à distinguer la poésie de la prose qui rassemble systématiquement les
textes non versifiés.
Cette bipolarité est remise en question par un croisement des
propriétés : poème en prose et prose poétique, hybridation à laquelle
échappe totalement l'adjectif prosaïque qui, pour être calqué sur la
morphologie de poétique n'en exprime pas moins un jugement de valeur
péjoratif, puisqu'il qualifie les textes « plats », sans saillie
particulière, presque triviaux. Se lit en creux une définition de la
poésie et de la prose qui s'apparente à mon sens à une conception
classique de la rhétorique comme typologie des figures. Je propose de
dépasser cette dichotomie afin de montrer qu'une prose dont l'ambition
esthétique s'attache à une description la plus neutre du monde, comme
celle de Duras, par exemple, ou encore comme certains textes faussement
prosaïques de Ponge, peut être tirée vers le poétique grâce à une
exploitation fine du rythme conçu au sens large du terme, c'est-à-dire
au-delà de toute restriction à l'univers musical.
Abstract : It is singular to note that the syntactic change of class of
the lexeme poetic operates a significant semantic shift, complicated
still by the distinction of gender. Whereas the feminine substantive la
poétique (poetics) emphasizes on creating action - in prose or verse,
besides - and the aesthetic features of a work, the masculine
substantive le poétique, derived from the adjective poétique, is
confined like this last word, with the field of poetry.
Moreover, when one makes the choice to federate in a common category -
the prose - a heterogeneous unit of texts, whose nature and pragmatic
aiming are very diverse, to oppose them to another whole of texts which
would be characterized by poetics, one is not far from a reducing
position which consists in drawing this last category to versification,
discriminating criterion a priori the most able to distinguish poetry
from the prose which systematically gathers not versified texts.
This bipolarity is questioned by a crossing of the properties: poetic
prose and prose poem, hybridization from which escapes completely the
adjective prosaic which, despite being copied on the morphology of the
adjective poetic, expresses pejorative value judgment, since it
qualifies the "dull" texts, without particular relief, almost trivial.
According to my mind, that seems to correspond to a definition of
poetry and prose, included in classical rhetorical typology of figures.
I propose to surpass this dichotomy in order to show that a prose whose
aesthetic ambition aims at the most neutral description of the world,
as Duras' style, for example, can be drawn towards poetics, thanks to a
fine work about rhythm conceived in a large sense, i.e. beyond any
restriction to musical universe.
Telle qu'elle est formulée, la question « Vous avez dit "prose" ? »
agit comme une mise en garde contre la notion, ou tout au moins comme
une invite à la réflexion sur la pertinence de lire en creux, dans
cette appellation, la partition bipolaire prose/poésie qui vient
communément à l'esprit [[11]1].
Lorsqu'on fait le choix de fédérer en une catégorie commune - la prose
- un ensemble hétérogène de textes [[12]2], dont la nature et la visée
pragmatique sont très diverses, pour les opposer à un autre ensemble de
textes qui serait caractérisé par le « poétique », on n'est pas loin
d'une position réductrice qui consiste à tirer cette dernière catégorie
du côté de la versification, critère discriminant a priori le plus apte
à distinguer la poésie de la prose, terme qui dénote systématiquement
les textes non versifiés. Il est également singulier de constater que
le changement de classe syntaxique du lexème poétique opère un
glissement sémantique non négligeable, compliqué encore par la
distinction du genre. Alors que le substantif la poétique met l'accent
sur l'action de créer - en prose ou en vers, du reste - et les
propriétés esthétiques d'une oeuvre, le substantif le poétique, dérivé
de l'adjectif poétique, se cantonne comme ce dernier au domaine de la
poésie.
Cette bipolarité est remise en question par un croisement des traits
distinctifs : poème en prose et prose poétique, hybridation à laquelle
échappe totalement l'adjectif prosaïque qui, pour être calqué sur la
morphologie de poétique n'en exprime pas moins un jugement de valeur
péjoratif [[13]3] (je renvoie aux travaux de Gérard Dessons), puisqu'il
qualifie les textes « plats », sans saillie particulière, presque
triviaux. Apparaît en filigrane une définition de la poésie et de la
prose qui s'apparente à mon sens à une conception classique de la
rhétorique comme typologie des figures [[14]4]. Je propose de dépasser
cette dichotomie afin de montrer qu'une prose dont l'ambition
esthétique s'attache à une description la plus neutre du monde, comme
celle de Duras par exemple, peut être tirée vers le poétique grâce à
une exploitation fine du rythme conçu au sens large du terme,
c'est-à-dire au-delà de toute restriction à l'univers musical stricto
sensu.
Du mélange des genres
Dans son article du DITL [[15]5], Dominique Jouve évoque le problème
posé par le mélange des genres, et notamment l'alternance dans une même
oeuvre de passages en prose avec d'autres en vers, motivée par le désir
d'insérer dans la « neutralité » de la prose un moment d'intensité
émotionnelle et musicale. Ainsi elle évoque Jacques Réda :
On peut trouver une confirmation de cette idée lorsqu'un poète comme
Jacques Réda (dans Autobiographie chapitre dix) joue de la disposition
du «même» texte, tantôt en prose tantôt en vers. On constate alors que
la disposition en vers impose un remodelage du vocabulaire (par
suppression, essentiellement), de la syntaxe, de la pensée. Le texte en
prose, par comparaison, semble plus neutre, d'une objectivité un peu
terne. [...] (Ibid.)
Et dans sa démonstration, elle finit par isoler un critère qui
distingue fortement la poésie de la prose, à savoir la musique agissant
essentiellement par le truchement du vers :
S'il est vrai que l'émotion poétique est aussi puissante par quelque
moyen qu'elle s'atteigne, vers mesuré, vers libre ou poème en prose, il
n'est pas indifférent que le vers soit associé ici davantage que la
prose au lyrisme en son sens propre : le chant, la musique. C'est en
effet du nombre et de la place des accents qu'il s'agit, donc d'un
élément essentiel de ce qui fait de la langue une musique. (Ibid.)
Dominique Jouve poursuit en introduisant dans sa typologie une
dimension spatiale :
[...] le vers qui aux origines de notre culture se définit par son
rapport à la musique, devient avant tout une affaire d'espace : la voix
se met en page. En retour, l'attention accordée à la disposition
produit des effets de rythme visuels et auditifs. (Ibid.)
Dans sa distinction des différents types de prose [[16]6], Dominique
Jouve prend appui sur les travaux de Suzanne Bernard [[17]7]. Bien
qu'elle reconnaisse devoir prendre en considération « [l]es reprises de
mots ou de motifs, et de toutes les figures (chiasmes, reprises,
symétries) qui ont à voir avec l'arrangement des mots » (Ibid.),
Dominique Jouve accorde une dimension trop importante à mon gré au
décompte exact des syllabes, comme s'il s'agissait de démasquer un vers
caché dans un ensemble en prose qui donnerait ainsi à ce dernier sa
qualité de prose poétique. Qu'on en juge :
La plus redoutable est celle du statut du e caduc : que l'on considère
qu'il a valeur nulle par élision, valeur faible par coupe enjambante ou
valeur forte lors d'un effet de syncope, il faut pouvoir justifier sa
position pour chaque exemple. Il va de soi que les décomptes rythmiques
ainsi obtenus ne représentent le plus souvent qu'une des dictions
possibles. (Ibid.)
Quant au poème en prose, Dominique Jouve le définit comme « une prose
poétique qui se constitue en poème » (Ibid.) et résume ainsi la
distinction faite par Suzanne Bernard :
La grande différence que S. Bernard fait entre le poème en prose et la
prose rythmée, c'est, comme son nom l'indique, que le premier a
l'organisation d'un vrai poème. Alors que les passages en prose rythmée
dépendent d'un ensemble autre qui lui impose ses lois propres (roman,
conte, nouvelle, récit, mémoires, autobiographie. etc), le poème en
prose est doublement structuré comme poème. (Ibid.)
Quoi qu'il en soit, quel que soit le type de prose considéré, on
remarque l'invariance de certains critères tels que « allitérations,
assonances, réseaux sémantiques, répétitions, reprises de sons, de
sens, de constructions » (Ibid.), toutes choses valables également dans
l'analyse de la poésie versifiée. De là naît un doute sur la pertinence
de la partition radicale prose/poésie, ce dont ne disconvient pas
Dominique Jouve lorsqu'elle affirme :
Les frontières entre prose ordinaire (mais cela existe-t-il ?), prose
rythmée, prose poétique et poème en prose sont décidément, il faut y
insister, subtiles et délicates, peut-être impossibles à tracer avec
exactitude ; (Ibid.)
Je fais mienne cette prévention, sans hésiter, et veux évoquer à
présent l'opposition prosaïque / poétique.
Dans son article mentionné supra, Gérard Dessons citant Littré rappelle
qu'à l'origine le prosaïsme, notion péjorative, signifie « écrire en
vers comme on écrit en prose » et avec Pierre Larousse sort du cadre
restrictif du vers pour qualifier un défaut de style à l'intérieur d'un
passage relevé, la prose étant réservée à l'expression ordinaire. De ce
fait, le prosaïsme est mis en lumière par un effet de contraste, une
introduction du monde ordinaire dans ce qui est censé être poétique
parce qu'euphémisé, dans ce qui transporte et permet alors l'élévation
de l'âme. Gérard Dessons résume parfaitement la situation en ces
termes :
Le sens commun a donc placé le prosaïsme du côté du commun, de la
crudité, de la vulgarité, de la bassesse, de la bêtise, de l'intimisme,
du dépouillement, du réalisme, du naturalisme, de la réflexion opposée
à l'exaltation. On « s'enlise » dans le prosaïsme, on le « frôle »
comme un danger. Souvent, le prosaïsme « menace » l'écrivain. (Ibid.)
Du rythme avant toute chose...
Pour ma part, je prends le parti de l'abolition de la frontière qui
oppose radicalement prose à poésie, prosaïque à poétique, pour
distinguer dans la notion de rythme l'élément fondamental qui permet ce
dépassement des antinomies. Je rejoins en cela la position d'Eric
Bordas [[18]8] qui affirme :
De la même façon, et dans le domaine de la langue, ce que nous appelons
rythme en poésie versifiée classique correspond-il au rythme de la
prose ? La prose, d'ailleurs, a-t-elle un rythme ? Une réponse
catégorique n'est pas possible sans quelques mises au point générales,
et l'on anticipera tout de suite la conclusion en affirmant que ce
clivage artificiel, qui oppose prose et poésie, est absolument
intenable.
Ce que je nomme rythme, l'écrivain Jean-Paul Goux [[19]9] l'appelle
allure. Belle dénomination qui invite à se représenter le maintien, le
port élégant d'une personne, le déplacement racé et gracieux du
cheval ; quoi qu'il en soit, rythme ou allure impliquent la présence
d'une vie dans l'écrit. C'est ce qui détermine selon Goux, la
différence entre une phrase qui peut être considérée comme une oeuvre
esthétique, et une autre qui n'est qu'une phrase « selon la
grammaire ». Rappelant la correspondance exaltée que Flaubert
entretenait avec Louise Colet (septembre 1853) sur le style, il
affirme :
Une phrase qui n'a ni train ni tenue, ni allant ni contenance, peut
être encore une phrase selon la grammaire, elle n'est pour l'écrivain
ou pour la critique esthétique qu'un « quelque chose qui n'a plus de
nom dans aucune langue ». (Ibid.)
Autre idée intéressante défendue par Goux : il existe des phrases
motrices, celles qui ont de l'allure - ou du rythme - et « qui peuvent
impulser le désir de lire ou celui d'écrire, l'un et l'autre parfois
miraculeusement conjoints. » (Ibid.) L'écrivain mène une expérience
tout à fait intéressante en comparant deux extraits de romans, qu'il
laisse volontairement anonymes, tous deux légitimés par le champ
éditorial ; le premier est perçu comme scolaire et maladroit : il
enchaîne des « phrases selon la grammaire », minimalistes, et celles-ci
se subordonnent à l'ordre du récit. Le second au contraire, contient
ces fameuses phrases motrices, dont le mouvement, entièrement entraîné
par la syntaxe, s'impose au récit. Goux en apporte la preuve en
imprimant à la deuxième séquence la structure syntaxique de la
première et conclut :
Si rien n'a changé dans l'ordre du récit, tout a changé dans l'ordre de
l'allure. C'est donc que la prose du roman ne se réduit pas au récit ;
et on est bien d'accord : « Il n'y a pas la prose, mais des proses. »
(Ibid.)
Et la syntaxe est un facteur décisif pour le rythme de la séquence
[[20]10].
Convaincue depuis de nombreuses années que l'on ne peut circonscrire la
présence d'un rythme à la seule dimension poétique (versifiée ou non),
et que celui-ci est généré par la syntaxe, je propose d'en donner une
illustration à partir de quelques exemples. Nous verrons ainsi que des
écritures dont on a vite fait de les classer dans la catégorie
« prosaïque » échappent à cette taxinomie grâce au rythme.
Le rythme de l'écriture de Duras : prosaïque, dit-elle ?
J'ai choisi des extraits de deux romans de Duras : L'amant (1984)
[[21]11] et Les yeux bleus cheveux noirs (1986) [[22]12]. Dans l'un et
l'autre, un désir de neutralité, le choix d'un minimalisme syntaxique
et lexical, voire d'une monotonie affectée [[23]13], qui rappellent
l'écriture blanche évoquée par Barthes dans Le degré zéro de l'écriture
[[24]14], pourraient tirer la prose vers le prosaïque [[25]15].
Forcément prosaïque
Ce tropisme prosaïque est révélé par divers phénomènes. Dans l'extrait
de L'amant analysé, la volonté de détachement de la narratrice
s'affirme lorsque le je est abandonné au profit de la dénomination la
petite. Ce passage ne comporte aucun patronyme, seulement des SN
[[26]16] renvoyant à des rôles (la petite, le passeur, la mère, Madame
la Directrice - une fois dans la bouche du passeur) ou à une entité
dont l'unicité est rendue évidente par la situation extralinguistique
(le chapeau de feutre/d'homme, le fleuve, le soleil, le moteur du bac).
La cohésion de l'ensemble est assurée par un chaînage anaphorique
constitué par le pronom clitique de 3e personne il/elle, qui n'apporte
donc aucune information supplémentaire.
Le même phénomène se reproduit dans Les yeux bleus cheveux noirs.
Indépendamment de la situation narrative qui est singulière -
l'histoire est racontée par un acteur qui apparaît dès l'incipit
[[27]17] - les personnages sont anonymes du début à la fin :
Elle [cf. supra « la femme de l'histoire »] est jeune. Elle porte des
tennis blancs. On voit son corps long et souple, la blancheur de sa
peau dans cet été de soleil, ses cheveux noirs. [...] (Ibid., p. 10)
Peu après le cri, par cette porte que la femme regarde [...], un jeune
étranger vient d'entrer dans le hall. Un jeune étranger aux yeux bleus
cheveux noirs. Le jeune étranger rejoint la jeune femme. Comme elle il
est jeune. Il est grand comme elle, comme elle il est en blanc. Il
s'arrête. C'était elle qu'il avait perdue. (Ibid., p. 11)
[...]
Il lui dit cependant que lui aussi, maintenant, il croit qu'il doit
s'agir entre eux de ce qu'elle disait dans les premiers jours de leur
histoire. Elle se cache le visage contre le sol, elle pleure. (Ibid.,
p. 149)
Seuls les pronoms clitiques de 3e personne remplissent ici leur rôle de
désignateurs premiers et autonomes [[28]18].
Dans les deux extraits également, on remarque une description
parcimonieuse, comme s'il importait davantage de placer des personnages
en situation à la manière d'indications scénaristiques ou scéniques
[[29]19]: l'information minimale requise sur les vêtements, les
postures et les déplacements afin de se figurer la scène. L'intensité
sémantique extrêmement faible de la copule être, met au premier plan
une entité (vivante ou non) et un trait distinctif. Par exemple, dans
L'amant :
La petite au chapeau de feutre est dans la lumière limoneuse du fleuve
[...]. Le chapeau d'homme colore de rose toute la scène. C'est la seule
couleur. (Ibid., p. 29-30)
Ou dans Les yeux bleus cheveux noirs :
Elle est jeune. [...] Elle est en short blanc. [...] Comme elle il est
jeune. Il est grand comme elle, comme elle il est en blanc. (Ibid., p.
10-11)
Ou encore (Ibid., p. 23) :
Elle est une femme. Elle dort. Elle a l'air de le faire. On ne sait
pas.
Comme on le remarque dans l'exemple précédent, les phrases, pour
syntaxiquement complexes qu'elles puissent être, n'en sont pas moins
minimales du point de vue de la constitution des groupes et des
expansions :
Autour du bac, le fleuve, il est à ras bord, ses eaux en marche
traversent les eaux stagnantes des rizières, elles ne se mélangent pas.
(L'amant, p. 30)
Et dans Les yeux bleus cheveux noirs (p. 63) :
C'est sans doute encore la nuit. Aucune clarté ne vient encore du
dehors. Autour des draps blancs, l'homme qui marche, qui tourne.
Même le surdécoupage (des microséquences constituées d'une seule phrase
simple) accentue ce dénuement de la parole :
Elle a ouvert les yeux.
Ils ne se regardent pas.
Cela dure depuis plusieurs nuits. (Ibid., p. 63)
Les verbes employés impriment également une neutralité au sein de la
narration ; ainsi, l'introduction des prises de parole des personnages
se réduit presque toujours au verbe le plus neutre, le plus dénué
d'émotion - dire, demander, dénotant la seule fonction locutoire :
La petite connaît le passeur depuis qu'elle est enfant. Le passeur lui
sourit et lui demande des nouvelles de Madame le Directrice. Il dit
qu'il la voit passer souvent de nuit, qu'elle va souvent à la
concession du Cambodge. La mère va bien dit la petite. (L'amant, p. 30)
Dans Les yeux bleus cheveux noirs :
Elle a l'habitude déjà. Elle voit qu'il s'empêche de crier. Elle dit :
[...].
Elle le rejoint contre le mur. Ils pleurent. Elle dit : [...].
Elle s'approche de lui tout comme si elle partageait sa souffrance, il
la reconnaît mal tout à coup. Elle dit : [...].
Elle lui dit de venir. Venez. Elle dit que c'est un velours, un
vertige, mais aussi, il ne faut pas croire, un désert, une chose
malfaisante qui porte aussi au crime et à la folie. Elle lui demande de
venir voir ça [...]. (p. 50-51)
En outre, la neutralisation agit à travers un gommage progressif des
procès au profit du fréquent recours à la phrase nominale :
Le fleuve coule sourdement, il ne fait aucun bruit, le sang dans le
corps. Pas de vent au dehors de l'eau. Le moteur du bac, le seul bruit
de la scène [[30]20], celui d'un vieux moteur déglingué aux bielles
coulées. De temps en temps, par rafales légères, des bruits de voix.
(L'amant, p. 30)
Celle-ci pose les choses de manière atomisée plus qu'elle ne les
organise dans un ensemble cohérent dont chaque élément aurait sa raison
d'être et sa justification. Pour tendre vers le silence [[31]21].
Comme l'ont montré ces quelques brefs exemples, l'écriture de
Marguerite Duras a toutes les propriétés nécessaires pour favoriser le
passage de la prose au prosaïque. Cependant, le fait d'inscrire le
texte dans l'épaisseur d'une voix fait entendre un rythme qui fait
échapper cette écriture à la platitude.
Poème, forcément
Avec Henri Meschonnic, je crois qu'il faut modifier le rapport
conventionnel au langage [[32]22], celui qui s'accommode si bien de la
bipolarité [prose/poésie, prosaïque/poétique] et ne pas hésiter à
avancer l'idée selon laquelle l'écriture durassienne, aussi prosaïque
d'apparence soit-elle, est foncièrement poétique ou, pour ne pas prêter
à confusion, est poème, parce que « contre toutes les poétisations,
[...] il y a un poème seulement si une forme de vie transforme une
forme de langage et si réciproquement une forme de langage transforme
une forme de vie. » (H. Meschonnic, Ibid.) Dans cette perspective
dynamique et interactive, le langage (je préfère dire la langue qui est
actualisation du langage, au sens linguistique du terme et non dans le
sens de belle langue qu'attaque Meschonnic) jouit d'une autonomie par
rapport à celui qui le produit : il n'est ni outil, ni medium, mais
expérience existentielle. Ainsi pour Meschonnic :
Le poème est ce qui nous apprend à ne plus nous servir du langage. Il
est seul à nous apprendre que, contrairement aux apparences et aux
coutumes de pensée, nous ne nous servons pas du langage.
[...] Mais nous devenons langage. On ne peut plus se contenter de dire,
sinon comme un préalable, mais si vague, que nous sommes langage. Il
est plus juste de dire que nous devenons langage. Plus ou moins.
Question de sens. De sens du langage. Mais seul le poème qui est poème
nous l'apprend. Pas celui qui ressemble à la poésie. Toute faite.
D'avance. Le poème de la poésie. Lui, il ne rencontre que notre
culture. (Ibid.)
De là, Meschonnic dénonce avec feu les poètes usurpateurs, ceux qui
n'ont pas compris que le rythme est autre chose que
l'alternance du pan-pan sur la joue du métricien métronome. [...] Parce
que le rythme est une forme-sujet. La forme-sujet. [...] Et si le
rythme-poème est une forme-sujet, le rythme n'est plus une notion
formelle, la forme elle-même n'est plus une notion formelle, celle du
signe, mais une forme d'historicisation, une forme d'individuation. À
bas le vieux couple de la forme et du sens. Est poème tout ce qui, dans
le langage, réalise ce récitatif qu'est une subjectivation maximale du
discours. Prose, vers, ou ligne. (Ibid.)
Il est très clair que le poème n'a plus rien à voir ici avec la notion
de genre, mais qu'il est fondamentalement une affaire de rythme,
lui-même étant le résultat d'une appropriation subjective du texte.
Néanmoins, je ne suis pas complètement Meschonnic, surtout lorsqu'il
affirme que « les mots ne sont pas faits pour désigner les choses »
mais qu'« [i]ls sont là pour nous situer parmi les choses » (Ibid.),
parce qu'il s'agit d'une posture constructiviste entièrement centrée
sur le sujet, alors qu'il existe des noyaux durs de sens hors desquels
il serait impossible de se comprendre mutuellement et que le sens peut
être généré à partir de faits de langue constants, repérables et
analysables. Je reconnais cependant la part individuelle qui entre dans
l'interprétation, et j'adhère à cette idée d'incarnation du rythme dans
la prise de possession du texte par chaque lecteur. C'est en ce sens
que ce qui est écrit devient poème. Voici ce qu'expose Meschonnic, et
qui prend véritablement les accents d'un manifeste, comme en témoigne
le titre même du texte dont est extrait ce passage :
C'est ici que le poème peut et doit battre le signe. Dévaster la
représentation convenue, enseignée, canonique. Parce que le poème est
le moment d'une écoute. Et le signe ne fait que nous donner à voir. Il
est sourd, et il rend sourd. Seul le poème peut nous mettre en voix,
nous faire passer de voix en voix, faire de nous une écoute. Nous
donner tout le langage comme écoute. Et le continu de cette écoute
inclut, impose un continu entre les sujets que nous sommes, le langage
que nous devenons, l'éthique en acte qu'est cette écoute, d'où une
politique du poème. Une politique de la pensée. Le parti du rythme.
(Ibid.)
Selon Meschonnic, le signe est la manifestation la plus pauvre des
propriétés de la langue dont on oublie à tort qu'elle est faite pour
être portée par une voix dans la continuité du sujet et non pas dans le
caractère discret du signe linguistique. Il affirme aussi que
« justement un poème ne dit pas. Il fait. Et une pensée intervient. »
(Ibid.) Or le signe se contente de dire et de montrer, pas d'insuffler
la vie comme le fait le rythme.
Prenant délibérément le parti du rythme, je souhaite montrer, dans la
dernière phase de ce travail, comment j'ai pu entendre une écriture,
réputée atone et blanche, épouser une ligne mélodique et échapper ainsi
au carcan prosaïque qui l'étouffait. Dans cette analyse, on verra que
les effets de la syntaxe, du lexique et des relations sémantiques, qui
se combinent selon diverses dominantes, produisent un agencement
sophistiqué de rythmes ternaire et binaire.
Retournons à L'amant (p. 29-32) :
La petite au chapeau de feutre est...
dans la lumière limoneuse du fleuve (1),
seule sur le pont du bac (2),
accoudée au bastingage (3). [[33]23]
La première phrase de la séquence repose entièrement sur un rythme
ternaire : le thème et son verbe sont mis en distribution sur 3
syntagmes juxtaposés, qui posent la description du personnage central à
l'aide d'informations strictement nécessaires à la compréhension et à
la visualisation de la scène, et par un effet très cinématographique de
zoom, resserrent le cadrage du plan d'ensemble au plan rapproché. Cet
effet de focalisation sur la jeune fille à l'étrange couvre-chef,
symbole de son émancipation, est confirmé par la phrase « Le chapeau
d'homme colore de rose toute la scène. » reprise par « C'est la seule
couleur. » Le rythme ternaire lie également ces phrases : le chapeau de
feutre devient le chapeau d'homme qui colore de rose, pour finir sur la
seule couleur, métonymie du chapeau.
Les passages illustrant auparavant l'écriture blanche par
affaiblissement des procès entrent eux aussi dans l'incantation
rythmique ternaire. Par exemple :
Le fleuve coule sourdement (1), il ne fait aucun bruit (2), le sang
dans le corps (3).
Pas de vent au dehors de l'eau.
Le moteur du bac (1), le seul bruit de la scène (2), celui d'un vieux
moteur déglingué aux bielles coulées (3).
De temps en temps (1), par rafales légères (2), des bruits de voix (3).
Et puis les aboiements des chiens, ils viennent...
de partout (1),
de derrière la brume (2),
de tous les villages (3). (Ibid., p. 30)
Ce rythme ternaire comprend en contrepoint un rythme binaire complexe
qui s'appuie cette fois davantage sur une dominante lexicale et
sémantique. Par exemple :
Dans le soleil brumeux du fleuve (A), le soleil de la chaleur (B), les
rives se sont effacées (C), le fleuve paraît rejoindre l'horizon (D).
(Ibid., p. 30)
Si l'on sélectionne le SN le soleil, à cause de l'insistance produite
par la répétition, on note une duplication par juxtaposition, le SNP
[[34]24] de la chaleur ayant alors valeur explicative de l'adjectif
brumeux ; le 3e syntagme est lui-même répété par le 4e, car le groupe
verbal se sont effacées est explicité par un autre groupe verbal paraît
rejoindre l'horizon. On repère donc ici un calque du rythme binaire
dont le 2e membre précise sémantiquement le 1er, phénomène accentué
encore par une identité fonctionnelle (2 groupes prépositionnels (la 2e
préposition dans est elliptique) locatifs / 2 propositions
indépendantes) : A-B / C-D. Mais le motif qui semble simple, parce que
nettement segmenté, se complique par le jeu des anaphores : le SN les
rives se rattache à son référent fleuve (le soleil brumeux du fleuve)
par l'anaphore infidèle partie/tout, alors que ce même substantif est
répété dans le dernier segment, ce qui provoque une clôture de la
séquence : A-C/A-D. Les deux appariements étant non seulement justifiés
par la relation anaphorique mais également par un lien sémantique :
brumeux / se sont effacées. En outre, ce phénomène indique un
glissement du rôle de personnage central occupé par la petite au
chapeau de feutre vers le fleuve et signale par là un transfert de
point de vue - d'externe il devient interne, car c'est avec les yeux de
la petite accoudée au bastingage que l'on regarde alentour. Le rythme
sémantique est aussi visible dans l'exemple supra : moteur du bac, seul
bruit, vieux moteur déglingué.
La combinaison ternaire/binaire se retrouve dans le passage suivant :
Autour du bac (1), le fleuve (2),
il est à ras bord (A),
ses eaux en marche traversent les eaux stagnantes des rivières (B),
elles ne se mélangent pas (C). (Ibid., p. 30)
Les deux entités principales - le bac, lieu de la rencontre entre la
petite et le Chinois, et le fleuve qui est un être à part entière -
sont juxtaposées et ouvrent une succession de 3 éléments qui réfèrent
au SN le fleuve par relation anaphorique en glissando il / ses eaux /
elles, mimésis de l'écoulement ininterrompu de son courant puissant,
comme le confirme la suite :
Il a ramassé tout ce qu'(1) il a trouvé depuis le Tonlésap (A), la
forêt cambodgienne (B).
Il emmène tout ce qui vient (2),
L'énumération hétéroclite qui suit est l'explicitation du quantifieur
tout :
des paillottes (1), des forêts (2) ,
identité de texture
des incendies éteints (1), des oiseaux morts (2),
sur la valeur négative de l'épithète ;
mais on peut aussi apparier selon la catégorie des substantifs :
des oiseaux morts (1), des tigres (2), des buffles (3), [noyés] (A),
[rythme ternaire]
Le participe passé adjectivé qualifie la série des 3 animaux autant
qu'il relance l'énumération avec :
des hommes (B),
des leurres [[35]25] (1), des îles de jacinthes d'eau agglutinées (2),
des objets et végétaux
Enfin, le reste de la phrase présente un apparent rythme ternaire avec
3 occurrences de tout ; mais le rythme binaire s'insinue dans cette
macrostructure :
tout (1) [A] va vers le Pacifique, rien (2) n'a le temps de couler,
marque une opposition (1)/(2)
tout [B] est emporté par la tempête profonde (a) et vertigineuse (b) du
courant intérieur,
indique un mouvement
tout [C] reste en suspens à la surface de la force du fleuve
indique une absence de mouvement.
On retrouve donc :
- une opposition en (1)/(2) et en [B]/[C] : mouvement / inertie ;
- une coordination d'adjectifs épithètes : la tempête profonde (a) et
vertigineuse (b) ;
- un parallélisme syntaxique pour les compléments déterminatifs : par
la tempête profonde et vertigineuse du courant intérieur / la surface
de la force du fleuve ;
- un redoublement en (1)-[B] / (2)-[C] : tout va vers - tout est
emporté = mouvement / rien n'a le temps de couler - tout reste en
suspens = inertie.
Le résultat vocal d'une lecture selon ce tempo, régi par les motifs
syntaxiques et sémantiques, est de toute évidence extrêmement éloigné
de la prose atone et blanche évoquée au début.
Examinons pour terminer deux extraits de Les yeux bleus cheveux noirs.
Voici une micro-séquence :
Comme elle il est jeune. Il est grand comme elle, comme elle il est en
blanc. (Ibid., p. 11)
C'est un exemple d'hybridation ternaire/binaire. Binaire à cause des
deux êtres représentés par le clitique de 3e personne il /elle et
comparés : il est comme elle. Ternaire par la présence des 3
occurrences de la comparaison qui apparaissent dans une structure
embrassée : début de proposition : Comme elle il [...] / fin de
proposition : Il [...] comme elle / début de proposition : Comme elle
il [...] ; ou encore, combiné au système de comparaison : elle /il ;
il/elle ; elle/il. Autrement dit, on peut déceler dans cette alternance
l'annonce de toutes les possibilités d'échanges et de dominations
successives entre les deux amants.
Enfin, cet extrait de la page 40, qui rappelle la musique du fleuve
dans L'amant :
1e phrase : Le silence de la chambre est profond (1), aucun bruit
n'arrive plus (2)
ni des routes (A) ni de la ville (B) ni de la mer (C).
2e phrase : La nuit est à son terme (1), partout limpide et noire (2),
la lune a disparu (3).
3e phrase : Ils ont peur.
4e phrase : Il écoute (1), les yeux au sol (2), ce silence effrayant
(3).
La première phrase de la séquence combine rythme binaire dans la
macrostructure et ternaire dans la microstructure : juxtaposition de
deux propositions évoquant le silence absolu (2 éléments) et succession
sans ponctuation de 3 occurrences de négation (ni) avec locatif
(routes, ville, mer). Suivent deux rythmes ternaires (2e phrase et 4e
phrase), entrecoupés d'une phrase minimale (3e phrase) qui occupe une
position charnière : Ils ont peur. Le dernier élément de la dernière
phrase clôt la séquence rythmique en concaténant le silence (1e phrase)
et la peur (3e phrase) : ce silence effrayant. Une nouvelle fois, le
dénuement de la parole est totalement habité par le tempo qui extrait
le texte de la catégorie prosaïque initiale.
...et pour cela préfère la voix
Ces quelques brefs exemples auront montré, je l'espère, que l'approche
strictement textuelle et rationalisée d'un écrit peut être une source
d'enfermement dans une typologie très contraignante et stérilisante.
Peut-on réellement conserver les couples antagonistes prose/poésie ;
prosaïque/poétique ? Je ne le crois pas. En empruntant l'acception que
Meschonnic donne du terme poème, je laisse à cet ardent défenseur de la
voix et du rythme les mots de la conclusion :
Est poème tout ce qui, dans le langage, réalise ce récitatif qu'est une
subjectivation maximale du discours. Prose, vers, ou ligne. [...] En
somme, le poème manifeste et il y a à manifester pour le poème le refus
de la séparation entre le langage et la vie. (Ibid.)
__________________________________________________________________
[36]1
Cf. Dominique Jouve : Dictionnaire International des Termes
Littéraires, article « Prose » :
[37]2
Cf. Dominique Jouve, ibid. : « On confond sous le nom de prose des
usages littéraires et non littéraires de la langue: une circulaire
administrative, une lettre personnelle et un roman de Balzac ont des
titres égaux à la dénomination de prose. »
[38]3
Voir à ce sujet l'article de Gérard Dessons : « Prose, prosaïque,
prosaïsme », Semen, 16, Rythme de la prose, 2003, [En ligne], mis en
Consulté le 05 janvier 2009.
[39]4
Pour la question du « renouvellement » de l'analyse des figures, voir
Marc Bonhomme, Pragmatique des figures de discours, Paris, Honoré
Champion, 2005 ; et Le discours métonymique, Berne, Peter Lang, coll.
« Sciences pour la communication », 2006
[40]5
Dominique Jouve, Dictionnaire international des termes littéraires...
[41]6
« On distingue traditionnellement prose oratoire, prose poétique et
poème en prose. », Dominique Jouve, Dictionnaire International...
[42]7
Suzanne Bernard, Le poème en prose de Baudelaire jusqu'à nos jours,
Paris, Nizet, [1959]1978.
[43]8
Éric Bordas, « Le rythme de la prose », Semen, 16, Rythme de la prose,
2003, [En ligne], mis en ligne le 1er mai 2007.
2009.
[44]9
Jean-Paul Goux, « De l'allure », Semen, 16, Rythme de la prose, 2003,
[En ligne], mis en ligne le 1er mai 2007.
2009.
[45]10
Il faut noter que Goux entend par phrase : « [...] ce que j'appelle
phrase est le plus souvent une microséquence qui comporte elle-même
plusieurs unités phrastiques ; le critère de découpage de ces
microséquences, est aléatoire, mais son principe est la « visibilité »
d'une allure ou d'une absence d'allure. » (Ibid.)
[46]11
Marguerite Duras, L'amant, Paris, Les Éditions de Minuit, 1984. J'ai
isolé quelques séquences, de la p. 29 à la p. 31.
[47]12
Marguerite Duras, Les yeux bleus cheveux noirs, Paris, Les Éditions de
Minuit, 1986.
[48]13
À ce sujet, le souvenir d'une lecture de Duras faite par Michaël
Lonsdale à laquelle j'avais assisté il y a une trentaine d'années,
résonne encore dans mon oreille comme une musique monocorde.
[49]14
Cf. Roland Barthes, Le degré zéro de l'écriture, Paris, Le Seuil,
collection « Points », 1953 et 1972. On relira avec profit les pages 55
et 56 : « Dans ce même effort de dégagement du langage littéraire,
voici une autre solution : créer une écriture blanche, libérée de toute
servitude à un ordre marqué du langage. [...] La nouvelle écriture
neutre se place au milieu de ces cris et de ces jugements, sans
participer à aucun d'eux ; elle est faite précisément de leur absence ;
mais cette absence est totale, elle n'implique aucun refuge, aucun
secret ; on ne peut donc dire que c'est une écriture impassible ; c'est
plutôt une écriture innocente. Il s'agit de dépasser ici la Littérature
en se confiant à une sorte de langue basique également éloignée des
langages vivants et du langage littéraire proprement dit ».
[50]15
À ce sujet, voir Pascal Michelucci : « La motivation des styles chez
Marguerite Duras : cris et silence dans Moderato cantabile et La
douleur », Études françaises, vol. 39, n° 2, 2003, p. 95-107, document
consulté sur internet le 12 janvier 2009 :
Michelucci] se place dans une interrogation plus grande qui porte sur
l'identification des critères qui font le statut de l'auteur au XXe
siècle : à l'heure où le code du bien-dire et du bien-écrire s'est
effondré, que dire des choix stylistiques négatifs de tout un pan de la
littérature moderniste qui rejette le calcul affiché du style écrit et
place son intérêt dans la revalorisation du parler spontané, non
seulement dans la parole représentée des personnages, comme chez Céline
ou Queneau, mais aussi dans l'ensemble plus grand de tous ses choix
stylistiques.[...] Les cris et le silence constituent à nos yeux autant
de traces dans l'énonciation des romans de Duras : les nombreuses
apparitions des termes nous renseignent sur la genèse du style d'auteur
qui est celui de Duras. Elles comblent par ailleurs une lacune
rhétorique dans sa réception et les épitextes critiques portant sur son
oeuvre, en offrant un lexique qui permet de parler d'un art qui échappe
à la pratique belle-lettriste ».
[51]16
SN = syntagme nominal.
[52]17
« Une soirée d'été, dit l'acteur, serait au coeur de l'histoire. »
(Ibid., p. 9) On notera aussi la présence du conditionnel qui place
d'emblée la totalité de la narration sous l'emprise de la construction
virtuelle, déjà annoncée par la présence de l'acteur et du mot
histoire. Même si la partie centrale du roman peut faire oublier son
emboîtement polyphonique, la fin vient le rappeler : « C'est la
dernière nuit dit l'acteur. » (Ibid., p. 149) Un autre degré
d'emboîtement polyphonique est franchi à la page 112, par l'effet du
conditionnel portant sur l'acte même de narration de l'acteur :
« Pendant le spectacle, dirait l'acteur, une fois, lentement la lumière
baisserait et la lecture cesserait. »
[53]18
Pour cette question, voir Georges Kleiber, « Quand il n'a pas
d'antécédent », in Langages, 97, p. 24-50, 1990 ; « Anaphore-deixis :
où en sommes-nous? », in L'information grammaticale, 5, p. 3-18, 1991 ;
« Cap sur les topiques avec le pronom il », in L'information
grammaticale, 54, p. 15-25, 1992 ; Anaphores et pronoms,
Louvain-La-Neuve, Duculot, Coll. « Champs linguistiques », 1994 ;
« Contexte, interprétation et mémoire : Approche standard vs. approche
cognitive ». in Langue française, 103, p. 9-22, 1994 ; et Sylvie
Freyermuth, Jean Rouaud et le périple initiatique : une poétique de la
fluidité, Paris, Budapest, Turin, L'Harmattan, Coll. « Critiques
littéraires », 2006, et « Encodage et décodage du pronom
ana-cataphorique : réflexion stylistique sur un outil de cohésion
romanesque dans l'oeuvre de Jean Rouaud », Actes du Colloque
international "Littérature et linguistique : diachronie / synchronie
- autour des travaux de Michèle Perret'", 2002, Chambéry, CD-ROM, D.
Lagorgette et M. Lignereux (dir.), Chambéry, Université de Savoie, p.
352-363, 2007.
[54]19
Pascal Michelucci, « La motivation des styles chez Marguerite Duras :
cris et silence dans Moderato cantabile et La douleur »..., donne ces
deux références concernant le caractère cinématographique de l'écriture
de Duras : Béatrice Slama, « Le silence et la voix », Corps écrit, no
12, 1984, p. 185-192, et Liliane Papin, « Film et écriture du silence :
de Chaplin à Duras », Stanford French Review, 13, 2-3, automne 1989, p.
211-228.
[55]20
On retrouve curieusement la même idée dans Les yeux bleus cheveux noirs
à travers l'évocation de l'histoire. Ici, il pourrait s'agir de la mise
en place d'une séquence cinématographique, cadrée en plan d'ensemble.
[56]21
Pascal Michelucci (cf.supra, « La motivation des styles chez Marguerite
Duras : cris et silence dans Moderato cantabile et La douleur »...),
qui travaille sur l'interaction silence/cri, rappelle le voeu de Duras
de décanter le plus possible l'écriture.
[57]22
Henri Meschonnic parle de langage, au sens de faculté d'expression ;
mais je crois qu'il faut aussi, dans certains cas, entendre langue.
[58]23
La mise en page a été modifiée pour lire plus aisément la disposition
rythmique.
[59]24
SNP = syntagme nominal prépositionnel.
[60]25
On peut noter la possibilité d'employer également ce terme dans son
sens abstrait.
[61]
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ELYSEE
Sarkozy : les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme"
NOUVELOBS.COM | 06.02.2009 | 13:01
[121]Réagissez à l'article 299 réactions
Lors de son intervention télévisée, le chef de l'Etat a notamment déclaré :
"Que les Français soient inquiets (face à la crise), c'est normal".
> Il a dit réfléchir à une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le
revenu.
> La taxe professionnelle sera supprimée en 2010.
> Les partenaires sociaux seront reçus le 18 février.
Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters)
Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters)
Le chef de l'Etat a déclaré, jeudi 5 février, que la France et le monde
faisaient face à "la crise du siècle", au début de son intervention
télévisée. "C'est la crise du siècle, elle est sans précédent", a-t-il
répété Nicolas Sarkozy. ([122]> Lire toutes les déclarations).
"Je dois en tenir compte et faire en sorte que la France rentre le plus
tard possible dans la crise et sorte le plus tôt de la crise", a-t-il
ajouté. "Je dois en plus protéger au maximum ceux qui déjà dans la
croissance mondiale étaient exclus", a-t-il ajouté. "Que les Français
soient inquiets, c'est normal. Je le comprends, je l'entends", a-t-il
expliqué.
Les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme", a-t-il
rapidement affirmé. "La rupture n'a jamais été un objectif, c'est juste
un moyen", a, par ailleurs, expliqué Nicolas Sarkozy.
L'émission était diffusée simultanément sur TF1, France 2, M6 et RTL.
Elle est présentée par David Pujadas et Laurence, avec les
interventions de Guy Lagache et Alain Duhamel.
Une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu ?
Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il recevrait les partenaires sociaux le 18
février, notamment pour voir comment "aller plus loin" sur
l'indemnisation du chômage partiel. Il a également dit réfléchir à une
suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu pour aider les
classes moyennes, l'une des "pistes" qu'il soumettra aux syndicats le
18 février. "L'Etat est prêt à faire un effort" pour "mieux protéger"
les jeunes en fin de CDD et qui ne retrouvent pas d'emploi du fait de
la crise financière et économique, a affirmé le président de la
République.
Le chef de l'Etat a aussi annoncé qu'il "supprimerait la taxe
professionnnelle en 2010". "Je vous l'annonce: on supprimera la taxe
professionnelle en France en 2010 parce que je veux que l'on garde des
usines en France", a déclaré Nicolas Sarkozy lors de son intervention
télévisée sur la crise.
La mesure sera générale: "On ne peut pas dire on va supprimer pour
l'industrie automobile mais pas pour l'industrie sidérurgique ou
textile", a-t-il ajouté.
"Je ne peux pas dire aux actionnaires pour le coup: ne délocalisez
plus, relocalisez, et en même temps leur laisser des charges et des
contraintes qui font qu'ils ne s'en sortiront plus", selon le chef de
l'Etat.
Réfléchir sur le "partage du profit"
Le président a jugé nécessaire de réfléchir au "partage du profit"
entre les salariés et les actionnaires, demandant aux partenaires
sociaux de parvenir à un accord sans quoi "l'Etat prendra ses
responsabilités". "Je veux que le 18 février nous discutions d'un sujet
essentiel en France qui est le partage du profit", a déclaré le chef de
l'Etat, évoquant le "sentiment d'injustice majeur" suscité dans cette
crise par "le comportement d'un certain nombre de dirigeants
d'institutions bancaires". "Comment on arbitre entre le souhait
légitime des actionnaires de gagner de l'argent avec les entreprises et
la demande des salariés d'être associés aux bénéfices des entreprises
dont ils ont contribué à créer la richesse?", s'est interrogé Nicolas
Sarkozy, jugeant qu'en la matière "le compte n'y est pas". "Quand une
entreprise distribue aux actionnaires tous les bénéfices d'une année,
elle ne peut plus investir" pour l'avenir, a-t-il ajouté, dénonçant une
"logique purement financière et spéculative". Le sujet sera au
programme de sa rencontre avec les partenaires sociaux le 18 février.
"J'engage les organisations syndicales et le patronat à en discuter.
Soit ils arrivent à quelque chose, soit l'Etat prendra ses
responsabilités", a-t-il prévenu. Il a indiqué qu'il estimait quant à
lui que "la règle des trois tiers est bonne": un tiers des bénéfices
vont aux salariés, un tiers aux actionnaires sous forme de dividendes
et un tiers sont réinvestis dans l'entreprise pour financer son
développement".
Combat sur la TVA
Nicolas Sarkozy a réaffirmé sa volonté d'obtenir un consensus européen
concernant des baisses de la TVA sur la restauration, les "produits
propres" et des "produits culturels".
"C'est parfaitement anormal que quand on achète une voiture propre, on
paie plus cher que quand on achète une voiture qui pollue, et ça vaut
aussi pour les bâtiments construits en haute qualité environnementale",
a dit le chef de l'Etat, souhaitant "un système de TVA réduite pour
tous les produits propres".
"Je pense également que sur les produits culturels, il faut aller plus
loin", a ajouté Nicolas Sarkozy. "Pourquoi la TVA sur le livre est-elle
à 5,5 (%), et la TVA sur le disque à 19,6 (%), comme la TVA sur la
vidéo? Il faut mettre cette TVA à 5,5", a-t-il déclaré.
"Comme cela on est tranquille"
"Est-ce que les réformes que la France doit mettre en oeuvre, pour
avoir le même emploi lorsque nous seront sortis de la crise, est-ce que
ces réformes restent d'actualité? La réponse est oui", a déclaré le
chef de l'Etat, précisant qu'elles devaient être conduites "au même
rythme".
"Si on doit arrêter, comme cela s'est si souvent fait dans le passé,
chaque réforme quand il y a une manifestation, alors mieux vaut ne
faire aucune réforme. Et comme cela on est tranquille", a-t-il dit. La
rupture, "c'est la rupture avec cette habitude".
Les quelque 1,4 milliard d'euros d'intérêts que l'Etat percevra cette
année au titre des intérêts pour son financement aux banques seront
"intégralement" affectés au financement de "mesures sociales", a
annoncé Nicolas Sarkozy.
Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il allait demander au président de la Cour
des comptes Philippe Seguin de "conduire un certain nombre d'enquêtes"
sur la bonne utilisation des fonds accordés aux banques pour faire face
à la crise.
Tacle aux traders
Nicolas Sarkozy veut "changer" le système de rémunération des "traders"
mais est sceptique sur un plafonnement systématique du salaire des
dirigeants, a-t-il déclaré.
"Je suis plus choqué par le système de rémunération de ceux qu'on
appelle les traders, que les présidents de banques. C'est ce système-là
que je veux changer", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat.
"J'ai vu ce que M. Obama a décidé, je suis en train d'y réfléchir, moi
je ne suis pas trop pour une règle générale", a-t-il ajouté. "Mettre
tout le monde sous la toise, je ne suis pas sûr que ce soit la
meilleure formule".
"J'ajoute que Barack Obama a prévu un système d'actions gratuites
derrière une rémunération bloquée, j'aimerais en savoir un peu plus", a
souligné Nicolas Sarkozy.
Maintien de la politique sur la Fonction publique
Nicolas Sarkozy a affirmé qu'il n'engagerait "pas de dépenses publiques
supplémentaires", et qu'il s'en tiendrait à la "règle du
non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux".
"Je n'engagerai pas de dépenses publiques supplémentaires, notamment
sur la règle du non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux", a
affirmé le président de la République.
Selon lui, on reviendra ainsi "au même nombre de fonctionnaires qu'en
1992", quand François Mitterrand était président. "Je n'ai pas le
souvenir que la France était alors sous-administrée", a-t-il argué.
Relations aux paradis fiscaux
Très sévère sur la question des paradis fiscaux, Nicolas Sarkozy a
annoncé son intention de "poser des questions" à Andorre, Monaco et au
Luxembourg.
La France exigera la moralisation des paradis fiscaux et "ça m'amènera
à revoir nos relations avec Andorre", "à poser la question de nos
relations avec Monaco (et) à poser un certain nombre de questions à nos
voisins luxembourgeois", a-t-il déclaré.
Baisse dans les sondages
D'autant que le chef de l'Etat, comme son Premier ministre, enregistre
une forte baisse dans les derniers sondages. Moins cinq points à 39% de
"confiance" contre 55% de défiance selon un CSA paru mercredi dans Le
Parisien.
Forts du succès de leur journée d'action de la semaine dernière, les
syndicats attendent le président au tournant, suspendant leurs
prochaines initiatives au contenu de sa prestation télévisée.
Le patron de la CFDT François Chérèque a réclamé un "changement de
cap", en clair, des mesures pour maintenir le pouvoir d'achat, tandis
que celui de FO Jean-Claude Mailly a prévenu que sans "relance par la
consommation", il y aura "remobilisation".
Le ton est également offensif dans l'opposition. La Première secrétaire
du PS Martine Aubry a demandé au président de "définir enfin un plan de
relance adapté". Et, dans une rare unanimité, la gauche toute entière a
signé mercredi un texte sommant le pouvoir de "changer de cap".
Ne pas se laisser "enfumer"
Jeudi matin, Jean-Luc Mélenchon (Parti de gauche) invitait le pays à ne
pas se laisser "enfumer" par Nicolas Sarkozy et à se mettre "en lutte",
tandis qu'Olivier Besancenot (LCR) voyait déjà dans son intervention
"des motivations supplémentaires à continuer le combat".
Jusque-là, le discours du chef de l'Etat est resté inflexible. Oui, il
a entendu les "inquiétudes légitimes" des Français "qui craignent pour
leur emploi", mais pas question pour lui de recourir à une relance par
la consommation, "parce que ça n'a jamais marché".
Nicolas Sarkozy devrait aussi enrober son propos d'une bonne dose de
volontarisme. "On va se battre pour que la France sorte plus forte de
la crise", insiste-t-il régulièrement.
"Se concentrer sur les objectifs essentiels"
Mais certains ne l'entendent pas de la même oreille dans la majorité.
Le député UMP Hervé Mariton a reproché au gouvernement de s'éparpiller
dans les réformes lui demandant de "se concentrer sur les objectifs
essentiels" et son collègue François Goulard a préconisé une
"suspension" temporaire du très controversé bouclier fiscal.
En outre, le gouvernement a vu poindre ces derniers jours un nouveau
"front" du mécontentement dans les universités, avec la montée de la
grogne des enseignants-chercheurs et des étudiants.
Mais comme François Fillon lundi, le porte-parole du gouvernement a
exclu mercredi tout virage politique. "Cette émission n'est pas faite
seulement pour le million et demi de Français qui a manifesté", a dit
Luc Chatel, mais plutôt pour "mettre en perspective son action face à
la crise".
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Les réactions des lecteurs
rifif
[137]-10 POINTS
-10 points serait un sondage plus réaliste que ces sondages
effectués par des instituts de sondages aux mains des amis de
sarkozy ! Il aura beau museler les manifestan...
08.02 à 16h05 - [138]Alerter
scafandre
[139]Il faut qu'il démissionne...
avant de mettre littéralement la France en faillite. Il est
inconscient... Vous avez des communes qui ont investi dans la
construction de collèges, de ponts... en fonct...
07.02 à 21h16 - [140]Alerter
[141]Réagissez !
[142]Toutes les réactions (299)
[143]Conditions de modération
L'essentiel Politique
[144]IDENTITE NATIONALE
[145]"Déferlement de musulmans" : Gaudin regrette avoir eu un "mot
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[146]MAYOTTE
[147]Courte étape dans l'océan Indien pour Sarkozy 18.01 à 14h52
[148]POLEMIQUE
[149]Reporters enlevés : "cynisme effrayant" de Guéant 18.01 à 14h47
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[151]Buffet dénonce "une idéologie xénophobe
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[157]Les départements en "graves difficultés financières" 18.01 à 08h53
[158]IDENTITE NATIONALE
[159]"Déferlement de musulmans" : Gaudin regrette avoir eu un "mot
malheureux" 18.01 à 08h06
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[161]Valls fustige les "amalgames dangereux" de Gaudin 18.01 à 07h56
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[163]Régionales : Aubry vise toujours le grand chelem 18.01 à 07h29
[164]AFGHANISTAN
[165]Journalistes enlevés : Guéant provoque la polémique 18.01 à 07h10
[166]SENAT
[167]La réforme des collectivités "manque de visibilité" 18.01 à 07h05
[168]CHARENTE-MARITIME
[169]Régionales : Sarnez accuse Royal de "débauchage" 17.01 à 14h58
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[171]Mélenchon favorable au droit de vote des étrangers 17.01 à 13h56
[172]CONSEIL CONSTITUTIONNEL
[173]Emmanuelle Mignon ne siègera pas parmi les Sages 17.01 à 12h55
Plus sur le sujet
Sur Nouvelobs.com
* [174]Les principales déclarations de Nicolas Sarkozy
* [175]Aubry Sarkozy est un président "hésitant" qui "ne sait pas où
il va"
* [176]Intervention télévisée de Sarkozy Les appels au boycott se
multiplient
* [177]Onze organisations de gauche demandent un "changement de cap"
* [178]Interview présidentielle Les choix contestables de l'Elysée
* [179]Grèves Parisot y voit "quelque chose de pervers"
* [180]Le texte commun des onze organisations de gauche
* [181]Revue de presse
* [182]Les réactions
* [183]Delanoë Sarkozy a "privilégié la polémique" sur le SMA
* [184]Sarkozy fait des ouvertures, les syndicats méfiants
* [185]15,1 millions de téléspectateurs pour l'intervention de
Sarkozy
* [186]Les principales mesures de Nicolas Sarkozy
Dans Le Nouvel Observateur
* [187]"Sarkozy comme Cendrillon", (05/02/09)
* [188]"La vraie nature de Sarkozy", par François Bazin (05/02/09)
* [189]"Sarkozy peut-il encore réformer ?", par Hervé Algalarrondo
(05/02/09)
* [190]"Les ficelles de Sarkozy", (22/01/09)
* [191]"Les choix de Sarkozy", par Denis Olivennes (22/01/09)
Sur Internet
* [192]Le site de l'Elysée
* [193]Le baromètre de confiance de l'exécutif sur le site du CSA
* [194]Le baromètre des actions présidentielles sur le site du CSA
* [195]La biographie officielle de Nicolas Sarkozy
* [196]Le blog de François Fillon
* [197]La biographie officielle de François Fillon
* [198]Le site de TNS-Sofres
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ELYSEE
Sarkozy : les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme"
NOUVELOBS.COM | 06.02.2009 | 13:01
[121]Réagissez à l'article 299 réactions
Lors de son intervention télévisée, le chef de l'Etat a notamment déclaré :
"Que les Français soient inquiets (face à la crise), c'est normal".
> Il a dit réfléchir à une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le
revenu.
> La taxe professionnelle sera supprimée en 2010.
> Les partenaires sociaux seront reçus le 18 février.
Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters)
Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters)
Le chef de l'Etat a déclaré, jeudi 5 février, que la France et le monde
faisaient face à "la crise du siècle", au début de son intervention
télévisée. "C'est la crise du siècle, elle est sans précédent", a-t-il
répété Nicolas Sarkozy. ([122]> Lire toutes les déclarations).
"Je dois en tenir compte et faire en sorte que la France rentre le plus
tard possible dans la crise et sorte le plus tôt de la crise", a-t-il
ajouté. "Je dois en plus protéger au maximum ceux qui déjà dans la
croissance mondiale étaient exclus", a-t-il ajouté. "Que les Français
soient inquiets, c'est normal. Je le comprends, je l'entends", a-t-il
expliqué.
Les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme", a-t-il
rapidement affirmé. "La rupture n'a jamais été un objectif, c'est juste
un moyen", a, par ailleurs, expliqué Nicolas Sarkozy.
L'émission était diffusée simultanément sur TF1, France 2, M6 et RTL.
Elle est présentée par David Pujadas et Laurence, avec les
interventions de Guy Lagache et Alain Duhamel.
Une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu ?
Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il recevrait les partenaires sociaux le 18
février, notamment pour voir comment "aller plus loin" sur
l'indemnisation du chômage partiel. Il a également dit réfléchir à une
suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu pour aider les
classes moyennes, l'une des "pistes" qu'il soumettra aux syndicats le
18 février. "L'Etat est prêt à faire un effort" pour "mieux protéger"
les jeunes en fin de CDD et qui ne retrouvent pas d'emploi du fait de
la crise financière et économique, a affirmé le président de la
République.
Le chef de l'Etat a aussi annoncé qu'il "supprimerait la taxe
professionnnelle en 2010". "Je vous l'annonce: on supprimera la taxe
professionnelle en France en 2010 parce que je veux que l'on garde des
usines en France", a déclaré Nicolas Sarkozy lors de son intervention
télévisée sur la crise.
La mesure sera générale: "On ne peut pas dire on va supprimer pour
l'industrie automobile mais pas pour l'industrie sidérurgique ou
textile", a-t-il ajouté.
"Je ne peux pas dire aux actionnaires pour le coup: ne délocalisez
plus, relocalisez, et en même temps leur laisser des charges et des
contraintes qui font qu'ils ne s'en sortiront plus", selon le chef de
l'Etat.
Réfléchir sur le "partage du profit"
Le président a jugé nécessaire de réfléchir au "partage du profit"
entre les salariés et les actionnaires, demandant aux partenaires
sociaux de parvenir à un accord sans quoi "l'Etat prendra ses
responsabilités". "Je veux que le 18 février nous discutions d'un sujet
essentiel en France qui est le partage du profit", a déclaré le chef de
l'Etat, évoquant le "sentiment d'injustice majeur" suscité dans cette
crise par "le comportement d'un certain nombre de dirigeants
d'institutions bancaires". "Comment on arbitre entre le souhait
légitime des actionnaires de gagner de l'argent avec les entreprises et
la demande des salariés d'être associés aux bénéfices des entreprises
dont ils ont contribué à créer la richesse?", s'est interrogé Nicolas
Sarkozy, jugeant qu'en la matière "le compte n'y est pas". "Quand une
entreprise distribue aux actionnaires tous les bénéfices d'une année,
elle ne peut plus investir" pour l'avenir, a-t-il ajouté, dénonçant une
"logique purement financière et spéculative". Le sujet sera au
programme de sa rencontre avec les partenaires sociaux le 18 février.
"J'engage les organisations syndicales et le patronat à en discuter.
Soit ils arrivent à quelque chose, soit l'Etat prendra ses
responsabilités", a-t-il prévenu. Il a indiqué qu'il estimait quant à
lui que "la règle des trois tiers est bonne": un tiers des bénéfices
vont aux salariés, un tiers aux actionnaires sous forme de dividendes
et un tiers sont réinvestis dans l'entreprise pour financer son
développement".
Combat sur la TVA
Nicolas Sarkozy a réaffirmé sa volonté d'obtenir un consensus européen
concernant des baisses de la TVA sur la restauration, les "produits
propres" et des "produits culturels".
"C'est parfaitement anormal que quand on achète une voiture propre, on
paie plus cher que quand on achète une voiture qui pollue, et ça vaut
aussi pour les bâtiments construits en haute qualité environnementale",
a dit le chef de l'Etat, souhaitant "un système de TVA réduite pour
tous les produits propres".
"Je pense également que sur les produits culturels, il faut aller plus
loin", a ajouté Nicolas Sarkozy. "Pourquoi la TVA sur le livre est-elle
à 5,5 (%), et la TVA sur le disque à 19,6 (%), comme la TVA sur la
vidéo? Il faut mettre cette TVA à 5,5", a-t-il déclaré.
"Comme cela on est tranquille"
"Est-ce que les réformes que la France doit mettre en oeuvre, pour
avoir le même emploi lorsque nous seront sortis de la crise, est-ce que
ces réformes restent d'actualité? La réponse est oui", a déclaré le
chef de l'Etat, précisant qu'elles devaient être conduites "au même
rythme".
"Si on doit arrêter, comme cela s'est si souvent fait dans le passé,
chaque réforme quand il y a une manifestation, alors mieux vaut ne
faire aucune réforme. Et comme cela on est tranquille", a-t-il dit. La
rupture, "c'est la rupture avec cette habitude".
Les quelque 1,4 milliard d'euros d'intérêts que l'Etat percevra cette
année au titre des intérêts pour son financement aux banques seront
"intégralement" affectés au financement de "mesures sociales", a
annoncé Nicolas Sarkozy.
Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il allait demander au président de la Cour
des comptes Philippe Seguin de "conduire un certain nombre d'enquêtes"
sur la bonne utilisation des fonds accordés aux banques pour faire face
à la crise.
Tacle aux traders
Nicolas Sarkozy veut "changer" le système de rémunération des "traders"
mais est sceptique sur un plafonnement systématique du salaire des
dirigeants, a-t-il déclaré.
"Je suis plus choqué par le système de rémunération de ceux qu'on
appelle les traders, que les présidents de banques. C'est ce système-là
que je veux changer", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat.
"J'ai vu ce que M. Obama a décidé, je suis en train d'y réfléchir, moi
je ne suis pas trop pour une règle générale", a-t-il ajouté. "Mettre
tout le monde sous la toise, je ne suis pas sûr que ce soit la
meilleure formule".
"J'ajoute que Barack Obama a prévu un système d'actions gratuites
derrière une rémunération bloquée, j'aimerais en savoir un peu plus", a
souligné Nicolas Sarkozy.
Maintien de la politique sur la Fonction publique
Nicolas Sarkozy a affirmé qu'il n'engagerait "pas de dépenses publiques
supplémentaires", et qu'il s'en tiendrait à la "règle du
non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux".
"Je n'engagerai pas de dépenses publiques supplémentaires, notamment
sur la règle du non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux", a
affirmé le président de la République.
Selon lui, on reviendra ainsi "au même nombre de fonctionnaires qu'en
1992", quand François Mitterrand était président. "Je n'ai pas le
souvenir que la France était alors sous-administrée", a-t-il argué.
Relations aux paradis fiscaux
Très sévère sur la question des paradis fiscaux, Nicolas Sarkozy a
annoncé son intention de "poser des questions" à Andorre, Monaco et au
Luxembourg.
La France exigera la moralisation des paradis fiscaux et "ça m'amènera
à revoir nos relations avec Andorre", "à poser la question de nos
relations avec Monaco (et) à poser un certain nombre de questions à nos
voisins luxembourgeois", a-t-il déclaré.
Baisse dans les sondages
D'autant que le chef de l'Etat, comme son Premier ministre, enregistre
une forte baisse dans les derniers sondages. Moins cinq points à 39% de
"confiance" contre 55% de défiance selon un CSA paru mercredi dans Le
Parisien.
Forts du succès de leur journée d'action de la semaine dernière, les
syndicats attendent le président au tournant, suspendant leurs
prochaines initiatives au contenu de sa prestation télévisée.
Le patron de la CFDT François Chérèque a réclamé un "changement de
cap", en clair, des mesures pour maintenir le pouvoir d'achat, tandis
que celui de FO Jean-Claude Mailly a prévenu que sans "relance par la
consommation", il y aura "remobilisation".
Le ton est également offensif dans l'opposition. La Première secrétaire
du PS Martine Aubry a demandé au président de "définir enfin un plan de
relance adapté". Et, dans une rare unanimité, la gauche toute entière a
signé mercredi un texte sommant le pouvoir de "changer de cap".
Ne pas se laisser "enfumer"
Jeudi matin, Jean-Luc Mélenchon (Parti de gauche) invitait le pays à ne
pas se laisser "enfumer" par Nicolas Sarkozy et à se mettre "en lutte",
tandis qu'Olivier Besancenot (LCR) voyait déjà dans son intervention
"des motivations supplémentaires à continuer le combat".
Jusque-là, le discours du chef de l'Etat est resté inflexible. Oui, il
a entendu les "inquiétudes légitimes" des Français "qui craignent pour
leur emploi", mais pas question pour lui de recourir à une relance par
la consommation, "parce que ça n'a jamais marché".
Nicolas Sarkozy devrait aussi enrober son propos d'une bonne dose de
volontarisme. "On va se battre pour que la France sorte plus forte de
la crise", insiste-t-il régulièrement.
"Se concentrer sur les objectifs essentiels"
Mais certains ne l'entendent pas de la même oreille dans la majorité.
Le député UMP Hervé Mariton a reproché au gouvernement de s'éparpiller
dans les réformes lui demandant de "se concentrer sur les objectifs
essentiels" et son collègue François Goulard a préconisé une
"suspension" temporaire du très controversé bouclier fiscal.
En outre, le gouvernement a vu poindre ces derniers jours un nouveau
"front" du mécontentement dans les universités, avec la montée de la
grogne des enseignants-chercheurs et des étudiants.
Mais comme François Fillon lundi, le porte-parole du gouvernement a
exclu mercredi tout virage politique. "Cette émission n'est pas faite
seulement pour le million et demi de Français qui a manifesté", a dit
Luc Chatel, mais plutôt pour "mettre en perspective son action face à
la crise".
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Les réactions des lecteurs
rifif
[137]-10 POINTS
-10 points serait un sondage plus réaliste que ces sondages
effectués par des instituts de sondages aux mains des amis de
sarkozy ! Il aura beau museler les manifestan...
08.02 à 16h05 - [138]Alerter
scafandre
[139]Il faut qu'il démissionne...
avant de mettre littéralement la France en faillite. Il est
inconscient... Vous avez des communes qui ont investi dans la
construction de collèges, de ponts... en fonct...
07.02 à 21h16 - [140]Alerter
[141]Réagissez !
[142]Toutes les réactions (299)
[143]Conditions de modération
L'essentiel Politique
[144]IDENTITE NATIONALE
[145]"Déferlement de musulmans" : Gaudin regrette avoir eu un "mot
malheureux" 18.01 à 16h59
[146]MAYOTTE
[147]Courte étape dans l'océan Indien pour Sarkozy 18.01 à 14h52
[148]POLEMIQUE
[149]Reporters enlevés : "cynisme effrayant" de Guéant 18.01 à 14h47
[150]MARSEILLE
[151]Buffet dénonce "une idéologie xénophobe
dans les plus hautes autorités de l'Etat" 18.01 à 13h46
[152]IDENTITE NATIONALE
[153]Et si "une Française porte la burqa"...? 18.01 à 10h51
[154]SOCIAL
[155]Internet : un tarif réduit pour les plus démunis ? 18.01 à 09h05
[156]COLLECTIVITES LOCALES
[157]Les départements en "graves difficultés financières" 18.01 à 08h53
[158]IDENTITE NATIONALE
[159]"Déferlement de musulmans" : Gaudin regrette avoir eu un "mot
malheureux" 18.01 à 08h06
[160]MARSEILLE
[161]Valls fustige les "amalgames dangereux" de Gaudin 18.01 à 07h56
[162]ELECTIONS REGIONALES
[163]Régionales : Aubry vise toujours le grand chelem 18.01 à 07h29
[164]AFGHANISTAN
[165]Journalistes enlevés : Guéant provoque la polémique 18.01 à 07h10
[166]SENAT
[167]La réforme des collectivités "manque de visibilité" 18.01 à 07h05
[168]CHARENTE-MARITIME
[169]Régionales : Sarnez accuse Royal de "débauchage" 17.01 à 14h58
[170]DROIT DE VOTE
[171]Mélenchon favorable au droit de vote des étrangers 17.01 à 13h56
[172]CONSEIL CONSTITUTIONNEL
[173]Emmanuelle Mignon ne siègera pas parmi les Sages 17.01 à 12h55
Plus sur le sujet
Sur Nouvelobs.com
* [174]Les principales déclarations de Nicolas Sarkozy
* [175]Aubry Sarkozy est un président "hésitant" qui "ne sait pas où
il va"
* [176]Intervention télévisée de Sarkozy Les appels au boycott se
multiplient
* [177]Onze organisations de gauche demandent un "changement de cap"
* [178]Interview présidentielle Les choix contestables de l'Elysée
* [179]Grèves Parisot y voit "quelque chose de pervers"
* [180]Le texte commun des onze organisations de gauche
* [181]Revue de presse
* [182]Les réactions
* [183]Delanoë Sarkozy a "privilégié la polémique" sur le SMA
* [184]Sarkozy fait des ouvertures, les syndicats méfiants
* [185]15,1 millions de téléspectateurs pour l'intervention de
Sarkozy
* [186]Les principales mesures de Nicolas Sarkozy
Dans Le Nouvel Observateur
* [187]"Sarkozy comme Cendrillon", (05/02/09)
* [188]"La vraie nature de Sarkozy", par François Bazin (05/02/09)
* [189]"Sarkozy peut-il encore réformer ?", par Hervé Algalarrondo
(05/02/09)
* [190]"Les ficelles de Sarkozy", (22/01/09)
* [191]"Les choix de Sarkozy", par Denis Olivennes (22/01/09)
Sur Internet
* [192]Le site de l'Elysée
* [193]Le baromètre de confiance de l'exécutif sur le site du CSA
* [194]Le baromètre des actions présidentielles sur le site du CSA
* [195]La biographie officielle de Nicolas Sarkozy
* [196]Le blog de François Fillon
* [197]La biographie officielle de François Fillon
* [198]Le site de TNS-Sofres
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Réformes: Sarkozy ne ralentira pas le rythme
19.01.2009
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Le [136]président [137]Nicolas Sarkozy a affirmé lundi ne pas avoir
«l'intention de ralentir le rythme» des réformes en 2009, au moment où
«l'impact social de la [138]crise se fait sentir». Formulant ses voeux
pour la nouvelle années devant les représentants des partenaires
sociaux, le chef de l'Etat a d'abord voulu les «remercier pour
l'ampleur de la tâche que vous avez accomplie en 2008. L'urgence des
problèmes à résoudre, l'attente des Français vous ont imposé, comme au
gouvernement et au Parlement, un rythme de travail particulièrement
exigeant». «Je ne vous surprendrai pas en vous disant que nous n'avons
pas l'intention de ralentir le rythme en 2009, leur a-t-il ensuite
déclaré. Et ce n'est certainement pas au moment où l'impact social de
la crise se fait sentir --on a eu l'impact financier, l'impact
économique, bien sûr l'impact social-- qu'on va en tirer la conclusion
qu'il faut ralentir», a-t-il ajouté.
Leparisien.fr avec A
Cet article a été publié dans la rubrique [139]Politique
FLASH ACTUALITÉ
[DERNIÈRE MINUTE]
* 18h57 [140]Emmanuelle Haïm renonce à diriger "Idoménée" à l'Opéra
de Paris
* 18h55 [141]La production cinéma "résiste" dit le CNC, "en crise"
selon les producteurs
* 18h49 [142]Ligue 1: Marseille au milieu du gué
* 18h41 [143]Jean-Claude Juncker reconduit à la tête de l'Eurogroupe
* 18h26 [144]France: le déficit public de "l'ordre de 8,2%" du PIB en
2010
* 18h16 [145]Rebsamen (PS): pétition pour inverser la charge de la
preuve de nationalité
* 18h05 [146]Strauss-Kahn responsable politique préféré des Français
[147]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
* 18h41 [148]Jean-Claude Juncker reconduit à la tête de l'Eurogroupe
* 18h26 [149]France: le déficit public de "l'ordre de 8,2%" du PIB en
2010
* 17h53 [150]Plan de départs PSA: 5.700 volontaires d'ici la fin du
dispositif fin mars
* 17h42 [151]Etats-Unis: Vivendi accuse l'avocat des plaignants de
créer un "préjudice"
* 17h18 [152]Eurostar pourrait payer 11 millions d'euros de
dédommagement à ses clients
* 16h24 [153]GDF Suez a tenté sans succès de prendre le contrôle
d'International Power
* 16h11 [154]Le déficit public attendu à 8,2% en 2010, soit moins que
prévu
[155]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
* 18h16 [156]Rebsamen (PS): pétition pour inverser la charge de la
preuve de nationalité
* 18h05 [157]Strauss-Kahn responsable politique préféré des Français
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ELYSEE
Sarkozy : les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme"
NOUVELOBS.COM | 06.02.2009 | 13:01
[121]Réagissez à l'article 299 réactions
Lors de son intervention télévisée, le chef de l'Etat a notamment déclaré :
"Que les Français soient inquiets (face à la crise), c'est normal".
> Il a dit réfléchir à une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le
revenu.
> La taxe professionnelle sera supprimée en 2010.
> Les partenaires sociaux seront reçus le 18 février.
Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters)
Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters)
Le chef de l'Etat a déclaré, jeudi 5 février, que la France et le monde
faisaient face à "la crise du siècle", au début de son intervention
télévisée. "C'est la crise du siècle, elle est sans précédent", a-t-il
répété Nicolas Sarkozy. ([122]> Lire toutes les déclarations).
"Je dois en tenir compte et faire en sorte que la France rentre le plus
tard possible dans la crise et sorte le plus tôt de la crise", a-t-il
ajouté. "Je dois en plus protéger au maximum ceux qui déjà dans la
croissance mondiale étaient exclus", a-t-il ajouté. "Que les Français
soient inquiets, c'est normal. Je le comprends, je l'entends", a-t-il
expliqué.
Les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme", a-t-il
rapidement affirmé. "La rupture n'a jamais été un objectif, c'est juste
un moyen", a, par ailleurs, expliqué Nicolas Sarkozy.
L'émission était diffusée simultanément sur TF1, France 2, M6 et RTL.
Elle est présentée par David Pujadas et Laurence, avec les
interventions de Guy Lagache et Alain Duhamel.
Une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu ?
Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il recevrait les partenaires sociaux le 18
février, notamment pour voir comment "aller plus loin" sur
l'indemnisation du chômage partiel. Il a également dit réfléchir à une
suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu pour aider les
classes moyennes, l'une des "pistes" qu'il soumettra aux syndicats le
18 février. "L'Etat est prêt à faire un effort" pour "mieux protéger"
les jeunes en fin de CDD et qui ne retrouvent pas d'emploi du fait de
la crise financière et économique, a affirmé le président de la
République.
Le chef de l'Etat a aussi annoncé qu'il "supprimerait la taxe
professionnnelle en 2010". "Je vous l'annonce: on supprimera la taxe
professionnelle en France en 2010 parce que je veux que l'on garde des
usines en France", a déclaré Nicolas Sarkozy lors de son intervention
télévisée sur la crise.
La mesure sera générale: "On ne peut pas dire on va supprimer pour
l'industrie automobile mais pas pour l'industrie sidérurgique ou
textile", a-t-il ajouté.
"Je ne peux pas dire aux actionnaires pour le coup: ne délocalisez
plus, relocalisez, et en même temps leur laisser des charges et des
contraintes qui font qu'ils ne s'en sortiront plus", selon le chef de
l'Etat.
Réfléchir sur le "partage du profit"
Le président a jugé nécessaire de réfléchir au "partage du profit"
entre les salariés et les actionnaires, demandant aux partenaires
sociaux de parvenir à un accord sans quoi "l'Etat prendra ses
responsabilités". "Je veux que le 18 février nous discutions d'un sujet
essentiel en France qui est le partage du profit", a déclaré le chef de
l'Etat, évoquant le "sentiment d'injustice majeur" suscité dans cette
crise par "le comportement d'un certain nombre de dirigeants
d'institutions bancaires". "Comment on arbitre entre le souhait
légitime des actionnaires de gagner de l'argent avec les entreprises et
la demande des salariés d'être associés aux bénéfices des entreprises
dont ils ont contribué à créer la richesse?", s'est interrogé Nicolas
Sarkozy, jugeant qu'en la matière "le compte n'y est pas". "Quand une
entreprise distribue aux actionnaires tous les bénéfices d'une année,
elle ne peut plus investir" pour l'avenir, a-t-il ajouté, dénonçant une
"logique purement financière et spéculative". Le sujet sera au
programme de sa rencontre avec les partenaires sociaux le 18 février.
"J'engage les organisations syndicales et le patronat à en discuter.
Soit ils arrivent à quelque chose, soit l'Etat prendra ses
responsabilités", a-t-il prévenu. Il a indiqué qu'il estimait quant à
lui que "la règle des trois tiers est bonne": un tiers des bénéfices
vont aux salariés, un tiers aux actionnaires sous forme de dividendes
et un tiers sont réinvestis dans l'entreprise pour financer son
développement".
Combat sur la TVA
Nicolas Sarkozy a réaffirmé sa volonté d'obtenir un consensus européen
concernant des baisses de la TVA sur la restauration, les "produits
propres" et des "produits culturels".
"C'est parfaitement anormal que quand on achète une voiture propre, on
paie plus cher que quand on achète une voiture qui pollue, et ça vaut
aussi pour les bâtiments construits en haute qualité environnementale",
a dit le chef de l'Etat, souhaitant "un système de TVA réduite pour
tous les produits propres".
"Je pense également que sur les produits culturels, il faut aller plus
loin", a ajouté Nicolas Sarkozy. "Pourquoi la TVA sur le livre est-elle
à 5,5 (%), et la TVA sur le disque à 19,6 (%), comme la TVA sur la
vidéo? Il faut mettre cette TVA à 5,5", a-t-il déclaré.
"Comme cela on est tranquille"
"Est-ce que les réformes que la France doit mettre en oeuvre, pour
avoir le même emploi lorsque nous seront sortis de la crise, est-ce que
ces réformes restent d'actualité? La réponse est oui", a déclaré le
chef de l'Etat, précisant qu'elles devaient être conduites "au même
rythme".
"Si on doit arrêter, comme cela s'est si souvent fait dans le passé,
chaque réforme quand il y a une manifestation, alors mieux vaut ne
faire aucune réforme. Et comme cela on est tranquille", a-t-il dit. La
rupture, "c'est la rupture avec cette habitude".
Les quelque 1,4 milliard d'euros d'intérêts que l'Etat percevra cette
année au titre des intérêts pour son financement aux banques seront
"intégralement" affectés au financement de "mesures sociales", a
annoncé Nicolas Sarkozy.
Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il allait demander au président de la Cour
des comptes Philippe Seguin de "conduire un certain nombre d'enquêtes"
sur la bonne utilisation des fonds accordés aux banques pour faire face
à la crise.
Tacle aux traders
Nicolas Sarkozy veut "changer" le système de rémunération des "traders"
mais est sceptique sur un plafonnement systématique du salaire des
dirigeants, a-t-il déclaré.
"Je suis plus choqué par le système de rémunération de ceux qu'on
appelle les traders, que les présidents de banques. C'est ce système-là
que je veux changer", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat.
"J'ai vu ce que M. Obama a décidé, je suis en train d'y réfléchir, moi
je ne suis pas trop pour une règle générale", a-t-il ajouté. "Mettre
tout le monde sous la toise, je ne suis pas sûr que ce soit la
meilleure formule".
"J'ajoute que Barack Obama a prévu un système d'actions gratuites
derrière une rémunération bloquée, j'aimerais en savoir un peu plus", a
souligné Nicolas Sarkozy.
Maintien de la politique sur la Fonction publique
Nicolas Sarkozy a affirmé qu'il n'engagerait "pas de dépenses publiques
supplémentaires", et qu'il s'en tiendrait à la "règle du
non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux".
"Je n'engagerai pas de dépenses publiques supplémentaires, notamment
sur la règle du non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux", a
affirmé le président de la République.
Selon lui, on reviendra ainsi "au même nombre de fonctionnaires qu'en
1992", quand François Mitterrand était président. "Je n'ai pas le
souvenir que la France était alors sous-administrée", a-t-il argué.
Relations aux paradis fiscaux
Très sévère sur la question des paradis fiscaux, Nicolas Sarkozy a
annoncé son intention de "poser des questions" à Andorre, Monaco et au
Luxembourg.
La France exigera la moralisation des paradis fiscaux et "ça m'amènera
à revoir nos relations avec Andorre", "à poser la question de nos
relations avec Monaco (et) à poser un certain nombre de questions à nos
voisins luxembourgeois", a-t-il déclaré.
Baisse dans les sondages
D'autant que le chef de l'Etat, comme son Premier ministre, enregistre
une forte baisse dans les derniers sondages. Moins cinq points à 39% de
"confiance" contre 55% de défiance selon un CSA paru mercredi dans Le
Parisien.
Forts du succès de leur journée d'action de la semaine dernière, les
syndicats attendent le président au tournant, suspendant leurs
prochaines initiatives au contenu de sa prestation télévisée.
Le patron de la CFDT François Chérèque a réclamé un "changement de
cap", en clair, des mesures pour maintenir le pouvoir d'achat, tandis
que celui de FO Jean-Claude Mailly a prévenu que sans "relance par la
consommation", il y aura "remobilisation".
Le ton est également offensif dans l'opposition. La Première secrétaire
du PS Martine Aubry a demandé au président de "définir enfin un plan de
relance adapté". Et, dans une rare unanimité, la gauche toute entière a
signé mercredi un texte sommant le pouvoir de "changer de cap".
Ne pas se laisser "enfumer"
Jeudi matin, Jean-Luc Mélenchon (Parti de gauche) invitait le pays à ne
pas se laisser "enfumer" par Nicolas Sarkozy et à se mettre "en lutte",
tandis qu'Olivier Besancenot (LCR) voyait déjà dans son intervention
"des motivations supplémentaires à continuer le combat".
Jusque-là, le discours du chef de l'Etat est resté inflexible. Oui, il
a entendu les "inquiétudes légitimes" des Français "qui craignent pour
leur emploi", mais pas question pour lui de recourir à une relance par
la consommation, "parce que ça n'a jamais marché".
Nicolas Sarkozy devrait aussi enrober son propos d'une bonne dose de
volontarisme. "On va se battre pour que la France sorte plus forte de
la crise", insiste-t-il régulièrement.
"Se concentrer sur les objectifs essentiels"
Mais certains ne l'entendent pas de la même oreille dans la majorité.
Le député UMP Hervé Mariton a reproché au gouvernement de s'éparpiller
dans les réformes lui demandant de "se concentrer sur les objectifs
essentiels" et son collègue François Goulard a préconisé une
"suspension" temporaire du très controversé bouclier fiscal.
En outre, le gouvernement a vu poindre ces derniers jours un nouveau
"front" du mécontentement dans les universités, avec la montée de la
grogne des enseignants-chercheurs et des étudiants.
Mais comme François Fillon lundi, le porte-parole du gouvernement a
exclu mercredi tout virage politique. "Cette émission n'est pas faite
seulement pour le million et demi de Français qui a manifesté", a dit
Luc Chatel, mais plutôt pour "mettre en perspective son action face à
la crise".
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Les réactions des lecteurs
rifif
[137]-10 POINTS
-10 points serait un sondage plus réaliste que ces sondages
effectués par des instituts de sondages aux mains des amis de
sarkozy ! Il aura beau museler les manifestan...
08.02 à 16h05 - [138]Alerter
scafandre
[139]Il faut qu'il démissionne...
avant de mettre littéralement la France en faillite. Il est
inconscient... Vous avez des communes qui ont investi dans la
construction de collèges, de ponts... en fonct...
07.02 à 21h16 - [140]Alerter
[141]Réagissez !
[142]Toutes les réactions (299)
[143]Conditions de modération
L'essentiel Politique
[144]IDENTITE NATIONALE
[145]"Déferlement de musulmans" : Gaudin regrette avoir eu un "mot
malheureux" 18.01 à 16h59
[146]MAYOTTE
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[148]POLEMIQUE
[149]Reporters enlevés : "cynisme effrayant" de Guéant 18.01 à 14h47
[150]MARSEILLE
[151]Buffet dénonce "une idéologie xénophobe
dans les plus hautes autorités de l'Etat" 18.01 à 13h46
[152]IDENTITE NATIONALE
[153]Et si "une Française porte la burqa"...? 18.01 à 10h51
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[156]COLLECTIVITES LOCALES
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[159]"Déferlement de musulmans" : Gaudin regrette avoir eu un "mot
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[160]MARSEILLE
[161]Valls fustige les "amalgames dangereux" de Gaudin 18.01 à 07h56
[162]ELECTIONS REGIONALES
[163]Régionales : Aubry vise toujours le grand chelem 18.01 à 07h29
[164]AFGHANISTAN
[165]Journalistes enlevés : Guéant provoque la polémique 18.01 à 07h10
[166]SENAT
[167]La réforme des collectivités "manque de visibilité" 18.01 à 07h05
[168]CHARENTE-MARITIME
[169]Régionales : Sarnez accuse Royal de "débauchage" 17.01 à 14h58
[170]DROIT DE VOTE
[171]Mélenchon favorable au droit de vote des étrangers 17.01 à 13h56
[172]CONSEIL CONSTITUTIONNEL
[173]Emmanuelle Mignon ne siègera pas parmi les Sages 17.01 à 12h55
Plus sur le sujet
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* [174]Les principales déclarations de Nicolas Sarkozy
* [175]Aubry Sarkozy est un président "hésitant" qui "ne sait pas où
il va"
* [176]Intervention télévisée de Sarkozy Les appels au boycott se
multiplient
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* [186]Les principales mesures de Nicolas Sarkozy
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* [187]"Sarkozy comme Cendrillon", (05/02/09)
* [188]"La vraie nature de Sarkozy", par François Bazin (05/02/09)
* [189]"Sarkozy peut-il encore réformer ?", par Hervé Algalarrondo
(05/02/09)
* [190]"Les ficelles de Sarkozy", (22/01/09)
* [191]"Les choix de Sarkozy", par Denis Olivennes (22/01/09)
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* [193]Le baromètre de confiance de l'exécutif sur le site du CSA
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* [195]La biographie officielle de Nicolas Sarkozy
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Réformes: Sarkozy ne ralentira pas le rythme
19.01.2009
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Le [136]président [137]Nicolas Sarkozy a affirmé lundi ne pas avoir
«l'intention de ralentir le rythme» des réformes en 2009, au moment où
«l'impact social de la [138]crise se fait sentir». Formulant ses voeux
pour la nouvelle années devant les représentants des partenaires
sociaux, le chef de l'Etat a d'abord voulu les «remercier pour
l'ampleur de la tâche que vous avez accomplie en 2008. L'urgence des
problèmes à résoudre, l'attente des Français vous ont imposé, comme au
gouvernement et au Parlement, un rythme de travail particulièrement
exigeant». «Je ne vous surprendrai pas en vous disant que nous n'avons
pas l'intention de ralentir le rythme en 2009, leur a-t-il ensuite
déclaré. Et ce n'est certainement pas au moment où l'impact social de
la crise se fait sentir --on a eu l'impact financier, l'impact
économique, bien sûr l'impact social-- qu'on va en tirer la conclusion
qu'il faut ralentir», a-t-il ajouté.
Leparisien.fr avec A
Cet article a été publié dans la rubrique [139]Politique
FLASH ACTUALITÉ
[DERNIÈRE MINUTE]
* 18h57 [140]Emmanuelle Haïm renonce à diriger "Idoménée" à l'Opéra
de Paris
* 18h55 [141]La production cinéma "résiste" dit le CNC, "en crise"
selon les producteurs
* 18h49 [142]Ligue 1: Marseille au milieu du gué
* 18h41 [143]Jean-Claude Juncker reconduit à la tête de l'Eurogroupe
* 18h26 [144]France: le déficit public de "l'ordre de 8,2%" du PIB en
2010
* 18h16 [145]Rebsamen (PS): pétition pour inverser la charge de la
preuve de nationalité
* 18h05 [146]Strauss-Kahn responsable politique préféré des Français
[147]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
* 18h41 [148]Jean-Claude Juncker reconduit à la tête de l'Eurogroupe
* 18h26 [149]France: le déficit public de "l'ordre de 8,2%" du PIB en
2010
* 17h53 [150]Plan de départs PSA: 5.700 volontaires d'ici la fin du
dispositif fin mars
* 17h42 [151]Etats-Unis: Vivendi accuse l'avocat des plaignants de
créer un "préjudice"
* 17h18 [152]Eurostar pourrait payer 11 millions d'euros de
dédommagement à ses clients
* 16h24 [153]GDF Suez a tenté sans succès de prendre le contrôle
d'International Power
* 16h11 [154]Le déficit public attendu à 8,2% en 2010, soit moins que
prévu
[155]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
* 18h16 [156]Rebsamen (PS): pétition pour inverser la charge de la
preuve de nationalité
* 18h05 [157]Strauss-Kahn responsable politique préféré des Français
* 17h10 [158]Collomb (PS) prêt à voter certains articles de la
réforme des collectivités
* 16h56 [159]Propos sur les musulmans: Gaudin évoque "un mot
malheureux"
* 16h28 [160]Réforme territoriale: les élus landais demandent un
référendum
* 16h14 [161]Le Nouveau centre veut s'emparer de "grands sujets"
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* 16h12 [162]Besson dresse son bilan 2009 : plus de 29.000
sans-papiers expulsés
[163]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
* 17h06 [164]Séisme de magnitude 6 à l'ouest du Guatemala
* 16h27 [165]La police a tué plus de 10.000 personnes en douze ans à
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* 14h40 [166]Le Yémen réclame à Washington ses ressortissants détenus
à Guantanamo
* 13h52 [167]Enquête sur la guerre en Irak: Tony Blair témoignera le
29 janvier
* 13h21 [168]Silvio Berlusconi absent à la reprise du procès sur les
droits télévisés
* 11h26 [169]Les talibans ont porté la guerre dans le centre de
Kaboul
* 10h46 [170]L'UE promet près d'un demi-milliard d'euros pour Haïti
[171]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
* 18h49 [172]Ligue 1: Marseille au milieu du gué
* 17h10 [173]Football: pas de sanction pour Thierry Henry après sa
main contre l'Eire
* 16h50 [174]Ligue 1: pour Bordeaux, l'essentiel c'est l'écart
* 16h26 [175]Coupe de l'America: le bras de fer se poursuit entre
Oracle et Alinghi
* 15h08 [176]Euro de patinage artistique: Joubert de retour pour un
ultime test avant les JO
* 10h55 [177]Euro de handball: les Français pour un triplé inédit
* 08h04 [178]Open d'Australie de tennis: Sharapova éliminée, Nadal,
Murray et Roddick qualifiés
[179]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
* 18h57 [180]Emmanuelle Haïm renonce à diriger "Idoménée" à l'Opéra
de Paris
* 18h55 [181]La production cinéma "résiste" dit le CNC, "en crise"
selon les producteurs
* 17h05 [182]Les films de la semaine: un Gainsbourg, un homme sérieux
et des Barons
* 14h28 [183]Le Festival d'Aix-en-Provence se "redéveloppe" en 2010
* 06h36 [184]"Avatar" grand vainqueur des Golden Globes, "In the air"
déçoit
* 20h48 [185]Mode à Milan: esprit rebelle et inspirations militaires
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ELYSEE
Sarkozy : les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme"
NOUVELOBS.COM | 06.02.2009 | 13:01
[121]Réagissez à l'article 299 réactions
Lors de son intervention télévisée, le chef de l'Etat a notamment déclaré :
"Que les Français soient inquiets (face à la crise), c'est normal".
> Il a dit réfléchir à une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le
revenu.
> La taxe professionnelle sera supprimée en 2010.
> Les partenaires sociaux seront reçus le 18 février.
Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters)
Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters)
Le chef de l'Etat a déclaré, jeudi 5 février, que la France et le monde
faisaient face à "la crise du siècle", au début de son intervention
télévisée. "C'est la crise du siècle, elle est sans précédent", a-t-il
répété Nicolas Sarkozy. ([122]> Lire toutes les déclarations).
"Je dois en tenir compte et faire en sorte que la France rentre le plus
tard possible dans la crise et sorte le plus tôt de la crise", a-t-il
ajouté. "Je dois en plus protéger au maximum ceux qui déjà dans la
croissance mondiale étaient exclus", a-t-il ajouté. "Que les Français
soient inquiets, c'est normal. Je le comprends, je l'entends", a-t-il
expliqué.
Les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme", a-t-il
rapidement affirmé. "La rupture n'a jamais été un objectif, c'est juste
un moyen", a, par ailleurs, expliqué Nicolas Sarkozy.
L'émission était diffusée simultanément sur TF1, France 2, M6 et RTL.
Elle est présentée par David Pujadas et Laurence, avec les
interventions de Guy Lagache et Alain Duhamel.
Une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu ?
Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il recevrait les partenaires sociaux le 18
février, notamment pour voir comment "aller plus loin" sur
l'indemnisation du chômage partiel. Il a également dit réfléchir à une
suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu pour aider les
classes moyennes, l'une des "pistes" qu'il soumettra aux syndicats le
18 février. "L'Etat est prêt à faire un effort" pour "mieux protéger"
les jeunes en fin de CDD et qui ne retrouvent pas d'emploi du fait de
la crise financière et économique, a affirmé le président de la
République.
Le chef de l'Etat a aussi annoncé qu'il "supprimerait la taxe
professionnnelle en 2010". "Je vous l'annonce: on supprimera la taxe
professionnelle en France en 2010 parce que je veux que l'on garde des
usines en France", a déclaré Nicolas Sarkozy lors de son intervention
télévisée sur la crise.
La mesure sera générale: "On ne peut pas dire on va supprimer pour
l'industrie automobile mais pas pour l'industrie sidérurgique ou
textile", a-t-il ajouté.
"Je ne peux pas dire aux actionnaires pour le coup: ne délocalisez
plus, relocalisez, et en même temps leur laisser des charges et des
contraintes qui font qu'ils ne s'en sortiront plus", selon le chef de
l'Etat.
Réfléchir sur le "partage du profit"
Le président a jugé nécessaire de réfléchir au "partage du profit"
entre les salariés et les actionnaires, demandant aux partenaires
sociaux de parvenir à un accord sans quoi "l'Etat prendra ses
responsabilités". "Je veux que le 18 février nous discutions d'un sujet
essentiel en France qui est le partage du profit", a déclaré le chef de
l'Etat, évoquant le "sentiment d'injustice majeur" suscité dans cette
crise par "le comportement d'un certain nombre de dirigeants
d'institutions bancaires". "Comment on arbitre entre le souhait
légitime des actionnaires de gagner de l'argent avec les entreprises et
la demande des salariés d'être associés aux bénéfices des entreprises
dont ils ont contribué à créer la richesse?", s'est interrogé Nicolas
Sarkozy, jugeant qu'en la matière "le compte n'y est pas". "Quand une
entreprise distribue aux actionnaires tous les bénéfices d'une année,
elle ne peut plus investir" pour l'avenir, a-t-il ajouté, dénonçant une
"logique purement financière et spéculative". Le sujet sera au
programme de sa rencontre avec les partenaires sociaux le 18 février.
"J'engage les organisations syndicales et le patronat à en discuter.
Soit ils arrivent à quelque chose, soit l'Etat prendra ses
responsabilités", a-t-il prévenu. Il a indiqué qu'il estimait quant à
lui que "la règle des trois tiers est bonne": un tiers des bénéfices
vont aux salariés, un tiers aux actionnaires sous forme de dividendes
et un tiers sont réinvestis dans l'entreprise pour financer son
développement".
Combat sur la TVA
Nicolas Sarkozy a réaffirmé sa volonté d'obtenir un consensus européen
concernant des baisses de la TVA sur la restauration, les "produits
propres" et des "produits culturels".
"C'est parfaitement anormal que quand on achète une voiture propre, on
paie plus cher que quand on achète une voiture qui pollue, et ça vaut
aussi pour les bâtiments construits en haute qualité environnementale",
a dit le chef de l'Etat, souhaitant "un système de TVA réduite pour
tous les produits propres".
"Je pense également que sur les produits culturels, il faut aller plus
loin", a ajouté Nicolas Sarkozy. "Pourquoi la TVA sur le livre est-elle
à 5,5 (%), et la TVA sur le disque à 19,6 (%), comme la TVA sur la
vidéo? Il faut mettre cette TVA à 5,5", a-t-il déclaré.
"Comme cela on est tranquille"
"Est-ce que les réformes que la France doit mettre en oeuvre, pour
avoir le même emploi lorsque nous seront sortis de la crise, est-ce que
ces réformes restent d'actualité? La réponse est oui", a déclaré le
chef de l'Etat, précisant qu'elles devaient être conduites "au même
rythme".
"Si on doit arrêter, comme cela s'est si souvent fait dans le passé,
chaque réforme quand il y a une manifestation, alors mieux vaut ne
faire aucune réforme. Et comme cela on est tranquille", a-t-il dit. La
rupture, "c'est la rupture avec cette habitude".
Les quelque 1,4 milliard d'euros d'intérêts que l'Etat percevra cette
année au titre des intérêts pour son financement aux banques seront
"intégralement" affectés au financement de "mesures sociales", a
annoncé Nicolas Sarkozy.
Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il allait demander au président de la Cour
des comptes Philippe Seguin de "conduire un certain nombre d'enquêtes"
sur la bonne utilisation des fonds accordés aux banques pour faire face
à la crise.
Tacle aux traders
Nicolas Sarkozy veut "changer" le système de rémunération des "traders"
mais est sceptique sur un plafonnement systématique du salaire des
dirigeants, a-t-il déclaré.
"Je suis plus choqué par le système de rémunération de ceux qu'on
appelle les traders, que les présidents de banques. C'est ce système-là
que je veux changer", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat.
"J'ai vu ce que M. Obama a décidé, je suis en train d'y réfléchir, moi
je ne suis pas trop pour une règle générale", a-t-il ajouté. "Mettre
tout le monde sous la toise, je ne suis pas sûr que ce soit la
meilleure formule".
"J'ajoute que Barack Obama a prévu un système d'actions gratuites
derrière une rémunération bloquée, j'aimerais en savoir un peu plus", a
souligné Nicolas Sarkozy.
Maintien de la politique sur la Fonction publique
Nicolas Sarkozy a affirmé qu'il n'engagerait "pas de dépenses publiques
supplémentaires", et qu'il s'en tiendrait à la "règle du
non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux".
"Je n'engagerai pas de dépenses publiques supplémentaires, notamment
sur la règle du non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux", a
affirmé le président de la République.
Selon lui, on reviendra ainsi "au même nombre de fonctionnaires qu'en
1992", quand François Mitterrand était président. "Je n'ai pas le
souvenir que la France était alors sous-administrée", a-t-il argué.
Relations aux paradis fiscaux
Très sévère sur la question des paradis fiscaux, Nicolas Sarkozy a
annoncé son intention de "poser des questions" à Andorre, Monaco et au
Luxembourg.
La France exigera la moralisation des paradis fiscaux et "ça m'amènera
à revoir nos relations avec Andorre", "à poser la question de nos
relations avec Monaco (et) à poser un certain nombre de questions à nos
voisins luxembourgeois", a-t-il déclaré.
Baisse dans les sondages
D'autant que le chef de l'Etat, comme son Premier ministre, enregistre
une forte baisse dans les derniers sondages. Moins cinq points à 39% de
"confiance" contre 55% de défiance selon un CSA paru mercredi dans Le
Parisien.
Forts du succès de leur journée d'action de la semaine dernière, les
syndicats attendent le président au tournant, suspendant leurs
prochaines initiatives au contenu de sa prestation télévisée.
Le patron de la CFDT François Chérèque a réclamé un "changement de
cap", en clair, des mesures pour maintenir le pouvoir d'achat, tandis
que celui de FO Jean-Claude Mailly a prévenu que sans "relance par la
consommation", il y aura "remobilisation".
Le ton est également offensif dans l'opposition. La Première secrétaire
du PS Martine Aubry a demandé au président de "définir enfin un plan de
relance adapté". Et, dans une rare unanimité, la gauche toute entière a
signé mercredi un texte sommant le pouvoir de "changer de cap".
Ne pas se laisser "enfumer"
Jeudi matin, Jean-Luc Mélenchon (Parti de gauche) invitait le pays à ne
pas se laisser "enfumer" par Nicolas Sarkozy et à se mettre "en lutte",
tandis qu'Olivier Besancenot (LCR) voyait déjà dans son intervention
"des motivations supplémentaires à continuer le combat".
Jusque-là, le discours du chef de l'Etat est resté inflexible. Oui, il
a entendu les "inquiétudes légitimes" des Français "qui craignent pour
leur emploi", mais pas question pour lui de recourir à une relance par
la consommation, "parce que ça n'a jamais marché".
Nicolas Sarkozy devrait aussi enrober son propos d'une bonne dose de
volontarisme. "On va se battre pour que la France sorte plus forte de
la crise", insiste-t-il régulièrement.
"Se concentrer sur les objectifs essentiels"
Mais certains ne l'entendent pas de la même oreille dans la majorité.
Le député UMP Hervé Mariton a reproché au gouvernement de s'éparpiller
dans les réformes lui demandant de "se concentrer sur les objectifs
essentiels" et son collègue François Goulard a préconisé une
"suspension" temporaire du très controversé bouclier fiscal.
En outre, le gouvernement a vu poindre ces derniers jours un nouveau
"front" du mécontentement dans les universités, avec la montée de la
grogne des enseignants-chercheurs et des étudiants.
Mais comme François Fillon lundi, le porte-parole du gouvernement a
exclu mercredi tout virage politique. "Cette émission n'est pas faite
seulement pour le million et demi de Français qui a manifesté", a dit
Luc Chatel, mais plutôt pour "mettre en perspective son action face à
la crise".
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Les réactions des lecteurs
rifif
[137]-10 POINTS
-10 points serait un sondage plus réaliste que ces sondages
effectués par des instituts de sondages aux mains des amis de
sarkozy ! Il aura beau museler les manifestan...
08.02 à 16h05 - [138]Alerter
scafandre
[139]Il faut qu'il démissionne...
avant de mettre littéralement la France en faillite. Il est
inconscient... Vous avez des communes qui ont investi dans la
construction de collèges, de ponts... en fonct...
07.02 à 21h16 - [140]Alerter
[141]Réagissez !
[142]Toutes les réactions (299)
[143]Conditions de modération
L'essentiel Politique
[144]IDENTITE NATIONALE
[145]"Déferlement de musulmans" : Gaudin regrette avoir eu un "mot
malheureux" 18.01 à 16h59
[146]MAYOTTE
[147]Courte étape dans l'océan Indien pour Sarkozy 18.01 à 14h52
[148]POLEMIQUE
[149]Reporters enlevés : "cynisme effrayant" de Guéant 18.01 à 14h47
[150]MARSEILLE
[151]Buffet dénonce "une idéologie xénophobe
dans les plus hautes autorités de l'Etat" 18.01 à 13h46
[152]IDENTITE NATIONALE
[153]Et si "une Française porte la burqa"...? 18.01 à 10h51
[154]SOCIAL
[155]Internet : un tarif réduit pour les plus démunis ? 18.01 à 09h05
[156]COLLECTIVITES LOCALES
[157]Les départements en "graves difficultés financières" 18.01 à 08h53
[158]IDENTITE NATIONALE
[159]"Déferlement de musulmans" : Gaudin regrette avoir eu un "mot
malheureux" 18.01 à 08h06
[160]MARSEILLE
[161]Valls fustige les "amalgames dangereux" de Gaudin 18.01 à 07h56
[162]ELECTIONS REGIONALES
[163]Régionales : Aubry vise toujours le grand chelem 18.01 à 07h29
[164]AFGHANISTAN
[165]Journalistes enlevés : Guéant provoque la polémique 18.01 à 07h10
[166]SENAT
[167]La réforme des collectivités "manque de visibilité" 18.01 à 07h05
[168]CHARENTE-MARITIME
[169]Régionales : Sarnez accuse Royal de "débauchage" 17.01 à 14h58
[170]DROIT DE VOTE
[171]Mélenchon favorable au droit de vote des étrangers 17.01 à 13h56
[172]CONSEIL CONSTITUTIONNEL
[173]Emmanuelle Mignon ne siègera pas parmi les Sages 17.01 à 12h55
Plus sur le sujet
Sur Nouvelobs.com
* [174]Les principales déclarations de Nicolas Sarkozy
* [175]Aubry Sarkozy est un président "hésitant" qui "ne sait pas où
il va"
* [176]Intervention télévisée de Sarkozy Les appels au boycott se
multiplient
* [177]Onze organisations de gauche demandent un "changement de cap"
* [178]Interview présidentielle Les choix contestables de l'Elysée
* [179]Grèves Parisot y voit "quelque chose de pervers"
* [180]Le texte commun des onze organisations de gauche
* [181]Revue de presse
* [182]Les réactions
* [183]Delanoë Sarkozy a "privilégié la polémique" sur le SMA
* [184]Sarkozy fait des ouvertures, les syndicats méfiants
* [185]15,1 millions de téléspectateurs pour l'intervention de
Sarkozy
* [186]Les principales mesures de Nicolas Sarkozy
Dans Le Nouvel Observateur
* [187]"Sarkozy comme Cendrillon", (05/02/09)
* [188]"La vraie nature de Sarkozy", par François Bazin (05/02/09)
* [189]"Sarkozy peut-il encore réformer ?", par Hervé Algalarrondo
(05/02/09)
* [190]"Les ficelles de Sarkozy", (22/01/09)
* [191]"Les choix de Sarkozy", par Denis Olivennes (22/01/09)
Sur Internet
* [192]Le site de l'Elysée
* [193]Le baromètre de confiance de l'exécutif sur le site du CSA
* [194]Le baromètre des actions présidentielles sur le site du CSA
* [195]La biographie officielle de Nicolas Sarkozy
* [196]Le blog de François Fillon
* [197]La biographie officielle de François Fillon
* [198]Le site de TNS-Sofres
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Réformes: Sarkozy ne ralentira pas le rythme
19.01.2009
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Le [136]président [137]Nicolas Sarkozy a affirmé lundi ne pas avoir
«l'intention de ralentir le rythme» des réformes en 2009, au moment où
«l'impact social de la [138]crise se fait sentir». Formulant ses voeux
pour la nouvelle années devant les représentants des partenaires
sociaux, le chef de l'Etat a d'abord voulu les «remercier pour
l'ampleur de la tâche que vous avez accomplie en 2008. L'urgence des
problèmes à résoudre, l'attente des Français vous ont imposé, comme au
gouvernement et au Parlement, un rythme de travail particulièrement
exigeant». «Je ne vous surprendrai pas en vous disant que nous n'avons
pas l'intention de ralentir le rythme en 2009, leur a-t-il ensuite
déclaré. Et ce n'est certainement pas au moment où l'impact social de
la crise se fait sentir --on a eu l'impact financier, l'impact
économique, bien sûr l'impact social-- qu'on va en tirer la conclusion
qu'il faut ralentir», a-t-il ajouté.
Leparisien.fr avec A
Cet article a été publié dans la rubrique [139]Politique
FLASH ACTUALITÉ
[DERNIÈRE MINUTE]
* 18h57 [140]Emmanuelle Haïm renonce à diriger "Idoménée" à l'Opéra
de Paris
* 18h55 [141]La production cinéma "résiste" dit le CNC, "en crise"
selon les producteurs
* 18h49 [142]Ligue 1: Marseille au milieu du gué
* 18h41 [143]Jean-Claude Juncker reconduit à la tête de l'Eurogroupe
* 18h26 [144]France: le déficit public de "l'ordre de 8,2%" du PIB en
2010
* 18h16 [145]Rebsamen (PS): pétition pour inverser la charge de la
preuve de nationalité
* 18h05 [146]Strauss-Kahn responsable politique préféré des Français
[147]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
* 18h41 [148]Jean-Claude Juncker reconduit à la tête de l'Eurogroupe
* 18h26 [149]France: le déficit public de "l'ordre de 8,2%" du PIB en
2010
* 17h53 [150]Plan de départs PSA: 5.700 volontaires d'ici la fin du
dispositif fin mars
* 17h42 [151]Etats-Unis: Vivendi accuse l'avocat des plaignants de
créer un "préjudice"
* 17h18 [152]Eurostar pourrait payer 11 millions d'euros de
dédommagement à ses clients
* 16h24 [153]GDF Suez a tenté sans succès de prendre le contrôle
d'International Power
* 16h11 [154]Le déficit public attendu à 8,2% en 2010, soit moins que
prévu
[155]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
* 18h16 [156]Rebsamen (PS): pétition pour inverser la charge de la
preuve de nationalité
* 18h05 [157]Strauss-Kahn responsable politique préféré des Français
* 17h10 [158]Collomb (PS) prêt à voter certains articles de la
réforme des collectivités
* 16h56 [159]Propos sur les musulmans: Gaudin évoque "un mot
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ELYSEE
Sarkozy : les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme"
NOUVELOBS.COM | 06.02.2009 | 13:01
[121]Réagissez à l'article 299 réactions
Lors de son intervention télévisée, le chef de l'Etat a notamment déclaré :
"Que les Français soient inquiets (face à la crise), c'est normal".
> Il a dit réfléchir à une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le
revenu.
> La taxe professionnelle sera supprimée en 2010.
> Les partenaires sociaux seront reçus le 18 février.
Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters)
Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters)
Le chef de l'Etat a déclaré, jeudi 5 février, que la France et le monde
faisaient face à "la crise du siècle", au début de son intervention
télévisée. "C'est la crise du siècle, elle est sans précédent", a-t-il
répété Nicolas Sarkozy. ([122]> Lire toutes les déclarations).
"Je dois en tenir compte et faire en sorte que la France rentre le plus
tard possible dans la crise et sorte le plus tôt de la crise", a-t-il
ajouté. "Je dois en plus protéger au maximum ceux qui déjà dans la
croissance mondiale étaient exclus", a-t-il ajouté. "Que les Français
soient inquiets, c'est normal. Je le comprends, je l'entends", a-t-il
expliqué.
Les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme", a-t-il
rapidement affirmé. "La rupture n'a jamais été un objectif, c'est juste
un moyen", a, par ailleurs, expliqué Nicolas Sarkozy.
L'émission était diffusée simultanément sur TF1, France 2, M6 et RTL.
Elle est présentée par David Pujadas et Laurence, avec les
interventions de Guy Lagache et Alain Duhamel.
Une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu ?
Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il recevrait les partenaires sociaux le 18
février, notamment pour voir comment "aller plus loin" sur
l'indemnisation du chômage partiel. Il a également dit réfléchir à une
suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu pour aider les
classes moyennes, l'une des "pistes" qu'il soumettra aux syndicats le
18 février. "L'Etat est prêt à faire un effort" pour "mieux protéger"
les jeunes en fin de CDD et qui ne retrouvent pas d'emploi du fait de
la crise financière et économique, a affirmé le président de la
République.
Le chef de l'Etat a aussi annoncé qu'il "supprimerait la taxe
professionnnelle en 2010". "Je vous l'annonce: on supprimera la taxe
professionnelle en France en 2010 parce que je veux que l'on garde des
usines en France", a déclaré Nicolas Sarkozy lors de son intervention
télévisée sur la crise.
La mesure sera générale: "On ne peut pas dire on va supprimer pour
l'industrie automobile mais pas pour l'industrie sidérurgique ou
textile", a-t-il ajouté.
"Je ne peux pas dire aux actionnaires pour le coup: ne délocalisez
plus, relocalisez, et en même temps leur laisser des charges et des
contraintes qui font qu'ils ne s'en sortiront plus", selon le chef de
l'Etat.
Réfléchir sur le "partage du profit"
Le président a jugé nécessaire de réfléchir au "partage du profit"
entre les salariés et les actionnaires, demandant aux partenaires
sociaux de parvenir à un accord sans quoi "l'Etat prendra ses
responsabilités". "Je veux que le 18 février nous discutions d'un sujet
essentiel en France qui est le partage du profit", a déclaré le chef de
l'Etat, évoquant le "sentiment d'injustice majeur" suscité dans cette
crise par "le comportement d'un certain nombre de dirigeants
d'institutions bancaires". "Comment on arbitre entre le souhait
légitime des actionnaires de gagner de l'argent avec les entreprises et
la demande des salariés d'être associés aux bénéfices des entreprises
dont ils ont contribué à créer la richesse?", s'est interrogé Nicolas
Sarkozy, jugeant qu'en la matière "le compte n'y est pas". "Quand une
entreprise distribue aux actionnaires tous les bénéfices d'une année,
elle ne peut plus investir" pour l'avenir, a-t-il ajouté, dénonçant une
"logique purement financière et spéculative". Le sujet sera au
programme de sa rencontre avec les partenaires sociaux le 18 février.
"J'engage les organisations syndicales et le patronat à en discuter.
Soit ils arrivent à quelque chose, soit l'Etat prendra ses
responsabilités", a-t-il prévenu. Il a indiqué qu'il estimait quant à
lui que "la règle des trois tiers est bonne": un tiers des bénéfices
vont aux salariés, un tiers aux actionnaires sous forme de dividendes
et un tiers sont réinvestis dans l'entreprise pour financer son
développement".
Combat sur la TVA
Nicolas Sarkozy a réaffirmé sa volonté d'obtenir un consensus européen
concernant des baisses de la TVA sur la restauration, les "produits
propres" et des "produits culturels".
"C'est parfaitement anormal que quand on achète une voiture propre, on
paie plus cher que quand on achète une voiture qui pollue, et ça vaut
aussi pour les bâtiments construits en haute qualité environnementale",
a dit le chef de l'Etat, souhaitant "un système de TVA réduite pour
tous les produits propres".
"Je pense également que sur les produits culturels, il faut aller plus
loin", a ajouté Nicolas Sarkozy. "Pourquoi la TVA sur le livre est-elle
à 5,5 (%), et la TVA sur le disque à 19,6 (%), comme la TVA sur la
vidéo? Il faut mettre cette TVA à 5,5", a-t-il déclaré.
"Comme cela on est tranquille"
"Est-ce que les réformes que la France doit mettre en oeuvre, pour
avoir le même emploi lorsque nous seront sortis de la crise, est-ce que
ces réformes restent d'actualité? La réponse est oui", a déclaré le
chef de l'Etat, précisant qu'elles devaient être conduites "au même
rythme".
"Si on doit arrêter, comme cela s'est si souvent fait dans le passé,
chaque réforme quand il y a une manifestation, alors mieux vaut ne
faire aucune réforme. Et comme cela on est tranquille", a-t-il dit. La
rupture, "c'est la rupture avec cette habitude".
Les quelque 1,4 milliard d'euros d'intérêts que l'Etat percevra cette
année au titre des intérêts pour son financement aux banques seront
"intégralement" affectés au financement de "mesures sociales", a
annoncé Nicolas Sarkozy.
Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il allait demander au président de la Cour
des comptes Philippe Seguin de "conduire un certain nombre d'enquêtes"
sur la bonne utilisation des fonds accordés aux banques pour faire face
à la crise.
Tacle aux traders
Nicolas Sarkozy veut "changer" le système de rémunération des "traders"
mais est sceptique sur un plafonnement systématique du salaire des
dirigeants, a-t-il déclaré.
"Je suis plus choqué par le système de rémunération de ceux qu'on
appelle les traders, que les présidents de banques. C'est ce système-là
que je veux changer", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat.
"J'ai vu ce que M. Obama a décidé, je suis en train d'y réfléchir, moi
je ne suis pas trop pour une règle générale", a-t-il ajouté. "Mettre
tout le monde sous la toise, je ne suis pas sûr que ce soit la
meilleure formule".
"J'ajoute que Barack Obama a prévu un système d'actions gratuites
derrière une rémunération bloquée, j'aimerais en savoir un peu plus", a
souligné Nicolas Sarkozy.
Maintien de la politique sur la Fonction publique
Nicolas Sarkozy a affirmé qu'il n'engagerait "pas de dépenses publiques
supplémentaires", et qu'il s'en tiendrait à la "règle du
non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux".
"Je n'engagerai pas de dépenses publiques supplémentaires, notamment
sur la règle du non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux", a
affirmé le président de la République.
Selon lui, on reviendra ainsi "au même nombre de fonctionnaires qu'en
1992", quand François Mitterrand était président. "Je n'ai pas le
souvenir que la France était alors sous-administrée", a-t-il argué.
Relations aux paradis fiscaux
Très sévère sur la question des paradis fiscaux, Nicolas Sarkozy a
annoncé son intention de "poser des questions" à Andorre, Monaco et au
Luxembourg.
La France exigera la moralisation des paradis fiscaux et "ça m'amènera
à revoir nos relations avec Andorre", "à poser la question de nos
relations avec Monaco (et) à poser un certain nombre de questions à nos
voisins luxembourgeois", a-t-il déclaré.
Baisse dans les sondages
D'autant que le chef de l'Etat, comme son Premier ministre, enregistre
une forte baisse dans les derniers sondages. Moins cinq points à 39% de
"confiance" contre 55% de défiance selon un CSA paru mercredi dans Le
Parisien.
Forts du succès de leur journée d'action de la semaine dernière, les
syndicats attendent le président au tournant, suspendant leurs
prochaines initiatives au contenu de sa prestation télévisée.
Le patron de la CFDT François Chérèque a réclamé un "changement de
cap", en clair, des mesures pour maintenir le pouvoir d'achat, tandis
que celui de FO Jean-Claude Mailly a prévenu que sans "relance par la
consommation", il y aura "remobilisation".
Le ton est également offensif dans l'opposition. La Première secrétaire
du PS Martine Aubry a demandé au président de "définir enfin un plan de
relance adapté". Et, dans une rare unanimité, la gauche toute entière a
signé mercredi un texte sommant le pouvoir de "changer de cap".
Ne pas se laisser "enfumer"
Jeudi matin, Jean-Luc Mélenchon (Parti de gauche) invitait le pays à ne
pas se laisser "enfumer" par Nicolas Sarkozy et à se mettre "en lutte",
tandis qu'Olivier Besancenot (LCR) voyait déjà dans son intervention
"des motivations supplémentaires à continuer le combat".
Jusque-là, le discours du chef de l'Etat est resté inflexible. Oui, il
a entendu les "inquiétudes légitimes" des Français "qui craignent pour
leur emploi", mais pas question pour lui de recourir à une relance par
la consommation, "parce que ça n'a jamais marché".
Nicolas Sarkozy devrait aussi enrober son propos d'une bonne dose de
volontarisme. "On va se battre pour que la France sorte plus forte de
la crise", insiste-t-il régulièrement.
"Se concentrer sur les objectifs essentiels"
Mais certains ne l'entendent pas de la même oreille dans la majorité.
Le député UMP Hervé Mariton a reproché au gouvernement de s'éparpiller
dans les réformes lui demandant de "se concentrer sur les objectifs
essentiels" et son collègue François Goulard a préconisé une
"suspension" temporaire du très controversé bouclier fiscal.
En outre, le gouvernement a vu poindre ces derniers jours un nouveau
"front" du mécontentement dans les universités, avec la montée de la
grogne des enseignants-chercheurs et des étudiants.
Mais comme François Fillon lundi, le porte-parole du gouvernement a
exclu mercredi tout virage politique. "Cette émission n'est pas faite
seulement pour le million et demi de Français qui a manifesté", a dit
Luc Chatel, mais plutôt pour "mettre en perspective son action face à
la crise".
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Les réactions des lecteurs
rifif
[137]-10 POINTS
-10 points serait un sondage plus réaliste que ces sondages
effectués par des instituts de sondages aux mains des amis de
sarkozy ! Il aura beau museler les manifestan...
08.02 à 16h05 - [138]Alerter
scafandre
[139]Il faut qu'il démissionne...
avant de mettre littéralement la France en faillite. Il est
inconscient... Vous avez des communes qui ont investi dans la
construction de collèges, de ponts... en fonct...
07.02 à 21h16 - [140]Alerter
[141]Réagissez !
[142]Toutes les réactions (299)
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[155]Internet : un tarif réduit pour les plus démunis ? 18.01 à 09h05
[156]COLLECTIVITES LOCALES
[157]Les départements en "graves difficultés financières" 18.01 à 08h53
[158]IDENTITE NATIONALE
[159]"Déferlement de musulmans" : Gaudin regrette avoir eu un "mot
malheureux" 18.01 à 08h06
[160]MARSEILLE
[161]Valls fustige les "amalgames dangereux" de Gaudin 18.01 à 07h56
[162]ELECTIONS REGIONALES
[163]Régionales : Aubry vise toujours le grand chelem 18.01 à 07h29
[164]AFGHANISTAN
[165]Journalistes enlevés : Guéant provoque la polémique 18.01 à 07h10
[166]SENAT
[167]La réforme des collectivités "manque de visibilité" 18.01 à 07h05
[168]CHARENTE-MARITIME
[169]Régionales : Sarnez accuse Royal de "débauchage" 17.01 à 14h58
[170]DROIT DE VOTE
[171]Mélenchon favorable au droit de vote des étrangers 17.01 à 13h56
[172]CONSEIL CONSTITUTIONNEL
[173]Emmanuelle Mignon ne siègera pas parmi les Sages 17.01 à 12h55
Plus sur le sujet
Sur Nouvelobs.com
* [174]Les principales déclarations de Nicolas Sarkozy
* [175]Aubry Sarkozy est un président "hésitant" qui "ne sait pas où
il va"
* [176]Intervention télévisée de Sarkozy Les appels au boycott se
multiplient
* [177]Onze organisations de gauche demandent un "changement de cap"
* [178]Interview présidentielle Les choix contestables de l'Elysée
* [179]Grèves Parisot y voit "quelque chose de pervers"
* [180]Le texte commun des onze organisations de gauche
* [181]Revue de presse
* [182]Les réactions
* [183]Delanoë Sarkozy a "privilégié la polémique" sur le SMA
* [184]Sarkozy fait des ouvertures, les syndicats méfiants
* [185]15,1 millions de téléspectateurs pour l'intervention de
Sarkozy
* [186]Les principales mesures de Nicolas Sarkozy
Dans Le Nouvel Observateur
* [187]"Sarkozy comme Cendrillon", (05/02/09)
* [188]"La vraie nature de Sarkozy", par François Bazin (05/02/09)
* [189]"Sarkozy peut-il encore réformer ?", par Hervé Algalarrondo
(05/02/09)
* [190]"Les ficelles de Sarkozy", (22/01/09)
* [191]"Les choix de Sarkozy", par Denis Olivennes (22/01/09)
Sur Internet
* [192]Le site de l'Elysée
* [193]Le baromètre de confiance de l'exécutif sur le site du CSA
* [194]Le baromètre des actions présidentielles sur le site du CSA
* [195]La biographie officielle de Nicolas Sarkozy
* [196]Le blog de François Fillon
* [197]La biographie officielle de François Fillon
* [198]Le site de TNS-Sofres
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Réformes: Sarkozy ne ralentira pas le rythme
19.01.2009
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Le [136]président [137]Nicolas Sarkozy a affirmé lundi ne pas avoir
«l'intention de ralentir le rythme» des réformes en 2009, au moment où
«l'impact social de la [138]crise se fait sentir». Formulant ses voeux
pour la nouvelle années devant les représentants des partenaires
sociaux, le chef de l'Etat a d'abord voulu les «remercier pour
l'ampleur de la tâche que vous avez accomplie en 2008. L'urgence des
problèmes à résoudre, l'attente des Français vous ont imposé, comme au
gouvernement et au Parlement, un rythme de travail particulièrement
exigeant». «Je ne vous surprendrai pas en vous disant que nous n'avons
pas l'intention de ralentir le rythme en 2009, leur a-t-il ensuite
déclaré. Et ce n'est certainement pas au moment où l'impact social de
la crise se fait sentir --on a eu l'impact financier, l'impact
économique, bien sûr l'impact social-- qu'on va en tirer la conclusion
qu'il faut ralentir», a-t-il ajouté.
Leparisien.fr avec A
Cet article a été publié dans la rubrique [139]Politique
FLASH ACTUALITÉ
[DERNIÈRE MINUTE]
* 18h57 [140]Emmanuelle Haïm renonce à diriger "Idoménée" à l'Opéra
de Paris
* 18h55 [141]La production cinéma "résiste" dit le CNC, "en crise"
selon les producteurs
* 18h49 [142]Ligue 1: Marseille au milieu du gué
* 18h41 [143]Jean-Claude Juncker reconduit à la tête de l'Eurogroupe
* 18h26 [144]France: le déficit public de "l'ordre de 8,2%" du PIB en
2010
* 18h16 [145]Rebsamen (PS): pétition pour inverser la charge de la
preuve de nationalité
* 18h05 [146]Strauss-Kahn responsable politique préféré des Français
[147]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
* 18h41 [148]Jean-Claude Juncker reconduit à la tête de l'Eurogroupe
* 18h26 [149]France: le déficit public de "l'ordre de 8,2%" du PIB en
2010
* 17h53 [150]Plan de départs PSA: 5.700 volontaires d'ici la fin du
dispositif fin mars
* 17h42 [151]Etats-Unis: Vivendi accuse l'avocat des plaignants de
créer un "préjudice"
* 17h18 [152]Eurostar pourrait payer 11 millions d'euros de
dédommagement à ses clients
* 16h24 [153]GDF Suez a tenté sans succès de prendre le contrôle
d'International Power
* 16h11 [154]Le déficit public attendu à 8,2% en 2010, soit moins que
prévu
[155]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
* 18h16 [156]Rebsamen (PS): pétition pour inverser la charge de la
preuve de nationalité
* 18h05 [157]Strauss-Kahn responsable politique préféré des Français
* 17h10 [158]Collomb (PS) prêt à voter certains articles de la
réforme des collectivités
* 16h56 [159]Propos sur les musulmans: Gaudin évoque "un mot
malheureux"
* 16h28 [160]Réforme territoriale: les élus landais demandent un
référendum
* 16h14 [161]Le Nouveau centre veut s'emparer de "grands sujets"
comme l'homoparentalité
* 16h12 [162]Besson dresse son bilan 2009 : plus de 29.000
sans-papiers expulsés
[163]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
* 17h06 [164]Séisme de magnitude 6 à l'ouest du Guatemala
* 16h27 [165]La police a tué plus de 10.000 personnes en douze ans à
Rio selon une étude
* 14h40 [166]Le Yémen réclame à Washington ses ressortissants détenus
à Guantanamo
* 13h52 [167]Enquête sur la guerre en Irak: Tony Blair témoignera le
29 janvier
* 13h21 [168]Silvio Berlusconi absent à la reprise du procès sur les
droits télévisés
* 11h26 [169]Les talibans ont porté la guerre dans le centre de
Kaboul
* 10h46 [170]L'UE promet près d'un demi-milliard d'euros pour Haïti
[171]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
* 18h49 [172]Ligue 1: Marseille au milieu du gué
* 17h10 [173]Football: pas de sanction pour Thierry Henry après sa
main contre l'Eire
* 16h50 [174]Ligue 1: pour Bordeaux, l'essentiel c'est l'écart
* 16h26 [175]Coupe de l'America: le bras de fer se poursuit entre
Oracle et Alinghi
* 15h08 [176]Euro de patinage artistique: Joubert de retour pour un
ultime test avant les JO
* 10h55 [177]Euro de handball: les Français pour un triplé inédit
* 08h04 [178]Open d'Australie de tennis: Sharapova éliminée, Nadal,
Murray et Roddick qualifiés
[179]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
* 18h57 [180]Emmanuelle Haïm renonce à diriger "Idoménée" à l'Opéra
de Paris
* 18h55 [181]La production cinéma "résiste" dit le CNC, "en crise"
selon les producteurs
* 17h05 [182]Les films de la semaine: un Gainsbourg, un homme sérieux
et des Barons
* 14h28 [183]Le Festival d'Aix-en-Provence se "redéveloppe" en 2010
* 06h36 [184]"Avatar" grand vainqueur des Golden Globes, "In the air"
déçoit
* 20h48 [185]Mode à Milan: esprit rebelle et inspirations militaires
* 20h16 [186]"Avatar" continue de dominer le box-office
nord-américain
[187]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
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[316]Résultats Euromillions
Vendredi 15 janvier 2010
[317]Saint Valentin
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[320]After Work
[321]Chute du mur de Berlin
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[324]Tour de France 2009
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[326]Festival de Cannes 2009
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[330]Mort de Michael Jackson
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[33]Haïti : la récolte de fonds décolle après l'appel de l'ONU
[34]Haïti : la récolte de fonds décolle après l'appel de l'ONU
Les annonces d'aide humanitaire et de fonds pour venir en aide à Haïti
continuent d'affluer, suite à l'appel d'urgence lancé par l'ONU.
L'organisation entend récolter 562 millions de dollars.
[35]» DOSSIER SPECIAL - Haïti dévasté
.
[36]L'hôpital général de Port-au-Prince manque de tout
REPORTAGE - Face au désastre, les secours peinent à s'orgraniser dans la
capitale haïtienne.
.
.
.
[37]Les secours sorganisent dans la douleur
EN IMAGES - Dans la capitale haïtienne, les secours internationaux font face
à dénormes difficultés. Il faut à la fois chercher des survivants, apporter
des vivres aux rescapés, opérer les blessés, évacuer les corps, sécuriser la
ville et penser à la reconstruction.
.
.
[38]Haïti : 70.000 corps ont été enterrés
Le gouvernement a décrété dimanche l'état d'urgence et une période de deuil
national de 30 jours. 280 centres d'urgence s'ouvrent lundi, pour distribuer
des vivres et héberger les sans-abris, estimés à 300.000.
[39]» DOSSIER SPECIAL - Haïti dévasté
.
.
[40]Numérisation du patrimoine :
comment l'argent sera réparti
[41]Numérisation du patrimoine :
comment l'argent sera
réparti
INFO LE FIGARO - La Bibliothèque nationale de France et le Centre national du
cinéma seront les mieux lotis.
.
[42]La création d'entreprises atteint
un record
INFO FIGARO - Les Français ont créé 560.000 entreprises l'an dernier, grâce
au succès du statut de l'auto-entrepreneur.
[43]» Auto-entrepreneur : comment ça marche ?
.
.
.
[44]Thierry Henry échappe
à la sanction
La commission de discipline de la FIFA a estimé lundi qu'elle ne disposait
pas de base juridique pour sanctionner la main de l'attaquant français lors
du match contre l'Eire, en barrages du Mondial-2010.
.
.
[45]Boursiers : l'Etat précise ses objectifs
La conférence de grandes écoles a de son côté effectué un revirement en
affirmant partager les objectifs fixés par le gouvernement.
[46]» Sarkozy veut 30 % de boursiers dans les grandes écoles
.
.
[47]L'UNI fait place à un nouveau syndicat étudiant de droite
Dès mardi, le syndicat étudiant de droite né en 1968 deviendra le Mouvement
des étudiants (MET).
.
.
[48]France : le déficit attendu à 8,2%
du PIB en 2010
INFO FIGARO - Le déficit public sera moins mauvais que prévu : il était
jusqu'alors anticipé à 8,5 %.
.
.
.
[49]Sarkozy en visite
dans l'océan Indien
Le chef de l'État est à Mayotte et à la Réunion pour la cérémonie des voeux à
l'outre-mer.
.
.
[50]Besson veut faire signer une charte
aux jeunes Français
Les droits et les devoirs de tout citoyen seraient rappelés à l'occasion de
ce serment républicain.
[51]» Identité : Jean-Claude Gaudin crée à son tour la polémique
.
.
[52]Des squatteurs priés de quitter
la place des Vosges
La justice a ordonné lundi l'expulsion des militants pour le droit au
logement, qui occupent depuis plus de deux mois un hôtel particulier de cette
prestigieuse place parisienne.
.
.
[53]Audiences : Europe 1 pourrait
détrôner NRJ
Le sondage 126000 Radio de Médiamétrie, qui sera publié mardi, pourrait une
nouvelle fois bousculer la hierarchie entre stations.
.
.
Zoom Figaro
Cheveux
[20091109PHOWWW00546.jpg]
Conseils d'experts
Questions RH
[20091109PHOWWW00547.jpg]
McDonald's
Frida Kahlo
[20091109PHOWWW00548.jpg]
Exposée à Bruxelles
Cinéma
[20091109PHOWWW00348.jpg]
Toutes les séances
.
[54]Ces délégués du procureur
qui travaillent au noir
[55]Ces délégués du procureur
qui travaillent au noir
Chargés de sermonner les petits délinquants, ils ne sont pas déclarés par la
Chancellerie. Bercy tarde à régler le problème.
.
[56]Les talibans revendiquent
une série d'attaques à Kaboul
Des insurgés se sont lancés lundi matin à l'assaut du centre de la capitale
afghane où se trouvent plusieurs ministères et le palais présidentiel. Les
affrontements avec l'armée afghane ont fait au moins 5 morts et 71 blessés.
Sept assaillants ont été tués.
.
.
[57]Expatriés aux USA, la présidence Obama a-t-elle changé votre vie ?
APPEL A TÉMOIGNAGES - Si vous vivez aux Etats-Unis, votre quotidien a-t-il
changé depuis l'arrivée de Barack Obama à la Maison Blanche ? Si oui, comment
?
.
.
.
[58]TGV : la SNCF remet
à plat sa stratégie
La baisse de fréquentation de certaines lignes obligerait à des réductions de
trains voire des annulations selon les Echos. Les lignes nord-est et
est-Atlantique sont particulièrement concernées.
[59]» Deutsche Bahn prête à livrer bataille avec la SNCF
[60]» La SNCF augmente les tarifs du TGV de 1,9% en 2010
.
.
.
[61]Régionales : Laporte jette l'éponge
INFO LE FIGARO.FR - Lancien secrétaire dEtat aux Sports faisait planer depuis
plusieurs semaines le mystère sur son éventuelle candidature en
Ile-de-France.
.
.
[62]Paris et Berlin déconseillent
l'utilisation d'Internet Explorer
Après que Microsoft a admis qu'une faille dans son navigateur était à
l'origine de l'attaque contre Google en Chine, les autorités officielles de
sécurité informatique en France et en Allemagne recommandent de ne pas
utiliser le logiciel avant qu'il ne soit corrigé.
.
.
[63]Le Turc, qui avait tenté de tuer
Jean-Paul II, est libre
[64]Le Turc, qui avait tenté de tuer
Jean-Paul II, est
libre
Mehmet Ali Agca, un ex-militant ultranationaliste fait monter les enchères
pour publier ses Mémoires.
.
[65]Un Français en prison à Abu Dhabi
pour une plaisanterie
Pour avoir parlé de «bombe» dans un avion, Jean-Louis Lioret, ingénieur à la
retraite, est incarcéré depuis six jours.
.
.
.
[66]«Ali le Chimique» condamné à mort
Ce cousin de Saddam Hussein avait fait gazer 5 000 Kurdes en 1988.
.
.
[67]Alliot-Marie confie à Pierre Botton
une mission sur la prison
«Je sais de quoi je parle», assure l'ancien homme d'affaires et ex-gendre de
Michel Noir, écroué dans les années 1990.
.
.
[68]Le tapis rouge
des Golden Globes
[69]Le tapis rouge
des Golden Globes
EN IMAGES - Malgré l'éloge des critiques, Marion Cotillard nominée pour la
comédie musicale "Nine", n'a pas reçu le prix de la meilleure actrice qui a
été décerné à Meryl Streep.
[70]» Retour sur la cérémonie en images
.
[71]Avatar domine les Golden Globes
Le film de James Cameron a remporté dimanche le doublé du meilleur film
dramatique et du meilleur réalisateur. En revanche, Marion Cotillard et Un
prophète, qui portaient les espoirs tricolores, sont repartis bredouilles.
[72]» VIDEO - Les Golden Globes, du rire aux larmes
.
.
[73]Bertrand : «Une étrangère portant la burqa ne pourra pas être
naturalisée»
Le secrétaire général de l'UMP, Xavier Bertrand, qui a entamé ses
déplacements de campagne ce week-end en Paca, veut mobiliser sa famille
politique.
.
.
.
[74]Guéant écarte l'idée d'un remaniement
Le secrétaire général de l'Élysée a confirmé, dimanche, le maintien de Fillon
après les régionales.
[75]» Fillon fait l'éloge de la durée à Matignon
[76]» Journalistes enlevés : indignation après les propos de Guéant
.
.
[77]Faut-il repousser l'âge légal
de la retraite au-delà de 60 ans ?
Votants [picto-votant.gif]
.
.
[78]Les chirurgiens esthétiques contrôlent leur réputation sur le Web
Ils font parfois appel à des sociétés privées pour préserver leur image en
ligne.
[79]» Les patients en quête d'information sur la Toile
.
.
.
[80]Ukraine : le candidat pro-russe en tête
Viktor Ianoukovitch affrontera Ioulia Timochenko au second tour de l'élection
présidentielle ukrainienne, le 7 février.
[81]» Bataille présidentielle en Ukraine
.
.
[82]Joann Sfar : «Un film amoureux
sur Gainsbourg»
[83]Joann Sfar : «Un film amoureux
sur Gainsbourg»
INTERVIEW - Après Marjane Satrapi et Riad Sattouf, l'auteur de BD passe
derrière la caméra et signe un conte musical aussi poétiqueque subversif sur
l'Homme à tête de chou. En salle mercredi.
.
.
[84]Un prêt-à-porter concis et stylé
DÉFILÉS - Milan a donné le coup denvoi des collections masculines
automne-hiver 2010-2011.
[85]» EN IMAGES - Ermenegildo Zegna, [86]Dolce & Gabbana, [87]Burberry,
[88]Emporio Armani...
[89]» VIDEO - Bottega Venetta, [90]Burberry
.
.
[91]Un site web retrouve des vidéos
en fonction des mots prononcés
Le service Voxalead indexe les émissions de radio et de télévision à partir
des paroles enregistrées.
.
.
[92]Nissan joue au Cube
[93]Nissan joue au Cube
EN IMAGES - La marque japonaise fait le pari de vendre en Europe cette
étonnante berline compacte qui affirme sa différence au travers d'un style
cubique et asymétrique.
.
* ____________________ OK
[94]Les Blogs [95][feed-icon-16x16.png]
[96]Les dessous du social
[97]Tamilutte, FOrtifiant contre la pandémie sociale
CHEZ FO, on a depuis longtemps de l'humour et le sens de...
[98]Les dessous du social par [99]Marc Landré
[100]Le blog des Marchés de la bourse et des investisseurs
[101]Plutôt un risque de « syndrome Intel » que de déception sur les profits
Que dire de cette séance de Bourse de lundi, sans saveur,...
[102]Le blog des Marchés de la bourse et des investisseurs par
[103]Roland Laskine
[104]La Blog Team de Sport24
[105]Jacques Peridon: l'éditorialiste qui fait peur à l'OM!
Connaissez vous Jacques Peridon? Non? Oui? Peu...
[106]La Blog Team de Sport24 par [107]Bruno Roger-Petit
[108]Voir tous les blogs
.
.
La revue de net
Chaque jour, cinq liens sélectionnés par lefigaro.fr
+ LItalie [109]censure la vidéo sur Internet
+ Photos : Martin Luther King [110]en famille
+ Le New York Times [111]payant sur le web (eng)
+ Le rapport sur [112]la numérisation des livres décrypté
+ Lécologie [113]naméliore pas le climat familial (eng)
.
.
Logo Figaro
[114][20080606PHOWWW00354.jpg]
[115]Gagnez un séjour en thalasso
[116]Participez et gagnez un séjour
au Carnac thalasso & spa Resort.
.
.
[117][20080606PHOWWW00353.jpg]
[118]Surprenante Madonna
[119]
Dolce & Gabbana invente la sexy mamma-donna
.
.
[120][20080606PHOWWW00350.jpg]
[121]Exprimez-vous
[122]
Devrait-il y avoir davantage
d'hommes dans les mouvements féministes ?
.
.
[123]Mode - [124]Beauté - [125]Joaillerie - [126]Déco -
[127]Célébrités
.
[128]mercato
.
.
[129]Comment choisir son assurance vie ?
Posez vos questions à Marie-Christine Sonkin, directrice adjointe
de la rédaction du Journal des Finances. Elle répondra en vidéo le
19 janvier.
.
.
«Clint Eastwood au coeur de la mêlée et au coeur du public»
CRITIQUE - Pour Olivier Delcroix, avec «Invictus», qui réunit à l'écran
Morgan Freeman et Matt Damon, Eastwood livre un film passionnant sur le rugby
et l'apartheid.
.
.
Météo ____________________ rech
[130]France - [131]Monde - [132]Plage
.
[EMBED]
.
[133]La grande crue de 1910 à Paris
[134]La grande crue de 1910 à Paris
EN IMAGES - A loccasion du centenaire de la crue, deux expos sont organisées
à Paris.
.
.
.
[135]L'IVG, un sujet qui fâche en Europe
Trente-cinq ans après sa légalisation en France, l'interruption volontaire de
grossesse fait toujours polémique chez certains de nos voisins.
.
.
[136]Jyvais
.
Économie
[137]Proglio bouleverse la direction d'EDF
[138]Le nouveau président d'EDF installe son équipe dirigeante.
.
[139]Evaluer son patron,
un facteur d'efficacité
[140]Une étude britannique met en évidence la relation entre santé au travail
et franchise vis-à-vis de son employeur.
.
.
.
.
.
Vos commentaires sur...
[141]Haïti : Le leadership de Washington sur les secours
[142]«Dans un monde idéal ce serait à l'ONU de désigner le pays chargé de
tenir ce rôle majeur. Mais il semble qu'on y préfère les grands discours aux
actions rationnelles et efficaces !» par DUBLEYOU 76
.
.
[143]Aubry estime avoir les «capacités» de présider la France
[144]«Peut-être devrait-elle commencer par expliquer ce qu'elle compte faire.
Le meilleur opposant n'est pas forcément le meilleur candidat» par Piémont
.
.
[145]L'IVG reste un sujet qui fâche chez nos voisins occidentaux
[146]«Si 35 ans après cela pose encore problème et choque les populations, il
faudrait peut-être se poser des questions ? Ce n'est pas parce qu'une loi a
été votée qu'elle reste valable des décennies après» par Ebtg
.
.
[147]» Retrouvez toute notre sélection de commentaires des internautes
[148]en cliquant ici[149].
.
.
.
.
.
.
Trouvez les meilleurs restos, films, spectacles, concerts et expos à
Paris et en Ile de France !
____________________
[Resto / Bars...........] Rechercher
.
.
[150]Easy Voyage
.
Services
+ [151]Services météo
+ [152]Services sorties
+ [153]Services bourse
+ [154]Services voyages
+ [155]Services Guide-tv
+ [156]Services boutiques
+
Annonces
+ [157]annonces_emploi
+ [158]Annonces immobilières
+ [159]Annonces automobile
+ [160]Annonces rencontres
+
.
[_] [_] [_] [_] [_] [_] [_]
Annonces emploi
[161]cadremploi.fr
[Fonction...............][Secteur................][Localisation....
.......]_________________________
Ok
[162]Recherche detaillée
.
.
.
Annonces Automobiles
[163]AutoScout24
[Marque..........] [Modeles]
Année [de..]
Prix () de [1.000..]
Distance [Rayon.]
[164]Recherche détaillée
[Energie...] [Professionnels et particuliers]
[à...]
[à......]
____________________
(Afficher les résultats) Valider
.
Logo Evène
18 Janvier - Sainte Prisca - [165]Offrez-lui des fleurs
[3441.jpg]
[166]La citation du jour
"Lire n'est pas un acte de consommation culturelle, c'est une conversation."
[167]Alain Finkielkraut
[168]Entretien avec Guy Rossi-Landi - Février 1999
.
.
[4262.jpg]
[169]Anniversaire du jour
[170]Philippe Starck
Designer français
61 ans
.
.
[171]Chronique du jour
C'est arrivé le 18 Janvier 1975
Une bande qui fait du bruit
Dans les kiosques, une nouvelle parution s'apprête à faire grand bruit. Il
s'agit d'un trimestriel, certifié "réservé aux adultes", flanqué d'un titre
au graphisme métallique : Métal hurlant. A l'o...
.
.
[172]Le guide cadeaux culture - EVENE
.
.
.
.
.
.
____________________ Rechercher
newsletter ____________________ OK
.
IFRAME: [173]frametvmag
[174]Abonnement | [175]Archives | [176]Boutique [177]Charte de
modération [178]Contacts | [179]Index actualités | [180]Le Figaro en
PDF | [181]Le Figaro en 3D avec Yoowalk | [182]Mentions légales |
[183]Newsletters | [184]Plan du site | [185]Publicités | [186]RSS |
[187]Sitemap | [188]Toutes les biographies avec le Whos Who France |
[189]jeux concours avec Ledemondujeu | [190]Futura Sciences |
[191]Symbaloo | [192]Livre.fr
Sites du Groupe Figaro : [193]Actualité sportive avec Sport24.com |
[194]Cinéma avec Evene.fr | [195]Economie avec le JDF.com | [196]Emploi
avec Cadremploi.fr | [197]Formation avec Kelformation.com |
[198]Explorimmoneuf | [199]Immobilier avec Explorimmo.com |
[200]Immobilier de prestige avec Propriétés de France | [201]La
Solitaire du Figaro | [202]Locations vacances avec Bertrand vacances |
[203]Mode et Beauté avec Lefigaro.fr/madame | [204]Programmes télé avec
TV Mag.com | [205]Résidences secondaires | [206]Spectacles avec
TickeTac.com | [207]Vacances de rêve avec Belles Maisons A Louer |
[208]Ventes privées sur Bazarchic.com
.
[209]Abonnement
[210][20071026PHOWWW00431.jpg]
.
.
.
[211]Figaro en PDF
.
[212]Figaro sélection
[213][20091113PHOWWW00377.jpg]
.
[214]Privilèges
[215][20090918PHOWWW00224.jpg]
.
.
.
[216]Sport24.com
[217][20091020PHOWWW00305.jpg]
.
[218]Carnet du jour
[219][20071029PHOWWW00500.jpg]
.
.
.
[220]Figaro magazine
[221][20081226PHOWWW00254.jpg]
.
[222]Madame Figaro
[223][20090619PHOWWW00349.jpg]
.
[224]Salon de Detroit
[225]En images
[226][20100114PHOWWW00381.jpg]
.
[227]Camus
[228]Portrait
[229][20091223PHOWWW00424.jpg]
.
[230]People
[231]Tapis rouge
[232][20091202PHOWWW00394.jpg]
.
[233]more.madame
[234]Art numérique
[235][20091119PHOWWW00374.jpg]
.
[236]Bijoux
[237]Idées cadeaux
[238][20091222PHOWWW00119.jpg]
.
[239]High-tech
[240]Vivre en 3D
[241][3dc5b19c-faba-11de-8568-9cd2bbe29056.jpg]
.
[242]Blog
[243]L'actu high-tech
[244][20090722PHOWWW00246.jpg]
.
[245]Cinéma
[246]Films de 2010
[247][f214ceae-fab9-11de-8568-9cd2bbe29056.jpg]
.
[248]Ecofiscalité
[249]En Suède
[250][20091231PHOWWW00249.jpg]
.
[251]Romans
[252]Top des ventes
[253][20100114PHOWWW00380.jpg]
.
[254]Hôtels
[255]Spectaculaires
[256][20091229PHOWWW00241.jpg]
.
[257]Rentrée
[258]théâtrale
[259][33910c4a-fab9-11de-8568-9cd2bbe29056.jpg]
.
[260]Rétro
[261]Partis en 2009
[262][20091230PHOWWW00132.jpg]
.
[263]Les éditos
[264]Tous les jours
[265][20090610PHOWWW00336.jpg]
.
[266]Paris hippiques
[267][20091028PHOWWW00365.jpg]
.
[268]Galerie Photo
[269][20090319PHOWWW00273.jpg]
.
[270]Newsletters
[271][20071026PHOWWW00455.jpg]
.
[272]Rencontres
[273][20071029PHOWWW00504.jpg]
.
[274]Figaro Cadeaux
[275][20080401PHOWWW00195.jpg]
.
[276]Mobile
[277][20081121PHOWWW00303.jpg]
.
[278]Alerte Actu
[279][20091019PHOWWW00158.jpg]
.
.
Références
Liens visibles
Liens cachés :
REFRESH(900 sec):
/sarkozy__les_reformes_restent_dactualite_conduites_au_m.html%0D
#[2]NouvelObs.com
IFRAME:
fi01;ord=1?
* [4]Vidéos
* [5]BibliObs
* [6]Cinéma
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* [8]Styles
* [9]Immobilier
* [10]Automobile
* [11]Challenges
[12]NouvelObs.com en temps réel Politique
Rechercher
____________________ OK
*
* [13]Actualités
+ [14]Opinions
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ELYSEE
Sarkozy : les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme"
NOUVELOBS.COM | 06.02.2009 | 13:01
[121]Réagissez à l'article 299 réactions
Lors de son intervention télévisée, le chef de l'Etat a notamment déclaré :
"Que les Français soient inquiets (face à la crise), c'est normal".
> Il a dit réfléchir à une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le
revenu.
> La taxe professionnelle sera supprimée en 2010.
> Les partenaires sociaux seront reçus le 18 février.
Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters)
Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters)
Le chef de l'Etat a déclaré, jeudi 5 février, que la France et le monde
faisaient face à "la crise du siècle", au début de son intervention
télévisée. "C'est la crise du siècle, elle est sans précédent", a-t-il
répété Nicolas Sarkozy. ([122]> Lire toutes les déclarations).
"Je dois en tenir compte et faire en sorte que la France rentre le plus
tard possible dans la crise et sorte le plus tôt de la crise", a-t-il
ajouté. "Je dois en plus protéger au maximum ceux qui déjà dans la
croissance mondiale étaient exclus", a-t-il ajouté. "Que les Français
soient inquiets, c'est normal. Je le comprends, je l'entends", a-t-il
expliqué.
Les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme", a-t-il
rapidement affirmé. "La rupture n'a jamais été un objectif, c'est juste
un moyen", a, par ailleurs, expliqué Nicolas Sarkozy.
L'émission était diffusée simultanément sur TF1, France 2, M6 et RTL.
Elle est présentée par David Pujadas et Laurence, avec les
interventions de Guy Lagache et Alain Duhamel.
Une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu ?
Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il recevrait les partenaires sociaux le 18
février, notamment pour voir comment "aller plus loin" sur
l'indemnisation du chômage partiel. Il a également dit réfléchir à une
suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu pour aider les
classes moyennes, l'une des "pistes" qu'il soumettra aux syndicats le
18 février. "L'Etat est prêt à faire un effort" pour "mieux protéger"
les jeunes en fin de CDD et qui ne retrouvent pas d'emploi du fait de
la crise financière et économique, a affirmé le président de la
République.
Le chef de l'Etat a aussi annoncé qu'il "supprimerait la taxe
professionnnelle en 2010". "Je vous l'annonce: on supprimera la taxe
professionnelle en France en 2010 parce que je veux que l'on garde des
usines en France", a déclaré Nicolas Sarkozy lors de son intervention
télévisée sur la crise.
La mesure sera générale: "On ne peut pas dire on va supprimer pour
l'industrie automobile mais pas pour l'industrie sidérurgique ou
textile", a-t-il ajouté.
"Je ne peux pas dire aux actionnaires pour le coup: ne délocalisez
plus, relocalisez, et en même temps leur laisser des charges et des
contraintes qui font qu'ils ne s'en sortiront plus", selon le chef de
l'Etat.
Réfléchir sur le "partage du profit"
Le président a jugé nécessaire de réfléchir au "partage du profit"
entre les salariés et les actionnaires, demandant aux partenaires
sociaux de parvenir à un accord sans quoi "l'Etat prendra ses
responsabilités". "Je veux que le 18 février nous discutions d'un sujet
essentiel en France qui est le partage du profit", a déclaré le chef de
l'Etat, évoquant le "sentiment d'injustice majeur" suscité dans cette
crise par "le comportement d'un certain nombre de dirigeants
d'institutions bancaires". "Comment on arbitre entre le souhait
légitime des actionnaires de gagner de l'argent avec les entreprises et
la demande des salariés d'être associés aux bénéfices des entreprises
dont ils ont contribué à créer la richesse?", s'est interrogé Nicolas
Sarkozy, jugeant qu'en la matière "le compte n'y est pas". "Quand une
entreprise distribue aux actionnaires tous les bénéfices d'une année,
elle ne peut plus investir" pour l'avenir, a-t-il ajouté, dénonçant une
"logique purement financière et spéculative". Le sujet sera au
programme de sa rencontre avec les partenaires sociaux le 18 février.
"J'engage les organisations syndicales et le patronat à en discuter.
Soit ils arrivent à quelque chose, soit l'Etat prendra ses
responsabilités", a-t-il prévenu. Il a indiqué qu'il estimait quant à
lui que "la règle des trois tiers est bonne": un tiers des bénéfices
vont aux salariés, un tiers aux actionnaires sous forme de dividendes
et un tiers sont réinvestis dans l'entreprise pour financer son
développement".
Combat sur la TVA
Nicolas Sarkozy a réaffirmé sa volonté d'obtenir un consensus européen
concernant des baisses de la TVA sur la restauration, les "produits
propres" et des "produits culturels".
"C'est parfaitement anormal que quand on achète une voiture propre, on
paie plus cher que quand on achète une voiture qui pollue, et ça vaut
aussi pour les bâtiments construits en haute qualité environnementale",
a dit le chef de l'Etat, souhaitant "un système de TVA réduite pour
tous les produits propres".
"Je pense également que sur les produits culturels, il faut aller plus
loin", a ajouté Nicolas Sarkozy. "Pourquoi la TVA sur le livre est-elle
à 5,5 (%), et la TVA sur le disque à 19,6 (%), comme la TVA sur la
vidéo? Il faut mettre cette TVA à 5,5", a-t-il déclaré.
"Comme cela on est tranquille"
"Est-ce que les réformes que la France doit mettre en oeuvre, pour
avoir le même emploi lorsque nous seront sortis de la crise, est-ce que
ces réformes restent d'actualité? La réponse est oui", a déclaré le
chef de l'Etat, précisant qu'elles devaient être conduites "au même
rythme".
"Si on doit arrêter, comme cela s'est si souvent fait dans le passé,
chaque réforme quand il y a une manifestation, alors mieux vaut ne
faire aucune réforme. Et comme cela on est tranquille", a-t-il dit. La
rupture, "c'est la rupture avec cette habitude".
Les quelque 1,4 milliard d'euros d'intérêts que l'Etat percevra cette
année au titre des intérêts pour son financement aux banques seront
"intégralement" affectés au financement de "mesures sociales", a
annoncé Nicolas Sarkozy.
Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il allait demander au président de la Cour
des comptes Philippe Seguin de "conduire un certain nombre d'enquêtes"
sur la bonne utilisation des fonds accordés aux banques pour faire face
à la crise.
Tacle aux traders
Nicolas Sarkozy veut "changer" le système de rémunération des "traders"
mais est sceptique sur un plafonnement systématique du salaire des
dirigeants, a-t-il déclaré.
"Je suis plus choqué par le système de rémunération de ceux qu'on
appelle les traders, que les présidents de banques. C'est ce système-là
que je veux changer", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat.
"J'ai vu ce que M. Obama a décidé, je suis en train d'y réfléchir, moi
je ne suis pas trop pour une règle générale", a-t-il ajouté. "Mettre
tout le monde sous la toise, je ne suis pas sûr que ce soit la
meilleure formule".
"J'ajoute que Barack Obama a prévu un système d'actions gratuites
derrière une rémunération bloquée, j'aimerais en savoir un peu plus", a
souligné Nicolas Sarkozy.
Maintien de la politique sur la Fonction publique
Nicolas Sarkozy a affirmé qu'il n'engagerait "pas de dépenses publiques
supplémentaires", et qu'il s'en tiendrait à la "règle du
non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux".
"Je n'engagerai pas de dépenses publiques supplémentaires, notamment
sur la règle du non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux", a
affirmé le président de la République.
Selon lui, on reviendra ainsi "au même nombre de fonctionnaires qu'en
1992", quand François Mitterrand était président. "Je n'ai pas le
souvenir que la France était alors sous-administrée", a-t-il argué.
Relations aux paradis fiscaux
Très sévère sur la question des paradis fiscaux, Nicolas Sarkozy a
annoncé son intention de "poser des questions" à Andorre, Monaco et au
Luxembourg.
La France exigera la moralisation des paradis fiscaux et "ça m'amènera
à revoir nos relations avec Andorre", "à poser la question de nos
relations avec Monaco (et) à poser un certain nombre de questions à nos
voisins luxembourgeois", a-t-il déclaré.
Baisse dans les sondages
D'autant que le chef de l'Etat, comme son Premier ministre, enregistre
une forte baisse dans les derniers sondages. Moins cinq points à 39% de
"confiance" contre 55% de défiance selon un CSA paru mercredi dans Le
Parisien.
Forts du succès de leur journée d'action de la semaine dernière, les
syndicats attendent le président au tournant, suspendant leurs
prochaines initiatives au contenu de sa prestation télévisée.
Le patron de la CFDT François Chérèque a réclamé un "changement de
cap", en clair, des mesures pour maintenir le pouvoir d'achat, tandis
que celui de FO Jean-Claude Mailly a prévenu que sans "relance par la
consommation", il y aura "remobilisation".
Le ton est également offensif dans l'opposition. La Première secrétaire
du PS Martine Aubry a demandé au président de "définir enfin un plan de
relance adapté". Et, dans une rare unanimité, la gauche toute entière a
signé mercredi un texte sommant le pouvoir de "changer de cap".
Ne pas se laisser "enfumer"
Jeudi matin, Jean-Luc Mélenchon (Parti de gauche) invitait le pays à ne
pas se laisser "enfumer" par Nicolas Sarkozy et à se mettre "en lutte",
tandis qu'Olivier Besancenot (LCR) voyait déjà dans son intervention
"des motivations supplémentaires à continuer le combat".
Jusque-là, le discours du chef de l'Etat est resté inflexible. Oui, il
a entendu les "inquiétudes légitimes" des Français "qui craignent pour
leur emploi", mais pas question pour lui de recourir à une relance par
la consommation, "parce que ça n'a jamais marché".
Nicolas Sarkozy devrait aussi enrober son propos d'une bonne dose de
volontarisme. "On va se battre pour que la France sorte plus forte de
la crise", insiste-t-il régulièrement.
"Se concentrer sur les objectifs essentiels"
Mais certains ne l'entendent pas de la même oreille dans la majorité.
Le député UMP Hervé Mariton a reproché au gouvernement de s'éparpiller
dans les réformes lui demandant de "se concentrer sur les objectifs
essentiels" et son collègue François Goulard a préconisé une
"suspension" temporaire du très controversé bouclier fiscal.
En outre, le gouvernement a vu poindre ces derniers jours un nouveau
"front" du mécontentement dans les universités, avec la montée de la
grogne des enseignants-chercheurs et des étudiants.
Mais comme François Fillon lundi, le porte-parole du gouvernement a
exclu mercredi tout virage politique. "Cette émission n'est pas faite
seulement pour le million et demi de Français qui a manifesté", a dit
Luc Chatel, mais plutôt pour "mettre en perspective son action face à
la crise".
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Les réactions des lecteurs
rifif
[137]-10 POINTS
-10 points serait un sondage plus réaliste que ces sondages
effectués par des instituts de sondages aux mains des amis de
sarkozy ! Il aura beau museler les manifestan...
08.02 à 16h05 - [138]Alerter
scafandre
[139]Il faut qu'il démissionne...
avant de mettre littéralement la France en faillite. Il est
inconscient... Vous avez des communes qui ont investi dans la
construction de collèges, de ponts... en fonct...
07.02 à 21h16 - [140]Alerter
[141]Réagissez !
[142]Toutes les réactions (299)
[143]Conditions de modération
L'essentiel Politique
[144]IDENTITE NATIONALE
[145]"Déferlement de musulmans" : Gaudin regrette avoir eu un "mot
malheureux" 18.01 à 16h59
[146]MAYOTTE
[147]Courte étape dans l'océan Indien pour Sarkozy 18.01 à 14h52
[148]POLEMIQUE
[149]Reporters enlevés : "cynisme effrayant" de Guéant 18.01 à 14h47
[150]MARSEILLE
[151]Buffet dénonce "une idéologie xénophobe
dans les plus hautes autorités de l'Etat" 18.01 à 13h46
[152]IDENTITE NATIONALE
[153]Et si "une Française porte la burqa"...? 18.01 à 10h51
[154]SOCIAL
[155]Internet : un tarif réduit pour les plus démunis ? 18.01 à 09h05
[156]COLLECTIVITES LOCALES
[157]Les départements en "graves difficultés financières" 18.01 à 08h53
[158]IDENTITE NATIONALE
[159]"Déferlement de musulmans" : Gaudin regrette avoir eu un "mot
malheureux" 18.01 à 08h06
[160]MARSEILLE
[161]Valls fustige les "amalgames dangereux" de Gaudin 18.01 à 07h56
[162]ELECTIONS REGIONALES
[163]Régionales : Aubry vise toujours le grand chelem 18.01 à 07h29
[164]AFGHANISTAN
[165]Journalistes enlevés : Guéant provoque la polémique 18.01 à 07h10
[166]SENAT
[167]La réforme des collectivités "manque de visibilité" 18.01 à 07h05
[168]CHARENTE-MARITIME
[169]Régionales : Sarnez accuse Royal de "débauchage" 17.01 à 14h58
[170]DROIT DE VOTE
[171]Mélenchon favorable au droit de vote des étrangers 17.01 à 13h56
[172]CONSEIL CONSTITUTIONNEL
[173]Emmanuelle Mignon ne siègera pas parmi les Sages 17.01 à 12h55
Plus sur le sujet
Sur Nouvelobs.com
* [174]Les principales déclarations de Nicolas Sarkozy
* [175]Aubry Sarkozy est un président "hésitant" qui "ne sait pas où
il va"
* [176]Intervention télévisée de Sarkozy Les appels au boycott se
multiplient
* [177]Onze organisations de gauche demandent un "changement de cap"
* [178]Interview présidentielle Les choix contestables de l'Elysée
* [179]Grèves Parisot y voit "quelque chose de pervers"
* [180]Le texte commun des onze organisations de gauche
* [181]Revue de presse
* [182]Les réactions
* [183]Delanoë Sarkozy a "privilégié la polémique" sur le SMA
* [184]Sarkozy fait des ouvertures, les syndicats méfiants
* [185]15,1 millions de téléspectateurs pour l'intervention de
Sarkozy
* [186]Les principales mesures de Nicolas Sarkozy
Dans Le Nouvel Observateur
* [187]"Sarkozy comme Cendrillon", (05/02/09)
* [188]"La vraie nature de Sarkozy", par François Bazin (05/02/09)
* [189]"Sarkozy peut-il encore réformer ?", par Hervé Algalarrondo
(05/02/09)
* [190]"Les ficelles de Sarkozy", (22/01/09)
* [191]"Les choix de Sarkozy", par Denis Olivennes (22/01/09)
Sur Internet
* [192]Le site de l'Elysée
* [193]Le baromètre de confiance de l'exécutif sur le site du CSA
* [194]Le baromètre des actions présidentielles sur le site du CSA
* [195]La biographie officielle de Nicolas Sarkozy
* [196]Le blog de François Fillon
* [197]La biographie officielle de François Fillon
* [198]Le site de TNS-Sofres
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Réformes: Sarkozy ne ralentira pas le rythme
19.01.2009
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Le [136]président [137]Nicolas Sarkozy a affirmé lundi ne pas avoir
«l'intention de ralentir le rythme» des réformes en 2009, au moment où
«l'impact social de la [138]crise se fait sentir». Formulant ses voeux
pour la nouvelle années devant les représentants des partenaires
sociaux, le chef de l'Etat a d'abord voulu les «remercier pour
l'ampleur de la tâche que vous avez accomplie en 2008. L'urgence des
problèmes à résoudre, l'attente des Français vous ont imposé, comme au
gouvernement et au Parlement, un rythme de travail particulièrement
exigeant». «Je ne vous surprendrai pas en vous disant que nous n'avons
pas l'intention de ralentir le rythme en 2009, leur a-t-il ensuite
déclaré. Et ce n'est certainement pas au moment où l'impact social de
la crise se fait sentir --on a eu l'impact financier, l'impact
économique, bien sûr l'impact social-- qu'on va en tirer la conclusion
qu'il faut ralentir», a-t-il ajouté.
Leparisien.fr avec A
Cet article a été publié dans la rubrique [139]Politique
FLASH ACTUALITÉ
[DERNIÈRE MINUTE]
* 18h57 [140]Emmanuelle Haïm renonce à diriger "Idoménée" à l'Opéra
de Paris
* 18h55 [141]La production cinéma "résiste" dit le CNC, "en crise"
selon les producteurs
* 18h49 [142]Ligue 1: Marseille au milieu du gué
* 18h41 [143]Jean-Claude Juncker reconduit à la tête de l'Eurogroupe
* 18h26 [144]France: le déficit public de "l'ordre de 8,2%" du PIB en
2010
* 18h16 [145]Rebsamen (PS): pétition pour inverser la charge de la
preuve de nationalité
* 18h05 [146]Strauss-Kahn responsable politique préféré des Français
[147]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
* 18h41 [148]Jean-Claude Juncker reconduit à la tête de l'Eurogroupe
* 18h26 [149]France: le déficit public de "l'ordre de 8,2%" du PIB en
2010
* 17h53 [150]Plan de départs PSA: 5.700 volontaires d'ici la fin du
dispositif fin mars
* 17h42 [151]Etats-Unis: Vivendi accuse l'avocat des plaignants de
créer un "préjudice"
* 17h18 [152]Eurostar pourrait payer 11 millions d'euros de
dédommagement à ses clients
* 16h24 [153]GDF Suez a tenté sans succès de prendre le contrôle
d'International Power
* 16h11 [154]Le déficit public attendu à 8,2% en 2010, soit moins que
prévu
[155]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
* 18h16 [156]Rebsamen (PS): pétition pour inverser la charge de la
preuve de nationalité
* 18h05 [157]Strauss-Kahn responsable politique préféré des Français
* 17h10 [158]Collomb (PS) prêt à voter certains articles de la
réforme des collectivités
* 16h56 [159]Propos sur les musulmans: Gaudin évoque "un mot
malheureux"
* 16h28 [160]Réforme territoriale: les élus landais demandent un
référendum
* 16h14 [161]Le Nouveau centre veut s'emparer de "grands sujets"
comme l'homoparentalité
* 16h12 [162]Besson dresse son bilan 2009 : plus de 29.000
sans-papiers expulsés
[163]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
* 17h06 [164]Séisme de magnitude 6 à l'ouest du Guatemala
* 16h27 [165]La police a tué plus de 10.000 personnes en douze ans à
Rio selon une étude
* 14h40 [166]Le Yémen réclame à Washington ses ressortissants détenus
à Guantanamo
* 13h52 [167]Enquête sur la guerre en Irak: Tony Blair témoignera le
29 janvier
* 13h21 [168]Silvio Berlusconi absent à la reprise du procès sur les
droits télévisés
* 11h26 [169]Les talibans ont porté la guerre dans le centre de
Kaboul
* 10h46 [170]L'UE promet près d'un demi-milliard d'euros pour Haïti
[171]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
* 18h49 [172]Ligue 1: Marseille au milieu du gué
* 17h10 [173]Football: pas de sanction pour Thierry Henry après sa
main contre l'Eire
* 16h50 [174]Ligue 1: pour Bordeaux, l'essentiel c'est l'écart
* 16h26 [175]Coupe de l'America: le bras de fer se poursuit entre
Oracle et Alinghi
* 15h08 [176]Euro de patinage artistique: Joubert de retour pour un
ultime test avant les JO
* 10h55 [177]Euro de handball: les Français pour un triplé inédit
* 08h04 [178]Open d'Australie de tennis: Sharapova éliminée, Nadal,
Murray et Roddick qualifiés
[179]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
* 18h57 [180]Emmanuelle Haïm renonce à diriger "Idoménée" à l'Opéra
de Paris
* 18h55 [181]La production cinéma "résiste" dit le CNC, "en crise"
selon les producteurs
* 17h05 [182]Les films de la semaine: un Gainsbourg, un homme sérieux
et des Barons
* 14h28 [183]Le Festival d'Aix-en-Provence se "redéveloppe" en 2010
* 06h36 [184]"Avatar" grand vainqueur des Golden Globes, "In the air"
déçoit
* 20h48 [185]Mode à Milan: esprit rebelle et inspirations militaires
* 20h16 [186]"Avatar" continue de dominer le box-office
nord-américain
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[33]Haïti : la récolte de fonds décolle après l'appel de l'ONU
[34]Haïti : la récolte de fonds décolle après l'appel de l'ONU
Les annonces d'aide humanitaire et de fonds pour venir en aide à Haïti
continuent d'affluer, suite à l'appel d'urgence lancé par l'ONU.
L'organisation entend récolter 562 millions de dollars.
[35]» DOSSIER SPECIAL - Haïti dévasté
.
[36]L'hôpital général de Port-au-Prince manque de tout
REPORTAGE - Face au désastre, les secours peinent à s'orgraniser dans la
capitale haïtienne.
.
.
.
[37]Les secours sorganisent dans la douleur
EN IMAGES - Dans la capitale haïtienne, les secours internationaux font face
à dénormes difficultés. Il faut à la fois chercher des survivants, apporter
des vivres aux rescapés, opérer les blessés, évacuer les corps, sécuriser la
ville et penser à la reconstruction.
.
.
[38]Haïti : 70.000 corps ont été enterrés
Le gouvernement a décrété dimanche l'état d'urgence et une période de deuil
national de 30 jours. 280 centres d'urgence s'ouvrent lundi, pour distribuer
des vivres et héberger les sans-abris, estimés à 300.000.
[39]» DOSSIER SPECIAL - Haïti dévasté
.
.
[40]Numérisation du patrimoine :
comment l'argent sera réparti
[41]Numérisation du patrimoine :
comment l'argent sera
réparti
INFO LE FIGARO - La Bibliothèque nationale de France et le Centre national du
cinéma seront les mieux lotis.
.
[42]La création d'entreprises atteint
un record
INFO FIGARO - Les Français ont créé 560.000 entreprises l'an dernier, grâce
au succès du statut de l'auto-entrepreneur.
[43]» Auto-entrepreneur : comment ça marche ?
.
.
.
[44]Thierry Henry échappe
à la sanction
La commission de discipline de la FIFA a estimé lundi qu'elle ne disposait
pas de base juridique pour sanctionner la main de l'attaquant français lors
du match contre l'Eire, en barrages du Mondial-2010.
.
.
[45]Boursiers : l'Etat précise ses objectifs
La conférence de grandes écoles a de son côté effectué un revirement en
affirmant partager les objectifs fixés par le gouvernement.
[46]» Sarkozy veut 30 % de boursiers dans les grandes écoles
.
.
[47]L'UNI fait place à un nouveau syndicat étudiant de droite
Dès mardi, le syndicat étudiant de droite né en 1968 deviendra le Mouvement
des étudiants (MET).
.
.
[48]France : le déficit attendu à 8,2%
du PIB en 2010
INFO FIGARO - Le déficit public sera moins mauvais que prévu : il était
jusqu'alors anticipé à 8,5 %.
.
.
.
[49]Sarkozy en visite
dans l'océan Indien
Le chef de l'État est à Mayotte et à la Réunion pour la cérémonie des voeux à
l'outre-mer.
.
.
[50]Besson veut faire signer une charte
aux jeunes Français
Les droits et les devoirs de tout citoyen seraient rappelés à l'occasion de
ce serment républicain.
[51]» Identité : Jean-Claude Gaudin crée à son tour la polémique
.
.
[52]Des squatteurs priés de quitter
la place des Vosges
La justice a ordonné lundi l'expulsion des militants pour le droit au
logement, qui occupent depuis plus de deux mois un hôtel particulier de cette
prestigieuse place parisienne.
.
.
[53]Audiences : Europe 1 pourrait
détrôner NRJ
Le sondage 126000 Radio de Médiamétrie, qui sera publié mardi, pourrait une
nouvelle fois bousculer la hierarchie entre stations.
.
.
Zoom Figaro
Cheveux
[20091109PHOWWW00546.jpg]
Conseils d'experts
Questions RH
[20091109PHOWWW00547.jpg]
McDonald's
Frida Kahlo
[20091109PHOWWW00548.jpg]
Exposée à Bruxelles
Cinéma
[20091109PHOWWW00348.jpg]
Toutes les séances
.
[54]Ces délégués du procureur
qui travaillent au noir
[55]Ces délégués du procureur
qui travaillent au noir
Chargés de sermonner les petits délinquants, ils ne sont pas déclarés par la
Chancellerie. Bercy tarde à régler le problème.
.
[56]Les talibans revendiquent
une série d'attaques à Kaboul
Des insurgés se sont lancés lundi matin à l'assaut du centre de la capitale
afghane où se trouvent plusieurs ministères et le palais présidentiel. Les
affrontements avec l'armée afghane ont fait au moins 5 morts et 71 blessés.
Sept assaillants ont été tués.
.
.
[57]Expatriés aux USA, la présidence Obama a-t-elle changé votre vie ?
APPEL A TÉMOIGNAGES - Si vous vivez aux Etats-Unis, votre quotidien a-t-il
changé depuis l'arrivée de Barack Obama à la Maison Blanche ? Si oui, comment
?
.
.
.
[58]TGV : la SNCF remet
à plat sa stratégie
La baisse de fréquentation de certaines lignes obligerait à des réductions de
trains voire des annulations selon les Echos. Les lignes nord-est et
est-Atlantique sont particulièrement concernées.
[59]» Deutsche Bahn prête à livrer bataille avec la SNCF
[60]» La SNCF augmente les tarifs du TGV de 1,9% en 2010
.
.
.
[61]Régionales : Laporte jette l'éponge
INFO LE FIGARO.FR - Lancien secrétaire dEtat aux Sports faisait planer depuis
plusieurs semaines le mystère sur son éventuelle candidature en
Ile-de-France.
.
.
[62]Paris et Berlin déconseillent
l'utilisation d'Internet Explorer
Après que Microsoft a admis qu'une faille dans son navigateur était à
l'origine de l'attaque contre Google en Chine, les autorités officielles de
sécurité informatique en France et en Allemagne recommandent de ne pas
utiliser le logiciel avant qu'il ne soit corrigé.
.
.
[63]Le Turc, qui avait tenté de tuer
Jean-Paul II, est libre
[64]Le Turc, qui avait tenté de tuer
Jean-Paul II, est
libre
Mehmet Ali Agca, un ex-militant ultranationaliste fait monter les enchères
pour publier ses Mémoires.
.
[65]Un Français en prison à Abu Dhabi
pour une plaisanterie
Pour avoir parlé de «bombe» dans un avion, Jean-Louis Lioret, ingénieur à la
retraite, est incarcéré depuis six jours.
.
.
.
[66]«Ali le Chimique» condamné à mort
Ce cousin de Saddam Hussein avait fait gazer 5 000 Kurdes en 1988.
.
.
[67]Alliot-Marie confie à Pierre Botton
une mission sur la prison
«Je sais de quoi je parle», assure l'ancien homme d'affaires et ex-gendre de
Michel Noir, écroué dans les années 1990.
.
.
[68]Le tapis rouge
des Golden Globes
[69]Le tapis rouge
des Golden Globes
EN IMAGES - Malgré l'éloge des critiques, Marion Cotillard nominée pour la
comédie musicale "Nine", n'a pas reçu le prix de la meilleure actrice qui a
été décerné à Meryl Streep.
[70]» Retour sur la cérémonie en images
.
[71]Avatar domine les Golden Globes
Le film de James Cameron a remporté dimanche le doublé du meilleur film
dramatique et du meilleur réalisateur. En revanche, Marion Cotillard et Un
prophète, qui portaient les espoirs tricolores, sont repartis bredouilles.
[72]» VIDEO - Les Golden Globes, du rire aux larmes
.
.
[73]Bertrand : «Une étrangère portant la burqa ne pourra pas être
naturalisée»
Le secrétaire général de l'UMP, Xavier Bertrand, qui a entamé ses
déplacements de campagne ce week-end en Paca, veut mobiliser sa famille
politique.
.
.
.
[74]Guéant écarte l'idée d'un remaniement
Le secrétaire général de l'Élysée a confirmé, dimanche, le maintien de Fillon
après les régionales.
[75]» Fillon fait l'éloge de la durée à Matignon
[76]» Journalistes enlevés : indignation après les propos de Guéant
.
.
[77]Faut-il repousser l'âge légal
de la retraite au-delà de 60 ans ?
Votants [picto-votant.gif]
.
.
[78]Les chirurgiens esthétiques contrôlent leur réputation sur le Web
Ils font parfois appel à des sociétés privées pour préserver leur image en
ligne.
[79]» Les patients en quête d'information sur la Toile
.
.
.
[80]Ukraine : le candidat pro-russe en tête
Viktor Ianoukovitch affrontera Ioulia Timochenko au second tour de l'élection
présidentielle ukrainienne, le 7 février.
[81]» Bataille présidentielle en Ukraine
.
.
[82]Joann Sfar : «Un film amoureux
sur Gainsbourg»
[83]Joann Sfar : «Un film amoureux
sur Gainsbourg»
INTERVIEW - Après Marjane Satrapi et Riad Sattouf, l'auteur de BD passe
derrière la caméra et signe un conte musical aussi poétiqueque subversif sur
l'Homme à tête de chou. En salle mercredi.
.
.
[84]Un prêt-à-porter concis et stylé
DÉFILÉS - Milan a donné le coup denvoi des collections masculines
automne-hiver 2010-2011.
[85]» EN IMAGES - Ermenegildo Zegna, [86]Dolce & Gabbana, [87]Burberry,
[88]Emporio Armani...
[89]» VIDEO - Bottega Venetta, [90]Burberry
.
.
[91]Un site web retrouve des vidéos
en fonction des mots prononcés
Le service Voxalead indexe les émissions de radio et de télévision à partir
des paroles enregistrées.
.
.
[92]Nissan joue au Cube
[93]Nissan joue au Cube
EN IMAGES - La marque japonaise fait le pari de vendre en Europe cette
étonnante berline compacte qui affirme sa différence au travers d'un style
cubique et asymétrique.
.
* ____________________ OK
[94]Les Blogs [95][feed-icon-16x16.png]
[96]Les dessous du social
[97]Tamilutte, FOrtifiant contre la pandémie sociale
CHEZ FO, on a depuis longtemps de l'humour et le sens de...
[98]Les dessous du social par [99]Marc Landré
[100]Le blog des Marchés de la bourse et des investisseurs
[101]Plutôt un risque de « syndrome Intel » que de déception sur les profits
Que dire de cette séance de Bourse de lundi, sans saveur,...
[102]Le blog des Marchés de la bourse et des investisseurs par
[103]Roland Laskine
[104]La Blog Team de Sport24
[105]Jacques Peridon: l'éditorialiste qui fait peur à l'OM!
Connaissez vous Jacques Peridon? Non? Oui? Peu...
[106]La Blog Team de Sport24 par [107]Bruno Roger-Petit
[108]Voir tous les blogs
.
.
La revue de net
Chaque jour, cinq liens sélectionnés par lefigaro.fr
+ LItalie [109]censure la vidéo sur Internet
+ Photos : Martin Luther King [110]en famille
+ Le New York Times [111]payant sur le web (eng)
+ Le rapport sur [112]la numérisation des livres décrypté
+ Lécologie [113]naméliore pas le climat familial (eng)
.
.
Logo Figaro
[114][20080606PHOWWW00354.jpg]
[115]Gagnez un séjour en thalasso
[116]Participez et gagnez un séjour
au Carnac thalasso & spa Resort.
.
.
[117][20080606PHOWWW00353.jpg]
[118]Surprenante Madonna
[119]
Dolce & Gabbana invente la sexy mamma-donna
.
.
[120][20080606PHOWWW00350.jpg]
[121]Exprimez-vous
[122]
Devrait-il y avoir davantage
d'hommes dans les mouvements féministes ?
.
.
[123]Mode - [124]Beauté - [125]Joaillerie - [126]Déco -
[127]Célébrités
.
[128]mercato
.
.
[129]Comment choisir son assurance vie ?
Posez vos questions à Marie-Christine Sonkin, directrice adjointe
de la rédaction du Journal des Finances. Elle répondra en vidéo le
19 janvier.
.
.
«Clint Eastwood au coeur de la mêlée et au coeur du public»
CRITIQUE - Pour Olivier Delcroix, avec «Invictus», qui réunit à l'écran
Morgan Freeman et Matt Damon, Eastwood livre un film passionnant sur le rugby
et l'apartheid.
.
.
Météo ____________________ rech
[130]France - [131]Monde - [132]Plage
.
[EMBED]
.
[133]La grande crue de 1910 à Paris
[134]La grande crue de 1910 à Paris
EN IMAGES - A loccasion du centenaire de la crue, deux expos sont organisées
à Paris.
.
.
.
[135]L'IVG, un sujet qui fâche en Europe
Trente-cinq ans après sa légalisation en France, l'interruption volontaire de
grossesse fait toujours polémique chez certains de nos voisins.
.
.
[136]Jyvais
.
Économie
[137]Proglio bouleverse la direction d'EDF
[138]Le nouveau président d'EDF installe son équipe dirigeante.
.
[139]Evaluer son patron,
un facteur d'efficacité
[140]Une étude britannique met en évidence la relation entre santé au travail
et franchise vis-à-vis de son employeur.
.
.
.
.
.
Vos commentaires sur...
[141]Haïti : Le leadership de Washington sur les secours
[142]«Dans un monde idéal ce serait à l'ONU de désigner le pays chargé de
tenir ce rôle majeur. Mais il semble qu'on y préfère les grands discours aux
actions rationnelles et efficaces !» par DUBLEYOU 76
.
.
[143]Aubry estime avoir les «capacités» de présider la France
[144]«Peut-être devrait-elle commencer par expliquer ce qu'elle compte faire.
Le meilleur opposant n'est pas forcément le meilleur candidat» par Piémont
.
.
[145]L'IVG reste un sujet qui fâche chez nos voisins occidentaux
[146]«Si 35 ans après cela pose encore problème et choque les populations, il
faudrait peut-être se poser des questions ? Ce n'est pas parce qu'une loi a
été votée qu'elle reste valable des décennies après» par Ebtg
.
.
[147]» Retrouvez toute notre sélection de commentaires des internautes
[148]en cliquant ici[149].
.
.
.
.
.
.
Trouvez les meilleurs restos, films, spectacles, concerts et expos à
Paris et en Ile de France !
____________________
[Resto / Bars...........] Rechercher
.
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[150]Easy Voyage
.
Services
+ [151]Services météo
+ [152]Services sorties
+ [153]Services bourse
+ [154]Services voyages
+ [155]Services Guide-tv
+ [156]Services boutiques
+
Annonces
+ [157]annonces_emploi
+ [158]Annonces immobilières
+ [159]Annonces automobile
+ [160]Annonces rencontres
+
.
[_] [_] [_] [_] [_] [_] [_]
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[161]cadremploi.fr
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[162]Recherche detaillée
.
.
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Annonces Automobiles
[163]AutoScout24
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Logo Evène
18 Janvier - Sainte Prisca - [165]Offrez-lui des fleurs
[3441.jpg]
[166]La citation du jour
"Lire n'est pas un acte de consommation culturelle, c'est une conversation."
[167]Alain Finkielkraut
[168]Entretien avec Guy Rossi-Landi - Février 1999
.
.
[4262.jpg]
[169]Anniversaire du jour
[170]Philippe Starck
Designer français
61 ans
.
.
[171]Chronique du jour
C'est arrivé le 18 Janvier 1975
Une bande qui fait du bruit
Dans les kiosques, une nouvelle parution s'apprête à faire grand bruit. Il
s'agit d'un trimestriel, certifié "réservé aux adultes", flanqué d'un titre
au graphisme métallique : Métal hurlant. A l'o...
.
.
[172]Le guide cadeaux culture - EVENE
.
.
.
.
.
.
____________________ Rechercher
newsletter ____________________ OK
.
IFRAME: [173]frametvmag
[174]Abonnement | [175]Archives | [176]Boutique [177]Charte de
modération [178]Contacts | [179]Index actualités | [180]Le Figaro en
PDF | [181]Le Figaro en 3D avec Yoowalk | [182]Mentions légales |
[183]Newsletters | [184]Plan du site | [185]Publicités | [186]RSS |
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Sites du Groupe Figaro : [193]Actualité sportive avec Sport24.com |
[194]Cinéma avec Evene.fr | [195]Economie avec le JDF.com | [196]Emploi
avec Cadremploi.fr | [197]Formation avec Kelformation.com |
[198]Explorimmoneuf | [199]Immobilier avec Explorimmo.com |
[200]Immobilier de prestige avec Propriétés de France | [201]La
Solitaire du Figaro | [202]Locations vacances avec Bertrand vacances |
[203]Mode et Beauté avec Lefigaro.fr/madame | [204]Programmes télé avec
TV Mag.com | [205]Résidences secondaires | [206]Spectacles avec
TickeTac.com | [207]Vacances de rêve avec Belles Maisons A Louer |
[208]Ventes privées sur Bazarchic.com
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[209]Abonnement
[210][20071026PHOWWW00431.jpg]
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.
[211]Figaro en PDF
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[212]Figaro sélection
[213][20091113PHOWWW00377.jpg]
.
[214]Privilèges
[215][20090918PHOWWW00224.jpg]
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[216]Sport24.com
[217][20091020PHOWWW00305.jpg]
.
[218]Carnet du jour
[219][20071029PHOWWW00500.jpg]
.
.
.
[220]Figaro magazine
[221][20081226PHOWWW00254.jpg]
.
[222]Madame Figaro
[223][20090619PHOWWW00349.jpg]
.
[224]Salon de Detroit
[225]En images
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Références
Liens visibles
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[2]Accueil
[3]www.revuedumauss.com
[4]www.jornaldomauss.org
[5]Présentation
____________________
[6]Sylvain Dzimira
Pascal Michon,
Les rythmes du politique
Démocratie et capitalisme mondialisé (note suivie d'une correspondance entre
P. Michon, S. Dzimira et Sénèque...)
Les prairies ordinaires, 2007, 318 p., 17 EUR.
[7][printer.png]
[8][article_pdf.png]
[9]envoyer l'article par mail title=
Article publié le 29 avril 2008 /3 commentaires
Pour citer cet article : [10]Sylvain Dzimira, « Les rythmes du
politique, Démocratie et capitalisme mondialisé (note suivie d'une
correspondance entre P. Michon, S. Dzimira et Sénèque...) », Revue du
MAUSS permanente, 29 avril 2008 [en ligne].
L'ambition de cet ouvrage donne tout simplement le vertige : relevant
l'inanité des théories critiques, à ce point incapables de saisir notre
modernité démocratique qu'elles corroborent selon lui une réalité
qu'elles croient dénoncer, Pascal Michon ne propose rien de moins que
de repenser la démocratie, en élaborant quasiment de toutes pièces un
appareillage conceptuel, et en s'efforçant de déduire des conclusions
normatives des découvertes que lui permettent les lunettes dont il se
chausse, très loin de la très académique neutralité axiologique. Une
ambition théorique d'autant plus étonnante qu'elle est le fait d'un
historien (et non d'un sociologue ou d'un philosophe politiques qu'on
pourrait croire mieux armés conceptuellement a priori), et quand on
connaît l'hyperspécialisation de ses confrères (lui n'hésite pas à
mobiliser « les sciences sociales » et la philosophie) et leur refus
quasi généralisé de théoriser quoi que ce soit. Que pouvons-nous en
penser ? Commençons par présenter l'ouvrage.
PRESENTATION
L'avant propos est désarçonnant, car, « tout le monde en prend pour son
grade » ! Journalistes, universitaires « installés dans les chaires
trop grandes pour eux de prédécesseurs célèbres » [p. 9],
« intellectuels » de gauche devenus libéraux, intellectuels de droite
invoquant des icônes de la gauche, tous incapables de penser quoi que
ce soit de pertinent sur leur monde... Cela laisse un impression
désagréable qui heureusement se dissipe rapidement, car les pages qui
suivent donnent sérieusement à penser (nous les avons d'ailleurs
publiées dans [11]La Revue du MAUSS Permanente). P. Michon y soutient
que, reprise telle quelle par des « disciples » aveugles, la pensée
libertaire et contestatrice d'hier est devenue l'un des soutiens de
premier plan du nouvel ordre libéral, au même titre que la pensée
libérale. D'ailleurs, elles se retrouvent dans la même dénonciation des
entraves à l'auto-réalisation des individus, dans un même nominalisme
nihiliste teinté d'un empirisme plat (rien n'existe au fond, qui ne
s'observe pas, surtout pas « la société » ou les « sujets
collectifs »), et dans une même sacralisation de la neutralité
axiologique. Sont ainsi appelés à la barre : Marcela Iuacub, Antonio
Negri, Michael Hart et Bruno Latour. Si ces postures étaient réellement
contestatrices dans un contexte où l'individu était malmené par des
pensées homogénéisantes, édifiant des totalités en surplomb, censées
parfois tracer la voie du salut pour tous - phénoménologie,
existentialisme, historicisme, marxisme sont cités - elles participent
aujourd'hui très largement du monde nouveau qu'elles dénoncent par
ailleurs, où le seul ordre qui vaille est celui qui s'établit
spontanément (la neutralité axiologique est un allié précieux) par les
choix des individus, qui seuls sont censés exister.
Les « disciples » faussement contestataires ne sont pas les seuls à
oeuvrer au nouvel ordre libéral : ils sont accompagnés par des
« héritiers » (qu'on retrouve en nombre dans les médias, à
l'université, dans la recherche, bref « tout ce qui constitue le
fondement objectif de la vie de la pensée » [p. 23]) qui n'ont fait
qu'emprunter les concepts et les programmes de recherche à leurs
prédécesseurs, à qui ils doivent leurs places et leurs statuts.
Cultivant une posture de « rentiers », excellant dans la « phagocytose
académique » [p. 25], allant jusqu'à détourner les voix de leurs
Maîtres (ainsi d'Ewald), « ce groupe est, pour P. Michon, le deuxième
grand responsable de l'épuisement actuel de la pensée critique » [p.
24]. L'état des lieux laissés par leurs occupants est en effet
accablant, mais suffisamment juste pour que nous citions longuement son
auteur : « L'ouverture à l'autre, les parcours transversaux, la
transdisciplinarité, le travail théorique, la contestation de l'ordre
en cours et la créativité conceptuelle, qui avaient fondé jusque là
l'organisation des savoirs, sont désormais systématiquement rejetés au
profit d'une nouvelle constellation : spécialisation extrême, ignorance
des autres disciplines [et souvent, même, des autres savoirs
spécialisés de sa propre discipline, SD], enquêtes de terrain étroites,
empirisme radical, approbation positiviste à l'égard de ce qui est et
répétition académique du passé » [p. 27]. Notons que c'est avec le
souci de ne pas reproduire ce qu'il dénonce - une pensée à la gloire de
l'individu, nominaliste, platement empiriste, faussement neutre d'un
point de vue axiologique - que P. Michon se lance dans ce qui apparaît
comme une contribution à la théorie de la démocratie.
Mais que ne parviennent pas à penser les théories critiques au juste ?
Oscillant entre deux visions du monde radicalement opposées - tantôt
monde de liberté totale, tantôt monde d'oppression totale - elles sont
incapables de saisir que c'est là l'expression des « deux faces
[interdépendantes] de l'individuation », dont il s'agit de comprendre
la « simultanéité » et la « succession » [p. 31]. Autrement dit, elles
sont incapables de saisir les nouvelles formes qu'a prises le pouvoir
dans un monde vécu comme univers de liberté totale pour l'individu.
Pour restituer le plus fidèlement possible sa pensée, nous ne pourrons
pas nous passer des définitions que P. Michon donne de l'individuation
et de la notion de rythme qui l'accompagne. « Par individuation,
écrit-il, j'entends l'ensemble des processus corporels, langagiers et
sociaux par lesquels sont sans cesse produits et reproduits, augmentés
et minorés, les individus singuliers (les individus observés dans leur
singularité psychique) et collectifs (les groupes). [...] J'appellerai
rythmes les configurations spécifiques de ces processus
d'individuation » ; ce sont « des manières de produire et de distinguer
des individus singuliers et collectifs » [p. 32]. Aujourd'hui, soutient
P. Michon, « [le pouvoir] se joue avant tout dans l'organisation et le
contrôle des rythmes des processus d'individuation, ainsi que dans les
classements qu'ils produisent » [p. 32]. La première partie de
l'ouvrage est consacrée à l'explicitation de sa notion d'individuation
et la deuxième aux formes que prend le pouvoir aujourd'hui. Dans la
troisième partie de l'ouvrage, P. Michon « aborde la question [à ses
yeux] la plus difficile et la plus importante de toutes : celle de la
plus ou moins grande qualité des rythmes de l'individuation et des
divers pouvoirs qui s'y expriment » [p. 33]. Le pouvoir se joue dans
les rythmes, selon P. Michon. Or, tous les exercices du pouvoir ne
s'équivalent pas. C'est donc que tous les rythmes ne s'équivalent pas.
C'est pourquoi, comprenons-nous, P. Michon considère ne pas pouvoir se
dispenser de rechercher des critères éthiques qui lui permettront de
distinguer les bons rythmes des mauvais, en quelque sorte. Enfin, une
fois ces critères identifiés, il évalue la qualité des rythmes du
« monde nouveau » qu'est le nôtre. Restituons rapidement chacune de ces
parties (pour aider à la compréhension de l'ouvrage tout en suivant sa
progression, nous avons repris le titre de chacune de ses parties et
indiqué entre parenthèses la question qu'elle nous semble poser).
Individuation
(ou comment penser le processus de construction des sujets
individuels et collectifs ?)
Pour insister sur le fait que les rythmes s'inscrivent dans le temps,
et que les individus singuliers et collectifs qu'ils produisent ont
eux-mêmes une dimension historique, que leur identité est évolutive (un
souci bien compréhensif de la part d'un historien) même si elle
peut-être relativement stable, P. Michon recourt à une nouvelle
notion : celle de fluement. Il précise ainsi sa notion de rythme en lui
donnant une nouvelle définition : « J'appellerai rythme toute manière
de fluer des individus et poserai que tout processus d'individuation
est organisé de façon rythmique » [p. 42]. Il s'attache donc à
comprendre comment le corps (le rapport à son corps, entre les corps),
le langage et les rapports sociaux produisent les individus singuliers
et collectifs [[12]1]
Pour ce qui est de la question du corps, P. Michon mobilise Marcel
Mauss - [13]son fameux article sur les techniques du corps - Norbert
Elias - La civilisation des moeurs et La société de cour - et Michel
Foucault - Surveiller et punir - pour rappeler l'idée au fond assez
simple selon laquelle le rapport à son propre corps (jusque dans notre
manière de marcher), et au corps d'autrui (pratiques sexuelles, danses
etc.) est culturellement, historiquement, socialement marqué, et que
cela participe de la construction des sujets. Il semble distinguer au
moins deux manières de produire par les corps les sujets, deux
« rythmes corporels » : l'une, rare, inscrit les corps dans un « schéma
mécanique et binaire » [p. 54] ; on la retrouve idéaltyptiquement dans
l'usine taylorienne ou fordiste ou encore à l'armée. L'autre, la plus
fréquente, sort du modèle binaire et arithmétique classique » [ibid.].
Mais on n'en sait pas beaucoup plus.
Passons aux « rythmes du langage » (ou encore fluement du langage ou
discursivité). Le langage (les manières de s'exprimer, de parler etc.),
soutient en substance P. Michon, participe à la construction des
sujets, et rend compte de cette construction. Pour comprendre comment
le langage peut participer à la construction des sujets, P. Michon
s'appuie sur Victor Kemplerer - La langue du IIIème Reich. Carnets d'un
philologue - qui rend compte de la « nazification du langage » [p. 55].
Pour saisir comment un langage peut rendre compte des sujets
socialisés, il s'appuie sur notamment Walter Benjamin - son Charles
Baudelaire, un poète lyrique à l'apogée du capitalisme - qui montre que
le langage qu'emploie Baudelaire renvoie « à l'expérience abîmée des
individus plongés dans la Grande Ville » [p. 58].
Enfin, les « rythmes du social ». Là aussi, les relations sociales sont
rythmées, elles s'inscrivent dans une temporalité qui suit ses propres
rythmes, qui façonnent les identités individuelles et collectives par
conséquent variables en même temps que stables. Pour l'illustrer, P.
Michon s'appuie une nouvelle fois sur M. Mauss (notamment) et son
[14]« Essai sur les variations saisonnières des sociétés eskimos » qui
l'été se dispersent et l'hiver se rassemblent et vivent en état
d'effervescence, un peu comme les Kwakiutls. Ces variations des
« rythmes du social » correspondent en fait à des « variations
d'intensité des interactions » [p. 71]. Bref, voilà ce qui participe à
la construction de l'identité, à la fois permanente et en mouvement,
des sujets individuels et collectifs, à la construction de leur
« âme » : nos rapports au corps, nos rapports entre les corps, notre
langage, nos relations sociales, tout cela étant étroitement
entrelacé : « Les processus d'individuation sont à la fois des
phénomènes langagiers, corporels et sociaux, écrit P. Michon ; ils
déploient simultanément une discursivité, une corporéité et une
socialité - et c'est de l'entrecroisement de leurs rythmes qu'apparaît
`l'âme' » [p.76].
La notion de rythme permet donc d'appréhender des manières
historiquement construites de se déplacer, de parler, d'être en
relation, qui construisent les identités des sujets individuels et
collectifs. À ce titre, elle a une vertu heuristique. Mais P. Michon
l'appréhende également comme « un concept politique et éthique » [p.
81]. Il distingue en effet deux types de rythme qui n'ont pas les mêmes
effets éthiques et politiques. Un premier type de rythme produit des
sujets individuels et collectifs qui se « renforcent » mutuellement. Un
deuxième type produit des sujets individuels et collectifs qui jouent
l'un contre l'autre : l'affirmation des premiers se fait aux dépens des
deuxièmes ou inversement. P. Michon considère « qu'une éthique et une
politique démocratiques peuvent se définir comme orientées vers la
production de manière de fluer de la socialité, des corps et des
langages (...) qui soient à la fois singulières et partageables » et
toujours « réactualisables » [pp. 81-82]. Ainsi, P. Michon suggère que
les sociétés démocratiques doivent s'orienter vers des rythmes du
premier type.
Pouvoir
(ou comment la notion de rythme permet de penser la contrainte subie
par les sujets dans un monde hors contrainte - ou du moins, qui se
pense comme tel ?)
Après avoir précisé comment ses notions d'individuation et de rythme
permettent de comprendre les manières dont les sujets individuels et
collectifs sont construits, P. Michon, aborde la question de la manière
dont ces rythmes produisent du pouvoir, caractéristique de notre
« nouveau monde ».
D'abord, P. Michon situe sa manière de voir les choses sur le « marché
des idées » : ses vues se distinguent de l'utilitarisme dominant, pour
qui le pouvoir, assis sur la violence ou la contrainte qui l'euphémise,
est orienté vers la satisfaction des intérêts des individus, et le
Pouvoir, les institutions politiques, vers l'évitement de la
déflagration de la société en raison de la lutte de tous contre tous.
Or, cette manière de voir ne permet pas de saisir qu'aujourd'hui, le
pouvoir - qu'il s'exerce à l'échelle individuelle ou institutionnelle -
passe moins par la violence ou la contrainte que par une certaine
« façon de pénétrer les corps-langages, d'organiser leurs manières de
fluer et de déterminer ainsi leur individuation mouvante » [p. 93].
« Le pouvoir, écrit-il plus loin, s'est émancipé de la forme système
(...), et s'appuie désormais moins sur sa capacité à assurer un ordre
optimisé que sur un spectre de stratégies utilisant, au contraire, la
fluidité même du monde - stratégies qui vont du contrôle souple et de
la création des manières de fluer des corps-langages-groupes à
l'utilisation plus ou moins délibérée du chaos, comme on le voit avec
les États-Unis et le Royaume-Uni au Moyen-Orient » [p. 94-95].
Aujourd'hui, les personnes sont moins assujetties que les sujets sont
produits.
Pour penser cette nouvelle forme du pouvoir, il faut penser autrement
le rapport du tout aux parties, s'émanciper tant des théories qui
consacrent une autonomie totale des individus, de celles qui en font de
simples marionnettes du système, et rechercher une voie moyenne à
l'instar des « théories intermédiaires » - comme celles de Elias,
Bourdieu, Foucault, Touraine, Habermas, Honneth, Giddens, Bauman,
Caillé, Thévenot, Boltanski. [p. 101 et suiv.] qui tentent de « penser
l'un par l'autre ce qu'elles conçoivent comme les deux côtés de la vie
socio-politique : les `systèmes' et les `interactions entre les
individus' » [p. 101] ce par quoi il faut comprendre « un rapport réel
entre des pôles dont l'existence ne se conçoit que dans leur
interdépendance et leurs échanges incessants » [p. 102]. De ce point de
vue « le pouvoir constitue moins un simple état de fait que le milieu
et le moyen à travers lequel se construisent les individus singuliers
et collectifs, les classements et les hiérarchies qui les relient les
uns aux autres, ainsi que les effets de domination qui apparaissent au
sein de ces classements et de ces hiérarchies » [p. 103-104].
Néanmoins, parce qu' « elles n'ont pas prêté attention à l'organisation
temporelle [...] de ces interactions » [p. 106], elles manquent les
rythmes du politique où se joue la question du pouvoir. P. Michon
propose alors une définition du pouvoir comme « médium rythmique » [p.
107], c'est-à-dire, comprenons-nous, comme processus historique de
production et de contrôle des personnes et des groupes par imposition
d'un rythme « de toutes choses : de vie, de temps, de pensée, de
discours » comme il l'écrit plus loin [p. 129]. Compte tenu de cette
nouvelle modalité du pouvoir, reste à savoir quel critère on pourrait
se donner pour juger que notre démocratie se porte bien, ou pas ?
Démocratie
(ou quel(s) critère(s) se donner pour évaluer la démocratie
moderne ?)
Ou encore : que doit-on faire pour que dans notre nouveau monde où le
pouvoir s'exerce par un contrôle sur le processus de construction des
corps-langages-groupes, notre démocratie se porte bien ?
Quelle place pour l'État ? [[15]2]
Lutter contre l'État comme le pensait Pierre Clastres ? P. Michon ne le
croit pas : outre que P. Clastres aurait perdu « la conscience du temps
et de l'histoire », « le modèle politique et éthique arythmique qu'[il]
propose [est] assez peu offensif vis-à-vis de la réalité du
capitalisme » [p. 123]. Bref, la définition d'une « démocratie comme
arythmie » ne convient pas. Mieux vaut partir de Roland Barthes, selon
P. Michon, et plus précisément de la présentation qu'il fait des
collectivités religieuses « idiorrythmiques » qui vivaient dans les
déserts syriens et égyptiens « où chaque moine a (...) licence de mener
son rythme particulier de vie » [p. 126]. D'abord parce qu'elles sont
parvenues à éviter les excès du repli sur soi et de la fusion
communautaire, de la « solitude et [du] coenobium » [p. 127], dessinant
selon lui une sorte de « socialisme qui n'aurait pas abandonné
l'individu » [pp. 127-128]. Ensuite parce qu'en se retirant dans le
désert, elles sont parvenues à échapper au rythme d'un pouvoir
supérieur. Bref, c'est plutôt dans cette société idiorrythmique, i.e.
qui se fixe à elle-même son propre rythme, qu'il voit - provisoirement
du moins - un idéal type de la démocratie.
Néanmoins, quand P. Clastres pense l'État sans penser le rythme, R.
Barthes pense le rythme sans penser l'État [p. 140]. Sur le chemin de
sa quête d'une éthique et d'une politique du rythme, P. Michon se
tourne alors vers Marcel Mauss. Non seulement les descriptions que ce
dernier fait de la vie saisonnière des sociétés archaïques rendent bien
compte du caractère rythmique de ces sociétés, mais le potlatch
illustre de manière spectaculaire à ses yeux la « nature rythmique du
politique » [p. 142], au sens où c'est dans ce moment que se
« redéfini[ssent] périodiquement le statut et l'identité des groupes et
des personnes dans le système tribal » [p. 142]. Il retient de M. Mauss
et des travaux de Marcel Granet sur la Chine que la société n'est pas
contre l'État comme le pense P. Clastres, que l'État n'est pas contre
la société comme le pense R. Barthes. « Leurs relations, pense-t-il,
doivent [plutôt] être évaluées en fonction des interactions
historiques, toujours mouvantes, entre les rythmes imposés par l'État
aux corps-langages-groupes et ceux imposés à celui-là par ceux-ci.
[...] L'État n'est pas nécessairement « l'ennemi » de la société : il
peut certes devenir tyrannique et informer les processus
d'individuation à son profit, mais il peut tout aussi bien devenir
l'instrument grâce auquel la société peut chercher à assurer une
individuation de bonne qualité » [p. 147]. Bref, l'État a toute sa
place dans une démocratie idiorrythmique. Encore faut-il qu'il ne dénie
pas son rythme propre, sans l'imposer pour autant à la société. « Les
différents projets démocratiques qui sont au apparus vers la fin de
cette période apparaissent comme autant de tentatives politiques pour
réintroduire dans l'État, devenu permanent, une temporalité tenant
compte des rythmes propres de la société » [p. 154]. Voilà ce qu'il
nous faut : « Rerythmer le corps-langage arythmique de l'État moderne,
lui redonner la temporalité et la multiplicité interne dont il s'est
débarrassé, réhistoriciser une forme de pouvoir qui se prétend hors de
l'histoire » [p. 154].
Les nouveaux rythmes d'un monde fluide
Mais notre démocratie ne s'est-elle pas édifiée sur la maîtrise par
« le peuple » de la discipline exercée par l'État sur les corps et sur
les esprits ? Sans doute, répond P. Michon, mais de nouvelles formes
rythmiques se sont imposées « aux multitudes » [[16]3], peut-être plus
fortes qu'auparavant. C'est toute l'ambivalence de notre modernité
démocratique. « Tout s'est [...] passé comme si l'apparition des
libertés civiles puis la mutation démocratique de l'État n'avaient pu
se faire qu'au prix de la diffusion de nouveaux modes rythmiques
d'individuation fondés sur un assujettissement renforcé et de nouvelles
formes d'exclusion » [p. 194].
En quoi consiste plus précisément la nouveauté de nos « formes de
production des individus singuliers et collectifs », déjà rapidement
évoqués ? C'est qu'ils sont « beaucoup plus fluides, en tout cas
libérés de toute métrique, sinon de toute discipline » [p. 211].
S'appuyant sur Gabriel Tarde, P. Michon précise qu'elles sont le fait
du progrès technique dans l'imprimerie, la communication et les
transports, qui permet de produire des groupes 1) sans que leurs
membres se rassemblent physiquement (pensons à l'internet), 2) sur la
seule base d'idées communes (chacun pouvant se reconnaître dans un
« courant d'opinion »), et 3) « en perpétuelle métamorphose » (c'est ce
qui semble leur conférer un caractère fluide) [p. 215] ; groupes
d'individus, « myriades d'atomes » séparés mais non isolés (qui
prennent le visage du « public »), qui « imposent une fluidité de plus
en plus grande aux groupements institutionnalisés traditionnels et
[qui] transforment, tendanciellement, les sociétés modernes en société
de masse » [p. 215]. Les rythmes d'individuation sont encore plus
fluides en ce sens que, comme l'avait relevé Georg Simmel que P. Michon
mobilise aussi - en même temps qu'ils sont désormais en connexion
permanente, inscrits dans une « temporalité continue, sans halte ni
repos » [p. 220], ils peuvent choisir leurs propres rythmes de vie.
D'un point de vue simmelien, la monnaie y a fait bien sûr pour
beaucoup.
Désormais dominante, cette manière, fluide, de produire des individus
singuliers et collectifs est elle-même ambivalente. G. Tarde, par
exemple, est plutôt sensible aux dangers pour la démocratie que porte
la possibilité de produire un « public », une « opinion publique », si
celle ci devait être instrumentalisée par des puissances animées par
une volonté d'assujettissement. Simmel, lui, est plus sensible aux
possibilités accrues pour les individus de choisir leurs propres
rythmes. Il voit davantage le danger dans le refus de cette
fluidification du rythme, et dans l'aspiration au retour à des rythmes
plus disciplinés et cadencés.
Avec G. Tarde et G. Simmel, on voit clairement que le rythme, la
manière dont les hommes se produisent, dont les corps-langages-groupes
se construisent, n'est pas sans incidences politiques. Il y a donc lieu
de les distinguer selon leur « qualité éthique et politique » [p. 232].
P. Michon, inspiré par Ossip Mandesltam [[17]4], se donne alors un
indicateur de la mesure de cette qualité des rythmes : la
« rythmicité ». Et vient une définition rythmique des groupements
démocratiques : ils sont « dotés d'une rythmicité forte. Ils se
caractérisent par leur multiplicité interne et par le fait qu'ils
permettent aux contradictions et aux conflits de s'exprimer sans que
ceux-ci ne débouchent sur la suppression de l'un des termes
antagonistes, assurant ainsi l'une par l'autre la promotion du
singulier et celle des groupes auxquels il appartient. » [p. 233]. Mais
qu'en est-il du rythme, de la manière dont se produisent les
corps-langages-groupes censée porter ces groupements démocratiques ? On
n'en sait trop rien sinon qu'il est lui-même traversé par cette
exigence paradoxale de fabriquer du commun et du singulier, de la
cohésion et du conflit. On en sait davantage sur le rythme des
groupements à rythmicité faible, dont la foule et les « sociétés de
masses » sont les idéaux-types : ils « sont très souvent marqués par
des techniques rythmiques de type métriques - [...] manifestations,
meetings politiques, matchs de football -, proches de la cadence, de la
simple alternance binaire [...] ou mécanique - [...] parades
militaires, sparkiades et autres spectacles de masse » [p. 233-234].
Mais les rythmes à rythmicité faible peuvent être encore « flous, très
peu accentués et à basse tension interne » [p. 234], comme on peut en
rencontrer dans les entreprises aujourd'hui, « rythmes aussi peu
favorables à l'individuation que les rythmes binaires et disciplinaires
qu'ils ont remplacés » [p . 234], typiques des organisations
tayloristes ou de l'armée.
À la recherche des formes justes d'un monde fluidifié
Ce qu'il faut donc, c'est rechercher « les formes justes d'un monde
fluidifié » [p. 237]. Il se tourne alors vers ce qu'il appelle
« l'utopie maussienne » [p. 233], qui consiste à voir la morale du don
- de la triple obligation de donner, recevoir et rendre - tempérer,
contenir, celle de l'intérêt, aujourd'hui dominante, et qui revient
selon lui à « assurer la maximisation de leur individuation [celle des
individus singuliers et collectifs] par une mise en tension du soi et
du collectif » [p. 238]. Car, plus qu'une simple transaction, P. Michon
voit dans le don archaïque, agonistique, un rythme particulier,
« l'occasion d'une réunion et d'une mise en branle périodiques et
organisées des corps-langages, c'est à dire de la production d' `âmes'
par des techniques rythmiques particulières » [p. 239]. Voyant chez
M. Mauss une définition rythmique du don - comme forme de production
des corps-langages-groupes - susceptible d'étayer un projet
éthico-politique, P. Michon la considère comme un « point de départ »
[p. 241] pour réfléchir à l'énoncé de critères qui permettent de
distinguer les bons des mauvais rythmes. Il déduit des réflexions de
Mauss sur la circulation et la fortification de l'âme des peuples au
cours des potlatchs que « toute politique démocratique consistera [...]
à rechercher, non pas seulement, comme le pensaient Georg Simmel et R.
Barthes, une idiorrythmie, une simple liberté rythmique personnelle
indépendante des rythmes collectifs, mais une eurythmie simultanément
corporelle, discursive et sociale - une maximisation de
l'individualisation singulière et collective » [p. 242]. Au regard de
la démocratie, le seul bon rythme est celui qui maximise la production
des individus singuliers et collectifs...
Néanmoins, M. Mauss ne parvient pas à nous fournir les critères qui
permettraient de distinguer les bons [[18]5] des mauvais rythmes
d'individuation, parce que, dans ses conclusions de morale et de
politique de son célèbre Essai, il développe une « conception pacifiste
et consensualiste de la démocratie, et ne tient aucun compte du rôle
que joue précisément le conflit dans [les] processus d'individuation »
[p. 248].
P. Michon voit davantage le bon rythme de l'individuation démocratique
chez les Nuer tels qu'ils sont décrits par Evans-Pritchard, qui
alternent successivement « don et refus du don, l'alliance et la
lutte » [p. 252]. Ainsi, « tout en restant disponibles à la générosité
et à l'engagement solidaire, [ils] jouissent pleinement de leur
autonomie. [...] Les Nuer ont inventé un système, poursuit plus loin P.
Michon, dans lequel, loin de s'opposer, solidarité et individualité se
renforcent l'une l'autre » [ibid.]. Bref, le bon rythme d'individuation
démocratique est celui qui repose sur « l'alternance du conflit et de
l'alliance ». [p. 252], ou plus précisément, il s'opère lorsque
« l'alliance et le conflit alternent tout en étant compris sans cesse
l'un dans l'autre, un peu comme, dans la pensée chinoise, le yin et le
yang se succèdent tout en impliquant déjà chaque fois leur opposé »[p.
254]. Ou encore, le bon rythme d'individuation démocratique est celui
qui permet de « considérer nos adversaires comme des alliés en
puissance, mais aussi ceux qui sont nos alliés comme de potentiels
adversaires » [p. 254]. Ce qui le conduit à défendre une définition de
la démocratie comme « eurythmie de l'usage de la violence » [p. 254].
Seul ce rythme « maximise » l'individuation des individus singuliers et
collectifs, permet l'affirmation la plus intense des « Je » et du
« Nous ». [p. 255] [[19]6].
De ce point de vue, le système économique le plus juste est donc celui
qui fait autant de place à l'adversité qu'à l'alliance. Il le voit dans
une sorte de « mixture » qui organiserait l'adversité par la
concurrence marchande et la reconnaissance de la propriété privée, et
l'alliance par l'organisation collective de la production et une
certaine « mise en commun de la propriété » [p. 274]. Il en vient ainsi
à définir la démocratie, « non seulement comme une eurythmie de l'usage
de la violence, mais comme une eurythmie des usages de la propriété et
du marché » [ibid.], dont la rythmicité est donc forte.
C'est à l'aune de ce critère du bon rythme d'individuation démocratique
qu'il évalue la qualité des rythmes du « monde nouveau » qu'est le
nôtre.
Capitalisme mondialisé
(notre société capitaliste est-elle bien démocratique ? Que faire
pour la rendre plus démocratique ?)
Le rythme du capitalisme s'est modifié. Cadencé, binaire, métrique dans
les organisations tayloristes, il s'est depuis une trentaine d'années
fluidifié dans les organisations dites flexibles, dont l'objectif est
de répondre au mieux à la demande des clients (en vue de maximiser le
profit). Jouant la carte de la responsabilisation individuelle, des
horaires variables, de l'accroissement de la mobilité professionnelle,
ces organisations développent des rythmes d'individuation plus lâches,
moins métriques et peuvent donner l'impression qu'elles libèrent les
formes de vie dans le travail. Mais, s'appuyant sur l'ouvrage de
Richard Senett, Le travail en miettes (1998), P. Michon montre qu'il
n'en est rien. Confrontés à des objectifs de court terme quasiment
inatteignables, à un temps hors travail qu'ils ne maîtrisent même plus,
à des parcours professionnels bigarrés, les individus subissent une
nouvelle forme d'assujettissement. Et l'individualisation à outrance du
rapport au travail a sapé « les liens de confiance et d'engagement
mutuels » constitutifs de tout groupe [p 292]. On a désormais affaire à
des individus singuliers et collectifs à faible rythmicité.
Notre monde est flexible, mais il est encore médiatique. On assiste à
un développement sans précédent des moyens de communication, qui, lui
aussi, à l'instar de la flexibilité, pourrait faire croire à une
libération des formes d'individuation ici langagière. Mais il n'en est
rien. Le discours est aseptisé, consensuel, l'information « désincarnée
et dépolitisée ».
Bref, qu'il s'agisse de nos rapports au langage, au corps, aux autres,
nous vivons dans un monde à faible rythmicité, i.e. dont ni l'individu,
ni le collectif ne sortent gagnants. « Ainsi, note P. Michon, les
démocraties libérales, qui se voyaient jusque là comme des machines à
produire des individus émancipés, tendent-elles à devenir aujourd'hui
d'immenses dispositifs qui assurent, à travers une fluidification
généralisée des corporéités, des discursivités, et des socialités, la
multiplication d'individus faibles et flottants, constamment happés par
les besoins de la production et de l'échange marchand et les
interactions dans lesquels ils sont pris » [p. 307].
Pour éviter les « tempêtes » dont ce monde est porteur, il est urgent
pour P. Michon que nous retrouvions de nouveaux rythmes d'individuation
langagière, corporelle et sociale, « à partir des capacités des
individus à s'associer au niveau local, voire translocal » [p. 311],
« dans l`expérience de corps-langage-groupe en lutte » [p. 312]. Mais
cela ne pourra pas se faire, selon lui, sans « toucher aux rapports de
production et à la répartition des revenus » [ibid.], et donc sans une
« puissance supérieure à celle des entreprises et du marché » [ibid.],
qui pourrait-être l'Europe, en tant qu'entité politique.
DISCUSSION
Que penser de cet ouvrage ? À vrai dire, il nous laisse une curieuse
impression. Les efforts que déploie P. Michon pour concevoir un
appareillage conceptuel afin de saisir l'état de notre démocratie
moderne forcent le respect. On est là, se dit-on, en présence d'un
auteur qui développe sa propre pensée, en discussion permanente avec
des auteurs d'horizons multiples, de surcroît d'une manière fort
rigoureuse, puisqu'il ne s'épargne aucun effort pour définir les
notions qu'il crée. La progression de l'ouvrage elle-même laisse
apparaître un auteur méthodique et prudent dans ses diagnostics : ce
n'est qu'après avoir défini ce qu'il appelle individuation, explicité
ses rapports avec le pouvoir, qu'il se permet, chaussé des lunettes
qu'il vient de se fabriquer, de porter un diagnostic sur notre
démocratie. Enfin, on sent bien, intuitivement, qu'avec sa notion de
rythme, il pointe sur une dimension de la réalité sociale très
largement ignorée par les spécialistes en sciences sociales [[20]7]mais
qui pourrait bien être importante si, comme il le soutient, c'est dans
les rythmes que se jouent les relations de pouvoir.
De l'usage du concept
Mais c'est ce même appareillage conceptuel qui nous laisse perplexe.
Créé de toutes pièces par P. Michon, il est bien difficile à saisir
malgré les efforts qu'il fournit pour définir les notions employées.
Individuation, rythme, arythmie, idiorrythmie, eurythmie, fluement
(finalement très peu utilisé), rythmicité (forte et faible) : tout cela
pourrait décourager le lecteur pressé (et a rendu cette recension bien
difficile). À ce propos d'ailleurs, les ralliements qu'il opère de
certains auteurs à la cause de l'individuation et du rythme paraissent
un peu forcés ! Présenter M. Foucault comme l'auteur d'une « histoire
des rythmes d'individuation » [p. 195], et M. Mauss comme le découvreur
de la notion d'eurythmie [p. 243, cf. supra] est pour le moins assez
peu usuel. Si ces points de vue, rapidement glissés, pouvaient aider à
la compréhension des idées de P. Michon, ils pourraient se justifier.
Mais pour notre part, nous ne pouvons pas dire qu'ils nous aient
beaucoup aidés. Bien sûr, son langage se comprend au regard des
défaillances qu'il identifie chez les auteurs qui appréhendent notre
démocratie, et qui résident justement, selon lui, dans leur incapacité
à saisir ce qu'il appelle individuation et rythme pourtant au coeur des
relations de pouvoir selon lui. Nous sommes tout simplement, de son
point de vue, en présence d'« une réalité nouvelle » qui demande « des
dispositifs théoriques, eux aussi, totalement nouveaux » (nous
soulignons) [p. 30]. Par ailleurs, P. Michon a suffisamment critiqué
l'intelligentsia française pour son manque de créativité intellectuelle
pour ne pas se faire lui-même inventif... Néanmoins, la nouveauté
est-elle toujours un indice de la pertinence ? Ne peut-on rien
apprendre de ceux qui nous ont précédés ? Qu'y a-t-il de honteux à
s'inscrire dans une tradition de pensée ? Soyons sévère (et un peu
injuste, car P. Michon s'efforce, sans être toujours très convaincant,
de rallier des prédécesseurs plus ou moins connus à ses concepts) : n'y
a-t-il pas dans cette posture de créativité radicale, quasiment
nihiliste, quelque chose du mythe de l'autoréalisation de soi
emblématique de notre époque et qu'il condamne lui-même ? Toujours
est-il que nous nous demandons si P. Michon n'aurait pas pu, tout de
même, dire les choses plus simplement.
Que dit-il au juste ? Que nos identités se construisent dans nos
relations aux autres, qui engagent notre corps et notre langage. Que
ces relations peuvent être placées sous des registres différents (elles
peuvent être rythmées différemment), qu'elles peuvent être notamment
plus ou moins contraintes (rythme cadencé, métré, binaire etc.) ou
libres (rythme fluide). Que dans ces relations se jouent des relations
de pouvoir sur les personnes (pouvoir de contrainte, parfois médiatisé
par le savoir), et, par-là, la capacité pour elles de se réaliser de
manière autonome, ou pas (pouvoir d'agir). Dans une première phase du
capitalisme, un réel pouvoir sur les personnes s'exerçait via
l'organisation de relations sociales contraignantes qui engageaient
leurs corps et leurs langages, et qui freinaient leur pouvoir d'agir,
individuellement et collectivement. L'organisation tayloriste en
constitue l'idéal-type. Aujourd'hui, apparemment délivrées des
contraintes systémiques dans leurs relations aux autres, visiblement
libérées du pouvoir qui s'exerçait sur elles-mêmes (l'organisation du
travail flexible faisant appel à l'initiative et à la responsabilité de
ses salariés joue ici comme idéal-type), les personnes n'ont pour
autant pas gagné en pouvoir d'agir, ni individuellement, ni
collectivement. Le pouvoir exercé sur les personnes prend
paradoxalement le canal de l'exhortation de leur pouvoir d'agir (qui se
réduit bien souvent à celui de produire et de consommer). Si bien que
notre démocratie n'est pas tout à fait démocratique, « étant entendu »
qu'une bonne démocratie est celle qui renforce le pouvoir d'agir des
individus et des groupes. D'une certaine manière, même, notre société
est moins démocratique qu'auparavant car elle paraît faussement l'être
plus, alors qu'autrefois elle paraissait bien ne pas l'être assez. Ce
que nous pouvons en déduire, c'est qu'il nous faut cultiver des
relations sociales, créer des institutions qui soient porteuses de ce
pouvoir d'agir individuellement et collectivement, qui nous permettent
de retrouver la maîtrise de nos destins à la fois individuels et
collectifs.
Nous aimerions savoir ce que ce résumé omet d'essentiel que l'emploi de
ses notions d'individuation, de rythme, de fluement, d'arythmie,
d'idiorrythmie etc. auraient fait apparaître.
Sur la démocratie
Puisque l'ouvrage se présente comme une contribution à la théorie de la
démocratie, attardons-nous maintenant sur cette contribution, et
d'abord sur son positionnement sur le marché des idées.
Pour le dire vite, P. Michon souhaite se distinguer à la fois de
l'individualisme méthodologique, qui ne voit que des individus libres,
et du holisme qui ne voit que des individus contraints. Il leur
reproche au fond leur incapacité à saisir que la contrainte prend
aujourd'hui les allures de la liberté. Son souci est bien de se doter
de concepts qui permettent de comprendre ce paradoxe. Il le tente dans
le cadre d'un interactionnisme ou d'un relationnisme qui se laisse
percevoir dans sa définition de l'individuation, comme processus de
construction des identités et des normes dans le cadre de relations qui
engagent le corps et le langage (d'ailleurs, qu'est-ce donc que
l'individuation ainsi traduite - nous espérons ne pas trahir la pensée
de P. Michon - sinon ce que les sociologues appellent socialisation ?).
De ce point de vue, la démarche nous paraît très cohérente.
P. Michon dit encore vouloir se distinguer des théories utilitaristes
du pouvoir (notons d'ailleurs qu'il situe dans l'utilitarisme l'origine
de la fluidification de notre monde [[21]8], sans qu'on sache s'il
s'agit de l'utilitarisme en tant que pratique ou en tant que théorie,
et sans qu'il nous dise véritablement en quoi il serait à l'origine de
la fluidification de notre monde). Il dit en effet ne pas souscrire aux
théories qui définissent le pouvoir comme pouvoir de contrainte en vue
de satisfaire ses intérêts personnels, et qui envisagent le Pouvoir
comme l'ensemble des institutions visant l'évitement la déflagration
sociale dans la guerre de tous contre tous. De fait, ce n'est pas ainsi
qu'il considère le pouvoir puisque, pour lui, le pouvoir de contrainte
et d'assujettissement s'exerce moins qu'il ne se joue dans les manières
dont les relations se construisent en engageant le corps et le langage.
Cela lui permet de faire apparaître que des relations placées sous le
signe de la liberté, ou du moins de l'absence apparente de contraintes
(de la fluidité) peuvent au final s'avérer très contraignantes ;
autrement dit, qu'un réel pouvoir de contrainte peut se manifester sans
qu'une volonté quelconque d'assujettissement soit véritablement
exprimée. Situation qui caractérise notre société démocratique
contemporaine selon lui (si nous avons bien compris). De ce point de
vue, pas de doute, P.Michon ne s'inscrit pas dans la tradition
utilitariste. Quoique... plaçant par ailleurs le pouvoir sous le signe
de « stratégies qui vont du contrôle souple et de la création plus ou
moins délibérée du chaos » [p. 94-95 par exemple, cf. supra], on peut
se demander quelle place il accorde à l'intérêt calculé dans cette
affaire, et donc quel rapport sa conception du pouvoir entretient avec
l'utilitarisme ?
Concernant la relation de sa conception de la démocratie avec
l'utilitarisme, les choses sont beaucoup plus ambiguës. En effet, il
définit assez curieusement la démocratie comme le régime ou l'état
social plutôt (P. Michon ne se prononce pas trop à ce sujet) qui
« maximise » l'individuation : « Toute politique démocratique
consistera, écrit-il, [...] à rechercher [...] une eurythmie
simultanément corporelle, discursive et sociale - une maximisation de
l'individuation singulière et collective » [p. 242]. Nous ne comprenons
tout simplement pas qui maximise, qui calcule au mieux quoi, ni en en
vue de quoi ! Reprenons sa définition de l'individuation : que signifie
calculer « un processus corporel, langagier et social par lesquels sont
sans cesse produits et reproduits les individus singuliers et
collectifs » ? À vrai dire, la question « en vue de quoi il faut
maximiser l'individuation », pourrait trouver sa réponse quelques
lignes plus haut, quand P. Michon relève que dans un des derniers
passages de l' [22]« Essai sur le don » , M. Mauss situe le secret du
bonheur dans une vie bien rythmée, alternant les moments de travail et
de repos, de solitude et de vie sociale, d'accumulation des richesses
et de dépenses généreuses. Voilà donc ce qu'aurait en vue une politique
véritablement démocratique, qui viserait la maximisation de
l'individuation : le bonheur de tous et de chacun (manifestement
mesurables et calculables). Ainsi placée sous le signe du calcul
(maximisateur), du bonheur, du plus grand bonheur, et d'un grand
calculateur, une telle conception de la démocratie nous semble bien
s'inscrire dans la tradition utilitariste. D'ailleurs, nous nous
demandons vraiment si les communautés religieuses syriennes qui
représentent pour lui un bon idéal-type de la bonne démocratie
conduisaient une politique de maximisation de l'individuation ! À moins
que par maximisation il ne faille pas comprendre maximisation, c'est à
dire calcul... Nous avons tendance à penser en effet que cette
expression est malheureuse, et que P. Michon est davantage spinoziste
que benthamien, car il nous semble que pour lui, une démocratie
s'évalue non pas par le bonheur de ses membres, mais par la « puissance
d'agir » de tous et de chacun [[23]9].
Enfin, le critère qu'il se donne pour identifier un groupement
démocratique nous semble très largement autoréférentiel. En effet,
qu'est-ce qu'un groupement démocratique pour P. Michon ? Un groupement
dont la rythmicité est forte. Mais la caractéristique qu'il donne d'un
groupe dont la rythmicité est forte n'est rien d'autre que celle d'un
groupement démocratique, i.e. qui sait cultiver le conflit dans les
limites de l'amitié. Nous aurions aimé qu'il précise plutôt sous quel
registre il place une telle relation...à la fois teintée d'agôn et de
philia... Ce qui nous amène à M. Mauss.
Sur Marcel Mauss
Ce que P. Michon souligne en s'appuyant sur M. Mauss, c'est combien la
vie de certains peuples archaïques est saisonnière, ou encore, rythmée.
Les Eskimos comme les Kwakiutls, par exemple, se dispersent l'été,
période d'accumulation, et se retrouvent l'hiver, période
d'effervescence sociale, de dépenses généreuses, d'invitations
mutuelles, bref, de dons en tous genres. P. Michon donne au rythme de
la vie sociale une importance qu'elle n'a généralement pas chez les
commentateurs de M. Mauss. Il nous alerte ainsi sur les rythmes de nos
propres vies sociales, et en particulier, sur « la nature rythmique du
politique » [p. 142]. À mieux y réfléchir, les dons eux-mêmes obéissent
en effet à des rythmes propres qui leur sont constitutifs : il y a des
moments pour donner, de même qu'il y a des moments pour ne pas donner,
et la spirale du don elle-même - celle de la triple obligation de
donner, recevoir et rendre plus - obéit bien à un rythme (à trois
temps) plus ou moins obligé. Si ces rythmes ne sont pas respectés, si
l'on donne mal à propos, à contre-temps, si l'on rend trop rapidement,
ou encore si le temps du don est réduit à presque rien ou cantonné à la
sphère privée, on saisit bien que cela puisse compromettre les
alliances et la vie sociale elle-même. On comprend mieux ainsi en quoi
les rythmes de nos vies sociales ne sont pas sans effets éthiques et
politiques. C'est un véritable chantier qu'ouvre ainsi P. Michon, qui
mérite à nos yeux que les MAUSSiens, entre autres, s'y penchent
davantage qu'ils ont pu le faire. D'autant que la démarche de P.
Michon, qui s'efforce de déduire de ses réflexions
socio-anthropologiques des conclusions de morale et de politique,
s'inscrit pleinement dans une démarche maussienne. D'ailleurs, les
conclusions de politiques économiques auxquelles aboutit P. Michon font
étonnement écho aux positions politiques de M. Mauss, quand ce dernier
plaide pour une « mixture » de capitalisme et de socialisme, de
propriété privée et de propriété collective, de marché et de solidarité
etc. Mixture qui, tout en étant attentive à la dimension collective de
nos existences, n'en oublierait pas pour autant que les individus ont
des aspirations singulières, pas moins légitimes que les aspirations
collectives. En fait, on a chez M. Mauss le « socialisme qui n'aurait
pas abandonné l'individu » [pp. 127-128] cher à R. Barthes et auquel
semble sensible P. Michon.
Pour autant, et ce n'est pas que nous voulions défendre M. Mauss à tout
prix, nous ne partageons pas toujours les lectures qu'en fait P.
Michon. Par exemple, nous avons du mal à le suivre quand il soutient
que M. Mauss ne parvient tout simplement pas à penser l'histoire. Les
considérations de M. Mauss dans son « Essai sur le don », « conservent,
en dépit de tout, écrit P. Michon, une attache à un principe ultime de
stabilité et d'atemporalité » [p. 248]. Vraiment, nous ne voyons pas en
quoi. « L'Essai sur le don » est une vaste épopée du don !
Nous avons encore du mal à suivre P. Michon quand il parle « d'utopie
maussienne », car les positions politiques de M. Mauss sont tout sauf
utopiques. Le socialisme démocratique et associationniste qu'il défend
n'est pas à rêver. Il est déjà en partie advenu, par et dans les
coopératives de consommation notamment. Il a moins à être inventé qu'à
être encouragé. M. Mauss n'est pas un utopiste. Il est même bien
conscient de l'écart qui existe entre le possible et le souhaitable, et
ne plaide que pour le possible, mais tout le possible, en direction du
souhaitable. C'est un possibiliste [[24]10].
De la même manière, nous ne le suivons pas quand il soutient que
M. Mauss « garde une conception pacifiste et consensualiste de la
démocratie » [ibid.]. Il suffit de mettre en rapport son « Essai sur le
don » et sa critique du bolchevisme, écrits sensiblement au même
moment, et pour voir combien la conception maussienne de la démocratie
est agonistique, et pour comprendre qu'elle est ancrée, justement, sur
« le roc de la morale éternelle » qu'est le don agonistique selon
M. Mauss. La définition que P. Michon donne de la démocratie comme état
social qui fait toute leur place à la fois à l'alliance et au conflit,
qui se contiennent l'un l'autre, le conflit évitant à l'alliance de
basculer dans la fusion et l'alliance permettant au conflit de ne pas
sombrer dans la déflagration, nous semble très maussienne. Elle
pourrait-même trouver son fondement anthropologique dans le don
agonistique, qui présente exactement la caractéristique que P. Michon
prête à la démocratie. D'ailleurs, la définition qu'il donne de la
démocratie comme eurythmie rejoint tout à fait la voie du milieu
éthique et politique qui est celle de M. Mauss [[25]11].
Finalement, si nous avions à écrire la question que se pose P. Michon
et la réponse qu'il y apporte, sans recourir à ses concepts parfois
difficiles d'accès, nous les formulerions ainsi : « Que pouvons-nous
faire pour retrouver notre autonomie dans un monde où le pouvoir de
contrainte sur les personnes s'exerce non plus directement mais via
d'invisibles processus qui façonnent leurs manières de se parler, de se
mouvoir et de se lier ? Commencer par expérimenter des manières propres
de nous parler, de nous mouvoir, de nous lier, qui nous permettent de
retrouver la maîtrise de nos vies individuelles et collectives ». Ou,
encore plus brièvement, forcément appauvrissant, et en reprenant sa
métaphore musicale : « Que faire dans un monde où nous sommes tous
emportés par une cadence infernale qui nous oppresse et nous opprime ?
Ne pas s'arrêter de jouer (voie a-rythmique), ne pas jouer seul dans
son coin (voie idiorrythmique), mais simplement retrouver le bon rythme
pour soi et pour tous ! (voie eurythmique) ».
Malgré les réserves que nous avons pu émettre, le lecteur aura saisi
que l'ouvrage de P. Michon donne véritablement à penser. Nous espérons
qu'il retiendra l'attention d'un grand nombre et notamment des
MAUSSiens, car il pointe sur une dimension de la vie sociale, son
caractère rythmé, qu'ils ont finalement peu interrogée, alors qu'il se
pourrait qu'elle ne soit pas sans effets éthico-politiques. Cela mérite
bien un examen attentif.
Bibliographie sommaire de Pascal Michon
Michon, P., Éléments d'une histoire du sujet, Paris, Kimé, 1999
-- [26]Rythmes, pouvoir, mondialisation, PUF, 2005.
Ouvrages en collaboration
-- (avec E. Barjolle, G. Dessons, V. Fabbri), Avec Henri
Meschonnic : Les gestes dans la voix, Rumeur des Ages, 2003.
-- (avec G. Desson et S. Martin), Henri Meschonnic, la pensée et le
poème, In Press, 2005.
-- (avec Ph. Hauser, F. Carnevale, A. Brossat), Foucault dans tous
ses éclats, L'Harmattan, 2005.
On peut aussi retrouver P. Michon dans les numéros 25 [27]Malaise
dans la démocratie , 26 [28]Alter-démocratie, Alter-économie et 28
[29]Penser la crise de l'école de La Revue du MAUSS semestrielle.
[30]Pour commander les numéros
Ici, un article paru dans le mensuel [31]Sciences Humaines en
novembre 2005
__________________________________________________________________
Réponse de Pascal Michon
Cher Sylvain,
tout d'abord, je voudrais vous remercier de votre recension extrêmement
scrupuleuse. C'est un réconfort de voir qu'il existe encore, dans nos
corporations de sciences sociales, des lecteurs curieux. J'ai plus
l'habitude des débats internes, dans l'entre-soi disciplinaire qui
permet à la fois de facilement se comprendre et d'éviter de se frotter
aux savoirs des autres disciplines. De nombreux lecteurs de mon livre
précédent, par exemple, se sont arrêtés aux chapitres qui les
« concernaient », passant du même coup à côté du mouvement de pensée
qui les liaient les uns aux autres - les sociologues ont lu les
sections sociologiques, les psy les sections psy, les littéraires les
sections littéraires... Tout ce petit monde est resté chez soi et les
vaches ont été bien gardées. J'ai aussi aimé la façon dont vous avez
procédé, présentant, tout d'abord, le texte dans ses grandes lignes
puis proposant, dans un deuxième temps, une lecture critique. C'est de
très bonne méthode et je vous en remercie également, car cela donne à
entendre aux lecteurs, sans interférences, une grande partie des enjeux
de mon travail. Je vais me concentrer dans cette réponse sur ceux de
ces enjeux que vous n'avez pu complètement traiter, soit parce qu'on ne
peut tout dire dans une recension, soit parce qu'il reste toujours des
angles moins bien éclairés quel que soit le point de vue que l'on
adopte.
1. Mon livre est un essai. Bien qu'il tente, comme vous le remarquez,
de construire méthodiquement ses concepts à partir du matériel
analytique disponible, il ne prétend pas répondre à tous les problèmes
qui se posent, ni fournir une théorie complète de son objet : les
rythmes de l'individuation singulière et collective. Il voudrait juste
faire émerger celui-ci dans la conscience scientifique. Si cet objectif
était atteint, cela me suffirait grandement. Mon livre constitue plus
une proposition de recherche, l'esquisse d'un programme de travail,
qu'une réponse globalisante qui donnerait une clé pour toutes les
serrures contemporaines. On m'a déjà reproché cette « ambition », comme
vous dîtes, ou même le côté « totalisant » de ma démarche. À cela je
réponds habituellement : 1. que nous ne pouvons plus nous satisfaire,
de par la nature même du nouveau monde dans lequel nous sommes entrés,
de déclarations d'intention concernant la transdisciplinarité, il nous
faut la mettre en pratique activement et individuellement (c'est-à-dire
pas seulement par une juxtaposition de spécialistes) car aucune
discipline ne peut, encore plus aujourd'hui qu'hier, comprendre à elle
seule ce qui est train d'émerger. Mauss, qui était passé à travers une
période historique par bien des points semblables à la nôtre, l'avait
d'ailleurs bien compris : « C'est aux confins des sciences, à leurs
bords extérieurs, aussi souvent qu'à leurs principes, qu'à leur noyau
et à leur centre que se font leurs progrès » (« Rapports réels et
pratiques de la psychologie et de la sociologie », 1924) ; 2. que les
sciences sociales ne peuvent progresser que par un déplacement radical
de point de vue. Je milite, pour cette raison, comme Alain Caillé, en
faveur d'un changement de paradigme. En simplifiant outrageusement, on
peut dire qu'après l'affaissement des paradigmes structuralistes et
systémistes, l'individualisme méthodologique, sous différentes formes,
a pris le dessus. Or, cette mutation n'a pas apporté les résultats
escomptés. En fait, ni l'un ni l'autre de ces paradigmes ne peut rendre
compte de la période présente. Il est vrai qu'un certain nombre de
« théories intermédiaires » ou « centristes » dans la classification de
Margaret Archer, (Elias, Bourdieu, Foucault, Touraine, Habermas,
Giddens, Bauman, Caillé, Boltanski, Thévenot, entre autres) ont essayé,
partant du même constat, de dépasser les dualismes traditionnels des
sciences sociales. Mais elles connaissent aujourd'hui des ratés qui
tiennent, me semble-t-il, essentiellement à leur difficulté à conjuguer
primat de la temporalité, éthique et politique. D'où la nécessité d'un
nouveau modèle général - comme celui que fournit le rythme - pour
relancer la réflexion ; 3. qu'on confond souvent, de manière polémique,
totalisation et puissance d'un concept. Le concept de rythme n'est pas
globalisant ou totalisant, il possède tout simplement une puissance que
j'essaie, avec mes moyens, d'explorer. C'est cette puissance de
problématisation nouvelle qui dérange les habitudes de pensée et les
partages du territoire institutionnel qui leur sont liés - et qui
explique ces caricatures absurdes qui me sont parfois opposées.
2. Mon livre porte sur la question de l'individuation singulière et
collective. Pour des raisons de précision et pour ne pas embrouiller
l'exposé, j'ai expressément laissé de côté la question du ou des
« sujets ». D'où un certain flou dans votre présentation qui confond,
comme beaucoup de monde il est vrai, ces deux questions. Mais, si vous
y prêtez attention vous le verrez aisément, le rapport entre les deux
est loin d'être évident et devrait être analysé à nouveaux frais. Pour
rester bref, on peut dire qu'un individu singulier ou collectif
n'atteint le statut de sujet que lorsqu'il devient un agent d'un
processus particulier. D'où une difficulté, une multiplicité, une
discontinuité et une instabilité très grandes de la subjectivation,
dont les rapports à l'individuation restent en fait entièrement à
repenser. En tout état de cause, individuation est loin de signifier
subjectivation (c'est, d'ailleurs, l'un des problèmes que posent les
propositions d'AlainTouraine qui ne fait pas cette distinction).
3. J'ai beaucoup insisté sur un aspect décisif du concept de rythme qui
n'apparaît pas dans votre recension : son aspect a-métrique. Le
matériel très divers et assez abondant dont nous disposons (que ce soit
au niveau des corps, du langage ou des interactions sociales) montre
qu'il est impossible de se satisfaire de sa définition métrique
traditionnelle. Si nous nous limitons à cette définition, nous
réduisons la diversité des fluements du réel à un schéma binaire et
numérique simpliste et nous introduisons sans même en avoir conscience
une politique et une éthique anti-démocratiques. Une définition plus
utilisable pour penser ce que nous devons penser aujourd'hui est celle
qui avait cours avant que Platon associe rhuthmos et métron, et qui
faisait du rythme une « manière de fluer ». J'ai aussi montré que cette
définition peut être précisée grâce à la remotivation par Diderot de la
notion de « manière », qu'il repense à partir de la question de la
qualité (et donc de l'individuation) artistique, c'est-à-dire comme
concept d'une forme qui reste active en dehors de son contexte
originel. Ces précisions sont loin d'être des détails insignifiants,
elles engagent toute la théorie des rythmes de l'individuation, aussi
bien dans ses capacités heuristiques, que dans ses conséquences
éthiques et politiques.
4. Ici, on le voit, la sociologie a un grand besoin de la linguistique
(Benveniste), de la poétique (Meschonnic) et de la philosophie
(Deleuze, Foucault, Simondon). Or, je note que vous accordez toute
votre attention aux auteurs sociologiques ou anthropologiques que je
cite, mais que vous ne dîtes rien des discussions philosophiques,
poétiques et linguistiques, qui encadrent ces analyses (Benveniste,
Meschonnic, Deleuze, Foucault et Simondon sont étrangement absents de
votre CR). Je me demande si vous ne raisonnez pas encore ici, à votre
insu, en termes disciplinaires, comme si poétique, linguistique ou
philosophie n'avaient rien à apporter aux sciences sociales ou ne
constituaient que des décorations non-essentielles d'un propos plus
consistant qui reviendrait de droit à ces dernières.
5. Sur vos critiques maintenant. Vous trouvez que j'exagère en
caractérisant Surveiller et punir comme un grand livre sur les rythmes
de l'individuation. Je sais bien que la vulgate présente Foucault comme
un auteur intéressé uniquement par l'espace, les répartitions, les
quadrillages, etc. Mais, précisément, cette vulgate laisse totalement
de côté le profond intérêt de Foucault pour tous les phénomènes
temporels, en particulier pour toutes les techniques utilisées pour
rythmer les corps, les discours et la vie des groupes. Il me semble que
les descriptions qu'il fait de l'apprentissage militaire, des formes du
travail dans les manufactures, de la vie en prison, des méthodes de
dressage scolaires parlent d'elles-mêmes. Elles corroborent, du reste,
des analyses engagées par Thompson au cours de la décennie précédente
et constituent un ensemble d'analyses des rythmes de l'individuation
qui n'a que peu d'équivalents dans la littérature scientifique
disponible.
6. Pour Mauss (comme pour Foucault), vous trouvez ma lecture rythmique
« peu usuelle ». Mais je voudrais vous faire remarquer que Mauss dit
lui-même explicitement dans le Manuel d'ethnographie ceci :
« Socialement et individuellement, l'homme est un animal rythmique ».
Vous m'accorderez que cette phrase est une affirmation extrêmement
forte. Or, tout le monde s'empresse de la laisser de côté. Je vous
retourne donc (mais aussi à tous les Maussiens) la question : quel sort
faites-vous à cette affirmation ? Ne pensez-vous pas que, sous cette
forme condensée présentée sur un patron aristotélicien, elle indique
une entrée à partir de laquelle on pourrait au moins relire une bonne
part de son oeuvre ? Ou bien pensez-vous que cette phrase a été
proférée comme une simple fioriture rhétorique sans signification
profonde. Pour ma part, j'ai montré dans ma thèse (dont une partie a
été publiée dans mes Éléments d'une histoire du sujet en 1999 et...
dans la revue du MAUSS en 2005, mais qui n'a pas eu l'heur d'attirer
l'attention des spécialistes - elle n'est jamais citée dans les livres
sur Mauss), textes à l'appui, que Mauss n'a jamais engagé, comme l'a
soutenu Lévi-Strauss pour des raisons de pure stratégie universitaire
(sa concurrence après la mort de Mauss avec Gurvitch pour récupérer
l'héritage), une théorie préstructuraliste du social, et que par voie
de conséquence son intérêt pour le « symbolique » doit être réévalué et
réintégré à un intérêt plus général pour le rythme. J'ai complété en
2005 ce travail dans Rythmes, pouvoir, mondialisation, qui
malheureusement n'est pas cité non plus. Pourtant, dans son texte de
1924 « Rapports réels et pratiques de la psychologie et de la
sociologie », Mauss explique à son auditoire que la sociologie pourrait
servir de modèle à la psychologie au moins pour l'étude de deux ordres
de faits qui lui semblent les deux apports les plus importants des
travaux sociologiques réalisés depuis le début du siècle : le
« symbole » et le « rythme ». On voit bien à travers cette affirmation
que ces deux concepts sont liés dans son esprit ou tout au moins qu'ils
possèdent une importance aussi grande l'une que l'autre. Or, que disent
les commentateurs : toujours la même chose (qu'ils reprennent sans
aucune distance critique de Lévi-Strauss), Mauss serait simplement
l'inventeur ou la popularisateur du concept de « symbolique ». Le
rythme là encore tombe à la trappe. D'où ma deuxième question : que
faites-vous de cette nouvelle affirmation de l'importance du rythme ?
Quel statut donnez-vous dans votre lecture à cet intérêt pour le
rythme ? Je pense, pour ma part, que cette conférence nous montre une
fois encore que Mauss n'était pas du tout en train de préparer une
épistémologie ou une méthodologie structurale, ni même une science du
symbolique au sens qui dominera par la suite chez les structuralistes,
mais qu'il était, bien au contraire, dès le début, dominé par la
question de la production des individus singuliers et collectifs dans
le temps. Sa question n'était pas de trouver des constantes dans le
fonctionnement des systèmes sociaux (il rejette explicitement la notion
de structure), mais de comprendre ces systèmes en pénétrant
l'organisation des flux qui les constituent (c'est pourquoi il oppose
la « physiologie » à la simple et trompeuse « anatomie sociale »). Il
est, du reste, en cela complètement de son époque et rejoint des
préoccupations que l'on retrouve, sous des formes très diverses cela
s'entend, chez ses adversaires (Bergson, Tarde) ou chez ses amis
(Durkheim, Hubert, Granet).
7. Sur la question du rapport à « la tradition » et de ce que vous
voyez dans mon travail comme une « posture de créativité radicale,
quasiment nihiliste » qui ne serait au fond l'expression que d'un
« mythe d'autoréalisation de soi emblématique de notre époque ». Je ne
comprends pas votre critique. Y-a-t-il jamais invention conceptuelle
qui ne soit négation d'une partie au moins des concepts en cours ? J'en
doute. D'autre part, si je revendique une certaine radicalité, je ne
vois aucun nihilisme dans ma démarche. Au contraire, j'ai grand soin du
passé et, pour ce qui est du présent, j'ai plutôt l'impression de
procéder par affirmations et avancées créatrices. Il me semble que vous
confondez négation et nihilisme. Enfin, l'idée que mon travail
verserait dans un « mythe d'autoréalisation » me semble doublement
fausse : parce que l'autoréalisation n'est pas une notion que l'on
devrait rejeter sans précaution ; mais aussi parce que c'est une
caractérisation au fond psychologisante et donc réductrice d'une
proposition théorique qui ne devrait faire l'objet, en bonne méthode
scientifique, que de critiques théoriques.
8. Sur la question de la complexité inutile que vous voyez dans mes
propositions (« Nous nous demandons si P. Michon n'aurait pas pu, tout
de même, dire les choses plus simplement ») et sur le fait que vous
tentiez de traduire mes propos en un langage plus simple (vous me
demandez « si ce résumé omet quelque chose d'essentiel que les notions
de rythme, de fluement, d'arythmie, d'idiorrythmie, d'eurythmie, etc.
auraient fait apparaître »). C'est un essai dont je vous remercie
sincèrement car cela pourra certainement aider à la compréhension de
mon travail par de nombreux sociologues ou spécialistes de sciences
sociales. Je suis également très sensible au fait que vous soyez le
premier membre du Mauss à reconnaître et à justifier de manière
détaillée le fait que le rythme est une question fondamentale qui
devrait être prise en considération. En même temps, j'ai l'impression
que votre réduction à un ensemble de communs dénominateurs comporte un
danger : celui de laisser penser que ce que j'avance est réductible à
du déjà connu ou à du déjà pensé par les sciences sociales : « Que
dit-il au juste ? Que nos identités se construisent dans nos relations
aux autres, qui engagent notre corps et notre langage [...] Que dans
ces relations se jouent des relations de pouvoir sur les personnes ».
Au fond, la théorie du rythme n'apporterait rien de plus que ce que les
sociologues-économistes savent déjà depuis fort longtemps. À savoir que
les sociétés et les individus sont pris dans des interactions mouvantes
qui les rendent plus instables et fluides qu'on ne le croit
généralement. Pourquoi, dès lors, en effet, dire de manière si
compliquée des choses si simples ? Mais précisément, je ne me suis pas
contenté de reprendre les différentes théories interactionnistes en
cours, ou même de prolonger les auteurs qui se sont frottés, depuis ces
trente dernières années, à la question des rapports réciproques entre
individu singulier et individu collectif, individu et système. Je le
reconnais bien volontiers, les auteurs très divers qui ont proposé des
visions intermédiaires nous ont fait faire de grands progrès. Mais
leurs conceptions ne suffisent plus au regard des réalités nouvelles du
XXI^e siècle ou bien elles rencontrent des difficultés qui les rendent
moins efficaces. En dehors du fait qu'on peut souvent repérer (comme
dans la philosophie hobbesienne qui forme le socle de la pensée
d'Elias) le lieu où le dualisme rejeté au départ se réintroduit
subrepticement, je crois que leurs instruments sont déjà en partie
inadaptés. Et la raison en est simple : si elles ont toutes été conçues
comme des tentatives pour échapper aux dualismes traditionnels des
sciences sociales, elles n'ont pas été pensées à partir du mouvement,
des intensités, des flux et de leurs qualités eux-mêmes. Il nous faut
donc accomplir ce qu'elles n'ont pas encore réussi à faire : une
inversion radicale du regard qui pose le langage et le temps comme
premiers et, à partir de là, repenser toutes les questions qui se
posent à nous. Faute de quoi, soit nous retomberons vite dans les
paradoxes et les difficultés que nous connaissons bien : le système et
l'individu, la poule et l'oeuf, soit nous resterons sans boussole quand
il nous faudra juger de la qualité des « objets intermédiaires » que
nous étudierons. Le « don » est un exemple typique de cette deuxième
difficulté : il permet de dynamiter le dualisme individualiste
utilitariste, mais, tel qu'il reste pour le moment théorisé au sein du
MAUSS, il ne permet pas encore de poser la question de l'organisation
temporelle des flux de dons, des rythmes corporels, langagiers et
sociaux qui sont déterminés par ces flux, et donc de la qualité de
l'individuation singulière et collective qui en découle. On se contente
le plus souvent d'une définition du don comme opposé de l'échange
utilitariste, faisant de facto de celui-là une simple négation (et donc
une certaine façon de conserver) celui-ci. On manque alors toute la
diversité qualitative (souvent ambivalente) de la triple obligation
donner-recevoir-rendre et l'on se retrouve avec une affirmation toute
binaire de ce que serait le bien éthique et politique.
9. Sur ma redéfinition de la démocratie et son supposé fonds
« utilitariste ». Vous citez une de mes propositions qui définit la
démocratie comme le régime ou l'état social (c'est bien sûr les deux à
la fois) qui permettra de « rechercher une eurythmie simultanément
corporelle, discursive et sociale - une maximisation de l'individuation
singulière et collective ». Et vous expliquez que vous ne « compren[ez]
tout simplement pas qui maximise, qui calcule au mieux quoi, ni en vue
de quoi ! ». Le problème avec la question qui, c'est qu'elle présuppose
un sujet déjà là. Autrement dit, elle indique déjà sa réponse. Pour ce
qui me concerne, je l'ai dit plus haut, j'ai volontairement distingué
la question de la subjectivation de celle de l'individuation. Cette
position ne peut être tenue que jusqu'à un certain point, je vous
l'accorde, mais je continue à penser qu'elle est nécessaire dans un
premier temps, même s'il faudra réfléchir à l'avenir plus précisément à
la façon de relier les deux aspects. Ma certitude à cet égard est que
de toute façon la subjectivation ne réussit pas toujours, que le sujet
ne peut donc être posé comme un principe antécédent à l'action et qu'il
constitue plutôt une entité qui apparaît ou pas au cours de l'activité
des corps-langages (au sens du génitif objectif, car pour moi c'est
l'activité qui est première). Vous reprochez, ensuite, à l'expression
« maximisation » d'être trop marquée par le principe typiquement
utilitariste d'un calcul du plus grand bien comme une simple addition
des biens individuels. Si c'était ce que j'ai dit, je serais d'accord
avec vous. Mais je maintiens l'expression « maximisation » car celle-ci
est motivée par le système discursif dans lequel elle apparaît. Et
comme vous l'avez senti, celui-ci est entièrement traversé par un souci
de type spinoziste pour une maximisation (dans les conditions qui leurs
sont faites) de ce que peuvent les corps-langages, maximisation qui ne
peut en aucun cas être réduite à une augmentation additive des petits
bonheurs personnels. L'utilitarisme se fonde sur un calcul des atomes
de bonheur, alors que j'essaie (à l'instar de Mauss en réalité) de
penser le bonheur (ou la « joie », si vous préférez, pour rester dans
le ton du XVII^e siècle) comme exaltation de la puissance de vivre.
Pour finir sur ce point, je voudrais repréciser ce que j'ai déjà dit
dans mon livre et écarter des malentendus qui pointent dans
quelques-unes de vos remarques : les propos de Barthes sur le bonheur
« idiorrythmique » sont très suggestifs (par la rareté même de tels
propos) mais bien évidemment insuffisants (ne serait-ce que parce qu'il
reconnaît lui-même qu'il s'agit d'une utopie domestique plus que
sociale). Quant à ceux de Mauss sur « l'eurythmie », ils indiquent une
piste à mon sens plus féconde, mais ils sont, quant à eux, plus
qu'élémentaires et doivent être réélaborés rigoureusement. Ces exemples
ne constituent donc pas des réponses aux questions éthiques et
politiques que nous nous posons, mais des incitations à chercher dans
la direction qu'ils pointent.
10. Sur Mauss qui ne « parviendrait tout simplement pas à penser
l'histoire ». Je ne crois pas avoir dit cela. J'ai même montré dans
Eléments d'une histoire du sujet que Mauss est l'un de ceux qui, dans
la première moitié du XX^e siècle, pense la question de l'historicité
radicale des êtres humains, sans en revenir au néo-kantisme
sociologique de Durkheim, mais sans tomber non plus dans les problèmes
de la phénoménologie, du bergsonisme ou de la philosophie de
l'historicité essentielle heideggérienne. Ce que j'ai dit, c'est que
Mauss, en dépit de son souci d'historisation constant, aboutit non
seulement à une éthique et une politique fondées sur un principe
anhistorique, celui-là même que vous citez quelques lignes plus loin :
« le roc de la morale éternelle » - ce qui est en soi un problème. Mais
aussi qu'il propose comme modèle, dans tout l'Essai sur le don et en
particulier dans ses « conclusions de morale », le système de
prestations totales de clan à clan, qui est « exactement, toutes
proportions gardées, du même type que celui vers lequel nous voudrions
voir nos sociétés se diriger ». Or, ce système « où tout est
complémentaire » ne connaît pas le conflit, dont il parle pourtant tout
au long de l'essai. À vrai dire, cette subtile contradiction n'est pas
à retenir contre Mauss, elle indique toutefois que c'est à partir de là
qu'il faut reprendre la question. Si maintenant vous pensez que l'on
peut trouver des textes allant dans un sens différent qui donnerait un
sens agonistique à la démocratie, je serai le premier à m'en réjouir.
Mais cela voudra dire que le problème relevait simplement de
l'interprétation érudite des méandres d'une oeuvre et que nous sommes
d'accord sur la chose même - ce qui est pour moi la seule qui compte.
11. Sur le terme d' « utopie maussienne ». Vous me reprenez en arguant
que Mauss n'était pas un utopiste, mais un « possibiliste », attaché à
des projets concrets. Vous avez certainement raison. Toutefois, mon
usage du mot « utopie » n'était en rien négatif dans mon esprit, bien
au contraire. Ensuite, personne ne pourra nier que l'idée que les
sociétés modernes devraient réintroduire massivement le don au
fondement de leur économie reste largement un projet d'avenir,
c'est-à-dire dans le meilleur sens du terme... une utopie.
Pascal Michon
Paris, le 7 mai 2008
__________________________________________________________________
Sénèque. De la tranquillité de l'âme
Cher Pascal,
je viens de terminer la lecture de De la tranquillité de l'âme de
Sénèque. Quelle ne fut pas ma surprise de voir l'un des derniers
chapitres intitulé :
« Il faut alterner "temps forts" et "temps faibles" »
En voici un extrait :
[...] Solitude et société doivent se composer et se succéder. La
solitude nous donnera le désir de fréquenter les hommes, la société,
celui de nous fréquenter nous-mêmes, et chacune sera l'antidote de
l'autre, la solitude nous guérissant de l'horreur de la foule, et la
foule, de l'ennui de la solitude".
J'avais déjà lu de Sénèque Les bienfaits : un essai sur le don - sur la
triple obligation de donner, recevoir et rendre - avant l'heure (jamais
cité par Mauss).
Un indice de plus que pensée du don et pensée du rythme peuvent et même
doivent se rencontrer ?
Amicalement
Sylvain
Créteil, le 7 mai 2008
3 commentaires
Les rythmes du politique
27 août 2009, par
Ces concepts de rythmes du politique me semblent proches de ceux de
Deleuze-Guattari, grands lecteurs de Simondon et de l'individuation,
notamment de l'agencement collectif d'énonciation
territoire par exemple.
Ils permettent de les renouveler et de les penser sous un autre biais.
Mais pour trouver de nouveaux rythmes reste la question de l'invention
également de nouveaux énoncés.
Les rythmes du politique
8 septembre 2009, par Pascal Michon
Je vous remercie beaucoup de cette comparaison ainsi que du texte
auquel vous renvoyez. J'ai expliqué succinctement dans le chapitre
« Styles, rythmes et ritournelles » des Rythmes du politique ce qui
distingue ma position de celle de Deleuze et Guattari. De même, pour
Simondon dans celui intitulé « Les rythmes comme cycles de
l'ontogénèse ? ». En bref, j'ai une grande admiration pour ces travaux
qui ont beaucoup compté dans ma réflexion mais, dans l'un et l'autre
cas, ils me semblent buter sur la question du langage. Plutôt que de
nouveaux énoncés, je pense donc qu'il nous faut chercher, entre autres,
de nouveaux modes d'énonciation.
Pascal Michon
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Notes
[[52]1] Pour une approche goffmannienne du corps et de la manière dont
il participe à la construction de l'identité des personnes, on peut
lire l'article de [53]Sylvain Pasquier publié dans La Revue du MAUSS
Permanente.
[[54]2] Les sous-titres de cette partie, assez longue, sont de nous.
[[55]3] Pascal Michon préfère parler de multitudes plutôt que de
peuple, ce dernier étant sans doute trop homogénéisant pour lui.
[[56]4] O. Mendesltam est l'auteur d'un petit ouvrage où il est
question de la Révolution bolchevique intitulé L'État et le rythme
(1920), dans lequel P. Michon voit « l'une des toutes premières
politiques du rythme » [p. 229].
[[57]5] Le bon, si le calcul de maximisation n'admet qu'une solution...
[[58]6] Pour P. Michon, seuls Lewis Coser (Les fonctions du conflit
social) et Gilbert Simondon (L'individuation psychique et collective)
ont développé cette manière de voir les choses.
[[59]7] On peut néanmoins citer : Henri Meschonnic dans les travaux
duquel il s'incrit, et notamment son Politique du rythme, politique du
sujet, Verdier, 1985
[[60]8] « L'utilitarisme et [...] l'économie politique [...] sont à la
base de [...] la fluidification du monde » [p. 236].
[[61]9] Un Spinoza plus proche de Mauss (qui l'affectionnait
d'ailleurs) que de Bentham... Un Spinoza peu lordonien, donc...
[[62]10] Nous renvoyons ici aux Ecrits politiques de Marcel Mauss,
présentés par Marcel Fournier (Fayard, 1997), ainsi qu'à notre ouvrage,
[63]Marcel Mauss, savant et politique , La Découverte, 2007.
[[64]11] S. Dzimira, op. Cit.
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ELYSEE
Sarkozy : les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme"
NOUVELOBS.COM | 06.02.2009 | 13:01
[121]Réagissez à l'article 299 réactions
Lors de son intervention télévisée, le chef de l'Etat a notamment déclaré :
"Que les Français soient inquiets (face à la crise), c'est normal".
> Il a dit réfléchir à une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le
revenu.
> La taxe professionnelle sera supprimée en 2010.
> Les partenaires sociaux seront reçus le 18 février.
Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters)
Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters)
Le chef de l'Etat a déclaré, jeudi 5 février, que la France et le monde
faisaient face à "la crise du siècle", au début de son intervention
télévisée. "C'est la crise du siècle, elle est sans précédent", a-t-il
répété Nicolas Sarkozy. ([122]> Lire toutes les déclarations).
"Je dois en tenir compte et faire en sorte que la France rentre le plus
tard possible dans la crise et sorte le plus tôt de la crise", a-t-il
ajouté. "Je dois en plus protéger au maximum ceux qui déjà dans la
croissance mondiale étaient exclus", a-t-il ajouté. "Que les Français
soient inquiets, c'est normal. Je le comprends, je l'entends", a-t-il
expliqué.
Les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme", a-t-il
rapidement affirmé. "La rupture n'a jamais été un objectif, c'est juste
un moyen", a, par ailleurs, expliqué Nicolas Sarkozy.
L'émission était diffusée simultanément sur TF1, France 2, M6 et RTL.
Elle est présentée par David Pujadas et Laurence, avec les
interventions de Guy Lagache et Alain Duhamel.
Une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu ?
Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il recevrait les partenaires sociaux le 18
février, notamment pour voir comment "aller plus loin" sur
l'indemnisation du chômage partiel. Il a également dit réfléchir à une
suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu pour aider les
classes moyennes, l'une des "pistes" qu'il soumettra aux syndicats le
18 février. "L'Etat est prêt à faire un effort" pour "mieux protéger"
les jeunes en fin de CDD et qui ne retrouvent pas d'emploi du fait de
la crise financière et économique, a affirmé le président de la
République.
Le chef de l'Etat a aussi annoncé qu'il "supprimerait la taxe
professionnnelle en 2010". "Je vous l'annonce: on supprimera la taxe
professionnelle en France en 2010 parce que je veux que l'on garde des
usines en France", a déclaré Nicolas Sarkozy lors de son intervention
télévisée sur la crise.
La mesure sera générale: "On ne peut pas dire on va supprimer pour
l'industrie automobile mais pas pour l'industrie sidérurgique ou
textile", a-t-il ajouté.
"Je ne peux pas dire aux actionnaires pour le coup: ne délocalisez
plus, relocalisez, et en même temps leur laisser des charges et des
contraintes qui font qu'ils ne s'en sortiront plus", selon le chef de
l'Etat.
Réfléchir sur le "partage du profit"
Le président a jugé nécessaire de réfléchir au "partage du profit"
entre les salariés et les actionnaires, demandant aux partenaires
sociaux de parvenir à un accord sans quoi "l'Etat prendra ses
responsabilités". "Je veux que le 18 février nous discutions d'un sujet
essentiel en France qui est le partage du profit", a déclaré le chef de
l'Etat, évoquant le "sentiment d'injustice majeur" suscité dans cette
crise par "le comportement d'un certain nombre de dirigeants
d'institutions bancaires". "Comment on arbitre entre le souhait
légitime des actionnaires de gagner de l'argent avec les entreprises et
la demande des salariés d'être associés aux bénéfices des entreprises
dont ils ont contribué à créer la richesse?", s'est interrogé Nicolas
Sarkozy, jugeant qu'en la matière "le compte n'y est pas". "Quand une
entreprise distribue aux actionnaires tous les bénéfices d'une année,
elle ne peut plus investir" pour l'avenir, a-t-il ajouté, dénonçant une
"logique purement financière et spéculative". Le sujet sera au
programme de sa rencontre avec les partenaires sociaux le 18 février.
"J'engage les organisations syndicales et le patronat à en discuter.
Soit ils arrivent à quelque chose, soit l'Etat prendra ses
responsabilités", a-t-il prévenu. Il a indiqué qu'il estimait quant à
lui que "la règle des trois tiers est bonne": un tiers des bénéfices
vont aux salariés, un tiers aux actionnaires sous forme de dividendes
et un tiers sont réinvestis dans l'entreprise pour financer son
développement".
Combat sur la TVA
Nicolas Sarkozy a réaffirmé sa volonté d'obtenir un consensus européen
concernant des baisses de la TVA sur la restauration, les "produits
propres" et des "produits culturels".
"C'est parfaitement anormal que quand on achète une voiture propre, on
paie plus cher que quand on achète une voiture qui pollue, et ça vaut
aussi pour les bâtiments construits en haute qualité environnementale",
a dit le chef de l'Etat, souhaitant "un système de TVA réduite pour
tous les produits propres".
"Je pense également que sur les produits culturels, il faut aller plus
loin", a ajouté Nicolas Sarkozy. "Pourquoi la TVA sur le livre est-elle
à 5,5 (%), et la TVA sur le disque à 19,6 (%), comme la TVA sur la
vidéo? Il faut mettre cette TVA à 5,5", a-t-il déclaré.
"Comme cela on est tranquille"
"Est-ce que les réformes que la France doit mettre en oeuvre, pour
avoir le même emploi lorsque nous seront sortis de la crise, est-ce que
ces réformes restent d'actualité? La réponse est oui", a déclaré le
chef de l'Etat, précisant qu'elles devaient être conduites "au même
rythme".
"Si on doit arrêter, comme cela s'est si souvent fait dans le passé,
chaque réforme quand il y a une manifestation, alors mieux vaut ne
faire aucune réforme. Et comme cela on est tranquille", a-t-il dit. La
rupture, "c'est la rupture avec cette habitude".
Les quelque 1,4 milliard d'euros d'intérêts que l'Etat percevra cette
année au titre des intérêts pour son financement aux banques seront
"intégralement" affectés au financement de "mesures sociales", a
annoncé Nicolas Sarkozy.
Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il allait demander au président de la Cour
des comptes Philippe Seguin de "conduire un certain nombre d'enquêtes"
sur la bonne utilisation des fonds accordés aux banques pour faire face
à la crise.
Tacle aux traders
Nicolas Sarkozy veut "changer" le système de rémunération des "traders"
mais est sceptique sur un plafonnement systématique du salaire des
dirigeants, a-t-il déclaré.
"Je suis plus choqué par le système de rémunération de ceux qu'on
appelle les traders, que les présidents de banques. C'est ce système-là
que je veux changer", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat.
"J'ai vu ce que M. Obama a décidé, je suis en train d'y réfléchir, moi
je ne suis pas trop pour une règle générale", a-t-il ajouté. "Mettre
tout le monde sous la toise, je ne suis pas sûr que ce soit la
meilleure formule".
"J'ajoute que Barack Obama a prévu un système d'actions gratuites
derrière une rémunération bloquée, j'aimerais en savoir un peu plus", a
souligné Nicolas Sarkozy.
Maintien de la politique sur la Fonction publique
Nicolas Sarkozy a affirmé qu'il n'engagerait "pas de dépenses publiques
supplémentaires", et qu'il s'en tiendrait à la "règle du
non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux".
"Je n'engagerai pas de dépenses publiques supplémentaires, notamment
sur la règle du non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux", a
affirmé le président de la République.
Selon lui, on reviendra ainsi "au même nombre de fonctionnaires qu'en
1992", quand François Mitterrand était président. "Je n'ai pas le
souvenir que la France était alors sous-administrée", a-t-il argué.
Relations aux paradis fiscaux
Très sévère sur la question des paradis fiscaux, Nicolas Sarkozy a
annoncé son intention de "poser des questions" à Andorre, Monaco et au
Luxembourg.
La France exigera la moralisation des paradis fiscaux et "ça m'amènera
à revoir nos relations avec Andorre", "à poser la question de nos
relations avec Monaco (et) à poser un certain nombre de questions à nos
voisins luxembourgeois", a-t-il déclaré.
Baisse dans les sondages
D'autant que le chef de l'Etat, comme son Premier ministre, enregistre
une forte baisse dans les derniers sondages. Moins cinq points à 39% de
"confiance" contre 55% de défiance selon un CSA paru mercredi dans Le
Parisien.
Forts du succès de leur journée d'action de la semaine dernière, les
syndicats attendent le président au tournant, suspendant leurs
prochaines initiatives au contenu de sa prestation télévisée.
Le patron de la CFDT François Chérèque a réclamé un "changement de
cap", en clair, des mesures pour maintenir le pouvoir d'achat, tandis
que celui de FO Jean-Claude Mailly a prévenu que sans "relance par la
consommation", il y aura "remobilisation".
Le ton est également offensif dans l'opposition. La Première secrétaire
du PS Martine Aubry a demandé au président de "définir enfin un plan de
relance adapté". Et, dans une rare unanimité, la gauche toute entière a
signé mercredi un texte sommant le pouvoir de "changer de cap".
Ne pas se laisser "enfumer"
Jeudi matin, Jean-Luc Mélenchon (Parti de gauche) invitait le pays à ne
pas se laisser "enfumer" par Nicolas Sarkozy et à se mettre "en lutte",
tandis qu'Olivier Besancenot (LCR) voyait déjà dans son intervention
"des motivations supplémentaires à continuer le combat".
Jusque-là, le discours du chef de l'Etat est resté inflexible. Oui, il
a entendu les "inquiétudes légitimes" des Français "qui craignent pour
leur emploi", mais pas question pour lui de recourir à une relance par
la consommation, "parce que ça n'a jamais marché".
Nicolas Sarkozy devrait aussi enrober son propos d'une bonne dose de
volontarisme. "On va se battre pour que la France sorte plus forte de
la crise", insiste-t-il régulièrement.
"Se concentrer sur les objectifs essentiels"
Mais certains ne l'entendent pas de la même oreille dans la majorité.
Le député UMP Hervé Mariton a reproché au gouvernement de s'éparpiller
dans les réformes lui demandant de "se concentrer sur les objectifs
essentiels" et son collègue François Goulard a préconisé une
"suspension" temporaire du très controversé bouclier fiscal.
En outre, le gouvernement a vu poindre ces derniers jours un nouveau
"front" du mécontentement dans les universités, avec la montée de la
grogne des enseignants-chercheurs et des étudiants.
Mais comme François Fillon lundi, le porte-parole du gouvernement a
exclu mercredi tout virage politique. "Cette émission n'est pas faite
seulement pour le million et demi de Français qui a manifesté", a dit
Luc Chatel, mais plutôt pour "mettre en perspective son action face à
la crise".
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Les réactions des lecteurs
rifif
[137]-10 POINTS
-10 points serait un sondage plus réaliste que ces sondages
effectués par des instituts de sondages aux mains des amis de
sarkozy ! Il aura beau museler les manifestan...
08.02 à 16h05 - [138]Alerter
scafandre
[139]Il faut qu'il démissionne...
avant de mettre littéralement la France en faillite. Il est
inconscient... Vous avez des communes qui ont investi dans la
construction de collèges, de ponts... en fonct...
07.02 à 21h16 - [140]Alerter
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malheureux" 18.01 à 16h59
[146]MAYOTTE
[147]Courte étape dans l'océan Indien pour Sarkozy 18.01 à 14h52
[148]POLEMIQUE
[149]Reporters enlevés : "cynisme effrayant" de Guéant 18.01 à 14h47
[150]MARSEILLE
[151]Buffet dénonce "une idéologie xénophobe
dans les plus hautes autorités de l'Etat" 18.01 à 13h46
[152]IDENTITE NATIONALE
[153]Et si "une Française porte la burqa"...? 18.01 à 10h51
[154]SOCIAL
[155]Internet : un tarif réduit pour les plus démunis ? 18.01 à 09h05
[156]COLLECTIVITES LOCALES
[157]Les départements en "graves difficultés financières" 18.01 à 08h53
[158]IDENTITE NATIONALE
[159]"Déferlement de musulmans" : Gaudin regrette avoir eu un "mot
malheureux" 18.01 à 08h06
[160]MARSEILLE
[161]Valls fustige les "amalgames dangereux" de Gaudin 18.01 à 07h56
[162]ELECTIONS REGIONALES
[163]Régionales : Aubry vise toujours le grand chelem 18.01 à 07h29
[164]AFGHANISTAN
[165]Journalistes enlevés : Guéant provoque la polémique 18.01 à 07h10
[166]SENAT
[167]La réforme des collectivités "manque de visibilité" 18.01 à 07h05
[168]CHARENTE-MARITIME
[169]Régionales : Sarnez accuse Royal de "débauchage" 17.01 à 14h58
[170]DROIT DE VOTE
[171]Mélenchon favorable au droit de vote des étrangers 17.01 à 13h56
[172]CONSEIL CONSTITUTIONNEL
[173]Emmanuelle Mignon ne siègera pas parmi les Sages 17.01 à 12h55
Plus sur le sujet
Sur Nouvelobs.com
* [174]Les principales déclarations de Nicolas Sarkozy
* [175]Aubry Sarkozy est un président "hésitant" qui "ne sait pas où
il va"
* [176]Intervention télévisée de Sarkozy Les appels au boycott se
multiplient
* [177]Onze organisations de gauche demandent un "changement de cap"
* [178]Interview présidentielle Les choix contestables de l'Elysée
* [179]Grèves Parisot y voit "quelque chose de pervers"
* [180]Le texte commun des onze organisations de gauche
* [181]Revue de presse
* [182]Les réactions
* [183]Delanoë Sarkozy a "privilégié la polémique" sur le SMA
* [184]Sarkozy fait des ouvertures, les syndicats méfiants
* [185]15,1 millions de téléspectateurs pour l'intervention de
Sarkozy
* [186]Les principales mesures de Nicolas Sarkozy
Dans Le Nouvel Observateur
* [187]"Sarkozy comme Cendrillon", (05/02/09)
* [188]"La vraie nature de Sarkozy", par François Bazin (05/02/09)
* [189]"Sarkozy peut-il encore réformer ?", par Hervé Algalarrondo
(05/02/09)
* [190]"Les ficelles de Sarkozy", (22/01/09)
* [191]"Les choix de Sarkozy", par Denis Olivennes (22/01/09)
Sur Internet
* [192]Le site de l'Elysée
* [193]Le baromètre de confiance de l'exécutif sur le site du CSA
* [194]Le baromètre des actions présidentielles sur le site du CSA
* [195]La biographie officielle de Nicolas Sarkozy
* [196]Le blog de François Fillon
* [197]La biographie officielle de François Fillon
* [198]Le site de TNS-Sofres
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Réformes: Sarkozy ne ralentira pas le rythme
19.01.2009
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Le [136]président [137]Nicolas Sarkozy a affirmé lundi ne pas avoir
«l'intention de ralentir le rythme» des réformes en 2009, au moment où
«l'impact social de la [138]crise se fait sentir». Formulant ses voeux
pour la nouvelle années devant les représentants des partenaires
sociaux, le chef de l'Etat a d'abord voulu les «remercier pour
l'ampleur de la tâche que vous avez accomplie en 2008. L'urgence des
problèmes à résoudre, l'attente des Français vous ont imposé, comme au
gouvernement et au Parlement, un rythme de travail particulièrement
exigeant». «Je ne vous surprendrai pas en vous disant que nous n'avons
pas l'intention de ralentir le rythme en 2009, leur a-t-il ensuite
déclaré. Et ce n'est certainement pas au moment où l'impact social de
la crise se fait sentir --on a eu l'impact financier, l'impact
économique, bien sûr l'impact social-- qu'on va en tirer la conclusion
qu'il faut ralentir», a-t-il ajouté.
Leparisien.fr avec A
Cet article a été publié dans la rubrique [139]Politique
FLASH ACTUALITÉ
[DERNIÈRE MINUTE]
* 18h57 [140]Emmanuelle Haïm renonce à diriger "Idoménée" à l'Opéra
de Paris
* 18h55 [141]La production cinéma "résiste" dit le CNC, "en crise"
selon les producteurs
* 18h49 [142]Ligue 1: Marseille au milieu du gué
* 18h41 [143]Jean-Claude Juncker reconduit à la tête de l'Eurogroupe
* 18h26 [144]France: le déficit public de "l'ordre de 8,2%" du PIB en
2010
* 18h16 [145]Rebsamen (PS): pétition pour inverser la charge de la
preuve de nationalité
* 18h05 [146]Strauss-Kahn responsable politique préféré des Français
[147]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
* 18h41 [148]Jean-Claude Juncker reconduit à la tête de l'Eurogroupe
* 18h26 [149]France: le déficit public de "l'ordre de 8,2%" du PIB en
2010
* 17h53 [150]Plan de départs PSA: 5.700 volontaires d'ici la fin du
dispositif fin mars
* 17h42 [151]Etats-Unis: Vivendi accuse l'avocat des plaignants de
créer un "préjudice"
* 17h18 [152]Eurostar pourrait payer 11 millions d'euros de
dédommagement à ses clients
* 16h24 [153]GDF Suez a tenté sans succès de prendre le contrôle
d'International Power
* 16h11 [154]Le déficit public attendu à 8,2% en 2010, soit moins que
prévu
[155]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
* 18h16 [156]Rebsamen (PS): pétition pour inverser la charge de la
preuve de nationalité
* 18h05 [157]Strauss-Kahn responsable politique préféré des Français
* 17h10 [158]Collomb (PS) prêt à voter certains articles de la
réforme des collectivités
* 16h56 [159]Propos sur les musulmans: Gaudin évoque "un mot
malheureux"
* 16h28 [160]Réforme territoriale: les élus landais demandent un
référendum
* 16h14 [161]Le Nouveau centre veut s'emparer de "grands sujets"
comme l'homoparentalité
* 16h12 [162]Besson dresse son bilan 2009 : plus de 29.000
sans-papiers expulsés
[163]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
* 17h06 [164]Séisme de magnitude 6 à l'ouest du Guatemala
* 16h27 [165]La police a tué plus de 10.000 personnes en douze ans à
Rio selon une étude
* 14h40 [166]Le Yémen réclame à Washington ses ressortissants détenus
à Guantanamo
* 13h52 [167]Enquête sur la guerre en Irak: Tony Blair témoignera le
29 janvier
* 13h21 [168]Silvio Berlusconi absent à la reprise du procès sur les
droits télévisés
* 11h26 [169]Les talibans ont porté la guerre dans le centre de
Kaboul
* 10h46 [170]L'UE promet près d'un demi-milliard d'euros pour Haïti
[171]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
* 18h49 [172]Ligue 1: Marseille au milieu du gué
* 17h10 [173]Football: pas de sanction pour Thierry Henry après sa
main contre l'Eire
* 16h50 [174]Ligue 1: pour Bordeaux, l'essentiel c'est l'écart
* 16h26 [175]Coupe de l'America: le bras de fer se poursuit entre
Oracle et Alinghi
* 15h08 [176]Euro de patinage artistique: Joubert de retour pour un
ultime test avant les JO
* 10h55 [177]Euro de handball: les Français pour un triplé inédit
* 08h04 [178]Open d'Australie de tennis: Sharapova éliminée, Nadal,
Murray et Roddick qualifiés
[179]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
* 18h57 [180]Emmanuelle Haïm renonce à diriger "Idoménée" à l'Opéra
de Paris
* 18h55 [181]La production cinéma "résiste" dit le CNC, "en crise"
selon les producteurs
* 17h05 [182]Les films de la semaine: un Gainsbourg, un homme sérieux
et des Barons
* 14h28 [183]Le Festival d'Aix-en-Provence se "redéveloppe" en 2010
* 06h36 [184]"Avatar" grand vainqueur des Golden Globes, "In the air"
déçoit
* 20h48 [185]Mode à Milan: esprit rebelle et inspirations militaires
* 20h16 [186]"Avatar" continue de dominer le box-office
nord-américain
[187]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
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[316]Résultats Euromillions
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[317]Saint Valentin
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[320]After Work
[321]Chute du mur de Berlin
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[33]Haïti : la récolte de fonds décolle après l'appel de l'ONU
[34]Haïti : la récolte de fonds décolle après l'appel de l'ONU
Les annonces d'aide humanitaire et de fonds pour venir en aide à Haïti
continuent d'affluer, suite à l'appel d'urgence lancé par l'ONU.
L'organisation entend récolter 562 millions de dollars.
[35]» DOSSIER SPECIAL - Haïti dévasté
.
[36]L'hôpital général de Port-au-Prince manque de tout
REPORTAGE - Face au désastre, les secours peinent à s'orgraniser dans la
capitale haïtienne.
.
.
.
[37]Les secours sorganisent dans la douleur
EN IMAGES - Dans la capitale haïtienne, les secours internationaux font face
à dénormes difficultés. Il faut à la fois chercher des survivants, apporter
des vivres aux rescapés, opérer les blessés, évacuer les corps, sécuriser la
ville et penser à la reconstruction.
.
.
[38]Haïti : 70.000 corps ont été enterrés
Le gouvernement a décrété dimanche l'état d'urgence et une période de deuil
national de 30 jours. 280 centres d'urgence s'ouvrent lundi, pour distribuer
des vivres et héberger les sans-abris, estimés à 300.000.
[39]» DOSSIER SPECIAL - Haïti dévasté
.
.
[40]Numérisation du patrimoine :
comment l'argent sera réparti
[41]Numérisation du patrimoine :
comment l'argent sera
réparti
INFO LE FIGARO - La Bibliothèque nationale de France et le Centre national du
cinéma seront les mieux lotis.
.
[42]La création d'entreprises atteint
un record
INFO FIGARO - Les Français ont créé 560.000 entreprises l'an dernier, grâce
au succès du statut de l'auto-entrepreneur.
[43]» Auto-entrepreneur : comment ça marche ?
.
.
.
[44]Thierry Henry échappe
à la sanction
La commission de discipline de la FIFA a estimé lundi qu'elle ne disposait
pas de base juridique pour sanctionner la main de l'attaquant français lors
du match contre l'Eire, en barrages du Mondial-2010.
.
.
[45]Boursiers : l'Etat précise ses objectifs
La conférence de grandes écoles a de son côté effectué un revirement en
affirmant partager les objectifs fixés par le gouvernement.
[46]» Sarkozy veut 30 % de boursiers dans les grandes écoles
.
.
[47]L'UNI fait place à un nouveau syndicat étudiant de droite
Dès mardi, le syndicat étudiant de droite né en 1968 deviendra le Mouvement
des étudiants (MET).
.
.
[48]France : le déficit attendu à 8,2%
du PIB en 2010
INFO FIGARO - Le déficit public sera moins mauvais que prévu : il était
jusqu'alors anticipé à 8,5 %.
.
.
.
[49]Sarkozy en visite
dans l'océan Indien
Le chef de l'État est à Mayotte et à la Réunion pour la cérémonie des voeux à
l'outre-mer.
.
.
[50]Besson veut faire signer une charte
aux jeunes Français
Les droits et les devoirs de tout citoyen seraient rappelés à l'occasion de
ce serment républicain.
[51]» Identité : Jean-Claude Gaudin crée à son tour la polémique
.
.
[52]Des squatteurs priés de quitter
la place des Vosges
La justice a ordonné lundi l'expulsion des militants pour le droit au
logement, qui occupent depuis plus de deux mois un hôtel particulier de cette
prestigieuse place parisienne.
.
.
[53]Audiences : Europe 1 pourrait
détrôner NRJ
Le sondage 126000 Radio de Médiamétrie, qui sera publié mardi, pourrait une
nouvelle fois bousculer la hierarchie entre stations.
.
.
Zoom Figaro
Cheveux
[20091109PHOWWW00546.jpg]
Conseils d'experts
Questions RH
[20091109PHOWWW00547.jpg]
McDonald's
Frida Kahlo
[20091109PHOWWW00548.jpg]
Exposée à Bruxelles
Cinéma
[20091109PHOWWW00348.jpg]
Toutes les séances
.
[54]Ces délégués du procureur
qui travaillent au noir
[55]Ces délégués du procureur
qui travaillent au noir
Chargés de sermonner les petits délinquants, ils ne sont pas déclarés par la
Chancellerie. Bercy tarde à régler le problème.
.
[56]Les talibans revendiquent
une série d'attaques à Kaboul
Des insurgés se sont lancés lundi matin à l'assaut du centre de la capitale
afghane où se trouvent plusieurs ministères et le palais présidentiel. Les
affrontements avec l'armée afghane ont fait au moins 5 morts et 71 blessés.
Sept assaillants ont été tués.
.
.
[57]Expatriés aux USA, la présidence Obama a-t-elle changé votre vie ?
APPEL A TÉMOIGNAGES - Si vous vivez aux Etats-Unis, votre quotidien a-t-il
changé depuis l'arrivée de Barack Obama à la Maison Blanche ? Si oui, comment
?
.
.
.
[58]TGV : la SNCF remet
à plat sa stratégie
La baisse de fréquentation de certaines lignes obligerait à des réductions de
trains voire des annulations selon les Echos. Les lignes nord-est et
est-Atlantique sont particulièrement concernées.
[59]» Deutsche Bahn prête à livrer bataille avec la SNCF
[60]» La SNCF augmente les tarifs du TGV de 1,9% en 2010
.
.
.
[61]Régionales : Laporte jette l'éponge
INFO LE FIGARO.FR - Lancien secrétaire dEtat aux Sports faisait planer depuis
plusieurs semaines le mystère sur son éventuelle candidature en
Ile-de-France.
.
.
[62]Paris et Berlin déconseillent
l'utilisation d'Internet Explorer
Après que Microsoft a admis qu'une faille dans son navigateur était à
l'origine de l'attaque contre Google en Chine, les autorités officielles de
sécurité informatique en France et en Allemagne recommandent de ne pas
utiliser le logiciel avant qu'il ne soit corrigé.
.
.
[63]Le Turc, qui avait tenté de tuer
Jean-Paul II, est libre
[64]Le Turc, qui avait tenté de tuer
Jean-Paul II, est
libre
Mehmet Ali Agca, un ex-militant ultranationaliste fait monter les enchères
pour publier ses Mémoires.
.
[65]Un Français en prison à Abu Dhabi
pour une plaisanterie
Pour avoir parlé de «bombe» dans un avion, Jean-Louis Lioret, ingénieur à la
retraite, est incarcéré depuis six jours.
.
.
.
[66]«Ali le Chimique» condamné à mort
Ce cousin de Saddam Hussein avait fait gazer 5 000 Kurdes en 1988.
.
.
[67]Alliot-Marie confie à Pierre Botton
une mission sur la prison
«Je sais de quoi je parle», assure l'ancien homme d'affaires et ex-gendre de
Michel Noir, écroué dans les années 1990.
.
.
[68]Le tapis rouge
des Golden Globes
[69]Le tapis rouge
des Golden Globes
EN IMAGES - Malgré l'éloge des critiques, Marion Cotillard nominée pour la
comédie musicale "Nine", n'a pas reçu le prix de la meilleure actrice qui a
été décerné à Meryl Streep.
[70]» Retour sur la cérémonie en images
.
[71]Avatar domine les Golden Globes
Le film de James Cameron a remporté dimanche le doublé du meilleur film
dramatique et du meilleur réalisateur. En revanche, Marion Cotillard et Un
prophète, qui portaient les espoirs tricolores, sont repartis bredouilles.
[72]» VIDEO - Les Golden Globes, du rire aux larmes
.
.
[73]Bertrand : «Une étrangère portant la burqa ne pourra pas être
naturalisée»
Le secrétaire général de l'UMP, Xavier Bertrand, qui a entamé ses
déplacements de campagne ce week-end en Paca, veut mobiliser sa famille
politique.
.
.
.
[74]Guéant écarte l'idée d'un remaniement
Le secrétaire général de l'Élysée a confirmé, dimanche, le maintien de Fillon
après les régionales.
[75]» Fillon fait l'éloge de la durée à Matignon
[76]» Journalistes enlevés : indignation après les propos de Guéant
.
.
[77]Faut-il repousser l'âge légal
de la retraite au-delà de 60 ans ?
Votants [picto-votant.gif]
.
.
[78]Les chirurgiens esthétiques contrôlent leur réputation sur le Web
Ils font parfois appel à des sociétés privées pour préserver leur image en
ligne.
[79]» Les patients en quête d'information sur la Toile
.
.
.
[80]Ukraine : le candidat pro-russe en tête
Viktor Ianoukovitch affrontera Ioulia Timochenko au second tour de l'élection
présidentielle ukrainienne, le 7 février.
[81]» Bataille présidentielle en Ukraine
.
.
[82]Joann Sfar : «Un film amoureux
sur Gainsbourg»
[83]Joann Sfar : «Un film amoureux
sur Gainsbourg»
INTERVIEW - Après Marjane Satrapi et Riad Sattouf, l'auteur de BD passe
derrière la caméra et signe un conte musical aussi poétiqueque subversif sur
l'Homme à tête de chou. En salle mercredi.
.
.
[84]Un prêt-à-porter concis et stylé
DÉFILÉS - Milan a donné le coup denvoi des collections masculines
automne-hiver 2010-2011.
[85]» EN IMAGES - Ermenegildo Zegna, [86]Dolce & Gabbana, [87]Burberry,
[88]Emporio Armani...
[89]» VIDEO - Bottega Venetta, [90]Burberry
.
.
[91]Un site web retrouve des vidéos
en fonction des mots prononcés
Le service Voxalead indexe les émissions de radio et de télévision à partir
des paroles enregistrées.
.
.
[92]Nissan joue au Cube
[93]Nissan joue au Cube
EN IMAGES - La marque japonaise fait le pari de vendre en Europe cette
étonnante berline compacte qui affirme sa différence au travers d'un style
cubique et asymétrique.
.
* ____________________ OK
[94]Les Blogs [95][feed-icon-16x16.png]
[96]Les dessous du social
[97]Tamilutte, FOrtifiant contre la pandémie sociale
CHEZ FO, on a depuis longtemps de l'humour et le sens de...
[98]Les dessous du social par [99]Marc Landré
[100]Le blog des Marchés de la bourse et des investisseurs
[101]Plutôt un risque de « syndrome Intel » que de déception sur les profits
Que dire de cette séance de Bourse de lundi, sans saveur,...
[102]Le blog des Marchés de la bourse et des investisseurs par
[103]Roland Laskine
[104]La Blog Team de Sport24
[105]Jacques Peridon: l'éditorialiste qui fait peur à l'OM!
Connaissez vous Jacques Peridon? Non? Oui? Peu...
[106]La Blog Team de Sport24 par [107]Bruno Roger-Petit
[108]Voir tous les blogs
.
.
La revue de net
Chaque jour, cinq liens sélectionnés par lefigaro.fr
+ LItalie [109]censure la vidéo sur Internet
+ Photos : Martin Luther King [110]en famille
+ Le New York Times [111]payant sur le web (eng)
+ Le rapport sur [112]la numérisation des livres décrypté
+ Lécologie [113]naméliore pas le climat familial (eng)
.
.
Logo Figaro
[114][20080606PHOWWW00354.jpg]
[115]Gagnez un séjour en thalasso
[116]Participez et gagnez un séjour
au Carnac thalasso & spa Resort.
.
.
[117][20080606PHOWWW00353.jpg]
[118]Surprenante Madonna
[119]
Dolce & Gabbana invente la sexy mamma-donna
.
.
[120][20080606PHOWWW00350.jpg]
[121]Exprimez-vous
[122]
Devrait-il y avoir davantage
d'hommes dans les mouvements féministes ?
.
.
[123]Mode - [124]Beauté - [125]Joaillerie - [126]Déco -
[127]Célébrités
.
[128]mercato
.
.
[129]Comment choisir son assurance vie ?
Posez vos questions à Marie-Christine Sonkin, directrice adjointe
de la rédaction du Journal des Finances. Elle répondra en vidéo le
19 janvier.
.
.
«Clint Eastwood au coeur de la mêlée et au coeur du public»
CRITIQUE - Pour Olivier Delcroix, avec «Invictus», qui réunit à l'écran
Morgan Freeman et Matt Damon, Eastwood livre un film passionnant sur le rugby
et l'apartheid.
.
.
Météo ____________________ rech
[130]France - [131]Monde - [132]Plage
.
[EMBED]
.
[133]La grande crue de 1910 à Paris
[134]La grande crue de 1910 à Paris
EN IMAGES - A loccasion du centenaire de la crue, deux expos sont organisées
à Paris.
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.
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[135]L'IVG, un sujet qui fâche en Europe
Trente-cinq ans après sa légalisation en France, l'interruption volontaire de
grossesse fait toujours polémique chez certains de nos voisins.
.
.
[136]Jyvais
.
Économie
[137]Proglio bouleverse la direction d'EDF
[138]Le nouveau président d'EDF installe son équipe dirigeante.
.
[139]Evaluer son patron,
un facteur d'efficacité
[140]Une étude britannique met en évidence la relation entre santé au travail
et franchise vis-à-vis de son employeur.
.
.
.
.
.
Vos commentaires sur...
[141]Haïti : Le leadership de Washington sur les secours
[142]«Dans un monde idéal ce serait à l'ONU de désigner le pays chargé de
tenir ce rôle majeur. Mais il semble qu'on y préfère les grands discours aux
actions rationnelles et efficaces !» par DUBLEYOU 76
.
.
[143]Aubry estime avoir les «capacités» de présider la France
[144]«Peut-être devrait-elle commencer par expliquer ce qu'elle compte faire.
Le meilleur opposant n'est pas forcément le meilleur candidat» par Piémont
.
.
[145]L'IVG reste un sujet qui fâche chez nos voisins occidentaux
[146]«Si 35 ans après cela pose encore problème et choque les populations, il
faudrait peut-être se poser des questions ? Ce n'est pas parce qu'une loi a
été votée qu'elle reste valable des décennies après» par Ebtg
.
.
[147]» Retrouvez toute notre sélection de commentaires des internautes
[148]en cliquant ici[149].
.
.
.
.
.
.
Trouvez les meilleurs restos, films, spectacles, concerts et expos à
Paris et en Ile de France !
____________________
[Resto / Bars...........] Rechercher
.
.
[150]Easy Voyage
.
Services
+ [151]Services météo
+ [152]Services sorties
+ [153]Services bourse
+ [154]Services voyages
+ [155]Services Guide-tv
+ [156]Services boutiques
+
Annonces
+ [157]annonces_emploi
+ [158]Annonces immobilières
+ [159]Annonces automobile
+ [160]Annonces rencontres
+
.
[_] [_] [_] [_] [_] [_] [_]
Annonces emploi
[161]cadremploi.fr
[Fonction...............][Secteur................][Localisation....
.......]_________________________
Ok
[162]Recherche detaillée
.
.
.
Annonces Automobiles
[163]AutoScout24
[Marque..........] [Modeles]
Année [de..]
Prix () de [1.000..]
Distance [Rayon.]
[164]Recherche détaillée
[Energie...] [Professionnels et particuliers]
[à...]
[à......]
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(Afficher les résultats) Valider
.
Logo Evène
18 Janvier - Sainte Prisca - [165]Offrez-lui des fleurs
[3441.jpg]
[166]La citation du jour
"Lire n'est pas un acte de consommation culturelle, c'est une conversation."
[167]Alain Finkielkraut
[168]Entretien avec Guy Rossi-Landi - Février 1999
.
.
[4262.jpg]
[169]Anniversaire du jour
[170]Philippe Starck
Designer français
61 ans
.
.
[171]Chronique du jour
C'est arrivé le 18 Janvier 1975
Une bande qui fait du bruit
Dans les kiosques, une nouvelle parution s'apprête à faire grand bruit. Il
s'agit d'un trimestriel, certifié "réservé aux adultes", flanqué d'un titre
au graphisme métallique : Métal hurlant. A l'o...
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[172]Le guide cadeaux culture - EVENE
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.
.
.
____________________ Rechercher
newsletter ____________________ OK
.
IFRAME: [173]frametvmag
[174]Abonnement | [175]Archives | [176]Boutique [177]Charte de
modération [178]Contacts | [179]Index actualités | [180]Le Figaro en
PDF | [181]Le Figaro en 3D avec Yoowalk | [182]Mentions légales |
[183]Newsletters | [184]Plan du site | [185]Publicités | [186]RSS |
[187]Sitemap | [188]Toutes les biographies avec le Whos Who France |
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[191]Symbaloo | [192]Livre.fr
Sites du Groupe Figaro : [193]Actualité sportive avec Sport24.com |
[194]Cinéma avec Evene.fr | [195]Economie avec le JDF.com | [196]Emploi
avec Cadremploi.fr | [197]Formation avec Kelformation.com |
[198]Explorimmoneuf | [199]Immobilier avec Explorimmo.com |
[200]Immobilier de prestige avec Propriétés de France | [201]La
Solitaire du Figaro | [202]Locations vacances avec Bertrand vacances |
[203]Mode et Beauté avec Lefigaro.fr/madame | [204]Programmes télé avec
TV Mag.com | [205]Résidences secondaires | [206]Spectacles avec
TickeTac.com | [207]Vacances de rêve avec Belles Maisons A Louer |
[208]Ventes privées sur Bazarchic.com
.
[209]Abonnement
[210][20071026PHOWWW00431.jpg]
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.
.
[211]Figaro en PDF
.
[212]Figaro sélection
[213][20091113PHOWWW00377.jpg]
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[214]Privilèges
[215][20090918PHOWWW00224.jpg]
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[216]Sport24.com
[217][20091020PHOWWW00305.jpg]
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[218]Carnet du jour
[219][20071029PHOWWW00500.jpg]
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[220]Figaro magazine
[221][20081226PHOWWW00254.jpg]
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[222]Madame Figaro
[223][20090619PHOWWW00349.jpg]
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[224]Salon de Detroit
[225]En images
[226][20100114PHOWWW00381.jpg]
.
[227]Camus
[228]Portrait
[229][20091223PHOWWW00424.jpg]
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[230]People
[231]Tapis rouge
[232][20091202PHOWWW00394.jpg]
.
[233]more.madame
[234]Art numérique
[235][20091119PHOWWW00374.jpg]
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[236]Bijoux
[237]Idées cadeaux
[238][20091222PHOWWW00119.jpg]
.
[239]High-tech
[240]Vivre en 3D
[241][3dc5b19c-faba-11de-8568-9cd2bbe29056.jpg]
.
[242]Blog
[243]L'actu high-tech
[244][20090722PHOWWW00246.jpg]
.
[245]Cinéma
[246]Films de 2010
[247][f214ceae-fab9-11de-8568-9cd2bbe29056.jpg]
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[248]Ecofiscalité
[249]En Suède
[250][20091231PHOWWW00249.jpg]
.
[251]Romans
[252]Top des ventes
[253][20100114PHOWWW00380.jpg]
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[254]Hôtels
[255]Spectaculaires
[256][20091229PHOWWW00241.jpg]
.
[257]Rentrée
[258]théâtrale
[259][33910c4a-fab9-11de-8568-9cd2bbe29056.jpg]
.
[260]Rétro
[261]Partis en 2009
[262][20091230PHOWWW00132.jpg]
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[263]Les éditos
[264]Tous les jours
[265][20090610PHOWWW00336.jpg]
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[266]Paris hippiques
[267][20091028PHOWWW00365.jpg]
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[268]Galerie Photo
[269][20090319PHOWWW00273.jpg]
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[270]Newsletters
[271][20071026PHOWWW00455.jpg]
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[272]Rencontres
[273][20071029PHOWWW00504.jpg]
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[274]Figaro Cadeaux
[275][20080401PHOWWW00195.jpg]
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[276]Mobile
[277][20081121PHOWWW00303.jpg]
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[278]Alerte Actu
[279][20091019PHOWWW00158.jpg]
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Références
Liens visibles
Liens cachés :
[1][bandeau.png]
[2]Accueil
[3]www.revuedumauss.com
[4]www.jornaldomauss.org
[5]Présentation
____________________
[6]Sylvain Dzimira
Pascal Michon,
Les rythmes du politique
Démocratie et capitalisme mondialisé (note suivie d'une correspondance entre
P. Michon, S. Dzimira et Sénèque...)
Les prairies ordinaires, 2007, 318 p., 17 EUR.
[7][printer.png]
[8][article_pdf.png]
[9]envoyer l'article par mail title=
Article publié le 29 avril 2008 /3 commentaires
Pour citer cet article : [10]Sylvain Dzimira, « Les rythmes du
politique, Démocratie et capitalisme mondialisé (note suivie d'une
correspondance entre P. Michon, S. Dzimira et Sénèque...) », Revue du
MAUSS permanente, 29 avril 2008 [en ligne].
L'ambition de cet ouvrage donne tout simplement le vertige : relevant
l'inanité des théories critiques, à ce point incapables de saisir notre
modernité démocratique qu'elles corroborent selon lui une réalité
qu'elles croient dénoncer, Pascal Michon ne propose rien de moins que
de repenser la démocratie, en élaborant quasiment de toutes pièces un
appareillage conceptuel, et en s'efforçant de déduire des conclusions
normatives des découvertes que lui permettent les lunettes dont il se
chausse, très loin de la très académique neutralité axiologique. Une
ambition théorique d'autant plus étonnante qu'elle est le fait d'un
historien (et non d'un sociologue ou d'un philosophe politiques qu'on
pourrait croire mieux armés conceptuellement a priori), et quand on
connaît l'hyperspécialisation de ses confrères (lui n'hésite pas à
mobiliser « les sciences sociales » et la philosophie) et leur refus
quasi généralisé de théoriser quoi que ce soit. Que pouvons-nous en
penser ? Commençons par présenter l'ouvrage.
PRESENTATION
L'avant propos est désarçonnant, car, « tout le monde en prend pour son
grade » ! Journalistes, universitaires « installés dans les chaires
trop grandes pour eux de prédécesseurs célèbres » [p. 9],
« intellectuels » de gauche devenus libéraux, intellectuels de droite
invoquant des icônes de la gauche, tous incapables de penser quoi que
ce soit de pertinent sur leur monde... Cela laisse un impression
désagréable qui heureusement se dissipe rapidement, car les pages qui
suivent donnent sérieusement à penser (nous les avons d'ailleurs
publiées dans [11]La Revue du MAUSS Permanente). P. Michon y soutient
que, reprise telle quelle par des « disciples » aveugles, la pensée
libertaire et contestatrice d'hier est devenue l'un des soutiens de
premier plan du nouvel ordre libéral, au même titre que la pensée
libérale. D'ailleurs, elles se retrouvent dans la même dénonciation des
entraves à l'auto-réalisation des individus, dans un même nominalisme
nihiliste teinté d'un empirisme plat (rien n'existe au fond, qui ne
s'observe pas, surtout pas « la société » ou les « sujets
collectifs »), et dans une même sacralisation de la neutralité
axiologique. Sont ainsi appelés à la barre : Marcela Iuacub, Antonio
Negri, Michael Hart et Bruno Latour. Si ces postures étaient réellement
contestatrices dans un contexte où l'individu était malmené par des
pensées homogénéisantes, édifiant des totalités en surplomb, censées
parfois tracer la voie du salut pour tous - phénoménologie,
existentialisme, historicisme, marxisme sont cités - elles participent
aujourd'hui très largement du monde nouveau qu'elles dénoncent par
ailleurs, où le seul ordre qui vaille est celui qui s'établit
spontanément (la neutralité axiologique est un allié précieux) par les
choix des individus, qui seuls sont censés exister.
Les « disciples » faussement contestataires ne sont pas les seuls à
oeuvrer au nouvel ordre libéral : ils sont accompagnés par des
« héritiers » (qu'on retrouve en nombre dans les médias, à
l'université, dans la recherche, bref « tout ce qui constitue le
fondement objectif de la vie de la pensée » [p. 23]) qui n'ont fait
qu'emprunter les concepts et les programmes de recherche à leurs
prédécesseurs, à qui ils doivent leurs places et leurs statuts.
Cultivant une posture de « rentiers », excellant dans la « phagocytose
académique » [p. 25], allant jusqu'à détourner les voix de leurs
Maîtres (ainsi d'Ewald), « ce groupe est, pour P. Michon, le deuxième
grand responsable de l'épuisement actuel de la pensée critique » [p.
24]. L'état des lieux laissés par leurs occupants est en effet
accablant, mais suffisamment juste pour que nous citions longuement son
auteur : « L'ouverture à l'autre, les parcours transversaux, la
transdisciplinarité, le travail théorique, la contestation de l'ordre
en cours et la créativité conceptuelle, qui avaient fondé jusque là
l'organisation des savoirs, sont désormais systématiquement rejetés au
profit d'une nouvelle constellation : spécialisation extrême, ignorance
des autres disciplines [et souvent, même, des autres savoirs
spécialisés de sa propre discipline, SD], enquêtes de terrain étroites,
empirisme radical, approbation positiviste à l'égard de ce qui est et
répétition académique du passé » [p. 27]. Notons que c'est avec le
souci de ne pas reproduire ce qu'il dénonce - une pensée à la gloire de
l'individu, nominaliste, platement empiriste, faussement neutre d'un
point de vue axiologique - que P. Michon se lance dans ce qui apparaît
comme une contribution à la théorie de la démocratie.
Mais que ne parviennent pas à penser les théories critiques au juste ?
Oscillant entre deux visions du monde radicalement opposées - tantôt
monde de liberté totale, tantôt monde d'oppression totale - elles sont
incapables de saisir que c'est là l'expression des « deux faces
[interdépendantes] de l'individuation », dont il s'agit de comprendre
la « simultanéité » et la « succession » [p. 31]. Autrement dit, elles
sont incapables de saisir les nouvelles formes qu'a prises le pouvoir
dans un monde vécu comme univers de liberté totale pour l'individu.
Pour restituer le plus fidèlement possible sa pensée, nous ne pourrons
pas nous passer des définitions que P. Michon donne de l'individuation
et de la notion de rythme qui l'accompagne. « Par individuation,
écrit-il, j'entends l'ensemble des processus corporels, langagiers et
sociaux par lesquels sont sans cesse produits et reproduits, augmentés
et minorés, les individus singuliers (les individus observés dans leur
singularité psychique) et collectifs (les groupes). [...] J'appellerai
rythmes les configurations spécifiques de ces processus
d'individuation » ; ce sont « des manières de produire et de distinguer
des individus singuliers et collectifs » [p. 32]. Aujourd'hui, soutient
P. Michon, « [le pouvoir] se joue avant tout dans l'organisation et le
contrôle des rythmes des processus d'individuation, ainsi que dans les
classements qu'ils produisent » [p. 32]. La première partie de
l'ouvrage est consacrée à l'explicitation de sa notion d'individuation
et la deuxième aux formes que prend le pouvoir aujourd'hui. Dans la
troisième partie de l'ouvrage, P. Michon « aborde la question [à ses
yeux] la plus difficile et la plus importante de toutes : celle de la
plus ou moins grande qualité des rythmes de l'individuation et des
divers pouvoirs qui s'y expriment » [p. 33]. Le pouvoir se joue dans
les rythmes, selon P. Michon. Or, tous les exercices du pouvoir ne
s'équivalent pas. C'est donc que tous les rythmes ne s'équivalent pas.
C'est pourquoi, comprenons-nous, P. Michon considère ne pas pouvoir se
dispenser de rechercher des critères éthiques qui lui permettront de
distinguer les bons rythmes des mauvais, en quelque sorte. Enfin, une
fois ces critères identifiés, il évalue la qualité des rythmes du
« monde nouveau » qu'est le nôtre. Restituons rapidement chacune de ces
parties (pour aider à la compréhension de l'ouvrage tout en suivant sa
progression, nous avons repris le titre de chacune de ses parties et
indiqué entre parenthèses la question qu'elle nous semble poser).
Individuation
(ou comment penser le processus de construction des sujets
individuels et collectifs ?)
Pour insister sur le fait que les rythmes s'inscrivent dans le temps,
et que les individus singuliers et collectifs qu'ils produisent ont
eux-mêmes une dimension historique, que leur identité est évolutive (un
souci bien compréhensif de la part d'un historien) même si elle
peut-être relativement stable, P. Michon recourt à une nouvelle
notion : celle de fluement. Il précise ainsi sa notion de rythme en lui
donnant une nouvelle définition : « J'appellerai rythme toute manière
de fluer des individus et poserai que tout processus d'individuation
est organisé de façon rythmique » [p. 42]. Il s'attache donc à
comprendre comment le corps (le rapport à son corps, entre les corps),
le langage et les rapports sociaux produisent les individus singuliers
et collectifs [[12]1]
Pour ce qui est de la question du corps, P. Michon mobilise Marcel
Mauss - [13]son fameux article sur les techniques du corps - Norbert
Elias - La civilisation des moeurs et La société de cour - et Michel
Foucault - Surveiller et punir - pour rappeler l'idée au fond assez
simple selon laquelle le rapport à son propre corps (jusque dans notre
manière de marcher), et au corps d'autrui (pratiques sexuelles, danses
etc.) est culturellement, historiquement, socialement marqué, et que
cela participe de la construction des sujets. Il semble distinguer au
moins deux manières de produire par les corps les sujets, deux
« rythmes corporels » : l'une, rare, inscrit les corps dans un « schéma
mécanique et binaire » [p. 54] ; on la retrouve idéaltyptiquement dans
l'usine taylorienne ou fordiste ou encore à l'armée. L'autre, la plus
fréquente, sort du modèle binaire et arithmétique classique » [ibid.].
Mais on n'en sait pas beaucoup plus.
Passons aux « rythmes du langage » (ou encore fluement du langage ou
discursivité). Le langage (les manières de s'exprimer, de parler etc.),
soutient en substance P. Michon, participe à la construction des
sujets, et rend compte de cette construction. Pour comprendre comment
le langage peut participer à la construction des sujets, P. Michon
s'appuie sur Victor Kemplerer - La langue du IIIème Reich. Carnets d'un
philologue - qui rend compte de la « nazification du langage » [p. 55].
Pour saisir comment un langage peut rendre compte des sujets
socialisés, il s'appuie sur notamment Walter Benjamin - son Charles
Baudelaire, un poète lyrique à l'apogée du capitalisme - qui montre que
le langage qu'emploie Baudelaire renvoie « à l'expérience abîmée des
individus plongés dans la Grande Ville » [p. 58].
Enfin, les « rythmes du social ». Là aussi, les relations sociales sont
rythmées, elles s'inscrivent dans une temporalité qui suit ses propres
rythmes, qui façonnent les identités individuelles et collectives par
conséquent variables en même temps que stables. Pour l'illustrer, P.
Michon s'appuie une nouvelle fois sur M. Mauss (notamment) et son
[14]« Essai sur les variations saisonnières des sociétés eskimos » qui
l'été se dispersent et l'hiver se rassemblent et vivent en état
d'effervescence, un peu comme les Kwakiutls. Ces variations des
« rythmes du social » correspondent en fait à des « variations
d'intensité des interactions » [p. 71]. Bref, voilà ce qui participe à
la construction de l'identité, à la fois permanente et en mouvement,
des sujets individuels et collectifs, à la construction de leur
« âme » : nos rapports au corps, nos rapports entre les corps, notre
langage, nos relations sociales, tout cela étant étroitement
entrelacé : « Les processus d'individuation sont à la fois des
phénomènes langagiers, corporels et sociaux, écrit P. Michon ; ils
déploient simultanément une discursivité, une corporéité et une
socialité - et c'est de l'entrecroisement de leurs rythmes qu'apparaît
`l'âme' » [p.76].
La notion de rythme permet donc d'appréhender des manières
historiquement construites de se déplacer, de parler, d'être en
relation, qui construisent les identités des sujets individuels et
collectifs. À ce titre, elle a une vertu heuristique. Mais P. Michon
l'appréhende également comme « un concept politique et éthique » [p.
81]. Il distingue en effet deux types de rythme qui n'ont pas les mêmes
effets éthiques et politiques. Un premier type de rythme produit des
sujets individuels et collectifs qui se « renforcent » mutuellement. Un
deuxième type produit des sujets individuels et collectifs qui jouent
l'un contre l'autre : l'affirmation des premiers se fait aux dépens des
deuxièmes ou inversement. P. Michon considère « qu'une éthique et une
politique démocratiques peuvent se définir comme orientées vers la
production de manière de fluer de la socialité, des corps et des
langages (...) qui soient à la fois singulières et partageables » et
toujours « réactualisables » [pp. 81-82]. Ainsi, P. Michon suggère que
les sociétés démocratiques doivent s'orienter vers des rythmes du
premier type.
Pouvoir
(ou comment la notion de rythme permet de penser la contrainte subie
par les sujets dans un monde hors contrainte - ou du moins, qui se
pense comme tel ?)
Après avoir précisé comment ses notions d'individuation et de rythme
permettent de comprendre les manières dont les sujets individuels et
collectifs sont construits, P. Michon, aborde la question de la manière
dont ces rythmes produisent du pouvoir, caractéristique de notre
« nouveau monde ».
D'abord, P. Michon situe sa manière de voir les choses sur le « marché
des idées » : ses vues se distinguent de l'utilitarisme dominant, pour
qui le pouvoir, assis sur la violence ou la contrainte qui l'euphémise,
est orienté vers la satisfaction des intérêts des individus, et le
Pouvoir, les institutions politiques, vers l'évitement de la
déflagration de la société en raison de la lutte de tous contre tous.
Or, cette manière de voir ne permet pas de saisir qu'aujourd'hui, le
pouvoir - qu'il s'exerce à l'échelle individuelle ou institutionnelle -
passe moins par la violence ou la contrainte que par une certaine
« façon de pénétrer les corps-langages, d'organiser leurs manières de
fluer et de déterminer ainsi leur individuation mouvante » [p. 93].
« Le pouvoir, écrit-il plus loin, s'est émancipé de la forme système
(...), et s'appuie désormais moins sur sa capacité à assurer un ordre
optimisé que sur un spectre de stratégies utilisant, au contraire, la
fluidité même du monde - stratégies qui vont du contrôle souple et de
la création des manières de fluer des corps-langages-groupes à
l'utilisation plus ou moins délibérée du chaos, comme on le voit avec
les États-Unis et le Royaume-Uni au Moyen-Orient » [p. 94-95].
Aujourd'hui, les personnes sont moins assujetties que les sujets sont
produits.
Pour penser cette nouvelle forme du pouvoir, il faut penser autrement
le rapport du tout aux parties, s'émanciper tant des théories qui
consacrent une autonomie totale des individus, de celles qui en font de
simples marionnettes du système, et rechercher une voie moyenne à
l'instar des « théories intermédiaires » - comme celles de Elias,
Bourdieu, Foucault, Touraine, Habermas, Honneth, Giddens, Bauman,
Caillé, Thévenot, Boltanski. [p. 101 et suiv.] qui tentent de « penser
l'un par l'autre ce qu'elles conçoivent comme les deux côtés de la vie
socio-politique : les `systèmes' et les `interactions entre les
individus' » [p. 101] ce par quoi il faut comprendre « un rapport réel
entre des pôles dont l'existence ne se conçoit que dans leur
interdépendance et leurs échanges incessants » [p. 102]. De ce point de
vue « le pouvoir constitue moins un simple état de fait que le milieu
et le moyen à travers lequel se construisent les individus singuliers
et collectifs, les classements et les hiérarchies qui les relient les
uns aux autres, ainsi que les effets de domination qui apparaissent au
sein de ces classements et de ces hiérarchies » [p. 103-104].
Néanmoins, parce qu' « elles n'ont pas prêté attention à l'organisation
temporelle [...] de ces interactions » [p. 106], elles manquent les
rythmes du politique où se joue la question du pouvoir. P. Michon
propose alors une définition du pouvoir comme « médium rythmique » [p.
107], c'est-à-dire, comprenons-nous, comme processus historique de
production et de contrôle des personnes et des groupes par imposition
d'un rythme « de toutes choses : de vie, de temps, de pensée, de
discours » comme il l'écrit plus loin [p. 129]. Compte tenu de cette
nouvelle modalité du pouvoir, reste à savoir quel critère on pourrait
se donner pour juger que notre démocratie se porte bien, ou pas ?
Démocratie
(ou quel(s) critère(s) se donner pour évaluer la démocratie
moderne ?)
Ou encore : que doit-on faire pour que dans notre nouveau monde où le
pouvoir s'exerce par un contrôle sur le processus de construction des
corps-langages-groupes, notre démocratie se porte bien ?
Quelle place pour l'État ? [[15]2]
Lutter contre l'État comme le pensait Pierre Clastres ? P. Michon ne le
croit pas : outre que P. Clastres aurait perdu « la conscience du temps
et de l'histoire », « le modèle politique et éthique arythmique qu'[il]
propose [est] assez peu offensif vis-à-vis de la réalité du
capitalisme » [p. 123]. Bref, la définition d'une « démocratie comme
arythmie » ne convient pas. Mieux vaut partir de Roland Barthes, selon
P. Michon, et plus précisément de la présentation qu'il fait des
collectivités religieuses « idiorrythmiques » qui vivaient dans les
déserts syriens et égyptiens « où chaque moine a (...) licence de mener
son rythme particulier de vie » [p. 126]. D'abord parce qu'elles sont
parvenues à éviter les excès du repli sur soi et de la fusion
communautaire, de la « solitude et [du] coenobium » [p. 127], dessinant
selon lui une sorte de « socialisme qui n'aurait pas abandonné
l'individu » [pp. 127-128]. Ensuite parce qu'en se retirant dans le
désert, elles sont parvenues à échapper au rythme d'un pouvoir
supérieur. Bref, c'est plutôt dans cette société idiorrythmique, i.e.
qui se fixe à elle-même son propre rythme, qu'il voit - provisoirement
du moins - un idéal type de la démocratie.
Néanmoins, quand P. Clastres pense l'État sans penser le rythme, R.
Barthes pense le rythme sans penser l'État [p. 140]. Sur le chemin de
sa quête d'une éthique et d'une politique du rythme, P. Michon se
tourne alors vers Marcel Mauss. Non seulement les descriptions que ce
dernier fait de la vie saisonnière des sociétés archaïques rendent bien
compte du caractère rythmique de ces sociétés, mais le potlatch
illustre de manière spectaculaire à ses yeux la « nature rythmique du
politique » [p. 142], au sens où c'est dans ce moment que se
« redéfini[ssent] périodiquement le statut et l'identité des groupes et
des personnes dans le système tribal » [p. 142]. Il retient de M. Mauss
et des travaux de Marcel Granet sur la Chine que la société n'est pas
contre l'État comme le pense P. Clastres, que l'État n'est pas contre
la société comme le pense R. Barthes. « Leurs relations, pense-t-il,
doivent [plutôt] être évaluées en fonction des interactions
historiques, toujours mouvantes, entre les rythmes imposés par l'État
aux corps-langages-groupes et ceux imposés à celui-là par ceux-ci.
[...] L'État n'est pas nécessairement « l'ennemi » de la société : il
peut certes devenir tyrannique et informer les processus
d'individuation à son profit, mais il peut tout aussi bien devenir
l'instrument grâce auquel la société peut chercher à assurer une
individuation de bonne qualité » [p. 147]. Bref, l'État a toute sa
place dans une démocratie idiorrythmique. Encore faut-il qu'il ne dénie
pas son rythme propre, sans l'imposer pour autant à la société. « Les
différents projets démocratiques qui sont au apparus vers la fin de
cette période apparaissent comme autant de tentatives politiques pour
réintroduire dans l'État, devenu permanent, une temporalité tenant
compte des rythmes propres de la société » [p. 154]. Voilà ce qu'il
nous faut : « Rerythmer le corps-langage arythmique de l'État moderne,
lui redonner la temporalité et la multiplicité interne dont il s'est
débarrassé, réhistoriciser une forme de pouvoir qui se prétend hors de
l'histoire » [p. 154].
Les nouveaux rythmes d'un monde fluide
Mais notre démocratie ne s'est-elle pas édifiée sur la maîtrise par
« le peuple » de la discipline exercée par l'État sur les corps et sur
les esprits ? Sans doute, répond P. Michon, mais de nouvelles formes
rythmiques se sont imposées « aux multitudes » [[16]3], peut-être plus
fortes qu'auparavant. C'est toute l'ambivalence de notre modernité
démocratique. « Tout s'est [...] passé comme si l'apparition des
libertés civiles puis la mutation démocratique de l'État n'avaient pu
se faire qu'au prix de la diffusion de nouveaux modes rythmiques
d'individuation fondés sur un assujettissement renforcé et de nouvelles
formes d'exclusion » [p. 194].
En quoi consiste plus précisément la nouveauté de nos « formes de
production des individus singuliers et collectifs », déjà rapidement
évoqués ? C'est qu'ils sont « beaucoup plus fluides, en tout cas
libérés de toute métrique, sinon de toute discipline » [p. 211].
S'appuyant sur Gabriel Tarde, P. Michon précise qu'elles sont le fait
du progrès technique dans l'imprimerie, la communication et les
transports, qui permet de produire des groupes 1) sans que leurs
membres se rassemblent physiquement (pensons à l'internet), 2) sur la
seule base d'idées communes (chacun pouvant se reconnaître dans un
« courant d'opinion »), et 3) « en perpétuelle métamorphose » (c'est ce
qui semble leur conférer un caractère fluide) [p. 215] ; groupes
d'individus, « myriades d'atomes » séparés mais non isolés (qui
prennent le visage du « public »), qui « imposent une fluidité de plus
en plus grande aux groupements institutionnalisés traditionnels et
[qui] transforment, tendanciellement, les sociétés modernes en société
de masse » [p. 215]. Les rythmes d'individuation sont encore plus
fluides en ce sens que, comme l'avait relevé Georg Simmel que P. Michon
mobilise aussi - en même temps qu'ils sont désormais en connexion
permanente, inscrits dans une « temporalité continue, sans halte ni
repos » [p. 220], ils peuvent choisir leurs propres rythmes de vie.
D'un point de vue simmelien, la monnaie y a fait bien sûr pour
beaucoup.
Désormais dominante, cette manière, fluide, de produire des individus
singuliers et collectifs est elle-même ambivalente. G. Tarde, par
exemple, est plutôt sensible aux dangers pour la démocratie que porte
la possibilité de produire un « public », une « opinion publique », si
celle ci devait être instrumentalisée par des puissances animées par
une volonté d'assujettissement. Simmel, lui, est plus sensible aux
possibilités accrues pour les individus de choisir leurs propres
rythmes. Il voit davantage le danger dans le refus de cette
fluidification du rythme, et dans l'aspiration au retour à des rythmes
plus disciplinés et cadencés.
Avec G. Tarde et G. Simmel, on voit clairement que le rythme, la
manière dont les hommes se produisent, dont les corps-langages-groupes
se construisent, n'est pas sans incidences politiques. Il y a donc lieu
de les distinguer selon leur « qualité éthique et politique » [p. 232].
P. Michon, inspiré par Ossip Mandesltam [[17]4], se donne alors un
indicateur de la mesure de cette qualité des rythmes : la
« rythmicité ». Et vient une définition rythmique des groupements
démocratiques : ils sont « dotés d'une rythmicité forte. Ils se
caractérisent par leur multiplicité interne et par le fait qu'ils
permettent aux contradictions et aux conflits de s'exprimer sans que
ceux-ci ne débouchent sur la suppression de l'un des termes
antagonistes, assurant ainsi l'une par l'autre la promotion du
singulier et celle des groupes auxquels il appartient. » [p. 233]. Mais
qu'en est-il du rythme, de la manière dont se produisent les
corps-langages-groupes censée porter ces groupements démocratiques ? On
n'en sait trop rien sinon qu'il est lui-même traversé par cette
exigence paradoxale de fabriquer du commun et du singulier, de la
cohésion et du conflit. On en sait davantage sur le rythme des
groupements à rythmicité faible, dont la foule et les « sociétés de
masses » sont les idéaux-types : ils « sont très souvent marqués par
des techniques rythmiques de type métriques - [...] manifestations,
meetings politiques, matchs de football -, proches de la cadence, de la
simple alternance binaire [...] ou mécanique - [...] parades
militaires, sparkiades et autres spectacles de masse » [p. 233-234].
Mais les rythmes à rythmicité faible peuvent être encore « flous, très
peu accentués et à basse tension interne » [p. 234], comme on peut en
rencontrer dans les entreprises aujourd'hui, « rythmes aussi peu
favorables à l'individuation que les rythmes binaires et disciplinaires
qu'ils ont remplacés » [p . 234], typiques des organisations
tayloristes ou de l'armée.
À la recherche des formes justes d'un monde fluidifié
Ce qu'il faut donc, c'est rechercher « les formes justes d'un monde
fluidifié » [p. 237]. Il se tourne alors vers ce qu'il appelle
« l'utopie maussienne » [p. 233], qui consiste à voir la morale du don
- de la triple obligation de donner, recevoir et rendre - tempérer,
contenir, celle de l'intérêt, aujourd'hui dominante, et qui revient
selon lui à « assurer la maximisation de leur individuation [celle des
individus singuliers et collectifs] par une mise en tension du soi et
du collectif » [p. 238]. Car, plus qu'une simple transaction, P. Michon
voit dans le don archaïque, agonistique, un rythme particulier,
« l'occasion d'une réunion et d'une mise en branle périodiques et
organisées des corps-langages, c'est à dire de la production d' `âmes'
par des techniques rythmiques particulières » [p. 239]. Voyant chez
M. Mauss une définition rythmique du don - comme forme de production
des corps-langages-groupes - susceptible d'étayer un projet
éthico-politique, P. Michon la considère comme un « point de départ »
[p. 241] pour réfléchir à l'énoncé de critères qui permettent de
distinguer les bons des mauvais rythmes. Il déduit des réflexions de
Mauss sur la circulation et la fortification de l'âme des peuples au
cours des potlatchs que « toute politique démocratique consistera [...]
à rechercher, non pas seulement, comme le pensaient Georg Simmel et R.
Barthes, une idiorrythmie, une simple liberté rythmique personnelle
indépendante des rythmes collectifs, mais une eurythmie simultanément
corporelle, discursive et sociale - une maximisation de
l'individualisation singulière et collective » [p. 242]. Au regard de
la démocratie, le seul bon rythme est celui qui maximise la production
des individus singuliers et collectifs...
Néanmoins, M. Mauss ne parvient pas à nous fournir les critères qui
permettraient de distinguer les bons [[18]5] des mauvais rythmes
d'individuation, parce que, dans ses conclusions de morale et de
politique de son célèbre Essai, il développe une « conception pacifiste
et consensualiste de la démocratie, et ne tient aucun compte du rôle
que joue précisément le conflit dans [les] processus d'individuation »
[p. 248].
P. Michon voit davantage le bon rythme de l'individuation démocratique
chez les Nuer tels qu'ils sont décrits par Evans-Pritchard, qui
alternent successivement « don et refus du don, l'alliance et la
lutte » [p. 252]. Ainsi, « tout en restant disponibles à la générosité
et à l'engagement solidaire, [ils] jouissent pleinement de leur
autonomie. [...] Les Nuer ont inventé un système, poursuit plus loin P.
Michon, dans lequel, loin de s'opposer, solidarité et individualité se
renforcent l'une l'autre » [ibid.]. Bref, le bon rythme d'individuation
démocratique est celui qui repose sur « l'alternance du conflit et de
l'alliance ». [p. 252], ou plus précisément, il s'opère lorsque
« l'alliance et le conflit alternent tout en étant compris sans cesse
l'un dans l'autre, un peu comme, dans la pensée chinoise, le yin et le
yang se succèdent tout en impliquant déjà chaque fois leur opposé »[p.
254]. Ou encore, le bon rythme d'individuation démocratique est celui
qui permet de « considérer nos adversaires comme des alliés en
puissance, mais aussi ceux qui sont nos alliés comme de potentiels
adversaires » [p. 254]. Ce qui le conduit à défendre une définition de
la démocratie comme « eurythmie de l'usage de la violence » [p. 254].
Seul ce rythme « maximise » l'individuation des individus singuliers et
collectifs, permet l'affirmation la plus intense des « Je » et du
« Nous ». [p. 255] [[19]6].
De ce point de vue, le système économique le plus juste est donc celui
qui fait autant de place à l'adversité qu'à l'alliance. Il le voit dans
une sorte de « mixture » qui organiserait l'adversité par la
concurrence marchande et la reconnaissance de la propriété privée, et
l'alliance par l'organisation collective de la production et une
certaine « mise en commun de la propriété » [p. 274]. Il en vient ainsi
à définir la démocratie, « non seulement comme une eurythmie de l'usage
de la violence, mais comme une eurythmie des usages de la propriété et
du marché » [ibid.], dont la rythmicité est donc forte.
C'est à l'aune de ce critère du bon rythme d'individuation démocratique
qu'il évalue la qualité des rythmes du « monde nouveau » qu'est le
nôtre.
Capitalisme mondialisé
(notre société capitaliste est-elle bien démocratique ? Que faire
pour la rendre plus démocratique ?)
Le rythme du capitalisme s'est modifié. Cadencé, binaire, métrique dans
les organisations tayloristes, il s'est depuis une trentaine d'années
fluidifié dans les organisations dites flexibles, dont l'objectif est
de répondre au mieux à la demande des clients (en vue de maximiser le
profit). Jouant la carte de la responsabilisation individuelle, des
horaires variables, de l'accroissement de la mobilité professionnelle,
ces organisations développent des rythmes d'individuation plus lâches,
moins métriques et peuvent donner l'impression qu'elles libèrent les
formes de vie dans le travail. Mais, s'appuyant sur l'ouvrage de
Richard Senett, Le travail en miettes (1998), P. Michon montre qu'il
n'en est rien. Confrontés à des objectifs de court terme quasiment
inatteignables, à un temps hors travail qu'ils ne maîtrisent même plus,
à des parcours professionnels bigarrés, les individus subissent une
nouvelle forme d'assujettissement. Et l'individualisation à outrance du
rapport au travail a sapé « les liens de confiance et d'engagement
mutuels » constitutifs de tout groupe [p 292]. On a désormais affaire à
des individus singuliers et collectifs à faible rythmicité.
Notre monde est flexible, mais il est encore médiatique. On assiste à
un développement sans précédent des moyens de communication, qui, lui
aussi, à l'instar de la flexibilité, pourrait faire croire à une
libération des formes d'individuation ici langagière. Mais il n'en est
rien. Le discours est aseptisé, consensuel, l'information « désincarnée
et dépolitisée ».
Bref, qu'il s'agisse de nos rapports au langage, au corps, aux autres,
nous vivons dans un monde à faible rythmicité, i.e. dont ni l'individu,
ni le collectif ne sortent gagnants. « Ainsi, note P. Michon, les
démocraties libérales, qui se voyaient jusque là comme des machines à
produire des individus émancipés, tendent-elles à devenir aujourd'hui
d'immenses dispositifs qui assurent, à travers une fluidification
généralisée des corporéités, des discursivités, et des socialités, la
multiplication d'individus faibles et flottants, constamment happés par
les besoins de la production et de l'échange marchand et les
interactions dans lesquels ils sont pris » [p. 307].
Pour éviter les « tempêtes » dont ce monde est porteur, il est urgent
pour P. Michon que nous retrouvions de nouveaux rythmes d'individuation
langagière, corporelle et sociale, « à partir des capacités des
individus à s'associer au niveau local, voire translocal » [p. 311],
« dans l`expérience de corps-langage-groupe en lutte » [p. 312]. Mais
cela ne pourra pas se faire, selon lui, sans « toucher aux rapports de
production et à la répartition des revenus » [ibid.], et donc sans une
« puissance supérieure à celle des entreprises et du marché » [ibid.],
qui pourrait-être l'Europe, en tant qu'entité politique.
DISCUSSION
Que penser de cet ouvrage ? À vrai dire, il nous laisse une curieuse
impression. Les efforts que déploie P. Michon pour concevoir un
appareillage conceptuel afin de saisir l'état de notre démocratie
moderne forcent le respect. On est là, se dit-on, en présence d'un
auteur qui développe sa propre pensée, en discussion permanente avec
des auteurs d'horizons multiples, de surcroît d'une manière fort
rigoureuse, puisqu'il ne s'épargne aucun effort pour définir les
notions qu'il crée. La progression de l'ouvrage elle-même laisse
apparaître un auteur méthodique et prudent dans ses diagnostics : ce
n'est qu'après avoir défini ce qu'il appelle individuation, explicité
ses rapports avec le pouvoir, qu'il se permet, chaussé des lunettes
qu'il vient de se fabriquer, de porter un diagnostic sur notre
démocratie. Enfin, on sent bien, intuitivement, qu'avec sa notion de
rythme, il pointe sur une dimension de la réalité sociale très
largement ignorée par les spécialistes en sciences sociales [[20]7]mais
qui pourrait bien être importante si, comme il le soutient, c'est dans
les rythmes que se jouent les relations de pouvoir.
De l'usage du concept
Mais c'est ce même appareillage conceptuel qui nous laisse perplexe.
Créé de toutes pièces par P. Michon, il est bien difficile à saisir
malgré les efforts qu'il fournit pour définir les notions employées.
Individuation, rythme, arythmie, idiorrythmie, eurythmie, fluement
(finalement très peu utilisé), rythmicité (forte et faible) : tout cela
pourrait décourager le lecteur pressé (et a rendu cette recension bien
difficile). À ce propos d'ailleurs, les ralliements qu'il opère de
certains auteurs à la cause de l'individuation et du rythme paraissent
un peu forcés ! Présenter M. Foucault comme l'auteur d'une « histoire
des rythmes d'individuation » [p. 195], et M. Mauss comme le découvreur
de la notion d'eurythmie [p. 243, cf. supra] est pour le moins assez
peu usuel. Si ces points de vue, rapidement glissés, pouvaient aider à
la compréhension des idées de P. Michon, ils pourraient se justifier.
Mais pour notre part, nous ne pouvons pas dire qu'ils nous aient
beaucoup aidés. Bien sûr, son langage se comprend au regard des
défaillances qu'il identifie chez les auteurs qui appréhendent notre
démocratie, et qui résident justement, selon lui, dans leur incapacité
à saisir ce qu'il appelle individuation et rythme pourtant au coeur des
relations de pouvoir selon lui. Nous sommes tout simplement, de son
point de vue, en présence d'« une réalité nouvelle » qui demande « des
dispositifs théoriques, eux aussi, totalement nouveaux » (nous
soulignons) [p. 30]. Par ailleurs, P. Michon a suffisamment critiqué
l'intelligentsia française pour son manque de créativité intellectuelle
pour ne pas se faire lui-même inventif... Néanmoins, la nouveauté
est-elle toujours un indice de la pertinence ? Ne peut-on rien
apprendre de ceux qui nous ont précédés ? Qu'y a-t-il de honteux à
s'inscrire dans une tradition de pensée ? Soyons sévère (et un peu
injuste, car P. Michon s'efforce, sans être toujours très convaincant,
de rallier des prédécesseurs plus ou moins connus à ses concepts) : n'y
a-t-il pas dans cette posture de créativité radicale, quasiment
nihiliste, quelque chose du mythe de l'autoréalisation de soi
emblématique de notre époque et qu'il condamne lui-même ? Toujours
est-il que nous nous demandons si P. Michon n'aurait pas pu, tout de
même, dire les choses plus simplement.
Que dit-il au juste ? Que nos identités se construisent dans nos
relations aux autres, qui engagent notre corps et notre langage. Que
ces relations peuvent être placées sous des registres différents (elles
peuvent être rythmées différemment), qu'elles peuvent être notamment
plus ou moins contraintes (rythme cadencé, métré, binaire etc.) ou
libres (rythme fluide). Que dans ces relations se jouent des relations
de pouvoir sur les personnes (pouvoir de contrainte, parfois médiatisé
par le savoir), et, par-là, la capacité pour elles de se réaliser de
manière autonome, ou pas (pouvoir d'agir). Dans une première phase du
capitalisme, un réel pouvoir sur les personnes s'exerçait via
l'organisation de relations sociales contraignantes qui engageaient
leurs corps et leurs langages, et qui freinaient leur pouvoir d'agir,
individuellement et collectivement. L'organisation tayloriste en
constitue l'idéal-type. Aujourd'hui, apparemment délivrées des
contraintes systémiques dans leurs relations aux autres, visiblement
libérées du pouvoir qui s'exerçait sur elles-mêmes (l'organisation du
travail flexible faisant appel à l'initiative et à la responsabilité de
ses salariés joue ici comme idéal-type), les personnes n'ont pour
autant pas gagné en pouvoir d'agir, ni individuellement, ni
collectivement. Le pouvoir exercé sur les personnes prend
paradoxalement le canal de l'exhortation de leur pouvoir d'agir (qui se
réduit bien souvent à celui de produire et de consommer). Si bien que
notre démocratie n'est pas tout à fait démocratique, « étant entendu »
qu'une bonne démocratie est celle qui renforce le pouvoir d'agir des
individus et des groupes. D'une certaine manière, même, notre société
est moins démocratique qu'auparavant car elle paraît faussement l'être
plus, alors qu'autrefois elle paraissait bien ne pas l'être assez. Ce
que nous pouvons en déduire, c'est qu'il nous faut cultiver des
relations sociales, créer des institutions qui soient porteuses de ce
pouvoir d'agir individuellement et collectivement, qui nous permettent
de retrouver la maîtrise de nos destins à la fois individuels et
collectifs.
Nous aimerions savoir ce que ce résumé omet d'essentiel que l'emploi de
ses notions d'individuation, de rythme, de fluement, d'arythmie,
d'idiorrythmie etc. auraient fait apparaître.
Sur la démocratie
Puisque l'ouvrage se présente comme une contribution à la théorie de la
démocratie, attardons-nous maintenant sur cette contribution, et
d'abord sur son positionnement sur le marché des idées.
Pour le dire vite, P. Michon souhaite se distinguer à la fois de
l'individualisme méthodologique, qui ne voit que des individus libres,
et du holisme qui ne voit que des individus contraints. Il leur
reproche au fond leur incapacité à saisir que la contrainte prend
aujourd'hui les allures de la liberté. Son souci est bien de se doter
de concepts qui permettent de comprendre ce paradoxe. Il le tente dans
le cadre d'un interactionnisme ou d'un relationnisme qui se laisse
percevoir dans sa définition de l'individuation, comme processus de
construction des identités et des normes dans le cadre de relations qui
engagent le corps et le langage (d'ailleurs, qu'est-ce donc que
l'individuation ainsi traduite - nous espérons ne pas trahir la pensée
de P. Michon - sinon ce que les sociologues appellent socialisation ?).
De ce point de vue, la démarche nous paraît très cohérente.
P. Michon dit encore vouloir se distinguer des théories utilitaristes
du pouvoir (notons d'ailleurs qu'il situe dans l'utilitarisme l'origine
de la fluidification de notre monde [[21]8], sans qu'on sache s'il
s'agit de l'utilitarisme en tant que pratique ou en tant que théorie,
et sans qu'il nous dise véritablement en quoi il serait à l'origine de
la fluidification de notre monde). Il dit en effet ne pas souscrire aux
théories qui définissent le pouvoir comme pouvoir de contrainte en vue
de satisfaire ses intérêts personnels, et qui envisagent le Pouvoir
comme l'ensemble des institutions visant l'évitement la déflagration
sociale dans la guerre de tous contre tous. De fait, ce n'est pas ainsi
qu'il considère le pouvoir puisque, pour lui, le pouvoir de contrainte
et d'assujettissement s'exerce moins qu'il ne se joue dans les manières
dont les relations se construisent en engageant le corps et le langage.
Cela lui permet de faire apparaître que des relations placées sous le
signe de la liberté, ou du moins de l'absence apparente de contraintes
(de la fluidité) peuvent au final s'avérer très contraignantes ;
autrement dit, qu'un réel pouvoir de contrainte peut se manifester sans
qu'une volonté quelconque d'assujettissement soit véritablement
exprimée. Situation qui caractérise notre société démocratique
contemporaine selon lui (si nous avons bien compris). De ce point de
vue, pas de doute, P.Michon ne s'inscrit pas dans la tradition
utilitariste. Quoique... plaçant par ailleurs le pouvoir sous le signe
de « stratégies qui vont du contrôle souple et de la création plus ou
moins délibérée du chaos » [p. 94-95 par exemple, cf. supra], on peut
se demander quelle place il accorde à l'intérêt calculé dans cette
affaire, et donc quel rapport sa conception du pouvoir entretient avec
l'utilitarisme ?
Concernant la relation de sa conception de la démocratie avec
l'utilitarisme, les choses sont beaucoup plus ambiguës. En effet, il
définit assez curieusement la démocratie comme le régime ou l'état
social plutôt (P. Michon ne se prononce pas trop à ce sujet) qui
« maximise » l'individuation : « Toute politique démocratique
consistera, écrit-il, [...] à rechercher [...] une eurythmie
simultanément corporelle, discursive et sociale - une maximisation de
l'individuation singulière et collective » [p. 242]. Nous ne comprenons
tout simplement pas qui maximise, qui calcule au mieux quoi, ni en en
vue de quoi ! Reprenons sa définition de l'individuation : que signifie
calculer « un processus corporel, langagier et social par lesquels sont
sans cesse produits et reproduits les individus singuliers et
collectifs » ? À vrai dire, la question « en vue de quoi il faut
maximiser l'individuation », pourrait trouver sa réponse quelques
lignes plus haut, quand P. Michon relève que dans un des derniers
passages de l' [22]« Essai sur le don » , M. Mauss situe le secret du
bonheur dans une vie bien rythmée, alternant les moments de travail et
de repos, de solitude et de vie sociale, d'accumulation des richesses
et de dépenses généreuses. Voilà donc ce qu'aurait en vue une politique
véritablement démocratique, qui viserait la maximisation de
l'individuation : le bonheur de tous et de chacun (manifestement
mesurables et calculables). Ainsi placée sous le signe du calcul
(maximisateur), du bonheur, du plus grand bonheur, et d'un grand
calculateur, une telle conception de la démocratie nous semble bien
s'inscrire dans la tradition utilitariste. D'ailleurs, nous nous
demandons vraiment si les communautés religieuses syriennes qui
représentent pour lui un bon idéal-type de la bonne démocratie
conduisaient une politique de maximisation de l'individuation ! À moins
que par maximisation il ne faille pas comprendre maximisation, c'est à
dire calcul... Nous avons tendance à penser en effet que cette
expression est malheureuse, et que P. Michon est davantage spinoziste
que benthamien, car il nous semble que pour lui, une démocratie
s'évalue non pas par le bonheur de ses membres, mais par la « puissance
d'agir » de tous et de chacun [[23]9].
Enfin, le critère qu'il se donne pour identifier un groupement
démocratique nous semble très largement autoréférentiel. En effet,
qu'est-ce qu'un groupement démocratique pour P. Michon ? Un groupement
dont la rythmicité est forte. Mais la caractéristique qu'il donne d'un
groupe dont la rythmicité est forte n'est rien d'autre que celle d'un
groupement démocratique, i.e. qui sait cultiver le conflit dans les
limites de l'amitié. Nous aurions aimé qu'il précise plutôt sous quel
registre il place une telle relation...à la fois teintée d'agôn et de
philia... Ce qui nous amène à M. Mauss.
Sur Marcel Mauss
Ce que P. Michon souligne en s'appuyant sur M. Mauss, c'est combien la
vie de certains peuples archaïques est saisonnière, ou encore, rythmée.
Les Eskimos comme les Kwakiutls, par exemple, se dispersent l'été,
période d'accumulation, et se retrouvent l'hiver, période
d'effervescence sociale, de dépenses généreuses, d'invitations
mutuelles, bref, de dons en tous genres. P. Michon donne au rythme de
la vie sociale une importance qu'elle n'a généralement pas chez les
commentateurs de M. Mauss. Il nous alerte ainsi sur les rythmes de nos
propres vies sociales, et en particulier, sur « la nature rythmique du
politique » [p. 142]. À mieux y réfléchir, les dons eux-mêmes obéissent
en effet à des rythmes propres qui leur sont constitutifs : il y a des
moments pour donner, de même qu'il y a des moments pour ne pas donner,
et la spirale du don elle-même - celle de la triple obligation de
donner, recevoir et rendre plus - obéit bien à un rythme (à trois
temps) plus ou moins obligé. Si ces rythmes ne sont pas respectés, si
l'on donne mal à propos, à contre-temps, si l'on rend trop rapidement,
ou encore si le temps du don est réduit à presque rien ou cantonné à la
sphère privée, on saisit bien que cela puisse compromettre les
alliances et la vie sociale elle-même. On comprend mieux ainsi en quoi
les rythmes de nos vies sociales ne sont pas sans effets éthiques et
politiques. C'est un véritable chantier qu'ouvre ainsi P. Michon, qui
mérite à nos yeux que les MAUSSiens, entre autres, s'y penchent
davantage qu'ils ont pu le faire. D'autant que la démarche de P.
Michon, qui s'efforce de déduire de ses réflexions
socio-anthropologiques des conclusions de morale et de politique,
s'inscrit pleinement dans une démarche maussienne. D'ailleurs, les
conclusions de politiques économiques auxquelles aboutit P. Michon font
étonnement écho aux positions politiques de M. Mauss, quand ce dernier
plaide pour une « mixture » de capitalisme et de socialisme, de
propriété privée et de propriété collective, de marché et de solidarité
etc. Mixture qui, tout en étant attentive à la dimension collective de
nos existences, n'en oublierait pas pour autant que les individus ont
des aspirations singulières, pas moins légitimes que les aspirations
collectives. En fait, on a chez M. Mauss le « socialisme qui n'aurait
pas abandonné l'individu » [pp. 127-128] cher à R. Barthes et auquel
semble sensible P. Michon.
Pour autant, et ce n'est pas que nous voulions défendre M. Mauss à tout
prix, nous ne partageons pas toujours les lectures qu'en fait P.
Michon. Par exemple, nous avons du mal à le suivre quand il soutient
que M. Mauss ne parvient tout simplement pas à penser l'histoire. Les
considérations de M. Mauss dans son « Essai sur le don », « conservent,
en dépit de tout, écrit P. Michon, une attache à un principe ultime de
stabilité et d'atemporalité » [p. 248]. Vraiment, nous ne voyons pas en
quoi. « L'Essai sur le don » est une vaste épopée du don !
Nous avons encore du mal à suivre P. Michon quand il parle « d'utopie
maussienne », car les positions politiques de M. Mauss sont tout sauf
utopiques. Le socialisme démocratique et associationniste qu'il défend
n'est pas à rêver. Il est déjà en partie advenu, par et dans les
coopératives de consommation notamment. Il a moins à être inventé qu'à
être encouragé. M. Mauss n'est pas un utopiste. Il est même bien
conscient de l'écart qui existe entre le possible et le souhaitable, et
ne plaide que pour le possible, mais tout le possible, en direction du
souhaitable. C'est un possibiliste [[24]10].
De la même manière, nous ne le suivons pas quand il soutient que
M. Mauss « garde une conception pacifiste et consensualiste de la
démocratie » [ibid.]. Il suffit de mettre en rapport son « Essai sur le
don » et sa critique du bolchevisme, écrits sensiblement au même
moment, et pour voir combien la conception maussienne de la démocratie
est agonistique, et pour comprendre qu'elle est ancrée, justement, sur
« le roc de la morale éternelle » qu'est le don agonistique selon
M. Mauss. La définition que P. Michon donne de la démocratie comme état
social qui fait toute leur place à la fois à l'alliance et au conflit,
qui se contiennent l'un l'autre, le conflit évitant à l'alliance de
basculer dans la fusion et l'alliance permettant au conflit de ne pas
sombrer dans la déflagration, nous semble très maussienne. Elle
pourrait-même trouver son fondement anthropologique dans le don
agonistique, qui présente exactement la caractéristique que P. Michon
prête à la démocratie. D'ailleurs, la définition qu'il donne de la
démocratie comme eurythmie rejoint tout à fait la voie du milieu
éthique et politique qui est celle de M. Mauss [[25]11].
Finalement, si nous avions à écrire la question que se pose P. Michon
et la réponse qu'il y apporte, sans recourir à ses concepts parfois
difficiles d'accès, nous les formulerions ainsi : « Que pouvons-nous
faire pour retrouver notre autonomie dans un monde où le pouvoir de
contrainte sur les personnes s'exerce non plus directement mais via
d'invisibles processus qui façonnent leurs manières de se parler, de se
mouvoir et de se lier ? Commencer par expérimenter des manières propres
de nous parler, de nous mouvoir, de nous lier, qui nous permettent de
retrouver la maîtrise de nos vies individuelles et collectives ». Ou,
encore plus brièvement, forcément appauvrissant, et en reprenant sa
métaphore musicale : « Que faire dans un monde où nous sommes tous
emportés par une cadence infernale qui nous oppresse et nous opprime ?
Ne pas s'arrêter de jouer (voie a-rythmique), ne pas jouer seul dans
son coin (voie idiorrythmique), mais simplement retrouver le bon rythme
pour soi et pour tous ! (voie eurythmique) ».
Malgré les réserves que nous avons pu émettre, le lecteur aura saisi
que l'ouvrage de P. Michon donne véritablement à penser. Nous espérons
qu'il retiendra l'attention d'un grand nombre et notamment des
MAUSSiens, car il pointe sur une dimension de la vie sociale, son
caractère rythmé, qu'ils ont finalement peu interrogée, alors qu'il se
pourrait qu'elle ne soit pas sans effets éthico-politiques. Cela mérite
bien un examen attentif.
Bibliographie sommaire de Pascal Michon
Michon, P., Éléments d'une histoire du sujet, Paris, Kimé, 1999
-- [26]Rythmes, pouvoir, mondialisation, PUF, 2005.
Ouvrages en collaboration
-- (avec E. Barjolle, G. Dessons, V. Fabbri), Avec Henri
Meschonnic : Les gestes dans la voix, Rumeur des Ages, 2003.
-- (avec G. Desson et S. Martin), Henri Meschonnic, la pensée et le
poème, In Press, 2005.
-- (avec Ph. Hauser, F. Carnevale, A. Brossat), Foucault dans tous
ses éclats, L'Harmattan, 2005.
On peut aussi retrouver P. Michon dans les numéros 25 [27]Malaise
dans la démocratie , 26 [28]Alter-démocratie, Alter-économie et 28
[29]Penser la crise de l'école de La Revue du MAUSS semestrielle.
[30]Pour commander les numéros
Ici, un article paru dans le mensuel [31]Sciences Humaines en
novembre 2005
__________________________________________________________________
Réponse de Pascal Michon
Cher Sylvain,
tout d'abord, je voudrais vous remercier de votre recension extrêmement
scrupuleuse. C'est un réconfort de voir qu'il existe encore, dans nos
corporations de sciences sociales, des lecteurs curieux. J'ai plus
l'habitude des débats internes, dans l'entre-soi disciplinaire qui
permet à la fois de facilement se comprendre et d'éviter de se frotter
aux savoirs des autres disciplines. De nombreux lecteurs de mon livre
précédent, par exemple, se sont arrêtés aux chapitres qui les
« concernaient », passant du même coup à côté du mouvement de pensée
qui les liaient les uns aux autres - les sociologues ont lu les
sections sociologiques, les psy les sections psy, les littéraires les
sections littéraires... Tout ce petit monde est resté chez soi et les
vaches ont été bien gardées. J'ai aussi aimé la façon dont vous avez
procédé, présentant, tout d'abord, le texte dans ses grandes lignes
puis proposant, dans un deuxième temps, une lecture critique. C'est de
très bonne méthode et je vous en remercie également, car cela donne à
entendre aux lecteurs, sans interférences, une grande partie des enjeux
de mon travail. Je vais me concentrer dans cette réponse sur ceux de
ces enjeux que vous n'avez pu complètement traiter, soit parce qu'on ne
peut tout dire dans une recension, soit parce qu'il reste toujours des
angles moins bien éclairés quel que soit le point de vue que l'on
adopte.
1. Mon livre est un essai. Bien qu'il tente, comme vous le remarquez,
de construire méthodiquement ses concepts à partir du matériel
analytique disponible, il ne prétend pas répondre à tous les problèmes
qui se posent, ni fournir une théorie complète de son objet : les
rythmes de l'individuation singulière et collective. Il voudrait juste
faire émerger celui-ci dans la conscience scientifique. Si cet objectif
était atteint, cela me suffirait grandement. Mon livre constitue plus
une proposition de recherche, l'esquisse d'un programme de travail,
qu'une réponse globalisante qui donnerait une clé pour toutes les
serrures contemporaines. On m'a déjà reproché cette « ambition », comme
vous dîtes, ou même le côté « totalisant » de ma démarche. À cela je
réponds habituellement : 1. que nous ne pouvons plus nous satisfaire,
de par la nature même du nouveau monde dans lequel nous sommes entrés,
de déclarations d'intention concernant la transdisciplinarité, il nous
faut la mettre en pratique activement et individuellement (c'est-à-dire
pas seulement par une juxtaposition de spécialistes) car aucune
discipline ne peut, encore plus aujourd'hui qu'hier, comprendre à elle
seule ce qui est train d'émerger. Mauss, qui était passé à travers une
période historique par bien des points semblables à la nôtre, l'avait
d'ailleurs bien compris : « C'est aux confins des sciences, à leurs
bords extérieurs, aussi souvent qu'à leurs principes, qu'à leur noyau
et à leur centre que se font leurs progrès » (« Rapports réels et
pratiques de la psychologie et de la sociologie », 1924) ; 2. que les
sciences sociales ne peuvent progresser que par un déplacement radical
de point de vue. Je milite, pour cette raison, comme Alain Caillé, en
faveur d'un changement de paradigme. En simplifiant outrageusement, on
peut dire qu'après l'affaissement des paradigmes structuralistes et
systémistes, l'individualisme méthodologique, sous différentes formes,
a pris le dessus. Or, cette mutation n'a pas apporté les résultats
escomptés. En fait, ni l'un ni l'autre de ces paradigmes ne peut rendre
compte de la période présente. Il est vrai qu'un certain nombre de
« théories intermédiaires » ou « centristes » dans la classification de
Margaret Archer, (Elias, Bourdieu, Foucault, Touraine, Habermas,
Giddens, Bauman, Caillé, Boltanski, Thévenot, entre autres) ont essayé,
partant du même constat, de dépasser les dualismes traditionnels des
sciences sociales. Mais elles connaissent aujourd'hui des ratés qui
tiennent, me semble-t-il, essentiellement à leur difficulté à conjuguer
primat de la temporalité, éthique et politique. D'où la nécessité d'un
nouveau modèle général - comme celui que fournit le rythme - pour
relancer la réflexion ; 3. qu'on confond souvent, de manière polémique,
totalisation et puissance d'un concept. Le concept de rythme n'est pas
globalisant ou totalisant, il possède tout simplement une puissance que
j'essaie, avec mes moyens, d'explorer. C'est cette puissance de
problématisation nouvelle qui dérange les habitudes de pensée et les
partages du territoire institutionnel qui leur sont liés - et qui
explique ces caricatures absurdes qui me sont parfois opposées.
2. Mon livre porte sur la question de l'individuation singulière et
collective. Pour des raisons de précision et pour ne pas embrouiller
l'exposé, j'ai expressément laissé de côté la question du ou des
« sujets ». D'où un certain flou dans votre présentation qui confond,
comme beaucoup de monde il est vrai, ces deux questions. Mais, si vous
y prêtez attention vous le verrez aisément, le rapport entre les deux
est loin d'être évident et devrait être analysé à nouveaux frais. Pour
rester bref, on peut dire qu'un individu singulier ou collectif
n'atteint le statut de sujet que lorsqu'il devient un agent d'un
processus particulier. D'où une difficulté, une multiplicité, une
discontinuité et une instabilité très grandes de la subjectivation,
dont les rapports à l'individuation restent en fait entièrement à
repenser. En tout état de cause, individuation est loin de signifier
subjectivation (c'est, d'ailleurs, l'un des problèmes que posent les
propositions d'AlainTouraine qui ne fait pas cette distinction).
3. J'ai beaucoup insisté sur un aspect décisif du concept de rythme qui
n'apparaît pas dans votre recension : son aspect a-métrique. Le
matériel très divers et assez abondant dont nous disposons (que ce soit
au niveau des corps, du langage ou des interactions sociales) montre
qu'il est impossible de se satisfaire de sa définition métrique
traditionnelle. Si nous nous limitons à cette définition, nous
réduisons la diversité des fluements du réel à un schéma binaire et
numérique simpliste et nous introduisons sans même en avoir conscience
une politique et une éthique anti-démocratiques. Une définition plus
utilisable pour penser ce que nous devons penser aujourd'hui est celle
qui avait cours avant que Platon associe rhuthmos et métron, et qui
faisait du rythme une « manière de fluer ». J'ai aussi montré que cette
définition peut être précisée grâce à la remotivation par Diderot de la
notion de « manière », qu'il repense à partir de la question de la
qualité (et donc de l'individuation) artistique, c'est-à-dire comme
concept d'une forme qui reste active en dehors de son contexte
originel. Ces précisions sont loin d'être des détails insignifiants,
elles engagent toute la théorie des rythmes de l'individuation, aussi
bien dans ses capacités heuristiques, que dans ses conséquences
éthiques et politiques.
4. Ici, on le voit, la sociologie a un grand besoin de la linguistique
(Benveniste), de la poétique (Meschonnic) et de la philosophie
(Deleuze, Foucault, Simondon). Or, je note que vous accordez toute
votre attention aux auteurs sociologiques ou anthropologiques que je
cite, mais que vous ne dîtes rien des discussions philosophiques,
poétiques et linguistiques, qui encadrent ces analyses (Benveniste,
Meschonnic, Deleuze, Foucault et Simondon sont étrangement absents de
votre CR). Je me demande si vous ne raisonnez pas encore ici, à votre
insu, en termes disciplinaires, comme si poétique, linguistique ou
philosophie n'avaient rien à apporter aux sciences sociales ou ne
constituaient que des décorations non-essentielles d'un propos plus
consistant qui reviendrait de droit à ces dernières.
5. Sur vos critiques maintenant. Vous trouvez que j'exagère en
caractérisant Surveiller et punir comme un grand livre sur les rythmes
de l'individuation. Je sais bien que la vulgate présente Foucault comme
un auteur intéressé uniquement par l'espace, les répartitions, les
quadrillages, etc. Mais, précisément, cette vulgate laisse totalement
de côté le profond intérêt de Foucault pour tous les phénomènes
temporels, en particulier pour toutes les techniques utilisées pour
rythmer les corps, les discours et la vie des groupes. Il me semble que
les descriptions qu'il fait de l'apprentissage militaire, des formes du
travail dans les manufactures, de la vie en prison, des méthodes de
dressage scolaires parlent d'elles-mêmes. Elles corroborent, du reste,
des analyses engagées par Thompson au cours de la décennie précédente
et constituent un ensemble d'analyses des rythmes de l'individuation
qui n'a que peu d'équivalents dans la littérature scientifique
disponible.
6. Pour Mauss (comme pour Foucault), vous trouvez ma lecture rythmique
« peu usuelle ». Mais je voudrais vous faire remarquer que Mauss dit
lui-même explicitement dans le Manuel d'ethnographie ceci :
« Socialement et individuellement, l'homme est un animal rythmique ».
Vous m'accorderez que cette phrase est une affirmation extrêmement
forte. Or, tout le monde s'empresse de la laisser de côté. Je vous
retourne donc (mais aussi à tous les Maussiens) la question : quel sort
faites-vous à cette affirmation ? Ne pensez-vous pas que, sous cette
forme condensée présentée sur un patron aristotélicien, elle indique
une entrée à partir de laquelle on pourrait au moins relire une bonne
part de son oeuvre ? Ou bien pensez-vous que cette phrase a été
proférée comme une simple fioriture rhétorique sans signification
profonde. Pour ma part, j'ai montré dans ma thèse (dont une partie a
été publiée dans mes Éléments d'une histoire du sujet en 1999 et...
dans la revue du MAUSS en 2005, mais qui n'a pas eu l'heur d'attirer
l'attention des spécialistes - elle n'est jamais citée dans les livres
sur Mauss), textes à l'appui, que Mauss n'a jamais engagé, comme l'a
soutenu Lévi-Strauss pour des raisons de pure stratégie universitaire
(sa concurrence après la mort de Mauss avec Gurvitch pour récupérer
l'héritage), une théorie préstructuraliste du social, et que par voie
de conséquence son intérêt pour le « symbolique » doit être réévalué et
réintégré à un intérêt plus général pour le rythme. J'ai complété en
2005 ce travail dans Rythmes, pouvoir, mondialisation, qui
malheureusement n'est pas cité non plus. Pourtant, dans son texte de
1924 « Rapports réels et pratiques de la psychologie et de la
sociologie », Mauss explique à son auditoire que la sociologie pourrait
servir de modèle à la psychologie au moins pour l'étude de deux ordres
de faits qui lui semblent les deux apports les plus importants des
travaux sociologiques réalisés depuis le début du siècle : le
« symbole » et le « rythme ». On voit bien à travers cette affirmation
que ces deux concepts sont liés dans son esprit ou tout au moins qu'ils
possèdent une importance aussi grande l'une que l'autre. Or, que disent
les commentateurs : toujours la même chose (qu'ils reprennent sans
aucune distance critique de Lévi-Strauss), Mauss serait simplement
l'inventeur ou la popularisateur du concept de « symbolique ». Le
rythme là encore tombe à la trappe. D'où ma deuxième question : que
faites-vous de cette nouvelle affirmation de l'importance du rythme ?
Quel statut donnez-vous dans votre lecture à cet intérêt pour le
rythme ? Je pense, pour ma part, que cette conférence nous montre une
fois encore que Mauss n'était pas du tout en train de préparer une
épistémologie ou une méthodologie structurale, ni même une science du
symbolique au sens qui dominera par la suite chez les structuralistes,
mais qu'il était, bien au contraire, dès le début, dominé par la
question de la production des individus singuliers et collectifs dans
le temps. Sa question n'était pas de trouver des constantes dans le
fonctionnement des systèmes sociaux (il rejette explicitement la notion
de structure), mais de comprendre ces systèmes en pénétrant
l'organisation des flux qui les constituent (c'est pourquoi il oppose
la « physiologie » à la simple et trompeuse « anatomie sociale »). Il
est, du reste, en cela complètement de son époque et rejoint des
préoccupations que l'on retrouve, sous des formes très diverses cela
s'entend, chez ses adversaires (Bergson, Tarde) ou chez ses amis
(Durkheim, Hubert, Granet).
7. Sur la question du rapport à « la tradition » et de ce que vous
voyez dans mon travail comme une « posture de créativité radicale,
quasiment nihiliste » qui ne serait au fond l'expression que d'un
« mythe d'autoréalisation de soi emblématique de notre époque ». Je ne
comprends pas votre critique. Y-a-t-il jamais invention conceptuelle
qui ne soit négation d'une partie au moins des concepts en cours ? J'en
doute. D'autre part, si je revendique une certaine radicalité, je ne
vois aucun nihilisme dans ma démarche. Au contraire, j'ai grand soin du
passé et, pour ce qui est du présent, j'ai plutôt l'impression de
procéder par affirmations et avancées créatrices. Il me semble que vous
confondez négation et nihilisme. Enfin, l'idée que mon travail
verserait dans un « mythe d'autoréalisation » me semble doublement
fausse : parce que l'autoréalisation n'est pas une notion que l'on
devrait rejeter sans précaution ; mais aussi parce que c'est une
caractérisation au fond psychologisante et donc réductrice d'une
proposition théorique qui ne devrait faire l'objet, en bonne méthode
scientifique, que de critiques théoriques.
8. Sur la question de la complexité inutile que vous voyez dans mes
propositions (« Nous nous demandons si P. Michon n'aurait pas pu, tout
de même, dire les choses plus simplement ») et sur le fait que vous
tentiez de traduire mes propos en un langage plus simple (vous me
demandez « si ce résumé omet quelque chose d'essentiel que les notions
de rythme, de fluement, d'arythmie, d'idiorrythmie, d'eurythmie, etc.
auraient fait apparaître »). C'est un essai dont je vous remercie
sincèrement car cela pourra certainement aider à la compréhension de
mon travail par de nombreux sociologues ou spécialistes de sciences
sociales. Je suis également très sensible au fait que vous soyez le
premier membre du Mauss à reconnaître et à justifier de manière
détaillée le fait que le rythme est une question fondamentale qui
devrait être prise en considération. En même temps, j'ai l'impression
que votre réduction à un ensemble de communs dénominateurs comporte un
danger : celui de laisser penser que ce que j'avance est réductible à
du déjà connu ou à du déjà pensé par les sciences sociales : « Que
dit-il au juste ? Que nos identités se construisent dans nos relations
aux autres, qui engagent notre corps et notre langage [...] Que dans
ces relations se jouent des relations de pouvoir sur les personnes ».
Au fond, la théorie du rythme n'apporterait rien de plus que ce que les
sociologues-économistes savent déjà depuis fort longtemps. À savoir que
les sociétés et les individus sont pris dans des interactions mouvantes
qui les rendent plus instables et fluides qu'on ne le croit
généralement. Pourquoi, dès lors, en effet, dire de manière si
compliquée des choses si simples ? Mais précisément, je ne me suis pas
contenté de reprendre les différentes théories interactionnistes en
cours, ou même de prolonger les auteurs qui se sont frottés, depuis ces
trente dernières années, à la question des rapports réciproques entre
individu singulier et individu collectif, individu et système. Je le
reconnais bien volontiers, les auteurs très divers qui ont proposé des
visions intermédiaires nous ont fait faire de grands progrès. Mais
leurs conceptions ne suffisent plus au regard des réalités nouvelles du
XXI^e siècle ou bien elles rencontrent des difficultés qui les rendent
moins efficaces. En dehors du fait qu'on peut souvent repérer (comme
dans la philosophie hobbesienne qui forme le socle de la pensée
d'Elias) le lieu où le dualisme rejeté au départ se réintroduit
subrepticement, je crois que leurs instruments sont déjà en partie
inadaptés. Et la raison en est simple : si elles ont toutes été conçues
comme des tentatives pour échapper aux dualismes traditionnels des
sciences sociales, elles n'ont pas été pensées à partir du mouvement,
des intensités, des flux et de leurs qualités eux-mêmes. Il nous faut
donc accomplir ce qu'elles n'ont pas encore réussi à faire : une
inversion radicale du regard qui pose le langage et le temps comme
premiers et, à partir de là, repenser toutes les questions qui se
posent à nous. Faute de quoi, soit nous retomberons vite dans les
paradoxes et les difficultés que nous connaissons bien : le système et
l'individu, la poule et l'oeuf, soit nous resterons sans boussole quand
il nous faudra juger de la qualité des « objets intermédiaires » que
nous étudierons. Le « don » est un exemple typique de cette deuxième
difficulté : il permet de dynamiter le dualisme individualiste
utilitariste, mais, tel qu'il reste pour le moment théorisé au sein du
MAUSS, il ne permet pas encore de poser la question de l'organisation
temporelle des flux de dons, des rythmes corporels, langagiers et
sociaux qui sont déterminés par ces flux, et donc de la qualité de
l'individuation singulière et collective qui en découle. On se contente
le plus souvent d'une définition du don comme opposé de l'échange
utilitariste, faisant de facto de celui-là une simple négation (et donc
une certaine façon de conserver) celui-ci. On manque alors toute la
diversité qualitative (souvent ambivalente) de la triple obligation
donner-recevoir-rendre et l'on se retrouve avec une affirmation toute
binaire de ce que serait le bien éthique et politique.
9. Sur ma redéfinition de la démocratie et son supposé fonds
« utilitariste ». Vous citez une de mes propositions qui définit la
démocratie comme le régime ou l'état social (c'est bien sûr les deux à
la fois) qui permettra de « rechercher une eurythmie simultanément
corporelle, discursive et sociale - une maximisation de l'individuation
singulière et collective ». Et vous expliquez que vous ne « compren[ez]
tout simplement pas qui maximise, qui calcule au mieux quoi, ni en vue
de quoi ! ». Le problème avec la question qui, c'est qu'elle présuppose
un sujet déjà là. Autrement dit, elle indique déjà sa réponse. Pour ce
qui me concerne, je l'ai dit plus haut, j'ai volontairement distingué
la question de la subjectivation de celle de l'individuation. Cette
position ne peut être tenue que jusqu'à un certain point, je vous
l'accorde, mais je continue à penser qu'elle est nécessaire dans un
premier temps, même s'il faudra réfléchir à l'avenir plus précisément à
la façon de relier les deux aspects. Ma certitude à cet égard est que
de toute façon la subjectivation ne réussit pas toujours, que le sujet
ne peut donc être posé comme un principe antécédent à l'action et qu'il
constitue plutôt une entité qui apparaît ou pas au cours de l'activité
des corps-langages (au sens du génitif objectif, car pour moi c'est
l'activité qui est première). Vous reprochez, ensuite, à l'expression
« maximisation » d'être trop marquée par le principe typiquement
utilitariste d'un calcul du plus grand bien comme une simple addition
des biens individuels. Si c'était ce que j'ai dit, je serais d'accord
avec vous. Mais je maintiens l'expression « maximisation » car celle-ci
est motivée par le système discursif dans lequel elle apparaît. Et
comme vous l'avez senti, celui-ci est entièrement traversé par un souci
de type spinoziste pour une maximisation (dans les conditions qui leurs
sont faites) de ce que peuvent les corps-langages, maximisation qui ne
peut en aucun cas être réduite à une augmentation additive des petits
bonheurs personnels. L'utilitarisme se fonde sur un calcul des atomes
de bonheur, alors que j'essaie (à l'instar de Mauss en réalité) de
penser le bonheur (ou la « joie », si vous préférez, pour rester dans
le ton du XVII^e siècle) comme exaltation de la puissance de vivre.
Pour finir sur ce point, je voudrais repréciser ce que j'ai déjà dit
dans mon livre et écarter des malentendus qui pointent dans
quelques-unes de vos remarques : les propos de Barthes sur le bonheur
« idiorrythmique » sont très suggestifs (par la rareté même de tels
propos) mais bien évidemment insuffisants (ne serait-ce que parce qu'il
reconnaît lui-même qu'il s'agit d'une utopie domestique plus que
sociale). Quant à ceux de Mauss sur « l'eurythmie », ils indiquent une
piste à mon sens plus féconde, mais ils sont, quant à eux, plus
qu'élémentaires et doivent être réélaborés rigoureusement. Ces exemples
ne constituent donc pas des réponses aux questions éthiques et
politiques que nous nous posons, mais des incitations à chercher dans
la direction qu'ils pointent.
10. Sur Mauss qui ne « parviendrait tout simplement pas à penser
l'histoire ». Je ne crois pas avoir dit cela. J'ai même montré dans
Eléments d'une histoire du sujet que Mauss est l'un de ceux qui, dans
la première moitié du XX^e siècle, pense la question de l'historicité
radicale des êtres humains, sans en revenir au néo-kantisme
sociologique de Durkheim, mais sans tomber non plus dans les problèmes
de la phénoménologie, du bergsonisme ou de la philosophie de
l'historicité essentielle heideggérienne. Ce que j'ai dit, c'est que
Mauss, en dépit de son souci d'historisation constant, aboutit non
seulement à une éthique et une politique fondées sur un principe
anhistorique, celui-là même que vous citez quelques lignes plus loin :
« le roc de la morale éternelle » - ce qui est en soi un problème. Mais
aussi qu'il propose comme modèle, dans tout l'Essai sur le don et en
particulier dans ses « conclusions de morale », le système de
prestations totales de clan à clan, qui est « exactement, toutes
proportions gardées, du même type que celui vers lequel nous voudrions
voir nos sociétés se diriger ». Or, ce système « où tout est
complémentaire » ne connaît pas le conflit, dont il parle pourtant tout
au long de l'essai. À vrai dire, cette subtile contradiction n'est pas
à retenir contre Mauss, elle indique toutefois que c'est à partir de là
qu'il faut reprendre la question. Si maintenant vous pensez que l'on
peut trouver des textes allant dans un sens différent qui donnerait un
sens agonistique à la démocratie, je serai le premier à m'en réjouir.
Mais cela voudra dire que le problème relevait simplement de
l'interprétation érudite des méandres d'une oeuvre et que nous sommes
d'accord sur la chose même - ce qui est pour moi la seule qui compte.
11. Sur le terme d' « utopie maussienne ». Vous me reprenez en arguant
que Mauss n'était pas un utopiste, mais un « possibiliste », attaché à
des projets concrets. Vous avez certainement raison. Toutefois, mon
usage du mot « utopie » n'était en rien négatif dans mon esprit, bien
au contraire. Ensuite, personne ne pourra nier que l'idée que les
sociétés modernes devraient réintroduire massivement le don au
fondement de leur économie reste largement un projet d'avenir,
c'est-à-dire dans le meilleur sens du terme... une utopie.
Pascal Michon
Paris, le 7 mai 2008
__________________________________________________________________
Sénèque. De la tranquillité de l'âme
Cher Pascal,
je viens de terminer la lecture de De la tranquillité de l'âme de
Sénèque. Quelle ne fut pas ma surprise de voir l'un des derniers
chapitres intitulé :
« Il faut alterner "temps forts" et "temps faibles" »
En voici un extrait :
[...] Solitude et société doivent se composer et se succéder. La
solitude nous donnera le désir de fréquenter les hommes, la société,
celui de nous fréquenter nous-mêmes, et chacune sera l'antidote de
l'autre, la solitude nous guérissant de l'horreur de la foule, et la
foule, de l'ennui de la solitude".
J'avais déjà lu de Sénèque Les bienfaits : un essai sur le don - sur la
triple obligation de donner, recevoir et rendre - avant l'heure (jamais
cité par Mauss).
Un indice de plus que pensée du don et pensée du rythme peuvent et même
doivent se rencontrer ?
Amicalement
Sylvain
Créteil, le 7 mai 2008
3 commentaires
Les rythmes du politique
27 août 2009, par
Ces concepts de rythmes du politique me semblent proches de ceux de
Deleuze-Guattari, grands lecteurs de Simondon et de l'individuation,
notamment de l'agencement collectif d'énonciation
territoire par exemple.
Ils permettent de les renouveler et de les penser sous un autre biais.
Mais pour trouver de nouveaux rythmes reste la question de l'invention
également de nouveaux énoncés.
Les rythmes du politique
8 septembre 2009, par Pascal Michon
Je vous remercie beaucoup de cette comparaison ainsi que du texte
auquel vous renvoyez. J'ai expliqué succinctement dans le chapitre
« Styles, rythmes et ritournelles » des Rythmes du politique ce qui
distingue ma position de celle de Deleuze et Guattari. De même, pour
Simondon dans celui intitulé « Les rythmes comme cycles de
l'ontogénèse ? ». En bref, j'ai une grande admiration pour ces travaux
qui ont beaucoup compté dans ma réflexion mais, dans l'un et l'autre
cas, ils me semblent buter sur la question du langage. Plutôt que de
nouveaux énoncés, je pense donc qu'il nous faut chercher, entre autres,
de nouveaux modes d'énonciation.
Pascal Michon
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Notes
[[52]1] Pour une approche goffmannienne du corps et de la manière dont
il participe à la construction de l'identité des personnes, on peut
lire l'article de [53]Sylvain Pasquier publié dans La Revue du MAUSS
Permanente.
[[54]2] Les sous-titres de cette partie, assez longue, sont de nous.
[[55]3] Pascal Michon préfère parler de multitudes plutôt que de
peuple, ce dernier étant sans doute trop homogénéisant pour lui.
[[56]4] O. Mendesltam est l'auteur d'un petit ouvrage où il est
question de la Révolution bolchevique intitulé L'État et le rythme
(1920), dans lequel P. Michon voit « l'une des toutes premières
politiques du rythme » [p. 229].
[[57]5] Le bon, si le calcul de maximisation n'admet qu'une solution...
[[58]6] Pour P. Michon, seuls Lewis Coser (Les fonctions du conflit
social) et Gilbert Simondon (L'individuation psychique et collective)
ont développé cette manière de voir les choses.
[[59]7] On peut néanmoins citer : Henri Meschonnic dans les travaux
duquel il s'incrit, et notamment son Politique du rythme, politique du
sujet, Verdier, 1985
[[60]8] « L'utilitarisme et [...] l'économie politique [...] sont à la
base de [...] la fluidification du monde » [p. 236].
[[61]9] Un Spinoza plus proche de Mauss (qui l'affectionnait
d'ailleurs) que de Bentham... Un Spinoza peu lordonien, donc...
[[62]10] Nous renvoyons ici aux Ecrits politiques de Marcel Mauss,
présentés par Marcel Fournier (Fayard, 1997), ainsi qu'à notre ouvrage,
[63]Marcel Mauss, savant et politique , La Découverte, 2007.
[[64]11] S. Dzimira, op. Cit.
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ELYSEE
Sarkozy : les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme"
NOUVELOBS.COM | 06.02.2009 | 13:01
[121]Réagissez à l'article 299 réactions
Lors de son intervention télévisée, le chef de l'Etat a notamment déclaré :
"Que les Français soient inquiets (face à la crise), c'est normal".
> Il a dit réfléchir à une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le
revenu.
> La taxe professionnelle sera supprimée en 2010.
> Les partenaires sociaux seront reçus le 18 février.
Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters)
Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters)
Le chef de l'Etat a déclaré, jeudi 5 février, que la France et le monde
faisaient face à "la crise du siècle", au début de son intervention
télévisée. "C'est la crise du siècle, elle est sans précédent", a-t-il
répété Nicolas Sarkozy. ([122]> Lire toutes les déclarations).
"Je dois en tenir compte et faire en sorte que la France rentre le plus
tard possible dans la crise et sorte le plus tôt de la crise", a-t-il
ajouté. "Je dois en plus protéger au maximum ceux qui déjà dans la
croissance mondiale étaient exclus", a-t-il ajouté. "Que les Français
soient inquiets, c'est normal. Je le comprends, je l'entends", a-t-il
expliqué.
Les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme", a-t-il
rapidement affirmé. "La rupture n'a jamais été un objectif, c'est juste
un moyen", a, par ailleurs, expliqué Nicolas Sarkozy.
L'émission était diffusée simultanément sur TF1, France 2, M6 et RTL.
Elle est présentée par David Pujadas et Laurence, avec les
interventions de Guy Lagache et Alain Duhamel.
Une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu ?
Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il recevrait les partenaires sociaux le 18
février, notamment pour voir comment "aller plus loin" sur
l'indemnisation du chômage partiel. Il a également dit réfléchir à une
suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu pour aider les
classes moyennes, l'une des "pistes" qu'il soumettra aux syndicats le
18 février. "L'Etat est prêt à faire un effort" pour "mieux protéger"
les jeunes en fin de CDD et qui ne retrouvent pas d'emploi du fait de
la crise financière et économique, a affirmé le président de la
République.
Le chef de l'Etat a aussi annoncé qu'il "supprimerait la taxe
professionnnelle en 2010". "Je vous l'annonce: on supprimera la taxe
professionnelle en France en 2010 parce que je veux que l'on garde des
usines en France", a déclaré Nicolas Sarkozy lors de son intervention
télévisée sur la crise.
La mesure sera générale: "On ne peut pas dire on va supprimer pour
l'industrie automobile mais pas pour l'industrie sidérurgique ou
textile", a-t-il ajouté.
"Je ne peux pas dire aux actionnaires pour le coup: ne délocalisez
plus, relocalisez, et en même temps leur laisser des charges et des
contraintes qui font qu'ils ne s'en sortiront plus", selon le chef de
l'Etat.
Réfléchir sur le "partage du profit"
Le président a jugé nécessaire de réfléchir au "partage du profit"
entre les salariés et les actionnaires, demandant aux partenaires
sociaux de parvenir à un accord sans quoi "l'Etat prendra ses
responsabilités". "Je veux que le 18 février nous discutions d'un sujet
essentiel en France qui est le partage du profit", a déclaré le chef de
l'Etat, évoquant le "sentiment d'injustice majeur" suscité dans cette
crise par "le comportement d'un certain nombre de dirigeants
d'institutions bancaires". "Comment on arbitre entre le souhait
légitime des actionnaires de gagner de l'argent avec les entreprises et
la demande des salariés d'être associés aux bénéfices des entreprises
dont ils ont contribué à créer la richesse?", s'est interrogé Nicolas
Sarkozy, jugeant qu'en la matière "le compte n'y est pas". "Quand une
entreprise distribue aux actionnaires tous les bénéfices d'une année,
elle ne peut plus investir" pour l'avenir, a-t-il ajouté, dénonçant une
"logique purement financière et spéculative". Le sujet sera au
programme de sa rencontre avec les partenaires sociaux le 18 février.
"J'engage les organisations syndicales et le patronat à en discuter.
Soit ils arrivent à quelque chose, soit l'Etat prendra ses
responsabilités", a-t-il prévenu. Il a indiqué qu'il estimait quant à
lui que "la règle des trois tiers est bonne": un tiers des bénéfices
vont aux salariés, un tiers aux actionnaires sous forme de dividendes
et un tiers sont réinvestis dans l'entreprise pour financer son
développement".
Combat sur la TVA
Nicolas Sarkozy a réaffirmé sa volonté d'obtenir un consensus européen
concernant des baisses de la TVA sur la restauration, les "produits
propres" et des "produits culturels".
"C'est parfaitement anormal que quand on achète une voiture propre, on
paie plus cher que quand on achète une voiture qui pollue, et ça vaut
aussi pour les bâtiments construits en haute qualité environnementale",
a dit le chef de l'Etat, souhaitant "un système de TVA réduite pour
tous les produits propres".
"Je pense également que sur les produits culturels, il faut aller plus
loin", a ajouté Nicolas Sarkozy. "Pourquoi la TVA sur le livre est-elle
à 5,5 (%), et la TVA sur le disque à 19,6 (%), comme la TVA sur la
vidéo? Il faut mettre cette TVA à 5,5", a-t-il déclaré.
"Comme cela on est tranquille"
"Est-ce que les réformes que la France doit mettre en oeuvre, pour
avoir le même emploi lorsque nous seront sortis de la crise, est-ce que
ces réformes restent d'actualité? La réponse est oui", a déclaré le
chef de l'Etat, précisant qu'elles devaient être conduites "au même
rythme".
"Si on doit arrêter, comme cela s'est si souvent fait dans le passé,
chaque réforme quand il y a une manifestation, alors mieux vaut ne
faire aucune réforme. Et comme cela on est tranquille", a-t-il dit. La
rupture, "c'est la rupture avec cette habitude".
Les quelque 1,4 milliard d'euros d'intérêts que l'Etat percevra cette
année au titre des intérêts pour son financement aux banques seront
"intégralement" affectés au financement de "mesures sociales", a
annoncé Nicolas Sarkozy.
Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il allait demander au président de la Cour
des comptes Philippe Seguin de "conduire un certain nombre d'enquêtes"
sur la bonne utilisation des fonds accordés aux banques pour faire face
à la crise.
Tacle aux traders
Nicolas Sarkozy veut "changer" le système de rémunération des "traders"
mais est sceptique sur un plafonnement systématique du salaire des
dirigeants, a-t-il déclaré.
"Je suis plus choqué par le système de rémunération de ceux qu'on
appelle les traders, que les présidents de banques. C'est ce système-là
que je veux changer", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat.
"J'ai vu ce que M. Obama a décidé, je suis en train d'y réfléchir, moi
je ne suis pas trop pour une règle générale", a-t-il ajouté. "Mettre
tout le monde sous la toise, je ne suis pas sûr que ce soit la
meilleure formule".
"J'ajoute que Barack Obama a prévu un système d'actions gratuites
derrière une rémunération bloquée, j'aimerais en savoir un peu plus", a
souligné Nicolas Sarkozy.
Maintien de la politique sur la Fonction publique
Nicolas Sarkozy a affirmé qu'il n'engagerait "pas de dépenses publiques
supplémentaires", et qu'il s'en tiendrait à la "règle du
non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux".
"Je n'engagerai pas de dépenses publiques supplémentaires, notamment
sur la règle du non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux", a
affirmé le président de la République.
Selon lui, on reviendra ainsi "au même nombre de fonctionnaires qu'en
1992", quand François Mitterrand était président. "Je n'ai pas le
souvenir que la France était alors sous-administrée", a-t-il argué.
Relations aux paradis fiscaux
Très sévère sur la question des paradis fiscaux, Nicolas Sarkozy a
annoncé son intention de "poser des questions" à Andorre, Monaco et au
Luxembourg.
La France exigera la moralisation des paradis fiscaux et "ça m'amènera
à revoir nos relations avec Andorre", "à poser la question de nos
relations avec Monaco (et) à poser un certain nombre de questions à nos
voisins luxembourgeois", a-t-il déclaré.
Baisse dans les sondages
D'autant que le chef de l'Etat, comme son Premier ministre, enregistre
une forte baisse dans les derniers sondages. Moins cinq points à 39% de
"confiance" contre 55% de défiance selon un CSA paru mercredi dans Le
Parisien.
Forts du succès de leur journée d'action de la semaine dernière, les
syndicats attendent le président au tournant, suspendant leurs
prochaines initiatives au contenu de sa prestation télévisée.
Le patron de la CFDT François Chérèque a réclamé un "changement de
cap", en clair, des mesures pour maintenir le pouvoir d'achat, tandis
que celui de FO Jean-Claude Mailly a prévenu que sans "relance par la
consommation", il y aura "remobilisation".
Le ton est également offensif dans l'opposition. La Première secrétaire
du PS Martine Aubry a demandé au président de "définir enfin un plan de
relance adapté". Et, dans une rare unanimité, la gauche toute entière a
signé mercredi un texte sommant le pouvoir de "changer de cap".
Ne pas se laisser "enfumer"
Jeudi matin, Jean-Luc Mélenchon (Parti de gauche) invitait le pays à ne
pas se laisser "enfumer" par Nicolas Sarkozy et à se mettre "en lutte",
tandis qu'Olivier Besancenot (LCR) voyait déjà dans son intervention
"des motivations supplémentaires à continuer le combat".
Jusque-là, le discours du chef de l'Etat est resté inflexible. Oui, il
a entendu les "inquiétudes légitimes" des Français "qui craignent pour
leur emploi", mais pas question pour lui de recourir à une relance par
la consommation, "parce que ça n'a jamais marché".
Nicolas Sarkozy devrait aussi enrober son propos d'une bonne dose de
volontarisme. "On va se battre pour que la France sorte plus forte de
la crise", insiste-t-il régulièrement.
"Se concentrer sur les objectifs essentiels"
Mais certains ne l'entendent pas de la même oreille dans la majorité.
Le député UMP Hervé Mariton a reproché au gouvernement de s'éparpiller
dans les réformes lui demandant de "se concentrer sur les objectifs
essentiels" et son collègue François Goulard a préconisé une
"suspension" temporaire du très controversé bouclier fiscal.
En outre, le gouvernement a vu poindre ces derniers jours un nouveau
"front" du mécontentement dans les universités, avec la montée de la
grogne des enseignants-chercheurs et des étudiants.
Mais comme François Fillon lundi, le porte-parole du gouvernement a
exclu mercredi tout virage politique. "Cette émission n'est pas faite
seulement pour le million et demi de Français qui a manifesté", a dit
Luc Chatel, mais plutôt pour "mettre en perspective son action face à
la crise".
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Les réactions des lecteurs
rifif
[137]-10 POINTS
-10 points serait un sondage plus réaliste que ces sondages
effectués par des instituts de sondages aux mains des amis de
sarkozy ! Il aura beau museler les manifestan...
08.02 à 16h05 - [138]Alerter
scafandre
[139]Il faut qu'il démissionne...
avant de mettre littéralement la France en faillite. Il est
inconscient... Vous avez des communes qui ont investi dans la
construction de collèges, de ponts... en fonct...
07.02 à 21h16 - [140]Alerter
[141]Réagissez !
[142]Toutes les réactions (299)
[143]Conditions de modération
L'essentiel Politique
[144]IDENTITE NATIONALE
[145]"Déferlement de musulmans" : Gaudin regrette avoir eu un "mot
malheureux" 18.01 à 16h59
[146]MAYOTTE
[147]Courte étape dans l'océan Indien pour Sarkozy 18.01 à 14h52
[148]POLEMIQUE
[149]Reporters enlevés : "cynisme effrayant" de Guéant 18.01 à 14h47
[150]MARSEILLE
[151]Buffet dénonce "une idéologie xénophobe
dans les plus hautes autorités de l'Etat" 18.01 à 13h46
[152]IDENTITE NATIONALE
[153]Et si "une Française porte la burqa"...? 18.01 à 10h51
[154]SOCIAL
[155]Internet : un tarif réduit pour les plus démunis ? 18.01 à 09h05
[156]COLLECTIVITES LOCALES
[157]Les départements en "graves difficultés financières" 18.01 à 08h53
[158]IDENTITE NATIONALE
[159]"Déferlement de musulmans" : Gaudin regrette avoir eu un "mot
malheureux" 18.01 à 08h06
[160]MARSEILLE
[161]Valls fustige les "amalgames dangereux" de Gaudin 18.01 à 07h56
[162]ELECTIONS REGIONALES
[163]Régionales : Aubry vise toujours le grand chelem 18.01 à 07h29
[164]AFGHANISTAN
[165]Journalistes enlevés : Guéant provoque la polémique 18.01 à 07h10
[166]SENAT
[167]La réforme des collectivités "manque de visibilité" 18.01 à 07h05
[168]CHARENTE-MARITIME
[169]Régionales : Sarnez accuse Royal de "débauchage" 17.01 à 14h58
[170]DROIT DE VOTE
[171]Mélenchon favorable au droit de vote des étrangers 17.01 à 13h56
[172]CONSEIL CONSTITUTIONNEL
[173]Emmanuelle Mignon ne siègera pas parmi les Sages 17.01 à 12h55
Plus sur le sujet
Sur Nouvelobs.com
* [174]Les principales déclarations de Nicolas Sarkozy
* [175]Aubry Sarkozy est un président "hésitant" qui "ne sait pas où
il va"
* [176]Intervention télévisée de Sarkozy Les appels au boycott se
multiplient
* [177]Onze organisations de gauche demandent un "changement de cap"
* [178]Interview présidentielle Les choix contestables de l'Elysée
* [179]Grèves Parisot y voit "quelque chose de pervers"
* [180]Le texte commun des onze organisations de gauche
* [181]Revue de presse
* [182]Les réactions
* [183]Delanoë Sarkozy a "privilégié la polémique" sur le SMA
* [184]Sarkozy fait des ouvertures, les syndicats méfiants
* [185]15,1 millions de téléspectateurs pour l'intervention de
Sarkozy
* [186]Les principales mesures de Nicolas Sarkozy
Dans Le Nouvel Observateur
* [187]"Sarkozy comme Cendrillon", (05/02/09)
* [188]"La vraie nature de Sarkozy", par François Bazin (05/02/09)
* [189]"Sarkozy peut-il encore réformer ?", par Hervé Algalarrondo
(05/02/09)
* [190]"Les ficelles de Sarkozy", (22/01/09)
* [191]"Les choix de Sarkozy", par Denis Olivennes (22/01/09)
Sur Internet
* [192]Le site de l'Elysée
* [193]Le baromètre de confiance de l'exécutif sur le site du CSA
* [194]Le baromètre des actions présidentielles sur le site du CSA
* [195]La biographie officielle de Nicolas Sarkozy
* [196]Le blog de François Fillon
* [197]La biographie officielle de François Fillon
* [198]Le site de TNS-Sofres
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Réformes: Sarkozy ne ralentira pas le rythme
19.01.2009
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Le [136]président [137]Nicolas Sarkozy a affirmé lundi ne pas avoir
«l'intention de ralentir le rythme» des réformes en 2009, au moment où
«l'impact social de la [138]crise se fait sentir». Formulant ses voeux
pour la nouvelle années devant les représentants des partenaires
sociaux, le chef de l'Etat a d'abord voulu les «remercier pour
l'ampleur de la tâche que vous avez accomplie en 2008. L'urgence des
problèmes à résoudre, l'attente des Français vous ont imposé, comme au
gouvernement et au Parlement, un rythme de travail particulièrement
exigeant». «Je ne vous surprendrai pas en vous disant que nous n'avons
pas l'intention de ralentir le rythme en 2009, leur a-t-il ensuite
déclaré. Et ce n'est certainement pas au moment où l'impact social de
la crise se fait sentir --on a eu l'impact financier, l'impact
économique, bien sûr l'impact social-- qu'on va en tirer la conclusion
qu'il faut ralentir», a-t-il ajouté.
Leparisien.fr avec A
Cet article a été publié dans la rubrique [139]Politique
FLASH ACTUALITÉ
[DERNIÈRE MINUTE]
* 18h57 [140]Emmanuelle Haïm renonce à diriger "Idoménée" à l'Opéra
de Paris
* 18h55 [141]La production cinéma "résiste" dit le CNC, "en crise"
selon les producteurs
* 18h49 [142]Ligue 1: Marseille au milieu du gué
* 18h41 [143]Jean-Claude Juncker reconduit à la tête de l'Eurogroupe
* 18h26 [144]France: le déficit public de "l'ordre de 8,2%" du PIB en
2010
* 18h16 [145]Rebsamen (PS): pétition pour inverser la charge de la
preuve de nationalité
* 18h05 [146]Strauss-Kahn responsable politique préféré des Français
[147]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
* 18h41 [148]Jean-Claude Juncker reconduit à la tête de l'Eurogroupe
* 18h26 [149]France: le déficit public de "l'ordre de 8,2%" du PIB en
2010
* 17h53 [150]Plan de départs PSA: 5.700 volontaires d'ici la fin du
dispositif fin mars
* 17h42 [151]Etats-Unis: Vivendi accuse l'avocat des plaignants de
créer un "préjudice"
* 17h18 [152]Eurostar pourrait payer 11 millions d'euros de
dédommagement à ses clients
* 16h24 [153]GDF Suez a tenté sans succès de prendre le contrôle
d'International Power
* 16h11 [154]Le déficit public attendu à 8,2% en 2010, soit moins que
prévu
[155]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
* 18h16 [156]Rebsamen (PS): pétition pour inverser la charge de la
preuve de nationalité
* 18h05 [157]Strauss-Kahn responsable politique préféré des Français
* 17h10 [158]Collomb (PS) prêt à voter certains articles de la
réforme des collectivités
* 16h56 [159]Propos sur les musulmans: Gaudin évoque "un mot
malheureux"
* 16h28 [160]Réforme territoriale: les élus landais demandent un
référendum
* 16h14 [161]Le Nouveau centre veut s'emparer de "grands sujets"
comme l'homoparentalité
* 16h12 [162]Besson dresse son bilan 2009 : plus de 29.000
sans-papiers expulsés
[163]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
* 17h06 [164]Séisme de magnitude 6 à l'ouest du Guatemala
* 16h27 [165]La police a tué plus de 10.000 personnes en douze ans à
Rio selon une étude
* 14h40 [166]Le Yémen réclame à Washington ses ressortissants détenus
à Guantanamo
* 13h52 [167]Enquête sur la guerre en Irak: Tony Blair témoignera le
29 janvier
* 13h21 [168]Silvio Berlusconi absent à la reprise du procès sur les
droits télévisés
* 11h26 [169]Les talibans ont porté la guerre dans le centre de
Kaboul
* 10h46 [170]L'UE promet près d'un demi-milliard d'euros pour Haïti
[171]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
* 18h49 [172]Ligue 1: Marseille au milieu du gué
* 17h10 [173]Football: pas de sanction pour Thierry Henry après sa
main contre l'Eire
* 16h50 [174]Ligue 1: pour Bordeaux, l'essentiel c'est l'écart
* 16h26 [175]Coupe de l'America: le bras de fer se poursuit entre
Oracle et Alinghi
* 15h08 [176]Euro de patinage artistique: Joubert de retour pour un
ultime test avant les JO
* 10h55 [177]Euro de handball: les Français pour un triplé inédit
* 08h04 [178]Open d'Australie de tennis: Sharapova éliminée, Nadal,
Murray et Roddick qualifiés
[179]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
* 18h57 [180]Emmanuelle Haïm renonce à diriger "Idoménée" à l'Opéra
de Paris
* 18h55 [181]La production cinéma "résiste" dit le CNC, "en crise"
selon les producteurs
* 17h05 [182]Les films de la semaine: un Gainsbourg, un homme sérieux
et des Barons
* 14h28 [183]Le Festival d'Aix-en-Provence se "redéveloppe" en 2010
* 06h36 [184]"Avatar" grand vainqueur des Golden Globes, "In the air"
déçoit
* 20h48 [185]Mode à Milan: esprit rebelle et inspirations militaires
* 20h16 [186]"Avatar" continue de dominer le box-office
nord-américain
[187]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
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[330]Mort de Michael Jackson
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[33]Haïti : la récolte de fonds décolle après l'appel de l'ONU
[34]Haïti : la récolte de fonds décolle après l'appel de l'ONU
Les annonces d'aide humanitaire et de fonds pour venir en aide à Haïti
continuent d'affluer, suite à l'appel d'urgence lancé par l'ONU.
L'organisation entend récolter 562 millions de dollars.
[35]» DOSSIER SPECIAL - Haïti dévasté
.
[36]L'hôpital général de Port-au-Prince manque de tout
REPORTAGE - Face au désastre, les secours peinent à s'orgraniser dans la
capitale haïtienne.
.
.
.
[37]Les secours sorganisent dans la douleur
EN IMAGES - Dans la capitale haïtienne, les secours internationaux font face
à dénormes difficultés. Il faut à la fois chercher des survivants, apporter
des vivres aux rescapés, opérer les blessés, évacuer les corps, sécuriser la
ville et penser à la reconstruction.
.
.
[38]Haïti : 70.000 corps ont été enterrés
Le gouvernement a décrété dimanche l'état d'urgence et une période de deuil
national de 30 jours. 280 centres d'urgence s'ouvrent lundi, pour distribuer
des vivres et héberger les sans-abris, estimés à 300.000.
[39]» DOSSIER SPECIAL - Haïti dévasté
.
.
[40]Numérisation du patrimoine :
comment l'argent sera réparti
[41]Numérisation du patrimoine :
comment l'argent sera
réparti
INFO LE FIGARO - La Bibliothèque nationale de France et le Centre national du
cinéma seront les mieux lotis.
.
[42]La création d'entreprises atteint
un record
INFO FIGARO - Les Français ont créé 560.000 entreprises l'an dernier, grâce
au succès du statut de l'auto-entrepreneur.
[43]» Auto-entrepreneur : comment ça marche ?
.
.
.
[44]Thierry Henry échappe
à la sanction
La commission de discipline de la FIFA a estimé lundi qu'elle ne disposait
pas de base juridique pour sanctionner la main de l'attaquant français lors
du match contre l'Eire, en barrages du Mondial-2010.
.
.
[45]Boursiers : l'Etat précise ses objectifs
La conférence de grandes écoles a de son côté effectué un revirement en
affirmant partager les objectifs fixés par le gouvernement.
[46]» Sarkozy veut 30 % de boursiers dans les grandes écoles
.
.
[47]L'UNI fait place à un nouveau syndicat étudiant de droite
Dès mardi, le syndicat étudiant de droite né en 1968 deviendra le Mouvement
des étudiants (MET).
.
.
[48]France : le déficit attendu à 8,2%
du PIB en 2010
INFO FIGARO - Le déficit public sera moins mauvais que prévu : il était
jusqu'alors anticipé à 8,5 %.
.
.
.
[49]Sarkozy en visite
dans l'océan Indien
Le chef de l'État est à Mayotte et à la Réunion pour la cérémonie des voeux à
l'outre-mer.
.
.
[50]Besson veut faire signer une charte
aux jeunes Français
Les droits et les devoirs de tout citoyen seraient rappelés à l'occasion de
ce serment républicain.
[51]» Identité : Jean-Claude Gaudin crée à son tour la polémique
.
.
[52]Des squatteurs priés de quitter
la place des Vosges
La justice a ordonné lundi l'expulsion des militants pour le droit au
logement, qui occupent depuis plus de deux mois un hôtel particulier de cette
prestigieuse place parisienne.
.
.
[53]Audiences : Europe 1 pourrait
détrôner NRJ
Le sondage 126000 Radio de Médiamétrie, qui sera publié mardi, pourrait une
nouvelle fois bousculer la hierarchie entre stations.
.
.
Zoom Figaro
Cheveux
[20091109PHOWWW00546.jpg]
Conseils d'experts
Questions RH
[20091109PHOWWW00547.jpg]
McDonald's
Frida Kahlo
[20091109PHOWWW00548.jpg]
Exposée à Bruxelles
Cinéma
[20091109PHOWWW00348.jpg]
Toutes les séances
.
[54]Ces délégués du procureur
qui travaillent au noir
[55]Ces délégués du procureur
qui travaillent au noir
Chargés de sermonner les petits délinquants, ils ne sont pas déclarés par la
Chancellerie. Bercy tarde à régler le problème.
.
[56]Les talibans revendiquent
une série d'attaques à Kaboul
Des insurgés se sont lancés lundi matin à l'assaut du centre de la capitale
afghane où se trouvent plusieurs ministères et le palais présidentiel. Les
affrontements avec l'armée afghane ont fait au moins 5 morts et 71 blessés.
Sept assaillants ont été tués.
.
.
[57]Expatriés aux USA, la présidence Obama a-t-elle changé votre vie ?
APPEL A TÉMOIGNAGES - Si vous vivez aux Etats-Unis, votre quotidien a-t-il
changé depuis l'arrivée de Barack Obama à la Maison Blanche ? Si oui, comment
?
.
.
.
[58]TGV : la SNCF remet
à plat sa stratégie
La baisse de fréquentation de certaines lignes obligerait à des réductions de
trains voire des annulations selon les Echos. Les lignes nord-est et
est-Atlantique sont particulièrement concernées.
[59]» Deutsche Bahn prête à livrer bataille avec la SNCF
[60]» La SNCF augmente les tarifs du TGV de 1,9% en 2010
.
.
.
[61]Régionales : Laporte jette l'éponge
INFO LE FIGARO.FR - Lancien secrétaire dEtat aux Sports faisait planer depuis
plusieurs semaines le mystère sur son éventuelle candidature en
Ile-de-France.
.
.
[62]Paris et Berlin déconseillent
l'utilisation d'Internet Explorer
Après que Microsoft a admis qu'une faille dans son navigateur était à
l'origine de l'attaque contre Google en Chine, les autorités officielles de
sécurité informatique en France et en Allemagne recommandent de ne pas
utiliser le logiciel avant qu'il ne soit corrigé.
.
.
[63]Le Turc, qui avait tenté de tuer
Jean-Paul II, est libre
[64]Le Turc, qui avait tenté de tuer
Jean-Paul II, est
libre
Mehmet Ali Agca, un ex-militant ultranationaliste fait monter les enchères
pour publier ses Mémoires.
.
[65]Un Français en prison à Abu Dhabi
pour une plaisanterie
Pour avoir parlé de «bombe» dans un avion, Jean-Louis Lioret, ingénieur à la
retraite, est incarcéré depuis six jours.
.
.
.
[66]«Ali le Chimique» condamné à mort
Ce cousin de Saddam Hussein avait fait gazer 5 000 Kurdes en 1988.
.
.
[67]Alliot-Marie confie à Pierre Botton
une mission sur la prison
«Je sais de quoi je parle», assure l'ancien homme d'affaires et ex-gendre de
Michel Noir, écroué dans les années 1990.
.
.
[68]Le tapis rouge
des Golden Globes
[69]Le tapis rouge
des Golden Globes
EN IMAGES - Malgré l'éloge des critiques, Marion Cotillard nominée pour la
comédie musicale "Nine", n'a pas reçu le prix de la meilleure actrice qui a
été décerné à Meryl Streep.
[70]» Retour sur la cérémonie en images
.
[71]Avatar domine les Golden Globes
Le film de James Cameron a remporté dimanche le doublé du meilleur film
dramatique et du meilleur réalisateur. En revanche, Marion Cotillard et Un
prophète, qui portaient les espoirs tricolores, sont repartis bredouilles.
[72]» VIDEO - Les Golden Globes, du rire aux larmes
.
.
[73]Bertrand : «Une étrangère portant la burqa ne pourra pas être
naturalisée»
Le secrétaire général de l'UMP, Xavier Bertrand, qui a entamé ses
déplacements de campagne ce week-end en Paca, veut mobiliser sa famille
politique.
.
.
.
[74]Guéant écarte l'idée d'un remaniement
Le secrétaire général de l'Élysée a confirmé, dimanche, le maintien de Fillon
après les régionales.
[75]» Fillon fait l'éloge de la durée à Matignon
[76]» Journalistes enlevés : indignation après les propos de Guéant
.
.
[77]Faut-il repousser l'âge légal
de la retraite au-delà de 60 ans ?
Votants [picto-votant.gif]
.
.
[78]Les chirurgiens esthétiques contrôlent leur réputation sur le Web
Ils font parfois appel à des sociétés privées pour préserver leur image en
ligne.
[79]» Les patients en quête d'information sur la Toile
.
.
.
[80]Ukraine : le candidat pro-russe en tête
Viktor Ianoukovitch affrontera Ioulia Timochenko au second tour de l'élection
présidentielle ukrainienne, le 7 février.
[81]» Bataille présidentielle en Ukraine
.
.
[82]Joann Sfar : «Un film amoureux
sur Gainsbourg»
[83]Joann Sfar : «Un film amoureux
sur Gainsbourg»
INTERVIEW - Après Marjane Satrapi et Riad Sattouf, l'auteur de BD passe
derrière la caméra et signe un conte musical aussi poétiqueque subversif sur
l'Homme à tête de chou. En salle mercredi.
.
.
[84]Un prêt-à-porter concis et stylé
DÉFILÉS - Milan a donné le coup denvoi des collections masculines
automne-hiver 2010-2011.
[85]» EN IMAGES - Ermenegildo Zegna, [86]Dolce & Gabbana, [87]Burberry,
[88]Emporio Armani...
[89]» VIDEO - Bottega Venetta, [90]Burberry
.
.
[91]Un site web retrouve des vidéos
en fonction des mots prononcés
Le service Voxalead indexe les émissions de radio et de télévision à partir
des paroles enregistrées.
.
.
[92]Nissan joue au Cube
[93]Nissan joue au Cube
EN IMAGES - La marque japonaise fait le pari de vendre en Europe cette
étonnante berline compacte qui affirme sa différence au travers d'un style
cubique et asymétrique.
.
* ____________________ OK
[94]Les Blogs [95][feed-icon-16x16.png]
[96]Les dessous du social
[97]Tamilutte, FOrtifiant contre la pandémie sociale
CHEZ FO, on a depuis longtemps de l'humour et le sens de...
[98]Les dessous du social par [99]Marc Landré
[100]Le blog des Marchés de la bourse et des investisseurs
[101]Plutôt un risque de « syndrome Intel » que de déception sur les profits
Que dire de cette séance de Bourse de lundi, sans saveur,...
[102]Le blog des Marchés de la bourse et des investisseurs par
[103]Roland Laskine
[104]La Blog Team de Sport24
[105]Jacques Peridon: l'éditorialiste qui fait peur à l'OM!
Connaissez vous Jacques Peridon? Non? Oui? Peu...
[106]La Blog Team de Sport24 par [107]Bruno Roger-Petit
[108]Voir tous les blogs
.
.
La revue de net
Chaque jour, cinq liens sélectionnés par lefigaro.fr
+ LItalie [109]censure la vidéo sur Internet
+ Photos : Martin Luther King [110]en famille
+ Le New York Times [111]payant sur le web (eng)
+ Le rapport sur [112]la numérisation des livres décrypté
+ Lécologie [113]naméliore pas le climat familial (eng)
.
.
Logo Figaro
[114][20080606PHOWWW00354.jpg]
[115]Gagnez un séjour en thalasso
[116]Participez et gagnez un séjour
au Carnac thalasso & spa Resort.
.
.
[117][20080606PHOWWW00353.jpg]
[118]Surprenante Madonna
[119]
Dolce & Gabbana invente la sexy mamma-donna
.
.
[120][20080606PHOWWW00350.jpg]
[121]Exprimez-vous
[122]
Devrait-il y avoir davantage
d'hommes dans les mouvements féministes ?
.
.
[123]Mode - [124]Beauté - [125]Joaillerie - [126]Déco -
[127]Célébrités
.
[128]mercato
.
.
[129]Comment choisir son assurance vie ?
Posez vos questions à Marie-Christine Sonkin, directrice adjointe
de la rédaction du Journal des Finances. Elle répondra en vidéo le
19 janvier.
.
.
«Clint Eastwood au coeur de la mêlée et au coeur du public»
CRITIQUE - Pour Olivier Delcroix, avec «Invictus», qui réunit à l'écran
Morgan Freeman et Matt Damon, Eastwood livre un film passionnant sur le rugby
et l'apartheid.
.
.
Météo ____________________ rech
[130]France - [131]Monde - [132]Plage
.
[EMBED]
.
[133]La grande crue de 1910 à Paris
[134]La grande crue de 1910 à Paris
EN IMAGES - A loccasion du centenaire de la crue, deux expos sont organisées
à Paris.
.
.
.
[135]L'IVG, un sujet qui fâche en Europe
Trente-cinq ans après sa légalisation en France, l'interruption volontaire de
grossesse fait toujours polémique chez certains de nos voisins.
.
.
[136]Jyvais
.
Économie
[137]Proglio bouleverse la direction d'EDF
[138]Le nouveau président d'EDF installe son équipe dirigeante.
.
[139]Evaluer son patron,
un facteur d'efficacité
[140]Une étude britannique met en évidence la relation entre santé au travail
et franchise vis-à-vis de son employeur.
.
.
.
.
.
Vos commentaires sur...
[141]Haïti : Le leadership de Washington sur les secours
[142]«Dans un monde idéal ce serait à l'ONU de désigner le pays chargé de
tenir ce rôle majeur. Mais il semble qu'on y préfère les grands discours aux
actions rationnelles et efficaces !» par DUBLEYOU 76
.
.
[143]Aubry estime avoir les «capacités» de présider la France
[144]«Peut-être devrait-elle commencer par expliquer ce qu'elle compte faire.
Le meilleur opposant n'est pas forcément le meilleur candidat» par Piémont
.
.
[145]L'IVG reste un sujet qui fâche chez nos voisins occidentaux
[146]«Si 35 ans après cela pose encore problème et choque les populations, il
faudrait peut-être se poser des questions ? Ce n'est pas parce qu'une loi a
été votée qu'elle reste valable des décennies après» par Ebtg
.
.
[147]» Retrouvez toute notre sélection de commentaires des internautes
[148]en cliquant ici[149].
.
.
.
.
.
.
Trouvez les meilleurs restos, films, spectacles, concerts et expos à
Paris et en Ile de France !
____________________
[Resto / Bars...........] Rechercher
.
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[150]Easy Voyage
.
Services
+ [151]Services météo
+ [152]Services sorties
+ [153]Services bourse
+ [154]Services voyages
+ [155]Services Guide-tv
+ [156]Services boutiques
+
Annonces
+ [157]annonces_emploi
+ [158]Annonces immobilières
+ [159]Annonces automobile
+ [160]Annonces rencontres
+
.
[_] [_] [_] [_] [_] [_] [_]
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[161]cadremploi.fr
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Annonces Automobiles
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Logo Evène
18 Janvier - Sainte Prisca - [165]Offrez-lui des fleurs
[3441.jpg]
[166]La citation du jour
"Lire n'est pas un acte de consommation culturelle, c'est une conversation."
[167]Alain Finkielkraut
[168]Entretien avec Guy Rossi-Landi - Février 1999
.
.
[4262.jpg]
[169]Anniversaire du jour
[170]Philippe Starck
Designer français
61 ans
.
.
[171]Chronique du jour
C'est arrivé le 18 Janvier 1975
Une bande qui fait du bruit
Dans les kiosques, une nouvelle parution s'apprête à faire grand bruit. Il
s'agit d'un trimestriel, certifié "réservé aux adultes", flanqué d'un titre
au graphisme métallique : Métal hurlant. A l'o...
.
.
[172]Le guide cadeaux culture - EVENE
.
.
.
.
.
.
____________________ Rechercher
newsletter ____________________ OK
.
IFRAME: [173]frametvmag
[174]Abonnement | [175]Archives | [176]Boutique [177]Charte de
modération [178]Contacts | [179]Index actualités | [180]Le Figaro en
PDF | [181]Le Figaro en 3D avec Yoowalk | [182]Mentions légales |
[183]Newsletters | [184]Plan du site | [185]Publicités | [186]RSS |
[187]Sitemap | [188]Toutes les biographies avec le Whos Who France |
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Sites du Groupe Figaro : [193]Actualité sportive avec Sport24.com |
[194]Cinéma avec Evene.fr | [195]Economie avec le JDF.com | [196]Emploi
avec Cadremploi.fr | [197]Formation avec Kelformation.com |
[198]Explorimmoneuf | [199]Immobilier avec Explorimmo.com |
[200]Immobilier de prestige avec Propriétés de France | [201]La
Solitaire du Figaro | [202]Locations vacances avec Bertrand vacances |
[203]Mode et Beauté avec Lefigaro.fr/madame | [204]Programmes télé avec
TV Mag.com | [205]Résidences secondaires | [206]Spectacles avec
TickeTac.com | [207]Vacances de rêve avec Belles Maisons A Louer |
[208]Ventes privées sur Bazarchic.com
.
[209]Abonnement
[210][20071026PHOWWW00431.jpg]
.
.
.
[211]Figaro en PDF
.
[212]Figaro sélection
[213][20091113PHOWWW00377.jpg]
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[214]Privilèges
[215][20090918PHOWWW00224.jpg]
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[216]Sport24.com
[217][20091020PHOWWW00305.jpg]
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[218]Carnet du jour
[219][20071029PHOWWW00500.jpg]
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[220]Figaro magazine
[221][20081226PHOWWW00254.jpg]
.
[222]Madame Figaro
[223][20090619PHOWWW00349.jpg]
.
[224]Salon de Detroit
[225]En images
[226][20100114PHOWWW00381.jpg]
.
[227]Camus
[228]Portrait
[229][20091223PHOWWW00424.jpg]
.
[230]People
[231]Tapis rouge
[232][20091202PHOWWW00394.jpg]
.
[233]more.madame
[234]Art numérique
[235][20091119PHOWWW00374.jpg]
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[236]Bijoux
[237]Idées cadeaux
[238][20091222PHOWWW00119.jpg]
.
[239]High-tech
[240]Vivre en 3D
[241][3dc5b19c-faba-11de-8568-9cd2bbe29056.jpg]
.
[242]Blog
[243]L'actu high-tech
[244][20090722PHOWWW00246.jpg]
.
[245]Cinéma
[246]Films de 2010
[247][f214ceae-fab9-11de-8568-9cd2bbe29056.jpg]
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[248]Ecofiscalité
[249]En Suède
[250][20091231PHOWWW00249.jpg]
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[251]Romans
[252]Top des ventes
[253][20100114PHOWWW00380.jpg]
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[254]Hôtels
[255]Spectaculaires
[256][20091229PHOWWW00241.jpg]
.
[257]Rentrée
[258]théâtrale
[259][33910c4a-fab9-11de-8568-9cd2bbe29056.jpg]
.
[260]Rétro
[261]Partis en 2009
[262][20091230PHOWWW00132.jpg]
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[263]Les éditos
[264]Tous les jours
[265][20090610PHOWWW00336.jpg]
.
[266]Paris hippiques
[267][20091028PHOWWW00365.jpg]
.
[268]Galerie Photo
[269][20090319PHOWWW00273.jpg]
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[270]Newsletters
[271][20071026PHOWWW00455.jpg]
.
[272]Rencontres
[273][20071029PHOWWW00504.jpg]
.
[274]Figaro Cadeaux
[275][20080401PHOWWW00195.jpg]
.
[276]Mobile
[277][20081121PHOWWW00303.jpg]
.
[278]Alerte Actu
[279][20091019PHOWWW00158.jpg]
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[5]Présentation
____________________
[6]Sylvain Dzimira
Pascal Michon,
Les rythmes du politique
Démocratie et capitalisme mondialisé (note suivie d'une correspondance entre
P. Michon, S. Dzimira et Sénèque...)
Les prairies ordinaires, 2007, 318 p., 17 EUR.
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Article publié le 29 avril 2008 /3 commentaires
Pour citer cet article : [10]Sylvain Dzimira, « Les rythmes du
politique, Démocratie et capitalisme mondialisé (note suivie d'une
correspondance entre P. Michon, S. Dzimira et Sénèque...) », Revue du
MAUSS permanente, 29 avril 2008 [en ligne].
L'ambition de cet ouvrage donne tout simplement le vertige : relevant
l'inanité des théories critiques, à ce point incapables de saisir notre
modernité démocratique qu'elles corroborent selon lui une réalité
qu'elles croient dénoncer, Pascal Michon ne propose rien de moins que
de repenser la démocratie, en élaborant quasiment de toutes pièces un
appareillage conceptuel, et en s'efforçant de déduire des conclusions
normatives des découvertes que lui permettent les lunettes dont il se
chausse, très loin de la très académique neutralité axiologique. Une
ambition théorique d'autant plus étonnante qu'elle est le fait d'un
historien (et non d'un sociologue ou d'un philosophe politiques qu'on
pourrait croire mieux armés conceptuellement a priori), et quand on
connaît l'hyperspécialisation de ses confrères (lui n'hésite pas à
mobiliser « les sciences sociales » et la philosophie) et leur refus
quasi généralisé de théoriser quoi que ce soit. Que pouvons-nous en
penser ? Commençons par présenter l'ouvrage.
PRESENTATION
L'avant propos est désarçonnant, car, « tout le monde en prend pour son
grade » ! Journalistes, universitaires « installés dans les chaires
trop grandes pour eux de prédécesseurs célèbres » [p. 9],
« intellectuels » de gauche devenus libéraux, intellectuels de droite
invoquant des icônes de la gauche, tous incapables de penser quoi que
ce soit de pertinent sur leur monde... Cela laisse un impression
désagréable qui heureusement se dissipe rapidement, car les pages qui
suivent donnent sérieusement à penser (nous les avons d'ailleurs
publiées dans [11]La Revue du MAUSS Permanente). P. Michon y soutient
que, reprise telle quelle par des « disciples » aveugles, la pensée
libertaire et contestatrice d'hier est devenue l'un des soutiens de
premier plan du nouvel ordre libéral, au même titre que la pensée
libérale. D'ailleurs, elles se retrouvent dans la même dénonciation des
entraves à l'auto-réalisation des individus, dans un même nominalisme
nihiliste teinté d'un empirisme plat (rien n'existe au fond, qui ne
s'observe pas, surtout pas « la société » ou les « sujets
collectifs »), et dans une même sacralisation de la neutralité
axiologique. Sont ainsi appelés à la barre : Marcela Iuacub, Antonio
Negri, Michael Hart et Bruno Latour. Si ces postures étaient réellement
contestatrices dans un contexte où l'individu était malmené par des
pensées homogénéisantes, édifiant des totalités en surplomb, censées
parfois tracer la voie du salut pour tous - phénoménologie,
existentialisme, historicisme, marxisme sont cités - elles participent
aujourd'hui très largement du monde nouveau qu'elles dénoncent par
ailleurs, où le seul ordre qui vaille est celui qui s'établit
spontanément (la neutralité axiologique est un allié précieux) par les
choix des individus, qui seuls sont censés exister.
Les « disciples » faussement contestataires ne sont pas les seuls à
oeuvrer au nouvel ordre libéral : ils sont accompagnés par des
« héritiers » (qu'on retrouve en nombre dans les médias, à
l'université, dans la recherche, bref « tout ce qui constitue le
fondement objectif de la vie de la pensée » [p. 23]) qui n'ont fait
qu'emprunter les concepts et les programmes de recherche à leurs
prédécesseurs, à qui ils doivent leurs places et leurs statuts.
Cultivant une posture de « rentiers », excellant dans la « phagocytose
académique » [p. 25], allant jusqu'à détourner les voix de leurs
Maîtres (ainsi d'Ewald), « ce groupe est, pour P. Michon, le deuxième
grand responsable de l'épuisement actuel de la pensée critique » [p.
24]. L'état des lieux laissés par leurs occupants est en effet
accablant, mais suffisamment juste pour que nous citions longuement son
auteur : « L'ouverture à l'autre, les parcours transversaux, la
transdisciplinarité, le travail théorique, la contestation de l'ordre
en cours et la créativité conceptuelle, qui avaient fondé jusque là
l'organisation des savoirs, sont désormais systématiquement rejetés au
profit d'une nouvelle constellation : spécialisation extrême, ignorance
des autres disciplines [et souvent, même, des autres savoirs
spécialisés de sa propre discipline, SD], enquêtes de terrain étroites,
empirisme radical, approbation positiviste à l'égard de ce qui est et
répétition académique du passé » [p. 27]. Notons que c'est avec le
souci de ne pas reproduire ce qu'il dénonce - une pensée à la gloire de
l'individu, nominaliste, platement empiriste, faussement neutre d'un
point de vue axiologique - que P. Michon se lance dans ce qui apparaît
comme une contribution à la théorie de la démocratie.
Mais que ne parviennent pas à penser les théories critiques au juste ?
Oscillant entre deux visions du monde radicalement opposées - tantôt
monde de liberté totale, tantôt monde d'oppression totale - elles sont
incapables de saisir que c'est là l'expression des « deux faces
[interdépendantes] de l'individuation », dont il s'agit de comprendre
la « simultanéité » et la « succession » [p. 31]. Autrement dit, elles
sont incapables de saisir les nouvelles formes qu'a prises le pouvoir
dans un monde vécu comme univers de liberté totale pour l'individu.
Pour restituer le plus fidèlement possible sa pensée, nous ne pourrons
pas nous passer des définitions que P. Michon donne de l'individuation
et de la notion de rythme qui l'accompagne. « Par individuation,
écrit-il, j'entends l'ensemble des processus corporels, langagiers et
sociaux par lesquels sont sans cesse produits et reproduits, augmentés
et minorés, les individus singuliers (les individus observés dans leur
singularité psychique) et collectifs (les groupes). [...] J'appellerai
rythmes les configurations spécifiques de ces processus
d'individuation » ; ce sont « des manières de produire et de distinguer
des individus singuliers et collectifs » [p. 32]. Aujourd'hui, soutient
P. Michon, « [le pouvoir] se joue avant tout dans l'organisation et le
contrôle des rythmes des processus d'individuation, ainsi que dans les
classements qu'ils produisent » [p. 32]. La première partie de
l'ouvrage est consacrée à l'explicitation de sa notion d'individuation
et la deuxième aux formes que prend le pouvoir aujourd'hui. Dans la
troisième partie de l'ouvrage, P. Michon « aborde la question [à ses
yeux] la plus difficile et la plus importante de toutes : celle de la
plus ou moins grande qualité des rythmes de l'individuation et des
divers pouvoirs qui s'y expriment » [p. 33]. Le pouvoir se joue dans
les rythmes, selon P. Michon. Or, tous les exercices du pouvoir ne
s'équivalent pas. C'est donc que tous les rythmes ne s'équivalent pas.
C'est pourquoi, comprenons-nous, P. Michon considère ne pas pouvoir se
dispenser de rechercher des critères éthiques qui lui permettront de
distinguer les bons rythmes des mauvais, en quelque sorte. Enfin, une
fois ces critères identifiés, il évalue la qualité des rythmes du
« monde nouveau » qu'est le nôtre. Restituons rapidement chacune de ces
parties (pour aider à la compréhension de l'ouvrage tout en suivant sa
progression, nous avons repris le titre de chacune de ses parties et
indiqué entre parenthèses la question qu'elle nous semble poser).
Individuation
(ou comment penser le processus de construction des sujets
individuels et collectifs ?)
Pour insister sur le fait que les rythmes s'inscrivent dans le temps,
et que les individus singuliers et collectifs qu'ils produisent ont
eux-mêmes une dimension historique, que leur identité est évolutive (un
souci bien compréhensif de la part d'un historien) même si elle
peut-être relativement stable, P. Michon recourt à une nouvelle
notion : celle de fluement. Il précise ainsi sa notion de rythme en lui
donnant une nouvelle définition : « J'appellerai rythme toute manière
de fluer des individus et poserai que tout processus d'individuation
est organisé de façon rythmique » [p. 42]. Il s'attache donc à
comprendre comment le corps (le rapport à son corps, entre les corps),
le langage et les rapports sociaux produisent les individus singuliers
et collectifs [[12]1]
Pour ce qui est de la question du corps, P. Michon mobilise Marcel
Mauss - [13]son fameux article sur les techniques du corps - Norbert
Elias - La civilisation des moeurs et La société de cour - et Michel
Foucault - Surveiller et punir - pour rappeler l'idée au fond assez
simple selon laquelle le rapport à son propre corps (jusque dans notre
manière de marcher), et au corps d'autrui (pratiques sexuelles, danses
etc.) est culturellement, historiquement, socialement marqué, et que
cela participe de la construction des sujets. Il semble distinguer au
moins deux manières de produire par les corps les sujets, deux
« rythmes corporels » : l'une, rare, inscrit les corps dans un « schéma
mécanique et binaire » [p. 54] ; on la retrouve idéaltyptiquement dans
l'usine taylorienne ou fordiste ou encore à l'armée. L'autre, la plus
fréquente, sort du modèle binaire et arithmétique classique » [ibid.].
Mais on n'en sait pas beaucoup plus.
Passons aux « rythmes du langage » (ou encore fluement du langage ou
discursivité). Le langage (les manières de s'exprimer, de parler etc.),
soutient en substance P. Michon, participe à la construction des
sujets, et rend compte de cette construction. Pour comprendre comment
le langage peut participer à la construction des sujets, P. Michon
s'appuie sur Victor Kemplerer - La langue du IIIème Reich. Carnets d'un
philologue - qui rend compte de la « nazification du langage » [p. 55].
Pour saisir comment un langage peut rendre compte des sujets
socialisés, il s'appuie sur notamment Walter Benjamin - son Charles
Baudelaire, un poète lyrique à l'apogée du capitalisme - qui montre que
le langage qu'emploie Baudelaire renvoie « à l'expérience abîmée des
individus plongés dans la Grande Ville » [p. 58].
Enfin, les « rythmes du social ». Là aussi, les relations sociales sont
rythmées, elles s'inscrivent dans une temporalité qui suit ses propres
rythmes, qui façonnent les identités individuelles et collectives par
conséquent variables en même temps que stables. Pour l'illustrer, P.
Michon s'appuie une nouvelle fois sur M. Mauss (notamment) et son
[14]« Essai sur les variations saisonnières des sociétés eskimos » qui
l'été se dispersent et l'hiver se rassemblent et vivent en état
d'effervescence, un peu comme les Kwakiutls. Ces variations des
« rythmes du social » correspondent en fait à des « variations
d'intensité des interactions » [p. 71]. Bref, voilà ce qui participe à
la construction de l'identité, à la fois permanente et en mouvement,
des sujets individuels et collectifs, à la construction de leur
« âme » : nos rapports au corps, nos rapports entre les corps, notre
langage, nos relations sociales, tout cela étant étroitement
entrelacé : « Les processus d'individuation sont à la fois des
phénomènes langagiers, corporels et sociaux, écrit P. Michon ; ils
déploient simultanément une discursivité, une corporéité et une
socialité - et c'est de l'entrecroisement de leurs rythmes qu'apparaît
`l'âme' » [p.76].
La notion de rythme permet donc d'appréhender des manières
historiquement construites de se déplacer, de parler, d'être en
relation, qui construisent les identités des sujets individuels et
collectifs. À ce titre, elle a une vertu heuristique. Mais P. Michon
l'appréhende également comme « un concept politique et éthique » [p.
81]. Il distingue en effet deux types de rythme qui n'ont pas les mêmes
effets éthiques et politiques. Un premier type de rythme produit des
sujets individuels et collectifs qui se « renforcent » mutuellement. Un
deuxième type produit des sujets individuels et collectifs qui jouent
l'un contre l'autre : l'affirmation des premiers se fait aux dépens des
deuxièmes ou inversement. P. Michon considère « qu'une éthique et une
politique démocratiques peuvent se définir comme orientées vers la
production de manière de fluer de la socialité, des corps et des
langages (...) qui soient à la fois singulières et partageables » et
toujours « réactualisables » [pp. 81-82]. Ainsi, P. Michon suggère que
les sociétés démocratiques doivent s'orienter vers des rythmes du
premier type.
Pouvoir
(ou comment la notion de rythme permet de penser la contrainte subie
par les sujets dans un monde hors contrainte - ou du moins, qui se
pense comme tel ?)
Après avoir précisé comment ses notions d'individuation et de rythme
permettent de comprendre les manières dont les sujets individuels et
collectifs sont construits, P. Michon, aborde la question de la manière
dont ces rythmes produisent du pouvoir, caractéristique de notre
« nouveau monde ».
D'abord, P. Michon situe sa manière de voir les choses sur le « marché
des idées » : ses vues se distinguent de l'utilitarisme dominant, pour
qui le pouvoir, assis sur la violence ou la contrainte qui l'euphémise,
est orienté vers la satisfaction des intérêts des individus, et le
Pouvoir, les institutions politiques, vers l'évitement de la
déflagration de la société en raison de la lutte de tous contre tous.
Or, cette manière de voir ne permet pas de saisir qu'aujourd'hui, le
pouvoir - qu'il s'exerce à l'échelle individuelle ou institutionnelle -
passe moins par la violence ou la contrainte que par une certaine
« façon de pénétrer les corps-langages, d'organiser leurs manières de
fluer et de déterminer ainsi leur individuation mouvante » [p. 93].
« Le pouvoir, écrit-il plus loin, s'est émancipé de la forme système
(...), et s'appuie désormais moins sur sa capacité à assurer un ordre
optimisé que sur un spectre de stratégies utilisant, au contraire, la
fluidité même du monde - stratégies qui vont du contrôle souple et de
la création des manières de fluer des corps-langages-groupes à
l'utilisation plus ou moins délibérée du chaos, comme on le voit avec
les États-Unis et le Royaume-Uni au Moyen-Orient » [p. 94-95].
Aujourd'hui, les personnes sont moins assujetties que les sujets sont
produits.
Pour penser cette nouvelle forme du pouvoir, il faut penser autrement
le rapport du tout aux parties, s'émanciper tant des théories qui
consacrent une autonomie totale des individus, de celles qui en font de
simples marionnettes du système, et rechercher une voie moyenne à
l'instar des « théories intermédiaires » - comme celles de Elias,
Bourdieu, Foucault, Touraine, Habermas, Honneth, Giddens, Bauman,
Caillé, Thévenot, Boltanski. [p. 101 et suiv.] qui tentent de « penser
l'un par l'autre ce qu'elles conçoivent comme les deux côtés de la vie
socio-politique : les `systèmes' et les `interactions entre les
individus' » [p. 101] ce par quoi il faut comprendre « un rapport réel
entre des pôles dont l'existence ne se conçoit que dans leur
interdépendance et leurs échanges incessants » [p. 102]. De ce point de
vue « le pouvoir constitue moins un simple état de fait que le milieu
et le moyen à travers lequel se construisent les individus singuliers
et collectifs, les classements et les hiérarchies qui les relient les
uns aux autres, ainsi que les effets de domination qui apparaissent au
sein de ces classements et de ces hiérarchies » [p. 103-104].
Néanmoins, parce qu' « elles n'ont pas prêté attention à l'organisation
temporelle [...] de ces interactions » [p. 106], elles manquent les
rythmes du politique où se joue la question du pouvoir. P. Michon
propose alors une définition du pouvoir comme « médium rythmique » [p.
107], c'est-à-dire, comprenons-nous, comme processus historique de
production et de contrôle des personnes et des groupes par imposition
d'un rythme « de toutes choses : de vie, de temps, de pensée, de
discours » comme il l'écrit plus loin [p. 129]. Compte tenu de cette
nouvelle modalité du pouvoir, reste à savoir quel critère on pourrait
se donner pour juger que notre démocratie se porte bien, ou pas ?
Démocratie
(ou quel(s) critère(s) se donner pour évaluer la démocratie
moderne ?)
Ou encore : que doit-on faire pour que dans notre nouveau monde où le
pouvoir s'exerce par un contrôle sur le processus de construction des
corps-langages-groupes, notre démocratie se porte bien ?
Quelle place pour l'État ? [[15]2]
Lutter contre l'État comme le pensait Pierre Clastres ? P. Michon ne le
croit pas : outre que P. Clastres aurait perdu « la conscience du temps
et de l'histoire », « le modèle politique et éthique arythmique qu'[il]
propose [est] assez peu offensif vis-à-vis de la réalité du
capitalisme » [p. 123]. Bref, la définition d'une « démocratie comme
arythmie » ne convient pas. Mieux vaut partir de Roland Barthes, selon
P. Michon, et plus précisément de la présentation qu'il fait des
collectivités religieuses « idiorrythmiques » qui vivaient dans les
déserts syriens et égyptiens « où chaque moine a (...) licence de mener
son rythme particulier de vie » [p. 126]. D'abord parce qu'elles sont
parvenues à éviter les excès du repli sur soi et de la fusion
communautaire, de la « solitude et [du] coenobium » [p. 127], dessinant
selon lui une sorte de « socialisme qui n'aurait pas abandonné
l'individu » [pp. 127-128]. Ensuite parce qu'en se retirant dans le
désert, elles sont parvenues à échapper au rythme d'un pouvoir
supérieur. Bref, c'est plutôt dans cette société idiorrythmique, i.e.
qui se fixe à elle-même son propre rythme, qu'il voit - provisoirement
du moins - un idéal type de la démocratie.
Néanmoins, quand P. Clastres pense l'État sans penser le rythme, R.
Barthes pense le rythme sans penser l'État [p. 140]. Sur le chemin de
sa quête d'une éthique et d'une politique du rythme, P. Michon se
tourne alors vers Marcel Mauss. Non seulement les descriptions que ce
dernier fait de la vie saisonnière des sociétés archaïques rendent bien
compte du caractère rythmique de ces sociétés, mais le potlatch
illustre de manière spectaculaire à ses yeux la « nature rythmique du
politique » [p. 142], au sens où c'est dans ce moment que se
« redéfini[ssent] périodiquement le statut et l'identité des groupes et
des personnes dans le système tribal » [p. 142]. Il retient de M. Mauss
et des travaux de Marcel Granet sur la Chine que la société n'est pas
contre l'État comme le pense P. Clastres, que l'État n'est pas contre
la société comme le pense R. Barthes. « Leurs relations, pense-t-il,
doivent [plutôt] être évaluées en fonction des interactions
historiques, toujours mouvantes, entre les rythmes imposés par l'État
aux corps-langages-groupes et ceux imposés à celui-là par ceux-ci.
[...] L'État n'est pas nécessairement « l'ennemi » de la société : il
peut certes devenir tyrannique et informer les processus
d'individuation à son profit, mais il peut tout aussi bien devenir
l'instrument grâce auquel la société peut chercher à assurer une
individuation de bonne qualité » [p. 147]. Bref, l'État a toute sa
place dans une démocratie idiorrythmique. Encore faut-il qu'il ne dénie
pas son rythme propre, sans l'imposer pour autant à la société. « Les
différents projets démocratiques qui sont au apparus vers la fin de
cette période apparaissent comme autant de tentatives politiques pour
réintroduire dans l'État, devenu permanent, une temporalité tenant
compte des rythmes propres de la société » [p. 154]. Voilà ce qu'il
nous faut : « Rerythmer le corps-langage arythmique de l'État moderne,
lui redonner la temporalité et la multiplicité interne dont il s'est
débarrassé, réhistoriciser une forme de pouvoir qui se prétend hors de
l'histoire » [p. 154].
Les nouveaux rythmes d'un monde fluide
Mais notre démocratie ne s'est-elle pas édifiée sur la maîtrise par
« le peuple » de la discipline exercée par l'État sur les corps et sur
les esprits ? Sans doute, répond P. Michon, mais de nouvelles formes
rythmiques se sont imposées « aux multitudes » [[16]3], peut-être plus
fortes qu'auparavant. C'est toute l'ambivalence de notre modernité
démocratique. « Tout s'est [...] passé comme si l'apparition des
libertés civiles puis la mutation démocratique de l'État n'avaient pu
se faire qu'au prix de la diffusion de nouveaux modes rythmiques
d'individuation fondés sur un assujettissement renforcé et de nouvelles
formes d'exclusion » [p. 194].
En quoi consiste plus précisément la nouveauté de nos « formes de
production des individus singuliers et collectifs », déjà rapidement
évoqués ? C'est qu'ils sont « beaucoup plus fluides, en tout cas
libérés de toute métrique, sinon de toute discipline » [p. 211].
S'appuyant sur Gabriel Tarde, P. Michon précise qu'elles sont le fait
du progrès technique dans l'imprimerie, la communication et les
transports, qui permet de produire des groupes 1) sans que leurs
membres se rassemblent physiquement (pensons à l'internet), 2) sur la
seule base d'idées communes (chacun pouvant se reconnaître dans un
« courant d'opinion »), et 3) « en perpétuelle métamorphose » (c'est ce
qui semble leur conférer un caractère fluide) [p. 215] ; groupes
d'individus, « myriades d'atomes » séparés mais non isolés (qui
prennent le visage du « public »), qui « imposent une fluidité de plus
en plus grande aux groupements institutionnalisés traditionnels et
[qui] transforment, tendanciellement, les sociétés modernes en société
de masse » [p. 215]. Les rythmes d'individuation sont encore plus
fluides en ce sens que, comme l'avait relevé Georg Simmel que P. Michon
mobilise aussi - en même temps qu'ils sont désormais en connexion
permanente, inscrits dans une « temporalité continue, sans halte ni
repos » [p. 220], ils peuvent choisir leurs propres rythmes de vie.
D'un point de vue simmelien, la monnaie y a fait bien sûr pour
beaucoup.
Désormais dominante, cette manière, fluide, de produire des individus
singuliers et collectifs est elle-même ambivalente. G. Tarde, par
exemple, est plutôt sensible aux dangers pour la démocratie que porte
la possibilité de produire un « public », une « opinion publique », si
celle ci devait être instrumentalisée par des puissances animées par
une volonté d'assujettissement. Simmel, lui, est plus sensible aux
possibilités accrues pour les individus de choisir leurs propres
rythmes. Il voit davantage le danger dans le refus de cette
fluidification du rythme, et dans l'aspiration au retour à des rythmes
plus disciplinés et cadencés.
Avec G. Tarde et G. Simmel, on voit clairement que le rythme, la
manière dont les hommes se produisent, dont les corps-langages-groupes
se construisent, n'est pas sans incidences politiques. Il y a donc lieu
de les distinguer selon leur « qualité éthique et politique » [p. 232].
P. Michon, inspiré par Ossip Mandesltam [[17]4], se donne alors un
indicateur de la mesure de cette qualité des rythmes : la
« rythmicité ». Et vient une définition rythmique des groupements
démocratiques : ils sont « dotés d'une rythmicité forte. Ils se
caractérisent par leur multiplicité interne et par le fait qu'ils
permettent aux contradictions et aux conflits de s'exprimer sans que
ceux-ci ne débouchent sur la suppression de l'un des termes
antagonistes, assurant ainsi l'une par l'autre la promotion du
singulier et celle des groupes auxquels il appartient. » [p. 233]. Mais
qu'en est-il du rythme, de la manière dont se produisent les
corps-langages-groupes censée porter ces groupements démocratiques ? On
n'en sait trop rien sinon qu'il est lui-même traversé par cette
exigence paradoxale de fabriquer du commun et du singulier, de la
cohésion et du conflit. On en sait davantage sur le rythme des
groupements à rythmicité faible, dont la foule et les « sociétés de
masses » sont les idéaux-types : ils « sont très souvent marqués par
des techniques rythmiques de type métriques - [...] manifestations,
meetings politiques, matchs de football -, proches de la cadence, de la
simple alternance binaire [...] ou mécanique - [...] parades
militaires, sparkiades et autres spectacles de masse » [p. 233-234].
Mais les rythmes à rythmicité faible peuvent être encore « flous, très
peu accentués et à basse tension interne » [p. 234], comme on peut en
rencontrer dans les entreprises aujourd'hui, « rythmes aussi peu
favorables à l'individuation que les rythmes binaires et disciplinaires
qu'ils ont remplacés » [p . 234], typiques des organisations
tayloristes ou de l'armée.
À la recherche des formes justes d'un monde fluidifié
Ce qu'il faut donc, c'est rechercher « les formes justes d'un monde
fluidifié » [p. 237]. Il se tourne alors vers ce qu'il appelle
« l'utopie maussienne » [p. 233], qui consiste à voir la morale du don
- de la triple obligation de donner, recevoir et rendre - tempérer,
contenir, celle de l'intérêt, aujourd'hui dominante, et qui revient
selon lui à « assurer la maximisation de leur individuation [celle des
individus singuliers et collectifs] par une mise en tension du soi et
du collectif » [p. 238]. Car, plus qu'une simple transaction, P. Michon
voit dans le don archaïque, agonistique, un rythme particulier,
« l'occasion d'une réunion et d'une mise en branle périodiques et
organisées des corps-langages, c'est à dire de la production d' `âmes'
par des techniques rythmiques particulières » [p. 239]. Voyant chez
M. Mauss une définition rythmique du don - comme forme de production
des corps-langages-groupes - susceptible d'étayer un projet
éthico-politique, P. Michon la considère comme un « point de départ »
[p. 241] pour réfléchir à l'énoncé de critères qui permettent de
distinguer les bons des mauvais rythmes. Il déduit des réflexions de
Mauss sur la circulation et la fortification de l'âme des peuples au
cours des potlatchs que « toute politique démocratique consistera [...]
à rechercher, non pas seulement, comme le pensaient Georg Simmel et R.
Barthes, une idiorrythmie, une simple liberté rythmique personnelle
indépendante des rythmes collectifs, mais une eurythmie simultanément
corporelle, discursive et sociale - une maximisation de
l'individualisation singulière et collective » [p. 242]. Au regard de
la démocratie, le seul bon rythme est celui qui maximise la production
des individus singuliers et collectifs...
Néanmoins, M. Mauss ne parvient pas à nous fournir les critères qui
permettraient de distinguer les bons [[18]5] des mauvais rythmes
d'individuation, parce que, dans ses conclusions de morale et de
politique de son célèbre Essai, il développe une « conception pacifiste
et consensualiste de la démocratie, et ne tient aucun compte du rôle
que joue précisément le conflit dans [les] processus d'individuation »
[p. 248].
P. Michon voit davantage le bon rythme de l'individuation démocratique
chez les Nuer tels qu'ils sont décrits par Evans-Pritchard, qui
alternent successivement « don et refus du don, l'alliance et la
lutte » [p. 252]. Ainsi, « tout en restant disponibles à la générosité
et à l'engagement solidaire, [ils] jouissent pleinement de leur
autonomie. [...] Les Nuer ont inventé un système, poursuit plus loin P.
Michon, dans lequel, loin de s'opposer, solidarité et individualité se
renforcent l'une l'autre » [ibid.]. Bref, le bon rythme d'individuation
démocratique est celui qui repose sur « l'alternance du conflit et de
l'alliance ». [p. 252], ou plus précisément, il s'opère lorsque
« l'alliance et le conflit alternent tout en étant compris sans cesse
l'un dans l'autre, un peu comme, dans la pensée chinoise, le yin et le
yang se succèdent tout en impliquant déjà chaque fois leur opposé »[p.
254]. Ou encore, le bon rythme d'individuation démocratique est celui
qui permet de « considérer nos adversaires comme des alliés en
puissance, mais aussi ceux qui sont nos alliés comme de potentiels
adversaires » [p. 254]. Ce qui le conduit à défendre une définition de
la démocratie comme « eurythmie de l'usage de la violence » [p. 254].
Seul ce rythme « maximise » l'individuation des individus singuliers et
collectifs, permet l'affirmation la plus intense des « Je » et du
« Nous ». [p. 255] [[19]6].
De ce point de vue, le système économique le plus juste est donc celui
qui fait autant de place à l'adversité qu'à l'alliance. Il le voit dans
une sorte de « mixture » qui organiserait l'adversité par la
concurrence marchande et la reconnaissance de la propriété privée, et
l'alliance par l'organisation collective de la production et une
certaine « mise en commun de la propriété » [p. 274]. Il en vient ainsi
à définir la démocratie, « non seulement comme une eurythmie de l'usage
de la violence, mais comme une eurythmie des usages de la propriété et
du marché » [ibid.], dont la rythmicité est donc forte.
C'est à l'aune de ce critère du bon rythme d'individuation démocratique
qu'il évalue la qualité des rythmes du « monde nouveau » qu'est le
nôtre.
Capitalisme mondialisé
(notre société capitaliste est-elle bien démocratique ? Que faire
pour la rendre plus démocratique ?)
Le rythme du capitalisme s'est modifié. Cadencé, binaire, métrique dans
les organisations tayloristes, il s'est depuis une trentaine d'années
fluidifié dans les organisations dites flexibles, dont l'objectif est
de répondre au mieux à la demande des clients (en vue de maximiser le
profit). Jouant la carte de la responsabilisation individuelle, des
horaires variables, de l'accroissement de la mobilité professionnelle,
ces organisations développent des rythmes d'individuation plus lâches,
moins métriques et peuvent donner l'impression qu'elles libèrent les
formes de vie dans le travail. Mais, s'appuyant sur l'ouvrage de
Richard Senett, Le travail en miettes (1998), P. Michon montre qu'il
n'en est rien. Confrontés à des objectifs de court terme quasiment
inatteignables, à un temps hors travail qu'ils ne maîtrisent même plus,
à des parcours professionnels bigarrés, les individus subissent une
nouvelle forme d'assujettissement. Et l'individualisation à outrance du
rapport au travail a sapé « les liens de confiance et d'engagement
mutuels » constitutifs de tout groupe [p 292]. On a désormais affaire à
des individus singuliers et collectifs à faible rythmicité.
Notre monde est flexible, mais il est encore médiatique. On assiste à
un développement sans précédent des moyens de communication, qui, lui
aussi, à l'instar de la flexibilité, pourrait faire croire à une
libération des formes d'individuation ici langagière. Mais il n'en est
rien. Le discours est aseptisé, consensuel, l'information « désincarnée
et dépolitisée ».
Bref, qu'il s'agisse de nos rapports au langage, au corps, aux autres,
nous vivons dans un monde à faible rythmicité, i.e. dont ni l'individu,
ni le collectif ne sortent gagnants. « Ainsi, note P. Michon, les
démocraties libérales, qui se voyaient jusque là comme des machines à
produire des individus émancipés, tendent-elles à devenir aujourd'hui
d'immenses dispositifs qui assurent, à travers une fluidification
généralisée des corporéités, des discursivités, et des socialités, la
multiplication d'individus faibles et flottants, constamment happés par
les besoins de la production et de l'échange marchand et les
interactions dans lesquels ils sont pris » [p. 307].
Pour éviter les « tempêtes » dont ce monde est porteur, il est urgent
pour P. Michon que nous retrouvions de nouveaux rythmes d'individuation
langagière, corporelle et sociale, « à partir des capacités des
individus à s'associer au niveau local, voire translocal » [p. 311],
« dans l`expérience de corps-langage-groupe en lutte » [p. 312]. Mais
cela ne pourra pas se faire, selon lui, sans « toucher aux rapports de
production et à la répartition des revenus » [ibid.], et donc sans une
« puissance supérieure à celle des entreprises et du marché » [ibid.],
qui pourrait-être l'Europe, en tant qu'entité politique.
DISCUSSION
Que penser de cet ouvrage ? À vrai dire, il nous laisse une curieuse
impression. Les efforts que déploie P. Michon pour concevoir un
appareillage conceptuel afin de saisir l'état de notre démocratie
moderne forcent le respect. On est là, se dit-on, en présence d'un
auteur qui développe sa propre pensée, en discussion permanente avec
des auteurs d'horizons multiples, de surcroît d'une manière fort
rigoureuse, puisqu'il ne s'épargne aucun effort pour définir les
notions qu'il crée. La progression de l'ouvrage elle-même laisse
apparaître un auteur méthodique et prudent dans ses diagnostics : ce
n'est qu'après avoir défini ce qu'il appelle individuation, explicité
ses rapports avec le pouvoir, qu'il se permet, chaussé des lunettes
qu'il vient de se fabriquer, de porter un diagnostic sur notre
démocratie. Enfin, on sent bien, intuitivement, qu'avec sa notion de
rythme, il pointe sur une dimension de la réalité sociale très
largement ignorée par les spécialistes en sciences sociales [[20]7]mais
qui pourrait bien être importante si, comme il le soutient, c'est dans
les rythmes que se jouent les relations de pouvoir.
De l'usage du concept
Mais c'est ce même appareillage conceptuel qui nous laisse perplexe.
Créé de toutes pièces par P. Michon, il est bien difficile à saisir
malgré les efforts qu'il fournit pour définir les notions employées.
Individuation, rythme, arythmie, idiorrythmie, eurythmie, fluement
(finalement très peu utilisé), rythmicité (forte et faible) : tout cela
pourrait décourager le lecteur pressé (et a rendu cette recension bien
difficile). À ce propos d'ailleurs, les ralliements qu'il opère de
certains auteurs à la cause de l'individuation et du rythme paraissent
un peu forcés ! Présenter M. Foucault comme l'auteur d'une « histoire
des rythmes d'individuation » [p. 195], et M. Mauss comme le découvreur
de la notion d'eurythmie [p. 243, cf. supra] est pour le moins assez
peu usuel. Si ces points de vue, rapidement glissés, pouvaient aider à
la compréhension des idées de P. Michon, ils pourraient se justifier.
Mais pour notre part, nous ne pouvons pas dire qu'ils nous aient
beaucoup aidés. Bien sûr, son langage se comprend au regard des
défaillances qu'il identifie chez les auteurs qui appréhendent notre
démocratie, et qui résident justement, selon lui, dans leur incapacité
à saisir ce qu'il appelle individuation et rythme pourtant au coeur des
relations de pouvoir selon lui. Nous sommes tout simplement, de son
point de vue, en présence d'« une réalité nouvelle » qui demande « des
dispositifs théoriques, eux aussi, totalement nouveaux » (nous
soulignons) [p. 30]. Par ailleurs, P. Michon a suffisamment critiqué
l'intelligentsia française pour son manque de créativité intellectuelle
pour ne pas se faire lui-même inventif... Néanmoins, la nouveauté
est-elle toujours un indice de la pertinence ? Ne peut-on rien
apprendre de ceux qui nous ont précédés ? Qu'y a-t-il de honteux à
s'inscrire dans une tradition de pensée ? Soyons sévère (et un peu
injuste, car P. Michon s'efforce, sans être toujours très convaincant,
de rallier des prédécesseurs plus ou moins connus à ses concepts) : n'y
a-t-il pas dans cette posture de créativité radicale, quasiment
nihiliste, quelque chose du mythe de l'autoréalisation de soi
emblématique de notre époque et qu'il condamne lui-même ? Toujours
est-il que nous nous demandons si P. Michon n'aurait pas pu, tout de
même, dire les choses plus simplement.
Que dit-il au juste ? Que nos identités se construisent dans nos
relations aux autres, qui engagent notre corps et notre langage. Que
ces relations peuvent être placées sous des registres différents (elles
peuvent être rythmées différemment), qu'elles peuvent être notamment
plus ou moins contraintes (rythme cadencé, métré, binaire etc.) ou
libres (rythme fluide). Que dans ces relations se jouent des relations
de pouvoir sur les personnes (pouvoir de contrainte, parfois médiatisé
par le savoir), et, par-là, la capacité pour elles de se réaliser de
manière autonome, ou pas (pouvoir d'agir). Dans une première phase du
capitalisme, un réel pouvoir sur les personnes s'exerçait via
l'organisation de relations sociales contraignantes qui engageaient
leurs corps et leurs langages, et qui freinaient leur pouvoir d'agir,
individuellement et collectivement. L'organisation tayloriste en
constitue l'idéal-type. Aujourd'hui, apparemment délivrées des
contraintes systémiques dans leurs relations aux autres, visiblement
libérées du pouvoir qui s'exerçait sur elles-mêmes (l'organisation du
travail flexible faisant appel à l'initiative et à la responsabilité de
ses salariés joue ici comme idéal-type), les personnes n'ont pour
autant pas gagné en pouvoir d'agir, ni individuellement, ni
collectivement. Le pouvoir exercé sur les personnes prend
paradoxalement le canal de l'exhortation de leur pouvoir d'agir (qui se
réduit bien souvent à celui de produire et de consommer). Si bien que
notre démocratie n'est pas tout à fait démocratique, « étant entendu »
qu'une bonne démocratie est celle qui renforce le pouvoir d'agir des
individus et des groupes. D'une certaine manière, même, notre société
est moins démocratique qu'auparavant car elle paraît faussement l'être
plus, alors qu'autrefois elle paraissait bien ne pas l'être assez. Ce
que nous pouvons en déduire, c'est qu'il nous faut cultiver des
relations sociales, créer des institutions qui soient porteuses de ce
pouvoir d'agir individuellement et collectivement, qui nous permettent
de retrouver la maîtrise de nos destins à la fois individuels et
collectifs.
Nous aimerions savoir ce que ce résumé omet d'essentiel que l'emploi de
ses notions d'individuation, de rythme, de fluement, d'arythmie,
d'idiorrythmie etc. auraient fait apparaître.
Sur la démocratie
Puisque l'ouvrage se présente comme une contribution à la théorie de la
démocratie, attardons-nous maintenant sur cette contribution, et
d'abord sur son positionnement sur le marché des idées.
Pour le dire vite, P. Michon souhaite se distinguer à la fois de
l'individualisme méthodologique, qui ne voit que des individus libres,
et du holisme qui ne voit que des individus contraints. Il leur
reproche au fond leur incapacité à saisir que la contrainte prend
aujourd'hui les allures de la liberté. Son souci est bien de se doter
de concepts qui permettent de comprendre ce paradoxe. Il le tente dans
le cadre d'un interactionnisme ou d'un relationnisme qui se laisse
percevoir dans sa définition de l'individuation, comme processus de
construction des identités et des normes dans le cadre de relations qui
engagent le corps et le langage (d'ailleurs, qu'est-ce donc que
l'individuation ainsi traduite - nous espérons ne pas trahir la pensée
de P. Michon - sinon ce que les sociologues appellent socialisation ?).
De ce point de vue, la démarche nous paraît très cohérente.
P. Michon dit encore vouloir se distinguer des théories utilitaristes
du pouvoir (notons d'ailleurs qu'il situe dans l'utilitarisme l'origine
de la fluidification de notre monde [[21]8], sans qu'on sache s'il
s'agit de l'utilitarisme en tant que pratique ou en tant que théorie,
et sans qu'il nous dise véritablement en quoi il serait à l'origine de
la fluidification de notre monde). Il dit en effet ne pas souscrire aux
théories qui définissent le pouvoir comme pouvoir de contrainte en vue
de satisfaire ses intérêts personnels, et qui envisagent le Pouvoir
comme l'ensemble des institutions visant l'évitement la déflagration
sociale dans la guerre de tous contre tous. De fait, ce n'est pas ainsi
qu'il considère le pouvoir puisque, pour lui, le pouvoir de contrainte
et d'assujettissement s'exerce moins qu'il ne se joue dans les manières
dont les relations se construisent en engageant le corps et le langage.
Cela lui permet de faire apparaître que des relations placées sous le
signe de la liberté, ou du moins de l'absence apparente de contraintes
(de la fluidité) peuvent au final s'avérer très contraignantes ;
autrement dit, qu'un réel pouvoir de contrainte peut se manifester sans
qu'une volonté quelconque d'assujettissement soit véritablement
exprimée. Situation qui caractérise notre société démocratique
contemporaine selon lui (si nous avons bien compris). De ce point de
vue, pas de doute, P.Michon ne s'inscrit pas dans la tradition
utilitariste. Quoique... plaçant par ailleurs le pouvoir sous le signe
de « stratégies qui vont du contrôle souple et de la création plus ou
moins délibérée du chaos » [p. 94-95 par exemple, cf. supra], on peut
se demander quelle place il accorde à l'intérêt calculé dans cette
affaire, et donc quel rapport sa conception du pouvoir entretient avec
l'utilitarisme ?
Concernant la relation de sa conception de la démocratie avec
l'utilitarisme, les choses sont beaucoup plus ambiguës. En effet, il
définit assez curieusement la démocratie comme le régime ou l'état
social plutôt (P. Michon ne se prononce pas trop à ce sujet) qui
« maximise » l'individuation : « Toute politique démocratique
consistera, écrit-il, [...] à rechercher [...] une eurythmie
simultanément corporelle, discursive et sociale - une maximisation de
l'individuation singulière et collective » [p. 242]. Nous ne comprenons
tout simplement pas qui maximise, qui calcule au mieux quoi, ni en en
vue de quoi ! Reprenons sa définition de l'individuation : que signifie
calculer « un processus corporel, langagier et social par lesquels sont
sans cesse produits et reproduits les individus singuliers et
collectifs » ? À vrai dire, la question « en vue de quoi il faut
maximiser l'individuation », pourrait trouver sa réponse quelques
lignes plus haut, quand P. Michon relève que dans un des derniers
passages de l' [22]« Essai sur le don » , M. Mauss situe le secret du
bonheur dans une vie bien rythmée, alternant les moments de travail et
de repos, de solitude et de vie sociale, d'accumulation des richesses
et de dépenses généreuses. Voilà donc ce qu'aurait en vue une politique
véritablement démocratique, qui viserait la maximisation de
l'individuation : le bonheur de tous et de chacun (manifestement
mesurables et calculables). Ainsi placée sous le signe du calcul
(maximisateur), du bonheur, du plus grand bonheur, et d'un grand
calculateur, une telle conception de la démocratie nous semble bien
s'inscrire dans la tradition utilitariste. D'ailleurs, nous nous
demandons vraiment si les communautés religieuses syriennes qui
représentent pour lui un bon idéal-type de la bonne démocratie
conduisaient une politique de maximisation de l'individuation ! À moins
que par maximisation il ne faille pas comprendre maximisation, c'est à
dire calcul... Nous avons tendance à penser en effet que cette
expression est malheureuse, et que P. Michon est davantage spinoziste
que benthamien, car il nous semble que pour lui, une démocratie
s'évalue non pas par le bonheur de ses membres, mais par la « puissance
d'agir » de tous et de chacun [[23]9].
Enfin, le critère qu'il se donne pour identifier un groupement
démocratique nous semble très largement autoréférentiel. En effet,
qu'est-ce qu'un groupement démocratique pour P. Michon ? Un groupement
dont la rythmicité est forte. Mais la caractéristique qu'il donne d'un
groupe dont la rythmicité est forte n'est rien d'autre que celle d'un
groupement démocratique, i.e. qui sait cultiver le conflit dans les
limites de l'amitié. Nous aurions aimé qu'il précise plutôt sous quel
registre il place une telle relation...à la fois teintée d'agôn et de
philia... Ce qui nous amène à M. Mauss.
Sur Marcel Mauss
Ce que P. Michon souligne en s'appuyant sur M. Mauss, c'est combien la
vie de certains peuples archaïques est saisonnière, ou encore, rythmée.
Les Eskimos comme les Kwakiutls, par exemple, se dispersent l'été,
période d'accumulation, et se retrouvent l'hiver, période
d'effervescence sociale, de dépenses généreuses, d'invitations
mutuelles, bref, de dons en tous genres. P. Michon donne au rythme de
la vie sociale une importance qu'elle n'a généralement pas chez les
commentateurs de M. Mauss. Il nous alerte ainsi sur les rythmes de nos
propres vies sociales, et en particulier, sur « la nature rythmique du
politique » [p. 142]. À mieux y réfléchir, les dons eux-mêmes obéissent
en effet à des rythmes propres qui leur sont constitutifs : il y a des
moments pour donner, de même qu'il y a des moments pour ne pas donner,
et la spirale du don elle-même - celle de la triple obligation de
donner, recevoir et rendre plus - obéit bien à un rythme (à trois
temps) plus ou moins obligé. Si ces rythmes ne sont pas respectés, si
l'on donne mal à propos, à contre-temps, si l'on rend trop rapidement,
ou encore si le temps du don est réduit à presque rien ou cantonné à la
sphère privée, on saisit bien que cela puisse compromettre les
alliances et la vie sociale elle-même. On comprend mieux ainsi en quoi
les rythmes de nos vies sociales ne sont pas sans effets éthiques et
politiques. C'est un véritable chantier qu'ouvre ainsi P. Michon, qui
mérite à nos yeux que les MAUSSiens, entre autres, s'y penchent
davantage qu'ils ont pu le faire. D'autant que la démarche de P.
Michon, qui s'efforce de déduire de ses réflexions
socio-anthropologiques des conclusions de morale et de politique,
s'inscrit pleinement dans une démarche maussienne. D'ailleurs, les
conclusions de politiques économiques auxquelles aboutit P. Michon font
étonnement écho aux positions politiques de M. Mauss, quand ce dernier
plaide pour une « mixture » de capitalisme et de socialisme, de
propriété privée et de propriété collective, de marché et de solidarité
etc. Mixture qui, tout en étant attentive à la dimension collective de
nos existences, n'en oublierait pas pour autant que les individus ont
des aspirations singulières, pas moins légitimes que les aspirations
collectives. En fait, on a chez M. Mauss le « socialisme qui n'aurait
pas abandonné l'individu » [pp. 127-128] cher à R. Barthes et auquel
semble sensible P. Michon.
Pour autant, et ce n'est pas que nous voulions défendre M. Mauss à tout
prix, nous ne partageons pas toujours les lectures qu'en fait P.
Michon. Par exemple, nous avons du mal à le suivre quand il soutient
que M. Mauss ne parvient tout simplement pas à penser l'histoire. Les
considérations de M. Mauss dans son « Essai sur le don », « conservent,
en dépit de tout, écrit P. Michon, une attache à un principe ultime de
stabilité et d'atemporalité » [p. 248]. Vraiment, nous ne voyons pas en
quoi. « L'Essai sur le don » est une vaste épopée du don !
Nous avons encore du mal à suivre P. Michon quand il parle « d'utopie
maussienne », car les positions politiques de M. Mauss sont tout sauf
utopiques. Le socialisme démocratique et associationniste qu'il défend
n'est pas à rêver. Il est déjà en partie advenu, par et dans les
coopératives de consommation notamment. Il a moins à être inventé qu'à
être encouragé. M. Mauss n'est pas un utopiste. Il est même bien
conscient de l'écart qui existe entre le possible et le souhaitable, et
ne plaide que pour le possible, mais tout le possible, en direction du
souhaitable. C'est un possibiliste [[24]10].
De la même manière, nous ne le suivons pas quand il soutient que
M. Mauss « garde une conception pacifiste et consensualiste de la
démocratie » [ibid.]. Il suffit de mettre en rapport son « Essai sur le
don » et sa critique du bolchevisme, écrits sensiblement au même
moment, et pour voir combien la conception maussienne de la démocratie
est agonistique, et pour comprendre qu'elle est ancrée, justement, sur
« le roc de la morale éternelle » qu'est le don agonistique selon
M. Mauss. La définition que P. Michon donne de la démocratie comme état
social qui fait toute leur place à la fois à l'alliance et au conflit,
qui se contiennent l'un l'autre, le conflit évitant à l'alliance de
basculer dans la fusion et l'alliance permettant au conflit de ne pas
sombrer dans la déflagration, nous semble très maussienne. Elle
pourrait-même trouver son fondement anthropologique dans le don
agonistique, qui présente exactement la caractéristique que P. Michon
prête à la démocratie. D'ailleurs, la définition qu'il donne de la
démocratie comme eurythmie rejoint tout à fait la voie du milieu
éthique et politique qui est celle de M. Mauss [[25]11].
Finalement, si nous avions à écrire la question que se pose P. Michon
et la réponse qu'il y apporte, sans recourir à ses concepts parfois
difficiles d'accès, nous les formulerions ainsi : « Que pouvons-nous
faire pour retrouver notre autonomie dans un monde où le pouvoir de
contrainte sur les personnes s'exerce non plus directement mais via
d'invisibles processus qui façonnent leurs manières de se parler, de se
mouvoir et de se lier ? Commencer par expérimenter des manières propres
de nous parler, de nous mouvoir, de nous lier, qui nous permettent de
retrouver la maîtrise de nos vies individuelles et collectives ». Ou,
encore plus brièvement, forcément appauvrissant, et en reprenant sa
métaphore musicale : « Que faire dans un monde où nous sommes tous
emportés par une cadence infernale qui nous oppresse et nous opprime ?
Ne pas s'arrêter de jouer (voie a-rythmique), ne pas jouer seul dans
son coin (voie idiorrythmique), mais simplement retrouver le bon rythme
pour soi et pour tous ! (voie eurythmique) ».
Malgré les réserves que nous avons pu émettre, le lecteur aura saisi
que l'ouvrage de P. Michon donne véritablement à penser. Nous espérons
qu'il retiendra l'attention d'un grand nombre et notamment des
MAUSSiens, car il pointe sur une dimension de la vie sociale, son
caractère rythmé, qu'ils ont finalement peu interrogée, alors qu'il se
pourrait qu'elle ne soit pas sans effets éthico-politiques. Cela mérite
bien un examen attentif.
Bibliographie sommaire de Pascal Michon
Michon, P., Éléments d'une histoire du sujet, Paris, Kimé, 1999
-- [26]Rythmes, pouvoir, mondialisation, PUF, 2005.
Ouvrages en collaboration
-- (avec E. Barjolle, G. Dessons, V. Fabbri), Avec Henri
Meschonnic : Les gestes dans la voix, Rumeur des Ages, 2003.
-- (avec G. Desson et S. Martin), Henri Meschonnic, la pensée et le
poème, In Press, 2005.
-- (avec Ph. Hauser, F. Carnevale, A. Brossat), Foucault dans tous
ses éclats, L'Harmattan, 2005.
On peut aussi retrouver P. Michon dans les numéros 25 [27]Malaise
dans la démocratie , 26 [28]Alter-démocratie, Alter-économie et 28
[29]Penser la crise de l'école de La Revue du MAUSS semestrielle.
[30]Pour commander les numéros
Ici, un article paru dans le mensuel [31]Sciences Humaines en
novembre 2005
__________________________________________________________________
Réponse de Pascal Michon
Cher Sylvain,
tout d'abord, je voudrais vous remercier de votre recension extrêmement
scrupuleuse. C'est un réconfort de voir qu'il existe encore, dans nos
corporations de sciences sociales, des lecteurs curieux. J'ai plus
l'habitude des débats internes, dans l'entre-soi disciplinaire qui
permet à la fois de facilement se comprendre et d'éviter de se frotter
aux savoirs des autres disciplines. De nombreux lecteurs de mon livre
précédent, par exemple, se sont arrêtés aux chapitres qui les
« concernaient », passant du même coup à côté du mouvement de pensée
qui les liaient les uns aux autres - les sociologues ont lu les
sections sociologiques, les psy les sections psy, les littéraires les
sections littéraires... Tout ce petit monde est resté chez soi et les
vaches ont été bien gardées. J'ai aussi aimé la façon dont vous avez
procédé, présentant, tout d'abord, le texte dans ses grandes lignes
puis proposant, dans un deuxième temps, une lecture critique. C'est de
très bonne méthode et je vous en remercie également, car cela donne à
entendre aux lecteurs, sans interférences, une grande partie des enjeux
de mon travail. Je vais me concentrer dans cette réponse sur ceux de
ces enjeux que vous n'avez pu complètement traiter, soit parce qu'on ne
peut tout dire dans une recension, soit parce qu'il reste toujours des
angles moins bien éclairés quel que soit le point de vue que l'on
adopte.
1. Mon livre est un essai. Bien qu'il tente, comme vous le remarquez,
de construire méthodiquement ses concepts à partir du matériel
analytique disponible, il ne prétend pas répondre à tous les problèmes
qui se posent, ni fournir une théorie complète de son objet : les
rythmes de l'individuation singulière et collective. Il voudrait juste
faire émerger celui-ci dans la conscience scientifique. Si cet objectif
était atteint, cela me suffirait grandement. Mon livre constitue plus
une proposition de recherche, l'esquisse d'un programme de travail,
qu'une réponse globalisante qui donnerait une clé pour toutes les
serrures contemporaines. On m'a déjà reproché cette « ambition », comme
vous dîtes, ou même le côté « totalisant » de ma démarche. À cela je
réponds habituellement : 1. que nous ne pouvons plus nous satisfaire,
de par la nature même du nouveau monde dans lequel nous sommes entrés,
de déclarations d'intention concernant la transdisciplinarité, il nous
faut la mettre en pratique activement et individuellement (c'est-à-dire
pas seulement par une juxtaposition de spécialistes) car aucune
discipline ne peut, encore plus aujourd'hui qu'hier, comprendre à elle
seule ce qui est train d'émerger. Mauss, qui était passé à travers une
période historique par bien des points semblables à la nôtre, l'avait
d'ailleurs bien compris : « C'est aux confins des sciences, à leurs
bords extérieurs, aussi souvent qu'à leurs principes, qu'à leur noyau
et à leur centre que se font leurs progrès » (« Rapports réels et
pratiques de la psychologie et de la sociologie », 1924) ; 2. que les
sciences sociales ne peuvent progresser que par un déplacement radical
de point de vue. Je milite, pour cette raison, comme Alain Caillé, en
faveur d'un changement de paradigme. En simplifiant outrageusement, on
peut dire qu'après l'affaissement des paradigmes structuralistes et
systémistes, l'individualisme méthodologique, sous différentes formes,
a pris le dessus. Or, cette mutation n'a pas apporté les résultats
escomptés. En fait, ni l'un ni l'autre de ces paradigmes ne peut rendre
compte de la période présente. Il est vrai qu'un certain nombre de
« théories intermédiaires » ou « centristes » dans la classification de
Margaret Archer, (Elias, Bourdieu, Foucault, Touraine, Habermas,
Giddens, Bauman, Caillé, Boltanski, Thévenot, entre autres) ont essayé,
partant du même constat, de dépasser les dualismes traditionnels des
sciences sociales. Mais elles connaissent aujourd'hui des ratés qui
tiennent, me semble-t-il, essentiellement à leur difficulté à conjuguer
primat de la temporalité, éthique et politique. D'où la nécessité d'un
nouveau modèle général - comme celui que fournit le rythme - pour
relancer la réflexion ; 3. qu'on confond souvent, de manière polémique,
totalisation et puissance d'un concept. Le concept de rythme n'est pas
globalisant ou totalisant, il possède tout simplement une puissance que
j'essaie, avec mes moyens, d'explorer. C'est cette puissance de
problématisation nouvelle qui dérange les habitudes de pensée et les
partages du territoire institutionnel qui leur sont liés - et qui
explique ces caricatures absurdes qui me sont parfois opposées.
2. Mon livre porte sur la question de l'individuation singulière et
collective. Pour des raisons de précision et pour ne pas embrouiller
l'exposé, j'ai expressément laissé de côté la question du ou des
« sujets ». D'où un certain flou dans votre présentation qui confond,
comme beaucoup de monde il est vrai, ces deux questions. Mais, si vous
y prêtez attention vous le verrez aisément, le rapport entre les deux
est loin d'être évident et devrait être analysé à nouveaux frais. Pour
rester bref, on peut dire qu'un individu singulier ou collectif
n'atteint le statut de sujet que lorsqu'il devient un agent d'un
processus particulier. D'où une difficulté, une multiplicité, une
discontinuité et une instabilité très grandes de la subjectivation,
dont les rapports à l'individuation restent en fait entièrement à
repenser. En tout état de cause, individuation est loin de signifier
subjectivation (c'est, d'ailleurs, l'un des problèmes que posent les
propositions d'AlainTouraine qui ne fait pas cette distinction).
3. J'ai beaucoup insisté sur un aspect décisif du concept de rythme qui
n'apparaît pas dans votre recension : son aspect a-métrique. Le
matériel très divers et assez abondant dont nous disposons (que ce soit
au niveau des corps, du langage ou des interactions sociales) montre
qu'il est impossible de se satisfaire de sa définition métrique
traditionnelle. Si nous nous limitons à cette définition, nous
réduisons la diversité des fluements du réel à un schéma binaire et
numérique simpliste et nous introduisons sans même en avoir conscience
une politique et une éthique anti-démocratiques. Une définition plus
utilisable pour penser ce que nous devons penser aujourd'hui est celle
qui avait cours avant que Platon associe rhuthmos et métron, et qui
faisait du rythme une « manière de fluer ». J'ai aussi montré que cette
définition peut être précisée grâce à la remotivation par Diderot de la
notion de « manière », qu'il repense à partir de la question de la
qualité (et donc de l'individuation) artistique, c'est-à-dire comme
concept d'une forme qui reste active en dehors de son contexte
originel. Ces précisions sont loin d'être des détails insignifiants,
elles engagent toute la théorie des rythmes de l'individuation, aussi
bien dans ses capacités heuristiques, que dans ses conséquences
éthiques et politiques.
4. Ici, on le voit, la sociologie a un grand besoin de la linguistique
(Benveniste), de la poétique (Meschonnic) et de la philosophie
(Deleuze, Foucault, Simondon). Or, je note que vous accordez toute
votre attention aux auteurs sociologiques ou anthropologiques que je
cite, mais que vous ne dîtes rien des discussions philosophiques,
poétiques et linguistiques, qui encadrent ces analyses (Benveniste,
Meschonnic, Deleuze, Foucault et Simondon sont étrangement absents de
votre CR). Je me demande si vous ne raisonnez pas encore ici, à votre
insu, en termes disciplinaires, comme si poétique, linguistique ou
philosophie n'avaient rien à apporter aux sciences sociales ou ne
constituaient que des décorations non-essentielles d'un propos plus
consistant qui reviendrait de droit à ces dernières.
5. Sur vos critiques maintenant. Vous trouvez que j'exagère en
caractérisant Surveiller et punir comme un grand livre sur les rythmes
de l'individuation. Je sais bien que la vulgate présente Foucault comme
un auteur intéressé uniquement par l'espace, les répartitions, les
quadrillages, etc. Mais, précisément, cette vulgate laisse totalement
de côté le profond intérêt de Foucault pour tous les phénomènes
temporels, en particulier pour toutes les techniques utilisées pour
rythmer les corps, les discours et la vie des groupes. Il me semble que
les descriptions qu'il fait de l'apprentissage militaire, des formes du
travail dans les manufactures, de la vie en prison, des méthodes de
dressage scolaires parlent d'elles-mêmes. Elles corroborent, du reste,
des analyses engagées par Thompson au cours de la décennie précédente
et constituent un ensemble d'analyses des rythmes de l'individuation
qui n'a que peu d'équivalents dans la littérature scientifique
disponible.
6. Pour Mauss (comme pour Foucault), vous trouvez ma lecture rythmique
« peu usuelle ». Mais je voudrais vous faire remarquer que Mauss dit
lui-même explicitement dans le Manuel d'ethnographie ceci :
« Socialement et individuellement, l'homme est un animal rythmique ».
Vous m'accorderez que cette phrase est une affirmation extrêmement
forte. Or, tout le monde s'empresse de la laisser de côté. Je vous
retourne donc (mais aussi à tous les Maussiens) la question : quel sort
faites-vous à cette affirmation ? Ne pensez-vous pas que, sous cette
forme condensée présentée sur un patron aristotélicien, elle indique
une entrée à partir de laquelle on pourrait au moins relire une bonne
part de son oeuvre ? Ou bien pensez-vous que cette phrase a été
proférée comme une simple fioriture rhétorique sans signification
profonde. Pour ma part, j'ai montré dans ma thèse (dont une partie a
été publiée dans mes Éléments d'une histoire du sujet en 1999 et...
dans la revue du MAUSS en 2005, mais qui n'a pas eu l'heur d'attirer
l'attention des spécialistes - elle n'est jamais citée dans les livres
sur Mauss), textes à l'appui, que Mauss n'a jamais engagé, comme l'a
soutenu Lévi-Strauss pour des raisons de pure stratégie universitaire
(sa concurrence après la mort de Mauss avec Gurvitch pour récupérer
l'héritage), une théorie préstructuraliste du social, et que par voie
de conséquence son intérêt pour le « symbolique » doit être réévalué et
réintégré à un intérêt plus général pour le rythme. J'ai complété en
2005 ce travail dans Rythmes, pouvoir, mondialisation, qui
malheureusement n'est pas cité non plus. Pourtant, dans son texte de
1924 « Rapports réels et pratiques de la psychologie et de la
sociologie », Mauss explique à son auditoire que la sociologie pourrait
servir de modèle à la psychologie au moins pour l'étude de deux ordres
de faits qui lui semblent les deux apports les plus importants des
travaux sociologiques réalisés depuis le début du siècle : le
« symbole » et le « rythme ». On voit bien à travers cette affirmation
que ces deux concepts sont liés dans son esprit ou tout au moins qu'ils
possèdent une importance aussi grande l'une que l'autre. Or, que disent
les commentateurs : toujours la même chose (qu'ils reprennent sans
aucune distance critique de Lévi-Strauss), Mauss serait simplement
l'inventeur ou la popularisateur du concept de « symbolique ». Le
rythme là encore tombe à la trappe. D'où ma deuxième question : que
faites-vous de cette nouvelle affirmation de l'importance du rythme ?
Quel statut donnez-vous dans votre lecture à cet intérêt pour le
rythme ? Je pense, pour ma part, que cette conférence nous montre une
fois encore que Mauss n'était pas du tout en train de préparer une
épistémologie ou une méthodologie structurale, ni même une science du
symbolique au sens qui dominera par la suite chez les structuralistes,
mais qu'il était, bien au contraire, dès le début, dominé par la
question de la production des individus singuliers et collectifs dans
le temps. Sa question n'était pas de trouver des constantes dans le
fonctionnement des systèmes sociaux (il rejette explicitement la notion
de structure), mais de comprendre ces systèmes en pénétrant
l'organisation des flux qui les constituent (c'est pourquoi il oppose
la « physiologie » à la simple et trompeuse « anatomie sociale »). Il
est, du reste, en cela complètement de son époque et rejoint des
préoccupations que l'on retrouve, sous des formes très diverses cela
s'entend, chez ses adversaires (Bergson, Tarde) ou chez ses amis
(Durkheim, Hubert, Granet).
7. Sur la question du rapport à « la tradition » et de ce que vous
voyez dans mon travail comme une « posture de créativité radicale,
quasiment nihiliste » qui ne serait au fond l'expression que d'un
« mythe d'autoréalisation de soi emblématique de notre époque ». Je ne
comprends pas votre critique. Y-a-t-il jamais invention conceptuelle
qui ne soit négation d'une partie au moins des concepts en cours ? J'en
doute. D'autre part, si je revendique une certaine radicalité, je ne
vois aucun nihilisme dans ma démarche. Au contraire, j'ai grand soin du
passé et, pour ce qui est du présent, j'ai plutôt l'impression de
procéder par affirmations et avancées créatrices. Il me semble que vous
confondez négation et nihilisme. Enfin, l'idée que mon travail
verserait dans un « mythe d'autoréalisation » me semble doublement
fausse : parce que l'autoréalisation n'est pas une notion que l'on
devrait rejeter sans précaution ; mais aussi parce que c'est une
caractérisation au fond psychologisante et donc réductrice d'une
proposition théorique qui ne devrait faire l'objet, en bonne méthode
scientifique, que de critiques théoriques.
8. Sur la question de la complexité inutile que vous voyez dans mes
propositions (« Nous nous demandons si P. Michon n'aurait pas pu, tout
de même, dire les choses plus simplement ») et sur le fait que vous
tentiez de traduire mes propos en un langage plus simple (vous me
demandez « si ce résumé omet quelque chose d'essentiel que les notions
de rythme, de fluement, d'arythmie, d'idiorrythmie, d'eurythmie, etc.
auraient fait apparaître »). C'est un essai dont je vous remercie
sincèrement car cela pourra certainement aider à la compréhension de
mon travail par de nombreux sociologues ou spécialistes de sciences
sociales. Je suis également très sensible au fait que vous soyez le
premier membre du Mauss à reconnaître et à justifier de manière
détaillée le fait que le rythme est une question fondamentale qui
devrait être prise en considération. En même temps, j'ai l'impression
que votre réduction à un ensemble de communs dénominateurs comporte un
danger : celui de laisser penser que ce que j'avance est réductible à
du déjà connu ou à du déjà pensé par les sciences sociales : « Que
dit-il au juste ? Que nos identités se construisent dans nos relations
aux autres, qui engagent notre corps et notre langage [...] Que dans
ces relations se jouent des relations de pouvoir sur les personnes ».
Au fond, la théorie du rythme n'apporterait rien de plus que ce que les
sociologues-économistes savent déjà depuis fort longtemps. À savoir que
les sociétés et les individus sont pris dans des interactions mouvantes
qui les rendent plus instables et fluides qu'on ne le croit
généralement. Pourquoi, dès lors, en effet, dire de manière si
compliquée des choses si simples ? Mais précisément, je ne me suis pas
contenté de reprendre les différentes théories interactionnistes en
cours, ou même de prolonger les auteurs qui se sont frottés, depuis ces
trente dernières années, à la question des rapports réciproques entre
individu singulier et individu collectif, individu et système. Je le
reconnais bien volontiers, les auteurs très divers qui ont proposé des
visions intermédiaires nous ont fait faire de grands progrès. Mais
leurs conceptions ne suffisent plus au regard des réalités nouvelles du
XXI^e siècle ou bien elles rencontrent des difficultés qui les rendent
moins efficaces. En dehors du fait qu'on peut souvent repérer (comme
dans la philosophie hobbesienne qui forme le socle de la pensée
d'Elias) le lieu où le dualisme rejeté au départ se réintroduit
subrepticement, je crois que leurs instruments sont déjà en partie
inadaptés. Et la raison en est simple : si elles ont toutes été conçues
comme des tentatives pour échapper aux dualismes traditionnels des
sciences sociales, elles n'ont pas été pensées à partir du mouvement,
des intensités, des flux et de leurs qualités eux-mêmes. Il nous faut
donc accomplir ce qu'elles n'ont pas encore réussi à faire : une
inversion radicale du regard qui pose le langage et le temps comme
premiers et, à partir de là, repenser toutes les questions qui se
posent à nous. Faute de quoi, soit nous retomberons vite dans les
paradoxes et les difficultés que nous connaissons bien : le système et
l'individu, la poule et l'oeuf, soit nous resterons sans boussole quand
il nous faudra juger de la qualité des « objets intermédiaires » que
nous étudierons. Le « don » est un exemple typique de cette deuxième
difficulté : il permet de dynamiter le dualisme individualiste
utilitariste, mais, tel qu'il reste pour le moment théorisé au sein du
MAUSS, il ne permet pas encore de poser la question de l'organisation
temporelle des flux de dons, des rythmes corporels, langagiers et
sociaux qui sont déterminés par ces flux, et donc de la qualité de
l'individuation singulière et collective qui en découle. On se contente
le plus souvent d'une définition du don comme opposé de l'échange
utilitariste, faisant de facto de celui-là une simple négation (et donc
une certaine façon de conserver) celui-ci. On manque alors toute la
diversité qualitative (souvent ambivalente) de la triple obligation
donner-recevoir-rendre et l'on se retrouve avec une affirmation toute
binaire de ce que serait le bien éthique et politique.
9. Sur ma redéfinition de la démocratie et son supposé fonds
« utilitariste ». Vous citez une de mes propositions qui définit la
démocratie comme le régime ou l'état social (c'est bien sûr les deux à
la fois) qui permettra de « rechercher une eurythmie simultanément
corporelle, discursive et sociale - une maximisation de l'individuation
singulière et collective ». Et vous expliquez que vous ne « compren[ez]
tout simplement pas qui maximise, qui calcule au mieux quoi, ni en vue
de quoi ! ». Le problème avec la question qui, c'est qu'elle présuppose
un sujet déjà là. Autrement dit, elle indique déjà sa réponse. Pour ce
qui me concerne, je l'ai dit plus haut, j'ai volontairement distingué
la question de la subjectivation de celle de l'individuation. Cette
position ne peut être tenue que jusqu'à un certain point, je vous
l'accorde, mais je continue à penser qu'elle est nécessaire dans un
premier temps, même s'il faudra réfléchir à l'avenir plus précisément à
la façon de relier les deux aspects. Ma certitude à cet égard est que
de toute façon la subjectivation ne réussit pas toujours, que le sujet
ne peut donc être posé comme un principe antécédent à l'action et qu'il
constitue plutôt une entité qui apparaît ou pas au cours de l'activité
des corps-langages (au sens du génitif objectif, car pour moi c'est
l'activité qui est première). Vous reprochez, ensuite, à l'expression
« maximisation » d'être trop marquée par le principe typiquement
utilitariste d'un calcul du plus grand bien comme une simple addition
des biens individuels. Si c'était ce que j'ai dit, je serais d'accord
avec vous. Mais je maintiens l'expression « maximisation » car celle-ci
est motivée par le système discursif dans lequel elle apparaît. Et
comme vous l'avez senti, celui-ci est entièrement traversé par un souci
de type spinoziste pour une maximisation (dans les conditions qui leurs
sont faites) de ce que peuvent les corps-langages, maximisation qui ne
peut en aucun cas être réduite à une augmentation additive des petits
bonheurs personnels. L'utilitarisme se fonde sur un calcul des atomes
de bonheur, alors que j'essaie (à l'instar de Mauss en réalité) de
penser le bonheur (ou la « joie », si vous préférez, pour rester dans
le ton du XVII^e siècle) comme exaltation de la puissance de vivre.
Pour finir sur ce point, je voudrais repréciser ce que j'ai déjà dit
dans mon livre et écarter des malentendus qui pointent dans
quelques-unes de vos remarques : les propos de Barthes sur le bonheur
« idiorrythmique » sont très suggestifs (par la rareté même de tels
propos) mais bien évidemment insuffisants (ne serait-ce que parce qu'il
reconnaît lui-même qu'il s'agit d'une utopie domestique plus que
sociale). Quant à ceux de Mauss sur « l'eurythmie », ils indiquent une
piste à mon sens plus féconde, mais ils sont, quant à eux, plus
qu'élémentaires et doivent être réélaborés rigoureusement. Ces exemples
ne constituent donc pas des réponses aux questions éthiques et
politiques que nous nous posons, mais des incitations à chercher dans
la direction qu'ils pointent.
10. Sur Mauss qui ne « parviendrait tout simplement pas à penser
l'histoire ». Je ne crois pas avoir dit cela. J'ai même montré dans
Eléments d'une histoire du sujet que Mauss est l'un de ceux qui, dans
la première moitié du XX^e siècle, pense la question de l'historicité
radicale des êtres humains, sans en revenir au néo-kantisme
sociologique de Durkheim, mais sans tomber non plus dans les problèmes
de la phénoménologie, du bergsonisme ou de la philosophie de
l'historicité essentielle heideggérienne. Ce que j'ai dit, c'est que
Mauss, en dépit de son souci d'historisation constant, aboutit non
seulement à une éthique et une politique fondées sur un principe
anhistorique, celui-là même que vous citez quelques lignes plus loin :
« le roc de la morale éternelle » - ce qui est en soi un problème. Mais
aussi qu'il propose comme modèle, dans tout l'Essai sur le don et en
particulier dans ses « conclusions de morale », le système de
prestations totales de clan à clan, qui est « exactement, toutes
proportions gardées, du même type que celui vers lequel nous voudrions
voir nos sociétés se diriger ». Or, ce système « où tout est
complémentaire » ne connaît pas le conflit, dont il parle pourtant tout
au long de l'essai. À vrai dire, cette subtile contradiction n'est pas
à retenir contre Mauss, elle indique toutefois que c'est à partir de là
qu'il faut reprendre la question. Si maintenant vous pensez que l'on
peut trouver des textes allant dans un sens différent qui donnerait un
sens agonistique à la démocratie, je serai le premier à m'en réjouir.
Mais cela voudra dire que le problème relevait simplement de
l'interprétation érudite des méandres d'une oeuvre et que nous sommes
d'accord sur la chose même - ce qui est pour moi la seule qui compte.
11. Sur le terme d' « utopie maussienne ». Vous me reprenez en arguant
que Mauss n'était pas un utopiste, mais un « possibiliste », attaché à
des projets concrets. Vous avez certainement raison. Toutefois, mon
usage du mot « utopie » n'était en rien négatif dans mon esprit, bien
au contraire. Ensuite, personne ne pourra nier que l'idée que les
sociétés modernes devraient réintroduire massivement le don au
fondement de leur économie reste largement un projet d'avenir,
c'est-à-dire dans le meilleur sens du terme... une utopie.
Pascal Michon
Paris, le 7 mai 2008
__________________________________________________________________
Sénèque. De la tranquillité de l'âme
Cher Pascal,
je viens de terminer la lecture de De la tranquillité de l'âme de
Sénèque. Quelle ne fut pas ma surprise de voir l'un des derniers
chapitres intitulé :
« Il faut alterner "temps forts" et "temps faibles" »
En voici un extrait :
[...] Solitude et société doivent se composer et se succéder. La
solitude nous donnera le désir de fréquenter les hommes, la société,
celui de nous fréquenter nous-mêmes, et chacune sera l'antidote de
l'autre, la solitude nous guérissant de l'horreur de la foule, et la
foule, de l'ennui de la solitude".
J'avais déjà lu de Sénèque Les bienfaits : un essai sur le don - sur la
triple obligation de donner, recevoir et rendre - avant l'heure (jamais
cité par Mauss).
Un indice de plus que pensée du don et pensée du rythme peuvent et même
doivent se rencontrer ?
Amicalement
Sylvain
Créteil, le 7 mai 2008
3 commentaires
Les rythmes du politique
27 août 2009, par
Ces concepts de rythmes du politique me semblent proches de ceux de
Deleuze-Guattari, grands lecteurs de Simondon et de l'individuation,
notamment de l'agencement collectif d'énonciation
territoire par exemple.
Ils permettent de les renouveler et de les penser sous un autre biais.
Mais pour trouver de nouveaux rythmes reste la question de l'invention
également de nouveaux énoncés.
Les rythmes du politique
8 septembre 2009, par Pascal Michon
Je vous remercie beaucoup de cette comparaison ainsi que du texte
auquel vous renvoyez. J'ai expliqué succinctement dans le chapitre
« Styles, rythmes et ritournelles » des Rythmes du politique ce qui
distingue ma position de celle de Deleuze et Guattari. De même, pour
Simondon dans celui intitulé « Les rythmes comme cycles de
l'ontogénèse ? ». En bref, j'ai une grande admiration pour ces travaux
qui ont beaucoup compté dans ma réflexion mais, dans l'un et l'autre
cas, ils me semblent buter sur la question du langage. Plutôt que de
nouveaux énoncés, je pense donc qu'il nous faut chercher, entre autres,
de nouveaux modes d'énonciation.
Pascal Michon
[33]Réaction au commentaire
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Recensions
[42]>Multiculturalisme dites-vous ?
Francesco Fistetti
[43]>Pour un socialisme décent
[44]>De la lutte des classes à la lutte des places
Michel Lussault
[45]>Gli economisti e i selvaggi. L'imperialismo della scienza economica e i
suoi limiti
Roberto Marchionatti
[46]>Donner et prendre. La coopération en entreprise
Norbert Alter
[47]>Le symbolique et le sacré. Théories de la religion
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[48]>De Gauche ?
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[49]>Histoire et création. Textes philosophiques inédits (1945-1967)
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[50]>Bibliothèque du MAUSS n°31
[51]>La nouvelle écologie politique - Economie et développement humain
Jean-Paul Fitoussi, Eloi Laurent
Notes
[[52]1] Pour une approche goffmannienne du corps et de la manière dont
il participe à la construction de l'identité des personnes, on peut
lire l'article de [53]Sylvain Pasquier publié dans La Revue du MAUSS
Permanente.
[[54]2] Les sous-titres de cette partie, assez longue, sont de nous.
[[55]3] Pascal Michon préfère parler de multitudes plutôt que de
peuple, ce dernier étant sans doute trop homogénéisant pour lui.
[[56]4] O. Mendesltam est l'auteur d'un petit ouvrage où il est
question de la Révolution bolchevique intitulé L'État et le rythme
(1920), dans lequel P. Michon voit « l'une des toutes premières
politiques du rythme » [p. 229].
[[57]5] Le bon, si le calcul de maximisation n'admet qu'une solution...
[[58]6] Pour P. Michon, seuls Lewis Coser (Les fonctions du conflit
social) et Gilbert Simondon (L'individuation psychique et collective)
ont développé cette manière de voir les choses.
[[59]7] On peut néanmoins citer : Henri Meschonnic dans les travaux
duquel il s'incrit, et notamment son Politique du rythme, politique du
sujet, Verdier, 1985
[[60]8] « L'utilitarisme et [...] l'économie politique [...] sont à la
base de [...] la fluidification du monde » [p. 236].
[[61]9] Un Spinoza plus proche de Mauss (qui l'affectionnait
d'ailleurs) que de Bentham... Un Spinoza peu lordonien, donc...
[[62]10] Nous renvoyons ici aux Ecrits politiques de Marcel Mauss,
présentés par Marcel Fournier (Fayard, 1997), ainsi qu'à notre ouvrage,
[63]Marcel Mauss, savant et politique , La Découverte, 2007.
[[64]11] S. Dzimira, op. Cit.
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Croissance + Rythme - Economie
[31]La croissance encore et encore. Les ménages consomment, les entreprises
investissent
[...] Mais tout de même Au quatrième trimestre 1999, la croissance a
certes été légèrement inférieure aux prévisions (+3,6% en rythme annuel
contre +4%). Mais le détail des chiffres de ce quatrième trimestre est
jugé encourageant par les hommes de l'art. Les entreprises, notamment,
ont accru leurs investissements (+8,2% en rythme annuel) et commencent
à restocker. autant de signes que la croissance est bien partie pour
durer. [...] Certes, l'appréciation par [...] la fin de
l'accélération de la croissance. elle se stabilise à un bon niveau,
commente un expert. En d'autres termes, l'activité atteint son rythme
de croisière avec, pour l'année 2000, une croissance comprise entre
3,4% et 3,5%. [...] des bonnes nouvelles. Vendredi, une volée de
statistiques est venue confirmer que la croissance française se portait
bien. Moins bien, sans [...] que l'activité économique aux Etats-Unis,
qui, selon les dernières estimations du département du Commerce, a
progressé de 6,9% au dernier trimestre 1999 en rythme annuel (lire en
page Finances). [...]
[32]Lire la suite...
Tags : o [33]Rythme o [34]Annuel pages
[35]4,4%: La croissance américaine en 2004 a atteint son rythme le plus élevé
depuis
[...] La croissance américaine a atteint 4,4 % en 2004, soit le rythme
le plus élevé depuis 1999, en dépit d'un ralentissement au 4e trimestre
à 3,1 % dû surtout au lourd déficit commercial. Selon le département du
Commerce, les trois derniers mois de 2004 ont enregistré la plus faible
hausse depuis le 1er trimestre 2003. [...] Mais, sur l'ensemble de
l'année, la croissance s'est accélérée à 4,4 % après 3 % en 2003 et 1,9
% en 2002, confirmant le ressaisissement de l'économie américaine. Ce
sont les consommateurs qui ont tiré l'essentiel de la croissance en
2004, avec des dépenses en hausse de 3,8 % et un investissement
immobilier florissant (+9,5%), portés par les taux d'intérêt peu
élevés. [...] 4,4%. La croissance américaine en 2004 a atteint son
rythme le plus élevé depuis - Libération. [...]
[36]Lire la suite...
Tags : o [37]Rythme o [38]Élève
[39]+ 4 %: la progression en rythme annuel de la croissance américaine
[...] La croissance américaine s'est assagie au quatrième trimestre
2003 après son emballement de l'été. Le produit intérieur brut (PIB) a
progressé de 4 % en rythme annuel, après une croissance spectaculaire
de 8,2 % au troisième trimestre. Ce ralentissement s'explique d'abord
par une pause des dépenses de consommation, qui ont crû de 2,6 %
seulement après un bond de 6,9 % au trimestre précédent. [...] + 4 %.
la progression en rythme annuel de la croissance américaine -
Libération. [...]
[40]Lire la suite...
Tags : o [41]Consommation impôt o [42]Confiance points
[43]0,2 %. Encore un souffle de croissance aux Etats-Unis.
[...] Au premier trimestre, la croissance du PIB en rythme annuel
s'était élevée à 1,3 %. En outre, l'indice des prix lié au PIB a
augmenté de 2,2 % au deuxième trimestre (au lieu d'une hausse de 2,3 %
prévue dans la première estimation). Le chiffre de la croissance
meilleur que prévu pour le deuxième trimestre a rassuré les
investisseurs. [...] Le produit intérieur brut (PIB) des Etats-Unis a
progressé de 0,2 % en rythme annuel au deuxième trimestre 2001, selon
la deuxième estimation publiée hier par le département du Commerce. Il
s'agit du plus faible taux de croissance trimestriel exprimé en rythme
annuel depuis le premier trimestre 1993. [...] Toutefois, les
analystes tablaient généralement sur une croissance nulle pour cette
période. La première estimation, publiée fin juillet, faisait état
d'une croissance de 0,7 % pour la période considérée. La troisième et
dernière estimation sera annoncée le 28 septembre. [...]
[44]Lire la suite...
Tags : o [45]City deuxième trimestre
[46]Etats-Unis: des taux bas pour relancer le bateau
[...] Plus tôt, hier, une nouvelle statistique était venu confirmer le
ralentissement de l'économie. après une croissance de + 5,5 % (en
rythme annualisé) au deuxième trimestre, de + 2,2 % au troisième,
l'économie a terminé l'année avec seulement + 1,4 % de croissance, un
chiffre plus faible que prévu. [...] Au total, la croissance moyenne
pour 2000 est plus qu'honorable. + 5 %. Mais le ralentissement est
brutal, puisque, comme l'a indiqué Alan Greenspan, l'activité progresse
aujourd'hui à un rythme proche de zéro. [...]
[47]Lire la suite...
[48]L'Insee repeint 1996 en rose paleLa consommation ayant rebondi en
janvier, la
[...] Elle n'affichera pas plus de 1% de croissance en rythme annuel au
premier semestre. Une demande intérieure atone, des coûts salariaux
trop élevés, un secteur du bâtiment en chute libre empêcheront
vraisemblablement la RFA d'emboîter le pas à la dynamique
internationale avant la seconde partie de l'année. [...] La demande
mondiale adressée à la France accélérerait à partir du printemps avec
un taux de croissance en rythme annuel de 5%. Pour un peu, on
craindrait presque la surchauffe en fin d'année... S'il n'y avait pas
un bémol de taille. L'Allemagne, notre principal partenaire, est mal en
point. [...] (Insee) est une maison sérieuse. Et en tant que telle,
elle ne change pas ses prévisions de croissance quand elle y croit.
Même lorsque le ministre de l'Economie affiche un chiffre différent.
Pour le premier semestre de cette année, foi d'Insee, le PIB de la
France devrait croître de 0,8%, soit 1,5% en rythme annuel. [...]
[49]Lire la suite...
Tags : o [50]Insee o [51]Rose o [52]Confiance impôts
[53]Etats-Unis: la croissance ralentit
[...] La croissance économique aux Etats-Unis devrait se situer à 5,2 %
en 2000 et à 3,3 % en 2001, selon les dernières projections publiées
hier par les économistes d'entreprises américains (Nabe). Cette
décélération marquée et attendue du rythme de la croissance devrait
probablement convaincre la Réserve fédérale (Fed) de cesser de remonter
ses taux directeurs, a indiqué le Nabe. [...] La Fed avait relevé son
taux interbancaire au jour le jour à six reprises entre juin 1999 et
mai 2000, pour freiner le rythme jugé trop rapide de la
croissance. [...]
[54]Lire la suite...
[55]Le miracle thaïlandais tourne au krach. Une spéculation immobilière
effrénée a
[...] ralentissement de la croissance A Bangkok, capitale de la
Thaïlande, le bébé tigre du Sud-Est asiatique, là où les courbes de
croissance ont enflammé les imaginations pendant plus de dix ans, des
milliards de dollars fuient depuis plusieurs jours la Bourse à un
rythme échevelé. [...] Peu réglementés, ils sont vite devenus les
champions de la spéculation immobilière. Entre 1990 et 1996, les
crédits immobiliers ont été multipliés par trois. C'est un rythme de
croissance qui a été sans commune mesure avec celui de l'économie
réelle, qui avait plutôt tendance à marquer le pas. [...] Croissance
en chute libre. Depuis le milieu des années 80, la Thaïlande avait
pourtant décroché les palmes de la croissance, avec des taux
d'expansion frôlant les deux chiffres. Mais,de 8,5% en 1995, le taux de
croissance est tombé à moins de 7% l'an dernier. [...]
[56]Lire la suite...
Tags : o [57]Valeurs financières immobilier
[58]+ 9,5 %, la croissance chinoise n'a montré aucun signe de ralentissement
au premier
[...] Avec un taux de croissance de 9,5 % au premier trimestre (en
rythme annuel) et des investissements toujours disproportionnés,
l'économie chinoise ne marque aucun signe de ralentissement en dépit de
la politique de lutte contre la surchauffe. Le rythme de la croissance
est égal à celui enregistré sur l'ensemble de 2004, qui avait vu la
plus forte croissance en sept ans, a indiqué hier le Bureau national
des statistiques (BNS). [...] Le taux de croissance annoncé hier a
surpris les analystes, qui avaient parié sur un léger ralentissement.
Le gouvernement chinois a récemment fixé un objectif de croissance de 8
% pour 2005. Ce niveau [...] La production industrielle a enregistré
une hausse de 16,2 % entre janvier et mars. Une fois encore, la
croissance a été tirée par les investissements, qui ont augmenté de
22,8 % entre janvier et mars. Le montant des investissements est encore
trop élevé, a commenté le porte-parole du BNS, Zheng Jingping, au cours
d'une conférence de presse. [...]
[59]Lire la suite...
Tags : o [60]Croissance opinion problème o [61]Croissance opinion
objectif
[62]Conjoncture. Des inquiétudes derrière les prévisions de reprise. Les
ménages ne
[...] La croissance française a bénéficié dans cette première phase
d'une évolution favorable de nos exportations et des mesures de soutien
décidées par le gouvernement Balladur. A quel rythme la croissance
va-t-elle se poursuivre Sur ce plan, les indicateurs d'opinion des
entreprises sont loin d'être au beau fixe, comme il y a un an. [...]
Mais c'est la consommation qui va décider du rythme de progression de
l'investissement. Or, dans le deuxième acte de la reprise, c'est
l'investisse-ment qui devient le moteur principal. Si la consommation
était trop faible, l'élan qu'imprime le redémarrage de l'investissement
à la croissance de l'activité s'atténuerait. [...] Chômage. moins bien
que les autres pays industriels La décrue du chômage se poursuit sur un
rythme assez lent malgré la bonne tenue de la croissance. Bien que le
taux de chômage [...] baisse par l'Insee ces derniers mois, il reste
très nettement supérieur à celui des autres pays industriels (8,2% en
Allemagne, 8,7% en Grande-Bretagne, 5,7% aux Etats-Unis). [...]
[63]Lire la suite...
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Sarkozy : les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme"
NOUVELOBS.COM | 06.02.2009 | 13:01
[121]Réagissez à l'article 299 réactions
Lors de son intervention télévisée, le chef de l'Etat a notamment déclaré :
"Que les Français soient inquiets (face à la crise), c'est normal".
> Il a dit réfléchir à une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le
revenu.
> La taxe professionnelle sera supprimée en 2010.
> Les partenaires sociaux seront reçus le 18 février.
Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters)
Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters)
Le chef de l'Etat a déclaré, jeudi 5 février, que la France et le monde
faisaient face à "la crise du siècle", au début de son intervention
télévisée. "C'est la crise du siècle, elle est sans précédent", a-t-il
répété Nicolas Sarkozy. ([122]> Lire toutes les déclarations).
"Je dois en tenir compte et faire en sorte que la France rentre le plus
tard possible dans la crise et sorte le plus tôt de la crise", a-t-il
ajouté. "Je dois en plus protéger au maximum ceux qui déjà dans la
croissance mondiale étaient exclus", a-t-il ajouté. "Que les Français
soient inquiets, c'est normal. Je le comprends, je l'entends", a-t-il
expliqué.
Les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme", a-t-il
rapidement affirmé. "La rupture n'a jamais été un objectif, c'est juste
un moyen", a, par ailleurs, expliqué Nicolas Sarkozy.
L'émission était diffusée simultanément sur TF1, France 2, M6 et RTL.
Elle est présentée par David Pujadas et Laurence, avec les
interventions de Guy Lagache et Alain Duhamel.
Une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu ?
Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il recevrait les partenaires sociaux le 18
février, notamment pour voir comment "aller plus loin" sur
l'indemnisation du chômage partiel. Il a également dit réfléchir à une
suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu pour aider les
classes moyennes, l'une des "pistes" qu'il soumettra aux syndicats le
18 février. "L'Etat est prêt à faire un effort" pour "mieux protéger"
les jeunes en fin de CDD et qui ne retrouvent pas d'emploi du fait de
la crise financière et économique, a affirmé le président de la
République.
Le chef de l'Etat a aussi annoncé qu'il "supprimerait la taxe
professionnnelle en 2010". "Je vous l'annonce: on supprimera la taxe
professionnelle en France en 2010 parce que je veux que l'on garde des
usines en France", a déclaré Nicolas Sarkozy lors de son intervention
télévisée sur la crise.
La mesure sera générale: "On ne peut pas dire on va supprimer pour
l'industrie automobile mais pas pour l'industrie sidérurgique ou
textile", a-t-il ajouté.
"Je ne peux pas dire aux actionnaires pour le coup: ne délocalisez
plus, relocalisez, et en même temps leur laisser des charges et des
contraintes qui font qu'ils ne s'en sortiront plus", selon le chef de
l'Etat.
Réfléchir sur le "partage du profit"
Le président a jugé nécessaire de réfléchir au "partage du profit"
entre les salariés et les actionnaires, demandant aux partenaires
sociaux de parvenir à un accord sans quoi "l'Etat prendra ses
responsabilités". "Je veux que le 18 février nous discutions d'un sujet
essentiel en France qui est le partage du profit", a déclaré le chef de
l'Etat, évoquant le "sentiment d'injustice majeur" suscité dans cette
crise par "le comportement d'un certain nombre de dirigeants
d'institutions bancaires". "Comment on arbitre entre le souhait
légitime des actionnaires de gagner de l'argent avec les entreprises et
la demande des salariés d'être associés aux bénéfices des entreprises
dont ils ont contribué à créer la richesse?", s'est interrogé Nicolas
Sarkozy, jugeant qu'en la matière "le compte n'y est pas". "Quand une
entreprise distribue aux actionnaires tous les bénéfices d'une année,
elle ne peut plus investir" pour l'avenir, a-t-il ajouté, dénonçant une
"logique purement financière et spéculative". Le sujet sera au
programme de sa rencontre avec les partenaires sociaux le 18 février.
"J'engage les organisations syndicales et le patronat à en discuter.
Soit ils arrivent à quelque chose, soit l'Etat prendra ses
responsabilités", a-t-il prévenu. Il a indiqué qu'il estimait quant à
lui que "la règle des trois tiers est bonne": un tiers des bénéfices
vont aux salariés, un tiers aux actionnaires sous forme de dividendes
et un tiers sont réinvestis dans l'entreprise pour financer son
développement".
Combat sur la TVA
Nicolas Sarkozy a réaffirmé sa volonté d'obtenir un consensus européen
concernant des baisses de la TVA sur la restauration, les "produits
propres" et des "produits culturels".
"C'est parfaitement anormal que quand on achète une voiture propre, on
paie plus cher que quand on achète une voiture qui pollue, et ça vaut
aussi pour les bâtiments construits en haute qualité environnementale",
a dit le chef de l'Etat, souhaitant "un système de TVA réduite pour
tous les produits propres".
"Je pense également que sur les produits culturels, il faut aller plus
loin", a ajouté Nicolas Sarkozy. "Pourquoi la TVA sur le livre est-elle
à 5,5 (%), et la TVA sur le disque à 19,6 (%), comme la TVA sur la
vidéo? Il faut mettre cette TVA à 5,5", a-t-il déclaré.
"Comme cela on est tranquille"
"Est-ce que les réformes que la France doit mettre en oeuvre, pour
avoir le même emploi lorsque nous seront sortis de la crise, est-ce que
ces réformes restent d'actualité? La réponse est oui", a déclaré le
chef de l'Etat, précisant qu'elles devaient être conduites "au même
rythme".
"Si on doit arrêter, comme cela s'est si souvent fait dans le passé,
chaque réforme quand il y a une manifestation, alors mieux vaut ne
faire aucune réforme. Et comme cela on est tranquille", a-t-il dit. La
rupture, "c'est la rupture avec cette habitude".
Les quelque 1,4 milliard d'euros d'intérêts que l'Etat percevra cette
année au titre des intérêts pour son financement aux banques seront
"intégralement" affectés au financement de "mesures sociales", a
annoncé Nicolas Sarkozy.
Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il allait demander au président de la Cour
des comptes Philippe Seguin de "conduire un certain nombre d'enquêtes"
sur la bonne utilisation des fonds accordés aux banques pour faire face
à la crise.
Tacle aux traders
Nicolas Sarkozy veut "changer" le système de rémunération des "traders"
mais est sceptique sur un plafonnement systématique du salaire des
dirigeants, a-t-il déclaré.
"Je suis plus choqué par le système de rémunération de ceux qu'on
appelle les traders, que les présidents de banques. C'est ce système-là
que je veux changer", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat.
"J'ai vu ce que M. Obama a décidé, je suis en train d'y réfléchir, moi
je ne suis pas trop pour une règle générale", a-t-il ajouté. "Mettre
tout le monde sous la toise, je ne suis pas sûr que ce soit la
meilleure formule".
"J'ajoute que Barack Obama a prévu un système d'actions gratuites
derrière une rémunération bloquée, j'aimerais en savoir un peu plus", a
souligné Nicolas Sarkozy.
Maintien de la politique sur la Fonction publique
Nicolas Sarkozy a affirmé qu'il n'engagerait "pas de dépenses publiques
supplémentaires", et qu'il s'en tiendrait à la "règle du
non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux".
"Je n'engagerai pas de dépenses publiques supplémentaires, notamment
sur la règle du non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux", a
affirmé le président de la République.
Selon lui, on reviendra ainsi "au même nombre de fonctionnaires qu'en
1992", quand François Mitterrand était président. "Je n'ai pas le
souvenir que la France était alors sous-administrée", a-t-il argué.
Relations aux paradis fiscaux
Très sévère sur la question des paradis fiscaux, Nicolas Sarkozy a
annoncé son intention de "poser des questions" à Andorre, Monaco et au
Luxembourg.
La France exigera la moralisation des paradis fiscaux et "ça m'amènera
à revoir nos relations avec Andorre", "à poser la question de nos
relations avec Monaco (et) à poser un certain nombre de questions à nos
voisins luxembourgeois", a-t-il déclaré.
Baisse dans les sondages
D'autant que le chef de l'Etat, comme son Premier ministre, enregistre
une forte baisse dans les derniers sondages. Moins cinq points à 39% de
"confiance" contre 55% de défiance selon un CSA paru mercredi dans Le
Parisien.
Forts du succès de leur journée d'action de la semaine dernière, les
syndicats attendent le président au tournant, suspendant leurs
prochaines initiatives au contenu de sa prestation télévisée.
Le patron de la CFDT François Chérèque a réclamé un "changement de
cap", en clair, des mesures pour maintenir le pouvoir d'achat, tandis
que celui de FO Jean-Claude Mailly a prévenu que sans "relance par la
consommation", il y aura "remobilisation".
Le ton est également offensif dans l'opposition. La Première secrétaire
du PS Martine Aubry a demandé au président de "définir enfin un plan de
relance adapté". Et, dans une rare unanimité, la gauche toute entière a
signé mercredi un texte sommant le pouvoir de "changer de cap".
Ne pas se laisser "enfumer"
Jeudi matin, Jean-Luc Mélenchon (Parti de gauche) invitait le pays à ne
pas se laisser "enfumer" par Nicolas Sarkozy et à se mettre "en lutte",
tandis qu'Olivier Besancenot (LCR) voyait déjà dans son intervention
"des motivations supplémentaires à continuer le combat".
Jusque-là, le discours du chef de l'Etat est resté inflexible. Oui, il
a entendu les "inquiétudes légitimes" des Français "qui craignent pour
leur emploi", mais pas question pour lui de recourir à une relance par
la consommation, "parce que ça n'a jamais marché".
Nicolas Sarkozy devrait aussi enrober son propos d'une bonne dose de
volontarisme. "On va se battre pour que la France sorte plus forte de
la crise", insiste-t-il régulièrement.
"Se concentrer sur les objectifs essentiels"
Mais certains ne l'entendent pas de la même oreille dans la majorité.
Le député UMP Hervé Mariton a reproché au gouvernement de s'éparpiller
dans les réformes lui demandant de "se concentrer sur les objectifs
essentiels" et son collègue François Goulard a préconisé une
"suspension" temporaire du très controversé bouclier fiscal.
En outre, le gouvernement a vu poindre ces derniers jours un nouveau
"front" du mécontentement dans les universités, avec la montée de la
grogne des enseignants-chercheurs et des étudiants.
Mais comme François Fillon lundi, le porte-parole du gouvernement a
exclu mercredi tout virage politique. "Cette émission n'est pas faite
seulement pour le million et demi de Français qui a manifesté", a dit
Luc Chatel, mais plutôt pour "mettre en perspective son action face à
la crise".
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Les réactions des lecteurs
rifif
[137]-10 POINTS
-10 points serait un sondage plus réaliste que ces sondages
effectués par des instituts de sondages aux mains des amis de
sarkozy ! Il aura beau museler les manifestan...
08.02 à 16h05 - [138]Alerter
scafandre
[139]Il faut qu'il démissionne...
avant de mettre littéralement la France en faillite. Il est
inconscient... Vous avez des communes qui ont investi dans la
construction de collèges, de ponts... en fonct...
07.02 à 21h16 - [140]Alerter
[141]Réagissez !
[142]Toutes les réactions (299)
[143]Conditions de modération
L'essentiel Politique
[144]IDENTITE NATIONALE
[145]"Déferlement de musulmans" : Gaudin regrette avoir eu un "mot
malheureux" 18.01 à 16h59
[146]MAYOTTE
[147]Courte étape dans l'océan Indien pour Sarkozy 18.01 à 14h52
[148]POLEMIQUE
[149]Reporters enlevés : "cynisme effrayant" de Guéant 18.01 à 14h47
[150]MARSEILLE
[151]Buffet dénonce "une idéologie xénophobe
dans les plus hautes autorités de l'Etat" 18.01 à 13h46
[152]IDENTITE NATIONALE
[153]Et si "une Française porte la burqa"...? 18.01 à 10h51
[154]SOCIAL
[155]Internet : un tarif réduit pour les plus démunis ? 18.01 à 09h05
[156]COLLECTIVITES LOCALES
[157]Les départements en "graves difficultés financières" 18.01 à 08h53
[158]IDENTITE NATIONALE
[159]"Déferlement de musulmans" : Gaudin regrette avoir eu un "mot
malheureux" 18.01 à 08h06
[160]MARSEILLE
[161]Valls fustige les "amalgames dangereux" de Gaudin 18.01 à 07h56
[162]ELECTIONS REGIONALES
[163]Régionales : Aubry vise toujours le grand chelem 18.01 à 07h29
[164]AFGHANISTAN
[165]Journalistes enlevés : Guéant provoque la polémique 18.01 à 07h10
[166]SENAT
[167]La réforme des collectivités "manque de visibilité" 18.01 à 07h05
[168]CHARENTE-MARITIME
[169]Régionales : Sarnez accuse Royal de "débauchage" 17.01 à 14h58
[170]DROIT DE VOTE
[171]Mélenchon favorable au droit de vote des étrangers 17.01 à 13h56
[172]CONSEIL CONSTITUTIONNEL
[173]Emmanuelle Mignon ne siègera pas parmi les Sages 17.01 à 12h55
Plus sur le sujet
Sur Nouvelobs.com
* [174]Les principales déclarations de Nicolas Sarkozy
* [175]Aubry Sarkozy est un président "hésitant" qui "ne sait pas où
il va"
* [176]Intervention télévisée de Sarkozy Les appels au boycott se
multiplient
* [177]Onze organisations de gauche demandent un "changement de cap"
* [178]Interview présidentielle Les choix contestables de l'Elysée
* [179]Grèves Parisot y voit "quelque chose de pervers"
* [180]Le texte commun des onze organisations de gauche
* [181]Revue de presse
* [182]Les réactions
* [183]Delanoë Sarkozy a "privilégié la polémique" sur le SMA
* [184]Sarkozy fait des ouvertures, les syndicats méfiants
* [185]15,1 millions de téléspectateurs pour l'intervention de
Sarkozy
* [186]Les principales mesures de Nicolas Sarkozy
Dans Le Nouvel Observateur
* [187]"Sarkozy comme Cendrillon", (05/02/09)
* [188]"La vraie nature de Sarkozy", par François Bazin (05/02/09)
* [189]"Sarkozy peut-il encore réformer ?", par Hervé Algalarrondo
(05/02/09)
* [190]"Les ficelles de Sarkozy", (22/01/09)
* [191]"Les choix de Sarkozy", par Denis Olivennes (22/01/09)
Sur Internet
* [192]Le site de l'Elysée
* [193]Le baromètre de confiance de l'exécutif sur le site du CSA
* [194]Le baromètre des actions présidentielles sur le site du CSA
* [195]La biographie officielle de Nicolas Sarkozy
* [196]Le blog de François Fillon
* [197]La biographie officielle de François Fillon
* [198]Le site de TNS-Sofres
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Réformes: Sarkozy ne ralentira pas le rythme
19.01.2009
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Le [136]président [137]Nicolas Sarkozy a affirmé lundi ne pas avoir
«l'intention de ralentir le rythme» des réformes en 2009, au moment où
«l'impact social de la [138]crise se fait sentir». Formulant ses voeux
pour la nouvelle années devant les représentants des partenaires
sociaux, le chef de l'Etat a d'abord voulu les «remercier pour
l'ampleur de la tâche que vous avez accomplie en 2008. L'urgence des
problèmes à résoudre, l'attente des Français vous ont imposé, comme au
gouvernement et au Parlement, un rythme de travail particulièrement
exigeant». «Je ne vous surprendrai pas en vous disant que nous n'avons
pas l'intention de ralentir le rythme en 2009, leur a-t-il ensuite
déclaré. Et ce n'est certainement pas au moment où l'impact social de
la crise se fait sentir --on a eu l'impact financier, l'impact
économique, bien sûr l'impact social-- qu'on va en tirer la conclusion
qu'il faut ralentir», a-t-il ajouté.
Leparisien.fr avec A
Cet article a été publié dans la rubrique [139]Politique
FLASH ACTUALITÉ
[DERNIÈRE MINUTE]
* 18h57 [140]Emmanuelle Haïm renonce à diriger "Idoménée" à l'Opéra
de Paris
* 18h55 [141]La production cinéma "résiste" dit le CNC, "en crise"
selon les producteurs
* 18h49 [142]Ligue 1: Marseille au milieu du gué
* 18h41 [143]Jean-Claude Juncker reconduit à la tête de l'Eurogroupe
* 18h26 [144]France: le déficit public de "l'ordre de 8,2%" du PIB en
2010
* 18h16 [145]Rebsamen (PS): pétition pour inverser la charge de la
preuve de nationalité
* 18h05 [146]Strauss-Kahn responsable politique préféré des Français
[147]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
* 18h41 [148]Jean-Claude Juncker reconduit à la tête de l'Eurogroupe
* 18h26 [149]France: le déficit public de "l'ordre de 8,2%" du PIB en
2010
* 17h53 [150]Plan de départs PSA: 5.700 volontaires d'ici la fin du
dispositif fin mars
* 17h42 [151]Etats-Unis: Vivendi accuse l'avocat des plaignants de
créer un "préjudice"
* 17h18 [152]Eurostar pourrait payer 11 millions d'euros de
dédommagement à ses clients
* 16h24 [153]GDF Suez a tenté sans succès de prendre le contrôle
d'International Power
* 16h11 [154]Le déficit public attendu à 8,2% en 2010, soit moins que
prévu
[155]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
* 18h16 [156]Rebsamen (PS): pétition pour inverser la charge de la
preuve de nationalité
* 18h05 [157]Strauss-Kahn responsable politique préféré des Français
* 17h10 [158]Collomb (PS) prêt à voter certains articles de la
réforme des collectivités
* 16h56 [159]Propos sur les musulmans: Gaudin évoque "un mot
malheureux"
* 16h28 [160]Réforme territoriale: les élus landais demandent un
référendum
* 16h14 [161]Le Nouveau centre veut s'emparer de "grands sujets"
comme l'homoparentalité
* 16h12 [162]Besson dresse son bilan 2009 : plus de 29.000
sans-papiers expulsés
[163]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
* 17h06 [164]Séisme de magnitude 6 à l'ouest du Guatemala
* 16h27 [165]La police a tué plus de 10.000 personnes en douze ans à
Rio selon une étude
* 14h40 [166]Le Yémen réclame à Washington ses ressortissants détenus
à Guantanamo
* 13h52 [167]Enquête sur la guerre en Irak: Tony Blair témoignera le
29 janvier
* 13h21 [168]Silvio Berlusconi absent à la reprise du procès sur les
droits télévisés
* 11h26 [169]Les talibans ont porté la guerre dans le centre de
Kaboul
* 10h46 [170]L'UE promet près d'un demi-milliard d'euros pour Haïti
[171]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
* 18h49 [172]Ligue 1: Marseille au milieu du gué
* 17h10 [173]Football: pas de sanction pour Thierry Henry après sa
main contre l'Eire
* 16h50 [174]Ligue 1: pour Bordeaux, l'essentiel c'est l'écart
* 16h26 [175]Coupe de l'America: le bras de fer se poursuit entre
Oracle et Alinghi
* 15h08 [176]Euro de patinage artistique: Joubert de retour pour un
ultime test avant les JO
* 10h55 [177]Euro de handball: les Français pour un triplé inédit
* 08h04 [178]Open d'Australie de tennis: Sharapova éliminée, Nadal,
Murray et Roddick qualifiés
[179]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
* 18h57 [180]Emmanuelle Haïm renonce à diriger "Idoménée" à l'Opéra
de Paris
* 18h55 [181]La production cinéma "résiste" dit le CNC, "en crise"
selon les producteurs
* 17h05 [182]Les films de la semaine: un Gainsbourg, un homme sérieux
et des Barons
* 14h28 [183]Le Festival d'Aix-en-Provence se "redéveloppe" en 2010
* 06h36 [184]"Avatar" grand vainqueur des Golden Globes, "In the air"
déçoit
* 20h48 [185]Mode à Milan: esprit rebelle et inspirations militaires
* 20h16 [186]"Avatar" continue de dominer le box-office
nord-américain
[187]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES
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[33]Haïti : la récolte de fonds décolle après l'appel de l'ONU
[34]Haïti : la récolte de fonds décolle après l'appel de l'ONU
Les annonces d'aide humanitaire et de fonds pour venir en aide à Haïti
continuent d'affluer, suite à l'appel d'urgence lancé par l'ONU.
L'organisation entend récolter 562 millions de dollars.
[35]» DOSSIER SPECIAL - Haïti dévasté
.
[36]L'hôpital général de Port-au-Prince manque de tout
REPORTAGE - Face au désastre, les secours peinent à s'orgraniser dans la
capitale haïtienne.
.
.
.
[37]Les secours sorganisent dans la douleur
EN IMAGES - Dans la capitale haïtienne, les secours internationaux font face
à dénormes difficultés. Il faut à la fois chercher des survivants, apporter
des vivres aux rescapés, opérer les blessés, évacuer les corps, sécuriser la
ville et penser à la reconstruction.
.
.
[38]Haïti : 70.000 corps ont été enterrés
Le gouvernement a décrété dimanche l'état d'urgence et une période de deuil
national de 30 jours. 280 centres d'urgence s'ouvrent lundi, pour distribuer
des vivres et héberger les sans-abris, estimés à 300.000.
[39]» DOSSIER SPECIAL - Haïti dévasté
.
.
[40]Numérisation du patrimoine :
comment l'argent sera réparti
[41]Numérisation du patrimoine :
comment l'argent sera
réparti
INFO LE FIGARO - La Bibliothèque nationale de France et le Centre national du
cinéma seront les mieux lotis.
.
[42]La création d'entreprises atteint
un record
INFO FIGARO - Les Français ont créé 560.000 entreprises l'an dernier, grâce
au succès du statut de l'auto-entrepreneur.
[43]» Auto-entrepreneur : comment ça marche ?
.
.
.
[44]Thierry Henry échappe
à la sanction
La commission de discipline de la FIFA a estimé lundi qu'elle ne disposait
pas de base juridique pour sanctionner la main de l'attaquant français lors
du match contre l'Eire, en barrages du Mondial-2010.
.
.
[45]Boursiers : l'Etat précise ses objectifs
La conférence de grandes écoles a de son côté effectué un revirement en
affirmant partager les objectifs fixés par le gouvernement.
[46]» Sarkozy veut 30 % de boursiers dans les grandes écoles
.
.
[47]L'UNI fait place à un nouveau syndicat étudiant de droite
Dès mardi, le syndicat étudiant de droite né en 1968 deviendra le Mouvement
des étudiants (MET).
.
.
[48]France : le déficit attendu à 8,2%
du PIB en 2010
INFO FIGARO - Le déficit public sera moins mauvais que prévu : il était
jusqu'alors anticipé à 8,5 %.
.
.
.
[49]Sarkozy en visite
dans l'océan Indien
Le chef de l'État est à Mayotte et à la Réunion pour la cérémonie des voeux à
l'outre-mer.
.
.
[50]Besson veut faire signer une charte
aux jeunes Français
Les droits et les devoirs de tout citoyen seraient rappelés à l'occasion de
ce serment républicain.
[51]» Identité : Jean-Claude Gaudin crée à son tour la polémique
.
.
[52]Des squatteurs priés de quitter
la place des Vosges
La justice a ordonné lundi l'expulsion des militants pour le droit au
logement, qui occupent depuis plus de deux mois un hôtel particulier de cette
prestigieuse place parisienne.
.
.
[53]Audiences : Europe 1 pourrait
détrôner NRJ
Le sondage 126000 Radio de Médiamétrie, qui sera publié mardi, pourrait une
nouvelle fois bousculer la hierarchie entre stations.
.
.
Zoom Figaro
Cheveux
[20091109PHOWWW00546.jpg]
Conseils d'experts
Questions RH
[20091109PHOWWW00547.jpg]
McDonald's
Frida Kahlo
[20091109PHOWWW00548.jpg]
Exposée à Bruxelles
Cinéma
[20091109PHOWWW00348.jpg]
Toutes les séances
.
[54]Ces délégués du procureur
qui travaillent au noir
[55]Ces délégués du procureur
qui travaillent au noir
Chargés de sermonner les petits délinquants, ils ne sont pas déclarés par la
Chancellerie. Bercy tarde à régler le problème.
.
[56]Les talibans revendiquent
une série d'attaques à Kaboul
Des insurgés se sont lancés lundi matin à l'assaut du centre de la capitale
afghane où se trouvent plusieurs ministères et le palais présidentiel. Les
affrontements avec l'armée afghane ont fait au moins 5 morts et 71 blessés.
Sept assaillants ont été tués.
.
.
[57]Expatriés aux USA, la présidence Obama a-t-elle changé votre vie ?
APPEL A TÉMOIGNAGES - Si vous vivez aux Etats-Unis, votre quotidien a-t-il
changé depuis l'arrivée de Barack Obama à la Maison Blanche ? Si oui, comment
?
.
.
.
[58]TGV : la SNCF remet
à plat sa stratégie
La baisse de fréquentation de certaines lignes obligerait à des réductions de
trains voire des annulations selon les Echos. Les lignes nord-est et
est-Atlantique sont particulièrement concernées.
[59]» Deutsche Bahn prête à livrer bataille avec la SNCF
[60]» La SNCF augmente les tarifs du TGV de 1,9% en 2010
.
.
.
[61]Régionales : Laporte jette l'éponge
INFO LE FIGARO.FR - Lancien secrétaire dEtat aux Sports faisait planer depuis
plusieurs semaines le mystère sur son éventuelle candidature en
Ile-de-France.
.
.
[62]Paris et Berlin déconseillent
l'utilisation d'Internet Explorer
Après que Microsoft a admis qu'une faille dans son navigateur était à
l'origine de l'attaque contre Google en Chine, les autorités officielles de
sécurité informatique en France et en Allemagne recommandent de ne pas
utiliser le logiciel avant qu'il ne soit corrigé.
.
.
[63]Le Turc, qui avait tenté de tuer
Jean-Paul II, est libre
[64]Le Turc, qui avait tenté de tuer
Jean-Paul II, est
libre
Mehmet Ali Agca, un ex-militant ultranationaliste fait monter les enchères
pour publier ses Mémoires.
.
[65]Un Français en prison à Abu Dhabi
pour une plaisanterie
Pour avoir parlé de «bombe» dans un avion, Jean-Louis Lioret, ingénieur à la
retraite, est incarcéré depuis six jours.
.
.
.
[66]«Ali le Chimique» condamné à mort
Ce cousin de Saddam Hussein avait fait gazer 5 000 Kurdes en 1988.
.
.
[67]Alliot-Marie confie à Pierre Botton
une mission sur la prison
«Je sais de quoi je parle», assure l'ancien homme d'affaires et ex-gendre de
Michel Noir, écroué dans les années 1990.
.
.
[68]Le tapis rouge
des Golden Globes
[69]Le tapis rouge
des Golden Globes
EN IMAGES - Malgré l'éloge des critiques, Marion Cotillard nominée pour la
comédie musicale "Nine", n'a pas reçu le prix de la meilleure actrice qui a
été décerné à Meryl Streep.
[70]» Retour sur la cérémonie en images
.
[71]Avatar domine les Golden Globes
Le film de James Cameron a remporté dimanche le doublé du meilleur film
dramatique et du meilleur réalisateur. En revanche, Marion Cotillard et Un
prophète, qui portaient les espoirs tricolores, sont repartis bredouilles.
[72]» VIDEO - Les Golden Globes, du rire aux larmes
.
.
[73]Bertrand : «Une étrangère portant la burqa ne pourra pas être
naturalisée»
Le secrétaire général de l'UMP, Xavier Bertrand, qui a entamé ses
déplacements de campagne ce week-end en Paca, veut mobiliser sa famille
politique.
.
.
.
[74]Guéant écarte l'idée d'un remaniement
Le secrétaire général de l'Élysée a confirmé, dimanche, le maintien de Fillon
après les régionales.
[75]» Fillon fait l'éloge de la durée à Matignon
[76]» Journalistes enlevés : indignation après les propos de Guéant
.
.
[77]Faut-il repousser l'âge légal
de la retraite au-delà de 60 ans ?
Votants [picto-votant.gif]
.
.
[78]Les chirurgiens esthétiques contrôlent leur réputation sur le Web
Ils font parfois appel à des sociétés privées pour préserver leur image en
ligne.
[79]» Les patients en quête d'information sur la Toile
.
.
.
[80]Ukraine : le candidat pro-russe en tête
Viktor Ianoukovitch affrontera Ioulia Timochenko au second tour de l'élection
présidentielle ukrainienne, le 7 février.
[81]» Bataille présidentielle en Ukraine
.
.
[82]Joann Sfar : «Un film amoureux
sur Gainsbourg»
[83]Joann Sfar : «Un film amoureux
sur Gainsbourg»
INTERVIEW - Après Marjane Satrapi et Riad Sattouf, l'auteur de BD passe
derrière la caméra et signe un conte musical aussi poétiqueque subversif sur
l'Homme à tête de chou. En salle mercredi.
.
.
[84]Un prêt-à-porter concis et stylé
DÉFILÉS - Milan a donné le coup denvoi des collections masculines
automne-hiver 2010-2011.
[85]» EN IMAGES - Ermenegildo Zegna, [86]Dolce & Gabbana, [87]Burberry,
[88]Emporio Armani...
[89]» VIDEO - Bottega Venetta, [90]Burberry
.
.
[91]Un site web retrouve des vidéos
en fonction des mots prononcés
Le service Voxalead indexe les émissions de radio et de télévision à partir
des paroles enregistrées.
.
.
[92]Nissan joue au Cube
[93]Nissan joue au Cube
EN IMAGES - La marque japonaise fait le pari de vendre en Europe cette
étonnante berline compacte qui affirme sa différence au travers d'un style
cubique et asymétrique.
.
* ____________________ OK
[94]Les Blogs [95][feed-icon-16x16.png]
[96]Les dessous du social
[97]Tamilutte, FOrtifiant contre la pandémie sociale
CHEZ FO, on a depuis longtemps de l'humour et le sens de...
[98]Les dessous du social par [99]Marc Landré
[100]Le blog des Marchés de la bourse et des investisseurs
[101]Plutôt un risque de « syndrome Intel » que de déception sur les profits
Que dire de cette séance de Bourse de lundi, sans saveur,...
[102]Le blog des Marchés de la bourse et des investisseurs par
[103]Roland Laskine
[104]La Blog Team de Sport24
[105]Jacques Peridon: l'éditorialiste qui fait peur à l'OM!
Connaissez vous Jacques Peridon? Non? Oui? Peu...
[106]La Blog Team de Sport24 par [107]Bruno Roger-Petit
[108]Voir tous les blogs
.
.
La revue de net
Chaque jour, cinq liens sélectionnés par lefigaro.fr
+ LItalie [109]censure la vidéo sur Internet
+ Photos : Martin Luther King [110]en famille
+ Le New York Times [111]payant sur le web (eng)
+ Le rapport sur [112]la numérisation des livres décrypté
+ Lécologie [113]naméliore pas le climat familial (eng)
.
.
Logo Figaro
[114][20080606PHOWWW00354.jpg]
[115]Gagnez un séjour en thalasso
[116]Participez et gagnez un séjour
au Carnac thalasso & spa Resort.
.
.
[117][20080606PHOWWW00353.jpg]
[118]Surprenante Madonna
[119]
Dolce & Gabbana invente la sexy mamma-donna
.
.
[120][20080606PHOWWW00350.jpg]
[121]Exprimez-vous
[122]
Devrait-il y avoir davantage
d'hommes dans les mouvements féministes ?
.
.
[123]Mode - [124]Beauté - [125]Joaillerie - [126]Déco -
[127]Célébrités
.
[128]mercato
.
.
[129]Comment choisir son assurance vie ?
Posez vos questions à Marie-Christine Sonkin, directrice adjointe
de la rédaction du Journal des Finances. Elle répondra en vidéo le
19 janvier.
.
.
«Clint Eastwood au coeur de la mêlée et au coeur du public»
CRITIQUE - Pour Olivier Delcroix, avec «Invictus», qui réunit à l'écran
Morgan Freeman et Matt Damon, Eastwood livre un film passionnant sur le rugby
et l'apartheid.
.
.
Météo ____________________ rech
[130]France - [131]Monde - [132]Plage
.
[EMBED]
.
[133]La grande crue de 1910 à Paris
[134]La grande crue de 1910 à Paris
EN IMAGES - A loccasion du centenaire de la crue, deux expos sont organisées
à Paris.
.
.
.
[135]L'IVG, un sujet qui fâche en Europe
Trente-cinq ans après sa légalisation en France, l'interruption volontaire de
grossesse fait toujours polémique chez certains de nos voisins.
.
.
[136]Jyvais
.
Économie
[137]Proglio bouleverse la direction d'EDF
[138]Le nouveau président d'EDF installe son équipe dirigeante.
.
[139]Evaluer son patron,
un facteur d'efficacité
[140]Une étude britannique met en évidence la relation entre santé au travail
et franchise vis-à-vis de son employeur.
.
.
.
.
.
Vos commentaires sur...
[141]Haïti : Le leadership de Washington sur les secours
[142]«Dans un monde idéal ce serait à l'ONU de désigner le pays chargé de
tenir ce rôle majeur. Mais il semble qu'on y préfère les grands discours aux
actions rationnelles et efficaces !» par DUBLEYOU 76
.
.
[143]Aubry estime avoir les «capacités» de présider la France
[144]«Peut-être devrait-elle commencer par expliquer ce qu'elle compte faire.
Le meilleur opposant n'est pas forcément le meilleur candidat» par Piémont
.
.
[145]L'IVG reste un sujet qui fâche chez nos voisins occidentaux
[146]«Si 35 ans après cela pose encore problème et choque les populations, il
faudrait peut-être se poser des questions ? Ce n'est pas parce qu'une loi a
été votée qu'elle reste valable des décennies après» par Ebtg
.
.
[147]» Retrouvez toute notre sélection de commentaires des internautes
[148]en cliquant ici[149].
.
.
.
.
.
.
Trouvez les meilleurs restos, films, spectacles, concerts et expos à
Paris et en Ile de France !
____________________
[Resto / Bars...........] Rechercher
.
.
[150]Easy Voyage
.
Services
+ [151]Services météo
+ [152]Services sorties
+ [153]Services bourse
+ [154]Services voyages
+ [155]Services Guide-tv
+ [156]Services boutiques
+
Annonces
+ [157]annonces_emploi
+ [158]Annonces immobilières
+ [159]Annonces automobile
+ [160]Annonces rencontres
+
.
[_] [_] [_] [_] [_] [_] [_]
Annonces emploi
[161]cadremploi.fr
[Fonction...............][Secteur................][Localisation....
.......]_________________________
Ok
[162]Recherche detaillée
.
.
.
Annonces Automobiles
[163]AutoScout24
[Marque..........] [Modeles]
Année [de..]
Prix () de [1.000..]
Distance [Rayon.]
[164]Recherche détaillée
[Energie...] [Professionnels et particuliers]
[à...]
[à......]
____________________
(Afficher les résultats) Valider
.
Logo Evène
18 Janvier - Sainte Prisca - [165]Offrez-lui des fleurs
[3441.jpg]
[166]La citation du jour
"Lire n'est pas un acte de consommation culturelle, c'est une conversation."
[167]Alain Finkielkraut
[168]Entretien avec Guy Rossi-Landi - Février 1999
.
.
[4262.jpg]
[169]Anniversaire du jour
[170]Philippe Starck
Designer français
61 ans
.
.
[171]Chronique du jour
C'est arrivé le 18 Janvier 1975
Une bande qui fait du bruit
Dans les kiosques, une nouvelle parution s'apprête à faire grand bruit. Il
s'agit d'un trimestriel, certifié "réservé aux adultes", flanqué d'un titre
au graphisme métallique : Métal hurlant. A l'o...
.
.
[172]Le guide cadeaux culture - EVENE
.
.
.
.
.
.
____________________ Rechercher
newsletter ____________________ OK
.
IFRAME: [173]frametvmag
[174]Abonnement | [175]Archives | [176]Boutique [177]Charte de
modération [178]Contacts | [179]Index actualités | [180]Le Figaro en
PDF | [181]Le Figaro en 3D avec Yoowalk | [182]Mentions légales |
[183]Newsletters | [184]Plan du site | [185]Publicités | [186]RSS |
[187]Sitemap | [188]Toutes les biographies avec le Whos Who France |
[189]jeux concours avec Ledemondujeu | [190]Futura Sciences |
[191]Symbaloo | [192]Livre.fr
Sites du Groupe Figaro : [193]Actualité sportive avec Sport24.com |
[194]Cinéma avec Evene.fr | [195]Economie avec le JDF.com | [196]Emploi
avec Cadremploi.fr | [197]Formation avec Kelformation.com |
[198]Explorimmoneuf | [199]Immobilier avec Explorimmo.com |
[200]Immobilier de prestige avec Propriétés de France | [201]La
Solitaire du Figaro | [202]Locations vacances avec Bertrand vacances |
[203]Mode et Beauté avec Lefigaro.fr/madame | [204]Programmes télé avec
TV Mag.com | [205]Résidences secondaires | [206]Spectacles avec
TickeTac.com | [207]Vacances de rêve avec Belles Maisons A Louer |
[208]Ventes privées sur Bazarchic.com
.
[209]Abonnement
[210][20071026PHOWWW00431.jpg]
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.
.
[211]Figaro en PDF
.
[212]Figaro sélection
[213][20091113PHOWWW00377.jpg]
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[214]Privilèges
[215][20090918PHOWWW00224.jpg]
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.
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[216]Sport24.com
[217][20091020PHOWWW00305.jpg]
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[218]Carnet du jour
[219][20071029PHOWWW00500.jpg]
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[220]Figaro magazine
[221][20081226PHOWWW00254.jpg]
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[222]Madame Figaro
[223][20090619PHOWWW00349.jpg]
.
[224]Salon de Detroit
[225]En images
[226][20100114PHOWWW00381.jpg]
.
[227]Camus
[228]Portrait
[229][20091223PHOWWW00424.jpg]
.
[230]People
[231]Tapis rouge
[232][20091202PHOWWW00394.jpg]
.
[233]more.madame
[234]Art numérique
[235][20091119PHOWWW00374.jpg]
.
[236]Bijoux
[237]Idées cadeaux
[238][20091222PHOWWW00119.jpg]
.
[239]High-tech
[240]Vivre en 3D
[241][3dc5b19c-faba-11de-8568-9cd2bbe29056.jpg]
.
[242]Blog
[243]L'actu high-tech
[244][20090722PHOWWW00246.jpg]
.
[245]Cinéma
[246]Films de 2010
[247][f214ceae-fab9-11de-8568-9cd2bbe29056.jpg]
.
[248]Ecofiscalité
[249]En Suède
[250][20091231PHOWWW00249.jpg]
.
[251]Romans
[252]Top des ventes
[253][20100114PHOWWW00380.jpg]
.
[254]Hôtels
[255]Spectaculaires
[256][20091229PHOWWW00241.jpg]
.
[257]Rentrée
[258]théâtrale
[259][33910c4a-fab9-11de-8568-9cd2bbe29056.jpg]
.
[260]Rétro
[261]Partis en 2009
[262][20091230PHOWWW00132.jpg]
.
[263]Les éditos
[264]Tous les jours
[265][20090610PHOWWW00336.jpg]
.
[266]Paris hippiques
[267][20091028PHOWWW00365.jpg]
.
[268]Galerie Photo
[269][20090319PHOWWW00273.jpg]
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[270]Newsletters
[271][20071026PHOWWW00455.jpg]
.
[272]Rencontres
[273][20071029PHOWWW00504.jpg]
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[274]Figaro Cadeaux
[275][20080401PHOWWW00195.jpg]
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[276]Mobile
[277][20081121PHOWWW00303.jpg]
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[278]Alerte Actu
[279][20091019PHOWWW00158.jpg]
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Références
Liens visibles
Liens cachés :
[1][bandeau.png]
[2]Accueil
[3]www.revuedumauss.com
[4]www.jornaldomauss.org
[5]Présentation
____________________
[6]Sylvain Dzimira
Pascal Michon,
Les rythmes du politique
Démocratie et capitalisme mondialisé (note suivie d'une correspondance entre
P. Michon, S. Dzimira et Sénèque...)
Les prairies ordinaires, 2007, 318 p., 17 EUR.
[7][printer.png]
[8][article_pdf.png]
[9]envoyer l'article par mail title=
Article publié le 29 avril 2008 /3 commentaires
Pour citer cet article : [10]Sylvain Dzimira, « Les rythmes du
politique, Démocratie et capitalisme mondialisé (note suivie d'une
correspondance entre P. Michon, S. Dzimira et Sénèque...) », Revue du
MAUSS permanente, 29 avril 2008 [en ligne].
L'ambition de cet ouvrage donne tout simplement le vertige : relevant
l'inanité des théories critiques, à ce point incapables de saisir notre
modernité démocratique qu'elles corroborent selon lui une réalité
qu'elles croient dénoncer, Pascal Michon ne propose rien de moins que
de repenser la démocratie, en élaborant quasiment de toutes pièces un
appareillage conceptuel, et en s'efforçant de déduire des conclusions
normatives des découvertes que lui permettent les lunettes dont il se
chausse, très loin de la très académique neutralité axiologique. Une
ambition théorique d'autant plus étonnante qu'elle est le fait d'un
historien (et non d'un sociologue ou d'un philosophe politiques qu'on
pourrait croire mieux armés conceptuellement a priori), et quand on
connaît l'hyperspécialisation de ses confrères (lui n'hésite pas à
mobiliser « les sciences sociales » et la philosophie) et leur refus
quasi généralisé de théoriser quoi que ce soit. Que pouvons-nous en
penser ? Commençons par présenter l'ouvrage.
PRESENTATION
L'avant propos est désarçonnant, car, « tout le monde en prend pour son
grade » ! Journalistes, universitaires « installés dans les chaires
trop grandes pour eux de prédécesseurs célèbres » [p. 9],
« intellectuels » de gauche devenus libéraux, intellectuels de droite
invoquant des icônes de la gauche, tous incapables de penser quoi que
ce soit de pertinent sur leur monde... Cela laisse un impression
désagréable qui heureusement se dissipe rapidement, car les pages qui
suivent donnent sérieusement à penser (nous les avons d'ailleurs
publiées dans [11]La Revue du MAUSS Permanente). P. Michon y soutient
que, reprise telle quelle par des « disciples » aveugles, la pensée
libertaire et contestatrice d'hier est devenue l'un des soutiens de
premier plan du nouvel ordre libéral, au même titre que la pensée
libérale. D'ailleurs, elles se retrouvent dans la même dénonciation des
entraves à l'auto-réalisation des individus, dans un même nominalisme
nihiliste teinté d'un empirisme plat (rien n'existe au fond, qui ne
s'observe pas, surtout pas « la société » ou les « sujets
collectifs »), et dans une même sacralisation de la neutralité
axiologique. Sont ainsi appelés à la barre : Marcela Iuacub, Antonio
Negri, Michael Hart et Bruno Latour. Si ces postures étaient réellement
contestatrices dans un contexte où l'individu était malmené par des
pensées homogénéisantes, édifiant des totalités en surplomb, censées
parfois tracer la voie du salut pour tous - phénoménologie,
existentialisme, historicisme, marxisme sont cités - elles participent
aujourd'hui très largement du monde nouveau qu'elles dénoncent par
ailleurs, où le seul ordre qui vaille est celui qui s'établit
spontanément (la neutralité axiologique est un allié précieux) par les
choix des individus, qui seuls sont censés exister.
Les « disciples » faussement contestataires ne sont pas les seuls à
oeuvrer au nouvel ordre libéral : ils sont accompagnés par des
« héritiers » (qu'on retrouve en nombre dans les médias, à
l'université, dans la recherche, bref « tout ce qui constitue le
fondement objectif de la vie de la pensée » [p. 23]) qui n'ont fait
qu'emprunter les concepts et les programmes de recherche à leurs
prédécesseurs, à qui ils doivent leurs places et leurs statuts.
Cultivant une posture de « rentiers », excellant dans la « phagocytose
académique » [p. 25], allant jusqu'à détourner les voix de leurs
Maîtres (ainsi d'Ewald), « ce groupe est, pour P. Michon, le deuxième
grand responsable de l'épuisement actuel de la pensée critique » [p.
24]. L'état des lieux laissés par leurs occupants est en effet
accablant, mais suffisamment juste pour que nous citions longuement son
auteur : « L'ouverture à l'autre, les parcours transversaux, la
transdisciplinarité, le travail théorique, la contestation de l'ordre
en cours et la créativité conceptuelle, qui avaient fondé jusque là
l'organisation des savoirs, sont désormais systématiquement rejetés au
profit d'une nouvelle constellation : spécialisation extrême, ignorance
des autres disciplines [et souvent, même, des autres savoirs
spécialisés de sa propre discipline, SD], enquêtes de terrain étroites,
empirisme radical, approbation positiviste à l'égard de ce qui est et
répétition académique du passé » [p. 27]. Notons que c'est avec le
souci de ne pas reproduire ce qu'il dénonce - une pensée à la gloire de
l'individu, nominaliste, platement empiriste, faussement neutre d'un
point de vue axiologique - que P. Michon se lance dans ce qui apparaît
comme une contribution à la théorie de la démocratie.
Mais que ne parviennent pas à penser les théories critiques au juste ?
Oscillant entre deux visions du monde radicalement opposées - tantôt
monde de liberté totale, tantôt monde d'oppression totale - elles sont
incapables de saisir que c'est là l'expression des « deux faces
[interdépendantes] de l'individuation », dont il s'agit de comprendre
la « simultanéité » et la « succession » [p. 31]. Autrement dit, elles
sont incapables de saisir les nouvelles formes qu'a prises le pouvoir
dans un monde vécu comme univers de liberté totale pour l'individu.
Pour restituer le plus fidèlement possible sa pensée, nous ne pourrons
pas nous passer des définitions que P. Michon donne de l'individuation
et de la notion de rythme qui l'accompagne. « Par individuation,
écrit-il, j'entends l'ensemble des processus corporels, langagiers et
sociaux par lesquels sont sans cesse produits et reproduits, augmentés
et minorés, les individus singuliers (les individus observés dans leur
singularité psychique) et collectifs (les groupes). [...] J'appellerai
rythmes les configurations spécifiques de ces processus
d'individuation » ; ce sont « des manières de produire et de distinguer
des individus singuliers et collectifs » [p. 32]. Aujourd'hui, soutient
P. Michon, « [le pouvoir] se joue avant tout dans l'organisation et le
contrôle des rythmes des processus d'individuation, ainsi que dans les
classements qu'ils produisent » [p. 32]. La première partie de
l'ouvrage est consacrée à l'explicitation de sa notion d'individuation
et la deuxième aux formes que prend le pouvoir aujourd'hui. Dans la
troisième partie de l'ouvrage, P. Michon « aborde la question [à ses
yeux] la plus difficile et la plus importante de toutes : celle de la
plus ou moins grande qualité des rythmes de l'individuation et des
divers pouvoirs qui s'y expriment » [p. 33]. Le pouvoir se joue dans
les rythmes, selon P. Michon. Or, tous les exercices du pouvoir ne
s'équivalent pas. C'est donc que tous les rythmes ne s'équivalent pas.
C'est pourquoi, comprenons-nous, P. Michon considère ne pas pouvoir se
dispenser de rechercher des critères éthiques qui lui permettront de
distinguer les bons rythmes des mauvais, en quelque sorte. Enfin, une
fois ces critères identifiés, il évalue la qualité des rythmes du
« monde nouveau » qu'est le nôtre. Restituons rapidement chacune de ces
parties (pour aider à la compréhension de l'ouvrage tout en suivant sa
progression, nous avons repris le titre de chacune de ses parties et
indiqué entre parenthèses la question qu'elle nous semble poser).
Individuation
(ou comment penser le processus de construction des sujets
individuels et collectifs ?)
Pour insister sur le fait que les rythmes s'inscrivent dans le temps,
et que les individus singuliers et collectifs qu'ils produisent ont
eux-mêmes une dimension historique, que leur identité est évolutive (un
souci bien compréhensif de la part d'un historien) même si elle
peut-être relativement stable, P. Michon recourt à une nouvelle
notion : celle de fluement. Il précise ainsi sa notion de rythme en lui
donnant une nouvelle définition : « J'appellerai rythme toute manière
de fluer des individus et poserai que tout processus d'individuation
est organisé de façon rythmique » [p. 42]. Il s'attache donc à
comprendre comment le corps (le rapport à son corps, entre les corps),
le langage et les rapports sociaux produisent les individus singuliers
et collectifs [[12]1]
Pour ce qui est de la question du corps, P. Michon mobilise Marcel
Mauss - [13]son fameux article sur les techniques du corps - Norbert
Elias - La civilisation des moeurs et La société de cour - et Michel
Foucault - Surveiller et punir - pour rappeler l'idée au fond assez
simple selon laquelle le rapport à son propre corps (jusque dans notre
manière de marcher), et au corps d'autrui (pratiques sexuelles, danses
etc.) est culturellement, historiquement, socialement marqué, et que
cela participe de la construction des sujets. Il semble distinguer au
moins deux manières de produire par les corps les sujets, deux
« rythmes corporels » : l'une, rare, inscrit les corps dans un « schéma
mécanique et binaire » [p. 54] ; on la retrouve idéaltyptiquement dans
l'usine taylorienne ou fordiste ou encore à l'armée. L'autre, la plus
fréquente, sort du modèle binaire et arithmétique classique » [ibid.].
Mais on n'en sait pas beaucoup plus.
Passons aux « rythmes du langage » (ou encore fluement du langage ou
discursivité). Le langage (les manières de s'exprimer, de parler etc.),
soutient en substance P. Michon, participe à la construction des
sujets, et rend compte de cette construction. Pour comprendre comment
le langage peut participer à la construction des sujets, P. Michon
s'appuie sur Victor Kemplerer - La langue du IIIème Reich. Carnets d'un
philologue - qui rend compte de la « nazification du langage » [p. 55].
Pour saisir comment un langage peut rendre compte des sujets
socialisés, il s'appuie sur notamment Walter Benjamin - son Charles
Baudelaire, un poète lyrique à l'apogée du capitalisme - qui montre que
le langage qu'emploie Baudelaire renvoie « à l'expérience abîmée des
individus plongés dans la Grande Ville » [p. 58].
Enfin, les « rythmes du social ». Là aussi, les relations sociales sont
rythmées, elles s'inscrivent dans une temporalité qui suit ses propres
rythmes, qui façonnent les identités individuelles et collectives par
conséquent variables en même temps que stables. Pour l'illustrer, P.
Michon s'appuie une nouvelle fois sur M. Mauss (notamment) et son
[14]« Essai sur les variations saisonnières des sociétés eskimos » qui
l'été se dispersent et l'hiver se rassemblent et vivent en état
d'effervescence, un peu comme les Kwakiutls. Ces variations des
« rythmes du social » correspondent en fait à des « variations
d'intensité des interactions » [p. 71]. Bref, voilà ce qui participe à
la construction de l'identité, à la fois permanente et en mouvement,
des sujets individuels et collectifs, à la construction de leur
« âme » : nos rapports au corps, nos rapports entre les corps, notre
langage, nos relations sociales, tout cela étant étroitement
entrelacé : « Les processus d'individuation sont à la fois des
phénomènes langagiers, corporels et sociaux, écrit P. Michon ; ils
déploient simultanément une discursivité, une corporéité et une
socialité - et c'est de l'entrecroisement de leurs rythmes qu'apparaît
`l'âme' » [p.76].
La notion de rythme permet donc d'appréhender des manières
historiquement construites de se déplacer, de parler, d'être en
relation, qui construisent les identités des sujets individuels et
collectifs. À ce titre, elle a une vertu heuristique. Mais P. Michon
l'appréhende également comme « un concept politique et éthique » [p.
81]. Il distingue en effet deux types de rythme qui n'ont pas les mêmes
effets éthiques et politiques. Un premier type de rythme produit des
sujets individuels et collectifs qui se « renforcent » mutuellement. Un
deuxième type produit des sujets individuels et collectifs qui jouent
l'un contre l'autre : l'affirmation des premiers se fait aux dépens des
deuxièmes ou inversement. P. Michon considère « qu'une éthique et une
politique démocratiques peuvent se définir comme orientées vers la
production de manière de fluer de la socialité, des corps et des
langages (...) qui soient à la fois singulières et partageables » et
toujours « réactualisables » [pp. 81-82]. Ainsi, P. Michon suggère que
les sociétés démocratiques doivent s'orienter vers des rythmes du
premier type.
Pouvoir
(ou comment la notion de rythme permet de penser la contrainte subie
par les sujets dans un monde hors contrainte - ou du moins, qui se
pense comme tel ?)
Après avoir précisé comment ses notions d'individuation et de rythme
permettent de comprendre les manières dont les sujets individuels et
collectifs sont construits, P. Michon, aborde la question de la manière
dont ces rythmes produisent du pouvoir, caractéristique de notre
« nouveau monde ».
D'abord, P. Michon situe sa manière de voir les choses sur le « marché
des idées » : ses vues se distinguent de l'utilitarisme dominant, pour
qui le pouvoir, assis sur la violence ou la contrainte qui l'euphémise,
est orienté vers la satisfaction des intérêts des individus, et le
Pouvoir, les institutions politiques, vers l'évitement de la
déflagration de la société en raison de la lutte de tous contre tous.
Or, cette manière de voir ne permet pas de saisir qu'aujourd'hui, le
pouvoir - qu'il s'exerce à l'échelle individuelle ou institutionnelle -
passe moins par la violence ou la contrainte que par une certaine
« façon de pénétrer les corps-langages, d'organiser leurs manières de
fluer et de déterminer ainsi leur individuation mouvante » [p. 93].
« Le pouvoir, écrit-il plus loin, s'est émancipé de la forme système
(...), et s'appuie désormais moins sur sa capacité à assurer un ordre
optimisé que sur un spectre de stratégies utilisant, au contraire, la
fluidité même du monde - stratégies qui vont du contrôle souple et de
la création des manières de fluer des corps-langages-groupes à
l'utilisation plus ou moins délibérée du chaos, comme on le voit avec
les États-Unis et le Royaume-Uni au Moyen-Orient » [p. 94-95].
Aujourd'hui, les personnes sont moins assujetties que les sujets sont
produits.
Pour penser cette nouvelle forme du pouvoir, il faut penser autrement
le rapport du tout aux parties, s'émanciper tant des théories qui
consacrent une autonomie totale des individus, de celles qui en font de
simples marionnettes du système, et rechercher une voie moyenne à
l'instar des « théories intermédiaires » - comme celles de Elias,
Bourdieu, Foucault, Touraine, Habermas, Honneth, Giddens, Bauman,
Caillé, Thévenot, Boltanski. [p. 101 et suiv.] qui tentent de « penser
l'un par l'autre ce qu'elles conçoivent comme les deux côtés de la vie
socio-politique : les `systèmes' et les `interactions entre les
individus' » [p. 101] ce par quoi il faut comprendre « un rapport réel
entre des pôles dont l'existence ne se conçoit que dans leur
interdépendance et leurs échanges incessants » [p. 102]. De ce point de
vue « le pouvoir constitue moins un simple état de fait que le milieu
et le moyen à travers lequel se construisent les individus singuliers
et collectifs, les classements et les hiérarchies qui les relient les
uns aux autres, ainsi que les effets de domination qui apparaissent au
sein de ces classements et de ces hiérarchies » [p. 103-104].
Néanmoins, parce qu' « elles n'ont pas prêté attention à l'organisation
temporelle [...] de ces interactions » [p. 106], elles manquent les
rythmes du politique où se joue la question du pouvoir. P. Michon
propose alors une définition du pouvoir comme « médium rythmique » [p.
107], c'est-à-dire, comprenons-nous, comme processus historique de
production et de contrôle des personnes et des groupes par imposition
d'un rythme « de toutes choses : de vie, de temps, de pensée, de
discours » comme il l'écrit plus loin [p. 129]. Compte tenu de cette
nouvelle modalité du pouvoir, reste à savoir quel critère on pourrait
se donner pour juger que notre démocratie se porte bien, ou pas ?
Démocratie
(ou quel(s) critère(s) se donner pour évaluer la démocratie
moderne ?)
Ou encore : que doit-on faire pour que dans notre nouveau monde où le
pouvoir s'exerce par un contrôle sur le processus de construction des
corps-langages-groupes, notre démocratie se porte bien ?
Quelle place pour l'État ? [[15]2]
Lutter contre l'État comme le pensait Pierre Clastres ? P. Michon ne le
croit pas : outre que P. Clastres aurait perdu « la conscience du temps
et de l'histoire », « le modèle politique et éthique arythmique qu'[il]
propose [est] assez peu offensif vis-à-vis de la réalité du
capitalisme » [p. 123]. Bref, la définition d'une « démocratie comme
arythmie » ne convient pas. Mieux vaut partir de Roland Barthes, selon
P. Michon, et plus précisément de la présentation qu'il fait des
collectivités religieuses « idiorrythmiques » qui vivaient dans les
déserts syriens et égyptiens « où chaque moine a (...) licence de mener
son rythme particulier de vie » [p. 126]. D'abord parce qu'elles sont
parvenues à éviter les excès du repli sur soi et de la fusion
communautaire, de la « solitude et [du] coenobium » [p. 127], dessinant
selon lui une sorte de « socialisme qui n'aurait pas abandonné
l'individu » [pp. 127-128]. Ensuite parce qu'en se retirant dans le
désert, elles sont parvenues à échapper au rythme d'un pouvoir
supérieur. Bref, c'est plutôt dans cette société idiorrythmique, i.e.
qui se fixe à elle-même son propre rythme, qu'il voit - provisoirement
du moins - un idéal type de la démocratie.
Néanmoins, quand P. Clastres pense l'État sans penser le rythme, R.
Barthes pense le rythme sans penser l'État [p. 140]. Sur le chemin de
sa quête d'une éthique et d'une politique du rythme, P. Michon se
tourne alors vers Marcel Mauss. Non seulement les descriptions que ce
dernier fait de la vie saisonnière des sociétés archaïques rendent bien
compte du caractère rythmique de ces sociétés, mais le potlatch
illustre de manière spectaculaire à ses yeux la « nature rythmique du
politique » [p. 142], au sens où c'est dans ce moment que se
« redéfini[ssent] périodiquement le statut et l'identité des groupes et
des personnes dans le système tribal » [p. 142]. Il retient de M. Mauss
et des travaux de Marcel Granet sur la Chine que la société n'est pas
contre l'État comme le pense P. Clastres, que l'État n'est pas contre
la société comme le pense R. Barthes. « Leurs relations, pense-t-il,
doivent [plutôt] être évaluées en fonction des interactions
historiques, toujours mouvantes, entre les rythmes imposés par l'État
aux corps-langages-groupes et ceux imposés à celui-là par ceux-ci.
[...] L'État n'est pas nécessairement « l'ennemi » de la société : il
peut certes devenir tyrannique et informer les processus
d'individuation à son profit, mais il peut tout aussi bien devenir
l'instrument grâce auquel la société peut chercher à assurer une
individuation de bonne qualité » [p. 147]. Bref, l'État a toute sa
place dans une démocratie idiorrythmique. Encore faut-il qu'il ne dénie
pas son rythme propre, sans l'imposer pour autant à la société. « Les
différents projets démocratiques qui sont au apparus vers la fin de
cette période apparaissent comme autant de tentatives politiques pour
réintroduire dans l'État, devenu permanent, une temporalité tenant
compte des rythmes propres de la société » [p. 154]. Voilà ce qu'il
nous faut : « Rerythmer le corps-langage arythmique de l'État moderne,
lui redonner la temporalité et la multiplicité interne dont il s'est
débarrassé, réhistoriciser une forme de pouvoir qui se prétend hors de
l'histoire » [p. 154].
Les nouveaux rythmes d'un monde fluide
Mais notre démocratie ne s'est-elle pas édifiée sur la maîtrise par
« le peuple » de la discipline exercée par l'État sur les corps et sur
les esprits ? Sans doute, répond P. Michon, mais de nouvelles formes
rythmiques se sont imposées « aux multitudes » [[16]3], peut-être plus
fortes qu'auparavant. C'est toute l'ambivalence de notre modernité
démocratique. « Tout s'est [...] passé comme si l'apparition des
libertés civiles puis la mutation démocratique de l'État n'avaient pu
se faire qu'au prix de la diffusion de nouveaux modes rythmiques
d'individuation fondés sur un assujettissement renforcé et de nouvelles
formes d'exclusion » [p. 194].
En quoi consiste plus précisément la nouveauté de nos « formes de
production des individus singuliers et collectifs », déjà rapidement
évoqués ? C'est qu'ils sont « beaucoup plus fluides, en tout cas
libérés de toute métrique, sinon de toute discipline » [p. 211].
S'appuyant sur Gabriel Tarde, P. Michon précise qu'elles sont le fait
du progrès technique dans l'imprimerie, la communication et les
transports, qui permet de produire des groupes 1) sans que leurs
membres se rassemblent physiquement (pensons à l'internet), 2) sur la
seule base d'idées communes (chacun pouvant se reconnaître dans un
« courant d'opinion »), et 3) « en perpétuelle métamorphose » (c'est ce
qui semble leur conférer un caractère fluide) [p. 215] ; groupes
d'individus, « myriades d'atomes » séparés mais non isolés (qui
prennent le visage du « public »), qui « imposent une fluidité de plus
en plus grande aux groupements institutionnalisés traditionnels et
[qui] transforment, tendanciellement, les sociétés modernes en société
de masse » [p. 215]. Les rythmes d'individuation sont encore plus
fluides en ce sens que, comme l'avait relevé Georg Simmel que P. Michon
mobilise aussi - en même temps qu'ils sont désormais en connexion
permanente, inscrits dans une « temporalité continue, sans halte ni
repos » [p. 220], ils peuvent choisir leurs propres rythmes de vie.
D'un point de vue simmelien, la monnaie y a fait bien sûr pour
beaucoup.
Désormais dominante, cette manière, fluide, de produire des individus
singuliers et collectifs est elle-même ambivalente. G. Tarde, par
exemple, est plutôt sensible aux dangers pour la démocratie que porte
la possibilité de produire un « public », une « opinion publique », si
celle ci devait être instrumentalisée par des puissances animées par
une volonté d'assujettissement. Simmel, lui, est plus sensible aux
possibilités accrues pour les individus de choisir leurs propres
rythmes. Il voit davantage le danger dans le refus de cette
fluidification du rythme, et dans l'aspiration au retour à des rythmes
plus disciplinés et cadencés.
Avec G. Tarde et G. Simmel, on voit clairement que le rythme, la
manière dont les hommes se produisent, dont les corps-langages-groupes
se construisent, n'est pas sans incidences politiques. Il y a donc lieu
de les distinguer selon leur « qualité éthique et politique » [p. 232].
P. Michon, inspiré par Ossip Mandesltam [[17]4], se donne alors un
indicateur de la mesure de cette qualité des rythmes : la
« rythmicité ». Et vient une définition rythmique des groupements
démocratiques : ils sont « dotés d'une rythmicité forte. Ils se
caractérisent par leur multiplicité interne et par le fait qu'ils
permettent aux contradictions et aux conflits de s'exprimer sans que
ceux-ci ne débouchent sur la suppression de l'un des termes
antagonistes, assurant ainsi l'une par l'autre la promotion du
singulier et celle des groupes auxquels il appartient. » [p. 233]. Mais
qu'en est-il du rythme, de la manière dont se produisent les
corps-langages-groupes censée porter ces groupements démocratiques ? On
n'en sait trop rien sinon qu'il est lui-même traversé par cette
exigence paradoxale de fabriquer du commun et du singulier, de la
cohésion et du conflit. On en sait davantage sur le rythme des
groupements à rythmicité faible, dont la foule et les « sociétés de
masses » sont les idéaux-types : ils « sont très souvent marqués par
des techniques rythmiques de type métriques - [...] manifestations,
meetings politiques, matchs de football -, proches de la cadence, de la
simple alternance binaire [...] ou mécanique - [...] parades
militaires, sparkiades et autres spectacles de masse » [p. 233-234].
Mais les rythmes à rythmicité faible peuvent être encore « flous, très
peu accentués et à basse tension interne » [p. 234], comme on peut en
rencontrer dans les entreprises aujourd'hui, « rythmes aussi peu
favorables à l'individuation que les rythmes binaires et disciplinaires
qu'ils ont remplacés » [p . 234], typiques des organisations
tayloristes ou de l'armée.
À la recherche des formes justes d'un monde fluidifié
Ce qu'il faut donc, c'est rechercher « les formes justes d'un monde
fluidifié » [p. 237]. Il se tourne alors vers ce qu'il appelle
« l'utopie maussienne » [p. 233], qui consiste à voir la morale du don
- de la triple obligation de donner, recevoir et rendre - tempérer,
contenir, celle de l'intérêt, aujourd'hui dominante, et qui revient
selon lui à « assurer la maximisation de leur individuation [celle des
individus singuliers et collectifs] par une mise en tension du soi et
du collectif » [p. 238]. Car, plus qu'une simple transaction, P. Michon
voit dans le don archaïque, agonistique, un rythme particulier,
« l'occasion d'une réunion et d'une mise en branle périodiques et
organisées des corps-langages, c'est à dire de la production d' `âmes'
par des techniques rythmiques particulières » [p. 239]. Voyant chez
M. Mauss une définition rythmique du don - comme forme de production
des corps-langages-groupes - susceptible d'étayer un projet
éthico-politique, P. Michon la considère comme un « point de départ »
[p. 241] pour réfléchir à l'énoncé de critères qui permettent de
distinguer les bons des mauvais rythmes. Il déduit des réflexions de
Mauss sur la circulation et la fortification de l'âme des peuples au
cours des potlatchs que « toute politique démocratique consistera [...]
à rechercher, non pas seulement, comme le pensaient Georg Simmel et R.
Barthes, une idiorrythmie, une simple liberté rythmique personnelle
indépendante des rythmes collectifs, mais une eurythmie simultanément
corporelle, discursive et sociale - une maximisation de
l'individualisation singulière et collective » [p. 242]. Au regard de
la démocratie, le seul bon rythme est celui qui maximise la production
des individus singuliers et collectifs...
Néanmoins, M. Mauss ne parvient pas à nous fournir les critères qui
permettraient de distinguer les bons [[18]5] des mauvais rythmes
d'individuation, parce que, dans ses conclusions de morale et de
politique de son célèbre Essai, il développe une « conception pacifiste
et consensualiste de la démocratie, et ne tient aucun compte du rôle
que joue précisément le conflit dans [les] processus d'individuation »
[p. 248].
P. Michon voit davantage le bon rythme de l'individuation démocratique
chez les Nuer tels qu'ils sont décrits par Evans-Pritchard, qui
alternent successivement « don et refus du don, l'alliance et la
lutte » [p. 252]. Ainsi, « tout en restant disponibles à la générosité
et à l'engagement solidaire, [ils] jouissent pleinement de leur
autonomie. [...] Les Nuer ont inventé un système, poursuit plus loin P.
Michon, dans lequel, loin de s'opposer, solidarité et individualité se
renforcent l'une l'autre » [ibid.]. Bref, le bon rythme d'individuation
démocratique est celui qui repose sur « l'alternance du conflit et de
l'alliance ». [p. 252], ou plus précisément, il s'opère lorsque
« l'alliance et le conflit alternent tout en étant compris sans cesse
l'un dans l'autre, un peu comme, dans la pensée chinoise, le yin et le
yang se succèdent tout en impliquant déjà chaque fois leur opposé »[p.
254]. Ou encore, le bon rythme d'individuation démocratique est celui
qui permet de « considérer nos adversaires comme des alliés en
puissance, mais aussi ceux qui sont nos alliés comme de potentiels
adversaires » [p. 254]. Ce qui le conduit à défendre une définition de
la démocratie comme « eurythmie de l'usage de la violence » [p. 254].
Seul ce rythme « maximise » l'individuation des individus singuliers et
collectifs, permet l'affirmation la plus intense des « Je » et du
« Nous ». [p. 255] [[19]6].
De ce point de vue, le système économique le plus juste est donc celui
qui fait autant de place à l'adversité qu'à l'alliance. Il le voit dans
une sorte de « mixture » qui organiserait l'adversité par la
concurrence marchande et la reconnaissance de la propriété privée, et
l'alliance par l'organisation collective de la production et une
certaine « mise en commun de la propriété » [p. 274]. Il en vient ainsi
à définir la démocratie, « non seulement comme une eurythmie de l'usage
de la violence, mais comme une eurythmie des usages de la propriété et
du marché » [ibid.], dont la rythmicité est donc forte.
C'est à l'aune de ce critère du bon rythme d'individuation démocratique
qu'il évalue la qualité des rythmes du « monde nouveau » qu'est le
nôtre.
Capitalisme mondialisé
(notre société capitaliste est-elle bien démocratique ? Que faire
pour la rendre plus démocratique ?)
Le rythme du capitalisme s'est modifié. Cadencé, binaire, métrique dans
les organisations tayloristes, il s'est depuis une trentaine d'années
fluidifié dans les organisations dites flexibles, dont l'objectif est
de répondre au mieux à la demande des clients (en vue de maximiser le
profit). Jouant la carte de la responsabilisation individuelle, des
horaires variables, de l'accroissement de la mobilité professionnelle,
ces organisations développent des rythmes d'individuation plus lâches,
moins métriques et peuvent donner l'impression qu'elles libèrent les
formes de vie dans le travail. Mais, s'appuyant sur l'ouvrage de
Richard Senett, Le travail en miettes (1998), P. Michon montre qu'il
n'en est rien. Confrontés à des objectifs de court terme quasiment
inatteignables, à un temps hors travail qu'ils ne maîtrisent même plus,
à des parcours professionnels bigarrés, les individus subissent une
nouvelle forme d'assujettissement. Et l'individualisation à outrance du
rapport au travail a sapé « les liens de confiance et d'engagement
mutuels » constitutifs de tout groupe [p 292]. On a désormais affaire à
des individus singuliers et collectifs à faible rythmicité.
Notre monde est flexible, mais il est encore médiatique. On assiste à
un développement sans précédent des moyens de communication, qui, lui
aussi, à l'instar de la flexibilité, pourrait faire croire à une
libération des formes d'individuation ici langagière. Mais il n'en est
rien. Le discours est aseptisé, consensuel, l'information « désincarnée
et dépolitisée ».
Bref, qu'il s'agisse de nos rapports au langage, au corps, aux autres,
nous vivons dans un monde à faible rythmicité, i.e. dont ni l'individu,
ni le collectif ne sortent gagnants. « Ainsi, note P. Michon, les
démocraties libérales, qui se voyaient jusque là comme des machines à
produire des individus émancipés, tendent-elles à devenir aujourd'hui
d'immenses dispositifs qui assurent, à travers une fluidification
généralisée des corporéités, des discursivités, et des socialités, la
multiplication d'individus faibles et flottants, constamment happés par
les besoins de la production et de l'échange marchand et les
interactions dans lesquels ils sont pris » [p. 307].
Pour éviter les « tempêtes » dont ce monde est porteur, il est urgent
pour P. Michon que nous retrouvions de nouveaux rythmes d'individuation
langagière, corporelle et sociale, « à partir des capacités des
individus à s'associer au niveau local, voire translocal » [p. 311],
« dans l`expérience de corps-langage-groupe en lutte » [p. 312]. Mais
cela ne pourra pas se faire, selon lui, sans « toucher aux rapports de
production et à la répartition des revenus » [ibid.], et donc sans une
« puissance supérieure à celle des entreprises et du marché » [ibid.],
qui pourrait-être l'Europe, en tant qu'entité politique.
DISCUSSION
Que penser de cet ouvrage ? À vrai dire, il nous laisse une curieuse
impression. Les efforts que déploie P. Michon pour concevoir un
appareillage conceptuel afin de saisir l'état de notre démocratie
moderne forcent le respect. On est là, se dit-on, en présence d'un
auteur qui développe sa propre pensée, en discussion permanente avec
des auteurs d'horizons multiples, de surcroît d'une manière fort
rigoureuse, puisqu'il ne s'épargne aucun effort pour définir les
notions qu'il crée. La progression de l'ouvrage elle-même laisse
apparaître un auteur méthodique et prudent dans ses diagnostics : ce
n'est qu'après avoir défini ce qu'il appelle individuation, explicité
ses rapports avec le pouvoir, qu'il se permet, chaussé des lunettes
qu'il vient de se fabriquer, de porter un diagnostic sur notre
démocratie. Enfin, on sent bien, intuitivement, qu'avec sa notion de
rythme, il pointe sur une dimension de la réalité sociale très
largement ignorée par les spécialistes en sciences sociales [[20]7]mais
qui pourrait bien être importante si, comme il le soutient, c'est dans
les rythmes que se jouent les relations de pouvoir.
De l'usage du concept
Mais c'est ce même appareillage conceptuel qui nous laisse perplexe.
Créé de toutes pièces par P. Michon, il est bien difficile à saisir
malgré les efforts qu'il fournit pour définir les notions employées.
Individuation, rythme, arythmie, idiorrythmie, eurythmie, fluement
(finalement très peu utilisé), rythmicité (forte et faible) : tout cela
pourrait décourager le lecteur pressé (et a rendu cette recension bien
difficile). À ce propos d'ailleurs, les ralliements qu'il opère de
certains auteurs à la cause de l'individuation et du rythme paraissent
un peu forcés ! Présenter M. Foucault comme l'auteur d'une « histoire
des rythmes d'individuation » [p. 195], et M. Mauss comme le découvreur
de la notion d'eurythmie [p. 243, cf. supra] est pour le moins assez
peu usuel. Si ces points de vue, rapidement glissés, pouvaient aider à
la compréhension des idées de P. Michon, ils pourraient se justifier.
Mais pour notre part, nous ne pouvons pas dire qu'ils nous aient
beaucoup aidés. Bien sûr, son langage se comprend au regard des
défaillances qu'il identifie chez les auteurs qui appréhendent notre
démocratie, et qui résident justement, selon lui, dans leur incapacité
à saisir ce qu'il appelle individuation et rythme pourtant au coeur des
relations de pouvoir selon lui. Nous sommes tout simplement, de son
point de vue, en présence d'« une réalité nouvelle » qui demande « des
dispositifs théoriques, eux aussi, totalement nouveaux » (nous
soulignons) [p. 30]. Par ailleurs, P. Michon a suffisamment critiqué
l'intelligentsia française pour son manque de créativité intellectuelle
pour ne pas se faire lui-même inventif... Néanmoins, la nouveauté
est-elle toujours un indice de la pertinence ? Ne peut-on rien
apprendre de ceux qui nous ont précédés ? Qu'y a-t-il de honteux à
s'inscrire dans une tradition de pensée ? Soyons sévère (et un peu
injuste, car P. Michon s'efforce, sans être toujours très convaincant,
de rallier des prédécesseurs plus ou moins connus à ses concepts) : n'y
a-t-il pas dans cette posture de créativité radicale, quasiment
nihiliste, quelque chose du mythe de l'autoréalisation de soi
emblématique de notre époque et qu'il condamne lui-même ? Toujours
est-il que nous nous demandons si P. Michon n'aurait pas pu, tout de
même, dire les choses plus simplement.
Que dit-il au juste ? Que nos identités se construisent dans nos
relations aux autres, qui engagent notre corps et notre langage. Que
ces relations peuvent être placées sous des registres différents (elles
peuvent être rythmées différemment), qu'elles peuvent être notamment
plus ou moins contraintes (rythme cadencé, métré, binaire etc.) ou
libres (rythme fluide). Que dans ces relations se jouent des relations
de pouvoir sur les personnes (pouvoir de contrainte, parfois médiatisé
par le savoir), et, par-là, la capacité pour elles de se réaliser de
manière autonome, ou pas (pouvoir d'agir). Dans une première phase du
capitalisme, un réel pouvoir sur les personnes s'exerçait via
l'organisation de relations sociales contraignantes qui engageaient
leurs corps et leurs langages, et qui freinaient leur pouvoir d'agir,
individuellement et collectivement. L'organisation tayloriste en
constitue l'idéal-type. Aujourd'hui, apparemment délivrées des
contraintes systémiques dans leurs relations aux autres, visiblement
libérées du pouvoir qui s'exerçait sur elles-mêmes (l'organisation du
travail flexible faisant appel à l'initiative et à la responsabilité de
ses salariés joue ici comme idéal-type), les personnes n'ont pour
autant pas gagné en pouvoir d'agir, ni individuellement, ni
collectivement. Le pouvoir exercé sur les personnes prend
paradoxalement le canal de l'exhortation de leur pouvoir d'agir (qui se
réduit bien souvent à celui de produire et de consommer). Si bien que
notre démocratie n'est pas tout à fait démocratique, « étant entendu »
qu'une bonne démocratie est celle qui renforce le pouvoir d'agir des
individus et des groupes. D'une certaine manière, même, notre société
est moins démocratique qu'auparavant car elle paraît faussement l'être
plus, alors qu'autrefois elle paraissait bien ne pas l'être assez. Ce
que nous pouvons en déduire, c'est qu'il nous faut cultiver des
relations sociales, créer des institutions qui soient porteuses de ce
pouvoir d'agir individuellement et collectivement, qui nous permettent
de retrouver la maîtrise de nos destins à la fois individuels et
collectifs.
Nous aimerions savoir ce que ce résumé omet d'essentiel que l'emploi de
ses notions d'individuation, de rythme, de fluement, d'arythmie,
d'idiorrythmie etc. auraient fait apparaître.
Sur la démocratie
Puisque l'ouvrage se présente comme une contribution à la théorie de la
démocratie, attardons-nous maintenant sur cette contribution, et
d'abord sur son positionnement sur le marché des idées.
Pour le dire vite, P. Michon souhaite se distinguer à la fois de
l'individualisme méthodologique, qui ne voit que des individus libres,
et du holisme qui ne voit que des individus contraints. Il leur
reproche au fond leur incapacité à saisir que la contrainte prend
aujourd'hui les allures de la liberté. Son souci est bien de se doter
de concepts qui permettent de comprendre ce paradoxe. Il le tente dans
le cadre d'un interactionnisme ou d'un relationnisme qui se laisse
percevoir dans sa définition de l'individuation, comme processus de
construction des identités et des normes dans le cadre de relations qui
engagent le corps et le langage (d'ailleurs, qu'est-ce donc que
l'individuation ainsi traduite - nous espérons ne pas trahir la pensée
de P. Michon - sinon ce que les sociologues appellent socialisation ?).
De ce point de vue, la démarche nous paraît très cohérente.
P. Michon dit encore vouloir se distinguer des théories utilitaristes
du pouvoir (notons d'ailleurs qu'il situe dans l'utilitarisme l'origine
de la fluidification de notre monde [[21]8], sans qu'on sache s'il
s'agit de l'utilitarisme en tant que pratique ou en tant que théorie,
et sans qu'il nous dise véritablement en quoi il serait à l'origine de
la fluidification de notre monde). Il dit en effet ne pas souscrire aux
théories qui définissent le pouvoir comme pouvoir de contrainte en vue
de satisfaire ses intérêts personnels, et qui envisagent le Pouvoir
comme l'ensemble des institutions visant l'évitement la déflagration
sociale dans la guerre de tous contre tous. De fait, ce n'est pas ainsi
qu'il considère le pouvoir puisque, pour lui, le pouvoir de contrainte
et d'assujettissement s'exerce moins qu'il ne se joue dans les manières
dont les relations se construisent en engageant le corps et le langage.
Cela lui permet de faire apparaître que des relations placées sous le
signe de la liberté, ou du moins de l'absence apparente de contraintes
(de la fluidité) peuvent au final s'avérer très contraignantes ;
autrement dit, qu'un réel pouvoir de contrainte peut se manifester sans
qu'une volonté quelconque d'assujettissement soit véritablement
exprimée. Situation qui caractérise notre société démocratique
contemporaine selon lui (si nous avons bien compris). De ce point de
vue, pas de doute, P.Michon ne s'inscrit pas dans la tradition
utilitariste. Quoique... plaçant par ailleurs le pouvoir sous le signe
de « stratégies qui vont du contrôle souple et de la création plus ou
moins délibérée du chaos » [p. 94-95 par exemple, cf. supra], on peut
se demander quelle place il accorde à l'intérêt calculé dans cette
affaire, et donc quel rapport sa conception du pouvoir entretient avec
l'utilitarisme ?
Concernant la relation de sa conception de la démocratie avec
l'utilitarisme, les choses sont beaucoup plus ambiguës. En effet, il
définit assez curieusement la démocratie comme le régime ou l'état
social plutôt (P. Michon ne se prononce pas trop à ce sujet) qui
« maximise » l'individuation : « Toute politique démocratique
consistera, écrit-il, [...] à rechercher [...] une eurythmie
simultanément corporelle, discursive et sociale - une maximisation de
l'individuation singulière et collective » [p. 242]. Nous ne comprenons
tout simplement pas qui maximise, qui calcule au mieux quoi, ni en en
vue de quoi ! Reprenons sa définition de l'individuation : que signifie
calculer « un processus corporel, langagier et social par lesquels sont
sans cesse produits et reproduits les individus singuliers et
collectifs » ? À vrai dire, la question « en vue de quoi il faut
maximiser l'individuation », pourrait trouver sa réponse quelques
lignes plus haut, quand P. Michon relève que dans un des derniers
passages de l' [22]« Essai sur le don » , M. Mauss situe le secret du
bonheur dans une vie bien rythmée, alternant les moments de travail et
de repos, de solitude et de vie sociale, d'accumulation des richesses
et de dépenses généreuses. Voilà donc ce qu'aurait en vue une politique
véritablement démocratique, qui viserait la maximisation de
l'individuation : le bonheur de tous et de chacun (manifestement
mesurables et calculables). Ainsi placée sous le signe du calcul
(maximisateur), du bonheur, du plus grand bonheur, et d'un grand
calculateur, une telle conception de la démocratie nous semble bien
s'inscrire dans la tradition utilitariste. D'ailleurs, nous nous
demandons vraiment si les communautés religieuses syriennes qui
représentent pour lui un bon idéal-type de la bonne démocratie
conduisaient une politique de maximisation de l'individuation ! À moins
que par maximisation il ne faille pas comprendre maximisation, c'est à
dire calcul... Nous avons tendance à penser en effet que cette
expression est malheureuse, et que P. Michon est davantage spinoziste
que benthamien, car il nous semble que pour lui, une démocratie
s'évalue non pas par le bonheur de ses membres, mais par la « puissance
d'agir » de tous et de chacun [[23]9].
Enfin, le critère qu'il se donne pour identifier un groupement
démocratique nous semble très largement autoréférentiel. En effet,
qu'est-ce qu'un groupement démocratique pour P. Michon ? Un groupement
dont la rythmicité est forte. Mais la caractéristique qu'il donne d'un
groupe dont la rythmicité est forte n'est rien d'autre que celle d'un
groupement démocratique, i.e. qui sait cultiver le conflit dans les
limites de l'amitié. Nous aurions aimé qu'il précise plutôt sous quel
registre il place une telle relation...à la fois teintée d'agôn et de
philia... Ce qui nous amène à M. Mauss.
Sur Marcel Mauss
Ce que P. Michon souligne en s'appuyant sur M. Mauss, c'est combien la
vie de certains peuples archaïques est saisonnière, ou encore, rythmée.
Les Eskimos comme les Kwakiutls, par exemple, se dispersent l'été,
période d'accumulation, et se retrouvent l'hiver, période
d'effervescence sociale, de dépenses généreuses, d'invitations
mutuelles, bref, de dons en tous genres. P. Michon donne au rythme de
la vie sociale une importance qu'elle n'a généralement pas chez les
commentateurs de M. Mauss. Il nous alerte ainsi sur les rythmes de nos
propres vies sociales, et en particulier, sur « la nature rythmique du
politique » [p. 142]. À mieux y réfléchir, les dons eux-mêmes obéissent
en effet à des rythmes propres qui leur sont constitutifs : il y a des
moments pour donner, de même qu'il y a des moments pour ne pas donner,
et la spirale du don elle-même - celle de la triple obligation de
donner, recevoir et rendre plus - obéit bien à un rythme (à trois
temps) plus ou moins obligé. Si ces rythmes ne sont pas respectés, si
l'on donne mal à propos, à contre-temps, si l'on rend trop rapidement,
ou encore si le temps du don est réduit à presque rien ou cantonné à la
sphère privée, on saisit bien que cela puisse compromettre les
alliances et la vie sociale elle-même. On comprend mieux ainsi en quoi
les rythmes de nos vies sociales ne sont pas sans effets éthiques et
politiques. C'est un véritable chantier qu'ouvre ainsi P. Michon, qui
mérite à nos yeux que les MAUSSiens, entre autres, s'y penchent
davantage qu'ils ont pu le faire. D'autant que la démarche de P.
Michon, qui s'efforce de déduire de ses réflexions
socio-anthropologiques des conclusions de morale et de politique,
s'inscrit pleinement dans une démarche maussienne. D'ailleurs, les
conclusions de politiques économiques auxquelles aboutit P. Michon font
étonnement écho aux positions politiques de M. Mauss, quand ce dernier
plaide pour une « mixture » de capitalisme et de socialisme, de
propriété privée et de propriété collective, de marché et de solidarité
etc. Mixture qui, tout en étant attentive à la dimension collective de
nos existences, n'en oublierait pas pour autant que les individus ont
des aspirations singulières, pas moins légitimes que les aspirations
collectives. En fait, on a chez M. Mauss le « socialisme qui n'aurait
pas abandonné l'individu » [pp. 127-128] cher à R. Barthes et auquel
semble sensible P. Michon.
Pour autant, et ce n'est pas que nous voulions défendre M. Mauss à tout
prix, nous ne partageons pas toujours les lectures qu'en fait P.
Michon. Par exemple, nous avons du mal à le suivre quand il soutient
que M. Mauss ne parvient tout simplement pas à penser l'histoire. Les
considérations de M. Mauss dans son « Essai sur le don », « conservent,
en dépit de tout, écrit P. Michon, une attache à un principe ultime de
stabilité et d'atemporalité » [p. 248]. Vraiment, nous ne voyons pas en
quoi. « L'Essai sur le don » est une vaste épopée du don !
Nous avons encore du mal à suivre P. Michon quand il parle « d'utopie
maussienne », car les positions politiques de M. Mauss sont tout sauf
utopiques. Le socialisme démocratique et associationniste qu'il défend
n'est pas à rêver. Il est déjà en partie advenu, par et dans les
coopératives de consommation notamment. Il a moins à être inventé qu'à
être encouragé. M. Mauss n'est pas un utopiste. Il est même bien
conscient de l'écart qui existe entre le possible et le souhaitable, et
ne plaide que pour le possible, mais tout le possible, en direction du
souhaitable. C'est un possibiliste [[24]10].
De la même manière, nous ne le suivons pas quand il soutient que
M. Mauss « garde une conception pacifiste et consensualiste de la
démocratie » [ibid.]. Il suffit de mettre en rapport son « Essai sur le
don » et sa critique du bolchevisme, écrits sensiblement au même
moment, et pour voir combien la conception maussienne de la démocratie
est agonistique, et pour comprendre qu'elle est ancrée, justement, sur
« le roc de la morale éternelle » qu'est le don agonistique selon
M. Mauss. La définition que P. Michon donne de la démocratie comme état
social qui fait toute leur place à la fois à l'alliance et au conflit,
qui se contiennent l'un l'autre, le conflit évitant à l'alliance de
basculer dans la fusion et l'alliance permettant au conflit de ne pas
sombrer dans la déflagration, nous semble très maussienne. Elle
pourrait-même trouver son fondement anthropologique dans le don
agonistique, qui présente exactement la caractéristique que P. Michon
prête à la démocratie. D'ailleurs, la définition qu'il donne de la
démocratie comme eurythmie rejoint tout à fait la voie du milieu
éthique et politique qui est celle de M. Mauss [[25]11].
Finalement, si nous avions à écrire la question que se pose P. Michon
et la réponse qu'il y apporte, sans recourir à ses concepts parfois
difficiles d'accès, nous les formulerions ainsi : « Que pouvons-nous
faire pour retrouver notre autonomie dans un monde où le pouvoir de
contrainte sur les personnes s'exerce non plus directement mais via
d'invisibles processus qui façonnent leurs manières de se parler, de se
mouvoir et de se lier ? Commencer par expérimenter des manières propres
de nous parler, de nous mouvoir, de nous lier, qui nous permettent de
retrouver la maîtrise de nos vies individuelles et collectives ». Ou,
encore plus brièvement, forcément appauvrissant, et en reprenant sa
métaphore musicale : « Que faire dans un monde où nous sommes tous
emportés par une cadence infernale qui nous oppresse et nous opprime ?
Ne pas s'arrêter de jouer (voie a-rythmique), ne pas jouer seul dans
son coin (voie idiorrythmique), mais simplement retrouver le bon rythme
pour soi et pour tous ! (voie eurythmique) ».
Malgré les réserves que nous avons pu émettre, le lecteur aura saisi
que l'ouvrage de P. Michon donne véritablement à penser. Nous espérons
qu'il retiendra l'attention d'un grand nombre et notamment des
MAUSSiens, car il pointe sur une dimension de la vie sociale, son
caractère rythmé, qu'ils ont finalement peu interrogée, alors qu'il se
pourrait qu'elle ne soit pas sans effets éthico-politiques. Cela mérite
bien un examen attentif.
Bibliographie sommaire de Pascal Michon
Michon, P., Éléments d'une histoire du sujet, Paris, Kimé, 1999
-- [26]Rythmes, pouvoir, mondialisation, PUF, 2005.
Ouvrages en collaboration
-- (avec E. Barjolle, G. Dessons, V. Fabbri), Avec Henri
Meschonnic : Les gestes dans la voix, Rumeur des Ages, 2003.
-- (avec G. Desson et S. Martin), Henri Meschonnic, la pensée et le
poème, In Press, 2005.
-- (avec Ph. Hauser, F. Carnevale, A. Brossat), Foucault dans tous
ses éclats, L'Harmattan, 2005.
On peut aussi retrouver P. Michon dans les numéros 25 [27]Malaise
dans la démocratie , 26 [28]Alter-démocratie, Alter-économie et 28
[29]Penser la crise de l'école de La Revue du MAUSS semestrielle.
[30]Pour commander les numéros
Ici, un article paru dans le mensuel [31]Sciences Humaines en
novembre 2005
__________________________________________________________________
Réponse de Pascal Michon
Cher Sylvain,
tout d'abord, je voudrais vous remercier de votre recension extrêmement
scrupuleuse. C'est un réconfort de voir qu'il existe encore, dans nos
corporations de sciences sociales, des lecteurs curieux. J'ai plus
l'habitude des débats internes, dans l'entre-soi disciplinaire qui
permet à la fois de facilement se comprendre et d'éviter de se frotter
aux savoirs des autres disciplines. De nombreux lecteurs de mon livre
précédent, par exemple, se sont arrêtés aux chapitres qui les
« concernaient », passant du même coup à côté du mouvement de pensée
qui les liaient les uns aux autres - les sociologues ont lu les
sections sociologiques, les psy les sections psy, les littéraires les
sections littéraires... Tout ce petit monde est resté chez soi et les
vaches ont été bien gardées. J'ai aussi aimé la façon dont vous avez
procédé, présentant, tout d'abord, le texte dans ses grandes lignes
puis proposant, dans un deuxième temps, une lecture critique. C'est de
très bonne méthode et je vous en remercie également, car cela donne à
entendre aux lecteurs, sans interférences, une grande partie des enjeux
de mon travail. Je vais me concentrer dans cette réponse sur ceux de
ces enjeux que vous n'avez pu complètement traiter, soit parce qu'on ne
peut tout dire dans une recension, soit parce qu'il reste toujours des
angles moins bien éclairés quel que soit le point de vue que l'on
adopte.
1. Mon livre est un essai. Bien qu'il tente, comme vous le remarquez,
de construire méthodiquement ses concepts à partir du matériel
analytique disponible, il ne prétend pas répondre à tous les problèmes
qui se posent, ni fournir une théorie complète de son objet : les
rythmes de l'individuation singulière et collective. Il voudrait juste
faire émerger celui-ci dans la conscience scientifique. Si cet objectif
était atteint, cela me suffirait grandement. Mon livre constitue plus
une proposition de recherche, l'esquisse d'un programme de travail,
qu'une réponse globalisante qui donnerait une clé pour toutes les
serrures contemporaines. On m'a déjà reproché cette « ambition », comme
vous dîtes, ou même le côté « totalisant » de ma démarche. À cela je
réponds habituellement : 1. que nous ne pouvons plus nous satisfaire,
de par la nature même du nouveau monde dans lequel nous sommes entrés,
de déclarations d'intention concernant la transdisciplinarité, il nous
faut la mettre en pratique activement et individuellement (c'est-à-dire
pas seulement par une juxtaposition de spécialistes) car aucune
discipline ne peut, encore plus aujourd'hui qu'hier, comprendre à elle
seule ce qui est train d'émerger. Mauss, qui était passé à travers une
période historique par bien des points semblables à la nôtre, l'avait
d'ailleurs bien compris : « C'est aux confins des sciences, à leurs
bords extérieurs, aussi souvent qu'à leurs principes, qu'à leur noyau
et à leur centre que se font leurs progrès » (« Rapports réels et
pratiques de la psychologie et de la sociologie », 1924) ; 2. que les
sciences sociales ne peuvent progresser que par un déplacement radical
de point de vue. Je milite, pour cette raison, comme Alain Caillé, en
faveur d'un changement de paradigme. En simplifiant outrageusement, on
peut dire qu'après l'affaissement des paradigmes structuralistes et
systémistes, l'individualisme méthodologique, sous différentes formes,
a pris le dessus. Or, cette mutation n'a pas apporté les résultats
escomptés. En fait, ni l'un ni l'autre de ces paradigmes ne peut rendre
compte de la période présente. Il est vrai qu'un certain nombre de
« théories intermédiaires » ou « centristes » dans la classification de
Margaret Archer, (Elias, Bourdieu, Foucault, Touraine, Habermas,
Giddens, Bauman, Caillé, Boltanski, Thévenot, entre autres) ont essayé,
partant du même constat, de dépasser les dualismes traditionnels des
sciences sociales. Mais elles connaissent aujourd'hui des ratés qui
tiennent, me semble-t-il, essentiellement à leur difficulté à conjuguer
primat de la temporalité, éthique et politique. D'où la nécessité d'un
nouveau modèle général - comme celui que fournit le rythme - pour
relancer la réflexion ; 3. qu'on confond souvent, de manière polémique,
totalisation et puissance d'un concept. Le concept de rythme n'est pas
globalisant ou totalisant, il possède tout simplement une puissance que
j'essaie, avec mes moyens, d'explorer. C'est cette puissance de
problématisation nouvelle qui dérange les habitudes de pensée et les
partages du territoire institutionnel qui leur sont liés - et qui
explique ces caricatures absurdes qui me sont parfois opposées.
2. Mon livre porte sur la question de l'individuation singulière et
collective. Pour des raisons de précision et pour ne pas embrouiller
l'exposé, j'ai expressément laissé de côté la question du ou des
« sujets ». D'où un certain flou dans votre présentation qui confond,
comme beaucoup de monde il est vrai, ces deux questions. Mais, si vous
y prêtez attention vous le verrez aisément, le rapport entre les deux
est loin d'être évident et devrait être analysé à nouveaux frais. Pour
rester bref, on peut dire qu'un individu singulier ou collectif
n'atteint le statut de sujet que lorsqu'il devient un agent d'un
processus particulier. D'où une difficulté, une multiplicité, une
discontinuité et une instabilité très grandes de la subjectivation,
dont les rapports à l'individuation restent en fait entièrement à
repenser. En tout état de cause, individuation est loin de signifier
subjectivation (c'est, d'ailleurs, l'un des problèmes que posent les
propositions d'AlainTouraine qui ne fait pas cette distinction).
3. J'ai beaucoup insisté sur un aspect décisif du concept de rythme qui
n'apparaît pas dans votre recension : son aspect a-métrique. Le
matériel très divers et assez abondant dont nous disposons (que ce soit
au niveau des corps, du langage ou des interactions sociales) montre
qu'il est impossible de se satisfaire de sa définition métrique
traditionnelle. Si nous nous limitons à cette définition, nous
réduisons la diversité des fluements du réel à un schéma binaire et
numérique simpliste et nous introduisons sans même en avoir conscience
une politique et une éthique anti-démocratiques. Une définition plus
utilisable pour penser ce que nous devons penser aujourd'hui est celle
qui avait cours avant que Platon associe rhuthmos et métron, et qui
faisait du rythme une « manière de fluer ». J'ai aussi montré que cette
définition peut être précisée grâce à la remotivation par Diderot de la
notion de « manière », qu'il repense à partir de la question de la
qualité (et donc de l'individuation) artistique, c'est-à-dire comme
concept d'une forme qui reste active en dehors de son contexte
originel. Ces précisions sont loin d'être des détails insignifiants,
elles engagent toute la théorie des rythmes de l'individuation, aussi
bien dans ses capacités heuristiques, que dans ses conséquences
éthiques et politiques.
4. Ici, on le voit, la sociologie a un grand besoin de la linguistique
(Benveniste), de la poétique (Meschonnic) et de la philosophie
(Deleuze, Foucault, Simondon). Or, je note que vous accordez toute
votre attention aux auteurs sociologiques ou anthropologiques que je
cite, mais que vous ne dîtes rien des discussions philosophiques,
poétiques et linguistiques, qui encadrent ces analyses (Benveniste,
Meschonnic, Deleuze, Foucault et Simondon sont étrangement absents de
votre CR). Je me demande si vous ne raisonnez pas encore ici, à votre
insu, en termes disciplinaires, comme si poétique, linguistique ou
philosophie n'avaient rien à apporter aux sciences sociales ou ne
constituaient que des décorations non-essentielles d'un propos plus
consistant qui reviendrait de droit à ces dernières.
5. Sur vos critiques maintenant. Vous trouvez que j'exagère en
caractérisant Surveiller et punir comme un grand livre sur les rythmes
de l'individuation. Je sais bien que la vulgate présente Foucault comme
un auteur intéressé uniquement par l'espace, les répartitions, les
quadrillages, etc. Mais, précisément, cette vulgate laisse totalement
de côté le profond intérêt de Foucault pour tous les phénomènes
temporels, en particulier pour toutes les techniques utilisées pour
rythmer les corps, les discours et la vie des groupes. Il me semble que
les descriptions qu'il fait de l'apprentissage militaire, des formes du
travail dans les manufactures, de la vie en prison, des méthodes de
dressage scolaires parlent d'elles-mêmes. Elles corroborent, du reste,
des analyses engagées par Thompson au cours de la décennie précédente
et constituent un ensemble d'analyses des rythmes de l'individuation
qui n'a que peu d'équivalents dans la littérature scientifique
disponible.
6. Pour Mauss (comme pour Foucault), vous trouvez ma lecture rythmique
« peu usuelle ». Mais je voudrais vous faire remarquer que Mauss dit
lui-même explicitement dans le Manuel d'ethnographie ceci :
« Socialement et individuellement, l'homme est un animal rythmique ».
Vous m'accorderez que cette phrase est une affirmation extrêmement
forte. Or, tout le monde s'empresse de la laisser de côté. Je vous
retourne donc (mais aussi à tous les Maussiens) la question : quel sort
faites-vous à cette affirmation ? Ne pensez-vous pas que, sous cette
forme condensée présentée sur un patron aristotélicien, elle indique
une entrée à partir de laquelle on pourrait au moins relire une bonne
part de son oeuvre ? Ou bien pensez-vous que cette phrase a été
proférée comme une simple fioriture rhétorique sans signification
profonde. Pour ma part, j'ai montré dans ma thèse (dont une partie a
été publiée dans mes Éléments d'une histoire du sujet en 1999 et...
dans la revue du MAUSS en 2005, mais qui n'a pas eu l'heur d'attirer
l'attention des spécialistes - elle n'est jamais citée dans les livres
sur Mauss), textes à l'appui, que Mauss n'a jamais engagé, comme l'a
soutenu Lévi-Strauss pour des raisons de pure stratégie universitaire
(sa concurrence après la mort de Mauss avec Gurvitch pour récupérer
l'héritage), une théorie préstructuraliste du social, et que par voie
de conséquence son intérêt pour le « symbolique » doit être réévalué et
réintégré à un intérêt plus général pour le rythme. J'ai complété en
2005 ce travail dans Rythmes, pouvoir, mondialisation, qui
malheureusement n'est pas cité non plus. Pourtant, dans son texte de
1924 « Rapports réels et pratiques de la psychologie et de la
sociologie », Mauss explique à son auditoire que la sociologie pourrait
servir de modèle à la psychologie au moins pour l'étude de deux ordres
de faits qui lui semblent les deux apports les plus importants des
travaux sociologiques réalisés depuis le début du siècle : le
« symbole » et le « rythme ». On voit bien à travers cette affirmation
que ces deux concepts sont liés dans son esprit ou tout au moins qu'ils
possèdent une importance aussi grande l'une que l'autre. Or, que disent
les commentateurs : toujours la même chose (qu'ils reprennent sans
aucune distance critique de Lévi-Strauss), Mauss serait simplement
l'inventeur ou la popularisateur du concept de « symbolique ». Le
rythme là encore tombe à la trappe. D'où ma deuxième question : que
faites-vous de cette nouvelle affirmation de l'importance du rythme ?
Quel statut donnez-vous dans votre lecture à cet intérêt pour le
rythme ? Je pense, pour ma part, que cette conférence nous montre une
fois encore que Mauss n'était pas du tout en train de préparer une
épistémologie ou une méthodologie structurale, ni même une science du
symbolique au sens qui dominera par la suite chez les structuralistes,
mais qu'il était, bien au contraire, dès le début, dominé par la
question de la production des individus singuliers et collectifs dans
le temps. Sa question n'était pas de trouver des constantes dans le
fonctionnement des systèmes sociaux (il rejette explicitement la notion
de structure), mais de comprendre ces systèmes en pénétrant
l'organisation des flux qui les constituent (c'est pourquoi il oppose
la « physiologie » à la simple et trompeuse « anatomie sociale »). Il
est, du reste, en cela complètement de son époque et rejoint des
préoccupations que l'on retrouve, sous des formes très diverses cela
s'entend, chez ses adversaires (Bergson, Tarde) ou chez ses amis
(Durkheim, Hubert, Granet).
7. Sur la question du rapport à « la tradition » et de ce que vous
voyez dans mon travail comme une « posture de créativité radicale,
quasiment nihiliste » qui ne serait au fond l'expression que d'un
« mythe d'autoréalisation de soi emblématique de notre époque ». Je ne
comprends pas votre critique. Y-a-t-il jamais invention conceptuelle
qui ne soit négation d'une partie au moins des concepts en cours ? J'en
doute. D'autre part, si je revendique une certaine radicalité, je ne
vois aucun nihilisme dans ma démarche. Au contraire, j'ai grand soin du
passé et, pour ce qui est du présent, j'ai plutôt l'impression de
procéder par affirmations et avancées créatrices. Il me semble que vous
confondez négation et nihilisme. Enfin, l'idée que mon travail
verserait dans un « mythe d'autoréalisation » me semble doublement
fausse : parce que l'autoréalisation n'est pas une notion que l'on
devrait rejeter sans précaution ; mais aussi parce que c'est une
caractérisation au fond psychologisante et donc réductrice d'une
proposition théorique qui ne devrait faire l'objet, en bonne méthode
scientifique, que de critiques théoriques.
8. Sur la question de la complexité inutile que vous voyez dans mes
propositions (« Nous nous demandons si P. Michon n'aurait pas pu, tout
de même, dire les choses plus simplement ») et sur le fait que vous
tentiez de traduire mes propos en un langage plus simple (vous me
demandez « si ce résumé omet quelque chose d'essentiel que les notions
de rythme, de fluement, d'arythmie, d'idiorrythmie, d'eurythmie, etc.
auraient fait apparaître »). C'est un essai dont je vous remercie
sincèrement car cela pourra certainement aider à la compréhension de
mon travail par de nombreux sociologues ou spécialistes de sciences
sociales. Je suis également très sensible au fait que vous soyez le
premier membre du Mauss à reconnaître et à justifier de manière
détaillée le fait que le rythme est une question fondamentale qui
devrait être prise en considération. En même temps, j'ai l'impression
que votre réduction à un ensemble de communs dénominateurs comporte un
danger : celui de laisser penser que ce que j'avance est réductible à
du déjà connu ou à du déjà pensé par les sciences sociales : « Que
dit-il au juste ? Que nos identités se construisent dans nos relations
aux autres, qui engagent notre corps et notre langage [...] Que dans
ces relations se jouent des relations de pouvoir sur les personnes ».
Au fond, la théorie du rythme n'apporterait rien de plus que ce que les
sociologues-économistes savent déjà depuis fort longtemps. À savoir que
les sociétés et les individus sont pris dans des interactions mouvantes
qui les rendent plus instables et fluides qu'on ne le croit
généralement. Pourquoi, dès lors, en effet, dire de manière si
compliquée des choses si simples ? Mais précisément, je ne me suis pas
contenté de reprendre les différentes théories interactionnistes en
cours, ou même de prolonger les auteurs qui se sont frottés, depuis ces
trente dernières années, à la question des rapports réciproques entre
individu singulier et individu collectif, individu et système. Je le
reconnais bien volontiers, les auteurs très divers qui ont proposé des
visions intermédiaires nous ont fait faire de grands progrès. Mais
leurs conceptions ne suffisent plus au regard des réalités nouvelles du
XXI^e siècle ou bien elles rencontrent des difficultés qui les rendent
moins efficaces. En dehors du fait qu'on peut souvent repérer (comme
dans la philosophie hobbesienne qui forme le socle de la pensée
d'Elias) le lieu où le dualisme rejeté au départ se réintroduit
subrepticement, je crois que leurs instruments sont déjà en partie
inadaptés. Et la raison en est simple : si elles ont toutes été conçues
comme des tentatives pour échapper aux dualismes traditionnels des
sciences sociales, elles n'ont pas été pensées à partir du mouvement,
des intensités, des flux et de leurs qualités eux-mêmes. Il nous faut
donc accomplir ce qu'elles n'ont pas encore réussi à faire : une
inversion radicale du regard qui pose le langage et le temps comme
premiers et, à partir de là, repenser toutes les questions qui se
posent à nous. Faute de quoi, soit nous retomberons vite dans les
paradoxes et les difficultés que nous connaissons bien : le système et
l'individu, la poule et l'oeuf, soit nous resterons sans boussole quand
il nous faudra juger de la qualité des « objets intermédiaires » que
nous étudierons. Le « don » est un exemple typique de cette deuxième
difficulté : il permet de dynamiter le dualisme individualiste
utilitariste, mais, tel qu'il reste pour le moment théorisé au sein du
MAUSS, il ne permet pas encore de poser la question de l'organisation
temporelle des flux de dons, des rythmes corporels, langagiers et
sociaux qui sont déterminés par ces flux, et donc de la qualité de
l'individuation singulière et collective qui en découle. On se contente
le plus souvent d'une définition du don comme opposé de l'échange
utilitariste, faisant de facto de celui-là une simple négation (et donc
une certaine façon de conserver) celui-ci. On manque alors toute la
diversité qualitative (souvent ambivalente) de la triple obligation
donner-recevoir-rendre et l'on se retrouve avec une affirmation toute
binaire de ce que serait le bien éthique et politique.
9. Sur ma redéfinition de la démocratie et son supposé fonds
« utilitariste ». Vous citez une de mes propositions qui définit la
démocratie comme le régime ou l'état social (c'est bien sûr les deux à
la fois) qui permettra de « rechercher une eurythmie simultanément
corporelle, discursive et sociale - une maximisation de l'individuation
singulière et collective ». Et vous expliquez que vous ne « compren[ez]
tout simplement pas qui maximise, qui calcule au mieux quoi, ni en vue
de quoi ! ». Le problème avec la question qui, c'est qu'elle présuppose
un sujet déjà là. Autrement dit, elle indique déjà sa réponse. Pour ce
qui me concerne, je l'ai dit plus haut, j'ai volontairement distingué
la question de la subjectivation de celle de l'individuation. Cette
position ne peut être tenue que jusqu'à un certain point, je vous
l'accorde, mais je continue à penser qu'elle est nécessaire dans un
premier temps, même s'il faudra réfléchir à l'avenir plus précisément à
la façon de relier les deux aspects. Ma certitude à cet égard est que
de toute façon la subjectivation ne réussit pas toujours, que le sujet
ne peut donc être posé comme un principe antécédent à l'action et qu'il
constitue plutôt une entité qui apparaît ou pas au cours de l'activité
des corps-langages (au sens du génitif objectif, car pour moi c'est
l'activité qui est première). Vous reprochez, ensuite, à l'expression
« maximisation » d'être trop marquée par le principe typiquement
utilitariste d'un calcul du plus grand bien comme une simple addition
des biens individuels. Si c'était ce que j'ai dit, je serais d'accord
avec vous. Mais je maintiens l'expression « maximisation » car celle-ci
est motivée par le système discursif dans lequel elle apparaît. Et
comme vous l'avez senti, celui-ci est entièrement traversé par un souci
de type spinoziste pour une maximisation (dans les conditions qui leurs
sont faites) de ce que peuvent les corps-langages, maximisation qui ne
peut en aucun cas être réduite à une augmentation additive des petits
bonheurs personnels. L'utilitarisme se fonde sur un calcul des atomes
de bonheur, alors que j'essaie (à l'instar de Mauss en réalité) de
penser le bonheur (ou la « joie », si vous préférez, pour rester dans
le ton du XVII^e siècle) comme exaltation de la puissance de vivre.
Pour finir sur ce point, je voudrais repréciser ce que j'ai déjà dit
dans mon livre et écarter des malentendus qui pointent dans
quelques-unes de vos remarques : les propos de Barthes sur le bonheur
« idiorrythmique » sont très suggestifs (par la rareté même de tels
propos) mais bien évidemment insuffisants (ne serait-ce que parce qu'il
reconnaît lui-même qu'il s'agit d'une utopie domestique plus que
sociale). Quant à ceux de Mauss sur « l'eurythmie », ils indiquent une
piste à mon sens plus féconde, mais ils sont, quant à eux, plus
qu'élémentaires et doivent être réélaborés rigoureusement. Ces exemples
ne constituent donc pas des réponses aux questions éthiques et
politiques que nous nous posons, mais des incitations à chercher dans
la direction qu'ils pointent.
10. Sur Mauss qui ne « parviendrait tout simplement pas à penser
l'histoire ». Je ne crois pas avoir dit cela. J'ai même montré dans
Eléments d'une histoire du sujet que Mauss est l'un de ceux qui, dans
la première moitié du XX^e siècle, pense la question de l'historicité
radicale des êtres humains, sans en revenir au néo-kantisme
sociologique de Durkheim, mais sans tomber non plus dans les problèmes
de la phénoménologie, du bergsonisme ou de la philosophie de
l'historicité essentielle heideggérienne. Ce que j'ai dit, c'est que
Mauss, en dépit de son souci d'historisation constant, aboutit non
seulement à une éthique et une politique fondées sur un principe
anhistorique, celui-là même que vous citez quelques lignes plus loin :
« le roc de la morale éternelle » - ce qui est en soi un problème. Mais
aussi qu'il propose comme modèle, dans tout l'Essai sur le don et en
particulier dans ses « conclusions de morale », le système de
prestations totales de clan à clan, qui est « exactement, toutes
proportions gardées, du même type que celui vers lequel nous voudrions
voir nos sociétés se diriger ». Or, ce système « où tout est
complémentaire » ne connaît pas le conflit, dont il parle pourtant tout
au long de l'essai. À vrai dire, cette subtile contradiction n'est pas
à retenir contre Mauss, elle indique toutefois que c'est à partir de là
qu'il faut reprendre la question. Si maintenant vous pensez que l'on
peut trouver des textes allant dans un sens différent qui donnerait un
sens agonistique à la démocratie, je serai le premier à m'en réjouir.
Mais cela voudra dire que le problème relevait simplement de
l'interprétation érudite des méandres d'une oeuvre et que nous sommes
d'accord sur la chose même - ce qui est pour moi la seule qui compte.
11. Sur le terme d' « utopie maussienne ». Vous me reprenez en arguant
que Mauss n'était pas un utopiste, mais un « possibiliste », attaché à
des projets concrets. Vous avez certainement raison. Toutefois, mon
usage du mot « utopie » n'était en rien négatif dans mon esprit, bien
au contraire. Ensuite, personne ne pourra nier que l'idée que les
sociétés modernes devraient réintroduire massivement le don au
fondement de leur économie reste largement un projet d'avenir,
c'est-à-dire dans le meilleur sens du terme... une utopie.
Pascal Michon
Paris, le 7 mai 2008
__________________________________________________________________
Sénèque. De la tranquillité de l'âme
Cher Pascal,
je viens de terminer la lecture de De la tranquillité de l'âme de
Sénèque. Quelle ne fut pas ma surprise de voir l'un des derniers
chapitres intitulé :
« Il faut alterner "temps forts" et "temps faibles" »
En voici un extrait :
[...] Solitude et société doivent se composer et se succéder. La
solitude nous donnera le désir de fréquenter les hommes, la société,
celui de nous fréquenter nous-mêmes, et chacune sera l'antidote de
l'autre, la solitude nous guérissant de l'horreur de la foule, et la
foule, de l'ennui de la solitude".
J'avais déjà lu de Sénèque Les bienfaits : un essai sur le don - sur la
triple obligation de donner, recevoir et rendre - avant l'heure (jamais
cité par Mauss).
Un indice de plus que pensée du don et pensée du rythme peuvent et même
doivent se rencontrer ?
Amicalement
Sylvain
Créteil, le 7 mai 2008
3 commentaires
Les rythmes du politique
27 août 2009, par
Ces concepts de rythmes du politique me semblent proches de ceux de
Deleuze-Guattari, grands lecteurs de Simondon et de l'individuation,
notamment de l'agencement collectif d'énonciation
territoire par exemple.
Ils permettent de les renouveler et de les penser sous un autre biais.
Mais pour trouver de nouveaux rythmes reste la question de l'invention
également de nouveaux énoncés.
Les rythmes du politique
8 septembre 2009, par Pascal Michon
Je vous remercie beaucoup de cette comparaison ainsi que du texte
auquel vous renvoyez. J'ai expliqué succinctement dans le chapitre
« Styles, rythmes et ritournelles » des Rythmes du politique ce qui
distingue ma position de celle de Deleuze et Guattari. De même, pour
Simondon dans celui intitulé « Les rythmes comme cycles de
l'ontogénèse ? ». En bref, j'ai une grande admiration pour ces travaux
qui ont beaucoup compté dans ma réflexion mais, dans l'un et l'autre
cas, ils me semblent buter sur la question du langage. Plutôt que de
nouveaux énoncés, je pense donc qu'il nous faut chercher, entre autres,
de nouveaux modes d'énonciation.
Pascal Michon
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Notes
[[52]1] Pour une approche goffmannienne du corps et de la manière dont
il participe à la construction de l'identité des personnes, on peut
lire l'article de [53]Sylvain Pasquier publié dans La Revue du MAUSS
Permanente.
[[54]2] Les sous-titres de cette partie, assez longue, sont de nous.
[[55]3] Pascal Michon préfère parler de multitudes plutôt que de
peuple, ce dernier étant sans doute trop homogénéisant pour lui.
[[56]4] O. Mendesltam est l'auteur d'un petit ouvrage où il est
question de la Révolution bolchevique intitulé L'État et le rythme
(1920), dans lequel P. Michon voit « l'une des toutes premières
politiques du rythme » [p. 229].
[[57]5] Le bon, si le calcul de maximisation n'admet qu'une solution...
[[58]6] Pour P. Michon, seuls Lewis Coser (Les fonctions du conflit
social) et Gilbert Simondon (L'individuation psychique et collective)
ont développé cette manière de voir les choses.
[[59]7] On peut néanmoins citer : Henri Meschonnic dans les travaux
duquel il s'incrit, et notamment son Politique du rythme, politique du
sujet, Verdier, 1985
[[60]8] « L'utilitarisme et [...] l'économie politique [...] sont à la
base de [...] la fluidification du monde » [p. 236].
[[61]9] Un Spinoza plus proche de Mauss (qui l'affectionnait
d'ailleurs) que de Bentham... Un Spinoza peu lordonien, donc...
[[62]10] Nous renvoyons ici aux Ecrits politiques de Marcel Mauss,
présentés par Marcel Fournier (Fayard, 1997), ainsi qu'à notre ouvrage,
[63]Marcel Mauss, savant et politique , La Découverte, 2007.
[[64]11] S. Dzimira, op. Cit.
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Croissance + Rythme - Economie
[31]La croissance encore et encore. Les ménages consomment, les entreprises
investissent
[...] Mais tout de même Au quatrième trimestre 1999, la croissance a
certes été légèrement inférieure aux prévisions (+3,6% en rythme annuel
contre +4%). Mais le détail des chiffres de ce quatrième trimestre est
jugé encourageant par les hommes de l'art. Les entreprises, notamment,
ont accru leurs investissements (+8,2% en rythme annuel) et commencent
à restocker. autant de signes que la croissance est bien partie pour
durer. [...] Certes, l'appréciation par [...] la fin de
l'accélération de la croissance. elle se stabilise à un bon niveau,
commente un expert. En d'autres termes, l'activité atteint son rythme
de croisière avec, pour l'année 2000, une croissance comprise entre
3,4% et 3,5%. [...] des bonnes nouvelles. Vendredi, une volée de
statistiques est venue confirmer que la croissance française se portait
bien. Moins bien, sans [...] que l'activité économique aux Etats-Unis,
qui, selon les dernières estimations du département du Commerce, a
progressé de 6,9% au dernier trimestre 1999 en rythme annuel (lire en
page Finances). [...]
[32]Lire la suite...
Tags : o [33]Rythme o [34]Annuel pages
[35]4,4%: La croissance américaine en 2004 a atteint son rythme le plus élevé
depuis
[...] La croissance américaine a atteint 4,4 % en 2004, soit le rythme
le plus élevé depuis 1999, en dépit d'un ralentissement au 4e trimestre
à 3,1 % dû surtout au lourd déficit commercial. Selon le département du
Commerce, les trois derniers mois de 2004 ont enregistré la plus faible
hausse depuis le 1er trimestre 2003. [...] Mais, sur l'ensemble de
l'année, la croissance s'est accélérée à 4,4 % après 3 % en 2003 et 1,9
% en 2002, confirmant le ressaisissement de l'économie américaine. Ce
sont les consommateurs qui ont tiré l'essentiel de la croissance en
2004, avec des dépenses en hausse de 3,8 % et un investissement
immobilier florissant (+9,5%), portés par les taux d'intérêt peu
élevés. [...] 4,4%. La croissance américaine en 2004 a atteint son
rythme le plus élevé depuis - Libération. [...]
[36]Lire la suite...
Tags : o [37]Rythme o [38]Élève
[39]+ 4 %: la progression en rythme annuel de la croissance américaine
[...] La croissance américaine s'est assagie au quatrième trimestre
2003 après son emballement de l'été. Le produit intérieur brut (PIB) a
progressé de 4 % en rythme annuel, après une croissance spectaculaire
de 8,2 % au troisième trimestre. Ce ralentissement s'explique d'abord
par une pause des dépenses de consommation, qui ont crû de 2,6 %
seulement après un bond de 6,9 % au trimestre précédent. [...] + 4 %.
la progression en rythme annuel de la croissance américaine -
Libération. [...]
[40]Lire la suite...
Tags : o [41]Consommation impôt o [42]Confiance points
[43]0,2 %. Encore un souffle de croissance aux Etats-Unis.
[...] Au premier trimestre, la croissance du PIB en rythme annuel
s'était élevée à 1,3 %. En outre, l'indice des prix lié au PIB a
augmenté de 2,2 % au deuxième trimestre (au lieu d'une hausse de 2,3 %
prévue dans la première estimation). Le chiffre de la croissance
meilleur que prévu pour le deuxième trimestre a rassuré les
investisseurs. [...] Le produit intérieur brut (PIB) des Etats-Unis a
progressé de 0,2 % en rythme annuel au deuxième trimestre 2001, selon
la deuxième estimation publiée hier par le département du Commerce. Il
s'agit du plus faible taux de croissance trimestriel exprimé en rythme
annuel depuis le premier trimestre 1993. [...] Toutefois, les
analystes tablaient généralement sur une croissance nulle pour cette
période. La première estimation, publiée fin juillet, faisait état
d'une croissance de 0,7 % pour la période considérée. La troisième et
dernière estimation sera annoncée le 28 septembre. [...]
[44]Lire la suite...
Tags : o [45]City deuxième trimestre
[46]Etats-Unis: des taux bas pour relancer le bateau
[...] Plus tôt, hier, une nouvelle statistique était venu confirmer le
ralentissement de l'économie. après une croissance de + 5,5 % (en
rythme annualisé) au deuxième trimestre, de + 2,2 % au troisième,
l'économie a terminé l'année avec seulement + 1,4 % de croissance, un
chiffre plus faible que prévu. [...] Au total, la croissance moyenne
pour 2000 est plus qu'honorable. + 5 %. Mais le ralentissement est
brutal, puisque, comme l'a indiqué Alan Greenspan, l'activité progresse
aujourd'hui à un rythme proche de zéro. [...]
[47]Lire la suite...
[48]L'Insee repeint 1996 en rose paleLa consommation ayant rebondi en
janvier, la
[...] Elle n'affichera pas plus de 1% de croissance en rythme annuel au
premier semestre. Une demande intérieure atone, des coûts salariaux
trop élevés, un secteur du bâtiment en chute libre empêcheront
vraisemblablement la RFA d'emboîter le pas à la dynamique
internationale avant la seconde partie de l'année. [...] La demande
mondiale adressée à la France accélérerait à partir du printemps avec
un taux de croissance en rythme annuel de 5%. Pour un peu, on
craindrait presque la surchauffe en fin d'année... S'il n'y avait pas
un bémol de taille. L'Allemagne, notre principal partenaire, est mal en
point. [...] (Insee) est une maison sérieuse. Et en tant que telle,
elle ne change pas ses prévisions de croissance quand elle y croit.
Même lorsque le ministre de l'Economie affiche un chiffre différent.
Pour le premier semestre de cette année, foi d'Insee, le PIB de la
France devrait croître de 0,8%, soit 1,5% en rythme annuel. [...]
[49]Lire la suite...
Tags : o [50]Insee o [51]Rose o [52]Confiance impôts
[53]Etats-Unis: la croissance ralentit
[...] La croissance économique aux Etats-Unis devrait se situer à 5,2 %
en 2000 et à 3,3 % en 2001, selon les dernières projections publiées
hier par les économistes d'entreprises américains (Nabe). Cette
décélération marquée et attendue du rythme de la croissance devrait
probablement convaincre la Réserve fédérale (Fed) de cesser de remonter
ses taux directeurs, a indiqué le Nabe. [...] La Fed avait relevé son
taux interbancaire au jour le jour à six reprises entre juin 1999 et
mai 2000, pour freiner le rythme jugé trop rapide de la
croissance. [...]
[54]Lire la suite...
[55]Le miracle thaïlandais tourne au krach. Une spéculation immobilière
effrénée a
[...] ralentissement de la croissance A Bangkok, capitale de la
Thaïlande, le bébé tigre du Sud-Est asiatique, là où les courbes de
croissance ont enflammé les imaginations pendant plus de dix ans, des
milliards de dollars fuient depuis plusieurs jours la Bourse à un
rythme échevelé. [...] Peu réglementés, ils sont vite devenus les
champions de la spéculation immobilière. Entre 1990 et 1996, les
crédits immobiliers ont été multipliés par trois. C'est un rythme de
croissance qui a été sans commune mesure avec celui de l'économie
réelle, qui avait plutôt tendance à marquer le pas. [...] Croissance
en chute libre. Depuis le milieu des années 80, la Thaïlande avait
pourtant décroché les palmes de la croissance, avec des taux
d'expansion frôlant les deux chiffres. Mais,de 8,5% en 1995, le taux de
croissance est tombé à moins de 7% l'an dernier. [...]
[56]Lire la suite...
Tags : o [57]Valeurs financières immobilier
[58]+ 9,5 %, la croissance chinoise n'a montré aucun signe de ralentissement
au premier
[...] Avec un taux de croissance de 9,5 % au premier trimestre (en
rythme annuel) et des investissements toujours disproportionnés,
l'économie chinoise ne marque aucun signe de ralentissement en dépit de
la politique de lutte contre la surchauffe. Le rythme de la croissance
est égal à celui enregistré sur l'ensemble de 2004, qui avait vu la
plus forte croissance en sept ans, a indiqué hier le Bureau national
des statistiques (BNS). [...] Le taux de croissance annoncé hier a
surpris les analystes, qui avaient parié sur un léger ralentissement.
Le gouvernement chinois a récemment fixé un objectif de croissance de 8
% pour 2005. Ce niveau [...] La production industrielle a enregistré
une hausse de 16,2 % entre janvier et mars. Une fois encore, la
croissance a été tirée par les investissements, qui ont augmenté de
22,8 % entre janvier et mars. Le montant des investissements est encore
trop élevé, a commenté le porte-parole du BNS, Zheng Jingping, au cours
d'une conférence de presse. [...]
[59]Lire la suite...
Tags : o [60]Croissance opinion problème o [61]Croissance opinion
objectif
[62]Conjoncture. Des inquiétudes derrière les prévisions de reprise. Les
ménages ne
[...] La croissance française a bénéficié dans cette première phase
d'une évolution favorable de nos exportations et des mesures de soutien
décidées par le gouvernement Balladur. A quel rythme la croissance
va-t-elle se poursuivre Sur ce plan, les indicateurs d'opinion des
entreprises sont loin d'être au beau fixe, comme il y a un an. [...]
Mais c'est la consommation qui va décider du rythme de progression de
l'investissement. Or, dans le deuxième acte de la reprise, c'est
l'investisse-ment qui devient le moteur principal. Si la consommation
était trop faible, l'élan qu'imprime le redémarrage de l'investissement
à la croissance de l'activité s'atténuerait. [...] Chômage. moins bien
que les autres pays industriels La décrue du chômage se poursuit sur un
rythme assez lent malgré la bonne tenue de la croissance. Bien que le
taux de chômage [...] baisse par l'Insee ces derniers mois, il reste
très nettement supérieur à celui des autres pays industriels (8,2% en
Allemagne, 8,7% en Grande-Bretagne, 5,7% aux Etats-Unis). [...]
[63]Lire la suite...
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Rythme - Libération
[31]Aurélie Nemours,la plénitude du vide.
[...] La forme souffre parce qu'elle n'est pas libre. La forme est la
chose du rythme et c'est le rythme qui est créateur. La forme est déjà
une réalisation du rythme. Et puis, le temps passant, j'ai compris
qu'il y avait encore quelque chose avant le rythme (et avant la
matière). [...] Je l'ai donc vu aussi bien dans la composition que me
proposait l'univers que dans ma propre composition, où il était majeur.
Un jour, j'ai réalisé que le rythme était à l'origine de la forme, que
la forme finalement obéissait elle-même au rythme, et j'ai dit. [...]
Quand on travaille à partir du cubisme, avec un modèle par exemple la
nature , on prend possession de l'espace et, petit à petit, on comprend
la forme. La forme livre le secret de son rythme et, bientôt, à travers
l'espace, la forme et le rythme (ils apparaissent alors comme des
éléments séparés que l'on conjugue. [...]
[32]Lire la suite...
[33]Championnats du monde de ski à Sestrières. Slalom: le rythme ou le blues.
Pour
[...] A la différence des slaloms, disons scabreux, où, à cause des
ruptures de rythme, pas forcément volontaires, la skieuse doit se
replacer toutes les trois portes pour rectifier sa trajectoire. Si l'on
veut conserver le rythme, il faut à tout prix éviter aux concurrentes
de se bloquer à cause d'une porte mal placée, il faut que le traceur
sache tenir ses athlètes. [...] Le rythme s'enfuit aussi. Manque de
repères, jour sans Dimanche dernier, en tout cas, à Laax, Patricia
Chauvet, troisième de la première manche, a raté la seconde. Parce que,
après une porte, elle a perdu le rythme. Elle s'est écartée de la
ligne [...] et trop quand on sait que les meilleures passent à
quelques millimètres des piquets, c'est en tout cas suffisant pour se
retrouver finalement neuvième à l'arrivée. Le faux rythme, quand tu es
en course, tu ne le remarques pas forcément tout de suite, donc tu ne
le corriges pas immédiatement. Il faut absolument lutter contre. [...]
[34]Lire la suite...
Tags : o [35]Puissance o [36]Partie o [37]Entraînement
[38]Aurelie Nemours en formes
[...] Un jour, raconte-t-elle, j'ai réalisé que le rythme était à
l'origine de la forme, que la forme finalement obéissait elle-même au
rythme, et j'ai dit. la forme souffre parce qu'elle n'est pas libre. La
forme est la chose du rythme et c'est le rythme qui est
créateur. [...] La forme est déjà une réalisation du rythme. Et puis,
le temps passant, j'ai compris qu'il y avait encore quelque chose avant
le rythme (et avant la matière). c'est le [...] Quand on travaille à
partir du cubisme, avec un modèle par exemple la nature , on prend
possession de l'espace et, petit à petit, on comprend la forme. La
forme livre le secret de son rythme et, bientôt, à travers l'espace, la
forme et le rythme (ils apparaissent alors comme des éléments séparés
que l'on conjugue. ce n'est que plus tard que l'on découvre qu'ils ne
font qu'un), on tente le tableau, on commence la peinture. (1). [...]
[39]Lire la suite...
[40]""Paroles du Sage""(""l'Ecclésiaste""). Claude Régy et Henri Meschonnic :
[...] RÉGY. L'immense majorité des gens confond le rythme et la
métrique, le rythme et la rapidité, la musique et le langage comme si
la musicologie était le seul domaine du rythme. On apprend aux acteurs
à jouer les mots, leur sens et non la force des mots, ils imitent le
sens par la gestuelle, la tonalité. [...] Le rythme est une notion
plurielle et par rythme je n'entends pas l'alternance temps fort-temps
faible, mais j'en reviens à cette référence quasi archéologique d'un
article où Benveniste, dès 1951, retrouve chez Platon ce qui fait le
mouvement dans le langage. [...] Les unités réelles du discours sont
des unités de rythme. c'est la physique du langage qui mène. On prend
la pensée dans la bouche. oui, par bouchées. Le rythme dans la Bible
est un véritable levier théorique. on se retrouve dans un continu,
perdu depuis Héraclite. [...]
[41]Lire la suite...
[42]Aurélie Nemours, point à la ligne
[...] La forme souffre parce qu'elle n'est pas libre. La forme est la
chose du rythme et c'est le rythme qui est créateur. La forme est déjà
une réalisation du rythme. Et puis, le temps passant, j'ai compris
qu'il y avait encore quelque chose avant le rythme (et avant la
matière). c'est le nombre. Je suis devenue peintre le jour où j'ai
vraiment réalisé le nombre. [...] Partition. Ses maîtres mots étaient
donc rythme, nombre et couleur. Ils suffisent à [...] parcours à trois
pôles. Un jour, racontait-elle, j'ai réalisé que le rythme était à
l'origine de la forme, que la forme finalement obéissait elle-même au
rythme, et j'ai dit. [...] forme livre le secret de son rythme et,
bientôt, à travers l'espace, la forme et le rythme (ils apparaissent
alors comme des éléments séparés que l'on conjugue. ce n'est que plus
tard qu'on découvre qu'ils ne font qu'un), on tente le tableau, on
commence la peinture. [...]
[43]Lire la suite...
[44]REPRISE. A revoir à Paris, son premier film politique pro New
Deal.«American
[...] Quatrièmement, j'accélérais le rythme des scènes d'un tiers.
Capra avait remarqué qu'alors, elles apparaissaient comme jouées à un
rythme normal. [...] Cette accélération du rythme est l'amélioration
la plus importante que j'aie apporté à ma propre technique
cinématographique. [...] De ce point de vue aussi, son film (son
vingt-et-unième long métrage) fait date. C'est pendant que je tournais
American Madness que je fis une découverte surprenante en ce qui
concerne le rythme. Au vu des rushes, qu'il trouve languissantes, Capra
décide d'éliminer les longs déplacements, les entrées et les sorties
des acteurs. [...]
[45]Lire la suite...
[46]«Le djembé, c'est thérapeutique». Tambour de cérémonie de l'Ouest
africain,
[...] La superposition des deux en créé un troisième. Tadadadadoum,
tadada, dit Tony. Oui, c'est ça. Blan. Blan. Blan. La main plus
ouverte, Claire. Francis, les flap bien dégagés. Après des hésitations,
le rythme finit par s'installer. Immuable. Répétitif. Obsédant. [...]
Les yeux clos, Francis ondule du buste et de la tête. Claire sourit
dans le vague. Tony improvise alors un troisième rythme qui s'ajoute
aux autres et en crée un quatrième. Puis, le maître presse le mouvement
et augmente progressivement l'intensité sonore. [...] Quand on est
angoissé, on tape dessus et on se sent tout de suite mieux. Les
enfants, ça les détend, ils adorent ça. La vibration vous rentre dans
le ventre, on sent le rythme, on est en harmonie avec soi-même.
Ensuite, on prend sur soi, on essaie de se concentrer, d'arriver à
maîtriser son esprit. [...]
[47]Lire la suite...
Tags : o [48]Compte o [49]Presse o [50]Élèves
[51]Cowl back
[...] Il faut se connaître. Puisque mon comique n'est pas dans les bons
mots, les jeux de langue, c'est une question de rythme. les mouvements
ont un rythme, le bégaiement a un rythme, le flux de la parole a un
rythme, les hésitations aussi. Mon rythme, c'est l'hésitation. je suis
un comique hésitant. [...]
[52]Lire la suite...
[53]Etes-vous sédentaire ou actif ?
[...] football, vélo (rythme soutenu), boxe et sports de combats.
compter 250 points pour une demi-heure. [...] golf (sans caddy), nage
(rythme lent). compter 150 points pour une demi-heure. [...] tennis,
danse (rythme soutenu), basket-ball, roller... compter 180 points pour
une demi-heure. [...]
[54]Lire la suite...
[55]Mammifères à deux montres. La rétine de l'oeil servirait également à
réguler
[...] De la bactérie à l'homme, en passant par l'escargot et le
cacatoès, tous les êtres vivants sont en phase avec l'alternance du
jour et de la nuit. Soit un rythme d'environ vingt-quatre heures, dit
circadien. Tous n'utilisent pas les mêmes moyens pour garder le
rythme. [...] Jusqu'à présent, les biologistes n'avaient trouvé chez
eux qu'un seul donneur de temps ou oscillateur. le noyau
suprachiasmatique. Certes la glande pinéale joue un rôle non
négligeable dans le contrôle du rythme des mammifères. elle produit la
mélatonine, qui intervient dans l'alternance veille/sommeil. Mais cette
production est commandée par le NSC. [...] Pour sortir de cette double
contrainte, les deux chercheurs ont eu l'astuce de prendre des rétines
de hamsters dorés des animaux dont les tissus sont préadaptés à une
survie à basse température. Cultivées pendant quatre jours à 27$C, les
rétines ont produit leur propre mélatonine en suivant parfaitement le
rythme circadien. [...]
[56]Lire la suite...
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Rythme (poésie)
Un article de Wikipédia, l'encyclopédie libre.
Aller à : [6]Navigation, [7]rechercher
[8]Page d'aide sur l'homonymie Pour les articles [9]homonymes, voir
[10]Rythme (homonymie).
[11]VictorHugosmallColor.png
Cet article est une [12]ébauche concernant la [13]littérature.
Vous pouvez partager vos connaissances en l'améliorant ([14]comment ?)
selon les recommandations des [15]projets correspondants.
Les origines [16]antiques de la notion de rythme se confondent avec
celles de la poésie : la [17]métrique gréco-latine inclut en effet une
théorie du rythme extrêmement élaborée. Toutes les métriques
(quantitatives, syllabiques, accentuelles) sont susceptible d'induire
des rythmes. De manière générale, le rythme poétique (ou métrique) est
associé au [18]schéma métrique abstrait d'un vers (modèle) et non à
l'énoncé linguistique qui le constitue. Il est donc, conceptuellement,
distinct de ce qu'on pourrait appeler le rythme prosaïque de l'énoncé
(ou rythme [19]prosodique).
Sommaire
* [20]1 En métrique quantitative
* [21]2 En métrique syllabique
* [22]3 En métrique accentuelle
* [23]4 Notes et références
* [24]5 Bibliographie
[[25]modifier] En métrique quantitative
En métrique gréco-latine, tout [26]vers se décompose en pieds
élémentaires qui peuvent être considérées comme ses plus petites unités
rythmiques. Par exemple, dans un vers [27]dactylique, on peut se
représenter chaque pied (- UU) comme un mouvement d'abaissement, ou
thésis suivi d'un mouvement d'élévation, ou arsis. Avec le thésis,
parfois dénommé demi-pied « fort » est associé l'ictus, qui correspond
au moment ou le pied (ou la main) qui « bat » le vers frappe le sol (ou
la table) ^[28][1]. C'est l'impression de mouvement qui naît de la
récurrence des cycles arsis-thésis qu'on appelle rythme. Un hexamètre
dactylique, par exemple, connaît six ictus sur ses six demi-pieds
impairs. Le fait que le vers soit (mentalement ou physiquement)
« battu » n'implique pas nécessairement que les ictus se traduisent par
un renforcement dans la voix de celui qui dit ou chante le vers : il
suffit que ceux-ci soient reconnus comme tels par l'auditeur pour que
le rythme existe dans son esprit.
Comme on l'a vu, le rythme poétique (ou métrique) est associé au schéma
métrique du vers et n'est donc pas directement lié à l'énoncé
linguistique qui constitue le vers. Par exemple, si l'on considérait le
premier vers de l'[29]Enéide comme un énoncé en prose, on pourrait
marquer ses [30]accents toniques de la manière suivante :
árma virúmque cáno Trójae quí prímus ab óris
Il n'est pas interdit d'imaginer que la récurrence de l'accent induise
un rythme qu'on pourrait qualifier de prosodique. Si l'on se souvient
maintenant qu'il s'agit d'un hexamètre dactylique, on marquera comme
suit ses ictus métriques :
árma virúmque canó Trojáe qui prímus ab óris
On voit bien que la coïncidence n'est que partielle, et que rien
n'oblige formellement les ictus à coïncider avec les accents toniques.
Il n'est pas interdit de penser que les subtiles tensions susceptibles
de se manifester entre rythme métrique et rythme prosodique participent
de l'esthétique de cette poésie.
[[31]modifier] En métrique syllabique
En métrique syllabique, par exemple en français, les seuls lieux
remarquables des schémas métriques, et par conséquent susceptibles de
servir de base à un rythme métrique, sont la [32]rime (dernière syllabe
numéraire du vers) et, s'il y a lieu, la [33]césure. Une des
caractéristiques de la poésie classique est d'éviter au maximum les
tensions rythmiques à la césure et à la rime, et donc de caler le
rythme prosodique (lié aux accents toniques) sur le rythme métrique. Il
n'en va pas de même au Moyen-Age et à la période romantique.
La césure «lyrique», largement pratiquée par les trouvères, se
caractérise par une non-coïncidence entre rythme métrique et rythme
prosodique. Dans le décasyllabe :
Douce dame s'ainz riens d'amours conui ([34]Thibaut de
Champagne)
l'ictus métrique lié à la césure (4^e syllabe) correspond à une syllabe
féminine qui est donc dépourvue d'accent tonique.
Les romantiques, et encore plus les post-romantiques, se jouent de la
césure et y introduisent toutes sortes de tensions rythmiques. Dans :
Et la tigresse épouvantable d'Hyrcanie ([35]Paul Verlaine)
le poète associe à la césure (6^e syllabe) la deuxième syllabe du mot
épouvantable, en elle-même fort peu susceptible de porter un accent
tonique.
[[36]modifier] En métrique accentuelle
Dans ce type de métrique, les schémas comprennent des positions fortes,
qui sont destinées à recevoir des syllabes accentuées. Il existe donc,
en principe un calage systématique du rythme prosodique sur le rythme
métrique. Ce type de métrique est donc, en théorie, celui qui permet le
moins de subtilités rythmiques.
[[37]modifier] Notes et références
1. [38]^| Certains traités tardifs inversent l'arsis et le thésis et
font correspondre l'ictus au premier des deux
[[39]modifier] Bibliographie
Pierre Lusson, "Bibliographie du rythme", Mezura n°45, Cahiers de
poétique comparée Publications Langues'O, 2001.
[40]Henri Meschonnic et Gérard Dessons, Traité du rythme, des vers et
des proses, Dunod, 1998.
Jacques Roubaud, "T.R.A.(M,m) (question d'une poétique formelle, I)" -
théorie du rythme abstrait -, Mezura n°24, Cahiers de poétique comparée
Publications Langues'O, 1990.
* [41]Portail de la poésie [42]Portail de la poésie
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La Gazette musicale
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[trait_typ_01.gif] Entendre [trait_typ_01.gif]
[10][voyage_au_pays_de_ma_nonkak.jpg]
Voyage au Pays de Ma Nonkak, Conte d'AbyGaëlle sur une musique de
J'hel. Atelier Hybrid'music, 2009 [A. 415652 ; 30 EUR]
[11][electro_couac.jpg]
Olivier Calmel Electro Couac, Sha-Docks. Yes or No Prod 2009 / Believe
distribution
[12][katsavara_et_de_l'_aube.jpg]
Guigla Katsarava (piano), Et de l'aube émerge... Polymnie 150 658,
2009 (oeuvres de Scriabine, Szymanowski, Zaborov)
[13][joseph_moog_metamorphose.jpg]
Metamorphose(n). Joseph Moog (piano). Transcriptions et para-
phrases pour le piano (Liszt, Fredmann, Moszkowski, Godowski, Busoni).
Claves Records, 2009
[14][wolff_ruines.jpg]
Jean-Claude Wolff, Ruines, Clartés stellaires (hommage à Hector
Berlioz). Ensemble « Le Temps Retrouvé », Serge Coste, dir.
[15][liz_mc_comb.jpg]
Liz McComb, The Sacred Concert. Disque GVE / Naïve, 2009
[trait_typ_01.gif] Lire [trait_typ_01.gif]
[16][charpentier_petits_motets_01.jpg]
Cessac Catherine (éditrice), Marc-Antoine Charpentier, Petits motets
(v.1) : motets à une ou deux voix. Édition critique, « Patrimoine
Musical Français : monumentales » (1.4.1), Éditions du Centre de
Musique Baroque de Versailles, 2009
[17][un_son_desenchante.jpg]
Olive Jean-Paul, Un son désenchanté. « Collection d'esthétique » (73),
Klincksieck, Paris 2008 [282 p., ISBN-19782252036822 ; 29 EUR]
[18][musique_et_bruit.jpg]
Le Vot Gérard (dir.) & Streletski Gérard (édit.), Bruit et musique
(actes du colloque du 23 janvier 2008) Publications du département
musique et musicologie, Université Lyon 2, Lumière, Lyon 2009 [X-326
p., ill ; ISBN 978-2-9527137-1-9 ; 25 EUR]
[trait_typ_01.gif] Le temps demain [trait_typ_01.gif]
[md_france48h.jpg]
[trait_typ_01.gif] Actualités [trait_typ_01.gif]
[19]Rétrospective des actualités musicales |||[20] [voir.gif]
18 janvier 2010
[21]Voir Piano international : nouvelle saison de piano en Limousin
[22]Voir Enseignement supérieur / recherche : communiqué intersyndical
pour la journée du 21 janvier 2010
[23]Voir William Christie retrouve la démesure baroque de la « Fairy
Queen » de Purcell
[24]Voir « Eugène Onéguine » à l'Opéra de Lille
[25]Voir « Tempest: without a Body », l'ange de la mort du Samoan
Ponifasio à Strasbourg
[26]Voir « Le Ciel est pour Tous », l'intolérance religieuse selon
Catherine Anne
[27]Voir « Les femmes savantes « de Molière, comme au temps du Roi
Soleil à Toulouse
[28]Voir Jean-Paul Belmondo distingué par les critiques de cinéma de
Los Angeles
[29]Voir Le musée parisien du Luxembourg ferme ses portes pour
plusieurs mois
[30]Voir La plus ancienne amputation en France remonte à la préhistoire
[31]Voir [Agenda] Les Sons d'hiver 2010 du Val-de-Marne, dès le 29
janvier
[32]Voir [Le Populaire] Le pianoforte, sa vie, son histoire
17 janvier 2010
[33]Voir Cinq cent personnes se rassemblent en soutien à la comédienne
Rayhana, agressée à Paris
[34]Voir Banlieues Bleues : 27e édition
[35]Voir La famille de Jacques Lanzmann indignée par les propos de
Dutronc
[36]Voir La violence, la guerre et l'identité dansées au théâtre
marseillais du Merlan
[37]Voir Johnny Depp dans les montagnes de Serbie: quand Hollywood se
met au vert
[38]Voir Izis, un des plus grands photographes français, méconnu,
exposé à Paris
[39]Voir Dany Laferrière : « Notre peuple ne mérite pas ça »
[40]Voir Le Bayern Munich dédommage une poétesse plagiée par Karl-Heinz
Rummenigge
[41]Voir Le film Welcome de Philippe Lioret ainsi que Jacques Audiard
récompensés
16 janvie 2010r
[42]Voir Ils ont dit Django Reinhardt ... à l'occasion de ses cent ans
[43]Voir Jonas Kaufmann, parfait héros romantique pour ses débuts en
Werther
[44]Voir Décès d'Ed Thigpen, batteur d'Oscar Peterson et Ella
Fitzgerald
[45]Voir Gainsbourg plus vrai que nature dans une « Vie héroïque »
signée Joann Sfar
[46]Voir Films français à l'étranger: après une année record, 2009 en
berne
[47]Voir Les dix longs métrages en langue française qui ont enregistré
le plus d'entrées à l'étranger depuis dix ans
[48]Voir L'image de "cinéma d'auteur" des films français "rend parfois
plus difficile" leur exportation
[49]Voir |Le Journal du Dimanche] Werther : la plus belle voix au monde
[50]Voir [Le Progrès] Un violon de 18 000 euros écrasé dans le tramway
[51]Voir [Le Figaro] Les orchestres symphoniques cherchent la bonne
recette
15 janvier 2010
[52]Voir L'auteur et comédienne Rayhana agressée à Paris
[53]Voir Les nominés aux Victoires de la musique classique 2010
[54]Voir Décès du crooner américain Teddy Pendergrass, légende de la
soul music
[55]Voir Ouverture jeudi du festival de cirque de Monte-Carlo
[56]Voir Sénégal: décès du poète et comédien d'origine haïtienne Lucien
Lemoine
[57]Voir Décès du photographe américain Dennis Stock de l'agence Magnum
[58]Voir Haïti : mort de l'écrivain Georges Anglade
[59]Voir A 81 ans, Tintin entame de nouvelles aventures en Chine
[60]Voir Le Muséum d'histoire naturelle met en ligne les espèces
présentes et disparues en France
[61]Voir [Nouvel Observateur] Boltanski entre au Grand-Palais
14 janvier 2010
[62]Voir Benoît Jacquot débute à l'Opéra de Paris, aves une mise en
scène de « Werther » de Jules Massenet
[63]Voir L'Académie du jazz a décerné ses lauriers 2009
[64]Voir Dutronc, Biolay, Christophe au festival Chorus des
Hauts-de-Seine
[65]Voir Jacques Dutronc revisite ses classiques sur la scène du Zénith
[66]Voir L'humour acide de « La Noce » de Bertold Brecht
[67]Voir « Les estivants » de Gorki mis en scène âr Eric Lacascade à
Rennes
[68]Voir Monumenta: des médiateurs pour accompagner l'émotion du public
[69]Voir Le spectre lumineux d'une lointaine exoplanète capté depuis la
Terre
[70]Voir [L'Italie à Paris] Le violon de Mozart avec Giuliano
Carmignola
[71]Voir [Libé Lille] Poignant Onéguine à l'Opéra de Lille
[72]Voir [Éco 89] Lady Gaga : du clip musical à l'émission de
télé-achat
[73]Voir [Libé Lyon] Les notes salées de l'Orchestre national de Lyon
13 janvier 2010
[74]Voir Un spectacle multimédia à Bastille
[75]Voir Biennale des quatuors à cordes à la Cité de la musique
[76]Voir Pauline Viardot cent ans après être morte
[77]Voir Un album inédit de Jimi Hendrix, « Valleys of Neptune », en
vente en mars
[78]Voir Les nominations aux Victoires de la musique
[79]Voir Quand Bollywood s'empare de l'opéra français
[80]Voir Farruquito recouvre la liberté
[81]Voir Vampire Weekend se dévergonde sous le soleil de Mexico avec
«Contra »
[82]Voir Premiers pas de stars sur les planches par temps de mépris des
arts et de la culture
[83]Voir Johnny Depp en Serbie pour le festival de cinéma d'Emir
Kusturica
[84]Voir James Ellroy en star du polar au théâtre du Rond-Point
[85]Voir L'Ecole de journalisme de Sciences Po a été reconnue par la
profession
[86]Voir Le philosophe Daniel Bensaïd est mort
[87]Voir Les films de la semaine
[88]Voir Décès de Miep Gies, la femme qui aida Anne Frank et sa famille
à survivre
12janvier 2010
[89]Voir Le nouveau jazz français excelle à New York aux côtés du rock
mongol
[90]Voir À 17 ans, Alexander Prior codirige l'orchestre symphonique de
Seattle
[91]Voir Mort de Otmar Suitner, grand dirigeant du Staatsoper de Berlin
[92]Voir La salsa séduit de plus en plus d'Ethiopiens
[93]Voir Denis Podalydès dans « Le cas Jekyll » au Théâtre de Chaillot
[94]Voir Décès d'Éric Rohmer
[95]Voir Herta Müller, Nobel de littérature, espionnée par un autre
écrivain
[96]Voir Découverte archéologique à Gaza près de la frontière
égyptienne
[97]Voir Plainte jordanienne auprès de l'UNESCO, sur la propriété des
manuscrits de la mer Morte
[98]Voir Découverte d'une habitation de l'âge de pierre près de
Tel-Aviv
[99]Voir [France-Soir] Manu Katché : « Duffy m'a confondu avec Manu
Chao »
[100]Voir [Le Figaro] L'esprit d'un grand musicien (Karajan)
[101]Voir [Le Figaro] Le disque compact ne serait pas né sans
lui (Karajan)
[102]Voir [Radio France] Profession : copiste-graveur
[103]Voir [Le Devoir.com] Le Metropolitan Opera au cinéma ; Le
Chevalier à la rose, opéra viennois
[104]Rétrospective des actualités musicales |||[105] [voir.gif]
[106]février 2009 - [107]mars 2009 - [108]avril 2009 - [109]mai 2009 -
[110]juin 2009 - [111]juillet 2009 - [112]août 2009 - [113]septembre
2009 - [114]octobre 2009 - [115]novembre 2009 - [116]décembre 2009 -
[117]janvier 2010
[cul_200.gif]
[trait_typ_01.gif] Événement [trait_typ_01.gif]
19 janviezr 2010, 12h30
Genève, Temple de la Fusterie
La Moya
Trombone Quartet
[118][19a.jpg]
[119][charpentier_histoires_sacrees_6.jpg]
Gosione C. Jane & Bisaro Xavier (éditeurs), Marc-Antoine Charpentier :
Histoires sacrées (v. 6). « Patrimoine Musical Français », Éditions du
Centre de Musique Baroque de Versailles 2009 [ ISMN CXXVI-173 p. ;
M-707034-57-6 ; 115,00 EUR]
[trait_typ_01.gif] Lire sur le site [trait_typ_01.gif]
Consultation
[120]Biographies de musiciens
[121]Encyclopédie musicale
[122]Discographies
[123]Iconographies
[124]Analyses musicales
[125]Cours de musique
Services
[126]Petites annonces
[127]Téléchargements
Articles, documents
[128]Articles et documents
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[136]C'est quoi ce site ?
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[142]Soutien financier
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[149]Journal Officiel
[150]Bibliothèque de France
[151]Library of Congress
[152]British Library
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[155]BN Madrid
[156]SUDOC
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[158]Presse internationale
[159]WebAnalytics
[trait_typ_01.gif] Agenda [trait_typ_01.gif]
[160]Colloques, séminaires, rencontres
IFRAME: [161]agenda
[trait_typ_01.gif] Feuilleton [trait_typ_01.gif]
[162][brahms_couverture.jpg]
[163](7°) [voir.gif]
musicologie.org, 56 rue de la Fédération, F-93100 Montreuil --
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Décembre 2009 [[1] détails ]
147 853 visiteurs
282 170 pages lues
[rfm.gif]
La Gazette musicale
[2][recherche.jpg]
[3] Biographies musicales -- E[4]ncyclopédie -- S[5]'abonner au
bulletin -- A[6]nnonces -- [7]Forum -- [8]Liste de discussion
[9]cliquer pour prendre contact
[trait_typ_01.gif] Entendre [trait_typ_01.gif]
[10][voyage_au_pays_de_ma_nonkak.jpg]
Voyage au Pays de Ma Nonkak, Conte d'AbyGaëlle sur une musique de
J'hel. Atelier Hybrid'music, 2009 [A. 415652 ; 30 EUR]
[11][electro_couac.jpg]
Olivier Calmel Electro Couac, Sha-Docks. Yes or No Prod 2009 / Believe
distribution
[12][katsavara_et_de_l'_aube.jpg]
Guigla Katsarava (piano), Et de l'aube émerge... Polymnie 150 658,
2009 (oeuvres de Scriabine, Szymanowski, Zaborov)
[13][joseph_moog_metamorphose.jpg]
Metamorphose(n). Joseph Moog (piano). Transcriptions et para-
phrases pour le piano (Liszt, Fredmann, Moszkowski, Godowski, Busoni).
Claves Records, 2009
[14][wolff_ruines.jpg]
Jean-Claude Wolff, Ruines, Clartés stellaires (hommage à Hector
Berlioz). Ensemble « Le Temps Retrouvé », Serge Coste, dir.
[15][liz_mc_comb.jpg]
Liz McComb, The Sacred Concert. Disque GVE / Naïve, 2009
[trait_typ_01.gif] Lire [trait_typ_01.gif]
[16][charpentier_petits_motets_01.jpg]
Cessac Catherine (éditrice), Marc-Antoine Charpentier, Petits motets
(v.1) : motets à une ou deux voix. Édition critique, « Patrimoine
Musical Français : monumentales » (1.4.1), Éditions du Centre de
Musique Baroque de Versailles, 2009
[17][un_son_desenchante.jpg]
Olive Jean-Paul, Un son désenchanté. « Collection d'esthétique » (73),
Klincksieck, Paris 2008 [282 p., ISBN-19782252036822 ; 29 EUR]
[18][musique_et_bruit.jpg]
Le Vot Gérard (dir.) & Streletski Gérard (édit.), Bruit et musique
(actes du colloque du 23 janvier 2008) Publications du département
musique et musicologie, Université Lyon 2, Lumière, Lyon 2009 [X-326
p., ill ; ISBN 978-2-9527137-1-9 ; 25 EUR]
[trait_typ_01.gif] Le temps demain [trait_typ_01.gif]
[md_france48h.jpg]
[trait_typ_01.gif] Actualités [trait_typ_01.gif]
[19]Rétrospective des actualités musicales |||[20] [voir.gif]
18 janvier 2010
[21]Voir Piano international : nouvelle saison de piano en Limousin
[22]Voir Enseignement supérieur / recherche : communiqué intersyndical
pour la journée du 21 janvier 2010
[23]Voir William Christie retrouve la démesure baroque de la « Fairy
Queen » de Purcell
[24]Voir « Eugène Onéguine » à l'Opéra de Lille
[25]Voir « Tempest: without a Body », l'ange de la mort du Samoan
Ponifasio à Strasbourg
[26]Voir « Le Ciel est pour Tous », l'intolérance religieuse selon
Catherine Anne
[27]Voir « Les femmes savantes « de Molière, comme au temps du Roi
Soleil à Toulouse
[28]Voir Jean-Paul Belmondo distingué par les critiques de cinéma de
Los Angeles
[29]Voir Le musée parisien du Luxembourg ferme ses portes pour
plusieurs mois
[30]Voir La plus ancienne amputation en France remonte à la préhistoire
[31]Voir [Agenda] Les Sons d'hiver 2010 du Val-de-Marne, dès le 29
janvier
[32]Voir [Le Populaire] Le pianoforte, sa vie, son histoire
17 janvier 2010
[33]Voir Cinq cent personnes se rassemblent en soutien à la comédienne
Rayhana, agressée à Paris
[34]Voir Banlieues Bleues : 27e édition
[35]Voir La famille de Jacques Lanzmann indignée par les propos de
Dutronc
[36]Voir La violence, la guerre et l'identité dansées au théâtre
marseillais du Merlan
[37]Voir Johnny Depp dans les montagnes de Serbie: quand Hollywood se
met au vert
[38]Voir Izis, un des plus grands photographes français, méconnu,
exposé à Paris
[39]Voir Dany Laferrière : « Notre peuple ne mérite pas ça »
[40]Voir Le Bayern Munich dédommage une poétesse plagiée par Karl-Heinz
Rummenigge
[41]Voir Le film Welcome de Philippe Lioret ainsi que Jacques Audiard
récompensés
16 janvie 2010r
[42]Voir Ils ont dit Django Reinhardt ... à l'occasion de ses cent ans
[43]Voir Jonas Kaufmann, parfait héros romantique pour ses débuts en
Werther
[44]Voir Décès d'Ed Thigpen, batteur d'Oscar Peterson et Ella
Fitzgerald
[45]Voir Gainsbourg plus vrai que nature dans une « Vie héroïque »
signée Joann Sfar
[46]Voir Films français à l'étranger: après une année record, 2009 en
berne
[47]Voir Les dix longs métrages en langue française qui ont enregistré
le plus d'entrées à l'étranger depuis dix ans
[48]Voir L'image de "cinéma d'auteur" des films français "rend parfois
plus difficile" leur exportation
[49]Voir |Le Journal du Dimanche] Werther : la plus belle voix au monde
[50]Voir [Le Progrès] Un violon de 18 000 euros écrasé dans le tramway
[51]Voir [Le Figaro] Les orchestres symphoniques cherchent la bonne
recette
15 janvier 2010
[52]Voir L'auteur et comédienne Rayhana agressée à Paris
[53]Voir Les nominés aux Victoires de la musique classique 2010
[54]Voir Décès du crooner américain Teddy Pendergrass, légende de la
soul music
[55]Voir Ouverture jeudi du festival de cirque de Monte-Carlo
[56]Voir Sénégal: décès du poète et comédien d'origine haïtienne Lucien
Lemoine
[57]Voir Décès du photographe américain Dennis Stock de l'agence Magnum
[58]Voir Haïti : mort de l'écrivain Georges Anglade
[59]Voir A 81 ans, Tintin entame de nouvelles aventures en Chine
[60]Voir Le Muséum d'histoire naturelle met en ligne les espèces
présentes et disparues en France
[61]Voir [Nouvel Observateur] Boltanski entre au Grand-Palais
14 janvier 2010
[62]Voir Benoît Jacquot débute à l'Opéra de Paris, aves une mise en
scène de « Werther » de Jules Massenet
[63]Voir L'Académie du jazz a décerné ses lauriers 2009
[64]Voir Dutronc, Biolay, Christophe au festival Chorus des
Hauts-de-Seine
[65]Voir Jacques Dutronc revisite ses classiques sur la scène du Zénith
[66]Voir L'humour acide de « La Noce » de Bertold Brecht
[67]Voir « Les estivants » de Gorki mis en scène âr Eric Lacascade à
Rennes
[68]Voir Monumenta: des médiateurs pour accompagner l'émotion du public
[69]Voir Le spectre lumineux d'une lointaine exoplanète capté depuis la
Terre
[70]Voir [L'Italie à Paris] Le violon de Mozart avec Giuliano
Carmignola
[71]Voir [Libé Lille] Poignant Onéguine à l'Opéra de Lille
[72]Voir [Éco 89] Lady Gaga : du clip musical à l'émission de
télé-achat
[73]Voir [Libé Lyon] Les notes salées de l'Orchestre national de Lyon
13 janvier 2010
[74]Voir Un spectacle multimédia à Bastille
[75]Voir Biennale des quatuors à cordes à la Cité de la musique
[76]Voir Pauline Viardot cent ans après être morte
[77]Voir Un album inédit de Jimi Hendrix, « Valleys of Neptune », en
vente en mars
[78]Voir Les nominations aux Victoires de la musique
[79]Voir Quand Bollywood s'empare de l'opéra français
[80]Voir Farruquito recouvre la liberté
[81]Voir Vampire Weekend se dévergonde sous le soleil de Mexico avec
«Contra »
[82]Voir Premiers pas de stars sur les planches par temps de mépris des
arts et de la culture
[83]Voir Johnny Depp en Serbie pour le festival de cinéma d'Emir
Kusturica
[84]Voir James Ellroy en star du polar au théâtre du Rond-Point
[85]Voir L'Ecole de journalisme de Sciences Po a été reconnue par la
profession
[86]Voir Le philosophe Daniel Bensaïd est mort
[87]Voir Les films de la semaine
[88]Voir Décès de Miep Gies, la femme qui aida Anne Frank et sa famille
à survivre
12janvier 2010
[89]Voir Le nouveau jazz français excelle à New York aux côtés du rock
mongol
[90]Voir À 17 ans, Alexander Prior codirige l'orchestre symphonique de
Seattle
[91]Voir Mort de Otmar Suitner, grand dirigeant du Staatsoper de Berlin
[92]Voir La salsa séduit de plus en plus d'Ethiopiens
[93]Voir Denis Podalydès dans « Le cas Jekyll » au Théâtre de Chaillot
[94]Voir Décès d'Éric Rohmer
[95]Voir Herta Müller, Nobel de littérature, espionnée par un autre
écrivain
[96]Voir Découverte archéologique à Gaza près de la frontière
égyptienne
[97]Voir Plainte jordanienne auprès de l'UNESCO, sur la propriété des
manuscrits de la mer Morte
[98]Voir Découverte d'une habitation de l'âge de pierre près de
Tel-Aviv
[99]Voir [France-Soir] Manu Katché : « Duffy m'a confondu avec Manu
Chao »
[100]Voir [Le Figaro] L'esprit d'un grand musicien (Karajan)
[101]Voir [Le Figaro] Le disque compact ne serait pas né sans
lui (Karajan)
[102]Voir [Radio France] Profession : copiste-graveur
[103]Voir [Le Devoir.com] Le Metropolitan Opera au cinéma ; Le
Chevalier à la rose, opéra viennois
[104]Rétrospective des actualités musicales |||[105] [voir.gif]
[106]février 2009 - [107]mars 2009 - [108]avril 2009 - [109]mai 2009 -
[110]juin 2009 - [111]juillet 2009 - [112]août 2009 - [113]septembre
2009 - [114]octobre 2009 - [115]novembre 2009 - [116]décembre 2009 -
[117]janvier 2010
[cul_200.gif]
[trait_typ_01.gif] Événement [trait_typ_01.gif]
19 janviezr 2010, 12h30
Genève, Temple de la Fusterie
La Moya
Trombone Quartet
[118][19a.jpg]
[119][charpentier_histoires_sacrees_6.jpg]
Gosione C. Jane & Bisaro Xavier (éditeurs), Marc-Antoine Charpentier :
Histoires sacrées (v. 6). « Patrimoine Musical Français », Éditions du
Centre de Musique Baroque de Versailles 2009 [ ISMN CXXVI-173 p. ;
M-707034-57-6 ; 115,00 EUR]
[trait_typ_01.gif] Lire sur le site [trait_typ_01.gif]
Consultation
[120]Biographies de musiciens
[121]Encyclopédie musicale
[122]Discographies
[123]Iconographies
[124]Analyses musicales
[125]Cours de musique
Services
[126]Petites annonces
[127]Téléchargements
Articles, documents
[128]Articles et documents
[129]Collaborations éditoriales
[130]Textes de référence
Lire & voir
[131]Nouveaux livres
[132]Vu & lu sur la toile
Université
[133]Colloques & conférences
[134]Universités en France
[135]Bibliothèques
Administration
[136]C'est quoi ce site ?
[137]Statistiques
[138]Collaborations éditoriales
[139]S'abonner au bulletin
[140]Forum du site
[141]Liste musicologie.org
[142]Soutien financier
Annuaires
[143]Quelques éditeurs
[144]Quelques institutions
[145]Périodiques musicaux
M[146]agasins de musique
[147]Quelques bons forums
Adresses utiles
[148]Bulletin Officiel
[149]Journal Officiel
[150]Bibliothèque de France
[151]Library of Congress
[152]British Library
[153]ICCU (Opac Italie)
[154]München (BSB)
[155]BN Madrid
[156]SUDOC
[157]Pages jaunes
[158]Presse internationale
[159]WebAnalytics
[trait_typ_01.gif] Agenda [trait_typ_01.gif]
[160]Colloques, séminaires, rencontres
IFRAME: [161]agenda
[trait_typ_01.gif] Feuilleton [trait_typ_01.gif]
[162][brahms_couverture.jpg]
[163](7°) [voir.gif]
musicologie.org, 56 rue de la Fédération, F-93100 Montreuil --
01 55 86 27 92 -- [164]Contact
La copie des pages de ce site nécessite notre autorisation
Références
#[1]Metapedia (Français)
Mauvais titre
Un article de Metapedia.
Aller à : [2]Navigation, [3]Rechercher
Le titre de la page demandée est invalide, vide ou il s'agit d'un titre
inter-langue ou inter-projet mal lié. Il contient peut-être un ou
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#[1]Syndiquer tout le site
logo SNUipp [2]
SNUipp-FSU
Syndicat National Unitaire des Instituteurs Professeurs des écoles et PEGC
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[13]Année 2009 / [14]Société
7 mai 2009
Un rythme à 5 temps à Lille ?
Comme d'autres grandes villes, Lille vient de lancer une concertation
avec les parents et les enseignants pour raccourcir les journées en
travaillant le mercredi matin. Fin mai, les conseils d'écoles devront
se positionner.
L'école, le mercredi matin ? A Lille, le débat est lancé. Depuis un
mois, la ville mène officiellement une concertation sur la semaine
scolaire de 4 jours. Avec une idée : donner la possibilité aux écoles
qui le souhaiteraient de travailler le mercredi matin pour raccourcir
les journées de classe.
Selon Maurice Thoré, l'élu en charge des écoles, « les
chronobiologistes sont unanimes : 6 heures de classe par jour, soit la
durée la plus longue au monde, ce sont des élèves moins attentifs, plus
fatigués. Avec, pour certains, les deux heures d'aide personnalisée,
c'est trop ». Le propos est bien rôdé, très critique envers la
politique éducative du gouvernement. Depuis début avril, les réunions
de quartiers consacrées à la concertation commencent toujours de la
même manière. Ce soir, à la mairie de quartier de Wazemmes, devant les
parents et les enseignants Maurice Thoré, prend les mêmes précautions
pour justifier la démarche de la ville : « notre devoir est d'engager
avec vous une concertation collective que le ministère a confisquée
l'an dernier en supprimant le samedi matin de manière unilatérale ».
Espérer convaincre sans contraindre, tel est le leitmotiv de l'élu. Il
sait que le débat est passionnel, souvent animé par un tourbillon
d'avis divers, parfois tranchés. Alors, il se veut pédagogue. Au final,
« la ville n'a pas de pouvoir de décision. Ce sera aux conseils d'école
des 84 écoles lilloises de se positionner, l'Inspecteur d'académie
validant les changements de schéma scolaire ». De son côté, la ville
s'engage à mettre en place des activités périscolaires au sein d'un PEG
(projet éducatif global) pour prendre en charge les enfants qui
finiront l'école plus tôt. Car sans cela, pas de nouvelle organisation
scolaire possible. « C'est l'élément structurant » qui doit permettre
d'articuler de manière cohérente temps scolaire et périscolaire
explique AlainThirel, coordonnateur du PEG à la ville de Lille. Et
d'évoquer, les plans « lecture, nature, musique, patrimoine, à l'oeuvre
depuis 2001 qui sont à disposition des écoles pour concevoir leur
nouvelle organisation ». Un service supplémentaire « représentant 4,5
millions d'euros par an sans le moindre coût pour les familles »
explique Alain Thirel.
« La gratuité, certes, mais avec une qualité de l'encadrement » pointe
une mère d'élève. « 600 vacataires sont actuellement employés à la
mairie sur le périscolaire. La ville va t-elle enclencher des
formations pour professionnaliser le secteur ? ». Selon Maurice Thoré,
« les parents les plus opposés sont ceux qui proposent de nombreuses
activités à leurs enfants en dehors de l'école ». Pour les autres, cet
éventuel changement des rythmes de la semaine interroge. « On veut
comprendre ce que feront nos enfants durant la journée témoigne une
mère d'élève. Il faudra à nouveau se réorganiser ». Une autre
rebondit : « Si il y a de l'école le mercredi, quid des clubs de sport
ou activités culturelles ? Des nouvelles plages horaires sont elles
prévues le samedi ? » Même certains, comme Catherine, « regrettent le
samedi scolaire ou demandent que les vacances d'été soient
raccourcies ». Inutile d'espérer car la loi ne le permet pas. « Ce sont
des champs de compétences du ministère » explique l'élu.
Pour Martine Haidon, directrice en maternelle, « voilà bien la preuve
que les marges de manoeuvres sont bien ténues et ne permettent pas de
réfléchir à tous les possibles pour faire que l'école soit plus
respectueuse de l'enfant ». Avec toute l'équipe enseignante, elle ne
pense pas proposer de changement au conseil d'école. Les parents
qu'elle a réunis sont aussi du même avis. « C'est le toujours plus sans
contrepartie » explique-t-elle évoquant un sentiment d'être constamment
prise entre le marteau et l'enclume. « Le rouleau compresseur des
réformes nous a lessivés avec des conditions de travail se dégradant
encore et toujours ». Et, travailler le mercredi matin c'est aussi
« participer aux animations pédagogiques l'après midi, payer plus pour
les gardes d'enfants sans pour autant finir plus tôt en semaine avec
l'aide personnalisée, les préparations ou les réunions ». Et de
conclure « Oui pour travailler autrement mais en posant tous les
éléments sur la table qui sont pour la plupart du ressort du
ministère ».
Ce constat, les enseignants de l'école André le font aussi. Après de
longues discussions, l'équipe pense pourtant se lancer dans l'aventure
du mercredi matin scolaire. Avec un espoir. « Moins de fatigue pour les
enfants, ce peut-être moins de fatigue pour nous aussi et de plus
grandes satisfactions professionnelles » explique Françoise, la
directrice. Mais, l'expérience ne pourra se faire à n'importe quel
prix. « Nous voulons discuter avec la mairie de la pause méridienne :
réduire son temps pour reprendre plus tôt et en faire un vrai moment de
repos pour les élèves ». Et puis, il y a l'occupation des salles sur le
temps périscolaire. « Tout doit être mis au clair concernant le
matériel utilisé, les activités pratiquées. Chacun doit rester dans son
domaine de compétences » insiste Françoise.
Pierre Laumenerch, secrétaire départemental du SNUipp, confirme. « La
décision finale revient au conseil d'école. En outre, la ville doit
apporter des garanties sur des questions pratiques : utilisation et
statut des locaux scolaires, responsabilités des enseignants, pérennité
des dispositifs périscolaires » « Il n'y a pas de modèle. La
concertation aura eu au moins le mérite de mettre en lumière ce
principe » reconnaît Maurice Thoré, l'élu. « Il nous faudra nous
adapter à chaque école, construire des organisations en dentelle. On
espère débuter l'expérimentation l'année prochaine avec quelques écoles
volontaires. D'autres qui le souhaitent peuvent se donner le temps de
la concertation avec nos services durant encore une année ». De son
côté, l'inspection académique demande que « le retour au mercredi se
fasse sur un territoire cohérent ». Rien n'est tranché donc. La
réflexion continue. Le chantier des rythmes ne fait que commencer.
__________________________________________________________________
Débats en cours
C'est la circulaire du 5 juin 2008 qui permet d'ouvrir le débat sur
l'organisation de la semaine scolaire. Elle donne en effet la
possibilité de travailler sur neuf demi-journées, avec le mercredi
matin, le samedi restant obligatoirement vaqué. Dans le texte, la
proposition revient aux conseils d'école, après avis de la commune et
accord de l'inspection académique. Ainsi, tout comme Lille, Grenoble,
Angers, Brest ont également lancé une concertation pour modifier les
rythmes de la semaine. Mais, ce qui est envisageable pour des grandes
et de moyennes villes apparaît plus complexe pour des petites communes
de milieu rural notamment. En effet, ces dernières ne possèdent ni les
structures, ni les personnels qui ne leur permettent pas d'avoir les
mêmes marges de manoeuvre que les pôles urbains (transports-activités
périscolaires).
En Ille-et-Vilaine, c'est l'inspecteur d'académie qui propose aux
écoles volontaires de déposer un projet d'organisation sur neuf
demi-journées. Dans son courrier, il pointe les « contraintes fortes »
qu'impose un éventuel changement : « les animations pédagogiques les
mercredis après-midi, le remplacement court rendu plus difficile, les
mercredis matin », ainsi que « la formation continue remplacée par des
stagiaires ». Cette année, 3,6% des écoles travaillent le mercredi
matin.
__________________________________________________________________
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Décembre 2009 [[1] détails ]
147 853 visiteurs
282 170 pages lues
[rfm.gif]
La Gazette musicale
[2][recherche.jpg]
[3] Biographies musicales -- E[4]ncyclopédie -- S[5]'abonner au
bulletin -- A[6]nnonces -- [7]Forum -- [8]Liste de discussion
[9]cliquer pour prendre contact
[trait_typ_01.gif] Entendre [trait_typ_01.gif]
[10][voyage_au_pays_de_ma_nonkak.jpg]
Voyage au Pays de Ma Nonkak, Conte d'AbyGaëlle sur une musique de
J'hel. Atelier Hybrid'music, 2009 [A. 415652 ; 30 EUR]
[11][electro_couac.jpg]
Olivier Calmel Electro Couac, Sha-Docks. Yes or No Prod 2009 / Believe
distribution
[12][katsavara_et_de_l'_aube.jpg]
Guigla Katsarava (piano), Et de l'aube émerge... Polymnie 150 658,
2009 (oeuvres de Scriabine, Szymanowski, Zaborov)
[13][joseph_moog_metamorphose.jpg]
Metamorphose(n). Joseph Moog (piano). Transcriptions et para-
phrases pour le piano (Liszt, Fredmann, Moszkowski, Godowski, Busoni).
Claves Records, 2009
[14][wolff_ruines.jpg]
Jean-Claude Wolff, Ruines, Clartés stellaires (hommage à Hector
Berlioz). Ensemble « Le Temps Retrouvé », Serge Coste, dir.
[15][liz_mc_comb.jpg]
Liz McComb, The Sacred Concert. Disque GVE / Naïve, 2009
[trait_typ_01.gif] Lire [trait_typ_01.gif]
[16][charpentier_petits_motets_01.jpg]
Cessac Catherine (éditrice), Marc-Antoine Charpentier, Petits motets
(v.1) : motets à une ou deux voix. Édition critique, « Patrimoine
Musical Français : monumentales » (1.4.1), Éditions du Centre de
Musique Baroque de Versailles, 2009
[17][un_son_desenchante.jpg]
Olive Jean-Paul, Un son désenchanté. « Collection d'esthétique » (73),
Klincksieck, Paris 2008 [282 p., ISBN-19782252036822 ; 29 EUR]
[18][musique_et_bruit.jpg]
Le Vot Gérard (dir.) & Streletski Gérard (édit.), Bruit et musique
(actes du colloque du 23 janvier 2008) Publications du département
musique et musicologie, Université Lyon 2, Lumière, Lyon 2009 [X-326
p., ill ; ISBN 978-2-9527137-1-9 ; 25 EUR]
[trait_typ_01.gif] Le temps demain [trait_typ_01.gif]
[md_france48h.jpg]
[trait_typ_01.gif] Actualités [trait_typ_01.gif]
[19]Rétrospective des actualités musicales |||[20] [voir.gif]
18 janvier 2010
[21]Voir Piano international : nouvelle saison de piano en Limousin
[22]Voir Enseignement supérieur / recherche : communiqué intersyndical
pour la journée du 21 janvier 2010
[23]Voir William Christie retrouve la démesure baroque de la « Fairy
Queen » de Purcell
[24]Voir « Eugène Onéguine » à l'Opéra de Lille
[25]Voir « Tempest: without a Body », l'ange de la mort du Samoan
Ponifasio à Strasbourg
[26]Voir « Le Ciel est pour Tous », l'intolérance religieuse selon
Catherine Anne
[27]Voir « Les femmes savantes « de Molière, comme au temps du Roi
Soleil à Toulouse
[28]Voir Jean-Paul Belmondo distingué par les critiques de cinéma de
Los Angeles
[29]Voir Le musée parisien du Luxembourg ferme ses portes pour
plusieurs mois
[30]Voir La plus ancienne amputation en France remonte à la préhistoire
[31]Voir [Agenda] Les Sons d'hiver 2010 du Val-de-Marne, dès le 29
janvier
[32]Voir [Le Populaire] Le pianoforte, sa vie, son histoire
17 janvier 2010
[33]Voir Cinq cent personnes se rassemblent en soutien à la comédienne
Rayhana, agressée à Paris
[34]Voir Banlieues Bleues : 27e édition
[35]Voir La famille de Jacques Lanzmann indignée par les propos de
Dutronc
[36]Voir La violence, la guerre et l'identité dansées au théâtre
marseillais du Merlan
[37]Voir Johnny Depp dans les montagnes de Serbie: quand Hollywood se
met au vert
[38]Voir Izis, un des plus grands photographes français, méconnu,
exposé à Paris
[39]Voir Dany Laferrière : « Notre peuple ne mérite pas ça »
[40]Voir Le Bayern Munich dédommage une poétesse plagiée par Karl-Heinz
Rummenigge
[41]Voir Le film Welcome de Philippe Lioret ainsi que Jacques Audiard
récompensés
16 janvie 2010r
[42]Voir Ils ont dit Django Reinhardt ... à l'occasion de ses cent ans
[43]Voir Jonas Kaufmann, parfait héros romantique pour ses débuts en
Werther
[44]Voir Décès d'Ed Thigpen, batteur d'Oscar Peterson et Ella
Fitzgerald
[45]Voir Gainsbourg plus vrai que nature dans une « Vie héroïque »
signée Joann Sfar
[46]Voir Films français à l'étranger: après une année record, 2009 en
berne
[47]Voir Les dix longs métrages en langue française qui ont enregistré
le plus d'entrées à l'étranger depuis dix ans
[48]Voir L'image de "cinéma d'auteur" des films français "rend parfois
plus difficile" leur exportation
[49]Voir |Le Journal du Dimanche] Werther : la plus belle voix au monde
[50]Voir [Le Progrès] Un violon de 18 000 euros écrasé dans le tramway
[51]Voir [Le Figaro] Les orchestres symphoniques cherchent la bonne
recette
15 janvier 2010
[52]Voir L'auteur et comédienne Rayhana agressée à Paris
[53]Voir Les nominés aux Victoires de la musique classique 2010
[54]Voir Décès du crooner américain Teddy Pendergrass, légende de la
soul music
[55]Voir Ouverture jeudi du festival de cirque de Monte-Carlo
[56]Voir Sénégal: décès du poète et comédien d'origine haïtienne Lucien
Lemoine
[57]Voir Décès du photographe américain Dennis Stock de l'agence Magnum
[58]Voir Haïti : mort de l'écrivain Georges Anglade
[59]Voir A 81 ans, Tintin entame de nouvelles aventures en Chine
[60]Voir Le Muséum d'histoire naturelle met en ligne les espèces
présentes et disparues en France
[61]Voir [Nouvel Observateur] Boltanski entre au Grand-Palais
14 janvier 2010
[62]Voir Benoît Jacquot débute à l'Opéra de Paris, aves une mise en
scène de « Werther » de Jules Massenet
[63]Voir L'Académie du jazz a décerné ses lauriers 2009
[64]Voir Dutronc, Biolay, Christophe au festival Chorus des
Hauts-de-Seine
[65]Voir Jacques Dutronc revisite ses classiques sur la scène du Zénith
[66]Voir L'humour acide de « La Noce » de Bertold Brecht
[67]Voir « Les estivants » de Gorki mis en scène âr Eric Lacascade à
Rennes
[68]Voir Monumenta: des médiateurs pour accompagner l'émotion du public
[69]Voir Le spectre lumineux d'une lointaine exoplanète capté depuis la
Terre
[70]Voir [L'Italie à Paris] Le violon de Mozart avec Giuliano
Carmignola
[71]Voir [Libé Lille] Poignant Onéguine à l'Opéra de Lille
[72]Voir [Éco 89] Lady Gaga : du clip musical à l'émission de
télé-achat
[73]Voir [Libé Lyon] Les notes salées de l'Orchestre national de Lyon
13 janvier 2010
[74]Voir Un spectacle multimédia à Bastille
[75]Voir Biennale des quatuors à cordes à la Cité de la musique
[76]Voir Pauline Viardot cent ans après être morte
[77]Voir Un album inédit de Jimi Hendrix, « Valleys of Neptune », en
vente en mars
[78]Voir Les nominations aux Victoires de la musique
[79]Voir Quand Bollywood s'empare de l'opéra français
[80]Voir Farruquito recouvre la liberté
[81]Voir Vampire Weekend se dévergonde sous le soleil de Mexico avec
«Contra »
[82]Voir Premiers pas de stars sur les planches par temps de mépris des
arts et de la culture
[83]Voir Johnny Depp en Serbie pour le festival de cinéma d'Emir
Kusturica
[84]Voir James Ellroy en star du polar au théâtre du Rond-Point
[85]Voir L'Ecole de journalisme de Sciences Po a été reconnue par la
profession
[86]Voir Le philosophe Daniel Bensaïd est mort
[87]Voir Les films de la semaine
[88]Voir Décès de Miep Gies, la femme qui aida Anne Frank et sa famille
à survivre
12janvier 2010
[89]Voir Le nouveau jazz français excelle à New York aux côtés du rock
mongol
[90]Voir À 17 ans, Alexander Prior codirige l'orchestre symphonique de
Seattle
[91]Voir Mort de Otmar Suitner, grand dirigeant du Staatsoper de Berlin
[92]Voir La salsa séduit de plus en plus d'Ethiopiens
[93]Voir Denis Podalydès dans « Le cas Jekyll » au Théâtre de Chaillot
[94]Voir Décès d'Éric Rohmer
[95]Voir Herta Müller, Nobel de littérature, espionnée par un autre
écrivain
[96]Voir Découverte archéologique à Gaza près de la frontière
égyptienne
[97]Voir Plainte jordanienne auprès de l'UNESCO, sur la propriété des
manuscrits de la mer Morte
[98]Voir Découverte d'une habitation de l'âge de pierre près de
Tel-Aviv
[99]Voir [France-Soir] Manu Katché : « Duffy m'a confondu avec Manu
Chao »
[100]Voir [Le Figaro] L'esprit d'un grand musicien (Karajan)
[101]Voir [Le Figaro] Le disque compact ne serait pas né sans
lui (Karajan)
[102]Voir [Radio France] Profession : copiste-graveur
[103]Voir [Le Devoir.com] Le Metropolitan Opera au cinéma ; Le
Chevalier à la rose, opéra viennois
[104]Rétrospective des actualités musicales |||[105] [voir.gif]
[106]février 2009 - [107]mars 2009 - [108]avril 2009 - [109]mai 2009 -
[110]juin 2009 - [111]juillet 2009 - [112]août 2009 - [113]septembre
2009 - [114]octobre 2009 - [115]novembre 2009 - [116]décembre 2009 -
[117]janvier 2010
[cul_200.gif]
[trait_typ_01.gif] Événement [trait_typ_01.gif]
19 janviezr 2010, 12h30
Genève, Temple de la Fusterie
La Moya
Trombone Quartet
[118][19a.jpg]
[119][charpentier_histoires_sacrees_6.jpg]
Gosione C. Jane & Bisaro Xavier (éditeurs), Marc-Antoine Charpentier :
Histoires sacrées (v. 6). « Patrimoine Musical Français », Éditions du
Centre de Musique Baroque de Versailles 2009 [ ISMN CXXVI-173 p. ;
M-707034-57-6 ; 115,00 EUR]
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7 mai 2009
Un rythme à 5 temps à Lille ?
Comme d'autres grandes villes, Lille vient de lancer une concertation
avec les parents et les enseignants pour raccourcir les journées en
travaillant le mercredi matin. Fin mai, les conseils d'écoles devront
se positionner.
L'école, le mercredi matin ? A Lille, le débat est lancé. Depuis un
mois, la ville mène officiellement une concertation sur la semaine
scolaire de 4 jours. Avec une idée : donner la possibilité aux écoles
qui le souhaiteraient de travailler le mercredi matin pour raccourcir
les journées de classe.
Selon Maurice Thoré, l'élu en charge des écoles, « les
chronobiologistes sont unanimes : 6 heures de classe par jour, soit la
durée la plus longue au monde, ce sont des élèves moins attentifs, plus
fatigués. Avec, pour certains, les deux heures d'aide personnalisée,
c'est trop ». Le propos est bien rôdé, très critique envers la
politique éducative du gouvernement. Depuis début avril, les réunions
de quartiers consacrées à la concertation commencent toujours de la
même manière. Ce soir, à la mairie de quartier de Wazemmes, devant les
parents et les enseignants Maurice Thoré, prend les mêmes précautions
pour justifier la démarche de la ville : « notre devoir est d'engager
avec vous une concertation collective que le ministère a confisquée
l'an dernier en supprimant le samedi matin de manière unilatérale ».
Espérer convaincre sans contraindre, tel est le leitmotiv de l'élu. Il
sait que le débat est passionnel, souvent animé par un tourbillon
d'avis divers, parfois tranchés. Alors, il se veut pédagogue. Au final,
« la ville n'a pas de pouvoir de décision. Ce sera aux conseils d'école
des 84 écoles lilloises de se positionner, l'Inspecteur d'académie
validant les changements de schéma scolaire ». De son côté, la ville
s'engage à mettre en place des activités périscolaires au sein d'un PEG
(projet éducatif global) pour prendre en charge les enfants qui
finiront l'école plus tôt. Car sans cela, pas de nouvelle organisation
scolaire possible. « C'est l'élément structurant » qui doit permettre
d'articuler de manière cohérente temps scolaire et périscolaire
explique AlainThirel, coordonnateur du PEG à la ville de Lille. Et
d'évoquer, les plans « lecture, nature, musique, patrimoine, à l'oeuvre
depuis 2001 qui sont à disposition des écoles pour concevoir leur
nouvelle organisation ». Un service supplémentaire « représentant 4,5
millions d'euros par an sans le moindre coût pour les familles »
explique Alain Thirel.
« La gratuité, certes, mais avec une qualité de l'encadrement » pointe
une mère d'élève. « 600 vacataires sont actuellement employés à la
mairie sur le périscolaire. La ville va t-elle enclencher des
formations pour professionnaliser le secteur ? ». Selon Maurice Thoré,
« les parents les plus opposés sont ceux qui proposent de nombreuses
activités à leurs enfants en dehors de l'école ». Pour les autres, cet
éventuel changement des rythmes de la semaine interroge. « On veut
comprendre ce que feront nos enfants durant la journée témoigne une
mère d'élève. Il faudra à nouveau se réorganiser ». Une autre
rebondit : « Si il y a de l'école le mercredi, quid des clubs de sport
ou activités culturelles ? Des nouvelles plages horaires sont elles
prévues le samedi ? » Même certains, comme Catherine, « regrettent le
samedi scolaire ou demandent que les vacances d'été soient
raccourcies ». Inutile d'espérer car la loi ne le permet pas. « Ce sont
des champs de compétences du ministère » explique l'élu.
Pour Martine Haidon, directrice en maternelle, « voilà bien la preuve
que les marges de manoeuvres sont bien ténues et ne permettent pas de
réfléchir à tous les possibles pour faire que l'école soit plus
respectueuse de l'enfant ». Avec toute l'équipe enseignante, elle ne
pense pas proposer de changement au conseil d'école. Les parents
qu'elle a réunis sont aussi du même avis. « C'est le toujours plus sans
contrepartie » explique-t-elle évoquant un sentiment d'être constamment
prise entre le marteau et l'enclume. « Le rouleau compresseur des
réformes nous a lessivés avec des conditions de travail se dégradant
encore et toujours ». Et, travailler le mercredi matin c'est aussi
« participer aux animations pédagogiques l'après midi, payer plus pour
les gardes d'enfants sans pour autant finir plus tôt en semaine avec
l'aide personnalisée, les préparations ou les réunions ». Et de
conclure « Oui pour travailler autrement mais en posant tous les
éléments sur la table qui sont pour la plupart du ressort du
ministère ».
Ce constat, les enseignants de l'école André le font aussi. Après de
longues discussions, l'équipe pense pourtant se lancer dans l'aventure
du mercredi matin scolaire. Avec un espoir. « Moins de fatigue pour les
enfants, ce peut-être moins de fatigue pour nous aussi et de plus
grandes satisfactions professionnelles » explique Françoise, la
directrice. Mais, l'expérience ne pourra se faire à n'importe quel
prix. « Nous voulons discuter avec la mairie de la pause méridienne :
réduire son temps pour reprendre plus tôt et en faire un vrai moment de
repos pour les élèves ». Et puis, il y a l'occupation des salles sur le
temps périscolaire. « Tout doit être mis au clair concernant le
matériel utilisé, les activités pratiquées. Chacun doit rester dans son
domaine de compétences » insiste Françoise.
Pierre Laumenerch, secrétaire départemental du SNUipp, confirme. « La
décision finale revient au conseil d'école. En outre, la ville doit
apporter des garanties sur des questions pratiques : utilisation et
statut des locaux scolaires, responsabilités des enseignants, pérennité
des dispositifs périscolaires » « Il n'y a pas de modèle. La
concertation aura eu au moins le mérite de mettre en lumière ce
principe » reconnaît Maurice Thoré, l'élu. « Il nous faudra nous
adapter à chaque école, construire des organisations en dentelle. On
espère débuter l'expérimentation l'année prochaine avec quelques écoles
volontaires. D'autres qui le souhaitent peuvent se donner le temps de
la concertation avec nos services durant encore une année ». De son
côté, l'inspection académique demande que « le retour au mercredi se
fasse sur un territoire cohérent ». Rien n'est tranché donc. La
réflexion continue. Le chantier des rythmes ne fait que commencer.
__________________________________________________________________
Débats en cours
C'est la circulaire du 5 juin 2008 qui permet d'ouvrir le débat sur
l'organisation de la semaine scolaire. Elle donne en effet la
possibilité de travailler sur neuf demi-journées, avec le mercredi
matin, le samedi restant obligatoirement vaqué. Dans le texte, la
proposition revient aux conseils d'école, après avis de la commune et
accord de l'inspection académique. Ainsi, tout comme Lille, Grenoble,
Angers, Brest ont également lancé une concertation pour modifier les
rythmes de la semaine. Mais, ce qui est envisageable pour des grandes
et de moyennes villes apparaît plus complexe pour des petites communes
de milieu rural notamment. En effet, ces dernières ne possèdent ni les
structures, ni les personnels qui ne leur permettent pas d'avoir les
mêmes marges de manoeuvre que les pôles urbains (transports-activités
périscolaires).
En Ille-et-Vilaine, c'est l'inspecteur d'académie qui propose aux
écoles volontaires de déposer un projet d'organisation sur neuf
demi-journées. Dans son courrier, il pointe les « contraintes fortes »
qu'impose un éventuel changement : « les animations pédagogiques les
mercredis après-midi, le remplacement court rendu plus difficile, les
mercredis matin », ainsi que « la formation continue remplacée par des
stagiaires ». Cette année, 3,6% des écoles travaillent le mercredi
matin.
__________________________________________________________________
Kisaitou - en ligne
[15]Consulter le kisaitou
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Décembre 2009 [[1] détails ]
147 853 visiteurs
282 170 pages lues
[rfm.gif]
La Gazette musicale
[2][recherche.jpg]
[3] Biographies musicales -- E[4]ncyclopédie -- S[5]'abonner au
bulletin -- A[6]nnonces -- [7]Forum -- [8]Liste de discussion
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[trait_typ_01.gif] Entendre [trait_typ_01.gif]
[10][voyage_au_pays_de_ma_nonkak.jpg]
Voyage au Pays de Ma Nonkak, Conte d'AbyGaëlle sur une musique de
J'hel. Atelier Hybrid'music, 2009 [A. 415652 ; 30 EUR]
[11][electro_couac.jpg]
Olivier Calmel Electro Couac, Sha-Docks. Yes or No Prod 2009 / Believe
distribution
[12][katsavara_et_de_l'_aube.jpg]
Guigla Katsarava (piano), Et de l'aube émerge... Polymnie 150 658,
2009 (oeuvres de Scriabine, Szymanowski, Zaborov)
[13][joseph_moog_metamorphose.jpg]
Metamorphose(n). Joseph Moog (piano). Transcriptions et para-
phrases pour le piano (Liszt, Fredmann, Moszkowski, Godowski, Busoni).
Claves Records, 2009
[14][wolff_ruines.jpg]
Jean-Claude Wolff, Ruines, Clartés stellaires (hommage à Hector
Berlioz). Ensemble « Le Temps Retrouvé », Serge Coste, dir.
[15][liz_mc_comb.jpg]
Liz McComb, The Sacred Concert. Disque GVE / Naïve, 2009
[trait_typ_01.gif] Lire [trait_typ_01.gif]
[16][charpentier_petits_motets_01.jpg]
Cessac Catherine (éditrice), Marc-Antoine Charpentier, Petits motets
(v.1) : motets à une ou deux voix. Édition critique, « Patrimoine
Musical Français : monumentales » (1.4.1), Éditions du Centre de
Musique Baroque de Versailles, 2009
[17][un_son_desenchante.jpg]
Olive Jean-Paul, Un son désenchanté. « Collection d'esthétique » (73),
Klincksieck, Paris 2008 [282 p., ISBN-19782252036822 ; 29 EUR]
[18][musique_et_bruit.jpg]
Le Vot Gérard (dir.) & Streletski Gérard (édit.), Bruit et musique
(actes du colloque du 23 janvier 2008) Publications du département
musique et musicologie, Université Lyon 2, Lumière, Lyon 2009 [X-326
p., ill ; ISBN 978-2-9527137-1-9 ; 25 EUR]
[trait_typ_01.gif] Le temps demain [trait_typ_01.gif]
[md_france48h.jpg]
[trait_typ_01.gif] Actualités [trait_typ_01.gif]
[19]Rétrospective des actualités musicales |||[20] [voir.gif]
18 janvier 2010
[21]Voir Piano international : nouvelle saison de piano en Limousin
[22]Voir Enseignement supérieur / recherche : communiqué intersyndical
pour la journée du 21 janvier 2010
[23]Voir William Christie retrouve la démesure baroque de la « Fairy
Queen » de Purcell
[24]Voir « Eugène Onéguine » à l'Opéra de Lille
[25]Voir « Tempest: without a Body », l'ange de la mort du Samoan
Ponifasio à Strasbourg
[26]Voir « Le Ciel est pour Tous », l'intolérance religieuse selon
Catherine Anne
[27]Voir « Les femmes savantes « de Molière, comme au temps du Roi
Soleil à Toulouse
[28]Voir Jean-Paul Belmondo distingué par les critiques de cinéma de
Los Angeles
[29]Voir Le musée parisien du Luxembourg ferme ses portes pour
plusieurs mois
[30]Voir La plus ancienne amputation en France remonte à la préhistoire
[31]Voir [Agenda] Les Sons d'hiver 2010 du Val-de-Marne, dès le 29
janvier
[32]Voir [Le Populaire] Le pianoforte, sa vie, son histoire
17 janvier 2010
[33]Voir Cinq cent personnes se rassemblent en soutien à la comédienne
Rayhana, agressée à Paris
[34]Voir Banlieues Bleues : 27e édition
[35]Voir La famille de Jacques Lanzmann indignée par les propos de
Dutronc
[36]Voir La violence, la guerre et l'identité dansées au théâtre
marseillais du Merlan
[37]Voir Johnny Depp dans les montagnes de Serbie: quand Hollywood se
met au vert
[38]Voir Izis, un des plus grands photographes français, méconnu,
exposé à Paris
[39]Voir Dany Laferrière : « Notre peuple ne mérite pas ça »
[40]Voir Le Bayern Munich dédommage une poétesse plagiée par Karl-Heinz
Rummenigge
[41]Voir Le film Welcome de Philippe Lioret ainsi que Jacques Audiard
récompensés
16 janvie 2010r
[42]Voir Ils ont dit Django Reinhardt ... à l'occasion de ses cent ans
[43]Voir Jonas Kaufmann, parfait héros romantique pour ses débuts en
Werther
[44]Voir Décès d'Ed Thigpen, batteur d'Oscar Peterson et Ella
Fitzgerald
[45]Voir Gainsbourg plus vrai que nature dans une « Vie héroïque »
signée Joann Sfar
[46]Voir Films français à l'étranger: après une année record, 2009 en
berne
[47]Voir Les dix longs métrages en langue française qui ont enregistré
le plus d'entrées à l'étranger depuis dix ans
[48]Voir L'image de "cinéma d'auteur" des films français "rend parfois
plus difficile" leur exportation
[49]Voir |Le Journal du Dimanche] Werther : la plus belle voix au monde
[50]Voir [Le Progrès] Un violon de 18 000 euros écrasé dans le tramway
[51]Voir [Le Figaro] Les orchestres symphoniques cherchent la bonne
recette
15 janvier 2010
[52]Voir L'auteur et comédienne Rayhana agressée à Paris
[53]Voir Les nominés aux Victoires de la musique classique 2010
[54]Voir Décès du crooner américain Teddy Pendergrass, légende de la
soul music
[55]Voir Ouverture jeudi du festival de cirque de Monte-Carlo
[56]Voir Sénégal: décès du poète et comédien d'origine haïtienne Lucien
Lemoine
[57]Voir Décès du photographe américain Dennis Stock de l'agence Magnum
[58]Voir Haïti : mort de l'écrivain Georges Anglade
[59]Voir A 81 ans, Tintin entame de nouvelles aventures en Chine
[60]Voir Le Muséum d'histoire naturelle met en ligne les espèces
présentes et disparues en France
[61]Voir [Nouvel Observateur] Boltanski entre au Grand-Palais
14 janvier 2010
[62]Voir Benoît Jacquot débute à l'Opéra de Paris, aves une mise en
scène de « Werther » de Jules Massenet
[63]Voir L'Académie du jazz a décerné ses lauriers 2009
[64]Voir Dutronc, Biolay, Christophe au festival Chorus des
Hauts-de-Seine
[65]Voir Jacques Dutronc revisite ses classiques sur la scène du Zénith
[66]Voir L'humour acide de « La Noce » de Bertold Brecht
[67]Voir « Les estivants » de Gorki mis en scène âr Eric Lacascade à
Rennes
[68]Voir Monumenta: des médiateurs pour accompagner l'émotion du public
[69]Voir Le spectre lumineux d'une lointaine exoplanète capté depuis la
Terre
[70]Voir [L'Italie à Paris] Le violon de Mozart avec Giuliano
Carmignola
[71]Voir [Libé Lille] Poignant Onéguine à l'Opéra de Lille
[72]Voir [Éco 89] Lady Gaga : du clip musical à l'émission de
télé-achat
[73]Voir [Libé Lyon] Les notes salées de l'Orchestre national de Lyon
13 janvier 2010
[74]Voir Un spectacle multimédia à Bastille
[75]Voir Biennale des quatuors à cordes à la Cité de la musique
[76]Voir Pauline Viardot cent ans après être morte
[77]Voir Un album inédit de Jimi Hendrix, « Valleys of Neptune », en
vente en mars
[78]Voir Les nominations aux Victoires de la musique
[79]Voir Quand Bollywood s'empare de l'opéra français
[80]Voir Farruquito recouvre la liberté
[81]Voir Vampire Weekend se dévergonde sous le soleil de Mexico avec
«Contra »
[82]Voir Premiers pas de stars sur les planches par temps de mépris des
arts et de la culture
[83]Voir Johnny Depp en Serbie pour le festival de cinéma d'Emir
Kusturica
[84]Voir James Ellroy en star du polar au théâtre du Rond-Point
[85]Voir L'Ecole de journalisme de Sciences Po a été reconnue par la
profession
[86]Voir Le philosophe Daniel Bensaïd est mort
[87]Voir Les films de la semaine
[88]Voir Décès de Miep Gies, la femme qui aida Anne Frank et sa famille
à survivre
12janvier 2010
[89]Voir Le nouveau jazz français excelle à New York aux côtés du rock
mongol
[90]Voir À 17 ans, Alexander Prior codirige l'orchestre symphonique de
Seattle
[91]Voir Mort de Otmar Suitner, grand dirigeant du Staatsoper de Berlin
[92]Voir La salsa séduit de plus en plus d'Ethiopiens
[93]Voir Denis Podalydès dans « Le cas Jekyll » au Théâtre de Chaillot
[94]Voir Décès d'Éric Rohmer
[95]Voir Herta Müller, Nobel de littérature, espionnée par un autre
écrivain
[96]Voir Découverte archéologique à Gaza près de la frontière
égyptienne
[97]Voir Plainte jordanienne auprès de l'UNESCO, sur la propriété des
manuscrits de la mer Morte
[98]Voir Découverte d'une habitation de l'âge de pierre près de
Tel-Aviv
[99]Voir [France-Soir] Manu Katché : « Duffy m'a confondu avec Manu
Chao »
[100]Voir [Le Figaro] L'esprit d'un grand musicien (Karajan)
[101]Voir [Le Figaro] Le disque compact ne serait pas né sans
lui (Karajan)
[102]Voir [Radio France] Profession : copiste-graveur
[103]Voir [Le Devoir.com] Le Metropolitan Opera au cinéma ; Le
Chevalier à la rose, opéra viennois
[104]Rétrospective des actualités musicales |||[105] [voir.gif]
[106]février 2009 - [107]mars 2009 - [108]avril 2009 - [109]mai 2009 -
[110]juin 2009 - [111]juillet 2009 - [112]août 2009 - [113]septembre
2009 - [114]octobre 2009 - [115]novembre 2009 - [116]décembre 2009 -
[117]janvier 2010
[cul_200.gif]
[trait_typ_01.gif] Événement [trait_typ_01.gif]
19 janviezr 2010, 12h30
Genève, Temple de la Fusterie
La Moya
Trombone Quartet
[118][19a.jpg]
[119][charpentier_histoires_sacrees_6.jpg]
Gosione C. Jane & Bisaro Xavier (éditeurs), Marc-Antoine Charpentier :
Histoires sacrées (v. 6). « Patrimoine Musical Français », Éditions du
Centre de Musique Baroque de Versailles 2009 [ ISMN CXXVI-173 p. ;
M-707034-57-6 ; 115,00 EUR]
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7 mai 2009
Un rythme à 5 temps à Lille ?
Comme d'autres grandes villes, Lille vient de lancer une concertation
avec les parents et les enseignants pour raccourcir les journées en
travaillant le mercredi matin. Fin mai, les conseils d'écoles devront
se positionner.
L'école, le mercredi matin ? A Lille, le débat est lancé. Depuis un
mois, la ville mène officiellement une concertation sur la semaine
scolaire de 4 jours. Avec une idée : donner la possibilité aux écoles
qui le souhaiteraient de travailler le mercredi matin pour raccourcir
les journées de classe.
Selon Maurice Thoré, l'élu en charge des écoles, « les
chronobiologistes sont unanimes : 6 heures de classe par jour, soit la
durée la plus longue au monde, ce sont des élèves moins attentifs, plus
fatigués. Avec, pour certains, les deux heures d'aide personnalisée,
c'est trop ». Le propos est bien rôdé, très critique envers la
politique éducative du gouvernement. Depuis début avril, les réunions
de quartiers consacrées à la concertation commencent toujours de la
même manière. Ce soir, à la mairie de quartier de Wazemmes, devant les
parents et les enseignants Maurice Thoré, prend les mêmes précautions
pour justifier la démarche de la ville : « notre devoir est d'engager
avec vous une concertation collective que le ministère a confisquée
l'an dernier en supprimant le samedi matin de manière unilatérale ».
Espérer convaincre sans contraindre, tel est le leitmotiv de l'élu. Il
sait que le débat est passionnel, souvent animé par un tourbillon
d'avis divers, parfois tranchés. Alors, il se veut pédagogue. Au final,
« la ville n'a pas de pouvoir de décision. Ce sera aux conseils d'école
des 84 écoles lilloises de se positionner, l'Inspecteur d'académie
validant les changements de schéma scolaire ». De son côté, la ville
s'engage à mettre en place des activités périscolaires au sein d'un PEG
(projet éducatif global) pour prendre en charge les enfants qui
finiront l'école plus tôt. Car sans cela, pas de nouvelle organisation
scolaire possible. « C'est l'élément structurant » qui doit permettre
d'articuler de manière cohérente temps scolaire et périscolaire
explique AlainThirel, coordonnateur du PEG à la ville de Lille. Et
d'évoquer, les plans « lecture, nature, musique, patrimoine, à l'oeuvre
depuis 2001 qui sont à disposition des écoles pour concevoir leur
nouvelle organisation ». Un service supplémentaire « représentant 4,5
millions d'euros par an sans le moindre coût pour les familles »
explique Alain Thirel.
« La gratuité, certes, mais avec une qualité de l'encadrement » pointe
une mère d'élève. « 600 vacataires sont actuellement employés à la
mairie sur le périscolaire. La ville va t-elle enclencher des
formations pour professionnaliser le secteur ? ». Selon Maurice Thoré,
« les parents les plus opposés sont ceux qui proposent de nombreuses
activités à leurs enfants en dehors de l'école ». Pour les autres, cet
éventuel changement des rythmes de la semaine interroge. « On veut
comprendre ce que feront nos enfants durant la journée témoigne une
mère d'élève. Il faudra à nouveau se réorganiser ». Une autre
rebondit : « Si il y a de l'école le mercredi, quid des clubs de sport
ou activités culturelles ? Des nouvelles plages horaires sont elles
prévues le samedi ? » Même certains, comme Catherine, « regrettent le
samedi scolaire ou demandent que les vacances d'été soient
raccourcies ». Inutile d'espérer car la loi ne le permet pas. « Ce sont
des champs de compétences du ministère » explique l'élu.
Pour Martine Haidon, directrice en maternelle, « voilà bien la preuve
que les marges de manoeuvres sont bien ténues et ne permettent pas de
réfléchir à tous les possibles pour faire que l'école soit plus
respectueuse de l'enfant ». Avec toute l'équipe enseignante, elle ne
pense pas proposer de changement au conseil d'école. Les parents
qu'elle a réunis sont aussi du même avis. « C'est le toujours plus sans
contrepartie » explique-t-elle évoquant un sentiment d'être constamment
prise entre le marteau et l'enclume. « Le rouleau compresseur des
réformes nous a lessivés avec des conditions de travail se dégradant
encore et toujours ». Et, travailler le mercredi matin c'est aussi
« participer aux animations pédagogiques l'après midi, payer plus pour
les gardes d'enfants sans pour autant finir plus tôt en semaine avec
l'aide personnalisée, les préparations ou les réunions ». Et de
conclure « Oui pour travailler autrement mais en posant tous les
éléments sur la table qui sont pour la plupart du ressort du
ministère ».
Ce constat, les enseignants de l'école André le font aussi. Après de
longues discussions, l'équipe pense pourtant se lancer dans l'aventure
du mercredi matin scolaire. Avec un espoir. « Moins de fatigue pour les
enfants, ce peut-être moins de fatigue pour nous aussi et de plus
grandes satisfactions professionnelles » explique Françoise, la
directrice. Mais, l'expérience ne pourra se faire à n'importe quel
prix. « Nous voulons discuter avec la mairie de la pause méridienne :
réduire son temps pour reprendre plus tôt et en faire un vrai moment de
repos pour les élèves ». Et puis, il y a l'occupation des salles sur le
temps périscolaire. « Tout doit être mis au clair concernant le
matériel utilisé, les activités pratiquées. Chacun doit rester dans son
domaine de compétences » insiste Françoise.
Pierre Laumenerch, secrétaire départemental du SNUipp, confirme. « La
décision finale revient au conseil d'école. En outre, la ville doit
apporter des garanties sur des questions pratiques : utilisation et
statut des locaux scolaires, responsabilités des enseignants, pérennité
des dispositifs périscolaires » « Il n'y a pas de modèle. La
concertation aura eu au moins le mérite de mettre en lumière ce
principe » reconnaît Maurice Thoré, l'élu. « Il nous faudra nous
adapter à chaque école, construire des organisations en dentelle. On
espère débuter l'expérimentation l'année prochaine avec quelques écoles
volontaires. D'autres qui le souhaitent peuvent se donner le temps de
la concertation avec nos services durant encore une année ». De son
côté, l'inspection académique demande que « le retour au mercredi se
fasse sur un territoire cohérent ». Rien n'est tranché donc. La
réflexion continue. Le chantier des rythmes ne fait que commencer.
__________________________________________________________________
Débats en cours
C'est la circulaire du 5 juin 2008 qui permet d'ouvrir le débat sur
l'organisation de la semaine scolaire. Elle donne en effet la
possibilité de travailler sur neuf demi-journées, avec le mercredi
matin, le samedi restant obligatoirement vaqué. Dans le texte, la
proposition revient aux conseils d'école, après avis de la commune et
accord de l'inspection académique. Ainsi, tout comme Lille, Grenoble,
Angers, Brest ont également lancé une concertation pour modifier les
rythmes de la semaine. Mais, ce qui est envisageable pour des grandes
et de moyennes villes apparaît plus complexe pour des petites communes
de milieu rural notamment. En effet, ces dernières ne possèdent ni les
structures, ni les personnels qui ne leur permettent pas d'avoir les
mêmes marges de manoeuvre que les pôles urbains (transports-activités
périscolaires).
En Ille-et-Vilaine, c'est l'inspecteur d'académie qui propose aux
écoles volontaires de déposer un projet d'organisation sur neuf
demi-journées. Dans son courrier, il pointe les « contraintes fortes »
qu'impose un éventuel changement : « les animations pédagogiques les
mercredis après-midi, le remplacement court rendu plus difficile, les
mercredis matin », ainsi que « la formation continue remplacée par des
stagiaires ». Cette année, 3,6% des écoles travaillent le mercredi
matin.
__________________________________________________________________
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#[1]Semen - Articles [2]Semen - Numéros
[3]Aller au contenu | [4]Aller au menu | [5]Recherche
[6]Semen
[7]16-2003, Rythme de la prose
Le rythme de la prose
Éric Bordas
[8]Index | [9]Texte | [10]Bibliographie | [11]Notes | [12]Citation |
[13]Auteur
* [14]Signaler ce document
* [15]Sommaire
* [16]Article suivant
Index
Mots clés :
[17]Prose, [18]Rythme, [19]Sémantique, [20]Sémiotique, [21]Style
Texte intégral
1 Comme chacun sait, le rythme est partout : dans la vie quotidienne
(en tant qu'expérience), comme dans les discours savants (en tant que
référence). Dans le monde, comme dans la prose du monde qui rend
celui-ci sensible à défaut de toujours le rendre intelligible. La
récurrence de cette perception et de cette mention, rythme elle-même
nos tentatives de rapprochement du mouvement et du temps pour permettre
une appréhension plus claire du sujet recteur. Conséquence bien connue
et inévitable : le mot (banalisé) tend à remplacer le concept
(incertain), pour évacuer les questions de fond, à commencer par les
définitions concurrentes[22]1. Ainsi, par exemple, se demande Pierre
Sauvanet, dans une thèse magistrale de philosophie consacré à cet objet
instable (2000, t. 1, p. 147), « qu'y a-t-il au juste de commun entre
les trois expressions suivantes : un rythme ternaire, un rythme
cardiaque, un rythme syncopé ? ». Filons-nous une métaphore ? mais
laquelle, au juste ? N'avons-nous pas plutôt trois référents bien
distincts, trois objets perceptibles par leurs qualités rythmiques, que
nous assimilons à une superstructure cognitive qui serait ce rythme
magique. Car la superposition des emplois lexicaux ne saurait passer
pour une syncrèse acceptable : « rythme ternaire désigne a priori une
pure structure formelle, à laquelle seule une périodicité potentielle
conférerait a posteriori une temporalité ; rythme cardiaque désigne au
contraire a priori un simple cycle de battements, se répétant à
intervalles réguliers, auquel seule une structure de pensée a
posteriori conférerait une intelligibilité ; quant au rythme syncopé,
il renvoie à la dimension fondamentale du mouvement, qui s'oppose à
tout ce qui est mécanique ou métrique, et qui se laisse difficilement
appréhender a priori. Seule l'analyse théorique permet de le
distinguer » (Sauvanet, ibid.). Parlons-nous donc encore de la même
chose ?
* [23]1 Voir les « 100 définitions du rythme » réunies par (...)
2 De la même façon, et dans le domaine de la langue, ce que nous
appelons rythme en poésie versifiée classique correspond-il au rythme
de la prose ? La prose, d'ailleurs, a-t-elle un rythme ? Une réponse
catégorique n'est pas possible sans quelques mises au point générales,
et l'on anticipera tout de suite la conclusion en affirmant que ce
clivage artificiel, qui oppose prose et poésie, est absolument
intenable.
3
4 On a la (bonne) habitude de commencer toute réflexion sur le rythme
par la définition de Platon : « ... cet ordre du mouvement a reçu le
nom de rythme »[24]2. L'organisation du mouvement rythmé (et rythmique)
s'opère formellement grâce à l'existence de « relais de même nature »
(Pineau, 1979, p. 12) que la perception, auditive et/ou visuelle,
sensible quoi qu'il en soit, repère dans une construction générale, une
configuration des matériaux traités. Le mouvement est ainsi défini par
l'alternance dynamique des « élans » et des « posés »[25]3 : ces relais
doivent être assez rapprochés pour que leur réunion fasse forme. Du
point de vue de la motivation d'un tel mouvement physique, Nicolas
Abraham (1972), se fondant sur la psychanalyse, a montré, à la source
de l'énergie rythmique, la pression permanente du désir humain
cherchant sans cesse à se donner des moyens de se satisfaire, puis
insuffisamment satisfait par chacun des moyens qu'il a élaborés et
remis en quête par le sentiment de frustration qui découle de cette
expérience. En fait, il apparaît très vite que le principal problème à
résoudre est celui d'un métalangage : comment dire le rythme comme
configuration temporelle organisée ?
* [26]2 Lois, 665a.
* [27]3 Traduction, aussi simple que possible, des mots grecs (...)
5 Benveniste, dans son étude lexicale de ce qu'il présentait comme « le
principe du mouvement cadencé » (1966, p. 335), a admis l'effort de
métaphorisation presque indispensable pour suggérer un contenu
sémantique à l'idée de rythme, sans pour autant cacher ses réticences
devant les dérives imprécises que semblable conceptualisation par
l'image ne pouvait qu'entraîner. Objet d'une évidente présence en
musique bien sûr, mais aussi en poésie versifiée, le rythme se perçoit
-- à défaut de se définir -- comme une « alternance de marques (temps
fort, temps faible) du même et du différent » (Dessons & Meschonnic,
1998, p. 33), de vide et de plein, de longues et de brèves, comme un
découpage, par intervalles, du son sur fond de silence. Cette
conception peut conduire à oublier que le rythme est fondamentalement
un mouvement, et non un compte, un pointage, oubli entériné par la
métrique, qui entretient une notion fausse des unités (vers, phrase ou
strophe) en privilégiant le schéma sur le discours, et qui rend
l'analyse du rythme de la prose presque toujours caduque[28]4. C'est
pourquoi, approfondissant l'approche de Benveniste, Henri Meschonnic
(1982, pp. 69-70) nous a appris à penser le rythme comme « une
structure », « un niveau », qui est l'organisation même du sens dans le
discours[29]5. Le rythme découvre le sens de l'énoncé, et, partant, la
trace du sujet de/dans cet énoncé[30]6. De sorte que c'est toute une
critique du signe linguistique que la reconnaissance de la notion de
rythme implique par elle-même : le rythme, comme organisation du
continu dans le langage (Goux, 1999), met en évidence la structure
discontinue du signe dans la paradigmatique langagière. Tout ceci --
dont il faut bien mesurer l'importance, car il s'agit rien de moins que
d'une redistribution des hiérarchies porteuses de sens, de valeurs et
construisant les formes mêmes de toute communication -- peut se ramener
à la formule de Benveniste dans son travail sur le rythme pour proposer
la reconnaissance d'autres paradigmes fondateurs que ceux du signe : le
« sémantique sans sémiotique »[31]7. On comprend que les études de
Benveniste et de Meschonnic, et aujourd'hui également de Gérard Dessons
(1995), cherchent à remplacer une linguistique du discours qui avoue
sur ce point précis ses limites[32]8, par une poétique de
l'énonciation, plus attentive à la question des instabilités des sujets
sémantiques, au-delà des supports privilégiés.
* [33]4 Voir les critiques très sévères de G. Dessons & H. (...)
* [34]5 On prendra garde à ne pas confondre système (ensemble (...)
* [35]6 « Si le sens est une activité du sujet, si le rythme (...)
* [36]7 « Le sémiotique (le signe) doit être RECONNU ; le (...)
* [37]8 C'est également la conclusion du bilan de Wunenburger (...)
6 Compte tenu de ces précautions méthodologiques, on entendra par
rythme, dans une précision de la définition platonicienne,
« l'organisation du mouvement de la parole par un sujet » (Dessons &
Meschonnic, 1998, p. 28), idée qui a le mérite de replacer le sujet
recteur au centre de la réflexion. Que cette organisation soit à
l'oeuvre dans le matériau linguistique de la prose, c'est une évidence
que seule la carence des outils d'analyse ou même de réflexion pourrait
sembler contredire. Mais il est bien évident que les problèmes posés
par sa reconnaissance sont considérables.
7 Tout d'abord, parce que le rythme, on l'a vu, implique la présence
concrète et active du silence comme superstructure sensible. Or, comme
le signalait déjà Daniel Delas il y a quelques années (1991), en un
avertissement qui n'a peut-être pas été assez entendu, il est certain
que la linguistique ne connaît guère le silence, mais seulement la
pause, qu'elle subordonne toujours au continuum de la chaîne parlée
et/ou à celui de la logique de la pensée. Nous aurions tout à gagner à
apprendre à ne pas penser le silence par défaut, moins encore à le
vivre comme une menace d'aphasie, mais à l'envisager comme un discours
actif, qui a sa syntaxe, à défaut d'avoir une grammaire et un lexique.
Une syntaxe concrétisée dans les pulsations rythmiques de son
apparition/disparition, par exemple.
8 Autre problème théorique posé par l'idée même d'un rythme non
mesurable en unités métriques de convention, la gestion de la prise en
charge du temps impliqué -- par opposition au temps représenté dans le
discours parlé. Et si le rythme, autre aspect du silence, n'était qu'un
réseau vide, n'existant seulement que dans son application à la densité
figurative d'une sémiotique spécifique ? quelle serait alors la durée
de cette vibration ? quelle serait sa chronologie originale, entre
présent, passé et futur ?
9 Troisième et dernier problème ici envisagé, comment analyser le
rythme d'une langue dans un matériau non esthétisé, sans une
linguistique de la voix, qui ne soit pas une poétique du discours ? Sur
ce point, plus que sur les deux précédents encore, il conviendrait de
parvenir à assouplir les relations entre linguistique et littérature si
l'on veut vraiment pouvoir obtenir une réponse à la question, et non
rester sur des positions de principes. Le rythme de/dans la langue
n'existe que par une mise en voix, qui implique une présence au monde à
partir de laquelle certains réseaux sémiotiques peuvent se déployer.
C'est là la différence majeure avec la perception d'un rythme temporel,
qui est un rythme historique, non articulé en unités auditives : rythme
des événements, rythme des saisons, etc.
10 Compte tenu de ces trois difficultés d'intellection, on a choisi,
dans le présent volume, d'envisager le rythme comme une « grille
d'orientation et de densification » du discours (Ceriani, 1988, p. 37),
en un mot comme une aspectualisation du programme discursif, parfois
présenté dans sa variante narrative. Ainsi, le rythme de base, le
rythme fondateur de toute énonciation, peut être conçu comme structure
« de contrôle responsable de la dynamique à la fois temporelle et
volitive » de la production et de l'attente narrative, mais aussi
poétique (Ceriani, ibid.), une structure qui est une empreinte absolue.
11 On a donc choisi de partir du phénomène rythmique, dans sa
concrétude, par opposition à l'abstraction du rythme comme concept
immanent. Jean-Paul Goux ouvre le volume, en scientifique et en
écrivain, pour insister sur l'importance d'une syntaxe très large dans
la perception et l'appréhension du rythme dans la prose narrative, un
rythme qui est d'abord « allure », allant dans la continuité -- trace
de voix, et marque de style. Puis, trois étapes complémentaires
permettent de cerner cette présence active.
12 -- Dans sa dimension linguistique, le rythme est un régulateur
perceptif, qui peut jouer un rôle unique dans l'activité de contrainte
du sens. Albert Di Cristo analyse la métrique de la parole ordinaire,
et tout le dispositif de modélisation du système accentuel français ;
la métrique s'oppose au rythme, et ce ailleurs que dans l'opposition
esthétique prose vs poésie. Sabine Pétillon, pour sa part, se penche
sur l'énonciation des parenthèses, des formes de suspension, à partir
desquelles le sens bifurque et propose des interactions parfois
retorses ; son support de réalisation privilégiée est l'unité phrase,
que le rythme contribue à définir, voire à inventer. Il est clair que
le rythme structure les possibilités de production et de réception de
n'importe quel message.
13 -- Cinq études consacrées à la poétique, non des textes, mais du
matériau langagier choisi, envisagent ensuite le rythme, non plus comme
une structure à proprement parler, mais comme un dispositif
pragmatique. Jacques-Philippe Saint-Gérand montre comment les
dictionnaires, encyclopédies et autres manuels de rhétorique et de
poétique, du XVIIIe siècle au début du XXe siècle, se sont épuisés à
poursuivre une impossible définition du « rhythme » en dévitalisant ce
principe temporel par des aplatissements dynamiques hors contexte
énonciatif. Le dialogue avec les déclarations de musiciens et de poètes
fut un rendez-vous manqué. Jean-Michel Gouvard relit la Grammaire
générale de Beauzée pour revenir à la source de l'analyse moderne de la
prosodie. Il rend hommage à l'originalité d'une pensée qui a anticipé
la reconnaissance d'une différence radicale entre accentuation de type
mécanique et accentuation liée à l'expressivité. Benoît de Cornulier
fait le point sur les « problèmes d'analyse rythmique du
non-métrique », régulièrement rappelés par les métriciens depuis Jean
Mazaleyrat. Son travail vise à nuancer l'opposition prose/poésie, tout
en soulignant pourtant les incompatibilités méthodologiques de base. De
façon radicalement différente, Gérard Dessons creuse la dimension
prosaïque de « tout ce qui n'est point vers », pour montrer que le
clivage est une erreur totale, en particulier, donc, en ce qui concerne
le rythme[38]9 : refusant la reconnaissance négative de la prose, il
retrouve le prosaïsme dans le rythme de certains vers. Enfin, Philippe
Jousset propose une phénoménologie de la prose comme objet de
connaissance, dans le monde et sur le monde : il écoute le rythme des
configurations narratives ou poétiques pour se demander comment parle
la prose.
* [39]9 Voir Illouz & Neefs (2002) pour un approfondissement (...)
14 -- Deux dernières études privilégient la dimension stylistique du
phénomène physique. Le rythme est alors envisagé comme stratégie de
caractérisation, plus ou moins maîtrisée, dosage aspectuel et
configuration d'une attente qui fait sens dans sa complémentarité avec
le silence. Marie-Christine Lala, relisant Duras, Bataille et Artaud,
écrivains de la violence s'il en est, et de ce que l'on appelle
« folie », étudie les différences de liaison dans le continu du
matériau discursif, autant que dans les continuités de la rupture en
tant que principe. Son étude place la voix au centre de la vérité de la
prose, la voix qui est un autre aspect, sinon l'aspect même, du style.
Impossible de réaliser un volume sur le rythme de la parole et de la
phrase, ou du texte, sans une étude sur le théâtre[40]10 : Arnaud
Bernadet a choisi le théâtre de Koltès, ce théâtre de la
« démystification de la voix », qui prend le risque du silence, en un
nouveau phrasé : le récitatif de cette prose ose le registre de
l'amuïssement, racontant « moins l'indicible qu'il ne le réalise ».
* [41]10 On lira les passionnantes réflexions d'A. Vitez, (...)
15
16 C'est à la somme de Pierre Sauvanet (2000, t. 2, p. 179) que l'on
empruntera le mot de la fin. « Ce que permet une pensée du rythme,
c'est peut-être ceci : à partir d'un point d'ancrage local, passer au
global sans tomber dans le total. Le rythme n'est pas tout, tout n'est
pas rythme, mais les phénomènes de rythmicité offrent une perspective
globalisante, à travers le schème et le concept de rythme comme
différentiel et comme mixte (structure, périodicité, mouvement) ».
Peut-être faudrait-il donc préférer le terme de rythmique à celui de
rythme -- comme on oppose le musical à la musique. Le rythme est
d'abord et exclusivement la propriété abstraite de ce qui est
rythmique. « Le rythmique permet de quitter le terrain d'une totalité
pan-rythmique pour tenter de penser, non le tout, mais les différents
aspects du rythme dans chacun de ses phénomènes. Avec le rythme, la
pensée ne vise donc pas un objet identique à soi : tout juste peut-elle
prétendre à fournir un canevas conceptuel, à mieux fixer le sens des
mots que nous employons quand nous disons `rythme' » (Sauvanet, ibid.).
17 Épreuve de liberté intellectuelle, comme on parle d' «épreuve de
résistance », mais risque également, l'idée de rythme peut nous
permettre de nous dégager du fétichisme du signe et du sens à
comprendre, pour faire accepter l'évidence d'une présence au monde.
Bibliographie
ABRAHAM, Nicolas [1972] : « Le temps, le rythme et l'inconscient »,
Revue française de psychanalyse, Paris, vol. XXXVI.
BENVENISTE, Émile [1966, 1974] : Problèmes de linguistique générale,
Paris, Gallimard (2 tomes).
CERIANI, Giulia [1988] : « L'empreinte rythmique : régulation,
information, contraintes », Cahiers de Sémiotique Textuelle, Nanterre,
n° 14, pp. 37-48.
DELAS, Daniel [1991] : « Silence et rythme », RITM, Nanterre, n° 1, pp.
11-20.
DESSONS, Gérard [1995] : Introduction à la poétique, Paris, Dunod.
DESSONS, Gérard, & MESCHONNIC, Henri [1998] : Traité du rythme. Des
vers et des proses, Paris, Dunod.
GOUX, Jean-Paul [1999] : La Fabrique du continu, Seyssel, Champ-Vallon.
ILLOUZ, Jean-Nicolas, & NEEFS, Jacques (éd.) [2002] : Crise de prose,
Saint-Denis, PUV.
MESCHONNIC, Henri [1982] : Critique du rythme. Anthropologie historique
du langage, Lagrasse, Verdier.
PINEAU, Joseph [1979] : Le Mouvement rythmique en français. Principes
et méthodes d'analyse, Paris, Klincksieck.
SAUVANET, Pierre [1996] : « À quelles conditions un discours
philosophique sur le rythme est-il possible ? (réponse à Henri
Meschonnic) », in P. Sauvanet & J.-J. Wunenburger (éd.), Rythmes et
philosophie, Paris, Kimé, pp. 23-39.
SAUVANET, Pierre [2000] : Le Rythme et la raison (tome 1 :
Rythmologiques, tome 2 : Rythmanalyses), Paris, Kimé.
TODOROV, Tzvetan (éd.) [1965] : Théorie de la littérature, Paris,
Seuil.
VITEZ, Antoine [1982] : « À l'intérieur du parlé, du geste, du
mouvement. Entretien avec H. Meschonnic », Langue française, Paris, n°
56, pp. 24-34.
WUNENBURGER, Jean-Jacques (éd.) [1992] : Les Rythmes : lectures et
théories, Paris, L'Harmattan.
Notes
[42]1 Voir les « 100 définitions du rythme » réunies par P. Sauvanet
dans sa somme philosophique (2000, t. 1, pp. 230-245), qui vont de
définitions épistémologiques (Aristoxène de Tarente : « Le rythme
apparaît lorsque la division des temps prend un ordre déterminé ») à
des intuitions plus lapidaires (Pablo Casals : « Le rythme, c'est le
retard »). De ce bel ensemble, on distinguera l'analyse de Diderot
(Salon de 1767) : « Qu'est-ce donc que le rythme ? me demandez-vous.
C'est un choix particulier d'expressions, c'est une certaine
distribution de syllabes longues ou brèves, dures ou douces, sourdes ou
aigres, légères ou pesantes, lentes ou rapides, plaintives ou gaies, ou
un enchaînement de petites onomatopées analogues aux idées qu'on a et
dont on est fortement occupé, aux sensations qu'on ressent, et qu'on
veut exciter, aux phénomènes dont on cherche à rendre les accidents,
aux passions qu'on éprouve et au cri animal qu'elles arracheraient, à
la nature, au caractère, au mouvement des actions qu'on se propose de
rendre ; et cet art-là n'est pas plus de conventions que les effets de
la lumière et les couleurs de l'arc-en-ciel ; il ne s'apprend point, il
ne se communique point, il peut seulement se perfectionner. Il est
inspiré par un goût naturel, par la mobilité de l'âme, par la
sensibilité. C'est l'image même de l'âme ».
[43]2 Lois, 665a.
[44]3 Traduction, aussi simple que possible, des mots grecs arsis et
thésis.
[45]4 Voir les critiques très sévères de G. Dessons & H. Meschonnic,
op. cit., p. 32. L'idée vient des Formalistes russes en fait ; voir
l'article décisif de O. Brik, « Rythme et syntaxe », ou les remarques
de B. Eikhenbaum, in Tzv. Todorov (1965).
[46]5 On prendra garde à ne pas confondre système (ensemble organisé
par des unités qui sont interdépendantes) et structure (ensemble
d'unités solidaires, mais pas nécessairement interdépendantes). Pour
une discussion des propositions de Meschonnic, voir Sauvanet (1996).
[47]6 « Si le sens est une activité du sujet, si le rythme est une
organisation du sens dans le discours, le rythme est nécessairement une
organisation ou configuration du sujet dans son discours », H.
Meschonnic, ibid., p. 71.
[48]7 « Le sémiotique (le signe) doit être RECONNU ; le sémantique (le
discours) doit être COMPRIS. [...] Le privilège de la langue est de
comporter à la fois la signifiance des signes et la signifiance de
l'énonciation. De là provient son pouvoir majeur, celui de créer un
deuxième niveau d'énonciation, où il devient possible de tenir des
propos signifiants sur la signifiance », É. Benveniste (1974, pp.
64-65).
[49]8 C'est également la conclusion du bilan de Wunenburger (1992).
[50]9 Voir Illouz & Neefs (2002) pour un approfondissement de cette
idée, historicisée tout au long du XIXe siècle.
[51]10 On lira les passionnantes réflexions d'A. Vitez, interrogé par
H. Meschonnic (1982), pour mesurer toute la pluralité de réalisation de
la voix au théâtre.
Pour citer cet article
Référence électronique
Éric Bordas, « Le rythme de la prose », Semen, 16, Rythme de la prose,
2003, [En ligne], mis en ligne le 1 mai 2007.
2010.
Auteur
[52]Éric Bordas
Université de la Sorbonne Nouvelle - Paris 3
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Syndicat National Unitaire des Instituteurs Professeurs des écoles et PEGC
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7 mai 2009
Un rythme à 5 temps à Lille ?
Comme d'autres grandes villes, Lille vient de lancer une concertation
avec les parents et les enseignants pour raccourcir les journées en
travaillant le mercredi matin. Fin mai, les conseils d'écoles devront
se positionner.
L'école, le mercredi matin ? A Lille, le débat est lancé. Depuis un
mois, la ville mène officiellement une concertation sur la semaine
scolaire de 4 jours. Avec une idée : donner la possibilité aux écoles
qui le souhaiteraient de travailler le mercredi matin pour raccourcir
les journées de classe.
Selon Maurice Thoré, l'élu en charge des écoles, « les
chronobiologistes sont unanimes : 6 heures de classe par jour, soit la
durée la plus longue au monde, ce sont des élèves moins attentifs, plus
fatigués. Avec, pour certains, les deux heures d'aide personnalisée,
c'est trop ». Le propos est bien rôdé, très critique envers la
politique éducative du gouvernement. Depuis début avril, les réunions
de quartiers consacrées à la concertation commencent toujours de la
même manière. Ce soir, à la mairie de quartier de Wazemmes, devant les
parents et les enseignants Maurice Thoré, prend les mêmes précautions
pour justifier la démarche de la ville : « notre devoir est d'engager
avec vous une concertation collective que le ministère a confisquée
l'an dernier en supprimant le samedi matin de manière unilatérale ».
Espérer convaincre sans contraindre, tel est le leitmotiv de l'élu. Il
sait que le débat est passionnel, souvent animé par un tourbillon
d'avis divers, parfois tranchés. Alors, il se veut pédagogue. Au final,
« la ville n'a pas de pouvoir de décision. Ce sera aux conseils d'école
des 84 écoles lilloises de se positionner, l'Inspecteur d'académie
validant les changements de schéma scolaire ». De son côté, la ville
s'engage à mettre en place des activités périscolaires au sein d'un PEG
(projet éducatif global) pour prendre en charge les enfants qui
finiront l'école plus tôt. Car sans cela, pas de nouvelle organisation
scolaire possible. « C'est l'élément structurant » qui doit permettre
d'articuler de manière cohérente temps scolaire et périscolaire
explique AlainThirel, coordonnateur du PEG à la ville de Lille. Et
d'évoquer, les plans « lecture, nature, musique, patrimoine, à l'oeuvre
depuis 2001 qui sont à disposition des écoles pour concevoir leur
nouvelle organisation ». Un service supplémentaire « représentant 4,5
millions d'euros par an sans le moindre coût pour les familles »
explique Alain Thirel.
« La gratuité, certes, mais avec une qualité de l'encadrement » pointe
une mère d'élève. « 600 vacataires sont actuellement employés à la
mairie sur le périscolaire. La ville va t-elle enclencher des
formations pour professionnaliser le secteur ? ». Selon Maurice Thoré,
« les parents les plus opposés sont ceux qui proposent de nombreuses
activités à leurs enfants en dehors de l'école ». Pour les autres, cet
éventuel changement des rythmes de la semaine interroge. « On veut
comprendre ce que feront nos enfants durant la journée témoigne une
mère d'élève. Il faudra à nouveau se réorganiser ». Une autre
rebondit : « Si il y a de l'école le mercredi, quid des clubs de sport
ou activités culturelles ? Des nouvelles plages horaires sont elles
prévues le samedi ? » Même certains, comme Catherine, « regrettent le
samedi scolaire ou demandent que les vacances d'été soient
raccourcies ». Inutile d'espérer car la loi ne le permet pas. « Ce sont
des champs de compétences du ministère » explique l'élu.
Pour Martine Haidon, directrice en maternelle, « voilà bien la preuve
que les marges de manoeuvres sont bien ténues et ne permettent pas de
réfléchir à tous les possibles pour faire que l'école soit plus
respectueuse de l'enfant ». Avec toute l'équipe enseignante, elle ne
pense pas proposer de changement au conseil d'école. Les parents
qu'elle a réunis sont aussi du même avis. « C'est le toujours plus sans
contrepartie » explique-t-elle évoquant un sentiment d'être constamment
prise entre le marteau et l'enclume. « Le rouleau compresseur des
réformes nous a lessivés avec des conditions de travail se dégradant
encore et toujours ». Et, travailler le mercredi matin c'est aussi
« participer aux animations pédagogiques l'après midi, payer plus pour
les gardes d'enfants sans pour autant finir plus tôt en semaine avec
l'aide personnalisée, les préparations ou les réunions ». Et de
conclure « Oui pour travailler autrement mais en posant tous les
éléments sur la table qui sont pour la plupart du ressort du
ministère ».
Ce constat, les enseignants de l'école André le font aussi. Après de
longues discussions, l'équipe pense pourtant se lancer dans l'aventure
du mercredi matin scolaire. Avec un espoir. « Moins de fatigue pour les
enfants, ce peut-être moins de fatigue pour nous aussi et de plus
grandes satisfactions professionnelles » explique Françoise, la
directrice. Mais, l'expérience ne pourra se faire à n'importe quel
prix. « Nous voulons discuter avec la mairie de la pause méridienne :
réduire son temps pour reprendre plus tôt et en faire un vrai moment de
repos pour les élèves ». Et puis, il y a l'occupation des salles sur le
temps périscolaire. « Tout doit être mis au clair concernant le
matériel utilisé, les activités pratiquées. Chacun doit rester dans son
domaine de compétences » insiste Françoise.
Pierre Laumenerch, secrétaire départemental du SNUipp, confirme. « La
décision finale revient au conseil d'école. En outre, la ville doit
apporter des garanties sur des questions pratiques : utilisation et
statut des locaux scolaires, responsabilités des enseignants, pérennité
des dispositifs périscolaires » « Il n'y a pas de modèle. La
concertation aura eu au moins le mérite de mettre en lumière ce
principe » reconnaît Maurice Thoré, l'élu. « Il nous faudra nous
adapter à chaque école, construire des organisations en dentelle. On
espère débuter l'expérimentation l'année prochaine avec quelques écoles
volontaires. D'autres qui le souhaitent peuvent se donner le temps de
la concertation avec nos services durant encore une année ». De son
côté, l'inspection académique demande que « le retour au mercredi se
fasse sur un territoire cohérent ». Rien n'est tranché donc. La
réflexion continue. Le chantier des rythmes ne fait que commencer.
__________________________________________________________________
Débats en cours
C'est la circulaire du 5 juin 2008 qui permet d'ouvrir le débat sur
l'organisation de la semaine scolaire. Elle donne en effet la
possibilité de travailler sur neuf demi-journées, avec le mercredi
matin, le samedi restant obligatoirement vaqué. Dans le texte, la
proposition revient aux conseils d'école, après avis de la commune et
accord de l'inspection académique. Ainsi, tout comme Lille, Grenoble,
Angers, Brest ont également lancé une concertation pour modifier les
rythmes de la semaine. Mais, ce qui est envisageable pour des grandes
et de moyennes villes apparaît plus complexe pour des petites communes
de milieu rural notamment. En effet, ces dernières ne possèdent ni les
structures, ni les personnels qui ne leur permettent pas d'avoir les
mêmes marges de manoeuvre que les pôles urbains (transports-activités
périscolaires).
En Ille-et-Vilaine, c'est l'inspecteur d'académie qui propose aux
écoles volontaires de déposer un projet d'organisation sur neuf
demi-journées. Dans son courrier, il pointe les « contraintes fortes »
qu'impose un éventuel changement : « les animations pédagogiques les
mercredis après-midi, le remplacement court rendu plus difficile, les
mercredis matin », ainsi que « la formation continue remplacée par des
stagiaires ». Cette année, 3,6% des écoles travaillent le mercredi
matin.
__________________________________________________________________
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#[1]Semen - Articles [2]Semen - Numéros
[3]Aller au contenu | [4]Aller au menu | [5]Recherche
[6]Semen
[7]16-2003, Rythme de la prose
Le rythme de la prose
Éric Bordas
[8]Index | [9]Texte | [10]Bibliographie | [11]Notes | [12]Citation |
[13]Auteur
* [14]Signaler ce document
* [15]Sommaire
* [16]Article suivant
Index
Mots clés :
[17]Prose, [18]Rythme, [19]Sémantique, [20]Sémiotique, [21]Style
Texte intégral
1 Comme chacun sait, le rythme est partout : dans la vie quotidienne
(en tant qu'expérience), comme dans les discours savants (en tant que
référence). Dans le monde, comme dans la prose du monde qui rend
celui-ci sensible à défaut de toujours le rendre intelligible. La
récurrence de cette perception et de cette mention, rythme elle-même
nos tentatives de rapprochement du mouvement et du temps pour permettre
une appréhension plus claire du sujet recteur. Conséquence bien connue
et inévitable : le mot (banalisé) tend à remplacer le concept
(incertain), pour évacuer les questions de fond, à commencer par les
définitions concurrentes[22]1. Ainsi, par exemple, se demande Pierre
Sauvanet, dans une thèse magistrale de philosophie consacré à cet objet
instable (2000, t. 1, p. 147), « qu'y a-t-il au juste de commun entre
les trois expressions suivantes : un rythme ternaire, un rythme
cardiaque, un rythme syncopé ? ». Filons-nous une métaphore ? mais
laquelle, au juste ? N'avons-nous pas plutôt trois référents bien
distincts, trois objets perceptibles par leurs qualités rythmiques, que
nous assimilons à une superstructure cognitive qui serait ce rythme
magique. Car la superposition des emplois lexicaux ne saurait passer
pour une syncrèse acceptable : « rythme ternaire désigne a priori une
pure structure formelle, à laquelle seule une périodicité potentielle
conférerait a posteriori une temporalité ; rythme cardiaque désigne au
contraire a priori un simple cycle de battements, se répétant à
intervalles réguliers, auquel seule une structure de pensée a
posteriori conférerait une intelligibilité ; quant au rythme syncopé,
il renvoie à la dimension fondamentale du mouvement, qui s'oppose à
tout ce qui est mécanique ou métrique, et qui se laisse difficilement
appréhender a priori. Seule l'analyse théorique permet de le
distinguer » (Sauvanet, ibid.). Parlons-nous donc encore de la même
chose ?
* [23]1 Voir les « 100 définitions du rythme » réunies par (...)
2 De la même façon, et dans le domaine de la langue, ce que nous
appelons rythme en poésie versifiée classique correspond-il au rythme
de la prose ? La prose, d'ailleurs, a-t-elle un rythme ? Une réponse
catégorique n'est pas possible sans quelques mises au point générales,
et l'on anticipera tout de suite la conclusion en affirmant que ce
clivage artificiel, qui oppose prose et poésie, est absolument
intenable.
3
4 On a la (bonne) habitude de commencer toute réflexion sur le rythme
par la définition de Platon : « ... cet ordre du mouvement a reçu le
nom de rythme »[24]2. L'organisation du mouvement rythmé (et rythmique)
s'opère formellement grâce à l'existence de « relais de même nature »
(Pineau, 1979, p. 12) que la perception, auditive et/ou visuelle,
sensible quoi qu'il en soit, repère dans une construction générale, une
configuration des matériaux traités. Le mouvement est ainsi défini par
l'alternance dynamique des « élans » et des « posés »[25]3 : ces relais
doivent être assez rapprochés pour que leur réunion fasse forme. Du
point de vue de la motivation d'un tel mouvement physique, Nicolas
Abraham (1972), se fondant sur la psychanalyse, a montré, à la source
de l'énergie rythmique, la pression permanente du désir humain
cherchant sans cesse à se donner des moyens de se satisfaire, puis
insuffisamment satisfait par chacun des moyens qu'il a élaborés et
remis en quête par le sentiment de frustration qui découle de cette
expérience. En fait, il apparaît très vite que le principal problème à
résoudre est celui d'un métalangage : comment dire le rythme comme
configuration temporelle organisée ?
* [26]2 Lois, 665a.
* [27]3 Traduction, aussi simple que possible, des mots grecs (...)
5 Benveniste, dans son étude lexicale de ce qu'il présentait comme « le
principe du mouvement cadencé » (1966, p. 335), a admis l'effort de
métaphorisation presque indispensable pour suggérer un contenu
sémantique à l'idée de rythme, sans pour autant cacher ses réticences
devant les dérives imprécises que semblable conceptualisation par
l'image ne pouvait qu'entraîner. Objet d'une évidente présence en
musique bien sûr, mais aussi en poésie versifiée, le rythme se perçoit
-- à défaut de se définir -- comme une « alternance de marques (temps
fort, temps faible) du même et du différent » (Dessons & Meschonnic,
1998, p. 33), de vide et de plein, de longues et de brèves, comme un
découpage, par intervalles, du son sur fond de silence. Cette
conception peut conduire à oublier que le rythme est fondamentalement
un mouvement, et non un compte, un pointage, oubli entériné par la
métrique, qui entretient une notion fausse des unités (vers, phrase ou
strophe) en privilégiant le schéma sur le discours, et qui rend
l'analyse du rythme de la prose presque toujours caduque[28]4. C'est
pourquoi, approfondissant l'approche de Benveniste, Henri Meschonnic
(1982, pp. 69-70) nous a appris à penser le rythme comme « une
structure », « un niveau », qui est l'organisation même du sens dans le
discours[29]5. Le rythme découvre le sens de l'énoncé, et, partant, la
trace du sujet de/dans cet énoncé[30]6. De sorte que c'est toute une
critique du signe linguistique que la reconnaissance de la notion de
rythme implique par elle-même : le rythme, comme organisation du
continu dans le langage (Goux, 1999), met en évidence la structure
discontinue du signe dans la paradigmatique langagière. Tout ceci --
dont il faut bien mesurer l'importance, car il s'agit rien de moins que
d'une redistribution des hiérarchies porteuses de sens, de valeurs et
construisant les formes mêmes de toute communication -- peut se ramener
à la formule de Benveniste dans son travail sur le rythme pour proposer
la reconnaissance d'autres paradigmes fondateurs que ceux du signe : le
« sémantique sans sémiotique »[31]7. On comprend que les études de
Benveniste et de Meschonnic, et aujourd'hui également de Gérard Dessons
(1995), cherchent à remplacer une linguistique du discours qui avoue
sur ce point précis ses limites[32]8, par une poétique de
l'énonciation, plus attentive à la question des instabilités des sujets
sémantiques, au-delà des supports privilégiés.
* [33]4 Voir les critiques très sévères de G. Dessons & H. (...)
* [34]5 On prendra garde à ne pas confondre système (ensemble (...)
* [35]6 « Si le sens est une activité du sujet, si le rythme (...)
* [36]7 « Le sémiotique (le signe) doit être RECONNU ; le (...)
* [37]8 C'est également la conclusion du bilan de Wunenburger (...)
6 Compte tenu de ces précautions méthodologiques, on entendra par
rythme, dans une précision de la définition platonicienne,
« l'organisation du mouvement de la parole par un sujet » (Dessons &
Meschonnic, 1998, p. 28), idée qui a le mérite de replacer le sujet
recteur au centre de la réflexion. Que cette organisation soit à
l'oeuvre dans le matériau linguistique de la prose, c'est une évidence
que seule la carence des outils d'analyse ou même de réflexion pourrait
sembler contredire. Mais il est bien évident que les problèmes posés
par sa reconnaissance sont considérables.
7 Tout d'abord, parce que le rythme, on l'a vu, implique la présence
concrète et active du silence comme superstructure sensible. Or, comme
le signalait déjà Daniel Delas il y a quelques années (1991), en un
avertissement qui n'a peut-être pas été assez entendu, il est certain
que la linguistique ne connaît guère le silence, mais seulement la
pause, qu'elle subordonne toujours au continuum de la chaîne parlée
et/ou à celui de la logique de la pensée. Nous aurions tout à gagner à
apprendre à ne pas penser le silence par défaut, moins encore à le
vivre comme une menace d'aphasie, mais à l'envisager comme un discours
actif, qui a sa syntaxe, à défaut d'avoir une grammaire et un lexique.
Une syntaxe concrétisée dans les pulsations rythmiques de son
apparition/disparition, par exemple.
8 Autre problème théorique posé par l'idée même d'un rythme non
mesurable en unités métriques de convention, la gestion de la prise en
charge du temps impliqué -- par opposition au temps représenté dans le
discours parlé. Et si le rythme, autre aspect du silence, n'était qu'un
réseau vide, n'existant seulement que dans son application à la densité
figurative d'une sémiotique spécifique ? quelle serait alors la durée
de cette vibration ? quelle serait sa chronologie originale, entre
présent, passé et futur ?
9 Troisième et dernier problème ici envisagé, comment analyser le
rythme d'une langue dans un matériau non esthétisé, sans une
linguistique de la voix, qui ne soit pas une poétique du discours ? Sur
ce point, plus que sur les deux précédents encore, il conviendrait de
parvenir à assouplir les relations entre linguistique et littérature si
l'on veut vraiment pouvoir obtenir une réponse à la question, et non
rester sur des positions de principes. Le rythme de/dans la langue
n'existe que par une mise en voix, qui implique une présence au monde à
partir de laquelle certains réseaux sémiotiques peuvent se déployer.
C'est là la différence majeure avec la perception d'un rythme temporel,
qui est un rythme historique, non articulé en unités auditives : rythme
des événements, rythme des saisons, etc.
10 Compte tenu de ces trois difficultés d'intellection, on a choisi,
dans le présent volume, d'envisager le rythme comme une « grille
d'orientation et de densification » du discours (Ceriani, 1988, p. 37),
en un mot comme une aspectualisation du programme discursif, parfois
présenté dans sa variante narrative. Ainsi, le rythme de base, le
rythme fondateur de toute énonciation, peut être conçu comme structure
« de contrôle responsable de la dynamique à la fois temporelle et
volitive » de la production et de l'attente narrative, mais aussi
poétique (Ceriani, ibid.), une structure qui est une empreinte absolue.
11 On a donc choisi de partir du phénomène rythmique, dans sa
concrétude, par opposition à l'abstraction du rythme comme concept
immanent. Jean-Paul Goux ouvre le volume, en scientifique et en
écrivain, pour insister sur l'importance d'une syntaxe très large dans
la perception et l'appréhension du rythme dans la prose narrative, un
rythme qui est d'abord « allure », allant dans la continuité -- trace
de voix, et marque de style. Puis, trois étapes complémentaires
permettent de cerner cette présence active.
12 -- Dans sa dimension linguistique, le rythme est un régulateur
perceptif, qui peut jouer un rôle unique dans l'activité de contrainte
du sens. Albert Di Cristo analyse la métrique de la parole ordinaire,
et tout le dispositif de modélisation du système accentuel français ;
la métrique s'oppose au rythme, et ce ailleurs que dans l'opposition
esthétique prose vs poésie. Sabine Pétillon, pour sa part, se penche
sur l'énonciation des parenthèses, des formes de suspension, à partir
desquelles le sens bifurque et propose des interactions parfois
retorses ; son support de réalisation privilégiée est l'unité phrase,
que le rythme contribue à définir, voire à inventer. Il est clair que
le rythme structure les possibilités de production et de réception de
n'importe quel message.
13 -- Cinq études consacrées à la poétique, non des textes, mais du
matériau langagier choisi, envisagent ensuite le rythme, non plus comme
une structure à proprement parler, mais comme un dispositif
pragmatique. Jacques-Philippe Saint-Gérand montre comment les
dictionnaires, encyclopédies et autres manuels de rhétorique et de
poétique, du XVIIIe siècle au début du XXe siècle, se sont épuisés à
poursuivre une impossible définition du « rhythme » en dévitalisant ce
principe temporel par des aplatissements dynamiques hors contexte
énonciatif. Le dialogue avec les déclarations de musiciens et de poètes
fut un rendez-vous manqué. Jean-Michel Gouvard relit la Grammaire
générale de Beauzée pour revenir à la source de l'analyse moderne de la
prosodie. Il rend hommage à l'originalité d'une pensée qui a anticipé
la reconnaissance d'une différence radicale entre accentuation de type
mécanique et accentuation liée à l'expressivité. Benoît de Cornulier
fait le point sur les « problèmes d'analyse rythmique du
non-métrique », régulièrement rappelés par les métriciens depuis Jean
Mazaleyrat. Son travail vise à nuancer l'opposition prose/poésie, tout
en soulignant pourtant les incompatibilités méthodologiques de base. De
façon radicalement différente, Gérard Dessons creuse la dimension
prosaïque de « tout ce qui n'est point vers », pour montrer que le
clivage est une erreur totale, en particulier, donc, en ce qui concerne
le rythme[38]9 : refusant la reconnaissance négative de la prose, il
retrouve le prosaïsme dans le rythme de certains vers. Enfin, Philippe
Jousset propose une phénoménologie de la prose comme objet de
connaissance, dans le monde et sur le monde : il écoute le rythme des
configurations narratives ou poétiques pour se demander comment parle
la prose.
* [39]9 Voir Illouz & Neefs (2002) pour un approfondissement (...)
14 -- Deux dernières études privilégient la dimension stylistique du
phénomène physique. Le rythme est alors envisagé comme stratégie de
caractérisation, plus ou moins maîtrisée, dosage aspectuel et
configuration d'une attente qui fait sens dans sa complémentarité avec
le silence. Marie-Christine Lala, relisant Duras, Bataille et Artaud,
écrivains de la violence s'il en est, et de ce que l'on appelle
« folie », étudie les différences de liaison dans le continu du
matériau discursif, autant que dans les continuités de la rupture en
tant que principe. Son étude place la voix au centre de la vérité de la
prose, la voix qui est un autre aspect, sinon l'aspect même, du style.
Impossible de réaliser un volume sur le rythme de la parole et de la
phrase, ou du texte, sans une étude sur le théâtre[40]10 : Arnaud
Bernadet a choisi le théâtre de Koltès, ce théâtre de la
« démystification de la voix », qui prend le risque du silence, en un
nouveau phrasé : le récitatif de cette prose ose le registre de
l'amuïssement, racontant « moins l'indicible qu'il ne le réalise ».
* [41]10 On lira les passionnantes réflexions d'A. Vitez, (...)
15
16 C'est à la somme de Pierre Sauvanet (2000, t. 2, p. 179) que l'on
empruntera le mot de la fin. « Ce que permet une pensée du rythme,
c'est peut-être ceci : à partir d'un point d'ancrage local, passer au
global sans tomber dans le total. Le rythme n'est pas tout, tout n'est
pas rythme, mais les phénomènes de rythmicité offrent une perspective
globalisante, à travers le schème et le concept de rythme comme
différentiel et comme mixte (structure, périodicité, mouvement) ».
Peut-être faudrait-il donc préférer le terme de rythmique à celui de
rythme -- comme on oppose le musical à la musique. Le rythme est
d'abord et exclusivement la propriété abstraite de ce qui est
rythmique. « Le rythmique permet de quitter le terrain d'une totalité
pan-rythmique pour tenter de penser, non le tout, mais les différents
aspects du rythme dans chacun de ses phénomènes. Avec le rythme, la
pensée ne vise donc pas un objet identique à soi : tout juste peut-elle
prétendre à fournir un canevas conceptuel, à mieux fixer le sens des
mots que nous employons quand nous disons `rythme' » (Sauvanet, ibid.).
17 Épreuve de liberté intellectuelle, comme on parle d' «épreuve de
résistance », mais risque également, l'idée de rythme peut nous
permettre de nous dégager du fétichisme du signe et du sens à
comprendre, pour faire accepter l'évidence d'une présence au monde.
Bibliographie
ABRAHAM, Nicolas [1972] : « Le temps, le rythme et l'inconscient »,
Revue française de psychanalyse, Paris, vol. XXXVI.
BENVENISTE, Émile [1966, 1974] : Problèmes de linguistique générale,
Paris, Gallimard (2 tomes).
CERIANI, Giulia [1988] : « L'empreinte rythmique : régulation,
information, contraintes », Cahiers de Sémiotique Textuelle, Nanterre,
n° 14, pp. 37-48.
DELAS, Daniel [1991] : « Silence et rythme », RITM, Nanterre, n° 1, pp.
11-20.
DESSONS, Gérard [1995] : Introduction à la poétique, Paris, Dunod.
DESSONS, Gérard, & MESCHONNIC, Henri [1998] : Traité du rythme. Des
vers et des proses, Paris, Dunod.
GOUX, Jean-Paul [1999] : La Fabrique du continu, Seyssel, Champ-Vallon.
ILLOUZ, Jean-Nicolas, & NEEFS, Jacques (éd.) [2002] : Crise de prose,
Saint-Denis, PUV.
MESCHONNIC, Henri [1982] : Critique du rythme. Anthropologie historique
du langage, Lagrasse, Verdier.
PINEAU, Joseph [1979] : Le Mouvement rythmique en français. Principes
et méthodes d'analyse, Paris, Klincksieck.
SAUVANET, Pierre [1996] : « À quelles conditions un discours
philosophique sur le rythme est-il possible ? (réponse à Henri
Meschonnic) », in P. Sauvanet & J.-J. Wunenburger (éd.), Rythmes et
philosophie, Paris, Kimé, pp. 23-39.
SAUVANET, Pierre [2000] : Le Rythme et la raison (tome 1 :
Rythmologiques, tome 2 : Rythmanalyses), Paris, Kimé.
TODOROV, Tzvetan (éd.) [1965] : Théorie de la littérature, Paris,
Seuil.
VITEZ, Antoine [1982] : « À l'intérieur du parlé, du geste, du
mouvement. Entretien avec H. Meschonnic », Langue française, Paris, n°
56, pp. 24-34.
WUNENBURGER, Jean-Jacques (éd.) [1992] : Les Rythmes : lectures et
théories, Paris, L'Harmattan.
Notes
[42]1 Voir les « 100 définitions du rythme » réunies par P. Sauvanet
dans sa somme philosophique (2000, t. 1, pp. 230-245), qui vont de
définitions épistémologiques (Aristoxène de Tarente : « Le rythme
apparaît lorsque la division des temps prend un ordre déterminé ») à
des intuitions plus lapidaires (Pablo Casals : « Le rythme, c'est le
retard »). De ce bel ensemble, on distinguera l'analyse de Diderot
(Salon de 1767) : « Qu'est-ce donc que le rythme ? me demandez-vous.
C'est un choix particulier d'expressions, c'est une certaine
distribution de syllabes longues ou brèves, dures ou douces, sourdes ou
aigres, légères ou pesantes, lentes ou rapides, plaintives ou gaies, ou
un enchaînement de petites onomatopées analogues aux idées qu'on a et
dont on est fortement occupé, aux sensations qu'on ressent, et qu'on
veut exciter, aux phénomènes dont on cherche à rendre les accidents,
aux passions qu'on éprouve et au cri animal qu'elles arracheraient, à
la nature, au caractère, au mouvement des actions qu'on se propose de
rendre ; et cet art-là n'est pas plus de conventions que les effets de
la lumière et les couleurs de l'arc-en-ciel ; il ne s'apprend point, il
ne se communique point, il peut seulement se perfectionner. Il est
inspiré par un goût naturel, par la mobilité de l'âme, par la
sensibilité. C'est l'image même de l'âme ».
[43]2 Lois, 665a.
[44]3 Traduction, aussi simple que possible, des mots grecs arsis et
thésis.
[45]4 Voir les critiques très sévères de G. Dessons & H. Meschonnic,
op. cit., p. 32. L'idée vient des Formalistes russes en fait ; voir
l'article décisif de O. Brik, « Rythme et syntaxe », ou les remarques
de B. Eikhenbaum, in Tzv. Todorov (1965).
[46]5 On prendra garde à ne pas confondre système (ensemble organisé
par des unités qui sont interdépendantes) et structure (ensemble
d'unités solidaires, mais pas nécessairement interdépendantes). Pour
une discussion des propositions de Meschonnic, voir Sauvanet (1996).
[47]6 « Si le sens est une activité du sujet, si le rythme est une
organisation du sens dans le discours, le rythme est nécessairement une
organisation ou configuration du sujet dans son discours », H.
Meschonnic, ibid., p. 71.
[48]7 « Le sémiotique (le signe) doit être RECONNU ; le sémantique (le
discours) doit être COMPRIS. [...] Le privilège de la langue est de
comporter à la fois la signifiance des signes et la signifiance de
l'énonciation. De là provient son pouvoir majeur, celui de créer un
deuxième niveau d'énonciation, où il devient possible de tenir des
propos signifiants sur la signifiance », É. Benveniste (1974, pp.
64-65).
[49]8 C'est également la conclusion du bilan de Wunenburger (1992).
[50]9 Voir Illouz & Neefs (2002) pour un approfondissement de cette
idée, historicisée tout au long du XIXe siècle.
[51]10 On lira les passionnantes réflexions d'A. Vitez, interrogé par
H. Meschonnic (1982), pour mesurer toute la pluralité de réalisation de
la voix au théâtre.
Pour citer cet article
Référence électronique
Éric Bordas, « Le rythme de la prose », Semen, 16, Rythme de la prose,
2003, [En ligne], mis en ligne le 1 mai 2007.
2010.
Auteur
[52]Éric Bordas
Université de la Sorbonne Nouvelle - Paris 3
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* [60]22-2006
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* [61]21-2006
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* [69]13-2001
Genres de la presse écrite et analyse de discours
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Vers une sémiotique différentielle
* [72]10-1995
Sémiotique(s) de la lecture
* [73]09-1994
Texte, lecture, interprétation
* [74]08-1993
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* [75]05-1989
La médiacritique littéraire
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Index
Mots clés :
[19]Ambiguïté (rythmique), [20]Conditionnement (du rythme),
[21]Elision (mentale), [22]Formatage, [23]Rythme (non-métrique)
Plan
[24]1. Pas le rythme, des rythmes
[25]2. Traitements rythmiques. Exemple français littéraire
[26]3. Gratuité d'un traitement rythmique.
[27]4. Sélection et complétude métriques.
[28]Bilan
Texte intégral
1 L'analyse rythmique de textes non-métriques dans une tradition donnée
s'est longtemps faite, et se fait encore souvent, à la lumière de
l'analyse des textes métriques surtout littéraires (communiqués par
l'écriture). Il peut valoir la peine de souligner l'influence, pas
forcément justifiée, qui résulte parfois de l'analyse métrique sur
l'analyse non-métrique, tout en signalant des problèmes que l'analyse
métrique elle-même peut révéler.
[29]1. Pas le rythme, des rythmes
2 Commençons par rappeler qu'un texte, en tant que suite d'énoncés, n'a
pas un rythme et un seul, puisque l'effet rythmique qu'il procure
dépend de la manière dont il est présenté et reçu. Ce qui suit peut
être lu comme de la prose :
(A) C'est plutôt le sabbat du second Faust que l'autre. Un rhythmique
sabbat, rhythmique, extrêmement rhythmique. - Imaginez un jardin de
Lenôtre, correct, ridicule et charmant.
3 On pourrait en proposer une analyse rythmique s'inspirant de ce qui
suit :
Le sentiment du rythme dans une phrase française est (...) fondé sur la
perception d'une série de rapports entre les nombres syllabiques de
groupes délimités par leurs accents. (Jean Mazaleyrat, 1974, p. 14)
4 Par exemple, en comptant les syllabes de certains syntagmes ou
groupes, on pourrait envisager pour le segment médian l'analyse
suivante en comptant :
Un rhythmique sabbat (6), rhythmique (2), extrêmement rhythmique (6) ?
-> Un rhythmique sabbat (6), rhythmique, extrêmement rhythmique (8) ?
5 Mais en 1866 ces mêmes mots avaient été disposés dans les Poèmes
saturniens de Verlaine en alinéas et paragraphe réguliers :
[30]Image1 [31]Agrandir
6 Ce formatage était censé induire un lecteur cultivé à traiter dans sa
tête ces alinéas en vers de rythme 6 6, à traiter le tout en une
strophe, couple de paires de vers rimés en [otK (@)] et [2A], et
pouvait encore induire certains lecteurs à distinguer le rythme
bi-vocalique des finales en [otK (@)], féminines, de celui des autres,
masculines. Dans ce traitement rythmique métrique, la longueur de
« extrêmement / Rythmique » en nombre de voyelles (6) avait de bonnes
chances de n'être pas sensible.
7
8 On sait en effet depuis longtemps, par des exemples multiples, qu'un
même texte peut être lu et reçu comme de la prose ou comme des vers
(parfois de plusieurs manières) selon la manière dont il est présenté.
On pourrait multiplier les variantes, et même en envisager d'autre
nature ; par exemple, ces mots pourraient être mis en musique de
plusieurs manières impliquant des regroupements variés. Même si le
découpage en hémistiches et vers se retrouvait identique dans un air
donné, les nombres de voyelles (6 ou 8) qui participent au rythme
métrique du quatrain à lire ont de grandes chances de ne plus être
sensibles dans le chant : c'est une expérience largement partagée, que,
quand on entend chanter des « vers » de même mètre, s'il s'en trouve un
de nombre différent, alors qu'il pourrait paraître boiteux à la
lecture, il ne se distingue pas dans le chant. Qui sent, en chantant la
Marseillaise, que Égorger nos fils et non compagnes est, ou plutôt,
pourrait être, à la lecture de sa strophe écrite, un vers faux ? Le
sentiment du rythme chronorythmique du chant n'est pas le sentiment du
rythme numérique (plus phonologique) qui fait le vers de mètre 8 (Ils
viennent jusque dans nos bras / Égorger nos fils, nos compagnes).[32]1
* [33]1 On peut s'imaginer percevoir dans le chant ces (...)
9
10 Ces observations ont des conséquences assez évidentes, mais qu'on
oublie volontiers, c'est pourquoi on se permettra ici de rappeler la
plus simple :
11 Rythme de phrase. Le rythme d'une phrase, ça n'existe pas.
12 Pour qu'on puisse parler, avec l'article défini, du rythme (le
rythme) de la phrase (être grammatical unique que des énonciations
diverses peuvent réaliser), il faudrait en effet d'abord que la phrase
ait un rythme ; et, de plus, qu'elle en ait un seul. Or non seulement
des énonciations d'une phrase peuvent se rythmer de plusieurs manières
très différentes, mais l'énonciation d'une phrase peut se répartir
contextuellement, par exemple, en deux morceaux de vers, de telle
manière qu'elle ne soit pas elle-même, dans son unité, un objet
rythmique.[34]2
* [35]2 Voir Gérard Dessons et Henry Meschonnic, 1998, p. 70 sv.
13 Ce qu'on nomme analyse rythmique n'est souvent qu'un métrage
syllabique de constituants grammaticaux d'une phrase (en admettant
qu'elle ne soit syllabable que d'une manière) ; cette activité
comptable produit des nombres abstraits, pas une analyse rythmique.
L'analyse rythmique du discours n'a pas pour objet des phrases, même
des énoncés, qui puissent être analysés, mesurés et métrés comme le lit
de Figaro (tant de long, tant de large, quelle que soit la date et le
métricien). Plutôt que propriété d'un objet supposé dont l'esprit
pourrait seulement reconnaître ou ne pas reconnaître le rythme, le
rythme est dans l'activité mentale (événementielle) d'un esprit qui
sent du rythme en traitant d'une certaine manière, par exemple, des
énonciations ou une activité discursive (qui peut inclure non seulement
des énonciations, mais des aspects de leur contexte pragmatique). Au
théâtre ou dans la communication orale, le traitement rythmique du
discours peut s'intégrer à celui de l'action du locuteur. Dans l'esprit
d'un lecteur lisant silencieusement ou pensant verbalement (on peut
penser des vers comme on peut penser de la musique), il peut ne pas y
avoir de contrepartie physique extérieure du discours rythmé.
[36]2. Traitements rythmiques. Exemple français littéraire
14 L'organisation rythmique de l'activité mentale d'un esprit traitant
du discours dépend en partie de la nature des énoncés, mais ce qui
précède rappelle qu'elle est, spectaculairement et parfois de manière
essentielle, conditionnable par d'autres paramètres. A cause,
notamment, de son caractère littéraire, la poésie française
"classique", si on peut par cette étiquette désigner assez
arbitrairement la poésie publiée en recueils d'environ 1550 à 1870
(dates très approximatives), nous donnera d'abord un exemple d'un
système complexe de conditionnement codifié du traitement rythmique du
discours.
15 La phrase qu'on peut écrire :
(B) Qu'il vienne, qu'il vienne, le temps dont on s'éprenne.
16 pouvait donner lieu, phoniquement, vers 1873 comme encore de nos
jours, à des interprétations ou traitements syllabiques différents,
notamment selon qu'on y suppose ou non un emploi de [ @ ] à la fin de
l'une ou l'autre occurrence de « vienne » et à la fin de « s'éprenne ».
On peut aussi imaginer des dictions ou interprétations (mentales mais
éventuellement silencieuses) favorisant des regroupements différents,
par exemple, pour s'en tenir à des regroupements assez concordants avec
la structure de l'énoncé : une diction continue assez unifiée du tout ;
une diction binaire, en coupant soit après la première occurrence de
« vienne », soit après la seconde ; une diction ternaire en coupant
après les deux...
17 Dans Une Saison en enfer de Rimbaud (1873), dans le poème intitulé
Chanson de la plus haute Tour, cette phrase était imprimée en deux
alinéas métriques (vers) regroupé en un paragraphe métrique (comme ce
qu'on nommait souvent une stance ou une strophe) ; ce paragraphe était
répété, formant un refrain dont les trois occurrences étaient séparées
par des couplets de vers de rythme 5 (sauf un inégal de rythme 4), au
moins conventionnellement féminins.
18 Cette disposition graphique avait un rôle déterminé par une longue
tradition dont les lecteurs visés par ce texte étaient censés être
imprégnés. Par sa nature écrite et par son formatage, le texte
s'annonçait au regard comme de la poésie versifiée, donc (normalement)
métrique, c'est-à-dire, plus particulièrement, présentant des
régularités rythmiques plus ou moins familières dans cette tradition.
On s'attendait en particulier à ce qu'un texte métrique soit métrique
de part en part, et à ce que son organisation métrique soit
ostensiblement signalée, et en partie (vers, stances) déterminée
graphiquement par son formatage. A partir de ces orientations
initiales, une structure métrique était censée être normalement
reconnaissable conformément à ce qu'on peut appeler un principe
d'Évidence immédiate de la structure métrique, à l'application duquel
convergeaient un grand nombre de contraintes hétérogènes sur le texte,
dont : sa présentation graphique, sa prononciation supposée et la
conformité de ses rythmes au répertoire des combinaisons de mètres. A
partir d'un tel conditionnement, la structure métrique était censée
s'imposer par sa régularité même dans le texte (extrapolation métrique,
renforcée par l'attente d'exhaustivité métrique). (Sur cet aspect de la
poésie, voir Cornulier et Murat, 2000).
19 L'imprégnation supposée par cette tradition littéraire vers la fin
du Second Empire pouvait induire l'esprit d'un lecteur cultivé à se
mettre, pour ainsi dire, en mode métrique (littéraire), et déterminer
les éléments d'organisation rythmique suivants (dans la transcription
phonétique, les barres verticales notent des pauses) :
[37]Image2 [38]Agrandir
20 En effet la tradition habituait à sentir des régularités
remarquables impliquant la distinction de ces trois parties d'un vers
ou d'une expression rythmée : sa dernière voyelle masculine, qu'on peut
nommer sa tonique ; sa partie anatonique, incluant sa tonique et ce qui
éventuellement la précède ; sa partie catatonique, incluant sa tonique
et ce qui éventuellement la suit. Les régularités repérables sur ces
parties du vers étaient essentiellement :
21 1) un rythme anatonique déterminé par le nombre de voyelles de la
partie anatonique, dont la régularité caractérise le mètre comme rythme
anatonique régulier ;[39]3
* [40]3 Identifier cette forme (par un terme tel (...)
22 2) la forme phonémique catatonique, c'est-à-dire la forme (en
phonèmes) de la partie catatonique, dont la régularité caractérise la
rime comme forme catatonique régulière ;
23 3) la cadence, c'est-à-dire le rythme catatonique, simplement
caractérisé (en poésie) par le nombre de voyelles de la forme
catatonique.[41]4
* [42]4 On ne prétend pas ici que la cadence était (...)
24 Il s'en faut de beaucoup que ces éléments soient complètement
déterminés par la structure syntaxique-sémantique, morphologique et
phonologique de la phrase.
25 Le formatage graphique en alinéas métriques (vers) déterminait
d'abord la syllabation : le lecteur métrique était induit à traiter
chaque vers comme une continuité syllabique et chaque entrevers comme
une discontinuité syllabique ; dans ce cadre, l'emploi du [@] du
premier « vienne » était dicté par la langue des vers. La tradition
métrique induisait, à partir de là, à sentir le rythme anatonique de
chacun des vers (5 et 6), puisque c'était l'élément obligé d'une
métrique attendue ; c'est donc la pression métrique imposée par la
tradition littéraire au lecteur de l'époque qui l'induisait à élaborer
ces rythmes.
26 Dans cette interprétation rythmique, le second vers pouvait
apparaître comme le seul 6-voyelles du poème (particularité plutôt
problématique en tradition purement littéraire).
27
28 Toutefois Arthur Rimbaud pouvait aussi rythmer cet énoncé d'une
manière toute différente. On sait par le témoignage de son professeur
de rhétorique qu'il connaissait la chanson populaire de l'avoine
(dialectalement « avène »), répandue dans toutes la France, et dont le
refrain, dans certaines de ses variantes régionales, se disait et se
rythmait plus ou moins comme suit (le rythme musical est noté à
droite[43]5) :
* [44]5 L'écriture rythmique employée ici est définie dans (...)
[45]Image3 [46]Agrandir
29 Dans cette interprétation chronorythmique, quoique les deux
expressions aient des nombres de voyelles anatoniques différents (5 et
6, sans négliger l'e féminin du premier « avène »), elles sont
sensiblement isométriques.[47]6 Il est vraisemblable qu'en écrivant son
refrain de la Saison, Rimbaud les a pensées au moins occasionnellement
sur ce rythme, en sachant que des collègues comme Verlaine ne
manqueraient pas de reconnaître ce modèle de tradition orale au moins
offert comme en contrepoint de l'interprétation littéraire métriquement
problématique. La double référence à la tradition littéraire
(numérique) et à la tradition orale (chronorythmique) permettait
d'installer une ambiguïté rythmique sans simplement abolir la
pertinence du traitement rythmique littéraire.
* [48]6 Le sentiment d'isochronie entre « Avène, (...)
[49]3. Gratuité d'un traitement rythmique.
30 La comparaison d'un traitement rythmique de tradition orale (en
intervalles de durée entre certaines attaques de voyelles) et d'un
traitement rythmique de tradition littéraire (en nombre de voyelles)
permet de souligner la liberté de choix de certains traitements
rythmiques. C'est une mise en perspective dans une tradition de poésie
littéraire qui peut induire un esprit à percevoir, ou plutôt construire
une séquence des 5 valeurs rythmiques à partir des voyelles anatoniques
de [kkilvjEn@ kilvjEn@],[50]7 sans se contenter de construire, par
exemple, à partir de chaque occurrence de [kkilvjEn@], son rythme
anatonique (2) et sa cadence (2).
* [51]7 Dans un traitement continu de « Qu'il vienne, (...)
31 Dans la tradition métricienne, il n'est pas habituel de distinguer
le métrage des suites grammaticales et l'analyse rythmique des
énonciations, et on fait souvent comme si le rythme était une propriété
objective de parties distinguées des énoncés. On a pourtant deux
raisons de rejeter le présupposé selon lequel tout esprit qui traite
distinctement une expression (assez brève) élabore automatiquement un
rythme fondé sur son nombre de voyelles anatoniques. Première raison,
négative : personne (à ma connaissance) n'a songé à établir ce
présupposé qu'on ne formule même pas ; il suffit de l'expliciter pour
en douter. Deuxième raison : on a vu qu'une virtualité rythmique
pouvait en cacher une autre ; le traitement chronorythmique d'un
« vers » de la Marseillaise ou de « Qu'il vienne, qu'il vienne » peut
empêcher de reconnaître une inégalité contextuelle de nombre vocalique
selon un traitement numérique ; inversement, un traitement littéraire
du vers peut priver de reconnaître une régularité chronométrique
possible pour une diction qu'on pourrait en faire (comme en chant).
32 Ainsi, en l'absence de justifications expresses, il est arbitraire
de décider qu'une suite non-métrique quelconque doit être
exhaustivement divisée en segments dont un rythme anatonique potentiel
soit supposé réalisé.
[52]4. Sélection et complétude métriques.
33 Un système métrique déterminé, dans une langue déterminée, et même
sur des segments du texte déterminés, peut encore donner lieu à des
applications variées au niveau de la sélection des signaux ou sons
auxquels est appliqué tel type de traitement rythmique. L'un des
rythmes les plus universellement répandus dans les traditions orales
peut être décrit comme une paire de deux couples d'événements
instantanés en série isochrone, en prenant pour exemple le cri
collectif « Untel, une chanson ! », parfois scandé collectivement avec
le nom de quelqu'un à la place de « Machin » :
[53]Image4 [54]Agrandir
34 Dans l'exemple figuré ici, « Un- tel, un' chanson ! », les attaques
des voyelles des syllabes distinguées en gras sont seules pertinentes
au niveau isochrone 2 (deux couples de coups). A ce niveau, la première
voyelle de « chanson » n'est pas pertinente. Pourtant il peut exister
au moins localement une série isochrone (niveau 1 ci-dessus)
relativement à laquelle l'attaque de cette voyelle intermédiaire est
pertinente. Il y a donc une forme rythmique à l'égard de laquelle la
première voyelle de « chanson » n'est pas pertinente (niveau 2) et il y
a un rythme à l'égard duquel elle l'est (niveau 1).
35 Il n'y a pas toujours comme ici un niveau métrique inférieur auquel
les voyelles qui n'ont pas eu l'honneur de contribuer au rythme au
niveau supérieur ont un rôle à jouer, comme qui dirait, en seconde
division ; ainsi, dans certaines formules de tradition orale anglaise,
entre deux voyelles métriquement groupées d'une manière chronométrique,
des voyelles intermédiaires peuvent intervenir plus ou moins librement.
36 A leur tour, les voyelles de « Un » et « -ne », pertinentes au
niveau 2, peuvent cesser d'être rythmiquement pertinentes à un niveau
supérieur, si, en répétant indéfiniment ce cri, on forme une série
rythmique isochrone (de niveau 3) en traitant les voyelles de « tel »
et de « -son » comme correspondant à des « temps » plus « forts ». La
dichotomie entre voyelles (absolument) métriques et voyelles
(absolument) extramétriques est donc trompeuse : il peut y avoir plutôt
différentes formes rythmiques (ici hiérarchiquement ordonnées) à
chacune desquelles peuvent éventuellement contribuer des voyelles plus
ou moins rigoureusement sélectionnées.[55]8
* [56]8 De tels rythmes sont analysés dans Cornulier 2000.
37 J'ai parlé de voyelles (ou de leurs attaques) là où parfois on parle
de syllabes, parce qu'il apparaît à l'analyse chronorythmique que ce
sont essentiellement les attaques des voyelles (noyaux des syllabes)
qui sont métriquement pertinentes. Pas les consonnes : celles-ci ne
sont pratiquement jamais sélectionnées à cet égard : elles ne
contribuent pas à l'isochronie métrique.
38 A travers diverses traditions, la rime, impliquant une équivalence
de forme catatonique, illustre cette possibilité de sélectionner plus
ou moins rigoureusement des éléments de la parole pour un type
rythmique, et notamment d'ignorer les consonnes. Dans la poésie
française "classique", il s'agit d'une rime intégrale en ce sens
qu'elle implique tous les phonèmes catatoniques du vers, consonnes
comprises : « clair » rime avec « mer », mais pas avec « mets ». Dans
certains types de chanson traditionnelle et dans certaines traditions
littéraires, l'équivalence entre voyelles catatoniques suffit (rime
vocalique, parfois dite assonance). Dans d'autres types (comme parfois
en espagnol), les voyelles posttoniques du vers ne sont pas toutes
sélectionnées (on peut parler de rime vocalique partielle ou
sélective). Parfois encore, peut-être, la tonique est seule
sélectionnée (rime tonique), comme ce pourrait être le cas dans Auprès
de ma blon-de / Il fait bon, fait bon, fait bon.... Un esprit
conditionné par l'un ou l'autre système peut être induit par lui à
dégager spontanément des formes catatoniques complètes ou sélectives
(vocaliques) selon le cas. Quant à la cadence, la seule distinction
réglée en poésie française "classique", celle des masculines (simples)
et féminines (doubles), ignore les consonnes.
39 On présuppose couramment que, même hors de toute métrique, si une
expression déterminée a un rythme anatonique, il est univoquement
déterminé par le nombre total de ses voyelles anatoniques. Ainsi, si
« Le temps dont on s'éprenne » [ l@t2ad2Ot2OsepKEn@ ] a un rythme
anatonique continu, ce ne pourra être que 6 (on veille à n'oublier
aucune voyelle). Il y a dans cette analyse un présupposé, qu'on peut
appeler de sélection maximale : à savoir que toutes les voyelles sont
sélectionnées et contribuent à ce rythme. Nous venons de voir cependant
qu'existaient en tradition orale des rythmes (anatoniques) sélectifs
quant à la partie du matériel phonémique qui y contribuait.
40 Dans la poésie française "classique", pour les rythmes anatonique
métriques, le principe de sélection maximale est fondé sur d'amples
observations : on constate des régularités de rythme anatonique dont le
caractère systématique garantit la pertinence, et qui impliquent la
prise en compte de toutes les voyelles anatoniques. Par exemple, tous
les alexandrins de Malherbe non seulement ont, mais ont seulement 12
voyelles anatoniques : pour rendre compte de cette régularité
remarquable, il faut donc systématiquement les prendre toutes en
considération.
41 Dans ce domaine même, pourtant, l'examen des faits impose souvent
des nuances ; pour ne prendre qu'un exemple ancien dans le domaine de
l'audition, dans cet hémistiche de mesure 6 de Corneille (Le Cid 2 :2,
1636), « - Parle. - Ote-moi d'un doute », vers 1636, l'acteur jouant le
rôle du comte devait pouvoir prononcer [parl@] sans élision devant
l'initiale jonctive par « Ote ». Mais la reconnaissance du mètre 6-6
impliquait que cette voyelle ne contribue pas au rythme anatonique de
l'hémistiche. La relative banalité de cette situation oblige à penser
que de nombreux auditeurs étaient accoutumés à former dans leur esprit
des rythmes anatoniques en sélectionnant spontanément, dans les sons
qu'ils entendaient, ceux qui étaient régulièrement pertinents. A s'en
tenir à la notion négative et ancienne d'élision, on pourrait dire
qu'il y avait alors élision mentale, à défaut d'élision matérielle ; on
peut préférer dire, en termes positifs, que la voyelle optionnelle de
[parl (@)], dont l'emploi était normal en finale de réplique, n'était
pas mentalement sélectionnée devant mot jonctif parce que telle était
la règle de traitement rythmique (continu) à l'intérieur du sous-vers,
même en diction fractionnée : soit une voyelle métriquement
négligeable, c'est-à-dire régulièrement négligeable dans la formation
d'un rythme métrique.
42 Ce type de phénomène est banal et codifié dans d'autres traditions.
Dans cette invocation de la Divine Comédie (Inferno 2 :7 ; apostrophe
ajoutée devant les toniques de mot ; tonique du vers distinguée en
gras) :
[57]Image5 [58]Agrandir
43 on peut compter 14 voyelles sont 13 anatoniques du vers (ligne 1)
alors que le mètre doit en recruter 10. La tradition poétique invite,
non pas à élider, mais à ignorer mentalement dans la formation du
rythme métrique les posttoniques de « muse » [ muze] devant « alto »,
de « alto » devant « ingegno », et de « ingegno » devant « or ». On dit
souvent qu'en de tels cas deux voyelles distinctes en réalité sont
« prises ensemble » (synalèphe) en sorte qu'elles n'en forment qu'une ;
il n'est pas nécessaire de supposer une telle opération si on reconnaît
là un cas codifié de non-sélection d'une voyelle relativement à un
rythme.
44 Par contraste, il y a lieu d'expliciter en métrique française
"classique" un principe codifiant la sélection des voyelles pertinentes
pour le rythme anatonique :
Principe de sélection maximale : En métrique française littéraire
"classique", toutes les voyelles non sujettes à élision devant mot
jonctif contribuent à la formation du rythme anatonique d'un sous-vers
ou d'un vers simple.
45 Ce principe contribue à la complétude et à l'Évidence de la
structure métrique en réduisant l'ambiguïté rythmique. Sa simplicité,
consistant en l'exhaustivité même et contribuant à l'évidence du
rythme, est peut-être la cause de sa généralité (plusieurs autres
traditions littéraires tendent vers un tel principe), mais cette
simplicité et cette généralité ne devraient pas cacher le fait qu'il
s'agit tout de même d'un principe choisi parmi d'autres possibles (y
compris l'absence de règle). Sauf justification expresse, on n'est pas
fondé à l'appliquer automatiquement et sans justification à n'importe
quel texte non-métrique, de tradition orale ou même littéraire
quelconque, ou même sans prétention esthétique ; par exemple à une
petite phrase du code de la route ou au salut de quelqu'un qui nous
demande en nous croisant « Comment ça va c'matin ? » : il n'est pas
démontré qu'un rythme discernable (en l'occurrence, de longueur 6) soit
mentalement élaboré à chaque fois qu'on entend ou qu'on lit quelque
chose comme ça ; ni, par conséquent, que la réunion de deux petits
énoncés dont chacun, mesuré, présente une suite anatonique de longueur
6, constitue un alexandrin ; pour que leur énonciation soit traitée en
alexandrin, il faudrait, d'abord, que ces rythmes de longueur 6, puis
leur réunion en une paire, soit mentalement construits.
[59]Bilan
46 Voici un bilan de quelques-unes des conclusions suggérées par les
remarques précédentes.
47 Les phrases n'ont pas un rythme (et un seul). Il peut y avoir du
rythme, partiellement déterminé par leur structure grammaticale, dans
l'activité mentale au cours de laquelle elles sont traitées.
48 La détermination et la complétude normales dans le traitement
rythmique des textes métriques ne sont pas des propriétés universelles
des textes. Il n'y a pas lieu de les supposer sans justification dans
un texte non-métrique quelconque.
49 Dans une tradition de poésie littéraire métrique déterminée peuvent
se tendre à se constituer des principes (sujets à évoluer
historiquement) déterminant la construction du rythme dans la tête des
lecteurs, ou des auditeurs, et contribuant non pas à une identité
(utopique), mais à une certaine homologie entre l'intention rythmique
de l'auteur et la reconstruction rythmique dans la tête de
consom-mateurs, surtout en ce qui concerne des aspects métriques du
rythme.
50 Si un tradition métrique implique (non anecdotiquement) la
pertinence de certains types de formes rythmiques, il y de grandes
chances que ces types de formes soient pertinents dans des textes
non-métriques.[60]9 Ainsi la métrique française littéraire révèle la
pertinence de la forme catatonique, de sa longueur, et celle de la
forme anatonique. Le discours métrique (poésie, chant, slogans...) est
par là un terrain précieux d'observation pour l'analyse des sons, qui
peut emprunter, et non seulement prêter à l'analyse métrique.
* [61]9 Il est triste d'imaginer les poètes forgeant des (...)
51 Si une tradition métrique n'implique pas la pertinence de certains
types de rythme, il serait imprudent d'en conclure directement qu'ils
n'existent pas, même dans des textes non-métriques. Ainsi la tradition
littéraire française n'a guère exploité quant au mètre la distinction
bref/long au niveau des voyelles ou syllabes ; on sait pourtant qu'elle
était bien établie dans certains parlers ; mais elle n'était pas assez
invariante d'un dialecte à l'autre et d'une époque à l'autre pour se
codifier en une tradition transversale dialectalement et
historiquement : les nécessités de la communication ou de la
transmission littéraire l'ont filtrée (voir par exemple Morin 1999).
Cela ne rend pas cette distinction également négligeable dans n'importe
quel texte non-métrique de n'importe quelle époque et dans n'importe
quelles conditions (à cet égard auditeur et lecteur n'ont pas le même
statut).
52 Ajoutons qu'une métrique littéraire permet, par ses régularités
mêmes, de transmettre non seulement des énoncés, mais du discours avec
du rythme. A cet égard notamment, elle n'entre pas avec la prose ou le
non-métrique dans une relation symétrique de concurrence telle qu'il
s'agirait de choisir entre du rythme régulier et du rythme libre. En
favorisant la transmission (reproduction) de rythmes, la poésie
métrique permet d'élaborer des rythmes communicables d'une précision et
d'une complexité très supérieure à ce que permet un système non doté de
telles conditions de communication.[62]10
* [63]10 L'isochronie et la tonalité permettent de (...)
Bibliographie
Billy, Dominique [1999] : éd., Métriques du Moyen Age et de la
Renaissance, L'Harmattan.
Cornulier (de), Benoît, et Murat, Michel [2001] : « Métrique et formes
versifiées », dans Jarrety 2001, 493-502.
Cornulier (de), Benoît [1995] : Art poëtique, Presses Universitaires de
Lyon.
Cornulier (de), Benoît [2000] : « Sul legame del ritmo et delle parole.
Nozioni di ritmica orale », dans Studi di Estetica 21, Éditions CLUEB,
Université de Bologne, Italie.
Jarrety, Michel [2001] éd., Dictionnaire de poésie de Baudelaire à nos
jours, Presses Universitaires de France.
Mazaleyrat, Jean [1974] : Éléments de métrique française, Colin.
Morin, Yves-Charles [1999] : « L'hexamètre héroïque de Jean Antoine de
Baïf », dans Billy 1999, 163-184.
Rimbaud, Arthur [1873] : Une Saison en enfer, Alliance Typographique,
Bruxelles.
Notes
[64]1 On peut s'imaginer percevoir dans le chant ces égalités et
inégalités de nombre syllabique quand elles sont associées à des
égalités et inégalités chronorythmiques.
[65]2 Voir Gérard Dessons et Henry Meschonnic, 1998, p. 70 sv.
[66]3 Identifier cette forme (par un terme tel qu'anatonique) aide à ne
pas se figurer que c'est par une convention propres aux poètes que les
voyelles postérieures à la tonique du vers étaient négligées comme
« extramétriques » : simplement, les voyelles posttoniques
n'appartiennent pas à la partie anatonique où se définit le mètre, tout
comme les prétoniques n'appartiennent pas à la partie catatonique où se
définit la rime (sans qu'on ait besoin de déclarer extra-rimiques ces
dernières).
[67]4 On ne prétend pas ici que la cadence était effectivement féminine
(sentie telle) pour tous les lecteurs, ni même que tous étaient
sensibles à son apparence graphique. Elle est en tout cas devenue
aujourd'hui métriquement indifférente à la majorité des lecteurs
cultivés, même sur un plan purement graphique, puisque les exceptions à
l'Alternance ne sont généralement plus remarquées.
[68]5 L'écriture rythmique employée ici est définie dans l'Art poëtique
(1995 : 280). En une notation musicale (figeant arbitrairement la durée
des syllabes), on pourrait noter : croche, noire pointée ; croche,
noire pointée ; puis 6 croches.
[69]6 Le sentiment d'isochronie entre « Avène, Avène » et « que le beau
temps t'amène » dans le chant peut reposer notamment sur l'égalité de
durée entre les deux couples d'attaques des voyelles notées en gras ;
voir Cornulier 2000.
[70]7 Dans un traitement continu de « Qu'il vienne, qu'il vienne », la
valeur rythmique de la première voyelle féminine peut, en s'incorporant
à la seconde séquence rythmique anatonique (récupération rythmique),
donner le rythme 2-3 (« 2=3 » si on note la continuité). Dans la
tradition littéraire "classique", le vers composé français semble
impliquer, par exemple pour le mètre 6-6, le cumul d'un traitement
rythmique discontinu des hémistiches 6+6 (excluant la récupération à la
césure) et continu du vers 6=6 (excluant la surnuméraire à la césure).
[71]8 De tels rythmes sont analysés dans Cornulier 2000.
[72]9 Il est triste d'imaginer les poètes forgeant des conventions
purement artificielles comme si une tradition musicale avait pu
s'établir sur la réglementation d'ultra-sons.
[73]10 L'isochronie et la tonalité permettent de construire, en
chantant dans une tradition musicale, des rythmes d'une complexité
encore bien supérieure à celle de la métrique littéraire. Mais alors la
métrique n'est plus du tout immanente au texte linguistique.
Pour citer cet article
Référence électronique
Benoît de Cornulier, « Problèmes d'analyse rythmique du non-métrique »,
Semen, 16, Rythme de la prose, 2003, [En ligne], mis en ligne le 1 mai
janvier 2010.
Auteur
[74]Benoît de Cornulier
Centre d'Études Métriques (CALD)
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imprimer l'article
Les rythmes de vie
Le corps humain est tellement bien fait qu'il dispose d'une véritable
horloge interne lui permettant de "s'auto-réguler".
L'être humain est réglé par des rythmes biologiques. Ces "horloges
biologiques" ont été mises en évidence lors d'expériences d'isolement
(isolement sensoriel) telles celles (déjà anciennes : 1962) de Michel
SIFFRE au gouffre de Scarrasson dans les Alpes du Sud (1) ou celles
réalisées ultérieurement à l'occasion des vols spatiaux. L'organisation
dans le temps de l'organisme, de ses modifications et des mécanismes
qui le contrôlent porte le nom de chronobiologie.
Ces rythmes sont génétiquement déterminés et sont synchronisés
(c'est-à-dire régulièrement "remis à l'heure" par les temps forts de la
vie courante sur terre: alternance jour- nuit, alternance
vieille-sommeil. Ces temps forts qui "re-calent" les rythmes
régulièrement (et les empêchent de se dérégler) sont appelés
synchroniseurs.
Suivant la durée de leurs cycles, on distingue les rythmes dits
ultradiens, dont la période est inférieure à 20 heures (qui rythment
par exemple la prise de nourriture), les rythmes dits circadiens, dont
la période est comprise entre 20 et 28 heures (qui rythment par exemple
les sécrétions hormonales) et les rythmes infradiens, dont la période
peut aller de 28 heures ...à plus d'un an (qui rythment par exemple
[90]les cycles menstruels de la femme).
Ces rythmes biologiques, qui scandent notre vie, expliquent les
variations de performances aussi bien des étudiants que des athlètes
(suivant l'heure du jour ou le moment de l'année), l'intolérance au
travail de nuit, l'évolution des maladies (suivant les différents
moments de la journée ou les périodes de l'année) et les variations des
effets [91]des médicaments selon l'heure de leur administration.
1- en 1962, Michel SIFFRE, spécialiste de chronobiologie étudiant
"l'horloge interne de l'homme", est resté 61 jours à l'écart de tout
repère temporel sur un glacier souterrain, démontrant ainsi la
différence existant entre la durée spontanée du cycle veille-sommeil
(24 heures 30 minutes) et le cycle circadien (24 heures). Il a ensuite
supervisé différentes expériences du même type avant de descendre
pendant 205 jours au fond de Midnight Cave (Texas), en collaboration
avec la NASA.
Francis Pradeau, Médecin des hôpitaux, le 02/10/2000
[92]Envoie ton témoignage !
[93]S'inscrire
____________________ OK !
*
*
*
*
Témoignages (2)
* [94]Seaeyes, le 26/01 à 14h15
[95]g l impresion d etre regle pour fonctione o top la nuit mais c
...
* [96]zorba, le 05/11 à 16h43
[97]c'est donc pour celà que je me réveille toujours à la même
heure ...
[98]Tous les témoignages
Toi aussi envoie ton témoignage
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* [103]10 conseils pour des pieds sensuels
* [104]Des boutons blancs sur les mamelons
* [105]Des petits moutons sur la mite ?
[106]Ce site respecte les principes de la charte HONcode de HON Ce site
respecte les [107]principes de la charte HONcode.
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Tu es ici : [88]forme > [89]mon corps > article
imprimer l'article
Les rythmes de vie
Le corps humain est tellement bien fait qu'il dispose d'une véritable
horloge interne lui permettant de "s'auto-réguler".
L'être humain est réglé par des rythmes biologiques. Ces "horloges
biologiques" ont été mises en évidence lors d'expériences d'isolement
(isolement sensoriel) telles celles (déjà anciennes : 1962) de Michel
SIFFRE au gouffre de Scarrasson dans les Alpes du Sud (1) ou celles
réalisées ultérieurement à l'occasion des vols spatiaux. L'organisation
dans le temps de l'organisme, de ses modifications et des mécanismes
qui le contrôlent porte le nom de chronobiologie.
Ces rythmes sont génétiquement déterminés et sont synchronisés
(c'est-à-dire régulièrement "remis à l'heure" par les temps forts de la
vie courante sur terre: alternance jour- nuit, alternance
vieille-sommeil. Ces temps forts qui "re-calent" les rythmes
régulièrement (et les empêchent de se dérégler) sont appelés
synchroniseurs.
Suivant la durée de leurs cycles, on distingue les rythmes dits
ultradiens, dont la période est inférieure à 20 heures (qui rythment
par exemple la prise de nourriture), les rythmes dits circadiens, dont
la période est comprise entre 20 et 28 heures (qui rythment par exemple
les sécrétions hormonales) et les rythmes infradiens, dont la période
peut aller de 28 heures ...à plus d'un an (qui rythment par exemple
[90]les cycles menstruels de la femme).
Ces rythmes biologiques, qui scandent notre vie, expliquent les
variations de performances aussi bien des étudiants que des athlètes
(suivant l'heure du jour ou le moment de l'année), l'intolérance au
travail de nuit, l'évolution des maladies (suivant les différents
moments de la journée ou les périodes de l'année) et les variations des
effets [91]des médicaments selon l'heure de leur administration.
1- en 1962, Michel SIFFRE, spécialiste de chronobiologie étudiant
"l'horloge interne de l'homme", est resté 61 jours à l'écart de tout
repère temporel sur un glacier souterrain, démontrant ainsi la
différence existant entre la durée spontanée du cycle veille-sommeil
(24 heures 30 minutes) et le cycle circadien (24 heures). Il a ensuite
supervisé différentes expériences du même type avant de descendre
pendant 205 jours au fond de Midnight Cave (Texas), en collaboration
avec la NASA.
Francis Pradeau, Médecin des hôpitaux, le 02/10/2000
[92]Envoie ton témoignage !
[93]S'inscrire
____________________ OK !
*
*
*
*
Témoignages (2)
* [94]Seaeyes, le 26/01 à 14h15
[95]g l impresion d etre regle pour fonctione o top la nuit mais c
...
* [96]zorba, le 05/11 à 16h43
[97]c'est donc pour celà que je me réveille toujours à la même
heure ...
[98]Tous les témoignages
Toi aussi envoie ton témoignage
[99]Pour participer, tu dois t'identifier.
[100]Si tu n'es pas encore inscrit, fais-le, c'est gratuit !
Plus d'infos FoRme
* [101]Dur de décalotter ? Assouplis ton prépuce !
* [102]Assieds-toi correctement !
* [103]10 conseils pour des pieds sensuels
* [104]Des boutons blancs sur les mamelons
* [105]Des petits moutons sur la mite ?
[106]Ce site respecte les principes de la charte HONcode de HON Ce site
respecte les [107]principes de la charte HONcode.
[108]Vérifiez ici.
[109]skyrock
* [110]Contact
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Tu es ici : [88]forme > [89]mon corps > article
imprimer l'article
Les rythmes de vie
Le corps humain est tellement bien fait qu'il dispose d'une véritable
horloge interne lui permettant de "s'auto-réguler".
L'être humain est réglé par des rythmes biologiques. Ces "horloges
biologiques" ont été mises en évidence lors d'expériences d'isolement
(isolement sensoriel) telles celles (déjà anciennes : 1962) de Michel
SIFFRE au gouffre de Scarrasson dans les Alpes du Sud (1) ou celles
réalisées ultérieurement à l'occasion des vols spatiaux. L'organisation
dans le temps de l'organisme, de ses modifications et des mécanismes
qui le contrôlent porte le nom de chronobiologie.
Ces rythmes sont génétiquement déterminés et sont synchronisés
(c'est-à-dire régulièrement "remis à l'heure" par les temps forts de la
vie courante sur terre: alternance jour- nuit, alternance
vieille-sommeil. Ces temps forts qui "re-calent" les rythmes
régulièrement (et les empêchent de se dérégler) sont appelés
synchroniseurs.
Suivant la durée de leurs cycles, on distingue les rythmes dits
ultradiens, dont la période est inférieure à 20 heures (qui rythment
par exemple la prise de nourriture), les rythmes dits circadiens, dont
la période est comprise entre 20 et 28 heures (qui rythment par exemple
les sécrétions hormonales) et les rythmes infradiens, dont la période
peut aller de 28 heures ...à plus d'un an (qui rythment par exemple
[90]les cycles menstruels de la femme).
Ces rythmes biologiques, qui scandent notre vie, expliquent les
variations de performances aussi bien des étudiants que des athlètes
(suivant l'heure du jour ou le moment de l'année), l'intolérance au
travail de nuit, l'évolution des maladies (suivant les différents
moments de la journée ou les périodes de l'année) et les variations des
effets [91]des médicaments selon l'heure de leur administration.
1- en 1962, Michel SIFFRE, spécialiste de chronobiologie étudiant
"l'horloge interne de l'homme", est resté 61 jours à l'écart de tout
repère temporel sur un glacier souterrain, démontrant ainsi la
différence existant entre la durée spontanée du cycle veille-sommeil
(24 heures 30 minutes) et le cycle circadien (24 heures). Il a ensuite
supervisé différentes expériences du même type avant de descendre
pendant 205 jours au fond de Midnight Cave (Texas), en collaboration
avec la NASA.
Francis Pradeau, Médecin des hôpitaux, le 02/10/2000
[92]Envoie ton témoignage !
[93]S'inscrire
____________________ OK !
*
*
*
*
Témoignages (2)
* [94]Seaeyes, le 26/01 à 14h15
[95]g l impresion d etre regle pour fonctione o top la nuit mais c
...
* [96]zorba, le 05/11 à 16h43
[97]c'est donc pour celà que je me réveille toujours à la même
heure ...
[98]Tous les témoignages
Toi aussi envoie ton témoignage
[99]Pour participer, tu dois t'identifier.
[100]Si tu n'es pas encore inscrit, fais-le, c'est gratuit !
Plus d'infos FoRme
* [101]Dur de décalotter ? Assouplis ton prépuce !
* [102]Assieds-toi correctement !
* [103]10 conseils pour des pieds sensuels
* [104]Des boutons blancs sur les mamelons
* [105]Des petits moutons sur la mite ?
[106]Ce site respecte les principes de la charte HONcode de HON Ce site
respecte les [107]principes de la charte HONcode.
[108]Vérifiez ici.
[109]skyrock
* [110]Contact
* · [111]Les jobs
* · [112]C.G.U.
* · [113]Engagement
Références
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imprimer l'article
Les rythmes de vie
Le corps humain est tellement bien fait qu'il dispose d'une véritable
horloge interne lui permettant de "s'auto-réguler".
L'être humain est réglé par des rythmes biologiques. Ces "horloges
biologiques" ont été mises en évidence lors d'expériences d'isolement
(isolement sensoriel) telles celles (déjà anciennes : 1962) de Michel
SIFFRE au gouffre de Scarrasson dans les Alpes du Sud (1) ou celles
réalisées ultérieurement à l'occasion des vols spatiaux. L'organisation
dans le temps de l'organisme, de ses modifications et des mécanismes
qui le contrôlent porte le nom de chronobiologie.
Ces rythmes sont génétiquement déterminés et sont synchronisés
(c'est-à-dire régulièrement "remis à l'heure" par les temps forts de la
vie courante sur terre: alternance jour- nuit, alternance
vieille-sommeil. Ces temps forts qui "re-calent" les rythmes
régulièrement (et les empêchent de se dérégler) sont appelés
synchroniseurs.
Suivant la durée de leurs cycles, on distingue les rythmes dits
ultradiens, dont la période est inférieure à 20 heures (qui rythment
par exemple la prise de nourriture), les rythmes dits circadiens, dont
la période est comprise entre 20 et 28 heures (qui rythment par exemple
les sécrétions hormonales) et les rythmes infradiens, dont la période
peut aller de 28 heures ...à plus d'un an (qui rythment par exemple
[90]les cycles menstruels de la femme).
Ces rythmes biologiques, qui scandent notre vie, expliquent les
variations de performances aussi bien des étudiants que des athlètes
(suivant l'heure du jour ou le moment de l'année), l'intolérance au
travail de nuit, l'évolution des maladies (suivant les différents
moments de la journée ou les périodes de l'année) et les variations des
effets [91]des médicaments selon l'heure de leur administration.
1- en 1962, Michel SIFFRE, spécialiste de chronobiologie étudiant
"l'horloge interne de l'homme", est resté 61 jours à l'écart de tout
repère temporel sur un glacier souterrain, démontrant ainsi la
différence existant entre la durée spontanée du cycle veille-sommeil
(24 heures 30 minutes) et le cycle circadien (24 heures). Il a ensuite
supervisé différentes expériences du même type avant de descendre
pendant 205 jours au fond de Midnight Cave (Texas), en collaboration
avec la NASA.
Francis Pradeau, Médecin des hôpitaux, le 02/10/2000
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Ouvrons l'oeil sur le sommeil
Dormir c'est vivre aussi
PROSOM - ADESSI
TABLE DES MATIERES
[1]Rythme de vie, rythme de nuit
[2]Connaître le sommeil, c'est déjà mieux dormir.
[3]A chacun son sommeil
[4]Chaque âge a son sommeil
[5]Insomnie, insomnies
[6]Des conseils pour préparer le sommeil
[7]Le réveil du bon pied
[8]Mieux connaitre, mieux vivre son sommeil
[9]Crédits
IMPRESSION
[10]Version imprimable
(Tout l'article dans une seule page)
Rythme de vie, rythme de nuit
[fig1.jpg]
Le sommeil n'est pas une interruption d'activité, c'est une autre forme
d'activité de l'organisme.
Le bon sens nous fait dire qu'il est indispensable à la récupération de
la fatigue physique et de la fatigue nerveuse chez tous.
On sait aussi qu'il est nécessaire pour la croissance et la maturation
du système nerveux chez l'enfant.
De plus, durant le sommeil et plus particulièrement pendant le stade du
rêve, un certain nombre de fonctions s'accomplissent: mémorisation et
organisation des informations acquises dans la journée, résolution des
tensions accumulées le jour en les revivant, en les transformant...
L'organisme fonctionne par cycles de 1h 1/2 à 2 h, de jour et de nuit.
Les cycles se succèdent dans la nuit autant de fois que l'organisme en
a besoin pour récupérer, grandir, mûrir et accomplir des fonctions
mentales importantes.
Durant la journée, I'organisme fonctionne aussi de façon cyclique:
chacun passe régulièrement de temps forts à des temps faibles, d'un
état de grande forme à des "coups de pompe".
Il semble aussi que, chez presque tous on constate une diminution
globale de vigilance entre 11 h du matin et 15 h.
Un cycle de sommeil dure de 1 heure 30 à 2 heures. La nuit est une succesion
de plusieurs cycles (4 à 5).
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rhythm
By [14]Shelley Esaak, About.com Guide
See More About:
* [15]art definitions
* [16]principles of design
Definition:
(noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in
words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take
what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something
you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat.
A pattern has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the
colors of a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from
one component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying
movement. Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're
placed one next to the other.
Really, it's easier to "see" rhythm in just about anything other than
the visual arts. Literally-minded types should stick to music for
rhythm.
Pronunciation: rih·them
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[1]Click Here
[2]ArtLex Art Dictionary
,ø¤º°`°ºº¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø
,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°
r rhythm - A visual tempo or beat. The [3]principle of design that
refers to a regular repetition of [4]elements of art to produce the
look and feel of [5]movement. It is often achieved through the careful
placement of repeated components which invite the viewer's eye to jump
rapidly or glide smoothly from one to the next.
In any [6]artwork, it is possible to distinguish between rhythm of
[7]color, [8]line, and [9]form. In the continuity of the three comes
the whole rhythm of that work.
Rhythm unites the [10]visual culture with [11]music, but in visual
culture, rhythm is more evident in the [12]applied arts than in the
[13]fine arts. In the former, it is often the foremost means of
[14]aesthetic [15]expression.
Rhythm originated in the Greek word rhymthmos, meaning measured flow,
which they passed into Latin as rhythmus, meaning movement in [16]time.
Its first uses in English were literary, in reference to themetrical
rhyming of verses. English speakers began to use rhythm concerning
repetition of musical beats in the late 18th century, and about visual
elements in the same period.
Each [17]artist, every [18]period, every [19]culture produces a
characteristic sort of rhythm. Recognizing a work's rhythmical
peculiarities often aids in [20]identify the culture or [21]time in
which it was produced, if not the individual artist who produced it.
Rhythm's importance can be demonstrated by noting how many important
rhythmic cycles we observe in [22]nature -- consider the alternating
tension and relaxation in the heart's beating or in the ocean's waves,
the revolutions of the earth around the sun, the comings and goings of
generations. Each of us has personal rhythms to our days, weeks, and
years. Life, indeed, would be chaotic without rhythm. Participating in
the tempo of this flow gives us excitement and calm, yearning and
contentment, yin and yang. It is natural that we would employ rhythms
to organize and [23]unify our works, much as they do the rest of our
experience.
There are several types of visual rhythm. These include:
regular rhythms - The background design behind this text has a
regular rhythm. (In the following examples, let the letters A, B,
etc. stand for visual elements of any sort)
AB-AB-AB is the most common type. Picture alternating stripes of two
colors, for instance. (In English prosody, a student of poetry might
read this as either "iambs" or "trochees". An iamb is a metrical
foot consisting of two syllables, the first syllable accented, the
second accented, as in AB-AB-AB. It becomes trochaic meter if the
accenting is reversed, as in AB-AB-AB.)
Some more examples:
ABC-ABC-ABC (In English prosody, a student of poetry might read this
as "anapests" or "dactyls". An anapest is a metrical foot consisting
of three syllables, the first two syllables unaccented, the third
accented, as in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL. A dactyl consists of three
syllables, the first accented, the second and third unaccented, as
in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL.)
ABBB-ABBB-ABBB
ABCB-ABCB-ABCB
ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA
alternating rhythms -
some examples:
ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE-ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE-
ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF-ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF-
ABCD-DCCBBA-ABCD-DCCBBA
progressive rhythms - Progression occurs when there is a gradual
increase or decrease in the size, number, color, or some other
quality of the elements repeated.
some examples:
AB-AABB-AAABBB-AAAABBBB
AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB
AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-
ABC-ABD-ABE-ABF-ABG-ABH-ABI
flowing rhythms -
random rhythms -
Each of these types of rhythm might be altered periodically. [24]Music
theory might be defined as the study of rhythms and their periodic
alterations.
Example of works displaying rhythm:
[rhythm_matis.danc1.th.jpg]
see thumbnail to left Henri Matisse (French, 1869-1954), [25]Dance
(first version), 1909, [26]oil on [27]canvas, 8 feet 6 1/2 inches x
12 feet 9 1/2 inches (259.7 x 390.1 cm), Museum of
[e3_3_1_8d_french_art20.jpg] Modern Art, NY.
Matisse painted a second version of see thumbnail to right [28]Dance
in 1910, [29]oil on [30]canvas, 102 x 154 inches (260 x 391 cm),
Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia.
Dance, together with Music, was commissioned by S.I.Shchukin to
[31]decorate the staircase in his Moscow mansion. Matisse took the
[32]motif of the round dance, used as a [33]symbol back as far as
French [34]Renaissance, to represent the [35]rhythm and
[36]expression of the 20th century. The spaciousness and expressive
[37]lines [38]emphasize the dynamics of the [39]figures.
[40]Simplified and schematic [41]forms intensify the [42]brightness
and [43]resonance of the three colors -- red, blue and green. See
[44]music. Dance, Matisse once said, meant "life and rhythm." See
[45]dance, [46]music, and [47]movement.
[destij_mond.broadwa.th.gif]
see thumbnail to left Piet Mondrian (Dutch, 1872-1944), [48]Broadway
Boogie Woogie. 1942-43, [49]oil on [50]canvas, 50 x 50 inches (127 x
127 cm), at the Museum of Modern Art, New York. See [51]De Stijl and
[52]grid.
[3L00164.jpg]
see thumbnail to right Paul Klee (Swiss, 1879-1940),
[53]Rhythmisches (In Rhythm), 1930, [54]oil on woven jute, 69.6 x
50.5 cm, Georges Pompidou Center, Paris. See [55]Bauhaus and
[56]Swiss art.
[femns_taeuber_circles_th.jpg]
see thumbnail to left Sophie Taeuber-Arp (Swiss, 1889-1943; to
France 1928), [57]Composition of Circles and Overlapping Angles
(Composition à cercles et à bras superposés), 1930, [58]oil on
[59]canvas, 19 1/2 x 25 1/4 inches (49.5 x 64.1 cm), Museum of
Modern Art, NY. See [60]feminism and feminist art.
[40x10pixel.space.gif]
[femns_taeuber_echelon_th.jpg]
see thumbnail to right Sophie Taeuber-Arp, [61]Echelonnement désaxé,
1934, [62]gouache on [63]paper, 13 7/8 X 10 5/8 inches (35.1 X 27
cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY.
[bauhau_aalber.walldes.th.jpg]
see thumbnail to left Anni Albers (born Analise Fleischman, married
Josef Albers) (German, 1899-1994), [64]Design for Wall Hanging,
1926, [65]gouache and [66]pencil on paper, 14 x 11 1/2 inches (35.6
x 29.2 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. See [67]Bauhaus and
[68]textile.
Quote:
"Rhythm and harmony find their way into the inward places of the
soul."
Plato (427?-327? BCE), Greek philosopher. The Republic, Book III,
401d, as translated by B. Jowett, 1901. See [69]harmony.
Also see [70]animation, [71]arrangement, [72]chronology, [73]cinema,
[74]composition, [75]dance, [76]direction, [77]egg-and-dart,
[78]eurythmy, [79]four-dimensional, [80]harmonic sequence, [81]harmony,
[82]kinetic, [83]juxtaposition, [84]measure, [85]metamorphosis,
[86]mobile, [87]movement, [88]obsession, [89]pattern, [90]periodicity,
[91]music, [92]sequence, [93]space-time, [94]time, and [95]whirligig.
[96][grid.1.gif]
[97]ArtLex Art Dictionary
[98]Copyright © 1996- current year delahunt(at)artlex.com
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Rhythm in Art
Take a look at this definition of Rhythm in Art. As noted in the
definition, it can be likened to rhythm in music, and can be said to be
a "patterened repitition" What do you think?
Is rhythm a "visual beat?"
(noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in
words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take
what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something
you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat. A pattern
has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the colors of
a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from one
component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying movement.
Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're placed one
next to the other.
it's sometimes easier to comprehend rhythm in just about anything other
than the visual arts, but once understood, heightened sensitivity to
this aspect can animate design and art making it visually interactive.
"Rhythm of the Hills" by Judy Neale
"Rhythm Joie De Vivre" by Robert Delaunay
This very graphic and design-oriented painting uses repeated circles,
half-circles, joined shapes and contrasting colors to create movement.
"Although trained in fine arts in Paris, Delaunay worked in set design
before beginning his painting career in 1905. He found his initial
influences in the Neo-Impressionists, but gradually moved on to join
Der Blaue Reiter in 1911. His Paris cityscapes began to take on a
distinctive style that studied the effect of contrasting color
patterning. Delaunay's unique method spurred friend and poet, Guillaume
Apollinaire, to place his paintings in a new movement, which he called
Orphism." - World Wide Art Resources
Tamara De Limpicka's "The Model"
This piece which is a very graphically-designed painting, in which the
raised right arm drives the eyes to the right side of the model's
torso; the focal point of the right breast then captures the viewer's
attention, and directs it with a "pointer"... a triangular fold in the
model's garment pulling the viewer to the left arm of the figure. The
curve of the left arm uses the multiple pointers of the model's fingers
to direct the eye strongly to the left into the garment's
downward-sweeping folds, and down the highlighted leg. As if that were
not enough to invest the piece with rhythm, the artist then uses a
strong graphical "s" shape in the background to reinforce the motion
using the model's shadow to create a feeling of movement as part of the
pattern in the background. The overall positioning of the figure
creates visual torque, creating a feeling of anticipated movement
adding to the dynamicism of the design
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Rhythm, pattern, color, and texture in art and poetry
In this lesson, students will discover the meaning of "rhythm,"
"patterns," "color," and "texture" through the performance and modeled
analysis of a class "symphony." Students will also evaluate the impact
of each element on the whole work and note personal reactions and
connections to this art form. Students will then work in small groups
to apply the same elements and personal evaluation and connections to a
historical work of visual art. At the end of the lesson, students will
reflect on ways these two experiences are similar.
A lesson plan for grade 7 Visual Arts Education and English Language
Arts
By [17]Carol Horne
Learn more
Related pages
* [18]Old Hat, New Hat: 3-D Pattern Hats: After students read Old
Hat, New Hat by Jan and Stan Berenstain, they create their own new
3-D hats.
* [19]Rhythm stars: This lesson will introduce the main components of
rhythm: quarter, eighth, and sixteenth notes.
* [20]How do I express what I believe? - Part 2: This is the second
in a three-part lesson series seeking to examine belief systems and
how they impact culture in the United States. This lesson, "How do
I express what I believe?" requires 3 sessions at 40 minutes each
to complete. The lesson series also seeks to let students examine
their own personal belief system. In this lesson, the student will
learn about the American tradition of the Face Jug/Pot and how it
is used to express belief. The student will also create a Face
Jug/Pot to express his/her belief, and this pot will be used in the
third lesson entitled. "How do I present what I believe?"
Related topics
* Learn more about [21]arts, [22]color, [23]hands-on, [24]patterns,
[25]rhythm, and [26]texture.
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Learning outcomes
Students will:
* learn to identify examples of "rhythm," "patterns," "color," and
"texture" in order to analyze a whole class symphony of various
sounds and movements.
* learn to apply these same elements to a work of visual art.
* evaluate the overall impact of each element and will investigate
their personal reactions and connections to both of these art
forms.
* learn to reflect on the similarities of their analyses of both of
these art forms.
Teacher planning
Time required for lesson
85 minutes
Materials/resources
* Adjust space for class to "perform" assigned individual movements
as a whole group standing in one long line as the teacher stands in
front of students to "conduct." If this is not possible, make sure
students have enough space to "perform" as they stand alongside
their desks.
* Write variety of individual sounds and movements on index cards to
distribute to each student, e.g. "bark like a dog; make a whooshing
sound as you move like a wave; high-five and yell, `Yeah!'; whistle
like an admirer; click your heels and say, `There's no place like
home!'; sing the first bar of the Friskies' `Meow, meow, meow,
meow' song; frog hop as you `ribbitt' twice; etc.
* Set up a tape recorder and blank tape cued to record the class
"symphony."
* Make two overhead transparencies and two hard copies per student of
the graphic organizer titled, "Elements of Art-Making Connections!"
for analysis of the elements of "rhythm and patterns," "color,"
"texture," etc. (See attachment of a blank copy.) You will also
need a transparency pen.
* Pre-select a poster, transparency, or website image of a work of
visual art preferrably from a historical period familiar to
students and a narrative piece. (See "Relevant Web Sites" below for
a suggested link to "Cleopatra and the Peasant.")
* Complete a graphic organizer for the selected work of visual art to
use as a suggested "answer key" for easy reference during small
group facilitation. (See "Attachments" below for a suggested key of
possible answers for "Elements of Art - Cleopatra and the Peasant"
art image.)
Technology resources
Student computers with color monitors and Internet connection
bookmarked at the site of the selected work of visual art. (optional)
A classroom computer with color monitor and Internet connection set on
site of selected work of visual art and connected to an LCD projector,
which projects computer image onto classroom screen. (optional)
Pre-activities
No previous knowledge is needed for the opening "symphony" activity.
However, to integrate social studies, students should be familiar with
the general historical context of the work of visual art used in the
second activity. If the "Cleopatra and the Peasant" piece is used, for
instance, it would be helpful if students have had some background in
the ancient Egyptian period prior to the viewing of this piece. If you
are using another historical narrative piece, select one for which
students have had some previous study.
If your students will be accessing the Internet to view the visual art
at a selected website, students should have obtained permission to use
the Internet. They should also know how to go to bookmarked sites.
Students should also have had some experience with small group
collaboration with their peers.
Students should have experience with writing one-sentence summaries for
information presented textually or orally.
Activities
Because of the variety of activities, this lesson will work well as a
block period, or it may be divided into two consecutive class periods.
Initiating Activity - Whole Class "Symphony" (40 minutes)
1. Because we want to create an atmosphere of discovery and an air of
mystery, the teacher will distribute one prepared index card to
each student on which some type of sound is written without undue
explanation.
2. Next, line up your students in a straight line facing you, and
position yourself in front of them as the "conductor," if space
permits. Explain now that the whole class will create a "symphony"
using the assigned sounds while you conduct students' coming in,
out, and level of volume. Briefly teach the students the signals
indicated by the conductor's hand and arm movements for: making
their sound/motion; decreasing the sound; increasing the sound;
cutting the sound off; etc.
3. As a practice, point to each student individually to try out his
assigned sound/motion along with your signals. Next, explain that
at times there may be solos, duets, trios, etc., or times when the
whole group will perform together. Those determinations will be
indicated by the conductor, so students must watch the conductor
carefully.
4. After students understand their "assignment," you, the conductor,
will proceed to conduct a class symphony as you see fit. Before you
start, explain that this production will be tape recorded. (Turn on
your tape recorder when ready.) As you begin, experiment with
different combinations of single, small group, and larger group
participation as well as crescendo/decrescendo effects. You may
also include periods of silence. Remember the elements you want to
elicit in this improvised piece are: rhythm/patterns, color, and
texture, which are discussed below. After several minutes of
composing/performing, turn off the tape recorder. (See also another
way of doing this activity described in "Supplemental
Resources/Information for Teachers" section below.)
5. As students return to their seats, distribute copies of the blank
"Elements of Art" graphic organizer to be used for an analysis of
the class performance. (See "Attachments" below.) Using your
overhead transparency and pen, prepare to conduct a whole class
explanation/discussion of each element listed.
6. You will need to explain each of the specialized vocabulary terms
below in the suggested ways.
Elements for Musical Composition:
Rhythm/Patterns
These are listed together because patterns help to create rhythm.
Rhythm is created with the recurrence (pattern) of varying stresses
and tone lengths. These may be balanced against a steady,
underlying succession of beats.
Color
You should be accepting of students' definitions here, but you may
explain that "color" is created musically through such qualities as
vitality, vividness, or interest. Musically speaking, "color"
refers to the timbre, or tonal quality of the voice/instrument or
the effect created by the combination of such qualities.
Texture
Explain that in music, "texture" is created by contrasts of rich,
smooth, melodic, lyrical tones vs. stiff, staccato, harsh tones.
7. Before playing back the recording of the production, you may assign
one-third of the class to listen for examples of rhythm and
patterns, another one-third of the class can listen for examples of
color, and the remaining one-third can listen for examples of
texture. As they listen, they should note examples on their charts.
8. Next, ask students to share their examples of each element.
Facilitate their sharing in light of the meaning of each element,
remembering that your present objective is to help students to
understand the meanings of all the elements and analyze examples
from a musical piece. As examples are shared and discussed, model
writing them on your overhead transparency; engage students by
asking them to fill in examples for each element on their charts
throughout the class discussion.
9. To review the elements and encourage students to engage in mental
evaluation of their performance, ask students to assess which
element they believe had the greatest impact on their overall
performance. Did their piece seem to emphasize rhythm and pattern?
Or did "color" or "texture" make the greatest impact, in their
opinion? Get the students to explain and record their choices on
their graphic organizers.
10. Last, to allow students to make this experience personally
relevant, invite them to write single words that might describe
their feelings or emotions toward their symphony. (Examples might
be: exciting, interesting, invigorating, stimulating, etc.) In the
last column, invite students to note something from their personal
experience that the class symphony reminds them of. It could be a
personal experience or feeling, or it might be one they've read
about or seen portrayed in a movie or real life of a friend.
Second Activity: Analyze the Elements in Visual Art (35 minutes)
1. Make a transition to the next activity by arranging students for
partner or small group collaboration. If you are remaining in the
classroom, arrange students in small groups of three to five with
desks facing one another to encourage collaboration. If students
are at computer stations, pair them up to encourage collaboration.
2. The teacher will need to use an overhead projector to initiate
modeling of analysis of elements on the second overhead
transparency of the graphic organizer.
3. Introduce the selected work of art and artist as you display the
painting or image. (Ask students to navigate to the bookmarked
website, if they are at computer stations.) Initiate discussion
through use of a "hook" question. For example, if you are using the
"Cleopatra and the Peasant" painting by Eugene Delacroix, ask: "Why
do you think there is a little snake coiling out of the basket of
plums?" As students brainstorm possibilities, work in bits of
historical information. For example, remind them of who Cleopatra
was and the culture and time in which she lived.
(Note: Refer to "Supplemental Information" below. Also, if you
access the Ackland Online website listed below under "Relevant
Websites," background information about the painting will be
provided.) Through questioning and discussion, develop the story
behind the painting.
4. You may also mention that the painting was created in Europe in the
1800's. You may ask if students can locate clues in the painting to
illustrate this fact. (Cleopatra was portrayed in this painting as
a 19th century European woman in style of dress and ethnicity, for
example, rather than an ancient Egyptian woman who lived during
ancient Roman times.)
5. As you continue to develop the history of the story, initiate one
possible answer under each of the first three columns of the
graphic organizer for "rhythm/patterns," "color," and "texture."
Students may copy these onto their charts.
6. Take this opportunity to weave in a review and explanation of the
terms below and how they relate to analysis of a work of visual
art.
Definitions of Elements for Visual Art:
Rhythm/Patterns
The recurrence of lines, colors, and shapes (perhaps in a pattern)
to create movement within a work of art.
Color
Qualities brought out by the use of hues (colors) and their
variations.
Texture
Use of materials, such as paint, to create the impression of a
feature, (e.g. satin, glass, or fur); or the use of real materials
within the work of art, (e.g. hair, leather, or metal.)
7. After students have an understanding of the information in the
painting and the elements and have written at least one example of
each element on their charts, direct the small groups or partners
to continue with their analyses. They should also discuss and
complete the last three sections in which they evaluate which
element had the greatest impact on the work of art as a whole,
explore their personal feelings, and note their personal
connections to the art.
8. During partner/group discussion time, the teacher should circulate
to facilitate the above activities.
9. Within the last few minutes of this activity, ask students to share
examples of answers recorded on their graphic organizers.
Reflection Activity (10 minutes)
1. Facilitate a five-minute discussion of similarities of the symphony
and work of visual art with the whole group through questioning.
(Examples: "In what ways are symphonies like visual art?")
Encourage students to refer to their two charts. Assist them in
making oral connections between these two art forms.
2. On a slip of notebook paper during the remaining five minutes, have
students write "exit slips," meaning they will get to exit your
class after they have handed you their "tickets," or exit slips,
out of class.
3. On the slip of paper ask students to answer the following question
in one concise sentence: "What did I learn today about the elements
of art in music AND in visual art?" The teacher can gain insight
about the kinds of things the students learned as a result of the
day's lesson by reading the exits slips. The teacher may elect to
give the students some type of daily credit for completing the
slips satisfactorily.
Assessment
The following two types of assessments may be used in addition to
teacher observation:
1. Two completed graphic organizers titled, "Elements of Art," one for
the symphony activity and the other for the visual art activity.
The teacher may collect these and give credit for quality of
answers or for participation (completion.)
2. Exit slip - This is the reflection the students made at the end of
the lesson during which they were asked to summarize in one
statement something they learned about the elements of both a
musical composition and a work of visual art. The teacher can
quickly assess the level of understanding by reading and assessing
the quality of these answers for a daily grade.
Supplemental information
Alternate "symphony" activity:
One other way to conduct this initiating activity is for the teacher
NOT to be the conductor. Instead, assign sounds on cards as previously
described and tell students to begin making their sounds together and
continue until you indicate for them to stop. At first, the combined
sounds will not be coordinated. However, as time goes along, the
students will naturally begin to add their own rhythms,
loudness/softness, etc. In the follow-up analysis of this musical
production, it could be pointed out how the first part lacked the
elements listed on the chart; but as the "music" proceeded, these
elements became evident.
Historical Background for the Life of Cleopatra:
Cleopatra became queen of ancient Egypt in 51 B.C. Though she lacked
beauty, she was intelligent, witty, charming, ambitious, and concerned
about the well-being of her subjects. Cleopatra developed loyal and
romantic relationships with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, great Roman
leaders.
Antony aspired to rule Rome alone and, due to the wealth of Egypt,
hoped to obtain financial aid from Cleopatra. They fell in love and
Cleopatra had several children by Antony. Cleopatra's ambition was for
her children to become rulers of Rome. Because Antony gave preferential
treatment to his children by Cleopatra, other Roman leaders became
jealous. They thought Cleopatra was greedy and had too much control
over Antony.
A war broke out between the two of them and Octavian, Antony's former
brother-in-law and one of the rival rulers of Rome. As Octavian came
after Cleopatra and Antony, she spread a rumor that she had committed
suicide. When Antony heard the report, he stabbed himself. He later
died in her arms.
When Cleopatra's attempts to make up to Octavian failed, she put a
poisonous snake on her arm and indeed did commit suicide. Antony's and
Cleopatra's love story has taken many dramatic and artistic forms
through the ages.
In the painting, "Cleopatra and the Peasant," the peasant is shown as
suggesting to Cleopatra (or enticing her by his slight smile and her
serious expression of consideration) with the idea of taking her life
with a snake. The peasant is holding a basket of plums under his
leopard pelt. A snake is emerging from the plums.
A jpg image of Cleopatra by Delacroix along with credit information has
been provided as an attachment below.
Related websites
Color image of "Cleopatra and the Peasant," by Eugene Delacroix:
Ackland Museum Online:
Comments
For special needs students, such as LD, the teacher may provide a hard
copy for each of the two completed "Elements of Art" graphic
organizers, saving time for the student in copying information onto the
charts.
Enrichment can be provided by encouraging students to formulate their
own questions about either work of art (musical, as in the class
symphony, or the historical work of visual art,) and their elements.
Allow students to conduct their own research to answer these questions
using CD ROMS, Internet art sites, NC Wise Owl, a research site, which
has been included under "Relevant Websites," etc.
North Carolina Curriculum Alignment
Visual Arts Education (2001)
Grade 7
* Goal 1: The learner will develop critical and creative thinking
skills and perceptual awareness necessary for understanding and
producing art.
+ [41]Objective 1.06: Recognize and discuss the use of multiple
senses in visual arts.
* Goal 2: The learner will develop skills necessary for understanding
and applying media, techniques, and processes.
+ [42]Objective 2.02: Explore and identify the unique properties
and potential of materials using proper vocabulary and
terminology.
* Goal 3: The learner will organize the components of a work into a
cohesive whole through knowledge of organizational principles of
design and art elements.
+ [43]Objective 3.03: Explore and discuss that diverse solutions
are preferable to predetermined visual solutions.
+ [44]Objective 3.04: Explore and discuss the value of intuitive
perceptions in the problem-solving process.
* Goal 5: The learner will understand the visual arts in relation to
history and cultures.
+ [45]Objective 5.02: Describe characteristics of specific works
of art that belong to a particular culture, time and place.
* Goal 7: The learner will perceive connections between visual arts
and other disciplines.
+ [46]Objective 7.01: Explain connections, similarities and
differences between the visual arts and other disciplines.
+ [47]Objective 7.03: Compare characteristics of visual arts
within a particular historical period or style with ideas,
issues or themes in other disciplines.
The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
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rhythm
By [14]Shelley Esaak, About.com Guide
See More About:
* [15]art definitions
* [16]principles of design
Definition:
(noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in
words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take
what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something
you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat.
A pattern has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the
colors of a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from
one component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying
movement. Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're
placed one next to the other.
Really, it's easier to "see" rhythm in just about anything other than
the visual arts. Literally-minded types should stick to music for
rhythm.
Pronunciation: rih·them
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rhythm
By [14]Shelley Esaak, About.com Guide
See More About:
* [15]art definitions
* [16]principles of design
Definition:
(noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in
words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take
what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something
you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat.
A pattern has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the
colors of a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from
one component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying
movement. Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're
placed one next to the other.
Really, it's easier to "see" rhythm in just about anything other than
the visual arts. Literally-minded types should stick to music for
rhythm.
Pronunciation: rih·them
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* [18]From a Father to His Children - Clement Clarke Moore
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* [38]principles of design
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* [48]Types of Visual Art
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* [50]Art Museums / Galleries
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[1]Click Here
[2]ArtLex Art Dictionary
,ø¤º°`°ºº¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø
,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°
r rhythm - A visual tempo or beat. The [3]principle of design that
refers to a regular repetition of [4]elements of art to produce the
look and feel of [5]movement. It is often achieved through the careful
placement of repeated components which invite the viewer's eye to jump
rapidly or glide smoothly from one to the next.
In any [6]artwork, it is possible to distinguish between rhythm of
[7]color, [8]line, and [9]form. In the continuity of the three comes
the whole rhythm of that work.
Rhythm unites the [10]visual culture with [11]music, but in visual
culture, rhythm is more evident in the [12]applied arts than in the
[13]fine arts. In the former, it is often the foremost means of
[14]aesthetic [15]expression.
Rhythm originated in the Greek word rhymthmos, meaning measured flow,
which they passed into Latin as rhythmus, meaning movement in [16]time.
Its first uses in English were literary, in reference to themetrical
rhyming of verses. English speakers began to use rhythm concerning
repetition of musical beats in the late 18th century, and about visual
elements in the same period.
Each [17]artist, every [18]period, every [19]culture produces a
characteristic sort of rhythm. Recognizing a work's rhythmical
peculiarities often aids in [20]identify the culture or [21]time in
which it was produced, if not the individual artist who produced it.
Rhythm's importance can be demonstrated by noting how many important
rhythmic cycles we observe in [22]nature -- consider the alternating
tension and relaxation in the heart's beating or in the ocean's waves,
the revolutions of the earth around the sun, the comings and goings of
generations. Each of us has personal rhythms to our days, weeks, and
years. Life, indeed, would be chaotic without rhythm. Participating in
the tempo of this flow gives us excitement and calm, yearning and
contentment, yin and yang. It is natural that we would employ rhythms
to organize and [23]unify our works, much as they do the rest of our
experience.
There are several types of visual rhythm. These include:
regular rhythms - The background design behind this text has a
regular rhythm. (In the following examples, let the letters A, B,
etc. stand for visual elements of any sort)
AB-AB-AB is the most common type. Picture alternating stripes of two
colors, for instance. (In English prosody, a student of poetry might
read this as either "iambs" or "trochees". An iamb is a metrical
foot consisting of two syllables, the first syllable accented, the
second accented, as in AB-AB-AB. It becomes trochaic meter if the
accenting is reversed, as in AB-AB-AB.)
Some more examples:
ABC-ABC-ABC (In English prosody, a student of poetry might read this
as "anapests" or "dactyls". An anapest is a metrical foot consisting
of three syllables, the first two syllables unaccented, the third
accented, as in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL. A dactyl consists of three
syllables, the first accented, the second and third unaccented, as
in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL.)
ABBB-ABBB-ABBB
ABCB-ABCB-ABCB
ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA
alternating rhythms -
some examples:
ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE-ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE-
ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF-ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF-
ABCD-DCCBBA-ABCD-DCCBBA
progressive rhythms - Progression occurs when there is a gradual
increase or decrease in the size, number, color, or some other
quality of the elements repeated.
some examples:
AB-AABB-AAABBB-AAAABBBB
AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB
AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-
ABC-ABD-ABE-ABF-ABG-ABH-ABI
flowing rhythms -
random rhythms -
Each of these types of rhythm might be altered periodically. [24]Music
theory might be defined as the study of rhythms and their periodic
alterations.
Example of works displaying rhythm:
[rhythm_matis.danc1.th.jpg]
see thumbnail to left Henri Matisse (French, 1869-1954), [25]Dance
(first version), 1909, [26]oil on [27]canvas, 8 feet 6 1/2 inches x
12 feet 9 1/2 inches (259.7 x 390.1 cm), Museum of
[e3_3_1_8d_french_art20.jpg] Modern Art, NY.
Matisse painted a second version of see thumbnail to right [28]Dance
in 1910, [29]oil on [30]canvas, 102 x 154 inches (260 x 391 cm),
Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia.
Dance, together with Music, was commissioned by S.I.Shchukin to
[31]decorate the staircase in his Moscow mansion. Matisse took the
[32]motif of the round dance, used as a [33]symbol back as far as
French [34]Renaissance, to represent the [35]rhythm and
[36]expression of the 20th century. The spaciousness and expressive
[37]lines [38]emphasize the dynamics of the [39]figures.
[40]Simplified and schematic [41]forms intensify the [42]brightness
and [43]resonance of the three colors -- red, blue and green. See
[44]music. Dance, Matisse once said, meant "life and rhythm." See
[45]dance, [46]music, and [47]movement.
[destij_mond.broadwa.th.gif]
see thumbnail to left Piet Mondrian (Dutch, 1872-1944), [48]Broadway
Boogie Woogie. 1942-43, [49]oil on [50]canvas, 50 x 50 inches (127 x
127 cm), at the Museum of Modern Art, New York. See [51]De Stijl and
[52]grid.
[3L00164.jpg]
see thumbnail to right Paul Klee (Swiss, 1879-1940),
[53]Rhythmisches (In Rhythm), 1930, [54]oil on woven jute, 69.6 x
50.5 cm, Georges Pompidou Center, Paris. See [55]Bauhaus and
[56]Swiss art.
[femns_taeuber_circles_th.jpg]
see thumbnail to left Sophie Taeuber-Arp (Swiss, 1889-1943; to
France 1928), [57]Composition of Circles and Overlapping Angles
(Composition à cercles et à bras superposés), 1930, [58]oil on
[59]canvas, 19 1/2 x 25 1/4 inches (49.5 x 64.1 cm), Museum of
Modern Art, NY. See [60]feminism and feminist art.
[40x10pixel.space.gif]
[femns_taeuber_echelon_th.jpg]
see thumbnail to right Sophie Taeuber-Arp, [61]Echelonnement désaxé,
1934, [62]gouache on [63]paper, 13 7/8 X 10 5/8 inches (35.1 X 27
cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY.
[bauhau_aalber.walldes.th.jpg]
see thumbnail to left Anni Albers (born Analise Fleischman, married
Josef Albers) (German, 1899-1994), [64]Design for Wall Hanging,
1926, [65]gouache and [66]pencil on paper, 14 x 11 1/2 inches (35.6
x 29.2 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. See [67]Bauhaus and
[68]textile.
Quote:
"Rhythm and harmony find their way into the inward places of the
soul."
Plato (427?-327? BCE), Greek philosopher. The Republic, Book III,
401d, as translated by B. Jowett, 1901. See [69]harmony.
Also see [70]animation, [71]arrangement, [72]chronology, [73]cinema,
[74]composition, [75]dance, [76]direction, [77]egg-and-dart,
[78]eurythmy, [79]four-dimensional, [80]harmonic sequence, [81]harmony,
[82]kinetic, [83]juxtaposition, [84]measure, [85]metamorphosis,
[86]mobile, [87]movement, [88]obsession, [89]pattern, [90]periodicity,
[91]music, [92]sequence, [93]space-time, [94]time, and [95]whirligig.
[96][grid.1.gif]
[97]ArtLex Art Dictionary
[98]Copyright © 1996- current year delahunt(at)artlex.com
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Rhythm in Art
Take a look at this definition of Rhythm in Art. As noted in the
definition, it can be likened to rhythm in music, and can be said to be
a "patterened repitition" What do you think?
Is rhythm a "visual beat?"
(noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in
words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take
what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something
you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat. A pattern
has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the colors of
a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from one
component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying movement.
Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're placed one
next to the other.
it's sometimes easier to comprehend rhythm in just about anything other
than the visual arts, but once understood, heightened sensitivity to
this aspect can animate design and art making it visually interactive.
"Rhythm of the Hills" by Judy Neale
"Rhythm Joie De Vivre" by Robert Delaunay
This very graphic and design-oriented painting uses repeated circles,
half-circles, joined shapes and contrasting colors to create movement.
"Although trained in fine arts in Paris, Delaunay worked in set design
before beginning his painting career in 1905. He found his initial
influences in the Neo-Impressionists, but gradually moved on to join
Der Blaue Reiter in 1911. His Paris cityscapes began to take on a
distinctive style that studied the effect of contrasting color
patterning. Delaunay's unique method spurred friend and poet, Guillaume
Apollinaire, to place his paintings in a new movement, which he called
Orphism." - World Wide Art Resources
Tamara De Limpicka's "The Model"
This piece which is a very graphically-designed painting, in which the
raised right arm drives the eyes to the right side of the model's
torso; the focal point of the right breast then captures the viewer's
attention, and directs it with a "pointer"... a triangular fold in the
model's garment pulling the viewer to the left arm of the figure. The
curve of the left arm uses the multiple pointers of the model's fingers
to direct the eye strongly to the left into the garment's
downward-sweeping folds, and down the highlighted leg. As if that were
not enough to invest the piece with rhythm, the artist then uses a
strong graphical "s" shape in the background to reinforce the motion
using the model's shadow to create a feeling of movement as part of the
pattern in the background. The overall positioning of the figure
creates visual torque, creating a feeling of anticipated movement
adding to the dynamicism of the design
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Rhythm, pattern, color, and texture in art and poetry
In this lesson, students will discover the meaning of "rhythm,"
"patterns," "color," and "texture" through the performance and modeled
analysis of a class "symphony." Students will also evaluate the impact
of each element on the whole work and note personal reactions and
connections to this art form. Students will then work in small groups
to apply the same elements and personal evaluation and connections to a
historical work of visual art. At the end of the lesson, students will
reflect on ways these two experiences are similar.
A lesson plan for grade 7 Visual Arts Education and English Language
Arts
By [17]Carol Horne
Learn more
Related pages
* [18]Old Hat, New Hat: 3-D Pattern Hats: After students read Old
Hat, New Hat by Jan and Stan Berenstain, they create their own new
3-D hats.
* [19]Rhythm stars: This lesson will introduce the main components of
rhythm: quarter, eighth, and sixteenth notes.
* [20]How do I express what I believe? - Part 2: This is the second
in a three-part lesson series seeking to examine belief systems and
how they impact culture in the United States. This lesson, "How do
I express what I believe?" requires 3 sessions at 40 minutes each
to complete. The lesson series also seeks to let students examine
their own personal belief system. In this lesson, the student will
learn about the American tradition of the Face Jug/Pot and how it
is used to express belief. The student will also create a Face
Jug/Pot to express his/her belief, and this pot will be used in the
third lesson entitled. "How do I present what I believe?"
Related topics
* Learn more about [21]arts, [22]color, [23]hands-on, [24]patterns,
[25]rhythm, and [26]texture.
Help
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Learning outcomes
Students will:
* learn to identify examples of "rhythm," "patterns," "color," and
"texture" in order to analyze a whole class symphony of various
sounds and movements.
* learn to apply these same elements to a work of visual art.
* evaluate the overall impact of each element and will investigate
their personal reactions and connections to both of these art
forms.
* learn to reflect on the similarities of their analyses of both of
these art forms.
Teacher planning
Time required for lesson
85 minutes
Materials/resources
* Adjust space for class to "perform" assigned individual movements
as a whole group standing in one long line as the teacher stands in
front of students to "conduct." If this is not possible, make sure
students have enough space to "perform" as they stand alongside
their desks.
* Write variety of individual sounds and movements on index cards to
distribute to each student, e.g. "bark like a dog; make a whooshing
sound as you move like a wave; high-five and yell, `Yeah!'; whistle
like an admirer; click your heels and say, `There's no place like
home!'; sing the first bar of the Friskies' `Meow, meow, meow,
meow' song; frog hop as you `ribbitt' twice; etc.
* Set up a tape recorder and blank tape cued to record the class
"symphony."
* Make two overhead transparencies and two hard copies per student of
the graphic organizer titled, "Elements of Art-Making Connections!"
for analysis of the elements of "rhythm and patterns," "color,"
"texture," etc. (See attachment of a blank copy.) You will also
need a transparency pen.
* Pre-select a poster, transparency, or website image of a work of
visual art preferrably from a historical period familiar to
students and a narrative piece. (See "Relevant Web Sites" below for
a suggested link to "Cleopatra and the Peasant.")
* Complete a graphic organizer for the selected work of visual art to
use as a suggested "answer key" for easy reference during small
group facilitation. (See "Attachments" below for a suggested key of
possible answers for "Elements of Art - Cleopatra and the Peasant"
art image.)
Technology resources
Student computers with color monitors and Internet connection
bookmarked at the site of the selected work of visual art. (optional)
A classroom computer with color monitor and Internet connection set on
site of selected work of visual art and connected to an LCD projector,
which projects computer image onto classroom screen. (optional)
Pre-activities
No previous knowledge is needed for the opening "symphony" activity.
However, to integrate social studies, students should be familiar with
the general historical context of the work of visual art used in the
second activity. If the "Cleopatra and the Peasant" piece is used, for
instance, it would be helpful if students have had some background in
the ancient Egyptian period prior to the viewing of this piece. If you
are using another historical narrative piece, select one for which
students have had some previous study.
If your students will be accessing the Internet to view the visual art
at a selected website, students should have obtained permission to use
the Internet. They should also know how to go to bookmarked sites.
Students should also have had some experience with small group
collaboration with their peers.
Students should have experience with writing one-sentence summaries for
information presented textually or orally.
Activities
Because of the variety of activities, this lesson will work well as a
block period, or it may be divided into two consecutive class periods.
Initiating Activity - Whole Class "Symphony" (40 minutes)
1. Because we want to create an atmosphere of discovery and an air of
mystery, the teacher will distribute one prepared index card to
each student on which some type of sound is written without undue
explanation.
2. Next, line up your students in a straight line facing you, and
position yourself in front of them as the "conductor," if space
permits. Explain now that the whole class will create a "symphony"
using the assigned sounds while you conduct students' coming in,
out, and level of volume. Briefly teach the students the signals
indicated by the conductor's hand and arm movements for: making
their sound/motion; decreasing the sound; increasing the sound;
cutting the sound off; etc.
3. As a practice, point to each student individually to try out his
assigned sound/motion along with your signals. Next, explain that
at times there may be solos, duets, trios, etc., or times when the
whole group will perform together. Those determinations will be
indicated by the conductor, so students must watch the conductor
carefully.
4. After students understand their "assignment," you, the conductor,
will proceed to conduct a class symphony as you see fit. Before you
start, explain that this production will be tape recorded. (Turn on
your tape recorder when ready.) As you begin, experiment with
different combinations of single, small group, and larger group
participation as well as crescendo/decrescendo effects. You may
also include periods of silence. Remember the elements you want to
elicit in this improvised piece are: rhythm/patterns, color, and
texture, which are discussed below. After several minutes of
composing/performing, turn off the tape recorder. (See also another
way of doing this activity described in "Supplemental
Resources/Information for Teachers" section below.)
5. As students return to their seats, distribute copies of the blank
"Elements of Art" graphic organizer to be used for an analysis of
the class performance. (See "Attachments" below.) Using your
overhead transparency and pen, prepare to conduct a whole class
explanation/discussion of each element listed.
6. You will need to explain each of the specialized vocabulary terms
below in the suggested ways.
Elements for Musical Composition:
Rhythm/Patterns
These are listed together because patterns help to create rhythm.
Rhythm is created with the recurrence (pattern) of varying stresses
and tone lengths. These may be balanced against a steady,
underlying succession of beats.
Color
You should be accepting of students' definitions here, but you may
explain that "color" is created musically through such qualities as
vitality, vividness, or interest. Musically speaking, "color"
refers to the timbre, or tonal quality of the voice/instrument or
the effect created by the combination of such qualities.
Texture
Explain that in music, "texture" is created by contrasts of rich,
smooth, melodic, lyrical tones vs. stiff, staccato, harsh tones.
7. Before playing back the recording of the production, you may assign
one-third of the class to listen for examples of rhythm and
patterns, another one-third of the class can listen for examples of
color, and the remaining one-third can listen for examples of
texture. As they listen, they should note examples on their charts.
8. Next, ask students to share their examples of each element.
Facilitate their sharing in light of the meaning of each element,
remembering that your present objective is to help students to
understand the meanings of all the elements and analyze examples
from a musical piece. As examples are shared and discussed, model
writing them on your overhead transparency; engage students by
asking them to fill in examples for each element on their charts
throughout the class discussion.
9. To review the elements and encourage students to engage in mental
evaluation of their performance, ask students to assess which
element they believe had the greatest impact on their overall
performance. Did their piece seem to emphasize rhythm and pattern?
Or did "color" or "texture" make the greatest impact, in their
opinion? Get the students to explain and record their choices on
their graphic organizers.
10. Last, to allow students to make this experience personally
relevant, invite them to write single words that might describe
their feelings or emotions toward their symphony. (Examples might
be: exciting, interesting, invigorating, stimulating, etc.) In the
last column, invite students to note something from their personal
experience that the class symphony reminds them of. It could be a
personal experience or feeling, or it might be one they've read
about or seen portrayed in a movie or real life of a friend.
Second Activity: Analyze the Elements in Visual Art (35 minutes)
1. Make a transition to the next activity by arranging students for
partner or small group collaboration. If you are remaining in the
classroom, arrange students in small groups of three to five with
desks facing one another to encourage collaboration. If students
are at computer stations, pair them up to encourage collaboration.
2. The teacher will need to use an overhead projector to initiate
modeling of analysis of elements on the second overhead
transparency of the graphic organizer.
3. Introduce the selected work of art and artist as you display the
painting or image. (Ask students to navigate to the bookmarked
website, if they are at computer stations.) Initiate discussion
through use of a "hook" question. For example, if you are using the
"Cleopatra and the Peasant" painting by Eugene Delacroix, ask: "Why
do you think there is a little snake coiling out of the basket of
plums?" As students brainstorm possibilities, work in bits of
historical information. For example, remind them of who Cleopatra
was and the culture and time in which she lived.
(Note: Refer to "Supplemental Information" below. Also, if you
access the Ackland Online website listed below under "Relevant
Websites," background information about the painting will be
provided.) Through questioning and discussion, develop the story
behind the painting.
4. You may also mention that the painting was created in Europe in the
1800's. You may ask if students can locate clues in the painting to
illustrate this fact. (Cleopatra was portrayed in this painting as
a 19th century European woman in style of dress and ethnicity, for
example, rather than an ancient Egyptian woman who lived during
ancient Roman times.)
5. As you continue to develop the history of the story, initiate one
possible answer under each of the first three columns of the
graphic organizer for "rhythm/patterns," "color," and "texture."
Students may copy these onto their charts.
6. Take this opportunity to weave in a review and explanation of the
terms below and how they relate to analysis of a work of visual
art.
Definitions of Elements for Visual Art:
Rhythm/Patterns
The recurrence of lines, colors, and shapes (perhaps in a pattern)
to create movement within a work of art.
Color
Qualities brought out by the use of hues (colors) and their
variations.
Texture
Use of materials, such as paint, to create the impression of a
feature, (e.g. satin, glass, or fur); or the use of real materials
within the work of art, (e.g. hair, leather, or metal.)
7. After students have an understanding of the information in the
painting and the elements and have written at least one example of
each element on their charts, direct the small groups or partners
to continue with their analyses. They should also discuss and
complete the last three sections in which they evaluate which
element had the greatest impact on the work of art as a whole,
explore their personal feelings, and note their personal
connections to the art.
8. During partner/group discussion time, the teacher should circulate
to facilitate the above activities.
9. Within the last few minutes of this activity, ask students to share
examples of answers recorded on their graphic organizers.
Reflection Activity (10 minutes)
1. Facilitate a five-minute discussion of similarities of the symphony
and work of visual art with the whole group through questioning.
(Examples: "In what ways are symphonies like visual art?")
Encourage students to refer to their two charts. Assist them in
making oral connections between these two art forms.
2. On a slip of notebook paper during the remaining five minutes, have
students write "exit slips," meaning they will get to exit your
class after they have handed you their "tickets," or exit slips,
out of class.
3. On the slip of paper ask students to answer the following question
in one concise sentence: "What did I learn today about the elements
of art in music AND in visual art?" The teacher can gain insight
about the kinds of things the students learned as a result of the
day's lesson by reading the exits slips. The teacher may elect to
give the students some type of daily credit for completing the
slips satisfactorily.
Assessment
The following two types of assessments may be used in addition to
teacher observation:
1. Two completed graphic organizers titled, "Elements of Art," one for
the symphony activity and the other for the visual art activity.
The teacher may collect these and give credit for quality of
answers or for participation (completion.)
2. Exit slip - This is the reflection the students made at the end of
the lesson during which they were asked to summarize in one
statement something they learned about the elements of both a
musical composition and a work of visual art. The teacher can
quickly assess the level of understanding by reading and assessing
the quality of these answers for a daily grade.
Supplemental information
Alternate "symphony" activity:
One other way to conduct this initiating activity is for the teacher
NOT to be the conductor. Instead, assign sounds on cards as previously
described and tell students to begin making their sounds together and
continue until you indicate for them to stop. At first, the combined
sounds will not be coordinated. However, as time goes along, the
students will naturally begin to add their own rhythms,
loudness/softness, etc. In the follow-up analysis of this musical
production, it could be pointed out how the first part lacked the
elements listed on the chart; but as the "music" proceeded, these
elements became evident.
Historical Background for the Life of Cleopatra:
Cleopatra became queen of ancient Egypt in 51 B.C. Though she lacked
beauty, she was intelligent, witty, charming, ambitious, and concerned
about the well-being of her subjects. Cleopatra developed loyal and
romantic relationships with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, great Roman
leaders.
Antony aspired to rule Rome alone and, due to the wealth of Egypt,
hoped to obtain financial aid from Cleopatra. They fell in love and
Cleopatra had several children by Antony. Cleopatra's ambition was for
her children to become rulers of Rome. Because Antony gave preferential
treatment to his children by Cleopatra, other Roman leaders became
jealous. They thought Cleopatra was greedy and had too much control
over Antony.
A war broke out between the two of them and Octavian, Antony's former
brother-in-law and one of the rival rulers of Rome. As Octavian came
after Cleopatra and Antony, she spread a rumor that she had committed
suicide. When Antony heard the report, he stabbed himself. He later
died in her arms.
When Cleopatra's attempts to make up to Octavian failed, she put a
poisonous snake on her arm and indeed did commit suicide. Antony's and
Cleopatra's love story has taken many dramatic and artistic forms
through the ages.
In the painting, "Cleopatra and the Peasant," the peasant is shown as
suggesting to Cleopatra (or enticing her by his slight smile and her
serious expression of consideration) with the idea of taking her life
with a snake. The peasant is holding a basket of plums under his
leopard pelt. A snake is emerging from the plums.
A jpg image of Cleopatra by Delacroix along with credit information has
been provided as an attachment below.
Related websites
Color image of "Cleopatra and the Peasant," by Eugene Delacroix:
Ackland Museum Online:
Comments
For special needs students, such as LD, the teacher may provide a hard
copy for each of the two completed "Elements of Art" graphic
organizers, saving time for the student in copying information onto the
charts.
Enrichment can be provided by encouraging students to formulate their
own questions about either work of art (musical, as in the class
symphony, or the historical work of visual art,) and their elements.
Allow students to conduct their own research to answer these questions
using CD ROMS, Internet art sites, NC Wise Owl, a research site, which
has been included under "Relevant Websites," etc.
North Carolina Curriculum Alignment
Visual Arts Education (2001)
Grade 7
* Goal 1: The learner will develop critical and creative thinking
skills and perceptual awareness necessary for understanding and
producing art.
+ [41]Objective 1.06: Recognize and discuss the use of multiple
senses in visual arts.
* Goal 2: The learner will develop skills necessary for understanding
and applying media, techniques, and processes.
+ [42]Objective 2.02: Explore and identify the unique properties
and potential of materials using proper vocabulary and
terminology.
* Goal 3: The learner will organize the components of a work into a
cohesive whole through knowledge of organizational principles of
design and art elements.
+ [43]Objective 3.03: Explore and discuss that diverse solutions
are preferable to predetermined visual solutions.
+ [44]Objective 3.04: Explore and discuss the value of intuitive
perceptions in the problem-solving process.
* Goal 5: The learner will understand the visual arts in relation to
history and cultures.
+ [45]Objective 5.02: Describe characteristics of specific works
of art that belong to a particular culture, time and place.
* Goal 7: The learner will perceive connections between visual arts
and other disciplines.
+ [46]Objective 7.01: Explain connections, similarities and
differences between the visual arts and other disciplines.
+ [47]Objective 7.03: Compare characteristics of visual arts
within a particular historical period or style with ideas,
issues or themes in other disciplines.
The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
LEARN NC, a program of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
[48]School of Education, finds the most innovative and successful
practices in K-12 education and makes them available to the teachers
and students of North Carolina -- and the world.
[49]About LEARN NC | [50]Site map | [51]Search | [52]Staff |
[53]Partners | [54]Legal | [55]Help | [56]Contact us
For more great resources for K-12 teaching and learning, visit us on
the web at www.learnnc.org.
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rhythm
By [14]Shelley Esaak, About.com Guide
See More About:
* [15]art definitions
* [16]principles of design
Definition:
(noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in
words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take
what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something
you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat.
A pattern has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the
colors of a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from
one component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying
movement. Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're
placed one next to the other.
Really, it's easier to "see" rhythm in just about anything other than
the visual arts. Literally-minded types should stick to music for
rhythm.
Pronunciation: rih·them
Related Articles
* [17]Guitar Strumming 101 - Strumming Pattern Exercise Number One
* [18]From a Father to His Children - Clement Clarke Moore
* [19]Music clip art and instruments and musicians and musical notes
plus other m...
* [20]Pittsburgh Arts Summer Camps - Performing & Visual Arts Summer
Programs in ...
* [21]United Kingdom Travel by Interest - Find History, Art, Theatre,
Music and M...
[22]Shelley Esaak
[23]Shelley Esaak
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[1]Click Here
[2]ArtLex Art Dictionary
,ø¤º°`°ºº¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø
,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°
r rhythm - A visual tempo or beat. The [3]principle of design that
refers to a regular repetition of [4]elements of art to produce the
look and feel of [5]movement. It is often achieved through the careful
placement of repeated components which invite the viewer's eye to jump
rapidly or glide smoothly from one to the next.
In any [6]artwork, it is possible to distinguish between rhythm of
[7]color, [8]line, and [9]form. In the continuity of the three comes
the whole rhythm of that work.
Rhythm unites the [10]visual culture with [11]music, but in visual
culture, rhythm is more evident in the [12]applied arts than in the
[13]fine arts. In the former, it is often the foremost means of
[14]aesthetic [15]expression.
Rhythm originated in the Greek word rhymthmos, meaning measured flow,
which they passed into Latin as rhythmus, meaning movement in [16]time.
Its first uses in English were literary, in reference to themetrical
rhyming of verses. English speakers began to use rhythm concerning
repetition of musical beats in the late 18th century, and about visual
elements in the same period.
Each [17]artist, every [18]period, every [19]culture produces a
characteristic sort of rhythm. Recognizing a work's rhythmical
peculiarities often aids in [20]identify the culture or [21]time in
which it was produced, if not the individual artist who produced it.
Rhythm's importance can be demonstrated by noting how many important
rhythmic cycles we observe in [22]nature -- consider the alternating
tension and relaxation in the heart's beating or in the ocean's waves,
the revolutions of the earth around the sun, the comings and goings of
generations. Each of us has personal rhythms to our days, weeks, and
years. Life, indeed, would be chaotic without rhythm. Participating in
the tempo of this flow gives us excitement and calm, yearning and
contentment, yin and yang. It is natural that we would employ rhythms
to organize and [23]unify our works, much as they do the rest of our
experience.
There are several types of visual rhythm. These include:
regular rhythms - The background design behind this text has a
regular rhythm. (In the following examples, let the letters A, B,
etc. stand for visual elements of any sort)
AB-AB-AB is the most common type. Picture alternating stripes of two
colors, for instance. (In English prosody, a student of poetry might
read this as either "iambs" or "trochees". An iamb is a metrical
foot consisting of two syllables, the first syllable accented, the
second accented, as in AB-AB-AB. It becomes trochaic meter if the
accenting is reversed, as in AB-AB-AB.)
Some more examples:
ABC-ABC-ABC (In English prosody, a student of poetry might read this
as "anapests" or "dactyls". An anapest is a metrical foot consisting
of three syllables, the first two syllables unaccented, the third
accented, as in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL. A dactyl consists of three
syllables, the first accented, the second and third unaccented, as
in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL.)
ABBB-ABBB-ABBB
ABCB-ABCB-ABCB
ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA
alternating rhythms -
some examples:
ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE-ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE-
ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF-ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF-
ABCD-DCCBBA-ABCD-DCCBBA
progressive rhythms - Progression occurs when there is a gradual
increase or decrease in the size, number, color, or some other
quality of the elements repeated.
some examples:
AB-AABB-AAABBB-AAAABBBB
AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB
AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-
ABC-ABD-ABE-ABF-ABG-ABH-ABI
flowing rhythms -
random rhythms -
Each of these types of rhythm might be altered periodically. [24]Music
theory might be defined as the study of rhythms and their periodic
alterations.
Example of works displaying rhythm:
[rhythm_matis.danc1.th.jpg]
see thumbnail to left Henri Matisse (French, 1869-1954), [25]Dance
(first version), 1909, [26]oil on [27]canvas, 8 feet 6 1/2 inches x
12 feet 9 1/2 inches (259.7 x 390.1 cm), Museum of
[e3_3_1_8d_french_art20.jpg] Modern Art, NY.
Matisse painted a second version of see thumbnail to right [28]Dance
in 1910, [29]oil on [30]canvas, 102 x 154 inches (260 x 391 cm),
Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia.
Dance, together with Music, was commissioned by S.I.Shchukin to
[31]decorate the staircase in his Moscow mansion. Matisse took the
[32]motif of the round dance, used as a [33]symbol back as far as
French [34]Renaissance, to represent the [35]rhythm and
[36]expression of the 20th century. The spaciousness and expressive
[37]lines [38]emphasize the dynamics of the [39]figures.
[40]Simplified and schematic [41]forms intensify the [42]brightness
and [43]resonance of the three colors -- red, blue and green. See
[44]music. Dance, Matisse once said, meant "life and rhythm." See
[45]dance, [46]music, and [47]movement.
[destij_mond.broadwa.th.gif]
see thumbnail to left Piet Mondrian (Dutch, 1872-1944), [48]Broadway
Boogie Woogie. 1942-43, [49]oil on [50]canvas, 50 x 50 inches (127 x
127 cm), at the Museum of Modern Art, New York. See [51]De Stijl and
[52]grid.
[3L00164.jpg]
see thumbnail to right Paul Klee (Swiss, 1879-1940),
[53]Rhythmisches (In Rhythm), 1930, [54]oil on woven jute, 69.6 x
50.5 cm, Georges Pompidou Center, Paris. See [55]Bauhaus and
[56]Swiss art.
[femns_taeuber_circles_th.jpg]
see thumbnail to left Sophie Taeuber-Arp (Swiss, 1889-1943; to
France 1928), [57]Composition of Circles and Overlapping Angles
(Composition à cercles et à bras superposés), 1930, [58]oil on
[59]canvas, 19 1/2 x 25 1/4 inches (49.5 x 64.1 cm), Museum of
Modern Art, NY. See [60]feminism and feminist art.
[40x10pixel.space.gif]
[femns_taeuber_echelon_th.jpg]
see thumbnail to right Sophie Taeuber-Arp, [61]Echelonnement désaxé,
1934, [62]gouache on [63]paper, 13 7/8 X 10 5/8 inches (35.1 X 27
cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY.
[bauhau_aalber.walldes.th.jpg]
see thumbnail to left Anni Albers (born Analise Fleischman, married
Josef Albers) (German, 1899-1994), [64]Design for Wall Hanging,
1926, [65]gouache and [66]pencil on paper, 14 x 11 1/2 inches (35.6
x 29.2 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. See [67]Bauhaus and
[68]textile.
Quote:
"Rhythm and harmony find their way into the inward places of the
soul."
Plato (427?-327? BCE), Greek philosopher. The Republic, Book III,
401d, as translated by B. Jowett, 1901. See [69]harmony.
Also see [70]animation, [71]arrangement, [72]chronology, [73]cinema,
[74]composition, [75]dance, [76]direction, [77]egg-and-dart,
[78]eurythmy, [79]four-dimensional, [80]harmonic sequence, [81]harmony,
[82]kinetic, [83]juxtaposition, [84]measure, [85]metamorphosis,
[86]mobile, [87]movement, [88]obsession, [89]pattern, [90]periodicity,
[91]music, [92]sequence, [93]space-time, [94]time, and [95]whirligig.
[96][grid.1.gif]
[97]ArtLex Art Dictionary
[98]Copyright © 1996- current year delahunt(at)artlex.com
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#[1]About.com
____________________ (Submit) Search
[2]About.com
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[7][education_arthistory;kw=;site=arthistory;chan=education;pos=lb;sz=7
28x90;ord=1A1HKXJ0C20SA0p7N]
* [8]Share
*
* [9]Art History
* [10]Artists
* [11]Styles
* [12]Works of Art
* Free Art History Newsletter! ____________________ (Submit) Sign Up
* [13]Discuss in my Forum
rhythm
By [14]Shelley Esaak, About.com Guide
See More About:
* [15]art definitions
* [16]principles of design
Definition:
(noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in
words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take
what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something
you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat.
A pattern has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the
colors of a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from
one component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying
movement. Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're
placed one next to the other.
Really, it's easier to "see" rhythm in just about anything other than
the visual arts. Literally-minded types should stick to music for
rhythm.
Pronunciation: rih·them
Related Articles
* [17]Guitar Strumming 101 - Strumming Pattern Exercise Number One
* [18]From a Father to His Children - Clement Clarke Moore
* [19]Music clip art and instruments and musicians and musical notes
plus other m...
* [20]Pittsburgh Arts Summer Camps - Performing & Visual Arts Summer
Programs in ...
* [21]United Kingdom Travel by Interest - Find History, Art, Theatre,
Music and M...
[22]Shelley Esaak
[23]Shelley Esaak
Art History Guide
* [24]Sign up for my Newsletter
* [25]My Blog
* [26]My Forum
Explore Art History
Must Reads
* [27]60-Second Artist Bios
* [28]What Is Art?
* [29]Leonardo da Vinci Paintings
* [30]Teaching Tool: Picturing America
* [31]Timeline: Modern Art Movements
Most Popular
[32]The Last Supper[33]The Sistine Chapel Ceiling[34]What are the
Elements of Art?[35]What Is Art?[36]Art History Jobs - Fellowship and
Internship Postings
See More About:
* [37]art definitions
* [38]principles of design
By Category
* [39]Artists A to Z
* [40]Art History 101
* [41]Timelines of Art History
* [42]Ancient Art History
* [43]Medieval Art History
* [44]Renaissance Art History
* [45]Modern Art History
* [46]Contemporary Art History
* [47]Images / Picture Galleries
* [48]Types of Visual Art
* [49]Art by Location / Culture
* [50]Art Museums / Galleries
About.com Special Features
[51]Dinosaur Discoveries of the Decade
The top 10 fossil discoveries between 2000 and 2010. [52]More >
[53]How to Ace the GRE
Being well prepared is the first step; here are more essential
suggestions. [54]More >
[55]About.com
[56]Art History
1. [57]Home
2. [58]Education
3. [59]Art History
4. [60]Art History 101
5. [61]Art History Glossary
6. [62]Words Beginning With R
7. Art History Glossary - R - rhythm>
* [63]Most Popular
* [64]Latest Articles
Add to:
* [65]iGoogle
* [66]My Yahoo!
* [67]RSS
* [68]Advertising Info
* [69]News & Events
* [70]Work at About
* [71]SiteMap
* [72]All Topics
* [73]Reprints
* [74]Help
* [75]User Agreement
* [76]Ethics Policy
* [77]Patent Info.
* [78]Privacy Policy
* [79]Our Story
* [80]Write for About
©2010 About.com, a part of [81]The New York Times Company.
All rights reserved.
Références
[1]Click Here
[2]ArtLex Art Dictionary
,ø¤º°`°ºº¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø
,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°
r rhythm - A visual tempo or beat. The [3]principle of design that
refers to a regular repetition of [4]elements of art to produce the
look and feel of [5]movement. It is often achieved through the careful
placement of repeated components which invite the viewer's eye to jump
rapidly or glide smoothly from one to the next.
In any [6]artwork, it is possible to distinguish between rhythm of
[7]color, [8]line, and [9]form. In the continuity of the three comes
the whole rhythm of that work.
Rhythm unites the [10]visual culture with [11]music, but in visual
culture, rhythm is more evident in the [12]applied arts than in the
[13]fine arts. In the former, it is often the foremost means of
[14]aesthetic [15]expression.
Rhythm originated in the Greek word rhymthmos, meaning measured flow,
which they passed into Latin as rhythmus, meaning movement in [16]time.
Its first uses in English were literary, in reference to themetrical
rhyming of verses. English speakers began to use rhythm concerning
repetition of musical beats in the late 18th century, and about visual
elements in the same period.
Each [17]artist, every [18]period, every [19]culture produces a
characteristic sort of rhythm. Recognizing a work's rhythmical
peculiarities often aids in [20]identify the culture or [21]time in
which it was produced, if not the individual artist who produced it.
Rhythm's importance can be demonstrated by noting how many important
rhythmic cycles we observe in [22]nature -- consider the alternating
tension and relaxation in the heart's beating or in the ocean's waves,
the revolutions of the earth around the sun, the comings and goings of
generations. Each of us has personal rhythms to our days, weeks, and
years. Life, indeed, would be chaotic without rhythm. Participating in
the tempo of this flow gives us excitement and calm, yearning and
contentment, yin and yang. It is natural that we would employ rhythms
to organize and [23]unify our works, much as they do the rest of our
experience.
There are several types of visual rhythm. These include:
regular rhythms - The background design behind this text has a
regular rhythm. (In the following examples, let the letters A, B,
etc. stand for visual elements of any sort)
AB-AB-AB is the most common type. Picture alternating stripes of two
colors, for instance. (In English prosody, a student of poetry might
read this as either "iambs" or "trochees". An iamb is a metrical
foot consisting of two syllables, the first syllable accented, the
second accented, as in AB-AB-AB. It becomes trochaic meter if the
accenting is reversed, as in AB-AB-AB.)
Some more examples:
ABC-ABC-ABC (In English prosody, a student of poetry might read this
as "anapests" or "dactyls". An anapest is a metrical foot consisting
of three syllables, the first two syllables unaccented, the third
accented, as in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL. A dactyl consists of three
syllables, the first accented, the second and third unaccented, as
in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL.)
ABBB-ABBB-ABBB
ABCB-ABCB-ABCB
ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA
alternating rhythms -
some examples:
ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE-ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE-
ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF-ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF-
ABCD-DCCBBA-ABCD-DCCBBA
progressive rhythms - Progression occurs when there is a gradual
increase or decrease in the size, number, color, or some other
quality of the elements repeated.
some examples:
AB-AABB-AAABBB-AAAABBBB
AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB
AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-
ABC-ABD-ABE-ABF-ABG-ABH-ABI
flowing rhythms -
random rhythms -
Each of these types of rhythm might be altered periodically. [24]Music
theory might be defined as the study of rhythms and their periodic
alterations.
Example of works displaying rhythm:
[rhythm_matis.danc1.th.jpg]
see thumbnail to left Henri Matisse (French, 1869-1954), [25]Dance
(first version), 1909, [26]oil on [27]canvas, 8 feet 6 1/2 inches x
12 feet 9 1/2 inches (259.7 x 390.1 cm), Museum of
[e3_3_1_8d_french_art20.jpg] Modern Art, NY.
Matisse painted a second version of see thumbnail to right [28]Dance
in 1910, [29]oil on [30]canvas, 102 x 154 inches (260 x 391 cm),
Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia.
Dance, together with Music, was commissioned by S.I.Shchukin to
[31]decorate the staircase in his Moscow mansion. Matisse took the
[32]motif of the round dance, used as a [33]symbol back as far as
French [34]Renaissance, to represent the [35]rhythm and
[36]expression of the 20th century. The spaciousness and expressive
[37]lines [38]emphasize the dynamics of the [39]figures.
[40]Simplified and schematic [41]forms intensify the [42]brightness
and [43]resonance of the three colors -- red, blue and green. See
[44]music. Dance, Matisse once said, meant "life and rhythm." See
[45]dance, [46]music, and [47]movement.
[destij_mond.broadwa.th.gif]
see thumbnail to left Piet Mondrian (Dutch, 1872-1944), [48]Broadway
Boogie Woogie. 1942-43, [49]oil on [50]canvas, 50 x 50 inches (127 x
127 cm), at the Museum of Modern Art, New York. See [51]De Stijl and
[52]grid.
[3L00164.jpg]
see thumbnail to right Paul Klee (Swiss, 1879-1940),
[53]Rhythmisches (In Rhythm), 1930, [54]oil on woven jute, 69.6 x
50.5 cm, Georges Pompidou Center, Paris. See [55]Bauhaus and
[56]Swiss art.
[femns_taeuber_circles_th.jpg]
see thumbnail to left Sophie Taeuber-Arp (Swiss, 1889-1943; to
France 1928), [57]Composition of Circles and Overlapping Angles
(Composition à cercles et à bras superposés), 1930, [58]oil on
[59]canvas, 19 1/2 x 25 1/4 inches (49.5 x 64.1 cm), Museum of
Modern Art, NY. See [60]feminism and feminist art.
[40x10pixel.space.gif]
[femns_taeuber_echelon_th.jpg]
see thumbnail to right Sophie Taeuber-Arp, [61]Echelonnement désaxé,
1934, [62]gouache on [63]paper, 13 7/8 X 10 5/8 inches (35.1 X 27
cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY.
[bauhau_aalber.walldes.th.jpg]
see thumbnail to left Anni Albers (born Analise Fleischman, married
Josef Albers) (German, 1899-1994), [64]Design for Wall Hanging,
1926, [65]gouache and [66]pencil on paper, 14 x 11 1/2 inches (35.6
x 29.2 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. See [67]Bauhaus and
[68]textile.
Quote:
"Rhythm and harmony find their way into the inward places of the
soul."
Plato (427?-327? BCE), Greek philosopher. The Republic, Book III,
401d, as translated by B. Jowett, 1901. See [69]harmony.
Also see [70]animation, [71]arrangement, [72]chronology, [73]cinema,
[74]composition, [75]dance, [76]direction, [77]egg-and-dart,
[78]eurythmy, [79]four-dimensional, [80]harmonic sequence, [81]harmony,
[82]kinetic, [83]juxtaposition, [84]measure, [85]metamorphosis,
[86]mobile, [87]movement, [88]obsession, [89]pattern, [90]periodicity,
[91]music, [92]sequence, [93]space-time, [94]time, and [95]whirligig.
[96][grid.1.gif]
[97]ArtLex Art Dictionary
[98]Copyright © 1996- current year delahunt(at)artlex.com
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Rhythm in Art
Take a look at this definition of Rhythm in Art. As noted in the
definition, it can be likened to rhythm in music, and can be said to be
a "patterened repitition" What do you think?
Is rhythm a "visual beat?"
(noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in
words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take
what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something
you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat. A pattern
has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the colors of
a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from one
component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying movement.
Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're placed one
next to the other.
it's sometimes easier to comprehend rhythm in just about anything other
than the visual arts, but once understood, heightened sensitivity to
this aspect can animate design and art making it visually interactive.
"Rhythm of the Hills" by Judy Neale
"Rhythm Joie De Vivre" by Robert Delaunay
This very graphic and design-oriented painting uses repeated circles,
half-circles, joined shapes and contrasting colors to create movement.
"Although trained in fine arts in Paris, Delaunay worked in set design
before beginning his painting career in 1905. He found his initial
influences in the Neo-Impressionists, but gradually moved on to join
Der Blaue Reiter in 1911. His Paris cityscapes began to take on a
distinctive style that studied the effect of contrasting color
patterning. Delaunay's unique method spurred friend and poet, Guillaume
Apollinaire, to place his paintings in a new movement, which he called
Orphism." - World Wide Art Resources
Tamara De Limpicka's "The Model"
This piece which is a very graphically-designed painting, in which the
raised right arm drives the eyes to the right side of the model's
torso; the focal point of the right breast then captures the viewer's
attention, and directs it with a "pointer"... a triangular fold in the
model's garment pulling the viewer to the left arm of the figure. The
curve of the left arm uses the multiple pointers of the model's fingers
to direct the eye strongly to the left into the garment's
downward-sweeping folds, and down the highlighted leg. As if that were
not enough to invest the piece with rhythm, the artist then uses a
strong graphical "s" shape in the background to reinforce the motion
using the model's shadow to create a feeling of movement as part of the
pattern in the background. The overall positioning of the figure
creates visual torque, creating a feeling of anticipated movement
adding to the dynamicism of the design
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Rhythm, pattern, color, and texture in art and poetry
In this lesson, students will discover the meaning of "rhythm,"
"patterns," "color," and "texture" through the performance and modeled
analysis of a class "symphony." Students will also evaluate the impact
of each element on the whole work and note personal reactions and
connections to this art form. Students will then work in small groups
to apply the same elements and personal evaluation and connections to a
historical work of visual art. At the end of the lesson, students will
reflect on ways these two experiences are similar.
A lesson plan for grade 7 Visual Arts Education and English Language
Arts
By [17]Carol Horne
Learn more
Related pages
* [18]Old Hat, New Hat: 3-D Pattern Hats: After students read Old
Hat, New Hat by Jan and Stan Berenstain, they create their own new
3-D hats.
* [19]Rhythm stars: This lesson will introduce the main components of
rhythm: quarter, eighth, and sixteenth notes.
* [20]How do I express what I believe? - Part 2: This is the second
in a three-part lesson series seeking to examine belief systems and
how they impact culture in the United States. This lesson, "How do
I express what I believe?" requires 3 sessions at 40 minutes each
to complete. The lesson series also seeks to let students examine
their own personal belief system. In this lesson, the student will
learn about the American tradition of the Face Jug/Pot and how it
is used to express belief. The student will also create a Face
Jug/Pot to express his/her belief, and this pot will be used in the
third lesson entitled. "How do I present what I believe?"
Related topics
* Learn more about [21]arts, [22]color, [23]hands-on, [24]patterns,
[25]rhythm, and [26]texture.
Help
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Learning outcomes
Students will:
* learn to identify examples of "rhythm," "patterns," "color," and
"texture" in order to analyze a whole class symphony of various
sounds and movements.
* learn to apply these same elements to a work of visual art.
* evaluate the overall impact of each element and will investigate
their personal reactions and connections to both of these art
forms.
* learn to reflect on the similarities of their analyses of both of
these art forms.
Teacher planning
Time required for lesson
85 minutes
Materials/resources
* Adjust space for class to "perform" assigned individual movements
as a whole group standing in one long line as the teacher stands in
front of students to "conduct." If this is not possible, make sure
students have enough space to "perform" as they stand alongside
their desks.
* Write variety of individual sounds and movements on index cards to
distribute to each student, e.g. "bark like a dog; make a whooshing
sound as you move like a wave; high-five and yell, `Yeah!'; whistle
like an admirer; click your heels and say, `There's no place like
home!'; sing the first bar of the Friskies' `Meow, meow, meow,
meow' song; frog hop as you `ribbitt' twice; etc.
* Set up a tape recorder and blank tape cued to record the class
"symphony."
* Make two overhead transparencies and two hard copies per student of
the graphic organizer titled, "Elements of Art-Making Connections!"
for analysis of the elements of "rhythm and patterns," "color,"
"texture," etc. (See attachment of a blank copy.) You will also
need a transparency pen.
* Pre-select a poster, transparency, or website image of a work of
visual art preferrably from a historical period familiar to
students and a narrative piece. (See "Relevant Web Sites" below for
a suggested link to "Cleopatra and the Peasant.")
* Complete a graphic organizer for the selected work of visual art to
use as a suggested "answer key" for easy reference during small
group facilitation. (See "Attachments" below for a suggested key of
possible answers for "Elements of Art - Cleopatra and the Peasant"
art image.)
Technology resources
Student computers with color monitors and Internet connection
bookmarked at the site of the selected work of visual art. (optional)
A classroom computer with color monitor and Internet connection set on
site of selected work of visual art and connected to an LCD projector,
which projects computer image onto classroom screen. (optional)
Pre-activities
No previous knowledge is needed for the opening "symphony" activity.
However, to integrate social studies, students should be familiar with
the general historical context of the work of visual art used in the
second activity. If the "Cleopatra and the Peasant" piece is used, for
instance, it would be helpful if students have had some background in
the ancient Egyptian period prior to the viewing of this piece. If you
are using another historical narrative piece, select one for which
students have had some previous study.
If your students will be accessing the Internet to view the visual art
at a selected website, students should have obtained permission to use
the Internet. They should also know how to go to bookmarked sites.
Students should also have had some experience with small group
collaboration with their peers.
Students should have experience with writing one-sentence summaries for
information presented textually or orally.
Activities
Because of the variety of activities, this lesson will work well as a
block period, or it may be divided into two consecutive class periods.
Initiating Activity - Whole Class "Symphony" (40 minutes)
1. Because we want to create an atmosphere of discovery and an air of
mystery, the teacher will distribute one prepared index card to
each student on which some type of sound is written without undue
explanation.
2. Next, line up your students in a straight line facing you, and
position yourself in front of them as the "conductor," if space
permits. Explain now that the whole class will create a "symphony"
using the assigned sounds while you conduct students' coming in,
out, and level of volume. Briefly teach the students the signals
indicated by the conductor's hand and arm movements for: making
their sound/motion; decreasing the sound; increasing the sound;
cutting the sound off; etc.
3. As a practice, point to each student individually to try out his
assigned sound/motion along with your signals. Next, explain that
at times there may be solos, duets, trios, etc., or times when the
whole group will perform together. Those determinations will be
indicated by the conductor, so students must watch the conductor
carefully.
4. After students understand their "assignment," you, the conductor,
will proceed to conduct a class symphony as you see fit. Before you
start, explain that this production will be tape recorded. (Turn on
your tape recorder when ready.) As you begin, experiment with
different combinations of single, small group, and larger group
participation as well as crescendo/decrescendo effects. You may
also include periods of silence. Remember the elements you want to
elicit in this improvised piece are: rhythm/patterns, color, and
texture, which are discussed below. After several minutes of
composing/performing, turn off the tape recorder. (See also another
way of doing this activity described in "Supplemental
Resources/Information for Teachers" section below.)
5. As students return to their seats, distribute copies of the blank
"Elements of Art" graphic organizer to be used for an analysis of
the class performance. (See "Attachments" below.) Using your
overhead transparency and pen, prepare to conduct a whole class
explanation/discussion of each element listed.
6. You will need to explain each of the specialized vocabulary terms
below in the suggested ways.
Elements for Musical Composition:
Rhythm/Patterns
These are listed together because patterns help to create rhythm.
Rhythm is created with the recurrence (pattern) of varying stresses
and tone lengths. These may be balanced against a steady,
underlying succession of beats.
Color
You should be accepting of students' definitions here, but you may
explain that "color" is created musically through such qualities as
vitality, vividness, or interest. Musically speaking, "color"
refers to the timbre, or tonal quality of the voice/instrument or
the effect created by the combination of such qualities.
Texture
Explain that in music, "texture" is created by contrasts of rich,
smooth, melodic, lyrical tones vs. stiff, staccato, harsh tones.
7. Before playing back the recording of the production, you may assign
one-third of the class to listen for examples of rhythm and
patterns, another one-third of the class can listen for examples of
color, and the remaining one-third can listen for examples of
texture. As they listen, they should note examples on their charts.
8. Next, ask students to share their examples of each element.
Facilitate their sharing in light of the meaning of each element,
remembering that your present objective is to help students to
understand the meanings of all the elements and analyze examples
from a musical piece. As examples are shared and discussed, model
writing them on your overhead transparency; engage students by
asking them to fill in examples for each element on their charts
throughout the class discussion.
9. To review the elements and encourage students to engage in mental
evaluation of their performance, ask students to assess which
element they believe had the greatest impact on their overall
performance. Did their piece seem to emphasize rhythm and pattern?
Or did "color" or "texture" make the greatest impact, in their
opinion? Get the students to explain and record their choices on
their graphic organizers.
10. Last, to allow students to make this experience personally
relevant, invite them to write single words that might describe
their feelings or emotions toward their symphony. (Examples might
be: exciting, interesting, invigorating, stimulating, etc.) In the
last column, invite students to note something from their personal
experience that the class symphony reminds them of. It could be a
personal experience or feeling, or it might be one they've read
about or seen portrayed in a movie or real life of a friend.
Second Activity: Analyze the Elements in Visual Art (35 minutes)
1. Make a transition to the next activity by arranging students for
partner or small group collaboration. If you are remaining in the
classroom, arrange students in small groups of three to five with
desks facing one another to encourage collaboration. If students
are at computer stations, pair them up to encourage collaboration.
2. The teacher will need to use an overhead projector to initiate
modeling of analysis of elements on the second overhead
transparency of the graphic organizer.
3. Introduce the selected work of art and artist as you display the
painting or image. (Ask students to navigate to the bookmarked
website, if they are at computer stations.) Initiate discussion
through use of a "hook" question. For example, if you are using the
"Cleopatra and the Peasant" painting by Eugene Delacroix, ask: "Why
do you think there is a little snake coiling out of the basket of
plums?" As students brainstorm possibilities, work in bits of
historical information. For example, remind them of who Cleopatra
was and the culture and time in which she lived.
(Note: Refer to "Supplemental Information" below. Also, if you
access the Ackland Online website listed below under "Relevant
Websites," background information about the painting will be
provided.) Through questioning and discussion, develop the story
behind the painting.
4. You may also mention that the painting was created in Europe in the
1800's. You may ask if students can locate clues in the painting to
illustrate this fact. (Cleopatra was portrayed in this painting as
a 19th century European woman in style of dress and ethnicity, for
example, rather than an ancient Egyptian woman who lived during
ancient Roman times.)
5. As you continue to develop the history of the story, initiate one
possible answer under each of the first three columns of the
graphic organizer for "rhythm/patterns," "color," and "texture."
Students may copy these onto their charts.
6. Take this opportunity to weave in a review and explanation of the
terms below and how they relate to analysis of a work of visual
art.
Definitions of Elements for Visual Art:
Rhythm/Patterns
The recurrence of lines, colors, and shapes (perhaps in a pattern)
to create movement within a work of art.
Color
Qualities brought out by the use of hues (colors) and their
variations.
Texture
Use of materials, such as paint, to create the impression of a
feature, (e.g. satin, glass, or fur); or the use of real materials
within the work of art, (e.g. hair, leather, or metal.)
7. After students have an understanding of the information in the
painting and the elements and have written at least one example of
each element on their charts, direct the small groups or partners
to continue with their analyses. They should also discuss and
complete the last three sections in which they evaluate which
element had the greatest impact on the work of art as a whole,
explore their personal feelings, and note their personal
connections to the art.
8. During partner/group discussion time, the teacher should circulate
to facilitate the above activities.
9. Within the last few minutes of this activity, ask students to share
examples of answers recorded on their graphic organizers.
Reflection Activity (10 minutes)
1. Facilitate a five-minute discussion of similarities of the symphony
and work of visual art with the whole group through questioning.
(Examples: "In what ways are symphonies like visual art?")
Encourage students to refer to their two charts. Assist them in
making oral connections between these two art forms.
2. On a slip of notebook paper during the remaining five minutes, have
students write "exit slips," meaning they will get to exit your
class after they have handed you their "tickets," or exit slips,
out of class.
3. On the slip of paper ask students to answer the following question
in one concise sentence: "What did I learn today about the elements
of art in music AND in visual art?" The teacher can gain insight
about the kinds of things the students learned as a result of the
day's lesson by reading the exits slips. The teacher may elect to
give the students some type of daily credit for completing the
slips satisfactorily.
Assessment
The following two types of assessments may be used in addition to
teacher observation:
1. Two completed graphic organizers titled, "Elements of Art," one for
the symphony activity and the other for the visual art activity.
The teacher may collect these and give credit for quality of
answers or for participation (completion.)
2. Exit slip - This is the reflection the students made at the end of
the lesson during which they were asked to summarize in one
statement something they learned about the elements of both a
musical composition and a work of visual art. The teacher can
quickly assess the level of understanding by reading and assessing
the quality of these answers for a daily grade.
Supplemental information
Alternate "symphony" activity:
One other way to conduct this initiating activity is for the teacher
NOT to be the conductor. Instead, assign sounds on cards as previously
described and tell students to begin making their sounds together and
continue until you indicate for them to stop. At first, the combined
sounds will not be coordinated. However, as time goes along, the
students will naturally begin to add their own rhythms,
loudness/softness, etc. In the follow-up analysis of this musical
production, it could be pointed out how the first part lacked the
elements listed on the chart; but as the "music" proceeded, these
elements became evident.
Historical Background for the Life of Cleopatra:
Cleopatra became queen of ancient Egypt in 51 B.C. Though she lacked
beauty, she was intelligent, witty, charming, ambitious, and concerned
about the well-being of her subjects. Cleopatra developed loyal and
romantic relationships with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, great Roman
leaders.
Antony aspired to rule Rome alone and, due to the wealth of Egypt,
hoped to obtain financial aid from Cleopatra. They fell in love and
Cleopatra had several children by Antony. Cleopatra's ambition was for
her children to become rulers of Rome. Because Antony gave preferential
treatment to his children by Cleopatra, other Roman leaders became
jealous. They thought Cleopatra was greedy and had too much control
over Antony.
A war broke out between the two of them and Octavian, Antony's former
brother-in-law and one of the rival rulers of Rome. As Octavian came
after Cleopatra and Antony, she spread a rumor that she had committed
suicide. When Antony heard the report, he stabbed himself. He later
died in her arms.
When Cleopatra's attempts to make up to Octavian failed, she put a
poisonous snake on her arm and indeed did commit suicide. Antony's and
Cleopatra's love story has taken many dramatic and artistic forms
through the ages.
In the painting, "Cleopatra and the Peasant," the peasant is shown as
suggesting to Cleopatra (or enticing her by his slight smile and her
serious expression of consideration) with the idea of taking her life
with a snake. The peasant is holding a basket of plums under his
leopard pelt. A snake is emerging from the plums.
A jpg image of Cleopatra by Delacroix along with credit information has
been provided as an attachment below.
Related websites
Color image of "Cleopatra and the Peasant," by Eugene Delacroix:
Ackland Museum Online:
Comments
For special needs students, such as LD, the teacher may provide a hard
copy for each of the two completed "Elements of Art" graphic
organizers, saving time for the student in copying information onto the
charts.
Enrichment can be provided by encouraging students to formulate their
own questions about either work of art (musical, as in the class
symphony, or the historical work of visual art,) and their elements.
Allow students to conduct their own research to answer these questions
using CD ROMS, Internet art sites, NC Wise Owl, a research site, which
has been included under "Relevant Websites," etc.
North Carolina Curriculum Alignment
Visual Arts Education (2001)
Grade 7
* Goal 1: The learner will develop critical and creative thinking
skills and perceptual awareness necessary for understanding and
producing art.
+ [41]Objective 1.06: Recognize and discuss the use of multiple
senses in visual arts.
* Goal 2: The learner will develop skills necessary for understanding
and applying media, techniques, and processes.
+ [42]Objective 2.02: Explore and identify the unique properties
and potential of materials using proper vocabulary and
terminology.
* Goal 3: The learner will organize the components of a work into a
cohesive whole through knowledge of organizational principles of
design and art elements.
+ [43]Objective 3.03: Explore and discuss that diverse solutions
are preferable to predetermined visual solutions.
+ [44]Objective 3.04: Explore and discuss the value of intuitive
perceptions in the problem-solving process.
* Goal 5: The learner will understand the visual arts in relation to
history and cultures.
+ [45]Objective 5.02: Describe characteristics of specific works
of art that belong to a particular culture, time and place.
* Goal 7: The learner will perceive connections between visual arts
and other disciplines.
+ [46]Objective 7.01: Explain connections, similarities and
differences between the visual arts and other disciplines.
+ [47]Objective 7.03: Compare characteristics of visual arts
within a particular historical period or style with ideas,
issues or themes in other disciplines.
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rhythm
By [14]Shelley Esaak, About.com Guide
See More About:
* [15]art definitions
* [16]principles of design
Definition:
(noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in
words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take
what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something
you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat.
A pattern has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the
colors of a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from
one component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying
movement. Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're
placed one next to the other.
Really, it's easier to "see" rhythm in just about anything other than
the visual arts. Literally-minded types should stick to music for
rhythm.
Pronunciation: rih·them
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[2]ArtLex Art Dictionary
,ø¤º°`°ºº¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø
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r rhythm - A visual tempo or beat. The [3]principle of design that
refers to a regular repetition of [4]elements of art to produce the
look and feel of [5]movement. It is often achieved through the careful
placement of repeated components which invite the viewer's eye to jump
rapidly or glide smoothly from one to the next.
In any [6]artwork, it is possible to distinguish between rhythm of
[7]color, [8]line, and [9]form. In the continuity of the three comes
the whole rhythm of that work.
Rhythm unites the [10]visual culture with [11]music, but in visual
culture, rhythm is more evident in the [12]applied arts than in the
[13]fine arts. In the former, it is often the foremost means of
[14]aesthetic [15]expression.
Rhythm originated in the Greek word rhymthmos, meaning measured flow,
which they passed into Latin as rhythmus, meaning movement in [16]time.
Its first uses in English were literary, in reference to themetrical
rhyming of verses. English speakers began to use rhythm concerning
repetition of musical beats in the late 18th century, and about visual
elements in the same period.
Each [17]artist, every [18]period, every [19]culture produces a
characteristic sort of rhythm. Recognizing a work's rhythmical
peculiarities often aids in [20]identify the culture or [21]time in
which it was produced, if not the individual artist who produced it.
Rhythm's importance can be demonstrated by noting how many important
rhythmic cycles we observe in [22]nature -- consider the alternating
tension and relaxation in the heart's beating or in the ocean's waves,
the revolutions of the earth around the sun, the comings and goings of
generations. Each of us has personal rhythms to our days, weeks, and
years. Life, indeed, would be chaotic without rhythm. Participating in
the tempo of this flow gives us excitement and calm, yearning and
contentment, yin and yang. It is natural that we would employ rhythms
to organize and [23]unify our works, much as they do the rest of our
experience.
There are several types of visual rhythm. These include:
regular rhythms - The background design behind this text has a
regular rhythm. (In the following examples, let the letters A, B,
etc. stand for visual elements of any sort)
AB-AB-AB is the most common type. Picture alternating stripes of two
colors, for instance. (In English prosody, a student of poetry might
read this as either "iambs" or "trochees". An iamb is a metrical
foot consisting of two syllables, the first syllable accented, the
second accented, as in AB-AB-AB. It becomes trochaic meter if the
accenting is reversed, as in AB-AB-AB.)
Some more examples:
ABC-ABC-ABC (In English prosody, a student of poetry might read this
as "anapests" or "dactyls". An anapest is a metrical foot consisting
of three syllables, the first two syllables unaccented, the third
accented, as in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL. A dactyl consists of three
syllables, the first accented, the second and third unaccented, as
in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL.)
ABBB-ABBB-ABBB
ABCB-ABCB-ABCB
ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA
alternating rhythms -
some examples:
ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE-ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE-
ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF-ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF-
ABCD-DCCBBA-ABCD-DCCBBA
progressive rhythms - Progression occurs when there is a gradual
increase or decrease in the size, number, color, or some other
quality of the elements repeated.
some examples:
AB-AABB-AAABBB-AAAABBBB
AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB
AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-
ABC-ABD-ABE-ABF-ABG-ABH-ABI
flowing rhythms -
random rhythms -
Each of these types of rhythm might be altered periodically. [24]Music
theory might be defined as the study of rhythms and their periodic
alterations.
Example of works displaying rhythm:
[rhythm_matis.danc1.th.jpg]
see thumbnail to left Henri Matisse (French, 1869-1954), [25]Dance
(first version), 1909, [26]oil on [27]canvas, 8 feet 6 1/2 inches x
12 feet 9 1/2 inches (259.7 x 390.1 cm), Museum of
[e3_3_1_8d_french_art20.jpg] Modern Art, NY.
Matisse painted a second version of see thumbnail to right [28]Dance
in 1910, [29]oil on [30]canvas, 102 x 154 inches (260 x 391 cm),
Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia.
Dance, together with Music, was commissioned by S.I.Shchukin to
[31]decorate the staircase in his Moscow mansion. Matisse took the
[32]motif of the round dance, used as a [33]symbol back as far as
French [34]Renaissance, to represent the [35]rhythm and
[36]expression of the 20th century. The spaciousness and expressive
[37]lines [38]emphasize the dynamics of the [39]figures.
[40]Simplified and schematic [41]forms intensify the [42]brightness
and [43]resonance of the three colors -- red, blue and green. See
[44]music. Dance, Matisse once said, meant "life and rhythm." See
[45]dance, [46]music, and [47]movement.
[destij_mond.broadwa.th.gif]
see thumbnail to left Piet Mondrian (Dutch, 1872-1944), [48]Broadway
Boogie Woogie. 1942-43, [49]oil on [50]canvas, 50 x 50 inches (127 x
127 cm), at the Museum of Modern Art, New York. See [51]De Stijl and
[52]grid.
[3L00164.jpg]
see thumbnail to right Paul Klee (Swiss, 1879-1940),
[53]Rhythmisches (In Rhythm), 1930, [54]oil on woven jute, 69.6 x
50.5 cm, Georges Pompidou Center, Paris. See [55]Bauhaus and
[56]Swiss art.
[femns_taeuber_circles_th.jpg]
see thumbnail to left Sophie Taeuber-Arp (Swiss, 1889-1943; to
France 1928), [57]Composition of Circles and Overlapping Angles
(Composition à cercles et à bras superposés), 1930, [58]oil on
[59]canvas, 19 1/2 x 25 1/4 inches (49.5 x 64.1 cm), Museum of
Modern Art, NY. See [60]feminism and feminist art.
[40x10pixel.space.gif]
[femns_taeuber_echelon_th.jpg]
see thumbnail to right Sophie Taeuber-Arp, [61]Echelonnement désaxé,
1934, [62]gouache on [63]paper, 13 7/8 X 10 5/8 inches (35.1 X 27
cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY.
[bauhau_aalber.walldes.th.jpg]
see thumbnail to left Anni Albers (born Analise Fleischman, married
Josef Albers) (German, 1899-1994), [64]Design for Wall Hanging,
1926, [65]gouache and [66]pencil on paper, 14 x 11 1/2 inches (35.6
x 29.2 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. See [67]Bauhaus and
[68]textile.
Quote:
"Rhythm and harmony find their way into the inward places of the
soul."
Plato (427?-327? BCE), Greek philosopher. The Republic, Book III,
401d, as translated by B. Jowett, 1901. See [69]harmony.
Also see [70]animation, [71]arrangement, [72]chronology, [73]cinema,
[74]composition, [75]dance, [76]direction, [77]egg-and-dart,
[78]eurythmy, [79]four-dimensional, [80]harmonic sequence, [81]harmony,
[82]kinetic, [83]juxtaposition, [84]measure, [85]metamorphosis,
[86]mobile, [87]movement, [88]obsession, [89]pattern, [90]periodicity,
[91]music, [92]sequence, [93]space-time, [94]time, and [95]whirligig.
[96][grid.1.gif]
[97]ArtLex Art Dictionary
[98]Copyright © 1996- current year delahunt(at)artlex.com
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Rhythm in Art
Take a look at this definition of Rhythm in Art. As noted in the
definition, it can be likened to rhythm in music, and can be said to be
a "patterened repitition" What do you think?
Is rhythm a "visual beat?"
(noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in
words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take
what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something
you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat. A pattern
has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the colors of
a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from one
component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying movement.
Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're placed one
next to the other.
it's sometimes easier to comprehend rhythm in just about anything other
than the visual arts, but once understood, heightened sensitivity to
this aspect can animate design and art making it visually interactive.
"Rhythm of the Hills" by Judy Neale
"Rhythm Joie De Vivre" by Robert Delaunay
This very graphic and design-oriented painting uses repeated circles,
half-circles, joined shapes and contrasting colors to create movement.
"Although trained in fine arts in Paris, Delaunay worked in set design
before beginning his painting career in 1905. He found his initial
influences in the Neo-Impressionists, but gradually moved on to join
Der Blaue Reiter in 1911. His Paris cityscapes began to take on a
distinctive style that studied the effect of contrasting color
patterning. Delaunay's unique method spurred friend and poet, Guillaume
Apollinaire, to place his paintings in a new movement, which he called
Orphism." - World Wide Art Resources
Tamara De Limpicka's "The Model"
This piece which is a very graphically-designed painting, in which the
raised right arm drives the eyes to the right side of the model's
torso; the focal point of the right breast then captures the viewer's
attention, and directs it with a "pointer"... a triangular fold in the
model's garment pulling the viewer to the left arm of the figure. The
curve of the left arm uses the multiple pointers of the model's fingers
to direct the eye strongly to the left into the garment's
downward-sweeping folds, and down the highlighted leg. As if that were
not enough to invest the piece with rhythm, the artist then uses a
strong graphical "s" shape in the background to reinforce the motion
using the model's shadow to create a feeling of movement as part of the
pattern in the background. The overall positioning of the figure
creates visual torque, creating a feeling of anticipated movement
adding to the dynamicism of the design
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rhythm
By [14]Shelley Esaak, About.com Guide
See More About:
* [15]art definitions
* [16]principles of design
Definition:
(noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in
words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take
what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something
you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat.
A pattern has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the
colors of a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from
one component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying
movement. Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're
placed one next to the other.
Really, it's easier to "see" rhythm in just about anything other than
the visual arts. Literally-minded types should stick to music for
rhythm.
Pronunciation: rih·them
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[1]Click Here
[2]ArtLex Art Dictionary
,ø¤º°`°ºº¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø
,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°
r rhythm - A visual tempo or beat. The [3]principle of design that
refers to a regular repetition of [4]elements of art to produce the
look and feel of [5]movement. It is often achieved through the careful
placement of repeated components which invite the viewer's eye to jump
rapidly or glide smoothly from one to the next.
In any [6]artwork, it is possible to distinguish between rhythm of
[7]color, [8]line, and [9]form. In the continuity of the three comes
the whole rhythm of that work.
Rhythm unites the [10]visual culture with [11]music, but in visual
culture, rhythm is more evident in the [12]applied arts than in the
[13]fine arts. In the former, it is often the foremost means of
[14]aesthetic [15]expression.
Rhythm originated in the Greek word rhymthmos, meaning measured flow,
which they passed into Latin as rhythmus, meaning movement in [16]time.
Its first uses in English were literary, in reference to themetrical
rhyming of verses. English speakers began to use rhythm concerning
repetition of musical beats in the late 18th century, and about visual
elements in the same period.
Each [17]artist, every [18]period, every [19]culture produces a
characteristic sort of rhythm. Recognizing a work's rhythmical
peculiarities often aids in [20]identify the culture or [21]time in
which it was produced, if not the individual artist who produced it.
Rhythm's importance can be demonstrated by noting how many important
rhythmic cycles we observe in [22]nature -- consider the alternating
tension and relaxation in the heart's beating or in the ocean's waves,
the revolutions of the earth around the sun, the comings and goings of
generations. Each of us has personal rhythms to our days, weeks, and
years. Life, indeed, would be chaotic without rhythm. Participating in
the tempo of this flow gives us excitement and calm, yearning and
contentment, yin and yang. It is natural that we would employ rhythms
to organize and [23]unify our works, much as they do the rest of our
experience.
There are several types of visual rhythm. These include:
regular rhythms - The background design behind this text has a
regular rhythm. (In the following examples, let the letters A, B,
etc. stand for visual elements of any sort)
AB-AB-AB is the most common type. Picture alternating stripes of two
colors, for instance. (In English prosody, a student of poetry might
read this as either "iambs" or "trochees". An iamb is a metrical
foot consisting of two syllables, the first syllable accented, the
second accented, as in AB-AB-AB. It becomes trochaic meter if the
accenting is reversed, as in AB-AB-AB.)
Some more examples:
ABC-ABC-ABC (In English prosody, a student of poetry might read this
as "anapests" or "dactyls". An anapest is a metrical foot consisting
of three syllables, the first two syllables unaccented, the third
accented, as in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL. A dactyl consists of three
syllables, the first accented, the second and third unaccented, as
in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL.)
ABBB-ABBB-ABBB
ABCB-ABCB-ABCB
ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA
alternating rhythms -
some examples:
ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE-ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE-
ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF-ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF-
ABCD-DCCBBA-ABCD-DCCBBA
progressive rhythms - Progression occurs when there is a gradual
increase or decrease in the size, number, color, or some other
quality of the elements repeated.
some examples:
AB-AABB-AAABBB-AAAABBBB
AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB
AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-
ABC-ABD-ABE-ABF-ABG-ABH-ABI
flowing rhythms -
random rhythms -
Each of these types of rhythm might be altered periodically. [24]Music
theory might be defined as the study of rhythms and their periodic
alterations.
Example of works displaying rhythm:
[rhythm_matis.danc1.th.jpg]
see thumbnail to left Henri Matisse (French, 1869-1954), [25]Dance
(first version), 1909, [26]oil on [27]canvas, 8 feet 6 1/2 inches x
12 feet 9 1/2 inches (259.7 x 390.1 cm), Museum of
[e3_3_1_8d_french_art20.jpg] Modern Art, NY.
Matisse painted a second version of see thumbnail to right [28]Dance
in 1910, [29]oil on [30]canvas, 102 x 154 inches (260 x 391 cm),
Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia.
Dance, together with Music, was commissioned by S.I.Shchukin to
[31]decorate the staircase in his Moscow mansion. Matisse took the
[32]motif of the round dance, used as a [33]symbol back as far as
French [34]Renaissance, to represent the [35]rhythm and
[36]expression of the 20th century. The spaciousness and expressive
[37]lines [38]emphasize the dynamics of the [39]figures.
[40]Simplified and schematic [41]forms intensify the [42]brightness
and [43]resonance of the three colors -- red, blue and green. See
[44]music. Dance, Matisse once said, meant "life and rhythm." See
[45]dance, [46]music, and [47]movement.
[destij_mond.broadwa.th.gif]
see thumbnail to left Piet Mondrian (Dutch, 1872-1944), [48]Broadway
Boogie Woogie. 1942-43, [49]oil on [50]canvas, 50 x 50 inches (127 x
127 cm), at the Museum of Modern Art, New York. See [51]De Stijl and
[52]grid.
[3L00164.jpg]
see thumbnail to right Paul Klee (Swiss, 1879-1940),
[53]Rhythmisches (In Rhythm), 1930, [54]oil on woven jute, 69.6 x
50.5 cm, Georges Pompidou Center, Paris. See [55]Bauhaus and
[56]Swiss art.
[femns_taeuber_circles_th.jpg]
see thumbnail to left Sophie Taeuber-Arp (Swiss, 1889-1943; to
France 1928), [57]Composition of Circles and Overlapping Angles
(Composition à cercles et à bras superposés), 1930, [58]oil on
[59]canvas, 19 1/2 x 25 1/4 inches (49.5 x 64.1 cm), Museum of
Modern Art, NY. See [60]feminism and feminist art.
[40x10pixel.space.gif]
[femns_taeuber_echelon_th.jpg]
see thumbnail to right Sophie Taeuber-Arp, [61]Echelonnement désaxé,
1934, [62]gouache on [63]paper, 13 7/8 X 10 5/8 inches (35.1 X 27
cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY.
[bauhau_aalber.walldes.th.jpg]
see thumbnail to left Anni Albers (born Analise Fleischman, married
Josef Albers) (German, 1899-1994), [64]Design for Wall Hanging,
1926, [65]gouache and [66]pencil on paper, 14 x 11 1/2 inches (35.6
x 29.2 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. See [67]Bauhaus and
[68]textile.
Quote:
"Rhythm and harmony find their way into the inward places of the
soul."
Plato (427?-327? BCE), Greek philosopher. The Republic, Book III,
401d, as translated by B. Jowett, 1901. See [69]harmony.
Also see [70]animation, [71]arrangement, [72]chronology, [73]cinema,
[74]composition, [75]dance, [76]direction, [77]egg-and-dart,
[78]eurythmy, [79]four-dimensional, [80]harmonic sequence, [81]harmony,
[82]kinetic, [83]juxtaposition, [84]measure, [85]metamorphosis,
[86]mobile, [87]movement, [88]obsession, [89]pattern, [90]periodicity,
[91]music, [92]sequence, [93]space-time, [94]time, and [95]whirligig.
[96][grid.1.gif]
[97]ArtLex Art Dictionary
[98]Copyright © 1996- current year delahunt(at)artlex.com
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____________________ [3]Search
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[6]DesignerNet
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+ [10]Introduction
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Rhythm in Art
Take a look at this definition of Rhythm in Art. As noted in the
definition, it can be likened to rhythm in music, and can be said to be
a "patterened repitition" What do you think?
Is rhythm a "visual beat?"
(noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in
words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take
what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something
you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat. A pattern
has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the colors of
a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from one
component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying movement.
Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're placed one
next to the other.
it's sometimes easier to comprehend rhythm in just about anything other
than the visual arts, but once understood, heightened sensitivity to
this aspect can animate design and art making it visually interactive.
"Rhythm of the Hills" by Judy Neale
"Rhythm Joie De Vivre" by Robert Delaunay
This very graphic and design-oriented painting uses repeated circles,
half-circles, joined shapes and contrasting colors to create movement.
"Although trained in fine arts in Paris, Delaunay worked in set design
before beginning his painting career in 1905. He found his initial
influences in the Neo-Impressionists, but gradually moved on to join
Der Blaue Reiter in 1911. His Paris cityscapes began to take on a
distinctive style that studied the effect of contrasting color
patterning. Delaunay's unique method spurred friend and poet, Guillaume
Apollinaire, to place his paintings in a new movement, which he called
Orphism." - World Wide Art Resources
Tamara De Limpicka's "The Model"
This piece which is a very graphically-designed painting, in which the
raised right arm drives the eyes to the right side of the model's
torso; the focal point of the right breast then captures the viewer's
attention, and directs it with a "pointer"... a triangular fold in the
model's garment pulling the viewer to the left arm of the figure. The
curve of the left arm uses the multiple pointers of the model's fingers
to direct the eye strongly to the left into the garment's
downward-sweeping folds, and down the highlighted leg. As if that were
not enough to invest the piece with rhythm, the artist then uses a
strong graphical "s" shape in the background to reinforce the motion
using the model's shadow to create a feeling of movement as part of the
pattern in the background. The overall positioning of the figure
creates visual torque, creating a feeling of anticipated movement
adding to the dynamicism of the design
Welcome to
DesignerNet
[37]Sign Up
or [38]Sign In
About
[39]Jane Ann Nelson [40]Jane Ann Nelson created this [41]Ning Network.
[42]Create a Ning Network! »
© 2010 Created by [43]Jane Ann Nelson on Ning. [44]Create a Ning
Network!
[45]Badges | [46]Report an Issue | [47]Privacy | [48]Terms of
Service
Hello, you need to enable JavaScript to use DesignerNet.
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+ [16]Conference 2009
Rhythm, pattern, color, and texture in art and poetry
In this lesson, students will discover the meaning of "rhythm,"
"patterns," "color," and "texture" through the performance and modeled
analysis of a class "symphony." Students will also evaluate the impact
of each element on the whole work and note personal reactions and
connections to this art form. Students will then work in small groups
to apply the same elements and personal evaluation and connections to a
historical work of visual art. At the end of the lesson, students will
reflect on ways these two experiences are similar.
A lesson plan for grade 7 Visual Arts Education and English Language
Arts
By [17]Carol Horne
Learn more
Related pages
* [18]Old Hat, New Hat: 3-D Pattern Hats: After students read Old
Hat, New Hat by Jan and Stan Berenstain, they create their own new
3-D hats.
* [19]Rhythm stars: This lesson will introduce the main components of
rhythm: quarter, eighth, and sixteenth notes.
* [20]How do I express what I believe? - Part 2: This is the second
in a three-part lesson series seeking to examine belief systems and
how they impact culture in the United States. This lesson, "How do
I express what I believe?" requires 3 sessions at 40 minutes each
to complete. The lesson series also seeks to let students examine
their own personal belief system. In this lesson, the student will
learn about the American tradition of the Face Jug/Pot and how it
is used to express belief. The student will also create a Face
Jug/Pot to express his/her belief, and this pot will be used in the
third lesson entitled. "How do I present what I believe?"
Related topics
* Learn more about [21]arts, [22]color, [23]hands-on, [24]patterns,
[25]rhythm, and [26]texture.
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Learning outcomes
Students will:
* learn to identify examples of "rhythm," "patterns," "color," and
"texture" in order to analyze a whole class symphony of various
sounds and movements.
* learn to apply these same elements to a work of visual art.
* evaluate the overall impact of each element and will investigate
their personal reactions and connections to both of these art
forms.
* learn to reflect on the similarities of their analyses of both of
these art forms.
Teacher planning
Time required for lesson
85 minutes
Materials/resources
* Adjust space for class to "perform" assigned individual movements
as a whole group standing in one long line as the teacher stands in
front of students to "conduct." If this is not possible, make sure
students have enough space to "perform" as they stand alongside
their desks.
* Write variety of individual sounds and movements on index cards to
distribute to each student, e.g. "bark like a dog; make a whooshing
sound as you move like a wave; high-five and yell, `Yeah!'; whistle
like an admirer; click your heels and say, `There's no place like
home!'; sing the first bar of the Friskies' `Meow, meow, meow,
meow' song; frog hop as you `ribbitt' twice; etc.
* Set up a tape recorder and blank tape cued to record the class
"symphony."
* Make two overhead transparencies and two hard copies per student of
the graphic organizer titled, "Elements of Art-Making Connections!"
for analysis of the elements of "rhythm and patterns," "color,"
"texture," etc. (See attachment of a blank copy.) You will also
need a transparency pen.
* Pre-select a poster, transparency, or website image of a work of
visual art preferrably from a historical period familiar to
students and a narrative piece. (See "Relevant Web Sites" below for
a suggested link to "Cleopatra and the Peasant.")
* Complete a graphic organizer for the selected work of visual art to
use as a suggested "answer key" for easy reference during small
group facilitation. (See "Attachments" below for a suggested key of
possible answers for "Elements of Art - Cleopatra and the Peasant"
art image.)
Technology resources
Student computers with color monitors and Internet connection
bookmarked at the site of the selected work of visual art. (optional)
A classroom computer with color monitor and Internet connection set on
site of selected work of visual art and connected to an LCD projector,
which projects computer image onto classroom screen. (optional)
Pre-activities
No previous knowledge is needed for the opening "symphony" activity.
However, to integrate social studies, students should be familiar with
the general historical context of the work of visual art used in the
second activity. If the "Cleopatra and the Peasant" piece is used, for
instance, it would be helpful if students have had some background in
the ancient Egyptian period prior to the viewing of this piece. If you
are using another historical narrative piece, select one for which
students have had some previous study.
If your students will be accessing the Internet to view the visual art
at a selected website, students should have obtained permission to use
the Internet. They should also know how to go to bookmarked sites.
Students should also have had some experience with small group
collaboration with their peers.
Students should have experience with writing one-sentence summaries for
information presented textually or orally.
Activities
Because of the variety of activities, this lesson will work well as a
block period, or it may be divided into two consecutive class periods.
Initiating Activity - Whole Class "Symphony" (40 minutes)
1. Because we want to create an atmosphere of discovery and an air of
mystery, the teacher will distribute one prepared index card to
each student on which some type of sound is written without undue
explanation.
2. Next, line up your students in a straight line facing you, and
position yourself in front of them as the "conductor," if space
permits. Explain now that the whole class will create a "symphony"
using the assigned sounds while you conduct students' coming in,
out, and level of volume. Briefly teach the students the signals
indicated by the conductor's hand and arm movements for: making
their sound/motion; decreasing the sound; increasing the sound;
cutting the sound off; etc.
3. As a practice, point to each student individually to try out his
assigned sound/motion along with your signals. Next, explain that
at times there may be solos, duets, trios, etc., or times when the
whole group will perform together. Those determinations will be
indicated by the conductor, so students must watch the conductor
carefully.
4. After students understand their "assignment," you, the conductor,
will proceed to conduct a class symphony as you see fit. Before you
start, explain that this production will be tape recorded. (Turn on
your tape recorder when ready.) As you begin, experiment with
different combinations of single, small group, and larger group
participation as well as crescendo/decrescendo effects. You may
also include periods of silence. Remember the elements you want to
elicit in this improvised piece are: rhythm/patterns, color, and
texture, which are discussed below. After several minutes of
composing/performing, turn off the tape recorder. (See also another
way of doing this activity described in "Supplemental
Resources/Information for Teachers" section below.)
5. As students return to their seats, distribute copies of the blank
"Elements of Art" graphic organizer to be used for an analysis of
the class performance. (See "Attachments" below.) Using your
overhead transparency and pen, prepare to conduct a whole class
explanation/discussion of each element listed.
6. You will need to explain each of the specialized vocabulary terms
below in the suggested ways.
Elements for Musical Composition:
Rhythm/Patterns
These are listed together because patterns help to create rhythm.
Rhythm is created with the recurrence (pattern) of varying stresses
and tone lengths. These may be balanced against a steady,
underlying succession of beats.
Color
You should be accepting of students' definitions here, but you may
explain that "color" is created musically through such qualities as
vitality, vividness, or interest. Musically speaking, "color"
refers to the timbre, or tonal quality of the voice/instrument or
the effect created by the combination of such qualities.
Texture
Explain that in music, "texture" is created by contrasts of rich,
smooth, melodic, lyrical tones vs. stiff, staccato, harsh tones.
7. Before playing back the recording of the production, you may assign
one-third of the class to listen for examples of rhythm and
patterns, another one-third of the class can listen for examples of
color, and the remaining one-third can listen for examples of
texture. As they listen, they should note examples on their charts.
8. Next, ask students to share their examples of each element.
Facilitate their sharing in light of the meaning of each element,
remembering that your present objective is to help students to
understand the meanings of all the elements and analyze examples
from a musical piece. As examples are shared and discussed, model
writing them on your overhead transparency; engage students by
asking them to fill in examples for each element on their charts
throughout the class discussion.
9. To review the elements and encourage students to engage in mental
evaluation of their performance, ask students to assess which
element they believe had the greatest impact on their overall
performance. Did their piece seem to emphasize rhythm and pattern?
Or did "color" or "texture" make the greatest impact, in their
opinion? Get the students to explain and record their choices on
their graphic organizers.
10. Last, to allow students to make this experience personally
relevant, invite them to write single words that might describe
their feelings or emotions toward their symphony. (Examples might
be: exciting, interesting, invigorating, stimulating, etc.) In the
last column, invite students to note something from their personal
experience that the class symphony reminds them of. It could be a
personal experience or feeling, or it might be one they've read
about or seen portrayed in a movie or real life of a friend.
Second Activity: Analyze the Elements in Visual Art (35 minutes)
1. Make a transition to the next activity by arranging students for
partner or small group collaboration. If you are remaining in the
classroom, arrange students in small groups of three to five with
desks facing one another to encourage collaboration. If students
are at computer stations, pair them up to encourage collaboration.
2. The teacher will need to use an overhead projector to initiate
modeling of analysis of elements on the second overhead
transparency of the graphic organizer.
3. Introduce the selected work of art and artist as you display the
painting or image. (Ask students to navigate to the bookmarked
website, if they are at computer stations.) Initiate discussion
through use of a "hook" question. For example, if you are using the
"Cleopatra and the Peasant" painting by Eugene Delacroix, ask: "Why
do you think there is a little snake coiling out of the basket of
plums?" As students brainstorm possibilities, work in bits of
historical information. For example, remind them of who Cleopatra
was and the culture and time in which she lived.
(Note: Refer to "Supplemental Information" below. Also, if you
access the Ackland Online website listed below under "Relevant
Websites," background information about the painting will be
provided.) Through questioning and discussion, develop the story
behind the painting.
4. You may also mention that the painting was created in Europe in the
1800's. You may ask if students can locate clues in the painting to
illustrate this fact. (Cleopatra was portrayed in this painting as
a 19th century European woman in style of dress and ethnicity, for
example, rather than an ancient Egyptian woman who lived during
ancient Roman times.)
5. As you continue to develop the history of the story, initiate one
possible answer under each of the first three columns of the
graphic organizer for "rhythm/patterns," "color," and "texture."
Students may copy these onto their charts.
6. Take this opportunity to weave in a review and explanation of the
terms below and how they relate to analysis of a work of visual
art.
Definitions of Elements for Visual Art:
Rhythm/Patterns
The recurrence of lines, colors, and shapes (perhaps in a pattern)
to create movement within a work of art.
Color
Qualities brought out by the use of hues (colors) and their
variations.
Texture
Use of materials, such as paint, to create the impression of a
feature, (e.g. satin, glass, or fur); or the use of real materials
within the work of art, (e.g. hair, leather, or metal.)
7. After students have an understanding of the information in the
painting and the elements and have written at least one example of
each element on their charts, direct the small groups or partners
to continue with their analyses. They should also discuss and
complete the last three sections in which they evaluate which
element had the greatest impact on the work of art as a whole,
explore their personal feelings, and note their personal
connections to the art.
8. During partner/group discussion time, the teacher should circulate
to facilitate the above activities.
9. Within the last few minutes of this activity, ask students to share
examples of answers recorded on their graphic organizers.
Reflection Activity (10 minutes)
1. Facilitate a five-minute discussion of similarities of the symphony
and work of visual art with the whole group through questioning.
(Examples: "In what ways are symphonies like visual art?")
Encourage students to refer to their two charts. Assist them in
making oral connections between these two art forms.
2. On a slip of notebook paper during the remaining five minutes, have
students write "exit slips," meaning they will get to exit your
class after they have handed you their "tickets," or exit slips,
out of class.
3. On the slip of paper ask students to answer the following question
in one concise sentence: "What did I learn today about the elements
of art in music AND in visual art?" The teacher can gain insight
about the kinds of things the students learned as a result of the
day's lesson by reading the exits slips. The teacher may elect to
give the students some type of daily credit for completing the
slips satisfactorily.
Assessment
The following two types of assessments may be used in addition to
teacher observation:
1. Two completed graphic organizers titled, "Elements of Art," one for
the symphony activity and the other for the visual art activity.
The teacher may collect these and give credit for quality of
answers or for participation (completion.)
2. Exit slip - This is the reflection the students made at the end of
the lesson during which they were asked to summarize in one
statement something they learned about the elements of both a
musical composition and a work of visual art. The teacher can
quickly assess the level of understanding by reading and assessing
the quality of these answers for a daily grade.
Supplemental information
Alternate "symphony" activity:
One other way to conduct this initiating activity is for the teacher
NOT to be the conductor. Instead, assign sounds on cards as previously
described and tell students to begin making their sounds together and
continue until you indicate for them to stop. At first, the combined
sounds will not be coordinated. However, as time goes along, the
students will naturally begin to add their own rhythms,
loudness/softness, etc. In the follow-up analysis of this musical
production, it could be pointed out how the first part lacked the
elements listed on the chart; but as the "music" proceeded, these
elements became evident.
Historical Background for the Life of Cleopatra:
Cleopatra became queen of ancient Egypt in 51 B.C. Though she lacked
beauty, she was intelligent, witty, charming, ambitious, and concerned
about the well-being of her subjects. Cleopatra developed loyal and
romantic relationships with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, great Roman
leaders.
Antony aspired to rule Rome alone and, due to the wealth of Egypt,
hoped to obtain financial aid from Cleopatra. They fell in love and
Cleopatra had several children by Antony. Cleopatra's ambition was for
her children to become rulers of Rome. Because Antony gave preferential
treatment to his children by Cleopatra, other Roman leaders became
jealous. They thought Cleopatra was greedy and had too much control
over Antony.
A war broke out between the two of them and Octavian, Antony's former
brother-in-law and one of the rival rulers of Rome. As Octavian came
after Cleopatra and Antony, she spread a rumor that she had committed
suicide. When Antony heard the report, he stabbed himself. He later
died in her arms.
When Cleopatra's attempts to make up to Octavian failed, she put a
poisonous snake on her arm and indeed did commit suicide. Antony's and
Cleopatra's love story has taken many dramatic and artistic forms
through the ages.
In the painting, "Cleopatra and the Peasant," the peasant is shown as
suggesting to Cleopatra (or enticing her by his slight smile and her
serious expression of consideration) with the idea of taking her life
with a snake. The peasant is holding a basket of plums under his
leopard pelt. A snake is emerging from the plums.
A jpg image of Cleopatra by Delacroix along with credit information has
been provided as an attachment below.
Related websites
Color image of "Cleopatra and the Peasant," by Eugene Delacroix:
Ackland Museum Online:
Comments
For special needs students, such as LD, the teacher may provide a hard
copy for each of the two completed "Elements of Art" graphic
organizers, saving time for the student in copying information onto the
charts.
Enrichment can be provided by encouraging students to formulate their
own questions about either work of art (musical, as in the class
symphony, or the historical work of visual art,) and their elements.
Allow students to conduct their own research to answer these questions
using CD ROMS, Internet art sites, NC Wise Owl, a research site, which
has been included under "Relevant Websites," etc.
North Carolina Curriculum Alignment
Visual Arts Education (2001)
Grade 7
* Goal 1: The learner will develop critical and creative thinking
skills and perceptual awareness necessary for understanding and
producing art.
+ [41]Objective 1.06: Recognize and discuss the use of multiple
senses in visual arts.
* Goal 2: The learner will develop skills necessary for understanding
and applying media, techniques, and processes.
+ [42]Objective 2.02: Explore and identify the unique properties
and potential of materials using proper vocabulary and
terminology.
* Goal 3: The learner will organize the components of a work into a
cohesive whole through knowledge of organizational principles of
design and art elements.
+ [43]Objective 3.03: Explore and discuss that diverse solutions
are preferable to predetermined visual solutions.
+ [44]Objective 3.04: Explore and discuss the value of intuitive
perceptions in the problem-solving process.
* Goal 5: The learner will understand the visual arts in relation to
history and cultures.
+ [45]Objective 5.02: Describe characteristics of specific works
of art that belong to a particular culture, time and place.
* Goal 7: The learner will perceive connections between visual arts
and other disciplines.
+ [46]Objective 7.01: Explain connections, similarities and
differences between the visual arts and other disciplines.
+ [47]Objective 7.03: Compare characteristics of visual arts
within a particular historical period or style with ideas,
issues or themes in other disciplines.
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rhythm
By [14]Shelley Esaak, About.com Guide
See More About:
* [15]art definitions
* [16]principles of design
Definition:
(noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in
words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take
what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something
you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat.
A pattern has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the
colors of a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from
one component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying
movement. Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're
placed one next to the other.
Really, it's easier to "see" rhythm in just about anything other than
the visual arts. Literally-minded types should stick to music for
rhythm.
Pronunciation: rih·them
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[2]ArtLex Art Dictionary
,ø¤º°`°ºº¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø
,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°
r rhythm - A visual tempo or beat. The [3]principle of design that
refers to a regular repetition of [4]elements of art to produce the
look and feel of [5]movement. It is often achieved through the careful
placement of repeated components which invite the viewer's eye to jump
rapidly or glide smoothly from one to the next.
In any [6]artwork, it is possible to distinguish between rhythm of
[7]color, [8]line, and [9]form. In the continuity of the three comes
the whole rhythm of that work.
Rhythm unites the [10]visual culture with [11]music, but in visual
culture, rhythm is more evident in the [12]applied arts than in the
[13]fine arts. In the former, it is often the foremost means of
[14]aesthetic [15]expression.
Rhythm originated in the Greek word rhymthmos, meaning measured flow,
which they passed into Latin as rhythmus, meaning movement in [16]time.
Its first uses in English were literary, in reference to themetrical
rhyming of verses. English speakers began to use rhythm concerning
repetition of musical beats in the late 18th century, and about visual
elements in the same period.
Each [17]artist, every [18]period, every [19]culture produces a
characteristic sort of rhythm. Recognizing a work's rhythmical
peculiarities often aids in [20]identify the culture or [21]time in
which it was produced, if not the individual artist who produced it.
Rhythm's importance can be demonstrated by noting how many important
rhythmic cycles we observe in [22]nature -- consider the alternating
tension and relaxation in the heart's beating or in the ocean's waves,
the revolutions of the earth around the sun, the comings and goings of
generations. Each of us has personal rhythms to our days, weeks, and
years. Life, indeed, would be chaotic without rhythm. Participating in
the tempo of this flow gives us excitement and calm, yearning and
contentment, yin and yang. It is natural that we would employ rhythms
to organize and [23]unify our works, much as they do the rest of our
experience.
There are several types of visual rhythm. These include:
regular rhythms - The background design behind this text has a
regular rhythm. (In the following examples, let the letters A, B,
etc. stand for visual elements of any sort)
AB-AB-AB is the most common type. Picture alternating stripes of two
colors, for instance. (In English prosody, a student of poetry might
read this as either "iambs" or "trochees". An iamb is a metrical
foot consisting of two syllables, the first syllable accented, the
second accented, as in AB-AB-AB. It becomes trochaic meter if the
accenting is reversed, as in AB-AB-AB.)
Some more examples:
ABC-ABC-ABC (In English prosody, a student of poetry might read this
as "anapests" or "dactyls". An anapest is a metrical foot consisting
of three syllables, the first two syllables unaccented, the third
accented, as in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL. A dactyl consists of three
syllables, the first accented, the second and third unaccented, as
in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL.)
ABBB-ABBB-ABBB
ABCB-ABCB-ABCB
ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA
alternating rhythms -
some examples:
ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE-ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE-
ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF-ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF-
ABCD-DCCBBA-ABCD-DCCBBA
progressive rhythms - Progression occurs when there is a gradual
increase or decrease in the size, number, color, or some other
quality of the elements repeated.
some examples:
AB-AABB-AAABBB-AAAABBBB
AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB
AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-
ABC-ABD-ABE-ABF-ABG-ABH-ABI
flowing rhythms -
random rhythms -
Each of these types of rhythm might be altered periodically. [24]Music
theory might be defined as the study of rhythms and their periodic
alterations.
Example of works displaying rhythm:
[rhythm_matis.danc1.th.jpg]
see thumbnail to left Henri Matisse (French, 1869-1954), [25]Dance
(first version), 1909, [26]oil on [27]canvas, 8 feet 6 1/2 inches x
12 feet 9 1/2 inches (259.7 x 390.1 cm), Museum of
[e3_3_1_8d_french_art20.jpg] Modern Art, NY.
Matisse painted a second version of see thumbnail to right [28]Dance
in 1910, [29]oil on [30]canvas, 102 x 154 inches (260 x 391 cm),
Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia.
Dance, together with Music, was commissioned by S.I.Shchukin to
[31]decorate the staircase in his Moscow mansion. Matisse took the
[32]motif of the round dance, used as a [33]symbol back as far as
French [34]Renaissance, to represent the [35]rhythm and
[36]expression of the 20th century. The spaciousness and expressive
[37]lines [38]emphasize the dynamics of the [39]figures.
[40]Simplified and schematic [41]forms intensify the [42]brightness
and [43]resonance of the three colors -- red, blue and green. See
[44]music. Dance, Matisse once said, meant "life and rhythm." See
[45]dance, [46]music, and [47]movement.
[destij_mond.broadwa.th.gif]
see thumbnail to left Piet Mondrian (Dutch, 1872-1944), [48]Broadway
Boogie Woogie. 1942-43, [49]oil on [50]canvas, 50 x 50 inches (127 x
127 cm), at the Museum of Modern Art, New York. See [51]De Stijl and
[52]grid.
[3L00164.jpg]
see thumbnail to right Paul Klee (Swiss, 1879-1940),
[53]Rhythmisches (In Rhythm), 1930, [54]oil on woven jute, 69.6 x
50.5 cm, Georges Pompidou Center, Paris. See [55]Bauhaus and
[56]Swiss art.
[femns_taeuber_circles_th.jpg]
see thumbnail to left Sophie Taeuber-Arp (Swiss, 1889-1943; to
France 1928), [57]Composition of Circles and Overlapping Angles
(Composition à cercles et à bras superposés), 1930, [58]oil on
[59]canvas, 19 1/2 x 25 1/4 inches (49.5 x 64.1 cm), Museum of
Modern Art, NY. See [60]feminism and feminist art.
[40x10pixel.space.gif]
[femns_taeuber_echelon_th.jpg]
see thumbnail to right Sophie Taeuber-Arp, [61]Echelonnement désaxé,
1934, [62]gouache on [63]paper, 13 7/8 X 10 5/8 inches (35.1 X 27
cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY.
[bauhau_aalber.walldes.th.jpg]
see thumbnail to left Anni Albers (born Analise Fleischman, married
Josef Albers) (German, 1899-1994), [64]Design for Wall Hanging,
1926, [65]gouache and [66]pencil on paper, 14 x 11 1/2 inches (35.6
x 29.2 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. See [67]Bauhaus and
[68]textile.
Quote:
"Rhythm and harmony find their way into the inward places of the
soul."
Plato (427?-327? BCE), Greek philosopher. The Republic, Book III,
401d, as translated by B. Jowett, 1901. See [69]harmony.
Also see [70]animation, [71]arrangement, [72]chronology, [73]cinema,
[74]composition, [75]dance, [76]direction, [77]egg-and-dart,
[78]eurythmy, [79]four-dimensional, [80]harmonic sequence, [81]harmony,
[82]kinetic, [83]juxtaposition, [84]measure, [85]metamorphosis,
[86]mobile, [87]movement, [88]obsession, [89]pattern, [90]periodicity,
[91]music, [92]sequence, [93]space-time, [94]time, and [95]whirligig.
[96][grid.1.gif]
[97]ArtLex Art Dictionary
[98]Copyright © 1996- current year delahunt(at)artlex.com
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Rhythm in Art
Take a look at this definition of Rhythm in Art. As noted in the
definition, it can be likened to rhythm in music, and can be said to be
a "patterened repitition" What do you think?
Is rhythm a "visual beat?"
(noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in
words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take
what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something
you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat. A pattern
has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the colors of
a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from one
component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying movement.
Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're placed one
next to the other.
it's sometimes easier to comprehend rhythm in just about anything other
than the visual arts, but once understood, heightened sensitivity to
this aspect can animate design and art making it visually interactive.
"Rhythm of the Hills" by Judy Neale
"Rhythm Joie De Vivre" by Robert Delaunay
This very graphic and design-oriented painting uses repeated circles,
half-circles, joined shapes and contrasting colors to create movement.
"Although trained in fine arts in Paris, Delaunay worked in set design
before beginning his painting career in 1905. He found his initial
influences in the Neo-Impressionists, but gradually moved on to join
Der Blaue Reiter in 1911. His Paris cityscapes began to take on a
distinctive style that studied the effect of contrasting color
patterning. Delaunay's unique method spurred friend and poet, Guillaume
Apollinaire, to place his paintings in a new movement, which he called
Orphism." - World Wide Art Resources
Tamara De Limpicka's "The Model"
This piece which is a very graphically-designed painting, in which the
raised right arm drives the eyes to the right side of the model's
torso; the focal point of the right breast then captures the viewer's
attention, and directs it with a "pointer"... a triangular fold in the
model's garment pulling the viewer to the left arm of the figure. The
curve of the left arm uses the multiple pointers of the model's fingers
to direct the eye strongly to the left into the garment's
downward-sweeping folds, and down the highlighted leg. As if that were
not enough to invest the piece with rhythm, the artist then uses a
strong graphical "s" shape in the background to reinforce the motion
using the model's shadow to create a feeling of movement as part of the
pattern in the background. The overall positioning of the figure
creates visual torque, creating a feeling of anticipated movement
adding to the dynamicism of the design
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Rhythm, pattern, color, and texture in art and poetry
In this lesson, students will discover the meaning of "rhythm,"
"patterns," "color," and "texture" through the performance and modeled
analysis of a class "symphony." Students will also evaluate the impact
of each element on the whole work and note personal reactions and
connections to this art form. Students will then work in small groups
to apply the same elements and personal evaluation and connections to a
historical work of visual art. At the end of the lesson, students will
reflect on ways these two experiences are similar.
A lesson plan for grade 7 Visual Arts Education and English Language
Arts
By [17]Carol Horne
Learn more
Related pages
* [18]Old Hat, New Hat: 3-D Pattern Hats: After students read Old
Hat, New Hat by Jan and Stan Berenstain, they create their own new
3-D hats.
* [19]Rhythm stars: This lesson will introduce the main components of
rhythm: quarter, eighth, and sixteenth notes.
* [20]How do I express what I believe? - Part 2: This is the second
in a three-part lesson series seeking to examine belief systems and
how they impact culture in the United States. This lesson, "How do
I express what I believe?" requires 3 sessions at 40 minutes each
to complete. The lesson series also seeks to let students examine
their own personal belief system. In this lesson, the student will
learn about the American tradition of the Face Jug/Pot and how it
is used to express belief. The student will also create a Face
Jug/Pot to express his/her belief, and this pot will be used in the
third lesson entitled. "How do I present what I believe?"
Related topics
* Learn more about [21]arts, [22]color, [23]hands-on, [24]patterns,
[25]rhythm, and [26]texture.
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Learning outcomes
Students will:
* learn to identify examples of "rhythm," "patterns," "color," and
"texture" in order to analyze a whole class symphony of various
sounds and movements.
* learn to apply these same elements to a work of visual art.
* evaluate the overall impact of each element and will investigate
their personal reactions and connections to both of these art
forms.
* learn to reflect on the similarities of their analyses of both of
these art forms.
Teacher planning
Time required for lesson
85 minutes
Materials/resources
* Adjust space for class to "perform" assigned individual movements
as a whole group standing in one long line as the teacher stands in
front of students to "conduct." If this is not possible, make sure
students have enough space to "perform" as they stand alongside
their desks.
* Write variety of individual sounds and movements on index cards to
distribute to each student, e.g. "bark like a dog; make a whooshing
sound as you move like a wave; high-five and yell, `Yeah!'; whistle
like an admirer; click your heels and say, `There's no place like
home!'; sing the first bar of the Friskies' `Meow, meow, meow,
meow' song; frog hop as you `ribbitt' twice; etc.
* Set up a tape recorder and blank tape cued to record the class
"symphony."
* Make two overhead transparencies and two hard copies per student of
the graphic organizer titled, "Elements of Art-Making Connections!"
for analysis of the elements of "rhythm and patterns," "color,"
"texture," etc. (See attachment of a blank copy.) You will also
need a transparency pen.
* Pre-select a poster, transparency, or website image of a work of
visual art preferrably from a historical period familiar to
students and a narrative piece. (See "Relevant Web Sites" below for
a suggested link to "Cleopatra and the Peasant.")
* Complete a graphic organizer for the selected work of visual art to
use as a suggested "answer key" for easy reference during small
group facilitation. (See "Attachments" below for a suggested key of
possible answers for "Elements of Art - Cleopatra and the Peasant"
art image.)
Technology resources
Student computers with color monitors and Internet connection
bookmarked at the site of the selected work of visual art. (optional)
A classroom computer with color monitor and Internet connection set on
site of selected work of visual art and connected to an LCD projector,
which projects computer image onto classroom screen. (optional)
Pre-activities
No previous knowledge is needed for the opening "symphony" activity.
However, to integrate social studies, students should be familiar with
the general historical context of the work of visual art used in the
second activity. If the "Cleopatra and the Peasant" piece is used, for
instance, it would be helpful if students have had some background in
the ancient Egyptian period prior to the viewing of this piece. If you
are using another historical narrative piece, select one for which
students have had some previous study.
If your students will be accessing the Internet to view the visual art
at a selected website, students should have obtained permission to use
the Internet. They should also know how to go to bookmarked sites.
Students should also have had some experience with small group
collaboration with their peers.
Students should have experience with writing one-sentence summaries for
information presented textually or orally.
Activities
Because of the variety of activities, this lesson will work well as a
block period, or it may be divided into two consecutive class periods.
Initiating Activity - Whole Class "Symphony" (40 minutes)
1. Because we want to create an atmosphere of discovery and an air of
mystery, the teacher will distribute one prepared index card to
each student on which some type of sound is written without undue
explanation.
2. Next, line up your students in a straight line facing you, and
position yourself in front of them as the "conductor," if space
permits. Explain now that the whole class will create a "symphony"
using the assigned sounds while you conduct students' coming in,
out, and level of volume. Briefly teach the students the signals
indicated by the conductor's hand and arm movements for: making
their sound/motion; decreasing the sound; increasing the sound;
cutting the sound off; etc.
3. As a practice, point to each student individually to try out his
assigned sound/motion along with your signals. Next, explain that
at times there may be solos, duets, trios, etc., or times when the
whole group will perform together. Those determinations will be
indicated by the conductor, so students must watch the conductor
carefully.
4. After students understand their "assignment," you, the conductor,
will proceed to conduct a class symphony as you see fit. Before you
start, explain that this production will be tape recorded. (Turn on
your tape recorder when ready.) As you begin, experiment with
different combinations of single, small group, and larger group
participation as well as crescendo/decrescendo effects. You may
also include periods of silence. Remember the elements you want to
elicit in this improvised piece are: rhythm/patterns, color, and
texture, which are discussed below. After several minutes of
composing/performing, turn off the tape recorder. (See also another
way of doing this activity described in "Supplemental
Resources/Information for Teachers" section below.)
5. As students return to their seats, distribute copies of the blank
"Elements of Art" graphic organizer to be used for an analysis of
the class performance. (See "Attachments" below.) Using your
overhead transparency and pen, prepare to conduct a whole class
explanation/discussion of each element listed.
6. You will need to explain each of the specialized vocabulary terms
below in the suggested ways.
Elements for Musical Composition:
Rhythm/Patterns
These are listed together because patterns help to create rhythm.
Rhythm is created with the recurrence (pattern) of varying stresses
and tone lengths. These may be balanced against a steady,
underlying succession of beats.
Color
You should be accepting of students' definitions here, but you may
explain that "color" is created musically through such qualities as
vitality, vividness, or interest. Musically speaking, "color"
refers to the timbre, or tonal quality of the voice/instrument or
the effect created by the combination of such qualities.
Texture
Explain that in music, "texture" is created by contrasts of rich,
smooth, melodic, lyrical tones vs. stiff, staccato, harsh tones.
7. Before playing back the recording of the production, you may assign
one-third of the class to listen for examples of rhythm and
patterns, another one-third of the class can listen for examples of
color, and the remaining one-third can listen for examples of
texture. As they listen, they should note examples on their charts.
8. Next, ask students to share their examples of each element.
Facilitate their sharing in light of the meaning of each element,
remembering that your present objective is to help students to
understand the meanings of all the elements and analyze examples
from a musical piece. As examples are shared and discussed, model
writing them on your overhead transparency; engage students by
asking them to fill in examples for each element on their charts
throughout the class discussion.
9. To review the elements and encourage students to engage in mental
evaluation of their performance, ask students to assess which
element they believe had the greatest impact on their overall
performance. Did their piece seem to emphasize rhythm and pattern?
Or did "color" or "texture" make the greatest impact, in their
opinion? Get the students to explain and record their choices on
their graphic organizers.
10. Last, to allow students to make this experience personally
relevant, invite them to write single words that might describe
their feelings or emotions toward their symphony. (Examples might
be: exciting, interesting, invigorating, stimulating, etc.) In the
last column, invite students to note something from their personal
experience that the class symphony reminds them of. It could be a
personal experience or feeling, or it might be one they've read
about or seen portrayed in a movie or real life of a friend.
Second Activity: Analyze the Elements in Visual Art (35 minutes)
1. Make a transition to the next activity by arranging students for
partner or small group collaboration. If you are remaining in the
classroom, arrange students in small groups of three to five with
desks facing one another to encourage collaboration. If students
are at computer stations, pair them up to encourage collaboration.
2. The teacher will need to use an overhead projector to initiate
modeling of analysis of elements on the second overhead
transparency of the graphic organizer.
3. Introduce the selected work of art and artist as you display the
painting or image. (Ask students to navigate to the bookmarked
website, if they are at computer stations.) Initiate discussion
through use of a "hook" question. For example, if you are using the
"Cleopatra and the Peasant" painting by Eugene Delacroix, ask: "Why
do you think there is a little snake coiling out of the basket of
plums?" As students brainstorm possibilities, work in bits of
historical information. For example, remind them of who Cleopatra
was and the culture and time in which she lived.
(Note: Refer to "Supplemental Information" below. Also, if you
access the Ackland Online website listed below under "Relevant
Websites," background information about the painting will be
provided.) Through questioning and discussion, develop the story
behind the painting.
4. You may also mention that the painting was created in Europe in the
1800's. You may ask if students can locate clues in the painting to
illustrate this fact. (Cleopatra was portrayed in this painting as
a 19th century European woman in style of dress and ethnicity, for
example, rather than an ancient Egyptian woman who lived during
ancient Roman times.)
5. As you continue to develop the history of the story, initiate one
possible answer under each of the first three columns of the
graphic organizer for "rhythm/patterns," "color," and "texture."
Students may copy these onto their charts.
6. Take this opportunity to weave in a review and explanation of the
terms below and how they relate to analysis of a work of visual
art.
Definitions of Elements for Visual Art:
Rhythm/Patterns
The recurrence of lines, colors, and shapes (perhaps in a pattern)
to create movement within a work of art.
Color
Qualities brought out by the use of hues (colors) and their
variations.
Texture
Use of materials, such as paint, to create the impression of a
feature, (e.g. satin, glass, or fur); or the use of real materials
within the work of art, (e.g. hair, leather, or metal.)
7. After students have an understanding of the information in the
painting and the elements and have written at least one example of
each element on their charts, direct the small groups or partners
to continue with their analyses. They should also discuss and
complete the last three sections in which they evaluate which
element had the greatest impact on the work of art as a whole,
explore their personal feelings, and note their personal
connections to the art.
8. During partner/group discussion time, the teacher should circulate
to facilitate the above activities.
9. Within the last few minutes of this activity, ask students to share
examples of answers recorded on their graphic organizers.
Reflection Activity (10 minutes)
1. Facilitate a five-minute discussion of similarities of the symphony
and work of visual art with the whole group through questioning.
(Examples: "In what ways are symphonies like visual art?")
Encourage students to refer to their two charts. Assist them in
making oral connections between these two art forms.
2. On a slip of notebook paper during the remaining five minutes, have
students write "exit slips," meaning they will get to exit your
class after they have handed you their "tickets," or exit slips,
out of class.
3. On the slip of paper ask students to answer the following question
in one concise sentence: "What did I learn today about the elements
of art in music AND in visual art?" The teacher can gain insight
about the kinds of things the students learned as a result of the
day's lesson by reading the exits slips. The teacher may elect to
give the students some type of daily credit for completing the
slips satisfactorily.
Assessment
The following two types of assessments may be used in addition to
teacher observation:
1. Two completed graphic organizers titled, "Elements of Art," one for
the symphony activity and the other for the visual art activity.
The teacher may collect these and give credit for quality of
answers or for participation (completion.)
2. Exit slip - This is the reflection the students made at the end of
the lesson during which they were asked to summarize in one
statement something they learned about the elements of both a
musical composition and a work of visual art. The teacher can
quickly assess the level of understanding by reading and assessing
the quality of these answers for a daily grade.
Supplemental information
Alternate "symphony" activity:
One other way to conduct this initiating activity is for the teacher
NOT to be the conductor. Instead, assign sounds on cards as previously
described and tell students to begin making their sounds together and
continue until you indicate for them to stop. At first, the combined
sounds will not be coordinated. However, as time goes along, the
students will naturally begin to add their own rhythms,
loudness/softness, etc. In the follow-up analysis of this musical
production, it could be pointed out how the first part lacked the
elements listed on the chart; but as the "music" proceeded, these
elements became evident.
Historical Background for the Life of Cleopatra:
Cleopatra became queen of ancient Egypt in 51 B.C. Though she lacked
beauty, she was intelligent, witty, charming, ambitious, and concerned
about the well-being of her subjects. Cleopatra developed loyal and
romantic relationships with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, great Roman
leaders.
Antony aspired to rule Rome alone and, due to the wealth of Egypt,
hoped to obtain financial aid from Cleopatra. They fell in love and
Cleopatra had several children by Antony. Cleopatra's ambition was for
her children to become rulers of Rome. Because Antony gave preferential
treatment to his children by Cleopatra, other Roman leaders became
jealous. They thought Cleopatra was greedy and had too much control
over Antony.
A war broke out between the two of them and Octavian, Antony's former
brother-in-law and one of the rival rulers of Rome. As Octavian came
after Cleopatra and Antony, she spread a rumor that she had committed
suicide. When Antony heard the report, he stabbed himself. He later
died in her arms.
When Cleopatra's attempts to make up to Octavian failed, she put a
poisonous snake on her arm and indeed did commit suicide. Antony's and
Cleopatra's love story has taken many dramatic and artistic forms
through the ages.
In the painting, "Cleopatra and the Peasant," the peasant is shown as
suggesting to Cleopatra (or enticing her by his slight smile and her
serious expression of consideration) with the idea of taking her life
with a snake. The peasant is holding a basket of plums under his
leopard pelt. A snake is emerging from the plums.
A jpg image of Cleopatra by Delacroix along with credit information has
been provided as an attachment below.
Related websites
Color image of "Cleopatra and the Peasant," by Eugene Delacroix:
Ackland Museum Online:
Comments
For special needs students, such as LD, the teacher may provide a hard
copy for each of the two completed "Elements of Art" graphic
organizers, saving time for the student in copying information onto the
charts.
Enrichment can be provided by encouraging students to formulate their
own questions about either work of art (musical, as in the class
symphony, or the historical work of visual art,) and their elements.
Allow students to conduct their own research to answer these questions
using CD ROMS, Internet art sites, NC Wise Owl, a research site, which
has been included under "Relevant Websites," etc.
North Carolina Curriculum Alignment
Visual Arts Education (2001)
Grade 7
* Goal 1: The learner will develop critical and creative thinking
skills and perceptual awareness necessary for understanding and
producing art.
+ [41]Objective 1.06: Recognize and discuss the use of multiple
senses in visual arts.
* Goal 2: The learner will develop skills necessary for understanding
and applying media, techniques, and processes.
+ [42]Objective 2.02: Explore and identify the unique properties
and potential of materials using proper vocabulary and
terminology.
* Goal 3: The learner will organize the components of a work into a
cohesive whole through knowledge of organizational principles of
design and art elements.
+ [43]Objective 3.03: Explore and discuss that diverse solutions
are preferable to predetermined visual solutions.
+ [44]Objective 3.04: Explore and discuss the value of intuitive
perceptions in the problem-solving process.
* Goal 5: The learner will understand the visual arts in relation to
history and cultures.
+ [45]Objective 5.02: Describe characteristics of specific works
of art that belong to a particular culture, time and place.
* Goal 7: The learner will perceive connections between visual arts
and other disciplines.
+ [46]Objective 7.01: Explain connections, similarities and
differences between the visual arts and other disciplines.
+ [47]Objective 7.03: Compare characteristics of visual arts
within a particular historical period or style with ideas,
issues or themes in other disciplines.
The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
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rhythm game using body percussion
[61][print.gif] Printable Version for your convenience!
Title - rhythm game using body percussion
By - Michelle L. Miller
Primary Subject - Music
Secondary Subjects -
Grade Level - 4-8
Objective: Students will be able to accurately write and count rhythms.
Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of
two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the
board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for
each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole
notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for
half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap
fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth
notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and
their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board
and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests.
Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding.
To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3
teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to
the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then
plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat
pat snap snap palms up--
quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest).
Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play
for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only
need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately
gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one
done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect
answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The
whole lesson takes about 30 minutes.
Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as
performed by teacher.
Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills
development and have fun at the same time!!
NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love
it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and
counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well.
Have fun!!
E-Mail [62]Michelle L. Miller!
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* [41]What are biologic rhythms?
* [42]How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness?
* [43]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms?
* [44]Angina
* [45]Heart attack
* [46]High blood pressure (hypertension)
* [47]Hay fever (allergic rhinitis)
* [48]Asthma
* [49]Can the "body clock" affect diagnostic testing?
* [50]Can drug therapy be matched to the "body clock?"
* [51]Chronobiology: marking time, making progress
What are biologic rhythms?
What are biologic rhythms? In essence, they're the rhythms of life. All
forms of life on earth, including our bodies, respond rhythmically to
the regular cycles of the sun, moon, and seasons.
For example, as night turns into day, vital body functions, including
heart rate and [52]blood pressure, speed up in anticipation of
increased physical activity. These and other predictable fluctuations
in body function, taking place during specific time cycles, are our
biologic rhythms. They are regulated by "biologic clock" mechanisms
located in the brain.
Although biologic rhythms can be "reprogrammed" by environmental
influences (such as when a person regularly works the night shift and
sleeps during the day), they are genetically "hard-wired" into our
cells, tissues, and organs.
Medical chronobiologists have found that biologic rhythms can affect
the severity of disease symptoms, diagnostic test results, and even the
body's response to drug therapy. Now these investigators are working to
discover how the rhythms of life can be used to improve the practice of
medicine - and your health.
These time-related medical observations, and others still in the
exciting process of discovery, are rooted in chronobiology (chronos -
time; bios - life; logos - science), the study of biologic rhythms.
How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness?
Among the various biologic rhythm cycles that medical chronobiologists
study, the 24-hour day/night-activity/rest cycle is considered a key
chronobiologic factor in medical [53]diagnosis and treatment. Formally
known as the [54]circadian rhythm, it's also referred to as the "body
clock."
Why is the 24-hour body clock so important?
Because so many of our normal body functions follow daily patterns of
speeding up and slowing down, intensifying and diminishing, in
alignment with circadian rhythm. Interestingly, so do the symptoms of a
number of [55]chronic disorders:
Allergic rhinitis: (nasal inflammation associated with hay fever)
Symptoms of sneezing, [56]runny nose, and stuffy nose are typically
worse in the early waking hours than later during the day.
Asthma: In most patients, symptoms are more than 100 times as likely to
occur in the few hours prior to awakening than during the day.
Stable angina: [57]Chest pain and [58]electrocardiographic (ECG, EKG)
abnormalities are most common during the first 4 to 6 hours after
awakening.
[59]Prinzmetal's angina: ECG abnormalities are most common during
[60]sleep; chest pain can occur even while at rest.
Heart attack: Heart attack most commonly occurs in the early waking
hours.
Stroke: [61]Strokes most commonly occur in the early waking hours.
Hypertension: The highest blood pressure readings typically occur from
late morning to middle afternoon; lowest occur during early sleep.
Therapy now exists that works with your body clock; consult your
physician about this treatment. Clinical studies are underway to
further this research.
[62]Rheumatoid arthritis: RA symptoms are most intense upon awakening.
[63]Osteoarthritis: Symptoms of osteoarthritis worsen in the afternoon
and evening.
Ulcer disease: The pain typically occurs after stomach emptying,
following daytime meals, and in the very early morning, disrupting
sleep.
[64]Epilepsy: Seizures often occur only at particular times of the day
or night; individual patterns differ among patients.
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biorhythms? »
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What is hay fever? What are the symptoms and signs?
Hay fever is a misnomer. Hay is not a usual cause of this problem, and
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congestion, and eye irritation while harvesting field hay promoted this
popular term. Allergic rhinitis is the correct term used to describe
this allergic reaction, and many different substances cause the
allergic symptoms noted in hay fever. Rhinitis means "irritation of the
nose" and is a derivative of rhino, meaning nose. Allergic rhinitis
which occurs during a specific season is called "seasonal allergic
rhinitis." When it occurs throughout the year, it is called "perennial
allergic rhinitis."
Symptoms of allergic rhinitis, or hay fever, frequently include nasal
congestion, a clear runny nose, sneezing, nose and eye itching, and
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Journal Article [33]Printable view
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Journal [34]Surgery Today
Publisher Springer Japan
ISSN 0941-1291 (Print) 1436-2813 (Online)
Issue [35]Volume 17, Number 3 / May, 1987
Category Short Communication
DOI 10.1007/BF02470602
Pages 209-212
Subject Collection [36]Medicine
SpringerLink Date Thursday, July 20, 2006
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Short Communication
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Jun Narumi^1 Contact Information , Kozo Suma^1, Hidemi Kaneko^1,
Yasuo Takeuchi^1, Kenji Inoue^1, Kenji Shiroma^1 and Yuji Koyama^1
(1) Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, 2nd Hospital of Tokyo
Women's Medical College, 2-1-10 Nishiogu, Arakawaku, 116 Tokyo, Japan
Received: 7 April 1986
Abstract The postoperative deep body temperature rhythms of fifteen
patients who received aorto-coronary bypass surgery (group I), and of
seven patients who received non-cardiac major surgery (group II), were
studied. Postoperative patients, especially those who received
aortocoronary bypass surgery, showed greatly disturbed deep body
temperature rhythm. There existed infradian and ultradian rhythm in
both groups, and there existed two patients in group I who did not show
sinusoidal rhythm. The patients of group I also showed a longer period
of rhythm than did those of group II. The mesor and amplitude of the
patients in group I showed a greater individual variation than did
those in group II. The acrophase of both groups deviated widely. The
patients who underwent cardiac surgery needed a longer time for
temperature rhythm recovery than did those who underwent general
surgery.
Key Words deep body temperature rhythm - intensive care
unit - post-operative patients
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Rhythms and Body Clock
Circadian Rhythm
From the Latin circa (about) dies (a day), the circadian rhythm is the
twenty-four-hour cycle of light/dark, wakefulness/sleep to which most
human physiologic processes are set. At regular intervals each day, the
body tends to become hungry, tired, active, listless, energized. Body
temperature, heart-beat, blood pressure, hormone levels, and urine flow
rise and fall in this relatively predictable, rhythmic pattern - a
pattern initiated and governed by exposure to sunlight and darkness.
Experiments where humans were placed in isolation chambers, cut off
from all potential environmental cues, have shown that, in the absence
of natural daylight, rhythms are still maintained. But in the absence
of the day light, the rhythms tend to deviate from 24 hours. For
instance, the rhythms was found to expand to 24-30 hours, thus
disrupting the biological processes over a long period of time.
The fact that animals and humans can continue to function according to
daily and annual rhythms in the absence of external environmental
stimuli means that animals and humans possess some kind of biological
clock, which act as a backup mechanism in case it cannot get the proper
stimuli from the natural events such as sunshine.
This behavior can be illustrated by our clocks. Let us say, our clock
is running slow. Over a period of time, the clock may lag the actual
time because of this defect. Usually, we will reset the clock when it
gets far out of sync by other external stimuli like a radio or phone
time. Now, if we do not have access to this external synchronizing
signal, the clock can get far out of line with the reality. Our body
clocks functions the same way. The biological clock can keep the time;
but in the absence of correction from the day/light cycle provided by
the sun, the biological clock tend go out of sync affecting our
physical and mental health. A similar thing happens when we travel
across time zones; we tend to experience what is known as "jet lag".
However, in the absence of natural light our body clocks may lose or
gain a little time. This in turn could lead to the desynchronization of
different rhythms. For example, in the absence of sufficient
environmental light the sleep-wake and associated rest-activity rhythms
may lengthen to a cycle of between 30 and 48 hours, while the
temperature rhythm may remain at a period of, say, 25 hours. Such
desynchronization of the body's intricate rhythms is suspected to
trigger problems: hormonal imbalances, sleep disorders and mood
disturbances.
Circannual Rhythm
Circannual rhythm is the annual or yearly cycle used by all living
things.
Circaseptan Rhythm
Circaseptan rhythm is a seven-day cycle in which the biological
processes of life, including disease symptoms and development, resolve.
Many physicians believe that transplant patients tend to have more
rejection episodes seven, fourteen, twenty-one, and twenty-eight days
after surgery. They further believe that medications administered to
the patients at particular times may be more effective than at other
times. These are all related to the circaseptan rhythm.
How does the brain know when it is light or dark?
Deep within the brain, inside the hypothalamus, lie two clusters of
cells (i.e., neurons) called the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN). Each of
these SCN is composed of more than 8,000 neurons. The SCN act as the
body's circadian pacemaker. In mammals, the SCN appear to get their
information from photoreceptors in the retina, which transmit signals
about light and dark through the optic nerves to the hypothalamus. Once
these messages enter the SCN, a series of physiological reactions takes
place.
What happens after the light/dark signal reaches the SCN?
We are not sure. The pathway from the retina through the optic nerves
to the SCN extends further to reach the pineal gland, which lies
adjacent to the hypothalamus above the brain stem. Stimulated by the
message it receives from the SCN, the pineal gland either secretes its
main hormone, melatonin, or inhibits melatonin's release, which may
result in the production of serotonin as was explained before.
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Distinct from Bipolar Disorder[78]Borderline Personality Disorder and
Schizoaffective Disorder Show Symptoms Similar to Bipolar
Disorder[79]Bipolar Disorder versus Major Depression and Premenstrual
Dysphoric Disorder
[80]Current Understandings and Body Systems
[81]Statistics and Patterns in Bipolar Disorder[82]Historical and
Contemporary Understandings of Bipolar Disorder[83]History and
Evolution of Bipolar Disorder Diagnosis[84]Contemporary Understanding
of Bipolar Disorder: Causes and Outcomes[85]Neurochemistry and
Endocrinology in Bipolar Disorder[86]Immunology and Bipolar
Disorder[87]Body Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder[88]Brain Imaging and
Bipolar Disorder
[89]Diagnosis of Bipolar Disorder
[90]Bipolar Diagnosis and Bipolar I[91]Bipolar II Disorder,
Cyclothymia, and Bipolar Disorder, NOS
[92]Medication Treatments for Bipolar Disorder
[93]Bipolar Medication Treatment[94]Bipolar Disorder Treatment -
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Topiramate and Calcium Channel Blockers[97]Bipolar Disorder Treatment -
Antipsychotic Medications and Omega-3 fatty acids[98]Bipolar Disorder
Treatment - SSRI and SNRI Antidepressants[99]Bipolar Disorder Treatment
- Tricyclics, MAOIs, and Other Antidepressants
[100]Psychotherapy and Other Treatments
[101]Bipolar Disorder Treatment - Hospitalization and Electroconvulsive
Therapy[102]Bipolar Disorder Treatment - Psychotherapy and Cognitive
Behavioral Therapy[103]Bipolar Disorder Treatment - Family Focused
Therapy and Interpersonal/Social Rhythm Therapy
[104]Self-Help and Helping Others
[105]Self-Help for Bipolar Disorder[106]How Family And Friends Can Help
Those with Bipolar Disorder[107]Bipolar Disorder Suicide[108]How Family
and Friends of Those with Bipolar Disorder Can Help Themselves
[109]References and Reading List
[110]Bipolar Disorder Reading List[111]Bipolar Disorder References
[112]More Information
[113]Bipolar Disorder in Children? Yes![114]Bipolar Disorder Research
at the National Institute of Mental Health[115]Bipolar Disorder,
Treating the Whole Person[116]Child and Adolescent Bipolar Disorder: An
Update from the National Institute of Mental Health[117]Depression and
Its Meanings[118]Disentangling Rapid-Cycling Bipolar From
Borderline[119]Disentangling Rapid-Cycling Bipolar From
Borderline[120]Going to Extremes - Bipolar Disorder[121]Marijuana Makes
it Worse, Revisited[122]Mental Health: Our Troubled Teenagers[123]Of
Othello and Delusional Jealousy[124]Spotlight on a Live
Journal[125]Teenage Depression and Consequences[126]The Link Between
Bipolar Disorder and Anger[127]Where There is Life, There is Hope,
Depression and Why Suicide is Not an Option.[128]Wise Counsel Interview
Transcript: An Interview with Lorna Hyde Graev on Living With Bipolar
Disorder[129]Wise Counsel Interview Transcript: An Interview with
Yulonda Brown on Surviving Abuse and Bipolar
[130]Tests
[131]Goldberg Mania Questionnaire
[132]Latest News
[133]Drug Treatments Compared in Bipolar Disorder[134]Lithium Beats
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Dec. 10, 2009[136]Anti-Epileptic Drugs Found Safe to Treat Bipolar
Disorder[137]Risk of Birth Defects with Valproate Sodium and Related
Products[138]Clinical Trials Update: Nov. 30, 2009[139]Bipolar Disorder
May Be Tied to Body Clock[140]Clinical Trials Update: Nov. 23,
2009[141]Twin Study Eyes Inflammation in Those With Bipolar
Disorder[142]Saphris Approved for Schizophrenia and Bipolar
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[148]Questions and Answers
[149]Anger Driven Down Wrong Road[150]I Don't Know What To Do[151]New
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Bipolar[213]More Than Friends?[214]Merlin writes:[215]Suzanne writes:
[216]Blog Entries
[217]The Stigma of "Disorder": Wisdom from Therese Borchard[218]Where
There is Life, There is Hope, Depression and Why Suicide is Not an
Option.[219]Living Bipolar: Do you Know Your Triggers?[220]Research
Suggests Mindfulness Reduces Bipolar Relapse[221]Marijuana Makes it
Worse, Revisited[222]Getting Unstuck from the Cycle of Bipolar
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If Your Kid has ADHD or Bipolar Genes[225]Bipolar Disorder in Children?
Yes![226]Misdiagnosing Bipolar Disorder: What's at Stake[227]The Link
Between Bipolar Disorder and Anger[228]Star Wars, Stigma, and Carrie
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You Have a Bipolar Crisis Kit?[239]Are You at Risk for Depression?
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prevent stress, anxiety, and depression? [256]Three things you can do
immediately when you find yourself getting depressed[257]An Interview
with Yulonda Brown on Surviving Abuse and Bipolar
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[264]Videos
[265]Bipolar Disorder Video[266]Major Depression Video[267]Bipolar
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Body Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder
Rashmi Nemade, Ph.D. & Mark Dombeck, Ph.D. Updated: Aug 7th 2009
Nervous system, endocrine, and/or immune system difficulties may
conspire to affect one of the less measurable causes of bipolar
disorders: disturbances in body rhythms. As discussed earlier, the
hypothalamus is the link between the nervous and endocrine systems.
Given that the nervous system is also associated with the immune
system, it is possible that the hypothalamus exerts its effect on the
immune system as well. Thus, the combination of these systems can alter
body biochemistry, contributing to shifts in body rhythms such as the
circadian, seasonal, and social rhythms.
Circadian Rhythm and Bipolar Disorder
[441]advertisement
The circadian rhythm is the 24-hour cycle of the body, the exact length
of which is determined by the amount of light that the hypothalamus
senses in a day-night cycle. The name "circadian" refers to a period of
time that is "around a day long". Clear patterns of brain wave activity
and hormone production are coupled to this cycle. When the circadian
rhythm is upset (as can be the case with jet lag and sleep problems)
mood disturbances can result. It is known that in some people sleep
deprivation causes mania, whereas in others it can alleviate the
symptoms of depression. Thus, regulation of circadian rhythm is
important for managing bipolar symptoms and mood episodes.
Dysregulation of this system is typically experienced as a powerful
source of stress.
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) and Bipolar Disorder
Similar to circadian rhythms but longer in duration are seasonal
rhythms. These are determined by the amount of daylight experienced
within a given season. Dysregulation of seasonal rhythms has been
linked with Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD; also known as winter
depression). SAD-affected individuals begin to feel increasingly
depressed as the amount of light disappears during the winter. Their
depression lifts as springtime approaches and the days lengthen. During
times of the year with long days, these people typically experience no
undue mood disturbance.
Social Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder
Both circadian and seasonal rhythms can affect individuals' social
rhythms. The social rhythm comprises of a daily routine such as waking
up at a specific time, going to school or work, and interacting with
family members, friends, peers and colleagues. Even healthy people can
experience mood changes when their social rhythms are disturbed by
insomnia, seasonal changes or work schedules. It is no great leap to
see that if someone is susceptible to bipolar disorder, a change in
their body rhythms might constitute sufficient stress to precipitate
bipolar symptoms.
When considering the possible causes of bipolar disorders, it is
necessary to bear in mind the complex nature of mood polarity. It is
likely that that the problem originates in multiple biologic systems -
the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems with a basis in the genetic
machinery that regulates these systems. For example, a gene important
in the function of the hypothalamus may become mutated or infected by a
retrovirus leading to deregulation of neurotransmitters, hormones,
and/or immune components. The resulting change is measurable as
biochemical imbalances in either the brain or body but these
biochemical imbalances are not necessarily causing the underlying
dysfunction, but instead may simply be themselves symptoms or links in
a chain of causes that lead to bipolar illness.
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rhythm game using body percussion
[63][print.gif] Printable Version for your convenience!
Title - rhythm game using body percussion
By - Michelle L. Miller
Primary Subject - Music
Secondary Subjects -
Grade Level - 4-8
Objective: Students will be able to accurately write and count rhythms.
Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of
two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the
board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for
each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole
notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for
half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap
fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth
notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and
their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board
and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests.
Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding.
To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3
teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to
the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then
plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat
pat snap snap palms up--
quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest).
Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play
for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only
need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately
gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one
done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect
answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The
whole lesson takes about 30 minutes.
Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as
performed by teacher.
Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills
development and have fun at the same time!!
NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love
it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and
counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well.
Have fun!!
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rhythm game using body percussion
[61][print.gif] Printable Version for your convenience!
Title - rhythm game using body percussion
By - Michelle L. Miller
Primary Subject - Music
Secondary Subjects -
Grade Level - 4-8
Objective: Students will be able to accurately write and count rhythms.
Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of
two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the
board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for
each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole
notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for
half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap
fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth
notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and
their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board
and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests.
Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding.
To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3
teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to
the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then
plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat
pat snap snap palms up--
quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest).
Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play
for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only
need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately
gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one
done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect
answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The
whole lesson takes about 30 minutes.
Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as
performed by teacher.
Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills
development and have fun at the same time!!
NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love
it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and
counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well.
Have fun!!
E-Mail [62]Michelle L. Miller!
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* [41]What are biologic rhythms?
* [42]How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness?
* [43]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms?
* [44]Angina
* [45]Heart attack
* [46]High blood pressure (hypertension)
* [47]Hay fever (allergic rhinitis)
* [48]Asthma
* [49]Can the "body clock" affect diagnostic testing?
* [50]Can drug therapy be matched to the "body clock?"
* [51]Chronobiology: marking time, making progress
What are biologic rhythms?
What are biologic rhythms? In essence, they're the rhythms of life. All
forms of life on earth, including our bodies, respond rhythmically to
the regular cycles of the sun, moon, and seasons.
For example, as night turns into day, vital body functions, including
heart rate and [52]blood pressure, speed up in anticipation of
increased physical activity. These and other predictable fluctuations
in body function, taking place during specific time cycles, are our
biologic rhythms. They are regulated by "biologic clock" mechanisms
located in the brain.
Although biologic rhythms can be "reprogrammed" by environmental
influences (such as when a person regularly works the night shift and
sleeps during the day), they are genetically "hard-wired" into our
cells, tissues, and organs.
Medical chronobiologists have found that biologic rhythms can affect
the severity of disease symptoms, diagnostic test results, and even the
body's response to drug therapy. Now these investigators are working to
discover how the rhythms of life can be used to improve the practice of
medicine - and your health.
These time-related medical observations, and others still in the
exciting process of discovery, are rooted in chronobiology (chronos -
time; bios - life; logos - science), the study of biologic rhythms.
How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness?
Among the various biologic rhythm cycles that medical chronobiologists
study, the 24-hour day/night-activity/rest cycle is considered a key
chronobiologic factor in medical [53]diagnosis and treatment. Formally
known as the [54]circadian rhythm, it's also referred to as the "body
clock."
Why is the 24-hour body clock so important?
Because so many of our normal body functions follow daily patterns of
speeding up and slowing down, intensifying and diminishing, in
alignment with circadian rhythm. Interestingly, so do the symptoms of a
number of [55]chronic disorders:
Allergic rhinitis: (nasal inflammation associated with hay fever)
Symptoms of sneezing, [56]runny nose, and stuffy nose are typically
worse in the early waking hours than later during the day.
Asthma: In most patients, symptoms are more than 100 times as likely to
occur in the few hours prior to awakening than during the day.
Stable angina: [57]Chest pain and [58]electrocardiographic (ECG, EKG)
abnormalities are most common during the first 4 to 6 hours after
awakening.
[59]Prinzmetal's angina: ECG abnormalities are most common during
[60]sleep; chest pain can occur even while at rest.
Heart attack: Heart attack most commonly occurs in the early waking
hours.
Stroke: [61]Strokes most commonly occur in the early waking hours.
Hypertension: The highest blood pressure readings typically occur from
late morning to middle afternoon; lowest occur during early sleep.
Therapy now exists that works with your body clock; consult your
physician about this treatment. Clinical studies are underway to
further this research.
[62]Rheumatoid arthritis: RA symptoms are most intense upon awakening.
[63]Osteoarthritis: Symptoms of osteoarthritis worsen in the afternoon
and evening.
Ulcer disease: The pain typically occurs after stomach emptying,
following daytime meals, and in the very early morning, disrupting
sleep.
[64]Epilepsy: Seizures often occur only at particular times of the day
or night; individual patterns differ among patients.
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biorhythms? »
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What is hay fever? What are the symptoms and signs?
Hay fever is a misnomer. Hay is not a usual cause of this problem, and
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congestion, and eye irritation while harvesting field hay promoted this
popular term. Allergic rhinitis is the correct term used to describe
this allergic reaction, and many different substances cause the
allergic symptoms noted in hay fever. Rhinitis means "irritation of the
nose" and is a derivative of rhino, meaning nose. Allergic rhinitis
which occurs during a specific season is called "seasonal allergic
rhinitis." When it occurs throughout the year, it is called "perennial
allergic rhinitis."
Symptoms of allergic rhinitis, or hay fever, frequently include nasal
congestion, a clear runny nose, sneezing, nose and eye itching, and
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Journal Article [33]Printable view
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Journal [34]Surgery Today
Publisher Springer Japan
ISSN 0941-1291 (Print) 1436-2813 (Online)
Issue [35]Volume 17, Number 3 / May, 1987
Category Short Communication
DOI 10.1007/BF02470602
Pages 209-212
Subject Collection [36]Medicine
SpringerLink Date Thursday, July 20, 2006
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Short Communication
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Jun Narumi^1 Contact Information , Kozo Suma^1, Hidemi Kaneko^1,
Yasuo Takeuchi^1, Kenji Inoue^1, Kenji Shiroma^1 and Yuji Koyama^1
(1) Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, 2nd Hospital of Tokyo
Women's Medical College, 2-1-10 Nishiogu, Arakawaku, 116 Tokyo, Japan
Received: 7 April 1986
Abstract The postoperative deep body temperature rhythms of fifteen
patients who received aorto-coronary bypass surgery (group I), and of
seven patients who received non-cardiac major surgery (group II), were
studied. Postoperative patients, especially those who received
aortocoronary bypass surgery, showed greatly disturbed deep body
temperature rhythm. There existed infradian and ultradian rhythm in
both groups, and there existed two patients in group I who did not show
sinusoidal rhythm. The patients of group I also showed a longer period
of rhythm than did those of group II. The mesor and amplitude of the
patients in group I showed a greater individual variation than did
those in group II. The acrophase of both groups deviated widely. The
patients who underwent cardiac surgery needed a longer time for
temperature rhythm recovery than did those who underwent general
surgery.
Key Words deep body temperature rhythm - intensive care
unit - post-operative patients
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Rhythms and Body Clock
Circadian Rhythm
From the Latin circa (about) dies (a day), the circadian rhythm is the
twenty-four-hour cycle of light/dark, wakefulness/sleep to which most
human physiologic processes are set. At regular intervals each day, the
body tends to become hungry, tired, active, listless, energized. Body
temperature, heart-beat, blood pressure, hormone levels, and urine flow
rise and fall in this relatively predictable, rhythmic pattern - a
pattern initiated and governed by exposure to sunlight and darkness.
Experiments where humans were placed in isolation chambers, cut off
from all potential environmental cues, have shown that, in the absence
of natural daylight, rhythms are still maintained. But in the absence
of the day light, the rhythms tend to deviate from 24 hours. For
instance, the rhythms was found to expand to 24-30 hours, thus
disrupting the biological processes over a long period of time.
The fact that animals and humans can continue to function according to
daily and annual rhythms in the absence of external environmental
stimuli means that animals and humans possess some kind of biological
clock, which act as a backup mechanism in case it cannot get the proper
stimuli from the natural events such as sunshine.
This behavior can be illustrated by our clocks. Let us say, our clock
is running slow. Over a period of time, the clock may lag the actual
time because of this defect. Usually, we will reset the clock when it
gets far out of sync by other external stimuli like a radio or phone
time. Now, if we do not have access to this external synchronizing
signal, the clock can get far out of line with the reality. Our body
clocks functions the same way. The biological clock can keep the time;
but in the absence of correction from the day/light cycle provided by
the sun, the biological clock tend go out of sync affecting our
physical and mental health. A similar thing happens when we travel
across time zones; we tend to experience what is known as "jet lag".
However, in the absence of natural light our body clocks may lose or
gain a little time. This in turn could lead to the desynchronization of
different rhythms. For example, in the absence of sufficient
environmental light the sleep-wake and associated rest-activity rhythms
may lengthen to a cycle of between 30 and 48 hours, while the
temperature rhythm may remain at a period of, say, 25 hours. Such
desynchronization of the body's intricate rhythms is suspected to
trigger problems: hormonal imbalances, sleep disorders and mood
disturbances.
Circannual Rhythm
Circannual rhythm is the annual or yearly cycle used by all living
things.
Circaseptan Rhythm
Circaseptan rhythm is a seven-day cycle in which the biological
processes of life, including disease symptoms and development, resolve.
Many physicians believe that transplant patients tend to have more
rejection episodes seven, fourteen, twenty-one, and twenty-eight days
after surgery. They further believe that medications administered to
the patients at particular times may be more effective than at other
times. These are all related to the circaseptan rhythm.
How does the brain know when it is light or dark?
Deep within the brain, inside the hypothalamus, lie two clusters of
cells (i.e., neurons) called the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN). Each of
these SCN is composed of more than 8,000 neurons. The SCN act as the
body's circadian pacemaker. In mammals, the SCN appear to get their
information from photoreceptors in the retina, which transmit signals
about light and dark through the optic nerves to the hypothalamus. Once
these messages enter the SCN, a series of physiological reactions takes
place.
What happens after the light/dark signal reaches the SCN?
We are not sure. The pathway from the retina through the optic nerves
to the SCN extends further to reach the pineal gland, which lies
adjacent to the hypothalamus above the brain stem. Stimulated by the
message it receives from the SCN, the pineal gland either secretes its
main hormone, melatonin, or inhibits melatonin's release, which may
result in the production of serotonin as was explained before.
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Types of Bipolar Disorder[77]Mental Health Conditions Similar but
Distinct from Bipolar Disorder[78]Borderline Personality Disorder and
Schizoaffective Disorder Show Symptoms Similar to Bipolar
Disorder[79]Bipolar Disorder versus Major Depression and Premenstrual
Dysphoric Disorder
[80]Current Understandings and Body Systems
[81]Statistics and Patterns in Bipolar Disorder[82]Historical and
Contemporary Understandings of Bipolar Disorder[83]History and
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of Bipolar Disorder: Causes and Outcomes[85]Neurochemistry and
Endocrinology in Bipolar Disorder[86]Immunology and Bipolar
Disorder[87]Body Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder[88]Brain Imaging and
Bipolar Disorder
[89]Diagnosis of Bipolar Disorder
[90]Bipolar Diagnosis and Bipolar I[91]Bipolar II Disorder,
Cyclothymia, and Bipolar Disorder, NOS
[92]Medication Treatments for Bipolar Disorder
[93]Bipolar Medication Treatment[94]Bipolar Disorder Treatment -
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Topiramate and Calcium Channel Blockers[97]Bipolar Disorder Treatment -
Antipsychotic Medications and Omega-3 fatty acids[98]Bipolar Disorder
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[100]Psychotherapy and Other Treatments
[101]Bipolar Disorder Treatment - Hospitalization and Electroconvulsive
Therapy[102]Bipolar Disorder Treatment - Psychotherapy and Cognitive
Behavioral Therapy[103]Bipolar Disorder Treatment - Family Focused
Therapy and Interpersonal/Social Rhythm Therapy
[104]Self-Help and Helping Others
[105]Self-Help for Bipolar Disorder[106]How Family And Friends Can Help
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[109]References and Reading List
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[113]Bipolar Disorder in Children? Yes![114]Bipolar Disorder Research
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it Worse, Revisited[122]Mental Health: Our Troubled Teenagers[123]Of
Othello and Delusional Jealousy[124]Spotlight on a Live
Journal[125]Teenage Depression and Consequences[126]The Link Between
Bipolar Disorder and Anger[127]Where There is Life, There is Hope,
Depression and Why Suicide is Not an Option.[128]Wise Counsel Interview
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[130]Tests
[131]Goldberg Mania Questionnaire
[132]Latest News
[133]Drug Treatments Compared in Bipolar Disorder[134]Lithium Beats
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[148]Questions and Answers
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Bipolar[213]More Than Friends?[214]Merlin writes:[215]Suzanne writes:
[216]Blog Entries
[217]The Stigma of "Disorder": Wisdom from Therese Borchard[218]Where
There is Life, There is Hope, Depression and Why Suicide is Not an
Option.[219]Living Bipolar: Do you Know Your Triggers?[220]Research
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If Your Kid has ADHD or Bipolar Genes[225]Bipolar Disorder in Children?
Yes![226]Misdiagnosing Bipolar Disorder: What's at Stake[227]The Link
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prevent stress, anxiety, and depression? [256]Three things you can do
immediately when you find yourself getting depressed[257]An Interview
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[264]Videos
[265]Bipolar Disorder Video[266]Major Depression Video[267]Bipolar
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Body Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder
Rashmi Nemade, Ph.D. & Mark Dombeck, Ph.D. Updated: Aug 7th 2009
Nervous system, endocrine, and/or immune system difficulties may
conspire to affect one of the less measurable causes of bipolar
disorders: disturbances in body rhythms. As discussed earlier, the
hypothalamus is the link between the nervous and endocrine systems.
Given that the nervous system is also associated with the immune
system, it is possible that the hypothalamus exerts its effect on the
immune system as well. Thus, the combination of these systems can alter
body biochemistry, contributing to shifts in body rhythms such as the
circadian, seasonal, and social rhythms.
Circadian Rhythm and Bipolar Disorder
[441]advertisement
The circadian rhythm is the 24-hour cycle of the body, the exact length
of which is determined by the amount of light that the hypothalamus
senses in a day-night cycle. The name "circadian" refers to a period of
time that is "around a day long". Clear patterns of brain wave activity
and hormone production are coupled to this cycle. When the circadian
rhythm is upset (as can be the case with jet lag and sleep problems)
mood disturbances can result. It is known that in some people sleep
deprivation causes mania, whereas in others it can alleviate the
symptoms of depression. Thus, regulation of circadian rhythm is
important for managing bipolar symptoms and mood episodes.
Dysregulation of this system is typically experienced as a powerful
source of stress.
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) and Bipolar Disorder
Similar to circadian rhythms but longer in duration are seasonal
rhythms. These are determined by the amount of daylight experienced
within a given season. Dysregulation of seasonal rhythms has been
linked with Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD; also known as winter
depression). SAD-affected individuals begin to feel increasingly
depressed as the amount of light disappears during the winter. Their
depression lifts as springtime approaches and the days lengthen. During
times of the year with long days, these people typically experience no
undue mood disturbance.
Social Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder
Both circadian and seasonal rhythms can affect individuals' social
rhythms. The social rhythm comprises of a daily routine such as waking
up at a specific time, going to school or work, and interacting with
family members, friends, peers and colleagues. Even healthy people can
experience mood changes when their social rhythms are disturbed by
insomnia, seasonal changes or work schedules. It is no great leap to
see that if someone is susceptible to bipolar disorder, a change in
their body rhythms might constitute sufficient stress to precipitate
bipolar symptoms.
When considering the possible causes of bipolar disorders, it is
necessary to bear in mind the complex nature of mood polarity. It is
likely that that the problem originates in multiple biologic systems -
the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems with a basis in the genetic
machinery that regulates these systems. For example, a gene important
in the function of the hypothalamus may become mutated or infected by a
retrovirus leading to deregulation of neurotransmitters, hormones,
and/or immune components. The resulting change is measurable as
biochemical imbalances in either the brain or body but these
biochemical imbalances are not necessarily causing the underlying
dysfunction, but instead may simply be themselves symptoms or links in
a chain of causes that lead to bipolar illness.
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rhythm game using body percussion
[63][print.gif] Printable Version for your convenience!
Title - rhythm game using body percussion
By - Michelle L. Miller
Primary Subject - Music
Secondary Subjects -
Grade Level - 4-8
Objective: Students will be able to accurately write and count rhythms.
Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of
two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the
board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for
each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole
notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for
half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap
fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth
notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and
their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board
and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests.
Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding.
To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3
teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to
the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then
plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat
pat snap snap palms up--
quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest).
Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play
for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only
need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately
gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one
done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect
answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The
whole lesson takes about 30 minutes.
Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as
performed by teacher.
Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills
development and have fun at the same time!!
NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love
it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and
counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well.
Have fun!!
E-Mail [64]Michelle L. Miller!
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Biorhythms
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Medical Author: [39]William C. Shiel, Jr., MD, FACP, FACR
Medical Editor: [40]Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD
* [41]What are biologic rhythms?
* [42]How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness?
* [43]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms?
* [44]Angina
* [45]Heart attack
* [46]High blood pressure (hypertension)
* [47]Hay fever (allergic rhinitis)
* [48]Asthma
* [49]Can the "body clock" affect diagnostic testing?
* [50]Can drug therapy be matched to the "body clock?"
* [51]Chronobiology: marking time, making progress
What are biologic rhythms?
What are biologic rhythms? In essence, they're the rhythms of life. All
forms of life on earth, including our bodies, respond rhythmically to
the regular cycles of the sun, moon, and seasons.
For example, as night turns into day, vital body functions, including
heart rate and [52]blood pressure, speed up in anticipation of
increased physical activity. These and other predictable fluctuations
in body function, taking place during specific time cycles, are our
biologic rhythms. They are regulated by "biologic clock" mechanisms
located in the brain.
Although biologic rhythms can be "reprogrammed" by environmental
influences (such as when a person regularly works the night shift and
sleeps during the day), they are genetically "hard-wired" into our
cells, tissues, and organs.
Medical chronobiologists have found that biologic rhythms can affect
the severity of disease symptoms, diagnostic test results, and even the
body's response to drug therapy. Now these investigators are working to
discover how the rhythms of life can be used to improve the practice of
medicine - and your health.
These time-related medical observations, and others still in the
exciting process of discovery, are rooted in chronobiology (chronos -
time; bios - life; logos - science), the study of biologic rhythms.
How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness?
Among the various biologic rhythm cycles that medical chronobiologists
study, the 24-hour day/night-activity/rest cycle is considered a key
chronobiologic factor in medical [53]diagnosis and treatment. Formally
known as the [54]circadian rhythm, it's also referred to as the "body
clock."
Why is the 24-hour body clock so important?
Because so many of our normal body functions follow daily patterns of
speeding up and slowing down, intensifying and diminishing, in
alignment with circadian rhythm. Interestingly, so do the symptoms of a
number of [55]chronic disorders:
Allergic rhinitis: (nasal inflammation associated with hay fever)
Symptoms of sneezing, [56]runny nose, and stuffy nose are typically
worse in the early waking hours than later during the day.
Asthma: In most patients, symptoms are more than 100 times as likely to
occur in the few hours prior to awakening than during the day.
Stable angina: [57]Chest pain and [58]electrocardiographic (ECG, EKG)
abnormalities are most common during the first 4 to 6 hours after
awakening.
[59]Prinzmetal's angina: ECG abnormalities are most common during
[60]sleep; chest pain can occur even while at rest.
Heart attack: Heart attack most commonly occurs in the early waking
hours.
Stroke: [61]Strokes most commonly occur in the early waking hours.
Hypertension: The highest blood pressure readings typically occur from
late morning to middle afternoon; lowest occur during early sleep.
Therapy now exists that works with your body clock; consult your
physician about this treatment. Clinical studies are underway to
further this research.
[62]Rheumatoid arthritis: RA symptoms are most intense upon awakening.
[63]Osteoarthritis: Symptoms of osteoarthritis worsen in the afternoon
and evening.
Ulcer disease: The pain typically occurs after stomach emptying,
following daytime meals, and in the very early morning, disrupting
sleep.
[64]Epilepsy: Seizures often occur only at particular times of the day
or night; individual patterns differ among patients.
* 1
* [65]2
* [66]3
* [67]4
* [68]5
* [69]6
* [70]7
* [71]8
* [72]Next »
* [73]Biorhythms Index
* [74]Glossary
Next: [75]What are examples of specific diseases affected by
biorhythms? »
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* [79]Rheumatoid Arthritis - Learn more about rheumatoid arthritis,
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has symptoms that include stiffness, fever, muscle and joint aches,
loss of appetite, and fatigue. Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis
incorporates the use of first-line drugs (aspirin and
corticosteroids for pain and inflammation) and second-line drugs
(methotrexate and hydroxychloroquine to prevent joint destruction
and promote remission).
* [80]Radiation Therapy -
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Biorhythms
[96]Jet Lag »
What is jet lag?
Jet lag, also called desynchronosis, is a temporary disorder that
causes fatigue, insomnia, and other symptoms as a result of air travel
across time zones.
What are other symptoms of jet lag?
Besides fatigue and insomnia, a jet lag sufferer may experience
anxiety, constipation, diarrhea, confusion, dehydration, headache,
irritability, nausea, sweating, coordination problems, and even memory
loss. Some individuals report additional symptoms, such as heartbeat
irregularities and increased susceptibility to illness.
What is a time zone?
A time zone is a geographical region which has the same time everywhere
within it. The world has 24 time zones, one for each hour in the day.
Each zone runs from north to south in strips that are approximately
1,000 miles (1,600 kilometers) wide. (The actual width of each zone
varies to accommodate political and geographical boundaries.) As...
[97]Read the Jet Lag article »
Featured on MedicineNet
* [98]Tips to Ease Nighttime Pain
* [99]Check Your Fibromyalgia Symptoms
* [100]Depression Tips Slideshow
* [101]Are You at Risk for Diabetic Nerve Pain?
Top 10
Biorhythms Related Articles
* [102]Chemo Infusion and Chemoembolization of Liver
* [103]Chemotherapy
* [104]Chemotherapy Treatment for Breast Cancer
* [105]Heart Attack
* [106]High Blood Pressure
* [107]Osteoarthritis
* [108]Radiation Therapy
* [109]Radiation Therapy for Breast Cancer
* [110]Rheumatoid Arthritis
* [111]Stroke
* [112]Complete List »
New on MedicineNet
* [113]Michael C. Hall Has Hodgkin's
* [114]Cryptosporidiosis Causes
* [115]Shigella Infection Symptoms
* [116]Lymphedema Causes
* [117]C-Reactive Protein (CRP)
* [118]Sinus Headache Treatment
* [119]Pictures Slideshows Interactive Slideshows
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rhythm game using body percussion
[61][print.gif] Printable Version for your convenience!
Title - rhythm game using body percussion
By - Michelle L. Miller
Primary Subject - Music
Secondary Subjects -
Grade Level - 4-8
Objective: Students will be able to accurately write and count rhythms.
Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of
two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the
board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for
each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole
notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for
half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap
fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth
notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and
their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board
and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests.
Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding.
To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3
teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to
the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then
plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat
pat snap snap palms up--
quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest).
Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play
for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only
need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately
gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one
done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect
answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The
whole lesson takes about 30 minutes.
Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as
performed by teacher.
Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills
development and have fun at the same time!!
NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love
it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and
counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well.
Have fun!!
E-Mail [62]Michelle L. Miller!
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* [33]Biorhythms Index
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Biorhythms
[35]View Asthma Slideshow
[36]Asthma Slideshow View Asthma Slideshow
[37]Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow View Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow
[38]Worst Cities for Asthma, 2009 Slideshow Pictures of the Worst
Cities for Asthma Slideshow
Medical Author: [39]William C. Shiel, Jr., MD, FACP, FACR
Medical Editor: [40]Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD
* [41]What are biologic rhythms?
* [42]How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness?
* [43]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms?
* [44]Angina
* [45]Heart attack
* [46]High blood pressure (hypertension)
* [47]Hay fever (allergic rhinitis)
* [48]Asthma
* [49]Can the "body clock" affect diagnostic testing?
* [50]Can drug therapy be matched to the "body clock?"
* [51]Chronobiology: marking time, making progress
What are biologic rhythms?
What are biologic rhythms? In essence, they're the rhythms of life. All
forms of life on earth, including our bodies, respond rhythmically to
the regular cycles of the sun, moon, and seasons.
For example, as night turns into day, vital body functions, including
heart rate and [52]blood pressure, speed up in anticipation of
increased physical activity. These and other predictable fluctuations
in body function, taking place during specific time cycles, are our
biologic rhythms. They are regulated by "biologic clock" mechanisms
located in the brain.
Although biologic rhythms can be "reprogrammed" by environmental
influences (such as when a person regularly works the night shift and
sleeps during the day), they are genetically "hard-wired" into our
cells, tissues, and organs.
Medical chronobiologists have found that biologic rhythms can affect
the severity of disease symptoms, diagnostic test results, and even the
body's response to drug therapy. Now these investigators are working to
discover how the rhythms of life can be used to improve the practice of
medicine - and your health.
These time-related medical observations, and others still in the
exciting process of discovery, are rooted in chronobiology (chronos -
time; bios - life; logos - science), the study of biologic rhythms.
How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness?
Among the various biologic rhythm cycles that medical chronobiologists
study, the 24-hour day/night-activity/rest cycle is considered a key
chronobiologic factor in medical [53]diagnosis and treatment. Formally
known as the [54]circadian rhythm, it's also referred to as the "body
clock."
Why is the 24-hour body clock so important?
Because so many of our normal body functions follow daily patterns of
speeding up and slowing down, intensifying and diminishing, in
alignment with circadian rhythm. Interestingly, so do the symptoms of a
number of [55]chronic disorders:
Allergic rhinitis: (nasal inflammation associated with hay fever)
Symptoms of sneezing, [56]runny nose, and stuffy nose are typically
worse in the early waking hours than later during the day.
Asthma: In most patients, symptoms are more than 100 times as likely to
occur in the few hours prior to awakening than during the day.
Stable angina: [57]Chest pain and [58]electrocardiographic (ECG, EKG)
abnormalities are most common during the first 4 to 6 hours after
awakening.
[59]Prinzmetal's angina: ECG abnormalities are most common during
[60]sleep; chest pain can occur even while at rest.
Heart attack: Heart attack most commonly occurs in the early waking
hours.
Stroke: [61]Strokes most commonly occur in the early waking hours.
Hypertension: The highest blood pressure readings typically occur from
late morning to middle afternoon; lowest occur during early sleep.
Therapy now exists that works with your body clock; consult your
physician about this treatment. Clinical studies are underway to
further this research.
[62]Rheumatoid arthritis: RA symptoms are most intense upon awakening.
[63]Osteoarthritis: Symptoms of osteoarthritis worsen in the afternoon
and evening.
Ulcer disease: The pain typically occurs after stomach emptying,
following daytime meals, and in the very early morning, disrupting
sleep.
[64]Epilepsy: Seizures often occur only at particular times of the day
or night; individual patterns differ among patients.
* 1
* [65]2
* [66]3
* [67]4
* [68]5
* [69]6
* [70]7
* [71]8
* [72]Next »
* [73]Biorhythms Index
* [74]Glossary
Next: [75]What are examples of specific diseases affected by
biorhythms? »
[76]Printer-Friendly Format | [77]Email to a Friend
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Suggested Reading by Our Doctors
MedicineNet Doctors
* [78]Chemotherapy - Get information on chemotherapy treatment for
cancer, side effects of medications and how chemo works.
Chemotherapy is a type of cancer treatment often given along with
radiation therapy and surgery.
* [79]Rheumatoid Arthritis - Learn more about rheumatoid arthritis,
an autoimmune disease that causes chronic joint inflammation, which
has symptoms that include stiffness, fever, muscle and joint aches,
loss of appetite, and fatigue. Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis
incorporates the use of first-line drugs (aspirin and
corticosteroids for pain and inflammation) and second-line drugs
(methotrexate and hydroxychloroquine to prevent joint destruction
and promote remission).
* [80]Radiation Therapy -
[81]Read more Biorhythms related articles »
Latest Medical News
* [82]Nightly Snacking May Speed Weight Gain
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From WebMD
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* [87]Asthma Attack Slideshow
* [88]How to Use Your Inhaler
* [89]The Best Cities for Asthma
Featured Centers
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* [91]Longevity Foods: Eat Well, Live Longer
* [92]Sad? Irritable? Assess Your Symptoms
* [93]Healthy Home: To Buy or Not to Buy Organic?
Health Solutions From Our Sponsors
* [94]Osteoporosis Info
* [95]Overactive Bladder Rx
Biorhythms
[96]Hay Fever »
What is hay fever? What are the symptoms and signs?
Hay fever is a misnomer. Hay is not a usual cause of this problem, and
it does not cause fever. Early descriptions of sneezing, nasal
congestion, and eye irritation while harvesting field hay promoted this
popular term. Allergic rhinitis is the correct term used to describe
this allergic reaction, and many different substances cause the
allergic symptoms noted in hay fever. Rhinitis means "irritation of the
nose" and is a derivative of rhino, meaning nose. Allergic rhinitis
which occurs during a specific season is called "seasonal allergic
rhinitis." When it occurs throughout the year, it is called "perennial
allergic rhinitis."
Symptoms of allergic rhinitis, or hay fever, frequently include nasal
congestion, a clear runny nose, sneezing, nose and eye itching, and
excess tear production in the eyes. Postnasal dripping of clear mucus
frequently causes a cough. Loss of the sense ...
[97]Read the Hay Fever article »
Featured on MedicineNet
* [98]Tips to Ease Nighttime Pain
* [99]Check Your Fibromyalgia Symptoms
* [100]Depression Tips Slideshow
* [101]Are You at Risk for Diabetic Nerve Pain?
Top 10
Biorhythms Related Articles
* [102]Chemo Infusion and Chemoembolization of Liver
* [103]Chemotherapy
* [104]Chemotherapy Treatment for Breast Cancer
* [105]Heart Attack
* [106]High Blood Pressure
* [107]Osteoarthritis
* [108]Radiation Therapy
* [109]Radiation Therapy for Breast Cancer
* [110]Rheumatoid Arthritis
* [111]Stroke
* [112]Complete List »
New on MedicineNet
* [113]Michael C. Hall Has Hodgkin's
* [114]Cryptosporidiosis Causes
* [115]Shigella Infection Symptoms
* [116]Lymphedema Causes
* [117]C-Reactive Protein (CRP)
* [118]Sinus Headache Treatment
* [119]Pictures Slideshows Interactive Slideshows
[120]Adult Skin Problems Slideshow
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You are here: [24]BBC > [25]Science & Nature > [26]Human Body & Mind >
[27]Sleep > Daily Rhythm Test
Daily Rhythm Test
Our internal body clock governs our daily or circadian rhythm - telling
us when to wake up and when to feel sleepy. Circadian comes from the
Latin circa, meaning about and dies, meaning day.
This test will produce a chart showing your natural sleeping and waking
pattern over a 24 hour period. If you're having problems sleeping it
could be your natural body clock is at odds with your routine.
1) Do you consider yourself a morning person or an evening person?
(_) Evening
(_) More evening than morning
(_) Cant tell
(_) More morning than evening
(_) Morning
2) At what time of day do you feel at your best?
(_) 5am - 9am
(_) 9am - 11am
(_) 11am - 5pm
(_) 5pm - 10pm
(_) 10pm - 1am
3) Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, if you were
entirely free to plan your day - at what time would you go to bed?
(_) 8pm - 9pm
(_) 9pm - 10.15pm
(_) 10.15pm - 12.30am
(_) 12.30am - 1.45am
(_) 1.45am - 3am
4) Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, if you were
entirely free to plan your day - at what time would you get up?
(_) 5.00am - 6.30am
(_) 6.30am - 7.45am
(_) 7.45am - 9.45am
(_) 9.45am - 11.00am
(_) 11.00am - Midday
View results
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Journal Article [33]Printable view
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Journal [34]Surgery Today
Publisher Springer Japan
ISSN 0941-1291 (Print) 1436-2813 (Online)
Issue [35]Volume 17, Number 3 / May, 1987
Category Short Communication
DOI 10.1007/BF02470602
Pages 209-212
Subject Collection [36]Medicine
SpringerLink Date Thursday, July 20, 2006
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Short Communication
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Jun Narumi^1 Contact Information , Kozo Suma^1, Hidemi Kaneko^1,
Yasuo Takeuchi^1, Kenji Inoue^1, Kenji Shiroma^1 and Yuji Koyama^1
(1) Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, 2nd Hospital of Tokyo
Women's Medical College, 2-1-10 Nishiogu, Arakawaku, 116 Tokyo, Japan
Received: 7 April 1986
Abstract The postoperative deep body temperature rhythms of fifteen
patients who received aorto-coronary bypass surgery (group I), and of
seven patients who received non-cardiac major surgery (group II), were
studied. Postoperative patients, especially those who received
aortocoronary bypass surgery, showed greatly disturbed deep body
temperature rhythm. There existed infradian and ultradian rhythm in
both groups, and there existed two patients in group I who did not show
sinusoidal rhythm. The patients of group I also showed a longer period
of rhythm than did those of group II. The mesor and amplitude of the
patients in group I showed a greater individual variation than did
those in group II. The acrophase of both groups deviated widely. The
patients who underwent cardiac surgery needed a longer time for
temperature rhythm recovery than did those who underwent general
surgery.
Key Words deep body temperature rhythm - intensive care
unit - post-operative patients
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Rhythms and Body Clock
Circadian Rhythm
From the Latin circa (about) dies (a day), the circadian rhythm is the
twenty-four-hour cycle of light/dark, wakefulness/sleep to which most
human physiologic processes are set. At regular intervals each day, the
body tends to become hungry, tired, active, listless, energized. Body
temperature, heart-beat, blood pressure, hormone levels, and urine flow
rise and fall in this relatively predictable, rhythmic pattern - a
pattern initiated and governed by exposure to sunlight and darkness.
Experiments where humans were placed in isolation chambers, cut off
from all potential environmental cues, have shown that, in the absence
of natural daylight, rhythms are still maintained. But in the absence
of the day light, the rhythms tend to deviate from 24 hours. For
instance, the rhythms was found to expand to 24-30 hours, thus
disrupting the biological processes over a long period of time.
The fact that animals and humans can continue to function according to
daily and annual rhythms in the absence of external environmental
stimuli means that animals and humans possess some kind of biological
clock, which act as a backup mechanism in case it cannot get the proper
stimuli from the natural events such as sunshine.
This behavior can be illustrated by our clocks. Let us say, our clock
is running slow. Over a period of time, the clock may lag the actual
time because of this defect. Usually, we will reset the clock when it
gets far out of sync by other external stimuli like a radio or phone
time. Now, if we do not have access to this external synchronizing
signal, the clock can get far out of line with the reality. Our body
clocks functions the same way. The biological clock can keep the time;
but in the absence of correction from the day/light cycle provided by
the sun, the biological clock tend go out of sync affecting our
physical and mental health. A similar thing happens when we travel
across time zones; we tend to experience what is known as "jet lag".
However, in the absence of natural light our body clocks may lose or
gain a little time. This in turn could lead to the desynchronization of
different rhythms. For example, in the absence of sufficient
environmental light the sleep-wake and associated rest-activity rhythms
may lengthen to a cycle of between 30 and 48 hours, while the
temperature rhythm may remain at a period of, say, 25 hours. Such
desynchronization of the body's intricate rhythms is suspected to
trigger problems: hormonal imbalances, sleep disorders and mood
disturbances.
Circannual Rhythm
Circannual rhythm is the annual or yearly cycle used by all living
things.
Circaseptan Rhythm
Circaseptan rhythm is a seven-day cycle in which the biological
processes of life, including disease symptoms and development, resolve.
Many physicians believe that transplant patients tend to have more
rejection episodes seven, fourteen, twenty-one, and twenty-eight days
after surgery. They further believe that medications administered to
the patients at particular times may be more effective than at other
times. These are all related to the circaseptan rhythm.
How does the brain know when it is light or dark?
Deep within the brain, inside the hypothalamus, lie two clusters of
cells (i.e., neurons) called the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN). Each of
these SCN is composed of more than 8,000 neurons. The SCN act as the
body's circadian pacemaker. In mammals, the SCN appear to get their
information from photoreceptors in the retina, which transmit signals
about light and dark through the optic nerves to the hypothalamus. Once
these messages enter the SCN, a series of physiological reactions takes
place.
What happens after the light/dark signal reaches the SCN?
We are not sure. The pathway from the retina through the optic nerves
to the SCN extends further to reach the pineal gland, which lies
adjacent to the hypothalamus above the brain stem. Stimulated by the
message it receives from the SCN, the pineal gland either secretes its
main hormone, melatonin, or inhibits melatonin's release, which may
result in the production of serotonin as was explained before.
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[216]Blog Entries
[217]The Stigma of "Disorder": Wisdom from Therese Borchard[218]Where
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Body Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder
Rashmi Nemade, Ph.D. & Mark Dombeck, Ph.D. Updated: Aug 7th 2009
Nervous system, endocrine, and/or immune system difficulties may
conspire to affect one of the less measurable causes of bipolar
disorders: disturbances in body rhythms. As discussed earlier, the
hypothalamus is the link between the nervous and endocrine systems.
Given that the nervous system is also associated with the immune
system, it is possible that the hypothalamus exerts its effect on the
immune system as well. Thus, the combination of these systems can alter
body biochemistry, contributing to shifts in body rhythms such as the
circadian, seasonal, and social rhythms.
Circadian Rhythm and Bipolar Disorder
[441]advertisement
The circadian rhythm is the 24-hour cycle of the body, the exact length
of which is determined by the amount of light that the hypothalamus
senses in a day-night cycle. The name "circadian" refers to a period of
time that is "around a day long". Clear patterns of brain wave activity
and hormone production are coupled to this cycle. When the circadian
rhythm is upset (as can be the case with jet lag and sleep problems)
mood disturbances can result. It is known that in some people sleep
deprivation causes mania, whereas in others it can alleviate the
symptoms of depression. Thus, regulation of circadian rhythm is
important for managing bipolar symptoms and mood episodes.
Dysregulation of this system is typically experienced as a powerful
source of stress.
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) and Bipolar Disorder
Similar to circadian rhythms but longer in duration are seasonal
rhythms. These are determined by the amount of daylight experienced
within a given season. Dysregulation of seasonal rhythms has been
linked with Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD; also known as winter
depression). SAD-affected individuals begin to feel increasingly
depressed as the amount of light disappears during the winter. Their
depression lifts as springtime approaches and the days lengthen. During
times of the year with long days, these people typically experience no
undue mood disturbance.
Social Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder
Both circadian and seasonal rhythms can affect individuals' social
rhythms. The social rhythm comprises of a daily routine such as waking
up at a specific time, going to school or work, and interacting with
family members, friends, peers and colleagues. Even healthy people can
experience mood changes when their social rhythms are disturbed by
insomnia, seasonal changes or work schedules. It is no great leap to
see that if someone is susceptible to bipolar disorder, a change in
their body rhythms might constitute sufficient stress to precipitate
bipolar symptoms.
When considering the possible causes of bipolar disorders, it is
necessary to bear in mind the complex nature of mood polarity. It is
likely that that the problem originates in multiple biologic systems -
the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems with a basis in the genetic
machinery that regulates these systems. For example, a gene important
in the function of the hypothalamus may become mutated or infected by a
retrovirus leading to deregulation of neurotransmitters, hormones,
and/or immune components. The resulting change is measurable as
biochemical imbalances in either the brain or body but these
biochemical imbalances are not necessarily causing the underlying
dysfunction, but instead may simply be themselves symptoms or links in
a chain of causes that lead to bipolar illness.
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rhythm game using body percussion
[63][print.gif] Printable Version for your convenience!
Title - rhythm game using body percussion
By - Michelle L. Miller
Primary Subject - Music
Secondary Subjects -
Grade Level - 4-8
Objective: Students will be able to accurately write and count rhythms.
Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of
two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the
board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for
each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole
notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for
half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap
fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth
notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and
their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board
and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests.
Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding.
To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3
teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to
the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then
plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat
pat snap snap palms up--
quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest).
Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play
for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only
need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately
gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one
done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect
answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The
whole lesson takes about 30 minutes.
Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as
performed by teacher.
Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills
development and have fun at the same time!!
NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love
it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and
counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well.
Have fun!!
E-Mail [64]Michelle L. Miller!
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Biorhythms
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Medical Author: [39]William C. Shiel, Jr., MD, FACP, FACR
Medical Editor: [40]Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD
* [41]What are biologic rhythms?
* [42]How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness?
* [43]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms?
* [44]Angina
* [45]Heart attack
* [46]High blood pressure (hypertension)
* [47]Hay fever (allergic rhinitis)
* [48]Asthma
* [49]Can the "body clock" affect diagnostic testing?
* [50]Can drug therapy be matched to the "body clock?"
* [51]Chronobiology: marking time, making progress
What are biologic rhythms?
What are biologic rhythms? In essence, they're the rhythms of life. All
forms of life on earth, including our bodies, respond rhythmically to
the regular cycles of the sun, moon, and seasons.
For example, as night turns into day, vital body functions, including
heart rate and [52]blood pressure, speed up in anticipation of
increased physical activity. These and other predictable fluctuations
in body function, taking place during specific time cycles, are our
biologic rhythms. They are regulated by "biologic clock" mechanisms
located in the brain.
Although biologic rhythms can be "reprogrammed" by environmental
influences (such as when a person regularly works the night shift and
sleeps during the day), they are genetically "hard-wired" into our
cells, tissues, and organs.
Medical chronobiologists have found that biologic rhythms can affect
the severity of disease symptoms, diagnostic test results, and even the
body's response to drug therapy. Now these investigators are working to
discover how the rhythms of life can be used to improve the practice of
medicine - and your health.
These time-related medical observations, and others still in the
exciting process of discovery, are rooted in chronobiology (chronos -
time; bios - life; logos - science), the study of biologic rhythms.
How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness?
Among the various biologic rhythm cycles that medical chronobiologists
study, the 24-hour day/night-activity/rest cycle is considered a key
chronobiologic factor in medical [53]diagnosis and treatment. Formally
known as the [54]circadian rhythm, it's also referred to as the "body
clock."
Why is the 24-hour body clock so important?
Because so many of our normal body functions follow daily patterns of
speeding up and slowing down, intensifying and diminishing, in
alignment with circadian rhythm. Interestingly, so do the symptoms of a
number of [55]chronic disorders:
Allergic rhinitis: (nasal inflammation associated with hay fever)
Symptoms of sneezing, [56]runny nose, and stuffy nose are typically
worse in the early waking hours than later during the day.
Asthma: In most patients, symptoms are more than 100 times as likely to
occur in the few hours prior to awakening than during the day.
Stable angina: [57]Chest pain and [58]electrocardiographic (ECG, EKG)
abnormalities are most common during the first 4 to 6 hours after
awakening.
[59]Prinzmetal's angina: ECG abnormalities are most common during
[60]sleep; chest pain can occur even while at rest.
Heart attack: Heart attack most commonly occurs in the early waking
hours.
Stroke: [61]Strokes most commonly occur in the early waking hours.
Hypertension: The highest blood pressure readings typically occur from
late morning to middle afternoon; lowest occur during early sleep.
Therapy now exists that works with your body clock; consult your
physician about this treatment. Clinical studies are underway to
further this research.
[62]Rheumatoid arthritis: RA symptoms are most intense upon awakening.
[63]Osteoarthritis: Symptoms of osteoarthritis worsen in the afternoon
and evening.
Ulcer disease: The pain typically occurs after stomach emptying,
following daytime meals, and in the very early morning, disrupting
sleep.
[64]Epilepsy: Seizures often occur only at particular times of the day
or night; individual patterns differ among patients.
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* [73]Biorhythms Index
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Next: [75]What are examples of specific diseases affected by
biorhythms? »
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Biorhythms
[96]Jet Lag »
What is jet lag?
Jet lag, also called desynchronosis, is a temporary disorder that
causes fatigue, insomnia, and other symptoms as a result of air travel
across time zones.
What are other symptoms of jet lag?
Besides fatigue and insomnia, a jet lag sufferer may experience
anxiety, constipation, diarrhea, confusion, dehydration, headache,
irritability, nausea, sweating, coordination problems, and even memory
loss. Some individuals report additional symptoms, such as heartbeat
irregularities and increased susceptibility to illness.
What is a time zone?
A time zone is a geographical region which has the same time everywhere
within it. The world has 24 time zones, one for each hour in the day.
Each zone runs from north to south in strips that are approximately
1,000 miles (1,600 kilometers) wide. (The actual width of each zone
varies to accommodate political and geographical boundaries.) As...
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[27]Sleep > Daily Rhythm Test
Daily Rhythm Test
Our internal body clock governs our daily or circadian rhythm - telling
us when to wake up and when to feel sleepy. Circadian comes from the
Latin circa, meaning about and dies, meaning day.
This test will produce a chart showing your natural sleeping and waking
pattern over a 24 hour period. If you're having problems sleeping it
could be your natural body clock is at odds with your routine.
1) Do you consider yourself a morning person or an evening person?
(_) Evening
(_) More evening than morning
(_) Cant tell
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(_) Morning
2) At what time of day do you feel at your best?
(_) 5am - 9am
(_) 9am - 11am
(_) 11am - 5pm
(_) 5pm - 10pm
(_) 10pm - 1am
3) Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, if you were
entirely free to plan your day - at what time would you go to bed?
(_) 8pm - 9pm
(_) 9pm - 10.15pm
(_) 10.15pm - 12.30am
(_) 12.30am - 1.45am
(_) 1.45am - 3am
4) Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, if you were
entirely free to plan your day - at what time would you get up?
(_) 5.00am - 6.30am
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rhythm game using body percussion
[61][print.gif] Printable Version for your convenience!
Title - rhythm game using body percussion
By - Michelle L. Miller
Primary Subject - Music
Secondary Subjects -
Grade Level - 4-8
Objective: Students will be able to accurately write and count rhythms.
Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of
two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the
board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for
each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole
notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for
half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap
fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth
notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and
their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board
and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests.
Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding.
To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3
teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to
the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then
plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat
pat snap snap palms up--
quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest).
Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play
for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only
need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately
gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one
done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect
answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The
whole lesson takes about 30 minutes.
Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as
performed by teacher.
Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills
development and have fun at the same time!!
NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love
it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and
counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well.
Have fun!!
E-Mail [62]Michelle L. Miller!
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* [64]Teaching Degrees |
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* [33]Biorhythms Index
* [34]Glossary
Biorhythms
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[38]Worst Cities for Asthma, 2009 Slideshow Pictures of the Worst
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Medical Author: [39]William C. Shiel, Jr., MD, FACP, FACR
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* [41]What are biologic rhythms?
* [42]How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness?
* [43]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms?
* [44]Angina
* [45]Heart attack
* [46]High blood pressure (hypertension)
* [47]Hay fever (allergic rhinitis)
* [48]Asthma
* [49]Can the "body clock" affect diagnostic testing?
* [50]Can drug therapy be matched to the "body clock?"
* [51]Chronobiology: marking time, making progress
What are biologic rhythms?
What are biologic rhythms? In essence, they're the rhythms of life. All
forms of life on earth, including our bodies, respond rhythmically to
the regular cycles of the sun, moon, and seasons.
For example, as night turns into day, vital body functions, including
heart rate and [52]blood pressure, speed up in anticipation of
increased physical activity. These and other predictable fluctuations
in body function, taking place during specific time cycles, are our
biologic rhythms. They are regulated by "biologic clock" mechanisms
located in the brain.
Although biologic rhythms can be "reprogrammed" by environmental
influences (such as when a person regularly works the night shift and
sleeps during the day), they are genetically "hard-wired" into our
cells, tissues, and organs.
Medical chronobiologists have found that biologic rhythms can affect
the severity of disease symptoms, diagnostic test results, and even the
body's response to drug therapy. Now these investigators are working to
discover how the rhythms of life can be used to improve the practice of
medicine - and your health.
These time-related medical observations, and others still in the
exciting process of discovery, are rooted in chronobiology (chronos -
time; bios - life; logos - science), the study of biologic rhythms.
How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness?
Among the various biologic rhythm cycles that medical chronobiologists
study, the 24-hour day/night-activity/rest cycle is considered a key
chronobiologic factor in medical [53]diagnosis and treatment. Formally
known as the [54]circadian rhythm, it's also referred to as the "body
clock."
Why is the 24-hour body clock so important?
Because so many of our normal body functions follow daily patterns of
speeding up and slowing down, intensifying and diminishing, in
alignment with circadian rhythm. Interestingly, so do the symptoms of a
number of [55]chronic disorders:
Allergic rhinitis: (nasal inflammation associated with hay fever)
Symptoms of sneezing, [56]runny nose, and stuffy nose are typically
worse in the early waking hours than later during the day.
Asthma: In most patients, symptoms are more than 100 times as likely to
occur in the few hours prior to awakening than during the day.
Stable angina: [57]Chest pain and [58]electrocardiographic (ECG, EKG)
abnormalities are most common during the first 4 to 6 hours after
awakening.
[59]Prinzmetal's angina: ECG abnormalities are most common during
[60]sleep; chest pain can occur even while at rest.
Heart attack: Heart attack most commonly occurs in the early waking
hours.
Stroke: [61]Strokes most commonly occur in the early waking hours.
Hypertension: The highest blood pressure readings typically occur from
late morning to middle afternoon; lowest occur during early sleep.
Therapy now exists that works with your body clock; consult your
physician about this treatment. Clinical studies are underway to
further this research.
[62]Rheumatoid arthritis: RA symptoms are most intense upon awakening.
[63]Osteoarthritis: Symptoms of osteoarthritis worsen in the afternoon
and evening.
Ulcer disease: The pain typically occurs after stomach emptying,
following daytime meals, and in the very early morning, disrupting
sleep.
[64]Epilepsy: Seizures often occur only at particular times of the day
or night; individual patterns differ among patients.
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popular term. Allergic rhinitis is the correct term used to describe
this allergic reaction, and many different substances cause the
allergic symptoms noted in hay fever. Rhinitis means "irritation of the
nose" and is a derivative of rhino, meaning nose. Allergic rhinitis
which occurs during a specific season is called "seasonal allergic
rhinitis." When it occurs throughout the year, it is called "perennial
allergic rhinitis."
Symptoms of allergic rhinitis, or hay fever, frequently include nasal
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Journal Article [33]Printable view
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Journal [34]Surgery Today
Publisher Springer Japan
ISSN 0941-1291 (Print) 1436-2813 (Online)
Issue [35]Volume 17, Number 3 / May, 1987
Category Short Communication
DOI 10.1007/BF02470602
Pages 209-212
Subject Collection [36]Medicine
SpringerLink Date Thursday, July 20, 2006
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Short Communication
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Jun Narumi^1 Contact Information , Kozo Suma^1, Hidemi Kaneko^1,
Yasuo Takeuchi^1, Kenji Inoue^1, Kenji Shiroma^1 and Yuji Koyama^1
(1) Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, 2nd Hospital of Tokyo
Women's Medical College, 2-1-10 Nishiogu, Arakawaku, 116 Tokyo, Japan
Received: 7 April 1986
Abstract The postoperative deep body temperature rhythms of fifteen
patients who received aorto-coronary bypass surgery (group I), and of
seven patients who received non-cardiac major surgery (group II), were
studied. Postoperative patients, especially those who received
aortocoronary bypass surgery, showed greatly disturbed deep body
temperature rhythm. There existed infradian and ultradian rhythm in
both groups, and there existed two patients in group I who did not show
sinusoidal rhythm. The patients of group I also showed a longer period
of rhythm than did those of group II. The mesor and amplitude of the
patients in group I showed a greater individual variation than did
those in group II. The acrophase of both groups deviated widely. The
patients who underwent cardiac surgery needed a longer time for
temperature rhythm recovery than did those who underwent general
surgery.
Key Words deep body temperature rhythm - intensive care
unit - post-operative patients
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Rhythms and Body Clock
Circadian Rhythm
From the Latin circa (about) dies (a day), the circadian rhythm is the
twenty-four-hour cycle of light/dark, wakefulness/sleep to which most
human physiologic processes are set. At regular intervals each day, the
body tends to become hungry, tired, active, listless, energized. Body
temperature, heart-beat, blood pressure, hormone levels, and urine flow
rise and fall in this relatively predictable, rhythmic pattern - a
pattern initiated and governed by exposure to sunlight and darkness.
Experiments where humans were placed in isolation chambers, cut off
from all potential environmental cues, have shown that, in the absence
of natural daylight, rhythms are still maintained. But in the absence
of the day light, the rhythms tend to deviate from 24 hours. For
instance, the rhythms was found to expand to 24-30 hours, thus
disrupting the biological processes over a long period of time.
The fact that animals and humans can continue to function according to
daily and annual rhythms in the absence of external environmental
stimuli means that animals and humans possess some kind of biological
clock, which act as a backup mechanism in case it cannot get the proper
stimuli from the natural events such as sunshine.
This behavior can be illustrated by our clocks. Let us say, our clock
is running slow. Over a period of time, the clock may lag the actual
time because of this defect. Usually, we will reset the clock when it
gets far out of sync by other external stimuli like a radio or phone
time. Now, if we do not have access to this external synchronizing
signal, the clock can get far out of line with the reality. Our body
clocks functions the same way. The biological clock can keep the time;
but in the absence of correction from the day/light cycle provided by
the sun, the biological clock tend go out of sync affecting our
physical and mental health. A similar thing happens when we travel
across time zones; we tend to experience what is known as "jet lag".
However, in the absence of natural light our body clocks may lose or
gain a little time. This in turn could lead to the desynchronization of
different rhythms. For example, in the absence of sufficient
environmental light the sleep-wake and associated rest-activity rhythms
may lengthen to a cycle of between 30 and 48 hours, while the
temperature rhythm may remain at a period of, say, 25 hours. Such
desynchronization of the body's intricate rhythms is suspected to
trigger problems: hormonal imbalances, sleep disorders and mood
disturbances.
Circannual Rhythm
Circannual rhythm is the annual or yearly cycle used by all living
things.
Circaseptan Rhythm
Circaseptan rhythm is a seven-day cycle in which the biological
processes of life, including disease symptoms and development, resolve.
Many physicians believe that transplant patients tend to have more
rejection episodes seven, fourteen, twenty-one, and twenty-eight days
after surgery. They further believe that medications administered to
the patients at particular times may be more effective than at other
times. These are all related to the circaseptan rhythm.
How does the brain know when it is light or dark?
Deep within the brain, inside the hypothalamus, lie two clusters of
cells (i.e., neurons) called the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN). Each of
these SCN is composed of more than 8,000 neurons. The SCN act as the
body's circadian pacemaker. In mammals, the SCN appear to get their
information from photoreceptors in the retina, which transmit signals
about light and dark through the optic nerves to the hypothalamus. Once
these messages enter the SCN, a series of physiological reactions takes
place.
What happens after the light/dark signal reaches the SCN?
We are not sure. The pathway from the retina through the optic nerves
to the SCN extends further to reach the pineal gland, which lies
adjacent to the hypothalamus above the brain stem. Stimulated by the
message it receives from the SCN, the pineal gland either secretes its
main hormone, melatonin, or inhibits melatonin's release, which may
result in the production of serotonin as was explained before.
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Body Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder
Rashmi Nemade, Ph.D. & Mark Dombeck, Ph.D. Updated: Aug 7th 2009
Nervous system, endocrine, and/or immune system difficulties may
conspire to affect one of the less measurable causes of bipolar
disorders: disturbances in body rhythms. As discussed earlier, the
hypothalamus is the link between the nervous and endocrine systems.
Given that the nervous system is also associated with the immune
system, it is possible that the hypothalamus exerts its effect on the
immune system as well. Thus, the combination of these systems can alter
body biochemistry, contributing to shifts in body rhythms such as the
circadian, seasonal, and social rhythms.
Circadian Rhythm and Bipolar Disorder
[441]advertisement
The circadian rhythm is the 24-hour cycle of the body, the exact length
of which is determined by the amount of light that the hypothalamus
senses in a day-night cycle. The name "circadian" refers to a period of
time that is "around a day long". Clear patterns of brain wave activity
and hormone production are coupled to this cycle. When the circadian
rhythm is upset (as can be the case with jet lag and sleep problems)
mood disturbances can result. It is known that in some people sleep
deprivation causes mania, whereas in others it can alleviate the
symptoms of depression. Thus, regulation of circadian rhythm is
important for managing bipolar symptoms and mood episodes.
Dysregulation of this system is typically experienced as a powerful
source of stress.
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) and Bipolar Disorder
Similar to circadian rhythms but longer in duration are seasonal
rhythms. These are determined by the amount of daylight experienced
within a given season. Dysregulation of seasonal rhythms has been
linked with Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD; also known as winter
depression). SAD-affected individuals begin to feel increasingly
depressed as the amount of light disappears during the winter. Their
depression lifts as springtime approaches and the days lengthen. During
times of the year with long days, these people typically experience no
undue mood disturbance.
Social Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder
Both circadian and seasonal rhythms can affect individuals' social
rhythms. The social rhythm comprises of a daily routine such as waking
up at a specific time, going to school or work, and interacting with
family members, friends, peers and colleagues. Even healthy people can
experience mood changes when their social rhythms are disturbed by
insomnia, seasonal changes or work schedules. It is no great leap to
see that if someone is susceptible to bipolar disorder, a change in
their body rhythms might constitute sufficient stress to precipitate
bipolar symptoms.
When considering the possible causes of bipolar disorders, it is
necessary to bear in mind the complex nature of mood polarity. It is
likely that that the problem originates in multiple biologic systems -
the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems with a basis in the genetic
machinery that regulates these systems. For example, a gene important
in the function of the hypothalamus may become mutated or infected by a
retrovirus leading to deregulation of neurotransmitters, hormones,
and/or immune components. The resulting change is measurable as
biochemical imbalances in either the brain or body but these
biochemical imbalances are not necessarily causing the underlying
dysfunction, but instead may simply be themselves symptoms or links in
a chain of causes that lead to bipolar illness.
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rhythm game using body percussion
[63][print.gif] Printable Version for your convenience!
Title - rhythm game using body percussion
By - Michelle L. Miller
Primary Subject - Music
Secondary Subjects -
Grade Level - 4-8
Objective: Students will be able to accurately write and count rhythms.
Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of
two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the
board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for
each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole
notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for
half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap
fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth
notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and
their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board
and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests.
Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding.
To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3
teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to
the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then
plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat
pat snap snap palms up--
quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest).
Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play
for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only
need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately
gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one
done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect
answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The
whole lesson takes about 30 minutes.
Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as
performed by teacher.
Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills
development and have fun at the same time!!
NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love
it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and
counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well.
Have fun!!
E-Mail [64]Michelle L. Miller!
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* [33]Biorhythms Index
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Biorhythms
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Medical Author: [39]William C. Shiel, Jr., MD, FACP, FACR
Medical Editor: [40]Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD
* [41]What are biologic rhythms?
* [42]How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness?
* [43]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms?
* [44]Angina
* [45]Heart attack
* [46]High blood pressure (hypertension)
* [47]Hay fever (allergic rhinitis)
* [48]Asthma
* [49]Can the "body clock" affect diagnostic testing?
* [50]Can drug therapy be matched to the "body clock?"
* [51]Chronobiology: marking time, making progress
What are biologic rhythms?
What are biologic rhythms? In essence, they're the rhythms of life. All
forms of life on earth, including our bodies, respond rhythmically to
the regular cycles of the sun, moon, and seasons.
For example, as night turns into day, vital body functions, including
heart rate and [52]blood pressure, speed up in anticipation of
increased physical activity. These and other predictable fluctuations
in body function, taking place during specific time cycles, are our
biologic rhythms. They are regulated by "biologic clock" mechanisms
located in the brain.
Although biologic rhythms can be "reprogrammed" by environmental
influences (such as when a person regularly works the night shift and
sleeps during the day), they are genetically "hard-wired" into our
cells, tissues, and organs.
Medical chronobiologists have found that biologic rhythms can affect
the severity of disease symptoms, diagnostic test results, and even the
body's response to drug therapy. Now these investigators are working to
discover how the rhythms of life can be used to improve the practice of
medicine - and your health.
These time-related medical observations, and others still in the
exciting process of discovery, are rooted in chronobiology (chronos -
time; bios - life; logos - science), the study of biologic rhythms.
How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness?
Among the various biologic rhythm cycles that medical chronobiologists
study, the 24-hour day/night-activity/rest cycle is considered a key
chronobiologic factor in medical [53]diagnosis and treatment. Formally
known as the [54]circadian rhythm, it's also referred to as the "body
clock."
Why is the 24-hour body clock so important?
Because so many of our normal body functions follow daily patterns of
speeding up and slowing down, intensifying and diminishing, in
alignment with circadian rhythm. Interestingly, so do the symptoms of a
number of [55]chronic disorders:
Allergic rhinitis: (nasal inflammation associated with hay fever)
Symptoms of sneezing, [56]runny nose, and stuffy nose are typically
worse in the early waking hours than later during the day.
Asthma: In most patients, symptoms are more than 100 times as likely to
occur in the few hours prior to awakening than during the day.
Stable angina: [57]Chest pain and [58]electrocardiographic (ECG, EKG)
abnormalities are most common during the first 4 to 6 hours after
awakening.
[59]Prinzmetal's angina: ECG abnormalities are most common during
[60]sleep; chest pain can occur even while at rest.
Heart attack: Heart attack most commonly occurs in the early waking
hours.
Stroke: [61]Strokes most commonly occur in the early waking hours.
Hypertension: The highest blood pressure readings typically occur from
late morning to middle afternoon; lowest occur during early sleep.
Therapy now exists that works with your body clock; consult your
physician about this treatment. Clinical studies are underway to
further this research.
[62]Rheumatoid arthritis: RA symptoms are most intense upon awakening.
[63]Osteoarthritis: Symptoms of osteoarthritis worsen in the afternoon
and evening.
Ulcer disease: The pain typically occurs after stomach emptying,
following daytime meals, and in the very early morning, disrupting
sleep.
[64]Epilepsy: Seizures often occur only at particular times of the day
or night; individual patterns differ among patients.
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* [73]Biorhythms Index
* [74]Glossary
Next: [75]What are examples of specific diseases affected by
biorhythms? »
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an autoimmune disease that causes chronic joint inflammation, which
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incorporates the use of first-line drugs (aspirin and
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Journal Article [33]Printable view
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Journal [34]Surgery Today
Publisher Springer Japan
ISSN 0941-1291 (Print) 1436-2813 (Online)
Issue [35]Volume 17, Number 3 / May, 1987
Category Short Communication
DOI 10.1007/BF02470602
Pages 209-212
Subject Collection [36]Medicine
SpringerLink Date Thursday, July 20, 2006
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Short Communication
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Jun Narumi^1 Contact Information , Kozo Suma^1, Hidemi Kaneko^1,
Yasuo Takeuchi^1, Kenji Inoue^1, Kenji Shiroma^1 and Yuji Koyama^1
(1) Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, 2nd Hospital of Tokyo
Women's Medical College, 2-1-10 Nishiogu, Arakawaku, 116 Tokyo, Japan
Received: 7 April 1986
Abstract The postoperative deep body temperature rhythms of fifteen
patients who received aorto-coronary bypass surgery (group I), and of
seven patients who received non-cardiac major surgery (group II), were
studied. Postoperative patients, especially those who received
aortocoronary bypass surgery, showed greatly disturbed deep body
temperature rhythm. There existed infradian and ultradian rhythm in
both groups, and there existed two patients in group I who did not show
sinusoidal rhythm. The patients of group I also showed a longer period
of rhythm than did those of group II. The mesor and amplitude of the
patients in group I showed a greater individual variation than did
those in group II. The acrophase of both groups deviated widely. The
patients who underwent cardiac surgery needed a longer time for
temperature rhythm recovery than did those who underwent general
surgery.
Key Words deep body temperature rhythm - intensive care
unit - post-operative patients
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rhythm game using body percussion
[61][print.gif] Printable Version for your convenience!
Title - rhythm game using body percussion
By - Michelle L. Miller
Primary Subject - Music
Secondary Subjects -
Grade Level - 4-8
Objective: Students will be able to accurately write and count rhythms.
Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of
two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the
board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for
each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole
notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for
half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap
fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth
notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and
their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board
and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests.
Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding.
To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3
teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to
the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then
plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat
pat snap snap palms up--
quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest).
Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play
for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only
need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately
gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one
done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect
answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The
whole lesson takes about 30 minutes.
Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as
performed by teacher.
Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills
development and have fun at the same time!!
NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love
it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and
counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well.
Have fun!!
E-Mail [62]Michelle L. Miller!
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Medical Author: [39]William C. Shiel, Jr., MD, FACP, FACR
Medical Editor: [40]Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD
* [41]What are biologic rhythms?
* [42]How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness?
* [43]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms?
* [44]Angina
* [45]Heart attack
* [46]High blood pressure (hypertension)
* [47]Hay fever (allergic rhinitis)
* [48]Asthma
* [49]Can the "body clock" affect diagnostic testing?
* [50]Can drug therapy be matched to the "body clock?"
* [51]Chronobiology: marking time, making progress
What are biologic rhythms?
What are biologic rhythms? In essence, they're the rhythms of life. All
forms of life on earth, including our bodies, respond rhythmically to
the regular cycles of the sun, moon, and seasons.
For example, as night turns into day, vital body functions, including
heart rate and [52]blood pressure, speed up in anticipation of
increased physical activity. These and other predictable fluctuations
in body function, taking place during specific time cycles, are our
biologic rhythms. They are regulated by "biologic clock" mechanisms
located in the brain.
Although biologic rhythms can be "reprogrammed" by environmental
influences (such as when a person regularly works the night shift and
sleeps during the day), they are genetically "hard-wired" into our
cells, tissues, and organs.
Medical chronobiologists have found that biologic rhythms can affect
the severity of disease symptoms, diagnostic test results, and even the
body's response to drug therapy. Now these investigators are working to
discover how the rhythms of life can be used to improve the practice of
medicine - and your health.
These time-related medical observations, and others still in the
exciting process of discovery, are rooted in chronobiology (chronos -
time; bios - life; logos - science), the study of biologic rhythms.
How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness?
Among the various biologic rhythm cycles that medical chronobiologists
study, the 24-hour day/night-activity/rest cycle is considered a key
chronobiologic factor in medical [53]diagnosis and treatment. Formally
known as the [54]circadian rhythm, it's also referred to as the "body
clock."
Why is the 24-hour body clock so important?
Because so many of our normal body functions follow daily patterns of
speeding up and slowing down, intensifying and diminishing, in
alignment with circadian rhythm. Interestingly, so do the symptoms of a
number of [55]chronic disorders:
Allergic rhinitis: (nasal inflammation associated with hay fever)
Symptoms of sneezing, [56]runny nose, and stuffy nose are typically
worse in the early waking hours than later during the day.
Asthma: In most patients, symptoms are more than 100 times as likely to
occur in the few hours prior to awakening than during the day.
Stable angina: [57]Chest pain and [58]electrocardiographic (ECG, EKG)
abnormalities are most common during the first 4 to 6 hours after
awakening.
[59]Prinzmetal's angina: ECG abnormalities are most common during
[60]sleep; chest pain can occur even while at rest.
Heart attack: Heart attack most commonly occurs in the early waking
hours.
Stroke: [61]Strokes most commonly occur in the early waking hours.
Hypertension: The highest blood pressure readings typically occur from
late morning to middle afternoon; lowest occur during early sleep.
Therapy now exists that works with your body clock; consult your
physician about this treatment. Clinical studies are underway to
further this research.
[62]Rheumatoid arthritis: RA symptoms are most intense upon awakening.
[63]Osteoarthritis: Symptoms of osteoarthritis worsen in the afternoon
and evening.
Ulcer disease: The pain typically occurs after stomach emptying,
following daytime meals, and in the very early morning, disrupting
sleep.
[64]Epilepsy: Seizures often occur only at particular times of the day
or night; individual patterns differ among patients.
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[96]Hay Fever »
What is hay fever? What are the symptoms and signs?
Hay fever is a misnomer. Hay is not a usual cause of this problem, and
it does not cause fever. Early descriptions of sneezing, nasal
congestion, and eye irritation while harvesting field hay promoted this
popular term. Allergic rhinitis is the correct term used to describe
this allergic reaction, and many different substances cause the
allergic symptoms noted in hay fever. Rhinitis means "irritation of the
nose" and is a derivative of rhino, meaning nose. Allergic rhinitis
which occurs during a specific season is called "seasonal allergic
rhinitis." When it occurs throughout the year, it is called "perennial
allergic rhinitis."
Symptoms of allergic rhinitis, or hay fever, frequently include nasal
congestion, a clear runny nose, sneezing, nose and eye itching, and
excess tear production in the eyes. Postnasal dripping of clear mucus
frequently causes a cough. Loss of the sense ...
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Journal Article [33]Printable view
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Journal [34]Surgery Today
Publisher Springer Japan
ISSN 0941-1291 (Print) 1436-2813 (Online)
Issue [35]Volume 17, Number 3 / May, 1987
Category Short Communication
DOI 10.1007/BF02470602
Pages 209-212
Subject Collection [36]Medicine
SpringerLink Date Thursday, July 20, 2006
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Short Communication
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Jun Narumi^1 Contact Information , Kozo Suma^1, Hidemi Kaneko^1,
Yasuo Takeuchi^1, Kenji Inoue^1, Kenji Shiroma^1 and Yuji Koyama^1
(1) Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, 2nd Hospital of Tokyo
Women's Medical College, 2-1-10 Nishiogu, Arakawaku, 116 Tokyo, Japan
Received: 7 April 1986
Abstract The postoperative deep body temperature rhythms of fifteen
patients who received aorto-coronary bypass surgery (group I), and of
seven patients who received non-cardiac major surgery (group II), were
studied. Postoperative patients, especially those who received
aortocoronary bypass surgery, showed greatly disturbed deep body
temperature rhythm. There existed infradian and ultradian rhythm in
both groups, and there existed two patients in group I who did not show
sinusoidal rhythm. The patients of group I also showed a longer period
of rhythm than did those of group II. The mesor and amplitude of the
patients in group I showed a greater individual variation than did
those in group II. The acrophase of both groups deviated widely. The
patients who underwent cardiac surgery needed a longer time for
temperature rhythm recovery than did those who underwent general
surgery.
Key Words deep body temperature rhythm - intensive care
unit - post-operative patients
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Rhythms and Body Clock
Circadian Rhythm
From the Latin circa (about) dies (a day), the circadian rhythm is the
twenty-four-hour cycle of light/dark, wakefulness/sleep to which most
human physiologic processes are set. At regular intervals each day, the
body tends to become hungry, tired, active, listless, energized. Body
temperature, heart-beat, blood pressure, hormone levels, and urine flow
rise and fall in this relatively predictable, rhythmic pattern - a
pattern initiated and governed by exposure to sunlight and darkness.
Experiments where humans were placed in isolation chambers, cut off
from all potential environmental cues, have shown that, in the absence
of natural daylight, rhythms are still maintained. But in the absence
of the day light, the rhythms tend to deviate from 24 hours. For
instance, the rhythms was found to expand to 24-30 hours, thus
disrupting the biological processes over a long period of time.
The fact that animals and humans can continue to function according to
daily and annual rhythms in the absence of external environmental
stimuli means that animals and humans possess some kind of biological
clock, which act as a backup mechanism in case it cannot get the proper
stimuli from the natural events such as sunshine.
This behavior can be illustrated by our clocks. Let us say, our clock
is running slow. Over a period of time, the clock may lag the actual
time because of this defect. Usually, we will reset the clock when it
gets far out of sync by other external stimuli like a radio or phone
time. Now, if we do not have access to this external synchronizing
signal, the clock can get far out of line with the reality. Our body
clocks functions the same way. The biological clock can keep the time;
but in the absence of correction from the day/light cycle provided by
the sun, the biological clock tend go out of sync affecting our
physical and mental health. A similar thing happens when we travel
across time zones; we tend to experience what is known as "jet lag".
However, in the absence of natural light our body clocks may lose or
gain a little time. This in turn could lead to the desynchronization of
different rhythms. For example, in the absence of sufficient
environmental light the sleep-wake and associated rest-activity rhythms
may lengthen to a cycle of between 30 and 48 hours, while the
temperature rhythm may remain at a period of, say, 25 hours. Such
desynchronization of the body's intricate rhythms is suspected to
trigger problems: hormonal imbalances, sleep disorders and mood
disturbances.
Circannual Rhythm
Circannual rhythm is the annual or yearly cycle used by all living
things.
Circaseptan Rhythm
Circaseptan rhythm is a seven-day cycle in which the biological
processes of life, including disease symptoms and development, resolve.
Many physicians believe that transplant patients tend to have more
rejection episodes seven, fourteen, twenty-one, and twenty-eight days
after surgery. They further believe that medications administered to
the patients at particular times may be more effective than at other
times. These are all related to the circaseptan rhythm.
How does the brain know when it is light or dark?
Deep within the brain, inside the hypothalamus, lie two clusters of
cells (i.e., neurons) called the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN). Each of
these SCN is composed of more than 8,000 neurons. The SCN act as the
body's circadian pacemaker. In mammals, the SCN appear to get their
information from photoreceptors in the retina, which transmit signals
about light and dark through the optic nerves to the hypothalamus. Once
these messages enter the SCN, a series of physiological reactions takes
place.
What happens after the light/dark signal reaches the SCN?
We are not sure. The pathway from the retina through the optic nerves
to the SCN extends further to reach the pineal gland, which lies
adjacent to the hypothalamus above the brain stem. Stimulated by the
message it receives from the SCN, the pineal gland either secretes its
main hormone, melatonin, or inhibits melatonin's release, which may
result in the production of serotonin as was explained before.
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Body Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder
Rashmi Nemade, Ph.D. & Mark Dombeck, Ph.D. Updated: Aug 7th 2009
Nervous system, endocrine, and/or immune system difficulties may
conspire to affect one of the less measurable causes of bipolar
disorders: disturbances in body rhythms. As discussed earlier, the
hypothalamus is the link between the nervous and endocrine systems.
Given that the nervous system is also associated with the immune
system, it is possible that the hypothalamus exerts its effect on the
immune system as well. Thus, the combination of these systems can alter
body biochemistry, contributing to shifts in body rhythms such as the
circadian, seasonal, and social rhythms.
Circadian Rhythm and Bipolar Disorder
[441]advertisement
The circadian rhythm is the 24-hour cycle of the body, the exact length
of which is determined by the amount of light that the hypothalamus
senses in a day-night cycle. The name "circadian" refers to a period of
time that is "around a day long". Clear patterns of brain wave activity
and hormone production are coupled to this cycle. When the circadian
rhythm is upset (as can be the case with jet lag and sleep problems)
mood disturbances can result. It is known that in some people sleep
deprivation causes mania, whereas in others it can alleviate the
symptoms of depression. Thus, regulation of circadian rhythm is
important for managing bipolar symptoms and mood episodes.
Dysregulation of this system is typically experienced as a powerful
source of stress.
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) and Bipolar Disorder
Similar to circadian rhythms but longer in duration are seasonal
rhythms. These are determined by the amount of daylight experienced
within a given season. Dysregulation of seasonal rhythms has been
linked with Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD; also known as winter
depression). SAD-affected individuals begin to feel increasingly
depressed as the amount of light disappears during the winter. Their
depression lifts as springtime approaches and the days lengthen. During
times of the year with long days, these people typically experience no
undue mood disturbance.
Social Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder
Both circadian and seasonal rhythms can affect individuals' social
rhythms. The social rhythm comprises of a daily routine such as waking
up at a specific time, going to school or work, and interacting with
family members, friends, peers and colleagues. Even healthy people can
experience mood changes when their social rhythms are disturbed by
insomnia, seasonal changes or work schedules. It is no great leap to
see that if someone is susceptible to bipolar disorder, a change in
their body rhythms might constitute sufficient stress to precipitate
bipolar symptoms.
When considering the possible causes of bipolar disorders, it is
necessary to bear in mind the complex nature of mood polarity. It is
likely that that the problem originates in multiple biologic systems -
the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems with a basis in the genetic
machinery that regulates these systems. For example, a gene important
in the function of the hypothalamus may become mutated or infected by a
retrovirus leading to deregulation of neurotransmitters, hormones,
and/or immune components. The resulting change is measurable as
biochemical imbalances in either the brain or body but these
biochemical imbalances are not necessarily causing the underlying
dysfunction, but instead may simply be themselves symptoms or links in
a chain of causes that lead to bipolar illness.
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rhythm game using body percussion
[63][print.gif] Printable Version for your convenience!
Title - rhythm game using body percussion
By - Michelle L. Miller
Primary Subject - Music
Secondary Subjects -
Grade Level - 4-8
Objective: Students will be able to accurately write and count rhythms.
Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of
two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the
board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for
each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole
notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for
half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap
fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth
notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and
their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board
and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests.
Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding.
To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3
teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to
the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then
plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat
pat snap snap palms up--
quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest).
Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play
for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only
need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately
gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one
done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect
answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The
whole lesson takes about 30 minutes.
Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as
performed by teacher.
Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills
development and have fun at the same time!!
NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love
it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and
counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well.
Have fun!!
E-Mail [64]Michelle L. Miller!
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Medical Author: [39]William C. Shiel, Jr., MD, FACP, FACR
Medical Editor: [40]Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD
* [41]What are biologic rhythms?
* [42]How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness?
* [43]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms?
* [44]Angina
* [45]Heart attack
* [46]High blood pressure (hypertension)
* [47]Hay fever (allergic rhinitis)
* [48]Asthma
* [49]Can the "body clock" affect diagnostic testing?
* [50]Can drug therapy be matched to the "body clock?"
* [51]Chronobiology: marking time, making progress
What are biologic rhythms?
What are biologic rhythms? In essence, they're the rhythms of life. All
forms of life on earth, including our bodies, respond rhythmically to
the regular cycles of the sun, moon, and seasons.
For example, as night turns into day, vital body functions, including
heart rate and [52]blood pressure, speed up in anticipation of
increased physical activity. These and other predictable fluctuations
in body function, taking place during specific time cycles, are our
biologic rhythms. They are regulated by "biologic clock" mechanisms
located in the brain.
Although biologic rhythms can be "reprogrammed" by environmental
influences (such as when a person regularly works the night shift and
sleeps during the day), they are genetically "hard-wired" into our
cells, tissues, and organs.
Medical chronobiologists have found that biologic rhythms can affect
the severity of disease symptoms, diagnostic test results, and even the
body's response to drug therapy. Now these investigators are working to
discover how the rhythms of life can be used to improve the practice of
medicine - and your health.
These time-related medical observations, and others still in the
exciting process of discovery, are rooted in chronobiology (chronos -
time; bios - life; logos - science), the study of biologic rhythms.
How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness?
Among the various biologic rhythm cycles that medical chronobiologists
study, the 24-hour day/night-activity/rest cycle is considered a key
chronobiologic factor in medical [53]diagnosis and treatment. Formally
known as the [54]circadian rhythm, it's also referred to as the "body
clock."
Why is the 24-hour body clock so important?
Because so many of our normal body functions follow daily patterns of
speeding up and slowing down, intensifying and diminishing, in
alignment with circadian rhythm. Interestingly, so do the symptoms of a
number of [55]chronic disorders:
Allergic rhinitis: (nasal inflammation associated with hay fever)
Symptoms of sneezing, [56]runny nose, and stuffy nose are typically
worse in the early waking hours than later during the day.
Asthma: In most patients, symptoms are more than 100 times as likely to
occur in the few hours prior to awakening than during the day.
Stable angina: [57]Chest pain and [58]electrocardiographic (ECG, EKG)
abnormalities are most common during the first 4 to 6 hours after
awakening.
[59]Prinzmetal's angina: ECG abnormalities are most common during
[60]sleep; chest pain can occur even while at rest.
Heart attack: Heart attack most commonly occurs in the early waking
hours.
Stroke: [61]Strokes most commonly occur in the early waking hours.
Hypertension: The highest blood pressure readings typically occur from
late morning to middle afternoon; lowest occur during early sleep.
Therapy now exists that works with your body clock; consult your
physician about this treatment. Clinical studies are underway to
further this research.
[62]Rheumatoid arthritis: RA symptoms are most intense upon awakening.
[63]Osteoarthritis: Symptoms of osteoarthritis worsen in the afternoon
and evening.
Ulcer disease: The pain typically occurs after stomach emptying,
following daytime meals, and in the very early morning, disrupting
sleep.
[64]Epilepsy: Seizures often occur only at particular times of the day
or night; individual patterns differ among patients.
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biorhythms? »
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Biorhythms
[96]Jet Lag »
What is jet lag?
Jet lag, also called desynchronosis, is a temporary disorder that
causes fatigue, insomnia, and other symptoms as a result of air travel
across time zones.
What are other symptoms of jet lag?
Besides fatigue and insomnia, a jet lag sufferer may experience
anxiety, constipation, diarrhea, confusion, dehydration, headache,
irritability, nausea, sweating, coordination problems, and even memory
loss. Some individuals report additional symptoms, such as heartbeat
irregularities and increased susceptibility to illness.
What is a time zone?
A time zone is a geographical region which has the same time everywhere
within it. The world has 24 time zones, one for each hour in the day.
Each zone runs from north to south in strips that are approximately
1,000 miles (1,600 kilometers) wide. (The actual width of each zone
varies to accommodate political and geographical boundaries.) As...
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Journal Article [33]Printable view
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Journal [34]Surgery Today
Publisher Springer Japan
ISSN 0941-1291 (Print) 1436-2813 (Online)
Issue [35]Volume 17, Number 3 / May, 1987
Category Short Communication
DOI 10.1007/BF02470602
Pages 209-212
Subject Collection [36]Medicine
SpringerLink Date Thursday, July 20, 2006
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Short Communication
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Jun Narumi^1 Contact Information , Kozo Suma^1, Hidemi Kaneko^1,
Yasuo Takeuchi^1, Kenji Inoue^1, Kenji Shiroma^1 and Yuji Koyama^1
(1) Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, 2nd Hospital of Tokyo
Women's Medical College, 2-1-10 Nishiogu, Arakawaku, 116 Tokyo, Japan
Received: 7 April 1986
Abstract The postoperative deep body temperature rhythms of fifteen
patients who received aorto-coronary bypass surgery (group I), and of
seven patients who received non-cardiac major surgery (group II), were
studied. Postoperative patients, especially those who received
aortocoronary bypass surgery, showed greatly disturbed deep body
temperature rhythm. There existed infradian and ultradian rhythm in
both groups, and there existed two patients in group I who did not show
sinusoidal rhythm. The patients of group I also showed a longer period
of rhythm than did those of group II. The mesor and amplitude of the
patients in group I showed a greater individual variation than did
those in group II. The acrophase of both groups deviated widely. The
patients who underwent cardiac surgery needed a longer time for
temperature rhythm recovery than did those who underwent general
surgery.
Key Words deep body temperature rhythm - intensive care
unit - post-operative patients
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Rhythms and Body Clock
Circadian Rhythm
From the Latin circa (about) dies (a day), the circadian rhythm is the
twenty-four-hour cycle of light/dark, wakefulness/sleep to which most
human physiologic processes are set. At regular intervals each day, the
body tends to become hungry, tired, active, listless, energized. Body
temperature, heart-beat, blood pressure, hormone levels, and urine flow
rise and fall in this relatively predictable, rhythmic pattern - a
pattern initiated and governed by exposure to sunlight and darkness.
Experiments where humans were placed in isolation chambers, cut off
from all potential environmental cues, have shown that, in the absence
of natural daylight, rhythms are still maintained. But in the absence
of the day light, the rhythms tend to deviate from 24 hours. For
instance, the rhythms was found to expand to 24-30 hours, thus
disrupting the biological processes over a long period of time.
The fact that animals and humans can continue to function according to
daily and annual rhythms in the absence of external environmental
stimuli means that animals and humans possess some kind of biological
clock, which act as a backup mechanism in case it cannot get the proper
stimuli from the natural events such as sunshine.
This behavior can be illustrated by our clocks. Let us say, our clock
is running slow. Over a period of time, the clock may lag the actual
time because of this defect. Usually, we will reset the clock when it
gets far out of sync by other external stimuli like a radio or phone
time. Now, if we do not have access to this external synchronizing
signal, the clock can get far out of line with the reality. Our body
clocks functions the same way. The biological clock can keep the time;
but in the absence of correction from the day/light cycle provided by
the sun, the biological clock tend go out of sync affecting our
physical and mental health. A similar thing happens when we travel
across time zones; we tend to experience what is known as "jet lag".
However, in the absence of natural light our body clocks may lose or
gain a little time. This in turn could lead to the desynchronization of
different rhythms. For example, in the absence of sufficient
environmental light the sleep-wake and associated rest-activity rhythms
may lengthen to a cycle of between 30 and 48 hours, while the
temperature rhythm may remain at a period of, say, 25 hours. Such
desynchronization of the body's intricate rhythms is suspected to
trigger problems: hormonal imbalances, sleep disorders and mood
disturbances.
Circannual Rhythm
Circannual rhythm is the annual or yearly cycle used by all living
things.
Circaseptan Rhythm
Circaseptan rhythm is a seven-day cycle in which the biological
processes of life, including disease symptoms and development, resolve.
Many physicians believe that transplant patients tend to have more
rejection episodes seven, fourteen, twenty-one, and twenty-eight days
after surgery. They further believe that medications administered to
the patients at particular times may be more effective than at other
times. These are all related to the circaseptan rhythm.
How does the brain know when it is light or dark?
Deep within the brain, inside the hypothalamus, lie two clusters of
cells (i.e., neurons) called the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN). Each of
these SCN is composed of more than 8,000 neurons. The SCN act as the
body's circadian pacemaker. In mammals, the SCN appear to get their
information from photoreceptors in the retina, which transmit signals
about light and dark through the optic nerves to the hypothalamus. Once
these messages enter the SCN, a series of physiological reactions takes
place.
What happens after the light/dark signal reaches the SCN?
We are not sure. The pathway from the retina through the optic nerves
to the SCN extends further to reach the pineal gland, which lies
adjacent to the hypothalamus above the brain stem. Stimulated by the
message it receives from the SCN, the pineal gland either secretes its
main hormone, melatonin, or inhibits melatonin's release, which may
result in the production of serotonin as was explained before.
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rhythm game using body percussion
[61][print.gif] Printable Version for your convenience!
Title - rhythm game using body percussion
By - Michelle L. Miller
Primary Subject - Music
Secondary Subjects -
Grade Level - 4-8
Objective: Students will be able to accurately write and count rhythms.
Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of
two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the
board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for
each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole
notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for
half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap
fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth
notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and
their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board
and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests.
Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding.
To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3
teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to
the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then
plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat
pat snap snap palms up--
quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest).
Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play
for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only
need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately
gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one
done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect
answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The
whole lesson takes about 30 minutes.
Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as
performed by teacher.
Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills
development and have fun at the same time!!
NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love
it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and
counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well.
Have fun!!
E-Mail [62]Michelle L. Miller!
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Medical Author: [39]William C. Shiel, Jr., MD, FACP, FACR
Medical Editor: [40]Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD
* [41]What are biologic rhythms?
* [42]How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness?
* [43]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms?
* [44]Angina
* [45]Heart attack
* [46]High blood pressure (hypertension)
* [47]Hay fever (allergic rhinitis)
* [48]Asthma
* [49]Can the "body clock" affect diagnostic testing?
* [50]Can drug therapy be matched to the "body clock?"
* [51]Chronobiology: marking time, making progress
What are biologic rhythms?
What are biologic rhythms? In essence, they're the rhythms of life. All
forms of life on earth, including our bodies, respond rhythmically to
the regular cycles of the sun, moon, and seasons.
For example, as night turns into day, vital body functions, including
heart rate and [52]blood pressure, speed up in anticipation of
increased physical activity. These and other predictable fluctuations
in body function, taking place during specific time cycles, are our
biologic rhythms. They are regulated by "biologic clock" mechanisms
located in the brain.
Although biologic rhythms can be "reprogrammed" by environmental
influences (such as when a person regularly works the night shift and
sleeps during the day), they are genetically "hard-wired" into our
cells, tissues, and organs.
Medical chronobiologists have found that biologic rhythms can affect
the severity of disease symptoms, diagnostic test results, and even the
body's response to drug therapy. Now these investigators are working to
discover how the rhythms of life can be used to improve the practice of
medicine - and your health.
These time-related medical observations, and others still in the
exciting process of discovery, are rooted in chronobiology (chronos -
time; bios - life; logos - science), the study of biologic rhythms.
How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness?
Among the various biologic rhythm cycles that medical chronobiologists
study, the 24-hour day/night-activity/rest cycle is considered a key
chronobiologic factor in medical [53]diagnosis and treatment. Formally
known as the [54]circadian rhythm, it's also referred to as the "body
clock."
Why is the 24-hour body clock so important?
Because so many of our normal body functions follow daily patterns of
speeding up and slowing down, intensifying and diminishing, in
alignment with circadian rhythm. Interestingly, so do the symptoms of a
number of [55]chronic disorders:
Allergic rhinitis: (nasal inflammation associated with hay fever)
Symptoms of sneezing, [56]runny nose, and stuffy nose are typically
worse in the early waking hours than later during the day.
Asthma: In most patients, symptoms are more than 100 times as likely to
occur in the few hours prior to awakening than during the day.
Stable angina: [57]Chest pain and [58]electrocardiographic (ECG, EKG)
abnormalities are most common during the first 4 to 6 hours after
awakening.
[59]Prinzmetal's angina: ECG abnormalities are most common during
[60]sleep; chest pain can occur even while at rest.
Heart attack: Heart attack most commonly occurs in the early waking
hours.
Stroke: [61]Strokes most commonly occur in the early waking hours.
Hypertension: The highest blood pressure readings typically occur from
late morning to middle afternoon; lowest occur during early sleep.
Therapy now exists that works with your body clock; consult your
physician about this treatment. Clinical studies are underway to
further this research.
[62]Rheumatoid arthritis: RA symptoms are most intense upon awakening.
[63]Osteoarthritis: Symptoms of osteoarthritis worsen in the afternoon
and evening.
Ulcer disease: The pain typically occurs after stomach emptying,
following daytime meals, and in the very early morning, disrupting
sleep.
[64]Epilepsy: Seizures often occur only at particular times of the day
or night; individual patterns differ among patients.
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[96]Hay Fever »
What is hay fever? What are the symptoms and signs?
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popular term. Allergic rhinitis is the correct term used to describe
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Symptoms of allergic rhinitis, or hay fever, frequently include nasal
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Journal Article [33]Printable view
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Journal [34]Surgery Today
Publisher Springer Japan
ISSN 0941-1291 (Print) 1436-2813 (Online)
Issue [35]Volume 17, Number 3 / May, 1987
Category Short Communication
DOI 10.1007/BF02470602
Pages 209-212
Subject Collection [36]Medicine
SpringerLink Date Thursday, July 20, 2006
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Short Communication
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Jun Narumi^1 Contact Information , Kozo Suma^1, Hidemi Kaneko^1,
Yasuo Takeuchi^1, Kenji Inoue^1, Kenji Shiroma^1 and Yuji Koyama^1
(1) Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, 2nd Hospital of Tokyo
Women's Medical College, 2-1-10 Nishiogu, Arakawaku, 116 Tokyo, Japan
Received: 7 April 1986
Abstract The postoperative deep body temperature rhythms of fifteen
patients who received aorto-coronary bypass surgery (group I), and of
seven patients who received non-cardiac major surgery (group II), were
studied. Postoperative patients, especially those who received
aortocoronary bypass surgery, showed greatly disturbed deep body
temperature rhythm. There existed infradian and ultradian rhythm in
both groups, and there existed two patients in group I who did not show
sinusoidal rhythm. The patients of group I also showed a longer period
of rhythm than did those of group II. The mesor and amplitude of the
patients in group I showed a greater individual variation than did
those in group II. The acrophase of both groups deviated widely. The
patients who underwent cardiac surgery needed a longer time for
temperature rhythm recovery than did those who underwent general
surgery.
Key Words deep body temperature rhythm - intensive care
unit - post-operative patients
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Rhythms and Body Clock
Circadian Rhythm
From the Latin circa (about) dies (a day), the circadian rhythm is the
twenty-four-hour cycle of light/dark, wakefulness/sleep to which most
human physiologic processes are set. At regular intervals each day, the
body tends to become hungry, tired, active, listless, energized. Body
temperature, heart-beat, blood pressure, hormone levels, and urine flow
rise and fall in this relatively predictable, rhythmic pattern - a
pattern initiated and governed by exposure to sunlight and darkness.
Experiments where humans were placed in isolation chambers, cut off
from all potential environmental cues, have shown that, in the absence
of natural daylight, rhythms are still maintained. But in the absence
of the day light, the rhythms tend to deviate from 24 hours. For
instance, the rhythms was found to expand to 24-30 hours, thus
disrupting the biological processes over a long period of time.
The fact that animals and humans can continue to function according to
daily and annual rhythms in the absence of external environmental
stimuli means that animals and humans possess some kind of biological
clock, which act as a backup mechanism in case it cannot get the proper
stimuli from the natural events such as sunshine.
This behavior can be illustrated by our clocks. Let us say, our clock
is running slow. Over a period of time, the clock may lag the actual
time because of this defect. Usually, we will reset the clock when it
gets far out of sync by other external stimuli like a radio or phone
time. Now, if we do not have access to this external synchronizing
signal, the clock can get far out of line with the reality. Our body
clocks functions the same way. The biological clock can keep the time;
but in the absence of correction from the day/light cycle provided by
the sun, the biological clock tend go out of sync affecting our
physical and mental health. A similar thing happens when we travel
across time zones; we tend to experience what is known as "jet lag".
However, in the absence of natural light our body clocks may lose or
gain a little time. This in turn could lead to the desynchronization of
different rhythms. For example, in the absence of sufficient
environmental light the sleep-wake and associated rest-activity rhythms
may lengthen to a cycle of between 30 and 48 hours, while the
temperature rhythm may remain at a period of, say, 25 hours. Such
desynchronization of the body's intricate rhythms is suspected to
trigger problems: hormonal imbalances, sleep disorders and mood
disturbances.
Circannual Rhythm
Circannual rhythm is the annual or yearly cycle used by all living
things.
Circaseptan Rhythm
Circaseptan rhythm is a seven-day cycle in which the biological
processes of life, including disease symptoms and development, resolve.
Many physicians believe that transplant patients tend to have more
rejection episodes seven, fourteen, twenty-one, and twenty-eight days
after surgery. They further believe that medications administered to
the patients at particular times may be more effective than at other
times. These are all related to the circaseptan rhythm.
How does the brain know when it is light or dark?
Deep within the brain, inside the hypothalamus, lie two clusters of
cells (i.e., neurons) called the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN). Each of
these SCN is composed of more than 8,000 neurons. The SCN act as the
body's circadian pacemaker. In mammals, the SCN appear to get their
information from photoreceptors in the retina, which transmit signals
about light and dark through the optic nerves to the hypothalamus. Once
these messages enter the SCN, a series of physiological reactions takes
place.
What happens after the light/dark signal reaches the SCN?
We are not sure. The pathway from the retina through the optic nerves
to the SCN extends further to reach the pineal gland, which lies
adjacent to the hypothalamus above the brain stem. Stimulated by the
message it receives from the SCN, the pineal gland either secretes its
main hormone, melatonin, or inhibits melatonin's release, which may
result in the production of serotonin as was explained before.
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[69]Basic Information
[70]Introduction to Bipolar Disorder
[71]Introduction to Bipolar Disorder and Mood Disorders[72]Movement on
an Energy Continuum: Bipolar Disorder, Mania and Manic Episodes
[73]Types of Bipolar and Similar Disorders
[74]Hypomania and Hypomanic Episodes Defined[75]Bipolar Disorder -
Depression, Major Depressive Episodes and Mixed Episodes[76]Recognized
Types of Bipolar Disorder[77]Mental Health Conditions Similar but
Distinct from Bipolar Disorder[78]Borderline Personality Disorder and
Schizoaffective Disorder Show Symptoms Similar to Bipolar
Disorder[79]Bipolar Disorder versus Major Depression and Premenstrual
Dysphoric Disorder
[80]Current Understandings and Body Systems
[81]Statistics and Patterns in Bipolar Disorder[82]Historical and
Contemporary Understandings of Bipolar Disorder[83]History and
Evolution of Bipolar Disorder Diagnosis[84]Contemporary Understanding
of Bipolar Disorder: Causes and Outcomes[85]Neurochemistry and
Endocrinology in Bipolar Disorder[86]Immunology and Bipolar
Disorder[87]Body Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder[88]Brain Imaging and
Bipolar Disorder
[89]Diagnosis of Bipolar Disorder
[90]Bipolar Diagnosis and Bipolar I[91]Bipolar II Disorder,
Cyclothymia, and Bipolar Disorder, NOS
[92]Medication Treatments for Bipolar Disorder
[93]Bipolar Medication Treatment[94]Bipolar Disorder Treatment -
Lithium[95]Bipolar Disorder Treatment - Valproate and
Carbamazepine[96]Bipolar Disorder Treatment - Lamotrigine, Gabapentin,
Topiramate and Calcium Channel Blockers[97]Bipolar Disorder Treatment -
Antipsychotic Medications and Omega-3 fatty acids[98]Bipolar Disorder
Treatment - SSRI and SNRI Antidepressants[99]Bipolar Disorder Treatment
- Tricyclics, MAOIs, and Other Antidepressants
[100]Psychotherapy and Other Treatments
[101]Bipolar Disorder Treatment - Hospitalization and Electroconvulsive
Therapy[102]Bipolar Disorder Treatment - Psychotherapy and Cognitive
Behavioral Therapy[103]Bipolar Disorder Treatment - Family Focused
Therapy and Interpersonal/Social Rhythm Therapy
[104]Self-Help and Helping Others
[105]Self-Help for Bipolar Disorder[106]How Family And Friends Can Help
Those with Bipolar Disorder[107]Bipolar Disorder Suicide[108]How Family
and Friends of Those with Bipolar Disorder Can Help Themselves
[109]References and Reading List
[110]Bipolar Disorder Reading List[111]Bipolar Disorder References
[112]More Information
[113]Bipolar Disorder in Children? Yes![114]Bipolar Disorder Research
at the National Institute of Mental Health[115]Bipolar Disorder,
Treating the Whole Person[116]Child and Adolescent Bipolar Disorder: An
Update from the National Institute of Mental Health[117]Depression and
Its Meanings[118]Disentangling Rapid-Cycling Bipolar From
Borderline[119]Disentangling Rapid-Cycling Bipolar From
Borderline[120]Going to Extremes - Bipolar Disorder[121]Marijuana Makes
it Worse, Revisited[122]Mental Health: Our Troubled Teenagers[123]Of
Othello and Delusional Jealousy[124]Spotlight on a Live
Journal[125]Teenage Depression and Consequences[126]The Link Between
Bipolar Disorder and Anger[127]Where There is Life, There is Hope,
Depression and Why Suicide is Not an Option.[128]Wise Counsel Interview
Transcript: An Interview with Lorna Hyde Graev on Living With Bipolar
Disorder[129]Wise Counsel Interview Transcript: An Interview with
Yulonda Brown on Surviving Abuse and Bipolar
[130]Tests
[131]Goldberg Mania Questionnaire
[132]Latest News
[133]Drug Treatments Compared in Bipolar Disorder[134]Lithium Beats
Valproate for Long-Term Bipolar Therapy[135]Clinical Trials Update:
Dec. 10, 2009[136]Anti-Epileptic Drugs Found Safe to Treat Bipolar
Disorder[137]Risk of Birth Defects with Valproate Sodium and Related
Products[138]Clinical Trials Update: Nov. 30, 2009[139]Bipolar Disorder
May Be Tied to Body Clock[140]Clinical Trials Update: Nov. 23,
2009[141]Twin Study Eyes Inflammation in Those With Bipolar
Disorder[142]Saphris Approved for Schizophrenia and Bipolar
Disorder[143]Gloomy Days Dim Cognitive Powers of the
Depressed[144]Depression Poses Pregnancy Risks[145]Schizophrenia and
Bipolar Disorder Share Genetic Roots[146]Risperdal Consta Approved for
Bipolar Disorder[147]Parent's Bipolar Disorder, Offspring's Mental
Illness Linked
[148]Questions and Answers
[149]Anger Driven Down Wrong Road[150]I Don't Know What To Do[151]New
Diagnosis...My Doc Says I Am Not Bipolar. Should I Go Back to My
Medication?[152]Bipolar Woman with Secret Lives[153]Dealing with
Bipolar Dsorder[154]Is This Bi Polar?[155]A Mom In Need of Help[156]Im
so confused...is is BPD or Bipolar? [157]Not Normal[158]Anger and
Irritability in my husband's behaviour[159]I am bulimic for more than
10 years, and it is killing me...[160]Can I survive without all these
horrible meds?[161]Where can I get the energy[162]Bipolar sister,
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mentally ill and is there anything i can do?[165]Bipolar and
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bi-polars[170]Loyalty or Love?[171]Possible borderline?[172]Dealing
with a family member's complete personality change[173]What type of
exams can proven that a person has bipolar disorder?[174]Am I
bipolar?[175]Bi-polar with PTSD[176]bipolar and homosexuality[177]Yoga
help Bipolar[178]Is Bipolar Inheritable?[179]Physically Abusive
Mentally Ill Son[180]An Empty Shell[181]Sarcastic And Wanting To
Change[182]Out Of Control Friend[183]Bipolar Parenting[184]Odd Eating
Disorder[185]Can ADHD Turn Into Bipolar?[186]Is Bipolar
Inheritable?[187]Single, Stressed And Guilty[188]Bipolar and
Drinking...[189]Marital Crisis[190]Do I Still Need Therapy If I'm
Medicated?[191]Hope For An Alcoholic Manic-Depressive[192]Are Bipolars
Abusive?[193]Parttime Bipolar Girlfriend[194]How Can I Help My Bipolar
Wife?[195]Marijuana?[196]Possible Klonopin Addiction[197]Bipolar
Wife[198]A Test For Bipolar Disorder?[199]Did I Cause My Daughter's
Depression?[200]How Can I Help My Alcoholic Unmedicated Bipolar
Girlfriend?[201]Treatment is Too Much Trouble[202]Bipolar
Illness[203]HMO Blues[204]Problem Child[205]Helping Someone with
Bipolar Disorder[206]Cyclical Moods[207]Depression and
Friendship[208]How Can I Help My Friend?[209]What To Treat
First?[210]Bipolar Chat Rooms?[211]Bipolar or Just Moody?[212]Alone and
Bipolar[213]More Than Friends?[214]Merlin writes:[215]Suzanne writes:
[216]Blog Entries
[217]The Stigma of "Disorder": Wisdom from Therese Borchard[218]Where
There is Life, There is Hope, Depression and Why Suicide is Not an
Option.[219]Living Bipolar: Do you Know Your Triggers?[220]Research
Suggests Mindfulness Reduces Bipolar Relapse[221]Marijuana Makes it
Worse, Revisited[222]Getting Unstuck from the Cycle of Bipolar
Disorder[223]Of Othello and Delusional Jealousy[224]Why it May be Good
If Your Kid has ADHD or Bipolar Genes[225]Bipolar Disorder in Children?
Yes![226]Misdiagnosing Bipolar Disorder: What's at Stake[227]The Link
Between Bipolar Disorder and Anger[228]Star Wars, Stigma, and Carrie
Fisher[229]Bipolar Disorder: What's in a Label?[230]Spotlight on a Live
Journal[231]Mental Health: Our Troubled Teenagers[232]Depression and
Its Meanings[233]Teenage Depression and Consequences[234]Celebrities
Also Have Bipolar Disorder [235]Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Personality
Disorder or Bipolar Disorder?[236]One Strategy You Need to Know for
Bipolar Disorder[237]Personality Disorders and Bipolar Disorder[238]Do
You Have a Bipolar Crisis Kit?[239]Are You at Risk for Depression?
Here's One Way to Find Out[240]Bipolar Mood Swings? 4 Steps to Nip Them
in the Bud[241]Bipolar Disorder: 5 Steps to Sleep [242]Bipolar
Disorder, Treating the Whole Person[243]Handling Difficult Emotions:
The Path Less Traveled[244] To Do: 3 Steps to Healing When You're
Feeling Blue [245]Depression: How We Get Stuck and What Can
Help[246]Break Free from the Mental Recession or Depression by Doing
Less[247]Feeling Depressed? Here's 1 practice that could begin to turn
it around[248]How you can be triggered into depressionwithout even
knowing it[249]Marijuana Makes It Worse: Severe Mental
Illnesses[250]Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation device for
treatment-resistant Major Depression just approved by the
FDA[251]National Depression Screening Day is just around the corner
(October 10th!)[252]Press "D" for Depression Therapy[253]Few People Who
Are Depressed Receive Mental Health Services[254]Pleasure...Depressions
Kryptonite?[255]We've all heard of dental floss, but mental floss to
prevent stress, anxiety, and depression? [256]Three things you can do
immediately when you find yourself getting depressed[257]An Interview
with Yulonda Brown on Surviving Abuse and Bipolar
Disorder[258]Depression: A New Frontier in It's Treatment[259]Our
Bipolar Topic Center has been Updated[260]Feeling Depressed: Influenced
by the Attitudes and Opinions of Others?[261]Bipolar kids see
aggression when it isn't there[262]Bipolar Disorder and the Need for
Psychoeducation[263]Disentangling Rapid-Cycling Bipolar From Borderline
[264]Videos
[265]Bipolar Disorder Video[266]Major Depression Video[267]Bipolar
Disorder Video[268]Antidepressants Video[269]Meet Sue Bergeson:
Depression and Bipolar Support Alliance[270]Managing Bipolar
Disorder[271]Bipolar Disorder - Questions to Ask Your
Doctor[272]Bipolar Disorder - Working with Your Doctor[273]Bipolar
Disorder - Working Toward Wellness[274]Bipolar Disorder in Children:
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Trials so Important[276]Bipolar Disorder: Why Did it Take so Long to
Get Diagnosed?[277]Balancing Bipolar Disorder[278]The Road to Recovery
from Bipolar Disorder[279]Advice for Someone Recently Diagnosed with
Bipolar Disorder[280]How to Find Information about Bipolar
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Disorder[282]Does Bipolar Disorder Affect Children?[283]Getting Help
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Body Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder
Rashmi Nemade, Ph.D. & Mark Dombeck, Ph.D. Updated: Aug 7th 2009
Nervous system, endocrine, and/or immune system difficulties may
conspire to affect one of the less measurable causes of bipolar
disorders: disturbances in body rhythms. As discussed earlier, the
hypothalamus is the link between the nervous and endocrine systems.
Given that the nervous system is also associated with the immune
system, it is possible that the hypothalamus exerts its effect on the
immune system as well. Thus, the combination of these systems can alter
body biochemistry, contributing to shifts in body rhythms such as the
circadian, seasonal, and social rhythms.
Circadian Rhythm and Bipolar Disorder
[441]advertisement
The circadian rhythm is the 24-hour cycle of the body, the exact length
of which is determined by the amount of light that the hypothalamus
senses in a day-night cycle. The name "circadian" refers to a period of
time that is "around a day long". Clear patterns of brain wave activity
and hormone production are coupled to this cycle. When the circadian
rhythm is upset (as can be the case with jet lag and sleep problems)
mood disturbances can result. It is known that in some people sleep
deprivation causes mania, whereas in others it can alleviate the
symptoms of depression. Thus, regulation of circadian rhythm is
important for managing bipolar symptoms and mood episodes.
Dysregulation of this system is typically experienced as a powerful
source of stress.
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) and Bipolar Disorder
Similar to circadian rhythms but longer in duration are seasonal
rhythms. These are determined by the amount of daylight experienced
within a given season. Dysregulation of seasonal rhythms has been
linked with Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD; also known as winter
depression). SAD-affected individuals begin to feel increasingly
depressed as the amount of light disappears during the winter. Their
depression lifts as springtime approaches and the days lengthen. During
times of the year with long days, these people typically experience no
undue mood disturbance.
Social Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder
Both circadian and seasonal rhythms can affect individuals' social
rhythms. The social rhythm comprises of a daily routine such as waking
up at a specific time, going to school or work, and interacting with
family members, friends, peers and colleagues. Even healthy people can
experience mood changes when their social rhythms are disturbed by
insomnia, seasonal changes or work schedules. It is no great leap to
see that if someone is susceptible to bipolar disorder, a change in
their body rhythms might constitute sufficient stress to precipitate
bipolar symptoms.
When considering the possible causes of bipolar disorders, it is
necessary to bear in mind the complex nature of mood polarity. It is
likely that that the problem originates in multiple biologic systems -
the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems with a basis in the genetic
machinery that regulates these systems. For example, a gene important
in the function of the hypothalamus may become mutated or infected by a
retrovirus leading to deregulation of neurotransmitters, hormones,
and/or immune components. The resulting change is measurable as
biochemical imbalances in either the brain or body but these
biochemical imbalances are not necessarily causing the underlying
dysfunction, but instead may simply be themselves symptoms or links in
a chain of causes that lead to bipolar illness.
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rhythm game using body percussion
[63][print.gif] Printable Version for your convenience!
Title - rhythm game using body percussion
By - Michelle L. Miller
Primary Subject - Music
Secondary Subjects -
Grade Level - 4-8
Objective: Students will be able to accurately write and count rhythms.
Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of
two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the
board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for
each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole
notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for
half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap
fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth
notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and
their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board
and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests.
Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding.
To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3
teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to
the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then
plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat
pat snap snap palms up--
quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest).
Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play
for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only
need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately
gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one
done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect
answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The
whole lesson takes about 30 minutes.
Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as
performed by teacher.
Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills
development and have fun at the same time!!
NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love
it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and
counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well.
Have fun!!
E-Mail [64]Michelle L. Miller!
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Medical Author: [39]William C. Shiel, Jr., MD, FACP, FACR
Medical Editor: [40]Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD
* [41]What are biologic rhythms?
* [42]How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness?
* [43]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms?
* [44]Angina
* [45]Heart attack
* [46]High blood pressure (hypertension)
* [47]Hay fever (allergic rhinitis)
* [48]Asthma
* [49]Can the "body clock" affect diagnostic testing?
* [50]Can drug therapy be matched to the "body clock?"
* [51]Chronobiology: marking time, making progress
What are biologic rhythms?
What are biologic rhythms? In essence, they're the rhythms of life. All
forms of life on earth, including our bodies, respond rhythmically to
the regular cycles of the sun, moon, and seasons.
For example, as night turns into day, vital body functions, including
heart rate and [52]blood pressure, speed up in anticipation of
increased physical activity. These and other predictable fluctuations
in body function, taking place during specific time cycles, are our
biologic rhythms. They are regulated by "biologic clock" mechanisms
located in the brain.
Although biologic rhythms can be "reprogrammed" by environmental
influences (such as when a person regularly works the night shift and
sleeps during the day), they are genetically "hard-wired" into our
cells, tissues, and organs.
Medical chronobiologists have found that biologic rhythms can affect
the severity of disease symptoms, diagnostic test results, and even the
body's response to drug therapy. Now these investigators are working to
discover how the rhythms of life can be used to improve the practice of
medicine - and your health.
These time-related medical observations, and others still in the
exciting process of discovery, are rooted in chronobiology (chronos -
time; bios - life; logos - science), the study of biologic rhythms.
How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness?
Among the various biologic rhythm cycles that medical chronobiologists
study, the 24-hour day/night-activity/rest cycle is considered a key
chronobiologic factor in medical [53]diagnosis and treatment. Formally
known as the [54]circadian rhythm, it's also referred to as the "body
clock."
Why is the 24-hour body clock so important?
Because so many of our normal body functions follow daily patterns of
speeding up and slowing down, intensifying and diminishing, in
alignment with circadian rhythm. Interestingly, so do the symptoms of a
number of [55]chronic disorders:
Allergic rhinitis: (nasal inflammation associated with hay fever)
Symptoms of sneezing, [56]runny nose, and stuffy nose are typically
worse in the early waking hours than later during the day.
Asthma: In most patients, symptoms are more than 100 times as likely to
occur in the few hours prior to awakening than during the day.
Stable angina: [57]Chest pain and [58]electrocardiographic (ECG, EKG)
abnormalities are most common during the first 4 to 6 hours after
awakening.
[59]Prinzmetal's angina: ECG abnormalities are most common during
[60]sleep; chest pain can occur even while at rest.
Heart attack: Heart attack most commonly occurs in the early waking
hours.
Stroke: [61]Strokes most commonly occur in the early waking hours.
Hypertension: The highest blood pressure readings typically occur from
late morning to middle afternoon; lowest occur during early sleep.
Therapy now exists that works with your body clock; consult your
physician about this treatment. Clinical studies are underway to
further this research.
[62]Rheumatoid arthritis: RA symptoms are most intense upon awakening.
[63]Osteoarthritis: Symptoms of osteoarthritis worsen in the afternoon
and evening.
Ulcer disease: The pain typically occurs after stomach emptying,
following daytime meals, and in the very early morning, disrupting
sleep.
[64]Epilepsy: Seizures often occur only at particular times of the day
or night; individual patterns differ among patients.
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biorhythms? »
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[96]Jet Lag »
What is jet lag?
Jet lag, also called desynchronosis, is a temporary disorder that
causes fatigue, insomnia, and other symptoms as a result of air travel
across time zones.
What are other symptoms of jet lag?
Besides fatigue and insomnia, a jet lag sufferer may experience
anxiety, constipation, diarrhea, confusion, dehydration, headache,
irritability, nausea, sweating, coordination problems, and even memory
loss. Some individuals report additional symptoms, such as heartbeat
irregularities and increased susceptibility to illness.
What is a time zone?
A time zone is a geographical region which has the same time everywhere
within it. The world has 24 time zones, one for each hour in the day.
Each zone runs from north to south in strips that are approximately
1,000 miles (1,600 kilometers) wide. (The actual width of each zone
varies to accommodate political and geographical boundaries.) As...
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Journal Article [33]Printable view
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Journal [34]Surgery Today
Publisher Springer Japan
ISSN 0941-1291 (Print) 1436-2813 (Online)
Issue [35]Volume 17, Number 3 / May, 1987
Category Short Communication
DOI 10.1007/BF02470602
Pages 209-212
Subject Collection [36]Medicine
SpringerLink Date Thursday, July 20, 2006
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Short Communication
Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm
Jun Narumi^1 Contact Information , Kozo Suma^1, Hidemi Kaneko^1,
Yasuo Takeuchi^1, Kenji Inoue^1, Kenji Shiroma^1 and Yuji Koyama^1
(1) Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, 2nd Hospital of Tokyo
Women's Medical College, 2-1-10 Nishiogu, Arakawaku, 116 Tokyo, Japan
Received: 7 April 1986
Abstract The postoperative deep body temperature rhythms of fifteen
patients who received aorto-coronary bypass surgery (group I), and of
seven patients who received non-cardiac major surgery (group II), were
studied. Postoperative patients, especially those who received
aortocoronary bypass surgery, showed greatly disturbed deep body
temperature rhythm. There existed infradian and ultradian rhythm in
both groups, and there existed two patients in group I who did not show
sinusoidal rhythm. The patients of group I also showed a longer period
of rhythm than did those of group II. The mesor and amplitude of the
patients in group I showed a greater individual variation than did
those in group II. The acrophase of both groups deviated widely. The
patients who underwent cardiac surgery needed a longer time for
temperature rhythm recovery than did those who underwent general
surgery.
Key Words deep body temperature rhythm - intensive care
unit - post-operative patients
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Rhythms and Body Clock
Circadian Rhythm
From the Latin circa (about) dies (a day), the circadian rhythm is the
twenty-four-hour cycle of light/dark, wakefulness/sleep to which most
human physiologic processes are set. At regular intervals each day, the
body tends to become hungry, tired, active, listless, energized. Body
temperature, heart-beat, blood pressure, hormone levels, and urine flow
rise and fall in this relatively predictable, rhythmic pattern - a
pattern initiated and governed by exposure to sunlight and darkness.
Experiments where humans were placed in isolation chambers, cut off
from all potential environmental cues, have shown that, in the absence
of natural daylight, rhythms are still maintained. But in the absence
of the day light, the rhythms tend to deviate from 24 hours. For
instance, the rhythms was found to expand to 24-30 hours, thus
disrupting the biological processes over a long period of time.
The fact that animals and humans can continue to function according to
daily and annual rhythms in the absence of external environmental
stimuli means that animals and humans possess some kind of biological
clock, which act as a backup mechanism in case it cannot get the proper
stimuli from the natural events such as sunshine.
This behavior can be illustrated by our clocks. Let us say, our clock
is running slow. Over a period of time, the clock may lag the actual
time because of this defect. Usually, we will reset the clock when it
gets far out of sync by other external stimuli like a radio or phone
time. Now, if we do not have access to this external synchronizing
signal, the clock can get far out of line with the reality. Our body
clocks functions the same way. The biological clock can keep the time;
but in the absence of correction from the day/light cycle provided by
the sun, the biological clock tend go out of sync affecting our
physical and mental health. A similar thing happens when we travel
across time zones; we tend to experience what is known as "jet lag".
However, in the absence of natural light our body clocks may lose or
gain a little time. This in turn could lead to the desynchronization of
different rhythms. For example, in the absence of sufficient
environmental light the sleep-wake and associated rest-activity rhythms
may lengthen to a cycle of between 30 and 48 hours, while the
temperature rhythm may remain at a period of, say, 25 hours. Such
desynchronization of the body's intricate rhythms is suspected to
trigger problems: hormonal imbalances, sleep disorders and mood
disturbances.
Circannual Rhythm
Circannual rhythm is the annual or yearly cycle used by all living
things.
Circaseptan Rhythm
Circaseptan rhythm is a seven-day cycle in which the biological
processes of life, including disease symptoms and development, resolve.
Many physicians believe that transplant patients tend to have more
rejection episodes seven, fourteen, twenty-one, and twenty-eight days
after surgery. They further believe that medications administered to
the patients at particular times may be more effective than at other
times. These are all related to the circaseptan rhythm.
How does the brain know when it is light or dark?
Deep within the brain, inside the hypothalamus, lie two clusters of
cells (i.e., neurons) called the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN). Each of
these SCN is composed of more than 8,000 neurons. The SCN act as the
body's circadian pacemaker. In mammals, the SCN appear to get their
information from photoreceptors in the retina, which transmit signals
about light and dark through the optic nerves to the hypothalamus. Once
these messages enter the SCN, a series of physiological reactions takes
place.
What happens after the light/dark signal reaches the SCN?
We are not sure. The pathway from the retina through the optic nerves
to the SCN extends further to reach the pineal gland, which lies
adjacent to the hypothalamus above the brain stem. Stimulated by the
message it receives from the SCN, the pineal gland either secretes its
main hormone, melatonin, or inhibits melatonin's release, which may
result in the production of serotonin as was explained before.
Next Topic: [34]Light Therapy for Seasonal Affective Disorder
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[52]Bipolar Disorder
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[69]Basic Information
[70]Introduction to Bipolar Disorder
[71]Introduction to Bipolar Disorder and Mood Disorders[72]Movement on
an Energy Continuum: Bipolar Disorder, Mania and Manic Episodes
[73]Types of Bipolar and Similar Disorders
[74]Hypomania and Hypomanic Episodes Defined[75]Bipolar Disorder -
Depression, Major Depressive Episodes and Mixed Episodes[76]Recognized
Types of Bipolar Disorder[77]Mental Health Conditions Similar but
Distinct from Bipolar Disorder[78]Borderline Personality Disorder and
Schizoaffective Disorder Show Symptoms Similar to Bipolar
Disorder[79]Bipolar Disorder versus Major Depression and Premenstrual
Dysphoric Disorder
[80]Current Understandings and Body Systems
[81]Statistics and Patterns in Bipolar Disorder[82]Historical and
Contemporary Understandings of Bipolar Disorder[83]History and
Evolution of Bipolar Disorder Diagnosis[84]Contemporary Understanding
of Bipolar Disorder: Causes and Outcomes[85]Neurochemistry and
Endocrinology in Bipolar Disorder[86]Immunology and Bipolar
Disorder[87]Body Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder[88]Brain Imaging and
Bipolar Disorder
[89]Diagnosis of Bipolar Disorder
[90]Bipolar Diagnosis and Bipolar I[91]Bipolar II Disorder,
Cyclothymia, and Bipolar Disorder, NOS
[92]Medication Treatments for Bipolar Disorder
[93]Bipolar Medication Treatment[94]Bipolar Disorder Treatment -
Lithium[95]Bipolar Disorder Treatment - Valproate and
Carbamazepine[96]Bipolar Disorder Treatment - Lamotrigine, Gabapentin,
Topiramate and Calcium Channel Blockers[97]Bipolar Disorder Treatment -
Antipsychotic Medications and Omega-3 fatty acids[98]Bipolar Disorder
Treatment - SSRI and SNRI Antidepressants[99]Bipolar Disorder Treatment
- Tricyclics, MAOIs, and Other Antidepressants
[100]Psychotherapy and Other Treatments
[101]Bipolar Disorder Treatment - Hospitalization and Electroconvulsive
Therapy[102]Bipolar Disorder Treatment - Psychotherapy and Cognitive
Behavioral Therapy[103]Bipolar Disorder Treatment - Family Focused
Therapy and Interpersonal/Social Rhythm Therapy
[104]Self-Help and Helping Others
[105]Self-Help for Bipolar Disorder[106]How Family And Friends Can Help
Those with Bipolar Disorder[107]Bipolar Disorder Suicide[108]How Family
and Friends of Those with Bipolar Disorder Can Help Themselves
[109]References and Reading List
[110]Bipolar Disorder Reading List[111]Bipolar Disorder References
[112]More Information
[113]Bipolar Disorder in Children? Yes![114]Bipolar Disorder Research
at the National Institute of Mental Health[115]Bipolar Disorder,
Treating the Whole Person[116]Child and Adolescent Bipolar Disorder: An
Update from the National Institute of Mental Health[117]Depression and
Its Meanings[118]Disentangling Rapid-Cycling Bipolar From
Borderline[119]Disentangling Rapid-Cycling Bipolar From
Borderline[120]Going to Extremes - Bipolar Disorder[121]Marijuana Makes
it Worse, Revisited[122]Mental Health: Our Troubled Teenagers[123]Of
Othello and Delusional Jealousy[124]Spotlight on a Live
Journal[125]Teenage Depression and Consequences[126]The Link Between
Bipolar Disorder and Anger[127]Where There is Life, There is Hope,
Depression and Why Suicide is Not an Option.[128]Wise Counsel Interview
Transcript: An Interview with Lorna Hyde Graev on Living With Bipolar
Disorder[129]Wise Counsel Interview Transcript: An Interview with
Yulonda Brown on Surviving Abuse and Bipolar
[130]Tests
[131]Goldberg Mania Questionnaire
[132]Latest News
[133]Drug Treatments Compared in Bipolar Disorder[134]Lithium Beats
Valproate for Long-Term Bipolar Therapy[135]Clinical Trials Update:
Dec. 10, 2009[136]Anti-Epileptic Drugs Found Safe to Treat Bipolar
Disorder[137]Risk of Birth Defects with Valproate Sodium and Related
Products[138]Clinical Trials Update: Nov. 30, 2009[139]Bipolar Disorder
May Be Tied to Body Clock[140]Clinical Trials Update: Nov. 23,
2009[141]Twin Study Eyes Inflammation in Those With Bipolar
Disorder[142]Saphris Approved for Schizophrenia and Bipolar
Disorder[143]Gloomy Days Dim Cognitive Powers of the
Depressed[144]Depression Poses Pregnancy Risks[145]Schizophrenia and
Bipolar Disorder Share Genetic Roots[146]Risperdal Consta Approved for
Bipolar Disorder[147]Parent's Bipolar Disorder, Offspring's Mental
Illness Linked
[148]Questions and Answers
[149]Anger Driven Down Wrong Road[150]I Don't Know What To Do[151]New
Diagnosis...My Doc Says I Am Not Bipolar. Should I Go Back to My
Medication?[152]Bipolar Woman with Secret Lives[153]Dealing with
Bipolar Dsorder[154]Is This Bi Polar?[155]A Mom In Need of Help[156]Im
so confused...is is BPD or Bipolar? [157]Not Normal[158]Anger and
Irritability in my husband's behaviour[159]I am bulimic for more than
10 years, and it is killing me...[160]Can I survive without all these
horrible meds?[161]Where can I get the energy[162]Bipolar sister,
Narcissist boyfriend[163]Should I give up on this marriage?[164]Is she
mentally ill and is there anything i can do?[165]Bipolar and
children[166]Will I be ok without professional help?[167]Pregnant with
bipolar[168]Is it ok to feel this way?[169]abuse toward
bi-polars[170]Loyalty or Love?[171]Possible borderline?[172]Dealing
with a family member's complete personality change[173]What type of
exams can proven that a person has bipolar disorder?[174]Am I
bipolar?[175]Bi-polar with PTSD[176]bipolar and homosexuality[177]Yoga
help Bipolar[178]Is Bipolar Inheritable?[179]Physically Abusive
Mentally Ill Son[180]An Empty Shell[181]Sarcastic And Wanting To
Change[182]Out Of Control Friend[183]Bipolar Parenting[184]Odd Eating
Disorder[185]Can ADHD Turn Into Bipolar?[186]Is Bipolar
Inheritable?[187]Single, Stressed And Guilty[188]Bipolar and
Drinking...[189]Marital Crisis[190]Do I Still Need Therapy If I'm
Medicated?[191]Hope For An Alcoholic Manic-Depressive[192]Are Bipolars
Abusive?[193]Parttime Bipolar Girlfriend[194]How Can I Help My Bipolar
Wife?[195]Marijuana?[196]Possible Klonopin Addiction[197]Bipolar
Wife[198]A Test For Bipolar Disorder?[199]Did I Cause My Daughter's
Depression?[200]How Can I Help My Alcoholic Unmedicated Bipolar
Girlfriend?[201]Treatment is Too Much Trouble[202]Bipolar
Illness[203]HMO Blues[204]Problem Child[205]Helping Someone with
Bipolar Disorder[206]Cyclical Moods[207]Depression and
Friendship[208]How Can I Help My Friend?[209]What To Treat
First?[210]Bipolar Chat Rooms?[211]Bipolar or Just Moody?[212]Alone and
Bipolar[213]More Than Friends?[214]Merlin writes:[215]Suzanne writes:
[216]Blog Entries
[217]The Stigma of "Disorder": Wisdom from Therese Borchard[218]Where
There is Life, There is Hope, Depression and Why Suicide is Not an
Option.[219]Living Bipolar: Do you Know Your Triggers?[220]Research
Suggests Mindfulness Reduces Bipolar Relapse[221]Marijuana Makes it
Worse, Revisited[222]Getting Unstuck from the Cycle of Bipolar
Disorder[223]Of Othello and Delusional Jealousy[224]Why it May be Good
If Your Kid has ADHD or Bipolar Genes[225]Bipolar Disorder in Children?
Yes![226]Misdiagnosing Bipolar Disorder: What's at Stake[227]The Link
Between Bipolar Disorder and Anger[228]Star Wars, Stigma, and Carrie
Fisher[229]Bipolar Disorder: What's in a Label?[230]Spotlight on a Live
Journal[231]Mental Health: Our Troubled Teenagers[232]Depression and
Its Meanings[233]Teenage Depression and Consequences[234]Celebrities
Also Have Bipolar Disorder [235]Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Personality
Disorder or Bipolar Disorder?[236]One Strategy You Need to Know for
Bipolar Disorder[237]Personality Disorders and Bipolar Disorder[238]Do
You Have a Bipolar Crisis Kit?[239]Are You at Risk for Depression?
Here's One Way to Find Out[240]Bipolar Mood Swings? 4 Steps to Nip Them
in the Bud[241]Bipolar Disorder: 5 Steps to Sleep [242]Bipolar
Disorder, Treating the Whole Person[243]Handling Difficult Emotions:
The Path Less Traveled[244] To Do: 3 Steps to Healing When You're
Feeling Blue [245]Depression: How We Get Stuck and What Can
Help[246]Break Free from the Mental Recession or Depression by Doing
Less[247]Feeling Depressed? Here's 1 practice that could begin to turn
it around[248]How you can be triggered into depressionwithout even
knowing it[249]Marijuana Makes It Worse: Severe Mental
Illnesses[250]Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation device for
treatment-resistant Major Depression just approved by the
FDA[251]National Depression Screening Day is just around the corner
(October 10th!)[252]Press "D" for Depression Therapy[253]Few People Who
Are Depressed Receive Mental Health Services[254]Pleasure...Depressions
Kryptonite?[255]We've all heard of dental floss, but mental floss to
prevent stress, anxiety, and depression? [256]Three things you can do
immediately when you find yourself getting depressed[257]An Interview
with Yulonda Brown on Surviving Abuse and Bipolar
Disorder[258]Depression: A New Frontier in It's Treatment[259]Our
Bipolar Topic Center has been Updated[260]Feeling Depressed: Influenced
by the Attitudes and Opinions of Others?[261]Bipolar kids see
aggression when it isn't there[262]Bipolar Disorder and the Need for
Psychoeducation[263]Disentangling Rapid-Cycling Bipolar From Borderline
[264]Videos
[265]Bipolar Disorder Video[266]Major Depression Video[267]Bipolar
Disorder Video[268]Antidepressants Video[269]Meet Sue Bergeson:
Depression and Bipolar Support Alliance[270]Managing Bipolar
Disorder[271]Bipolar Disorder - Questions to Ask Your
Doctor[272]Bipolar Disorder - Working with Your Doctor[273]Bipolar
Disorder - Working Toward Wellness[274]Bipolar Disorder in Children:
The Importance of Family Support[275]Bipolar Disorder: Why Are Clinical
Trials so Important[276]Bipolar Disorder: Why Did it Take so Long to
Get Diagnosed?[277]Balancing Bipolar Disorder[278]The Road to Recovery
from Bipolar Disorder[279]Advice for Someone Recently Diagnosed with
Bipolar Disorder[280]How to Find Information about Bipolar
Disorder[281]Are There Genetic Risk Factors for Bipolar
Disorder[282]Does Bipolar Disorder Affect Children?[283]Getting Help
for Family Members of Bipolar Patients Video[284]Types of Depression
Video
[285]Links
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Journals[290][1] Assessment[291][1] Research[292][20] Videos[293][2]
Personal Experiences[294][21] Blogs
[295]Book Reviews
[296]Active Treatment of Depression[297]Adult Bipolar
Disorders[298]Agents in My Brain[299]American Mania[300]An Unquiet
Mind[301]Bipolar Disorder[302]Bipolar Disorder Demystified[303]Bipolar
Disorder in Childhood and Early Adolescence[304]Bipolar
Disorders[305]Bipolar Kids[306]Crazy[307]Daughter of the Queen of
Sheba[308]Depression Is a
Choice[309]Detour[310]Electroboy[311]Essential Psychopharmacology of
Depression and Bipolar Disorder[312]Hurry Down Sunshine[313]I am Not
Sick I Don't Need Help![314]Lithium for Medea[315]Loving Someone With
Bipolar Disorder[316]Madness[317]Manic[318]Manic Depression[319]Mommy
I'm Still in Here[320]Mood Genes[321]New Hope for Children and Teens
with Bipolar Disorder[322]New Hope For People With Bipolar
Disorder[323]Night Falls Fast[324]Overcoming
Depression[325]Scattershot[326]Surviving Manic Depression[327]Swing
Low[328]The Best Awful[329]The Bipolar Child[330]The Bipolar Disorder
Survival Guide[331]The Devil and Daniel Johnston[332]The Hypomanic
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the Pendulum[336]The Years of Silence are Past[337]To Walk on
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Up[341]What Works for Bipolar Kids[342]Zelda
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Body Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder
Rashmi Nemade, Ph.D. & Mark Dombeck, Ph.D. Updated: Aug 7th 2009
Nervous system, endocrine, and/or immune system difficulties may
conspire to affect one of the less measurable causes of bipolar
disorders: disturbances in body rhythms. As discussed earlier, the
hypothalamus is the link between the nervous and endocrine systems.
Given that the nervous system is also associated with the immune
system, it is possible that the hypothalamus exerts its effect on the
immune system as well. Thus, the combination of these systems can alter
body biochemistry, contributing to shifts in body rhythms such as the
circadian, seasonal, and social rhythms.
Circadian Rhythm and Bipolar Disorder
[441]advertisement
The circadian rhythm is the 24-hour cycle of the body, the exact length
of which is determined by the amount of light that the hypothalamus
senses in a day-night cycle. The name "circadian" refers to a period of
time that is "around a day long". Clear patterns of brain wave activity
and hormone production are coupled to this cycle. When the circadian
rhythm is upset (as can be the case with jet lag and sleep problems)
mood disturbances can result. It is known that in some people sleep
deprivation causes mania, whereas in others it can alleviate the
symptoms of depression. Thus, regulation of circadian rhythm is
important for managing bipolar symptoms and mood episodes.
Dysregulation of this system is typically experienced as a powerful
source of stress.
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) and Bipolar Disorder
Similar to circadian rhythms but longer in duration are seasonal
rhythms. These are determined by the amount of daylight experienced
within a given season. Dysregulation of seasonal rhythms has been
linked with Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD; also known as winter
depression). SAD-affected individuals begin to feel increasingly
depressed as the amount of light disappears during the winter. Their
depression lifts as springtime approaches and the days lengthen. During
times of the year with long days, these people typically experience no
undue mood disturbance.
Social Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder
Both circadian and seasonal rhythms can affect individuals' social
rhythms. The social rhythm comprises of a daily routine such as waking
up at a specific time, going to school or work, and interacting with
family members, friends, peers and colleagues. Even healthy people can
experience mood changes when their social rhythms are disturbed by
insomnia, seasonal changes or work schedules. It is no great leap to
see that if someone is susceptible to bipolar disorder, a change in
their body rhythms might constitute sufficient stress to precipitate
bipolar symptoms.
When considering the possible causes of bipolar disorders, it is
necessary to bear in mind the complex nature of mood polarity. It is
likely that that the problem originates in multiple biologic systems -
the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems with a basis in the genetic
machinery that regulates these systems. For example, a gene important
in the function of the hypothalamus may become mutated or infected by a
retrovirus leading to deregulation of neurotransmitters, hormones,
and/or immune components. The resulting change is measurable as
biochemical imbalances in either the brain or body but these
biochemical imbalances are not necessarily causing the underlying
dysfunction, but instead may simply be themselves symptoms or links in
a chain of causes that lead to bipolar illness.
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how to [3]translate Morse Code into music; 2) an online [4]Morse Code
Music generator you can play right now on your computer; and 3)
multimedia [5]activities that integrate Morse Code with other areas of
the curriculum! So, take a couple of minutes and learn more about
Morse Code and the wonderful connections we can make between language
and music.
Translating Morse Code into Music
With International Morse Code, each letter of the alphabet is
represented by short and long sounds called dots and dashes.
Each dot, or short sound, will be played as an eighth note.
. dot short sound [eighth%20note.jpg] eighth note
Each dash, or long sound, will be played as a quarter note.
- dash long sound [quarter%20note.jpg] quarter note
Between each letter, there will be an eighth rest.
[eighth%20rest.jpg] eighth
rest
Each rhythm will be played in 4/4 time: four counts to a measure, with
the quarter note getting one count.
[time%20signature.jpg] time signature
To hear how this works, please see the Morse Code Music activity below.
Morse Code Music
How to play Morse Code Music: Scroll down until to see the keyboard on
the screen. Using your mouse, click on the first letter in your name
notice that it appears on the screen. Now, finish typing your name
with your mouse or keyboard. Press the Play button and hear your name
in Morse Code! To delete a character, just press the Backspace key.
For a different sound, press the Tones or Voices buttons on the left of
the keyboard. You may also want to listen to some of Phil's favorite
words and by pressing the Words button. You will also find [6]drum
language from the Congo, ancient [7]Aztec drum rhythms, and popular
modern dance beats from around the world all played with Morse Code.
You're ready, let's get started!
Technical Note: You must have Macromedia Flash Player 6 for this
activity to work. If you don't have it, you may obtain this free
download from Macromedia at:
Extensions
Learn how to make music with Morse Code letters and words.
[9][products-philguiro.jpg] [10]"Morse Code Mambo" lesson plan and
group activity
Play Morse Code words with Phil's free multimedia activities.
[11][Unifix.gif]
[12]Unifix Cube Drum Machine
[13][FractionPies.gif]
[14]Playing Fraction Pies
[15][Counting.gif] [16]Counting Music
Copyright © 2004 - 2006 Phil Tulga
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[15]rhythm engine
[16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am
rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its
the only way
always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret
Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London
[18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django
100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the
musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good
players!
If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere
else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out
there and support these guys books are not always the answer
LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL
WORKSHOPS
Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010
Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt,
these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate
directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt
Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of
this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a
chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and
non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play
this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of
techniques and musical ideas.
These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts
Council England.
WORKSHOPS £35
o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz
double bass.
o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except
beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the
masters themselves
Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from
13.30 - 15.30
Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com
Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227
[20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records
January Workshops at a Glance:
Sunday 17 January
Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance
Battersea
Monday 18 January
Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Tuesday 19 January
Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Wednesday 20 January
Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
South Kensington
Thursday 21 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea
Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Friday 22 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Saturday 23 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea
Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith
Sunday 24 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea
We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to
happen.
ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT
WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS
AND STUDENTS
SUNDAY 17th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk
Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching
himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then
added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a
composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and
one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays
Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions.
An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted
musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz
scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg,
Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu
Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others.
[23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the
opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY
17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at
[25]www.wegottickets.com
MONDAY 18th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is
popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his
music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients,
intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst
retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive.
Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music,
their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous,
humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will
be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY
18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[27]www.wegottickets.com
TUESDAY 19th JANUARY
Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[28]www.quecumbar.co.uk
A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of
this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for
these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more
advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to
any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind,
multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span
violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy
musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later
swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de
Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired
by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger,
and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he
studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked
closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo
DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of
orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance
instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania
and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene.
[29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com
[31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com
Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO
on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from
[32]www.wegottickets.com
WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry
Place
London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on
today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy
Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more
contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at
numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus
has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His
virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which
fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson.
[34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl
[36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ;
Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy
Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[39]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel
Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in
Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was
spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where
he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and
non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the
world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane
Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light
and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid
Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his
own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are
acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured
on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona.
[40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com
Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER
TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[42]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[43]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from
Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also
studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has
worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has
recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists
including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego
Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and
James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha
[45]www.bielballestertrio.com
Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY
21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[46]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first
learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy
masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style
that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a
young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs,
demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond
his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with
bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy
Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg,
Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada
with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this
music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label,
El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in
Spain.
[49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com
[51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic
Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th
JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah
Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier:
Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter:
German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY
24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli
Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin;
Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND
FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo
Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani
van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at
[53]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy
Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246
King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk
Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line).
Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous
Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he
began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and
released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous
CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist,
he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with
modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with
its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself
to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour.
[55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette
Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
(Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi
Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion;
Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from
[56]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London
SW11 3JB
SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk
Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar
master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite
family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and
Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a
style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive
and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic
Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style
and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he
loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions
and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django
tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo
touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes
Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of
performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after
master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy.
He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of
15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing
competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with
"Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of
the top 1.4% of entrants.
"...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to
applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard;
"It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again",
Zutphen Paper.
[58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier
Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary
Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar;
Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass.
SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy,
guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie
Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th
birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and
stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with
unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their
Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating
in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo,
Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple
stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill,
technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate
café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music
was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of
Gypsy Swing,
WORKSHOP VENUES:
Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
17 Queensberry Place
London SW7 2DT
[60]www.institut-francais.org.uk
Tube: South Kensington
How to get there:
From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line
its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6
Jazz Cafe POSK
The Polish Cultural Centre
238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London
W6 0RF
Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line
Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost
next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same.
There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus
that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction.
Thomas's School
28-40 Battersea High Street,
London SW11 3JB
[63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Royal Academy of Dance
36 Battersea Square, Battersea,
London SW11 3RA
[64]www.rad.org.uk
[65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Le QuecumBar & Brasserie
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3HX
[66]www.quecumbar.co.uk
[67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
How to find us by Bus Route 170:
The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction
or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station.
(A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station
about £10)
170 from Victoria Station:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off
the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on
to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and
Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right
170 from Clapham Junction:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk
forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side
of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea
High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the
right
By Train:
Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk
or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from,
Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch
the 170 bus
By Car:
Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends
London Airports:
Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct
train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return
Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx
or train to central London
Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to
Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District
Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any
eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street
Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch
the 170 bus.
Map of where Le QuecumBar is:
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3 HX:
[68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud
to have the support of our world class musician patrons:
Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie
John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg
[69]quecumbar
Posts: 3
Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm
Location: London
+ [70]E-mail quecumbar
+ [71]Website
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(WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
* Biblio. Data
* [2]Description
* [3]Claims
* [4]National Phase
* [5]Notices
* [6]Documents
Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau
* [7]Link
+ [8]Permanent Link
+ [9]Bookmark this page
__________________________________________________________________
Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.:
PCT/US1999/000569
Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999
IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01)
Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake
Village, CA 91361 (US).
Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US).
Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box
640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US).
Priority Data:
09/013,353 26.01.1998 US
Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument
provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a
user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30)
corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a
series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture
controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of
which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical
note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along
with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed
musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the
selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities
also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure
table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or
automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played
along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then
be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system.
A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of
phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm
engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that
phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity
information and may contain polyphonic information.
Designated States: JP.
European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB,
GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE).
Publication Language: English (EN)
Filing Language: English (EN)
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Références
A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event
by David Lindsay
Copyright 2002. All right reserved.
In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and
musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can
be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods
of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present
paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm.
Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with
the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the
genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from
them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during
which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During
replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and
so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event.
Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates
to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present
approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation
process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA
dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins
generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our
scope.
The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known.
The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform
rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand,
and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.)
A C G T
T G C A
These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also
obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by
three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with
rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three:
A C G T
|| ||| ||| ||
T G C A
In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be
broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the
dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of
events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological
organisms--play a determining role.
Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to
break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy.
Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower
than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as
governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call
this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows
the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is
constant, by the following coefficients:
A=2
C=3
G=3
T=2
Given an arbitrary DNA sequence:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes:
2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2
Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state
constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation
is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA
molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich
regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In
vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation
progresses away from the initiation site:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
-------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can
be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event.
H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based
stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four
sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation
differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins,
which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that
constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated
above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four:
2332 2222 2232
Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its
expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two
opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a
replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond
breakage are activated simultaneously:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
|| ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm
expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger --
will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied
equally to molecular processes or musical ones.
Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the
case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and
indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is
varied its energy profile.
The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could,
for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient
to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate,
while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster
of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the
governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and
unstressed "beats," such that:
A=2=unstressed beat (-)
C=3=stressed beat (´)
G=3=stressed beat (´)
T=2=unstressed beat (-)
Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It
should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not
founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any
other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to
scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation
process.
Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy
profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close
observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating
music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given
the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if
any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may
cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication
will suffice.
Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would
facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such
cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry.
In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the
origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward
resonance.
Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to
fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA
strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to
transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for
example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will
tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which
is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering
a suspension bridge.
The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and
non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because
it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in
comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the
properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate
the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription.
1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences,"
Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts
(Sept. 1995).
For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting
and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here.
[2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles.
For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here.
website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan
University.
Références
Liens visibles
Liens cachés :
CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project
[1]CRE Personnel
What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project?
The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful
way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented
music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision,
continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional
deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of
different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to
yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an
editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising
context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to
drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software
consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data
(e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that
represents these programs and data visually.
Expressive timing
One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently
commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained
control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or
rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say,
tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with
these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in
the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we
can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes
slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat).
All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in
human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with
manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a
musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in
rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this
project.
Composition and combination techniques
Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its
facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include
making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering
different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and
heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and
most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of
such structures.
Applications
Here are some possible applications of CRE:
* Anything that any standard drum machine does
* Automated percussion tracks with "human feel"
* A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the
same rhythms with "human feel"
* Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable
(e.g. the 30-second commercial)
* Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with
irrationally-related durations
* Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at
will, in real time
* Making a program that improvises by "driving around in
rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine
listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or
invention according to some combination of generative processes)
* Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without
altering the tree structure.
Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since
this list provides checkpoints for the software development.
__________________________________________________________________
Page maintained by Vijay Iyer
Last modified July 15, 1996
__________________________________________________________________
[2]Up to Vijay's page
[3]Up to CNMAT homepage
[4]Send mail to the CRE group
[5]Send mail to Vijay Iyer
Références
4. mailto:cdm@icsi.berkeley.edu
5. mailto:vijay@cnmat.berkeley.edu
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[15]Jennifer Wagaman
Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students
Lesson Ideas Involving Rhythm for Young Students
[16]Dec 16, 2008 [17]Jennifer Wagaman
Be creative and resourceful when teaching kindergarten students about
rhythm.
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Teaching rhythm to Kindergarten students can be a fun way to get
students moving around the classroom. When writing lesson plans with
the objective towards learning rhythm, consider not only the manner in
which you teach the students, but which songs would provide the best
lesson opportunity, as well as which songs will work for the short
attention span the students have.
How to Teach Rhythm
Use the body demonstrate the beat, also called body percussion, will
help students feel the beat and learn the rhythm. This can involve
having the students clap, tap, or stomp their feet while singing. This
reinforces beat in a tactile manner, and helps the students stay
focused on what you are doing. You can also use any opportunity you
have to get the students up and moving about the room while singing
songs. Although this does take decent [18]classroom management skills,
it may also help your student's behavior as they are not required to
sit still throughout the class period.
What Songs Teach Rhythm
Teaching children about rhythm can be a great time to introduce some
fun songs. Lessons involving rhythm can be taught with any song that
has a steady beat, which basically means that most songs are good to
teach rhythm. Pick songs that the students either already know or are
easy to teach, as this will ensure that they already know the basic
rhythm.
Some good songs to use for teaching rhythm include songs like Engine
Engine Number Nine, and Skip to My Lou. For Engine Engine Number Nine,
after teaching the song, have the students form a train and move around
the room to the beat of the train in the song. For Skip to My Lou, have
the students walk, march, or skip around the room to the beat of the
song.
Keep Attention Span in Mind
Because a Kindergarten age child has a relatively short attention span,
keep your songs short and varied. Do several songs per class period. It
is better to do 3 five minute songs, assuming a 20 minute class period,
than to spend 15 minutes on one song. So once again, choose songs that
are either easy to teach, or that the students are already somewhat
familiar with.
Do not be afraid to experiment with your class as you teach the concept
of rhythm. Reflect on your lesson after you have taught it, decide
where there is room for improvement, and work to improve it for the
next class you teach it to.
You may also be interested in using [19]STOMP to teach rhythm in the
classroom.
Read more [20]tips for music teachers.
The copyright of the article Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students
in [21]Arts Education is owned by [22]Jennifer Wagaman. Permission to
republish Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in print or online
must be granted by the author in writing.
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[rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png]
Ideas for Teaching Rhythm, Mary R. Vogt Ideas for Teaching Rhythm
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[comment_icon_f1.png] What do you think about this article?
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Comments
Apr 15, 2009 7:59 AM
Guest :
I particularly like the idea of reflecting on the lesson after its
implementation. Reflection and teaching reflectively should be
encouraged among music teachers.
Cheers
Mark Minott
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Reference
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* [37]how to teach rhythm
* [38]teaching rhythm to kindergarten students
* [39]lesson ideas for teaching rhythm
* [40]what songs will teach rhythm
* [41]teaching music to kindergarten students
* [42]reflection on how a lesson went
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Gypsy Jazz and Django Reinhardt Discussion Area
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Rhythm technique, share your own learning experiences, and learn new
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[15]rhythm engine
[16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am
rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its
the only way
always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret
Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London
[18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django
100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the
musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good
players!
If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere
else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out
there and support these guys books are not always the answer
LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL
WORKSHOPS
Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010
Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt,
these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate
directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt
Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of
this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a
chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and
non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play
this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of
techniques and musical ideas.
These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts
Council England.
WORKSHOPS £35
o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz
double bass.
o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except
beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the
masters themselves
Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from
13.30 - 15.30
Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com
Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227
[20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records
January Workshops at a Glance:
Sunday 17 January
Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance
Battersea
Monday 18 January
Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Tuesday 19 January
Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Wednesday 20 January
Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
South Kensington
Thursday 21 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea
Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Friday 22 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Saturday 23 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea
Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith
Sunday 24 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea
We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to
happen.
ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT
WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS
AND STUDENTS
SUNDAY 17th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk
Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching
himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then
added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a
composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and
one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays
Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions.
An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted
musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz
scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg,
Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu
Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others.
[23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the
opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY
17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at
[25]www.wegottickets.com
MONDAY 18th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is
popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his
music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients,
intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst
retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive.
Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music,
their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous,
humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will
be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY
18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[27]www.wegottickets.com
TUESDAY 19th JANUARY
Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[28]www.quecumbar.co.uk
A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of
this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for
these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more
advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to
any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind,
multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span
violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy
musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later
swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de
Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired
by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger,
and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he
studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked
closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo
DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of
orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance
instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania
and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene.
[29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com
[31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com
Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO
on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from
[32]www.wegottickets.com
WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry
Place
London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on
today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy
Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more
contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at
numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus
has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His
virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which
fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson.
[34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl
[36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ;
Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy
Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[39]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel
Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in
Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was
spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where
he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and
non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the
world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane
Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light
and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid
Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his
own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are
acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured
on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona.
[40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com
Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER
TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[42]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[43]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from
Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also
studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has
worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has
recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists
including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego
Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and
James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha
[45]www.bielballestertrio.com
Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY
21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[46]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first
learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy
masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style
that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a
young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs,
demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond
his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with
bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy
Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg,
Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada
with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this
music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label,
El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in
Spain.
[49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com
[51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic
Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th
JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah
Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier:
Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter:
German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY
24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli
Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin;
Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND
FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo
Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani
van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at
[53]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy
Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246
King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk
Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line).
Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous
Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he
began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and
released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous
CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist,
he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with
modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with
its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself
to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour.
[55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette
Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
(Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi
Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion;
Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from
[56]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London
SW11 3JB
SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk
Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar
master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite
family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and
Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a
style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive
and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic
Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style
and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he
loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions
and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django
tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo
touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes
Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of
performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after
master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy.
He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of
15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing
competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with
"Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of
the top 1.4% of entrants.
"...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to
applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard;
"It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again",
Zutphen Paper.
[58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier
Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary
Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar;
Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass.
SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy,
guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie
Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th
birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and
stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with
unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their
Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating
in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo,
Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple
stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill,
technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate
café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music
was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of
Gypsy Swing,
WORKSHOP VENUES:
Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
17 Queensberry Place
London SW7 2DT
[60]www.institut-francais.org.uk
Tube: South Kensington
How to get there:
From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line
its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6
Jazz Cafe POSK
The Polish Cultural Centre
238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London
W6 0RF
Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line
Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost
next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same.
There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus
that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction.
Thomas's School
28-40 Battersea High Street,
London SW11 3JB
[63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Royal Academy of Dance
36 Battersea Square, Battersea,
London SW11 3RA
[64]www.rad.org.uk
[65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Le QuecumBar & Brasserie
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3HX
[66]www.quecumbar.co.uk
[67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
How to find us by Bus Route 170:
The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction
or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station.
(A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station
about £10)
170 from Victoria Station:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off
the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on
to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and
Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right
170 from Clapham Junction:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk
forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side
of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea
High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the
right
By Train:
Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk
or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from,
Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch
the 170 bus
By Car:
Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends
London Airports:
Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct
train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return
Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx
or train to central London
Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to
Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District
Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any
eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street
Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch
the 170 bus.
Map of where Le QuecumBar is:
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3 HX:
[68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud
to have the support of our world class musician patrons:
Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie
John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg
[69]quecumbar
Posts: 3
Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm
Location: London
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20. mailto:info@quecumbar.co.uk
24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com
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(WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
* Biblio. Data
* [2]Description
* [3]Claims
* [4]National Phase
* [5]Notices
* [6]Documents
Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau
* [7]Link
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__________________________________________________________________
Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.:
PCT/US1999/000569
Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999
IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01)
Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake
Village, CA 91361 (US).
Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US).
Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box
640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US).
Priority Data:
09/013,353 26.01.1998 US
Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument
provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a
user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30)
corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a
series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture
controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of
which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical
note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along
with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed
musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the
selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities
also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure
table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or
automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played
along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then
be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system.
A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of
phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm
engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that
phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity
information and may contain polyphonic information.
Designated States: JP.
European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB,
GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE).
Publication Language: English (EN)
Filing Language: English (EN)
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Références
A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event
by David Lindsay
Copyright 2002. All right reserved.
In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and
musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can
be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods
of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present
paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm.
Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with
the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the
genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from
them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during
which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During
replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and
so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event.
Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates
to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present
approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation
process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA
dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins
generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our
scope.
The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known.
The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform
rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand,
and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.)
A C G T
T G C A
These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also
obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by
three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with
rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three:
A C G T
|| ||| ||| ||
T G C A
In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be
broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the
dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of
events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological
organisms--play a determining role.
Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to
break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy.
Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower
than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as
governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call
this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows
the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is
constant, by the following coefficients:
A=2
C=3
G=3
T=2
Given an arbitrary DNA sequence:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes:
2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2
Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state
constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation
is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA
molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich
regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In
vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation
progresses away from the initiation site:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
-------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can
be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event.
H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based
stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four
sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation
differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins,
which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that
constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated
above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four:
2332 2222 2232
Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its
expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two
opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a
replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond
breakage are activated simultaneously:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
|| ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm
expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger --
will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied
equally to molecular processes or musical ones.
Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the
case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and
indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is
varied its energy profile.
The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could,
for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient
to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate,
while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster
of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the
governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and
unstressed "beats," such that:
A=2=unstressed beat (-)
C=3=stressed beat (´)
G=3=stressed beat (´)
T=2=unstressed beat (-)
Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It
should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not
founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any
other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to
scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation
process.
Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy
profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close
observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating
music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given
the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if
any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may
cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication
will suffice.
Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would
facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such
cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry.
In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the
origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward
resonance.
Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to
fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA
strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to
transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for
example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will
tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which
is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering
a suspension bridge.
The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and
non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because
it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in
comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the
properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate
the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription.
1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences,"
Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts
(Sept. 1995).
For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting
and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here.
[2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles.
For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here.
website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan
University.
Références
Liens visibles
Liens cachés :
CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project
[1]CRE Personnel
What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project?
The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful
way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented
music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision,
continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional
deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of
different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to
yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an
editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising
context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to
drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software
consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data
(e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that
represents these programs and data visually.
Expressive timing
One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently
commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained
control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or
rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say,
tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with
these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in
the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we
can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes
slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat).
All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in
human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with
manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a
musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in
rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this
project.
Composition and combination techniques
Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its
facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include
making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering
different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and
heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and
most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of
such structures.
Applications
Here are some possible applications of CRE:
* Anything that any standard drum machine does
* Automated percussion tracks with "human feel"
* A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the
same rhythms with "human feel"
* Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable
(e.g. the 30-second commercial)
* Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with
irrationally-related durations
* Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at
will, in real time
* Making a program that improvises by "driving around in
rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine
listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or
invention according to some combination of generative processes)
* Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without
altering the tree structure.
Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since
this list provides checkpoints for the software development.
__________________________________________________________________
Page maintained by Vijay Iyer
Last modified July 15, 1996
__________________________________________________________________
[2]Up to Vijay's page
[3]Up to CNMAT homepage
[4]Send mail to the CRE group
[5]Send mail to Vijay Iyer
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[15]Jennifer Wagaman
Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students
Lesson Ideas Involving Rhythm for Young Students
[16]Dec 16, 2008 [17]Jennifer Wagaman
Be creative and resourceful when teaching kindergarten students about
rhythm.
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Teaching rhythm to Kindergarten students can be a fun way to get
students moving around the classroom. When writing lesson plans with
the objective towards learning rhythm, consider not only the manner in
which you teach the students, but which songs would provide the best
lesson opportunity, as well as which songs will work for the short
attention span the students have.
How to Teach Rhythm
Use the body demonstrate the beat, also called body percussion, will
help students feel the beat and learn the rhythm. This can involve
having the students clap, tap, or stomp their feet while singing. This
reinforces beat in a tactile manner, and helps the students stay
focused on what you are doing. You can also use any opportunity you
have to get the students up and moving about the room while singing
songs. Although this does take decent [18]classroom management skills,
it may also help your student's behavior as they are not required to
sit still throughout the class period.
What Songs Teach Rhythm
Teaching children about rhythm can be a great time to introduce some
fun songs. Lessons involving rhythm can be taught with any song that
has a steady beat, which basically means that most songs are good to
teach rhythm. Pick songs that the students either already know or are
easy to teach, as this will ensure that they already know the basic
rhythm.
Some good songs to use for teaching rhythm include songs like Engine
Engine Number Nine, and Skip to My Lou. For Engine Engine Number Nine,
after teaching the song, have the students form a train and move around
the room to the beat of the train in the song. For Skip to My Lou, have
the students walk, march, or skip around the room to the beat of the
song.
Keep Attention Span in Mind
Because a Kindergarten age child has a relatively short attention span,
keep your songs short and varied. Do several songs per class period. It
is better to do 3 five minute songs, assuming a 20 minute class period,
than to spend 15 minutes on one song. So once again, choose songs that
are either easy to teach, or that the students are already somewhat
familiar with.
Do not be afraid to experiment with your class as you teach the concept
of rhythm. Reflect on your lesson after you have taught it, decide
where there is room for improvement, and work to improve it for the
next class you teach it to.
You may also be interested in using [19]STOMP to teach rhythm in the
classroom.
Read more [20]tips for music teachers.
The copyright of the article Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students
in [21]Arts Education is owned by [22]Jennifer Wagaman. Permission to
republish Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in print or online
must be granted by the author in writing.
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[rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png]
Ideas for Teaching Rhythm, Mary R. Vogt Ideas for Teaching Rhythm
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[comment_icon_f1.png] What do you think about this article?
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Comments
Apr 15, 2009 7:59 AM
Guest :
I particularly like the idea of reflecting on the lesson after its
implementation. Reflection and teaching reflectively should be
encouraged among music teachers.
Cheers
Mark Minott
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1 Comment:
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Reference
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* [37]how to teach rhythm
* [38]teaching rhythm to kindergarten students
* [39]lesson ideas for teaching rhythm
* [40]what songs will teach rhythm
* [41]teaching music to kindergarten students
* [42]reflection on how a lesson went
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[15]rhythm engine
[16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am
rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its
the only way
always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret
Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London
[18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django
100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the
musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good
players!
If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere
else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out
there and support these guys books are not always the answer
LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL
WORKSHOPS
Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010
Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt,
these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate
directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt
Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of
this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a
chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and
non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play
this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of
techniques and musical ideas.
These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts
Council England.
WORKSHOPS £35
o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz
double bass.
o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except
beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the
masters themselves
Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from
13.30 - 15.30
Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com
Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227
[20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records
January Workshops at a Glance:
Sunday 17 January
Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance
Battersea
Monday 18 January
Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Tuesday 19 January
Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Wednesday 20 January
Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
South Kensington
Thursday 21 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea
Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Friday 22 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Saturday 23 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea
Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith
Sunday 24 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea
We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to
happen.
ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT
WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS
AND STUDENTS
SUNDAY 17th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk
Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching
himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then
added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a
composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and
one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays
Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions.
An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted
musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz
scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg,
Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu
Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others.
[23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the
opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY
17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at
[25]www.wegottickets.com
MONDAY 18th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is
popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his
music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients,
intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst
retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive.
Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music,
their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous,
humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will
be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY
18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[27]www.wegottickets.com
TUESDAY 19th JANUARY
Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[28]www.quecumbar.co.uk
A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of
this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for
these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more
advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to
any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind,
multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span
violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy
musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later
swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de
Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired
by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger,
and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he
studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked
closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo
DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of
orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance
instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania
and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene.
[29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com
[31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com
Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO
on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from
[32]www.wegottickets.com
WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry
Place
London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on
today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy
Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more
contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at
numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus
has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His
virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which
fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson.
[34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl
[36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ;
Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy
Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[39]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel
Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in
Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was
spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where
he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and
non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the
world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane
Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light
and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid
Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his
own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are
acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured
on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona.
[40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com
Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER
TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[42]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[43]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from
Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also
studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has
worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has
recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists
including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego
Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and
James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha
[45]www.bielballestertrio.com
Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY
21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[46]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first
learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy
masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style
that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a
young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs,
demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond
his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with
bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy
Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg,
Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada
with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this
music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label,
El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in
Spain.
[49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com
[51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic
Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th
JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah
Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier:
Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter:
German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY
24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli
Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin;
Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND
FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo
Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani
van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at
[53]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy
Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246
King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk
Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line).
Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous
Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he
began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and
released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous
CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist,
he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with
modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with
its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself
to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour.
[55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette
Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
(Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi
Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion;
Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from
[56]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London
SW11 3JB
SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk
Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar
master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite
family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and
Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a
style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive
and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic
Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style
and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he
loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions
and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django
tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo
touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes
Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of
performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after
master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy.
He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of
15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing
competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with
"Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of
the top 1.4% of entrants.
"...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to
applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard;
"It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again",
Zutphen Paper.
[58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier
Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary
Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar;
Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass.
SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy,
guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie
Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th
birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and
stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with
unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their
Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating
in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo,
Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple
stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill,
technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate
café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music
was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of
Gypsy Swing,
WORKSHOP VENUES:
Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
17 Queensberry Place
London SW7 2DT
[60]www.institut-francais.org.uk
Tube: South Kensington
How to get there:
From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line
its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6
Jazz Cafe POSK
The Polish Cultural Centre
238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London
W6 0RF
Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line
Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost
next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same.
There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus
that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction.
Thomas's School
28-40 Battersea High Street,
London SW11 3JB
[63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Royal Academy of Dance
36 Battersea Square, Battersea,
London SW11 3RA
[64]www.rad.org.uk
[65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Le QuecumBar & Brasserie
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3HX
[66]www.quecumbar.co.uk
[67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
How to find us by Bus Route 170:
The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction
or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station.
(A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station
about £10)
170 from Victoria Station:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off
the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on
to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and
Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right
170 from Clapham Junction:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk
forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side
of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea
High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the
right
By Train:
Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk
or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from,
Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch
the 170 bus
By Car:
Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends
London Airports:
Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct
train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return
Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx
or train to central London
Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to
Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District
Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any
eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street
Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch
the 170 bus.
Map of where Le QuecumBar is:
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3 HX:
[68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud
to have the support of our world class musician patrons:
Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie
John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg
[69]quecumbar
Posts: 3
Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm
Location: London
+ [70]E-mail quecumbar
+ [71]Website
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[15]rhythm engine
[16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am
rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its
the only way
always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret
Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London
[18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django
100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the
musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good
players!
If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere
else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out
there and support these guys books are not always the answer
LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL
WORKSHOPS
Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010
Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt,
these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate
directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt
Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of
this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a
chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and
non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play
this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of
techniques and musical ideas.
These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts
Council England.
WORKSHOPS £35
o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz
double bass.
o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except
beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the
masters themselves
Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from
13.30 - 15.30
Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com
Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227
[20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records
January Workshops at a Glance:
Sunday 17 January
Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance
Battersea
Monday 18 January
Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Tuesday 19 January
Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Wednesday 20 January
Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
South Kensington
Thursday 21 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea
Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Friday 22 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Saturday 23 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea
Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith
Sunday 24 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea
We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to
happen.
ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT
WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS
AND STUDENTS
SUNDAY 17th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk
Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching
himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then
added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a
composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and
one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays
Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions.
An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted
musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz
scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg,
Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu
Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others.
[23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the
opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY
17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at
[25]www.wegottickets.com
MONDAY 18th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is
popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his
music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients,
intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst
retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive.
Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music,
their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous,
humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will
be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY
18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[27]www.wegottickets.com
TUESDAY 19th JANUARY
Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[28]www.quecumbar.co.uk
A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of
this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for
these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more
advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to
any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind,
multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span
violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy
musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later
swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de
Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired
by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger,
and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he
studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked
closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo
DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of
orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance
instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania
and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene.
[29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com
[31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com
Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO
on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from
[32]www.wegottickets.com
WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry
Place
London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on
today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy
Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more
contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at
numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus
has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His
virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which
fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson.
[34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl
[36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ;
Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy
Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[39]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel
Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in
Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was
spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where
he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and
non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the
world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane
Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light
and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid
Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his
own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are
acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured
on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona.
[40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com
Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER
TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[42]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[43]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from
Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also
studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has
worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has
recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists
including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego
Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and
James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha
[45]www.bielballestertrio.com
Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY
21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[46]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first
learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy
masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style
that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a
young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs,
demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond
his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with
bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy
Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg,
Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada
with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this
music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label,
El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in
Spain.
[49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com
[51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic
Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th
JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah
Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier:
Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter:
German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY
24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli
Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin;
Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND
FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo
Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani
van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at
[53]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy
Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246
King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk
Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line).
Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous
Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he
began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and
released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous
CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist,
he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with
modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with
its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself
to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour.
[55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette
Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
(Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi
Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion;
Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from
[56]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London
SW11 3JB
SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk
Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar
master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite
family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and
Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a
style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive
and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic
Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style
and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he
loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions
and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django
tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo
touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes
Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of
performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after
master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy.
He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of
15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing
competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with
"Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of
the top 1.4% of entrants.
"...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to
applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard;
"It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again",
Zutphen Paper.
[58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier
Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary
Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar;
Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass.
SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy,
guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie
Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th
birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and
stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with
unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their
Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating
in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo,
Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple
stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill,
technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate
café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music
was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of
Gypsy Swing,
WORKSHOP VENUES:
Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
17 Queensberry Place
London SW7 2DT
[60]www.institut-francais.org.uk
Tube: South Kensington
How to get there:
From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line
its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6
Jazz Cafe POSK
The Polish Cultural Centre
238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London
W6 0RF
Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line
Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost
next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same.
There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus
that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction.
Thomas's School
28-40 Battersea High Street,
London SW11 3JB
[63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Royal Academy of Dance
36 Battersea Square, Battersea,
London SW11 3RA
[64]www.rad.org.uk
[65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Le QuecumBar & Brasserie
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3HX
[66]www.quecumbar.co.uk
[67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
How to find us by Bus Route 170:
The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction
or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station.
(A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station
about £10)
170 from Victoria Station:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off
the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on
to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and
Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right
170 from Clapham Junction:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk
forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side
of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea
High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the
right
By Train:
Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk
or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from,
Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch
the 170 bus
By Car:
Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends
London Airports:
Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct
train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return
Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx
or train to central London
Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to
Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District
Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any
eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street
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(WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
* Biblio. Data
* [2]Description
* [3]Claims
* [4]National Phase
* [5]Notices
* [6]Documents
Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau
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__________________________________________________________________
Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.:
PCT/US1999/000569
Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999
IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01)
Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake
Village, CA 91361 (US).
Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US).
Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box
640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US).
Priority Data:
09/013,353 26.01.1998 US
Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument
provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a
user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30)
corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a
series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture
controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of
which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical
note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along
with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed
musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the
selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities
also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure
table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or
automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played
along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then
be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system.
A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of
phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm
engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that
phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity
information and may contain polyphonic information.
Designated States: JP.
European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB,
GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE).
Publication Language: English (EN)
Filing Language: English (EN)
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A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event
by David Lindsay
Copyright 2002. All right reserved.
In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and
musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can
be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods
of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present
paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm.
Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with
the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the
genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from
them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during
which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During
replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and
so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event.
Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates
to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present
approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation
process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA
dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins
generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our
scope.
The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known.
The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform
rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand,
and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.)
A C G T
T G C A
These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also
obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by
three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with
rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three:
A C G T
|| ||| ||| ||
T G C A
In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be
broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the
dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of
events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological
organisms--play a determining role.
Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to
break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy.
Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower
than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as
governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call
this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows
the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is
constant, by the following coefficients:
A=2
C=3
G=3
T=2
Given an arbitrary DNA sequence:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes:
2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2
Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state
constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation
is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA
molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich
regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In
vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation
progresses away from the initiation site:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
-------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can
be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event.
H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based
stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four
sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation
differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins,
which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that
constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated
above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four:
2332 2222 2232
Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its
expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two
opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a
replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond
breakage are activated simultaneously:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
|| ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm
expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger --
will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied
equally to molecular processes or musical ones.
Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the
case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and
indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is
varied its energy profile.
The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could,
for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient
to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate,
while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster
of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the
governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and
unstressed "beats," such that:
A=2=unstressed beat (-)
C=3=stressed beat (´)
G=3=stressed beat (´)
T=2=unstressed beat (-)
Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It
should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not
founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any
other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to
scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation
process.
Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy
profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close
observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating
music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given
the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if
any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may
cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication
will suffice.
Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would
facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such
cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry.
In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the
origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward
resonance.
Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to
fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA
strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to
transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for
example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will
tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which
is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering
a suspension bridge.
The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and
non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because
it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in
comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the
properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate
the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription.
1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences,"
Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts
(Sept. 1995).
For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting
and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here.
[2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles.
For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here.
website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan
University.
Références
Liens visibles
Liens cachés :
CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project
[1]CRE Personnel
What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project?
The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful
way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented
music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision,
continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional
deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of
different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to
yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an
editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising
context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to
drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software
consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data
(e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that
represents these programs and data visually.
Expressive timing
One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently
commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained
control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or
rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say,
tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with
these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in
the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we
can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes
slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat).
All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in
human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with
manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a
musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in
rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this
project.
Composition and combination techniques
Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its
facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include
making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering
different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and
heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and
most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of
such structures.
Applications
Here are some possible applications of CRE:
* Anything that any standard drum machine does
* Automated percussion tracks with "human feel"
* A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the
same rhythms with "human feel"
* Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable
(e.g. the 30-second commercial)
* Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with
irrationally-related durations
* Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at
will, in real time
* Making a program that improvises by "driving around in
rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine
listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or
invention according to some combination of generative processes)
* Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without
altering the tree structure.
Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since
this list provides checkpoints for the software development.
__________________________________________________________________
Page maintained by Vijay Iyer
Last modified July 15, 1996
__________________________________________________________________
[2]Up to Vijay's page
[3]Up to CNMAT homepage
[4]Send mail to the CRE group
[5]Send mail to Vijay Iyer
Références
4. mailto:cdm@icsi.berkeley.edu
5. mailto:vijay@cnmat.berkeley.edu
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[15]Jennifer Wagaman
Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students
Lesson Ideas Involving Rhythm for Young Students
[16]Dec 16, 2008 [17]Jennifer Wagaman
Be creative and resourceful when teaching kindergarten students about
rhythm.
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[rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png]
Teaching rhythm to Kindergarten students can be a fun way to get
students moving around the classroom. When writing lesson plans with
the objective towards learning rhythm, consider not only the manner in
which you teach the students, but which songs would provide the best
lesson opportunity, as well as which songs will work for the short
attention span the students have.
How to Teach Rhythm
Use the body demonstrate the beat, also called body percussion, will
help students feel the beat and learn the rhythm. This can involve
having the students clap, tap, or stomp their feet while singing. This
reinforces beat in a tactile manner, and helps the students stay
focused on what you are doing. You can also use any opportunity you
have to get the students up and moving about the room while singing
songs. Although this does take decent [18]classroom management skills,
it may also help your student's behavior as they are not required to
sit still throughout the class period.
What Songs Teach Rhythm
Teaching children about rhythm can be a great time to introduce some
fun songs. Lessons involving rhythm can be taught with any song that
has a steady beat, which basically means that most songs are good to
teach rhythm. Pick songs that the students either already know or are
easy to teach, as this will ensure that they already know the basic
rhythm.
Some good songs to use for teaching rhythm include songs like Engine
Engine Number Nine, and Skip to My Lou. For Engine Engine Number Nine,
after teaching the song, have the students form a train and move around
the room to the beat of the train in the song. For Skip to My Lou, have
the students walk, march, or skip around the room to the beat of the
song.
Keep Attention Span in Mind
Because a Kindergarten age child has a relatively short attention span,
keep your songs short and varied. Do several songs per class period. It
is better to do 3 five minute songs, assuming a 20 minute class period,
than to spend 15 minutes on one song. So once again, choose songs that
are either easy to teach, or that the students are already somewhat
familiar with.
Do not be afraid to experiment with your class as you teach the concept
of rhythm. Reflect on your lesson after you have taught it, decide
where there is room for improvement, and work to improve it for the
next class you teach it to.
You may also be interested in using [19]STOMP to teach rhythm in the
classroom.
Read more [20]tips for music teachers.
The copyright of the article Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students
in [21]Arts Education is owned by [22]Jennifer Wagaman. Permission to
republish Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in print or online
must be granted by the author in writing.
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[rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png]
Ideas for Teaching Rhythm, Mary R. Vogt Ideas for Teaching Rhythm
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[comment_icon_f1.png] What do you think about this article?
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Comments
Apr 15, 2009 7:59 AM
Guest :
I particularly like the idea of reflecting on the lesson after its
implementation. Reflection and teaching reflectively should be
encouraged among music teachers.
Cheers
Mark Minott
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* [37]how to teach rhythm
* [38]teaching rhythm to kindergarten students
* [39]lesson ideas for teaching rhythm
* [40]what songs will teach rhythm
* [41]teaching music to kindergarten students
* [42]reflection on how a lesson went
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[15]rhythm engine
[16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am
rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its
the only way
always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret
Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London
[18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django
100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the
musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good
players!
If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere
else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out
there and support these guys books are not always the answer
LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL
WORKSHOPS
Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010
Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt,
these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate
directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt
Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of
this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a
chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and
non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play
this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of
techniques and musical ideas.
These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts
Council England.
WORKSHOPS £35
o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz
double bass.
o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except
beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the
masters themselves
Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from
13.30 - 15.30
Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com
Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227
[20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records
January Workshops at a Glance:
Sunday 17 January
Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance
Battersea
Monday 18 January
Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Tuesday 19 January
Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Wednesday 20 January
Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
South Kensington
Thursday 21 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea
Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Friday 22 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Saturday 23 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea
Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith
Sunday 24 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea
We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to
happen.
ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT
WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS
AND STUDENTS
SUNDAY 17th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk
Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching
himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then
added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a
composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and
one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays
Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions.
An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted
musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz
scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg,
Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu
Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others.
[23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the
opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY
17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at
[25]www.wegottickets.com
MONDAY 18th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is
popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his
music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients,
intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst
retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive.
Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music,
their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous,
humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will
be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY
18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[27]www.wegottickets.com
TUESDAY 19th JANUARY
Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[28]www.quecumbar.co.uk
A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of
this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for
these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more
advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to
any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind,
multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span
violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy
musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later
swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de
Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired
by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger,
and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he
studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked
closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo
DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of
orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance
instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania
and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene.
[29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com
[31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com
Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO
on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from
[32]www.wegottickets.com
WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry
Place
London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on
today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy
Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more
contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at
numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus
has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His
virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which
fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson.
[34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl
[36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ;
Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy
Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[39]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel
Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in
Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was
spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where
he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and
non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the
world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane
Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light
and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid
Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his
own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are
acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured
on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona.
[40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com
Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER
TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[42]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[43]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from
Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also
studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has
worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has
recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists
including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego
Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and
James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha
[45]www.bielballestertrio.com
Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY
21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[46]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first
learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy
masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style
that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a
young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs,
demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond
his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with
bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy
Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg,
Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada
with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this
music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label,
El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in
Spain.
[49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com
[51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic
Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th
JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah
Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier:
Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter:
German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY
24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli
Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin;
Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND
FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo
Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani
van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at
[53]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy
Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246
King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk
Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line).
Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous
Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he
began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and
released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous
CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist,
he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with
modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with
its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself
to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour.
[55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette
Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
(Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi
Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion;
Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from
[56]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London
SW11 3JB
SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk
Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar
master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite
family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and
Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a
style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive
and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic
Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style
and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he
loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions
and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django
tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo
touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes
Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of
performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after
master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy.
He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of
15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing
competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with
"Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of
the top 1.4% of entrants.
"...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to
applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard;
"It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again",
Zutphen Paper.
[58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier
Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary
Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar;
Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass.
SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy,
guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie
Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th
birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and
stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with
unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their
Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating
in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo,
Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple
stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill,
technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate
café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music
was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of
Gypsy Swing,
WORKSHOP VENUES:
Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
17 Queensberry Place
London SW7 2DT
[60]www.institut-francais.org.uk
Tube: South Kensington
How to get there:
From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line
its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6
Jazz Cafe POSK
The Polish Cultural Centre
238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London
W6 0RF
Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line
Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost
next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same.
There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus
that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction.
Thomas's School
28-40 Battersea High Street,
London SW11 3JB
[63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Royal Academy of Dance
36 Battersea Square, Battersea,
London SW11 3RA
[64]www.rad.org.uk
[65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Le QuecumBar & Brasserie
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3HX
[66]www.quecumbar.co.uk
[67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
How to find us by Bus Route 170:
The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction
or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station.
(A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station
about £10)
170 from Victoria Station:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off
the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on
to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and
Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right
170 from Clapham Junction:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk
forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side
of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea
High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the
right
By Train:
Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk
or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from,
Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch
the 170 bus
By Car:
Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends
London Airports:
Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct
train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return
Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx
or train to central London
Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to
Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District
Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any
eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street
Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch
the 170 bus.
Map of where Le QuecumBar is:
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3 HX:
[68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud
to have the support of our world class musician patrons:
Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie
John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg
[69]quecumbar
Posts: 3
Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm
Location: London
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(WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
* Biblio. Data
* [2]Description
* [3]Claims
* [4]National Phase
* [5]Notices
* [6]Documents
Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau
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__________________________________________________________________
Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.:
PCT/US1999/000569
Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999
IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01)
Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake
Village, CA 91361 (US).
Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US).
Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box
640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US).
Priority Data:
09/013,353 26.01.1998 US
Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument
provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a
user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30)
corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a
series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture
controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of
which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical
note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along
with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed
musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the
selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities
also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure
table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or
automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played
along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then
be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system.
A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of
phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm
engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that
phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity
information and may contain polyphonic information.
Designated States: JP.
European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB,
GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE).
Publication Language: English (EN)
Filing Language: English (EN)
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[15]rhythm engine
[16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am
rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its
the only way
always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret
Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London
[18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django
100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the
musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good
players!
If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere
else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out
there and support these guys books are not always the answer
LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL
WORKSHOPS
Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010
Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt,
these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate
directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt
Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of
this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a
chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and
non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play
this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of
techniques and musical ideas.
These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts
Council England.
WORKSHOPS £35
o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz
double bass.
o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except
beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the
masters themselves
Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from
13.30 - 15.30
Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com
Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227
[20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records
January Workshops at a Glance:
Sunday 17 January
Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance
Battersea
Monday 18 January
Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Tuesday 19 January
Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Wednesday 20 January
Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
South Kensington
Thursday 21 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea
Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Friday 22 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Saturday 23 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea
Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith
Sunday 24 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea
We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to
happen.
ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT
WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS
AND STUDENTS
SUNDAY 17th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk
Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching
himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then
added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a
composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and
one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays
Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions.
An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted
musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz
scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg,
Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu
Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others.
[23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the
opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY
17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at
[25]www.wegottickets.com
MONDAY 18th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is
popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his
music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients,
intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst
retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive.
Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music,
their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous,
humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will
be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY
18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[27]www.wegottickets.com
TUESDAY 19th JANUARY
Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[28]www.quecumbar.co.uk
A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of
this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for
these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more
advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to
any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind,
multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span
violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy
musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later
swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de
Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired
by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger,
and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he
studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked
closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo
DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of
orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance
instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania
and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene.
[29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com
[31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com
Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO
on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from
[32]www.wegottickets.com
WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry
Place
London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on
today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy
Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more
contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at
numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus
has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His
virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which
fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson.
[34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl
[36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ;
Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy
Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[39]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel
Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in
Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was
spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where
he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and
non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the
world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane
Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light
and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid
Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his
own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are
acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured
on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona.
[40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com
Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER
TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[42]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[43]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from
Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also
studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has
worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has
recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists
including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego
Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and
James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha
[45]www.bielballestertrio.com
Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY
21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[46]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first
learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy
masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style
that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a
young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs,
demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond
his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with
bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy
Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg,
Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada
with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this
music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label,
El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in
Spain.
[49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com
[51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic
Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th
JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah
Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier:
Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter:
German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY
24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli
Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin;
Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND
FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo
Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani
van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at
[53]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy
Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246
King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk
Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line).
Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous
Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he
began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and
released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous
CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist,
he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with
modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with
its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself
to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour.
[55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette
Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
(Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi
Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion;
Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from
[56]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London
SW11 3JB
SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk
Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar
master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite
family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and
Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a
style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive
and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic
Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style
and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he
loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions
and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django
tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo
touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes
Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of
performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after
master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy.
He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of
15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing
competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with
"Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of
the top 1.4% of entrants.
"...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to
applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard;
"It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again",
Zutphen Paper.
[58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier
Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary
Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar;
Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass.
SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy,
guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie
Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th
birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and
stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with
unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their
Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating
in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo,
Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple
stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill,
technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate
café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music
was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of
Gypsy Swing,
WORKSHOP VENUES:
Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
17 Queensberry Place
London SW7 2DT
[60]www.institut-francais.org.uk
Tube: South Kensington
How to get there:
From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line
its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6
Jazz Cafe POSK
The Polish Cultural Centre
238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London
W6 0RF
Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line
Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost
next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same.
There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus
that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction.
Thomas's School
28-40 Battersea High Street,
London SW11 3JB
[63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Royal Academy of Dance
36 Battersea Square, Battersea,
London SW11 3RA
[64]www.rad.org.uk
[65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Le QuecumBar & Brasserie
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3HX
[66]www.quecumbar.co.uk
[67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
How to find us by Bus Route 170:
The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction
or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station.
(A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station
about £10)
170 from Victoria Station:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off
the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on
to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and
Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right
170 from Clapham Junction:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk
forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side
of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea
High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the
right
By Train:
Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk
or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from,
Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch
the 170 bus
By Car:
Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends
London Airports:
Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct
train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return
Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx
or train to central London
Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to
Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District
Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any
eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street
Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch
the 170 bus.
Map of where Le QuecumBar is:
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3 HX:
[68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud
to have the support of our world class musician patrons:
Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie
John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg
[69]quecumbar
Posts: 3
Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm
Location: London
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(WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
* Biblio. Data
* [2]Description
* [3]Claims
* [4]National Phase
* [5]Notices
* [6]Documents
Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau
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__________________________________________________________________
Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.:
PCT/US1999/000569
Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999
IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01)
Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake
Village, CA 91361 (US).
Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US).
Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box
640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US).
Priority Data:
09/013,353 26.01.1998 US
Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument
provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a
user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30)
corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a
series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture
controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of
which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical
note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along
with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed
musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the
selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities
also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure
table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or
automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played
along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then
be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system.
A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of
phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm
engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that
phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity
information and may contain polyphonic information.
Designated States: JP.
European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB,
GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE).
Publication Language: English (EN)
Filing Language: English (EN)
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Références
A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event
by David Lindsay
Copyright 2002. All right reserved.
In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and
musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can
be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods
of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present
paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm.
Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with
the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the
genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from
them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during
which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During
replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and
so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event.
Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates
to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present
approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation
process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA
dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins
generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our
scope.
The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known.
The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform
rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand,
and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.)
A C G T
T G C A
These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also
obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by
three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with
rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three:
A C G T
|| ||| ||| ||
T G C A
In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be
broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the
dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of
events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological
organisms--play a determining role.
Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to
break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy.
Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower
than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as
governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call
this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows
the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is
constant, by the following coefficients:
A=2
C=3
G=3
T=2
Given an arbitrary DNA sequence:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes:
2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2
Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state
constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation
is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA
molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich
regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In
vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation
progresses away from the initiation site:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
-------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can
be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event.
H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based
stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four
sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation
differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins,
which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that
constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated
above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four:
2332 2222 2232
Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its
expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two
opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a
replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond
breakage are activated simultaneously:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
|| ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm
expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger --
will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied
equally to molecular processes or musical ones.
Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the
case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and
indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is
varied its energy profile.
The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could,
for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient
to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate,
while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster
of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the
governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and
unstressed "beats," such that:
A=2=unstressed beat (-)
C=3=stressed beat (´)
G=3=stressed beat (´)
T=2=unstressed beat (-)
Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It
should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not
founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any
other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to
scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation
process.
Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy
profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close
observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating
music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given
the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if
any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may
cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication
will suffice.
Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would
facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such
cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry.
In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the
origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward
resonance.
Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to
fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA
strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to
transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for
example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will
tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which
is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering
a suspension bridge.
The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and
non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because
it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in
comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the
properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate
the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription.
1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences,"
Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts
(Sept. 1995).
For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting
and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here.
[2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles.
For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here.
website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan
University.
Références
Liens visibles
Liens cachés :
CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project
[1]CRE Personnel
What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project?
The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful
way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented
music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision,
continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional
deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of
different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to
yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an
editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising
context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to
drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software
consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data
(e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that
represents these programs and data visually.
Expressive timing
One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently
commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained
control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or
rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say,
tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with
these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in
the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we
can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes
slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat).
All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in
human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with
manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a
musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in
rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this
project.
Composition and combination techniques
Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its
facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include
making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering
different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and
heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and
most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of
such structures.
Applications
Here are some possible applications of CRE:
* Anything that any standard drum machine does
* Automated percussion tracks with "human feel"
* A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the
same rhythms with "human feel"
* Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable
(e.g. the 30-second commercial)
* Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with
irrationally-related durations
* Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at
will, in real time
* Making a program that improvises by "driving around in
rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine
listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or
invention according to some combination of generative processes)
* Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without
altering the tree structure.
Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since
this list provides checkpoints for the software development.
__________________________________________________________________
Page maintained by Vijay Iyer
Last modified July 15, 1996
__________________________________________________________________
[2]Up to Vijay's page
[3]Up to CNMAT homepage
[4]Send mail to the CRE group
[5]Send mail to Vijay Iyer
Références
4. mailto:cdm@icsi.berkeley.edu
5. mailto:vijay@cnmat.berkeley.edu
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[15]Jennifer Wagaman
Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students
Lesson Ideas Involving Rhythm for Young Students
[16]Dec 16, 2008 [17]Jennifer Wagaman
Be creative and resourceful when teaching kindergarten students about
rhythm.
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Teaching rhythm to Kindergarten students can be a fun way to get
students moving around the classroom. When writing lesson plans with
the objective towards learning rhythm, consider not only the manner in
which you teach the students, but which songs would provide the best
lesson opportunity, as well as which songs will work for the short
attention span the students have.
How to Teach Rhythm
Use the body demonstrate the beat, also called body percussion, will
help students feel the beat and learn the rhythm. This can involve
having the students clap, tap, or stomp their feet while singing. This
reinforces beat in a tactile manner, and helps the students stay
focused on what you are doing. You can also use any opportunity you
have to get the students up and moving about the room while singing
songs. Although this does take decent [18]classroom management skills,
it may also help your student's behavior as they are not required to
sit still throughout the class period.
What Songs Teach Rhythm
Teaching children about rhythm can be a great time to introduce some
fun songs. Lessons involving rhythm can be taught with any song that
has a steady beat, which basically means that most songs are good to
teach rhythm. Pick songs that the students either already know or are
easy to teach, as this will ensure that they already know the basic
rhythm.
Some good songs to use for teaching rhythm include songs like Engine
Engine Number Nine, and Skip to My Lou. For Engine Engine Number Nine,
after teaching the song, have the students form a train and move around
the room to the beat of the train in the song. For Skip to My Lou, have
the students walk, march, or skip around the room to the beat of the
song.
Keep Attention Span in Mind
Because a Kindergarten age child has a relatively short attention span,
keep your songs short and varied. Do several songs per class period. It
is better to do 3 five minute songs, assuming a 20 minute class period,
than to spend 15 minutes on one song. So once again, choose songs that
are either easy to teach, or that the students are already somewhat
familiar with.
Do not be afraid to experiment with your class as you teach the concept
of rhythm. Reflect on your lesson after you have taught it, decide
where there is room for improvement, and work to improve it for the
next class you teach it to.
You may also be interested in using [19]STOMP to teach rhythm in the
classroom.
Read more [20]tips for music teachers.
The copyright of the article Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students
in [21]Arts Education is owned by [22]Jennifer Wagaman. Permission to
republish Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in print or online
must be granted by the author in writing.
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[rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png]
Ideas for Teaching Rhythm, Mary R. Vogt Ideas for Teaching Rhythm
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[comment_icon_f1.png] What do you think about this article?
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post your comment
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Comments
Apr 15, 2009 7:59 AM
Guest :
I particularly like the idea of reflecting on the lesson after its
implementation. Reflection and teaching reflectively should be
encouraged among music teachers.
Cheers
Mark Minott
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1 Comment:
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Reference
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* [37]how to teach rhythm
* [38]teaching rhythm to kindergarten students
* [39]lesson ideas for teaching rhythm
* [40]what songs will teach rhythm
* [41]teaching music to kindergarten students
* [42]reflection on how a lesson went
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[15]rhythm engine
[16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am
rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its
the only way
always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret
Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London
[18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django
100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the
musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good
players!
If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere
else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out
there and support these guys books are not always the answer
LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL
WORKSHOPS
Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010
Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt,
these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate
directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt
Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of
this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a
chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and
non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play
this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of
techniques and musical ideas.
These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts
Council England.
WORKSHOPS £35
o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz
double bass.
o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except
beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the
masters themselves
Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from
13.30 - 15.30
Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com
Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227
[20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records
January Workshops at a Glance:
Sunday 17 January
Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance
Battersea
Monday 18 January
Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Tuesday 19 January
Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Wednesday 20 January
Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
South Kensington
Thursday 21 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea
Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Friday 22 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Saturday 23 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea
Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith
Sunday 24 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea
We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to
happen.
ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT
WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS
AND STUDENTS
SUNDAY 17th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk
Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching
himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then
added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a
composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and
one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays
Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions.
An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted
musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz
scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg,
Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu
Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others.
[23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the
opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY
17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at
[25]www.wegottickets.com
MONDAY 18th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is
popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his
music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients,
intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst
retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive.
Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music,
their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous,
humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will
be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY
18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[27]www.wegottickets.com
TUESDAY 19th JANUARY
Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[28]www.quecumbar.co.uk
A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of
this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for
these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more
advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to
any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind,
multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span
violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy
musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later
swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de
Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired
by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger,
and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he
studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked
closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo
DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of
orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance
instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania
and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene.
[29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com
[31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com
Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO
on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from
[32]www.wegottickets.com
WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry
Place
London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on
today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy
Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more
contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at
numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus
has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His
virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which
fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson.
[34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl
[36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ;
Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy
Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[39]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel
Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in
Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was
spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where
he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and
non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the
world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane
Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light
and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid
Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his
own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are
acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured
on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona.
[40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com
Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER
TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[42]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[43]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from
Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also
studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has
worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has
recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists
including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego
Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and
James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha
[45]www.bielballestertrio.com
Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY
21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[46]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first
learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy
masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style
that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a
young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs,
demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond
his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with
bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy
Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg,
Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada
with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this
music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label,
El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in
Spain.
[49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com
[51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic
Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th
JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah
Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier:
Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter:
German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY
24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli
Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin;
Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND
FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo
Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani
van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at
[53]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy
Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246
King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk
Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line).
Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous
Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he
began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and
released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous
CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist,
he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with
modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with
its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself
to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour.
[55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette
Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
(Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi
Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion;
Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from
[56]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London
SW11 3JB
SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk
Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar
master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite
family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and
Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a
style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive
and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic
Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style
and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he
loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions
and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django
tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo
touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes
Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of
performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after
master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy.
He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of
15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing
competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with
"Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of
the top 1.4% of entrants.
"...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to
applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard;
"It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again",
Zutphen Paper.
[58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier
Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary
Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar;
Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass.
SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy,
guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie
Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th
birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and
stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with
unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their
Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating
in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo,
Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple
stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill,
technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate
café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music
was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of
Gypsy Swing,
WORKSHOP VENUES:
Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
17 Queensberry Place
London SW7 2DT
[60]www.institut-francais.org.uk
Tube: South Kensington
How to get there:
From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line
its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6
Jazz Cafe POSK
The Polish Cultural Centre
238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London
W6 0RF
Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line
Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost
next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same.
There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus
that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction.
Thomas's School
28-40 Battersea High Street,
London SW11 3JB
[63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Royal Academy of Dance
36 Battersea Square, Battersea,
London SW11 3RA
[64]www.rad.org.uk
[65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Le QuecumBar & Brasserie
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3HX
[66]www.quecumbar.co.uk
[67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
How to find us by Bus Route 170:
The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction
or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station.
(A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station
about £10)
170 from Victoria Station:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off
the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on
to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and
Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right
170 from Clapham Junction:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk
forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side
of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea
High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the
right
By Train:
Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk
or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from,
Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch
the 170 bus
By Car:
Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends
London Airports:
Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct
train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return
Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx
or train to central London
Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to
Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District
Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any
eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street
Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch
the 170 bus.
Map of where Le QuecumBar is:
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3 HX:
[68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud
to have the support of our world class musician patrons:
Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie
John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg
[69]quecumbar
Posts: 3
Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm
Location: London
+ [70]E-mail quecumbar
+ [71]Website
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24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com
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(WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
* Biblio. Data
* [2]Description
* [3]Claims
* [4]National Phase
* [5]Notices
* [6]Documents
Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau
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__________________________________________________________________
Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.:
PCT/US1999/000569
Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999
IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01)
Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake
Village, CA 91361 (US).
Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US).
Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box
640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US).
Priority Data:
09/013,353 26.01.1998 US
Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument
provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a
user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30)
corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a
series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture
controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of
which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical
note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along
with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed
musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the
selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities
also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure
table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or
automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played
along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then
be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system.
A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of
phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm
engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that
phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity
information and may contain polyphonic information.
Designated States: JP.
European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB,
GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE).
Publication Language: English (EN)
Filing Language: English (EN)
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Références
A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event
by David Lindsay
Copyright 2002. All right reserved.
In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and
musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can
be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods
of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present
paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm.
Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with
the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the
genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from
them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during
which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During
replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and
so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event.
Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates
to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present
approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation
process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA
dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins
generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our
scope.
The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known.
The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform
rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand,
and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.)
A C G T
T G C A
These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also
obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by
three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with
rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three:
A C G T
|| ||| ||| ||
T G C A
In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be
broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the
dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of
events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological
organisms--play a determining role.
Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to
break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy.
Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower
than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as
governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call
this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows
the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is
constant, by the following coefficients:
A=2
C=3
G=3
T=2
Given an arbitrary DNA sequence:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes:
2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2
Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state
constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation
is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA
molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich
regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In
vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation
progresses away from the initiation site:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
-------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can
be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event.
H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based
stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four
sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation
differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins,
which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that
constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated
above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four:
2332 2222 2232
Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its
expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two
opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a
replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond
breakage are activated simultaneously:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
|| ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm
expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger --
will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied
equally to molecular processes or musical ones.
Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the
case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and
indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is
varied its energy profile.
The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could,
for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient
to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate,
while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster
of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the
governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and
unstressed "beats," such that:
A=2=unstressed beat (-)
C=3=stressed beat (´)
G=3=stressed beat (´)
T=2=unstressed beat (-)
Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It
should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not
founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any
other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to
scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation
process.
Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy
profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close
observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating
music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given
the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if
any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may
cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication
will suffice.
Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would
facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such
cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry.
In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the
origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward
resonance.
Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to
fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA
strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to
transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for
example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will
tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which
is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering
a suspension bridge.
The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and
non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because
it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in
comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the
properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate
the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription.
1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences,"
Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts
(Sept. 1995).
For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting
and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here.
[2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles.
For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here.
website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan
University.
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[15]rhythm engine
[16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am
rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its
the only way
always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret
Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London
[18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django
100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the
musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good
players!
If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere
else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out
there and support these guys books are not always the answer
LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL
WORKSHOPS
Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010
Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt,
these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate
directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt
Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of
this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a
chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and
non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play
this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of
techniques and musical ideas.
These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts
Council England.
WORKSHOPS £35
o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz
double bass.
o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except
beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the
masters themselves
Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from
13.30 - 15.30
Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com
Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227
[20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records
January Workshops at a Glance:
Sunday 17 January
Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance
Battersea
Monday 18 January
Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Tuesday 19 January
Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Wednesday 20 January
Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
South Kensington
Thursday 21 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea
Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Friday 22 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Saturday 23 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea
Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith
Sunday 24 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea
We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to
happen.
ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT
WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS
AND STUDENTS
SUNDAY 17th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk
Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching
himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then
added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a
composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and
one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays
Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions.
An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted
musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz
scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg,
Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu
Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others.
[23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the
opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY
17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at
[25]www.wegottickets.com
MONDAY 18th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is
popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his
music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients,
intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst
retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive.
Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music,
their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous,
humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will
be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY
18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[27]www.wegottickets.com
TUESDAY 19th JANUARY
Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[28]www.quecumbar.co.uk
A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of
this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for
these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more
advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to
any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind,
multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span
violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy
musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later
swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de
Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired
by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger,
and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he
studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked
closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo
DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of
orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance
instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania
and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene.
[29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com
[31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com
Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO
on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from
[32]www.wegottickets.com
WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry
Place
London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on
today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy
Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more
contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at
numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus
has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His
virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which
fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson.
[34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl
[36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ;
Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy
Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[39]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel
Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in
Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was
spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where
he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and
non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the
world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane
Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light
and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid
Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his
own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are
acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured
on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona.
[40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com
Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER
TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[42]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[43]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from
Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also
studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has
worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has
recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists
including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego
Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and
James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha
[45]www.bielballestertrio.com
Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY
21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[46]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first
learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy
masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style
that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a
young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs,
demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond
his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with
bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy
Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg,
Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada
with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this
music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label,
El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in
Spain.
[49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com
[51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic
Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th
JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah
Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier:
Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter:
German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY
24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli
Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin;
Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND
FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo
Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani
van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at
[53]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy
Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246
King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk
Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line).
Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous
Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he
began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and
released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous
CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist,
he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with
modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with
its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself
to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour.
[55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette
Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
(Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi
Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion;
Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from
[56]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London
SW11 3JB
SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk
Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar
master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite
family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and
Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a
style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive
and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic
Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style
and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he
loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions
and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django
tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo
touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes
Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of
performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after
master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy.
He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of
15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing
competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with
"Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of
the top 1.4% of entrants.
"...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to
applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard;
"It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again",
Zutphen Paper.
[58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier
Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary
Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar;
Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass.
SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy,
guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie
Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th
birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and
stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with
unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their
Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating
in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo,
Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple
stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill,
technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate
café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music
was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of
Gypsy Swing,
WORKSHOP VENUES:
Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
17 Queensberry Place
London SW7 2DT
[60]www.institut-francais.org.uk
Tube: South Kensington
How to get there:
From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line
its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6
Jazz Cafe POSK
The Polish Cultural Centre
238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London
W6 0RF
Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line
Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost
next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same.
There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus
that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction.
Thomas's School
28-40 Battersea High Street,
London SW11 3JB
[63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Royal Academy of Dance
36 Battersea Square, Battersea,
London SW11 3RA
[64]www.rad.org.uk
[65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Le QuecumBar & Brasserie
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3HX
[66]www.quecumbar.co.uk
[67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
How to find us by Bus Route 170:
The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction
or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station.
(A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station
about £10)
170 from Victoria Station:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off
the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on
to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and
Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right
170 from Clapham Junction:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk
forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side
of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea
High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the
right
By Train:
Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk
or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from,
Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch
the 170 bus
By Car:
Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends
London Airports:
Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct
train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return
Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx
or train to central London
Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to
Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District
Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any
eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street
Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch
the 170 bus.
Map of where Le QuecumBar is:
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3 HX:
[68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud
to have the support of our world class musician patrons:
Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie
John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg
[69]quecumbar
Posts: 3
Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm
Location: London
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20. mailto:info@quecumbar.co.uk
24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com
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(WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
* Biblio. Data
* [2]Description
* [3]Claims
* [4]National Phase
* [5]Notices
* [6]Documents
Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau
* [7]Link
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__________________________________________________________________
Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.:
PCT/US1999/000569
Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999
IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01)
Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake
Village, CA 91361 (US).
Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US).
Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box
640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US).
Priority Data:
09/013,353 26.01.1998 US
Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument
provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a
user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30)
corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a
series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture
controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of
which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical
note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along
with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed
musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the
selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities
also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure
table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or
automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played
along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then
be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system.
A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of
phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm
engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that
phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity
information and may contain polyphonic information.
Designated States: JP.
European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB,
GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE).
Publication Language: English (EN)
Filing Language: English (EN)
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Références
A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event
by David Lindsay
Copyright 2002. All right reserved.
In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and
musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can
be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods
of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present
paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm.
Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with
the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the
genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from
them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during
which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During
replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and
so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event.
Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates
to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present
approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation
process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA
dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins
generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our
scope.
The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known.
The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform
rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand,
and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.)
A C G T
T G C A
These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also
obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by
three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with
rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three:
A C G T
|| ||| ||| ||
T G C A
In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be
broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the
dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of
events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological
organisms--play a determining role.
Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to
break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy.
Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower
than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as
governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call
this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows
the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is
constant, by the following coefficients:
A=2
C=3
G=3
T=2
Given an arbitrary DNA sequence:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes:
2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2
Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state
constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation
is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA
molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich
regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In
vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation
progresses away from the initiation site:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
-------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can
be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event.
H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based
stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four
sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation
differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins,
which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that
constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated
above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four:
2332 2222 2232
Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its
expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two
opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a
replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond
breakage are activated simultaneously:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
|| ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm
expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger --
will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied
equally to molecular processes or musical ones.
Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the
case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and
indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is
varied its energy profile.
The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could,
for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient
to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate,
while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster
of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the
governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and
unstressed "beats," such that:
A=2=unstressed beat (-)
C=3=stressed beat (´)
G=3=stressed beat (´)
T=2=unstressed beat (-)
Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It
should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not
founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any
other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to
scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation
process.
Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy
profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close
observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating
music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given
the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if
any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may
cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication
will suffice.
Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would
facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such
cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry.
In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the
origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward
resonance.
Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to
fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA
strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to
transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for
example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will
tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which
is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering
a suspension bridge.
The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and
non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because
it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in
comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the
properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate
the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription.
1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences,"
Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts
(Sept. 1995).
For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting
and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here.
[2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles.
For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here.
website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan
University.
Références
Liens visibles
Liens cachés :
CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project
[1]CRE Personnel
What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project?
The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful
way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented
music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision,
continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional
deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of
different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to
yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an
editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising
context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to
drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software
consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data
(e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that
represents these programs and data visually.
Expressive timing
One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently
commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained
control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or
rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say,
tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with
these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in
the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we
can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes
slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat).
All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in
human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with
manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a
musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in
rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this
project.
Composition and combination techniques
Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its
facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include
making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering
different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and
heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and
most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of
such structures.
Applications
Here are some possible applications of CRE:
* Anything that any standard drum machine does
* Automated percussion tracks with "human feel"
* A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the
same rhythms with "human feel"
* Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable
(e.g. the 30-second commercial)
* Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with
irrationally-related durations
* Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at
will, in real time
* Making a program that improvises by "driving around in
rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine
listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or
invention according to some combination of generative processes)
* Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without
altering the tree structure.
Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since
this list provides checkpoints for the software development.
__________________________________________________________________
Page maintained by Vijay Iyer
Last modified July 15, 1996
__________________________________________________________________
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[3]Up to CNMAT homepage
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[5]Send mail to Vijay Iyer
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[15]Jennifer Wagaman
Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students
Lesson Ideas Involving Rhythm for Young Students
[16]Dec 16, 2008 [17]Jennifer Wagaman
Be creative and resourceful when teaching kindergarten students about
rhythm.
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Teaching rhythm to Kindergarten students can be a fun way to get
students moving around the classroom. When writing lesson plans with
the objective towards learning rhythm, consider not only the manner in
which you teach the students, but which songs would provide the best
lesson opportunity, as well as which songs will work for the short
attention span the students have.
How to Teach Rhythm
Use the body demonstrate the beat, also called body percussion, will
help students feel the beat and learn the rhythm. This can involve
having the students clap, tap, or stomp their feet while singing. This
reinforces beat in a tactile manner, and helps the students stay
focused on what you are doing. You can also use any opportunity you
have to get the students up and moving about the room while singing
songs. Although this does take decent [18]classroom management skills,
it may also help your student's behavior as they are not required to
sit still throughout the class period.
What Songs Teach Rhythm
Teaching children about rhythm can be a great time to introduce some
fun songs. Lessons involving rhythm can be taught with any song that
has a steady beat, which basically means that most songs are good to
teach rhythm. Pick songs that the students either already know or are
easy to teach, as this will ensure that they already know the basic
rhythm.
Some good songs to use for teaching rhythm include songs like Engine
Engine Number Nine, and Skip to My Lou. For Engine Engine Number Nine,
after teaching the song, have the students form a train and move around
the room to the beat of the train in the song. For Skip to My Lou, have
the students walk, march, or skip around the room to the beat of the
song.
Keep Attention Span in Mind
Because a Kindergarten age child has a relatively short attention span,
keep your songs short and varied. Do several songs per class period. It
is better to do 3 five minute songs, assuming a 20 minute class period,
than to spend 15 minutes on one song. So once again, choose songs that
are either easy to teach, or that the students are already somewhat
familiar with.
Do not be afraid to experiment with your class as you teach the concept
of rhythm. Reflect on your lesson after you have taught it, decide
where there is room for improvement, and work to improve it for the
next class you teach it to.
You may also be interested in using [19]STOMP to teach rhythm in the
classroom.
Read more [20]tips for music teachers.
The copyright of the article Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students
in [21]Arts Education is owned by [22]Jennifer Wagaman. Permission to
republish Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in print or online
must be granted by the author in writing.
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[rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png]
Ideas for Teaching Rhythm, Mary R. Vogt Ideas for Teaching Rhythm
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[comment_icon_f1.png] What do you think about this article?
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Comments
Apr 15, 2009 7:59 AM
Guest :
I particularly like the idea of reflecting on the lesson after its
implementation. Reflection and teaching reflectively should be
encouraged among music teachers.
Cheers
Mark Minott
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1 Comment:
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* [37]how to teach rhythm
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* [40]what songs will teach rhythm
* [41]teaching music to kindergarten students
* [42]reflection on how a lesson went
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[15]rhythm engine
[16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am
rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its
the only way
always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret
Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London
[18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django
100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the
musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good
players!
If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere
else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out
there and support these guys books are not always the answer
LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL
WORKSHOPS
Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010
Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt,
these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate
directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt
Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of
this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a
chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and
non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play
this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of
techniques and musical ideas.
These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts
Council England.
WORKSHOPS £35
o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz
double bass.
o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except
beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the
masters themselves
Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from
13.30 - 15.30
Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com
Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227
[20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records
January Workshops at a Glance:
Sunday 17 January
Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance
Battersea
Monday 18 January
Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Tuesday 19 January
Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Wednesday 20 January
Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
South Kensington
Thursday 21 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea
Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Friday 22 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Saturday 23 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea
Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith
Sunday 24 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea
We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to
happen.
ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT
WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS
AND STUDENTS
SUNDAY 17th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk
Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching
himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then
added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a
composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and
one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays
Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions.
An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted
musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz
scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg,
Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu
Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others.
[23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the
opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY
17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at
[25]www.wegottickets.com
MONDAY 18th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is
popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his
music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients,
intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst
retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive.
Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music,
their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous,
humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will
be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY
18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[27]www.wegottickets.com
TUESDAY 19th JANUARY
Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[28]www.quecumbar.co.uk
A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of
this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for
these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more
advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to
any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind,
multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span
violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy
musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later
swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de
Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired
by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger,
and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he
studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked
closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo
DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of
orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance
instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania
and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene.
[29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com
[31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com
Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO
on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from
[32]www.wegottickets.com
WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry
Place
London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on
today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy
Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more
contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at
numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus
has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His
virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which
fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson.
[34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl
[36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ;
Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy
Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[39]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel
Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in
Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was
spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where
he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and
non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the
world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane
Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light
and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid
Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his
own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are
acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured
on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona.
[40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com
Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER
TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[42]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[43]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from
Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also
studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has
worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has
recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists
including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego
Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and
James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha
[45]www.bielballestertrio.com
Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY
21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[46]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first
learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy
masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style
that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a
young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs,
demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond
his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with
bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy
Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg,
Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada
with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this
music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label,
El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in
Spain.
[49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com
[51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic
Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th
JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah
Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier:
Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter:
German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY
24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli
Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin;
Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND
FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo
Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani
van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at
[53]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy
Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246
King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk
Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line).
Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous
Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he
began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and
released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous
CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist,
he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with
modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with
its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself
to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour.
[55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette
Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
(Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi
Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion;
Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from
[56]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London
SW11 3JB
SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk
Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar
master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite
family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and
Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a
style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive
and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic
Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style
and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he
loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions
and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django
tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo
touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes
Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of
performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after
master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy.
He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of
15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing
competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with
"Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of
the top 1.4% of entrants.
"...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to
applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard;
"It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again",
Zutphen Paper.
[58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier
Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary
Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar;
Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass.
SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy,
guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie
Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th
birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and
stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with
unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their
Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating
in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo,
Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple
stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill,
technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate
café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music
was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of
Gypsy Swing,
WORKSHOP VENUES:
Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
17 Queensberry Place
London SW7 2DT
[60]www.institut-francais.org.uk
Tube: South Kensington
How to get there:
From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line
its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6
Jazz Cafe POSK
The Polish Cultural Centre
238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London
W6 0RF
Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line
Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost
next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same.
There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus
that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction.
Thomas's School
28-40 Battersea High Street,
London SW11 3JB
[63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Royal Academy of Dance
36 Battersea Square, Battersea,
London SW11 3RA
[64]www.rad.org.uk
[65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Le QuecumBar & Brasserie
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3HX
[66]www.quecumbar.co.uk
[67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
How to find us by Bus Route 170:
The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction
or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station.
(A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station
about £10)
170 from Victoria Station:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off
the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on
to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and
Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right
170 from Clapham Junction:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk
forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side
of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea
High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the
right
By Train:
Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk
or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from,
Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch
the 170 bus
By Car:
Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends
London Airports:
Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct
train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return
Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx
or train to central London
Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to
Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District
Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any
eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street
Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch
the 170 bus.
Map of where Le QuecumBar is:
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3 HX:
[68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud
to have the support of our world class musician patrons:
Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie
John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg
[69]quecumbar
Posts: 3
Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm
Location: London
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24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
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(WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
* Biblio. Data
* [2]Description
* [3]Claims
* [4]National Phase
* [5]Notices
* [6]Documents
Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau
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__________________________________________________________________
Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.:
PCT/US1999/000569
Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999
IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01)
Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake
Village, CA 91361 (US).
Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US).
Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box
640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US).
Priority Data:
09/013,353 26.01.1998 US
Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument
provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a
user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30)
corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a
series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture
controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of
which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical
note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along
with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed
musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the
selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities
also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure
table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or
automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played
along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then
be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system.
A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of
phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm
engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that
phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity
information and may contain polyphonic information.
Designated States: JP.
European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB,
GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE).
Publication Language: English (EN)
Filing Language: English (EN)
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A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event
by David Lindsay
Copyright 2002. All right reserved.
In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and
musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can
be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods
of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present
paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm.
Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with
the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the
genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from
them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during
which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During
replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and
so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event.
Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates
to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present
approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation
process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA
dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins
generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our
scope.
The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known.
The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform
rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand,
and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.)
A C G T
T G C A
These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also
obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by
three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with
rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three:
A C G T
|| ||| ||| ||
T G C A
In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be
broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the
dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of
events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological
organisms--play a determining role.
Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to
break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy.
Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower
than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as
governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call
this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows
the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is
constant, by the following coefficients:
A=2
C=3
G=3
T=2
Given an arbitrary DNA sequence:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes:
2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2
Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state
constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation
is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA
molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich
regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In
vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation
progresses away from the initiation site:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
-------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can
be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event.
H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based
stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four
sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation
differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins,
which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that
constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated
above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four:
2332 2222 2232
Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its
expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two
opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a
replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond
breakage are activated simultaneously:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
|| ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm
expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger --
will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied
equally to molecular processes or musical ones.
Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the
case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and
indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is
varied its energy profile.
The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could,
for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient
to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate,
while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster
of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the
governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and
unstressed "beats," such that:
A=2=unstressed beat (-)
C=3=stressed beat (´)
G=3=stressed beat (´)
T=2=unstressed beat (-)
Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It
should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not
founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any
other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to
scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation
process.
Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy
profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close
observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating
music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given
the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if
any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may
cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication
will suffice.
Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would
facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such
cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry.
In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the
origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward
resonance.
Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to
fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA
strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to
transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for
example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will
tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which
is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering
a suspension bridge.
The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and
non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because
it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in
comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the
properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate
the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription.
1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences,"
Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts
(Sept. 1995).
For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting
and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here.
[2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles.
For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here.
website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan
University.
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CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project
[1]CRE Personnel
What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project?
The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful
way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented
music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision,
continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional
deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of
different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to
yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an
editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising
context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to
drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software
consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data
(e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that
represents these programs and data visually.
Expressive timing
One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently
commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained
control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or
rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say,
tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with
these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in
the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we
can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes
slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat).
All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in
human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with
manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a
musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in
rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this
project.
Composition and combination techniques
Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its
facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include
making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering
different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and
heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and
most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of
such structures.
Applications
Here are some possible applications of CRE:
* Anything that any standard drum machine does
* Automated percussion tracks with "human feel"
* A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the
same rhythms with "human feel"
* Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable
(e.g. the 30-second commercial)
* Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with
irrationally-related durations
* Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at
will, in real time
* Making a program that improvises by "driving around in
rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine
listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or
invention according to some combination of generative processes)
* Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without
altering the tree structure.
Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since
this list provides checkpoints for the software development.
__________________________________________________________________
Page maintained by Vijay Iyer
Last modified July 15, 1996
__________________________________________________________________
[2]Up to Vijay's page
[3]Up to CNMAT homepage
[4]Send mail to the CRE group
[5]Send mail to Vijay Iyer
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4. mailto:cdm@icsi.berkeley.edu
5. mailto:vijay@cnmat.berkeley.edu
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[15]rhythm engine
[16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am
rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its
the only way
always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret
Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London
[18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django
100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the
musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good
players!
If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere
else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out
there and support these guys books are not always the answer
LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL
WORKSHOPS
Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010
Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt,
these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate
directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt
Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of
this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a
chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and
non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play
this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of
techniques and musical ideas.
These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts
Council England.
WORKSHOPS £35
o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz
double bass.
o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except
beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the
masters themselves
Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from
13.30 - 15.30
Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com
Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227
[20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records
January Workshops at a Glance:
Sunday 17 January
Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance
Battersea
Monday 18 January
Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Tuesday 19 January
Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Wednesday 20 January
Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
South Kensington
Thursday 21 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea
Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Friday 22 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Saturday 23 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea
Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith
Sunday 24 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea
We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to
happen.
ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT
WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS
AND STUDENTS
SUNDAY 17th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk
Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching
himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then
added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a
composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and
one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays
Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions.
An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted
musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz
scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg,
Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu
Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others.
[23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the
opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY
17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at
[25]www.wegottickets.com
MONDAY 18th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is
popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his
music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients,
intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst
retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive.
Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music,
their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous,
humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will
be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY
18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[27]www.wegottickets.com
TUESDAY 19th JANUARY
Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[28]www.quecumbar.co.uk
A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of
this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for
these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more
advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to
any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind,
multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span
violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy
musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later
swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de
Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired
by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger,
and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he
studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked
closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo
DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of
orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance
instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania
and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene.
[29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com
[31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com
Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO
on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from
[32]www.wegottickets.com
WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry
Place
London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on
today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy
Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more
contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at
numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus
has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His
virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which
fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson.
[34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl
[36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ;
Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy
Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[39]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel
Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in
Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was
spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where
he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and
non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the
world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane
Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light
and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid
Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his
own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are
acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured
on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona.
[40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com
Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER
TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[42]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[43]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from
Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also
studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has
worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has
recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists
including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego
Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and
James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha
[45]www.bielballestertrio.com
Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY
21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[46]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first
learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy
masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style
that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a
young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs,
demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond
his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with
bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy
Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg,
Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada
with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this
music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label,
El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in
Spain.
[49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com
[51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic
Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th
JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah
Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier:
Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter:
German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY
24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli
Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin;
Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND
FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo
Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani
van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at
[53]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy
Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246
King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk
Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line).
Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous
Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he
began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and
released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous
CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist,
he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with
modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with
its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself
to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour.
[55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette
Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
(Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi
Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion;
Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from
[56]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London
SW11 3JB
SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk
Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar
master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite
family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and
Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a
style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive
and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic
Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style
and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he
loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions
and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django
tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo
touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes
Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of
performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after
master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy.
He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of
15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing
competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with
"Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of
the top 1.4% of entrants.
"...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to
applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard;
"It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again",
Zutphen Paper.
[58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier
Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary
Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar;
Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass.
SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy,
guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie
Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th
birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and
stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with
unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their
Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating
in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo,
Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple
stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill,
technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate
café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music
was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of
Gypsy Swing,
WORKSHOP VENUES:
Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
17 Queensberry Place
London SW7 2DT
[60]www.institut-francais.org.uk
Tube: South Kensington
How to get there:
From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line
its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6
Jazz Cafe POSK
The Polish Cultural Centre
238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London
W6 0RF
Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line
Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost
next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same.
There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus
that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction.
Thomas's School
28-40 Battersea High Street,
London SW11 3JB
[63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Royal Academy of Dance
36 Battersea Square, Battersea,
London SW11 3RA
[64]www.rad.org.uk
[65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Le QuecumBar & Brasserie
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3HX
[66]www.quecumbar.co.uk
[67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
How to find us by Bus Route 170:
The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction
or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station.
(A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station
about £10)
170 from Victoria Station:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off
the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on
to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and
Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right
170 from Clapham Junction:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk
forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side
of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea
High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the
right
By Train:
Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk
or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from,
Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch
the 170 bus
By Car:
Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends
London Airports:
Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct
train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return
Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx
or train to central London
Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to
Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District
Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any
eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street
Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch
the 170 bus.
Map of where Le QuecumBar is:
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3 HX:
[68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud
to have the support of our world class musician patrons:
Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie
John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg
[69]quecumbar
Posts: 3
Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm
Location: London
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31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com
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(WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
* Biblio. Data
* [2]Description
* [3]Claims
* [4]National Phase
* [5]Notices
* [6]Documents
Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau
* [7]Link
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__________________________________________________________________
Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.:
PCT/US1999/000569
Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999
IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01)
Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake
Village, CA 91361 (US).
Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US).
Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box
640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US).
Priority Data:
09/013,353 26.01.1998 US
Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument
provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a
user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30)
corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a
series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture
controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of
which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical
note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along
with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed
musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the
selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities
also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure
table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or
automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played
along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then
be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system.
A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of
phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm
engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that
phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity
information and may contain polyphonic information.
Designated States: JP.
European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB,
GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE).
Publication Language: English (EN)
Filing Language: English (EN)
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A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event
by David Lindsay
Copyright 2002. All right reserved.
In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and
musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can
be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods
of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present
paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm.
Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with
the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the
genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from
them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during
which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During
replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and
so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event.
Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates
to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present
approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation
process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA
dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins
generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our
scope.
The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known.
The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform
rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand,
and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.)
A C G T
T G C A
These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also
obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by
three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with
rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three:
A C G T
|| ||| ||| ||
T G C A
In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be
broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the
dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of
events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological
organisms--play a determining role.
Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to
break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy.
Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower
than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as
governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call
this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows
the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is
constant, by the following coefficients:
A=2
C=3
G=3
T=2
Given an arbitrary DNA sequence:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes:
2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2
Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state
constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation
is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA
molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich
regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In
vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation
progresses away from the initiation site:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
-------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can
be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event.
H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based
stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four
sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation
differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins,
which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that
constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated
above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four:
2332 2222 2232
Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its
expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two
opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a
replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond
breakage are activated simultaneously:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
|| ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm
expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger --
will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied
equally to molecular processes or musical ones.
Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the
case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and
indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is
varied its energy profile.
The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could,
for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient
to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate,
while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster
of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the
governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and
unstressed "beats," such that:
A=2=unstressed beat (-)
C=3=stressed beat (´)
G=3=stressed beat (´)
T=2=unstressed beat (-)
Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It
should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not
founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any
other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to
scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation
process.
Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy
profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close
observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating
music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given
the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if
any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may
cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication
will suffice.
Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would
facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such
cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry.
In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the
origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward
resonance.
Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to
fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA
strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to
transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for
example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will
tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which
is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering
a suspension bridge.
The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and
non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because
it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in
comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the
properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate
the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription.
1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences,"
Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts
(Sept. 1995).
For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting
and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here.
[2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles.
For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here.
website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan
University.
Références
Liens visibles
Liens cachés :
CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project
[1]CRE Personnel
What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project?
The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful
way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented
music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision,
continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional
deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of
different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to
yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an
editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising
context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to
drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software
consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data
(e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that
represents these programs and data visually.
Expressive timing
One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently
commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained
control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or
rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say,
tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with
these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in
the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we
can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes
slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat).
All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in
human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with
manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a
musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in
rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this
project.
Composition and combination techniques
Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its
facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include
making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering
different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and
heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and
most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of
such structures.
Applications
Here are some possible applications of CRE:
* Anything that any standard drum machine does
* Automated percussion tracks with "human feel"
* A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the
same rhythms with "human feel"
* Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable
(e.g. the 30-second commercial)
* Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with
irrationally-related durations
* Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at
will, in real time
* Making a program that improvises by "driving around in
rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine
listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or
invention according to some combination of generative processes)
* Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without
altering the tree structure.
Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since
this list provides checkpoints for the software development.
__________________________________________________________________
Page maintained by Vijay Iyer
Last modified July 15, 1996
__________________________________________________________________
[2]Up to Vijay's page
[3]Up to CNMAT homepage
[4]Send mail to the CRE group
[5]Send mail to Vijay Iyer
Références
4. mailto:cdm@icsi.berkeley.edu
5. mailto:vijay@cnmat.berkeley.edu
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[15]Jennifer Wagaman
Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students
Lesson Ideas Involving Rhythm for Young Students
[16]Dec 16, 2008 [17]Jennifer Wagaman
Be creative and resourceful when teaching kindergarten students about
rhythm.
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Teaching rhythm to Kindergarten students can be a fun way to get
students moving around the classroom. When writing lesson plans with
the objective towards learning rhythm, consider not only the manner in
which you teach the students, but which songs would provide the best
lesson opportunity, as well as which songs will work for the short
attention span the students have.
How to Teach Rhythm
Use the body demonstrate the beat, also called body percussion, will
help students feel the beat and learn the rhythm. This can involve
having the students clap, tap, or stomp their feet while singing. This
reinforces beat in a tactile manner, and helps the students stay
focused on what you are doing. You can also use any opportunity you
have to get the students up and moving about the room while singing
songs. Although this does take decent [18]classroom management skills,
it may also help your student's behavior as they are not required to
sit still throughout the class period.
What Songs Teach Rhythm
Teaching children about rhythm can be a great time to introduce some
fun songs. Lessons involving rhythm can be taught with any song that
has a steady beat, which basically means that most songs are good to
teach rhythm. Pick songs that the students either already know or are
easy to teach, as this will ensure that they already know the basic
rhythm.
Some good songs to use for teaching rhythm include songs like Engine
Engine Number Nine, and Skip to My Lou. For Engine Engine Number Nine,
after teaching the song, have the students form a train and move around
the room to the beat of the train in the song. For Skip to My Lou, have
the students walk, march, or skip around the room to the beat of the
song.
Keep Attention Span in Mind
Because a Kindergarten age child has a relatively short attention span,
keep your songs short and varied. Do several songs per class period. It
is better to do 3 five minute songs, assuming a 20 minute class period,
than to spend 15 minutes on one song. So once again, choose songs that
are either easy to teach, or that the students are already somewhat
familiar with.
Do not be afraid to experiment with your class as you teach the concept
of rhythm. Reflect on your lesson after you have taught it, decide
where there is room for improvement, and work to improve it for the
next class you teach it to.
You may also be interested in using [19]STOMP to teach rhythm in the
classroom.
Read more [20]tips for music teachers.
The copyright of the article Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students
in [21]Arts Education is owned by [22]Jennifer Wagaman. Permission to
republish Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in print or online
must be granted by the author in writing.
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Ideas for Teaching Rhythm, Mary R. Vogt Ideas for Teaching Rhythm
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Comments
Apr 15, 2009 7:59 AM
Guest :
I particularly like the idea of reflecting on the lesson after its
implementation. Reflection and teaching reflectively should be
encouraged among music teachers.
Cheers
Mark Minott
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1 Comment:
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* [37]how to teach rhythm
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[15]rhythm engine
[16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am
rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its
the only way
always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret
Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London
[18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django
100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the
musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good
players!
If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere
else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out
there and support these guys books are not always the answer
LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL
WORKSHOPS
Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010
Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt,
these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate
directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt
Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of
this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a
chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and
non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play
this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of
techniques and musical ideas.
These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts
Council England.
WORKSHOPS £35
o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz
double bass.
o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except
beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the
masters themselves
Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from
13.30 - 15.30
Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com
Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227
[20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records
January Workshops at a Glance:
Sunday 17 January
Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance
Battersea
Monday 18 January
Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Tuesday 19 January
Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Wednesday 20 January
Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
South Kensington
Thursday 21 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea
Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Friday 22 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Saturday 23 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea
Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith
Sunday 24 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea
We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to
happen.
ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT
WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS
AND STUDENTS
SUNDAY 17th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk
Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching
himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then
added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a
composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and
one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays
Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions.
An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted
musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz
scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg,
Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu
Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others.
[23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the
opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY
17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at
[25]www.wegottickets.com
MONDAY 18th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is
popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his
music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients,
intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst
retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive.
Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music,
their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous,
humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will
be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY
18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[27]www.wegottickets.com
TUESDAY 19th JANUARY
Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[28]www.quecumbar.co.uk
A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of
this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for
these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more
advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to
any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind,
multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span
violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy
musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later
swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de
Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired
by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger,
and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he
studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked
closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo
DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of
orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance
instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania
and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene.
[29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com
[31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com
Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO
on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from
[32]www.wegottickets.com
WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry
Place
London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on
today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy
Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more
contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at
numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus
has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His
virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which
fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson.
[34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl
[36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ;
Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy
Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[39]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel
Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in
Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was
spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where
he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and
non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the
world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane
Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light
and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid
Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his
own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are
acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured
on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona.
[40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com
Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER
TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[42]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[43]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from
Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also
studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has
worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has
recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists
including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego
Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and
James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha
[45]www.bielballestertrio.com
Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY
21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[46]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first
learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy
masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style
that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a
young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs,
demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond
his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with
bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy
Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg,
Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada
with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this
music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label,
El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in
Spain.
[49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com
[51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic
Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th
JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah
Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier:
Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter:
German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY
24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli
Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin;
Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND
FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo
Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani
van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at
[53]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy
Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246
King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk
Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line).
Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous
Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he
began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and
released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous
CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist,
he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with
modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with
its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself
to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour.
[55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette
Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
(Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi
Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion;
Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from
[56]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London
SW11 3JB
SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk
Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar
master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite
family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and
Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a
style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive
and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic
Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style
and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he
loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions
and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django
tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo
touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes
Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of
performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after
master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy.
He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of
15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing
competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with
"Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of
the top 1.4% of entrants.
"...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to
applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard;
"It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again",
Zutphen Paper.
[58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier
Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary
Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar;
Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass.
SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy,
guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie
Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th
birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and
stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with
unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their
Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating
in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo,
Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple
stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill,
technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate
café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music
was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of
Gypsy Swing,
WORKSHOP VENUES:
Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
17 Queensberry Place
London SW7 2DT
[60]www.institut-francais.org.uk
Tube: South Kensington
How to get there:
From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line
its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6
Jazz Cafe POSK
The Polish Cultural Centre
238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London
W6 0RF
Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line
Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost
next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same.
There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus
that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction.
Thomas's School
28-40 Battersea High Street,
London SW11 3JB
[63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Royal Academy of Dance
36 Battersea Square, Battersea,
London SW11 3RA
[64]www.rad.org.uk
[65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Le QuecumBar & Brasserie
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3HX
[66]www.quecumbar.co.uk
[67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
How to find us by Bus Route 170:
The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction
or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station.
(A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station
about £10)
170 from Victoria Station:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off
the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on
to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and
Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right
170 from Clapham Junction:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk
forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side
of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea
High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the
right
By Train:
Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk
or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from,
Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch
the 170 bus
By Car:
Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends
London Airports:
Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct
train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return
Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx
or train to central London
Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to
Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District
Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any
eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street
Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch
the 170 bus.
Map of where Le QuecumBar is:
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3 HX:
[68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud
to have the support of our world class musician patrons:
Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie
John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg
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(WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
* Biblio. Data
* [2]Description
* [3]Claims
* [4]National Phase
* [5]Notices
* [6]Documents
Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau
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__________________________________________________________________
Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.:
PCT/US1999/000569
Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999
IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01)
Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake
Village, CA 91361 (US).
Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US).
Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box
640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US).
Priority Data:
09/013,353 26.01.1998 US
Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument
provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a
user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30)
corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a
series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture
controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of
which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical
note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along
with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed
musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the
selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities
also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure
table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or
automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played
along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then
be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system.
A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of
phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm
engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that
phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity
information and may contain polyphonic information.
Designated States: JP.
European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB,
GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE).
Publication Language: English (EN)
Filing Language: English (EN)
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A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event
by David Lindsay
Copyright 2002. All right reserved.
In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and
musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can
be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods
of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present
paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm.
Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with
the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the
genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from
them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during
which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During
replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and
so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event.
Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates
to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present
approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation
process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA
dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins
generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our
scope.
The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known.
The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform
rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand,
and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.)
A C G T
T G C A
These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also
obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by
three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with
rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three:
A C G T
|| ||| ||| ||
T G C A
In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be
broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the
dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of
events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological
organisms--play a determining role.
Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to
break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy.
Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower
than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as
governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call
this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows
the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is
constant, by the following coefficients:
A=2
C=3
G=3
T=2
Given an arbitrary DNA sequence:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes:
2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2
Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state
constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation
is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA
molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich
regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In
vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation
progresses away from the initiation site:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
-------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can
be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event.
H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based
stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four
sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation
differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins,
which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that
constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated
above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four:
2332 2222 2232
Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its
expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two
opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a
replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond
breakage are activated simultaneously:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
|| ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm
expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger --
will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied
equally to molecular processes or musical ones.
Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the
case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and
indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is
varied its energy profile.
The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could,
for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient
to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate,
while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster
of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the
governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and
unstressed "beats," such that:
A=2=unstressed beat (-)
C=3=stressed beat (´)
G=3=stressed beat (´)
T=2=unstressed beat (-)
Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It
should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not
founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any
other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to
scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation
process.
Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy
profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close
observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating
music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given
the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if
any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may
cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication
will suffice.
Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would
facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such
cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry.
In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the
origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward
resonance.
Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to
fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA
strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to
transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for
example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will
tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which
is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering
a suspension bridge.
The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and
non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because
it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in
comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the
properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate
the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription.
1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences,"
Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts
(Sept. 1995).
For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting
and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here.
[2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles.
For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here.
website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan
University.
Références
Liens visibles
Liens cachés :
CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project
[1]CRE Personnel
What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project?
The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful
way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented
music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision,
continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional
deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of
different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to
yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an
editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising
context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to
drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software
consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data
(e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that
represents these programs and data visually.
Expressive timing
One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently
commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained
control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or
rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say,
tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with
these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in
the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we
can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes
slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat).
All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in
human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with
manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a
musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in
rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this
project.
Composition and combination techniques
Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its
facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include
making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering
different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and
heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and
most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of
such structures.
Applications
Here are some possible applications of CRE:
* Anything that any standard drum machine does
* Automated percussion tracks with "human feel"
* A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the
same rhythms with "human feel"
* Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable
(e.g. the 30-second commercial)
* Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with
irrationally-related durations
* Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at
will, in real time
* Making a program that improvises by "driving around in
rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine
listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or
invention according to some combination of generative processes)
* Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without
altering the tree structure.
Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since
this list provides checkpoints for the software development.
__________________________________________________________________
Page maintained by Vijay Iyer
Last modified July 15, 1996
__________________________________________________________________
[2]Up to Vijay's page
[3]Up to CNMAT homepage
[4]Send mail to the CRE group
[5]Send mail to Vijay Iyer
Références
4. mailto:cdm@icsi.berkeley.edu
5. mailto:vijay@cnmat.berkeley.edu
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[15]Jennifer Wagaman
Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students
Lesson Ideas Involving Rhythm for Young Students
[16]Dec 16, 2008 [17]Jennifer Wagaman
Be creative and resourceful when teaching kindergarten students about
rhythm.
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[rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png]
Teaching rhythm to Kindergarten students can be a fun way to get
students moving around the classroom. When writing lesson plans with
the objective towards learning rhythm, consider not only the manner in
which you teach the students, but which songs would provide the best
lesson opportunity, as well as which songs will work for the short
attention span the students have.
How to Teach Rhythm
Use the body demonstrate the beat, also called body percussion, will
help students feel the beat and learn the rhythm. This can involve
having the students clap, tap, or stomp their feet while singing. This
reinforces beat in a tactile manner, and helps the students stay
focused on what you are doing. You can also use any opportunity you
have to get the students up and moving about the room while singing
songs. Although this does take decent [18]classroom management skills,
it may also help your student's behavior as they are not required to
sit still throughout the class period.
What Songs Teach Rhythm
Teaching children about rhythm can be a great time to introduce some
fun songs. Lessons involving rhythm can be taught with any song that
has a steady beat, which basically means that most songs are good to
teach rhythm. Pick songs that the students either already know or are
easy to teach, as this will ensure that they already know the basic
rhythm.
Some good songs to use for teaching rhythm include songs like Engine
Engine Number Nine, and Skip to My Lou. For Engine Engine Number Nine,
after teaching the song, have the students form a train and move around
the room to the beat of the train in the song. For Skip to My Lou, have
the students walk, march, or skip around the room to the beat of the
song.
Keep Attention Span in Mind
Because a Kindergarten age child has a relatively short attention span,
keep your songs short and varied. Do several songs per class period. It
is better to do 3 five minute songs, assuming a 20 minute class period,
than to spend 15 minutes on one song. So once again, choose songs that
are either easy to teach, or that the students are already somewhat
familiar with.
Do not be afraid to experiment with your class as you teach the concept
of rhythm. Reflect on your lesson after you have taught it, decide
where there is room for improvement, and work to improve it for the
next class you teach it to.
You may also be interested in using [19]STOMP to teach rhythm in the
classroom.
Read more [20]tips for music teachers.
The copyright of the article Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students
in [21]Arts Education is owned by [22]Jennifer Wagaman. Permission to
republish Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in print or online
must be granted by the author in writing.
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[rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png]
Ideas for Teaching Rhythm, Mary R. Vogt Ideas for Teaching Rhythm
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[comment_icon_f1.png] What do you think about this article?
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Comments
Apr 15, 2009 7:59 AM
Guest :
I particularly like the idea of reflecting on the lesson after its
implementation. Reflection and teaching reflectively should be
encouraged among music teachers.
Cheers
Mark Minott
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1 Comment:
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Reference
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* [37]how to teach rhythm
* [38]teaching rhythm to kindergarten students
* [39]lesson ideas for teaching rhythm
* [40]what songs will teach rhythm
* [41]teaching music to kindergarten students
* [42]reflection on how a lesson went
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[15]rhythm engine
[16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am
rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its
the only way
always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret
Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London
[18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django
100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the
musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good
players!
If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere
else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out
there and support these guys books are not always the answer
LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL
WORKSHOPS
Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010
Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt,
these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate
directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt
Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of
this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a
chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and
non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play
this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of
techniques and musical ideas.
These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts
Council England.
WORKSHOPS £35
o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz
double bass.
o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except
beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the
masters themselves
Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from
13.30 - 15.30
Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com
Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227
[20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records
January Workshops at a Glance:
Sunday 17 January
Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance
Battersea
Monday 18 January
Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Tuesday 19 January
Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Wednesday 20 January
Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
South Kensington
Thursday 21 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea
Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Friday 22 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Saturday 23 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea
Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith
Sunday 24 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea
We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to
happen.
ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT
WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS
AND STUDENTS
SUNDAY 17th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk
Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching
himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then
added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a
composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and
one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays
Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions.
An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted
musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz
scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg,
Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu
Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others.
[23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the
opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY
17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at
[25]www.wegottickets.com
MONDAY 18th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is
popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his
music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients,
intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst
retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive.
Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music,
their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous,
humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will
be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY
18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[27]www.wegottickets.com
TUESDAY 19th JANUARY
Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[28]www.quecumbar.co.uk
A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of
this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for
these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more
advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to
any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind,
multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span
violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy
musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later
swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de
Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired
by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger,
and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he
studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked
closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo
DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of
orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance
instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania
and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene.
[29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com
[31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com
Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO
on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from
[32]www.wegottickets.com
WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry
Place
London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on
today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy
Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more
contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at
numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus
has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His
virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which
fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson.
[34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl
[36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ;
Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy
Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[39]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel
Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in
Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was
spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where
he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and
non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the
world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane
Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light
and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid
Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his
own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are
acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured
on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona.
[40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com
Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER
TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[42]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[43]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from
Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also
studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has
worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has
recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists
including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego
Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and
James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha
[45]www.bielballestertrio.com
Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY
21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[46]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first
learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy
masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style
that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a
young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs,
demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond
his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with
bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy
Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg,
Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada
with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this
music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label,
El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in
Spain.
[49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com
[51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic
Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th
JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah
Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier:
Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter:
German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY
24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli
Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin;
Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND
FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo
Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani
van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at
[53]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy
Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246
King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk
Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line).
Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous
Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he
began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and
released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous
CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist,
he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with
modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with
its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself
to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour.
[55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette
Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
(Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi
Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion;
Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from
[56]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London
SW11 3JB
SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk
Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar
master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite
family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and
Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a
style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive
and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic
Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style
and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he
loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions
and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django
tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo
touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes
Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of
performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after
master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy.
He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of
15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing
competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with
"Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of
the top 1.4% of entrants.
"...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to
applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard;
"It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again",
Zutphen Paper.
[58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier
Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary
Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar;
Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass.
SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy,
guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie
Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th
birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and
stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with
unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their
Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating
in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo,
Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple
stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill,
technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate
café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music
was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of
Gypsy Swing,
WORKSHOP VENUES:
Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
17 Queensberry Place
London SW7 2DT
[60]www.institut-francais.org.uk
Tube: South Kensington
How to get there:
From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line
its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6
Jazz Cafe POSK
The Polish Cultural Centre
238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London
W6 0RF
Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line
Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost
next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same.
There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus
that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction.
Thomas's School
28-40 Battersea High Street,
London SW11 3JB
[63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Royal Academy of Dance
36 Battersea Square, Battersea,
London SW11 3RA
[64]www.rad.org.uk
[65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Le QuecumBar & Brasserie
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3HX
[66]www.quecumbar.co.uk
[67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
How to find us by Bus Route 170:
The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction
or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station.
(A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station
about £10)
170 from Victoria Station:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off
the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on
to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and
Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right
170 from Clapham Junction:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk
forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side
of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea
High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the
right
By Train:
Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk
or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from,
Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch
the 170 bus
By Car:
Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends
London Airports:
Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct
train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return
Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx
or train to central London
Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to
Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District
Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any
eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street
Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch
the 170 bus.
Map of where Le QuecumBar is:
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3 HX:
[68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud
to have the support of our world class musician patrons:
Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie
John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg
[69]quecumbar
Posts: 3
Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm
Location: London
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(WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
* Biblio. Data
* [2]Description
* [3]Claims
* [4]National Phase
* [5]Notices
* [6]Documents
Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau
* [7]Link
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__________________________________________________________________
Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.:
PCT/US1999/000569
Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999
IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01)
Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake
Village, CA 91361 (US).
Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US).
Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box
640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US).
Priority Data:
09/013,353 26.01.1998 US
Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument
provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a
user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30)
corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a
series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture
controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of
which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical
note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along
with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed
musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the
selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities
also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure
table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or
automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played
along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then
be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system.
A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of
phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm
engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that
phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity
information and may contain polyphonic information.
Designated States: JP.
European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB,
GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE).
Publication Language: English (EN)
Filing Language: English (EN)
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Références
A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event
by David Lindsay
Copyright 2002. All right reserved.
In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and
musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can
be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods
of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present
paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm.
Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with
the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the
genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from
them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during
which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During
replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and
so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event.
Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates
to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present
approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation
process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA
dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins
generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our
scope.
The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known.
The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform
rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand,
and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.)
A C G T
T G C A
These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also
obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by
three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with
rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three:
A C G T
|| ||| ||| ||
T G C A
In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be
broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the
dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of
events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological
organisms--play a determining role.
Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to
break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy.
Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower
than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as
governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call
this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows
the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is
constant, by the following coefficients:
A=2
C=3
G=3
T=2
Given an arbitrary DNA sequence:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes:
2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2
Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state
constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation
is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA
molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich
regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In
vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation
progresses away from the initiation site:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
-------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can
be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event.
H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based
stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four
sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation
differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins,
which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that
constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated
above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four:
2332 2222 2232
Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its
expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two
opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a
replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond
breakage are activated simultaneously:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
|| ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm
expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger --
will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied
equally to molecular processes or musical ones.
Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the
case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and
indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is
varied its energy profile.
The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could,
for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient
to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate,
while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster
of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the
governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and
unstressed "beats," such that:
A=2=unstressed beat (-)
C=3=stressed beat (´)
G=3=stressed beat (´)
T=2=unstressed beat (-)
Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It
should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not
founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any
other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to
scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation
process.
Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy
profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close
observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating
music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given
the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if
any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may
cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication
will suffice.
Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would
facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such
cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry.
In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the
origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward
resonance.
Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to
fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA
strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to
transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for
example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will
tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which
is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering
a suspension bridge.
The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and
non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because
it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in
comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the
properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate
the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription.
1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences,"
Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts
(Sept. 1995).
For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting
and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here.
[2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles.
For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here.
website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan
University.
Références
Liens visibles
Liens cachés :
CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project
[1]CRE Personnel
What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project?
The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful
way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented
music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision,
continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional
deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of
different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to
yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an
editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising
context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to
drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software
consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data
(e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that
represents these programs and data visually.
Expressive timing
One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently
commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained
control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or
rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say,
tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with
these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in
the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we
can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes
slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat).
All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in
human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with
manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a
musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in
rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this
project.
Composition and combination techniques
Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its
facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include
making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering
different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and
heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and
most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of
such structures.
Applications
Here are some possible applications of CRE:
* Anything that any standard drum machine does
* Automated percussion tracks with "human feel"
* A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the
same rhythms with "human feel"
* Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable
(e.g. the 30-second commercial)
* Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with
irrationally-related durations
* Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at
will, in real time
* Making a program that improvises by "driving around in
rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine
listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or
invention according to some combination of generative processes)
* Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without
altering the tree structure.
Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since
this list provides checkpoints for the software development.
__________________________________________________________________
Page maintained by Vijay Iyer
Last modified July 15, 1996
__________________________________________________________________
[2]Up to Vijay's page
[3]Up to CNMAT homepage
[4]Send mail to the CRE group
[5]Send mail to Vijay Iyer
Références
4. mailto:cdm@icsi.berkeley.edu
5. mailto:vijay@cnmat.berkeley.edu
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[15]Jennifer Wagaman
Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students
Lesson Ideas Involving Rhythm for Young Students
[16]Dec 16, 2008 [17]Jennifer Wagaman
Be creative and resourceful when teaching kindergarten students about
rhythm.
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Teaching rhythm to Kindergarten students can be a fun way to get
students moving around the classroom. When writing lesson plans with
the objective towards learning rhythm, consider not only the manner in
which you teach the students, but which songs would provide the best
lesson opportunity, as well as which songs will work for the short
attention span the students have.
How to Teach Rhythm
Use the body demonstrate the beat, also called body percussion, will
help students feel the beat and learn the rhythm. This can involve
having the students clap, tap, or stomp their feet while singing. This
reinforces beat in a tactile manner, and helps the students stay
focused on what you are doing. You can also use any opportunity you
have to get the students up and moving about the room while singing
songs. Although this does take decent [18]classroom management skills,
it may also help your student's behavior as they are not required to
sit still throughout the class period.
What Songs Teach Rhythm
Teaching children about rhythm can be a great time to introduce some
fun songs. Lessons involving rhythm can be taught with any song that
has a steady beat, which basically means that most songs are good to
teach rhythm. Pick songs that the students either already know or are
easy to teach, as this will ensure that they already know the basic
rhythm.
Some good songs to use for teaching rhythm include songs like Engine
Engine Number Nine, and Skip to My Lou. For Engine Engine Number Nine,
after teaching the song, have the students form a train and move around
the room to the beat of the train in the song. For Skip to My Lou, have
the students walk, march, or skip around the room to the beat of the
song.
Keep Attention Span in Mind
Because a Kindergarten age child has a relatively short attention span,
keep your songs short and varied. Do several songs per class period. It
is better to do 3 five minute songs, assuming a 20 minute class period,
than to spend 15 minutes on one song. So once again, choose songs that
are either easy to teach, or that the students are already somewhat
familiar with.
Do not be afraid to experiment with your class as you teach the concept
of rhythm. Reflect on your lesson after you have taught it, decide
where there is room for improvement, and work to improve it for the
next class you teach it to.
You may also be interested in using [19]STOMP to teach rhythm in the
classroom.
Read more [20]tips for music teachers.
The copyright of the article Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students
in [21]Arts Education is owned by [22]Jennifer Wagaman. Permission to
republish Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in print or online
must be granted by the author in writing.
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[rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png]
Ideas for Teaching Rhythm, Mary R. Vogt Ideas for Teaching Rhythm
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[comment_icon_f1.png] What do you think about this article?
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Comments
Apr 15, 2009 7:59 AM
Guest :
I particularly like the idea of reflecting on the lesson after its
implementation. Reflection and teaching reflectively should be
encouraged among music teachers.
Cheers
Mark Minott
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Reference
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* [37]how to teach rhythm
* [38]teaching rhythm to kindergarten students
* [39]lesson ideas for teaching rhythm
* [40]what songs will teach rhythm
* [41]teaching music to kindergarten students
* [42]reflection on how a lesson went
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Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics
[1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics
Browse by soundtrack Search in soundtracks Browse by artist name
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- Rhythm of Life Lyrics
Ensemble:
Daddy started out in San Francisco,
Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean,
Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy,
Spread the picture on a wider screen."
And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons
Ready to be hooked on new religions.
Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife.
Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life."
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee,
Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge,
Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton,
Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Fly, fly, fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Swim, swim, swim to Daddy
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy,
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life,
Of life, of life, of life.
Yeah! Yeah! Yeah!
Man!
Related for [56]Sweet Charity:
sheet music [57]Buy Musical Sheet Music
cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD
dvd [59]Buy Musical DVD Links:
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* [1]DjangoBooks Home
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Gypsy Jazz and Django Reinhardt Discussion Area
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* [4]Board index < [5]Books - Ask the Author < [6]Gypsy Rhythm
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[12]rhythm engine
A support group for my Gypsy Rhythm book. Ask questions about Gypsy
Rhythm technique, share your own learning experiences, and learn new
tips and tricks.
Moderator: [13]Michael Horowitz
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[15]rhythm engine
[16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am
rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its
the only way
always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret
Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London
[18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django
100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the
musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good
players!
If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere
else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out
there and support these guys books are not always the answer
LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL
WORKSHOPS
Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010
Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt,
these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate
directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt
Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of
this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a
chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and
non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play
this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of
techniques and musical ideas.
These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts
Council England.
WORKSHOPS £35
o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz
double bass.
o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except
beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the
masters themselves
Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from
13.30 - 15.30
Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com
Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227
[20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records
January Workshops at a Glance:
Sunday 17 January
Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance
Battersea
Monday 18 January
Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Tuesday 19 January
Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Wednesday 20 January
Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
South Kensington
Thursday 21 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea
Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Friday 22 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Saturday 23 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea
Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith
Sunday 24 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea
We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to
happen.
ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT
WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS
AND STUDENTS
SUNDAY 17th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk
Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching
himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then
added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a
composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and
one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays
Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions.
An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted
musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz
scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg,
Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu
Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others.
[23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the
opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY
17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at
[25]www.wegottickets.com
MONDAY 18th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is
popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his
music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients,
intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst
retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive.
Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music,
their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous,
humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will
be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY
18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[27]www.wegottickets.com
TUESDAY 19th JANUARY
Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[28]www.quecumbar.co.uk
A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of
this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for
these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more
advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to
any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind,
multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span
violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy
musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later
swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de
Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired
by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger,
and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he
studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked
closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo
DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of
orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance
instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania
and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene.
[29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com
[31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com
Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO
on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from
[32]www.wegottickets.com
WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry
Place
London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on
today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy
Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more
contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at
numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus
has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His
virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which
fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson.
[34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl
[36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ;
Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy
Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[39]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel
Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in
Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was
spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where
he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and
non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the
world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane
Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light
and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid
Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his
own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are
acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured
on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona.
[40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com
Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER
TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[42]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[43]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from
Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also
studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has
worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has
recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists
including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego
Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and
James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha
[45]www.bielballestertrio.com
Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY
21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[46]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first
learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy
masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style
that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a
young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs,
demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond
his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with
bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy
Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg,
Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada
with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this
music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label,
El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in
Spain.
[49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com
[51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic
Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th
JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah
Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier:
Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter:
German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY
24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli
Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin;
Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND
FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo
Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani
van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at
[53]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy
Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246
King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk
Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line).
Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous
Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he
began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and
released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous
CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist,
he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with
modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with
its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself
to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour.
[55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette
Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
(Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi
Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion;
Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from
[56]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London
SW11 3JB
SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk
Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar
master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite
family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and
Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a
style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive
and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic
Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style
and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he
loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions
and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django
tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo
touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes
Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of
performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after
master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy.
He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of
15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing
competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with
"Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of
the top 1.4% of entrants.
"...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to
applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard;
"It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again",
Zutphen Paper.
[58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier
Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary
Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar;
Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass.
SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy,
guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie
Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th
birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and
stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with
unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their
Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating
in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo,
Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple
stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill,
technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate
café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music
was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of
Gypsy Swing,
WORKSHOP VENUES:
Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
17 Queensberry Place
London SW7 2DT
[60]www.institut-francais.org.uk
Tube: South Kensington
How to get there:
From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line
its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6
Jazz Cafe POSK
The Polish Cultural Centre
238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London
W6 0RF
Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line
Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost
next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same.
There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus
that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction.
Thomas's School
28-40 Battersea High Street,
London SW11 3JB
[63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Royal Academy of Dance
36 Battersea Square, Battersea,
London SW11 3RA
[64]www.rad.org.uk
[65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Le QuecumBar & Brasserie
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3HX
[66]www.quecumbar.co.uk
[67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
How to find us by Bus Route 170:
The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction
or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station.
(A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station
about £10)
170 from Victoria Station:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off
the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on
to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and
Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right
170 from Clapham Junction:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk
forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side
of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea
High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the
right
By Train:
Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk
or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from,
Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch
the 170 bus
By Car:
Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends
London Airports:
Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct
train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return
Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx
or train to central London
Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to
Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District
Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any
eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street
Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch
the 170 bus.
Map of where Le QuecumBar is:
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3 HX:
[68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud
to have the support of our world class musician patrons:
Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie
John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg
[69]quecumbar
Posts: 3
Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm
Location: London
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24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com
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(WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
* Biblio. Data
* [2]Description
* [3]Claims
* [4]National Phase
* [5]Notices
* [6]Documents
Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau
* [7]Link
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__________________________________________________________________
Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.:
PCT/US1999/000569
Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999
IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01)
Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake
Village, CA 91361 (US).
Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US).
Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box
640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US).
Priority Data:
09/013,353 26.01.1998 US
Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument
provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a
user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30)
corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a
series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture
controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of
which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical
note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along
with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed
musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the
selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities
also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure
table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or
automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played
along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then
be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system.
A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of
phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm
engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that
phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity
information and may contain polyphonic information.
Designated States: JP.
European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB,
GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE).
Publication Language: English (EN)
Filing Language: English (EN)
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Références
A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event
by David Lindsay
Copyright 2002. All right reserved.
In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and
musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can
be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods
of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present
paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm.
Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with
the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the
genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from
them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during
which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During
replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and
so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event.
Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates
to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present
approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation
process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA
dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins
generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our
scope.
The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known.
The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform
rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand,
and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.)
A C G T
T G C A
These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also
obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by
three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with
rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three:
A C G T
|| ||| ||| ||
T G C A
In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be
broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the
dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of
events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological
organisms--play a determining role.
Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to
break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy.
Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower
than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as
governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call
this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows
the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is
constant, by the following coefficients:
A=2
C=3
G=3
T=2
Given an arbitrary DNA sequence:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes:
2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2
Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state
constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation
is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA
molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich
regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In
vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation
progresses away from the initiation site:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
-------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can
be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event.
H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based
stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four
sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation
differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins,
which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that
constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated
above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four:
2332 2222 2232
Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its
expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two
opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a
replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond
breakage are activated simultaneously:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
|| ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm
expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger --
will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied
equally to molecular processes or musical ones.
Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the
case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and
indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is
varied its energy profile.
The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could,
for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient
to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate,
while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster
of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the
governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and
unstressed "beats," such that:
A=2=unstressed beat (-)
C=3=stressed beat (´)
G=3=stressed beat (´)
T=2=unstressed beat (-)
Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It
should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not
founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any
other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to
scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation
process.
Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy
profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close
observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating
music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given
the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if
any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may
cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication
will suffice.
Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would
facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such
cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry.
In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the
origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward
resonance.
Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to
fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA
strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to
transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for
example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will
tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which
is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering
a suspension bridge.
The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and
non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because
it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in
comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the
properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate
the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription.
1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences,"
Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts
(Sept. 1995).
For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting
and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here.
[2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles.
For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here.
website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan
University.
Références
Liens visibles
Liens cachés :
CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project
[1]CRE Personnel
What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project?
The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful
way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented
music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision,
continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional
deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of
different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to
yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an
editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising
context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to
drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software
consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data
(e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that
represents these programs and data visually.
Expressive timing
One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently
commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained
control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or
rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say,
tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with
these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in
the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we
can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes
slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat).
All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in
human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with
manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a
musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in
rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this
project.
Composition and combination techniques
Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its
facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include
making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering
different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and
heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and
most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of
such structures.
Applications
Here are some possible applications of CRE:
* Anything that any standard drum machine does
* Automated percussion tracks with "human feel"
* A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the
same rhythms with "human feel"
* Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable
(e.g. the 30-second commercial)
* Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with
irrationally-related durations
* Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at
will, in real time
* Making a program that improvises by "driving around in
rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine
listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or
invention according to some combination of generative processes)
* Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without
altering the tree structure.
Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since
this list provides checkpoints for the software development.
__________________________________________________________________
Page maintained by Vijay Iyer
Last modified July 15, 1996
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[15]Jennifer Wagaman
Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students
Lesson Ideas Involving Rhythm for Young Students
[16]Dec 16, 2008 [17]Jennifer Wagaman
Be creative and resourceful when teaching kindergarten students about
rhythm.
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Teaching rhythm to Kindergarten students can be a fun way to get
students moving around the classroom. When writing lesson plans with
the objective towards learning rhythm, consider not only the manner in
which you teach the students, but which songs would provide the best
lesson opportunity, as well as which songs will work for the short
attention span the students have.
How to Teach Rhythm
Use the body demonstrate the beat, also called body percussion, will
help students feel the beat and learn the rhythm. This can involve
having the students clap, tap, or stomp their feet while singing. This
reinforces beat in a tactile manner, and helps the students stay
focused on what you are doing. You can also use any opportunity you
have to get the students up and moving about the room while singing
songs. Although this does take decent [18]classroom management skills,
it may also help your student's behavior as they are not required to
sit still throughout the class period.
What Songs Teach Rhythm
Teaching children about rhythm can be a great time to introduce some
fun songs. Lessons involving rhythm can be taught with any song that
has a steady beat, which basically means that most songs are good to
teach rhythm. Pick songs that the students either already know or are
easy to teach, as this will ensure that they already know the basic
rhythm.
Some good songs to use for teaching rhythm include songs like Engine
Engine Number Nine, and Skip to My Lou. For Engine Engine Number Nine,
after teaching the song, have the students form a train and move around
the room to the beat of the train in the song. For Skip to My Lou, have
the students walk, march, or skip around the room to the beat of the
song.
Keep Attention Span in Mind
Because a Kindergarten age child has a relatively short attention span,
keep your songs short and varied. Do several songs per class period. It
is better to do 3 five minute songs, assuming a 20 minute class period,
than to spend 15 minutes on one song. So once again, choose songs that
are either easy to teach, or that the students are already somewhat
familiar with.
Do not be afraid to experiment with your class as you teach the concept
of rhythm. Reflect on your lesson after you have taught it, decide
where there is room for improvement, and work to improve it for the
next class you teach it to.
You may also be interested in using [19]STOMP to teach rhythm in the
classroom.
Read more [20]tips for music teachers.
The copyright of the article Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students
in [21]Arts Education is owned by [22]Jennifer Wagaman. Permission to
republish Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in print or online
must be granted by the author in writing.
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[rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png]
Ideas for Teaching Rhythm, Mary R. Vogt Ideas for Teaching Rhythm
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Comments
Apr 15, 2009 7:59 AM
Guest :
I particularly like the idea of reflecting on the lesson after its
implementation. Reflection and teaching reflectively should be
encouraged among music teachers.
Cheers
Mark Minott
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Reference
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* [37]how to teach rhythm
* [38]teaching rhythm to kindergarten students
* [39]lesson ideas for teaching rhythm
* [40]what songs will teach rhythm
* [41]teaching music to kindergarten students
* [42]reflection on how a lesson went
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Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics
[1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics
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- Rhythm of Life Lyrics
Ensemble:
Daddy started out in San Francisco,
Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean,
Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy,
Spread the picture on a wider screen."
And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons
Ready to be hooked on new religions.
Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife.
Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life."
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee,
Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge,
Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton,
Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Fly, fly, fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Swim, swim, swim to Daddy
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy,
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life,
Of life, of life, of life.
Yeah! Yeah! Yeah!
Man!
Related for [56]Sweet Charity:
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles
Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life.
Music Of Other Climes. Part 2
Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the
elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time
of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm
so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early
Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language,
instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect
rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything
we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may
be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as
the most graceful.
Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ,
and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed
that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not
the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was
apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres,
and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D,
of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can
see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from
the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical
sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation
in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one
great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last.
It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that
comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical
colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life.
Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a
world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense,
so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the
individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not
yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or
hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to
the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature.
Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine
principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt,
thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles,
there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek
people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until
there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks.
As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a
prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become.
When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is
without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the
Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the
world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But
the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being
without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of
what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we
receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given.
We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and
bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has
seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or
artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth
and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new
birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of
music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will
become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure
from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all
that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely,
or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the
harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that
is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back
into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall
you receive the best.
With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the
progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under
the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most
external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the
coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is
sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful
roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention
to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is
that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it
did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national
religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian
Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of
the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change
from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked
change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the
curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much
to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There
were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them
were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even
under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have
expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century
A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to
produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable
success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the
work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called
good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth
century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and
Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new
foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the
centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may
truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by
the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in
modern times.
Continue to:
* prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes
* [44]Table of Contents
* next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3
Tags
[46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics,
[51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music,
[56]vibration
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[15]rhythm engine
[16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am
rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its
the only way
always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret
Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London
[18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django
100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the
musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good
players!
If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere
else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out
there and support these guys books are not always the answer
LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL
WORKSHOPS
Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010
Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt,
these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate
directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt
Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of
this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a
chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and
non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play
this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of
techniques and musical ideas.
These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts
Council England.
WORKSHOPS £35
o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz
double bass.
o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except
beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the
masters themselves
Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from
13.30 - 15.30
Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com
Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227
[20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records
January Workshops at a Glance:
Sunday 17 January
Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance
Battersea
Monday 18 January
Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Tuesday 19 January
Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Wednesday 20 January
Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
South Kensington
Thursday 21 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea
Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Friday 22 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Saturday 23 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea
Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith
Sunday 24 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea
We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to
happen.
ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT
WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS
AND STUDENTS
SUNDAY 17th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk
Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching
himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then
added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a
composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and
one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays
Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions.
An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted
musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz
scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg,
Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu
Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others.
[23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the
opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY
17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at
[25]www.wegottickets.com
MONDAY 18th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is
popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his
music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients,
intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst
retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive.
Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music,
their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous,
humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will
be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY
18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[27]www.wegottickets.com
TUESDAY 19th JANUARY
Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[28]www.quecumbar.co.uk
A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of
this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for
these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more
advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to
any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind,
multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span
violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy
musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later
swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de
Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired
by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger,
and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he
studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked
closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo
DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of
orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance
instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania
and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene.
[29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com
[31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com
Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO
on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from
[32]www.wegottickets.com
WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry
Place
London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on
today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy
Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more
contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at
numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus
has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His
virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which
fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson.
[34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl
[36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ;
Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy
Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[39]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel
Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in
Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was
spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where
he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and
non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the
world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane
Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light
and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid
Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his
own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are
acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured
on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona.
[40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com
Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER
TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[42]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[43]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from
Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also
studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has
worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has
recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists
including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego
Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and
James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha
[45]www.bielballestertrio.com
Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY
21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[46]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first
learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy
masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style
that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a
young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs,
demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond
his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with
bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy
Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg,
Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada
with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this
music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label,
El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in
Spain.
[49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com
[51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic
Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th
JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah
Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier:
Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter:
German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY
24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli
Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin;
Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND
FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo
Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani
van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at
[53]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy
Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246
King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk
Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line).
Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous
Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he
began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and
released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous
CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist,
he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with
modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with
its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself
to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour.
[55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette
Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
(Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi
Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion;
Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from
[56]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London
SW11 3JB
SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk
Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar
master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite
family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and
Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a
style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive
and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic
Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style
and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he
loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions
and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django
tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo
touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes
Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of
performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after
master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy.
He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of
15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing
competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with
"Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of
the top 1.4% of entrants.
"...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to
applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard;
"It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again",
Zutphen Paper.
[58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier
Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary
Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar;
Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass.
SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy,
guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie
Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th
birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and
stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with
unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their
Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating
in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo,
Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple
stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill,
technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate
café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music
was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of
Gypsy Swing,
WORKSHOP VENUES:
Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
17 Queensberry Place
London SW7 2DT
[60]www.institut-francais.org.uk
Tube: South Kensington
How to get there:
From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line
its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6
Jazz Cafe POSK
The Polish Cultural Centre
238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London
W6 0RF
Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line
Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost
next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same.
There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus
that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction.
Thomas's School
28-40 Battersea High Street,
London SW11 3JB
[63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Royal Academy of Dance
36 Battersea Square, Battersea,
London SW11 3RA
[64]www.rad.org.uk
[65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Le QuecumBar & Brasserie
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3HX
[66]www.quecumbar.co.uk
[67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
How to find us by Bus Route 170:
The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction
or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station.
(A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station
about £10)
170 from Victoria Station:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off
the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on
to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and
Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right
170 from Clapham Junction:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk
forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side
of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea
High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the
right
By Train:
Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk
or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from,
Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch
the 170 bus
By Car:
Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends
London Airports:
Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct
train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return
Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx
or train to central London
Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to
Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District
Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any
eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street
Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch
the 170 bus.
Map of where Le QuecumBar is:
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3 HX:
[68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud
to have the support of our world class musician patrons:
Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie
John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg
[69]quecumbar
Posts: 3
Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm
Location: London
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20. mailto:info@quecumbar.co.uk
24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com
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(WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
* Biblio. Data
* [2]Description
* [3]Claims
* [4]National Phase
* [5]Notices
* [6]Documents
Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau
* [7]Link
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__________________________________________________________________
Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.:
PCT/US1999/000569
Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999
IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01)
Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake
Village, CA 91361 (US).
Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US).
Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box
640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US).
Priority Data:
09/013,353 26.01.1998 US
Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument
provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a
user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30)
corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a
series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture
controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of
which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical
note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along
with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed
musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the
selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities
also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure
table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or
automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played
along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then
be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system.
A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of
phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm
engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that
phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity
information and may contain polyphonic information.
Designated States: JP.
European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB,
GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE).
Publication Language: English (EN)
Filing Language: English (EN)
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Références
A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event
by David Lindsay
Copyright 2002. All right reserved.
In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and
musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can
be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods
of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present
paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm.
Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with
the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the
genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from
them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during
which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During
replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and
so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event.
Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates
to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present
approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation
process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA
dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins
generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our
scope.
The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known.
The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform
rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand,
and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.)
A C G T
T G C A
These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also
obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by
three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with
rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three:
A C G T
|| ||| ||| ||
T G C A
In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be
broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the
dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of
events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological
organisms--play a determining role.
Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to
break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy.
Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower
than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as
governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call
this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows
the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is
constant, by the following coefficients:
A=2
C=3
G=3
T=2
Given an arbitrary DNA sequence:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes:
2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2
Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state
constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation
is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA
molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich
regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In
vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation
progresses away from the initiation site:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
-------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can
be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event.
H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based
stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four
sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation
differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins,
which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that
constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated
above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four:
2332 2222 2232
Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its
expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two
opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a
replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond
breakage are activated simultaneously:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
|| ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm
expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger --
will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied
equally to molecular processes or musical ones.
Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the
case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and
indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is
varied its energy profile.
The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could,
for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient
to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate,
while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster
of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the
governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and
unstressed "beats," such that:
A=2=unstressed beat (-)
C=3=stressed beat (´)
G=3=stressed beat (´)
T=2=unstressed beat (-)
Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It
should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not
founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any
other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to
scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation
process.
Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy
profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close
observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating
music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given
the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if
any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may
cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication
will suffice.
Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would
facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such
cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry.
In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the
origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward
resonance.
Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to
fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA
strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to
transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for
example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will
tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which
is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering
a suspension bridge.
The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and
non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because
it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in
comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the
properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate
the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription.
1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences,"
Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts
(Sept. 1995).
For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting
and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here.
[2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles.
For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here.
website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan
University.
Références
Liens visibles
Liens cachés :
CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project
[1]CRE Personnel
What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project?
The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful
way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented
music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision,
continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional
deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of
different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to
yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an
editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising
context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to
drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software
consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data
(e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that
represents these programs and data visually.
Expressive timing
One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently
commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained
control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or
rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say,
tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with
these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in
the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we
can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes
slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat).
All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in
human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with
manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a
musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in
rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this
project.
Composition and combination techniques
Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its
facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include
making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering
different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and
heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and
most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of
such structures.
Applications
Here are some possible applications of CRE:
* Anything that any standard drum machine does
* Automated percussion tracks with "human feel"
* A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the
same rhythms with "human feel"
* Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable
(e.g. the 30-second commercial)
* Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with
irrationally-related durations
* Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at
will, in real time
* Making a program that improvises by "driving around in
rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine
listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or
invention according to some combination of generative processes)
* Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without
altering the tree structure.
Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since
this list provides checkpoints for the software development.
__________________________________________________________________
Page maintained by Vijay Iyer
Last modified July 15, 1996
__________________________________________________________________
[2]Up to Vijay's page
[3]Up to CNMAT homepage
[4]Send mail to the CRE group
[5]Send mail to Vijay Iyer
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[15]Jennifer Wagaman
Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students
Lesson Ideas Involving Rhythm for Young Students
[16]Dec 16, 2008 [17]Jennifer Wagaman
Be creative and resourceful when teaching kindergarten students about
rhythm.
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Teaching rhythm to Kindergarten students can be a fun way to get
students moving around the classroom. When writing lesson plans with
the objective towards learning rhythm, consider not only the manner in
which you teach the students, but which songs would provide the best
lesson opportunity, as well as which songs will work for the short
attention span the students have.
How to Teach Rhythm
Use the body demonstrate the beat, also called body percussion, will
help students feel the beat and learn the rhythm. This can involve
having the students clap, tap, or stomp their feet while singing. This
reinforces beat in a tactile manner, and helps the students stay
focused on what you are doing. You can also use any opportunity you
have to get the students up and moving about the room while singing
songs. Although this does take decent [18]classroom management skills,
it may also help your student's behavior as they are not required to
sit still throughout the class period.
What Songs Teach Rhythm
Teaching children about rhythm can be a great time to introduce some
fun songs. Lessons involving rhythm can be taught with any song that
has a steady beat, which basically means that most songs are good to
teach rhythm. Pick songs that the students either already know or are
easy to teach, as this will ensure that they already know the basic
rhythm.
Some good songs to use for teaching rhythm include songs like Engine
Engine Number Nine, and Skip to My Lou. For Engine Engine Number Nine,
after teaching the song, have the students form a train and move around
the room to the beat of the train in the song. For Skip to My Lou, have
the students walk, march, or skip around the room to the beat of the
song.
Keep Attention Span in Mind
Because a Kindergarten age child has a relatively short attention span,
keep your songs short and varied. Do several songs per class period. It
is better to do 3 five minute songs, assuming a 20 minute class period,
than to spend 15 minutes on one song. So once again, choose songs that
are either easy to teach, or that the students are already somewhat
familiar with.
Do not be afraid to experiment with your class as you teach the concept
of rhythm. Reflect on your lesson after you have taught it, decide
where there is room for improvement, and work to improve it for the
next class you teach it to.
You may also be interested in using [19]STOMP to teach rhythm in the
classroom.
Read more [20]tips for music teachers.
The copyright of the article Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students
in [21]Arts Education is owned by [22]Jennifer Wagaman. Permission to
republish Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in print or online
must be granted by the author in writing.
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Ideas for Teaching Rhythm, Mary R. Vogt Ideas for Teaching Rhythm
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Comments
Apr 15, 2009 7:59 AM
Guest :
I particularly like the idea of reflecting on the lesson after its
implementation. Reflection and teaching reflectively should be
encouraged among music teachers.
Cheers
Mark Minott
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* [37]how to teach rhythm
* [38]teaching rhythm to kindergarten students
* [39]lesson ideas for teaching rhythm
* [40]what songs will teach rhythm
* [41]teaching music to kindergarten students
* [42]reflection on how a lesson went
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Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics
[1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics
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- Rhythm of Life Lyrics
Ensemble:
Daddy started out in San Francisco,
Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean,
Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy,
Spread the picture on a wider screen."
And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons
Ready to be hooked on new religions.
Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife.
Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life."
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee,
Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge,
Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton,
Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Fly, fly, fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Swim, swim, swim to Daddy
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy,
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life,
Of life, of life, of life.
Yeah! Yeah! Yeah!
Man!
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles
Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life.
Music Of Other Climes. Part 2
Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the
elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time
of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm
so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early
Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language,
instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect
rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything
we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may
be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as
the most graceful.
Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ,
and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed
that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not
the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was
apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres,
and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D,
of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can
see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from
the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical
sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation
in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one
great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last.
It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that
comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical
colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life.
Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a
world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense,
so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the
individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not
yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or
hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to
the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature.
Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine
principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt,
thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles,
there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek
people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until
there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks.
As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a
prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become.
When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is
without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the
Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the
world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But
the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being
without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of
what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we
receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given.
We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and
bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has
seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or
artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth
and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new
birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of
music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will
become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure
from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all
that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely,
or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the
harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that
is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back
into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall
you receive the best.
With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the
progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under
the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most
external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the
coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is
sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful
roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention
to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is
that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it
did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national
religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian
Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of
the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change
from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked
change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the
curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much
to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There
were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them
were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even
under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have
expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century
A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to
produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable
success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the
work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called
good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth
century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and
Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new
foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the
centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may
truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by
the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in
modern times.
Continue to:
* prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes
* [44]Table of Contents
* next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3
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[46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics,
[51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music,
[56]vibration
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Keeping the rhythm of life in sync
May 28, 2008
Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the
heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the
rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as
cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per
minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or
physical stress.
The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical
system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed
electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the
heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be
too fast, too slow, or irregular.
All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal
heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people
may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal
rhythm and not even know it.
Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest
pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath,
swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur
because of abnormal heart rhythm.
To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its
relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an
electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time
at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by
placing electrodes on the skin.
Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be
difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case,
other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which
electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart
catheterization.
Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of
electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or
implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows
doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside
the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are
causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing
temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively
destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia.
Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when
the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not
functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can
be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to
resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some
of its pumping function.
Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of
dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The
device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and
delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm.
Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent
disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to
their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular
Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced
treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help
restore the rhythm of life.
Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs
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* [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 1 / 5 (1)
"...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that
provides the rhythm of life..."
Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is
just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood
through our system of vessels.
It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood
circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever
smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after
supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to
become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable
of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy
and thin pipes.
It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all
about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word
"pump" to describe the heart.
What about "metronome"?
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* [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 4 / 5 (1)
Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you
don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong.
Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels,
and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and
also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood
return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY
used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to
the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation.
As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick,
as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the
thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow
loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if
this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some
reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive
pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation"
or taking a highschool biology class.
+ [55]report abuse
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[15]rhythm engine
[16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am
rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its
the only way
always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret
Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London
[18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django
100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the
musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good
players!
If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere
else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out
there and support these guys books are not always the answer
LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL
WORKSHOPS
Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010
Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt,
these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate
directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt
Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of
this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a
chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and
non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play
this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of
techniques and musical ideas.
These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts
Council England.
WORKSHOPS £35
o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz
double bass.
o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except
beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the
masters themselves
Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from
13.30 - 15.30
Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com
Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227
[20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records
January Workshops at a Glance:
Sunday 17 January
Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance
Battersea
Monday 18 January
Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Tuesday 19 January
Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Wednesday 20 January
Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
South Kensington
Thursday 21 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea
Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Friday 22 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Saturday 23 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea
Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith
Sunday 24 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea
We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to
happen.
ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT
WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS
AND STUDENTS
SUNDAY 17th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk
Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching
himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then
added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a
composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and
one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays
Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions.
An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted
musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz
scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg,
Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu
Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others.
[23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the
opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY
17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at
[25]www.wegottickets.com
MONDAY 18th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is
popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his
music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients,
intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst
retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive.
Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music,
their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous,
humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will
be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY
18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[27]www.wegottickets.com
TUESDAY 19th JANUARY
Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[28]www.quecumbar.co.uk
A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of
this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for
these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more
advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to
any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind,
multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span
violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy
musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later
swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de
Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired
by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger,
and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he
studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked
closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo
DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of
orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance
instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania
and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene.
[29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com
[31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com
Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO
on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from
[32]www.wegottickets.com
WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry
Place
London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on
today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy
Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more
contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at
numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus
has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His
virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which
fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson.
[34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl
[36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ;
Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy
Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[39]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel
Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in
Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was
spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where
he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and
non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the
world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane
Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light
and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid
Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his
own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are
acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured
on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona.
[40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com
Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER
TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[42]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[43]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from
Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also
studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has
worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has
recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists
including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego
Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and
James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha
[45]www.bielballestertrio.com
Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY
21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[46]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first
learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy
masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style
that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a
young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs,
demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond
his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with
bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy
Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg,
Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada
with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this
music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label,
El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in
Spain.
[49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com
[51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic
Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th
JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah
Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier:
Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter:
German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY
24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli
Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin;
Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND
FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo
Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani
van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at
[53]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy
Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246
King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk
Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line).
Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous
Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he
began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and
released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous
CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist,
he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with
modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with
its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself
to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour.
[55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette
Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
(Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi
Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion;
Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from
[56]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London
SW11 3JB
SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk
Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar
master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite
family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and
Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a
style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive
and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic
Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style
and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he
loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions
and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django
tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo
touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes
Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of
performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after
master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy.
He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of
15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing
competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with
"Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of
the top 1.4% of entrants.
"...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to
applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard;
"It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again",
Zutphen Paper.
[58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier
Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary
Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar;
Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass.
SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy,
guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie
Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th
birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and
stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with
unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their
Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating
in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo,
Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple
stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill,
technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate
café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music
was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of
Gypsy Swing,
WORKSHOP VENUES:
Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
17 Queensberry Place
London SW7 2DT
[60]www.institut-francais.org.uk
Tube: South Kensington
How to get there:
From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line
its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6
Jazz Cafe POSK
The Polish Cultural Centre
238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London
W6 0RF
Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line
Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost
next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same.
There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus
that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction.
Thomas's School
28-40 Battersea High Street,
London SW11 3JB
[63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Royal Academy of Dance
36 Battersea Square, Battersea,
London SW11 3RA
[64]www.rad.org.uk
[65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Le QuecumBar & Brasserie
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3HX
[66]www.quecumbar.co.uk
[67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
How to find us by Bus Route 170:
The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction
or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station.
(A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station
about £10)
170 from Victoria Station:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off
the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on
to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and
Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right
170 from Clapham Junction:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk
forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side
of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea
High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the
right
By Train:
Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk
or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from,
Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch
the 170 bus
By Car:
Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends
London Airports:
Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct
train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return
Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx
or train to central London
Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to
Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District
Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any
eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street
Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch
the 170 bus.
Map of where Le QuecumBar is:
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3 HX:
[68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud
to have the support of our world class musician patrons:
Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie
John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg
[69]quecumbar
Posts: 3
Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm
Location: London
+ [70]E-mail quecumbar
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20. mailto:info@quecumbar.co.uk
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31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com
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[1]Skip to main content
(WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
* Biblio. Data
* [2]Description
* [3]Claims
* [4]National Phase
* [5]Notices
* [6]Documents
Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau
* [7]Link
+ [8]Permanent Link
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__________________________________________________________________
Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.:
PCT/US1999/000569
Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999
IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01)
Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake
Village, CA 91361 (US).
Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US).
Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box
640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US).
Priority Data:
09/013,353 26.01.1998 US
Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument
provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a
user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30)
corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a
series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture
controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of
which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical
note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along
with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed
musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the
selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities
also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure
table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or
automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played
along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then
be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system.
A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of
phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm
engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that
phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity
information and may contain polyphonic information.
Designated States: JP.
European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB,
GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE).
Publication Language: English (EN)
Filing Language: English (EN)
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Références
A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event
by David Lindsay
Copyright 2002. All right reserved.
In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and
musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can
be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods
of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present
paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm.
Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with
the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the
genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from
them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during
which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During
replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and
so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event.
Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates
to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present
approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation
process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA
dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins
generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our
scope.
The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known.
The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform
rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand,
and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.)
A C G T
T G C A
These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also
obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by
three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with
rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three:
A C G T
|| ||| ||| ||
T G C A
In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be
broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the
dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of
events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological
organisms--play a determining role.
Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to
break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy.
Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower
than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as
governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call
this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows
the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is
constant, by the following coefficients:
A=2
C=3
G=3
T=2
Given an arbitrary DNA sequence:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes:
2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2
Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state
constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation
is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA
molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich
regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In
vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation
progresses away from the initiation site:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
-------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can
be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event.
H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based
stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four
sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation
differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins,
which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that
constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated
above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four:
2332 2222 2232
Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its
expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two
opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a
replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond
breakage are activated simultaneously:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
|| ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm
expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger --
will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied
equally to molecular processes or musical ones.
Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the
case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and
indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is
varied its energy profile.
The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could,
for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient
to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate,
while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster
of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the
governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and
unstressed "beats," such that:
A=2=unstressed beat (-)
C=3=stressed beat (´)
G=3=stressed beat (´)
T=2=unstressed beat (-)
Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It
should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not
founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any
other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to
scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation
process.
Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy
profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close
observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating
music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given
the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if
any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may
cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication
will suffice.
Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would
facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such
cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry.
In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the
origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward
resonance.
Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to
fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA
strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to
transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for
example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will
tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which
is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering
a suspension bridge.
The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and
non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because
it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in
comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the
properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate
the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription.
1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences,"
Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts
(Sept. 1995).
For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting
and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here.
[2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles.
For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here.
website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan
University.
Références
Liens visibles
Liens cachés :
CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project
[1]CRE Personnel
What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project?
The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful
way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented
music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision,
continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional
deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of
different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to
yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an
editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising
context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to
drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software
consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data
(e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that
represents these programs and data visually.
Expressive timing
One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently
commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained
control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or
rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say,
tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with
these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in
the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we
can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes
slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat).
All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in
human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with
manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a
musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in
rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this
project.
Composition and combination techniques
Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its
facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include
making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering
different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and
heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and
most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of
such structures.
Applications
Here are some possible applications of CRE:
* Anything that any standard drum machine does
* Automated percussion tracks with "human feel"
* A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the
same rhythms with "human feel"
* Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable
(e.g. the 30-second commercial)
* Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with
irrationally-related durations
* Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at
will, in real time
* Making a program that improvises by "driving around in
rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine
listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or
invention according to some combination of generative processes)
* Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without
altering the tree structure.
Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since
this list provides checkpoints for the software development.
__________________________________________________________________
Page maintained by Vijay Iyer
Last modified July 15, 1996
__________________________________________________________________
[2]Up to Vijay's page
[3]Up to CNMAT homepage
[4]Send mail to the CRE group
[5]Send mail to Vijay Iyer
Références
4. mailto:cdm@icsi.berkeley.edu
5. mailto:vijay@cnmat.berkeley.edu
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[15]Jennifer Wagaman
Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students
Lesson Ideas Involving Rhythm for Young Students
[16]Dec 16, 2008 [17]Jennifer Wagaman
Be creative and resourceful when teaching kindergarten students about
rhythm.
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Teaching rhythm to Kindergarten students can be a fun way to get
students moving around the classroom. When writing lesson plans with
the objective towards learning rhythm, consider not only the manner in
which you teach the students, but which songs would provide the best
lesson opportunity, as well as which songs will work for the short
attention span the students have.
How to Teach Rhythm
Use the body demonstrate the beat, also called body percussion, will
help students feel the beat and learn the rhythm. This can involve
having the students clap, tap, or stomp their feet while singing. This
reinforces beat in a tactile manner, and helps the students stay
focused on what you are doing. You can also use any opportunity you
have to get the students up and moving about the room while singing
songs. Although this does take decent [18]classroom management skills,
it may also help your student's behavior as they are not required to
sit still throughout the class period.
What Songs Teach Rhythm
Teaching children about rhythm can be a great time to introduce some
fun songs. Lessons involving rhythm can be taught with any song that
has a steady beat, which basically means that most songs are good to
teach rhythm. Pick songs that the students either already know or are
easy to teach, as this will ensure that they already know the basic
rhythm.
Some good songs to use for teaching rhythm include songs like Engine
Engine Number Nine, and Skip to My Lou. For Engine Engine Number Nine,
after teaching the song, have the students form a train and move around
the room to the beat of the train in the song. For Skip to My Lou, have
the students walk, march, or skip around the room to the beat of the
song.
Keep Attention Span in Mind
Because a Kindergarten age child has a relatively short attention span,
keep your songs short and varied. Do several songs per class period. It
is better to do 3 five minute songs, assuming a 20 minute class period,
than to spend 15 minutes on one song. So once again, choose songs that
are either easy to teach, or that the students are already somewhat
familiar with.
Do not be afraid to experiment with your class as you teach the concept
of rhythm. Reflect on your lesson after you have taught it, decide
where there is room for improvement, and work to improve it for the
next class you teach it to.
You may also be interested in using [19]STOMP to teach rhythm in the
classroom.
Read more [20]tips for music teachers.
The copyright of the article Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students
in [21]Arts Education is owned by [22]Jennifer Wagaman. Permission to
republish Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in print or online
must be granted by the author in writing.
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[rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png]
Ideas for Teaching Rhythm, Mary R. Vogt Ideas for Teaching Rhythm
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[comment_icon_f1.png] What do you think about this article?
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post your comment
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Comments
Apr 15, 2009 7:59 AM
Guest :
I particularly like the idea of reflecting on the lesson after its
implementation. Reflection and teaching reflectively should be
encouraged among music teachers.
Cheers
Mark Minott
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[rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png]
1 Comment:
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Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics
[1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics
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- Rhythm of Life Lyrics
Ensemble:
Daddy started out in San Francisco,
Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean,
Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy,
Spread the picture on a wider screen."
And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons
Ready to be hooked on new religions.
Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife.
Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life."
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee,
Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge,
Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton,
Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Fly, fly, fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Swim, swim, swim to Daddy
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy,
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life,
Of life, of life, of life.
Yeah! Yeah! Yeah!
Man!
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles
Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life.
Music Of Other Climes. Part 2
Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the
elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time
of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm
so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early
Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language,
instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect
rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything
we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may
be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as
the most graceful.
Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ,
and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed
that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not
the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was
apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres,
and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D,
of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can
see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from
the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical
sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation
in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one
great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last.
It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that
comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical
colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life.
Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a
world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense,
so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the
individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not
yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or
hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to
the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature.
Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine
principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt,
thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles,
there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek
people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until
there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks.
As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a
prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become.
When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is
without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the
Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the
world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But
the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being
without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of
what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we
receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given.
We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and
bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has
seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or
artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth
and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new
birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of
music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will
become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure
from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all
that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely,
or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the
harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that
is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back
into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall
you receive the best.
With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the
progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under
the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most
external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the
coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is
sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful
roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention
to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is
that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it
did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national
religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian
Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of
the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change
from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked
change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the
curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much
to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There
were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them
were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even
under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have
expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century
A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to
produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable
success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the
work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called
good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth
century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and
Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new
foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the
centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may
truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by
the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in
modern times.
Continue to:
* prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes
* [44]Table of Contents
* next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3
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[46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics,
[51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music,
[56]vibration
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Keeping the rhythm of life in sync
May 28, 2008
Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the
heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the
rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as
cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per
minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or
physical stress.
The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical
system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed
electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the
heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be
too fast, too slow, or irregular.
All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal
heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people
may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal
rhythm and not even know it.
Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest
pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath,
swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur
because of abnormal heart rhythm.
To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its
relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an
electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time
at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by
placing electrodes on the skin.
Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be
difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case,
other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which
electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart
catheterization.
Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of
electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or
implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows
doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside
the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are
causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing
temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively
destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia.
Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when
the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not
functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can
be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to
resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some
of its pumping function.
Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of
dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The
device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and
delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm.
Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent
disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to
their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular
Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced
treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help
restore the rhythm of life.
Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs
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* [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 1 / 5 (1)
"...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that
provides the rhythm of life..."
Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is
just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood
through our system of vessels.
It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood
circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever
smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after
supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to
become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable
of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy
and thin pipes.
It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all
about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word
"pump" to describe the heart.
What about "metronome"?
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* [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 4 / 5 (1)
Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you
don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong.
Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels,
and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and
also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood
return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY
used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to
the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation.
As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick,
as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the
thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow
loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if
this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some
reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive
pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation"
or taking a highschool biology class.
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Rhythm Of Life lyrics
(Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life
Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life
Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon
Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you
I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus)
If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain
Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it
The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus)
Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down
(repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade)
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[15]rhythm engine
[16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am
rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its
the only way
always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret
Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London
[18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django
100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the
musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good
players!
If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere
else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out
there and support these guys books are not always the answer
LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL
WORKSHOPS
Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010
Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt,
these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate
directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt
Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of
this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a
chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and
non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play
this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of
techniques and musical ideas.
These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts
Council England.
WORKSHOPS £35
o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz
double bass.
o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except
beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the
masters themselves
Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from
13.30 - 15.30
Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com
Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227
[20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records
January Workshops at a Glance:
Sunday 17 January
Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance
Battersea
Monday 18 January
Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Tuesday 19 January
Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Wednesday 20 January
Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
South Kensington
Thursday 21 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea
Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Friday 22 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Saturday 23 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea
Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith
Sunday 24 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea
We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to
happen.
ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT
WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS
AND STUDENTS
SUNDAY 17th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk
Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching
himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then
added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a
composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and
one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays
Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions.
An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted
musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz
scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg,
Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu
Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others.
[23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the
opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY
17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at
[25]www.wegottickets.com
MONDAY 18th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is
popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his
music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients,
intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst
retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive.
Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music,
their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous,
humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will
be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY
18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[27]www.wegottickets.com
TUESDAY 19th JANUARY
Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[28]www.quecumbar.co.uk
A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of
this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for
these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more
advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to
any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind,
multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span
violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy
musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later
swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de
Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired
by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger,
and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he
studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked
closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo
DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of
orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance
instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania
and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene.
[29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com
[31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com
Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO
on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from
[32]www.wegottickets.com
WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry
Place
London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on
today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy
Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more
contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at
numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus
has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His
virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which
fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson.
[34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl
[36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ;
Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy
Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[39]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel
Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in
Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was
spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where
he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and
non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the
world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane
Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light
and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid
Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his
own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are
acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured
on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona.
[40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com
Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER
TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[42]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[43]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from
Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also
studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has
worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has
recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists
including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego
Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and
James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha
[45]www.bielballestertrio.com
Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY
21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[46]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first
learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy
masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style
that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a
young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs,
demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond
his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with
bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy
Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg,
Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada
with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this
music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label,
El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in
Spain.
[49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com
[51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic
Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th
JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah
Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier:
Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter:
German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY
24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli
Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin;
Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND
FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo
Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani
van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at
[53]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy
Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246
King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk
Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line).
Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous
Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he
began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and
released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous
CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist,
he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with
modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with
its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself
to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour.
[55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette
Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
(Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi
Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion;
Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from
[56]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London
SW11 3JB
SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk
Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar
master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite
family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and
Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a
style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive
and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic
Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style
and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he
loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions
and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django
tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo
touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes
Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of
performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after
master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy.
He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of
15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing
competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with
"Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of
the top 1.4% of entrants.
"...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to
applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard;
"It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again",
Zutphen Paper.
[58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier
Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary
Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar;
Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass.
SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy,
guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie
Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th
birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and
stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with
unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their
Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating
in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo,
Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple
stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill,
technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate
café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music
was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of
Gypsy Swing,
WORKSHOP VENUES:
Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
17 Queensberry Place
London SW7 2DT
[60]www.institut-francais.org.uk
Tube: South Kensington
How to get there:
From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line
its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6
Jazz Cafe POSK
The Polish Cultural Centre
238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London
W6 0RF
Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line
Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost
next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same.
There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus
that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction.
Thomas's School
28-40 Battersea High Street,
London SW11 3JB
[63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Royal Academy of Dance
36 Battersea Square, Battersea,
London SW11 3RA
[64]www.rad.org.uk
[65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Le QuecumBar & Brasserie
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3HX
[66]www.quecumbar.co.uk
[67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
How to find us by Bus Route 170:
The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction
or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station.
(A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station
about £10)
170 from Victoria Station:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off
the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on
to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and
Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right
170 from Clapham Junction:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk
forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side
of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea
High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the
right
By Train:
Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk
or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from,
Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch
the 170 bus
By Car:
Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends
London Airports:
Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct
train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return
Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx
or train to central London
Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to
Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District
Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any
eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street
Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch
the 170 bus.
Map of where Le QuecumBar is:
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3 HX:
[68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud
to have the support of our world class musician patrons:
Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie
John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg
[69]quecumbar
Posts: 3
Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm
Location: London
+ [70]E-mail quecumbar
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20. mailto:info@quecumbar.co.uk
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31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com
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[1]Skip to main content
(WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
* Biblio. Data
* [2]Description
* [3]Claims
* [4]National Phase
* [5]Notices
* [6]Documents
Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau
* [7]Link
+ [8]Permanent Link
+ [9]Bookmark this page
__________________________________________________________________
Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.:
PCT/US1999/000569
Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999
IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01)
Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake
Village, CA 91361 (US).
Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US).
Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box
640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US).
Priority Data:
09/013,353 26.01.1998 US
Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument
provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a
user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30)
corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a
series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture
controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of
which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical
note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along
with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed
musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the
selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities
also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure
table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or
automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played
along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then
be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system.
A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of
phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm
engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that
phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity
information and may contain polyphonic information.
Designated States: JP.
European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB,
GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE).
Publication Language: English (EN)
Filing Language: English (EN)
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Références
A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event
by David Lindsay
Copyright 2002. All right reserved.
In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and
musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can
be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods
of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present
paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm.
Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with
the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the
genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from
them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during
which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During
replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and
so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event.
Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates
to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present
approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation
process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA
dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins
generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our
scope.
The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known.
The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform
rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand,
and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.)
A C G T
T G C A
These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also
obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by
three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with
rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three:
A C G T
|| ||| ||| ||
T G C A
In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be
broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the
dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of
events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological
organisms--play a determining role.
Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to
break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy.
Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower
than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as
governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call
this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows
the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is
constant, by the following coefficients:
A=2
C=3
G=3
T=2
Given an arbitrary DNA sequence:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes:
2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2
Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state
constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation
is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA
molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich
regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In
vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation
progresses away from the initiation site:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
-------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can
be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event.
H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based
stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four
sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation
differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins,
which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that
constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated
above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four:
2332 2222 2232
Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its
expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two
opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a
replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond
breakage are activated simultaneously:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
|| ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm
expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger --
will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied
equally to molecular processes or musical ones.
Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the
case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and
indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is
varied its energy profile.
The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could,
for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient
to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate,
while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster
of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the
governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and
unstressed "beats," such that:
A=2=unstressed beat (-)
C=3=stressed beat (´)
G=3=stressed beat (´)
T=2=unstressed beat (-)
Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It
should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not
founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any
other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to
scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation
process.
Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy
profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close
observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating
music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given
the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if
any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may
cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication
will suffice.
Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would
facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such
cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry.
In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the
origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward
resonance.
Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to
fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA
strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to
transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for
example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will
tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which
is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering
a suspension bridge.
The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and
non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because
it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in
comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the
properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate
the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription.
1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences,"
Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts
(Sept. 1995).
For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting
and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here.
[2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles.
For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here.
website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan
University.
Références
Liens visibles
Liens cachés :
CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project
[1]CRE Personnel
What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project?
The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful
way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented
music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision,
continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional
deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of
different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to
yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an
editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising
context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to
drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software
consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data
(e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that
represents these programs and data visually.
Expressive timing
One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently
commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained
control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or
rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say,
tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with
these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in
the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we
can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes
slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat).
All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in
human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with
manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a
musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in
rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this
project.
Composition and combination techniques
Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its
facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include
making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering
different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and
heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and
most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of
such structures.
Applications
Here are some possible applications of CRE:
* Anything that any standard drum machine does
* Automated percussion tracks with "human feel"
* A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the
same rhythms with "human feel"
* Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable
(e.g. the 30-second commercial)
* Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with
irrationally-related durations
* Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at
will, in real time
* Making a program that improvises by "driving around in
rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine
listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or
invention according to some combination of generative processes)
* Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without
altering the tree structure.
Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since
this list provides checkpoints for the software development.
__________________________________________________________________
Page maintained by Vijay Iyer
Last modified July 15, 1996
__________________________________________________________________
[2]Up to Vijay's page
[3]Up to CNMAT homepage
[4]Send mail to the CRE group
[5]Send mail to Vijay Iyer
Références
4. mailto:cdm@icsi.berkeley.edu
5. mailto:vijay@cnmat.berkeley.edu
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[15]Jennifer Wagaman
Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students
Lesson Ideas Involving Rhythm for Young Students
[16]Dec 16, 2008 [17]Jennifer Wagaman
Be creative and resourceful when teaching kindergarten students about
rhythm.
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Teaching rhythm to Kindergarten students can be a fun way to get
students moving around the classroom. When writing lesson plans with
the objective towards learning rhythm, consider not only the manner in
which you teach the students, but which songs would provide the best
lesson opportunity, as well as which songs will work for the short
attention span the students have.
How to Teach Rhythm
Use the body demonstrate the beat, also called body percussion, will
help students feel the beat and learn the rhythm. This can involve
having the students clap, tap, or stomp their feet while singing. This
reinforces beat in a tactile manner, and helps the students stay
focused on what you are doing. You can also use any opportunity you
have to get the students up and moving about the room while singing
songs. Although this does take decent [18]classroom management skills,
it may also help your student's behavior as they are not required to
sit still throughout the class period.
What Songs Teach Rhythm
Teaching children about rhythm can be a great time to introduce some
fun songs. Lessons involving rhythm can be taught with any song that
has a steady beat, which basically means that most songs are good to
teach rhythm. Pick songs that the students either already know or are
easy to teach, as this will ensure that they already know the basic
rhythm.
Some good songs to use for teaching rhythm include songs like Engine
Engine Number Nine, and Skip to My Lou. For Engine Engine Number Nine,
after teaching the song, have the students form a train and move around
the room to the beat of the train in the song. For Skip to My Lou, have
the students walk, march, or skip around the room to the beat of the
song.
Keep Attention Span in Mind
Because a Kindergarten age child has a relatively short attention span,
keep your songs short and varied. Do several songs per class period. It
is better to do 3 five minute songs, assuming a 20 minute class period,
than to spend 15 minutes on one song. So once again, choose songs that
are either easy to teach, or that the students are already somewhat
familiar with.
Do not be afraid to experiment with your class as you teach the concept
of rhythm. Reflect on your lesson after you have taught it, decide
where there is room for improvement, and work to improve it for the
next class you teach it to.
You may also be interested in using [19]STOMP to teach rhythm in the
classroom.
Read more [20]tips for music teachers.
The copyright of the article Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students
in [21]Arts Education is owned by [22]Jennifer Wagaman. Permission to
republish Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in print or online
must be granted by the author in writing.
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Ideas for Teaching Rhythm, Mary R. Vogt Ideas for Teaching Rhythm
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[comment_icon_f1.png] What do you think about this article?
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post your comment
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Comments
Apr 15, 2009 7:59 AM
Guest :
I particularly like the idea of reflecting on the lesson after its
implementation. Reflection and teaching reflectively should be
encouraged among music teachers.
Cheers
Mark Minott
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1 Comment:
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Reference
[rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png]
* [37]how to teach rhythm
* [38]teaching rhythm to kindergarten students
* [39]lesson ideas for teaching rhythm
* [40]what songs will teach rhythm
* [41]teaching music to kindergarten students
* [42]reflection on how a lesson went
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Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics
[1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics
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- Rhythm of Life Lyrics
Ensemble:
Daddy started out in San Francisco,
Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean,
Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy,
Spread the picture on a wider screen."
And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons
Ready to be hooked on new religions.
Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife.
Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life."
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee,
Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge,
Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton,
Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Fly, fly, fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Swim, swim, swim to Daddy
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy,
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life,
Of life, of life, of life.
Yeah! Yeah! Yeah!
Man!
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles
Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life.
Music Of Other Climes. Part 2
Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the
elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time
of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm
so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early
Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language,
instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect
rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything
we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may
be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as
the most graceful.
Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ,
and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed
that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not
the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was
apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres,
and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D,
of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can
see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from
the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical
sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation
in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one
great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last.
It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that
comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical
colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life.
Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a
world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense,
so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the
individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not
yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or
hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to
the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature.
Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine
principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt,
thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles,
there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek
people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until
there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks.
As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a
prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become.
When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is
without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the
Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the
world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But
the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being
without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of
what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we
receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given.
We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and
bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has
seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or
artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth
and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new
birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of
music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will
become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure
from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all
that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely,
or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the
harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that
is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back
into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall
you receive the best.
With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the
progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under
the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most
external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the
coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is
sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful
roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention
to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is
that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it
did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national
religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian
Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of
the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change
from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked
change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the
curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much
to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There
were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them
were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even
under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have
expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century
A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to
produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable
success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the
work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called
good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth
century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and
Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new
foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the
centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may
truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by
the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in
modern times.
Continue to:
* prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes
* [44]Table of Contents
* next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3
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[46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics,
[51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music,
[56]vibration
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Keeping the rhythm of life in sync
May 28, 2008
Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the
heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the
rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as
cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per
minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or
physical stress.
The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical
system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed
electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the
heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be
too fast, too slow, or irregular.
All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal
heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people
may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal
rhythm and not even know it.
Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest
pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath,
swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur
because of abnormal heart rhythm.
To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its
relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an
electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time
at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by
placing electrodes on the skin.
Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be
difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case,
other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which
electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart
catheterization.
Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of
electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or
implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows
doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside
the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are
causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing
temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively
destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia.
Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when
the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not
functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can
be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to
resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some
of its pumping function.
Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of
dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The
device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and
delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm.
Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent
disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to
their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular
Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced
treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help
restore the rhythm of life.
Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs
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* [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 1 / 5 (1)
"...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that
provides the rhythm of life..."
Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is
just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood
through our system of vessels.
It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood
circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever
smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after
supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to
become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable
of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy
and thin pipes.
It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all
about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word
"pump" to describe the heart.
What about "metronome"?
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* [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 4 / 5 (1)
Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you
don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong.
Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels,
and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and
also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood
return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY
used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to
the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation.
As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick,
as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the
thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow
loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if
this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some
reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive
pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation"
or taking a highschool biology class.
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May 28, 2008 [69]all stories
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Rhythm Of Life lyrics
(Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life
Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life
Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon
Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you
I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus)
If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain
Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it
The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus)
Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down
(repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade)
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May 19, 2008
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5 most recent columns
January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By
Diego Schapira
December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara
Wheeler
December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice.
By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos
November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns
November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist.
By Helen Oosthuizen
Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony
By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli ()
1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro
When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving
rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each
producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with
other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this
metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and
around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in
which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful
presence.
I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets
and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human
civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this
planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other
parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately
grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not
empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and
sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the
universe is not threatening for me as before.
Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office,
when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an
echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture
each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity
arising randomly, above the background sound.
Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny
and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of
sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific
scenarios I could never imagine before.
2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso
Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a
patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome.
That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances,
making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a
person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made
unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying
aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those
dangerous noises.
When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she
told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy
session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands.
His sounds were so emotionally intense that their
message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in
a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it
safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with
overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his
together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards,
listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy
session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal
interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside.
My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he
developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to
process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge
amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people,
without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds.
In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional
experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a
Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds
were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they
liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty
words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their
painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light
pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes.
Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the
roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors'
desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both
situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these
dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by
fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event
with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was
grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist.
I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work
with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may
experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to
be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with
and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities
available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and
therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing:
the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the
environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing
amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness
necessary for improving quality of life.
3rd Movement: Trio
In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea
which considers that a good development of each system is possible when
there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its
environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant
interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual
perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system.
Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of
structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with
rhythm entrainment and music.
As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not
determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced
by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective
readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the
structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration.
To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes
schema to structure and order internal and external events using
rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are
self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal
structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically
determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow
an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a
caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal
patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by
comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As
Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with
sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge
our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas
are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human
beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the
emotional response to music.
Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the
metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical
behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because
they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to
understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our
sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be
the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the
most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion,
and metaphorical thinking.
Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration.
Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer,
because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes
separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological
situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They
do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the
capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and
integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory.
There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas
about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a
conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could
answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music
itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which
is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks.
And, thus, they can still feel joy.
4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio
All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the
efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of
criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of
mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared
my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my
dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy,
particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the
highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute
named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to
train psychologists and physicians in this field.
This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and
with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music.
References
Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music:
The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers.
Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the
Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University
Press.
Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning,
Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of
Illinois.
To cite this page:
Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A
World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy.
Moderated discussion
Add your comments and responses to this essay in our Moderated
Discussions. Contributions should be e-mailed to either [13]Joke Bradt
or [14]Thomas Wosch
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[15]rhythm engine
[16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am
rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its
the only way
always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret
Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London
[18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django
100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the
musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good
players!
If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere
else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out
there and support these guys books are not always the answer
LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL
WORKSHOPS
Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010
Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt,
these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate
directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt
Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of
this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a
chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and
non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play
this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of
techniques and musical ideas.
These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts
Council England.
WORKSHOPS £35
o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz
double bass.
o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except
beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the
masters themselves
Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from
13.30 - 15.30
Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com
Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227
[20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records
January Workshops at a Glance:
Sunday 17 January
Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance
Battersea
Monday 18 January
Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Tuesday 19 January
Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Wednesday 20 January
Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
South Kensington
Thursday 21 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea
Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea
Friday 22 January
Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine
Lumiere South Kensington
Saturday 23 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea
Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith
Sunday 24 January
Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea
We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to
happen.
ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT
WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS
AND STUDENTS
SUNDAY 17th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk
Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching
himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then
added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a
composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and
one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays
Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions.
An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted
musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz
scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg,
Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu
Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others.
[23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the
opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY
17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at
[25]www.wegottickets.com
MONDAY 18th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is
popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his
music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients,
intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst
retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive.
Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music,
their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous,
humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will
be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY
18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[27]www.wegottickets.com
TUESDAY 19th JANUARY
Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[28]www.quecumbar.co.uk
A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of
this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for
these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more
advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to
any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind,
multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span
violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy
musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later
swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de
Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired
by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger,
and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he
studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked
closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo
DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of
orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance
instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania
and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene.
[29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com
[31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com
Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO
on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from
[32]www.wegottickets.com
WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry
Place
London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on
today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy
Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more
contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at
numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus
has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His
virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which
fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson.
[34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl
[36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ;
Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy
Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY
at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[39]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel
Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in
Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was
spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where
he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and
non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the
world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane
Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light
and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid
Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his
own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are
acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured
on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona.
[40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com
Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER
TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[42]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina
Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11
3HX
[43]www.quecumbar.co.uk
Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from
Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also
studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has
worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has
recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists
including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego
Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and
James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha
[45]www.bielballestertrio.com
Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY
21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at
[46]www.wegottickets.com
THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy
Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place,
London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South
Kensington
Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first
learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy
masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style
that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a
young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs,
demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond
his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with
bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy
Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg,
Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada
with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this
music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label,
El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in
Spain.
[49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com
[51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic
Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th
JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah
Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier:
Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter:
German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY
24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli
Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin;
Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND
FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo
Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani
van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at
[53]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy
Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246
King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk
Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line).
Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous
Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he
began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and
released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous
CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist,
he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with
modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with
its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself
to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour.
[55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette
Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY
with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY
(Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi
Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion;
Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from
[56]www.wegottickets.com
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London
SW11 3JB
SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY
Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy
Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square,
London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk
Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar
master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite
family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and
Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a
style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive
and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic
Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style
and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he
loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions
and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django
tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo
touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes
Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of
performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after
master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy.
He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of
15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing
competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with
"Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of
the top 1.4% of entrants.
"...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to
applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard;
"It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again",
Zutphen Paper.
[58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier
Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar
SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary
Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar;
Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass.
SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy,
guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch
Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie
Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass.
An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th
birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and
stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with
unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their
Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating
in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo,
Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple
stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill,
technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate
café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music
was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of
Gypsy Swing,
WORKSHOP VENUES:
Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere
17 Queensberry Place
London SW7 2DT
[60]www.institut-francais.org.uk
Tube: South Kensington
How to get there:
From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line
its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6
Jazz Cafe POSK
The Polish Cultural Centre
238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London
W6 0RF
Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line
Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost
next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same.
There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus
that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction.
Thomas's School
28-40 Battersea High Street,
London SW11 3JB
[63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Royal Academy of Dance
36 Battersea Square, Battersea,
London SW11 3RA
[64]www.rad.org.uk
[65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Le QuecumBar & Brasserie
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3HX
[66]www.quecumbar.co.uk
[67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
How to find us by Bus Route 170:
The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction
or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station.
(A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station
about £10)
170 from Victoria Station:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off
the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on
to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and
Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right
170 from Clapham Junction:
The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk
forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side
of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea
High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the
right
By Train:
Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk
or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from,
Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch
the 170 bus
By Car:
Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends
London Airports:
Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct
train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return
Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx
or train to central London
Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to
Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District
Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any
eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street
Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch
the 170 bus.
Map of where Le QuecumBar is:
42-44 Battersea High Street
London SW11 3 HX:
[68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf
Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud
to have the support of our world class musician patrons:
Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie
John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg
[69]quecumbar
Posts: 3
Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm
Location: London
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24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr
31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com
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(WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
* Biblio. Data
* [2]Description
* [3]Claims
* [4]National Phase
* [5]Notices
* [6]Documents
Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau
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__________________________________________________________________
Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.:
PCT/US1999/000569
Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999
IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01)
Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake
Village, CA 91361 (US).
Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US).
Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box
640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US).
Priority Data:
09/013,353 26.01.1998 US
Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION
Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument
provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a
user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30)
corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a
series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture
controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of
which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical
note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along
with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed
musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the
selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities
also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure
table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or
automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played
along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then
be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system.
A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of
phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm
engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that
phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity
information and may contain polyphonic information.
Designated States: JP.
European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB,
GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE).
Publication Language: English (EN)
Filing Language: English (EN)
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Références
A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event
by David Lindsay
Copyright 2002. All right reserved.
In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and
musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can
be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods
of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present
paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm.
Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with
the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the
genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from
them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during
which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During
replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and
so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event.
Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates
to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present
approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation
process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA
dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins
generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our
scope.
The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known.
The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform
rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand,
and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.)
A C G T
T G C A
These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also
obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by
three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with
rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three:
A C G T
|| ||| ||| ||
T G C A
In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be
broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the
dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of
events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological
organisms--play a determining role.
Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to
break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy.
Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower
than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as
governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call
this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows
the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is
constant, by the following coefficients:
A=2
C=3
G=3
T=2
Given an arbitrary DNA sequence:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes:
2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2
Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state
constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation
is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA
molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich
regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In
vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation
progresses away from the initiation site:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
-------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can
be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event.
H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based
stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four
sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation
differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins,
which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that
constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated
above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four:
2332 2222 2232
Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its
expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two
opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a
replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond
breakage are activated simultaneously:
A C G T A A T A T T C T
|| ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| ||
T G C A T T A T A A G A
The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm
expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger --
will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied
equally to molecular processes or musical ones.
Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the
case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and
indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is
varied its energy profile.
The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could,
for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient
to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate,
while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster
of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the
governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and
unstressed "beats," such that:
A=2=unstressed beat (-)
C=3=stressed beat (´)
G=3=stressed beat (´)
T=2=unstressed beat (-)
Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It
should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not
founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any
other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to
scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation
process.
Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy
profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close
observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating
music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given
the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if
any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may
cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication
will suffice.
Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would
facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such
cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry.
In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the
origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward
resonance.
Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to
fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA
strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to
transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for
example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will
tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which
is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering
a suspension bridge.
The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and
non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because
it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in
comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the
properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate
the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription.
1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences,"
Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts
(Sept. 1995).
For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting
and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here.
[2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles.
For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here.
website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan
University.
Références
Liens visibles
Liens cachés :
CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project
[1]CRE Personnel
What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project?
The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful
way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented
music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision,
continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional
deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of
different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to
yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an
editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising
context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to
drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software
consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data
(e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that
represents these programs and data visually.
Expressive timing
One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently
commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained
control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or
rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say,
tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with
these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in
the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we
can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes
slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat).
All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in
human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with
manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a
musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in
rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this
project.
Composition and combination techniques
Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its
facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include
making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering
different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and
heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and
most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of
such structures.
Applications
Here are some possible applications of CRE:
* Anything that any standard drum machine does
* Automated percussion tracks with "human feel"
* A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the
same rhythms with "human feel"
* Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable
(e.g. the 30-second commercial)
* Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with
irrationally-related durations
* Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at
will, in real time
* Making a program that improvises by "driving around in
rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine
listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or
invention according to some combination of generative processes)
* Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without
altering the tree structure.
Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since
this list provides checkpoints for the software development.
__________________________________________________________________
Page maintained by Vijay Iyer
Last modified July 15, 1996
__________________________________________________________________
[2]Up to Vijay's page
[3]Up to CNMAT homepage
[4]Send mail to the CRE group
[5]Send mail to Vijay Iyer
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4. mailto:cdm@icsi.berkeley.edu
5. mailto:vijay@cnmat.berkeley.edu
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[15]Jennifer Wagaman
Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students
Lesson Ideas Involving Rhythm for Young Students
[16]Dec 16, 2008 [17]Jennifer Wagaman
Be creative and resourceful when teaching kindergarten students about
rhythm.
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Teaching rhythm to Kindergarten students can be a fun way to get
students moving around the classroom. When writing lesson plans with
the objective towards learning rhythm, consider not only the manner in
which you teach the students, but which songs would provide the best
lesson opportunity, as well as which songs will work for the short
attention span the students have.
How to Teach Rhythm
Use the body demonstrate the beat, also called body percussion, will
help students feel the beat and learn the rhythm. This can involve
having the students clap, tap, or stomp their feet while singing. This
reinforces beat in a tactile manner, and helps the students stay
focused on what you are doing. You can also use any opportunity you
have to get the students up and moving about the room while singing
songs. Although this does take decent [18]classroom management skills,
it may also help your student's behavior as they are not required to
sit still throughout the class period.
What Songs Teach Rhythm
Teaching children about rhythm can be a great time to introduce some
fun songs. Lessons involving rhythm can be taught with any song that
has a steady beat, which basically means that most songs are good to
teach rhythm. Pick songs that the students either already know or are
easy to teach, as this will ensure that they already know the basic
rhythm.
Some good songs to use for teaching rhythm include songs like Engine
Engine Number Nine, and Skip to My Lou. For Engine Engine Number Nine,
after teaching the song, have the students form a train and move around
the room to the beat of the train in the song. For Skip to My Lou, have
the students walk, march, or skip around the room to the beat of the
song.
Keep Attention Span in Mind
Because a Kindergarten age child has a relatively short attention span,
keep your songs short and varied. Do several songs per class period. It
is better to do 3 five minute songs, assuming a 20 minute class period,
than to spend 15 minutes on one song. So once again, choose songs that
are either easy to teach, or that the students are already somewhat
familiar with.
Do not be afraid to experiment with your class as you teach the concept
of rhythm. Reflect on your lesson after you have taught it, decide
where there is room for improvement, and work to improve it for the
next class you teach it to.
You may also be interested in using [19]STOMP to teach rhythm in the
classroom.
Read more [20]tips for music teachers.
The copyright of the article Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students
in [21]Arts Education is owned by [22]Jennifer Wagaman. Permission to
republish Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in print or online
must be granted by the author in writing.
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Ideas for Teaching Rhythm, Mary R. Vogt Ideas for Teaching Rhythm
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Comments
Apr 15, 2009 7:59 AM
Guest :
I particularly like the idea of reflecting on the lesson after its
implementation. Reflection and teaching reflectively should be
encouraged among music teachers.
Cheers
Mark Minott
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Reference
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* [37]how to teach rhythm
* [38]teaching rhythm to kindergarten students
* [39]lesson ideas for teaching rhythm
* [40]what songs will teach rhythm
* [41]teaching music to kindergarten students
* [42]reflection on how a lesson went
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Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics
[1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics
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- Rhythm of Life Lyrics
Ensemble:
Daddy started out in San Francisco,
Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean,
Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy,
Spread the picture on a wider screen."
And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons
Ready to be hooked on new religions.
Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife.
Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life."
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee,
Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge,
Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton,
Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Fly, fly, fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Swim, swim, swim to Daddy
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy,
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life,
Of life, of life, of life.
Yeah! Yeah! Yeah!
Man!
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles
Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life.
Music Of Other Climes. Part 2
Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the
elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time
of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm
so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early
Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language,
instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect
rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything
we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may
be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as
the most graceful.
Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ,
and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed
that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not
the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was
apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres,
and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D,
of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can
see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from
the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical
sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation
in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one
great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last.
It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that
comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical
colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life.
Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a
world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense,
so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the
individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not
yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or
hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to
the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature.
Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine
principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt,
thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles,
there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek
people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until
there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks.
As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a
prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become.
When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is
without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the
Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the
world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But
the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being
without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of
what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we
receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given.
We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and
bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has
seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or
artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth
and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new
birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of
music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will
become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure
from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all
that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely,
or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the
harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that
is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back
into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall
you receive the best.
With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the
progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under
the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most
external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the
coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is
sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful
roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention
to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is
that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it
did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national
religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian
Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of
the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change
from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked
change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the
curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much
to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There
were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them
were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even
under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have
expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century
A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to
produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable
success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the
work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called
good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth
century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and
Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new
foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the
centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may
truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by
the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in
modern times.
Continue to:
* prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes
* [44]Table of Contents
* next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3
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[46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics,
[51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music,
[56]vibration
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Keeping the rhythm of life in sync
May 28, 2008
Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the
heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the
rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as
cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per
minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or
physical stress.
The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical
system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed
electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the
heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be
too fast, too slow, or irregular.
All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal
heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people
may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal
rhythm and not even know it.
Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest
pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath,
swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur
because of abnormal heart rhythm.
To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its
relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an
electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time
at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by
placing electrodes on the skin.
Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be
difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case,
other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which
electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart
catheterization.
Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of
electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or
implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows
doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside
the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are
causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing
temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively
destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia.
Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when
the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not
functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can
be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to
resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some
of its pumping function.
Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of
dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The
device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and
delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm.
Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent
disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to
their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular
Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced
treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help
restore the rhythm of life.
Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs
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* [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 1 / 5 (1)
"...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that
provides the rhythm of life..."
Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is
just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood
through our system of vessels.
It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood
circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever
smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after
supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to
become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable
of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy
and thin pipes.
It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all
about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word
"pump" to describe the heart.
What about "metronome"?
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Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you
don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong.
Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels,
and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and
also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood
return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY
used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to
the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation.
As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick,
as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the
thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow
loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if
this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some
reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive
pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation"
or taking a highschool biology class.
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Rhythm Of Life lyrics
(Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life
Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life
Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon
Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you
I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus)
If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain
Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it
The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus)
Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down
(repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade)
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May 19, 2008
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5 most recent columns
January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By
Diego Schapira
December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara
Wheeler
December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice.
By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos
November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns
November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist.
By Helen Oosthuizen
Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony
By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli ()
1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro
When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving
rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each
producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with
other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this
metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and
around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in
which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful
presence.
I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets
and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human
civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this
planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other
parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately
grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not
empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and
sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the
universe is not threatening for me as before.
Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office,
when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an
echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture
each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity
arising randomly, above the background sound.
Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny
and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of
sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific
scenarios I could never imagine before.
2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso
Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a
patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome.
That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances,
making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a
person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made
unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying
aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those
dangerous noises.
When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she
told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy
session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands.
His sounds were so emotionally intense that their
message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in
a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it
safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with
overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his
together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards,
listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy
session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal
interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside.
My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he
developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to
process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge
amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people,
without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds.
In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional
experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a
Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds
were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they
liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty
words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their
painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light
pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes.
Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the
roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors'
desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both
situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these
dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by
fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event
with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was
grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist.
I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work
with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may
experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to
be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with
and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities
available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and
therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing:
the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the
environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing
amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness
necessary for improving quality of life.
3rd Movement: Trio
In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea
which considers that a good development of each system is possible when
there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its
environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant
interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual
perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system.
Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of
structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with
rhythm entrainment and music.
As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not
determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced
by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective
readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the
structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration.
To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes
schema to structure and order internal and external events using
rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are
self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal
structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically
determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow
an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a
caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal
patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by
comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As
Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with
sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge
our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas
are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human
beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the
emotional response to music.
Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the
metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical
behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because
they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to
understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our
sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be
the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the
most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion,
and metaphorical thinking.
Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration.
Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer,
because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes
separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological
situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They
do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the
capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and
integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory.
There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas
about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a
conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could
answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music
itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which
is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks.
And, thus, they can still feel joy.
4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio
All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the
efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of
criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of
mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared
my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my
dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy,
particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the
highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute
named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to
train psychologists and physicians in this field.
This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and
with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music.
References
Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music:
The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers.
Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the
Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University
Press.
Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning,
Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of
Illinois.
To cite this page:
Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A
World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy.
Moderated discussion
Add your comments and responses to this essay in our Moderated
Discussions. Contributions should be e-mailed to either [13]Joke Bradt
or [14]Thomas Wosch
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Iambic Pentameter: The Rhythm of Life?
Sunday March 22, 2009
[bencrystal.jpg]
Does the thought of [23]iambic pentameter terrify you? I remember being
baffeled by it at school myself because I got bogged down in counting
syllables and working out where the stresses go but, I now know that
this is a very technical way of studying iambic pentameter.
In later life, Ive grown to love iambic pentameter. Theres something
beautiful about it that I cant put my finger on. I know for sure that
its in the speaking because on the page it is inert. When you [24]speak
those words aloud, they literally jump off the tongue and the rhythm is
the easiest of all meters to find.
I asked Ben Crystal about this [25]in our interview a few months ago.
He said that iambic pentameter is the rhythm of our English language
and of our bodies a line of that poetry has the same rhythm as our
heartbeat. A line of iambic pentameter fills the human lung perfectly,
so its the rhythm of speech.
I think this is true. When you [26]learn how to speak verse, you soon
discover that its a very instinctive rhythm. Once you relax and go with
the flow, it comes naturally. And, strange as it might sound, classic
iambic pentameter lines like If music be the food of love, play on and
Now is the winter of our discontent do happen to fit a single breath
perfectly if spoken with passion.
So, if youre having trouble with iambic pentameter, remember that its
designed to be spoken, not studied. Open your mouth and speak aloud
those great words.
Photo of Ben Crystal © Scott Wishart
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Comments
March 30, 2009 at 2:29 pm
[33](1) [34]Kent Richmond says:
In doing verse translations of five Shakespeare plays, I have
had to learn how Shakespeares iambic pentameter works in order
to give my translations the feel of the original. One of the
beauties of iambic pentameter is that the poet can temporarily
relax the meter without violating it. In this series of made-up
and rather prosaic lines, the first line is straight-ahead
iambic pentameter. The second and third lines, if read
independently, are less obviously iambic pentameter, yet they do
not violate the rhythm. The fourth line is clearly unmetrical
and removes the sense that we are listening to verse.
1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes,
2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. (trochaic
start; feminine ending)
3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. (Two spondees to
start; feminine ending)
4. Dont you ever hit your little sister. (unmetrical)
Shakespeare, at least in the plays I have translated, did not
write verse lines with the rhythm of (4). To make this line
sound a bit more like Shakespeares iambic pentameter, we need to
make a few alterations to line 4.
1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes,
2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters.
3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest.
4. Dont ever hit that little girl again.
To make the whole passage sound like prose, we need to change
the first line a little.
Then her mother took the kids clothes shopping, planning to buy
them all some warmer sweaters. No! No! No! No she bellowed at
the oldest. Dont you ever hit your little sister.
The first and fourth lines now have trochaic feet exposed in the
wrong places, and most editors would print such a passage as
prose. Shakespeares iambic pentameter certainly places
constraints on what rhythms are allowed, yet it allows for
flexibility and naturalness. Take a look at George Wrights book
titled Shakespeares Metrical Art to see the techniques
Shakespeare employed.
April 11, 2009 at 8:25 pm
[35](2) Dave says:
The words literally jump off the tongue? I'd like to see that!
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Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics
[1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics
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- Rhythm of Life Lyrics
Ensemble:
Daddy started out in San Francisco,
Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean,
Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy,
Spread the picture on a wider screen."
And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons
Ready to be hooked on new religions.
Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife.
Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life."
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee,
Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge,
Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton,
Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Fly, fly, fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Swim, swim, swim to Daddy
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy,
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life,
Of life, of life, of life.
Yeah! Yeah! Yeah!
Man!
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles
Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life.
Music Of Other Climes. Part 2
Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the
elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time
of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm
so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early
Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language,
instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect
rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything
we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may
be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as
the most graceful.
Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ,
and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed
that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not
the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was
apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres,
and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D,
of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can
see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from
the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical
sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation
in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one
great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last.
It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that
comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical
colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life.
Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a
world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense,
so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the
individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not
yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or
hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to
the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature.
Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine
principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt,
thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles,
there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek
people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until
there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks.
As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a
prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become.
When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is
without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the
Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the
world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But
the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being
without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of
what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we
receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given.
We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and
bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has
seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or
artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth
and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new
birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of
music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will
become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure
from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all
that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely,
or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the
harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that
is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back
into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall
you receive the best.
With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the
progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under
the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most
external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the
coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is
sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful
roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention
to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is
that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it
did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national
religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian
Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of
the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change
from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked
change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the
curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much
to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There
were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them
were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even
under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have
expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century
A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to
produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable
success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the
work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called
good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth
century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and
Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new
foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the
centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may
truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by
the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in
modern times.
Continue to:
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* next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3
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[46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics,
[51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music,
[56]vibration
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Keeping the rhythm of life in sync
May 28, 2008
Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the
heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the
rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as
cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per
minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or
physical stress.
The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical
system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed
electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the
heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be
too fast, too slow, or irregular.
All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal
heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people
may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal
rhythm and not even know it.
Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest
pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath,
swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur
because of abnormal heart rhythm.
To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its
relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an
electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time
at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by
placing electrodes on the skin.
Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be
difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case,
other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which
electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart
catheterization.
Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of
electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or
implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows
doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside
the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are
causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing
temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively
destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia.
Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when
the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not
functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can
be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to
resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some
of its pumping function.
Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of
dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The
device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and
delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm.
Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent
disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to
their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular
Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced
treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help
restore the rhythm of life.
Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs
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* [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 1 / 5 (1)
"...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that
provides the rhythm of life..."
Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is
just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood
through our system of vessels.
It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood
circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever
smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after
supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to
become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable
of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy
and thin pipes.
It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all
about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word
"pump" to describe the heart.
What about "metronome"?
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* [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 4 / 5 (1)
Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you
don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong.
Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels,
and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and
also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood
return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY
used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to
the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation.
As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick,
as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the
thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow
loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if
this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some
reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive
pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation"
or taking a highschool biology class.
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Rhythm Of Life lyrics
(Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life
Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life
Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon
Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you
I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus)
If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain
Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it
The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus)
Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down
(repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade)
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May 19, 2008
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5 most recent columns
January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By
Diego Schapira
December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara
Wheeler
December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice.
By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos
November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns
November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist.
By Helen Oosthuizen
Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony
By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli ()
1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro
When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving
rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each
producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with
other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this
metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and
around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in
which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful
presence.
I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets
and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human
civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this
planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other
parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately
grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not
empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and
sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the
universe is not threatening for me as before.
Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office,
when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an
echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture
each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity
arising randomly, above the background sound.
Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny
and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of
sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific
scenarios I could never imagine before.
2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso
Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a
patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome.
That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances,
making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a
person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made
unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying
aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those
dangerous noises.
When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she
told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy
session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands.
His sounds were so emotionally intense that their
message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in
a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it
safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with
overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his
together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards,
listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy
session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal
interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside.
My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he
developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to
process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge
amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people,
without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds.
In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional
experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a
Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds
were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they
liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty
words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their
painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light
pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes.
Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the
roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors'
desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both
situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these
dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by
fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event
with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was
grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist.
I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work
with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may
experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to
be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with
and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities
available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and
therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing:
the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the
environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing
amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness
necessary for improving quality of life.
3rd Movement: Trio
In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea
which considers that a good development of each system is possible when
there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its
environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant
interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual
perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system.
Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of
structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with
rhythm entrainment and music.
As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not
determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced
by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective
readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the
structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration.
To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes
schema to structure and order internal and external events using
rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are
self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal
structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically
determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow
an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a
caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal
patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by
comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As
Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with
sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge
our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas
are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human
beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the
emotional response to music.
Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the
metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical
behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because
they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to
understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our
sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be
the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the
most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion,
and metaphorical thinking.
Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration.
Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer,
because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes
separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological
situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They
do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the
capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and
integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory.
There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas
about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a
conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could
answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music
itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which
is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks.
And, thus, they can still feel joy.
4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio
All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the
efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of
criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of
mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared
my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my
dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy,
particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the
highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute
named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to
train psychologists and physicians in this field.
This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and
with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music.
References
Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music:
The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers.
Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the
Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University
Press.
Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning,
Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of
Illinois.
To cite this page:
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World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy.
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Iambic Pentameter: The Rhythm of Life?
Sunday March 22, 2009
[bencrystal.jpg]
Does the thought of [23]iambic pentameter terrify you? I remember being
baffeled by it at school myself because I got bogged down in counting
syllables and working out where the stresses go but, I now know that
this is a very technical way of studying iambic pentameter.
In later life, Ive grown to love iambic pentameter. Theres something
beautiful about it that I cant put my finger on. I know for sure that
its in the speaking because on the page it is inert. When you [24]speak
those words aloud, they literally jump off the tongue and the rhythm is
the easiest of all meters to find.
I asked Ben Crystal about this [25]in our interview a few months ago.
He said that iambic pentameter is the rhythm of our English language
and of our bodies a line of that poetry has the same rhythm as our
heartbeat. A line of iambic pentameter fills the human lung perfectly,
so its the rhythm of speech.
I think this is true. When you [26]learn how to speak verse, you soon
discover that its a very instinctive rhythm. Once you relax and go with
the flow, it comes naturally. And, strange as it might sound, classic
iambic pentameter lines like If music be the food of love, play on and
Now is the winter of our discontent do happen to fit a single breath
perfectly if spoken with passion.
So, if youre having trouble with iambic pentameter, remember that its
designed to be spoken, not studied. Open your mouth and speak aloud
those great words.
Photo of Ben Crystal © Scott Wishart
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Comments
March 30, 2009 at 2:29 pm
[33](1) [34]Kent Richmond says:
In doing verse translations of five Shakespeare plays, I have
had to learn how Shakespeares iambic pentameter works in order
to give my translations the feel of the original. One of the
beauties of iambic pentameter is that the poet can temporarily
relax the meter without violating it. In this series of made-up
and rather prosaic lines, the first line is straight-ahead
iambic pentameter. The second and third lines, if read
independently, are less obviously iambic pentameter, yet they do
not violate the rhythm. The fourth line is clearly unmetrical
and removes the sense that we are listening to verse.
1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes,
2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. (trochaic
start; feminine ending)
3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. (Two spondees to
start; feminine ending)
4. Dont you ever hit your little sister. (unmetrical)
Shakespeare, at least in the plays I have translated, did not
write verse lines with the rhythm of (4). To make this line
sound a bit more like Shakespeares iambic pentameter, we need to
make a few alterations to line 4.
1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes,
2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters.
3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest.
4. Dont ever hit that little girl again.
To make the whole passage sound like prose, we need to change
the first line a little.
Then her mother took the kids clothes shopping, planning to buy
them all some warmer sweaters. No! No! No! No she bellowed at
the oldest. Dont you ever hit your little sister.
The first and fourth lines now have trochaic feet exposed in the
wrong places, and most editors would print such a passage as
prose. Shakespeares iambic pentameter certainly places
constraints on what rhythms are allowed, yet it allows for
flexibility and naturalness. Take a look at George Wrights book
titled Shakespeares Metrical Art to see the techniques
Shakespeare employed.
April 11, 2009 at 8:25 pm
[35](2) Dave says:
The words literally jump off the tongue? I'd like to see that!
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* [37]Introducing Iambic Pentameter
* [38]Iambic Pentameter - How to Study Iambic Pentameter
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Références
Drums games, piano games, guitar games
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Try to repeat music.
[8]Ear training 01
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Write chords. then play the melody.
[11]Sound memory
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How to draw free lessons
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Actions, Shooter, Logic online games
[acleardot.gif] [acleardot.gif]
What is music rhythm?
The music rhythm is the beat. It is the most important element in
music. It drives the music forward. It is the gasoline of music.
Rhythms can be simple or complicated.
Essential music vocabulary
Meter
It's the way we group the beats. We group eggs by the dozen. We group
days by the week. We also group beats into two's or three's. That's
meter.
Rhythm
The beat. The beat can be even or uneven, steady or unsteady.
Note Values
Long and short sounds in music are represented by notes. White notes
have longer sounds than black notes.
Tempo
This is the speed of the music.
Time Signature
This is a number that appears at the beginning of the music. The top
number tells you how many beats are in each measure (bar) and the
bottom number tells you what kind of a note gets one beat. The most
common times signatures are 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, and 6/8.
Whole music notes
These notes are whole notes. Each note is four beats long.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[14][whole.gif]
Half music notes
Here are half notes. Did you see the stems? These notes are twice as
fast as whole notes. These note are two beats long.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[15][half.gif]
Quarter music notes
These notes are black. They are quarter notes. Each quarter note gets
one beat. How many beats are in each measure? If you guessed four,
you'd be right!
Click the image to hear the note value.
[16][quarter.gif]
Eighth music notes
These are eighth notes. Notice how the stems are connected by a beam.
These notes move twice as fast as quarter notes. Two note are played
for each beat of music.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[17][eighth_.gif]
Combining Note Values
In 4/4 time, different note values can be combined in each measure as
long as they equal four beats. Click the examples to hear the rhythm
patterns:
[18][combo2.gif]
[19][combo3.gif]
[20][combo4.gif]
Music tempo
Tempo means speed. Musicians use Italian terms for different tempos.
Here is a melody fragment. Click the image to hear the tune:
[21][example.gif]
Click the words below to hear this tune played at different tempos.
Slow Medium Fast
Largo Largo is the slowest tempo.
Adagio Largo means slow or leisurely.
Andante Andante means a walking pace.
Moderato Moderato is medium. It is not too fast or too slow.
Allegro Allegro is fast. It means cheerful in Italian.
Vivace Vivace is quick and lively.
Presto Presto is very fast.
Meter
Meter is how we hear the groupings of beats in music. Music will be in
an even meter (groupings of 2's or 4's) or an odd meter (groupings of
3's).
Even Meters Are Groupings of 2 Beats A [22]march is played in a meter
of 2, which makes it an even meter. That means you will hear the beats
of the march move in patterns of two's.
Odd Meters Are Groupings of 3 Beats A [23]waltz is played in a meter of
three, which makes it an odd meter. That means you will hear the beats
of the waltz move in patterns of three's.
Can you hear meter in music? Click the examples below to identify
whether you hear the music moving in groups of two's or three's.
[24]Example 1 [25]Example 2 [26]Example 3 [27]Example 4 [28]Example 5
Time Signatures
The time signature helps us group the notes so we don't get lost. It's
the way we organize beats in music. It's like grouping eggs by the
dozen or days by the week. The top number tells us how many beats we
can have in one measure. In 4/4 time we have four beats in each
measure. What was the time signature in all of all the examples above?
Remember this: A beat is not the same thing as a note. Notes can have
more or less than one beat. A whole note in 4/4 time has four beats. A
half note in 4/4 time has two beats. An eighth note in 4/4 time has
just 1/2 beat. It takes two eighth notes to make one beat in 4/4 time.
Time signatures and meter: The time signature will tell you the music's
meter. If you can divide the top number by two, the music is in an even
meter. If you can divide the top number by three, the music is in an
odd meter.
Let's look at some popular time signatures and see if we can add up the
beats in each measure.
4/4 Time (Common Time)
[Common_time.gif]
Did you notice the number at the beginning of all the examples above?
That's the time signature. It's 4/4. That means that there are four
beats in each measure and the quarter note gets one beat. This time
signature is also called Common Time because it is the most popular
time signature in music.
Listen to [29]Somewhere Over the Rainbow from The Wizard of Oz. It's in
4/4 time. Each measure equals four beats. It is in an even meter.
[30][rainbow.gif]
3/4 Time (Waltz Time) [Three_four.gif]
A 3/4 time signature would only have three beats per measure. Here is
what it looks like.
Listen to [31]America played in 3/4 time. 3/4 is also called waltz
time. Did you notice the dots after some of the notes. Dotes make the
notes longer. This song is in an odd meter because there are three
beats per measure.
[32][amaerica.gif]
2/4 Time [Two_four.gif]
A 2/4 time signature has just two beats per measure. It looks like
this.
Listen to [33]You're a Grand Old Flag in 2/4 time. Do you see the line
connecting the last two notes. It is called a tie. What is the meter of
this song? Look at the time signature for your answer.
[34][grand.gif]
6/8 Time [Six_eight.gif]
A 6/8 time signature has six beats per measure. The bottom number is 8.
This tells you that the eighth note gets one beat.
Do you recognize the song [35]Follow the Yellow Brick Road from The
Wizard of Oz? It's in 6/8 time. This song goes fast, making it sound
like 2/4 rather than 6/8 time. This time signature can sound like an
even or odd meter because you can divide 6 by 2 or 3.
[36][wizaed.gif]
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Music machines
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* [59]Piano keyboard online game. Download piano keyboard movie on to
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Metronomes and fork
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Références
Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics
[1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics
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[0.gif]
- Rhythm of Life Lyrics
Ensemble:
Daddy started out in San Francisco,
Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean,
Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy,
Spread the picture on a wider screen."
And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons
Ready to be hooked on new religions.
Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife.
Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life."
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee,
Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge,
Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton,
Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Fly, fly, fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Swim, swim, swim to Daddy
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy,
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life,
Of life, of life, of life.
Yeah! Yeah! Yeah!
Man!
Related for [56]Sweet Charity:
sheet music [57]Buy Musical Sheet Music
cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD
dvd [59]Buy Musical DVD Links:
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles
Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life.
Music Of Other Climes. Part 2
Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the
elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time
of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm
so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early
Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language,
instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect
rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything
we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may
be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as
the most graceful.
Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ,
and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed
that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not
the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was
apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres,
and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D,
of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can
see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from
the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical
sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation
in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one
great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last.
It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that
comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical
colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life.
Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a
world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense,
so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the
individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not
yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or
hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to
the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature.
Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine
principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt,
thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles,
there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek
people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until
there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks.
As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a
prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become.
When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is
without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the
Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the
world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But
the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being
without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of
what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we
receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given.
We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and
bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has
seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or
artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth
and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new
birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of
music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will
become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure
from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all
that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely,
or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the
harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that
is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back
into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall
you receive the best.
With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the
progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under
the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most
external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the
coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is
sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful
roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention
to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is
that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it
did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national
religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian
Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of
the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change
from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked
change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the
curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much
to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There
were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them
were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even
under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have
expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century
A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to
produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable
success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the
work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called
good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth
century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and
Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new
foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the
centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may
truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by
the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in
modern times.
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Keeping the rhythm of life in sync
May 28, 2008
Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the
heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the
rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as
cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per
minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or
physical stress.
The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical
system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed
electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the
heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be
too fast, too slow, or irregular.
All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal
heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people
may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal
rhythm and not even know it.
Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest
pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath,
swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur
because of abnormal heart rhythm.
To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its
relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an
electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time
at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by
placing electrodes on the skin.
Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be
difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case,
other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which
electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart
catheterization.
Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of
electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or
implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows
doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside
the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are
causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing
temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively
destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia.
Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when
the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not
functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can
be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to
resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some
of its pumping function.
Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of
dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The
device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and
delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm.
Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent
disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to
their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular
Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced
treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help
restore the rhythm of life.
Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs
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* [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 1 / 5 (1)
"...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that
provides the rhythm of life..."
Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is
just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood
through our system of vessels.
It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood
circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever
smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after
supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to
become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable
of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy
and thin pipes.
It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all
about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word
"pump" to describe the heart.
What about "metronome"?
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* [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 4 / 5 (1)
Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you
don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong.
Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels,
and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and
also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood
return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY
used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to
the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation.
As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick,
as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the
thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow
loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if
this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some
reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive
pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation"
or taking a highschool biology class.
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Rhythm Of Life lyrics
(Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life
Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life
Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon
Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you
I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus)
If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain
Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it
The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus)
Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down
(repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade)
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Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony
By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli ()
1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro
When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving
rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each
producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with
other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this
metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and
around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in
which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful
presence.
I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets
and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human
civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this
planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other
parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately
grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not
empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and
sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the
universe is not threatening for me as before.
Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office,
when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an
echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture
each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity
arising randomly, above the background sound.
Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny
and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of
sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific
scenarios I could never imagine before.
2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso
Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a
patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome.
That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances,
making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a
person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made
unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying
aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those
dangerous noises.
When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she
told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy
session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands.
His sounds were so emotionally intense that their
message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in
a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it
safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with
overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his
together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards,
listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy
session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal
interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside.
My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he
developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to
process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge
amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people,
without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds.
In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional
experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a
Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds
were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they
liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty
words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their
painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light
pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes.
Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the
roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors'
desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both
situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these
dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by
fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event
with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was
grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist.
I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work
with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may
experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to
be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with
and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities
available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and
therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing:
the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the
environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing
amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness
necessary for improving quality of life.
3rd Movement: Trio
In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea
which considers that a good development of each system is possible when
there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its
environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant
interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual
perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system.
Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of
structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with
rhythm entrainment and music.
As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not
determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced
by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective
readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the
structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration.
To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes
schema to structure and order internal and external events using
rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are
self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal
structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically
determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow
an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a
caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal
patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by
comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As
Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with
sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge
our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas
are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human
beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the
emotional response to music.
Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the
metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical
behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because
they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to
understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our
sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be
the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the
most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion,
and metaphorical thinking.
Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration.
Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer,
because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes
separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological
situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They
do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the
capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and
integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory.
There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas
about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a
conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could
answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music
itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which
is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks.
And, thus, they can still feel joy.
4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio
All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the
efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of
criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of
mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared
my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my
dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy,
particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the
highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute
named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to
train psychologists and physicians in this field.
This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and
with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music.
References
Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music:
The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers.
Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the
Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University
Press.
Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning,
Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of
Illinois.
To cite this page:
Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A
World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy.
Moderated discussion
Add your comments and responses to this essay in our Moderated
Discussions. Contributions should be e-mailed to either [13]Joke Bradt
or [14]Thomas Wosch
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Iambic Pentameter: The Rhythm of Life?
Sunday March 22, 2009
[bencrystal.jpg]
Does the thought of [23]iambic pentameter terrify you? I remember being
baffeled by it at school myself because I got bogged down in counting
syllables and working out where the stresses go but, I now know that
this is a very technical way of studying iambic pentameter.
In later life, Ive grown to love iambic pentameter. Theres something
beautiful about it that I cant put my finger on. I know for sure that
its in the speaking because on the page it is inert. When you [24]speak
those words aloud, they literally jump off the tongue and the rhythm is
the easiest of all meters to find.
I asked Ben Crystal about this [25]in our interview a few months ago.
He said that iambic pentameter is the rhythm of our English language
and of our bodies a line of that poetry has the same rhythm as our
heartbeat. A line of iambic pentameter fills the human lung perfectly,
so its the rhythm of speech.
I think this is true. When you [26]learn how to speak verse, you soon
discover that its a very instinctive rhythm. Once you relax and go with
the flow, it comes naturally. And, strange as it might sound, classic
iambic pentameter lines like If music be the food of love, play on and
Now is the winter of our discontent do happen to fit a single breath
perfectly if spoken with passion.
So, if youre having trouble with iambic pentameter, remember that its
designed to be spoken, not studied. Open your mouth and speak aloud
those great words.
Photo of Ben Crystal © Scott Wishart
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Comments
March 30, 2009 at 2:29 pm
[33](1) [34]Kent Richmond says:
In doing verse translations of five Shakespeare plays, I have
had to learn how Shakespeares iambic pentameter works in order
to give my translations the feel of the original. One of the
beauties of iambic pentameter is that the poet can temporarily
relax the meter without violating it. In this series of made-up
and rather prosaic lines, the first line is straight-ahead
iambic pentameter. The second and third lines, if read
independently, are less obviously iambic pentameter, yet they do
not violate the rhythm. The fourth line is clearly unmetrical
and removes the sense that we are listening to verse.
1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes,
2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. (trochaic
start; feminine ending)
3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. (Two spondees to
start; feminine ending)
4. Dont you ever hit your little sister. (unmetrical)
Shakespeare, at least in the plays I have translated, did not
write verse lines with the rhythm of (4). To make this line
sound a bit more like Shakespeares iambic pentameter, we need to
make a few alterations to line 4.
1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes,
2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters.
3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest.
4. Dont ever hit that little girl again.
To make the whole passage sound like prose, we need to change
the first line a little.
Then her mother took the kids clothes shopping, planning to buy
them all some warmer sweaters. No! No! No! No she bellowed at
the oldest. Dont you ever hit your little sister.
The first and fourth lines now have trochaic feet exposed in the
wrong places, and most editors would print such a passage as
prose. Shakespeares iambic pentameter certainly places
constraints on what rhythms are allowed, yet it allows for
flexibility and naturalness. Take a look at George Wrights book
titled Shakespeares Metrical Art to see the techniques
Shakespeare employed.
April 11, 2009 at 8:25 pm
[35](2) Dave says:
The words literally jump off the tongue? I'd like to see that!
[36]Leave a Comment
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* [37]Introducing Iambic Pentameter
* [38]Iambic Pentameter - How to Study Iambic Pentameter
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Références
Drums games, piano games, guitar games
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[acleardot.gif] [acleardot.gif]
What is music rhythm?
The music rhythm is the beat. It is the most important element in
music. It drives the music forward. It is the gasoline of music.
Rhythms can be simple or complicated.
Essential music vocabulary
Meter
It's the way we group the beats. We group eggs by the dozen. We group
days by the week. We also group beats into two's or three's. That's
meter.
Rhythm
The beat. The beat can be even or uneven, steady or unsteady.
Note Values
Long and short sounds in music are represented by notes. White notes
have longer sounds than black notes.
Tempo
This is the speed of the music.
Time Signature
This is a number that appears at the beginning of the music. The top
number tells you how many beats are in each measure (bar) and the
bottom number tells you what kind of a note gets one beat. The most
common times signatures are 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, and 6/8.
Whole music notes
These notes are whole notes. Each note is four beats long.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[14][whole.gif]
Half music notes
Here are half notes. Did you see the stems? These notes are twice as
fast as whole notes. These note are two beats long.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[15][half.gif]
Quarter music notes
These notes are black. They are quarter notes. Each quarter note gets
one beat. How many beats are in each measure? If you guessed four,
you'd be right!
Click the image to hear the note value.
[16][quarter.gif]
Eighth music notes
These are eighth notes. Notice how the stems are connected by a beam.
These notes move twice as fast as quarter notes. Two note are played
for each beat of music.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[17][eighth_.gif]
Combining Note Values
In 4/4 time, different note values can be combined in each measure as
long as they equal four beats. Click the examples to hear the rhythm
patterns:
[18][combo2.gif]
[19][combo3.gif]
[20][combo4.gif]
Music tempo
Tempo means speed. Musicians use Italian terms for different tempos.
Here is a melody fragment. Click the image to hear the tune:
[21][example.gif]
Click the words below to hear this tune played at different tempos.
Slow Medium Fast
Largo Largo is the slowest tempo.
Adagio Largo means slow or leisurely.
Andante Andante means a walking pace.
Moderato Moderato is medium. It is not too fast or too slow.
Allegro Allegro is fast. It means cheerful in Italian.
Vivace Vivace is quick and lively.
Presto Presto is very fast.
Meter
Meter is how we hear the groupings of beats in music. Music will be in
an even meter (groupings of 2's or 4's) or an odd meter (groupings of
3's).
Even Meters Are Groupings of 2 Beats A [22]march is played in a meter
of 2, which makes it an even meter. That means you will hear the beats
of the march move in patterns of two's.
Odd Meters Are Groupings of 3 Beats A [23]waltz is played in a meter of
three, which makes it an odd meter. That means you will hear the beats
of the waltz move in patterns of three's.
Can you hear meter in music? Click the examples below to identify
whether you hear the music moving in groups of two's or three's.
[24]Example 1 [25]Example 2 [26]Example 3 [27]Example 4 [28]Example 5
Time Signatures
The time signature helps us group the notes so we don't get lost. It's
the way we organize beats in music. It's like grouping eggs by the
dozen or days by the week. The top number tells us how many beats we
can have in one measure. In 4/4 time we have four beats in each
measure. What was the time signature in all of all the examples above?
Remember this: A beat is not the same thing as a note. Notes can have
more or less than one beat. A whole note in 4/4 time has four beats. A
half note in 4/4 time has two beats. An eighth note in 4/4 time has
just 1/2 beat. It takes two eighth notes to make one beat in 4/4 time.
Time signatures and meter: The time signature will tell you the music's
meter. If you can divide the top number by two, the music is in an even
meter. If you can divide the top number by three, the music is in an
odd meter.
Let's look at some popular time signatures and see if we can add up the
beats in each measure.
4/4 Time (Common Time)
[Common_time.gif]
Did you notice the number at the beginning of all the examples above?
That's the time signature. It's 4/4. That means that there are four
beats in each measure and the quarter note gets one beat. This time
signature is also called Common Time because it is the most popular
time signature in music.
Listen to [29]Somewhere Over the Rainbow from The Wizard of Oz. It's in
4/4 time. Each measure equals four beats. It is in an even meter.
[30][rainbow.gif]
3/4 Time (Waltz Time) [Three_four.gif]
A 3/4 time signature would only have three beats per measure. Here is
what it looks like.
Listen to [31]America played in 3/4 time. 3/4 is also called waltz
time. Did you notice the dots after some of the notes. Dotes make the
notes longer. This song is in an odd meter because there are three
beats per measure.
[32][amaerica.gif]
2/4 Time [Two_four.gif]
A 2/4 time signature has just two beats per measure. It looks like
this.
Listen to [33]You're a Grand Old Flag in 2/4 time. Do you see the line
connecting the last two notes. It is called a tie. What is the meter of
this song? Look at the time signature for your answer.
[34][grand.gif]
6/8 Time [Six_eight.gif]
A 6/8 time signature has six beats per measure. The bottom number is 8.
This tells you that the eighth note gets one beat.
Do you recognize the song [35]Follow the Yellow Brick Road from The
Wizard of Oz? It's in 6/8 time. This song goes fast, making it sound
like 2/4 rather than 6/8 time. This time signature can sound like an
even or odd meter because you can divide 6 by 2 or 3.
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Titre du document / Document title
Effects of pre-exercise listening to slow and fast rhythm music on
supramaximal cycle performance and selected metabolic variables
Auteur(s) / Author(s)
YAMAMOTO T.^ (1) ; OHKUWA T.^ (2) ; ITOH H.^ (2) ; KITOH M.^ (3) ;
TERASAWA J.^ (3) ; TSUDA T.^ (3) ; KITAGAWA S.^ (3) ; SATO Y.^ (1) ;
Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s)
^(1) Research Center of Health, Physical Fitness and Sports, Nagoya
University, 464-8601, JAPON
^(2) Department of General studies, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON
^(3) Department of Applied Chemistry, Nagoya Institute of Technology,
Showa-ku, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON
Résumé / Abstract
We examined the effect of listening to two different types of music
(with slow and fast rhythm), prior to supramaximal cycle exercise, on
performance, heart rate, the concentration of lactate and ammonia in
blood, and the concentration of catecholamines in plasma. Six male
students participated in this study. After listening to slow rhythm or
fast rhythm music for 20 min, the subjects performed supramaximal
exercise for 45 s using a cycle ergometer. Listening to slow and fast
rhythm music prior to supramaximal exercise did not significantly
affect the mean power output. The plasma norepinephrine concentration
immediately before the end of listening to slow rhythm music was
significantly lower than before listening (p < 0.05). The plasma
epinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to
fast rhythm music was significantly higher than before listening (p <
0.05). The type of music had no effect on blood lactate and ammonia
levels or on plasma catecholamine levels following exercise. In
conclusion, listening to slow rhythm music decreases the plasma
norepinephrine level, and listening to fast rhythm music increases the
plasma epinephrine level. The type of music has no impact on power
output during exercise.
Revue / Journal Title
Archives of physiology and biochemistry ISSN 1381-3455
Source / Source
2003, vol. 111, n^o3, pp. 211-214 [4 page(s) (article)] (14 ref.)
Langue / Language
Anglais
Revue : Français
Editeur / Publisher
Taylor & Francis, Basingstoke, ROYAUME-UNI (1995) (Revue)
Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords
Dopamine agonist ; Neurotransmitter ; Catecholamine ; Human ; Bicycle
ergometer ; Music ; Rhythm ; Dopamine ; Norepinephrine ; Epinephrine ;
Physical performance ; Heart rate ; Physical exercise ;
Mots-clés français / French Keywords
Stimulant dopaminergique ; Neurotransmetteur ; Catécholamine ; Homme ;
Bicyclette ergométrique ; Musique ; Rythme ; Dopamine ; Noradrénaline ;
Adrénaline ; Performance physique ; Rythme cardiaque ; Exercice
physique ;
Mots-clés espagnols / Spanish Keywords
Estimulante dopaminérgico ; Neurotransmisor ; Catecolamina ; Hombre ;
Bicicleta ergométrica ; Música ; Ritmo ; Dopamina ; Noradrenalina ;
Adrenalina ; Rendimiento físico ; Ritmo cardíaco ; Ejercicio físico ;
Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords
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Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics
[1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics
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- Rhythm of Life Lyrics
Ensemble:
Daddy started out in San Francisco,
Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean,
Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy,
Spread the picture on a wider screen."
And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons
Ready to be hooked on new religions.
Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife.
Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life."
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee,
Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge,
Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton,
Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Fly, fly, fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Swim, swim, swim to Daddy
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy,
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life,
Of life, of life, of life.
Yeah! Yeah! Yeah!
Man!
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles
Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life.
Music Of Other Climes. Part 2
Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the
elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time
of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm
so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early
Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language,
instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect
rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything
we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may
be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as
the most graceful.
Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ,
and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed
that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not
the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was
apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres,
and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D,
of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can
see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from
the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical
sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation
in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one
great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last.
It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that
comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical
colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life.
Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a
world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense,
so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the
individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not
yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or
hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to
the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature.
Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine
principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt,
thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles,
there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek
people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until
there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks.
As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a
prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become.
When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is
without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the
Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the
world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But
the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being
without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of
what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we
receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given.
We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and
bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has
seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or
artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth
and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new
birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of
music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will
become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure
from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all
that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely,
or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the
harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that
is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back
into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall
you receive the best.
With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the
progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under
the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most
external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the
coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is
sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful
roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention
to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is
that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it
did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national
religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian
Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of
the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change
from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked
change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the
curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much
to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There
were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them
were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even
under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have
expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century
A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to
produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable
success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the
work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called
good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth
century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and
Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new
foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the
centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may
truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by
the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in
modern times.
Continue to:
* prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes
* [44]Table of Contents
* next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3
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[51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music,
[56]vibration
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Keeping the rhythm of life in sync
May 28, 2008
Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the
heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the
rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as
cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per
minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or
physical stress.
The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical
system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed
electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the
heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be
too fast, too slow, or irregular.
All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal
heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people
may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal
rhythm and not even know it.
Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest
pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath,
swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur
because of abnormal heart rhythm.
To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its
relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an
electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time
at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by
placing electrodes on the skin.
Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be
difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case,
other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which
electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart
catheterization.
Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of
electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or
implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows
doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside
the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are
causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing
temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively
destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia.
Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when
the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not
functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can
be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to
resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some
of its pumping function.
Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of
dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The
device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and
delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm.
Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent
disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to
their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular
Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced
treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help
restore the rhythm of life.
Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs
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* [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 1 / 5 (1)
"...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that
provides the rhythm of life..."
Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is
just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood
through our system of vessels.
It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood
circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever
smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after
supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to
become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable
of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy
and thin pipes.
It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all
about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word
"pump" to describe the heart.
What about "metronome"?
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* [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 4 / 5 (1)
Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you
don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong.
Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels,
and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and
also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood
return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY
used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to
the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation.
As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick,
as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the
thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow
loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if
this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some
reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive
pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation"
or taking a highschool biology class.
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May 28, 2008 [69]all stories
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Rhythm Of Life lyrics
(Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life
Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life
Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon
Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you
I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus)
If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain
Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it
The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus)
Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down
(repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade)
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May 19, 2008
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5 most recent columns
January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By
Diego Schapira
December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara
Wheeler
December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice.
By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos
November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns
November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist.
By Helen Oosthuizen
Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony
By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli ()
1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro
When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving
rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each
producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with
other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this
metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and
around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in
which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful
presence.
I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets
and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human
civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this
planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other
parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately
grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not
empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and
sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the
universe is not threatening for me as before.
Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office,
when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an
echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture
each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity
arising randomly, above the background sound.
Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny
and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of
sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific
scenarios I could never imagine before.
2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso
Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a
patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome.
That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances,
making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a
person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made
unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying
aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those
dangerous noises.
When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she
told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy
session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands.
His sounds were so emotionally intense that their
message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in
a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it
safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with
overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his
together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards,
listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy
session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal
interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside.
My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he
developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to
process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge
amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people,
without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds.
In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional
experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a
Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds
were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they
liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty
words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their
painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light
pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes.
Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the
roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors'
desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both
situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these
dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by
fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event
with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was
grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist.
I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work
with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may
experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to
be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with
and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities
available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and
therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing:
the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the
environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing
amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness
necessary for improving quality of life.
3rd Movement: Trio
In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea
which considers that a good development of each system is possible when
there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its
environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant
interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual
perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system.
Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of
structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with
rhythm entrainment and music.
As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not
determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced
by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective
readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the
structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration.
To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes
schema to structure and order internal and external events using
rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are
self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal
structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically
determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow
an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a
caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal
patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by
comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As
Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with
sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge
our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas
are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human
beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the
emotional response to music.
Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the
metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical
behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because
they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to
understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our
sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be
the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the
most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion,
and metaphorical thinking.
Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration.
Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer,
because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes
separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological
situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They
do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the
capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and
integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory.
There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas
about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a
conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could
answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music
itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which
is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks.
And, thus, they can still feel joy.
4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio
All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the
efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of
criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of
mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared
my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my
dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy,
particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the
highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute
named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to
train psychologists and physicians in this field.
This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and
with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music.
References
Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music:
The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers.
Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the
Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University
Press.
Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning,
Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of
Illinois.
To cite this page:
Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A
World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy.
Moderated discussion
Add your comments and responses to this essay in our Moderated
Discussions. Contributions should be e-mailed to either [13]Joke Bradt
or [14]Thomas Wosch
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Iambic Pentameter: The Rhythm of Life?
Sunday March 22, 2009
[bencrystal.jpg]
Does the thought of [23]iambic pentameter terrify you? I remember being
baffeled by it at school myself because I got bogged down in counting
syllables and working out where the stresses go but, I now know that
this is a very technical way of studying iambic pentameter.
In later life, Ive grown to love iambic pentameter. Theres something
beautiful about it that I cant put my finger on. I know for sure that
its in the speaking because on the page it is inert. When you [24]speak
those words aloud, they literally jump off the tongue and the rhythm is
the easiest of all meters to find.
I asked Ben Crystal about this [25]in our interview a few months ago.
He said that iambic pentameter is the rhythm of our English language
and of our bodies a line of that poetry has the same rhythm as our
heartbeat. A line of iambic pentameter fills the human lung perfectly,
so its the rhythm of speech.
I think this is true. When you [26]learn how to speak verse, you soon
discover that its a very instinctive rhythm. Once you relax and go with
the flow, it comes naturally. And, strange as it might sound, classic
iambic pentameter lines like If music be the food of love, play on and
Now is the winter of our discontent do happen to fit a single breath
perfectly if spoken with passion.
So, if youre having trouble with iambic pentameter, remember that its
designed to be spoken, not studied. Open your mouth and speak aloud
those great words.
Photo of Ben Crystal © Scott Wishart
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Comments
March 30, 2009 at 2:29 pm
[33](1) [34]Kent Richmond says:
In doing verse translations of five Shakespeare plays, I have
had to learn how Shakespeares iambic pentameter works in order
to give my translations the feel of the original. One of the
beauties of iambic pentameter is that the poet can temporarily
relax the meter without violating it. In this series of made-up
and rather prosaic lines, the first line is straight-ahead
iambic pentameter. The second and third lines, if read
independently, are less obviously iambic pentameter, yet they do
not violate the rhythm. The fourth line is clearly unmetrical
and removes the sense that we are listening to verse.
1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes,
2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. (trochaic
start; feminine ending)
3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. (Two spondees to
start; feminine ending)
4. Dont you ever hit your little sister. (unmetrical)
Shakespeare, at least in the plays I have translated, did not
write verse lines with the rhythm of (4). To make this line
sound a bit more like Shakespeares iambic pentameter, we need to
make a few alterations to line 4.
1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes,
2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters.
3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest.
4. Dont ever hit that little girl again.
To make the whole passage sound like prose, we need to change
the first line a little.
Then her mother took the kids clothes shopping, planning to buy
them all some warmer sweaters. No! No! No! No she bellowed at
the oldest. Dont you ever hit your little sister.
The first and fourth lines now have trochaic feet exposed in the
wrong places, and most editors would print such a passage as
prose. Shakespeares iambic pentameter certainly places
constraints on what rhythms are allowed, yet it allows for
flexibility and naturalness. Take a look at George Wrights book
titled Shakespeares Metrical Art to see the techniques
Shakespeare employed.
April 11, 2009 at 8:25 pm
[35](2) Dave says:
The words literally jump off the tongue? I'd like to see that!
[36]Leave a Comment
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* [37]Introducing Iambic Pentameter
* [38]Iambic Pentameter - How to Study Iambic Pentameter
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[acleardot.gif] [acleardot.gif]
What is music rhythm?
The music rhythm is the beat. It is the most important element in
music. It drives the music forward. It is the gasoline of music.
Rhythms can be simple or complicated.
Essential music vocabulary
Meter
It's the way we group the beats. We group eggs by the dozen. We group
days by the week. We also group beats into two's or three's. That's
meter.
Rhythm
The beat. The beat can be even or uneven, steady or unsteady.
Note Values
Long and short sounds in music are represented by notes. White notes
have longer sounds than black notes.
Tempo
This is the speed of the music.
Time Signature
This is a number that appears at the beginning of the music. The top
number tells you how many beats are in each measure (bar) and the
bottom number tells you what kind of a note gets one beat. The most
common times signatures are 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, and 6/8.
Whole music notes
These notes are whole notes. Each note is four beats long.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[14][whole.gif]
Half music notes
Here are half notes. Did you see the stems? These notes are twice as
fast as whole notes. These note are two beats long.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[15][half.gif]
Quarter music notes
These notes are black. They are quarter notes. Each quarter note gets
one beat. How many beats are in each measure? If you guessed four,
you'd be right!
Click the image to hear the note value.
[16][quarter.gif]
Eighth music notes
These are eighth notes. Notice how the stems are connected by a beam.
These notes move twice as fast as quarter notes. Two note are played
for each beat of music.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[17][eighth_.gif]
Combining Note Values
In 4/4 time, different note values can be combined in each measure as
long as they equal four beats. Click the examples to hear the rhythm
patterns:
[18][combo2.gif]
[19][combo3.gif]
[20][combo4.gif]
Music tempo
Tempo means speed. Musicians use Italian terms for different tempos.
Here is a melody fragment. Click the image to hear the tune:
[21][example.gif]
Click the words below to hear this tune played at different tempos.
Slow Medium Fast
Largo Largo is the slowest tempo.
Adagio Largo means slow or leisurely.
Andante Andante means a walking pace.
Moderato Moderato is medium. It is not too fast or too slow.
Allegro Allegro is fast. It means cheerful in Italian.
Vivace Vivace is quick and lively.
Presto Presto is very fast.
Meter
Meter is how we hear the groupings of beats in music. Music will be in
an even meter (groupings of 2's or 4's) or an odd meter (groupings of
3's).
Even Meters Are Groupings of 2 Beats A [22]march is played in a meter
of 2, which makes it an even meter. That means you will hear the beats
of the march move in patterns of two's.
Odd Meters Are Groupings of 3 Beats A [23]waltz is played in a meter of
three, which makes it an odd meter. That means you will hear the beats
of the waltz move in patterns of three's.
Can you hear meter in music? Click the examples below to identify
whether you hear the music moving in groups of two's or three's.
[24]Example 1 [25]Example 2 [26]Example 3 [27]Example 4 [28]Example 5
Time Signatures
The time signature helps us group the notes so we don't get lost. It's
the way we organize beats in music. It's like grouping eggs by the
dozen or days by the week. The top number tells us how many beats we
can have in one measure. In 4/4 time we have four beats in each
measure. What was the time signature in all of all the examples above?
Remember this: A beat is not the same thing as a note. Notes can have
more or less than one beat. A whole note in 4/4 time has four beats. A
half note in 4/4 time has two beats. An eighth note in 4/4 time has
just 1/2 beat. It takes two eighth notes to make one beat in 4/4 time.
Time signatures and meter: The time signature will tell you the music's
meter. If you can divide the top number by two, the music is in an even
meter. If you can divide the top number by three, the music is in an
odd meter.
Let's look at some popular time signatures and see if we can add up the
beats in each measure.
4/4 Time (Common Time)
[Common_time.gif]
Did you notice the number at the beginning of all the examples above?
That's the time signature. It's 4/4. That means that there are four
beats in each measure and the quarter note gets one beat. This time
signature is also called Common Time because it is the most popular
time signature in music.
Listen to [29]Somewhere Over the Rainbow from The Wizard of Oz. It's in
4/4 time. Each measure equals four beats. It is in an even meter.
[30][rainbow.gif]
3/4 Time (Waltz Time) [Three_four.gif]
A 3/4 time signature would only have three beats per measure. Here is
what it looks like.
Listen to [31]America played in 3/4 time. 3/4 is also called waltz
time. Did you notice the dots after some of the notes. Dotes make the
notes longer. This song is in an odd meter because there are three
beats per measure.
[32][amaerica.gif]
2/4 Time [Two_four.gif]
A 2/4 time signature has just two beats per measure. It looks like
this.
Listen to [33]You're a Grand Old Flag in 2/4 time. Do you see the line
connecting the last two notes. It is called a tie. What is the meter of
this song? Look at the time signature for your answer.
[34][grand.gif]
6/8 Time [Six_eight.gif]
A 6/8 time signature has six beats per measure. The bottom number is 8.
This tells you that the eighth note gets one beat.
Do you recognize the song [35]Follow the Yellow Brick Road from The
Wizard of Oz? It's in 6/8 time. This song goes fast, making it sound
like 2/4 rather than 6/8 time. This time signature can sound like an
even or odd meter because you can divide 6 by 2 or 3.
[36][wizaed.gif]
Drums online games
* [37]Drums music machine free online game
* [38]Drums player online music machine
* [39]Restore rhythm online ear training
* [40]Drums map movie
* [41]Drums editor online game
Music piano and guitar online games
* [42]Computer play a note pitch ear training. You try to understand
it and type c,d,e,f,g...
* [43]Computer show a note you try to understand it play keyboard
* [44]Music machine ear training
* [45]Piano music machine free online game you can compose melody and
play it. Try compose melody. This is very easy.
* [46]Music free online game. Try to repeat music.
* [47]Note pair online game. Find all notes. This game is very useful
for music memory improvement.
* [48]Notes shooter online game. Try to recognize note as fast as you
can.
* [49]Piano note free online teacher
* [50]Sound memory improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to
repeat it.
* [51]Drag music online game. Compose melody by notes.
* [52]Piano note editor. Compose melody. Use mouse for composing.
* [53]Find error at the melody online game. The computer play melody
then replace one note. Try to find error
Music machines
* [54]Orchestra quiz online music
* [55]Music quiz for kids
* [56]Virtual band
Music games for kids
* [57]Rainbow piano for kids. Computer show the color. Kids need to
press correct note.
* [58]Can you play jingle bells? Look at the note sheet and play.
* [59]Piano keyboard online game. Download piano keyboard movie on to
your computer and play.
Metronomes and fork
* [60]Light metronome online movie
* [61]Metronome online movie
* [62]Guitar tuning fork its help tune guitar
Guitar online games
* [63]Guitar music machine
* [64]Guitar chord finder
* [65]Guitar online chords
* [66]Guitar chords
* [67]Basic guitar chords and how it
* [68]Guitar chords machine with sound
* [69]Guitar scales
__________________________________________________________________
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Titre du document / Document title
Effects of pre-exercise listening to slow and fast rhythm music on
supramaximal cycle performance and selected metabolic variables
Auteur(s) / Author(s)
YAMAMOTO T.^ (1) ; OHKUWA T.^ (2) ; ITOH H.^ (2) ; KITOH M.^ (3) ;
TERASAWA J.^ (3) ; TSUDA T.^ (3) ; KITAGAWA S.^ (3) ; SATO Y.^ (1) ;
Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s)
^(1) Research Center of Health, Physical Fitness and Sports, Nagoya
University, 464-8601, JAPON
^(2) Department of General studies, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON
^(3) Department of Applied Chemistry, Nagoya Institute of Technology,
Showa-ku, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON
Résumé / Abstract
We examined the effect of listening to two different types of music
(with slow and fast rhythm), prior to supramaximal cycle exercise, on
performance, heart rate, the concentration of lactate and ammonia in
blood, and the concentration of catecholamines in plasma. Six male
students participated in this study. After listening to slow rhythm or
fast rhythm music for 20 min, the subjects performed supramaximal
exercise for 45 s using a cycle ergometer. Listening to slow and fast
rhythm music prior to supramaximal exercise did not significantly
affect the mean power output. The plasma norepinephrine concentration
immediately before the end of listening to slow rhythm music was
significantly lower than before listening (p < 0.05). The plasma
epinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to
fast rhythm music was significantly higher than before listening (p <
0.05). The type of music had no effect on blood lactate and ammonia
levels or on plasma catecholamine levels following exercise. In
conclusion, listening to slow rhythm music decreases the plasma
norepinephrine level, and listening to fast rhythm music increases the
plasma epinephrine level. The type of music has no impact on power
output during exercise.
Revue / Journal Title
Archives of physiology and biochemistry ISSN 1381-3455
Source / Source
2003, vol. 111, n^o3, pp. 211-214 [4 page(s) (article)] (14 ref.)
Langue / Language
Anglais
Revue : Français
Editeur / Publisher
Taylor & Francis, Basingstoke, ROYAUME-UNI (1995) (Revue)
Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords
Dopamine agonist ; Neurotransmitter ; Catecholamine ; Human ; Bicycle
ergometer ; Music ; Rhythm ; Dopamine ; Norepinephrine ; Epinephrine ;
Physical performance ; Heart rate ; Physical exercise ;
Mots-clés français / French Keywords
Stimulant dopaminergique ; Neurotransmetteur ; Catécholamine ; Homme ;
Bicyclette ergométrique ; Musique ; Rythme ; Dopamine ; Noradrénaline ;
Adrénaline ; Performance physique ; Rythme cardiaque ; Exercice
physique ;
Mots-clés espagnols / Spanish Keywords
Estimulante dopaminérgico ; Neurotransmisor ; Catecolamina ; Hombre ;
Bicicleta ergométrica ; Música ; Ritmo ; Dopamina ; Noradrenalina ;
Adrenalina ; Rendimiento físico ; Ritmo cardíaco ; Ejercicio físico ;
Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords
Slow music ; fast music ; epinephrine ; norepinephrine ; dopamine ;
supramaximal exercise ; power output ; lactate ; ammonia ; heart rate ;
Localisation / Location
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[USEMAP]
Basic Music Theory. Copyright Neil Hawes 1997
Rhythm
* Rhythm in music is dependent on the fact that humans recognise a
[1]beat occurring at a regular interval.
* Rhythm in music is more than just a [2]beat, however; it is the way
that sounds with differing lengths (or gaps between them) and
accents can combine to produce patterns in time which contain a
[3]beat.
+ These sounds do not have to be particularly musical; rhythms
can be made by striking almost anything, as long as there can
be difference in accent.
+ Differences in accent can mean different sounds or just
different loudness (i.e. amplitudes) of sounds
* It is common to speak of a particular rhythm, referring to a
pattern of [4]note lengths which occurs in a piece of music.
+ It is important to understand that the rhythm is defined by
the pattern; the overall speed of it could vary from
performance to performance, but the rhythm would still be the
same.
+ The speed or tempo of a piece of music is indicated by a
[5]metronome marking and/or a [6]direction word or phrase; its
rhythm is specified by various [7]note lengths creating
[8]beats within [9]bars.
* Modern songs often include [10]syncopation in their rhythm
__________________________________________________________________
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[13]Content and structure of these pages
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Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics
[1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics
Browse by soundtrack Search in soundtracks Browse by artist name
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[0.gif]
- Rhythm of Life Lyrics
Ensemble:
Daddy started out in San Francisco,
Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean,
Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy,
Spread the picture on a wider screen."
And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons
Ready to be hooked on new religions.
Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife.
Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life."
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee,
Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge,
Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton,
Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Fly, fly, fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Swim, swim, swim to Daddy
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy,
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life,
Of life, of life, of life.
Yeah! Yeah! Yeah!
Man!
Related for [56]Sweet Charity:
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles
Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life.
Music Of Other Climes. Part 2
Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the
elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time
of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm
so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early
Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language,
instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect
rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything
we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may
be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as
the most graceful.
Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ,
and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed
that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not
the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was
apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres,
and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D,
of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can
see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from
the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical
sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation
in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one
great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last.
It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that
comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical
colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life.
Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a
world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense,
so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the
individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not
yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or
hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to
the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature.
Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine
principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt,
thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles,
there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek
people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until
there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks.
As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a
prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become.
When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is
without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the
Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the
world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But
the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being
without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of
what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we
receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given.
We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and
bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has
seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or
artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth
and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new
birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of
music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will
become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure
from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all
that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely,
or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the
harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that
is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back
into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall
you receive the best.
With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the
progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under
the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most
external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the
coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is
sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful
roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention
to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is
that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it
did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national
religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian
Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of
the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change
from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked
change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the
curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much
to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There
were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them
were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even
under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have
expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century
A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to
produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable
success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the
work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called
good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth
century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and
Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new
foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the
centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may
truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by
the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in
modern times.
Continue to:
* prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes
* [44]Table of Contents
* next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3
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[46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics,
[51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music,
[56]vibration
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Keeping the rhythm of life in sync
May 28, 2008
Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the
heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the
rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as
cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per
minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or
physical stress.
The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical
system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed
electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the
heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be
too fast, too slow, or irregular.
All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal
heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people
may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal
rhythm and not even know it.
Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest
pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath,
swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur
because of abnormal heart rhythm.
To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its
relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an
electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time
at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by
placing electrodes on the skin.
Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be
difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case,
other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which
electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart
catheterization.
Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of
electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or
implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows
doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside
the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are
causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing
temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively
destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia.
Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when
the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not
functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can
be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to
resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some
of its pumping function.
Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of
dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The
device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and
delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm.
Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent
disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to
their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular
Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced
treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help
restore the rhythm of life.
Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs
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* [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 1 / 5 (1)
"...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that
provides the rhythm of life..."
Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is
just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood
through our system of vessels.
It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood
circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever
smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after
supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to
become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable
of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy
and thin pipes.
It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all
about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word
"pump" to describe the heart.
What about "metronome"?
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* [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 4 / 5 (1)
Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you
don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong.
Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels,
and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and
also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood
return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY
used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to
the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation.
As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick,
as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the
thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow
loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if
this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some
reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive
pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation"
or taking a highschool biology class.
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Rhythm Of Life lyrics
(Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life
Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life
Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon
Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you
I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus)
If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain
Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it
The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus)
Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down
(repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade)
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May 19, 2008
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5 most recent columns
January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By
Diego Schapira
December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara
Wheeler
December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice.
By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos
November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns
November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist.
By Helen Oosthuizen
Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony
By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli ()
1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro
When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving
rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each
producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with
other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this
metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and
around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in
which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful
presence.
I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets
and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human
civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this
planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other
parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately
grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not
empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and
sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the
universe is not threatening for me as before.
Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office,
when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an
echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture
each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity
arising randomly, above the background sound.
Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny
and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of
sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific
scenarios I could never imagine before.
2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso
Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a
patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome.
That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances,
making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a
person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made
unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying
aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those
dangerous noises.
When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she
told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy
session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands.
His sounds were so emotionally intense that their
message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in
a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it
safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with
overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his
together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards,
listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy
session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal
interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside.
My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he
developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to
process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge
amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people,
without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds.
In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional
experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a
Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds
were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they
liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty
words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their
painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light
pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes.
Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the
roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors'
desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both
situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these
dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by
fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event
with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was
grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist.
I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work
with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may
experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to
be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with
and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities
available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and
therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing:
the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the
environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing
amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness
necessary for improving quality of life.
3rd Movement: Trio
In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea
which considers that a good development of each system is possible when
there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its
environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant
interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual
perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system.
Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of
structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with
rhythm entrainment and music.
As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not
determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced
by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective
readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the
structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration.
To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes
schema to structure and order internal and external events using
rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are
self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal
structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically
determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow
an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a
caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal
patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by
comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As
Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with
sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge
our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas
are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human
beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the
emotional response to music.
Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the
metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical
behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because
they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to
understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our
sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be
the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the
most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion,
and metaphorical thinking.
Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration.
Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer,
because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes
separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological
situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They
do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the
capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and
integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory.
There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas
about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a
conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could
answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music
itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which
is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks.
And, thus, they can still feel joy.
4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio
All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the
efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of
criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of
mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared
my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my
dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy,
particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the
highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute
named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to
train psychologists and physicians in this field.
This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and
with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music.
References
Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music:
The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers.
Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the
Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University
Press.
Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning,
Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of
Illinois.
To cite this page:
Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A
World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy.
Moderated discussion
Add your comments and responses to this essay in our Moderated
Discussions. Contributions should be e-mailed to either [13]Joke Bradt
or [14]Thomas Wosch
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Iambic Pentameter: The Rhythm of Life?
Sunday March 22, 2009
[bencrystal.jpg]
Does the thought of [23]iambic pentameter terrify you? I remember being
baffeled by it at school myself because I got bogged down in counting
syllables and working out where the stresses go but, I now know that
this is a very technical way of studying iambic pentameter.
In later life, Ive grown to love iambic pentameter. Theres something
beautiful about it that I cant put my finger on. I know for sure that
its in the speaking because on the page it is inert. When you [24]speak
those words aloud, they literally jump off the tongue and the rhythm is
the easiest of all meters to find.
I asked Ben Crystal about this [25]in our interview a few months ago.
He said that iambic pentameter is the rhythm of our English language
and of our bodies a line of that poetry has the same rhythm as our
heartbeat. A line of iambic pentameter fills the human lung perfectly,
so its the rhythm of speech.
I think this is true. When you [26]learn how to speak verse, you soon
discover that its a very instinctive rhythm. Once you relax and go with
the flow, it comes naturally. And, strange as it might sound, classic
iambic pentameter lines like If music be the food of love, play on and
Now is the winter of our discontent do happen to fit a single breath
perfectly if spoken with passion.
So, if youre having trouble with iambic pentameter, remember that its
designed to be spoken, not studied. Open your mouth and speak aloud
those great words.
Photo of Ben Crystal © Scott Wishart
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Comments
March 30, 2009 at 2:29 pm
[33](1) [34]Kent Richmond says:
In doing verse translations of five Shakespeare plays, I have
had to learn how Shakespeares iambic pentameter works in order
to give my translations the feel of the original. One of the
beauties of iambic pentameter is that the poet can temporarily
relax the meter without violating it. In this series of made-up
and rather prosaic lines, the first line is straight-ahead
iambic pentameter. The second and third lines, if read
independently, are less obviously iambic pentameter, yet they do
not violate the rhythm. The fourth line is clearly unmetrical
and removes the sense that we are listening to verse.
1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes,
2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. (trochaic
start; feminine ending)
3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. (Two spondees to
start; feminine ending)
4. Dont you ever hit your little sister. (unmetrical)
Shakespeare, at least in the plays I have translated, did not
write verse lines with the rhythm of (4). To make this line
sound a bit more like Shakespeares iambic pentameter, we need to
make a few alterations to line 4.
1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes,
2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters.
3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest.
4. Dont ever hit that little girl again.
To make the whole passage sound like prose, we need to change
the first line a little.
Then her mother took the kids clothes shopping, planning to buy
them all some warmer sweaters. No! No! No! No she bellowed at
the oldest. Dont you ever hit your little sister.
The first and fourth lines now have trochaic feet exposed in the
wrong places, and most editors would print such a passage as
prose. Shakespeares iambic pentameter certainly places
constraints on what rhythms are allowed, yet it allows for
flexibility and naturalness. Take a look at George Wrights book
titled Shakespeares Metrical Art to see the techniques
Shakespeare employed.
April 11, 2009 at 8:25 pm
[35](2) Dave says:
The words literally jump off the tongue? I'd like to see that!
[36]Leave a Comment
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* [37]Introducing Iambic Pentameter
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Références
Drums games, piano games, guitar games
[1]Drums games. Music games
Drums online games
[2]Drums music machine
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Online music machine
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Music online games
[7]Music Free online game
Try to repeat music.
[8]Ear training 01
Free music game
[9]Piano note
Free online teacher
[10]Chords piano
Write chords. then play the melody.
[11]Sound memory
Improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it.
[12]Draw lessons
How to draw free lessons
[13]Online games
Actions, Shooter, Logic online games
[acleardot.gif] [acleardot.gif]
What is music rhythm?
The music rhythm is the beat. It is the most important element in
music. It drives the music forward. It is the gasoline of music.
Rhythms can be simple or complicated.
Essential music vocabulary
Meter
It's the way we group the beats. We group eggs by the dozen. We group
days by the week. We also group beats into two's or three's. That's
meter.
Rhythm
The beat. The beat can be even or uneven, steady or unsteady.
Note Values
Long and short sounds in music are represented by notes. White notes
have longer sounds than black notes.
Tempo
This is the speed of the music.
Time Signature
This is a number that appears at the beginning of the music. The top
number tells you how many beats are in each measure (bar) and the
bottom number tells you what kind of a note gets one beat. The most
common times signatures are 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, and 6/8.
Whole music notes
These notes are whole notes. Each note is four beats long.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[14][whole.gif]
Half music notes
Here are half notes. Did you see the stems? These notes are twice as
fast as whole notes. These note are two beats long.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[15][half.gif]
Quarter music notes
These notes are black. They are quarter notes. Each quarter note gets
one beat. How many beats are in each measure? If you guessed four,
you'd be right!
Click the image to hear the note value.
[16][quarter.gif]
Eighth music notes
These are eighth notes. Notice how the stems are connected by a beam.
These notes move twice as fast as quarter notes. Two note are played
for each beat of music.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[17][eighth_.gif]
Combining Note Values
In 4/4 time, different note values can be combined in each measure as
long as they equal four beats. Click the examples to hear the rhythm
patterns:
[18][combo2.gif]
[19][combo3.gif]
[20][combo4.gif]
Music tempo
Tempo means speed. Musicians use Italian terms for different tempos.
Here is a melody fragment. Click the image to hear the tune:
[21][example.gif]
Click the words below to hear this tune played at different tempos.
Slow Medium Fast
Largo Largo is the slowest tempo.
Adagio Largo means slow or leisurely.
Andante Andante means a walking pace.
Moderato Moderato is medium. It is not too fast or too slow.
Allegro Allegro is fast. It means cheerful in Italian.
Vivace Vivace is quick and lively.
Presto Presto is very fast.
Meter
Meter is how we hear the groupings of beats in music. Music will be in
an even meter (groupings of 2's or 4's) or an odd meter (groupings of
3's).
Even Meters Are Groupings of 2 Beats A [22]march is played in a meter
of 2, which makes it an even meter. That means you will hear the beats
of the march move in patterns of two's.
Odd Meters Are Groupings of 3 Beats A [23]waltz is played in a meter of
three, which makes it an odd meter. That means you will hear the beats
of the waltz move in patterns of three's.
Can you hear meter in music? Click the examples below to identify
whether you hear the music moving in groups of two's or three's.
[24]Example 1 [25]Example 2 [26]Example 3 [27]Example 4 [28]Example 5
Time Signatures
The time signature helps us group the notes so we don't get lost. It's
the way we organize beats in music. It's like grouping eggs by the
dozen or days by the week. The top number tells us how many beats we
can have in one measure. In 4/4 time we have four beats in each
measure. What was the time signature in all of all the examples above?
Remember this: A beat is not the same thing as a note. Notes can have
more or less than one beat. A whole note in 4/4 time has four beats. A
half note in 4/4 time has two beats. An eighth note in 4/4 time has
just 1/2 beat. It takes two eighth notes to make one beat in 4/4 time.
Time signatures and meter: The time signature will tell you the music's
meter. If you can divide the top number by two, the music is in an even
meter. If you can divide the top number by three, the music is in an
odd meter.
Let's look at some popular time signatures and see if we can add up the
beats in each measure.
4/4 Time (Common Time)
[Common_time.gif]
Did you notice the number at the beginning of all the examples above?
That's the time signature. It's 4/4. That means that there are four
beats in each measure and the quarter note gets one beat. This time
signature is also called Common Time because it is the most popular
time signature in music.
Listen to [29]Somewhere Over the Rainbow from The Wizard of Oz. It's in
4/4 time. Each measure equals four beats. It is in an even meter.
[30][rainbow.gif]
3/4 Time (Waltz Time) [Three_four.gif]
A 3/4 time signature would only have three beats per measure. Here is
what it looks like.
Listen to [31]America played in 3/4 time. 3/4 is also called waltz
time. Did you notice the dots after some of the notes. Dotes make the
notes longer. This song is in an odd meter because there are three
beats per measure.
[32][amaerica.gif]
2/4 Time [Two_four.gif]
A 2/4 time signature has just two beats per measure. It looks like
this.
Listen to [33]You're a Grand Old Flag in 2/4 time. Do you see the line
connecting the last two notes. It is called a tie. What is the meter of
this song? Look at the time signature for your answer.
[34][grand.gif]
6/8 Time [Six_eight.gif]
A 6/8 time signature has six beats per measure. The bottom number is 8.
This tells you that the eighth note gets one beat.
Do you recognize the song [35]Follow the Yellow Brick Road from The
Wizard of Oz? It's in 6/8 time. This song goes fast, making it sound
like 2/4 rather than 6/8 time. This time signature can sound like an
even or odd meter because you can divide 6 by 2 or 3.
[36][wizaed.gif]
Drums online games
* [37]Drums music machine free online game
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* [45]Piano music machine free online game you can compose melody and
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* [48]Notes shooter online game. Try to recognize note as fast as you
can.
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* [50]Sound memory improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to
repeat it.
* [51]Drag music online game. Compose melody by notes.
* [52]Piano note editor. Compose melody. Use mouse for composing.
* [53]Find error at the melody online game. The computer play melody
then replace one note. Try to find error
Music machines
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* [56]Virtual band
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press correct note.
* [58]Can you play jingle bells? Look at the note sheet and play.
* [59]Piano keyboard online game. Download piano keyboard movie on to
your computer and play.
Metronomes and fork
* [60]Light metronome online movie
* [61]Metronome online movie
* [62]Guitar tuning fork its help tune guitar
Guitar online games
* [63]Guitar music machine
* [64]Guitar chord finder
* [65]Guitar online chords
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* [68]Guitar chords machine with sound
* [69]Guitar scales
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Free music games [70]AbabaSoft.com/music
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Titre du document / Document title
Effects of pre-exercise listening to slow and fast rhythm music on
supramaximal cycle performance and selected metabolic variables
Auteur(s) / Author(s)
YAMAMOTO T.^ (1) ; OHKUWA T.^ (2) ; ITOH H.^ (2) ; KITOH M.^ (3) ;
TERASAWA J.^ (3) ; TSUDA T.^ (3) ; KITAGAWA S.^ (3) ; SATO Y.^ (1) ;
Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s)
^(1) Research Center of Health, Physical Fitness and Sports, Nagoya
University, 464-8601, JAPON
^(2) Department of General studies, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON
^(3) Department of Applied Chemistry, Nagoya Institute of Technology,
Showa-ku, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON
Résumé / Abstract
We examined the effect of listening to two different types of music
(with slow and fast rhythm), prior to supramaximal cycle exercise, on
performance, heart rate, the concentration of lactate and ammonia in
blood, and the concentration of catecholamines in plasma. Six male
students participated in this study. After listening to slow rhythm or
fast rhythm music for 20 min, the subjects performed supramaximal
exercise for 45 s using a cycle ergometer. Listening to slow and fast
rhythm music prior to supramaximal exercise did not significantly
affect the mean power output. The plasma norepinephrine concentration
immediately before the end of listening to slow rhythm music was
significantly lower than before listening (p < 0.05). The plasma
epinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to
fast rhythm music was significantly higher than before listening (p <
0.05). The type of music had no effect on blood lactate and ammonia
levels or on plasma catecholamine levels following exercise. In
conclusion, listening to slow rhythm music decreases the plasma
norepinephrine level, and listening to fast rhythm music increases the
plasma epinephrine level. The type of music has no impact on power
output during exercise.
Revue / Journal Title
Archives of physiology and biochemistry ISSN 1381-3455
Source / Source
2003, vol. 111, n^o3, pp. 211-214 [4 page(s) (article)] (14 ref.)
Langue / Language
Anglais
Revue : Français
Editeur / Publisher
Taylor & Francis, Basingstoke, ROYAUME-UNI (1995) (Revue)
Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords
Dopamine agonist ; Neurotransmitter ; Catecholamine ; Human ; Bicycle
ergometer ; Music ; Rhythm ; Dopamine ; Norepinephrine ; Epinephrine ;
Physical performance ; Heart rate ; Physical exercise ;
Mots-clés français / French Keywords
Stimulant dopaminergique ; Neurotransmetteur ; Catécholamine ; Homme ;
Bicyclette ergométrique ; Musique ; Rythme ; Dopamine ; Noradrénaline ;
Adrénaline ; Performance physique ; Rythme cardiaque ; Exercice
physique ;
Mots-clés espagnols / Spanish Keywords
Estimulante dopaminérgico ; Neurotransmisor ; Catecolamina ; Hombre ;
Bicicleta ergométrica ; Música ; Ritmo ; Dopamina ; Noradrenalina ;
Adrenalina ; Rendimiento físico ; Ritmo cardíaco ; Ejercicio físico ;
Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords
Slow music ; fast music ; epinephrine ; norepinephrine ; dopamine ;
supramaximal exercise ; power output ; lactate ; ammonia ; heart rate ;
Localisation / Location
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[USEMAP]
Basic Music Theory. Copyright Neil Hawes 1997
Rhythm
* Rhythm in music is dependent on the fact that humans recognise a
[1]beat occurring at a regular interval.
* Rhythm in music is more than just a [2]beat, however; it is the way
that sounds with differing lengths (or gaps between them) and
accents can combine to produce patterns in time which contain a
[3]beat.
+ These sounds do not have to be particularly musical; rhythms
can be made by striking almost anything, as long as there can
be difference in accent.
+ Differences in accent can mean different sounds or just
different loudness (i.e. amplitudes) of sounds
* It is common to speak of a particular rhythm, referring to a
pattern of [4]note lengths which occurs in a piece of music.
+ It is important to understand that the rhythm is defined by
the pattern; the overall speed of it could vary from
performance to performance, but the rhythm would still be the
same.
+ The speed or tempo of a piece of music is indicated by a
[5]metronome marking and/or a [6]direction word or phrase; its
rhythm is specified by various [7]note lengths creating
[8]beats within [9]bars.
* Modern songs often include [10]syncopation in their rhythm
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Swing jazz rhythm in improvisation
Swing is very important in improvisation. This word means stressing the
upbeat.
If you also give a "sliding" or "retardation" between notes, you can
create the real swing jazz rhythm, which was born at the beginning of
the XX century about. When you stress an upbeat you make perhaps a
"swinging" rhythmics, (also being without a dragging or a sliding
between notes), for modern rhythm too, (such as pop and rhythm and
blues).
* When you play swing music, that is Dixieland, blues, ragtime,
swing, bebop, cool jazz, hard bop, you have to follow this scheme:
basic rhythmic pattern
...in this way:
swing jazz rhythm pattern
Learn swing jazz rhythm
In order to learn how to swing, you simply have to learn how to reason
in up beat and stressing with it constantly. In other words, swing
means "stressing the upbeat" with an implied octaves triplets clef.
It's so a rhythm "sliding" effect created : the meaning of the American
word "swing" is just similar to "sliding", "waving" or "rocking".
* For example these measures :
how to learn jazz swing
..must be played (in general) in this way:
fundamental jazz swing rhythm
In other words Swing has offbeat (upbeat) accents and an eighth-note
triplets rhythmic base.
Learning jazz swing
Learning swing very well and have the ability to improvise, stressing
and giving the right accent of phrases needs much time to practice it.
Above all, you must pay attention at the beginning to stress upbeat
octave notes constantly and to stop when you realize you are making the
contrary. While stressing notes on your instrument, I suggest to upbeat
by your foot, so that you can emphasize this rhythmic accent better.
You have to get used to reason in upbeat, beginning all over again, as
since we were children we have been starting clapping hands in
downbeat. Swing-jazz rhythm can be so learned naturally after studying
constantly in this direction.
* You need some months to learn swing rhythm on your instrument. I
remember you to stress always the upbeats.
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Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics
[1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics
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- Rhythm of Life Lyrics
Ensemble:
Daddy started out in San Francisco,
Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean,
Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy,
Spread the picture on a wider screen."
And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons
Ready to be hooked on new religions.
Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife.
Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life."
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee,
Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge,
Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton,
Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Fly, fly, fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Swim, swim, swim to Daddy
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy,
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life,
Of life, of life, of life.
Yeah! Yeah! Yeah!
Man!
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles
Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life.
Music Of Other Climes. Part 2
Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the
elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time
of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm
so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early
Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language,
instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect
rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything
we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may
be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as
the most graceful.
Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ,
and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed
that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not
the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was
apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres,
and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D,
of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can
see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from
the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical
sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation
in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one
great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last.
It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that
comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical
colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life.
Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a
world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense,
so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the
individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not
yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or
hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to
the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature.
Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine
principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt,
thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles,
there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek
people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until
there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks.
As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a
prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become.
When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is
without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the
Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the
world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But
the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being
without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of
what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we
receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given.
We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and
bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has
seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or
artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth
and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new
birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of
music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will
become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure
from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all
that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely,
or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the
harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that
is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back
into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall
you receive the best.
With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the
progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under
the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most
external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the
coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is
sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful
roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention
to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is
that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it
did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national
religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian
Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of
the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change
from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked
change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the
curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much
to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There
were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them
were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even
under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have
expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century
A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to
produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable
success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the
work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called
good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth
century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and
Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new
foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the
centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may
truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by
the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in
modern times.
Continue to:
* prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes
* [44]Table of Contents
* next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3
Tags
[46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics,
[51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music,
[56]vibration
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Keeping the rhythm of life in sync
May 28, 2008
Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the
heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the
rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as
cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per
minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or
physical stress.
The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical
system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed
electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the
heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be
too fast, too slow, or irregular.
All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal
heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people
may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal
rhythm and not even know it.
Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest
pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath,
swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur
because of abnormal heart rhythm.
To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its
relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an
electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time
at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by
placing electrodes on the skin.
Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be
difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case,
other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which
electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart
catheterization.
Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of
electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or
implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows
doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside
the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are
causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing
temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively
destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia.
Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when
the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not
functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can
be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to
resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some
of its pumping function.
Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of
dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The
device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and
delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm.
Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent
disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to
their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular
Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced
treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help
restore the rhythm of life.
Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs
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* [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 1 / 5 (1)
"...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that
provides the rhythm of life..."
Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is
just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood
through our system of vessels.
It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood
circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever
smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after
supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to
become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable
of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy
and thin pipes.
It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all
about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word
"pump" to describe the heart.
What about "metronome"?
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* [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 4 / 5 (1)
Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you
don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong.
Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels,
and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and
also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood
return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY
used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to
the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation.
As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick,
as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the
thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow
loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if
this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some
reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive
pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation"
or taking a highschool biology class.
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May 28, 2008 [69]all stories
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Rhythm Of Life lyrics
(Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life
Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life
Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon
Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you
I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus)
If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain
Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it
The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus)
Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down
(repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade)
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May 19, 2008
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5 most recent columns
January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By
Diego Schapira
December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara
Wheeler
December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice.
By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos
November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns
November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist.
By Helen Oosthuizen
Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony
By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli ()
1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro
When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving
rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each
producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with
other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this
metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and
around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in
which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful
presence.
I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets
and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human
civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this
planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other
parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately
grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not
empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and
sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the
universe is not threatening for me as before.
Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office,
when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an
echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture
each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity
arising randomly, above the background sound.
Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny
and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of
sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific
scenarios I could never imagine before.
2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso
Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a
patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome.
That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances,
making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a
person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made
unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying
aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those
dangerous noises.
When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she
told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy
session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands.
His sounds were so emotionally intense that their
message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in
a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it
safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with
overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his
together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards,
listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy
session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal
interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside.
My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he
developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to
process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge
amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people,
without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds.
In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional
experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a
Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds
were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they
liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty
words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their
painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light
pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes.
Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the
roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors'
desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both
situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these
dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by
fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event
with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was
grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist.
I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work
with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may
experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to
be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with
and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities
available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and
therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing:
the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the
environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing
amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness
necessary for improving quality of life.
3rd Movement: Trio
In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea
which considers that a good development of each system is possible when
there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its
environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant
interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual
perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system.
Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of
structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with
rhythm entrainment and music.
As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not
determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced
by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective
readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the
structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration.
To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes
schema to structure and order internal and external events using
rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are
self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal
structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically
determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow
an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a
caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal
patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by
comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As
Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with
sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge
our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas
are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human
beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the
emotional response to music.
Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the
metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical
behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because
they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to
understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our
sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be
the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the
most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion,
and metaphorical thinking.
Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration.
Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer,
because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes
separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological
situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They
do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the
capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and
integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory.
There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas
about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a
conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could
answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music
itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which
is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks.
And, thus, they can still feel joy.
4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio
All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the
efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of
criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of
mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared
my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my
dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy,
particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the
highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute
named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to
train psychologists and physicians in this field.
This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and
with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music.
References
Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music:
The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers.
Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the
Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University
Press.
Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning,
Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of
Illinois.
To cite this page:
Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A
World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy.
Moderated discussion
Add your comments and responses to this essay in our Moderated
Discussions. Contributions should be e-mailed to either [13]Joke Bradt
or [14]Thomas Wosch
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Iambic Pentameter: The Rhythm of Life?
Sunday March 22, 2009
[bencrystal.jpg]
Does the thought of [23]iambic pentameter terrify you? I remember being
baffeled by it at school myself because I got bogged down in counting
syllables and working out where the stresses go but, I now know that
this is a very technical way of studying iambic pentameter.
In later life, Ive grown to love iambic pentameter. Theres something
beautiful about it that I cant put my finger on. I know for sure that
its in the speaking because on the page it is inert. When you [24]speak
those words aloud, they literally jump off the tongue and the rhythm is
the easiest of all meters to find.
I asked Ben Crystal about this [25]in our interview a few months ago.
He said that iambic pentameter is the rhythm of our English language
and of our bodies a line of that poetry has the same rhythm as our
heartbeat. A line of iambic pentameter fills the human lung perfectly,
so its the rhythm of speech.
I think this is true. When you [26]learn how to speak verse, you soon
discover that its a very instinctive rhythm. Once you relax and go with
the flow, it comes naturally. And, strange as it might sound, classic
iambic pentameter lines like If music be the food of love, play on and
Now is the winter of our discontent do happen to fit a single breath
perfectly if spoken with passion.
So, if youre having trouble with iambic pentameter, remember that its
designed to be spoken, not studied. Open your mouth and speak aloud
those great words.
Photo of Ben Crystal © Scott Wishart
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Comments
March 30, 2009 at 2:29 pm
[33](1) [34]Kent Richmond says:
In doing verse translations of five Shakespeare plays, I have
had to learn how Shakespeares iambic pentameter works in order
to give my translations the feel of the original. One of the
beauties of iambic pentameter is that the poet can temporarily
relax the meter without violating it. In this series of made-up
and rather prosaic lines, the first line is straight-ahead
iambic pentameter. The second and third lines, if read
independently, are less obviously iambic pentameter, yet they do
not violate the rhythm. The fourth line is clearly unmetrical
and removes the sense that we are listening to verse.
1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes,
2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. (trochaic
start; feminine ending)
3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. (Two spondees to
start; feminine ending)
4. Dont you ever hit your little sister. (unmetrical)
Shakespeare, at least in the plays I have translated, did not
write verse lines with the rhythm of (4). To make this line
sound a bit more like Shakespeares iambic pentameter, we need to
make a few alterations to line 4.
1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes,
2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters.
3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest.
4. Dont ever hit that little girl again.
To make the whole passage sound like prose, we need to change
the first line a little.
Then her mother took the kids clothes shopping, planning to buy
them all some warmer sweaters. No! No! No! No she bellowed at
the oldest. Dont you ever hit your little sister.
The first and fourth lines now have trochaic feet exposed in the
wrong places, and most editors would print such a passage as
prose. Shakespeares iambic pentameter certainly places
constraints on what rhythms are allowed, yet it allows for
flexibility and naturalness. Take a look at George Wrights book
titled Shakespeares Metrical Art to see the techniques
Shakespeare employed.
April 11, 2009 at 8:25 pm
[35](2) Dave says:
The words literally jump off the tongue? I'd like to see that!
[36]Leave a Comment
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* [37]Introducing Iambic Pentameter
* [38]Iambic Pentameter - How to Study Iambic Pentameter
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Drums games, piano games, guitar games
[1]Drums games. Music games
Drums online games
[2]Drums music machine
free online music game
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Online music machine
[4]Drums map
Drum flash movie
[5]Music machine
Ear music training
[6]Drums editor
Online drum game
Music online games
[7]Music Free online game
Try to repeat music.
[8]Ear training 01
Free music game
[9]Piano note
Free online teacher
[10]Chords piano
Write chords. then play the melody.
[11]Sound memory
Improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it.
[12]Draw lessons
How to draw free lessons
[13]Online games
Actions, Shooter, Logic online games
[acleardot.gif] [acleardot.gif]
What is music rhythm?
The music rhythm is the beat. It is the most important element in
music. It drives the music forward. It is the gasoline of music.
Rhythms can be simple or complicated.
Essential music vocabulary
Meter
It's the way we group the beats. We group eggs by the dozen. We group
days by the week. We also group beats into two's or three's. That's
meter.
Rhythm
The beat. The beat can be even or uneven, steady or unsteady.
Note Values
Long and short sounds in music are represented by notes. White notes
have longer sounds than black notes.
Tempo
This is the speed of the music.
Time Signature
This is a number that appears at the beginning of the music. The top
number tells you how many beats are in each measure (bar) and the
bottom number tells you what kind of a note gets one beat. The most
common times signatures are 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, and 6/8.
Whole music notes
These notes are whole notes. Each note is four beats long.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[14][whole.gif]
Half music notes
Here are half notes. Did you see the stems? These notes are twice as
fast as whole notes. These note are two beats long.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[15][half.gif]
Quarter music notes
These notes are black. They are quarter notes. Each quarter note gets
one beat. How many beats are in each measure? If you guessed four,
you'd be right!
Click the image to hear the note value.
[16][quarter.gif]
Eighth music notes
These are eighth notes. Notice how the stems are connected by a beam.
These notes move twice as fast as quarter notes. Two note are played
for each beat of music.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[17][eighth_.gif]
Combining Note Values
In 4/4 time, different note values can be combined in each measure as
long as they equal four beats. Click the examples to hear the rhythm
patterns:
[18][combo2.gif]
[19][combo3.gif]
[20][combo4.gif]
Music tempo
Tempo means speed. Musicians use Italian terms for different tempos.
Here is a melody fragment. Click the image to hear the tune:
[21][example.gif]
Click the words below to hear this tune played at different tempos.
Slow Medium Fast
Largo Largo is the slowest tempo.
Adagio Largo means slow or leisurely.
Andante Andante means a walking pace.
Moderato Moderato is medium. It is not too fast or too slow.
Allegro Allegro is fast. It means cheerful in Italian.
Vivace Vivace is quick and lively.
Presto Presto is very fast.
Meter
Meter is how we hear the groupings of beats in music. Music will be in
an even meter (groupings of 2's or 4's) or an odd meter (groupings of
3's).
Even Meters Are Groupings of 2 Beats A [22]march is played in a meter
of 2, which makes it an even meter. That means you will hear the beats
of the march move in patterns of two's.
Odd Meters Are Groupings of 3 Beats A [23]waltz is played in a meter of
three, which makes it an odd meter. That means you will hear the beats
of the waltz move in patterns of three's.
Can you hear meter in music? Click the examples below to identify
whether you hear the music moving in groups of two's or three's.
[24]Example 1 [25]Example 2 [26]Example 3 [27]Example 4 [28]Example 5
Time Signatures
The time signature helps us group the notes so we don't get lost. It's
the way we organize beats in music. It's like grouping eggs by the
dozen or days by the week. The top number tells us how many beats we
can have in one measure. In 4/4 time we have four beats in each
measure. What was the time signature in all of all the examples above?
Remember this: A beat is not the same thing as a note. Notes can have
more or less than one beat. A whole note in 4/4 time has four beats. A
half note in 4/4 time has two beats. An eighth note in 4/4 time has
just 1/2 beat. It takes two eighth notes to make one beat in 4/4 time.
Time signatures and meter: The time signature will tell you the music's
meter. If you can divide the top number by two, the music is in an even
meter. If you can divide the top number by three, the music is in an
odd meter.
Let's look at some popular time signatures and see if we can add up the
beats in each measure.
4/4 Time (Common Time)
[Common_time.gif]
Did you notice the number at the beginning of all the examples above?
That's the time signature. It's 4/4. That means that there are four
beats in each measure and the quarter note gets one beat. This time
signature is also called Common Time because it is the most popular
time signature in music.
Listen to [29]Somewhere Over the Rainbow from The Wizard of Oz. It's in
4/4 time. Each measure equals four beats. It is in an even meter.
[30][rainbow.gif]
3/4 Time (Waltz Time) [Three_four.gif]
A 3/4 time signature would only have three beats per measure. Here is
what it looks like.
Listen to [31]America played in 3/4 time. 3/4 is also called waltz
time. Did you notice the dots after some of the notes. Dotes make the
notes longer. This song is in an odd meter because there are three
beats per measure.
[32][amaerica.gif]
2/4 Time [Two_four.gif]
A 2/4 time signature has just two beats per measure. It looks like
this.
Listen to [33]You're a Grand Old Flag in 2/4 time. Do you see the line
connecting the last two notes. It is called a tie. What is the meter of
this song? Look at the time signature for your answer.
[34][grand.gif]
6/8 Time [Six_eight.gif]
A 6/8 time signature has six beats per measure. The bottom number is 8.
This tells you that the eighth note gets one beat.
Do you recognize the song [35]Follow the Yellow Brick Road from The
Wizard of Oz? It's in 6/8 time. This song goes fast, making it sound
like 2/4 rather than 6/8 time. This time signature can sound like an
even or odd meter because you can divide 6 by 2 or 3.
[36][wizaed.gif]
Drums online games
* [37]Drums music machine free online game
* [38]Drums player online music machine
* [39]Restore rhythm online ear training
* [40]Drums map movie
* [41]Drums editor online game
Music piano and guitar online games
* [42]Computer play a note pitch ear training. You try to understand
it and type c,d,e,f,g...
* [43]Computer show a note you try to understand it play keyboard
* [44]Music machine ear training
* [45]Piano music machine free online game you can compose melody and
play it. Try compose melody. This is very easy.
* [46]Music free online game. Try to repeat music.
* [47]Note pair online game. Find all notes. This game is very useful
for music memory improvement.
* [48]Notes shooter online game. Try to recognize note as fast as you
can.
* [49]Piano note free online teacher
* [50]Sound memory improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to
repeat it.
* [51]Drag music online game. Compose melody by notes.
* [52]Piano note editor. Compose melody. Use mouse for composing.
* [53]Find error at the melody online game. The computer play melody
then replace one note. Try to find error
Music machines
* [54]Orchestra quiz online music
* [55]Music quiz for kids
* [56]Virtual band
Music games for kids
* [57]Rainbow piano for kids. Computer show the color. Kids need to
press correct note.
* [58]Can you play jingle bells? Look at the note sheet and play.
* [59]Piano keyboard online game. Download piano keyboard movie on to
your computer and play.
Metronomes and fork
* [60]Light metronome online movie
* [61]Metronome online movie
* [62]Guitar tuning fork its help tune guitar
Guitar online games
* [63]Guitar music machine
* [64]Guitar chord finder
* [65]Guitar online chords
* [66]Guitar chords
* [67]Basic guitar chords and how it
* [68]Guitar chords machine with sound
* [69]Guitar scales
__________________________________________________________________
Free music games [70]AbabaSoft.com/music
Copyright © 1998 -
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Titre du document / Document title
Effects of pre-exercise listening to slow and fast rhythm music on
supramaximal cycle performance and selected metabolic variables
Auteur(s) / Author(s)
YAMAMOTO T.^ (1) ; OHKUWA T.^ (2) ; ITOH H.^ (2) ; KITOH M.^ (3) ;
TERASAWA J.^ (3) ; TSUDA T.^ (3) ; KITAGAWA S.^ (3) ; SATO Y.^ (1) ;
Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s)
^(1) Research Center of Health, Physical Fitness and Sports, Nagoya
University, 464-8601, JAPON
^(2) Department of General studies, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON
^(3) Department of Applied Chemistry, Nagoya Institute of Technology,
Showa-ku, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON
Résumé / Abstract
We examined the effect of listening to two different types of music
(with slow and fast rhythm), prior to supramaximal cycle exercise, on
performance, heart rate, the concentration of lactate and ammonia in
blood, and the concentration of catecholamines in plasma. Six male
students participated in this study. After listening to slow rhythm or
fast rhythm music for 20 min, the subjects performed supramaximal
exercise for 45 s using a cycle ergometer. Listening to slow and fast
rhythm music prior to supramaximal exercise did not significantly
affect the mean power output. The plasma norepinephrine concentration
immediately before the end of listening to slow rhythm music was
significantly lower than before listening (p < 0.05). The plasma
epinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to
fast rhythm music was significantly higher than before listening (p <
0.05). The type of music had no effect on blood lactate and ammonia
levels or on plasma catecholamine levels following exercise. In
conclusion, listening to slow rhythm music decreases the plasma
norepinephrine level, and listening to fast rhythm music increases the
plasma epinephrine level. The type of music has no impact on power
output during exercise.
Revue / Journal Title
Archives of physiology and biochemistry ISSN 1381-3455
Source / Source
2003, vol. 111, n^o3, pp. 211-214 [4 page(s) (article)] (14 ref.)
Langue / Language
Anglais
Revue : Français
Editeur / Publisher
Taylor & Francis, Basingstoke, ROYAUME-UNI (1995) (Revue)
Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords
Dopamine agonist ; Neurotransmitter ; Catecholamine ; Human ; Bicycle
ergometer ; Music ; Rhythm ; Dopamine ; Norepinephrine ; Epinephrine ;
Physical performance ; Heart rate ; Physical exercise ;
Mots-clés français / French Keywords
Stimulant dopaminergique ; Neurotransmetteur ; Catécholamine ; Homme ;
Bicyclette ergométrique ; Musique ; Rythme ; Dopamine ; Noradrénaline ;
Adrénaline ; Performance physique ; Rythme cardiaque ; Exercice
physique ;
Mots-clés espagnols / Spanish Keywords
Estimulante dopaminérgico ; Neurotransmisor ; Catecolamina ; Hombre ;
Bicicleta ergométrica ; Música ; Ritmo ; Dopamina ; Noradrenalina ;
Adrenalina ; Rendimiento físico ; Ritmo cardíaco ; Ejercicio físico ;
Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords
Slow music ; fast music ; epinephrine ; norepinephrine ; dopamine ;
supramaximal exercise ; power output ; lactate ; ammonia ; heart rate ;
Localisation / Location
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Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 15397711
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[USEMAP]
Basic Music Theory. Copyright Neil Hawes 1997
Rhythm
* Rhythm in music is dependent on the fact that humans recognise a
[1]beat occurring at a regular interval.
* Rhythm in music is more than just a [2]beat, however; it is the way
that sounds with differing lengths (or gaps between them) and
accents can combine to produce patterns in time which contain a
[3]beat.
+ These sounds do not have to be particularly musical; rhythms
can be made by striking almost anything, as long as there can
be difference in accent.
+ Differences in accent can mean different sounds or just
different loudness (i.e. amplitudes) of sounds
* It is common to speak of a particular rhythm, referring to a
pattern of [4]note lengths which occurs in a piece of music.
+ It is important to understand that the rhythm is defined by
the pattern; the overall speed of it could vary from
performance to performance, but the rhythm would still be the
same.
+ The speed or tempo of a piece of music is indicated by a
[5]metronome marking and/or a [6]direction word or phrase; its
rhythm is specified by various [7]note lengths creating
[8]beats within [9]bars.
* Modern songs often include [10]syncopation in their rhythm
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* Swing jazz rhythm
* [19]Jazz techniques : practice
Swing jazz rhythm in improvisation
Swing is very important in improvisation. This word means stressing the
upbeat.
If you also give a "sliding" or "retardation" between notes, you can
create the real swing jazz rhythm, which was born at the beginning of
the XX century about. When you stress an upbeat you make perhaps a
"swinging" rhythmics, (also being without a dragging or a sliding
between notes), for modern rhythm too, (such as pop and rhythm and
blues).
* When you play swing music, that is Dixieland, blues, ragtime,
swing, bebop, cool jazz, hard bop, you have to follow this scheme:
basic rhythmic pattern
...in this way:
swing jazz rhythm pattern
Learn swing jazz rhythm
In order to learn how to swing, you simply have to learn how to reason
in up beat and stressing with it constantly. In other words, swing
means "stressing the upbeat" with an implied octaves triplets clef.
It's so a rhythm "sliding" effect created : the meaning of the American
word "swing" is just similar to "sliding", "waving" or "rocking".
* For example these measures :
how to learn jazz swing
..must be played (in general) in this way:
fundamental jazz swing rhythm
In other words Swing has offbeat (upbeat) accents and an eighth-note
triplets rhythmic base.
Learning jazz swing
Learning swing very well and have the ability to improvise, stressing
and giving the right accent of phrases needs much time to practice it.
Above all, you must pay attention at the beginning to stress upbeat
octave notes constantly and to stop when you realize you are making the
contrary. While stressing notes on your instrument, I suggest to upbeat
by your foot, so that you can emphasize this rhythmic accent better.
You have to get used to reason in upbeat, beginning all over again, as
since we were children we have been starting clapping hands in
downbeat. Swing-jazz rhythm can be so learned naturally after studying
constantly in this direction.
* You need some months to learn swing rhythm on your instrument. I
remember you to stress always the upbeats.
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Références
Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics
[1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics
Browse by soundtrack Search in soundtracks Browse by artist name
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[53]Y [54]Z [55]#
[0.gif]
- Rhythm of Life Lyrics
Ensemble:
Daddy started out in San Francisco,
Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean,
Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy,
Spread the picture on a wider screen."
And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons
Ready to be hooked on new religions.
Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife.
Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life."
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee,
Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge,
Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton,
Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Fly, fly, fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Swim, swim, swim to Daddy
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy,
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life,
Of life, of life, of life.
Yeah! Yeah! Yeah!
Man!
Related for [56]Sweet Charity:
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Music Of Other Climes. Part 2
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles
Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life.
Music Of Other Climes. Part 2
Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the
elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time
of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm
so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early
Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language,
instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect
rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything
we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may
be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as
the most graceful.
Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ,
and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed
that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not
the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was
apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres,
and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D,
of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can
see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from
the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical
sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation
in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one
great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last.
It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that
comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical
colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life.
Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a
world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense,
so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the
individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not
yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or
hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to
the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature.
Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine
principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt,
thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles,
there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek
people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until
there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks.
As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a
prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become.
When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is
without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the
Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the
world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But
the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being
without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of
what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we
receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given.
We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and
bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has
seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or
artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth
and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new
birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of
music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will
become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure
from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all
that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely,
or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the
harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that
is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back
into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall
you receive the best.
With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the
progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under
the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most
external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the
coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is
sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful
roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention
to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is
that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it
did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national
religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian
Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of
the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change
from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked
change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the
curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much
to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There
were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them
were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even
under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have
expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century
A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to
produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable
success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the
work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called
good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth
century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and
Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new
foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the
centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may
truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by
the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in
modern times.
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[51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music,
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Keeping the rhythm of life in sync
May 28, 2008
Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the
heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the
rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as
cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per
minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or
physical stress.
The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical
system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed
electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the
heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be
too fast, too slow, or irregular.
All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal
heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people
may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal
rhythm and not even know it.
Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest
pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath,
swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur
because of abnormal heart rhythm.
To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its
relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an
electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time
at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by
placing electrodes on the skin.
Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be
difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case,
other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which
electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart
catheterization.
Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of
electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or
implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows
doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside
the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are
causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing
temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively
destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia.
Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when
the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not
functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can
be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to
resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some
of its pumping function.
Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of
dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The
device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and
delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm.
Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent
disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to
their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular
Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced
treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help
restore the rhythm of life.
Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs
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* [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 1 / 5 (1)
"...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that
provides the rhythm of life..."
Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is
just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood
through our system of vessels.
It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood
circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever
smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after
supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to
become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable
of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy
and thin pipes.
It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all
about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word
"pump" to describe the heart.
What about "metronome"?
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* [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 4 / 5 (1)
Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you
don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong.
Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels,
and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and
also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood
return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY
used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to
the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation.
As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick,
as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the
thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow
loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if
this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some
reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive
pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation"
or taking a highschool biology class.
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Rhythm Of Life lyrics
(Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life
Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life
Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon
Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you
I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus)
If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain
Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it
The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus)
Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down
(repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade)
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December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice.
By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos
November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns
November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist.
By Helen Oosthuizen
Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony
By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli ()
1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro
When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving
rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each
producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with
other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this
metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and
around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in
which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful
presence.
I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets
and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human
civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this
planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other
parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately
grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not
empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and
sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the
universe is not threatening for me as before.
Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office,
when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an
echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture
each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity
arising randomly, above the background sound.
Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny
and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of
sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific
scenarios I could never imagine before.
2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso
Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a
patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome.
That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances,
making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a
person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made
unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying
aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those
dangerous noises.
When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she
told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy
session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands.
His sounds were so emotionally intense that their
message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in
a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it
safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with
overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his
together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards,
listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy
session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal
interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside.
My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he
developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to
process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge
amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people,
without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds.
In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional
experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a
Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds
were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they
liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty
words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their
painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light
pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes.
Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the
roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors'
desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both
situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these
dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by
fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event
with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was
grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist.
I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work
with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may
experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to
be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with
and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities
available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and
therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing:
the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the
environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing
amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness
necessary for improving quality of life.
3rd Movement: Trio
In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea
which considers that a good development of each system is possible when
there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its
environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant
interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual
perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system.
Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of
structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with
rhythm entrainment and music.
As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not
determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced
by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective
readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the
structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration.
To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes
schema to structure and order internal and external events using
rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are
self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal
structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically
determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow
an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a
caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal
patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by
comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As
Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with
sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge
our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas
are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human
beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the
emotional response to music.
Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the
metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical
behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because
they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to
understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our
sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be
the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the
most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion,
and metaphorical thinking.
Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration.
Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer,
because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes
separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological
situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They
do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the
capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and
integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory.
There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas
about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a
conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could
answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music
itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which
is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks.
And, thus, they can still feel joy.
4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio
All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the
efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of
criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of
mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared
my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my
dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy,
particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the
highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute
named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to
train psychologists and physicians in this field.
This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and
with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music.
References
Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music:
The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers.
Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the
Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University
Press.
Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning,
Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of
Illinois.
To cite this page:
Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A
World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy.
Moderated discussion
Add your comments and responses to this essay in our Moderated
Discussions. Contributions should be e-mailed to either [13]Joke Bradt
or [14]Thomas Wosch
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Iambic Pentameter: The Rhythm of Life?
Sunday March 22, 2009
[bencrystal.jpg]
Does the thought of [23]iambic pentameter terrify you? I remember being
baffeled by it at school myself because I got bogged down in counting
syllables and working out where the stresses go but, I now know that
this is a very technical way of studying iambic pentameter.
In later life, Ive grown to love iambic pentameter. Theres something
beautiful about it that I cant put my finger on. I know for sure that
its in the speaking because on the page it is inert. When you [24]speak
those words aloud, they literally jump off the tongue and the rhythm is
the easiest of all meters to find.
I asked Ben Crystal about this [25]in our interview a few months ago.
He said that iambic pentameter is the rhythm of our English language
and of our bodies a line of that poetry has the same rhythm as our
heartbeat. A line of iambic pentameter fills the human lung perfectly,
so its the rhythm of speech.
I think this is true. When you [26]learn how to speak verse, you soon
discover that its a very instinctive rhythm. Once you relax and go with
the flow, it comes naturally. And, strange as it might sound, classic
iambic pentameter lines like If music be the food of love, play on and
Now is the winter of our discontent do happen to fit a single breath
perfectly if spoken with passion.
So, if youre having trouble with iambic pentameter, remember that its
designed to be spoken, not studied. Open your mouth and speak aloud
those great words.
Photo of Ben Crystal © Scott Wishart
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Comments
March 30, 2009 at 2:29 pm
[33](1) [34]Kent Richmond says:
In doing verse translations of five Shakespeare plays, I have
had to learn how Shakespeares iambic pentameter works in order
to give my translations the feel of the original. One of the
beauties of iambic pentameter is that the poet can temporarily
relax the meter without violating it. In this series of made-up
and rather prosaic lines, the first line is straight-ahead
iambic pentameter. The second and third lines, if read
independently, are less obviously iambic pentameter, yet they do
not violate the rhythm. The fourth line is clearly unmetrical
and removes the sense that we are listening to verse.
1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes,
2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. (trochaic
start; feminine ending)
3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. (Two spondees to
start; feminine ending)
4. Dont you ever hit your little sister. (unmetrical)
Shakespeare, at least in the plays I have translated, did not
write verse lines with the rhythm of (4). To make this line
sound a bit more like Shakespeares iambic pentameter, we need to
make a few alterations to line 4.
1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes,
2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters.
3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest.
4. Dont ever hit that little girl again.
To make the whole passage sound like prose, we need to change
the first line a little.
Then her mother took the kids clothes shopping, planning to buy
them all some warmer sweaters. No! No! No! No she bellowed at
the oldest. Dont you ever hit your little sister.
The first and fourth lines now have trochaic feet exposed in the
wrong places, and most editors would print such a passage as
prose. Shakespeares iambic pentameter certainly places
constraints on what rhythms are allowed, yet it allows for
flexibility and naturalness. Take a look at George Wrights book
titled Shakespeares Metrical Art to see the techniques
Shakespeare employed.
April 11, 2009 at 8:25 pm
[35](2) Dave says:
The words literally jump off the tongue? I'd like to see that!
[36]Leave a Comment
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* [37]Introducing Iambic Pentameter
* [38]Iambic Pentameter - How to Study Iambic Pentameter
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[acleardot.gif] [acleardot.gif]
What is music rhythm?
The music rhythm is the beat. It is the most important element in
music. It drives the music forward. It is the gasoline of music.
Rhythms can be simple or complicated.
Essential music vocabulary
Meter
It's the way we group the beats. We group eggs by the dozen. We group
days by the week. We also group beats into two's or three's. That's
meter.
Rhythm
The beat. The beat can be even or uneven, steady or unsteady.
Note Values
Long and short sounds in music are represented by notes. White notes
have longer sounds than black notes.
Tempo
This is the speed of the music.
Time Signature
This is a number that appears at the beginning of the music. The top
number tells you how many beats are in each measure (bar) and the
bottom number tells you what kind of a note gets one beat. The most
common times signatures are 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, and 6/8.
Whole music notes
These notes are whole notes. Each note is four beats long.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[14][whole.gif]
Half music notes
Here are half notes. Did you see the stems? These notes are twice as
fast as whole notes. These note are two beats long.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[15][half.gif]
Quarter music notes
These notes are black. They are quarter notes. Each quarter note gets
one beat. How many beats are in each measure? If you guessed four,
you'd be right!
Click the image to hear the note value.
[16][quarter.gif]
Eighth music notes
These are eighth notes. Notice how the stems are connected by a beam.
These notes move twice as fast as quarter notes. Two note are played
for each beat of music.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[17][eighth_.gif]
Combining Note Values
In 4/4 time, different note values can be combined in each measure as
long as they equal four beats. Click the examples to hear the rhythm
patterns:
[18][combo2.gif]
[19][combo3.gif]
[20][combo4.gif]
Music tempo
Tempo means speed. Musicians use Italian terms for different tempos.
Here is a melody fragment. Click the image to hear the tune:
[21][example.gif]
Click the words below to hear this tune played at different tempos.
Slow Medium Fast
Largo Largo is the slowest tempo.
Adagio Largo means slow or leisurely.
Andante Andante means a walking pace.
Moderato Moderato is medium. It is not too fast or too slow.
Allegro Allegro is fast. It means cheerful in Italian.
Vivace Vivace is quick and lively.
Presto Presto is very fast.
Meter
Meter is how we hear the groupings of beats in music. Music will be in
an even meter (groupings of 2's or 4's) or an odd meter (groupings of
3's).
Even Meters Are Groupings of 2 Beats A [22]march is played in a meter
of 2, which makes it an even meter. That means you will hear the beats
of the march move in patterns of two's.
Odd Meters Are Groupings of 3 Beats A [23]waltz is played in a meter of
three, which makes it an odd meter. That means you will hear the beats
of the waltz move in patterns of three's.
Can you hear meter in music? Click the examples below to identify
whether you hear the music moving in groups of two's or three's.
[24]Example 1 [25]Example 2 [26]Example 3 [27]Example 4 [28]Example 5
Time Signatures
The time signature helps us group the notes so we don't get lost. It's
the way we organize beats in music. It's like grouping eggs by the
dozen or days by the week. The top number tells us how many beats we
can have in one measure. In 4/4 time we have four beats in each
measure. What was the time signature in all of all the examples above?
Remember this: A beat is not the same thing as a note. Notes can have
more or less than one beat. A whole note in 4/4 time has four beats. A
half note in 4/4 time has two beats. An eighth note in 4/4 time has
just 1/2 beat. It takes two eighth notes to make one beat in 4/4 time.
Time signatures and meter: The time signature will tell you the music's
meter. If you can divide the top number by two, the music is in an even
meter. If you can divide the top number by three, the music is in an
odd meter.
Let's look at some popular time signatures and see if we can add up the
beats in each measure.
4/4 Time (Common Time)
[Common_time.gif]
Did you notice the number at the beginning of all the examples above?
That's the time signature. It's 4/4. That means that there are four
beats in each measure and the quarter note gets one beat. This time
signature is also called Common Time because it is the most popular
time signature in music.
Listen to [29]Somewhere Over the Rainbow from The Wizard of Oz. It's in
4/4 time. Each measure equals four beats. It is in an even meter.
[30][rainbow.gif]
3/4 Time (Waltz Time) [Three_four.gif]
A 3/4 time signature would only have three beats per measure. Here is
what it looks like.
Listen to [31]America played in 3/4 time. 3/4 is also called waltz
time. Did you notice the dots after some of the notes. Dotes make the
notes longer. This song is in an odd meter because there are three
beats per measure.
[32][amaerica.gif]
2/4 Time [Two_four.gif]
A 2/4 time signature has just two beats per measure. It looks like
this.
Listen to [33]You're a Grand Old Flag in 2/4 time. Do you see the line
connecting the last two notes. It is called a tie. What is the meter of
this song? Look at the time signature for your answer.
[34][grand.gif]
6/8 Time [Six_eight.gif]
A 6/8 time signature has six beats per measure. The bottom number is 8.
This tells you that the eighth note gets one beat.
Do you recognize the song [35]Follow the Yellow Brick Road from The
Wizard of Oz? It's in 6/8 time. This song goes fast, making it sound
like 2/4 rather than 6/8 time. This time signature can sound like an
even or odd meter because you can divide 6 by 2 or 3.
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Titre du document / Document title
Effects of pre-exercise listening to slow and fast rhythm music on
supramaximal cycle performance and selected metabolic variables
Auteur(s) / Author(s)
YAMAMOTO T.^ (1) ; OHKUWA T.^ (2) ; ITOH H.^ (2) ; KITOH M.^ (3) ;
TERASAWA J.^ (3) ; TSUDA T.^ (3) ; KITAGAWA S.^ (3) ; SATO Y.^ (1) ;
Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s)
^(1) Research Center of Health, Physical Fitness and Sports, Nagoya
University, 464-8601, JAPON
^(2) Department of General studies, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON
^(3) Department of Applied Chemistry, Nagoya Institute of Technology,
Showa-ku, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON
Résumé / Abstract
We examined the effect of listening to two different types of music
(with slow and fast rhythm), prior to supramaximal cycle exercise, on
performance, heart rate, the concentration of lactate and ammonia in
blood, and the concentration of catecholamines in plasma. Six male
students participated in this study. After listening to slow rhythm or
fast rhythm music for 20 min, the subjects performed supramaximal
exercise for 45 s using a cycle ergometer. Listening to slow and fast
rhythm music prior to supramaximal exercise did not significantly
affect the mean power output. The plasma norepinephrine concentration
immediately before the end of listening to slow rhythm music was
significantly lower than before listening (p < 0.05). The plasma
epinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to
fast rhythm music was significantly higher than before listening (p <
0.05). The type of music had no effect on blood lactate and ammonia
levels or on plasma catecholamine levels following exercise. In
conclusion, listening to slow rhythm music decreases the plasma
norepinephrine level, and listening to fast rhythm music increases the
plasma epinephrine level. The type of music has no impact on power
output during exercise.
Revue / Journal Title
Archives of physiology and biochemistry ISSN 1381-3455
Source / Source
2003, vol. 111, n^o3, pp. 211-214 [4 page(s) (article)] (14 ref.)
Langue / Language
Anglais
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Dopamine agonist ; Neurotransmitter ; Catecholamine ; Human ; Bicycle
ergometer ; Music ; Rhythm ; Dopamine ; Norepinephrine ; Epinephrine ;
Physical performance ; Heart rate ; Physical exercise ;
Mots-clés français / French Keywords
Stimulant dopaminergique ; Neurotransmetteur ; Catécholamine ; Homme ;
Bicyclette ergométrique ; Musique ; Rythme ; Dopamine ; Noradrénaline ;
Adrénaline ; Performance physique ; Rythme cardiaque ; Exercice
physique ;
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Estimulante dopaminérgico ; Neurotransmisor ; Catecolamina ; Hombre ;
Bicicleta ergométrica ; Música ; Ritmo ; Dopamina ; Noradrenalina ;
Adrenalina ; Rendimiento físico ; Ritmo cardíaco ; Ejercicio físico ;
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[USEMAP]
Basic Music Theory. Copyright Neil Hawes 1997
Rhythm
* Rhythm in music is dependent on the fact that humans recognise a
[1]beat occurring at a regular interval.
* Rhythm in music is more than just a [2]beat, however; it is the way
that sounds with differing lengths (or gaps between them) and
accents can combine to produce patterns in time which contain a
[3]beat.
+ These sounds do not have to be particularly musical; rhythms
can be made by striking almost anything, as long as there can
be difference in accent.
+ Differences in accent can mean different sounds or just
different loudness (i.e. amplitudes) of sounds
* It is common to speak of a particular rhythm, referring to a
pattern of [4]note lengths which occurs in a piece of music.
+ It is important to understand that the rhythm is defined by
the pattern; the overall speed of it could vary from
performance to performance, but the rhythm would still be the
same.
+ The speed or tempo of a piece of music is indicated by a
[5]metronome marking and/or a [6]direction word or phrase; its
rhythm is specified by various [7]note lengths creating
[8]beats within [9]bars.
* Modern songs often include [10]syncopation in their rhythm
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* Swing jazz rhythm
* [19]Jazz techniques : practice
Swing jazz rhythm in improvisation
Swing is very important in improvisation. This word means stressing the
upbeat.
If you also give a "sliding" or "retardation" between notes, you can
create the real swing jazz rhythm, which was born at the beginning of
the XX century about. When you stress an upbeat you make perhaps a
"swinging" rhythmics, (also being without a dragging or a sliding
between notes), for modern rhythm too, (such as pop and rhythm and
blues).
* When you play swing music, that is Dixieland, blues, ragtime,
swing, bebop, cool jazz, hard bop, you have to follow this scheme:
basic rhythmic pattern
...in this way:
swing jazz rhythm pattern
Learn swing jazz rhythm
In order to learn how to swing, you simply have to learn how to reason
in up beat and stressing with it constantly. In other words, swing
means "stressing the upbeat" with an implied octaves triplets clef.
It's so a rhythm "sliding" effect created : the meaning of the American
word "swing" is just similar to "sliding", "waving" or "rocking".
* For example these measures :
how to learn jazz swing
..must be played (in general) in this way:
fundamental jazz swing rhythm
In other words Swing has offbeat (upbeat) accents and an eighth-note
triplets rhythmic base.
Learning jazz swing
Learning swing very well and have the ability to improvise, stressing
and giving the right accent of phrases needs much time to practice it.
Above all, you must pay attention at the beginning to stress upbeat
octave notes constantly and to stop when you realize you are making the
contrary. While stressing notes on your instrument, I suggest to upbeat
by your foot, so that you can emphasize this rhythmic accent better.
You have to get used to reason in upbeat, beginning all over again, as
since we were children we have been starting clapping hands in
downbeat. Swing-jazz rhythm can be so learned naturally after studying
constantly in this direction.
* You need some months to learn swing rhythm on your instrument. I
remember you to stress always the upbeats.
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"Music Theory Rhythm"
"Your Journey in Music Rhythm"
Introduction:
Your journey to learn and master the music theory rhythm begins in this
section of the Music Learning Workshop. The music rhythm workshop
provides us with the basics needed to get rhythm down cold. below we
link to the beginner series of lessons.
We start with the essential building blocks of how to fundamentally
know rhythm and then expand our knowledge of rhythm music theory and
know how until we achieve mastery.
Learning Pyramid
The Basic Building Blocks of Rhythm
Rhythm forms the basis of music theory. It is what all other musical
elements are based upon. You can only survive so long in your musical
journey without the essential building block of rhythm.
Ask professional musicians: what one element of music do you find to be
most important? The answer will often be rhythm. As it is the one thing
that is least forgiven by the listener.
Our learning approach assumes a level of maturity in the student. Often
it is related to the age of about 8 years old. However, with proper
guidance younger ages can use the materials. We don't take a single
element to explore, but instead take a bigger picture and zero in on
the elements that make it work.
When we teach notes names or values we do it all at once, because it is
very important that you know how all of them are related right at the
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Beginning Rhythm Music Theory Lessons
The sequence of lessons below are designed specifically for the newbie
music student. They start with an overview approach of just looking at
music components such as what is a measure a note in definition. We
then follow the approach detailed above.
Take your time
Beginning Rhythm
[11]Rhythm Definitions
[12]Note Symbols
[13]Note Symbols Practice
[14]Note Time Value
[15]Time Signatures
[16]Counting Rhythm Beats
[17]Counting Rhythm Using Rests
[18]Counting Rhythm Duple Pattern
[19]Counting Rhythm Quadruple Pattern
[20]Counting Rhythm Triplet pattern
[21]Note Relationships
[22]Reference Chart Beat vs Time
There is no hurry, it is far more important that you understand the
concepts than to rush through them to get to the next one. The better
you understand each step the easier the next one will be.
Start with some terms we will need to become familiar with when
discussing rhythm and music theory and move on through the lessons to
build up on the previous group of knowledge.
This outline shows the components of rhythm available on this site that
you can start learning.
This sequence is designed to quickly lead you through the basics of
what is needed to learn rhythm music theory.
The Music Learning Workshop "Get It Down Cold" Workbooks will be
available soon to lead you through the process.
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Beginning Rhythm
* [45]Rhythm Definitions
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* [51]Rhythm Counting Rests
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Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics
[1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics
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- Rhythm of Life Lyrics
Ensemble:
Daddy started out in San Francisco,
Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean,
Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy,
Spread the picture on a wider screen."
And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons
Ready to be hooked on new religions.
Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife.
Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life."
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee,
Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge,
Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton,
Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Fly, fly, fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Swim, swim, swim to Daddy
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy,
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life,
Of life, of life, of life.
Yeah! Yeah! Yeah!
Man!
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles
Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life.
Music Of Other Climes. Part 2
Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the
elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time
of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm
so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early
Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language,
instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect
rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything
we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may
be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as
the most graceful.
Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ,
and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed
that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not
the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was
apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres,
and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D,
of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can
see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from
the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical
sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation
in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one
great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last.
It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that
comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical
colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life.
Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a
world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense,
so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the
individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not
yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or
hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to
the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature.
Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine
principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt,
thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles,
there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek
people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until
there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks.
As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a
prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become.
When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is
without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the
Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the
world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But
the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being
without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of
what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we
receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given.
We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and
bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has
seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or
artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth
and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new
birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of
music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will
become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure
from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all
that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely,
or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the
harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that
is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back
into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall
you receive the best.
With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the
progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under
the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most
external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the
coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is
sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful
roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention
to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is
that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it
did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national
religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian
Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of
the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change
from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked
change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the
curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much
to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There
were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them
were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even
under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have
expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century
A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to
produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable
success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the
work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called
good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth
century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and
Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new
foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the
centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may
truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by
the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in
modern times.
Continue to:
* prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes
* [44]Table of Contents
* next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3
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[51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music,
[56]vibration
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Keeping the rhythm of life in sync
May 28, 2008
Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the
heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the
rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as
cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per
minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or
physical stress.
The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical
system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed
electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the
heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be
too fast, too slow, or irregular.
All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal
heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people
may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal
rhythm and not even know it.
Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest
pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath,
swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur
because of abnormal heart rhythm.
To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its
relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an
electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time
at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by
placing electrodes on the skin.
Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be
difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case,
other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which
electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart
catheterization.
Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of
electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or
implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows
doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside
the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are
causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing
temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively
destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia.
Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when
the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not
functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can
be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to
resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some
of its pumping function.
Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of
dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The
device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and
delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm.
Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent
disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to
their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular
Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced
treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help
restore the rhythm of life.
Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs
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* [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 1 / 5 (1)
"...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that
provides the rhythm of life..."
Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is
just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood
through our system of vessels.
It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood
circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever
smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after
supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to
become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable
of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy
and thin pipes.
It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all
about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word
"pump" to describe the heart.
What about "metronome"?
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Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you
don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong.
Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels,
and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and
also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood
return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY
used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to
the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation.
As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick,
as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the
thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow
loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if
this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some
reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive
pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation"
or taking a highschool biology class.
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Rhythm Of Life lyrics
(Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life
Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life
Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon
Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you
I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus)
If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain
Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it
The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus)
Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down
(repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade)
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May 19, 2008
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5 most recent columns
January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By
Diego Schapira
December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara
Wheeler
December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice.
By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos
November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns
November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist.
By Helen Oosthuizen
Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony
By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli ()
1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro
When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving
rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each
producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with
other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this
metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and
around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in
which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful
presence.
I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets
and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human
civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this
planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other
parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately
grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not
empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and
sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the
universe is not threatening for me as before.
Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office,
when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an
echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture
each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity
arising randomly, above the background sound.
Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny
and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of
sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific
scenarios I could never imagine before.
2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso
Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a
patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome.
That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances,
making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a
person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made
unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying
aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those
dangerous noises.
When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she
told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy
session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands.
His sounds were so emotionally intense that their
message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in
a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it
safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with
overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his
together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards,
listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy
session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal
interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside.
My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he
developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to
process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge
amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people,
without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds.
In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional
experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a
Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds
were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they
liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty
words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their
painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light
pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes.
Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the
roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors'
desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both
situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these
dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by
fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event
with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was
grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist.
I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work
with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may
experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to
be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with
and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities
available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and
therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing:
the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the
environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing
amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness
necessary for improving quality of life.
3rd Movement: Trio
In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea
which considers that a good development of each system is possible when
there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its
environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant
interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual
perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system.
Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of
structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with
rhythm entrainment and music.
As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not
determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced
by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective
readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the
structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration.
To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes
schema to structure and order internal and external events using
rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are
self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal
structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically
determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow
an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a
caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal
patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by
comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As
Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with
sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge
our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas
are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human
beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the
emotional response to music.
Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the
metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical
behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because
they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to
understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our
sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be
the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the
most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion,
and metaphorical thinking.
Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration.
Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer,
because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes
separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological
situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They
do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the
capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and
integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory.
There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas
about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a
conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could
answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music
itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which
is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks.
And, thus, they can still feel joy.
4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio
All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the
efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of
criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of
mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared
my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my
dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy,
particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the
highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute
named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to
train psychologists and physicians in this field.
This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and
with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music.
References
Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music:
The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers.
Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the
Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University
Press.
Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning,
Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of
Illinois.
To cite this page:
Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A
World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy.
Moderated discussion
Add your comments and responses to this essay in our Moderated
Discussions. Contributions should be e-mailed to either [13]Joke Bradt
or [14]Thomas Wosch
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Iambic Pentameter: The Rhythm of Life?
Sunday March 22, 2009
[bencrystal.jpg]
Does the thought of [23]iambic pentameter terrify you? I remember being
baffeled by it at school myself because I got bogged down in counting
syllables and working out where the stresses go but, I now know that
this is a very technical way of studying iambic pentameter.
In later life, Ive grown to love iambic pentameter. Theres something
beautiful about it that I cant put my finger on. I know for sure that
its in the speaking because on the page it is inert. When you [24]speak
those words aloud, they literally jump off the tongue and the rhythm is
the easiest of all meters to find.
I asked Ben Crystal about this [25]in our interview a few months ago.
He said that iambic pentameter is the rhythm of our English language
and of our bodies a line of that poetry has the same rhythm as our
heartbeat. A line of iambic pentameter fills the human lung perfectly,
so its the rhythm of speech.
I think this is true. When you [26]learn how to speak verse, you soon
discover that its a very instinctive rhythm. Once you relax and go with
the flow, it comes naturally. And, strange as it might sound, classic
iambic pentameter lines like If music be the food of love, play on and
Now is the winter of our discontent do happen to fit a single breath
perfectly if spoken with passion.
So, if youre having trouble with iambic pentameter, remember that its
designed to be spoken, not studied. Open your mouth and speak aloud
those great words.
Photo of Ben Crystal © Scott Wishart
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Comments
March 30, 2009 at 2:29 pm
[33](1) [34]Kent Richmond says:
In doing verse translations of five Shakespeare plays, I have
had to learn how Shakespeares iambic pentameter works in order
to give my translations the feel of the original. One of the
beauties of iambic pentameter is that the poet can temporarily
relax the meter without violating it. In this series of made-up
and rather prosaic lines, the first line is straight-ahead
iambic pentameter. The second and third lines, if read
independently, are less obviously iambic pentameter, yet they do
not violate the rhythm. The fourth line is clearly unmetrical
and removes the sense that we are listening to verse.
1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes,
2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. (trochaic
start; feminine ending)
3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. (Two spondees to
start; feminine ending)
4. Dont you ever hit your little sister. (unmetrical)
Shakespeare, at least in the plays I have translated, did not
write verse lines with the rhythm of (4). To make this line
sound a bit more like Shakespeares iambic pentameter, we need to
make a few alterations to line 4.
1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes,
2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters.
3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest.
4. Dont ever hit that little girl again.
To make the whole passage sound like prose, we need to change
the first line a little.
Then her mother took the kids clothes shopping, planning to buy
them all some warmer sweaters. No! No! No! No she bellowed at
the oldest. Dont you ever hit your little sister.
The first and fourth lines now have trochaic feet exposed in the
wrong places, and most editors would print such a passage as
prose. Shakespeares iambic pentameter certainly places
constraints on what rhythms are allowed, yet it allows for
flexibility and naturalness. Take a look at George Wrights book
titled Shakespeares Metrical Art to see the techniques
Shakespeare employed.
April 11, 2009 at 8:25 pm
[35](2) Dave says:
The words literally jump off the tongue? I'd like to see that!
[36]Leave a Comment
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With
Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from
Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications.
Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature
This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no
one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of
it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may
relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he
requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and
anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the
same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the
same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual
training, recitation, gymnastics, and play.
Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized
with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle
which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of
every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in
the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of
work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there
is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their
appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less
of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to
anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else
it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from
which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle
with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of
salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting
from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human
[40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important
changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality.
The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief
from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this
tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary
conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified
by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries. . . .
When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in
recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious
rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and
the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and
more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak.
Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with
instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is
laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of
activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to
elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to
primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which
threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving
mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. -
Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20.
. . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area
of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a
ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight
years in [42]duration are superposed.
. . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of
buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the
rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the
production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing
weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of
rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135.
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Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics
[1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics
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- Rhythm of Life Lyrics
Ensemble:
Daddy started out in San Francisco,
Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean,
Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy,
Spread the picture on a wider screen."
And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons
Ready to be hooked on new religions.
Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife.
Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life."
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee,
Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge,
Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton,
Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Fly, fly, fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Swim, swim, swim to Daddy
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy,
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life,
Of life, of life, of life.
Yeah! Yeah! Yeah!
Man!
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles
Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life.
Music Of Other Climes. Part 2
Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the
elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time
of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm
so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early
Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language,
instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect
rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything
we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may
be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as
the most graceful.
Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ,
and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed
that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not
the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was
apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres,
and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D,
of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can
see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from
the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical
sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation
in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one
great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last.
It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that
comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical
colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life.
Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a
world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense,
so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the
individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not
yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or
hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to
the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature.
Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine
principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt,
thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles,
there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek
people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until
there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks.
As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a
prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become.
When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is
without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the
Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the
world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But
the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being
without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of
what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we
receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given.
We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and
bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has
seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or
artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth
and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new
birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of
music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will
become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure
from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all
that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely,
or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the
harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that
is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back
into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall
you receive the best.
With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the
progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under
the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most
external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the
coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is
sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful
roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention
to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is
that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it
did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national
religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian
Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of
the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change
from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked
change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the
curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much
to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There
were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them
were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even
under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have
expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century
A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to
produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable
success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the
work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called
good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth
century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and
Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new
foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the
centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may
truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by
the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in
modern times.
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[51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music,
[56]vibration
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Keeping the rhythm of life in sync
May 28, 2008
Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the
heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the
rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as
cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per
minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or
physical stress.
The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical
system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed
electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the
heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be
too fast, too slow, or irregular.
All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal
heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people
may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal
rhythm and not even know it.
Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest
pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath,
swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur
because of abnormal heart rhythm.
To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its
relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an
electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time
at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by
placing electrodes on the skin.
Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be
difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case,
other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which
electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart
catheterization.
Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of
electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or
implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows
doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside
the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are
causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing
temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively
destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia.
Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when
the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not
functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can
be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to
resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some
of its pumping function.
Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of
dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The
device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and
delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm.
Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent
disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to
their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular
Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced
treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help
restore the rhythm of life.
Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs
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* [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 1 / 5 (1)
"...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that
provides the rhythm of life..."
Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is
just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood
through our system of vessels.
It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood
circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever
smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after
supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to
become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable
of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy
and thin pipes.
It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all
about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word
"pump" to describe the heart.
What about "metronome"?
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* [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 4 / 5 (1)
Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you
don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong.
Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels,
and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and
also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood
return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY
used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to
the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation.
As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick,
as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the
thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow
loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if
this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some
reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive
pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation"
or taking a highschool biology class.
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Rhythm Of Life lyrics
(Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life
Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life
Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon
Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you
I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus)
If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain
Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it
The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus)
Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down
(repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade)
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May 19, 2008
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5 most recent columns
January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By
Diego Schapira
December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara
Wheeler
December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice.
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November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns
November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist.
By Helen Oosthuizen
Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony
By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli ()
1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro
When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving
rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each
producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with
other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this
metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and
around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in
which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful
presence.
I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets
and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human
civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this
planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other
parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately
grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not
empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and
sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the
universe is not threatening for me as before.
Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office,
when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an
echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture
each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity
arising randomly, above the background sound.
Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny
and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of
sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific
scenarios I could never imagine before.
2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso
Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a
patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome.
That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances,
making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a
person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made
unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying
aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those
dangerous noises.
When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she
told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy
session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands.
His sounds were so emotionally intense that their
message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in
a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it
safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with
overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his
together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards,
listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy
session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal
interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside.
My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he
developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to
process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge
amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people,
without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds.
In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional
experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a
Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds
were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they
liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty
words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their
painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light
pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes.
Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the
roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors'
desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both
situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these
dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by
fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event
with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was
grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist.
I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work
with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may
experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to
be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with
and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities
available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and
therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing:
the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the
environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing
amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness
necessary for improving quality of life.
3rd Movement: Trio
In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea
which considers that a good development of each system is possible when
there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its
environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant
interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual
perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system.
Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of
structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with
rhythm entrainment and music.
As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not
determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced
by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective
readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the
structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration.
To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes
schema to structure and order internal and external events using
rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are
self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal
structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically
determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow
an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a
caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal
patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by
comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As
Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with
sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge
our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas
are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human
beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the
emotional response to music.
Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the
metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical
behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because
they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to
understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our
sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be
the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the
most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion,
and metaphorical thinking.
Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration.
Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer,
because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes
separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological
situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They
do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the
capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and
integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory.
There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas
about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a
conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could
answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music
itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which
is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks.
And, thus, they can still feel joy.
4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio
All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the
efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of
criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of
mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared
my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my
dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy,
particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the
highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute
named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to
train psychologists and physicians in this field.
This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and
with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music.
References
Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music:
The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers.
Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the
Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University
Press.
Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning,
Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of
Illinois.
To cite this page:
Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A
World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy.
Moderated discussion
Add your comments and responses to this essay in our Moderated
Discussions. Contributions should be e-mailed to either [13]Joke Bradt
or [14]Thomas Wosch
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Iambic Pentameter: The Rhythm of Life?
Sunday March 22, 2009
[bencrystal.jpg]
Does the thought of [23]iambic pentameter terrify you? I remember being
baffeled by it at school myself because I got bogged down in counting
syllables and working out where the stresses go but, I now know that
this is a very technical way of studying iambic pentameter.
In later life, Ive grown to love iambic pentameter. Theres something
beautiful about it that I cant put my finger on. I know for sure that
its in the speaking because on the page it is inert. When you [24]speak
those words aloud, they literally jump off the tongue and the rhythm is
the easiest of all meters to find.
I asked Ben Crystal about this [25]in our interview a few months ago.
He said that iambic pentameter is the rhythm of our English language
and of our bodies a line of that poetry has the same rhythm as our
heartbeat. A line of iambic pentameter fills the human lung perfectly,
so its the rhythm of speech.
I think this is true. When you [26]learn how to speak verse, you soon
discover that its a very instinctive rhythm. Once you relax and go with
the flow, it comes naturally. And, strange as it might sound, classic
iambic pentameter lines like If music be the food of love, play on and
Now is the winter of our discontent do happen to fit a single breath
perfectly if spoken with passion.
So, if youre having trouble with iambic pentameter, remember that its
designed to be spoken, not studied. Open your mouth and speak aloud
those great words.
Photo of Ben Crystal © Scott Wishart
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Comments
March 30, 2009 at 2:29 pm
[33](1) [34]Kent Richmond says:
In doing verse translations of five Shakespeare plays, I have
had to learn how Shakespeares iambic pentameter works in order
to give my translations the feel of the original. One of the
beauties of iambic pentameter is that the poet can temporarily
relax the meter without violating it. In this series of made-up
and rather prosaic lines, the first line is straight-ahead
iambic pentameter. The second and third lines, if read
independently, are less obviously iambic pentameter, yet they do
not violate the rhythm. The fourth line is clearly unmetrical
and removes the sense that we are listening to verse.
1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes,
2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. (trochaic
start; feminine ending)
3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. (Two spondees to
start; feminine ending)
4. Dont you ever hit your little sister. (unmetrical)
Shakespeare, at least in the plays I have translated, did not
write verse lines with the rhythm of (4). To make this line
sound a bit more like Shakespeares iambic pentameter, we need to
make a few alterations to line 4.
1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes,
2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters.
3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest.
4. Dont ever hit that little girl again.
To make the whole passage sound like prose, we need to change
the first line a little.
Then her mother took the kids clothes shopping, planning to buy
them all some warmer sweaters. No! No! No! No she bellowed at
the oldest. Dont you ever hit your little sister.
The first and fourth lines now have trochaic feet exposed in the
wrong places, and most editors would print such a passage as
prose. Shakespeares iambic pentameter certainly places
constraints on what rhythms are allowed, yet it allows for
flexibility and naturalness. Take a look at George Wrights book
titled Shakespeares Metrical Art to see the techniques
Shakespeare employed.
April 11, 2009 at 8:25 pm
[35](2) Dave says:
The words literally jump off the tongue? I'd like to see that!
[36]Leave a Comment
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* [37]Introducing Iambic Pentameter
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With
Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from
Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications.
Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature
This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no
one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of
it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may
relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he
requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and
anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the
same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the
same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual
training, recitation, gymnastics, and play.
Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized
with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle
which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of
every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in
the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of
work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there
is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their
appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less
of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to
anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else
it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from
which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle
with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of
salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting
from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human
[40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important
changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality.
The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief
from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this
tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary
conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified
by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries. . . .
When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in
recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious
rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and
the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and
more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak.
Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with
instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is
laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of
activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to
elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to
primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which
threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving
mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. -
Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20.
. . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area
of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a
ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight
years in [42]duration are superposed.
. . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of
buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the
rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the
production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing
weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of
rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135.
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Cultural
Towards Lefebvrian Socio-Nature? A Film about Rhythm, Nature and Science
By [17]James Evans and [18]Phil Jones, School of Environment and
Development, University of Manchester School of Geography, Earth and
Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham (April 2008)
__________________________________________________________________
Section: [19]Cultural
Subjects: [20]Geography, [21]Urban Geography, [22]Environment And
Society, [23]Cultural Geography.
Key Topics: [24]nature , [25]representation.
Abstract
The first thing you will notice about this article is that it is
actually a film. We did not set out to make a film, it just ended up
that way. We started out making music out of environmental data,
wondering why we only ever look at scientific data, why we do not
listen to it. Wandering around the city passing through the transformed
landscapes of channelised rivers and broken industrial spaces, we
wanted to reveal the socio-natural rhythms of this hybrid city. The
text you see below represents the shooting script for a film that
explores Lefebvre's notion of rhythmanalysis in the context of
socio-natural rhythms. The video accompanying it is far more
interesting, including the environmental music that we produced by
feeding scientific data through samplers and drum machines. The video
questions the nature of scientific representation and whether the
notion of rhythmanalysis can be stretched to explore rhythms beyond the
human. Furthermore, the process of actually making the video,
submitting it to this journal, and responding to the referees' comments
made us question the very nature of what constitutes an academic paper
in the twenty-first century. The accompanying commentary is our attempt
to deal with these issues.
To link to the film please go to
DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00107.x
This article abstract has been viewed 5359 times.
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Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics
[1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics
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- Rhythm of Life Lyrics
Ensemble:
Daddy started out in San Francisco,
Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean,
Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy,
Spread the picture on a wider screen."
And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons
Ready to be hooked on new religions.
Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife.
Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life."
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee,
Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge,
Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton,
Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Fly, fly, fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Swim, swim, swim to Daddy
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy,
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life,
Of life, of life, of life.
Yeah! Yeah! Yeah!
Man!
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles
Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life.
Music Of Other Climes. Part 2
Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the
elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time
of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm
so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early
Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language,
instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect
rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything
we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may
be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as
the most graceful.
Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ,
and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed
that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not
the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was
apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres,
and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D,
of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can
see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from
the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical
sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation
in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one
great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last.
It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that
comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical
colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life.
Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a
world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense,
so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the
individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not
yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or
hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to
the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature.
Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine
principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt,
thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles,
there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek
people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until
there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks.
As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a
prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become.
When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is
without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the
Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the
world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But
the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being
without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of
what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we
receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given.
We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and
bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has
seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or
artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth
and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new
birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of
music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will
become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure
from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all
that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely,
or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the
harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that
is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back
into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall
you receive the best.
With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the
progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under
the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most
external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the
coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is
sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful
roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention
to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is
that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it
did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national
religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian
Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of
the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change
from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked
change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the
curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much
to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There
were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them
were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even
under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have
expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century
A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to
produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable
success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the
work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called
good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth
century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and
Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new
foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the
centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may
truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by
the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in
modern times.
Continue to:
* prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes
* [44]Table of Contents
* next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3
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[46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics,
[51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music,
[56]vibration
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Keeping the rhythm of life in sync
May 28, 2008
Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the
heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the
rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as
cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per
minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or
physical stress.
The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical
system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed
electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the
heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be
too fast, too slow, or irregular.
All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal
heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people
may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal
rhythm and not even know it.
Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest
pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath,
swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur
because of abnormal heart rhythm.
To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its
relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an
electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time
at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by
placing electrodes on the skin.
Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be
difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case,
other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which
electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart
catheterization.
Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of
electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or
implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows
doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside
the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are
causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing
temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively
destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia.
Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when
the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not
functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can
be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to
resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some
of its pumping function.
Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of
dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The
device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and
delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm.
Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent
disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to
their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular
Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced
treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help
restore the rhythm of life.
Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs
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* [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 1 / 5 (1)
"...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that
provides the rhythm of life..."
Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is
just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood
through our system of vessels.
It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood
circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever
smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after
supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to
become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable
of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy
and thin pipes.
It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all
about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word
"pump" to describe the heart.
What about "metronome"?
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* [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 4 / 5 (1)
Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you
don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong.
Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels,
and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and
also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood
return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY
used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to
the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation.
As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick,
as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the
thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow
loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if
this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some
reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive
pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation"
or taking a highschool biology class.
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May 28, 2008 [69]all stories
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Rhythm Of Life lyrics
(Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life
Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life
Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon
Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you
I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus)
If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain
Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it
The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus)
Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down
(repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade)
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May 19, 2008
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5 most recent columns
January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By
Diego Schapira
December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara
Wheeler
December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice.
By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos
November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns
November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist.
By Helen Oosthuizen
Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony
By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli ()
1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro
When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving
rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each
producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with
other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this
metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and
around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in
which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful
presence.
I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets
and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human
civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this
planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other
parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately
grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not
empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and
sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the
universe is not threatening for me as before.
Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office,
when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an
echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture
each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity
arising randomly, above the background sound.
Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny
and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of
sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific
scenarios I could never imagine before.
2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso
Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a
patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome.
That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances,
making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a
person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made
unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying
aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those
dangerous noises.
When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she
told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy
session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands.
His sounds were so emotionally intense that their
message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in
a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it
safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with
overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his
together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards,
listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy
session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal
interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside.
My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he
developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to
process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge
amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people,
without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds.
In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional
experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a
Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds
were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they
liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty
words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their
painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light
pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes.
Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the
roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors'
desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both
situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these
dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by
fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event
with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was
grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist.
I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work
with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may
experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to
be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with
and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities
available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and
therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing:
the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the
environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing
amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness
necessary for improving quality of life.
3rd Movement: Trio
In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea
which considers that a good development of each system is possible when
there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its
environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant
interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual
perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system.
Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of
structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with
rhythm entrainment and music.
As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not
determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced
by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective
readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the
structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration.
To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes
schema to structure and order internal and external events using
rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are
self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal
structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically
determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow
an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a
caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal
patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by
comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As
Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with
sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge
our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas
are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human
beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the
emotional response to music.
Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the
metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical
behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because
they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to
understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our
sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be
the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the
most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion,
and metaphorical thinking.
Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration.
Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer,
because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes
separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological
situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They
do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the
capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and
integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory.
There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas
about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a
conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could
answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music
itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which
is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks.
And, thus, they can still feel joy.
4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio
All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the
efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of
criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of
mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared
my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my
dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy,
particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the
highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute
named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to
train psychologists and physicians in this field.
This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and
with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music.
References
Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music:
The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers.
Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the
Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University
Press.
Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning,
Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of
Illinois.
To cite this page:
Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A
World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy.
Moderated discussion
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Discussions. Contributions should be e-mailed to either [13]Joke Bradt
or [14]Thomas Wosch
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Iambic Pentameter: The Rhythm of Life?
Sunday March 22, 2009
[bencrystal.jpg]
Does the thought of [23]iambic pentameter terrify you? I remember being
baffeled by it at school myself because I got bogged down in counting
syllables and working out where the stresses go but, I now know that
this is a very technical way of studying iambic pentameter.
In later life, Ive grown to love iambic pentameter. Theres something
beautiful about it that I cant put my finger on. I know for sure that
its in the speaking because on the page it is inert. When you [24]speak
those words aloud, they literally jump off the tongue and the rhythm is
the easiest of all meters to find.
I asked Ben Crystal about this [25]in our interview a few months ago.
He said that iambic pentameter is the rhythm of our English language
and of our bodies a line of that poetry has the same rhythm as our
heartbeat. A line of iambic pentameter fills the human lung perfectly,
so its the rhythm of speech.
I think this is true. When you [26]learn how to speak verse, you soon
discover that its a very instinctive rhythm. Once you relax and go with
the flow, it comes naturally. And, strange as it might sound, classic
iambic pentameter lines like If music be the food of love, play on and
Now is the winter of our discontent do happen to fit a single breath
perfectly if spoken with passion.
So, if youre having trouble with iambic pentameter, remember that its
designed to be spoken, not studied. Open your mouth and speak aloud
those great words.
Photo of Ben Crystal © Scott Wishart
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Comments
March 30, 2009 at 2:29 pm
[33](1) [34]Kent Richmond says:
In doing verse translations of five Shakespeare plays, I have
had to learn how Shakespeares iambic pentameter works in order
to give my translations the feel of the original. One of the
beauties of iambic pentameter is that the poet can temporarily
relax the meter without violating it. In this series of made-up
and rather prosaic lines, the first line is straight-ahead
iambic pentameter. The second and third lines, if read
independently, are less obviously iambic pentameter, yet they do
not violate the rhythm. The fourth line is clearly unmetrical
and removes the sense that we are listening to verse.
1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes,
2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. (trochaic
start; feminine ending)
3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. (Two spondees to
start; feminine ending)
4. Dont you ever hit your little sister. (unmetrical)
Shakespeare, at least in the plays I have translated, did not
write verse lines with the rhythm of (4). To make this line
sound a bit more like Shakespeares iambic pentameter, we need to
make a few alterations to line 4.
1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes,
2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters.
3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest.
4. Dont ever hit that little girl again.
To make the whole passage sound like prose, we need to change
the first line a little.
Then her mother took the kids clothes shopping, planning to buy
them all some warmer sweaters. No! No! No! No she bellowed at
the oldest. Dont you ever hit your little sister.
The first and fourth lines now have trochaic feet exposed in the
wrong places, and most editors would print such a passage as
prose. Shakespeares iambic pentameter certainly places
constraints on what rhythms are allowed, yet it allows for
flexibility and naturalness. Take a look at George Wrights book
titled Shakespeares Metrical Art to see the techniques
Shakespeare employed.
April 11, 2009 at 8:25 pm
[35](2) Dave says:
The words literally jump off the tongue? I'd like to see that!
[36]Leave a Comment
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* [37]Introducing Iambic Pentameter
* [38]Iambic Pentameter - How to Study Iambic Pentameter
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With
Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from
Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications.
Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature
This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no
one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of
it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may
relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he
requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and
anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the
same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the
same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual
training, recitation, gymnastics, and play.
Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized
with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle
which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of
every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in
the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of
work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there
is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their
appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less
of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to
anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else
it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from
which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle
with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of
salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting
from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human
[40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important
changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality.
The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief
from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this
tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary
conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified
by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries. . . .
When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in
recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious
rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and
the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and
more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak.
Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with
instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is
laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of
activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to
elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to
primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which
threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving
mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. -
Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20.
. . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area
of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a
ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight
years in [42]duration are superposed.
. . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of
buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the
rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the
production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing
weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of
rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135.
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Cultural
Towards Lefebvrian Socio-Nature? A Film about Rhythm, Nature and Science
By [17]James Evans and [18]Phil Jones, School of Environment and
Development, University of Manchester School of Geography, Earth and
Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham (April 2008)
__________________________________________________________________
Section: [19]Cultural
Subjects: [20]Geography, [21]Urban Geography, [22]Environment And
Society, [23]Cultural Geography.
Key Topics: [24]nature , [25]representation.
Abstract
The first thing you will notice about this article is that it is
actually a film. We did not set out to make a film, it just ended up
that way. We started out making music out of environmental data,
wondering why we only ever look at scientific data, why we do not
listen to it. Wandering around the city passing through the transformed
landscapes of channelised rivers and broken industrial spaces, we
wanted to reveal the socio-natural rhythms of this hybrid city. The
text you see below represents the shooting script for a film that
explores Lefebvre's notion of rhythmanalysis in the context of
socio-natural rhythms. The video accompanying it is far more
interesting, including the environmental music that we produced by
feeding scientific data through samplers and drum machines. The video
questions the nature of scientific representation and whether the
notion of rhythmanalysis can be stretched to explore rhythms beyond the
human. Furthermore, the process of actually making the video,
submitting it to this journal, and responding to the referees' comments
made us question the very nature of what constitutes an academic paper
in the twenty-first century. The accompanying commentary is our attempt
to deal with these issues.
To link to the film please go to
DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00107.x
This article abstract has been viewed 5359 times.
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J Public Health Policy. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2008 July
24.
Published in final edited form as:
[7]J Public Health Policy. 2006; 27(1): 2-12.
doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200061.
PMCID: PMC2483431
NIHMSID: NIHMS58476
[8]Copyright notice and [9]Disclaimer
Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature
Elena N. Naumova^*
^*Address for Correspondence: Department of Public Health and Family
Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Avenue,
Boston, MA 02111, USA. E-mail: elena.naumova/at/tufts.edu
Small right arrow pointing to: The publisher's final edited version of
this article is available at [10]J Public Health Policy.
Small right arrow pointing to: See other articles in PMC that [11]cite
the published article.
Abstract
Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course
of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences.
Understanding seasonal fluctuations in diseases patterns presents us
with a major challenge. To develop efficient strategies for disease
prevention and control, we need to grasp the main determinants of
temporal variations and their interactions. This paper will introduce
the notion of seasonality by outlining several of its factors, using as
illustrations respiratory and enteric water- or food-borne infections.
Keywords: seasonality, water-borne infection, food-borne infection,
respiratory infection
* [12] Other Sectionsv
+ [13]Abstract
+ [14]Introduction
+ [15]Notion of Seasonality
+ [16]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [17]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [18]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [19]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [20]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [21]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [22]References
Introduction
Now let us consider the seasons and the way we can predict whether it
is going to be a healthy or an unhealthy year.
(Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 10)^[23]1
Seasonal fluctuations in birth and death, in sickness and health, are
the haunting mysteries of mankind. People have made predictions from
winds, tides, birds' migrations, spring blooms, sunsets, and
constellations in hope of grasping the future. The complexity and
uncertainty of ancient and modern means of prediction make us wonder to
what extent we are able to understand the rhythm of nature. One might
argue the future cannot be known, but from a practical point of view, a
better understanding of changes in disease occurrences is essential for
building efficient strategies for disease prevention and control.
Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course
of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences.
Since Hippocrates, observers worldwide have noted and documented marked
fluctuations in the incidence of many diseases. In the modern view, the
main determinants of temporal variations in disease manifestation are
evolving host susceptibility, periodicity in pathogen abundance and
transmissibility, and the ever-changing environment that can support or
repress a host or pathogen. Interactions among these factors
responsible for seasonal variation are interwoven into the intricate
fabric of life.
For many diseases, explanations for self-sustained oscillations still
remain elusive. We lack adequate methods and sufficient analytical
tools for comprehensive examination of seasonality in public health
field studies. A dearth of observations, recorded over long periods at
fine resolution, compounded by an enormous number of factors associated
with periodic changes, obscure our ability to understand disease
variation. Urgent need for effective strategies to prevent and control
a spread of emerging infections in the rapidly changing world, however,
demands a deeper insight into the cyclic nature of diseases.
This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality and outline several
factors associated with seasonality using as illustrations enteric
water- or food-borne infections and respiratory infections. Then I
propose a framework for systematic evaluation of seasonal oscillations.
In every part of this presentation, and most importantly, I wish to
stimulate discussion on this challenging topic.
* [24] Other Sectionsv
+ [25]Abstract
+ [26]Introduction
+ [27]Notion of Seasonality
+ [28]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [29]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [30]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [31]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [32]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [33]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [34]References
Notion of Seasonality
Every disease occurs at any season of the year but some of them more
frequently occur and are of greater severity at certain times.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 19)
Seasonality, as noted above, refers to the cyclic appearance of events
over a period of time. A seasonal pattern may appear as a tight cluster
of isolated outbreaks that occurred during a relatively short time
period, then spreading over a wide geographic area.
For example, in a temporal curve of enteric infection cases (i.e.
giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, or rotavirus infections), a compact
cluster of outbreaks is followed by a long interval of low incidence.
Systematic recurrence of such sequences forms a seasonal pattern
typical of a specific pathogen in a given population and in a given
locality. A seasonal increase in enteric or respiratory infection often
produces a well-defined oscillating curve that starts to rise in one
season and declines over the next one.
The three main features characterize seasonality:
* a point in time when a seasonal curve reaches its maximum,
* an amplitude from peak to nadir, and
* a duration of a seasonal increase defined by a shape of a curve.
(The shape of a seasonal pattern reflects how fast a temporal curve
reaches its peak and declines to nadir over a course of a full
cycle. Depending on the length of a cycle whether it is one year or
a half of a year, a seasonal curve would have one or two peaks.)
Seasonal patterns, described by these three characteristics, may vary
for different diseases, different locations, or different
subpopulations. Many viral and bacterial infections in humans show
marked seasonal changes. In some diseases, like salmonellosis and
influenza, annual oscillations explain up to 60% of variability. Such
impact should not be ignored and deserves a proper examination.
* [35] Other Sectionsv
+ [36]Abstract
+ [37]Introduction
+ [38]Notion of Seasonality
+ [39]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [40]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [41]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [42]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [43]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [44]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [45]References
Diseases Seasonal Patterns
Diseases vary in their relationships one with another; some are
opposed, some are mutually agreeable.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 3)
Differences in diseases peaks reflect different etiology, heterogeneity
in host susceptibility, or route of transmission. In temperate
climates, Campylobacter and Salmonella infections are known to rise in
summer, giardiasis in early fall, and rotavirus infection in
mid-winter, etc. Interestingly, for the same infectious agent,
infections recorded in two different locations may present a different
pattern of incidence. A seasonal pattern for cryptosporidiosis in the
United States exhibits one late summer peak ([46]1); in contrast, in
the United Kingdom, two seasonal peaks are seen ([47]2). The UK picture
reflects two dominant sources of exposure: one from animals in the late
spring, and another from humans in the fall ([48]3).
Close temporal clustering of seasonal peaks in diseases that share
similar sources of exposure suggests dominant routes of transmissions.
Peaks in water-borne cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis often cluster
after a summer peak in ambient temperature. Such synchronization in
disease manifestation can be governed by environmental and social
factors. In some instances, periodicity of a given infection observed
in a particular population may be not present in another. A seasonal
peak in cryptosporidiosis cases observed in the general population is
not apparent in the immunocompromized HIV-positive gay men, even though
the incidence of cryptosporidiosis in HIV-positive population is very
high. This suggests differences in dominant routes of transmission.
Seasonal patterns can change over time. After intense vaccination
campaigns in the 1950s and 1970s in the United Kingdom, the patterns of
measles and pertussis changed, with the high rates of disease usually
seen when children were attending school diminishing for measles and
practically disappearing for pertusis ([49]4). Explanations for these
phenomena remain elusive. A departure from a systematically observed
pattern could reflect the evolution of a pathogen or a change in herd
immunity. A simple rule to remember is that a discovery hides in
outliers.
Faced with an abundance of causal agents, a bare observation of a rise
in the incidence of non-specific enteritis should be interpreted with
caution. A seasonal pattern can represent a mix of temporal curves.
Imagine two periodic curves of similar intensity, but one peaks in a
spring and another in a fall; the sum of these two curves might lose
the appearance of seasonality, covering two distinctly seasonal
phenomena.
Some infections are very rare. Their seasonal patterns are difficult to
examine because the relevant data must be collected over a very long
time and/or aggregated over large spatial units. Precision in
evaluating seasonality can thus be jeopardized by time-dependent and/or
space-dependent confounders.
Seasonal fluctuations can be found beyond infectious diseases; chronic
somatic diseases also exhibit substantial temporal variations.
Plausibly, exacerbations in chronic conditions are driven by infectious
agents or environmental changes. Understanding the interplay of an
infection and a chronic disease may lead to better control for both.
* [50] Other Sectionsv
+ [51]Abstract
+ [52]Introduction
+ [53]Notion of Seasonality
+ [54]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [55]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [56]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [57]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [58]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [59]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [60]References
Seasonal Host Susceptibility
When the weather is seasonable and the crops ripen at the regular
times, diseases are regular in their appearance...
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 8)
Poor nutrition directly affects host susceptibility. In places of food
scarcity, researchers suspect that temporal patterns in birth weight
and preterm delivery result from seasonal variations in food
availability ([61]5). In general, due to a less developed immune
system, young children are susceptible to infection; their immune
response may be further weakened by seasonal cutbacks in essential
micronutrients and vitamins.
Anemnestic responses to an antigen determine whether an infection
recurs. Short-lived immune memory together with seasonal changes in
pathogen transmissibility contribute further to the complexity of
seasonal patterns. Even a perfectly healthy person can experience a
change in susceptibility to infection due to stress, injuries, or
trauma. The probability of a marked impact of such factors on disease
seasonality is virtually unknown.
* [62] Other Sectionsv
+ [63]Abstract
+ [64]Introduction
+ [65]Notion of Seasonality
+ [66]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [67]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [68]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [69]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [70]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [71]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [72]References
Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
Some diseases are produced by the manner of life that is followed;
others by the life-giving air we breathe.
(Hippocrates. The Nature of Man, 9)
Temperature, humidity, and precipitation -- the defining factors of
seasons -- are important determinants of pathogens' survival. Changes
influence pathogens' potency and life expectancy, resulting in temporal
fluctuations in pathogens' abundance. In many instances, seasonal
changes in pathogen survival and transmission are inseparably related
to both biological and social aspects of our lives. They are
synchronized by weather. High ambient temperature, for example,
provides a supportive environment for food-borne pathogens, favoring
their multiplication in food and on food preparation surfaces ([73]6).
Food contamination is believed to be a significant mode of transmission
for infections caused by Salmonella and Campylobacter ([74]7);
therefore, during warm weather, the risk for food-borne diseases
increases ([75]8).
Seasonal changes in level of contamination, availability of potable
water, sanitation and hygiene practices, as well as crowding and
person-to-person contacts, affect pathogens' transmissibility.
Worldwide, water use differs from season to season ([76]9). In
temperate climates, warm weather leads to higher water consumption and
encourages outdoor activities -- swimming, camping, and recreational
water use. In tropical regions, contamination of surface water
increases during wet seasons. Although spread of pathogens via food is
certainly possible, contaminated water is the dominant source of
exposure for enteric infections caused by protozoa Cryptosporidium and
Giardia ([77]10 --[78]12). Depending on locality, outbreaks of
cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis associated with drinking or
recreational water frequently occur during warm or wet seasons
([79]13,[80]14).
With the onset of cooler weather, the "heating season" marks a change
in indoor air quality. Inadequate and poorly designed ventilation in
crowded public places and urban transit systems may boost exposure to
air-borne pathogens by increasing their concentration in stagnant air
and by re-circulating contaminated air. Higher relative humidity may
also affect the stability of air-borne droplets in which viruses travel
from person to person.
* [81] Other Sectionsv
+ [82]Abstract
+ [83]Introduction
+ [84]Notion of Seasonality
+ [85]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [86]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [87]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [88]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [89]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [90]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [91]References
Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
You will find, as a general rule, that the constitutions and the habits
of a people follow the nature of the land where they live.
(Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 24)
Diseases do not watch calendars. Their incidence rises and falls
because of changes in factors associated with the diseases. However, in
every culture all social events are synchronized by calendars; and
every calendar reflects the cyclic rhythm of nature.
Traditional celebrations and gatherings observed by communities
according to calendars affect pathogen transmission. Holidays, social
activities, and seasonal travel are often associated with changes in
food consumption and preparation, and are therefore associated with
changes in disease incidence. Preparing meat on a barbecue increases
the risk of Campylobacter infection ([92]15,[93]16) and foreign travel
increases the risk for enteric infections. Aggregation of children in
schools, daycare centers, and summer camps, reflecting school
calendars, facilitates rapid exchange of pathogens. There are marked
seasonal variations in transmission, and thus the incidence of enteric
and respiratory infections.
* [94] Other Sectionsv
+ [95]Abstract
+ [96]Introduction
+ [97]Notion of Seasonality
+ [98]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [99]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [100]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [101]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [102]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [103]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [104]References
Climate Change, Extreme Weather Events, and Disease Seasonality
The changes of the seasons are especially liable to beget diseases, as
are great changes from heat to cold, or cold to heat in any season.
Other changes in the weather have similarly severe effects.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 1)
As weather affects human health by creating favorable conditions for
pathogen proliferation and transmission, severe weather can affect the
timing and intensity of infectious outbreaks, and natural disasters
lead to drastic changes in population structure and pathogen ecology.
Catastrophic events like tsunamis, hurricanes, devastating floods, and
heat waves that cause deaths, population displacement, and
infrastructural damage may have dramatic effects on the incidence of
infections and their seasonal patterns.
Recent work has shown highly significant associations between extreme
precipitation and water-borne disease outbreaks ([105]17). Heavy
precipitation, rapid snowmelt, and floods flush animal wastes from the
land into surface waters and may overwhelm drinking and wastewater
treatment systems. The latter leads to discharges in watersheds of
untreated human wastes. As a result, pathogens can appear in drinking
and recreational water in very high concentrations ([106]18,[107]19). A
rapid snowmelt, resultant runoff, and filtration system failure at the
overloaded local drinking water treatment plant were implicated in the
largest known water-borne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis, which occurred
in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1993 ([108]20). This outbreak happened in
April, not within the usual seasonal peak for cryptosporidiosis cases.
A flood, which also resulted from a rapid snowmelt, has been linked
with a similar increased incidence of diarrhea ([109]21).
Experts expect that global climate change will increase climate
variability and the frequency of extreme precipitation events in
temperate regions ([110]22,[111]23). "Global warming" may also increase
the frequency and magnitude of other extreme weather events, such as
heat waves and droughts, and thereby have profound effects on public
health ([112]24,[113]25). In a comprehensive study conducted in the
United Kingdom that described a short-term link between temperature and
food poisoning, the authors also hypothesized that climate change could
lead to changes in rates of food poisoning ([114]26).
Integration of environmental parameters into disease forecasting and
warning systems could allow public health officials to alert the
populace when specific meteorological conditions pose predictable risks
to health ([115]27). Simple messages about proper food preparation and
refrigeration and the risks of using contaminated recreational waters
could, for example, be provided before, during, and after extreme
events. Better understanding of disease seasonality would also help to
predict outbreaks of infections triggered by climate variability.
* [116] Other Sectionsv
+ [117]Abstract
+ [118]Introduction
+ [119]Notion of Seasonality
+ [120]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [121]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [122]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [123]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [124]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [125]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [126]References
Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy
to Public Health Thinking
Desperate cases need the most desperate remedies.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, I, 6)
At first, seasonal fluctuations should be systematically described.
This requires a framework with sound definitions and analytic tools
suitable for routine use by public health professionals. In public
health sciences, the existing methodology currently lacks methods and
tests for assessing complex interactions in the time-dependent factors
responsible for disease seasonality.
Next, reliable data with fine temporal resolution are a must. The vast
majority of epidemiological studies have examined seasonal patterns of
infections using quarterly or monthly data. This coarse temporal
aggregation can thwart an otherwise detailed, accurate, and
comprehensive analysis of seasonal patterns and may even be misleading
([127]28). Examination of daily or weekly rates can substantially
improve evaluation of seasonal curves, but a systematic approach for
using at least weekly aggregates is needed.
Finally, reluctance to apply sophisticated mathematical models in
public health studies must be overcome. Underlying processes in disease
manifestation and spread are complex and multifaceted. Causal pathways
are often obscured. To disentangle causal effects of many factors
within the circular processes of self-sustaining oscillations demands
the careful building of sound conceptual models of seasonality; models
that can be tested. The emerging fields of computational epidemiology
and intelligent data mining will complement established work in
philosophy of science and mathematical biology to become an essential
part of thinking in public health and policy.
Acknowledgments
I thank Drs Eileen O'Neil and Beth Rosenberg for their thoughtful
suggestions, and the support of funding agencies: the National
Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (U19AI062627), and the
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R01ES013171).
Footnotes
^1Hippocrates' citations are taken from: Lloyd, GER, editor.
Hippocratic Writings. Trans. Chadwick J and Mann WN. London: Penguin;
1978.
* [128] Other Sectionsv
+ [129]Abstract
+ [130]Introduction
+ [131]Notion of Seasonality
+ [132]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [133]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [134]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [135]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [136]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [137]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [138]References
References
1. Naumova EN, Chen JT, Griffiths JK, Matyas BT, Estes-Smargiassi SA,
Morris RD. Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and
spatial variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis.
Public Health Rep. 2000;115(5):436-47. [[139]PubMed]
2. Naumova EN, Christodouleas J, Hunter PR, Syed Q. Effect of
precipitation on seasonal variability in cryptosporidiosis recorded by
the North West England surveillance system in 1990 --1999. J Water
Health. 2005;3(2):185-96. [[140]PubMed]
3. McLauchlin J, Amar C, Pedraza-Diaz S, Nichols GL. Molecular
epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in the United Kingdom:
results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in 1,705 fecal samples from
humans and 105 fecal samples from livestock animals. J Clin Microbiol.
2000;38(11):3984-90. [[141]PubMed]
4. Anderson RM, May RM. Infectious Diseases of Humans. New York: Oxford
University Press; 2004.
5. Fallis G, Hilditch J. A comparison of seasonal variation in
birthweights between rural Zaire and Ontario. Can J Public Health.
1989;80(3):205-8. [[142]PubMed]
6. Kusumaningrum HD, Riboldi G, Hazeleger WC, Beumer RR. Survival of
foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces and cross-contamination
to foods. Int J Food Microbiol. 2003;85(3):227-36. [[143]PubMed]
7. Mead PS, Slutsker L, Dietz V, McCaig LF, Bresee JS, Shapiro C, et
al. Food-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect
Dis. 1999;5(5):607-25. [[144]PubMed]
8. Kovats RS, Edwards SJ, Hajat S, Armstrong BG, Ebi KL, Menne B. The
effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series analysis of
salmonellosis in ten European countries. Epidemiol Infect.
2004;132(3):443-53. [[145]PubMed]
9. Gofti-Laroche L, Gratacap-Cavallier B, Genoulaz O, Joret JC,
Hartemann P, Seigneurin JM, et al. A new analytical tool to assess
health risks associated with the virological quality of drinking water
(EMIRA study). Water Sci Technol. 2001;43(12):39-48. [[146]PubMed]
10. Pruss A. Review of epidemiological studies on health effects from
exposure to recreational water. Int J Epidemiol. 1998;27(1):1-9.
[[147]PubMed]
11. Rose JB, Huffman DE, Riley K, Farrah SR, Lukasik JO, Hamann CL.
Reduction of enteric microorganisms at the Upper Occoquan Sewage
Authority Water Reclamation Plant. Water Environ Res.
2001;73(6):711-20. [[148]PubMed]
12. Rose JB, Slifko TR. Giardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and
their impact on foods: a review. J Food Prot. 1999;62(9):1059-70.
[[149]PubMed]
13. Barwick RS, Levy DA, Craun GF, Beach MJ, Calderon RL. Surveillance
for waterborne-disease outbreaks -- United States, 1997 --1998. MMWR
CDC Surveill Summ. 2000;49(4):1-21. [[150]PubMed]
14. Clavel A, Alivares JL, Fleta J, Castillo J, Varea M, Ramos FJ, et
al. Seasonality of cryptosporidiosis in children. Eur J Clin Microbiol
Inf Dis. 1996;15:77-9.
15. Kapperud G, Skjerve E, Bean NH, Ostroff SM, Lassen J. Risk factors
for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of a case --control
study in southeastern Norway. J Clin Microbiol. 1992;30(12):3117-21.
[[151]PubMed]
16. Neimann J, Engberg J, Molbak K, Wegener HC. A case --control study
of risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections in Denmark.
Epidemiol Infect. 2003;130(3):353-66. [[152]PubMed]
17. Curriero FC, Patz JA, Rose JB, Lele S. The association between
extreme precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United
States, 1948 --1994. Am J Pub Health. 2001;91(8):1194-9. [[153]PubMed]
18. Fayer R, Trout JM, Lewis EJ, Xiao L, Lal A, Jenkins MC, et al.
Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay.
Parasitol Res. 2002;88(11):998-1003. [[154]PubMed]
19. Kistemann T, Classen T, Koch C, Dangendorf F, Fischeder R, Gebel J,
et al. Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during
extreme rainfall and runoff. Appl Environ Microbiol.
2002;68(5):2188-97. [[155]PubMed]
20. MacKenzie WR, Hoxie NJ, Proctor ME, Gradus MS, Blair KA, Peterson
DE, et al. A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of Cryptosporidium infection
transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med.
1994;331(3):161-7. [[156]PubMed]
21. Wade TJ, Sandhu SK, Levy D, Lee S, LeChevallier MW, Katz L, et al.
Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the incidence of
gastrointestinal symptoms? Am J Epidemiol. 2004;159(4):398-405.
[[157]PubMed]
22. World Health Organization. Using climate to predict infectious
disease outbreaks: a review. World Health Organization; Geneva,
Switzerland: 2004. Publication no. WHO/SDE/OEH/04.01.
23. Easterling DR, Evans JL. Observed variability and trends in extreme
climate events. Bull Am Meteorol Soc. 2000;81:417-25.
24. Charron D, Thomas M, Waltner-Toews D, Aramini J, Edge T, Kent R, et
al. Vulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a
review. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004;67(20 --22):1667-77.
[[158]PubMed]
25. Patz JA, Epstein PR, Burke TA, Balbus JM. Global climate change and
emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996;275(3):217-23. [[159]PubMed]
26. Bentham G, Langford IH. Climate change and the incidence of food
poisoning in England and Wales. Int J Biometeorol. 1995;39(2):81-6.
[[160]PubMed]
27. Ebi KL, Schmier JK. A stitch in time: improving public health early
warning systems for extreme weather events. Epidemiol Rev.
2005;27:115-21. [[161]PubMed]
28. da Silva Lopes ACB. Spurious deterministic seasonality and
auto-correlation corrections with quarterly data: further Monte Carlo
results. Empir Econ. 1999;24(2):341-59.
__________________________________________________________________
PubMed articles by these authors
* [162]Naumova, E.
PubMed related articles
* [163]ReviewSeasonality of infectious diseases.
Annu Rev Public Health. 2007; 28:127-43.
[Annu Rev Public Health. 2007]
* [164]ReviewSeasonality and the dynamics of infectious diseases.
Ecol Lett. 2006 Apr; 9(4):467-84.
[Ecol Lett. 2006]
* [165]Seasonal infectious disease epidemiology.
Proc Biol Sci. 2006 Oct 7; 273(1600):2541-50.
[Proc Biol Sci. 2006]
* [166]Seasonal control for an endemic disease with seasonal
fluctuations.
Theor Popul Biol. 1988 Apr; 33(2):115-25.
[Theor Popul Biol. 1988]
* [167]Seasonality of primarily childhood and young adult infectious
diseases in the United States.
Chronobiol Int. 2006; 23(5):1065-82.
[Chronobiol Int. 2006]
* » [168]See reviews... | » [169]See all...
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* [175]PubMed
* [176]Taxonomy
* [177]Taxonomy Tree
* [178]Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial
variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis.
Public Health Rep. 2000 Sep-Oct; 115(5):436-47.
[Public Health Rep. 2000]
* [179]Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in
cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance
system in 1990-1999.
J Water Health. 2005 Jun; 3(2):185-96.
[J Water Health. 2005]
* [180]Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in
the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in
1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from
livestock animals.
J Clin Microbiol. 2000 Nov; 38(11):3984-90.
[J Clin Microbiol. 2000]
[181]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [182]A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between
rural Zaire and Ontario.
Can J Public Health. 1989 May-Jun; 80(3):205-8.
[Can J Public Health. 1989]
[183]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [184]Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces
and cross-contamination to foods.
Int J Food Microbiol. 2003 Aug 25; 85(3):227-36.
[Int J Food Microbiol. 2003]
* [185]ReviewFood-related illness and death in the United States.
Emerg Infect Dis. 1999 Sep-Oct; 5(5):607-25.
[Emerg Infect Dis. 1999]
* [186]The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series
analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries.
Epidemiol Infect. 2004 Jun; 132(3):443-53.
[Epidemiol Infect. 2004]
[187]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [188]A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with
the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study).
Water Sci Technol. 2001; 43(12):39-48.
[Water Sci Technol. 2001]
* [189]ReviewReview of epidemiological studies on health effects from
exposure to recreational water.
Int J Epidemiol. 1998 Feb; 27(1):1-9.
[Int J Epidemiol. 1998]
* [190]ReviewGiardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their
impact on foods: a review.
J Food Prot. 1999 Sep; 62(9):1059-70.
[J Food Prot. 1999]
* [191]Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks--United States,
1997-1998.
MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000 May 26; 49(4):1-21.
[MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000]
[192]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [193]Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of
a case-control study in southeastern Norway.
J Clin Microbiol. 1992 Dec; 30(12):3117-21.
[J Clin Microbiol. 1992]
* [194]A case-control study of risk factors for sporadic
campylobacter infections in Denmark.
Epidemiol Infect. 2003 Jun; 130(3):353-66.
[Epidemiol Infect. 2003]
[195]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [196]The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne
disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948-1994.
Am J Public Health. 2001 Aug; 91(8):1194-9.
[Am J Public Health. 2001]
* [197]Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay.
Parasitol Res. 2002 Nov; 88(11):998-1003.
[Parasitol Res. 2002]
* [198]Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during
extreme rainfall and runoff.
Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002 May; 68(5):2188-97.
[Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002]
* [199]A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of cryptosporidium infection
transmitted through the public water supply.
N Engl J Med. 1994 Jul 21; 331(3):161-7.
[N Engl J Med. 1994]
* [200]Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the
incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms?
Am J Epidemiol. 2004 Feb 15; 159(4):398-405.
[Am J Epidemiol. 2004]
[201]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [202]ReviewVulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change
in Canada: a review.
J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004 Oct 22-Nov 26; 67(20-22):1667-77.
[J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004]
* [203]Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases.
JAMA. 1996 Jan 17; 275(3):217-23.
[JAMA. 1996]
* [204]Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England
and Wales.
Int J Biometeorol. 1995 Nov; 39(2):81-6.
[Int J Biometeorol. 1995]
[205]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [206]ReviewA stitch in time: improving public health early warning
systems for extreme weather events.
Epidemiol Rev. 2005; 27():115-21.
[Epidemiol Rev. 2005]
[207]See more articles cited in this paragraph
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Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics
[1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics
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- Rhythm of Life Lyrics
Ensemble:
Daddy started out in San Francisco,
Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean,
Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy,
Spread the picture on a wider screen."
And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons
Ready to be hooked on new religions.
Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife.
Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life."
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee,
Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge,
Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton,
Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Fly, fly, fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Swim, swim, swim to Daddy
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy,
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life,
Of life, of life, of life.
Yeah! Yeah! Yeah!
Man!
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles
Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life.
Music Of Other Climes. Part 2
Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the
elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time
of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm
so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early
Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language,
instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect
rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything
we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may
be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as
the most graceful.
Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ,
and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed
that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not
the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was
apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres,
and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D,
of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can
see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from
the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical
sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation
in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one
great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last.
It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that
comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical
colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life.
Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a
world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense,
so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the
individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not
yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or
hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to
the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature.
Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine
principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt,
thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles,
there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek
people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until
there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks.
As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a
prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become.
When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is
without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the
Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the
world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But
the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being
without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of
what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we
receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given.
We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and
bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has
seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or
artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth
and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new
birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of
music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will
become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure
from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all
that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely,
or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the
harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that
is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back
into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall
you receive the best.
With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the
progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under
the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most
external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the
coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is
sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful
roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention
to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is
that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it
did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national
religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian
Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of
the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change
from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked
change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the
curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much
to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There
were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them
were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even
under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have
expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century
A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to
produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable
success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the
work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called
good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth
century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and
Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new
foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the
centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may
truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by
the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in
modern times.
Continue to:
* prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes
* [44]Table of Contents
* next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3
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[46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics,
[51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music,
[56]vibration
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Keeping the rhythm of life in sync
May 28, 2008
Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the
heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the
rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as
cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per
minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or
physical stress.
The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical
system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed
electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the
heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be
too fast, too slow, or irregular.
All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal
heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people
may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal
rhythm and not even know it.
Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest
pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath,
swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur
because of abnormal heart rhythm.
To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its
relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an
electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time
at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by
placing electrodes on the skin.
Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be
difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case,
other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which
electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart
catheterization.
Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of
electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or
implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows
doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside
the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are
causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing
temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively
destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia.
Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when
the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not
functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can
be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to
resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some
of its pumping function.
Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of
dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The
device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and
delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm.
Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent
disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to
their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular
Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced
treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help
restore the rhythm of life.
Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs
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* [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 1 / 5 (1)
"...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that
provides the rhythm of life..."
Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is
just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood
through our system of vessels.
It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood
circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever
smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after
supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to
become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable
of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy
and thin pipes.
It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all
about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word
"pump" to describe the heart.
What about "metronome"?
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* [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 4 / 5 (1)
Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you
don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong.
Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels,
and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and
also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood
return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY
used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to
the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation.
As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick,
as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the
thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow
loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if
this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some
reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive
pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation"
or taking a highschool biology class.
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Rhythm Of Life lyrics
(Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life
Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life
Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon
Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you
I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus)
If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain
Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it
The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus)
Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down
(repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade)
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May 19, 2008
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5 most recent columns
January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By
Diego Schapira
December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara
Wheeler
December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice.
By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos
November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns
November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist.
By Helen Oosthuizen
Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony
By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli ()
1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro
When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving
rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each
producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with
other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this
metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and
around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in
which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful
presence.
I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets
and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human
civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this
planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other
parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately
grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not
empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and
sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the
universe is not threatening for me as before.
Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office,
when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an
echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture
each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity
arising randomly, above the background sound.
Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny
and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of
sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific
scenarios I could never imagine before.
2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso
Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a
patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome.
That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances,
making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a
person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made
unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying
aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those
dangerous noises.
When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she
told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy
session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands.
His sounds were so emotionally intense that their
message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in
a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it
safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with
overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his
together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards,
listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy
session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal
interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside.
My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he
developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to
process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge
amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people,
without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds.
In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional
experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a
Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds
were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they
liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty
words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their
painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light
pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes.
Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the
roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors'
desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both
situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these
dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by
fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event
with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was
grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist.
I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work
with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may
experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to
be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with
and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities
available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and
therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing:
the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the
environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing
amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness
necessary for improving quality of life.
3rd Movement: Trio
In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea
which considers that a good development of each system is possible when
there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its
environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant
interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual
perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system.
Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of
structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with
rhythm entrainment and music.
As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not
determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced
by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective
readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the
structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration.
To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes
schema to structure and order internal and external events using
rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are
self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal
structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically
determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow
an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a
caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal
patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by
comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As
Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with
sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge
our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas
are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human
beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the
emotional response to music.
Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the
metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical
behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because
they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to
understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our
sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be
the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the
most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion,
and metaphorical thinking.
Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration.
Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer,
because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes
separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological
situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They
do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the
capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and
integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory.
There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas
about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a
conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could
answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music
itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which
is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks.
And, thus, they can still feel joy.
4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio
All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the
efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of
criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of
mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared
my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my
dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy,
particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the
highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute
named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to
train psychologists and physicians in this field.
This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and
with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music.
References
Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music:
The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers.
Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the
Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University
Press.
Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning,
Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of
Illinois.
To cite this page:
Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A
World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy.
Moderated discussion
Add your comments and responses to this essay in our Moderated
Discussions. Contributions should be e-mailed to either [13]Joke Bradt
or [14]Thomas Wosch
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Iambic Pentameter: The Rhythm of Life?
Sunday March 22, 2009
[bencrystal.jpg]
Does the thought of [23]iambic pentameter terrify you? I remember being
baffeled by it at school myself because I got bogged down in counting
syllables and working out where the stresses go but, I now know that
this is a very technical way of studying iambic pentameter.
In later life, Ive grown to love iambic pentameter. Theres something
beautiful about it that I cant put my finger on. I know for sure that
its in the speaking because on the page it is inert. When you [24]speak
those words aloud, they literally jump off the tongue and the rhythm is
the easiest of all meters to find.
I asked Ben Crystal about this [25]in our interview a few months ago.
He said that iambic pentameter is the rhythm of our English language
and of our bodies a line of that poetry has the same rhythm as our
heartbeat. A line of iambic pentameter fills the human lung perfectly,
so its the rhythm of speech.
I think this is true. When you [26]learn how to speak verse, you soon
discover that its a very instinctive rhythm. Once you relax and go with
the flow, it comes naturally. And, strange as it might sound, classic
iambic pentameter lines like If music be the food of love, play on and
Now is the winter of our discontent do happen to fit a single breath
perfectly if spoken with passion.
So, if youre having trouble with iambic pentameter, remember that its
designed to be spoken, not studied. Open your mouth and speak aloud
those great words.
Photo of Ben Crystal © Scott Wishart
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Comments
March 30, 2009 at 2:29 pm
[33](1) [34]Kent Richmond says:
In doing verse translations of five Shakespeare plays, I have
had to learn how Shakespeares iambic pentameter works in order
to give my translations the feel of the original. One of the
beauties of iambic pentameter is that the poet can temporarily
relax the meter without violating it. In this series of made-up
and rather prosaic lines, the first line is straight-ahead
iambic pentameter. The second and third lines, if read
independently, are less obviously iambic pentameter, yet they do
not violate the rhythm. The fourth line is clearly unmetrical
and removes the sense that we are listening to verse.
1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes,
2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. (trochaic
start; feminine ending)
3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. (Two spondees to
start; feminine ending)
4. Dont you ever hit your little sister. (unmetrical)
Shakespeare, at least in the plays I have translated, did not
write verse lines with the rhythm of (4). To make this line
sound a bit more like Shakespeares iambic pentameter, we need to
make a few alterations to line 4.
1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes,
2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters.
3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest.
4. Dont ever hit that little girl again.
To make the whole passage sound like prose, we need to change
the first line a little.
Then her mother took the kids clothes shopping, planning to buy
them all some warmer sweaters. No! No! No! No she bellowed at
the oldest. Dont you ever hit your little sister.
The first and fourth lines now have trochaic feet exposed in the
wrong places, and most editors would print such a passage as
prose. Shakespeares iambic pentameter certainly places
constraints on what rhythms are allowed, yet it allows for
flexibility and naturalness. Take a look at George Wrights book
titled Shakespeares Metrical Art to see the techniques
Shakespeare employed.
April 11, 2009 at 8:25 pm
[35](2) Dave says:
The words literally jump off the tongue? I'd like to see that!
[36]Leave a Comment
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* [37]Introducing Iambic Pentameter
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With
Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from
Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications.
Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature
This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no
one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of
it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may
relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he
requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and
anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the
same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the
same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual
training, recitation, gymnastics, and play.
Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized
with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle
which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of
every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in
the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of
work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there
is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their
appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less
of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to
anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else
it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from
which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle
with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of
salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting
from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human
[40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important
changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality.
The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief
from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this
tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary
conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified
by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries. . . .
When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in
recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious
rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and
the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and
more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak.
Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with
instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is
laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of
activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to
elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to
primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which
threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving
mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. -
Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20.
. . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area
of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a
ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight
years in [42]duration are superposed.
. . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of
buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the
rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the
production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing
weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of
rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135.
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Cultural
Towards Lefebvrian Socio-Nature? A Film about Rhythm, Nature and Science
By [17]James Evans and [18]Phil Jones, School of Environment and
Development, University of Manchester School of Geography, Earth and
Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham (April 2008)
__________________________________________________________________
Section: [19]Cultural
Subjects: [20]Geography, [21]Urban Geography, [22]Environment And
Society, [23]Cultural Geography.
Key Topics: [24]nature , [25]representation.
Abstract
The first thing you will notice about this article is that it is
actually a film. We did not set out to make a film, it just ended up
that way. We started out making music out of environmental data,
wondering why we only ever look at scientific data, why we do not
listen to it. Wandering around the city passing through the transformed
landscapes of channelised rivers and broken industrial spaces, we
wanted to reveal the socio-natural rhythms of this hybrid city. The
text you see below represents the shooting script for a film that
explores Lefebvre's notion of rhythmanalysis in the context of
socio-natural rhythms. The video accompanying it is far more
interesting, including the environmental music that we produced by
feeding scientific data through samplers and drum machines. The video
questions the nature of scientific representation and whether the
notion of rhythmanalysis can be stretched to explore rhythms beyond the
human. Furthermore, the process of actually making the video,
submitting it to this journal, and responding to the referees' comments
made us question the very nature of what constitutes an academic paper
in the twenty-first century. The accompanying commentary is our attempt
to deal with these issues.
To link to the film please go to
DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00107.x
This article abstract has been viewed 5359 times.
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J Public Health Policy. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2008 July
24.
Published in final edited form as:
[7]J Public Health Policy. 2006; 27(1): 2-12.
doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200061.
PMCID: PMC2483431
NIHMSID: NIHMS58476
[8]Copyright notice and [9]Disclaimer
Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature
Elena N. Naumova^*
^*Address for Correspondence: Department of Public Health and Family
Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Avenue,
Boston, MA 02111, USA. E-mail: elena.naumova/at/tufts.edu
Small right arrow pointing to: The publisher's final edited version of
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the published article.
Abstract
Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course
of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences.
Understanding seasonal fluctuations in diseases patterns presents us
with a major challenge. To develop efficient strategies for disease
prevention and control, we need to grasp the main determinants of
temporal variations and their interactions. This paper will introduce
the notion of seasonality by outlining several of its factors, using as
illustrations respiratory and enteric water- or food-borne infections.
Keywords: seasonality, water-borne infection, food-borne infection,
respiratory infection
* [12] Other Sectionsv
+ [13]Abstract
+ [14]Introduction
+ [15]Notion of Seasonality
+ [16]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [17]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [18]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [19]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [20]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [21]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [22]References
Introduction
Now let us consider the seasons and the way we can predict whether it
is going to be a healthy or an unhealthy year.
(Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 10)^[23]1
Seasonal fluctuations in birth and death, in sickness and health, are
the haunting mysteries of mankind. People have made predictions from
winds, tides, birds' migrations, spring blooms, sunsets, and
constellations in hope of grasping the future. The complexity and
uncertainty of ancient and modern means of prediction make us wonder to
what extent we are able to understand the rhythm of nature. One might
argue the future cannot be known, but from a practical point of view, a
better understanding of changes in disease occurrences is essential for
building efficient strategies for disease prevention and control.
Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course
of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences.
Since Hippocrates, observers worldwide have noted and documented marked
fluctuations in the incidence of many diseases. In the modern view, the
main determinants of temporal variations in disease manifestation are
evolving host susceptibility, periodicity in pathogen abundance and
transmissibility, and the ever-changing environment that can support or
repress a host or pathogen. Interactions among these factors
responsible for seasonal variation are interwoven into the intricate
fabric of life.
For many diseases, explanations for self-sustained oscillations still
remain elusive. We lack adequate methods and sufficient analytical
tools for comprehensive examination of seasonality in public health
field studies. A dearth of observations, recorded over long periods at
fine resolution, compounded by an enormous number of factors associated
with periodic changes, obscure our ability to understand disease
variation. Urgent need for effective strategies to prevent and control
a spread of emerging infections in the rapidly changing world, however,
demands a deeper insight into the cyclic nature of diseases.
This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality and outline several
factors associated with seasonality using as illustrations enteric
water- or food-borne infections and respiratory infections. Then I
propose a framework for systematic evaluation of seasonal oscillations.
In every part of this presentation, and most importantly, I wish to
stimulate discussion on this challenging topic.
* [24] Other Sectionsv
+ [25]Abstract
+ [26]Introduction
+ [27]Notion of Seasonality
+ [28]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [29]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [30]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [31]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [32]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [33]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [34]References
Notion of Seasonality
Every disease occurs at any season of the year but some of them more
frequently occur and are of greater severity at certain times.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 19)
Seasonality, as noted above, refers to the cyclic appearance of events
over a period of time. A seasonal pattern may appear as a tight cluster
of isolated outbreaks that occurred during a relatively short time
period, then spreading over a wide geographic area.
For example, in a temporal curve of enteric infection cases (i.e.
giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, or rotavirus infections), a compact
cluster of outbreaks is followed by a long interval of low incidence.
Systematic recurrence of such sequences forms a seasonal pattern
typical of a specific pathogen in a given population and in a given
locality. A seasonal increase in enteric or respiratory infection often
produces a well-defined oscillating curve that starts to rise in one
season and declines over the next one.
The three main features characterize seasonality:
* a point in time when a seasonal curve reaches its maximum,
* an amplitude from peak to nadir, and
* a duration of a seasonal increase defined by a shape of a curve.
(The shape of a seasonal pattern reflects how fast a temporal curve
reaches its peak and declines to nadir over a course of a full
cycle. Depending on the length of a cycle whether it is one year or
a half of a year, a seasonal curve would have one or two peaks.)
Seasonal patterns, described by these three characteristics, may vary
for different diseases, different locations, or different
subpopulations. Many viral and bacterial infections in humans show
marked seasonal changes. In some diseases, like salmonellosis and
influenza, annual oscillations explain up to 60% of variability. Such
impact should not be ignored and deserves a proper examination.
* [35] Other Sectionsv
+ [36]Abstract
+ [37]Introduction
+ [38]Notion of Seasonality
+ [39]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [40]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [41]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [42]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [43]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [44]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [45]References
Diseases Seasonal Patterns
Diseases vary in their relationships one with another; some are
opposed, some are mutually agreeable.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 3)
Differences in diseases peaks reflect different etiology, heterogeneity
in host susceptibility, or route of transmission. In temperate
climates, Campylobacter and Salmonella infections are known to rise in
summer, giardiasis in early fall, and rotavirus infection in
mid-winter, etc. Interestingly, for the same infectious agent,
infections recorded in two different locations may present a different
pattern of incidence. A seasonal pattern for cryptosporidiosis in the
United States exhibits one late summer peak ([46]1); in contrast, in
the United Kingdom, two seasonal peaks are seen ([47]2). The UK picture
reflects two dominant sources of exposure: one from animals in the late
spring, and another from humans in the fall ([48]3).
Close temporal clustering of seasonal peaks in diseases that share
similar sources of exposure suggests dominant routes of transmissions.
Peaks in water-borne cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis often cluster
after a summer peak in ambient temperature. Such synchronization in
disease manifestation can be governed by environmental and social
factors. In some instances, periodicity of a given infection observed
in a particular population may be not present in another. A seasonal
peak in cryptosporidiosis cases observed in the general population is
not apparent in the immunocompromized HIV-positive gay men, even though
the incidence of cryptosporidiosis in HIV-positive population is very
high. This suggests differences in dominant routes of transmission.
Seasonal patterns can change over time. After intense vaccination
campaigns in the 1950s and 1970s in the United Kingdom, the patterns of
measles and pertussis changed, with the high rates of disease usually
seen when children were attending school diminishing for measles and
practically disappearing for pertusis ([49]4). Explanations for these
phenomena remain elusive. A departure from a systematically observed
pattern could reflect the evolution of a pathogen or a change in herd
immunity. A simple rule to remember is that a discovery hides in
outliers.
Faced with an abundance of causal agents, a bare observation of a rise
in the incidence of non-specific enteritis should be interpreted with
caution. A seasonal pattern can represent a mix of temporal curves.
Imagine two periodic curves of similar intensity, but one peaks in a
spring and another in a fall; the sum of these two curves might lose
the appearance of seasonality, covering two distinctly seasonal
phenomena.
Some infections are very rare. Their seasonal patterns are difficult to
examine because the relevant data must be collected over a very long
time and/or aggregated over large spatial units. Precision in
evaluating seasonality can thus be jeopardized by time-dependent and/or
space-dependent confounders.
Seasonal fluctuations can be found beyond infectious diseases; chronic
somatic diseases also exhibit substantial temporal variations.
Plausibly, exacerbations in chronic conditions are driven by infectious
agents or environmental changes. Understanding the interplay of an
infection and a chronic disease may lead to better control for both.
* [50] Other Sectionsv
+ [51]Abstract
+ [52]Introduction
+ [53]Notion of Seasonality
+ [54]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [55]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [56]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [57]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [58]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [59]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [60]References
Seasonal Host Susceptibility
When the weather is seasonable and the crops ripen at the regular
times, diseases are regular in their appearance...
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 8)
Poor nutrition directly affects host susceptibility. In places of food
scarcity, researchers suspect that temporal patterns in birth weight
and preterm delivery result from seasonal variations in food
availability ([61]5). In general, due to a less developed immune
system, young children are susceptible to infection; their immune
response may be further weakened by seasonal cutbacks in essential
micronutrients and vitamins.
Anemnestic responses to an antigen determine whether an infection
recurs. Short-lived immune memory together with seasonal changes in
pathogen transmissibility contribute further to the complexity of
seasonal patterns. Even a perfectly healthy person can experience a
change in susceptibility to infection due to stress, injuries, or
trauma. The probability of a marked impact of such factors on disease
seasonality is virtually unknown.
* [62] Other Sectionsv
+ [63]Abstract
+ [64]Introduction
+ [65]Notion of Seasonality
+ [66]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [67]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [68]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [69]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [70]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [71]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [72]References
Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
Some diseases are produced by the manner of life that is followed;
others by the life-giving air we breathe.
(Hippocrates. The Nature of Man, 9)
Temperature, humidity, and precipitation -- the defining factors of
seasons -- are important determinants of pathogens' survival. Changes
influence pathogens' potency and life expectancy, resulting in temporal
fluctuations in pathogens' abundance. In many instances, seasonal
changes in pathogen survival and transmission are inseparably related
to both biological and social aspects of our lives. They are
synchronized by weather. High ambient temperature, for example,
provides a supportive environment for food-borne pathogens, favoring
their multiplication in food and on food preparation surfaces ([73]6).
Food contamination is believed to be a significant mode of transmission
for infections caused by Salmonella and Campylobacter ([74]7);
therefore, during warm weather, the risk for food-borne diseases
increases ([75]8).
Seasonal changes in level of contamination, availability of potable
water, sanitation and hygiene practices, as well as crowding and
person-to-person contacts, affect pathogens' transmissibility.
Worldwide, water use differs from season to season ([76]9). In
temperate climates, warm weather leads to higher water consumption and
encourages outdoor activities -- swimming, camping, and recreational
water use. In tropical regions, contamination of surface water
increases during wet seasons. Although spread of pathogens via food is
certainly possible, contaminated water is the dominant source of
exposure for enteric infections caused by protozoa Cryptosporidium and
Giardia ([77]10 --[78]12). Depending on locality, outbreaks of
cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis associated with drinking or
recreational water frequently occur during warm or wet seasons
([79]13,[80]14).
With the onset of cooler weather, the "heating season" marks a change
in indoor air quality. Inadequate and poorly designed ventilation in
crowded public places and urban transit systems may boost exposure to
air-borne pathogens by increasing their concentration in stagnant air
and by re-circulating contaminated air. Higher relative humidity may
also affect the stability of air-borne droplets in which viruses travel
from person to person.
* [81] Other Sectionsv
+ [82]Abstract
+ [83]Introduction
+ [84]Notion of Seasonality
+ [85]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [86]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [87]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [88]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [89]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [90]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [91]References
Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
You will find, as a general rule, that the constitutions and the habits
of a people follow the nature of the land where they live.
(Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 24)
Diseases do not watch calendars. Their incidence rises and falls
because of changes in factors associated with the diseases. However, in
every culture all social events are synchronized by calendars; and
every calendar reflects the cyclic rhythm of nature.
Traditional celebrations and gatherings observed by communities
according to calendars affect pathogen transmission. Holidays, social
activities, and seasonal travel are often associated with changes in
food consumption and preparation, and are therefore associated with
changes in disease incidence. Preparing meat on a barbecue increases
the risk of Campylobacter infection ([92]15,[93]16) and foreign travel
increases the risk for enteric infections. Aggregation of children in
schools, daycare centers, and summer camps, reflecting school
calendars, facilitates rapid exchange of pathogens. There are marked
seasonal variations in transmission, and thus the incidence of enteric
and respiratory infections.
* [94] Other Sectionsv
+ [95]Abstract
+ [96]Introduction
+ [97]Notion of Seasonality
+ [98]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [99]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [100]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [101]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [102]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [103]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [104]References
Climate Change, Extreme Weather Events, and Disease Seasonality
The changes of the seasons are especially liable to beget diseases, as
are great changes from heat to cold, or cold to heat in any season.
Other changes in the weather have similarly severe effects.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 1)
As weather affects human health by creating favorable conditions for
pathogen proliferation and transmission, severe weather can affect the
timing and intensity of infectious outbreaks, and natural disasters
lead to drastic changes in population structure and pathogen ecology.
Catastrophic events like tsunamis, hurricanes, devastating floods, and
heat waves that cause deaths, population displacement, and
infrastructural damage may have dramatic effects on the incidence of
infections and their seasonal patterns.
Recent work has shown highly significant associations between extreme
precipitation and water-borne disease outbreaks ([105]17). Heavy
precipitation, rapid snowmelt, and floods flush animal wastes from the
land into surface waters and may overwhelm drinking and wastewater
treatment systems. The latter leads to discharges in watersheds of
untreated human wastes. As a result, pathogens can appear in drinking
and recreational water in very high concentrations ([106]18,[107]19). A
rapid snowmelt, resultant runoff, and filtration system failure at the
overloaded local drinking water treatment plant were implicated in the
largest known water-borne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis, which occurred
in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1993 ([108]20). This outbreak happened in
April, not within the usual seasonal peak for cryptosporidiosis cases.
A flood, which also resulted from a rapid snowmelt, has been linked
with a similar increased incidence of diarrhea ([109]21).
Experts expect that global climate change will increase climate
variability and the frequency of extreme precipitation events in
temperate regions ([110]22,[111]23). "Global warming" may also increase
the frequency and magnitude of other extreme weather events, such as
heat waves and droughts, and thereby have profound effects on public
health ([112]24,[113]25). In a comprehensive study conducted in the
United Kingdom that described a short-term link between temperature and
food poisoning, the authors also hypothesized that climate change could
lead to changes in rates of food poisoning ([114]26).
Integration of environmental parameters into disease forecasting and
warning systems could allow public health officials to alert the
populace when specific meteorological conditions pose predictable risks
to health ([115]27). Simple messages about proper food preparation and
refrigeration and the risks of using contaminated recreational waters
could, for example, be provided before, during, and after extreme
events. Better understanding of disease seasonality would also help to
predict outbreaks of infections triggered by climate variability.
* [116] Other Sectionsv
+ [117]Abstract
+ [118]Introduction
+ [119]Notion of Seasonality
+ [120]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [121]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [122]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [123]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [124]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [125]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [126]References
Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy
to Public Health Thinking
Desperate cases need the most desperate remedies.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, I, 6)
At first, seasonal fluctuations should be systematically described.
This requires a framework with sound definitions and analytic tools
suitable for routine use by public health professionals. In public
health sciences, the existing methodology currently lacks methods and
tests for assessing complex interactions in the time-dependent factors
responsible for disease seasonality.
Next, reliable data with fine temporal resolution are a must. The vast
majority of epidemiological studies have examined seasonal patterns of
infections using quarterly or monthly data. This coarse temporal
aggregation can thwart an otherwise detailed, accurate, and
comprehensive analysis of seasonal patterns and may even be misleading
([127]28). Examination of daily or weekly rates can substantially
improve evaluation of seasonal curves, but a systematic approach for
using at least weekly aggregates is needed.
Finally, reluctance to apply sophisticated mathematical models in
public health studies must be overcome. Underlying processes in disease
manifestation and spread are complex and multifaceted. Causal pathways
are often obscured. To disentangle causal effects of many factors
within the circular processes of self-sustaining oscillations demands
the careful building of sound conceptual models of seasonality; models
that can be tested. The emerging fields of computational epidemiology
and intelligent data mining will complement established work in
philosophy of science and mathematical biology to become an essential
part of thinking in public health and policy.
Acknowledgments
I thank Drs Eileen O'Neil and Beth Rosenberg for their thoughtful
suggestions, and the support of funding agencies: the National
Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (U19AI062627), and the
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R01ES013171).
Footnotes
^1Hippocrates' citations are taken from: Lloyd, GER, editor.
Hippocratic Writings. Trans. Chadwick J and Mann WN. London: Penguin;
1978.
* [128] Other Sectionsv
+ [129]Abstract
+ [130]Introduction
+ [131]Notion of Seasonality
+ [132]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [133]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [134]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [135]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [136]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [137]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [138]References
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__________________________________________________________________
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* [162]Naumova, E.
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* [178]Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial
variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis.
Public Health Rep. 2000 Sep-Oct; 115(5):436-47.
[Public Health Rep. 2000]
* [179]Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in
cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance
system in 1990-1999.
J Water Health. 2005 Jun; 3(2):185-96.
[J Water Health. 2005]
* [180]Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in
the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in
1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from
livestock animals.
J Clin Microbiol. 2000 Nov; 38(11):3984-90.
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[181]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [182]A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between
rural Zaire and Ontario.
Can J Public Health. 1989 May-Jun; 80(3):205-8.
[Can J Public Health. 1989]
[183]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [184]Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces
and cross-contamination to foods.
Int J Food Microbiol. 2003 Aug 25; 85(3):227-36.
[Int J Food Microbiol. 2003]
* [185]ReviewFood-related illness and death in the United States.
Emerg Infect Dis. 1999 Sep-Oct; 5(5):607-25.
[Emerg Infect Dis. 1999]
* [186]The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series
analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries.
Epidemiol Infect. 2004 Jun; 132(3):443-53.
[Epidemiol Infect. 2004]
[187]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [188]A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with
the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study).
Water Sci Technol. 2001; 43(12):39-48.
[Water Sci Technol. 2001]
* [189]ReviewReview of epidemiological studies on health effects from
exposure to recreational water.
Int J Epidemiol. 1998 Feb; 27(1):1-9.
[Int J Epidemiol. 1998]
* [190]ReviewGiardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their
impact on foods: a review.
J Food Prot. 1999 Sep; 62(9):1059-70.
[J Food Prot. 1999]
* [191]Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks--United States,
1997-1998.
MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000 May 26; 49(4):1-21.
[MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000]
[192]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [193]Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of
a case-control study in southeastern Norway.
J Clin Microbiol. 1992 Dec; 30(12):3117-21.
[J Clin Microbiol. 1992]
* [194]A case-control study of risk factors for sporadic
campylobacter infections in Denmark.
Epidemiol Infect. 2003 Jun; 130(3):353-66.
[Epidemiol Infect. 2003]
[195]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [196]The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne
disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948-1994.
Am J Public Health. 2001 Aug; 91(8):1194-9.
[Am J Public Health. 2001]
* [197]Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay.
Parasitol Res. 2002 Nov; 88(11):998-1003.
[Parasitol Res. 2002]
* [198]Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during
extreme rainfall and runoff.
Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002 May; 68(5):2188-97.
[Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002]
* [199]A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of cryptosporidium infection
transmitted through the public water supply.
N Engl J Med. 1994 Jul 21; 331(3):161-7.
[N Engl J Med. 1994]
* [200]Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the
incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms?
Am J Epidemiol. 2004 Feb 15; 159(4):398-405.
[Am J Epidemiol. 2004]
[201]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [202]ReviewVulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change
in Canada: a review.
J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004 Oct 22-Nov 26; 67(20-22):1667-77.
[J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004]
* [203]Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases.
JAMA. 1996 Jan 17; 275(3):217-23.
[JAMA. 1996]
* [204]Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England
and Wales.
Int J Biometeorol. 1995 Nov; 39(2):81-6.
[Int J Biometeorol. 1995]
[205]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [206]ReviewA stitch in time: improving public health early warning
systems for extreme weather events.
Epidemiol Rev. 2005; 27():115-21.
[Epidemiol Rev. 2005]
[207]See more articles cited in this paragraph
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Circadian rhythm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search
"Human clock" redirects here. For the online clock, see [8]Humanclock.
Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological
parameters.
A circadian rhythm is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical,
physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including
[9]plants, [10]animals, [11]fungi and [12]cyanobacteria (see
[13]bacterial circadian rhythms). The term "circadian", coined by
[14]Franz Halberg,^[15][1] comes from the [16]Latin [17]circa,
"around", and diem or dies, "day", meaning literally "approximately one
day". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily,
[18]tidal, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called
[19]chronobiology.
Circadian rhythms are [20]endogenously generated, and can be entrained
by external cues, called [21]zeitgebers, the primary one of which is
[22]daylight.
Contents
* [23]1 History
* [24]2 Criteria
* [25]3 Origin
* [26]4 Importance in animals
+ [27]4.1 Impact of light-dark cycle
+ [28]4.2 Arctic animals
+ [29]4.3 Butterfly migration
* [30]5 Biological clock in mammals
+ [31]5.1 Determining the human circadian rhythm
+ [32]5.2 Outside the "master clock"
* [33]6 Light and the biological clock
* [34]7 Enforced longer cycles
* [35]8 Human health
+ [36]8.1 Disruption
+ [37]8.2 Effect of drugs
* [38]9 See also
* [39]10 References
+ [40]10.1 Bibliography
+ [41]10.2 Notes
* [42]11 External links
[[43]edit] History
The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th
century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under
[44]Alexander the Great, described [45]diurnal leaf movements of the
[46]tamarind tree.^[47][2] The first modern observation of endogenous
circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [48]Jean-Jacques
d'Ortous de Mairan in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the
movement of the leaves of the plant [49]Mimosa pudica continued even
when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
In 1918, J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining
24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light
and changes in temperature.^[50][3] [51]Joseph Takahashi discovered the
genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.^[52][4]^[53][5]
[[54]edit] Criteria
To differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from
coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met: 1)
the rhythms persist in the absence of cues, 2) they persist equally
precisely over a range of temperatures, and 3) the rhythms can be
adjusted to match the local time:
* The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant
dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this
criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those "apparent"
rhythms that are merely responses to external periodic cues. A
rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been
tested in conditions without external periodic input.
* The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e., it maintains the same
period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this
criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological
rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway.
At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a
circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely
coincidental.
* The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The
rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms
from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to
resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of
estimating the local time. Travel across [55]time zones illustrates
the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that
it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next.
Until rhythms are reset, a person usually experiences [56]jet lag.
[[57]edit] Origin
[58]Question book-new.svg
This section needs additional [59]citations for [60]verification.
Please help [61]improve this article by adding [62]reliable references.
Unsourced material may be [63]challenged and [64]removed. (October
2007)
Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have
originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the
replicating of DNA from high [65]ultraviolet radiation during the
daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus
[66]Neurospora, which exists today, retains this [67]clock-regulated
mechanism.
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise
and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to
the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in
regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in
coordinating with the environment.^[68][6] This is suggested by the
maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after
several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,^[69][7]
as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the
experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian
rhythms in quail.^[70][8]
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic
[71]cyanobacteria. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian
clock of Synechococcus elongatus can be reconstituted in vitro with
just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has
been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the
addition of [72]ATP. Previous explanations of the [73]prokaryotic
circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription /
translation feedback mechanism.
It is an unanswered question whether circadian clocks in eukaryotic
organisms require translation/transcription-derived oscillations, for,
although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the
same basic architecture (input - [74]central oscillator - output), they
do not share any [75]homology. This implies probable independent
origins.
In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [76]Seymour Benzer first identified a
genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a
model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behaviour:
one had a shorter period, another had a longer one, and the third had
none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named
[77]period.^[78][9] The same gene was identified to be defective in the
sleep disorder FASPS ([79]Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome) in
human beings thirty years later, underscoring the conserved nature of
the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic
components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions
result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in
periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a
specific time of the day.
A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter
half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian
clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is
cell-autonomous.^[80][10] At the same time, different cells may
communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of
electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the
brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for
these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronize the
peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time
of the day as relayed by the [81]eyes travels to the clock in the
brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be
synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body
temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the
biological clock.
[[82]edit] Importance in animals
Circadian rhythmicity is present in the [83]sleeping and feeding
patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear
patterns of core body temperature, [84]brain wave activity, [85]hormone
production, cell regeneration and other biological activities. In
addition, [86]photoperiodism, the physiological reaction of organisms
to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and
the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation
of day length.
" Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food
availability or predator activity is crucial for survival of many
species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the
photoperiod ('daylength') is the most predictive environmental cue for
the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing
of migration, hibernation and reproduction.^[87][11] "
[[88]edit] Impact of light-dark cycle
The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals, including
humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function
with a [89]freerunning rhythm. Each "day", their sleep cycle is pushed
back or forward, depending on whether their [90]endogenous period is
shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that each day
reset the rhythms are called [91]Zeitgebers (from the German, Time
Givers).^[92][12] It is interesting to note that totally-blind
subterranean mammals (e.g., [93]blind mole rat Spalax sp.) are able to
maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external
stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors
(detect light) are still functional; as well, they do surface
periodically.^[[94]citation needed]
Freerunning organisms that normally have one consolidated sleep episode
will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues,
but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light/dark
cycle in nature. The sleep-wake rhythm may, in these circumstances,
become out of phase with other circadian or [95]ultradian rhythms such
as [96]temperature and [97]digestion.^[[98]citation needed]
Recent research has influenced the design of [99]spacecraft
environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been
found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.^[[100]citation needed]
[[101]edit] Arctic animals
Norwegian researchers at the [102]University of Tromsø have shown that
some Arctic animals ([103]ptarmigan, [104]reindeer) show circadian
rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and
sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at [105]70 degrees North
showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter, and spring, but not in
the summer. Reindeer at [106]78 degrees North showed such rhythms only
autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other Arctic animals as
well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and
the constant dark of winter.^[107][13]^[108][14]
However, another study in northern Alaska found that [109]ground
squirrels and [110]porcupines strictly maintained their circadian
rhythms through 82 days and nights of sunshine. The researchers
speculate that these two small mammals see that the apparent distance
between the sun and the horizon is shortest once a day, and, thus, a
sufficient signal to adjust by.^[111][15]
[[112]edit] Butterfly migration
The navigation of the fall migration of the [113]Eastern North American
monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) to their overwintering grounds in
central Mexico uses a time-compensated sun compass that depends upon a
circadian clock in their antennae.^[114][16]^[115][17]
[[116]edit] Biological clock in mammals
Diagram illustrating the influence of light and darkness on circadian
rhythms and related [117]physiology and behaviour through the
[118]suprachiasmatic nucleus in humans.
The primary circadian "clock" in [119]mammals is located in the
[120]suprachiasmatic nucleus (or nuclei) ([121]SCN), a pair of distinct
groups of [122]cells located in the [123]hypothalamus. Destruction of
the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep-wake rhythm.
The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The
[124]retina of the eyes contains not only "classical"
[125]photoreceptors but also photoresponsive retinal [126]ganglion
cells. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called
[127]melanopsin, follow a pathway called the [128]retinohypothalamic
tract, leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and
cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external
cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on the lengths of the day
and night from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the
[129]pineal gland, a tiny structure shaped like a [130]pine cone and
located on the [131]epithalamus. In response the pineal secretes the
hormone [132]melatonin. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs
during the day and its presence provides information about
night-length.
The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter
and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard
have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a
23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural
solar day-night cycle on the planet [133]Mars).^[134][18]
[[135]edit] Determining the human circadian rhythm
The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's
circadian rhythm are
* melatonin secretion by the pineal gland and
* core body temperature.
For temperature studies, people must remain awake but calm and
semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are
taken continuously. The average human adult's temperature reaches its
minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake
time, though variation is great among normal [136]chronotypes.
Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime.
Its onset in dim light, dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO), at about
21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Its major
[137]metabolite can also be measured in morning urine. Both DLMO and
the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or
saliva have been used as circadian markers.
However, newer research indicates that the melatonin offset may be the
most reliable marker. Benloucif et al. in Chicago in 2005 found that
melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated
with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found
that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly
correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In
addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable
and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.^[138][19]
One method used for measuring melatonin offset is to analyse a sequence
of urine samples throughout the morning for the presence of the
melatonin [139]metabolite 6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s). Laberge et al.
in Quebec in 1997 used this method in a study that confirmed the
frequently found delayed circadian phase in healthy
adolescents.^[140][20]
[[141]edit] Outside the "master clock"
More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and
cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the "master
clock". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the
[142]oesophagus, [143]lungs, [144]liver, [145]pancreas, [146]spleen,
[147]thymus, and the [148]skin.^[149][21] Though oscillators in the
skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven so
far.^[150][22]^[151][23] There is some evidence that also the olfactory
bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting
that also these structures may be weak oscillators.
Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding
rather than to [152]light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to
have freerunning rhythms.
[[153]edit] Light and the biological clock
Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [154]phase
response curve (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or
delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required
[155]illuminance vary from species to species and lower light levels
are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm in humans are higher than
the levels usually used in artificial lighting in homes. According to
some researchers^[156][24] the illumination intensity that excites the
circadian system has to reach up to 1000 [157]lux striking the retina.
In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or colour) of light is a
factor in the entrainment of the body clock. [158]Melanopsin is most
efficiently excited by blue light, 420-440 nm^[159][25] according to
some researchers while others have reported 470-485 nm.
It is thought that the direction of the light may have an effect on
entraining the circadian rhythm;^[160][24] light coming from above,
resembling an image of a bright sky, has greater effect than light
entering our eyes from below.
[[161]edit] Enforced longer cycles
Modern research under very controlled conditions has shown the human
period for adults to be just slightly longer than 24 hours on average.
Czeisler et al. at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults
of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes.
The "clock" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's
rotation.^[162][26]
The 28-hour day is presented as a concept of [163]time
management.^[164][27] It builds on the fact that the week of seven days
at 24 hours and a "week" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of
168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require
staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours.
Each "day" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern.
Studies by [165]Nathaniel Kleitman^[166][28] in 1938 and by
[167]Derk-Jan Dijk and [168]Charles Czeisler^[169][29]^[170][30] in
1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep-wake cycles,
in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a
month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day,^[171][31]
this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake
episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about
24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of
circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including
[172]sleep latency and other functions.^[173][32]
Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people
preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli
like daylight and timekeeping. Early investigators determined the human
circadian period to be 25 hours or more. They went to great lengths to
shield subjects from time cues and daylight, but they were not aware of
the effects of indoor electric lights. The subjects were allowed to
turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted
to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase.
These results became well known.^[174][26] Researchers allowed subjects
to keep electric lighting on in the evening, as it was thought at that
time that a couple of 60W bulbs would not have a resetting effect on
the circadian rhythms of humans. More recent research^[[175]citation
needed] has shown that adults have a built-in day, which averages just
over 24 hours, that indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms and
that most people attain their best-quality sleep during their
[176]chronotype-determined sleep periods.
[[177]edit] Human health
Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may
significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse
reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with
[178]angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) may reduce
nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [179]left ventricular
(reverse) remodelling.^[[180]citation needed]
A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms.
A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during
the day, a [181]power-nap, does not have any effect on normal circadian
rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve
productivity.^[182][33]^[183][34]
There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the
human circadian rhythm, such as [184]seasonal affective disorder (SAD),
[185]delayed sleep phase syndrome (DSPS) and other [186]circadian
rhythm disorders.^[187][35] Circadian rhythms also play a part in the
[188]reticular activating system, which is crucial for maintaining a
state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep-wake cycle
may be a sign or complication of [189]uremia,^[190][36] [191]azotemia
or [192]acute renal failure.
[[193]edit] Disruption
Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers
have experienced the condition known as [194]jet lag, with its
associated symptoms of [195]fatigue, disorientation and [196]insomnia.
A number of other disorders, for example [197]bipolar disorder and some
[198]sleep disorders, are associated with irregular or pathological
functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that
circadian rhythm disturbances found in [199]bipolar disorder are
positively influenced by [200]lithium's effect on clock
genes.^[201][37]
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have
significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside
the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of
cardiovascular disease [202][2] The suppression of melatonin production
associated with the disruption of the circadian rhythm may increase the
risk of developing cancer.^[203][38]^[204][39]
[[205]edit] Effect of drugs
Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside
the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such
as [206]cocaine.^[207][40]^[208][41] Moreover, genetic manipulations of
clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.^[209][42]
[[210]edit] See also
* [211]Actigraphy (also known as Actimetry)
* [212]Advanced sleep phase syndrome
* [213]ARNTL
* [214]ARNTL2
* [215]Bacterial circadian rhythms
* [216]Chronobiology
* [217]Chronotype
* [218]Circadian oscillator
* [219]Circadian rhythm sleep disorders
* [220]Cryptochrome
* [221]CRY1 and [222]CRY2, the cryptochrome family genes
* [223]Delayed sleep phase syndrome
* [224]Diurnal cycle
* [225]Jet lag
* [226]Light effects on circadian rhythm
* [227]PER1, [228]PER2, and [229]PER3, the period family genes
* [230]Power-nap
[[231]edit] References
[[232]edit] Bibliography
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[[234]edit] Notes
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[[372]edit] External links
* [373]Circadian rhythm at the [374]Open Directory Project
* Leloup J.C. (2009). "Circadian clocks and phosphorylation: Insights
from computational modeling". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 4 (3): 290-303.
[375]doi:[376]10.2478/s11535-009-0025-1.
* Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A (2007). "Evolutionary mechanisms
of circadian clocks". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 2 (2): 233-253.
[377]doi:[378]10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z.
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Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics
[1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics
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- Rhythm of Life Lyrics
Ensemble:
Daddy started out in San Francisco,
Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean,
Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy,
Spread the picture on a wider screen."
And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons
Ready to be hooked on new religions.
Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife.
Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life."
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee,
Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge,
Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton,
Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Fly, fly, fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Swim, swim, swim to Daddy
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy,
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life,
Of life, of life, of life.
Yeah! Yeah! Yeah!
Man!
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles
Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life.
Music Of Other Climes. Part 2
Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the
elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time
of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm
so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early
Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language,
instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect
rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything
we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may
be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as
the most graceful.
Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ,
and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed
that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not
the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was
apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres,
and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D,
of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can
see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from
the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical
sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation
in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one
great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last.
It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that
comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical
colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life.
Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a
world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense,
so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the
individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not
yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or
hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to
the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature.
Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine
principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt,
thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles,
there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek
people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until
there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks.
As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a
prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become.
When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is
without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the
Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the
world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But
the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being
without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of
what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we
receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given.
We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and
bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has
seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or
artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth
and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new
birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of
music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will
become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure
from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all
that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely,
or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the
harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that
is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back
into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall
you receive the best.
With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the
progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under
the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most
external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the
coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is
sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful
roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention
to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is
that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it
did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national
religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian
Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of
the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change
from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked
change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the
curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much
to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There
were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them
were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even
under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have
expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century
A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to
produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable
success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the
work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called
good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth
century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and
Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new
foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the
centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may
truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by
the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in
modern times.
Continue to:
* prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes
* [44]Table of Contents
* next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3
Tags
[46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics,
[51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music,
[56]vibration
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Keeping the rhythm of life in sync
May 28, 2008
Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the
heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the
rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as
cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per
minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or
physical stress.
The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical
system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed
electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the
heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be
too fast, too slow, or irregular.
All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal
heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people
may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal
rhythm and not even know it.
Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest
pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath,
swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur
because of abnormal heart rhythm.
To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its
relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an
electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time
at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by
placing electrodes on the skin.
Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be
difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case,
other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which
electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart
catheterization.
Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of
electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or
implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows
doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside
the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are
causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing
temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively
destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia.
Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when
the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not
functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can
be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to
resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some
of its pumping function.
Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of
dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The
device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and
delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm.
Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent
disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to
their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular
Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced
treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help
restore the rhythm of life.
Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs
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* [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 1 / 5 (1)
"...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that
provides the rhythm of life..."
Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is
just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood
through our system of vessels.
It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood
circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever
smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after
supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to
become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable
of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy
and thin pipes.
It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all
about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word
"pump" to describe the heart.
What about "metronome"?
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* [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 4 / 5 (1)
Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you
don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong.
Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels,
and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and
also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood
return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY
used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to
the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation.
As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick,
as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the
thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow
loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if
this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some
reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive
pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation"
or taking a highschool biology class.
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Rhythm Of Life lyrics
(Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life
Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life
Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon
Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you
I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus)
If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain
Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it
The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus)
Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down
(repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade)
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May 19, 2008
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5 most recent columns
January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By
Diego Schapira
December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara
Wheeler
December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice.
By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos
November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns
November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist.
By Helen Oosthuizen
Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony
By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli ()
1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro
When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving
rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each
producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with
other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this
metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and
around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in
which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful
presence.
I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets
and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human
civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this
planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other
parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately
grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not
empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and
sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the
universe is not threatening for me as before.
Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office,
when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an
echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture
each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity
arising randomly, above the background sound.
Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny
and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of
sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific
scenarios I could never imagine before.
2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso
Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a
patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome.
That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances,
making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a
person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made
unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying
aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those
dangerous noises.
When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she
told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy
session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands.
His sounds were so emotionally intense that their
message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in
a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it
safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with
overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his
together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards,
listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy
session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal
interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside.
My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he
developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to
process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge
amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people,
without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds.
In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional
experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a
Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds
were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they
liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty
words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their
painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light
pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes.
Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the
roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors'
desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both
situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these
dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by
fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event
with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was
grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist.
I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work
with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may
experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to
be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with
and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities
available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and
therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing:
the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the
environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing
amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness
necessary for improving quality of life.
3rd Movement: Trio
In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea
which considers that a good development of each system is possible when
there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its
environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant
interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual
perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system.
Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of
structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with
rhythm entrainment and music.
As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not
determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced
by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective
readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the
structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration.
To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes
schema to structure and order internal and external events using
rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are
self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal
structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically
determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow
an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a
caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal
patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by
comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As
Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with
sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge
our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas
are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human
beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the
emotional response to music.
Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the
metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical
behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because
they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to
understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our
sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be
the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the
most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion,
and metaphorical thinking.
Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration.
Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer,
because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes
separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological
situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They
do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the
capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and
integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory.
There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas
about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a
conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could
answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music
itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which
is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks.
And, thus, they can still feel joy.
4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio
All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the
efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of
criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of
mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared
my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my
dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy,
particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the
highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute
named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to
train psychologists and physicians in this field.
This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and
with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music.
References
Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music:
The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers.
Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the
Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University
Press.
Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning,
Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of
Illinois.
To cite this page:
Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A
World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy.
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Iambic Pentameter: The Rhythm of Life?
Sunday March 22, 2009
[bencrystal.jpg]
Does the thought of [23]iambic pentameter terrify you? I remember being
baffeled by it at school myself because I got bogged down in counting
syllables and working out where the stresses go but, I now know that
this is a very technical way of studying iambic pentameter.
In later life, Ive grown to love iambic pentameter. Theres something
beautiful about it that I cant put my finger on. I know for sure that
its in the speaking because on the page it is inert. When you [24]speak
those words aloud, they literally jump off the tongue and the rhythm is
the easiest of all meters to find.
I asked Ben Crystal about this [25]in our interview a few months ago.
He said that iambic pentameter is the rhythm of our English language
and of our bodies a line of that poetry has the same rhythm as our
heartbeat. A line of iambic pentameter fills the human lung perfectly,
so its the rhythm of speech.
I think this is true. When you [26]learn how to speak verse, you soon
discover that its a very instinctive rhythm. Once you relax and go with
the flow, it comes naturally. And, strange as it might sound, classic
iambic pentameter lines like If music be the food of love, play on and
Now is the winter of our discontent do happen to fit a single breath
perfectly if spoken with passion.
So, if youre having trouble with iambic pentameter, remember that its
designed to be spoken, not studied. Open your mouth and speak aloud
those great words.
Photo of Ben Crystal © Scott Wishart
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March 30, 2009 at 2:29 pm
[33](1) [34]Kent Richmond says:
In doing verse translations of five Shakespeare plays, I have
had to learn how Shakespeares iambic pentameter works in order
to give my translations the feel of the original. One of the
beauties of iambic pentameter is that the poet can temporarily
relax the meter without violating it. In this series of made-up
and rather prosaic lines, the first line is straight-ahead
iambic pentameter. The second and third lines, if read
independently, are less obviously iambic pentameter, yet they do
not violate the rhythm. The fourth line is clearly unmetrical
and removes the sense that we are listening to verse.
1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes,
2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. (trochaic
start; feminine ending)
3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. (Two spondees to
start; feminine ending)
4. Dont you ever hit your little sister. (unmetrical)
Shakespeare, at least in the plays I have translated, did not
write verse lines with the rhythm of (4). To make this line
sound a bit more like Shakespeares iambic pentameter, we need to
make a few alterations to line 4.
1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes,
2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters.
3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest.
4. Dont ever hit that little girl again.
To make the whole passage sound like prose, we need to change
the first line a little.
Then her mother took the kids clothes shopping, planning to buy
them all some warmer sweaters. No! No! No! No she bellowed at
the oldest. Dont you ever hit your little sister.
The first and fourth lines now have trochaic feet exposed in the
wrong places, and most editors would print such a passage as
prose. Shakespeares iambic pentameter certainly places
constraints on what rhythms are allowed, yet it allows for
flexibility and naturalness. Take a look at George Wrights book
titled Shakespeares Metrical Art to see the techniques
Shakespeare employed.
April 11, 2009 at 8:25 pm
[35](2) Dave says:
The words literally jump off the tongue? I'd like to see that!
[36]Leave a Comment
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* [37]Introducing Iambic Pentameter
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With
Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from
Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications.
Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature
This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no
one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of
it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may
relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he
requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and
anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the
same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the
same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual
training, recitation, gymnastics, and play.
Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized
with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle
which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of
every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in
the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of
work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there
is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their
appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less
of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to
anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else
it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from
which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle
with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of
salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting
from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human
[40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important
changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality.
The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief
from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this
tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary
conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified
by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries. . . .
When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in
recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious
rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and
the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and
more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak.
Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with
instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is
laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of
activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to
elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to
primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which
threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving
mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. -
Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20.
. . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area
of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a
ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight
years in [42]duration are superposed.
. . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of
buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the
rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the
production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing
weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of
rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135.
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Cultural
Towards Lefebvrian Socio-Nature? A Film about Rhythm, Nature and Science
By [17]James Evans and [18]Phil Jones, School of Environment and
Development, University of Manchester School of Geography, Earth and
Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham (April 2008)
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Section: [19]Cultural
Subjects: [20]Geography, [21]Urban Geography, [22]Environment And
Society, [23]Cultural Geography.
Key Topics: [24]nature , [25]representation.
Abstract
The first thing you will notice about this article is that it is
actually a film. We did not set out to make a film, it just ended up
that way. We started out making music out of environmental data,
wondering why we only ever look at scientific data, why we do not
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landscapes of channelised rivers and broken industrial spaces, we
wanted to reveal the socio-natural rhythms of this hybrid city. The
text you see below represents the shooting script for a film that
explores Lefebvre's notion of rhythmanalysis in the context of
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questions the nature of scientific representation and whether the
notion of rhythmanalysis can be stretched to explore rhythms beyond the
human. Furthermore, the process of actually making the video,
submitting it to this journal, and responding to the referees' comments
made us question the very nature of what constitutes an academic paper
in the twenty-first century. The accompanying commentary is our attempt
to deal with these issues.
To link to the film please go to
DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00107.x
This article abstract has been viewed 5359 times.
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J Public Health Policy. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2008 July
24.
Published in final edited form as:
[7]J Public Health Policy. 2006; 27(1): 2-12.
doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200061.
PMCID: PMC2483431
NIHMSID: NIHMS58476
[8]Copyright notice and [9]Disclaimer
Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature
Elena N. Naumova^*
^*Address for Correspondence: Department of Public Health and Family
Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Avenue,
Boston, MA 02111, USA. E-mail: elena.naumova/at/tufts.edu
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this article is available at [10]J Public Health Policy.
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the published article.
Abstract
Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course
of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences.
Understanding seasonal fluctuations in diseases patterns presents us
with a major challenge. To develop efficient strategies for disease
prevention and control, we need to grasp the main determinants of
temporal variations and their interactions. This paper will introduce
the notion of seasonality by outlining several of its factors, using as
illustrations respiratory and enteric water- or food-borne infections.
Keywords: seasonality, water-borne infection, food-borne infection,
respiratory infection
* [12] Other Sectionsv
+ [13]Abstract
+ [14]Introduction
+ [15]Notion of Seasonality
+ [16]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [17]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [18]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [19]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [20]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [21]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [22]References
Introduction
Now let us consider the seasons and the way we can predict whether it
is going to be a healthy or an unhealthy year.
(Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 10)^[23]1
Seasonal fluctuations in birth and death, in sickness and health, are
the haunting mysteries of mankind. People have made predictions from
winds, tides, birds' migrations, spring blooms, sunsets, and
constellations in hope of grasping the future. The complexity and
uncertainty of ancient and modern means of prediction make us wonder to
what extent we are able to understand the rhythm of nature. One might
argue the future cannot be known, but from a practical point of view, a
better understanding of changes in disease occurrences is essential for
building efficient strategies for disease prevention and control.
Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course
of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences.
Since Hippocrates, observers worldwide have noted and documented marked
fluctuations in the incidence of many diseases. In the modern view, the
main determinants of temporal variations in disease manifestation are
evolving host susceptibility, periodicity in pathogen abundance and
transmissibility, and the ever-changing environment that can support or
repress a host or pathogen. Interactions among these factors
responsible for seasonal variation are interwoven into the intricate
fabric of life.
For many diseases, explanations for self-sustained oscillations still
remain elusive. We lack adequate methods and sufficient analytical
tools for comprehensive examination of seasonality in public health
field studies. A dearth of observations, recorded over long periods at
fine resolution, compounded by an enormous number of factors associated
with periodic changes, obscure our ability to understand disease
variation. Urgent need for effective strategies to prevent and control
a spread of emerging infections in the rapidly changing world, however,
demands a deeper insight into the cyclic nature of diseases.
This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality and outline several
factors associated with seasonality using as illustrations enteric
water- or food-borne infections and respiratory infections. Then I
propose a framework for systematic evaluation of seasonal oscillations.
In every part of this presentation, and most importantly, I wish to
stimulate discussion on this challenging topic.
* [24] Other Sectionsv
+ [25]Abstract
+ [26]Introduction
+ [27]Notion of Seasonality
+ [28]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [29]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [30]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [31]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [32]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [33]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [34]References
Notion of Seasonality
Every disease occurs at any season of the year but some of them more
frequently occur and are of greater severity at certain times.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 19)
Seasonality, as noted above, refers to the cyclic appearance of events
over a period of time. A seasonal pattern may appear as a tight cluster
of isolated outbreaks that occurred during a relatively short time
period, then spreading over a wide geographic area.
For example, in a temporal curve of enteric infection cases (i.e.
giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, or rotavirus infections), a compact
cluster of outbreaks is followed by a long interval of low incidence.
Systematic recurrence of such sequences forms a seasonal pattern
typical of a specific pathogen in a given population and in a given
locality. A seasonal increase in enteric or respiratory infection often
produces a well-defined oscillating curve that starts to rise in one
season and declines over the next one.
The three main features characterize seasonality:
* a point in time when a seasonal curve reaches its maximum,
* an amplitude from peak to nadir, and
* a duration of a seasonal increase defined by a shape of a curve.
(The shape of a seasonal pattern reflects how fast a temporal curve
reaches its peak and declines to nadir over a course of a full
cycle. Depending on the length of a cycle whether it is one year or
a half of a year, a seasonal curve would have one or two peaks.)
Seasonal patterns, described by these three characteristics, may vary
for different diseases, different locations, or different
subpopulations. Many viral and bacterial infections in humans show
marked seasonal changes. In some diseases, like salmonellosis and
influenza, annual oscillations explain up to 60% of variability. Such
impact should not be ignored and deserves a proper examination.
* [35] Other Sectionsv
+ [36]Abstract
+ [37]Introduction
+ [38]Notion of Seasonality
+ [39]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [40]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [41]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [42]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [43]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [44]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [45]References
Diseases Seasonal Patterns
Diseases vary in their relationships one with another; some are
opposed, some are mutually agreeable.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 3)
Differences in diseases peaks reflect different etiology, heterogeneity
in host susceptibility, or route of transmission. In temperate
climates, Campylobacter and Salmonella infections are known to rise in
summer, giardiasis in early fall, and rotavirus infection in
mid-winter, etc. Interestingly, for the same infectious agent,
infections recorded in two different locations may present a different
pattern of incidence. A seasonal pattern for cryptosporidiosis in the
United States exhibits one late summer peak ([46]1); in contrast, in
the United Kingdom, two seasonal peaks are seen ([47]2). The UK picture
reflects two dominant sources of exposure: one from animals in the late
spring, and another from humans in the fall ([48]3).
Close temporal clustering of seasonal peaks in diseases that share
similar sources of exposure suggests dominant routes of transmissions.
Peaks in water-borne cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis often cluster
after a summer peak in ambient temperature. Such synchronization in
disease manifestation can be governed by environmental and social
factors. In some instances, periodicity of a given infection observed
in a particular population may be not present in another. A seasonal
peak in cryptosporidiosis cases observed in the general population is
not apparent in the immunocompromized HIV-positive gay men, even though
the incidence of cryptosporidiosis in HIV-positive population is very
high. This suggests differences in dominant routes of transmission.
Seasonal patterns can change over time. After intense vaccination
campaigns in the 1950s and 1970s in the United Kingdom, the patterns of
measles and pertussis changed, with the high rates of disease usually
seen when children were attending school diminishing for measles and
practically disappearing for pertusis ([49]4). Explanations for these
phenomena remain elusive. A departure from a systematically observed
pattern could reflect the evolution of a pathogen or a change in herd
immunity. A simple rule to remember is that a discovery hides in
outliers.
Faced with an abundance of causal agents, a bare observation of a rise
in the incidence of non-specific enteritis should be interpreted with
caution. A seasonal pattern can represent a mix of temporal curves.
Imagine two periodic curves of similar intensity, but one peaks in a
spring and another in a fall; the sum of these two curves might lose
the appearance of seasonality, covering two distinctly seasonal
phenomena.
Some infections are very rare. Their seasonal patterns are difficult to
examine because the relevant data must be collected over a very long
time and/or aggregated over large spatial units. Precision in
evaluating seasonality can thus be jeopardized by time-dependent and/or
space-dependent confounders.
Seasonal fluctuations can be found beyond infectious diseases; chronic
somatic diseases also exhibit substantial temporal variations.
Plausibly, exacerbations in chronic conditions are driven by infectious
agents or environmental changes. Understanding the interplay of an
infection and a chronic disease may lead to better control for both.
* [50] Other Sectionsv
+ [51]Abstract
+ [52]Introduction
+ [53]Notion of Seasonality
+ [54]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [55]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [56]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [57]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [58]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [59]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [60]References
Seasonal Host Susceptibility
When the weather is seasonable and the crops ripen at the regular
times, diseases are regular in their appearance...
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 8)
Poor nutrition directly affects host susceptibility. In places of food
scarcity, researchers suspect that temporal patterns in birth weight
and preterm delivery result from seasonal variations in food
availability ([61]5). In general, due to a less developed immune
system, young children are susceptible to infection; their immune
response may be further weakened by seasonal cutbacks in essential
micronutrients and vitamins.
Anemnestic responses to an antigen determine whether an infection
recurs. Short-lived immune memory together with seasonal changes in
pathogen transmissibility contribute further to the complexity of
seasonal patterns. Even a perfectly healthy person can experience a
change in susceptibility to infection due to stress, injuries, or
trauma. The probability of a marked impact of such factors on disease
seasonality is virtually unknown.
* [62] Other Sectionsv
+ [63]Abstract
+ [64]Introduction
+ [65]Notion of Seasonality
+ [66]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [67]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [68]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [69]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [70]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [71]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [72]References
Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
Some diseases are produced by the manner of life that is followed;
others by the life-giving air we breathe.
(Hippocrates. The Nature of Man, 9)
Temperature, humidity, and precipitation -- the defining factors of
seasons -- are important determinants of pathogens' survival. Changes
influence pathogens' potency and life expectancy, resulting in temporal
fluctuations in pathogens' abundance. In many instances, seasonal
changes in pathogen survival and transmission are inseparably related
to both biological and social aspects of our lives. They are
synchronized by weather. High ambient temperature, for example,
provides a supportive environment for food-borne pathogens, favoring
their multiplication in food and on food preparation surfaces ([73]6).
Food contamination is believed to be a significant mode of transmission
for infections caused by Salmonella and Campylobacter ([74]7);
therefore, during warm weather, the risk for food-borne diseases
increases ([75]8).
Seasonal changes in level of contamination, availability of potable
water, sanitation and hygiene practices, as well as crowding and
person-to-person contacts, affect pathogens' transmissibility.
Worldwide, water use differs from season to season ([76]9). In
temperate climates, warm weather leads to higher water consumption and
encourages outdoor activities -- swimming, camping, and recreational
water use. In tropical regions, contamination of surface water
increases during wet seasons. Although spread of pathogens via food is
certainly possible, contaminated water is the dominant source of
exposure for enteric infections caused by protozoa Cryptosporidium and
Giardia ([77]10 --[78]12). Depending on locality, outbreaks of
cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis associated with drinking or
recreational water frequently occur during warm or wet seasons
([79]13,[80]14).
With the onset of cooler weather, the "heating season" marks a change
in indoor air quality. Inadequate and poorly designed ventilation in
crowded public places and urban transit systems may boost exposure to
air-borne pathogens by increasing their concentration in stagnant air
and by re-circulating contaminated air. Higher relative humidity may
also affect the stability of air-borne droplets in which viruses travel
from person to person.
* [81] Other Sectionsv
+ [82]Abstract
+ [83]Introduction
+ [84]Notion of Seasonality
+ [85]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [86]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [87]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [88]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [89]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [90]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [91]References
Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
You will find, as a general rule, that the constitutions and the habits
of a people follow the nature of the land where they live.
(Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 24)
Diseases do not watch calendars. Their incidence rises and falls
because of changes in factors associated with the diseases. However, in
every culture all social events are synchronized by calendars; and
every calendar reflects the cyclic rhythm of nature.
Traditional celebrations and gatherings observed by communities
according to calendars affect pathogen transmission. Holidays, social
activities, and seasonal travel are often associated with changes in
food consumption and preparation, and are therefore associated with
changes in disease incidence. Preparing meat on a barbecue increases
the risk of Campylobacter infection ([92]15,[93]16) and foreign travel
increases the risk for enteric infections. Aggregation of children in
schools, daycare centers, and summer camps, reflecting school
calendars, facilitates rapid exchange of pathogens. There are marked
seasonal variations in transmission, and thus the incidence of enteric
and respiratory infections.
* [94] Other Sectionsv
+ [95]Abstract
+ [96]Introduction
+ [97]Notion of Seasonality
+ [98]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [99]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [100]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [101]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [102]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [103]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [104]References
Climate Change, Extreme Weather Events, and Disease Seasonality
The changes of the seasons are especially liable to beget diseases, as
are great changes from heat to cold, or cold to heat in any season.
Other changes in the weather have similarly severe effects.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 1)
As weather affects human health by creating favorable conditions for
pathogen proliferation and transmission, severe weather can affect the
timing and intensity of infectious outbreaks, and natural disasters
lead to drastic changes in population structure and pathogen ecology.
Catastrophic events like tsunamis, hurricanes, devastating floods, and
heat waves that cause deaths, population displacement, and
infrastructural damage may have dramatic effects on the incidence of
infections and their seasonal patterns.
Recent work has shown highly significant associations between extreme
precipitation and water-borne disease outbreaks ([105]17). Heavy
precipitation, rapid snowmelt, and floods flush animal wastes from the
land into surface waters and may overwhelm drinking and wastewater
treatment systems. The latter leads to discharges in watersheds of
untreated human wastes. As a result, pathogens can appear in drinking
and recreational water in very high concentrations ([106]18,[107]19). A
rapid snowmelt, resultant runoff, and filtration system failure at the
overloaded local drinking water treatment plant were implicated in the
largest known water-borne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis, which occurred
in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1993 ([108]20). This outbreak happened in
April, not within the usual seasonal peak for cryptosporidiosis cases.
A flood, which also resulted from a rapid snowmelt, has been linked
with a similar increased incidence of diarrhea ([109]21).
Experts expect that global climate change will increase climate
variability and the frequency of extreme precipitation events in
temperate regions ([110]22,[111]23). "Global warming" may also increase
the frequency and magnitude of other extreme weather events, such as
heat waves and droughts, and thereby have profound effects on public
health ([112]24,[113]25). In a comprehensive study conducted in the
United Kingdom that described a short-term link between temperature and
food poisoning, the authors also hypothesized that climate change could
lead to changes in rates of food poisoning ([114]26).
Integration of environmental parameters into disease forecasting and
warning systems could allow public health officials to alert the
populace when specific meteorological conditions pose predictable risks
to health ([115]27). Simple messages about proper food preparation and
refrigeration and the risks of using contaminated recreational waters
could, for example, be provided before, during, and after extreme
events. Better understanding of disease seasonality would also help to
predict outbreaks of infections triggered by climate variability.
* [116] Other Sectionsv
+ [117]Abstract
+ [118]Introduction
+ [119]Notion of Seasonality
+ [120]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [121]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [122]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [123]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [124]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [125]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [126]References
Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy
to Public Health Thinking
Desperate cases need the most desperate remedies.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, I, 6)
At first, seasonal fluctuations should be systematically described.
This requires a framework with sound definitions and analytic tools
suitable for routine use by public health professionals. In public
health sciences, the existing methodology currently lacks methods and
tests for assessing complex interactions in the time-dependent factors
responsible for disease seasonality.
Next, reliable data with fine temporal resolution are a must. The vast
majority of epidemiological studies have examined seasonal patterns of
infections using quarterly or monthly data. This coarse temporal
aggregation can thwart an otherwise detailed, accurate, and
comprehensive analysis of seasonal patterns and may even be misleading
([127]28). Examination of daily or weekly rates can substantially
improve evaluation of seasonal curves, but a systematic approach for
using at least weekly aggregates is needed.
Finally, reluctance to apply sophisticated mathematical models in
public health studies must be overcome. Underlying processes in disease
manifestation and spread are complex and multifaceted. Causal pathways
are often obscured. To disentangle causal effects of many factors
within the circular processes of self-sustaining oscillations demands
the careful building of sound conceptual models of seasonality; models
that can be tested. The emerging fields of computational epidemiology
and intelligent data mining will complement established work in
philosophy of science and mathematical biology to become an essential
part of thinking in public health and policy.
Acknowledgments
I thank Drs Eileen O'Neil and Beth Rosenberg for their thoughtful
suggestions, and the support of funding agencies: the National
Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (U19AI062627), and the
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R01ES013171).
Footnotes
^1Hippocrates' citations are taken from: Lloyd, GER, editor.
Hippocratic Writings. Trans. Chadwick J and Mann WN. London: Penguin;
1978.
* [128] Other Sectionsv
+ [129]Abstract
+ [130]Introduction
+ [131]Notion of Seasonality
+ [132]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [133]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [134]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [135]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [136]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [137]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [138]References
References
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Morris RD. Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and
spatial variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis.
Public Health Rep. 2000;115(5):436-47. [[139]PubMed]
2. Naumova EN, Christodouleas J, Hunter PR, Syed Q. Effect of
precipitation on seasonal variability in cryptosporidiosis recorded by
the North West England surveillance system in 1990 --1999. J Water
Health. 2005;3(2):185-96. [[140]PubMed]
3. McLauchlin J, Amar C, Pedraza-Diaz S, Nichols GL. Molecular
epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in the United Kingdom:
results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in 1,705 fecal samples from
humans and 105 fecal samples from livestock animals. J Clin Microbiol.
2000;38(11):3984-90. [[141]PubMed]
4. Anderson RM, May RM. Infectious Diseases of Humans. New York: Oxford
University Press; 2004.
5. Fallis G, Hilditch J. A comparison of seasonal variation in
birthweights between rural Zaire and Ontario. Can J Public Health.
1989;80(3):205-8. [[142]PubMed]
6. Kusumaningrum HD, Riboldi G, Hazeleger WC, Beumer RR. Survival of
foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces and cross-contamination
to foods. Int J Food Microbiol. 2003;85(3):227-36. [[143]PubMed]
7. Mead PS, Slutsker L, Dietz V, McCaig LF, Bresee JS, Shapiro C, et
al. Food-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect
Dis. 1999;5(5):607-25. [[144]PubMed]
8. Kovats RS, Edwards SJ, Hajat S, Armstrong BG, Ebi KL, Menne B. The
effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series analysis of
salmonellosis in ten European countries. Epidemiol Infect.
2004;132(3):443-53. [[145]PubMed]
9. Gofti-Laroche L, Gratacap-Cavallier B, Genoulaz O, Joret JC,
Hartemann P, Seigneurin JM, et al. A new analytical tool to assess
health risks associated with the virological quality of drinking water
(EMIRA study). Water Sci Technol. 2001;43(12):39-48. [[146]PubMed]
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exposure to recreational water. Int J Epidemiol. 1998;27(1):1-9.
[[147]PubMed]
11. Rose JB, Huffman DE, Riley K, Farrah SR, Lukasik JO, Hamann CL.
Reduction of enteric microorganisms at the Upper Occoquan Sewage
Authority Water Reclamation Plant. Water Environ Res.
2001;73(6):711-20. [[148]PubMed]
12. Rose JB, Slifko TR. Giardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and
their impact on foods: a review. J Food Prot. 1999;62(9):1059-70.
[[149]PubMed]
13. Barwick RS, Levy DA, Craun GF, Beach MJ, Calderon RL. Surveillance
for waterborne-disease outbreaks -- United States, 1997 --1998. MMWR
CDC Surveill Summ. 2000;49(4):1-21. [[150]PubMed]
14. Clavel A, Alivares JL, Fleta J, Castillo J, Varea M, Ramos FJ, et
al. Seasonality of cryptosporidiosis in children. Eur J Clin Microbiol
Inf Dis. 1996;15:77-9.
15. Kapperud G, Skjerve E, Bean NH, Ostroff SM, Lassen J. Risk factors
for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of a case --control
study in southeastern Norway. J Clin Microbiol. 1992;30(12):3117-21.
[[151]PubMed]
16. Neimann J, Engberg J, Molbak K, Wegener HC. A case --control study
of risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections in Denmark.
Epidemiol Infect. 2003;130(3):353-66. [[152]PubMed]
17. Curriero FC, Patz JA, Rose JB, Lele S. The association between
extreme precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United
States, 1948 --1994. Am J Pub Health. 2001;91(8):1194-9. [[153]PubMed]
18. Fayer R, Trout JM, Lewis EJ, Xiao L, Lal A, Jenkins MC, et al.
Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay.
Parasitol Res. 2002;88(11):998-1003. [[154]PubMed]
19. Kistemann T, Classen T, Koch C, Dangendorf F, Fischeder R, Gebel J,
et al. Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during
extreme rainfall and runoff. Appl Environ Microbiol.
2002;68(5):2188-97. [[155]PubMed]
20. MacKenzie WR, Hoxie NJ, Proctor ME, Gradus MS, Blair KA, Peterson
DE, et al. A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of Cryptosporidium infection
transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med.
1994;331(3):161-7. [[156]PubMed]
21. Wade TJ, Sandhu SK, Levy D, Lee S, LeChevallier MW, Katz L, et al.
Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the incidence of
gastrointestinal symptoms? Am J Epidemiol. 2004;159(4):398-405.
[[157]PubMed]
22. World Health Organization. Using climate to predict infectious
disease outbreaks: a review. World Health Organization; Geneva,
Switzerland: 2004. Publication no. WHO/SDE/OEH/04.01.
23. Easterling DR, Evans JL. Observed variability and trends in extreme
climate events. Bull Am Meteorol Soc. 2000;81:417-25.
24. Charron D, Thomas M, Waltner-Toews D, Aramini J, Edge T, Kent R, et
al. Vulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a
review. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004;67(20 --22):1667-77.
[[158]PubMed]
25. Patz JA, Epstein PR, Burke TA, Balbus JM. Global climate change and
emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996;275(3):217-23. [[159]PubMed]
26. Bentham G, Langford IH. Climate change and the incidence of food
poisoning in England and Wales. Int J Biometeorol. 1995;39(2):81-6.
[[160]PubMed]
27. Ebi KL, Schmier JK. A stitch in time: improving public health early
warning systems for extreme weather events. Epidemiol Rev.
2005;27:115-21. [[161]PubMed]
28. da Silva Lopes ACB. Spurious deterministic seasonality and
auto-correlation corrections with quarterly data: further Monte Carlo
results. Empir Econ. 1999;24(2):341-59.
__________________________________________________________________
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* [162]Naumova, E.
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* [176]Taxonomy
* [177]Taxonomy Tree
* [178]Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial
variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis.
Public Health Rep. 2000 Sep-Oct; 115(5):436-47.
[Public Health Rep. 2000]
* [179]Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in
cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance
system in 1990-1999.
J Water Health. 2005 Jun; 3(2):185-96.
[J Water Health. 2005]
* [180]Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in
the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in
1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from
livestock animals.
J Clin Microbiol. 2000 Nov; 38(11):3984-90.
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[181]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [182]A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between
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Can J Public Health. 1989 May-Jun; 80(3):205-8.
[Can J Public Health. 1989]
[183]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [184]Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces
and cross-contamination to foods.
Int J Food Microbiol. 2003 Aug 25; 85(3):227-36.
[Int J Food Microbiol. 2003]
* [185]ReviewFood-related illness and death in the United States.
Emerg Infect Dis. 1999 Sep-Oct; 5(5):607-25.
[Emerg Infect Dis. 1999]
* [186]The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series
analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries.
Epidemiol Infect. 2004 Jun; 132(3):443-53.
[Epidemiol Infect. 2004]
[187]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [188]A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with
the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study).
Water Sci Technol. 2001; 43(12):39-48.
[Water Sci Technol. 2001]
* [189]ReviewReview of epidemiological studies on health effects from
exposure to recreational water.
Int J Epidemiol. 1998 Feb; 27(1):1-9.
[Int J Epidemiol. 1998]
* [190]ReviewGiardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their
impact on foods: a review.
J Food Prot. 1999 Sep; 62(9):1059-70.
[J Food Prot. 1999]
* [191]Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks--United States,
1997-1998.
MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000 May 26; 49(4):1-21.
[MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000]
[192]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [193]Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of
a case-control study in southeastern Norway.
J Clin Microbiol. 1992 Dec; 30(12):3117-21.
[J Clin Microbiol. 1992]
* [194]A case-control study of risk factors for sporadic
campylobacter infections in Denmark.
Epidemiol Infect. 2003 Jun; 130(3):353-66.
[Epidemiol Infect. 2003]
[195]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [196]The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne
disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948-1994.
Am J Public Health. 2001 Aug; 91(8):1194-9.
[Am J Public Health. 2001]
* [197]Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay.
Parasitol Res. 2002 Nov; 88(11):998-1003.
[Parasitol Res. 2002]
* [198]Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during
extreme rainfall and runoff.
Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002 May; 68(5):2188-97.
[Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002]
* [199]A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of cryptosporidium infection
transmitted through the public water supply.
N Engl J Med. 1994 Jul 21; 331(3):161-7.
[N Engl J Med. 1994]
* [200]Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the
incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms?
Am J Epidemiol. 2004 Feb 15; 159(4):398-405.
[Am J Epidemiol. 2004]
[201]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [202]ReviewVulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change
in Canada: a review.
J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004 Oct 22-Nov 26; 67(20-22):1667-77.
[J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004]
* [203]Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases.
JAMA. 1996 Jan 17; 275(3):217-23.
[JAMA. 1996]
* [204]Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England
and Wales.
Int J Biometeorol. 1995 Nov; 39(2):81-6.
[Int J Biometeorol. 1995]
[205]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [206]ReviewA stitch in time: improving public health early warning
systems for extreme weather events.
Epidemiol Rev. 2005; 27():115-21.
[Epidemiol Rev. 2005]
[207]See more articles cited in this paragraph
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Circadian rhythm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search
"Human clock" redirects here. For the online clock, see [8]Humanclock.
Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological
parameters.
A circadian rhythm is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical,
physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including
[9]plants, [10]animals, [11]fungi and [12]cyanobacteria (see
[13]bacterial circadian rhythms). The term "circadian", coined by
[14]Franz Halberg,^[15][1] comes from the [16]Latin [17]circa,
"around", and diem or dies, "day", meaning literally "approximately one
day". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily,
[18]tidal, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called
[19]chronobiology.
Circadian rhythms are [20]endogenously generated, and can be entrained
by external cues, called [21]zeitgebers, the primary one of which is
[22]daylight.
Contents
* [23]1 History
* [24]2 Criteria
* [25]3 Origin
* [26]4 Importance in animals
+ [27]4.1 Impact of light-dark cycle
+ [28]4.2 Arctic animals
+ [29]4.3 Butterfly migration
* [30]5 Biological clock in mammals
+ [31]5.1 Determining the human circadian rhythm
+ [32]5.2 Outside the "master clock"
* [33]6 Light and the biological clock
* [34]7 Enforced longer cycles
* [35]8 Human health
+ [36]8.1 Disruption
+ [37]8.2 Effect of drugs
* [38]9 See also
* [39]10 References
+ [40]10.1 Bibliography
+ [41]10.2 Notes
* [42]11 External links
[[43]edit] History
The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th
century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under
[44]Alexander the Great, described [45]diurnal leaf movements of the
[46]tamarind tree.^[47][2] The first modern observation of endogenous
circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [48]Jean-Jacques
d'Ortous de Mairan in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the
movement of the leaves of the plant [49]Mimosa pudica continued even
when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
In 1918, J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining
24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light
and changes in temperature.^[50][3] [51]Joseph Takahashi discovered the
genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.^[52][4]^[53][5]
[[54]edit] Criteria
To differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from
coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met: 1)
the rhythms persist in the absence of cues, 2) they persist equally
precisely over a range of temperatures, and 3) the rhythms can be
adjusted to match the local time:
* The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant
dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this
criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those "apparent"
rhythms that are merely responses to external periodic cues. A
rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been
tested in conditions without external periodic input.
* The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e., it maintains the same
period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this
criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological
rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway.
At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a
circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely
coincidental.
* The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The
rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms
from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to
resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of
estimating the local time. Travel across [55]time zones illustrates
the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that
it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next.
Until rhythms are reset, a person usually experiences [56]jet lag.
[[57]edit] Origin
[58]Question book-new.svg
This section needs additional [59]citations for [60]verification.
Please help [61]improve this article by adding [62]reliable references.
Unsourced material may be [63]challenged and [64]removed. (October
2007)
Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have
originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the
replicating of DNA from high [65]ultraviolet radiation during the
daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus
[66]Neurospora, which exists today, retains this [67]clock-regulated
mechanism.
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise
and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to
the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in
regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in
coordinating with the environment.^[68][6] This is suggested by the
maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after
several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,^[69][7]
as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the
experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian
rhythms in quail.^[70][8]
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic
[71]cyanobacteria. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian
clock of Synechococcus elongatus can be reconstituted in vitro with
just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has
been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the
addition of [72]ATP. Previous explanations of the [73]prokaryotic
circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription /
translation feedback mechanism.
It is an unanswered question whether circadian clocks in eukaryotic
organisms require translation/transcription-derived oscillations, for,
although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the
same basic architecture (input - [74]central oscillator - output), they
do not share any [75]homology. This implies probable independent
origins.
In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [76]Seymour Benzer first identified a
genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a
model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behaviour:
one had a shorter period, another had a longer one, and the third had
none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named
[77]period.^[78][9] The same gene was identified to be defective in the
sleep disorder FASPS ([79]Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome) in
human beings thirty years later, underscoring the conserved nature of
the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic
components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions
result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in
periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a
specific time of the day.
A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter
half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian
clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is
cell-autonomous.^[80][10] At the same time, different cells may
communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of
electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the
brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for
these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronize the
peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time
of the day as relayed by the [81]eyes travels to the clock in the
brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be
synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body
temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the
biological clock.
[[82]edit] Importance in animals
Circadian rhythmicity is present in the [83]sleeping and feeding
patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear
patterns of core body temperature, [84]brain wave activity, [85]hormone
production, cell regeneration and other biological activities. In
addition, [86]photoperiodism, the physiological reaction of organisms
to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and
the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation
of day length.
" Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food
availability or predator activity is crucial for survival of many
species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the
photoperiod ('daylength') is the most predictive environmental cue for
the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing
of migration, hibernation and reproduction.^[87][11] "
[[88]edit] Impact of light-dark cycle
The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals, including
humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function
with a [89]freerunning rhythm. Each "day", their sleep cycle is pushed
back or forward, depending on whether their [90]endogenous period is
shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that each day
reset the rhythms are called [91]Zeitgebers (from the German, Time
Givers).^[92][12] It is interesting to note that totally-blind
subterranean mammals (e.g., [93]blind mole rat Spalax sp.) are able to
maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external
stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors
(detect light) are still functional; as well, they do surface
periodically.^[[94]citation needed]
Freerunning organisms that normally have one consolidated sleep episode
will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues,
but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light/dark
cycle in nature. The sleep-wake rhythm may, in these circumstances,
become out of phase with other circadian or [95]ultradian rhythms such
as [96]temperature and [97]digestion.^[[98]citation needed]
Recent research has influenced the design of [99]spacecraft
environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been
found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.^[[100]citation needed]
[[101]edit] Arctic animals
Norwegian researchers at the [102]University of Tromsø have shown that
some Arctic animals ([103]ptarmigan, [104]reindeer) show circadian
rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and
sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at [105]70 degrees North
showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter, and spring, but not in
the summer. Reindeer at [106]78 degrees North showed such rhythms only
autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other Arctic animals as
well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and
the constant dark of winter.^[107][13]^[108][14]
However, another study in northern Alaska found that [109]ground
squirrels and [110]porcupines strictly maintained their circadian
rhythms through 82 days and nights of sunshine. The researchers
speculate that these two small mammals see that the apparent distance
between the sun and the horizon is shortest once a day, and, thus, a
sufficient signal to adjust by.^[111][15]
[[112]edit] Butterfly migration
The navigation of the fall migration of the [113]Eastern North American
monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) to their overwintering grounds in
central Mexico uses a time-compensated sun compass that depends upon a
circadian clock in their antennae.^[114][16]^[115][17]
[[116]edit] Biological clock in mammals
Diagram illustrating the influence of light and darkness on circadian
rhythms and related [117]physiology and behaviour through the
[118]suprachiasmatic nucleus in humans.
The primary circadian "clock" in [119]mammals is located in the
[120]suprachiasmatic nucleus (or nuclei) ([121]SCN), a pair of distinct
groups of [122]cells located in the [123]hypothalamus. Destruction of
the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep-wake rhythm.
The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The
[124]retina of the eyes contains not only "classical"
[125]photoreceptors but also photoresponsive retinal [126]ganglion
cells. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called
[127]melanopsin, follow a pathway called the [128]retinohypothalamic
tract, leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and
cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external
cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on the lengths of the day
and night from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the
[129]pineal gland, a tiny structure shaped like a [130]pine cone and
located on the [131]epithalamus. In response the pineal secretes the
hormone [132]melatonin. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs
during the day and its presence provides information about
night-length.
The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter
and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard
have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a
23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural
solar day-night cycle on the planet [133]Mars).^[134][18]
[[135]edit] Determining the human circadian rhythm
The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's
circadian rhythm are
* melatonin secretion by the pineal gland and
* core body temperature.
For temperature studies, people must remain awake but calm and
semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are
taken continuously. The average human adult's temperature reaches its
minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake
time, though variation is great among normal [136]chronotypes.
Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime.
Its onset in dim light, dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO), at about
21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Its major
[137]metabolite can also be measured in morning urine. Both DLMO and
the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or
saliva have been used as circadian markers.
However, newer research indicates that the melatonin offset may be the
most reliable marker. Benloucif et al. in Chicago in 2005 found that
melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated
with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found
that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly
correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In
addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable
and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.^[138][19]
One method used for measuring melatonin offset is to analyse a sequence
of urine samples throughout the morning for the presence of the
melatonin [139]metabolite 6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s). Laberge et al.
in Quebec in 1997 used this method in a study that confirmed the
frequently found delayed circadian phase in healthy
adolescents.^[140][20]
[[141]edit] Outside the "master clock"
More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and
cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the "master
clock". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the
[142]oesophagus, [143]lungs, [144]liver, [145]pancreas, [146]spleen,
[147]thymus, and the [148]skin.^[149][21] Though oscillators in the
skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven so
far.^[150][22]^[151][23] There is some evidence that also the olfactory
bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting
that also these structures may be weak oscillators.
Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding
rather than to [152]light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to
have freerunning rhythms.
[[153]edit] Light and the biological clock
Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [154]phase
response curve (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or
delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required
[155]illuminance vary from species to species and lower light levels
are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm in humans are higher than
the levels usually used in artificial lighting in homes. According to
some researchers^[156][24] the illumination intensity that excites the
circadian system has to reach up to 1000 [157]lux striking the retina.
In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or colour) of light is a
factor in the entrainment of the body clock. [158]Melanopsin is most
efficiently excited by blue light, 420-440 nm^[159][25] according to
some researchers while others have reported 470-485 nm.
It is thought that the direction of the light may have an effect on
entraining the circadian rhythm;^[160][24] light coming from above,
resembling an image of a bright sky, has greater effect than light
entering our eyes from below.
[[161]edit] Enforced longer cycles
Modern research under very controlled conditions has shown the human
period for adults to be just slightly longer than 24 hours on average.
Czeisler et al. at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults
of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes.
The "clock" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's
rotation.^[162][26]
The 28-hour day is presented as a concept of [163]time
management.^[164][27] It builds on the fact that the week of seven days
at 24 hours and a "week" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of
168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require
staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours.
Each "day" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern.
Studies by [165]Nathaniel Kleitman^[166][28] in 1938 and by
[167]Derk-Jan Dijk and [168]Charles Czeisler^[169][29]^[170][30] in
1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep-wake cycles,
in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a
month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day,^[171][31]
this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake
episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about
24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of
circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including
[172]sleep latency and other functions.^[173][32]
Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people
preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli
like daylight and timekeeping. Early investigators determined the human
circadian period to be 25 hours or more. They went to great lengths to
shield subjects from time cues and daylight, but they were not aware of
the effects of indoor electric lights. The subjects were allowed to
turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted
to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase.
These results became well known.^[174][26] Researchers allowed subjects
to keep electric lighting on in the evening, as it was thought at that
time that a couple of 60W bulbs would not have a resetting effect on
the circadian rhythms of humans. More recent research^[[175]citation
needed] has shown that adults have a built-in day, which averages just
over 24 hours, that indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms and
that most people attain their best-quality sleep during their
[176]chronotype-determined sleep periods.
[[177]edit] Human health
Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may
significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse
reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with
[178]angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) may reduce
nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [179]left ventricular
(reverse) remodelling.^[[180]citation needed]
A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms.
A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during
the day, a [181]power-nap, does not have any effect on normal circadian
rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve
productivity.^[182][33]^[183][34]
There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the
human circadian rhythm, such as [184]seasonal affective disorder (SAD),
[185]delayed sleep phase syndrome (DSPS) and other [186]circadian
rhythm disorders.^[187][35] Circadian rhythms also play a part in the
[188]reticular activating system, which is crucial for maintaining a
state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep-wake cycle
may be a sign or complication of [189]uremia,^[190][36] [191]azotemia
or [192]acute renal failure.
[[193]edit] Disruption
Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers
have experienced the condition known as [194]jet lag, with its
associated symptoms of [195]fatigue, disorientation and [196]insomnia.
A number of other disorders, for example [197]bipolar disorder and some
[198]sleep disorders, are associated with irregular or pathological
functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that
circadian rhythm disturbances found in [199]bipolar disorder are
positively influenced by [200]lithium's effect on clock
genes.^[201][37]
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have
significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside
the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of
cardiovascular disease [202][2] The suppression of melatonin production
associated with the disruption of the circadian rhythm may increase the
risk of developing cancer.^[203][38]^[204][39]
[[205]edit] Effect of drugs
Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside
the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such
as [206]cocaine.^[207][40]^[208][41] Moreover, genetic manipulations of
clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.^[209][42]
[[210]edit] See also
* [211]Actigraphy (also known as Actimetry)
* [212]Advanced sleep phase syndrome
* [213]ARNTL
* [214]ARNTL2
* [215]Bacterial circadian rhythms
* [216]Chronobiology
* [217]Chronotype
* [218]Circadian oscillator
* [219]Circadian rhythm sleep disorders
* [220]Cryptochrome
* [221]CRY1 and [222]CRY2, the cryptochrome family genes
* [223]Delayed sleep phase syndrome
* [224]Diurnal cycle
* [225]Jet lag
* [226]Light effects on circadian rhythm
* [227]PER1, [228]PER2, and [229]PER3, the period family genes
* [230]Power-nap
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To Help Cells' Clocks Keep On Tickin'
38. [352]^ Straif K, Baan R, Grosse Y, Secretan B, El Ghissassi F,
Bouvard V, Altieri A, Benbrahim-Tallaa L, Cogliano V, WHO
International Agency for Research on Cancer Monograph Working
Group. Carcinogenicity of shift-work, painting, and fire-fighting.
[353][1] Lancet Oncol. 2007; 12(8):1065-1066.
39. [354]^ [355]WebMD: Night Shift Work May Cause Cancer
40. [356]^ Uz T, Akhisaroglu M, Ahmed R, Manev H (2003). "The pineal
gland is critical for circadian Period1 expression in the striatum
and for circadian cocaine sensitization in mice".
Neuropsychopharmacology 28 (12): 2117-23.
[357]doi:[358]10.1038/sj.npp.1300254. [359]PMID [360]12865893.
41. [361]^ Kurtuncu M, Arslan A, Akhisaroglu M, Manev H, Uz T (2004).
"Involvement of the pineal gland in diurnal cocaine reward in
mice". Eur J Pharmacol 489 (3): 203-5.
[362]doi:[363]10.1016/j.ejphar.2004.03.010. [364]PMID
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[370]PMID [371]15967985.
[[372]edit] External links
* [373]Circadian rhythm at the [374]Open Directory Project
* Leloup J.C. (2009). "Circadian clocks and phosphorylation: Insights
from computational modeling". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 4 (3): 290-303.
[375]doi:[376]10.2478/s11535-009-0025-1.
* Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A (2007). "Evolutionary mechanisms
of circadian clocks". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 2 (2): 233-253.
[377]doi:[378]10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z.
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January 2, 2006
Universal Timing
Life's Natural Rhythm
Nature's natural rhythms orchestrate when day turns to night, when
flowers must bloom, and provides the cue for when it is time for red
and brown leaves to fall from trees. As human beings, our own inner
rhythm is attuned to this universal sense of timing. Guided by the
rising and setting of the sun, changes in temperature, and our own
internal rhythm, we know when it is time to sleep, eat, or be active.
While our minds and spirits are free to focus on other pursuits, our
breath and our heartbeat are always there to remind us of life's
pulsing rhythm that moves within and around us.
Moving to this rhythm, we know when it is time to stop working and when
to rest. Pushing our bodies to work beyond their natural rhythm
diminishes our ability to renew and recharge. A feeling much like jet
lag lets us know when we've overridden our own natural rhythm. When we
feel the frantic calls of all we want to accomplish impelling us to
move faster than is natural for us, we may want to breathe deeply
instead and look at nature moving to its own organic timing: birds
flying south, leaves shedding, or snow falling. A walk in nature can
also let us re-attune is to her organic rhythm, while allowing us to
move back in time with our own. When we move to our natural rhythm, we
can achieve all we need to do with less effort.
We may even notice that our soul moves to its own internal, natural
rhythm - especially when it comes to our personal evolution. Comparing
ourselves to others is unnecessary. Our best guide is to move to our
own internal timing, while keeping time with the rhythm of nature.
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Références
Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics
[1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics
Browse by soundtrack Search in soundtracks Browse by artist name
[2]A [3]B [4]C [5]D [6]E [7]F [8]G [9]H [10]I [11]J [12]K [13]L [14]M
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- Rhythm of Life Lyrics
Ensemble:
Daddy started out in San Francisco,
Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean,
Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy,
Spread the picture on a wider screen."
And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons
Ready to be hooked on new religions.
Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife.
Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life."
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee,
Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge,
Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton,
Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation,
Built up quite an operation down below.
With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing,
All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below.
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Fly, fly, fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Swim, swim, swim to Daddy
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy,
And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet,
Rhythm in your bedroom,
Rhythm in the street,
Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
To feel The Rhythm Of Life,
To feel the powerful beat,
To feel the tingle in your fingers,
To feel the tingle in your feet,
Flip your wings and fly to Daddy,
Take a dive and swim to Daddy,
Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy,
Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life,
Of life, of life, of life.
Yeah! Yeah! Yeah!
Man!
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Références
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles
Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life.
Music Of Other Climes. Part 2
Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the
elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time
of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm
so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early
Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language,
instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect
rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything
we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may
be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as
the most graceful.
Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ,
and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed
that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not
the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was
apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres,
and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D,
of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can
see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from
the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical
sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation
in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one
great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last.
It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that
comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical
colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life.
Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a
world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense,
so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the
individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not
yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or
hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to
the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature.
Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine
principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt,
thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles,
there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek
people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until
there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks.
As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a
prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become.
When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is
without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the
Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the
world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But
the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being
without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of
what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we
receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given.
We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and
bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has
seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or
artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth
and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new
birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of
music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will
become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure
from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all
that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely,
or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the
harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that
is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back
into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall
you receive the best.
With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the
progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under
the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most
external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the
coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is
sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful
roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention
to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is
that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it
did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national
religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian
Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of
the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change
from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked
change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the
curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much
to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There
were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them
were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even
under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have
expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century
A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to
produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable
success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the
work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called
good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth
century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and
Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new
foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the
centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may
truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by
the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in
modern times.
Continue to:
* prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes
* [44]Table of Contents
* next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3
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[46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics,
[51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music,
[56]vibration
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Keeping the rhythm of life in sync
May 28, 2008
Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the
heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the
rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as
cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per
minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or
physical stress.
The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical
system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed
electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the
heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be
too fast, too slow, or irregular.
All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal
heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people
may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal
rhythm and not even know it.
Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest
pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath,
swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur
because of abnormal heart rhythm.
To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its
relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an
electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time
at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by
placing electrodes on the skin.
Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be
difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case,
other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which
electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart
catheterization.
Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of
electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or
implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows
doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside
the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are
causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing
temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively
destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia.
Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when
the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not
functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can
be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to
resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some
of its pumping function.
Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of
dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The
device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and
delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm.
Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent
disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to
their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular
Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced
treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help
restore the rhythm of life.
Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs
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* [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 1 / 5 (1)
"...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that
provides the rhythm of life..."
Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is
just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood
through our system of vessels.
It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood
circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever
smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after
supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to
become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable
of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy
and thin pipes.
It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all
about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word
"pump" to describe the heart.
What about "metronome"?
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* [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008
+ Rank: 4 / 5 (1)
Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you
don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong.
Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels,
and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and
also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood
return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY
used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to
the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation.
As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick,
as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the
thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow
loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if
this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some
reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive
pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation"
or taking a highschool biology class.
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Rhythm Of Life lyrics
(Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life
Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life
Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon
Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you
I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus)
If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain
Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it
The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus)
Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down
(repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade)
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May 19, 2008
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5 most recent columns
January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By
Diego Schapira
December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara
Wheeler
December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice.
By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos
November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns
November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist.
By Helen Oosthuizen
Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony
By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli ()
1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro
When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving
rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each
producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with
other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this
metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and
around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in
which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful
presence.
I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets
and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human
civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this
planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other
parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately
grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not
empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and
sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the
universe is not threatening for me as before.
Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office,
when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an
echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture
each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity
arising randomly, above the background sound.
Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny
and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of
sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific
scenarios I could never imagine before.
2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso
Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a
patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome.
That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances,
making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a
person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made
unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying
aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those
dangerous noises.
When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she
told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy
session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands.
His sounds were so emotionally intense that their
message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in
a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it
safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with
overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his
together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards,
listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy
session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal
interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside.
My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he
developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to
process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge
amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people,
without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds.
In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional
experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a
Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds
were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they
liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty
words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their
painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light
pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes.
Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the
roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors'
desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both
situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these
dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by
fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event
with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was
grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist.
I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work
with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may
experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to
be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with
and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities
available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and
therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing:
the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the
environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing
amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness
necessary for improving quality of life.
3rd Movement: Trio
In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea
which considers that a good development of each system is possible when
there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its
environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant
interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual
perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system.
Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of
structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with
rhythm entrainment and music.
As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not
determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced
by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective
readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the
structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration.
To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes
schema to structure and order internal and external events using
rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are
self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal
structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically
determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow
an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a
caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal
patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by
comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As
Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with
sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge
our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas
are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human
beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the
emotional response to music.
Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the
metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical
behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because
they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to
understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our
sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be
the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the
most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion,
and metaphorical thinking.
Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration.
Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer,
because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes
separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological
situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They
do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the
capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and
integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory.
There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas
about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a
conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could
answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music
itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which
is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks.
And, thus, they can still feel joy.
4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio
All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the
efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of
criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of
mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared
my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my
dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy,
particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the
highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute
named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to
train psychologists and physicians in this field.
This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and
with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music.
References
Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music:
The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers.
Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the
Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University
Press.
Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning,
Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of
Illinois.
To cite this page:
Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A
World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy.
Moderated discussion
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Iambic Pentameter: The Rhythm of Life?
Sunday March 22, 2009
[bencrystal.jpg]
Does the thought of [23]iambic pentameter terrify you? I remember being
baffeled by it at school myself because I got bogged down in counting
syllables and working out where the stresses go but, I now know that
this is a very technical way of studying iambic pentameter.
In later life, Ive grown to love iambic pentameter. Theres something
beautiful about it that I cant put my finger on. I know for sure that
its in the speaking because on the page it is inert. When you [24]speak
those words aloud, they literally jump off the tongue and the rhythm is
the easiest of all meters to find.
I asked Ben Crystal about this [25]in our interview a few months ago.
He said that iambic pentameter is the rhythm of our English language
and of our bodies a line of that poetry has the same rhythm as our
heartbeat. A line of iambic pentameter fills the human lung perfectly,
so its the rhythm of speech.
I think this is true. When you [26]learn how to speak verse, you soon
discover that its a very instinctive rhythm. Once you relax and go with
the flow, it comes naturally. And, strange as it might sound, classic
iambic pentameter lines like If music be the food of love, play on and
Now is the winter of our discontent do happen to fit a single breath
perfectly if spoken with passion.
So, if youre having trouble with iambic pentameter, remember that its
designed to be spoken, not studied. Open your mouth and speak aloud
those great words.
Photo of Ben Crystal © Scott Wishart
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March 30, 2009 at 2:29 pm
[33](1) [34]Kent Richmond says:
In doing verse translations of five Shakespeare plays, I have
had to learn how Shakespeares iambic pentameter works in order
to give my translations the feel of the original. One of the
beauties of iambic pentameter is that the poet can temporarily
relax the meter without violating it. In this series of made-up
and rather prosaic lines, the first line is straight-ahead
iambic pentameter. The second and third lines, if read
independently, are less obviously iambic pentameter, yet they do
not violate the rhythm. The fourth line is clearly unmetrical
and removes the sense that we are listening to verse.
1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes,
2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. (trochaic
start; feminine ending)
3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. (Two spondees to
start; feminine ending)
4. Dont you ever hit your little sister. (unmetrical)
Shakespeare, at least in the plays I have translated, did not
write verse lines with the rhythm of (4). To make this line
sound a bit more like Shakespeares iambic pentameter, we need to
make a few alterations to line 4.
1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes,
2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters.
3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest.
4. Dont ever hit that little girl again.
To make the whole passage sound like prose, we need to change
the first line a little.
Then her mother took the kids clothes shopping, planning to buy
them all some warmer sweaters. No! No! No! No she bellowed at
the oldest. Dont you ever hit your little sister.
The first and fourth lines now have trochaic feet exposed in the
wrong places, and most editors would print such a passage as
prose. Shakespeares iambic pentameter certainly places
constraints on what rhythms are allowed, yet it allows for
flexibility and naturalness. Take a look at George Wrights book
titled Shakespeares Metrical Art to see the techniques
Shakespeare employed.
April 11, 2009 at 8:25 pm
[35](2) Dave says:
The words literally jump off the tongue? I'd like to see that!
[36]Leave a Comment
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* [37]Introducing Iambic Pentameter
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With
Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from
Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications.
Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature
This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no
one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of
it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may
relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he
requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and
anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the
same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the
same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual
training, recitation, gymnastics, and play.
Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized
with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle
which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of
every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in
the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of
work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there
is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their
appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less
of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to
anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else
it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from
which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle
with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of
salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting
from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human
[40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important
changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality.
The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief
from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this
tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary
conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified
by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries. . . .
When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in
recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious
rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and
the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and
more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak.
Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with
instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is
laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of
activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to
elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to
primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which
threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving
mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. -
Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20.
. . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area
of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a
ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight
years in [42]duration are superposed.
. . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of
buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the
rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the
production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing
weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of
rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135.
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Cultural
Towards Lefebvrian Socio-Nature? A Film about Rhythm, Nature and Science
By [17]James Evans and [18]Phil Jones, School of Environment and
Development, University of Manchester School of Geography, Earth and
Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham (April 2008)
__________________________________________________________________
Section: [19]Cultural
Subjects: [20]Geography, [21]Urban Geography, [22]Environment And
Society, [23]Cultural Geography.
Key Topics: [24]nature , [25]representation.
Abstract
The first thing you will notice about this article is that it is
actually a film. We did not set out to make a film, it just ended up
that way. We started out making music out of environmental data,
wondering why we only ever look at scientific data, why we do not
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landscapes of channelised rivers and broken industrial spaces, we
wanted to reveal the socio-natural rhythms of this hybrid city. The
text you see below represents the shooting script for a film that
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questions the nature of scientific representation and whether the
notion of rhythmanalysis can be stretched to explore rhythms beyond the
human. Furthermore, the process of actually making the video,
submitting it to this journal, and responding to the referees' comments
made us question the very nature of what constitutes an academic paper
in the twenty-first century. The accompanying commentary is our attempt
to deal with these issues.
To link to the film please go to
DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00107.x
This article abstract has been viewed 5359 times.
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J Public Health Policy. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2008 July
24.
Published in final edited form as:
[7]J Public Health Policy. 2006; 27(1): 2-12.
doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200061.
PMCID: PMC2483431
NIHMSID: NIHMS58476
[8]Copyright notice and [9]Disclaimer
Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature
Elena N. Naumova^*
^*Address for Correspondence: Department of Public Health and Family
Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Avenue,
Boston, MA 02111, USA. E-mail: elena.naumova/at/tufts.edu
Small right arrow pointing to: The publisher's final edited version of
this article is available at [10]J Public Health Policy.
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the published article.
Abstract
Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course
of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences.
Understanding seasonal fluctuations in diseases patterns presents us
with a major challenge. To develop efficient strategies for disease
prevention and control, we need to grasp the main determinants of
temporal variations and their interactions. This paper will introduce
the notion of seasonality by outlining several of its factors, using as
illustrations respiratory and enteric water- or food-borne infections.
Keywords: seasonality, water-borne infection, food-borne infection,
respiratory infection
* [12] Other Sectionsv
+ [13]Abstract
+ [14]Introduction
+ [15]Notion of Seasonality
+ [16]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [17]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [18]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [19]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [20]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [21]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [22]References
Introduction
Now let us consider the seasons and the way we can predict whether it
is going to be a healthy or an unhealthy year.
(Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 10)^[23]1
Seasonal fluctuations in birth and death, in sickness and health, are
the haunting mysteries of mankind. People have made predictions from
winds, tides, birds' migrations, spring blooms, sunsets, and
constellations in hope of grasping the future. The complexity and
uncertainty of ancient and modern means of prediction make us wonder to
what extent we are able to understand the rhythm of nature. One might
argue the future cannot be known, but from a practical point of view, a
better understanding of changes in disease occurrences is essential for
building efficient strategies for disease prevention and control.
Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course
of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences.
Since Hippocrates, observers worldwide have noted and documented marked
fluctuations in the incidence of many diseases. In the modern view, the
main determinants of temporal variations in disease manifestation are
evolving host susceptibility, periodicity in pathogen abundance and
transmissibility, and the ever-changing environment that can support or
repress a host or pathogen. Interactions among these factors
responsible for seasonal variation are interwoven into the intricate
fabric of life.
For many diseases, explanations for self-sustained oscillations still
remain elusive. We lack adequate methods and sufficient analytical
tools for comprehensive examination of seasonality in public health
field studies. A dearth of observations, recorded over long periods at
fine resolution, compounded by an enormous number of factors associated
with periodic changes, obscure our ability to understand disease
variation. Urgent need for effective strategies to prevent and control
a spread of emerging infections in the rapidly changing world, however,
demands a deeper insight into the cyclic nature of diseases.
This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality and outline several
factors associated with seasonality using as illustrations enteric
water- or food-borne infections and respiratory infections. Then I
propose a framework for systematic evaluation of seasonal oscillations.
In every part of this presentation, and most importantly, I wish to
stimulate discussion on this challenging topic.
* [24] Other Sectionsv
+ [25]Abstract
+ [26]Introduction
+ [27]Notion of Seasonality
+ [28]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [29]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [30]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [31]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [32]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [33]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [34]References
Notion of Seasonality
Every disease occurs at any season of the year but some of them more
frequently occur and are of greater severity at certain times.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 19)
Seasonality, as noted above, refers to the cyclic appearance of events
over a period of time. A seasonal pattern may appear as a tight cluster
of isolated outbreaks that occurred during a relatively short time
period, then spreading over a wide geographic area.
For example, in a temporal curve of enteric infection cases (i.e.
giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, or rotavirus infections), a compact
cluster of outbreaks is followed by a long interval of low incidence.
Systematic recurrence of such sequences forms a seasonal pattern
typical of a specific pathogen in a given population and in a given
locality. A seasonal increase in enteric or respiratory infection often
produces a well-defined oscillating curve that starts to rise in one
season and declines over the next one.
The three main features characterize seasonality:
* a point in time when a seasonal curve reaches its maximum,
* an amplitude from peak to nadir, and
* a duration of a seasonal increase defined by a shape of a curve.
(The shape of a seasonal pattern reflects how fast a temporal curve
reaches its peak and declines to nadir over a course of a full
cycle. Depending on the length of a cycle whether it is one year or
a half of a year, a seasonal curve would have one or two peaks.)
Seasonal patterns, described by these three characteristics, may vary
for different diseases, different locations, or different
subpopulations. Many viral and bacterial infections in humans show
marked seasonal changes. In some diseases, like salmonellosis and
influenza, annual oscillations explain up to 60% of variability. Such
impact should not be ignored and deserves a proper examination.
* [35] Other Sectionsv
+ [36]Abstract
+ [37]Introduction
+ [38]Notion of Seasonality
+ [39]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [40]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [41]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [42]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [43]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [44]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [45]References
Diseases Seasonal Patterns
Diseases vary in their relationships one with another; some are
opposed, some are mutually agreeable.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 3)
Differences in diseases peaks reflect different etiology, heterogeneity
in host susceptibility, or route of transmission. In temperate
climates, Campylobacter and Salmonella infections are known to rise in
summer, giardiasis in early fall, and rotavirus infection in
mid-winter, etc. Interestingly, for the same infectious agent,
infections recorded in two different locations may present a different
pattern of incidence. A seasonal pattern for cryptosporidiosis in the
United States exhibits one late summer peak ([46]1); in contrast, in
the United Kingdom, two seasonal peaks are seen ([47]2). The UK picture
reflects two dominant sources of exposure: one from animals in the late
spring, and another from humans in the fall ([48]3).
Close temporal clustering of seasonal peaks in diseases that share
similar sources of exposure suggests dominant routes of transmissions.
Peaks in water-borne cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis often cluster
after a summer peak in ambient temperature. Such synchronization in
disease manifestation can be governed by environmental and social
factors. In some instances, periodicity of a given infection observed
in a particular population may be not present in another. A seasonal
peak in cryptosporidiosis cases observed in the general population is
not apparent in the immunocompromized HIV-positive gay men, even though
the incidence of cryptosporidiosis in HIV-positive population is very
high. This suggests differences in dominant routes of transmission.
Seasonal patterns can change over time. After intense vaccination
campaigns in the 1950s and 1970s in the United Kingdom, the patterns of
measles and pertussis changed, with the high rates of disease usually
seen when children were attending school diminishing for measles and
practically disappearing for pertusis ([49]4). Explanations for these
phenomena remain elusive. A departure from a systematically observed
pattern could reflect the evolution of a pathogen or a change in herd
immunity. A simple rule to remember is that a discovery hides in
outliers.
Faced with an abundance of causal agents, a bare observation of a rise
in the incidence of non-specific enteritis should be interpreted with
caution. A seasonal pattern can represent a mix of temporal curves.
Imagine two periodic curves of similar intensity, but one peaks in a
spring and another in a fall; the sum of these two curves might lose
the appearance of seasonality, covering two distinctly seasonal
phenomena.
Some infections are very rare. Their seasonal patterns are difficult to
examine because the relevant data must be collected over a very long
time and/or aggregated over large spatial units. Precision in
evaluating seasonality can thus be jeopardized by time-dependent and/or
space-dependent confounders.
Seasonal fluctuations can be found beyond infectious diseases; chronic
somatic diseases also exhibit substantial temporal variations.
Plausibly, exacerbations in chronic conditions are driven by infectious
agents or environmental changes. Understanding the interplay of an
infection and a chronic disease may lead to better control for both.
* [50] Other Sectionsv
+ [51]Abstract
+ [52]Introduction
+ [53]Notion of Seasonality
+ [54]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [55]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [56]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [57]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [58]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [59]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [60]References
Seasonal Host Susceptibility
When the weather is seasonable and the crops ripen at the regular
times, diseases are regular in their appearance...
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 8)
Poor nutrition directly affects host susceptibility. In places of food
scarcity, researchers suspect that temporal patterns in birth weight
and preterm delivery result from seasonal variations in food
availability ([61]5). In general, due to a less developed immune
system, young children are susceptible to infection; their immune
response may be further weakened by seasonal cutbacks in essential
micronutrients and vitamins.
Anemnestic responses to an antigen determine whether an infection
recurs. Short-lived immune memory together with seasonal changes in
pathogen transmissibility contribute further to the complexity of
seasonal patterns. Even a perfectly healthy person can experience a
change in susceptibility to infection due to stress, injuries, or
trauma. The probability of a marked impact of such factors on disease
seasonality is virtually unknown.
* [62] Other Sectionsv
+ [63]Abstract
+ [64]Introduction
+ [65]Notion of Seasonality
+ [66]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [67]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [68]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [69]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [70]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [71]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [72]References
Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
Some diseases are produced by the manner of life that is followed;
others by the life-giving air we breathe.
(Hippocrates. The Nature of Man, 9)
Temperature, humidity, and precipitation -- the defining factors of
seasons -- are important determinants of pathogens' survival. Changes
influence pathogens' potency and life expectancy, resulting in temporal
fluctuations in pathogens' abundance. In many instances, seasonal
changes in pathogen survival and transmission are inseparably related
to both biological and social aspects of our lives. They are
synchronized by weather. High ambient temperature, for example,
provides a supportive environment for food-borne pathogens, favoring
their multiplication in food and on food preparation surfaces ([73]6).
Food contamination is believed to be a significant mode of transmission
for infections caused by Salmonella and Campylobacter ([74]7);
therefore, during warm weather, the risk for food-borne diseases
increases ([75]8).
Seasonal changes in level of contamination, availability of potable
water, sanitation and hygiene practices, as well as crowding and
person-to-person contacts, affect pathogens' transmissibility.
Worldwide, water use differs from season to season ([76]9). In
temperate climates, warm weather leads to higher water consumption and
encourages outdoor activities -- swimming, camping, and recreational
water use. In tropical regions, contamination of surface water
increases during wet seasons. Although spread of pathogens via food is
certainly possible, contaminated water is the dominant source of
exposure for enteric infections caused by protozoa Cryptosporidium and
Giardia ([77]10 --[78]12). Depending on locality, outbreaks of
cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis associated with drinking or
recreational water frequently occur during warm or wet seasons
([79]13,[80]14).
With the onset of cooler weather, the "heating season" marks a change
in indoor air quality. Inadequate and poorly designed ventilation in
crowded public places and urban transit systems may boost exposure to
air-borne pathogens by increasing their concentration in stagnant air
and by re-circulating contaminated air. Higher relative humidity may
also affect the stability of air-borne droplets in which viruses travel
from person to person.
* [81] Other Sectionsv
+ [82]Abstract
+ [83]Introduction
+ [84]Notion of Seasonality
+ [85]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [86]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [87]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [88]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [89]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [90]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [91]References
Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
You will find, as a general rule, that the constitutions and the habits
of a people follow the nature of the land where they live.
(Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 24)
Diseases do not watch calendars. Their incidence rises and falls
because of changes in factors associated with the diseases. However, in
every culture all social events are synchronized by calendars; and
every calendar reflects the cyclic rhythm of nature.
Traditional celebrations and gatherings observed by communities
according to calendars affect pathogen transmission. Holidays, social
activities, and seasonal travel are often associated with changes in
food consumption and preparation, and are therefore associated with
changes in disease incidence. Preparing meat on a barbecue increases
the risk of Campylobacter infection ([92]15,[93]16) and foreign travel
increases the risk for enteric infections. Aggregation of children in
schools, daycare centers, and summer camps, reflecting school
calendars, facilitates rapid exchange of pathogens. There are marked
seasonal variations in transmission, and thus the incidence of enteric
and respiratory infections.
* [94] Other Sectionsv
+ [95]Abstract
+ [96]Introduction
+ [97]Notion of Seasonality
+ [98]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [99]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [100]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [101]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [102]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [103]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [104]References
Climate Change, Extreme Weather Events, and Disease Seasonality
The changes of the seasons are especially liable to beget diseases, as
are great changes from heat to cold, or cold to heat in any season.
Other changes in the weather have similarly severe effects.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 1)
As weather affects human health by creating favorable conditions for
pathogen proliferation and transmission, severe weather can affect the
timing and intensity of infectious outbreaks, and natural disasters
lead to drastic changes in population structure and pathogen ecology.
Catastrophic events like tsunamis, hurricanes, devastating floods, and
heat waves that cause deaths, population displacement, and
infrastructural damage may have dramatic effects on the incidence of
infections and their seasonal patterns.
Recent work has shown highly significant associations between extreme
precipitation and water-borne disease outbreaks ([105]17). Heavy
precipitation, rapid snowmelt, and floods flush animal wastes from the
land into surface waters and may overwhelm drinking and wastewater
treatment systems. The latter leads to discharges in watersheds of
untreated human wastes. As a result, pathogens can appear in drinking
and recreational water in very high concentrations ([106]18,[107]19). A
rapid snowmelt, resultant runoff, and filtration system failure at the
overloaded local drinking water treatment plant were implicated in the
largest known water-borne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis, which occurred
in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1993 ([108]20). This outbreak happened in
April, not within the usual seasonal peak for cryptosporidiosis cases.
A flood, which also resulted from a rapid snowmelt, has been linked
with a similar increased incidence of diarrhea ([109]21).
Experts expect that global climate change will increase climate
variability and the frequency of extreme precipitation events in
temperate regions ([110]22,[111]23). "Global warming" may also increase
the frequency and magnitude of other extreme weather events, such as
heat waves and droughts, and thereby have profound effects on public
health ([112]24,[113]25). In a comprehensive study conducted in the
United Kingdom that described a short-term link between temperature and
food poisoning, the authors also hypothesized that climate change could
lead to changes in rates of food poisoning ([114]26).
Integration of environmental parameters into disease forecasting and
warning systems could allow public health officials to alert the
populace when specific meteorological conditions pose predictable risks
to health ([115]27). Simple messages about proper food preparation and
refrigeration and the risks of using contaminated recreational waters
could, for example, be provided before, during, and after extreme
events. Better understanding of disease seasonality would also help to
predict outbreaks of infections triggered by climate variability.
* [116] Other Sectionsv
+ [117]Abstract
+ [118]Introduction
+ [119]Notion of Seasonality
+ [120]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [121]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [122]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [123]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [124]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [125]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [126]References
Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy
to Public Health Thinking
Desperate cases need the most desperate remedies.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, I, 6)
At first, seasonal fluctuations should be systematically described.
This requires a framework with sound definitions and analytic tools
suitable for routine use by public health professionals. In public
health sciences, the existing methodology currently lacks methods and
tests for assessing complex interactions in the time-dependent factors
responsible for disease seasonality.
Next, reliable data with fine temporal resolution are a must. The vast
majority of epidemiological studies have examined seasonal patterns of
infections using quarterly or monthly data. This coarse temporal
aggregation can thwart an otherwise detailed, accurate, and
comprehensive analysis of seasonal patterns and may even be misleading
([127]28). Examination of daily or weekly rates can substantially
improve evaluation of seasonal curves, but a systematic approach for
using at least weekly aggregates is needed.
Finally, reluctance to apply sophisticated mathematical models in
public health studies must be overcome. Underlying processes in disease
manifestation and spread are complex and multifaceted. Causal pathways
are often obscured. To disentangle causal effects of many factors
within the circular processes of self-sustaining oscillations demands
the careful building of sound conceptual models of seasonality; models
that can be tested. The emerging fields of computational epidemiology
and intelligent data mining will complement established work in
philosophy of science and mathematical biology to become an essential
part of thinking in public health and policy.
Acknowledgments
I thank Drs Eileen O'Neil and Beth Rosenberg for their thoughtful
suggestions, and the support of funding agencies: the National
Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (U19AI062627), and the
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R01ES013171).
Footnotes
^1Hippocrates' citations are taken from: Lloyd, GER, editor.
Hippocratic Writings. Trans. Chadwick J and Mann WN. London: Penguin;
1978.
* [128] Other Sectionsv
+ [129]Abstract
+ [130]Introduction
+ [131]Notion of Seasonality
+ [132]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [133]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [134]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [135]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [136]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [137]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [138]References
References
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Public Health Rep. 2000;115(5):436-47. [[139]PubMed]
2. Naumova EN, Christodouleas J, Hunter PR, Syed Q. Effect of
precipitation on seasonal variability in cryptosporidiosis recorded by
the North West England surveillance system in 1990 --1999. J Water
Health. 2005;3(2):185-96. [[140]PubMed]
3. McLauchlin J, Amar C, Pedraza-Diaz S, Nichols GL. Molecular
epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in the United Kingdom:
results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in 1,705 fecal samples from
humans and 105 fecal samples from livestock animals. J Clin Microbiol.
2000;38(11):3984-90. [[141]PubMed]
4. Anderson RM, May RM. Infectious Diseases of Humans. New York: Oxford
University Press; 2004.
5. Fallis G, Hilditch J. A comparison of seasonal variation in
birthweights between rural Zaire and Ontario. Can J Public Health.
1989;80(3):205-8. [[142]PubMed]
6. Kusumaningrum HD, Riboldi G, Hazeleger WC, Beumer RR. Survival of
foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces and cross-contamination
to foods. Int J Food Microbiol. 2003;85(3):227-36. [[143]PubMed]
7. Mead PS, Slutsker L, Dietz V, McCaig LF, Bresee JS, Shapiro C, et
al. Food-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect
Dis. 1999;5(5):607-25. [[144]PubMed]
8. Kovats RS, Edwards SJ, Hajat S, Armstrong BG, Ebi KL, Menne B. The
effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series analysis of
salmonellosis in ten European countries. Epidemiol Infect.
2004;132(3):443-53. [[145]PubMed]
9. Gofti-Laroche L, Gratacap-Cavallier B, Genoulaz O, Joret JC,
Hartemann P, Seigneurin JM, et al. A new analytical tool to assess
health risks associated with the virological quality of drinking water
(EMIRA study). Water Sci Technol. 2001;43(12):39-48. [[146]PubMed]
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[[147]PubMed]
11. Rose JB, Huffman DE, Riley K, Farrah SR, Lukasik JO, Hamann CL.
Reduction of enteric microorganisms at the Upper Occoquan Sewage
Authority Water Reclamation Plant. Water Environ Res.
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12. Rose JB, Slifko TR. Giardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and
their impact on foods: a review. J Food Prot. 1999;62(9):1059-70.
[[149]PubMed]
13. Barwick RS, Levy DA, Craun GF, Beach MJ, Calderon RL. Surveillance
for waterborne-disease outbreaks -- United States, 1997 --1998. MMWR
CDC Surveill Summ. 2000;49(4):1-21. [[150]PubMed]
14. Clavel A, Alivares JL, Fleta J, Castillo J, Varea M, Ramos FJ, et
al. Seasonality of cryptosporidiosis in children. Eur J Clin Microbiol
Inf Dis. 1996;15:77-9.
15. Kapperud G, Skjerve E, Bean NH, Ostroff SM, Lassen J. Risk factors
for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of a case --control
study in southeastern Norway. J Clin Microbiol. 1992;30(12):3117-21.
[[151]PubMed]
16. Neimann J, Engberg J, Molbak K, Wegener HC. A case --control study
of risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections in Denmark.
Epidemiol Infect. 2003;130(3):353-66. [[152]PubMed]
17. Curriero FC, Patz JA, Rose JB, Lele S. The association between
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States, 1948 --1994. Am J Pub Health. 2001;91(8):1194-9. [[153]PubMed]
18. Fayer R, Trout JM, Lewis EJ, Xiao L, Lal A, Jenkins MC, et al.
Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay.
Parasitol Res. 2002;88(11):998-1003. [[154]PubMed]
19. Kistemann T, Classen T, Koch C, Dangendorf F, Fischeder R, Gebel J,
et al. Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during
extreme rainfall and runoff. Appl Environ Microbiol.
2002;68(5):2188-97. [[155]PubMed]
20. MacKenzie WR, Hoxie NJ, Proctor ME, Gradus MS, Blair KA, Peterson
DE, et al. A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of Cryptosporidium infection
transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med.
1994;331(3):161-7. [[156]PubMed]
21. Wade TJ, Sandhu SK, Levy D, Lee S, LeChevallier MW, Katz L, et al.
Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the incidence of
gastrointestinal symptoms? Am J Epidemiol. 2004;159(4):398-405.
[[157]PubMed]
22. World Health Organization. Using climate to predict infectious
disease outbreaks: a review. World Health Organization; Geneva,
Switzerland: 2004. Publication no. WHO/SDE/OEH/04.01.
23. Easterling DR, Evans JL. Observed variability and trends in extreme
climate events. Bull Am Meteorol Soc. 2000;81:417-25.
24. Charron D, Thomas M, Waltner-Toews D, Aramini J, Edge T, Kent R, et
al. Vulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a
review. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004;67(20 --22):1667-77.
[[158]PubMed]
25. Patz JA, Epstein PR, Burke TA, Balbus JM. Global climate change and
emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996;275(3):217-23. [[159]PubMed]
26. Bentham G, Langford IH. Climate change and the incidence of food
poisoning in England and Wales. Int J Biometeorol. 1995;39(2):81-6.
[[160]PubMed]
27. Ebi KL, Schmier JK. A stitch in time: improving public health early
warning systems for extreme weather events. Epidemiol Rev.
2005;27:115-21. [[161]PubMed]
28. da Silva Lopes ACB. Spurious deterministic seasonality and
auto-correlation corrections with quarterly data: further Monte Carlo
results. Empir Econ. 1999;24(2):341-59.
__________________________________________________________________
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* [162]Naumova, E.
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* [176]Taxonomy
* [177]Taxonomy Tree
* [178]Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial
variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis.
Public Health Rep. 2000 Sep-Oct; 115(5):436-47.
[Public Health Rep. 2000]
* [179]Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in
cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance
system in 1990-1999.
J Water Health. 2005 Jun; 3(2):185-96.
[J Water Health. 2005]
* [180]Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in
the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in
1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from
livestock animals.
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[181]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [182]A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between
rural Zaire and Ontario.
Can J Public Health. 1989 May-Jun; 80(3):205-8.
[Can J Public Health. 1989]
[183]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [184]Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces
and cross-contamination to foods.
Int J Food Microbiol. 2003 Aug 25; 85(3):227-36.
[Int J Food Microbiol. 2003]
* [185]ReviewFood-related illness and death in the United States.
Emerg Infect Dis. 1999 Sep-Oct; 5(5):607-25.
[Emerg Infect Dis. 1999]
* [186]The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series
analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries.
Epidemiol Infect. 2004 Jun; 132(3):443-53.
[Epidemiol Infect. 2004]
[187]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [188]A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with
the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study).
Water Sci Technol. 2001; 43(12):39-48.
[Water Sci Technol. 2001]
* [189]ReviewReview of epidemiological studies on health effects from
exposure to recreational water.
Int J Epidemiol. 1998 Feb; 27(1):1-9.
[Int J Epidemiol. 1998]
* [190]ReviewGiardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their
impact on foods: a review.
J Food Prot. 1999 Sep; 62(9):1059-70.
[J Food Prot. 1999]
* [191]Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks--United States,
1997-1998.
MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000 May 26; 49(4):1-21.
[MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000]
[192]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [193]Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of
a case-control study in southeastern Norway.
J Clin Microbiol. 1992 Dec; 30(12):3117-21.
[J Clin Microbiol. 1992]
* [194]A case-control study of risk factors for sporadic
campylobacter infections in Denmark.
Epidemiol Infect. 2003 Jun; 130(3):353-66.
[Epidemiol Infect. 2003]
[195]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [196]The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne
disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948-1994.
Am J Public Health. 2001 Aug; 91(8):1194-9.
[Am J Public Health. 2001]
* [197]Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay.
Parasitol Res. 2002 Nov; 88(11):998-1003.
[Parasitol Res. 2002]
* [198]Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during
extreme rainfall and runoff.
Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002 May; 68(5):2188-97.
[Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002]
* [199]A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of cryptosporidium infection
transmitted through the public water supply.
N Engl J Med. 1994 Jul 21; 331(3):161-7.
[N Engl J Med. 1994]
* [200]Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the
incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms?
Am J Epidemiol. 2004 Feb 15; 159(4):398-405.
[Am J Epidemiol. 2004]
[201]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [202]ReviewVulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change
in Canada: a review.
J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004 Oct 22-Nov 26; 67(20-22):1667-77.
[J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004]
* [203]Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases.
JAMA. 1996 Jan 17; 275(3):217-23.
[JAMA. 1996]
* [204]Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England
and Wales.
Int J Biometeorol. 1995 Nov; 39(2):81-6.
[Int J Biometeorol. 1995]
[205]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [206]ReviewA stitch in time: improving public health early warning
systems for extreme weather events.
Epidemiol Rev. 2005; 27():115-21.
[Epidemiol Rev. 2005]
[207]See more articles cited in this paragraph
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Circadian rhythm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search
"Human clock" redirects here. For the online clock, see [8]Humanclock.
Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological
parameters.
A circadian rhythm is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical,
physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including
[9]plants, [10]animals, [11]fungi and [12]cyanobacteria (see
[13]bacterial circadian rhythms). The term "circadian", coined by
[14]Franz Halberg,^[15][1] comes from the [16]Latin [17]circa,
"around", and diem or dies, "day", meaning literally "approximately one
day". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily,
[18]tidal, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called
[19]chronobiology.
Circadian rhythms are [20]endogenously generated, and can be entrained
by external cues, called [21]zeitgebers, the primary one of which is
[22]daylight.
Contents
* [23]1 History
* [24]2 Criteria
* [25]3 Origin
* [26]4 Importance in animals
+ [27]4.1 Impact of light-dark cycle
+ [28]4.2 Arctic animals
+ [29]4.3 Butterfly migration
* [30]5 Biological clock in mammals
+ [31]5.1 Determining the human circadian rhythm
+ [32]5.2 Outside the "master clock"
* [33]6 Light and the biological clock
* [34]7 Enforced longer cycles
* [35]8 Human health
+ [36]8.1 Disruption
+ [37]8.2 Effect of drugs
* [38]9 See also
* [39]10 References
+ [40]10.1 Bibliography
+ [41]10.2 Notes
* [42]11 External links
[[43]edit] History
The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th
century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under
[44]Alexander the Great, described [45]diurnal leaf movements of the
[46]tamarind tree.^[47][2] The first modern observation of endogenous
circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [48]Jean-Jacques
d'Ortous de Mairan in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the
movement of the leaves of the plant [49]Mimosa pudica continued even
when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
In 1918, J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining
24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light
and changes in temperature.^[50][3] [51]Joseph Takahashi discovered the
genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.^[52][4]^[53][5]
[[54]edit] Criteria
To differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from
coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met: 1)
the rhythms persist in the absence of cues, 2) they persist equally
precisely over a range of temperatures, and 3) the rhythms can be
adjusted to match the local time:
* The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant
dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this
criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those "apparent"
rhythms that are merely responses to external periodic cues. A
rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been
tested in conditions without external periodic input.
* The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e., it maintains the same
period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this
criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological
rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway.
At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a
circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely
coincidental.
* The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The
rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms
from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to
resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of
estimating the local time. Travel across [55]time zones illustrates
the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that
it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next.
Until rhythms are reset, a person usually experiences [56]jet lag.
[[57]edit] Origin
[58]Question book-new.svg
This section needs additional [59]citations for [60]verification.
Please help [61]improve this article by adding [62]reliable references.
Unsourced material may be [63]challenged and [64]removed. (October
2007)
Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have
originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the
replicating of DNA from high [65]ultraviolet radiation during the
daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus
[66]Neurospora, which exists today, retains this [67]clock-regulated
mechanism.
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise
and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to
the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in
regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in
coordinating with the environment.^[68][6] This is suggested by the
maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after
several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,^[69][7]
as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the
experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian
rhythms in quail.^[70][8]
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic
[71]cyanobacteria. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian
clock of Synechococcus elongatus can be reconstituted in vitro with
just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has
been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the
addition of [72]ATP. Previous explanations of the [73]prokaryotic
circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription /
translation feedback mechanism.
It is an unanswered question whether circadian clocks in eukaryotic
organisms require translation/transcription-derived oscillations, for,
although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the
same basic architecture (input - [74]central oscillator - output), they
do not share any [75]homology. This implies probable independent
origins.
In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [76]Seymour Benzer first identified a
genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a
model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behaviour:
one had a shorter period, another had a longer one, and the third had
none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named
[77]period.^[78][9] The same gene was identified to be defective in the
sleep disorder FASPS ([79]Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome) in
human beings thirty years later, underscoring the conserved nature of
the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic
components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions
result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in
periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a
specific time of the day.
A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter
half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian
clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is
cell-autonomous.^[80][10] At the same time, different cells may
communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of
electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the
brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for
these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronize the
peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time
of the day as relayed by the [81]eyes travels to the clock in the
brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be
synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body
temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the
biological clock.
[[82]edit] Importance in animals
Circadian rhythmicity is present in the [83]sleeping and feeding
patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear
patterns of core body temperature, [84]brain wave activity, [85]hormone
production, cell regeneration and other biological activities. In
addition, [86]photoperiodism, the physiological reaction of organisms
to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and
the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation
of day length.
" Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food
availability or predator activity is crucial for survival of many
species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the
photoperiod ('daylength') is the most predictive environmental cue for
the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing
of migration, hibernation and reproduction.^[87][11] "
[[88]edit] Impact of light-dark cycle
The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals, including
humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function
with a [89]freerunning rhythm. Each "day", their sleep cycle is pushed
back or forward, depending on whether their [90]endogenous period is
shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that each day
reset the rhythms are called [91]Zeitgebers (from the German, Time
Givers).^[92][12] It is interesting to note that totally-blind
subterranean mammals (e.g., [93]blind mole rat Spalax sp.) are able to
maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external
stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors
(detect light) are still functional; as well, they do surface
periodically.^[[94]citation needed]
Freerunning organisms that normally have one consolidated sleep episode
will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues,
but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light/dark
cycle in nature. The sleep-wake rhythm may, in these circumstances,
become out of phase with other circadian or [95]ultradian rhythms such
as [96]temperature and [97]digestion.^[[98]citation needed]
Recent research has influenced the design of [99]spacecraft
environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been
found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.^[[100]citation needed]
[[101]edit] Arctic animals
Norwegian researchers at the [102]University of Tromsø have shown that
some Arctic animals ([103]ptarmigan, [104]reindeer) show circadian
rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and
sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at [105]70 degrees North
showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter, and spring, but not in
the summer. Reindeer at [106]78 degrees North showed such rhythms only
autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other Arctic animals as
well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and
the constant dark of winter.^[107][13]^[108][14]
However, another study in northern Alaska found that [109]ground
squirrels and [110]porcupines strictly maintained their circadian
rhythms through 82 days and nights of sunshine. The researchers
speculate that these two small mammals see that the apparent distance
between the sun and the horizon is shortest once a day, and, thus, a
sufficient signal to adjust by.^[111][15]
[[112]edit] Butterfly migration
The navigation of the fall migration of the [113]Eastern North American
monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) to their overwintering grounds in
central Mexico uses a time-compensated sun compass that depends upon a
circadian clock in their antennae.^[114][16]^[115][17]
[[116]edit] Biological clock in mammals
Diagram illustrating the influence of light and darkness on circadian
rhythms and related [117]physiology and behaviour through the
[118]suprachiasmatic nucleus in humans.
The primary circadian "clock" in [119]mammals is located in the
[120]suprachiasmatic nucleus (or nuclei) ([121]SCN), a pair of distinct
groups of [122]cells located in the [123]hypothalamus. Destruction of
the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep-wake rhythm.
The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The
[124]retina of the eyes contains not only "classical"
[125]photoreceptors but also photoresponsive retinal [126]ganglion
cells. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called
[127]melanopsin, follow a pathway called the [128]retinohypothalamic
tract, leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and
cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external
cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on the lengths of the day
and night from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the
[129]pineal gland, a tiny structure shaped like a [130]pine cone and
located on the [131]epithalamus. In response the pineal secretes the
hormone [132]melatonin. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs
during the day and its presence provides information about
night-length.
The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter
and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard
have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a
23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural
solar day-night cycle on the planet [133]Mars).^[134][18]
[[135]edit] Determining the human circadian rhythm
The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's
circadian rhythm are
* melatonin secretion by the pineal gland and
* core body temperature.
For temperature studies, people must remain awake but calm and
semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are
taken continuously. The average human adult's temperature reaches its
minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake
time, though variation is great among normal [136]chronotypes.
Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime.
Its onset in dim light, dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO), at about
21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Its major
[137]metabolite can also be measured in morning urine. Both DLMO and
the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or
saliva have been used as circadian markers.
However, newer research indicates that the melatonin offset may be the
most reliable marker. Benloucif et al. in Chicago in 2005 found that
melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated
with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found
that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly
correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In
addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable
and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.^[138][19]
One method used for measuring melatonin offset is to analyse a sequence
of urine samples throughout the morning for the presence of the
melatonin [139]metabolite 6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s). Laberge et al.
in Quebec in 1997 used this method in a study that confirmed the
frequently found delayed circadian phase in healthy
adolescents.^[140][20]
[[141]edit] Outside the "master clock"
More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and
cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the "master
clock". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the
[142]oesophagus, [143]lungs, [144]liver, [145]pancreas, [146]spleen,
[147]thymus, and the [148]skin.^[149][21] Though oscillators in the
skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven so
far.^[150][22]^[151][23] There is some evidence that also the olfactory
bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting
that also these structures may be weak oscillators.
Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding
rather than to [152]light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to
have freerunning rhythms.
[[153]edit] Light and the biological clock
Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [154]phase
response curve (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or
delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required
[155]illuminance vary from species to species and lower light levels
are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm in humans are higher than
the levels usually used in artificial lighting in homes. According to
some researchers^[156][24] the illumination intensity that excites the
circadian system has to reach up to 1000 [157]lux striking the retina.
In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or colour) of light is a
factor in the entrainment of the body clock. [158]Melanopsin is most
efficiently excited by blue light, 420-440 nm^[159][25] according to
some researchers while others have reported 470-485 nm.
It is thought that the direction of the light may have an effect on
entraining the circadian rhythm;^[160][24] light coming from above,
resembling an image of a bright sky, has greater effect than light
entering our eyes from below.
[[161]edit] Enforced longer cycles
Modern research under very controlled conditions has shown the human
period for adults to be just slightly longer than 24 hours on average.
Czeisler et al. at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults
of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes.
The "clock" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's
rotation.^[162][26]
The 28-hour day is presented as a concept of [163]time
management.^[164][27] It builds on the fact that the week of seven days
at 24 hours and a "week" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of
168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require
staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours.
Each "day" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern.
Studies by [165]Nathaniel Kleitman^[166][28] in 1938 and by
[167]Derk-Jan Dijk and [168]Charles Czeisler^[169][29]^[170][30] in
1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep-wake cycles,
in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a
month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day,^[171][31]
this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake
episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about
24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of
circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including
[172]sleep latency and other functions.^[173][32]
Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people
preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli
like daylight and timekeeping. Early investigators determined the human
circadian period to be 25 hours or more. They went to great lengths to
shield subjects from time cues and daylight, but they were not aware of
the effects of indoor electric lights. The subjects were allowed to
turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted
to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase.
These results became well known.^[174][26] Researchers allowed subjects
to keep electric lighting on in the evening, as it was thought at that
time that a couple of 60W bulbs would not have a resetting effect on
the circadian rhythms of humans. More recent research^[[175]citation
needed] has shown that adults have a built-in day, which averages just
over 24 hours, that indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms and
that most people attain their best-quality sleep during their
[176]chronotype-determined sleep periods.
[[177]edit] Human health
Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may
significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse
reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with
[178]angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) may reduce
nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [179]left ventricular
(reverse) remodelling.^[[180]citation needed]
A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms.
A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during
the day, a [181]power-nap, does not have any effect on normal circadian
rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve
productivity.^[182][33]^[183][34]
There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the
human circadian rhythm, such as [184]seasonal affective disorder (SAD),
[185]delayed sleep phase syndrome (DSPS) and other [186]circadian
rhythm disorders.^[187][35] Circadian rhythms also play a part in the
[188]reticular activating system, which is crucial for maintaining a
state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep-wake cycle
may be a sign or complication of [189]uremia,^[190][36] [191]azotemia
or [192]acute renal failure.
[[193]edit] Disruption
Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers
have experienced the condition known as [194]jet lag, with its
associated symptoms of [195]fatigue, disorientation and [196]insomnia.
A number of other disorders, for example [197]bipolar disorder and some
[198]sleep disorders, are associated with irregular or pathological
functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that
circadian rhythm disturbances found in [199]bipolar disorder are
positively influenced by [200]lithium's effect on clock
genes.^[201][37]
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have
significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside
the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of
cardiovascular disease [202][2] The suppression of melatonin production
associated with the disruption of the circadian rhythm may increase the
risk of developing cancer.^[203][38]^[204][39]
[[205]edit] Effect of drugs
Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside
the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such
as [206]cocaine.^[207][40]^[208][41] Moreover, genetic manipulations of
clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.^[209][42]
[[210]edit] See also
* [211]Actigraphy (also known as Actimetry)
* [212]Advanced sleep phase syndrome
* [213]ARNTL
* [214]ARNTL2
* [215]Bacterial circadian rhythms
* [216]Chronobiology
* [217]Chronotype
* [218]Circadian oscillator
* [219]Circadian rhythm sleep disorders
* [220]Cryptochrome
* [221]CRY1 and [222]CRY2, the cryptochrome family genes
* [223]Delayed sleep phase syndrome
* [224]Diurnal cycle
* [225]Jet lag
* [226]Light effects on circadian rhythm
* [227]PER1, [228]PER2, and [229]PER3, the period family genes
* [230]Power-nap
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gland is critical for circadian Period1 expression in the striatum
and for circadian cocaine sensitization in mice".
Neuropsychopharmacology 28 (12): 2117-23.
[357]doi:[358]10.1038/sj.npp.1300254. [359]PMID [360]12865893.
41. [361]^ Kurtuncu M, Arslan A, Akhisaroglu M, Manev H, Uz T (2004).
"Involvement of the pineal gland in diurnal cocaine reward in
mice". Eur J Pharmacol 489 (3): 203-5.
[362]doi:[363]10.1016/j.ejphar.2004.03.010. [364]PMID
[365]15087244.
42. [366]^ McClung C, Sidiropoulou K, Vitaterna M, Takahashi J, White
F, Cooper D, Nestler E (2005). [367]"Regulation of dopaminergic
transmission and cocaine reward by the Clock gene". Proc Natl Acad
Sci USA 102 (26): 9377-81. [368]doi:[369]10.1073/pnas.0503584102.
[370]PMID [371]15967985.
[[372]edit] External links
* [373]Circadian rhythm at the [374]Open Directory Project
* Leloup J.C. (2009). "Circadian clocks and phosphorylation: Insights
from computational modeling". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 4 (3): 290-303.
[375]doi:[376]10.2478/s11535-009-0025-1.
* Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A (2007). "Evolutionary mechanisms
of circadian clocks". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 2 (2): 233-253.
[377]doi:[378]10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z.
[380]Categories: [381]Sleep | [382]Circadian rhythms | [383]Biology of
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January 2, 2006
Universal Timing
Life's Natural Rhythm
Nature's natural rhythms orchestrate when day turns to night, when
flowers must bloom, and provides the cue for when it is time for red
and brown leaves to fall from trees. As human beings, our own inner
rhythm is attuned to this universal sense of timing. Guided by the
rising and setting of the sun, changes in temperature, and our own
internal rhythm, we know when it is time to sleep, eat, or be active.
While our minds and spirits are free to focus on other pursuits, our
breath and our heartbeat are always there to remind us of life's
pulsing rhythm that moves within and around us.
Moving to this rhythm, we know when it is time to stop working and when
to rest. Pushing our bodies to work beyond their natural rhythm
diminishes our ability to renew and recharge. A feeling much like jet
lag lets us know when we've overridden our own natural rhythm. When we
feel the frantic calls of all we want to accomplish impelling us to
move faster than is natural for us, we may want to breathe deeply
instead and look at nature moving to its own organic timing: birds
flying south, leaves shedding, or snow falling. A walk in nature can
also let us re-attune is to her organic rhythm, while allowing us to
move back in time with our own. When we move to our natural rhythm, we
can achieve all we need to do with less effort.
We may even notice that our soul moves to its own internal, natural
rhythm - especially when it comes to our personal evolution. Comparing
ourselves to others is unnecessary. Our best guide is to move to our
own internal timing, while keeping time with the rhythm of nature.
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Life's Natural Rhythm
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Références
Drums games, piano games, guitar games
[1]Drums games. Music games
Drums online games
[2]Drums music machine
free online music game
[3]Drums player
Online music machine
[4]Drums map
Drum flash movie
[5]Music machine
Ear music training
[6]Drums editor
Online drum game
Music online games
[7]Music Free online game
Try to repeat music.
[8]Ear training 01
Free music game
[9]Piano note
Free online teacher
[10]Chords piano
Write chords. then play the melody.
[11]Sound memory
Improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it.
[12]Draw lessons
How to draw free lessons
[13]Online games
Actions, Shooter, Logic online games
[acleardot.gif] [acleardot.gif]
What is music rhythm?
The music rhythm is the beat. It is the most important element in
music. It drives the music forward. It is the gasoline of music.
Rhythms can be simple or complicated.
Essential music vocabulary
Meter
It's the way we group the beats. We group eggs by the dozen. We group
days by the week. We also group beats into two's or three's. That's
meter.
Rhythm
The beat. The beat can be even or uneven, steady or unsteady.
Note Values
Long and short sounds in music are represented by notes. White notes
have longer sounds than black notes.
Tempo
This is the speed of the music.
Time Signature
This is a number that appears at the beginning of the music. The top
number tells you how many beats are in each measure (bar) and the
bottom number tells you what kind of a note gets one beat. The most
common times signatures are 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, and 6/8.
Whole music notes
These notes are whole notes. Each note is four beats long.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[14][whole.gif]
Half music notes
Here are half notes. Did you see the stems? These notes are twice as
fast as whole notes. These note are two beats long.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[15][half.gif]
Quarter music notes
These notes are black. They are quarter notes. Each quarter note gets
one beat. How many beats are in each measure? If you guessed four,
you'd be right!
Click the image to hear the note value.
[16][quarter.gif]
Eighth music notes
These are eighth notes. Notice how the stems are connected by a beam.
These notes move twice as fast as quarter notes. Two note are played
for each beat of music.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[17][eighth_.gif]
Combining Note Values
In 4/4 time, different note values can be combined in each measure as
long as they equal four beats. Click the examples to hear the rhythm
patterns:
[18][combo2.gif]
[19][combo3.gif]
[20][combo4.gif]
Music tempo
Tempo means speed. Musicians use Italian terms for different tempos.
Here is a melody fragment. Click the image to hear the tune:
[21][example.gif]
Click the words below to hear this tune played at different tempos.
Slow Medium Fast
Largo Largo is the slowest tempo.
Adagio Largo means slow or leisurely.
Andante Andante means a walking pace.
Moderato Moderato is medium. It is not too fast or too slow.
Allegro Allegro is fast. It means cheerful in Italian.
Vivace Vivace is quick and lively.
Presto Presto is very fast.
Meter
Meter is how we hear the groupings of beats in music. Music will be in
an even meter (groupings of 2's or 4's) or an odd meter (groupings of
3's).
Even Meters Are Groupings of 2 Beats A [22]march is played in a meter
of 2, which makes it an even meter. That means you will hear the beats
of the march move in patterns of two's.
Odd Meters Are Groupings of 3 Beats A [23]waltz is played in a meter of
three, which makes it an odd meter. That means you will hear the beats
of the waltz move in patterns of three's.
Can you hear meter in music? Click the examples below to identify
whether you hear the music moving in groups of two's or three's.
[24]Example 1 [25]Example 2 [26]Example 3 [27]Example 4 [28]Example 5
Time Signatures
The time signature helps us group the notes so we don't get lost. It's
the way we organize beats in music. It's like grouping eggs by the
dozen or days by the week. The top number tells us how many beats we
can have in one measure. In 4/4 time we have four beats in each
measure. What was the time signature in all of all the examples above?
Remember this: A beat is not the same thing as a note. Notes can have
more or less than one beat. A whole note in 4/4 time has four beats. A
half note in 4/4 time has two beats. An eighth note in 4/4 time has
just 1/2 beat. It takes two eighth notes to make one beat in 4/4 time.
Time signatures and meter: The time signature will tell you the music's
meter. If you can divide the top number by two, the music is in an even
meter. If you can divide the top number by three, the music is in an
odd meter.
Let's look at some popular time signatures and see if we can add up the
beats in each measure.
4/4 Time (Common Time)
[Common_time.gif]
Did you notice the number at the beginning of all the examples above?
That's the time signature. It's 4/4. That means that there are four
beats in each measure and the quarter note gets one beat. This time
signature is also called Common Time because it is the most popular
time signature in music.
Listen to [29]Somewhere Over the Rainbow from The Wizard of Oz. It's in
4/4 time. Each measure equals four beats. It is in an even meter.
[30][rainbow.gif]
3/4 Time (Waltz Time) [Three_four.gif]
A 3/4 time signature would only have three beats per measure. Here is
what it looks like.
Listen to [31]America played in 3/4 time. 3/4 is also called waltz
time. Did you notice the dots after some of the notes. Dotes make the
notes longer. This song is in an odd meter because there are three
beats per measure.
[32][amaerica.gif]
2/4 Time [Two_four.gif]
A 2/4 time signature has just two beats per measure. It looks like
this.
Listen to [33]You're a Grand Old Flag in 2/4 time. Do you see the line
connecting the last two notes. It is called a tie. What is the meter of
this song? Look at the time signature for your answer.
[34][grand.gif]
6/8 Time [Six_eight.gif]
A 6/8 time signature has six beats per measure. The bottom number is 8.
This tells you that the eighth note gets one beat.
Do you recognize the song [35]Follow the Yellow Brick Road from The
Wizard of Oz? It's in 6/8 time. This song goes fast, making it sound
like 2/4 rather than 6/8 time. This time signature can sound like an
even or odd meter because you can divide 6 by 2 or 3.
[36][wizaed.gif]
Drums online games
* [37]Drums music machine free online game
* [38]Drums player online music machine
* [39]Restore rhythm online ear training
* [40]Drums map movie
* [41]Drums editor online game
Music piano and guitar online games
* [42]Computer play a note pitch ear training. You try to understand
it and type c,d,e,f,g...
* [43]Computer show a note you try to understand it play keyboard
* [44]Music machine ear training
* [45]Piano music machine free online game you can compose melody and
play it. Try compose melody. This is very easy.
* [46]Music free online game. Try to repeat music.
* [47]Note pair online game. Find all notes. This game is very useful
for music memory improvement.
* [48]Notes shooter online game. Try to recognize note as fast as you
can.
* [49]Piano note free online teacher
* [50]Sound memory improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to
repeat it.
* [51]Drag music online game. Compose melody by notes.
* [52]Piano note editor. Compose melody. Use mouse for composing.
* [53]Find error at the melody online game. The computer play melody
then replace one note. Try to find error
Music machines
* [54]Orchestra quiz online music
* [55]Music quiz for kids
* [56]Virtual band
Music games for kids
* [57]Rainbow piano for kids. Computer show the color. Kids need to
press correct note.
* [58]Can you play jingle bells? Look at the note sheet and play.
* [59]Piano keyboard online game. Download piano keyboard movie on to
your computer and play.
Metronomes and fork
* [60]Light metronome online movie
* [61]Metronome online movie
* [62]Guitar tuning fork its help tune guitar
Guitar online games
* [63]Guitar music machine
* [64]Guitar chord finder
* [65]Guitar online chords
* [66]Guitar chords
* [67]Basic guitar chords and how it
* [68]Guitar chords machine with sound
* [69]Guitar scales
__________________________________________________________________
Free music games [70]AbabaSoft.com/music
Copyright © 1998 -
Références
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[9]Bookmark and Share [10]Mendeley Back
Titre du document / Document title
Effects of pre-exercise listening to slow and fast rhythm music on
supramaximal cycle performance and selected metabolic variables
Auteur(s) / Author(s)
YAMAMOTO T.^ (1) ; OHKUWA T.^ (2) ; ITOH H.^ (2) ; KITOH M.^ (3) ;
TERASAWA J.^ (3) ; TSUDA T.^ (3) ; KITAGAWA S.^ (3) ; SATO Y.^ (1) ;
Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s)
^(1) Research Center of Health, Physical Fitness and Sports, Nagoya
University, 464-8601, JAPON
^(2) Department of General studies, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON
^(3) Department of Applied Chemistry, Nagoya Institute of Technology,
Showa-ku, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON
Résumé / Abstract
We examined the effect of listening to two different types of music
(with slow and fast rhythm), prior to supramaximal cycle exercise, on
performance, heart rate, the concentration of lactate and ammonia in
blood, and the concentration of catecholamines in plasma. Six male
students participated in this study. After listening to slow rhythm or
fast rhythm music for 20 min, the subjects performed supramaximal
exercise for 45 s using a cycle ergometer. Listening to slow and fast
rhythm music prior to supramaximal exercise did not significantly
affect the mean power output. The plasma norepinephrine concentration
immediately before the end of listening to slow rhythm music was
significantly lower than before listening (p < 0.05). The plasma
epinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to
fast rhythm music was significantly higher than before listening (p <
0.05). The type of music had no effect on blood lactate and ammonia
levels or on plasma catecholamine levels following exercise. In
conclusion, listening to slow rhythm music decreases the plasma
norepinephrine level, and listening to fast rhythm music increases the
plasma epinephrine level. The type of music has no impact on power
output during exercise.
Revue / Journal Title
Archives of physiology and biochemistry ISSN 1381-3455
Source / Source
2003, vol. 111, n^o3, pp. 211-214 [4 page(s) (article)] (14 ref.)
Langue / Language
Anglais
Revue : Français
Editeur / Publisher
Taylor & Francis, Basingstoke, ROYAUME-UNI (1995) (Revue)
Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords
Dopamine agonist ; Neurotransmitter ; Catecholamine ; Human ; Bicycle
ergometer ; Music ; Rhythm ; Dopamine ; Norepinephrine ; Epinephrine ;
Physical performance ; Heart rate ; Physical exercise ;
Mots-clés français / French Keywords
Stimulant dopaminergique ; Neurotransmetteur ; Catécholamine ; Homme ;
Bicyclette ergométrique ; Musique ; Rythme ; Dopamine ; Noradrénaline ;
Adrénaline ; Performance physique ; Rythme cardiaque ; Exercice
physique ;
Mots-clés espagnols / Spanish Keywords
Estimulante dopaminérgico ; Neurotransmisor ; Catecolamina ; Hombre ;
Bicicleta ergométrica ; Música ; Ritmo ; Dopamina ; Noradrenalina ;
Adrenalina ; Rendimiento físico ; Ritmo cardíaco ; Ejercicio físico ;
Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords
Slow music ; fast music ; epinephrine ; norepinephrine ; dopamine ;
supramaximal exercise ; power output ; lactate ; ammonia ; heart rate ;
Localisation / Location
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Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 15397711
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[USEMAP]
Basic Music Theory. Copyright Neil Hawes 1997
Rhythm
* Rhythm in music is dependent on the fact that humans recognise a
[1]beat occurring at a regular interval.
* Rhythm in music is more than just a [2]beat, however; it is the way
that sounds with differing lengths (or gaps between them) and
accents can combine to produce patterns in time which contain a
[3]beat.
+ These sounds do not have to be particularly musical; rhythms
can be made by striking almost anything, as long as there can
be difference in accent.
+ Differences in accent can mean different sounds or just
different loudness (i.e. amplitudes) of sounds
* It is common to speak of a particular rhythm, referring to a
pattern of [4]note lengths which occurs in a piece of music.
+ It is important to understand that the rhythm is defined by
the pattern; the overall speed of it could vary from
performance to performance, but the rhythm would still be the
same.
+ The speed or tempo of a piece of music is indicated by a
[5]metronome marking and/or a [6]direction word or phrase; its
rhythm is specified by various [7]note lengths creating
[8]beats within [9]bars.
* Modern songs often include [10]syncopation in their rhythm
__________________________________________________________________
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Références
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Rhythm and swing
* Swing jazz rhythm
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* [14]Jazz improvisation and music harmony : summary
* [15]Music harmony concepts
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* Swing jazz rhythm
* [19]Jazz techniques : practice
Swing jazz rhythm in improvisation
Swing is very important in improvisation. This word means stressing the
upbeat.
If you also give a "sliding" or "retardation" between notes, you can
create the real swing jazz rhythm, which was born at the beginning of
the XX century about. When you stress an upbeat you make perhaps a
"swinging" rhythmics, (also being without a dragging or a sliding
between notes), for modern rhythm too, (such as pop and rhythm and
blues).
* When you play swing music, that is Dixieland, blues, ragtime,
swing, bebop, cool jazz, hard bop, you have to follow this scheme:
basic rhythmic pattern
...in this way:
swing jazz rhythm pattern
Learn swing jazz rhythm
In order to learn how to swing, you simply have to learn how to reason
in up beat and stressing with it constantly. In other words, swing
means "stressing the upbeat" with an implied octaves triplets clef.
It's so a rhythm "sliding" effect created : the meaning of the American
word "swing" is just similar to "sliding", "waving" or "rocking".
* For example these measures :
how to learn jazz swing
..must be played (in general) in this way:
fundamental jazz swing rhythm
In other words Swing has offbeat (upbeat) accents and an eighth-note
triplets rhythmic base.
Learning jazz swing
Learning swing very well and have the ability to improvise, stressing
and giving the right accent of phrases needs much time to practice it.
Above all, you must pay attention at the beginning to stress upbeat
octave notes constantly and to stop when you realize you are making the
contrary. While stressing notes on your instrument, I suggest to upbeat
by your foot, so that you can emphasize this rhythmic accent better.
You have to get used to reason in upbeat, beginning all over again, as
since we were children we have been starting clapping hands in
downbeat. Swing-jazz rhythm can be so learned naturally after studying
constantly in this direction.
* You need some months to learn swing rhythm on your instrument. I
remember you to stress always the upbeats.
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Music Learning Workshop
[2]Home [3]MLW Blog [4]Join Community [5]Theory [6]Workshops [7]Store
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[8]Home: [9]Basic Music Theory Elements: Music Theory Rhythm
"Music Theory Rhythm"
"Your Journey in Music Rhythm"
Introduction:
Your journey to learn and master the music theory rhythm begins in this
section of the Music Learning Workshop. The music rhythm workshop
provides us with the basics needed to get rhythm down cold. below we
link to the beginner series of lessons.
We start with the essential building blocks of how to fundamentally
know rhythm and then expand our knowledge of rhythm music theory and
know how until we achieve mastery.
Learning Pyramid
The Basic Building Blocks of Rhythm
Rhythm forms the basis of music theory. It is what all other musical
elements are based upon. You can only survive so long in your musical
journey without the essential building block of rhythm.
Ask professional musicians: what one element of music do you find to be
most important? The answer will often be rhythm. As it is the one thing
that is least forgiven by the listener.
Our learning approach assumes a level of maturity in the student. Often
it is related to the age of about 8 years old. However, with proper
guidance younger ages can use the materials. We don't take a single
element to explore, but instead take a bigger picture and zero in on
the elements that make it work.
When we teach notes names or values we do it all at once, because it is
very important that you know how all of them are related right at the
start. This allows you jump start and accelerate your learning process.
Whatâs really neat is that if you get hung up you can go back and see
exactly what that single thing is and how it relates to other items in
context.
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Beginning Rhythm Music Theory Lessons
The sequence of lessons below are designed specifically for the newbie
music student. They start with an overview approach of just looking at
music components such as what is a measure a note in definition. We
then follow the approach detailed above.
Take your time
Beginning Rhythm
[11]Rhythm Definitions
[12]Note Symbols
[13]Note Symbols Practice
[14]Note Time Value
[15]Time Signatures
[16]Counting Rhythm Beats
[17]Counting Rhythm Using Rests
[18]Counting Rhythm Duple Pattern
[19]Counting Rhythm Quadruple Pattern
[20]Counting Rhythm Triplet pattern
[21]Note Relationships
[22]Reference Chart Beat vs Time
There is no hurry, it is far more important that you understand the
concepts than to rush through them to get to the next one. The better
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Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs
[1]Daniel Elazar Papers Index [2][USEMAP:nav-back.gif]
American Political Culture
The Generational Rhythm of American Politics
The American Mosaic, Chapter 2
Daniel J. Elazar
It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States
combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount
of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no
less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space.
Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location
within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less
pinpointed.
This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is
structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of
generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to
the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast
developments with great success. At the same time he has applied
that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that
very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs.
Early Studies of Generational Rhythms
Students of society have noted the succession of generations since
ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology
on generational measures.
The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear
time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning
of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs.
It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the
individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the
starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon
and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon
operating in history.^2
Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational
basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first
recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the
system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third
and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the
Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average
generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full
generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical
scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression,
"forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5
Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The
"generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity
of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a
common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a
time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces
time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new
judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation
and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7
Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have
beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the
founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central
interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of
its beginnings and its ancestry.
Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were
the first to articulate systematic theories of generational
progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte
viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the
thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in
shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the
unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the
aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social
cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that
"History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of
Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle
phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences
appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals
comes to dominate society.^9
These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical
verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years
of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop
the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed
the principle that generations are articulated through historical
events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained.
Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a
fourfold classification of generations as preparatory,
revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10
Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11
Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that
generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific
study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and
heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation
century.^13
After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the
succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of
social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between
contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who
are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his
student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked
on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and
Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm
Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri
Peyre (1948).^16
More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused
on problems of intergenerational differences and the political
socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes
or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund
Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study
of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their
study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963)
focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966)
studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957)
utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in
Israel and the United States, respectively.^20
All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a
comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of
their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and
those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving
many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the
studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two
parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the
people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact,
both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined
that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The
linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive
theory.
None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a
generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black
box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods.
Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of
three generations.
Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining
way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an
empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is
somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin.
Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature,
art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of
eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular
basis.
Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to
embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under
the heading of "a generation".
Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History
A number of theories of political cycles in American history have
been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of
American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational
thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a
series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based
on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective
governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect
"concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of
property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the
wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid
movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories
include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter
Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical
theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the
"more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments"
using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process.
Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the
interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United
States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical
periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23
Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the
manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work.
Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in
presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the
House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual
party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in
American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of
an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American
history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in
length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes
that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device
since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable
directions.
Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his
emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by
using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of
voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state
vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates
five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s)
and the present.
Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the
level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five
periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of
stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of
approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing
already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an
established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in
turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis
to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment
occurs in every generation.
While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with
American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he
begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three
of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive
happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning
point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that
Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a
generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts
as follows:
1787-1801-1816
1816-1829-1841
1841-1861-1869
1869-1901-1918
1918-1931-?
The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the
beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them
primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles
rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have
been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational
patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the
following pattern:
1790-1796/1800
1800-1824/1828
1828-1824/1860
1860-1888/1896
1896-1932
His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to
that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their
significance in the periodization process.
Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although
even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if
it is schematized as follows:
1789-1820
1828
1856-1860
1893/1894
1932
Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized
as follows:
1896-1912
1912-1920-1932-1952
1952
Pomper also offers election dates and no more:
1836
1864-1876
1876-1892/1896
1928/1932-1952
1952-1964
None of these are complete theories and all must be considered
within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit.
Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough
approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the
commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United
States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The
revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of
generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson
Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods
of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named:
e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era.
In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers
developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the
federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could
not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however,
the American people were treated to a display of federal activity --
and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by
FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the
mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth
of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the
mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper
understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United
States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow
of time and events.)
The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its
own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human
time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible
pattern in the progression of political events in the United States
over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not
happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events
in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in
cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the
biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human
life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is
substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though
the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this
phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26
The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind
another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit
decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every
government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on
the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on
the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of
attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be
supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that
being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons
who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive
generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a
fixed moment, as individuals do now....
What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the
same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a
constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A
generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case,
would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to
contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for
14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily
deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of
their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at
that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated
from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of
climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors.
Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that
23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a
society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the
ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as
follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all
ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half
will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every
year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly
have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half
of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time
will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest
integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the
representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself
assembled, can validly extend a debt.
On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a
perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every
constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of
34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not
of right.
The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that
would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to
his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French
Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the
sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making
on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every
nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme,
Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one
which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one
way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure
of location in time.
Human Social Rhythms
As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural
measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a
common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the
"lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does
appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account
for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely
and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation
in any particular civil society and chart the relations among
generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical
patterns of its politics.
During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years,
averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people
will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then
pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every
individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in
which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited.
Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she
begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime
between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at
which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life"
ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and
political roles as are given to mature men and women in society.
Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a
person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention,
if not physically, considered ready for retirement.
Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an
individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first
fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially
powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote,
and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After
attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period
of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be
translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among
those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s
before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on
the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become
serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are
able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the
scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be
defined as the ending of one's serious political career without
suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's
30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential
influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise
influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political
leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds
forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship.
The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle
of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young
people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters
actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people
in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then
declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to
"retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28
In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each
individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society
is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a
common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any
particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its
history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical
record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and
the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at
the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In
the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed
leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in
power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age
and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a
result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly
established.
Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults
settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and
in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational
progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and
purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began
more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed
from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the
door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to
begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of
the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their
patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby
allowing a new generation to assume the reins.
Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they
establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in
social and political life than that found in the simple processes of
human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were
equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the
biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by
locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace
the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of
organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings
are recorded in history, we can do just that.
Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the
progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins
of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is
shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the
impact of the change and encourages new political action to
assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new
generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at
the most four generations are alive at any given time creates
certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of
grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of
inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact
help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In
this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is
socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and
politically unmanageable.
Generations, Centuries and Events
Since the founding of the first European settlements along the
Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations
of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series
of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the
twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three
generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain
distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense
recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th
century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of
American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in
which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century
stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th
century is the century of the United States as a world power.
Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as
chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European
history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have
begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing
point, thus:
a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603)
and the 17th century began with the opening of the American
frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between
the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of
the times.
b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty
of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which
eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the
Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration
for both countries.
c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the
War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era
of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff).
d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the
inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak
of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land
frontier.
Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments
that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show
every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then
dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are
immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the
nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged
during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation
under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a
century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn,
the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments
having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic
society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated
American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments
disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently
in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments
that will replace them.
The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth
generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the
past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators
have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just
when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of
generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was
ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal
intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of
the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of
alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the
generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life
so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began
after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided
over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the
renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence.
The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be
delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression
will be related to major forces and factors shaping American
history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the
principal challenges facing the American people in each generation
and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing
forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of
critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization
in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial,
ethnic and religious groups.
One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate.
Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with
such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for
analytical purposes than life ever is.
The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the
period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old
World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany,
but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually
every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original
thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native
Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies,
and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate
nation with its own civilization.
The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century,
which, from the first American recognition of common continental
interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for
Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent
American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism,
successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and
established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The
idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the
political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans.
The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations,
beginning at the point where America turned its back on European
entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced
them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an
industrialized continental nation with a strong national government;
abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world
power ready for overseas involvements.
The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century --
reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the
arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with
the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding
over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the
results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the
industrial revolution.
As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with
the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the
United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished
relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first
generation of the transformation of society as a result of the
application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new
frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse
of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically
dominant although economically weakened. The results of these
phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder
of the generation.
Generations and Frontier Stages
The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are
products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In
American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if
not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and
centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American
frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other
historical and political phenomena.
Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has
been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of
human control over the natural environment and the utilization of
the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control,
i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American
society is a product of this commitment which is virtually
self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one
frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier
situation that has created the major social and economic changes
which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's
political institutions.
America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages
to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the
metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic
frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled
with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been
decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American
life within that stage.
The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the
historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted
from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the
end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on
the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American
continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the
products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the
westward movement on a basically rural population interested in
settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a
socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits
in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was
dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an
active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and
still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in
Alaska.
Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth
the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and
spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation
into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the
spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's
economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented
the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States,
where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater
part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it
first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the
beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands
of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally
superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth
generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the
end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various
localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant
characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities
from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into
independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and
social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their
existence and growth.
By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth,
in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is
characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society
through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that
encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large
metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from
atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the
accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further
changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with
their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered
a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like
the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological
frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on
a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation.
After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly
and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and
pace of development across the country.
The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by
the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to
be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The
late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash
from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism
challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s,
ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution,
and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth
premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of
resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were
saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over.
By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was
emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the
metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers,
satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new
data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large
belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated
by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not
connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and
small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single
metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different
purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern
coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found
in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its
early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges,
initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its
renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of
financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American
economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of
Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West.
Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues
of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new
frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement
patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its
own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns
and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands
themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between
the points of generational division and the shifts in the various
frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater
detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as
part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are
closely related to the opening of new centuries.
Generations and Economic Periods
One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a
continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to
meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a
result, the governments of the United States have always maintained
a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in
the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to
era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the
governmental response. These changes have also developed on a
generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the
founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic
policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth
generation of American history) the American government continued a
semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the
nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government
involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during
which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in
which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the
outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful
competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a
generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially
unregulated by government.
Demands for government regulation that built up during the last
generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of
intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first
generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the
eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active
government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system.
Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around
toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less
government intervention.
Centuries, Generations and Federalism
The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can
also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first
generation of American history brought the introduction of federal
principles through the contracts and covenants that established the
colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through
Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the
seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a
local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of
national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose
strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly,
concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in
the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and
crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and
then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century.
The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has
been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society.
Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal
with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques
have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These
new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed
have been major elements in the concrete response to the
generation's challenges.
Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship
The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and
their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the
challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of
American history and politics. The changes in those relationships
also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries.
British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious
pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through
giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular
territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as
indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In
the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized
in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian
differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery.
Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism
was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones
existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste
system was in the making.
During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and
sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the
original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the
virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation.
Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new
lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was
abolished in the North.
The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial
establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was
almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant
immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new
post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through
the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration
reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to
reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was
reaffirmed through the institution of segregation.
From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open
pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The
barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants
began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those
barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by
the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape
up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the
twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but
those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of
American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say,
to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American
culture.
While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been
presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the
generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted
descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some
cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary
period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational
responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New
Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political
dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the
Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era.
The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses
Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular
challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its
own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and
the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In
some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could
act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In
others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the challenges changes from century to century.
During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the
tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various
colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related
to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence
of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially
related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American
national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been
essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society
and the assumption of an American role in world affairs.
The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the
initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which,
objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively
recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing
recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors
such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in
voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with
mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to
public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters
does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet
existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular
progression of political events revolving around the development of
a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its
response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and
responses that gives each generation its particular character. While
the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external --
or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is
primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation
themselves.
In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has
taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each
colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its
sisters, and the other science independence when a common national
constitution created a common national politics. In some cases,
particularly after independence when the nation could act
decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other,
particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the political challenges that have dominated the
American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a
new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating
the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the
19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope,
wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the
20th century, they have essentially related to the
metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an
American role in world affairs.
In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within
each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and
new generations is marked by several decisive political actions,
often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature
is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old
generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and
opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a
time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues
they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political
action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population
change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political
activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur
the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the
direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders
to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the
generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many
quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of
governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to
the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five
years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with
digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so
that they will achieve greater success and at the same time
integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The
end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify
and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the
issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for
political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be
recognized.
The Bench Marks of American Political History:
Critical Elections and New Deals
In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a
particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a
system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can
also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political
history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune
with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds;
first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a
particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of
intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government
initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each
generation.
The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections
A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the
sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period
of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The
generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this
pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which
brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs
of voters, shifting them from one political party to another.
Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a
"critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of
electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound
readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the
community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are
formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result
of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide
electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency
from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one
major element to another.
Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that
there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the
allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively
long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public
opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the
1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with
a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In
consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats
have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters
identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority
party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order
to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and
representatives to win control of Congress.
The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968,
only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled
the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a
military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the
"normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his
party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in
1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after
twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the
Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the
Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems,
won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular
Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a
Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his
victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition
and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a
period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White
House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the
Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the
GOP controlled the Senate.
A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a
nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent
and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on
a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical
loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations,
personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of
the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are
nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders
(or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate
state parties which form the two national confederations known as
the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties
are confederations of the state parties, so is the national
coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional
coalitions.
Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and
thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the
electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to
remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead
to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution,
too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems
attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the
dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary
inroads in the various electoral groups.
Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces
opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in
public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in
the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party
that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means
certain that the majority party will even win all the national
elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and
usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a
limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its
losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The
states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as
bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend
its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority
coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for
national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards
for the party faithful during the years of national "famine."
As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent
electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their
changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with
each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find
the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass
and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in
importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed
and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the
realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment
of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a
reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad
electoral groups.^33
While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state
and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon
only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election.
Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make
embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become
fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional
elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional
election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical
elections."^34
The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the
development of the institution of the popularly elected president.
Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of
electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize
presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited
apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and
the House of Representatives.
Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part
of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the
use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on
the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The
generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem.
It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not
so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a
disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as
did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current
during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the
end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that
they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant
percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and
alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues
lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote
as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children
came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the
majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational
buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the
guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file"
alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of
each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the
ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from
balance to majority.
"New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity
The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of
innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind
usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin
Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as
the historical watersheds they are.
In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S.
Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform
activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for
their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian
Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over
a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that
enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way
the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems
of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his
Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind
because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the
moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was
cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic
U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly
the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use
the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came
Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for
all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B.
Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as
it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s.
The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted
approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of
governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of
the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for
another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon
to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational
consolidation.
The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years
between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in
Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of
extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President
Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to
resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial
presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its
power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic
problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led
the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill
the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the
hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states
and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington
before undertaking any activities.
The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an
"outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community
marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth
in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by
many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation,
usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time.
President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's
international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to
shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of
infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the
Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and
localities. These were all to become principal issues during the
period of generational build-up.
The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to
the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the
American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the
tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that
followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By
the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on
behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were
referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues
of the new generation.
Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been
invariably preceded by critical elections through which the
reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to
generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die --
determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either
by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting
them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as
unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to
majority status. These critical elections, which attain their
visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and
interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which
face them.
Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the
party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series
of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the
Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the
1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had
become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the
Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans.
Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the
majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times
and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats
picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in
1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party
coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen
it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The
old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent
severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted
and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the
Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the
programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing
period for the Democratic coalition.
To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in
American politics is not to suggest that events move in any
lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same
as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the
"normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence
we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them
for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too
can be done that gives the theory its power.
Summary
Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of
American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical
understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more
interest to European social philosophers than American social
scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the
question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics,
often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their
theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation
rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to
understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human
social rhythms generally.
Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their
internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries
represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them.
The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation,
constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to
them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical
elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political
history recurring on a generational basis.
Notes
1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by
Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970);
Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational
Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979).
2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the
Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973).
3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5
(Garden City: Doubleday, 1987).
4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday,
1987).
5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a
generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse
11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers,
chapter 32, verse 13.
7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11;
chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte
(London: G. Bell, 1896).
9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive
(London, 1862).
10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani
(Milano: Monanni, 1929).
11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen,
der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4.
(1875), pp. 36-41.
12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on
Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds.,
Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline
(Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in
History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane,
Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp.,
1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1990).
13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method.
14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933).
15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti,
ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and
Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales
(Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in
der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F.
Schoeningh, 1933).
16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der
Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926);
Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and
Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig,
1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris:
Boivin, 1948).
17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the
Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger,
1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4
(1972): 564-78.
18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the
Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956).
19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin,
American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970).
20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and
Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield,
Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970).
21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939).
22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago:
Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the
Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key,
Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961);
Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968);
Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1989).
23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party
System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210.
24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of
Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the
years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of
American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur
Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co.
1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to
conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the
article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using
liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the
generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written
as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something
which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best
reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government
from the Civil War to the New Deal.
25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first
presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American
Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no.
1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns
Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also
Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University
Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992).
26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789.
27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years
old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve
in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President.
28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and
Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman
H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and
the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary
M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney
Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American
Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for
the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris
Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in
America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W.
Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get
Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb
and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda
Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber,
Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership
(Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey,
Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.:
Brooks/Cole, 1989).
29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with
special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in
The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York:
Macmillan, 1961).
30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965):
Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the
Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989).
31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18.
32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections
in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability,"
Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171.
33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate
(Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James
L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and
Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical
Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York:
Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?"
in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party
Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American
Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press
of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed.,
Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and
Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise
Institute, 1983).
34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American
Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party
System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony;
David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization,
Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter,
Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American
Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of
Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985).
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[acleardot.gif] [acleardot.gif]
What is music rhythm?
The music rhythm is the beat. It is the most important element in
music. It drives the music forward. It is the gasoline of music.
Rhythms can be simple or complicated.
Essential music vocabulary
Meter
It's the way we group the beats. We group eggs by the dozen. We group
days by the week. We also group beats into two's or three's. That's
meter.
Rhythm
The beat. The beat can be even or uneven, steady or unsteady.
Note Values
Long and short sounds in music are represented by notes. White notes
have longer sounds than black notes.
Tempo
This is the speed of the music.
Time Signature
This is a number that appears at the beginning of the music. The top
number tells you how many beats are in each measure (bar) and the
bottom number tells you what kind of a note gets one beat. The most
common times signatures are 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, and 6/8.
Whole music notes
These notes are whole notes. Each note is four beats long.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[14][whole.gif]
Half music notes
Here are half notes. Did you see the stems? These notes are twice as
fast as whole notes. These note are two beats long.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[15][half.gif]
Quarter music notes
These notes are black. They are quarter notes. Each quarter note gets
one beat. How many beats are in each measure? If you guessed four,
you'd be right!
Click the image to hear the note value.
[16][quarter.gif]
Eighth music notes
These are eighth notes. Notice how the stems are connected by a beam.
These notes move twice as fast as quarter notes. Two note are played
for each beat of music.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[17][eighth_.gif]
Combining Note Values
In 4/4 time, different note values can be combined in each measure as
long as they equal four beats. Click the examples to hear the rhythm
patterns:
[18][combo2.gif]
[19][combo3.gif]
[20][combo4.gif]
Music tempo
Tempo means speed. Musicians use Italian terms for different tempos.
Here is a melody fragment. Click the image to hear the tune:
[21][example.gif]
Click the words below to hear this tune played at different tempos.
Slow Medium Fast
Largo Largo is the slowest tempo.
Adagio Largo means slow or leisurely.
Andante Andante means a walking pace.
Moderato Moderato is medium. It is not too fast or too slow.
Allegro Allegro is fast. It means cheerful in Italian.
Vivace Vivace is quick and lively.
Presto Presto is very fast.
Meter
Meter is how we hear the groupings of beats in music. Music will be in
an even meter (groupings of 2's or 4's) or an odd meter (groupings of
3's).
Even Meters Are Groupings of 2 Beats A [22]march is played in a meter
of 2, which makes it an even meter. That means you will hear the beats
of the march move in patterns of two's.
Odd Meters Are Groupings of 3 Beats A [23]waltz is played in a meter of
three, which makes it an odd meter. That means you will hear the beats
of the waltz move in patterns of three's.
Can you hear meter in music? Click the examples below to identify
whether you hear the music moving in groups of two's or three's.
[24]Example 1 [25]Example 2 [26]Example 3 [27]Example 4 [28]Example 5
Time Signatures
The time signature helps us group the notes so we don't get lost. It's
the way we organize beats in music. It's like grouping eggs by the
dozen or days by the week. The top number tells us how many beats we
can have in one measure. In 4/4 time we have four beats in each
measure. What was the time signature in all of all the examples above?
Remember this: A beat is not the same thing as a note. Notes can have
more or less than one beat. A whole note in 4/4 time has four beats. A
half note in 4/4 time has two beats. An eighth note in 4/4 time has
just 1/2 beat. It takes two eighth notes to make one beat in 4/4 time.
Time signatures and meter: The time signature will tell you the music's
meter. If you can divide the top number by two, the music is in an even
meter. If you can divide the top number by three, the music is in an
odd meter.
Let's look at some popular time signatures and see if we can add up the
beats in each measure.
4/4 Time (Common Time)
[Common_time.gif]
Did you notice the number at the beginning of all the examples above?
That's the time signature. It's 4/4. That means that there are four
beats in each measure and the quarter note gets one beat. This time
signature is also called Common Time because it is the most popular
time signature in music.
Listen to [29]Somewhere Over the Rainbow from The Wizard of Oz. It's in
4/4 time. Each measure equals four beats. It is in an even meter.
[30][rainbow.gif]
3/4 Time (Waltz Time) [Three_four.gif]
A 3/4 time signature would only have three beats per measure. Here is
what it looks like.
Listen to [31]America played in 3/4 time. 3/4 is also called waltz
time. Did you notice the dots after some of the notes. Dotes make the
notes longer. This song is in an odd meter because there are three
beats per measure.
[32][amaerica.gif]
2/4 Time [Two_four.gif]
A 2/4 time signature has just two beats per measure. It looks like
this.
Listen to [33]You're a Grand Old Flag in 2/4 time. Do you see the line
connecting the last two notes. It is called a tie. What is the meter of
this song? Look at the time signature for your answer.
[34][grand.gif]
6/8 Time [Six_eight.gif]
A 6/8 time signature has six beats per measure. The bottom number is 8.
This tells you that the eighth note gets one beat.
Do you recognize the song [35]Follow the Yellow Brick Road from The
Wizard of Oz? It's in 6/8 time. This song goes fast, making it sound
like 2/4 rather than 6/8 time. This time signature can sound like an
even or odd meter because you can divide 6 by 2 or 3.
[36][wizaed.gif]
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Titre du document / Document title
Effects of pre-exercise listening to slow and fast rhythm music on
supramaximal cycle performance and selected metabolic variables
Auteur(s) / Author(s)
YAMAMOTO T.^ (1) ; OHKUWA T.^ (2) ; ITOH H.^ (2) ; KITOH M.^ (3) ;
TERASAWA J.^ (3) ; TSUDA T.^ (3) ; KITAGAWA S.^ (3) ; SATO Y.^ (1) ;
Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s)
^(1) Research Center of Health, Physical Fitness and Sports, Nagoya
University, 464-8601, JAPON
^(2) Department of General studies, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON
^(3) Department of Applied Chemistry, Nagoya Institute of Technology,
Showa-ku, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON
Résumé / Abstract
We examined the effect of listening to two different types of music
(with slow and fast rhythm), prior to supramaximal cycle exercise, on
performance, heart rate, the concentration of lactate and ammonia in
blood, and the concentration of catecholamines in plasma. Six male
students participated in this study. After listening to slow rhythm or
fast rhythm music for 20 min, the subjects performed supramaximal
exercise for 45 s using a cycle ergometer. Listening to slow and fast
rhythm music prior to supramaximal exercise did not significantly
affect the mean power output. The plasma norepinephrine concentration
immediately before the end of listening to slow rhythm music was
significantly lower than before listening (p < 0.05). The plasma
epinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to
fast rhythm music was significantly higher than before listening (p <
0.05). The type of music had no effect on blood lactate and ammonia
levels or on plasma catecholamine levels following exercise. In
conclusion, listening to slow rhythm music decreases the plasma
norepinephrine level, and listening to fast rhythm music increases the
plasma epinephrine level. The type of music has no impact on power
output during exercise.
Revue / Journal Title
Archives of physiology and biochemistry ISSN 1381-3455
Source / Source
2003, vol. 111, n^o3, pp. 211-214 [4 page(s) (article)] (14 ref.)
Langue / Language
Anglais
Revue : Français
Editeur / Publisher
Taylor & Francis, Basingstoke, ROYAUME-UNI (1995) (Revue)
Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords
Dopamine agonist ; Neurotransmitter ; Catecholamine ; Human ; Bicycle
ergometer ; Music ; Rhythm ; Dopamine ; Norepinephrine ; Epinephrine ;
Physical performance ; Heart rate ; Physical exercise ;
Mots-clés français / French Keywords
Stimulant dopaminergique ; Neurotransmetteur ; Catécholamine ; Homme ;
Bicyclette ergométrique ; Musique ; Rythme ; Dopamine ; Noradrénaline ;
Adrénaline ; Performance physique ; Rythme cardiaque ; Exercice
physique ;
Mots-clés espagnols / Spanish Keywords
Estimulante dopaminérgico ; Neurotransmisor ; Catecolamina ; Hombre ;
Bicicleta ergométrica ; Música ; Ritmo ; Dopamina ; Noradrenalina ;
Adrenalina ; Rendimiento físico ; Ritmo cardíaco ; Ejercicio físico ;
Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords
Slow music ; fast music ; epinephrine ; norepinephrine ; dopamine ;
supramaximal exercise ; power output ; lactate ; ammonia ; heart rate ;
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Basic Music Theory. Copyright Neil Hawes 1997
Rhythm
* Rhythm in music is dependent on the fact that humans recognise a
[1]beat occurring at a regular interval.
* Rhythm in music is more than just a [2]beat, however; it is the way
that sounds with differing lengths (or gaps between them) and
accents can combine to produce patterns in time which contain a
[3]beat.
+ These sounds do not have to be particularly musical; rhythms
can be made by striking almost anything, as long as there can
be difference in accent.
+ Differences in accent can mean different sounds or just
different loudness (i.e. amplitudes) of sounds
* It is common to speak of a particular rhythm, referring to a
pattern of [4]note lengths which occurs in a piece of music.
+ It is important to understand that the rhythm is defined by
the pattern; the overall speed of it could vary from
performance to performance, but the rhythm would still be the
same.
+ The speed or tempo of a piece of music is indicated by a
[5]metronome marking and/or a [6]direction word or phrase; its
rhythm is specified by various [7]note lengths creating
[8]beats within [9]bars.
* Modern songs often include [10]syncopation in their rhythm
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Swing jazz rhythm in improvisation
Swing is very important in improvisation. This word means stressing the
upbeat.
If you also give a "sliding" or "retardation" between notes, you can
create the real swing jazz rhythm, which was born at the beginning of
the XX century about. When you stress an upbeat you make perhaps a
"swinging" rhythmics, (also being without a dragging or a sliding
between notes), for modern rhythm too, (such as pop and rhythm and
blues).
* When you play swing music, that is Dixieland, blues, ragtime,
swing, bebop, cool jazz, hard bop, you have to follow this scheme:
basic rhythmic pattern
...in this way:
swing jazz rhythm pattern
Learn swing jazz rhythm
In order to learn how to swing, you simply have to learn how to reason
in up beat and stressing with it constantly. In other words, swing
means "stressing the upbeat" with an implied octaves triplets clef.
It's so a rhythm "sliding" effect created : the meaning of the American
word "swing" is just similar to "sliding", "waving" or "rocking".
* For example these measures :
how to learn jazz swing
..must be played (in general) in this way:
fundamental jazz swing rhythm
In other words Swing has offbeat (upbeat) accents and an eighth-note
triplets rhythmic base.
Learning jazz swing
Learning swing very well and have the ability to improvise, stressing
and giving the right accent of phrases needs much time to practice it.
Above all, you must pay attention at the beginning to stress upbeat
octave notes constantly and to stop when you realize you are making the
contrary. While stressing notes on your instrument, I suggest to upbeat
by your foot, so that you can emphasize this rhythmic accent better.
You have to get used to reason in upbeat, beginning all over again, as
since we were children we have been starting clapping hands in
downbeat. Swing-jazz rhythm can be so learned naturally after studying
constantly in this direction.
* You need some months to learn swing rhythm on your instrument. I
remember you to stress always the upbeats.
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[8]Home: [9]Basic Music Theory Elements: Music Theory Rhythm
"Music Theory Rhythm"
"Your Journey in Music Rhythm"
Introduction:
Your journey to learn and master the music theory rhythm begins in this
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provides us with the basics needed to get rhythm down cold. below we
link to the beginner series of lessons.
We start with the essential building blocks of how to fundamentally
know rhythm and then expand our knowledge of rhythm music theory and
know how until we achieve mastery.
Learning Pyramid
The Basic Building Blocks of Rhythm
Rhythm forms the basis of music theory. It is what all other musical
elements are based upon. You can only survive so long in your musical
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Ask professional musicians: what one element of music do you find to be
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Take your time
Beginning Rhythm
[11]Rhythm Definitions
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[13]Note Symbols Practice
[14]Note Time Value
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[16]Counting Rhythm Beats
[17]Counting Rhythm Using Rests
[18]Counting Rhythm Duple Pattern
[19]Counting Rhythm Quadruple Pattern
[20]Counting Rhythm Triplet pattern
[21]Note Relationships
[22]Reference Chart Beat vs Time
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[1]Daniel Elazar Papers Index [2][USEMAP:nav-back.gif]
American Political Culture
The Generational Rhythm of American Politics
The American Mosaic, Chapter 2
Daniel J. Elazar
It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States
combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount
of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no
less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space.
Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location
within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less
pinpointed.
This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is
structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of
generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to
the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast
developments with great success. At the same time he has applied
that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that
very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs.
Early Studies of Generational Rhythms
Students of society have noted the succession of generations since
ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology
on generational measures.
The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear
time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning
of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs.
It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the
individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the
starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon
and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon
operating in history.^2
Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational
basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first
recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the
system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third
and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the
Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average
generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full
generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical
scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression,
"forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5
Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The
"generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity
of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a
common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a
time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces
time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new
judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation
and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7
Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have
beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the
founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central
interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of
its beginnings and its ancestry.
Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were
the first to articulate systematic theories of generational
progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte
viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the
thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in
shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the
unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the
aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social
cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that
"History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of
Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle
phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences
appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals
comes to dominate society.^9
These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical
verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years
of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop
the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed
the principle that generations are articulated through historical
events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained.
Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a
fourfold classification of generations as preparatory,
revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10
Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11
Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that
generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific
study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and
heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation
century.^13
After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the
succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of
social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between
contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who
are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his
student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked
on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and
Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm
Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri
Peyre (1948).^16
More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused
on problems of intergenerational differences and the political
socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes
or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund
Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study
of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their
study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963)
focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966)
studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957)
utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in
Israel and the United States, respectively.^20
All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a
comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of
their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and
those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving
many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the
studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two
parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the
people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact,
both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined
that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The
linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive
theory.
None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a
generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black
box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods.
Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of
three generations.
Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining
way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an
empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is
somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin.
Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature,
art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of
eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular
basis.
Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to
embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under
the heading of "a generation".
Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History
A number of theories of political cycles in American history have
been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of
American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational
thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a
series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based
on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective
governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect
"concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of
property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the
wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid
movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories
include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter
Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical
theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the
"more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments"
using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process.
Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the
interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United
States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical
periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23
Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the
manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work.
Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in
presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the
House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual
party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in
American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of
an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American
history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in
length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes
that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device
since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable
directions.
Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his
emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by
using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of
voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state
vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates
five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s)
and the present.
Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the
level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five
periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of
stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of
approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing
already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an
established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in
turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis
to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment
occurs in every generation.
While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with
American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he
begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three
of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive
happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning
point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that
Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a
generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts
as follows:
1787-1801-1816
1816-1829-1841
1841-1861-1869
1869-1901-1918
1918-1931-?
The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the
beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them
primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles
rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have
been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational
patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the
following pattern:
1790-1796/1800
1800-1824/1828
1828-1824/1860
1860-1888/1896
1896-1932
His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to
that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their
significance in the periodization process.
Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although
even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if
it is schematized as follows:
1789-1820
1828
1856-1860
1893/1894
1932
Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized
as follows:
1896-1912
1912-1920-1932-1952
1952
Pomper also offers election dates and no more:
1836
1864-1876
1876-1892/1896
1928/1932-1952
1952-1964
None of these are complete theories and all must be considered
within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit.
Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough
approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the
commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United
States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The
revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of
generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson
Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods
of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named:
e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era.
In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers
developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the
federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could
not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however,
the American people were treated to a display of federal activity --
and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by
FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the
mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth
of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the
mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper
understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United
States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow
of time and events.)
The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its
own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human
time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible
pattern in the progression of political events in the United States
over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not
happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events
in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in
cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the
biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human
life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is
substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though
the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this
phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26
The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind
another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit
decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every
government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on
the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on
the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of
attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be
supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that
being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons
who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive
generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a
fixed moment, as individuals do now....
What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the
same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a
constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A
generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case,
would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to
contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for
14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily
deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of
their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at
that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated
from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of
climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors.
Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that
23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a
society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the
ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as
follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all
ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half
will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every
year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly
have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half
of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time
will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest
integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the
representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself
assembled, can validly extend a debt.
On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a
perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every
constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of
34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not
of right.
The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that
would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to
his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French
Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the
sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making
on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every
nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme,
Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one
which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one
way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure
of location in time.
Human Social Rhythms
As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural
measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a
common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the
"lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does
appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account
for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely
and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation
in any particular civil society and chart the relations among
generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical
patterns of its politics.
During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years,
averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people
will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then
pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every
individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in
which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited.
Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she
begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime
between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at
which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life"
ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and
political roles as are given to mature men and women in society.
Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a
person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention,
if not physically, considered ready for retirement.
Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an
individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first
fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially
powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote,
and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After
attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period
of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be
translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among
those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s
before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on
the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become
serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are
able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the
scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be
defined as the ending of one's serious political career without
suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's
30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential
influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise
influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political
leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds
forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship.
The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle
of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young
people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters
actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people
in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then
declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to
"retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28
In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each
individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society
is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a
common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any
particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its
history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical
record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and
the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at
the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In
the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed
leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in
power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age
and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a
result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly
established.
Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults
settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and
in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational
progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and
purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began
more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed
from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the
door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to
begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of
the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their
patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby
allowing a new generation to assume the reins.
Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they
establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in
social and political life than that found in the simple processes of
human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were
equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the
biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by
locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace
the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of
organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings
are recorded in history, we can do just that.
Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the
progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins
of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is
shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the
impact of the change and encourages new political action to
assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new
generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at
the most four generations are alive at any given time creates
certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of
grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of
inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact
help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In
this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is
socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and
politically unmanageable.
Generations, Centuries and Events
Since the founding of the first European settlements along the
Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations
of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series
of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the
twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three
generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain
distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense
recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th
century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of
American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in
which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century
stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th
century is the century of the United States as a world power.
Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as
chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European
history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have
begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing
point, thus:
a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603)
and the 17th century began with the opening of the American
frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between
the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of
the times.
b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty
of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which
eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the
Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration
for both countries.
c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the
War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era
of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff).
d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the
inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak
of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land
frontier.
Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments
that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show
every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then
dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are
immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the
nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged
during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation
under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a
century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn,
the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments
having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic
society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated
American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments
disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently
in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments
that will replace them.
The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth
generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the
past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators
have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just
when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of
generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was
ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal
intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of
the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of
alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the
generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life
so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began
after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided
over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the
renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence.
The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be
delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression
will be related to major forces and factors shaping American
history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the
principal challenges facing the American people in each generation
and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing
forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of
critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization
in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial,
ethnic and religious groups.
One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate.
Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with
such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for
analytical purposes than life ever is.
The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the
period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old
World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany,
but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually
every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original
thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native
Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies,
and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate
nation with its own civilization.
The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century,
which, from the first American recognition of common continental
interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for
Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent
American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism,
successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and
established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The
idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the
political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans.
The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations,
beginning at the point where America turned its back on European
entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced
them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an
industrialized continental nation with a strong national government;
abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world
power ready for overseas involvements.
The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century --
reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the
arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with
the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding
over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the
results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the
industrial revolution.
As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with
the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the
United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished
relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first
generation of the transformation of society as a result of the
application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new
frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse
of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically
dominant although economically weakened. The results of these
phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder
of the generation.
Generations and Frontier Stages
The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are
products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In
American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if
not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and
centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American
frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other
historical and political phenomena.
Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has
been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of
human control over the natural environment and the utilization of
the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control,
i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American
society is a product of this commitment which is virtually
self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one
frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier
situation that has created the major social and economic changes
which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's
political institutions.
America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages
to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the
metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic
frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled
with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been
decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American
life within that stage.
The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the
historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted
from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the
end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on
the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American
continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the
products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the
westward movement on a basically rural population interested in
settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a
socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits
in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was
dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an
active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and
still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in
Alaska.
Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth
the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and
spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation
into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the
spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's
economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented
the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States,
where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater
part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it
first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the
beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands
of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally
superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth
generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the
end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various
localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant
characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities
from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into
independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and
social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their
existence and growth.
By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth,
in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is
characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society
through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that
encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large
metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from
atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the
accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further
changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with
their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered
a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like
the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological
frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on
a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation.
After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly
and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and
pace of development across the country.
The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by
the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to
be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The
late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash
from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism
challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s,
ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution,
and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth
premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of
resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were
saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over.
By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was
emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the
metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers,
satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new
data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large
belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated
by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not
connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and
small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single
metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different
purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern
coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found
in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its
early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges,
initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its
renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of
financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American
economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of
Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West.
Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues
of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new
frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement
patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its
own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns
and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands
themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between
the points of generational division and the shifts in the various
frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater
detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as
part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are
closely related to the opening of new centuries.
Generations and Economic Periods
One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a
continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to
meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a
result, the governments of the United States have always maintained
a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in
the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to
era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the
governmental response. These changes have also developed on a
generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the
founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic
policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth
generation of American history) the American government continued a
semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the
nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government
involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during
which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in
which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the
outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful
competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a
generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially
unregulated by government.
Demands for government regulation that built up during the last
generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of
intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first
generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the
eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active
government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system.
Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around
toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less
government intervention.
Centuries, Generations and Federalism
The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can
also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first
generation of American history brought the introduction of federal
principles through the contracts and covenants that established the
colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through
Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the
seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a
local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of
national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose
strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly,
concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in
the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and
crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and
then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century.
The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has
been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society.
Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal
with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques
have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These
new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed
have been major elements in the concrete response to the
generation's challenges.
Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship
The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and
their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the
challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of
American history and politics. The changes in those relationships
also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries.
British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious
pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through
giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular
territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as
indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In
the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized
in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian
differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery.
Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism
was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones
existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste
system was in the making.
During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and
sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the
original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the
virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation.
Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new
lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was
abolished in the North.
The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial
establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was
almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant
immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new
post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through
the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration
reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to
reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was
reaffirmed through the institution of segregation.
From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open
pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The
barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants
began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those
barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by
the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape
up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the
twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but
those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of
American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say,
to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American
culture.
While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been
presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the
generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted
descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some
cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary
period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational
responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New
Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political
dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the
Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era.
The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses
Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular
challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its
own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and
the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In
some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could
act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In
others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the challenges changes from century to century.
During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the
tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various
colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related
to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence
of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially
related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American
national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been
essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society
and the assumption of an American role in world affairs.
The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the
initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which,
objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively
recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing
recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors
such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in
voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with
mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to
public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters
does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet
existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular
progression of political events revolving around the development of
a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its
response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and
responses that gives each generation its particular character. While
the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external --
or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is
primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation
themselves.
In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has
taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each
colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its
sisters, and the other science independence when a common national
constitution created a common national politics. In some cases,
particularly after independence when the nation could act
decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other,
particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the political challenges that have dominated the
American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a
new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating
the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the
19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope,
wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the
20th century, they have essentially related to the
metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an
American role in world affairs.
In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within
each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and
new generations is marked by several decisive political actions,
often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature
is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old
generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and
opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a
time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues
they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political
action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population
change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political
activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur
the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the
direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders
to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the
generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many
quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of
governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to
the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five
years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with
digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so
that they will achieve greater success and at the same time
integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The
end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify
and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the
issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for
political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be
recognized.
The Bench Marks of American Political History:
Critical Elections and New Deals
In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a
particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a
system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can
also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political
history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune
with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds;
first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a
particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of
intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government
initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each
generation.
The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections
A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the
sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period
of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The
generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this
pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which
brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs
of voters, shifting them from one political party to another.
Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a
"critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of
electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound
readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the
community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are
formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result
of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide
electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency
from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one
major element to another.
Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that
there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the
allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively
long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public
opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the
1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with
a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In
consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats
have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters
identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority
party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order
to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and
representatives to win control of Congress.
The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968,
only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled
the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a
military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the
"normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his
party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in
1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after
twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the
Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the
Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems,
won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular
Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a
Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his
victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition
and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a
period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White
House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the
Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the
GOP controlled the Senate.
A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a
nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent
and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on
a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical
loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations,
personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of
the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are
nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders
(or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate
state parties which form the two national confederations known as
the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties
are confederations of the state parties, so is the national
coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional
coalitions.
Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and
thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the
electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to
remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead
to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution,
too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems
attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the
dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary
inroads in the various electoral groups.
Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces
opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in
public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in
the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party
that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means
certain that the majority party will even win all the national
elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and
usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a
limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its
losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The
states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as
bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend
its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority
coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for
national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards
for the party faithful during the years of national "famine."
As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent
electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their
changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with
each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find
the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass
and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in
importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed
and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the
realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment
of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a
reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad
electoral groups.^33
While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state
and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon
only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election.
Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make
embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become
fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional
elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional
election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical
elections."^34
The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the
development of the institution of the popularly elected president.
Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of
electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize
presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited
apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and
the House of Representatives.
Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part
of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the
use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on
the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The
generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem.
It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not
so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a
disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as
did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current
during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the
end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that
they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant
percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and
alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues
lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote
as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children
came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the
majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational
buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the
guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file"
alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of
each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the
ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from
balance to majority.
"New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity
The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of
innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind
usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin
Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as
the historical watersheds they are.
In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S.
Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform
activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for
their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian
Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over
a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that
enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way
the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems
of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his
Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind
because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the
moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was
cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic
U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly
the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use
the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came
Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for
all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B.
Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as
it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s.
The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted
approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of
governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of
the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for
another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon
to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational
consolidation.
The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years
between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in
Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of
extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President
Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to
resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial
presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its
power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic
problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led
the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill
the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the
hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states
and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington
before undertaking any activities.
The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an
"outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community
marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth
in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by
many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation,
usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time.
President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's
international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to
shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of
infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the
Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and
localities. These were all to become principal issues during the
period of generational build-up.
The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to
the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the
American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the
tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that
followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By
the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on
behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were
referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues
of the new generation.
Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been
invariably preceded by critical elections through which the
reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to
generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die --
determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either
by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting
them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as
unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to
majority status. These critical elections, which attain their
visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and
interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which
face them.
Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the
party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series
of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the
Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the
1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had
become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the
Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans.
Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the
majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times
and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats
picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in
1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party
coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen
it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The
old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent
severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted
and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the
Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the
programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing
period for the Democratic coalition.
To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in
American politics is not to suggest that events move in any
lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same
as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the
"normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence
we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them
for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too
can be done that gives the theory its power.
Summary
Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of
American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical
understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more
interest to European social philosophers than American social
scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the
question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics,
often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their
theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation
rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to
understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human
social rhythms generally.
Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their
internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries
represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them.
The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation,
constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to
them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical
elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political
history recurring on a generational basis.
Notes
1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by
Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970);
Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational
Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979).
2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the
Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973).
3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5
(Garden City: Doubleday, 1987).
4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday,
1987).
5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a
generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse
11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers,
chapter 32, verse 13.
7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11;
chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte
(London: G. Bell, 1896).
9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive
(London, 1862).
10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani
(Milano: Monanni, 1929).
11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen,
der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4.
(1875), pp. 36-41.
12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on
Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds.,
Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline
(Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in
History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane,
Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp.,
1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1990).
13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method.
14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933).
15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti,
ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and
Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales
(Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in
der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F.
Schoeningh, 1933).
16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der
Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926);
Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and
Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig,
1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris:
Boivin, 1948).
17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the
Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger,
1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4
(1972): 564-78.
18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the
Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956).
19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin,
American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970).
20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and
Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield,
Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970).
21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939).
22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago:
Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the
Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key,
Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961);
Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968);
Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1989).
23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party
System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210.
24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of
Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the
years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of
American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur
Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co.
1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to
conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the
article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using
liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the
generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written
as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something
which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best
reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government
from the Civil War to the New Deal.
25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first
presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American
Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no.
1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns
Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also
Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University
Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992).
26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789.
27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years
old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve
in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President.
28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and
Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman
H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and
the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary
M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney
Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American
Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for
the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris
Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in
America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W.
Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get
Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb
and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda
Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber,
Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership
(Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey,
Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.:
Brooks/Cole, 1989).
29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with
special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in
The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York:
Macmillan, 1961).
30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965):
Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the
Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989).
31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18.
32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections
in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability,"
Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171.
33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate
(Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James
L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and
Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical
Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York:
Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?"
in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party
Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American
Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press
of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed.,
Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and
Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise
Institute, 1983).
34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American
Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party
System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony;
David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization,
Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter,
Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American
Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of
Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985).
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Titre du document / Document title
Rhythms of the secular : The politics of modernizing Arab poetic
forms = Rythmes du séculaire : la politique de modernisation des formes
poétiques arabes
Auteur(s) / Author(s)
FURANI Khaled^ (1) ;
Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s)
^(1) Tel-Aviv University, ISRAEL
Résumé / Abstract
In this article, I ethnographically trace how Arab, mainly Palestinian,
poets have modernized their literary tradition during the last seven
decades. Shortly after the 1948 Israeli occupation of Palestine, the
reign of the classical Arabic ode collapsed, and the modern forms of
free verse and, later, the prose poem became dominant. Aiming to
contribute to the ethnography of modernity, I examine how poets have
adopted and abandoned poetic forms by analyzing their narratives on
rhythm. I explore the political salience of rhythmical transformations
and argue that the secular has been a vital and complex force in the
modern abandonment of metrical discipline. The secular affects how
poets seek to modernize their rhythm, vocabulary, and relation to
public. It also affects, I conclude, the ways in which anthropologists
can and do write about modernity.
Revue / Journal Title
American ethnologist ISSN 0094-0496
Source / Source
2008, vol. 35, n^o2, pp. 290-307 [18 page(s) (article)] (2 p.1/4)
Langue / Language
Anglais
Editeur / Publisher
American Ethnological Society, Washington, DC, ETATS-UNIS (1974)
(Revue)
Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords
Rhythm ; Transformation ; Modernization ; Poet ; Modernity ; Poetry ;
Israel ; Palestine ; Near East ;
Mots-clés français / French Keywords
Forme poétique ; Tradition littéraire ; Arabe palestinien ; Rythme ;
Transformation ; Modernisation ; Poète ; Modernité ; Poésie ; Israël ;
Palestine ; Proche-Orient ;
Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords
poetic form ; modernity and secularism ; Palestine-Israel ;
Localisation / Location
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[acleardot.gif] [acleardot.gif]
What is music rhythm?
The music rhythm is the beat. It is the most important element in
music. It drives the music forward. It is the gasoline of music.
Rhythms can be simple or complicated.
Essential music vocabulary
Meter
It's the way we group the beats. We group eggs by the dozen. We group
days by the week. We also group beats into two's or three's. That's
meter.
Rhythm
The beat. The beat can be even or uneven, steady or unsteady.
Note Values
Long and short sounds in music are represented by notes. White notes
have longer sounds than black notes.
Tempo
This is the speed of the music.
Time Signature
This is a number that appears at the beginning of the music. The top
number tells you how many beats are in each measure (bar) and the
bottom number tells you what kind of a note gets one beat. The most
common times signatures are 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, and 6/8.
Whole music notes
These notes are whole notes. Each note is four beats long.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[14][whole.gif]
Half music notes
Here are half notes. Did you see the stems? These notes are twice as
fast as whole notes. These note are two beats long.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[15][half.gif]
Quarter music notes
These notes are black. They are quarter notes. Each quarter note gets
one beat. How many beats are in each measure? If you guessed four,
you'd be right!
Click the image to hear the note value.
[16][quarter.gif]
Eighth music notes
These are eighth notes. Notice how the stems are connected by a beam.
These notes move twice as fast as quarter notes. Two note are played
for each beat of music.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[17][eighth_.gif]
Combining Note Values
In 4/4 time, different note values can be combined in each measure as
long as they equal four beats. Click the examples to hear the rhythm
patterns:
[18][combo2.gif]
[19][combo3.gif]
[20][combo4.gif]
Music tempo
Tempo means speed. Musicians use Italian terms for different tempos.
Here is a melody fragment. Click the image to hear the tune:
[21][example.gif]
Click the words below to hear this tune played at different tempos.
Slow Medium Fast
Largo Largo is the slowest tempo.
Adagio Largo means slow or leisurely.
Andante Andante means a walking pace.
Moderato Moderato is medium. It is not too fast or too slow.
Allegro Allegro is fast. It means cheerful in Italian.
Vivace Vivace is quick and lively.
Presto Presto is very fast.
Meter
Meter is how we hear the groupings of beats in music. Music will be in
an even meter (groupings of 2's or 4's) or an odd meter (groupings of
3's).
Even Meters Are Groupings of 2 Beats A [22]march is played in a meter
of 2, which makes it an even meter. That means you will hear the beats
of the march move in patterns of two's.
Odd Meters Are Groupings of 3 Beats A [23]waltz is played in a meter of
three, which makes it an odd meter. That means you will hear the beats
of the waltz move in patterns of three's.
Can you hear meter in music? Click the examples below to identify
whether you hear the music moving in groups of two's or three's.
[24]Example 1 [25]Example 2 [26]Example 3 [27]Example 4 [28]Example 5
Time Signatures
The time signature helps us group the notes so we don't get lost. It's
the way we organize beats in music. It's like grouping eggs by the
dozen or days by the week. The top number tells us how many beats we
can have in one measure. In 4/4 time we have four beats in each
measure. What was the time signature in all of all the examples above?
Remember this: A beat is not the same thing as a note. Notes can have
more or less than one beat. A whole note in 4/4 time has four beats. A
half note in 4/4 time has two beats. An eighth note in 4/4 time has
just 1/2 beat. It takes two eighth notes to make one beat in 4/4 time.
Time signatures and meter: The time signature will tell you the music's
meter. If you can divide the top number by two, the music is in an even
meter. If you can divide the top number by three, the music is in an
odd meter.
Let's look at some popular time signatures and see if we can add up the
beats in each measure.
4/4 Time (Common Time)
[Common_time.gif]
Did you notice the number at the beginning of all the examples above?
That's the time signature. It's 4/4. That means that there are four
beats in each measure and the quarter note gets one beat. This time
signature is also called Common Time because it is the most popular
time signature in music.
Listen to [29]Somewhere Over the Rainbow from The Wizard of Oz. It's in
4/4 time. Each measure equals four beats. It is in an even meter.
[30][rainbow.gif]
3/4 Time (Waltz Time) [Three_four.gif]
A 3/4 time signature would only have three beats per measure. Here is
what it looks like.
Listen to [31]America played in 3/4 time. 3/4 is also called waltz
time. Did you notice the dots after some of the notes. Dotes make the
notes longer. This song is in an odd meter because there are three
beats per measure.
[32][amaerica.gif]
2/4 Time [Two_four.gif]
A 2/4 time signature has just two beats per measure. It looks like
this.
Listen to [33]You're a Grand Old Flag in 2/4 time. Do you see the line
connecting the last two notes. It is called a tie. What is the meter of
this song? Look at the time signature for your answer.
[34][grand.gif]
6/8 Time [Six_eight.gif]
A 6/8 time signature has six beats per measure. The bottom number is 8.
This tells you that the eighth note gets one beat.
Do you recognize the song [35]Follow the Yellow Brick Road from The
Wizard of Oz? It's in 6/8 time. This song goes fast, making it sound
like 2/4 rather than 6/8 time. This time signature can sound like an
even or odd meter because you can divide 6 by 2 or 3.
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Titre du document / Document title
Effects of pre-exercise listening to slow and fast rhythm music on
supramaximal cycle performance and selected metabolic variables
Auteur(s) / Author(s)
YAMAMOTO T.^ (1) ; OHKUWA T.^ (2) ; ITOH H.^ (2) ; KITOH M.^ (3) ;
TERASAWA J.^ (3) ; TSUDA T.^ (3) ; KITAGAWA S.^ (3) ; SATO Y.^ (1) ;
Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s)
^(1) Research Center of Health, Physical Fitness and Sports, Nagoya
University, 464-8601, JAPON
^(2) Department of General studies, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON
^(3) Department of Applied Chemistry, Nagoya Institute of Technology,
Showa-ku, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON
Résumé / Abstract
We examined the effect of listening to two different types of music
(with slow and fast rhythm), prior to supramaximal cycle exercise, on
performance, heart rate, the concentration of lactate and ammonia in
blood, and the concentration of catecholamines in plasma. Six male
students participated in this study. After listening to slow rhythm or
fast rhythm music for 20 min, the subjects performed supramaximal
exercise for 45 s using a cycle ergometer. Listening to slow and fast
rhythm music prior to supramaximal exercise did not significantly
affect the mean power output. The plasma norepinephrine concentration
immediately before the end of listening to slow rhythm music was
significantly lower than before listening (p < 0.05). The plasma
epinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to
fast rhythm music was significantly higher than before listening (p <
0.05). The type of music had no effect on blood lactate and ammonia
levels or on plasma catecholamine levels following exercise. In
conclusion, listening to slow rhythm music decreases the plasma
norepinephrine level, and listening to fast rhythm music increases the
plasma epinephrine level. The type of music has no impact on power
output during exercise.
Revue / Journal Title
Archives of physiology and biochemistry ISSN 1381-3455
Source / Source
2003, vol. 111, n^o3, pp. 211-214 [4 page(s) (article)] (14 ref.)
Langue / Language
Anglais
Revue : Français
Editeur / Publisher
Taylor & Francis, Basingstoke, ROYAUME-UNI (1995) (Revue)
Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords
Dopamine agonist ; Neurotransmitter ; Catecholamine ; Human ; Bicycle
ergometer ; Music ; Rhythm ; Dopamine ; Norepinephrine ; Epinephrine ;
Physical performance ; Heart rate ; Physical exercise ;
Mots-clés français / French Keywords
Stimulant dopaminergique ; Neurotransmetteur ; Catécholamine ; Homme ;
Bicyclette ergométrique ; Musique ; Rythme ; Dopamine ; Noradrénaline ;
Adrénaline ; Performance physique ; Rythme cardiaque ; Exercice
physique ;
Mots-clés espagnols / Spanish Keywords
Estimulante dopaminérgico ; Neurotransmisor ; Catecolamina ; Hombre ;
Bicicleta ergométrica ; Música ; Ritmo ; Dopamina ; Noradrenalina ;
Adrenalina ; Rendimiento físico ; Ritmo cardíaco ; Ejercicio físico ;
Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords
Slow music ; fast music ; epinephrine ; norepinephrine ; dopamine ;
supramaximal exercise ; power output ; lactate ; ammonia ; heart rate ;
Localisation / Location
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Basic Music Theory. Copyright Neil Hawes 1997
Rhythm
* Rhythm in music is dependent on the fact that humans recognise a
[1]beat occurring at a regular interval.
* Rhythm in music is more than just a [2]beat, however; it is the way
that sounds with differing lengths (or gaps between them) and
accents can combine to produce patterns in time which contain a
[3]beat.
+ These sounds do not have to be particularly musical; rhythms
can be made by striking almost anything, as long as there can
be difference in accent.
+ Differences in accent can mean different sounds or just
different loudness (i.e. amplitudes) of sounds
* It is common to speak of a particular rhythm, referring to a
pattern of [4]note lengths which occurs in a piece of music.
+ It is important to understand that the rhythm is defined by
the pattern; the overall speed of it could vary from
performance to performance, but the rhythm would still be the
same.
+ The speed or tempo of a piece of music is indicated by a
[5]metronome marking and/or a [6]direction word or phrase; its
rhythm is specified by various [7]note lengths creating
[8]beats within [9]bars.
* Modern songs often include [10]syncopation in their rhythm
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Rhythm and swing
* Swing jazz rhythm
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* Swing jazz rhythm
* [19]Jazz techniques : practice
Swing jazz rhythm in improvisation
Swing is very important in improvisation. This word means stressing the
upbeat.
If you also give a "sliding" or "retardation" between notes, you can
create the real swing jazz rhythm, which was born at the beginning of
the XX century about. When you stress an upbeat you make perhaps a
"swinging" rhythmics, (also being without a dragging or a sliding
between notes), for modern rhythm too, (such as pop and rhythm and
blues).
* When you play swing music, that is Dixieland, blues, ragtime,
swing, bebop, cool jazz, hard bop, you have to follow this scheme:
basic rhythmic pattern
...in this way:
swing jazz rhythm pattern
Learn swing jazz rhythm
In order to learn how to swing, you simply have to learn how to reason
in up beat and stressing with it constantly. In other words, swing
means "stressing the upbeat" with an implied octaves triplets clef.
It's so a rhythm "sliding" effect created : the meaning of the American
word "swing" is just similar to "sliding", "waving" or "rocking".
* For example these measures :
how to learn jazz swing
..must be played (in general) in this way:
fundamental jazz swing rhythm
In other words Swing has offbeat (upbeat) accents and an eighth-note
triplets rhythmic base.
Learning jazz swing
Learning swing very well and have the ability to improvise, stressing
and giving the right accent of phrases needs much time to practice it.
Above all, you must pay attention at the beginning to stress upbeat
octave notes constantly and to stop when you realize you are making the
contrary. While stressing notes on your instrument, I suggest to upbeat
by your foot, so that you can emphasize this rhythmic accent better.
You have to get used to reason in upbeat, beginning all over again, as
since we were children we have been starting clapping hands in
downbeat. Swing-jazz rhythm can be so learned naturally after studying
constantly in this direction.
* You need some months to learn swing rhythm on your instrument. I
remember you to stress always the upbeats.
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[8]Home: [9]Basic Music Theory Elements: Music Theory Rhythm
"Music Theory Rhythm"
"Your Journey in Music Rhythm"
Introduction:
Your journey to learn and master the music theory rhythm begins in this
section of the Music Learning Workshop. The music rhythm workshop
provides us with the basics needed to get rhythm down cold. below we
link to the beginner series of lessons.
We start with the essential building blocks of how to fundamentally
know rhythm and then expand our knowledge of rhythm music theory and
know how until we achieve mastery.
Learning Pyramid
The Basic Building Blocks of Rhythm
Rhythm forms the basis of music theory. It is what all other musical
elements are based upon. You can only survive so long in your musical
journey without the essential building block of rhythm.
Ask professional musicians: what one element of music do you find to be
most important? The answer will often be rhythm. As it is the one thing
that is least forgiven by the listener.
Our learning approach assumes a level of maturity in the student. Often
it is related to the age of about 8 years old. However, with proper
guidance younger ages can use the materials. We don't take a single
element to explore, but instead take a bigger picture and zero in on
the elements that make it work.
When we teach notes names or values we do it all at once, because it is
very important that you know how all of them are related right at the
start. This allows you jump start and accelerate your learning process.
Whatâs really neat is that if you get hung up you can go back and see
exactly what that single thing is and how it relates to other items in
context.
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Beginning Rhythm Music Theory Lessons
The sequence of lessons below are designed specifically for the newbie
music student. They start with an overview approach of just looking at
music components such as what is a measure a note in definition. We
then follow the approach detailed above.
Take your time
Beginning Rhythm
[11]Rhythm Definitions
[12]Note Symbols
[13]Note Symbols Practice
[14]Note Time Value
[15]Time Signatures
[16]Counting Rhythm Beats
[17]Counting Rhythm Using Rests
[18]Counting Rhythm Duple Pattern
[19]Counting Rhythm Quadruple Pattern
[20]Counting Rhythm Triplet pattern
[21]Note Relationships
[22]Reference Chart Beat vs Time
There is no hurry, it is far more important that you understand the
concepts than to rush through them to get to the next one. The better
you understand each step the easier the next one will be.
Start with some terms we will need to become familiar with when
discussing rhythm and music theory and move on through the lessons to
build up on the previous group of knowledge.
This outline shows the components of rhythm available on this site that
you can start learning.
This sequence is designed to quickly lead you through the basics of
what is needed to learn rhythm music theory.
The Music Learning Workshop "Get It Down Cold" Workbooks will be
available soon to lead you through the process.
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Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs
[1]Daniel Elazar Papers Index [2][USEMAP:nav-back.gif]
American Political Culture
The Generational Rhythm of American Politics
The American Mosaic, Chapter 2
Daniel J. Elazar
It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States
combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount
of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no
less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space.
Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location
within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less
pinpointed.
This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is
structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of
generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to
the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast
developments with great success. At the same time he has applied
that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that
very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs.
Early Studies of Generational Rhythms
Students of society have noted the succession of generations since
ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology
on generational measures.
The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear
time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning
of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs.
It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the
individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the
starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon
and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon
operating in history.^2
Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational
basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first
recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the
system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third
and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the
Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average
generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full
generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical
scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression,
"forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5
Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The
"generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity
of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a
common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a
time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces
time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new
judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation
and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7
Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have
beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the
founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central
interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of
its beginnings and its ancestry.
Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were
the first to articulate systematic theories of generational
progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte
viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the
thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in
shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the
unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the
aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social
cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that
"History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of
Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle
phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences
appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals
comes to dominate society.^9
These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical
verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years
of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop
the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed
the principle that generations are articulated through historical
events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained.
Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a
fourfold classification of generations as preparatory,
revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10
Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11
Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that
generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific
study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and
heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation
century.^13
After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the
succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of
social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between
contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who
are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his
student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked
on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and
Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm
Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri
Peyre (1948).^16
More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused
on problems of intergenerational differences and the political
socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes
or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund
Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study
of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their
study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963)
focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966)
studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957)
utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in
Israel and the United States, respectively.^20
All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a
comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of
their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and
those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving
many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the
studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two
parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the
people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact,
both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined
that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The
linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive
theory.
None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a
generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black
box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods.
Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of
three generations.
Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining
way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an
empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is
somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin.
Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature,
art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of
eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular
basis.
Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to
embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under
the heading of "a generation".
Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History
A number of theories of political cycles in American history have
been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of
American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational
thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a
series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based
on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective
governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect
"concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of
property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the
wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid
movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories
include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter
Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical
theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the
"more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments"
using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process.
Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the
interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United
States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical
periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23
Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the
manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work.
Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in
presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the
House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual
party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in
American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of
an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American
history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in
length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes
that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device
since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable
directions.
Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his
emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by
using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of
voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state
vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates
five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s)
and the present.
Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the
level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five
periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of
stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of
approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing
already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an
established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in
turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis
to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment
occurs in every generation.
While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with
American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he
begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three
of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive
happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning
point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that
Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a
generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts
as follows:
1787-1801-1816
1816-1829-1841
1841-1861-1869
1869-1901-1918
1918-1931-?
The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the
beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them
primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles
rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have
been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational
patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the
following pattern:
1790-1796/1800
1800-1824/1828
1828-1824/1860
1860-1888/1896
1896-1932
His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to
that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their
significance in the periodization process.
Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although
even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if
it is schematized as follows:
1789-1820
1828
1856-1860
1893/1894
1932
Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized
as follows:
1896-1912
1912-1920-1932-1952
1952
Pomper also offers election dates and no more:
1836
1864-1876
1876-1892/1896
1928/1932-1952
1952-1964
None of these are complete theories and all must be considered
within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit.
Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough
approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the
commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United
States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The
revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of
generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson
Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods
of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named:
e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era.
In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers
developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the
federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could
not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however,
the American people were treated to a display of federal activity --
and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by
FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the
mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth
of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the
mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper
understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United
States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow
of time and events.)
The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its
own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human
time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible
pattern in the progression of political events in the United States
over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not
happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events
in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in
cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the
biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human
life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is
substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though
the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this
phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26
The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind
another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit
decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every
government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on
the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on
the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of
attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be
supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that
being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons
who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive
generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a
fixed moment, as individuals do now....
What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the
same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a
constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A
generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case,
would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to
contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for
14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily
deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of
their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at
that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated
from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of
climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors.
Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that
23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a
society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the
ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as
follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all
ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half
will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every
year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly
have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half
of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time
will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest
integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the
representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself
assembled, can validly extend a debt.
On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a
perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every
constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of
34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not
of right.
The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that
would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to
his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French
Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the
sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making
on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every
nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme,
Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one
which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one
way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure
of location in time.
Human Social Rhythms
As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural
measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a
common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the
"lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does
appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account
for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely
and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation
in any particular civil society and chart the relations among
generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical
patterns of its politics.
During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years,
averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people
will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then
pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every
individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in
which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited.
Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she
begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime
between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at
which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life"
ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and
political roles as are given to mature men and women in society.
Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a
person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention,
if not physically, considered ready for retirement.
Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an
individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first
fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially
powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote,
and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After
attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period
of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be
translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among
those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s
before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on
the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become
serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are
able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the
scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be
defined as the ending of one's serious political career without
suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's
30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential
influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise
influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political
leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds
forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship.
The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle
of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young
people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters
actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people
in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then
declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to
"retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28
In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each
individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society
is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a
common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any
particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its
history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical
record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and
the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at
the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In
the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed
leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in
power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age
and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a
result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly
established.
Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults
settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and
in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational
progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and
purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began
more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed
from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the
door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to
begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of
the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their
patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby
allowing a new generation to assume the reins.
Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they
establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in
social and political life than that found in the simple processes of
human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were
equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the
biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by
locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace
the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of
organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings
are recorded in history, we can do just that.
Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the
progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins
of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is
shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the
impact of the change and encourages new political action to
assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new
generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at
the most four generations are alive at any given time creates
certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of
grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of
inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact
help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In
this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is
socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and
politically unmanageable.
Generations, Centuries and Events
Since the founding of the first European settlements along the
Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations
of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series
of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the
twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three
generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain
distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense
recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th
century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of
American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in
which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century
stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th
century is the century of the United States as a world power.
Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as
chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European
history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have
begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing
point, thus:
a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603)
and the 17th century began with the opening of the American
frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between
the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of
the times.
b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty
of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which
eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the
Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration
for both countries.
c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the
War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era
of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff).
d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the
inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak
of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land
frontier.
Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments
that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show
every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then
dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are
immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the
nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged
during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation
under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a
century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn,
the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments
having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic
society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated
American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments
disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently
in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments
that will replace them.
The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth
generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the
past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators
have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just
when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of
generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was
ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal
intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of
the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of
alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the
generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life
so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began
after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided
over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the
renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence.
The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be
delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression
will be related to major forces and factors shaping American
history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the
principal challenges facing the American people in each generation
and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing
forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of
critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization
in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial,
ethnic and religious groups.
One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate.
Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with
such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for
analytical purposes than life ever is.
The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the
period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old
World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany,
but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually
every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original
thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native
Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies,
and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate
nation with its own civilization.
The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century,
which, from the first American recognition of common continental
interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for
Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent
American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism,
successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and
established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The
idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the
political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans.
The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations,
beginning at the point where America turned its back on European
entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced
them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an
industrialized continental nation with a strong national government;
abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world
power ready for overseas involvements.
The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century --
reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the
arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with
the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding
over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the
results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the
industrial revolution.
As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with
the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the
United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished
relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first
generation of the transformation of society as a result of the
application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new
frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse
of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically
dominant although economically weakened. The results of these
phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder
of the generation.
Generations and Frontier Stages
The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are
products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In
American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if
not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and
centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American
frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other
historical and political phenomena.
Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has
been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of
human control over the natural environment and the utilization of
the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control,
i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American
society is a product of this commitment which is virtually
self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one
frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier
situation that has created the major social and economic changes
which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's
political institutions.
America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages
to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the
metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic
frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled
with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been
decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American
life within that stage.
The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the
historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted
from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the
end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on
the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American
continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the
products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the
westward movement on a basically rural population interested in
settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a
socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits
in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was
dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an
active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and
still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in
Alaska.
Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth
the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and
spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation
into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the
spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's
economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented
the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States,
where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater
part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it
first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the
beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands
of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally
superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth
generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the
end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various
localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant
characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities
from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into
independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and
social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their
existence and growth.
By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth,
in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is
characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society
through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that
encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large
metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from
atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the
accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further
changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with
their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered
a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like
the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological
frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on
a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation.
After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly
and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and
pace of development across the country.
The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by
the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to
be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The
late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash
from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism
challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s,
ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution,
and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth
premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of
resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were
saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over.
By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was
emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the
metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers,
satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new
data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large
belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated
by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not
connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and
small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single
metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different
purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern
coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found
in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its
early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges,
initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its
renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of
financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American
economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of
Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West.
Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues
of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new
frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement
patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its
own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns
and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands
themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between
the points of generational division and the shifts in the various
frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater
detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as
part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are
closely related to the opening of new centuries.
Generations and Economic Periods
One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a
continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to
meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a
result, the governments of the United States have always maintained
a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in
the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to
era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the
governmental response. These changes have also developed on a
generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the
founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic
policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth
generation of American history) the American government continued a
semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the
nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government
involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during
which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in
which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the
outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful
competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a
generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially
unregulated by government.
Demands for government regulation that built up during the last
generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of
intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first
generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the
eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active
government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system.
Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around
toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less
government intervention.
Centuries, Generations and Federalism
The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can
also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first
generation of American history brought the introduction of federal
principles through the contracts and covenants that established the
colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through
Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the
seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a
local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of
national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose
strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly,
concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in
the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and
crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and
then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century.
The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has
been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society.
Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal
with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques
have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These
new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed
have been major elements in the concrete response to the
generation's challenges.
Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship
The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and
their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the
challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of
American history and politics. The changes in those relationships
also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries.
British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious
pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through
giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular
territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as
indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In
the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized
in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian
differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery.
Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism
was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones
existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste
system was in the making.
During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and
sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the
original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the
virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation.
Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new
lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was
abolished in the North.
The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial
establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was
almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant
immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new
post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through
the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration
reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to
reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was
reaffirmed through the institution of segregation.
From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open
pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The
barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants
began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those
barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by
the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape
up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the
twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but
those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of
American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say,
to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American
culture.
While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been
presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the
generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted
descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some
cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary
period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational
responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New
Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political
dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the
Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era.
The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses
Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular
challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its
own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and
the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In
some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could
act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In
others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the challenges changes from century to century.
During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the
tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various
colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related
to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence
of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially
related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American
national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been
essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society
and the assumption of an American role in world affairs.
The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the
initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which,
objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively
recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing
recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors
such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in
voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with
mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to
public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters
does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet
existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular
progression of political events revolving around the development of
a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its
response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and
responses that gives each generation its particular character. While
the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external --
or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is
primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation
themselves.
In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has
taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each
colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its
sisters, and the other science independence when a common national
constitution created a common national politics. In some cases,
particularly after independence when the nation could act
decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other,
particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the political challenges that have dominated the
American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a
new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating
the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the
19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope,
wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the
20th century, they have essentially related to the
metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an
American role in world affairs.
In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within
each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and
new generations is marked by several decisive political actions,
often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature
is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old
generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and
opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a
time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues
they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political
action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population
change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political
activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur
the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the
direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders
to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the
generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many
quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of
governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to
the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five
years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with
digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so
that they will achieve greater success and at the same time
integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The
end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify
and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the
issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for
political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be
recognized.
The Bench Marks of American Political History:
Critical Elections and New Deals
In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a
particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a
system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can
also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political
history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune
with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds;
first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a
particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of
intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government
initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each
generation.
The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections
A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the
sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period
of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The
generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this
pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which
brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs
of voters, shifting them from one political party to another.
Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a
"critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of
electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound
readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the
community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are
formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result
of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide
electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency
from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one
major element to another.
Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that
there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the
allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively
long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public
opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the
1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with
a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In
consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats
have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters
identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority
party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order
to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and
representatives to win control of Congress.
The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968,
only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled
the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a
military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the
"normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his
party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in
1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after
twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the
Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the
Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems,
won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular
Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a
Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his
victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition
and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a
period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White
House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the
Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the
GOP controlled the Senate.
A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a
nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent
and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on
a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical
loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations,
personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of
the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are
nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders
(or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate
state parties which form the two national confederations known as
the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties
are confederations of the state parties, so is the national
coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional
coalitions.
Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and
thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the
electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to
remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead
to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution,
too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems
attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the
dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary
inroads in the various electoral groups.
Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces
opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in
public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in
the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party
that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means
certain that the majority party will even win all the national
elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and
usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a
limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its
losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The
states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as
bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend
its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority
coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for
national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards
for the party faithful during the years of national "famine."
As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent
electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their
changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with
each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find
the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass
and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in
importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed
and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the
realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment
of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a
reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad
electoral groups.^33
While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state
and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon
only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election.
Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make
embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become
fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional
elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional
election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical
elections."^34
The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the
development of the institution of the popularly elected president.
Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of
electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize
presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited
apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and
the House of Representatives.
Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part
of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the
use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on
the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The
generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem.
It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not
so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a
disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as
did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current
during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the
end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that
they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant
percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and
alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues
lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote
as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children
came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the
majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational
buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the
guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file"
alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of
each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the
ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from
balance to majority.
"New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity
The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of
innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind
usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin
Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as
the historical watersheds they are.
In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S.
Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform
activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for
their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian
Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over
a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that
enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way
the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems
of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his
Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind
because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the
moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was
cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic
U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly
the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use
the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came
Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for
all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B.
Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as
it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s.
The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted
approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of
governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of
the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for
another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon
to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational
consolidation.
The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years
between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in
Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of
extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President
Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to
resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial
presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its
power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic
problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led
the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill
the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the
hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states
and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington
before undertaking any activities.
The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an
"outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community
marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth
in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by
many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation,
usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time.
President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's
international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to
shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of
infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the
Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and
localities. These were all to become principal issues during the
period of generational build-up.
The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to
the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the
American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the
tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that
followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By
the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on
behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were
referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues
of the new generation.
Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been
invariably preceded by critical elections through which the
reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to
generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die --
determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either
by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting
them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as
unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to
majority status. These critical elections, which attain their
visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and
interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which
face them.
Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the
party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series
of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the
Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the
1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had
become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the
Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans.
Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the
majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times
and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats
picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in
1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party
coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen
it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The
old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent
severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted
and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the
Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the
programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing
period for the Democratic coalition.
To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in
American politics is not to suggest that events move in any
lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same
as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the
"normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence
we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them
for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too
can be done that gives the theory its power.
Summary
Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of
American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical
understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more
interest to European social philosophers than American social
scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the
question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics,
often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their
theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation
rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to
understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human
social rhythms generally.
Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their
internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries
represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them.
The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation,
constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to
them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical
elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political
history recurring on a generational basis.
Notes
1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by
Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970);
Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational
Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979).
2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the
Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973).
3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5
(Garden City: Doubleday, 1987).
4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday,
1987).
5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a
generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse
11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers,
chapter 32, verse 13.
7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11;
chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte
(London: G. Bell, 1896).
9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive
(London, 1862).
10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani
(Milano: Monanni, 1929).
11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen,
der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4.
(1875), pp. 36-41.
12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on
Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds.,
Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline
(Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in
History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane,
Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp.,
1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1990).
13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method.
14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933).
15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti,
ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and
Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales
(Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in
der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F.
Schoeningh, 1933).
16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der
Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926);
Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and
Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig,
1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris:
Boivin, 1948).
17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the
Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger,
1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4
(1972): 564-78.
18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the
Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956).
19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin,
American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970).
20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and
Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield,
Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970).
21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939).
22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago:
Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the
Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key,
Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961);
Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968);
Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1989).
23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party
System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210.
24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of
Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the
years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of
American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur
Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co.
1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to
conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the
article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using
liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the
generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written
as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something
which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best
reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government
from the Civil War to the New Deal.
25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first
presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American
Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no.
1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns
Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also
Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University
Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992).
26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789.
27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years
old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve
in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President.
28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and
Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman
H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and
the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary
M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney
Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American
Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for
the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris
Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in
America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W.
Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get
Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb
and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda
Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber,
Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership
(Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey,
Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.:
Brooks/Cole, 1989).
29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with
special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in
The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York:
Macmillan, 1961).
30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965):
Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the
Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989).
31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18.
32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections
in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability,"
Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171.
33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate
(Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James
L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and
Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical
Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York:
Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?"
in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party
Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American
Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press
of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed.,
Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and
Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise
Institute, 1983).
34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American
Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party
System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony;
David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization,
Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter,
Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American
Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of
Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985).
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Titre du document / Document title
Rhythms of the secular : The politics of modernizing Arab poetic
forms = Rythmes du séculaire : la politique de modernisation des formes
poétiques arabes
Auteur(s) / Author(s)
FURANI Khaled^ (1) ;
Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s)
^(1) Tel-Aviv University, ISRAEL
Résumé / Abstract
In this article, I ethnographically trace how Arab, mainly Palestinian,
poets have modernized their literary tradition during the last seven
decades. Shortly after the 1948 Israeli occupation of Palestine, the
reign of the classical Arabic ode collapsed, and the modern forms of
free verse and, later, the prose poem became dominant. Aiming to
contribute to the ethnography of modernity, I examine how poets have
adopted and abandoned poetic forms by analyzing their narratives on
rhythm. I explore the political salience of rhythmical transformations
and argue that the secular has been a vital and complex force in the
modern abandonment of metrical discipline. The secular affects how
poets seek to modernize their rhythm, vocabulary, and relation to
public. It also affects, I conclude, the ways in which anthropologists
can and do write about modernity.
Revue / Journal Title
American ethnologist ISSN 0094-0496
Source / Source
2008, vol. 35, n^o2, pp. 290-307 [18 page(s) (article)] (2 p.1/4)
Langue / Language
Anglais
Editeur / Publisher
American Ethnological Society, Washington, DC, ETATS-UNIS (1974)
(Revue)
Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords
Rhythm ; Transformation ; Modernization ; Poet ; Modernity ; Poetry ;
Israel ; Palestine ; Near East ;
Mots-clés français / French Keywords
Forme poétique ; Tradition littéraire ; Arabe palestinien ; Rythme ;
Transformation ; Modernisation ; Poète ; Modernité ; Poésie ; Israël ;
Palestine ; Proche-Orient ;
Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords
poetic form ; modernity and secularism ; Palestine-Israel ;
Localisation / Location
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Title: The Rhythm of Political Oratory
Author: [14]Varvara Danilina
Email: [15]click here to access email
Degree Awarded: Moscow State University , Department of Foreigh
Languages
Degree Date: 2002
Linguistic Subfield(s): Discourse Analysis
Sociolinguistics
Subject Language(s): [16]English
Director(s): [17]Ludmila Minaeva
___________________________________
Abstract:
My doctoral dissertation was completed after four years of research on
the rhythm of British and American political oratory. I sought to
establish the rhythmic norm for political public speech and to find
out, whether any deviations from this norm (i.e. from an expected
rhythmic model) influence listeners and provoke their verbal reactions
or bursts of applause. To accomplish this task I used a variety of
linguistic and rhetorical methods, and drew upon social psychology and
political science.
There is no single linguistic perspective on speech rhythm. For
instance, such distinguished scholars as D. Crystal and D. Abercrombie
regard it as a purely phonetic phenomenon. At the same time, according
to Moscow University school of thought, to which I belong, speech
rhythm is created by a blend of phonetics, syntax and meaning of an
utterance. As a result of my research, I established rhythmic
regularities for political oratory at five levels.
Firstly, I analyzed pauses that divide the stream of speech into
segments (syntagmas), and classified all the pauses into syntactic,
rhetorical or unintentional (unintentional pauses are caused by
hesitation, deliberation, stammering, interruptions by listeners, etc).
Secondly, I established the relative frequency of short, medium and
long syntagmas between pauses, and thirdly, analyzed the rhythmic
structures constituted by linear sequences of syntagmas. Fourthly, I
studied the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables inside
syntagmas. And finally, I considered all kinds of repetitions, both
rhetorical and unintentional. This method of rhythmic analysis is based
on earlier analytical models designed by my university colleagues. My
own contribution consisted in adapting this method to the study of
public speech, describing the typical rhythm of political oratory, and
challenging some popular assumptions about speech rhythm.
As for the impact of speech rhythm upon listeners, I started by
analyzing audiences in order to understand psychological, social and
political conditions of that process. G. Le Bon, Z. Freud and other
scholars demonstrated conclusively that members of a crowd (and the
audience of a public speech is a crowd) are connected with each other
and with their leader (in our case, a speaker) by strong subconscious
ties. However, the degree of unity or polarization of an audience may
differ. Besides, each audience can be characterized according to
several other criteria that determine listeners' responsiveness and the
nature of their responses: their emotional state, the level of
expertise in a particular subject, the demographic and social
characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, social status, occupation,
education), the existing evaluation of discussed issues, which is
largely determined by listeners' ideologies, and finally, the attitude
to the speaker, which can be positive, negative or indifferent. I have
applied this model of audience analysis to determine peculiarities of
the British parliamentary audience in October 1996, and of the US
Congress in the aftermath of September 11, 2001.
To analyze the reactions of these audiences to the rhythm of Prime
Minister Major and President Bush's parliamentary addresses I used M.
Atkinson's version of the conversation analysis method. I showed the
two speeches as dialogues between the speakers and their listeners, and
singled out phrases and syntagmas that immediately preceded audience
responses, such as cheering, booing, laughter or bursts of applause.
These phrases and syntagmas happened to be quite similar in terms of
rhythm to other stretches of speech in the same addresses. Moreover,
there proved to be little rhythmic difference between John Major and
George Bush's speeches. In short, my research demonstrated that there
is no direct interconnection between the rhythm of a public address and
audience responses.
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Drums games, piano games, guitar games
[1]Drums games. Music games
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Write chords. then play the melody.
[11]Sound memory
Improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it.
[12]Draw lessons
How to draw free lessons
[13]Online games
Actions, Shooter, Logic online games
[acleardot.gif] [acleardot.gif]
What is music rhythm?
The music rhythm is the beat. It is the most important element in
music. It drives the music forward. It is the gasoline of music.
Rhythms can be simple or complicated.
Essential music vocabulary
Meter
It's the way we group the beats. We group eggs by the dozen. We group
days by the week. We also group beats into two's or three's. That's
meter.
Rhythm
The beat. The beat can be even or uneven, steady or unsteady.
Note Values
Long and short sounds in music are represented by notes. White notes
have longer sounds than black notes.
Tempo
This is the speed of the music.
Time Signature
This is a number that appears at the beginning of the music. The top
number tells you how many beats are in each measure (bar) and the
bottom number tells you what kind of a note gets one beat. The most
common times signatures are 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, and 6/8.
Whole music notes
These notes are whole notes. Each note is four beats long.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[14][whole.gif]
Half music notes
Here are half notes. Did you see the stems? These notes are twice as
fast as whole notes. These note are two beats long.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[15][half.gif]
Quarter music notes
These notes are black. They are quarter notes. Each quarter note gets
one beat. How many beats are in each measure? If you guessed four,
you'd be right!
Click the image to hear the note value.
[16][quarter.gif]
Eighth music notes
These are eighth notes. Notice how the stems are connected by a beam.
These notes move twice as fast as quarter notes. Two note are played
for each beat of music.
Click the image to hear the note value.
[17][eighth_.gif]
Combining Note Values
In 4/4 time, different note values can be combined in each measure as
long as they equal four beats. Click the examples to hear the rhythm
patterns:
[18][combo2.gif]
[19][combo3.gif]
[20][combo4.gif]
Music tempo
Tempo means speed. Musicians use Italian terms for different tempos.
Here is a melody fragment. Click the image to hear the tune:
[21][example.gif]
Click the words below to hear this tune played at different tempos.
Slow Medium Fast
Largo Largo is the slowest tempo.
Adagio Largo means slow or leisurely.
Andante Andante means a walking pace.
Moderato Moderato is medium. It is not too fast or too slow.
Allegro Allegro is fast. It means cheerful in Italian.
Vivace Vivace is quick and lively.
Presto Presto is very fast.
Meter
Meter is how we hear the groupings of beats in music. Music will be in
an even meter (groupings of 2's or 4's) or an odd meter (groupings of
3's).
Even Meters Are Groupings of 2 Beats A [22]march is played in a meter
of 2, which makes it an even meter. That means you will hear the beats
of the march move in patterns of two's.
Odd Meters Are Groupings of 3 Beats A [23]waltz is played in a meter of
three, which makes it an odd meter. That means you will hear the beats
of the waltz move in patterns of three's.
Can you hear meter in music? Click the examples below to identify
whether you hear the music moving in groups of two's or three's.
[24]Example 1 [25]Example 2 [26]Example 3 [27]Example 4 [28]Example 5
Time Signatures
The time signature helps us group the notes so we don't get lost. It's
the way we organize beats in music. It's like grouping eggs by the
dozen or days by the week. The top number tells us how many beats we
can have in one measure. In 4/4 time we have four beats in each
measure. What was the time signature in all of all the examples above?
Remember this: A beat is not the same thing as a note. Notes can have
more or less than one beat. A whole note in 4/4 time has four beats. A
half note in 4/4 time has two beats. An eighth note in 4/4 time has
just 1/2 beat. It takes two eighth notes to make one beat in 4/4 time.
Time signatures and meter: The time signature will tell you the music's
meter. If you can divide the top number by two, the music is in an even
meter. If you can divide the top number by three, the music is in an
odd meter.
Let's look at some popular time signatures and see if we can add up the
beats in each measure.
4/4 Time (Common Time)
[Common_time.gif]
Did you notice the number at the beginning of all the examples above?
That's the time signature. It's 4/4. That means that there are four
beats in each measure and the quarter note gets one beat. This time
signature is also called Common Time because it is the most popular
time signature in music.
Listen to [29]Somewhere Over the Rainbow from The Wizard of Oz. It's in
4/4 time. Each measure equals four beats. It is in an even meter.
[30][rainbow.gif]
3/4 Time (Waltz Time) [Three_four.gif]
A 3/4 time signature would only have three beats per measure. Here is
what it looks like.
Listen to [31]America played in 3/4 time. 3/4 is also called waltz
time. Did you notice the dots after some of the notes. Dotes make the
notes longer. This song is in an odd meter because there are three
beats per measure.
[32][amaerica.gif]
2/4 Time [Two_four.gif]
A 2/4 time signature has just two beats per measure. It looks like
this.
Listen to [33]You're a Grand Old Flag in 2/4 time. Do you see the line
connecting the last two notes. It is called a tie. What is the meter of
this song? Look at the time signature for your answer.
[34][grand.gif]
6/8 Time [Six_eight.gif]
A 6/8 time signature has six beats per measure. The bottom number is 8.
This tells you that the eighth note gets one beat.
Do you recognize the song [35]Follow the Yellow Brick Road from The
Wizard of Oz? It's in 6/8 time. This song goes fast, making it sound
like 2/4 rather than 6/8 time. This time signature can sound like an
even or odd meter because you can divide 6 by 2 or 3.
[36][wizaed.gif]
Drums online games
* [37]Drums music machine free online game
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Music piano and guitar online games
* [42]Computer play a note pitch ear training. You try to understand
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* [43]Computer show a note you try to understand it play keyboard
* [44]Music machine ear training
* [45]Piano music machine free online game you can compose melody and
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* [46]Music free online game. Try to repeat music.
* [47]Note pair online game. Find all notes. This game is very useful
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* [48]Notes shooter online game. Try to recognize note as fast as you
can.
* [49]Piano note free online teacher
* [50]Sound memory improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to
repeat it.
* [51]Drag music online game. Compose melody by notes.
* [52]Piano note editor. Compose melody. Use mouse for composing.
* [53]Find error at the melody online game. The computer play melody
then replace one note. Try to find error
Music machines
* [54]Orchestra quiz online music
* [55]Music quiz for kids
* [56]Virtual band
Music games for kids
* [57]Rainbow piano for kids. Computer show the color. Kids need to
press correct note.
* [58]Can you play jingle bells? Look at the note sheet and play.
* [59]Piano keyboard online game. Download piano keyboard movie on to
your computer and play.
Metronomes and fork
* [60]Light metronome online movie
* [61]Metronome online movie
* [62]Guitar tuning fork its help tune guitar
Guitar online games
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* [64]Guitar chord finder
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* [67]Basic guitar chords and how it
* [68]Guitar chords machine with sound
* [69]Guitar scales
__________________________________________________________________
Free music games [70]AbabaSoft.com/music
Copyright © 1998 -
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Titre du document / Document title
Effects of pre-exercise listening to slow and fast rhythm music on
supramaximal cycle performance and selected metabolic variables
Auteur(s) / Author(s)
YAMAMOTO T.^ (1) ; OHKUWA T.^ (2) ; ITOH H.^ (2) ; KITOH M.^ (3) ;
TERASAWA J.^ (3) ; TSUDA T.^ (3) ; KITAGAWA S.^ (3) ; SATO Y.^ (1) ;
Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s)
^(1) Research Center of Health, Physical Fitness and Sports, Nagoya
University, 464-8601, JAPON
^(2) Department of General studies, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON
^(3) Department of Applied Chemistry, Nagoya Institute of Technology,
Showa-ku, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON
Résumé / Abstract
We examined the effect of listening to two different types of music
(with slow and fast rhythm), prior to supramaximal cycle exercise, on
performance, heart rate, the concentration of lactate and ammonia in
blood, and the concentration of catecholamines in plasma. Six male
students participated in this study. After listening to slow rhythm or
fast rhythm music for 20 min, the subjects performed supramaximal
exercise for 45 s using a cycle ergometer. Listening to slow and fast
rhythm music prior to supramaximal exercise did not significantly
affect the mean power output. The plasma norepinephrine concentration
immediately before the end of listening to slow rhythm music was
significantly lower than before listening (p < 0.05). The plasma
epinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to
fast rhythm music was significantly higher than before listening (p <
0.05). The type of music had no effect on blood lactate and ammonia
levels or on plasma catecholamine levels following exercise. In
conclusion, listening to slow rhythm music decreases the plasma
norepinephrine level, and listening to fast rhythm music increases the
plasma epinephrine level. The type of music has no impact on power
output during exercise.
Revue / Journal Title
Archives of physiology and biochemistry ISSN 1381-3455
Source / Source
2003, vol. 111, n^o3, pp. 211-214 [4 page(s) (article)] (14 ref.)
Langue / Language
Anglais
Revue : Français
Editeur / Publisher
Taylor & Francis, Basingstoke, ROYAUME-UNI (1995) (Revue)
Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords
Dopamine agonist ; Neurotransmitter ; Catecholamine ; Human ; Bicycle
ergometer ; Music ; Rhythm ; Dopamine ; Norepinephrine ; Epinephrine ;
Physical performance ; Heart rate ; Physical exercise ;
Mots-clés français / French Keywords
Stimulant dopaminergique ; Neurotransmetteur ; Catécholamine ; Homme ;
Bicyclette ergométrique ; Musique ; Rythme ; Dopamine ; Noradrénaline ;
Adrénaline ; Performance physique ; Rythme cardiaque ; Exercice
physique ;
Mots-clés espagnols / Spanish Keywords
Estimulante dopaminérgico ; Neurotransmisor ; Catecolamina ; Hombre ;
Bicicleta ergométrica ; Música ; Ritmo ; Dopamina ; Noradrenalina ;
Adrenalina ; Rendimiento físico ; Ritmo cardíaco ; Ejercicio físico ;
Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords
Slow music ; fast music ; epinephrine ; norepinephrine ; dopamine ;
supramaximal exercise ; power output ; lactate ; ammonia ; heart rate ;
Localisation / Location
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Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 15397711
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[USEMAP]
Basic Music Theory. Copyright Neil Hawes 1997
Rhythm
* Rhythm in music is dependent on the fact that humans recognise a
[1]beat occurring at a regular interval.
* Rhythm in music is more than just a [2]beat, however; it is the way
that sounds with differing lengths (or gaps between them) and
accents can combine to produce patterns in time which contain a
[3]beat.
+ These sounds do not have to be particularly musical; rhythms
can be made by striking almost anything, as long as there can
be difference in accent.
+ Differences in accent can mean different sounds or just
different loudness (i.e. amplitudes) of sounds
* It is common to speak of a particular rhythm, referring to a
pattern of [4]note lengths which occurs in a piece of music.
+ It is important to understand that the rhythm is defined by
the pattern; the overall speed of it could vary from
performance to performance, but the rhythm would still be the
same.
+ The speed or tempo of a piece of music is indicated by a
[5]metronome marking and/or a [6]direction word or phrase; its
rhythm is specified by various [7]note lengths creating
[8]beats within [9]bars.
* Modern songs often include [10]syncopation in their rhythm
__________________________________________________________________
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Rhythm and swing
* Swing jazz rhythm
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* [14]Jazz improvisation and music harmony : summary
* [15]Music harmony concepts
* [16]Scales, modes to improvise
* [17]Blues improvisation
* [18]Jazz melody and improvisation
* Swing jazz rhythm
* [19]Jazz techniques : practice
Swing jazz rhythm in improvisation
Swing is very important in improvisation. This word means stressing the
upbeat.
If you also give a "sliding" or "retardation" between notes, you can
create the real swing jazz rhythm, which was born at the beginning of
the XX century about. When you stress an upbeat you make perhaps a
"swinging" rhythmics, (also being without a dragging or a sliding
between notes), for modern rhythm too, (such as pop and rhythm and
blues).
* When you play swing music, that is Dixieland, blues, ragtime,
swing, bebop, cool jazz, hard bop, you have to follow this scheme:
basic rhythmic pattern
...in this way:
swing jazz rhythm pattern
Learn swing jazz rhythm
In order to learn how to swing, you simply have to learn how to reason
in up beat and stressing with it constantly. In other words, swing
means "stressing the upbeat" with an implied octaves triplets clef.
It's so a rhythm "sliding" effect created : the meaning of the American
word "swing" is just similar to "sliding", "waving" or "rocking".
* For example these measures :
how to learn jazz swing
..must be played (in general) in this way:
fundamental jazz swing rhythm
In other words Swing has offbeat (upbeat) accents and an eighth-note
triplets rhythmic base.
Learning jazz swing
Learning swing very well and have the ability to improvise, stressing
and giving the right accent of phrases needs much time to practice it.
Above all, you must pay attention at the beginning to stress upbeat
octave notes constantly and to stop when you realize you are making the
contrary. While stressing notes on your instrument, I suggest to upbeat
by your foot, so that you can emphasize this rhythmic accent better.
You have to get used to reason in upbeat, beginning all over again, as
since we were children we have been starting clapping hands in
downbeat. Swing-jazz rhythm can be so learned naturally after studying
constantly in this direction.
* You need some months to learn swing rhythm on your instrument. I
remember you to stress always the upbeats.
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[8]Home: [9]Basic Music Theory Elements: Music Theory Rhythm
"Music Theory Rhythm"
"Your Journey in Music Rhythm"
Introduction:
Your journey to learn and master the music theory rhythm begins in this
section of the Music Learning Workshop. The music rhythm workshop
provides us with the basics needed to get rhythm down cold. below we
link to the beginner series of lessons.
We start with the essential building blocks of how to fundamentally
know rhythm and then expand our knowledge of rhythm music theory and
know how until we achieve mastery.
Learning Pyramid
The Basic Building Blocks of Rhythm
Rhythm forms the basis of music theory. It is what all other musical
elements are based upon. You can only survive so long in your musical
journey without the essential building block of rhythm.
Ask professional musicians: what one element of music do you find to be
most important? The answer will often be rhythm. As it is the one thing
that is least forgiven by the listener.
Our learning approach assumes a level of maturity in the student. Often
it is related to the age of about 8 years old. However, with proper
guidance younger ages can use the materials. We don't take a single
element to explore, but instead take a bigger picture and zero in on
the elements that make it work.
When we teach notes names or values we do it all at once, because it is
very important that you know how all of them are related right at the
start. This allows you jump start and accelerate your learning process.
Whatâs really neat is that if you get hung up you can go back and see
exactly what that single thing is and how it relates to other items in
context.
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Beginning Rhythm Music Theory Lessons
The sequence of lessons below are designed specifically for the newbie
music student. They start with an overview approach of just looking at
music components such as what is a measure a note in definition. We
then follow the approach detailed above.
Take your time
Beginning Rhythm
[11]Rhythm Definitions
[12]Note Symbols
[13]Note Symbols Practice
[14]Note Time Value
[15]Time Signatures
[16]Counting Rhythm Beats
[17]Counting Rhythm Using Rests
[18]Counting Rhythm Duple Pattern
[19]Counting Rhythm Quadruple Pattern
[20]Counting Rhythm Triplet pattern
[21]Note Relationships
[22]Reference Chart Beat vs Time
There is no hurry, it is far more important that you understand the
concepts than to rush through them to get to the next one. The better
you understand each step the easier the next one will be.
Start with some terms we will need to become familiar with when
discussing rhythm and music theory and move on through the lessons to
build up on the previous group of knowledge.
This outline shows the components of rhythm available on this site that
you can start learning.
This sequence is designed to quickly lead you through the basics of
what is needed to learn rhythm music theory.
The Music Learning Workshop "Get It Down Cold" Workbooks will be
available soon to lead you through the process.
[23]Join the our community and you will be notified when they are
available.
[24]Basic Music Theory Elements: [25]Rhythm | [26]Notes | [27]Master
Staff | [28]Intervals | [29]Scales | [30]Chords | [31]Key Signatures
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Beginning Rhythm
* [45]Rhythm Definitions
* [46]Note Symbols
* [47]Note Symbols Practice
* [48]Note Time Value
* [49]Time Signatures
* [50]Rhythm Counting Beats
* [51]Rhythm Counting Rests
* [52]Rhythm Duple Pattern
* [53]Rhythm Quadruple Pattern
* [54]Rhythm Triplet Pattern
* [55]Note Relationships
* [56]Rhythm Beat Chart
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Références
JCPA LOGO
Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs
[1]Daniel Elazar Papers Index [2][USEMAP:nav-back.gif]
American Political Culture
The Generational Rhythm of American Politics
The American Mosaic, Chapter 2
Daniel J. Elazar
It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States
combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount
of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no
less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space.
Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location
within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less
pinpointed.
This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is
structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of
generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to
the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast
developments with great success. At the same time he has applied
that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that
very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs.
Early Studies of Generational Rhythms
Students of society have noted the succession of generations since
ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology
on generational measures.
The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear
time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning
of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs.
It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the
individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the
starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon
and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon
operating in history.^2
Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational
basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first
recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the
system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third
and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the
Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average
generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full
generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical
scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression,
"forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5
Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The
"generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity
of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a
common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a
time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces
time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new
judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation
and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7
Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have
beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the
founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central
interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of
its beginnings and its ancestry.
Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were
the first to articulate systematic theories of generational
progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte
viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the
thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in
shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the
unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the
aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social
cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that
"History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of
Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle
phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences
appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals
comes to dominate society.^9
These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical
verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years
of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop
the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed
the principle that generations are articulated through historical
events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained.
Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a
fourfold classification of generations as preparatory,
revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10
Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11
Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that
generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific
study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and
heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation
century.^13
After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the
succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of
social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between
contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who
are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his
student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked
on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and
Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm
Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri
Peyre (1948).^16
More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused
on problems of intergenerational differences and the political
socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes
or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund
Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study
of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their
study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963)
focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966)
studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957)
utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in
Israel and the United States, respectively.^20
All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a
comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of
their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and
those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving
many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the
studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two
parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the
people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact,
both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined
that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The
linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive
theory.
None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a
generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black
box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods.
Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of
three generations.
Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining
way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an
empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is
somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin.
Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature,
art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of
eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular
basis.
Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to
embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under
the heading of "a generation".
Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History
A number of theories of political cycles in American history have
been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of
American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational
thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a
series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based
on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective
governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect
"concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of
property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the
wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid
movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories
include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter
Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical
theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the
"more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments"
using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process.
Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the
interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United
States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical
periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23
Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the
manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work.
Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in
presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the
House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual
party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in
American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of
an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American
history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in
length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes
that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device
since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable
directions.
Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his
emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by
using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of
voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state
vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates
five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s)
and the present.
Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the
level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five
periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of
stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of
approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing
already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an
established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in
turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis
to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment
occurs in every generation.
While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with
American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he
begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three
of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive
happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning
point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that
Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a
generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts
as follows:
1787-1801-1816
1816-1829-1841
1841-1861-1869
1869-1901-1918
1918-1931-?
The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the
beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them
primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles
rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have
been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational
patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the
following pattern:
1790-1796/1800
1800-1824/1828
1828-1824/1860
1860-1888/1896
1896-1932
His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to
that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their
significance in the periodization process.
Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although
even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if
it is schematized as follows:
1789-1820
1828
1856-1860
1893/1894
1932
Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized
as follows:
1896-1912
1912-1920-1932-1952
1952
Pomper also offers election dates and no more:
1836
1864-1876
1876-1892/1896
1928/1932-1952
1952-1964
None of these are complete theories and all must be considered
within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit.
Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough
approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the
commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United
States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The
revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of
generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson
Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods
of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named:
e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era.
In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers
developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the
federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could
not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however,
the American people were treated to a display of federal activity --
and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by
FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the
mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth
of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the
mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper
understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United
States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow
of time and events.)
The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its
own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human
time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible
pattern in the progression of political events in the United States
over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not
happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events
in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in
cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the
biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human
life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is
substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though
the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this
phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26
The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind
another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit
decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every
government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on
the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on
the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of
attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be
supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that
being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons
who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive
generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a
fixed moment, as individuals do now....
What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the
same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a
constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A
generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case,
would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to
contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for
14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily
deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of
their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at
that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated
from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of
climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors.
Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that
23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a
society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the
ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as
follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all
ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half
will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every
year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly
have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half
of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time
will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest
integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the
representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself
assembled, can validly extend a debt.
On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a
perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every
constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of
34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not
of right.
The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that
would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to
his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French
Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the
sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making
on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every
nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme,
Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one
which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one
way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure
of location in time.
Human Social Rhythms
As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural
measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a
common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the
"lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does
appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account
for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely
and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation
in any particular civil society and chart the relations among
generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical
patterns of its politics.
During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years,
averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people
will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then
pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every
individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in
which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited.
Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she
begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime
between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at
which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life"
ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and
political roles as are given to mature men and women in society.
Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a
person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention,
if not physically, considered ready for retirement.
Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an
individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first
fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially
powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote,
and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After
attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period
of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be
translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among
those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s
before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on
the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become
serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are
able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the
scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be
defined as the ending of one's serious political career without
suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's
30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential
influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise
influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political
leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds
forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship.
The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle
of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young
people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters
actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people
in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then
declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to
"retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28
In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each
individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society
is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a
common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any
particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its
history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical
record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and
the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at
the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In
the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed
leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in
power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age
and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a
result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly
established.
Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults
settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and
in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational
progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and
purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began
more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed
from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the
door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to
begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of
the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their
patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby
allowing a new generation to assume the reins.
Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they
establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in
social and political life than that found in the simple processes of
human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were
equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the
biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by
locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace
the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of
organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings
are recorded in history, we can do just that.
Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the
progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins
of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is
shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the
impact of the change and encourages new political action to
assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new
generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at
the most four generations are alive at any given time creates
certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of
grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of
inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact
help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In
this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is
socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and
politically unmanageable.
Generations, Centuries and Events
Since the founding of the first European settlements along the
Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations
of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series
of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the
twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three
generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain
distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense
recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th
century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of
American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in
which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century
stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th
century is the century of the United States as a world power.
Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as
chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European
history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have
begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing
point, thus:
a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603)
and the 17th century began with the opening of the American
frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between
the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of
the times.
b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty
of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which
eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the
Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration
for both countries.
c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the
War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era
of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff).
d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the
inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak
of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land
frontier.
Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments
that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show
every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then
dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are
immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the
nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged
during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation
under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a
century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn,
the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments
having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic
society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated
American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments
disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently
in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments
that will replace them.
The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth
generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the
past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators
have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just
when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of
generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was
ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal
intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of
the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of
alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the
generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life
so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began
after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided
over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the
renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence.
The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be
delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression
will be related to major forces and factors shaping American
history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the
principal challenges facing the American people in each generation
and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing
forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of
critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization
in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial,
ethnic and religious groups.
One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate.
Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with
such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for
analytical purposes than life ever is.
The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the
period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old
World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany,
but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually
every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original
thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native
Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies,
and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate
nation with its own civilization.
The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century,
which, from the first American recognition of common continental
interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for
Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent
American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism,
successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and
established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The
idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the
political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans.
The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations,
beginning at the point where America turned its back on European
entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced
them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an
industrialized continental nation with a strong national government;
abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world
power ready for overseas involvements.
The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century --
reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the
arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with
the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding
over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the
results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the
industrial revolution.
As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with
the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the
United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished
relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first
generation of the transformation of society as a result of the
application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new
frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse
of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically
dominant although economically weakened. The results of these
phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder
of the generation.
Generations and Frontier Stages
The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are
products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In
American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if
not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and
centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American
frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other
historical and political phenomena.
Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has
been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of
human control over the natural environment and the utilization of
the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control,
i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American
society is a product of this commitment which is virtually
self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one
frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier
situation that has created the major social and economic changes
which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's
political institutions.
America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages
to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the
metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic
frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled
with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been
decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American
life within that stage.
The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the
historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted
from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the
end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on
the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American
continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the
products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the
westward movement on a basically rural population interested in
settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a
socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits
in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was
dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an
active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and
still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in
Alaska.
Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth
the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and
spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation
into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the
spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's
economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented
the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States,
where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater
part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it
first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the
beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands
of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally
superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth
generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the
end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various
localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant
characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities
from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into
independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and
social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their
existence and growth.
By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth,
in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is
characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society
through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that
encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large
metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from
atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the
accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further
changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with
their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered
a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like
the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological
frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on
a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation.
After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly
and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and
pace of development across the country.
The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by
the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to
be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The
late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash
from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism
challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s,
ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution,
and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth
premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of
resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were
saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over.
By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was
emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the
metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers,
satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new
data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large
belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated
by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not
connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and
small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single
metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different
purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern
coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found
in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its
early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges,
initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its
renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of
financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American
economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of
Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West.
Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues
of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new
frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement
patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its
own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns
and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands
themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between
the points of generational division and the shifts in the various
frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater
detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as
part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are
closely related to the opening of new centuries.
Generations and Economic Periods
One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a
continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to
meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a
result, the governments of the United States have always maintained
a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in
the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to
era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the
governmental response. These changes have also developed on a
generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the
founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic
policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth
generation of American history) the American government continued a
semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the
nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government
involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during
which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in
which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the
outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful
competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a
generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially
unregulated by government.
Demands for government regulation that built up during the last
generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of
intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first
generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the
eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active
government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system.
Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around
toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less
government intervention.
Centuries, Generations and Federalism
The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can
also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first
generation of American history brought the introduction of federal
principles through the contracts and covenants that established the
colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through
Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the
seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a
local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of
national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose
strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly,
concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in
the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and
crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and
then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century.
The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has
been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society.
Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal
with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques
have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These
new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed
have been major elements in the concrete response to the
generation's challenges.
Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship
The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and
their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the
challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of
American history and politics. The changes in those relationships
also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries.
British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious
pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through
giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular
territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as
indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In
the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized
in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian
differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery.
Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism
was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones
existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste
system was in the making.
During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and
sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the
original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the
virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation.
Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new
lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was
abolished in the North.
The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial
establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was
almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant
immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new
post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through
the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration
reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to
reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was
reaffirmed through the institution of segregation.
From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open
pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The
barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants
began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those
barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by
the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape
up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the
twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but
those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of
American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say,
to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American
culture.
While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been
presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the
generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted
descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some
cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary
period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational
responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New
Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political
dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the
Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era.
The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses
Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular
challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its
own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and
the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In
some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could
act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In
others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the challenges changes from century to century.
During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the
tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various
colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related
to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence
of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially
related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American
national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been
essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society
and the assumption of an American role in world affairs.
The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the
initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which,
objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively
recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing
recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors
such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in
voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with
mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to
public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters
does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet
existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular
progression of political events revolving around the development of
a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its
response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and
responses that gives each generation its particular character. While
the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external --
or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is
primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation
themselves.
In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has
taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each
colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its
sisters, and the other science independence when a common national
constitution created a common national politics. In some cases,
particularly after independence when the nation could act
decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other,
particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the political challenges that have dominated the
American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a
new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating
the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the
19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope,
wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the
20th century, they have essentially related to the
metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an
American role in world affairs.
In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within
each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and
new generations is marked by several decisive political actions,
often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature
is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old
generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and
opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a
time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues
they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political
action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population
change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political
activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur
the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the
direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders
to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the
generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many
quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of
governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to
the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five
years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with
digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so
that they will achieve greater success and at the same time
integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The
end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify
and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the
issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for
political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be
recognized.
The Bench Marks of American Political History:
Critical Elections and New Deals
In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a
particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a
system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can
also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political
history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune
with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds;
first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a
particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of
intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government
initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each
generation.
The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections
A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the
sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period
of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The
generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this
pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which
brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs
of voters, shifting them from one political party to another.
Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a
"critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of
electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound
readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the
community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are
formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result
of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide
electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency
from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one
major element to another.
Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that
there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the
allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively
long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public
opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the
1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with
a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In
consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats
have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters
identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority
party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order
to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and
representatives to win control of Congress.
The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968,
only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled
the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a
military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the
"normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his
party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in
1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after
twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the
Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the
Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems,
won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular
Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a
Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his
victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition
and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a
period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White
House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the
Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the
GOP controlled the Senate.
A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a
nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent
and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on
a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical
loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations,
personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of
the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are
nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders
(or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate
state parties which form the two national confederations known as
the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties
are confederations of the state parties, so is the national
coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional
coalitions.
Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and
thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the
electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to
remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead
to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution,
too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems
attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the
dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary
inroads in the various electoral groups.
Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces
opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in
public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in
the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party
that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means
certain that the majority party will even win all the national
elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and
usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a
limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its
losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The
states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as
bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend
its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority
coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for
national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards
for the party faithful during the years of national "famine."
As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent
electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their
changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with
each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find
the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass
and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in
importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed
and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the
realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment
of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a
reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad
electoral groups.^33
While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state
and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon
only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election.
Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make
embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become
fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional
elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional
election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical
elections."^34
The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the
development of the institution of the popularly elected president.
Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of
electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize
presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited
apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and
the House of Representatives.
Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part
of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the
use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on
the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The
generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem.
It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not
so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a
disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as
did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current
during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the
end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that
they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant
percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and
alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues
lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote
as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children
came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the
majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational
buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the
guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file"
alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of
each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the
ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from
balance to majority.
"New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity
The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of
innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind
usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin
Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as
the historical watersheds they are.
In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S.
Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform
activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for
their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian
Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over
a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that
enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way
the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems
of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his
Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind
because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the
moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was
cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic
U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly
the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use
the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came
Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for
all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B.
Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as
it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s.
The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted
approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of
governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of
the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for
another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon
to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational
consolidation.
The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years
between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in
Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of
extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President
Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to
resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial
presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its
power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic
problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led
the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill
the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the
hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states
and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington
before undertaking any activities.
The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an
"outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community
marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth
in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by
many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation,
usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time.
President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's
international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to
shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of
infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the
Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and
localities. These were all to become principal issues during the
period of generational build-up.
The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to
the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the
American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the
tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that
followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By
the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on
behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were
referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues
of the new generation.
Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been
invariably preceded by critical elections through which the
reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to
generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die --
determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either
by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting
them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as
unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to
majority status. These critical elections, which attain their
visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and
interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which
face them.
Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the
party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series
of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the
Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the
1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had
become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the
Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans.
Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the
majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times
and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats
picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in
1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party
coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen
it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The
old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent
severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted
and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the
Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the
programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing
period for the Democratic coalition.
To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in
American politics is not to suggest that events move in any
lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same
as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the
"normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence
we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them
for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too
can be done that gives the theory its power.
Summary
Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of
American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical
understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more
interest to European social philosophers than American social
scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the
question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics,
often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their
theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation
rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to
understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human
social rhythms generally.
Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their
internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries
represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them.
The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation,
constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to
them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical
elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political
history recurring on a generational basis.
Notes
1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by
Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970);
Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational
Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979).
2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the
Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973).
3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5
(Garden City: Doubleday, 1987).
4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday,
1987).
5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a
generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse
11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers,
chapter 32, verse 13.
7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11;
chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte
(London: G. Bell, 1896).
9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive
(London, 1862).
10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani
(Milano: Monanni, 1929).
11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen,
der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4.
(1875), pp. 36-41.
12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on
Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds.,
Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline
(Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in
History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane,
Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp.,
1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1990).
13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method.
14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933).
15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti,
ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and
Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales
(Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in
der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F.
Schoeningh, 1933).
16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der
Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926);
Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and
Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig,
1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris:
Boivin, 1948).
17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the
Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger,
1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4
(1972): 564-78.
18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the
Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956).
19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin,
American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970).
20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and
Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield,
Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970).
21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939).
22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago:
Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the
Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key,
Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961);
Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968);
Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1989).
23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party
System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210.
24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of
Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the
years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of
American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur
Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co.
1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to
conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the
article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using
liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the
generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written
as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something
which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best
reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government
from the Civil War to the New Deal.
25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first
presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American
Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no.
1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns
Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also
Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University
Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992).
26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789.
27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years
old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve
in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President.
28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and
Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman
H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and
the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary
M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney
Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American
Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for
the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris
Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in
America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W.
Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get
Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb
and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda
Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber,
Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership
(Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey,
Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.:
Brooks/Cole, 1989).
29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with
special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in
The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York:
Macmillan, 1961).
30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965):
Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the
Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989).
31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18.
32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections
in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability,"
Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171.
33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate
(Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James
L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and
Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical
Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York:
Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?"
in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party
Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American
Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press
of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed.,
Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and
Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise
Institute, 1983).
34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American
Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party
System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony;
David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization,
Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter,
Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American
Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of
Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985).
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Titre du document / Document title
Rhythms of the secular : The politics of modernizing Arab poetic
forms = Rythmes du séculaire : la politique de modernisation des formes
poétiques arabes
Auteur(s) / Author(s)
FURANI Khaled^ (1) ;
Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s)
^(1) Tel-Aviv University, ISRAEL
Résumé / Abstract
In this article, I ethnographically trace how Arab, mainly Palestinian,
poets have modernized their literary tradition during the last seven
decades. Shortly after the 1948 Israeli occupation of Palestine, the
reign of the classical Arabic ode collapsed, and the modern forms of
free verse and, later, the prose poem became dominant. Aiming to
contribute to the ethnography of modernity, I examine how poets have
adopted and abandoned poetic forms by analyzing their narratives on
rhythm. I explore the political salience of rhythmical transformations
and argue that the secular has been a vital and complex force in the
modern abandonment of metrical discipline. The secular affects how
poets seek to modernize their rhythm, vocabulary, and relation to
public. It also affects, I conclude, the ways in which anthropologists
can and do write about modernity.
Revue / Journal Title
American ethnologist ISSN 0094-0496
Source / Source
2008, vol. 35, n^o2, pp. 290-307 [18 page(s) (article)] (2 p.1/4)
Langue / Language
Anglais
Editeur / Publisher
American Ethnological Society, Washington, DC, ETATS-UNIS (1974)
(Revue)
Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords
Rhythm ; Transformation ; Modernization ; Poet ; Modernity ; Poetry ;
Israel ; Palestine ; Near East ;
Mots-clés français / French Keywords
Forme poétique ; Tradition littéraire ; Arabe palestinien ; Rythme ;
Transformation ; Modernisation ; Poète ; Modernité ; Poésie ; Israël ;
Palestine ; Proche-Orient ;
Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords
poetic form ; modernity and secularism ; Palestine-Israel ;
Localisation / Location
INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 16902, 35400019805879.0070
Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 20449527
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Title: The Rhythm of Political Oratory
Author: [14]Varvara Danilina
Email: [15]click here to access email
Degree Awarded: Moscow State University , Department of Foreigh
Languages
Degree Date: 2002
Linguistic Subfield(s): Discourse Analysis
Sociolinguistics
Subject Language(s): [16]English
Director(s): [17]Ludmila Minaeva
___________________________________
Abstract:
My doctoral dissertation was completed after four years of research on
the rhythm of British and American political oratory. I sought to
establish the rhythmic norm for political public speech and to find
out, whether any deviations from this norm (i.e. from an expected
rhythmic model) influence listeners and provoke their verbal reactions
or bursts of applause. To accomplish this task I used a variety of
linguistic and rhetorical methods, and drew upon social psychology and
political science.
There is no single linguistic perspective on speech rhythm. For
instance, such distinguished scholars as D. Crystal and D. Abercrombie
regard it as a purely phonetic phenomenon. At the same time, according
to Moscow University school of thought, to which I belong, speech
rhythm is created by a blend of phonetics, syntax and meaning of an
utterance. As a result of my research, I established rhythmic
regularities for political oratory at five levels.
Firstly, I analyzed pauses that divide the stream of speech into
segments (syntagmas), and classified all the pauses into syntactic,
rhetorical or unintentional (unintentional pauses are caused by
hesitation, deliberation, stammering, interruptions by listeners, etc).
Secondly, I established the relative frequency of short, medium and
long syntagmas between pauses, and thirdly, analyzed the rhythmic
structures constituted by linear sequences of syntagmas. Fourthly, I
studied the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables inside
syntagmas. And finally, I considered all kinds of repetitions, both
rhetorical and unintentional. This method of rhythmic analysis is based
on earlier analytical models designed by my university colleagues. My
own contribution consisted in adapting this method to the study of
public speech, describing the typical rhythm of political oratory, and
challenging some popular assumptions about speech rhythm.
As for the impact of speech rhythm upon listeners, I started by
analyzing audiences in order to understand psychological, social and
political conditions of that process. G. Le Bon, Z. Freud and other
scholars demonstrated conclusively that members of a crowd (and the
audience of a public speech is a crowd) are connected with each other
and with their leader (in our case, a speaker) by strong subconscious
ties. However, the degree of unity or polarization of an audience may
differ. Besides, each audience can be characterized according to
several other criteria that determine listeners' responsiveness and the
nature of their responses: their emotional state, the level of
expertise in a particular subject, the demographic and social
characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, social status, occupation,
education), the existing evaluation of discussed issues, which is
largely determined by listeners' ideologies, and finally, the attitude
to the speaker, which can be positive, negative or indifferent. I have
applied this model of audience analysis to determine peculiarities of
the British parliamentary audience in October 1996, and of the US
Congress in the aftermath of September 11, 2001.
To analyze the reactions of these audiences to the rhythm of Prime
Minister Major and President Bush's parliamentary addresses I used M.
Atkinson's version of the conversation analysis method. I showed the
two speeches as dialogues between the speakers and their listeners, and
singled out phrases and syntagmas that immediately preceded audience
responses, such as cheering, booing, laughter or bursts of applause.
These phrases and syntagmas happened to be quite similar in terms of
rhythm to other stretches of speech in the same addresses. Moreover,
there proved to be little rhythmic difference between John Major and
George Bush's speeches. In short, my research demonstrated that there
is no direct interconnection between the rhythm of a public address and
audience responses.
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Afrobeat
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search
Question book-new.svg
This article does not [8]cite any [9]references or sources.
Please help [10]improve this article by adding citations to
[11]reliable sources. Unsourced material may be [12]challenged and
[13]removed. (September 2008)
Afrobeat is a combination of [14]Yoruba music, [15]jazz, [16]highlife,
and [17]funk [18]rhythms, fused with [19]percussion and [20]vocal
styles, popularized in [21]Africa in the 1970s. Its main creator was
the [22]Nigerian multi-[23]instrumentalist and [24]bandleader [25]Fela
Kuti who used it to revolutionise musical structure as well as the
political context in his native Nigeria. It was Kuti who coined the
term "afrobeat" upon his return from a U.S. tour with his group Nigeria
70 (formerly Koola Lobitos).
The new sound hailed from a club that he established called the
Afro-Shrine. Upon arriving in Nigeria, Kuti also changed the name of
his group to Fela Ransome-Kuti & Africa 70. The band maintained a
five-year residency in the Afro-Shrine from 1970 to 1975 while afrobeat
thrived among Nigerian youth. Afrobeat is now one of the most
recognisable music genres in the world and has influenced as many
Western musicians as it has African ones with its exuberant style and
polyrhythms.
Contents
* [26]1 Origins
* [27]2 Influence
* [28]3 Instrumentation
* [29]4 Today
* [30]5 External links
[[31]edit] Origins
Afrobeat originated from the southern part of [32]Nigeria in the 1960s
where Kuti experimented with many different forms of contemporary music
of the time. Prevalent in him and Lagbaja's music are native African
harmonies and rhythms, taking different elements and combining,
modernizing and improvising upon them. [33]Politics are essential to
afrobeat, since founder Kuti used social criticism to pave the way for
social change. His message can be described as confrontational and
controversial, which can be related to the political climate of most of
the African countries in the 1960s, many of which were dealing with
political injustice and military corruption while recovering from the
transition from colonial governments to self-determination. As the
genre spread throughout the African continent many bands took up the
style. The recordings of these bands and their songs were rarely heard
or exported outside the originating countries but many can now be found
on compilation albums and CDs from specialist record shops.
[[34]edit] Influence
Many jazz musicians have been attracted to afrobeat. From [35]Roy Ayers
in the seventies to [36]Randy Weston in the nineties, there have been
collaborations which have resulted in albums such as Africa: Centre of
the World by Roy Ayers, released on the Polydor label in 1981. In 1994
[37]Branford Marsalis, the American jazz saxophonist, included samples
of Fela's "Beast of No Nation" on his Buckshot leFonque album. The new
generation of DJs and musicians of the 2000s who have fallen in love
with both Kuti's material and other rare releases have made
compilations and remixes of these recordings, thus re-introducing the
genre to new generations of listeners and fans of afropop and groove.
Afrobeat has profoundly influenced important contemporary producers and
musicians like [38]Brian Eno and [39]David Byrne, who credit Fela Kuti
as an essential muse. Both worked on [40]Talking Heads'
highly-acclaimed 1980 album [41]Remain In Light which brought
polyrhythmic afrobeat influences to Western music. More recently, the
horn section of [42]Antibalas have been guest musicians on [43]TV On
The Radio's highly-acclaimed 2008 album [44]Dear Science, as well as on
British band [45]Foals' 2008 album [46]Antidotes.
[[47]edit] Instrumentation
Big band (15 to 30 pieces: Fela-era afrobeat) and energetic
performances
* Lead vocals (may play sax/key solos as well)
* Chorus vocals (may include horn players)
* Rhythm guitar(s) (plays funk strumming pattern)
* Tenor guitar (plays a finger-picked osinato groove)
* [48]Bass guitar
* [49]Drum set, generally in the form [50]polyrhythmic percussion
* Saxophone(s)
* Trumpet(s)
* Trombone(s)
* Organ/keyboards
* Rhythm [51]conga #1
* Rhythm [52]conga #2
* Solo (lead) [53]conga
* [54]Akuba: a set of 3 small stick-hit congas (play
flourishes/solos, and ostinatos). Also mistakenly called "gbedu".
* "Sticks"/[55]claves (plays ostinato)
* [56]Shekere
[[57]edit] Today
There are several active afrobeat bands worldwide today.
Modern afrobeat bands/artistes include:
* [58]Kokolo (band), New York City Afrobeat group formed by
songwriter/producer Ray Lugo
* [59]Odu Afrobeat Orchestra, [60]Detroit based group led by Adeboye
Adegbenro, who used to sit in with [61]Fela Kuti when he lived in
[62]Lagos, [63]Nigeria.
* [64]Nomo, [65]Ann Arbor based group that weaves various styles into
a primarily Afrobeat sound.
* [66]Chicago Afrobeat Project Chicago based collective that uses
afrobeat as a springboard and has an incendiary live show.
* [67]Afrodizz, an eight-piece band from [68]Montreal, [69]Canada
formed by jazz guitarist Gabriel Aldama
* [70]The Afromotive, an Asheville, NC based multiracial seven-piece
afrobeat band featuring thirty-third generation djembe player Adama
Dembele from Cote d`Ivoire, West Africa.
* [71]Tony Allen, the man who held the drum chair during Fela's
productive "Africa 70" phase, and whose drumming was, according to
[72]James Brown's autobiography, the influence behind his
'discovery' of funk.^[[73]citation needed]
* [74]Antibalas, [75]Brooklyn, New York based multiracial Afrobeat
Orchestra formed by baritone saxophonist Martin Perna
* [76]Aphrodesia, San Francisco based group, first American group to
perform with Femi Kuti at The Shrine in Lagos, Nigeria.
* [77]Ayetoro, a group led by Nigerian pianist/composer [78]Funsho
Ogundipe
* [79]Bebe cool lives in Uganda famous for his reggea mixed with
luganda pop and English making an Afrobeat rhythm in Uganda known
as Luga flow.He also lives in kampala.
* [80]Chopteeth, an international 14 piece outfit based in Washington
D.C., with former members of Busta Rhymes, The Temptations, The
Four Tops, and Gladys Knight & the Pips.
* [81]Femi Kuti (Fela's first son and a saxophonist) and the Positive
Force
* [82]Seun Kuti (another of Kuti's sons, saxophonist now fronting his
father's last and late band)
* [83]Dele Sosimi's Gbedu Resurrection Dele is a former keyboardist
and musical director of Fela's band. He cofounded Femi Kuti's
Positive Force.
* [84]Zozo Afrobeat A thirteen-member group based in NYC, founded by
Kaleta, former Fela guitarist.
* [85]Baba Ken and the Afro-Groove Connexion Oakland based
multiracial afrobeat ensemble led by Nigerian bassist, Baba Ken
Okulolo, founding member of the seminal 1970's afrofunk/afrorock
band, Monomono.
* [86]Jose Chameleone famous in East, central and South Africa.He
stays and live is Uganda in kampala city.He sing pop and Afro beat
music.He is one of the most famous artists of Afro beat in Africa
and the whole world.
* [87]Afrobeat Down Los Angeles based Afrobeat ensemble (est. 2002)
working with former Fela Africa '70 member and catalyst of entire
afrobeat movement, Sandra Izsadore.
* [88]Weird MC Rap artiste who occasionally experinments with
Afrobeat rhythm.
* [89]Vibe Squad A Ghanaian music crew formed by EaZZY Da Opemfour
made of Prego, Culchar, Wizzy Wii and Richie.
* [90]Gnl zamba rap artist in Uganda one of the most successful rap
afrobeat star in East Africa and central Africa.He is known for his
rhythm of 2 pac shakur
* [91]Mr. Something Something Canadian afrobeat group
* [92]Crime Scene Infunkstigation A 10-piece Afrobeat/Funk/Hip Hop
group based out of Calgary, AB
[[93]edit] External links
* [94]KOKOLO on Myspace
* [95]KOKOLO on YouTube
* [96]KOKOLO Official Homepage
* [97]The Afrobeat Blog
* [98]The Unofficial Seun Kuti Fan-Site - Unofficial fan-site for
Seun Kuti & Egypt 80 with news, videos, music, pictures and much
more]
* [99]The Shrine The Unofficial Website for Fela Kuti, Femi Kuti and
Afrobeat Music
* [100]BBC Afrobeat Documentary
[101]v o [102]d o [103]e
Genres of [104]African popular music
Afrobeat · [105]Apala · [106]Benga · [107]Bikutsi · [108]Cape Jazz ·
[109]Chimurenga · [110]Fuji · [111]Highlife · [112]Hiplife ·
[113]Isicathamiya · [114]Jit · [115]Jùjú · [116]Kizomba · [117]Kuduro ·
[118]Kwaito · [119]Kwela · [120]Makossa · [121]Maloya ·
[122]Marrabenta · [123]Mbalax · [124]Mbaqanga · [125]Mbube ·
[126]Morna · [127]Palm-wine · [128]Raï · [129]Sakara · [130]Sega ·
[131]Soukous/Congo/Lingala/Rumba · [132]Taarab
[133]v o [134]d o [135]e
[136]Funk music
[137]Acid jazz o Afrobeat o [138]Brit funk o [139]Funk metal o
[140]Deep Funk o [141]Drumfunk o [142]Free funk o [143]Funkcore o
[144]Funktronica o [145]Funk rock o [146]G-funk o [147]Go-go o
[148]Jazz-funk o [149]Liquid funk o [150]Neurofunk o [151]Nu-funk o
[152]P-Funk o [153]Post-disco o [154]Punk-funk o [155]Skweee
Related
[156]List of funk musicians o [157]Minneapolis sound
[159]Categories: [160]Funk genres | [161]African American music in
Africa
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With
Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from
Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications.
Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature
This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no
one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of
it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may
relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he
requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and
anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the
same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the
same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual
training, recitation, gymnastics, and play.
Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized
with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle
which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of
every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in
the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of
work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there
is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their
appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less
of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to
anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else
it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from
which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle
with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of
salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting
from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human
[40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important
changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality.
The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief
from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this
tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary
conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified
by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries. . . .
When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in
recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious
rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and
the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and
more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak.
Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with
instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is
laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of
activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to
elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to
primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which
threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving
mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. -
Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20.
. . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area
of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a
ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight
years in [42]duration are superposed.
. . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of
buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the
rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the
production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing
weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of
rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135.
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[46]sociology, [47]communication, [48]congenial groups, [49]cycles of
change, [50]democracy, [51]factors of society, [52]government,
[53]heredity, [54]human nature, [55]institutions, [56]location,
[57]natural selection, [58]organizations, [59]population, [60]primary
groups, [61]social classes
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Cultural
Towards Lefebvrian Socio-Nature? A Film about Rhythm, Nature and Science
By [17]James Evans and [18]Phil Jones, School of Environment and
Development, University of Manchester School of Geography, Earth and
Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham (April 2008)
__________________________________________________________________
Section: [19]Cultural
Subjects: [20]Environment And Society, [21]Geography, [22]Urban
Geography, [23]Cultural Geography.
Key Topics: [24]nature , [25]representation.
Abstract
The first thing you will notice about this article is that it is
actually a film. We did not set out to make a film, it just ended up
that way. We started out making music out of environmental data,
wondering why we only ever look at scientific data, why we do not
listen to it. Wandering around the city passing through the transformed
landscapes of channelised rivers and broken industrial spaces, we
wanted to reveal the socio-natural rhythms of this hybrid city. The
text you see below represents the shooting script for a film that
explores Lefebvre's notion of rhythmanalysis in the context of
socio-natural rhythms. The video accompanying it is far more
interesting, including the environmental music that we produced by
feeding scientific data through samplers and drum machines. The video
questions the nature of scientific representation and whether the
notion of rhythmanalysis can be stretched to explore rhythms beyond the
human. Furthermore, the process of actually making the video,
submitting it to this journal, and responding to the referees' comments
made us question the very nature of what constitutes an academic paper
in the twenty-first century. The accompanying commentary is our attempt
to deal with these issues.
To link to the film please go to
DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00107.x
This article abstract has been viewed 5348 times.
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J Public Health Policy. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2008 July
24.
Published in final edited form as:
[7]J Public Health Policy. 2006; 27(1): 2-12.
doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200061.
PMCID: PMC2483431
NIHMSID: NIHMS58476
[8]Copyright notice and [9]Disclaimer
Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature
Elena N. Naumova^*
^*Address for Correspondence: Department of Public Health and Family
Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Avenue,
Boston, MA 02111, USA. E-mail: elena.naumova/at/tufts.edu
Small right arrow pointing to: The publisher's final edited version of
this article is available at [10]J Public Health Policy.
Small right arrow pointing to: See other articles in PMC that [11]cite
the published article.
Abstract
Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course
of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences.
Understanding seasonal fluctuations in diseases patterns presents us
with a major challenge. To develop efficient strategies for disease
prevention and control, we need to grasp the main determinants of
temporal variations and their interactions. This paper will introduce
the notion of seasonality by outlining several of its factors, using as
illustrations respiratory and enteric water- or food-borne infections.
Keywords: seasonality, water-borne infection, food-borne infection,
respiratory infection
* [12] Other Sectionsv
+ [13]Abstract
+ [14]Introduction
+ [15]Notion of Seasonality
+ [16]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [17]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [18]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [19]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [20]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [21]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [22]References
Introduction
Now let us consider the seasons and the way we can predict whether it
is going to be a healthy or an unhealthy year.
(Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 10)^[23]1
Seasonal fluctuations in birth and death, in sickness and health, are
the haunting mysteries of mankind. People have made predictions from
winds, tides, birds' migrations, spring blooms, sunsets, and
constellations in hope of grasping the future. The complexity and
uncertainty of ancient and modern means of prediction make us wonder to
what extent we are able to understand the rhythm of nature. One might
argue the future cannot be known, but from a practical point of view, a
better understanding of changes in disease occurrences is essential for
building efficient strategies for disease prevention and control.
Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course
of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences.
Since Hippocrates, observers worldwide have noted and documented marked
fluctuations in the incidence of many diseases. In the modern view, the
main determinants of temporal variations in disease manifestation are
evolving host susceptibility, periodicity in pathogen abundance and
transmissibility, and the ever-changing environment that can support or
repress a host or pathogen. Interactions among these factors
responsible for seasonal variation are interwoven into the intricate
fabric of life.
For many diseases, explanations for self-sustained oscillations still
remain elusive. We lack adequate methods and sufficient analytical
tools for comprehensive examination of seasonality in public health
field studies. A dearth of observations, recorded over long periods at
fine resolution, compounded by an enormous number of factors associated
with periodic changes, obscure our ability to understand disease
variation. Urgent need for effective strategies to prevent and control
a spread of emerging infections in the rapidly changing world, however,
demands a deeper insight into the cyclic nature of diseases.
This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality and outline several
factors associated with seasonality using as illustrations enteric
water- or food-borne infections and respiratory infections. Then I
propose a framework for systematic evaluation of seasonal oscillations.
In every part of this presentation, and most importantly, I wish to
stimulate discussion on this challenging topic.
* [24] Other Sectionsv
+ [25]Abstract
+ [26]Introduction
+ [27]Notion of Seasonality
+ [28]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [29]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [30]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [31]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [32]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [33]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [34]References
Notion of Seasonality
Every disease occurs at any season of the year but some of them more
frequently occur and are of greater severity at certain times.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 19)
Seasonality, as noted above, refers to the cyclic appearance of events
over a period of time. A seasonal pattern may appear as a tight cluster
of isolated outbreaks that occurred during a relatively short time
period, then spreading over a wide geographic area.
For example, in a temporal curve of enteric infection cases (i.e.
giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, or rotavirus infections), a compact
cluster of outbreaks is followed by a long interval of low incidence.
Systematic recurrence of such sequences forms a seasonal pattern
typical of a specific pathogen in a given population and in a given
locality. A seasonal increase in enteric or respiratory infection often
produces a well-defined oscillating curve that starts to rise in one
season and declines over the next one.
The three main features characterize seasonality:
* a point in time when a seasonal curve reaches its maximum,
* an amplitude from peak to nadir, and
* a duration of a seasonal increase defined by a shape of a curve.
(The shape of a seasonal pattern reflects how fast a temporal curve
reaches its peak and declines to nadir over a course of a full
cycle. Depending on the length of a cycle whether it is one year or
a half of a year, a seasonal curve would have one or two peaks.)
Seasonal patterns, described by these three characteristics, may vary
for different diseases, different locations, or different
subpopulations. Many viral and bacterial infections in humans show
marked seasonal changes. In some diseases, like salmonellosis and
influenza, annual oscillations explain up to 60% of variability. Such
impact should not be ignored and deserves a proper examination.
* [35] Other Sectionsv
+ [36]Abstract
+ [37]Introduction
+ [38]Notion of Seasonality
+ [39]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [40]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [41]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [42]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [43]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [44]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [45]References
Diseases Seasonal Patterns
Diseases vary in their relationships one with another; some are
opposed, some are mutually agreeable.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 3)
Differences in diseases peaks reflect different etiology, heterogeneity
in host susceptibility, or route of transmission. In temperate
climates, Campylobacter and Salmonella infections are known to rise in
summer, giardiasis in early fall, and rotavirus infection in
mid-winter, etc. Interestingly, for the same infectious agent,
infections recorded in two different locations may present a different
pattern of incidence. A seasonal pattern for cryptosporidiosis in the
United States exhibits one late summer peak ([46]1); in contrast, in
the United Kingdom, two seasonal peaks are seen ([47]2). The UK picture
reflects two dominant sources of exposure: one from animals in the late
spring, and another from humans in the fall ([48]3).
Close temporal clustering of seasonal peaks in diseases that share
similar sources of exposure suggests dominant routes of transmissions.
Peaks in water-borne cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis often cluster
after a summer peak in ambient temperature. Such synchronization in
disease manifestation can be governed by environmental and social
factors. In some instances, periodicity of a given infection observed
in a particular population may be not present in another. A seasonal
peak in cryptosporidiosis cases observed in the general population is
not apparent in the immunocompromized HIV-positive gay men, even though
the incidence of cryptosporidiosis in HIV-positive population is very
high. This suggests differences in dominant routes of transmission.
Seasonal patterns can change over time. After intense vaccination
campaigns in the 1950s and 1970s in the United Kingdom, the patterns of
measles and pertussis changed, with the high rates of disease usually
seen when children were attending school diminishing for measles and
practically disappearing for pertusis ([49]4). Explanations for these
phenomena remain elusive. A departure from a systematically observed
pattern could reflect the evolution of a pathogen or a change in herd
immunity. A simple rule to remember is that a discovery hides in
outliers.
Faced with an abundance of causal agents, a bare observation of a rise
in the incidence of non-specific enteritis should be interpreted with
caution. A seasonal pattern can represent a mix of temporal curves.
Imagine two periodic curves of similar intensity, but one peaks in a
spring and another in a fall; the sum of these two curves might lose
the appearance of seasonality, covering two distinctly seasonal
phenomena.
Some infections are very rare. Their seasonal patterns are difficult to
examine because the relevant data must be collected over a very long
time and/or aggregated over large spatial units. Precision in
evaluating seasonality can thus be jeopardized by time-dependent and/or
space-dependent confounders.
Seasonal fluctuations can be found beyond infectious diseases; chronic
somatic diseases also exhibit substantial temporal variations.
Plausibly, exacerbations in chronic conditions are driven by infectious
agents or environmental changes. Understanding the interplay of an
infection and a chronic disease may lead to better control for both.
* [50] Other Sectionsv
+ [51]Abstract
+ [52]Introduction
+ [53]Notion of Seasonality
+ [54]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [55]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [56]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [57]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [58]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [59]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [60]References
Seasonal Host Susceptibility
When the weather is seasonable and the crops ripen at the regular
times, diseases are regular in their appearance...
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 8)
Poor nutrition directly affects host susceptibility. In places of food
scarcity, researchers suspect that temporal patterns in birth weight
and preterm delivery result from seasonal variations in food
availability ([61]5). In general, due to a less developed immune
system, young children are susceptible to infection; their immune
response may be further weakened by seasonal cutbacks in essential
micronutrients and vitamins.
Anemnestic responses to an antigen determine whether an infection
recurs. Short-lived immune memory together with seasonal changes in
pathogen transmissibility contribute further to the complexity of
seasonal patterns. Even a perfectly healthy person can experience a
change in susceptibility to infection due to stress, injuries, or
trauma. The probability of a marked impact of such factors on disease
seasonality is virtually unknown.
* [62] Other Sectionsv
+ [63]Abstract
+ [64]Introduction
+ [65]Notion of Seasonality
+ [66]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [67]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [68]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [69]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [70]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [71]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [72]References
Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
Some diseases are produced by the manner of life that is followed;
others by the life-giving air we breathe.
(Hippocrates. The Nature of Man, 9)
Temperature, humidity, and precipitation -- the defining factors of
seasons -- are important determinants of pathogens' survival. Changes
influence pathogens' potency and life expectancy, resulting in temporal
fluctuations in pathogens' abundance. In many instances, seasonal
changes in pathogen survival and transmission are inseparably related
to both biological and social aspects of our lives. They are
synchronized by weather. High ambient temperature, for example,
provides a supportive environment for food-borne pathogens, favoring
their multiplication in food and on food preparation surfaces ([73]6).
Food contamination is believed to be a significant mode of transmission
for infections caused by Salmonella and Campylobacter ([74]7);
therefore, during warm weather, the risk for food-borne diseases
increases ([75]8).
Seasonal changes in level of contamination, availability of potable
water, sanitation and hygiene practices, as well as crowding and
person-to-person contacts, affect pathogens' transmissibility.
Worldwide, water use differs from season to season ([76]9). In
temperate climates, warm weather leads to higher water consumption and
encourages outdoor activities -- swimming, camping, and recreational
water use. In tropical regions, contamination of surface water
increases during wet seasons. Although spread of pathogens via food is
certainly possible, contaminated water is the dominant source of
exposure for enteric infections caused by protozoa Cryptosporidium and
Giardia ([77]10 --[78]12). Depending on locality, outbreaks of
cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis associated with drinking or
recreational water frequently occur during warm or wet seasons
([79]13,[80]14).
With the onset of cooler weather, the "heating season" marks a change
in indoor air quality. Inadequate and poorly designed ventilation in
crowded public places and urban transit systems may boost exposure to
air-borne pathogens by increasing their concentration in stagnant air
and by re-circulating contaminated air. Higher relative humidity may
also affect the stability of air-borne droplets in which viruses travel
from person to person.
* [81] Other Sectionsv
+ [82]Abstract
+ [83]Introduction
+ [84]Notion of Seasonality
+ [85]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [86]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [87]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [88]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [89]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [90]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [91]References
Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
You will find, as a general rule, that the constitutions and the habits
of a people follow the nature of the land where they live.
(Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 24)
Diseases do not watch calendars. Their incidence rises and falls
because of changes in factors associated with the diseases. However, in
every culture all social events are synchronized by calendars; and
every calendar reflects the cyclic rhythm of nature.
Traditional celebrations and gatherings observed by communities
according to calendars affect pathogen transmission. Holidays, social
activities, and seasonal travel are often associated with changes in
food consumption and preparation, and are therefore associated with
changes in disease incidence. Preparing meat on a barbecue increases
the risk of Campylobacter infection ([92]15,[93]16) and foreign travel
increases the risk for enteric infections. Aggregation of children in
schools, daycare centers, and summer camps, reflecting school
calendars, facilitates rapid exchange of pathogens. There are marked
seasonal variations in transmission, and thus the incidence of enteric
and respiratory infections.
* [94] Other Sectionsv
+ [95]Abstract
+ [96]Introduction
+ [97]Notion of Seasonality
+ [98]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [99]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [100]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [101]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [102]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [103]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [104]References
Climate Change, Extreme Weather Events, and Disease Seasonality
The changes of the seasons are especially liable to beget diseases, as
are great changes from heat to cold, or cold to heat in any season.
Other changes in the weather have similarly severe effects.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 1)
As weather affects human health by creating favorable conditions for
pathogen proliferation and transmission, severe weather can affect the
timing and intensity of infectious outbreaks, and natural disasters
lead to drastic changes in population structure and pathogen ecology.
Catastrophic events like tsunamis, hurricanes, devastating floods, and
heat waves that cause deaths, population displacement, and
infrastructural damage may have dramatic effects on the incidence of
infections and their seasonal patterns.
Recent work has shown highly significant associations between extreme
precipitation and water-borne disease outbreaks ([105]17). Heavy
precipitation, rapid snowmelt, and floods flush animal wastes from the
land into surface waters and may overwhelm drinking and wastewater
treatment systems. The latter leads to discharges in watersheds of
untreated human wastes. As a result, pathogens can appear in drinking
and recreational water in very high concentrations ([106]18,[107]19). A
rapid snowmelt, resultant runoff, and filtration system failure at the
overloaded local drinking water treatment plant were implicated in the
largest known water-borne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis, which occurred
in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1993 ([108]20). This outbreak happened in
April, not within the usual seasonal peak for cryptosporidiosis cases.
A flood, which also resulted from a rapid snowmelt, has been linked
with a similar increased incidence of diarrhea ([109]21).
Experts expect that global climate change will increase climate
variability and the frequency of extreme precipitation events in
temperate regions ([110]22,[111]23). "Global warming" may also increase
the frequency and magnitude of other extreme weather events, such as
heat waves and droughts, and thereby have profound effects on public
health ([112]24,[113]25). In a comprehensive study conducted in the
United Kingdom that described a short-term link between temperature and
food poisoning, the authors also hypothesized that climate change could
lead to changes in rates of food poisoning ([114]26).
Integration of environmental parameters into disease forecasting and
warning systems could allow public health officials to alert the
populace when specific meteorological conditions pose predictable risks
to health ([115]27). Simple messages about proper food preparation and
refrigeration and the risks of using contaminated recreational waters
could, for example, be provided before, during, and after extreme
events. Better understanding of disease seasonality would also help to
predict outbreaks of infections triggered by climate variability.
* [116] Other Sectionsv
+ [117]Abstract
+ [118]Introduction
+ [119]Notion of Seasonality
+ [120]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [121]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [122]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [123]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [124]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [125]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [126]References
Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy
to Public Health Thinking
Desperate cases need the most desperate remedies.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, I, 6)
At first, seasonal fluctuations should be systematically described.
This requires a framework with sound definitions and analytic tools
suitable for routine use by public health professionals. In public
health sciences, the existing methodology currently lacks methods and
tests for assessing complex interactions in the time-dependent factors
responsible for disease seasonality.
Next, reliable data with fine temporal resolution are a must. The vast
majority of epidemiological studies have examined seasonal patterns of
infections using quarterly or monthly data. This coarse temporal
aggregation can thwart an otherwise detailed, accurate, and
comprehensive analysis of seasonal patterns and may even be misleading
([127]28). Examination of daily or weekly rates can substantially
improve evaluation of seasonal curves, but a systematic approach for
using at least weekly aggregates is needed.
Finally, reluctance to apply sophisticated mathematical models in
public health studies must be overcome. Underlying processes in disease
manifestation and spread are complex and multifaceted. Causal pathways
are often obscured. To disentangle causal effects of many factors
within the circular processes of self-sustaining oscillations demands
the careful building of sound conceptual models of seasonality; models
that can be tested. The emerging fields of computational epidemiology
and intelligent data mining will complement established work in
philosophy of science and mathematical biology to become an essential
part of thinking in public health and policy.
Acknowledgments
I thank Drs Eileen O'Neil and Beth Rosenberg for their thoughtful
suggestions, and the support of funding agencies: the National
Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (U19AI062627), and the
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R01ES013171).
Footnotes
^1Hippocrates' citations are taken from: Lloyd, GER, editor.
Hippocratic Writings. Trans. Chadwick J and Mann WN. London: Penguin;
1978.
* [128] Other Sectionsv
+ [129]Abstract
+ [130]Introduction
+ [131]Notion of Seasonality
+ [132]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [133]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [134]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [135]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [136]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [137]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [138]References
References
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17. Curriero FC, Patz JA, Rose JB, Lele S. The association between
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Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay.
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19. Kistemann T, Classen T, Koch C, Dangendorf F, Fischeder R, Gebel J,
et al. Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during
extreme rainfall and runoff. Appl Environ Microbiol.
2002;68(5):2188-97. [[155]PubMed]
20. MacKenzie WR, Hoxie NJ, Proctor ME, Gradus MS, Blair KA, Peterson
DE, et al. A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of Cryptosporidium infection
transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med.
1994;331(3):161-7. [[156]PubMed]
21. Wade TJ, Sandhu SK, Levy D, Lee S, LeChevallier MW, Katz L, et al.
Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the incidence of
gastrointestinal symptoms? Am J Epidemiol. 2004;159(4):398-405.
[[157]PubMed]
22. World Health Organization. Using climate to predict infectious
disease outbreaks: a review. World Health Organization; Geneva,
Switzerland: 2004. Publication no. WHO/SDE/OEH/04.01.
23. Easterling DR, Evans JL. Observed variability and trends in extreme
climate events. Bull Am Meteorol Soc. 2000;81:417-25.
24. Charron D, Thomas M, Waltner-Toews D, Aramini J, Edge T, Kent R, et
al. Vulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a
review. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004;67(20 --22):1667-77.
[[158]PubMed]
25. Patz JA, Epstein PR, Burke TA, Balbus JM. Global climate change and
emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996;275(3):217-23. [[159]PubMed]
26. Bentham G, Langford IH. Climate change and the incidence of food
poisoning in England and Wales. Int J Biometeorol. 1995;39(2):81-6.
[[160]PubMed]
27. Ebi KL, Schmier JK. A stitch in time: improving public health early
warning systems for extreme weather events. Epidemiol Rev.
2005;27:115-21. [[161]PubMed]
28. da Silva Lopes ACB. Spurious deterministic seasonality and
auto-correlation corrections with quarterly data: further Monte Carlo
results. Empir Econ. 1999;24(2):341-59.
__________________________________________________________________
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* [162]Naumova, E.
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* [175]PubMed
* [176]Taxonomy
* [177]Taxonomy Tree
* [178]Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial
variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis.
Public Health Rep. 2000 Sep-Oct; 115(5):436-47.
[Public Health Rep. 2000]
* [179]Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in
cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance
system in 1990-1999.
J Water Health. 2005 Jun; 3(2):185-96.
[J Water Health. 2005]
* [180]Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in
the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in
1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from
livestock animals.
J Clin Microbiol. 2000 Nov; 38(11):3984-90.
[J Clin Microbiol. 2000]
[181]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [182]A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between
rural Zaire and Ontario.
Can J Public Health. 1989 May-Jun; 80(3):205-8.
[Can J Public Health. 1989]
[183]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [184]Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces
and cross-contamination to foods.
Int J Food Microbiol. 2003 Aug 25; 85(3):227-36.
[Int J Food Microbiol. 2003]
* [185]ReviewFood-related illness and death in the United States.
Emerg Infect Dis. 1999 Sep-Oct; 5(5):607-25.
[Emerg Infect Dis. 1999]
* [186]The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series
analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries.
Epidemiol Infect. 2004 Jun; 132(3):443-53.
[Epidemiol Infect. 2004]
[187]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [188]A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with
the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study).
Water Sci Technol. 2001; 43(12):39-48.
[Water Sci Technol. 2001]
* [189]ReviewReview of epidemiological studies on health effects from
exposure to recreational water.
Int J Epidemiol. 1998 Feb; 27(1):1-9.
[Int J Epidemiol. 1998]
* [190]ReviewGiardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their
impact on foods: a review.
J Food Prot. 1999 Sep; 62(9):1059-70.
[J Food Prot. 1999]
* [191]Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks--United States,
1997-1998.
MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000 May 26; 49(4):1-21.
[MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000]
[192]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [193]Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of
a case-control study in southeastern Norway.
J Clin Microbiol. 1992 Dec; 30(12):3117-21.
[J Clin Microbiol. 1992]
* [194]A case-control study of risk factors for sporadic
campylobacter infections in Denmark.
Epidemiol Infect. 2003 Jun; 130(3):353-66.
[Epidemiol Infect. 2003]
[195]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [196]The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne
disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948-1994.
Am J Public Health. 2001 Aug; 91(8):1194-9.
[Am J Public Health. 2001]
* [197]Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay.
Parasitol Res. 2002 Nov; 88(11):998-1003.
[Parasitol Res. 2002]
* [198]Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during
extreme rainfall and runoff.
Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002 May; 68(5):2188-97.
[Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002]
* [199]A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of cryptosporidium infection
transmitted through the public water supply.
N Engl J Med. 1994 Jul 21; 331(3):161-7.
[N Engl J Med. 1994]
* [200]Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the
incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms?
Am J Epidemiol. 2004 Feb 15; 159(4):398-405.
[Am J Epidemiol. 2004]
[201]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [202]ReviewVulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change
in Canada: a review.
J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004 Oct 22-Nov 26; 67(20-22):1667-77.
[J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004]
* [203]Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases.
JAMA. 1996 Jan 17; 275(3):217-23.
[JAMA. 1996]
* [204]Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England
and Wales.
Int J Biometeorol. 1995 Nov; 39(2):81-6.
[Int J Biometeorol. 1995]
[205]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [206]ReviewA stitch in time: improving public health early warning
systems for extreme weather events.
Epidemiol Rev. 2005; 27():115-21.
[Epidemiol Rev. 2005]
[207]See more articles cited in this paragraph
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Circadian rhythm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search
"Human clock" redirects here. For the online clock, see [8]Humanclock.
Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological
parameters.
A circadian rhythm is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical,
physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including
[9]plants, [10]animals, [11]fungi and [12]cyanobacteria (see
[13]bacterial circadian rhythms). The term "circadian", coined by
[14]Franz Halberg,^[15][1] comes from the [16]Latin [17]circa,
"around", and diem or dies, "day", meaning literally "approximately one
day". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily,
[18]tidal, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called
[19]chronobiology.
Circadian rhythms are [20]endogenously generated, and can be entrained
by external cues, called [21]zeitgebers, the primary one of which is
[22]daylight.
Contents
* [23]1 History
* [24]2 Criteria
* [25]3 Origin
* [26]4 Importance in animals
+ [27]4.1 Impact of light-dark cycle
+ [28]4.2 Arctic animals
+ [29]4.3 Butterfly migration
* [30]5 Biological clock in mammals
+ [31]5.1 Determining the human circadian rhythm
+ [32]5.2 Outside the "master clock"
* [33]6 Light and the biological clock
* [34]7 Enforced longer cycles
* [35]8 Human health
+ [36]8.1 Disruption
+ [37]8.2 Effect of drugs
* [38]9 See also
* [39]10 References
+ [40]10.1 Bibliography
+ [41]10.2 Notes
* [42]11 External links
[[43]edit] History
The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th
century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under
[44]Alexander the Great, described [45]diurnal leaf movements of the
[46]tamarind tree.^[47][2] The first modern observation of endogenous
circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [48]Jean-Jacques
d'Ortous de Mairan in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the
movement of the leaves of the plant [49]Mimosa pudica continued even
when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
In 1918, J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining
24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light
and changes in temperature.^[50][3] [51]Joseph Takahashi discovered the
genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.^[52][4]^[53][5]
[[54]edit] Criteria
To differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from
coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met: 1)
the rhythms persist in the absence of cues, 2) they persist equally
precisely over a range of temperatures, and 3) the rhythms can be
adjusted to match the local time:
* The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant
dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this
criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those "apparent"
rhythms that are merely responses to external periodic cues. A
rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been
tested in conditions without external periodic input.
* The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e., it maintains the same
period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this
criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological
rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway.
At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a
circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely
coincidental.
* The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The
rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms
from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to
resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of
estimating the local time. Travel across [55]time zones illustrates
the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that
it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next.
Until rhythms are reset, a person usually experiences [56]jet lag.
[[57]edit] Origin
[58]Question book-new.svg
This section needs additional [59]citations for [60]verification.
Please help [61]improve this article by adding [62]reliable references.
Unsourced material may be [63]challenged and [64]removed. (October
2007)
Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have
originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the
replicating of DNA from high [65]ultraviolet radiation during the
daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus
[66]Neurospora, which exists today, retains this [67]clock-regulated
mechanism.
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise
and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to
the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in
regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in
coordinating with the environment.^[68][6] This is suggested by the
maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after
several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,^[69][7]
as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the
experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian
rhythms in quail.^[70][8]
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic
[71]cyanobacteria. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian
clock of Synechococcus elongatus can be reconstituted in vitro with
just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has
been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the
addition of [72]ATP. Previous explanations of the [73]prokaryotic
circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription /
translation feedback mechanism.
It is an unanswered question whether circadian clocks in eukaryotic
organisms require translation/transcription-derived oscillations, for,
although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the
same basic architecture (input - [74]central oscillator - output), they
do not share any [75]homology. This implies probable independent
origins.
In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [76]Seymour Benzer first identified a
genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a
model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behaviour:
one had a shorter period, another had a longer one, and the third had
none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named
[77]period.^[78][9] The same gene was identified to be defective in the
sleep disorder FASPS ([79]Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome) in
human beings thirty years later, underscoring the conserved nature of
the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic
components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions
result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in
periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a
specific time of the day.
A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter
half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian
clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is
cell-autonomous.^[80][10] At the same time, different cells may
communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of
electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the
brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for
these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronize the
peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time
of the day as relayed by the [81]eyes travels to the clock in the
brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be
synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body
temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the
biological clock.
[[82]edit] Importance in animals
Circadian rhythmicity is present in the [83]sleeping and feeding
patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear
patterns of core body temperature, [84]brain wave activity, [85]hormone
production, cell regeneration and other biological activities. In
addition, [86]photoperiodism, the physiological reaction of organisms
to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and
the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation
of day length.
" Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food
availability or predator activity is crucial for survival of many
species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the
photoperiod ('daylength') is the most predictive environmental cue for
the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing
of migration, hibernation and reproduction.^[87][11] "
[[88]edit] Impact of light-dark cycle
The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals, including
humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function
with a [89]freerunning rhythm. Each "day", their sleep cycle is pushed
back or forward, depending on whether their [90]endogenous period is
shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that each day
reset the rhythms are called [91]Zeitgebers (from the German, Time
Givers).^[92][12] It is interesting to note that totally-blind
subterranean mammals (e.g., [93]blind mole rat Spalax sp.) are able to
maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external
stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors
(detect light) are still functional; as well, they do surface
periodically.^[[94]citation needed]
Freerunning organisms that normally have one consolidated sleep episode
will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues,
but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light/dark
cycle in nature. The sleep-wake rhythm may, in these circumstances,
become out of phase with other circadian or [95]ultradian rhythms such
as [96]temperature and [97]digestion.^[[98]citation needed]
Recent research has influenced the design of [99]spacecraft
environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been
found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.^[[100]citation needed]
[[101]edit] Arctic animals
Norwegian researchers at the [102]University of Tromsø have shown that
some Arctic animals ([103]ptarmigan, [104]reindeer) show circadian
rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and
sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at [105]70 degrees North
showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter, and spring, but not in
the summer. Reindeer at [106]78 degrees North showed such rhythms only
autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other Arctic animals as
well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and
the constant dark of winter.^[107][13]^[108][14]
However, another study in northern Alaska found that [109]ground
squirrels and [110]porcupines strictly maintained their circadian
rhythms through 82 days and nights of sunshine. The researchers
speculate that these two small mammals see that the apparent distance
between the sun and the horizon is shortest once a day, and, thus, a
sufficient signal to adjust by.^[111][15]
[[112]edit] Butterfly migration
The navigation of the fall migration of the [113]Eastern North American
monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) to their overwintering grounds in
central Mexico uses a time-compensated sun compass that depends upon a
circadian clock in their antennae.^[114][16]^[115][17]
[[116]edit] Biological clock in mammals
Diagram illustrating the influence of light and darkness on circadian
rhythms and related [117]physiology and behaviour through the
[118]suprachiasmatic nucleus in humans.
The primary circadian "clock" in [119]mammals is located in the
[120]suprachiasmatic nucleus (or nuclei) ([121]SCN), a pair of distinct
groups of [122]cells located in the [123]hypothalamus. Destruction of
the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep-wake rhythm.
The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The
[124]retina of the eyes contains not only "classical"
[125]photoreceptors but also photoresponsive retinal [126]ganglion
cells. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called
[127]melanopsin, follow a pathway called the [128]retinohypothalamic
tract, leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and
cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external
cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on the lengths of the day
and night from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the
[129]pineal gland, a tiny structure shaped like a [130]pine cone and
located on the [131]epithalamus. In response the pineal secretes the
hormone [132]melatonin. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs
during the day and its presence provides information about
night-length.
The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter
and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard
have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a
23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural
solar day-night cycle on the planet [133]Mars).^[134][18]
[[135]edit] Determining the human circadian rhythm
The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's
circadian rhythm are
* melatonin secretion by the pineal gland and
* core body temperature.
For temperature studies, people must remain awake but calm and
semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are
taken continuously. The average human adult's temperature reaches its
minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake
time, though variation is great among normal [136]chronotypes.
Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime.
Its onset in dim light, dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO), at about
21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Its major
[137]metabolite can also be measured in morning urine. Both DLMO and
the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or
saliva have been used as circadian markers.
However, newer research indicates that the melatonin offset may be the
most reliable marker. Benloucif et al. in Chicago in 2005 found that
melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated
with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found
that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly
correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In
addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable
and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.^[138][19]
One method used for measuring melatonin offset is to analyse a sequence
of urine samples throughout the morning for the presence of the
melatonin [139]metabolite 6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s). Laberge et al.
in Quebec in 1997 used this method in a study that confirmed the
frequently found delayed circadian phase in healthy
adolescents.^[140][20]
[[141]edit] Outside the "master clock"
More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and
cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the "master
clock". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the
[142]oesophagus, [143]lungs, [144]liver, [145]pancreas, [146]spleen,
[147]thymus, and the [148]skin.^[149][21] Though oscillators in the
skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven so
far.^[150][22]^[151][23] There is some evidence that also the olfactory
bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting
that also these structures may be weak oscillators.
Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding
rather than to [152]light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to
have freerunning rhythms.
[[153]edit] Light and the biological clock
Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [154]phase
response curve (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or
delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required
[155]illuminance vary from species to species and lower light levels
are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm in humans are higher than
the levels usually used in artificial lighting in homes. According to
some researchers^[156][24] the illumination intensity that excites the
circadian system has to reach up to 1000 [157]lux striking the retina.
In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or colour) of light is a
factor in the entrainment of the body clock. [158]Melanopsin is most
efficiently excited by blue light, 420-440 nm^[159][25] according to
some researchers while others have reported 470-485 nm.
It is thought that the direction of the light may have an effect on
entraining the circadian rhythm;^[160][24] light coming from above,
resembling an image of a bright sky, has greater effect than light
entering our eyes from below.
[[161]edit] Enforced longer cycles
Modern research under very controlled conditions has shown the human
period for adults to be just slightly longer than 24 hours on average.
Czeisler et al. at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults
of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes.
The "clock" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's
rotation.^[162][26]
The 28-hour day is presented as a concept of [163]time
management.^[164][27] It builds on the fact that the week of seven days
at 24 hours and a "week" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of
168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require
staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours.
Each "day" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern.
Studies by [165]Nathaniel Kleitman^[166][28] in 1938 and by
[167]Derk-Jan Dijk and [168]Charles Czeisler^[169][29]^[170][30] in
1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep-wake cycles,
in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a
month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day,^[171][31]
this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake
episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about
24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of
circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including
[172]sleep latency and other functions.^[173][32]
Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people
preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli
like daylight and timekeeping. Early investigators determined the human
circadian period to be 25 hours or more. They went to great lengths to
shield subjects from time cues and daylight, but they were not aware of
the effects of indoor electric lights. The subjects were allowed to
turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted
to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase.
These results became well known.^[174][26] Researchers allowed subjects
to keep electric lighting on in the evening, as it was thought at that
time that a couple of 60W bulbs would not have a resetting effect on
the circadian rhythms of humans. More recent research^[[175]citation
needed] has shown that adults have a built-in day, which averages just
over 24 hours, that indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms and
that most people attain their best-quality sleep during their
[176]chronotype-determined sleep periods.
[[177]edit] Human health
Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may
significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse
reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with
[178]angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) may reduce
nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [179]left ventricular
(reverse) remodelling.^[[180]citation needed]
A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms.
A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during
the day, a [181]power-nap, does not have any effect on normal circadian
rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve
productivity.^[182][33]^[183][34]
There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the
human circadian rhythm, such as [184]seasonal affective disorder (SAD),
[185]delayed sleep phase syndrome (DSPS) and other [186]circadian
rhythm disorders.^[187][35] Circadian rhythms also play a part in the
[188]reticular activating system, which is crucial for maintaining a
state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep-wake cycle
may be a sign or complication of [189]uremia,^[190][36] [191]azotemia
or [192]acute renal failure.
[[193]edit] Disruption
Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers
have experienced the condition known as [194]jet lag, with its
associated symptoms of [195]fatigue, disorientation and [196]insomnia.
A number of other disorders, for example [197]bipolar disorder and some
[198]sleep disorders, are associated with irregular or pathological
functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that
circadian rhythm disturbances found in [199]bipolar disorder are
positively influenced by [200]lithium's effect on clock
genes.^[201][37]
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have
significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside
the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of
cardiovascular disease [202][2] The suppression of melatonin production
associated with the disruption of the circadian rhythm may increase the
risk of developing cancer.^[203][38]^[204][39]
[[205]edit] Effect of drugs
Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside
the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such
as [206]cocaine.^[207][40]^[208][41] Moreover, genetic manipulations of
clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.^[209][42]
[[210]edit] See also
* [211]Actigraphy (also known as Actimetry)
* [212]Advanced sleep phase syndrome
* [213]ARNTL
* [214]ARNTL2
* [215]Bacterial circadian rhythms
* [216]Chronobiology
* [217]Chronotype
* [218]Circadian oscillator
* [219]Circadian rhythm sleep disorders
* [220]Cryptochrome
* [221]CRY1 and [222]CRY2, the cryptochrome family genes
* [223]Delayed sleep phase syndrome
* [224]Diurnal cycle
* [225]Jet lag
* [226]Light effects on circadian rhythm
* [227]PER1, [228]PER2, and [229]PER3, the period family genes
* [230]Power-nap
[[231]edit] References
[[232]edit] Bibliography
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[[372]edit] External links
* [373]Circadian rhythm at the [374]Open Directory Project
* Leloup J.C. (2009). "Circadian clocks and phosphorylation: Insights
from computational modeling". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 4 (3): 290-303.
[375]doi:[376]10.2478/s11535-009-0025-1.
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[377]doi:[378]10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z.
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January 2, 2006
Universal Timing
Life's Natural Rhythm
Nature's natural rhythms orchestrate when day turns to night, when
flowers must bloom, and provides the cue for when it is time for red
and brown leaves to fall from trees. As human beings, our own inner
rhythm is attuned to this universal sense of timing. Guided by the
rising and setting of the sun, changes in temperature, and our own
internal rhythm, we know when it is time to sleep, eat, or be active.
While our minds and spirits are free to focus on other pursuits, our
breath and our heartbeat are always there to remind us of life's
pulsing rhythm that moves within and around us.
Moving to this rhythm, we know when it is time to stop working and when
to rest. Pushing our bodies to work beyond their natural rhythm
diminishes our ability to renew and recharge. A feeling much like jet
lag lets us know when we've overridden our own natural rhythm. When we
feel the frantic calls of all we want to accomplish impelling us to
move faster than is natural for us, we may want to breathe deeply
instead and look at nature moving to its own organic timing: birds
flying south, leaves shedding, or snow falling. A walk in nature can
also let us re-attune is to her organic rhythm, while allowing us to
move back in time with our own. When we move to our natural rhythm, we
can achieve all we need to do with less effort.
We may even notice that our soul moves to its own internal, natural
rhythm - especially when it comes to our personal evolution. Comparing
ourselves to others is unnecessary. Our best guide is to move to our
own internal timing, while keeping time with the rhythm of nature.
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Life's Natural Rhythm
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Rhythm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search
For other uses, see [8]Rhythm (disambiguation).
Rhythm (from [9]greek rhuthµo'*s - rhythmos, "any measured flow or
movement, symmetry") is the variation of the length and accentuation of
a series of sounds or other events.
Contents
* [10]1 Rhythm in linguistics
* [11]2 Origins of human appreciation of rhythm
* [12]3 Rhythm notation and the oral tradition
+ [13]3.1 African music
+ [14]3.2 Indian music
+ [15]3.3 Western music
* [16]4 Types
* [17]5 See also
* [18]6 Notes
* [19]7 Sources
* [20]8 Further reading
[[21]edit] Rhythm in linguistics
The study of rhythm, stress, and [22]pitch in [23]speech is called
[24]prosody; it is a topic in [25]linguistics. Narmour (1980,
p. 147-53) describes three categories of prosodic rules which create
rhythmic successions which are additive (same duration repeated),
cumulative (short-long), or countercumulative (long-short). Cumulation
is associated with closure or relaxation, countercumulation with
openness or tension, while additive rhythms are open-ended and
repetitive. Richard Middleton points out this method cannot account for
[26]syncopation and suggests the concept of [27]transformation.
A [28]rhythmic unit is a [29]durational pattern which occupies a period
of time equivalent to a [30]pulse or pulses on an underlying [31]metric
level, as opposed to a [32]rhythmic gesture which does not (DeLone et
al. (Eds.), 1975
[[33]edit] Origins of human appreciation of rhythm
In his series How Music Works, [34]Howard Goodall presents theories
that rhythm recalls how we walk and the heartbeat we heard in the womb.
More likely is that a simple pulse or [35]di-dah beat recalls the
footsteps of another person. Our sympathetic urge to dance is designed
to boost our energy levels in order to cope with someone, or some
animal chasing us - a fight or flight response. From a less darwinist
perspective, perceiving rhythm is the ability to master the otherwise
invisible dimension, time. Rhythm is possibly also rooted in courtship
ritual.^[36][1]
Neurologist [37]Oliver Sacks posits that human affinity for rhythm is
fundamental, so much that a person's sense of rhythm cannot be lost in
the way that music and language can (e.g. by [38]stroke). In addition,
he states that [39]chimpanzees and other animals show no similar
appreciation for rhythm.^[40][2]
[[41]edit] Rhythm notation and the oral tradition
Worldwide there are many different approaches to passing on rhythmic
phrases and patterns, as they exist in traditional music, from
generation to generation.
[[42]edit] African music
In the [43]Griot tradition of Africa everything related to music has
been passed on orally. [44]Babatunde Olatunji (1927-2003), a Nigerian
drummer who lived and worked in the [45]United States, developed a
simple series of spoken sounds for teaching the rhythms of the hand
drum. He used six vocal sounds: Goon Doon Go Do Pa Ta. There are three
basic sounds on the drum, but each can be played with either the left
or the right hand. This simple system is now used worldwide,
particularly by [46]Djembe players.
[[47]edit] Indian music
Indian music has also been passed on orally. Tabla players would learn
to speak complex rhythm patterns and phrases before attempting to play
them. [48]Sheila Chandra, an English pop singer of Indian descent, made
performances based around her singing these patterns. In [49]Indian
Classical music, the [50]Tala of a composition is the rhythmic pattern
over which the whole piece is structured.
[[51]edit] Western music
Standard [52]music notation contains rhythmic information and is
adapted specifically for drums and percussion instruments. The drums
are generally used to keep other instruments in 'time'. They do this by
supplying beats/strikes in time at a certain pace, i.e. 70 beats per
minute (bpm). In [53]Rock music, a drum beat is used to keep a
[54]bass/[55]guitar line in time.
[[56]edit] Types
In [57]Western music, rhythms are usually arranged with respect to a
[58]time signature, partially signifying a meter. The speed of the
underlying [59]pulse is sometimes called the [60]beat. The [61]tempo is
a measure of how quickly the pulse repeats. The tempo is usually
measured in 'beats per minute' (bpm); 60 bpm means a speed of one beat
per second. The length of the meter, or metric unit (usually
corresponding with [62]measure length), is usually grouped into either
two or three beats, being called [63]duple meter and [64]triple meter,
respectively. If each beat is divided by two or four, it is [65]simple
meter, if by three (or six) [66]compound meter. According to [67]Pierre
Boulez, beat structures beyond four are "simply not natural".^[68][3].
His reference is to western European music.
Standard notation of a clave pattern on audio clip clave pattern.ogg
[69]Syncopated rhythms are rhythms that accent parts of the beat not
already stressed by [70]counting. Playing simultaneous rhythms in more
than one time signature is called [71]polymeter. See also
[72]polyrhythm. In recent years, rhythm and meter have become an
important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these
areas includes books by [73]Maury Yeston, [74]Fred Lerdahl and [75]Ray
Jackendoff, [76]Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty, William Rothstein,
and Joel Lester.
Grid notation of single a clave pattern
Some [77]genres of music make different use of rhythm than others. Most
Western music is based on [78]subdivision, while non-Western music uses
more [79]additive rhythm. [80]African music makes heavy use of
[81]polyrhythms, and [82]Indian music uses [83]complex cycles such as 7
and 13, while [84]Balinese music often uses complex [85]interlocking
rhythms. By comparison, a lot of Western [86]classical music is fairly
rhythmically (or metrically) simple; it stays in a [87]simple meter
such as 4/4 or 3/4 and makes little use of [88]syncopation.
[89]Clave is a common underlying rhythm in [90]African, [91]Cuban
music, and [92]Brazilian music.
[93]Claves
(Submit) Play sound
Four beats followed by three Clave patterns
__________________________________________________________________
Problems listening to this file? See [94]media help.
In the 20th century, [95]composers like [96]Igor Stravinsky, [97]Bela
Bartok, [98]Philip Glass, and [99]Steve Reich wrote more rhythmically
complex music using [100]odd meters, and techniques such as
[101]phasing and [102]additive rhythm. At the same time, modernists
such as [103]Olivier Messiaen and his pupils used increased complexity
to disrupt the sense of a regular beat, leading eventually to the
widespread use of [104]irrational rhythms in [105]New Complexity. This
use may be explained by a comment of [106]John Cage's^[[107]where?]
where he notes that regular rhythms cause sounds to be heard as a group
rather than individually; the irregular rhythms highlight the rapidly
changing pitch relationships that would otherwise be subsumed into
irrelevant rhythmic groupings (Sandow 2004, p. 257). [108]LaMonte Young
also wrote music in which the sense of a regular beat is absent because
the music consists only of long sustained tones ([109]drones). In the
1930s, [110]Henry Cowell wrote music involving multiple simultaneous
periodic rhythms and collaborated with [111]Léon Thérémin to invent the
[112]Rhythmicon, the first electronic [113]rhythm machine, in order to
perform them. Similarly, [114]Conlon Nancarrow wrote for the
[115]player piano.
[[116]edit] See also
* [117]Meter (music)
* [118]Prosody (linguistics)
* [119]Riddim
* [120]Morse Code
* [121]Soul (music)
* [122]Time scale (music)
* [123]Timing (linguistics)
[[124]edit] Notes
1. [125]^ [126]Mithen, Steven (2005). [127]The Singing Neanderthals:
The Origins of Music, Language, Mind and Body.. London: Weidenfeld
& Nicolson.. [128]ISBN [129]0297643177.
2. [131]^ [132]Jon Stewart, [133]Oliver Sacks. (2009-06-29). [134]The
Daily Show with Jon Stewart. [Television production]. Comedy
Central.
itle=oliver-sacks. "People often tried to teach their dogs to
dance--it doesn't work."
3. [136]^ In [137]Discovering Music: Rhythm with [138]Leonard Slatkin
at 5:05
[[139]edit] Sources
* Hasty, Christopher (1997). Meter as Rhythm. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. [140]ISBN 0-19-510066-2.
* London, Justin (2004). Hearing in Time: Psychological Aspects of
Musical Meter. [141]ISBN 0-19-516081-9.
* Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music.
Philadelphia: Open University Press. [142]ISBN 0-335-15275-9.
* Narmour (1980). Cited in DeLone et al. (Eds.) (1975). Aspects of
Twentieth-Century Music. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall. [143]ISBN 0-13-049346-5.
* Sandow, Greg (2004). "A Fine Madness", The Pleasure of Modernist
Music. [144]ISBN 1-58046-143-3.
* Yeston, Maury (1976). "The Stratification of Musical Rhythm".
[[145]edit] Further reading
* McGaughey, William (2001). "Rhythm and Self-Consciousness: New
Ideals for an Electronic Civilization". Minneapolis: Thistlerose
Publications. [146]ISBN 0-9605630-4-0.
* Honing, H. (2002). [147]"Structure and interpretation of rhythm and
timing." Tijdschrift voor Muziektheorie [Dutch Journal of Music
Theory] 7(3): 227-232.
* Lewis, Andrew (2005). Rhythm--What it is and How to Improve Your
Sense of It. San Francisco: [148]RhythmSource Press. [149]ISBN
978-0-9754667-0-4.
* Williams, C. F. A., The Aristoxenian Theory of Musical Rhythm,
(Cambridge Library Collection - Music), Cambridge University Press;
1st edition, 2009.
* Toussaint, G. T., "The geometry of musical rhythm," In J. Akiyama,
M. Kano, and X. Tan, editors, Proceedings of the Japan Conference
on Discrete and Computational Geometry, Vol. 3742, Lecture Notes in
Computer Science, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2005, pp. 198-212.
[150]v o [151]d o [152]e
[153]Musical notation and [154]development
[155]Staff
[156]Bar & Bar line · [157]Clef · [158]Da capo · [159]Dal segno ·
[160]Key signature · [161]Ledger line · [162]Musical mode ·
[163]Musical scale · [164]Rehearsal letter · [165]Repeat sign ·
[166]Time signature · [167]Transposition · [168]Transposing instrument
[169]G (treble) clef symbol
[170]Notes
[171]Accidental ([172]Flat · [173]Natural · [174]Sharp) · [175]Dotted
note · [176]Grace note · [177]Note value ([178]Beam · [179]Note head ·
[180]Stem) · [181]Pitch · [182]Rest · [183]Interval · [184]Letter
notation
[185]Articulation
[186]Dynamics · [187]Ornament ([188]Trill · [189]Mordent · [190]Grace
note) · [191]Ossia · [192]Portato · [193]Accent · [194]Legato ·
[195]Tenuto · [196]Marcato · [197]Staccato · [198]Staccatissimo ·
[199]Tie · [200]Slur · [201]Fermata
[202]Development
[203]Coda · [204]Exposition · [205]Harmony · [206]Melody · [207]Motif ·
[208]Recapitulation · Rhythm ([209]Beat · [210]Meter · [211]Tempo) ·
[212]Theme · [213]Tonality · [214]Atonality
Related
[215]Chord chart · [216]Figured bass · [217]Graphic notation ·
[218]Lead sheet · [219]Eye music · [220]Modern musical symbols ·
[221]Neume · [222]Tablature
[224]Categories: [225]Rhythm | [226]Greek loanwords
Hidden categories: [227]Vague or ambiguous geographic scope
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With
Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from
Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications.
Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature
This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no
one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of
it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may
relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he
requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and
anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the
same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the
same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual
training, recitation, gymnastics, and play.
Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized
with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle
which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of
every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in
the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of
work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there
is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their
appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less
of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to
anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else
it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from
which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle
with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of
salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting
from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human
[40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important
changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality.
The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief
from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this
tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary
conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified
by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries. . . .
When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in
recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious
rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and
the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and
more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak.
Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with
instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is
laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of
activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to
elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to
primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which
threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving
mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. -
Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20.
. . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area
of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a
ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight
years in [42]duration are superposed.
. . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of
buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the
rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the
production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing
weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of
rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135.
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[53]heredity, [54]human nature, [55]institutions, [56]location,
[57]natural selection, [58]organizations, [59]population, [60]primary
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Cultural
Towards Lefebvrian Socio-Nature? A Film about Rhythm, Nature and Science
By [17]James Evans and [18]Phil Jones, School of Environment and
Development, University of Manchester School of Geography, Earth and
Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham (April 2008)
__________________________________________________________________
Section: [19]Cultural
Subjects: [20]Environment And Society, [21]Geography, [22]Urban
Geography, [23]Cultural Geography.
Key Topics: [24]nature , [25]representation.
Abstract
The first thing you will notice about this article is that it is
actually a film. We did not set out to make a film, it just ended up
that way. We started out making music out of environmental data,
wondering why we only ever look at scientific data, why we do not
listen to it. Wandering around the city passing through the transformed
landscapes of channelised rivers and broken industrial spaces, we
wanted to reveal the socio-natural rhythms of this hybrid city. The
text you see below represents the shooting script for a film that
explores Lefebvre's notion of rhythmanalysis in the context of
socio-natural rhythms. The video accompanying it is far more
interesting, including the environmental music that we produced by
feeding scientific data through samplers and drum machines. The video
questions the nature of scientific representation and whether the
notion of rhythmanalysis can be stretched to explore rhythms beyond the
human. Furthermore, the process of actually making the video,
submitting it to this journal, and responding to the referees' comments
made us question the very nature of what constitutes an academic paper
in the twenty-first century. The accompanying commentary is our attempt
to deal with these issues.
To link to the film please go to
DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00107.x
This article abstract has been viewed 5348 times.
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J Public Health Policy. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2008 July
24.
Published in final edited form as:
[7]J Public Health Policy. 2006; 27(1): 2-12.
doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200061.
PMCID: PMC2483431
NIHMSID: NIHMS58476
[8]Copyright notice and [9]Disclaimer
Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature
Elena N. Naumova^*
^*Address for Correspondence: Department of Public Health and Family
Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Avenue,
Boston, MA 02111, USA. E-mail: elena.naumova/at/tufts.edu
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Abstract
Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course
of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences.
Understanding seasonal fluctuations in diseases patterns presents us
with a major challenge. To develop efficient strategies for disease
prevention and control, we need to grasp the main determinants of
temporal variations and their interactions. This paper will introduce
the notion of seasonality by outlining several of its factors, using as
illustrations respiratory and enteric water- or food-borne infections.
Keywords: seasonality, water-borne infection, food-borne infection,
respiratory infection
* [12] Other Sectionsv
+ [13]Abstract
+ [14]Introduction
+ [15]Notion of Seasonality
+ [16]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [17]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [18]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [19]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [20]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [21]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [22]References
Introduction
Now let us consider the seasons and the way we can predict whether it
is going to be a healthy or an unhealthy year.
(Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 10)^[23]1
Seasonal fluctuations in birth and death, in sickness and health, are
the haunting mysteries of mankind. People have made predictions from
winds, tides, birds' migrations, spring blooms, sunsets, and
constellations in hope of grasping the future. The complexity and
uncertainty of ancient and modern means of prediction make us wonder to
what extent we are able to understand the rhythm of nature. One might
argue the future cannot be known, but from a practical point of view, a
better understanding of changes in disease occurrences is essential for
building efficient strategies for disease prevention and control.
Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course
of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences.
Since Hippocrates, observers worldwide have noted and documented marked
fluctuations in the incidence of many diseases. In the modern view, the
main determinants of temporal variations in disease manifestation are
evolving host susceptibility, periodicity in pathogen abundance and
transmissibility, and the ever-changing environment that can support or
repress a host or pathogen. Interactions among these factors
responsible for seasonal variation are interwoven into the intricate
fabric of life.
For many diseases, explanations for self-sustained oscillations still
remain elusive. We lack adequate methods and sufficient analytical
tools for comprehensive examination of seasonality in public health
field studies. A dearth of observations, recorded over long periods at
fine resolution, compounded by an enormous number of factors associated
with periodic changes, obscure our ability to understand disease
variation. Urgent need for effective strategies to prevent and control
a spread of emerging infections in the rapidly changing world, however,
demands a deeper insight into the cyclic nature of diseases.
This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality and outline several
factors associated with seasonality using as illustrations enteric
water- or food-borne infections and respiratory infections. Then I
propose a framework for systematic evaluation of seasonal oscillations.
In every part of this presentation, and most importantly, I wish to
stimulate discussion on this challenging topic.
* [24] Other Sectionsv
+ [25]Abstract
+ [26]Introduction
+ [27]Notion of Seasonality
+ [28]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [29]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [30]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [31]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [32]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [33]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [34]References
Notion of Seasonality
Every disease occurs at any season of the year but some of them more
frequently occur and are of greater severity at certain times.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 19)
Seasonality, as noted above, refers to the cyclic appearance of events
over a period of time. A seasonal pattern may appear as a tight cluster
of isolated outbreaks that occurred during a relatively short time
period, then spreading over a wide geographic area.
For example, in a temporal curve of enteric infection cases (i.e.
giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, or rotavirus infections), a compact
cluster of outbreaks is followed by a long interval of low incidence.
Systematic recurrence of such sequences forms a seasonal pattern
typical of a specific pathogen in a given population and in a given
locality. A seasonal increase in enteric or respiratory infection often
produces a well-defined oscillating curve that starts to rise in one
season and declines over the next one.
The three main features characterize seasonality:
* a point in time when a seasonal curve reaches its maximum,
* an amplitude from peak to nadir, and
* a duration of a seasonal increase defined by a shape of a curve.
(The shape of a seasonal pattern reflects how fast a temporal curve
reaches its peak and declines to nadir over a course of a full
cycle. Depending on the length of a cycle whether it is one year or
a half of a year, a seasonal curve would have one or two peaks.)
Seasonal patterns, described by these three characteristics, may vary
for different diseases, different locations, or different
subpopulations. Many viral and bacterial infections in humans show
marked seasonal changes. In some diseases, like salmonellosis and
influenza, annual oscillations explain up to 60% of variability. Such
impact should not be ignored and deserves a proper examination.
* [35] Other Sectionsv
+ [36]Abstract
+ [37]Introduction
+ [38]Notion of Seasonality
+ [39]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [40]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [41]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [42]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [43]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [44]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [45]References
Diseases Seasonal Patterns
Diseases vary in their relationships one with another; some are
opposed, some are mutually agreeable.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 3)
Differences in diseases peaks reflect different etiology, heterogeneity
in host susceptibility, or route of transmission. In temperate
climates, Campylobacter and Salmonella infections are known to rise in
summer, giardiasis in early fall, and rotavirus infection in
mid-winter, etc. Interestingly, for the same infectious agent,
infections recorded in two different locations may present a different
pattern of incidence. A seasonal pattern for cryptosporidiosis in the
United States exhibits one late summer peak ([46]1); in contrast, in
the United Kingdom, two seasonal peaks are seen ([47]2). The UK picture
reflects two dominant sources of exposure: one from animals in the late
spring, and another from humans in the fall ([48]3).
Close temporal clustering of seasonal peaks in diseases that share
similar sources of exposure suggests dominant routes of transmissions.
Peaks in water-borne cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis often cluster
after a summer peak in ambient temperature. Such synchronization in
disease manifestation can be governed by environmental and social
factors. In some instances, periodicity of a given infection observed
in a particular population may be not present in another. A seasonal
peak in cryptosporidiosis cases observed in the general population is
not apparent in the immunocompromized HIV-positive gay men, even though
the incidence of cryptosporidiosis in HIV-positive population is very
high. This suggests differences in dominant routes of transmission.
Seasonal patterns can change over time. After intense vaccination
campaigns in the 1950s and 1970s in the United Kingdom, the patterns of
measles and pertussis changed, with the high rates of disease usually
seen when children were attending school diminishing for measles and
practically disappearing for pertusis ([49]4). Explanations for these
phenomena remain elusive. A departure from a systematically observed
pattern could reflect the evolution of a pathogen or a change in herd
immunity. A simple rule to remember is that a discovery hides in
outliers.
Faced with an abundance of causal agents, a bare observation of a rise
in the incidence of non-specific enteritis should be interpreted with
caution. A seasonal pattern can represent a mix of temporal curves.
Imagine two periodic curves of similar intensity, but one peaks in a
spring and another in a fall; the sum of these two curves might lose
the appearance of seasonality, covering two distinctly seasonal
phenomena.
Some infections are very rare. Their seasonal patterns are difficult to
examine because the relevant data must be collected over a very long
time and/or aggregated over large spatial units. Precision in
evaluating seasonality can thus be jeopardized by time-dependent and/or
space-dependent confounders.
Seasonal fluctuations can be found beyond infectious diseases; chronic
somatic diseases also exhibit substantial temporal variations.
Plausibly, exacerbations in chronic conditions are driven by infectious
agents or environmental changes. Understanding the interplay of an
infection and a chronic disease may lead to better control for both.
* [50] Other Sectionsv
+ [51]Abstract
+ [52]Introduction
+ [53]Notion of Seasonality
+ [54]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [55]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [56]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [57]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [58]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [59]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [60]References
Seasonal Host Susceptibility
When the weather is seasonable and the crops ripen at the regular
times, diseases are regular in their appearance...
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 8)
Poor nutrition directly affects host susceptibility. In places of food
scarcity, researchers suspect that temporal patterns in birth weight
and preterm delivery result from seasonal variations in food
availability ([61]5). In general, due to a less developed immune
system, young children are susceptible to infection; their immune
response may be further weakened by seasonal cutbacks in essential
micronutrients and vitamins.
Anemnestic responses to an antigen determine whether an infection
recurs. Short-lived immune memory together with seasonal changes in
pathogen transmissibility contribute further to the complexity of
seasonal patterns. Even a perfectly healthy person can experience a
change in susceptibility to infection due to stress, injuries, or
trauma. The probability of a marked impact of such factors on disease
seasonality is virtually unknown.
* [62] Other Sectionsv
+ [63]Abstract
+ [64]Introduction
+ [65]Notion of Seasonality
+ [66]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [67]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [68]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [69]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [70]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [71]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [72]References
Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
Some diseases are produced by the manner of life that is followed;
others by the life-giving air we breathe.
(Hippocrates. The Nature of Man, 9)
Temperature, humidity, and precipitation -- the defining factors of
seasons -- are important determinants of pathogens' survival. Changes
influence pathogens' potency and life expectancy, resulting in temporal
fluctuations in pathogens' abundance. In many instances, seasonal
changes in pathogen survival and transmission are inseparably related
to both biological and social aspects of our lives. They are
synchronized by weather. High ambient temperature, for example,
provides a supportive environment for food-borne pathogens, favoring
their multiplication in food and on food preparation surfaces ([73]6).
Food contamination is believed to be a significant mode of transmission
for infections caused by Salmonella and Campylobacter ([74]7);
therefore, during warm weather, the risk for food-borne diseases
increases ([75]8).
Seasonal changes in level of contamination, availability of potable
water, sanitation and hygiene practices, as well as crowding and
person-to-person contacts, affect pathogens' transmissibility.
Worldwide, water use differs from season to season ([76]9). In
temperate climates, warm weather leads to higher water consumption and
encourages outdoor activities -- swimming, camping, and recreational
water use. In tropical regions, contamination of surface water
increases during wet seasons. Although spread of pathogens via food is
certainly possible, contaminated water is the dominant source of
exposure for enteric infections caused by protozoa Cryptosporidium and
Giardia ([77]10 --[78]12). Depending on locality, outbreaks of
cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis associated with drinking or
recreational water frequently occur during warm or wet seasons
([79]13,[80]14).
With the onset of cooler weather, the "heating season" marks a change
in indoor air quality. Inadequate and poorly designed ventilation in
crowded public places and urban transit systems may boost exposure to
air-borne pathogens by increasing their concentration in stagnant air
and by re-circulating contaminated air. Higher relative humidity may
also affect the stability of air-borne droplets in which viruses travel
from person to person.
* [81] Other Sectionsv
+ [82]Abstract
+ [83]Introduction
+ [84]Notion of Seasonality
+ [85]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [86]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [87]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [88]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [89]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [90]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [91]References
Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
You will find, as a general rule, that the constitutions and the habits
of a people follow the nature of the land where they live.
(Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 24)
Diseases do not watch calendars. Their incidence rises and falls
because of changes in factors associated with the diseases. However, in
every culture all social events are synchronized by calendars; and
every calendar reflects the cyclic rhythm of nature.
Traditional celebrations and gatherings observed by communities
according to calendars affect pathogen transmission. Holidays, social
activities, and seasonal travel are often associated with changes in
food consumption and preparation, and are therefore associated with
changes in disease incidence. Preparing meat on a barbecue increases
the risk of Campylobacter infection ([92]15,[93]16) and foreign travel
increases the risk for enteric infections. Aggregation of children in
schools, daycare centers, and summer camps, reflecting school
calendars, facilitates rapid exchange of pathogens. There are marked
seasonal variations in transmission, and thus the incidence of enteric
and respiratory infections.
* [94] Other Sectionsv
+ [95]Abstract
+ [96]Introduction
+ [97]Notion of Seasonality
+ [98]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [99]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [100]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [101]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [102]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [103]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [104]References
Climate Change, Extreme Weather Events, and Disease Seasonality
The changes of the seasons are especially liable to beget diseases, as
are great changes from heat to cold, or cold to heat in any season.
Other changes in the weather have similarly severe effects.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 1)
As weather affects human health by creating favorable conditions for
pathogen proliferation and transmission, severe weather can affect the
timing and intensity of infectious outbreaks, and natural disasters
lead to drastic changes in population structure and pathogen ecology.
Catastrophic events like tsunamis, hurricanes, devastating floods, and
heat waves that cause deaths, population displacement, and
infrastructural damage may have dramatic effects on the incidence of
infections and their seasonal patterns.
Recent work has shown highly significant associations between extreme
precipitation and water-borne disease outbreaks ([105]17). Heavy
precipitation, rapid snowmelt, and floods flush animal wastes from the
land into surface waters and may overwhelm drinking and wastewater
treatment systems. The latter leads to discharges in watersheds of
untreated human wastes. As a result, pathogens can appear in drinking
and recreational water in very high concentrations ([106]18,[107]19). A
rapid snowmelt, resultant runoff, and filtration system failure at the
overloaded local drinking water treatment plant were implicated in the
largest known water-borne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis, which occurred
in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1993 ([108]20). This outbreak happened in
April, not within the usual seasonal peak for cryptosporidiosis cases.
A flood, which also resulted from a rapid snowmelt, has been linked
with a similar increased incidence of diarrhea ([109]21).
Experts expect that global climate change will increase climate
variability and the frequency of extreme precipitation events in
temperate regions ([110]22,[111]23). "Global warming" may also increase
the frequency and magnitude of other extreme weather events, such as
heat waves and droughts, and thereby have profound effects on public
health ([112]24,[113]25). In a comprehensive study conducted in the
United Kingdom that described a short-term link between temperature and
food poisoning, the authors also hypothesized that climate change could
lead to changes in rates of food poisoning ([114]26).
Integration of environmental parameters into disease forecasting and
warning systems could allow public health officials to alert the
populace when specific meteorological conditions pose predictable risks
to health ([115]27). Simple messages about proper food preparation and
refrigeration and the risks of using contaminated recreational waters
could, for example, be provided before, during, and after extreme
events. Better understanding of disease seasonality would also help to
predict outbreaks of infections triggered by climate variability.
* [116] Other Sectionsv
+ [117]Abstract
+ [118]Introduction
+ [119]Notion of Seasonality
+ [120]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [121]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [122]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [123]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [124]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [125]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [126]References
Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy
to Public Health Thinking
Desperate cases need the most desperate remedies.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, I, 6)
At first, seasonal fluctuations should be systematically described.
This requires a framework with sound definitions and analytic tools
suitable for routine use by public health professionals. In public
health sciences, the existing methodology currently lacks methods and
tests for assessing complex interactions in the time-dependent factors
responsible for disease seasonality.
Next, reliable data with fine temporal resolution are a must. The vast
majority of epidemiological studies have examined seasonal patterns of
infections using quarterly or monthly data. This coarse temporal
aggregation can thwart an otherwise detailed, accurate, and
comprehensive analysis of seasonal patterns and may even be misleading
([127]28). Examination of daily or weekly rates can substantially
improve evaluation of seasonal curves, but a systematic approach for
using at least weekly aggregates is needed.
Finally, reluctance to apply sophisticated mathematical models in
public health studies must be overcome. Underlying processes in disease
manifestation and spread are complex and multifaceted. Causal pathways
are often obscured. To disentangle causal effects of many factors
within the circular processes of self-sustaining oscillations demands
the careful building of sound conceptual models of seasonality; models
that can be tested. The emerging fields of computational epidemiology
and intelligent data mining will complement established work in
philosophy of science and mathematical biology to become an essential
part of thinking in public health and policy.
Acknowledgments
I thank Drs Eileen O'Neil and Beth Rosenberg for their thoughtful
suggestions, and the support of funding agencies: the National
Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (U19AI062627), and the
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R01ES013171).
Footnotes
^1Hippocrates' citations are taken from: Lloyd, GER, editor.
Hippocratic Writings. Trans. Chadwick J and Mann WN. London: Penguin;
1978.
* [128] Other Sectionsv
+ [129]Abstract
+ [130]Introduction
+ [131]Notion of Seasonality
+ [132]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [133]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [134]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [135]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [136]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [137]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [138]References
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* [178]Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial
variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis.
Public Health Rep. 2000 Sep-Oct; 115(5):436-47.
[Public Health Rep. 2000]
* [179]Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in
cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance
system in 1990-1999.
J Water Health. 2005 Jun; 3(2):185-96.
[J Water Health. 2005]
* [180]Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in
the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in
1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from
livestock animals.
J Clin Microbiol. 2000 Nov; 38(11):3984-90.
[J Clin Microbiol. 2000]
[181]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [182]A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between
rural Zaire and Ontario.
Can J Public Health. 1989 May-Jun; 80(3):205-8.
[Can J Public Health. 1989]
[183]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [184]Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces
and cross-contamination to foods.
Int J Food Microbiol. 2003 Aug 25; 85(3):227-36.
[Int J Food Microbiol. 2003]
* [185]ReviewFood-related illness and death in the United States.
Emerg Infect Dis. 1999 Sep-Oct; 5(5):607-25.
[Emerg Infect Dis. 1999]
* [186]The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series
analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries.
Epidemiol Infect. 2004 Jun; 132(3):443-53.
[Epidemiol Infect. 2004]
[187]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [188]A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with
the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study).
Water Sci Technol. 2001; 43(12):39-48.
[Water Sci Technol. 2001]
* [189]ReviewReview of epidemiological studies on health effects from
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Int J Epidemiol. 1998 Feb; 27(1):1-9.
[Int J Epidemiol. 1998]
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impact on foods: a review.
J Food Prot. 1999 Sep; 62(9):1059-70.
[J Food Prot. 1999]
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MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000 May 26; 49(4):1-21.
[MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000]
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a case-control study in southeastern Norway.
J Clin Microbiol. 1992 Dec; 30(12):3117-21.
[J Clin Microbiol. 1992]
* [194]A case-control study of risk factors for sporadic
campylobacter infections in Denmark.
Epidemiol Infect. 2003 Jun; 130(3):353-66.
[Epidemiol Infect. 2003]
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disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948-1994.
Am J Public Health. 2001 Aug; 91(8):1194-9.
[Am J Public Health. 2001]
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Parasitol Res. 2002 Nov; 88(11):998-1003.
[Parasitol Res. 2002]
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Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002 May; 68(5):2188-97.
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* [202]ReviewVulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change
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[J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004]
* [203]Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases.
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* [204]Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England
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[Int J Biometeorol. 1995]
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* [206]ReviewA stitch in time: improving public health early warning
systems for extreme weather events.
Epidemiol Rev. 2005; 27():115-21.
[Epidemiol Rev. 2005]
[207]See more articles cited in this paragraph
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Circadian rhythm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search
"Human clock" redirects here. For the online clock, see [8]Humanclock.
Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological
parameters.
A circadian rhythm is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical,
physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including
[9]plants, [10]animals, [11]fungi and [12]cyanobacteria (see
[13]bacterial circadian rhythms). The term "circadian", coined by
[14]Franz Halberg,^[15][1] comes from the [16]Latin [17]circa,
"around", and diem or dies, "day", meaning literally "approximately one
day". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily,
[18]tidal, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called
[19]chronobiology.
Circadian rhythms are [20]endogenously generated, and can be entrained
by external cues, called [21]zeitgebers, the primary one of which is
[22]daylight.
Contents
* [23]1 History
* [24]2 Criteria
* [25]3 Origin
* [26]4 Importance in animals
+ [27]4.1 Impact of light-dark cycle
+ [28]4.2 Arctic animals
+ [29]4.3 Butterfly migration
* [30]5 Biological clock in mammals
+ [31]5.1 Determining the human circadian rhythm
+ [32]5.2 Outside the "master clock"
* [33]6 Light and the biological clock
* [34]7 Enforced longer cycles
* [35]8 Human health
+ [36]8.1 Disruption
+ [37]8.2 Effect of drugs
* [38]9 See also
* [39]10 References
+ [40]10.1 Bibliography
+ [41]10.2 Notes
* [42]11 External links
[[43]edit] History
The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th
century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under
[44]Alexander the Great, described [45]diurnal leaf movements of the
[46]tamarind tree.^[47][2] The first modern observation of endogenous
circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [48]Jean-Jacques
d'Ortous de Mairan in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the
movement of the leaves of the plant [49]Mimosa pudica continued even
when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
In 1918, J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining
24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light
and changes in temperature.^[50][3] [51]Joseph Takahashi discovered the
genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.^[52][4]^[53][5]
[[54]edit] Criteria
To differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from
coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met: 1)
the rhythms persist in the absence of cues, 2) they persist equally
precisely over a range of temperatures, and 3) the rhythms can be
adjusted to match the local time:
* The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant
dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this
criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those "apparent"
rhythms that are merely responses to external periodic cues. A
rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been
tested in conditions without external periodic input.
* The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e., it maintains the same
period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this
criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological
rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway.
At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a
circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely
coincidental.
* The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The
rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms
from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to
resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of
estimating the local time. Travel across [55]time zones illustrates
the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that
it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next.
Until rhythms are reset, a person usually experiences [56]jet lag.
[[57]edit] Origin
[58]Question book-new.svg
This section needs additional [59]citations for [60]verification.
Please help [61]improve this article by adding [62]reliable references.
Unsourced material may be [63]challenged and [64]removed. (October
2007)
Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have
originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the
replicating of DNA from high [65]ultraviolet radiation during the
daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus
[66]Neurospora, which exists today, retains this [67]clock-regulated
mechanism.
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise
and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to
the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in
regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in
coordinating with the environment.^[68][6] This is suggested by the
maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after
several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,^[69][7]
as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the
experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian
rhythms in quail.^[70][8]
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic
[71]cyanobacteria. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian
clock of Synechococcus elongatus can be reconstituted in vitro with
just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has
been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the
addition of [72]ATP. Previous explanations of the [73]prokaryotic
circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription /
translation feedback mechanism.
It is an unanswered question whether circadian clocks in eukaryotic
organisms require translation/transcription-derived oscillations, for,
although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the
same basic architecture (input - [74]central oscillator - output), they
do not share any [75]homology. This implies probable independent
origins.
In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [76]Seymour Benzer first identified a
genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a
model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behaviour:
one had a shorter period, another had a longer one, and the third had
none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named
[77]period.^[78][9] The same gene was identified to be defective in the
sleep disorder FASPS ([79]Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome) in
human beings thirty years later, underscoring the conserved nature of
the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic
components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions
result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in
periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a
specific time of the day.
A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter
half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian
clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is
cell-autonomous.^[80][10] At the same time, different cells may
communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of
electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the
brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for
these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronize the
peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time
of the day as relayed by the [81]eyes travels to the clock in the
brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be
synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body
temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the
biological clock.
[[82]edit] Importance in animals
Circadian rhythmicity is present in the [83]sleeping and feeding
patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear
patterns of core body temperature, [84]brain wave activity, [85]hormone
production, cell regeneration and other biological activities. In
addition, [86]photoperiodism, the physiological reaction of organisms
to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and
the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation
of day length.
" Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food
availability or predator activity is crucial for survival of many
species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the
photoperiod ('daylength') is the most predictive environmental cue for
the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing
of migration, hibernation and reproduction.^[87][11] "
[[88]edit] Impact of light-dark cycle
The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals, including
humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function
with a [89]freerunning rhythm. Each "day", their sleep cycle is pushed
back or forward, depending on whether their [90]endogenous period is
shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that each day
reset the rhythms are called [91]Zeitgebers (from the German, Time
Givers).^[92][12] It is interesting to note that totally-blind
subterranean mammals (e.g., [93]blind mole rat Spalax sp.) are able to
maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external
stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors
(detect light) are still functional; as well, they do surface
periodically.^[[94]citation needed]
Freerunning organisms that normally have one consolidated sleep episode
will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues,
but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light/dark
cycle in nature. The sleep-wake rhythm may, in these circumstances,
become out of phase with other circadian or [95]ultradian rhythms such
as [96]temperature and [97]digestion.^[[98]citation needed]
Recent research has influenced the design of [99]spacecraft
environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been
found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.^[[100]citation needed]
[[101]edit] Arctic animals
Norwegian researchers at the [102]University of Tromsø have shown that
some Arctic animals ([103]ptarmigan, [104]reindeer) show circadian
rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and
sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at [105]70 degrees North
showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter, and spring, but not in
the summer. Reindeer at [106]78 degrees North showed such rhythms only
autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other Arctic animals as
well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and
the constant dark of winter.^[107][13]^[108][14]
However, another study in northern Alaska found that [109]ground
squirrels and [110]porcupines strictly maintained their circadian
rhythms through 82 days and nights of sunshine. The researchers
speculate that these two small mammals see that the apparent distance
between the sun and the horizon is shortest once a day, and, thus, a
sufficient signal to adjust by.^[111][15]
[[112]edit] Butterfly migration
The navigation of the fall migration of the [113]Eastern North American
monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) to their overwintering grounds in
central Mexico uses a time-compensated sun compass that depends upon a
circadian clock in their antennae.^[114][16]^[115][17]
[[116]edit] Biological clock in mammals
Diagram illustrating the influence of light and darkness on circadian
rhythms and related [117]physiology and behaviour through the
[118]suprachiasmatic nucleus in humans.
The primary circadian "clock" in [119]mammals is located in the
[120]suprachiasmatic nucleus (or nuclei) ([121]SCN), a pair of distinct
groups of [122]cells located in the [123]hypothalamus. Destruction of
the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep-wake rhythm.
The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The
[124]retina of the eyes contains not only "classical"
[125]photoreceptors but also photoresponsive retinal [126]ganglion
cells. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called
[127]melanopsin, follow a pathway called the [128]retinohypothalamic
tract, leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and
cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external
cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on the lengths of the day
and night from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the
[129]pineal gland, a tiny structure shaped like a [130]pine cone and
located on the [131]epithalamus. In response the pineal secretes the
hormone [132]melatonin. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs
during the day and its presence provides information about
night-length.
The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter
and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard
have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a
23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural
solar day-night cycle on the planet [133]Mars).^[134][18]
[[135]edit] Determining the human circadian rhythm
The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's
circadian rhythm are
* melatonin secretion by the pineal gland and
* core body temperature.
For temperature studies, people must remain awake but calm and
semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are
taken continuously. The average human adult's temperature reaches its
minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake
time, though variation is great among normal [136]chronotypes.
Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime.
Its onset in dim light, dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO), at about
21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Its major
[137]metabolite can also be measured in morning urine. Both DLMO and
the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or
saliva have been used as circadian markers.
However, newer research indicates that the melatonin offset may be the
most reliable marker. Benloucif et al. in Chicago in 2005 found that
melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated
with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found
that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly
correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In
addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable
and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.^[138][19]
One method used for measuring melatonin offset is to analyse a sequence
of urine samples throughout the morning for the presence of the
melatonin [139]metabolite 6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s). Laberge et al.
in Quebec in 1997 used this method in a study that confirmed the
frequently found delayed circadian phase in healthy
adolescents.^[140][20]
[[141]edit] Outside the "master clock"
More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and
cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the "master
clock". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the
[142]oesophagus, [143]lungs, [144]liver, [145]pancreas, [146]spleen,
[147]thymus, and the [148]skin.^[149][21] Though oscillators in the
skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven so
far.^[150][22]^[151][23] There is some evidence that also the olfactory
bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting
that also these structures may be weak oscillators.
Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding
rather than to [152]light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to
have freerunning rhythms.
[[153]edit] Light and the biological clock
Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [154]phase
response curve (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or
delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required
[155]illuminance vary from species to species and lower light levels
are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm in humans are higher than
the levels usually used in artificial lighting in homes. According to
some researchers^[156][24] the illumination intensity that excites the
circadian system has to reach up to 1000 [157]lux striking the retina.
In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or colour) of light is a
factor in the entrainment of the body clock. [158]Melanopsin is most
efficiently excited by blue light, 420-440 nm^[159][25] according to
some researchers while others have reported 470-485 nm.
It is thought that the direction of the light may have an effect on
entraining the circadian rhythm;^[160][24] light coming from above,
resembling an image of a bright sky, has greater effect than light
entering our eyes from below.
[[161]edit] Enforced longer cycles
Modern research under very controlled conditions has shown the human
period for adults to be just slightly longer than 24 hours on average.
Czeisler et al. at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults
of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes.
The "clock" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's
rotation.^[162][26]
The 28-hour day is presented as a concept of [163]time
management.^[164][27] It builds on the fact that the week of seven days
at 24 hours and a "week" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of
168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require
staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours.
Each "day" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern.
Studies by [165]Nathaniel Kleitman^[166][28] in 1938 and by
[167]Derk-Jan Dijk and [168]Charles Czeisler^[169][29]^[170][30] in
1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep-wake cycles,
in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a
month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day,^[171][31]
this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake
episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about
24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of
circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including
[172]sleep latency and other functions.^[173][32]
Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people
preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli
like daylight and timekeeping. Early investigators determined the human
circadian period to be 25 hours or more. They went to great lengths to
shield subjects from time cues and daylight, but they were not aware of
the effects of indoor electric lights. The subjects were allowed to
turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted
to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase.
These results became well known.^[174][26] Researchers allowed subjects
to keep electric lighting on in the evening, as it was thought at that
time that a couple of 60W bulbs would not have a resetting effect on
the circadian rhythms of humans. More recent research^[[175]citation
needed] has shown that adults have a built-in day, which averages just
over 24 hours, that indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms and
that most people attain their best-quality sleep during their
[176]chronotype-determined sleep periods.
[[177]edit] Human health
Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may
significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse
reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with
[178]angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) may reduce
nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [179]left ventricular
(reverse) remodelling.^[[180]citation needed]
A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms.
A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during
the day, a [181]power-nap, does not have any effect on normal circadian
rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve
productivity.^[182][33]^[183][34]
There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the
human circadian rhythm, such as [184]seasonal affective disorder (SAD),
[185]delayed sleep phase syndrome (DSPS) and other [186]circadian
rhythm disorders.^[187][35] Circadian rhythms also play a part in the
[188]reticular activating system, which is crucial for maintaining a
state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep-wake cycle
may be a sign or complication of [189]uremia,^[190][36] [191]azotemia
or [192]acute renal failure.
[[193]edit] Disruption
Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers
have experienced the condition known as [194]jet lag, with its
associated symptoms of [195]fatigue, disorientation and [196]insomnia.
A number of other disorders, for example [197]bipolar disorder and some
[198]sleep disorders, are associated with irregular or pathological
functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that
circadian rhythm disturbances found in [199]bipolar disorder are
positively influenced by [200]lithium's effect on clock
genes.^[201][37]
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have
significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside
the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of
cardiovascular disease [202][2] The suppression of melatonin production
associated with the disruption of the circadian rhythm may increase the
risk of developing cancer.^[203][38]^[204][39]
[[205]edit] Effect of drugs
Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside
the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such
as [206]cocaine.^[207][40]^[208][41] Moreover, genetic manipulations of
clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.^[209][42]
[[210]edit] See also
* [211]Actigraphy (also known as Actimetry)
* [212]Advanced sleep phase syndrome
* [213]ARNTL
* [214]ARNTL2
* [215]Bacterial circadian rhythms
* [216]Chronobiology
* [217]Chronotype
* [218]Circadian oscillator
* [219]Circadian rhythm sleep disorders
* [220]Cryptochrome
* [221]CRY1 and [222]CRY2, the cryptochrome family genes
* [223]Delayed sleep phase syndrome
* [224]Diurnal cycle
* [225]Jet lag
* [226]Light effects on circadian rhythm
* [227]PER1, [228]PER2, and [229]PER3, the period family genes
* [230]Power-nap
[[231]edit] References
[[232]edit] Bibliography
* Aschoff J (ed.) (1965) Circadian Clocks. North Holland Press,
Amsterdam
* Avivi A, Albrecht U, Oster H, Joel A, Beiles A, Nevo E. 2001.
Biological clock in total darkness: the Clock/MOP3 circadian system
of the blind subterranean mole rat. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
98:13751-13756.
* Avivi A, Oster H, Joel A, Beiles A, Albrecht U, Nevo E. 2002.
Circadian genes in a blind subterranean mammal II: conservation and
uniqueness of the three Period homologs in the blind subterranean
mole rat, Spalax ehrenbergi superspecies. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
99:11718-11723.
* Ditty JL, Williams SB, Golden SS (2003) A cyanobacterial circadian
timing mechanism. Annu Rev Genet 37:513-543
* Dunlap JC, Loros J, DeCoursey PJ (2003) Chronobiology: Biological
Timekeeping. Sinauer, Sunderland
* Dvornyk V, Vinogradova ON, Nevo E (2003) Origin and evolution of
circadian clock genes in prokaryotes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
100:2495-2500
* Koukkari WL, Sothern RB (2006) Introducing Biological Rhythms.
Springer, New York
* Martino T, Arab S, Straume M, Belsham DD, Tata N, Cai F, Liu P,
Trivieri M, Ralph M, Sole MJ. Day/night rhythms in gene expression
of the normal murine heart. J Mol Med. 2004 Apr;82(4):256-64. Epub
2004 Feb 24. PMID: 14985853
* Refinetti R (2006) Circadian Physiology, 2nd ed. CRC Press, Boca
Raton
* Takahashi JS, Zatz M (1982) Regulation of circadian rhythmicity.
Science 217:1104-1111
* Tomita J, Nakajima M, Kondo T, Iwasaki H (2005) No
transcription-translation feedback in circadian rhythm of KaiC
phosphorylation. Science 307: 251-254
* Moore-Ede, Martin C., Sulszman, Frank M., and Fuller, Charles A.
(1982) "The Clocks that Time Us: Physiology of the Circadian Timing
System." Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. [233]ISBN
0-674-13581-4.
[[234]edit] Notes
Centre
2. [237]^ Bretzl H. Botaniche Forchungen des Alexanderzuges. Leipzig:
Teubner, 1903.
3. [238]^ Danchin, Antoine. [239]"Important dates 1900-1919".
HKU-Pasteur Research Centre (Paris).
0.html. Retrieved 2008-01-12.
4. [241]^ "Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock".
Chicago Tribune. April 29, 1994.
5. [242]^ Vitaterna, M.H.; King, D.P.; Chang, A.M.; Kornhauser, J.M.;
Lowrey, P.L.; McDonald, J.D.; Dove, W.F.; Pinto, L.H. et al.
(1994). "Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential
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[348]"Renal Failure, Acute". eMedicine from WebMD.
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[[372]edit] External links
* [373]Circadian rhythm at the [374]Open Directory Project
* Leloup J.C. (2009). "Circadian clocks and phosphorylation: Insights
from computational modeling". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 4 (3): 290-303.
[375]doi:[376]10.2478/s11535-009-0025-1.
* Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A (2007). "Evolutionary mechanisms
of circadian clocks". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 2 (2): 233-253.
[377]doi:[378]10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z.
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January 2, 2006
Universal Timing
Life's Natural Rhythm
Nature's natural rhythms orchestrate when day turns to night, when
flowers must bloom, and provides the cue for when it is time for red
and brown leaves to fall from trees. As human beings, our own inner
rhythm is attuned to this universal sense of timing. Guided by the
rising and setting of the sun, changes in temperature, and our own
internal rhythm, we know when it is time to sleep, eat, or be active.
While our minds and spirits are free to focus on other pursuits, our
breath and our heartbeat are always there to remind us of life's
pulsing rhythm that moves within and around us.
Moving to this rhythm, we know when it is time to stop working and when
to rest. Pushing our bodies to work beyond their natural rhythm
diminishes our ability to renew and recharge. A feeling much like jet
lag lets us know when we've overridden our own natural rhythm. When we
feel the frantic calls of all we want to accomplish impelling us to
move faster than is natural for us, we may want to breathe deeply
instead and look at nature moving to its own organic timing: birds
flying south, leaves shedding, or snow falling. A walk in nature can
also let us re-attune is to her organic rhythm, while allowing us to
move back in time with our own. When we move to our natural rhythm, we
can achieve all we need to do with less effort.
We may even notice that our soul moves to its own internal, natural
rhythm - especially when it comes to our personal evolution. Comparing
ourselves to others is unnecessary. Our best guide is to move to our
own internal timing, while keeping time with the rhythm of nature.
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Rhythm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search
For other uses, see [8]Rhythm (disambiguation).
Rhythm (from [9]greek rhuthµo'*s - rhythmos, "any measured flow or
movement, symmetry") is the variation of the length and accentuation of
a series of sounds or other events.
Contents
* [10]1 Rhythm in linguistics
* [11]2 Origins of human appreciation of rhythm
* [12]3 Rhythm notation and the oral tradition
+ [13]3.1 African music
+ [14]3.2 Indian music
+ [15]3.3 Western music
* [16]4 Types
* [17]5 See also
* [18]6 Notes
* [19]7 Sources
* [20]8 Further reading
[[21]edit] Rhythm in linguistics
The study of rhythm, stress, and [22]pitch in [23]speech is called
[24]prosody; it is a topic in [25]linguistics. Narmour (1980,
p. 147-53) describes three categories of prosodic rules which create
rhythmic successions which are additive (same duration repeated),
cumulative (short-long), or countercumulative (long-short). Cumulation
is associated with closure or relaxation, countercumulation with
openness or tension, while additive rhythms are open-ended and
repetitive. Richard Middleton points out this method cannot account for
[26]syncopation and suggests the concept of [27]transformation.
A [28]rhythmic unit is a [29]durational pattern which occupies a period
of time equivalent to a [30]pulse or pulses on an underlying [31]metric
level, as opposed to a [32]rhythmic gesture which does not (DeLone et
al. (Eds.), 1975
[[33]edit] Origins of human appreciation of rhythm
In his series How Music Works, [34]Howard Goodall presents theories
that rhythm recalls how we walk and the heartbeat we heard in the womb.
More likely is that a simple pulse or [35]di-dah beat recalls the
footsteps of another person. Our sympathetic urge to dance is designed
to boost our energy levels in order to cope with someone, or some
animal chasing us - a fight or flight response. From a less darwinist
perspective, perceiving rhythm is the ability to master the otherwise
invisible dimension, time. Rhythm is possibly also rooted in courtship
ritual.^[36][1]
Neurologist [37]Oliver Sacks posits that human affinity for rhythm is
fundamental, so much that a person's sense of rhythm cannot be lost in
the way that music and language can (e.g. by [38]stroke). In addition,
he states that [39]chimpanzees and other animals show no similar
appreciation for rhythm.^[40][2]
[[41]edit] Rhythm notation and the oral tradition
Worldwide there are many different approaches to passing on rhythmic
phrases and patterns, as they exist in traditional music, from
generation to generation.
[[42]edit] African music
In the [43]Griot tradition of Africa everything related to music has
been passed on orally. [44]Babatunde Olatunji (1927-2003), a Nigerian
drummer who lived and worked in the [45]United States, developed a
simple series of spoken sounds for teaching the rhythms of the hand
drum. He used six vocal sounds: Goon Doon Go Do Pa Ta. There are three
basic sounds on the drum, but each can be played with either the left
or the right hand. This simple system is now used worldwide,
particularly by [46]Djembe players.
[[47]edit] Indian music
Indian music has also been passed on orally. Tabla players would learn
to speak complex rhythm patterns and phrases before attempting to play
them. [48]Sheila Chandra, an English pop singer of Indian descent, made
performances based around her singing these patterns. In [49]Indian
Classical music, the [50]Tala of a composition is the rhythmic pattern
over which the whole piece is structured.
[[51]edit] Western music
Standard [52]music notation contains rhythmic information and is
adapted specifically for drums and percussion instruments. The drums
are generally used to keep other instruments in 'time'. They do this by
supplying beats/strikes in time at a certain pace, i.e. 70 beats per
minute (bpm). In [53]Rock music, a drum beat is used to keep a
[54]bass/[55]guitar line in time.
[[56]edit] Types
In [57]Western music, rhythms are usually arranged with respect to a
[58]time signature, partially signifying a meter. The speed of the
underlying [59]pulse is sometimes called the [60]beat. The [61]tempo is
a measure of how quickly the pulse repeats. The tempo is usually
measured in 'beats per minute' (bpm); 60 bpm means a speed of one beat
per second. The length of the meter, or metric unit (usually
corresponding with [62]measure length), is usually grouped into either
two or three beats, being called [63]duple meter and [64]triple meter,
respectively. If each beat is divided by two or four, it is [65]simple
meter, if by three (or six) [66]compound meter. According to [67]Pierre
Boulez, beat structures beyond four are "simply not natural".^[68][3].
His reference is to western European music.
Standard notation of a clave pattern on audio clip clave pattern.ogg
[69]Syncopated rhythms are rhythms that accent parts of the beat not
already stressed by [70]counting. Playing simultaneous rhythms in more
than one time signature is called [71]polymeter. See also
[72]polyrhythm. In recent years, rhythm and meter have become an
important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these
areas includes books by [73]Maury Yeston, [74]Fred Lerdahl and [75]Ray
Jackendoff, [76]Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty, William Rothstein,
and Joel Lester.
Grid notation of single a clave pattern
Some [77]genres of music make different use of rhythm than others. Most
Western music is based on [78]subdivision, while non-Western music uses
more [79]additive rhythm. [80]African music makes heavy use of
[81]polyrhythms, and [82]Indian music uses [83]complex cycles such as 7
and 13, while [84]Balinese music often uses complex [85]interlocking
rhythms. By comparison, a lot of Western [86]classical music is fairly
rhythmically (or metrically) simple; it stays in a [87]simple meter
such as 4/4 or 3/4 and makes little use of [88]syncopation.
[89]Clave is a common underlying rhythm in [90]African, [91]Cuban
music, and [92]Brazilian music.
[93]Claves
(Submit) Play sound
Four beats followed by three Clave patterns
__________________________________________________________________
Problems listening to this file? See [94]media help.
In the 20th century, [95]composers like [96]Igor Stravinsky, [97]Bela
Bartok, [98]Philip Glass, and [99]Steve Reich wrote more rhythmically
complex music using [100]odd meters, and techniques such as
[101]phasing and [102]additive rhythm. At the same time, modernists
such as [103]Olivier Messiaen and his pupils used increased complexity
to disrupt the sense of a regular beat, leading eventually to the
widespread use of [104]irrational rhythms in [105]New Complexity. This
use may be explained by a comment of [106]John Cage's^[[107]where?]
where he notes that regular rhythms cause sounds to be heard as a group
rather than individually; the irregular rhythms highlight the rapidly
changing pitch relationships that would otherwise be subsumed into
irrelevant rhythmic groupings (Sandow 2004, p. 257). [108]LaMonte Young
also wrote music in which the sense of a regular beat is absent because
the music consists only of long sustained tones ([109]drones). In the
1930s, [110]Henry Cowell wrote music involving multiple simultaneous
periodic rhythms and collaborated with [111]Léon Thérémin to invent the
[112]Rhythmicon, the first electronic [113]rhythm machine, in order to
perform them. Similarly, [114]Conlon Nancarrow wrote for the
[115]player piano.
[[116]edit] See also
* [117]Meter (music)
* [118]Prosody (linguistics)
* [119]Riddim
* [120]Morse Code
* [121]Soul (music)
* [122]Time scale (music)
* [123]Timing (linguistics)
[[124]edit] Notes
1. [125]^ [126]Mithen, Steven (2005). [127]The Singing Neanderthals:
The Origins of Music, Language, Mind and Body.. London: Weidenfeld
& Nicolson.. [128]ISBN [129]0297643177.
2. [131]^ [132]Jon Stewart, [133]Oliver Sacks. (2009-06-29). [134]The
Daily Show with Jon Stewart. [Television production]. Comedy
Central.
itle=oliver-sacks. "People often tried to teach their dogs to
dance--it doesn't work."
3. [136]^ In [137]Discovering Music: Rhythm with [138]Leonard Slatkin
at 5:05
[[139]edit] Sources
* Hasty, Christopher (1997). Meter as Rhythm. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. [140]ISBN 0-19-510066-2.
* London, Justin (2004). Hearing in Time: Psychological Aspects of
Musical Meter. [141]ISBN 0-19-516081-9.
* Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music.
Philadelphia: Open University Press. [142]ISBN 0-335-15275-9.
* Narmour (1980). Cited in DeLone et al. (Eds.) (1975). Aspects of
Twentieth-Century Music. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall. [143]ISBN 0-13-049346-5.
* Sandow, Greg (2004). "A Fine Madness", The Pleasure of Modernist
Music. [144]ISBN 1-58046-143-3.
* Yeston, Maury (1976). "The Stratification of Musical Rhythm".
[[145]edit] Further reading
* McGaughey, William (2001). "Rhythm and Self-Consciousness: New
Ideals for an Electronic Civilization". Minneapolis: Thistlerose
Publications. [146]ISBN 0-9605630-4-0.
* Honing, H. (2002). [147]"Structure and interpretation of rhythm and
timing." Tijdschrift voor Muziektheorie [Dutch Journal of Music
Theory] 7(3): 227-232.
* Lewis, Andrew (2005). Rhythm--What it is and How to Improve Your
Sense of It. San Francisco: [148]RhythmSource Press. [149]ISBN
978-0-9754667-0-4.
* Williams, C. F. A., The Aristoxenian Theory of Musical Rhythm,
(Cambridge Library Collection - Music), Cambridge University Press;
1st edition, 2009.
* Toussaint, G. T., "The geometry of musical rhythm," In J. Akiyama,
M. Kano, and X. Tan, editors, Proceedings of the Japan Conference
on Discrete and Computational Geometry, Vol. 3742, Lecture Notes in
Computer Science, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2005, pp. 198-212.
[150]v o [151]d o [152]e
[153]Musical notation and [154]development
[155]Staff
[156]Bar & Bar line · [157]Clef · [158]Da capo · [159]Dal segno ·
[160]Key signature · [161]Ledger line · [162]Musical mode ·
[163]Musical scale · [164]Rehearsal letter · [165]Repeat sign ·
[166]Time signature · [167]Transposition · [168]Transposing instrument
[169]G (treble) clef symbol
[170]Notes
[171]Accidental ([172]Flat · [173]Natural · [174]Sharp) · [175]Dotted
note · [176]Grace note · [177]Note value ([178]Beam · [179]Note head ·
[180]Stem) · [181]Pitch · [182]Rest · [183]Interval · [184]Letter
notation
[185]Articulation
[186]Dynamics · [187]Ornament ([188]Trill · [189]Mordent · [190]Grace
note) · [191]Ossia · [192]Portato · [193]Accent · [194]Legato ·
[195]Tenuto · [196]Marcato · [197]Staccato · [198]Staccatissimo ·
[199]Tie · [200]Slur · [201]Fermata
[202]Development
[203]Coda · [204]Exposition · [205]Harmony · [206]Melody · [207]Motif ·
[208]Recapitulation · Rhythm ([209]Beat · [210]Meter · [211]Tempo) ·
[212]Theme · [213]Tonality · [214]Atonality
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[215]Chord chart · [216]Figured bass · [217]Graphic notation ·
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[1]Daniel Laberge music
Rhythm explained
including
27 rhythm exercises
by Daniel Laberge
Rhythm figure
Hi rhythm lovers,
I've devised these exercises in the early seventies while teaching
music.
I could not find any existing book that saw rhythm the way I did.
This method is based on "rhythmic figures" or rhythm possibilities.
Each one lasts one beat.
I simply counted the rhythmic possibilities one could encounter for
each type of beat divisions.
There are:
o Four rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by two
o Eight rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by three
o Sixteen rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by four
I composed the exercises back then and used them for my teaching, but I
only wrote the theory that goes along in 2002.
The book is called "Rhythm explained" and I am gradually placing its
content here.
Each exercise is preceded by a lesson, with graphic representations,
and includes an audio rendition to help you.
You can choose between three speeds.
For jazz musicians, the binary exercises also have a swing or double
swing performance. Go to the bottom of the page for a link to the swing
version.
Choose among the following exercises:
Beat exercises
[2]Rhythm exercise 1-1
Featured figures
[3][onequarternote1.gif] [4] [onehalfnote1.gif] [5]
[dottedhalfnote1.gif] [6] [wholenote1.gif]
[7]Rhythm exercise 1-2
Featured figures
[8][quarternoterest1.gif] [9] [halfnoterest1.gif] [10]
[wholenoterest1.gif]
[11]Rhythm exercise 1-3
Featured figures
[12][quarternoterest1.gif] [13] [halfnoterest1.gif] [14]
[dottedhalfnoterest1.gif] [15] [wholenoterest1.gif]
Binary beat division
The binary family is large as it includes:
o Division by two
o Division by four
o Part of division by six
o Division by eight
This section is concerned with the simple division by two.
Any binary beat has two alternating parts: the downbeat and the upbeat.
Binary beat
[binarybeat1.gif]
As you can see, there are only two places in a beat
where events or notes can be positioned or played:
o The downbeat
o The upbeat
How
rhythmic
possibilities
work
This means that for any given beat you can have
any of the four following possibilities:
1 o Only one event on the downbeat.
2 o Events on both the downbeat and the upbeat.
3 o No event at all.
4 o Only one event on the upbeat.
[possibilitiesbytwosimple1.gif]
The rhythmic figure used to represent a binary beat is called:
TWO EIGHTH NOTES
[masterfigurebinary1.gif]
Binary
master
rhythmic
figure
Simple binary rhythmic figures
4 possibilities:
o 2 Primary
o 2 Secondary
[possibilitiesbytwo1.gif]
Secondary rhythmic figures lack the event that falls on the beat.
There is a secondary figure for each primary one.
Because the beat is so important, secondary figures have appeared after
the primary ones had been well established.
The absence of event falling on the beat can be due to a silence or a
sound that is held over from the preceding beat.
Because of this, there are two ways to notate secondary figures:
o With a rest
o With a tie
[primarysecondary1.gif]
Primary
and
secondary
rhythmic
figures
Choose among the following exercises:
Binary exercises
PRIMARY
[16]Rhythm exercise 2-1
Featured figure
[17][twoeighthnotes2.gif]
[18]Rhythm exercise 2-2
Featured figures
[19][twoeighthnotes2.gif] [20] [quarternoterest2.gif]
SECONDARY
[21]Rhythm exercise 2-3
Featured figure
[22][dottedquarternoteeighth2.gif]
[23]Rhythm exercise 2-4
Featured figure
[24][eighthnotesyncopationa2.gif]
[25]Rhythm exercise 2-5
Featured figure
[26][twoeighttieonequarter2.gif]
MULTIPLE SYNCOPATIONS
[27]Rhythm exercise 2-6
Featured figure
[28][doublesyncopationa2.gif]
Ternary beat division
The ternary family is small as it includes:
o Division by three
o Part of division by six
Everything goes in thirds in ternary music.
Any ternary beat has one downbeat and two upbeats.
Ternary beat
[ternarybeat1.gif]
The rhythmic figure used to represent a ternary beat is called:
THREE EIGHTH NOTES
[masterfigureternary1.gif]
Ternary
master
rhythmic
figure
Writing
ternary
rhythm
In ternary music writing, each eighth note is worth one third of a
beat.
Since two eighth notes always equal one quarter note, these now equal
two thirds of a beat.
It takes a dotted quarter note to represent one beat.
[ternarywriting1.gif]
Ternary rhythmic figures
8 possibilities:
o 4 Primary
o 4 Secondary
[possibilitiesbythree1.gif]
Choose among the following exercises:
Ternary exercises
PRIMARY
[29]Rhythm exercise 3-1
Featured figure
[30][threeeighth2.gif]
[31]Rhythm exercise 3-2
Featured figure
[32][onequarteroneeighth2.gif]
[33]Rhythm exercise 3-3
Featured figure
[34][oneeighthonequarter2.gif]
SECONDARY
[35]Rhythm exercise 3-1s
Featured figure
[36][8threst2eighth2.gif] OR [37] [tie3eighth2.gif]
[38]Rhythm exercise 3-2s
Featured figure
[39][quarternoterestoneeighth2.gif] OR [40]
[tiequarternote1eighth.gif]
[41]Rhythm exercise 3-3s
Featured figure
[42][8threst1quarternote2.gif] OR [43] [tie1eighth1quarter2.gif]
Division by four
Beats divided by four are part of the binary family.
Everything goes in quarters in this feel.
Beat
divided
by
four
[binarybeat2.gif]
The rhythmic figure used to represent a beat divided by four
is called:
FOUR SIXTEENTH NOTES
[masterfigurebyfour1.gif]
Division
by four
master
rhythmic
figure
Binary rhythmic figures
16 possibilities:
o 8 Primary
o 8 Secondary
[possibilitiesbyfour1.gif]
Choose among the following exercises:
Division by four exercises
PRIMARY
[44]Rhythm exercise 4-1
Featured figure
[45][foursixteenth2.gif]
[46]Rhythm exercise 4-2
Featured figure
[47][oneeighthtwosixteenth2.gif]
[48]Rhythm exercise 4-3
Featured figure
[49][twosixteenthoneeighth2.gif]
[50]Rhythm exercise 4-4
Featured figure
[51][dottedeighthonesixteenth2.gif]
[52]Rhythm exercise 4-5
Featured figure
[53][onesixteenthdottedeighth2.gif]
[54]Rhythm exercise 4-6
Featured figure
[55][16th8th16th2.gif]
SECONDARY
[56]Rhythm exercise 4-1s
Featured figure
[57][16threst3sixteenth2.gif] OR [58] [tiefoursixteenth2.gif]
[59]Rhythm exercise 4-2s
Featured figure
[60][8threst2sixteenth2.gif] OR [61] [tie1eighth2sixteenth2.gif]
[62]Rhythm exercise 4-3s
Featured figure
[63][16threst1sixteenth1eighth2.gif] OR [64]
[tie2sixteenth1eighth2.gif]
[65]Rhythm exercise 4-4s
Featured figure
[66][dotted8threst1sixteenth2.gif] OR [67]
[tiedottereight1sixteenth2.gif]
[68]Rhythm exercise 4-5s
Featured figure
[69][16threstdotted8th.gif] OR [70] [tie16thdotted8th2.gif]
[71]Rhythm exercise 4-6s
Featured figure
[72][16threst1eighth1sixteenth2.gif] OR [73]
[tieone16thone8thone16th2.gif]
[74]Bugs, problems
and comments [75]Daniel Laberge music
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Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With
Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from
Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications.
Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature
This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no
one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of
it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may
relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he
requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and
anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the
same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the
same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual
training, recitation, gymnastics, and play.
Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized
with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle
which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of
every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in
the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of
work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there
is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their
appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less
of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to
anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else
it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from
which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle
with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of
salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting
from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human
[40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important
changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality.
The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief
from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this
tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary
conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified
by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries. . . .
When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in
recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious
rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and
the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and
more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak.
Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with
instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is
laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of
activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to
elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to
primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which
threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving
mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. -
Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20.
. . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area
of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a
ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight
years in [42]duration are superposed.
. . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of
buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the
rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the
production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing
weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of
rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135.
Continue to:
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[53]heredity, [54]human nature, [55]institutions, [56]location,
[57]natural selection, [58]organizations, [59]population, [60]primary
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Cultural
Towards Lefebvrian Socio-Nature? A Film about Rhythm, Nature and Science
By [17]James Evans and [18]Phil Jones, School of Environment and
Development, University of Manchester School of Geography, Earth and
Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham (April 2008)
__________________________________________________________________
Section: [19]Cultural
Subjects: [20]Environment And Society, [21]Geography, [22]Urban
Geography, [23]Cultural Geography.
Key Topics: [24]nature , [25]representation.
Abstract
The first thing you will notice about this article is that it is
actually a film. We did not set out to make a film, it just ended up
that way. We started out making music out of environmental data,
wondering why we only ever look at scientific data, why we do not
listen to it. Wandering around the city passing through the transformed
landscapes of channelised rivers and broken industrial spaces, we
wanted to reveal the socio-natural rhythms of this hybrid city. The
text you see below represents the shooting script for a film that
explores Lefebvre's notion of rhythmanalysis in the context of
socio-natural rhythms. The video accompanying it is far more
interesting, including the environmental music that we produced by
feeding scientific data through samplers and drum machines. The video
questions the nature of scientific representation and whether the
notion of rhythmanalysis can be stretched to explore rhythms beyond the
human. Furthermore, the process of actually making the video,
submitting it to this journal, and responding to the referees' comments
made us question the very nature of what constitutes an academic paper
in the twenty-first century. The accompanying commentary is our attempt
to deal with these issues.
To link to the film please go to
DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00107.x
This article abstract has been viewed 5348 times.
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J Public Health Policy. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2008 July
24.
Published in final edited form as:
[7]J Public Health Policy. 2006; 27(1): 2-12.
doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200061.
PMCID: PMC2483431
NIHMSID: NIHMS58476
[8]Copyright notice and [9]Disclaimer
Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature
Elena N. Naumova^*
^*Address for Correspondence: Department of Public Health and Family
Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Avenue,
Boston, MA 02111, USA. E-mail: elena.naumova/at/tufts.edu
Small right arrow pointing to: The publisher's final edited version of
this article is available at [10]J Public Health Policy.
Small right arrow pointing to: See other articles in PMC that [11]cite
the published article.
Abstract
Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course
of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences.
Understanding seasonal fluctuations in diseases patterns presents us
with a major challenge. To develop efficient strategies for disease
prevention and control, we need to grasp the main determinants of
temporal variations and their interactions. This paper will introduce
the notion of seasonality by outlining several of its factors, using as
illustrations respiratory and enteric water- or food-borne infections.
Keywords: seasonality, water-borne infection, food-borne infection,
respiratory infection
* [12] Other Sectionsv
+ [13]Abstract
+ [14]Introduction
+ [15]Notion of Seasonality
+ [16]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [17]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [18]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [19]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [20]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [21]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [22]References
Introduction
Now let us consider the seasons and the way we can predict whether it
is going to be a healthy or an unhealthy year.
(Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 10)^[23]1
Seasonal fluctuations in birth and death, in sickness and health, are
the haunting mysteries of mankind. People have made predictions from
winds, tides, birds' migrations, spring blooms, sunsets, and
constellations in hope of grasping the future. The complexity and
uncertainty of ancient and modern means of prediction make us wonder to
what extent we are able to understand the rhythm of nature. One might
argue the future cannot be known, but from a practical point of view, a
better understanding of changes in disease occurrences is essential for
building efficient strategies for disease prevention and control.
Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course
of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences.
Since Hippocrates, observers worldwide have noted and documented marked
fluctuations in the incidence of many diseases. In the modern view, the
main determinants of temporal variations in disease manifestation are
evolving host susceptibility, periodicity in pathogen abundance and
transmissibility, and the ever-changing environment that can support or
repress a host or pathogen. Interactions among these factors
responsible for seasonal variation are interwoven into the intricate
fabric of life.
For many diseases, explanations for self-sustained oscillations still
remain elusive. We lack adequate methods and sufficient analytical
tools for comprehensive examination of seasonality in public health
field studies. A dearth of observations, recorded over long periods at
fine resolution, compounded by an enormous number of factors associated
with periodic changes, obscure our ability to understand disease
variation. Urgent need for effective strategies to prevent and control
a spread of emerging infections in the rapidly changing world, however,
demands a deeper insight into the cyclic nature of diseases.
This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality and outline several
factors associated with seasonality using as illustrations enteric
water- or food-borne infections and respiratory infections. Then I
propose a framework for systematic evaluation of seasonal oscillations.
In every part of this presentation, and most importantly, I wish to
stimulate discussion on this challenging topic.
* [24] Other Sectionsv
+ [25]Abstract
+ [26]Introduction
+ [27]Notion of Seasonality
+ [28]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [29]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [30]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [31]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [32]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [33]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [34]References
Notion of Seasonality
Every disease occurs at any season of the year but some of them more
frequently occur and are of greater severity at certain times.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 19)
Seasonality, as noted above, refers to the cyclic appearance of events
over a period of time. A seasonal pattern may appear as a tight cluster
of isolated outbreaks that occurred during a relatively short time
period, then spreading over a wide geographic area.
For example, in a temporal curve of enteric infection cases (i.e.
giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, or rotavirus infections), a compact
cluster of outbreaks is followed by a long interval of low incidence.
Systematic recurrence of such sequences forms a seasonal pattern
typical of a specific pathogen in a given population and in a given
locality. A seasonal increase in enteric or respiratory infection often
produces a well-defined oscillating curve that starts to rise in one
season and declines over the next one.
The three main features characterize seasonality:
* a point in time when a seasonal curve reaches its maximum,
* an amplitude from peak to nadir, and
* a duration of a seasonal increase defined by a shape of a curve.
(The shape of a seasonal pattern reflects how fast a temporal curve
reaches its peak and declines to nadir over a course of a full
cycle. Depending on the length of a cycle whether it is one year or
a half of a year, a seasonal curve would have one or two peaks.)
Seasonal patterns, described by these three characteristics, may vary
for different diseases, different locations, or different
subpopulations. Many viral and bacterial infections in humans show
marked seasonal changes. In some diseases, like salmonellosis and
influenza, annual oscillations explain up to 60% of variability. Such
impact should not be ignored and deserves a proper examination.
* [35] Other Sectionsv
+ [36]Abstract
+ [37]Introduction
+ [38]Notion of Seasonality
+ [39]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [40]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [41]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [42]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [43]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [44]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [45]References
Diseases Seasonal Patterns
Diseases vary in their relationships one with another; some are
opposed, some are mutually agreeable.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 3)
Differences in diseases peaks reflect different etiology, heterogeneity
in host susceptibility, or route of transmission. In temperate
climates, Campylobacter and Salmonella infections are known to rise in
summer, giardiasis in early fall, and rotavirus infection in
mid-winter, etc. Interestingly, for the same infectious agent,
infections recorded in two different locations may present a different
pattern of incidence. A seasonal pattern for cryptosporidiosis in the
United States exhibits one late summer peak ([46]1); in contrast, in
the United Kingdom, two seasonal peaks are seen ([47]2). The UK picture
reflects two dominant sources of exposure: one from animals in the late
spring, and another from humans in the fall ([48]3).
Close temporal clustering of seasonal peaks in diseases that share
similar sources of exposure suggests dominant routes of transmissions.
Peaks in water-borne cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis often cluster
after a summer peak in ambient temperature. Such synchronization in
disease manifestation can be governed by environmental and social
factors. In some instances, periodicity of a given infection observed
in a particular population may be not present in another. A seasonal
peak in cryptosporidiosis cases observed in the general population is
not apparent in the immunocompromized HIV-positive gay men, even though
the incidence of cryptosporidiosis in HIV-positive population is very
high. This suggests differences in dominant routes of transmission.
Seasonal patterns can change over time. After intense vaccination
campaigns in the 1950s and 1970s in the United Kingdom, the patterns of
measles and pertussis changed, with the high rates of disease usually
seen when children were attending school diminishing for measles and
practically disappearing for pertusis ([49]4). Explanations for these
phenomena remain elusive. A departure from a systematically observed
pattern could reflect the evolution of a pathogen or a change in herd
immunity. A simple rule to remember is that a discovery hides in
outliers.
Faced with an abundance of causal agents, a bare observation of a rise
in the incidence of non-specific enteritis should be interpreted with
caution. A seasonal pattern can represent a mix of temporal curves.
Imagine two periodic curves of similar intensity, but one peaks in a
spring and another in a fall; the sum of these two curves might lose
the appearance of seasonality, covering two distinctly seasonal
phenomena.
Some infections are very rare. Their seasonal patterns are difficult to
examine because the relevant data must be collected over a very long
time and/or aggregated over large spatial units. Precision in
evaluating seasonality can thus be jeopardized by time-dependent and/or
space-dependent confounders.
Seasonal fluctuations can be found beyond infectious diseases; chronic
somatic diseases also exhibit substantial temporal variations.
Plausibly, exacerbations in chronic conditions are driven by infectious
agents or environmental changes. Understanding the interplay of an
infection and a chronic disease may lead to better control for both.
* [50] Other Sectionsv
+ [51]Abstract
+ [52]Introduction
+ [53]Notion of Seasonality
+ [54]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [55]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [56]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [57]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [58]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [59]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [60]References
Seasonal Host Susceptibility
When the weather is seasonable and the crops ripen at the regular
times, diseases are regular in their appearance...
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 8)
Poor nutrition directly affects host susceptibility. In places of food
scarcity, researchers suspect that temporal patterns in birth weight
and preterm delivery result from seasonal variations in food
availability ([61]5). In general, due to a less developed immune
system, young children are susceptible to infection; their immune
response may be further weakened by seasonal cutbacks in essential
micronutrients and vitamins.
Anemnestic responses to an antigen determine whether an infection
recurs. Short-lived immune memory together with seasonal changes in
pathogen transmissibility contribute further to the complexity of
seasonal patterns. Even a perfectly healthy person can experience a
change in susceptibility to infection due to stress, injuries, or
trauma. The probability of a marked impact of such factors on disease
seasonality is virtually unknown.
* [62] Other Sectionsv
+ [63]Abstract
+ [64]Introduction
+ [65]Notion of Seasonality
+ [66]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [67]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [68]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [69]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [70]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [71]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [72]References
Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
Some diseases are produced by the manner of life that is followed;
others by the life-giving air we breathe.
(Hippocrates. The Nature of Man, 9)
Temperature, humidity, and precipitation -- the defining factors of
seasons -- are important determinants of pathogens' survival. Changes
influence pathogens' potency and life expectancy, resulting in temporal
fluctuations in pathogens' abundance. In many instances, seasonal
changes in pathogen survival and transmission are inseparably related
to both biological and social aspects of our lives. They are
synchronized by weather. High ambient temperature, for example,
provides a supportive environment for food-borne pathogens, favoring
their multiplication in food and on food preparation surfaces ([73]6).
Food contamination is believed to be a significant mode of transmission
for infections caused by Salmonella and Campylobacter ([74]7);
therefore, during warm weather, the risk for food-borne diseases
increases ([75]8).
Seasonal changes in level of contamination, availability of potable
water, sanitation and hygiene practices, as well as crowding and
person-to-person contacts, affect pathogens' transmissibility.
Worldwide, water use differs from season to season ([76]9). In
temperate climates, warm weather leads to higher water consumption and
encourages outdoor activities -- swimming, camping, and recreational
water use. In tropical regions, contamination of surface water
increases during wet seasons. Although spread of pathogens via food is
certainly possible, contaminated water is the dominant source of
exposure for enteric infections caused by protozoa Cryptosporidium and
Giardia ([77]10 --[78]12). Depending on locality, outbreaks of
cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis associated with drinking or
recreational water frequently occur during warm or wet seasons
([79]13,[80]14).
With the onset of cooler weather, the "heating season" marks a change
in indoor air quality. Inadequate and poorly designed ventilation in
crowded public places and urban transit systems may boost exposure to
air-borne pathogens by increasing their concentration in stagnant air
and by re-circulating contaminated air. Higher relative humidity may
also affect the stability of air-borne droplets in which viruses travel
from person to person.
* [81] Other Sectionsv
+ [82]Abstract
+ [83]Introduction
+ [84]Notion of Seasonality
+ [85]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [86]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [87]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [88]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [89]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [90]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [91]References
Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
You will find, as a general rule, that the constitutions and the habits
of a people follow the nature of the land where they live.
(Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 24)
Diseases do not watch calendars. Their incidence rises and falls
because of changes in factors associated with the diseases. However, in
every culture all social events are synchronized by calendars; and
every calendar reflects the cyclic rhythm of nature.
Traditional celebrations and gatherings observed by communities
according to calendars affect pathogen transmission. Holidays, social
activities, and seasonal travel are often associated with changes in
food consumption and preparation, and are therefore associated with
changes in disease incidence. Preparing meat on a barbecue increases
the risk of Campylobacter infection ([92]15,[93]16) and foreign travel
increases the risk for enteric infections. Aggregation of children in
schools, daycare centers, and summer camps, reflecting school
calendars, facilitates rapid exchange of pathogens. There are marked
seasonal variations in transmission, and thus the incidence of enteric
and respiratory infections.
* [94] Other Sectionsv
+ [95]Abstract
+ [96]Introduction
+ [97]Notion of Seasonality
+ [98]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [99]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [100]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [101]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [102]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [103]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [104]References
Climate Change, Extreme Weather Events, and Disease Seasonality
The changes of the seasons are especially liable to beget diseases, as
are great changes from heat to cold, or cold to heat in any season.
Other changes in the weather have similarly severe effects.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 1)
As weather affects human health by creating favorable conditions for
pathogen proliferation and transmission, severe weather can affect the
timing and intensity of infectious outbreaks, and natural disasters
lead to drastic changes in population structure and pathogen ecology.
Catastrophic events like tsunamis, hurricanes, devastating floods, and
heat waves that cause deaths, population displacement, and
infrastructural damage may have dramatic effects on the incidence of
infections and their seasonal patterns.
Recent work has shown highly significant associations between extreme
precipitation and water-borne disease outbreaks ([105]17). Heavy
precipitation, rapid snowmelt, and floods flush animal wastes from the
land into surface waters and may overwhelm drinking and wastewater
treatment systems. The latter leads to discharges in watersheds of
untreated human wastes. As a result, pathogens can appear in drinking
and recreational water in very high concentrations ([106]18,[107]19). A
rapid snowmelt, resultant runoff, and filtration system failure at the
overloaded local drinking water treatment plant were implicated in the
largest known water-borne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis, which occurred
in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1993 ([108]20). This outbreak happened in
April, not within the usual seasonal peak for cryptosporidiosis cases.
A flood, which also resulted from a rapid snowmelt, has been linked
with a similar increased incidence of diarrhea ([109]21).
Experts expect that global climate change will increase climate
variability and the frequency of extreme precipitation events in
temperate regions ([110]22,[111]23). "Global warming" may also increase
the frequency and magnitude of other extreme weather events, such as
heat waves and droughts, and thereby have profound effects on public
health ([112]24,[113]25). In a comprehensive study conducted in the
United Kingdom that described a short-term link between temperature and
food poisoning, the authors also hypothesized that climate change could
lead to changes in rates of food poisoning ([114]26).
Integration of environmental parameters into disease forecasting and
warning systems could allow public health officials to alert the
populace when specific meteorological conditions pose predictable risks
to health ([115]27). Simple messages about proper food preparation and
refrigeration and the risks of using contaminated recreational waters
could, for example, be provided before, during, and after extreme
events. Better understanding of disease seasonality would also help to
predict outbreaks of infections triggered by climate variability.
* [116] Other Sectionsv
+ [117]Abstract
+ [118]Introduction
+ [119]Notion of Seasonality
+ [120]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [121]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [122]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [123]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [124]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [125]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [126]References
Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy
to Public Health Thinking
Desperate cases need the most desperate remedies.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, I, 6)
At first, seasonal fluctuations should be systematically described.
This requires a framework with sound definitions and analytic tools
suitable for routine use by public health professionals. In public
health sciences, the existing methodology currently lacks methods and
tests for assessing complex interactions in the time-dependent factors
responsible for disease seasonality.
Next, reliable data with fine temporal resolution are a must. The vast
majority of epidemiological studies have examined seasonal patterns of
infections using quarterly or monthly data. This coarse temporal
aggregation can thwart an otherwise detailed, accurate, and
comprehensive analysis of seasonal patterns and may even be misleading
([127]28). Examination of daily or weekly rates can substantially
improve evaluation of seasonal curves, but a systematic approach for
using at least weekly aggregates is needed.
Finally, reluctance to apply sophisticated mathematical models in
public health studies must be overcome. Underlying processes in disease
manifestation and spread are complex and multifaceted. Causal pathways
are often obscured. To disentangle causal effects of many factors
within the circular processes of self-sustaining oscillations demands
the careful building of sound conceptual models of seasonality; models
that can be tested. The emerging fields of computational epidemiology
and intelligent data mining will complement established work in
philosophy of science and mathematical biology to become an essential
part of thinking in public health and policy.
Acknowledgments
I thank Drs Eileen O'Neil and Beth Rosenberg for their thoughtful
suggestions, and the support of funding agencies: the National
Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (U19AI062627), and the
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R01ES013171).
Footnotes
^1Hippocrates' citations are taken from: Lloyd, GER, editor.
Hippocratic Writings. Trans. Chadwick J and Mann WN. London: Penguin;
1978.
* [128] Other Sectionsv
+ [129]Abstract
+ [130]Introduction
+ [131]Notion of Seasonality
+ [132]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [133]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [134]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [135]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [136]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [137]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [138]References
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__________________________________________________________________
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* [178]Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial
variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis.
Public Health Rep. 2000 Sep-Oct; 115(5):436-47.
[Public Health Rep. 2000]
* [179]Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in
cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance
system in 1990-1999.
J Water Health. 2005 Jun; 3(2):185-96.
[J Water Health. 2005]
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the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in
1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from
livestock animals.
J Clin Microbiol. 2000 Nov; 38(11):3984-90.
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Can J Public Health. 1989 May-Jun; 80(3):205-8.
[Can J Public Health. 1989]
[183]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [184]Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces
and cross-contamination to foods.
Int J Food Microbiol. 2003 Aug 25; 85(3):227-36.
[Int J Food Microbiol. 2003]
* [185]ReviewFood-related illness and death in the United States.
Emerg Infect Dis. 1999 Sep-Oct; 5(5):607-25.
[Emerg Infect Dis. 1999]
* [186]The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series
analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries.
Epidemiol Infect. 2004 Jun; 132(3):443-53.
[Epidemiol Infect. 2004]
[187]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [188]A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with
the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study).
Water Sci Technol. 2001; 43(12):39-48.
[Water Sci Technol. 2001]
* [189]ReviewReview of epidemiological studies on health effects from
exposure to recreational water.
Int J Epidemiol. 1998 Feb; 27(1):1-9.
[Int J Epidemiol. 1998]
* [190]ReviewGiardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their
impact on foods: a review.
J Food Prot. 1999 Sep; 62(9):1059-70.
[J Food Prot. 1999]
* [191]Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks--United States,
1997-1998.
MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000 May 26; 49(4):1-21.
[MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000]
[192]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [193]Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of
a case-control study in southeastern Norway.
J Clin Microbiol. 1992 Dec; 30(12):3117-21.
[J Clin Microbiol. 1992]
* [194]A case-control study of risk factors for sporadic
campylobacter infections in Denmark.
Epidemiol Infect. 2003 Jun; 130(3):353-66.
[Epidemiol Infect. 2003]
[195]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [196]The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne
disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948-1994.
Am J Public Health. 2001 Aug; 91(8):1194-9.
[Am J Public Health. 2001]
* [197]Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay.
Parasitol Res. 2002 Nov; 88(11):998-1003.
[Parasitol Res. 2002]
* [198]Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during
extreme rainfall and runoff.
Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002 May; 68(5):2188-97.
[Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002]
* [199]A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of cryptosporidium infection
transmitted through the public water supply.
N Engl J Med. 1994 Jul 21; 331(3):161-7.
[N Engl J Med. 1994]
* [200]Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the
incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms?
Am J Epidemiol. 2004 Feb 15; 159(4):398-405.
[Am J Epidemiol. 2004]
[201]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [202]ReviewVulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change
in Canada: a review.
J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004 Oct 22-Nov 26; 67(20-22):1667-77.
[J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004]
* [203]Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases.
JAMA. 1996 Jan 17; 275(3):217-23.
[JAMA. 1996]
* [204]Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England
and Wales.
Int J Biometeorol. 1995 Nov; 39(2):81-6.
[Int J Biometeorol. 1995]
[205]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [206]ReviewA stitch in time: improving public health early warning
systems for extreme weather events.
Epidemiol Rev. 2005; 27():115-21.
[Epidemiol Rev. 2005]
[207]See more articles cited in this paragraph
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Circadian rhythm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search
"Human clock" redirects here. For the online clock, see [8]Humanclock.
Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological
parameters.
A circadian rhythm is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical,
physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including
[9]plants, [10]animals, [11]fungi and [12]cyanobacteria (see
[13]bacterial circadian rhythms). The term "circadian", coined by
[14]Franz Halberg,^[15][1] comes from the [16]Latin [17]circa,
"around", and diem or dies, "day", meaning literally "approximately one
day". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily,
[18]tidal, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called
[19]chronobiology.
Circadian rhythms are [20]endogenously generated, and can be entrained
by external cues, called [21]zeitgebers, the primary one of which is
[22]daylight.
Contents
* [23]1 History
* [24]2 Criteria
* [25]3 Origin
* [26]4 Importance in animals
+ [27]4.1 Impact of light-dark cycle
+ [28]4.2 Arctic animals
+ [29]4.3 Butterfly migration
* [30]5 Biological clock in mammals
+ [31]5.1 Determining the human circadian rhythm
+ [32]5.2 Outside the "master clock"
* [33]6 Light and the biological clock
* [34]7 Enforced longer cycles
* [35]8 Human health
+ [36]8.1 Disruption
+ [37]8.2 Effect of drugs
* [38]9 See also
* [39]10 References
+ [40]10.1 Bibliography
+ [41]10.2 Notes
* [42]11 External links
[[43]edit] History
The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th
century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under
[44]Alexander the Great, described [45]diurnal leaf movements of the
[46]tamarind tree.^[47][2] The first modern observation of endogenous
circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [48]Jean-Jacques
d'Ortous de Mairan in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the
movement of the leaves of the plant [49]Mimosa pudica continued even
when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
In 1918, J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining
24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light
and changes in temperature.^[50][3] [51]Joseph Takahashi discovered the
genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.^[52][4]^[53][5]
[[54]edit] Criteria
To differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from
coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met: 1)
the rhythms persist in the absence of cues, 2) they persist equally
precisely over a range of temperatures, and 3) the rhythms can be
adjusted to match the local time:
* The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant
dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this
criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those "apparent"
rhythms that are merely responses to external periodic cues. A
rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been
tested in conditions without external periodic input.
* The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e., it maintains the same
period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this
criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological
rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway.
At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a
circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely
coincidental.
* The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The
rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms
from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to
resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of
estimating the local time. Travel across [55]time zones illustrates
the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that
it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next.
Until rhythms are reset, a person usually experiences [56]jet lag.
[[57]edit] Origin
[58]Question book-new.svg
This section needs additional [59]citations for [60]verification.
Please help [61]improve this article by adding [62]reliable references.
Unsourced material may be [63]challenged and [64]removed. (October
2007)
Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have
originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the
replicating of DNA from high [65]ultraviolet radiation during the
daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus
[66]Neurospora, which exists today, retains this [67]clock-regulated
mechanism.
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise
and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to
the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in
regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in
coordinating with the environment.^[68][6] This is suggested by the
maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after
several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,^[69][7]
as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the
experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian
rhythms in quail.^[70][8]
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic
[71]cyanobacteria. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian
clock of Synechococcus elongatus can be reconstituted in vitro with
just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has
been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the
addition of [72]ATP. Previous explanations of the [73]prokaryotic
circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription /
translation feedback mechanism.
It is an unanswered question whether circadian clocks in eukaryotic
organisms require translation/transcription-derived oscillations, for,
although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the
same basic architecture (input - [74]central oscillator - output), they
do not share any [75]homology. This implies probable independent
origins.
In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [76]Seymour Benzer first identified a
genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a
model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behaviour:
one had a shorter period, another had a longer one, and the third had
none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named
[77]period.^[78][9] The same gene was identified to be defective in the
sleep disorder FASPS ([79]Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome) in
human beings thirty years later, underscoring the conserved nature of
the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic
components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions
result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in
periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a
specific time of the day.
A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter
half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian
clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is
cell-autonomous.^[80][10] At the same time, different cells may
communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of
electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the
brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for
these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronize the
peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time
of the day as relayed by the [81]eyes travels to the clock in the
brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be
synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body
temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the
biological clock.
[[82]edit] Importance in animals
Circadian rhythmicity is present in the [83]sleeping and feeding
patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear
patterns of core body temperature, [84]brain wave activity, [85]hormone
production, cell regeneration and other biological activities. In
addition, [86]photoperiodism, the physiological reaction of organisms
to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and
the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation
of day length.
" Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food
availability or predator activity is crucial for survival of many
species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the
photoperiod ('daylength') is the most predictive environmental cue for
the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing
of migration, hibernation and reproduction.^[87][11] "
[[88]edit] Impact of light-dark cycle
The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals, including
humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function
with a [89]freerunning rhythm. Each "day", their sleep cycle is pushed
back or forward, depending on whether their [90]endogenous period is
shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that each day
reset the rhythms are called [91]Zeitgebers (from the German, Time
Givers).^[92][12] It is interesting to note that totally-blind
subterranean mammals (e.g., [93]blind mole rat Spalax sp.) are able to
maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external
stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors
(detect light) are still functional; as well, they do surface
periodically.^[[94]citation needed]
Freerunning organisms that normally have one consolidated sleep episode
will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues,
but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light/dark
cycle in nature. The sleep-wake rhythm may, in these circumstances,
become out of phase with other circadian or [95]ultradian rhythms such
as [96]temperature and [97]digestion.^[[98]citation needed]
Recent research has influenced the design of [99]spacecraft
environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been
found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.^[[100]citation needed]
[[101]edit] Arctic animals
Norwegian researchers at the [102]University of Tromsø have shown that
some Arctic animals ([103]ptarmigan, [104]reindeer) show circadian
rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and
sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at [105]70 degrees North
showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter, and spring, but not in
the summer. Reindeer at [106]78 degrees North showed such rhythms only
autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other Arctic animals as
well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and
the constant dark of winter.^[107][13]^[108][14]
However, another study in northern Alaska found that [109]ground
squirrels and [110]porcupines strictly maintained their circadian
rhythms through 82 days and nights of sunshine. The researchers
speculate that these two small mammals see that the apparent distance
between the sun and the horizon is shortest once a day, and, thus, a
sufficient signal to adjust by.^[111][15]
[[112]edit] Butterfly migration
The navigation of the fall migration of the [113]Eastern North American
monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) to their overwintering grounds in
central Mexico uses a time-compensated sun compass that depends upon a
circadian clock in their antennae.^[114][16]^[115][17]
[[116]edit] Biological clock in mammals
Diagram illustrating the influence of light and darkness on circadian
rhythms and related [117]physiology and behaviour through the
[118]suprachiasmatic nucleus in humans.
The primary circadian "clock" in [119]mammals is located in the
[120]suprachiasmatic nucleus (or nuclei) ([121]SCN), a pair of distinct
groups of [122]cells located in the [123]hypothalamus. Destruction of
the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep-wake rhythm.
The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The
[124]retina of the eyes contains not only "classical"
[125]photoreceptors but also photoresponsive retinal [126]ganglion
cells. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called
[127]melanopsin, follow a pathway called the [128]retinohypothalamic
tract, leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and
cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external
cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on the lengths of the day
and night from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the
[129]pineal gland, a tiny structure shaped like a [130]pine cone and
located on the [131]epithalamus. In response the pineal secretes the
hormone [132]melatonin. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs
during the day and its presence provides information about
night-length.
The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter
and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard
have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a
23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural
solar day-night cycle on the planet [133]Mars).^[134][18]
[[135]edit] Determining the human circadian rhythm
The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's
circadian rhythm are
* melatonin secretion by the pineal gland and
* core body temperature.
For temperature studies, people must remain awake but calm and
semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are
taken continuously. The average human adult's temperature reaches its
minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake
time, though variation is great among normal [136]chronotypes.
Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime.
Its onset in dim light, dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO), at about
21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Its major
[137]metabolite can also be measured in morning urine. Both DLMO and
the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or
saliva have been used as circadian markers.
However, newer research indicates that the melatonin offset may be the
most reliable marker. Benloucif et al. in Chicago in 2005 found that
melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated
with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found
that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly
correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In
addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable
and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.^[138][19]
One method used for measuring melatonin offset is to analyse a sequence
of urine samples throughout the morning for the presence of the
melatonin [139]metabolite 6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s). Laberge et al.
in Quebec in 1997 used this method in a study that confirmed the
frequently found delayed circadian phase in healthy
adolescents.^[140][20]
[[141]edit] Outside the "master clock"
More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and
cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the "master
clock". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the
[142]oesophagus, [143]lungs, [144]liver, [145]pancreas, [146]spleen,
[147]thymus, and the [148]skin.^[149][21] Though oscillators in the
skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven so
far.^[150][22]^[151][23] There is some evidence that also the olfactory
bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting
that also these structures may be weak oscillators.
Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding
rather than to [152]light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to
have freerunning rhythms.
[[153]edit] Light and the biological clock
Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [154]phase
response curve (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or
delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required
[155]illuminance vary from species to species and lower light levels
are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm in humans are higher than
the levels usually used in artificial lighting in homes. According to
some researchers^[156][24] the illumination intensity that excites the
circadian system has to reach up to 1000 [157]lux striking the retina.
In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or colour) of light is a
factor in the entrainment of the body clock. [158]Melanopsin is most
efficiently excited by blue light, 420-440 nm^[159][25] according to
some researchers while others have reported 470-485 nm.
It is thought that the direction of the light may have an effect on
entraining the circadian rhythm;^[160][24] light coming from above,
resembling an image of a bright sky, has greater effect than light
entering our eyes from below.
[[161]edit] Enforced longer cycles
Modern research under very controlled conditions has shown the human
period for adults to be just slightly longer than 24 hours on average.
Czeisler et al. at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults
of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes.
The "clock" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's
rotation.^[162][26]
The 28-hour day is presented as a concept of [163]time
management.^[164][27] It builds on the fact that the week of seven days
at 24 hours and a "week" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of
168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require
staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours.
Each "day" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern.
Studies by [165]Nathaniel Kleitman^[166][28] in 1938 and by
[167]Derk-Jan Dijk and [168]Charles Czeisler^[169][29]^[170][30] in
1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep-wake cycles,
in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a
month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day,^[171][31]
this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake
episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about
24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of
circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including
[172]sleep latency and other functions.^[173][32]
Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people
preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli
like daylight and timekeeping. Early investigators determined the human
circadian period to be 25 hours or more. They went to great lengths to
shield subjects from time cues and daylight, but they were not aware of
the effects of indoor electric lights. The subjects were allowed to
turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted
to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase.
These results became well known.^[174][26] Researchers allowed subjects
to keep electric lighting on in the evening, as it was thought at that
time that a couple of 60W bulbs would not have a resetting effect on
the circadian rhythms of humans. More recent research^[[175]citation
needed] has shown that adults have a built-in day, which averages just
over 24 hours, that indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms and
that most people attain their best-quality sleep during their
[176]chronotype-determined sleep periods.
[[177]edit] Human health
Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may
significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse
reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with
[178]angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) may reduce
nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [179]left ventricular
(reverse) remodelling.^[[180]citation needed]
A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms.
A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during
the day, a [181]power-nap, does not have any effect on normal circadian
rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve
productivity.^[182][33]^[183][34]
There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the
human circadian rhythm, such as [184]seasonal affective disorder (SAD),
[185]delayed sleep phase syndrome (DSPS) and other [186]circadian
rhythm disorders.^[187][35] Circadian rhythms also play a part in the
[188]reticular activating system, which is crucial for maintaining a
state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep-wake cycle
may be a sign or complication of [189]uremia,^[190][36] [191]azotemia
or [192]acute renal failure.
[[193]edit] Disruption
Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers
have experienced the condition known as [194]jet lag, with its
associated symptoms of [195]fatigue, disorientation and [196]insomnia.
A number of other disorders, for example [197]bipolar disorder and some
[198]sleep disorders, are associated with irregular or pathological
functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that
circadian rhythm disturbances found in [199]bipolar disorder are
positively influenced by [200]lithium's effect on clock
genes.^[201][37]
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have
significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside
the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of
cardiovascular disease [202][2] The suppression of melatonin production
associated with the disruption of the circadian rhythm may increase the
risk of developing cancer.^[203][38]^[204][39]
[[205]edit] Effect of drugs
Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside
the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such
as [206]cocaine.^[207][40]^[208][41] Moreover, genetic manipulations of
clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.^[209][42]
[[210]edit] See also
* [211]Actigraphy (also known as Actimetry)
* [212]Advanced sleep phase syndrome
* [213]ARNTL
* [214]ARNTL2
* [215]Bacterial circadian rhythms
* [216]Chronobiology
* [217]Chronotype
* [218]Circadian oscillator
* [219]Circadian rhythm sleep disorders
* [220]Cryptochrome
* [221]CRY1 and [222]CRY2, the cryptochrome family genes
* [223]Delayed sleep phase syndrome
* [224]Diurnal cycle
* [225]Jet lag
* [226]Light effects on circadian rhythm
* [227]PER1, [228]PER2, and [229]PER3, the period family genes
* [230]Power-nap
[[231]edit] References
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issn=19979287. Retrieved 2007-12-18.
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Oct.: Expression of the Circadian Clock Genes clock and period1 in
Human Skin
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Low-dose UVB Rays Alter the mRNA Expression of the Circadian Clock
Genes in cultured Human Keratinocytes
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Extraocular Circadian Phototransduction in Humans
24. ^ [307]^a [308]^b Semjonova, Milena (2003). [309]"Healthy Lighting,
from a lighting designer's perspective". Milena Lighting Design.
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Biochemistry. 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8.
26. ^ [312]^a [313]^b [314]"Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour".
1999.
Retrieved 2007-09-23. "The variation between our subjects, with a
95 percent level of confidence, was no more than plus or minus 16
minutes, a remarkably small range."
27. [316]^ Digital Beat Productions (1997). [317]"28 Hour Day".
28. [319]^ Kleitman, Nathaniel (1962). Sleep and Wakefullness ed 2.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
29. [320]^ Dijk, Derk-Jan; Czeisler Charles (1994). "Paradoxical timing
of the circadian rhythm of sleep propensity serves to consolidate
sleep and wakefulness in humans". Neurosci Lett 166 (1): 63.
[321]doi:[322]10.1016/0304-3940(94)90841-9. [323]PMID
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30. [325]^ Dijk, Derk-Jan; Czeisler Charles (1995). [326]"Contribution
of the Circadian Pacemaker and the Sleep Homeostat to Sleep
Propensity, Sleep Structure, Electrocephalographic Slow Waves, and
Sleep Spindle Activity in Humans". J. Neurosci 15 (5): 3526.
[327]PMID [328]7751928.
31. [330]^ Cromie, William J. (1999-07-15). [331]"Human Biological
Clock Set Back an Hour". The Harvard University Gazette.
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32. [333]^ Aldrich, Michael S (1999). [334]Sleep medicine. New York:
Oxford University Press. [335]ISBN [336]0195129571.
pg=RA1-PA65&dq=experimenting+with+the+28+hour+day&source=bl&ots=9R4
mo2fI1O&sig=om2zbYPnXnm_1HuZo2Tch6J1vyo&hl=en&ei=MBZeStGgIoyJkQWd17
znDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2.
33. [338]^ [339]"The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship
to nighttime sleep". The prevalence of daytime napping and its
relationship to nighttime sleep. Behavioral medicine. 2001.
Retrieved 2008-11-11.
34. [341]^ [342]"Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress
Levels Among College Students". Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive
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University. 2007.
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35. [344]^ [345]"Circadian Rhythms and Sleep". Circadian Rhythms and
Sleep. Serendip. 2007.
ml. Retrieved 2007-09-19.
36. [347]^ Sinert, Richard; Peter R Peacock, Jr (May 10, 2006).
[348]"Renal Failure, Acute". eMedicine from WebMD.
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37. [350]^ [351]NIMH · Science News from 2006 · Lithium Blocks Enzyme
To Help Cells' Clocks Keep On Tickin'
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Bouvard V, Altieri A, Benbrahim-Tallaa L, Cogliano V, WHO
International Agency for Research on Cancer Monograph Working
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39. [354]^ [355]WebMD: Night Shift Work May Cause Cancer
40. [356]^ Uz T, Akhisaroglu M, Ahmed R, Manev H (2003). "The pineal
gland is critical for circadian Period1 expression in the striatum
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Neuropsychopharmacology 28 (12): 2117-23.
[357]doi:[358]10.1038/sj.npp.1300254. [359]PMID [360]12865893.
41. [361]^ Kurtuncu M, Arslan A, Akhisaroglu M, Manev H, Uz T (2004).
"Involvement of the pineal gland in diurnal cocaine reward in
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[362]doi:[363]10.1016/j.ejphar.2004.03.010. [364]PMID
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Sci USA 102 (26): 9377-81. [368]doi:[369]10.1073/pnas.0503584102.
[370]PMID [371]15967985.
[[372]edit] External links
* [373]Circadian rhythm at the [374]Open Directory Project
* Leloup J.C. (2009). "Circadian clocks and phosphorylation: Insights
from computational modeling". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 4 (3): 290-303.
[375]doi:[376]10.2478/s11535-009-0025-1.
* Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A (2007). "Evolutionary mechanisms
of circadian clocks". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 2 (2): 233-253.
[377]doi:[378]10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z.
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January 2, 2006
Universal Timing
Life's Natural Rhythm
Nature's natural rhythms orchestrate when day turns to night, when
flowers must bloom, and provides the cue for when it is time for red
and brown leaves to fall from trees. As human beings, our own inner
rhythm is attuned to this universal sense of timing. Guided by the
rising and setting of the sun, changes in temperature, and our own
internal rhythm, we know when it is time to sleep, eat, or be active.
While our minds and spirits are free to focus on other pursuits, our
breath and our heartbeat are always there to remind us of life's
pulsing rhythm that moves within and around us.
Moving to this rhythm, we know when it is time to stop working and when
to rest. Pushing our bodies to work beyond their natural rhythm
diminishes our ability to renew and recharge. A feeling much like jet
lag lets us know when we've overridden our own natural rhythm. When we
feel the frantic calls of all we want to accomplish impelling us to
move faster than is natural for us, we may want to breathe deeply
instead and look at nature moving to its own organic timing: birds
flying south, leaves shedding, or snow falling. A walk in nature can
also let us re-attune is to her organic rhythm, while allowing us to
move back in time with our own. When we move to our natural rhythm, we
can achieve all we need to do with less effort.
We may even notice that our soul moves to its own internal, natural
rhythm - especially when it comes to our personal evolution. Comparing
ourselves to others is unnecessary. Our best guide is to move to our
own internal timing, while keeping time with the rhythm of nature.
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Rhythm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search
For other uses, see [8]Rhythm (disambiguation).
Rhythm (from [9]greek rhuthµo'*s - rhythmos, "any measured flow or
movement, symmetry") is the variation of the length and accentuation of
a series of sounds or other events.
Contents
* [10]1 Rhythm in linguistics
* [11]2 Origins of human appreciation of rhythm
* [12]3 Rhythm notation and the oral tradition
+ [13]3.1 African music
+ [14]3.2 Indian music
+ [15]3.3 Western music
* [16]4 Types
* [17]5 See also
* [18]6 Notes
* [19]7 Sources
* [20]8 Further reading
[[21]edit] Rhythm in linguistics
The study of rhythm, stress, and [22]pitch in [23]speech is called
[24]prosody; it is a topic in [25]linguistics. Narmour (1980,
p. 147-53) describes three categories of prosodic rules which create
rhythmic successions which are additive (same duration repeated),
cumulative (short-long), or countercumulative (long-short). Cumulation
is associated with closure or relaxation, countercumulation with
openness or tension, while additive rhythms are open-ended and
repetitive. Richard Middleton points out this method cannot account for
[26]syncopation and suggests the concept of [27]transformation.
A [28]rhythmic unit is a [29]durational pattern which occupies a period
of time equivalent to a [30]pulse or pulses on an underlying [31]metric
level, as opposed to a [32]rhythmic gesture which does not (DeLone et
al. (Eds.), 1975
[[33]edit] Origins of human appreciation of rhythm
In his series How Music Works, [34]Howard Goodall presents theories
that rhythm recalls how we walk and the heartbeat we heard in the womb.
More likely is that a simple pulse or [35]di-dah beat recalls the
footsteps of another person. Our sympathetic urge to dance is designed
to boost our energy levels in order to cope with someone, or some
animal chasing us - a fight or flight response. From a less darwinist
perspective, perceiving rhythm is the ability to master the otherwise
invisible dimension, time. Rhythm is possibly also rooted in courtship
ritual.^[36][1]
Neurologist [37]Oliver Sacks posits that human affinity for rhythm is
fundamental, so much that a person's sense of rhythm cannot be lost in
the way that music and language can (e.g. by [38]stroke). In addition,
he states that [39]chimpanzees and other animals show no similar
appreciation for rhythm.^[40][2]
[[41]edit] Rhythm notation and the oral tradition
Worldwide there are many different approaches to passing on rhythmic
phrases and patterns, as they exist in traditional music, from
generation to generation.
[[42]edit] African music
In the [43]Griot tradition of Africa everything related to music has
been passed on orally. [44]Babatunde Olatunji (1927-2003), a Nigerian
drummer who lived and worked in the [45]United States, developed a
simple series of spoken sounds for teaching the rhythms of the hand
drum. He used six vocal sounds: Goon Doon Go Do Pa Ta. There are three
basic sounds on the drum, but each can be played with either the left
or the right hand. This simple system is now used worldwide,
particularly by [46]Djembe players.
[[47]edit] Indian music
Indian music has also been passed on orally. Tabla players would learn
to speak complex rhythm patterns and phrases before attempting to play
them. [48]Sheila Chandra, an English pop singer of Indian descent, made
performances based around her singing these patterns. In [49]Indian
Classical music, the [50]Tala of a composition is the rhythmic pattern
over which the whole piece is structured.
[[51]edit] Western music
Standard [52]music notation contains rhythmic information and is
adapted specifically for drums and percussion instruments. The drums
are generally used to keep other instruments in 'time'. They do this by
supplying beats/strikes in time at a certain pace, i.e. 70 beats per
minute (bpm). In [53]Rock music, a drum beat is used to keep a
[54]bass/[55]guitar line in time.
[[56]edit] Types
In [57]Western music, rhythms are usually arranged with respect to a
[58]time signature, partially signifying a meter. The speed of the
underlying [59]pulse is sometimes called the [60]beat. The [61]tempo is
a measure of how quickly the pulse repeats. The tempo is usually
measured in 'beats per minute' (bpm); 60 bpm means a speed of one beat
per second. The length of the meter, or metric unit (usually
corresponding with [62]measure length), is usually grouped into either
two or three beats, being called [63]duple meter and [64]triple meter,
respectively. If each beat is divided by two or four, it is [65]simple
meter, if by three (or six) [66]compound meter. According to [67]Pierre
Boulez, beat structures beyond four are "simply not natural".^[68][3].
His reference is to western European music.
Standard notation of a clave pattern on audio clip clave pattern.ogg
[69]Syncopated rhythms are rhythms that accent parts of the beat not
already stressed by [70]counting. Playing simultaneous rhythms in more
than one time signature is called [71]polymeter. See also
[72]polyrhythm. In recent years, rhythm and meter have become an
important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these
areas includes books by [73]Maury Yeston, [74]Fred Lerdahl and [75]Ray
Jackendoff, [76]Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty, William Rothstein,
and Joel Lester.
Grid notation of single a clave pattern
Some [77]genres of music make different use of rhythm than others. Most
Western music is based on [78]subdivision, while non-Western music uses
more [79]additive rhythm. [80]African music makes heavy use of
[81]polyrhythms, and [82]Indian music uses [83]complex cycles such as 7
and 13, while [84]Balinese music often uses complex [85]interlocking
rhythms. By comparison, a lot of Western [86]classical music is fairly
rhythmically (or metrically) simple; it stays in a [87]simple meter
such as 4/4 or 3/4 and makes little use of [88]syncopation.
[89]Clave is a common underlying rhythm in [90]African, [91]Cuban
music, and [92]Brazilian music.
[93]Claves
(Submit) Play sound
Four beats followed by three Clave patterns
__________________________________________________________________
Problems listening to this file? See [94]media help.
In the 20th century, [95]composers like [96]Igor Stravinsky, [97]Bela
Bartok, [98]Philip Glass, and [99]Steve Reich wrote more rhythmically
complex music using [100]odd meters, and techniques such as
[101]phasing and [102]additive rhythm. At the same time, modernists
such as [103]Olivier Messiaen and his pupils used increased complexity
to disrupt the sense of a regular beat, leading eventually to the
widespread use of [104]irrational rhythms in [105]New Complexity. This
use may be explained by a comment of [106]John Cage's^[[107]where?]
where he notes that regular rhythms cause sounds to be heard as a group
rather than individually; the irregular rhythms highlight the rapidly
changing pitch relationships that would otherwise be subsumed into
irrelevant rhythmic groupings (Sandow 2004, p. 257). [108]LaMonte Young
also wrote music in which the sense of a regular beat is absent because
the music consists only of long sustained tones ([109]drones). In the
1930s, [110]Henry Cowell wrote music involving multiple simultaneous
periodic rhythms and collaborated with [111]Léon Thérémin to invent the
[112]Rhythmicon, the first electronic [113]rhythm machine, in order to
perform them. Similarly, [114]Conlon Nancarrow wrote for the
[115]player piano.
[[116]edit] See also
* [117]Meter (music)
* [118]Prosody (linguistics)
* [119]Riddim
* [120]Morse Code
* [121]Soul (music)
* [122]Time scale (music)
* [123]Timing (linguistics)
[[124]edit] Notes
1. [125]^ [126]Mithen, Steven (2005). [127]The Singing Neanderthals:
The Origins of Music, Language, Mind and Body.. London: Weidenfeld
& Nicolson.. [128]ISBN [129]0297643177.
2. [131]^ [132]Jon Stewart, [133]Oliver Sacks. (2009-06-29). [134]The
Daily Show with Jon Stewart. [Television production]. Comedy
Central.
itle=oliver-sacks. "People often tried to teach their dogs to
dance--it doesn't work."
3. [136]^ In [137]Discovering Music: Rhythm with [138]Leonard Slatkin
at 5:05
[[139]edit] Sources
* Hasty, Christopher (1997). Meter as Rhythm. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. [140]ISBN 0-19-510066-2.
* London, Justin (2004). Hearing in Time: Psychological Aspects of
Musical Meter. [141]ISBN 0-19-516081-9.
* Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music.
Philadelphia: Open University Press. [142]ISBN 0-335-15275-9.
* Narmour (1980). Cited in DeLone et al. (Eds.) (1975). Aspects of
Twentieth-Century Music. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall. [143]ISBN 0-13-049346-5.
* Sandow, Greg (2004). "A Fine Madness", The Pleasure of Modernist
Music. [144]ISBN 1-58046-143-3.
* Yeston, Maury (1976). "The Stratification of Musical Rhythm".
[[145]edit] Further reading
* McGaughey, William (2001). "Rhythm and Self-Consciousness: New
Ideals for an Electronic Civilization". Minneapolis: Thistlerose
Publications. [146]ISBN 0-9605630-4-0.
* Honing, H. (2002). [147]"Structure and interpretation of rhythm and
timing." Tijdschrift voor Muziektheorie [Dutch Journal of Music
Theory] 7(3): 227-232.
* Lewis, Andrew (2005). Rhythm--What it is and How to Improve Your
Sense of It. San Francisco: [148]RhythmSource Press. [149]ISBN
978-0-9754667-0-4.
* Williams, C. F. A., The Aristoxenian Theory of Musical Rhythm,
(Cambridge Library Collection - Music), Cambridge University Press;
1st edition, 2009.
* Toussaint, G. T., "The geometry of musical rhythm," In J. Akiyama,
M. Kano, and X. Tan, editors, Proceedings of the Japan Conference
on Discrete and Computational Geometry, Vol. 3742, Lecture Notes in
Computer Science, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2005, pp. 198-212.
[150]v o [151]d o [152]e
[153]Musical notation and [154]development
[155]Staff
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[160]Key signature · [161]Ledger line · [162]Musical mode ·
[163]Musical scale · [164]Rehearsal letter · [165]Repeat sign ·
[166]Time signature · [167]Transposition · [168]Transposing instrument
[169]G (treble) clef symbol
[170]Notes
[171]Accidental ([172]Flat · [173]Natural · [174]Sharp) · [175]Dotted
note · [176]Grace note · [177]Note value ([178]Beam · [179]Note head ·
[180]Stem) · [181]Pitch · [182]Rest · [183]Interval · [184]Letter
notation
[185]Articulation
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note) · [191]Ossia · [192]Portato · [193]Accent · [194]Legato ·
[195]Tenuto · [196]Marcato · [197]Staccato · [198]Staccatissimo ·
[199]Tie · [200]Slur · [201]Fermata
[202]Development
[203]Coda · [204]Exposition · [205]Harmony · [206]Melody · [207]Motif ·
[208]Recapitulation · Rhythm ([209]Beat · [210]Meter · [211]Tempo) ·
[212]Theme · [213]Tonality · [214]Atonality
Related
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[1]Daniel Laberge music
Rhythm explained
including
27 rhythm exercises
by Daniel Laberge
Rhythm figure
Hi rhythm lovers,
I've devised these exercises in the early seventies while teaching
music.
I could not find any existing book that saw rhythm the way I did.
This method is based on "rhythmic figures" or rhythm possibilities.
Each one lasts one beat.
I simply counted the rhythmic possibilities one could encounter for
each type of beat divisions.
There are:
o Four rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by two
o Eight rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by three
o Sixteen rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by four
I composed the exercises back then and used them for my teaching, but I
only wrote the theory that goes along in 2002.
The book is called "Rhythm explained" and I am gradually placing its
content here.
Each exercise is preceded by a lesson, with graphic representations,
and includes an audio rendition to help you.
You can choose between three speeds.
For jazz musicians, the binary exercises also have a swing or double
swing performance. Go to the bottom of the page for a link to the swing
version.
Choose among the following exercises:
Beat exercises
[2]Rhythm exercise 1-1
Featured figures
[3][onequarternote1.gif] [4] [onehalfnote1.gif] [5]
[dottedhalfnote1.gif] [6] [wholenote1.gif]
[7]Rhythm exercise 1-2
Featured figures
[8][quarternoterest1.gif] [9] [halfnoterest1.gif] [10]
[wholenoterest1.gif]
[11]Rhythm exercise 1-3
Featured figures
[12][quarternoterest1.gif] [13] [halfnoterest1.gif] [14]
[dottedhalfnoterest1.gif] [15] [wholenoterest1.gif]
Binary beat division
The binary family is large as it includes:
o Division by two
o Division by four
o Part of division by six
o Division by eight
This section is concerned with the simple division by two.
Any binary beat has two alternating parts: the downbeat and the upbeat.
Binary beat
[binarybeat1.gif]
As you can see, there are only two places in a beat
where events or notes can be positioned or played:
o The downbeat
o The upbeat
How
rhythmic
possibilities
work
This means that for any given beat you can have
any of the four following possibilities:
1 o Only one event on the downbeat.
2 o Events on both the downbeat and the upbeat.
3 o No event at all.
4 o Only one event on the upbeat.
[possibilitiesbytwosimple1.gif]
The rhythmic figure used to represent a binary beat is called:
TWO EIGHTH NOTES
[masterfigurebinary1.gif]
Binary
master
rhythmic
figure
Simple binary rhythmic figures
4 possibilities:
o 2 Primary
o 2 Secondary
[possibilitiesbytwo1.gif]
Secondary rhythmic figures lack the event that falls on the beat.
There is a secondary figure for each primary one.
Because the beat is so important, secondary figures have appeared after
the primary ones had been well established.
The absence of event falling on the beat can be due to a silence or a
sound that is held over from the preceding beat.
Because of this, there are two ways to notate secondary figures:
o With a rest
o With a tie
[primarysecondary1.gif]
Primary
and
secondary
rhythmic
figures
Choose among the following exercises:
Binary exercises
PRIMARY
[16]Rhythm exercise 2-1
Featured figure
[17][twoeighthnotes2.gif]
[18]Rhythm exercise 2-2
Featured figures
[19][twoeighthnotes2.gif] [20] [quarternoterest2.gif]
SECONDARY
[21]Rhythm exercise 2-3
Featured figure
[22][dottedquarternoteeighth2.gif]
[23]Rhythm exercise 2-4
Featured figure
[24][eighthnotesyncopationa2.gif]
[25]Rhythm exercise 2-5
Featured figure
[26][twoeighttieonequarter2.gif]
MULTIPLE SYNCOPATIONS
[27]Rhythm exercise 2-6
Featured figure
[28][doublesyncopationa2.gif]
Ternary beat division
The ternary family is small as it includes:
o Division by three
o Part of division by six
Everything goes in thirds in ternary music.
Any ternary beat has one downbeat and two upbeats.
Ternary beat
[ternarybeat1.gif]
The rhythmic figure used to represent a ternary beat is called:
THREE EIGHTH NOTES
[masterfigureternary1.gif]
Ternary
master
rhythmic
figure
Writing
ternary
rhythm
In ternary music writing, each eighth note is worth one third of a
beat.
Since two eighth notes always equal one quarter note, these now equal
two thirds of a beat.
It takes a dotted quarter note to represent one beat.
[ternarywriting1.gif]
Ternary rhythmic figures
8 possibilities:
o 4 Primary
o 4 Secondary
[possibilitiesbythree1.gif]
Choose among the following exercises:
Ternary exercises
PRIMARY
[29]Rhythm exercise 3-1
Featured figure
[30][threeeighth2.gif]
[31]Rhythm exercise 3-2
Featured figure
[32][onequarteroneeighth2.gif]
[33]Rhythm exercise 3-3
Featured figure
[34][oneeighthonequarter2.gif]
SECONDARY
[35]Rhythm exercise 3-1s
Featured figure
[36][8threst2eighth2.gif] OR [37] [tie3eighth2.gif]
[38]Rhythm exercise 3-2s
Featured figure
[39][quarternoterestoneeighth2.gif] OR [40]
[tiequarternote1eighth.gif]
[41]Rhythm exercise 3-3s
Featured figure
[42][8threst1quarternote2.gif] OR [43] [tie1eighth1quarter2.gif]
Division by four
Beats divided by four are part of the binary family.
Everything goes in quarters in this feel.
Beat
divided
by
four
[binarybeat2.gif]
The rhythmic figure used to represent a beat divided by four
is called:
FOUR SIXTEENTH NOTES
[masterfigurebyfour1.gif]
Division
by four
master
rhythmic
figure
Binary rhythmic figures
16 possibilities:
o 8 Primary
o 8 Secondary
[possibilitiesbyfour1.gif]
Choose among the following exercises:
Division by four exercises
PRIMARY
[44]Rhythm exercise 4-1
Featured figure
[45][foursixteenth2.gif]
[46]Rhythm exercise 4-2
Featured figure
[47][oneeighthtwosixteenth2.gif]
[48]Rhythm exercise 4-3
Featured figure
[49][twosixteenthoneeighth2.gif]
[50]Rhythm exercise 4-4
Featured figure
[51][dottedeighthonesixteenth2.gif]
[52]Rhythm exercise 4-5
Featured figure
[53][onesixteenthdottedeighth2.gif]
[54]Rhythm exercise 4-6
Featured figure
[55][16th8th16th2.gif]
SECONDARY
[56]Rhythm exercise 4-1s
Featured figure
[57][16threst3sixteenth2.gif] OR [58] [tiefoursixteenth2.gif]
[59]Rhythm exercise 4-2s
Featured figure
[60][8threst2sixteenth2.gif] OR [61] [tie1eighth2sixteenth2.gif]
[62]Rhythm exercise 4-3s
Featured figure
[63][16threst1sixteenth1eighth2.gif] OR [64]
[tie2sixteenth1eighth2.gif]
[65]Rhythm exercise 4-4s
Featured figure
[66][dotted8threst1sixteenth2.gif] OR [67]
[tiedottereight1sixteenth2.gif]
[68]Rhythm exercise 4-5s
Featured figure
[69][16threstdotted8th.gif] OR [70] [tie16thdotted8th2.gif]
[71]Rhythm exercise 4-6s
Featured figure
[72][16threst1eighth1sixteenth2.gif] OR [73]
[tieone16thone8thone16th2.gif]
[74]Bugs, problems
and comments [75]Daniel Laberge music
Références
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ORGY IN RHYTHM
[6]JAZZ HIP TRIO - JAZZ EN RELIEF
Jazz Hip Trio for Riviera France from 1967.
Jean-Bernard Eisinger Piano ; Roger Luccioni Bass ;Daniel Humair Drums.
More beautiful music from France on this the first Jazz Hip Trio LP.
"Orange Boom" was the big tune back in the day but the rest is just
fabulous.
Needless to say.....All Killer No Filler
Another first in public blogland here at OIR.
[7]17 comments made-how about you? 12.1.10
[8]MAL WALDRON - TOKYO BOUND
Mal Waldron for RCA Victor Japan from 1970.
Mal Waldron-Piano;Takeshi Inomata-Drums;Yasuo Arakawa-Bass
Tremendous all killer trio date with Waldron joined by a top flight
Japanese rhythm section on four original compositions which only saw a
release in Japan.Check out the rocking intensity of "Rock One For Jimbo
San" and "Japanese Island" which builds from an ominous brooding intro
into a marvellous modal waltz."Atomic Energy" blows up with a headlong
banging vamp from Waldron's left hand while the right runs all over the
keys and then to close "Mount Fujiyama" a more introspective rumination
and dissection of the tune's theme.
Inomata's drumming is a revelation throughout the session intricate yet
swinging with fantastic use of cymbals.(Don't forget to check out
Inomata's Sound of Sounds lp also recorded in 1970 which I posted
[9]here during the summer)
Respect to El Goog for introducing me to this great album.I finally
picked a copy up from Japan via ebay last month - not cheap but worth
every penny.
Very highly recomnmended.
[10]37 comments made-how about you? 20.12.09
[11]THE HERBIE HANCOCK TRIO
Herbie Hancock for Sony Japan from 1977.
Herbie Hancock-Piano;Ron Carter-Bass;Tony Williams-Drums
The big three keep it strictly acoustic for this Japanese only release
from CBS Sony. 4 originals from Herb plus a rapid romp through
"Milestones"...tough stuff.
The first V.S.O.P. tour triggered a flood of recording activity in July
1977, but only a fraction of it was released in the U.S. This session,
recorded in San Francisco just days before the Quintet concerts in
Berkeley and San Diego, finds Herbie Hancock, Ron Carter and Tony
Williams mixing it up sans the horns and the results are more
reflective and cerebral than the full Quintet concerts. Hancock is
thoroughly in control of the agenda while Williams throws in those
meter-fracturing flurries that keep everyone on their toes. There is a
startling re-interpretation of "Speak like a Child" which is
significantly tougher and busier than the wistful Blue Note version, as
well as challenging Hancock originals like "Watcha Waiting For" and
"Watch It." This is uncompromising acoustic jazz, commercial anathema
in the electronic '70s -and thus, only Japan got to hear it. Richard S.
Ginell.
[12]16 comments made-how about you? 13.12.09
[13]JAZZ HIP TRIO - PORTRAITS
Jazz Hip Trio for Riviera France from 1968.
Jean-Bernard Eisinger Piano ; Roger Luccioni Bass ;Daniel Humair Drums.
Piano trios are the theme for my the next few posts and what better way
to start than with some beautiful music from France on it's first time
out in blogland here at OIR.
10 original compositions which grow and grow on repeated listening -
get past the "Sidewinder" influenced dance floor intro tune "Bat Rock"
and you're in for a swinging set of subtle trio sounds.Of course it's
gotta be......
All Killer No Filler
[14]23 comments made-how about you? 6.12.09
[15]THE DIAMOND FIVE - BRILLIANT !
The Diamond Five for Fontana from 1964.
Personnel: Cees Slinger: piano; Harry Verbeke: tenor sax; Cees Smal:
trumpet, cornet and valve trombone; Jacques Schols: bass; Johnny
Engels: drums.
Please check the comments as Chazz has also ripped The Five
Diamonds-Finally After Forty Years cd reissue from Japan and will be
posting the link shortly.Over to you Chazz!
I don't post donations at OIR but just had to make an exception when
this was winged across the pond to me from Chazz Katz.It's a very rare
piece of hard bop from Holland which made a blink and miss it reissue
on cd some years ago in Japan (original vinyl goes for silly money
anywhere between $600-$1000) and has never appeared in blogland
before.Here's the notes and cheers to Chazz for his rip!
Nice work chap - All Killer No Filler!
The Diamond Five, a Dutch quintet led by pianist Cees Slinger, was
founded in 1959 and lasted until 1965. They were based at the
Sheherazade Club in Amsterdam and were quite popular, playing all over
Holland and accompanying expatriate American musicians on their visits
to Amsterdam. However, when the club closed its doors due to a shift in
popular interest from jazz to rock music, the quintet disbanded. This
1964 recording is their only session available on CD. The music is hard
bop on the surface, but is neither formulaic nor a copy of the genres
imported from the U.S.
The musicians are quite unique in their style. Slinger plays sparse
notes on his solos, utilizing well-placed pauses in the music to create
melodic hard bop with hints of more forward-looking styles. The other
outstanding soloist is tenor saxophonist Harry Verbeke, whose solos (in
contrast to that of the leader) are filled with a multitude of notes
played in the modal vein. The others are also quite stellar, the bass
and the drums providing a loose bluesy support and horn man Cees Smal
adding something unique with the sounds of his different horns,
switching between valve trombone, cornet and trumpet.
[16]26 comments made-how about you? 26.11.09
[17]BOBBY HUTCHERSON - CIRRUS
Bobby Hutcherson for Blue Note from 1974.
Hutch is playing four sets in London this weekend so Katonah from
Private Press and I will be propping up the bar for his late spot at
Scotts tomorrow night.
So here's a 3rd repost for his evergreen "Cirrus" ....All Killer No
Filler.
This was my very first Bobby Hutcherson post here at OIR back in may
2006.It was ripped from my vinyl copy @192 in those days-I've reupped
it @320 this time and taken it from the superb Mosaic Select box
set.Here's my original narrative:
Cirrus finds Bobby Hutcherson resuming his partnership with tenor
saxophonist Harold Land, and the results are marvellous. The pair work
with pianist Bill Henderson, trumpeter Woody Shaw, bassist Ray
Drummond, drummer Larry Hancock, saxophonist/flautist Emmanuel Boyd and
percussionist Kenneth Nash on this set of originals.The album starts
with a great version of Woody Shaw's "Rosewood" while the rest of the
set is written by Hutcherson and includes "Even Later".Highlight of the
lp for me is the atmospheric and brooding "Zuri Dance" - what a corker
!
[18]36 comments made-how about you? 13.11.09
[19]DAVE PIKE - LET THE MINSTRELS PLAY ON
Dave Pike for Muse from 1978.
Vibraphone - Dave Pike / Bass - Luther Hughes / Cello - Luther Hughes /
Drums - Ted Hawkes / Guitar - Ron Eschete / Keyboards , Sax - Tom
Ranier / Vocals - Carol Eschete.
KGML has just posted "Spirits Samba" so dug the lp out for those who
would like to hear more.
Picked this up in Tony Monson's Disc Empire in the early 80s after
hearing Chris Bangs spinning "Swan Lake" and found it had yet another
bona fide jazz dance classic to be featured in the shape of "Spirits
Samba".
Here's an apathetic review from amg:
Some Afro-Latin, some fusion and things in between from vibist Dave
Pike. Pike is a good player, but sometimes his arrangements bog down
between pop and jazz. His style is more remniscent of Red Norvo, with
its lighter, less aggressive and flowing lines.
[20]12 comments made-how about you? 12.11.09
[21]RANDY WESTON - BLUE MOSES
Randy Weston For CTI from 1972.
Arranged By - Don Sebesky;Bass - Bill Wood (2) (tracks: B1) , Ron
Carter ;Drums - Bill Cobham ;English Horn, Clarinet, Flute - George
Marge ;Flugelhorn - Alan Rubin , John Frosk , Marvin Stamm ;Flute -
Hubert Laws ;French Horn - Brooks Tillotson , James Buffington ;Oboe,
Clarinet, Flute - Romeo Penque ;Piano - Randy Weston
Saxophone [Tenor] - Grover Washington, Jr ;Synthesizer [Moog] - David
Horowitz
Trombone - Garnett Brown , Warren Covington , Wayne Andre ;Trombone -
Paul Faulise
Trumpet - Freddie Hubbard ;Vocals - Madasme Meddah
Super heavyweight banger from CTI - trust Randy Weston to dispense with
Creed Taylor's saccharine stylings.All Killer blah blah blah....
Another underwhelming review from Mr Yannow:
Randy Weston's most popular record, this Lp (which he had mixed
feelings about) features Weston not only on piano but electric
keyboards. Backed by Don Sebesky arrangements and assisted by trumpeter
Freddie Hubbard and tenor-saxophonist Grover Washington Jr., Weston
plays quite well on four of his compositions; best-known are "Ganawa
(Blue Moses)" and "Marrakesh Blues." The music retains the African feel
of most of Weston's latter-day playing but also has some commercial
touches that do not hurt the performances. This rewarding date has not
yet been reissued on CD. ~ Scott Yanow, All Music Guide
Fantastic cover art from Pete Turner - I highly recommend his book[22]
here.
[23]16 comments made-how about you? 7.11.09
[24]BLACKCLASSICAL - 1ST BIRTHDAY MEGAMIX
Blackclassical has taken off his flat cap ,put the racing pigeons away
and is celebrating his first year on t'interwebs with a mighty mp3 mash
up of spiritual jazz goodness[25] here.Proof indeed that it's not all
grim up north.
Happy Birthday you old bastard - now get the lagers in and make sure
they've got vodka tops you tightarse.
[26]3 comments made-how about you? 6.11.09
[27]TUBBT HAYES - TUBBS IN N.Y.
Tubby Hayes for Fontana from 1961.
Saxophone [Tenor] - Tubby Hayes; Bass - George Duvivier; Drums - Dave
Bailey ;Piano - Horace Parlan ;
Trumpet - Clark Terry;Vibraphone - Eddie Costa
Another first in blogland for this British vinyl rarity at OIR with
Tubbs keeping heavy company in NYC . Apparently there was legal
wrangling about who owns the masters so don't hold your breath waiting
for a cd issue.The last one got pulled pronto upon release in 1990.
The swaggering "A Pint Of Bitter" was my very first exposure to Hayes
back in the early 80s - I just love that tune - but the rest is just as
good with flat out romps through "Opus Ocean" and "Airegin" plus a
wonderfuly swinging "Soon" . Nice!
[28]26 comments made-how about you? 31.10.09
[29]TUBBY HAYES QUARTET - TUBBY'S GROOVE
Tubby Hayes for Tempo from 1960.
Tubby Hayes (ts), Terry Shannon (p), Phil Bates (b), Phil Seamen (d).
"Tin Tin Deo" killin' it every time for me on this rare piece of
British wax from 50 years ago.
Simon Spillet has written a fascinating piece on Tubby at[30]
Jazzscript and here's his take on this album:
I think it's one of Tubby's best ever studio recordings and catches him
very much in his prime. I suppose that the stand-out track for me has
to be Sunny Monday with its unaccompanied tenor choruses. The tone is
big, the rhythmic delivery is full of confidence and the sheer
enthusiasm shines through half a century on.
[31]23 comments made-how about you? 30.10.09
[32]STAFFAN ABELEEN QUINTET -PERSEPOLIS
Staffan Abeleen for Philips Sweden from 1964.
Staffan Abeleen-Piano ; Lasse Farnlof - Trumpet ; Bjorn Netz - Tenor ;
Bjorn Alke - Bass ; Bosse Skoglund - Drums
More top draw business from Sweden making a first appearance in
blogland.Modal to bossa to ballads this one's got the lot:
ALL KILLER NO FILLER
[33]15 comments made-how about you? 15.10.09
[34]BERNT ROSENGREN BIG BAND - FIRST MOVES
Bernt Rosengren for EMI Sweden from 1977.
Bassoon, Horn - Lars Bagge/Clarinet, Clarinet [Bass], Saxophone
[Soprano, Alto, Baritone] - Lennart Jansson /Congas - Johnny Martinez ,
René Martinez , Sabu Martinez
Cornet , Flugelhorn - Lars Färnlöf /Drums - Leif Wennerström/Flute,
Saxophone -Bernt Rosengren /Horn [English], Saxophone - Tommy Koverhult
/ Percussion - Okay Temiz / Piano - Claes-Göran Fagerstedt / Piano,
Piano [Electric] - Bobo Stenson / Saxophone [Baritone] - Gunnar
Bergsten / Saxophone [Tenor] - Anders Lindskog / Trombone - Jan Jansson
, Janus Miezek , Lars Olofsson , Lennart Löfgren / Trombone [Bass] -
Sven Larsson /Trumpet - Björn Borg /Trumpet , Flugelhorn - Bertil
Lövgren , Maffy Falay / Bass - Torbjörn Hultcrantz
Back over to Sweden for this killer big band session led by Bernt
Rosengren and featuring some big names such as a pre-ECM Bobo
Stenson,the wonderful Lars Farnlof and none other than the mighty Sabu
Martinez.
Check out the percussion destruction of "Felicidade" with Sabu plus
sons Johnny and Rene Martinez beating the crap out of the Jobim bossa
standard... Murdah!!!
[35]19 comments made-how about you? 1.10.09
[36]JAZZ QUINTET 60
Jazz Quintet 60 from 1962 for Metronome Denmark.
Allan Botschinsky (tp), Niels Husum (ts), Bent Axen (p), Niels-Henning
Orsted Pedersen (b), Bjarne Rostvold (ds).
Legendary Scandinavian rarity (Check the second mortgage prices on
[37]Popsike) from Denmark featuring a who's who of the Danish Jazz
scene from the past 50 years.
First time it's has been posted in public blogland so don't sleep on
this one :
ALL KILLER NO FILLER !
[38]27 comments made-how about you? 27.9.09
[39]STAFFAN ABELEEN QUINTET - DOWNSTREAM
Staffan Abeleen Quintet for Philips Sweden from 1966.
Staffan Abeleen - Piano ; Lasse Farnlof - Trumpet ; Bjorn Netz - Sax ;
Bosse Skugland - Drums ; Paul Danielsson - Bass.
All compositions by Lars Farnlof
Scandinavia is the destination for my next batch of posts and what
better way to start than with this superb album by The Staffen Abeleen
Quintet playing the compositions of the wonderful Lars Farnlof.
Another first appearance in blogland but let the music do the talking
...
ALL KILLER NO FILLER
[40]15 comments made-how about you? 19.9.09
[41]ARCHIE SHEPP & THE FAMILY OF PERCUSSION - HERE COMES THE FAMILY
I have had lots of requests for a repost of this bomb from Archie Shepp
and The Family of Percussion - so here it is.
First posted at OIR september 2006.
The Family of Percussion (Peter Giger,Trilok Gurtu,Doug Hammond and Tom
Nicholas)are joined by Archie Shepp on this hard to find 1980 release
from Nagara in Germany.
On "Here Comes the Family"the Family establish the basic form of the
piece with their rhythmic and vocal opening with Shepp's flute
fluttering above it all.Then he lets rip with what the liner notes call
'Poetic Recitation'but would probably be called rapping these days over
a funky percussive backdrop .This tune is why the lp remains in such
demand - a big play list favourite of djs world wide.
Next up is Shepp's "Street Song" the best cut on the lp for me,on which
he blows his tenor freely over the drums,congas,bells and gongs.The
piece ends in a crescendo of percussion culminating in a gong crash
which fades into silence."Euterpe's Favorit"has Shepp back on flute
with the family weaving a mystical feel behind him on
bells,whistles,water pipes,gongs,rattles and drums.
"Ardopetori"starts side 2 with a mid tempo infectious rhythm
established by shakers and log drum which builds slowly with Shepp
soloing freely again on tenor.
"For Ti Roro"wraps it up and begins with the gentle,caribean sounds of
steel drums until Shepp's soprano bursts in with a frenzy of
excitement.This is the most free track with all the musicians reacting
to each otherboth collectively and singularly until it finishes
fittingly with the sound of the congas.
This came out on lp and cd but quickly dissapeared without trace.if you
want a copy you gonna have to dig hard and have deep pockets!
[42]18 comments made-how about you?
[43]HIROSHI SUZUKI - CAT
Hiroshi Suzuki for Columbia Japan from 1975.
Hiroshi Suzuki-Trombone ; Hiromasa Suzuki-Keyboards ; Akira
Ishikawa-Drums ; Takeru Muraoka-Sax ; Kunimitsu Inaba-Bass
More super rare J Jazz making a first appearance in blogland and this
is an absolute beauty made up of 5 long cuts that hit the perfect
balance between jazz and fusion.Acoustic bass meshed with subtle funky
drums topped with lashings of Rhodes,trombone and sax deliver a really
stretched out understated rolling groove.
The album just grows and grows with repeated listening and it's a big
favourite over here at Bacoso's Big Top - no surprise that it's
ALL KILLER NO FILLER !
[44]34 comments made-how about you? 7.9.09
[45]T. INOMATA & SOUND L.T.D. - SOUNDS OF SOUND L.T.D.
Takeshi Inomata for Columbia Japan from 1970.
Takeshi Inomata (Drums & Percussion) Jun Suzuki (Electric Bass)
Shigetok Kamiya (Electric Guitar) Ryo Kawasaki (Electric Guitar)
Sho Imai (Trombone & Bass Trombone) Shigemichi Dohmoto (Trombone & Bass
Trombone)
Takao Uematsu (Tenor Sax & Soprano Sax)
Fantastic lp of funky jazz from the Columbia issued Groovy Sound
Series.
No idea who plays on it as the credits are all in Japanese but it's a
monster session.
Check out "Mustache" and "Tak's Tune" for some severe beats from
drummer/leader Takeshi Inomata.
All Killer No Filler - Highly Recommended!
[46]22 comments made-how about you? 29.8.09
[47]HIDEO SHIRAKI - IN FIESTA
Hideo Shiraki for Teichiku Japan from 1961.
Rare super tough hard bop session from Japan featuring the killer koto
led and drum driven bomb "In Fiesta".
Reissued in Japan by Kyoto Jazz Massive for Think in a blink and miss
it moment back in 2005 but now out of print.
The old Dusty Groove blurb:
A brilliant early album from Japanese drummer Hideo Shiraki a jazz
session that bristles with the same intensity as key late 50s work by
Benny Golson or Gigi Gryce! Although Hideo's leading the group on
drums, his work on the kit is remarkably subtle done with the
snappingly rhythmic style that marked some of Golson's best modern
experiments of a few years before not nearly as bombastic as his stint
with Art Blakey, and more in the rhythmically stepping quality of his
work with Art Farmer in the Jazztet. Key players on the session include
Hidehiko Matsumoto on tenor and flute and Yuzuru Sera on piano both of
whom give the album a fluid grace that's really beautiful soulful edges
that allow the record to stand equally next to anything coming out of
the US at the time. One track features a bit of koto at the start --
echoing Shiraki's later world jazz experiments but most of the set is
straight modern hardbop, with tracks that include "Blue Romeo", "Etude
No 1", "Just One Or Eight", "You Don't Know What Love Is", and Benny
Golson's "Five Spot After Dark".
[48]14 comments made-how about you? 18.8.09
[49]LLOYD MCNEILL - TREASURES
Lloyd McNeill for Baobab from 1976.
Lloyd McNeill-Flute ; Dom Salvador-Piano ; Cecil McBee-Bass ; Portinho
, Brian Brake-Drums ; Ray Armando-Percussion.
One for the flute freaks on a private press out of NYC.
Heavy Brazilian infuences at work on this wonderful spiritual jazz
session from the great Lloyd McNeill.Two originals,one standard and a
cracking version of Salvador's "Salvation Army" which featured on Dom's
'76 Muse debut "Minha Familia"(Available at [50]Ile Oxumare).
Here's some info on Lloyd McNeill from the excellent [51]Hipwax:
The first thing to know about Lloyd McNeill is that his are the very
best soul-jazz flute LPs, and each is first-rate, a masterpiece of
self-direction. The second thing to know is there is much more to him
than his recorded legacy. He is one of those incredible,
super-sensitive people who excels at every artistic idiom and endeavor;
making wonderful music is just part of his flowing creativity. A
professor (at Rutgers University, earlier Dartmouth), he has much to
say about music and creativity as well as an impeccable gift for saying
it...sensibly. McNeill's writings on his musical experiences provide
invaluable documents of "the period" (late 1960s-1970s) as well as a
rare glimpse at the joy of a relatively unsung master.
McNeill has played with jazz legends --Andrew White (his longtime
collaborator/producer), Eric Dolphy, Sabu Martinez, Mulatu Astatke,
among many others-- and he has had a significant hand in the arts scene
of Washington, D.C. The major galleries of art, including those of the
Smithsonian, sponsored multi-media "happenings" that soared far above
the hippie caricature of acid rock with light show. During the first
flowering of post-Civil Rights, African-American culture, the Lloyd
McNeill Quartet's improvisitory, simultaneuous jazz and large-scale
painting "happened" while a lucky, perhaps unsuspecting public drank it
in.
McNeill believes his influences and their results in his art, music,
and poetry are inseparable and mutually reinforcing. Time spent with
Picasso in Cannes, 1965 led to new expressions in all three, for
instance. And when one brushes against a force such as Picasso, just
the idea of "meeting Picasso" has a certain momentum, never mind the
inevitable casting of rays of a different kind of light. Canvas, vinyl,
the stage, paper, and books of poetry offer a few key imprints of
McNeill, and McNeill consistently pays tribute to many illustrious
peers.
There are six albums, all produced and entirely under the artist's
control. Each title surpasses anything comparable on the major labels,
even Blue Note. The Black Jazz label may be roughly similar in style,
but Asha and Baobab are wholly Lloyd McNeill. The records reflect none
of the usual external trends from the decade in which they were
recorded; all sound like 1971 rather than 1979. The final record even
reprises the first (the exotic, broodingly moody "Asha"), and the sound
throughout remains somewhat interchangeable and timeless. But each
record has its own themes and currents, and even improvisation has its
signatures and fingerprints.
Buying: Long out of print, collectors items, Lloyd McNeill records
should be snapped up on sight. Hip Wax is pleased to offer two titles
for which limited stock remains [52]here.
Warning - McNeill lps can be damaging to the [53]wallet.
[54]29 comments made-how about you? 14.8.09
[55]If Spike Lee Did Movies In Audio...
Greg's back on the mix with his old mucker Monohub - another mashed up
bomb in memory of Coltrane and the late,great George Russell.Grab it
[56]HERE.
Here's the blurb from big daddy himself:
I did a version of this a while back and was planning to publish on
July 17th as a memorial to the day that John Coltrane died, but, a
combination of lack of time, work commitments and other things got in
the way...
Anyway I redid it and am glad that i did as it's much better than the
original. This one strictly for the heads... and defo not for the feint
hearted. If you liked the Black State of Vietnam mix then this is for
you...
So as i said; In respect of John Coltrane and George Russell. Much
thanks to Monohub too although he plays down his part in this, his
genius did have a lot to do with it...
[57]1 comments made-how about you? 3.8.09
[58]SADAO WATANABE AND CHARLIE MARIANO - IBERIAN WALTZ
Sadao and Charlie for Tact Japan from 1967.
Sadao Watanabe (as) , Charlie Mariano (as) , Masabumi Kikuchi (p) ,
Masanaga Harada (b) , Masahiko Togashi (ds) , Fumio Watanabe (ds)
This received a "Japan Jazz Award" on release.
Some severe blowing on this double alto led sextet featuring a young
band of soon to be Japanese jazz luminaries.
The fast and furious "Palisades" was comped on the Sleepwalker Shibuya
Jazz Classics.However the 16 minute title cut is the stand out tune an
intense modal waltz with a Spanish tinge featuring coruscating solos
from Mariano and Watanabe - hard core stuff.
Recommended.
[59]16 comments made-how about you? 28.7.09
[60]JAMES MARENTIC SEXTET - NIMBUS
James Marentic for Discovery from 1982.
James Marentic-Sax/Flute; Tom Harrell -Trumpet/Flugelhorn; Slide
Hampton-Trombone; Larry Willis-Piano; Anthony Cox-Bass; Victor
Lewis-Drums.
Storming post hard bop outing for Mr Marentic and his all star band.
Check out the banging latin romp "Baile de las Cucharachas " which
kicks off the lp in fine style and the Coltrane inspired "Nimbus".
"Aphrodesia" has the inspiration of Kenny Dorham stamped all over it
and no prizes for guessing who "Mr Silver I Presume" is aimed at
If you enjoyed Tom Harrell's "Aurora" post then this should be right up
your street,round your corner and down your block!
[61]8 comments made-how about you? 23.7.09
[62]CARTER JEFFERSON - THE RISE OF ATLANTIS
Carter Jefferson for Timeless from 1978.
Terrific post bop album with latin influences -All Killer No Filler!
John Hicks (Piano), Terumasa Hino (Trumpet), Woody Shaw (Producer),
Clint Houston (Bass), Victor Lewis (Drums),Carter Jefferson (Sax ),
Lani Groves (Vocals), Shunzo Ohno (Trumpet), Steve Thornton
(Percussion), Harry Whitaker (Piano)
Here's the customary underwhelming AMG review :
Tenor saxophonist Carter Jefferson made somewhat of a name for himself
when trumpeter Woody Shaw chose him as a member of his first working
quintet. Shaw is the producer of this album, Jefferson's fine debut
(and evidently only) recording as a leader. Taking a cue from Shaw, the
saxophonist sticks essentially to a quintet of trumpet and sax backed
by all-star rhythm sections. Three of the tracks include hard bop
trumpeter Terumasa Hino while the other three feature little-known
Japanese trumpeter Shunzo Ono. Most of the tunes are firmly in the
school of hard bop, the sort of music that Woody Shaw played so well.
While there is not any new ground broken, it is all performed
competently enough. While not as emotionally charged as his work with
Shaw, Jefferson impresses with a fluid, mobile attack that shows a
solid grasp of his material. If the groups seem to be sometimes merely
going through the motions, there are nonetheless enough fine moments to
make this a worthwhile purchase.AMG.
A reliable and advanced soloist who spent most of his career as a
sideman, Carter Jefferson is best-remembered for his association with
Woody Shaw during 1977-1980. Jefferson started on clarinet and played
alto before settling on tenor, going on tour early in the backup bands
of the Temptations, the Supremes, and Little Richard. In 1971, he moved
to New York to attend New York University and soon spent two years with
Mongo Santamaria and a period in 1973 as a member of Art Blakey's Jazz
Messengers. After his important stint with Woody Shaw (with whom he
recorded several times), Jefferson worked with many top players,
including Elvin Jones, Roy Haynes, Cedar Walton, Jerry Gonzalez & the
Fort Apache Band, Malachi Thompson, and Jack Walrath's Masters of
Suspense. His premature death in Poland after emergency surgery was a
major loss. Carter Jefferson only led one record, The Rise of Atlantis,
on the Timeless label in 1978. AMG.
[63]33 comments made-how about you? 10.7.09
[64]JULIO GUTIERREZ - PROGRESSIVE LATIN
Julio Gutierrez for Gema from 1960.
The title says it all for this groundbreaking heavyweight descarga
session...Highly recommended.
Has anyone out there got a copy of Gutierrez's "Havana BC" they want to
sell me?If so leave me a message in the comments.
Progressive Latin should be considered a classic of Latin jazz if it
isn't already. "Cosa Buena" cooks, and "Closing Time" is a slower bossa
nova with flute and horns that captures the mood of a good night out at
its end. "Yambambe," an Afro rhythm behind mostly piano, sounds more
sophisticated than its simple construction. "El Altiplano" is supposed
to be an Incan melody with Afro elements. In any case, vocal
interjections pave the way for a longer descarga where a variety of
intriguing elements (horns, flute piano, even organ) work together in
their own weird ways and combinations. The "Route 66" theme arrangement
is a coup; the sax and flute are recorded gorgeously, and the piano and
conga pace it ideally, with brief drum solo breaks. "Sad City" is a
haunting flute piece, while "Guantanamera" has an interesting change
but there is only so much one can expect from this tune. "Malaguena" is
another long descarga that gets a little wild. Progressive Latin is
something of a masterpiece from the great arranger Julio Gutierrez.
Tony Wilds
What impressed me most about this album is Julio's use of space and the
length of the tunes, considering that in the era when it was recorded,
2 1/2 minute tunes were standard. Great musicians like El Negro Vivar
(trumpet) and Chombo Silva (sax) were able to beautifully stretch out
over an almost post-bop/Afro-Cuban jazz setting. There is some serious
blowing on this disc. This is another essential Latin jazz gem from the
late 50s/early 60s.
Jose Rizo
[65]22 comments made-how about you? 4.7.09
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With
Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from
Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications.
Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature
This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no
one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of
it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may
relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he
requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and
anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the
same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the
same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual
training, recitation, gymnastics, and play.
Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized
with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle
which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of
every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in
the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of
work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there
is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their
appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less
of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to
anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else
it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from
which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle
with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of
salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting
from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human
[40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important
changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality.
The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief
from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this
tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary
conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified
by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries. . . .
When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in
recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious
rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and
the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and
more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak.
Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with
instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is
laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of
activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to
elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to
primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which
threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving
mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. -
Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20.
. . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area
of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a
ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight
years in [42]duration are superposed.
. . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of
buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the
rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the
production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing
weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of
rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135.
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[53]heredity, [54]human nature, [55]institutions, [56]location,
[57]natural selection, [58]organizations, [59]population, [60]primary
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Cultural
Towards Lefebvrian Socio-Nature? A Film about Rhythm, Nature and Science
By [17]James Evans and [18]Phil Jones, School of Environment and
Development, University of Manchester School of Geography, Earth and
Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham (April 2008)
__________________________________________________________________
Section: [19]Cultural
Subjects: [20]Environment And Society, [21]Geography, [22]Urban
Geography, [23]Cultural Geography.
Key Topics: [24]nature , [25]representation.
Abstract
The first thing you will notice about this article is that it is
actually a film. We did not set out to make a film, it just ended up
that way. We started out making music out of environmental data,
wondering why we only ever look at scientific data, why we do not
listen to it. Wandering around the city passing through the transformed
landscapes of channelised rivers and broken industrial spaces, we
wanted to reveal the socio-natural rhythms of this hybrid city. The
text you see below represents the shooting script for a film that
explores Lefebvre's notion of rhythmanalysis in the context of
socio-natural rhythms. The video accompanying it is far more
interesting, including the environmental music that we produced by
feeding scientific data through samplers and drum machines. The video
questions the nature of scientific representation and whether the
notion of rhythmanalysis can be stretched to explore rhythms beyond the
human. Furthermore, the process of actually making the video,
submitting it to this journal, and responding to the referees' comments
made us question the very nature of what constitutes an academic paper
in the twenty-first century. The accompanying commentary is our attempt
to deal with these issues.
To link to the film please go to
DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00107.x
This article abstract has been viewed 5348 times.
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* [42]The Environment of the City ... or the Urbanization of Nature
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anguished: outside Penthesilea does an outside ...
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Technologies
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a certain type of dandy in the latter ...
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J Public Health Policy. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2008 July
24.
Published in final edited form as:
[7]J Public Health Policy. 2006; 27(1): 2-12.
doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200061.
PMCID: PMC2483431
NIHMSID: NIHMS58476
[8]Copyright notice and [9]Disclaimer
Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature
Elena N. Naumova^*
^*Address for Correspondence: Department of Public Health and Family
Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Avenue,
Boston, MA 02111, USA. E-mail: elena.naumova/at/tufts.edu
Small right arrow pointing to: The publisher's final edited version of
this article is available at [10]J Public Health Policy.
Small right arrow pointing to: See other articles in PMC that [11]cite
the published article.
Abstract
Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course
of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences.
Understanding seasonal fluctuations in diseases patterns presents us
with a major challenge. To develop efficient strategies for disease
prevention and control, we need to grasp the main determinants of
temporal variations and their interactions. This paper will introduce
the notion of seasonality by outlining several of its factors, using as
illustrations respiratory and enteric water- or food-borne infections.
Keywords: seasonality, water-borne infection, food-borne infection,
respiratory infection
* [12] Other Sectionsv
+ [13]Abstract
+ [14]Introduction
+ [15]Notion of Seasonality
+ [16]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [17]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [18]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [19]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [20]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [21]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [22]References
Introduction
Now let us consider the seasons and the way we can predict whether it
is going to be a healthy or an unhealthy year.
(Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 10)^[23]1
Seasonal fluctuations in birth and death, in sickness and health, are
the haunting mysteries of mankind. People have made predictions from
winds, tides, birds' migrations, spring blooms, sunsets, and
constellations in hope of grasping the future. The complexity and
uncertainty of ancient and modern means of prediction make us wonder to
what extent we are able to understand the rhythm of nature. One might
argue the future cannot be known, but from a practical point of view, a
better understanding of changes in disease occurrences is essential for
building efficient strategies for disease prevention and control.
Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course
of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences.
Since Hippocrates, observers worldwide have noted and documented marked
fluctuations in the incidence of many diseases. In the modern view, the
main determinants of temporal variations in disease manifestation are
evolving host susceptibility, periodicity in pathogen abundance and
transmissibility, and the ever-changing environment that can support or
repress a host or pathogen. Interactions among these factors
responsible for seasonal variation are interwoven into the intricate
fabric of life.
For many diseases, explanations for self-sustained oscillations still
remain elusive. We lack adequate methods and sufficient analytical
tools for comprehensive examination of seasonality in public health
field studies. A dearth of observations, recorded over long periods at
fine resolution, compounded by an enormous number of factors associated
with periodic changes, obscure our ability to understand disease
variation. Urgent need for effective strategies to prevent and control
a spread of emerging infections in the rapidly changing world, however,
demands a deeper insight into the cyclic nature of diseases.
This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality and outline several
factors associated with seasonality using as illustrations enteric
water- or food-borne infections and respiratory infections. Then I
propose a framework for systematic evaluation of seasonal oscillations.
In every part of this presentation, and most importantly, I wish to
stimulate discussion on this challenging topic.
* [24] Other Sectionsv
+ [25]Abstract
+ [26]Introduction
+ [27]Notion of Seasonality
+ [28]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [29]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [30]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [31]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [32]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [33]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [34]References
Notion of Seasonality
Every disease occurs at any season of the year but some of them more
frequently occur and are of greater severity at certain times.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 19)
Seasonality, as noted above, refers to the cyclic appearance of events
over a period of time. A seasonal pattern may appear as a tight cluster
of isolated outbreaks that occurred during a relatively short time
period, then spreading over a wide geographic area.
For example, in a temporal curve of enteric infection cases (i.e.
giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, or rotavirus infections), a compact
cluster of outbreaks is followed by a long interval of low incidence.
Systematic recurrence of such sequences forms a seasonal pattern
typical of a specific pathogen in a given population and in a given
locality. A seasonal increase in enteric or respiratory infection often
produces a well-defined oscillating curve that starts to rise in one
season and declines over the next one.
The three main features characterize seasonality:
* a point in time when a seasonal curve reaches its maximum,
* an amplitude from peak to nadir, and
* a duration of a seasonal increase defined by a shape of a curve.
(The shape of a seasonal pattern reflects how fast a temporal curve
reaches its peak and declines to nadir over a course of a full
cycle. Depending on the length of a cycle whether it is one year or
a half of a year, a seasonal curve would have one or two peaks.)
Seasonal patterns, described by these three characteristics, may vary
for different diseases, different locations, or different
subpopulations. Many viral and bacterial infections in humans show
marked seasonal changes. In some diseases, like salmonellosis and
influenza, annual oscillations explain up to 60% of variability. Such
impact should not be ignored and deserves a proper examination.
* [35] Other Sectionsv
+ [36]Abstract
+ [37]Introduction
+ [38]Notion of Seasonality
+ [39]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [40]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [41]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [42]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [43]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [44]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [45]References
Diseases Seasonal Patterns
Diseases vary in their relationships one with another; some are
opposed, some are mutually agreeable.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 3)
Differences in diseases peaks reflect different etiology, heterogeneity
in host susceptibility, or route of transmission. In temperate
climates, Campylobacter and Salmonella infections are known to rise in
summer, giardiasis in early fall, and rotavirus infection in
mid-winter, etc. Interestingly, for the same infectious agent,
infections recorded in two different locations may present a different
pattern of incidence. A seasonal pattern for cryptosporidiosis in the
United States exhibits one late summer peak ([46]1); in contrast, in
the United Kingdom, two seasonal peaks are seen ([47]2). The UK picture
reflects two dominant sources of exposure: one from animals in the late
spring, and another from humans in the fall ([48]3).
Close temporal clustering of seasonal peaks in diseases that share
similar sources of exposure suggests dominant routes of transmissions.
Peaks in water-borne cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis often cluster
after a summer peak in ambient temperature. Such synchronization in
disease manifestation can be governed by environmental and social
factors. In some instances, periodicity of a given infection observed
in a particular population may be not present in another. A seasonal
peak in cryptosporidiosis cases observed in the general population is
not apparent in the immunocompromized HIV-positive gay men, even though
the incidence of cryptosporidiosis in HIV-positive population is very
high. This suggests differences in dominant routes of transmission.
Seasonal patterns can change over time. After intense vaccination
campaigns in the 1950s and 1970s in the United Kingdom, the patterns of
measles and pertussis changed, with the high rates of disease usually
seen when children were attending school diminishing for measles and
practically disappearing for pertusis ([49]4). Explanations for these
phenomena remain elusive. A departure from a systematically observed
pattern could reflect the evolution of a pathogen or a change in herd
immunity. A simple rule to remember is that a discovery hides in
outliers.
Faced with an abundance of causal agents, a bare observation of a rise
in the incidence of non-specific enteritis should be interpreted with
caution. A seasonal pattern can represent a mix of temporal curves.
Imagine two periodic curves of similar intensity, but one peaks in a
spring and another in a fall; the sum of these two curves might lose
the appearance of seasonality, covering two distinctly seasonal
phenomena.
Some infections are very rare. Their seasonal patterns are difficult to
examine because the relevant data must be collected over a very long
time and/or aggregated over large spatial units. Precision in
evaluating seasonality can thus be jeopardized by time-dependent and/or
space-dependent confounders.
Seasonal fluctuations can be found beyond infectious diseases; chronic
somatic diseases also exhibit substantial temporal variations.
Plausibly, exacerbations in chronic conditions are driven by infectious
agents or environmental changes. Understanding the interplay of an
infection and a chronic disease may lead to better control for both.
* [50] Other Sectionsv
+ [51]Abstract
+ [52]Introduction
+ [53]Notion of Seasonality
+ [54]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [55]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [56]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [57]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [58]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [59]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [60]References
Seasonal Host Susceptibility
When the weather is seasonable and the crops ripen at the regular
times, diseases are regular in their appearance...
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 8)
Poor nutrition directly affects host susceptibility. In places of food
scarcity, researchers suspect that temporal patterns in birth weight
and preterm delivery result from seasonal variations in food
availability ([61]5). In general, due to a less developed immune
system, young children are susceptible to infection; their immune
response may be further weakened by seasonal cutbacks in essential
micronutrients and vitamins.
Anemnestic responses to an antigen determine whether an infection
recurs. Short-lived immune memory together with seasonal changes in
pathogen transmissibility contribute further to the complexity of
seasonal patterns. Even a perfectly healthy person can experience a
change in susceptibility to infection due to stress, injuries, or
trauma. The probability of a marked impact of such factors on disease
seasonality is virtually unknown.
* [62] Other Sectionsv
+ [63]Abstract
+ [64]Introduction
+ [65]Notion of Seasonality
+ [66]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [67]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [68]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [69]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [70]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [71]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [72]References
Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
Some diseases are produced by the manner of life that is followed;
others by the life-giving air we breathe.
(Hippocrates. The Nature of Man, 9)
Temperature, humidity, and precipitation -- the defining factors of
seasons -- are important determinants of pathogens' survival. Changes
influence pathogens' potency and life expectancy, resulting in temporal
fluctuations in pathogens' abundance. In many instances, seasonal
changes in pathogen survival and transmission are inseparably related
to both biological and social aspects of our lives. They are
synchronized by weather. High ambient temperature, for example,
provides a supportive environment for food-borne pathogens, favoring
their multiplication in food and on food preparation surfaces ([73]6).
Food contamination is believed to be a significant mode of transmission
for infections caused by Salmonella and Campylobacter ([74]7);
therefore, during warm weather, the risk for food-borne diseases
increases ([75]8).
Seasonal changes in level of contamination, availability of potable
water, sanitation and hygiene practices, as well as crowding and
person-to-person contacts, affect pathogens' transmissibility.
Worldwide, water use differs from season to season ([76]9). In
temperate climates, warm weather leads to higher water consumption and
encourages outdoor activities -- swimming, camping, and recreational
water use. In tropical regions, contamination of surface water
increases during wet seasons. Although spread of pathogens via food is
certainly possible, contaminated water is the dominant source of
exposure for enteric infections caused by protozoa Cryptosporidium and
Giardia ([77]10 --[78]12). Depending on locality, outbreaks of
cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis associated with drinking or
recreational water frequently occur during warm or wet seasons
([79]13,[80]14).
With the onset of cooler weather, the "heating season" marks a change
in indoor air quality. Inadequate and poorly designed ventilation in
crowded public places and urban transit systems may boost exposure to
air-borne pathogens by increasing their concentration in stagnant air
and by re-circulating contaminated air. Higher relative humidity may
also affect the stability of air-borne droplets in which viruses travel
from person to person.
* [81] Other Sectionsv
+ [82]Abstract
+ [83]Introduction
+ [84]Notion of Seasonality
+ [85]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [86]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [87]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [88]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [89]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [90]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [91]References
Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
You will find, as a general rule, that the constitutions and the habits
of a people follow the nature of the land where they live.
(Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 24)
Diseases do not watch calendars. Their incidence rises and falls
because of changes in factors associated with the diseases. However, in
every culture all social events are synchronized by calendars; and
every calendar reflects the cyclic rhythm of nature.
Traditional celebrations and gatherings observed by communities
according to calendars affect pathogen transmission. Holidays, social
activities, and seasonal travel are often associated with changes in
food consumption and preparation, and are therefore associated with
changes in disease incidence. Preparing meat on a barbecue increases
the risk of Campylobacter infection ([92]15,[93]16) and foreign travel
increases the risk for enteric infections. Aggregation of children in
schools, daycare centers, and summer camps, reflecting school
calendars, facilitates rapid exchange of pathogens. There are marked
seasonal variations in transmission, and thus the incidence of enteric
and respiratory infections.
* [94] Other Sectionsv
+ [95]Abstract
+ [96]Introduction
+ [97]Notion of Seasonality
+ [98]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [99]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [100]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [101]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [102]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [103]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [104]References
Climate Change, Extreme Weather Events, and Disease Seasonality
The changes of the seasons are especially liable to beget diseases, as
are great changes from heat to cold, or cold to heat in any season.
Other changes in the weather have similarly severe effects.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 1)
As weather affects human health by creating favorable conditions for
pathogen proliferation and transmission, severe weather can affect the
timing and intensity of infectious outbreaks, and natural disasters
lead to drastic changes in population structure and pathogen ecology.
Catastrophic events like tsunamis, hurricanes, devastating floods, and
heat waves that cause deaths, population displacement, and
infrastructural damage may have dramatic effects on the incidence of
infections and their seasonal patterns.
Recent work has shown highly significant associations between extreme
precipitation and water-borne disease outbreaks ([105]17). Heavy
precipitation, rapid snowmelt, and floods flush animal wastes from the
land into surface waters and may overwhelm drinking and wastewater
treatment systems. The latter leads to discharges in watersheds of
untreated human wastes. As a result, pathogens can appear in drinking
and recreational water in very high concentrations ([106]18,[107]19). A
rapid snowmelt, resultant runoff, and filtration system failure at the
overloaded local drinking water treatment plant were implicated in the
largest known water-borne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis, which occurred
in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1993 ([108]20). This outbreak happened in
April, not within the usual seasonal peak for cryptosporidiosis cases.
A flood, which also resulted from a rapid snowmelt, has been linked
with a similar increased incidence of diarrhea ([109]21).
Experts expect that global climate change will increase climate
variability and the frequency of extreme precipitation events in
temperate regions ([110]22,[111]23). "Global warming" may also increase
the frequency and magnitude of other extreme weather events, such as
heat waves and droughts, and thereby have profound effects on public
health ([112]24,[113]25). In a comprehensive study conducted in the
United Kingdom that described a short-term link between temperature and
food poisoning, the authors also hypothesized that climate change could
lead to changes in rates of food poisoning ([114]26).
Integration of environmental parameters into disease forecasting and
warning systems could allow public health officials to alert the
populace when specific meteorological conditions pose predictable risks
to health ([115]27). Simple messages about proper food preparation and
refrigeration and the risks of using contaminated recreational waters
could, for example, be provided before, during, and after extreme
events. Better understanding of disease seasonality would also help to
predict outbreaks of infections triggered by climate variability.
* [116] Other Sectionsv
+ [117]Abstract
+ [118]Introduction
+ [119]Notion of Seasonality
+ [120]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [121]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [122]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [123]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [124]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [125]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [126]References
Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy
to Public Health Thinking
Desperate cases need the most desperate remedies.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, I, 6)
At first, seasonal fluctuations should be systematically described.
This requires a framework with sound definitions and analytic tools
suitable for routine use by public health professionals. In public
health sciences, the existing methodology currently lacks methods and
tests for assessing complex interactions in the time-dependent factors
responsible for disease seasonality.
Next, reliable data with fine temporal resolution are a must. The vast
majority of epidemiological studies have examined seasonal patterns of
infections using quarterly or monthly data. This coarse temporal
aggregation can thwart an otherwise detailed, accurate, and
comprehensive analysis of seasonal patterns and may even be misleading
([127]28). Examination of daily or weekly rates can substantially
improve evaluation of seasonal curves, but a systematic approach for
using at least weekly aggregates is needed.
Finally, reluctance to apply sophisticated mathematical models in
public health studies must be overcome. Underlying processes in disease
manifestation and spread are complex and multifaceted. Causal pathways
are often obscured. To disentangle causal effects of many factors
within the circular processes of self-sustaining oscillations demands
the careful building of sound conceptual models of seasonality; models
that can be tested. The emerging fields of computational epidemiology
and intelligent data mining will complement established work in
philosophy of science and mathematical biology to become an essential
part of thinking in public health and policy.
Acknowledgments
I thank Drs Eileen O'Neil and Beth Rosenberg for their thoughtful
suggestions, and the support of funding agencies: the National
Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (U19AI062627), and the
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R01ES013171).
Footnotes
^1Hippocrates' citations are taken from: Lloyd, GER, editor.
Hippocratic Writings. Trans. Chadwick J and Mann WN. London: Penguin;
1978.
* [128] Other Sectionsv
+ [129]Abstract
+ [130]Introduction
+ [131]Notion of Seasonality
+ [132]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [133]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [134]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [135]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [136]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [137]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [138]References
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__________________________________________________________________
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* [178]Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial
variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis.
Public Health Rep. 2000 Sep-Oct; 115(5):436-47.
[Public Health Rep. 2000]
* [179]Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in
cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance
system in 1990-1999.
J Water Health. 2005 Jun; 3(2):185-96.
[J Water Health. 2005]
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the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in
1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from
livestock animals.
J Clin Microbiol. 2000 Nov; 38(11):3984-90.
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Can J Public Health. 1989 May-Jun; 80(3):205-8.
[Can J Public Health. 1989]
[183]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [184]Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces
and cross-contamination to foods.
Int J Food Microbiol. 2003 Aug 25; 85(3):227-36.
[Int J Food Microbiol. 2003]
* [185]ReviewFood-related illness and death in the United States.
Emerg Infect Dis. 1999 Sep-Oct; 5(5):607-25.
[Emerg Infect Dis. 1999]
* [186]The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series
analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries.
Epidemiol Infect. 2004 Jun; 132(3):443-53.
[Epidemiol Infect. 2004]
[187]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [188]A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with
the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study).
Water Sci Technol. 2001; 43(12):39-48.
[Water Sci Technol. 2001]
* [189]ReviewReview of epidemiological studies on health effects from
exposure to recreational water.
Int J Epidemiol. 1998 Feb; 27(1):1-9.
[Int J Epidemiol. 1998]
* [190]ReviewGiardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their
impact on foods: a review.
J Food Prot. 1999 Sep; 62(9):1059-70.
[J Food Prot. 1999]
* [191]Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks--United States,
1997-1998.
MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000 May 26; 49(4):1-21.
[MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000]
[192]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [193]Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of
a case-control study in southeastern Norway.
J Clin Microbiol. 1992 Dec; 30(12):3117-21.
[J Clin Microbiol. 1992]
* [194]A case-control study of risk factors for sporadic
campylobacter infections in Denmark.
Epidemiol Infect. 2003 Jun; 130(3):353-66.
[Epidemiol Infect. 2003]
[195]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [196]The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne
disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948-1994.
Am J Public Health. 2001 Aug; 91(8):1194-9.
[Am J Public Health. 2001]
* [197]Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay.
Parasitol Res. 2002 Nov; 88(11):998-1003.
[Parasitol Res. 2002]
* [198]Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during
extreme rainfall and runoff.
Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002 May; 68(5):2188-97.
[Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002]
* [199]A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of cryptosporidium infection
transmitted through the public water supply.
N Engl J Med. 1994 Jul 21; 331(3):161-7.
[N Engl J Med. 1994]
* [200]Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the
incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms?
Am J Epidemiol. 2004 Feb 15; 159(4):398-405.
[Am J Epidemiol. 2004]
[201]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [202]ReviewVulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change
in Canada: a review.
J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004 Oct 22-Nov 26; 67(20-22):1667-77.
[J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004]
* [203]Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases.
JAMA. 1996 Jan 17; 275(3):217-23.
[JAMA. 1996]
* [204]Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England
and Wales.
Int J Biometeorol. 1995 Nov; 39(2):81-6.
[Int J Biometeorol. 1995]
[205]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [206]ReviewA stitch in time: improving public health early warning
systems for extreme weather events.
Epidemiol Rev. 2005; 27():115-21.
[Epidemiol Rev. 2005]
[207]See more articles cited in this paragraph
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Circadian rhythm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search
"Human clock" redirects here. For the online clock, see [8]Humanclock.
Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological
parameters.
A circadian rhythm is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical,
physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including
[9]plants, [10]animals, [11]fungi and [12]cyanobacteria (see
[13]bacterial circadian rhythms). The term "circadian", coined by
[14]Franz Halberg,^[15][1] comes from the [16]Latin [17]circa,
"around", and diem or dies, "day", meaning literally "approximately one
day". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily,
[18]tidal, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called
[19]chronobiology.
Circadian rhythms are [20]endogenously generated, and can be entrained
by external cues, called [21]zeitgebers, the primary one of which is
[22]daylight.
Contents
* [23]1 History
* [24]2 Criteria
* [25]3 Origin
* [26]4 Importance in animals
+ [27]4.1 Impact of light-dark cycle
+ [28]4.2 Arctic animals
+ [29]4.3 Butterfly migration
* [30]5 Biological clock in mammals
+ [31]5.1 Determining the human circadian rhythm
+ [32]5.2 Outside the "master clock"
* [33]6 Light and the biological clock
* [34]7 Enforced longer cycles
* [35]8 Human health
+ [36]8.1 Disruption
+ [37]8.2 Effect of drugs
* [38]9 See also
* [39]10 References
+ [40]10.1 Bibliography
+ [41]10.2 Notes
* [42]11 External links
[[43]edit] History
The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th
century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under
[44]Alexander the Great, described [45]diurnal leaf movements of the
[46]tamarind tree.^[47][2] The first modern observation of endogenous
circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [48]Jean-Jacques
d'Ortous de Mairan in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the
movement of the leaves of the plant [49]Mimosa pudica continued even
when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
In 1918, J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining
24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light
and changes in temperature.^[50][3] [51]Joseph Takahashi discovered the
genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.^[52][4]^[53][5]
[[54]edit] Criteria
To differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from
coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met: 1)
the rhythms persist in the absence of cues, 2) they persist equally
precisely over a range of temperatures, and 3) the rhythms can be
adjusted to match the local time:
* The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant
dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this
criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those "apparent"
rhythms that are merely responses to external periodic cues. A
rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been
tested in conditions without external periodic input.
* The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e., it maintains the same
period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this
criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological
rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway.
At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a
circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely
coincidental.
* The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The
rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms
from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to
resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of
estimating the local time. Travel across [55]time zones illustrates
the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that
it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next.
Until rhythms are reset, a person usually experiences [56]jet lag.
[[57]edit] Origin
[58]Question book-new.svg
This section needs additional [59]citations for [60]verification.
Please help [61]improve this article by adding [62]reliable references.
Unsourced material may be [63]challenged and [64]removed. (October
2007)
Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have
originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the
replicating of DNA from high [65]ultraviolet radiation during the
daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus
[66]Neurospora, which exists today, retains this [67]clock-regulated
mechanism.
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise
and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to
the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in
regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in
coordinating with the environment.^[68][6] This is suggested by the
maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after
several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,^[69][7]
as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the
experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian
rhythms in quail.^[70][8]
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic
[71]cyanobacteria. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian
clock of Synechococcus elongatus can be reconstituted in vitro with
just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has
been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the
addition of [72]ATP. Previous explanations of the [73]prokaryotic
circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription /
translation feedback mechanism.
It is an unanswered question whether circadian clocks in eukaryotic
organisms require translation/transcription-derived oscillations, for,
although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the
same basic architecture (input - [74]central oscillator - output), they
do not share any [75]homology. This implies probable independent
origins.
In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [76]Seymour Benzer first identified a
genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a
model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behaviour:
one had a shorter period, another had a longer one, and the third had
none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named
[77]period.^[78][9] The same gene was identified to be defective in the
sleep disorder FASPS ([79]Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome) in
human beings thirty years later, underscoring the conserved nature of
the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic
components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions
result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in
periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a
specific time of the day.
A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter
half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian
clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is
cell-autonomous.^[80][10] At the same time, different cells may
communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of
electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the
brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for
these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronize the
peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time
of the day as relayed by the [81]eyes travels to the clock in the
brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be
synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body
temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the
biological clock.
[[82]edit] Importance in animals
Circadian rhythmicity is present in the [83]sleeping and feeding
patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear
patterns of core body temperature, [84]brain wave activity, [85]hormone
production, cell regeneration and other biological activities. In
addition, [86]photoperiodism, the physiological reaction of organisms
to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and
the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation
of day length.
" Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food
availability or predator activity is crucial for survival of many
species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the
photoperiod ('daylength') is the most predictive environmental cue for
the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing
of migration, hibernation and reproduction.^[87][11] "
[[88]edit] Impact of light-dark cycle
The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals, including
humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function
with a [89]freerunning rhythm. Each "day", their sleep cycle is pushed
back or forward, depending on whether their [90]endogenous period is
shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that each day
reset the rhythms are called [91]Zeitgebers (from the German, Time
Givers).^[92][12] It is interesting to note that totally-blind
subterranean mammals (e.g., [93]blind mole rat Spalax sp.) are able to
maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external
stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors
(detect light) are still functional; as well, they do surface
periodically.^[[94]citation needed]
Freerunning organisms that normally have one consolidated sleep episode
will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues,
but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light/dark
cycle in nature. The sleep-wake rhythm may, in these circumstances,
become out of phase with other circadian or [95]ultradian rhythms such
as [96]temperature and [97]digestion.^[[98]citation needed]
Recent research has influenced the design of [99]spacecraft
environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been
found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.^[[100]citation needed]
[[101]edit] Arctic animals
Norwegian researchers at the [102]University of Tromsø have shown that
some Arctic animals ([103]ptarmigan, [104]reindeer) show circadian
rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and
sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at [105]70 degrees North
showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter, and spring, but not in
the summer. Reindeer at [106]78 degrees North showed such rhythms only
autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other Arctic animals as
well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and
the constant dark of winter.^[107][13]^[108][14]
However, another study in northern Alaska found that [109]ground
squirrels and [110]porcupines strictly maintained their circadian
rhythms through 82 days and nights of sunshine. The researchers
speculate that these two small mammals see that the apparent distance
between the sun and the horizon is shortest once a day, and, thus, a
sufficient signal to adjust by.^[111][15]
[[112]edit] Butterfly migration
The navigation of the fall migration of the [113]Eastern North American
monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) to their overwintering grounds in
central Mexico uses a time-compensated sun compass that depends upon a
circadian clock in their antennae.^[114][16]^[115][17]
[[116]edit] Biological clock in mammals
Diagram illustrating the influence of light and darkness on circadian
rhythms and related [117]physiology and behaviour through the
[118]suprachiasmatic nucleus in humans.
The primary circadian "clock" in [119]mammals is located in the
[120]suprachiasmatic nucleus (or nuclei) ([121]SCN), a pair of distinct
groups of [122]cells located in the [123]hypothalamus. Destruction of
the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep-wake rhythm.
The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The
[124]retina of the eyes contains not only "classical"
[125]photoreceptors but also photoresponsive retinal [126]ganglion
cells. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called
[127]melanopsin, follow a pathway called the [128]retinohypothalamic
tract, leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and
cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external
cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on the lengths of the day
and night from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the
[129]pineal gland, a tiny structure shaped like a [130]pine cone and
located on the [131]epithalamus. In response the pineal secretes the
hormone [132]melatonin. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs
during the day and its presence provides information about
night-length.
The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter
and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard
have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a
23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural
solar day-night cycle on the planet [133]Mars).^[134][18]
[[135]edit] Determining the human circadian rhythm
The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's
circadian rhythm are
* melatonin secretion by the pineal gland and
* core body temperature.
For temperature studies, people must remain awake but calm and
semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are
taken continuously. The average human adult's temperature reaches its
minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake
time, though variation is great among normal [136]chronotypes.
Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime.
Its onset in dim light, dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO), at about
21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Its major
[137]metabolite can also be measured in morning urine. Both DLMO and
the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or
saliva have been used as circadian markers.
However, newer research indicates that the melatonin offset may be the
most reliable marker. Benloucif et al. in Chicago in 2005 found that
melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated
with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found
that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly
correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In
addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable
and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.^[138][19]
One method used for measuring melatonin offset is to analyse a sequence
of urine samples throughout the morning for the presence of the
melatonin [139]metabolite 6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s). Laberge et al.
in Quebec in 1997 used this method in a study that confirmed the
frequently found delayed circadian phase in healthy
adolescents.^[140][20]
[[141]edit] Outside the "master clock"
More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and
cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the "master
clock". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the
[142]oesophagus, [143]lungs, [144]liver, [145]pancreas, [146]spleen,
[147]thymus, and the [148]skin.^[149][21] Though oscillators in the
skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven so
far.^[150][22]^[151][23] There is some evidence that also the olfactory
bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting
that also these structures may be weak oscillators.
Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding
rather than to [152]light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to
have freerunning rhythms.
[[153]edit] Light and the biological clock
Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [154]phase
response curve (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or
delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required
[155]illuminance vary from species to species and lower light levels
are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm in humans are higher than
the levels usually used in artificial lighting in homes. According to
some researchers^[156][24] the illumination intensity that excites the
circadian system has to reach up to 1000 [157]lux striking the retina.
In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or colour) of light is a
factor in the entrainment of the body clock. [158]Melanopsin is most
efficiently excited by blue light, 420-440 nm^[159][25] according to
some researchers while others have reported 470-485 nm.
It is thought that the direction of the light may have an effect on
entraining the circadian rhythm;^[160][24] light coming from above,
resembling an image of a bright sky, has greater effect than light
entering our eyes from below.
[[161]edit] Enforced longer cycles
Modern research under very controlled conditions has shown the human
period for adults to be just slightly longer than 24 hours on average.
Czeisler et al. at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults
of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes.
The "clock" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's
rotation.^[162][26]
The 28-hour day is presented as a concept of [163]time
management.^[164][27] It builds on the fact that the week of seven days
at 24 hours and a "week" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of
168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require
staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours.
Each "day" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern.
Studies by [165]Nathaniel Kleitman^[166][28] in 1938 and by
[167]Derk-Jan Dijk and [168]Charles Czeisler^[169][29]^[170][30] in
1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep-wake cycles,
in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a
month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day,^[171][31]
this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake
episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about
24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of
circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including
[172]sleep latency and other functions.^[173][32]
Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people
preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli
like daylight and timekeeping. Early investigators determined the human
circadian period to be 25 hours or more. They went to great lengths to
shield subjects from time cues and daylight, but they were not aware of
the effects of indoor electric lights. The subjects were allowed to
turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted
to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase.
These results became well known.^[174][26] Researchers allowed subjects
to keep electric lighting on in the evening, as it was thought at that
time that a couple of 60W bulbs would not have a resetting effect on
the circadian rhythms of humans. More recent research^[[175]citation
needed] has shown that adults have a built-in day, which averages just
over 24 hours, that indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms and
that most people attain their best-quality sleep during their
[176]chronotype-determined sleep periods.
[[177]edit] Human health
Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may
significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse
reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with
[178]angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) may reduce
nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [179]left ventricular
(reverse) remodelling.^[[180]citation needed]
A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms.
A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during
the day, a [181]power-nap, does not have any effect on normal circadian
rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve
productivity.^[182][33]^[183][34]
There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the
human circadian rhythm, such as [184]seasonal affective disorder (SAD),
[185]delayed sleep phase syndrome (DSPS) and other [186]circadian
rhythm disorders.^[187][35] Circadian rhythms also play a part in the
[188]reticular activating system, which is crucial for maintaining a
state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep-wake cycle
may be a sign or complication of [189]uremia,^[190][36] [191]azotemia
or [192]acute renal failure.
[[193]edit] Disruption
Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers
have experienced the condition known as [194]jet lag, with its
associated symptoms of [195]fatigue, disorientation and [196]insomnia.
A number of other disorders, for example [197]bipolar disorder and some
[198]sleep disorders, are associated with irregular or pathological
functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that
circadian rhythm disturbances found in [199]bipolar disorder are
positively influenced by [200]lithium's effect on clock
genes.^[201][37]
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have
significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside
the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of
cardiovascular disease [202][2] The suppression of melatonin production
associated with the disruption of the circadian rhythm may increase the
risk of developing cancer.^[203][38]^[204][39]
[[205]edit] Effect of drugs
Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside
the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such
as [206]cocaine.^[207][40]^[208][41] Moreover, genetic manipulations of
clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.^[209][42]
[[210]edit] See also
* [211]Actigraphy (also known as Actimetry)
* [212]Advanced sleep phase syndrome
* [213]ARNTL
* [214]ARNTL2
* [215]Bacterial circadian rhythms
* [216]Chronobiology
* [217]Chronotype
* [218]Circadian oscillator
* [219]Circadian rhythm sleep disorders
* [220]Cryptochrome
* [221]CRY1 and [222]CRY2, the cryptochrome family genes
* [223]Delayed sleep phase syndrome
* [224]Diurnal cycle
* [225]Jet lag
* [226]Light effects on circadian rhythm
* [227]PER1, [228]PER2, and [229]PER3, the period family genes
* [230]Power-nap
[[231]edit] References
[[232]edit] Bibliography
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in normal adolescents". Sleep Research (Québec, Canada: Centre
d'etude du Sommeil, Hopital du Sacre-Coeur, Département de
Psychologie, Département de Pharmacologie, Departement de
Psychiatrie, Université de Montréal) 26: 727.
issn=19979287. Retrieved 2007-12-18.
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Oct.: Expression of the Circadian Clock Genes clock and period1 in
Human Skin
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Low-dose UVB Rays Alter the mRNA Expression of the Circadian Clock
Genes in cultured Human Keratinocytes
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Extraocular Circadian Phototransduction in Humans
24. ^ [307]^a [308]^b Semjonova, Milena (2003). [309]"Healthy Lighting,
from a lighting designer's perspective". Milena Lighting Design.
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Biochemistry. 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8.
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1999.
Retrieved 2007-09-23. "The variation between our subjects, with a
95 percent level of confidence, was no more than plus or minus 16
minutes, a remarkably small range."
27. [316]^ Digital Beat Productions (1997). [317]"28 Hour Day".
28. [319]^ Kleitman, Nathaniel (1962). Sleep and Wakefullness ed 2.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
29. [320]^ Dijk, Derk-Jan; Czeisler Charles (1994). "Paradoxical timing
of the circadian rhythm of sleep propensity serves to consolidate
sleep and wakefulness in humans". Neurosci Lett 166 (1): 63.
[321]doi:[322]10.1016/0304-3940(94)90841-9. [323]PMID
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30. [325]^ Dijk, Derk-Jan; Czeisler Charles (1995). [326]"Contribution
of the Circadian Pacemaker and the Sleep Homeostat to Sleep
Propensity, Sleep Structure, Electrocephalographic Slow Waves, and
Sleep Spindle Activity in Humans". J. Neurosci 15 (5): 3526.
[327]PMID [328]7751928.
31. [330]^ Cromie, William J. (1999-07-15). [331]"Human Biological
Clock Set Back an Hour". The Harvard University Gazette.
Retrieved 2008-02-19.
32. [333]^ Aldrich, Michael S (1999). [334]Sleep medicine. New York:
Oxford University Press. [335]ISBN [336]0195129571.
pg=RA1-PA65&dq=experimenting+with+the+28+hour+day&source=bl&ots=9R4
mo2fI1O&sig=om2zbYPnXnm_1HuZo2Tch6J1vyo&hl=en&ei=MBZeStGgIoyJkQWd17
znDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2.
33. [338]^ [339]"The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship
to nighttime sleep". The prevalence of daytime napping and its
relationship to nighttime sleep. Behavioral medicine. 2001.
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34. [341]^ [342]"Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress
Levels Among College Students". Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive
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35. [344]^ [345]"Circadian Rhythms and Sleep". Circadian Rhythms and
Sleep. Serendip. 2007.
ml. Retrieved 2007-09-19.
36. [347]^ Sinert, Richard; Peter R Peacock, Jr (May 10, 2006).
[348]"Renal Failure, Acute". eMedicine from WebMD.
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37. [350]^ [351]NIMH · Science News from 2006 · Lithium Blocks Enzyme
To Help Cells' Clocks Keep On Tickin'
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Bouvard V, Altieri A, Benbrahim-Tallaa L, Cogliano V, WHO
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[353][1] Lancet Oncol. 2007; 12(8):1065-1066.
39. [354]^ [355]WebMD: Night Shift Work May Cause Cancer
40. [356]^ Uz T, Akhisaroglu M, Ahmed R, Manev H (2003). "The pineal
gland is critical for circadian Period1 expression in the striatum
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Neuropsychopharmacology 28 (12): 2117-23.
[357]doi:[358]10.1038/sj.npp.1300254. [359]PMID [360]12865893.
41. [361]^ Kurtuncu M, Arslan A, Akhisaroglu M, Manev H, Uz T (2004).
"Involvement of the pineal gland in diurnal cocaine reward in
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[362]doi:[363]10.1016/j.ejphar.2004.03.010. [364]PMID
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[370]PMID [371]15967985.
[[372]edit] External links
* [373]Circadian rhythm at the [374]Open Directory Project
* Leloup J.C. (2009). "Circadian clocks and phosphorylation: Insights
from computational modeling". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 4 (3): 290-303.
[375]doi:[376]10.2478/s11535-009-0025-1.
* Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A (2007). "Evolutionary mechanisms
of circadian clocks". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 2 (2): 233-253.
[377]doi:[378]10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z.
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January 2, 2006
Universal Timing
Life's Natural Rhythm
Nature's natural rhythms orchestrate when day turns to night, when
flowers must bloom, and provides the cue for when it is time for red
and brown leaves to fall from trees. As human beings, our own inner
rhythm is attuned to this universal sense of timing. Guided by the
rising and setting of the sun, changes in temperature, and our own
internal rhythm, we know when it is time to sleep, eat, or be active.
While our minds and spirits are free to focus on other pursuits, our
breath and our heartbeat are always there to remind us of life's
pulsing rhythm that moves within and around us.
Moving to this rhythm, we know when it is time to stop working and when
to rest. Pushing our bodies to work beyond their natural rhythm
diminishes our ability to renew and recharge. A feeling much like jet
lag lets us know when we've overridden our own natural rhythm. When we
feel the frantic calls of all we want to accomplish impelling us to
move faster than is natural for us, we may want to breathe deeply
instead and look at nature moving to its own organic timing: birds
flying south, leaves shedding, or snow falling. A walk in nature can
also let us re-attune is to her organic rhythm, while allowing us to
move back in time with our own. When we move to our natural rhythm, we
can achieve all we need to do with less effort.
We may even notice that our soul moves to its own internal, natural
rhythm - especially when it comes to our personal evolution. Comparing
ourselves to others is unnecessary. Our best guide is to move to our
own internal timing, while keeping time with the rhythm of nature.
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Rhythm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search
For other uses, see [8]Rhythm (disambiguation).
Rhythm (from [9]greek rhuthµo'*s - rhythmos, "any measured flow or
movement, symmetry") is the variation of the length and accentuation of
a series of sounds or other events.
Contents
* [10]1 Rhythm in linguistics
* [11]2 Origins of human appreciation of rhythm
* [12]3 Rhythm notation and the oral tradition
+ [13]3.1 African music
+ [14]3.2 Indian music
+ [15]3.3 Western music
* [16]4 Types
* [17]5 See also
* [18]6 Notes
* [19]7 Sources
* [20]8 Further reading
[[21]edit] Rhythm in linguistics
The study of rhythm, stress, and [22]pitch in [23]speech is called
[24]prosody; it is a topic in [25]linguistics. Narmour (1980,
p. 147-53) describes three categories of prosodic rules which create
rhythmic successions which are additive (same duration repeated),
cumulative (short-long), or countercumulative (long-short). Cumulation
is associated with closure or relaxation, countercumulation with
openness or tension, while additive rhythms are open-ended and
repetitive. Richard Middleton points out this method cannot account for
[26]syncopation and suggests the concept of [27]transformation.
A [28]rhythmic unit is a [29]durational pattern which occupies a period
of time equivalent to a [30]pulse or pulses on an underlying [31]metric
level, as opposed to a [32]rhythmic gesture which does not (DeLone et
al. (Eds.), 1975
[[33]edit] Origins of human appreciation of rhythm
In his series How Music Works, [34]Howard Goodall presents theories
that rhythm recalls how we walk and the heartbeat we heard in the womb.
More likely is that a simple pulse or [35]di-dah beat recalls the
footsteps of another person. Our sympathetic urge to dance is designed
to boost our energy levels in order to cope with someone, or some
animal chasing us - a fight or flight response. From a less darwinist
perspective, perceiving rhythm is the ability to master the otherwise
invisible dimension, time. Rhythm is possibly also rooted in courtship
ritual.^[36][1]
Neurologist [37]Oliver Sacks posits that human affinity for rhythm is
fundamental, so much that a person's sense of rhythm cannot be lost in
the way that music and language can (e.g. by [38]stroke). In addition,
he states that [39]chimpanzees and other animals show no similar
appreciation for rhythm.^[40][2]
[[41]edit] Rhythm notation and the oral tradition
Worldwide there are many different approaches to passing on rhythmic
phrases and patterns, as they exist in traditional music, from
generation to generation.
[[42]edit] African music
In the [43]Griot tradition of Africa everything related to music has
been passed on orally. [44]Babatunde Olatunji (1927-2003), a Nigerian
drummer who lived and worked in the [45]United States, developed a
simple series of spoken sounds for teaching the rhythms of the hand
drum. He used six vocal sounds: Goon Doon Go Do Pa Ta. There are three
basic sounds on the drum, but each can be played with either the left
or the right hand. This simple system is now used worldwide,
particularly by [46]Djembe players.
[[47]edit] Indian music
Indian music has also been passed on orally. Tabla players would learn
to speak complex rhythm patterns and phrases before attempting to play
them. [48]Sheila Chandra, an English pop singer of Indian descent, made
performances based around her singing these patterns. In [49]Indian
Classical music, the [50]Tala of a composition is the rhythmic pattern
over which the whole piece is structured.
[[51]edit] Western music
Standard [52]music notation contains rhythmic information and is
adapted specifically for drums and percussion instruments. The drums
are generally used to keep other instruments in 'time'. They do this by
supplying beats/strikes in time at a certain pace, i.e. 70 beats per
minute (bpm). In [53]Rock music, a drum beat is used to keep a
[54]bass/[55]guitar line in time.
[[56]edit] Types
In [57]Western music, rhythms are usually arranged with respect to a
[58]time signature, partially signifying a meter. The speed of the
underlying [59]pulse is sometimes called the [60]beat. The [61]tempo is
a measure of how quickly the pulse repeats. The tempo is usually
measured in 'beats per minute' (bpm); 60 bpm means a speed of one beat
per second. The length of the meter, or metric unit (usually
corresponding with [62]measure length), is usually grouped into either
two or three beats, being called [63]duple meter and [64]triple meter,
respectively. If each beat is divided by two or four, it is [65]simple
meter, if by three (or six) [66]compound meter. According to [67]Pierre
Boulez, beat structures beyond four are "simply not natural".^[68][3].
His reference is to western European music.
Standard notation of a clave pattern on audio clip clave pattern.ogg
[69]Syncopated rhythms are rhythms that accent parts of the beat not
already stressed by [70]counting. Playing simultaneous rhythms in more
than one time signature is called [71]polymeter. See also
[72]polyrhythm. In recent years, rhythm and meter have become an
important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these
areas includes books by [73]Maury Yeston, [74]Fred Lerdahl and [75]Ray
Jackendoff, [76]Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty, William Rothstein,
and Joel Lester.
Grid notation of single a clave pattern
Some [77]genres of music make different use of rhythm than others. Most
Western music is based on [78]subdivision, while non-Western music uses
more [79]additive rhythm. [80]African music makes heavy use of
[81]polyrhythms, and [82]Indian music uses [83]complex cycles such as 7
and 13, while [84]Balinese music often uses complex [85]interlocking
rhythms. By comparison, a lot of Western [86]classical music is fairly
rhythmically (or metrically) simple; it stays in a [87]simple meter
such as 4/4 or 3/4 and makes little use of [88]syncopation.
[89]Clave is a common underlying rhythm in [90]African, [91]Cuban
music, and [92]Brazilian music.
[93]Claves
(Submit) Play sound
Four beats followed by three Clave patterns
__________________________________________________________________
Problems listening to this file? See [94]media help.
In the 20th century, [95]composers like [96]Igor Stravinsky, [97]Bela
Bartok, [98]Philip Glass, and [99]Steve Reich wrote more rhythmically
complex music using [100]odd meters, and techniques such as
[101]phasing and [102]additive rhythm. At the same time, modernists
such as [103]Olivier Messiaen and his pupils used increased complexity
to disrupt the sense of a regular beat, leading eventually to the
widespread use of [104]irrational rhythms in [105]New Complexity. This
use may be explained by a comment of [106]John Cage's^[[107]where?]
where he notes that regular rhythms cause sounds to be heard as a group
rather than individually; the irregular rhythms highlight the rapidly
changing pitch relationships that would otherwise be subsumed into
irrelevant rhythmic groupings (Sandow 2004, p. 257). [108]LaMonte Young
also wrote music in which the sense of a regular beat is absent because
the music consists only of long sustained tones ([109]drones). In the
1930s, [110]Henry Cowell wrote music involving multiple simultaneous
periodic rhythms and collaborated with [111]Léon Thérémin to invent the
[112]Rhythmicon, the first electronic [113]rhythm machine, in order to
perform them. Similarly, [114]Conlon Nancarrow wrote for the
[115]player piano.
[[116]edit] See also
* [117]Meter (music)
* [118]Prosody (linguistics)
* [119]Riddim
* [120]Morse Code
* [121]Soul (music)
* [122]Time scale (music)
* [123]Timing (linguistics)
[[124]edit] Notes
1. [125]^ [126]Mithen, Steven (2005). [127]The Singing Neanderthals:
The Origins of Music, Language, Mind and Body.. London: Weidenfeld
& Nicolson.. [128]ISBN [129]0297643177.
2. [131]^ [132]Jon Stewart, [133]Oliver Sacks. (2009-06-29). [134]The
Daily Show with Jon Stewart. [Television production]. Comedy
Central.
itle=oliver-sacks. "People often tried to teach their dogs to
dance--it doesn't work."
3. [136]^ In [137]Discovering Music: Rhythm with [138]Leonard Slatkin
at 5:05
[[139]edit] Sources
* Hasty, Christopher (1997). Meter as Rhythm. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. [140]ISBN 0-19-510066-2.
* London, Justin (2004). Hearing in Time: Psychological Aspects of
Musical Meter. [141]ISBN 0-19-516081-9.
* Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music.
Philadelphia: Open University Press. [142]ISBN 0-335-15275-9.
* Narmour (1980). Cited in DeLone et al. (Eds.) (1975). Aspects of
Twentieth-Century Music. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall. [143]ISBN 0-13-049346-5.
* Sandow, Greg (2004). "A Fine Madness", The Pleasure of Modernist
Music. [144]ISBN 1-58046-143-3.
* Yeston, Maury (1976). "The Stratification of Musical Rhythm".
[[145]edit] Further reading
* McGaughey, William (2001). "Rhythm and Self-Consciousness: New
Ideals for an Electronic Civilization". Minneapolis: Thistlerose
Publications. [146]ISBN 0-9605630-4-0.
* Honing, H. (2002). [147]"Structure and interpretation of rhythm and
timing." Tijdschrift voor Muziektheorie [Dutch Journal of Music
Theory] 7(3): 227-232.
* Lewis, Andrew (2005). Rhythm--What it is and How to Improve Your
Sense of It. San Francisco: [148]RhythmSource Press. [149]ISBN
978-0-9754667-0-4.
* Williams, C. F. A., The Aristoxenian Theory of Musical Rhythm,
(Cambridge Library Collection - Music), Cambridge University Press;
1st edition, 2009.
* Toussaint, G. T., "The geometry of musical rhythm," In J. Akiyama,
M. Kano, and X. Tan, editors, Proceedings of the Japan Conference
on Discrete and Computational Geometry, Vol. 3742, Lecture Notes in
Computer Science, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2005, pp. 198-212.
[150]v o [151]d o [152]e
[153]Musical notation and [154]development
[155]Staff
[156]Bar & Bar line · [157]Clef · [158]Da capo · [159]Dal segno ·
[160]Key signature · [161]Ledger line · [162]Musical mode ·
[163]Musical scale · [164]Rehearsal letter · [165]Repeat sign ·
[166]Time signature · [167]Transposition · [168]Transposing instrument
[169]G (treble) clef symbol
[170]Notes
[171]Accidental ([172]Flat · [173]Natural · [174]Sharp) · [175]Dotted
note · [176]Grace note · [177]Note value ([178]Beam · [179]Note head ·
[180]Stem) · [181]Pitch · [182]Rest · [183]Interval · [184]Letter
notation
[185]Articulation
[186]Dynamics · [187]Ornament ([188]Trill · [189]Mordent · [190]Grace
note) · [191]Ossia · [192]Portato · [193]Accent · [194]Legato ·
[195]Tenuto · [196]Marcato · [197]Staccato · [198]Staccatissimo ·
[199]Tie · [200]Slur · [201]Fermata
[202]Development
[203]Coda · [204]Exposition · [205]Harmony · [206]Melody · [207]Motif ·
[208]Recapitulation · Rhythm ([209]Beat · [210]Meter · [211]Tempo) ·
[212]Theme · [213]Tonality · [214]Atonality
Related
[215]Chord chart · [216]Figured bass · [217]Graphic notation ·
[218]Lead sheet · [219]Eye music · [220]Modern musical symbols ·
[221]Neume · [222]Tablature
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[1]Daniel Laberge music
Rhythm explained
including
27 rhythm exercises
by Daniel Laberge
Rhythm figure
Hi rhythm lovers,
I've devised these exercises in the early seventies while teaching
music.
I could not find any existing book that saw rhythm the way I did.
This method is based on "rhythmic figures" or rhythm possibilities.
Each one lasts one beat.
I simply counted the rhythmic possibilities one could encounter for
each type of beat divisions.
There are:
o Four rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by two
o Eight rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by three
o Sixteen rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by four
I composed the exercises back then and used them for my teaching, but I
only wrote the theory that goes along in 2002.
The book is called "Rhythm explained" and I am gradually placing its
content here.
Each exercise is preceded by a lesson, with graphic representations,
and includes an audio rendition to help you.
You can choose between three speeds.
For jazz musicians, the binary exercises also have a swing or double
swing performance. Go to the bottom of the page for a link to the swing
version.
Choose among the following exercises:
Beat exercises
[2]Rhythm exercise 1-1
Featured figures
[3][onequarternote1.gif] [4] [onehalfnote1.gif] [5]
[dottedhalfnote1.gif] [6] [wholenote1.gif]
[7]Rhythm exercise 1-2
Featured figures
[8][quarternoterest1.gif] [9] [halfnoterest1.gif] [10]
[wholenoterest1.gif]
[11]Rhythm exercise 1-3
Featured figures
[12][quarternoterest1.gif] [13] [halfnoterest1.gif] [14]
[dottedhalfnoterest1.gif] [15] [wholenoterest1.gif]
Binary beat division
The binary family is large as it includes:
o Division by two
o Division by four
o Part of division by six
o Division by eight
This section is concerned with the simple division by two.
Any binary beat has two alternating parts: the downbeat and the upbeat.
Binary beat
[binarybeat1.gif]
As you can see, there are only two places in a beat
where events or notes can be positioned or played:
o The downbeat
o The upbeat
How
rhythmic
possibilities
work
This means that for any given beat you can have
any of the four following possibilities:
1 o Only one event on the downbeat.
2 o Events on both the downbeat and the upbeat.
3 o No event at all.
4 o Only one event on the upbeat.
[possibilitiesbytwosimple1.gif]
The rhythmic figure used to represent a binary beat is called:
TWO EIGHTH NOTES
[masterfigurebinary1.gif]
Binary
master
rhythmic
figure
Simple binary rhythmic figures
4 possibilities:
o 2 Primary
o 2 Secondary
[possibilitiesbytwo1.gif]
Secondary rhythmic figures lack the event that falls on the beat.
There is a secondary figure for each primary one.
Because the beat is so important, secondary figures have appeared after
the primary ones had been well established.
The absence of event falling on the beat can be due to a silence or a
sound that is held over from the preceding beat.
Because of this, there are two ways to notate secondary figures:
o With a rest
o With a tie
[primarysecondary1.gif]
Primary
and
secondary
rhythmic
figures
Choose among the following exercises:
Binary exercises
PRIMARY
[16]Rhythm exercise 2-1
Featured figure
[17][twoeighthnotes2.gif]
[18]Rhythm exercise 2-2
Featured figures
[19][twoeighthnotes2.gif] [20] [quarternoterest2.gif]
SECONDARY
[21]Rhythm exercise 2-3
Featured figure
[22][dottedquarternoteeighth2.gif]
[23]Rhythm exercise 2-4
Featured figure
[24][eighthnotesyncopationa2.gif]
[25]Rhythm exercise 2-5
Featured figure
[26][twoeighttieonequarter2.gif]
MULTIPLE SYNCOPATIONS
[27]Rhythm exercise 2-6
Featured figure
[28][doublesyncopationa2.gif]
Ternary beat division
The ternary family is small as it includes:
o Division by three
o Part of division by six
Everything goes in thirds in ternary music.
Any ternary beat has one downbeat and two upbeats.
Ternary beat
[ternarybeat1.gif]
The rhythmic figure used to represent a ternary beat is called:
THREE EIGHTH NOTES
[masterfigureternary1.gif]
Ternary
master
rhythmic
figure
Writing
ternary
rhythm
In ternary music writing, each eighth note is worth one third of a
beat.
Since two eighth notes always equal one quarter note, these now equal
two thirds of a beat.
It takes a dotted quarter note to represent one beat.
[ternarywriting1.gif]
Ternary rhythmic figures
8 possibilities:
o 4 Primary
o 4 Secondary
[possibilitiesbythree1.gif]
Choose among the following exercises:
Ternary exercises
PRIMARY
[29]Rhythm exercise 3-1
Featured figure
[30][threeeighth2.gif]
[31]Rhythm exercise 3-2
Featured figure
[32][onequarteroneeighth2.gif]
[33]Rhythm exercise 3-3
Featured figure
[34][oneeighthonequarter2.gif]
SECONDARY
[35]Rhythm exercise 3-1s
Featured figure
[36][8threst2eighth2.gif] OR [37] [tie3eighth2.gif]
[38]Rhythm exercise 3-2s
Featured figure
[39][quarternoterestoneeighth2.gif] OR [40]
[tiequarternote1eighth.gif]
[41]Rhythm exercise 3-3s
Featured figure
[42][8threst1quarternote2.gif] OR [43] [tie1eighth1quarter2.gif]
Division by four
Beats divided by four are part of the binary family.
Everything goes in quarters in this feel.
Beat
divided
by
four
[binarybeat2.gif]
The rhythmic figure used to represent a beat divided by four
is called:
FOUR SIXTEENTH NOTES
[masterfigurebyfour1.gif]
Division
by four
master
rhythmic
figure
Binary rhythmic figures
16 possibilities:
o 8 Primary
o 8 Secondary
[possibilitiesbyfour1.gif]
Choose among the following exercises:
Division by four exercises
PRIMARY
[44]Rhythm exercise 4-1
Featured figure
[45][foursixteenth2.gif]
[46]Rhythm exercise 4-2
Featured figure
[47][oneeighthtwosixteenth2.gif]
[48]Rhythm exercise 4-3
Featured figure
[49][twosixteenthoneeighth2.gif]
[50]Rhythm exercise 4-4
Featured figure
[51][dottedeighthonesixteenth2.gif]
[52]Rhythm exercise 4-5
Featured figure
[53][onesixteenthdottedeighth2.gif]
[54]Rhythm exercise 4-6
Featured figure
[55][16th8th16th2.gif]
SECONDARY
[56]Rhythm exercise 4-1s
Featured figure
[57][16threst3sixteenth2.gif] OR [58] [tiefoursixteenth2.gif]
[59]Rhythm exercise 4-2s
Featured figure
[60][8threst2sixteenth2.gif] OR [61] [tie1eighth2sixteenth2.gif]
[62]Rhythm exercise 4-3s
Featured figure
[63][16threst1sixteenth1eighth2.gif] OR [64]
[tie2sixteenth1eighth2.gif]
[65]Rhythm exercise 4-4s
Featured figure
[66][dotted8threst1sixteenth2.gif] OR [67]
[tiedottereight1sixteenth2.gif]
[68]Rhythm exercise 4-5s
Featured figure
[69][16threstdotted8th.gif] OR [70] [tie16thdotted8th2.gif]
[71]Rhythm exercise 4-6s
Featured figure
[72][16threst1eighth1sixteenth2.gif] OR [73]
[tieone16thone8thone16th2.gif]
[74]Bugs, problems
and comments [75]Daniel Laberge music
Références
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ORGY IN RHYTHM
[6]JAZZ HIP TRIO - JAZZ EN RELIEF
Jazz Hip Trio for Riviera France from 1967.
Jean-Bernard Eisinger Piano ; Roger Luccioni Bass ;Daniel Humair Drums.
More beautiful music from France on this the first Jazz Hip Trio LP.
"Orange Boom" was the big tune back in the day but the rest is just
fabulous.
Needless to say.....All Killer No Filler
Another first in public blogland here at OIR.
[7]17 comments made-how about you? 12.1.10
[8]MAL WALDRON - TOKYO BOUND
Mal Waldron for RCA Victor Japan from 1970.
Mal Waldron-Piano;Takeshi Inomata-Drums;Yasuo Arakawa-Bass
Tremendous all killer trio date with Waldron joined by a top flight
Japanese rhythm section on four original compositions which only saw a
release in Japan.Check out the rocking intensity of "Rock One For Jimbo
San" and "Japanese Island" which builds from an ominous brooding intro
into a marvellous modal waltz."Atomic Energy" blows up with a headlong
banging vamp from Waldron's left hand while the right runs all over the
keys and then to close "Mount Fujiyama" a more introspective rumination
and dissection of the tune's theme.
Inomata's drumming is a revelation throughout the session intricate yet
swinging with fantastic use of cymbals.(Don't forget to check out
Inomata's Sound of Sounds lp also recorded in 1970 which I posted
[9]here during the summer)
Respect to El Goog for introducing me to this great album.I finally
picked a copy up from Japan via ebay last month - not cheap but worth
every penny.
Very highly recomnmended.
[10]37 comments made-how about you? 20.12.09
[11]THE HERBIE HANCOCK TRIO
Herbie Hancock for Sony Japan from 1977.
Herbie Hancock-Piano;Ron Carter-Bass;Tony Williams-Drums
The big three keep it strictly acoustic for this Japanese only release
from CBS Sony. 4 originals from Herb plus a rapid romp through
"Milestones"...tough stuff.
The first V.S.O.P. tour triggered a flood of recording activity in July
1977, but only a fraction of it was released in the U.S. This session,
recorded in San Francisco just days before the Quintet concerts in
Berkeley and San Diego, finds Herbie Hancock, Ron Carter and Tony
Williams mixing it up sans the horns and the results are more
reflective and cerebral than the full Quintet concerts. Hancock is
thoroughly in control of the agenda while Williams throws in those
meter-fracturing flurries that keep everyone on their toes. There is a
startling re-interpretation of "Speak like a Child" which is
significantly tougher and busier than the wistful Blue Note version, as
well as challenging Hancock originals like "Watcha Waiting For" and
"Watch It." This is uncompromising acoustic jazz, commercial anathema
in the electronic '70s -and thus, only Japan got to hear it. Richard S.
Ginell.
[12]16 comments made-how about you? 13.12.09
[13]JAZZ HIP TRIO - PORTRAITS
Jazz Hip Trio for Riviera France from 1968.
Jean-Bernard Eisinger Piano ; Roger Luccioni Bass ;Daniel Humair Drums.
Piano trios are the theme for my the next few posts and what better way
to start than with some beautiful music from France on it's first time
out in blogland here at OIR.
10 original compositions which grow and grow on repeated listening -
get past the "Sidewinder" influenced dance floor intro tune "Bat Rock"
and you're in for a swinging set of subtle trio sounds.Of course it's
gotta be......
All Killer No Filler
[14]23 comments made-how about you? 6.12.09
[15]THE DIAMOND FIVE - BRILLIANT !
The Diamond Five for Fontana from 1964.
Personnel: Cees Slinger: piano; Harry Verbeke: tenor sax; Cees Smal:
trumpet, cornet and valve trombone; Jacques Schols: bass; Johnny
Engels: drums.
Please check the comments as Chazz has also ripped The Five
Diamonds-Finally After Forty Years cd reissue from Japan and will be
posting the link shortly.Over to you Chazz!
I don't post donations at OIR but just had to make an exception when
this was winged across the pond to me from Chazz Katz.It's a very rare
piece of hard bop from Holland which made a blink and miss it reissue
on cd some years ago in Japan (original vinyl goes for silly money
anywhere between $600-$1000) and has never appeared in blogland
before.Here's the notes and cheers to Chazz for his rip!
Nice work chap - All Killer No Filler!
The Diamond Five, a Dutch quintet led by pianist Cees Slinger, was
founded in 1959 and lasted until 1965. They were based at the
Sheherazade Club in Amsterdam and were quite popular, playing all over
Holland and accompanying expatriate American musicians on their visits
to Amsterdam. However, when the club closed its doors due to a shift in
popular interest from jazz to rock music, the quintet disbanded. This
1964 recording is their only session available on CD. The music is hard
bop on the surface, but is neither formulaic nor a copy of the genres
imported from the U.S.
The musicians are quite unique in their style. Slinger plays sparse
notes on his solos, utilizing well-placed pauses in the music to create
melodic hard bop with hints of more forward-looking styles. The other
outstanding soloist is tenor saxophonist Harry Verbeke, whose solos (in
contrast to that of the leader) are filled with a multitude of notes
played in the modal vein. The others are also quite stellar, the bass
and the drums providing a loose bluesy support and horn man Cees Smal
adding something unique with the sounds of his different horns,
switching between valve trombone, cornet and trumpet.
[16]26 comments made-how about you? 26.11.09
[17]BOBBY HUTCHERSON - CIRRUS
Bobby Hutcherson for Blue Note from 1974.
Hutch is playing four sets in London this weekend so Katonah from
Private Press and I will be propping up the bar for his late spot at
Scotts tomorrow night.
So here's a 3rd repost for his evergreen "Cirrus" ....All Killer No
Filler.
This was my very first Bobby Hutcherson post here at OIR back in may
2006.It was ripped from my vinyl copy @192 in those days-I've reupped
it @320 this time and taken it from the superb Mosaic Select box
set.Here's my original narrative:
Cirrus finds Bobby Hutcherson resuming his partnership with tenor
saxophonist Harold Land, and the results are marvellous. The pair work
with pianist Bill Henderson, trumpeter Woody Shaw, bassist Ray
Drummond, drummer Larry Hancock, saxophonist/flautist Emmanuel Boyd and
percussionist Kenneth Nash on this set of originals.The album starts
with a great version of Woody Shaw's "Rosewood" while the rest of the
set is written by Hutcherson and includes "Even Later".Highlight of the
lp for me is the atmospheric and brooding "Zuri Dance" - what a corker
!
[18]36 comments made-how about you? 13.11.09
[19]DAVE PIKE - LET THE MINSTRELS PLAY ON
Dave Pike for Muse from 1978.
Vibraphone - Dave Pike / Bass - Luther Hughes / Cello - Luther Hughes /
Drums - Ted Hawkes / Guitar - Ron Eschete / Keyboards , Sax - Tom
Ranier / Vocals - Carol Eschete.
KGML has just posted "Spirits Samba" so dug the lp out for those who
would like to hear more.
Picked this up in Tony Monson's Disc Empire in the early 80s after
hearing Chris Bangs spinning "Swan Lake" and found it had yet another
bona fide jazz dance classic to be featured in the shape of "Spirits
Samba".
Here's an apathetic review from amg:
Some Afro-Latin, some fusion and things in between from vibist Dave
Pike. Pike is a good player, but sometimes his arrangements bog down
between pop and jazz. His style is more remniscent of Red Norvo, with
its lighter, less aggressive and flowing lines.
[20]12 comments made-how about you? 12.11.09
[21]RANDY WESTON - BLUE MOSES
Randy Weston For CTI from 1972.
Arranged By - Don Sebesky;Bass - Bill Wood (2) (tracks: B1) , Ron
Carter ;Drums - Bill Cobham ;English Horn, Clarinet, Flute - George
Marge ;Flugelhorn - Alan Rubin , John Frosk , Marvin Stamm ;Flute -
Hubert Laws ;French Horn - Brooks Tillotson , James Buffington ;Oboe,
Clarinet, Flute - Romeo Penque ;Piano - Randy Weston
Saxophone [Tenor] - Grover Washington, Jr ;Synthesizer [Moog] - David
Horowitz
Trombone - Garnett Brown , Warren Covington , Wayne Andre ;Trombone -
Paul Faulise
Trumpet - Freddie Hubbard ;Vocals - Madasme Meddah
Super heavyweight banger from CTI - trust Randy Weston to dispense with
Creed Taylor's saccharine stylings.All Killer blah blah blah....
Another underwhelming review from Mr Yannow:
Randy Weston's most popular record, this Lp (which he had mixed
feelings about) features Weston not only on piano but electric
keyboards. Backed by Don Sebesky arrangements and assisted by trumpeter
Freddie Hubbard and tenor-saxophonist Grover Washington Jr., Weston
plays quite well on four of his compositions; best-known are "Ganawa
(Blue Moses)" and "Marrakesh Blues." The music retains the African feel
of most of Weston's latter-day playing but also has some commercial
touches that do not hurt the performances. This rewarding date has not
yet been reissued on CD. ~ Scott Yanow, All Music Guide
Fantastic cover art from Pete Turner - I highly recommend his book[22]
here.
[23]16 comments made-how about you? 7.11.09
[24]BLACKCLASSICAL - 1ST BIRTHDAY MEGAMIX
Blackclassical has taken off his flat cap ,put the racing pigeons away
and is celebrating his first year on t'interwebs with a mighty mp3 mash
up of spiritual jazz goodness[25] here.Proof indeed that it's not all
grim up north.
Happy Birthday you old bastard - now get the lagers in and make sure
they've got vodka tops you tightarse.
[26]3 comments made-how about you? 6.11.09
[27]TUBBT HAYES - TUBBS IN N.Y.
Tubby Hayes for Fontana from 1961.
Saxophone [Tenor] - Tubby Hayes; Bass - George Duvivier; Drums - Dave
Bailey ;Piano - Horace Parlan ;
Trumpet - Clark Terry;Vibraphone - Eddie Costa
Another first in blogland for this British vinyl rarity at OIR with
Tubbs keeping heavy company in NYC . Apparently there was legal
wrangling about who owns the masters so don't hold your breath waiting
for a cd issue.The last one got pulled pronto upon release in 1990.
The swaggering "A Pint Of Bitter" was my very first exposure to Hayes
back in the early 80s - I just love that tune - but the rest is just as
good with flat out romps through "Opus Ocean" and "Airegin" plus a
wonderfuly swinging "Soon" . Nice!
[28]26 comments made-how about you? 31.10.09
[29]TUBBY HAYES QUARTET - TUBBY'S GROOVE
Tubby Hayes for Tempo from 1960.
Tubby Hayes (ts), Terry Shannon (p), Phil Bates (b), Phil Seamen (d).
"Tin Tin Deo" killin' it every time for me on this rare piece of
British wax from 50 years ago.
Simon Spillet has written a fascinating piece on Tubby at[30]
Jazzscript and here's his take on this album:
I think it's one of Tubby's best ever studio recordings and catches him
very much in his prime. I suppose that the stand-out track for me has
to be Sunny Monday with its unaccompanied tenor choruses. The tone is
big, the rhythmic delivery is full of confidence and the sheer
enthusiasm shines through half a century on.
[31]23 comments made-how about you? 30.10.09
[32]STAFFAN ABELEEN QUINTET -PERSEPOLIS
Staffan Abeleen for Philips Sweden from 1964.
Staffan Abeleen-Piano ; Lasse Farnlof - Trumpet ; Bjorn Netz - Tenor ;
Bjorn Alke - Bass ; Bosse Skoglund - Drums
More top draw business from Sweden making a first appearance in
blogland.Modal to bossa to ballads this one's got the lot:
ALL KILLER NO FILLER
[33]15 comments made-how about you? 15.10.09
[34]BERNT ROSENGREN BIG BAND - FIRST MOVES
Bernt Rosengren for EMI Sweden from 1977.
Bassoon, Horn - Lars Bagge/Clarinet, Clarinet [Bass], Saxophone
[Soprano, Alto, Baritone] - Lennart Jansson /Congas - Johnny Martinez ,
René Martinez , Sabu Martinez
Cornet , Flugelhorn - Lars Färnlöf /Drums - Leif Wennerström/Flute,
Saxophone -Bernt Rosengren /Horn [English], Saxophone - Tommy Koverhult
/ Percussion - Okay Temiz / Piano - Claes-Göran Fagerstedt / Piano,
Piano [Electric] - Bobo Stenson / Saxophone [Baritone] - Gunnar
Bergsten / Saxophone [Tenor] - Anders Lindskog / Trombone - Jan Jansson
, Janus Miezek , Lars Olofsson , Lennart Löfgren / Trombone [Bass] -
Sven Larsson /Trumpet - Björn Borg /Trumpet , Flugelhorn - Bertil
Lövgren , Maffy Falay / Bass - Torbjörn Hultcrantz
Back over to Sweden for this killer big band session led by Bernt
Rosengren and featuring some big names such as a pre-ECM Bobo
Stenson,the wonderful Lars Farnlof and none other than the mighty Sabu
Martinez.
Check out the percussion destruction of "Felicidade" with Sabu plus
sons Johnny and Rene Martinez beating the crap out of the Jobim bossa
standard... Murdah!!!
[35]19 comments made-how about you? 1.10.09
[36]JAZZ QUINTET 60
Jazz Quintet 60 from 1962 for Metronome Denmark.
Allan Botschinsky (tp), Niels Husum (ts), Bent Axen (p), Niels-Henning
Orsted Pedersen (b), Bjarne Rostvold (ds).
Legendary Scandinavian rarity (Check the second mortgage prices on
[37]Popsike) from Denmark featuring a who's who of the Danish Jazz
scene from the past 50 years.
First time it's has been posted in public blogland so don't sleep on
this one :
ALL KILLER NO FILLER !
[38]27 comments made-how about you? 27.9.09
[39]STAFFAN ABELEEN QUINTET - DOWNSTREAM
Staffan Abeleen Quintet for Philips Sweden from 1966.
Staffan Abeleen - Piano ; Lasse Farnlof - Trumpet ; Bjorn Netz - Sax ;
Bosse Skugland - Drums ; Paul Danielsson - Bass.
All compositions by Lars Farnlof
Scandinavia is the destination for my next batch of posts and what
better way to start than with this superb album by The Staffen Abeleen
Quintet playing the compositions of the wonderful Lars Farnlof.
Another first appearance in blogland but let the music do the talking
...
ALL KILLER NO FILLER
[40]15 comments made-how about you? 19.9.09
[41]ARCHIE SHEPP & THE FAMILY OF PERCUSSION - HERE COMES THE FAMILY
I have had lots of requests for a repost of this bomb from Archie Shepp
and The Family of Percussion - so here it is.
First posted at OIR september 2006.
The Family of Percussion (Peter Giger,Trilok Gurtu,Doug Hammond and Tom
Nicholas)are joined by Archie Shepp on this hard to find 1980 release
from Nagara in Germany.
On "Here Comes the Family"the Family establish the basic form of the
piece with their rhythmic and vocal opening with Shepp's flute
fluttering above it all.Then he lets rip with what the liner notes call
'Poetic Recitation'but would probably be called rapping these days over
a funky percussive backdrop .This tune is why the lp remains in such
demand - a big play list favourite of djs world wide.
Next up is Shepp's "Street Song" the best cut on the lp for me,on which
he blows his tenor freely over the drums,congas,bells and gongs.The
piece ends in a crescendo of percussion culminating in a gong crash
which fades into silence."Euterpe's Favorit"has Shepp back on flute
with the family weaving a mystical feel behind him on
bells,whistles,water pipes,gongs,rattles and drums.
"Ardopetori"starts side 2 with a mid tempo infectious rhythm
established by shakers and log drum which builds slowly with Shepp
soloing freely again on tenor.
"For Ti Roro"wraps it up and begins with the gentle,caribean sounds of
steel drums until Shepp's soprano bursts in with a frenzy of
excitement.This is the most free track with all the musicians reacting
to each otherboth collectively and singularly until it finishes
fittingly with the sound of the congas.
This came out on lp and cd but quickly dissapeared without trace.if you
want a copy you gonna have to dig hard and have deep pockets!
[42]18 comments made-how about you?
[43]HIROSHI SUZUKI - CAT
Hiroshi Suzuki for Columbia Japan from 1975.
Hiroshi Suzuki-Trombone ; Hiromasa Suzuki-Keyboards ; Akira
Ishikawa-Drums ; Takeru Muraoka-Sax ; Kunimitsu Inaba-Bass
More super rare J Jazz making a first appearance in blogland and this
is an absolute beauty made up of 5 long cuts that hit the perfect
balance between jazz and fusion.Acoustic bass meshed with subtle funky
drums topped with lashings of Rhodes,trombone and sax deliver a really
stretched out understated rolling groove.
The album just grows and grows with repeated listening and it's a big
favourite over here at Bacoso's Big Top - no surprise that it's
ALL KILLER NO FILLER !
[44]34 comments made-how about you? 7.9.09
[45]T. INOMATA & SOUND L.T.D. - SOUNDS OF SOUND L.T.D.
Takeshi Inomata for Columbia Japan from 1970.
Takeshi Inomata (Drums & Percussion) Jun Suzuki (Electric Bass)
Shigetok Kamiya (Electric Guitar) Ryo Kawasaki (Electric Guitar)
Sho Imai (Trombone & Bass Trombone) Shigemichi Dohmoto (Trombone & Bass
Trombone)
Takao Uematsu (Tenor Sax & Soprano Sax)
Fantastic lp of funky jazz from the Columbia issued Groovy Sound
Series.
No idea who plays on it as the credits are all in Japanese but it's a
monster session.
Check out "Mustache" and "Tak's Tune" for some severe beats from
drummer/leader Takeshi Inomata.
All Killer No Filler - Highly Recommended!
[46]22 comments made-how about you? 29.8.09
[47]HIDEO SHIRAKI - IN FIESTA
Hideo Shiraki for Teichiku Japan from 1961.
Rare super tough hard bop session from Japan featuring the killer koto
led and drum driven bomb "In Fiesta".
Reissued in Japan by Kyoto Jazz Massive for Think in a blink and miss
it moment back in 2005 but now out of print.
The old Dusty Groove blurb:
A brilliant early album from Japanese drummer Hideo Shiraki a jazz
session that bristles with the same intensity as key late 50s work by
Benny Golson or Gigi Gryce! Although Hideo's leading the group on
drums, his work on the kit is remarkably subtle done with the
snappingly rhythmic style that marked some of Golson's best modern
experiments of a few years before not nearly as bombastic as his stint
with Art Blakey, and more in the rhythmically stepping quality of his
work with Art Farmer in the Jazztet. Key players on the session include
Hidehiko Matsumoto on tenor and flute and Yuzuru Sera on piano both of
whom give the album a fluid grace that's really beautiful soulful edges
that allow the record to stand equally next to anything coming out of
the US at the time. One track features a bit of koto at the start --
echoing Shiraki's later world jazz experiments but most of the set is
straight modern hardbop, with tracks that include "Blue Romeo", "Etude
No 1", "Just One Or Eight", "You Don't Know What Love Is", and Benny
Golson's "Five Spot After Dark".
[48]14 comments made-how about you? 18.8.09
[49]LLOYD MCNEILL - TREASURES
Lloyd McNeill for Baobab from 1976.
Lloyd McNeill-Flute ; Dom Salvador-Piano ; Cecil McBee-Bass ; Portinho
, Brian Brake-Drums ; Ray Armando-Percussion.
One for the flute freaks on a private press out of NYC.
Heavy Brazilian infuences at work on this wonderful spiritual jazz
session from the great Lloyd McNeill.Two originals,one standard and a
cracking version of Salvador's "Salvation Army" which featured on Dom's
'76 Muse debut "Minha Familia"(Available at [50]Ile Oxumare).
Here's some info on Lloyd McNeill from the excellent [51]Hipwax:
The first thing to know about Lloyd McNeill is that his are the very
best soul-jazz flute LPs, and each is first-rate, a masterpiece of
self-direction. The second thing to know is there is much more to him
than his recorded legacy. He is one of those incredible,
super-sensitive people who excels at every artistic idiom and endeavor;
making wonderful music is just part of his flowing creativity. A
professor (at Rutgers University, earlier Dartmouth), he has much to
say about music and creativity as well as an impeccable gift for saying
it...sensibly. McNeill's writings on his musical experiences provide
invaluable documents of "the period" (late 1960s-1970s) as well as a
rare glimpse at the joy of a relatively unsung master.
McNeill has played with jazz legends --Andrew White (his longtime
collaborator/producer), Eric Dolphy, Sabu Martinez, Mulatu Astatke,
among many others-- and he has had a significant hand in the arts scene
of Washington, D.C. The major galleries of art, including those of the
Smithsonian, sponsored multi-media "happenings" that soared far above
the hippie caricature of acid rock with light show. During the first
flowering of post-Civil Rights, African-American culture, the Lloyd
McNeill Quartet's improvisitory, simultaneuous jazz and large-scale
painting "happened" while a lucky, perhaps unsuspecting public drank it
in.
McNeill believes his influences and their results in his art, music,
and poetry are inseparable and mutually reinforcing. Time spent with
Picasso in Cannes, 1965 led to new expressions in all three, for
instance. And when one brushes against a force such as Picasso, just
the idea of "meeting Picasso" has a certain momentum, never mind the
inevitable casting of rays of a different kind of light. Canvas, vinyl,
the stage, paper, and books of poetry offer a few key imprints of
McNeill, and McNeill consistently pays tribute to many illustrious
peers.
There are six albums, all produced and entirely under the artist's
control. Each title surpasses anything comparable on the major labels,
even Blue Note. The Black Jazz label may be roughly similar in style,
but Asha and Baobab are wholly Lloyd McNeill. The records reflect none
of the usual external trends from the decade in which they were
recorded; all sound like 1971 rather than 1979. The final record even
reprises the first (the exotic, broodingly moody "Asha"), and the sound
throughout remains somewhat interchangeable and timeless. But each
record has its own themes and currents, and even improvisation has its
signatures and fingerprints.
Buying: Long out of print, collectors items, Lloyd McNeill records
should be snapped up on sight. Hip Wax is pleased to offer two titles
for which limited stock remains [52]here.
Warning - McNeill lps can be damaging to the [53]wallet.
[54]29 comments made-how about you? 14.8.09
[55]If Spike Lee Did Movies In Audio...
Greg's back on the mix with his old mucker Monohub - another mashed up
bomb in memory of Coltrane and the late,great George Russell.Grab it
[56]HERE.
Here's the blurb from big daddy himself:
I did a version of this a while back and was planning to publish on
July 17th as a memorial to the day that John Coltrane died, but, a
combination of lack of time, work commitments and other things got in
the way...
Anyway I redid it and am glad that i did as it's much better than the
original. This one strictly for the heads... and defo not for the feint
hearted. If you liked the Black State of Vietnam mix then this is for
you...
So as i said; In respect of John Coltrane and George Russell. Much
thanks to Monohub too although he plays down his part in this, his
genius did have a lot to do with it...
[57]1 comments made-how about you? 3.8.09
[58]SADAO WATANABE AND CHARLIE MARIANO - IBERIAN WALTZ
Sadao and Charlie for Tact Japan from 1967.
Sadao Watanabe (as) , Charlie Mariano (as) , Masabumi Kikuchi (p) ,
Masanaga Harada (b) , Masahiko Togashi (ds) , Fumio Watanabe (ds)
This received a "Japan Jazz Award" on release.
Some severe blowing on this double alto led sextet featuring a young
band of soon to be Japanese jazz luminaries.
The fast and furious "Palisades" was comped on the Sleepwalker Shibuya
Jazz Classics.However the 16 minute title cut is the stand out tune an
intense modal waltz with a Spanish tinge featuring coruscating solos
from Mariano and Watanabe - hard core stuff.
Recommended.
[59]16 comments made-how about you? 28.7.09
[60]JAMES MARENTIC SEXTET - NIMBUS
James Marentic for Discovery from 1982.
James Marentic-Sax/Flute; Tom Harrell -Trumpet/Flugelhorn; Slide
Hampton-Trombone; Larry Willis-Piano; Anthony Cox-Bass; Victor
Lewis-Drums.
Storming post hard bop outing for Mr Marentic and his all star band.
Check out the banging latin romp "Baile de las Cucharachas " which
kicks off the lp in fine style and the Coltrane inspired "Nimbus".
"Aphrodesia" has the inspiration of Kenny Dorham stamped all over it
and no prizes for guessing who "Mr Silver I Presume" is aimed at
If you enjoyed Tom Harrell's "Aurora" post then this should be right up
your street,round your corner and down your block!
[61]8 comments made-how about you? 23.7.09
[62]CARTER JEFFERSON - THE RISE OF ATLANTIS
Carter Jefferson for Timeless from 1978.
Terrific post bop album with latin influences -All Killer No Filler!
John Hicks (Piano), Terumasa Hino (Trumpet), Woody Shaw (Producer),
Clint Houston (Bass), Victor Lewis (Drums),Carter Jefferson (Sax ),
Lani Groves (Vocals), Shunzo Ohno (Trumpet), Steve Thornton
(Percussion), Harry Whitaker (Piano)
Here's the customary underwhelming AMG review :
Tenor saxophonist Carter Jefferson made somewhat of a name for himself
when trumpeter Woody Shaw chose him as a member of his first working
quintet. Shaw is the producer of this album, Jefferson's fine debut
(and evidently only) recording as a leader. Taking a cue from Shaw, the
saxophonist sticks essentially to a quintet of trumpet and sax backed
by all-star rhythm sections. Three of the tracks include hard bop
trumpeter Terumasa Hino while the other three feature little-known
Japanese trumpeter Shunzo Ono. Most of the tunes are firmly in the
school of hard bop, the sort of music that Woody Shaw played so well.
While there is not any new ground broken, it is all performed
competently enough. While not as emotionally charged as his work with
Shaw, Jefferson impresses with a fluid, mobile attack that shows a
solid grasp of his material. If the groups seem to be sometimes merely
going through the motions, there are nonetheless enough fine moments to
make this a worthwhile purchase.AMG.
A reliable and advanced soloist who spent most of his career as a
sideman, Carter Jefferson is best-remembered for his association with
Woody Shaw during 1977-1980. Jefferson started on clarinet and played
alto before settling on tenor, going on tour early in the backup bands
of the Temptations, the Supremes, and Little Richard. In 1971, he moved
to New York to attend New York University and soon spent two years with
Mongo Santamaria and a period in 1973 as a member of Art Blakey's Jazz
Messengers. After his important stint with Woody Shaw (with whom he
recorded several times), Jefferson worked with many top players,
including Elvin Jones, Roy Haynes, Cedar Walton, Jerry Gonzalez & the
Fort Apache Band, Malachi Thompson, and Jack Walrath's Masters of
Suspense. His premature death in Poland after emergency surgery was a
major loss. Carter Jefferson only led one record, The Rise of Atlantis,
on the Timeless label in 1978. AMG.
[63]33 comments made-how about you? 10.7.09
[64]JULIO GUTIERREZ - PROGRESSIVE LATIN
Julio Gutierrez for Gema from 1960.
The title says it all for this groundbreaking heavyweight descarga
session...Highly recommended.
Has anyone out there got a copy of Gutierrez's "Havana BC" they want to
sell me?If so leave me a message in the comments.
Progressive Latin should be considered a classic of Latin jazz if it
isn't already. "Cosa Buena" cooks, and "Closing Time" is a slower bossa
nova with flute and horns that captures the mood of a good night out at
its end. "Yambambe," an Afro rhythm behind mostly piano, sounds more
sophisticated than its simple construction. "El Altiplano" is supposed
to be an Incan melody with Afro elements. In any case, vocal
interjections pave the way for a longer descarga where a variety of
intriguing elements (horns, flute piano, even organ) work together in
their own weird ways and combinations. The "Route 66" theme arrangement
is a coup; the sax and flute are recorded gorgeously, and the piano and
conga pace it ideally, with brief drum solo breaks. "Sad City" is a
haunting flute piece, while "Guantanamera" has an interesting change
but there is only so much one can expect from this tune. "Malaguena" is
another long descarga that gets a little wild. Progressive Latin is
something of a masterpiece from the great arranger Julio Gutierrez.
Tony Wilds
What impressed me most about this album is Julio's use of space and the
length of the tunes, considering that in the era when it was recorded,
2 1/2 minute tunes were standard. Great musicians like El Negro Vivar
(trumpet) and Chombo Silva (sax) were able to beautifully stretch out
over an almost post-bop/Afro-Cuban jazz setting. There is some serious
blowing on this disc. This is another essential Latin jazz gem from the
late 50s/early 60s.
Jose Rizo
[65]22 comments made-how about you? 4.7.09
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About Rhythmweb
A Grassroots Network
[dada01a.jpg] (at left: World Unity Drum Festival, Club Dada, Dallas,
August 1994. My son Jules, shown at age 12 at left)
Rhythmweb started in December of 1996, as a reflection of my virtual
search for music and musicians on the Web, and as an excuse to woodshed
web design. Since then we have been amazed by the reponse we have
recieved, from all corners of the globe. From the Mid-East to
Australia, and from South Africa to Europe to New Orleans to Brazil to
Papua, NewGuinea, musicians are connecting. Truly, rhythm is a
universal language, love of music a universal love. Thanks to all our
new friends for connecting with us.
Our mission is to further the use of rhythm, music, and percussion &
related arts as a healing tool. We LOVE music. We LOVE the Web. When
our schedule permits, we surf several [kids097.jpg] hours a night, then
we post the fruits of our travels...
Every time we meet someone interesting with a rhythm related website,
we post a link. Some very worthwhile friendships have evolved along the
way, and we've discovered lots of good music.
We have since integrated affiliate links to CDs, books, and so forth,
but our basic mission remains the same. We are NOT a bunch of suits,
drooling e-commerce. We're musicians, artists. We believe it's
important for people at the grassroots level to network during this
crucial moment in history. If you'll notice, the vast majority of links
on rhythmweb are GRASSROOTS musicians, trying to get over in this new
economy. You will see no big over-rated stars from the conglomerate
record companies. Plenty of that elsewhere.
[eric_october03-01b-225.jpg] There are also fan pages and correspondent
pages here, on a large number of working musicians. Thanks very much to
all for your help. We are actively seeking musicians in various parts
of the world to drop us a line now and then, and let us know what the
percussion scene is like in your area. If you have a drum lesson you'd
like to share with our readers, please let us know, and perhaps we can
steer you some traffic in return.
If you have an instrument, a CD, or a DVD you'd like for us to review,
we may do that too, time permitting; please drop us a line about it.
And to the thousands of hobbyist , semi-pro and professional
percussionists who come seeking info, and bringing life and enthusiasm,
welcome. Don't hesitate to introduce yourself, and send us some
feedback, and some links.
Drum on,
Stu
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Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With
Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from
Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications.
Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature
This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no
one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of
it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may
relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he
requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and
anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the
same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the
same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual
training, recitation, gymnastics, and play.
Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized
with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle
which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of
every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in
the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of
work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there
is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their
appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less
of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to
anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else
it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from
which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle
with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of
salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting
from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human
[40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important
changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality.
The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief
from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this
tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary
conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified
by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries. . . .
When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in
recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious
rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and
the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and
more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak.
Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with
instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is
laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of
activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to
elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to
primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which
threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving
mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. -
Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20.
. . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area
of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a
ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight
years in [42]duration are superposed.
. . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of
buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the
rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the
production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing
weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of
rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135.
Continue to:
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change, [50]democracy, [51]factors of society, [52]government,
[53]heredity, [54]human nature, [55]institutions, [56]location,
[57]natural selection, [58]organizations, [59]population, [60]primary
groups, [61]social classes
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Cultural
Towards Lefebvrian Socio-Nature? A Film about Rhythm, Nature and Science
By [17]James Evans and [18]Phil Jones, School of Environment and
Development, University of Manchester School of Geography, Earth and
Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham (April 2008)
__________________________________________________________________
Section: [19]Cultural
Subjects: [20]Environment And Society, [21]Geography, [22]Urban
Geography, [23]Cultural Geography.
Key Topics: [24]nature , [25]representation.
Abstract
The first thing you will notice about this article is that it is
actually a film. We did not set out to make a film, it just ended up
that way. We started out making music out of environmental data,
wondering why we only ever look at scientific data, why we do not
listen to it. Wandering around the city passing through the transformed
landscapes of channelised rivers and broken industrial spaces, we
wanted to reveal the socio-natural rhythms of this hybrid city. The
text you see below represents the shooting script for a film that
explores Lefebvre's notion of rhythmanalysis in the context of
socio-natural rhythms. The video accompanying it is far more
interesting, including the environmental music that we produced by
feeding scientific data through samplers and drum machines. The video
questions the nature of scientific representation and whether the
notion of rhythmanalysis can be stretched to explore rhythms beyond the
human. Furthermore, the process of actually making the video,
submitting it to this journal, and responding to the referees' comments
made us question the very nature of what constitutes an academic paper
in the twenty-first century. The accompanying commentary is our attempt
to deal with these issues.
To link to the film please go to
DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00107.x
This article abstract has been viewed 5348 times.
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* [42]The Environment of the City ... or the Urbanization of Nature
The question that now begins to gnaw at your mind is more
anguished: outside Penthesilea does an outside ...
By Erik Swyngedouw and Maria Kaïka
From [43]Companion to the City
* [44]Postcolonialism, Representation, and the City
Topicality, the essence of good journalism, is perhaps less
important for the longer-term perspectives ...
By Anthony D. King
From [45]Companion to the City
* [46]The Immaterial City: Representation, Imagination, and Media
Technologies
J.-K. Huysmans's À Rebours (Against Nature) is a fictional study of
a certain type of dandy in the latter ...
By James Donald
From [47]Companion to the City
* [48]The Production of Nature
It may seem strange to include a chapter on the production of
nature in a volume about economic geography. ...
By Noel Castree
From [49]A Companion to Economic Geography
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J Public Health Policy. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2008 July
24.
Published in final edited form as:
[7]J Public Health Policy. 2006; 27(1): 2-12.
doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200061.
PMCID: PMC2483431
NIHMSID: NIHMS58476
[8]Copyright notice and [9]Disclaimer
Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature
Elena N. Naumova^*
^*Address for Correspondence: Department of Public Health and Family
Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Avenue,
Boston, MA 02111, USA. E-mail: elena.naumova/at/tufts.edu
Small right arrow pointing to: The publisher's final edited version of
this article is available at [10]J Public Health Policy.
Small right arrow pointing to: See other articles in PMC that [11]cite
the published article.
Abstract
Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course
of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences.
Understanding seasonal fluctuations in diseases patterns presents us
with a major challenge. To develop efficient strategies for disease
prevention and control, we need to grasp the main determinants of
temporal variations and their interactions. This paper will introduce
the notion of seasonality by outlining several of its factors, using as
illustrations respiratory and enteric water- or food-borne infections.
Keywords: seasonality, water-borne infection, food-borne infection,
respiratory infection
* [12] Other Sectionsv
+ [13]Abstract
+ [14]Introduction
+ [15]Notion of Seasonality
+ [16]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [17]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [18]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [19]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [20]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [21]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [22]References
Introduction
Now let us consider the seasons and the way we can predict whether it
is going to be a healthy or an unhealthy year.
(Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 10)^[23]1
Seasonal fluctuations in birth and death, in sickness and health, are
the haunting mysteries of mankind. People have made predictions from
winds, tides, birds' migrations, spring blooms, sunsets, and
constellations in hope of grasping the future. The complexity and
uncertainty of ancient and modern means of prediction make us wonder to
what extent we are able to understand the rhythm of nature. One might
argue the future cannot be known, but from a practical point of view, a
better understanding of changes in disease occurrences is essential for
building efficient strategies for disease prevention and control.
Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course
of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences.
Since Hippocrates, observers worldwide have noted and documented marked
fluctuations in the incidence of many diseases. In the modern view, the
main determinants of temporal variations in disease manifestation are
evolving host susceptibility, periodicity in pathogen abundance and
transmissibility, and the ever-changing environment that can support or
repress a host or pathogen. Interactions among these factors
responsible for seasonal variation are interwoven into the intricate
fabric of life.
For many diseases, explanations for self-sustained oscillations still
remain elusive. We lack adequate methods and sufficient analytical
tools for comprehensive examination of seasonality in public health
field studies. A dearth of observations, recorded over long periods at
fine resolution, compounded by an enormous number of factors associated
with periodic changes, obscure our ability to understand disease
variation. Urgent need for effective strategies to prevent and control
a spread of emerging infections in the rapidly changing world, however,
demands a deeper insight into the cyclic nature of diseases.
This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality and outline several
factors associated with seasonality using as illustrations enteric
water- or food-borne infections and respiratory infections. Then I
propose a framework for systematic evaluation of seasonal oscillations.
In every part of this presentation, and most importantly, I wish to
stimulate discussion on this challenging topic.
* [24] Other Sectionsv
+ [25]Abstract
+ [26]Introduction
+ [27]Notion of Seasonality
+ [28]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [29]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [30]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [31]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [32]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [33]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [34]References
Notion of Seasonality
Every disease occurs at any season of the year but some of them more
frequently occur and are of greater severity at certain times.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 19)
Seasonality, as noted above, refers to the cyclic appearance of events
over a period of time. A seasonal pattern may appear as a tight cluster
of isolated outbreaks that occurred during a relatively short time
period, then spreading over a wide geographic area.
For example, in a temporal curve of enteric infection cases (i.e.
giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, or rotavirus infections), a compact
cluster of outbreaks is followed by a long interval of low incidence.
Systematic recurrence of such sequences forms a seasonal pattern
typical of a specific pathogen in a given population and in a given
locality. A seasonal increase in enteric or respiratory infection often
produces a well-defined oscillating curve that starts to rise in one
season and declines over the next one.
The three main features characterize seasonality:
* a point in time when a seasonal curve reaches its maximum,
* an amplitude from peak to nadir, and
* a duration of a seasonal increase defined by a shape of a curve.
(The shape of a seasonal pattern reflects how fast a temporal curve
reaches its peak and declines to nadir over a course of a full
cycle. Depending on the length of a cycle whether it is one year or
a half of a year, a seasonal curve would have one or two peaks.)
Seasonal patterns, described by these three characteristics, may vary
for different diseases, different locations, or different
subpopulations. Many viral and bacterial infections in humans show
marked seasonal changes. In some diseases, like salmonellosis and
influenza, annual oscillations explain up to 60% of variability. Such
impact should not be ignored and deserves a proper examination.
* [35] Other Sectionsv
+ [36]Abstract
+ [37]Introduction
+ [38]Notion of Seasonality
+ [39]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [40]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [41]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [42]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [43]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [44]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [45]References
Diseases Seasonal Patterns
Diseases vary in their relationships one with another; some are
opposed, some are mutually agreeable.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 3)
Differences in diseases peaks reflect different etiology, heterogeneity
in host susceptibility, or route of transmission. In temperate
climates, Campylobacter and Salmonella infections are known to rise in
summer, giardiasis in early fall, and rotavirus infection in
mid-winter, etc. Interestingly, for the same infectious agent,
infections recorded in two different locations may present a different
pattern of incidence. A seasonal pattern for cryptosporidiosis in the
United States exhibits one late summer peak ([46]1); in contrast, in
the United Kingdom, two seasonal peaks are seen ([47]2). The UK picture
reflects two dominant sources of exposure: one from animals in the late
spring, and another from humans in the fall ([48]3).
Close temporal clustering of seasonal peaks in diseases that share
similar sources of exposure suggests dominant routes of transmissions.
Peaks in water-borne cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis often cluster
after a summer peak in ambient temperature. Such synchronization in
disease manifestation can be governed by environmental and social
factors. In some instances, periodicity of a given infection observed
in a particular population may be not present in another. A seasonal
peak in cryptosporidiosis cases observed in the general population is
not apparent in the immunocompromized HIV-positive gay men, even though
the incidence of cryptosporidiosis in HIV-positive population is very
high. This suggests differences in dominant routes of transmission.
Seasonal patterns can change over time. After intense vaccination
campaigns in the 1950s and 1970s in the United Kingdom, the patterns of
measles and pertussis changed, with the high rates of disease usually
seen when children were attending school diminishing for measles and
practically disappearing for pertusis ([49]4). Explanations for these
phenomena remain elusive. A departure from a systematically observed
pattern could reflect the evolution of a pathogen or a change in herd
immunity. A simple rule to remember is that a discovery hides in
outliers.
Faced with an abundance of causal agents, a bare observation of a rise
in the incidence of non-specific enteritis should be interpreted with
caution. A seasonal pattern can represent a mix of temporal curves.
Imagine two periodic curves of similar intensity, but one peaks in a
spring and another in a fall; the sum of these two curves might lose
the appearance of seasonality, covering two distinctly seasonal
phenomena.
Some infections are very rare. Their seasonal patterns are difficult to
examine because the relevant data must be collected over a very long
time and/or aggregated over large spatial units. Precision in
evaluating seasonality can thus be jeopardized by time-dependent and/or
space-dependent confounders.
Seasonal fluctuations can be found beyond infectious diseases; chronic
somatic diseases also exhibit substantial temporal variations.
Plausibly, exacerbations in chronic conditions are driven by infectious
agents or environmental changes. Understanding the interplay of an
infection and a chronic disease may lead to better control for both.
* [50] Other Sectionsv
+ [51]Abstract
+ [52]Introduction
+ [53]Notion of Seasonality
+ [54]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [55]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [56]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [57]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [58]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [59]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [60]References
Seasonal Host Susceptibility
When the weather is seasonable and the crops ripen at the regular
times, diseases are regular in their appearance...
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 8)
Poor nutrition directly affects host susceptibility. In places of food
scarcity, researchers suspect that temporal patterns in birth weight
and preterm delivery result from seasonal variations in food
availability ([61]5). In general, due to a less developed immune
system, young children are susceptible to infection; their immune
response may be further weakened by seasonal cutbacks in essential
micronutrients and vitamins.
Anemnestic responses to an antigen determine whether an infection
recurs. Short-lived immune memory together with seasonal changes in
pathogen transmissibility contribute further to the complexity of
seasonal patterns. Even a perfectly healthy person can experience a
change in susceptibility to infection due to stress, injuries, or
trauma. The probability of a marked impact of such factors on disease
seasonality is virtually unknown.
* [62] Other Sectionsv
+ [63]Abstract
+ [64]Introduction
+ [65]Notion of Seasonality
+ [66]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [67]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [68]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [69]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [70]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [71]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [72]References
Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
Some diseases are produced by the manner of life that is followed;
others by the life-giving air we breathe.
(Hippocrates. The Nature of Man, 9)
Temperature, humidity, and precipitation -- the defining factors of
seasons -- are important determinants of pathogens' survival. Changes
influence pathogens' potency and life expectancy, resulting in temporal
fluctuations in pathogens' abundance. In many instances, seasonal
changes in pathogen survival and transmission are inseparably related
to both biological and social aspects of our lives. They are
synchronized by weather. High ambient temperature, for example,
provides a supportive environment for food-borne pathogens, favoring
their multiplication in food and on food preparation surfaces ([73]6).
Food contamination is believed to be a significant mode of transmission
for infections caused by Salmonella and Campylobacter ([74]7);
therefore, during warm weather, the risk for food-borne diseases
increases ([75]8).
Seasonal changes in level of contamination, availability of potable
water, sanitation and hygiene practices, as well as crowding and
person-to-person contacts, affect pathogens' transmissibility.
Worldwide, water use differs from season to season ([76]9). In
temperate climates, warm weather leads to higher water consumption and
encourages outdoor activities -- swimming, camping, and recreational
water use. In tropical regions, contamination of surface water
increases during wet seasons. Although spread of pathogens via food is
certainly possible, contaminated water is the dominant source of
exposure for enteric infections caused by protozoa Cryptosporidium and
Giardia ([77]10 --[78]12). Depending on locality, outbreaks of
cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis associated with drinking or
recreational water frequently occur during warm or wet seasons
([79]13,[80]14).
With the onset of cooler weather, the "heating season" marks a change
in indoor air quality. Inadequate and poorly designed ventilation in
crowded public places and urban transit systems may boost exposure to
air-borne pathogens by increasing their concentration in stagnant air
and by re-circulating contaminated air. Higher relative humidity may
also affect the stability of air-borne droplets in which viruses travel
from person to person.
* [81] Other Sectionsv
+ [82]Abstract
+ [83]Introduction
+ [84]Notion of Seasonality
+ [85]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [86]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [87]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [88]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [89]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [90]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [91]References
Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
You will find, as a general rule, that the constitutions and the habits
of a people follow the nature of the land where they live.
(Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 24)
Diseases do not watch calendars. Their incidence rises and falls
because of changes in factors associated with the diseases. However, in
every culture all social events are synchronized by calendars; and
every calendar reflects the cyclic rhythm of nature.
Traditional celebrations and gatherings observed by communities
according to calendars affect pathogen transmission. Holidays, social
activities, and seasonal travel are often associated with changes in
food consumption and preparation, and are therefore associated with
changes in disease incidence. Preparing meat on a barbecue increases
the risk of Campylobacter infection ([92]15,[93]16) and foreign travel
increases the risk for enteric infections. Aggregation of children in
schools, daycare centers, and summer camps, reflecting school
calendars, facilitates rapid exchange of pathogens. There are marked
seasonal variations in transmission, and thus the incidence of enteric
and respiratory infections.
* [94] Other Sectionsv
+ [95]Abstract
+ [96]Introduction
+ [97]Notion of Seasonality
+ [98]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [99]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [100]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [101]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [102]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [103]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [104]References
Climate Change, Extreme Weather Events, and Disease Seasonality
The changes of the seasons are especially liable to beget diseases, as
are great changes from heat to cold, or cold to heat in any season.
Other changes in the weather have similarly severe effects.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 1)
As weather affects human health by creating favorable conditions for
pathogen proliferation and transmission, severe weather can affect the
timing and intensity of infectious outbreaks, and natural disasters
lead to drastic changes in population structure and pathogen ecology.
Catastrophic events like tsunamis, hurricanes, devastating floods, and
heat waves that cause deaths, population displacement, and
infrastructural damage may have dramatic effects on the incidence of
infections and their seasonal patterns.
Recent work has shown highly significant associations between extreme
precipitation and water-borne disease outbreaks ([105]17). Heavy
precipitation, rapid snowmelt, and floods flush animal wastes from the
land into surface waters and may overwhelm drinking and wastewater
treatment systems. The latter leads to discharges in watersheds of
untreated human wastes. As a result, pathogens can appear in drinking
and recreational water in very high concentrations ([106]18,[107]19). A
rapid snowmelt, resultant runoff, and filtration system failure at the
overloaded local drinking water treatment plant were implicated in the
largest known water-borne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis, which occurred
in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1993 ([108]20). This outbreak happened in
April, not within the usual seasonal peak for cryptosporidiosis cases.
A flood, which also resulted from a rapid snowmelt, has been linked
with a similar increased incidence of diarrhea ([109]21).
Experts expect that global climate change will increase climate
variability and the frequency of extreme precipitation events in
temperate regions ([110]22,[111]23). "Global warming" may also increase
the frequency and magnitude of other extreme weather events, such as
heat waves and droughts, and thereby have profound effects on public
health ([112]24,[113]25). In a comprehensive study conducted in the
United Kingdom that described a short-term link between temperature and
food poisoning, the authors also hypothesized that climate change could
lead to changes in rates of food poisoning ([114]26).
Integration of environmental parameters into disease forecasting and
warning systems could allow public health officials to alert the
populace when specific meteorological conditions pose predictable risks
to health ([115]27). Simple messages about proper food preparation and
refrigeration and the risks of using contaminated recreational waters
could, for example, be provided before, during, and after extreme
events. Better understanding of disease seasonality would also help to
predict outbreaks of infections triggered by climate variability.
* [116] Other Sectionsv
+ [117]Abstract
+ [118]Introduction
+ [119]Notion of Seasonality
+ [120]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [121]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [122]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [123]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [124]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [125]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [126]References
Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy
to Public Health Thinking
Desperate cases need the most desperate remedies.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, I, 6)
At first, seasonal fluctuations should be systematically described.
This requires a framework with sound definitions and analytic tools
suitable for routine use by public health professionals. In public
health sciences, the existing methodology currently lacks methods and
tests for assessing complex interactions in the time-dependent factors
responsible for disease seasonality.
Next, reliable data with fine temporal resolution are a must. The vast
majority of epidemiological studies have examined seasonal patterns of
infections using quarterly or monthly data. This coarse temporal
aggregation can thwart an otherwise detailed, accurate, and
comprehensive analysis of seasonal patterns and may even be misleading
([127]28). Examination of daily or weekly rates can substantially
improve evaluation of seasonal curves, but a systematic approach for
using at least weekly aggregates is needed.
Finally, reluctance to apply sophisticated mathematical models in
public health studies must be overcome. Underlying processes in disease
manifestation and spread are complex and multifaceted. Causal pathways
are often obscured. To disentangle causal effects of many factors
within the circular processes of self-sustaining oscillations demands
the careful building of sound conceptual models of seasonality; models
that can be tested. The emerging fields of computational epidemiology
and intelligent data mining will complement established work in
philosophy of science and mathematical biology to become an essential
part of thinking in public health and policy.
Acknowledgments
I thank Drs Eileen O'Neil and Beth Rosenberg for their thoughtful
suggestions, and the support of funding agencies: the National
Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (U19AI062627), and the
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R01ES013171).
Footnotes
^1Hippocrates' citations are taken from: Lloyd, GER, editor.
Hippocratic Writings. Trans. Chadwick J and Mann WN. London: Penguin;
1978.
* [128] Other Sectionsv
+ [129]Abstract
+ [130]Introduction
+ [131]Notion of Seasonality
+ [132]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [133]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [134]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [135]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [136]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [137]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [138]References
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* [176]Taxonomy
* [177]Taxonomy Tree
* [178]Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial
variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis.
Public Health Rep. 2000 Sep-Oct; 115(5):436-47.
[Public Health Rep. 2000]
* [179]Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in
cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance
system in 1990-1999.
J Water Health. 2005 Jun; 3(2):185-96.
[J Water Health. 2005]
* [180]Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in
the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in
1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from
livestock animals.
J Clin Microbiol. 2000 Nov; 38(11):3984-90.
[J Clin Microbiol. 2000]
[181]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [182]A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between
rural Zaire and Ontario.
Can J Public Health. 1989 May-Jun; 80(3):205-8.
[Can J Public Health. 1989]
[183]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [184]Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces
and cross-contamination to foods.
Int J Food Microbiol. 2003 Aug 25; 85(3):227-36.
[Int J Food Microbiol. 2003]
* [185]ReviewFood-related illness and death in the United States.
Emerg Infect Dis. 1999 Sep-Oct; 5(5):607-25.
[Emerg Infect Dis. 1999]
* [186]The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series
analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries.
Epidemiol Infect. 2004 Jun; 132(3):443-53.
[Epidemiol Infect. 2004]
[187]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [188]A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with
the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study).
Water Sci Technol. 2001; 43(12):39-48.
[Water Sci Technol. 2001]
* [189]ReviewReview of epidemiological studies on health effects from
exposure to recreational water.
Int J Epidemiol. 1998 Feb; 27(1):1-9.
[Int J Epidemiol. 1998]
* [190]ReviewGiardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their
impact on foods: a review.
J Food Prot. 1999 Sep; 62(9):1059-70.
[J Food Prot. 1999]
* [191]Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks--United States,
1997-1998.
MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000 May 26; 49(4):1-21.
[MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000]
[192]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [193]Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of
a case-control study in southeastern Norway.
J Clin Microbiol. 1992 Dec; 30(12):3117-21.
[J Clin Microbiol. 1992]
* [194]A case-control study of risk factors for sporadic
campylobacter infections in Denmark.
Epidemiol Infect. 2003 Jun; 130(3):353-66.
[Epidemiol Infect. 2003]
[195]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [196]The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne
disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948-1994.
Am J Public Health. 2001 Aug; 91(8):1194-9.
[Am J Public Health. 2001]
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Parasitol Res. 2002 Nov; 88(11):998-1003.
[Parasitol Res. 2002]
* [198]Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during
extreme rainfall and runoff.
Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002 May; 68(5):2188-97.
[Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002]
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transmitted through the public water supply.
N Engl J Med. 1994 Jul 21; 331(3):161-7.
[N Engl J Med. 1994]
* [200]Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the
incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms?
Am J Epidemiol. 2004 Feb 15; 159(4):398-405.
[Am J Epidemiol. 2004]
[201]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [202]ReviewVulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change
in Canada: a review.
J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004 Oct 22-Nov 26; 67(20-22):1667-77.
[J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004]
* [203]Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases.
JAMA. 1996 Jan 17; 275(3):217-23.
[JAMA. 1996]
* [204]Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England
and Wales.
Int J Biometeorol. 1995 Nov; 39(2):81-6.
[Int J Biometeorol. 1995]
[205]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [206]ReviewA stitch in time: improving public health early warning
systems for extreme weather events.
Epidemiol Rev. 2005; 27():115-21.
[Epidemiol Rev. 2005]
[207]See more articles cited in this paragraph
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Circadian rhythm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search
"Human clock" redirects here. For the online clock, see [8]Humanclock.
Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological
parameters.
A circadian rhythm is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical,
physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including
[9]plants, [10]animals, [11]fungi and [12]cyanobacteria (see
[13]bacterial circadian rhythms). The term "circadian", coined by
[14]Franz Halberg,^[15][1] comes from the [16]Latin [17]circa,
"around", and diem or dies, "day", meaning literally "approximately one
day". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily,
[18]tidal, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called
[19]chronobiology.
Circadian rhythms are [20]endogenously generated, and can be entrained
by external cues, called [21]zeitgebers, the primary one of which is
[22]daylight.
Contents
* [23]1 History
* [24]2 Criteria
* [25]3 Origin
* [26]4 Importance in animals
+ [27]4.1 Impact of light-dark cycle
+ [28]4.2 Arctic animals
+ [29]4.3 Butterfly migration
* [30]5 Biological clock in mammals
+ [31]5.1 Determining the human circadian rhythm
+ [32]5.2 Outside the "master clock"
* [33]6 Light and the biological clock
* [34]7 Enforced longer cycles
* [35]8 Human health
+ [36]8.1 Disruption
+ [37]8.2 Effect of drugs
* [38]9 See also
* [39]10 References
+ [40]10.1 Bibliography
+ [41]10.2 Notes
* [42]11 External links
[[43]edit] History
The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th
century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under
[44]Alexander the Great, described [45]diurnal leaf movements of the
[46]tamarind tree.^[47][2] The first modern observation of endogenous
circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [48]Jean-Jacques
d'Ortous de Mairan in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the
movement of the leaves of the plant [49]Mimosa pudica continued even
when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
In 1918, J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining
24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light
and changes in temperature.^[50][3] [51]Joseph Takahashi discovered the
genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.^[52][4]^[53][5]
[[54]edit] Criteria
To differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from
coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met: 1)
the rhythms persist in the absence of cues, 2) they persist equally
precisely over a range of temperatures, and 3) the rhythms can be
adjusted to match the local time:
* The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant
dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this
criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those "apparent"
rhythms that are merely responses to external periodic cues. A
rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been
tested in conditions without external periodic input.
* The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e., it maintains the same
period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this
criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological
rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway.
At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a
circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely
coincidental.
* The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The
rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms
from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to
resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of
estimating the local time. Travel across [55]time zones illustrates
the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that
it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next.
Until rhythms are reset, a person usually experiences [56]jet lag.
[[57]edit] Origin
[58]Question book-new.svg
This section needs additional [59]citations for [60]verification.
Please help [61]improve this article by adding [62]reliable references.
Unsourced material may be [63]challenged and [64]removed. (October
2007)
Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have
originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the
replicating of DNA from high [65]ultraviolet radiation during the
daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus
[66]Neurospora, which exists today, retains this [67]clock-regulated
mechanism.
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise
and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to
the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in
regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in
coordinating with the environment.^[68][6] This is suggested by the
maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after
several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,^[69][7]
as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the
experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian
rhythms in quail.^[70][8]
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic
[71]cyanobacteria. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian
clock of Synechococcus elongatus can be reconstituted in vitro with
just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has
been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the
addition of [72]ATP. Previous explanations of the [73]prokaryotic
circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription /
translation feedback mechanism.
It is an unanswered question whether circadian clocks in eukaryotic
organisms require translation/transcription-derived oscillations, for,
although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the
same basic architecture (input - [74]central oscillator - output), they
do not share any [75]homology. This implies probable independent
origins.
In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [76]Seymour Benzer first identified a
genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a
model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behaviour:
one had a shorter period, another had a longer one, and the third had
none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named
[77]period.^[78][9] The same gene was identified to be defective in the
sleep disorder FASPS ([79]Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome) in
human beings thirty years later, underscoring the conserved nature of
the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic
components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions
result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in
periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a
specific time of the day.
A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter
half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian
clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is
cell-autonomous.^[80][10] At the same time, different cells may
communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of
electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the
brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for
these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronize the
peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time
of the day as relayed by the [81]eyes travels to the clock in the
brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be
synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body
temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the
biological clock.
[[82]edit] Importance in animals
Circadian rhythmicity is present in the [83]sleeping and feeding
patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear
patterns of core body temperature, [84]brain wave activity, [85]hormone
production, cell regeneration and other biological activities. In
addition, [86]photoperiodism, the physiological reaction of organisms
to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and
the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation
of day length.
" Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food
availability or predator activity is crucial for survival of many
species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the
photoperiod ('daylength') is the most predictive environmental cue for
the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing
of migration, hibernation and reproduction.^[87][11] "
[[88]edit] Impact of light-dark cycle
The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals, including
humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function
with a [89]freerunning rhythm. Each "day", their sleep cycle is pushed
back or forward, depending on whether their [90]endogenous period is
shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that each day
reset the rhythms are called [91]Zeitgebers (from the German, Time
Givers).^[92][12] It is interesting to note that totally-blind
subterranean mammals (e.g., [93]blind mole rat Spalax sp.) are able to
maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external
stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors
(detect light) are still functional; as well, they do surface
periodically.^[[94]citation needed]
Freerunning organisms that normally have one consolidated sleep episode
will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues,
but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light/dark
cycle in nature. The sleep-wake rhythm may, in these circumstances,
become out of phase with other circadian or [95]ultradian rhythms such
as [96]temperature and [97]digestion.^[[98]citation needed]
Recent research has influenced the design of [99]spacecraft
environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been
found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.^[[100]citation needed]
[[101]edit] Arctic animals
Norwegian researchers at the [102]University of Tromsø have shown that
some Arctic animals ([103]ptarmigan, [104]reindeer) show circadian
rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and
sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at [105]70 degrees North
showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter, and spring, but not in
the summer. Reindeer at [106]78 degrees North showed such rhythms only
autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other Arctic animals as
well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and
the constant dark of winter.^[107][13]^[108][14]
However, another study in northern Alaska found that [109]ground
squirrels and [110]porcupines strictly maintained their circadian
rhythms through 82 days and nights of sunshine. The researchers
speculate that these two small mammals see that the apparent distance
between the sun and the horizon is shortest once a day, and, thus, a
sufficient signal to adjust by.^[111][15]
[[112]edit] Butterfly migration
The navigation of the fall migration of the [113]Eastern North American
monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) to their overwintering grounds in
central Mexico uses a time-compensated sun compass that depends upon a
circadian clock in their antennae.^[114][16]^[115][17]
[[116]edit] Biological clock in mammals
Diagram illustrating the influence of light and darkness on circadian
rhythms and related [117]physiology and behaviour through the
[118]suprachiasmatic nucleus in humans.
The primary circadian "clock" in [119]mammals is located in the
[120]suprachiasmatic nucleus (or nuclei) ([121]SCN), a pair of distinct
groups of [122]cells located in the [123]hypothalamus. Destruction of
the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep-wake rhythm.
The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The
[124]retina of the eyes contains not only "classical"
[125]photoreceptors but also photoresponsive retinal [126]ganglion
cells. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called
[127]melanopsin, follow a pathway called the [128]retinohypothalamic
tract, leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and
cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external
cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on the lengths of the day
and night from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the
[129]pineal gland, a tiny structure shaped like a [130]pine cone and
located on the [131]epithalamus. In response the pineal secretes the
hormone [132]melatonin. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs
during the day and its presence provides information about
night-length.
The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter
and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard
have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a
23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural
solar day-night cycle on the planet [133]Mars).^[134][18]
[[135]edit] Determining the human circadian rhythm
The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's
circadian rhythm are
* melatonin secretion by the pineal gland and
* core body temperature.
For temperature studies, people must remain awake but calm and
semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are
taken continuously. The average human adult's temperature reaches its
minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake
time, though variation is great among normal [136]chronotypes.
Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime.
Its onset in dim light, dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO), at about
21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Its major
[137]metabolite can also be measured in morning urine. Both DLMO and
the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or
saliva have been used as circadian markers.
However, newer research indicates that the melatonin offset may be the
most reliable marker. Benloucif et al. in Chicago in 2005 found that
melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated
with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found
that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly
correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In
addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable
and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.^[138][19]
One method used for measuring melatonin offset is to analyse a sequence
of urine samples throughout the morning for the presence of the
melatonin [139]metabolite 6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s). Laberge et al.
in Quebec in 1997 used this method in a study that confirmed the
frequently found delayed circadian phase in healthy
adolescents.^[140][20]
[[141]edit] Outside the "master clock"
More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and
cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the "master
clock". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the
[142]oesophagus, [143]lungs, [144]liver, [145]pancreas, [146]spleen,
[147]thymus, and the [148]skin.^[149][21] Though oscillators in the
skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven so
far.^[150][22]^[151][23] There is some evidence that also the olfactory
bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting
that also these structures may be weak oscillators.
Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding
rather than to [152]light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to
have freerunning rhythms.
[[153]edit] Light and the biological clock
Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [154]phase
response curve (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or
delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required
[155]illuminance vary from species to species and lower light levels
are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm in humans are higher than
the levels usually used in artificial lighting in homes. According to
some researchers^[156][24] the illumination intensity that excites the
circadian system has to reach up to 1000 [157]lux striking the retina.
In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or colour) of light is a
factor in the entrainment of the body clock. [158]Melanopsin is most
efficiently excited by blue light, 420-440 nm^[159][25] according to
some researchers while others have reported 470-485 nm.
It is thought that the direction of the light may have an effect on
entraining the circadian rhythm;^[160][24] light coming from above,
resembling an image of a bright sky, has greater effect than light
entering our eyes from below.
[[161]edit] Enforced longer cycles
Modern research under very controlled conditions has shown the human
period for adults to be just slightly longer than 24 hours on average.
Czeisler et al. at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults
of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes.
The "clock" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's
rotation.^[162][26]
The 28-hour day is presented as a concept of [163]time
management.^[164][27] It builds on the fact that the week of seven days
at 24 hours and a "week" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of
168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require
staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours.
Each "day" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern.
Studies by [165]Nathaniel Kleitman^[166][28] in 1938 and by
[167]Derk-Jan Dijk and [168]Charles Czeisler^[169][29]^[170][30] in
1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep-wake cycles,
in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a
month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day,^[171][31]
this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake
episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about
24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of
circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including
[172]sleep latency and other functions.^[173][32]
Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people
preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli
like daylight and timekeeping. Early investigators determined the human
circadian period to be 25 hours or more. They went to great lengths to
shield subjects from time cues and daylight, but they were not aware of
the effects of indoor electric lights. The subjects were allowed to
turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted
to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase.
These results became well known.^[174][26] Researchers allowed subjects
to keep electric lighting on in the evening, as it was thought at that
time that a couple of 60W bulbs would not have a resetting effect on
the circadian rhythms of humans. More recent research^[[175]citation
needed] has shown that adults have a built-in day, which averages just
over 24 hours, that indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms and
that most people attain their best-quality sleep during their
[176]chronotype-determined sleep periods.
[[177]edit] Human health
Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may
significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse
reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with
[178]angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) may reduce
nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [179]left ventricular
(reverse) remodelling.^[[180]citation needed]
A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms.
A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during
the day, a [181]power-nap, does not have any effect on normal circadian
rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve
productivity.^[182][33]^[183][34]
There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the
human circadian rhythm, such as [184]seasonal affective disorder (SAD),
[185]delayed sleep phase syndrome (DSPS) and other [186]circadian
rhythm disorders.^[187][35] Circadian rhythms also play a part in the
[188]reticular activating system, which is crucial for maintaining a
state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep-wake cycle
may be a sign or complication of [189]uremia,^[190][36] [191]azotemia
or [192]acute renal failure.
[[193]edit] Disruption
Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers
have experienced the condition known as [194]jet lag, with its
associated symptoms of [195]fatigue, disorientation and [196]insomnia.
A number of other disorders, for example [197]bipolar disorder and some
[198]sleep disorders, are associated with irregular or pathological
functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that
circadian rhythm disturbances found in [199]bipolar disorder are
positively influenced by [200]lithium's effect on clock
genes.^[201][37]
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have
significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside
the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of
cardiovascular disease [202][2] The suppression of melatonin production
associated with the disruption of the circadian rhythm may increase the
risk of developing cancer.^[203][38]^[204][39]
[[205]edit] Effect of drugs
Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside
the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such
as [206]cocaine.^[207][40]^[208][41] Moreover, genetic manipulations of
clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.^[209][42]
[[210]edit] See also
* [211]Actigraphy (also known as Actimetry)
* [212]Advanced sleep phase syndrome
* [213]ARNTL
* [214]ARNTL2
* [215]Bacterial circadian rhythms
* [216]Chronobiology
* [217]Chronotype
* [218]Circadian oscillator
* [219]Circadian rhythm sleep disorders
* [220]Cryptochrome
* [221]CRY1 and [222]CRY2, the cryptochrome family genes
* [223]Delayed sleep phase syndrome
* [224]Diurnal cycle
* [225]Jet lag
* [226]Light effects on circadian rhythm
* [227]PER1, [228]PER2, and [229]PER3, the period family genes
* [230]Power-nap
[[231]edit] References
[[232]edit] Bibliography
* Aschoff J (ed.) (1965) Circadian Clocks. North Holland Press,
Amsterdam
* Avivi A, Albrecht U, Oster H, Joel A, Beiles A, Nevo E. 2001.
Biological clock in total darkness: the Clock/MOP3 circadian system
of the blind subterranean mole rat. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
98:13751-13756.
* Avivi A, Oster H, Joel A, Beiles A, Albrecht U, Nevo E. 2002.
Circadian genes in a blind subterranean mammal II: conservation and
uniqueness of the three Period homologs in the blind subterranean
mole rat, Spalax ehrenbergi superspecies. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
99:11718-11723.
* Ditty JL, Williams SB, Golden SS (2003) A cyanobacterial circadian
timing mechanism. Annu Rev Genet 37:513-543
* Dunlap JC, Loros J, DeCoursey PJ (2003) Chronobiology: Biological
Timekeeping. Sinauer, Sunderland
* Dvornyk V, Vinogradova ON, Nevo E (2003) Origin and evolution of
circadian clock genes in prokaryotes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
100:2495-2500
* Koukkari WL, Sothern RB (2006) Introducing Biological Rhythms.
Springer, New York
* Martino T, Arab S, Straume M, Belsham DD, Tata N, Cai F, Liu P,
Trivieri M, Ralph M, Sole MJ. Day/night rhythms in gene expression
of the normal murine heart. J Mol Med. 2004 Apr;82(4):256-64. Epub
2004 Feb 24. PMID: 14985853
* Refinetti R (2006) Circadian Physiology, 2nd ed. CRC Press, Boca
Raton
* Takahashi JS, Zatz M (1982) Regulation of circadian rhythmicity.
Science 217:1104-1111
* Tomita J, Nakajima M, Kondo T, Iwasaki H (2005) No
transcription-translation feedback in circadian rhythm of KaiC
phosphorylation. Science 307: 251-254
* Moore-Ede, Martin C., Sulszman, Frank M., and Fuller, Charles A.
(1982) "The Clocks that Time Us: Physiology of the Circadian Timing
System." Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. [233]ISBN
0-674-13581-4.
[[234]edit] Notes
Centre
2. [237]^ Bretzl H. Botaniche Forchungen des Alexanderzuges. Leipzig:
Teubner, 1903.
3. [238]^ Danchin, Antoine. [239]"Important dates 1900-1919".
HKU-Pasteur Research Centre (Paris).
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4. [241]^ "Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock".
Chicago Tribune. April 29, 1994.
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Lowrey, P.L.; McDonald, J.D.; Dove, W.F.; Pinto, L.H. et al.
(1994). "Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential
for circadian behavior.". Science 264 (264): 719-725.
[243]doi:[244]10.1126/science.8171325.
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circadian clocks" (Abstract). Chronobiology international 20 (6):
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[250]0742-0528. [251]PMID [252]14680135.
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[348]"Renal Failure, Acute". eMedicine from WebMD.
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[[372]edit] External links
* [373]Circadian rhythm at the [374]Open Directory Project
* Leloup J.C. (2009). "Circadian clocks and phosphorylation: Insights
from computational modeling". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 4 (3): 290-303.
[375]doi:[376]10.2478/s11535-009-0025-1.
* Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A (2007). "Evolutionary mechanisms
of circadian clocks". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 2 (2): 233-253.
[377]doi:[378]10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z.
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January 2, 2006
Universal Timing
Life's Natural Rhythm
Nature's natural rhythms orchestrate when day turns to night, when
flowers must bloom, and provides the cue for when it is time for red
and brown leaves to fall from trees. As human beings, our own inner
rhythm is attuned to this universal sense of timing. Guided by the
rising and setting of the sun, changes in temperature, and our own
internal rhythm, we know when it is time to sleep, eat, or be active.
While our minds and spirits are free to focus on other pursuits, our
breath and our heartbeat are always there to remind us of life's
pulsing rhythm that moves within and around us.
Moving to this rhythm, we know when it is time to stop working and when
to rest. Pushing our bodies to work beyond their natural rhythm
diminishes our ability to renew and recharge. A feeling much like jet
lag lets us know when we've overridden our own natural rhythm. When we
feel the frantic calls of all we want to accomplish impelling us to
move faster than is natural for us, we may want to breathe deeply
instead and look at nature moving to its own organic timing: birds
flying south, leaves shedding, or snow falling. A walk in nature can
also let us re-attune is to her organic rhythm, while allowing us to
move back in time with our own. When we move to our natural rhythm, we
can achieve all we need to do with less effort.
We may even notice that our soul moves to its own internal, natural
rhythm - especially when it comes to our personal evolution. Comparing
ourselves to others is unnecessary. Our best guide is to move to our
own internal timing, while keeping time with the rhythm of nature.
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Rhythm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search
For other uses, see [8]Rhythm (disambiguation).
Rhythm (from [9]greek rhuthµo'*s - rhythmos, "any measured flow or
movement, symmetry") is the variation of the length and accentuation of
a series of sounds or other events.
Contents
* [10]1 Rhythm in linguistics
* [11]2 Origins of human appreciation of rhythm
* [12]3 Rhythm notation and the oral tradition
+ [13]3.1 African music
+ [14]3.2 Indian music
+ [15]3.3 Western music
* [16]4 Types
* [17]5 See also
* [18]6 Notes
* [19]7 Sources
* [20]8 Further reading
[[21]edit] Rhythm in linguistics
The study of rhythm, stress, and [22]pitch in [23]speech is called
[24]prosody; it is a topic in [25]linguistics. Narmour (1980,
p. 147-53) describes three categories of prosodic rules which create
rhythmic successions which are additive (same duration repeated),
cumulative (short-long), or countercumulative (long-short). Cumulation
is associated with closure or relaxation, countercumulation with
openness or tension, while additive rhythms are open-ended and
repetitive. Richard Middleton points out this method cannot account for
[26]syncopation and suggests the concept of [27]transformation.
A [28]rhythmic unit is a [29]durational pattern which occupies a period
of time equivalent to a [30]pulse or pulses on an underlying [31]metric
level, as opposed to a [32]rhythmic gesture which does not (DeLone et
al. (Eds.), 1975
[[33]edit] Origins of human appreciation of rhythm
In his series How Music Works, [34]Howard Goodall presents theories
that rhythm recalls how we walk and the heartbeat we heard in the womb.
More likely is that a simple pulse or [35]di-dah beat recalls the
footsteps of another person. Our sympathetic urge to dance is designed
to boost our energy levels in order to cope with someone, or some
animal chasing us - a fight or flight response. From a less darwinist
perspective, perceiving rhythm is the ability to master the otherwise
invisible dimension, time. Rhythm is possibly also rooted in courtship
ritual.^[36][1]
Neurologist [37]Oliver Sacks posits that human affinity for rhythm is
fundamental, so much that a person's sense of rhythm cannot be lost in
the way that music and language can (e.g. by [38]stroke). In addition,
he states that [39]chimpanzees and other animals show no similar
appreciation for rhythm.^[40][2]
[[41]edit] Rhythm notation and the oral tradition
Worldwide there are many different approaches to passing on rhythmic
phrases and patterns, as they exist in traditional music, from
generation to generation.
[[42]edit] African music
In the [43]Griot tradition of Africa everything related to music has
been passed on orally. [44]Babatunde Olatunji (1927-2003), a Nigerian
drummer who lived and worked in the [45]United States, developed a
simple series of spoken sounds for teaching the rhythms of the hand
drum. He used six vocal sounds: Goon Doon Go Do Pa Ta. There are three
basic sounds on the drum, but each can be played with either the left
or the right hand. This simple system is now used worldwide,
particularly by [46]Djembe players.
[[47]edit] Indian music
Indian music has also been passed on orally. Tabla players would learn
to speak complex rhythm patterns and phrases before attempting to play
them. [48]Sheila Chandra, an English pop singer of Indian descent, made
performances based around her singing these patterns. In [49]Indian
Classical music, the [50]Tala of a composition is the rhythmic pattern
over which the whole piece is structured.
[[51]edit] Western music
Standard [52]music notation contains rhythmic information and is
adapted specifically for drums and percussion instruments. The drums
are generally used to keep other instruments in 'time'. They do this by
supplying beats/strikes in time at a certain pace, i.e. 70 beats per
minute (bpm). In [53]Rock music, a drum beat is used to keep a
[54]bass/[55]guitar line in time.
[[56]edit] Types
In [57]Western music, rhythms are usually arranged with respect to a
[58]time signature, partially signifying a meter. The speed of the
underlying [59]pulse is sometimes called the [60]beat. The [61]tempo is
a measure of how quickly the pulse repeats. The tempo is usually
measured in 'beats per minute' (bpm); 60 bpm means a speed of one beat
per second. The length of the meter, or metric unit (usually
corresponding with [62]measure length), is usually grouped into either
two or three beats, being called [63]duple meter and [64]triple meter,
respectively. If each beat is divided by two or four, it is [65]simple
meter, if by three (or six) [66]compound meter. According to [67]Pierre
Boulez, beat structures beyond four are "simply not natural".^[68][3].
His reference is to western European music.
Standard notation of a clave pattern on audio clip clave pattern.ogg
[69]Syncopated rhythms are rhythms that accent parts of the beat not
already stressed by [70]counting. Playing simultaneous rhythms in more
than one time signature is called [71]polymeter. See also
[72]polyrhythm. In recent years, rhythm and meter have become an
important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these
areas includes books by [73]Maury Yeston, [74]Fred Lerdahl and [75]Ray
Jackendoff, [76]Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty, William Rothstein,
and Joel Lester.
Grid notation of single a clave pattern
Some [77]genres of music make different use of rhythm than others. Most
Western music is based on [78]subdivision, while non-Western music uses
more [79]additive rhythm. [80]African music makes heavy use of
[81]polyrhythms, and [82]Indian music uses [83]complex cycles such as 7
and 13, while [84]Balinese music often uses complex [85]interlocking
rhythms. By comparison, a lot of Western [86]classical music is fairly
rhythmically (or metrically) simple; it stays in a [87]simple meter
such as 4/4 or 3/4 and makes little use of [88]syncopation.
[89]Clave is a common underlying rhythm in [90]African, [91]Cuban
music, and [92]Brazilian music.
[93]Claves
(Submit) Play sound
Four beats followed by three Clave patterns
__________________________________________________________________
Problems listening to this file? See [94]media help.
In the 20th century, [95]composers like [96]Igor Stravinsky, [97]Bela
Bartok, [98]Philip Glass, and [99]Steve Reich wrote more rhythmically
complex music using [100]odd meters, and techniques such as
[101]phasing and [102]additive rhythm. At the same time, modernists
such as [103]Olivier Messiaen and his pupils used increased complexity
to disrupt the sense of a regular beat, leading eventually to the
widespread use of [104]irrational rhythms in [105]New Complexity. This
use may be explained by a comment of [106]John Cage's^[[107]where?]
where he notes that regular rhythms cause sounds to be heard as a group
rather than individually; the irregular rhythms highlight the rapidly
changing pitch relationships that would otherwise be subsumed into
irrelevant rhythmic groupings (Sandow 2004, p. 257). [108]LaMonte Young
also wrote music in which the sense of a regular beat is absent because
the music consists only of long sustained tones ([109]drones). In the
1930s, [110]Henry Cowell wrote music involving multiple simultaneous
periodic rhythms and collaborated with [111]Léon Thérémin to invent the
[112]Rhythmicon, the first electronic [113]rhythm machine, in order to
perform them. Similarly, [114]Conlon Nancarrow wrote for the
[115]player piano.
[[116]edit] See also
* [117]Meter (music)
* [118]Prosody (linguistics)
* [119]Riddim
* [120]Morse Code
* [121]Soul (music)
* [122]Time scale (music)
* [123]Timing (linguistics)
[[124]edit] Notes
1. [125]^ [126]Mithen, Steven (2005). [127]The Singing Neanderthals:
The Origins of Music, Language, Mind and Body.. London: Weidenfeld
& Nicolson.. [128]ISBN [129]0297643177.
2. [131]^ [132]Jon Stewart, [133]Oliver Sacks. (2009-06-29). [134]The
Daily Show with Jon Stewart. [Television production]. Comedy
Central.
itle=oliver-sacks. "People often tried to teach their dogs to
dance--it doesn't work."
3. [136]^ In [137]Discovering Music: Rhythm with [138]Leonard Slatkin
at 5:05
[[139]edit] Sources
* Hasty, Christopher (1997). Meter as Rhythm. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. [140]ISBN 0-19-510066-2.
* London, Justin (2004). Hearing in Time: Psychological Aspects of
Musical Meter. [141]ISBN 0-19-516081-9.
* Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music.
Philadelphia: Open University Press. [142]ISBN 0-335-15275-9.
* Narmour (1980). Cited in DeLone et al. (Eds.) (1975). Aspects of
Twentieth-Century Music. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall. [143]ISBN 0-13-049346-5.
* Sandow, Greg (2004). "A Fine Madness", The Pleasure of Modernist
Music. [144]ISBN 1-58046-143-3.
* Yeston, Maury (1976). "The Stratification of Musical Rhythm".
[[145]edit] Further reading
* McGaughey, William (2001). "Rhythm and Self-Consciousness: New
Ideals for an Electronic Civilization". Minneapolis: Thistlerose
Publications. [146]ISBN 0-9605630-4-0.
* Honing, H. (2002). [147]"Structure and interpretation of rhythm and
timing." Tijdschrift voor Muziektheorie [Dutch Journal of Music
Theory] 7(3): 227-232.
* Lewis, Andrew (2005). Rhythm--What it is and How to Improve Your
Sense of It. San Francisco: [148]RhythmSource Press. [149]ISBN
978-0-9754667-0-4.
* Williams, C. F. A., The Aristoxenian Theory of Musical Rhythm,
(Cambridge Library Collection - Music), Cambridge University Press;
1st edition, 2009.
* Toussaint, G. T., "The geometry of musical rhythm," In J. Akiyama,
M. Kano, and X. Tan, editors, Proceedings of the Japan Conference
on Discrete and Computational Geometry, Vol. 3742, Lecture Notes in
Computer Science, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2005, pp. 198-212.
[150]v o [151]d o [152]e
[153]Musical notation and [154]development
[155]Staff
[156]Bar & Bar line · [157]Clef · [158]Da capo · [159]Dal segno ·
[160]Key signature · [161]Ledger line · [162]Musical mode ·
[163]Musical scale · [164]Rehearsal letter · [165]Repeat sign ·
[166]Time signature · [167]Transposition · [168]Transposing instrument
[169]G (treble) clef symbol
[170]Notes
[171]Accidental ([172]Flat · [173]Natural · [174]Sharp) · [175]Dotted
note · [176]Grace note · [177]Note value ([178]Beam · [179]Note head ·
[180]Stem) · [181]Pitch · [182]Rest · [183]Interval · [184]Letter
notation
[185]Articulation
[186]Dynamics · [187]Ornament ([188]Trill · [189]Mordent · [190]Grace
note) · [191]Ossia · [192]Portato · [193]Accent · [194]Legato ·
[195]Tenuto · [196]Marcato · [197]Staccato · [198]Staccatissimo ·
[199]Tie · [200]Slur · [201]Fermata
[202]Development
[203]Coda · [204]Exposition · [205]Harmony · [206]Melody · [207]Motif ·
[208]Recapitulation · Rhythm ([209]Beat · [210]Meter · [211]Tempo) ·
[212]Theme · [213]Tonality · [214]Atonality
Related
[215]Chord chart · [216]Figured bass · [217]Graphic notation ·
[218]Lead sheet · [219]Eye music · [220]Modern musical symbols ·
[221]Neume · [222]Tablature
[224]Categories: [225]Rhythm | [226]Greek loanwords
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Références
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[1]Daniel Laberge music
Rhythm explained
including
27 rhythm exercises
by Daniel Laberge
Rhythm figure
Hi rhythm lovers,
I've devised these exercises in the early seventies while teaching
music.
I could not find any existing book that saw rhythm the way I did.
This method is based on "rhythmic figures" or rhythm possibilities.
Each one lasts one beat.
I simply counted the rhythmic possibilities one could encounter for
each type of beat divisions.
There are:
o Four rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by two
o Eight rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by three
o Sixteen rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by four
I composed the exercises back then and used them for my teaching, but I
only wrote the theory that goes along in 2002.
The book is called "Rhythm explained" and I am gradually placing its
content here.
Each exercise is preceded by a lesson, with graphic representations,
and includes an audio rendition to help you.
You can choose between three speeds.
For jazz musicians, the binary exercises also have a swing or double
swing performance. Go to the bottom of the page for a link to the swing
version.
Choose among the following exercises:
Beat exercises
[2]Rhythm exercise 1-1
Featured figures
[3][onequarternote1.gif] [4] [onehalfnote1.gif] [5]
[dottedhalfnote1.gif] [6] [wholenote1.gif]
[7]Rhythm exercise 1-2
Featured figures
[8][quarternoterest1.gif] [9] [halfnoterest1.gif] [10]
[wholenoterest1.gif]
[11]Rhythm exercise 1-3
Featured figures
[12][quarternoterest1.gif] [13] [halfnoterest1.gif] [14]
[dottedhalfnoterest1.gif] [15] [wholenoterest1.gif]
Binary beat division
The binary family is large as it includes:
o Division by two
o Division by four
o Part of division by six
o Division by eight
This section is concerned with the simple division by two.
Any binary beat has two alternating parts: the downbeat and the upbeat.
Binary beat
[binarybeat1.gif]
As you can see, there are only two places in a beat
where events or notes can be positioned or played:
o The downbeat
o The upbeat
How
rhythmic
possibilities
work
This means that for any given beat you can have
any of the four following possibilities:
1 o Only one event on the downbeat.
2 o Events on both the downbeat and the upbeat.
3 o No event at all.
4 o Only one event on the upbeat.
[possibilitiesbytwosimple1.gif]
The rhythmic figure used to represent a binary beat is called:
TWO EIGHTH NOTES
[masterfigurebinary1.gif]
Binary
master
rhythmic
figure
Simple binary rhythmic figures
4 possibilities:
o 2 Primary
o 2 Secondary
[possibilitiesbytwo1.gif]
Secondary rhythmic figures lack the event that falls on the beat.
There is a secondary figure for each primary one.
Because the beat is so important, secondary figures have appeared after
the primary ones had been well established.
The absence of event falling on the beat can be due to a silence or a
sound that is held over from the preceding beat.
Because of this, there are two ways to notate secondary figures:
o With a rest
o With a tie
[primarysecondary1.gif]
Primary
and
secondary
rhythmic
figures
Choose among the following exercises:
Binary exercises
PRIMARY
[16]Rhythm exercise 2-1
Featured figure
[17][twoeighthnotes2.gif]
[18]Rhythm exercise 2-2
Featured figures
[19][twoeighthnotes2.gif] [20] [quarternoterest2.gif]
SECONDARY
[21]Rhythm exercise 2-3
Featured figure
[22][dottedquarternoteeighth2.gif]
[23]Rhythm exercise 2-4
Featured figure
[24][eighthnotesyncopationa2.gif]
[25]Rhythm exercise 2-5
Featured figure
[26][twoeighttieonequarter2.gif]
MULTIPLE SYNCOPATIONS
[27]Rhythm exercise 2-6
Featured figure
[28][doublesyncopationa2.gif]
Ternary beat division
The ternary family is small as it includes:
o Division by three
o Part of division by six
Everything goes in thirds in ternary music.
Any ternary beat has one downbeat and two upbeats.
Ternary beat
[ternarybeat1.gif]
The rhythmic figure used to represent a ternary beat is called:
THREE EIGHTH NOTES
[masterfigureternary1.gif]
Ternary
master
rhythmic
figure
Writing
ternary
rhythm
In ternary music writing, each eighth note is worth one third of a
beat.
Since two eighth notes always equal one quarter note, these now equal
two thirds of a beat.
It takes a dotted quarter note to represent one beat.
[ternarywriting1.gif]
Ternary rhythmic figures
8 possibilities:
o 4 Primary
o 4 Secondary
[possibilitiesbythree1.gif]
Choose among the following exercises:
Ternary exercises
PRIMARY
[29]Rhythm exercise 3-1
Featured figure
[30][threeeighth2.gif]
[31]Rhythm exercise 3-2
Featured figure
[32][onequarteroneeighth2.gif]
[33]Rhythm exercise 3-3
Featured figure
[34][oneeighthonequarter2.gif]
SECONDARY
[35]Rhythm exercise 3-1s
Featured figure
[36][8threst2eighth2.gif] OR [37] [tie3eighth2.gif]
[38]Rhythm exercise 3-2s
Featured figure
[39][quarternoterestoneeighth2.gif] OR [40]
[tiequarternote1eighth.gif]
[41]Rhythm exercise 3-3s
Featured figure
[42][8threst1quarternote2.gif] OR [43] [tie1eighth1quarter2.gif]
Division by four
Beats divided by four are part of the binary family.
Everything goes in quarters in this feel.
Beat
divided
by
four
[binarybeat2.gif]
The rhythmic figure used to represent a beat divided by four
is called:
FOUR SIXTEENTH NOTES
[masterfigurebyfour1.gif]
Division
by four
master
rhythmic
figure
Binary rhythmic figures
16 possibilities:
o 8 Primary
o 8 Secondary
[possibilitiesbyfour1.gif]
Choose among the following exercises:
Division by four exercises
PRIMARY
[44]Rhythm exercise 4-1
Featured figure
[45][foursixteenth2.gif]
[46]Rhythm exercise 4-2
Featured figure
[47][oneeighthtwosixteenth2.gif]
[48]Rhythm exercise 4-3
Featured figure
[49][twosixteenthoneeighth2.gif]
[50]Rhythm exercise 4-4
Featured figure
[51][dottedeighthonesixteenth2.gif]
[52]Rhythm exercise 4-5
Featured figure
[53][onesixteenthdottedeighth2.gif]
[54]Rhythm exercise 4-6
Featured figure
[55][16th8th16th2.gif]
SECONDARY
[56]Rhythm exercise 4-1s
Featured figure
[57][16threst3sixteenth2.gif] OR [58] [tiefoursixteenth2.gif]
[59]Rhythm exercise 4-2s
Featured figure
[60][8threst2sixteenth2.gif] OR [61] [tie1eighth2sixteenth2.gif]
[62]Rhythm exercise 4-3s
Featured figure
[63][16threst1sixteenth1eighth2.gif] OR [64]
[tie2sixteenth1eighth2.gif]
[65]Rhythm exercise 4-4s
Featured figure
[66][dotted8threst1sixteenth2.gif] OR [67]
[tiedottereight1sixteenth2.gif]
[68]Rhythm exercise 4-5s
Featured figure
[69][16threstdotted8th.gif] OR [70] [tie16thdotted8th2.gif]
[71]Rhythm exercise 4-6s
Featured figure
[72][16threst1eighth1sixteenth2.gif] OR [73]
[tieone16thone8thone16th2.gif]
[74]Bugs, problems
and comments [75]Daniel Laberge music
Références
Liens visibles
74. javascript:;
Liens cachés :
#[1]ORGY IN RHYTHM - Atom [2]ORGY IN RHYTHM - RSS
IFRAME:
IN+RHYTHM&publishMode=PUBLISH_MODE_BLOGSPOT&navbarType=BLACK&layoutType
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ORGY IN RHYTHM
[6]JAZZ HIP TRIO - JAZZ EN RELIEF
Jazz Hip Trio for Riviera France from 1967.
Jean-Bernard Eisinger Piano ; Roger Luccioni Bass ;Daniel Humair Drums.
More beautiful music from France on this the first Jazz Hip Trio LP.
"Orange Boom" was the big tune back in the day but the rest is just
fabulous.
Needless to say.....All Killer No Filler
Another first in public blogland here at OIR.
[7]17 comments made-how about you? 12.1.10
[8]MAL WALDRON - TOKYO BOUND
Mal Waldron for RCA Victor Japan from 1970.
Mal Waldron-Piano;Takeshi Inomata-Drums;Yasuo Arakawa-Bass
Tremendous all killer trio date with Waldron joined by a top flight
Japanese rhythm section on four original compositions which only saw a
release in Japan.Check out the rocking intensity of "Rock One For Jimbo
San" and "Japanese Island" which builds from an ominous brooding intro
into a marvellous modal waltz."Atomic Energy" blows up with a headlong
banging vamp from Waldron's left hand while the right runs all over the
keys and then to close "Mount Fujiyama" a more introspective rumination
and dissection of the tune's theme.
Inomata's drumming is a revelation throughout the session intricate yet
swinging with fantastic use of cymbals.(Don't forget to check out
Inomata's Sound of Sounds lp also recorded in 1970 which I posted
[9]here during the summer)
Respect to El Goog for introducing me to this great album.I finally
picked a copy up from Japan via ebay last month - not cheap but worth
every penny.
Very highly recomnmended.
[10]37 comments made-how about you? 20.12.09
[11]THE HERBIE HANCOCK TRIO
Herbie Hancock for Sony Japan from 1977.
Herbie Hancock-Piano;Ron Carter-Bass;Tony Williams-Drums
The big three keep it strictly acoustic for this Japanese only release
from CBS Sony. 4 originals from Herb plus a rapid romp through
"Milestones"...tough stuff.
The first V.S.O.P. tour triggered a flood of recording activity in July
1977, but only a fraction of it was released in the U.S. This session,
recorded in San Francisco just days before the Quintet concerts in
Berkeley and San Diego, finds Herbie Hancock, Ron Carter and Tony
Williams mixing it up sans the horns and the results are more
reflective and cerebral than the full Quintet concerts. Hancock is
thoroughly in control of the agenda while Williams throws in those
meter-fracturing flurries that keep everyone on their toes. There is a
startling re-interpretation of "Speak like a Child" which is
significantly tougher and busier than the wistful Blue Note version, as
well as challenging Hancock originals like "Watcha Waiting For" and
"Watch It." This is uncompromising acoustic jazz, commercial anathema
in the electronic '70s -and thus, only Japan got to hear it. Richard S.
Ginell.
[12]16 comments made-how about you? 13.12.09
[13]JAZZ HIP TRIO - PORTRAITS
Jazz Hip Trio for Riviera France from 1968.
Jean-Bernard Eisinger Piano ; Roger Luccioni Bass ;Daniel Humair Drums.
Piano trios are the theme for my the next few posts and what better way
to start than with some beautiful music from France on it's first time
out in blogland here at OIR.
10 original compositions which grow and grow on repeated listening -
get past the "Sidewinder" influenced dance floor intro tune "Bat Rock"
and you're in for a swinging set of subtle trio sounds.Of course it's
gotta be......
All Killer No Filler
[14]23 comments made-how about you? 6.12.09
[15]THE DIAMOND FIVE - BRILLIANT !
The Diamond Five for Fontana from 1964.
Personnel: Cees Slinger: piano; Harry Verbeke: tenor sax; Cees Smal:
trumpet, cornet and valve trombone; Jacques Schols: bass; Johnny
Engels: drums.
Please check the comments as Chazz has also ripped The Five
Diamonds-Finally After Forty Years cd reissue from Japan and will be
posting the link shortly.Over to you Chazz!
I don't post donations at OIR but just had to make an exception when
this was winged across the pond to me from Chazz Katz.It's a very rare
piece of hard bop from Holland which made a blink and miss it reissue
on cd some years ago in Japan (original vinyl goes for silly money
anywhere between $600-$1000) and has never appeared in blogland
before.Here's the notes and cheers to Chazz for his rip!
Nice work chap - All Killer No Filler!
The Diamond Five, a Dutch quintet led by pianist Cees Slinger, was
founded in 1959 and lasted until 1965. They were based at the
Sheherazade Club in Amsterdam and were quite popular, playing all over
Holland and accompanying expatriate American musicians on their visits
to Amsterdam. However, when the club closed its doors due to a shift in
popular interest from jazz to rock music, the quintet disbanded. This
1964 recording is their only session available on CD. The music is hard
bop on the surface, but is neither formulaic nor a copy of the genres
imported from the U.S.
The musicians are quite unique in their style. Slinger plays sparse
notes on his solos, utilizing well-placed pauses in the music to create
melodic hard bop with hints of more forward-looking styles. The other
outstanding soloist is tenor saxophonist Harry Verbeke, whose solos (in
contrast to that of the leader) are filled with a multitude of notes
played in the modal vein. The others are also quite stellar, the bass
and the drums providing a loose bluesy support and horn man Cees Smal
adding something unique with the sounds of his different horns,
switching between valve trombone, cornet and trumpet.
[16]26 comments made-how about you? 26.11.09
[17]BOBBY HUTCHERSON - CIRRUS
Bobby Hutcherson for Blue Note from 1974.
Hutch is playing four sets in London this weekend so Katonah from
Private Press and I will be propping up the bar for his late spot at
Scotts tomorrow night.
So here's a 3rd repost for his evergreen "Cirrus" ....All Killer No
Filler.
This was my very first Bobby Hutcherson post here at OIR back in may
2006.It was ripped from my vinyl copy @192 in those days-I've reupped
it @320 this time and taken it from the superb Mosaic Select box
set.Here's my original narrative:
Cirrus finds Bobby Hutcherson resuming his partnership with tenor
saxophonist Harold Land, and the results are marvellous. The pair work
with pianist Bill Henderson, trumpeter Woody Shaw, bassist Ray
Drummond, drummer Larry Hancock, saxophonist/flautist Emmanuel Boyd and
percussionist Kenneth Nash on this set of originals.The album starts
with a great version of Woody Shaw's "Rosewood" while the rest of the
set is written by Hutcherson and includes "Even Later".Highlight of the
lp for me is the atmospheric and brooding "Zuri Dance" - what a corker
!
[18]36 comments made-how about you? 13.11.09
[19]DAVE PIKE - LET THE MINSTRELS PLAY ON
Dave Pike for Muse from 1978.
Vibraphone - Dave Pike / Bass - Luther Hughes / Cello - Luther Hughes /
Drums - Ted Hawkes / Guitar - Ron Eschete / Keyboards , Sax - Tom
Ranier / Vocals - Carol Eschete.
KGML has just posted "Spirits Samba" so dug the lp out for those who
would like to hear more.
Picked this up in Tony Monson's Disc Empire in the early 80s after
hearing Chris Bangs spinning "Swan Lake" and found it had yet another
bona fide jazz dance classic to be featured in the shape of "Spirits
Samba".
Here's an apathetic review from amg:
Some Afro-Latin, some fusion and things in between from vibist Dave
Pike. Pike is a good player, but sometimes his arrangements bog down
between pop and jazz. His style is more remniscent of Red Norvo, with
its lighter, less aggressive and flowing lines.
[20]12 comments made-how about you? 12.11.09
[21]RANDY WESTON - BLUE MOSES
Randy Weston For CTI from 1972.
Arranged By - Don Sebesky;Bass - Bill Wood (2) (tracks: B1) , Ron
Carter ;Drums - Bill Cobham ;English Horn, Clarinet, Flute - George
Marge ;Flugelhorn - Alan Rubin , John Frosk , Marvin Stamm ;Flute -
Hubert Laws ;French Horn - Brooks Tillotson , James Buffington ;Oboe,
Clarinet, Flute - Romeo Penque ;Piano - Randy Weston
Saxophone [Tenor] - Grover Washington, Jr ;Synthesizer [Moog] - David
Horowitz
Trombone - Garnett Brown , Warren Covington , Wayne Andre ;Trombone -
Paul Faulise
Trumpet - Freddie Hubbard ;Vocals - Madasme Meddah
Super heavyweight banger from CTI - trust Randy Weston to dispense with
Creed Taylor's saccharine stylings.All Killer blah blah blah....
Another underwhelming review from Mr Yannow:
Randy Weston's most popular record, this Lp (which he had mixed
feelings about) features Weston not only on piano but electric
keyboards. Backed by Don Sebesky arrangements and assisted by trumpeter
Freddie Hubbard and tenor-saxophonist Grover Washington Jr., Weston
plays quite well on four of his compositions; best-known are "Ganawa
(Blue Moses)" and "Marrakesh Blues." The music retains the African feel
of most of Weston's latter-day playing but also has some commercial
touches that do not hurt the performances. This rewarding date has not
yet been reissued on CD. ~ Scott Yanow, All Music Guide
Fantastic cover art from Pete Turner - I highly recommend his book[22]
here.
[23]16 comments made-how about you? 7.11.09
[24]BLACKCLASSICAL - 1ST BIRTHDAY MEGAMIX
Blackclassical has taken off his flat cap ,put the racing pigeons away
and is celebrating his first year on t'interwebs with a mighty mp3 mash
up of spiritual jazz goodness[25] here.Proof indeed that it's not all
grim up north.
Happy Birthday you old bastard - now get the lagers in and make sure
they've got vodka tops you tightarse.
[26]3 comments made-how about you? 6.11.09
[27]TUBBT HAYES - TUBBS IN N.Y.
Tubby Hayes for Fontana from 1961.
Saxophone [Tenor] - Tubby Hayes; Bass - George Duvivier; Drums - Dave
Bailey ;Piano - Horace Parlan ;
Trumpet - Clark Terry;Vibraphone - Eddie Costa
Another first in blogland for this British vinyl rarity at OIR with
Tubbs keeping heavy company in NYC . Apparently there was legal
wrangling about who owns the masters so don't hold your breath waiting
for a cd issue.The last one got pulled pronto upon release in 1990.
The swaggering "A Pint Of Bitter" was my very first exposure to Hayes
back in the early 80s - I just love that tune - but the rest is just as
good with flat out romps through "Opus Ocean" and "Airegin" plus a
wonderfuly swinging "Soon" . Nice!
[28]26 comments made-how about you? 31.10.09
[29]TUBBY HAYES QUARTET - TUBBY'S GROOVE
Tubby Hayes for Tempo from 1960.
Tubby Hayes (ts), Terry Shannon (p), Phil Bates (b), Phil Seamen (d).
"Tin Tin Deo" killin' it every time for me on this rare piece of
British wax from 50 years ago.
Simon Spillet has written a fascinating piece on Tubby at[30]
Jazzscript and here's his take on this album:
I think it's one of Tubby's best ever studio recordings and catches him
very much in his prime. I suppose that the stand-out track for me has
to be Sunny Monday with its unaccompanied tenor choruses. The tone is
big, the rhythmic delivery is full of confidence and the sheer
enthusiasm shines through half a century on.
[31]23 comments made-how about you? 30.10.09
[32]STAFFAN ABELEEN QUINTET -PERSEPOLIS
Staffan Abeleen for Philips Sweden from 1964.
Staffan Abeleen-Piano ; Lasse Farnlof - Trumpet ; Bjorn Netz - Tenor ;
Bjorn Alke - Bass ; Bosse Skoglund - Drums
More top draw business from Sweden making a first appearance in
blogland.Modal to bossa to ballads this one's got the lot:
ALL KILLER NO FILLER
[33]15 comments made-how about you? 15.10.09
[34]BERNT ROSENGREN BIG BAND - FIRST MOVES
Bernt Rosengren for EMI Sweden from 1977.
Bassoon, Horn - Lars Bagge/Clarinet, Clarinet [Bass], Saxophone
[Soprano, Alto, Baritone] - Lennart Jansson /Congas - Johnny Martinez ,
René Martinez , Sabu Martinez
Cornet , Flugelhorn - Lars Färnlöf /Drums - Leif Wennerström/Flute,
Saxophone -Bernt Rosengren /Horn [English], Saxophone - Tommy Koverhult
/ Percussion - Okay Temiz / Piano - Claes-Göran Fagerstedt / Piano,
Piano [Electric] - Bobo Stenson / Saxophone [Baritone] - Gunnar
Bergsten / Saxophone [Tenor] - Anders Lindskog / Trombone - Jan Jansson
, Janus Miezek , Lars Olofsson , Lennart Löfgren / Trombone [Bass] -
Sven Larsson /Trumpet - Björn Borg /Trumpet , Flugelhorn - Bertil
Lövgren , Maffy Falay / Bass - Torbjörn Hultcrantz
Back over to Sweden for this killer big band session led by Bernt
Rosengren and featuring some big names such as a pre-ECM Bobo
Stenson,the wonderful Lars Farnlof and none other than the mighty Sabu
Martinez.
Check out the percussion destruction of "Felicidade" with Sabu plus
sons Johnny and Rene Martinez beating the crap out of the Jobim bossa
standard... Murdah!!!
[35]19 comments made-how about you? 1.10.09
[36]JAZZ QUINTET 60
Jazz Quintet 60 from 1962 for Metronome Denmark.
Allan Botschinsky (tp), Niels Husum (ts), Bent Axen (p), Niels-Henning
Orsted Pedersen (b), Bjarne Rostvold (ds).
Legendary Scandinavian rarity (Check the second mortgage prices on
[37]Popsike) from Denmark featuring a who's who of the Danish Jazz
scene from the past 50 years.
First time it's has been posted in public blogland so don't sleep on
this one :
ALL KILLER NO FILLER !
[38]27 comments made-how about you? 27.9.09
[39]STAFFAN ABELEEN QUINTET - DOWNSTREAM
Staffan Abeleen Quintet for Philips Sweden from 1966.
Staffan Abeleen - Piano ; Lasse Farnlof - Trumpet ; Bjorn Netz - Sax ;
Bosse Skugland - Drums ; Paul Danielsson - Bass.
All compositions by Lars Farnlof
Scandinavia is the destination for my next batch of posts and what
better way to start than with this superb album by The Staffen Abeleen
Quintet playing the compositions of the wonderful Lars Farnlof.
Another first appearance in blogland but let the music do the talking
...
ALL KILLER NO FILLER
[40]15 comments made-how about you? 19.9.09
[41]ARCHIE SHEPP & THE FAMILY OF PERCUSSION - HERE COMES THE FAMILY
I have had lots of requests for a repost of this bomb from Archie Shepp
and The Family of Percussion - so here it is.
First posted at OIR september 2006.
The Family of Percussion (Peter Giger,Trilok Gurtu,Doug Hammond and Tom
Nicholas)are joined by Archie Shepp on this hard to find 1980 release
from Nagara in Germany.
On "Here Comes the Family"the Family establish the basic form of the
piece with their rhythmic and vocal opening with Shepp's flute
fluttering above it all.Then he lets rip with what the liner notes call
'Poetic Recitation'but would probably be called rapping these days over
a funky percussive backdrop .This tune is why the lp remains in such
demand - a big play list favourite of djs world wide.
Next up is Shepp's "Street Song" the best cut on the lp for me,on which
he blows his tenor freely over the drums,congas,bells and gongs.The
piece ends in a crescendo of percussion culminating in a gong crash
which fades into silence."Euterpe's Favorit"has Shepp back on flute
with the family weaving a mystical feel behind him on
bells,whistles,water pipes,gongs,rattles and drums.
"Ardopetori"starts side 2 with a mid tempo infectious rhythm
established by shakers and log drum which builds slowly with Shepp
soloing freely again on tenor.
"For Ti Roro"wraps it up and begins with the gentle,caribean sounds of
steel drums until Shepp's soprano bursts in with a frenzy of
excitement.This is the most free track with all the musicians reacting
to each otherboth collectively and singularly until it finishes
fittingly with the sound of the congas.
This came out on lp and cd but quickly dissapeared without trace.if you
want a copy you gonna have to dig hard and have deep pockets!
[42]18 comments made-how about you?
[43]HIROSHI SUZUKI - CAT
Hiroshi Suzuki for Columbia Japan from 1975.
Hiroshi Suzuki-Trombone ; Hiromasa Suzuki-Keyboards ; Akira
Ishikawa-Drums ; Takeru Muraoka-Sax ; Kunimitsu Inaba-Bass
More super rare J Jazz making a first appearance in blogland and this
is an absolute beauty made up of 5 long cuts that hit the perfect
balance between jazz and fusion.Acoustic bass meshed with subtle funky
drums topped with lashings of Rhodes,trombone and sax deliver a really
stretched out understated rolling groove.
The album just grows and grows with repeated listening and it's a big
favourite over here at Bacoso's Big Top - no surprise that it's
ALL KILLER NO FILLER !
[44]34 comments made-how about you? 7.9.09
[45]T. INOMATA & SOUND L.T.D. - SOUNDS OF SOUND L.T.D.
Takeshi Inomata for Columbia Japan from 1970.
Takeshi Inomata (Drums & Percussion) Jun Suzuki (Electric Bass)
Shigetok Kamiya (Electric Guitar) Ryo Kawasaki (Electric Guitar)
Sho Imai (Trombone & Bass Trombone) Shigemichi Dohmoto (Trombone & Bass
Trombone)
Takao Uematsu (Tenor Sax & Soprano Sax)
Fantastic lp of funky jazz from the Columbia issued Groovy Sound
Series.
No idea who plays on it as the credits are all in Japanese but it's a
monster session.
Check out "Mustache" and "Tak's Tune" for some severe beats from
drummer/leader Takeshi Inomata.
All Killer No Filler - Highly Recommended!
[46]22 comments made-how about you? 29.8.09
[47]HIDEO SHIRAKI - IN FIESTA
Hideo Shiraki for Teichiku Japan from 1961.
Rare super tough hard bop session from Japan featuring the killer koto
led and drum driven bomb "In Fiesta".
Reissued in Japan by Kyoto Jazz Massive for Think in a blink and miss
it moment back in 2005 but now out of print.
The old Dusty Groove blurb:
A brilliant early album from Japanese drummer Hideo Shiraki a jazz
session that bristles with the same intensity as key late 50s work by
Benny Golson or Gigi Gryce! Although Hideo's leading the group on
drums, his work on the kit is remarkably subtle done with the
snappingly rhythmic style that marked some of Golson's best modern
experiments of a few years before not nearly as bombastic as his stint
with Art Blakey, and more in the rhythmically stepping quality of his
work with Art Farmer in the Jazztet. Key players on the session include
Hidehiko Matsumoto on tenor and flute and Yuzuru Sera on piano both of
whom give the album a fluid grace that's really beautiful soulful edges
that allow the record to stand equally next to anything coming out of
the US at the time. One track features a bit of koto at the start --
echoing Shiraki's later world jazz experiments but most of the set is
straight modern hardbop, with tracks that include "Blue Romeo", "Etude
No 1", "Just One Or Eight", "You Don't Know What Love Is", and Benny
Golson's "Five Spot After Dark".
[48]14 comments made-how about you? 18.8.09
[49]LLOYD MCNEILL - TREASURES
Lloyd McNeill for Baobab from 1976.
Lloyd McNeill-Flute ; Dom Salvador-Piano ; Cecil McBee-Bass ; Portinho
, Brian Brake-Drums ; Ray Armando-Percussion.
One for the flute freaks on a private press out of NYC.
Heavy Brazilian infuences at work on this wonderful spiritual jazz
session from the great Lloyd McNeill.Two originals,one standard and a
cracking version of Salvador's "Salvation Army" which featured on Dom's
'76 Muse debut "Minha Familia"(Available at [50]Ile Oxumare).
Here's some info on Lloyd McNeill from the excellent [51]Hipwax:
The first thing to know about Lloyd McNeill is that his are the very
best soul-jazz flute LPs, and each is first-rate, a masterpiece of
self-direction. The second thing to know is there is much more to him
than his recorded legacy. He is one of those incredible,
super-sensitive people who excels at every artistic idiom and endeavor;
making wonderful music is just part of his flowing creativity. A
professor (at Rutgers University, earlier Dartmouth), he has much to
say about music and creativity as well as an impeccable gift for saying
it...sensibly. McNeill's writings on his musical experiences provide
invaluable documents of "the period" (late 1960s-1970s) as well as a
rare glimpse at the joy of a relatively unsung master.
McNeill has played with jazz legends --Andrew White (his longtime
collaborator/producer), Eric Dolphy, Sabu Martinez, Mulatu Astatke,
among many others-- and he has had a significant hand in the arts scene
of Washington, D.C. The major galleries of art, including those of the
Smithsonian, sponsored multi-media "happenings" that soared far above
the hippie caricature of acid rock with light show. During the first
flowering of post-Civil Rights, African-American culture, the Lloyd
McNeill Quartet's improvisitory, simultaneuous jazz and large-scale
painting "happened" while a lucky, perhaps unsuspecting public drank it
in.
McNeill believes his influences and their results in his art, music,
and poetry are inseparable and mutually reinforcing. Time spent with
Picasso in Cannes, 1965 led to new expressions in all three, for
instance. And when one brushes against a force such as Picasso, just
the idea of "meeting Picasso" has a certain momentum, never mind the
inevitable casting of rays of a different kind of light. Canvas, vinyl,
the stage, paper, and books of poetry offer a few key imprints of
McNeill, and McNeill consistently pays tribute to many illustrious
peers.
There are six albums, all produced and entirely under the artist's
control. Each title surpasses anything comparable on the major labels,
even Blue Note. The Black Jazz label may be roughly similar in style,
but Asha and Baobab are wholly Lloyd McNeill. The records reflect none
of the usual external trends from the decade in which they were
recorded; all sound like 1971 rather than 1979. The final record even
reprises the first (the exotic, broodingly moody "Asha"), and the sound
throughout remains somewhat interchangeable and timeless. But each
record has its own themes and currents, and even improvisation has its
signatures and fingerprints.
Buying: Long out of print, collectors items, Lloyd McNeill records
should be snapped up on sight. Hip Wax is pleased to offer two titles
for which limited stock remains [52]here.
Warning - McNeill lps can be damaging to the [53]wallet.
[54]29 comments made-how about you? 14.8.09
[55]If Spike Lee Did Movies In Audio...
Greg's back on the mix with his old mucker Monohub - another mashed up
bomb in memory of Coltrane and the late,great George Russell.Grab it
[56]HERE.
Here's the blurb from big daddy himself:
I did a version of this a while back and was planning to publish on
July 17th as a memorial to the day that John Coltrane died, but, a
combination of lack of time, work commitments and other things got in
the way...
Anyway I redid it and am glad that i did as it's much better than the
original. This one strictly for the heads... and defo not for the feint
hearted. If you liked the Black State of Vietnam mix then this is for
you...
So as i said; In respect of John Coltrane and George Russell. Much
thanks to Monohub too although he plays down his part in this, his
genius did have a lot to do with it...
[57]1 comments made-how about you? 3.8.09
[58]SADAO WATANABE AND CHARLIE MARIANO - IBERIAN WALTZ
Sadao and Charlie for Tact Japan from 1967.
Sadao Watanabe (as) , Charlie Mariano (as) , Masabumi Kikuchi (p) ,
Masanaga Harada (b) , Masahiko Togashi (ds) , Fumio Watanabe (ds)
This received a "Japan Jazz Award" on release.
Some severe blowing on this double alto led sextet featuring a young
band of soon to be Japanese jazz luminaries.
The fast and furious "Palisades" was comped on the Sleepwalker Shibuya
Jazz Classics.However the 16 minute title cut is the stand out tune an
intense modal waltz with a Spanish tinge featuring coruscating solos
from Mariano and Watanabe - hard core stuff.
Recommended.
[59]16 comments made-how about you? 28.7.09
[60]JAMES MARENTIC SEXTET - NIMBUS
James Marentic for Discovery from 1982.
James Marentic-Sax/Flute; Tom Harrell -Trumpet/Flugelhorn; Slide
Hampton-Trombone; Larry Willis-Piano; Anthony Cox-Bass; Victor
Lewis-Drums.
Storming post hard bop outing for Mr Marentic and his all star band.
Check out the banging latin romp "Baile de las Cucharachas " which
kicks off the lp in fine style and the Coltrane inspired "Nimbus".
"Aphrodesia" has the inspiration of Kenny Dorham stamped all over it
and no prizes for guessing who "Mr Silver I Presume" is aimed at
If you enjoyed Tom Harrell's "Aurora" post then this should be right up
your street,round your corner and down your block!
[61]8 comments made-how about you? 23.7.09
[62]CARTER JEFFERSON - THE RISE OF ATLANTIS
Carter Jefferson for Timeless from 1978.
Terrific post bop album with latin influences -All Killer No Filler!
John Hicks (Piano), Terumasa Hino (Trumpet), Woody Shaw (Producer),
Clint Houston (Bass), Victor Lewis (Drums),Carter Jefferson (Sax ),
Lani Groves (Vocals), Shunzo Ohno (Trumpet), Steve Thornton
(Percussion), Harry Whitaker (Piano)
Here's the customary underwhelming AMG review :
Tenor saxophonist Carter Jefferson made somewhat of a name for himself
when trumpeter Woody Shaw chose him as a member of his first working
quintet. Shaw is the producer of this album, Jefferson's fine debut
(and evidently only) recording as a leader. Taking a cue from Shaw, the
saxophonist sticks essentially to a quintet of trumpet and sax backed
by all-star rhythm sections. Three of the tracks include hard bop
trumpeter Terumasa Hino while the other three feature little-known
Japanese trumpeter Shunzo Ono. Most of the tunes are firmly in the
school of hard bop, the sort of music that Woody Shaw played so well.
While there is not any new ground broken, it is all performed
competently enough. While not as emotionally charged as his work with
Shaw, Jefferson impresses with a fluid, mobile attack that shows a
solid grasp of his material. If the groups seem to be sometimes merely
going through the motions, there are nonetheless enough fine moments to
make this a worthwhile purchase.AMG.
A reliable and advanced soloist who spent most of his career as a
sideman, Carter Jefferson is best-remembered for his association with
Woody Shaw during 1977-1980. Jefferson started on clarinet and played
alto before settling on tenor, going on tour early in the backup bands
of the Temptations, the Supremes, and Little Richard. In 1971, he moved
to New York to attend New York University and soon spent two years with
Mongo Santamaria and a period in 1973 as a member of Art Blakey's Jazz
Messengers. After his important stint with Woody Shaw (with whom he
recorded several times), Jefferson worked with many top players,
including Elvin Jones, Roy Haynes, Cedar Walton, Jerry Gonzalez & the
Fort Apache Band, Malachi Thompson, and Jack Walrath's Masters of
Suspense. His premature death in Poland after emergency surgery was a
major loss. Carter Jefferson only led one record, The Rise of Atlantis,
on the Timeless label in 1978. AMG.
[63]33 comments made-how about you? 10.7.09
[64]JULIO GUTIERREZ - PROGRESSIVE LATIN
Julio Gutierrez for Gema from 1960.
The title says it all for this groundbreaking heavyweight descarga
session...Highly recommended.
Has anyone out there got a copy of Gutierrez's "Havana BC" they want to
sell me?If so leave me a message in the comments.
Progressive Latin should be considered a classic of Latin jazz if it
isn't already. "Cosa Buena" cooks, and "Closing Time" is a slower bossa
nova with flute and horns that captures the mood of a good night out at
its end. "Yambambe," an Afro rhythm behind mostly piano, sounds more
sophisticated than its simple construction. "El Altiplano" is supposed
to be an Incan melody with Afro elements. In any case, vocal
interjections pave the way for a longer descarga where a variety of
intriguing elements (horns, flute piano, even organ) work together in
their own weird ways and combinations. The "Route 66" theme arrangement
is a coup; the sax and flute are recorded gorgeously, and the piano and
conga pace it ideally, with brief drum solo breaks. "Sad City" is a
haunting flute piece, while "Guantanamera" has an interesting change
but there is only so much one can expect from this tune. "Malaguena" is
another long descarga that gets a little wild. Progressive Latin is
something of a masterpiece from the great arranger Julio Gutierrez.
Tony Wilds
What impressed me most about this album is Julio's use of space and the
length of the tunes, considering that in the era when it was recorded,
2 1/2 minute tunes were standard. Great musicians like El Negro Vivar
(trumpet) and Chombo Silva (sax) were able to beautifully stretch out
over an almost post-bop/Afro-Cuban jazz setting. There is some serious
blowing on this disc. This is another essential Latin jazz gem from the
late 50s/early 60s.
Jose Rizo
[65]22 comments made-how about you? 4.7.09
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About Rhythmweb
A Grassroots Network
[dada01a.jpg] (at left: World Unity Drum Festival, Club Dada, Dallas,
August 1994. My son Jules, shown at age 12 at left)
Rhythmweb started in December of 1996, as a reflection of my virtual
search for music and musicians on the Web, and as an excuse to woodshed
web design. Since then we have been amazed by the reponse we have
recieved, from all corners of the globe. From the Mid-East to
Australia, and from South Africa to Europe to New Orleans to Brazil to
Papua, NewGuinea, musicians are connecting. Truly, rhythm is a
universal language, love of music a universal love. Thanks to all our
new friends for connecting with us.
Our mission is to further the use of rhythm, music, and percussion &
related arts as a healing tool. We LOVE music. We LOVE the Web. When
our schedule permits, we surf several [kids097.jpg] hours a night, then
we post the fruits of our travels...
Every time we meet someone interesting with a rhythm related website,
we post a link. Some very worthwhile friendships have evolved along the
way, and we've discovered lots of good music.
We have since integrated affiliate links to CDs, books, and so forth,
but our basic mission remains the same. We are NOT a bunch of suits,
drooling e-commerce. We're musicians, artists. We believe it's
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crucial moment in history. If you'll notice, the vast majority of links
on rhythmweb are GRASSROOTS musicians, trying to get over in this new
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record companies. Plenty of that elsewhere.
[eric_october03-01b-225.jpg] There are also fan pages and correspondent
pages here, on a large number of working musicians. Thanks very much to
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And to the thousands of hobbyist , semi-pro and professional
percussionists who come seeking info, and bringing life and enthusiasm,
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feedback, and some links.
Drum on,
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[33]Volume 7, [34]Issue 1, Pages 65-71 (January 2010)
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ABSTRACT
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BOOKMARK ARTICLE
RR-interval irregularity precedes ventricular fibrillation in ST elevation
acute myocardial infarction
[39]Miguel E. Lemmert, MD[40]a[41] Corresponding Author Information
[42]email address , [43]Mohamed Majidi, MD[44]a, [45]Mitchell
W. Krucoff, MD[46]*, [47]Sebastiaan C.A.M. Bekkers, MD[48]a, [49]Harry
J.G.M. Crijns, MD, PhD, FHRS[50]a, [51]Hein J.J. Wellens, MD, PhD,
FHRS[52]a, [53]Andrzej S. Kosinski, PhD[54]*, [55]Anton P.M. Gorgels,
MD, PhD, FHRS[56]a
Received 9 August 2009; accepted 15 September 2009. published online 22
September 2009.
Background
Sudden cardiac arrest is a leading cause of death in industrialized
countries, and ischemic ventricular fibrillation (VF) is a frequent
cause.
Objective
The purpose of this study was to determine whether patients with ST
elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) who develop ischemic VF show
more overall RR-interval irregularity (RRI) than do STEMI patients
without ischemic VF.
Methods
Ischemic VF was identified in 41 patients from 1,473 digital 12-lead
Holter recordings from three separate STEMI studies. Continuous 3-lead
and 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG) snapshots recorded every minute
were compared between all ischemic VF patients and 123 random patients
without ischemic VF. Time intervals from start of Holter to ischemic VF
and equivalent intervals in the controls were used for calculations.
ECG variables related to conduction intervals and severity of ischemia
were measured using the most ischemic 12-lead ECG. RRI was calculated
as the square root of the mean squared differences of successive RR
intervals. For RRI, all QRS complexes, including ventricular ectopic
beats, were used.
Results
No baseline differences were observed between the study and control
groups, except for male preponderance among ischemic VF patients (90%
vs 72%, P = .019). QRS interval, ECG ischemia severity, RRI, and number
of ventricular ectopic beats were significantly associated with
ischemic VF. Multivariate analysis revealed RRI (odds ratio 1.006, 95%
confidence interval 1.001-1.010, P = .016) and ST deviation score (odds
ratio 1.073, 95% confidence interval 1.041-1.106, P <.001) as the only
statistically significant predictors of ischemic VF.
Conclusion
In the period before ischemic VF, RRI and ST deviation score are
associated with ischemic VF in STEMI patients. These findings could
have important pathophysiologic and clinical implications.
Keywords: [57]Cardiac arrest, [58]Electrocardiography, [59]Myocardial
infarction, [60]Sudden death, [61]Ventricular fibrillation
Abbreviations: [62]AUC, [63]area under receiver operating
characteristic curve, [64]AV, [65]atrioventricular, [66]ECG,
[67]electrocardiogram, [68]HRV, [69]heart rate variability, [70]IQR,
[71]interquartile range, [72]ROC, [73]receiver operating
characteristic, [74]RRI, [75]RR-interval irregularity, [76]STEMI,
[77]ST elevation myocardial infarction, [78]VF, [79]ventricular
fibrillation
Article Outline
o [80]Abstract
o [81]Introduction
o [82]Methods
o [83]Patient population
o [84]ECG data
o [85]RRI and ventricular ectopic beats
o [86]Twelve-lead ECG measurements
o [87]Statistical analysis
o [88]Results
o [89]Baseline characteristics and laboratory values
o [90]ECG characteristics
o [91]Cutoff values
o [92]Discussion
o [93]Baseline characteristics
o [94]Single 12-lead ECG measurements
o [95]Continuous ECG measurements
o [96]RRI and total number of ventricular ectopic beats
o [97]Heart rate variability
o [98]Study limitations
o [99]Clinical implications and future research
o [100]Conclusion
o [101]Acknowledgment
o [102]References
o [103]Copyright
Introduction
[104]return to Article Outline
Sudden cardiac arrest is one of the leading causes of death in
industrialized countries, and ischemic ventricular fibrillation (VF) is
one of the most frequent causes.[105]1, [106]2 To date, research aimed
at predicting VF has predominantly focused on the postmyocardial
infarction stage and nonischemic conditions. Familial history of sudden
death recently was demonstrated to be an important risk factor for VF
in an ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) population,[107]3
suggesting that genetic factors are involved and that predisposition to
ischemic VF differs among patients. Inhomogeneity of intramyocardial
conduction velocity plays a role as a substrate for reentrant
ventricular arrhythmias and sudden death during acute ischemia.[108]4,
[109]5, [110]6, [111]7, [112]8
In the current study, we introduce the novel electrocardiographic (ECG)
parameter of overall RR-interval irregularity (RRI), which is measured
by taking all QRS complexes into account, irrespective of their origin.
A greater RRI could lead to increased inhomogeneity of conduction
velocities and refractory periods, facilitating ischemic VF.
Using single 12-lead ECGs, our group recently demonstrated longer PR
and QRS conduction intervals in first STEMI patients developing
ischemic VF.[113]9 This finding supports the concept of increased
inhomogeneity in conduction velocity and calls upon further elucidation
of the concept. Thus, we tested the hypothesis that cardiac rhythm
characteristics preceding ischemic VF are different from those in
ischemic patients without VF, particularly with regard to the novel ECG
parameter RRI.
Methods
[114]return to Article Outline
Patient population
A retrospective database consisting of 1,473 24-hour Holter recordings
was retrieved from the ECG core laboratory of the Duke Clinical
Research Institute (Durham, NC, USA). The database consists of Holter
recordings from STEMI patients who were included in three separate
safety-efficacy STEMI studies between April 2002 and November 2003. The
database includes all analyzable Holter recordings from two cohorts
(CASTEMI[115]10 and EMERALD,[116]11 n = 1,031) treated with direct
percutaneous coronary intervention and one cohort treated with
thrombolytic therapy (RAPSODY, n = 442). All of these patients were
older than 18 years, had presented with diagnostic ST elevation on
standard ECG, and had symptom duration <= 6 hours. As part of the study
protocols, all patients were connected to 24-hour digital 12-lead
Holter recorders immediately after hospital admission, prior to any
therapeutic intervention in the hospital.
For the current study, all 1,473 Holter recordings were examined for
ischemic VF. Ischemic VF was defined as irregular undulations of
varying shape and amplitude on ECG without discrete QRS or T waves. To
ensure the ischemic nature of the VF, only patients with VF that
occurred before percutaneous coronary intervention and/or in the
presence of persisting ST deviation were included in the study.
Patients in whom VF occurred in conjunction with ECG signs of
reperfusion were considered to have reperfusion VF rather than ischemic
VF and were not included in the study (n = 5). Patients who showed
regular monomorphic ventricular tachycardias rather than VF also were
excluded from the study (n = 19).
Forty-one patients (2.8%) with ischemic VF were identified (study
group). For comparison, for each VF patient, three patients without
ischemic VF (control group) were selected, only matched for the
original study cohort. Selection was done randomly using the
statistical software SPSS for Windows (release 12.0.1, SPSS, Inc.,
Chicago, IL, USA), providing a total of 123 control patients.
Clinical descriptors noted include baseline characteristics (gender,
age, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, current
smoking, and history of acute myocardial infarction), coronary
angiographic data (culprit lesion), and plasma levels of cardiac
enzymes.
ECG data
Holter recordings (DR180+, NorthEast Monitoring, Maynard, MA, USA)
consisted of digital 24-hour 3-lead recordings (leads V5, V1, and III),
with a complete Mason-Likar 12-lead ECG (calibration 10 mm/mV, speed 25
mm/s) available every minute and featured designated analysis software
(Holter 5 LX Analysis version 5.2, NorthEast Monitoring). For each VF
patient, the time interval from start of recording to onset of ischemic
VF and the equivalent time interval in the three matched controls were
used for analysis, disregarding the residual recording time.
Computerized labeling of QRS complexes and RR intervals on Holter
recordings was reviewed and corrected on a beat-to-beat basis by a
trained physician (M.E.L.).
RRI and ventricular ectopic beats
For this analysis, we introduce RRI as a novel parameter. RRI was
calculated using the designated software's capability to calculate
heart rate variability (HRV). HRV is the variation in heart rate
resulting from sympathetic and vagal influences on the sinus node. HRV
disregards all ECG complexes other than sinus beats. Using continuous
3-lead Holter recordings, the software is capable of several HRV
measurements within the time domain.
Similar to standard HRV measurements, RRI calculations were performed
using the three leads of the Holter recordings. Contrary to standard
HRV measurements, RRI takes all ECG complexes, irrespective of their
origin, into account, including (episodes of) atrial fibrillation or
atrial flutter, paced rhythms, and supraventricular and ventricular
complexes. To enable RRI measurements by the software, all ECG
complexes were manually labeled as sinus beats. Time intervals before
onset of ischemic VF frequently were short. Therefore, the square root
of the mean squared differences of successive RR intervals method was
used because it reflects short-term variations in RR intervals, as
previously described in detail.[117]12 For the software to perform HRV
measurements and thus RRI measurements, a minimum of 5 minutes of
recording time is required.
The total number of ventricular ectopic beats was counted for each
patient, again during the time interval from start of recording to
onset of ischemic VF and the equivalent time interval in the control
patients.
Twelve-lead ECG measurements
Our group recently showed significant differences in PR and QRS
conduction intervals as well as severity of ischemia between VF
patients and control patients. For this reason, similar measurements
were made in the current study using the designated software, which
features electronic calipers for 12-lead ECGs. For each patient, one
12-lead ECG showing the most pronounced ST-segment deviation was used
because these ECGs are expected to be the best representation of
ischemia-induced conduction defects. The measurements have been
described previously,[118]9 with the difference that, because of the
digital ECG data and the accompanying Holter software, the measurements
were done using the electronic calipers of the analysis software
instead of manually.
Statistical analysis
Data analysis and case-control randomization were performed using SPSS
for Windows (release 12.0.1). Continuous variables are expressed as
median and interquartile range (IQR) and categorical variables as
percentages. For comparison of continuous variables, a Student's t-test
for normally distributed data or a Mann-Whitney test or Wilcoxon
signed-rank test for non-normally distributed data was used. For
comparison of categorical variables, a Pearson chi-square test or
Fisher exact test was used. All statistical tests were two-tailed, and
P <.05 was considered significant. ECG characteristics showing a
significant univariate relation with the occurrence of VF but lacking
multicollinearity (defined as r > 0.4) were included in multivariate
logistic regression. Variables were removed stepwise from the model
when P was >.10. Variables with P <.05 in the final model were
considered independent contributors and are reported in the results. In
the final model, tests were done for interactions between main
predictors. The predictive accuracy of the final model is reported as
the area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (AUC).
Cutoff values for ECG characteristics by which most VF patients can be
correctly classified are identified by applying the Pythagorean theorem
to ROC curves, which is a mathematical determination of the cutoff
value with the graphically shortest distance to a sensitivity and
specificity of 1.
Results
[119]return to Article Outline
Baseline characteristics and laboratory values
No statistically significant differences regarding baseline
characteristics and laboratory values were found between the VF
patients and the controls, except for a significantly higher percentage
of males among the VF patients (90% vs 72%, P = .019; [120]Table 1).
Table 1.
Baseline characteristics of the study population
Ischemic VF (n = 41) No ischemic VF (n = 123) P value
Age (years) 61 (54-71) 59 (52-71) .54
Male 90 72 .019
Anterior wall infarction 31 29 .84
Culprit artery .32
Left anterior descending branch 20 21
Right coronary artery 77 66
Left circumflex branch 3 13
Comorbidity/risk factor
Diabetes mellitus 10 18 .32
Hypertension 39 42 .71
Hypercholesterolemia 33 26 .41
Smoking 38 38 1
Prior myocardial infarction 11 11 1
Original study cohort .30
CASTEMI[121]10 3 97
EMERALD[122]11 3 97
RAPSODY 2 98
Laboratory values
Initial CK 1.6 (0.3-10.3) 2.6 (0.7-6.9) .70
Post PCI CK 8.1 (5.6-21.9) 10.1 (5.0-14.5) .75
Initial CK-MB 3.1 (1.7-7.7) 4.2 (0.6-7.6) .77
Post PCI CK-MB 6.9 (2.0-11.0) 8.5 (4.1-13.1) .41
Post PCI troponin-T 50.9 (27.5-74.2) 15.4 (8.2-61.8) 1
Note: Information on the culprit artery was available for 127 patients
from the PCI cohorts (CASTEMI and EMERALD). For the thrombolytics
cohort (RAPSODY), the distinction between anterior wall infarctions and
nonanterior wall infarctions was available.
Values are given as median (interquartile range) or percent.
CK = creatine kinase; CK-MB = creatine kinase-MB isoenzyme; PCI =
percutaneous coronary intervention; VF = ventricular fibrillation.
ECG characteristics
ECG characteristics are listed in [123]Table 2. All patients were in
sinus rhythm, except for six (four VF patients, two controls) with
atrial fibrillation, which precluded assessment of sinus rate and PR
interval. One VF patient had a paced rhythm during part of the Holter
recording. One VF patient and two control patients showed
atrioventricular (AV) nodal escape rhythms. Two additional control
patients had high-degree AV block.
Table 2.
ECG characteristics of the study population
Ischemic VF (n = 41) No ischemic VF (n = 123) P value
Sinus rate (min-1) 74 (62-85) 73 (65-85) .719
PQ (ms) 177 (160-216) 164 (153-181) .055
QRS (ms) 103 (88-115) 93 (83-104) .018
QTc Bazett (ms) 417 (390-446) 414 (396-414) .822
Peak ST deviation (mm) 7 (5-10) 4 (2-7) <.001
Grade of ischemia 3 (2-3) 2 (2-3) .004
No. of leads with ST deviation 10 (9-11) 7 (4-10) <.001
STdev (mm) 36 (26-50) 20 (11-30) <.001
Measuring time (minutes) 29 (16-57) 29 (16-57) N/A
Total no. of ventricular ectopic beats 73 (19-268) 19 (2-106) .006
RRI (ms) 132 (100-197) 73 (39-122) <.001
RRI-5 min (ms) 186 (97-237) 44 (22-101) <.001
Values are given as median (interquartile range).
RRI = RR-interval irregularity; RRI-5 min = RR-interval irregularity in
the last 5 minutes of measuring time; STdev = ST deviation score, the
sum of all ST deviations on 12-lead ECG; VF = ventricular fibrillation.
With regard to measurements using single 12-lead ECGs, VF patients
showed a longer QRS interval [103 ms (IQR 88-115 ms) vs 93 ms (IQR
83-104 ms), P = .018] and a larger amount of ischemia, as measured by
peak ST deviation, grade of ischemia,[124]13 total number of leads with
ST deviation, and ST deviation score.
With regard to continuous ECG measurements, the median measuring time
was 29 minutes (IQR 16-57 minutes). Because the requirement of at least
5 minutes of recording time prior to ischemic VF could not be met, the
computer software did not allow RRI measurement in three VF patients
and subsequently nine control patients. VF patients showed a higher RRI
[132 ms (IQR 100-197 ms) vs 73 ms (IQR 39-122 ms), P <.001] and more
ventricular ectopic beats [73 (IQR 19-268) vs 19 (2-106), P = .006].
Excluding the recordings with atrial fibrillation from the analysis,
did not affect the results regarding the RRI measurements.
Logistic regression was applied, with presence of ischemic VF as the
dependent variable and variables showing univariate significance (QRS
interval, ST deviation score, total number of ventricular ectopic
beats, RRI) as the independent variables. Because we recently showed ST
deviation score to be an independent predictor of ischemic VF[125]9 and
we wanted to correct for multicollinearity between the variables
measuring the amount of ischemia, ST deviation score was the only
ischemia parameter entered in the logistic regression. This
multivariate analysis revealed that only a higher RRI (odds ratio
1.006, 95% confidence interval 1.001-1.010, P = .016) and a higher ST
deviation score (odds ratio 1.073, 95% confidence interval 1.041-1.106,
P <.001) were independently associated with an increased chance of
ischemic VF ([126]Table 3). The interpretation of these odds ratios is
that an increase in RRI of 1 ms corresponds to an increased chance of
ischemic VF of 0.6%.
Table 3.
Multivariate analysis of the study population
Odds ratio 95% Confidence interval P value
RR-interval irregularity (ms) 1.006 1.001-1.010 .016
STdev (mm) 1.073 1.041-1.106 <.001
Area under the receiver operating characteristic curve is 0.835.
STdev = ST deviation score, the sum of all ST deviations on 12-lead
ECG.
For our study population, this means that, based on only RRI
measurements, patients who developed VF had a 41.5% (1.006 ^ [132 ms -
73 ms] = 1.415) more chance of doing so than the patients who did not
develop VF. Similarly, an increase in ST deviation score of 1 mm
implies an increased chance of ischemic VF of 7.3%. The predictive
accuracy of this model assessed by the AUC was 0.835.
In addition, to examine a fixed and shortest possible time frame prior
to ischemic VF, RRI was measured in the last 5 minutes of measuring
time. This showed an even more marked difference in RRI between VF and
control patients [186 ms (97-237 ms) vs 44 ms (22-101 ms), P <.001].
Multivariate analysis using this RRI of the last 5 minutes yielded an
RRI odds ratio of 1.012 (95% confidence interval 1.007-1.018, P <.001),
with a predictive model accuracy (AUC) of 0.896 (not shown in
[127]Table 3). Of note, measurement of RRI in the last 5 minutes was
not possible in 7 VF patients and 27 controls because occasional
artifact during this time period in these patients reduced the
analyzable recording time to less than the required 5 minutes.
Cutoff values
Based on the optimal (mathematical) balance between sensitivity and
specificity, cutoff values for RRI and the ST deviation score were
identified. According to these criteria, the cutoff value for RRI is
110 ms, with sensitivity of 74% and specificity of 75%. The cutoff
value for the ST deviation score is 27 mm, yielding sensitivity of 74%
and specificity of 70%.
Discussion
[128]return to Article Outline
To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to show that
heart rate irregularity, measured as the novel parameter RRI, plays a
significant role preceding ischemic VF on continuous ECG recordings
retrieved from a large STEMI database.
Baseline characteristics
No differences in baseline characteristics were found, except for male
preponderance in the VF patients. This is not in accordance with
previous research in which no gender difference with regard to ischemic
VF or sudden cardiac arrest was found.[129]9, [130]14, [131]15,
[132]16, [133]17, [134]18 Our finding could be an observation by
chance, due to multiple exploratory tests that in no way are related to
any hypothesis tested in this study.
Single 12-lead ECG measurements
The significantly longer QRS interval and the larger amount of ischemia
in the VF patients are in agreement with our previous findings on
single 12-lead STEMI ECGs.[135]9 Briefly, in that study we found longer
conduction intervals in VF patients that may, depending on the site of
the occlusion and amount of ischemia, indicate an inhomogeneity in
conduction velocity providing the substrate for ischemic VF. The
current study adds a continuous aspect to the period preceding ischemic
VF. In a multivariate regression model including continuous ECG
measurements, only RRI and the amount of ischemia appear to be
independently associated with the occurrence of ischemic VF.
Continuous ECG measurements
The parameters related specifically to the continuous ECG measurements
are RRI and total number of ventricular ectopic beats.
RRI and total number of ventricular ectopic beats
RRI is a novel and unique ECG parameter that combines into a single
parameter the multitude of ECG complexes and rhythms occurring in the
acute phase of a STEMI by measuring RRI resulting from all such
complexes. Examples of large and small RRIs are shown in [136]Figure 1.
[137]View full-size image. [138]View Large Image
[139]Download to PowerPoint [140]Standard image available
Figure 1. RR-interval irregularity (RRI) in ventricular fibrillation
(VF) patient (A) and matched control patient (B). Primarily due to
irregular runs of ventricular ectopic beats, the VF patient had an RRI
of 257 ms prior to the ischemic VF (red arrow), whereas the control
patient had an RRI of 20 ms in the equivalent time interval. Green
complexes indicate sinus beats; red complexes indicate ventricular
ectopic beats; blue complexes indicate artifact (not used for any
calculations).
To our knowledge, the only continuous ECG parameter suggested to be
associated with ischemic VF occurring in the acute phase of a STEMI is
an increased number of ventricular ectopic beats prior to ischemic
VF.[141]19 However, the predictive value of these so-called warning
arrhythmias has been questioned by other researchers.[142]20, [143]21
In our study population, we were able to reproduce the finding that
frequent ventricular ectopic beats represent a harbinger of ischemic
VF. These previously reported contradictory results may be explained by
our additional finding that the total number of ventricular ectopic
beats was not an independent predictor of ischemic VF. RRI was the only
independent continuous ECG predictor of ischemic VF, suggesting that
the mere presence of ventricular ectopic beats is less important than
rhythm irregularity.
The manner in which RRI is associated with ischemic VF could be as
follows. RRI leads to inhomogeneity in conduction velocity and
refractory periods. Beat-to-beat changes in refractoriness, induced by
RRI, may become pronounced in ischemic areas due to ischemia-related
postrepolarization refractoriness, an effect suggested by our data to
be even more pronounced in the final 5 minutes preceding ischemic VF.
Subsequent, relatively shortly coupled beats may block or conduct
slowly in these areas and instantaneously create a substrate vulnerable
to ischemic VF. Shortly coupled beats do not necessarily induce reentry
and VF; rather, they set the stage.
The finding that the number of leads showing ST deviation was
associated with ischemic VF might indicate a role for more widespread
myocardial ischemia rather than merely local severity of ischemia. This
could add to the heterogeneity of postrepolarization refractoriness.
Although not an independent predictor, this concept is supported by a
larger region at risk associated with VF found in a previous study
using coronary angiography.[144]16
Heart rate variability
The RRI measurements were performed using the software's mathematical
capabilities to calculate HRV. Although technically possible, actual
HRV measurements are not reported here. HRV has been recognized as a
marker of the relationship between the autonomic nervous system and
cardiac mortality. A decreased HRV has been proposed as a predictor of
ventricular arrhythmias and sudden death in different patient
populations, mostly consisting of patients in the postmyocardial
infarction phase or with nonischemic cardiac diseases.[145]12, [146]22,
[147]23, [148]24, [149]25 Most studies attributing a predictive role to
HRV were specifically designed to measure this parameter for
sufficiently long periods of sinus rhythm in a chronic care setting.
The current study relates to a completely different clinical situation,
not only because of its acutely ischemic population but also because of
the relatively short measuring times with frequent ventricular ectopy.
Thus, the clinical meaning of standard HRV measurements would be
questionable in our study population.
Study limitations
The population studied was a selected population because all patients
survived until hospital admission. Therefore, whether our findings can
be generalized to the situation outside the hospital is not known.
The study variables were derived from three separate studies, so
possibly the study population was not homogeneous. In spite of this,
the association we found between RRI, amount of ischemia, and ischemic
VF was very consistent across studies.
All patients were derived from STEMI intervention trials who met
certain ST-segment criteria for inclusion. Therefore, whether the
results are applicable to non-STEMI patients or patients with demand
ischemia rather than supply ischemia is not known.
Finally, we have no information on use of medication. However, in a
previous study we found no influence of any type of medication on
development of ischemic VF.[150]9 Furthermore, it is more likely that
medications such as beta-blocking agents would influence RR-interval
duration rather than RRI. In this regard, it should be noted that there
was no difference in sinus rate between VF patients and control
patients.
However, it should be taken into account that the current database of
Holter recordings prior to ischemic VF is unique in its size and
possibly the best available.
Clinical implications and future research
The results of this study are important for a better understanding of
ischemic VF. Moreover, it provides simple variables with possible
implications for clinical use. There is an increased need for
monitoring high-risk cardiac patients outside the hospital setting, and
the development of monitoring devices with alarm features has been
advocated by our group and others.[151]26, [152]27, [153]28
When incorporated within the algorithms of arrhythmia sensing devices,
a warning predictor of ischemic VF could lead to improved early
identification of individuals at risk. The predictive accuracy of 0.835
by multivariate analysis was high ([154]Table 3). This indicates that
RRI and the ST deviation score may be useful as predictors of ischemic
VF in STEMI patients. The cutoff value for RRI is 110 ms, with
sensitivity of 74% and specificity of 75%. The cutoff value for the ST
deviation score is 27 mm, yielding sensitivity of 74% and specificity
of 70%. Because false-positive identification of STEMI patients at risk
for ischemic VF is preferable to false-negative failure to identify, it
could be speculated that different (ranges of) cutoff values with
higher sensitivities at the cost of lower specificities should be
chosen. Sensitivities of (approximately) 80% and 90% and corresponding
cutoff values for RRI and the ST deviation score are shown in
[155]Figure 2, [156]Figure 3.
[157]View full-size image. [158]View Large Image
[159]Download to PowerPoint [160]Standard image available
Figure 2. Sensitivity and specificity for all cutoff values for
RR-interval irregularity (RRI).
[161]View full-size image. [162]View Large Image
[163]Download to PowerPoint [164]Standard image available
Figure 3. Sensitivity and specificity for all cutoff values for the ST
deviation score (STdev).
This study was aimed at STEMI patients who suffer from supply ischemia.
One could speculate whether the results can be extrapolated to patients
suffering from demand ischemia due to a severe stenosis. In that case,
RRI could play a similar role in these patients, leading to ischemic VF
(e.g., during exercise or diminished blood supply during sleep).
Because the majority of sudden cardiac arrests occurs outside the
hospital, a warning predictor of ischemic VF could be useful in
patients with known coronary artery disease. The model proposed in the
current study could serve as an ischemia model that could be used in
future research studying patients who are potential victims of ischemic
VF due to demand ischemia. Such populations are currently being studied
by our group.
Conclusion
[165]return to Article Outline
Overall RRI and the amount of ischemia are suggested to be useful
predictors of ischemic VF occurring in the acute phase of STEMI.
Acknowledgments
[166]return to Article Outline
We thank W.R. Dassen, PhD, for statistical advice.
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[167]return to Article Outline
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[201]a Department of Cardiology, Maastricht University Medical Center,
Maastricht, The Netherlands
[202]* Duke University Medical Center/Duke Clinical Research Institute,
Durham, North Carolina, USA
[203]Corresponding Author Information Address reprint requests and
correspondence: Dr. Miguel E. Lemmert, Maastricht University Medical
Center, Department of Cardiology, PO Box 5800, 6202 AZ Maastricht, The
Netherlands
This research was supported by an unrestricted grant from Philips
Healthcare, Seattle, Washington.
PII: S1547-5271(09)01043-1
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Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature
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Description
This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With
Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from
Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications.
Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature
This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no
one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of
it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may
relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he
requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and
anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the
same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the
same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual
training, recitation, gymnastics, and play.
Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized
with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle
which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of
every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in
the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of
work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there
is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their
appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less
of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to
anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else
it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from
which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle
with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of
salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting
from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human
[40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important
changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality.
The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief
from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this
tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary
conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified
by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries. . . .
When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in
recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious
rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and
the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and
more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak.
Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with
instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is
laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of
activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to
elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to
primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which
threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving
mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. -
Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20.
. . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area
of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a
ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight
years in [42]duration are superposed.
. . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of
buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the
rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the
production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing
weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of
rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135.
Continue to:
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Tags
[46]sociology, [47]communication, [48]congenial groups, [49]cycles of
change, [50]democracy, [51]factors of society, [52]government,
[53]heredity, [54]human nature, [55]institutions, [56]location,
[57]natural selection, [58]organizations, [59]population, [60]primary
groups, [61]social classes
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Cultural
Towards Lefebvrian Socio-Nature? A Film about Rhythm, Nature and Science
By [17]James Evans and [18]Phil Jones, School of Environment and
Development, University of Manchester School of Geography, Earth and
Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham (April 2008)
__________________________________________________________________
Section: [19]Cultural
Subjects: [20]Environment And Society, [21]Geography, [22]Urban
Geography, [23]Cultural Geography.
Key Topics: [24]nature , [25]representation.
Abstract
The first thing you will notice about this article is that it is
actually a film. We did not set out to make a film, it just ended up
that way. We started out making music out of environmental data,
wondering why we only ever look at scientific data, why we do not
listen to it. Wandering around the city passing through the transformed
landscapes of channelised rivers and broken industrial spaces, we
wanted to reveal the socio-natural rhythms of this hybrid city. The
text you see below represents the shooting script for a film that
explores Lefebvre's notion of rhythmanalysis in the context of
socio-natural rhythms. The video accompanying it is far more
interesting, including the environmental music that we produced by
feeding scientific data through samplers and drum machines. The video
questions the nature of scientific representation and whether the
notion of rhythmanalysis can be stretched to explore rhythms beyond the
human. Furthermore, the process of actually making the video,
submitting it to this journal, and responding to the referees' comments
made us question the very nature of what constitutes an academic paper
in the twenty-first century. The accompanying commentary is our attempt
to deal with these issues.
To link to the film please go to
DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00107.x
This article abstract has been viewed 5348 times.
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J Public Health Policy. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2008 July
24.
Published in final edited form as:
[7]J Public Health Policy. 2006; 27(1): 2-12.
doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200061.
PMCID: PMC2483431
NIHMSID: NIHMS58476
[8]Copyright notice and [9]Disclaimer
Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature
Elena N. Naumova^*
^*Address for Correspondence: Department of Public Health and Family
Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Avenue,
Boston, MA 02111, USA. E-mail: elena.naumova/at/tufts.edu
Small right arrow pointing to: The publisher's final edited version of
this article is available at [10]J Public Health Policy.
Small right arrow pointing to: See other articles in PMC that [11]cite
the published article.
Abstract
Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course
of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences.
Understanding seasonal fluctuations in diseases patterns presents us
with a major challenge. To develop efficient strategies for disease
prevention and control, we need to grasp the main determinants of
temporal variations and their interactions. This paper will introduce
the notion of seasonality by outlining several of its factors, using as
illustrations respiratory and enteric water- or food-borne infections.
Keywords: seasonality, water-borne infection, food-borne infection,
respiratory infection
* [12] Other Sectionsv
+ [13]Abstract
+ [14]Introduction
+ [15]Notion of Seasonality
+ [16]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [17]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [18]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [19]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [20]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [21]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [22]References
Introduction
Now let us consider the seasons and the way we can predict whether it
is going to be a healthy or an unhealthy year.
(Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 10)^[23]1
Seasonal fluctuations in birth and death, in sickness and health, are
the haunting mysteries of mankind. People have made predictions from
winds, tides, birds' migrations, spring blooms, sunsets, and
constellations in hope of grasping the future. The complexity and
uncertainty of ancient and modern means of prediction make us wonder to
what extent we are able to understand the rhythm of nature. One might
argue the future cannot be known, but from a practical point of view, a
better understanding of changes in disease occurrences is essential for
building efficient strategies for disease prevention and control.
Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course
of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences.
Since Hippocrates, observers worldwide have noted and documented marked
fluctuations in the incidence of many diseases. In the modern view, the
main determinants of temporal variations in disease manifestation are
evolving host susceptibility, periodicity in pathogen abundance and
transmissibility, and the ever-changing environment that can support or
repress a host or pathogen. Interactions among these factors
responsible for seasonal variation are interwoven into the intricate
fabric of life.
For many diseases, explanations for self-sustained oscillations still
remain elusive. We lack adequate methods and sufficient analytical
tools for comprehensive examination of seasonality in public health
field studies. A dearth of observations, recorded over long periods at
fine resolution, compounded by an enormous number of factors associated
with periodic changes, obscure our ability to understand disease
variation. Urgent need for effective strategies to prevent and control
a spread of emerging infections in the rapidly changing world, however,
demands a deeper insight into the cyclic nature of diseases.
This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality and outline several
factors associated with seasonality using as illustrations enteric
water- or food-borne infections and respiratory infections. Then I
propose a framework for systematic evaluation of seasonal oscillations.
In every part of this presentation, and most importantly, I wish to
stimulate discussion on this challenging topic.
* [24] Other Sectionsv
+ [25]Abstract
+ [26]Introduction
+ [27]Notion of Seasonality
+ [28]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [29]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [30]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [31]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [32]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [33]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [34]References
Notion of Seasonality
Every disease occurs at any season of the year but some of them more
frequently occur and are of greater severity at certain times.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 19)
Seasonality, as noted above, refers to the cyclic appearance of events
over a period of time. A seasonal pattern may appear as a tight cluster
of isolated outbreaks that occurred during a relatively short time
period, then spreading over a wide geographic area.
For example, in a temporal curve of enteric infection cases (i.e.
giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, or rotavirus infections), a compact
cluster of outbreaks is followed by a long interval of low incidence.
Systematic recurrence of such sequences forms a seasonal pattern
typical of a specific pathogen in a given population and in a given
locality. A seasonal increase in enteric or respiratory infection often
produces a well-defined oscillating curve that starts to rise in one
season and declines over the next one.
The three main features characterize seasonality:
* a point in time when a seasonal curve reaches its maximum,
* an amplitude from peak to nadir, and
* a duration of a seasonal increase defined by a shape of a curve.
(The shape of a seasonal pattern reflects how fast a temporal curve
reaches its peak and declines to nadir over a course of a full
cycle. Depending on the length of a cycle whether it is one year or
a half of a year, a seasonal curve would have one or two peaks.)
Seasonal patterns, described by these three characteristics, may vary
for different diseases, different locations, or different
subpopulations. Many viral and bacterial infections in humans show
marked seasonal changes. In some diseases, like salmonellosis and
influenza, annual oscillations explain up to 60% of variability. Such
impact should not be ignored and deserves a proper examination.
* [35] Other Sectionsv
+ [36]Abstract
+ [37]Introduction
+ [38]Notion of Seasonality
+ [39]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [40]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [41]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [42]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [43]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [44]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [45]References
Diseases Seasonal Patterns
Diseases vary in their relationships one with another; some are
opposed, some are mutually agreeable.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 3)
Differences in diseases peaks reflect different etiology, heterogeneity
in host susceptibility, or route of transmission. In temperate
climates, Campylobacter and Salmonella infections are known to rise in
summer, giardiasis in early fall, and rotavirus infection in
mid-winter, etc. Interestingly, for the same infectious agent,
infections recorded in two different locations may present a different
pattern of incidence. A seasonal pattern for cryptosporidiosis in the
United States exhibits one late summer peak ([46]1); in contrast, in
the United Kingdom, two seasonal peaks are seen ([47]2). The UK picture
reflects two dominant sources of exposure: one from animals in the late
spring, and another from humans in the fall ([48]3).
Close temporal clustering of seasonal peaks in diseases that share
similar sources of exposure suggests dominant routes of transmissions.
Peaks in water-borne cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis often cluster
after a summer peak in ambient temperature. Such synchronization in
disease manifestation can be governed by environmental and social
factors. In some instances, periodicity of a given infection observed
in a particular population may be not present in another. A seasonal
peak in cryptosporidiosis cases observed in the general population is
not apparent in the immunocompromized HIV-positive gay men, even though
the incidence of cryptosporidiosis in HIV-positive population is very
high. This suggests differences in dominant routes of transmission.
Seasonal patterns can change over time. After intense vaccination
campaigns in the 1950s and 1970s in the United Kingdom, the patterns of
measles and pertussis changed, with the high rates of disease usually
seen when children were attending school diminishing for measles and
practically disappearing for pertusis ([49]4). Explanations for these
phenomena remain elusive. A departure from a systematically observed
pattern could reflect the evolution of a pathogen or a change in herd
immunity. A simple rule to remember is that a discovery hides in
outliers.
Faced with an abundance of causal agents, a bare observation of a rise
in the incidence of non-specific enteritis should be interpreted with
caution. A seasonal pattern can represent a mix of temporal curves.
Imagine two periodic curves of similar intensity, but one peaks in a
spring and another in a fall; the sum of these two curves might lose
the appearance of seasonality, covering two distinctly seasonal
phenomena.
Some infections are very rare. Their seasonal patterns are difficult to
examine because the relevant data must be collected over a very long
time and/or aggregated over large spatial units. Precision in
evaluating seasonality can thus be jeopardized by time-dependent and/or
space-dependent confounders.
Seasonal fluctuations can be found beyond infectious diseases; chronic
somatic diseases also exhibit substantial temporal variations.
Plausibly, exacerbations in chronic conditions are driven by infectious
agents or environmental changes. Understanding the interplay of an
infection and a chronic disease may lead to better control for both.
* [50] Other Sectionsv
+ [51]Abstract
+ [52]Introduction
+ [53]Notion of Seasonality
+ [54]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [55]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [56]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [57]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [58]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [59]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [60]References
Seasonal Host Susceptibility
When the weather is seasonable and the crops ripen at the regular
times, diseases are regular in their appearance...
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 8)
Poor nutrition directly affects host susceptibility. In places of food
scarcity, researchers suspect that temporal patterns in birth weight
and preterm delivery result from seasonal variations in food
availability ([61]5). In general, due to a less developed immune
system, young children are susceptible to infection; their immune
response may be further weakened by seasonal cutbacks in essential
micronutrients and vitamins.
Anemnestic responses to an antigen determine whether an infection
recurs. Short-lived immune memory together with seasonal changes in
pathogen transmissibility contribute further to the complexity of
seasonal patterns. Even a perfectly healthy person can experience a
change in susceptibility to infection due to stress, injuries, or
trauma. The probability of a marked impact of such factors on disease
seasonality is virtually unknown.
* [62] Other Sectionsv
+ [63]Abstract
+ [64]Introduction
+ [65]Notion of Seasonality
+ [66]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [67]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [68]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [69]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [70]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [71]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [72]References
Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
Some diseases are produced by the manner of life that is followed;
others by the life-giving air we breathe.
(Hippocrates. The Nature of Man, 9)
Temperature, humidity, and precipitation -- the defining factors of
seasons -- are important determinants of pathogens' survival. Changes
influence pathogens' potency and life expectancy, resulting in temporal
fluctuations in pathogens' abundance. In many instances, seasonal
changes in pathogen survival and transmission are inseparably related
to both biological and social aspects of our lives. They are
synchronized by weather. High ambient temperature, for example,
provides a supportive environment for food-borne pathogens, favoring
their multiplication in food and on food preparation surfaces ([73]6).
Food contamination is believed to be a significant mode of transmission
for infections caused by Salmonella and Campylobacter ([74]7);
therefore, during warm weather, the risk for food-borne diseases
increases ([75]8).
Seasonal changes in level of contamination, availability of potable
water, sanitation and hygiene practices, as well as crowding and
person-to-person contacts, affect pathogens' transmissibility.
Worldwide, water use differs from season to season ([76]9). In
temperate climates, warm weather leads to higher water consumption and
encourages outdoor activities -- swimming, camping, and recreational
water use. In tropical regions, contamination of surface water
increases during wet seasons. Although spread of pathogens via food is
certainly possible, contaminated water is the dominant source of
exposure for enteric infections caused by protozoa Cryptosporidium and
Giardia ([77]10 --[78]12). Depending on locality, outbreaks of
cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis associated with drinking or
recreational water frequently occur during warm or wet seasons
([79]13,[80]14).
With the onset of cooler weather, the "heating season" marks a change
in indoor air quality. Inadequate and poorly designed ventilation in
crowded public places and urban transit systems may boost exposure to
air-borne pathogens by increasing their concentration in stagnant air
and by re-circulating contaminated air. Higher relative humidity may
also affect the stability of air-borne droplets in which viruses travel
from person to person.
* [81] Other Sectionsv
+ [82]Abstract
+ [83]Introduction
+ [84]Notion of Seasonality
+ [85]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [86]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [87]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [88]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [89]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [90]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [91]References
Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
You will find, as a general rule, that the constitutions and the habits
of a people follow the nature of the land where they live.
(Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 24)
Diseases do not watch calendars. Their incidence rises and falls
because of changes in factors associated with the diseases. However, in
every culture all social events are synchronized by calendars; and
every calendar reflects the cyclic rhythm of nature.
Traditional celebrations and gatherings observed by communities
according to calendars affect pathogen transmission. Holidays, social
activities, and seasonal travel are often associated with changes in
food consumption and preparation, and are therefore associated with
changes in disease incidence. Preparing meat on a barbecue increases
the risk of Campylobacter infection ([92]15,[93]16) and foreign travel
increases the risk for enteric infections. Aggregation of children in
schools, daycare centers, and summer camps, reflecting school
calendars, facilitates rapid exchange of pathogens. There are marked
seasonal variations in transmission, and thus the incidence of enteric
and respiratory infections.
* [94] Other Sectionsv
+ [95]Abstract
+ [96]Introduction
+ [97]Notion of Seasonality
+ [98]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [99]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [100]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [101]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [102]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [103]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [104]References
Climate Change, Extreme Weather Events, and Disease Seasonality
The changes of the seasons are especially liable to beget diseases, as
are great changes from heat to cold, or cold to heat in any season.
Other changes in the weather have similarly severe effects.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 1)
As weather affects human health by creating favorable conditions for
pathogen proliferation and transmission, severe weather can affect the
timing and intensity of infectious outbreaks, and natural disasters
lead to drastic changes in population structure and pathogen ecology.
Catastrophic events like tsunamis, hurricanes, devastating floods, and
heat waves that cause deaths, population displacement, and
infrastructural damage may have dramatic effects on the incidence of
infections and their seasonal patterns.
Recent work has shown highly significant associations between extreme
precipitation and water-borne disease outbreaks ([105]17). Heavy
precipitation, rapid snowmelt, and floods flush animal wastes from the
land into surface waters and may overwhelm drinking and wastewater
treatment systems. The latter leads to discharges in watersheds of
untreated human wastes. As a result, pathogens can appear in drinking
and recreational water in very high concentrations ([106]18,[107]19). A
rapid snowmelt, resultant runoff, and filtration system failure at the
overloaded local drinking water treatment plant were implicated in the
largest known water-borne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis, which occurred
in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1993 ([108]20). This outbreak happened in
April, not within the usual seasonal peak for cryptosporidiosis cases.
A flood, which also resulted from a rapid snowmelt, has been linked
with a similar increased incidence of diarrhea ([109]21).
Experts expect that global climate change will increase climate
variability and the frequency of extreme precipitation events in
temperate regions ([110]22,[111]23). "Global warming" may also increase
the frequency and magnitude of other extreme weather events, such as
heat waves and droughts, and thereby have profound effects on public
health ([112]24,[113]25). In a comprehensive study conducted in the
United Kingdom that described a short-term link between temperature and
food poisoning, the authors also hypothesized that climate change could
lead to changes in rates of food poisoning ([114]26).
Integration of environmental parameters into disease forecasting and
warning systems could allow public health officials to alert the
populace when specific meteorological conditions pose predictable risks
to health ([115]27). Simple messages about proper food preparation and
refrigeration and the risks of using contaminated recreational waters
could, for example, be provided before, during, and after extreme
events. Better understanding of disease seasonality would also help to
predict outbreaks of infections triggered by climate variability.
* [116] Other Sectionsv
+ [117]Abstract
+ [118]Introduction
+ [119]Notion of Seasonality
+ [120]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [121]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [122]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [123]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [124]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [125]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [126]References
Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy
to Public Health Thinking
Desperate cases need the most desperate remedies.
(Hippocrates. Aphorisms, I, 6)
At first, seasonal fluctuations should be systematically described.
This requires a framework with sound definitions and analytic tools
suitable for routine use by public health professionals. In public
health sciences, the existing methodology currently lacks methods and
tests for assessing complex interactions in the time-dependent factors
responsible for disease seasonality.
Next, reliable data with fine temporal resolution are a must. The vast
majority of epidemiological studies have examined seasonal patterns of
infections using quarterly or monthly data. This coarse temporal
aggregation can thwart an otherwise detailed, accurate, and
comprehensive analysis of seasonal patterns and may even be misleading
([127]28). Examination of daily or weekly rates can substantially
improve evaluation of seasonal curves, but a systematic approach for
using at least weekly aggregates is needed.
Finally, reluctance to apply sophisticated mathematical models in
public health studies must be overcome. Underlying processes in disease
manifestation and spread are complex and multifaceted. Causal pathways
are often obscured. To disentangle causal effects of many factors
within the circular processes of self-sustaining oscillations demands
the careful building of sound conceptual models of seasonality; models
that can be tested. The emerging fields of computational epidemiology
and intelligent data mining will complement established work in
philosophy of science and mathematical biology to become an essential
part of thinking in public health and policy.
Acknowledgments
I thank Drs Eileen O'Neil and Beth Rosenberg for their thoughtful
suggestions, and the support of funding agencies: the National
Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (U19AI062627), and the
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R01ES013171).
Footnotes
^1Hippocrates' citations are taken from: Lloyd, GER, editor.
Hippocratic Writings. Trans. Chadwick J and Mann WN. London: Penguin;
1978.
* [128] Other Sectionsv
+ [129]Abstract
+ [130]Introduction
+ [131]Notion of Seasonality
+ [132]Diseases Seasonal Patterns
+ [133]Seasonal Host Susceptibility
+ [134]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility
+ [135]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects
+ [136]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events,
[dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality
+ [137]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics
and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking
+ [138]References
References
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3. McLauchlin J, Amar C, Pedraza-Diaz S, Nichols GL. Molecular
epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in the United Kingdom:
results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in 1,705 fecal samples from
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2000;38(11):3984-90. [[141]PubMed]
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17. Curriero FC, Patz JA, Rose JB, Lele S. The association between
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18. Fayer R, Trout JM, Lewis EJ, Xiao L, Lal A, Jenkins MC, et al.
Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay.
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19. Kistemann T, Classen T, Koch C, Dangendorf F, Fischeder R, Gebel J,
et al. Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during
extreme rainfall and runoff. Appl Environ Microbiol.
2002;68(5):2188-97. [[155]PubMed]
20. MacKenzie WR, Hoxie NJ, Proctor ME, Gradus MS, Blair KA, Peterson
DE, et al. A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of Cryptosporidium infection
transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med.
1994;331(3):161-7. [[156]PubMed]
21. Wade TJ, Sandhu SK, Levy D, Lee S, LeChevallier MW, Katz L, et al.
Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the incidence of
gastrointestinal symptoms? Am J Epidemiol. 2004;159(4):398-405.
[[157]PubMed]
22. World Health Organization. Using climate to predict infectious
disease outbreaks: a review. World Health Organization; Geneva,
Switzerland: 2004. Publication no. WHO/SDE/OEH/04.01.
23. Easterling DR, Evans JL. Observed variability and trends in extreme
climate events. Bull Am Meteorol Soc. 2000;81:417-25.
24. Charron D, Thomas M, Waltner-Toews D, Aramini J, Edge T, Kent R, et
al. Vulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a
review. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004;67(20 --22):1667-77.
[[158]PubMed]
25. Patz JA, Epstein PR, Burke TA, Balbus JM. Global climate change and
emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996;275(3):217-23. [[159]PubMed]
26. Bentham G, Langford IH. Climate change and the incidence of food
poisoning in England and Wales. Int J Biometeorol. 1995;39(2):81-6.
[[160]PubMed]
27. Ebi KL, Schmier JK. A stitch in time: improving public health early
warning systems for extreme weather events. Epidemiol Rev.
2005;27:115-21. [[161]PubMed]
28. da Silva Lopes ACB. Spurious deterministic seasonality and
auto-correlation corrections with quarterly data: further Monte Carlo
results. Empir Econ. 1999;24(2):341-59.
__________________________________________________________________
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* [162]Naumova, E.
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* [175]PubMed
* [176]Taxonomy
* [177]Taxonomy Tree
* [178]Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial
variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis.
Public Health Rep. 2000 Sep-Oct; 115(5):436-47.
[Public Health Rep. 2000]
* [179]Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in
cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance
system in 1990-1999.
J Water Health. 2005 Jun; 3(2):185-96.
[J Water Health. 2005]
* [180]Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in
the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in
1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from
livestock animals.
J Clin Microbiol. 2000 Nov; 38(11):3984-90.
[J Clin Microbiol. 2000]
[181]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [182]A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between
rural Zaire and Ontario.
Can J Public Health. 1989 May-Jun; 80(3):205-8.
[Can J Public Health. 1989]
[183]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [184]Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces
and cross-contamination to foods.
Int J Food Microbiol. 2003 Aug 25; 85(3):227-36.
[Int J Food Microbiol. 2003]
* [185]ReviewFood-related illness and death in the United States.
Emerg Infect Dis. 1999 Sep-Oct; 5(5):607-25.
[Emerg Infect Dis. 1999]
* [186]The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series
analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries.
Epidemiol Infect. 2004 Jun; 132(3):443-53.
[Epidemiol Infect. 2004]
[187]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [188]A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with
the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study).
Water Sci Technol. 2001; 43(12):39-48.
[Water Sci Technol. 2001]
* [189]ReviewReview of epidemiological studies on health effects from
exposure to recreational water.
Int J Epidemiol. 1998 Feb; 27(1):1-9.
[Int J Epidemiol. 1998]
* [190]ReviewGiardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their
impact on foods: a review.
J Food Prot. 1999 Sep; 62(9):1059-70.
[J Food Prot. 1999]
* [191]Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks--United States,
1997-1998.
MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000 May 26; 49(4):1-21.
[MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000]
[192]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [193]Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of
a case-control study in southeastern Norway.
J Clin Microbiol. 1992 Dec; 30(12):3117-21.
[J Clin Microbiol. 1992]
* [194]A case-control study of risk factors for sporadic
campylobacter infections in Denmark.
Epidemiol Infect. 2003 Jun; 130(3):353-66.
[Epidemiol Infect. 2003]
[195]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [196]The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne
disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948-1994.
Am J Public Health. 2001 Aug; 91(8):1194-9.
[Am J Public Health. 2001]
* [197]Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay.
Parasitol Res. 2002 Nov; 88(11):998-1003.
[Parasitol Res. 2002]
* [198]Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during
extreme rainfall and runoff.
Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002 May; 68(5):2188-97.
[Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002]
* [199]A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of cryptosporidium infection
transmitted through the public water supply.
N Engl J Med. 1994 Jul 21; 331(3):161-7.
[N Engl J Med. 1994]
* [200]Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the
incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms?
Am J Epidemiol. 2004 Feb 15; 159(4):398-405.
[Am J Epidemiol. 2004]
[201]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [202]ReviewVulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change
in Canada: a review.
J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004 Oct 22-Nov 26; 67(20-22):1667-77.
[J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004]
* [203]Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases.
JAMA. 1996 Jan 17; 275(3):217-23.
[JAMA. 1996]
* [204]Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England
and Wales.
Int J Biometeorol. 1995 Nov; 39(2):81-6.
[Int J Biometeorol. 1995]
[205]See more articles cited in this paragraph
* [206]ReviewA stitch in time: improving public health early warning
systems for extreme weather events.
Epidemiol Rev. 2005; 27():115-21.
[Epidemiol Rev. 2005]
[207]See more articles cited in this paragraph
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Circadian rhythm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search
"Human clock" redirects here. For the online clock, see [8]Humanclock.
Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological
parameters.
A circadian rhythm is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical,
physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including
[9]plants, [10]animals, [11]fungi and [12]cyanobacteria (see
[13]bacterial circadian rhythms). The term "circadian", coined by
[14]Franz Halberg,^[15][1] comes from the [16]Latin [17]circa,
"around", and diem or dies, "day", meaning literally "approximately one
day". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily,
[18]tidal, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called
[19]chronobiology.
Circadian rhythms are [20]endogenously generated, and can be entrained
by external cues, called [21]zeitgebers, the primary one of which is
[22]daylight.
Contents
* [23]1 History
* [24]2 Criteria
* [25]3 Origin
* [26]4 Importance in animals
+ [27]4.1 Impact of light-dark cycle
+ [28]4.2 Arctic animals
+ [29]4.3 Butterfly migration
* [30]5 Biological clock in mammals
+ [31]5.1 Determining the human circadian rhythm
+ [32]5.2 Outside the "master clock"
* [33]6 Light and the biological clock
* [34]7 Enforced longer cycles
* [35]8 Human health
+ [36]8.1 Disruption
+ [37]8.2 Effect of drugs
* [38]9 See also
* [39]10 References
+ [40]10.1 Bibliography
+ [41]10.2 Notes
* [42]11 External links
[[43]edit] History
The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th
century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under
[44]Alexander the Great, described [45]diurnal leaf movements of the
[46]tamarind tree.^[47][2] The first modern observation of endogenous
circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [48]Jean-Jacques
d'Ortous de Mairan in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the
movement of the leaves of the plant [49]Mimosa pudica continued even
when the plants were isolated from external stimuli.
In 1918, J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining
24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light
and changes in temperature.^[50][3] [51]Joseph Takahashi discovered the
genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.^[52][4]^[53][5]
[[54]edit] Criteria
To differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from
coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met: 1)
the rhythms persist in the absence of cues, 2) they persist equally
precisely over a range of temperatures, and 3) the rhythms can be
adjusted to match the local time:
* The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant
dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this
criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those "apparent"
rhythms that are merely responses to external periodic cues. A
rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been
tested in conditions without external periodic input.
* The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e., it maintains the same
period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this
criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological
rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway.
At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a
circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely
coincidental.
* The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The
rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms
from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to
resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of
estimating the local time. Travel across [55]time zones illustrates
the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that
it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next.
Until rhythms are reset, a person usually experiences [56]jet lag.
[[57]edit] Origin
[58]Question book-new.svg
This section needs additional [59]citations for [60]verification.
Please help [61]improve this article by adding [62]reliable references.
Unsourced material may be [63]challenged and [64]removed. (October
2007)
Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have
originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the
replicating of DNA from high [65]ultraviolet radiation during the
daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus
[66]Neurospora, which exists today, retains this [67]clock-regulated
mechanism.
Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise
and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to
the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in
regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in
coordinating with the environment.^[68][6] This is suggested by the
maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after
several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,^[69][7]
as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the
experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian
rhythms in quail.^[70][8]
The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic
[71]cyanobacteria. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian
clock of Synechococcus elongatus can be reconstituted in vitro with
just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has
been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the
addition of [72]ATP. Previous explanations of the [73]prokaryotic
circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription /
translation feedback mechanism.
It is an unanswered question whether circadian clocks in eukaryotic
organisms require translation/transcription-derived oscillations, for,
although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the
same basic architecture (input - [74]central oscillator - output), they
do not share any [75]homology. This implies probable independent
origins.
In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [76]Seymour Benzer first identified a
genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a
model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behaviour:
one had a shorter period, another had a longer one, and the third had
none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named
[77]period.^[78][9] The same gene was identified to be defective in the
sleep disorder FASPS ([79]Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome) in
human beings thirty years later, underscoring the conserved nature of
the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic
components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions
result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in
periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a
specific time of the day.
A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter
half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian
clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is
cell-autonomous.^[80][10] At the same time, different cells may
communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of
electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the
brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for
these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronize the
peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time
of the day as relayed by the [81]eyes travels to the clock in the
brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be
synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body
temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the
biological clock.
[[82]edit] Importance in animals
Circadian rhythmicity is present in the [83]sleeping and feeding
patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear
patterns of core body temperature, [84]brain wave activity, [85]hormone
production, cell regeneration and other biological activities. In
addition, [86]photoperiodism, the physiological reaction of organisms
to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and
the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation
of day length.
" Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food
availability or predator activity is crucial for survival of many
species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the
photoperiod ('daylength') is the most predictive environmental cue for
the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing
of migration, hibernation and reproduction.^[87][11] "
[[88]edit] Impact of light-dark cycle
The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals, including
humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function
with a [89]freerunning rhythm. Each "day", their sleep cycle is pushed
back or forward, depending on whether their [90]endogenous period is
shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that each day
reset the rhythms are called [91]Zeitgebers (from the German, Time
Givers).^[92][12] It is interesting to note that totally-blind
subterranean mammals (e.g., [93]blind mole rat Spalax sp.) are able to
maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external
stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors
(detect light) are still functional; as well, they do surface
periodically.^[[94]citation needed]
Freerunning organisms that normally have one consolidated sleep episode
will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues,
but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light/dark
cycle in nature. The sleep-wake rhythm may, in these circumstances,
become out of phase with other circadian or [95]ultradian rhythms such
as [96]temperature and [97]digestion.^[[98]citation needed]
Recent research has influenced the design of [99]spacecraft
environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been
found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.^[[100]citation needed]
[[101]edit] Arctic animals
Norwegian researchers at the [102]University of Tromsø have shown that
some Arctic animals ([103]ptarmigan, [104]reindeer) show circadian
rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and
sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at [105]70 degrees North
showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter, and spring, but not in
the summer. Reindeer at [106]78 degrees North showed such rhythms only
autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other Arctic animals as
well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and
the constant dark of winter.^[107][13]^[108][14]
However, another study in northern Alaska found that [109]ground
squirrels and [110]porcupines strictly maintained their circadian
rhythms through 82 days and nights of sunshine. The researchers
speculate that these two small mammals see that the apparent distance
between the sun and the horizon is shortest once a day, and, thus, a
sufficient signal to adjust by.^[111][15]
[[112]edit] Butterfly migration
The navigation of the fall migration of the [113]Eastern North American
monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) to their overwintering grounds in
central Mexico uses a time-compensated sun compass that depends upon a
circadian clock in their antennae.^[114][16]^[115][17]
[[116]edit] Biological clock in mammals
Diagram illustrating the influence of light and darkness on circadian
rhythms and related [117]physiology and behaviour through the
[118]suprachiasmatic nucleus in humans.
The primary circadian "clock" in [119]mammals is located in the
[120]suprachiasmatic nucleus (or nuclei) ([121]SCN), a pair of distinct
groups of [122]cells located in the [123]hypothalamus. Destruction of
the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep-wake rhythm.
The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The
[124]retina of the eyes contains not only "classical"
[125]photoreceptors but also photoresponsive retinal [126]ganglion
cells. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called
[127]melanopsin, follow a pathway called the [128]retinohypothalamic
tract, leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and
cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external
cues.
It appears that the SCN takes the information on the lengths of the day
and night from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the
[129]pineal gland, a tiny structure shaped like a [130]pine cone and
located on the [131]epithalamus. In response the pineal secretes the
hormone [132]melatonin. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs
during the day and its presence provides information about
night-length.
The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter
and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard
have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a
23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural
solar day-night cycle on the planet [133]Mars).^[134][18]
[[135]edit] Determining the human circadian rhythm
The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's
circadian rhythm are
* melatonin secretion by the pineal gland and
* core body temperature.
For temperature studies, people must remain awake but calm and
semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are
taken continuously. The average human adult's temperature reaches its
minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake
time, though variation is great among normal [136]chronotypes.
Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime.
Its onset in dim light, dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO), at about
21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Its major
[137]metabolite can also be measured in morning urine. Both DLMO and
the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or
saliva have been used as circadian markers.
However, newer research indicates that the melatonin offset may be the
most reliable marker. Benloucif et al. in Chicago in 2005 found that
melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated
with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found
that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly
correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In
addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable
and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.^[138][19]
One method used for measuring melatonin offset is to analyse a sequence
of urine samples throughout the morning for the presence of the
melatonin [139]metabolite 6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s). Laberge et al.
in Quebec in 1997 used this method in a study that confirmed the
frequently found delayed circadian phase in healthy
adolescents.^[140][20]
[[141]edit] Outside the "master clock"
More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and
cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the "master
clock". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the
[142]oesophagus, [143]lungs, [144]liver, [145]pancreas, [146]spleen,
[147]thymus, and the [148]skin.^[149][21] Though oscillators in the
skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven so
far.^[150][22]^[151][23] There is some evidence that also the olfactory
bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting
that also these structures may be weak oscillators.
Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding
rather than to [152]light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to
have freerunning rhythms.
[[153]edit] Light and the biological clock
Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [154]phase
response curve (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or
delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required
[155]illuminance vary from species to species and lower light levels
are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.
Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm in humans are higher than
the levels usually used in artificial lighting in homes. According to
some researchers^[156][24] the illumination intensity that excites the
circadian system has to reach up to 1000 [157]lux striking the retina.
In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or colour) of light is a
factor in the entrainment of the body clock. [158]Melanopsin is most
efficiently excited by blue light, 420-440 nm^[159][25] according to
some researchers while others have reported 470-485 nm.
It is thought that the direction of the light may have an effect on
entraining the circadian rhythm;^[160][24] light coming from above,
resembling an image of a bright sky, has greater effect than light
entering our eyes from below.
[[161]edit] Enforced longer cycles
Modern research under very controlled conditions has shown the human
period for adults to be just slightly longer than 24 hours on average.
Czeisler et al. at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults
of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes.
The "clock" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's
rotation.^[162][26]
The 28-hour day is presented as a concept of [163]time
management.^[164][27] It builds on the fact that the week of seven days
at 24 hours and a "week" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of
168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require
staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours.
Each "day" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern.
Studies by [165]Nathaniel Kleitman^[166][28] in 1938 and by
[167]Derk-Jan Dijk and [168]Charles Czeisler^[169][29]^[170][30] in
1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep-wake cycles,
in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a
month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day,^[171][31]
this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake
episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about
24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of
circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including
[172]sleep latency and other functions.^[173][32]
Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people
preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli
like daylight and timekeeping. Early investigators determined the human
circadian period to be 25 hours or more. They went to great lengths to
shield subjects from time cues and daylight, but they were not aware of
the effects of indoor electric lights. The subjects were allowed to
turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted
to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase.
These results became well known.^[174][26] Researchers allowed subjects
to keep electric lighting on in the evening, as it was thought at that
time that a couple of 60W bulbs would not have a resetting effect on
the circadian rhythms of humans. More recent research^[[175]citation
needed] has shown that adults have a built-in day, which averages just
over 24 hours, that indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms and
that most people attain their best-quality sleep during their
[176]chronotype-determined sleep periods.
[[177]edit] Human health
Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may
significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse
reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with
[178]angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) may reduce
nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [179]left ventricular
(reverse) remodelling.^[[180]citation needed]
A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms.
A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during
the day, a [181]power-nap, does not have any effect on normal circadian
rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve
productivity.^[182][33]^[183][34]
There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the
human circadian rhythm, such as [184]seasonal affective disorder (SAD),
[185]delayed sleep phase syndrome (DSPS) and other [186]circadian
rhythm disorders.^[187][35] Circadian rhythms also play a part in the
[188]reticular activating system, which is crucial for maintaining a
state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep-wake cycle
may be a sign or complication of [189]uremia,^[190][36] [191]azotemia
or [192]acute renal failure.
[[193]edit] Disruption
Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers
have experienced the condition known as [194]jet lag, with its
associated symptoms of [195]fatigue, disorientation and [196]insomnia.
A number of other disorders, for example [197]bipolar disorder and some
[198]sleep disorders, are associated with irregular or pathological
functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that
circadian rhythm disturbances found in [199]bipolar disorder are
positively influenced by [200]lithium's effect on clock
genes.^[201][37]
Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have
significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside
the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of
cardiovascular disease [202][2] The suppression of melatonin production
associated with the disruption of the circadian rhythm may increase the
risk of developing cancer.^[203][38]^[204][39]
[[205]edit] Effect of drugs
Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside
the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such
as [206]cocaine.^[207][40]^[208][41] Moreover, genetic manipulations of
clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.^[209][42]
[[210]edit] See also
* [211]Actigraphy (also known as Actimetry)
* [212]Advanced sleep phase syndrome
* [213]ARNTL
* [214]ARNTL2
* [215]Bacterial circadian rhythms
* [216]Chronobiology
* [217]Chronotype
* [218]Circadian oscillator
* [219]Circadian rhythm sleep disorders
* [220]Cryptochrome
* [221]CRY1 and [222]CRY2, the cryptochrome family genes
* [223]Delayed sleep phase syndrome
* [224]Diurnal cycle
* [225]Jet lag
* [226]Light effects on circadian rhythm
* [227]PER1, [228]PER2, and [229]PER3, the period family genes
* [230]Power-nap
[[231]edit] References
[[232]edit] Bibliography
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[[372]edit] External links
* [373]Circadian rhythm at the [374]Open Directory Project
* Leloup J.C. (2009). "Circadian clocks and phosphorylation: Insights
from computational modeling". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 4 (3): 290-303.
[375]doi:[376]10.2478/s11535-009-0025-1.
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[377]doi:[378]10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z.
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January 2, 2006
Universal Timing
Life's Natural Rhythm
Nature's natural rhythms orchestrate when day turns to night, when
flowers must bloom, and provides the cue for when it is time for red
and brown leaves to fall from trees. As human beings, our own inner
rhythm is attuned to this universal sense of timing. Guided by the
rising and setting of the sun, changes in temperature, and our own
internal rhythm, we know when it is time to sleep, eat, or be active.
While our minds and spirits are free to focus on other pursuits, our
breath and our heartbeat are always there to remind us of life's
pulsing rhythm that moves within and around us.
Moving to this rhythm, we know when it is time to stop working and when
to rest. Pushing our bodies to work beyond their natural rhythm
diminishes our ability to renew and recharge. A feeling much like jet
lag lets us know when we've overridden our own natural rhythm. When we
feel the frantic calls of all we want to accomplish impelling us to
move faster than is natural for us, we may want to breathe deeply
instead and look at nature moving to its own organic timing: birds
flying south, leaves shedding, or snow falling. A walk in nature can
also let us re-attune is to her organic rhythm, while allowing us to
move back in time with our own. When we move to our natural rhythm, we
can achieve all we need to do with less effort.
We may even notice that our soul moves to its own internal, natural
rhythm - especially when it comes to our personal evolution. Comparing
ourselves to others is unnecessary. Our best guide is to move to our
own internal timing, while keeping time with the rhythm of nature.
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Life's Natural Rhythm
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Rhythm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search
For other uses, see [8]Rhythm (disambiguation).
Rhythm (from [9]greek rhuthµo'*s - rhythmos, "any measured flow or
movement, symmetry") is the variation of the length and accentuation of
a series of sounds or other events.
Contents
* [10]1 Rhythm in linguistics
* [11]2 Origins of human appreciation of rhythm
* [12]3 Rhythm notation and the oral tradition
+ [13]3.1 African music
+ [14]3.2 Indian music
+ [15]3.3 Western music
* [16]4 Types
* [17]5 See also
* [18]6 Notes
* [19]7 Sources
* [20]8 Further reading
[[21]edit] Rhythm in linguistics
The study of rhythm, stress, and [22]pitch in [23]speech is called
[24]prosody; it is a topic in [25]linguistics. Narmour (1980,
p. 147-53) describes three categories of prosodic rules which create
rhythmic successions which are additive (same duration repeated),
cumulative (short-long), or countercumulative (long-short). Cumulation
is associated with closure or relaxation, countercumulation with
openness or tension, while additive rhythms are open-ended and
repetitive. Richard Middleton points out this method cannot account for
[26]syncopation and suggests the concept of [27]transformation.
A [28]rhythmic unit is a [29]durational pattern which occupies a period
of time equivalent to a [30]pulse or pulses on an underlying [31]metric
level, as opposed to a [32]rhythmic gesture which does not (DeLone et
al. (Eds.), 1975
[[33]edit] Origins of human appreciation of rhythm
In his series How Music Works, [34]Howard Goodall presents theories
that rhythm recalls how we walk and the heartbeat we heard in the womb.
More likely is that a simple pulse or [35]di-dah beat recalls the
footsteps of another person. Our sympathetic urge to dance is designed
to boost our energy levels in order to cope with someone, or some
animal chasing us - a fight or flight response. From a less darwinist
perspective, perceiving rhythm is the ability to master the otherwise
invisible dimension, time. Rhythm is possibly also rooted in courtship
ritual.^[36][1]
Neurologist [37]Oliver Sacks posits that human affinity for rhythm is
fundamental, so much that a person's sense of rhythm cannot be lost in
the way that music and language can (e.g. by [38]stroke). In addition,
he states that [39]chimpanzees and other animals show no similar
appreciation for rhythm.^[40][2]
[[41]edit] Rhythm notation and the oral tradition
Worldwide there are many different approaches to passing on rhythmic
phrases and patterns, as they exist in traditional music, from
generation to generation.
[[42]edit] African music
In the [43]Griot tradition of Africa everything related to music has
been passed on orally. [44]Babatunde Olatunji (1927-2003), a Nigerian
drummer who lived and worked in the [45]United States, developed a
simple series of spoken sounds for teaching the rhythms of the hand
drum. He used six vocal sounds: Goon Doon Go Do Pa Ta. There are three
basic sounds on the drum, but each can be played with either the left
or the right hand. This simple system is now used worldwide,
particularly by [46]Djembe players.
[[47]edit] Indian music
Indian music has also been passed on orally. Tabla players would learn
to speak complex rhythm patterns and phrases before attempting to play
them. [48]Sheila Chandra, an English pop singer of Indian descent, made
performances based around her singing these patterns. In [49]Indian
Classical music, the [50]Tala of a composition is the rhythmic pattern
over which the whole piece is structured.
[[51]edit] Western music
Standard [52]music notation contains rhythmic information and is
adapted specifically for drums and percussion instruments. The drums
are generally used to keep other instruments in 'time'. They do this by
supplying beats/strikes in time at a certain pace, i.e. 70 beats per
minute (bpm). In [53]Rock music, a drum beat is used to keep a
[54]bass/[55]guitar line in time.
[[56]edit] Types
In [57]Western music, rhythms are usually arranged with respect to a
[58]time signature, partially signifying a meter. The speed of the
underlying [59]pulse is sometimes called the [60]beat. The [61]tempo is
a measure of how quickly the pulse repeats. The tempo is usually
measured in 'beats per minute' (bpm); 60 bpm means a speed of one beat
per second. The length of the meter, or metric unit (usually
corresponding with [62]measure length), is usually grouped into either
two or three beats, being called [63]duple meter and [64]triple meter,
respectively. If each beat is divided by two or four, it is [65]simple
meter, if by three (or six) [66]compound meter. According to [67]Pierre
Boulez, beat structures beyond four are "simply not natural".^[68][3].
His reference is to western European music.
Standard notation of a clave pattern on audio clip clave pattern.ogg
[69]Syncopated rhythms are rhythms that accent parts of the beat not
already stressed by [70]counting. Playing simultaneous rhythms in more
than one time signature is called [71]polymeter. See also
[72]polyrhythm. In recent years, rhythm and meter have become an
important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these
areas includes books by [73]Maury Yeston, [74]Fred Lerdahl and [75]Ray
Jackendoff, [76]Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty, William Rothstein,
and Joel Lester.
Grid notation of single a clave pattern
Some [77]genres of music make different use of rhythm than others. Most
Western music is based on [78]subdivision, while non-Western music uses
more [79]additive rhythm. [80]African music makes heavy use of
[81]polyrhythms, and [82]Indian music uses [83]complex cycles such as 7
and 13, while [84]Balinese music often uses complex [85]interlocking
rhythms. By comparison, a lot of Western [86]classical music is fairly
rhythmically (or metrically) simple; it stays in a [87]simple meter
such as 4/4 or 3/4 and makes little use of [88]syncopation.
[89]Clave is a common underlying rhythm in [90]African, [91]Cuban
music, and [92]Brazilian music.
[93]Claves
(Submit) Play sound
Four beats followed by three Clave patterns
__________________________________________________________________
Problems listening to this file? See [94]media help.
In the 20th century, [95]composers like [96]Igor Stravinsky, [97]Bela
Bartok, [98]Philip Glass, and [99]Steve Reich wrote more rhythmically
complex music using [100]odd meters, and techniques such as
[101]phasing and [102]additive rhythm. At the same time, modernists
such as [103]Olivier Messiaen and his pupils used increased complexity
to disrupt the sense of a regular beat, leading eventually to the
widespread use of [104]irrational rhythms in [105]New Complexity. This
use may be explained by a comment of [106]John Cage's^[[107]where?]
where he notes that regular rhythms cause sounds to be heard as a group
rather than individually; the irregular rhythms highlight the rapidly
changing pitch relationships that would otherwise be subsumed into
irrelevant rhythmic groupings (Sandow 2004, p. 257). [108]LaMonte Young
also wrote music in which the sense of a regular beat is absent because
the music consists only of long sustained tones ([109]drones). In the
1930s, [110]Henry Cowell wrote music involving multiple simultaneous
periodic rhythms and collaborated with [111]Léon Thérémin to invent the
[112]Rhythmicon, the first electronic [113]rhythm machine, in order to
perform them. Similarly, [114]Conlon Nancarrow wrote for the
[115]player piano.
[[116]edit] See also
* [117]Meter (music)
* [118]Prosody (linguistics)
* [119]Riddim
* [120]Morse Code
* [121]Soul (music)
* [122]Time scale (music)
* [123]Timing (linguistics)
[[124]edit] Notes
1. [125]^ [126]Mithen, Steven (2005). [127]The Singing Neanderthals:
The Origins of Music, Language, Mind and Body.. London: Weidenfeld
& Nicolson.. [128]ISBN [129]0297643177.
2. [131]^ [132]Jon Stewart, [133]Oliver Sacks. (2009-06-29). [134]The
Daily Show with Jon Stewart. [Television production]. Comedy
Central.
itle=oliver-sacks. "People often tried to teach their dogs to
dance--it doesn't work."
3. [136]^ In [137]Discovering Music: Rhythm with [138]Leonard Slatkin
at 5:05
[[139]edit] Sources
* Hasty, Christopher (1997). Meter as Rhythm. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. [140]ISBN 0-19-510066-2.
* London, Justin (2004). Hearing in Time: Psychological Aspects of
Musical Meter. [141]ISBN 0-19-516081-9.
* Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music.
Philadelphia: Open University Press. [142]ISBN 0-335-15275-9.
* Narmour (1980). Cited in DeLone et al. (Eds.) (1975). Aspects of
Twentieth-Century Music. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall. [143]ISBN 0-13-049346-5.
* Sandow, Greg (2004). "A Fine Madness", The Pleasure of Modernist
Music. [144]ISBN 1-58046-143-3.
* Yeston, Maury (1976). "The Stratification of Musical Rhythm".
[[145]edit] Further reading
* McGaughey, William (2001). "Rhythm and Self-Consciousness: New
Ideals for an Electronic Civilization". Minneapolis: Thistlerose
Publications. [146]ISBN 0-9605630-4-0.
* Honing, H. (2002). [147]"Structure and interpretation of rhythm and
timing." Tijdschrift voor Muziektheorie [Dutch Journal of Music
Theory] 7(3): 227-232.
* Lewis, Andrew (2005). Rhythm--What it is and How to Improve Your
Sense of It. San Francisco: [148]RhythmSource Press. [149]ISBN
978-0-9754667-0-4.
* Williams, C. F. A., The Aristoxenian Theory of Musical Rhythm,
(Cambridge Library Collection - Music), Cambridge University Press;
1st edition, 2009.
* Toussaint, G. T., "The geometry of musical rhythm," In J. Akiyama,
M. Kano, and X. Tan, editors, Proceedings of the Japan Conference
on Discrete and Computational Geometry, Vol. 3742, Lecture Notes in
Computer Science, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2005, pp. 198-212.
[150]v o [151]d o [152]e
[153]Musical notation and [154]development
[155]Staff
[156]Bar & Bar line · [157]Clef · [158]Da capo · [159]Dal segno ·
[160]Key signature · [161]Ledger line · [162]Musical mode ·
[163]Musical scale · [164]Rehearsal letter · [165]Repeat sign ·
[166]Time signature · [167]Transposition · [168]Transposing instrument
[169]G (treble) clef symbol
[170]Notes
[171]Accidental ([172]Flat · [173]Natural · [174]Sharp) · [175]Dotted
note · [176]Grace note · [177]Note value ([178]Beam · [179]Note head ·
[180]Stem) · [181]Pitch · [182]Rest · [183]Interval · [184]Letter
notation
[185]Articulation
[186]Dynamics · [187]Ornament ([188]Trill · [189]Mordent · [190]Grace
note) · [191]Ossia · [192]Portato · [193]Accent · [194]Legato ·
[195]Tenuto · [196]Marcato · [197]Staccato · [198]Staccatissimo ·
[199]Tie · [200]Slur · [201]Fermata
[202]Development
[203]Coda · [204]Exposition · [205]Harmony · [206]Melody · [207]Motif ·
[208]Recapitulation · Rhythm ([209]Beat · [210]Meter · [211]Tempo) ·
[212]Theme · [213]Tonality · [214]Atonality
Related
[215]Chord chart · [216]Figured bass · [217]Graphic notation ·
[218]Lead sheet · [219]Eye music · [220]Modern musical symbols ·
[221]Neume · [222]Tablature
[224]Categories: [225]Rhythm | [226]Greek loanwords
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[1]Daniel Laberge music
Rhythm explained
including
27 rhythm exercises
by Daniel Laberge
Rhythm figure
Hi rhythm lovers,
I've devised these exercises in the early seventies while teaching
music.
I could not find any existing book that saw rhythm the way I did.
This method is based on "rhythmic figures" or rhythm possibilities.
Each one lasts one beat.
I simply counted the rhythmic possibilities one could encounter for
each type of beat divisions.
There are:
o Four rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by two
o Eight rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by three
o Sixteen rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by four
I composed the exercises back then and used them for my teaching, but I
only wrote the theory that goes along in 2002.
The book is called "Rhythm explained" and I am gradually placing its
content here.
Each exercise is preceded by a lesson, with graphic representations,
and includes an audio rendition to help you.
You can choose between three speeds.
For jazz musicians, the binary exercises also have a swing or double
swing performance. Go to the bottom of the page for a link to the swing
version.
Choose among the following exercises:
Beat exercises
[2]Rhythm exercise 1-1
Featured figures
[3][onequarternote1.gif] [4] [onehalfnote1.gif] [5]
[dottedhalfnote1.gif] [6] [wholenote1.gif]
[7]Rhythm exercise 1-2
Featured figures
[8][quarternoterest1.gif] [9] [halfnoterest1.gif] [10]
[wholenoterest1.gif]
[11]Rhythm exercise 1-3
Featured figures
[12][quarternoterest1.gif] [13] [halfnoterest1.gif] [14]
[dottedhalfnoterest1.gif] [15] [wholenoterest1.gif]
Binary beat division
The binary family is large as it includes:
o Division by two
o Division by four
o Part of division by six
o Division by eight
This section is concerned with the simple division by two.
Any binary beat has two alternating parts: the downbeat and the upbeat.
Binary beat
[binarybeat1.gif]
As you can see, there are only two places in a beat
where events or notes can be positioned or played:
o The downbeat
o The upbeat
How
rhythmic
possibilities
work
This means that for any given beat you can have
any of the four following possibilities:
1 o Only one event on the downbeat.
2 o Events on both the downbeat and the upbeat.
3 o No event at all.
4 o Only one event on the upbeat.
[possibilitiesbytwosimple1.gif]
The rhythmic figure used to represent a binary beat is called:
TWO EIGHTH NOTES
[masterfigurebinary1.gif]
Binary
master
rhythmic
figure
Simple binary rhythmic figures
4 possibilities:
o 2 Primary
o 2 Secondary
[possibilitiesbytwo1.gif]
Secondary rhythmic figures lack the event that falls on the beat.
There is a secondary figure for each primary one.
Because the beat is so important, secondary figures have appeared after
the primary ones had been well established.
The absence of event falling on the beat can be due to a silence or a
sound that is held over from the preceding beat.
Because of this, there are two ways to notate secondary figures:
o With a rest
o With a tie
[primarysecondary1.gif]
Primary
and
secondary
rhythmic
figures
Choose among the following exercises:
Binary exercises
PRIMARY
[16]Rhythm exercise 2-1
Featured figure
[17][twoeighthnotes2.gif]
[18]Rhythm exercise 2-2
Featured figures
[19][twoeighthnotes2.gif] [20] [quarternoterest2.gif]
SECONDARY
[21]Rhythm exercise 2-3
Featured figure
[22][dottedquarternoteeighth2.gif]
[23]Rhythm exercise 2-4
Featured figure
[24][eighthnotesyncopationa2.gif]
[25]Rhythm exercise 2-5
Featured figure
[26][twoeighttieonequarter2.gif]
MULTIPLE SYNCOPATIONS
[27]Rhythm exercise 2-6
Featured figure
[28][doublesyncopationa2.gif]
Ternary beat division
The ternary family is small as it includes:
o Division by three
o Part of division by six
Everything goes in thirds in ternary music.
Any ternary beat has one downbeat and two upbeats.
Ternary beat
[ternarybeat1.gif]
The rhythmic figure used to represent a ternary beat is called:
THREE EIGHTH NOTES
[masterfigureternary1.gif]
Ternary
master
rhythmic
figure
Writing
ternary
rhythm
In ternary music writing, each eighth note is worth one third of a
beat.
Since two eighth notes always equal one quarter note, these now equal
two thirds of a beat.
It takes a dotted quarter note to represent one beat.
[ternarywriting1.gif]
Ternary rhythmic figures
8 possibilities:
o 4 Primary
o 4 Secondary
[possibilitiesbythree1.gif]
Choose among the following exercises:
Ternary exercises
PRIMARY
[29]Rhythm exercise 3-1
Featured figure
[30][threeeighth2.gif]
[31]Rhythm exercise 3-2
Featured figure
[32][onequarteroneeighth2.gif]
[33]Rhythm exercise 3-3
Featured figure
[34][oneeighthonequarter2.gif]
SECONDARY
[35]Rhythm exercise 3-1s
Featured figure
[36][8threst2eighth2.gif] OR [37] [tie3eighth2.gif]
[38]Rhythm exercise 3-2s
Featured figure
[39][quarternoterestoneeighth2.gif] OR [40]
[tiequarternote1eighth.gif]
[41]Rhythm exercise 3-3s
Featured figure
[42][8threst1quarternote2.gif] OR [43] [tie1eighth1quarter2.gif]
Division by four
Beats divided by four are part of the binary family.
Everything goes in quarters in this feel.
Beat
divided
by
four
[binarybeat2.gif]
The rhythmic figure used to represent a beat divided by four
is called:
FOUR SIXTEENTH NOTES
[masterfigurebyfour1.gif]
Division
by four
master
rhythmic
figure
Binary rhythmic figures
16 possibilities:
o 8 Primary
o 8 Secondary
[possibilitiesbyfour1.gif]
Choose among the following exercises:
Division by four exercises
PRIMARY
[44]Rhythm exercise 4-1
Featured figure
[45][foursixteenth2.gif]
[46]Rhythm exercise 4-2
Featured figure
[47][oneeighthtwosixteenth2.gif]
[48]Rhythm exercise 4-3
Featured figure
[49][twosixteenthoneeighth2.gif]
[50]Rhythm exercise 4-4
Featured figure
[51][dottedeighthonesixteenth2.gif]
[52]Rhythm exercise 4-5
Featured figure
[53][onesixteenthdottedeighth2.gif]
[54]Rhythm exercise 4-6
Featured figure
[55][16th8th16th2.gif]
SECONDARY
[56]Rhythm exercise 4-1s
Featured figure
[57][16threst3sixteenth2.gif] OR [58] [tiefoursixteenth2.gif]
[59]Rhythm exercise 4-2s
Featured figure
[60][8threst2sixteenth2.gif] OR [61] [tie1eighth2sixteenth2.gif]
[62]Rhythm exercise 4-3s
Featured figure
[63][16threst1sixteenth1eighth2.gif] OR [64]
[tie2sixteenth1eighth2.gif]
[65]Rhythm exercise 4-4s
Featured figure
[66][dotted8threst1sixteenth2.gif] OR [67]
[tiedottereight1sixteenth2.gif]
[68]Rhythm exercise 4-5s
Featured figure
[69][16threstdotted8th.gif] OR [70] [tie16thdotted8th2.gif]
[71]Rhythm exercise 4-6s
Featured figure
[72][16threst1eighth1sixteenth2.gif] OR [73]
[tieone16thone8thone16th2.gif]
[74]Bugs, problems
and comments [75]Daniel Laberge music
Références
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Liens cachés :
#[1]ORGY IN RHYTHM - Atom [2]ORGY IN RHYTHM - RSS
IFRAME:
IN+RHYTHM&publishMode=PUBLISH_MODE_BLOGSPOT&navbarType=BLACK&layoutType
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ORGY IN RHYTHM
[6]JAZZ HIP TRIO - JAZZ EN RELIEF
Jazz Hip Trio for Riviera France from 1967.
Jean-Bernard Eisinger Piano ; Roger Luccioni Bass ;Daniel Humair Drums.
More beautiful music from France on this the first Jazz Hip Trio LP.
"Orange Boom" was the big tune back in the day but the rest is just
fabulous.
Needless to say.....All Killer No Filler
Another first in public blogland here at OIR.
[7]17 comments made-how about you? 12.1.10
[8]MAL WALDRON - TOKYO BOUND
Mal Waldron for RCA Victor Japan from 1970.
Mal Waldron-Piano;Takeshi Inomata-Drums;Yasuo Arakawa-Bass
Tremendous all killer trio date with Waldron joined by a top flight
Japanese rhythm section on four original compositions which only saw a
release in Japan.Check out the rocking intensity of "Rock One For Jimbo
San" and "Japanese Island" which builds from an ominous brooding intro
into a marvellous modal waltz."Atomic Energy" blows up with a headlong
banging vamp from Waldron's left hand while the right runs all over the
keys and then to close "Mount Fujiyama" a more introspective rumination
and dissection of the tune's theme.
Inomata's drumming is a revelation throughout the session intricate yet
swinging with fantastic use of cymbals.(Don't forget to check out
Inomata's Sound of Sounds lp also recorded in 1970 which I posted
[9]here during the summer)
Respect to El Goog for introducing me to this great album.I finally
picked a copy up from Japan via ebay last month - not cheap but worth
every penny.
Very highly recomnmended.
[10]37 comments made-how about you? 20.12.09
[11]THE HERBIE HANCOCK TRIO
Herbie Hancock for Sony Japan from 1977.
Herbie Hancock-Piano;Ron Carter-Bass;Tony Williams-Drums
The big three keep it strictly acoustic for this Japanese only release
from CBS Sony. 4 originals from Herb plus a rapid romp through
"Milestones"...tough stuff.
The first V.S.O.P. tour triggered a flood of recording activity in July
1977, but only a fraction of it was released in the U.S. This session,
recorded in San Francisco just days before the Quintet concerts in
Berkeley and San Diego, finds Herbie Hancock, Ron Carter and Tony
Williams mixing it up sans the horns and the results are more
reflective and cerebral than the full Quintet concerts. Hancock is
thoroughly in control of the agenda while Williams throws in those
meter-fracturing flurries that keep everyone on their toes. There is a
startling re-interpretation of "Speak like a Child" which is
significantly tougher and busier than the wistful Blue Note version, as
well as challenging Hancock originals like "Watcha Waiting For" and
"Watch It." This is uncompromising acoustic jazz, commercial anathema
in the electronic '70s -and thus, only Japan got to hear it. Richard S.
Ginell.
[12]16 comments made-how about you? 13.12.09
[13]JAZZ HIP TRIO - PORTRAITS
Jazz Hip Trio for Riviera France from 1968.
Jean-Bernard Eisinger Piano ; Roger Luccioni Bass ;Daniel Humair Drums.
Piano trios are the theme for my the next few posts and what better way
to start than with some beautiful music from France on it's first time
out in blogland here at OIR.
10 original compositions which grow and grow on repeated listening -
get past the "Sidewinder" influenced dance floor intro tune "Bat Rock"
and you're in for a swinging set of subtle trio sounds.Of course it's
gotta be......
All Killer No Filler
[14]23 comments made-how about you? 6.12.09
[15]THE DIAMOND FIVE - BRILLIANT !
The Diamond Five for Fontana from 1964.
Personnel: Cees Slinger: piano; Harry Verbeke: tenor sax; Cees Smal:
trumpet, cornet and valve trombone; Jacques Schols: bass; Johnny
Engels: drums.
Please check the comments as Chazz has also ripped The Five
Diamonds-Finally After Forty Years cd reissue from Japan and will be
posting the link shortly.Over to you Chazz!
I don't post donations at OIR but just had to make an exception when
this was winged across the pond to me from Chazz Katz.It's a very rare
piece of hard bop from Holland which made a blink and miss it reissue
on cd some years ago in Japan (original vinyl goes for silly money
anywhere between $600-$1000) and has never appeared in blogland
before.Here's the notes and cheers to Chazz for his rip!
Nice work chap - All Killer No Filler!
The Diamond Five, a Dutch quintet led by pianist Cees Slinger, was
founded in 1959 and lasted until 1965. They were based at the
Sheherazade Club in Amsterdam and were quite popular, playing all over
Holland and accompanying expatriate American musicians on their visits
to Amsterdam. However, when the club closed its doors due to a shift in
popular interest from jazz to rock music, the quintet disbanded. This
1964 recording is their only session available on CD. The music is hard
bop on the surface, but is neither formulaic nor a copy of the genres
imported from the U.S.
The musicians are quite unique in their style. Slinger plays sparse
notes on his solos, utilizing well-placed pauses in the music to create
melodic hard bop with hints of more forward-looking styles. The other
outstanding soloist is tenor saxophonist Harry Verbeke, whose solos (in
contrast to that of the leader) are filled with a multitude of notes
played in the modal vein. The others are also quite stellar, the bass
and the drums providing a loose bluesy support and horn man Cees Smal
adding something unique with the sounds of his different horns,
switching between valve trombone, cornet and trumpet.
[16]26 comments made-how about you? 26.11.09
[17]BOBBY HUTCHERSON - CIRRUS
Bobby Hutcherson for Blue Note from 1974.
Hutch is playing four sets in London this weekend so Katonah from
Private Press and I will be propping up the bar for his late spot at
Scotts tomorrow night.
So here's a 3rd repost for his evergreen "Cirrus" ....All Killer No
Filler.
This was my very first Bobby Hutcherson post here at OIR back in may
2006.It was ripped from my vinyl copy @192 in those days-I've reupped
it @320 this time and taken it from the superb Mosaic Select box
set.Here's my original narrative:
Cirrus finds Bobby Hutcherson resuming his partnership with tenor
saxophonist Harold Land, and the results are marvellous. The pair work
with pianist Bill Henderson, trumpeter Woody Shaw, bassist Ray
Drummond, drummer Larry Hancock, saxophonist/flautist Emmanuel Boyd and
percussionist Kenneth Nash on this set of originals.The album starts
with a great version of Woody Shaw's "Rosewood" while the rest of the
set is written by Hutcherson and includes "Even Later".Highlight of the
lp for me is the atmospheric and brooding "Zuri Dance" - what a corker
!
[18]36 comments made-how about you? 13.11.09
[19]DAVE PIKE - LET THE MINSTRELS PLAY ON
Dave Pike for Muse from 1978.
Vibraphone - Dave Pike / Bass - Luther Hughes / Cello - Luther Hughes /
Drums - Ted Hawkes / Guitar - Ron Eschete / Keyboards , Sax - Tom
Ranier / Vocals - Carol Eschete.
KGML has just posted "Spirits Samba" so dug the lp out for those who
would like to hear more.
Picked this up in Tony Monson's Disc Empire in the early 80s after
hearing Chris Bangs spinning "Swan Lake" and found it had yet another
bona fide jazz dance classic to be featured in the shape of "Spirits
Samba".
Here's an apathetic review from amg:
Some Afro-Latin, some fusion and things in between from vibist Dave
Pike. Pike is a good player, but sometimes his arrangements bog down
between pop and jazz. His style is more remniscent of Red Norvo, with
its lighter, less aggressive and flowing lines.
[20]12 comments made-how about you? 12.11.09
[21]RANDY WESTON - BLUE MOSES
Randy Weston For CTI from 1972.
Arranged By - Don Sebesky;Bass - Bill Wood (2) (tracks: B1) , Ron
Carter ;Drums - Bill Cobham ;English Horn, Clarinet, Flute - George
Marge ;Flugelhorn - Alan Rubin , John Frosk , Marvin Stamm ;Flute -
Hubert Laws ;French Horn - Brooks Tillotson , James Buffington ;Oboe,
Clarinet, Flute - Romeo Penque ;Piano - Randy Weston
Saxophone [Tenor] - Grover Washington, Jr ;Synthesizer [Moog] - David
Horowitz
Trombone - Garnett Brown , Warren Covington , Wayne Andre ;Trombone -
Paul Faulise
Trumpet - Freddie Hubbard ;Vocals - Madasme Meddah
Super heavyweight banger from CTI - trust Randy Weston to dispense with
Creed Taylor's saccharine stylings.All Killer blah blah blah....
Another underwhelming review from Mr Yannow:
Randy Weston's most popular record, this Lp (which he had mixed
feelings about) features Weston not only on piano but electric
keyboards. Backed by Don Sebesky arrangements and assisted by trumpeter
Freddie Hubbard and tenor-saxophonist Grover Washington Jr., Weston
plays quite well on four of his compositions; best-known are "Ganawa
(Blue Moses)" and "Marrakesh Blues." The music retains the African feel
of most of Weston's latter-day playing but also has some commercial
touches that do not hurt the performances. This rewarding date has not
yet been reissued on CD. ~ Scott Yanow, All Music Guide
Fantastic cover art from Pete Turner - I highly recommend his book[22]
here.
[23]16 comments made-how about you? 7.11.09
[24]BLACKCLASSICAL - 1ST BIRTHDAY MEGAMIX
Blackclassical has taken off his flat cap ,put the racing pigeons away
and is celebrating his first year on t'interwebs with a mighty mp3 mash
up of spiritual jazz goodness[25] here.Proof indeed that it's not all
grim up north.
Happy Birthday you old bastard - now get the lagers in and make sure
they've got vodka tops you tightarse.
[26]3 comments made-how about you? 6.11.09
[27]TUBBT HAYES - TUBBS IN N.Y.
Tubby Hayes for Fontana from 1961.
Saxophone [Tenor] - Tubby Hayes; Bass - George Duvivier; Drums - Dave
Bailey ;Piano - Horace Parlan ;
Trumpet - Clark Terry;Vibraphone - Eddie Costa
Another first in blogland for this British vinyl rarity at OIR with
Tubbs keeping heavy company in NYC . Apparently there was legal
wrangling about who owns the masters so don't hold your breath waiting
for a cd issue.The last one got pulled pronto upon release in 1990.
The swaggering "A Pint Of Bitter" was my very first exposure to Hayes
back in the early 80s - I just love that tune - but the rest is just as
good with flat out romps through "Opus Ocean" and "Airegin" plus a
wonderfuly swinging "Soon" . Nice!
[28]26 comments made-how about you? 31.10.09
[29]TUBBY HAYES QUARTET - TUBBY'S GROOVE
Tubby Hayes for Tempo from 1960.
Tubby Hayes (ts), Terry Shannon (p), Phil Bates (b), Phil Seamen (d).
"Tin Tin Deo" killin' it every time for me on this rare piece of
British wax from 50 years ago.
Simon Spillet has written a fascinating piece on Tubby at[30]
Jazzscript and here's his take on this album:
I think it's one of Tubby's best ever studio recordings and catches him
very much in his prime. I suppose that the stand-out track for me has
to be Sunny Monday with its unaccompanied tenor choruses. The tone is
big, the rhythmic delivery is full of confidence and the sheer
enthusiasm shines through half a century on.
[31]23 comments made-how about you? 30.10.09
[32]STAFFAN ABELEEN QUINTET -PERSEPOLIS
Staffan Abeleen for Philips Sweden from 1964.
Staffan Abeleen-Piano ; Lasse Farnlof - Trumpet ; Bjorn Netz - Tenor ;
Bjorn Alke - Bass ; Bosse Skoglund - Drums
More top draw business from Sweden making a first appearance in
blogland.Modal to bossa to ballads this one's got the lot:
ALL KILLER NO FILLER
[33]15 comments made-how about you? 15.10.09
[34]BERNT ROSENGREN BIG BAND - FIRST MOVES
Bernt Rosengren for EMI Sweden from 1977.
Bassoon, Horn - Lars Bagge/Clarinet, Clarinet [Bass], Saxophone
[Soprano, Alto, Baritone] - Lennart Jansson /Congas - Johnny Martinez ,
René Martinez , Sabu Martinez
Cornet , Flugelhorn - Lars Färnlöf /Drums - Leif Wennerström/Flute,
Saxophone -Bernt Rosengren /Horn [English], Saxophone - Tommy Koverhult
/ Percussion - Okay Temiz / Piano - Claes-Göran Fagerstedt / Piano,
Piano [Electric] - Bobo Stenson / Saxophone [Baritone] - Gunnar
Bergsten / Saxophone [Tenor] - Anders Lindskog / Trombone - Jan Jansson
, Janus Miezek , Lars Olofsson , Lennart Löfgren / Trombone [Bass] -
Sven Larsson /Trumpet - Björn Borg /Trumpet , Flugelhorn - Bertil
Lövgren , Maffy Falay / Bass - Torbjörn Hultcrantz
Back over to Sweden for this killer big band session led by Bernt
Rosengren and featuring some big names such as a pre-ECM Bobo
Stenson,the wonderful Lars Farnlof and none other than the mighty Sabu
Martinez.
Check out the percussion destruction of "Felicidade" with Sabu plus
sons Johnny and Rene Martinez beating the crap out of the Jobim bossa
standard... Murdah!!!
[35]19 comments made-how about you? 1.10.09
[36]JAZZ QUINTET 60
Jazz Quintet 60 from 1962 for Metronome Denmark.
Allan Botschinsky (tp), Niels Husum (ts), Bent Axen (p), Niels-Henning
Orsted Pedersen (b), Bjarne Rostvold (ds).
Legendary Scandinavian rarity (Check the second mortgage prices on
[37]Popsike) from Denmark featuring a who's who of the Danish Jazz
scene from the past 50 years.
First time it's has been posted in public blogland so don't sleep on
this one :
ALL KILLER NO FILLER !
[38]27 comments made-how about you? 27.9.09
[39]STAFFAN ABELEEN QUINTET - DOWNSTREAM
Staffan Abeleen Quintet for Philips Sweden from 1966.
Staffan Abeleen - Piano ; Lasse Farnlof - Trumpet ; Bjorn Netz - Sax ;
Bosse Skugland - Drums ; Paul Danielsson - Bass.
All compositions by Lars Farnlof
Scandinavia is the destination for my next batch of posts and what
better way to start than with this superb album by The Staffen Abeleen
Quintet playing the compositions of the wonderful Lars Farnlof.
Another first appearance in blogland but let the music do the talking
...
ALL KILLER NO FILLER
[40]15 comments made-how about you? 19.9.09
[41]ARCHIE SHEPP & THE FAMILY OF PERCUSSION - HERE COMES THE FAMILY
I have had lots of requests for a repost of this bomb from Archie Shepp
and The Family of Percussion - so here it is.
First posted at OIR september 2006.
The Family of Percussion (Peter Giger,Trilok Gurtu,Doug Hammond and Tom
Nicholas)are joined by Archie Shepp on this hard to find 1980 release
from Nagara in Germany.
On "Here Comes the Family"the Family establish the basic form of the
piece with their rhythmic and vocal opening with Shepp's flute
fluttering above it all.Then he lets rip with what the liner notes call
'Poetic Recitation'but would probably be called rapping these days over
a funky percussive backdrop .This tune is why the lp remains in such
demand - a big play list favourite of djs world wide.
Next up is Shepp's "Street Song" the best cut on the lp for me,on which
he blows his tenor freely over the drums,congas,bells and gongs.The
piece ends in a crescendo of percussion culminating in a gong crash
which fades into silence."Euterpe's Favorit"has Shepp back on flute
with the family weaving a mystical feel behind him on
bells,whistles,water pipes,gongs,rattles and drums.
"Ardopetori"starts side 2 with a mid tempo infectious rhythm
established by shakers and log drum which builds slowly with Shepp
soloing freely again on tenor.
"For Ti Roro"wraps it up and begins with the gentle,caribean sounds of
steel drums until Shepp's soprano bursts in with a frenzy of
excitement.This is the most free track with all the musicians reacting
to each otherboth collectively and singularly until it finishes
fittingly with the sound of the congas.
This came out on lp and cd but quickly dissapeared without trace.if you
want a copy you gonna have to dig hard and have deep pockets!
[42]18 comments made-how about you?
[43]HIROSHI SUZUKI - CAT
Hiroshi Suzuki for Columbia Japan from 1975.
Hiroshi Suzuki-Trombone ; Hiromasa Suzuki-Keyboards ; Akira
Ishikawa-Drums ; Takeru Muraoka-Sax ; Kunimitsu Inaba-Bass
More super rare J Jazz making a first appearance in blogland and this
is an absolute beauty made up of 5 long cuts that hit the perfect
balance between jazz and fusion.Acoustic bass meshed with subtle funky
drums topped with lashings of Rhodes,trombone and sax deliver a really
stretched out understated rolling groove.
The album just grows and grows with repeated listening and it's a big
favourite over here at Bacoso's Big Top - no surprise that it's
ALL KILLER NO FILLER !
[44]34 comments made-how about you? 7.9.09
[45]T. INOMATA & SOUND L.T.D. - SOUNDS OF SOUND L.T.D.
Takeshi Inomata for Columbia Japan from 1970.
Takeshi Inomata (Drums & Percussion) Jun Suzuki (Electric Bass)
Shigetok Kamiya (Electric Guitar) Ryo Kawasaki (Electric Guitar)
Sho Imai (Trombone & Bass Trombone) Shigemichi Dohmoto (Trombone & Bass
Trombone)
Takao Uematsu (Tenor Sax & Soprano Sax)
Fantastic lp of funky jazz from the Columbia issued Groovy Sound
Series.
No idea who plays on it as the credits are all in Japanese but it's a
monster session.
Check out "Mustache" and "Tak's Tune" for some severe beats from
drummer/leader Takeshi Inomata.
All Killer No Filler - Highly Recommended!
[46]22 comments made-how about you? 29.8.09
[47]HIDEO SHIRAKI - IN FIESTA
Hideo Shiraki for Teichiku Japan from 1961.
Rare super tough hard bop session from Japan featuring the killer koto
led and drum driven bomb "In Fiesta".
Reissued in Japan by Kyoto Jazz Massive for Think in a blink and miss
it moment back in 2005 but now out of print.
The old Dusty Groove blurb:
A brilliant early album from Japanese drummer Hideo Shiraki a jazz
session that bristles with the same intensity as key late 50s work by
Benny Golson or Gigi Gryce! Although Hideo's leading the group on
drums, his work on the kit is remarkably subtle done with the
snappingly rhythmic style that marked some of Golson's best modern
experiments of a few years before not nearly as bombastic as his stint
with Art Blakey, and more in the rhythmically stepping quality of his
work with Art Farmer in the Jazztet. Key players on the session include
Hidehiko Matsumoto on tenor and flute and Yuzuru Sera on piano both of
whom give the album a fluid grace that's really beautiful soulful edges
that allow the record to stand equally next to anything coming out of
the US at the time. One track features a bit of koto at the start --
echoing Shiraki's later world jazz experiments but most of the set is
straight modern hardbop, with tracks that include "Blue Romeo", "Etude
No 1", "Just One Or Eight", "You Don't Know What Love Is", and Benny
Golson's "Five Spot After Dark".
[48]14 comments made-how about you? 18.8.09
[49]LLOYD MCNEILL - TREASURES
Lloyd McNeill for Baobab from 1976.
Lloyd McNeill-Flute ; Dom Salvador-Piano ; Cecil McBee-Bass ; Portinho
, Brian Brake-Drums ; Ray Armando-Percussion.
One for the flute freaks on a private press out of NYC.
Heavy Brazilian infuences at work on this wonderful spiritual jazz
session from the great Lloyd McNeill.Two originals,one standard and a
cracking version of Salvador's "Salvation Army" which featured on Dom's
'76 Muse debut "Minha Familia"(Available at [50]Ile Oxumare).
Here's some info on Lloyd McNeill from the excellent [51]Hipwax:
The first thing to know about Lloyd McNeill is that his are the very
best soul-jazz flute LPs, and each is first-rate, a masterpiece of
self-direction. The second thing to know is there is much more to him
than his recorded legacy. He is one of those incredible,
super-sensitive people who excels at every artistic idiom and endeavor;
making wonderful music is just part of his flowing creativity. A
professor (at Rutgers University, earlier Dartmouth), he has much to
say about music and creativity as well as an impeccable gift for saying
it...sensibly. McNeill's writings on his musical experiences provide
invaluable documents of "the period" (late 1960s-1970s) as well as a
rare glimpse at the joy of a relatively unsung master.
McNeill has played with jazz legends --Andrew White (his longtime
collaborator/producer), Eric Dolphy, Sabu Martinez, Mulatu Astatke,
among many others-- and he has had a significant hand in the arts scene
of Washington, D.C. The major galleries of art, including those of the
Smithsonian, sponsored multi-media "happenings" that soared far above
the hippie caricature of acid rock with light show. During the first
flowering of post-Civil Rights, African-American culture, the Lloyd
McNeill Quartet's improvisitory, simultaneuous jazz and large-scale
painting "happened" while a lucky, perhaps unsuspecting public drank it
in.
McNeill believes his influences and their results in his art, music,
and poetry are inseparable and mutually reinforcing. Time spent with
Picasso in Cannes, 1965 led to new expressions in all three, for
instance. And when one brushes against a force such as Picasso, just
the idea of "meeting Picasso" has a certain momentum, never mind the
inevitable casting of rays of a different kind of light. Canvas, vinyl,
the stage, paper, and books of poetry offer a few key imprints of
McNeill, and McNeill consistently pays tribute to many illustrious
peers.
There are six albums, all produced and entirely under the artist's
control. Each title surpasses anything comparable on the major labels,
even Blue Note. The Black Jazz label may be roughly similar in style,
but Asha and Baobab are wholly Lloyd McNeill. The records reflect none
of the usual external trends from the decade in which they were
recorded; all sound like 1971 rather than 1979. The final record even
reprises the first (the exotic, broodingly moody "Asha"), and the sound
throughout remains somewhat interchangeable and timeless. But each
record has its own themes and currents, and even improvisation has its
signatures and fingerprints.
Buying: Long out of print, collectors items, Lloyd McNeill records
should be snapped up on sight. Hip Wax is pleased to offer two titles
for which limited stock remains [52]here.
Warning - McNeill lps can be damaging to the [53]wallet.
[54]29 comments made-how about you? 14.8.09
[55]If Spike Lee Did Movies In Audio...
Greg's back on the mix with his old mucker Monohub - another mashed up
bomb in memory of Coltrane and the late,great George Russell.Grab it
[56]HERE.
Here's the blurb from big daddy himself:
I did a version of this a while back and was planning to publish on
July 17th as a memorial to the day that John Coltrane died, but, a
combination of lack of time, work commitments and other things got in
the way...
Anyway I redid it and am glad that i did as it's much better than the
original. This one strictly for the heads... and defo not for the feint
hearted. If you liked the Black State of Vietnam mix then this is for
you...
So as i said; In respect of John Coltrane and George Russell. Much
thanks to Monohub too although he plays down his part in this, his
genius did have a lot to do with it...
[57]1 comments made-how about you? 3.8.09
[58]SADAO WATANABE AND CHARLIE MARIANO - IBERIAN WALTZ
Sadao and Charlie for Tact Japan from 1967.
Sadao Watanabe (as) , Charlie Mariano (as) , Masabumi Kikuchi (p) ,
Masanaga Harada (b) , Masahiko Togashi (ds) , Fumio Watanabe (ds)
This received a "Japan Jazz Award" on release.
Some severe blowing on this double alto led sextet featuring a young
band of soon to be Japanese jazz luminaries.
The fast and furious "Palisades" was comped on the Sleepwalker Shibuya
Jazz Classics.However the 16 minute title cut is the stand out tune an
intense modal waltz with a Spanish tinge featuring coruscating solos
from Mariano and Watanabe - hard core stuff.
Recommended.
[59]16 comments made-how about you? 28.7.09
[60]JAMES MARENTIC SEXTET - NIMBUS
James Marentic for Discovery from 1982.
James Marentic-Sax/Flute; Tom Harrell -Trumpet/Flugelhorn; Slide
Hampton-Trombone; Larry Willis-Piano; Anthony Cox-Bass; Victor
Lewis-Drums.
Storming post hard bop outing for Mr Marentic and his all star band.
Check out the banging latin romp "Baile de las Cucharachas " which
kicks off the lp in fine style and the Coltrane inspired "Nimbus".
"Aphrodesia" has the inspiration of Kenny Dorham stamped all over it
and no prizes for guessing who "Mr Silver I Presume" is aimed at
If you enjoyed Tom Harrell's "Aurora" post then this should be right up
your street,round your corner and down your block!
[61]8 comments made-how about you? 23.7.09
[62]CARTER JEFFERSON - THE RISE OF ATLANTIS
Carter Jefferson for Timeless from 1978.
Terrific post bop album with latin influences -All Killer No Filler!
John Hicks (Piano), Terumasa Hino (Trumpet), Woody Shaw (Producer),
Clint Houston (Bass), Victor Lewis (Drums),Carter Jefferson (Sax ),
Lani Groves (Vocals), Shunzo Ohno (Trumpet), Steve Thornton
(Percussion), Harry Whitaker (Piano)
Here's the customary underwhelming AMG review :
Tenor saxophonist Carter Jefferson made somewhat of a name for himself
when trumpeter Woody Shaw chose him as a member of his first working
quintet. Shaw is the producer of this album, Jefferson's fine debut
(and evidently only) recording as a leader. Taking a cue from Shaw, the
saxophonist sticks essentially to a quintet of trumpet and sax backed
by all-star rhythm sections. Three of the tracks include hard bop
trumpeter Terumasa Hino while the other three feature little-known
Japanese trumpeter Shunzo Ono. Most of the tunes are firmly in the
school of hard bop, the sort of music that Woody Shaw played so well.
While there is not any new ground broken, it is all performed
competently enough. While not as emotionally charged as his work with
Shaw, Jefferson impresses with a fluid, mobile attack that shows a
solid grasp of his material. If the groups seem to be sometimes merely
going through the motions, there are nonetheless enough fine moments to
make this a worthwhile purchase.AMG.
A reliable and advanced soloist who spent most of his career as a
sideman, Carter Jefferson is best-remembered for his association with
Woody Shaw during 1977-1980. Jefferson started on clarinet and played
alto before settling on tenor, going on tour early in the backup bands
of the Temptations, the Supremes, and Little Richard. In 1971, he moved
to New York to attend New York University and soon spent two years with
Mongo Santamaria and a period in 1973 as a member of Art Blakey's Jazz
Messengers. After his important stint with Woody Shaw (with whom he
recorded several times), Jefferson worked with many top players,
including Elvin Jones, Roy Haynes, Cedar Walton, Jerry Gonzalez & the
Fort Apache Band, Malachi Thompson, and Jack Walrath's Masters of
Suspense. His premature death in Poland after emergency surgery was a
major loss. Carter Jefferson only led one record, The Rise of Atlantis,
on the Timeless label in 1978. AMG.
[63]33 comments made-how about you? 10.7.09
[64]JULIO GUTIERREZ - PROGRESSIVE LATIN
Julio Gutierrez for Gema from 1960.
The title says it all for this groundbreaking heavyweight descarga
session...Highly recommended.
Has anyone out there got a copy of Gutierrez's "Havana BC" they want to
sell me?If so leave me a message in the comments.
Progressive Latin should be considered a classic of Latin jazz if it
isn't already. "Cosa Buena" cooks, and "Closing Time" is a slower bossa
nova with flute and horns that captures the mood of a good night out at
its end. "Yambambe," an Afro rhythm behind mostly piano, sounds more
sophisticated than its simple construction. "El Altiplano" is supposed
to be an Incan melody with Afro elements. In any case, vocal
interjections pave the way for a longer descarga where a variety of
intriguing elements (horns, flute piano, even organ) work together in
their own weird ways and combinations. The "Route 66" theme arrangement
is a coup; the sax and flute are recorded gorgeously, and the piano and
conga pace it ideally, with brief drum solo breaks. "Sad City" is a
haunting flute piece, while "Guantanamera" has an interesting change
but there is only so much one can expect from this tune. "Malaguena" is
another long descarga that gets a little wild. Progressive Latin is
something of a masterpiece from the great arranger Julio Gutierrez.
Tony Wilds
What impressed me most about this album is Julio's use of space and the
length of the tunes, considering that in the era when it was recorded,
2 1/2 minute tunes were standard. Great musicians like El Negro Vivar
(trumpet) and Chombo Silva (sax) were able to beautifully stretch out
over an almost post-bop/Afro-Cuban jazz setting. There is some serious
blowing on this disc. This is another essential Latin jazz gem from the
late 50s/early 60s.
Jose Rizo
[65]22 comments made-how about you? 4.7.09
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About Rhythmweb
A Grassroots Network
[dada01a.jpg] (at left: World Unity Drum Festival, Club Dada, Dallas,
August 1994. My son Jules, shown at age 12 at left)
Rhythmweb started in December of 1996, as a reflection of my virtual
search for music and musicians on the Web, and as an excuse to woodshed
web design. Since then we have been amazed by the reponse we have
recieved, from all corners of the globe. From the Mid-East to
Australia, and from South Africa to Europe to New Orleans to Brazil to
Papua, NewGuinea, musicians are connecting. Truly, rhythm is a
universal language, love of music a universal love. Thanks to all our
new friends for connecting with us.
Our mission is to further the use of rhythm, music, and percussion &
related arts as a healing tool. We LOVE music. We LOVE the Web. When
our schedule permits, we surf several [kids097.jpg] hours a night, then
we post the fruits of our travels...
Every time we meet someone interesting with a rhythm related website,
we post a link. Some very worthwhile friendships have evolved along the
way, and we've discovered lots of good music.
We have since integrated affiliate links to CDs, books, and so forth,
but our basic mission remains the same. We are NOT a bunch of suits,
drooling e-commerce. We're musicians, artists. We believe it's
important for people at the grassroots level to network during this
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on rhythmweb are GRASSROOTS musicians, trying to get over in this new
economy. You will see no big over-rated stars from the conglomerate
record companies. Plenty of that elsewhere.
[eric_october03-01b-225.jpg] There are also fan pages and correspondent
pages here, on a large number of working musicians. Thanks very much to
all for your help. We are actively seeking musicians in various parts
of the world to drop us a line now and then, and let us know what the
percussion scene is like in your area. If you have a drum lesson you'd
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we may do that too, time permitting; please drop us a line about it.
And to the thousands of hobbyist , semi-pro and professional
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feedback, and some links.
Drum on,
Stu
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BOOKMARK ARTICLE
RR-interval irregularity precedes ventricular fibrillation in ST elevation
acute myocardial infarction
[39]Miguel E. Lemmert, MD[40]a[41] Corresponding Author Information
[42]email address , [43]Mohamed Majidi, MD[44]a, [45]Mitchell
W. Krucoff, MD[46]*, [47]Sebastiaan C.A.M. Bekkers, MD[48]a, [49]Harry
J.G.M. Crijns, MD, PhD, FHRS[50]a, [51]Hein J.J. Wellens, MD, PhD,
FHRS[52]a, [53]Andrzej S. Kosinski, PhD[54]*, [55]Anton P.M. Gorgels,
MD, PhD, FHRS[56]a
Received 9 August 2009; accepted 15 September 2009. published online 22
September 2009.
Background
Sudden cardiac arrest is a leading cause of death in industrialized
countries, and ischemic ventricular fibrillation (VF) is a frequent
cause.
Objective
The purpose of this study was to determine whether patients with ST
elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) who develop ischemic VF show
more overall RR-interval irregularity (RRI) than do STEMI patients
without ischemic VF.
Methods
Ischemic VF was identified in 41 patients from 1,473 digital 12-lead
Holter recordings from three separate STEMI studies. Continuous 3-lead
and 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG) snapshots recorded every minute
were compared between all ischemic VF patients and 123 random patients
without ischemic VF. Time intervals from start of Holter to ischemic VF
and equivalent intervals in the controls were used for calculations.
ECG variables related to conduction intervals and severity of ischemia
were measured using the most ischemic 12-lead ECG. RRI was calculated
as the square root of the mean squared differences of successive RR
intervals. For RRI, all QRS complexes, including ventricular ectopic
beats, were used.
Results
No baseline differences were observed between the study and control
groups, except for male preponderance among ischemic VF patients (90%
vs 72%, P = .019). QRS interval, ECG ischemia severity, RRI, and number
of ventricular ectopic beats were significantly associated with
ischemic VF. Multivariate analysis revealed RRI (odds ratio 1.006, 95%
confidence interval 1.001-1.010, P = .016) and ST deviation score (odds
ratio 1.073, 95% confidence interval 1.041-1.106, P <.001) as the only
statistically significant predictors of ischemic VF.
Conclusion
In the period before ischemic VF, RRI and ST deviation score are
associated with ischemic VF in STEMI patients. These findings could
have important pathophysiologic and clinical implications.
Keywords: [57]Cardiac arrest, [58]Electrocardiography, [59]Myocardial
infarction, [60]Sudden death, [61]Ventricular fibrillation
Abbreviations: [62]AUC, [63]area under receiver operating
characteristic curve, [64]AV, [65]atrioventricular, [66]ECG,
[67]electrocardiogram, [68]HRV, [69]heart rate variability, [70]IQR,
[71]interquartile range, [72]ROC, [73]receiver operating
characteristic, [74]RRI, [75]RR-interval irregularity, [76]STEMI,
[77]ST elevation myocardial infarction, [78]VF, [79]ventricular
fibrillation
Article Outline
o [80]Abstract
o [81]Introduction
o [82]Methods
o [83]Patient population
o [84]ECG data
o [85]RRI and ventricular ectopic beats
o [86]Twelve-lead ECG measurements
o [87]Statistical analysis
o [88]Results
o [89]Baseline characteristics and laboratory values
o [90]ECG characteristics
o [91]Cutoff values
o [92]Discussion
o [93]Baseline characteristics
o [94]Single 12-lead ECG measurements
o [95]Continuous ECG measurements
o [96]RRI and total number of ventricular ectopic beats
o [97]Heart rate variability
o [98]Study limitations
o [99]Clinical implications and future research
o [100]Conclusion
o [101]Acknowledgment
o [102]References
o [103]Copyright
Introduction
[104]return to Article Outline
Sudden cardiac arrest is one of the leading causes of death in
industrialized countries, and ischemic ventricular fibrillation (VF) is
one of the most frequent causes.[105]1, [106]2 To date, research aimed
at predicting VF has predominantly focused on the postmyocardial
infarction stage and nonischemic conditions. Familial history of sudden
death recently was demonstrated to be an important risk factor for VF
in an ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) population,[107]3
suggesting that genetic factors are involved and that predisposition to
ischemic VF differs among patients. Inhomogeneity of intramyocardial
conduction velocity plays a role as a substrate for reentrant
ventricular arrhythmias and sudden death during acute ischemia.[108]4,
[109]5, [110]6, [111]7, [112]8
In the current study, we introduce the novel electrocardiographic (ECG)
parameter of overall RR-interval irregularity (RRI), which is measured
by taking all QRS complexes into account, irrespective of their origin.
A greater RRI could lead to increased inhomogeneity of conduction
velocities and refractory periods, facilitating ischemic VF.
Using single 12-lead ECGs, our group recently demonstrated longer PR
and QRS conduction intervals in first STEMI patients developing
ischemic VF.[113]9 This finding supports the concept of increased
inhomogeneity in conduction velocity and calls upon further elucidation
of the concept. Thus, we tested the hypothesis that cardiac rhythm
characteristics preceding ischemic VF are different from those in
ischemic patients without VF, particularly with regard to the novel ECG
parameter RRI.
Methods
[114]return to Article Outline
Patient population
A retrospective database consisting of 1,473 24-hour Holter recordings
was retrieved from the ECG core laboratory of the Duke Clinical
Research Institute (Durham, NC, USA). The database consists of Holter
recordings from STEMI patients who were included in three separate
safety-efficacy STEMI studies between April 2002 and November 2003. The
database includes all analyzable Holter recordings from two cohorts
(CASTEMI[115]10 and EMERALD,[116]11 n = 1,031) treated with direct
percutaneous coronary intervention and one cohort treated with
thrombolytic therapy (RAPSODY, n = 442). All of these patients were
older than 18 years, had presented with diagnostic ST elevation on
standard ECG, and had symptom duration <= 6 hours. As part of the study
protocols, all patients were connected to 24-hour digital 12-lead
Holter recorders immediately after hospital admission, prior to any
therapeutic intervention in the hospital.
For the current study, all 1,473 Holter recordings were examined for
ischemic VF. Ischemic VF was defined as irregular undulations of
varying shape and amplitude on ECG without discrete QRS or T waves. To
ensure the ischemic nature of the VF, only patients with VF that
occurred before percutaneous coronary intervention and/or in the
presence of persisting ST deviation were included in the study.
Patients in whom VF occurred in conjunction with ECG signs of
reperfusion were considered to have reperfusion VF rather than ischemic
VF and were not included in the study (n = 5). Patients who showed
regular monomorphic ventricular tachycardias rather than VF also were
excluded from the study (n = 19).
Forty-one patients (2.8%) with ischemic VF were identified (study
group). For comparison, for each VF patient, three patients without
ischemic VF (control group) were selected, only matched for the
original study cohort. Selection was done randomly using the
statistical software SPSS for Windows (release 12.0.1, SPSS, Inc.,
Chicago, IL, USA), providing a total of 123 control patients.
Clinical descriptors noted include baseline characteristics (gender,
age, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, current
smoking, and history of acute myocardial infarction), coronary
angiographic data (culprit lesion), and plasma levels of cardiac
enzymes.
ECG data
Holter recordings (DR180+, NorthEast Monitoring, Maynard, MA, USA)
consisted of digital 24-hour 3-lead recordings (leads V5, V1, and III),
with a complete Mason-Likar 12-lead ECG (calibration 10 mm/mV, speed 25
mm/s) available every minute and featured designated analysis software
(Holter 5 LX Analysis version 5.2, NorthEast Monitoring). For each VF
patient, the time interval from start of recording to onset of ischemic
VF and the equivalent time interval in the three matched controls were
used for analysis, disregarding the residual recording time.
Computerized labeling of QRS complexes and RR intervals on Holter
recordings was reviewed and corrected on a beat-to-beat basis by a
trained physician (M.E.L.).
RRI and ventricular ectopic beats
For this analysis, we introduce RRI as a novel parameter. RRI was
calculated using the designated software's capability to calculate
heart rate variability (HRV). HRV is the variation in heart rate
resulting from sympathetic and vagal influences on the sinus node. HRV
disregards all ECG complexes other than sinus beats. Using continuous
3-lead Holter recordings, the software is capable of several HRV
measurements within the time domain.
Similar to standard HRV measurements, RRI calculations were performed
using the three leads of the Holter recordings. Contrary to standard
HRV measurements, RRI takes all ECG complexes, irrespective of their
origin, into account, including (episodes of) atrial fibrillation or
atrial flutter, paced rhythms, and supraventricular and ventricular
complexes. To enable RRI measurements by the software, all ECG
complexes were manually labeled as sinus beats. Time intervals before
onset of ischemic VF frequently were short. Therefore, the square root
of the mean squared differences of successive RR intervals method was
used because it reflects short-term variations in RR intervals, as
previously described in detail.[117]12 For the software to perform HRV
measurements and thus RRI measurements, a minimum of 5 minutes of
recording time is required.
The total number of ventricular ectopic beats was counted for each
patient, again during the time interval from start of recording to
onset of ischemic VF and the equivalent time interval in the control
patients.
Twelve-lead ECG measurements
Our group recently showed significant differences in PR and QRS
conduction intervals as well as severity of ischemia between VF
patients and control patients. For this reason, similar measurements
were made in the current study using the designated software, which
features electronic calipers for 12-lead ECGs. For each patient, one
12-lead ECG showing the most pronounced ST-segment deviation was used
because these ECGs are expected to be the best representation of
ischemia-induced conduction defects. The measurements have been
described previously,[118]9 with the difference that, because of the
digital ECG data and the accompanying Holter software, the measurements
were done using the electronic calipers of the analysis software
instead of manually.
Statistical analysis
Data analysis and case-control randomization were performed using SPSS
for Windows (release 12.0.1). Continuous variables are expressed as
median and interquartile range (IQR) and categorical variables as
percentages. For comparison of continuous variables, a Student's t-test
for normally distributed data or a Mann-Whitney test or Wilcoxon
signed-rank test for non-normally distributed data was used. For
comparison of categorical variables, a Pearson chi-square test or
Fisher exact test was used. All statistical tests were two-tailed, and
P <.05 was considered significant. ECG characteristics showing a
significant univariate relation with the occurrence of VF but lacking
multicollinearity (defined as r > 0.4) were included in multivariate
logistic regression. Variables were removed stepwise from the model
when P was >.10. Variables with P <.05 in the final model were
considered independent contributors and are reported in the results. In
the final model, tests were done for interactions between main
predictors. The predictive accuracy of the final model is reported as
the area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (AUC).
Cutoff values for ECG characteristics by which most VF patients can be
correctly classified are identified by applying the Pythagorean theorem
to ROC curves, which is a mathematical determination of the cutoff
value with the graphically shortest distance to a sensitivity and
specificity of 1.
Results
[119]return to Article Outline
Baseline characteristics and laboratory values
No statistically significant differences regarding baseline
characteristics and laboratory values were found between the VF
patients and the controls, except for a significantly higher percentage
of males among the VF patients (90% vs 72%, P = .019; [120]Table 1).
Table 1.
Baseline characteristics of the study population
Ischemic VF (n = 41) No ischemic VF (n = 123) P value
Age (years) 61 (54-71) 59 (52-71) .54
Male 90 72 .019
Anterior wall infarction 31 29 .84
Culprit artery .32
Left anterior descending branch 20 21
Right coronary artery 77 66
Left circumflex branch 3 13
Comorbidity/risk factor
Diabetes mellitus 10 18 .32
Hypertension 39 42 .71
Hypercholesterolemia 33 26 .41
Smoking 38 38 1
Prior myocardial infarction 11 11 1
Original study cohort .30
CASTEMI[121]10 3 97
EMERALD[122]11 3 97
RAPSODY 2 98
Laboratory values
Initial CK 1.6 (0.3-10.3) 2.6 (0.7-6.9) .70
Post PCI CK 8.1 (5.6-21.9) 10.1 (5.0-14.5) .75
Initial CK-MB 3.1 (1.7-7.7) 4.2 (0.6-7.6) .77
Post PCI CK-MB 6.9 (2.0-11.0) 8.5 (4.1-13.1) .41
Post PCI troponin-T 50.9 (27.5-74.2) 15.4 (8.2-61.8) 1
Note: Information on the culprit artery was available for 127 patients
from the PCI cohorts (CASTEMI and EMERALD). For the thrombolytics
cohort (RAPSODY), the distinction between anterior wall infarctions and
nonanterior wall infarctions was available.
Values are given as median (interquartile range) or percent.
CK = creatine kinase; CK-MB = creatine kinase-MB isoenzyme; PCI =
percutaneous coronary intervention; VF = ventricular fibrillation.
ECG characteristics
ECG characteristics are listed in [123]Table 2. All patients were in
sinus rhythm, except for six (four VF patients, two controls) with
atrial fibrillation, which precluded assessment of sinus rate and PR
interval. One VF patient had a paced rhythm during part of the Holter
recording. One VF patient and two control patients showed
atrioventricular (AV) nodal escape rhythms. Two additional control
patients had high-degree AV block.
Table 2.
ECG characteristics of the study population
Ischemic VF (n = 41) No ischemic VF (n = 123) P value
Sinus rate (min-1) 74 (62-85) 73 (65-85) .719
PQ (ms) 177 (160-216) 164 (153-181) .055
QRS (ms) 103 (88-115) 93 (83-104) .018
QTc Bazett (ms) 417 (390-446) 414 (396-414) .822
Peak ST deviation (mm) 7 (5-10) 4 (2-7) <.001
Grade of ischemia 3 (2-3) 2 (2-3) .004
No. of leads with ST deviation 10 (9-11) 7 (4-10) <.001
STdev (mm) 36 (26-50) 20 (11-30) <.001
Measuring time (minutes) 29 (16-57) 29 (16-57) N/A
Total no. of ventricular ectopic beats 73 (19-268) 19 (2-106) .006
RRI (ms) 132 (100-197) 73 (39-122) <.001
RRI-5 min (ms) 186 (97-237) 44 (22-101) <.001
Values are given as median (interquartile range).
RRI = RR-interval irregularity; RRI-5 min = RR-interval irregularity in
the last 5 minutes of measuring time; STdev = ST deviation score, the
sum of all ST deviations on 12-lead ECG; VF = ventricular fibrillation.
With regard to measurements using single 12-lead ECGs, VF patients
showed a longer QRS interval [103 ms (IQR 88-115 ms) vs 93 ms (IQR
83-104 ms), P = .018] and a larger amount of ischemia, as measured by
peak ST deviation, grade of ischemia,[124]13 total number of leads with
ST deviation, and ST deviation score.
With regard to continuous ECG measurements, the median measuring time
was 29 minutes (IQR 16-57 minutes). Because the requirement of at least
5 minutes of recording time prior to ischemic VF could not be met, the
computer software did not allow RRI measurement in three VF patients
and subsequently nine control patients. VF patients showed a higher RRI
[132 ms (IQR 100-197 ms) vs 73 ms (IQR 39-122 ms), P <.001] and more
ventricular ectopic beats [73 (IQR 19-268) vs 19 (2-106), P = .006].
Excluding the recordings with atrial fibrillation from the analysis,
did not affect the results regarding the RRI measurements.
Logistic regression was applied, with presence of ischemic VF as the
dependent variable and variables showing univariate significance (QRS
interval, ST deviation score, total number of ventricular ectopic
beats, RRI) as the independent variables. Because we recently showed ST
deviation score to be an independent predictor of ischemic VF[125]9 and
we wanted to correct for multicollinearity between the variables
measuring the amount of ischemia, ST deviation score was the only
ischemia parameter entered in the logistic regression. This
multivariate analysis revealed that only a higher RRI (odds ratio
1.006, 95% confidence interval 1.001-1.010, P = .016) and a higher ST
deviation score (odds ratio 1.073, 95% confidence interval 1.041-1.106,
P <.001) were independently associated with an increased chance of
ischemic VF ([126]Table 3). The interpretation of these odds ratios is
that an increase in RRI of 1 ms corresponds to an increased chance of
ischemic VF of 0.6%.
Table 3.
Multivariate analysis of the study population
Odds ratio 95% Confidence interval P value
RR-interval irregularity (ms) 1.006 1.001-1.010 .016
STdev (mm) 1.073 1.041-1.106 <.001
Area under the receiver operating characteristic curve is 0.835.
STdev = ST deviation score, the sum of all ST deviations on 12-lead
ECG.
For our study population, this means that, based on only RRI
measurements, patients who developed VF had a 41.5% (1.006 ^ [132 ms -
73 ms] = 1.415) more chance of doing so than the patients who did not
develop VF. Similarly, an increase in ST deviation score of 1 mm
implies an increased chance of ischemic VF of 7.3%. The predictive
accuracy of this model assessed by the AUC was 0.835.
In addition, to examine a fixed and shortest possible time frame prior
to ischemic VF, RRI was measured in the last 5 minutes of measuring
time. This showed an even more marked difference in RRI between VF and
control patients [186 ms (97-237 ms) vs 44 ms (22-101 ms), P <.001].
Multivariate analysis using this RRI of the last 5 minutes yielded an
RRI odds ratio of 1.012 (95% confidence interval 1.007-1.018, P <.001),
with a predictive model accuracy (AUC) of 0.896 (not shown in
[127]Table 3). Of note, measurement of RRI in the last 5 minutes was
not possible in 7 VF patients and 27 controls because occasional
artifact during this time period in these patients reduced the
analyzable recording time to less than the required 5 minutes.
Cutoff values
Based on the optimal (mathematical) balance between sensitivity and
specificity, cutoff values for RRI and the ST deviation score were
identified. According to these criteria, the cutoff value for RRI is
110 ms, with sensitivity of 74% and specificity of 75%. The cutoff
value for the ST deviation score is 27 mm, yielding sensitivity of 74%
and specificity of 70%.
Discussion
[128]return to Article Outline
To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to show that
heart rate irregularity, measured as the novel parameter RRI, plays a
significant role preceding ischemic VF on continuous ECG recordings
retrieved from a large STEMI database.
Baseline characteristics
No differences in baseline characteristics were found, except for male
preponderance in the VF patients. This is not in accordance with
previous research in which no gender difference with regard to ischemic
VF or sudden cardiac arrest was found.[129]9, [130]14, [131]15,
[132]16, [133]17, [134]18 Our finding could be an observation by
chance, due to multiple exploratory tests that in no way are related to
any hypothesis tested in this study.
Single 12-lead ECG measurements
The significantly longer QRS interval and the larger amount of ischemia
in the VF patients are in agreement with our previous findings on
single 12-lead STEMI ECGs.[135]9 Briefly, in that study we found longer
conduction intervals in VF patients that may, depending on the site of
the occlusion and amount of ischemia, indicate an inhomogeneity in
conduction velocity providing the substrate for ischemic VF. The
current study adds a continuous aspect to the period preceding ischemic
VF. In a multivariate regression model including continuous ECG
measurements, only RRI and the amount of ischemia appear to be
independently associated with the occurrence of ischemic VF.
Continuous ECG measurements
The parameters related specifically to the continuous ECG measurements
are RRI and total number of ventricular ectopic beats.
RRI and total number of ventricular ectopic beats
RRI is a novel and unique ECG parameter that combines into a single
parameter the multitude of ECG complexes and rhythms occurring in the
acute phase of a STEMI by measuring RRI resulting from all such
complexes. Examples of large and small RRIs are shown in [136]Figure 1.
[137]View full-size image. [138]View Large Image
[139]Download to PowerPoint [140]Standard image available
Figure 1. RR-interval irregularity (RRI) in ventricular fibrillation
(VF) patient (A) and matched control patient (B). Primarily due to
irregular runs of ventricular ectopic beats, the VF patient had an RRI
of 257 ms prior to the ischemic VF (red arrow), whereas the control
patient had an RRI of 20 ms in the equivalent time interval. Green
complexes indicate sinus beats; red complexes indicate ventricular
ectopic beats; blue complexes indicate artifact (not used for any
calculations).
To our knowledge, the only continuous ECG parameter suggested to be
associated with ischemic VF occurring in the acute phase of a STEMI is
an increased number of ventricular ectopic beats prior to ischemic
VF.[141]19 However, the predictive value of these so-called warning
arrhythmias has been questioned by other researchers.[142]20, [143]21
In our study population, we were able to reproduce the finding that
frequent ventricular ectopic beats represent a harbinger of ischemic
VF. These previously reported contradictory results may be explained by
our additional finding that the total number of ventricular ectopic
beats was not an independent predictor of ischemic VF. RRI was the only
independent continuous ECG predictor of ischemic VF, suggesting that
the mere presence of ventricular ectopic beats is less important than
rhythm irregularity.
The manner in which RRI is associated with ischemic VF could be as
follows. RRI leads to inhomogeneity in conduction velocity and
refractory periods. Beat-to-beat changes in refractoriness, induced by
RRI, may become pronounced in ischemic areas due to ischemia-related
postrepolarization refractoriness, an effect suggested by our data to
be even more pronounced in the final 5 minutes preceding ischemic VF.
Subsequent, relatively shortly coupled beats may block or conduct
slowly in these areas and instantaneously create a substrate vulnerable
to ischemic VF. Shortly coupled beats do not necessarily induce reentry
and VF; rather, they set the stage.
The finding that the number of leads showing ST deviation was
associated with ischemic VF might indicate a role for more widespread
myocardial ischemia rather than merely local severity of ischemia. This
could add to the heterogeneity of postrepolarization refractoriness.
Although not an independent predictor, this concept is supported by a
larger region at risk associated with VF found in a previous study
using coronary angiography.[144]16
Heart rate variability
The RRI measurements were performed using the software's mathematical
capabilities to calculate HRV. Although technically possible, actual
HRV measurements are not reported here. HRV has been recognized as a
marker of the relationship between the autonomic nervous system and
cardiac mortality. A decreased HRV has been proposed as a predictor of
ventricular arrhythmias and sudden death in different patient
populations, mostly consisting of patients in the postmyocardial
infarction phase or with nonischemic cardiac diseases.[145]12, [146]22,
[147]23, [148]24, [149]25 Most studies attributing a predictive role to
HRV were specifically designed to measure this parameter for
sufficiently long periods of sinus rhythm in a chronic care setting.
The current study relates to a completely different clinical situation,
not only because of its acutely ischemic population but also because of
the relatively short measuring times with frequent ventricular ectopy.
Thus, the clinical meaning of standard HRV measurements would be
questionable in our study population.
Study limitations
The population studied was a selected population because all patients
survived until hospital admission. Therefore, whether our findings can
be generalized to the situation outside the hospital is not known.
The study variables were derived from three separate studies, so
possibly the study population was not homogeneous. In spite of this,
the association we found between RRI, amount of ischemia, and ischemic
VF was very consistent across studies.
All patients were derived from STEMI intervention trials who met
certain ST-segment criteria for inclusion. Therefore, whether the
results are applicable to non-STEMI patients or patients with demand
ischemia rather than supply ischemia is not known.
Finally, we have no information on use of medication. However, in a
previous study we found no influence of any type of medication on
development of ischemic VF.[150]9 Furthermore, it is more likely that
medications such as beta-blocking agents would influence RR-interval
duration rather than RRI. In this regard, it should be noted that there
was no difference in sinus rate between VF patients and control
patients.
However, it should be taken into account that the current database of
Holter recordings prior to ischemic VF is unique in its size and
possibly the best available.
Clinical implications and future research
The results of this study are important for a better understanding of
ischemic VF. Moreover, it provides simple variables with possible
implications for clinical use. There is an increased need for
monitoring high-risk cardiac patients outside the hospital setting, and
the development of monitoring devices with alarm features has been
advocated by our group and others.[151]26, [152]27, [153]28
When incorporated within the algorithms of arrhythmia sensing devices,
a warning predictor of ischemic VF could lead to improved early
identification of individuals at risk. The predictive accuracy of 0.835
by multivariate analysis was high ([154]Table 3). This indicates that
RRI and the ST deviation score may be useful as predictors of ischemic
VF in STEMI patients. The cutoff value for RRI is 110 ms, with
sensitivity of 74% and specificity of 75%. The cutoff value for the ST
deviation score is 27 mm, yielding sensitivity of 74% and specificity
of 70%. Because false-positive identification of STEMI patients at risk
for ischemic VF is preferable to false-negative failure to identify, it
could be speculated that different (ranges of) cutoff values with
higher sensitivities at the cost of lower specificities should be
chosen. Sensitivities of (approximately) 80% and 90% and corresponding
cutoff values for RRI and the ST deviation score are shown in
[155]Figure 2, [156]Figure 3.
[157]View full-size image. [158]View Large Image
[159]Download to PowerPoint [160]Standard image available
Figure 2. Sensitivity and specificity for all cutoff values for
RR-interval irregularity (RRI).
[161]View full-size image. [162]View Large Image
[163]Download to PowerPoint [164]Standard image available
Figure 3. Sensitivity and specificity for all cutoff values for the ST
deviation score (STdev).
This study was aimed at STEMI patients who suffer from supply ischemia.
One could speculate whether the results can be extrapolated to patients
suffering from demand ischemia due to a severe stenosis. In that case,
RRI could play a similar role in these patients, leading to ischemic VF
(e.g., during exercise or diminished blood supply during sleep).
Because the majority of sudden cardiac arrests occurs outside the
hospital, a warning predictor of ischemic VF could be useful in
patients with known coronary artery disease. The model proposed in the
current study could serve as an ischemia model that could be used in
future research studying patients who are potential victims of ischemic
VF due to demand ischemia. Such populations are currently being studied
by our group.
Conclusion
[165]return to Article Outline
Overall RRI and the amount of ischemia are suggested to be useful
predictors of ischemic VF occurring in the acute phase of STEMI.
Acknowledgments
[166]return to Article Outline
We thank W.R. Dassen, PhD, for statistical advice.
References
[167]return to Article Outline
[168]1. 1Zipes DP, Wellens HJJ. Sudden cardiac death. Circulation.
1998;98:2334-2351. [169]MEDLINE
[170]2. 2Vreede-Swagemakers JJ, Gorgels APM, Dubois-Arbouw WI,
et al. Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest in the 1990s: a population-based
study in the Maastricht area on incidence, characteristics and
survival. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1997;6:1500-1505.
[171]3. 3Dekker LR, Bezzina CR, Henriques JP, et al. Familial sudden
death is an important risk factor for primary ventricular fibrillation:
a case-control study in acute myocardial infarction patients.
Circulation. 2006;11:1140-1145.
[172]4. 4Janse MJ, Kleber AG, Capucci A, et al. Electrophysiological
basis for arrhythmias caused by acute ischemia (Role of the
subendocardium). J Mol Cell Cardiol. 1986;4:339-355.
[173]5. 5Kleber AG, Janse MJ, Wilms-Schopmann FJ, et al. Changes in
conduction velocity during acute ischemia in ventricular myocardium of
the isolated porcine heart. Circulation. 1986;1:189-198.
[174]6. 6Kokolis S, Clark LT, Kokolis R, et al. Ventricular arrhythmias
and sudden cardiac death. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2006;6:426-444.
[175]7. 7Lazzara R. From first class to third class: recent upheaval in
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[176]8. 8Pratt CM, Moye LA. The Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial:
background, interim results and implications. Am J Cardiol.
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[177]9. 9Lemmert ME, de Jong JS, van Stipdonk AM,
et al. Electrocardiographic factors playing a role in ischemic
ventricular fibrillation in ST elevation myocardial infarction are
related to the culprit artery. Heart Rhythm. 2008;1:71-78.
[178]10. 10Bar FW, Tzivoni D, Dirksen MT, et al. Results of the first
clinical study of adjunctive CAldaret (MCC-135) in patients undergoing
primary percutaneous coronary intervention for ST-Elevation Myocardial
Infarction: the randomized multicentre CASTEMI study. Eur Heart J.
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[179]11. 11Stone GW, Webb J, Cox DA, et al.Enhanced Myocardial Efficacy
and Recovery by Aspiration of Liberated Debris (EMERALD)
Investigators Distal microcirculatory protection during percutaneous
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infarction: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2005;293:1063-1072.
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[181]12. 12Heart rate variability: standards of measurement,
physiological interpretation and clinical use (Task Force of the
European Society of Cardiology and the North American Society of Pacing
and Electrophysiology). Circulation. 1996;5:1043-1065.
[182]13. 13Birnbaum Y, Sclarovsky S. The grades of ischemia on the
presenting electrocardiogram of patients with ST elevation acute
myocardial infarction. J Electrocardiol. 2001;34(Suppl):17-26.
[183]Abstract | [184]Full-Text PDF (306 KB) | [185]CrossRef
[186]14. 14Behar S, Goldbourt U, Reicher-Reiss H, et al. Prognosis of
acute myocardial infarction complicated by primary ventricular
fibrillation (Principal Investigators of the SPRINT Study). Am J
Cardiol. 1990;17:1208-1211.
[187]15. 15Brezins M, Elyassov S, Elimelech I, et al. Comparison of
patients with acute myocardial infarction with and without ventricular
fibrillation. Am J Cardiol. 1996;8:948-950.
[188]16. 16Gheeraert PJ, Henriques JP, De Buyzere ML,
et al. Out-of-hospital ventricular fibrillation in patients with acute
myocardial infarction: coronary angiographic determinants. J Am Coll
Cardiol. 2000;1:144-150.
[189]17. 17Ruiz-Bailén M, Hoyos EAd, Ruiz-Navarro S, et al. Ventricular
fibrillation in acute myocardial infarction in Spanish patients:
results of the ARIAM database. Crit Care Med. 2003;8:2144-2151.
[190]18. 18Thompson CA, Yarzebsky J, Goldberg RJ, et al. Changes over
time in the incidence and case-fatality rates of primary ventricular
fibrillation complicating acute myocardial infarction: perspectives
from the Worcester Heart Attack Study. Am Heart J. 2000;6:1014-1021.
[191]19. 19Lown B. Sudden cardiac death--1978. Circulation.
1979;7:1593-1599.
[192]20. 20Lie KI, Wellens HJ, Downar E, et al. Observations on
patients with primary ventricular fibrillation complicating acute
myocardial infarction. Circulation. 1975;5:755-759.
[193]21. 21El-Sherif N, Myerburg RJ, Scherlag BJ,
et al. Electrocardiographic antecedents of primary ventricular
fibrillation (Value of the R-on-T phenomenon in myocardial infarction).
Br Heart J. 1976;4:415-422.
[194]22. 22Fauchier L, Babuty D, Cosnay P, et al. Prognostic value of
heart rate variability for sudden death and major arrhythmic events in
patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol.
1999;5:1203-1207.
[195]23. 23Hermida JS, Leenhardt A, Cauchemez B, et al. Decreased
nocturnal standard deviation of averaged NN intervals (An independent
marker to identify patients at risk in the Brugada Syndrome). Eur Heart
J. 2003;22:2061-2069.
[196]24. 24Carpeggiani C, L'Abbate A, Landi P, et al. Early assessment
of heart rate variability is predictive of in-hospital death and major
complications after acute myocardial infarction. Int J Cardiol.
2004;3:361-368.
[197]25. 25Reed MJ, Robertson CE, Addison PS. Heart rate variability
measurements and the prediction of ventricular arrhythmias. QJM.
2005;2:87-95.
[198]26. 26Wellens HJ, Gorgels AP, de Munter H. Cardiac arrest outside
of a hospital: how can we improve results of resuscitation?.
Circulation. 2003;15:1948-1950.
[199]27. 27Arzbaecher R, Jenkins J, Burke M, et al. Database testing of
a subcutaneous monitor with wireless alarm. J Electrocardiol.
2006;4(Suppl):S50-S53.
[200]28. 28Fischell TA, Fischell DR, Fischell RE, et al. Real-time
detection and alerting for acute ST-segment elevation myocardial
ischemia using an implantable, high-fidelity, intracardiac electrogram
monitoring system with long-range telemetry in an ambulatory porcine
model. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;11:2306-2314.
[201]a Department of Cardiology, Maastricht University Medical Center,
Maastricht, The Netherlands
[202]* Duke University Medical Center/Duke Clinical Research Institute,
Durham, North Carolina, USA
[203]Corresponding Author Information Address reprint requests and
correspondence: Dr. Miguel E. Lemmert, Maastricht University Medical
Center, Department of Cardiology, PO Box 5800, 6202 AZ Maastricht, The
Netherlands
This research was supported by an unrestricted grant from Philips
Healthcare, Seattle, Washington.
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Liens cachés :
Wheeler English
Lines & Rhymes: Rhythm
from The teachers and Writers Handbook of Poetic Forms, edited by Ron
Padgett.
and your text, Elements of Literature, Second Course (Holt, Rinehart)
Rhythm is a musical quality produced by the repetition of stressed and
unstressed syllables. Rhythm occurs in all forms of language, both
written and spoken, but is particularly important in poetry
The most obvious king of rhythm is the regular repetition of stressed
and unstessed syllables found in some poetry.
Writers also create rhythm by repeating words and phrases or even by
repeating whole lines and sentences, as Walt Whitman does in "Song of
Myself":
I hear the sound I love, the soung of the hyman voice,
I hear all sounds running together, combined, fused, or following,
Sounds of the city and sounds out of the city, sounds of the day and
night,
Talkative young ones to those that like them, the loud laugh of
work-people at their meals...
[yellowrose_l.jpg]
[whitedaisy1_l.jpg]
People often use a combination of two words to describe regular rhythm
or meter. For example, you might refer to the meter of a sonnet as
iambic pentameter The first word, such as iambic, refers to the beat
pattern, in this case an unaccented syllable followed by an accented
syllable (the most common in English). The second refers to the length
of the line. In the case of pentameter we mean five feet (or ten
syllables, long.
Below are some commonly used words to describe the meter of regular
poetry.
The most common units ("feet") of rhythm in English are:
The iamb, consisting of two syllables, only the second accented (as in
"good-bye")
The trochee, two syllables, only the first accented (as in "awful")
The anapest, three syllables, with only the third stressed (as in
"Halloween")
The dactyl, one stressed syllable followed by two unstressed (as in
"wonderful")
The spondee, two consecutive syllables that are both stressed (as in
"big deal")
Many American poets in the past thirty years have written poetry using
everyday language, and because much American speech is iambic in
pattern, the poetry shows a lot of iambic rhythm.
[golddaisy_l.jpg]
Rhythm (or "measure") in writing is like the beat in music. In poetry,
rhythm implies that certain words are produced more force- fully than
others, and may be held for longer duration. The repetition of a
pattern of such emphasis is what produces a "rhythmic effect." The word
rhythm comes from the Greek, meaning "measured motion."
In speech, we use rhythm without consciously creating recognizable
patterns. For example, almost every telephone conversation ends
rhythmically, with the conversants understanding as much by rhythm as
by the meaning of the words, that it is time to hang up. Frequently
such conversations end with Conversant A uttering a five- or
six-syllable line, followed by Conversant B's five to six syllables,
followed by A's two- to four-syllable line, followed by B's two to four
syllables, and so on until the receivers are cradled.
Well I gotta go now.
Okay, see you later.
Sure, pal. So long.
See you. Take care.
Bye bye.
Bye bye.
In poems, as in songs, a rhythm may be obvious or muted. A poem like
Vachel Lindsay's "The Congo" consciously recreates the rhythms of a
tribal dance:
Fat black bucks in a wine-barrel room
Barrel-house kings, with feet unstable,
Sagged and reeled and pounded on the table,
Pounded on the table,
Beat an empty barrel with the handle of a broom,
Hard as they were able
Boom, boom, BOOM,
With a silk umbrella and the handle of a broom,
Boomlay, boomlay, boomlay, BOOM.
On the other hand, some "free verse" has underlying rhythmical patterns
that, while variable and not "regular" like Vachel Lindsay's, do
nonetheless give a feeling of unity to the work. For example, read
aloud the following lines a few times:
A chimney, breathing a little smoke.
The sun, I can't see
making a bit of pink
I can't quite see in the blue.
The pink of five tulips
at five P.M. on the day before March first.
-From "February" by James Schuyler
[1]suggested
assignments
[2]project
[3]rhythm
[4]rhyme
[5]repetition
[6]figures of speech
[7]schoolnotes
[8]home
Références
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Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs
[1]Daniel Elazar Papers Index [2][USEMAP:nav-back.gif]
American Political Culture
The Generational Rhythm of American Politics
The American Mosaic, Chapter 2
Daniel J. Elazar
It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States
combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount
of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no
less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space.
Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location
within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less
pinpointed.
This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is
structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of
generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to
the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast
developments with great success. At the same time he has applied
that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that
very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs.
Early Studies of Generational Rhythms
Students of society have noted the succession of generations since
ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology
on generational measures.
The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear
time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning
of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs.
It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the
individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the
starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon
and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon
operating in history.^2
Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational
basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first
recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the
system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third
and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the
Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average
generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full
generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical
scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression,
"forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5
Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The
"generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity
of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a
common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a
time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces
time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new
judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation
and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7
Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have
beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the
founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central
interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of
its beginnings and its ancestry.
Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were
the first to articulate systematic theories of generational
progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte
viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the
thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in
shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the
unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the
aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social
cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that
"History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of
Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle
phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences
appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals
comes to dominate society.^9
These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical
verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years
of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop
the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed
the principle that generations are articulated through historical
events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained.
Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a
fourfold classification of generations as preparatory,
revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10
Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11
Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that
generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific
study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and
heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation
century.^13
After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the
succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of
social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between
contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who
are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his
student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked
on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and
Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm
Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri
Peyre (1948).^16
More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused
on problems of intergenerational differences and the political
socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes
or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund
Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study
of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their
study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963)
focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966)
studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957)
utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in
Israel and the United States, respectively.^20
All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a
comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of
their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and
those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving
many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the
studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two
parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the
people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact,
both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined
that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The
linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive
theory.
None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a
generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black
box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods.
Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of
three generations.
Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining
way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an
empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is
somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin.
Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature,
art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of
eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular
basis.
Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to
embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under
the heading of "a generation".
Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History
A number of theories of political cycles in American history have
been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of
American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational
thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a
series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based
on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective
governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect
"concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of
property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the
wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid
movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories
include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter
Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical
theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the
"more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments"
using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process.
Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the
interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United
States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical
periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23
Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the
manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work.
Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in
presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the
House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual
party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in
American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of
an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American
history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in
length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes
that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device
since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable
directions.
Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his
emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by
using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of
voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state
vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates
five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s)
and the present.
Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the
level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five
periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of
stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of
approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing
already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an
established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in
turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis
to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment
occurs in every generation.
While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with
American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he
begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three
of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive
happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning
point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that
Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a
generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts
as follows:
1787-1801-1816
1816-1829-1841
1841-1861-1869
1869-1901-1918
1918-1931-?
The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the
beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them
primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles
rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have
been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational
patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the
following pattern:
1790-1796/1800
1800-1824/1828
1828-1824/1860
1860-1888/1896
1896-1932
His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to
that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their
significance in the periodization process.
Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although
even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if
it is schematized as follows:
1789-1820
1828
1856-1860
1893/1894
1932
Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized
as follows:
1896-1912
1912-1920-1932-1952
1952
Pomper also offers election dates and no more:
1836
1864-1876
1876-1892/1896
1928/1932-1952
1952-1964
None of these are complete theories and all must be considered
within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit.
Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough
approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the
commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United
States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The
revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of
generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson
Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods
of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named:
e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era.
In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers
developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the
federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could
not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however,
the American people were treated to a display of federal activity --
and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by
FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the
mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth
of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the
mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper
understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United
States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow
of time and events.)
The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its
own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human
time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible
pattern in the progression of political events in the United States
over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not
happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events
in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in
cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the
biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human
life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is
substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though
the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this
phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26
The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind
another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit
decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every
government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on
the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on
the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of
attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be
supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that
being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons
who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive
generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a
fixed moment, as individuals do now....
What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the
same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a
constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A
generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case,
would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to
contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for
14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily
deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of
their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at
that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated
from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of
climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors.
Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that
23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a
society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the
ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as
follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all
ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half
will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every
year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly
have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half
of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time
will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest
integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the
representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself
assembled, can validly extend a debt.
On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a
perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every
constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of
34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not
of right.
The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that
would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to
his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French
Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the
sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making
on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every
nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme,
Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one
which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one
way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure
of location in time.
Human Social Rhythms
As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural
measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a
common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the
"lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does
appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account
for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely
and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation
in any particular civil society and chart the relations among
generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical
patterns of its politics.
During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years,
averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people
will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then
pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every
individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in
which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited.
Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she
begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime
between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at
which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life"
ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and
political roles as are given to mature men and women in society.
Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a
person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention,
if not physically, considered ready for retirement.
Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an
individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first
fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially
powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote,
and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After
attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period
of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be
translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among
those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s
before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on
the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become
serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are
able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the
scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be
defined as the ending of one's serious political career without
suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's
30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential
influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise
influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political
leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds
forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship.
The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle
of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young
people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters
actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people
in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then
declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to
"retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28
In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each
individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society
is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a
common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any
particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its
history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical
record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and
the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at
the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In
the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed
leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in
power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age
and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a
result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly
established.
Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults
settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and
in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational
progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and
purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began
more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed
from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the
door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to
begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of
the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their
patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby
allowing a new generation to assume the reins.
Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they
establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in
social and political life than that found in the simple processes of
human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were
equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the
biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by
locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace
the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of
organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings
are recorded in history, we can do just that.
Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the
progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins
of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is
shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the
impact of the change and encourages new political action to
assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new
generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at
the most four generations are alive at any given time creates
certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of
grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of
inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact
help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In
this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is
socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and
politically unmanageable.
Generations, Centuries and Events
Since the founding of the first European settlements along the
Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations
of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series
of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the
twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three
generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain
distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense
recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th
century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of
American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in
which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century
stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th
century is the century of the United States as a world power.
Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as
chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European
history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have
begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing
point, thus:
a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603)
and the 17th century began with the opening of the American
frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between
the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of
the times.
b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty
of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which
eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the
Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration
for both countries.
c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the
War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era
of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff).
d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the
inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak
of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land
frontier.
Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments
that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show
every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then
dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are
immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the
nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged
during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation
under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a
century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn,
the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments
having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic
society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated
American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments
disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently
in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments
that will replace them.
The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth
generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the
past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators
have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just
when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of
generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was
ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal
intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of
the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of
alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the
generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life
so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began
after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided
over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the
renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence.
The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be
delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression
will be related to major forces and factors shaping American
history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the
principal challenges facing the American people in each generation
and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing
forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of
critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization
in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial,
ethnic and religious groups.
One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate.
Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with
such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for
analytical purposes than life ever is.
The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the
period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old
World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany,
but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually
every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original
thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native
Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies,
and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate
nation with its own civilization.
The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century,
which, from the first American recognition of common continental
interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for
Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent
American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism,
successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and
established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The
idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the
political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans.
The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations,
beginning at the point where America turned its back on European
entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced
them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an
industrialized continental nation with a strong national government;
abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world
power ready for overseas involvements.
The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century --
reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the
arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with
the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding
over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the
results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the
industrial revolution.
As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with
the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the
United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished
relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first
generation of the transformation of society as a result of the
application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new
frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse
of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically
dominant although economically weakened. The results of these
phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder
of the generation.
Generations and Frontier Stages
The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are
products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In
American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if
not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and
centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American
frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other
historical and political phenomena.
Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has
been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of
human control over the natural environment and the utilization of
the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control,
i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American
society is a product of this commitment which is virtually
self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one
frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier
situation that has created the major social and economic changes
which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's
political institutions.
America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages
to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the
metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic
frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled
with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been
decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American
life within that stage.
The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the
historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted
from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the
end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on
the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American
continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the
products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the
westward movement on a basically rural population interested in
settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a
socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits
in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was
dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an
active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and
still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in
Alaska.
Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth
the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and
spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation
into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the
spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's
economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented
the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States,
where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater
part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it
first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the
beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands
of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally
superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth
generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the
end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various
localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant
characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities
from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into
independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and
social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their
existence and growth.
By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth,
in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is
characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society
through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that
encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large
metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from
atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the
accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further
changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with
their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered
a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like
the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological
frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on
a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation.
After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly
and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and
pace of development across the country.
The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by
the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to
be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The
late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash
from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism
challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s,
ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution,
and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth
premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of
resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were
saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over.
By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was
emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the
metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers,
satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new
data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large
belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated
by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not
connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and
small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single
metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different
purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern
coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found
in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its
early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges,
initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its
renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of
financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American
economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of
Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West.
Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues
of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new
frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement
patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its
own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns
and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands
themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between
the points of generational division and the shifts in the various
frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater
detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as
part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are
closely related to the opening of new centuries.
Generations and Economic Periods
One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a
continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to
meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a
result, the governments of the United States have always maintained
a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in
the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to
era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the
governmental response. These changes have also developed on a
generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the
founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic
policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth
generation of American history) the American government continued a
semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the
nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government
involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during
which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in
which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the
outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful
competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a
generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially
unregulated by government.
Demands for government regulation that built up during the last
generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of
intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first
generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the
eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active
government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system.
Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around
toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less
government intervention.
Centuries, Generations and Federalism
The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can
also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first
generation of American history brought the introduction of federal
principles through the contracts and covenants that established the
colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through
Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the
seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a
local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of
national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose
strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly,
concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in
the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and
crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and
then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century.
The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has
been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society.
Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal
with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques
have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These
new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed
have been major elements in the concrete response to the
generation's challenges.
Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship
The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and
their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the
challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of
American history and politics. The changes in those relationships
also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries.
British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious
pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through
giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular
territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as
indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In
the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized
in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian
differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery.
Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism
was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones
existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste
system was in the making.
During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and
sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the
original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the
virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation.
Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new
lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was
abolished in the North.
The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial
establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was
almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant
immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new
post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through
the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration
reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to
reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was
reaffirmed through the institution of segregation.
From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open
pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The
barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants
began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those
barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by
the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape
up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the
twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but
those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of
American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say,
to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American
culture.
While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been
presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the
generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted
descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some
cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary
period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational
responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New
Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political
dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the
Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era.
The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses
Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular
challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its
own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and
the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In
some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could
act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In
others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the challenges changes from century to century.
During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the
tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various
colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related
to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence
of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially
related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American
national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been
essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society
and the assumption of an American role in world affairs.
The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the
initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which,
objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively
recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing
recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors
such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in
voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with
mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to
public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters
does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet
existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular
progression of political events revolving around the development of
a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its
response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and
responses that gives each generation its particular character. While
the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external --
or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is
primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation
themselves.
In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has
taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each
colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its
sisters, and the other science independence when a common national
constitution created a common national politics. In some cases,
particularly after independence when the nation could act
decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other,
particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the political challenges that have dominated the
American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a
new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating
the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the
19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope,
wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the
20th century, they have essentially related to the
metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an
American role in world affairs.
In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within
each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and
new generations is marked by several decisive political actions,
often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature
is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old
generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and
opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a
time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues
they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political
action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population
change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political
activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur
the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the
direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders
to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the
generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many
quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of
governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to
the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five
years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with
digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so
that they will achieve greater success and at the same time
integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The
end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify
and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the
issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for
political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be
recognized.
The Bench Marks of American Political History:
Critical Elections and New Deals
In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a
particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a
system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can
also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political
history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune
with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds;
first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a
particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of
intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government
initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each
generation.
The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections
A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the
sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period
of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The
generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this
pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which
brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs
of voters, shifting them from one political party to another.
Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a
"critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of
electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound
readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the
community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are
formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result
of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide
electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency
from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one
major element to another.
Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that
there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the
allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively
long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public
opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the
1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with
a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In
consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats
have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters
identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority
party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order
to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and
representatives to win control of Congress.
The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968,
only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled
the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a
military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the
"normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his
party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in
1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after
twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the
Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the
Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems,
won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular
Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a
Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his
victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition
and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a
period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White
House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the
Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the
GOP controlled the Senate.
A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a
nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent
and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on
a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical
loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations,
personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of
the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are
nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders
(or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate
state parties which form the two national confederations known as
the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties
are confederations of the state parties, so is the national
coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional
coalitions.
Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and
thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the
electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to
remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead
to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution,
too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems
attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the
dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary
inroads in the various electoral groups.
Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces
opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in
public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in
the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party
that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means
certain that the majority party will even win all the national
elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and
usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a
limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its
losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The
states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as
bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend
its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority
coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for
national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards
for the party faithful during the years of national "famine."
As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent
electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their
changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with
each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find
the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass
and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in
importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed
and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the
realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment
of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a
reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad
electoral groups.^33
While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state
and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon
only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election.
Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make
embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become
fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional
elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional
election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical
elections."^34
The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the
development of the institution of the popularly elected president.
Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of
electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize
presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited
apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and
the House of Representatives.
Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part
of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the
use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on
the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The
generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem.
It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not
so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a
disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as
did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current
during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the
end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that
they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant
percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and
alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues
lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote
as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children
came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the
majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational
buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the
guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file"
alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of
each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the
ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from
balance to majority.
"New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity
The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of
innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind
usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin
Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as
the historical watersheds they are.
In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S.
Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform
activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for
their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian
Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over
a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that
enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way
the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems
of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his
Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind
because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the
moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was
cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic
U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly
the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use
the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came
Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for
all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B.
Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as
it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s.
The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted
approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of
governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of
the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for
another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon
to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational
consolidation.
The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years
between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in
Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of
extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President
Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to
resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial
presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its
power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic
problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led
the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill
the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the
hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states
and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington
before undertaking any activities.
The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an
"outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community
marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth
in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by
many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation,
usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time.
President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's
international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to
shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of
infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the
Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and
localities. These were all to become principal issues during the
period of generational build-up.
The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to
the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the
American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the
tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that
followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By
the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on
behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were
referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues
of the new generation.
Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been
invariably preceded by critical elections through which the
reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to
generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die --
determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either
by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting
them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as
unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to
majority status. These critical elections, which attain their
visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and
interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which
face them.
Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the
party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series
of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the
Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the
1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had
become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the
Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans.
Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the
majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times
and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats
picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in
1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party
coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen
it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The
old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent
severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted
and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the
Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the
programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing
period for the Democratic coalition.
To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in
American politics is not to suggest that events move in any
lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same
as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the
"normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence
we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them
for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too
can be done that gives the theory its power.
Summary
Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of
American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical
understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more
interest to European social philosophers than American social
scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the
question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics,
often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their
theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation
rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to
understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human
social rhythms generally.
Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their
internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries
represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them.
The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation,
constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to
them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical
elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political
history recurring on a generational basis.
Notes
1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by
Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970);
Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational
Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979).
2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the
Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973).
3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5
(Garden City: Doubleday, 1987).
4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday,
1987).
5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a
generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse
11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers,
chapter 32, verse 13.
7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11;
chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte
(London: G. Bell, 1896).
9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive
(London, 1862).
10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani
(Milano: Monanni, 1929).
11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen,
der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4.
(1875), pp. 36-41.
12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on
Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds.,
Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline
(Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in
History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane,
Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp.,
1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1990).
13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method.
14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933).
15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti,
ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and
Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales
(Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in
der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F.
Schoeningh, 1933).
16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der
Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926);
Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and
Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig,
1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris:
Boivin, 1948).
17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the
Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger,
1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4
(1972): 564-78.
18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the
Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956).
19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin,
American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970).
20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and
Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield,
Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970).
21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939).
22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago:
Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the
Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key,
Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961);
Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968);
Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1989).
23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party
System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210.
24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of
Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the
years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of
American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur
Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co.
1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to
conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the
article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using
liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the
generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written
as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something
which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best
reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government
from the Civil War to the New Deal.
25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first
presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American
Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no.
1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns
Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also
Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University
Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992).
26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789.
27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years
old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve
in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President.
28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and
Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman
H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and
the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary
M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney
Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American
Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for
the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris
Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in
America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W.
Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get
Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb
and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda
Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber,
Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership
(Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey,
Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.:
Brooks/Cole, 1989).
29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with
special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in
The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York:
Macmillan, 1961).
30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965):
Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the
Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989).
31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18.
32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections
in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability,"
Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171.
33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate
(Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James
L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and
Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical
Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York:
Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?"
in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party
Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American
Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press
of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed.,
Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and
Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise
Institute, 1983).
34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American
Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party
System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony;
David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization,
Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter,
Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American
Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of
Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985).
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Titre du document / Document title
Rhythms of the secular : The politics of modernizing Arab poetic
forms = Rythmes du séculaire : la politique de modernisation des formes
poétiques arabes
Auteur(s) / Author(s)
FURANI Khaled^ (1) ;
Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s)
^(1) Tel-Aviv University, ISRAEL
Résumé / Abstract
In this article, I ethnographically trace how Arab, mainly Palestinian,
poets have modernized their literary tradition during the last seven
decades. Shortly after the 1948 Israeli occupation of Palestine, the
reign of the classical Arabic ode collapsed, and the modern forms of
free verse and, later, the prose poem became dominant. Aiming to
contribute to the ethnography of modernity, I examine how poets have
adopted and abandoned poetic forms by analyzing their narratives on
rhythm. I explore the political salience of rhythmical transformations
and argue that the secular has been a vital and complex force in the
modern abandonment of metrical discipline. The secular affects how
poets seek to modernize their rhythm, vocabulary, and relation to
public. It also affects, I conclude, the ways in which anthropologists
can and do write about modernity.
Revue / Journal Title
American ethnologist ISSN 0094-0496
Source / Source
2008, vol. 35, n^o2, pp. 290-307 [18 page(s) (article)] (2 p.1/4)
Langue / Language
Anglais
Editeur / Publisher
American Ethnological Society, Washington, DC, ETATS-UNIS (1974)
(Revue)
Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords
Rhythm ; Transformation ; Modernization ; Poet ; Modernity ; Poetry ;
Israel ; Palestine ; Near East ;
Mots-clés français / French Keywords
Forme poétique ; Tradition littéraire ; Arabe palestinien ; Rythme ;
Transformation ; Modernisation ; Poète ; Modernité ; Poésie ; Israël ;
Palestine ; Proche-Orient ;
Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords
poetic form ; modernity and secularism ; Palestine-Israel ;
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Title: The Rhythm of Political Oratory
Author: [14]Varvara Danilina
Email: [15]click here to access email
Degree Awarded: Moscow State University , Department of Foreigh
Languages
Degree Date: 2002
Linguistic Subfield(s): Discourse Analysis
Sociolinguistics
Subject Language(s): [16]English
Director(s): [17]Ludmila Minaeva
___________________________________
Abstract:
My doctoral dissertation was completed after four years of research on
the rhythm of British and American political oratory. I sought to
establish the rhythmic norm for political public speech and to find
out, whether any deviations from this norm (i.e. from an expected
rhythmic model) influence listeners and provoke their verbal reactions
or bursts of applause. To accomplish this task I used a variety of
linguistic and rhetorical methods, and drew upon social psychology and
political science.
There is no single linguistic perspective on speech rhythm. For
instance, such distinguished scholars as D. Crystal and D. Abercrombie
regard it as a purely phonetic phenomenon. At the same time, according
to Moscow University school of thought, to which I belong, speech
rhythm is created by a blend of phonetics, syntax and meaning of an
utterance. As a result of my research, I established rhythmic
regularities for political oratory at five levels.
Firstly, I analyzed pauses that divide the stream of speech into
segments (syntagmas), and classified all the pauses into syntactic,
rhetorical or unintentional (unintentional pauses are caused by
hesitation, deliberation, stammering, interruptions by listeners, etc).
Secondly, I established the relative frequency of short, medium and
long syntagmas between pauses, and thirdly, analyzed the rhythmic
structures constituted by linear sequences of syntagmas. Fourthly, I
studied the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables inside
syntagmas. And finally, I considered all kinds of repetitions, both
rhetorical and unintentional. This method of rhythmic analysis is based
on earlier analytical models designed by my university colleagues. My
own contribution consisted in adapting this method to the study of
public speech, describing the typical rhythm of political oratory, and
challenging some popular assumptions about speech rhythm.
As for the impact of speech rhythm upon listeners, I started by
analyzing audiences in order to understand psychological, social and
political conditions of that process. G. Le Bon, Z. Freud and other
scholars demonstrated conclusively that members of a crowd (and the
audience of a public speech is a crowd) are connected with each other
and with their leader (in our case, a speaker) by strong subconscious
ties. However, the degree of unity or polarization of an audience may
differ. Besides, each audience can be characterized according to
several other criteria that determine listeners' responsiveness and the
nature of their responses: their emotional state, the level of
expertise in a particular subject, the demographic and social
characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, social status, occupation,
education), the existing evaluation of discussed issues, which is
largely determined by listeners' ideologies, and finally, the attitude
to the speaker, which can be positive, negative or indifferent. I have
applied this model of audience analysis to determine peculiarities of
the British parliamentary audience in October 1996, and of the US
Congress in the aftermath of September 11, 2001.
To analyze the reactions of these audiences to the rhythm of Prime
Minister Major and President Bush's parliamentary addresses I used M.
Atkinson's version of the conversation analysis method. I showed the
two speeches as dialogues between the speakers and their listeners, and
singled out phrases and syntagmas that immediately preceded audience
responses, such as cheering, booing, laughter or bursts of applause.
These phrases and syntagmas happened to be quite similar in terms of
rhythm to other stretches of speech in the same addresses. Moreover,
there proved to be little rhythmic difference between John Major and
George Bush's speeches. In short, my research demonstrated that there
is no direct interconnection between the rhythm of a public address and
audience responses.
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Afrobeat
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search
Question book-new.svg
This article does not [8]cite any [9]references or sources.
Please help [10]improve this article by adding citations to
[11]reliable sources. Unsourced material may be [12]challenged and
[13]removed. (September 2008)
Afrobeat is a combination of [14]Yoruba music, [15]jazz, [16]highlife,
and [17]funk [18]rhythms, fused with [19]percussion and [20]vocal
styles, popularized in [21]Africa in the 1970s. Its main creator was
the [22]Nigerian multi-[23]instrumentalist and [24]bandleader [25]Fela
Kuti who used it to revolutionise musical structure as well as the
political context in his native Nigeria. It was Kuti who coined the
term "afrobeat" upon his return from a U.S. tour with his group Nigeria
70 (formerly Koola Lobitos).
The new sound hailed from a club that he established called the
Afro-Shrine. Upon arriving in Nigeria, Kuti also changed the name of
his group to Fela Ransome-Kuti & Africa 70. The band maintained a
five-year residency in the Afro-Shrine from 1970 to 1975 while afrobeat
thrived among Nigerian youth. Afrobeat is now one of the most
recognisable music genres in the world and has influenced as many
Western musicians as it has African ones with its exuberant style and
polyrhythms.
Contents
* [26]1 Origins
* [27]2 Influence
* [28]3 Instrumentation
* [29]4 Today
* [30]5 External links
[[31]edit] Origins
Afrobeat originated from the southern part of [32]Nigeria in the 1960s
where Kuti experimented with many different forms of contemporary music
of the time. Prevalent in him and Lagbaja's music are native African
harmonies and rhythms, taking different elements and combining,
modernizing and improvising upon them. [33]Politics are essential to
afrobeat, since founder Kuti used social criticism to pave the way for
social change. His message can be described as confrontational and
controversial, which can be related to the political climate of most of
the African countries in the 1960s, many of which were dealing with
political injustice and military corruption while recovering from the
transition from colonial governments to self-determination. As the
genre spread throughout the African continent many bands took up the
style. The recordings of these bands and their songs were rarely heard
or exported outside the originating countries but many can now be found
on compilation albums and CDs from specialist record shops.
[[34]edit] Influence
Many jazz musicians have been attracted to afrobeat. From [35]Roy Ayers
in the seventies to [36]Randy Weston in the nineties, there have been
collaborations which have resulted in albums such as Africa: Centre of
the World by Roy Ayers, released on the Polydor label in 1981. In 1994
[37]Branford Marsalis, the American jazz saxophonist, included samples
of Fela's "Beast of No Nation" on his Buckshot leFonque album. The new
generation of DJs and musicians of the 2000s who have fallen in love
with both Kuti's material and other rare releases have made
compilations and remixes of these recordings, thus re-introducing the
genre to new generations of listeners and fans of afropop and groove.
Afrobeat has profoundly influenced important contemporary producers and
musicians like [38]Brian Eno and [39]David Byrne, who credit Fela Kuti
as an essential muse. Both worked on [40]Talking Heads'
highly-acclaimed 1980 album [41]Remain In Light which brought
polyrhythmic afrobeat influences to Western music. More recently, the
horn section of [42]Antibalas have been guest musicians on [43]TV On
The Radio's highly-acclaimed 2008 album [44]Dear Science, as well as on
British band [45]Foals' 2008 album [46]Antidotes.
[[47]edit] Instrumentation
Big band (15 to 30 pieces: Fela-era afrobeat) and energetic
performances
* Lead vocals (may play sax/key solos as well)
* Chorus vocals (may include horn players)
* Rhythm guitar(s) (plays funk strumming pattern)
* Tenor guitar (plays a finger-picked osinato groove)
* [48]Bass guitar
* [49]Drum set, generally in the form [50]polyrhythmic percussion
* Saxophone(s)
* Trumpet(s)
* Trombone(s)
* Organ/keyboards
* Rhythm [51]conga #1
* Rhythm [52]conga #2
* Solo (lead) [53]conga
* [54]Akuba: a set of 3 small stick-hit congas (play
flourishes/solos, and ostinatos). Also mistakenly called "gbedu".
* "Sticks"/[55]claves (plays ostinato)
* [56]Shekere
[[57]edit] Today
There are several active afrobeat bands worldwide today.
Modern afrobeat bands/artistes include:
* [58]Kokolo (band), New York City Afrobeat/Afrofunk group formed by
songwriter/producer Ray Lugo
* [59]Nomo, [60]Ann Arbor based group that weaves various styles into
a primarily Afrobeat sound.
* [61]Chicago Afrobeat Project Chicago based collective that uses
afrobeat as a springboard and has an incendiary live show.
* [62]Afrodizz, an eight-piece band from [63]Montreal, [64]Canada
formed by jazz guitarist Gabriel Aldama
* [65]The Afromotive, an Asheville, NC based multiracial seven-piece
afrobeat band featuring thirty-third generation djembe player Adama
Dembele from Cote d`Ivoire, West Africa.
* [66]Tony Allen, the man who held the drum chair during Fela's
productive "Africa 70" phase, and whose drumming was, according to
[67]James Brown's autobiography, the influence behind his
'discovery' of funk.^[[68]citation needed]
* [69]Antibalas, [70]Brooklyn, New York based multiracial Afrobeat
Orchestra formed by baritone saxophonist Martin Perna
* [71]Aphrodesia, San Francisco based group, first American group to
perform with Femi Kuti at The Shrine in Lagos, Nigeria.
* [72]Ayetoro, a group led by Nigerian pianist/composer [73]Funsho
Ogundipe
* [74]Bebe cool lives in Uganda famous for his reggea mixed with
luganda pop and English making an Afrobeat rhythm in Uganda known
as Luga flow.He also lives in kampala.
* [75]Chopteeth, an international 14 piece outfit based in Washington
D.C., with former members of Busta Rhymes, The Temptations, The
Four Tops, and Gladys Knight & the Pips.
* [76]Femi Kuti (Fela's first son and a saxophonist) and the Positive
Force
* [77]Seun Kuti (another of Kuti's sons, saxophonist now fronting his
father's last and late band)
* [78]Dele Sosimi's Gbedu Resurrection Dele is a former keyboardist
and musical director of Fela's band. He cofounded Femi Kuti's
Positive Force.
* [79]Zozo Afrobeat A thirteen-member group based in NYC, founded by
Kaleta, former Fela guitarist.
* [80]Baba Ken and the Afro-Groove Connexion Oakland based
multiracial afrobeat ensemble led by Nigerian bassist, Baba Ken
Okulolo, founding member of the seminal 1970's afrofunk/afrorock
band, Monomono.
* [81]Jose Chameleone famous in East, central and South Africa.He
stays and live is Uganda in kampala city.He sing pop and Afro beat
music.He is one of the most famous artists of Afro beat in Africa
and the whole world.
* [82]Afrobeat Down Los Angeles based Afrobeat ensemble (est. 2002)
working with former Fela Africa '70 member and catalyst of entire
afrobeat movement, Sandra Izsadore.
* [83]Weird MC Rap artiste who occasionally experinments with
Afrobeat rhythm.
* [84]Vibe Squad A Ghanaian music crew formed by EaZZY Da Opemfour
made of Prego, Culchar, Wizzy Wii and Richie.
* [85]Gnl zamba rap artist in Uganda one of the most successful rap
afrobeat star in East Africa and central Africa.He is known for his
rhythm of 2 pac shakur
* [86]Mr. Something Something Canadian afrobeat group
* [87]Crime Scene Infunkstigation A 10-piece Afrobeat/Funk/Hip Hop
group based out of Calgary, AB
[[88]edit] External links
* [89]KOKOLO on Myspace
* [90]KOKOLO on YouTube
* [91]KOKOLO Official Homepage
* [92]The Afrobeat Blog
* [93]The Unofficial Seun Kuti Fan-Site - Unofficial fan-site for
Seun Kuti & Egypt 80 with news, videos, music, pictures and much
more]
* [94]The Shrine The Unofficial Website for Fela Kuti, Femi Kuti and
Afrobeat Music
* [95]BBC Afrobeat Documentary
[96]v o [97]d o [98]e
Genres of [99]African popular music
Afrobeat · [100]Apala · [101]Benga · [102]Bikutsi · [103]Cape Jazz ·
[104]Chimurenga · [105]Fuji · [106]Highlife · [107]Hiplife ·
[108]Isicathamiya · [109]Jit · [110]Jùjú · [111]Kizomba · [112]Kuduro ·
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[117]Marrabenta · [118]Mbalax · [119]Mbaqanga · [120]Mbube ·
[121]Morna · [122]Palm-wine · [123]Raï · [124]Sakara · [125]Sega ·
[126]Soukous/Congo/Lingala/Rumba · [127]Taarab
[128]v o [129]d o [130]e
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Related
[151]List of funk musicians o [152]Minneapolis sound
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Africa
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* ____________________ Go
12 12/2006 [38]Compose to a Vertical Rhythm
by [39]Richard Rutter
* [40]Article
* [41]29 comments
"Space in typography is like time in music. It is infinitely divisible,
but a few proportional intervals can be much more useful than a
limitless choice of arbitrary quantities." So says the typographer
Robert Bringhurst, and just as regular use of time provides rhythm in
music, so regular use of space provides rhythm in typography, and
without rhythm the listener, or the reader, becomes disorientated and
lost.
On the Web, vertical rhythm - the spacing and arrangement of text as
the reader descends the page - is contributed to by three factors: font
size, line height and margin or padding. All of these factors must
calculated with care in order that the rhythm is maintained.
The basic unit of vertical space is line height. Establishing a
suitable line height that can be applied to all text on the page, be it
heading, body copy or sidenote, is the key to a solid dependable
vertical rhythm, which will engage and guide the reader down the page.
To see this in action, I've created [42]an example with headings,
footnotes and sidenotes.
Establishing a suitable line height
The easiest place to begin determining a basic line height unit is with
the font size of the body copy. For [43]the example I've chosen 12px.
To ensure readability the body text will almost certainly need some
leading, that is to say spacing between the lines. A line-height of
1.5em would give 6px spacing between the lines of body copy. This will
create a total line height of 18px, which becomes our basic unit.
Here's the CSS to get us to this point:
1. body {
2. font-size: 75%;
3. }
4.
5. html>body {
6. font-size: 12px;
7. }
8.
9. p {
10. line-height 1.5em;
11. }
12. Source: [44]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/1.txt
There are many ways to size text in CSS and the above approach provides
and accessible method of achieving the pixel-precision solid typography
requires. By way of explanation, the first font-size reduces the body
text from the 16px default (common to most browsers and OS set-ups)
down to the 12px we require. This rule is primarily there for Internet
Explorer 6 and below on Windows: the percentage value means that the
text will scale predictably should a user bump the text size up or
down. The second font-size sets the text size specifically and is
ignored by IE6, but used by Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other
modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels.
Spacing between paragraphs
With our rhythmic unit set at 18px we need to ensure that it is
maintained throughout the body copy. A common place to lose the rhythm
is the gaps set between margins. The default treatment by web browsers
of paragraphs is to insert a top- and bottom-margin of 1em. In our case
this would give a spacing between the paragraphs of 12px and hence
throw the text out of rhythm. If the rhythm of the page is to be
maintained, the spacing of paragraphs should be related to the basic
line height unit. This is achieved simply by setting top- and
bottom-margins equal to the line height.
In order that typographic integrity is maintained when text is resized
by the user we must use ems for all our vertical measurements,
including line-height, padding and margins.
1. p {
2. font-size:1em;
3. margin-top: 1.5em;
4. margin-bottom: 1.5em;
5. }
6. Source: [45]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/2.txt
Browsers set margins on all block-level elements (such as headings,
lists and blockquotes) so a way of ensuring that typographic attention
is paid to all such elements is to reset the margins at the beginning
of your style sheet. You could use a rule such as:
1. body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl
ockquote,th,td {
2. margin:0;
3. padding:0;
4. }
5. Source: [46]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/3.txt
Alternatively you could look into using the [47]Yahoo! UI Reset style
sheet which removes most default styling, so providing a solid
foundation upon which you can explicitly declare your design
intentions.
Variations in text size
When there is a change in text size, perhaps with a heading or
sidenotes, the differing text should also take up a multiple of the
basic leading. This means that, in our example, every diversion from
the basic text size should take up multiples of 18px. This can be
accomplished by adjusting the line-height and margin accordingly, as
described following.
Headings
Subheadings in the [48]example page are set to 14px. In order that the
height of each line is 18px, the line-height should be set to 18 ÷ 14
= 1.286. Similarly the margins above and below the heading must be
adjusted to fit. The temptation is to set heading margins to a simple
1em, but in order to maintain the rhythm, the top and bottom margins
should be set at 1.286em so that the spacing is equal to the full 18px
unit.
1. h2 {
2. font-size:1.1667em;
3. line-height: 1.286em;
4. margin-top: 1.286em;
5. margin-bottom: 1.286em;
6. }
7. Source: [49]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/4.txt
One can also set asymmetrical margins for headings, provided the
margins combine to be multiples of the basic line height. In our
example, a top margin of 1½ lines is combined with a bottom margin of
half a line as follows:
1. h2 {
2. font-size:1.1667em;
3. line-height: 1.286em;
4. margin-top: 1.929em;
5. margin-bottom: 0.643em;
6. }
7. Source: [50]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/5.txt
Also in our example, the main heading is given a text size of 18px,
therefore the line-height has been set to 1em, as has the margin:
1. h1 {
2. font-size:1.5em;
3. line-height: 1em;
4. margin-top: 0;
5. margin-bottom: 1em;
6. }
7. Source: [51]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/6.txt
Sidenotes
Sidenotes (and other supplementary material) are often set at a smaller
size to the basic text. To keep the rhythm, this smaller text should
still line up with body copy, so a calculation similar to that for
headings is required. In our example, the sidenotes are set at 10px and
so their line-height must be increased to 18 ÷ 10 = 1.8.
1. .sidenote {
2. font-size:0.8333em;
3. line-height:1.8em;
4. }
5. Source: [52]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/7.txt
Borders
One additional point where vertical rhythm is often lost is with the
introduction of horizontal borders. These effectively act as shims
pushing the subsequent text downwards, so a two pixel horizontal border
will throw out the vertical rhythm by two pixels. A way around this is
to specify horizontal lines using background images or, as in our
example, specify the width of the border in ems and adjust the padding
to take up the slack.
The design of the footnote in our example requires a 1px horizontal
border. The footnote contains 12px text, so 1px in ems is 1 ÷ 12
= 0.0833. I have added a margin of 1½ lines above the border
(1.5 × 18 ÷ 12 = 2.5ems), so to maintain the rhythm the border +
padding must equal a ½ (9px). We know the border is set to 1px, so the
padding must be set to 8px. To specify this in ems we use the familiar
calculation: 8 ÷ 12 = 0.667.
Hit me with your rhythm stick
Composing to a vertical rhythm helps engage and guide the reader down
the page, but it takes typographic discipline to do so. It may seem
like a lot of fiddly maths is involved (a few divisions and
multiplications never hurt anyone) but good type setting is all about
numbers, and it is this attention to detail which is the key to
success.
Like what you read?
* [53]Tweet this article
* or
* [54]Leave a comment
Comments
* [55]12/12/2006
Wow this is a good article.
* [57]12/12/2006
[58]Will
thanks so much, this is great.
* [59]12/12/2006
Interesting stuff. Also worth reading Eric Meyer's post on unitless
line-heights:
* [61]12/12/2006
It's worth mentioning that IE6 and below can go a bit extreme when
resizing fonts set as ems.
You can fix this by applying font-size: 100% to html. Don't know
why this works, it just does.
Oh, if you're working in quirks mode you'll also need to apply it
to thead, tbody and tfoot, beacuse the fix doesn't inherit (don't
apply it to table unless you want table to inherit font-sizes). You
don't need thead, tbody or tfoot in your tables as tbody is
implied.
Obviously, you can't then apply your own font-sizes to html or
tbody etc, else you'll overwrite the fix, which is why I chose
those particular elements as they're rarely used for font-sizes.
Jake.
* [63]12/12/2006
[64]Mike Stenhouse donotremove.co.uk
Hmmmmm, interesting! I've not tried this but I think there might be
an easier way to set those heights... What if the line-height is
set to, say, 1.5em on the body and 1 (unit-less - it's valid!) on
each descendant element? Or maybe some variation on that. It might
force the 18px to inherit into the children without awkward
calculations.
* [65]12/12/2006
Great article, Richard! Web typography--like all
typography--deserves this level of detailed thinking, and I hope to
see more designers embracing it.
* [67]12/12/2006
[68]michael h
Good introduction to typography theory, but I am convinced that the
Owen Briggs method is the best approach to sizing.
* [69]13/12/2006
I've been working on something similar recently, and I've
discovered that if you set the line-height in pixels, most browsers
will still scale it proportionally along with the text. As IE6's
numbers fall off, I hope we can leave all this black magic scaling
math behind and go back to setting font sizes in pixels and letting
the browsers handle the scaling.
* [71]13/12/2006
Mike - you're right about being able to simplify the line-height
specifications, but it doesn't require setting unitless
line-heights. In the example I use, I've set the font-size to be
12px on the body and calculated line-heights for all the subsequent
elements. As I required one line height - 18px - for all elements I
can remove the multiple statements and simply set line-height:1.5em
on the body. The calculated line-height of 18px is inherited by all
elements on the page. I've modifed the example to show this
(checked in Firefox, Safari and IE6):
However the maths would still need to be performed to calculate the
correct margins, so while the extra line-height specifications are
not strictly necessary (at least while the same line height for all
text is required) you unfortunately don't save much on the
calculations.
* [73]13/12/2006
Jake - the extreme text sizing in IE can be fixed by applying any
percentage font size to the body - it doesn't have to be 100%
(hence my use of 75% fixed this too).
You're right about the tables though. This rule does the job nicely
to inherit the text size:
table, thead, tbody, tr, th, td {font-size:1em}
* [75]13/12/2006
[76]GreLI
In the article next rule is used to reset margins:
body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl
ockquote,th,td {
margin:0;
padding:0;
}
I think it easier to use universal selector (* { margin: 0;
padding: 0 }) instead.
To fix table font-size inheritance it's enough to set
table { font-size: 1em }
Opera AFAIK don't change font-size if it set in pixels, but it can
zoom pages (so does IE7).
* [77]13/12/2006
GreLI - using the universal selector like that to zero all margins
and padding can cause unpredictable results in some form controls
(e.g. SELECT elements) in certain browsers.
Rich - great article; now all someone needs to do is knock up a
nice little app that spits out the right line-heights and margins
for the elements you tell it... :)
* [79]13/12/2006
It's unfortunate that pretty much no one composes with a scale when
publishing for the web. Your article is a great step forward.
Also overlooked are line lengths. Since the beginning of the web,
It has been a standard practice to expand the line lengths out with
the width of the browser (like your site is currently :), causing
line lengths to expand way too long. If an optimal line length for
print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even
smaller.
* [81]14/12/2006
I don't see it mentioned in the comments yet, but your quote above:
"...Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which
allow users to resize text sized in pixels."
is not correct, as IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in
pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized.
* [83]18/12/2006
If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths
for web should be even smaller.
You're right to mention line length as something that is
overlooked, but on the screen it is not as simple as setting the
measure in ems as their are more factors involved (screen size,
liquid layouts, etc). Also I'd disagree that web line lengths
should be shorter on the web. My personal preference would be for
them to be longer - I find short line lengths on screen extremely
hard work to read. That's just my opinion though.
IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout
can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized.
If you think of the reasons for changing text size then zooming a
layout is just another form of resizing text and achieves the same
goal.
* [85]20/12/2006
Theodore, I think you would enjoy Richard's article entitled
"Choose a comfortable measure" over at webtypography.net :)
1.2/
* [87]22/12/2006
[88]Rachel Maxim
You've said in a few pages what has taken me years to figure out
and refine :) - great info!
* [89]23/12/2006
I really enjoyed this article. I have read your Elements of....for
the web, as well as your blog about sizing text in ems. I have
really been looking in to using this and getting the best `flow'
with my typography. I also ordered the book Elements of Typographic
Style just to give a better understanding.
I think its a common misconception that text on the web will always
look bland, and you have proved that it can have rhythm and style.
* [91]02/01/2007
I've just been using some of these techniques on a client's site
who needed 8 tabs all the same width, which fill the available
space - I had it working fine in Firefox, but the tabs didn't fill
the space in Safari or IE. I found that you really have to do the
maths, rather than just use trial and error - they all round the
numbers slightly differently. Once I'd checked my calculations,
rather than tinkered with the numbers, it works fine everywhere, at
least at standard font size.
One other correction from someone's comment earlier on - you can
resize text in IE7 - click the page icon at top right. Why you need
both this and the ability to zoom, I'm not sure, but it's there at
any rate.
* [93]03/01/2007
[94]Ben G
Can you set the margin above or below headings or paragraphs to
less than your 18px base measurement? Won't margin collapsing cause
whichever the largest margin is to take effect?
Ben
* [95]31/01/2009
[96]Daniel
I've been using this article as the basis for designing my site
with some "vertical rhythm". Everything is going well except with
forms (input, textarea, etc.). I just haven't been able to use css
to maintain the vertical rhythm (based on total line height of
18px).
Any advise or insight as to how to get forms to play nicely?
* [97]15/02/2009
[98]Silver Firefly
I wanted to clarify something about the default browser text size
and using the em unit. The article was a tad misleading when it
covered the default browser text size and the em unit. A lot of
designers have it in their heads that an em is equivalent to 16
pixels. An em is not equivalent to 16 pixels. It is equivalent to
whatever is set in the user's browser, which is commonly 16px but
depending on the user, it can be 20px or 12px or whatever they have
set in their browser's settings. I hope after reading that
statement, designers will start to realise that they have little
control over how their website appears in other users' browsers.
The majority of the control lies in the user's hands. Other than
that, the article was very good.
* [99]17/04/2009
Great article... and AWESOME site design. Inspirational!
* [101]27/04/2009
Typesetting for websites is the future, like all things
content-related. The Google knows it :). Thank you for that useful
post. You webdesigners take care of your text!
* [103]05/06/2009
[104]bonfield
Inline bolding of elements (I'm using Helvetica, e.g.) seems to add
a px of height on any line that uses it, and that subtly throws off
the vertical rhythm for each line and it can add up depending
-- anybody else run into this and solve it?
* [105]18/06/2009
[106]Anonymous
Does this truly keep the vertical rhythm? If you zoom in on the
example, you'll see that the descender of the letter g in the H1
header "New England" crosses your rhythm marker's background line,
while a lowercase g in the following paragraph does not. There
appears to be some fudging going on.
* [107]08/07/2009
I find it humorous that this site itself does not compose to a
vertical rhythm. I've seen very few online that do. It's so
difficult to implement across browsers it is usually brushed aside
except for in the most simple design schemes.
* [109]03/08/2009
[110]eric
I've yet to see any empirical evidence that "vertical rhythm"
applied to this degree has any impact on how well a reader is able
to extract signal from the noise of the page.
Meanwhile, I've seen many, many examples of mis-applied "vertical
rhythms" resulting in squashed headings where the underlning on a
link impinges on the text below. Which just looks clunky.
When you've got something other than an aesthetic opinion from the
margins -- maybe some actual data -- then I'll be interested in
expending the effort needed to support real vertical rhythm. Until
then, I just don't see how it's cost-effective.
* [111]02/09/2009
Now, that was the kind of article I was looking for. That goes a
lot deeper than I've been into the realms of line-spacing, leading
(no kerning here though - can we do kerning with css?).
I love the analogy to musical rhythym > therefore probably
following on to mathematics/geometry/proportion. That is a great
lead-in. Is there any room for the `golden ratio' in web design? Do
graphic designers use it with/without realising it? Just that I
haven't seen it discussed in the myriad pages concerning page
layout/design that I've read so far...
Thanks,
Darren
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About the author
[114]Richard Rutter
Richard Rutter is a user experience consultant and director of
[115]Clearleft. He runs an ongoing project called [116]The Elements of
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[118]More information
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* [119]Real Fonts and Rendering: The New Elephant in the Room
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* [121]Spruce It Up
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* [123]Designing For The Switch
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* [125]Type-Inspired Interfaces
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* [127]A Festive Type Folly
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* [129]Increase Your Font Stacks With Font Matrix
17/12/2007 by [130]Richard Rutter
* [131]Typesetting Tables
07/12/2007 by [132]Mark Boulton
* [133]Knockout Type - Thin Is Always In
17/12/2006 by [134]Shaun Inman
* [135]An Explanation of Ems
02/12/2005 by [136]Richard Rutter
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Références
JCPA LOGO
Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs
[1]Daniel Elazar Papers Index [2][USEMAP:nav-back.gif]
American Political Culture
The Generational Rhythm of American Politics
The American Mosaic, Chapter 2
Daniel J. Elazar
It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States
combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount
of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no
less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space.
Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location
within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less
pinpointed.
This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is
structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of
generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to
the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast
developments with great success. At the same time he has applied
that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that
very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs.
Early Studies of Generational Rhythms
Students of society have noted the succession of generations since
ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology
on generational measures.
The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear
time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning
of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs.
It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the
individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the
starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon
and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon
operating in history.^2
Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational
basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first
recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the
system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third
and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the
Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average
generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full
generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical
scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression,
"forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5
Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The
"generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity
of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a
common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a
time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces
time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new
judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation
and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7
Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have
beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the
founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central
interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of
its beginnings and its ancestry.
Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were
the first to articulate systematic theories of generational
progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte
viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the
thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in
shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the
unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the
aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social
cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that
"History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of
Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle
phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences
appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals
comes to dominate society.^9
These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical
verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years
of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop
the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed
the principle that generations are articulated through historical
events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained.
Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a
fourfold classification of generations as preparatory,
revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10
Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11
Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that
generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific
study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and
heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation
century.^13
After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the
succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of
social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between
contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who
are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his
student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked
on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and
Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm
Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri
Peyre (1948).^16
More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused
on problems of intergenerational differences and the political
socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes
or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund
Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study
of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their
study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963)
focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966)
studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957)
utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in
Israel and the United States, respectively.^20
All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a
comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of
their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and
those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving
many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the
studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two
parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the
people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact,
both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined
that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The
linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive
theory.
None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a
generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black
box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods.
Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of
three generations.
Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining
way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an
empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is
somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin.
Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature,
art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of
eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular
basis.
Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to
embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under
the heading of "a generation".
Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History
A number of theories of political cycles in American history have
been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of
American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational
thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a
series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based
on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective
governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect
"concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of
property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the
wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid
movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories
include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter
Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical
theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the
"more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments"
using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process.
Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the
interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United
States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical
periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23
Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the
manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work.
Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in
presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the
House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual
party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in
American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of
an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American
history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in
length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes
that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device
since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable
directions.
Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his
emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by
using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of
voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state
vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates
five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s)
and the present.
Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the
level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five
periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of
stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of
approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing
already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an
established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in
turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis
to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment
occurs in every generation.
While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with
American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he
begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three
of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive
happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning
point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that
Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a
generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts
as follows:
1787-1801-1816
1816-1829-1841
1841-1861-1869
1869-1901-1918
1918-1931-?
The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the
beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them
primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles
rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have
been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational
patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the
following pattern:
1790-1796/1800
1800-1824/1828
1828-1824/1860
1860-1888/1896
1896-1932
His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to
that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their
significance in the periodization process.
Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although
even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if
it is schematized as follows:
1789-1820
1828
1856-1860
1893/1894
1932
Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized
as follows:
1896-1912
1912-1920-1932-1952
1952
Pomper also offers election dates and no more:
1836
1864-1876
1876-1892/1896
1928/1932-1952
1952-1964
None of these are complete theories and all must be considered
within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit.
Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough
approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the
commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United
States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The
revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of
generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson
Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods
of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named:
e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era.
In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers
developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the
federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could
not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however,
the American people were treated to a display of federal activity --
and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by
FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the
mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth
of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the
mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper
understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United
States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow
of time and events.)
The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its
own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human
time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible
pattern in the progression of political events in the United States
over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not
happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events
in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in
cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the
biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human
life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is
substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though
the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this
phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26
The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind
another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit
decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every
government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on
the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on
the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of
attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be
supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that
being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons
who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive
generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a
fixed moment, as individuals do now....
What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the
same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a
constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A
generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case,
would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to
contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for
14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily
deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of
their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at
that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated
from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of
climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors.
Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that
23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a
society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the
ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as
follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all
ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half
will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every
year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly
have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half
of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time
will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest
integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the
representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself
assembled, can validly extend a debt.
On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a
perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every
constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of
34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not
of right.
The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that
would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to
his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French
Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the
sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making
on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every
nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme,
Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one
which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one
way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure
of location in time.
Human Social Rhythms
As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural
measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a
common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the
"lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does
appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account
for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely
and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation
in any particular civil society and chart the relations among
generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical
patterns of its politics.
During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years,
averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people
will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then
pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every
individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in
which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited.
Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she
begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime
between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at
which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life"
ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and
political roles as are given to mature men and women in society.
Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a
person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention,
if not physically, considered ready for retirement.
Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an
individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first
fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially
powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote,
and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After
attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period
of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be
translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among
those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s
before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on
the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become
serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are
able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the
scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be
defined as the ending of one's serious political career without
suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's
30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential
influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise
influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political
leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds
forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship.
The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle
of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young
people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters
actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people
in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then
declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to
"retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28
In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each
individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society
is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a
common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any
particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its
history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical
record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and
the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at
the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In
the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed
leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in
power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age
and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a
result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly
established.
Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults
settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and
in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational
progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and
purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began
more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed
from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the
door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to
begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of
the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their
patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby
allowing a new generation to assume the reins.
Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they
establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in
social and political life than that found in the simple processes of
human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were
equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the
biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by
locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace
the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of
organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings
are recorded in history, we can do just that.
Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the
progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins
of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is
shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the
impact of the change and encourages new political action to
assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new
generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at
the most four generations are alive at any given time creates
certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of
grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of
inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact
help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In
this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is
socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and
politically unmanageable.
Generations, Centuries and Events
Since the founding of the first European settlements along the
Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations
of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series
of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the
twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three
generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain
distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense
recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th
century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of
American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in
which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century
stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th
century is the century of the United States as a world power.
Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as
chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European
history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have
begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing
point, thus:
a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603)
and the 17th century began with the opening of the American
frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between
the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of
the times.
b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty
of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which
eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the
Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration
for both countries.
c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the
War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era
of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff).
d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the
inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak
of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land
frontier.
Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments
that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show
every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then
dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are
immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the
nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged
during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation
under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a
century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn,
the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments
having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic
society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated
American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments
disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently
in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments
that will replace them.
The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth
generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the
past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators
have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just
when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of
generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was
ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal
intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of
the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of
alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the
generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life
so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began
after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided
over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the
renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence.
The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be
delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression
will be related to major forces and factors shaping American
history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the
principal challenges facing the American people in each generation
and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing
forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of
critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization
in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial,
ethnic and religious groups.
One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate.
Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with
such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for
analytical purposes than life ever is.
The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the
period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old
World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany,
but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually
every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original
thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native
Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies,
and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate
nation with its own civilization.
The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century,
which, from the first American recognition of common continental
interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for
Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent
American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism,
successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and
established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The
idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the
political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans.
The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations,
beginning at the point where America turned its back on European
entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced
them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an
industrialized continental nation with a strong national government;
abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world
power ready for overseas involvements.
The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century --
reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the
arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with
the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding
over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the
results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the
industrial revolution.
As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with
the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the
United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished
relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first
generation of the transformation of society as a result of the
application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new
frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse
of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically
dominant although economically weakened. The results of these
phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder
of the generation.
Generations and Frontier Stages
The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are
products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In
American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if
not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and
centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American
frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other
historical and political phenomena.
Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has
been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of
human control over the natural environment and the utilization of
the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control,
i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American
society is a product of this commitment which is virtually
self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one
frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier
situation that has created the major social and economic changes
which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's
political institutions.
America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages
to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the
metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic
frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled
with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been
decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American
life within that stage.
The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the
historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted
from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the
end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on
the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American
continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the
products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the
westward movement on a basically rural population interested in
settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a
socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits
in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was
dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an
active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and
still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in
Alaska.
Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth
the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and
spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation
into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the
spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's
economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented
the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States,
where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater
part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it
first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the
beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands
of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally
superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth
generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the
end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various
localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant
characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities
from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into
independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and
social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their
existence and growth.
By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth,
in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is
characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society
through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that
encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large
metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from
atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the
accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further
changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with
their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered
a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like
the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological
frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on
a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation.
After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly
and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and
pace of development across the country.
The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by
the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to
be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The
late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash
from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism
challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s,
ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution,
and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth
premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of
resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were
saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over.
By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was
emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the
metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers,
satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new
data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large
belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated
by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not
connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and
small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single
metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different
purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern
coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found
in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its
early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges,
initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its
renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of
financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American
economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of
Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West.
Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues
of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new
frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement
patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its
own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns
and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands
themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between
the points of generational division and the shifts in the various
frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater
detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as
part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are
closely related to the opening of new centuries.
Generations and Economic Periods
One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a
continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to
meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a
result, the governments of the United States have always maintained
a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in
the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to
era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the
governmental response. These changes have also developed on a
generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the
founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic
policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth
generation of American history) the American government continued a
semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the
nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government
involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during
which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in
which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the
outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful
competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a
generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially
unregulated by government.
Demands for government regulation that built up during the last
generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of
intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first
generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the
eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active
government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system.
Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around
toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less
government intervention.
Centuries, Generations and Federalism
The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can
also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first
generation of American history brought the introduction of federal
principles through the contracts and covenants that established the
colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through
Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the
seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a
local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of
national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose
strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly,
concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in
the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and
crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and
then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century.
The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has
been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society.
Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal
with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques
have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These
new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed
have been major elements in the concrete response to the
generation's challenges.
Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship
The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and
their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the
challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of
American history and politics. The changes in those relationships
also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries.
British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious
pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through
giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular
territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as
indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In
the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized
in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian
differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery.
Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism
was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones
existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste
system was in the making.
During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and
sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the
original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the
virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation.
Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new
lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was
abolished in the North.
The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial
establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was
almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant
immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new
post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through
the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration
reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to
reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was
reaffirmed through the institution of segregation.
From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open
pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The
barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants
began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those
barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by
the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape
up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the
twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but
those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of
American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say,
to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American
culture.
While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been
presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the
generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted
descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some
cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary
period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational
responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New
Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political
dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the
Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era.
The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses
Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular
challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its
own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and
the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In
some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could
act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In
others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the challenges changes from century to century.
During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the
tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various
colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related
to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence
of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially
related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American
national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been
essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society
and the assumption of an American role in world affairs.
The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the
initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which,
objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively
recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing
recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors
such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in
voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with
mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to
public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters
does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet
existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular
progression of political events revolving around the development of
a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its
response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and
responses that gives each generation its particular character. While
the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external --
or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is
primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation
themselves.
In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has
taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each
colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its
sisters, and the other science independence when a common national
constitution created a common national politics. In some cases,
particularly after independence when the nation could act
decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other,
particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the political challenges that have dominated the
American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a
new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating
the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the
19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope,
wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the
20th century, they have essentially related to the
metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an
American role in world affairs.
In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within
each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and
new generations is marked by several decisive political actions,
often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature
is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old
generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and
opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a
time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues
they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political
action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population
change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political
activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur
the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the
direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders
to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the
generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many
quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of
governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to
the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five
years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with
digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so
that they will achieve greater success and at the same time
integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The
end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify
and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the
issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for
political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be
recognized.
The Bench Marks of American Political History:
Critical Elections and New Deals
In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a
particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a
system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can
also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political
history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune
with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds;
first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a
particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of
intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government
initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each
generation.
The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections
A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the
sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period
of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The
generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this
pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which
brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs
of voters, shifting them from one political party to another.
Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a
"critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of
electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound
readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the
community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are
formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result
of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide
electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency
from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one
major element to another.
Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that
there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the
allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively
long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public
opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the
1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with
a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In
consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats
have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters
identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority
party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order
to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and
representatives to win control of Congress.
The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968,
only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled
the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a
military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the
"normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his
party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in
1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after
twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the
Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the
Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems,
won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular
Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a
Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his
victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition
and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a
period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White
House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the
Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the
GOP controlled the Senate.
A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a
nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent
and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on
a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical
loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations,
personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of
the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are
nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders
(or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate
state parties which form the two national confederations known as
the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties
are confederations of the state parties, so is the national
coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional
coalitions.
Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and
thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the
electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to
remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead
to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution,
too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems
attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the
dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary
inroads in the various electoral groups.
Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces
opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in
public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in
the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party
that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means
certain that the majority party will even win all the national
elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and
usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a
limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its
losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The
states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as
bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend
its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority
coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for
national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards
for the party faithful during the years of national "famine."
As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent
electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their
changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with
each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find
the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass
and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in
importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed
and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the
realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment
of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a
reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad
electoral groups.^33
While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state
and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon
only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election.
Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make
embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become
fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional
elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional
election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical
elections."^34
The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the
development of the institution of the popularly elected president.
Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of
electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize
presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited
apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and
the House of Representatives.
Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part
of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the
use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on
the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The
generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem.
It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not
so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a
disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as
did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current
during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the
end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that
they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant
percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and
alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues
lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote
as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children
came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the
majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational
buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the
guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file"
alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of
each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the
ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from
balance to majority.
"New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity
The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of
innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind
usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin
Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as
the historical watersheds they are.
In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S.
Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform
activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for
their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian
Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over
a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that
enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way
the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems
of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his
Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind
because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the
moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was
cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic
U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly
the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use
the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came
Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for
all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B.
Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as
it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s.
The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted
approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of
governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of
the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for
another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon
to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational
consolidation.
The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years
between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in
Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of
extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President
Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to
resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial
presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its
power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic
problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led
the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill
the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the
hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states
and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington
before undertaking any activities.
The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an
"outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community
marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth
in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by
many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation,
usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time.
President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's
international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to
shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of
infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the
Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and
localities. These were all to become principal issues during the
period of generational build-up.
The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to
the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the
American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the
tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that
followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By
the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on
behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were
referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues
of the new generation.
Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been
invariably preceded by critical elections through which the
reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to
generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die --
determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either
by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting
them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as
unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to
majority status. These critical elections, which attain their
visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and
interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which
face them.
Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the
party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series
of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the
Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the
1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had
become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the
Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans.
Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the
majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times
and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats
picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in
1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party
coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen
it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The
old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent
severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted
and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the
Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the
programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing
period for the Democratic coalition.
To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in
American politics is not to suggest that events move in any
lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same
as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the
"normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence
we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them
for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too
can be done that gives the theory its power.
Summary
Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of
American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical
understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more
interest to European social philosophers than American social
scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the
question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics,
often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their
theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation
rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to
understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human
social rhythms generally.
Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their
internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries
represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them.
The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation,
constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to
them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical
elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political
history recurring on a generational basis.
Notes
1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by
Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970);
Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational
Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979).
2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the
Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973).
3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5
(Garden City: Doubleday, 1987).
4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday,
1987).
5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a
generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse
11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers,
chapter 32, verse 13.
7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11;
chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte
(London: G. Bell, 1896).
9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive
(London, 1862).
10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani
(Milano: Monanni, 1929).
11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen,
der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4.
(1875), pp. 36-41.
12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on
Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds.,
Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline
(Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in
History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane,
Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp.,
1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1990).
13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method.
14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933).
15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti,
ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and
Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales
(Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in
der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F.
Schoeningh, 1933).
16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der
Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926);
Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and
Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig,
1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris:
Boivin, 1948).
17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the
Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger,
1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4
(1972): 564-78.
18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the
Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956).
19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin,
American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970).
20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and
Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield,
Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970).
21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939).
22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago:
Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the
Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key,
Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961);
Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968);
Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1989).
23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party
System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210.
24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of
Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the
years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of
American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur
Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co.
1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to
conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the
article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using
liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the
generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written
as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something
which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best
reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government
from the Civil War to the New Deal.
25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first
presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American
Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no.
1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns
Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also
Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University
Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992).
26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789.
27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years
old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve
in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President.
28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and
Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman
H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and
the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary
M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney
Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American
Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for
the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris
Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in
America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W.
Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get
Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb
and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda
Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber,
Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership
(Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey,
Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.:
Brooks/Cole, 1989).
29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with
special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in
The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York:
Macmillan, 1961).
30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965):
Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the
Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989).
31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18.
32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections
in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability,"
Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171.
33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate
(Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James
L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and
Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical
Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York:
Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?"
in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party
Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American
Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press
of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed.,
Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and
Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise
Institute, 1983).
34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American
Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party
System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony;
David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization,
Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter,
Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American
Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of
Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985).
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Titre du document / Document title
Rhythms of the secular : The politics of modernizing Arab poetic
forms = Rythmes du séculaire : la politique de modernisation des formes
poétiques arabes
Auteur(s) / Author(s)
FURANI Khaled^ (1) ;
Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s)
^(1) Tel-Aviv University, ISRAEL
Résumé / Abstract
In this article, I ethnographically trace how Arab, mainly Palestinian,
poets have modernized their literary tradition during the last seven
decades. Shortly after the 1948 Israeli occupation of Palestine, the
reign of the classical Arabic ode collapsed, and the modern forms of
free verse and, later, the prose poem became dominant. Aiming to
contribute to the ethnography of modernity, I examine how poets have
adopted and abandoned poetic forms by analyzing their narratives on
rhythm. I explore the political salience of rhythmical transformations
and argue that the secular has been a vital and complex force in the
modern abandonment of metrical discipline. The secular affects how
poets seek to modernize their rhythm, vocabulary, and relation to
public. It also affects, I conclude, the ways in which anthropologists
can and do write about modernity.
Revue / Journal Title
American ethnologist ISSN 0094-0496
Source / Source
2008, vol. 35, n^o2, pp. 290-307 [18 page(s) (article)] (2 p.1/4)
Langue / Language
Anglais
Editeur / Publisher
American Ethnological Society, Washington, DC, ETATS-UNIS (1974)
(Revue)
Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords
Rhythm ; Transformation ; Modernization ; Poet ; Modernity ; Poetry ;
Israel ; Palestine ; Near East ;
Mots-clés français / French Keywords
Forme poétique ; Tradition littéraire ; Arabe palestinien ; Rythme ;
Transformation ; Modernisation ; Poète ; Modernité ; Poésie ; Israël ;
Palestine ; Proche-Orient ;
Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords
poetic form ; modernity and secularism ; Palestine-Israel ;
Localisation / Location
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Title: The Rhythm of Political Oratory
Author: [14]Varvara Danilina
Email: [15]click here to access email
Degree Awarded: Moscow State University , Department of Foreigh
Languages
Degree Date: 2002
Linguistic Subfield(s): Discourse Analysis
Sociolinguistics
Subject Language(s): [16]English
Director(s): [17]Ludmila Minaeva
___________________________________
Abstract:
My doctoral dissertation was completed after four years of research on
the rhythm of British and American political oratory. I sought to
establish the rhythmic norm for political public speech and to find
out, whether any deviations from this norm (i.e. from an expected
rhythmic model) influence listeners and provoke their verbal reactions
or bursts of applause. To accomplish this task I used a variety of
linguistic and rhetorical methods, and drew upon social psychology and
political science.
There is no single linguistic perspective on speech rhythm. For
instance, such distinguished scholars as D. Crystal and D. Abercrombie
regard it as a purely phonetic phenomenon. At the same time, according
to Moscow University school of thought, to which I belong, speech
rhythm is created by a blend of phonetics, syntax and meaning of an
utterance. As a result of my research, I established rhythmic
regularities for political oratory at five levels.
Firstly, I analyzed pauses that divide the stream of speech into
segments (syntagmas), and classified all the pauses into syntactic,
rhetorical or unintentional (unintentional pauses are caused by
hesitation, deliberation, stammering, interruptions by listeners, etc).
Secondly, I established the relative frequency of short, medium and
long syntagmas between pauses, and thirdly, analyzed the rhythmic
structures constituted by linear sequences of syntagmas. Fourthly, I
studied the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables inside
syntagmas. And finally, I considered all kinds of repetitions, both
rhetorical and unintentional. This method of rhythmic analysis is based
on earlier analytical models designed by my university colleagues. My
own contribution consisted in adapting this method to the study of
public speech, describing the typical rhythm of political oratory, and
challenging some popular assumptions about speech rhythm.
As for the impact of speech rhythm upon listeners, I started by
analyzing audiences in order to understand psychological, social and
political conditions of that process. G. Le Bon, Z. Freud and other
scholars demonstrated conclusively that members of a crowd (and the
audience of a public speech is a crowd) are connected with each other
and with their leader (in our case, a speaker) by strong subconscious
ties. However, the degree of unity or polarization of an audience may
differ. Besides, each audience can be characterized according to
several other criteria that determine listeners' responsiveness and the
nature of their responses: their emotional state, the level of
expertise in a particular subject, the demographic and social
characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, social status, occupation,
education), the existing evaluation of discussed issues, which is
largely determined by listeners' ideologies, and finally, the attitude
to the speaker, which can be positive, negative or indifferent. I have
applied this model of audience analysis to determine peculiarities of
the British parliamentary audience in October 1996, and of the US
Congress in the aftermath of September 11, 2001.
To analyze the reactions of these audiences to the rhythm of Prime
Minister Major and President Bush's parliamentary addresses I used M.
Atkinson's version of the conversation analysis method. I showed the
two speeches as dialogues between the speakers and their listeners, and
singled out phrases and syntagmas that immediately preceded audience
responses, such as cheering, booing, laughter or bursts of applause.
These phrases and syntagmas happened to be quite similar in terms of
rhythm to other stretches of speech in the same addresses. Moreover,
there proved to be little rhythmic difference between John Major and
George Bush's speeches. In short, my research demonstrated that there
is no direct interconnection between the rhythm of a public address and
audience responses.
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Afrobeat
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article does not [8]cite any [9]references or sources.
Please help [10]improve this article by adding citations to
[11]reliable sources. Unsourced material may be [12]challenged and
[13]removed. (September 2008)
Afrobeat is a combination of [14]Yoruba music, [15]jazz, [16]highlife,
and [17]funk [18]rhythms, fused with [19]percussion and [20]vocal
styles, popularized in [21]Africa in the 1970s. Its main creator was
the [22]Nigerian multi-[23]instrumentalist and [24]bandleader [25]Fela
Kuti who used it to revolutionise musical structure as well as the
political context in his native Nigeria. It was Kuti who coined the
term "afrobeat" upon his return from a U.S. tour with his group Nigeria
70 (formerly Koola Lobitos).
The new sound hailed from a club that he established called the
Afro-Shrine. Upon arriving in Nigeria, Kuti also changed the name of
his group to Fela Ransome-Kuti & Africa 70. The band maintained a
five-year residency in the Afro-Shrine from 1970 to 1975 while afrobeat
thrived among Nigerian youth. Afrobeat is now one of the most
recognisable music genres in the world and has influenced as many
Western musicians as it has African ones with its exuberant style and
polyrhythms.
Contents
* [26]1 Origins
* [27]2 Influence
* [28]3 Instrumentation
* [29]4 Today
* [30]5 External links
[[31]edit] Origins
Afrobeat originated from the southern part of [32]Nigeria in the 1960s
where Kuti experimented with many different forms of contemporary music
of the time. Prevalent in him and Lagbaja's music are native African
harmonies and rhythms, taking different elements and combining,
modernizing and improvising upon them. [33]Politics are essential to
afrobeat, since founder Kuti used social criticism to pave the way for
social change. His message can be described as confrontational and
controversial, which can be related to the political climate of most of
the African countries in the 1960s, many of which were dealing with
political injustice and military corruption while recovering from the
transition from colonial governments to self-determination. As the
genre spread throughout the African continent many bands took up the
style. The recordings of these bands and their songs were rarely heard
or exported outside the originating countries but many can now be found
on compilation albums and CDs from specialist record shops.
[[34]edit] Influence
Many jazz musicians have been attracted to afrobeat. From [35]Roy Ayers
in the seventies to [36]Randy Weston in the nineties, there have been
collaborations which have resulted in albums such as Africa: Centre of
the World by Roy Ayers, released on the Polydor label in 1981. In 1994
[37]Branford Marsalis, the American jazz saxophonist, included samples
of Fela's "Beast of No Nation" on his Buckshot leFonque album. The new
generation of DJs and musicians of the 2000s who have fallen in love
with both Kuti's material and other rare releases have made
compilations and remixes of these recordings, thus re-introducing the
genre to new generations of listeners and fans of afropop and groove.
Afrobeat has profoundly influenced important contemporary producers and
musicians like [38]Brian Eno and [39]David Byrne, who credit Fela Kuti
as an essential muse. Both worked on [40]Talking Heads'
highly-acclaimed 1980 album [41]Remain In Light which brought
polyrhythmic afrobeat influences to Western music. More recently, the
horn section of [42]Antibalas have been guest musicians on [43]TV On
The Radio's highly-acclaimed 2008 album [44]Dear Science, as well as on
British band [45]Foals' 2008 album [46]Antidotes.
[[47]edit] Instrumentation
Big band (15 to 30 pieces: Fela-era afrobeat) and energetic
performances
* Lead vocals (may play sax/key solos as well)
* Chorus vocals (may include horn players)
* Rhythm guitar(s) (plays funk strumming pattern)
* Tenor guitar (plays a finger-picked osinato groove)
* [48]Bass guitar
* [49]Drum set, generally in the form [50]polyrhythmic percussion
* Saxophone(s)
* Trumpet(s)
* Trombone(s)
* Organ/keyboards
* Rhythm [51]conga #1
* Rhythm [52]conga #2
* Solo (lead) [53]conga
* [54]Akuba: a set of 3 small stick-hit congas (play
flourishes/solos, and ostinatos). Also mistakenly called "gbedu".
* "Sticks"/[55]claves (plays ostinato)
* [56]Shekere
[[57]edit] Today
There are several active afrobeat bands worldwide today.
Modern afrobeat bands/artistes include:
* [58]Kokolo (band), New York City Afrobeat/Afrofunk group formed by
songwriter/producer Ray Lugo
* [59]Nomo, [60]Ann Arbor based group that weaves various styles into
a primarily Afrobeat sound.
* [61]Chicago Afrobeat Project Chicago based collective that uses
afrobeat as a springboard and has an incendiary live show.
* [62]Afrodizz, an eight-piece band from [63]Montreal, [64]Canada
formed by jazz guitarist Gabriel Aldama
* [65]The Afromotive, an Asheville, NC based multiracial seven-piece
afrobeat band featuring thirty-third generation djembe player Adama
Dembele from Cote d`Ivoire, West Africa.
* [66]Tony Allen, the man who held the drum chair during Fela's
productive "Africa 70" phase, and whose drumming was, according to
[67]James Brown's autobiography, the influence behind his
'discovery' of funk.^[[68]citation needed]
* [69]Antibalas, [70]Brooklyn, New York based multiracial Afrobeat
Orchestra formed by baritone saxophonist Martin Perna
* [71]Aphrodesia, San Francisco based group, first American group to
perform with Femi Kuti at The Shrine in Lagos, Nigeria.
* [72]Ayetoro, a group led by Nigerian pianist/composer [73]Funsho
Ogundipe
* [74]Bebe cool lives in Uganda famous for his reggea mixed with
luganda pop and English making an Afrobeat rhythm in Uganda known
as Luga flow.He also lives in kampala.
* [75]Chopteeth, an international 14 piece outfit based in Washington
D.C., with former members of Busta Rhymes, The Temptations, The
Four Tops, and Gladys Knight & the Pips.
* [76]Femi Kuti (Fela's first son and a saxophonist) and the Positive
Force
* [77]Seun Kuti (another of Kuti's sons, saxophonist now fronting his
father's last and late band)
* [78]Dele Sosimi's Gbedu Resurrection Dele is a former keyboardist
and musical director of Fela's band. He cofounded Femi Kuti's
Positive Force.
* [79]Zozo Afrobeat A thirteen-member group based in NYC, founded by
Kaleta, former Fela guitarist.
* [80]Baba Ken and the Afro-Groove Connexion Oakland based
multiracial afrobeat ensemble led by Nigerian bassist, Baba Ken
Okulolo, founding member of the seminal 1970's afrofunk/afrorock
band, Monomono.
* [81]Jose Chameleone famous in East, central and South Africa.He
stays and live is Uganda in kampala city.He sing pop and Afro beat
music.He is one of the most famous artists of Afro beat in Africa
and the whole world.
* [82]Afrobeat Down Los Angeles based Afrobeat ensemble (est. 2002)
working with former Fela Africa '70 member and catalyst of entire
afrobeat movement, Sandra Izsadore.
* [83]Weird MC Rap artiste who occasionally experinments with
Afrobeat rhythm.
* [84]Vibe Squad A Ghanaian music crew formed by EaZZY Da Opemfour
made of Prego, Culchar, Wizzy Wii and Richie.
* [85]Gnl zamba rap artist in Uganda one of the most successful rap
afrobeat star in East Africa and central Africa.He is known for his
rhythm of 2 pac shakur
* [86]Mr. Something Something Canadian afrobeat group
* [87]Crime Scene Infunkstigation A 10-piece Afrobeat/Funk/Hip Hop
group based out of Calgary, AB
[[88]edit] External links
* [89]KOKOLO on Myspace
* [90]KOKOLO on YouTube
* [91]KOKOLO Official Homepage
* [92]The Afrobeat Blog
* [93]The Unofficial Seun Kuti Fan-Site - Unofficial fan-site for
Seun Kuti & Egypt 80 with news, videos, music, pictures and much
more]
* [94]The Shrine The Unofficial Website for Fela Kuti, Femi Kuti and
Afrobeat Music
* [95]BBC Afrobeat Documentary
[96]v o [97]d o [98]e
Genres of [99]African popular music
Afrobeat · [100]Apala · [101]Benga · [102]Bikutsi · [103]Cape Jazz ·
[104]Chimurenga · [105]Fuji · [106]Highlife · [107]Hiplife ·
[108]Isicathamiya · [109]Jit · [110]Jùjú · [111]Kizomba · [112]Kuduro ·
[113]Kwaito · [114]Kwela · [115]Makossa · [116]Maloya ·
[117]Marrabenta · [118]Mbalax · [119]Mbaqanga · [120]Mbube ·
[121]Morna · [122]Palm-wine · [123]Raï · [124]Sakara · [125]Sega ·
[126]Soukous/Congo/Lingala/Rumba · [127]Taarab
[128]v o [129]d o [130]e
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[132]Acid jazz o Afrobeat o [133]Brit funk o [134]Funk metal o
[135]Deep Funk o [136]Drumfunk o [137]Free funk o [138]Funkcore o
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[147]P-Funk o [148]Post-disco o [149]Punk-funk o [150]Skweee
Related
[151]List of funk musicians o [152]Minneapolis sound
[154]Categories: [155]Funk genres | [156]African American music in
Africa
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12 12/2006 [38]Compose to a Vertical Rhythm
by [39]Richard Rutter
* [40]Article
* [41]29 comments
"Space in typography is like time in music. It is infinitely divisible,
but a few proportional intervals can be much more useful than a
limitless choice of arbitrary quantities." So says the typographer
Robert Bringhurst, and just as regular use of time provides rhythm in
music, so regular use of space provides rhythm in typography, and
without rhythm the listener, or the reader, becomes disorientated and
lost.
On the Web, vertical rhythm - the spacing and arrangement of text as
the reader descends the page - is contributed to by three factors: font
size, line height and margin or padding. All of these factors must
calculated with care in order that the rhythm is maintained.
The basic unit of vertical space is line height. Establishing a
suitable line height that can be applied to all text on the page, be it
heading, body copy or sidenote, is the key to a solid dependable
vertical rhythm, which will engage and guide the reader down the page.
To see this in action, I've created [42]an example with headings,
footnotes and sidenotes.
Establishing a suitable line height
The easiest place to begin determining a basic line height unit is with
the font size of the body copy. For [43]the example I've chosen 12px.
To ensure readability the body text will almost certainly need some
leading, that is to say spacing between the lines. A line-height of
1.5em would give 6px spacing between the lines of body copy. This will
create a total line height of 18px, which becomes our basic unit.
Here's the CSS to get us to this point:
1. body {
2. font-size: 75%;
3. }
4.
5. html>body {
6. font-size: 12px;
7. }
8.
9. p {
10. line-height 1.5em;
11. }
12. Source: [44]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/1.txt
There are many ways to size text in CSS and the above approach provides
and accessible method of achieving the pixel-precision solid typography
requires. By way of explanation, the first font-size reduces the body
text from the 16px default (common to most browsers and OS set-ups)
down to the 12px we require. This rule is primarily there for Internet
Explorer 6 and below on Windows: the percentage value means that the
text will scale predictably should a user bump the text size up or
down. The second font-size sets the text size specifically and is
ignored by IE6, but used by Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other
modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels.
Spacing between paragraphs
With our rhythmic unit set at 18px we need to ensure that it is
maintained throughout the body copy. A common place to lose the rhythm
is the gaps set between margins. The default treatment by web browsers
of paragraphs is to insert a top- and bottom-margin of 1em. In our case
this would give a spacing between the paragraphs of 12px and hence
throw the text out of rhythm. If the rhythm of the page is to be
maintained, the spacing of paragraphs should be related to the basic
line height unit. This is achieved simply by setting top- and
bottom-margins equal to the line height.
In order that typographic integrity is maintained when text is resized
by the user we must use ems for all our vertical measurements,
including line-height, padding and margins.
1. p {
2. font-size:1em;
3. margin-top: 1.5em;
4. margin-bottom: 1.5em;
5. }
6. Source: [45]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/2.txt
Browsers set margins on all block-level elements (such as headings,
lists and blockquotes) so a way of ensuring that typographic attention
is paid to all such elements is to reset the margins at the beginning
of your style sheet. You could use a rule such as:
1. body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl
ockquote,th,td {
2. margin:0;
3. padding:0;
4. }
5. Source: [46]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/3.txt
Alternatively you could look into using the [47]Yahoo! UI Reset style
sheet which removes most default styling, so providing a solid
foundation upon which you can explicitly declare your design
intentions.
Variations in text size
When there is a change in text size, perhaps with a heading or
sidenotes, the differing text should also take up a multiple of the
basic leading. This means that, in our example, every diversion from
the basic text size should take up multiples of 18px. This can be
accomplished by adjusting the line-height and margin accordingly, as
described following.
Headings
Subheadings in the [48]example page are set to 14px. In order that the
height of each line is 18px, the line-height should be set to 18 ÷ 14
= 1.286. Similarly the margins above and below the heading must be
adjusted to fit. The temptation is to set heading margins to a simple
1em, but in order to maintain the rhythm, the top and bottom margins
should be set at 1.286em so that the spacing is equal to the full 18px
unit.
1. h2 {
2. font-size:1.1667em;
3. line-height: 1.286em;
4. margin-top: 1.286em;
5. margin-bottom: 1.286em;
6. }
7. Source: [49]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/4.txt
One can also set asymmetrical margins for headings, provided the
margins combine to be multiples of the basic line height. In our
example, a top margin of 1½ lines is combined with a bottom margin of
half a line as follows:
1. h2 {
2. font-size:1.1667em;
3. line-height: 1.286em;
4. margin-top: 1.929em;
5. margin-bottom: 0.643em;
6. }
7. Source: [50]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/5.txt
Also in our example, the main heading is given a text size of 18px,
therefore the line-height has been set to 1em, as has the margin:
1. h1 {
2. font-size:1.5em;
3. line-height: 1em;
4. margin-top: 0;
5. margin-bottom: 1em;
6. }
7. Source: [51]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/6.txt
Sidenotes
Sidenotes (and other supplementary material) are often set at a smaller
size to the basic text. To keep the rhythm, this smaller text should
still line up with body copy, so a calculation similar to that for
headings is required. In our example, the sidenotes are set at 10px and
so their line-height must be increased to 18 ÷ 10 = 1.8.
1. .sidenote {
2. font-size:0.8333em;
3. line-height:1.8em;
4. }
5. Source: [52]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/7.txt
Borders
One additional point where vertical rhythm is often lost is with the
introduction of horizontal borders. These effectively act as shims
pushing the subsequent text downwards, so a two pixel horizontal border
will throw out the vertical rhythm by two pixels. A way around this is
to specify horizontal lines using background images or, as in our
example, specify the width of the border in ems and adjust the padding
to take up the slack.
The design of the footnote in our example requires a 1px horizontal
border. The footnote contains 12px text, so 1px in ems is 1 ÷ 12
= 0.0833. I have added a margin of 1½ lines above the border
(1.5 × 18 ÷ 12 = 2.5ems), so to maintain the rhythm the border +
padding must equal a ½ (9px). We know the border is set to 1px, so the
padding must be set to 8px. To specify this in ems we use the familiar
calculation: 8 ÷ 12 = 0.667.
Hit me with your rhythm stick
Composing to a vertical rhythm helps engage and guide the reader down
the page, but it takes typographic discipline to do so. It may seem
like a lot of fiddly maths is involved (a few divisions and
multiplications never hurt anyone) but good type setting is all about
numbers, and it is this attention to detail which is the key to
success.
Like what you read?
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* or
* [54]Leave a comment
Comments
* [55]12/12/2006
Wow this is a good article.
* [57]12/12/2006
[58]Will
thanks so much, this is great.
* [59]12/12/2006
Interesting stuff. Also worth reading Eric Meyer's post on unitless
line-heights:
* [61]12/12/2006
It's worth mentioning that IE6 and below can go a bit extreme when
resizing fonts set as ems.
You can fix this by applying font-size: 100% to html. Don't know
why this works, it just does.
Oh, if you're working in quirks mode you'll also need to apply it
to thead, tbody and tfoot, beacuse the fix doesn't inherit (don't
apply it to table unless you want table to inherit font-sizes). You
don't need thead, tbody or tfoot in your tables as tbody is
implied.
Obviously, you can't then apply your own font-sizes to html or
tbody etc, else you'll overwrite the fix, which is why I chose
those particular elements as they're rarely used for font-sizes.
Jake.
* [63]12/12/2006
[64]Mike Stenhouse donotremove.co.uk
Hmmmmm, interesting! I've not tried this but I think there might be
an easier way to set those heights... What if the line-height is
set to, say, 1.5em on the body and 1 (unit-less - it's valid!) on
each descendant element? Or maybe some variation on that. It might
force the 18px to inherit into the children without awkward
calculations.
* [65]12/12/2006
Great article, Richard! Web typography--like all
typography--deserves this level of detailed thinking, and I hope to
see more designers embracing it.
* [67]12/12/2006
[68]michael h
Good introduction to typography theory, but I am convinced that the
Owen Briggs method is the best approach to sizing.
* [69]13/12/2006
I've been working on something similar recently, and I've
discovered that if you set the line-height in pixels, most browsers
will still scale it proportionally along with the text. As IE6's
numbers fall off, I hope we can leave all this black magic scaling
math behind and go back to setting font sizes in pixels and letting
the browsers handle the scaling.
* [71]13/12/2006
Mike - you're right about being able to simplify the line-height
specifications, but it doesn't require setting unitless
line-heights. In the example I use, I've set the font-size to be
12px on the body and calculated line-heights for all the subsequent
elements. As I required one line height - 18px - for all elements I
can remove the multiple statements and simply set line-height:1.5em
on the body. The calculated line-height of 18px is inherited by all
elements on the page. I've modifed the example to show this
(checked in Firefox, Safari and IE6):
However the maths would still need to be performed to calculate the
correct margins, so while the extra line-height specifications are
not strictly necessary (at least while the same line height for all
text is required) you unfortunately don't save much on the
calculations.
* [73]13/12/2006
Jake - the extreme text sizing in IE can be fixed by applying any
percentage font size to the body - it doesn't have to be 100%
(hence my use of 75% fixed this too).
You're right about the tables though. This rule does the job nicely
to inherit the text size:
table, thead, tbody, tr, th, td {font-size:1em}
* [75]13/12/2006
[76]GreLI
In the article next rule is used to reset margins:
body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl
ockquote,th,td {
margin:0;
padding:0;
}
I think it easier to use universal selector (* { margin: 0;
padding: 0 }) instead.
To fix table font-size inheritance it's enough to set
table { font-size: 1em }
Opera AFAIK don't change font-size if it set in pixels, but it can
zoom pages (so does IE7).
* [77]13/12/2006
GreLI - using the universal selector like that to zero all margins
and padding can cause unpredictable results in some form controls
(e.g. SELECT elements) in certain browsers.
Rich - great article; now all someone needs to do is knock up a
nice little app that spits out the right line-heights and margins
for the elements you tell it... :)
* [79]13/12/2006
It's unfortunate that pretty much no one composes with a scale when
publishing for the web. Your article is a great step forward.
Also overlooked are line lengths. Since the beginning of the web,
It has been a standard practice to expand the line lengths out with
the width of the browser (like your site is currently :), causing
line lengths to expand way too long. If an optimal line length for
print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even
smaller.
* [81]14/12/2006
I don't see it mentioned in the comments yet, but your quote above:
"...Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which
allow users to resize text sized in pixels."
is not correct, as IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in
pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized.
* [83]18/12/2006
If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths
for web should be even smaller.
You're right to mention line length as something that is
overlooked, but on the screen it is not as simple as setting the
measure in ems as their are more factors involved (screen size,
liquid layouts, etc). Also I'd disagree that web line lengths
should be shorter on the web. My personal preference would be for
them to be longer - I find short line lengths on screen extremely
hard work to read. That's just my opinion though.
IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout
can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized.
If you think of the reasons for changing text size then zooming a
layout is just another form of resizing text and achieves the same
goal.
* [85]20/12/2006
Theodore, I think you would enjoy Richard's article entitled
"Choose a comfortable measure" over at webtypography.net :)
1.2/
* [87]22/12/2006
[88]Rachel Maxim
You've said in a few pages what has taken me years to figure out
and refine :) - great info!
* [89]23/12/2006
I really enjoyed this article. I have read your Elements of....for
the web, as well as your blog about sizing text in ems. I have
really been looking in to using this and getting the best `flow'
with my typography. I also ordered the book Elements of Typographic
Style just to give a better understanding.
I think its a common misconception that text on the web will always
look bland, and you have proved that it can have rhythm and style.
* [91]02/01/2007
I've just been using some of these techniques on a client's site
who needed 8 tabs all the same width, which fill the available
space - I had it working fine in Firefox, but the tabs didn't fill
the space in Safari or IE. I found that you really have to do the
maths, rather than just use trial and error - they all round the
numbers slightly differently. Once I'd checked my calculations,
rather than tinkered with the numbers, it works fine everywhere, at
least at standard font size.
One other correction from someone's comment earlier on - you can
resize text in IE7 - click the page icon at top right. Why you need
both this and the ability to zoom, I'm not sure, but it's there at
any rate.
* [93]03/01/2007
[94]Ben G
Can you set the margin above or below headings or paragraphs to
less than your 18px base measurement? Won't margin collapsing cause
whichever the largest margin is to take effect?
Ben
* [95]31/01/2009
[96]Daniel
I've been using this article as the basis for designing my site
with some "vertical rhythm". Everything is going well except with
forms (input, textarea, etc.). I just haven't been able to use css
to maintain the vertical rhythm (based on total line height of
18px).
Any advise or insight as to how to get forms to play nicely?
* [97]15/02/2009
[98]Silver Firefly
I wanted to clarify something about the default browser text size
and using the em unit. The article was a tad misleading when it
covered the default browser text size and the em unit. A lot of
designers have it in their heads that an em is equivalent to 16
pixels. An em is not equivalent to 16 pixels. It is equivalent to
whatever is set in the user's browser, which is commonly 16px but
depending on the user, it can be 20px or 12px or whatever they have
set in their browser's settings. I hope after reading that
statement, designers will start to realise that they have little
control over how their website appears in other users' browsers.
The majority of the control lies in the user's hands. Other than
that, the article was very good.
* [99]17/04/2009
Great article... and AWESOME site design. Inspirational!
* [101]27/04/2009
Typesetting for websites is the future, like all things
content-related. The Google knows it :). Thank you for that useful
post. You webdesigners take care of your text!
* [103]05/06/2009
[104]bonfield
Inline bolding of elements (I'm using Helvetica, e.g.) seems to add
a px of height on any line that uses it, and that subtly throws off
the vertical rhythm for each line and it can add up depending
-- anybody else run into this and solve it?
* [105]18/06/2009
[106]Anonymous
Does this truly keep the vertical rhythm? If you zoom in on the
example, you'll see that the descender of the letter g in the H1
header "New England" crosses your rhythm marker's background line,
while a lowercase g in the following paragraph does not. There
appears to be some fudging going on.
* [107]08/07/2009
I find it humorous that this site itself does not compose to a
vertical rhythm. I've seen very few online that do. It's so
difficult to implement across browsers it is usually brushed aside
except for in the most simple design schemes.
* [109]03/08/2009
[110]eric
I've yet to see any empirical evidence that "vertical rhythm"
applied to this degree has any impact on how well a reader is able
to extract signal from the noise of the page.
Meanwhile, I've seen many, many examples of mis-applied "vertical
rhythms" resulting in squashed headings where the underlning on a
link impinges on the text below. Which just looks clunky.
When you've got something other than an aesthetic opinion from the
margins -- maybe some actual data -- then I'll be interested in
expending the effort needed to support real vertical rhythm. Until
then, I just don't see how it's cost-effective.
* [111]02/09/2009
Now, that was the kind of article I was looking for. That goes a
lot deeper than I've been into the realms of line-spacing, leading
(no kerning here though - can we do kerning with css?).
I love the analogy to musical rhythym > therefore probably
following on to mathematics/geometry/proportion. That is a great
lead-in. Is there any room for the `golden ratio' in web design? Do
graphic designers use it with/without realising it? Just that I
haven't seen it discussed in the myriad pages concerning page
layout/design that I've read so far...
Thanks,
Darren
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[114]Richard Rutter
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[115]Clearleft. He runs an ongoing project called [116]The Elements of
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good web typography. Richard occasionally blogs at [117]Clagnut, where
he writes about design, accessibility and web standards issues, as well
as his passion for music and mountain biking.
[118]More information
Related articles
* [119]Real Fonts and Rendering: The New Elephant in the Room
22/12/2009 by [120]Jeffrey Zeldman
* [121]Spruce It Up
19/12/2009 by [122]Jonathan Snook
* [123]Designing For The Switch
16/12/2009 by [124]Mark Boulton
* [125]Type-Inspired Interfaces
07/12/2009 by [126]Dan Mall
* [127]A Festive Type Folly
17/12/2008 by [128]Jon Tan
* [129]Increase Your Font Stacks With Font Matrix
17/12/2007 by [130]Richard Rutter
* [131]Typesetting Tables
07/12/2007 by [132]Mark Boulton
* [133]Knockout Type - Thin Is Always In
17/12/2006 by [134]Shaun Inman
* [135]An Explanation of Ems
02/12/2005 by [136]Richard Rutter
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[1]Home > [2]Articles > [3]Design > [4]Typography
[5]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm
[6]Jason Cranford Teague
* By [7]Jason Cranford Teague
* Dec 23, 2009
[8]Toggle Open Article Table of Contents [9]Article Contents
[10]Close Table of Contents [11]Article Contents
1. [12]Web Measurements
2. [13]Type Size & Line Height
3. [14]Type Space
4. Text Alignment
[15]Close Table of Contents
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[28]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm
Dec 23, 2009
[29]Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers: Creating Meaning through
Syntax
Jul 23, 2009
[30]Designing Webbed Environments: The Importance of the Define and
Design Phases
May 12, 2006
[31]Creating Web Pages for Screen, Print, and Email
Apr 28, 2006
[32]How to Style Forms in CSS
Mar 17, 2006
[33]What Are CSS Sprites?
Mar 3, 2006
[34]Ten Things You Can Do with CSS (That You Might Not Have Known You
Could Do)
Dec 22, 2005
[35]Fluid Web Typography [36]Fluid Web Typography
Nov 24, 2009
[37]Fluid Web Typography, Adobe Reader [38]Fluid Web Typography, Adobe
Reader
Nov 24, 2009
[39]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers
[40]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers
Jun 30, 2009
[41]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers, Adobe
Reader [42]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web
Designers, Adobe Reader
Jun 30, 2009
[43]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, 4th
Edition [44]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual
QuickStart Guide, 4th Edition
Oct 17, 2006
[45]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide,
Adobe Reader, 4th Edition [46]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth
Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, Adobe Reader, 4th Edition
Oct 17, 2006
[47]DHTML and CSS Advanced: Visual QuickPro Guide [48]DHTML and CSS
Advanced: Visual QuickPro Guide
Dec 15, 2004
[49]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 3rd
Edition [50]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual
QuickStart Guide, 3rd Edition
Feb 20, 2004
[51]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 2nd
Edition [52]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual
QuickStart Guide, 2nd Edition
May 30, 2001
[53]10 Last-minute Gifts for Web Designers
By on December 17, 2009 1 Comment
Q: What do I get for the Web designer who has everything?
The short answer is real estate.
The slightly longer answer is, anything that helps spark their
creativity.
The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah,
Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [54]Saturnalia
myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift
giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has
everything they need to actually make Web sites?
Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect.
[55]Choosing the Right Color Value
By on December 14, 2009 No Comments
Q: Should I use Hex or RGB values to define colors in CSS?
The short answer is RGB.
The slightly longer answer is that Hex values have become the de
facto standard for use in CSS code and both developers and
designers are used to them.
The long answer is that, in the final design on the screen,
there is no difference between using Hex or RGB values in your
code. Which system you use is really a matter of you own
personal preference (and those of the team you are working with)
as to whether or not you use Hex or RGB values to define colors.
[56]Expand Your Font Repertoire
By on November 30, 2009 No Comments
Q: Are there alternatives to Arial, Times, and Georgia for Web
designers?
The short answer is YES!
The slightly longer answer is that most designers use Arial,
Times, or Georgia, and, to a lesser degree, Verdana, Trebuchet
MS, Courier, and Comic Sans because they think that's all they
have at their disposal, but they are wrong.
The long answer is that the core Web fonts (the one listed above
plus Impact and Web Dings) are used because they are almost
guaranteed to be installed on the vast majority of computers
your designs are likely to be installed on. One fact of life in
Web design is that unless the end user's computer has access to
the font file, then the browser cannot use it.
[57]Pixels or Ems in Your Web Designs
By on November 18, 2009 No Comments
Q: What is the practical difference between px (pixel) and em
(pronounced m)? When is it best to use one over the other?
The short answer is that pixels measure dimensions relative to
the screen while ems measure dimensions relative to type size.
The slightly longer answer is that pixels are the natural unit
for measuring dimensions on a screen and are often used when
precise design is required. Ems are the natural unit for
measuring type and used when you want to allow maximum design
flexibility.
[58]To CSS Reset or Not to CSS Reset
By on November 10, 2009 No Comments
Question: Which Global Reset for CSS Should I Use?
The short answer is the simplest one possible.
The slightly longer answer is that you should reset some styles,
but do so with a good reason.
The long answer is that the exact CSS reset you choose will
depend on the needs of your design. I like to keep my own reset
simple, relying on adding styles to specific tags as needed.
However, there are several styles that are inconsistent or (in
my opinion) poorly set in most browsers.
[59]HTML 5 NOW!
By on August 25, 20092 Comments
Q: Can I start using HTML 5 now?
The short answer is, yes.
The slightly longer answer is, you can use some of the new
features, but you will need to do a little [60]kludging to get
it to work.
The long answer is that HTML is a mark-up language meant to
indicate the structure of a document. HTML 5 is the next
evolutionary step in mark-up languages for the Web, but it is
not implemented on most browsers that your audiences are likely
to be using and it may be some time before it is. That said,
there are some things you can do now to prepare for the future.
[61]Big Things Ahead for HTML 5
By on August 17, 2009 No Comments
Q: Will HTML5 or XHTML5 be the next big thing or just another
collection of past standards and browser war fodder?
The short answer is that, yes, [62]HTML 5 is the next big thing.
The slightly longer answer is that it's going to be a while
before you have to start worrying about HTML 5.
The long answer is that, as with all standards, before it
becomes relevant, the browser makers have to implement it and
then you'll have to wait even longer before legacy browsers are
no longer an issue. So, you have some time before you have to
run out and buy a new HTML 5 Visual QuickStart Guide. The good
news is that HTML 5 has gone to great lengths to stay backwards
compatible, so you can begin to learn and implement it today.
[63]Everyone is a Web Designer
By on August 10, 2009 No Comments
Q: What is a Web Designer anymore? It was easier to make Web
sites all by yourself, even 5 years ago, but now there is just
too much technology for one person to handle. If I want to make
a Web site for a very small business, don't have I to be web
"developer" now?
The short answer is that everybody is a Web designer now.
The slightly longer answer is that Web designers are
practitioners of a highly specialized discipline that requires
years of study to truly master.
The long answer is that a good Web designer is a good designer,
and this can come "naturally" or from training, but is not
medium-dependent. However, a professional Web designer has to
understand the medium well enough to know its strengths and
limitations. Any designer can pump out something that looks
brilliant when displayed in a Web browser window, but is slow to
load, static when loaded, and completely unusable.
[64]Frames are Dead, Long Live Iframes!
By on July 24, 2009 No Comments
Q: Is there a suitable alternative to frames? My wife is
president of a local woman's club. She and I administer the
club's web site, and the ladies like the list of links down one
side of the pages. But I read that frames have been deprecated.
Regardless, I want to keep the site simple.
The short answer is yes-- use iframes.
The slightly longer answer is no, not exactly, but we can get
close.
The long answer is there are a variety of ways to add content to
your Web pages, but the question is: once it's on the page what
are you going to do with it (or to it)?
[65]Q: If I ask ten different web designers what pixel dimensions to
use for web pages and whether to make them fixed-width or
"stretchy," I get ten different answers. What's your answer, and
why?
By on July 20, 2009 No Comments
The short answer is fixed at 974 pixels (px) wide.
The slightly longer answer is whatever it takes to get the job
done.
The long answer is that asking a Web designer what size a Web
page should be is like asking a painter what size a canvas
should be or an architect how large a a building should be.
While it's not purely a matter of taste--there are certain
physical and ergonomic constraints--personal preference accounts
for the wide variety of answers you might hear.
[66]Ask me, ask me, ask me
By on July 1, 2009 No Comments
Do you have a question about Web standards, CSS, JavaScript,
Ajax, interaction design, user experience, or Web typography?
Maybe you just want to know "How'd they do that?" Ask me
questions, and each week I will select a question to answer via
my Peachpit.com blog.
[67]Ask the Web Designer: Why Can't I Use Any Font I Want in My Web
Designs?
By on June 30, 2009 No Comments
The short answer is that you can.
The slightly longer answer is that you can't, at least not in
any meaningful way yet.
The long answer is that the ability to download fonts has
actually been a part of the CSS standard (the language used to
create Web designs) for over 10 years. The snag comes with what
font formats a given browser supports.
[NOTE: You may want to stop reading now, as the rest of this
explanation might make your eyes bleed in frustration.]
[68]Fluid Web Typography
This chapter is from the book
[69]Fluid Web Typography
Jason Cranford Teague shows how giving careful consideration to the
measurements and scale you are designing for is what separates good Web
typography from great Web typography.
Text Alignment
Text alignment is generally taken for granted on the Web--left
alignment suits most purposes most of the time. In order to create a
sense of rhythm and movement on your page, helping to guide the
reader's eye around and adding visual interest to the page, a little
alignment variation can go a long way.
Set body text alignment to minimize gaps and maximize scanning
Text alignment in Web pages is, by default, to the left, with ragged
edges on the right. Justified text--sometimes called newspaper columns,
where both edges of the text are aligned--is rare on the Web.
text-align: left;
text-align: justify;
In print, justified text is created using a variety of techniques
including word spacing, letterspacing, hyphenation, and glyph
reshaping. In addition, well-formed justification is calculated on a
paragraph level to prevent "rivers" of white space flowing down the
middle. On the Web, unfortunately, justification is simply created by
adding small amounts of space between words. On the screen, where you
can only add whole pixels, this often results in uncomfortably large
amounts of space between some words, especially in narrower columns.
Hyphenation is inexplicably absent from CSS. While it is proposed for
inclusion in CSS 3, no work has currently been done on it.
When choosing to use left or justified alignment, keep in mind these
factors:
* Justified text is often seen as more formal and structured, while
left alignment is more informal and approachable.
* Justified text reinforces the grid structure of a page but can be
harder to scan, since it often creates rivers of white space
throughout the text, which interrupts the eye path.
* Left-aligned text adds an element of white space to the right edge,
softening the overall appearance of the page.
Combining Alignments
[70]craigmod.com
Craig Mod combines right-and left-justified columns of text to create
motion and rhythm around his page.
[71]04-17.jpg
[72]Click to view larger image
Center or right-justify text for effect and variety
More rarely used, centering or right-justifying text can create a
specific feeling on the page.
text-align: center;
text-align: right;
Centering and right aligning text is integrally dependent on the design
you are creating and how you want your readers to scan the page. While
using a variety of justifications helps create rhythm and motion on
your page, it can quickly seem cluttered or obnoxious. Always have a
specific purpose for the variance of alignment, and use it sparingly.
Here are a few ideas:
* Bulleted or numbered lists should not be centered or right aligned,
as this makes them harder to scan by moving the beginning of each
line around.
* Center section or module titles/headers if you want to make your
site look a little different. Generally, section titles are best
when left aligned, but centering them gives your designs a unique
feel and may also improve scannability.
* Right-align text in the left column of a page or table if it helps
show a closer relationship between the elements in adjacent
columns.
Centered Section Titles
[73]jontangerine.com
Jon Tangerine combines centered subheadings with justified text in his
blog (detail shown) to create solid structure with visual movement.
[74]04-18.jpg
[75]Click to view larger image
Increase margins for longer quotations and style the citation
Short quotes of less than three lines are included in a paragraph
surround by quotation marks, requiring no other special formatting. In
HTML, the blockquote tag is used to set off a block of text as a
quotation, generally of two lines of text or longer. The quotation
should be styled to distinguish it from other text by indenting its
left and right margins and increasing the top and bottom margins. The
amount of left/right indentation is based on the width of the column
and then adjusted so that it does not conflict with any other indents.
A good measure to offset blockquotes is to double the font size (2em),
although more or less space may be required for wider or narrower
columns:
blockquote { margin: 2em; }
note.jpg In this chapter, we are only considering spacing issues with
blockquotes and citations. Chapters 5 and 6 offer other ways to style
text, including weights, italics, backgrounds, and borders. These can
be deployed to creatively display longer quotations.
This will clearly space the blockquote away from the rest of the text,
but it's also up to the copywriter to make it clear that the text is a
quote and to supply its source, possibly using the cite tag, which
indicates a citation. Turning the cite tag into a block-level element
and right-aligning it when it is included in a blockquote creates a
strong style.
blockquote cite {
display: block;
text-align: right; }
Blockquote Ideas
[76]css-tricks.com/examples/Blockquotes
CSS-Tricks has a page of blockquote ideas with sample code.
The code above will force any text marked by the citation tag to a new
line and right-align it.
[77]04-20.jpg
[78]Click to view larger image
Set footnotes and scientific or mathematical annotations using positioning
rather than vertical alignment
Vertical text alignment allows you to adjust the position of inline
text in relation to its natural baseline, shifting it up or down. For
footnotes, mathematics, and scientific notation, it will not be enough
to simply raise or lower the characters; you will also need to reduce
their size relative to the surrounding text. These styles can be
applied to the superscript and subscript tags, setting the vertical
position to the baseline and then setting a position relative to that:
sup, sub { font-size: .5em;
vertical-align: baseline;
position: relative; }
sup { top: -.65em; }
sup.math { top: -.8em }
sub { top: .2em; }
Although vertical-align provides several values to set the vertical
position of the text, these have proved to be unreliable in
multi-column layouts. The exact values will vary depending on the font,
and you may also need to add some left/right margins to add breathing
room.
[79]04-21.jpg
[80]Click to view larger image
Type Inspirations: Jon Tangerine
Beautiful typographic contrast.
Insightful typography editorials.
[81]jontangerine.com
Jon is a designer living in Bristol, UK, with some of the cleanest pure
Web typography I've seen. On top of this, his information and opinions
on Web typography are required reading for anyone interested in the
ongoing issues we face.
[82]04-22.jpg
[83]Click to view larger image
How he does it:
Jon uses a font stack of Web safe fonts, including Cochin, Baskerville,
and Palatino Linotype, down to Georgia. He then combines a wide variety
of sizes, styles, weights, and colors all scaled and spaced within a
strong grid to provide clear eye paths and legible text.
[84]04-25.jpg
[85]Click to view larger image
[86]04-26.jpg
[87]Click to view larger image
[88]04-27.jpg
[89]Click to view larger image
[90]04-28.jpg
[91]Click to view larger image
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[119]Jason Teague [120]10 Last-minute Gifts for Web Designers
By [121]Jason Cranford Teague on December 17, 2009 1 Comment
Q: What do I get for the Web designer who has everything?
The short answer is real estate.
The slightly longer answer is, anything that helps spark their
creativity.
The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah,
Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [122]Saturnalia
myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift
giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has
everything they need to actually make Web sites?
Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect.
[123]Kara Murphy [124]Just in time for the holidays: Our video-a-day
giveaway
By [125]Kara Murphy on December 16, 2009 No Comments
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[1]Daniel Elazar Papers Index [2][USEMAP:nav-back.gif]
American Political Culture
The Generational Rhythm of American Politics
The American Mosaic, Chapter 2
Daniel J. Elazar
It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States
combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount
of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no
less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space.
Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location
within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less
pinpointed.
This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is
structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of
generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to
the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast
developments with great success. At the same time he has applied
that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that
very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs.
Early Studies of Generational Rhythms
Students of society have noted the succession of generations since
ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology
on generational measures.
The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear
time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning
of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs.
It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the
individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the
starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon
and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon
operating in history.^2
Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational
basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first
recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the
system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third
and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the
Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average
generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full
generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical
scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression,
"forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5
Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The
"generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity
of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a
common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a
time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces
time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new
judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation
and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7
Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have
beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the
founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central
interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of
its beginnings and its ancestry.
Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were
the first to articulate systematic theories of generational
progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte
viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the
thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in
shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the
unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the
aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social
cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that
"History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of
Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle
phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences
appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals
comes to dominate society.^9
These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical
verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years
of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop
the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed
the principle that generations are articulated through historical
events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained.
Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a
fourfold classification of generations as preparatory,
revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10
Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11
Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that
generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific
study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and
heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation
century.^13
After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the
succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of
social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between
contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who
are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his
student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked
on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and
Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm
Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri
Peyre (1948).^16
More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused
on problems of intergenerational differences and the political
socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes
or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund
Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study
of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their
study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963)
focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966)
studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957)
utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in
Israel and the United States, respectively.^20
All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a
comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of
their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and
those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving
many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the
studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two
parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the
people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact,
both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined
that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The
linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive
theory.
None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a
generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black
box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods.
Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of
three generations.
Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining
way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an
empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is
somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin.
Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature,
art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of
eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular
basis.
Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to
embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under
the heading of "a generation".
Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History
A number of theories of political cycles in American history have
been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of
American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational
thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a
series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based
on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective
governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect
"concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of
property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the
wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid
movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories
include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter
Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical
theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the
"more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments"
using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process.
Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the
interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United
States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical
periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23
Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the
manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work.
Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in
presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the
House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual
party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in
American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of
an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American
history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in
length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes
that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device
since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable
directions.
Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his
emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by
using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of
voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state
vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates
five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s)
and the present.
Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the
level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five
periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of
stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of
approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing
already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an
established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in
turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis
to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment
occurs in every generation.
While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with
American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he
begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three
of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive
happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning
point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that
Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a
generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts
as follows:
1787-1801-1816
1816-1829-1841
1841-1861-1869
1869-1901-1918
1918-1931-?
The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the
beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them
primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles
rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have
been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational
patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the
following pattern:
1790-1796/1800
1800-1824/1828
1828-1824/1860
1860-1888/1896
1896-1932
His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to
that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their
significance in the periodization process.
Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although
even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if
it is schematized as follows:
1789-1820
1828
1856-1860
1893/1894
1932
Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized
as follows:
1896-1912
1912-1920-1932-1952
1952
Pomper also offers election dates and no more:
1836
1864-1876
1876-1892/1896
1928/1932-1952
1952-1964
None of these are complete theories and all must be considered
within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit.
Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough
approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the
commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United
States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The
revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of
generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson
Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods
of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named:
e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era.
In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers
developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the
federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could
not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however,
the American people were treated to a display of federal activity --
and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by
FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the
mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth
of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the
mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper
understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United
States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow
of time and events.)
The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its
own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human
time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible
pattern in the progression of political events in the United States
over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not
happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events
in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in
cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the
biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human
life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is
substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though
the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this
phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26
The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind
another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit
decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every
government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on
the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on
the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of
attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be
supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that
being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons
who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive
generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a
fixed moment, as individuals do now....
What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the
same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a
constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A
generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case,
would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to
contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for
14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily
deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of
their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at
that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated
from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of
climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors.
Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that
23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a
society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the
ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as
follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all
ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half
will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every
year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly
have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half
of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time
will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest
integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the
representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself
assembled, can validly extend a debt.
On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a
perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every
constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of
34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not
of right.
The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that
would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to
his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French
Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the
sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making
on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every
nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme,
Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one
which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one
way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure
of location in time.
Human Social Rhythms
As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural
measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a
common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the
"lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does
appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account
for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely
and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation
in any particular civil society and chart the relations among
generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical
patterns of its politics.
During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years,
averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people
will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then
pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every
individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in
which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited.
Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she
begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime
between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at
which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life"
ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and
political roles as are given to mature men and women in society.
Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a
person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention,
if not physically, considered ready for retirement.
Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an
individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first
fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially
powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote,
and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After
attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period
of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be
translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among
those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s
before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on
the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become
serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are
able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the
scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be
defined as the ending of one's serious political career without
suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's
30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential
influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise
influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political
leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds
forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship.
The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle
of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young
people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters
actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people
in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then
declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to
"retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28
In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each
individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society
is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a
common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any
particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its
history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical
record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and
the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at
the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In
the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed
leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in
power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age
and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a
result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly
established.
Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults
settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and
in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational
progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and
purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began
more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed
from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the
door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to
begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of
the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their
patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby
allowing a new generation to assume the reins.
Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they
establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in
social and political life than that found in the simple processes of
human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were
equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the
biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by
locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace
the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of
organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings
are recorded in history, we can do just that.
Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the
progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins
of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is
shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the
impact of the change and encourages new political action to
assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new
generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at
the most four generations are alive at any given time creates
certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of
grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of
inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact
help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In
this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is
socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and
politically unmanageable.
Generations, Centuries and Events
Since the founding of the first European settlements along the
Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations
of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series
of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the
twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three
generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain
distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense
recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th
century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of
American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in
which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century
stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th
century is the century of the United States as a world power.
Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as
chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European
history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have
begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing
point, thus:
a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603)
and the 17th century began with the opening of the American
frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between
the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of
the times.
b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty
of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which
eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the
Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration
for both countries.
c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the
War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era
of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff).
d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the
inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak
of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land
frontier.
Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments
that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show
every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then
dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are
immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the
nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged
during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation
under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a
century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn,
the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments
having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic
society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated
American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments
disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently
in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments
that will replace them.
The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth
generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the
past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators
have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just
when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of
generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was
ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal
intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of
the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of
alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the
generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life
so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began
after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided
over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the
renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence.
The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be
delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression
will be related to major forces and factors shaping American
history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the
principal challenges facing the American people in each generation
and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing
forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of
critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization
in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial,
ethnic and religious groups.
One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate.
Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with
such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for
analytical purposes than life ever is.
The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the
period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old
World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany,
but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually
every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original
thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native
Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies,
and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate
nation with its own civilization.
The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century,
which, from the first American recognition of common continental
interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for
Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent
American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism,
successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and
established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The
idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the
political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans.
The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations,
beginning at the point where America turned its back on European
entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced
them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an
industrialized continental nation with a strong national government;
abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world
power ready for overseas involvements.
The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century --
reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the
arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with
the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding
over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the
results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the
industrial revolution.
As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with
the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the
United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished
relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first
generation of the transformation of society as a result of the
application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new
frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse
of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically
dominant although economically weakened. The results of these
phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder
of the generation.
Generations and Frontier Stages
The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are
products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In
American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if
not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and
centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American
frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other
historical and political phenomena.
Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has
been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of
human control over the natural environment and the utilization of
the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control,
i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American
society is a product of this commitment which is virtually
self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one
frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier
situation that has created the major social and economic changes
which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's
political institutions.
America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages
to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the
metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic
frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled
with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been
decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American
life within that stage.
The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the
historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted
from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the
end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on
the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American
continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the
products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the
westward movement on a basically rural population interested in
settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a
socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits
in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was
dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an
active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and
still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in
Alaska.
Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth
the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and
spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation
into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the
spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's
economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented
the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States,
where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater
part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it
first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the
beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands
of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally
superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth
generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the
end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various
localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant
characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities
from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into
independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and
social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their
existence and growth.
By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth,
in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is
characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society
through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that
encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large
metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from
atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the
accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further
changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with
their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered
a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like
the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological
frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on
a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation.
After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly
and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and
pace of development across the country.
The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by
the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to
be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The
late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash
from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism
challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s,
ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution,
and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth
premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of
resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were
saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over.
By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was
emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the
metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers,
satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new
data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large
belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated
by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not
connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and
small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single
metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different
purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern
coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found
in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its
early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges,
initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its
renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of
financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American
economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of
Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West.
Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues
of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new
frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement
patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its
own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns
and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands
themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between
the points of generational division and the shifts in the various
frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater
detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as
part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are
closely related to the opening of new centuries.
Generations and Economic Periods
One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a
continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to
meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a
result, the governments of the United States have always maintained
a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in
the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to
era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the
governmental response. These changes have also developed on a
generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the
founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic
policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth
generation of American history) the American government continued a
semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the
nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government
involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during
which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in
which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the
outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful
competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a
generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially
unregulated by government.
Demands for government regulation that built up during the last
generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of
intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first
generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the
eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active
government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system.
Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around
toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less
government intervention.
Centuries, Generations and Federalism
The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can
also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first
generation of American history brought the introduction of federal
principles through the contracts and covenants that established the
colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through
Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the
seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a
local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of
national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose
strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly,
concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in
the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and
crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and
then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century.
The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has
been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society.
Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal
with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques
have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These
new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed
have been major elements in the concrete response to the
generation's challenges.
Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship
The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and
their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the
challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of
American history and politics. The changes in those relationships
also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries.
British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious
pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through
giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular
territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as
indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In
the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized
in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian
differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery.
Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism
was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones
existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste
system was in the making.
During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and
sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the
original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the
virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation.
Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new
lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was
abolished in the North.
The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial
establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was
almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant
immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new
post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through
the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration
reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to
reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was
reaffirmed through the institution of segregation.
From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open
pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The
barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants
began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those
barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by
the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape
up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the
twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but
those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of
American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say,
to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American
culture.
While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been
presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the
generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted
descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some
cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary
period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational
responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New
Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political
dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the
Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era.
The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses
Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular
challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its
own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and
the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In
some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could
act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In
others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the challenges changes from century to century.
During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the
tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various
colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related
to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence
of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially
related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American
national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been
essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society
and the assumption of an American role in world affairs.
The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the
initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which,
objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively
recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing
recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors
such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in
voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with
mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to
public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters
does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet
existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular
progression of political events revolving around the development of
a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its
response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and
responses that gives each generation its particular character. While
the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external --
or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is
primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation
themselves.
In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has
taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each
colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its
sisters, and the other science independence when a common national
constitution created a common national politics. In some cases,
particularly after independence when the nation could act
decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other,
particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the political challenges that have dominated the
American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a
new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating
the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the
19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope,
wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the
20th century, they have essentially related to the
metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an
American role in world affairs.
In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within
each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and
new generations is marked by several decisive political actions,
often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature
is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old
generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and
opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a
time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues
they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political
action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population
change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political
activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur
the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the
direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders
to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the
generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many
quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of
governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to
the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five
years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with
digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so
that they will achieve greater success and at the same time
integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The
end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify
and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the
issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for
political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be
recognized.
The Bench Marks of American Political History:
Critical Elections and New Deals
In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a
particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a
system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can
also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political
history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune
with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds;
first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a
particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of
intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government
initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each
generation.
The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections
A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the
sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period
of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The
generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this
pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which
brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs
of voters, shifting them from one political party to another.
Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a
"critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of
electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound
readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the
community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are
formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result
of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide
electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency
from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one
major element to another.
Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that
there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the
allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively
long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public
opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the
1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with
a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In
consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats
have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters
identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority
party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order
to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and
representatives to win control of Congress.
The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968,
only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled
the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a
military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the
"normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his
party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in
1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after
twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the
Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the
Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems,
won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular
Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a
Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his
victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition
and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a
period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White
House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the
Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the
GOP controlled the Senate.
A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a
nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent
and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on
a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical
loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations,
personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of
the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are
nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders
(or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate
state parties which form the two national confederations known as
the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties
are confederations of the state parties, so is the national
coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional
coalitions.
Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and
thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the
electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to
remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead
to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution,
too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems
attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the
dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary
inroads in the various electoral groups.
Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces
opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in
public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in
the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party
that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means
certain that the majority party will even win all the national
elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and
usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a
limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its
losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The
states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as
bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend
its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority
coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for
national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards
for the party faithful during the years of national "famine."
As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent
electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their
changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with
each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find
the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass
and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in
importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed
and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the
realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment
of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a
reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad
electoral groups.^33
While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state
and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon
only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election.
Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make
embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become
fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional
elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional
election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical
elections."^34
The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the
development of the institution of the popularly elected president.
Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of
electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize
presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited
apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and
the House of Representatives.
Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part
of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the
use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on
the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The
generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem.
It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not
so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a
disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as
did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current
during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the
end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that
they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant
percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and
alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues
lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote
as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children
came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the
majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational
buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the
guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file"
alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of
each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the
ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from
balance to majority.
"New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity
The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of
innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind
usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin
Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as
the historical watersheds they are.
In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S.
Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform
activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for
their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian
Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over
a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that
enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way
the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems
of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his
Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind
because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the
moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was
cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic
U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly
the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use
the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came
Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for
all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B.
Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as
it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s.
The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted
approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of
governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of
the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for
another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon
to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational
consolidation.
The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years
between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in
Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of
extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President
Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to
resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial
presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its
power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic
problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led
the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill
the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the
hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states
and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington
before undertaking any activities.
The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an
"outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community
marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth
in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by
many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation,
usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time.
President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's
international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to
shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of
infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the
Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and
localities. These were all to become principal issues during the
period of generational build-up.
The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to
the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the
American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the
tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that
followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By
the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on
behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were
referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues
of the new generation.
Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been
invariably preceded by critical elections through which the
reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to
generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die --
determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either
by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting
them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as
unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to
majority status. These critical elections, which attain their
visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and
interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which
face them.
Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the
party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series
of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the
Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the
1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had
become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the
Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans.
Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the
majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times
and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats
picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in
1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party
coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen
it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The
old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent
severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted
and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the
Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the
programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing
period for the Democratic coalition.
To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in
American politics is not to suggest that events move in any
lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same
as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the
"normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence
we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them
for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too
can be done that gives the theory its power.
Summary
Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of
American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical
understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more
interest to European social philosophers than American social
scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the
question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics,
often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their
theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation
rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to
understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human
social rhythms generally.
Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their
internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries
represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them.
The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation,
constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to
them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical
elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political
history recurring on a generational basis.
Notes
1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by
Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970);
Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational
Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979).
2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the
Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973).
3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5
(Garden City: Doubleday, 1987).
4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday,
1987).
5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a
generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse
11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers,
chapter 32, verse 13.
7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11;
chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte
(London: G. Bell, 1896).
9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive
(London, 1862).
10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani
(Milano: Monanni, 1929).
11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen,
der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4.
(1875), pp. 36-41.
12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on
Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds.,
Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline
(Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in
History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane,
Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp.,
1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1990).
13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method.
14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933).
15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti,
ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and
Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales
(Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in
der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F.
Schoeningh, 1933).
16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der
Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926);
Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and
Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig,
1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris:
Boivin, 1948).
17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the
Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger,
1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4
(1972): 564-78.
18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the
Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956).
19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin,
American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970).
20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and
Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield,
Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970).
21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939).
22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago:
Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the
Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key,
Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961);
Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968);
Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1989).
23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party
System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210.
24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of
Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the
years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of
American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur
Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co.
1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to
conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the
article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using
liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the
generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written
as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something
which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best
reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government
from the Civil War to the New Deal.
25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first
presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American
Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no.
1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns
Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also
Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University
Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992).
26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789.
27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years
old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve
in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President.
28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and
Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman
H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and
the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary
M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney
Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American
Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for
the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris
Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in
America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W.
Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get
Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb
and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda
Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber,
Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership
(Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey,
Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.:
Brooks/Cole, 1989).
29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with
special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in
The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York:
Macmillan, 1961).
30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965):
Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the
Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989).
31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18.
32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections
in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability,"
Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171.
33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate
(Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James
L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and
Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical
Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York:
Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?"
in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party
Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American
Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press
of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed.,
Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and
Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise
Institute, 1983).
34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American
Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party
System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony;
David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization,
Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter,
Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American
Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of
Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985).
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Titre du document / Document title
Rhythms of the secular : The politics of modernizing Arab poetic
forms = Rythmes du séculaire : la politique de modernisation des formes
poétiques arabes
Auteur(s) / Author(s)
FURANI Khaled^ (1) ;
Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s)
^(1) Tel-Aviv University, ISRAEL
Résumé / Abstract
In this article, I ethnographically trace how Arab, mainly Palestinian,
poets have modernized their literary tradition during the last seven
decades. Shortly after the 1948 Israeli occupation of Palestine, the
reign of the classical Arabic ode collapsed, and the modern forms of
free verse and, later, the prose poem became dominant. Aiming to
contribute to the ethnography of modernity, I examine how poets have
adopted and abandoned poetic forms by analyzing their narratives on
rhythm. I explore the political salience of rhythmical transformations
and argue that the secular has been a vital and complex force in the
modern abandonment of metrical discipline. The secular affects how
poets seek to modernize their rhythm, vocabulary, and relation to
public. It also affects, I conclude, the ways in which anthropologists
can and do write about modernity.
Revue / Journal Title
American ethnologist ISSN 0094-0496
Source / Source
2008, vol. 35, n^o2, pp. 290-307 [18 page(s) (article)] (2 p.1/4)
Langue / Language
Anglais
Editeur / Publisher
American Ethnological Society, Washington, DC, ETATS-UNIS (1974)
(Revue)
Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords
Rhythm ; Transformation ; Modernization ; Poet ; Modernity ; Poetry ;
Israel ; Palestine ; Near East ;
Mots-clés français / French Keywords
Forme poétique ; Tradition littéraire ; Arabe palestinien ; Rythme ;
Transformation ; Modernisation ; Poète ; Modernité ; Poésie ; Israël ;
Palestine ; Proche-Orient ;
Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords
poetic form ; modernity and secularism ; Palestine-Israel ;
Localisation / Location
INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 16902, 35400019805879.0070
Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 20449527
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Title: The Rhythm of Political Oratory
Author: [14]Varvara Danilina
Email: [15]click here to access email
Degree Awarded: Moscow State University , Department of Foreigh
Languages
Degree Date: 2002
Linguistic Subfield(s): Discourse Analysis
Sociolinguistics
Subject Language(s): [16]English
Director(s): [17]Ludmila Minaeva
___________________________________
Abstract:
My doctoral dissertation was completed after four years of research on
the rhythm of British and American political oratory. I sought to
establish the rhythmic norm for political public speech and to find
out, whether any deviations from this norm (i.e. from an expected
rhythmic model) influence listeners and provoke their verbal reactions
or bursts of applause. To accomplish this task I used a variety of
linguistic and rhetorical methods, and drew upon social psychology and
political science.
There is no single linguistic perspective on speech rhythm. For
instance, such distinguished scholars as D. Crystal and D. Abercrombie
regard it as a purely phonetic phenomenon. At the same time, according
to Moscow University school of thought, to which I belong, speech
rhythm is created by a blend of phonetics, syntax and meaning of an
utterance. As a result of my research, I established rhythmic
regularities for political oratory at five levels.
Firstly, I analyzed pauses that divide the stream of speech into
segments (syntagmas), and classified all the pauses into syntactic,
rhetorical or unintentional (unintentional pauses are caused by
hesitation, deliberation, stammering, interruptions by listeners, etc).
Secondly, I established the relative frequency of short, medium and
long syntagmas between pauses, and thirdly, analyzed the rhythmic
structures constituted by linear sequences of syntagmas. Fourthly, I
studied the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables inside
syntagmas. And finally, I considered all kinds of repetitions, both
rhetorical and unintentional. This method of rhythmic analysis is based
on earlier analytical models designed by my university colleagues. My
own contribution consisted in adapting this method to the study of
public speech, describing the typical rhythm of political oratory, and
challenging some popular assumptions about speech rhythm.
As for the impact of speech rhythm upon listeners, I started by
analyzing audiences in order to understand psychological, social and
political conditions of that process. G. Le Bon, Z. Freud and other
scholars demonstrated conclusively that members of a crowd (and the
audience of a public speech is a crowd) are connected with each other
and with their leader (in our case, a speaker) by strong subconscious
ties. However, the degree of unity or polarization of an audience may
differ. Besides, each audience can be characterized according to
several other criteria that determine listeners' responsiveness and the
nature of their responses: their emotional state, the level of
expertise in a particular subject, the demographic and social
characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, social status, occupation,
education), the existing evaluation of discussed issues, which is
largely determined by listeners' ideologies, and finally, the attitude
to the speaker, which can be positive, negative or indifferent. I have
applied this model of audience analysis to determine peculiarities of
the British parliamentary audience in October 1996, and of the US
Congress in the aftermath of September 11, 2001.
To analyze the reactions of these audiences to the rhythm of Prime
Minister Major and President Bush's parliamentary addresses I used M.
Atkinson's version of the conversation analysis method. I showed the
two speeches as dialogues between the speakers and their listeners, and
singled out phrases and syntagmas that immediately preceded audience
responses, such as cheering, booing, laughter or bursts of applause.
These phrases and syntagmas happened to be quite similar in terms of
rhythm to other stretches of speech in the same addresses. Moreover,
there proved to be little rhythmic difference between John Major and
George Bush's speeches. In short, my research demonstrated that there
is no direct interconnection between the rhythm of a public address and
audience responses.
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Afrobeat
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search
Question book-new.svg
This article does not [8]cite any [9]references or sources.
Please help [10]improve this article by adding citations to
[11]reliable sources. Unsourced material may be [12]challenged and
[13]removed. (September 2008)
Afrobeat is a combination of [14]Yoruba music, [15]jazz, [16]highlife,
and [17]funk [18]rhythms, fused with [19]percussion and [20]vocal
styles, popularized in [21]Africa in the 1970s. Its main creator was
the [22]Nigerian multi-[23]instrumentalist and [24]bandleader [25]Fela
Kuti who used it to revolutionise musical structure as well as the
political context in his native Nigeria. It was Kuti who coined the
term "afrobeat" upon his return from a U.S. tour with his group Nigeria
70 (formerly Koola Lobitos).
The new sound hailed from a club that he established called the
Afro-Shrine. Upon arriving in Nigeria, Kuti also changed the name of
his group to Fela Ransome-Kuti & Africa 70. The band maintained a
five-year residency in the Afro-Shrine from 1970 to 1975 while afrobeat
thrived among Nigerian youth. Afrobeat is now one of the most
recognisable music genres in the world and has influenced as many
Western musicians as it has African ones with its exuberant style and
polyrhythms.
Contents
* [26]1 Origins
* [27]2 Influence
* [28]3 Instrumentation
* [29]4 Today
* [30]5 External links
[[31]edit] Origins
Afrobeat originated from the southern part of [32]Nigeria in the 1960s
where Kuti experimented with many different forms of contemporary music
of the time. Prevalent in him and Lagbaja's music are native African
harmonies and rhythms, taking different elements and combining,
modernizing and improvising upon them. [33]Politics are essential to
afrobeat, since founder Kuti used social criticism to pave the way for
social change. His message can be described as confrontational and
controversial, which can be related to the political climate of most of
the African countries in the 1960s, many of which were dealing with
political injustice and military corruption while recovering from the
transition from colonial governments to self-determination. As the
genre spread throughout the African continent many bands took up the
style. The recordings of these bands and their songs were rarely heard
or exported outside the originating countries but many can now be found
on compilation albums and CDs from specialist record shops.
[[34]edit] Influence
Many jazz musicians have been attracted to afrobeat. From [35]Roy Ayers
in the seventies to [36]Randy Weston in the nineties, there have been
collaborations which have resulted in albums such as Africa: Centre of
the World by Roy Ayers, released on the Polydor label in 1981. In 1994
[37]Branford Marsalis, the American jazz saxophonist, included samples
of Fela's "Beast of No Nation" on his Buckshot leFonque album. The new
generation of DJs and musicians of the 2000s who have fallen in love
with both Kuti's material and other rare releases have made
compilations and remixes of these recordings, thus re-introducing the
genre to new generations of listeners and fans of afropop and groove.
Afrobeat has profoundly influenced important contemporary producers and
musicians like [38]Brian Eno and [39]David Byrne, who credit Fela Kuti
as an essential muse. Both worked on [40]Talking Heads'
highly-acclaimed 1980 album [41]Remain In Light which brought
polyrhythmic afrobeat influences to Western music. More recently, the
horn section of [42]Antibalas have been guest musicians on [43]TV On
The Radio's highly-acclaimed 2008 album [44]Dear Science, as well as on
British band [45]Foals' 2008 album [46]Antidotes.
[[47]edit] Instrumentation
Big band (15 to 30 pieces: Fela-era afrobeat) and energetic
performances
* Lead vocals (may play sax/key solos as well)
* Chorus vocals (may include horn players)
* Rhythm guitar(s) (plays funk strumming pattern)
* Tenor guitar (plays a finger-picked osinato groove)
* [48]Bass guitar
* [49]Drum set, generally in the form [50]polyrhythmic percussion
* Saxophone(s)
* Trumpet(s)
* Trombone(s)
* Organ/keyboards
* Rhythm [51]conga #1
* Rhythm [52]conga #2
* Solo (lead) [53]conga
* [54]Akuba: a set of 3 small stick-hit congas (play
flourishes/solos, and ostinatos). Also mistakenly called "gbedu".
* "Sticks"/[55]claves (plays ostinato)
* [56]Shekere
[[57]edit] Today
There are several active afrobeat bands worldwide today.
Modern afrobeat bands/artistes include:
* [58]Kokolo (band), New York City Afrobeat/Afrofunk group formed by
songwriter/producer Ray Lugo
* [59]Nomo, [60]Ann Arbor based group that weaves various styles into
a primarily Afrobeat sound.
* [61]Chicago Afrobeat Project Chicago based collective that uses
afrobeat as a springboard and has an incendiary live show.
* [62]Afrodizz, an eight-piece band from [63]Montreal, [64]Canada
formed by jazz guitarist Gabriel Aldama
* [65]The Afromotive, an Asheville, NC based multiracial seven-piece
afrobeat band featuring thirty-third generation djembe player Adama
Dembele from Cote d`Ivoire, West Africa.
* [66]Tony Allen, the man who held the drum chair during Fela's
productive "Africa 70" phase, and whose drumming was, according to
[67]James Brown's autobiography, the influence behind his
'discovery' of funk.^[[68]citation needed]
* [69]Antibalas, [70]Brooklyn, New York based multiracial Afrobeat
Orchestra formed by baritone saxophonist Martin Perna
* [71]Aphrodesia, San Francisco based group, first American group to
perform with Femi Kuti at The Shrine in Lagos, Nigeria.
* [72]Ayetoro, a group led by Nigerian pianist/composer [73]Funsho
Ogundipe
* [74]Bebe cool lives in Uganda famous for his reggea mixed with
luganda pop and English making an Afrobeat rhythm in Uganda known
as Luga flow.He also lives in kampala.
* [75]Chopteeth, an international 14 piece outfit based in Washington
D.C., with former members of Busta Rhymes, The Temptations, The
Four Tops, and Gladys Knight & the Pips.
* [76]Femi Kuti (Fela's first son and a saxophonist) and the Positive
Force
* [77]Seun Kuti (another of Kuti's sons, saxophonist now fronting his
father's last and late band)
* [78]Dele Sosimi's Gbedu Resurrection Dele is a former keyboardist
and musical director of Fela's band. He cofounded Femi Kuti's
Positive Force.
* [79]Zozo Afrobeat A thirteen-member group based in NYC, founded by
Kaleta, former Fela guitarist.
* [80]Baba Ken and the Afro-Groove Connexion Oakland based
multiracial afrobeat ensemble led by Nigerian bassist, Baba Ken
Okulolo, founding member of the seminal 1970's afrofunk/afrorock
band, Monomono.
* [81]Jose Chameleone famous in East, central and South Africa.He
stays and live is Uganda in kampala city.He sing pop and Afro beat
music.He is one of the most famous artists of Afro beat in Africa
and the whole world.
* [82]Afrobeat Down Los Angeles based Afrobeat ensemble (est. 2002)
working with former Fela Africa '70 member and catalyst of entire
afrobeat movement, Sandra Izsadore.
* [83]Weird MC Rap artiste who occasionally experinments with
Afrobeat rhythm.
* [84]Vibe Squad A Ghanaian music crew formed by EaZZY Da Opemfour
made of Prego, Culchar, Wizzy Wii and Richie.
* [85]Gnl zamba rap artist in Uganda one of the most successful rap
afrobeat star in East Africa and central Africa.He is known for his
rhythm of 2 pac shakur
* [86]Mr. Something Something Canadian afrobeat group
* [87]Crime Scene Infunkstigation A 10-piece Afrobeat/Funk/Hip Hop
group based out of Calgary, AB
[[88]edit] External links
* [89]KOKOLO on Myspace
* [90]KOKOLO on YouTube
* [91]KOKOLO Official Homepage
* [92]The Afrobeat Blog
* [93]The Unofficial Seun Kuti Fan-Site - Unofficial fan-site for
Seun Kuti & Egypt 80 with news, videos, music, pictures and much
more]
* [94]The Shrine The Unofficial Website for Fela Kuti, Femi Kuti and
Afrobeat Music
* [95]BBC Afrobeat Documentary
[96]v o [97]d o [98]e
Genres of [99]African popular music
Afrobeat · [100]Apala · [101]Benga · [102]Bikutsi · [103]Cape Jazz ·
[104]Chimurenga · [105]Fuji · [106]Highlife · [107]Hiplife ·
[108]Isicathamiya · [109]Jit · [110]Jùjú · [111]Kizomba · [112]Kuduro ·
[113]Kwaito · [114]Kwela · [115]Makossa · [116]Maloya ·
[117]Marrabenta · [118]Mbalax · [119]Mbaqanga · [120]Mbube ·
[121]Morna · [122]Palm-wine · [123]Raï · [124]Sakara · [125]Sega ·
[126]Soukous/Congo/Lingala/Rumba · [127]Taarab
[128]v o [129]d o [130]e
[131]Funk music
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12 12/2006 [38]Compose to a Vertical Rhythm
by [39]Richard Rutter
* [40]Article
* [41]29 comments
"Space in typography is like time in music. It is infinitely divisible,
but a few proportional intervals can be much more useful than a
limitless choice of arbitrary quantities." So says the typographer
Robert Bringhurst, and just as regular use of time provides rhythm in
music, so regular use of space provides rhythm in typography, and
without rhythm the listener, or the reader, becomes disorientated and
lost.
On the Web, vertical rhythm - the spacing and arrangement of text as
the reader descends the page - is contributed to by three factors: font
size, line height and margin or padding. All of these factors must
calculated with care in order that the rhythm is maintained.
The basic unit of vertical space is line height. Establishing a
suitable line height that can be applied to all text on the page, be it
heading, body copy or sidenote, is the key to a solid dependable
vertical rhythm, which will engage and guide the reader down the page.
To see this in action, I've created [42]an example with headings,
footnotes and sidenotes.
Establishing a suitable line height
The easiest place to begin determining a basic line height unit is with
the font size of the body copy. For [43]the example I've chosen 12px.
To ensure readability the body text will almost certainly need some
leading, that is to say spacing between the lines. A line-height of
1.5em would give 6px spacing between the lines of body copy. This will
create a total line height of 18px, which becomes our basic unit.
Here's the CSS to get us to this point:
1. body {
2. font-size: 75%;
3. }
4.
5. html>body {
6. font-size: 12px;
7. }
8.
9. p {
10. line-height 1.5em;
11. }
12. Source: [44]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/1.txt
There are many ways to size text in CSS and the above approach provides
and accessible method of achieving the pixel-precision solid typography
requires. By way of explanation, the first font-size reduces the body
text from the 16px default (common to most browsers and OS set-ups)
down to the 12px we require. This rule is primarily there for Internet
Explorer 6 and below on Windows: the percentage value means that the
text will scale predictably should a user bump the text size up or
down. The second font-size sets the text size specifically and is
ignored by IE6, but used by Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other
modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels.
Spacing between paragraphs
With our rhythmic unit set at 18px we need to ensure that it is
maintained throughout the body copy. A common place to lose the rhythm
is the gaps set between margins. The default treatment by web browsers
of paragraphs is to insert a top- and bottom-margin of 1em. In our case
this would give a spacing between the paragraphs of 12px and hence
throw the text out of rhythm. If the rhythm of the page is to be
maintained, the spacing of paragraphs should be related to the basic
line height unit. This is achieved simply by setting top- and
bottom-margins equal to the line height.
In order that typographic integrity is maintained when text is resized
by the user we must use ems for all our vertical measurements,
including line-height, padding and margins.
1. p {
2. font-size:1em;
3. margin-top: 1.5em;
4. margin-bottom: 1.5em;
5. }
6. Source: [45]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/2.txt
Browsers set margins on all block-level elements (such as headings,
lists and blockquotes) so a way of ensuring that typographic attention
is paid to all such elements is to reset the margins at the beginning
of your style sheet. You could use a rule such as:
1. body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl
ockquote,th,td {
2. margin:0;
3. padding:0;
4. }
5. Source: [46]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/3.txt
Alternatively you could look into using the [47]Yahoo! UI Reset style
sheet which removes most default styling, so providing a solid
foundation upon which you can explicitly declare your design
intentions.
Variations in text size
When there is a change in text size, perhaps with a heading or
sidenotes, the differing text should also take up a multiple of the
basic leading. This means that, in our example, every diversion from
the basic text size should take up multiples of 18px. This can be
accomplished by adjusting the line-height and margin accordingly, as
described following.
Headings
Subheadings in the [48]example page are set to 14px. In order that the
height of each line is 18px, the line-height should be set to 18 ÷ 14
= 1.286. Similarly the margins above and below the heading must be
adjusted to fit. The temptation is to set heading margins to a simple
1em, but in order to maintain the rhythm, the top and bottom margins
should be set at 1.286em so that the spacing is equal to the full 18px
unit.
1. h2 {
2. font-size:1.1667em;
3. line-height: 1.286em;
4. margin-top: 1.286em;
5. margin-bottom: 1.286em;
6. }
7. Source: [49]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/4.txt
One can also set asymmetrical margins for headings, provided the
margins combine to be multiples of the basic line height. In our
example, a top margin of 1½ lines is combined with a bottom margin of
half a line as follows:
1. h2 {
2. font-size:1.1667em;
3. line-height: 1.286em;
4. margin-top: 1.929em;
5. margin-bottom: 0.643em;
6. }
7. Source: [50]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/5.txt
Also in our example, the main heading is given a text size of 18px,
therefore the line-height has been set to 1em, as has the margin:
1. h1 {
2. font-size:1.5em;
3. line-height: 1em;
4. margin-top: 0;
5. margin-bottom: 1em;
6. }
7. Source: [51]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/6.txt
Sidenotes
Sidenotes (and other supplementary material) are often set at a smaller
size to the basic text. To keep the rhythm, this smaller text should
still line up with body copy, so a calculation similar to that for
headings is required. In our example, the sidenotes are set at 10px and
so their line-height must be increased to 18 ÷ 10 = 1.8.
1. .sidenote {
2. font-size:0.8333em;
3. line-height:1.8em;
4. }
5. Source: [52]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/7.txt
Borders
One additional point where vertical rhythm is often lost is with the
introduction of horizontal borders. These effectively act as shims
pushing the subsequent text downwards, so a two pixel horizontal border
will throw out the vertical rhythm by two pixels. A way around this is
to specify horizontal lines using background images or, as in our
example, specify the width of the border in ems and adjust the padding
to take up the slack.
The design of the footnote in our example requires a 1px horizontal
border. The footnote contains 12px text, so 1px in ems is 1 ÷ 12
= 0.0833. I have added a margin of 1½ lines above the border
(1.5 × 18 ÷ 12 = 2.5ems), so to maintain the rhythm the border +
padding must equal a ½ (9px). We know the border is set to 1px, so the
padding must be set to 8px. To specify this in ems we use the familiar
calculation: 8 ÷ 12 = 0.667.
Hit me with your rhythm stick
Composing to a vertical rhythm helps engage and guide the reader down
the page, but it takes typographic discipline to do so. It may seem
like a lot of fiddly maths is involved (a few divisions and
multiplications never hurt anyone) but good type setting is all about
numbers, and it is this attention to detail which is the key to
success.
Like what you read?
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Comments
* [55]12/12/2006
Wow this is a good article.
* [57]12/12/2006
[58]Will
thanks so much, this is great.
* [59]12/12/2006
Interesting stuff. Also worth reading Eric Meyer's post on unitless
line-heights:
* [61]12/12/2006
It's worth mentioning that IE6 and below can go a bit extreme when
resizing fonts set as ems.
You can fix this by applying font-size: 100% to html. Don't know
why this works, it just does.
Oh, if you're working in quirks mode you'll also need to apply it
to thead, tbody and tfoot, beacuse the fix doesn't inherit (don't
apply it to table unless you want table to inherit font-sizes). You
don't need thead, tbody or tfoot in your tables as tbody is
implied.
Obviously, you can't then apply your own font-sizes to html or
tbody etc, else you'll overwrite the fix, which is why I chose
those particular elements as they're rarely used for font-sizes.
Jake.
* [63]12/12/2006
[64]Mike Stenhouse donotremove.co.uk
Hmmmmm, interesting! I've not tried this but I think there might be
an easier way to set those heights... What if the line-height is
set to, say, 1.5em on the body and 1 (unit-less - it's valid!) on
each descendant element? Or maybe some variation on that. It might
force the 18px to inherit into the children without awkward
calculations.
* [65]12/12/2006
Great article, Richard! Web typography--like all
typography--deserves this level of detailed thinking, and I hope to
see more designers embracing it.
* [67]12/12/2006
[68]michael h
Good introduction to typography theory, but I am convinced that the
Owen Briggs method is the best approach to sizing.
* [69]13/12/2006
I've been working on something similar recently, and I've
discovered that if you set the line-height in pixels, most browsers
will still scale it proportionally along with the text. As IE6's
numbers fall off, I hope we can leave all this black magic scaling
math behind and go back to setting font sizes in pixels and letting
the browsers handle the scaling.
* [71]13/12/2006
Mike - you're right about being able to simplify the line-height
specifications, but it doesn't require setting unitless
line-heights. In the example I use, I've set the font-size to be
12px on the body and calculated line-heights for all the subsequent
elements. As I required one line height - 18px - for all elements I
can remove the multiple statements and simply set line-height:1.5em
on the body. The calculated line-height of 18px is inherited by all
elements on the page. I've modifed the example to show this
(checked in Firefox, Safari and IE6):
However the maths would still need to be performed to calculate the
correct margins, so while the extra line-height specifications are
not strictly necessary (at least while the same line height for all
text is required) you unfortunately don't save much on the
calculations.
* [73]13/12/2006
Jake - the extreme text sizing in IE can be fixed by applying any
percentage font size to the body - it doesn't have to be 100%
(hence my use of 75% fixed this too).
You're right about the tables though. This rule does the job nicely
to inherit the text size:
table, thead, tbody, tr, th, td {font-size:1em}
* [75]13/12/2006
[76]GreLI
In the article next rule is used to reset margins:
body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl
ockquote,th,td {
margin:0;
padding:0;
}
I think it easier to use universal selector (* { margin: 0;
padding: 0 }) instead.
To fix table font-size inheritance it's enough to set
table { font-size: 1em }
Opera AFAIK don't change font-size if it set in pixels, but it can
zoom pages (so does IE7).
* [77]13/12/2006
GreLI - using the universal selector like that to zero all margins
and padding can cause unpredictable results in some form controls
(e.g. SELECT elements) in certain browsers.
Rich - great article; now all someone needs to do is knock up a
nice little app that spits out the right line-heights and margins
for the elements you tell it... :)
* [79]13/12/2006
It's unfortunate that pretty much no one composes with a scale when
publishing for the web. Your article is a great step forward.
Also overlooked are line lengths. Since the beginning of the web,
It has been a standard practice to expand the line lengths out with
the width of the browser (like your site is currently :), causing
line lengths to expand way too long. If an optimal line length for
print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even
smaller.
* [81]14/12/2006
I don't see it mentioned in the comments yet, but your quote above:
"...Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which
allow users to resize text sized in pixels."
is not correct, as IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in
pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized.
* [83]18/12/2006
If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths
for web should be even smaller.
You're right to mention line length as something that is
overlooked, but on the screen it is not as simple as setting the
measure in ems as their are more factors involved (screen size,
liquid layouts, etc). Also I'd disagree that web line lengths
should be shorter on the web. My personal preference would be for
them to be longer - I find short line lengths on screen extremely
hard work to read. That's just my opinion though.
IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout
can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized.
If you think of the reasons for changing text size then zooming a
layout is just another form of resizing text and achieves the same
goal.
* [85]20/12/2006
Theodore, I think you would enjoy Richard's article entitled
"Choose a comfortable measure" over at webtypography.net :)
1.2/
* [87]22/12/2006
[88]Rachel Maxim
You've said in a few pages what has taken me years to figure out
and refine :) - great info!
* [89]23/12/2006
I really enjoyed this article. I have read your Elements of....for
the web, as well as your blog about sizing text in ems. I have
really been looking in to using this and getting the best `flow'
with my typography. I also ordered the book Elements of Typographic
Style just to give a better understanding.
I think its a common misconception that text on the web will always
look bland, and you have proved that it can have rhythm and style.
* [91]02/01/2007
I've just been using some of these techniques on a client's site
who needed 8 tabs all the same width, which fill the available
space - I had it working fine in Firefox, but the tabs didn't fill
the space in Safari or IE. I found that you really have to do the
maths, rather than just use trial and error - they all round the
numbers slightly differently. Once I'd checked my calculations,
rather than tinkered with the numbers, it works fine everywhere, at
least at standard font size.
One other correction from someone's comment earlier on - you can
resize text in IE7 - click the page icon at top right. Why you need
both this and the ability to zoom, I'm not sure, but it's there at
any rate.
* [93]03/01/2007
[94]Ben G
Can you set the margin above or below headings or paragraphs to
less than your 18px base measurement? Won't margin collapsing cause
whichever the largest margin is to take effect?
Ben
* [95]31/01/2009
[96]Daniel
I've been using this article as the basis for designing my site
with some "vertical rhythm". Everything is going well except with
forms (input, textarea, etc.). I just haven't been able to use css
to maintain the vertical rhythm (based on total line height of
18px).
Any advise or insight as to how to get forms to play nicely?
* [97]15/02/2009
[98]Silver Firefly
I wanted to clarify something about the default browser text size
and using the em unit. The article was a tad misleading when it
covered the default browser text size and the em unit. A lot of
designers have it in their heads that an em is equivalent to 16
pixels. An em is not equivalent to 16 pixels. It is equivalent to
whatever is set in the user's browser, which is commonly 16px but
depending on the user, it can be 20px or 12px or whatever they have
set in their browser's settings. I hope after reading that
statement, designers will start to realise that they have little
control over how their website appears in other users' browsers.
The majority of the control lies in the user's hands. Other than
that, the article was very good.
* [99]17/04/2009
Great article... and AWESOME site design. Inspirational!
* [101]27/04/2009
Typesetting for websites is the future, like all things
content-related. The Google knows it :). Thank you for that useful
post. You webdesigners take care of your text!
* [103]05/06/2009
[104]bonfield
Inline bolding of elements (I'm using Helvetica, e.g.) seems to add
a px of height on any line that uses it, and that subtly throws off
the vertical rhythm for each line and it can add up depending
-- anybody else run into this and solve it?
* [105]18/06/2009
[106]Anonymous
Does this truly keep the vertical rhythm? If you zoom in on the
example, you'll see that the descender of the letter g in the H1
header "New England" crosses your rhythm marker's background line,
while a lowercase g in the following paragraph does not. There
appears to be some fudging going on.
* [107]08/07/2009
I find it humorous that this site itself does not compose to a
vertical rhythm. I've seen very few online that do. It's so
difficult to implement across browsers it is usually brushed aside
except for in the most simple design schemes.
* [109]03/08/2009
[110]eric
I've yet to see any empirical evidence that "vertical rhythm"
applied to this degree has any impact on how well a reader is able
to extract signal from the noise of the page.
Meanwhile, I've seen many, many examples of mis-applied "vertical
rhythms" resulting in squashed headings where the underlning on a
link impinges on the text below. Which just looks clunky.
When you've got something other than an aesthetic opinion from the
margins -- maybe some actual data -- then I'll be interested in
expending the effort needed to support real vertical rhythm. Until
then, I just don't see how it's cost-effective.
* [111]02/09/2009
Now, that was the kind of article I was looking for. That goes a
lot deeper than I've been into the realms of line-spacing, leading
(no kerning here though - can we do kerning with css?).
I love the analogy to musical rhythym > therefore probably
following on to mathematics/geometry/proportion. That is a great
lead-in. Is there any room for the `golden ratio' in web design? Do
graphic designers use it with/without realising it? Just that I
haven't seen it discussed in the myriad pages concerning page
layout/design that I've read so far...
Thanks,
Darren
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About the author
[114]Richard Rutter
Richard Rutter is a user experience consultant and director of
[115]Clearleft. He runs an ongoing project called [116]The Elements of
Typographic Style Applied to the Web, where he extols the virtues of
good web typography. Richard occasionally blogs at [117]Clagnut, where
he writes about design, accessibility and web standards issues, as well
as his passion for music and mountain biking.
[118]More information
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[1]Home > [2]Articles > [3]Design > [4]Typography
[5]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm
[6]Jason Cranford Teague
* By [7]Jason Cranford Teague
* Dec 23, 2009
[8]Toggle Open Article Table of Contents [9]Article Contents
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1. [12]Web Measurements
2. [13]Type Size & Line Height
3. [14]Type Space
4. Text Alignment
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facto standard for use in CSS code and both developers and
designers are used to them.
The long answer is that, in the final design on the screen,
there is no difference between using Hex or RGB values in your
code. Which system you use is really a matter of you own
personal preference (and those of the team you are working with)
as to whether or not you use Hex or RGB values to define colors.
[56]Expand Your Font Repertoire
By on November 30, 2009 No Comments
Q: Are there alternatives to Arial, Times, and Georgia for Web
designers?
The short answer is YES!
The slightly longer answer is that most designers use Arial,
Times, or Georgia, and, to a lesser degree, Verdana, Trebuchet
MS, Courier, and Comic Sans because they think that's all they
have at their disposal, but they are wrong.
The long answer is that the core Web fonts (the one listed above
plus Impact and Web Dings) are used because they are almost
guaranteed to be installed on the vast majority of computers
your designs are likely to be installed on. One fact of life in
Web design is that unless the end user's computer has access to
the font file, then the browser cannot use it.
[57]Pixels or Ems in Your Web Designs
By on November 18, 2009 No Comments
Q: What is the practical difference between px (pixel) and em
(pronounced m)? When is it best to use one over the other?
The short answer is that pixels measure dimensions relative to
the screen while ems measure dimensions relative to type size.
The slightly longer answer is that pixels are the natural unit
for measuring dimensions on a screen and are often used when
precise design is required. Ems are the natural unit for
measuring type and used when you want to allow maximum design
flexibility.
[58]To CSS Reset or Not to CSS Reset
By on November 10, 2009 No Comments
Question: Which Global Reset for CSS Should I Use?
The short answer is the simplest one possible.
The slightly longer answer is that you should reset some styles,
but do so with a good reason.
The long answer is that the exact CSS reset you choose will
depend on the needs of your design. I like to keep my own reset
simple, relying on adding styles to specific tags as needed.
However, there are several styles that are inconsistent or (in
my opinion) poorly set in most browsers.
[59]HTML 5 NOW!
By on August 25, 20092 Comments
Q: Can I start using HTML 5 now?
The short answer is, yes.
The slightly longer answer is, you can use some of the new
features, but you will need to do a little [60]kludging to get
it to work.
The long answer is that HTML is a mark-up language meant to
indicate the structure of a document. HTML 5 is the next
evolutionary step in mark-up languages for the Web, but it is
not implemented on most browsers that your audiences are likely
to be using and it may be some time before it is. That said,
there are some things you can do now to prepare for the future.
[61]Big Things Ahead for HTML 5
By on August 17, 2009 No Comments
Q: Will HTML5 or XHTML5 be the next big thing or just another
collection of past standards and browser war fodder?
The short answer is that, yes, [62]HTML 5 is the next big thing.
The slightly longer answer is that it's going to be a while
before you have to start worrying about HTML 5.
The long answer is that, as with all standards, before it
becomes relevant, the browser makers have to implement it and
then you'll have to wait even longer before legacy browsers are
no longer an issue. So, you have some time before you have to
run out and buy a new HTML 5 Visual QuickStart Guide. The good
news is that HTML 5 has gone to great lengths to stay backwards
compatible, so you can begin to learn and implement it today.
[63]Everyone is a Web Designer
By on August 10, 2009 No Comments
Q: What is a Web Designer anymore? It was easier to make Web
sites all by yourself, even 5 years ago, but now there is just
too much technology for one person to handle. If I want to make
a Web site for a very small business, don't have I to be web
"developer" now?
The short answer is that everybody is a Web designer now.
The slightly longer answer is that Web designers are
practitioners of a highly specialized discipline that requires
years of study to truly master.
The long answer is that a good Web designer is a good designer,
and this can come "naturally" or from training, but is not
medium-dependent. However, a professional Web designer has to
understand the medium well enough to know its strengths and
limitations. Any designer can pump out something that looks
brilliant when displayed in a Web browser window, but is slow to
load, static when loaded, and completely unusable.
[64]Frames are Dead, Long Live Iframes!
By on July 24, 2009 No Comments
Q: Is there a suitable alternative to frames? My wife is
president of a local woman's club. She and I administer the
club's web site, and the ladies like the list of links down one
side of the pages. But I read that frames have been deprecated.
Regardless, I want to keep the site simple.
The short answer is yes-- use iframes.
The slightly longer answer is no, not exactly, but we can get
close.
The long answer is there are a variety of ways to add content to
your Web pages, but the question is: once it's on the page what
are you going to do with it (or to it)?
[65]Q: If I ask ten different web designers what pixel dimensions to
use for web pages and whether to make them fixed-width or
"stretchy," I get ten different answers. What's your answer, and
why?
By on July 20, 2009 No Comments
The short answer is fixed at 974 pixels (px) wide.
The slightly longer answer is whatever it takes to get the job
done.
The long answer is that asking a Web designer what size a Web
page should be is like asking a painter what size a canvas
should be or an architect how large a a building should be.
While it's not purely a matter of taste--there are certain
physical and ergonomic constraints--personal preference accounts
for the wide variety of answers you might hear.
[66]Ask me, ask me, ask me
By on July 1, 2009 No Comments
Do you have a question about Web standards, CSS, JavaScript,
Ajax, interaction design, user experience, or Web typography?
Maybe you just want to know "How'd they do that?" Ask me
questions, and each week I will select a question to answer via
my Peachpit.com blog.
[67]Ask the Web Designer: Why Can't I Use Any Font I Want in My Web
Designs?
By on June 30, 2009 No Comments
The short answer is that you can.
The slightly longer answer is that you can't, at least not in
any meaningful way yet.
The long answer is that the ability to download fonts has
actually been a part of the CSS standard (the language used to
create Web designs) for over 10 years. The snag comes with what
font formats a given browser supports.
[NOTE: You may want to stop reading now, as the rest of this
explanation might make your eyes bleed in frustration.]
[68]Fluid Web Typography
This chapter is from the book
[69]Fluid Web Typography
Jason Cranford Teague shows how giving careful consideration to the
measurements and scale you are designing for is what separates good Web
typography from great Web typography.
Text Alignment
Text alignment is generally taken for granted on the Web--left
alignment suits most purposes most of the time. In order to create a
sense of rhythm and movement on your page, helping to guide the
reader's eye around and adding visual interest to the page, a little
alignment variation can go a long way.
Set body text alignment to minimize gaps and maximize scanning
Text alignment in Web pages is, by default, to the left, with ragged
edges on the right. Justified text--sometimes called newspaper columns,
where both edges of the text are aligned--is rare on the Web.
text-align: left;
text-align: justify;
In print, justified text is created using a variety of techniques
including word spacing, letterspacing, hyphenation, and glyph
reshaping. In addition, well-formed justification is calculated on a
paragraph level to prevent "rivers" of white space flowing down the
middle. On the Web, unfortunately, justification is simply created by
adding small amounts of space between words. On the screen, where you
can only add whole pixels, this often results in uncomfortably large
amounts of space between some words, especially in narrower columns.
Hyphenation is inexplicably absent from CSS. While it is proposed for
inclusion in CSS 3, no work has currently been done on it.
When choosing to use left or justified alignment, keep in mind these
factors:
* Justified text is often seen as more formal and structured, while
left alignment is more informal and approachable.
* Justified text reinforces the grid structure of a page but can be
harder to scan, since it often creates rivers of white space
throughout the text, which interrupts the eye path.
* Left-aligned text adds an element of white space to the right edge,
softening the overall appearance of the page.
Combining Alignments
[70]craigmod.com
Craig Mod combines right-and left-justified columns of text to create
motion and rhythm around his page.
[71]04-17.jpg
[72]Click to view larger image
Center or right-justify text for effect and variety
More rarely used, centering or right-justifying text can create a
specific feeling on the page.
text-align: center;
text-align: right;
Centering and right aligning text is integrally dependent on the design
you are creating and how you want your readers to scan the page. While
using a variety of justifications helps create rhythm and motion on
your page, it can quickly seem cluttered or obnoxious. Always have a
specific purpose for the variance of alignment, and use it sparingly.
Here are a few ideas:
* Bulleted or numbered lists should not be centered or right aligned,
as this makes them harder to scan by moving the beginning of each
line around.
* Center section or module titles/headers if you want to make your
site look a little different. Generally, section titles are best
when left aligned, but centering them gives your designs a unique
feel and may also improve scannability.
* Right-align text in the left column of a page or table if it helps
show a closer relationship between the elements in adjacent
columns.
Centered Section Titles
[73]jontangerine.com
Jon Tangerine combines centered subheadings with justified text in his
blog (detail shown) to create solid structure with visual movement.
[74]04-18.jpg
[75]Click to view larger image
Increase margins for longer quotations and style the citation
Short quotes of less than three lines are included in a paragraph
surround by quotation marks, requiring no other special formatting. In
HTML, the blockquote tag is used to set off a block of text as a
quotation, generally of two lines of text or longer. The quotation
should be styled to distinguish it from other text by indenting its
left and right margins and increasing the top and bottom margins. The
amount of left/right indentation is based on the width of the column
and then adjusted so that it does not conflict with any other indents.
A good measure to offset blockquotes is to double the font size (2em),
although more or less space may be required for wider or narrower
columns:
blockquote { margin: 2em; }
note.jpg In this chapter, we are only considering spacing issues with
blockquotes and citations. Chapters 5 and 6 offer other ways to style
text, including weights, italics, backgrounds, and borders. These can
be deployed to creatively display longer quotations.
This will clearly space the blockquote away from the rest of the text,
but it's also up to the copywriter to make it clear that the text is a
quote and to supply its source, possibly using the cite tag, which
indicates a citation. Turning the cite tag into a block-level element
and right-aligning it when it is included in a blockquote creates a
strong style.
blockquote cite {
display: block;
text-align: right; }
Blockquote Ideas
[76]css-tricks.com/examples/Blockquotes
CSS-Tricks has a page of blockquote ideas with sample code.
The code above will force any text marked by the citation tag to a new
line and right-align it.
[77]04-20.jpg
[78]Click to view larger image
Set footnotes and scientific or mathematical annotations using positioning
rather than vertical alignment
Vertical text alignment allows you to adjust the position of inline
text in relation to its natural baseline, shifting it up or down. For
footnotes, mathematics, and scientific notation, it will not be enough
to simply raise or lower the characters; you will also need to reduce
their size relative to the surrounding text. These styles can be
applied to the superscript and subscript tags, setting the vertical
position to the baseline and then setting a position relative to that:
sup, sub { font-size: .5em;
vertical-align: baseline;
position: relative; }
sup { top: -.65em; }
sup.math { top: -.8em }
sub { top: .2em; }
Although vertical-align provides several values to set the vertical
position of the text, these have proved to be unreliable in
multi-column layouts. The exact values will vary depending on the font,
and you may also need to add some left/right margins to add breathing
room.
[79]04-21.jpg
[80]Click to view larger image
Type Inspirations: Jon Tangerine
Beautiful typographic contrast.
Insightful typography editorials.
[81]jontangerine.com
Jon is a designer living in Bristol, UK, with some of the cleanest pure
Web typography I've seen. On top of this, his information and opinions
on Web typography are required reading for anyone interested in the
ongoing issues we face.
[82]04-22.jpg
[83]Click to view larger image
How he does it:
Jon uses a font stack of Web safe fonts, including Cochin, Baskerville,
and Palatino Linotype, down to Georgia. He then combines a wide variety
of sizes, styles, weights, and colors all scaled and spaced within a
strong grid to provide clear eye paths and legible text.
[84]04-25.jpg
[85]Click to view larger image
[86]04-26.jpg
[87]Click to view larger image
[88]04-27.jpg
[89]Click to view larger image
[90]04-28.jpg
[91]Click to view larger image
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The Peachpit offices join the Google 3D Warehouse, courtesy of
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[119]Jason Teague [120]10 Last-minute Gifts for Web Designers
By [121]Jason Cranford Teague on December 17, 2009 1 Comment
Q: What do I get for the Web designer who has everything?
The short answer is real estate.
The slightly longer answer is, anything that helps spark their
creativity.
The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah,
Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [122]Saturnalia
myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift
giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has
everything they need to actually make Web sites?
Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect.
[123]Kara Murphy [124]Just in time for the holidays: Our video-a-day
giveaway
By [125]Kara Murphy on December 16, 2009 No Comments
It's the holiday season, and I bet some of you are already
thinking of your New Year's resolutions. If one of them is to
learn something new in the field of Web design, development,
presentation, branding, and much more, then you're in luck.
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[32]Journal of Circadian Rhythms
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[65]Open Access Research
A possible connection between psychosomatic symptoms and daily rhythmicity in
growth hormone secretion in healthy Japanese students
Mitsuo Nagane^1 [66]email , Kazunori Yoshimura^2 [67]email , Shu-Ichi
Watanabe^3 [68]email and Masahiko Nomura^4 [69]email
^1 Department of Educational Physiology, Chiba University, Chiba
263-8522, Japan
^2 Department of Rehabilitation, Nihon Institute of Medical Science,
Japan
^3 Department of Physiology, Saitama Medical University, Japan
^4 International Education and Training Center, Saitama Medical
University, Japan
[email.gif] author email [email-ca.gif] corresponding author email
Journal of Circadian Rhythms 2009, 7:10doi:10.1186/1740-3391-7-10
The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be
Received: 3 February 2009
Accepted: 5 August 2009
Published: 5 August 2009
© 2009 Nagane et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
Abstract
Background
Students suffering from psychosomatic symptoms, including drowsiness
and feelings of melancholy, often have basic lifestyle problems. The
aim of this study was to investigate whether psychosomatic complaints
may be related to circadian dysfunction.
Methods
We examined 15 healthy students (4 men and 11 women) between 21 and 22
years old. To assess the presence of psychosomatic symptoms among the
subjects, we developed a self-assessment psychosomatic complaints
questionnaire consisting of five items pertaining to physical symptoms
and five items concerning mental symptoms. The subjects rated their
psychosomatic symptoms twice a day (08:00 and 20:00 h). We also
assessed growth hormone secretion patterns by fluorescence enzyme
immunoassay (FEIA). Salivary samples were collected from the subjects
at home five times a day (20:00, 24:00, 04:00, 08:00, and 12:00 h) in
Salivette tubes.
Results
The results indicated a relationship between the self-assessment scores
and the salivary levels of growth hormone. Subjects with high
self-assessment scores showed significant variability in growth hormone
secretion over the day, whereas subjects with low self-assessment
scores did not.
Conclusion
Psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with circadian dysfunction, as
inferred from blunted rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion.
Background
Japanese students suffering from psychosomatic disorders, such as those
involving mood and sleep, may exhibit basic problems in their
lifestyle, including deleterious changes in their living environment
and dietary or lifestyle disturbances [[72]1]. In particular, staying
up late is associated with decreased appetite and missed breakfast the
following morning, irregular bowel movements and sleepiness. Perhaps
the biggest problem facing today's Japanese students is their lack of
daily physical exercise, brought on by stressful academic courses over
long periods of time, too much television and computer games and
increased automobile use [[73]2]. Many Japanese youngsters stay up late
at night [[74]3].
A circadian pacemaker in the central nervous system regulates human
sleep cycles, hormone secretion, subject alertness, objective
performance levels and other physiologic functions over a 24-h period.
Core body temperature, plasma cortisol, and plasma melatonin are three
variables frequently used to estimate the phase of the human pacemaker
[[75]4], although many other hormones, including growth hormone,
exhibit daily rhythmicity. Technical advances that make the assessment
of biomarkers in saliva possible have enabled researchers to
non-invasively study biosocial processes related to stress in
naturalistic contexts. Chiappin et al [[76]5] showed the usefulness and
possibility of salivary hormone analysis containing growth hormone.
Rantonen [[77]6] found a linear correlation between salivary and serum
growth hormone.
Carroll et al. [[78]7] described negative effects of growth hormone
insufficiency on psychological well-being, including reduced vitality
and energy, depressed mood, emotional lability, impaired self-control,
anxiety, and increased social isolation. Patients with growth hormone
deficiencies report decreased energy levels, greater emotional
lability, increased difficulties with sexual relationships and a
greater sense of social isolation than control subjects [[79]8].
However, no direct relationship has been shown between growth hormone
deficiency and psychometrically measured depression, apathy or
psychosomatic well-being [[80]9].
The purpose of the present study was to investigate individual
variation in the levels of growth hormone in healthy subjects and to
examine the relationship between an individual's hormone profile and
his or her psychosomatic complaints.
Methods
The subjects and self-assessment questionnaire
Fifteen subjects (4 men and 11 women) without major medical disorders
ranging in age from 21 to 22 years participated in this study. The
study design was approved by the Ethics Committee of Chiba University,
Japan, and informed consent was obtained from all subjects. A
self-assessment questionnaire concerning psychosomatic symptoms was
developed in accordance with data from the Health Behavior in
School-Aged Children (HBSC) study of the WHO [[81]10]. The
questionnaire for this study contained five items related to physical
symptoms and five items pertaining to mental symptoms (Table [82]1).
The questionnaire was used to measure each individual's psychosomatic
symptoms at home twice each day (08:00 and 20:00 h). The items were
rated on a 4-point scale, with 1 = not true at all and 4 = completely
true. The total score for the 10-item scale ranged from 10 to 40, with
higher scores indicating a greater degree of psychosomatic complaints.
The subjects were allocated post hoc (median split) to a High (n = 7)
or Low (n = 8) Self-Assessment Group based on their total morning score
(with higher scores corresponding to lower self-assessment).
[83]Table 1. Morning and evening psychosomatic condition scores
collected from the self-assessment psychosomatic complaint
questionnaire
Sample collection
Saliva was collected into Salivette tubes (Sarstedt, Germany) using
polyester swabs from the subjects' mouths following 2 min of chewing.
Samples were collected five times a day at home (20:00, 24:00, 04:00,
08:00, and 12:00 h). Both the day of sampling and the preceding day
were required to be normal days (i.e., without special events or
stressful circumstances). After sample collection, the saliva was
stored at -20°C until being analysed.
Salivary growth hormone assay
On the day of testing, the samples were centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for 10
min to remove all mucin. A standard fluorescent determination
immunoassay was used to assess the growth hormone concentrations in
each sample. To avoid inter-assay variability, all determinations were
performed in a single series. In the first step, 96-well fluoro-nunc
plates (Nunc, Black MicroWell 137101, Denmark) were pre-coated with 100
µl of anti-growth hormone antibody (Quartett, 2071800210, Germany) and
incubated for 1.5 h at room temperature. After incubation, the plate
was washed three times with phosphate-buffered saline and blocked for 1
h. After washing, 100 µl of saliva or a standard solution was dispensed
into each well and left for 1.5 h. After washing, primary antibody
(Funakoshi, FU47500254, Japan) was added to the plates and incubated
for 1.5 h. Next, incubation with a secondary antibody (Novus
Biologicals, NB120-7112, USA) was performed for 1 h. After washing,
rabbit anti-ovine immunoglobulin (Amersham Biosciences, ECF Western
Blotting Reagent Pack, USA) was added. After 20 min of incubation, the
plate was scanned using a Fluoromark Microplate Fluorometer (Bio-Rad,
USA) with excitation at 485 nm and emission at 590 nm.
Data analysis
The significance of differences between group means was tested by
analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by protected t tests when
appropriate. The presence of daily rhythmicity in salivary growth
hormone was tested by ANOVA and by the cosinor procedure [[84]11].
Results
Self-assessment psychosomatic complaints questionnaire
A factorial repeated measures ANOVA (high/low self-assessment versus
morning/evening self-assessment scores) was conducted. ANOVA results
showed significant differences (p < .05) between morning and evening
self-assessment scores. Post hoc analyses revealed that, as shown in
Table [85]1, the high self-assessment group (total 19.00) differed
significantly from the low self-assessment group (total 32.75) in terms
of their morning scores (Welch's t-test, t = -3.96, df = 7.57, p <
0.01). The low self-assessment group subjects complained of negative
psychosomatic conditions including being easily irritated (p < .05),
feeling melancholy (p < .05), having a desire to rest (p < .05), and
feeling anxious (p < .01).
Assessment of daily rhythmicity of salivary growth hormone secretion
We collected saliva profiles from 15 healthy students (4 men and 11
women). The amplitude of salivary growth hormone, defined as the
difference between the highest and lowest salivary concentrations, was
used to produce a standardisation, or Z, score. As shown in Figure
[86]1, noticeable variation was observed in the hormonal rhythms of the
subjects, including differences in the salivary growth hormone
secretion profiles of the high and low self-assessment groups. Cosinor
analysis revealed no significant 24-hour rhythmicity in the secretion
profiles of either group (p > .50), but a repeated measures ANOVA
identified statistically significant (p < .05) time-related variations
for growth hormone in the high self-assessment group. The secretion
profile of the low self-assessment group did not exhibit the typical,
sharp peak in the early morning [[87]12], and ANOVA showed no
time-related variation (p > .10). At 08:00 h, salivary growth hormone
levels were significantly lower (p < .05) in the low self-assessment
group than in the high self-assessment group.
[88]thumbnail Figure 1. Daily variation in salivary level of growth
hormone in the high and low self-assessment groups. The results are
presented as means ± S.E.M. * p < .05.
Discussion
Psychosocial factors have been previously shown to affect the
psychosomatic symptoms reported by Japanese school children [[89]13].
Psychosomatic symptoms, which are largely mediated by the autonomic
nervous system, are strongly influenced by an individual's lifestyle,
and the current so-called 24-h society in Japan may have changed the
environmental conditions of students. More than 80% of school refusal
cases (school phobia) suffer from sleep disorders, with a tendency
towards day/night reversal and easy fatigability, especially during the
period immediately following their school social life [[90]14]. Thus,
impairment in circadian rhythmicity may be a cause of school refusal in
Japan. The present study was the first step in an attempt to
investigate this hypothesis.
Our assessment of salivary growth hormone secretion was not sensitive
enough to detect significant daily rhythmicity, but the highest level
measured in the subjects of our high self-assessment group occurred
earlier in the day than the peak of the daily rhythm measured in a
previous study [[91]15]. Peak hormonal secretions often shift to the
morning if an activity continues long into the night. A link between
deficiency of growth hormone and reduced quality of life or well-being
has been reported by many researchers [[92]7].
Our results indicate a relationship between the self-assessment scores
and the levels of growth hormone. Subjects with high self-assessment
scores in the morning showed significant variability in growth hormone
secretion during the day, whereas subjects with low self-assessment
scores did not. Thus, psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with
hormonal rhythms related to basic lifestyle habits.
Nocturnal melatonin secretion can be suppressed by exposure to light on
the order of several hundred lux, such as ordinary room light [[93]16].
Thus, a subject's pattern of melatonin secretion may reflect his or her
life rhythm, and melatonin secretion appears to be an important index
of circadian rhythmicity. Based on our previous finding that growth
hormone and melatonin exhibit similar daily rhythmicity [[94]17], we
believe that estimates of the state of the central circadian clock can
be most accurate if they are based on the analysis of the secretion
patterns of both melatonin and growth hormone.
Some limitations of our study must be emphasized. First, it is possible
that the sleep-disrupting effect of waking at 00.00 and 04.00 to
produce a saliva sample had a disruptive effect on hormonal secretion.
Second, we observed a larger difference in terms of gender than has
been previously described [[95]18], with women having sevenfold higher
serum growth hormone concentrations than men during the day. Though we
did not directly examine sex differences in growth hormone secretion,
we recognise it as an important topic for further research.
Conclusion
Psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with circadian dysfunction, as
inferred from blunted rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors' contributions
MN designed the experiments, collected data and wrote the manuscript.
KY managed the laboratory and adjusted the schedule of subjects. SW
participated in the design of the study and performed statistical
analysis. MN supervised the study. All authors read and approved the
final version of the article.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported in part by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific
Research (C) from the Japanese Ministry of Education to Nagane M.
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American Political Culture
The Generational Rhythm of American Politics
The American Mosaic, Chapter 2
Daniel J. Elazar
It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States
combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount
of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no
less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space.
Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location
within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less
pinpointed.
This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is
structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of
generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to
the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast
developments with great success. At the same time he has applied
that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that
very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs.
Early Studies of Generational Rhythms
Students of society have noted the succession of generations since
ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology
on generational measures.
The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear
time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning
of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs.
It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the
individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the
starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon
and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon
operating in history.^2
Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational
basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first
recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the
system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third
and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the
Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average
generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full
generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical
scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression,
"forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5
Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The
"generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity
of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a
common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a
time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces
time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new
judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation
and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7
Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have
beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the
founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central
interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of
its beginnings and its ancestry.
Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were
the first to articulate systematic theories of generational
progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte
viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the
thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in
shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the
unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the
aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social
cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that
"History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of
Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle
phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences
appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals
comes to dominate society.^9
These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical
verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years
of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop
the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed
the principle that generations are articulated through historical
events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained.
Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a
fourfold classification of generations as preparatory,
revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10
Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11
Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that
generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific
study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and
heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation
century.^13
After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the
succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of
social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between
contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who
are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his
student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked
on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and
Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm
Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri
Peyre (1948).^16
More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused
on problems of intergenerational differences and the political
socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes
or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund
Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study
of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their
study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963)
focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966)
studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957)
utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in
Israel and the United States, respectively.^20
All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a
comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of
their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and
those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving
many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the
studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two
parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the
people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact,
both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined
that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The
linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive
theory.
None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a
generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black
box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods.
Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of
three generations.
Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining
way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an
empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is
somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin.
Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature,
art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of
eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular
basis.
Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to
embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under
the heading of "a generation".
Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History
A number of theories of political cycles in American history have
been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of
American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational
thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a
series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based
on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective
governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect
"concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of
property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the
wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid
movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories
include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter
Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical
theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the
"more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments"
using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process.
Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the
interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United
States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical
periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23
Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the
manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work.
Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in
presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the
House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual
party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in
American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of
an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American
history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in
length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes
that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device
since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable
directions.
Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his
emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by
using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of
voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state
vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates
five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s)
and the present.
Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the
level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five
periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of
stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of
approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing
already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an
established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in
turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis
to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment
occurs in every generation.
While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with
American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he
begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three
of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive
happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning
point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that
Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a
generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts
as follows:
1787-1801-1816
1816-1829-1841
1841-1861-1869
1869-1901-1918
1918-1931-?
The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the
beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them
primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles
rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have
been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational
patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the
following pattern:
1790-1796/1800
1800-1824/1828
1828-1824/1860
1860-1888/1896
1896-1932
His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to
that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their
significance in the periodization process.
Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although
even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if
it is schematized as follows:
1789-1820
1828
1856-1860
1893/1894
1932
Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized
as follows:
1896-1912
1912-1920-1932-1952
1952
Pomper also offers election dates and no more:
1836
1864-1876
1876-1892/1896
1928/1932-1952
1952-1964
None of these are complete theories and all must be considered
within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit.
Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough
approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the
commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United
States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The
revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of
generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson
Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods
of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named:
e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era.
In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers
developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the
federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could
not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however,
the American people were treated to a display of federal activity --
and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by
FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the
mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth
of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the
mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper
understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United
States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow
of time and events.)
The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its
own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human
time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible
pattern in the progression of political events in the United States
over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not
happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events
in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in
cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the
biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human
life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is
substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though
the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this
phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26
The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind
another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit
decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every
government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on
the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on
the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of
attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be
supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that
being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons
who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive
generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a
fixed moment, as individuals do now....
What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the
same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a
constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A
generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case,
would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to
contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for
14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily
deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of
their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at
that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated
from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of
climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors.
Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that
23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a
society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the
ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as
follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all
ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half
will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every
year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly
have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half
of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time
will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest
integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the
representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself
assembled, can validly extend a debt.
On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a
perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every
constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of
34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not
of right.
The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that
would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to
his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French
Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the
sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making
on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every
nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme,
Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one
which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one
way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure
of location in time.
Human Social Rhythms
As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural
measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a
common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the
"lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does
appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account
for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely
and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation
in any particular civil society and chart the relations among
generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical
patterns of its politics.
During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years,
averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people
will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then
pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every
individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in
which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited.
Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she
begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime
between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at
which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life"
ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and
political roles as are given to mature men and women in society.
Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a
person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention,
if not physically, considered ready for retirement.
Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an
individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first
fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially
powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote,
and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After
attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period
of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be
translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among
those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s
before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on
the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become
serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are
able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the
scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be
defined as the ending of one's serious political career without
suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's
30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential
influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise
influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political
leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds
forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship.
The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle
of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young
people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters
actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people
in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then
declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to
"retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28
In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each
individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society
is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a
common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any
particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its
history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical
record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and
the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at
the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In
the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed
leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in
power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age
and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a
result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly
established.
Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults
settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and
in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational
progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and
purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began
more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed
from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the
door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to
begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of
the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their
patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby
allowing a new generation to assume the reins.
Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they
establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in
social and political life than that found in the simple processes of
human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were
equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the
biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by
locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace
the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of
organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings
are recorded in history, we can do just that.
Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the
progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins
of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is
shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the
impact of the change and encourages new political action to
assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new
generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at
the most four generations are alive at any given time creates
certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of
grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of
inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact
help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In
this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is
socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and
politically unmanageable.
Generations, Centuries and Events
Since the founding of the first European settlements along the
Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations
of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series
of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the
twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three
generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain
distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense
recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th
century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of
American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in
which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century
stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th
century is the century of the United States as a world power.
Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as
chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European
history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have
begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing
point, thus:
a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603)
and the 17th century began with the opening of the American
frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between
the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of
the times.
b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty
of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which
eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the
Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration
for both countries.
c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the
War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era
of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff).
d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the
inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak
of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land
frontier.
Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments
that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show
every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then
dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are
immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the
nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged
during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation
under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a
century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn,
the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments
having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic
society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated
American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments
disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently
in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments
that will replace them.
The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth
generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the
past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators
have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just
when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of
generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was
ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal
intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of
the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of
alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the
generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life
so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began
after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided
over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the
renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence.
The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be
delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression
will be related to major forces and factors shaping American
history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the
principal challenges facing the American people in each generation
and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing
forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of
critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization
in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial,
ethnic and religious groups.
One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate.
Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with
such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for
analytical purposes than life ever is.
The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the
period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old
World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany,
but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually
every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original
thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native
Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies,
and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate
nation with its own civilization.
The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century,
which, from the first American recognition of common continental
interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for
Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent
American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism,
successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and
established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The
idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the
political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans.
The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations,
beginning at the point where America turned its back on European
entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced
them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an
industrialized continental nation with a strong national government;
abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world
power ready for overseas involvements.
The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century --
reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the
arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with
the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding
over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the
results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the
industrial revolution.
As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with
the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the
United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished
relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first
generation of the transformation of society as a result of the
application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new
frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse
of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically
dominant although economically weakened. The results of these
phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder
of the generation.
Generations and Frontier Stages
The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are
products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In
American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if
not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and
centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American
frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other
historical and political phenomena.
Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has
been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of
human control over the natural environment and the utilization of
the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control,
i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American
society is a product of this commitment which is virtually
self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one
frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier
situation that has created the major social and economic changes
which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's
political institutions.
America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages
to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the
metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic
frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled
with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been
decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American
life within that stage.
The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the
historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted
from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the
end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on
the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American
continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the
products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the
westward movement on a basically rural population interested in
settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a
socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits
in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was
dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an
active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and
still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in
Alaska.
Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth
the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and
spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation
into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the
spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's
economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented
the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States,
where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater
part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it
first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the
beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands
of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally
superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth
generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the
end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various
localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant
characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities
from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into
independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and
social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their
existence and growth.
By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth,
in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is
characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society
through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that
encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large
metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from
atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the
accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further
changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with
their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered
a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like
the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological
frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on
a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation.
After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly
and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and
pace of development across the country.
The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by
the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to
be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The
late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash
from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism
challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s,
ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution,
and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth
premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of
resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were
saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over.
By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was
emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the
metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers,
satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new
data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large
belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated
by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not
connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and
small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single
metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different
purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern
coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found
in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its
early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges,
initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its
renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of
financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American
economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of
Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West.
Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues
of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new
frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement
patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its
own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns
and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands
themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between
the points of generational division and the shifts in the various
frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater
detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as
part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are
closely related to the opening of new centuries.
Generations and Economic Periods
One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a
continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to
meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a
result, the governments of the United States have always maintained
a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in
the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to
era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the
governmental response. These changes have also developed on a
generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the
founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic
policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth
generation of American history) the American government continued a
semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the
nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government
involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during
which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in
which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the
outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful
competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a
generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially
unregulated by government.
Demands for government regulation that built up during the last
generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of
intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first
generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the
eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active
government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system.
Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around
toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less
government intervention.
Centuries, Generations and Federalism
The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can
also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first
generation of American history brought the introduction of federal
principles through the contracts and covenants that established the
colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through
Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the
seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a
local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of
national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose
strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly,
concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in
the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and
crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and
then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century.
The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has
been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society.
Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal
with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques
have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These
new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed
have been major elements in the concrete response to the
generation's challenges.
Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship
The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and
their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the
challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of
American history and politics. The changes in those relationships
also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries.
British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious
pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through
giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular
territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as
indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In
the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized
in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian
differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery.
Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism
was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones
existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste
system was in the making.
During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and
sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the
original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the
virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation.
Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new
lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was
abolished in the North.
The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial
establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was
almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant
immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new
post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through
the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration
reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to
reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was
reaffirmed through the institution of segregation.
From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open
pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The
barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants
began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those
barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by
the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape
up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the
twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but
those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of
American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say,
to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American
culture.
While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been
presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the
generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted
descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some
cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary
period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational
responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New
Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political
dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the
Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era.
The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses
Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular
challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its
own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and
the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In
some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could
act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In
others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the challenges changes from century to century.
During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the
tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various
colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related
to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence
of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially
related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American
national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been
essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society
and the assumption of an American role in world affairs.
The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the
initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which,
objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively
recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing
recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors
such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in
voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with
mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to
public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters
does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet
existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular
progression of political events revolving around the development of
a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its
response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and
responses that gives each generation its particular character. While
the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external --
or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is
primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation
themselves.
In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has
taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each
colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its
sisters, and the other science independence when a common national
constitution created a common national politics. In some cases,
particularly after independence when the nation could act
decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other,
particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the political challenges that have dominated the
American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a
new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating
the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the
19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope,
wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the
20th century, they have essentially related to the
metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an
American role in world affairs.
In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within
each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and
new generations is marked by several decisive political actions,
often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature
is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old
generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and
opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a
time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues
they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political
action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population
change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political
activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur
the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the
direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders
to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the
generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many
quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of
governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to
the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five
years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with
digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so
that they will achieve greater success and at the same time
integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The
end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify
and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the
issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for
political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be
recognized.
The Bench Marks of American Political History:
Critical Elections and New Deals
In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a
particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a
system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can
also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political
history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune
with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds;
first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a
particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of
intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government
initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each
generation.
The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections
A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the
sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period
of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The
generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this
pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which
brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs
of voters, shifting them from one political party to another.
Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a
"critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of
electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound
readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the
community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are
formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result
of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide
electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency
from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one
major element to another.
Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that
there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the
allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively
long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public
opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the
1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with
a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In
consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats
have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters
identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority
party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order
to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and
representatives to win control of Congress.
The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968,
only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled
the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a
military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the
"normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his
party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in
1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after
twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the
Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the
Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems,
won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular
Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a
Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his
victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition
and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a
period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White
House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the
Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the
GOP controlled the Senate.
A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a
nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent
and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on
a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical
loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations,
personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of
the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are
nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders
(or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate
state parties which form the two national confederations known as
the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties
are confederations of the state parties, so is the national
coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional
coalitions.
Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and
thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the
electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to
remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead
to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution,
too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems
attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the
dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary
inroads in the various electoral groups.
Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces
opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in
public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in
the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party
that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means
certain that the majority party will even win all the national
elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and
usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a
limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its
losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The
states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as
bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend
its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority
coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for
national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards
for the party faithful during the years of national "famine."
As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent
electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their
changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with
each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find
the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass
and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in
importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed
and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the
realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment
of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a
reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad
electoral groups.^33
While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state
and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon
only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election.
Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make
embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become
fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional
elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional
election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical
elections."^34
The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the
development of the institution of the popularly elected president.
Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of
electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize
presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited
apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and
the House of Representatives.
Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part
of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the
use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on
the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The
generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem.
It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not
so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a
disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as
did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current
during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the
end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that
they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant
percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and
alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues
lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote
as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children
came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the
majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational
buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the
guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file"
alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of
each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the
ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from
balance to majority.
"New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity
The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of
innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind
usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin
Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as
the historical watersheds they are.
In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S.
Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform
activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for
their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian
Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over
a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that
enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way
the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems
of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his
Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind
because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the
moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was
cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic
U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly
the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use
the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came
Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for
all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B.
Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as
it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s.
The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted
approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of
governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of
the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for
another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon
to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational
consolidation.
The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years
between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in
Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of
extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President
Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to
resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial
presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its
power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic
problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led
the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill
the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the
hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states
and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington
before undertaking any activities.
The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an
"outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community
marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth
in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by
many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation,
usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time.
President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's
international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to
shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of
infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the
Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and
localities. These were all to become principal issues during the
period of generational build-up.
The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to
the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the
American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the
tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that
followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By
the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on
behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were
referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues
of the new generation.
Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been
invariably preceded by critical elections through which the
reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to
generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die --
determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either
by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting
them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as
unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to
majority status. These critical elections, which attain their
visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and
interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which
face them.
Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the
party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series
of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the
Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the
1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had
become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the
Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans.
Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the
majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times
and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats
picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in
1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party
coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen
it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The
old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent
severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted
and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the
Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the
programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing
period for the Democratic coalition.
To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in
American politics is not to suggest that events move in any
lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same
as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the
"normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence
we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them
for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too
can be done that gives the theory its power.
Summary
Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of
American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical
understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more
interest to European social philosophers than American social
scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the
question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics,
often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their
theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation
rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to
understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human
social rhythms generally.
Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their
internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries
represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them.
The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation,
constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to
them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical
elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political
history recurring on a generational basis.
Notes
1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by
Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970);
Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational
Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979).
2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the
Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973).
3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5
(Garden City: Doubleday, 1987).
4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday,
1987).
5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a
generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse
11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers,
chapter 32, verse 13.
7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11;
chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte
(London: G. Bell, 1896).
9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive
(London, 1862).
10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani
(Milano: Monanni, 1929).
11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen,
der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4.
(1875), pp. 36-41.
12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on
Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds.,
Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline
(Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in
History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane,
Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp.,
1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1990).
13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method.
14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933).
15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti,
ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and
Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales
(Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in
der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F.
Schoeningh, 1933).
16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der
Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926);
Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and
Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig,
1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris:
Boivin, 1948).
17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the
Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger,
1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4
(1972): 564-78.
18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the
Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956).
19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin,
American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970).
20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and
Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield,
Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970).
21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939).
22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago:
Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the
Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key,
Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961);
Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968);
Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1989).
23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party
System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210.
24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of
Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the
years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of
American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur
Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co.
1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to
conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the
article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using
liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the
generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written
as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something
which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best
reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government
from the Civil War to the New Deal.
25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first
presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American
Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no.
1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns
Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also
Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University
Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992).
26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789.
27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years
old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve
in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President.
28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and
Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman
H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and
the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary
M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney
Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American
Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for
the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris
Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in
America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W.
Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get
Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb
and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda
Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber,
Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership
(Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey,
Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.:
Brooks/Cole, 1989).
29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with
special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in
The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York:
Macmillan, 1961).
30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965):
Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the
Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989).
31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18.
32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections
in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability,"
Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171.
33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate
(Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James
L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and
Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical
Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York:
Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?"
in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party
Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American
Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press
of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed.,
Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and
Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise
Institute, 1983).
34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American
Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party
System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony;
David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization,
Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter,
Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American
Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of
Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985).
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Titre du document / Document title
Rhythms of the secular : The politics of modernizing Arab poetic
forms = Rythmes du séculaire : la politique de modernisation des formes
poétiques arabes
Auteur(s) / Author(s)
FURANI Khaled^ (1) ;
Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s)
^(1) Tel-Aviv University, ISRAEL
Résumé / Abstract
In this article, I ethnographically trace how Arab, mainly Palestinian,
poets have modernized their literary tradition during the last seven
decades. Shortly after the 1948 Israeli occupation of Palestine, the
reign of the classical Arabic ode collapsed, and the modern forms of
free verse and, later, the prose poem became dominant. Aiming to
contribute to the ethnography of modernity, I examine how poets have
adopted and abandoned poetic forms by analyzing their narratives on
rhythm. I explore the political salience of rhythmical transformations
and argue that the secular has been a vital and complex force in the
modern abandonment of metrical discipline. The secular affects how
poets seek to modernize their rhythm, vocabulary, and relation to
public. It also affects, I conclude, the ways in which anthropologists
can and do write about modernity.
Revue / Journal Title
American ethnologist ISSN 0094-0496
Source / Source
2008, vol. 35, n^o2, pp. 290-307 [18 page(s) (article)] (2 p.1/4)
Langue / Language
Anglais
Editeur / Publisher
American Ethnological Society, Washington, DC, ETATS-UNIS (1974)
(Revue)
Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords
Rhythm ; Transformation ; Modernization ; Poet ; Modernity ; Poetry ;
Israel ; Palestine ; Near East ;
Mots-clés français / French Keywords
Forme poétique ; Tradition littéraire ; Arabe palestinien ; Rythme ;
Transformation ; Modernisation ; Poète ; Modernité ; Poésie ; Israël ;
Palestine ; Proche-Orient ;
Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords
poetic form ; modernity and secularism ; Palestine-Israel ;
Localisation / Location
INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 16902, 35400019805879.0070
Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 20449527
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Title: The Rhythm of Political Oratory
Author: [14]Varvara Danilina
Email: [15]click here to access email
Degree Awarded: Moscow State University , Department of Foreigh
Languages
Degree Date: 2002
Linguistic Subfield(s): Discourse Analysis
Sociolinguistics
Subject Language(s): [16]English
Director(s): [17]Ludmila Minaeva
___________________________________
Abstract:
My doctoral dissertation was completed after four years of research on
the rhythm of British and American political oratory. I sought to
establish the rhythmic norm for political public speech and to find
out, whether any deviations from this norm (i.e. from an expected
rhythmic model) influence listeners and provoke their verbal reactions
or bursts of applause. To accomplish this task I used a variety of
linguistic and rhetorical methods, and drew upon social psychology and
political science.
There is no single linguistic perspective on speech rhythm. For
instance, such distinguished scholars as D. Crystal and D. Abercrombie
regard it as a purely phonetic phenomenon. At the same time, according
to Moscow University school of thought, to which I belong, speech
rhythm is created by a blend of phonetics, syntax and meaning of an
utterance. As a result of my research, I established rhythmic
regularities for political oratory at five levels.
Firstly, I analyzed pauses that divide the stream of speech into
segments (syntagmas), and classified all the pauses into syntactic,
rhetorical or unintentional (unintentional pauses are caused by
hesitation, deliberation, stammering, interruptions by listeners, etc).
Secondly, I established the relative frequency of short, medium and
long syntagmas between pauses, and thirdly, analyzed the rhythmic
structures constituted by linear sequences of syntagmas. Fourthly, I
studied the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables inside
syntagmas. And finally, I considered all kinds of repetitions, both
rhetorical and unintentional. This method of rhythmic analysis is based
on earlier analytical models designed by my university colleagues. My
own contribution consisted in adapting this method to the study of
public speech, describing the typical rhythm of political oratory, and
challenging some popular assumptions about speech rhythm.
As for the impact of speech rhythm upon listeners, I started by
analyzing audiences in order to understand psychological, social and
political conditions of that process. G. Le Bon, Z. Freud and other
scholars demonstrated conclusively that members of a crowd (and the
audience of a public speech is a crowd) are connected with each other
and with their leader (in our case, a speaker) by strong subconscious
ties. However, the degree of unity or polarization of an audience may
differ. Besides, each audience can be characterized according to
several other criteria that determine listeners' responsiveness and the
nature of their responses: their emotional state, the level of
expertise in a particular subject, the demographic and social
characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, social status, occupation,
education), the existing evaluation of discussed issues, which is
largely determined by listeners' ideologies, and finally, the attitude
to the speaker, which can be positive, negative or indifferent. I have
applied this model of audience analysis to determine peculiarities of
the British parliamentary audience in October 1996, and of the US
Congress in the aftermath of September 11, 2001.
To analyze the reactions of these audiences to the rhythm of Prime
Minister Major and President Bush's parliamentary addresses I used M.
Atkinson's version of the conversation analysis method. I showed the
two speeches as dialogues between the speakers and their listeners, and
singled out phrases and syntagmas that immediately preceded audience
responses, such as cheering, booing, laughter or bursts of applause.
These phrases and syntagmas happened to be quite similar in terms of
rhythm to other stretches of speech in the same addresses. Moreover,
there proved to be little rhythmic difference between John Major and
George Bush's speeches. In short, my research demonstrated that there
is no direct interconnection between the rhythm of a public address and
audience responses.
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Afrobeat
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[13]removed. (September 2008)
Afrobeat is a combination of [14]Yoruba music, [15]jazz, [16]highlife,
and [17]funk [18]rhythms, fused with [19]percussion and [20]vocal
styles, popularized in [21]Africa in the 1970s. Its main creator was
the [22]Nigerian multi-[23]instrumentalist and [24]bandleader [25]Fela
Kuti who used it to revolutionise musical structure as well as the
political context in his native Nigeria. It was Kuti who coined the
term "afrobeat" upon his return from a U.S. tour with his group Nigeria
70 (formerly Koola Lobitos).
The new sound hailed from a club that he established called the
Afro-Shrine. Upon arriving in Nigeria, Kuti also changed the name of
his group to Fela Ransome-Kuti & Africa 70. The band maintained a
five-year residency in the Afro-Shrine from 1970 to 1975 while afrobeat
thrived among Nigerian youth. Afrobeat is now one of the most
recognisable music genres in the world and has influenced as many
Western musicians as it has African ones with its exuberant style and
polyrhythms.
Contents
* [26]1 Origins
* [27]2 Influence
* [28]3 Instrumentation
* [29]4 Today
* [30]5 External links
[[31]edit] Origins
Afrobeat originated from the southern part of [32]Nigeria in the 1960s
where Kuti experimented with many different forms of contemporary music
of the time. Prevalent in him and Lagbaja's music are native African
harmonies and rhythms, taking different elements and combining,
modernizing and improvising upon them. [33]Politics are essential to
afrobeat, since founder Kuti used social criticism to pave the way for
social change. His message can be described as confrontational and
controversial, which can be related to the political climate of most of
the African countries in the 1960s, many of which were dealing with
political injustice and military corruption while recovering from the
transition from colonial governments to self-determination. As the
genre spread throughout the African continent many bands took up the
style. The recordings of these bands and their songs were rarely heard
or exported outside the originating countries but many can now be found
on compilation albums and CDs from specialist record shops.
[[34]edit] Influence
Many jazz musicians have been attracted to afrobeat. From [35]Roy Ayers
in the seventies to [36]Randy Weston in the nineties, there have been
collaborations which have resulted in albums such as Africa: Centre of
the World by Roy Ayers, released on the Polydor label in 1981. In 1994
[37]Branford Marsalis, the American jazz saxophonist, included samples
of Fela's "Beast of No Nation" on his Buckshot leFonque album. The new
generation of DJs and musicians of the 2000s who have fallen in love
with both Kuti's material and other rare releases have made
compilations and remixes of these recordings, thus re-introducing the
genre to new generations of listeners and fans of afropop and groove.
Afrobeat has profoundly influenced important contemporary producers and
musicians like [38]Brian Eno and [39]David Byrne, who credit Fela Kuti
as an essential muse. Both worked on [40]Talking Heads'
highly-acclaimed 1980 album [41]Remain In Light which brought
polyrhythmic afrobeat influences to Western music. More recently, the
horn section of [42]Antibalas have been guest musicians on [43]TV On
The Radio's highly-acclaimed 2008 album [44]Dear Science, as well as on
British band [45]Foals' 2008 album [46]Antidotes.
[[47]edit] Instrumentation
Big band (15 to 30 pieces: Fela-era afrobeat) and energetic
performances
* Lead vocals (may play sax/key solos as well)
* Chorus vocals (may include horn players)
* Rhythm guitar(s) (plays funk strumming pattern)
* Tenor guitar (plays a finger-picked osinato groove)
* [48]Bass guitar
* [49]Drum set, generally in the form [50]polyrhythmic percussion
* Saxophone(s)
* Trumpet(s)
* Trombone(s)
* Organ/keyboards
* Rhythm [51]conga #1
* Rhythm [52]conga #2
* Solo (lead) [53]conga
* [54]Akuba: a set of 3 small stick-hit congas (play
flourishes/solos, and ostinatos). Also mistakenly called "gbedu".
* "Sticks"/[55]claves (plays ostinato)
* [56]Shekere
[[57]edit] Today
There are several active afrobeat bands worldwide today.
Modern afrobeat bands/artistes include:
* [58]Kokolo (band), New York City Afrobeat/Afrofunk group formed by
songwriter/producer Ray Lugo
* [59]Nomo, [60]Ann Arbor based group that weaves various styles into
a primarily Afrobeat sound.
* [61]Chicago Afrobeat Project Chicago based collective that uses
afrobeat as a springboard and has an incendiary live show.
* [62]Afrodizz, an eight-piece band from [63]Montreal, [64]Canada
formed by jazz guitarist Gabriel Aldama
* [65]The Afromotive, an Asheville, NC based multiracial seven-piece
afrobeat band featuring thirty-third generation djembe player Adama
Dembele from Cote d`Ivoire, West Africa.
* [66]Tony Allen, the man who held the drum chair during Fela's
productive "Africa 70" phase, and whose drumming was, according to
[67]James Brown's autobiography, the influence behind his
'discovery' of funk.^[[68]citation needed]
* [69]Antibalas, [70]Brooklyn, New York based multiracial Afrobeat
Orchestra formed by baritone saxophonist Martin Perna
* [71]Aphrodesia, San Francisco based group, first American group to
perform with Femi Kuti at The Shrine in Lagos, Nigeria.
* [72]Ayetoro, a group led by Nigerian pianist/composer [73]Funsho
Ogundipe
* [74]Bebe cool lives in Uganda famous for his reggea mixed with
luganda pop and English making an Afrobeat rhythm in Uganda known
as Luga flow.He also lives in kampala.
* [75]Chopteeth, an international 14 piece outfit based in Washington
D.C., with former members of Busta Rhymes, The Temptations, The
Four Tops, and Gladys Knight & the Pips.
* [76]Femi Kuti (Fela's first son and a saxophonist) and the Positive
Force
* [77]Seun Kuti (another of Kuti's sons, saxophonist now fronting his
father's last and late band)
* [78]Dele Sosimi's Gbedu Resurrection Dele is a former keyboardist
and musical director of Fela's band. He cofounded Femi Kuti's
Positive Force.
* [79]Zozo Afrobeat A thirteen-member group based in NYC, founded by
Kaleta, former Fela guitarist.
* [80]Baba Ken and the Afro-Groove Connexion Oakland based
multiracial afrobeat ensemble led by Nigerian bassist, Baba Ken
Okulolo, founding member of the seminal 1970's afrofunk/afrorock
band, Monomono.
* [81]Jose Chameleone famous in East, central and South Africa.He
stays and live is Uganda in kampala city.He sing pop and Afro beat
music.He is one of the most famous artists of Afro beat in Africa
and the whole world.
* [82]Afrobeat Down Los Angeles based Afrobeat ensemble (est. 2002)
working with former Fela Africa '70 member and catalyst of entire
afrobeat movement, Sandra Izsadore.
* [83]Weird MC Rap artiste who occasionally experinments with
Afrobeat rhythm.
* [84]Vibe Squad A Ghanaian music crew formed by EaZZY Da Opemfour
made of Prego, Culchar, Wizzy Wii and Richie.
* [85]Gnl zamba rap artist in Uganda one of the most successful rap
afrobeat star in East Africa and central Africa.He is known for his
rhythm of 2 pac shakur
* [86]Mr. Something Something Canadian afrobeat group
* [87]Crime Scene Infunkstigation A 10-piece Afrobeat/Funk/Hip Hop
group based out of Calgary, AB
[[88]edit] External links
* [89]KOKOLO on Myspace
* [90]KOKOLO on YouTube
* [91]KOKOLO Official Homepage
* [92]The Afrobeat Blog
* [93]The Unofficial Seun Kuti Fan-Site - Unofficial fan-site for
Seun Kuti & Egypt 80 with news, videos, music, pictures and much
more]
* [94]The Shrine The Unofficial Website for Fela Kuti, Femi Kuti and
Afrobeat Music
* [95]BBC Afrobeat Documentary
[96]v o [97]d o [98]e
Genres of [99]African popular music
Afrobeat · [100]Apala · [101]Benga · [102]Bikutsi · [103]Cape Jazz ·
[104]Chimurenga · [105]Fuji · [106]Highlife · [107]Hiplife ·
[108]Isicathamiya · [109]Jit · [110]Jùjú · [111]Kizomba · [112]Kuduro ·
[113]Kwaito · [114]Kwela · [115]Makossa · [116]Maloya ·
[117]Marrabenta · [118]Mbalax · [119]Mbaqanga · [120]Mbube ·
[121]Morna · [122]Palm-wine · [123]Raï · [124]Sakara · [125]Sega ·
[126]Soukous/Congo/Lingala/Rumba · [127]Taarab
[128]v o [129]d o [130]e
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[151]List of funk musicians o [152]Minneapolis sound
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* ____________________ Go
12 12/2006 [38]Compose to a Vertical Rhythm
by [39]Richard Rutter
* [40]Article
* [41]29 comments
"Space in typography is like time in music. It is infinitely divisible,
but a few proportional intervals can be much more useful than a
limitless choice of arbitrary quantities." So says the typographer
Robert Bringhurst, and just as regular use of time provides rhythm in
music, so regular use of space provides rhythm in typography, and
without rhythm the listener, or the reader, becomes disorientated and
lost.
On the Web, vertical rhythm - the spacing and arrangement of text as
the reader descends the page - is contributed to by three factors: font
size, line height and margin or padding. All of these factors must
calculated with care in order that the rhythm is maintained.
The basic unit of vertical space is line height. Establishing a
suitable line height that can be applied to all text on the page, be it
heading, body copy or sidenote, is the key to a solid dependable
vertical rhythm, which will engage and guide the reader down the page.
To see this in action, I've created [42]an example with headings,
footnotes and sidenotes.
Establishing a suitable line height
The easiest place to begin determining a basic line height unit is with
the font size of the body copy. For [43]the example I've chosen 12px.
To ensure readability the body text will almost certainly need some
leading, that is to say spacing between the lines. A line-height of
1.5em would give 6px spacing between the lines of body copy. This will
create a total line height of 18px, which becomes our basic unit.
Here's the CSS to get us to this point:
1. body {
2. font-size: 75%;
3. }
4.
5. html>body {
6. font-size: 12px;
7. }
8.
9. p {
10. line-height 1.5em;
11. }
12. Source: [44]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/1.txt
There are many ways to size text in CSS and the above approach provides
and accessible method of achieving the pixel-precision solid typography
requires. By way of explanation, the first font-size reduces the body
text from the 16px default (common to most browsers and OS set-ups)
down to the 12px we require. This rule is primarily there for Internet
Explorer 6 and below on Windows: the percentage value means that the
text will scale predictably should a user bump the text size up or
down. The second font-size sets the text size specifically and is
ignored by IE6, but used by Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other
modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels.
Spacing between paragraphs
With our rhythmic unit set at 18px we need to ensure that it is
maintained throughout the body copy. A common place to lose the rhythm
is the gaps set between margins. The default treatment by web browsers
of paragraphs is to insert a top- and bottom-margin of 1em. In our case
this would give a spacing between the paragraphs of 12px and hence
throw the text out of rhythm. If the rhythm of the page is to be
maintained, the spacing of paragraphs should be related to the basic
line height unit. This is achieved simply by setting top- and
bottom-margins equal to the line height.
In order that typographic integrity is maintained when text is resized
by the user we must use ems for all our vertical measurements,
including line-height, padding and margins.
1. p {
2. font-size:1em;
3. margin-top: 1.5em;
4. margin-bottom: 1.5em;
5. }
6. Source: [45]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/2.txt
Browsers set margins on all block-level elements (such as headings,
lists and blockquotes) so a way of ensuring that typographic attention
is paid to all such elements is to reset the margins at the beginning
of your style sheet. You could use a rule such as:
1. body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl
ockquote,th,td {
2. margin:0;
3. padding:0;
4. }
5. Source: [46]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/3.txt
Alternatively you could look into using the [47]Yahoo! UI Reset style
sheet which removes most default styling, so providing a solid
foundation upon which you can explicitly declare your design
intentions.
Variations in text size
When there is a change in text size, perhaps with a heading or
sidenotes, the differing text should also take up a multiple of the
basic leading. This means that, in our example, every diversion from
the basic text size should take up multiples of 18px. This can be
accomplished by adjusting the line-height and margin accordingly, as
described following.
Headings
Subheadings in the [48]example page are set to 14px. In order that the
height of each line is 18px, the line-height should be set to 18 ÷ 14
= 1.286. Similarly the margins above and below the heading must be
adjusted to fit. The temptation is to set heading margins to a simple
1em, but in order to maintain the rhythm, the top and bottom margins
should be set at 1.286em so that the spacing is equal to the full 18px
unit.
1. h2 {
2. font-size:1.1667em;
3. line-height: 1.286em;
4. margin-top: 1.286em;
5. margin-bottom: 1.286em;
6. }
7. Source: [49]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/4.txt
One can also set asymmetrical margins for headings, provided the
margins combine to be multiples of the basic line height. In our
example, a top margin of 1½ lines is combined with a bottom margin of
half a line as follows:
1. h2 {
2. font-size:1.1667em;
3. line-height: 1.286em;
4. margin-top: 1.929em;
5. margin-bottom: 0.643em;
6. }
7. Source: [50]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/5.txt
Also in our example, the main heading is given a text size of 18px,
therefore the line-height has been set to 1em, as has the margin:
1. h1 {
2. font-size:1.5em;
3. line-height: 1em;
4. margin-top: 0;
5. margin-bottom: 1em;
6. }
7. Source: [51]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/6.txt
Sidenotes
Sidenotes (and other supplementary material) are often set at a smaller
size to the basic text. To keep the rhythm, this smaller text should
still line up with body copy, so a calculation similar to that for
headings is required. In our example, the sidenotes are set at 10px and
so their line-height must be increased to 18 ÷ 10 = 1.8.
1. .sidenote {
2. font-size:0.8333em;
3. line-height:1.8em;
4. }
5. Source: [52]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/7.txt
Borders
One additional point where vertical rhythm is often lost is with the
introduction of horizontal borders. These effectively act as shims
pushing the subsequent text downwards, so a two pixel horizontal border
will throw out the vertical rhythm by two pixels. A way around this is
to specify horizontal lines using background images or, as in our
example, specify the width of the border in ems and adjust the padding
to take up the slack.
The design of the footnote in our example requires a 1px horizontal
border. The footnote contains 12px text, so 1px in ems is 1 ÷ 12
= 0.0833. I have added a margin of 1½ lines above the border
(1.5 × 18 ÷ 12 = 2.5ems), so to maintain the rhythm the border +
padding must equal a ½ (9px). We know the border is set to 1px, so the
padding must be set to 8px. To specify this in ems we use the familiar
calculation: 8 ÷ 12 = 0.667.
Hit me with your rhythm stick
Composing to a vertical rhythm helps engage and guide the reader down
the page, but it takes typographic discipline to do so. It may seem
like a lot of fiddly maths is involved (a few divisions and
multiplications never hurt anyone) but good type setting is all about
numbers, and it is this attention to detail which is the key to
success.
Like what you read?
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Comments
* [55]12/12/2006
Wow this is a good article.
* [57]12/12/2006
[58]Will
thanks so much, this is great.
* [59]12/12/2006
Interesting stuff. Also worth reading Eric Meyer's post on unitless
line-heights:
* [61]12/12/2006
It's worth mentioning that IE6 and below can go a bit extreme when
resizing fonts set as ems.
You can fix this by applying font-size: 100% to html. Don't know
why this works, it just does.
Oh, if you're working in quirks mode you'll also need to apply it
to thead, tbody and tfoot, beacuse the fix doesn't inherit (don't
apply it to table unless you want table to inherit font-sizes). You
don't need thead, tbody or tfoot in your tables as tbody is
implied.
Obviously, you can't then apply your own font-sizes to html or
tbody etc, else you'll overwrite the fix, which is why I chose
those particular elements as they're rarely used for font-sizes.
Jake.
* [63]12/12/2006
[64]Mike Stenhouse donotremove.co.uk
Hmmmmm, interesting! I've not tried this but I think there might be
an easier way to set those heights... What if the line-height is
set to, say, 1.5em on the body and 1 (unit-less - it's valid!) on
each descendant element? Or maybe some variation on that. It might
force the 18px to inherit into the children without awkward
calculations.
* [65]12/12/2006
Great article, Richard! Web typography--like all
typography--deserves this level of detailed thinking, and I hope to
see more designers embracing it.
* [67]12/12/2006
[68]michael h
Good introduction to typography theory, but I am convinced that the
Owen Briggs method is the best approach to sizing.
* [69]13/12/2006
I've been working on something similar recently, and I've
discovered that if you set the line-height in pixels, most browsers
will still scale it proportionally along with the text. As IE6's
numbers fall off, I hope we can leave all this black magic scaling
math behind and go back to setting font sizes in pixels and letting
the browsers handle the scaling.
* [71]13/12/2006
Mike - you're right about being able to simplify the line-height
specifications, but it doesn't require setting unitless
line-heights. In the example I use, I've set the font-size to be
12px on the body and calculated line-heights for all the subsequent
elements. As I required one line height - 18px - for all elements I
can remove the multiple statements and simply set line-height:1.5em
on the body. The calculated line-height of 18px is inherited by all
elements on the page. I've modifed the example to show this
(checked in Firefox, Safari and IE6):
However the maths would still need to be performed to calculate the
correct margins, so while the extra line-height specifications are
not strictly necessary (at least while the same line height for all
text is required) you unfortunately don't save much on the
calculations.
* [73]13/12/2006
Jake - the extreme text sizing in IE can be fixed by applying any
percentage font size to the body - it doesn't have to be 100%
(hence my use of 75% fixed this too).
You're right about the tables though. This rule does the job nicely
to inherit the text size:
table, thead, tbody, tr, th, td {font-size:1em}
* [75]13/12/2006
[76]GreLI
In the article next rule is used to reset margins:
body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl
ockquote,th,td {
margin:0;
padding:0;
}
I think it easier to use universal selector (* { margin: 0;
padding: 0 }) instead.
To fix table font-size inheritance it's enough to set
table { font-size: 1em }
Opera AFAIK don't change font-size if it set in pixels, but it can
zoom pages (so does IE7).
* [77]13/12/2006
GreLI - using the universal selector like that to zero all margins
and padding can cause unpredictable results in some form controls
(e.g. SELECT elements) in certain browsers.
Rich - great article; now all someone needs to do is knock up a
nice little app that spits out the right line-heights and margins
for the elements you tell it... :)
* [79]13/12/2006
It's unfortunate that pretty much no one composes with a scale when
publishing for the web. Your article is a great step forward.
Also overlooked are line lengths. Since the beginning of the web,
It has been a standard practice to expand the line lengths out with
the width of the browser (like your site is currently :), causing
line lengths to expand way too long. If an optimal line length for
print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even
smaller.
* [81]14/12/2006
I don't see it mentioned in the comments yet, but your quote above:
"...Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which
allow users to resize text sized in pixels."
is not correct, as IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in
pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized.
* [83]18/12/2006
If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths
for web should be even smaller.
You're right to mention line length as something that is
overlooked, but on the screen it is not as simple as setting the
measure in ems as their are more factors involved (screen size,
liquid layouts, etc). Also I'd disagree that web line lengths
should be shorter on the web. My personal preference would be for
them to be longer - I find short line lengths on screen extremely
hard work to read. That's just my opinion though.
IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout
can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized.
If you think of the reasons for changing text size then zooming a
layout is just another form of resizing text and achieves the same
goal.
* [85]20/12/2006
Theodore, I think you would enjoy Richard's article entitled
"Choose a comfortable measure" over at webtypography.net :)
1.2/
* [87]22/12/2006
[88]Rachel Maxim
You've said in a few pages what has taken me years to figure out
and refine :) - great info!
* [89]23/12/2006
I really enjoyed this article. I have read your Elements of....for
the web, as well as your blog about sizing text in ems. I have
really been looking in to using this and getting the best `flow'
with my typography. I also ordered the book Elements of Typographic
Style just to give a better understanding.
I think its a common misconception that text on the web will always
look bland, and you have proved that it can have rhythm and style.
* [91]02/01/2007
I've just been using some of these techniques on a client's site
who needed 8 tabs all the same width, which fill the available
space - I had it working fine in Firefox, but the tabs didn't fill
the space in Safari or IE. I found that you really have to do the
maths, rather than just use trial and error - they all round the
numbers slightly differently. Once I'd checked my calculations,
rather than tinkered with the numbers, it works fine everywhere, at
least at standard font size.
One other correction from someone's comment earlier on - you can
resize text in IE7 - click the page icon at top right. Why you need
both this and the ability to zoom, I'm not sure, but it's there at
any rate.
* [93]03/01/2007
[94]Ben G
Can you set the margin above or below headings or paragraphs to
less than your 18px base measurement? Won't margin collapsing cause
whichever the largest margin is to take effect?
Ben
* [95]31/01/2009
[96]Daniel
I've been using this article as the basis for designing my site
with some "vertical rhythm". Everything is going well except with
forms (input, textarea, etc.). I just haven't been able to use css
to maintain the vertical rhythm (based on total line height of
18px).
Any advise or insight as to how to get forms to play nicely?
* [97]15/02/2009
[98]Silver Firefly
I wanted to clarify something about the default browser text size
and using the em unit. The article was a tad misleading when it
covered the default browser text size and the em unit. A lot of
designers have it in their heads that an em is equivalent to 16
pixels. An em is not equivalent to 16 pixels. It is equivalent to
whatever is set in the user's browser, which is commonly 16px but
depending on the user, it can be 20px or 12px or whatever they have
set in their browser's settings. I hope after reading that
statement, designers will start to realise that they have little
control over how their website appears in other users' browsers.
The majority of the control lies in the user's hands. Other than
that, the article was very good.
* [99]17/04/2009
Great article... and AWESOME site design. Inspirational!
* [101]27/04/2009
Typesetting for websites is the future, like all things
content-related. The Google knows it :). Thank you for that useful
post. You webdesigners take care of your text!
* [103]05/06/2009
[104]bonfield
Inline bolding of elements (I'm using Helvetica, e.g.) seems to add
a px of height on any line that uses it, and that subtly throws off
the vertical rhythm for each line and it can add up depending
-- anybody else run into this and solve it?
* [105]18/06/2009
[106]Anonymous
Does this truly keep the vertical rhythm? If you zoom in on the
example, you'll see that the descender of the letter g in the H1
header "New England" crosses your rhythm marker's background line,
while a lowercase g in the following paragraph does not. There
appears to be some fudging going on.
* [107]08/07/2009
I find it humorous that this site itself does not compose to a
vertical rhythm. I've seen very few online that do. It's so
difficult to implement across browsers it is usually brushed aside
except for in the most simple design schemes.
* [109]03/08/2009
[110]eric
I've yet to see any empirical evidence that "vertical rhythm"
applied to this degree has any impact on how well a reader is able
to extract signal from the noise of the page.
Meanwhile, I've seen many, many examples of mis-applied "vertical
rhythms" resulting in squashed headings where the underlning on a
link impinges on the text below. Which just looks clunky.
When you've got something other than an aesthetic opinion from the
margins -- maybe some actual data -- then I'll be interested in
expending the effort needed to support real vertical rhythm. Until
then, I just don't see how it's cost-effective.
* [111]02/09/2009
Now, that was the kind of article I was looking for. That goes a
lot deeper than I've been into the realms of line-spacing, leading
(no kerning here though - can we do kerning with css?).
I love the analogy to musical rhythym > therefore probably
following on to mathematics/geometry/proportion. That is a great
lead-in. Is there any room for the `golden ratio' in web design? Do
graphic designers use it with/without realising it? Just that I
haven't seen it discussed in the myriad pages concerning page
layout/design that I've read so far...
Thanks,
Darren
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[114]Richard Rutter
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[115]Clearleft. He runs an ongoing project called [116]The Elements of
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good web typography. Richard occasionally blogs at [117]Clagnut, where
he writes about design, accessibility and web standards issues, as well
as his passion for music and mountain biking.
[118]More information
Related articles
* [119]Real Fonts and Rendering: The New Elephant in the Room
22/12/2009 by [120]Jeffrey Zeldman
* [121]Spruce It Up
19/12/2009 by [122]Jonathan Snook
* [123]Designing For The Switch
16/12/2009 by [124]Mark Boulton
* [125]Type-Inspired Interfaces
07/12/2009 by [126]Dan Mall
* [127]A Festive Type Folly
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* [129]Increase Your Font Stacks With Font Matrix
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* [131]Typesetting Tables
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* [133]Knockout Type - Thin Is Always In
17/12/2006 by [134]Shaun Inman
* [135]An Explanation of Ems
02/12/2005 by [136]Richard Rutter
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[1]Home > [2]Articles > [3]Design > [4]Typography
[5]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm
[6]Jason Cranford Teague
* By [7]Jason Cranford Teague
* Dec 23, 2009
[8]Toggle Open Article Table of Contents [9]Article Contents
[10]Close Table of Contents [11]Article Contents
1. [12]Web Measurements
2. [13]Type Size & Line Height
3. [14]Type Space
4. Text Alignment
[15]Close Table of Contents
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[28]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm
Dec 23, 2009
[29]Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers: Creating Meaning through
Syntax
Jul 23, 2009
[30]Designing Webbed Environments: The Importance of the Define and
Design Phases
May 12, 2006
[31]Creating Web Pages for Screen, Print, and Email
Apr 28, 2006
[32]How to Style Forms in CSS
Mar 17, 2006
[33]What Are CSS Sprites?
Mar 3, 2006
[34]Ten Things You Can Do with CSS (That You Might Not Have Known You
Could Do)
Dec 22, 2005
[35]Fluid Web Typography [36]Fluid Web Typography
Nov 24, 2009
[37]Fluid Web Typography, Adobe Reader [38]Fluid Web Typography, Adobe
Reader
Nov 24, 2009
[39]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers
[40]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers
Jun 30, 2009
[41]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers, Adobe
Reader [42]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web
Designers, Adobe Reader
Jun 30, 2009
[43]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, 4th
Edition [44]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual
QuickStart Guide, 4th Edition
Oct 17, 2006
[45]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide,
Adobe Reader, 4th Edition [46]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth
Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, Adobe Reader, 4th Edition
Oct 17, 2006
[47]DHTML and CSS Advanced: Visual QuickPro Guide [48]DHTML and CSS
Advanced: Visual QuickPro Guide
Dec 15, 2004
[49]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 3rd
Edition [50]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual
QuickStart Guide, 3rd Edition
Feb 20, 2004
[51]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 2nd
Edition [52]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual
QuickStart Guide, 2nd Edition
May 30, 2001
[53]10 Last-minute Gifts for Web Designers
By on December 17, 2009 1 Comment
Q: What do I get for the Web designer who has everything?
The short answer is real estate.
The slightly longer answer is, anything that helps spark their
creativity.
The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah,
Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [54]Saturnalia
myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift
giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has
everything they need to actually make Web sites?
Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect.
[55]Choosing the Right Color Value
By on December 14, 2009 No Comments
Q: Should I use Hex or RGB values to define colors in CSS?
The short answer is RGB.
The slightly longer answer is that Hex values have become the de
facto standard for use in CSS code and both developers and
designers are used to them.
The long answer is that, in the final design on the screen,
there is no difference between using Hex or RGB values in your
code. Which system you use is really a matter of you own
personal preference (and those of the team you are working with)
as to whether or not you use Hex or RGB values to define colors.
[56]Expand Your Font Repertoire
By on November 30, 2009 No Comments
Q: Are there alternatives to Arial, Times, and Georgia for Web
designers?
The short answer is YES!
The slightly longer answer is that most designers use Arial,
Times, or Georgia, and, to a lesser degree, Verdana, Trebuchet
MS, Courier, and Comic Sans because they think that's all they
have at their disposal, but they are wrong.
The long answer is that the core Web fonts (the one listed above
plus Impact and Web Dings) are used because they are almost
guaranteed to be installed on the vast majority of computers
your designs are likely to be installed on. One fact of life in
Web design is that unless the end user's computer has access to
the font file, then the browser cannot use it.
[57]Pixels or Ems in Your Web Designs
By on November 18, 2009 No Comments
Q: What is the practical difference between px (pixel) and em
(pronounced m)? When is it best to use one over the other?
The short answer is that pixels measure dimensions relative to
the screen while ems measure dimensions relative to type size.
The slightly longer answer is that pixels are the natural unit
for measuring dimensions on a screen and are often used when
precise design is required. Ems are the natural unit for
measuring type and used when you want to allow maximum design
flexibility.
[58]To CSS Reset or Not to CSS Reset
By on November 10, 2009 No Comments
Question: Which Global Reset for CSS Should I Use?
The short answer is the simplest one possible.
The slightly longer answer is that you should reset some styles,
but do so with a good reason.
The long answer is that the exact CSS reset you choose will
depend on the needs of your design. I like to keep my own reset
simple, relying on adding styles to specific tags as needed.
However, there are several styles that are inconsistent or (in
my opinion) poorly set in most browsers.
[59]HTML 5 NOW!
By on August 25, 20092 Comments
Q: Can I start using HTML 5 now?
The short answer is, yes.
The slightly longer answer is, you can use some of the new
features, but you will need to do a little [60]kludging to get
it to work.
The long answer is that HTML is a mark-up language meant to
indicate the structure of a document. HTML 5 is the next
evolutionary step in mark-up languages for the Web, but it is
not implemented on most browsers that your audiences are likely
to be using and it may be some time before it is. That said,
there are some things you can do now to prepare for the future.
[61]Big Things Ahead for HTML 5
By on August 17, 2009 No Comments
Q: Will HTML5 or XHTML5 be the next big thing or just another
collection of past standards and browser war fodder?
The short answer is that, yes, [62]HTML 5 is the next big thing.
The slightly longer answer is that it's going to be a while
before you have to start worrying about HTML 5.
The long answer is that, as with all standards, before it
becomes relevant, the browser makers have to implement it and
then you'll have to wait even longer before legacy browsers are
no longer an issue. So, you have some time before you have to
run out and buy a new HTML 5 Visual QuickStart Guide. The good
news is that HTML 5 has gone to great lengths to stay backwards
compatible, so you can begin to learn and implement it today.
[63]Everyone is a Web Designer
By on August 10, 2009 No Comments
Q: What is a Web Designer anymore? It was easier to make Web
sites all by yourself, even 5 years ago, but now there is just
too much technology for one person to handle. If I want to make
a Web site for a very small business, don't have I to be web
"developer" now?
The short answer is that everybody is a Web designer now.
The slightly longer answer is that Web designers are
practitioners of a highly specialized discipline that requires
years of study to truly master.
The long answer is that a good Web designer is a good designer,
and this can come "naturally" or from training, but is not
medium-dependent. However, a professional Web designer has to
understand the medium well enough to know its strengths and
limitations. Any designer can pump out something that looks
brilliant when displayed in a Web browser window, but is slow to
load, static when loaded, and completely unusable.
[64]Frames are Dead, Long Live Iframes!
By on July 24, 2009 No Comments
Q: Is there a suitable alternative to frames? My wife is
president of a local woman's club. She and I administer the
club's web site, and the ladies like the list of links down one
side of the pages. But I read that frames have been deprecated.
Regardless, I want to keep the site simple.
The short answer is yes-- use iframes.
The slightly longer answer is no, not exactly, but we can get
close.
The long answer is there are a variety of ways to add content to
your Web pages, but the question is: once it's on the page what
are you going to do with it (or to it)?
[65]Q: If I ask ten different web designers what pixel dimensions to
use for web pages and whether to make them fixed-width or
"stretchy," I get ten different answers. What's your answer, and
why?
By on July 20, 2009 No Comments
The short answer is fixed at 974 pixels (px) wide.
The slightly longer answer is whatever it takes to get the job
done.
The long answer is that asking a Web designer what size a Web
page should be is like asking a painter what size a canvas
should be or an architect how large a a building should be.
While it's not purely a matter of taste--there are certain
physical and ergonomic constraints--personal preference accounts
for the wide variety of answers you might hear.
[66]Ask me, ask me, ask me
By on July 1, 2009 No Comments
Do you have a question about Web standards, CSS, JavaScript,
Ajax, interaction design, user experience, or Web typography?
Maybe you just want to know "How'd they do that?" Ask me
questions, and each week I will select a question to answer via
my Peachpit.com blog.
[67]Ask the Web Designer: Why Can't I Use Any Font I Want in My Web
Designs?
By on June 30, 2009 No Comments
The short answer is that you can.
The slightly longer answer is that you can't, at least not in
any meaningful way yet.
The long answer is that the ability to download fonts has
actually been a part of the CSS standard (the language used to
create Web designs) for over 10 years. The snag comes with what
font formats a given browser supports.
[NOTE: You may want to stop reading now, as the rest of this
explanation might make your eyes bleed in frustration.]
[68]Fluid Web Typography
This chapter is from the book
[69]Fluid Web Typography
Jason Cranford Teague shows how giving careful consideration to the
measurements and scale you are designing for is what separates good Web
typography from great Web typography.
Text Alignment
Text alignment is generally taken for granted on the Web--left
alignment suits most purposes most of the time. In order to create a
sense of rhythm and movement on your page, helping to guide the
reader's eye around and adding visual interest to the page, a little
alignment variation can go a long way.
Set body text alignment to minimize gaps and maximize scanning
Text alignment in Web pages is, by default, to the left, with ragged
edges on the right. Justified text--sometimes called newspaper columns,
where both edges of the text are aligned--is rare on the Web.
text-align: left;
text-align: justify;
In print, justified text is created using a variety of techniques
including word spacing, letterspacing, hyphenation, and glyph
reshaping. In addition, well-formed justification is calculated on a
paragraph level to prevent "rivers" of white space flowing down the
middle. On the Web, unfortunately, justification is simply created by
adding small amounts of space between words. On the screen, where you
can only add whole pixels, this often results in uncomfortably large
amounts of space between some words, especially in narrower columns.
Hyphenation is inexplicably absent from CSS. While it is proposed for
inclusion in CSS 3, no work has currently been done on it.
When choosing to use left or justified alignment, keep in mind these
factors:
* Justified text is often seen as more formal and structured, while
left alignment is more informal and approachable.
* Justified text reinforces the grid structure of a page but can be
harder to scan, since it often creates rivers of white space
throughout the text, which interrupts the eye path.
* Left-aligned text adds an element of white space to the right edge,
softening the overall appearance of the page.
Combining Alignments
[70]craigmod.com
Craig Mod combines right-and left-justified columns of text to create
motion and rhythm around his page.
[71]04-17.jpg
[72]Click to view larger image
Center or right-justify text for effect and variety
More rarely used, centering or right-justifying text can create a
specific feeling on the page.
text-align: center;
text-align: right;
Centering and right aligning text is integrally dependent on the design
you are creating and how you want your readers to scan the page. While
using a variety of justifications helps create rhythm and motion on
your page, it can quickly seem cluttered or obnoxious. Always have a
specific purpose for the variance of alignment, and use it sparingly.
Here are a few ideas:
* Bulleted or numbered lists should not be centered or right aligned,
as this makes them harder to scan by moving the beginning of each
line around.
* Center section or module titles/headers if you want to make your
site look a little different. Generally, section titles are best
when left aligned, but centering them gives your designs a unique
feel and may also improve scannability.
* Right-align text in the left column of a page or table if it helps
show a closer relationship between the elements in adjacent
columns.
Centered Section Titles
[73]jontangerine.com
Jon Tangerine combines centered subheadings with justified text in his
blog (detail shown) to create solid structure with visual movement.
[74]04-18.jpg
[75]Click to view larger image
Increase margins for longer quotations and style the citation
Short quotes of less than three lines are included in a paragraph
surround by quotation marks, requiring no other special formatting. In
HTML, the blockquote tag is used to set off a block of text as a
quotation, generally of two lines of text or longer. The quotation
should be styled to distinguish it from other text by indenting its
left and right margins and increasing the top and bottom margins. The
amount of left/right indentation is based on the width of the column
and then adjusted so that it does not conflict with any other indents.
A good measure to offset blockquotes is to double the font size (2em),
although more or less space may be required for wider or narrower
columns:
blockquote { margin: 2em; }
note.jpg In this chapter, we are only considering spacing issues with
blockquotes and citations. Chapters 5 and 6 offer other ways to style
text, including weights, italics, backgrounds, and borders. These can
be deployed to creatively display longer quotations.
This will clearly space the blockquote away from the rest of the text,
but it's also up to the copywriter to make it clear that the text is a
quote and to supply its source, possibly using the cite tag, which
indicates a citation. Turning the cite tag into a block-level element
and right-aligning it when it is included in a blockquote creates a
strong style.
blockquote cite {
display: block;
text-align: right; }
Blockquote Ideas
[76]css-tricks.com/examples/Blockquotes
CSS-Tricks has a page of blockquote ideas with sample code.
The code above will force any text marked by the citation tag to a new
line and right-align it.
[77]04-20.jpg
[78]Click to view larger image
Set footnotes and scientific or mathematical annotations using positioning
rather than vertical alignment
Vertical text alignment allows you to adjust the position of inline
text in relation to its natural baseline, shifting it up or down. For
footnotes, mathematics, and scientific notation, it will not be enough
to simply raise or lower the characters; you will also need to reduce
their size relative to the surrounding text. These styles can be
applied to the superscript and subscript tags, setting the vertical
position to the baseline and then setting a position relative to that:
sup, sub { font-size: .5em;
vertical-align: baseline;
position: relative; }
sup { top: -.65em; }
sup.math { top: -.8em }
sub { top: .2em; }
Although vertical-align provides several values to set the vertical
position of the text, these have proved to be unreliable in
multi-column layouts. The exact values will vary depending on the font,
and you may also need to add some left/right margins to add breathing
room.
[79]04-21.jpg
[80]Click to view larger image
Type Inspirations: Jon Tangerine
Beautiful typographic contrast.
Insightful typography editorials.
[81]jontangerine.com
Jon is a designer living in Bristol, UK, with some of the cleanest pure
Web typography I've seen. On top of this, his information and opinions
on Web typography are required reading for anyone interested in the
ongoing issues we face.
[82]04-22.jpg
[83]Click to view larger image
How he does it:
Jon uses a font stack of Web safe fonts, including Cochin, Baskerville,
and Palatino Linotype, down to Georgia. He then combines a wide variety
of sizes, styles, weights, and colors all scaled and spaced within a
strong grid to provide clear eye paths and legible text.
[84]04-25.jpg
[85]Click to view larger image
[86]04-26.jpg
[87]Click to view larger image
[88]04-27.jpg
[89]Click to view larger image
[90]04-28.jpg
[91]Click to view larger image
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[119]Jason Teague [120]10 Last-minute Gifts for Web Designers
By [121]Jason Cranford Teague on December 17, 2009 1 Comment
Q: What do I get for the Web designer who has everything?
The short answer is real estate.
The slightly longer answer is, anything that helps spark their
creativity.
The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah,
Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [122]Saturnalia
myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift
giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has
everything they need to actually make Web sites?
Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect.
[123]Kara Murphy [124]Just in time for the holidays: Our video-a-day
giveaway
By [125]Kara Murphy on December 16, 2009 No Comments
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presentation, branding, and much more, then you're in luck.
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[42]Nagane M
[43]Yoshimura K
[44]Watanabe SI
[45]Nomura M
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[48]Yoshimura K
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[65]Open Access Research
A possible connection between psychosomatic symptoms and daily rhythmicity in
growth hormone secretion in healthy Japanese students
Mitsuo Nagane^1 [66]email , Kazunori Yoshimura^2 [67]email , Shu-Ichi
Watanabe^3 [68]email and Masahiko Nomura^4 [69]email
^1 Department of Educational Physiology, Chiba University, Chiba
263-8522, Japan
^2 Department of Rehabilitation, Nihon Institute of Medical Science,
Japan
^3 Department of Physiology, Saitama Medical University, Japan
^4 International Education and Training Center, Saitama Medical
University, Japan
[email.gif] author email [email-ca.gif] corresponding author email
Journal of Circadian Rhythms 2009, 7:10doi:10.1186/1740-3391-7-10
The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be
Received: 3 February 2009
Accepted: 5 August 2009
Published: 5 August 2009
© 2009 Nagane et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
Abstract
Background
Students suffering from psychosomatic symptoms, including drowsiness
and feelings of melancholy, often have basic lifestyle problems. The
aim of this study was to investigate whether psychosomatic complaints
may be related to circadian dysfunction.
Methods
We examined 15 healthy students (4 men and 11 women) between 21 and 22
years old. To assess the presence of psychosomatic symptoms among the
subjects, we developed a self-assessment psychosomatic complaints
questionnaire consisting of five items pertaining to physical symptoms
and five items concerning mental symptoms. The subjects rated their
psychosomatic symptoms twice a day (08:00 and 20:00 h). We also
assessed growth hormone secretion patterns by fluorescence enzyme
immunoassay (FEIA). Salivary samples were collected from the subjects
at home five times a day (20:00, 24:00, 04:00, 08:00, and 12:00 h) in
Salivette tubes.
Results
The results indicated a relationship between the self-assessment scores
and the salivary levels of growth hormone. Subjects with high
self-assessment scores showed significant variability in growth hormone
secretion over the day, whereas subjects with low self-assessment
scores did not.
Conclusion
Psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with circadian dysfunction, as
inferred from blunted rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion.
Background
Japanese students suffering from psychosomatic disorders, such as those
involving mood and sleep, may exhibit basic problems in their
lifestyle, including deleterious changes in their living environment
and dietary or lifestyle disturbances [[72]1]. In particular, staying
up late is associated with decreased appetite and missed breakfast the
following morning, irregular bowel movements and sleepiness. Perhaps
the biggest problem facing today's Japanese students is their lack of
daily physical exercise, brought on by stressful academic courses over
long periods of time, too much television and computer games and
increased automobile use [[73]2]. Many Japanese youngsters stay up late
at night [[74]3].
A circadian pacemaker in the central nervous system regulates human
sleep cycles, hormone secretion, subject alertness, objective
performance levels and other physiologic functions over a 24-h period.
Core body temperature, plasma cortisol, and plasma melatonin are three
variables frequently used to estimate the phase of the human pacemaker
[[75]4], although many other hormones, including growth hormone,
exhibit daily rhythmicity. Technical advances that make the assessment
of biomarkers in saliva possible have enabled researchers to
non-invasively study biosocial processes related to stress in
naturalistic contexts. Chiappin et al [[76]5] showed the usefulness and
possibility of salivary hormone analysis containing growth hormone.
Rantonen [[77]6] found a linear correlation between salivary and serum
growth hormone.
Carroll et al. [[78]7] described negative effects of growth hormone
insufficiency on psychological well-being, including reduced vitality
and energy, depressed mood, emotional lability, impaired self-control,
anxiety, and increased social isolation. Patients with growth hormone
deficiencies report decreased energy levels, greater emotional
lability, increased difficulties with sexual relationships and a
greater sense of social isolation than control subjects [[79]8].
However, no direct relationship has been shown between growth hormone
deficiency and psychometrically measured depression, apathy or
psychosomatic well-being [[80]9].
The purpose of the present study was to investigate individual
variation in the levels of growth hormone in healthy subjects and to
examine the relationship between an individual's hormone profile and
his or her psychosomatic complaints.
Methods
The subjects and self-assessment questionnaire
Fifteen subjects (4 men and 11 women) without major medical disorders
ranging in age from 21 to 22 years participated in this study. The
study design was approved by the Ethics Committee of Chiba University,
Japan, and informed consent was obtained from all subjects. A
self-assessment questionnaire concerning psychosomatic symptoms was
developed in accordance with data from the Health Behavior in
School-Aged Children (HBSC) study of the WHO [[81]10]. The
questionnaire for this study contained five items related to physical
symptoms and five items pertaining to mental symptoms (Table [82]1).
The questionnaire was used to measure each individual's psychosomatic
symptoms at home twice each day (08:00 and 20:00 h). The items were
rated on a 4-point scale, with 1 = not true at all and 4 = completely
true. The total score for the 10-item scale ranged from 10 to 40, with
higher scores indicating a greater degree of psychosomatic complaints.
The subjects were allocated post hoc (median split) to a High (n = 7)
or Low (n = 8) Self-Assessment Group based on their total morning score
(with higher scores corresponding to lower self-assessment).
[83]Table 1. Morning and evening psychosomatic condition scores
collected from the self-assessment psychosomatic complaint
questionnaire
Sample collection
Saliva was collected into Salivette tubes (Sarstedt, Germany) using
polyester swabs from the subjects' mouths following 2 min of chewing.
Samples were collected five times a day at home (20:00, 24:00, 04:00,
08:00, and 12:00 h). Both the day of sampling and the preceding day
were required to be normal days (i.e., without special events or
stressful circumstances). After sample collection, the saliva was
stored at -20°C until being analysed.
Salivary growth hormone assay
On the day of testing, the samples were centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for 10
min to remove all mucin. A standard fluorescent determination
immunoassay was used to assess the growth hormone concentrations in
each sample. To avoid inter-assay variability, all determinations were
performed in a single series. In the first step, 96-well fluoro-nunc
plates (Nunc, Black MicroWell 137101, Denmark) were pre-coated with 100
µl of anti-growth hormone antibody (Quartett, 2071800210, Germany) and
incubated for 1.5 h at room temperature. After incubation, the plate
was washed three times with phosphate-buffered saline and blocked for 1
h. After washing, 100 µl of saliva or a standard solution was dispensed
into each well and left for 1.5 h. After washing, primary antibody
(Funakoshi, FU47500254, Japan) was added to the plates and incubated
for 1.5 h. Next, incubation with a secondary antibody (Novus
Biologicals, NB120-7112, USA) was performed for 1 h. After washing,
rabbit anti-ovine immunoglobulin (Amersham Biosciences, ECF Western
Blotting Reagent Pack, USA) was added. After 20 min of incubation, the
plate was scanned using a Fluoromark Microplate Fluorometer (Bio-Rad,
USA) with excitation at 485 nm and emission at 590 nm.
Data analysis
The significance of differences between group means was tested by
analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by protected t tests when
appropriate. The presence of daily rhythmicity in salivary growth
hormone was tested by ANOVA and by the cosinor procedure [[84]11].
Results
Self-assessment psychosomatic complaints questionnaire
A factorial repeated measures ANOVA (high/low self-assessment versus
morning/evening self-assessment scores) was conducted. ANOVA results
showed significant differences (p < .05) between morning and evening
self-assessment scores. Post hoc analyses revealed that, as shown in
Table [85]1, the high self-assessment group (total 19.00) differed
significantly from the low self-assessment group (total 32.75) in terms
of their morning scores (Welch's t-test, t = -3.96, df = 7.57, p <
0.01). The low self-assessment group subjects complained of negative
psychosomatic conditions including being easily irritated (p < .05),
feeling melancholy (p < .05), having a desire to rest (p < .05), and
feeling anxious (p < .01).
Assessment of daily rhythmicity of salivary growth hormone secretion
We collected saliva profiles from 15 healthy students (4 men and 11
women). The amplitude of salivary growth hormone, defined as the
difference between the highest and lowest salivary concentrations, was
used to produce a standardisation, or Z, score. As shown in Figure
[86]1, noticeable variation was observed in the hormonal rhythms of the
subjects, including differences in the salivary growth hormone
secretion profiles of the high and low self-assessment groups. Cosinor
analysis revealed no significant 24-hour rhythmicity in the secretion
profiles of either group (p > .50), but a repeated measures ANOVA
identified statistically significant (p < .05) time-related variations
for growth hormone in the high self-assessment group. The secretion
profile of the low self-assessment group did not exhibit the typical,
sharp peak in the early morning [[87]12], and ANOVA showed no
time-related variation (p > .10). At 08:00 h, salivary growth hormone
levels were significantly lower (p < .05) in the low self-assessment
group than in the high self-assessment group.
[88]thumbnail Figure 1. Daily variation in salivary level of growth
hormone in the high and low self-assessment groups. The results are
presented as means ± S.E.M. * p < .05.
Discussion
Psychosocial factors have been previously shown to affect the
psychosomatic symptoms reported by Japanese school children [[89]13].
Psychosomatic symptoms, which are largely mediated by the autonomic
nervous system, are strongly influenced by an individual's lifestyle,
and the current so-called 24-h society in Japan may have changed the
environmental conditions of students. More than 80% of school refusal
cases (school phobia) suffer from sleep disorders, with a tendency
towards day/night reversal and easy fatigability, especially during the
period immediately following their school social life [[90]14]. Thus,
impairment in circadian rhythmicity may be a cause of school refusal in
Japan. The present study was the first step in an attempt to
investigate this hypothesis.
Our assessment of salivary growth hormone secretion was not sensitive
enough to detect significant daily rhythmicity, but the highest level
measured in the subjects of our high self-assessment group occurred
earlier in the day than the peak of the daily rhythm measured in a
previous study [[91]15]. Peak hormonal secretions often shift to the
morning if an activity continues long into the night. A link between
deficiency of growth hormone and reduced quality of life or well-being
has been reported by many researchers [[92]7].
Our results indicate a relationship between the self-assessment scores
and the levels of growth hormone. Subjects with high self-assessment
scores in the morning showed significant variability in growth hormone
secretion during the day, whereas subjects with low self-assessment
scores did not. Thus, psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with
hormonal rhythms related to basic lifestyle habits.
Nocturnal melatonin secretion can be suppressed by exposure to light on
the order of several hundred lux, such as ordinary room light [[93]16].
Thus, a subject's pattern of melatonin secretion may reflect his or her
life rhythm, and melatonin secretion appears to be an important index
of circadian rhythmicity. Based on our previous finding that growth
hormone and melatonin exhibit similar daily rhythmicity [[94]17], we
believe that estimates of the state of the central circadian clock can
be most accurate if they are based on the analysis of the secretion
patterns of both melatonin and growth hormone.
Some limitations of our study must be emphasized. First, it is possible
that the sleep-disrupting effect of waking at 00.00 and 04.00 to
produce a saliva sample had a disruptive effect on hormonal secretion.
Second, we observed a larger difference in terms of gender than has
been previously described [[95]18], with women having sevenfold higher
serum growth hormone concentrations than men during the day. Though we
did not directly examine sex differences in growth hormone secretion,
we recognise it as an important topic for further research.
Conclusion
Psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with circadian dysfunction, as
inferred from blunted rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors' contributions
MN designed the experiments, collected data and wrote the manuscript.
KY managed the laboratory and adjusted the schedule of subjects. SW
participated in the design of the study and performed statistical
analysis. MN supervised the study. All authors read and approved the
final version of the article.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported in part by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific
Research (C) from the Japanese Ministry of Education to Nagane M.
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[63]Open Access [64]Highly Access Research
Daily rhythm of cerebral blood flow velocity
Deirdre A Conroy^1 [65]email , Arthur J Spielman^1^,2 [66]email and
Rebecca Q Scott^3 [67]email
^1 Department of Psychology, The Graduate School and University Center
of the City University of New York, New York, USA
^2 Department of Neurology and Neuroscience, New York Presbyterian
Hospital, New York, USA
^3 Department of Health Psychology, Albert Einstein Medical College at
Yeshiva University, Bronx, USA
[email.gif] author email [email-ca.gif] corresponding author email
Journal of Circadian Rhythms 2005, 3:3doi:10.1186/1740-3391-3-3
The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be
Received: 21 December 2004
Accepted: 10 March 2005
Published: 10 March 2005
© 2005 Conroy et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
Abstract
Background
CBFV (cerebral blood flow velocity) is lower in the morning than in the
afternoon and evening. Two hypotheses have been proposed to explain the
time of day changes in CBFV: 1) CBFV changes are due to
sleep-associated processes or 2) time of day changes in CBFV are due to
an endogenous circadian rhythm independent of sleep. The aim of this
study was to examine CBFV over 30 hours of sustained wakefulness to
determine whether CBFV exhibits fluctuations associated with time of
day.
Methods
Eleven subjects underwent a modified constant routine protocol. CBFV
from the middle cerebral artery was monitored by chronic recording of
Transcranial Doppler (TCD) ultrasonography. Other variables included
core body temperature (CBT), end-tidal carbon dioxide (EtCO2), blood
pressure, and heart rate. Salivary dim light melatonin onset (DLMO)
served as a measure of endogenous circadian phase position.
Results
A non-linear multiple regression, cosine fit analysis revealed that
both the CBT and CBFV rhythm fit a 24 hour rhythm (R^2 = 0.62 and R^2 =
0.68, respectively). Circadian phase position of CBT occurred at 6:05
am while CBFV occurred at 12:02 pm, revealing a six hour, or 90 degree
difference between these two rhythms (t = 4.9, df = 10, p < 0.01). Once
aligned, the rhythm of CBFV closely tracked the rhythm of CBT as
demonstrated by the substantial correlation between these two measures
(r = 0.77, p < 0.01).
Conclusion
In conclusion, time of day variations in CBFV have an approximately 24
hour rhythm under constant conditions, suggesting regulation by a
circadian oscillator. The 90 degree-phase angle difference between the
CBT and CBFV rhythms may help explain previous findings of lower CBFV
values in the morning. The phase difference occurs at a time period
during which cognitive performance decrements have been observed and
when both cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events occur more
frequently. The mechanisms underlying this phase angle difference
require further exploration.
Background
It has been well documented that cerebral blood flow velocity (CBFV) is
lower in sleep [[70]1-[71]7] and in the morning shortly after awakening
[[72]8-[73]10] than in the afternoon or evening. Generally accepted
theories about the time of day changes in CBFV attribute the fall in
CBFV to the physiological processes of the sleep period and the
increase during the day to waking processes. The low CBFV in the
morning is thought to be a consequence of the fall in the overall
reduced metabolic level [[74]8,[75]10
,[76]11] and reduced cognitive processing [[77]12]. Additionally, the
reduced physical activity [[78]13], reduced body temperature, and the
recumbent sleeping position have also been proposed as contributors
[[79]14] to the decline in CBFV and analogous brain processes.
An alternative to these explanations that attribute changes in CBFV to
sleep and wake dependent processes is that this pattern of fluctuation
reflects an endogenous process with circadian rhythmicity. The decline
of CBFV across the sleep period and rise after subjects are awakened in
the morning resemble the endogenous circadian changes in core body
temperature (CBT), a reliable index of endogenous circadian
rhythmicity. Both patterns are low during sleep, start to rise in the
morning, reach their peak in the late afternoon, and then drop during
the sleep period.
The aim of this study was to examine CBFV over ~30 hours of sustained
wakefulness to unmask and quantify contributions of the endogenous
circadian system. By not permitting sleep, the evoked changes dependent
on this change of state will not contribute to the observed CBFV
changes. We hypothesized that time of day changes in CBFV are due to
endogenous circadian regulation. Previous studies have been limited by
several factors. First, the environmental conditions (light level) and
the behavior of the subject (sleep, meals, and caffeine intake) were
not controlled [[80]15,[81]13,[82]1
,[83]16]. Second, CBFV measurements were obtained at only a few
circadian points. For example, Ameriso et al. [[84]15] and Qureshi et
al. [[85]16] assessed CBFV between 6-8 am, 1-3 pm, and 7-9 pm. Diamant
et al [[86]13] assessed CBFV during the first 15 minutes of every hour
across a 24 hour period. Given these brief time periods, the findings
are only a schematic of the 24 hour profile. Third, primary output
markers of the endogenous circadian pacemaker (such as core body
temperature and melatonin production) were not assessed.
We employed the "constant routine" protocol, which was designed
specifically to unmask underlying circadian rhythms in constant
conditions [[87]17]. CBFV was collected by Transcranial Doppler (TCD)
ultrasonography for the entire study period. Core body temperature and
salivary dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO) were measured for
determination of circadian phase. Continuous electroencephalography
(EEG) was performed to ensure wakefulness across the study.
Additionally, measurements of blood pressure, heart rate, and end tidal
carbon dioxide (Et[CO2]), three of the main regulators of CBFV, were
collected every half hour.
Methods
Subject selection
Twelve subjects (10 men and 2 women; ages 19-38, mean 28 years) agreed
to participate. One subject discontinued her participation because of a
headache 15 hours into the study. Subjects were in good health, as
assessed by medical history, semi-structured clinical interview, and
physical exam. Information regarding menstrual cycle was not obtained
from female subjects. Subjects also underwent an independent standard
cerebrovascular assessment and were determined to be normal. They
reported no symptoms of sleep problems (such as insomnia, obstructive
sleep apnea, narcolepsy, or restless legs syndrome).
Subjects that were selected to participate kept to a designated
sleep-wake schedule (that was negotiated from the subject's typical
pattern) and filled out a sleep diary for the two weeks prior to the
time in the laboratory. According to sleep diary reports, bedtimes
ranged from 10:30 pm to 1:00 am and waketimes ranged from 6:00 am to
10:00 am. Alcohol and caffeine intake was discontinued for the entire
week before the study. During the data collection, subjects were not
permitted either alcohol or caffeine. All subjects were non-smokers.
Laboratory constant routine protocol
The study protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Boards of
New York Presbyterian Hospital - Weill Medical College of Cornell
University and The City College of New York. Subjects gave written and
informed consent before participating. Subjects arrived at the sleep
laboratory between 9:30 am and 10:00 am. They were oriented to the
study procedures and to their bedroom. Electrodes were placed on the
subject's head and face as they sat in a chair next to the bed. Data
collection began at 11 am. Subjects remained in bed and awake in a semi
recumbent position for 30 hours in an established "constant routine"
(CR) protocol. Subjects remained in low (<25 lux) light levels which
have been shown to have little or no entraining effect on the circadian
pacemaker [[88]18]. They were not allowed to get out of bed to urinate.
Instead they urinated in private in a urinal or bedpan. Subjects
remained awake from 11:00 a.m. on Day 1 until 5 p.m. on Day 2.
Throughout the study, subjects were provided small meals (Ensure ^®
liquid formula plus one-quarter nutritional food bar) every 2 hours.
Subject's typical total food and liquid intake for a day and a quarter
were divided into 15 relatively equal portions. Only one subject
participated in the CR per 30-hour period.
This protocol represents a modified CR in two ways. First, subjects
were allowed to watch television and were therefore were not in "time
isolation." Television content was monitored so that subjects were not
exposed to programs with highly emotional themes. Second, subjects
needing to defecate were allowed to go to the bathroom, which was
located a few steps away from the bedside. We chose this method as an
alternative to using the bedpan to ensure subject's comfort and study
compliance. Three subjects (subjects 05, 06, and 10) got out of bed
once at 3:30, 21:30, and 15:30, respectively, to defecate. One subject,
subject 12, got out of bed twice, at 22:30 and 6:35. Subject 10 used
the bathroom only during the adaptation period. A paired-samples t-test
was conducted to evaluate the impact of getting out of bed to defecate
on subject's CBT and CBFV values. The CBT and CBFV values in the two
hours before getting up were compared to the two hours after the
subject got up. Subjects 5 showed a slight decrease in CBT from before
(M = 98.12, SD = 0.14) to after the subject returned to the bed (M =
97.91, SD = 0.08), t(3) = -5.17, p = .014). Subject 6 showed a decline
in CBFV from before (M = 56.14, SD = 2.3) to after the subject returned
to the bed (M = 45.67, SD = 3.7), t(3) = 5.49, p = 0.012). There were
no other significant differences detected between these two time
periods for subject 5's CBFV, subject 6's CBT, or for both times
subject 12 got out of the bed. By visual inspection, the overall shape
of the curves in these subjects was not affected and therefore these
subject's data were included in subsequent analyses.
Transcranial Doppler ultrasound recordings
The current study utilized TCD ultrasonography to measure cerebral
blood flow velocity. TCD is a non-invasive instrument (consisting of
one or two 2-Mhz transducers fitted to a headband, MARC500, Spencer
Technologies, Nicolet Biomedical Inc) that is used predominantly as a
diagnostic tool to assess cerebral hemodynamics in normal and
pathological conditions. TCD ultrasonography is predicated on a theory
that involves the measurement of moving objects when combined with
radar. When the instrument emits the sound wave, it is reflected by the
blood cells that are moving in the vector of the sound wave [[89]19].
CBFV was measured using either the right or left middle cerebral artery
(MCA) using TCD sonography (TCD: DWL Multidop X-2, DWL Elektronische
Systeme GmbH, D-78354 Sipplingen/Germany) through the temporal window.
An observer who was present continuously during the recordings
evaluated the quality of the signal. This enabled long-term recording
of CBFV throughout the study. Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT) of the
signal was used to analyze the velocity spectra. The mean velocity of
the MCA was obtained from the integral of the maximal TCD frequency
shifts over one beat divided by the corresponding beat interval and
expressed in cm/sec. Analysis was conducted off line.
Measurement of standard markers of the circadian pacemaker
Body temperature recordings
Core body temperature was recorded at 1-minute intervals with an
indwelling rectal probe (MiniMitter, Co. Bend, OR). A wire lead
connected the sensor out of the rectum to a data collection system worn
on the belt. Temperature readings were collected and saved into the
device and monitored at hourly intervals by the investigator. After the
study, the recordings were visually inspected and artifacts resulting
from removal or malfunction of the probe were excluded from further
analysis.
Salivary melatonin
Salivary samples of 3 ml were collected every hour from 11:00 a.m. on
Day 1 to 4:00 p.m. on Day 2. Ten of these samples were used only for
the determination of the timing of the salivary dim light melatonin
onset (DLMO). For nine subjects, salivary DLMO was assessed across a
ten-hour time window that included the ten hours before the CBT
minimum. Immediately after collection, each saliva sample was frozen
and stored at -20°C. Saliva samples were assayed using Bühlmann
Melatonin Radio Immunoassay (RIA) test kit for direct melatonin in
human saliva (American Laboratory Products Co., Windham, NH). Analysis
was conducted at New York State Institute for Basic Research. Salivary
DLMO time was selected based on two criteria. The saliva sample needed
to have melatonin concentration 3 pg/ml or above and later samples
needed to show higher levels (Bühlmann laboratories). Second, the 3
pg/ml threshold needed to occur within 6-10 hours before core body
temperature minimum [[90]20].
Polygraphic recordings
Electroencephalography (EEG) was continually assessed across the 30
hours to ensure that subjects maintained wakefulness. The following
montage was used according to the international 10-20 system: C3-A2,
C4-A1, O1-A2, O2-A1, ROC-A1, LOC-A2, and submentalis electromyogram
(EMG). One channel of electrocardiogram was continuously recorded by
monitoring from two electrodes (one on each side of the body at the
shoulder chest junction). The EEG software (Rembrant Sleep Collection
Software Version 7.0) was used for data acquisition and display of the
signals on a personal computer. Throughout the CR, the investigator
(DAC) monitored the quality of the recordings. The recordings were
scored by RQS and DAC.
Blood pressure, heart rate, and end-tidal CO2
An automated blood pressure cuff was placed on the bicep of the subject
and inflated two times each hour in order to determine changes in blood
pressure and heart rate over time. Blood pressure and heart rate in one
subject (02) was recorded via a finger blood pressure monitor (Omron
Marshall Products, Model F-88). Blood pressure and heart rate in
subjects 03, 04, 05, 06, and 07 were recorded with Omron Healthcare,
Inc, Vernon Hills, Illinois 60061 Model # HEM-705CP Rating: DC 6V 4W
Serial No: 2301182L. Blood pressure and heart rate for subjects 08, 09
and 10 was recorded with a similar blood pressure monitor (CVS Pharmacy
Inc, Woonsocket, RI 02895 Model # 1086CVS). Blood pressure and heart
rate recordings were not measured in subjects 11 and 12. Et[CO2 ]was
continuously obtained. A nasal cannula for monitoring expired gases was
placed under the nose. Relative changes in carbon dioxide content were
measured by an Ohmeda 4700 Oxicap (BOC healthcare). Mean Et[CO2 ]levels
were analyzed off-line. Et[CO2 ]recordings were not measured in
subjects 11 and 12.
Data Analyses
Data reduction and statistical procedures
CBT and CBFV values were first subjected to data rejection. All CBT
values less than 96 degrees were determined to be artifact and were
rejected. All CBFV values less than 20 cm/sec were determined to be
artifact according to the clinical criteria set by the staff
neurologist. Data reduction was accomplished by averaging into one
minute, 30 minute or hourly bins. Correlations presented here were
performed on mean values in 30 minute bins. To ensure that circadian
measurements were made under basal conditions, the first five hours of
the constant routine were excluded from all analyses to eliminate
effects of study adaptation. The last hour was excluded to eliminate
confounding effects such as expectation effects.
The data are presented in this article in three ways. First, CBT and
CBFV values were plotted according to time of day (Figures [91]1 and
[92]2). Second, CBFV values were aligned according to the CBT nadir
(Figure [93]3) and third, the CBFV nadir was aligned to the CBT nadir
(Figure [94]4). To align CBFV to the CBT circadian nadir as shown in
Figure [95]3, the CBT nadir of each individual subject was set to
circadian time 0, or 0°. The CBFV value that corresponded to the CBT
nadir was then also set to 0. Each half hour data point after the
temperature nadir and corresponding CBFV values were then set to a
circadian degree. There were a total of 48 data points across the 24
hour period. Therefore, each data point was equal to 7.5 degrees so
that each data point would accumulate to 360°. Lastly, mean values were
obtained for CBT and CBFV at each circadian degree.
[96]thumbnail Figure 1. 24-hour Cosine Curve fit to Mean Core Body
Temperature (°F). Time course of CBT according to time of day. Shown is
a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/- SEM) of CBT (blue
diamonds) fit with a 24-hour cosine curve (purple squares). Time of day
is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate shows CBT values (degrees F).
The vertical line indicates where the data was double plotted. Also
displayed in the upper right corner is the non-linear cosine curve fit
for mean CBT, R^2 = 0.62. The overall mean circadian phase position of
the minimum was 6:05 am.
[97]thumbnail Figure 2. 24-hour Cosine Curve fit to Mean Cerebral Blood
Flow Velocity (cm/sec). Time course of CBFV according to time of day.
Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/- SEM) of
CBFV (blue diamonds) fit with a 24-hour cosine curve (purple squares).
Time of day is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate shows CBFV values
(cm/sec). The vertical line indicates where the data was double
plotted. Also displayed in the upper right corner is the non-linear
cosine curve fit for mean CBFV, R^2 = 0.67. The overall mean circadian
phase position of the minimum was 12:02 pm.
[98]thumbnail Figure 3. Mean CBT and CBFV Aligned to CBT Nadir. Time
course of mean CBFV and mean CBT aligned to the nadir of CBT and then
averaged. Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels
(+/-SEM) of CBT (purple squares) and CBFV (blue circles) aligned to the
phase of the circadian temperature cycle. Circadian time in degrees is
shown on the abscissa. The ordinate on the left shows CBT values
(degrees F) and CBFV (cm/sec) on the right. The vertical line indicates
the CBT nadir.
[99]thumbnail Figure 4. Mean CBT and CBFV Aligned to Their Respective
Nadir. Time course of mean CBFV and mean CBT aligned to each of their
respective nadirs and then averaged. Shown is a double plot of the
group (n = 11) mean levels (+/-SEM) of CBT (purple squares) and CBFV
(blue circles) aligned to the phase of the circadian temperature cycle.
Circadian time in degrees is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate on the
left shows CBT values (degrees F) and CBFV (cm/sec) on the right. The
vertical line indicates both the CBT nadir and the CBFV nadir. The
correlation coefficient between the aligned rhythms is 0.77 (p < 0.01).
To align the CBFV nadir to the CBT nadir, first, the lowest value of
CBT and the lowest value of CBFV were identified and set to circadian
time 0, or 0°. Each half hour data point after the CBT nadir and CBFV
nadir were then set to a circadian degree. There were a total of 48
data points across the 24 hour period. Therefore, each data point was
equal to 7.5 degrees so that each data point would accumulate to 360°.
Lastly, mean values were obtained for CBT and CBFV at each circadian
degree.
Estimation of circadian phase
A 24-hour non-linear multiple regression -cosine curve fit analysis was
performed on the CBT and CBFV data (SAS Institute, Cary, NC). This
technique constrains the circadian period of CBT and CBFV to be within
24 hours. This technique used the following equations: model cbt =
&avg_cbt + r * cos((2 * 3.1415) * (hours-&max_cbt)/24; model cbfv =
&avg_cbt + r * cos((2 * 3.1415) * (hours-&max_cbfv)/24, where & =
constants that center the curve at the actual average for each series
(vertical centering) and the predicted maximum at the actual maximum
(horizontal centering); r = the amplitude of the cosine wave. An
additional analysis was performed which also yielded the estimated
clock time for the CBT nadir and CBFV nadir (Synergy software,
Kaleidagraph Version 3.6). Third, the minimum of the circadian rhythm
of CBT and salivary DLMO were also used as markers of the endogenous
circadian phase. A paired t-test was used to determine the overall
phase difference between CBT and CBFV.
Results
Eleven subjects completed the protocol. The TCD probe was placed on
either the right or left temple, whichever gave the better signal. Mean
isonation depth of the TCD signal was 56.5 mm for the right MCA and
55.6 mm for the left MCA (range 53-60 mm). The constant routine ranged
from 28 to 30 hours in duration. Polygraphic recordings confirmed
sustained wakefulness across essentially the entire protocol in all but
one subject. Subjects that had difficulty remaining awake were
monitored closely and aroused when needed by engagement in
conversation. Results from the polygraphic recordings are not presented
here. We do not present the results of the polygraphic recordings
because, for the purposes of this study, these recordings were used
solely to monitor whether subjects were awake or asleep. The first five
hours and the final hour of data from the constant routine were
excluded from analysis.
Core body temperature, cerebral blood flow velocity and the 24-hour day
A 24 hour non-linear multiple regression, cosine fit analysis revealed
that the overall mean CBT rhythm (n = 11) fit a 24 hour cosine rhythm
(R^2 = 0.62, p < 0.01), Figure [100]1. The mean CBT across all subjects
was 98.6 °F (+/- 0.03 °F). Figure [101]2 shows that a 24-hour
non-linear multiple regression, cosine analysis fit a 24 hour cosine
rhythm (R^2 = 0.67, p < 0.01), Figure [102]2. The mean CBFV across
subjects was 40.6 cm/sec (+/- 0.54 cm/sec). Salivary DLMO occurred 7.7
hours prior to the CBT nadir in nine subjects, which served only as a
secondary measure of endogenous circadian phase position in those
subjects. The mean salivary melatonin concentration across the ten hour
window was 15.3 pg/ml (+/-3.05 pg/ml).
CBFV rhythm is 90 degrees out of phase with the CBT rhythm
The overall mean circadian position of CBT occurred at 6:05 am and the
mean position of CBFV occurred at 12:02 pm (Figure [103]3), yielding a
6 hour or 90 degree statistically significant difference (t = 4.9, DF =
10, p < 0.01). In individual subject data, the differences ranged from
0 to 8.5 hours. In eight subjects, the CBFV phase occurred later than
the respective CBT phase, with mean difference of 5.2 hours. In two
subjects, the CBFV nadir occurred earlier than the respective CBT
nadir, with a mean difference of 6 hours. In one subject, there was no
difference between the phase of CBT and CBFV. However, this subject's
CBT rhythm was highly unusual, with the nadir occurring at 11:35 am on
Day 2. Nevertheless, we felt the most appropriate way to present the
data was to include this subject in the overall analysis. When the
phase of CBFV was shifted so that the lowest value was aligned to the
lowest CBT value, the two parameters were highly correlated (see Figure
[104]4; r = 0.77, n = 98, p < 0.01). While the difference in the two
rhythms variability was large, Fisher's z-transformed values revealed
that the amplitudes of the two parameters were similar. The amplitude
of CBFV yielded a z score of 4.25 and CBT yielded a z score of 3.06.
Blood pressure recordings and systemic hemodynamic variables
A Pearson correlation revealed a positive relationship between CBT and
heart rate (r = 0.40, p < 0.01) across the 24 hour period. Diastolic
blood pressure (DBP) and CBT showed a negative correlation (r = -0.30,
p < 0.05). Et[CO2 ]showed a trend towards a direct relationship with
CBFV (r = 0.24, p = 0.10). Blood pressure, heart rate, and Et[CO2
]served only as regulators of CBFV and were not analyzed according to
circadian phase.
Discussion
This study is the first to use the constant routine (CR) protocol to
determine whether the endogenous circadian pacemaker contributes to the
previously reported diurnal changes in CBFV. The current work
demonstrates that, with limited periodic external stimuli and a
constant posture, there is 24-hour rhythmicity in CBFV. Subjects showed
a cycle of approximately 24 hours in CBT, which has been previously
demonstrated with the CR [[105]21].
Figure [106]3 illustrates the intricate relationship between the
rhythms across the study period. At approximately the CBT acrophase,
the relationship between the two rhythms undergoes a transition.
Between 180 and 240 degrees, CBFV is still rising and CBT is changing
directions (first rising, reaching its peak and then falling). This
period between 180 and 240 has been described as a "wake maintenance
zone", a time in the circadian cycle during which humans are less
likely to fall asleep [[107]22]. In our subjects, the CBT is near its
zenith or just starting to fall at this time and CBFV is still steadily
rising. Higher values in CBT and CBFV are associated with activation
and therefore these two endogenous rhythms may be promoting wakefulness
during this "wake maintenance zone". However, at the end of this
transition period, CBT is falling and CBFV is still rising, perhaps
reflecting continued activation of the cerebral cortex. Whereas the
two-process model predicts increased tendency to sleep as CBT falls
[[108]23], our finding may provide the mechanism by which wakefulness
is effortlessly maintained before bedtime.
Figure [109]3 further illustrates that as wakefulness is extended past
the subject's habitual bedtime (approximately 270 degrees), the two
rhythms decline together. Between 0 and 60 degrees, CBFV steadily
declines and CBT is steadily rising. The lower CBFV values in the
morning may play a role in cognitive performance impairments [[110]24],
particularly the 3-4.5 hour phase difference in neurobehavioral
functioning relative to the CBT rhythm that has been previously
demonstrated in constant routine protocols [[111]25].
Earlier studies using simultaneous EEG and TCD to continuously measure
CBFV across the sleep period have concluded that, except for periods of
REM sleep, [[112]26
,[113]27], there is a linear decline in CBFV across the night during
periods of non-REM sleep [[114]1,[115]28]. Other groups utilizing these
techniques simultaneously speculated that the decline in CBFV through
the night was a "decoupling" of cerebral electrical activity and
cerebral perfusion during non-REM sleep [[116]8-[117]10]. In all
studies [[118]1,[119]8-[120]10,[121]28], CBFV values were lower in the
morning during wakefulness than during wakefulness prior to sleep at
night. The current findings show that the decline in CBFV is present
during wakefulness in the night time hours and therefore may not be
attributed solely to sleep and associated changes that normally
influence CBFV (including factors such as the shift to recumbency, and
reduced activity, metabolic rate and respiratory rate).
Moreover, our interaction with the subjects and the monitoring of EEG
for signs of sleep resulted in no sleep in all but one subject. The one
exception was in a subject who lapsed into brief periods of sleep.
Therefore, the fall in CBFV in 10 out of 11 subjects cannot be
explained by the occurrence of non-REM sleep. It is possible, however,
that the decline of CBFV across the night and early morning may be
secondary to the sleep deprivation that is part of the constant
routine. Brain imaging studies across sustained periods of wakefulness
have shown significant decreases in absolute regional cerebral glucose
metabolic rate in several areas of the brain [[122]29-[123]34].
The drop in CBT which preceded the parallel fall in CBFV needs to be
considered as a possible explanation for the CBFV changes. The fall in
CBT during sleeping hours is attributed in part to sleep-associated
changes and in part to strong regular circadian forces independent of
the sleep period. CBT is, in fact, one of the key and most extensively
studied indices of the circadian phase. It is also known that CBT is
highly correlated with brain temperature and brain metabolic rate
[[124]35]. Imaging studies have documented the intimate relation
between brain activity and increased metabolic rate and oxygen delivery
through perfusion. Therefore, it is plausible that CBT is a direct
influence on CBFV or an index of decreased metabolic need for blood
flow. The prevailing hypothesis that there is tight coupling of normal
neuronal activity and blood flow was formulated over 100 years ago
[[125]36]. The drop in CBFV may be a consequence of the lowered
cerebral activity secondary to lowered brain temperature. In contrast,
two studies of exercise-induced hyperthermia showing decreased global
and middle cerebral artery CBFV [[126]37
,[127]38] do not support this hypothesized direct relationship between
the two variables. However, one of the main purported mechanisms for
the fall in CBFV in these exercise studies, the hyperventilation
induced lowering of Pa[CO2], is unlikely present during waking while
lying in bed at night. Therefore, CBT declines remain a plausible
explanation for the portion of the 24 hours when CBFV declined.
Mechanisms of CBFV regulation
This protocol allowed the unique opportunity to evaluate blood
pressure, heart rate, and Et[CO2 ]in the absence of sleep, in subjects
with constant posture, and highly restricted movements. While blood
pressure clearly falls during sleep in normal individuals, the absence
of sleep in the current study obviates the explanation that CBFV
declines are secondary to lowered blood pressure. Furthermore, we
sampled blood pressure throughout the day and night and found a weak
inverse relationship between DBP and CBT. This finding is in contrast
to a careful study of circadian influence on blood pressure in the
absence of sleep which showed no change in blood pressure during the
descending portion of the body temperature curve [[128]39].
Nevertheless, our finding was weak and likely does not provide the
explanation for the CBFV changes. The small-inverse relationship
between Et [CO2 ]and CBT is similar to that found by Spengler et al.
[[129]40], who showed a consistent but small amplitude circadian rhythm
in mean end-tidal Et[CO2 ]on a CR protocol. Et[CO2 ]showed a trend
towards a direct relationship with CBFV, which is consistent with
previous studies showing that changes in Et[CO2 ]are associated with
changes in CBFV [[130]41
,[131]42]. Heart rate was correlated with CBT, consistent with the
findings of Van Dongen et al [[132]39].
Clinical correlation
The approximate 6 hour (90 degree) phase angle difference between the
CBFV and CBT suggests that CBFV continues to decline into the early to
mid-morning hours. This finding is consistent with a time window in the
morning during which several physiological changes have been observed.
For example, cerebral vasomotor reactivity to hypocapnia, hypercapnia,
and normoventilation has been found to be most reduced in the morning
[[133]15
,[134]16]. It is tempting to suggest that the the low CBFV values in
the morning may also help explain the well established diurnal
variation of the onset of cerebrovascular accidents (CVAs) [[135]43]. A
meta-analyses of 11,816 publications between 1966 to 1997 found that
there was a 49% increased risk of strokes between 6 am and 12 pm
[[136]44]. This time period is in agreement with studies on myocardial
infarction (MI) and sudden death [[137]45]. The increased incidence of
these events has been attributed, in part, to the surge of blood
pressure [[138]13,[139]46,[140]47] and platelet aggregability
[[141]48,[142]49] in the morning when patients are getting out of bed.
Our results demonstrate that even in the absence of surges in blood
pressure, the phase of CBFV reaches its lowest values during the hours
before 12 pm. This further suggests that the endogenous rhythm of CBFV
may be associated with the risk of CVAs in the late morning hours even
without changes in posture or activity.
Conclusion
Overall, the results demonstrate that CBFV, in the absence of sleep,
exhibits properties of a circadian rhythm, as it rises and falls across
a 24 hour period. The 6 hour (90 degree) phase angle difference in the
CBFV rhythm with respect to the CBT rhythm may help explain previous
findings of lower CBFV values in the morning. The phase difference
occurs at a time period during which cognitive performance decrements
have been observed and when both cardiovascular and cerebrovascular
events occur more frequently. The mechanisms underlying this phase
angle difference require further exploration.
List of abbreviations
CBFV Cerebral Blood Flow Velocity
CBT Core Body Temperature
TCD Transcranial Doppler
EtCO2 End tidal Carbon Dioxide
DLMO Dim Light Melatonin Onset
EEG Electroencephalogram
MCA Middle Cerebral Artery
FFT Fast Fourier Transformation
CR Constant routine
EMG Electromyogram
SBP Systolic Blood Pressure
DBP Diastolic Blood Pressure
CVA Cerebrovascular accident
MI Myocardial infarction
Competing interests
The author(s) declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors' contributions
DAC coordinated, carried out, analyzed, and interpreted the study. AJS
participated in the analysis and interpretation of the findings. DAC
drafted the manuscript and AJS provided final approval of this version.
RQS participated in data collection and data analysis. DAC and AJS
co-designed the study. All authors read and approved the final
manuscript.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the volunteer participants who completed
this extremely difficult protocol, to the research assistants: Jason
Birnbaum, Will Carias, RN, Laura Diaz, Boris Dubrovsky, Mathew Ebben,
Ph.D., Carrie Hildebrand, Lars Ross, Greg Sahlem, Mathew Tucker, Ayesha
Udin, to those who helped with the data analysis: Scott Campbell, Ph.D.
of New York Presbyterian Hospital, White Plains, Abdeslem ElIdrissi,
Ph.D. of The Institute for Basic Research, Staten Island, NY, Larry
Krasnoff, Ph.D. of Digitas, New York, and Andrew Scott, MBA, to those
who provided their expert advice: William Fishbein, Ph.D. of The City
College of New York, Paul Glovinsky, Ph.D. of The Sleep Disorders
Center, Albany, NY, Margaret Moline, Ph.D. of Eisai, Inc, Charles
Pollak, MD of The Center for Sleep Medicine, New York Presbyterian
Hospital-Cornell, and Alan Segal, MD of The Department of Neurology,
New York Presbyterian Hospital, and to others who helped make this
study possible: Stacy Goldstein, Neil B. Kavey, MD, Igor Ougorets, MD,
and Jerry Titus.
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American Political Culture
The Generational Rhythm of American Politics
The American Mosaic, Chapter 2
Daniel J. Elazar
It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States
combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount
of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no
less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space.
Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location
within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less
pinpointed.
This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is
structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of
generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to
the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast
developments with great success. At the same time he has applied
that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that
very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs.
Early Studies of Generational Rhythms
Students of society have noted the succession of generations since
ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology
on generational measures.
The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear
time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning
of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs.
It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the
individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the
starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon
and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon
operating in history.^2
Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational
basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first
recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the
system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third
and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the
Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average
generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full
generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical
scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression,
"forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5
Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The
"generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity
of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a
common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a
time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces
time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new
judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation
and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7
Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have
beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the
founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central
interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of
its beginnings and its ancestry.
Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were
the first to articulate systematic theories of generational
progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte
viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the
thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in
shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the
unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the
aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social
cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that
"History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of
Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle
phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences
appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals
comes to dominate society.^9
These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical
verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years
of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop
the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed
the principle that generations are articulated through historical
events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained.
Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a
fourfold classification of generations as preparatory,
revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10
Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11
Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that
generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific
study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and
heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation
century.^13
After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the
succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of
social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between
contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who
are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his
student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked
on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and
Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm
Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri
Peyre (1948).^16
More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused
on problems of intergenerational differences and the political
socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes
or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund
Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study
of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their
study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963)
focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966)
studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957)
utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in
Israel and the United States, respectively.^20
All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a
comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of
their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and
those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving
many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the
studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two
parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the
people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact,
both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined
that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The
linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive
theory.
None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a
generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black
box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods.
Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of
three generations.
Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining
way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an
empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is
somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin.
Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature,
art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of
eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular
basis.
Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to
embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under
the heading of "a generation".
Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History
A number of theories of political cycles in American history have
been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of
American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational
thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a
series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based
on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective
governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect
"concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of
property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the
wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid
movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories
include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter
Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical
theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the
"more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments"
using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process.
Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the
interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United
States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical
periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23
Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the
manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work.
Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in
presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the
House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual
party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in
American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of
an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American
history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in
length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes
that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device
since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable
directions.
Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his
emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by
using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of
voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state
vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates
five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s)
and the present.
Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the
level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five
periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of
stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of
approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing
already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an
established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in
turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis
to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment
occurs in every generation.
While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with
American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he
begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three
of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive
happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning
point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that
Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a
generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts
as follows:
1787-1801-1816
1816-1829-1841
1841-1861-1869
1869-1901-1918
1918-1931-?
The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the
beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them
primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles
rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have
been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational
patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the
following pattern:
1790-1796/1800
1800-1824/1828
1828-1824/1860
1860-1888/1896
1896-1932
His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to
that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their
significance in the periodization process.
Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although
even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if
it is schematized as follows:
1789-1820
1828
1856-1860
1893/1894
1932
Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized
as follows:
1896-1912
1912-1920-1932-1952
1952
Pomper also offers election dates and no more:
1836
1864-1876
1876-1892/1896
1928/1932-1952
1952-1964
None of these are complete theories and all must be considered
within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit.
Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough
approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the
commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United
States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The
revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of
generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson
Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods
of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named:
e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era.
In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers
developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the
federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could
not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however,
the American people were treated to a display of federal activity --
and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by
FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the
mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth
of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the
mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper
understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United
States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow
of time and events.)
The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its
own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human
time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible
pattern in the progression of political events in the United States
over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not
happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events
in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in
cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the
biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human
life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is
substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though
the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this
phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26
The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind
another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit
decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every
government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on
the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on
the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of
attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be
supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that
being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons
who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive
generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a
fixed moment, as individuals do now....
What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the
same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a
constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A
generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case,
would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to
contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for
14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily
deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of
their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at
that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated
from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of
climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors.
Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that
23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a
society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the
ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as
follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all
ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half
will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every
year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly
have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half
of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time
will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest
integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the
representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself
assembled, can validly extend a debt.
On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a
perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every
constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of
34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not
of right.
The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that
would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to
his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French
Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the
sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making
on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every
nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme,
Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one
which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one
way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure
of location in time.
Human Social Rhythms
As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural
measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a
common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the
"lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does
appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account
for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely
and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation
in any particular civil society and chart the relations among
generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical
patterns of its politics.
During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years,
averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people
will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then
pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every
individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in
which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited.
Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she
begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime
between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at
which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life"
ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and
political roles as are given to mature men and women in society.
Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a
person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention,
if not physically, considered ready for retirement.
Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an
individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first
fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially
powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote,
and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After
attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period
of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be
translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among
those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s
before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on
the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become
serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are
able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the
scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be
defined as the ending of one's serious political career without
suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's
30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential
influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise
influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political
leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds
forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship.
The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle
of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young
people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters
actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people
in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then
declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to
"retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28
In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each
individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society
is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a
common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any
particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its
history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical
record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and
the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at
the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In
the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed
leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in
power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age
and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a
result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly
established.
Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults
settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and
in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational
progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and
purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began
more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed
from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the
door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to
begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of
the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their
patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby
allowing a new generation to assume the reins.
Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they
establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in
social and political life than that found in the simple processes of
human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were
equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the
biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by
locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace
the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of
organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings
are recorded in history, we can do just that.
Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the
progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins
of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is
shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the
impact of the change and encourages new political action to
assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new
generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at
the most four generations are alive at any given time creates
certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of
grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of
inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact
help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In
this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is
socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and
politically unmanageable.
Generations, Centuries and Events
Since the founding of the first European settlements along the
Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations
of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series
of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the
twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three
generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain
distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense
recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th
century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of
American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in
which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century
stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th
century is the century of the United States as a world power.
Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as
chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European
history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have
begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing
point, thus:
a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603)
and the 17th century began with the opening of the American
frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between
the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of
the times.
b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty
of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which
eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the
Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration
for both countries.
c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the
War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era
of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff).
d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the
inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak
of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land
frontier.
Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments
that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show
every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then
dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are
immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the
nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged
during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation
under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a
century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn,
the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments
having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic
society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated
American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments
disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently
in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments
that will replace them.
The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth
generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the
past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators
have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just
when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of
generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was
ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal
intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of
the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of
alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the
generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life
so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began
after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided
over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the
renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence.
The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be
delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression
will be related to major forces and factors shaping American
history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the
principal challenges facing the American people in each generation
and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing
forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of
critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization
in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial,
ethnic and religious groups.
One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate.
Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with
such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for
analytical purposes than life ever is.
The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the
period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old
World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany,
but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually
every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original
thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native
Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies,
and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate
nation with its own civilization.
The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century,
which, from the first American recognition of common continental
interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for
Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent
American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism,
successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and
established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The
idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the
political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans.
The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations,
beginning at the point where America turned its back on European
entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced
them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an
industrialized continental nation with a strong national government;
abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world
power ready for overseas involvements.
The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century --
reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the
arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with
the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding
over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the
results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the
industrial revolution.
As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with
the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the
United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished
relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first
generation of the transformation of society as a result of the
application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new
frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse
of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically
dominant although economically weakened. The results of these
phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder
of the generation.
Generations and Frontier Stages
The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are
products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In
American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if
not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and
centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American
frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other
historical and political phenomena.
Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has
been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of
human control over the natural environment and the utilization of
the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control,
i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American
society is a product of this commitment which is virtually
self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one
frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier
situation that has created the major social and economic changes
which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's
political institutions.
America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages
to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the
metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic
frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled
with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been
decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American
life within that stage.
The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the
historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted
from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the
end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on
the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American
continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the
products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the
westward movement on a basically rural population interested in
settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a
socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits
in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was
dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an
active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and
still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in
Alaska.
Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth
the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and
spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation
into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the
spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's
economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented
the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States,
where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater
part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it
first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the
beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands
of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally
superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth
generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the
end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various
localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant
characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities
from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into
independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and
social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their
existence and growth.
By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth,
in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is
characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society
through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that
encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large
metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from
atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the
accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further
changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with
their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered
a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like
the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological
frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on
a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation.
After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly
and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and
pace of development across the country.
The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by
the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to
be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The
late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash
from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism
challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s,
ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution,
and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth
premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of
resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were
saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over.
By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was
emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the
metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers,
satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new
data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large
belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated
by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not
connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and
small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single
metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different
purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern
coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found
in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its
early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges,
initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its
renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of
financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American
economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of
Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West.
Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues
of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new
frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement
patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its
own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns
and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands
themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between
the points of generational division and the shifts in the various
frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater
detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as
part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are
closely related to the opening of new centuries.
Generations and Economic Periods
One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a
continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to
meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a
result, the governments of the United States have always maintained
a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in
the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to
era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the
governmental response. These changes have also developed on a
generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the
founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic
policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth
generation of American history) the American government continued a
semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the
nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government
involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during
which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in
which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the
outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful
competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a
generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially
unregulated by government.
Demands for government regulation that built up during the last
generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of
intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first
generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the
eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active
government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system.
Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around
toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less
government intervention.
Centuries, Generations and Federalism
The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can
also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first
generation of American history brought the introduction of federal
principles through the contracts and covenants that established the
colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through
Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the
seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a
local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of
national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose
strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly,
concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in
the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and
crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and
then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century.
The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has
been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society.
Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal
with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques
have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These
new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed
have been major elements in the concrete response to the
generation's challenges.
Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship
The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and
their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the
challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of
American history and politics. The changes in those relationships
also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries.
British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious
pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through
giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular
territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as
indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In
the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized
in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian
differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery.
Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism
was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones
existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste
system was in the making.
During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and
sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the
original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the
virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation.
Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new
lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was
abolished in the North.
The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial
establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was
almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant
immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new
post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through
the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration
reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to
reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was
reaffirmed through the institution of segregation.
From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open
pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The
barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants
began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those
barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by
the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape
up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the
twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but
those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of
American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say,
to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American
culture.
While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been
presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the
generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted
descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some
cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary
period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational
responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New
Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political
dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the
Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era.
The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses
Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular
challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its
own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and
the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In
some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could
act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In
others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the challenges changes from century to century.
During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the
tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various
colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related
to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence
of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially
related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American
national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been
essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society
and the assumption of an American role in world affairs.
The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the
initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which,
objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively
recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing
recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors
such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in
voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with
mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to
public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters
does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet
existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular
progression of political events revolving around the development of
a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its
response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and
responses that gives each generation its particular character. While
the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external --
or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is
primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation
themselves.
In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has
taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each
colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its
sisters, and the other science independence when a common national
constitution created a common national politics. In some cases,
particularly after independence when the nation could act
decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other,
particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the political challenges that have dominated the
American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a
new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating
the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the
19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope,
wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the
20th century, they have essentially related to the
metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an
American role in world affairs.
In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within
each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and
new generations is marked by several decisive political actions,
often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature
is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old
generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and
opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a
time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues
they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political
action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population
change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political
activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur
the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the
direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders
to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the
generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many
quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of
governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to
the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five
years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with
digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so
that they will achieve greater success and at the same time
integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The
end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify
and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the
issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for
political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be
recognized.
The Bench Marks of American Political History:
Critical Elections and New Deals
In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a
particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a
system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can
also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political
history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune
with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds;
first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a
particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of
intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government
initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each
generation.
The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections
A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the
sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period
of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The
generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this
pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which
brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs
of voters, shifting them from one political party to another.
Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a
"critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of
electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound
readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the
community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are
formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result
of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide
electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency
from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one
major element to another.
Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that
there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the
allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively
long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public
opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the
1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with
a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In
consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats
have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters
identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority
party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order
to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and
representatives to win control of Congress.
The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968,
only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled
the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a
military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the
"normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his
party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in
1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after
twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the
Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the
Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems,
won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular
Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a
Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his
victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition
and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a
period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White
House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the
Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the
GOP controlled the Senate.
A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a
nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent
and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on
a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical
loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations,
personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of
the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are
nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders
(or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate
state parties which form the two national confederations known as
the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties
are confederations of the state parties, so is the national
coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional
coalitions.
Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and
thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the
electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to
remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead
to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution,
too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems
attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the
dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary
inroads in the various electoral groups.
Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces
opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in
public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in
the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party
that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means
certain that the majority party will even win all the national
elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and
usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a
limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its
losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The
states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as
bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend
its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority
coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for
national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards
for the party faithful during the years of national "famine."
As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent
electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their
changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with
each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find
the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass
and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in
importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed
and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the
realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment
of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a
reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad
electoral groups.^33
While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state
and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon
only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election.
Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make
embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become
fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional
elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional
election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical
elections."^34
The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the
development of the institution of the popularly elected president.
Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of
electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize
presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited
apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and
the House of Representatives.
Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part
of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the
use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on
the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The
generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem.
It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not
so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a
disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as
did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current
during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the
end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that
they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant
percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and
alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues
lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote
as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children
came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the
majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational
buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the
guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file"
alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of
each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the
ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from
balance to majority.
"New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity
The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of
innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind
usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin
Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as
the historical watersheds they are.
In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S.
Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform
activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for
their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian
Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over
a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that
enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way
the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems
of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his
Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind
because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the
moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was
cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic
U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly
the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use
the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came
Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for
all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B.
Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as
it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s.
The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted
approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of
governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of
the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for
another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon
to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational
consolidation.
The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years
between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in
Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of
extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President
Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to
resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial
presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its
power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic
problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led
the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill
the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the
hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states
and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington
before undertaking any activities.
The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an
"outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community
marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth
in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by
many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation,
usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time.
President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's
international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to
shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of
infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the
Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and
localities. These were all to become principal issues during the
period of generational build-up.
The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to
the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the
American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the
tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that
followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By
the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on
behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were
referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues
of the new generation.
Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been
invariably preceded by critical elections through which the
reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to
generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die --
determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either
by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting
them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as
unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to
majority status. These critical elections, which attain their
visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and
interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which
face them.
Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the
party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series
of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the
Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the
1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had
become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the
Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans.
Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the
majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times
and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats
picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in
1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party
coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen
it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The
old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent
severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted
and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the
Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the
programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing
period for the Democratic coalition.
To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in
American politics is not to suggest that events move in any
lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same
as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the
"normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence
we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them
for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too
can be done that gives the theory its power.
Summary
Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of
American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical
understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more
interest to European social philosophers than American social
scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the
question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics,
often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their
theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation
rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to
understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human
social rhythms generally.
Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their
internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries
represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them.
The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation,
constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to
them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical
elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political
history recurring on a generational basis.
Notes
1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by
Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970);
Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational
Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979).
2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the
Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973).
3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5
(Garden City: Doubleday, 1987).
4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday,
1987).
5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a
generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse
11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers,
chapter 32, verse 13.
7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11;
chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte
(London: G. Bell, 1896).
9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive
(London, 1862).
10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani
(Milano: Monanni, 1929).
11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen,
der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4.
(1875), pp. 36-41.
12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on
Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds.,
Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline
(Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in
History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane,
Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp.,
1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1990).
13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method.
14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933).
15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti,
ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and
Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales
(Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in
der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F.
Schoeningh, 1933).
16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der
Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926);
Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and
Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig,
1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris:
Boivin, 1948).
17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the
Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger,
1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4
(1972): 564-78.
18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the
Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956).
19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin,
American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970).
20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and
Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield,
Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970).
21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939).
22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago:
Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the
Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key,
Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961);
Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968);
Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1989).
23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party
System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210.
24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of
Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the
years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of
American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur
Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co.
1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to
conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the
article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using
liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the
generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written
as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something
which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best
reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government
from the Civil War to the New Deal.
25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first
presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American
Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no.
1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns
Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also
Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University
Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992).
26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789.
27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years
old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve
in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President.
28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and
Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman
H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and
the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary
M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney
Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American
Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for
the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris
Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in
America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W.
Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get
Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb
and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda
Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber,
Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership
(Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey,
Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.:
Brooks/Cole, 1989).
29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with
special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in
The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York:
Macmillan, 1961).
30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965):
Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the
Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989).
31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18.
32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections
in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability,"
Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171.
33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate
(Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James
L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and
Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical
Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York:
Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?"
in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party
Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American
Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press
of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed.,
Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and
Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise
Institute, 1983).
34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American
Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party
System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony;
David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization,
Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter,
Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American
Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of
Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985).
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Titre du document / Document title
Rhythms of the secular : The politics of modernizing Arab poetic
forms = Rythmes du séculaire : la politique de modernisation des formes
poétiques arabes
Auteur(s) / Author(s)
FURANI Khaled^ (1) ;
Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s)
^(1) Tel-Aviv University, ISRAEL
Résumé / Abstract
In this article, I ethnographically trace how Arab, mainly Palestinian,
poets have modernized their literary tradition during the last seven
decades. Shortly after the 1948 Israeli occupation of Palestine, the
reign of the classical Arabic ode collapsed, and the modern forms of
free verse and, later, the prose poem became dominant. Aiming to
contribute to the ethnography of modernity, I examine how poets have
adopted and abandoned poetic forms by analyzing their narratives on
rhythm. I explore the political salience of rhythmical transformations
and argue that the secular has been a vital and complex force in the
modern abandonment of metrical discipline. The secular affects how
poets seek to modernize their rhythm, vocabulary, and relation to
public. It also affects, I conclude, the ways in which anthropologists
can and do write about modernity.
Revue / Journal Title
American ethnologist ISSN 0094-0496
Source / Source
2008, vol. 35, n^o2, pp. 290-307 [18 page(s) (article)] (2 p.1/4)
Langue / Language
Anglais
Editeur / Publisher
American Ethnological Society, Washington, DC, ETATS-UNIS (1974)
(Revue)
Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords
Rhythm ; Transformation ; Modernization ; Poet ; Modernity ; Poetry ;
Israel ; Palestine ; Near East ;
Mots-clés français / French Keywords
Forme poétique ; Tradition littéraire ; Arabe palestinien ; Rythme ;
Transformation ; Modernisation ; Poète ; Modernité ; Poésie ; Israël ;
Palestine ; Proche-Orient ;
Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords
poetic form ; modernity and secularism ; Palestine-Israel ;
Localisation / Location
INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 16902, 35400019805879.0070
Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 20449527
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Title: The Rhythm of Political Oratory
Author: [14]Varvara Danilina
Email: [15]click here to access email
Degree Awarded: Moscow State University , Department of Foreigh
Languages
Degree Date: 2002
Linguistic Subfield(s): Discourse Analysis
Sociolinguistics
Subject Language(s): [16]English
Director(s): [17]Ludmila Minaeva
___________________________________
Abstract:
My doctoral dissertation was completed after four years of research on
the rhythm of British and American political oratory. I sought to
establish the rhythmic norm for political public speech and to find
out, whether any deviations from this norm (i.e. from an expected
rhythmic model) influence listeners and provoke their verbal reactions
or bursts of applause. To accomplish this task I used a variety of
linguistic and rhetorical methods, and drew upon social psychology and
political science.
There is no single linguistic perspective on speech rhythm. For
instance, such distinguished scholars as D. Crystal and D. Abercrombie
regard it as a purely phonetic phenomenon. At the same time, according
to Moscow University school of thought, to which I belong, speech
rhythm is created by a blend of phonetics, syntax and meaning of an
utterance. As a result of my research, I established rhythmic
regularities for political oratory at five levels.
Firstly, I analyzed pauses that divide the stream of speech into
segments (syntagmas), and classified all the pauses into syntactic,
rhetorical or unintentional (unintentional pauses are caused by
hesitation, deliberation, stammering, interruptions by listeners, etc).
Secondly, I established the relative frequency of short, medium and
long syntagmas between pauses, and thirdly, analyzed the rhythmic
structures constituted by linear sequences of syntagmas. Fourthly, I
studied the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables inside
syntagmas. And finally, I considered all kinds of repetitions, both
rhetorical and unintentional. This method of rhythmic analysis is based
on earlier analytical models designed by my university colleagues. My
own contribution consisted in adapting this method to the study of
public speech, describing the typical rhythm of political oratory, and
challenging some popular assumptions about speech rhythm.
As for the impact of speech rhythm upon listeners, I started by
analyzing audiences in order to understand psychological, social and
political conditions of that process. G. Le Bon, Z. Freud and other
scholars demonstrated conclusively that members of a crowd (and the
audience of a public speech is a crowd) are connected with each other
and with their leader (in our case, a speaker) by strong subconscious
ties. However, the degree of unity or polarization of an audience may
differ. Besides, each audience can be characterized according to
several other criteria that determine listeners' responsiveness and the
nature of their responses: their emotional state, the level of
expertise in a particular subject, the demographic and social
characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, social status, occupation,
education), the existing evaluation of discussed issues, which is
largely determined by listeners' ideologies, and finally, the attitude
to the speaker, which can be positive, negative or indifferent. I have
applied this model of audience analysis to determine peculiarities of
the British parliamentary audience in October 1996, and of the US
Congress in the aftermath of September 11, 2001.
To analyze the reactions of these audiences to the rhythm of Prime
Minister Major and President Bush's parliamentary addresses I used M.
Atkinson's version of the conversation analysis method. I showed the
two speeches as dialogues between the speakers and their listeners, and
singled out phrases and syntagmas that immediately preceded audience
responses, such as cheering, booing, laughter or bursts of applause.
These phrases and syntagmas happened to be quite similar in terms of
rhythm to other stretches of speech in the same addresses. Moreover,
there proved to be little rhythmic difference between John Major and
George Bush's speeches. In short, my research demonstrated that there
is no direct interconnection between the rhythm of a public address and
audience responses.
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Afrobeat
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search
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This article does not [8]cite any [9]references or sources.
Please help [10]improve this article by adding citations to
[11]reliable sources. Unsourced material may be [12]challenged and
[13]removed. (September 2008)
Afrobeat is a combination of [14]Yoruba music, [15]jazz, [16]highlife,
and [17]funk [18]rhythms, fused with [19]percussion and [20]vocal
styles, popularized in [21]Africa in the 1970s. Its main creator was
the [22]Nigerian multi-[23]instrumentalist and [24]bandleader [25]Fela
Kuti who used it to revolutionise musical structure as well as the
political context in his native Nigeria. It was Kuti who coined the
term "afrobeat" upon his return from a U.S. tour with his group Nigeria
70 (formerly Koola Lobitos).
The new sound hailed from a club that he established called the
Afro-Shrine. Upon arriving in Nigeria, Kuti also changed the name of
his group to Fela Ransome-Kuti & Africa 70. The band maintained a
five-year residency in the Afro-Shrine from 1970 to 1975 while afrobeat
thrived among Nigerian youth. Afrobeat is now one of the most
recognisable music genres in the world and has influenced as many
Western musicians as it has African ones with its exuberant style and
polyrhythms.
Contents
* [26]1 Origins
* [27]2 Influence
* [28]3 Instrumentation
* [29]4 Today
* [30]5 External links
[[31]edit] Origins
Afrobeat originated from the southern part of [32]Nigeria in the 1960s
where Kuti experimented with many different forms of contemporary music
of the time. Prevalent in him and Lagbaja's music are native African
harmonies and rhythms, taking different elements and combining,
modernizing and improvising upon them. [33]Politics are essential to
afrobeat, since founder Kuti used social criticism to pave the way for
social change. His message can be described as confrontational and
controversial, which can be related to the political climate of most of
the African countries in the 1960s, many of which were dealing with
political injustice and military corruption while recovering from the
transition from colonial governments to self-determination. As the
genre spread throughout the African continent many bands took up the
style. The recordings of these bands and their songs were rarely heard
or exported outside the originating countries but many can now be found
on compilation albums and CDs from specialist record shops.
[[34]edit] Influence
Many jazz musicians have been attracted to afrobeat. From [35]Roy Ayers
in the seventies to [36]Randy Weston in the nineties, there have been
collaborations which have resulted in albums such as Africa: Centre of
the World by Roy Ayers, released on the Polydor label in 1981. In 1994
[37]Branford Marsalis, the American jazz saxophonist, included samples
of Fela's "Beast of No Nation" on his Buckshot leFonque album. The new
generation of DJs and musicians of the 2000s who have fallen in love
with both Kuti's material and other rare releases have made
compilations and remixes of these recordings, thus re-introducing the
genre to new generations of listeners and fans of afropop and groove.
Afrobeat has profoundly influenced important contemporary producers and
musicians like [38]Brian Eno and [39]David Byrne, who credit Fela Kuti
as an essential muse. Both worked on [40]Talking Heads'
highly-acclaimed 1980 album [41]Remain In Light which brought
polyrhythmic afrobeat influences to Western music. More recently, the
horn section of [42]Antibalas have been guest musicians on [43]TV On
The Radio's highly-acclaimed 2008 album [44]Dear Science, as well as on
British band [45]Foals' 2008 album [46]Antidotes.
[[47]edit] Instrumentation
Big band (15 to 30 pieces: Fela-era afrobeat) and energetic
performances
* Lead vocals (may play sax/key solos as well)
* Chorus vocals (may include horn players)
* Rhythm guitar(s) (plays funk strumming pattern)
* Tenor guitar (plays a finger-picked osinato groove)
* [48]Bass guitar
* [49]Drum set, generally in the form [50]polyrhythmic percussion
* Saxophone(s)
* Trumpet(s)
* Trombone(s)
* Organ/keyboards
* Rhythm [51]conga #1
* Rhythm [52]conga #2
* Solo (lead) [53]conga
* [54]Akuba: a set of 3 small stick-hit congas (play
flourishes/solos, and ostinatos). Also mistakenly called "gbedu".
* "Sticks"/[55]claves (plays ostinato)
* [56]Shekere
[[57]edit] Today
There are several active afrobeat bands worldwide today.
Modern afrobeat bands/artistes include:
* [58]Kokolo (band), New York City Afrobeat/Afrofunk group formed by
songwriter/producer Ray Lugo
* [59]Nomo, [60]Ann Arbor based group that weaves various styles into
a primarily Afrobeat sound.
* [61]Chicago Afrobeat Project Chicago based collective that uses
afrobeat as a springboard and has an incendiary live show.
* [62]Afrodizz, an eight-piece band from [63]Montreal, [64]Canada
formed by jazz guitarist Gabriel Aldama
* [65]The Afromotive, an Asheville, NC based multiracial seven-piece
afrobeat band featuring thirty-third generation djembe player Adama
Dembele from Cote d`Ivoire, West Africa.
* [66]Tony Allen, the man who held the drum chair during Fela's
productive "Africa 70" phase, and whose drumming was, according to
[67]James Brown's autobiography, the influence behind his
'discovery' of funk.^[[68]citation needed]
* [69]Antibalas, [70]Brooklyn, New York based multiracial Afrobeat
Orchestra formed by baritone saxophonist Martin Perna
* [71]Aphrodesia, San Francisco based group, first American group to
perform with Femi Kuti at The Shrine in Lagos, Nigeria.
* [72]Ayetoro, a group led by Nigerian pianist/composer [73]Funsho
Ogundipe
* [74]Bebe cool lives in Uganda famous for his reggea mixed with
luganda pop and English making an Afrobeat rhythm in Uganda known
as Luga flow.He also lives in kampala.
* [75]Chopteeth, an international 14 piece outfit based in Washington
D.C., with former members of Busta Rhymes, The Temptations, The
Four Tops, and Gladys Knight & the Pips.
* [76]Femi Kuti (Fela's first son and a saxophonist) and the Positive
Force
* [77]Seun Kuti (another of Kuti's sons, saxophonist now fronting his
father's last and late band)
* [78]Dele Sosimi's Gbedu Resurrection Dele is a former keyboardist
and musical director of Fela's band. He cofounded Femi Kuti's
Positive Force.
* [79]Zozo Afrobeat A thirteen-member group based in NYC, founded by
Kaleta, former Fela guitarist.
* [80]Baba Ken and the Afro-Groove Connexion Oakland based
multiracial afrobeat ensemble led by Nigerian bassist, Baba Ken
Okulolo, founding member of the seminal 1970's afrofunk/afrorock
band, Monomono.
* [81]Jose Chameleone famous in East, central and South Africa.He
stays and live is Uganda in kampala city.He sing pop and Afro beat
music.He is one of the most famous artists of Afro beat in Africa
and the whole world.
* [82]Afrobeat Down Los Angeles based Afrobeat ensemble (est. 2002)
working with former Fela Africa '70 member and catalyst of entire
afrobeat movement, Sandra Izsadore.
* [83]Weird MC Rap artiste who occasionally experinments with
Afrobeat rhythm.
* [84]Vibe Squad A Ghanaian music crew formed by EaZZY Da Opemfour
made of Prego, Culchar, Wizzy Wii and Richie.
* [85]Gnl zamba rap artist in Uganda one of the most successful rap
afrobeat star in East Africa and central Africa.He is known for his
rhythm of 2 pac shakur
* [86]Mr. Something Something Canadian afrobeat group
* [87]Crime Scene Infunkstigation A 10-piece Afrobeat/Funk/Hip Hop
group based out of Calgary, AB
[[88]edit] External links
* [89]KOKOLO on Myspace
* [90]KOKOLO on YouTube
* [91]KOKOLO Official Homepage
* [92]The Afrobeat Blog
* [93]The Unofficial Seun Kuti Fan-Site - Unofficial fan-site for
Seun Kuti & Egypt 80 with news, videos, music, pictures and much
more]
* [94]The Shrine The Unofficial Website for Fela Kuti, Femi Kuti and
Afrobeat Music
* [95]BBC Afrobeat Documentary
[96]v o [97]d o [98]e
Genres of [99]African popular music
Afrobeat · [100]Apala · [101]Benga · [102]Bikutsi · [103]Cape Jazz ·
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* ____________________ Go
12 12/2006 [38]Compose to a Vertical Rhythm
by [39]Richard Rutter
* [40]Article
* [41]29 comments
"Space in typography is like time in music. It is infinitely divisible,
but a few proportional intervals can be much more useful than a
limitless choice of arbitrary quantities." So says the typographer
Robert Bringhurst, and just as regular use of time provides rhythm in
music, so regular use of space provides rhythm in typography, and
without rhythm the listener, or the reader, becomes disorientated and
lost.
On the Web, vertical rhythm - the spacing and arrangement of text as
the reader descends the page - is contributed to by three factors: font
size, line height and margin or padding. All of these factors must
calculated with care in order that the rhythm is maintained.
The basic unit of vertical space is line height. Establishing a
suitable line height that can be applied to all text on the page, be it
heading, body copy or sidenote, is the key to a solid dependable
vertical rhythm, which will engage and guide the reader down the page.
To see this in action, I've created [42]an example with headings,
footnotes and sidenotes.
Establishing a suitable line height
The easiest place to begin determining a basic line height unit is with
the font size of the body copy. For [43]the example I've chosen 12px.
To ensure readability the body text will almost certainly need some
leading, that is to say spacing between the lines. A line-height of
1.5em would give 6px spacing between the lines of body copy. This will
create a total line height of 18px, which becomes our basic unit.
Here's the CSS to get us to this point:
1. body {
2. font-size: 75%;
3. }
4.
5. html>body {
6. font-size: 12px;
7. }
8.
9. p {
10. line-height 1.5em;
11. }
12. Source: [44]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/1.txt
There are many ways to size text in CSS and the above approach provides
and accessible method of achieving the pixel-precision solid typography
requires. By way of explanation, the first font-size reduces the body
text from the 16px default (common to most browsers and OS set-ups)
down to the 12px we require. This rule is primarily there for Internet
Explorer 6 and below on Windows: the percentage value means that the
text will scale predictably should a user bump the text size up or
down. The second font-size sets the text size specifically and is
ignored by IE6, but used by Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other
modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels.
Spacing between paragraphs
With our rhythmic unit set at 18px we need to ensure that it is
maintained throughout the body copy. A common place to lose the rhythm
is the gaps set between margins. The default treatment by web browsers
of paragraphs is to insert a top- and bottom-margin of 1em. In our case
this would give a spacing between the paragraphs of 12px and hence
throw the text out of rhythm. If the rhythm of the page is to be
maintained, the spacing of paragraphs should be related to the basic
line height unit. This is achieved simply by setting top- and
bottom-margins equal to the line height.
In order that typographic integrity is maintained when text is resized
by the user we must use ems for all our vertical measurements,
including line-height, padding and margins.
1. p {
2. font-size:1em;
3. margin-top: 1.5em;
4. margin-bottom: 1.5em;
5. }
6. Source: [45]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/2.txt
Browsers set margins on all block-level elements (such as headings,
lists and blockquotes) so a way of ensuring that typographic attention
is paid to all such elements is to reset the margins at the beginning
of your style sheet. You could use a rule such as:
1. body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl
ockquote,th,td {
2. margin:0;
3. padding:0;
4. }
5. Source: [46]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/3.txt
Alternatively you could look into using the [47]Yahoo! UI Reset style
sheet which removes most default styling, so providing a solid
foundation upon which you can explicitly declare your design
intentions.
Variations in text size
When there is a change in text size, perhaps with a heading or
sidenotes, the differing text should also take up a multiple of the
basic leading. This means that, in our example, every diversion from
the basic text size should take up multiples of 18px. This can be
accomplished by adjusting the line-height and margin accordingly, as
described following.
Headings
Subheadings in the [48]example page are set to 14px. In order that the
height of each line is 18px, the line-height should be set to 18 ÷ 14
= 1.286. Similarly the margins above and below the heading must be
adjusted to fit. The temptation is to set heading margins to a simple
1em, but in order to maintain the rhythm, the top and bottom margins
should be set at 1.286em so that the spacing is equal to the full 18px
unit.
1. h2 {
2. font-size:1.1667em;
3. line-height: 1.286em;
4. margin-top: 1.286em;
5. margin-bottom: 1.286em;
6. }
7. Source: [49]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/4.txt
One can also set asymmetrical margins for headings, provided the
margins combine to be multiples of the basic line height. In our
example, a top margin of 1½ lines is combined with a bottom margin of
half a line as follows:
1. h2 {
2. font-size:1.1667em;
3. line-height: 1.286em;
4. margin-top: 1.929em;
5. margin-bottom: 0.643em;
6. }
7. Source: [50]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/5.txt
Also in our example, the main heading is given a text size of 18px,
therefore the line-height has been set to 1em, as has the margin:
1. h1 {
2. font-size:1.5em;
3. line-height: 1em;
4. margin-top: 0;
5. margin-bottom: 1em;
6. }
7. Source: [51]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/6.txt
Sidenotes
Sidenotes (and other supplementary material) are often set at a smaller
size to the basic text. To keep the rhythm, this smaller text should
still line up with body copy, so a calculation similar to that for
headings is required. In our example, the sidenotes are set at 10px and
so their line-height must be increased to 18 ÷ 10 = 1.8.
1. .sidenote {
2. font-size:0.8333em;
3. line-height:1.8em;
4. }
5. Source: [52]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/7.txt
Borders
One additional point where vertical rhythm is often lost is with the
introduction of horizontal borders. These effectively act as shims
pushing the subsequent text downwards, so a two pixel horizontal border
will throw out the vertical rhythm by two pixels. A way around this is
to specify horizontal lines using background images or, as in our
example, specify the width of the border in ems and adjust the padding
to take up the slack.
The design of the footnote in our example requires a 1px horizontal
border. The footnote contains 12px text, so 1px in ems is 1 ÷ 12
= 0.0833. I have added a margin of 1½ lines above the border
(1.5 × 18 ÷ 12 = 2.5ems), so to maintain the rhythm the border +
padding must equal a ½ (9px). We know the border is set to 1px, so the
padding must be set to 8px. To specify this in ems we use the familiar
calculation: 8 ÷ 12 = 0.667.
Hit me with your rhythm stick
Composing to a vertical rhythm helps engage and guide the reader down
the page, but it takes typographic discipline to do so. It may seem
like a lot of fiddly maths is involved (a few divisions and
multiplications never hurt anyone) but good type setting is all about
numbers, and it is this attention to detail which is the key to
success.
Like what you read?
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* or
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Comments
* [55]12/12/2006
Wow this is a good article.
* [57]12/12/2006
[58]Will
thanks so much, this is great.
* [59]12/12/2006
Interesting stuff. Also worth reading Eric Meyer's post on unitless
line-heights:
* [61]12/12/2006
It's worth mentioning that IE6 and below can go a bit extreme when
resizing fonts set as ems.
You can fix this by applying font-size: 100% to html. Don't know
why this works, it just does.
Oh, if you're working in quirks mode you'll also need to apply it
to thead, tbody and tfoot, beacuse the fix doesn't inherit (don't
apply it to table unless you want table to inherit font-sizes). You
don't need thead, tbody or tfoot in your tables as tbody is
implied.
Obviously, you can't then apply your own font-sizes to html or
tbody etc, else you'll overwrite the fix, which is why I chose
those particular elements as they're rarely used for font-sizes.
Jake.
* [63]12/12/2006
[64]Mike Stenhouse donotremove.co.uk
Hmmmmm, interesting! I've not tried this but I think there might be
an easier way to set those heights... What if the line-height is
set to, say, 1.5em on the body and 1 (unit-less - it's valid!) on
each descendant element? Or maybe some variation on that. It might
force the 18px to inherit into the children without awkward
calculations.
* [65]12/12/2006
Great article, Richard! Web typography--like all
typography--deserves this level of detailed thinking, and I hope to
see more designers embracing it.
* [67]12/12/2006
[68]michael h
Good introduction to typography theory, but I am convinced that the
Owen Briggs method is the best approach to sizing.
* [69]13/12/2006
I've been working on something similar recently, and I've
discovered that if you set the line-height in pixels, most browsers
will still scale it proportionally along with the text. As IE6's
numbers fall off, I hope we can leave all this black magic scaling
math behind and go back to setting font sizes in pixels and letting
the browsers handle the scaling.
* [71]13/12/2006
Mike - you're right about being able to simplify the line-height
specifications, but it doesn't require setting unitless
line-heights. In the example I use, I've set the font-size to be
12px on the body and calculated line-heights for all the subsequent
elements. As I required one line height - 18px - for all elements I
can remove the multiple statements and simply set line-height:1.5em
on the body. The calculated line-height of 18px is inherited by all
elements on the page. I've modifed the example to show this
(checked in Firefox, Safari and IE6):
However the maths would still need to be performed to calculate the
correct margins, so while the extra line-height specifications are
not strictly necessary (at least while the same line height for all
text is required) you unfortunately don't save much on the
calculations.
* [73]13/12/2006
Jake - the extreme text sizing in IE can be fixed by applying any
percentage font size to the body - it doesn't have to be 100%
(hence my use of 75% fixed this too).
You're right about the tables though. This rule does the job nicely
to inherit the text size:
table, thead, tbody, tr, th, td {font-size:1em}
* [75]13/12/2006
[76]GreLI
In the article next rule is used to reset margins:
body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl
ockquote,th,td {
margin:0;
padding:0;
}
I think it easier to use universal selector (* { margin: 0;
padding: 0 }) instead.
To fix table font-size inheritance it's enough to set
table { font-size: 1em }
Opera AFAIK don't change font-size if it set in pixels, but it can
zoom pages (so does IE7).
* [77]13/12/2006
GreLI - using the universal selector like that to zero all margins
and padding can cause unpredictable results in some form controls
(e.g. SELECT elements) in certain browsers.
Rich - great article; now all someone needs to do is knock up a
nice little app that spits out the right line-heights and margins
for the elements you tell it... :)
* [79]13/12/2006
It's unfortunate that pretty much no one composes with a scale when
publishing for the web. Your article is a great step forward.
Also overlooked are line lengths. Since the beginning of the web,
It has been a standard practice to expand the line lengths out with
the width of the browser (like your site is currently :), causing
line lengths to expand way too long. If an optimal line length for
print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even
smaller.
* [81]14/12/2006
I don't see it mentioned in the comments yet, but your quote above:
"...Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which
allow users to resize text sized in pixels."
is not correct, as IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in
pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized.
* [83]18/12/2006
If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths
for web should be even smaller.
You're right to mention line length as something that is
overlooked, but on the screen it is not as simple as setting the
measure in ems as their are more factors involved (screen size,
liquid layouts, etc). Also I'd disagree that web line lengths
should be shorter on the web. My personal preference would be for
them to be longer - I find short line lengths on screen extremely
hard work to read. That's just my opinion though.
IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout
can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized.
If you think of the reasons for changing text size then zooming a
layout is just another form of resizing text and achieves the same
goal.
* [85]20/12/2006
Theodore, I think you would enjoy Richard's article entitled
"Choose a comfortable measure" over at webtypography.net :)
1.2/
* [87]22/12/2006
[88]Rachel Maxim
You've said in a few pages what has taken me years to figure out
and refine :) - great info!
* [89]23/12/2006
I really enjoyed this article. I have read your Elements of....for
the web, as well as your blog about sizing text in ems. I have
really been looking in to using this and getting the best `flow'
with my typography. I also ordered the book Elements of Typographic
Style just to give a better understanding.
I think its a common misconception that text on the web will always
look bland, and you have proved that it can have rhythm and style.
* [91]02/01/2007
I've just been using some of these techniques on a client's site
who needed 8 tabs all the same width, which fill the available
space - I had it working fine in Firefox, but the tabs didn't fill
the space in Safari or IE. I found that you really have to do the
maths, rather than just use trial and error - they all round the
numbers slightly differently. Once I'd checked my calculations,
rather than tinkered with the numbers, it works fine everywhere, at
least at standard font size.
One other correction from someone's comment earlier on - you can
resize text in IE7 - click the page icon at top right. Why you need
both this and the ability to zoom, I'm not sure, but it's there at
any rate.
* [93]03/01/2007
[94]Ben G
Can you set the margin above or below headings or paragraphs to
less than your 18px base measurement? Won't margin collapsing cause
whichever the largest margin is to take effect?
Ben
* [95]31/01/2009
[96]Daniel
I've been using this article as the basis for designing my site
with some "vertical rhythm". Everything is going well except with
forms (input, textarea, etc.). I just haven't been able to use css
to maintain the vertical rhythm (based on total line height of
18px).
Any advise or insight as to how to get forms to play nicely?
* [97]15/02/2009
[98]Silver Firefly
I wanted to clarify something about the default browser text size
and using the em unit. The article was a tad misleading when it
covered the default browser text size and the em unit. A lot of
designers have it in their heads that an em is equivalent to 16
pixels. An em is not equivalent to 16 pixels. It is equivalent to
whatever is set in the user's browser, which is commonly 16px but
depending on the user, it can be 20px or 12px or whatever they have
set in their browser's settings. I hope after reading that
statement, designers will start to realise that they have little
control over how their website appears in other users' browsers.
The majority of the control lies in the user's hands. Other than
that, the article was very good.
* [99]17/04/2009
Great article... and AWESOME site design. Inspirational!
* [101]27/04/2009
Typesetting for websites is the future, like all things
content-related. The Google knows it :). Thank you for that useful
post. You webdesigners take care of your text!
* [103]05/06/2009
[104]bonfield
Inline bolding of elements (I'm using Helvetica, e.g.) seems to add
a px of height on any line that uses it, and that subtly throws off
the vertical rhythm for each line and it can add up depending
-- anybody else run into this and solve it?
* [105]18/06/2009
[106]Anonymous
Does this truly keep the vertical rhythm? If you zoom in on the
example, you'll see that the descender of the letter g in the H1
header "New England" crosses your rhythm marker's background line,
while a lowercase g in the following paragraph does not. There
appears to be some fudging going on.
* [107]08/07/2009
I find it humorous that this site itself does not compose to a
vertical rhythm. I've seen very few online that do. It's so
difficult to implement across browsers it is usually brushed aside
except for in the most simple design schemes.
* [109]03/08/2009
[110]eric
I've yet to see any empirical evidence that "vertical rhythm"
applied to this degree has any impact on how well a reader is able
to extract signal from the noise of the page.
Meanwhile, I've seen many, many examples of mis-applied "vertical
rhythms" resulting in squashed headings where the underlning on a
link impinges on the text below. Which just looks clunky.
When you've got something other than an aesthetic opinion from the
margins -- maybe some actual data -- then I'll be interested in
expending the effort needed to support real vertical rhythm. Until
then, I just don't see how it's cost-effective.
* [111]02/09/2009
Now, that was the kind of article I was looking for. That goes a
lot deeper than I've been into the realms of line-spacing, leading
(no kerning here though - can we do kerning with css?).
I love the analogy to musical rhythym > therefore probably
following on to mathematics/geometry/proportion. That is a great
lead-in. Is there any room for the `golden ratio' in web design? Do
graphic designers use it with/without realising it? Just that I
haven't seen it discussed in the myriad pages concerning page
layout/design that I've read so far...
Thanks,
Darren
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About the author
[114]Richard Rutter
Richard Rutter is a user experience consultant and director of
[115]Clearleft. He runs an ongoing project called [116]The Elements of
Typographic Style Applied to the Web, where he extols the virtues of
good web typography. Richard occasionally blogs at [117]Clagnut, where
he writes about design, accessibility and web standards issues, as well
as his passion for music and mountain biking.
[118]More information
Related articles
* [119]Real Fonts and Rendering: The New Elephant in the Room
22/12/2009 by [120]Jeffrey Zeldman
* [121]Spruce It Up
19/12/2009 by [122]Jonathan Snook
* [123]Designing For The Switch
16/12/2009 by [124]Mark Boulton
* [125]Type-Inspired Interfaces
07/12/2009 by [126]Dan Mall
* [127]A Festive Type Folly
17/12/2008 by [128]Jon Tan
* [129]Increase Your Font Stacks With Font Matrix
17/12/2007 by [130]Richard Rutter
* [131]Typesetting Tables
07/12/2007 by [132]Mark Boulton
* [133]Knockout Type - Thin Is Always In
17/12/2006 by [134]Shaun Inman
* [135]An Explanation of Ems
02/12/2005 by [136]Richard Rutter
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[1]Home > [2]Articles > [3]Design > [4]Typography
[5]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm
[6]Jason Cranford Teague
* By [7]Jason Cranford Teague
* Dec 23, 2009
[8]Toggle Open Article Table of Contents [9]Article Contents
[10]Close Table of Contents [11]Article Contents
1. [12]Web Measurements
2. [13]Type Size & Line Height
3. [14]Type Space
4. Text Alignment
[15]Close Table of Contents
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[28]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm
Dec 23, 2009
[29]Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers: Creating Meaning through
Syntax
Jul 23, 2009
[30]Designing Webbed Environments: The Importance of the Define and
Design Phases
May 12, 2006
[31]Creating Web Pages for Screen, Print, and Email
Apr 28, 2006
[32]How to Style Forms in CSS
Mar 17, 2006
[33]What Are CSS Sprites?
Mar 3, 2006
[34]Ten Things You Can Do with CSS (That You Might Not Have Known You
Could Do)
Dec 22, 2005
[35]Fluid Web Typography [36]Fluid Web Typography
Nov 24, 2009
[37]Fluid Web Typography, Adobe Reader [38]Fluid Web Typography, Adobe
Reader
Nov 24, 2009
[39]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers
[40]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers
Jun 30, 2009
[41]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers, Adobe
Reader [42]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web
Designers, Adobe Reader
Jun 30, 2009
[43]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, 4th
Edition [44]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual
QuickStart Guide, 4th Edition
Oct 17, 2006
[45]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide,
Adobe Reader, 4th Edition [46]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth
Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, Adobe Reader, 4th Edition
Oct 17, 2006
[47]DHTML and CSS Advanced: Visual QuickPro Guide [48]DHTML and CSS
Advanced: Visual QuickPro Guide
Dec 15, 2004
[49]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 3rd
Edition [50]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual
QuickStart Guide, 3rd Edition
Feb 20, 2004
[51]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 2nd
Edition [52]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual
QuickStart Guide, 2nd Edition
May 30, 2001
[53]10 Last-minute Gifts for Web Designers
By on December 17, 2009 1 Comment
Q: What do I get for the Web designer who has everything?
The short answer is real estate.
The slightly longer answer is, anything that helps spark their
creativity.
The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah,
Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [54]Saturnalia
myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift
giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has
everything they need to actually make Web sites?
Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect.
[55]Choosing the Right Color Value
By on December 14, 2009 No Comments
Q: Should I use Hex or RGB values to define colors in CSS?
The short answer is RGB.
The slightly longer answer is that Hex values have become the de
facto standard for use in CSS code and both developers and
designers are used to them.
The long answer is that, in the final design on the screen,
there is no difference between using Hex or RGB values in your
code. Which system you use is really a matter of you own
personal preference (and those of the team you are working with)
as to whether or not you use Hex or RGB values to define colors.
[56]Expand Your Font Repertoire
By on November 30, 2009 No Comments
Q: Are there alternatives to Arial, Times, and Georgia for Web
designers?
The short answer is YES!
The slightly longer answer is that most designers use Arial,
Times, or Georgia, and, to a lesser degree, Verdana, Trebuchet
MS, Courier, and Comic Sans because they think that's all they
have at their disposal, but they are wrong.
The long answer is that the core Web fonts (the one listed above
plus Impact and Web Dings) are used because they are almost
guaranteed to be installed on the vast majority of computers
your designs are likely to be installed on. One fact of life in
Web design is that unless the end user's computer has access to
the font file, then the browser cannot use it.
[57]Pixels or Ems in Your Web Designs
By on November 18, 2009 No Comments
Q: What is the practical difference between px (pixel) and em
(pronounced m)? When is it best to use one over the other?
The short answer is that pixels measure dimensions relative to
the screen while ems measure dimensions relative to type size.
The slightly longer answer is that pixels are the natural unit
for measuring dimensions on a screen and are often used when
precise design is required. Ems are the natural unit for
measuring type and used when you want to allow maximum design
flexibility.
[58]To CSS Reset or Not to CSS Reset
By on November 10, 2009 No Comments
Question: Which Global Reset for CSS Should I Use?
The short answer is the simplest one possible.
The slightly longer answer is that you should reset some styles,
but do so with a good reason.
The long answer is that the exact CSS reset you choose will
depend on the needs of your design. I like to keep my own reset
simple, relying on adding styles to specific tags as needed.
However, there are several styles that are inconsistent or (in
my opinion) poorly set in most browsers.
[59]HTML 5 NOW!
By on August 25, 20092 Comments
Q: Can I start using HTML 5 now?
The short answer is, yes.
The slightly longer answer is, you can use some of the new
features, but you will need to do a little [60]kludging to get
it to work.
The long answer is that HTML is a mark-up language meant to
indicate the structure of a document. HTML 5 is the next
evolutionary step in mark-up languages for the Web, but it is
not implemented on most browsers that your audiences are likely
to be using and it may be some time before it is. That said,
there are some things you can do now to prepare for the future.
[61]Big Things Ahead for HTML 5
By on August 17, 2009 No Comments
Q: Will HTML5 or XHTML5 be the next big thing or just another
collection of past standards and browser war fodder?
The short answer is that, yes, [62]HTML 5 is the next big thing.
The slightly longer answer is that it's going to be a while
before you have to start worrying about HTML 5.
The long answer is that, as with all standards, before it
becomes relevant, the browser makers have to implement it and
then you'll have to wait even longer before legacy browsers are
no longer an issue. So, you have some time before you have to
run out and buy a new HTML 5 Visual QuickStart Guide. The good
news is that HTML 5 has gone to great lengths to stay backwards
compatible, so you can begin to learn and implement it today.
[63]Everyone is a Web Designer
By on August 10, 2009 No Comments
Q: What is a Web Designer anymore? It was easier to make Web
sites all by yourself, even 5 years ago, but now there is just
too much technology for one person to handle. If I want to make
a Web site for a very small business, don't have I to be web
"developer" now?
The short answer is that everybody is a Web designer now.
The slightly longer answer is that Web designers are
practitioners of a highly specialized discipline that requires
years of study to truly master.
The long answer is that a good Web designer is a good designer,
and this can come "naturally" or from training, but is not
medium-dependent. However, a professional Web designer has to
understand the medium well enough to know its strengths and
limitations. Any designer can pump out something that looks
brilliant when displayed in a Web browser window, but is slow to
load, static when loaded, and completely unusable.
[64]Frames are Dead, Long Live Iframes!
By on July 24, 2009 No Comments
Q: Is there a suitable alternative to frames? My wife is
president of a local woman's club. She and I administer the
club's web site, and the ladies like the list of links down one
side of the pages. But I read that frames have been deprecated.
Regardless, I want to keep the site simple.
The short answer is yes-- use iframes.
The slightly longer answer is no, not exactly, but we can get
close.
The long answer is there are a variety of ways to add content to
your Web pages, but the question is: once it's on the page what
are you going to do with it (or to it)?
[65]Q: If I ask ten different web designers what pixel dimensions to
use for web pages and whether to make them fixed-width or
"stretchy," I get ten different answers. What's your answer, and
why?
By on July 20, 2009 No Comments
The short answer is fixed at 974 pixels (px) wide.
The slightly longer answer is whatever it takes to get the job
done.
The long answer is that asking a Web designer what size a Web
page should be is like asking a painter what size a canvas
should be or an architect how large a a building should be.
While it's not purely a matter of taste--there are certain
physical and ergonomic constraints--personal preference accounts
for the wide variety of answers you might hear.
[66]Ask me, ask me, ask me
By on July 1, 2009 No Comments
Do you have a question about Web standards, CSS, JavaScript,
Ajax, interaction design, user experience, or Web typography?
Maybe you just want to know "How'd they do that?" Ask me
questions, and each week I will select a question to answer via
my Peachpit.com blog.
[67]Ask the Web Designer: Why Can't I Use Any Font I Want in My Web
Designs?
By on June 30, 2009 No Comments
The short answer is that you can.
The slightly longer answer is that you can't, at least not in
any meaningful way yet.
The long answer is that the ability to download fonts has
actually been a part of the CSS standard (the language used to
create Web designs) for over 10 years. The snag comes with what
font formats a given browser supports.
[NOTE: You may want to stop reading now, as the rest of this
explanation might make your eyes bleed in frustration.]
[68]Fluid Web Typography
This chapter is from the book
[69]Fluid Web Typography
Jason Cranford Teague shows how giving careful consideration to the
measurements and scale you are designing for is what separates good Web
typography from great Web typography.
Text Alignment
Text alignment is generally taken for granted on the Web--left
alignment suits most purposes most of the time. In order to create a
sense of rhythm and movement on your page, helping to guide the
reader's eye around and adding visual interest to the page, a little
alignment variation can go a long way.
Set body text alignment to minimize gaps and maximize scanning
Text alignment in Web pages is, by default, to the left, with ragged
edges on the right. Justified text--sometimes called newspaper columns,
where both edges of the text are aligned--is rare on the Web.
text-align: left;
text-align: justify;
In print, justified text is created using a variety of techniques
including word spacing, letterspacing, hyphenation, and glyph
reshaping. In addition, well-formed justification is calculated on a
paragraph level to prevent "rivers" of white space flowing down the
middle. On the Web, unfortunately, justification is simply created by
adding small amounts of space between words. On the screen, where you
can only add whole pixels, this often results in uncomfortably large
amounts of space between some words, especially in narrower columns.
Hyphenation is inexplicably absent from CSS. While it is proposed for
inclusion in CSS 3, no work has currently been done on it.
When choosing to use left or justified alignment, keep in mind these
factors:
* Justified text is often seen as more formal and structured, while
left alignment is more informal and approachable.
* Justified text reinforces the grid structure of a page but can be
harder to scan, since it often creates rivers of white space
throughout the text, which interrupts the eye path.
* Left-aligned text adds an element of white space to the right edge,
softening the overall appearance of the page.
Combining Alignments
[70]craigmod.com
Craig Mod combines right-and left-justified columns of text to create
motion and rhythm around his page.
[71]04-17.jpg
[72]Click to view larger image
Center or right-justify text for effect and variety
More rarely used, centering or right-justifying text can create a
specific feeling on the page.
text-align: center;
text-align: right;
Centering and right aligning text is integrally dependent on the design
you are creating and how you want your readers to scan the page. While
using a variety of justifications helps create rhythm and motion on
your page, it can quickly seem cluttered or obnoxious. Always have a
specific purpose for the variance of alignment, and use it sparingly.
Here are a few ideas:
* Bulleted or numbered lists should not be centered or right aligned,
as this makes them harder to scan by moving the beginning of each
line around.
* Center section or module titles/headers if you want to make your
site look a little different. Generally, section titles are best
when left aligned, but centering them gives your designs a unique
feel and may also improve scannability.
* Right-align text in the left column of a page or table if it helps
show a closer relationship between the elements in adjacent
columns.
Centered Section Titles
[73]jontangerine.com
Jon Tangerine combines centered subheadings with justified text in his
blog (detail shown) to create solid structure with visual movement.
[74]04-18.jpg
[75]Click to view larger image
Increase margins for longer quotations and style the citation
Short quotes of less than three lines are included in a paragraph
surround by quotation marks, requiring no other special formatting. In
HTML, the blockquote tag is used to set off a block of text as a
quotation, generally of two lines of text or longer. The quotation
should be styled to distinguish it from other text by indenting its
left and right margins and increasing the top and bottom margins. The
amount of left/right indentation is based on the width of the column
and then adjusted so that it does not conflict with any other indents.
A good measure to offset blockquotes is to double the font size (2em),
although more or less space may be required for wider or narrower
columns:
blockquote { margin: 2em; }
note.jpg In this chapter, we are only considering spacing issues with
blockquotes and citations. Chapters 5 and 6 offer other ways to style
text, including weights, italics, backgrounds, and borders. These can
be deployed to creatively display longer quotations.
This will clearly space the blockquote away from the rest of the text,
but it's also up to the copywriter to make it clear that the text is a
quote and to supply its source, possibly using the cite tag, which
indicates a citation. Turning the cite tag into a block-level element
and right-aligning it when it is included in a blockquote creates a
strong style.
blockquote cite {
display: block;
text-align: right; }
Blockquote Ideas
[76]css-tricks.com/examples/Blockquotes
CSS-Tricks has a page of blockquote ideas with sample code.
The code above will force any text marked by the citation tag to a new
line and right-align it.
[77]04-20.jpg
[78]Click to view larger image
Set footnotes and scientific or mathematical annotations using positioning
rather than vertical alignment
Vertical text alignment allows you to adjust the position of inline
text in relation to its natural baseline, shifting it up or down. For
footnotes, mathematics, and scientific notation, it will not be enough
to simply raise or lower the characters; you will also need to reduce
their size relative to the surrounding text. These styles can be
applied to the superscript and subscript tags, setting the vertical
position to the baseline and then setting a position relative to that:
sup, sub { font-size: .5em;
vertical-align: baseline;
position: relative; }
sup { top: -.65em; }
sup.math { top: -.8em }
sub { top: .2em; }
Although vertical-align provides several values to set the vertical
position of the text, these have proved to be unreliable in
multi-column layouts. The exact values will vary depending on the font,
and you may also need to add some left/right margins to add breathing
room.
[79]04-21.jpg
[80]Click to view larger image
Type Inspirations: Jon Tangerine
Beautiful typographic contrast.
Insightful typography editorials.
[81]jontangerine.com
Jon is a designer living in Bristol, UK, with some of the cleanest pure
Web typography I've seen. On top of this, his information and opinions
on Web typography are required reading for anyone interested in the
ongoing issues we face.
[82]04-22.jpg
[83]Click to view larger image
How he does it:
Jon uses a font stack of Web safe fonts, including Cochin, Baskerville,
and Palatino Linotype, down to Georgia. He then combines a wide variety
of sizes, styles, weights, and colors all scaled and spaced within a
strong grid to provide clear eye paths and legible text.
[84]04-25.jpg
[85]Click to view larger image
[86]04-26.jpg
[87]Click to view larger image
[88]04-27.jpg
[89]Click to view larger image
[90]04-28.jpg
[91]Click to view larger image
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[119]Jason Teague [120]10 Last-minute Gifts for Web Designers
By [121]Jason Cranford Teague on December 17, 2009 1 Comment
Q: What do I get for the Web designer who has everything?
The short answer is real estate.
The slightly longer answer is, anything that helps spark their
creativity.
The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah,
Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [122]Saturnalia
myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift
giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has
everything they need to actually make Web sites?
Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect.
[123]Kara Murphy [124]Just in time for the holidays: Our video-a-day
giveaway
By [125]Kara Murphy on December 16, 2009 No Comments
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learn something new in the field of Web design, development,
presentation, branding, and much more, then you're in luck.
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[32]Journal of Circadian Rhythms
[33]Volume 7
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[42]Nagane M
[43]Yoshimura K
[44]Watanabe SI
[45]Nomura M
[46]on PubMed
[47]Nagane M
[48]Yoshimura K
[49]Watanabe SI
[50]Nomura M
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[65]Open Access Research
A possible connection between psychosomatic symptoms and daily rhythmicity in
growth hormone secretion in healthy Japanese students
Mitsuo Nagane^1 [66]email , Kazunori Yoshimura^2 [67]email , Shu-Ichi
Watanabe^3 [68]email and Masahiko Nomura^4 [69]email
^1 Department of Educational Physiology, Chiba University, Chiba
263-8522, Japan
^2 Department of Rehabilitation, Nihon Institute of Medical Science,
Japan
^3 Department of Physiology, Saitama Medical University, Japan
^4 International Education and Training Center, Saitama Medical
University, Japan
[email.gif] author email [email-ca.gif] corresponding author email
Journal of Circadian Rhythms 2009, 7:10doi:10.1186/1740-3391-7-10
The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be
Received: 3 February 2009
Accepted: 5 August 2009
Published: 5 August 2009
© 2009 Nagane et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
Abstract
Background
Students suffering from psychosomatic symptoms, including drowsiness
and feelings of melancholy, often have basic lifestyle problems. The
aim of this study was to investigate whether psychosomatic complaints
may be related to circadian dysfunction.
Methods
We examined 15 healthy students (4 men and 11 women) between 21 and 22
years old. To assess the presence of psychosomatic symptoms among the
subjects, we developed a self-assessment psychosomatic complaints
questionnaire consisting of five items pertaining to physical symptoms
and five items concerning mental symptoms. The subjects rated their
psychosomatic symptoms twice a day (08:00 and 20:00 h). We also
assessed growth hormone secretion patterns by fluorescence enzyme
immunoassay (FEIA). Salivary samples were collected from the subjects
at home five times a day (20:00, 24:00, 04:00, 08:00, and 12:00 h) in
Salivette tubes.
Results
The results indicated a relationship between the self-assessment scores
and the salivary levels of growth hormone. Subjects with high
self-assessment scores showed significant variability in growth hormone
secretion over the day, whereas subjects with low self-assessment
scores did not.
Conclusion
Psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with circadian dysfunction, as
inferred from blunted rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion.
Background
Japanese students suffering from psychosomatic disorders, such as those
involving mood and sleep, may exhibit basic problems in their
lifestyle, including deleterious changes in their living environment
and dietary or lifestyle disturbances [[72]1]. In particular, staying
up late is associated with decreased appetite and missed breakfast the
following morning, irregular bowel movements and sleepiness. Perhaps
the biggest problem facing today's Japanese students is their lack of
daily physical exercise, brought on by stressful academic courses over
long periods of time, too much television and computer games and
increased automobile use [[73]2]. Many Japanese youngsters stay up late
at night [[74]3].
A circadian pacemaker in the central nervous system regulates human
sleep cycles, hormone secretion, subject alertness, objective
performance levels and other physiologic functions over a 24-h period.
Core body temperature, plasma cortisol, and plasma melatonin are three
variables frequently used to estimate the phase of the human pacemaker
[[75]4], although many other hormones, including growth hormone,
exhibit daily rhythmicity. Technical advances that make the assessment
of biomarkers in saliva possible have enabled researchers to
non-invasively study biosocial processes related to stress in
naturalistic contexts. Chiappin et al [[76]5] showed the usefulness and
possibility of salivary hormone analysis containing growth hormone.
Rantonen [[77]6] found a linear correlation between salivary and serum
growth hormone.
Carroll et al. [[78]7] described negative effects of growth hormone
insufficiency on psychological well-being, including reduced vitality
and energy, depressed mood, emotional lability, impaired self-control,
anxiety, and increased social isolation. Patients with growth hormone
deficiencies report decreased energy levels, greater emotional
lability, increased difficulties with sexual relationships and a
greater sense of social isolation than control subjects [[79]8].
However, no direct relationship has been shown between growth hormone
deficiency and psychometrically measured depression, apathy or
psychosomatic well-being [[80]9].
The purpose of the present study was to investigate individual
variation in the levels of growth hormone in healthy subjects and to
examine the relationship between an individual's hormone profile and
his or her psychosomatic complaints.
Methods
The subjects and self-assessment questionnaire
Fifteen subjects (4 men and 11 women) without major medical disorders
ranging in age from 21 to 22 years participated in this study. The
study design was approved by the Ethics Committee of Chiba University,
Japan, and informed consent was obtained from all subjects. A
self-assessment questionnaire concerning psychosomatic symptoms was
developed in accordance with data from the Health Behavior in
School-Aged Children (HBSC) study of the WHO [[81]10]. The
questionnaire for this study contained five items related to physical
symptoms and five items pertaining to mental symptoms (Table [82]1).
The questionnaire was used to measure each individual's psychosomatic
symptoms at home twice each day (08:00 and 20:00 h). The items were
rated on a 4-point scale, with 1 = not true at all and 4 = completely
true. The total score for the 10-item scale ranged from 10 to 40, with
higher scores indicating a greater degree of psychosomatic complaints.
The subjects were allocated post hoc (median split) to a High (n = 7)
or Low (n = 8) Self-Assessment Group based on their total morning score
(with higher scores corresponding to lower self-assessment).
[83]Table 1. Morning and evening psychosomatic condition scores
collected from the self-assessment psychosomatic complaint
questionnaire
Sample collection
Saliva was collected into Salivette tubes (Sarstedt, Germany) using
polyester swabs from the subjects' mouths following 2 min of chewing.
Samples were collected five times a day at home (20:00, 24:00, 04:00,
08:00, and 12:00 h). Both the day of sampling and the preceding day
were required to be normal days (i.e., without special events or
stressful circumstances). After sample collection, the saliva was
stored at -20°C until being analysed.
Salivary growth hormone assay
On the day of testing, the samples were centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for 10
min to remove all mucin. A standard fluorescent determination
immunoassay was used to assess the growth hormone concentrations in
each sample. To avoid inter-assay variability, all determinations were
performed in a single series. In the first step, 96-well fluoro-nunc
plates (Nunc, Black MicroWell 137101, Denmark) were pre-coated with 100
µl of anti-growth hormone antibody (Quartett, 2071800210, Germany) and
incubated for 1.5 h at room temperature. After incubation, the plate
was washed three times with phosphate-buffered saline and blocked for 1
h. After washing, 100 µl of saliva or a standard solution was dispensed
into each well and left for 1.5 h. After washing, primary antibody
(Funakoshi, FU47500254, Japan) was added to the plates and incubated
for 1.5 h. Next, incubation with a secondary antibody (Novus
Biologicals, NB120-7112, USA) was performed for 1 h. After washing,
rabbit anti-ovine immunoglobulin (Amersham Biosciences, ECF Western
Blotting Reagent Pack, USA) was added. After 20 min of incubation, the
plate was scanned using a Fluoromark Microplate Fluorometer (Bio-Rad,
USA) with excitation at 485 nm and emission at 590 nm.
Data analysis
The significance of differences between group means was tested by
analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by protected t tests when
appropriate. The presence of daily rhythmicity in salivary growth
hormone was tested by ANOVA and by the cosinor procedure [[84]11].
Results
Self-assessment psychosomatic complaints questionnaire
A factorial repeated measures ANOVA (high/low self-assessment versus
morning/evening self-assessment scores) was conducted. ANOVA results
showed significant differences (p < .05) between morning and evening
self-assessment scores. Post hoc analyses revealed that, as shown in
Table [85]1, the high self-assessment group (total 19.00) differed
significantly from the low self-assessment group (total 32.75) in terms
of their morning scores (Welch's t-test, t = -3.96, df = 7.57, p <
0.01). The low self-assessment group subjects complained of negative
psychosomatic conditions including being easily irritated (p < .05),
feeling melancholy (p < .05), having a desire to rest (p < .05), and
feeling anxious (p < .01).
Assessment of daily rhythmicity of salivary growth hormone secretion
We collected saliva profiles from 15 healthy students (4 men and 11
women). The amplitude of salivary growth hormone, defined as the
difference between the highest and lowest salivary concentrations, was
used to produce a standardisation, or Z, score. As shown in Figure
[86]1, noticeable variation was observed in the hormonal rhythms of the
subjects, including differences in the salivary growth hormone
secretion profiles of the high and low self-assessment groups. Cosinor
analysis revealed no significant 24-hour rhythmicity in the secretion
profiles of either group (p > .50), but a repeated measures ANOVA
identified statistically significant (p < .05) time-related variations
for growth hormone in the high self-assessment group. The secretion
profile of the low self-assessment group did not exhibit the typical,
sharp peak in the early morning [[87]12], and ANOVA showed no
time-related variation (p > .10). At 08:00 h, salivary growth hormone
levels were significantly lower (p < .05) in the low self-assessment
group than in the high self-assessment group.
[88]thumbnail Figure 1. Daily variation in salivary level of growth
hormone in the high and low self-assessment groups. The results are
presented as means ± S.E.M. * p < .05.
Discussion
Psychosocial factors have been previously shown to affect the
psychosomatic symptoms reported by Japanese school children [[89]13].
Psychosomatic symptoms, which are largely mediated by the autonomic
nervous system, are strongly influenced by an individual's lifestyle,
and the current so-called 24-h society in Japan may have changed the
environmental conditions of students. More than 80% of school refusal
cases (school phobia) suffer from sleep disorders, with a tendency
towards day/night reversal and easy fatigability, especially during the
period immediately following their school social life [[90]14]. Thus,
impairment in circadian rhythmicity may be a cause of school refusal in
Japan. The present study was the first step in an attempt to
investigate this hypothesis.
Our assessment of salivary growth hormone secretion was not sensitive
enough to detect significant daily rhythmicity, but the highest level
measured in the subjects of our high self-assessment group occurred
earlier in the day than the peak of the daily rhythm measured in a
previous study [[91]15]. Peak hormonal secretions often shift to the
morning if an activity continues long into the night. A link between
deficiency of growth hormone and reduced quality of life or well-being
has been reported by many researchers [[92]7].
Our results indicate a relationship between the self-assessment scores
and the levels of growth hormone. Subjects with high self-assessment
scores in the morning showed significant variability in growth hormone
secretion during the day, whereas subjects with low self-assessment
scores did not. Thus, psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with
hormonal rhythms related to basic lifestyle habits.
Nocturnal melatonin secretion can be suppressed by exposure to light on
the order of several hundred lux, such as ordinary room light [[93]16].
Thus, a subject's pattern of melatonin secretion may reflect his or her
life rhythm, and melatonin secretion appears to be an important index
of circadian rhythmicity. Based on our previous finding that growth
hormone and melatonin exhibit similar daily rhythmicity [[94]17], we
believe that estimates of the state of the central circadian clock can
be most accurate if they are based on the analysis of the secretion
patterns of both melatonin and growth hormone.
Some limitations of our study must be emphasized. First, it is possible
that the sleep-disrupting effect of waking at 00.00 and 04.00 to
produce a saliva sample had a disruptive effect on hormonal secretion.
Second, we observed a larger difference in terms of gender than has
been previously described [[95]18], with women having sevenfold higher
serum growth hormone concentrations than men during the day. Though we
did not directly examine sex differences in growth hormone secretion,
we recognise it as an important topic for further research.
Conclusion
Psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with circadian dysfunction, as
inferred from blunted rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors' contributions
MN designed the experiments, collected data and wrote the manuscript.
KY managed the laboratory and adjusted the schedule of subjects. SW
participated in the design of the study and performed statistical
analysis. MN supervised the study. All authors read and approved the
final version of the article.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported in part by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific
Research (C) from the Japanese Ministry of Education to Nagane M.
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[63]Open Access [64]Highly Access Research
Daily rhythm of cerebral blood flow velocity
Deirdre A Conroy^1 [65]email , Arthur J Spielman^1^,2 [66]email and
Rebecca Q Scott^3 [67]email
^1 Department of Psychology, The Graduate School and University Center
of the City University of New York, New York, USA
^2 Department of Neurology and Neuroscience, New York Presbyterian
Hospital, New York, USA
^3 Department of Health Psychology, Albert Einstein Medical College at
Yeshiva University, Bronx, USA
[email.gif] author email [email-ca.gif] corresponding author email
Journal of Circadian Rhythms 2005, 3:3doi:10.1186/1740-3391-3-3
The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be
Received: 21 December 2004
Accepted: 10 March 2005
Published: 10 March 2005
© 2005 Conroy et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
Abstract
Background
CBFV (cerebral blood flow velocity) is lower in the morning than in the
afternoon and evening. Two hypotheses have been proposed to explain the
time of day changes in CBFV: 1) CBFV changes are due to
sleep-associated processes or 2) time of day changes in CBFV are due to
an endogenous circadian rhythm independent of sleep. The aim of this
study was to examine CBFV over 30 hours of sustained wakefulness to
determine whether CBFV exhibits fluctuations associated with time of
day.
Methods
Eleven subjects underwent a modified constant routine protocol. CBFV
from the middle cerebral artery was monitored by chronic recording of
Transcranial Doppler (TCD) ultrasonography. Other variables included
core body temperature (CBT), end-tidal carbon dioxide (EtCO2), blood
pressure, and heart rate. Salivary dim light melatonin onset (DLMO)
served as a measure of endogenous circadian phase position.
Results
A non-linear multiple regression, cosine fit analysis revealed that
both the CBT and CBFV rhythm fit a 24 hour rhythm (R^2 = 0.62 and R^2 =
0.68, respectively). Circadian phase position of CBT occurred at 6:05
am while CBFV occurred at 12:02 pm, revealing a six hour, or 90 degree
difference between these two rhythms (t = 4.9, df = 10, p < 0.01). Once
aligned, the rhythm of CBFV closely tracked the rhythm of CBT as
demonstrated by the substantial correlation between these two measures
(r = 0.77, p < 0.01).
Conclusion
In conclusion, time of day variations in CBFV have an approximately 24
hour rhythm under constant conditions, suggesting regulation by a
circadian oscillator. The 90 degree-phase angle difference between the
CBT and CBFV rhythms may help explain previous findings of lower CBFV
values in the morning. The phase difference occurs at a time period
during which cognitive performance decrements have been observed and
when both cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events occur more
frequently. The mechanisms underlying this phase angle difference
require further exploration.
Background
It has been well documented that cerebral blood flow velocity (CBFV) is
lower in sleep [[70]1-[71]7] and in the morning shortly after awakening
[[72]8-[73]10] than in the afternoon or evening. Generally accepted
theories about the time of day changes in CBFV attribute the fall in
CBFV to the physiological processes of the sleep period and the
increase during the day to waking processes. The low CBFV in the
morning is thought to be a consequence of the fall in the overall
reduced metabolic level [[74]8,[75]10
,[76]11] and reduced cognitive processing [[77]12]. Additionally, the
reduced physical activity [[78]13], reduced body temperature, and the
recumbent sleeping position have also been proposed as contributors
[[79]14] to the decline in CBFV and analogous brain processes.
An alternative to these explanations that attribute changes in CBFV to
sleep and wake dependent processes is that this pattern of fluctuation
reflects an endogenous process with circadian rhythmicity. The decline
of CBFV across the sleep period and rise after subjects are awakened in
the morning resemble the endogenous circadian changes in core body
temperature (CBT), a reliable index of endogenous circadian
rhythmicity. Both patterns are low during sleep, start to rise in the
morning, reach their peak in the late afternoon, and then drop during
the sleep period.
The aim of this study was to examine CBFV over ~30 hours of sustained
wakefulness to unmask and quantify contributions of the endogenous
circadian system. By not permitting sleep, the evoked changes dependent
on this change of state will not contribute to the observed CBFV
changes. We hypothesized that time of day changes in CBFV are due to
endogenous circadian regulation. Previous studies have been limited by
several factors. First, the environmental conditions (light level) and
the behavior of the subject (sleep, meals, and caffeine intake) were
not controlled [[80]15,[81]13,[82]1
,[83]16]. Second, CBFV measurements were obtained at only a few
circadian points. For example, Ameriso et al. [[84]15] and Qureshi et
al. [[85]16] assessed CBFV between 6-8 am, 1-3 pm, and 7-9 pm. Diamant
et al [[86]13] assessed CBFV during the first 15 minutes of every hour
across a 24 hour period. Given these brief time periods, the findings
are only a schematic of the 24 hour profile. Third, primary output
markers of the endogenous circadian pacemaker (such as core body
temperature and melatonin production) were not assessed.
We employed the "constant routine" protocol, which was designed
specifically to unmask underlying circadian rhythms in constant
conditions [[87]17]. CBFV was collected by Transcranial Doppler (TCD)
ultrasonography for the entire study period. Core body temperature and
salivary dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO) were measured for
determination of circadian phase. Continuous electroencephalography
(EEG) was performed to ensure wakefulness across the study.
Additionally, measurements of blood pressure, heart rate, and end tidal
carbon dioxide (Et[CO2]), three of the main regulators of CBFV, were
collected every half hour.
Methods
Subject selection
Twelve subjects (10 men and 2 women; ages 19-38, mean 28 years) agreed
to participate. One subject discontinued her participation because of a
headache 15 hours into the study. Subjects were in good health, as
assessed by medical history, semi-structured clinical interview, and
physical exam. Information regarding menstrual cycle was not obtained
from female subjects. Subjects also underwent an independent standard
cerebrovascular assessment and were determined to be normal. They
reported no symptoms of sleep problems (such as insomnia, obstructive
sleep apnea, narcolepsy, or restless legs syndrome).
Subjects that were selected to participate kept to a designated
sleep-wake schedule (that was negotiated from the subject's typical
pattern) and filled out a sleep diary for the two weeks prior to the
time in the laboratory. According to sleep diary reports, bedtimes
ranged from 10:30 pm to 1:00 am and waketimes ranged from 6:00 am to
10:00 am. Alcohol and caffeine intake was discontinued for the entire
week before the study. During the data collection, subjects were not
permitted either alcohol or caffeine. All subjects were non-smokers.
Laboratory constant routine protocol
The study protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Boards of
New York Presbyterian Hospital - Weill Medical College of Cornell
University and The City College of New York. Subjects gave written and
informed consent before participating. Subjects arrived at the sleep
laboratory between 9:30 am and 10:00 am. They were oriented to the
study procedures and to their bedroom. Electrodes were placed on the
subject's head and face as they sat in a chair next to the bed. Data
collection began at 11 am. Subjects remained in bed and awake in a semi
recumbent position for 30 hours in an established "constant routine"
(CR) protocol. Subjects remained in low (<25 lux) light levels which
have been shown to have little or no entraining effect on the circadian
pacemaker [[88]18]. They were not allowed to get out of bed to urinate.
Instead they urinated in private in a urinal or bedpan. Subjects
remained awake from 11:00 a.m. on Day 1 until 5 p.m. on Day 2.
Throughout the study, subjects were provided small meals (Ensure ^®
liquid formula plus one-quarter nutritional food bar) every 2 hours.
Subject's typical total food and liquid intake for a day and a quarter
were divided into 15 relatively equal portions. Only one subject
participated in the CR per 30-hour period.
This protocol represents a modified CR in two ways. First, subjects
were allowed to watch television and were therefore were not in "time
isolation." Television content was monitored so that subjects were not
exposed to programs with highly emotional themes. Second, subjects
needing to defecate were allowed to go to the bathroom, which was
located a few steps away from the bedside. We chose this method as an
alternative to using the bedpan to ensure subject's comfort and study
compliance. Three subjects (subjects 05, 06, and 10) got out of bed
once at 3:30, 21:30, and 15:30, respectively, to defecate. One subject,
subject 12, got out of bed twice, at 22:30 and 6:35. Subject 10 used
the bathroom only during the adaptation period. A paired-samples t-test
was conducted to evaluate the impact of getting out of bed to defecate
on subject's CBT and CBFV values. The CBT and CBFV values in the two
hours before getting up were compared to the two hours after the
subject got up. Subjects 5 showed a slight decrease in CBT from before
(M = 98.12, SD = 0.14) to after the subject returned to the bed (M =
97.91, SD = 0.08), t(3) = -5.17, p = .014). Subject 6 showed a decline
in CBFV from before (M = 56.14, SD = 2.3) to after the subject returned
to the bed (M = 45.67, SD = 3.7), t(3) = 5.49, p = 0.012). There were
no other significant differences detected between these two time
periods for subject 5's CBFV, subject 6's CBT, or for both times
subject 12 got out of the bed. By visual inspection, the overall shape
of the curves in these subjects was not affected and therefore these
subject's data were included in subsequent analyses.
Transcranial Doppler ultrasound recordings
The current study utilized TCD ultrasonography to measure cerebral
blood flow velocity. TCD is a non-invasive instrument (consisting of
one or two 2-Mhz transducers fitted to a headband, MARC500, Spencer
Technologies, Nicolet Biomedical Inc) that is used predominantly as a
diagnostic tool to assess cerebral hemodynamics in normal and
pathological conditions. TCD ultrasonography is predicated on a theory
that involves the measurement of moving objects when combined with
radar. When the instrument emits the sound wave, it is reflected by the
blood cells that are moving in the vector of the sound wave [[89]19].
CBFV was measured using either the right or left middle cerebral artery
(MCA) using TCD sonography (TCD: DWL Multidop X-2, DWL Elektronische
Systeme GmbH, D-78354 Sipplingen/Germany) through the temporal window.
An observer who was present continuously during the recordings
evaluated the quality of the signal. This enabled long-term recording
of CBFV throughout the study. Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT) of the
signal was used to analyze the velocity spectra. The mean velocity of
the MCA was obtained from the integral of the maximal TCD frequency
shifts over one beat divided by the corresponding beat interval and
expressed in cm/sec. Analysis was conducted off line.
Measurement of standard markers of the circadian pacemaker
Body temperature recordings
Core body temperature was recorded at 1-minute intervals with an
indwelling rectal probe (MiniMitter, Co. Bend, OR). A wire lead
connected the sensor out of the rectum to a data collection system worn
on the belt. Temperature readings were collected and saved into the
device and monitored at hourly intervals by the investigator. After the
study, the recordings were visually inspected and artifacts resulting
from removal or malfunction of the probe were excluded from further
analysis.
Salivary melatonin
Salivary samples of 3 ml were collected every hour from 11:00 a.m. on
Day 1 to 4:00 p.m. on Day 2. Ten of these samples were used only for
the determination of the timing of the salivary dim light melatonin
onset (DLMO). For nine subjects, salivary DLMO was assessed across a
ten-hour time window that included the ten hours before the CBT
minimum. Immediately after collection, each saliva sample was frozen
and stored at -20°C. Saliva samples were assayed using Bühlmann
Melatonin Radio Immunoassay (RIA) test kit for direct melatonin in
human saliva (American Laboratory Products Co., Windham, NH). Analysis
was conducted at New York State Institute for Basic Research. Salivary
DLMO time was selected based on two criteria. The saliva sample needed
to have melatonin concentration 3 pg/ml or above and later samples
needed to show higher levels (Bühlmann laboratories). Second, the 3
pg/ml threshold needed to occur within 6-10 hours before core body
temperature minimum [[90]20].
Polygraphic recordings
Electroencephalography (EEG) was continually assessed across the 30
hours to ensure that subjects maintained wakefulness. The following
montage was used according to the international 10-20 system: C3-A2,
C4-A1, O1-A2, O2-A1, ROC-A1, LOC-A2, and submentalis electromyogram
(EMG). One channel of electrocardiogram was continuously recorded by
monitoring from two electrodes (one on each side of the body at the
shoulder chest junction). The EEG software (Rembrant Sleep Collection
Software Version 7.0) was used for data acquisition and display of the
signals on a personal computer. Throughout the CR, the investigator
(DAC) monitored the quality of the recordings. The recordings were
scored by RQS and DAC.
Blood pressure, heart rate, and end-tidal CO2
An automated blood pressure cuff was placed on the bicep of the subject
and inflated two times each hour in order to determine changes in blood
pressure and heart rate over time. Blood pressure and heart rate in one
subject (02) was recorded via a finger blood pressure monitor (Omron
Marshall Products, Model F-88). Blood pressure and heart rate in
subjects 03, 04, 05, 06, and 07 were recorded with Omron Healthcare,
Inc, Vernon Hills, Illinois 60061 Model # HEM-705CP Rating: DC 6V 4W
Serial No: 2301182L. Blood pressure and heart rate for subjects 08, 09
and 10 was recorded with a similar blood pressure monitor (CVS Pharmacy
Inc, Woonsocket, RI 02895 Model # 1086CVS). Blood pressure and heart
rate recordings were not measured in subjects 11 and 12. Et[CO2 ]was
continuously obtained. A nasal cannula for monitoring expired gases was
placed under the nose. Relative changes in carbon dioxide content were
measured by an Ohmeda 4700 Oxicap (BOC healthcare). Mean Et[CO2 ]levels
were analyzed off-line. Et[CO2 ]recordings were not measured in
subjects 11 and 12.
Data Analyses
Data reduction and statistical procedures
CBT and CBFV values were first subjected to data rejection. All CBT
values less than 96 degrees were determined to be artifact and were
rejected. All CBFV values less than 20 cm/sec were determined to be
artifact according to the clinical criteria set by the staff
neurologist. Data reduction was accomplished by averaging into one
minute, 30 minute or hourly bins. Correlations presented here were
performed on mean values in 30 minute bins. To ensure that circadian
measurements were made under basal conditions, the first five hours of
the constant routine were excluded from all analyses to eliminate
effects of study adaptation. The last hour was excluded to eliminate
confounding effects such as expectation effects.
The data are presented in this article in three ways. First, CBT and
CBFV values were plotted according to time of day (Figures [91]1 and
[92]2). Second, CBFV values were aligned according to the CBT nadir
(Figure [93]3) and third, the CBFV nadir was aligned to the CBT nadir
(Figure [94]4). To align CBFV to the CBT circadian nadir as shown in
Figure [95]3, the CBT nadir of each individual subject was set to
circadian time 0, or 0°. The CBFV value that corresponded to the CBT
nadir was then also set to 0. Each half hour data point after the
temperature nadir and corresponding CBFV values were then set to a
circadian degree. There were a total of 48 data points across the 24
hour period. Therefore, each data point was equal to 7.5 degrees so
that each data point would accumulate to 360°. Lastly, mean values were
obtained for CBT and CBFV at each circadian degree.
[96]thumbnail Figure 1. 24-hour Cosine Curve fit to Mean Core Body
Temperature (°F). Time course of CBT according to time of day. Shown is
a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/- SEM) of CBT (blue
diamonds) fit with a 24-hour cosine curve (purple squares). Time of day
is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate shows CBT values (degrees F).
The vertical line indicates where the data was double plotted. Also
displayed in the upper right corner is the non-linear cosine curve fit
for mean CBT, R^2 = 0.62. The overall mean circadian phase position of
the minimum was 6:05 am.
[97]thumbnail Figure 2. 24-hour Cosine Curve fit to Mean Cerebral Blood
Flow Velocity (cm/sec). Time course of CBFV according to time of day.
Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/- SEM) of
CBFV (blue diamonds) fit with a 24-hour cosine curve (purple squares).
Time of day is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate shows CBFV values
(cm/sec). The vertical line indicates where the data was double
plotted. Also displayed in the upper right corner is the non-linear
cosine curve fit for mean CBFV, R^2 = 0.67. The overall mean circadian
phase position of the minimum was 12:02 pm.
[98]thumbnail Figure 3. Mean CBT and CBFV Aligned to CBT Nadir. Time
course of mean CBFV and mean CBT aligned to the nadir of CBT and then
averaged. Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels
(+/-SEM) of CBT (purple squares) and CBFV (blue circles) aligned to the
phase of the circadian temperature cycle. Circadian time in degrees is
shown on the abscissa. The ordinate on the left shows CBT values
(degrees F) and CBFV (cm/sec) on the right. The vertical line indicates
the CBT nadir.
[99]thumbnail Figure 4. Mean CBT and CBFV Aligned to Their Respective
Nadir. Time course of mean CBFV and mean CBT aligned to each of their
respective nadirs and then averaged. Shown is a double plot of the
group (n = 11) mean levels (+/-SEM) of CBT (purple squares) and CBFV
(blue circles) aligned to the phase of the circadian temperature cycle.
Circadian time in degrees is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate on the
left shows CBT values (degrees F) and CBFV (cm/sec) on the right. The
vertical line indicates both the CBT nadir and the CBFV nadir. The
correlation coefficient between the aligned rhythms is 0.77 (p < 0.01).
To align the CBFV nadir to the CBT nadir, first, the lowest value of
CBT and the lowest value of CBFV were identified and set to circadian
time 0, or 0°. Each half hour data point after the CBT nadir and CBFV
nadir were then set to a circadian degree. There were a total of 48
data points across the 24 hour period. Therefore, each data point was
equal to 7.5 degrees so that each data point would accumulate to 360°.
Lastly, mean values were obtained for CBT and CBFV at each circadian
degree.
Estimation of circadian phase
A 24-hour non-linear multiple regression -cosine curve fit analysis was
performed on the CBT and CBFV data (SAS Institute, Cary, NC). This
technique constrains the circadian period of CBT and CBFV to be within
24 hours. This technique used the following equations: model cbt =
&avg_cbt + r * cos((2 * 3.1415) * (hours-&max_cbt)/24; model cbfv =
&avg_cbt + r * cos((2 * 3.1415) * (hours-&max_cbfv)/24, where & =
constants that center the curve at the actual average for each series
(vertical centering) and the predicted maximum at the actual maximum
(horizontal centering); r = the amplitude of the cosine wave. An
additional analysis was performed which also yielded the estimated
clock time for the CBT nadir and CBFV nadir (Synergy software,
Kaleidagraph Version 3.6). Third, the minimum of the circadian rhythm
of CBT and salivary DLMO were also used as markers of the endogenous
circadian phase. A paired t-test was used to determine the overall
phase difference between CBT and CBFV.
Results
Eleven subjects completed the protocol. The TCD probe was placed on
either the right or left temple, whichever gave the better signal. Mean
isonation depth of the TCD signal was 56.5 mm for the right MCA and
55.6 mm for the left MCA (range 53-60 mm). The constant routine ranged
from 28 to 30 hours in duration. Polygraphic recordings confirmed
sustained wakefulness across essentially the entire protocol in all but
one subject. Subjects that had difficulty remaining awake were
monitored closely and aroused when needed by engagement in
conversation. Results from the polygraphic recordings are not presented
here. We do not present the results of the polygraphic recordings
because, for the purposes of this study, these recordings were used
solely to monitor whether subjects were awake or asleep. The first five
hours and the final hour of data from the constant routine were
excluded from analysis.
Core body temperature, cerebral blood flow velocity and the 24-hour day
A 24 hour non-linear multiple regression, cosine fit analysis revealed
that the overall mean CBT rhythm (n = 11) fit a 24 hour cosine rhythm
(R^2 = 0.62, p < 0.01), Figure [100]1. The mean CBT across all subjects
was 98.6 °F (+/- 0.03 °F). Figure [101]2 shows that a 24-hour
non-linear multiple regression, cosine analysis fit a 24 hour cosine
rhythm (R^2 = 0.67, p < 0.01), Figure [102]2. The mean CBFV across
subjects was 40.6 cm/sec (+/- 0.54 cm/sec). Salivary DLMO occurred 7.7
hours prior to the CBT nadir in nine subjects, which served only as a
secondary measure of endogenous circadian phase position in those
subjects. The mean salivary melatonin concentration across the ten hour
window was 15.3 pg/ml (+/-3.05 pg/ml).
CBFV rhythm is 90 degrees out of phase with the CBT rhythm
The overall mean circadian position of CBT occurred at 6:05 am and the
mean position of CBFV occurred at 12:02 pm (Figure [103]3), yielding a
6 hour or 90 degree statistically significant difference (t = 4.9, DF =
10, p < 0.01). In individual subject data, the differences ranged from
0 to 8.5 hours. In eight subjects, the CBFV phase occurred later than
the respective CBT phase, with mean difference of 5.2 hours. In two
subjects, the CBFV nadir occurred earlier than the respective CBT
nadir, with a mean difference of 6 hours. In one subject, there was no
difference between the phase of CBT and CBFV. However, this subject's
CBT rhythm was highly unusual, with the nadir occurring at 11:35 am on
Day 2. Nevertheless, we felt the most appropriate way to present the
data was to include this subject in the overall analysis. When the
phase of CBFV was shifted so that the lowest value was aligned to the
lowest CBT value, the two parameters were highly correlated (see Figure
[104]4; r = 0.77, n = 98, p < 0.01). While the difference in the two
rhythms variability was large, Fisher's z-transformed values revealed
that the amplitudes of the two parameters were similar. The amplitude
of CBFV yielded a z score of 4.25 and CBT yielded a z score of 3.06.
Blood pressure recordings and systemic hemodynamic variables
A Pearson correlation revealed a positive relationship between CBT and
heart rate (r = 0.40, p < 0.01) across the 24 hour period. Diastolic
blood pressure (DBP) and CBT showed a negative correlation (r = -0.30,
p < 0.05). Et[CO2 ]showed a trend towards a direct relationship with
CBFV (r = 0.24, p = 0.10). Blood pressure, heart rate, and Et[CO2
]served only as regulators of CBFV and were not analyzed according to
circadian phase.
Discussion
This study is the first to use the constant routine (CR) protocol to
determine whether the endogenous circadian pacemaker contributes to the
previously reported diurnal changes in CBFV. The current work
demonstrates that, with limited periodic external stimuli and a
constant posture, there is 24-hour rhythmicity in CBFV. Subjects showed
a cycle of approximately 24 hours in CBT, which has been previously
demonstrated with the CR [[105]21].
Figure [106]3 illustrates the intricate relationship between the
rhythms across the study period. At approximately the CBT acrophase,
the relationship between the two rhythms undergoes a transition.
Between 180 and 240 degrees, CBFV is still rising and CBT is changing
directions (first rising, reaching its peak and then falling). This
period between 180 and 240 has been described as a "wake maintenance
zone", a time in the circadian cycle during which humans are less
likely to fall asleep [[107]22]. In our subjects, the CBT is near its
zenith or just starting to fall at this time and CBFV is still steadily
rising. Higher values in CBT and CBFV are associated with activation
and therefore these two endogenous rhythms may be promoting wakefulness
during this "wake maintenance zone". However, at the end of this
transition period, CBT is falling and CBFV is still rising, perhaps
reflecting continued activation of the cerebral cortex. Whereas the
two-process model predicts increased tendency to sleep as CBT falls
[[108]23], our finding may provide the mechanism by which wakefulness
is effortlessly maintained before bedtime.
Figure [109]3 further illustrates that as wakefulness is extended past
the subject's habitual bedtime (approximately 270 degrees), the two
rhythms decline together. Between 0 and 60 degrees, CBFV steadily
declines and CBT is steadily rising. The lower CBFV values in the
morning may play a role in cognitive performance impairments [[110]24],
particularly the 3-4.5 hour phase difference in neurobehavioral
functioning relative to the CBT rhythm that has been previously
demonstrated in constant routine protocols [[111]25].
Earlier studies using simultaneous EEG and TCD to continuously measure
CBFV across the sleep period have concluded that, except for periods of
REM sleep, [[112]26
,[113]27], there is a linear decline in CBFV across the night during
periods of non-REM sleep [[114]1,[115]28]. Other groups utilizing these
techniques simultaneously speculated that the decline in CBFV through
the night was a "decoupling" of cerebral electrical activity and
cerebral perfusion during non-REM sleep [[116]8-[117]10]. In all
studies [[118]1,[119]8-[120]10,[121]28], CBFV values were lower in the
morning during wakefulness than during wakefulness prior to sleep at
night. The current findings show that the decline in CBFV is present
during wakefulness in the night time hours and therefore may not be
attributed solely to sleep and associated changes that normally
influence CBFV (including factors such as the shift to recumbency, and
reduced activity, metabolic rate and respiratory rate).
Moreover, our interaction with the subjects and the monitoring of EEG
for signs of sleep resulted in no sleep in all but one subject. The one
exception was in a subject who lapsed into brief periods of sleep.
Therefore, the fall in CBFV in 10 out of 11 subjects cannot be
explained by the occurrence of non-REM sleep. It is possible, however,
that the decline of CBFV across the night and early morning may be
secondary to the sleep deprivation that is part of the constant
routine. Brain imaging studies across sustained periods of wakefulness
have shown significant decreases in absolute regional cerebral glucose
metabolic rate in several areas of the brain [[122]29-[123]34].
The drop in CBT which preceded the parallel fall in CBFV needs to be
considered as a possible explanation for the CBFV changes. The fall in
CBT during sleeping hours is attributed in part to sleep-associated
changes and in part to strong regular circadian forces independent of
the sleep period. CBT is, in fact, one of the key and most extensively
studied indices of the circadian phase. It is also known that CBT is
highly correlated with brain temperature and brain metabolic rate
[[124]35]. Imaging studies have documented the intimate relation
between brain activity and increased metabolic rate and oxygen delivery
through perfusion. Therefore, it is plausible that CBT is a direct
influence on CBFV or an index of decreased metabolic need for blood
flow. The prevailing hypothesis that there is tight coupling of normal
neuronal activity and blood flow was formulated over 100 years ago
[[125]36]. The drop in CBFV may be a consequence of the lowered
cerebral activity secondary to lowered brain temperature. In contrast,
two studies of exercise-induced hyperthermia showing decreased global
and middle cerebral artery CBFV [[126]37
,[127]38] do not support this hypothesized direct relationship between
the two variables. However, one of the main purported mechanisms for
the fall in CBFV in these exercise studies, the hyperventilation
induced lowering of Pa[CO2], is unlikely present during waking while
lying in bed at night. Therefore, CBT declines remain a plausible
explanation for the portion of the 24 hours when CBFV declined.
Mechanisms of CBFV regulation
This protocol allowed the unique opportunity to evaluate blood
pressure, heart rate, and Et[CO2 ]in the absence of sleep, in subjects
with constant posture, and highly restricted movements. While blood
pressure clearly falls during sleep in normal individuals, the absence
of sleep in the current study obviates the explanation that CBFV
declines are secondary to lowered blood pressure. Furthermore, we
sampled blood pressure throughout the day and night and found a weak
inverse relationship between DBP and CBT. This finding is in contrast
to a careful study of circadian influence on blood pressure in the
absence of sleep which showed no change in blood pressure during the
descending portion of the body temperature curve [[128]39].
Nevertheless, our finding was weak and likely does not provide the
explanation for the CBFV changes. The small-inverse relationship
between Et [CO2 ]and CBT is similar to that found by Spengler et al.
[[129]40], who showed a consistent but small amplitude circadian rhythm
in mean end-tidal Et[CO2 ]on a CR protocol. Et[CO2 ]showed a trend
towards a direct relationship with CBFV, which is consistent with
previous studies showing that changes in Et[CO2 ]are associated with
changes in CBFV [[130]41
,[131]42]. Heart rate was correlated with CBT, consistent with the
findings of Van Dongen et al [[132]39].
Clinical correlation
The approximate 6 hour (90 degree) phase angle difference between the
CBFV and CBT suggests that CBFV continues to decline into the early to
mid-morning hours. This finding is consistent with a time window in the
morning during which several physiological changes have been observed.
For example, cerebral vasomotor reactivity to hypocapnia, hypercapnia,
and normoventilation has been found to be most reduced in the morning
[[133]15
,[134]16]. It is tempting to suggest that the the low CBFV values in
the morning may also help explain the well established diurnal
variation of the onset of cerebrovascular accidents (CVAs) [[135]43]. A
meta-analyses of 11,816 publications between 1966 to 1997 found that
there was a 49% increased risk of strokes between 6 am and 12 pm
[[136]44]. This time period is in agreement with studies on myocardial
infarction (MI) and sudden death [[137]45]. The increased incidence of
these events has been attributed, in part, to the surge of blood
pressure [[138]13,[139]46,[140]47] and platelet aggregability
[[141]48,[142]49] in the morning when patients are getting out of bed.
Our results demonstrate that even in the absence of surges in blood
pressure, the phase of CBFV reaches its lowest values during the hours
before 12 pm. This further suggests that the endogenous rhythm of CBFV
may be associated with the risk of CVAs in the late morning hours even
without changes in posture or activity.
Conclusion
Overall, the results demonstrate that CBFV, in the absence of sleep,
exhibits properties of a circadian rhythm, as it rises and falls across
a 24 hour period. The 6 hour (90 degree) phase angle difference in the
CBFV rhythm with respect to the CBT rhythm may help explain previous
findings of lower CBFV values in the morning. The phase difference
occurs at a time period during which cognitive performance decrements
have been observed and when both cardiovascular and cerebrovascular
events occur more frequently. The mechanisms underlying this phase
angle difference require further exploration.
List of abbreviations
CBFV Cerebral Blood Flow Velocity
CBT Core Body Temperature
TCD Transcranial Doppler
EtCO2 End tidal Carbon Dioxide
DLMO Dim Light Melatonin Onset
EEG Electroencephalogram
MCA Middle Cerebral Artery
FFT Fast Fourier Transformation
CR Constant routine
EMG Electromyogram
SBP Systolic Blood Pressure
DBP Diastolic Blood Pressure
CVA Cerebrovascular accident
MI Myocardial infarction
Competing interests
The author(s) declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors' contributions
DAC coordinated, carried out, analyzed, and interpreted the study. AJS
participated in the analysis and interpretation of the findings. DAC
drafted the manuscript and AJS provided final approval of this version.
RQS participated in data collection and data analysis. DAC and AJS
co-designed the study. All authors read and approved the final
manuscript.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the volunteer participants who completed
this extremely difficult protocol, to the research assistants: Jason
Birnbaum, Will Carias, RN, Laura Diaz, Boris Dubrovsky, Mathew Ebben,
Ph.D., Carrie Hildebrand, Lars Ross, Greg Sahlem, Mathew Tucker, Ayesha
Udin, to those who helped with the data analysis: Scott Campbell, Ph.D.
of New York Presbyterian Hospital, White Plains, Abdeslem ElIdrissi,
Ph.D. of The Institute for Basic Research, Staten Island, NY, Larry
Krasnoff, Ph.D. of Digitas, New York, and Andrew Scott, MBA, to those
who provided their expert advice: William Fishbein, Ph.D. of The City
College of New York, Paul Glovinsky, Ph.D. of The Sleep Disorders
Center, Albany, NY, Margaret Moline, Ph.D. of Eisai, Inc, Charles
Pollak, MD of The Center for Sleep Medicine, New York Presbyterian
Hospital-Cornell, and Alan Segal, MD of The Department of Neurology,
New York Presbyterian Hospital, and to others who helped make this
study possible: Stacy Goldstein, Neil B. Kavey, MD, Igor Ougorets, MD,
and Jerry Titus.
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Rhythm and Meter in English Poetry
English poetry employs five basic rhythms of varying stressed (/) and
unstressed (x) syllables. The meters are iambs, trochees, spondees,
anapests and dactyls. In this document the stressed syllables are
marked in boldface type rather than the tradition al "/" and "x." Each
unit of rhythm is called a "foot" of poetry.
The meters with two-syllable feet are
* IAMBIC (x /) : That time of year thou mayst in me behold
* TROCHAIC (/ x): Tell me not in mournful numbers
* SPONDAIC (/ /): Break, break, break/ On thy cold gray stones, O
Sea!
Meters with three-syllable feet are
* ANAPESTIC (x x /): And the sound of a voice that is still
* DACTYLIC (/ x x): This is the forest primeval, the murmuring pines
and the hemlock (a trochee replaces the final dactyl)
Each line of a poem contains a certain number of feet of iambs,
trochees, spondees, dactyls or anapests. A line of one foot is a
monometer, 2 feet is a dimeter, and so on--trimeter (3), tetrameter
(4), pentameter (5), hexameter (6), heptameter (7), and o ctameter (8).
The number of syllables in a line varies therefore according to the
meter. A good example of trochaic monometer, for example, is this poem
entitled "Fleas":
Adam
Had'em.
Here are some more serious examples of the various meters.
iambic pentameter (5 iambs, 10 syllables)
* That time | of year | thou mayst | in me | behold
trochaic tetrameter (4 trochees, 8 syllables)
* Tell me | not in | mournful | numbers
anapestic trimeter (3 anapests, 9 syllables)
* And the sound | of a voice | that is still
dactylic hexameter (6 dactyls, 17 syllables; a trochee replaces the
last dactyl)
* This is the | forest pri | meval, the | murmuring | pine and the |
hemlocks
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[1]Daniel Elazar Papers Index [2][USEMAP:nav-back.gif]
American Political Culture
The Generational Rhythm of American Politics
The American Mosaic, Chapter 2
Daniel J. Elazar
It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States
combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount
of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no
less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space.
Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location
within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less
pinpointed.
This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is
structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of
generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to
the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast
developments with great success. At the same time he has applied
that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that
very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs.
Early Studies of Generational Rhythms
Students of society have noted the succession of generations since
ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology
on generational measures.
The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear
time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning
of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs.
It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the
individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the
starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon
and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon
operating in history.^2
Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational
basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first
recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the
system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third
and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the
Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average
generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full
generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical
scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression,
"forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5
Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The
"generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity
of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a
common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a
time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces
time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new
judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation
and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7
Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have
beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the
founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central
interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of
its beginnings and its ancestry.
Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were
the first to articulate systematic theories of generational
progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte
viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the
thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in
shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the
unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the
aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social
cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that
"History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of
Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle
phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences
appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals
comes to dominate society.^9
These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical
verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years
of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop
the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed
the principle that generations are articulated through historical
events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained.
Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a
fourfold classification of generations as preparatory,
revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10
Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11
Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that
generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific
study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and
heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation
century.^13
After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the
succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of
social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between
contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who
are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his
student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked
on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and
Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm
Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri
Peyre (1948).^16
More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused
on problems of intergenerational differences and the political
socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes
or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund
Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study
of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their
study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963)
focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966)
studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957)
utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in
Israel and the United States, respectively.^20
All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a
comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of
their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and
those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving
many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the
studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two
parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the
people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact,
both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined
that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The
linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive
theory.
None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a
generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black
box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods.
Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of
three generations.
Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining
way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an
empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is
somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin.
Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature,
art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of
eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular
basis.
Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to
embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under
the heading of "a generation".
Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History
A number of theories of political cycles in American history have
been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of
American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational
thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a
series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based
on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective
governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect
"concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of
property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the
wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid
movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories
include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter
Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical
theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the
"more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments"
using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process.
Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the
interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United
States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical
periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23
Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the
manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work.
Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in
presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the
House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual
party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in
American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of
an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American
history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in
length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes
that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device
since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable
directions.
Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his
emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by
using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of
voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state
vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates
five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s)
and the present.
Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the
level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five
periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of
stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of
approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing
already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an
established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in
turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis
to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment
occurs in every generation.
While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with
American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he
begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three
of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive
happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning
point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that
Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a
generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts
as follows:
1787-1801-1816
1816-1829-1841
1841-1861-1869
1869-1901-1918
1918-1931-?
The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the
beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them
primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles
rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have
been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational
patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the
following pattern:
1790-1796/1800
1800-1824/1828
1828-1824/1860
1860-1888/1896
1896-1932
His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to
that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their
significance in the periodization process.
Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although
even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if
it is schematized as follows:
1789-1820
1828
1856-1860
1893/1894
1932
Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized
as follows:
1896-1912
1912-1920-1932-1952
1952
Pomper also offers election dates and no more:
1836
1864-1876
1876-1892/1896
1928/1932-1952
1952-1964
None of these are complete theories and all must be considered
within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit.
Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough
approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the
commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United
States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The
revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of
generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson
Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods
of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named:
e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era.
In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers
developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the
federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could
not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however,
the American people were treated to a display of federal activity --
and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by
FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the
mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth
of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the
mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper
understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United
States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow
of time and events.)
The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its
own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human
time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible
pattern in the progression of political events in the United States
over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not
happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events
in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in
cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the
biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human
life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is
substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though
the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this
phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26
The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind
another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit
decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every
government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on
the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on
the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of
attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be
supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that
being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons
who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive
generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a
fixed moment, as individuals do now....
What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the
same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a
constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A
generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case,
would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to
contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for
14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily
deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of
their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at
that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated
from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of
climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors.
Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that
23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a
society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the
ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as
follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all
ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half
will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every
year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly
have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half
of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time
will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest
integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the
representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself
assembled, can validly extend a debt.
On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a
perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every
constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of
34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not
of right.
The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that
would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to
his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French
Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the
sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making
on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every
nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme,
Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one
which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one
way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure
of location in time.
Human Social Rhythms
As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural
measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a
common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the
"lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does
appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account
for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely
and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation
in any particular civil society and chart the relations among
generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical
patterns of its politics.
During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years,
averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people
will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then
pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every
individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in
which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited.
Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she
begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime
between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at
which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life"
ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and
political roles as are given to mature men and women in society.
Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a
person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention,
if not physically, considered ready for retirement.
Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an
individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first
fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially
powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote,
and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After
attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period
of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be
translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among
those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s
before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on
the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become
serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are
able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the
scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be
defined as the ending of one's serious political career without
suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's
30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential
influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise
influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political
leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds
forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship.
The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle
of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young
people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters
actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people
in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then
declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to
"retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28
In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each
individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society
is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a
common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any
particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its
history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical
record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and
the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at
the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In
the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed
leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in
power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age
and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a
result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly
established.
Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults
settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and
in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational
progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and
purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began
more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed
from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the
door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to
begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of
the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their
patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby
allowing a new generation to assume the reins.
Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they
establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in
social and political life than that found in the simple processes of
human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were
equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the
biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by
locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace
the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of
organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings
are recorded in history, we can do just that.
Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the
progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins
of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is
shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the
impact of the change and encourages new political action to
assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new
generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at
the most four generations are alive at any given time creates
certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of
grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of
inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact
help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In
this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is
socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and
politically unmanageable.
Generations, Centuries and Events
Since the founding of the first European settlements along the
Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations
of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series
of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the
twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three
generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain
distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense
recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th
century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of
American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in
which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century
stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th
century is the century of the United States as a world power.
Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as
chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European
history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have
begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing
point, thus:
a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603)
and the 17th century began with the opening of the American
frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between
the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of
the times.
b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty
of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which
eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the
Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration
for both countries.
c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the
War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era
of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff).
d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the
inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak
of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land
frontier.
Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments
that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show
every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then
dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are
immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the
nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged
during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation
under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a
century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn,
the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments
having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic
society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated
American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments
disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently
in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments
that will replace them.
The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth
generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the
past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators
have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just
when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of
generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was
ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal
intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of
the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of
alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the
generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life
so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began
after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided
over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the
renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence.
The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be
delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression
will be related to major forces and factors shaping American
history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the
principal challenges facing the American people in each generation
and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing
forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of
critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization
in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial,
ethnic and religious groups.
One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate.
Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with
such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for
analytical purposes than life ever is.
The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the
period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old
World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany,
but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually
every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original
thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native
Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies,
and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate
nation with its own civilization.
The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century,
which, from the first American recognition of common continental
interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for
Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent
American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism,
successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and
established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The
idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the
political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans.
The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations,
beginning at the point where America turned its back on European
entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced
them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an
industrialized continental nation with a strong national government;
abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world
power ready for overseas involvements.
The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century --
reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the
arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with
the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding
over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the
results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the
industrial revolution.
As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with
the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the
United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished
relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first
generation of the transformation of society as a result of the
application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new
frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse
of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically
dominant although economically weakened. The results of these
phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder
of the generation.
Generations and Frontier Stages
The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are
products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In
American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if
not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and
centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American
frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other
historical and political phenomena.
Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has
been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of
human control over the natural environment and the utilization of
the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control,
i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American
society is a product of this commitment which is virtually
self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one
frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier
situation that has created the major social and economic changes
which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's
political institutions.
America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages
to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the
metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic
frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled
with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been
decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American
life within that stage.
The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the
historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted
from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the
end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on
the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American
continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the
products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the
westward movement on a basically rural population interested in
settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a
socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits
in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was
dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an
active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and
still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in
Alaska.
Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth
the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and
spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation
into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the
spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's
economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented
the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States,
where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater
part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it
first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the
beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands
of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally
superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth
generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the
end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various
localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant
characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities
from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into
independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and
social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their
existence and growth.
By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth,
in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is
characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society
through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that
encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large
metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from
atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the
accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further
changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with
their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered
a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like
the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological
frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on
a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation.
After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly
and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and
pace of development across the country.
The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by
the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to
be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The
late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash
from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism
challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s,
ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution,
and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth
premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of
resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were
saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over.
By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was
emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the
metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers,
satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new
data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large
belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated
by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not
connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and
small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single
metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different
purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern
coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found
in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its
early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges,
initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its
renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of
financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American
economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of
Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West.
Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues
of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new
frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement
patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its
own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns
and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands
themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between
the points of generational division and the shifts in the various
frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater
detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as
part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are
closely related to the opening of new centuries.
Generations and Economic Periods
One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a
continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to
meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a
result, the governments of the United States have always maintained
a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in
the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to
era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the
governmental response. These changes have also developed on a
generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the
founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic
policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth
generation of American history) the American government continued a
semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the
nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government
involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during
which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in
which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the
outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful
competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a
generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially
unregulated by government.
Demands for government regulation that built up during the last
generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of
intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first
generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the
eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active
government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system.
Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around
toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less
government intervention.
Centuries, Generations and Federalism
The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can
also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first
generation of American history brought the introduction of federal
principles through the contracts and covenants that established the
colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through
Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the
seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a
local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of
national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose
strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly,
concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in
the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and
crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and
then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century.
The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has
been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society.
Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal
with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques
have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These
new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed
have been major elements in the concrete response to the
generation's challenges.
Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship
The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and
their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the
challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of
American history and politics. The changes in those relationships
also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries.
British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious
pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through
giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular
territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as
indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In
the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized
in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian
differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery.
Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism
was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones
existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste
system was in the making.
During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and
sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the
original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the
virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation.
Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new
lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was
abolished in the North.
The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial
establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was
almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant
immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new
post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through
the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration
reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to
reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was
reaffirmed through the institution of segregation.
From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open
pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The
barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants
began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those
barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by
the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape
up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the
twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but
those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of
American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say,
to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American
culture.
While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been
presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the
generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted
descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some
cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary
period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational
responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New
Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political
dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the
Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era.
The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses
Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular
challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its
own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and
the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In
some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could
act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In
others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the challenges changes from century to century.
During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the
tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various
colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related
to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence
of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially
related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American
national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been
essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society
and the assumption of an American role in world affairs.
The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the
initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which,
objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively
recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing
recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors
such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in
voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with
mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to
public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters
does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet
existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular
progression of political events revolving around the development of
a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its
response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and
responses that gives each generation its particular character. While
the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external --
or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is
primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation
themselves.
In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has
taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each
colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its
sisters, and the other science independence when a common national
constitution created a common national politics. In some cases,
particularly after independence when the nation could act
decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other,
particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse.
The character of the political challenges that have dominated the
American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a
new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th
century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating
the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the
19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope,
wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the
20th century, they have essentially related to the
metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an
American role in world affairs.
In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within
each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and
new generations is marked by several decisive political actions,
often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature
is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old
generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and
opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a
time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues
they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political
action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population
change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political
activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur
the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the
direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders
to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the
generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself
builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly
in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many
quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort.
The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of
governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to
the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five
years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with
digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so
that they will achieve greater success and at the same time
integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The
end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify
and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the
issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for
political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be
recognized.
The Bench Marks of American Political History:
Critical Elections and New Deals
In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a
particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a
system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can
also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political
history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune
with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds;
first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a
particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of
intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government
initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each
generation.
The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections
A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the
sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period
of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The
generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this
pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which
brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs
of voters, shifting them from one political party to another.
Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a
"critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of
electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound
readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the
community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are
formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result
of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide
electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency
from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one
major element to another.
Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that
there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the
allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively
long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public
opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the
1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with
a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In
consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats
have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters
identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority
party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order
to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and
representatives to win control of Congress.
The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968,
only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled
the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a
military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the
"normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his
party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in
1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after
twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the
Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the
Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems,
won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular
Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a
Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his
victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition
and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a
period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White
House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the
Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the
GOP controlled the Senate.
A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a
nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent
and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on
a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical
loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations,
personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of
the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are
nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders
(or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate
state parties which form the two national confederations known as
the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties
are confederations of the state parties, so is the national
coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional
coalitions.
Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and
thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the
electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to
remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead
to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution,
too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems
attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the
dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary
inroads in the various electoral groups.
Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces
opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in
public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in
the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party
that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means
certain that the majority party will even win all the national
elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and
usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a
limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its
losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The
states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as
bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend
its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority
coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for
national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards
for the party faithful during the years of national "famine."
As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent
electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their
changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with
each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find
the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass
and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in
importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed
and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the
realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment
of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a
reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad
electoral groups.^33
While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state
and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon
only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election.
Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make
embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become
fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional
elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional
election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical
elections."^34
The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the
development of the institution of the popularly elected president.
Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of
electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize
presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited
apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and
the House of Representatives.
Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part
of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the
use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on
the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The
generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem.
It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not
so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a
disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as
did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current
during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the
end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that
they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant
percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and
alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues
lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote
as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children
came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the
majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational
buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the
guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file"
alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of
each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the
ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from
balance to majority.
"New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity
The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of
innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind
usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin
Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as
the historical watersheds they are.
In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S.
Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform
activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for
their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian
Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over
a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that
enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way
the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems
of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his
Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind
because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the
moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was
cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic
U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly
the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use
the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came
Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for
all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B.
Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as
it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s.
The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted
approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of
governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of
the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for
another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon
to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational
consolidation.
The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years
between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in
Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of
extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President
Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to
resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial
presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its
power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic
problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led
the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill
the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the
hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states
and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington
before undertaking any activities.
The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an
"outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community
marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth
in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by
many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation,
usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time.
President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's
international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to
shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of
infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the
Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and
localities. These were all to become principal issues during the
period of generational build-up.
The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to
the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the
American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the
tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that
followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By
the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on
behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were
referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues
of the new generation.
Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been
invariably preceded by critical elections through which the
reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to
generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die --
determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either
by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting
them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as
unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to
majority status. These critical elections, which attain their
visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and
interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which
face them.
Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the
party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series
of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the
Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the
1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had
become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the
Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans.
Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the
majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times
and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats
picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in
1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party
coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen
it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The
old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent
severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted
and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the
Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the
programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing
period for the Democratic coalition.
To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in
American politics is not to suggest that events move in any
lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same
as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the
"normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence
we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them
for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too
can be done that gives the theory its power.
Summary
Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of
American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical
understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more
interest to European social philosophers than American social
scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the
question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics,
often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their
theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation
rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to
understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human
social rhythms generally.
Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their
internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries
represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them.
The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation,
constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to
them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical
elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political
history recurring on a generational basis.
Notes
1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by
Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970);
Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational
Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979).
2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the
Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973).
3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5
(Garden City: Doubleday, 1987).
4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday,
1987).
5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a
generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse
11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers,
chapter 32, verse 13.
7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11;
chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28.
8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte
(London: G. Bell, 1896).
9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive
(London, 1862).
10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani
(Milano: Monanni, 1929).
11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen,
der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4.
(1875), pp. 36-41.
12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on
Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds.,
Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline
(Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in
History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane,
Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp.,
1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1990).
13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method.
14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933).
15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti,
ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and
Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales
(Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in
der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F.
Schoeningh, 1933).
16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der
Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926);
Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and
Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig,
1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris:
Boivin, 1948).
17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the
Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger,
1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4
(1972): 564-78.
18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the
Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956).
19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin,
American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970).
20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and
Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield,
Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970).
21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939).
22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago:
Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the
Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key,
Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961);
Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968);
Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1989).
23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party
System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210.
24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of
Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the
years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of
American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur
Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co.
1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to
conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the
article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using
liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the
generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written
as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something
which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best
reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government
from the Civil War to the New Deal.
25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first
presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American
Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no.
1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns
Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also
Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University
Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992).
26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789.
27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years
old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve
in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President.
28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and
Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman
H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and
the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary
M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney
Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American
Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for
the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris
Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in
America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W.
Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get
Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb
and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda
Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber,
Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership
(Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey,
Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.:
Brooks/Cole, 1989).
29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with
special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in
The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York:
Macmillan, 1961).
30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965):
Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the
Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989).
31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of
Politics 17 (1955): 3-18.
32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections
in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability,"
Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171.
33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate
(Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James
L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and
Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington,
D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical
Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York:
Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?"
in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party
Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American
Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press
of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed.,
Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and
Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise
Institute, 1983).
34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American
Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party
System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony;
David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization,
Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter,
Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American
Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of
Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985).
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Titre du document / Document title
Rhythms of the secular : The politics of modernizing Arab poetic
forms = Rythmes du séculaire : la politique de modernisation des formes
poétiques arabes
Auteur(s) / Author(s)
FURANI Khaled^ (1) ;
Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s)
^(1) Tel-Aviv University, ISRAEL
Résumé / Abstract
In this article, I ethnographically trace how Arab, mainly Palestinian,
poets have modernized their literary tradition during the last seven
decades. Shortly after the 1948 Israeli occupation of Palestine, the
reign of the classical Arabic ode collapsed, and the modern forms of
free verse and, later, the prose poem became dominant. Aiming to
contribute to the ethnography of modernity, I examine how poets have
adopted and abandoned poetic forms by analyzing their narratives on
rhythm. I explore the political salience of rhythmical transformations
and argue that the secular has been a vital and complex force in the
modern abandonment of metrical discipline. The secular affects how
poets seek to modernize their rhythm, vocabulary, and relation to
public. It also affects, I conclude, the ways in which anthropologists
can and do write about modernity.
Revue / Journal Title
American ethnologist ISSN 0094-0496
Source / Source
2008, vol. 35, n^o2, pp. 290-307 [18 page(s) (article)] (2 p.1/4)
Langue / Language
Anglais
Editeur / Publisher
American Ethnological Society, Washington, DC, ETATS-UNIS (1974)
(Revue)
Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords
Rhythm ; Transformation ; Modernization ; Poet ; Modernity ; Poetry ;
Israel ; Palestine ; Near East ;
Mots-clés français / French Keywords
Forme poétique ; Tradition littéraire ; Arabe palestinien ; Rythme ;
Transformation ; Modernisation ; Poète ; Modernité ; Poésie ; Israël ;
Palestine ; Proche-Orient ;
Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords
poetic form ; modernity and secularism ; Palestine-Israel ;
Localisation / Location
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Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 20449527
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Title: The Rhythm of Political Oratory
Author: [14]Varvara Danilina
Email: [15]click here to access email
Degree Awarded: Moscow State University , Department of Foreigh
Languages
Degree Date: 2002
Linguistic Subfield(s): Discourse Analysis
Sociolinguistics
Subject Language(s): [16]English
Director(s): [17]Ludmila Minaeva
___________________________________
Abstract:
My doctoral dissertation was completed after four years of research on
the rhythm of British and American political oratory. I sought to
establish the rhythmic norm for political public speech and to find
out, whether any deviations from this norm (i.e. from an expected
rhythmic model) influence listeners and provoke their verbal reactions
or bursts of applause. To accomplish this task I used a variety of
linguistic and rhetorical methods, and drew upon social psychology and
political science.
There is no single linguistic perspective on speech rhythm. For
instance, such distinguished scholars as D. Crystal and D. Abercrombie
regard it as a purely phonetic phenomenon. At the same time, according
to Moscow University school of thought, to which I belong, speech
rhythm is created by a blend of phonetics, syntax and meaning of an
utterance. As a result of my research, I established rhythmic
regularities for political oratory at five levels.
Firstly, I analyzed pauses that divide the stream of speech into
segments (syntagmas), and classified all the pauses into syntactic,
rhetorical or unintentional (unintentional pauses are caused by
hesitation, deliberation, stammering, interruptions by listeners, etc).
Secondly, I established the relative frequency of short, medium and
long syntagmas between pauses, and thirdly, analyzed the rhythmic
structures constituted by linear sequences of syntagmas. Fourthly, I
studied the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables inside
syntagmas. And finally, I considered all kinds of repetitions, both
rhetorical and unintentional. This method of rhythmic analysis is based
on earlier analytical models designed by my university colleagues. My
own contribution consisted in adapting this method to the study of
public speech, describing the typical rhythm of political oratory, and
challenging some popular assumptions about speech rhythm.
As for the impact of speech rhythm upon listeners, I started by
analyzing audiences in order to understand psychological, social and
political conditions of that process. G. Le Bon, Z. Freud and other
scholars demonstrated conclusively that members of a crowd (and the
audience of a public speech is a crowd) are connected with each other
and with their leader (in our case, a speaker) by strong subconscious
ties. However, the degree of unity or polarization of an audience may
differ. Besides, each audience can be characterized according to
several other criteria that determine listeners' responsiveness and the
nature of their responses: their emotional state, the level of
expertise in a particular subject, the demographic and social
characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, social status, occupation,
education), the existing evaluation of discussed issues, which is
largely determined by listeners' ideologies, and finally, the attitude
to the speaker, which can be positive, negative or indifferent. I have
applied this model of audience analysis to determine peculiarities of
the British parliamentary audience in October 1996, and of the US
Congress in the aftermath of September 11, 2001.
To analyze the reactions of these audiences to the rhythm of Prime
Minister Major and President Bush's parliamentary addresses I used M.
Atkinson's version of the conversation analysis method. I showed the
two speeches as dialogues between the speakers and their listeners, and
singled out phrases and syntagmas that immediately preceded audience
responses, such as cheering, booing, laughter or bursts of applause.
These phrases and syntagmas happened to be quite similar in terms of
rhythm to other stretches of speech in the same addresses. Moreover,
there proved to be little rhythmic difference between John Major and
George Bush's speeches. In short, my research demonstrated that there
is no direct interconnection between the rhythm of a public address and
audience responses.
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Afrobeat
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search
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This article does not [8]cite any [9]references or sources.
Please help [10]improve this article by adding citations to
[11]reliable sources. Unsourced material may be [12]challenged and
[13]removed. (September 2008)
Afrobeat is a combination of [14]Yoruba music, [15]jazz, [16]highlife,
and [17]funk [18]rhythms, fused with [19]percussion and [20]vocal
styles, popularized in [21]Africa in the 1970s. Its main creator was
the [22]Nigerian multi-[23]instrumentalist and [24]bandleader [25]Fela
Kuti who used it to revolutionise musical structure as well as the
political context in his native Nigeria. It was Kuti who coined the
term "afrobeat" upon his return from a U.S. tour with his group Nigeria
70 (formerly Koola Lobitos).
The new sound hailed from a club that he established called the
Afro-Shrine. Upon arriving in Nigeria, Kuti also changed the name of
his group to Fela Ransome-Kuti & Africa 70. The band maintained a
five-year residency in the Afro-Shrine from 1970 to 1975 while afrobeat
thrived among Nigerian youth. Afrobeat is now one of the most
recognisable music genres in the world and has influenced as many
Western musicians as it has African ones with its exuberant style and
polyrhythms.
Contents
* [26]1 Origins
* [27]2 Influence
* [28]3 Instrumentation
* [29]4 Today
* [30]5 External links
[[31]edit] Origins
Afrobeat originated from the southern part of [32]Nigeria in the 1960s
where Kuti experimented with many different forms of contemporary music
of the time. Prevalent in him and Lagbaja's music are native African
harmonies and rhythms, taking different elements and combining,
modernizing and improvising upon them. [33]Politics are essential to
afrobeat, since founder Kuti used social criticism to pave the way for
social change. His message can be described as confrontational and
controversial, which can be related to the political climate of most of
the African countries in the 1960s, many of which were dealing with
political injustice and military corruption while recovering from the
transition from colonial governments to self-determination. As the
genre spread throughout the African continent many bands took up the
style. The recordings of these bands and their songs were rarely heard
or exported outside the originating countries but many can now be found
on compilation albums and CDs from specialist record shops.
[[34]edit] Influence
Many jazz musicians have been attracted to afrobeat. From [35]Roy Ayers
in the seventies to [36]Randy Weston in the nineties, there have been
collaborations which have resulted in albums such as Africa: Centre of
the World by Roy Ayers, released on the Polydor label in 1981. In 1994
[37]Branford Marsalis, the American jazz saxophonist, included samples
of Fela's "Beast of No Nation" on his Buckshot leFonque album. The new
generation of DJs and musicians of the 2000s who have fallen in love
with both Kuti's material and other rare releases have made
compilations and remixes of these recordings, thus re-introducing the
genre to new generations of listeners and fans of afropop and groove.
Afrobeat has profoundly influenced important contemporary producers and
musicians like [38]Brian Eno and [39]David Byrne, who credit Fela Kuti
as an essential muse. Both worked on [40]Talking Heads'
highly-acclaimed 1980 album [41]Remain In Light which brought
polyrhythmic afrobeat influences to Western music. More recently, the
horn section of [42]Antibalas have been guest musicians on [43]TV On
The Radio's highly-acclaimed 2008 album [44]Dear Science, as well as on
British band [45]Foals' 2008 album [46]Antidotes.
[[47]edit] Instrumentation
Big band (15 to 30 pieces: Fela-era afrobeat) and energetic
performances
* Lead vocals (may play sax/key solos as well)
* Chorus vocals (may include horn players)
* Rhythm guitar(s) (plays funk strumming pattern)
* Tenor guitar (plays a finger-picked osinato groove)
* [48]Bass guitar
* [49]Drum set, generally in the form [50]polyrhythmic percussion
* Saxophone(s)
* Trumpet(s)
* Trombone(s)
* Organ/keyboards
* Rhythm [51]conga #1
* Rhythm [52]conga #2
* Solo (lead) [53]conga
* [54]Akuba: a set of 3 small stick-hit congas (play
flourishes/solos, and ostinatos). Also mistakenly called "gbedu".
* "Sticks"/[55]claves (plays ostinato)
* [56]Shekere
[[57]edit] Today
There are several active afrobeat bands worldwide today.
Modern afrobeat bands/artistes include:
* [58]Kokolo (band), New York City Afrobeat/Afrofunk group formed by
songwriter/producer Ray Lugo
* [59]Nomo, [60]Ann Arbor based group that weaves various styles into
a primarily Afrobeat sound.
* [61]Chicago Afrobeat Project Chicago based collective that uses
afrobeat as a springboard and has an incendiary live show.
* [62]Afrodizz, an eight-piece band from [63]Montreal, [64]Canada
formed by jazz guitarist Gabriel Aldama
* [65]The Afromotive, an Asheville, NC based multiracial seven-piece
afrobeat band featuring thirty-third generation djembe player Adama
Dembele from Cote d`Ivoire, West Africa.
* [66]Tony Allen, the man who held the drum chair during Fela's
productive "Africa 70" phase, and whose drumming was, according to
[67]James Brown's autobiography, the influence behind his
'discovery' of funk.^[[68]citation needed]
* [69]Antibalas, [70]Brooklyn, New York based multiracial Afrobeat
Orchestra formed by baritone saxophonist Martin Perna
* [71]Aphrodesia, San Francisco based group, first American group to
perform with Femi Kuti at The Shrine in Lagos, Nigeria.
* [72]Ayetoro, a group led by Nigerian pianist/composer [73]Funsho
Ogundipe
* [74]Bebe cool lives in Uganda famous for his reggea mixed with
luganda pop and English making an Afrobeat rhythm in Uganda known
as Luga flow.He also lives in kampala.
* [75]Chopteeth, an international 14 piece outfit based in Washington
D.C., with former members of Busta Rhymes, The Temptations, The
Four Tops, and Gladys Knight & the Pips.
* [76]Femi Kuti (Fela's first son and a saxophonist) and the Positive
Force
* [77]Seun Kuti (another of Kuti's sons, saxophonist now fronting his
father's last and late band)
* [78]Dele Sosimi's Gbedu Resurrection Dele is a former keyboardist
and musical director of Fela's band. He cofounded Femi Kuti's
Positive Force.
* [79]Zozo Afrobeat A thirteen-member group based in NYC, founded by
Kaleta, former Fela guitarist.
* [80]Baba Ken and the Afro-Groove Connexion Oakland based
multiracial afrobeat ensemble led by Nigerian bassist, Baba Ken
Okulolo, founding member of the seminal 1970's afrofunk/afrorock
band, Monomono.
* [81]Jose Chameleone famous in East, central and South Africa.He
stays and live is Uganda in kampala city.He sing pop and Afro beat
music.He is one of the most famous artists of Afro beat in Africa
and the whole world.
* [82]Afrobeat Down Los Angeles based Afrobeat ensemble (est. 2002)
working with former Fela Africa '70 member and catalyst of entire
afrobeat movement, Sandra Izsadore.
* [83]Weird MC Rap artiste who occasionally experinments with
Afrobeat rhythm.
* [84]Vibe Squad A Ghanaian music crew formed by EaZZY Da Opemfour
made of Prego, Culchar, Wizzy Wii and Richie.
* [85]Gnl zamba rap artist in Uganda one of the most successful rap
afrobeat star in East Africa and central Africa.He is known for his
rhythm of 2 pac shakur
* [86]Mr. Something Something Canadian afrobeat group
* [87]Crime Scene Infunkstigation A 10-piece Afrobeat/Funk/Hip Hop
group based out of Calgary, AB
[[88]edit] External links
* [89]KOKOLO on Myspace
* [90]KOKOLO on YouTube
* [91]KOKOLO Official Homepage
* [92]The Afrobeat Blog
* [93]The Unofficial Seun Kuti Fan-Site - Unofficial fan-site for
Seun Kuti & Egypt 80 with news, videos, music, pictures and much
more]
* [94]The Shrine The Unofficial Website for Fela Kuti, Femi Kuti and
Afrobeat Music
* [95]BBC Afrobeat Documentary
[96]v o [97]d o [98]e
Genres of [99]African popular music
Afrobeat · [100]Apala · [101]Benga · [102]Bikutsi · [103]Cape Jazz ·
[104]Chimurenga · [105]Fuji · [106]Highlife · [107]Hiplife ·
[108]Isicathamiya · [109]Jit · [110]Jùjú · [111]Kizomba · [112]Kuduro ·
[113]Kwaito · [114]Kwela · [115]Makossa · [116]Maloya ·
[117]Marrabenta · [118]Mbalax · [119]Mbaqanga · [120]Mbube ·
[121]Morna · [122]Palm-wine · [123]Raï · [124]Sakara · [125]Sega ·
[126]Soukous/Congo/Lingala/Rumba · [127]Taarab
[128]v o [129]d o [130]e
[131]Funk music
[132]Acid jazz o Afrobeat o [133]Brit funk o [134]Funk metal o
[135]Deep Funk o [136]Drumfunk o [137]Free funk o [138]Funkcore o
[139]Funktronica o [140]Funk rock o [141]G-funk o [142]Go-go o
[143]Jazz-funk o [144]Liquid funk o [145]Neurofunk o [146]Nu-funk o
[147]P-Funk o [148]Post-disco o [149]Punk-funk o [150]Skweee
Related
[151]List of funk musicians o [152]Minneapolis sound
[154]Categories: [155]Funk genres | [156]African American music in
Africa
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* ____________________ Go
12 12/2006 [38]Compose to a Vertical Rhythm
by [39]Richard Rutter
* [40]Article
* [41]29 comments
"Space in typography is like time in music. It is infinitely divisible,
but a few proportional intervals can be much more useful than a
limitless choice of arbitrary quantities." So says the typographer
Robert Bringhurst, and just as regular use of time provides rhythm in
music, so regular use of space provides rhythm in typography, and
without rhythm the listener, or the reader, becomes disorientated and
lost.
On the Web, vertical rhythm - the spacing and arrangement of text as
the reader descends the page - is contributed to by three factors: font
size, line height and margin or padding. All of these factors must
calculated with care in order that the rhythm is maintained.
The basic unit of vertical space is line height. Establishing a
suitable line height that can be applied to all text on the page, be it
heading, body copy or sidenote, is the key to a solid dependable
vertical rhythm, which will engage and guide the reader down the page.
To see this in action, I've created [42]an example with headings,
footnotes and sidenotes.
Establishing a suitable line height
The easiest place to begin determining a basic line height unit is with
the font size of the body copy. For [43]the example I've chosen 12px.
To ensure readability the body text will almost certainly need some
leading, that is to say spacing between the lines. A line-height of
1.5em would give 6px spacing between the lines of body copy. This will
create a total line height of 18px, which becomes our basic unit.
Here's the CSS to get us to this point:
1. body {
2. font-size: 75%;
3. }
4.
5. html>body {
6. font-size: 12px;
7. }
8.
9. p {
10. line-height 1.5em;
11. }
12. Source: [44]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/1.txt
There are many ways to size text in CSS and the above approach provides
and accessible method of achieving the pixel-precision solid typography
requires. By way of explanation, the first font-size reduces the body
text from the 16px default (common to most browsers and OS set-ups)
down to the 12px we require. This rule is primarily there for Internet
Explorer 6 and below on Windows: the percentage value means that the
text will scale predictably should a user bump the text size up or
down. The second font-size sets the text size specifically and is
ignored by IE6, but used by Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other
modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels.
Spacing between paragraphs
With our rhythmic unit set at 18px we need to ensure that it is
maintained throughout the body copy. A common place to lose the rhythm
is the gaps set between margins. The default treatment by web browsers
of paragraphs is to insert a top- and bottom-margin of 1em. In our case
this would give a spacing between the paragraphs of 12px and hence
throw the text out of rhythm. If the rhythm of the page is to be
maintained, the spacing of paragraphs should be related to the basic
line height unit. This is achieved simply by setting top- and
bottom-margins equal to the line height.
In order that typographic integrity is maintained when text is resized
by the user we must use ems for all our vertical measurements,
including line-height, padding and margins.
1. p {
2. font-size:1em;
3. margin-top: 1.5em;
4. margin-bottom: 1.5em;
5. }
6. Source: [45]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/2.txt
Browsers set margins on all block-level elements (such as headings,
lists and blockquotes) so a way of ensuring that typographic attention
is paid to all such elements is to reset the margins at the beginning
of your style sheet. You could use a rule such as:
1. body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl
ockquote,th,td {
2. margin:0;
3. padding:0;
4. }
5. Source: [46]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/3.txt
Alternatively you could look into using the [47]Yahoo! UI Reset style
sheet which removes most default styling, so providing a solid
foundation upon which you can explicitly declare your design
intentions.
Variations in text size
When there is a change in text size, perhaps with a heading or
sidenotes, the differing text should also take up a multiple of the
basic leading. This means that, in our example, every diversion from
the basic text size should take up multiples of 18px. This can be
accomplished by adjusting the line-height and margin accordingly, as
described following.
Headings
Subheadings in the [48]example page are set to 14px. In order that the
height of each line is 18px, the line-height should be set to 18 ÷ 14
= 1.286. Similarly the margins above and below the heading must be
adjusted to fit. The temptation is to set heading margins to a simple
1em, but in order to maintain the rhythm, the top and bottom margins
should be set at 1.286em so that the spacing is equal to the full 18px
unit.
1. h2 {
2. font-size:1.1667em;
3. line-height: 1.286em;
4. margin-top: 1.286em;
5. margin-bottom: 1.286em;
6. }
7. Source: [49]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/4.txt
One can also set asymmetrical margins for headings, provided the
margins combine to be multiples of the basic line height. In our
example, a top margin of 1½ lines is combined with a bottom margin of
half a line as follows:
1. h2 {
2. font-size:1.1667em;
3. line-height: 1.286em;
4. margin-top: 1.929em;
5. margin-bottom: 0.643em;
6. }
7. Source: [50]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/5.txt
Also in our example, the main heading is given a text size of 18px,
therefore the line-height has been set to 1em, as has the margin:
1. h1 {
2. font-size:1.5em;
3. line-height: 1em;
4. margin-top: 0;
5. margin-bottom: 1em;
6. }
7. Source: [51]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/6.txt
Sidenotes
Sidenotes (and other supplementary material) are often set at a smaller
size to the basic text. To keep the rhythm, this smaller text should
still line up with body copy, so a calculation similar to that for
headings is required. In our example, the sidenotes are set at 10px and
so their line-height must be increased to 18 ÷ 10 = 1.8.
1. .sidenote {
2. font-size:0.8333em;
3. line-height:1.8em;
4. }
5. Source: [52]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/7.txt
Borders
One additional point where vertical rhythm is often lost is with the
introduction of horizontal borders. These effectively act as shims
pushing the subsequent text downwards, so a two pixel horizontal border
will throw out the vertical rhythm by two pixels. A way around this is
to specify horizontal lines using background images or, as in our
example, specify the width of the border in ems and adjust the padding
to take up the slack.
The design of the footnote in our example requires a 1px horizontal
border. The footnote contains 12px text, so 1px in ems is 1 ÷ 12
= 0.0833. I have added a margin of 1½ lines above the border
(1.5 × 18 ÷ 12 = 2.5ems), so to maintain the rhythm the border +
padding must equal a ½ (9px). We know the border is set to 1px, so the
padding must be set to 8px. To specify this in ems we use the familiar
calculation: 8 ÷ 12 = 0.667.
Hit me with your rhythm stick
Composing to a vertical rhythm helps engage and guide the reader down
the page, but it takes typographic discipline to do so. It may seem
like a lot of fiddly maths is involved (a few divisions and
multiplications never hurt anyone) but good type setting is all about
numbers, and it is this attention to detail which is the key to
success.
Like what you read?
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* or
* [54]Leave a comment
Comments
* [55]12/12/2006
Wow this is a good article.
* [57]12/12/2006
[58]Will
thanks so much, this is great.
* [59]12/12/2006
Interesting stuff. Also worth reading Eric Meyer's post on unitless
line-heights:
* [61]12/12/2006
It's worth mentioning that IE6 and below can go a bit extreme when
resizing fonts set as ems.
You can fix this by applying font-size: 100% to html. Don't know
why this works, it just does.
Oh, if you're working in quirks mode you'll also need to apply it
to thead, tbody and tfoot, beacuse the fix doesn't inherit (don't
apply it to table unless you want table to inherit font-sizes). You
don't need thead, tbody or tfoot in your tables as tbody is
implied.
Obviously, you can't then apply your own font-sizes to html or
tbody etc, else you'll overwrite the fix, which is why I chose
those particular elements as they're rarely used for font-sizes.
Jake.
* [63]12/12/2006
[64]Mike Stenhouse donotremove.co.uk
Hmmmmm, interesting! I've not tried this but I think there might be
an easier way to set those heights... What if the line-height is
set to, say, 1.5em on the body and 1 (unit-less - it's valid!) on
each descendant element? Or maybe some variation on that. It might
force the 18px to inherit into the children without awkward
calculations.
* [65]12/12/2006
Great article, Richard! Web typography--like all
typography--deserves this level of detailed thinking, and I hope to
see more designers embracing it.
* [67]12/12/2006
[68]michael h
Good introduction to typography theory, but I am convinced that the
Owen Briggs method is the best approach to sizing.
* [69]13/12/2006
I've been working on something similar recently, and I've
discovered that if you set the line-height in pixels, most browsers
will still scale it proportionally along with the text. As IE6's
numbers fall off, I hope we can leave all this black magic scaling
math behind and go back to setting font sizes in pixels and letting
the browsers handle the scaling.
* [71]13/12/2006
Mike - you're right about being able to simplify the line-height
specifications, but it doesn't require setting unitless
line-heights. In the example I use, I've set the font-size to be
12px on the body and calculated line-heights for all the subsequent
elements. As I required one line height - 18px - for all elements I
can remove the multiple statements and simply set line-height:1.5em
on the body. The calculated line-height of 18px is inherited by all
elements on the page. I've modifed the example to show this
(checked in Firefox, Safari and IE6):
However the maths would still need to be performed to calculate the
correct margins, so while the extra line-height specifications are
not strictly necessary (at least while the same line height for all
text is required) you unfortunately don't save much on the
calculations.
* [73]13/12/2006
Jake - the extreme text sizing in IE can be fixed by applying any
percentage font size to the body - it doesn't have to be 100%
(hence my use of 75% fixed this too).
You're right about the tables though. This rule does the job nicely
to inherit the text size:
table, thead, tbody, tr, th, td {font-size:1em}
* [75]13/12/2006
[76]GreLI
In the article next rule is used to reset margins:
body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl
ockquote,th,td {
margin:0;
padding:0;
}
I think it easier to use universal selector (* { margin: 0;
padding: 0 }) instead.
To fix table font-size inheritance it's enough to set
table { font-size: 1em }
Opera AFAIK don't change font-size if it set in pixels, but it can
zoom pages (so does IE7).
* [77]13/12/2006
GreLI - using the universal selector like that to zero all margins
and padding can cause unpredictable results in some form controls
(e.g. SELECT elements) in certain browsers.
Rich - great article; now all someone needs to do is knock up a
nice little app that spits out the right line-heights and margins
for the elements you tell it... :)
* [79]13/12/2006
It's unfortunate that pretty much no one composes with a scale when
publishing for the web. Your article is a great step forward.
Also overlooked are line lengths. Since the beginning of the web,
It has been a standard practice to expand the line lengths out with
the width of the browser (like your site is currently :), causing
line lengths to expand way too long. If an optimal line length for
print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even
smaller.
* [81]14/12/2006
I don't see it mentioned in the comments yet, but your quote above:
"...Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which
allow users to resize text sized in pixels."
is not correct, as IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in
pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized.
* [83]18/12/2006
If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths
for web should be even smaller.
You're right to mention line length as something that is
overlooked, but on the screen it is not as simple as setting the
measure in ems as their are more factors involved (screen size,
liquid layouts, etc). Also I'd disagree that web line lengths
should be shorter on the web. My personal preference would be for
them to be longer - I find short line lengths on screen extremely
hard work to read. That's just my opinion though.
IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout
can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized.
If you think of the reasons for changing text size then zooming a
layout is just another form of resizing text and achieves the same
goal.
* [85]20/12/2006
Theodore, I think you would enjoy Richard's article entitled
"Choose a comfortable measure" over at webtypography.net :)
1.2/
* [87]22/12/2006
[88]Rachel Maxim
You've said in a few pages what has taken me years to figure out
and refine :) - great info!
* [89]23/12/2006
I really enjoyed this article. I have read your Elements of....for
the web, as well as your blog about sizing text in ems. I have
really been looking in to using this and getting the best `flow'
with my typography. I also ordered the book Elements of Typographic
Style just to give a better understanding.
I think its a common misconception that text on the web will always
look bland, and you have proved that it can have rhythm and style.
* [91]02/01/2007
I've just been using some of these techniques on a client's site
who needed 8 tabs all the same width, which fill the available
space - I had it working fine in Firefox, but the tabs didn't fill
the space in Safari or IE. I found that you really have to do the
maths, rather than just use trial and error - they all round the
numbers slightly differently. Once I'd checked my calculations,
rather than tinkered with the numbers, it works fine everywhere, at
least at standard font size.
One other correction from someone's comment earlier on - you can
resize text in IE7 - click the page icon at top right. Why you need
both this and the ability to zoom, I'm not sure, but it's there at
any rate.
* [93]03/01/2007
[94]Ben G
Can you set the margin above or below headings or paragraphs to
less than your 18px base measurement? Won't margin collapsing cause
whichever the largest margin is to take effect?
Ben
* [95]31/01/2009
[96]Daniel
I've been using this article as the basis for designing my site
with some "vertical rhythm". Everything is going well except with
forms (input, textarea, etc.). I just haven't been able to use css
to maintain the vertical rhythm (based on total line height of
18px).
Any advise or insight as to how to get forms to play nicely?
* [97]15/02/2009
[98]Silver Firefly
I wanted to clarify something about the default browser text size
and using the em unit. The article was a tad misleading when it
covered the default browser text size and the em unit. A lot of
designers have it in their heads that an em is equivalent to 16
pixels. An em is not equivalent to 16 pixels. It is equivalent to
whatever is set in the user's browser, which is commonly 16px but
depending on the user, it can be 20px or 12px or whatever they have
set in their browser's settings. I hope after reading that
statement, designers will start to realise that they have little
control over how their website appears in other users' browsers.
The majority of the control lies in the user's hands. Other than
that, the article was very good.
* [99]17/04/2009
Great article... and AWESOME site design. Inspirational!
* [101]27/04/2009
Typesetting for websites is the future, like all things
content-related. The Google knows it :). Thank you for that useful
post. You webdesigners take care of your text!
* [103]05/06/2009
[104]bonfield
Inline bolding of elements (I'm using Helvetica, e.g.) seems to add
a px of height on any line that uses it, and that subtly throws off
the vertical rhythm for each line and it can add up depending
-- anybody else run into this and solve it?
* [105]18/06/2009
[106]Anonymous
Does this truly keep the vertical rhythm? If you zoom in on the
example, you'll see that the descender of the letter g in the H1
header "New England" crosses your rhythm marker's background line,
while a lowercase g in the following paragraph does not. There
appears to be some fudging going on.
* [107]08/07/2009
I find it humorous that this site itself does not compose to a
vertical rhythm. I've seen very few online that do. It's so
difficult to implement across browsers it is usually brushed aside
except for in the most simple design schemes.
* [109]03/08/2009
[110]eric
I've yet to see any empirical evidence that "vertical rhythm"
applied to this degree has any impact on how well a reader is able
to extract signal from the noise of the page.
Meanwhile, I've seen many, many examples of mis-applied "vertical
rhythms" resulting in squashed headings where the underlning on a
link impinges on the text below. Which just looks clunky.
When you've got something other than an aesthetic opinion from the
margins -- maybe some actual data -- then I'll be interested in
expending the effort needed to support real vertical rhythm. Until
then, I just don't see how it's cost-effective.
* [111]02/09/2009
Now, that was the kind of article I was looking for. That goes a
lot deeper than I've been into the realms of line-spacing, leading
(no kerning here though - can we do kerning with css?).
I love the analogy to musical rhythym > therefore probably
following on to mathematics/geometry/proportion. That is a great
lead-in. Is there any room for the `golden ratio' in web design? Do
graphic designers use it with/without realising it? Just that I
haven't seen it discussed in the myriad pages concerning page
layout/design that I've read so far...
Thanks,
Darren
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[114]Richard Rutter
Richard Rutter is a user experience consultant and director of
[115]Clearleft. He runs an ongoing project called [116]The Elements of
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good web typography. Richard occasionally blogs at [117]Clagnut, where
he writes about design, accessibility and web standards issues, as well
as his passion for music and mountain biking.
[118]More information
Related articles
* [119]Real Fonts and Rendering: The New Elephant in the Room
22/12/2009 by [120]Jeffrey Zeldman
* [121]Spruce It Up
19/12/2009 by [122]Jonathan Snook
* [123]Designing For The Switch
16/12/2009 by [124]Mark Boulton
* [125]Type-Inspired Interfaces
07/12/2009 by [126]Dan Mall
* [127]A Festive Type Folly
17/12/2008 by [128]Jon Tan
* [129]Increase Your Font Stacks With Font Matrix
17/12/2007 by [130]Richard Rutter
* [131]Typesetting Tables
07/12/2007 by [132]Mark Boulton
* [133]Knockout Type - Thin Is Always In
17/12/2006 by [134]Shaun Inman
* [135]An Explanation of Ems
02/12/2005 by [136]Richard Rutter
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[1]Home > [2]Articles > [3]Design > [4]Typography
[5]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm
[6]Jason Cranford Teague
* By [7]Jason Cranford Teague
* Dec 23, 2009
[8]Toggle Open Article Table of Contents [9]Article Contents
[10]Close Table of Contents [11]Article Contents
1. [12]Web Measurements
2. [13]Type Size & Line Height
3. [14]Type Space
4. Text Alignment
[15]Close Table of Contents
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[28]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm
Dec 23, 2009
[29]Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers: Creating Meaning through
Syntax
Jul 23, 2009
[30]Designing Webbed Environments: The Importance of the Define and
Design Phases
May 12, 2006
[31]Creating Web Pages for Screen, Print, and Email
Apr 28, 2006
[32]How to Style Forms in CSS
Mar 17, 2006
[33]What Are CSS Sprites?
Mar 3, 2006
[34]Ten Things You Can Do with CSS (That You Might Not Have Known You
Could Do)
Dec 22, 2005
[35]Fluid Web Typography [36]Fluid Web Typography
Nov 24, 2009
[37]Fluid Web Typography, Adobe Reader [38]Fluid Web Typography, Adobe
Reader
Nov 24, 2009
[39]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers
[40]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers
Jun 30, 2009
[41]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers, Adobe
Reader [42]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web
Designers, Adobe Reader
Jun 30, 2009
[43]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, 4th
Edition [44]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual
QuickStart Guide, 4th Edition
Oct 17, 2006
[45]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide,
Adobe Reader, 4th Edition [46]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth
Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, Adobe Reader, 4th Edition
Oct 17, 2006
[47]DHTML and CSS Advanced: Visual QuickPro Guide [48]DHTML and CSS
Advanced: Visual QuickPro Guide
Dec 15, 2004
[49]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 3rd
Edition [50]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual
QuickStart Guide, 3rd Edition
Feb 20, 2004
[51]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 2nd
Edition [52]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual
QuickStart Guide, 2nd Edition
May 30, 2001
[53]10 Last-minute Gifts for Web Designers
By on December 17, 2009 1 Comment
Q: What do I get for the Web designer who has everything?
The short answer is real estate.
The slightly longer answer is, anything that helps spark their
creativity.
The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah,
Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [54]Saturnalia
myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift
giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has
everything they need to actually make Web sites?
Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect.
[55]Choosing the Right Color Value
By on December 14, 2009 No Comments
Q: Should I use Hex or RGB values to define colors in CSS?
The short answer is RGB.
The slightly longer answer is that Hex values have become the de
facto standard for use in CSS code and both developers and
designers are used to them.
The long answer is that, in the final design on the screen,
there is no difference between using Hex or RGB values in your
code. Which system you use is really a matter of you own
personal preference (and those of the team you are working with)
as to whether or not you use Hex or RGB values to define colors.
[56]Expand Your Font Repertoire
By on November 30, 2009 No Comments
Q: Are there alternatives to Arial, Times, and Georgia for Web
designers?
The short answer is YES!
The slightly longer answer is that most designers use Arial,
Times, or Georgia, and, to a lesser degree, Verdana, Trebuchet
MS, Courier, and Comic Sans because they think that's all they
have at their disposal, but they are wrong.
The long answer is that the core Web fonts (the one listed above
plus Impact and Web Dings) are used because they are almost
guaranteed to be installed on the vast majority of computers
your designs are likely to be installed on. One fact of life in
Web design is that unless the end user's computer has access to
the font file, then the browser cannot use it.
[57]Pixels or Ems in Your Web Designs
By on November 18, 2009 No Comments
Q: What is the practical difference between px (pixel) and em
(pronounced m)? When is it best to use one over the other?
The short answer is that pixels measure dimensions relative to
the screen while ems measure dimensions relative to type size.
The slightly longer answer is that pixels are the natural unit
for measuring dimensions on a screen and are often used when
precise design is required. Ems are the natural unit for
measuring type and used when you want to allow maximum design
flexibility.
[58]To CSS Reset or Not to CSS Reset
By on November 10, 2009 No Comments
Question: Which Global Reset for CSS Should I Use?
The short answer is the simplest one possible.
The slightly longer answer is that you should reset some styles,
but do so with a good reason.
The long answer is that the exact CSS reset you choose will
depend on the needs of your design. I like to keep my own reset
simple, relying on adding styles to specific tags as needed.
However, there are several styles that are inconsistent or (in
my opinion) poorly set in most browsers.
[59]HTML 5 NOW!
By on August 25, 20092 Comments
Q: Can I start using HTML 5 now?
The short answer is, yes.
The slightly longer answer is, you can use some of the new
features, but you will need to do a little [60]kludging to get
it to work.
The long answer is that HTML is a mark-up language meant to
indicate the structure of a document. HTML 5 is the next
evolutionary step in mark-up languages for the Web, but it is
not implemented on most browsers that your audiences are likely
to be using and it may be some time before it is. That said,
there are some things you can do now to prepare for the future.
[61]Big Things Ahead for HTML 5
By on August 17, 2009 No Comments
Q: Will HTML5 or XHTML5 be the next big thing or just another
collection of past standards and browser war fodder?
The short answer is that, yes, [62]HTML 5 is the next big thing.
The slightly longer answer is that it's going to be a while
before you have to start worrying about HTML 5.
The long answer is that, as with all standards, before it
becomes relevant, the browser makers have to implement it and
then you'll have to wait even longer before legacy browsers are
no longer an issue. So, you have some time before you have to
run out and buy a new HTML 5 Visual QuickStart Guide. The good
news is that HTML 5 has gone to great lengths to stay backwards
compatible, so you can begin to learn and implement it today.
[63]Everyone is a Web Designer
By on August 10, 2009 No Comments
Q: What is a Web Designer anymore? It was easier to make Web
sites all by yourself, even 5 years ago, but now there is just
too much technology for one person to handle. If I want to make
a Web site for a very small business, don't have I to be web
"developer" now?
The short answer is that everybody is a Web designer now.
The slightly longer answer is that Web designers are
practitioners of a highly specialized discipline that requires
years of study to truly master.
The long answer is that a good Web designer is a good designer,
and this can come "naturally" or from training, but is not
medium-dependent. However, a professional Web designer has to
understand the medium well enough to know its strengths and
limitations. Any designer can pump out something that looks
brilliant when displayed in a Web browser window, but is slow to
load, static when loaded, and completely unusable.
[64]Frames are Dead, Long Live Iframes!
By on July 24, 2009 No Comments
Q: Is there a suitable alternative to frames? My wife is
president of a local woman's club. She and I administer the
club's web site, and the ladies like the list of links down one
side of the pages. But I read that frames have been deprecated.
Regardless, I want to keep the site simple.
The short answer is yes-- use iframes.
The slightly longer answer is no, not exactly, but we can get
close.
The long answer is there are a variety of ways to add content to
your Web pages, but the question is: once it's on the page what
are you going to do with it (or to it)?
[65]Q: If I ask ten different web designers what pixel dimensions to
use for web pages and whether to make them fixed-width or
"stretchy," I get ten different answers. What's your answer, and
why?
By on July 20, 2009 No Comments
The short answer is fixed at 974 pixels (px) wide.
The slightly longer answer is whatever it takes to get the job
done.
The long answer is that asking a Web designer what size a Web
page should be is like asking a painter what size a canvas
should be or an architect how large a a building should be.
While it's not purely a matter of taste--there are certain
physical and ergonomic constraints--personal preference accounts
for the wide variety of answers you might hear.
[66]Ask me, ask me, ask me
By on July 1, 2009 No Comments
Do you have a question about Web standards, CSS, JavaScript,
Ajax, interaction design, user experience, or Web typography?
Maybe you just want to know "How'd they do that?" Ask me
questions, and each week I will select a question to answer via
my Peachpit.com blog.
[67]Ask the Web Designer: Why Can't I Use Any Font I Want in My Web
Designs?
By on June 30, 2009 No Comments
The short answer is that you can.
The slightly longer answer is that you can't, at least not in
any meaningful way yet.
The long answer is that the ability to download fonts has
actually been a part of the CSS standard (the language used to
create Web designs) for over 10 years. The snag comes with what
font formats a given browser supports.
[NOTE: You may want to stop reading now, as the rest of this
explanation might make your eyes bleed in frustration.]
[68]Fluid Web Typography
This chapter is from the book
[69]Fluid Web Typography
Jason Cranford Teague shows how giving careful consideration to the
measurements and scale you are designing for is what separates good Web
typography from great Web typography.
Text Alignment
Text alignment is generally taken for granted on the Web--left
alignment suits most purposes most of the time. In order to create a
sense of rhythm and movement on your page, helping to guide the
reader's eye around and adding visual interest to the page, a little
alignment variation can go a long way.
Set body text alignment to minimize gaps and maximize scanning
Text alignment in Web pages is, by default, to the left, with ragged
edges on the right. Justified text--sometimes called newspaper columns,
where both edges of the text are aligned--is rare on the Web.
text-align: left;
text-align: justify;
In print, justified text is created using a variety of techniques
including word spacing, letterspacing, hyphenation, and glyph
reshaping. In addition, well-formed justification is calculated on a
paragraph level to prevent "rivers" of white space flowing down the
middle. On the Web, unfortunately, justification is simply created by
adding small amounts of space between words. On the screen, where you
can only add whole pixels, this often results in uncomfortably large
amounts of space between some words, especially in narrower columns.
Hyphenation is inexplicably absent from CSS. While it is proposed for
inclusion in CSS 3, no work has currently been done on it.
When choosing to use left or justified alignment, keep in mind these
factors:
* Justified text is often seen as more formal and structured, while
left alignment is more informal and approachable.
* Justified text reinforces the grid structure of a page but can be
harder to scan, since it often creates rivers of white space
throughout the text, which interrupts the eye path.
* Left-aligned text adds an element of white space to the right edge,
softening the overall appearance of the page.
Combining Alignments
[70]craigmod.com
Craig Mod combines right-and left-justified columns of text to create
motion and rhythm around his page.
[71]04-17.jpg
[72]Click to view larger image
Center or right-justify text for effect and variety
More rarely used, centering or right-justifying text can create a
specific feeling on the page.
text-align: center;
text-align: right;
Centering and right aligning text is integrally dependent on the design
you are creating and how you want your readers to scan the page. While
using a variety of justifications helps create rhythm and motion on
your page, it can quickly seem cluttered or obnoxious. Always have a
specific purpose for the variance of alignment, and use it sparingly.
Here are a few ideas:
* Bulleted or numbered lists should not be centered or right aligned,
as this makes them harder to scan by moving the beginning of each
line around.
* Center section or module titles/headers if you want to make your
site look a little different. Generally, section titles are best
when left aligned, but centering them gives your designs a unique
feel and may also improve scannability.
* Right-align text in the left column of a page or table if it helps
show a closer relationship between the elements in adjacent
columns.
Centered Section Titles
[73]jontangerine.com
Jon Tangerine combines centered subheadings with justified text in his
blog (detail shown) to create solid structure with visual movement.
[74]04-18.jpg
[75]Click to view larger image
Increase margins for longer quotations and style the citation
Short quotes of less than three lines are included in a paragraph
surround by quotation marks, requiring no other special formatting. In
HTML, the blockquote tag is used to set off a block of text as a
quotation, generally of two lines of text or longer. The quotation
should be styled to distinguish it from other text by indenting its
left and right margins and increasing the top and bottom margins. The
amount of left/right indentation is based on the width of the column
and then adjusted so that it does not conflict with any other indents.
A good measure to offset blockquotes is to double the font size (2em),
although more or less space may be required for wider or narrower
columns:
blockquote { margin: 2em; }
note.jpg In this chapter, we are only considering spacing issues with
blockquotes and citations. Chapters 5 and 6 offer other ways to style
text, including weights, italics, backgrounds, and borders. These can
be deployed to creatively display longer quotations.
This will clearly space the blockquote away from the rest of the text,
but it's also up to the copywriter to make it clear that the text is a
quote and to supply its source, possibly using the cite tag, which
indicates a citation. Turning the cite tag into a block-level element
and right-aligning it when it is included in a blockquote creates a
strong style.
blockquote cite {
display: block;
text-align: right; }
Blockquote Ideas
[76]css-tricks.com/examples/Blockquotes
CSS-Tricks has a page of blockquote ideas with sample code.
The code above will force any text marked by the citation tag to a new
line and right-align it.
[77]04-20.jpg
[78]Click to view larger image
Set footnotes and scientific or mathematical annotations using positioning
rather than vertical alignment
Vertical text alignment allows you to adjust the position of inline
text in relation to its natural baseline, shifting it up or down. For
footnotes, mathematics, and scientific notation, it will not be enough
to simply raise or lower the characters; you will also need to reduce
their size relative to the surrounding text. These styles can be
applied to the superscript and subscript tags, setting the vertical
position to the baseline and then setting a position relative to that:
sup, sub { font-size: .5em;
vertical-align: baseline;
position: relative; }
sup { top: -.65em; }
sup.math { top: -.8em }
sub { top: .2em; }
Although vertical-align provides several values to set the vertical
position of the text, these have proved to be unreliable in
multi-column layouts. The exact values will vary depending on the font,
and you may also need to add some left/right margins to add breathing
room.
[79]04-21.jpg
[80]Click to view larger image
Type Inspirations: Jon Tangerine
Beautiful typographic contrast.
Insightful typography editorials.
[81]jontangerine.com
Jon is a designer living in Bristol, UK, with some of the cleanest pure
Web typography I've seen. On top of this, his information and opinions
on Web typography are required reading for anyone interested in the
ongoing issues we face.
[82]04-22.jpg
[83]Click to view larger image
How he does it:
Jon uses a font stack of Web safe fonts, including Cochin, Baskerville,
and Palatino Linotype, down to Georgia. He then combines a wide variety
of sizes, styles, weights, and colors all scaled and spaced within a
strong grid to provide clear eye paths and legible text.
[84]04-25.jpg
[85]Click to view larger image
[86]04-26.jpg
[87]Click to view larger image
[88]04-27.jpg
[89]Click to view larger image
[90]04-28.jpg
[91]Click to view larger image
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[119]Jason Teague [120]10 Last-minute Gifts for Web Designers
By [121]Jason Cranford Teague on December 17, 2009 1 Comment
Q: What do I get for the Web designer who has everything?
The short answer is real estate.
The slightly longer answer is, anything that helps spark their
creativity.
The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah,
Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [122]Saturnalia
myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift
giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has
everything they need to actually make Web sites?
Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect.
[123]Kara Murphy [124]Just in time for the holidays: Our video-a-day
giveaway
By [125]Kara Murphy on December 16, 2009 No Comments
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presentation, branding, and much more, then you're in luck.
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[65]Open Access Research
A possible connection between psychosomatic symptoms and daily rhythmicity in
growth hormone secretion in healthy Japanese students
Mitsuo Nagane^1 [66]email , Kazunori Yoshimura^2 [67]email , Shu-Ichi
Watanabe^3 [68]email and Masahiko Nomura^4 [69]email
^1 Department of Educational Physiology, Chiba University, Chiba
263-8522, Japan
^2 Department of Rehabilitation, Nihon Institute of Medical Science,
Japan
^3 Department of Physiology, Saitama Medical University, Japan
^4 International Education and Training Center, Saitama Medical
University, Japan
[email.gif] author email [email-ca.gif] corresponding author email
Journal of Circadian Rhythms 2009, 7:10doi:10.1186/1740-3391-7-10
The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be
Received: 3 February 2009
Accepted: 5 August 2009
Published: 5 August 2009
© 2009 Nagane et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
Abstract
Background
Students suffering from psychosomatic symptoms, including drowsiness
and feelings of melancholy, often have basic lifestyle problems. The
aim of this study was to investigate whether psychosomatic complaints
may be related to circadian dysfunction.
Methods
We examined 15 healthy students (4 men and 11 women) between 21 and 22
years old. To assess the presence of psychosomatic symptoms among the
subjects, we developed a self-assessment psychosomatic complaints
questionnaire consisting of five items pertaining to physical symptoms
and five items concerning mental symptoms. The subjects rated their
psychosomatic symptoms twice a day (08:00 and 20:00 h). We also
assessed growth hormone secretion patterns by fluorescence enzyme
immunoassay (FEIA). Salivary samples were collected from the subjects
at home five times a day (20:00, 24:00, 04:00, 08:00, and 12:00 h) in
Salivette tubes.
Results
The results indicated a relationship between the self-assessment scores
and the salivary levels of growth hormone. Subjects with high
self-assessment scores showed significant variability in growth hormone
secretion over the day, whereas subjects with low self-assessment
scores did not.
Conclusion
Psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with circadian dysfunction, as
inferred from blunted rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion.
Background
Japanese students suffering from psychosomatic disorders, such as those
involving mood and sleep, may exhibit basic problems in their
lifestyle, including deleterious changes in their living environment
and dietary or lifestyle disturbances [[72]1]. In particular, staying
up late is associated with decreased appetite and missed breakfast the
following morning, irregular bowel movements and sleepiness. Perhaps
the biggest problem facing today's Japanese students is their lack of
daily physical exercise, brought on by stressful academic courses over
long periods of time, too much television and computer games and
increased automobile use [[73]2]. Many Japanese youngsters stay up late
at night [[74]3].
A circadian pacemaker in the central nervous system regulates human
sleep cycles, hormone secretion, subject alertness, objective
performance levels and other physiologic functions over a 24-h period.
Core body temperature, plasma cortisol, and plasma melatonin are three
variables frequently used to estimate the phase of the human pacemaker
[[75]4], although many other hormones, including growth hormone,
exhibit daily rhythmicity. Technical advances that make the assessment
of biomarkers in saliva possible have enabled researchers to
non-invasively study biosocial processes related to stress in
naturalistic contexts. Chiappin et al [[76]5] showed the usefulness and
possibility of salivary hormone analysis containing growth hormone.
Rantonen [[77]6] found a linear correlation between salivary and serum
growth hormone.
Carroll et al. [[78]7] described negative effects of growth hormone
insufficiency on psychological well-being, including reduced vitality
and energy, depressed mood, emotional lability, impaired self-control,
anxiety, and increased social isolation. Patients with growth hormone
deficiencies report decreased energy levels, greater emotional
lability, increased difficulties with sexual relationships and a
greater sense of social isolation than control subjects [[79]8].
However, no direct relationship has been shown between growth hormone
deficiency and psychometrically measured depression, apathy or
psychosomatic well-being [[80]9].
The purpose of the present study was to investigate individual
variation in the levels of growth hormone in healthy subjects and to
examine the relationship between an individual's hormone profile and
his or her psychosomatic complaints.
Methods
The subjects and self-assessment questionnaire
Fifteen subjects (4 men and 11 women) without major medical disorders
ranging in age from 21 to 22 years participated in this study. The
study design was approved by the Ethics Committee of Chiba University,
Japan, and informed consent was obtained from all subjects. A
self-assessment questionnaire concerning psychosomatic symptoms was
developed in accordance with data from the Health Behavior in
School-Aged Children (HBSC) study of the WHO [[81]10]. The
questionnaire for this study contained five items related to physical
symptoms and five items pertaining to mental symptoms (Table [82]1).
The questionnaire was used to measure each individual's psychosomatic
symptoms at home twice each day (08:00 and 20:00 h). The items were
rated on a 4-point scale, with 1 = not true at all and 4 = completely
true. The total score for the 10-item scale ranged from 10 to 40, with
higher scores indicating a greater degree of psychosomatic complaints.
The subjects were allocated post hoc (median split) to a High (n = 7)
or Low (n = 8) Self-Assessment Group based on their total morning score
(with higher scores corresponding to lower self-assessment).
[83]Table 1. Morning and evening psychosomatic condition scores
collected from the self-assessment psychosomatic complaint
questionnaire
Sample collection
Saliva was collected into Salivette tubes (Sarstedt, Germany) using
polyester swabs from the subjects' mouths following 2 min of chewing.
Samples were collected five times a day at home (20:00, 24:00, 04:00,
08:00, and 12:00 h). Both the day of sampling and the preceding day
were required to be normal days (i.e., without special events or
stressful circumstances). After sample collection, the saliva was
stored at -20°C until being analysed.
Salivary growth hormone assay
On the day of testing, the samples were centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for 10
min to remove all mucin. A standard fluorescent determination
immunoassay was used to assess the growth hormone concentrations in
each sample. To avoid inter-assay variability, all determinations were
performed in a single series. In the first step, 96-well fluoro-nunc
plates (Nunc, Black MicroWell 137101, Denmark) were pre-coated with 100
µl of anti-growth hormone antibody (Quartett, 2071800210, Germany) and
incubated for 1.5 h at room temperature. After incubation, the plate
was washed three times with phosphate-buffered saline and blocked for 1
h. After washing, 100 µl of saliva or a standard solution was dispensed
into each well and left for 1.5 h. After washing, primary antibody
(Funakoshi, FU47500254, Japan) was added to the plates and incubated
for 1.5 h. Next, incubation with a secondary antibody (Novus
Biologicals, NB120-7112, USA) was performed for 1 h. After washing,
rabbit anti-ovine immunoglobulin (Amersham Biosciences, ECF Western
Blotting Reagent Pack, USA) was added. After 20 min of incubation, the
plate was scanned using a Fluoromark Microplate Fluorometer (Bio-Rad,
USA) with excitation at 485 nm and emission at 590 nm.
Data analysis
The significance of differences between group means was tested by
analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by protected t tests when
appropriate. The presence of daily rhythmicity in salivary growth
hormone was tested by ANOVA and by the cosinor procedure [[84]11].
Results
Self-assessment psychosomatic complaints questionnaire
A factorial repeated measures ANOVA (high/low self-assessment versus
morning/evening self-assessment scores) was conducted. ANOVA results
showed significant differences (p < .05) between morning and evening
self-assessment scores. Post hoc analyses revealed that, as shown in
Table [85]1, the high self-assessment group (total 19.00) differed
significantly from the low self-assessment group (total 32.75) in terms
of their morning scores (Welch's t-test, t = -3.96, df = 7.57, p <
0.01). The low self-assessment group subjects complained of negative
psychosomatic conditions including being easily irritated (p < .05),
feeling melancholy (p < .05), having a desire to rest (p < .05), and
feeling anxious (p < .01).
Assessment of daily rhythmicity of salivary growth hormone secretion
We collected saliva profiles from 15 healthy students (4 men and 11
women). The amplitude of salivary growth hormone, defined as the
difference between the highest and lowest salivary concentrations, was
used to produce a standardisation, or Z, score. As shown in Figure
[86]1, noticeable variation was observed in the hormonal rhythms of the
subjects, including differences in the salivary growth hormone
secretion profiles of the high and low self-assessment groups. Cosinor
analysis revealed no significant 24-hour rhythmicity in the secretion
profiles of either group (p > .50), but a repeated measures ANOVA
identified statistically significant (p < .05) time-related variations
for growth hormone in the high self-assessment group. The secretion
profile of the low self-assessment group did not exhibit the typical,
sharp peak in the early morning [[87]12], and ANOVA showed no
time-related variation (p > .10). At 08:00 h, salivary growth hormone
levels were significantly lower (p < .05) in the low self-assessment
group than in the high self-assessment group.
[88]thumbnail Figure 1. Daily variation in salivary level of growth
hormone in the high and low self-assessment groups. The results are
presented as means ± S.E.M. * p < .05.
Discussion
Psychosocial factors have been previously shown to affect the
psychosomatic symptoms reported by Japanese school children [[89]13].
Psychosomatic symptoms, which are largely mediated by the autonomic
nervous system, are strongly influenced by an individual's lifestyle,
and the current so-called 24-h society in Japan may have changed the
environmental conditions of students. More than 80% of school refusal
cases (school phobia) suffer from sleep disorders, with a tendency
towards day/night reversal and easy fatigability, especially during the
period immediately following their school social life [[90]14]. Thus,
impairment in circadian rhythmicity may be a cause of school refusal in
Japan. The present study was the first step in an attempt to
investigate this hypothesis.
Our assessment of salivary growth hormone secretion was not sensitive
enough to detect significant daily rhythmicity, but the highest level
measured in the subjects of our high self-assessment group occurred
earlier in the day than the peak of the daily rhythm measured in a
previous study [[91]15]. Peak hormonal secretions often shift to the
morning if an activity continues long into the night. A link between
deficiency of growth hormone and reduced quality of life or well-being
has been reported by many researchers [[92]7].
Our results indicate a relationship between the self-assessment scores
and the levels of growth hormone. Subjects with high self-assessment
scores in the morning showed significant variability in growth hormone
secretion during the day, whereas subjects with low self-assessment
scores did not. Thus, psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with
hormonal rhythms related to basic lifestyle habits.
Nocturnal melatonin secretion can be suppressed by exposure to light on
the order of several hundred lux, such as ordinary room light [[93]16].
Thus, a subject's pattern of melatonin secretion may reflect his or her
life rhythm, and melatonin secretion appears to be an important index
of circadian rhythmicity. Based on our previous finding that growth
hormone and melatonin exhibit similar daily rhythmicity [[94]17], we
believe that estimates of the state of the central circadian clock can
be most accurate if they are based on the analysis of the secretion
patterns of both melatonin and growth hormone.
Some limitations of our study must be emphasized. First, it is possible
that the sleep-disrupting effect of waking at 00.00 and 04.00 to
produce a saliva sample had a disruptive effect on hormonal secretion.
Second, we observed a larger difference in terms of gender than has
been previously described [[95]18], with women having sevenfold higher
serum growth hormone concentrations than men during the day. Though we
did not directly examine sex differences in growth hormone secretion,
we recognise it as an important topic for further research.
Conclusion
Psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with circadian dysfunction, as
inferred from blunted rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors' contributions
MN designed the experiments, collected data and wrote the manuscript.
KY managed the laboratory and adjusted the schedule of subjects. SW
participated in the design of the study and performed statistical
analysis. MN supervised the study. All authors read and approved the
final version of the article.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported in part by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific
Research (C) from the Japanese Ministry of Education to Nagane M.
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[63]Open Access [64]Highly Access Research
Daily rhythm of cerebral blood flow velocity
Deirdre A Conroy^1 [65]email , Arthur J Spielman^1^,2 [66]email and
Rebecca Q Scott^3 [67]email
^1 Department of Psychology, The Graduate School and University Center
of the City University of New York, New York, USA
^2 Department of Neurology and Neuroscience, New York Presbyterian
Hospital, New York, USA
^3 Department of Health Psychology, Albert Einstein Medical College at
Yeshiva University, Bronx, USA
[email.gif] author email [email-ca.gif] corresponding author email
Journal of Circadian Rhythms 2005, 3:3doi:10.1186/1740-3391-3-3
The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be
Received: 21 December 2004
Accepted: 10 March 2005
Published: 10 March 2005
© 2005 Conroy et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
Abstract
Background
CBFV (cerebral blood flow velocity) is lower in the morning than in the
afternoon and evening. Two hypotheses have been proposed to explain the
time of day changes in CBFV: 1) CBFV changes are due to
sleep-associated processes or 2) time of day changes in CBFV are due to
an endogenous circadian rhythm independent of sleep. The aim of this
study was to examine CBFV over 30 hours of sustained wakefulness to
determine whether CBFV exhibits fluctuations associated with time of
day.
Methods
Eleven subjects underwent a modified constant routine protocol. CBFV
from the middle cerebral artery was monitored by chronic recording of
Transcranial Doppler (TCD) ultrasonography. Other variables included
core body temperature (CBT), end-tidal carbon dioxide (EtCO2), blood
pressure, and heart rate. Salivary dim light melatonin onset (DLMO)
served as a measure of endogenous circadian phase position.
Results
A non-linear multiple regression, cosine fit analysis revealed that
both the CBT and CBFV rhythm fit a 24 hour rhythm (R^2 = 0.62 and R^2 =
0.68, respectively). Circadian phase position of CBT occurred at 6:05
am while CBFV occurred at 12:02 pm, revealing a six hour, or 90 degree
difference between these two rhythms (t = 4.9, df = 10, p < 0.01). Once
aligned, the rhythm of CBFV closely tracked the rhythm of CBT as
demonstrated by the substantial correlation between these two measures
(r = 0.77, p < 0.01).
Conclusion
In conclusion, time of day variations in CBFV have an approximately 24
hour rhythm under constant conditions, suggesting regulation by a
circadian oscillator. The 90 degree-phase angle difference between the
CBT and CBFV rhythms may help explain previous findings of lower CBFV
values in the morning. The phase difference occurs at a time period
during which cognitive performance decrements have been observed and
when both cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events occur more
frequently. The mechanisms underlying this phase angle difference
require further exploration.
Background
It has been well documented that cerebral blood flow velocity (CBFV) is
lower in sleep [[70]1-[71]7] and in the morning shortly after awakening
[[72]8-[73]10] than in the afternoon or evening. Generally accepted
theories about the time of day changes in CBFV attribute the fall in
CBFV to the physiological processes of the sleep period and the
increase during the day to waking processes. The low CBFV in the
morning is thought to be a consequence of the fall in the overall
reduced metabolic level [[74]8,[75]10
,[76]11] and reduced cognitive processing [[77]12]. Additionally, the
reduced physical activity [[78]13], reduced body temperature, and the
recumbent sleeping position have also been proposed as contributors
[[79]14] to the decline in CBFV and analogous brain processes.
An alternative to these explanations that attribute changes in CBFV to
sleep and wake dependent processes is that this pattern of fluctuation
reflects an endogenous process with circadian rhythmicity. The decline
of CBFV across the sleep period and rise after subjects are awakened in
the morning resemble the endogenous circadian changes in core body
temperature (CBT), a reliable index of endogenous circadian
rhythmicity. Both patterns are low during sleep, start to rise in the
morning, reach their peak in the late afternoon, and then drop during
the sleep period.
The aim of this study was to examine CBFV over ~30 hours of sustained
wakefulness to unmask and quantify contributions of the endogenous
circadian system. By not permitting sleep, the evoked changes dependent
on this change of state will not contribute to the observed CBFV
changes. We hypothesized that time of day changes in CBFV are due to
endogenous circadian regulation. Previous studies have been limited by
several factors. First, the environmental conditions (light level) and
the behavior of the subject (sleep, meals, and caffeine intake) were
not controlled [[80]15,[81]13,[82]1
,[83]16]. Second, CBFV measurements were obtained at only a few
circadian points. For example, Ameriso et al. [[84]15] and Qureshi et
al. [[85]16] assessed CBFV between 6-8 am, 1-3 pm, and 7-9 pm. Diamant
et al [[86]13] assessed CBFV during the first 15 minutes of every hour
across a 24 hour period. Given these brief time periods, the findings
are only a schematic of the 24 hour profile. Third, primary output
markers of the endogenous circadian pacemaker (such as core body
temperature and melatonin production) were not assessed.
We employed the "constant routine" protocol, which was designed
specifically to unmask underlying circadian rhythms in constant
conditions [[87]17]. CBFV was collected by Transcranial Doppler (TCD)
ultrasonography for the entire study period. Core body temperature and
salivary dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO) were measured for
determination of circadian phase. Continuous electroencephalography
(EEG) was performed to ensure wakefulness across the study.
Additionally, measurements of blood pressure, heart rate, and end tidal
carbon dioxide (Et[CO2]), three of the main regulators of CBFV, were
collected every half hour.
Methods
Subject selection
Twelve subjects (10 men and 2 women; ages 19-38, mean 28 years) agreed
to participate. One subject discontinued her participation because of a
headache 15 hours into the study. Subjects were in good health, as
assessed by medical history, semi-structured clinical interview, and
physical exam. Information regarding menstrual cycle was not obtained
from female subjects. Subjects also underwent an independent standard
cerebrovascular assessment and were determined to be normal. They
reported no symptoms of sleep problems (such as insomnia, obstructive
sleep apnea, narcolepsy, or restless legs syndrome).
Subjects that were selected to participate kept to a designated
sleep-wake schedule (that was negotiated from the subject's typical
pattern) and filled out a sleep diary for the two weeks prior to the
time in the laboratory. According to sleep diary reports, bedtimes
ranged from 10:30 pm to 1:00 am and waketimes ranged from 6:00 am to
10:00 am. Alcohol and caffeine intake was discontinued for the entire
week before the study. During the data collection, subjects were not
permitted either alcohol or caffeine. All subjects were non-smokers.
Laboratory constant routine protocol
The study protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Boards of
New York Presbyterian Hospital - Weill Medical College of Cornell
University and The City College of New York. Subjects gave written and
informed consent before participating. Subjects arrived at the sleep
laboratory between 9:30 am and 10:00 am. They were oriented to the
study procedures and to their bedroom. Electrodes were placed on the
subject's head and face as they sat in a chair next to the bed. Data
collection began at 11 am. Subjects remained in bed and awake in a semi
recumbent position for 30 hours in an established "constant routine"
(CR) protocol. Subjects remained in low (<25 lux) light levels which
have been shown to have little or no entraining effect on the circadian
pacemaker [[88]18]. They were not allowed to get out of bed to urinate.
Instead they urinated in private in a urinal or bedpan. Subjects
remained awake from 11:00 a.m. on Day 1 until 5 p.m. on Day 2.
Throughout the study, subjects were provided small meals (Ensure ^®
liquid formula plus one-quarter nutritional food bar) every 2 hours.
Subject's typical total food and liquid intake for a day and a quarter
were divided into 15 relatively equal portions. Only one subject
participated in the CR per 30-hour period.
This protocol represents a modified CR in two ways. First, subjects
were allowed to watch television and were therefore were not in "time
isolation." Television content was monitored so that subjects were not
exposed to programs with highly emotional themes. Second, subjects
needing to defecate were allowed to go to the bathroom, which was
located a few steps away from the bedside. We chose this method as an
alternative to using the bedpan to ensure subject's comfort and study
compliance. Three subjects (subjects 05, 06, and 10) got out of bed
once at 3:30, 21:30, and 15:30, respectively, to defecate. One subject,
subject 12, got out of bed twice, at 22:30 and 6:35. Subject 10 used
the bathroom only during the adaptation period. A paired-samples t-test
was conducted to evaluate the impact of getting out of bed to defecate
on subject's CBT and CBFV values. The CBT and CBFV values in the two
hours before getting up were compared to the two hours after the
subject got up. Subjects 5 showed a slight decrease in CBT from before
(M = 98.12, SD = 0.14) to after the subject returned to the bed (M =
97.91, SD = 0.08), t(3) = -5.17, p = .014). Subject 6 showed a decline
in CBFV from before (M = 56.14, SD = 2.3) to after the subject returned
to the bed (M = 45.67, SD = 3.7), t(3) = 5.49, p = 0.012). There were
no other significant differences detected between these two time
periods for subject 5's CBFV, subject 6's CBT, or for both times
subject 12 got out of the bed. By visual inspection, the overall shape
of the curves in these subjects was not affected and therefore these
subject's data were included in subsequent analyses.
Transcranial Doppler ultrasound recordings
The current study utilized TCD ultrasonography to measure cerebral
blood flow velocity. TCD is a non-invasive instrument (consisting of
one or two 2-Mhz transducers fitted to a headband, MARC500, Spencer
Technologies, Nicolet Biomedical Inc) that is used predominantly as a
diagnostic tool to assess cerebral hemodynamics in normal and
pathological conditions. TCD ultrasonography is predicated on a theory
that involves the measurement of moving objects when combined with
radar. When the instrument emits the sound wave, it is reflected by the
blood cells that are moving in the vector of the sound wave [[89]19].
CBFV was measured using either the right or left middle cerebral artery
(MCA) using TCD sonography (TCD: DWL Multidop X-2, DWL Elektronische
Systeme GmbH, D-78354 Sipplingen/Germany) through the temporal window.
An observer who was present continuously during the recordings
evaluated the quality of the signal. This enabled long-term recording
of CBFV throughout the study. Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT) of the
signal was used to analyze the velocity spectra. The mean velocity of
the MCA was obtained from the integral of the maximal TCD frequency
shifts over one beat divided by the corresponding beat interval and
expressed in cm/sec. Analysis was conducted off line.
Measurement of standard markers of the circadian pacemaker
Body temperature recordings
Core body temperature was recorded at 1-minute intervals with an
indwelling rectal probe (MiniMitter, Co. Bend, OR). A wire lead
connected the sensor out of the rectum to a data collection system worn
on the belt. Temperature readings were collected and saved into the
device and monitored at hourly intervals by the investigator. After the
study, the recordings were visually inspected and artifacts resulting
from removal or malfunction of the probe were excluded from further
analysis.
Salivary melatonin
Salivary samples of 3 ml were collected every hour from 11:00 a.m. on
Day 1 to 4:00 p.m. on Day 2. Ten of these samples were used only for
the determination of the timing of the salivary dim light melatonin
onset (DLMO). For nine subjects, salivary DLMO was assessed across a
ten-hour time window that included the ten hours before the CBT
minimum. Immediately after collection, each saliva sample was frozen
and stored at -20°C. Saliva samples were assayed using Bühlmann
Melatonin Radio Immunoassay (RIA) test kit for direct melatonin in
human saliva (American Laboratory Products Co., Windham, NH). Analysis
was conducted at New York State Institute for Basic Research. Salivary
DLMO time was selected based on two criteria. The saliva sample needed
to have melatonin concentration 3 pg/ml or above and later samples
needed to show higher levels (Bühlmann laboratories). Second, the 3
pg/ml threshold needed to occur within 6-10 hours before core body
temperature minimum [[90]20].
Polygraphic recordings
Electroencephalography (EEG) was continually assessed across the 30
hours to ensure that subjects maintained wakefulness. The following
montage was used according to the international 10-20 system: C3-A2,
C4-A1, O1-A2, O2-A1, ROC-A1, LOC-A2, and submentalis electromyogram
(EMG). One channel of electrocardiogram was continuously recorded by
monitoring from two electrodes (one on each side of the body at the
shoulder chest junction). The EEG software (Rembrant Sleep Collection
Software Version 7.0) was used for data acquisition and display of the
signals on a personal computer. Throughout the CR, the investigator
(DAC) monitored the quality of the recordings. The recordings were
scored by RQS and DAC.
Blood pressure, heart rate, and end-tidal CO2
An automated blood pressure cuff was placed on the bicep of the subject
and inflated two times each hour in order to determine changes in blood
pressure and heart rate over time. Blood pressure and heart rate in one
subject (02) was recorded via a finger blood pressure monitor (Omron
Marshall Products, Model F-88). Blood pressure and heart rate in
subjects 03, 04, 05, 06, and 07 were recorded with Omron Healthcare,
Inc, Vernon Hills, Illinois 60061 Model # HEM-705CP Rating: DC 6V 4W
Serial No: 2301182L. Blood pressure and heart rate for subjects 08, 09
and 10 was recorded with a similar blood pressure monitor (CVS Pharmacy
Inc, Woonsocket, RI 02895 Model # 1086CVS). Blood pressure and heart
rate recordings were not measured in subjects 11 and 12. Et[CO2 ]was
continuously obtained. A nasal cannula for monitoring expired gases was
placed under the nose. Relative changes in carbon dioxide content were
measured by an Ohmeda 4700 Oxicap (BOC healthcare). Mean Et[CO2 ]levels
were analyzed off-line. Et[CO2 ]recordings were not measured in
subjects 11 and 12.
Data Analyses
Data reduction and statistical procedures
CBT and CBFV values were first subjected to data rejection. All CBT
values less than 96 degrees were determined to be artifact and were
rejected. All CBFV values less than 20 cm/sec were determined to be
artifact according to the clinical criteria set by the staff
neurologist. Data reduction was accomplished by averaging into one
minute, 30 minute or hourly bins. Correlations presented here were
performed on mean values in 30 minute bins. To ensure that circadian
measurements were made under basal conditions, the first five hours of
the constant routine were excluded from all analyses to eliminate
effects of study adaptation. The last hour was excluded to eliminate
confounding effects such as expectation effects.
The data are presented in this article in three ways. First, CBT and
CBFV values were plotted according to time of day (Figures [91]1 and
[92]2). Second, CBFV values were aligned according to the CBT nadir
(Figure [93]3) and third, the CBFV nadir was aligned to the CBT nadir
(Figure [94]4). To align CBFV to the CBT circadian nadir as shown in
Figure [95]3, the CBT nadir of each individual subject was set to
circadian time 0, or 0°. The CBFV value that corresponded to the CBT
nadir was then also set to 0. Each half hour data point after the
temperature nadir and corresponding CBFV values were then set to a
circadian degree. There were a total of 48 data points across the 24
hour period. Therefore, each data point was equal to 7.5 degrees so
that each data point would accumulate to 360°. Lastly, mean values were
obtained for CBT and CBFV at each circadian degree.
[96]thumbnail Figure 1. 24-hour Cosine Curve fit to Mean Core Body
Temperature (°F). Time course of CBT according to time of day. Shown is
a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/- SEM) of CBT (blue
diamonds) fit with a 24-hour cosine curve (purple squares). Time of day
is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate shows CBT values (degrees F).
The vertical line indicates where the data was double plotted. Also
displayed in the upper right corner is the non-linear cosine curve fit
for mean CBT, R^2 = 0.62. The overall mean circadian phase position of
the minimum was 6:05 am.
[97]thumbnail Figure 2. 24-hour Cosine Curve fit to Mean Cerebral Blood
Flow Velocity (cm/sec). Time course of CBFV according to time of day.
Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/- SEM) of
CBFV (blue diamonds) fit with a 24-hour cosine curve (purple squares).
Time of day is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate shows CBFV values
(cm/sec). The vertical line indicates where the data was double
plotted. Also displayed in the upper right corner is the non-linear
cosine curve fit for mean CBFV, R^2 = 0.67. The overall mean circadian
phase position of the minimum was 12:02 pm.
[98]thumbnail Figure 3. Mean CBT and CBFV Aligned to CBT Nadir. Time
course of mean CBFV and mean CBT aligned to the nadir of CBT and then
averaged. Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels
(+/-SEM) of CBT (purple squares) and CBFV (blue circles) aligned to the
phase of the circadian temperature cycle. Circadian time in degrees is
shown on the abscissa. The ordinate on the left shows CBT values
(degrees F) and CBFV (cm/sec) on the right. The vertical line indicates
the CBT nadir.
[99]thumbnail Figure 4. Mean CBT and CBFV Aligned to Their Respective
Nadir. Time course of mean CBFV and mean CBT aligned to each of their
respective nadirs and then averaged. Shown is a double plot of the
group (n = 11) mean levels (+/-SEM) of CBT (purple squares) and CBFV
(blue circles) aligned to the phase of the circadian temperature cycle.
Circadian time in degrees is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate on the
left shows CBT values (degrees F) and CBFV (cm/sec) on the right. The
vertical line indicates both the CBT nadir and the CBFV nadir. The
correlation coefficient between the aligned rhythms is 0.77 (p < 0.01).
To align the CBFV nadir to the CBT nadir, first, the lowest value of
CBT and the lowest value of CBFV were identified and set to circadian
time 0, or 0°. Each half hour data point after the CBT nadir and CBFV
nadir were then set to a circadian degree. There were a total of 48
data points across the 24 hour period. Therefore, each data point was
equal to 7.5 degrees so that each data point would accumulate to 360°.
Lastly, mean values were obtained for CBT and CBFV at each circadian
degree.
Estimation of circadian phase
A 24-hour non-linear multiple regression -cosine curve fit analysis was
performed on the CBT and CBFV data (SAS Institute, Cary, NC). This
technique constrains the circadian period of CBT and CBFV to be within
24 hours. This technique used the following equations: model cbt =
&avg_cbt + r * cos((2 * 3.1415) * (hours-&max_cbt)/24; model cbfv =
&avg_cbt + r * cos((2 * 3.1415) * (hours-&max_cbfv)/24, where & =
constants that center the curve at the actual average for each series
(vertical centering) and the predicted maximum at the actual maximum
(horizontal centering); r = the amplitude of the cosine wave. An
additional analysis was performed which also yielded the estimated
clock time for the CBT nadir and CBFV nadir (Synergy software,
Kaleidagraph Version 3.6). Third, the minimum of the circadian rhythm
of CBT and salivary DLMO were also used as markers of the endogenous
circadian phase. A paired t-test was used to determine the overall
phase difference between CBT and CBFV.
Results
Eleven subjects completed the protocol. The TCD probe was placed on
either the right or left temple, whichever gave the better signal. Mean
isonation depth of the TCD signal was 56.5 mm for the right MCA and
55.6 mm for the left MCA (range 53-60 mm). The constant routine ranged
from 28 to 30 hours in duration. Polygraphic recordings confirmed
sustained wakefulness across essentially the entire protocol in all but
one subject. Subjects that had difficulty remaining awake were
monitored closely and aroused when needed by engagement in
conversation. Results from the polygraphic recordings are not presented
here. We do not present the results of the polygraphic recordings
because, for the purposes of this study, these recordings were used
solely to monitor whether subjects were awake or asleep. The first five
hours and the final hour of data from the constant routine were
excluded from analysis.
Core body temperature, cerebral blood flow velocity and the 24-hour day
A 24 hour non-linear multiple regression, cosine fit analysis revealed
that the overall mean CBT rhythm (n = 11) fit a 24 hour cosine rhythm
(R^2 = 0.62, p < 0.01), Figure [100]1. The mean CBT across all subjects
was 98.6 °F (+/- 0.03 °F). Figure [101]2 shows that a 24-hour
non-linear multiple regression, cosine analysis fit a 24 hour cosine
rhythm (R^2 = 0.67, p < 0.01), Figure [102]2. The mean CBFV across
subjects was 40.6 cm/sec (+/- 0.54 cm/sec). Salivary DLMO occurred 7.7
hours prior to the CBT nadir in nine subjects, which served only as a
secondary measure of endogenous circadian phase position in those
subjects. The mean salivary melatonin concentration across the ten hour
window was 15.3 pg/ml (+/-3.05 pg/ml).
CBFV rhythm is 90 degrees out of phase with the CBT rhythm
The overall mean circadian position of CBT occurred at 6:05 am and the
mean position of CBFV occurred at 12:02 pm (Figure [103]3), yielding a
6 hour or 90 degree statistically significant difference (t = 4.9, DF =
10, p < 0.01). In individual subject data, the differences ranged from
0 to 8.5 hours. In eight subjects, the CBFV phase occurred later than
the respective CBT phase, with mean difference of 5.2 hours. In two
subjects, the CBFV nadir occurred earlier than the respective CBT
nadir, with a mean difference of 6 hours. In one subject, there was no
difference between the phase of CBT and CBFV. However, this subject's
CBT rhythm was highly unusual, with the nadir occurring at 11:35 am on
Day 2. Nevertheless, we felt the most appropriate way to present the
data was to include this subject in the overall analysis. When the
phase of CBFV was shifted so that the lowest value was aligned to the
lowest CBT value, the two parameters were highly correlated (see Figure
[104]4; r = 0.77, n = 98, p < 0.01). While the difference in the two
rhythms variability was large, Fisher's z-transformed values revealed
that the amplitudes of the two parameters were similar. The amplitude
of CBFV yielded a z score of 4.25 and CBT yielded a z score of 3.06.
Blood pressure recordings and systemic hemodynamic variables
A Pearson correlation revealed a positive relationship between CBT and
heart rate (r = 0.40, p < 0.01) across the 24 hour period. Diastolic
blood pressure (DBP) and CBT showed a negative correlation (r = -0.30,
p < 0.05). Et[CO2 ]showed a trend towards a direct relationship with
CBFV (r = 0.24, p = 0.10). Blood pressure, heart rate, and Et[CO2
]served only as regulators of CBFV and were not analyzed according to
circadian phase.
Discussion
This study is the first to use the constant routine (CR) protocol to
determine whether the endogenous circadian pacemaker contributes to the
previously reported diurnal changes in CBFV. The current work
demonstrates that, with limited periodic external stimuli and a
constant posture, there is 24-hour rhythmicity in CBFV. Subjects showed
a cycle of approximately 24 hours in CBT, which has been previously
demonstrated with the CR [[105]21].
Figure [106]3 illustrates the intricate relationship between the
rhythms across the study period. At approximately the CBT acrophase,
the relationship between the two rhythms undergoes a transition.
Between 180 and 240 degrees, CBFV is still rising and CBT is changing
directions (first rising, reaching its peak and then falling). This
period between 180 and 240 has been described as a "wake maintenance
zone", a time in the circadian cycle during which humans are less
likely to fall asleep [[107]22]. In our subjects, the CBT is near its
zenith or just starting to fall at this time and CBFV is still steadily
rising. Higher values in CBT and CBFV are associated with activation
and therefore these two endogenous rhythms may be promoting wakefulness
during this "wake maintenance zone". However, at the end of this
transition period, CBT is falling and CBFV is still rising, perhaps
reflecting continued activation of the cerebral cortex. Whereas the
two-process model predicts increased tendency to sleep as CBT falls
[[108]23], our finding may provide the mechanism by which wakefulness
is effortlessly maintained before bedtime.
Figure [109]3 further illustrates that as wakefulness is extended past
the subject's habitual bedtime (approximately 270 degrees), the two
rhythms decline together. Between 0 and 60 degrees, CBFV steadily
declines and CBT is steadily rising. The lower CBFV values in the
morning may play a role in cognitive performance impairments [[110]24],
particularly the 3-4.5 hour phase difference in neurobehavioral
functioning relative to the CBT rhythm that has been previously
demonstrated in constant routine protocols [[111]25].
Earlier studies using simultaneous EEG and TCD to continuously measure
CBFV across the sleep period have concluded that, except for periods of
REM sleep, [[112]26
,[113]27], there is a linear decline in CBFV across the night during
periods of non-REM sleep [[114]1,[115]28]. Other groups utilizing these
techniques simultaneously speculated that the decline in CBFV through
the night was a "decoupling" of cerebral electrical activity and
cerebral perfusion during non-REM sleep [[116]8-[117]10]. In all
studies [[118]1,[119]8-[120]10,[121]28], CBFV values were lower in the
morning during wakefulness than during wakefulness prior to sleep at
night. The current findings show that the decline in CBFV is present
during wakefulness in the night time hours and therefore may not be
attributed solely to sleep and associated changes that normally
influence CBFV (including factors such as the shift to recumbency, and
reduced activity, metabolic rate and respiratory rate).
Moreover, our interaction with the subjects and the monitoring of EEG
for signs of sleep resulted in no sleep in all but one subject. The one
exception was in a subject who lapsed into brief periods of sleep.
Therefore, the fall in CBFV in 10 out of 11 subjects cannot be
explained by the occurrence of non-REM sleep. It is possible, however,
that the decline of CBFV across the night and early morning may be
secondary to the sleep deprivation that is part of the constant
routine. Brain imaging studies across sustained periods of wakefulness
have shown significant decreases in absolute regional cerebral glucose
metabolic rate in several areas of the brain [[122]29-[123]34].
The drop in CBT which preceded the parallel fall in CBFV needs to be
considered as a possible explanation for the CBFV changes. The fall in
CBT during sleeping hours is attributed in part to sleep-associated
changes and in part to strong regular circadian forces independent of
the sleep period. CBT is, in fact, one of the key and most extensively
studied indices of the circadian phase. It is also known that CBT is
highly correlated with brain temperature and brain metabolic rate
[[124]35]. Imaging studies have documented the intimate relation
between brain activity and increased metabolic rate and oxygen delivery
through perfusion. Therefore, it is plausible that CBT is a direct
influence on CBFV or an index of decreased metabolic need for blood
flow. The prevailing hypothesis that there is tight coupling of normal
neuronal activity and blood flow was formulated over 100 years ago
[[125]36]. The drop in CBFV may be a consequence of the lowered
cerebral activity secondary to lowered brain temperature. In contrast,
two studies of exercise-induced hyperthermia showing decreased global
and middle cerebral artery CBFV [[126]37
,[127]38] do not support this hypothesized direct relationship between
the two variables. However, one of the main purported mechanisms for
the fall in CBFV in these exercise studies, the hyperventilation
induced lowering of Pa[CO2], is unlikely present during waking while
lying in bed at night. Therefore, CBT declines remain a plausible
explanation for the portion of the 24 hours when CBFV declined.
Mechanisms of CBFV regulation
This protocol allowed the unique opportunity to evaluate blood
pressure, heart rate, and Et[CO2 ]in the absence of sleep, in subjects
with constant posture, and highly restricted movements. While blood
pressure clearly falls during sleep in normal individuals, the absence
of sleep in the current study obviates the explanation that CBFV
declines are secondary to lowered blood pressure. Furthermore, we
sampled blood pressure throughout the day and night and found a weak
inverse relationship between DBP and CBT. This finding is in contrast
to a careful study of circadian influence on blood pressure in the
absence of sleep which showed no change in blood pressure during the
descending portion of the body temperature curve [[128]39].
Nevertheless, our finding was weak and likely does not provide the
explanation for the CBFV changes. The small-inverse relationship
between Et [CO2 ]and CBT is similar to that found by Spengler et al.
[[129]40], who showed a consistent but small amplitude circadian rhythm
in mean end-tidal Et[CO2 ]on a CR protocol. Et[CO2 ]showed a trend
towards a direct relationship with CBFV, which is consistent with
previous studies showing that changes in Et[CO2 ]are associated with
changes in CBFV [[130]41
,[131]42]. Heart rate was correlated with CBT, consistent with the
findings of Van Dongen et al [[132]39].
Clinical correlation
The approximate 6 hour (90 degree) phase angle difference between the
CBFV and CBT suggests that CBFV continues to decline into the early to
mid-morning hours. This finding is consistent with a time window in the
morning during which several physiological changes have been observed.
For example, cerebral vasomotor reactivity to hypocapnia, hypercapnia,
and normoventilation has been found to be most reduced in the morning
[[133]15
,[134]16]. It is tempting to suggest that the the low CBFV values in
the morning may also help explain the well established diurnal
variation of the onset of cerebrovascular accidents (CVAs) [[135]43]. A
meta-analyses of 11,816 publications between 1966 to 1997 found that
there was a 49% increased risk of strokes between 6 am and 12 pm
[[136]44]. This time period is in agreement with studies on myocardial
infarction (MI) and sudden death [[137]45]. The increased incidence of
these events has been attributed, in part, to the surge of blood
pressure [[138]13,[139]46,[140]47] and platelet aggregability
[[141]48,[142]49] in the morning when patients are getting out of bed.
Our results demonstrate that even in the absence of surges in blood
pressure, the phase of CBFV reaches its lowest values during the hours
before 12 pm. This further suggests that the endogenous rhythm of CBFV
may be associated with the risk of CVAs in the late morning hours even
without changes in posture or activity.
Conclusion
Overall, the results demonstrate that CBFV, in the absence of sleep,
exhibits properties of a circadian rhythm, as it rises and falls across
a 24 hour period. The 6 hour (90 degree) phase angle difference in the
CBFV rhythm with respect to the CBT rhythm may help explain previous
findings of lower CBFV values in the morning. The phase difference
occurs at a time period during which cognitive performance decrements
have been observed and when both cardiovascular and cerebrovascular
events occur more frequently. The mechanisms underlying this phase
angle difference require further exploration.
List of abbreviations
CBFV Cerebral Blood Flow Velocity
CBT Core Body Temperature
TCD Transcranial Doppler
EtCO2 End tidal Carbon Dioxide
DLMO Dim Light Melatonin Onset
EEG Electroencephalogram
MCA Middle Cerebral Artery
FFT Fast Fourier Transformation
CR Constant routine
EMG Electromyogram
SBP Systolic Blood Pressure
DBP Diastolic Blood Pressure
CVA Cerebrovascular accident
MI Myocardial infarction
Competing interests
The author(s) declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors' contributions
DAC coordinated, carried out, analyzed, and interpreted the study. AJS
participated in the analysis and interpretation of the findings. DAC
drafted the manuscript and AJS provided final approval of this version.
RQS participated in data collection and data analysis. DAC and AJS
co-designed the study. All authors read and approved the final
manuscript.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the volunteer participants who completed
this extremely difficult protocol, to the research assistants: Jason
Birnbaum, Will Carias, RN, Laura Diaz, Boris Dubrovsky, Mathew Ebben,
Ph.D., Carrie Hildebrand, Lars Ross, Greg Sahlem, Mathew Tucker, Ayesha
Udin, to those who helped with the data analysis: Scott Campbell, Ph.D.
of New York Presbyterian Hospital, White Plains, Abdeslem ElIdrissi,
Ph.D. of The Institute for Basic Research, Staten Island, NY, Larry
Krasnoff, Ph.D. of Digitas, New York, and Andrew Scott, MBA, to those
who provided their expert advice: William Fishbein, Ph.D. of The City
College of New York, Paul Glovinsky, Ph.D. of The Sleep Disorders
Center, Albany, NY, Margaret Moline, Ph.D. of Eisai, Inc, Charles
Pollak, MD of The Center for Sleep Medicine, New York Presbyterian
Hospital-Cornell, and Alan Segal, MD of The Department of Neurology,
New York Presbyterian Hospital, and to others who helped make this
study possible: Stacy Goldstein, Neil B. Kavey, MD, Igor Ougorets, MD,
and Jerry Titus.
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Rhythm and Meter in English Poetry
English poetry employs five basic rhythms of varying stressed (/) and
unstressed (x) syllables. The meters are iambs, trochees, spondees,
anapests and dactyls. In this document the stressed syllables are
marked in boldface type rather than the tradition al "/" and "x." Each
unit of rhythm is called a "foot" of poetry.
The meters with two-syllable feet are
* IAMBIC (x /) : That time of year thou mayst in me behold
* TROCHAIC (/ x): Tell me not in mournful numbers
* SPONDAIC (/ /): Break, break, break/ On thy cold gray stones, O
Sea!
Meters with three-syllable feet are
* ANAPESTIC (x x /): And the sound of a voice that is still
* DACTYLIC (/ x x): This is the forest primeval, the murmuring pines
and the hemlock (a trochee replaces the final dactyl)
Each line of a poem contains a certain number of feet of iambs,
trochees, spondees, dactyls or anapests. A line of one foot is a
monometer, 2 feet is a dimeter, and so on--trimeter (3), tetrameter
(4), pentameter (5), hexameter (6), heptameter (7), and o ctameter (8).
The number of syllables in a line varies therefore according to the
meter. A good example of trochaic monometer, for example, is this poem
entitled "Fleas":
Adam
Had'em.
Here are some more serious examples of the various meters.
iambic pentameter (5 iambs, 10 syllables)
* That time | of year | thou mayst | in me | behold
trochaic tetrameter (4 trochees, 8 syllables)
* Tell me | not in | mournful | numbers
anapestic trimeter (3 anapests, 9 syllables)
* And the sound | of a voice | that is still
dactylic hexameter (6 dactyls, 17 syllables; a trochee replaces the
last dactyl)
* This is the | forest pri | meval, the | murmuring | pine and the |
hemlocks
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Meter (poetry)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Please help [11]improve this article by adding [12]reliable references.
Unsourced material may be [13]challenged and [14]removed. (February
2009)
In [15]poetry, the meter (or metre) is the basic [16]rhythmic structure
of a [17]verse. Many traditional [18]verse forms prescribe a specific
verse meter, or a certain set of meters alternating in a particular
order. [19]Prosody is a more general [20]linguistic term, that includes
poetical meter but also the rhythmic aspects of [21]prose, whether
formal or informal. The [22]scansion of a [23]poem is the analysis of
its metrical structure.
Contents
* [24]1 Fundamentals
+ [25]1.1 Feet
+ [26]1.2 Caesurae
+ [27]1.3 Metric variations
+ [28]1.4 Enumeration
* [29]2 Meter in various languages
+ [30]2.1 Sanskrit
+ [31]2.2 Greek and Latin
+ [32]2.3 Classical Arabic
o [33]2.3.1 The Arabic Meters
+ [34]2.4 Old English
+ [35]2.5 Modern English
o [36]2.5.1 Metrical systems
o [37]2.5.2 Frequently-used meters
+ [38]2.6 French
+ [39]2.7 Spanish
+ [40]2.8 Italian
+ [41]2.9 Ottoman Turkish
+ [42]2.10 Brazilian Portuguese
* [43]3 History
* [44]4 Dissent
* [45]5 Notes
* [46]6 See also
[[47]edit] Fundamentals
The meter usually depends on [48]acoustic properties of the [49]spoken
words, such as the [50]length or [51]stress of their [52]syllables,
independently of their meaning. The sound attributes that determine the
meter may vary from language to language, and sometimes between poetic
traditions.
[[53]edit] Feet
In most [54]Western classical poetic traditions, the meter of a verse
can be described as a sequence of [55]feet, each foot being a specific
sequence of syllable types -- such as unstressed/stressed (the norm for
[56]English poetry) or long/short (as in most classical [57]Latin and
[58]Greek poetry).
The most common meter in English poetry, the so-called [59]iambic
pentameter, is a sequence of five [60]iambic feet or iambs, each
consisting of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one
("da-DUM") :
So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see,
So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.
da
DUM
da
DUM
da
DUM
da
DUM
da
DUM
This approach to analyzing and classifying meters originates from
[61]ancient Greek tragedians and poets such as [62]Homer, [63]Pindar,
[64]Hesiod, and [65]Sappho.
[[66]edit] Caesurae
Another component of a verse's meter are the [67]caesurae (literally,
cuts), which are pauses inserted between certain syllables of the
verse. In Latin and Greek poetry, a caesura is a break within a foot
caused by the end of a word. In English poetry, a caesura refers to a
break within a line, for example:
Till the Spinner of the Years Said 'Now!' And each one hears, And
consumation comes, and jars two hemispheres.
The caesura would be the 'Now!'
[[68]edit] Metric variations
Poems with a well-defined overall metric pattern often have a few lines
that violate that pattern. A common variation is the inversion of a
foot, which turns an iamb ("da-DUM") into a [69]trochee ("DUM-da").
Another common variation is a headless verse, which lacks the first
syllable of the first foot. Yet a third variation is [70]catalexis,
where the end of a line is shortened by a foot, or two or part thereof
- an example of this is at the end of each verse in Keats' 'La Belle
Dame sans Merci':
'And on thy cheeks a fading rose (4 feet)
Fast withereth too' (2 feet)
[[71]edit] Enumeration
In [72]South Asian and Indian traditions where syllabic scripts are
used metric patterns are enumerated using two symbols, a [73]breve and
a [74]macron (or 'u' and '-'), to represent syllables of one time unit
and two time units respectively. They are named 'Laghu' and 'Guru'. A
meter is defined by specifying the count of time units for each line,
number of lines, position of Laghu and Guru, and sequence of these
symbols in each line..
[[75]edit] Meter in various languages
[[76]edit] Sanskrit
Main article: [77]Sanskrit prosody
Main article: [78]Vedic meter
Classical Sanskrit and Vedic Sanskrit use meters for most ancient
treatises that are set to verse. Prominent Vedic meters include
Gayatri, Ushnik, Anushtupa, Brhati, Pankti, Tristubh and Jagati. The
basic meter for epic verse is the Sloka. Sanskrit meter is
quantitative, similar in general principles to classical Greek and
Latin meter. The [79]Bhagavad Gita is mainly written in anustupa (with
some vasanta-tilaka sections) interspersed with some [80]Tristubh. For
example, when [81]Krishna reveals his divinity to [82]Arjuna the meter
changes to [83]Tristubh. [84]Tristubh is the most prevalent meter of
the ancient [85]Rigveda, accounting for roughly 40% of its verses
[[86]edit] Greek and Latin
The metrical "feet" in the classical languages were based on the length
of time taken to pronounce each syllable, which were categorized
according to their [87]weight as either "long" syllables or "short"
syllables (indicated as daa and duh below). These are also called
"heavy" and "light" syllables, respectively, to distinguish from long
and short vowels. The foot is often compared to a musical measure and
the long and short syllables to whole notes and half notes. In English
poetry, feet are determined by emphasis rather than length, with
stressed and unstressed syllables serving the same function as long and
short syllables in classical meter.
The basic unit in Greek and Latin prosody is a [88]mora, which is
defined as a single short syllable. A long syllable is equivalent to
two moras. A long syllable contains either a long vowel, a
[89]diphthong, or a short vowel followed by two or more consonants.
Various rules of [90]elision sometimes prevent a grammatical syllable
from making a full syllable, and certain other lengthening and
shortening rules (such as [91]correption) can create long or short
syllables in contexts where one would expect the opposite.
The most important Classical meter is the [92]dactylic hexameter, the
meter of Homer and Virgil. This form uses verses of six feet. The first
four feet are [93]dactyls (daa-duh-duh), but can be [94]spondees
(daa-daa). The fifth foot is almost always a dactyl. The sixth foot is
either a spondee or a [95]trochee (daa-duh). The initial syllable of
either foot is called the ictus, the basic "beat" of the verse. There
is usually a [96]caesura after the ictus of the third foot. The opening
line of the [97]Æneid is a typical line of dactylic hexameter:
Arma vi | rumque ca | no, Troi | ae qui | primus ab | oris
("I sing of arms and the man, who first from the shores of
Troy. . . ")
In this example, the first and second feet are dactyls; their first
syllables, "Ar" and "rum" respectively, contain short vowels, but count
as long because the vowels are both followed by two consonants. The
third and fourth feet are spondees, the first of which is divided by
the main [98]caesura of the verse. The fifth foot is a dactyl, as is
nearly always the case. The final foot is a spondee.
The dactylic hexameter was imitated in English by [99]Henry Wadsworth
Longfellow in his poem [100]Evangeline:
This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the
hemlocks,
Bearded with moss, and in garments green, indistinct in the
twilight,
Stand like Druids of old, with voices sad and prophetic,
Stand like harpers hoar, with beards that rest on their bosoms.
Also important in Greek and Latin poetry is the [101]dactylic
pentameter. This was a line of verse, made up of two equal parts, each
of which contains two dactyls followed by a long syllable, which counts
as a half foot. In this way, the number of feet amounts to five in
total. Spondees can take the place of the dactyls in the first half,
but never in the second. The long syllable at the close of the first
half of the verse always ends a word, giving rise to a [102]caesura.
Dactylic pentameter is never used in isolation. Rather, a line of
dactylic pentameter follows a line of dactylic hexameter in the
[103]elegiac [104]distich or [105]elegiac couplet, a form of verse that
was used for the composition of elegies and other [106]tragic and
solemn verse in the Greek and Latin world, as well as love poetry that
was sometimes light and cheerful. An example from [107]Ovid's
[108]Tristia:
Vergili | um vi | di tan | tum, nec a | mara Ti | bullo
Tempus a | miciti | ae || fata de | dere me | ae.
("I saw only Vergil, greedy Fate gave Tibullus no time for
me.")
The Greeks and Romans also used a number of [109]lyric meters, which
were typically used for shorter poems than elegiacs or hexameter. In
[110]Aeolic verse, one important line was called the
[111]hendecasyllabic, a line of eleven syllables. This meter was used
most often in the [112]Sapphic stanza, named after the Greek poet
[113]Sappho, who wrote many of her poems in the form. A hendecasyllabic
is a line with a never-varying structure: two trochees, followed by a
dactyl, then two more trochees. In the Sapphic [114]stanza, three
hendecasyllabics are followed by an "Adonic" line, made up of a dactyl
and a trochee. This is the form of [115]Catullus 51 (itself an homage
to Sappho 31):
Ille | mi par | esse de | o vi | detur;
ille, | si fas | est, supe | rare | divos,
qui se | dens ad | versus i | denti | dem te
spectat et | audit
("He seems to me to be like a god; if it is permitted, he
seems above the gods, he who sitting across from you gazes
at you and listens to you.")
The Sapphic stanza was imitated in [116]English by [117]Algernon
Charles Swinburne in a poem he simply called Sapphics:
Saw the white implacable Aphrodite,
Saw the hair unbound and the feet unsandalled
Shine as fire of sunset on western waters;
Saw the reluctant...
[[118]edit] Classical Arabic
The metrical system of Classical Arabic poetry, like those of classical
Greek and Latin, is based on the weight of syllables classified as
either "long" or "short."
A short syllable contains a short vowel with no following consonants.
For example, the word kataba, which syllabifies as ka-ta-ba, contains
three short vowels. A long syllable contains either a long vowel, or a
short vowel followed by a consonant as is the case in the word maktubun
which syllabifies as mak-tu-bun. These are the only syllable types
possible in Arabic phonology which, by and large, does not allow a
syllable to end in more than one consonant or a consonant to occur in
the same syllable after a long vowel. In other words, with very few
exceptions, syllables of the type -ak- or -akr- are not found in
classical Arabic.
Each verse consists of a certain number of metrical feet (tafa`il or
ajza') and a certain combination of possible feet constitutes a meter
(baHr.)
The traditional Arabic practice for writing out a poem's meter is to
use a concatenation of various derivations of the verbal root F-`-L (
f+e+l+). Thus, the following hemistich
qifa nabki min dhikra Habibin wamanzili
q+f+a+ n+b+k+ m+n+ dkk+r+j+ hkb+y+b+=+ w+m+n+z+l+1+
Would be traditionally scanned as
Fa`ulun mafa`ilun fa`ulun mafa`ilun
f+e+w+l+n+ m+f+a+e+y+l+n+ f+e+w+l+n+ m+f+a+e+l+n+
Which, according to the system more current in the west, can be
represented as:
u-- u--- u-- u-u-
[[119]edit] The Arabic Meters
Classical Arabic has sixteen established metres. Though each of them
allows for a certain amount of variation, their basic patterns are as
follows, using "-" for a long syllable, "u" for a short one, "x" for a
syllable that can be long or short and "o" for a position that can
either contain one long or two shorts:
The T-.awil (a+l+tjw+y+l+):
u-x u-x- u-x u-u-
f+e+w+l+n+ m+f+a+e+y+l+n+ f+e+w+l+n+ m+f+a+e+y+l+n+
The Madid (a+l+m+d+y+d+):
xu-- xu- xu-
f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ f+a+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+n+
The Basit-. (a+l+b+s+y+tj):
x-u- xu- x-u- uu-
m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+n+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+e+l+n+
The Kamil (a+l+k+a+m+l+):
o-u- o-u- o-u-
m+t+f+a+e+l+n+ m+t+f+a+e+l+n+ m+t+f+a+e+l+n+
The Wafir (a+l+w+a+f+r+):
u-o- u-o- u--
m+f+a+e+l+t+n+ m+f+a+e+l+t+n+ f+e+w+l+n+
The Hajaz (a+l+h+g+z+):
u--x u--x
m+f+a+e+y+l+n+ m+f+a+e+y+l+n+
The Rajaz (a+l+r+g+z+):
x-u- x-u- x-u-
m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+
The Ramal (a+l+r+m+l+):
xu-- xu-- xu-
f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ f+a+e+l+n+
The Sari` (a+l+s+r+y+e+):
xxu- xxu- -u-
m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+n+
The MunsariH (a+l+m+n+s+r+hk):
x-u- -x-u -uu-
m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+'+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+
The Khafif (a+l+x+f+y+f+):
xu-- x-u- xu--
f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+n+
The Mud-.ari` (a+l+m+dda+r+e+):
u-x x-u--
m+f+a+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+n+
The Muqtad-.ib (a+l+m+q+t+ddb+):
xu- u- uu-
f+a+e+l+a+t+'+ m+f+t+e+l+n+
The Mujtathth (a+l+m+g+t+tk):
x-u- xu--
m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+n+
The Mutadarik (a+l+m+t+d+a+r+k+):
o- o- o- o- (Here, each "o" can also be "xu")
f+a+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+n+
The Mutaqarib (a+l+m+t+q+a+r+b+):
u-x u-x u-x u-
f+e+w+l+n+ f+e+w+l+n+ f+e+w+l+n+ f+e+w+l+
[[120]edit] Old English
The metric system of [121]Old English poetry was different from that of
modern English, and more related to the verse forms of most of older
[122]Germanic languages. It used [123]alliterative verse, a metrical
pattern involving varied numbers of syllables but a fixed number
(usually four) of strong stresses in each line. The unstressed
syllables were relatively unimportant, but the caesurae played a major
role in [124]Old English poetry.
[[125]edit] Modern English
Most English meter is classified according to the same system as
Classical meter with an important difference. English is an accentual
language, and therefore beats and offbeats (stressed and unstressed
syllables) take the place of the long and short syllables of classical
systems. In most English verse, the meter can be considered as a sort
of back beat, against which natural speech rhythms vary expressively.
The most common characteristic feet of English verse are the [126]iamb
in two syllables and the [127]anapest in three. (See [128]Foot
(prosody) for a complete list of the metrical feet and their names.)
[[129]edit] Metrical systems
The number of metrical systems in English is not agreed upon.^[130][1]
The four major types^[131][2] are: [132]accentual verse,
[133]accentual-syllabic verse, [134]syllabic verse and
[135]quantitative verse. The [136]alliterative verse of Old English
could also be added to this list, or included as a special type of
accentual verse. Accentual verse focuses on the number of stresses in a
line, while ignoring the number of offbeats and syllables;
accentual-syllabic verse focuses on regulating both the number of
stresses and the total number of syllables in a line; syllabic verse
only counts the number of syllables in a line; quantitative verse
regulates the patterns of long and short syllables (this sort of verse
is often considered alien to English).^[137][3] It is to be noted,
however, that the use of foreign meters in English is all but
exceptional.^[138][4]
[[139]edit] Frequently-used meters
The most frequently encountered meter of English verse is the
[140]iambic pentameter, in which the metrical norm is five iambic feet
per line, though metrical substitution is common and rhythmic
variations practically inexhaustible. [141]John Milton's [142]Paradise
Lost, most [143]sonnets, and much else besides in English are written
in iambic pentameter. Lines of unrhymed iambic pentameter are commonly
known as [144]blank verse. Blank verse in the English language is most
famously represented in the plays of [145]William Shakespeare and the
great works of Milton, though [146]Tennyson ([147]Ulysses, [148]The
Princess) and [149]Wordsworth ([150]The Prelude) also make notable use
of it.
A rhymed pair of lines of iambic pentameter make a [151]heroic couplet,
a [152]verse form which was used so often in the eighteenth century
that it is now used mostly for humorous effect (although see [153]Pale
Fire for a non-trivial case). The most famous writers of heroic
couplets are [154]Dryden and [155]Pope.
Another important meter in English is the [156]ballad meter, also
called the "common meter", which is a four line stanza, with two pairs
of a line of [157]iambic tetrameter followed by a line of [158]iambic
trimeter; the [159]rhymes usually fall on the lines of trimeter,
although in many instances the tetrameter also rhymes. This is the
meter of most of the Border and Scots or English ballads. In
[160]hymnody it is called the "common meter", as it is the most common
of the named [161]hymn meters used to pair many hymn lyrics with
melodies, such as [162]Amazing Grace:^[163][5]
Amazing Grace! how sweet the sound
That saved a wretch like me;
I once was lost, but now am found;
Was blind, but now I see.
[164]Emily Dickinson is famous for her frequent use of ballad meter:
Great streets of silence led away
To neighborhoods of pause;
Here was no notice -- no dissent --
No universe -- no laws.
[[165]edit] French
In [166]French poetry, meter is determined solely by the number of
syllables in a line, because it is considered as less important than
rhymes. A silent 'e' counts as a syllable before a consonant, but is
elided before a vowel (where [167]h aspiré counts as a consonant). At
the end of a line, the "e" remains unelided but is hypermetrical
(outside the count of syllables, like a feminine ending in English
verse), in that case, the rhyme is also called "feminine", whereas it
is called "masculine" in the other cases.
The most frequently encountered meter in Classical French poetry is the
[168]alexandrine, composed of two [169]hemistiches of six syllables
each. Two famous alexandrines are
La fille de Minos et de Pasiphaë
([170]Jean Racine)
(the daughter of Minos and Pasiphae), and
Waterloo ! Waterloo ! Waterloo ! Morne plaine!
([171]Victor Hugo)
(Waterloo! Waterloo! Waterloo! Gloomy plain!)
Classical French poetry also had a complex set of [172]rules for rhymes
that goes beyond how words merely sound. These are usually taken into
account when describing the meter of a poem.
[[173]edit] Spanish
In [174]Spanish poetry the meter is determined by the number of
syllables the verse has. Still it is the phonetic accent in the last
word of the verse that decides the final count of the line. If the
accent of the final word is at the last syllable, then the poetic rule
states that one syllable shall be added to the actual count of
syllables in the said line, thus having a higher number of poetic
syllables than the number of grammatical syllables. If the accent lies
on the second to last syllable of the last word in the verse, then the
final count of poetic syllables will be the same as the grammatical
number of syllables. Furthermore, if the accent lies on the third to
last syllable, then one syllable is subtracted from the actual count,
having then less poetic syllables than grammatical syllables.
Interestingly, Spanish poetry uses poetic licenses, unique to Romance
languages, to change the number of syllables by manipulating mainly the
vowels in the line. For example:
Cuando salí de Collores,
fue en una jaquita baya,
por un sendero entre mayas,
arropás de cundiamores...
This stanza from Valle de Collores by [175]Luis Llorens Torres, uses
eight poetic syllables. Given that all words at the end of each line
have their phonetic accent on the second to last syllables, no
syllables in the final count is either added or subtracted. Still in
the second and third verse the grammatical count of syllables is nine.
Poetic licenses permit the union of two vowels that are next to each
other but in different syllables and count them as one. "Fue en..." has
actually two syllables, but applying this license both vowels unite and
form only one, giving the final count of eight syllables. "Sendero
entre..." has five grammatical syllables, but uniting the "o" from
"sendero" and the first "e" from "entre", gives only four syllables,
permitting it to have eight syllables in the verse as well. This
license is called a [176]synalepha (Spanish: [177]sinalefa). There are
many types of licenses, used either to add or subtract syllables, that
may be applied when needed after taking in consideration the poetic
rules of the last word. Yet all have in common that they only
manipulate vowels that are close to each other and not interrupted by
consonants.
Some common meters in Spanish verse are:
* [178]Septenary: A line with the seven poetic syllables
* [179]Octosyllable: A line with eight poetic syllables. This meter
is commonly used in romances, narrative poems similar to English
ballads, and in most proverbs.
* [180]Hendecasyllable: A line with eleven poetic syllables. This
meter plays a similar role to pentameter in English verse. It is
commonly used in sonnets, among other things.
* [181]Alexandrine: A line consisting of twelve syllables.
[[182]edit] Italian
In Italian poetry, meter is determined solely by the position of the
last accent in a line. Syllables are enumerated with respect to a verse
which ends with a paroxytone, so that a Septenary (having seven
syllables) is defined as a verse whose last accent falls on the sixth
syllable: it may so contain eight syllables (Ei fu. Siccome immobile)
or just six (la terra al nunzio sta). Moreover, when a word ends with a
vowel and the next one starts with a vowel, they are considered to be
in the same syllable: so Gli anni e i giorni consists of only four
syllables ("Gli an" "ni e i" "gior" "ni"). Even-syllabic verses have a
fixed stress pattern. Because of the mostly [183]trochaic nature of the
Italian language, verses with an even number of syllables are far
easier to compose, and the [184]Novenary is usually regarded as the
most difficult verse.
Some common meters in Italian verse are:
* Sexenary: A line whose last stressed syllabe is on the fifth, with
a fixed stress on the second one as well (Al Re Travicello /
Piovuto ai ranocchi, Giusti)
* [185]Septenary: A line whose last stressed syllable is the sixth
one.
* [186]Octosyllable: A line whose last accent falls on the seventh
syllable. More often than not, the secondary accents fall on the
first, third and fifth syllable, especially in nursery rhymes for
which this meter is particularly well-suited.
* [187]Hendecasyllable: A line whose last accent falls on the tenth
syllable. It therefore usually consists of eleven syllables; there
are various kinds of possible accentations . It is used in sonnets,
in ottava rima, and in many other works. [188]The Divine Comedy, in
particular, is composed entirely of hendecasyllables, whose main
stress pattern is 4th and 10th syllable.
[[189]edit] Ottoman Turkish
In the [190]Ottoman Turkish language, the structures of the poetic foot
(t+f+e+l+ tef'ile) and of poetic meter (w+z+n+ vezin) were indirectly
borrowed from the [191]Arabic poetic tradition through the medium of
the [192]Persian language.
[193]Ottoman poetry, also known as Dîvân poetry, was generally written
in quantitative, [194]mora-timed meter. The [195]moras, or syllables,
are divided into three basic types:
* Open, or [196]light, syllables (açik hece) consist of either a
short [197]vowel alone, or a [198]consonant followed by a short
vowel
+ Examples: a-dam ("man"); zir-ve ("summit, peak")
* Closed, or heavy, syllables (kapali hece) consist of either a long
vowel alone, a consonant followed by a long vowel, or a short vowel
followed by a consonant
+ Examples: Â-dem ("[199]Adam"); kâ-fir ("non-Muslim"); at
("horse")
* Lengthened, or superheavy, syllables (meddli hece) count as one
closed plus one open syllable and consist of a vowel followed by a
[200]consonant cluster, or a long vowel followed by a consonant
+ Examples: kürk ("fur"); âb ("water")
In writing out a poem's poetic meter, open syllables are symbolized by
"." and closed syllables are symbolized by "-". From the different
syllable types, a total of sixteen different types of poetic foot--the
majority of which are either three or four syllables in length--are
constructed, which are named and scanned as follows:
fa` (-) fe ul (. -) fa` lün (- -) fe i lün (. . -)
fâ i lün (- . -) fe û lün (. - -) mef' û lü (- - .) fe i lâ tün
(. . - -)
fâ i lâ tün (- . - -) fâ i lâ tü (- . - .) me fâ i lün (. - . -)
me fâ' î lün (. - - -)
me fâ î lü (. - - .) müf te i lün (- . . -) müs tef i lün (- - .
-) mü te fâ i lün (. . - . -)
These individual poetic feet are then combined in a number of different
ways, most often with four feet per line, so as to give the poetic
meter for a line of verse. Some of the most commonly used meters are
the following:
* me fâ' î lün / me fâ' î lün / me fâ' î lün / me fâ' î lün
. - - - / . - - - / . - - - / . - - -
Ezelden sah-i `ask-.uñ bende-i fermaniyüz cana
Mah-.abbet mülkinüñ sultan-i `ali-saniyüz cana Oh beloved, since the
origin we have been the slaves of the shah of love
Oh beloved, we are the famed sultan of the heart's domain^[201][6]
--[202]Bâkî (1526-1600)
* me fâ i lün / fe i lâ tün / me fâ i lün / fe i lün
. - . - / . . - - / . - . - / . . -
H-.ata' o nerkis-i sehladadir sözümde degil
Egerçi her süh-.anim bi-bedel begendiremem Though I may fail to please
with my matchless verse
The fault lies in those languid eyes and not my words
--Seyh Gâlib (1757-1799)
* fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lün
- . - - / - . - - / - . - - / - . -
Bir seker h-.and ile bezm-i sevka cam ettiñ beni
Nim s-.un peymaneyi sak-.i tamam ettiñ beni At the gathering of desire
you made me a wine-cup with your sugar smile
Oh saki, give me only half a cup of wine, you've made me drunk
enough^[203][7]
--[204]Nedîm (1681?-1730)
* fe i lâ tün / fe i lâ tün / fe i lâ tün / fe i lün
. . - - / . . - - / . . - - / . . -
Men ne h-.acet ki k-.ilam derd-i dilüm yara `ayan
K-.amu derd-i dilümi yar bilübdür bilübem What use in revealing my
sickness of heart to my love
I know my love knows the whole of my sickness of heart
--[205]Fuzûlî (1483?-1556)
* mef' û lü / me fâ î lü / me fâ î lü / fâ û lün
- - . / . - - . / . - - . / - - .
Sevk-.uz ki dem-i bülbül-i seydada nihanuz
H-.unuz ki dil-i gonçe-i h-.amrada nihanuz We are desire hidden in the
love-crazed call of the nightingale
We are blood hidden in the crimson heart of the unbloomed rose^[206][8]
--[207]Nesâtî (?-1674)
[[208]edit] Brazilian Portuguese
Meters were extensively explored in Brazilian literature, notably
during [209]Parnassianism. The most notable ones were:
* Redondilha menor: composed of 5 syllables.
* Redondilha maior: composed of 7 syllables.
* [210]Decasyllable (decassílabo): composed of 10 syllables. Mostly
used in [211]Parnassian [212]sonnets.
+ Heroic (heróico): stresses on the sixth and tenth syllables.
+ [213]Sapphic (sáfico): stresses on the fourth, eighth and
tenth syllables.
+ Martelo: stresses on the third, sixth and tenth syllables.
+ Gaita galega or moinheira: stresses on the fourth, seventh and
tenth syllables.
* [214]Hendecasyllable (dodecassílabo): composed of 12 syllables.
+ [215]Alexandrine (alexandrino): divided into two
[216]hemistiches.
* Barbarian (bárbaro): composed of 13 or more syllables.
+ Lucasian (lucasiano): composed of 16 feet, divided into two
[217]hemistiches of 8 syllables each.
[[218]edit] History
Further information: [219]History of poetry
Metrical texts are first attested in early [220]Indo-European
languages. The earliest known unambiguously metrical texts, and at the
same time the only metrical texts with a claim of dating to the
[221]Late Bronze Age, are the hymns of the [222]Rigveda. That the texts
of the [223]Ancient Near East (Sumerian, Egyptian or Semitic) should
not exhibit meter is surprising, and may be partly due to the nature of
[224]Bronze Age writing. There were, in fact, attempts to reconstruct
metrical qualities of the poetic portions of the [225]Hebrew Bible,
e.g. by [226]Gustav Bickell^[227][9] or [228]Julius Ley^[229][10], but
they remained inconclusive^[230][11] (see [231]Biblical poetry). Early
Iron Age metrical poetry is found in the Iranian [232]Avesta and in the
Greek works attributed to [233]Homer and [234]Hesiod.
[235]Latin verse survives from the [236]Old Latin period (ca. 2nd c.
BC), in the [237]Saturnian meter. [238]Persian poetry arises in the
[239]Sassanid era. [240]Tamil poetry of the early centuries AD may be
the earliest known non-Indo-European metrical texts (with the possible
exception of the Chinese [241]Shi Jing). The oldest surviving fragment
of [242]Germanic poetry is the verse on one of the [243]Gallehus horns
(ca. AD 400). [244]Irish and [245]Arabic poetry both have early records
dating from about the 6th century.
[246]Medieval poetry was metrical without exception, spanning
traditions as diverse as European [247]Minnesang, [248]Trouvère or
[249]Bardic poetry, Classical [250]Persian and [251]Sanskrit poetry,
[252]Tang dynasty [253]Chinese poetry or the [254]Japanese [255]Heian
period [256]Man'yoshu. Renaissance and Early Modern poetry in Europe is
characterized by a return to templates of Classical Antiquity, a
tradition begun by [257]Petrarca's generation and continued into the
time of [258]Shakespeare and [259]Milton.
[[260]edit] Dissent
Not all poets accept the idea that meter is a fundamental part of
poetry. Twentieth century [261]American poets [262]Marianne Moore,
[263]William Carlos Williams, and [264]Robinson Jeffers, were poets who
believed that meter was imposed into poetry by man, not a fundamental
part of its nature. In an essay titled "Robinson Jeffers, & The Metric
Fallacy" [265]Dan Schneider echoes Jeffers' sentiments: "What if
someone actually said to you that all music was composed of just 2
notes? Or if someone claimed that there were just 2 colors in creation?
Now, ponder if such a thing were true. Imagine the clunkiness &
mechanicality of such music. Think of the visual arts devoid of not
just color, but sepia tones, & even shades of gray." Jeffers called his
technique "rolling stresses".
Moore went even further than Jeffers, openly declaring her poetry was
written in syllabic form, and wholly denying meter. These syllabic
lines from her famous poem [266]"Poetry" illustrate her contempt for
meter, and other poetic tools (even the syllabic pattern of this poem
does not remain perfectly consistent):
nor is it valid
to discriminate against "business
documents and
school-books": all these phenomena are important. One must
make a distinction
however: when dragged into prominence by
half poets, the result is not poetry
Williams tried to form poetry whose subject matter was centered on the
lives of common people. He came up with the concept of the
[267]variable foot. Williams spurned traditional meter in most of his
poems, preferring what he called "colloquial idioms." Another poet that
turned his back on traditional concepts of meter was Britain's
[268]Gerard Manley Hopkins. Hopkins' major innovation was what he
called [269]sprung rhythm. He claimed most poetry was written in this
older rhythmic structure inherited from the Norman side of the English
literary heritage, based on repeating groups of two or three syllables,
with the stressed syllable falling in the same place on each
repetition. Sprung rhythm is structured around feet with a variable
number of syllables, generally between one and four syllables per foot,
with the stress always falling on the first syllable in a foot.
[[270]edit] Notes
1. [271]^ For example, [272]Robert Wallace, in his 1993 essay
'[273]Meter in English (essay)' asserts that there is only one
meter in English: Accentual-Syllabic. The essay is reprinted in
[274]David Baker (editor), [275]Meter in English, A Critical
Engagement, University of Arkansas Press, 1996. [276]ISBN
1-55728-444-X.
2. [277]^ see for example, [278]Paul Fussell, [279]Poetic Meter and
Poetic Form, McGraw Hill, 1965, revised 1979. [280]ISBN
0-07-553606-4.
3. [281]^ [282]Charles O. Hartman writes that quantitative meters
"continue to resist importation in English" ([283]Free Verse: An
Essay on Prosody, Northwestern University Press, 1980. [284]ISBN
0-8101-1316-3, page 34).
4. [285]^ According to [286]Leonardo Malcovati (Prosody in England and
Elsewhere: A Comparative Approach, Gival Press, 2006. [287]ISBN
1-928589-26-X), '[very] little of it is native'.
5. [288]^ The [289]ballad meter commonality among a wide range of song
lyrics allow words and music to be interchanged seamlessly between
various songs, such as [290]Amazing Grace, the Ballad of
[291]Gilligan's Isle, [292]House of the Rising Sun, theme from the
[293]Mickey Mouse Club, and others.
6. [294]^ Andrews, Walter G. Ottoman Lyric Poetry: An Anthology.
[295]ISBN 0-292-70472-0. p. 93.
7. [296]^ Ibid. p. 134.
8. [297]^ Ibid. p. 131.
9. [298]^ "Metrices biblicae regulae exemplis illustratae", 1879,
"Carmina Vet. Test. metrice", 1882
10. [299]^ "Leitfaden der Metrik der hebräischen Poesie", 1887
11. [300]^ the [301]Catholic Encyclopedia s.v. Hebrew Poetry of the Old
Testament calls them 'Procrustean'.
[[302]edit] See also
* [303]Foot (prosody)
* [304]Meter (music)
* [305]List of classical meters.
[307]Categories: [308]Poetic devices | [309]Prosody
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