#[1]About.com ____________________ (Submit) Search [2]About.com [3]Art History 1. [4]Home 2. [5]Education 3. [6]Art History [7][education_arthistory;kw=;site=arthistory;chan=education;pos=lb;sz=7 28x90;ord=1A1HKXJ0C20SA0p7N] * [8]Share * * [9]Art History * [10]Artists * [11]Styles * [12]Works of Art * Free Art History Newsletter! ____________________ (Submit) Sign Up * [13]Discuss in my Forum rhythm By [14]Shelley Esaak, About.com Guide See More About: * [15]art definitions * [16]principles of design Definition: (noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat. A pattern has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the colors of a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from one component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying movement. Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're placed one next to the other. Really, it's easier to "see" rhythm in just about anything other than the visual arts. Literally-minded types should stick to music for rhythm. Pronunciation: rih·them Related Articles * [17]Guitar Strumming 101 - Strumming Pattern Exercise Number One * [18]From a Father to His Children - Clement Clarke Moore * [19]Music clip art and instruments and musicians and musical notes plus other m... * [20]Pittsburgh Arts Summer Camps - Performing & Visual Arts Summer Programs in ... * [21]United Kingdom Travel by Interest - Find History, Art, Theatre, Music and M... [22]Shelley Esaak [23]Shelley Esaak Art History Guide * [24]Sign up for my Newsletter * [25]My Blog * [26]My Forum Explore Art History Must Reads * [27]60-Second Artist Bios * [28]What Is Art? * [29]Leonardo da Vinci Paintings * [30]Teaching Tool: Picturing America * [31]Timeline: Modern Art Movements Most Popular [32]The Last Supper[33]The Sistine Chapel Ceiling[34]What are the Elements of Art?[35]What Is Art?[36]Art History Jobs - Fellowship and Internship Postings See More About: * [37]art definitions * [38]principles of design By Category * [39]Artists A to Z * [40]Art History 101 * [41]Timelines of Art History * [42]Ancient Art History * [43]Medieval Art History * [44]Renaissance Art History * [45]Modern Art History * [46]Contemporary Art History * [47]Images / Picture Galleries * [48]Types of Visual Art * [49]Art by Location / Culture * [50]Art Museums / Galleries About.com Special Features [51]Dinosaur Discoveries of the Decade The top 10 fossil discoveries between 2000 and 2010. [52]More > [53]How to Ace the GRE Being well prepared is the first step; here are more essential suggestions. [54]More > [55]About.com [56]Art History 1. [57]Home 2. [58]Education 3. [59]Art History 4. [60]Art History 101 5. [61]Art History Glossary 6. [62]Words Beginning With R 7. Art History Glossary - R - rhythm> * [63]Most Popular * [64]Latest Articles Add to: * [65]iGoogle * [66]My Yahoo! * [67]RSS * [68]Advertising Info * [69]News & Events * [70]Work at About * [71]SiteMap * [72]All Topics * [73]Reprints * [74]Help * [75]User Agreement * [76]Ethics Policy * [77]Patent Info. * [78]Privacy Policy * [79]Our Story * [80]Write for About ©2010 About.com, a part of [81]The New York Times Company. All rights reserved. Références #[1]About.com ____________________ (Submit) Search [2]About.com [3]Art History 1. [4]Home 2. [5]Education 3. [6]Art History [7][education_arthistory;kw=;site=arthistory;chan=education;pos=lb;sz=7 28x90;ord=1A1HKXJ0C20SA0p7N] * [8]Share * * [9]Art History * [10]Artists * [11]Styles * [12]Works of Art * Free Art History Newsletter! ____________________ (Submit) Sign Up * [13]Discuss in my Forum rhythm By [14]Shelley Esaak, About.com Guide See More About: * [15]art definitions * [16]principles of design Definition: (noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat. A pattern has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the colors of a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from one component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying movement. Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're placed one next to the other. Really, it's easier to "see" rhythm in just about anything other than the visual arts. Literally-minded types should stick to music for rhythm. Pronunciation: rih·them Related Articles * [17]Guitar Strumming 101 - Strumming Pattern Exercise Number One * [18]From a Father to His Children - Clement Clarke Moore * [19]Music clip art and instruments and musicians and musical notes plus other m... * [20]Pittsburgh Arts Summer Camps - Performing & Visual Arts Summer Programs in ... * [21]United Kingdom Travel by Interest - Find History, Art, Theatre, Music and M... [22]Shelley Esaak [23]Shelley Esaak Art History Guide * [24]Sign up for my Newsletter * [25]My Blog * [26]My Forum Explore Art History Must Reads * [27]60-Second Artist Bios * [28]What Is Art? * [29]Leonardo da Vinci Paintings * [30]Teaching Tool: Picturing America * [31]Timeline: Modern Art Movements Most Popular [32]The Last Supper[33]The Sistine Chapel Ceiling[34]What are the Elements of Art?[35]What Is Art?[36]Art History Jobs - Fellowship and Internship Postings See More About: * [37]art definitions * [38]principles of design By Category * [39]Artists A to Z * [40]Art History 101 * [41]Timelines of Art History * [42]Ancient Art History * [43]Medieval Art History * [44]Renaissance Art History * [45]Modern Art History * [46]Contemporary Art History * [47]Images / Picture Galleries * [48]Types of Visual Art * [49]Art by Location / Culture * [50]Art Museums / Galleries About.com Special Features [51]Dinosaur Discoveries of the Decade The top 10 fossil discoveries between 2000 and 2010. [52]More > [53]How to Ace the GRE Being well prepared is the first step; here are more essential suggestions. [54]More > [55]About.com [56]Art History 1. [57]Home 2. [58]Education 3. [59]Art History 4. [60]Art History 101 5. [61]Art History Glossary 6. [62]Words Beginning With R 7. Art History Glossary - R - rhythm> * [63]Most Popular * [64]Latest Articles Add to: * [65]iGoogle * [66]My Yahoo! * [67]RSS * [68]Advertising Info * [69]News & Events * [70]Work at About * [71]SiteMap * [72]All Topics * [73]Reprints * [74]Help * [75]User Agreement * [76]Ethics Policy * [77]Patent Info. * [78]Privacy Policy * [79]Our Story * [80]Write for About ©2010 About.com, a part of [81]The New York Times Company. All rights reserved. Références [1]Click Here [2]ArtLex Art Dictionary ,ø¤º°`°ºº¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø ,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º° r rhythm - A visual tempo or beat. The [3]principle of design that refers to a regular repetition of [4]elements of art to produce the look and feel of [5]movement. It is often achieved through the careful placement of repeated components which invite the viewer's eye to jump rapidly or glide smoothly from one to the next. In any [6]artwork, it is possible to distinguish between rhythm of [7]color, [8]line, and [9]form. In the continuity of the three comes the whole rhythm of that work. Rhythm unites the [10]visual culture with [11]music, but in visual culture, rhythm is more evident in the [12]applied arts than in the [13]fine arts. In the former, it is often the foremost means of [14]aesthetic [15]expression. Rhythm originated in the Greek word rhymthmos, meaning measured flow, which they passed into Latin as rhythmus, meaning movement in [16]time. Its first uses in English were literary, in reference to themetrical rhyming of verses. English speakers began to use rhythm concerning repetition of musical beats in the late 18th century, and about visual elements in the same period. Each [17]artist, every [18]period, every [19]culture produces a characteristic sort of rhythm. Recognizing a work's rhythmical peculiarities often aids in [20]identify the culture or [21]time in which it was produced, if not the individual artist who produced it. Rhythm's importance can be demonstrated by noting how many important rhythmic cycles we observe in [22]nature -- consider the alternating tension and relaxation in the heart's beating or in the ocean's waves, the revolutions of the earth around the sun, the comings and goings of generations. Each of us has personal rhythms to our days, weeks, and years. Life, indeed, would be chaotic without rhythm. Participating in the tempo of this flow gives us excitement and calm, yearning and contentment, yin and yang. It is natural that we would employ rhythms to organize and [23]unify our works, much as they do the rest of our experience. There are several types of visual rhythm. These include: regular rhythms - The background design behind this text has a regular rhythm. (In the following examples, let the letters A, B, etc. stand for visual elements of any sort) AB-AB-AB is the most common type. Picture alternating stripes of two colors, for instance. (In English prosody, a student of poetry might read this as either "iambs" or "trochees". An iamb is a metrical foot consisting of two syllables, the first syllable accented, the second accented, as in AB-AB-AB. It becomes trochaic meter if the accenting is reversed, as in AB-AB-AB.) Some more examples: ABC-ABC-ABC (In English prosody, a student of poetry might read this as "anapests" or "dactyls". An anapest is a metrical foot consisting of three syllables, the first two syllables unaccented, the third accented, as in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL. A dactyl consists of three syllables, the first accented, the second and third unaccented, as in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL.) ABBB-ABBB-ABBB ABCB-ABCB-ABCB ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA alternating rhythms - some examples: ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE-ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE- ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF-ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF- ABCD-DCCBBA-ABCD-DCCBBA progressive rhythms - Progression occurs when there is a gradual increase or decrease in the size, number, color, or some other quality of the elements repeated. some examples: AB-AABB-AAABBB-AAAABBBB AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB- ABC-ABD-ABE-ABF-ABG-ABH-ABI flowing rhythms - random rhythms - Each of these types of rhythm might be altered periodically. [24]Music theory might be defined as the study of rhythms and their periodic alterations. Example of works displaying rhythm: [rhythm_matis.danc1.th.jpg] see thumbnail to left Henri Matisse (French, 1869-1954), [25]Dance (first version), 1909, [26]oil on [27]canvas, 8 feet 6 1/2 inches x 12 feet 9 1/2 inches (259.7 x 390.1 cm), Museum of [e3_3_1_8d_french_art20.jpg] Modern Art, NY. Matisse painted a second version of see thumbnail to right [28]Dance in 1910, [29]oil on [30]canvas, 102 x 154 inches (260 x 391 cm), Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia. Dance, together with Music, was commissioned by S.I.Shchukin to [31]decorate the staircase in his Moscow mansion. Matisse took the [32]motif of the round dance, used as a [33]symbol back as far as French [34]Renaissance, to represent the [35]rhythm and [36]expression of the 20th century. The spaciousness and expressive [37]lines [38]emphasize the dynamics of the [39]figures. [40]Simplified and schematic [41]forms intensify the [42]brightness and [43]resonance of the three colors -- red, blue and green. See [44]music. Dance, Matisse once said, meant "life and rhythm." See [45]dance, [46]music, and [47]movement. [destij_mond.broadwa.th.gif] see thumbnail to left Piet Mondrian (Dutch, 1872-1944), [48]Broadway Boogie Woogie. 1942-43, [49]oil on [50]canvas, 50 x 50 inches (127 x 127 cm), at the Museum of Modern Art, New York. See [51]De Stijl and [52]grid. [3L00164.jpg] see thumbnail to right Paul Klee (Swiss, 1879-1940), [53]Rhythmisches (In Rhythm), 1930, [54]oil on woven jute, 69.6 x 50.5 cm, Georges Pompidou Center, Paris. See [55]Bauhaus and [56]Swiss art. [femns_taeuber_circles_th.jpg] see thumbnail to left Sophie Taeuber-Arp (Swiss, 1889-1943; to France 1928), [57]Composition of Circles and Overlapping Angles (Composition à cercles et à bras superposés), 1930, [58]oil on [59]canvas, 19 1/2 x 25 1/4 inches (49.5 x 64.1 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. See [60]feminism and feminist art. [40x10pixel.space.gif] [femns_taeuber_echelon_th.jpg] see thumbnail to right Sophie Taeuber-Arp, [61]Echelonnement désaxé, 1934, [62]gouache on [63]paper, 13 7/8 X 10 5/8 inches (35.1 X 27 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. [bauhau_aalber.walldes.th.jpg] see thumbnail to left Anni Albers (born Analise Fleischman, married Josef Albers) (German, 1899-1994), [64]Design for Wall Hanging, 1926, [65]gouache and [66]pencil on paper, 14 x 11 1/2 inches (35.6 x 29.2 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. See [67]Bauhaus and [68]textile. Quote: "Rhythm and harmony find their way into the inward places of the soul." Plato (427?-327? BCE), Greek philosopher. The Republic, Book III, 401d, as translated by B. Jowett, 1901. See [69]harmony. Also see [70]animation, [71]arrangement, [72]chronology, [73]cinema, [74]composition, [75]dance, [76]direction, [77]egg-and-dart, [78]eurythmy, [79]four-dimensional, [80]harmonic sequence, [81]harmony, [82]kinetic, [83]juxtaposition, [84]measure, [85]metamorphosis, [86]mobile, [87]movement, [88]obsession, [89]pattern, [90]periodicity, [91]music, [92]sequence, [93]space-time, [94]time, and [95]whirligig. [96][grid.1.gif] [97]ArtLex Art Dictionary [98]Copyright © 1996- current year delahunt(at)artlex.com Références #[1]About.com ____________________ (Submit) Search [2]About.com [3]Art History 1. [4]Home 2. [5]Education 3. [6]Art History [7][education_arthistory;kw=;site=arthistory;chan=education;pos=lb;sz=7 28x90;ord=1A1HKXJ0C20SA0p7N] * [8]Share * * [9]Art History * [10]Artists * [11]Styles * [12]Works of Art * Free Art History Newsletter! ____________________ (Submit) Sign Up * [13]Discuss in my Forum rhythm By [14]Shelley Esaak, About.com Guide See More About: * [15]art definitions * [16]principles of design Definition: (noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat. A pattern has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the colors of a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from one component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying movement. Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're placed one next to the other. Really, it's easier to "see" rhythm in just about anything other than the visual arts. Literally-minded types should stick to music for rhythm. Pronunciation: rih·them Related Articles * [17]Guitar Strumming 101 - Strumming Pattern Exercise Number One * [18]From a Father to His Children - Clement Clarke Moore * [19]Music clip art and instruments and musicians and musical notes plus other m... * [20]Pittsburgh Arts Summer Camps - Performing & Visual Arts Summer Programs in ... * [21]United Kingdom Travel by Interest - Find History, Art, Theatre, Music and M... [22]Shelley Esaak [23]Shelley Esaak Art History Guide * [24]Sign up for my Newsletter * [25]My Blog * [26]My Forum Explore Art History Must Reads * [27]60-Second Artist Bios * [28]What Is Art? * [29]Leonardo da Vinci Paintings * [30]Teaching Tool: Picturing America * [31]Timeline: Modern Art Movements Most Popular [32]The Last Supper[33]The Sistine Chapel Ceiling[34]What are the Elements of Art?[35]What Is Art?[36]Art History Jobs - Fellowship and Internship Postings See More About: * [37]art definitions * [38]principles of design By Category * [39]Artists A to Z * [40]Art History 101 * [41]Timelines of Art History * [42]Ancient Art History * [43]Medieval Art History * [44]Renaissance Art History * [45]Modern Art History * [46]Contemporary Art History * [47]Images / Picture Galleries * [48]Types of Visual Art * [49]Art by Location / Culture * [50]Art Museums / Galleries About.com Special Features [51]Dinosaur Discoveries of the Decade The top 10 fossil discoveries between 2000 and 2010. [52]More > [53]How to Ace the GRE Being well prepared is the first step; here are more essential suggestions. [54]More > [55]About.com [56]Art History 1. [57]Home 2. [58]Education 3. [59]Art History 4. [60]Art History 101 5. [61]Art History Glossary 6. [62]Words Beginning With R 7. Art History Glossary - R - rhythm> * [63]Most Popular * [64]Latest Articles Add to: * [65]iGoogle * [66]My Yahoo! * [67]RSS * [68]Advertising Info * [69]News & Events * [70]Work at About * [71]SiteMap * [72]All Topics * [73]Reprints * [74]Help * [75]User Agreement * [76]Ethics Policy * [77]Patent Info. * [78]Privacy Policy * [79]Our Story * [80]Write for About ©2010 About.com, a part of [81]The New York Times Company. All rights reserved. Références [1]Click Here [2]ArtLex Art Dictionary ,ø¤º°`°ºº¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø ,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º° r rhythm - A visual tempo or beat. The [3]principle of design that refers to a regular repetition of [4]elements of art to produce the look and feel of [5]movement. It is often achieved through the careful placement of repeated components which invite the viewer's eye to jump rapidly or glide smoothly from one to the next. In any [6]artwork, it is possible to distinguish between rhythm of [7]color, [8]line, and [9]form. In the continuity of the three comes the whole rhythm of that work. Rhythm unites the [10]visual culture with [11]music, but in visual culture, rhythm is more evident in the [12]applied arts than in the [13]fine arts. In the former, it is often the foremost means of [14]aesthetic [15]expression. Rhythm originated in the Greek word rhymthmos, meaning measured flow, which they passed into Latin as rhythmus, meaning movement in [16]time. Its first uses in English were literary, in reference to themetrical rhyming of verses. English speakers began to use rhythm concerning repetition of musical beats in the late 18th century, and about visual elements in the same period. Each [17]artist, every [18]period, every [19]culture produces a characteristic sort of rhythm. Recognizing a work's rhythmical peculiarities often aids in [20]identify the culture or [21]time in which it was produced, if not the individual artist who produced it. Rhythm's importance can be demonstrated by noting how many important rhythmic cycles we observe in [22]nature -- consider the alternating tension and relaxation in the heart's beating or in the ocean's waves, the revolutions of the earth around the sun, the comings and goings of generations. Each of us has personal rhythms to our days, weeks, and years. Life, indeed, would be chaotic without rhythm. Participating in the tempo of this flow gives us excitement and calm, yearning and contentment, yin and yang. It is natural that we would employ rhythms to organize and [23]unify our works, much as they do the rest of our experience. There are several types of visual rhythm. These include: regular rhythms - The background design behind this text has a regular rhythm. (In the following examples, let the letters A, B, etc. stand for visual elements of any sort) AB-AB-AB is the most common type. Picture alternating stripes of two colors, for instance. (In English prosody, a student of poetry might read this as either "iambs" or "trochees". An iamb is a metrical foot consisting of two syllables, the first syllable accented, the second accented, as in AB-AB-AB. It becomes trochaic meter if the accenting is reversed, as in AB-AB-AB.) Some more examples: ABC-ABC-ABC (In English prosody, a student of poetry might read this as "anapests" or "dactyls". An anapest is a metrical foot consisting of three syllables, the first two syllables unaccented, the third accented, as in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL. A dactyl consists of three syllables, the first accented, the second and third unaccented, as in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL.) ABBB-ABBB-ABBB ABCB-ABCB-ABCB ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA alternating rhythms - some examples: ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE-ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE- ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF-ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF- ABCD-DCCBBA-ABCD-DCCBBA progressive rhythms - Progression occurs when there is a gradual increase or decrease in the size, number, color, or some other quality of the elements repeated. some examples: AB-AABB-AAABBB-AAAABBBB AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB- ABC-ABD-ABE-ABF-ABG-ABH-ABI flowing rhythms - random rhythms - Each of these types of rhythm might be altered periodically. [24]Music theory might be defined as the study of rhythms and their periodic alterations. Example of works displaying rhythm: [rhythm_matis.danc1.th.jpg] see thumbnail to left Henri Matisse (French, 1869-1954), [25]Dance (first version), 1909, [26]oil on [27]canvas, 8 feet 6 1/2 inches x 12 feet 9 1/2 inches (259.7 x 390.1 cm), Museum of [e3_3_1_8d_french_art20.jpg] Modern Art, NY. Matisse painted a second version of see thumbnail to right [28]Dance in 1910, [29]oil on [30]canvas, 102 x 154 inches (260 x 391 cm), Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia. Dance, together with Music, was commissioned by S.I.Shchukin to [31]decorate the staircase in his Moscow mansion. Matisse took the [32]motif of the round dance, used as a [33]symbol back as far as French [34]Renaissance, to represent the [35]rhythm and [36]expression of the 20th century. The spaciousness and expressive [37]lines [38]emphasize the dynamics of the [39]figures. [40]Simplified and schematic [41]forms intensify the [42]brightness and [43]resonance of the three colors -- red, blue and green. See [44]music. Dance, Matisse once said, meant "life and rhythm." See [45]dance, [46]music, and [47]movement. [destij_mond.broadwa.th.gif] see thumbnail to left Piet Mondrian (Dutch, 1872-1944), [48]Broadway Boogie Woogie. 1942-43, [49]oil on [50]canvas, 50 x 50 inches (127 x 127 cm), at the Museum of Modern Art, New York. See [51]De Stijl and [52]grid. [3L00164.jpg] see thumbnail to right Paul Klee (Swiss, 1879-1940), [53]Rhythmisches (In Rhythm), 1930, [54]oil on woven jute, 69.6 x 50.5 cm, Georges Pompidou Center, Paris. See [55]Bauhaus and [56]Swiss art. [femns_taeuber_circles_th.jpg] see thumbnail to left Sophie Taeuber-Arp (Swiss, 1889-1943; to France 1928), [57]Composition of Circles and Overlapping Angles (Composition à cercles et à bras superposés), 1930, [58]oil on [59]canvas, 19 1/2 x 25 1/4 inches (49.5 x 64.1 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. See [60]feminism and feminist art. [40x10pixel.space.gif] [femns_taeuber_echelon_th.jpg] see thumbnail to right Sophie Taeuber-Arp, [61]Echelonnement désaxé, 1934, [62]gouache on [63]paper, 13 7/8 X 10 5/8 inches (35.1 X 27 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. [bauhau_aalber.walldes.th.jpg] see thumbnail to left Anni Albers (born Analise Fleischman, married Josef Albers) (German, 1899-1994), [64]Design for Wall Hanging, 1926, [65]gouache and [66]pencil on paper, 14 x 11 1/2 inches (35.6 x 29.2 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. See [67]Bauhaus and [68]textile. Quote: "Rhythm and harmony find their way into the inward places of the soul." Plato (427?-327? BCE), Greek philosopher. The Republic, Book III, 401d, as translated by B. Jowett, 1901. See [69]harmony. Also see [70]animation, [71]arrangement, [72]chronology, [73]cinema, [74]composition, [75]dance, [76]direction, [77]egg-and-dart, [78]eurythmy, [79]four-dimensional, [80]harmonic sequence, [81]harmony, [82]kinetic, [83]juxtaposition, [84]measure, [85]metamorphosis, [86]mobile, [87]movement, [88]obsession, [89]pattern, [90]periodicity, [91]music, [92]sequence, [93]space-time, [94]time, and [95]whirligig. [96][grid.1.gif] [97]ArtLex Art Dictionary [98]Copyright © 1996- current year delahunt(at)artlex.com Références [1]Ning [2]Create a Ning Network! ____________________ [3]Search * [4]Sign Up * [5]Sign In [6]DesignerNet * [7]Main * [8]My Page * [9]Syllabus + [10]Introduction + [11]Course Description + [12]Assignments/Schedule + [13]Materials + [14]Grading + [15]Make-up Work + [16]Exams/Quizzes + [17]Policies * [18]Class Resources + [19]Assignments + [20]Basic Design Principles + [21]Concept + [22]Concept and Culture + [23]Purpose of Concept + [24]Unity + [25]Principles of Unity + [26]The Look of Unity + [27]Rhythm in Art + [28]Large Scale (& small) * [29]Websites to Visit + [30]K3Order * [31]Photos * [32]Testing * [33]OldMembers * [34]Videos * [35]Blogs * [36]Groups Rhythm in Art Take a look at this definition of Rhythm in Art. As noted in the definition, it can be likened to rhythm in music, and can be said to be a "patterened repitition" What do you think? Is rhythm a "visual beat?" (noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat. A pattern has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the colors of a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from one component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying movement. Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're placed one next to the other. it's sometimes easier to comprehend rhythm in just about anything other than the visual arts, but once understood, heightened sensitivity to this aspect can animate design and art making it visually interactive. "Rhythm of the Hills" by Judy Neale "Rhythm Joie De Vivre" by Robert Delaunay This very graphic and design-oriented painting uses repeated circles, half-circles, joined shapes and contrasting colors to create movement. "Although trained in fine arts in Paris, Delaunay worked in set design before beginning his painting career in 1905. He found his initial influences in the Neo-Impressionists, but gradually moved on to join Der Blaue Reiter in 1911. His Paris cityscapes began to take on a distinctive style that studied the effect of contrasting color patterning. Delaunay's unique method spurred friend and poet, Guillaume Apollinaire, to place his paintings in a new movement, which he called Orphism." - World Wide Art Resources Tamara De Limpicka's "The Model" This piece which is a very graphically-designed painting, in which the raised right arm drives the eyes to the right side of the model's torso; the focal point of the right breast then captures the viewer's attention, and directs it with a "pointer"... a triangular fold in the model's garment pulling the viewer to the left arm of the figure. The curve of the left arm uses the multiple pointers of the model's fingers to direct the eye strongly to the left into the garment's downward-sweeping folds, and down the highlighted leg. As if that were not enough to invest the piece with rhythm, the artist then uses a strong graphical "s" shape in the background to reinforce the motion using the model's shadow to create a feeling of movement as part of the pattern in the background. The overall positioning of the figure creates visual torque, creating a feeling of anticipated movement adding to the dynamicism of the design Welcome to DesignerNet [37]Sign Up or [38]Sign In About [39]Jane Ann Nelson [40]Jane Ann Nelson created this [41]Ning Network. [42]Create a Ning Network! » © 2010 Created by [43]Jane Ann Nelson on Ning. [44]Create a Ning Network! [45]Badges | [46]Report an Issue | [47]Privacy | [48]Terms of Service Hello, you need to enable JavaScript to use DesignerNet. Please check your browser settings or contact your system administrator. [jstrk_off.gif] Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : #[1]About.com ____________________ (Submit) Search [2]About.com [3]Art History 1. [4]Home 2. [5]Education 3. [6]Art History [7][education_arthistory;kw=;site=arthistory;chan=education;pos=lb;sz=7 28x90;ord=1A1HKXJ0C20SA0p7N] * [8]Share * * [9]Art History * [10]Artists * [11]Styles * [12]Works of Art * Free Art History Newsletter! ____________________ (Submit) Sign Up * [13]Discuss in my Forum rhythm By [14]Shelley Esaak, About.com Guide See More About: * [15]art definitions * [16]principles of design Definition: (noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat. A pattern has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the colors of a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from one component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying movement. Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're placed one next to the other. Really, it's easier to "see" rhythm in just about anything other than the visual arts. Literally-minded types should stick to music for rhythm. Pronunciation: rih·them Related Articles * [17]Guitar Strumming 101 - Strumming Pattern Exercise Number One * [18]From a Father to His Children - Clement Clarke Moore * [19]Music clip art and instruments and musicians and musical notes plus other m... * [20]Pittsburgh Arts Summer Camps - Performing & Visual Arts Summer Programs in ... * [21]United Kingdom Travel by Interest - Find History, Art, Theatre, Music and M... 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[52]More > [53]How to Ace the GRE Being well prepared is the first step; here are more essential suggestions. [54]More > [55]About.com [56]Art History 1. [57]Home 2. [58]Education 3. [59]Art History 4. [60]Art History 101 5. [61]Art History Glossary 6. [62]Words Beginning With R 7. Art History Glossary - R - rhythm> * [63]Most Popular * [64]Latest Articles Add to: * [65]iGoogle * [66]My Yahoo! * [67]RSS * [68]Advertising Info * [69]News & Events * [70]Work at About * [71]SiteMap * [72]All Topics * [73]Reprints * [74]Help * [75]User Agreement * [76]Ethics Policy * [77]Patent Info. * [78]Privacy Policy * [79]Our Story * [80]Write for About ©2010 About.com, a part of [81]The New York Times Company. All rights reserved. Références [1]Click Here [2]ArtLex Art Dictionary ,ø¤º°`°ºº¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø ,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º° r rhythm - A visual tempo or beat. The [3]principle of design that refers to a regular repetition of [4]elements of art to produce the look and feel of [5]movement. It is often achieved through the careful placement of repeated components which invite the viewer's eye to jump rapidly or glide smoothly from one to the next. In any [6]artwork, it is possible to distinguish between rhythm of [7]color, [8]line, and [9]form. In the continuity of the three comes the whole rhythm of that work. Rhythm unites the [10]visual culture with [11]music, but in visual culture, rhythm is more evident in the [12]applied arts than in the [13]fine arts. In the former, it is often the foremost means of [14]aesthetic [15]expression. Rhythm originated in the Greek word rhymthmos, meaning measured flow, which they passed into Latin as rhythmus, meaning movement in [16]time. Its first uses in English were literary, in reference to themetrical rhyming of verses. English speakers began to use rhythm concerning repetition of musical beats in the late 18th century, and about visual elements in the same period. Each [17]artist, every [18]period, every [19]culture produces a characteristic sort of rhythm. Recognizing a work's rhythmical peculiarities often aids in [20]identify the culture or [21]time in which it was produced, if not the individual artist who produced it. Rhythm's importance can be demonstrated by noting how many important rhythmic cycles we observe in [22]nature -- consider the alternating tension and relaxation in the heart's beating or in the ocean's waves, the revolutions of the earth around the sun, the comings and goings of generations. Each of us has personal rhythms to our days, weeks, and years. Life, indeed, would be chaotic without rhythm. Participating in the tempo of this flow gives us excitement and calm, yearning and contentment, yin and yang. It is natural that we would employ rhythms to organize and [23]unify our works, much as they do the rest of our experience. There are several types of visual rhythm. These include: regular rhythms - The background design behind this text has a regular rhythm. (In the following examples, let the letters A, B, etc. stand for visual elements of any sort) AB-AB-AB is the most common type. Picture alternating stripes of two colors, for instance. (In English prosody, a student of poetry might read this as either "iambs" or "trochees". An iamb is a metrical foot consisting of two syllables, the first syllable accented, the second accented, as in AB-AB-AB. It becomes trochaic meter if the accenting is reversed, as in AB-AB-AB.) Some more examples: ABC-ABC-ABC (In English prosody, a student of poetry might read this as "anapests" or "dactyls". An anapest is a metrical foot consisting of three syllables, the first two syllables unaccented, the third accented, as in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL. A dactyl consists of three syllables, the first accented, the second and third unaccented, as in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL.) ABBB-ABBB-ABBB ABCB-ABCB-ABCB ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA alternating rhythms - some examples: ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE-ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE- ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF-ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF- ABCD-DCCBBA-ABCD-DCCBBA progressive rhythms - Progression occurs when there is a gradual increase or decrease in the size, number, color, or some other quality of the elements repeated. some examples: AB-AABB-AAABBB-AAAABBBB AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB- ABC-ABD-ABE-ABF-ABG-ABH-ABI flowing rhythms - random rhythms - Each of these types of rhythm might be altered periodically. [24]Music theory might be defined as the study of rhythms and their periodic alterations. Example of works displaying rhythm: [rhythm_matis.danc1.th.jpg] see thumbnail to left Henri Matisse (French, 1869-1954), [25]Dance (first version), 1909, [26]oil on [27]canvas, 8 feet 6 1/2 inches x 12 feet 9 1/2 inches (259.7 x 390.1 cm), Museum of [e3_3_1_8d_french_art20.jpg] Modern Art, NY. Matisse painted a second version of see thumbnail to right [28]Dance in 1910, [29]oil on [30]canvas, 102 x 154 inches (260 x 391 cm), Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia. Dance, together with Music, was commissioned by S.I.Shchukin to [31]decorate the staircase in his Moscow mansion. Matisse took the [32]motif of the round dance, used as a [33]symbol back as far as French [34]Renaissance, to represent the [35]rhythm and [36]expression of the 20th century. The spaciousness and expressive [37]lines [38]emphasize the dynamics of the [39]figures. [40]Simplified and schematic [41]forms intensify the [42]brightness and [43]resonance of the three colors -- red, blue and green. See [44]music. Dance, Matisse once said, meant "life and rhythm." See [45]dance, [46]music, and [47]movement. [destij_mond.broadwa.th.gif] see thumbnail to left Piet Mondrian (Dutch, 1872-1944), [48]Broadway Boogie Woogie. 1942-43, [49]oil on [50]canvas, 50 x 50 inches (127 x 127 cm), at the Museum of Modern Art, New York. See [51]De Stijl and [52]grid. [3L00164.jpg] see thumbnail to right Paul Klee (Swiss, 1879-1940), [53]Rhythmisches (In Rhythm), 1930, [54]oil on woven jute, 69.6 x 50.5 cm, Georges Pompidou Center, Paris. See [55]Bauhaus and [56]Swiss art. [femns_taeuber_circles_th.jpg] see thumbnail to left Sophie Taeuber-Arp (Swiss, 1889-1943; to France 1928), [57]Composition of Circles and Overlapping Angles (Composition à cercles et à bras superposés), 1930, [58]oil on [59]canvas, 19 1/2 x 25 1/4 inches (49.5 x 64.1 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. See [60]feminism and feminist art. [40x10pixel.space.gif] [femns_taeuber_echelon_th.jpg] see thumbnail to right Sophie Taeuber-Arp, [61]Echelonnement désaxé, 1934, [62]gouache on [63]paper, 13 7/8 X 10 5/8 inches (35.1 X 27 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. [bauhau_aalber.walldes.th.jpg] see thumbnail to left Anni Albers (born Analise Fleischman, married Josef Albers) (German, 1899-1994), [64]Design for Wall Hanging, 1926, [65]gouache and [66]pencil on paper, 14 x 11 1/2 inches (35.6 x 29.2 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. See [67]Bauhaus and [68]textile. Quote: "Rhythm and harmony find their way into the inward places of the soul." Plato (427?-327? BCE), Greek philosopher. The Republic, Book III, 401d, as translated by B. Jowett, 1901. See [69]harmony. Also see [70]animation, [71]arrangement, [72]chronology, [73]cinema, [74]composition, [75]dance, [76]direction, [77]egg-and-dart, [78]eurythmy, [79]four-dimensional, [80]harmonic sequence, [81]harmony, [82]kinetic, [83]juxtaposition, [84]measure, [85]metamorphosis, [86]mobile, [87]movement, [88]obsession, [89]pattern, [90]periodicity, [91]music, [92]sequence, [93]space-time, [94]time, and [95]whirligig. [96][grid.1.gif] [97]ArtLex Art Dictionary [98]Copyright © 1996- current year delahunt(at)artlex.com Références [1]Ning [2]Create a Ning Network! ____________________ [3]Search * [4]Sign Up * [5]Sign In [6]DesignerNet * [7]Main * [8]My Page * [9]Syllabus + [10]Introduction + [11]Course Description + [12]Assignments/Schedule + [13]Materials + [14]Grading + [15]Make-up Work + [16]Exams/Quizzes + [17]Policies * [18]Class Resources + [19]Assignments + [20]Basic Design Principles + [21]Concept + [22]Concept and Culture + [23]Purpose of Concept + [24]Unity + [25]Principles of Unity + [26]The Look of Unity + [27]Rhythm in Art + [28]Large Scale (& small) * [29]Websites to Visit + [30]K3Order * [31]Photos * [32]Testing * [33]OldMembers * [34]Videos * [35]Blogs * [36]Groups Rhythm in Art Take a look at this definition of Rhythm in Art. As noted in the definition, it can be likened to rhythm in music, and can be said to be a "patterened repitition" What do you think? Is rhythm a "visual beat?" (noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat. A pattern has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the colors of a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from one component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying movement. Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're placed one next to the other. it's sometimes easier to comprehend rhythm in just about anything other than the visual arts, but once understood, heightened sensitivity to this aspect can animate design and art making it visually interactive. "Rhythm of the Hills" by Judy Neale "Rhythm Joie De Vivre" by Robert Delaunay This very graphic and design-oriented painting uses repeated circles, half-circles, joined shapes and contrasting colors to create movement. "Although trained in fine arts in Paris, Delaunay worked in set design before beginning his painting career in 1905. He found his initial influences in the Neo-Impressionists, but gradually moved on to join Der Blaue Reiter in 1911. His Paris cityscapes began to take on a distinctive style that studied the effect of contrasting color patterning. Delaunay's unique method spurred friend and poet, Guillaume Apollinaire, to place his paintings in a new movement, which he called Orphism." - World Wide Art Resources Tamara De Limpicka's "The Model" This piece which is a very graphically-designed painting, in which the raised right arm drives the eyes to the right side of the model's torso; the focal point of the right breast then captures the viewer's attention, and directs it with a "pointer"... a triangular fold in the model's garment pulling the viewer to the left arm of the figure. The curve of the left arm uses the multiple pointers of the model's fingers to direct the eye strongly to the left into the garment's downward-sweeping folds, and down the highlighted leg. As if that were not enough to invest the piece with rhythm, the artist then uses a strong graphical "s" shape in the background to reinforce the motion using the model's shadow to create a feeling of movement as part of the pattern in the background. The overall positioning of the figure creates visual torque, creating a feeling of anticipated movement adding to the dynamicism of the design Welcome to DesignerNet [37]Sign Up or [38]Sign In About [39]Jane Ann Nelson [40]Jane Ann Nelson created this [41]Ning Network. [42]Create a Ning Network! » © 2010 Created by [43]Jane Ann Nelson on Ning. [44]Create a Ning Network! [45]Badges | [46]Report an Issue | [47]Privacy | [48]Terms of Service Hello, you need to enable JavaScript to use DesignerNet. Please check your browser settings or contact your system administrator. [jstrk_off.gif] Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1]LEARN NC * [2]Home * [3]Help * Search * [LEARN NC..........] * _______________ * Search LEARN NC K-12 teaching and learning · from the UNC School of Education * Classroom + [4]Lesson Plans + [5]Best Practices + [6]Learning Materials + [7]Reference + [8]Field Trips + [9]Multimedia + [10]Best of the Web * Standards + [11]NC Standard Course of Study & Aligned Resources + [12]NC Professional Teaching Standards & Aligned Resources * Online Courses + [13]Open for Enrollment + [14]Course Catalog * My LEARN NC + [15]Email Updates + [16]Conference 2009 Rhythm, pattern, color, and texture in art and poetry In this lesson, students will discover the meaning of "rhythm," "patterns," "color," and "texture" through the performance and modeled analysis of a class "symphony." Students will also evaluate the impact of each element on the whole work and note personal reactions and connections to this art form. Students will then work in small groups to apply the same elements and personal evaluation and connections to a historical work of visual art. At the end of the lesson, students will reflect on ways these two experiences are similar. A lesson plan for grade 7 Visual Arts Education and English Language Arts By [17]Carol Horne Learn more Related pages * [18]Old Hat, New Hat: 3-D Pattern Hats: After students read Old Hat, New Hat by Jan and Stan Berenstain, they create their own new 3-D hats. * [19]Rhythm stars: This lesson will introduce the main components of rhythm: quarter, eighth, and sixteenth notes. * [20]How do I express what I believe? - Part 2: This is the second in a three-part lesson series seeking to examine belief systems and how they impact culture in the United States. This lesson, "How do I express what I believe?" requires 3 sessions at 40 minutes each to complete. The lesson series also seeks to let students examine their own personal belief system. In this lesson, the student will learn about the American tradition of the Face Jug/Pot and how it is used to express belief. The student will also create a Face Jug/Pot to express his/her belief, and this pot will be used in the third lesson entitled. "How do I present what I believe?" Related topics * Learn more about [21]arts, [22]color, [23]hands-on, [24]patterns, [25]rhythm, and [26]texture. Help Please read our [27]disclaimer for lesson plans. Legal The text of this page is copyright ©2008. See [28]terms of use. Images and other media may be licensed separately; see captions for more information and [29]read the fine print. [30]Creative Commons License Print * [31]Print Share * [32]Email * [33]Delicious [34]Delicious * [35]Digg [36]Digg * [37]Facebook [38]Facebook * [39]StumbleUpon [40]StumbleUpon Learning outcomes Students will: * learn to identify examples of "rhythm," "patterns," "color," and "texture" in order to analyze a whole class symphony of various sounds and movements. * learn to apply these same elements to a work of visual art. * evaluate the overall impact of each element and will investigate their personal reactions and connections to both of these art forms. * learn to reflect on the similarities of their analyses of both of these art forms. Teacher planning Time required for lesson 85 minutes Materials/resources * Adjust space for class to "perform" assigned individual movements as a whole group standing in one long line as the teacher stands in front of students to "conduct." If this is not possible, make sure students have enough space to "perform" as they stand alongside their desks. * Write variety of individual sounds and movements on index cards to distribute to each student, e.g. "bark like a dog; make a whooshing sound as you move like a wave; high-five and yell, `Yeah!'; whistle like an admirer; click your heels and say, `There's no place like home!'; sing the first bar of the Friskies' `Meow, meow, meow, meow' song; frog hop as you `ribbitt' twice; etc. * Set up a tape recorder and blank tape cued to record the class "symphony." * Make two overhead transparencies and two hard copies per student of the graphic organizer titled, "Elements of Art-Making Connections!" for analysis of the elements of "rhythm and patterns," "color," "texture," etc. (See attachment of a blank copy.) You will also need a transparency pen. * Pre-select a poster, transparency, or website image of a work of visual art preferrably from a historical period familiar to students and a narrative piece. (See "Relevant Web Sites" below for a suggested link to "Cleopatra and the Peasant.") * Complete a graphic organizer for the selected work of visual art to use as a suggested "answer key" for easy reference during small group facilitation. (See "Attachments" below for a suggested key of possible answers for "Elements of Art - Cleopatra and the Peasant" art image.) Technology resources Student computers with color monitors and Internet connection bookmarked at the site of the selected work of visual art. (optional) A classroom computer with color monitor and Internet connection set on site of selected work of visual art and connected to an LCD projector, which projects computer image onto classroom screen. (optional) Pre-activities No previous knowledge is needed for the opening "symphony" activity. However, to integrate social studies, students should be familiar with the general historical context of the work of visual art used in the second activity. If the "Cleopatra and the Peasant" piece is used, for instance, it would be helpful if students have had some background in the ancient Egyptian period prior to the viewing of this piece. If you are using another historical narrative piece, select one for which students have had some previous study. If your students will be accessing the Internet to view the visual art at a selected website, students should have obtained permission to use the Internet. They should also know how to go to bookmarked sites. Students should also have had some experience with small group collaboration with their peers. Students should have experience with writing one-sentence summaries for information presented textually or orally. Activities Because of the variety of activities, this lesson will work well as a block period, or it may be divided into two consecutive class periods. Initiating Activity - Whole Class "Symphony" (40 minutes) 1. Because we want to create an atmosphere of discovery and an air of mystery, the teacher will distribute one prepared index card to each student on which some type of sound is written without undue explanation. 2. Next, line up your students in a straight line facing you, and position yourself in front of them as the "conductor," if space permits. Explain now that the whole class will create a "symphony" using the assigned sounds while you conduct students' coming in, out, and level of volume. Briefly teach the students the signals indicated by the conductor's hand and arm movements for: making their sound/motion; decreasing the sound; increasing the sound; cutting the sound off; etc. 3. As a practice, point to each student individually to try out his assigned sound/motion along with your signals. Next, explain that at times there may be solos, duets, trios, etc., or times when the whole group will perform together. Those determinations will be indicated by the conductor, so students must watch the conductor carefully. 4. After students understand their "assignment," you, the conductor, will proceed to conduct a class symphony as you see fit. Before you start, explain that this production will be tape recorded. (Turn on your tape recorder when ready.) As you begin, experiment with different combinations of single, small group, and larger group participation as well as crescendo/decrescendo effects. You may also include periods of silence. Remember the elements you want to elicit in this improvised piece are: rhythm/patterns, color, and texture, which are discussed below. After several minutes of composing/performing, turn off the tape recorder. (See also another way of doing this activity described in "Supplemental Resources/Information for Teachers" section below.) 5. As students return to their seats, distribute copies of the blank "Elements of Art" graphic organizer to be used for an analysis of the class performance. (See "Attachments" below.) Using your overhead transparency and pen, prepare to conduct a whole class explanation/discussion of each element listed. 6. You will need to explain each of the specialized vocabulary terms below in the suggested ways. Elements for Musical Composition: Rhythm/Patterns These are listed together because patterns help to create rhythm. Rhythm is created with the recurrence (pattern) of varying stresses and tone lengths. These may be balanced against a steady, underlying succession of beats. Color You should be accepting of students' definitions here, but you may explain that "color" is created musically through such qualities as vitality, vividness, or interest. Musically speaking, "color" refers to the timbre, or tonal quality of the voice/instrument or the effect created by the combination of such qualities. Texture Explain that in music, "texture" is created by contrasts of rich, smooth, melodic, lyrical tones vs. stiff, staccato, harsh tones. 7. Before playing back the recording of the production, you may assign one-third of the class to listen for examples of rhythm and patterns, another one-third of the class can listen for examples of color, and the remaining one-third can listen for examples of texture. As they listen, they should note examples on their charts. 8. Next, ask students to share their examples of each element. Facilitate their sharing in light of the meaning of each element, remembering that your present objective is to help students to understand the meanings of all the elements and analyze examples from a musical piece. As examples are shared and discussed, model writing them on your overhead transparency; engage students by asking them to fill in examples for each element on their charts throughout the class discussion. 9. To review the elements and encourage students to engage in mental evaluation of their performance, ask students to assess which element they believe had the greatest impact on their overall performance. Did their piece seem to emphasize rhythm and pattern? Or did "color" or "texture" make the greatest impact, in their opinion? Get the students to explain and record their choices on their graphic organizers. 10. Last, to allow students to make this experience personally relevant, invite them to write single words that might describe their feelings or emotions toward their symphony. (Examples might be: exciting, interesting, invigorating, stimulating, etc.) In the last column, invite students to note something from their personal experience that the class symphony reminds them of. It could be a personal experience or feeling, or it might be one they've read about or seen portrayed in a movie or real life of a friend. Second Activity: Analyze the Elements in Visual Art (35 minutes) 1. Make a transition to the next activity by arranging students for partner or small group collaboration. If you are remaining in the classroom, arrange students in small groups of three to five with desks facing one another to encourage collaboration. If students are at computer stations, pair them up to encourage collaboration. 2. The teacher will need to use an overhead projector to initiate modeling of analysis of elements on the second overhead transparency of the graphic organizer. 3. Introduce the selected work of art and artist as you display the painting or image. (Ask students to navigate to the bookmarked website, if they are at computer stations.) Initiate discussion through use of a "hook" question. For example, if you are using the "Cleopatra and the Peasant" painting by Eugene Delacroix, ask: "Why do you think there is a little snake coiling out of the basket of plums?" As students brainstorm possibilities, work in bits of historical information. For example, remind them of who Cleopatra was and the culture and time in which she lived. (Note: Refer to "Supplemental Information" below. Also, if you access the Ackland Online website listed below under "Relevant Websites," background information about the painting will be provided.) Through questioning and discussion, develop the story behind the painting. 4. You may also mention that the painting was created in Europe in the 1800's. You may ask if students can locate clues in the painting to illustrate this fact. (Cleopatra was portrayed in this painting as a 19th century European woman in style of dress and ethnicity, for example, rather than an ancient Egyptian woman who lived during ancient Roman times.) 5. As you continue to develop the history of the story, initiate one possible answer under each of the first three columns of the graphic organizer for "rhythm/patterns," "color," and "texture." Students may copy these onto their charts. 6. Take this opportunity to weave in a review and explanation of the terms below and how they relate to analysis of a work of visual art. Definitions of Elements for Visual Art: Rhythm/Patterns The recurrence of lines, colors, and shapes (perhaps in a pattern) to create movement within a work of art. Color Qualities brought out by the use of hues (colors) and their variations. Texture Use of materials, such as paint, to create the impression of a feature, (e.g. satin, glass, or fur); or the use of real materials within the work of art, (e.g. hair, leather, or metal.) 7. After students have an understanding of the information in the painting and the elements and have written at least one example of each element on their charts, direct the small groups or partners to continue with their analyses. They should also discuss and complete the last three sections in which they evaluate which element had the greatest impact on the work of art as a whole, explore their personal feelings, and note their personal connections to the art. 8. During partner/group discussion time, the teacher should circulate to facilitate the above activities. 9. Within the last few minutes of this activity, ask students to share examples of answers recorded on their graphic organizers. Reflection Activity (10 minutes) 1. Facilitate a five-minute discussion of similarities of the symphony and work of visual art with the whole group through questioning. (Examples: "In what ways are symphonies like visual art?") Encourage students to refer to their two charts. Assist them in making oral connections between these two art forms. 2. On a slip of notebook paper during the remaining five minutes, have students write "exit slips," meaning they will get to exit your class after they have handed you their "tickets," or exit slips, out of class. 3. On the slip of paper ask students to answer the following question in one concise sentence: "What did I learn today about the elements of art in music AND in visual art?" The teacher can gain insight about the kinds of things the students learned as a result of the day's lesson by reading the exits slips. The teacher may elect to give the students some type of daily credit for completing the slips satisfactorily. Assessment The following two types of assessments may be used in addition to teacher observation: 1. Two completed graphic organizers titled, "Elements of Art," one for the symphony activity and the other for the visual art activity. The teacher may collect these and give credit for quality of answers or for participation (completion.) 2. Exit slip - This is the reflection the students made at the end of the lesson during which they were asked to summarize in one statement something they learned about the elements of both a musical composition and a work of visual art. The teacher can quickly assess the level of understanding by reading and assessing the quality of these answers for a daily grade. Supplemental information Alternate "symphony" activity: One other way to conduct this initiating activity is for the teacher NOT to be the conductor. Instead, assign sounds on cards as previously described and tell students to begin making their sounds together and continue until you indicate for them to stop. At first, the combined sounds will not be coordinated. However, as time goes along, the students will naturally begin to add their own rhythms, loudness/softness, etc. In the follow-up analysis of this musical production, it could be pointed out how the first part lacked the elements listed on the chart; but as the "music" proceeded, these elements became evident. Historical Background for the Life of Cleopatra: Cleopatra became queen of ancient Egypt in 51 B.C. Though she lacked beauty, she was intelligent, witty, charming, ambitious, and concerned about the well-being of her subjects. Cleopatra developed loyal and romantic relationships with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, great Roman leaders. Antony aspired to rule Rome alone and, due to the wealth of Egypt, hoped to obtain financial aid from Cleopatra. They fell in love and Cleopatra had several children by Antony. Cleopatra's ambition was for her children to become rulers of Rome. Because Antony gave preferential treatment to his children by Cleopatra, other Roman leaders became jealous. They thought Cleopatra was greedy and had too much control over Antony. A war broke out between the two of them and Octavian, Antony's former brother-in-law and one of the rival rulers of Rome. As Octavian came after Cleopatra and Antony, she spread a rumor that she had committed suicide. When Antony heard the report, he stabbed himself. He later died in her arms. When Cleopatra's attempts to make up to Octavian failed, she put a poisonous snake on her arm and indeed did commit suicide. Antony's and Cleopatra's love story has taken many dramatic and artistic forms through the ages. In the painting, "Cleopatra and the Peasant," the peasant is shown as suggesting to Cleopatra (or enticing her by his slight smile and her serious expression of consideration) with the idea of taking her life with a snake. The peasant is holding a basket of plums under his leopard pelt. A snake is emerging from the plums. A jpg image of Cleopatra by Delacroix along with credit information has been provided as an attachment below. Related websites Color image of "Cleopatra and the Peasant," by Eugene Delacroix: Ackland Museum Online: Comments For special needs students, such as LD, the teacher may provide a hard copy for each of the two completed "Elements of Art" graphic organizers, saving time for the student in copying information onto the charts. Enrichment can be provided by encouraging students to formulate their own questions about either work of art (musical, as in the class symphony, or the historical work of visual art,) and their elements. Allow students to conduct their own research to answer these questions using CD ROMS, Internet art sites, NC Wise Owl, a research site, which has been included under "Relevant Websites," etc. North Carolina Curriculum Alignment Visual Arts Education (2001) Grade 7 * Goal 1: The learner will develop critical and creative thinking skills and perceptual awareness necessary for understanding and producing art. + [41]Objective 1.06: Recognize and discuss the use of multiple senses in visual arts. * Goal 2: The learner will develop skills necessary for understanding and applying media, techniques, and processes. + [42]Objective 2.02: Explore and identify the unique properties and potential of materials using proper vocabulary and terminology. * Goal 3: The learner will organize the components of a work into a cohesive whole through knowledge of organizational principles of design and art elements. + [43]Objective 3.03: Explore and discuss that diverse solutions are preferable to predetermined visual solutions. + [44]Objective 3.04: Explore and discuss the value of intuitive perceptions in the problem-solving process. * Goal 5: The learner will understand the visual arts in relation to history and cultures. + [45]Objective 5.02: Describe characteristics of specific works of art that belong to a particular culture, time and place. * Goal 7: The learner will perceive connections between visual arts and other disciplines. + [46]Objective 7.01: Explain connections, similarities and differences between the visual arts and other disciplines. + [47]Objective 7.03: Compare characteristics of visual arts within a particular historical period or style with ideas, issues or themes in other disciplines. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill LEARN NC, a program of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill [48]School of Education, finds the most innovative and successful practices in K-12 education and makes them available to the teachers and students of North Carolina -- and the world. [49]About LEARN NC | [50]Site map | [51]Search | [52]Staff | [53]Partners | [54]Legal | [55]Help | [56]Contact us For more great resources for K-12 teaching and learning, visit us on the web at www.learnnc.org. 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Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests. Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding. To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3 teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat pat snap snap palms up-- quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest). Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The whole lesson takes about 30 minutes. Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as performed by teacher. Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills development and have fun at the same time!! NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well. Have fun!! E-Mail [62]Michelle L. Miller! * * [63]Lesson Plans | * [64]Teaching Degrees | * [65]Articles & Blogs | * [66]Forums | * [67]Contribute | * [68]HotChalk Tools | * [69]About | * [70]Advertising © 1996 - 2010 HotChalk, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Last Modified December 23, 2009 [71]Privacy Policy | [72]Anti-Spam Policy | [73]Terms of Use Please manually type in our email address to contact us (to prevent spam). 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Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests. Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding. To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3 teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat pat snap snap palms up-- quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest). Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The whole lesson takes about 30 minutes. Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as performed by teacher. Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills development and have fun at the same time!! NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well. Have fun!! E-Mail [62]Michelle L. Miller! * * [63]Lesson Plans | * [64]Teaching Degrees | * [65]Articles & Blogs | * [66]Forums | * [67]Contribute | * [68]HotChalk Tools | * [69]About | * [70]Advertising © 1996 - 2010 HotChalk, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Last Modified December 23, 2009 [71]Privacy Policy | [72]Anti-Spam Policy | [73]Terms of Use Please manually type in our email address to contact us (to prevent spam). Quantcast Références 62. mailto:Michellelmiller@avon.net #[1]Daily Health and Medical News [2]Weekly Health and Medical News Digest [3]Health and Medical Slideshows [5]Biorhythms Specialty IFRAME: &xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos=1 01 [7]MedicineNet.com ___________________________________ Search [8]About Us | [9]Privacy Policy | [10]Site Map January 17, 2010 [11]MedicineNet home [12]Picture Slideshows [13]Diseases and conditions [14]Symptoms and signs [15]Procedures and tests [16]Medications [17]Picture Image Collection [18]MedTerms medical dictionary [19]Pet Health [clearpixel.gif] [20]home > [21]biorhythms index > biorhythms article [clearpixel.gif] [clearpixel.gif] [clearpixel.gif] Font Size [22]A [23]A [24]A * 1 * [25]2 * [26]3 * [27]4 * [28]5 * [29]6 * [30]7 * [31]8 * [32]Next » * [33]Biorhythms Index * [34]Glossary Biorhythms [35]View Asthma Slideshow [36]Asthma Slideshow View Asthma Slideshow [37]Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow View Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow [38]Worst Cities for Asthma, 2009 Slideshow Pictures of the Worst Cities for Asthma Slideshow Medical Author: [39]William C. Shiel, Jr., MD, FACP, FACR Medical Editor: [40]Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD * [41]What are biologic rhythms? * [42]How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness? * [43]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms? * [44]Angina * [45]Heart attack * [46]High blood pressure (hypertension) * [47]Hay fever (allergic rhinitis) * [48]Asthma * [49]Can the "body clock" affect diagnostic testing? * [50]Can drug therapy be matched to the "body clock?" * [51]Chronobiology: marking time, making progress What are biologic rhythms? What are biologic rhythms? In essence, they're the rhythms of life. All forms of life on earth, including our bodies, respond rhythmically to the regular cycles of the sun, moon, and seasons. For example, as night turns into day, vital body functions, including heart rate and [52]blood pressure, speed up in anticipation of increased physical activity. These and other predictable fluctuations in body function, taking place during specific time cycles, are our biologic rhythms. They are regulated by "biologic clock" mechanisms located in the brain. Although biologic rhythms can be "reprogrammed" by environmental influences (such as when a person regularly works the night shift and sleeps during the day), they are genetically "hard-wired" into our cells, tissues, and organs. Medical chronobiologists have found that biologic rhythms can affect the severity of disease symptoms, diagnostic test results, and even the body's response to drug therapy. Now these investigators are working to discover how the rhythms of life can be used to improve the practice of medicine - and your health. These time-related medical observations, and others still in the exciting process of discovery, are rooted in chronobiology (chronos - time; bios - life; logos - science), the study of biologic rhythms. How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness? Among the various biologic rhythm cycles that medical chronobiologists study, the 24-hour day/night-activity/rest cycle is considered a key chronobiologic factor in medical [53]diagnosis and treatment. Formally known as the [54]circadian rhythm, it's also referred to as the "body clock." Why is the 24-hour body clock so important? Because so many of our normal body functions follow daily patterns of speeding up and slowing down, intensifying and diminishing, in alignment with circadian rhythm. Interestingly, so do the symptoms of a number of [55]chronic disorders: Allergic rhinitis: (nasal inflammation associated with hay fever) Symptoms of sneezing, [56]runny nose, and stuffy nose are typically worse in the early waking hours than later during the day. Asthma: In most patients, symptoms are more than 100 times as likely to occur in the few hours prior to awakening than during the day. Stable angina: [57]Chest pain and [58]electrocardiographic (ECG, EKG) abnormalities are most common during the first 4 to 6 hours after awakening. [59]Prinzmetal's angina: ECG abnormalities are most common during [60]sleep; chest pain can occur even while at rest. Heart attack: Heart attack most commonly occurs in the early waking hours. Stroke: [61]Strokes most commonly occur in the early waking hours. Hypertension: The highest blood pressure readings typically occur from late morning to middle afternoon; lowest occur during early sleep. Therapy now exists that works with your body clock; consult your physician about this treatment. Clinical studies are underway to further this research. [62]Rheumatoid arthritis: RA symptoms are most intense upon awakening. [63]Osteoarthritis: Symptoms of osteoarthritis worsen in the afternoon and evening. Ulcer disease: The pain typically occurs after stomach emptying, following daytime meals, and in the very early morning, disrupting sleep. [64]Epilepsy: Seizures often occur only at particular times of the day or night; individual patterns differ among patients. * 1 * [65]2 * [66]3 * [67]4 * [68]5 * [69]6 * [70]7 * [71]8 * [72]Next » * [73]Biorhythms Index * [74]Glossary Next: [75]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms? » [76]Printer-Friendly Format | [77]Email to a Friend [header-doctor-topics_2.gif] Suggested Reading by Our Doctors MedicineNet Doctors * [78]Chemotherapy - Get information on chemotherapy treatment for cancer, side effects of medications and how chemo works. Chemotherapy is a type of cancer treatment often given along with radiation therapy and surgery. * [79]Rheumatoid Arthritis - Learn more about rheumatoid arthritis, an autoimmune disease that causes chronic joint inflammation, which has symptoms that include stiffness, fever, muscle and joint aches, loss of appetite, and fatigue. Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis incorporates the use of first-line drugs (aspirin and corticosteroids for pain and inflammation) and second-line drugs (methotrexate and hydroxychloroquine to prevent joint destruction and promote remission). * [80]Radiation Therapy - [81]Read more Biorhythms related articles » Latest Medical News * [82]Nightly Snacking May Speed Weight Gain [footer-doctor-topics_2.gif] [83]Privacy Policy Allergies & Asthma Improve treatments & prevent attacks. _____________________ [btn_submit2.gif]-Submit [clearpixel.gif] [84]Are you Depressed? Take the Quiz [85]Your Guide to Symptoms & Signs: Pinpoint Your Pain IFRAME: 1&xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos= 121 From WebMD Asthma and Allergy Resources * [87]Asthma Attack Slideshow * [88]How to Use Your Inhaler * [89]The Best Cities for Asthma Featured Centers * [90]12 Ways to Prevent the Spread of Viruses * [91]Longevity Foods: Eat Well, Live Longer * [92]Sad? Irritable? Assess Your Symptoms * [93]Healthy Home: To Buy or Not to Buy Organic? Health Solutions From Our Sponsors * [94]Osteoporosis Info * [95]Overactive Bladder Rx Biorhythms [96]Hay Fever » What is hay fever? What are the symptoms and signs? Hay fever is a misnomer. Hay is not a usual cause of this problem, and it does not cause fever. Early descriptions of sneezing, nasal congestion, and eye irritation while harvesting field hay promoted this popular term. Allergic rhinitis is the correct term used to describe this allergic reaction, and many different substances cause the allergic symptoms noted in hay fever. Rhinitis means "irritation of the nose" and is a derivative of rhino, meaning nose. Allergic rhinitis which occurs during a specific season is called "seasonal allergic rhinitis." When it occurs throughout the year, it is called "perennial allergic rhinitis." Symptoms of allergic rhinitis, or hay fever, frequently include nasal congestion, a clear runny nose, sneezing, nose and eye itching, and excess tear production in the eyes. Postnasal dripping of clear mucus frequently causes a cough. Loss of the sense ... [97]Read the Hay Fever article » Featured on MedicineNet * [98]Tips to Ease Nighttime Pain * [99]Check Your Fibromyalgia Symptoms * [100]Depression Tips Slideshow * [101]Are You at Risk for Diabetic Nerve Pain? Top 10 Biorhythms Related Articles * [102]Chemo Infusion and Chemoembolization of Liver * [103]Chemotherapy * [104]Chemotherapy Treatment for Breast Cancer * [105]Heart Attack * [106]High Blood Pressure * [107]Osteoarthritis * [108]Radiation Therapy * [109]Radiation Therapy for Breast Cancer * [110]Rheumatoid Arthritis * [111]Stroke * [112]Complete List » New on MedicineNet * [113]Michael C. 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Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests. Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding. To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3 teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat pat snap snap palms up-- quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest). Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The whole lesson takes about 30 minutes. Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as performed by teacher. Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills development and have fun at the same time!! NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well. Have fun!! E-Mail [62]Michelle L. Miller! * * [63]Lesson Plans | * [64]Teaching Degrees | * [65]Articles & Blogs | * [66]Forums | * [67]Contribute | * [68]HotChalk Tools | * [69]About | * [70]Advertising © 1996 - 2010 HotChalk, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Last Modified December 23, 2009 [71]Privacy Policy | [72]Anti-Spam Policy | [73]Terms of Use Please manually type in our email address to contact us (to prevent spam). Quantcast Références 62. mailto:Michellelmiller@avon.net #[1]Daily Health and Medical News [2]Weekly Health and Medical News Digest [3]Health and Medical Slideshows [5]Biorhythms Specialty IFRAME: &xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos=1 01 [7]MedicineNet.com ___________________________________ Search [8]About Us | [9]Privacy Policy | [10]Site Map January 17, 2010 [11]MedicineNet home [12]Picture Slideshows [13]Diseases and conditions [14]Symptoms and signs [15]Procedures and tests [16]Medications [17]Picture Image Collection [18]MedTerms medical dictionary [19]Pet Health [clearpixel.gif] [20]home > [21]biorhythms index > biorhythms article [clearpixel.gif] [clearpixel.gif] [clearpixel.gif] Font Size [22]A [23]A [24]A * 1 * [25]2 * [26]3 * [27]4 * [28]5 * [29]6 * [30]7 * [31]8 * [32]Next » * [33]Biorhythms Index * [34]Glossary Biorhythms [35]View Asthma Slideshow [36]Asthma Slideshow View Asthma Slideshow [37]Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow View Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow [38]Worst Cities for Asthma, 2009 Slideshow Pictures of the Worst Cities for Asthma Slideshow Medical Author: [39]William C. Shiel, Jr., MD, FACP, FACR Medical Editor: [40]Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD * [41]What are biologic rhythms? * [42]How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness? * [43]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms? * [44]Angina * [45]Heart attack * [46]High blood pressure (hypertension) * [47]Hay fever (allergic rhinitis) * [48]Asthma * [49]Can the "body clock" affect diagnostic testing? * [50]Can drug therapy be matched to the "body clock?" * [51]Chronobiology: marking time, making progress What are biologic rhythms? What are biologic rhythms? In essence, they're the rhythms of life. All forms of life on earth, including our bodies, respond rhythmically to the regular cycles of the sun, moon, and seasons. For example, as night turns into day, vital body functions, including heart rate and [52]blood pressure, speed up in anticipation of increased physical activity. These and other predictable fluctuations in body function, taking place during specific time cycles, are our biologic rhythms. They are regulated by "biologic clock" mechanisms located in the brain. Although biologic rhythms can be "reprogrammed" by environmental influences (such as when a person regularly works the night shift and sleeps during the day), they are genetically "hard-wired" into our cells, tissues, and organs. Medical chronobiologists have found that biologic rhythms can affect the severity of disease symptoms, diagnostic test results, and even the body's response to drug therapy. Now these investigators are working to discover how the rhythms of life can be used to improve the practice of medicine - and your health. These time-related medical observations, and others still in the exciting process of discovery, are rooted in chronobiology (chronos - time; bios - life; logos - science), the study of biologic rhythms. How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness? Among the various biologic rhythm cycles that medical chronobiologists study, the 24-hour day/night-activity/rest cycle is considered a key chronobiologic factor in medical [53]diagnosis and treatment. Formally known as the [54]circadian rhythm, it's also referred to as the "body clock." Why is the 24-hour body clock so important? Because so many of our normal body functions follow daily patterns of speeding up and slowing down, intensifying and diminishing, in alignment with circadian rhythm. Interestingly, so do the symptoms of a number of [55]chronic disorders: Allergic rhinitis: (nasal inflammation associated with hay fever) Symptoms of sneezing, [56]runny nose, and stuffy nose are typically worse in the early waking hours than later during the day. Asthma: In most patients, symptoms are more than 100 times as likely to occur in the few hours prior to awakening than during the day. Stable angina: [57]Chest pain and [58]electrocardiographic (ECG, EKG) abnormalities are most common during the first 4 to 6 hours after awakening. [59]Prinzmetal's angina: ECG abnormalities are most common during [60]sleep; chest pain can occur even while at rest. Heart attack: Heart attack most commonly occurs in the early waking hours. Stroke: [61]Strokes most commonly occur in the early waking hours. Hypertension: The highest blood pressure readings typically occur from late morning to middle afternoon; lowest occur during early sleep. Therapy now exists that works with your body clock; consult your physician about this treatment. Clinical studies are underway to further this research. [62]Rheumatoid arthritis: RA symptoms are most intense upon awakening. [63]Osteoarthritis: Symptoms of osteoarthritis worsen in the afternoon and evening. Ulcer disease: The pain typically occurs after stomach emptying, following daytime meals, and in the very early morning, disrupting sleep. [64]Epilepsy: Seizures often occur only at particular times of the day or night; individual patterns differ among patients. * 1 * [65]2 * [66]3 * [67]4 * [68]5 * [69]6 * [70]7 * [71]8 * [72]Next » * [73]Biorhythms Index * [74]Glossary Next: [75]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms? » [76]Printer-Friendly Format | [77]Email to a Friend [header-doctor-topics_2.gif] Suggested Reading by Our Doctors MedicineNet Doctors * [78]Chemotherapy - Get information on chemotherapy treatment for cancer, side effects of medications and how chemo works. Chemotherapy is a type of cancer treatment often given along with radiation therapy and surgery. * [79]Rheumatoid Arthritis - Learn more about rheumatoid arthritis, an autoimmune disease that causes chronic joint inflammation, which has symptoms that include stiffness, fever, muscle and joint aches, loss of appetite, and fatigue. Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis incorporates the use of first-line drugs (aspirin and corticosteroids for pain and inflammation) and second-line drugs (methotrexate and hydroxychloroquine to prevent joint destruction and promote remission). * [80]Radiation Therapy - [81]Read more Biorhythms related articles » Latest Medical News * [82]Nightly Snacking May Speed Weight Gain [footer-doctor-topics_2.gif] [83]Privacy Policy Allergies & Asthma Improve treatments & prevent attacks. _____________________ [btn_submit2.gif]-Submit [clearpixel.gif] [84]Are you Depressed? Take the Quiz [85]Your Guide to Symptoms & Signs: Pinpoint Your Pain IFRAME: 1&xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos= 121 From WebMD Asthma and Allergy Resources * [87]Asthma Attack Slideshow * [88]How to Use Your Inhaler * [89]The Best Cities for Asthma Featured Centers * [90]12 Ways to Prevent the Spread of Viruses * [91]Longevity Foods: Eat Well, Live Longer * [92]Sad? Irritable? Assess Your Symptoms * [93]Healthy Home: To Buy or Not to Buy Organic? Health Solutions From Our Sponsors * [94]Osteoporosis Info * [95]Overactive Bladder Rx Biorhythms [96]Hay Fever » What is hay fever? What are the symptoms and signs? Hay fever is a misnomer. Hay is not a usual cause of this problem, and it does not cause fever. Early descriptions of sneezing, nasal congestion, and eye irritation while harvesting field hay promoted this popular term. Allergic rhinitis is the correct term used to describe this allergic reaction, and many different substances cause the allergic symptoms noted in hay fever. Rhinitis means "irritation of the nose" and is a derivative of rhino, meaning nose. Allergic rhinitis which occurs during a specific season is called "seasonal allergic rhinitis." When it occurs throughout the year, it is called "perennial allergic rhinitis." Symptoms of allergic rhinitis, or hay fever, frequently include nasal congestion, a clear runny nose, sneezing, nose and eye itching, and excess tear production in the eyes. Postnasal dripping of clear mucus frequently causes a cough. Loss of the sense ... [97]Read the Hay Fever article » Featured on MedicineNet * [98]Tips to Ease Nighttime Pain * [99]Check Your Fibromyalgia Symptoms * [100]Depression Tips Slideshow * [101]Are You at Risk for Diabetic Nerve Pain? Top 10 Biorhythms Related Articles * [102]Chemo Infusion and Chemoembolization of Liver * [103]Chemotherapy * [104]Chemotherapy Treatment for Breast Cancer * [105]Heart Attack * [106]High Blood Pressure * [107]Osteoarthritis * [108]Radiation Therapy * [109]Radiation Therapy for Breast Cancer * [110]Rheumatoid Arthritis * [111]Stroke * [112]Complete List » New on MedicineNet * [113]Michael C. Hall Has Hodgkin's * [114]Cryptosporidiosis Causes * [115]Shigella Infection Symptoms * [116]Lymphedema Causes * [117]C-Reactive Protein (CRP) * [118]Sinus Headache Treatment * [119]Pictures Slideshows Interactive Slideshows [120]Adult Skin Problems Slideshow IFRAME: 31&xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos =113 IFRAME: [122]/htmlchunks/slideshow/slidermodule/6_slides_line.htm IFRAME: [123]/htmlchunks/footer/footer_new_medicinenet.html Health categories: [124]Slideshows | [125]Diseases & Conditions | [126]Symptoms & Signs | [127]Procedures & Tests | [128]Medications | [129]Image Collection | [130]Medical Dictionary | [131]Pet Health Popular health centers: [132]Allergies | [133]Arthritis | [134]Blood Pressure | [135]Cancer | [136]Chronic Pain | [137]Cold & Flu | [138]Diabetes | [139]Digestion | [140]Eyesight | [141]Health & Living | [142]Healthy Kids [143]Hearing & Ear | [144]Heart | [145]Infectious Disease | [146]Men's Health | [147]Mental Health | [148]News & Views | [149]Pregnancy | [150]Sexual Health | [151]Skin | [152]Women's Health | [153]More... MedicineNet.com: [154]About Us | [155]Newsletters | [156]RSS Feeds | [157]Privacy Policy | [158]Site Map | [159]WebMD® | [160]Medscape® | [161]eMedicine® | [162]eMedicineHealth® | [163]RxList® [clearpixel.gif] [164]This website is certified by Health On the Net Foundation. Click to verify. This site complies to the [165]HONcode standard for trustworthy health information: [166]verify here. ©1996-2010 MedicineNet, Inc. All rights reserved. [167]Notices and Legal Disclaimer. MedicineNet does not provide medical advice, diagnosis or treatment. [168]See additional information. Références Liens visibles 76. javascript:myVoid() Liens cachés : * [1]Skip to main content * [2]Text only version of this page * [3]Access keys help [4]BBC Home ____________________ Search [5]Explore the BBC 17 January 2010 [6]Accessibility help [7]Text only [8][USEMAP:banner_new.jpg] [9]Animals [10]Prehistoric Life [11]Human Body & Mind [12]Space [13]TV & Radio Follow-up [14]BBC Homepage [15]Science & Nature Homepage In [16]Human Body & Mind: [17]The mind [18]The body [19]Brain Sex [20]Sleep [21]Take part in the Brain Test Britain experiment __________________________________________________________________ [22]Contact Us Like this page? [23]Send it to a friend! You are here: [24]BBC > [25]Science & Nature > [26]Human Body & Mind > [27]Sleep > Daily Rhythm Test Daily Rhythm Test Our internal body clock governs our daily or circadian rhythm - telling us when to wake up and when to feel sleepy. Circadian comes from the Latin circa, meaning about and dies, meaning day. This test will produce a chart showing your natural sleeping and waking pattern over a 24 hour period. If you're having problems sleeping it could be your natural body clock is at odds with your routine. 1) Do you consider yourself a morning person or an evening person? (_) Evening (_) More evening than morning (_) Cant tell (_) More morning than evening (_) Morning 2) At what time of day do you feel at your best? (_) 5am - 9am (_) 9am - 11am (_) 11am - 5pm (_) 5pm - 10pm (_) 10pm - 1am 3) Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, if you were entirely free to plan your day - at what time would you go to bed? (_) 8pm - 9pm (_) 9pm - 10.15pm (_) 10.15pm - 12.30am (_) 12.30am - 1.45am (_) 1.45am - 3am 4) Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, if you were entirely free to plan your day - at what time would you get up? (_) 5.00am - 6.30am (_) 6.30am - 7.45am (_) 7.45am - 9.45am (_) 9.45am - 11.00am (_) 11.00am - Midday View results [28]Science & Nature Homepage [29]Animals | [30]Prehistoric Life | [31]Human Body & Mind | [32]Space | [33]TV & Radio follow-up [34]Go to top [35]About the BBC | [36]Help | [37]Terms of Use | [38]Privacy & Cookies Policy Références [USEMAP] FREE Online Classroom Tools [1]LOGIN OR [2]REGISTER FOR FREE [3]HotChalk [4]LessonPlansPage.com [hc-header-roundedbottom.jpg] * * [5]Lesson Plans | * [6]Teaching Degrees | * [7]Articles & Blogs | * [8]Forums | * [9]Contribute | * [10]HotChalk Tools | * [11]About | * [12]Advertising Lesson Plans [13][icon_ruler.gif] Math [14][icon_book.gif] Language Arts [15][icon_science.gif] Science [16][icon_globe.gif] Social Studies [17][icon_art.gif] Art [18][icon_laptop.gif] Computers & Internet [19][icon_music.gif] Music [20][icon_soccer.gif] P.E. & Health [21][icon_apple.gif] Other [22][icon_pencil.gif] Multi-Disciplinary Sections * [23]Online Degrees Guide * [24]HotChalk Tools * [25]Seasonal Lesson Plans * [26]Most Recent Additions * [27]Inspired Teachers * [28]Science Projects * [29]Math Worksheets * [30]Teacher Discussions * [31]Lesson Plan Guide * [32]Search This Site * [33]Join Our Newsletter * [34]Contribute !!! * [35]Advertising Information * [36]Take Our Survey! * [37]Tell A Friend! Special Features [38]Black History Month Lesson Plans Sponsored by Target * [39]Efficient Reading * [40]Masters in Education * [41]Previous Articles [42][hotchalklogo-template-sidebar.gif] * [43]About HotChalk * [44]Learn More * [45]MyClasses * [46]MyLibrary * [47]MyDesk * [48]Join for FREE! Resource Sites [49]Education Master's [50]Teacher Magazines [51]Teaching Jobs Site Information [52]About This Site [53]How To Use [54]Contact Info [55]Advertising Info [56]Educational Links [57]Having Problems? [58]Online Degrees Teacher's Guide [59]Join Our Facebook Page [60]Bookmark and Share Join LPP Newsletter: _________________________ Subscribe! Search This Site: _____________ Search! rhythm game using body percussion [61][print.gif] Printable Version for your convenience! Title - rhythm game using body percussion By - Michelle L. Miller Primary Subject - Music Secondary Subjects - Grade Level - 4-8 Objective: Students will be able to accurately write and count rhythms. Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests. Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding. To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3 teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat pat snap snap palms up-- quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest). Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The whole lesson takes about 30 minutes. Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as performed by teacher. Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills development and have fun at the same time!! NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well. Have fun!! E-Mail [62]Michelle L. Miller! * * [63]Lesson Plans | * [64]Teaching Degrees | * [65]Articles & Blogs | * [66]Forums | * [67]Contribute | * [68]HotChalk Tools | * [69]About | * [70]Advertising © 1996 - 2010 HotChalk, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Last Modified December 23, 2009 [71]Privacy Policy | [72]Anti-Spam Policy | [73]Terms of Use Please manually type in our email address to contact us (to prevent spam). Quantcast Références 62. mailto:Michellelmiller@avon.net #[1]Daily Health and Medical News [2]Weekly Health and Medical News Digest [3]Health and Medical Slideshows [5]Biorhythms Specialty IFRAME: &xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos=1 01 [7]MedicineNet.com ___________________________________ Search [8]About Us | [9]Privacy Policy | [10]Site Map January 17, 2010 [11]MedicineNet home [12]Picture Slideshows [13]Diseases and conditions [14]Symptoms and signs [15]Procedures and tests [16]Medications [17]Picture Image Collection [18]MedTerms medical dictionary [19]Pet Health [clearpixel.gif] [20]home > [21]biorhythms index > biorhythms article [clearpixel.gif] [clearpixel.gif] [clearpixel.gif] Font Size [22]A [23]A [24]A * 1 * [25]2 * [26]3 * [27]4 * [28]5 * [29]6 * [30]7 * [31]8 * [32]Next » * [33]Biorhythms Index * [34]Glossary Biorhythms [35]View Asthma Slideshow [36]Asthma Slideshow View Asthma Slideshow [37]Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow View Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow [38]Worst Cities for Asthma, 2009 Slideshow Pictures of the Worst Cities for Asthma Slideshow Medical Author: [39]William C. Shiel, Jr., MD, FACP, FACR Medical Editor: [40]Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD * [41]What are biologic rhythms? * [42]How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness? * [43]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms? * [44]Angina * [45]Heart attack * [46]High blood pressure (hypertension) * [47]Hay fever (allergic rhinitis) * [48]Asthma * [49]Can the "body clock" affect diagnostic testing? * [50]Can drug therapy be matched to the "body clock?" * [51]Chronobiology: marking time, making progress What are biologic rhythms? What are biologic rhythms? In essence, they're the rhythms of life. All forms of life on earth, including our bodies, respond rhythmically to the regular cycles of the sun, moon, and seasons. For example, as night turns into day, vital body functions, including heart rate and [52]blood pressure, speed up in anticipation of increased physical activity. These and other predictable fluctuations in body function, taking place during specific time cycles, are our biologic rhythms. They are regulated by "biologic clock" mechanisms located in the brain. Although biologic rhythms can be "reprogrammed" by environmental influences (such as when a person regularly works the night shift and sleeps during the day), they are genetically "hard-wired" into our cells, tissues, and organs. Medical chronobiologists have found that biologic rhythms can affect the severity of disease symptoms, diagnostic test results, and even the body's response to drug therapy. Now these investigators are working to discover how the rhythms of life can be used to improve the practice of medicine - and your health. These time-related medical observations, and others still in the exciting process of discovery, are rooted in chronobiology (chronos - time; bios - life; logos - science), the study of biologic rhythms. How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness? Among the various biologic rhythm cycles that medical chronobiologists study, the 24-hour day/night-activity/rest cycle is considered a key chronobiologic factor in medical [53]diagnosis and treatment. Formally known as the [54]circadian rhythm, it's also referred to as the "body clock." Why is the 24-hour body clock so important? Because so many of our normal body functions follow daily patterns of speeding up and slowing down, intensifying and diminishing, in alignment with circadian rhythm. Interestingly, so do the symptoms of a number of [55]chronic disorders: Allergic rhinitis: (nasal inflammation associated with hay fever) Symptoms of sneezing, [56]runny nose, and stuffy nose are typically worse in the early waking hours than later during the day. Asthma: In most patients, symptoms are more than 100 times as likely to occur in the few hours prior to awakening than during the day. Stable angina: [57]Chest pain and [58]electrocardiographic (ECG, EKG) abnormalities are most common during the first 4 to 6 hours after awakening. [59]Prinzmetal's angina: ECG abnormalities are most common during [60]sleep; chest pain can occur even while at rest. Heart attack: Heart attack most commonly occurs in the early waking hours. Stroke: [61]Strokes most commonly occur in the early waking hours. Hypertension: The highest blood pressure readings typically occur from late morning to middle afternoon; lowest occur during early sleep. Therapy now exists that works with your body clock; consult your physician about this treatment. Clinical studies are underway to further this research. [62]Rheumatoid arthritis: RA symptoms are most intense upon awakening. [63]Osteoarthritis: Symptoms of osteoarthritis worsen in the afternoon and evening. Ulcer disease: The pain typically occurs after stomach emptying, following daytime meals, and in the very early morning, disrupting sleep. [64]Epilepsy: Seizures often occur only at particular times of the day or night; individual patterns differ among patients. * 1 * [65]2 * [66]3 * [67]4 * [68]5 * [69]6 * [70]7 * [71]8 * [72]Next » * [73]Biorhythms Index * [74]Glossary Next: [75]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms? » [76]Printer-Friendly Format | [77]Email to a Friend [header-doctor-topics_2.gif] Suggested Reading by Our Doctors MedicineNet Doctors * [78]Chemotherapy - Get information on chemotherapy treatment for cancer, side effects of medications and how chemo works. Chemotherapy is a type of cancer treatment often given along with radiation therapy and surgery. * [79]Rheumatoid Arthritis - Learn more about rheumatoid arthritis, an autoimmune disease that causes chronic joint inflammation, which has symptoms that include stiffness, fever, muscle and joint aches, loss of appetite, and fatigue. Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis incorporates the use of first-line drugs (aspirin and corticosteroids for pain and inflammation) and second-line drugs (methotrexate and hydroxychloroquine to prevent joint destruction and promote remission). * [80]Radiation Therapy - [81]Read more Biorhythms related articles » Latest Medical News * [82]Nightly Snacking May Speed Weight Gain [footer-doctor-topics_2.gif] [83]Privacy Policy Allergies & Asthma Improve treatments & prevent attacks. _____________________ [btn_submit2.gif]-Submit [clearpixel.gif] [84]Are you Depressed? Take the Quiz [85]Your Guide to Symptoms & Signs: Pinpoint Your Pain IFRAME: 1&xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos= 121 From WebMD Asthma and Allergy Resources * [87]Asthma Attack Slideshow * [88]How to Use Your Inhaler * [89]The Best Cities for Asthma Featured Centers * [90]12 Ways to Prevent the Spread of Viruses * [91]Longevity Foods: Eat Well, Live Longer * [92]Sad? Irritable? Assess Your Symptoms * [93]Healthy Home: To Buy or Not to Buy Organic? Health Solutions From Our Sponsors * [94]Osteoporosis Info * [95]Overactive Bladder Rx Biorhythms [96]Hay Fever » What is hay fever? What are the symptoms and signs? Hay fever is a misnomer. Hay is not a usual cause of this problem, and it does not cause fever. Early descriptions of sneezing, nasal congestion, and eye irritation while harvesting field hay promoted this popular term. Allergic rhinitis is the correct term used to describe this allergic reaction, and many different substances cause the allergic symptoms noted in hay fever. Rhinitis means "irritation of the nose" and is a derivative of rhino, meaning nose. Allergic rhinitis which occurs during a specific season is called "seasonal allergic rhinitis." When it occurs throughout the year, it is called "perennial allergic rhinitis." Symptoms of allergic rhinitis, or hay fever, frequently include nasal congestion, a clear runny nose, sneezing, nose and eye itching, and excess tear production in the eyes. Postnasal dripping of clear mucus frequently causes a cough. Loss of the sense ... [97]Read the Hay Fever article » Featured on MedicineNet * [98]Tips to Ease Nighttime Pain * [99]Check Your Fibromyalgia Symptoms * [100]Depression Tips Slideshow * [101]Are You at Risk for Diabetic Nerve Pain? Top 10 Biorhythms Related Articles * [102]Chemo Infusion and Chemoembolization of Liver * [103]Chemotherapy * [104]Chemotherapy Treatment for Breast Cancer * [105]Heart Attack * [106]High Blood Pressure * [107]Osteoarthritis * [108]Radiation Therapy * [109]Radiation Therapy for Breast Cancer * [110]Rheumatoid Arthritis * [111]Stroke * [112]Complete List » New on MedicineNet * [113]Michael C. Hall Has Hodgkin's * [114]Cryptosporidiosis Causes * [115]Shigella Infection Symptoms * [116]Lymphedema Causes * [117]C-Reactive Protein (CRP) * [118]Sinus Headache Treatment * [119]Pictures Slideshows Interactive Slideshows [120]Adult Skin Problems Slideshow IFRAME: 31&xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos =113 IFRAME: [122]/htmlchunks/slideshow/slidermodule/6_slides_line.htm IFRAME: [123]/htmlchunks/footer/footer_new_medicinenet.html Health categories: [124]Slideshows | [125]Diseases & Conditions | [126]Symptoms & Signs | [127]Procedures & Tests | [128]Medications | [129]Image Collection | [130]Medical Dictionary | [131]Pet Health Popular health centers: [132]Allergies | [133]Arthritis | [134]Blood Pressure | [135]Cancer | [136]Chronic Pain | [137]Cold & Flu | [138]Diabetes | [139]Digestion | [140]Eyesight | [141]Health & Living | [142]Healthy Kids [143]Hearing & Ear | [144]Heart | [145]Infectious Disease | [146]Men's Health | [147]Mental Health | [148]News & Views | [149]Pregnancy | [150]Sexual Health | [151]Skin | [152]Women's Health | [153]More... MedicineNet.com: [154]About Us | [155]Newsletters | [156]RSS Feeds | [157]Privacy Policy | [158]Site Map | [159]WebMD® | [160]Medscape® | [161]eMedicine® | [162]eMedicineHealth® | [163]RxList® [clearpixel.gif] [164]This website is certified by Health On the Net Foundation. Click to verify. This site complies to the [165]HONcode standard for trustworthy health information: [166]verify here. ©1996-2010 MedicineNet, Inc. All rights reserved. [167]Notices and Legal Disclaimer. MedicineNet does not provide medical advice, diagnosis or treatment. [168]See additional information. Références Liens visibles 76. javascript:myVoid() Liens cachés : * [1]Skip to main content * [2]Text only version of this page * [3]Access keys help [4]BBC Home ____________________ Search [5]Explore the BBC 17 January 2010 [6]Accessibility help [7]Text only [8][USEMAP:banner_new.jpg] [9]Animals [10]Prehistoric Life [11]Human Body & Mind [12]Space [13]TV & Radio Follow-up [14]BBC Homepage [15]Science & Nature Homepage In [16]Human Body & Mind: [17]The mind [18]The body [19]Brain Sex [20]Sleep [21]Take part in the Brain Test Britain experiment __________________________________________________________________ [22]Contact Us Like this page? [23]Send it to a friend! You are here: [24]BBC > [25]Science & Nature > [26]Human Body & Mind > [27]Sleep > Daily Rhythm Test Daily Rhythm Test Our internal body clock governs our daily or circadian rhythm - telling us when to wake up and when to feel sleepy. Circadian comes from the Latin circa, meaning about and dies, meaning day. This test will produce a chart showing your natural sleeping and waking pattern over a 24 hour period. If you're having problems sleeping it could be your natural body clock is at odds with your routine. 1) Do you consider yourself a morning person or an evening person? (_) Evening (_) More evening than morning (_) Cant tell (_) More morning than evening (_) Morning 2) At what time of day do you feel at your best? (_) 5am - 9am (_) 9am - 11am (_) 11am - 5pm (_) 5pm - 10pm (_) 10pm - 1am 3) Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, if you were entirely free to plan your day - at what time would you go to bed? (_) 8pm - 9pm (_) 9pm - 10.15pm (_) 10.15pm - 12.30am (_) 12.30am - 1.45am (_) 1.45am - 3am 4) Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, if you were entirely free to plan your day - at what time would you get up? (_) 5.00am - 6.30am (_) 6.30am - 7.45am (_) 7.45am - 9.45am (_) 9.45am - 11.00am (_) 11.00am - Midday View results [28]Science & Nature Homepage [29]Animals | [30]Prehistoric Life | [31]Human Body & Mind | [32]Space | [33]TV & Radio follow-up [34]Go to top [35]About the BBC | [36]Help | [37]Terms of Use | [38]Privacy & Cookies Policy Références [USEMAP] [1]SpringerLink Logo [2]Institutional Login Welcome! To use the personalized features of this site, please [3]log in or [4]register. If you have forgotten your username or password, we can [5]help. My Menu [6]Marked Items [7]Alerts [8]Order History Saved Items [9]All [10]Favorites * [11]Content Types + [12]All + [13]Publications + [14]Journals + [15]Book Series + [16]Books + [17]Reference Works + [18]Protocols * [19]Subject Collections + [20]Architecture and Design + [21]Behavioral Science + [22]Biomedical and Life Sciences + [23]Business and Economics + [24]Chemistry and Materials Science + [25]Computer Science + [26]Earth and Environmental Science + [27]Engineering + [28]Humanities, Social Sciences and Law + [29]Mathematics and Statistics + [30]Medicine + [31]Physics and Astronomy + [32]Professional and Applied Computing [English.......] Go Journal Article [33]Printable view Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Journal [34]Surgery Today Publisher Springer Japan ISSN 0941-1291 (Print) 1436-2813 (Online) Issue [35]Volume 17, Number 3 / May, 1987 Category Short Communication DOI 10.1007/BF02470602 Pages 209-212 Subject Collection [36]Medicine SpringerLink Date Thursday, July 20, 2006 [37]Add to marked items [38]Add to shopping cart [39]Add to saved items [40]Permissions & Reprints [41]Recommend this article [42]PDF (237.9 KB)[43] Free Preview Free Preview Short Communication Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Jun Narumi^1 Contact Information , Kozo Suma^1, Hidemi Kaneko^1, Yasuo Takeuchi^1, Kenji Inoue^1, Kenji Shiroma^1 and Yuji Koyama^1 (1) Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, 2nd Hospital of Tokyo Women's Medical College, 2-1-10 Nishiogu, Arakawaku, 116 Tokyo, Japan Received: 7 April 1986 Abstract The postoperative deep body temperature rhythms of fifteen patients who received aorto-coronary bypass surgery (group I), and of seven patients who received non-cardiac major surgery (group II), were studied. Postoperative patients, especially those who received aortocoronary bypass surgery, showed greatly disturbed deep body temperature rhythm. There existed infradian and ultradian rhythm in both groups, and there existed two patients in group I who did not show sinusoidal rhythm. The patients of group I also showed a longer period of rhythm than did those of group II. The mesor and amplitude of the patients in group I showed a greater individual variation than did those in group II. The acrophase of both groups deviated widely. The patients who underwent cardiac surgery needed a longer time for temperature rhythm recovery than did those who underwent general surgery. Key Words deep body temperature rhythm - intensive care unit - post-operative patients __________________________________________________________________ Fulltext Preview (Small, [44]Large) Image of the first page of the fulltext [45]Click here to visit our sponsor References secured to subscribers. [46]more options Find ____________________ ... Go Query Builder Close | Clear * [47]Title (ti) * [48]Summary (su) * [49]Author (au) * [50]ISSN (issn) * [51]ISBN (isbn) * [52]DOI (doi) * * [53]And * [54]Or * [55]Not * [56]( * [57]) * [58]* (wildcard) * [59]"" (exact) (_) Within all content (_) Within this journal (_) Within this issue Export this article Export this article as [60]RIS | [61]Text [62]Frequently asked questions | [63]General information on journals and books | [64]Send us your feedback | [65]Impressum | [66]Contact © Springer. [67]Part of Springer Science+Business Media [68]Privacy, Disclaimer, Terms and Conditions, © Copyright Information [69]MetaPress Privacy Policy Remote Address: 84.99.202.28 o Server: mpweb01 HTTP User Agent: Lynx/2.8.7pre.6 libwww-FM/2.14 SSL-MM/1.4.1 Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : FREE Online Classroom Tools [1]LOGIN OR [2]REGISTER FOR FREE [3]HotChalk [4]LessonPlansPage.com [hc-header-roundedbottom.jpg] * * [5]Lesson Plans | * [6]Teaching Degrees | * [7]Articles & Blogs | * [8]Forums | * [9]Contribute | * [10]HotChalk Tools | * [11]About | * [12]Advertising Lesson Plans [13][icon_ruler.gif] Math [14][icon_book.gif] Language Arts [15][icon_science.gif] Science [16][icon_globe.gif] Social Studies [17][icon_art.gif] Art [18][icon_laptop.gif] Computers & Internet [19][icon_music.gif] Music [20][icon_soccer.gif] P.E. & Health [21][icon_apple.gif] Other [22][icon_pencil.gif] Multi-Disciplinary Sections * [23]Online Degrees Guide * [24]HotChalk Tools * [25]Seasonal Lesson Plans * [26]Most Recent Additions * [27]Inspired Teachers * [28]Science Projects * [29]Math Worksheets * [30]Teacher Discussions * [31]Lesson Plan Guide * [32]Search This Site * [33]Join Our Newsletter * [34]Contribute !!! * [35]Advertising Information * [36]Take Our Survey! * [37]Tell A Friend! Special Features [38]Black History Month Lesson Plans Sponsored by Target * [39]Efficient Reading * [40]Masters in Education * [41]Previous Articles [42][hotchalklogo-template-sidebar.gif] * [43]About HotChalk * [44]Learn More * [45]MyClasses * [46]MyLibrary * [47]MyDesk * [48]Join for FREE! Resource Sites [49]Education Master's [50]Teacher Magazines [51]Teaching Jobs Site Information [52]About This Site [53]How To Use [54]Contact Info [55]Advertising Info [56]Educational Links [57]Having Problems? [58]Online Degrees Teacher's Guide [59]Join Our Facebook Page [60]Bookmark and Share Join LPP Newsletter: _________________________ Subscribe! Search This Site: _____________ Search! rhythm game using body percussion [61][print.gif] Printable Version for your convenience! Title - rhythm game using body percussion By - Michelle L. Miller Primary Subject - Music Secondary Subjects - Grade Level - 4-8 Objective: Students will be able to accurately write and count rhythms. Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests. Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding. To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3 teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat pat snap snap palms up-- quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest). Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The whole lesson takes about 30 minutes. Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as performed by teacher. Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills development and have fun at the same time!! NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well. Have fun!! E-Mail [62]Michelle L. Miller! * * [63]Lesson Plans | * [64]Teaching Degrees | * [65]Articles & Blogs | * [66]Forums | * [67]Contribute | * [68]HotChalk Tools | * [69]About | * [70]Advertising © 1996 - 2010 HotChalk, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Last Modified December 23, 2009 [71]Privacy Policy | [72]Anti-Spam Policy | [73]Terms of Use Please manually type in our email address to contact us (to prevent spam). Quantcast Références 62. mailto:Michellelmiller@avon.net #[1]Daily Health and Medical News [2]Weekly Health and Medical News Digest [3]Health and Medical Slideshows [5]Biorhythms Specialty IFRAME: &xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos=1 01 [7]MedicineNet.com ___________________________________ Search [8]About Us | [9]Privacy Policy | [10]Site Map January 17, 2010 [11]MedicineNet home [12]Picture Slideshows [13]Diseases and conditions [14]Symptoms and signs [15]Procedures and tests [16]Medications [17]Picture Image Collection [18]MedTerms medical dictionary [19]Pet Health [clearpixel.gif] [20]home > [21]biorhythms index > biorhythms article [clearpixel.gif] [clearpixel.gif] [clearpixel.gif] Font Size [22]A [23]A [24]A * 1 * [25]2 * [26]3 * [27]4 * [28]5 * [29]6 * [30]7 * [31]8 * [32]Next » * [33]Biorhythms Index * [34]Glossary Biorhythms [35]View Asthma Slideshow [36]Asthma Slideshow View Asthma Slideshow [37]Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow View Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow [38]Worst Cities for Asthma, 2009 Slideshow Pictures of the Worst Cities for Asthma Slideshow Medical Author: [39]William C. Shiel, Jr., MD, FACP, FACR Medical Editor: [40]Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD * [41]What are biologic rhythms? * [42]How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness? * [43]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms? * [44]Angina * [45]Heart attack * [46]High blood pressure (hypertension) * [47]Hay fever (allergic rhinitis) * [48]Asthma * [49]Can the "body clock" affect diagnostic testing? * [50]Can drug therapy be matched to the "body clock?" * [51]Chronobiology: marking time, making progress What are biologic rhythms? What are biologic rhythms? In essence, they're the rhythms of life. All forms of life on earth, including our bodies, respond rhythmically to the regular cycles of the sun, moon, and seasons. For example, as night turns into day, vital body functions, including heart rate and [52]blood pressure, speed up in anticipation of increased physical activity. These and other predictable fluctuations in body function, taking place during specific time cycles, are our biologic rhythms. They are regulated by "biologic clock" mechanisms located in the brain. Although biologic rhythms can be "reprogrammed" by environmental influences (such as when a person regularly works the night shift and sleeps during the day), they are genetically "hard-wired" into our cells, tissues, and organs. Medical chronobiologists have found that biologic rhythms can affect the severity of disease symptoms, diagnostic test results, and even the body's response to drug therapy. Now these investigators are working to discover how the rhythms of life can be used to improve the practice of medicine - and your health. These time-related medical observations, and others still in the exciting process of discovery, are rooted in chronobiology (chronos - time; bios - life; logos - science), the study of biologic rhythms. How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness? Among the various biologic rhythm cycles that medical chronobiologists study, the 24-hour day/night-activity/rest cycle is considered a key chronobiologic factor in medical [53]diagnosis and treatment. Formally known as the [54]circadian rhythm, it's also referred to as the "body clock." Why is the 24-hour body clock so important? Because so many of our normal body functions follow daily patterns of speeding up and slowing down, intensifying and diminishing, in alignment with circadian rhythm. Interestingly, so do the symptoms of a number of [55]chronic disorders: Allergic rhinitis: (nasal inflammation associated with hay fever) Symptoms of sneezing, [56]runny nose, and stuffy nose are typically worse in the early waking hours than later during the day. Asthma: In most patients, symptoms are more than 100 times as likely to occur in the few hours prior to awakening than during the day. Stable angina: [57]Chest pain and [58]electrocardiographic (ECG, EKG) abnormalities are most common during the first 4 to 6 hours after awakening. [59]Prinzmetal's angina: ECG abnormalities are most common during [60]sleep; chest pain can occur even while at rest. Heart attack: Heart attack most commonly occurs in the early waking hours. Stroke: [61]Strokes most commonly occur in the early waking hours. Hypertension: The highest blood pressure readings typically occur from late morning to middle afternoon; lowest occur during early sleep. Therapy now exists that works with your body clock; consult your physician about this treatment. Clinical studies are underway to further this research. [62]Rheumatoid arthritis: RA symptoms are most intense upon awakening. [63]Osteoarthritis: Symptoms of osteoarthritis worsen in the afternoon and evening. Ulcer disease: The pain typically occurs after stomach emptying, following daytime meals, and in the very early morning, disrupting sleep. [64]Epilepsy: Seizures often occur only at particular times of the day or night; individual patterns differ among patients. * 1 * [65]2 * [66]3 * [67]4 * [68]5 * [69]6 * [70]7 * [71]8 * [72]Next » * [73]Biorhythms Index * [74]Glossary Next: [75]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms? » [76]Printer-Friendly Format | [77]Email to a Friend [header-doctor-topics_2.gif] Suggested Reading by Our Doctors MedicineNet Doctors * [78]Chemotherapy - Get information on chemotherapy treatment for cancer, side effects of medications and how chemo works. Chemotherapy is a type of cancer treatment often given along with radiation therapy and surgery. * [79]Rheumatoid Arthritis - Learn more about rheumatoid arthritis, an autoimmune disease that causes chronic joint inflammation, which has symptoms that include stiffness, fever, muscle and joint aches, loss of appetite, and fatigue. Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis incorporates the use of first-line drugs (aspirin and corticosteroids for pain and inflammation) and second-line drugs (methotrexate and hydroxychloroquine to prevent joint destruction and promote remission). * [80]Radiation Therapy - [81]Read more Biorhythms related articles » Latest Medical News * [82]Nightly Snacking May Speed Weight Gain [footer-doctor-topics_2.gif] [83]Privacy Policy Allergies & Asthma Improve treatments & prevent attacks. _____________________ [btn_submit2.gif]-Submit [clearpixel.gif] [84]Are you Depressed? Take the Quiz [85]Your Guide to Symptoms & Signs: Pinpoint Your Pain IFRAME: 1&xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos= 121 From WebMD Asthma and Allergy Resources * [87]Asthma Attack Slideshow * [88]How to Use Your Inhaler * [89]The Best Cities for Asthma Featured Centers * [90]12 Ways to Prevent the Spread of Viruses * [91]Longevity Foods: Eat Well, Live Longer * [92]Sad? Irritable? Assess Your Symptoms * [93]Healthy Home: To Buy or Not to Buy Organic? Health Solutions From Our Sponsors * [94]Osteoporosis Info * [95]Overactive Bladder Rx Biorhythms [96]Hay Fever » What is hay fever? What are the symptoms and signs? Hay fever is a misnomer. Hay is not a usual cause of this problem, and it does not cause fever. Early descriptions of sneezing, nasal congestion, and eye irritation while harvesting field hay promoted this popular term. Allergic rhinitis is the correct term used to describe this allergic reaction, and many different substances cause the allergic symptoms noted in hay fever. Rhinitis means "irritation of the nose" and is a derivative of rhino, meaning nose. Allergic rhinitis which occurs during a specific season is called "seasonal allergic rhinitis." When it occurs throughout the year, it is called "perennial allergic rhinitis." Symptoms of allergic rhinitis, or hay fever, frequently include nasal congestion, a clear runny nose, sneezing, nose and eye itching, and excess tear production in the eyes. Postnasal dripping of clear mucus frequently causes a cough. Loss of the sense ... [97]Read the Hay Fever article » Featured on MedicineNet * [98]Tips to Ease Nighttime Pain * [99]Check Your Fibromyalgia Symptoms * [100]Depression Tips Slideshow * [101]Are You at Risk for Diabetic Nerve Pain? Top 10 Biorhythms Related Articles * [102]Chemo Infusion and Chemoembolization of Liver * [103]Chemotherapy * [104]Chemotherapy Treatment for Breast Cancer * [105]Heart Attack * [106]High Blood Pressure * [107]Osteoarthritis * [108]Radiation Therapy * [109]Radiation Therapy for Breast Cancer * [110]Rheumatoid Arthritis * [111]Stroke * [112]Complete List » New on MedicineNet * [113]Michael C. Hall Has Hodgkin's * [114]Cryptosporidiosis Causes * [115]Shigella Infection Symptoms * [116]Lymphedema Causes * [117]C-Reactive Protein (CRP) * [118]Sinus Headache Treatment * [119]Pictures Slideshows Interactive Slideshows [120]Adult Skin Problems Slideshow IFRAME: 31&xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos =113 IFRAME: [122]/htmlchunks/slideshow/slidermodule/6_slides_line.htm IFRAME: [123]/htmlchunks/footer/footer_new_medicinenet.html Health categories: [124]Slideshows | [125]Diseases & Conditions | [126]Symptoms & Signs | [127]Procedures & Tests | [128]Medications | [129]Image Collection | [130]Medical Dictionary | [131]Pet Health Popular health centers: [132]Allergies | [133]Arthritis | [134]Blood Pressure | [135]Cancer | [136]Chronic Pain | [137]Cold & Flu | [138]Diabetes | [139]Digestion | [140]Eyesight | [141]Health & Living | [142]Healthy Kids [143]Hearing & Ear | [144]Heart | [145]Infectious Disease | [146]Men's Health | [147]Mental Health | [148]News & Views | [149]Pregnancy | [150]Sexual Health | [151]Skin | [152]Women's Health | [153]More... 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Références Liens visibles 76. javascript:myVoid() Liens cachés : * [1]Skip to main content * [2]Text only version of this page * [3]Access keys help [4]BBC Home ____________________ Search [5]Explore the BBC 17 January 2010 [6]Accessibility help [7]Text only [8][USEMAP:banner_new.jpg] [9]Animals [10]Prehistoric Life [11]Human Body & Mind [12]Space [13]TV & Radio Follow-up [14]BBC Homepage [15]Science & Nature Homepage In [16]Human Body & Mind: [17]The mind [18]The body [19]Brain Sex [20]Sleep [21]Take part in the Brain Test Britain experiment __________________________________________________________________ [22]Contact Us Like this page? [23]Send it to a friend! You are here: [24]BBC > [25]Science & Nature > [26]Human Body & Mind > [27]Sleep > Daily Rhythm Test Daily Rhythm Test Our internal body clock governs our daily or circadian rhythm - telling us when to wake up and when to feel sleepy. Circadian comes from the Latin circa, meaning about and dies, meaning day. This test will produce a chart showing your natural sleeping and waking pattern over a 24 hour period. If you're having problems sleeping it could be your natural body clock is at odds with your routine. 1) Do you consider yourself a morning person or an evening person? (_) Evening (_) More evening than morning (_) Cant tell (_) More morning than evening (_) Morning 2) At what time of day do you feel at your best? (_) 5am - 9am (_) 9am - 11am (_) 11am - 5pm (_) 5pm - 10pm (_) 10pm - 1am 3) Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, if you were entirely free to plan your day - at what time would you go to bed? (_) 8pm - 9pm (_) 9pm - 10.15pm (_) 10.15pm - 12.30am (_) 12.30am - 1.45am (_) 1.45am - 3am 4) Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, if you were entirely free to plan your day - at what time would you get up? (_) 5.00am - 6.30am (_) 6.30am - 7.45am (_) 7.45am - 9.45am (_) 9.45am - 11.00am (_) 11.00am - Midday View results [28]Science & Nature Homepage [29]Animals | [30]Prehistoric Life | [31]Human Body & Mind | [32]Space | [33]TV & Radio follow-up [34]Go to top [35]About the BBC | [36]Help | [37]Terms of Use | [38]Privacy & Cookies Policy Références [USEMAP] [1]SpringerLink Logo [2]Institutional Login Welcome! To use the personalized features of this site, please [3]log in or [4]register. If you have forgotten your username or password, we can [5]help. My Menu [6]Marked Items [7]Alerts [8]Order History Saved Items [9]All [10]Favorites * [11]Content Types + [12]All + [13]Publications + [14]Journals + [15]Book Series + [16]Books + [17]Reference Works + [18]Protocols * [19]Subject Collections + [20]Architecture and Design + [21]Behavioral Science + [22]Biomedical and Life Sciences + [23]Business and Economics + [24]Chemistry and Materials Science + [25]Computer Science + [26]Earth and Environmental Science + [27]Engineering + [28]Humanities, Social Sciences and Law + [29]Mathematics and Statistics + [30]Medicine + [31]Physics and Astronomy + [32]Professional and Applied Computing [English.......] Go Journal Article [33]Printable view Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Journal [34]Surgery Today Publisher Springer Japan ISSN 0941-1291 (Print) 1436-2813 (Online) Issue [35]Volume 17, Number 3 / May, 1987 Category Short Communication DOI 10.1007/BF02470602 Pages 209-212 Subject Collection [36]Medicine SpringerLink Date Thursday, July 20, 2006 [37]Add to marked items [38]Add to shopping cart [39]Add to saved items [40]Permissions & Reprints [41]Recommend this article [42]PDF (237.9 KB)[43] Free Preview Free Preview Short Communication Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Jun Narumi^1 Contact Information , Kozo Suma^1, Hidemi Kaneko^1, Yasuo Takeuchi^1, Kenji Inoue^1, Kenji Shiroma^1 and Yuji Koyama^1 (1) Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, 2nd Hospital of Tokyo Women's Medical College, 2-1-10 Nishiogu, Arakawaku, 116 Tokyo, Japan Received: 7 April 1986 Abstract The postoperative deep body temperature rhythms of fifteen patients who received aorto-coronary bypass surgery (group I), and of seven patients who received non-cardiac major surgery (group II), were studied. Postoperative patients, especially those who received aortocoronary bypass surgery, showed greatly disturbed deep body temperature rhythm. There existed infradian and ultradian rhythm in both groups, and there existed two patients in group I who did not show sinusoidal rhythm. The patients of group I also showed a longer period of rhythm than did those of group II. The mesor and amplitude of the patients in group I showed a greater individual variation than did those in group II. The acrophase of both groups deviated widely. The patients who underwent cardiac surgery needed a longer time for temperature rhythm recovery than did those who underwent general surgery. Key Words deep body temperature rhythm - intensive care unit - post-operative patients __________________________________________________________________ Fulltext Preview (Small, [44]Large) Image of the first page of the fulltext [45]Click here to visit our sponsor References secured to subscribers. [46]more options Find ____________________ ... Go Query Builder Close | Clear * [47]Title (ti) * [48]Summary (su) * [49]Author (au) * [50]ISSN (issn) * [51]ISBN (isbn) * [52]DOI (doi) * * [53]And * [54]Or * [55]Not * [56]( * [57]) * [58]* (wildcard) * [59]"" (exact) (_) Within all content (_) Within this journal (_) Within this issue Export this article Export this article as [60]RIS | [61]Text [62]Frequently asked questions | [63]General information on journals and books | [64]Send us your feedback | [65]Impressum | [66]Contact © Springer. [67]Part of Springer Science+Business Media [68]Privacy, Disclaimer, Terms and Conditions, © Copyright Information [69]MetaPress Privacy Policy Remote Address: 84.99.202.28 o Server: mpweb01 HTTP User Agent: Lynx/2.8.7pre.6 libwww-FM/2.14 SSL-MM/1.4.1 Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1]Home [2]Search Holisticonline [3]Grandmas Remedies Quality vitamins, natural remedies [4]Specialgifts.com Big savings on gemstones, jewelry and gifts. [5]Alternative Medicine [6]Stress Management [7]Conditions/ Treatments [8]Preferred Providers [9]Holistic Living [10]Alternative Therapies [11]Acupuncture [12]Aromatherapy [13]Ayurveda [14]Biofeedback [15]Chelation Therapy [16]Herbal Medicine [17]Homeopathy [18]Humor Therapy [19]Hydrotherapy [20]Imagery [21]Light Therapy [22]Massage [23]Meditation [24]NLP [25]Nutrition [26]Prayer/ Spiritual [27]Reiki [28]Shiatsu [29]Yoga [30]FAQ (Health) [31]Feedback [32]Register [33]Media Light Therapy HOL-emblem Rhythms and Body Clock Circadian Rhythm From the Latin circa (about) dies (a day), the circadian rhythm is the twenty-four-hour cycle of light/dark, wakefulness/sleep to which most human physiologic processes are set. At regular intervals each day, the body tends to become hungry, tired, active, listless, energized. Body temperature, heart-beat, blood pressure, hormone levels, and urine flow rise and fall in this relatively predictable, rhythmic pattern - a pattern initiated and governed by exposure to sunlight and darkness. Experiments where humans were placed in isolation chambers, cut off from all potential environmental cues, have shown that, in the absence of natural daylight, rhythms are still maintained. But in the absence of the day light, the rhythms tend to deviate from 24 hours. For instance, the rhythms was found to expand to 24-30 hours, thus disrupting the biological processes over a long period of time. The fact that animals and humans can continue to function according to daily and annual rhythms in the absence of external environmental stimuli means that animals and humans possess some kind of biological clock, which act as a backup mechanism in case it cannot get the proper stimuli from the natural events such as sunshine. This behavior can be illustrated by our clocks. Let us say, our clock is running slow. Over a period of time, the clock may lag the actual time because of this defect. Usually, we will reset the clock when it gets far out of sync by other external stimuli like a radio or phone time. Now, if we do not have access to this external synchronizing signal, the clock can get far out of line with the reality. Our body clocks functions the same way. The biological clock can keep the time; but in the absence of correction from the day/light cycle provided by the sun, the biological clock tend go out of sync affecting our physical and mental health. A similar thing happens when we travel across time zones; we tend to experience what is known as "jet lag". However, in the absence of natural light our body clocks may lose or gain a little time. This in turn could lead to the desynchronization of different rhythms. For example, in the absence of sufficient environmental light the sleep-wake and associated rest-activity rhythms may lengthen to a cycle of between 30 and 48 hours, while the temperature rhythm may remain at a period of, say, 25 hours. Such desynchronization of the body's intricate rhythms is suspected to trigger problems: hormonal imbalances, sleep disorders and mood disturbances. Circannual Rhythm Circannual rhythm is the annual or yearly cycle used by all living things. Circaseptan Rhythm Circaseptan rhythm is a seven-day cycle in which the biological processes of life, including disease symptoms and development, resolve. Many physicians believe that transplant patients tend to have more rejection episodes seven, fourteen, twenty-one, and twenty-eight days after surgery. They further believe that medications administered to the patients at particular times may be more effective than at other times. These are all related to the circaseptan rhythm. How does the brain know when it is light or dark? Deep within the brain, inside the hypothalamus, lie two clusters of cells (i.e., neurons) called the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN). Each of these SCN is composed of more than 8,000 neurons. The SCN act as the body's circadian pacemaker. In mammals, the SCN appear to get their information from photoreceptors in the retina, which transmit signals about light and dark through the optic nerves to the hypothalamus. Once these messages enter the SCN, a series of physiological reactions takes place. What happens after the light/dark signal reaches the SCN? We are not sure. The pathway from the retina through the optic nerves to the SCN extends further to reach the pineal gland, which lies adjacent to the hypothalamus above the brain stem. Stimulated by the message it receives from the SCN, the pineal gland either secretes its main hormone, melatonin, or inhibits melatonin's release, which may result in the production of serotonin as was explained before. Next Topic: [34]Light Therapy for Seasonal Affective Disorder [[35]Light Therapy Home][[36]Alternative Therapies Home][[37]Holistic-online.com Home] [narule_200.GIF] Holisticonline.com is developed and maintained by ICBS, Inc. Send mail to: [38]info@holisticonline.com with comments about this web site. [39]Copyright © [40]1998-2007 ICBS, Inc. [41]Terms of Use All Rights Reserved. Références 38. mailto:info@holisticonline.com FREE Online Classroom Tools [1]LOGIN OR [2]REGISTER FOR FREE [3]HotChalk [4]LessonPlansPage.com [hc-header-roundedbottom.jpg] * * [5]Lesson Plans | * [6]Teaching Degrees | * [7]Articles & Blogs | * [8]Forums | * [9]Contribute | * [10]HotChalk Tools | * [11]About | * [12]Advertising Lesson Plans [13][icon_ruler.gif] Math [14][icon_book.gif] Language Arts [15][icon_science.gif] Science [16][icon_globe.gif] Social Studies [17][icon_art.gif] Art [18][icon_laptop.gif] Computers & Internet [19][icon_music.gif] Music [20][icon_soccer.gif] P.E. & Health [21][icon_apple.gif] Other [22][icon_pencil.gif] Multi-Disciplinary Sections * [23]Online Degrees Guide * [24]HotChalk Tools * [25]Seasonal Lesson Plans * [26]Most Recent Additions * [27]Inspired Teachers * [28]Science Projects * [29]Math Worksheets * [30]Teacher Discussions * [31]Lesson Plan Guide * [32]Search This Site * [33]Join Our Newsletter * [34]Contribute !!! * [35]Advertising Information * [36]Take Our Survey! * [37]Tell A Friend! Special Features [38]Black History Month Lesson Plans Sponsored by Target * [39]Efficient Reading * [40]Masters in Education * [41]Previous Articles [42][hotchalklogo-template-sidebar.gif] * [43]About HotChalk * [44]Learn More * [45]MyClasses * [46]MyLibrary * [47]MyDesk * [48]Join for FREE! Resource Sites [49]Education Master's [50]Teacher Magazines [51]Teaching Jobs Site Information [52]About This Site [53]How To Use [54]Contact Info [55]Advertising Info [56]Educational Links [57]Having Problems? [58]Online Degrees Teacher's Guide [59]Join Our Facebook Page [60]Bookmark and Share Join LPP Newsletter: _________________________ Subscribe! Search This Site: _____________ Search! rhythm game using body percussion [61][print.gif] Printable Version for your convenience! Title - rhythm game using body percussion By - Michelle L. Miller Primary Subject - Music Secondary Subjects - Grade Level - 4-8 Objective: Students will be able to accurately write and count rhythms. Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests. Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding. To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3 teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat pat snap snap palms up-- quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest). Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The whole lesson takes about 30 minutes. Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as performed by teacher. Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills development and have fun at the same time!! NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well. Have fun!! E-Mail [62]Michelle L. Miller! * * [63]Lesson Plans | * [64]Teaching Degrees | * [65]Articles & Blogs | * [66]Forums | * [67]Contribute | * [68]HotChalk Tools | * [69]About | * [70]Advertising © 1996 - 2010 HotChalk, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Last Modified December 23, 2009 [71]Privacy Policy | [72]Anti-Spam Policy | [73]Terms of Use Please manually type in our email address to contact us (to prevent spam). Quantcast Références 62. mailto:Michellelmiller@avon.net #[1]Daily Health and Medical News [2]Weekly Health and Medical News Digest [3]Health and Medical Slideshows [5]Biorhythms Specialty IFRAME: &xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos=1 01 [7]MedicineNet.com ___________________________________ Search [8]About Us | [9]Privacy Policy | [10]Site Map January 17, 2010 [11]MedicineNet home [12]Picture Slideshows [13]Diseases and conditions [14]Symptoms and signs [15]Procedures and tests [16]Medications [17]Picture Image Collection [18]MedTerms medical dictionary [19]Pet Health [clearpixel.gif] [20]home > [21]biorhythms index > biorhythms article [clearpixel.gif] [clearpixel.gif] [clearpixel.gif] Font Size [22]A [23]A [24]A * 1 * [25]2 * [26]3 * [27]4 * [28]5 * [29]6 * [30]7 * [31]8 * [32]Next » * [33]Biorhythms Index * [34]Glossary Biorhythms [35]View Asthma Slideshow [36]Asthma Slideshow View Asthma Slideshow [37]Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow View Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow [38]Worst Cities for Asthma, 2009 Slideshow Pictures of the Worst Cities for Asthma Slideshow Medical Author: [39]William C. Shiel, Jr., MD, FACP, FACR Medical Editor: [40]Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD * [41]What are biologic rhythms? * [42]How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness? * [43]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms? * [44]Angina * [45]Heart attack * [46]High blood pressure (hypertension) * [47]Hay fever (allergic rhinitis) * [48]Asthma * [49]Can the "body clock" affect diagnostic testing? * [50]Can drug therapy be matched to the "body clock?" * [51]Chronobiology: marking time, making progress What are biologic rhythms? What are biologic rhythms? In essence, they're the rhythms of life. All forms of life on earth, including our bodies, respond rhythmically to the regular cycles of the sun, moon, and seasons. For example, as night turns into day, vital body functions, including heart rate and [52]blood pressure, speed up in anticipation of increased physical activity. These and other predictable fluctuations in body function, taking place during specific time cycles, are our biologic rhythms. They are regulated by "biologic clock" mechanisms located in the brain. Although biologic rhythms can be "reprogrammed" by environmental influences (such as when a person regularly works the night shift and sleeps during the day), they are genetically "hard-wired" into our cells, tissues, and organs. Medical chronobiologists have found that biologic rhythms can affect the severity of disease symptoms, diagnostic test results, and even the body's response to drug therapy. Now these investigators are working to discover how the rhythms of life can be used to improve the practice of medicine - and your health. These time-related medical observations, and others still in the exciting process of discovery, are rooted in chronobiology (chronos - time; bios - life; logos - science), the study of biologic rhythms. How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness? Among the various biologic rhythm cycles that medical chronobiologists study, the 24-hour day/night-activity/rest cycle is considered a key chronobiologic factor in medical [53]diagnosis and treatment. Formally known as the [54]circadian rhythm, it's also referred to as the "body clock." Why is the 24-hour body clock so important? Because so many of our normal body functions follow daily patterns of speeding up and slowing down, intensifying and diminishing, in alignment with circadian rhythm. Interestingly, so do the symptoms of a number of [55]chronic disorders: Allergic rhinitis: (nasal inflammation associated with hay fever) Symptoms of sneezing, [56]runny nose, and stuffy nose are typically worse in the early waking hours than later during the day. Asthma: In most patients, symptoms are more than 100 times as likely to occur in the few hours prior to awakening than during the day. Stable angina: [57]Chest pain and [58]electrocardiographic (ECG, EKG) abnormalities are most common during the first 4 to 6 hours after awakening. [59]Prinzmetal's angina: ECG abnormalities are most common during [60]sleep; chest pain can occur even while at rest. Heart attack: Heart attack most commonly occurs in the early waking hours. Stroke: [61]Strokes most commonly occur in the early waking hours. Hypertension: The highest blood pressure readings typically occur from late morning to middle afternoon; lowest occur during early sleep. Therapy now exists that works with your body clock; consult your physician about this treatment. Clinical studies are underway to further this research. [62]Rheumatoid arthritis: RA symptoms are most intense upon awakening. [63]Osteoarthritis: Symptoms of osteoarthritis worsen in the afternoon and evening. Ulcer disease: The pain typically occurs after stomach emptying, following daytime meals, and in the very early morning, disrupting sleep. [64]Epilepsy: Seizures often occur only at particular times of the day or night; individual patterns differ among patients. * 1 * [65]2 * [66]3 * [67]4 * [68]5 * [69]6 * [70]7 * [71]8 * [72]Next » * [73]Biorhythms Index * [74]Glossary Next: [75]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms? » [76]Printer-Friendly Format | [77]Email to a Friend [header-doctor-topics_2.gif] Suggested Reading by Our Doctors MedicineNet Doctors * [78]Chemotherapy - Get information on chemotherapy treatment for cancer, side effects of medications and how chemo works. Chemotherapy is a type of cancer treatment often given along with radiation therapy and surgery. * [79]Rheumatoid Arthritis - Learn more about rheumatoid arthritis, an autoimmune disease that causes chronic joint inflammation, which has symptoms that include stiffness, fever, muscle and joint aches, loss of appetite, and fatigue. Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis incorporates the use of first-line drugs (aspirin and corticosteroids for pain and inflammation) and second-line drugs (methotrexate and hydroxychloroquine to prevent joint destruction and promote remission). * [80]Radiation Therapy - [81]Read more Biorhythms related articles » Latest Medical News * [82]Nightly Snacking May Speed Weight Gain [footer-doctor-topics_2.gif] [83]Privacy Policy Allergies & Asthma Improve treatments & prevent attacks. _____________________ [btn_submit2.gif]-Submit [clearpixel.gif] [84]Are you Depressed? Take the Quiz [85]Your Guide to Symptoms & Signs: Pinpoint Your Pain IFRAME: 1&xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos= 121 From WebMD Asthma and Allergy Resources * [87]Asthma Attack Slideshow * [88]How to Use Your Inhaler * [89]The Best Cities for Asthma Featured Centers * [90]12 Ways to Prevent the Spread of Viruses * [91]Longevity Foods: Eat Well, Live Longer * [92]Sad? Irritable? Assess Your Symptoms * [93]Healthy Home: To Buy or Not to Buy Organic? Health Solutions From Our Sponsors * [94]Osteoporosis Info * [95]Overactive Bladder Rx Biorhythms [96]Hay Fever » What is hay fever? What are the symptoms and signs? Hay fever is a misnomer. Hay is not a usual cause of this problem, and it does not cause fever. Early descriptions of sneezing, nasal congestion, and eye irritation while harvesting field hay promoted this popular term. Allergic rhinitis is the correct term used to describe this allergic reaction, and many different substances cause the allergic symptoms noted in hay fever. Rhinitis means "irritation of the nose" and is a derivative of rhino, meaning nose. Allergic rhinitis which occurs during a specific season is called "seasonal allergic rhinitis." When it occurs throughout the year, it is called "perennial allergic rhinitis." Symptoms of allergic rhinitis, or hay fever, frequently include nasal congestion, a clear runny nose, sneezing, nose and eye itching, and excess tear production in the eyes. Postnasal dripping of clear mucus frequently causes a cough. Loss of the sense ... [97]Read the Hay Fever article » Featured on MedicineNet * [98]Tips to Ease Nighttime Pain * [99]Check Your Fibromyalgia Symptoms * [100]Depression Tips Slideshow * [101]Are You at Risk for Diabetic Nerve Pain? Top 10 Biorhythms Related Articles * [102]Chemo Infusion and Chemoembolization of Liver * [103]Chemotherapy * [104]Chemotherapy Treatment for Breast Cancer * [105]Heart Attack * [106]High Blood Pressure * [107]Osteoarthritis * [108]Radiation Therapy * [109]Radiation Therapy for Breast Cancer * [110]Rheumatoid Arthritis * [111]Stroke * [112]Complete List » New on MedicineNet * [113]Michael C. Hall Has Hodgkin's * [114]Cryptosporidiosis Causes * [115]Shigella Infection Symptoms * [116]Lymphedema Causes * [117]C-Reactive Protein (CRP) * [118]Sinus Headache Treatment * [119]Pictures Slideshows Interactive Slideshows [120]Adult Skin Problems Slideshow IFRAME: 31&xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos =113 IFRAME: [122]/htmlchunks/slideshow/slidermodule/6_slides_line.htm IFRAME: [123]/htmlchunks/footer/footer_new_medicinenet.html Health categories: [124]Slideshows | [125]Diseases & Conditions | [126]Symptoms & Signs | [127]Procedures & Tests | [128]Medications | [129]Image Collection | [130]Medical Dictionary | [131]Pet Health Popular health centers: [132]Allergies | [133]Arthritis | [134]Blood Pressure | [135]Cancer | [136]Chronic Pain | [137]Cold & Flu | [138]Diabetes | [139]Digestion | [140]Eyesight | [141]Health & Living | [142]Healthy Kids [143]Hearing & Ear | [144]Heart | [145]Infectious Disease | [146]Men's Health | [147]Mental Health | [148]News & Views | [149]Pregnancy | [150]Sexual Health | [151]Skin | [152]Women's Health | [153]More... 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Références Liens visibles 76. javascript:myVoid() Liens cachés : * [1]Skip to main content * [2]Text only version of this page * [3]Access keys help [4]BBC Home ____________________ Search [5]Explore the BBC 17 January 2010 [6]Accessibility help [7]Text only [8][USEMAP:banner_new.jpg] [9]Animals [10]Prehistoric Life [11]Human Body & Mind [12]Space [13]TV & Radio Follow-up [14]BBC Homepage [15]Science & Nature Homepage In [16]Human Body & Mind: [17]The mind [18]The body [19]Brain Sex [20]Sleep [21]Take part in the Brain Test Britain experiment __________________________________________________________________ [22]Contact Us Like this page? [23]Send it to a friend! You are here: [24]BBC > [25]Science & Nature > [26]Human Body & Mind > [27]Sleep > Daily Rhythm Test Daily Rhythm Test Our internal body clock governs our daily or circadian rhythm - telling us when to wake up and when to feel sleepy. Circadian comes from the Latin circa, meaning about and dies, meaning day. This test will produce a chart showing your natural sleeping and waking pattern over a 24 hour period. If you're having problems sleeping it could be your natural body clock is at odds with your routine. 1) Do you consider yourself a morning person or an evening person? (_) Evening (_) More evening than morning (_) Cant tell (_) More morning than evening (_) Morning 2) At what time of day do you feel at your best? (_) 5am - 9am (_) 9am - 11am (_) 11am - 5pm (_) 5pm - 10pm (_) 10pm - 1am 3) Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, if you were entirely free to plan your day - at what time would you go to bed? (_) 8pm - 9pm (_) 9pm - 10.15pm (_) 10.15pm - 12.30am (_) 12.30am - 1.45am (_) 1.45am - 3am 4) Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, if you were entirely free to plan your day - at what time would you get up? (_) 5.00am - 6.30am (_) 6.30am - 7.45am (_) 7.45am - 9.45am (_) 9.45am - 11.00am (_) 11.00am - Midday View results [28]Science & Nature Homepage [29]Animals | [30]Prehistoric Life | [31]Human Body & Mind | [32]Space | [33]TV & Radio follow-up [34]Go to top [35]About the BBC | [36]Help | [37]Terms of Use | [38]Privacy & Cookies Policy Références [USEMAP] [1]SpringerLink Logo [2]Institutional Login Welcome! To use the personalized features of this site, please [3]log in or [4]register. If you have forgotten your username or password, we can [5]help. My Menu [6]Marked Items [7]Alerts [8]Order History Saved Items [9]All [10]Favorites * [11]Content Types + [12]All + [13]Publications + [14]Journals + [15]Book Series + [16]Books + [17]Reference Works + [18]Protocols * [19]Subject Collections + [20]Architecture and Design + [21]Behavioral Science + [22]Biomedical and Life Sciences + [23]Business and Economics + [24]Chemistry and Materials Science + [25]Computer Science + [26]Earth and Environmental Science + [27]Engineering + [28]Humanities, Social Sciences and Law + [29]Mathematics and Statistics + [30]Medicine + [31]Physics and Astronomy + [32]Professional and Applied Computing [English.......] Go Journal Article [33]Printable view Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Journal [34]Surgery Today Publisher Springer Japan ISSN 0941-1291 (Print) 1436-2813 (Online) Issue [35]Volume 17, Number 3 / May, 1987 Category Short Communication DOI 10.1007/BF02470602 Pages 209-212 Subject Collection [36]Medicine SpringerLink Date Thursday, July 20, 2006 [37]Add to marked items [38]Add to shopping cart [39]Add to saved items [40]Permissions & Reprints [41]Recommend this article [42]PDF (237.9 KB)[43] Free Preview Free Preview Short Communication Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Jun Narumi^1 Contact Information , Kozo Suma^1, Hidemi Kaneko^1, Yasuo Takeuchi^1, Kenji Inoue^1, Kenji Shiroma^1 and Yuji Koyama^1 (1) Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, 2nd Hospital of Tokyo Women's Medical College, 2-1-10 Nishiogu, Arakawaku, 116 Tokyo, Japan Received: 7 April 1986 Abstract The postoperative deep body temperature rhythms of fifteen patients who received aorto-coronary bypass surgery (group I), and of seven patients who received non-cardiac major surgery (group II), were studied. Postoperative patients, especially those who received aortocoronary bypass surgery, showed greatly disturbed deep body temperature rhythm. There existed infradian and ultradian rhythm in both groups, and there existed two patients in group I who did not show sinusoidal rhythm. The patients of group I also showed a longer period of rhythm than did those of group II. The mesor and amplitude of the patients in group I showed a greater individual variation than did those in group II. The acrophase of both groups deviated widely. The patients who underwent cardiac surgery needed a longer time for temperature rhythm recovery than did those who underwent general surgery. Key Words deep body temperature rhythm - intensive care unit - post-operative patients __________________________________________________________________ Fulltext Preview (Small, [44]Large) Image of the first page of the fulltext [45]Click here to visit our sponsor References secured to subscribers. [46]more options Find ____________________ ... Go Query Builder Close | Clear * [47]Title (ti) * [48]Summary (su) * [49]Author (au) * [50]ISSN (issn) * [51]ISBN (isbn) * [52]DOI (doi) * * [53]And * [54]Or * [55]Not * [56]( * [57]) * [58]* (wildcard) * [59]"" (exact) (_) Within all content (_) Within this journal (_) Within this issue Export this article Export this article as [60]RIS | [61]Text [62]Frequently asked questions | [63]General information on journals and books | [64]Send us your feedback | [65]Impressum | [66]Contact © Springer. [67]Part of Springer Science+Business Media [68]Privacy, Disclaimer, Terms and Conditions, © Copyright Information [69]MetaPress Privacy Policy Remote Address: 84.99.202.28 o Server: mpweb01 HTTP User Agent: Lynx/2.8.7pre.6 libwww-FM/2.14 SSL-MM/1.4.1 Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1]Home [2]Search Holisticonline [3]Grandmas Remedies Quality vitamins, natural remedies [4]Specialgifts.com Big savings on gemstones, jewelry and gifts. [5]Alternative Medicine [6]Stress Management [7]Conditions/ Treatments [8]Preferred Providers [9]Holistic Living [10]Alternative Therapies [11]Acupuncture [12]Aromatherapy [13]Ayurveda [14]Biofeedback [15]Chelation Therapy [16]Herbal Medicine [17]Homeopathy [18]Humor Therapy [19]Hydrotherapy [20]Imagery [21]Light Therapy [22]Massage [23]Meditation [24]NLP [25]Nutrition [26]Prayer/ Spiritual [27]Reiki [28]Shiatsu [29]Yoga [30]FAQ (Health) [31]Feedback [32]Register [33]Media Light Therapy HOL-emblem Rhythms and Body Clock Circadian Rhythm From the Latin circa (about) dies (a day), the circadian rhythm is the twenty-four-hour cycle of light/dark, wakefulness/sleep to which most human physiologic processes are set. At regular intervals each day, the body tends to become hungry, tired, active, listless, energized. Body temperature, heart-beat, blood pressure, hormone levels, and urine flow rise and fall in this relatively predictable, rhythmic pattern - a pattern initiated and governed by exposure to sunlight and darkness. Experiments where humans were placed in isolation chambers, cut off from all potential environmental cues, have shown that, in the absence of natural daylight, rhythms are still maintained. But in the absence of the day light, the rhythms tend to deviate from 24 hours. For instance, the rhythms was found to expand to 24-30 hours, thus disrupting the biological processes over a long period of time. The fact that animals and humans can continue to function according to daily and annual rhythms in the absence of external environmental stimuli means that animals and humans possess some kind of biological clock, which act as a backup mechanism in case it cannot get the proper stimuli from the natural events such as sunshine. This behavior can be illustrated by our clocks. Let us say, our clock is running slow. Over a period of time, the clock may lag the actual time because of this defect. Usually, we will reset the clock when it gets far out of sync by other external stimuli like a radio or phone time. Now, if we do not have access to this external synchronizing signal, the clock can get far out of line with the reality. Our body clocks functions the same way. The biological clock can keep the time; but in the absence of correction from the day/light cycle provided by the sun, the biological clock tend go out of sync affecting our physical and mental health. A similar thing happens when we travel across time zones; we tend to experience what is known as "jet lag". However, in the absence of natural light our body clocks may lose or gain a little time. This in turn could lead to the desynchronization of different rhythms. For example, in the absence of sufficient environmental light the sleep-wake and associated rest-activity rhythms may lengthen to a cycle of between 30 and 48 hours, while the temperature rhythm may remain at a period of, say, 25 hours. Such desynchronization of the body's intricate rhythms is suspected to trigger problems: hormonal imbalances, sleep disorders and mood disturbances. Circannual Rhythm Circannual rhythm is the annual or yearly cycle used by all living things. Circaseptan Rhythm Circaseptan rhythm is a seven-day cycle in which the biological processes of life, including disease symptoms and development, resolve. Many physicians believe that transplant patients tend to have more rejection episodes seven, fourteen, twenty-one, and twenty-eight days after surgery. They further believe that medications administered to the patients at particular times may be more effective than at other times. These are all related to the circaseptan rhythm. How does the brain know when it is light or dark? Deep within the brain, inside the hypothalamus, lie two clusters of cells (i.e., neurons) called the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN). Each of these SCN is composed of more than 8,000 neurons. The SCN act as the body's circadian pacemaker. In mammals, the SCN appear to get their information from photoreceptors in the retina, which transmit signals about light and dark through the optic nerves to the hypothalamus. Once these messages enter the SCN, a series of physiological reactions takes place. What happens after the light/dark signal reaches the SCN? We are not sure. The pathway from the retina through the optic nerves to the SCN extends further to reach the pineal gland, which lies adjacent to the hypothalamus above the brain stem. Stimulated by the message it receives from the SCN, the pineal gland either secretes its main hormone, melatonin, or inhibits melatonin's release, which may result in the production of serotonin as was explained before. Next Topic: [34]Light Therapy for Seasonal Affective Disorder [[35]Light Therapy Home][[36]Alternative Therapies Home][[37]Holistic-online.com Home] [narule_200.GIF] Holisticonline.com is developed and maintained by ICBS, Inc. Send mail to: [38]info@holisticonline.com with comments about this web site. [39]Copyright © [40]1998-2007 ICBS, Inc. [41]Terms of Use All Rights Reserved. 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Yes![114]Bipolar Disorder Research at the National Institute of Mental Health[115]Bipolar Disorder, Treating the Whole Person[116]Child and Adolescent Bipolar Disorder: An Update from the National Institute of Mental Health[117]Depression and Its Meanings[118]Disentangling Rapid-Cycling Bipolar From Borderline[119]Disentangling Rapid-Cycling Bipolar From Borderline[120]Going to Extremes - Bipolar Disorder[121]Marijuana Makes it Worse, Revisited[122]Mental Health: Our Troubled Teenagers[123]Of Othello and Delusional Jealousy[124]Spotlight on a Live Journal[125]Teenage Depression and Consequences[126]The Link Between Bipolar Disorder and Anger[127]Where There is Life, There is Hope, Depression and Why Suicide is Not an Option.[128]Wise Counsel Interview Transcript: An Interview with Lorna Hyde Graev on Living With Bipolar Disorder[129]Wise Counsel Interview Transcript: An Interview with Yulonda Brown on Surviving Abuse and Bipolar [130]Tests [131]Goldberg Mania Questionnaire [132]Latest News [133]Drug Treatments Compared in Bipolar Disorder[134]Lithium Beats Valproate for Long-Term Bipolar Therapy[135]Clinical Trials Update: Dec. 10, 2009[136]Anti-Epileptic Drugs Found Safe to Treat Bipolar Disorder[137]Risk of Birth Defects with Valproate Sodium and Related Products[138]Clinical Trials Update: Nov. 30, 2009[139]Bipolar Disorder May Be Tied to Body Clock[140]Clinical Trials Update: Nov. 23, 2009[141]Twin Study Eyes Inflammation in Those With Bipolar Disorder[142]Saphris Approved for Schizophrenia and Bipolar Disorder[143]Gloomy Days Dim Cognitive Powers of the Depressed[144]Depression Poses Pregnancy Risks[145]Schizophrenia and Bipolar Disorder Share Genetic Roots[146]Risperdal Consta Approved for Bipolar Disorder[147]Parent's Bipolar Disorder, Offspring's Mental Illness Linked [148]Questions and Answers [149]Anger Driven Down Wrong Road[150]I Don't Know What To Do[151]New Diagnosis...My Doc Says I Am Not Bipolar. 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Yes![226]Misdiagnosing Bipolar Disorder: What's at Stake[227]The Link Between Bipolar Disorder and Anger[228]Star Wars, Stigma, and Carrie Fisher[229]Bipolar Disorder: What's in a Label?[230]Spotlight on a Live Journal[231]Mental Health: Our Troubled Teenagers[232]Depression and Its Meanings[233]Teenage Depression and Consequences[234]Celebrities Also Have Bipolar Disorder [235]Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Personality Disorder or Bipolar Disorder?[236]One Strategy You Need to Know for Bipolar Disorder[237]Personality Disorders and Bipolar Disorder[238]Do You Have a Bipolar Crisis Kit?[239]Are You at Risk for Depression? Here's One Way to Find Out[240]Bipolar Mood Swings? 4 Steps to Nip Them in the Bud[241]Bipolar Disorder: 5 Steps to Sleep [242]Bipolar Disorder, Treating the Whole Person[243]Handling Difficult Emotions: The Path Less Traveled[244] To Do: 3 Steps to Healing When You're Feeling Blue [245]Depression: How We Get Stuck and What Can Help[246]Break Free from the Mental Recession or Depression by Doing Less[247]Feeling Depressed? 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[256]Three things you can do immediately when you find yourself getting depressed[257]An Interview with Yulonda Brown on Surviving Abuse and Bipolar Disorder[258]Depression: A New Frontier in It's Treatment[259]Our Bipolar Topic Center has been Updated[260]Feeling Depressed: Influenced by the Attitudes and Opinions of Others?[261]Bipolar kids see aggression when it isn't there[262]Bipolar Disorder and the Need for Psychoeducation[263]Disentangling Rapid-Cycling Bipolar From Borderline [264]Videos [265]Bipolar Disorder Video[266]Major Depression Video[267]Bipolar Disorder Video[268]Antidepressants Video[269]Meet Sue Bergeson: Depression and Bipolar Support Alliance[270]Managing Bipolar Disorder[271]Bipolar Disorder - Questions to Ask Your Doctor[272]Bipolar Disorder - Working with Your Doctor[273]Bipolar Disorder - Working Toward Wellness[274]Bipolar Disorder in Children: The Importance of Family Support[275]Bipolar Disorder: Why Are Clinical Trials so Important[276]Bipolar Disorder: Why Did it Take so Long to Get Diagnosed?[277]Balancing Bipolar Disorder[278]The Road to Recovery from Bipolar Disorder[279]Advice for Someone Recently Diagnosed with Bipolar Disorder[280]How to Find Information about Bipolar Disorder[281]Are There Genetic Risk Factors for Bipolar Disorder[282]Does Bipolar Disorder Affect Children?[283]Getting Help for Family Members of Bipolar Patients Video[284]Types of Depression Video [285]Links [286][3] Associations[287][9] Community[288][31] Information[289][1] Journals[290][1] Assessment[291][1] Research[292][20] Videos[293][2] Personal Experiences[294][21] Blogs [295]Book Reviews [296]Active Treatment of Depression[297]Adult Bipolar Disorders[298]Agents in My Brain[299]American Mania[300]An Unquiet Mind[301]Bipolar Disorder[302]Bipolar Disorder Demystified[303]Bipolar Disorder in Childhood and Early Adolescence[304]Bipolar Disorders[305]Bipolar Kids[306]Crazy[307]Daughter of the Queen of Sheba[308]Depression Is a Choice[309]Detour[310]Electroboy[311]Essential Psychopharmacology of Depression and Bipolar Disorder[312]Hurry Down Sunshine[313]I am Not Sick I Don't Need Help![314]Lithium for Medea[315]Loving Someone With Bipolar Disorder[316]Madness[317]Manic[318]Manic Depression[319]Mommy I'm Still in Here[320]Mood Genes[321]New Hope for Children and Teens with Bipolar Disorder[322]New Hope For People With Bipolar Disorder[323]Night Falls Fast[324]Overcoming Depression[325]Scattershot[326]Surviving Manic Depression[327]Swing Low[328]The Best Awful[329]The Bipolar Child[330]The Bipolar Disorder Survival Guide[331]The Devil and Daniel Johnston[332]The Hypomanic Edge[333]The Naked Bird Watcher[334]The Noonday Demon[335]The Pits and the Pendulum[336]The Years of Silence are Past[337]To Walk on Eggshells[338]Toxic Psychiatry[339]Undoing Depression[340]What Goes Up[341]What Works for Bipolar Kids[342]Zelda [343]Self-Help Groups [344]Dep-Anon Community Talk about this issue in our [345]mental health support community Therapist Search Find a Therapist: _______ Go! 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As discussed earlier, the hypothalamus is the link between the nervous and endocrine systems. Given that the nervous system is also associated with the immune system, it is possible that the hypothalamus exerts its effect on the immune system as well. Thus, the combination of these systems can alter body biochemistry, contributing to shifts in body rhythms such as the circadian, seasonal, and social rhythms. Circadian Rhythm and Bipolar Disorder [441]advertisement The circadian rhythm is the 24-hour cycle of the body, the exact length of which is determined by the amount of light that the hypothalamus senses in a day-night cycle. The name "circadian" refers to a period of time that is "around a day long". Clear patterns of brain wave activity and hormone production are coupled to this cycle. When the circadian rhythm is upset (as can be the case with jet lag and sleep problems) mood disturbances can result. It is known that in some people sleep deprivation causes mania, whereas in others it can alleviate the symptoms of depression. Thus, regulation of circadian rhythm is important for managing bipolar symptoms and mood episodes. Dysregulation of this system is typically experienced as a powerful source of stress. Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) and Bipolar Disorder Similar to circadian rhythms but longer in duration are seasonal rhythms. These are determined by the amount of daylight experienced within a given season. Dysregulation of seasonal rhythms has been linked with Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD; also known as winter depression). SAD-affected individuals begin to feel increasingly depressed as the amount of light disappears during the winter. Their depression lifts as springtime approaches and the days lengthen. During times of the year with long days, these people typically experience no undue mood disturbance. Social Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder Both circadian and seasonal rhythms can affect individuals' social rhythms. The social rhythm comprises of a daily routine such as waking up at a specific time, going to school or work, and interacting with family members, friends, peers and colleagues. Even healthy people can experience mood changes when their social rhythms are disturbed by insomnia, seasonal changes or work schedules. It is no great leap to see that if someone is susceptible to bipolar disorder, a change in their body rhythms might constitute sufficient stress to precipitate bipolar symptoms. When considering the possible causes of bipolar disorders, it is necessary to bear in mind the complex nature of mood polarity. It is likely that that the problem originates in multiple biologic systems - the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems with a basis in the genetic machinery that regulates these systems. For example, a gene important in the function of the hypothalamus may become mutated or infected by a retrovirus leading to deregulation of neurotransmitters, hormones, and/or immune components. The resulting change is measurable as biochemical imbalances in either the brain or body but these biochemical imbalances are not necessarily causing the underlying dysfunction, but instead may simply be themselves symptoms or links in a chain of causes that lead to bipolar illness. [442]« Previous[443]1...[444]12[445]13[446]14[447]15[448]16[449]17[450]18...[4 51]34[452]Next » Share: [453][twitter.jpg] [454][facebook.jpg] [455][linkedin.jpg] [456][stumble.jpg] [457][delicious.jpg] [458][buzz.jpg] [459][google.jpg] [460][diigo.jpg] [461][squidoo.jpg] [462][digg.jpg] [463][reddit.jpg] [464][bitly.jpg] Link: (Here's how to do it ... ) To link to this article: 1. Copy the HTML link code shown in the box just below. 2. Paste this HTML code into your blog or web page, into a forum post or a blog comment you make, into your Facebook feed, etc. Body Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder Thank you! Reader Comments Discuss this issue below or in our [465]forums. Add Comment [466]Follow us on Twitter! [spacer.gif] [467]Find us on Facebook! [spacer.gif] IFRAME: [468]a471eef6 [469]Get Support for Bipolar Disorder [spacer.gif] Mental Help Net [470]Terms of Use/Privacy Policy[471]Our Mission[472]Contributors[473]Jobs[474]Advertising on Mental Help Net[475]Contact Us [spacer.gif] [476]advertisement [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [477]Powered by CenterSite.Net [spacer.gif] [478]This website is certified by Health On the Net Foundation. Click to verify. [spacer.gif] __________________________________________________________________ [479]About Us | [480]About CenterSite | [481]Terms & Privacy | [482]Submit/Update Listings Copyright © [483]CenterSite, LLC, 1995-2010 [mhn_footer_pg_cnt.php] [484]Quantcast Références Liens visibles 10. javascript:void(0) 11. javascript:void(0) 18. javascript:void(0) 22. javascript:void(0) 32. javascript:void(0) 35. javascript:void(0) 44. javascript:void(0) Liens cachés : [PhilFront.jpg] [1][phil_tulga_logo.gif] [2][eyes.gif] Morse Code Music - connecting rhythm and language with Morse Code - Welcome to my Morse Code Music page! It includes: 1) an explanation on how to [3]translate Morse Code into music; 2) an online [4]Morse Code Music generator you can play right now on your computer; and 3) multimedia [5]activities that integrate Morse Code with other areas of the curriculum! So, take a couple of minutes and learn more about Morse Code and the wonderful connections we can make between language and music. Translating Morse Code into Music With International Morse Code, each letter of the alphabet is represented by short and long sounds called dots and dashes. Each dot, or short sound, will be played as an eighth note. . dot short sound [eighth%20note.jpg] eighth note Each dash, or long sound, will be played as a quarter note. - dash long sound [quarter%20note.jpg] quarter note Between each letter, there will be an eighth rest. [eighth%20rest.jpg] eighth rest Each rhythm will be played in 4/4 time: four counts to a measure, with the quarter note getting one count. [time%20signature.jpg] time signature To hear how this works, please see the Morse Code Music activity below. Morse Code Music How to play Morse Code Music: Scroll down until to see the keyboard on the screen. Using your mouse, click on the first letter in your name notice that it appears on the screen. Now, finish typing your name with your mouse or keyboard. Press the Play button and hear your name in Morse Code! To delete a character, just press the Backspace key. For a different sound, press the Tones or Voices buttons on the left of the keyboard. You may also want to listen to some of Phil's favorite words and by pressing the Words button. You will also find [6]drum language from the Congo, ancient [7]Aztec drum rhythms, and popular modern dance beats from around the world all played with Morse Code. You're ready, let's get started! Technical Note: You must have Macromedia Flash Player 6 for this activity to work. If you don't have it, you may obtain this free download from Macromedia at: Extensions Learn how to make music with Morse Code letters and words. [9][products-philguiro.jpg] [10]"Morse Code Mambo" lesson plan and group activity Play Morse Code words with Phil's free multimedia activities. [11][Unifix.gif] [12]Unifix Cube Drum Machine [13][FractionPies.gif] [14]Playing Fraction Pies [15][Counting.gif] [16]Counting Music Copyright © 2004 - 2006 Phil Tulga [17]Home [18]Web Design by DT Tech Web Design by DT Tech Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : #[1]eyePlorer.com You have deactivated Javascript. Probably some of the features of eyePlorer.com will not work correctly. We recommend to activate Javascript. [2]Video introduction | [3]Blog | [4]Newsletter | [5]Feedback | [6]Jobs | [7]FAQ | [8]Movies | [9]Disclaimer | [10]About us [11]eyePlorer.com on Facebook [12]eyePlorer.com on Twitter Références Liens visibles 5. mailto:feedback@eyeplorer.com?subject=eyePlorer.com%20Feedback Liens cachés : #[1]eyePlorer.com You have deactivated Javascript. Probably some of the features of eyePlorer.com will not work correctly. We recommend to activate Javascript. [2]Video introduction | [3]Blog | [4]Newsletter | [5]Feedback | [6]Jobs | [7]FAQ | [8]Movies | [9]Disclaimer | [10]About us [11]eyePlorer.com on Facebook [12]eyePlorer.com on Twitter Références Liens visibles 5. mailto:feedback@eyeplorer.com?subject=eyePlorer.com%20Feedback Liens cachés : * [1]DjangoBooks Home Djangobooks.com Gypsy Jazz and Django Reinhardt Discussion Area [2]Skip to content ____________________ Search [3]Advanced search * [4]Board index < [5]Books - Ask the Author < [6]Gypsy Rhythm * [7]Change font size * [8]FAQ * [9]Search * [10]Register * [11]Login [12]rhythm engine A support group for my Gypsy Rhythm book. Ask questions about Gypsy Rhythm technique, share your own learning experiences, and learn new tips and tricks. Moderator: [13]Michael Horowitz [14]Post a reply ____________________ Search 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [15]rhythm engine [16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its the only way always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London [18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django 100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good players! If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out there and support these guys books are not always the answer LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL WORKSHOPS Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010 Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt, these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of techniques and musical ideas. These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts Council England. WORKSHOPS £35 o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass. o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the masters themselves Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from 13.30 - 15.30 Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227 [20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records January Workshops at a Glance: Sunday 17 January Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance Battersea Monday 18 January Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Tuesday 19 January Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea Wednesday 20 January Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Thursday 21 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea Friday 22 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Saturday 23 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith Sunday 24 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to happen. ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS AND STUDENTS SUNDAY 17th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions. An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg, Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others. [23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY 17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at [25]www.wegottickets.com MONDAY 18th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients, intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive. Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music, their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous, humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY 18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [27]www.wegottickets.com TUESDAY 19th JANUARY Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [28]www.quecumbar.co.uk A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind, multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger, and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene. [29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com [31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from [32]www.wegottickets.com WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson. [34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl [36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ; Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [39]www.quecumbar.co.uk Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona. [40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [42]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [43]www.quecumbar.co.uk Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha [45]www.bielballestertrio.com Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [46]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs, demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg, Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label, El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in Spain. [49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com [51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY 24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at [53]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line). Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist, he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour. [55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY (Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from [56]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London SW11 3JB SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy. He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of 15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with "Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of the top 1.4% of entrants. "...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard; "It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again", Zutphen Paper. [58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo, Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill, technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of Gypsy Swing, WORKSHOP VENUES: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [60]www.institut-francais.org.uk Tube: South Kensington How to get there: From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6 Jazz Cafe POSK The Polish Cultural Centre 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same. There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction. Thomas's School 28-40 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3JB [63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Royal Academy of Dance 36 Battersea Square, Battersea, London SW11 3RA [64]www.rad.org.uk [65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Le QuecumBar & Brasserie 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3HX [66]www.quecumbar.co.uk [67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf How to find us by Bus Route 170: The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station. (A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station about £10) 170 from Victoria Station: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right 170 from Clapham Junction: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right By Train: Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from, Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch the 170 bus By Car: Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends London Airports: Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx or train to central London Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch the 170 bus. Map of where Le QuecumBar is: 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3 HX: [68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud to have the support of our world class musician patrons: Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg [69]quecumbar Posts: 3 Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm Location: London + [70]E-mail quecumbar + [71]Website [72]Top __________________________________________________________________ [73]Post a reply 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [74]Return to Gypsy Rhythm Jump to: [ Gypsy Rhythm................................................] Go Who is online Users browsing this forum: No registered users and 1 guest * [75]Board index * [76]The team o [77]Delete all board cookies o All times are UTC - 8 hours [ DST ] Revolution Style © 2007, 2008 by [78]Semi_Deus Powered by [79]phpBB © 2000, 2002, 2005, 2007 phpBB Group Références Liens visibles 20. mailto:info@quecumbar.co.uk 24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr 31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com Liens cachés : #[1]eyePlorer.com You have deactivated Javascript. Probably some of the features of eyePlorer.com will not work correctly. We recommend to activate Javascript. [2]Video introduction | [3]Blog | [4]Newsletter | [5]Feedback | [6]Jobs | [7]FAQ | [8]Movies | [9]Disclaimer | [10]About us [11]eyePlorer.com on Facebook [12]eyePlorer.com on Twitter Références Liens visibles 5. mailto:feedback@eyeplorer.com?subject=eyePlorer.com%20Feedback Liens cachés : * [1]DjangoBooks Home Djangobooks.com Gypsy Jazz and Django Reinhardt Discussion Area [2]Skip to content ____________________ Search [3]Advanced search * [4]Board index < [5]Books - Ask the Author < [6]Gypsy Rhythm * [7]Change font size * [8]FAQ * [9]Search * [10]Register * [11]Login [12]rhythm engine A support group for my Gypsy Rhythm book. Ask questions about Gypsy Rhythm technique, share your own learning experiences, and learn new tips and tricks. Moderator: [13]Michael Horowitz [14]Post a reply ____________________ Search 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [15]rhythm engine [16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its the only way always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London [18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django 100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good players! If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out there and support these guys books are not always the answer LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL WORKSHOPS Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010 Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt, these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of techniques and musical ideas. These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts Council England. WORKSHOPS £35 o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass. o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the masters themselves Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from 13.30 - 15.30 Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227 [20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records January Workshops at a Glance: Sunday 17 January Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance Battersea Monday 18 January Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Tuesday 19 January Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea Wednesday 20 January Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Thursday 21 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea Friday 22 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Saturday 23 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith Sunday 24 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to happen. ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS AND STUDENTS SUNDAY 17th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions. An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg, Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others. [23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY 17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at [25]www.wegottickets.com MONDAY 18th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients, intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive. Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music, their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous, humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY 18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [27]www.wegottickets.com TUESDAY 19th JANUARY Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [28]www.quecumbar.co.uk A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind, multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger, and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene. [29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com [31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from [32]www.wegottickets.com WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson. [34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl [36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ; Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [39]www.quecumbar.co.uk Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona. [40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [42]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [43]www.quecumbar.co.uk Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha [45]www.bielballestertrio.com Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [46]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs, demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg, Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label, El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in Spain. [49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com [51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY 24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at [53]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line). Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist, he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour. [55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY (Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from [56]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London SW11 3JB SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy. He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of 15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with "Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of the top 1.4% of entrants. "...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard; "It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again", Zutphen Paper. [58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo, Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill, technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of Gypsy Swing, WORKSHOP VENUES: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [60]www.institut-francais.org.uk Tube: South Kensington How to get there: From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6 Jazz Cafe POSK The Polish Cultural Centre 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same. There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction. Thomas's School 28-40 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3JB [63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Royal Academy of Dance 36 Battersea Square, Battersea, London SW11 3RA [64]www.rad.org.uk [65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Le QuecumBar & Brasserie 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3HX [66]www.quecumbar.co.uk [67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf How to find us by Bus Route 170: The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station. (A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station about £10) 170 from Victoria Station: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right 170 from Clapham Junction: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right By Train: Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from, Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch the 170 bus By Car: Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends London Airports: Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx or train to central London Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch the 170 bus. Map of where Le QuecumBar is: 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3 HX: [68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud to have the support of our world class musician patrons: Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg [69]quecumbar Posts: 3 Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm Location: London + [70]E-mail quecumbar + [71]Website [72]Top __________________________________________________________________ [73]Post a reply 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [74]Return to Gypsy Rhythm Jump to: [ Gypsy Rhythm................................................] Go Who is online Users browsing this forum: No registered users and 1 guest * [75]Board index * [76]The team o [77]Delete all board cookies o All times are UTC - 8 hours [ DST ] Revolution Style © 2007, 2008 by [78]Semi_Deus Powered by [79]phpBB © 2000, 2002, 2005, 2007 phpBB Group Références Liens visibles 20. mailto:info@quecumbar.co.uk 24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr 31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com Liens cachés : [1]Skip to main content (WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION * Biblio. Data * [2]Description * [3]Claims * [4]National Phase * [5]Notices * [6]Documents Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau * [7]Link + [8]Permanent Link + [9]Bookmark this page __________________________________________________________________ Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.: PCT/US1999/000569 Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999 IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01) Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake Village, CA 91361 (US). Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US). Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box 640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US). Priority Data: 09/013,353 26.01.1998 US Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30) corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system. A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity information and may contain polyphonic information. Designated States: JP. European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB, GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE). Publication Language: English (EN) Filing Language: English (EN) [10]Scam Warning | [11]RSS | [12]Terms of use [13]WIPO Home services * [14]Español * [15]Français * [16]日本語 ____________________ Search * [17]Contact us * [18]Accessibility * [19]Site map * [20]Home * [21]IP Services * [22]PATENTSCOPE® * [23]Patent Search [24]PATENTSCOPE® * [25]About Patents * [26]PCT Resources * [27]Database Search * [28]PCT Applications * [29]National Collections & PCT * [30]External Databases * [31]Patent Analysis * [32]Glossary [33]Data Services [34]Publications [35]Projects & Programs [36]Patent Law [37]Priority Documents Related Links * [38]Patent Classification: IPC * [39]Statistics * [40]Life Sciences * [41]WIPO Standards E-Newsletters * [42]Subscription [43]ABOUT WIPO [44]IP SERVICES [45]PROGRAM ACTIVITIES [46]RESOURCES [47]NEWS & EVENTS Références #[1]eyePlorer.com You have deactivated Javascript. Probably some of the features of eyePlorer.com will not work correctly. We recommend to activate Javascript. [2]Video introduction | [3]Blog | [4]Newsletter | [5]Feedback | [6]Jobs | [7]FAQ | [8]Movies | [9]Disclaimer | [10]About us [11]eyePlorer.com on Facebook [12]eyePlorer.com on Twitter Références Liens visibles 5. mailto:feedback@eyeplorer.com?subject=eyePlorer.com%20Feedback Liens cachés : * [1]DjangoBooks Home Djangobooks.com Gypsy Jazz and Django Reinhardt Discussion Area [2]Skip to content ____________________ Search [3]Advanced search * [4]Board index < [5]Books - Ask the Author < [6]Gypsy Rhythm * [7]Change font size * [8]FAQ * [9]Search * [10]Register * [11]Login [12]rhythm engine A support group for my Gypsy Rhythm book. Ask questions about Gypsy Rhythm technique, share your own learning experiences, and learn new tips and tricks. Moderator: [13]Michael Horowitz [14]Post a reply ____________________ Search 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [15]rhythm engine [16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its the only way always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London [18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django 100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good players! If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out there and support these guys books are not always the answer LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL WORKSHOPS Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010 Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt, these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of techniques and musical ideas. These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts Council England. WORKSHOPS £35 o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass. o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the masters themselves Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from 13.30 - 15.30 Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227 [20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records January Workshops at a Glance: Sunday 17 January Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance Battersea Monday 18 January Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Tuesday 19 January Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea Wednesday 20 January Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Thursday 21 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea Friday 22 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Saturday 23 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith Sunday 24 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to happen. ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS AND STUDENTS SUNDAY 17th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions. An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg, Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others. [23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY 17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at [25]www.wegottickets.com MONDAY 18th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients, intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive. Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music, their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous, humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY 18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [27]www.wegottickets.com TUESDAY 19th JANUARY Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [28]www.quecumbar.co.uk A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind, multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger, and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene. [29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com [31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from [32]www.wegottickets.com WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson. [34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl [36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ; Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [39]www.quecumbar.co.uk Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona. [40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [42]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [43]www.quecumbar.co.uk Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha [45]www.bielballestertrio.com Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [46]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs, demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg, Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label, El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in Spain. [49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com [51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY 24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at [53]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line). Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist, he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour. [55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY (Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from [56]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London SW11 3JB SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy. He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of 15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with "Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of the top 1.4% of entrants. "...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard; "It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again", Zutphen Paper. [58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo, Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill, technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of Gypsy Swing, WORKSHOP VENUES: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [60]www.institut-francais.org.uk Tube: South Kensington How to get there: From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6 Jazz Cafe POSK The Polish Cultural Centre 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same. There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction. Thomas's School 28-40 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3JB [63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Royal Academy of Dance 36 Battersea Square, Battersea, London SW11 3RA [64]www.rad.org.uk [65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Le QuecumBar & Brasserie 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3HX [66]www.quecumbar.co.uk [67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf How to find us by Bus Route 170: The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station. (A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station about £10) 170 from Victoria Station: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right 170 from Clapham Junction: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right By Train: Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from, Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch the 170 bus By Car: Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends London Airports: Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx or train to central London Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch the 170 bus. Map of where Le QuecumBar is: 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3 HX: [68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud to have the support of our world class musician patrons: Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg [69]quecumbar Posts: 3 Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm Location: London + [70]E-mail quecumbar + [71]Website [72]Top __________________________________________________________________ [73]Post a reply 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [74]Return to Gypsy Rhythm Jump to: [ Gypsy Rhythm................................................] Go Who is online Users browsing this forum: No registered users and 1 guest * [75]Board index * [76]The team o [77]Delete all board cookies o All times are UTC - 8 hours [ DST ] Revolution Style © 2007, 2008 by [78]Semi_Deus Powered by [79]phpBB © 2000, 2002, 2005, 2007 phpBB Group Références Liens visibles 20. mailto:info@quecumbar.co.uk 24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr 31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com Liens cachés : [1]Skip to main content (WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION * Biblio. Data * [2]Description * [3]Claims * [4]National Phase * [5]Notices * [6]Documents Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau * [7]Link + [8]Permanent Link + [9]Bookmark this page __________________________________________________________________ Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.: PCT/US1999/000569 Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999 IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01) Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake Village, CA 91361 (US). Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US). Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box 640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US). Priority Data: 09/013,353 26.01.1998 US Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30) corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system. A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity information and may contain polyphonic information. Designated States: JP. European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB, GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE). Publication Language: English (EN) Filing Language: English (EN) [10]Scam Warning | [11]RSS | [12]Terms of use [13]WIPO Home services * [14]Español * [15]Français * [16]日本語 ____________________ Search * [17]Contact us * [18]Accessibility * [19]Site map * [20]Home * [21]IP Services * [22]PATENTSCOPE® * [23]Patent Search [24]PATENTSCOPE® * [25]About Patents * [26]PCT Resources * [27]Database Search * [28]PCT Applications * [29]National Collections & PCT * [30]External Databases * [31]Patent Analysis * [32]Glossary [33]Data Services [34]Publications [35]Projects & Programs [36]Patent Law [37]Priority Documents Related Links * [38]Patent Classification: IPC * [39]Statistics * [40]Life Sciences * [41]WIPO Standards E-Newsletters * [42]Subscription [43]ABOUT WIPO [44]IP SERVICES [45]PROGRAM ACTIVITIES [46]RESOURCES [47]NEWS & EVENTS Références A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event by David Lindsay Copyright 2002. All right reserved. In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm. Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event. Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our scope. The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known. The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand, and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.) A C G T T G C A These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three: A C G T || ||| ||| || T G C A In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological organisms--play a determining role. Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy. Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is constant, by the following coefficients: A=2 C=3 G=3 T=2 Given an arbitrary DNA sequence: A C G T A A T A T T C T the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes: 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation progresses away from the initiation site: A C G T A A T A T T C T -------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event. H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins, which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four: 2332 2222 2232 Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond breakage are activated simultaneously: A C G T A A T A T T C T || ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger -- will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied equally to molecular processes or musical ones. Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is varied its energy profile. The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could, for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate, while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and unstressed "beats," such that: A=2=unstressed beat (-) C=3=stressed beat (´) G=3=stressed beat (´) T=2=unstressed beat (-) Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation process. Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication will suffice. Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry. In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward resonance. Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering a suspension bridge. The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription. 1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences," Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts (Sept. 1995). For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here. [2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles. For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here. website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan University. Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : #[1]eyePlorer.com You have deactivated Javascript. Probably some of the features of eyePlorer.com will not work correctly. We recommend to activate Javascript. [2]Video introduction | [3]Blog | [4]Newsletter | [5]Feedback | [6]Jobs | [7]FAQ | [8]Movies | [9]Disclaimer | [10]About us [11]eyePlorer.com on Facebook [12]eyePlorer.com on Twitter Références Liens visibles 5. mailto:feedback@eyeplorer.com?subject=eyePlorer.com%20Feedback Liens cachés : * [1]DjangoBooks Home Djangobooks.com Gypsy Jazz and Django Reinhardt Discussion Area [2]Skip to content ____________________ Search [3]Advanced search * [4]Board index < [5]Books - Ask the Author < [6]Gypsy Rhythm * [7]Change font size * [8]FAQ * [9]Search * [10]Register * [11]Login [12]rhythm engine A support group for my Gypsy Rhythm book. Ask questions about Gypsy Rhythm technique, share your own learning experiences, and learn new tips and tricks. Moderator: [13]Michael Horowitz [14]Post a reply ____________________ Search 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [15]rhythm engine [16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its the only way always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London [18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django 100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good players! If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out there and support these guys books are not always the answer LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL WORKSHOPS Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010 Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt, these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of techniques and musical ideas. These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts Council England. WORKSHOPS £35 o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass. o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the masters themselves Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from 13.30 - 15.30 Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227 [20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records January Workshops at a Glance: Sunday 17 January Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance Battersea Monday 18 January Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Tuesday 19 January Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea Wednesday 20 January Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Thursday 21 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea Friday 22 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Saturday 23 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith Sunday 24 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to happen. ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS AND STUDENTS SUNDAY 17th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions. An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg, Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others. [23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY 17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at [25]www.wegottickets.com MONDAY 18th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients, intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive. Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music, their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous, humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY 18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [27]www.wegottickets.com TUESDAY 19th JANUARY Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [28]www.quecumbar.co.uk A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind, multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger, and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene. [29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com [31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from [32]www.wegottickets.com WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson. [34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl [36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ; Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [39]www.quecumbar.co.uk Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona. [40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [42]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [43]www.quecumbar.co.uk Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha [45]www.bielballestertrio.com Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [46]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs, demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg, Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label, El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in Spain. [49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com [51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY 24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at [53]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line). Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist, he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour. [55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY (Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from [56]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London SW11 3JB SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy. He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of 15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with "Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of the top 1.4% of entrants. "...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard; "It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again", Zutphen Paper. [58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo, Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill, technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of Gypsy Swing, WORKSHOP VENUES: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [60]www.institut-francais.org.uk Tube: South Kensington How to get there: From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6 Jazz Cafe POSK The Polish Cultural Centre 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same. There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction. Thomas's School 28-40 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3JB [63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Royal Academy of Dance 36 Battersea Square, Battersea, London SW11 3RA [64]www.rad.org.uk [65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Le QuecumBar & Brasserie 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3HX [66]www.quecumbar.co.uk [67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf How to find us by Bus Route 170: The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station. (A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station about £10) 170 from Victoria Station: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right 170 from Clapham Junction: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right By Train: Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from, Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch the 170 bus By Car: Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends London Airports: Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx or train to central London Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch the 170 bus. Map of where Le QuecumBar is: 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3 HX: [68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud to have the support of our world class musician patrons: Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg [69]quecumbar Posts: 3 Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm Location: London + [70]E-mail quecumbar + [71]Website [72]Top __________________________________________________________________ [73]Post a reply 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [74]Return to Gypsy Rhythm Jump to: [ Gypsy Rhythm................................................] Go Who is online Users browsing this forum: No registered users and 1 guest * [75]Board index * [76]The team o [77]Delete all board cookies o All times are UTC - 8 hours [ DST ] Revolution Style © 2007, 2008 by [78]Semi_Deus Powered by [79]phpBB © 2000, 2002, 2005, 2007 phpBB Group Références Liens visibles 20. mailto:info@quecumbar.co.uk 24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr 31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com Liens cachés : [1]Skip to main content (WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION * Biblio. Data * [2]Description * [3]Claims * [4]National Phase * [5]Notices * [6]Documents Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau * [7]Link + [8]Permanent Link + [9]Bookmark this page __________________________________________________________________ Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.: PCT/US1999/000569 Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999 IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01) Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake Village, CA 91361 (US). Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US). Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box 640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US). Priority Data: 09/013,353 26.01.1998 US Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30) corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system. A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity information and may contain polyphonic information. Designated States: JP. European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB, GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE). Publication Language: English (EN) Filing Language: English (EN) [10]Scam Warning | [11]RSS | [12]Terms of use [13]WIPO Home services * [14]Español * [15]Français * [16]日本語 ____________________ Search * [17]Contact us * [18]Accessibility * [19]Site map * [20]Home * [21]IP Services * [22]PATENTSCOPE® * [23]Patent Search [24]PATENTSCOPE® * [25]About Patents * [26]PCT Resources * [27]Database Search * [28]PCT Applications * [29]National Collections & PCT * [30]External Databases * [31]Patent Analysis * [32]Glossary [33]Data Services [34]Publications [35]Projects & Programs [36]Patent Law [37]Priority Documents Related Links * [38]Patent Classification: IPC * [39]Statistics * [40]Life Sciences * [41]WIPO Standards E-Newsletters * [42]Subscription [43]ABOUT WIPO [44]IP SERVICES [45]PROGRAM ACTIVITIES [46]RESOURCES [47]NEWS & EVENTS Références A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event by David Lindsay Copyright 2002. All right reserved. In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm. Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event. Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our scope. The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known. The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand, and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.) A C G T T G C A These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three: A C G T || ||| ||| || T G C A In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological organisms--play a determining role. Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy. Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is constant, by the following coefficients: A=2 C=3 G=3 T=2 Given an arbitrary DNA sequence: A C G T A A T A T T C T the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes: 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation progresses away from the initiation site: A C G T A A T A T T C T -------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event. H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins, which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four: 2332 2222 2232 Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond breakage are activated simultaneously: A C G T A A T A T T C T || ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger -- will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied equally to molecular processes or musical ones. Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is varied its energy profile. The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could, for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate, while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and unstressed "beats," such that: A=2=unstressed beat (-) C=3=stressed beat (´) G=3=stressed beat (´) T=2=unstressed beat (-) Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation process. Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication will suffice. Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry. In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward resonance. Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering a suspension bridge. The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription. 1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences," Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts (Sept. 1995). For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here. [2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles. For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here. website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan University. Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project [1]CRE Personnel What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project? The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision, continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data (e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that represents these programs and data visually. Expressive timing One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say, tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat). All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this project. Composition and combination techniques Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of such structures. Applications Here are some possible applications of CRE: * Anything that any standard drum machine does * Automated percussion tracks with "human feel" * A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the same rhythms with "human feel" * Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable (e.g. the 30-second commercial) * Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with irrationally-related durations * Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at will, in real time * Making a program that improvises by "driving around in rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or invention according to some combination of generative processes) * Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without altering the tree structure. Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since this list provides checkpoints for the software development. __________________________________________________________________ Page maintained by Vijay Iyer Last modified July 15, 1996 __________________________________________________________________ [2]Up to Vijay's page [3]Up to CNMAT homepage [4]Send mail to the CRE group [5]Send mail to Vijay Iyer Références 4. mailto:cdm@icsi.berkeley.edu 5. mailto:vijay@cnmat.berkeley.edu #[1]eyePlorer.com You have deactivated Javascript. Probably some of the features of eyePlorer.com will not work correctly. We recommend to activate Javascript. 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Moderator: [13]Michael Horowitz [14]Post a reply ____________________ Search 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [15]rhythm engine [16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its the only way always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London [18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django 100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good players! If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out there and support these guys books are not always the answer LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL WORKSHOPS Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010 Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt, these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of techniques and musical ideas. These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts Council England. WORKSHOPS £35 o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass. o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the masters themselves Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from 13.30 - 15.30 Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227 [20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records January Workshops at a Glance: Sunday 17 January Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance Battersea Monday 18 January Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Tuesday 19 January Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea Wednesday 20 January Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Thursday 21 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea Friday 22 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Saturday 23 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith Sunday 24 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to happen. ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS AND STUDENTS SUNDAY 17th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions. An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg, Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others. [23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY 17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at [25]www.wegottickets.com MONDAY 18th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients, intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive. Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music, their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous, humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY 18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [27]www.wegottickets.com TUESDAY 19th JANUARY Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [28]www.quecumbar.co.uk A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind, multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger, and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene. [29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com [31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from [32]www.wegottickets.com WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson. [34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl [36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ; Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [39]www.quecumbar.co.uk Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona. [40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [42]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [43]www.quecumbar.co.uk Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha [45]www.bielballestertrio.com Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [46]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs, demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg, Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label, El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in Spain. [49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com [51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY 24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at [53]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line). Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist, he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour. [55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY (Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from [56]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London SW11 3JB SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy. He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of 15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with "Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of the top 1.4% of entrants. "...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard; "It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again", Zutphen Paper. [58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo, Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill, technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of Gypsy Swing, WORKSHOP VENUES: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [60]www.institut-francais.org.uk Tube: South Kensington How to get there: From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6 Jazz Cafe POSK The Polish Cultural Centre 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same. There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction. Thomas's School 28-40 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3JB [63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Royal Academy of Dance 36 Battersea Square, Battersea, London SW11 3RA [64]www.rad.org.uk [65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Le QuecumBar & Brasserie 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3HX [66]www.quecumbar.co.uk [67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf How to find us by Bus Route 170: The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station. (A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station about £10) 170 from Victoria Station: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right 170 from Clapham Junction: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right By Train: Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from, Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch the 170 bus By Car: Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends London Airports: Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx or train to central London Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch the 170 bus. Map of where Le QuecumBar is: 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3 HX: [68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud to have the support of our world class musician patrons: Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg [69]quecumbar Posts: 3 Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm Location: London + [70]E-mail quecumbar + [71]Website [72]Top __________________________________________________________________ [73]Post a reply 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [74]Return to Gypsy Rhythm Jump to: [ Gypsy Rhythm................................................] Go Who is online Users browsing this forum: No registered users and 1 guest * [75]Board index * [76]The team o [77]Delete all board cookies o All times are UTC - 8 hours [ DST ] Revolution Style © 2007, 2008 by [78]Semi_Deus Powered by [79]phpBB © 2000, 2002, 2005, 2007 phpBB Group Références Liens visibles 20. mailto:info@quecumbar.co.uk 24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr 31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com Liens cachés : [1]Skip to main content (WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION * Biblio. Data * [2]Description * [3]Claims * [4]National Phase * [5]Notices * [6]Documents Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau * [7]Link + [8]Permanent Link + [9]Bookmark this page __________________________________________________________________ Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.: PCT/US1999/000569 Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999 IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01) Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake Village, CA 91361 (US). Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US). Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box 640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US). Priority Data: 09/013,353 26.01.1998 US Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30) corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system. A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity information and may contain polyphonic information. Designated States: JP. European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB, GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE). Publication Language: English (EN) Filing Language: English (EN) [10]Scam Warning | [11]RSS | [12]Terms of use [13]WIPO Home services * [14]Español * [15]Français * [16]日本語 ____________________ Search * [17]Contact us * [18]Accessibility * [19]Site map * [20]Home * [21]IP Services * [22]PATENTSCOPE® * [23]Patent Search [24]PATENTSCOPE® * [25]About Patents * [26]PCT Resources * [27]Database Search * [28]PCT Applications * [29]National Collections & PCT * [30]External Databases * [31]Patent Analysis * [32]Glossary [33]Data Services [34]Publications [35]Projects & Programs [36]Patent Law [37]Priority Documents Related Links * [38]Patent Classification: IPC * [39]Statistics * [40]Life Sciences * [41]WIPO Standards E-Newsletters * [42]Subscription [43]ABOUT WIPO [44]IP SERVICES [45]PROGRAM ACTIVITIES [46]RESOURCES [47]NEWS & EVENTS Références A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event by David Lindsay Copyright 2002. All right reserved. In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm. Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event. Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our scope. The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known. The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand, and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.) A C G T T G C A These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three: A C G T || ||| ||| || T G C A In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological organisms--play a determining role. Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy. Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is constant, by the following coefficients: A=2 C=3 G=3 T=2 Given an arbitrary DNA sequence: A C G T A A T A T T C T the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes: 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation progresses away from the initiation site: A C G T A A T A T T C T -------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event. H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins, which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four: 2332 2222 2232 Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond breakage are activated simultaneously: A C G T A A T A T T C T || ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger -- will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied equally to molecular processes or musical ones. Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is varied its energy profile. The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could, for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate, while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and unstressed "beats," such that: A=2=unstressed beat (-) C=3=stressed beat (´) G=3=stressed beat (´) T=2=unstressed beat (-) Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation process. Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication will suffice. Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry. In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward resonance. Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering a suspension bridge. The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription. 1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences," Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts (Sept. 1995). For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here. [2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles. For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here. website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan University. Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project [1]CRE Personnel What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project? The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision, continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data (e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that represents these programs and data visually. Expressive timing One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say, tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat). All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this project. Composition and combination techniques Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of such structures. Applications Here are some possible applications of CRE: * Anything that any standard drum machine does * Automated percussion tracks with "human feel" * A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the same rhythms with "human feel" * Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable (e.g. the 30-second commercial) * Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with irrationally-related durations * Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at will, in real time * Making a program that improvises by "driving around in rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or invention according to some combination of generative processes) * Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without altering the tree structure. Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since this list provides checkpoints for the software development. __________________________________________________________________ Page maintained by Vijay Iyer Last modified July 15, 1996 __________________________________________________________________ [2]Up to Vijay's page [3]Up to CNMAT homepage [4]Send mail to the CRE group [5]Send mail to Vijay Iyer Références 4. mailto:cdm@icsi.berkeley.edu 5. mailto:vijay@cnmat.berkeley.edu #[1]Suite101: Arts Education [2]Freelance Writing Jobs | [3]Today's Articles | [4]Sign In [icon_searchfilter_1.gif] ____________________ [5][v4_button_widget_search.png] Articles Writers Find [6]Suite101 Browse Sections [7]Home [8]Education & Career [9]Arts Education [10]Music Education [11]Write For Us » [12]Print Article [13]Subscribe [14]Share Article [15]Jennifer Wagaman Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students Lesson Ideas Involving Rhythm for Young Students [16]Dec 16, 2008 [17]Jennifer Wagaman Be creative and resourceful when teaching kindergarten students about rhythm. [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Teaching rhythm to Kindergarten students can be a fun way to get students moving around the classroom. When writing lesson plans with the objective towards learning rhythm, consider not only the manner in which you teach the students, but which songs would provide the best lesson opportunity, as well as which songs will work for the short attention span the students have. How to Teach Rhythm Use the body demonstrate the beat, also called body percussion, will help students feel the beat and learn the rhythm. This can involve having the students clap, tap, or stomp their feet while singing. This reinforces beat in a tactile manner, and helps the students stay focused on what you are doing. You can also use any opportunity you have to get the students up and moving about the room while singing songs. Although this does take decent [18]classroom management skills, it may also help your student's behavior as they are not required to sit still throughout the class period. What Songs Teach Rhythm Teaching children about rhythm can be a great time to introduce some fun songs. Lessons involving rhythm can be taught with any song that has a steady beat, which basically means that most songs are good to teach rhythm. Pick songs that the students either already know or are easy to teach, as this will ensure that they already know the basic rhythm. Some good songs to use for teaching rhythm include songs like Engine Engine Number Nine, and Skip to My Lou. For Engine Engine Number Nine, after teaching the song, have the students form a train and move around the room to the beat of the train in the song. For Skip to My Lou, have the students walk, march, or skip around the room to the beat of the song. Keep Attention Span in Mind Because a Kindergarten age child has a relatively short attention span, keep your songs short and varied. Do several songs per class period. It is better to do 3 five minute songs, assuming a 20 minute class period, than to spend 15 minutes on one song. So once again, choose songs that are either easy to teach, or that the students are already somewhat familiar with. Do not be afraid to experiment with your class as you teach the concept of rhythm. Reflect on your lesson after you have taught it, decide where there is room for improvement, and work to improve it for the next class you teach it to. You may also be interested in using [19]STOMP to teach rhythm in the classroom. Read more [20]tips for music teachers. The copyright of the article Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in [21]Arts Education is owned by [22]Jennifer Wagaman. Permission to republish Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in print or online must be granted by the author in writing. [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Ideas for Teaching Rhythm, Mary R. Vogt Ideas for Teaching Rhythm [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [comment_icon_f1.png] What do you think about this article? __________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ NOTE: Because you are not a Suite101 member, your comment will be moderated before it is viewable. post your comment What is 5+5? ______ [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Comments Apr 15, 2009 7:59 AM Guest : I particularly like the idea of reflecting on the lesson after its implementation. Reflection and teaching reflectively should be encouraged among music teachers. Cheers Mark Minott [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] 1 Comment: Related Articles [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [23]Lessons about Sound and Rhythm * [24]Kindergarten Drama Lesson on Expressing Feelings * [25]Teaching Poetry Through Movement, Drama & Art * [26]Enhance Student Reading Skills * [27]Group Music Lessons for Young Children * [28]Syllable Count Poems Lesson * [29]How to Make Fun Butterfly Crafts for Kids [30]more in arts education [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Related Topics [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [31]Music Education * [32]Arts Education Curriculum * [33]Dance Education * [34]Drama Education * [35]Theater Education * [36]Visual Arts Education [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Reference [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [37]how to teach rhythm * [38]teaching rhythm to kindergarten students * [39]lesson ideas for teaching rhythm * [40]what songs will teach rhythm * [41]teaching music to kindergarten students * [42]reflection on how a lesson went [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [43]Enter Suite101.com`s New Tagline Contest
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Moderator: [13]Michael Horowitz [14]Post a reply ____________________ Search 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [15]rhythm engine [16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its the only way always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London [18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django 100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good players! If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out there and support these guys books are not always the answer LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL WORKSHOPS Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010 Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt, these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of techniques and musical ideas. These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts Council England. WORKSHOPS £35 o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass. o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the masters themselves Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from 13.30 - 15.30 Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227 [20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records January Workshops at a Glance: Sunday 17 January Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance Battersea Monday 18 January Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Tuesday 19 January Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea Wednesday 20 January Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Thursday 21 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea Friday 22 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Saturday 23 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith Sunday 24 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to happen. ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS AND STUDENTS SUNDAY 17th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions. An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg, Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others. [23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY 17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at [25]www.wegottickets.com MONDAY 18th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients, intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive. Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music, their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous, humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY 18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [27]www.wegottickets.com TUESDAY 19th JANUARY Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [28]www.quecumbar.co.uk A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind, multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger, and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene. [29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com [31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from [32]www.wegottickets.com WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson. [34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl [36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ; Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [39]www.quecumbar.co.uk Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona. [40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [42]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [43]www.quecumbar.co.uk Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha [45]www.bielballestertrio.com Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [46]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs, demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg, Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label, El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in Spain. [49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com [51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY 24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at [53]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line). Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist, he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour. [55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY (Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from [56]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London SW11 3JB SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy. He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of 15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with "Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of the top 1.4% of entrants. "...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard; "It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again", Zutphen Paper. [58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo, Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill, technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of Gypsy Swing, WORKSHOP VENUES: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [60]www.institut-francais.org.uk Tube: South Kensington How to get there: From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6 Jazz Cafe POSK The Polish Cultural Centre 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same. There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction. Thomas's School 28-40 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3JB [63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Royal Academy of Dance 36 Battersea Square, Battersea, London SW11 3RA [64]www.rad.org.uk [65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Le QuecumBar & Brasserie 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3HX [66]www.quecumbar.co.uk [67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf How to find us by Bus Route 170: The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station. (A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station about £10) 170 from Victoria Station: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right 170 from Clapham Junction: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right By Train: Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from, Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch the 170 bus By Car: Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends London Airports: Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx or train to central London Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch the 170 bus. Map of where Le QuecumBar is: 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3 HX: [68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud to have the support of our world class musician patrons: Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg [69]quecumbar Posts: 3 Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm Location: London + [70]E-mail quecumbar + [71]Website [72]Top __________________________________________________________________ [73]Post a reply 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [74]Return to Gypsy Rhythm Jump to: [ Gypsy Rhythm................................................] Go Who is online Users browsing this forum: No registered users and 1 guest * [75]Board index * [76]The team o [77]Delete all board cookies o All times are UTC - 8 hours [ DST ] Revolution Style © 2007, 2008 by [78]Semi_Deus Powered by [79]phpBB © 2000, 2002, 2005, 2007 phpBB Group Références Liens visibles 20. mailto:info@quecumbar.co.uk 24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr 31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com Liens cachés : #[1]eyePlorer.com You have deactivated Javascript. Probably some of the features of eyePlorer.com will not work correctly. We recommend to activate Javascript. [2]Video introduction | [3]Blog | [4]Newsletter | [5]Feedback | [6]Jobs | [7]FAQ | [8]Movies | [9]Disclaimer | [10]About us [11]eyePlorer.com on Facebook [12]eyePlorer.com on Twitter Références Liens visibles 5. mailto:feedback@eyeplorer.com?subject=eyePlorer.com%20Feedback Liens cachés : * [1]DjangoBooks Home Djangobooks.com Gypsy Jazz and Django Reinhardt Discussion Area [2]Skip to content ____________________ Search [3]Advanced search * [4]Board index < [5]Books - Ask the Author < [6]Gypsy Rhythm * [7]Change font size * [8]FAQ * [9]Search * [10]Register * [11]Login [12]rhythm engine A support group for my Gypsy Rhythm book. Ask questions about Gypsy Rhythm technique, share your own learning experiences, and learn new tips and tricks. Moderator: [13]Michael Horowitz [14]Post a reply ____________________ Search 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [15]rhythm engine [16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its the only way always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London [18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django 100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good players! If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out there and support these guys books are not always the answer LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL WORKSHOPS Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010 Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt, these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of techniques and musical ideas. These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts Council England. WORKSHOPS £35 o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass. o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the masters themselves Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from 13.30 - 15.30 Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227 [20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records January Workshops at a Glance: Sunday 17 January Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance Battersea Monday 18 January Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Tuesday 19 January Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea Wednesday 20 January Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Thursday 21 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea Friday 22 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Saturday 23 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith Sunday 24 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to happen. ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS AND STUDENTS SUNDAY 17th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions. An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg, Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others. [23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY 17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at [25]www.wegottickets.com MONDAY 18th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients, intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive. Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music, their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous, humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY 18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [27]www.wegottickets.com TUESDAY 19th JANUARY Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [28]www.quecumbar.co.uk A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind, multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger, and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene. [29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com [31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from [32]www.wegottickets.com WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson. [34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl [36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ; Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [39]www.quecumbar.co.uk Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona. [40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [42]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [43]www.quecumbar.co.uk Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha [45]www.bielballestertrio.com Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [46]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs, demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg, Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label, El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in Spain. [49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com [51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY 24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at [53]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line). Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist, he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour. [55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY (Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from [56]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London SW11 3JB SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy. He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of 15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with "Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of the top 1.4% of entrants. "...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard; "It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again", Zutphen Paper. [58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo, Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill, technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of Gypsy Swing, WORKSHOP VENUES: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [60]www.institut-francais.org.uk Tube: South Kensington How to get there: From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6 Jazz Cafe POSK The Polish Cultural Centre 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same. There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction. Thomas's School 28-40 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3JB [63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Royal Academy of Dance 36 Battersea Square, Battersea, London SW11 3RA [64]www.rad.org.uk [65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Le QuecumBar & Brasserie 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3HX [66]www.quecumbar.co.uk [67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf How to find us by Bus Route 170: The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station. (A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station about £10) 170 from Victoria Station: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right 170 from Clapham Junction: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right By Train: Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from, Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch the 170 bus By Car: Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends London Airports: Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx or train to central London Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch the 170 bus. Map of where Le QuecumBar is: 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3 HX: [68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud to have the support of our world class musician patrons: Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg [69]quecumbar Posts: 3 Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm Location: London + [70]E-mail quecumbar + [71]Website [72]Top __________________________________________________________________ [73]Post a reply 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [74]Return to Gypsy Rhythm Jump to: [ Gypsy Rhythm................................................] Go Who is online Users browsing this forum: No registered users and 1 guest * [75]Board index * [76]The team o [77]Delete all board cookies o All times are UTC - 8 hours [ DST ] Revolution Style © 2007, 2008 by [78]Semi_Deus Powered by [79]phpBB © 2000, 2002, 2005, 2007 phpBB Group Références Liens visibles 20. mailto:info@quecumbar.co.uk 24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr 31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com Liens cachés : [1]Skip to main content (WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION * Biblio. Data * [2]Description * [3]Claims * [4]National Phase * [5]Notices * [6]Documents Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau * [7]Link + [8]Permanent Link + [9]Bookmark this page __________________________________________________________________ Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.: PCT/US1999/000569 Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999 IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01) Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake Village, CA 91361 (US). Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US). Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box 640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US). Priority Data: 09/013,353 26.01.1998 US Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30) corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system. A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity information and may contain polyphonic information. Designated States: JP. European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB, GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE). 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We recommend to activate Javascript. [2]Video introduction | [3]Blog | [4]Newsletter | [5]Feedback | [6]Jobs | [7]FAQ | [8]Movies | [9]Disclaimer | [10]About us [11]eyePlorer.com on Facebook [12]eyePlorer.com on Twitter Références Liens visibles 5. mailto:feedback@eyeplorer.com?subject=eyePlorer.com%20Feedback Liens cachés : * [1]DjangoBooks Home Djangobooks.com Gypsy Jazz and Django Reinhardt Discussion Area [2]Skip to content ____________________ Search [3]Advanced search * [4]Board index < [5]Books - Ask the Author < [6]Gypsy Rhythm * [7]Change font size * [8]FAQ * [9]Search * [10]Register * [11]Login [12]rhythm engine A support group for my Gypsy Rhythm book. Ask questions about Gypsy Rhythm technique, share your own learning experiences, and learn new tips and tricks. Moderator: [13]Michael Horowitz [14]Post a reply ____________________ Search 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [15]rhythm engine [16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its the only way always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London [18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django 100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good players! If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out there and support these guys books are not always the answer LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL WORKSHOPS Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010 Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt, these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of techniques and musical ideas. These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts Council England. WORKSHOPS £35 o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass. o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the masters themselves Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from 13.30 - 15.30 Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227 [20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records January Workshops at a Glance: Sunday 17 January Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance Battersea Monday 18 January Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Tuesday 19 January Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea Wednesday 20 January Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Thursday 21 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea Friday 22 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Saturday 23 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith Sunday 24 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to happen. ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS AND STUDENTS SUNDAY 17th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions. An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg, Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others. [23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY 17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at [25]www.wegottickets.com MONDAY 18th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients, intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive. Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music, their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous, humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY 18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [27]www.wegottickets.com TUESDAY 19th JANUARY Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [28]www.quecumbar.co.uk A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind, multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger, and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene. [29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com [31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from [32]www.wegottickets.com WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson. [34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl [36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ; Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [39]www.quecumbar.co.uk Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona. [40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [42]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [43]www.quecumbar.co.uk Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha [45]www.bielballestertrio.com Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [46]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs, demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg, Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label, El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in Spain. [49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com [51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY 24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at [53]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line). Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist, he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour. [55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY (Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from [56]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London SW11 3JB SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy. He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of 15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with "Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of the top 1.4% of entrants. "...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard; "It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again", Zutphen Paper. [58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo, Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill, technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of Gypsy Swing, WORKSHOP VENUES: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [60]www.institut-francais.org.uk Tube: South Kensington How to get there: From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6 Jazz Cafe POSK The Polish Cultural Centre 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same. There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction. Thomas's School 28-40 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3JB [63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Royal Academy of Dance 36 Battersea Square, Battersea, London SW11 3RA [64]www.rad.org.uk [65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Le QuecumBar & Brasserie 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3HX [66]www.quecumbar.co.uk [67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf How to find us by Bus Route 170: The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station. (A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station about £10) 170 from Victoria Station: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right 170 from Clapham Junction: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right By Train: Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from, Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch the 170 bus By Car: Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends London Airports: Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx or train to central London Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch the 170 bus. Map of where Le QuecumBar is: 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3 HX: [68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud to have the support of our world class musician patrons: Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg [69]quecumbar Posts: 3 Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm Location: London + [70]E-mail quecumbar + [71]Website [72]Top __________________________________________________________________ [73]Post a reply 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [74]Return to Gypsy Rhythm Jump to: [ Gypsy Rhythm................................................] Go Who is online Users browsing this forum: No registered users and 1 guest * [75]Board index * [76]The team o [77]Delete all board cookies o All times are UTC - 8 hours [ DST ] Revolution Style © 2007, 2008 by [78]Semi_Deus Powered by [79]phpBB © 2000, 2002, 2005, 2007 phpBB Group Références Liens visibles 20. mailto:info@quecumbar.co.uk 24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr 31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com Liens cachés : [1]Skip to main content (WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION * Biblio. Data * [2]Description * [3]Claims * [4]National Phase * [5]Notices * [6]Documents Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau * [7]Link + [8]Permanent Link + [9]Bookmark this page __________________________________________________________________ Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.: PCT/US1999/000569 Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999 IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01) Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake Village, CA 91361 (US). Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US). Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box 640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US). Priority Data: 09/013,353 26.01.1998 US Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30) corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system. A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity information and may contain polyphonic information. Designated States: JP. European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB, GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE). Publication Language: English (EN) Filing Language: English (EN) [10]Scam Warning | [11]RSS | [12]Terms of use [13]WIPO Home services * [14]Español * [15]Français * [16]日本語 ____________________ Search * [17]Contact us * [18]Accessibility * [19]Site map * [20]Home * [21]IP Services * [22]PATENTSCOPE® * [23]Patent Search [24]PATENTSCOPE® * [25]About Patents * [26]PCT Resources * [27]PCT Service Centre * [28]Database Search * [29]PCT Applications * [30]National Collections & PCT * [31]External Databases * [32]Patent Analysis * [33]Glossary [34]Data Services [35]Publications [36]Projects & Programs [37]Patent Law [38]Priority Documents Related Links * [39]Patent Classification: IPC * [40]Statistics * [41]Life Sciences * [42]WIPO Standards E-Newsletters * [43]Subscription [44]ABOUT WIPO [45]IP SERVICES [46]PROGRAM ACTIVITIES [47]RESOURCES [48]NEWS & EVENTS Références A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event by David Lindsay Copyright 2002. All right reserved. In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm. Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event. Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our scope. The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known. The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand, and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.) A C G T T G C A These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three: A C G T || ||| ||| || T G C A In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological organisms--play a determining role. Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy. Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is constant, by the following coefficients: A=2 C=3 G=3 T=2 Given an arbitrary DNA sequence: A C G T A A T A T T C T the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes: 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation progresses away from the initiation site: A C G T A A T A T T C T -------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event. H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins, which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four: 2332 2222 2232 Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond breakage are activated simultaneously: A C G T A A T A T T C T || ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger -- will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied equally to molecular processes or musical ones. Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is varied its energy profile. The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could, for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate, while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and unstressed "beats," such that: A=2=unstressed beat (-) C=3=stressed beat (´) G=3=stressed beat (´) T=2=unstressed beat (-) Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation process. Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication will suffice. Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry. In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward resonance. Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering a suspension bridge. The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription. 1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences," Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts (Sept. 1995). For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here. [2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles. For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here. website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan University. Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : #[1]eyePlorer.com You have deactivated Javascript. Probably some of the features of eyePlorer.com will not work correctly. We recommend to activate Javascript. [2]Video introduction | [3]Blog | [4]Newsletter | [5]Feedback | [6]Jobs | [7]FAQ | [8]Movies | [9]Disclaimer | [10]About us [11]eyePlorer.com on Facebook [12]eyePlorer.com on Twitter Références Liens visibles 5. mailto:feedback@eyeplorer.com?subject=eyePlorer.com%20Feedback Liens cachés : * [1]DjangoBooks Home Djangobooks.com Gypsy Jazz and Django Reinhardt Discussion Area [2]Skip to content ____________________ Search [3]Advanced search * [4]Board index < [5]Books - Ask the Author < [6]Gypsy Rhythm * [7]Change font size * [8]FAQ * [9]Search * [10]Register * [11]Login [12]rhythm engine A support group for my Gypsy Rhythm book. Ask questions about Gypsy Rhythm technique, share your own learning experiences, and learn new tips and tricks. Moderator: [13]Michael Horowitz [14]Post a reply ____________________ Search 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [15]rhythm engine [16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its the only way always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London [18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django 100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good players! If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out there and support these guys books are not always the answer LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL WORKSHOPS Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010 Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt, these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of techniques and musical ideas. These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts Council England. WORKSHOPS £35 o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass. o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the masters themselves Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from 13.30 - 15.30 Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227 [20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records January Workshops at a Glance: Sunday 17 January Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance Battersea Monday 18 January Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Tuesday 19 January Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea Wednesday 20 January Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Thursday 21 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea Friday 22 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Saturday 23 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith Sunday 24 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to happen. ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS AND STUDENTS SUNDAY 17th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions. An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg, Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others. [23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY 17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at [25]www.wegottickets.com MONDAY 18th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients, intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive. Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music, their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous, humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY 18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [27]www.wegottickets.com TUESDAY 19th JANUARY Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [28]www.quecumbar.co.uk A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind, multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger, and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene. [29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com [31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from [32]www.wegottickets.com WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson. [34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl [36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ; Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [39]www.quecumbar.co.uk Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona. [40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [42]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [43]www.quecumbar.co.uk Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha [45]www.bielballestertrio.com Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [46]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs, demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg, Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label, El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in Spain. [49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com [51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY 24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at [53]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line). Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist, he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour. [55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY (Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from [56]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London SW11 3JB SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy. He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of 15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with "Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of the top 1.4% of entrants. "...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard; "It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again", Zutphen Paper. [58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo, Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill, technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of Gypsy Swing, WORKSHOP VENUES: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [60]www.institut-francais.org.uk Tube: South Kensington How to get there: From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6 Jazz Cafe POSK The Polish Cultural Centre 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same. There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction. Thomas's School 28-40 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3JB [63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Royal Academy of Dance 36 Battersea Square, Battersea, London SW11 3RA [64]www.rad.org.uk [65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Le QuecumBar & Brasserie 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3HX [66]www.quecumbar.co.uk [67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf How to find us by Bus Route 170: The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station. (A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station about £10) 170 from Victoria Station: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right 170 from Clapham Junction: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right By Train: Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from, Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch the 170 bus By Car: Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends London Airports: Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx or train to central London Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch the 170 bus. Map of where Le QuecumBar is: 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3 HX: [68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud to have the support of our world class musician patrons: Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg [69]quecumbar Posts: 3 Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm Location: London + [70]E-mail quecumbar + [71]Website [72]Top __________________________________________________________________ [73]Post a reply 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [74]Return to Gypsy Rhythm Jump to: [ Gypsy Rhythm................................................] Go Who is online Users browsing this forum: No registered users and 1 guest * [75]Board index * [76]The team o [77]Delete all board cookies o All times are UTC - 8 hours [ DST ] Revolution Style © 2007, 2008 by [78]Semi_Deus Powered by [79]phpBB © 2000, 2002, 2005, 2007 phpBB Group Références Liens visibles 20. mailto:info@quecumbar.co.uk 24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr 31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com Liens cachés : [1]Skip to main content (WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION * Biblio. Data * [2]Description * [3]Claims * [4]National Phase * [5]Notices * [6]Documents Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau * [7]Link + [8]Permanent Link + [9]Bookmark this page __________________________________________________________________ Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.: PCT/US1999/000569 Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999 IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01) Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake Village, CA 91361 (US). Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US). Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box 640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US). Priority Data: 09/013,353 26.01.1998 US Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30) corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system. A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity information and may contain polyphonic information. Designated States: JP. European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB, GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE). Publication Language: English (EN) Filing Language: English (EN) [10]Scam Warning | [11]RSS | [12]Terms of use [13]WIPO Home services * [14]Español * [15]Français * [16]日本語 ____________________ Search * [17]Contact us * [18]Accessibility * [19]Site map * [20]Home * [21]IP Services * [22]PATENTSCOPE® * [23]Patent Search [24]PATENTSCOPE® * [25]About Patents * [26]PCT Resources * [27]PCT Service Centre * [28]Database Search * [29]PCT Applications * [30]National Collections & PCT * [31]External Databases * [32]Patent Analysis * [33]Glossary [34]Data Services [35]Publications [36]Projects & Programs [37]Patent Law [38]Priority Documents Related Links * [39]Patent Classification: IPC * [40]Statistics * [41]Life Sciences * [42]WIPO Standards E-Newsletters * [43]Subscription [44]ABOUT WIPO [45]IP SERVICES [46]PROGRAM ACTIVITIES [47]RESOURCES [48]NEWS & EVENTS Références A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event by David Lindsay Copyright 2002. All right reserved. In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm. Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event. Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our scope. The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known. The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand, and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.) A C G T T G C A These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three: A C G T || ||| ||| || T G C A In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological organisms--play a determining role. Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy. Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is constant, by the following coefficients: A=2 C=3 G=3 T=2 Given an arbitrary DNA sequence: A C G T A A T A T T C T the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes: 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation progresses away from the initiation site: A C G T A A T A T T C T -------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event. H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins, which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four: 2332 2222 2232 Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond breakage are activated simultaneously: A C G T A A T A T T C T || ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger -- will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied equally to molecular processes or musical ones. Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is varied its energy profile. The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could, for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate, while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and unstressed "beats," such that: A=2=unstressed beat (-) C=3=stressed beat (´) G=3=stressed beat (´) T=2=unstressed beat (-) Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation process. Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication will suffice. Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry. In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward resonance. Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering a suspension bridge. The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription. 1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences," Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts (Sept. 1995). For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here. [2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles. For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here. website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan University. Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project [1]CRE Personnel What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project? The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision, continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data (e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that represents these programs and data visually. Expressive timing One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say, tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat). All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this project. Composition and combination techniques Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of such structures. Applications Here are some possible applications of CRE: * Anything that any standard drum machine does * Automated percussion tracks with "human feel" * A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the same rhythms with "human feel" * Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable (e.g. the 30-second commercial) * Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with irrationally-related durations * Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at will, in real time * Making a program that improvises by "driving around in rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or invention according to some combination of generative processes) * Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without altering the tree structure. Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since this list provides checkpoints for the software development. __________________________________________________________________ Page maintained by Vijay Iyer Last modified July 15, 1996 __________________________________________________________________ [2]Up to Vijay's page [3]Up to CNMAT homepage [4]Send mail to the CRE group [5]Send mail to Vijay Iyer Références 4. mailto:cdm@icsi.berkeley.edu 5. mailto:vijay@cnmat.berkeley.edu #[1]eyePlorer.com You have deactivated Javascript. Probably some of the features of eyePlorer.com will not work correctly. We recommend to activate Javascript. 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Moderator: [13]Michael Horowitz [14]Post a reply ____________________ Search 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [15]rhythm engine [16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its the only way always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London [18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django 100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good players! If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out there and support these guys books are not always the answer LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL WORKSHOPS Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010 Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt, these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of techniques and musical ideas. These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts Council England. WORKSHOPS £35 o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass. o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the masters themselves Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from 13.30 - 15.30 Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227 [20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records January Workshops at a Glance: Sunday 17 January Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance Battersea Monday 18 January Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Tuesday 19 January Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea Wednesday 20 January Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Thursday 21 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea Friday 22 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Saturday 23 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith Sunday 24 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to happen. ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS AND STUDENTS SUNDAY 17th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions. An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg, Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others. [23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY 17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at [25]www.wegottickets.com MONDAY 18th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients, intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive. Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music, their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous, humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY 18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [27]www.wegottickets.com TUESDAY 19th JANUARY Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [28]www.quecumbar.co.uk A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind, multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger, and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene. [29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com [31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from [32]www.wegottickets.com WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson. [34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl [36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ; Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [39]www.quecumbar.co.uk Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona. [40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [42]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [43]www.quecumbar.co.uk Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha [45]www.bielballestertrio.com Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [46]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs, demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg, Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label, El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in Spain. [49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com [51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY 24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at [53]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line). Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist, he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour. [55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY (Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from [56]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London SW11 3JB SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy. He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of 15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with "Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of the top 1.4% of entrants. "...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard; "It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again", Zutphen Paper. [58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo, Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill, technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of Gypsy Swing, WORKSHOP VENUES: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [60]www.institut-francais.org.uk Tube: South Kensington How to get there: From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6 Jazz Cafe POSK The Polish Cultural Centre 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same. There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction. Thomas's School 28-40 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3JB [63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Royal Academy of Dance 36 Battersea Square, Battersea, London SW11 3RA [64]www.rad.org.uk [65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Le QuecumBar & Brasserie 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3HX [66]www.quecumbar.co.uk [67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf How to find us by Bus Route 170: The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station. (A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station about £10) 170 from Victoria Station: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right 170 from Clapham Junction: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right By Train: Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from, Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch the 170 bus By Car: Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends London Airports: Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx or train to central London Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch the 170 bus. Map of where Le QuecumBar is: 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3 HX: [68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud to have the support of our world class musician patrons: Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg [69]quecumbar Posts: 3 Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm Location: London + [70]E-mail quecumbar + [71]Website [72]Top __________________________________________________________________ [73]Post a reply 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [74]Return to Gypsy Rhythm Jump to: [ Gypsy Rhythm................................................] Go Who is online Users browsing this forum: No registered users and 1 guest * [75]Board index * [76]The team o [77]Delete all board cookies o All times are UTC - 8 hours [ DST ] Revolution Style © 2007, 2008 by [78]Semi_Deus Powered by [79]phpBB © 2000, 2002, 2005, 2007 phpBB Group Références Liens visibles 20. mailto:info@quecumbar.co.uk 24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr 31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com Liens cachés : [1]Skip to main content (WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION * Biblio. Data * [2]Description * [3]Claims * [4]National Phase * [5]Notices * [6]Documents Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau * [7]Link + [8]Permanent Link + [9]Bookmark this page __________________________________________________________________ Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.: PCT/US1999/000569 Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999 IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01) Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake Village, CA 91361 (US). Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US). Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box 640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US). Priority Data: 09/013,353 26.01.1998 US Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30) corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system. A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity information and may contain polyphonic information. Designated States: JP. European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB, GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE). Publication Language: English (EN) Filing Language: English (EN) [10]Scam Warning | [11]RSS | [12]Terms of use [13]WIPO Home services * [14]Español * [15]Français * [16]日本語 ____________________ Search * [17]Contact us * [18]Accessibility * [19]Site map * [20]Home * [21]IP Services * [22]PATENTSCOPE® * [23]Patent Search [24]PATENTSCOPE® * [25]About Patents * [26]PCT Resources * [27]PCT Service Centre * [28]Database Search * [29]PCT Applications * [30]National Collections & PCT * [31]External Databases * [32]Patent Analysis * [33]Glossary [34]Data Services [35]Publications [36]Projects & Programs [37]Patent Law [38]Priority Documents Related Links * [39]Patent Classification: IPC * [40]Statistics * [41]Life Sciences * [42]WIPO Standards E-Newsletters * [43]Subscription [44]ABOUT WIPO [45]IP SERVICES [46]PROGRAM ACTIVITIES [47]RESOURCES [48]NEWS & EVENTS Références A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event by David Lindsay Copyright 2002. All right reserved. In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm. Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event. Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our scope. The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known. The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand, and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.) A C G T T G C A These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three: A C G T || ||| ||| || T G C A In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological organisms--play a determining role. Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy. Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is constant, by the following coefficients: A=2 C=3 G=3 T=2 Given an arbitrary DNA sequence: A C G T A A T A T T C T the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes: 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation progresses away from the initiation site: A C G T A A T A T T C T -------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event. H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins, which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four: 2332 2222 2232 Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond breakage are activated simultaneously: A C G T A A T A T T C T || ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger -- will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied equally to molecular processes or musical ones. Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is varied its energy profile. The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could, for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate, while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and unstressed "beats," such that: A=2=unstressed beat (-) C=3=stressed beat (´) G=3=stressed beat (´) T=2=unstressed beat (-) Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation process. Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication will suffice. Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry. In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward resonance. Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering a suspension bridge. The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription. 1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences," Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts (Sept. 1995). For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here. [2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles. For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here. website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan University. Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project [1]CRE Personnel What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project? The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision, continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data (e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that represents these programs and data visually. Expressive timing One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say, tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat). All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this project. Composition and combination techniques Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of such structures. Applications Here are some possible applications of CRE: * Anything that any standard drum machine does * Automated percussion tracks with "human feel" * A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the same rhythms with "human feel" * Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable (e.g. the 30-second commercial) * Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with irrationally-related durations * Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at will, in real time * Making a program that improvises by "driving around in rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or invention according to some combination of generative processes) * Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without altering the tree structure. Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since this list provides checkpoints for the software development. __________________________________________________________________ Page maintained by Vijay Iyer Last modified July 15, 1996 __________________________________________________________________ [2]Up to Vijay's page [3]Up to CNMAT homepage [4]Send mail to the CRE group [5]Send mail to Vijay Iyer Références 4. mailto:cdm@icsi.berkeley.edu 5. mailto:vijay@cnmat.berkeley.edu #[1]Suite101: Arts Education [2]Freelance Writing Jobs | [3]Today's Articles | [4]Sign In [icon_searchfilter_1.gif] ____________________ [5][v4_button_widget_search.png] Articles Writers Find [6]Suite101 Browse Sections [7]Home [8]Education & Career [9]Arts Education [10]Music Education [11]Write For Us » [12]Print Article [13]Subscribe [14]Share Article [15]Jennifer Wagaman Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students Lesson Ideas Involving Rhythm for Young Students [16]Dec 16, 2008 [17]Jennifer Wagaman Be creative and resourceful when teaching kindergarten students about rhythm. [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Teaching rhythm to Kindergarten students can be a fun way to get students moving around the classroom. When writing lesson plans with the objective towards learning rhythm, consider not only the manner in which you teach the students, but which songs would provide the best lesson opportunity, as well as which songs will work for the short attention span the students have. How to Teach Rhythm Use the body demonstrate the beat, also called body percussion, will help students feel the beat and learn the rhythm. This can involve having the students clap, tap, or stomp their feet while singing. This reinforces beat in a tactile manner, and helps the students stay focused on what you are doing. You can also use any opportunity you have to get the students up and moving about the room while singing songs. Although this does take decent [18]classroom management skills, it may also help your student's behavior as they are not required to sit still throughout the class period. What Songs Teach Rhythm Teaching children about rhythm can be a great time to introduce some fun songs. Lessons involving rhythm can be taught with any song that has a steady beat, which basically means that most songs are good to teach rhythm. Pick songs that the students either already know or are easy to teach, as this will ensure that they already know the basic rhythm. Some good songs to use for teaching rhythm include songs like Engine Engine Number Nine, and Skip to My Lou. For Engine Engine Number Nine, after teaching the song, have the students form a train and move around the room to the beat of the train in the song. For Skip to My Lou, have the students walk, march, or skip around the room to the beat of the song. Keep Attention Span in Mind Because a Kindergarten age child has a relatively short attention span, keep your songs short and varied. Do several songs per class period. It is better to do 3 five minute songs, assuming a 20 minute class period, than to spend 15 minutes on one song. So once again, choose songs that are either easy to teach, or that the students are already somewhat familiar with. Do not be afraid to experiment with your class as you teach the concept of rhythm. Reflect on your lesson after you have taught it, decide where there is room for improvement, and work to improve it for the next class you teach it to. You may also be interested in using [19]STOMP to teach rhythm in the classroom. Read more [20]tips for music teachers. The copyright of the article Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in [21]Arts Education is owned by [22]Jennifer Wagaman. Permission to republish Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in print or online must be granted by the author in writing. [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Ideas for Teaching Rhythm, Mary R. Vogt Ideas for Teaching Rhythm [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [comment_icon_f1.png] What do you think about this article? __________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ NOTE: Because you are not a Suite101 member, your comment will be moderated before it is viewable. post your comment What is 5+5? ______ [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Comments Apr 15, 2009 7:59 AM Guest : I particularly like the idea of reflecting on the lesson after its implementation. Reflection and teaching reflectively should be encouraged among music teachers. Cheers Mark Minott [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] 1 Comment: Related Articles [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [23]Lessons about Sound and Rhythm * [24]Kindergarten Drama Lesson on Expressing Feelings * [25]Teaching Poetry Through Movement, Drama & Art * [26]Enhance Student Reading Skills * [27]Group Music Lessons for Young Children * [28]Syllable Count Poems Lesson * [29]How to Make Fun Butterfly Crafts for Kids [30]more in arts education [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Related Topics [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [31]Music Education * [32]Arts Education Curriculum * [33]Dance Education * [34]Drama Education * [35]Theater Education * [36]Visual Arts Education [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Reference [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [37]how to teach rhythm * [38]teaching rhythm to kindergarten students * [39]lesson ideas for teaching rhythm * [40]what songs will teach rhythm * [41]teaching music to kindergarten students * [42]reflection on how a lesson went [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [43]Enter Suite101.com`s New Tagline Contest
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And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons Ready to be hooked on new religions. Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife. Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life." And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee, Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge, Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton, Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Fly, fly, fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Swim, swim, swim to Daddy Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy, And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life, Of life, of life, of life. Yeah! Yeah! Yeah! Man! Related for [56]Sweet Charity: sheet music [57]Buy Musical Sheet Music cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD dvd [59]Buy Musical DVD Links: [60]Broadway Musicals Lyrics Scroller [61]Add/correct lyrics | [62]Request lyrics | [63]Links | [64]Privacy | [65]Contact us © STLyrics.com 2002 - Références Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics [1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics Browse by soundtrack Search in soundtracks Browse by artist name [2]A [3]B [4]C [5]D [6]E [7]F [8]G [9]H [10]I [11]J [12]K [13]L [14]M [15]N [16]O [17]P [18]Q [19]R [20]S [21]T [22]U [23]V [24]W [25]X [26]Y [27]Z [28]# ____________ Search [29]A [30]B [31]C [32]D [33]E [34]F [35]G [36]H [37]I [38]J [39]K [40]L [41]M [42]N [43]O [44]P [45]Q [46]R [47]S [48]T [49]U [50]V [51]W [52]X [53]Y [54]Z [55]# [0.gif] - Rhythm of Life Lyrics Ensemble: Daddy started out in San Francisco, Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean, Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy, Spread the picture on a wider screen." And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons Ready to be hooked on new religions. Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife. Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life." And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee, Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge, Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton, Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Fly, fly, fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Swim, swim, swim to Daddy Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy, And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life, Of life, of life, of life. Yeah! Yeah! Yeah! Man! Related for [56]Sweet Charity: sheet music [57]Buy Musical Sheet Music cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD dvd [59]Buy Musical DVD Links: [60]Broadway Musicals Lyrics Scroller [61]Add/correct lyrics | [62]Request lyrics | [63]Links | [64]Privacy | [65]Contact us © STLyrics.com 2002 - Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]The Rhythm Of Life / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [7]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [8]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life. Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language, instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as the most graceful. Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ, and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres, and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D, of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last. It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life. Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense, so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature. Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt, thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles, there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks. As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become. When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given. We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely, or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall you receive the best. With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in modern times. Continue to: * prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 Tags [46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics, [51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music, [56]vibration [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [57]TOP [58]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [59]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [60]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [61]StasoSphere [ [62]Privacy Policy ] [ [63]Terms of Use ] [ [64]About Us ] [ [65]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:35:04 2009 Références Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics [1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics Browse by soundtrack Search in soundtracks Browse by artist name [2]A [3]B [4]C [5]D [6]E [7]F [8]G [9]H [10]I [11]J [12]K [13]L [14]M [15]N [16]O [17]P [18]Q [19]R [20]S [21]T [22]U [23]V [24]W [25]X [26]Y [27]Z [28]# ____________ Search [29]A [30]B [31]C [32]D [33]E [34]F [35]G [36]H [37]I [38]J [39]K [40]L [41]M [42]N [43]O [44]P [45]Q [46]R [47]S [48]T [49]U [50]V [51]W [52]X [53]Y [54]Z [55]# [0.gif] - Rhythm of Life Lyrics Ensemble: Daddy started out in San Francisco, Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean, Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy, Spread the picture on a wider screen." And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons Ready to be hooked on new religions. Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife. Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life." And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee, Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge, Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton, Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Fly, fly, fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Swim, swim, swim to Daddy Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy, And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life, Of life, of life, of life. Yeah! Yeah! Yeah! Man! Related for [56]Sweet Charity: sheet music [57]Buy Musical Sheet Music cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD dvd [59]Buy Musical DVD Links: [60]Broadway Musicals Lyrics Scroller [61]Add/correct lyrics | [62]Request lyrics | [63]Links | [64]Privacy | [65]Contact us © STLyrics.com 2002 - Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]The Rhythm Of Life / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [7]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [8]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life. Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language, instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as the most graceful. Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ, and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres, and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D, of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last. It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life. Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense, so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature. Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt, thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles, there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks. As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become. When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given. We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely, or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall you receive the best. With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in modern times. Continue to: * prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 Tags [46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics, [51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music, [56]vibration [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [57]TOP [58]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [59]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [60]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [61]StasoSphere [ [62]Privacy Policy ] [ [63]Terms of Use ] [ [64]About Us ] [ [65]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:35:04 2009 Références #[1]top [2]search [3]All news stories [4]Spotlight news only [5]Feature stories [6]Customize feed [7]Science and technology news * [8]Home * [9]Nanotechnology * [10]Physics * [11]Space & Earth * [12]Electronics * [13]Technology * [14]Chemistry * [15]Biology * [16]Medicine & Health * [17]Other Sciences * [18]Psychology & Psychiatry * [19]Research * [20]Medications * [21]Cancer * [22]Genetics * [23]HIV & AIDS * [24]Diseases * [25]Other * [26]Health * [27]Neuroscience Keeping the rhythm of life in sync May 28, 2008 Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or physical stress. The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be too fast, too slow, or irregular. All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal rhythm and not even know it. Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath, swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur because of abnormal heart rhythm. To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by placing electrodes on the skin. Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case, other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart catheterization. Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia. Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some of its pumping function. Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm. Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help restore the rhythm of life. Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs [29]print this article [30]email this article [31]download pdf [32]blog this article [33]bookmark this article [34]Stumble it [35]Digg this [36]share on Facebook [37]retweet [38]share on Reddit [39]add to delicious Rate this story - 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * rank * [40]1 * [41]2 * [42]3 * [43]4 * [44]5 [45]view popular Rank Filter _ (Submit) Filter (Submit) Off Move the slider to adjust rank threshold, so that you can hide some of the comments. Display comments: [46]newest first * [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 1 / 5 (1) "...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life..." Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood through our system of vessels. It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy and thin pipes. It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word "pump" to describe the heart. What about "metronome"? + [48]report abuse + o Current rank o [49]1 o [50]2 o [51]3 o [52]4 o [53]5 * [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 4 / 5 (1) Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong. Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels, and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation. As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick, as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation" or taking a highschool biology class. + [55]report abuse + o Current rank o [56]1 o [57]2 o [58]3 o [59]4 o [60]5 * [61]print * [62]email * [63]pdf * [64]txt * [65]blog * [66]bookmark * [67]aA * [68]Aa May 28, 2008 [69]all stories Comments: [70]2 * rank * [71]1 * [72]2 * [73]3 * [74]4 * [75]5 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * [76]Stumble this up * [77]share on Facebook * * [78]Digg this * [79]retweet * * [80]share this * share on Facebook [81]Facebook * retweet [82]ReTweet * share on MySpace [83]MySpace * share on Slashdot [84]Slashdot * share on Google [85]Google * share on Reddit [86]Reddit * add to delicious [87]Delicious * save to Yahoo! bookmarks [88]Yahoo! bookmarks * share on Windows Live [89]Windows Live * Add to Mixx! 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And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons Ready to be hooked on new religions. Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife. Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life." And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee, Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge, Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton, Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Fly, fly, fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Swim, swim, swim to Daddy Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy, And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life, Of life, of life, of life. Yeah! Yeah! Yeah! Man! Related for [56]Sweet Charity: sheet music [57]Buy Musical Sheet Music cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD dvd [59]Buy Musical DVD Links: [60]Broadway Musicals Lyrics Scroller [61]Add/correct lyrics | [62]Request lyrics | [63]Links | [64]Privacy | [65]Contact us © STLyrics.com 2002 - Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]The Rhythm Of Life / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [7]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [8]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life. Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language, instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as the most graceful. Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ, and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres, and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D, of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last. It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life. Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense, so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature. Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt, thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles, there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks. As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become. When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given. We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely, or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall you receive the best. With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in modern times. Continue to: * prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 Tags [46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics, [51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music, [56]vibration [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [57]TOP [58]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [59]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [60]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [61]StasoSphere [ [62]Privacy Policy ] [ [63]Terms of Use ] [ [64]About Us ] [ [65]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:35:04 2009 Références #[1]top [2]search [3]All news stories [4]Spotlight news only [5]Feature stories [6]Customize feed [7]Science and technology news * [8]Home * [9]Nanotechnology * [10]Physics * [11]Space & Earth * [12]Electronics * [13]Technology * [14]Chemistry * [15]Biology * [16]Medicine & Health * [17]Other Sciences * [18]Psychology & Psychiatry * [19]Research * [20]Medications * [21]Cancer * [22]Genetics * [23]HIV & AIDS * [24]Diseases * [25]Other * [26]Health * [27]Neuroscience Keeping the rhythm of life in sync May 28, 2008 Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or physical stress. The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be too fast, too slow, or irregular. All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal rhythm and not even know it. Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath, swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur because of abnormal heart rhythm. To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by placing electrodes on the skin. Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case, other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart catheterization. Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia. Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some of its pumping function. Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm. Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help restore the rhythm of life. Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs [29]print this article [30]email this article [31]download pdf [32]blog this article [33]bookmark this article [34]Stumble it [35]Digg this [36]share on Facebook [37]retweet [38]share on Reddit [39]add to delicious Rate this story - 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * rank * [40]1 * [41]2 * [42]3 * [43]4 * [44]5 [45]view popular Rank Filter _ (Submit) Filter (Submit) Off Move the slider to adjust rank threshold, so that you can hide some of the comments. Display comments: [46]newest first * [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 1 / 5 (1) "...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life..." Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood through our system of vessels. It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy and thin pipes. It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word "pump" to describe the heart. What about "metronome"? + [48]report abuse + o Current rank o [49]1 o [50]2 o [51]3 o [52]4 o [53]5 * [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 4 / 5 (1) Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong. Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels, and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation. As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick, as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation" or taking a highschool biology class. + [55]report abuse + o Current rank o [56]1 o [57]2 o [58]3 o [59]4 o [60]5 * [61]print * [62]email * [63]pdf * [64]txt * [65]blog * [66]bookmark * [67]aA * [68]Aa May 28, 2008 [69]all stories Comments: [70]2 * rank * [71]1 * [72]2 * [73]3 * [74]4 * [75]5 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * [76]Stumble this up * [77]share on Facebook * * [78]Digg this * [79]retweet * * [80]share this * share on Facebook [81]Facebook * retweet [82]ReTweet * share on MySpace [83]MySpace * share on Slashdot [84]Slashdot * share on Google [85]Google * share on Reddit [86]Reddit * add to delicious [87]Delicious * save to Yahoo! bookmarks [88]Yahoo! bookmarks * share on Windows Live [89]Windows Live * Add to Mixx! 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Rhythm Of Life lyrics (Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus) If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus) Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down (repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade) [phone_left.gif] [109]Send "Rhythm Of Life" Ringtone to your Cell Phone! 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[130]www.lastlocation.com [131][get.media?sid=21908&m=3&tp=7&d=s&c=1] Références Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics [1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics Browse by soundtrack Search in soundtracks Browse by artist name [2]A [3]B [4]C [5]D [6]E [7]F [8]G [9]H [10]I [11]J [12]K [13]L [14]M [15]N [16]O [17]P [18]Q [19]R [20]S [21]T [22]U [23]V [24]W [25]X [26]Y [27]Z [28]# ____________ Search [29]A [30]B [31]C [32]D [33]E [34]F [35]G [36]H [37]I [38]J [39]K [40]L [41]M [42]N [43]O [44]P [45]Q [46]R [47]S [48]T [49]U [50]V [51]W [52]X [53]Y [54]Z [55]# [0.gif] - Rhythm of Life Lyrics Ensemble: Daddy started out in San Francisco, Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean, Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy, Spread the picture on a wider screen." And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons Ready to be hooked on new religions. Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife. Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life." And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee, Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge, Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton, Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Fly, fly, fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Swim, swim, swim to Daddy Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy, And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life, Of life, of life, of life. Yeah! Yeah! Yeah! Man! Related for [56]Sweet Charity: sheet music [57]Buy Musical Sheet Music cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD dvd [59]Buy Musical DVD Links: [60]Broadway Musicals Lyrics Scroller [61]Add/correct lyrics | [62]Request lyrics | [63]Links | [64]Privacy | [65]Contact us © STLyrics.com 2002 - Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]The Rhythm Of Life / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [7]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [8]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life. Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language, instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as the most graceful. Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ, and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres, and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D, of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last. It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life. Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense, so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature. Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt, thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles, there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks. As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become. When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given. We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely, or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall you receive the best. With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in modern times. Continue to: * prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 Tags [46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics, [51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music, [56]vibration [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [57]TOP [58]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [59]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [60]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [61]StasoSphere [ [62]Privacy Policy ] [ [63]Terms of Use ] [ [64]About Us ] [ [65]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:35:04 2009 Références #[1]top [2]search [3]All news stories [4]Spotlight news only [5]Feature stories [6]Customize feed [7]Science and technology news * [8]Home * [9]Nanotechnology * [10]Physics * [11]Space & Earth * [12]Electronics * [13]Technology * [14]Chemistry * [15]Biology * [16]Medicine & Health * [17]Other Sciences * [18]Psychology & Psychiatry * [19]Research * [20]Medications * [21]Cancer * [22]Genetics * [23]HIV & AIDS * [24]Diseases * [25]Other * [26]Health * [27]Neuroscience Keeping the rhythm of life in sync May 28, 2008 Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or physical stress. The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be too fast, too slow, or irregular. All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal rhythm and not even know it. Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath, swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur because of abnormal heart rhythm. To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by placing electrodes on the skin. Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case, other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart catheterization. Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia. Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some of its pumping function. Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm. Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help restore the rhythm of life. Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs [29]print this article [30]email this article [31]download pdf [32]blog this article [33]bookmark this article [34]Stumble it [35]Digg this [36]share on Facebook [37]retweet [38]share on Reddit [39]add to delicious Rate this story - 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * rank * [40]1 * [41]2 * [42]3 * [43]4 * [44]5 [45]view popular Rank Filter _ (Submit) Filter (Submit) Off Move the slider to adjust rank threshold, so that you can hide some of the comments. Display comments: [46]newest first * [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 1 / 5 (1) "...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life..." Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood through our system of vessels. It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy and thin pipes. It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word "pump" to describe the heart. What about "metronome"? + [48]report abuse + o Current rank o [49]1 o [50]2 o [51]3 o [52]4 o [53]5 * [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 4 / 5 (1) Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong. Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels, and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation. As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick, as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation" or taking a highschool biology class. + [55]report abuse + o Current rank o [56]1 o [57]2 o [58]3 o [59]4 o [60]5 * [61]print * [62]email * [63]pdf * [64]txt * [65]blog * [66]bookmark * [67]aA * [68]Aa May 28, 2008 [69]all stories Comments: [70]2 * rank * [71]1 * [72]2 * [73]3 * [74]4 * [75]5 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * [76]Stumble this up * [77]share on Facebook * * [78]Digg this * [79]retweet * * [80]share this * share on Facebook [81]Facebook * retweet [82]ReTweet * share on MySpace [83]MySpace * share on Slashdot [84]Slashdot * share on Google [85]Google * share on Reddit [86]Reddit * add to delicious [87]Delicious * save to Yahoo! bookmarks [88]Yahoo! bookmarks * share on Windows Live [89]Windows Live * Add to Mixx! 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Rhythm Of Life lyrics (Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus) If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus) Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down (repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade) [phone_left.gif] [109]Send "Rhythm Of Life" Ringtone to your Cell Phone! 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[130]www.lastlocation.com [131][get.media?sid=21908&m=3&tp=7&d=s&c=1] Références [1][LOGO-SVART.gif] [MARKERING-raud-firkant-STOR.gif] A new column written by one of our editors is published every two week _______________ Search [Search entire Voices.] powered by [2]FreeFind [3]Toppbanner [4]Toppbanner [5]Toppbanner [6]Toppbanner [7]Toppbanner May 19, 2008 [*bilde.jpg] 5 most recent columns January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By Diego Schapira December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara Wheeler December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice. By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist. By Helen Oosthuizen Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli () 1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful presence. I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the universe is not threatening for me as before. Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office, when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity arising randomly, above the background sound. Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific scenarios I could never imagine before. 2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome. That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances, making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those dangerous noises. When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands. His sounds were so emotionally intense that their message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards, listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside. My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people, without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds. In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes. Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors' desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist. I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing: the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness necessary for improving quality of life. 3rd Movement: Trio In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea which considers that a good development of each system is possible when there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system. Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with rhythm entrainment and music. As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration. To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes schema to structure and order internal and external events using rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the emotional response to music. Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion, and metaphorical thinking. Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration. Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer, because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory. There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks. And, thus, they can still feel joy. 4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy, particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to train psychologists and physicians in this field. This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music. References Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music: The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers. Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of Illinois. To cite this page: Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Moderated discussion Add your comments and responses to this essay in our Moderated Discussions. Contributions should be e-mailed to either [13]Joke Bradt or [14]Thomas Wosch View contributions on this essay: [yet no contribution] [15]Guidelines for discussions ©2009. VOICES. All rights reserved [16]Site Meter Références Liens visibles 13. javascript:decrypt_and_email(1) 14. javascript:decrypt_and_email(2) Liens cachés : 17. mailto: 18. javascript:decrypt_and_email(25) [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics [1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics Browse by soundtrack Search in soundtracks Browse by artist name [2]A [3]B [4]C [5]D [6]E [7]F [8]G [9]H [10]I [11]J [12]K [13]L [14]M [15]N [16]O [17]P [18]Q [19]R [20]S [21]T [22]U [23]V [24]W [25]X [26]Y [27]Z [28]# ____________ Search [29]A [30]B [31]C [32]D [33]E [34]F [35]G [36]H [37]I [38]J [39]K [40]L [41]M [42]N [43]O [44]P [45]Q [46]R [47]S [48]T [49]U [50]V [51]W [52]X [53]Y [54]Z [55]# [0.gif] - Rhythm of Life Lyrics Ensemble: Daddy started out in San Francisco, Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean, Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy, Spread the picture on a wider screen." And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons Ready to be hooked on new religions. Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife. Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life." And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee, Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge, Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton, Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Fly, fly, fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Swim, swim, swim to Daddy Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy, And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life, Of life, of life, of life. Yeah! Yeah! Yeah! Man! Related for [56]Sweet Charity: sheet music [57]Buy Musical Sheet Music cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD dvd [59]Buy Musical DVD Links: [60]Broadway Musicals Lyrics Scroller [61]Add/correct lyrics | [62]Request lyrics | [63]Links | [64]Privacy | [65]Contact us © STLyrics.com 2002 - Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]The Rhythm Of Life / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [7]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [8]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life. Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language, instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as the most graceful. Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ, and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres, and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D, of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last. It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life. Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense, so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature. Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt, thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles, there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks. As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become. When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given. We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely, or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall you receive the best. With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in modern times. Continue to: * prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 Tags [46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics, [51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music, [56]vibration [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [57]TOP [58]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [59]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [60]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [61]StasoSphere [ [62]Privacy Policy ] [ [63]Terms of Use ] [ [64]About Us ] [ [65]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:35:04 2009 Références #[1]top [2]search [3]All news stories [4]Spotlight news only [5]Feature stories [6]Customize feed [7]Science and technology news * [8]Home * [9]Nanotechnology * [10]Physics * [11]Space & Earth * [12]Electronics * [13]Technology * [14]Chemistry * [15]Biology * [16]Medicine & Health * [17]Other Sciences * [18]Psychology & Psychiatry * [19]Research * [20]Medications * [21]Cancer * [22]Genetics * [23]HIV & AIDS * [24]Diseases * [25]Other * [26]Health * [27]Neuroscience Keeping the rhythm of life in sync May 28, 2008 Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or physical stress. The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be too fast, too slow, or irregular. All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal rhythm and not even know it. Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath, swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur because of abnormal heart rhythm. To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by placing electrodes on the skin. Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case, other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart catheterization. Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia. Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some of its pumping function. Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm. Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help restore the rhythm of life. Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs [29]print this article [30]email this article [31]download pdf [32]blog this article [33]bookmark this article [34]Stumble it [35]Digg this [36]share on Facebook [37]retweet [38]share on Reddit [39]add to delicious Rate this story - 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * rank * [40]1 * [41]2 * [42]3 * [43]4 * [44]5 [45]view popular Rank Filter _ (Submit) Filter (Submit) Off Move the slider to adjust rank threshold, so that you can hide some of the comments. Display comments: [46]newest first * [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 1 / 5 (1) "...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life..." Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood through our system of vessels. It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy and thin pipes. It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word "pump" to describe the heart. What about "metronome"? + [48]report abuse + o Current rank o [49]1 o [50]2 o [51]3 o [52]4 o [53]5 * [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 4 / 5 (1) Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong. Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels, and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation. As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick, as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation" or taking a highschool biology class. + [55]report abuse + o Current rank o [56]1 o [57]2 o [58]3 o [59]4 o [60]5 * [61]print * [62]email * [63]pdf * [64]txt * [65]blog * [66]bookmark * [67]aA * [68]Aa May 28, 2008 [69]all stories Comments: [70]2 * rank * [71]1 * [72]2 * [73]3 * [74]4 * [75]5 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * [76]Stumble this up * [77]share on Facebook * * [78]Digg this * [79]retweet * * [80]share this * share on Facebook [81]Facebook * retweet [82]ReTweet * share on MySpace [83]MySpace * share on Slashdot [84]Slashdot * share on Google [85]Google * share on Reddit [86]Reddit * add to delicious [87]Delicious * save to Yahoo! bookmarks [88]Yahoo! bookmarks * share on Windows Live [89]Windows Live * Add to Mixx! 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Rhythm Of Life lyrics (Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus) If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus) Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down (repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade) [phone_left.gif] [109]Send "Rhythm Of Life" Ringtone to your Cell Phone! 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[130]www.lastlocation.com [131][get.media?sid=21908&m=3&tp=7&d=s&c=1] Références [1][LOGO-SVART.gif] [MARKERING-raud-firkant-STOR.gif] A new column written by one of our editors is published every two week _______________ Search [Search entire Voices.] powered by [2]FreeFind [3]Toppbanner [4]Toppbanner [5]Toppbanner [6]Toppbanner [7]Toppbanner May 19, 2008 [*bilde.jpg] 5 most recent columns January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By Diego Schapira December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara Wheeler December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice. By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist. By Helen Oosthuizen Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli () 1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful presence. I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the universe is not threatening for me as before. Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office, when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity arising randomly, above the background sound. Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific scenarios I could never imagine before. 2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome. That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances, making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those dangerous noises. When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands. His sounds were so emotionally intense that their message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards, listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside. My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people, without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds. In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes. Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors' desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist. I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing: the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness necessary for improving quality of life. 3rd Movement: Trio In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea which considers that a good development of each system is possible when there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system. Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with rhythm entrainment and music. As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration. To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes schema to structure and order internal and external events using rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the emotional response to music. Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion, and metaphorical thinking. Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration. Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer, because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory. There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks. And, thus, they can still feel joy. 4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy, particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to train psychologists and physicians in this field. This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music. References Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music: The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers. Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of Illinois. To cite this page: Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Moderated discussion Add your comments and responses to this essay in our Moderated Discussions. Contributions should be e-mailed to either [13]Joke Bradt or [14]Thomas Wosch View contributions on this essay: [yet no contribution] [15]Guidelines for discussions ©2009. VOICES. All rights reserved [16]Site Meter Références Liens visibles 13. javascript:decrypt_and_email(1) 14. javascript:decrypt_and_email(2) Liens cachés : 17. mailto: 18. javascript:decrypt_and_email(25) [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] #[1]About.com [2]Lee's Shakespeare Blog ____________________ (Submit) Search [3]About.com [4]Shakespeare 1. [5]Home 2. [6]Education 3. [7]Shakespeare [8][education_shakespeare;kw=;site=shakespeare;chan=education;pos=lb;sz =728x90;ord=1A1HKZ80M20SA1n0T] * [9]Share * * [10]Shakespeare * [11]Shakespeare's Life * [12]Plays * [13]Sonnets * Free Shakespeare Newsletter! ____________________ (Submit) Sign Up * [14]Discuss in my Forum [15]Lee Jamieson Lee's Shakespeare Blog By [16]Lee Jamieson, About.com Guide to Shakespeare * [17]My Bio * [18]My Blog * [19]My Forum Add to: * [20]iGoogle * [21]My Yahoo! * [22]RSS Iambic Pentameter: The Rhythm of Life? Sunday March 22, 2009 [bencrystal.jpg] Does the thought of [23]iambic pentameter terrify you? I remember being baffeled by it at school myself because I got bogged down in counting syllables and working out where the stresses go but, I now know that this is a very technical way of studying iambic pentameter. In later life, Ive grown to love iambic pentameter. Theres something beautiful about it that I cant put my finger on. I know for sure that its in the speaking because on the page it is inert. When you [24]speak those words aloud, they literally jump off the tongue and the rhythm is the easiest of all meters to find. I asked Ben Crystal about this [25]in our interview a few months ago. He said that iambic pentameter is the rhythm of our English language and of our bodies a line of that poetry has the same rhythm as our heartbeat. A line of iambic pentameter fills the human lung perfectly, so its the rhythm of speech. I think this is true. When you [26]learn how to speak verse, you soon discover that its a very instinctive rhythm. Once you relax and go with the flow, it comes naturally. And, strange as it might sound, classic iambic pentameter lines like If music be the food of love, play on and Now is the winter of our discontent do happen to fit a single breath perfectly if spoken with passion. So, if youre having trouble with iambic pentameter, remember that its designed to be spoken, not studied. Open your mouth and speak aloud those great words. Photo of Ben Crystal © Scott Wishart * [27]Comments (2) * [28]See All Posts * [29]Share * [30]Prev * [31]Next [32]Leave a Comment Comments March 30, 2009 at 2:29 pm [33](1) [34]Kent Richmond says: In doing verse translations of five Shakespeare plays, I have had to learn how Shakespeares iambic pentameter works in order to give my translations the feel of the original. One of the beauties of iambic pentameter is that the poet can temporarily relax the meter without violating it. In this series of made-up and rather prosaic lines, the first line is straight-ahead iambic pentameter. The second and third lines, if read independently, are less obviously iambic pentameter, yet they do not violate the rhythm. The fourth line is clearly unmetrical and removes the sense that we are listening to verse. 1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes, 2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. (trochaic start; feminine ending) 3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. (Two spondees to start; feminine ending) 4. Dont you ever hit your little sister. (unmetrical) Shakespeare, at least in the plays I have translated, did not write verse lines with the rhythm of (4). To make this line sound a bit more like Shakespeares iambic pentameter, we need to make a few alterations to line 4. 1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes, 2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. 3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. 4. Dont ever hit that little girl again. To make the whole passage sound like prose, we need to change the first line a little. Then her mother took the kids clothes shopping, planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. Dont you ever hit your little sister. The first and fourth lines now have trochaic feet exposed in the wrong places, and most editors would print such a passage as prose. Shakespeares iambic pentameter certainly places constraints on what rhythms are allowed, yet it allows for flexibility and naturalness. Take a look at George Wrights book titled Shakespeares Metrical Art to see the techniques Shakespeare employed. April 11, 2009 at 8:25 pm [35](2) Dave says: The words literally jump off the tongue? I'd like to see that! 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Références Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics [1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics Browse by soundtrack Search in soundtracks Browse by artist name [2]A [3]B [4]C [5]D [6]E [7]F [8]G [9]H [10]I [11]J [12]K [13]L [14]M [15]N [16]O [17]P [18]Q [19]R [20]S [21]T [22]U [23]V [24]W [25]X [26]Y [27]Z [28]# ____________ Search [29]A [30]B [31]C [32]D [33]E [34]F [35]G [36]H [37]I [38]J [39]K [40]L [41]M [42]N [43]O [44]P [45]Q [46]R [47]S [48]T [49]U [50]V [51]W [52]X [53]Y [54]Z [55]# [0.gif] - Rhythm of Life Lyrics Ensemble: Daddy started out in San Francisco, Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean, Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy, Spread the picture on a wider screen." And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons Ready to be hooked on new religions. Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife. Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life." And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee, Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge, Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton, Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Fly, fly, fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Swim, swim, swim to Daddy Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy, And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life, Of life, of life, of life. Yeah! Yeah! Yeah! Man! Related for [56]Sweet Charity: sheet music [57]Buy Musical Sheet Music cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD dvd [59]Buy Musical DVD Links: [60]Broadway Musicals Lyrics Scroller [61]Add/correct lyrics | [62]Request lyrics | [63]Links | [64]Privacy | [65]Contact us © STLyrics.com 2002 - Références Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics [1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics Browse by soundtrack Search in soundtracks Browse by artist name [2]A [3]B [4]C [5]D [6]E [7]F [8]G [9]H [10]I [11]J [12]K [13]L [14]M [15]N [16]O [17]P [18]Q [19]R [20]S [21]T [22]U [23]V [24]W [25]X [26]Y [27]Z [28]# ____________ Search [29]A [30]B [31]C [32]D [33]E [34]F [35]G [36]H [37]I [38]J [39]K [40]L [41]M [42]N [43]O [44]P [45]Q [46]R [47]S [48]T [49]U [50]V [51]W [52]X [53]Y [54]Z [55]# [0.gif] - Rhythm of Life Lyrics Ensemble: Daddy started out in San Francisco, Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean, Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy, Spread the picture on a wider screen." And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons Ready to be hooked on new religions. Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife. Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life." And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee, Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge, Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton, Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Fly, fly, fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Swim, swim, swim to Daddy Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy, And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life, Of life, of life, of life. Yeah! Yeah! Yeah! Man! Related for [56]Sweet Charity: sheet music [57]Buy Musical Sheet Music cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD dvd [59]Buy Musical DVD Links: [60]Broadway Musicals Lyrics Scroller [61]Add/correct lyrics | [62]Request lyrics | [63]Links | [64]Privacy | [65]Contact us © STLyrics.com 2002 - Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]The Rhythm Of Life / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [7]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [8]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life. Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language, instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as the most graceful. Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ, and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres, and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D, of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last. It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life. Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense, so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature. Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt, thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles, there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks. As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become. When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given. We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely, or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall you receive the best. With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in modern times. Continue to: * prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 Tags [46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics, [51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music, [56]vibration [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [57]TOP [58]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [59]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [60]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [61]StasoSphere [ [62]Privacy Policy ] [ [63]Terms of Use ] [ [64]About Us ] [ [65]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:35:04 2009 Références Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics [1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics Browse by soundtrack Search in soundtracks Browse by artist name [2]A [3]B [4]C [5]D [6]E [7]F [8]G [9]H [10]I [11]J [12]K [13]L [14]M [15]N [16]O [17]P [18]Q [19]R [20]S [21]T [22]U [23]V [24]W [25]X [26]Y [27]Z [28]# ____________ Search [29]A [30]B [31]C [32]D [33]E [34]F [35]G [36]H [37]I [38]J [39]K [40]L [41]M [42]N [43]O [44]P [45]Q [46]R [47]S [48]T [49]U [50]V [51]W [52]X [53]Y [54]Z [55]# [0.gif] - Rhythm of Life Lyrics Ensemble: Daddy started out in San Francisco, Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean, Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy, Spread the picture on a wider screen." And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons Ready to be hooked on new religions. Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife. Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life." And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee, Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge, Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton, Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Fly, fly, fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Swim, swim, swim to Daddy Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy, And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life, Of life, of life, of life. Yeah! Yeah! Yeah! Man! Related for [56]Sweet Charity: sheet music [57]Buy Musical Sheet Music cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD dvd [59]Buy Musical DVD Links: [60]Broadway Musicals Lyrics Scroller [61]Add/correct lyrics | [62]Request lyrics | [63]Links | [64]Privacy | [65]Contact us © STLyrics.com 2002 - Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]The Rhythm Of Life / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [7]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [8]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life. Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language, instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as the most graceful. Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ, and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres, and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D, of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last. It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life. Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense, so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature. Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt, thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles, there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks. As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become. When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given. We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely, or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall you receive the best. With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in modern times. Continue to: * prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 Tags [46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics, [51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music, [56]vibration [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [57]TOP [58]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [59]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [60]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [61]StasoSphere [ [62]Privacy Policy ] [ [63]Terms of Use ] [ [64]About Us ] [ [65]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:35:04 2009 Références #[1]top [2]search [3]All news stories [4]Spotlight news only [5]Feature stories [6]Customize feed [7]Science and technology news * [8]Home * [9]Nanotechnology * [10]Physics * [11]Space & Earth * [12]Electronics * [13]Technology * [14]Chemistry * [15]Biology * [16]Medicine & Health * [17]Other Sciences * [18]Psychology & Psychiatry * [19]Research * [20]Medications * [21]Cancer * [22]Genetics * [23]HIV & AIDS * [24]Diseases * [25]Other * [26]Health * [27]Neuroscience Keeping the rhythm of life in sync May 28, 2008 Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or physical stress. The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be too fast, too slow, or irregular. All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal rhythm and not even know it. Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath, swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur because of abnormal heart rhythm. To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by placing electrodes on the skin. Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case, other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart catheterization. Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia. Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some of its pumping function. Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm. Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help restore the rhythm of life. Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs [29]print this article [30]email this article [31]download pdf [32]blog this article [33]bookmark this article [34]Stumble it [35]Digg this [36]share on Facebook [37]retweet [38]share on Reddit [39]add to delicious Rate this story - 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * rank * [40]1 * [41]2 * [42]3 * [43]4 * [44]5 [45]view popular Rank Filter _ (Submit) Filter (Submit) Off Move the slider to adjust rank threshold, so that you can hide some of the comments. Display comments: [46]newest first * [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 1 / 5 (1) "...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life..." Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood through our system of vessels. It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy and thin pipes. It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word "pump" to describe the heart. What about "metronome"? + [48]report abuse + o Current rank o [49]1 o [50]2 o [51]3 o [52]4 o [53]5 * [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 4 / 5 (1) Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong. Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels, and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation. As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick, as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation" or taking a highschool biology class. + [55]report abuse + o Current rank o [56]1 o [57]2 o [58]3 o [59]4 o [60]5 * [61]print * [62]email * [63]pdf * [64]txt * [65]blog * [66]bookmark * [67]aA * [68]Aa May 28, 2008 [69]all stories Comments: [70]2 * rank * [71]1 * [72]2 * [73]3 * [74]4 * [75]5 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * [76]Stumble this up * [77]share on Facebook * * [78]Digg this * [79]retweet * * [80]share this * share on Facebook [81]Facebook * retweet [82]ReTweet * share on MySpace [83]MySpace * share on Slashdot [84]Slashdot * share on Google [85]Google * share on Reddit [86]Reddit * add to delicious [87]Delicious * save to Yahoo! bookmarks [88]Yahoo! bookmarks * share on Windows Live [89]Windows Live * Add to Mixx! 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And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons Ready to be hooked on new religions. Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife. Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life." And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee, Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge, Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton, Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Fly, fly, fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Swim, swim, swim to Daddy Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy, And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life, Of life, of life, of life. Yeah! Yeah! Yeah! Man! Related for [56]Sweet Charity: sheet music [57]Buy Musical Sheet Music cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD dvd [59]Buy Musical DVD Links: [60]Broadway Musicals Lyrics Scroller [61]Add/correct lyrics | [62]Request lyrics | [63]Links | [64]Privacy | [65]Contact us © STLyrics.com 2002 - Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]The Rhythm Of Life / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [7]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [8]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life. Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language, instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as the most graceful. Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ, and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres, and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D, of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last. It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life. Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense, so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature. Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt, thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles, there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks. As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become. When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given. We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely, or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall you receive the best. With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in modern times. Continue to: * prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 Tags [46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics, [51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music, [56]vibration [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [57]TOP [58]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [59]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [60]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [61]StasoSphere [ [62]Privacy Policy ] [ [63]Terms of Use ] [ [64]About Us ] [ [65]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:35:04 2009 Références #[1]top [2]search [3]All news stories [4]Spotlight news only [5]Feature stories [6]Customize feed [7]Science and technology news * [8]Home * [9]Nanotechnology * [10]Physics * [11]Space & Earth * [12]Electronics * [13]Technology * [14]Chemistry * [15]Biology * [16]Medicine & Health * [17]Other Sciences * [18]Psychology & Psychiatry * [19]Research * [20]Medications * [21]Cancer * [22]Genetics * [23]HIV & AIDS * [24]Diseases * [25]Other * [26]Health * [27]Neuroscience Keeping the rhythm of life in sync May 28, 2008 Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or physical stress. The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be too fast, too slow, or irregular. All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal rhythm and not even know it. Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath, swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur because of abnormal heart rhythm. To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by placing electrodes on the skin. Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case, other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart catheterization. Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia. Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some of its pumping function. Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm. Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help restore the rhythm of life. Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs [29]print this article [30]email this article [31]download pdf [32]blog this article [33]bookmark this article [34]Stumble it [35]Digg this [36]share on Facebook [37]retweet [38]share on Reddit [39]add to delicious Rate this story - 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * rank * [40]1 * [41]2 * [42]3 * [43]4 * [44]5 [45]view popular Rank Filter _ (Submit) Filter (Submit) Off Move the slider to adjust rank threshold, so that you can hide some of the comments. Display comments: [46]newest first * [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 1 / 5 (1) "...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life..." Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood through our system of vessels. It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy and thin pipes. It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word "pump" to describe the heart. What about "metronome"? + [48]report abuse + o Current rank o [49]1 o [50]2 o [51]3 o [52]4 o [53]5 * [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 4 / 5 (1) Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong. Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels, and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation. As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick, as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation" or taking a highschool biology class. + [55]report abuse + o Current rank o [56]1 o [57]2 o [58]3 o [59]4 o [60]5 * [61]print * [62]email * [63]pdf * [64]txt * [65]blog * [66]bookmark * [67]aA * [68]Aa May 28, 2008 [69]all stories Comments: [70]2 * rank * [71]1 * [72]2 * [73]3 * [74]4 * [75]5 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * [76]Stumble this up * [77]share on Facebook * * [78]Digg this * [79]retweet * * [80]share this * share on Facebook [81]Facebook * retweet [82]ReTweet * share on MySpace [83]MySpace * share on Slashdot [84]Slashdot * share on Google [85]Google * share on Reddit [86]Reddit * add to delicious [87]Delicious * save to Yahoo! bookmarks [88]Yahoo! bookmarks * share on Windows Live [89]Windows Live * Add to Mixx! 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Rhythm Of Life lyrics (Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus) If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus) Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down (repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade) [phone_left.gif] [109]Send "Rhythm Of Life" Ringtone to your Cell Phone! 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[130]www.lastlocation.com [131][get.media?sid=21908&m=3&tp=7&d=s&c=1] Références Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics [1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics Browse by soundtrack Search in soundtracks Browse by artist name [2]A [3]B [4]C [5]D [6]E [7]F [8]G [9]H [10]I [11]J [12]K [13]L [14]M [15]N [16]O [17]P [18]Q [19]R [20]S [21]T [22]U [23]V [24]W [25]X [26]Y [27]Z [28]# ____________ Search [29]A [30]B [31]C [32]D [33]E [34]F [35]G [36]H [37]I [38]J [39]K [40]L [41]M [42]N [43]O [44]P [45]Q [46]R [47]S [48]T [49]U [50]V [51]W [52]X [53]Y [54]Z [55]# [0.gif] - Rhythm of Life Lyrics Ensemble: Daddy started out in San Francisco, Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean, Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy, Spread the picture on a wider screen." And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons Ready to be hooked on new religions. Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife. Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life." And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee, Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge, Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton, Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Fly, fly, fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Swim, swim, swim to Daddy Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy, And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life, Of life, of life, of life. Yeah! Yeah! Yeah! Man! Related for [56]Sweet Charity: sheet music [57]Buy Musical Sheet Music cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD dvd [59]Buy Musical DVD Links: [60]Broadway Musicals Lyrics Scroller [61]Add/correct lyrics | [62]Request lyrics | [63]Links | [64]Privacy | [65]Contact us © STLyrics.com 2002 - Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]The Rhythm Of Life / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [7]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [8]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life. Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language, instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as the most graceful. Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ, and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres, and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D, of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last. It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life. Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense, so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature. Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt, thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles, there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks. As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become. When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given. We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely, or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall you receive the best. With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in modern times. Continue to: * prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 Tags [46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics, [51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music, [56]vibration [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [57]TOP [58]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [59]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [60]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [61]StasoSphere [ [62]Privacy Policy ] [ [63]Terms of Use ] [ [64]About Us ] [ [65]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:35:04 2009 Références #[1]top [2]search [3]All news stories [4]Spotlight news only [5]Feature stories [6]Customize feed [7]Science and technology news * [8]Home * [9]Nanotechnology * [10]Physics * [11]Space & Earth * [12]Electronics * [13]Technology * [14]Chemistry * [15]Biology * [16]Medicine & Health * [17]Other Sciences * [18]Psychology & Psychiatry * [19]Research * [20]Medications * [21]Cancer * [22]Genetics * [23]HIV & AIDS * [24]Diseases * [25]Other * [26]Health * [27]Neuroscience Keeping the rhythm of life in sync May 28, 2008 Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or physical stress. The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be too fast, too slow, or irregular. All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal rhythm and not even know it. Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath, swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur because of abnormal heart rhythm. To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by placing electrodes on the skin. Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case, other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart catheterization. Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia. Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some of its pumping function. Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm. Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help restore the rhythm of life. Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs [29]print this article [30]email this article [31]download pdf [32]blog this article [33]bookmark this article [34]Stumble it [35]Digg this [36]share on Facebook [37]retweet [38]share on Reddit [39]add to delicious Rate this story - 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * rank * [40]1 * [41]2 * [42]3 * [43]4 * [44]5 [45]view popular Rank Filter _ (Submit) Filter (Submit) Off Move the slider to adjust rank threshold, so that you can hide some of the comments. Display comments: [46]newest first * [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 1 / 5 (1) "...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life..." Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood through our system of vessels. It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy and thin pipes. It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word "pump" to describe the heart. What about "metronome"? + [48]report abuse + o Current rank o [49]1 o [50]2 o [51]3 o [52]4 o [53]5 * [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 4 / 5 (1) Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong. Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels, and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation. As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick, as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation" or taking a highschool biology class. + [55]report abuse + o Current rank o [56]1 o [57]2 o [58]3 o [59]4 o [60]5 * [61]print * [62]email * [63]pdf * [64]txt * [65]blog * [66]bookmark * [67]aA * [68]Aa May 28, 2008 [69]all stories Comments: [70]2 * rank * [71]1 * [72]2 * [73]3 * [74]4 * [75]5 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * [76]Stumble this up * [77]share on Facebook * * [78]Digg this * [79]retweet * * [80]share this * share on Facebook [81]Facebook * retweet [82]ReTweet * share on MySpace [83]MySpace * share on Slashdot [84]Slashdot * share on Google [85]Google * share on Reddit [86]Reddit * add to delicious [87]Delicious * save to Yahoo! bookmarks [88]Yahoo! bookmarks * share on Windows Live [89]Windows Live * Add to Mixx! 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Rhythm Of Life lyrics (Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus) If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus) Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down (repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade) [phone_left.gif] [109]Send "Rhythm Of Life" Ringtone to your Cell Phone! 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[130]www.lastlocation.com [131][get.media?sid=21908&m=3&tp=7&d=s&c=1] Références [1][LOGO-SVART.gif] [MARKERING-raud-firkant-STOR.gif] A new column written by one of our editors is published every two week _______________ Search [Search entire Voices.] powered by [2]FreeFind [3]Toppbanner [4]Toppbanner [5]Toppbanner [6]Toppbanner [7]Toppbanner May 19, 2008 [*bilde.jpg] 5 most recent columns January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By Diego Schapira December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara Wheeler December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice. By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist. By Helen Oosthuizen Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli () 1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful presence. I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the universe is not threatening for me as before. Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office, when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity arising randomly, above the background sound. Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific scenarios I could never imagine before. 2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome. That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances, making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those dangerous noises. When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands. His sounds were so emotionally intense that their message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards, listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside. My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people, without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds. In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes. Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors' desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist. I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing: the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness necessary for improving quality of life. 3rd Movement: Trio In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea which considers that a good development of each system is possible when there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system. Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with rhythm entrainment and music. As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration. To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes schema to structure and order internal and external events using rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the emotional response to music. Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion, and metaphorical thinking. Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration. Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer, because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory. There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks. And, thus, they can still feel joy. 4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy, particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to train psychologists and physicians in this field. This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music. References Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music: The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers. Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of Illinois. To cite this page: Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Moderated discussion Add your comments and responses to this essay in our Moderated Discussions. Contributions should be e-mailed to either [13]Joke Bradt or [14]Thomas Wosch View contributions on this essay: [yet no contribution] [15]Guidelines for discussions ©2009. VOICES. All rights reserved [16]Site Meter Références Liens visibles 13. javascript:decrypt_and_email(1) 14. javascript:decrypt_and_email(2) Liens cachés : 17. mailto: 18. javascript:decrypt_and_email(25) [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics [1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics Browse by soundtrack Search in soundtracks Browse by artist name [2]A [3]B [4]C [5]D [6]E [7]F [8]G [9]H [10]I [11]J [12]K [13]L [14]M [15]N [16]O [17]P [18]Q [19]R [20]S [21]T [22]U [23]V [24]W [25]X [26]Y [27]Z [28]# ____________ Search [29]A [30]B [31]C [32]D [33]E [34]F [35]G [36]H [37]I [38]J [39]K [40]L [41]M [42]N [43]O [44]P [45]Q [46]R [47]S [48]T [49]U [50]V [51]W [52]X [53]Y [54]Z [55]# [0.gif] - Rhythm of Life Lyrics Ensemble: Daddy started out in San Francisco, Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean, Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy, Spread the picture on a wider screen." And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons Ready to be hooked on new religions. Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife. Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life." And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee, Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge, Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton, Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Fly, fly, fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Swim, swim, swim to Daddy Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy, And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life, Of life, of life, of life. Yeah! Yeah! Yeah! Man! Related for [56]Sweet Charity: sheet music [57]Buy Musical Sheet Music cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD dvd [59]Buy Musical DVD Links: [60]Broadway Musicals Lyrics Scroller [61]Add/correct lyrics | [62]Request lyrics | [63]Links | [64]Privacy | [65]Contact us © STLyrics.com 2002 - Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]The Rhythm Of Life / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [7]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [8]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life. Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language, instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as the most graceful. Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ, and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres, and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D, of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last. It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life. Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense, so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature. Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt, thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles, there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks. As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become. When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given. We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely, or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall you receive the best. With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in modern times. Continue to: * prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 Tags [46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics, [51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music, [56]vibration [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [57]TOP [58]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [59]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [60]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [61]StasoSphere [ [62]Privacy Policy ] [ [63]Terms of Use ] [ [64]About Us ] [ [65]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:35:04 2009 Références #[1]top [2]search [3]All news stories [4]Spotlight news only [5]Feature stories [6]Customize feed [7]Science and technology news * [8]Home * [9]Nanotechnology * [10]Physics * [11]Space & Earth * [12]Electronics * [13]Technology * [14]Chemistry * [15]Biology * [16]Medicine & Health * [17]Other Sciences * [18]Psychology & Psychiatry * [19]Research * [20]Medications * [21]Cancer * [22]Genetics * [23]HIV & AIDS * [24]Diseases * [25]Other * [26]Health * [27]Neuroscience Keeping the rhythm of life in sync May 28, 2008 Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or physical stress. The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be too fast, too slow, or irregular. All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal rhythm and not even know it. Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath, swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur because of abnormal heart rhythm. To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by placing electrodes on the skin. Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case, other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart catheterization. Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia. Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some of its pumping function. Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm. Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help restore the rhythm of life. Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs [29]print this article [30]email this article [31]download pdf [32]blog this article [33]bookmark this article [34]Stumble it [35]Digg this [36]share on Facebook [37]retweet [38]share on Reddit [39]add to delicious Rate this story - 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * rank * [40]1 * [41]2 * [42]3 * [43]4 * [44]5 [45]view popular Rank Filter _ (Submit) Filter (Submit) Off Move the slider to adjust rank threshold, so that you can hide some of the comments. Display comments: [46]newest first * [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 1 / 5 (1) "...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life..." Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood through our system of vessels. It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy and thin pipes. It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word "pump" to describe the heart. What about "metronome"? + [48]report abuse + o Current rank o [49]1 o [50]2 o [51]3 o [52]4 o [53]5 * [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 4 / 5 (1) Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong. Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels, and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation. As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick, as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation" or taking a highschool biology class. + [55]report abuse + o Current rank o [56]1 o [57]2 o [58]3 o [59]4 o [60]5 * [61]print * [62]email * [63]pdf * [64]txt * [65]blog * [66]bookmark * [67]aA * [68]Aa May 28, 2008 [69]all stories Comments: [70]2 * rank * [71]1 * [72]2 * [73]3 * [74]4 * [75]5 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * [76]Stumble this up * [77]share on Facebook * * [78]Digg this * [79]retweet * * [80]share this * share on Facebook [81]Facebook * retweet [82]ReTweet * share on MySpace [83]MySpace * share on Slashdot [84]Slashdot * share on Google [85]Google * share on Reddit [86]Reddit * add to delicious [87]Delicious * save to Yahoo! bookmarks [88]Yahoo! bookmarks * share on Windows Live [89]Windows Live * Add to Mixx! 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Rhythm Of Life lyrics (Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus) If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus) Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down (repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade) [phone_left.gif] [109]Send "Rhythm Of Life" Ringtone to your Cell Phone! 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[130]www.lastlocation.com [131][get.media?sid=21908&m=3&tp=7&d=s&c=1] Références [1][LOGO-SVART.gif] [MARKERING-raud-firkant-STOR.gif] A new column written by one of our editors is published every two week _______________ Search [Search entire Voices.] powered by [2]FreeFind [3]Toppbanner [4]Toppbanner [5]Toppbanner [6]Toppbanner [7]Toppbanner May 19, 2008 [*bilde.jpg] 5 most recent columns January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By Diego Schapira December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara Wheeler December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice. By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist. By Helen Oosthuizen Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli () 1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful presence. I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the universe is not threatening for me as before. Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office, when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity arising randomly, above the background sound. Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific scenarios I could never imagine before. 2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome. That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances, making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those dangerous noises. When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands. His sounds were so emotionally intense that their message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards, listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside. My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people, without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds. In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes. Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors' desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist. I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing: the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness necessary for improving quality of life. 3rd Movement: Trio In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea which considers that a good development of each system is possible when there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system. Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with rhythm entrainment and music. As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration. To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes schema to structure and order internal and external events using rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the emotional response to music. Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion, and metaphorical thinking. Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration. Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer, because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory. There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks. And, thus, they can still feel joy. 4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy, particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to train psychologists and physicians in this field. This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music. References Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music: The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers. Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of Illinois. To cite this page: Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Moderated discussion Add your comments and responses to this essay in our Moderated Discussions. Contributions should be e-mailed to either [13]Joke Bradt or [14]Thomas Wosch View contributions on this essay: [yet no contribution] [15]Guidelines for discussions ©2009. VOICES. All rights reserved [16]Site Meter Références Liens visibles 13. javascript:decrypt_and_email(1) 14. javascript:decrypt_and_email(2) Liens cachés : 17. mailto: 18. javascript:decrypt_and_email(25) [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] #[1]About.com [2]Lee's Shakespeare Blog ____________________ (Submit) Search [3]About.com [4]Shakespeare 1. [5]Home 2. [6]Education 3. [7]Shakespeare [8][education_shakespeare;kw=;site=shakespeare;chan=education;pos=lb;sz =728x90;ord=1A1HKZQ0D20SA0MM7] * [9]Share * * [10]Shakespeare * [11]Shakespeare's Life * [12]Plays * [13]Sonnets * Free Shakespeare Newsletter! ____________________ (Submit) Sign Up * [14]Discuss in my Forum [15]Lee Jamieson Lee's Shakespeare Blog By [16]Lee Jamieson, About.com Guide to Shakespeare * [17]My Bio * [18]My Blog * [19]My Forum Add to: * [20]iGoogle * [21]My Yahoo! * [22]RSS Iambic Pentameter: The Rhythm of Life? Sunday March 22, 2009 [bencrystal.jpg] Does the thought of [23]iambic pentameter terrify you? I remember being baffeled by it at school myself because I got bogged down in counting syllables and working out where the stresses go but, I now know that this is a very technical way of studying iambic pentameter. In later life, Ive grown to love iambic pentameter. Theres something beautiful about it that I cant put my finger on. I know for sure that its in the speaking because on the page it is inert. When you [24]speak those words aloud, they literally jump off the tongue and the rhythm is the easiest of all meters to find. I asked Ben Crystal about this [25]in our interview a few months ago. He said that iambic pentameter is the rhythm of our English language and of our bodies a line of that poetry has the same rhythm as our heartbeat. A line of iambic pentameter fills the human lung perfectly, so its the rhythm of speech. I think this is true. When you [26]learn how to speak verse, you soon discover that its a very instinctive rhythm. Once you relax and go with the flow, it comes naturally. And, strange as it might sound, classic iambic pentameter lines like If music be the food of love, play on and Now is the winter of our discontent do happen to fit a single breath perfectly if spoken with passion. So, if youre having trouble with iambic pentameter, remember that its designed to be spoken, not studied. Open your mouth and speak aloud those great words. Photo of Ben Crystal © Scott Wishart * [27]Comments (2) * [28]See All Posts * [29]Share * [30]Prev * [31]Next [32]Leave a Comment Comments March 30, 2009 at 2:29 pm [33](1) [34]Kent Richmond says: In doing verse translations of five Shakespeare plays, I have had to learn how Shakespeares iambic pentameter works in order to give my translations the feel of the original. One of the beauties of iambic pentameter is that the poet can temporarily relax the meter without violating it. In this series of made-up and rather prosaic lines, the first line is straight-ahead iambic pentameter. The second and third lines, if read independently, are less obviously iambic pentameter, yet they do not violate the rhythm. The fourth line is clearly unmetrical and removes the sense that we are listening to verse. 1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes, 2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. (trochaic start; feminine ending) 3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. (Two spondees to start; feminine ending) 4. Dont you ever hit your little sister. (unmetrical) Shakespeare, at least in the plays I have translated, did not write verse lines with the rhythm of (4). To make this line sound a bit more like Shakespeares iambic pentameter, we need to make a few alterations to line 4. 1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes, 2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. 3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. 4. Dont ever hit that little girl again. To make the whole passage sound like prose, we need to change the first line a little. Then her mother took the kids clothes shopping, planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. Dont you ever hit your little sister. The first and fourth lines now have trochaic feet exposed in the wrong places, and most editors would print such a passage as prose. Shakespeares iambic pentameter certainly places constraints on what rhythms are allowed, yet it allows for flexibility and naturalness. Take a look at George Wrights book titled Shakespeares Metrical Art to see the techniques Shakespeare employed. April 11, 2009 at 8:25 pm [35](2) Dave says: The words literally jump off the tongue? I'd like to see that! 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[8]Ear training 01 Free music game [9]Piano note Free online teacher [10]Chords piano Write chords. then play the melody. [11]Sound memory Improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it. [12]Draw lessons How to draw free lessons [13]Online games Actions, Shooter, Logic online games [acleardot.gif] [acleardot.gif] What is music rhythm? The music rhythm is the beat. It is the most important element in music. It drives the music forward. It is the gasoline of music. Rhythms can be simple or complicated. Essential music vocabulary Meter It's the way we group the beats. We group eggs by the dozen. We group days by the week. We also group beats into two's or three's. That's meter. Rhythm The beat. The beat can be even or uneven, steady or unsteady. Note Values Long and short sounds in music are represented by notes. White notes have longer sounds than black notes. Tempo This is the speed of the music. Time Signature This is a number that appears at the beginning of the music. The top number tells you how many beats are in each measure (bar) and the bottom number tells you what kind of a note gets one beat. The most common times signatures are 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, and 6/8. Whole music notes These notes are whole notes. Each note is four beats long. Click the image to hear the note value. [14][whole.gif] Half music notes Here are half notes. Did you see the stems? These notes are twice as fast as whole notes. These note are two beats long. Click the image to hear the note value. [15][half.gif] Quarter music notes These notes are black. They are quarter notes. Each quarter note gets one beat. How many beats are in each measure? If you guessed four, you'd be right! Click the image to hear the note value. [16][quarter.gif] Eighth music notes These are eighth notes. Notice how the stems are connected by a beam. These notes move twice as fast as quarter notes. Two note are played for each beat of music. Click the image to hear the note value. [17][eighth_.gif] Combining Note Values In 4/4 time, different note values can be combined in each measure as long as they equal four beats. Click the examples to hear the rhythm patterns: [18][combo2.gif] [19][combo3.gif] [20][combo4.gif] Music tempo Tempo means speed. Musicians use Italian terms for different tempos. Here is a melody fragment. Click the image to hear the tune: [21][example.gif] Click the words below to hear this tune played at different tempos. Slow Medium Fast Largo Largo is the slowest tempo. Adagio Largo means slow or leisurely. Andante Andante means a walking pace. Moderato Moderato is medium. It is not too fast or too slow. Allegro Allegro is fast. It means cheerful in Italian. Vivace Vivace is quick and lively. Presto Presto is very fast. Meter Meter is how we hear the groupings of beats in music. Music will be in an even meter (groupings of 2's or 4's) or an odd meter (groupings of 3's). Even Meters Are Groupings of 2 Beats A [22]march is played in a meter of 2, which makes it an even meter. That means you will hear the beats of the march move in patterns of two's. Odd Meters Are Groupings of 3 Beats A [23]waltz is played in a meter of three, which makes it an odd meter. That means you will hear the beats of the waltz move in patterns of three's. Can you hear meter in music? Click the examples below to identify whether you hear the music moving in groups of two's or three's. [24]Example 1 [25]Example 2 [26]Example 3 [27]Example 4 [28]Example 5 Time Signatures The time signature helps us group the notes so we don't get lost. It's the way we organize beats in music. It's like grouping eggs by the dozen or days by the week. The top number tells us how many beats we can have in one measure. In 4/4 time we have four beats in each measure. What was the time signature in all of all the examples above? Remember this: A beat is not the same thing as a note. Notes can have more or less than one beat. A whole note in 4/4 time has four beats. A half note in 4/4 time has two beats. An eighth note in 4/4 time has just 1/2 beat. It takes two eighth notes to make one beat in 4/4 time. Time signatures and meter: The time signature will tell you the music's meter. If you can divide the top number by two, the music is in an even meter. If you can divide the top number by three, the music is in an odd meter. Let's look at some popular time signatures and see if we can add up the beats in each measure. 4/4 Time (Common Time) [Common_time.gif] Did you notice the number at the beginning of all the examples above? That's the time signature. It's 4/4. That means that there are four beats in each measure and the quarter note gets one beat. This time signature is also called Common Time because it is the most popular time signature in music. Listen to [29]Somewhere Over the Rainbow from The Wizard of Oz. It's in 4/4 time. Each measure equals four beats. It is in an even meter. [30][rainbow.gif] 3/4 Time (Waltz Time) [Three_four.gif] A 3/4 time signature would only have three beats per measure. Here is what it looks like. Listen to [31]America played in 3/4 time. 3/4 is also called waltz time. Did you notice the dots after some of the notes. Dotes make the notes longer. This song is in an odd meter because there are three beats per measure. [32][amaerica.gif] 2/4 Time [Two_four.gif] A 2/4 time signature has just two beats per measure. It looks like this. Listen to [33]You're a Grand Old Flag in 2/4 time. Do you see the line connecting the last two notes. It is called a tie. What is the meter of this song? Look at the time signature for your answer. [34][grand.gif] 6/8 Time [Six_eight.gif] A 6/8 time signature has six beats per measure. The bottom number is 8. This tells you that the eighth note gets one beat. Do you recognize the song [35]Follow the Yellow Brick Road from The Wizard of Oz? It's in 6/8 time. This song goes fast, making it sound like 2/4 rather than 6/8 time. This time signature can sound like an even or odd meter because you can divide 6 by 2 or 3. [36][wizaed.gif] Drums online games * [37]Drums music machine free online game * [38]Drums player online music machine * [39]Restore rhythm online ear training * [40]Drums map movie * [41]Drums editor online game Music piano and guitar online games * [42]Computer play a note pitch ear training. You try to understand it and type c,d,e,f,g... * [43]Computer show a note you try to understand it play keyboard * [44]Music machine ear training * [45]Piano music machine free online game you can compose melody and play it. Try compose melody. This is very easy. * [46]Music free online game. Try to repeat music. * [47]Note pair online game. Find all notes. This game is very useful for music memory improvement. * [48]Notes shooter online game. Try to recognize note as fast as you can. * [49]Piano note free online teacher * [50]Sound memory improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it. * [51]Drag music online game. Compose melody by notes. * [52]Piano note editor. Compose melody. Use mouse for composing. * [53]Find error at the melody online game. The computer play melody then replace one note. Try to find error Music machines * [54]Orchestra quiz online music * [55]Music quiz for kids * [56]Virtual band Music games for kids * [57]Rainbow piano for kids. Computer show the color. Kids need to press correct note. * [58]Can you play jingle bells? Look at the note sheet and play. * [59]Piano keyboard online game. Download piano keyboard movie on to your computer and play. Metronomes and fork * [60]Light metronome online movie * [61]Metronome online movie * [62]Guitar tuning fork its help tune guitar Guitar online games * [63]Guitar music machine * [64]Guitar chord finder * [65]Guitar online chords * [66]Guitar chords * [67]Basic guitar chords and how it * [68]Guitar chords machine with sound * [69]Guitar scales __________________________________________________________________ Free music games [70]AbabaSoft.com/music Copyright © 1998 - Références Drums games, piano games, guitar games [1]Drums games. Music games Drums online games [2]Drums music machine free online music game [3]Drums player Online music machine [4]Drums map Drum flash movie [5]Music machine Ear music training [6]Drums editor Online drum game Music online games [7]Music Free online game Try to repeat music. [8]Ear training 01 Free music game [9]Piano note Free online teacher [10]Chords piano Write chords. then play the melody. [11]Sound memory Improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it. [12]Draw lessons How to draw free lessons [13]Online games Actions, Shooter, Logic online games [acleardot.gif] [acleardot.gif] What is music rhythm? The music rhythm is the beat. It is the most important element in music. It drives the music forward. It is the gasoline of music. Rhythms can be simple or complicated. Essential music vocabulary Meter It's the way we group the beats. We group eggs by the dozen. We group days by the week. We also group beats into two's or three's. That's meter. Rhythm The beat. The beat can be even or uneven, steady or unsteady. Note Values Long and short sounds in music are represented by notes. White notes have longer sounds than black notes. Tempo This is the speed of the music. Time Signature This is a number that appears at the beginning of the music. The top number tells you how many beats are in each measure (bar) and the bottom number tells you what kind of a note gets one beat. The most common times signatures are 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, and 6/8. Whole music notes These notes are whole notes. Each note is four beats long. Click the image to hear the note value. [14][whole.gif] Half music notes Here are half notes. Did you see the stems? These notes are twice as fast as whole notes. These note are two beats long. Click the image to hear the note value. [15][half.gif] Quarter music notes These notes are black. They are quarter notes. Each quarter note gets one beat. How many beats are in each measure? If you guessed four, you'd be right! Click the image to hear the note value. [16][quarter.gif] Eighth music notes These are eighth notes. Notice how the stems are connected by a beam. These notes move twice as fast as quarter notes. Two note are played for each beat of music. Click the image to hear the note value. [17][eighth_.gif] Combining Note Values In 4/4 time, different note values can be combined in each measure as long as they equal four beats. Click the examples to hear the rhythm patterns: [18][combo2.gif] [19][combo3.gif] [20][combo4.gif] Music tempo Tempo means speed. Musicians use Italian terms for different tempos. Here is a melody fragment. Click the image to hear the tune: [21][example.gif] Click the words below to hear this tune played at different tempos. Slow Medium Fast Largo Largo is the slowest tempo. Adagio Largo means slow or leisurely. Andante Andante means a walking pace. Moderato Moderato is medium. It is not too fast or too slow. Allegro Allegro is fast. It means cheerful in Italian. Vivace Vivace is quick and lively. Presto Presto is very fast. Meter Meter is how we hear the groupings of beats in music. Music will be in an even meter (groupings of 2's or 4's) or an odd meter (groupings of 3's). Even Meters Are Groupings of 2 Beats A [22]march is played in a meter of 2, which makes it an even meter. That means you will hear the beats of the march move in patterns of two's. Odd Meters Are Groupings of 3 Beats A [23]waltz is played in a meter of three, which makes it an odd meter. That means you will hear the beats of the waltz move in patterns of three's. Can you hear meter in music? Click the examples below to identify whether you hear the music moving in groups of two's or three's. [24]Example 1 [25]Example 2 [26]Example 3 [27]Example 4 [28]Example 5 Time Signatures The time signature helps us group the notes so we don't get lost. It's the way we organize beats in music. It's like grouping eggs by the dozen or days by the week. The top number tells us how many beats we can have in one measure. In 4/4 time we have four beats in each measure. What was the time signature in all of all the examples above? Remember this: A beat is not the same thing as a note. Notes can have more or less than one beat. A whole note in 4/4 time has four beats. A half note in 4/4 time has two beats. An eighth note in 4/4 time has just 1/2 beat. It takes two eighth notes to make one beat in 4/4 time. Time signatures and meter: The time signature will tell you the music's meter. If you can divide the top number by two, the music is in an even meter. If you can divide the top number by three, the music is in an odd meter. Let's look at some popular time signatures and see if we can add up the beats in each measure. 4/4 Time (Common Time) [Common_time.gif] Did you notice the number at the beginning of all the examples above? That's the time signature. It's 4/4. That means that there are four beats in each measure and the quarter note gets one beat. This time signature is also called Common Time because it is the most popular time signature in music. Listen to [29]Somewhere Over the Rainbow from The Wizard of Oz. It's in 4/4 time. Each measure equals four beats. It is in an even meter. [30][rainbow.gif] 3/4 Time (Waltz Time) [Three_four.gif] A 3/4 time signature would only have three beats per measure. Here is what it looks like. Listen to [31]America played in 3/4 time. 3/4 is also called waltz time. Did you notice the dots after some of the notes. Dotes make the notes longer. This song is in an odd meter because there are three beats per measure. [32][amaerica.gif] 2/4 Time [Two_four.gif] A 2/4 time signature has just two beats per measure. It looks like this. Listen to [33]You're a Grand Old Flag in 2/4 time. Do you see the line connecting the last two notes. It is called a tie. What is the meter of this song? Look at the time signature for your answer. [34][grand.gif] 6/8 Time [Six_eight.gif] A 6/8 time signature has six beats per measure. The bottom number is 8. This tells you that the eighth note gets one beat. Do you recognize the song [35]Follow the Yellow Brick Road from The Wizard of Oz? It's in 6/8 time. This song goes fast, making it sound like 2/4 rather than 6/8 time. This time signature can sound like an even or odd meter because you can divide 6 by 2 or 3. [36][wizaed.gif] Drums online games * [37]Drums music machine free online game * [38]Drums player online music machine * [39]Restore rhythm online ear training * [40]Drums map movie * [41]Drums editor online game Music piano and guitar online games * [42]Computer play a note pitch ear training. You try to understand it and type c,d,e,f,g... * [43]Computer show a note you try to understand it play keyboard * [44]Music machine ear training * [45]Piano music machine free online game you can compose melody and play it. Try compose melody. This is very easy. * [46]Music free online game. Try to repeat music. * [47]Note pair online game. Find all notes. This game is very useful for music memory improvement. * [48]Notes shooter online game. Try to recognize note as fast as you can. * [49]Piano note free online teacher * [50]Sound memory improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it. * [51]Drag music online game. Compose melody by notes. * [52]Piano note editor. Compose melody. Use mouse for composing. * [53]Find error at the melody online game. The computer play melody then replace one note. Try to find error Music machines * [54]Orchestra quiz online music * [55]Music quiz for kids * [56]Virtual band Music games for kids * [57]Rainbow piano for kids. Computer show the color. Kids need to press correct note. * [58]Can you play jingle bells? Look at the note sheet and play. * [59]Piano keyboard online game. Download piano keyboard movie on to your computer and play. Metronomes and fork * [60]Light metronome online movie * [61]Metronome online movie * [62]Guitar tuning fork its help tune guitar Guitar online games * [63]Guitar music machine * [64]Guitar chord finder * [65]Guitar online chords * [66]Guitar chords * [67]Basic guitar chords and how it * [68]Guitar chords machine with sound * [69]Guitar scales __________________________________________________________________ Free music games [70]AbabaSoft.com/music Copyright © 1998 - Références [1]CAT.INIST [2][USEMAP:bandeau-haut-droit.gif] logo CNRS [3]logo INIST [4]En savoir plus sur CAT.INIST ? © INIST Diffusion S.A. Service Clients / Customer Service 2, allée du parc de Brabois F-54514 Vandoeuvre Cedex France Tél : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.64 Fax : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.66 Courriel : [5]infoclient@inist.fr [6]Accueil / Home Imprimer / Print [7]Contact / Contact Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [8]Email Print [9]Bookmark and Share [10]Mendeley Back Titre du document / Document title Effects of pre-exercise listening to slow and fast rhythm music on supramaximal cycle performance and selected metabolic variables Auteur(s) / Author(s) YAMAMOTO T.^ (1) ; OHKUWA T.^ (2) ; ITOH H.^ (2) ; KITOH M.^ (3) ; TERASAWA J.^ (3) ; TSUDA T.^ (3) ; KITAGAWA S.^ (3) ; SATO Y.^ (1) ; Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s) ^(1) Research Center of Health, Physical Fitness and Sports, Nagoya University, 464-8601, JAPON ^(2) Department of General studies, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON ^(3) Department of Applied Chemistry, Nagoya Institute of Technology, Showa-ku, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON Résumé / Abstract We examined the effect of listening to two different types of music (with slow and fast rhythm), prior to supramaximal cycle exercise, on performance, heart rate, the concentration of lactate and ammonia in blood, and the concentration of catecholamines in plasma. Six male students participated in this study. After listening to slow rhythm or fast rhythm music for 20 min, the subjects performed supramaximal exercise for 45 s using a cycle ergometer. Listening to slow and fast rhythm music prior to supramaximal exercise did not significantly affect the mean power output. The plasma norepinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to slow rhythm music was significantly lower than before listening (p < 0.05). The plasma epinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to fast rhythm music was significantly higher than before listening (p < 0.05). The type of music had no effect on blood lactate and ammonia levels or on plasma catecholamine levels following exercise. In conclusion, listening to slow rhythm music decreases the plasma norepinephrine level, and listening to fast rhythm music increases the plasma epinephrine level. The type of music has no impact on power output during exercise. Revue / Journal Title Archives of physiology and biochemistry ISSN 1381-3455 Source / Source 2003, vol. 111, n^o3, pp. 211-214 [4 page(s) (article)] (14 ref.) Langue / Language Anglais Revue : Français Editeur / Publisher Taylor & Francis, Basingstoke, ROYAUME-UNI (1995) (Revue) Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords Dopamine agonist ; Neurotransmitter ; Catecholamine ; Human ; Bicycle ergometer ; Music ; Rhythm ; Dopamine ; Norepinephrine ; Epinephrine ; Physical performance ; Heart rate ; Physical exercise ; Mots-clés français / French Keywords Stimulant dopaminergique ; Neurotransmetteur ; Catécholamine ; Homme ; Bicyclette ergométrique ; Musique ; Rythme ; Dopamine ; Noradrénaline ; Adrénaline ; Performance physique ; Rythme cardiaque ; Exercice physique ; Mots-clés espagnols / Spanish Keywords Estimulante dopaminérgico ; Neurotransmisor ; Catecolamina ; Hombre ; Bicicleta ergométrica ; Música ; Ritmo ; Dopamina ; Noradrenalina ; Adrenalina ; Rendimiento físico ; Ritmo cardíaco ; Ejercicio físico ; Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords Slow music ; fast music ; epinephrine ; norepinephrine ; dopamine ; supramaximal exercise ; power output ; lactate ; ammonia ; heart rate ; Localisation / Location INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 827, 35400011637312.0030 Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 15397711 Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [11]Email Print [12]Bookmark and Share [13]Mendeley Back _______________________________ Rechercher dans CAT.INIST / Search in CAT.INIST Google Custom Search Références 5. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20CAT.INIST.FR 7. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20Cat@inist.fr [USEMAP] Drums games, piano games, guitar games [1]Drums games. Music games Drums online games [2]Drums music machine free online music game [3]Drums player Online music machine [4]Drums map Drum flash movie [5]Music machine Ear music training [6]Drums editor Online drum game Music online games [7]Music Free online game Try to repeat music. [8]Ear training 01 Free music game [9]Piano note Free online teacher [10]Chords piano Write chords. then play the melody. [11]Sound memory Improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it. [12]Draw lessons How to draw free lessons [13]Online games Actions, Shooter, Logic online games [acleardot.gif] [acleardot.gif] What is music rhythm? The music rhythm is the beat. It is the most important element in music. It drives the music forward. It is the gasoline of music. Rhythms can be simple or complicated. Essential music vocabulary Meter It's the way we group the beats. We group eggs by the dozen. We group days by the week. We also group beats into two's or three's. That's meter. Rhythm The beat. The beat can be even or uneven, steady or unsteady. Note Values Long and short sounds in music are represented by notes. White notes have longer sounds than black notes. Tempo This is the speed of the music. Time Signature This is a number that appears at the beginning of the music. The top number tells you how many beats are in each measure (bar) and the bottom number tells you what kind of a note gets one beat. The most common times signatures are 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, and 6/8. Whole music notes These notes are whole notes. Each note is four beats long. Click the image to hear the note value. [14][whole.gif] Half music notes Here are half notes. Did you see the stems? These notes are twice as fast as whole notes. These note are two beats long. Click the image to hear the note value. [15][half.gif] Quarter music notes These notes are black. They are quarter notes. Each quarter note gets one beat. How many beats are in each measure? If you guessed four, you'd be right! Click the image to hear the note value. [16][quarter.gif] Eighth music notes These are eighth notes. Notice how the stems are connected by a beam. These notes move twice as fast as quarter notes. Two note are played for each beat of music. Click the image to hear the note value. [17][eighth_.gif] Combining Note Values In 4/4 time, different note values can be combined in each measure as long as they equal four beats. Click the examples to hear the rhythm patterns: [18][combo2.gif] [19][combo3.gif] [20][combo4.gif] Music tempo Tempo means speed. Musicians use Italian terms for different tempos. Here is a melody fragment. Click the image to hear the tune: [21][example.gif] Click the words below to hear this tune played at different tempos. Slow Medium Fast Largo Largo is the slowest tempo. Adagio Largo means slow or leisurely. Andante Andante means a walking pace. Moderato Moderato is medium. It is not too fast or too slow. Allegro Allegro is fast. It means cheerful in Italian. Vivace Vivace is quick and lively. Presto Presto is very fast. Meter Meter is how we hear the groupings of beats in music. Music will be in an even meter (groupings of 2's or 4's) or an odd meter (groupings of 3's). Even Meters Are Groupings of 2 Beats A [22]march is played in a meter of 2, which makes it an even meter. That means you will hear the beats of the march move in patterns of two's. Odd Meters Are Groupings of 3 Beats A [23]waltz is played in a meter of three, which makes it an odd meter. That means you will hear the beats of the waltz move in patterns of three's. Can you hear meter in music? Click the examples below to identify whether you hear the music moving in groups of two's or three's. [24]Example 1 [25]Example 2 [26]Example 3 [27]Example 4 [28]Example 5 Time Signatures The time signature helps us group the notes so we don't get lost. It's the way we organize beats in music. It's like grouping eggs by the dozen or days by the week. The top number tells us how many beats we can have in one measure. In 4/4 time we have four beats in each measure. What was the time signature in all of all the examples above? Remember this: A beat is not the same thing as a note. Notes can have more or less than one beat. A whole note in 4/4 time has four beats. A half note in 4/4 time has two beats. An eighth note in 4/4 time has just 1/2 beat. It takes two eighth notes to make one beat in 4/4 time. Time signatures and meter: The time signature will tell you the music's meter. If you can divide the top number by two, the music is in an even meter. If you can divide the top number by three, the music is in an odd meter. Let's look at some popular time signatures and see if we can add up the beats in each measure. 4/4 Time (Common Time) [Common_time.gif] Did you notice the number at the beginning of all the examples above? That's the time signature. It's 4/4. That means that there are four beats in each measure and the quarter note gets one beat. This time signature is also called Common Time because it is the most popular time signature in music. Listen to [29]Somewhere Over the Rainbow from The Wizard of Oz. It's in 4/4 time. Each measure equals four beats. It is in an even meter. [30][rainbow.gif] 3/4 Time (Waltz Time) [Three_four.gif] A 3/4 time signature would only have three beats per measure. Here is what it looks like. Listen to [31]America played in 3/4 time. 3/4 is also called waltz time. Did you notice the dots after some of the notes. Dotes make the notes longer. This song is in an odd meter because there are three beats per measure. [32][amaerica.gif] 2/4 Time [Two_four.gif] A 2/4 time signature has just two beats per measure. It looks like this. Listen to [33]You're a Grand Old Flag in 2/4 time. Do you see the line connecting the last two notes. It is called a tie. What is the meter of this song? Look at the time signature for your answer. [34][grand.gif] 6/8 Time [Six_eight.gif] A 6/8 time signature has six beats per measure. The bottom number is 8. This tells you that the eighth note gets one beat. Do you recognize the song [35]Follow the Yellow Brick Road from The Wizard of Oz? It's in 6/8 time. This song goes fast, making it sound like 2/4 rather than 6/8 time. This time signature can sound like an even or odd meter because you can divide 6 by 2 or 3. [36][wizaed.gif] Drums online games * [37]Drums music machine free online game * [38]Drums player online music machine * [39]Restore rhythm online ear training * [40]Drums map movie * [41]Drums editor online game Music piano and guitar online games * [42]Computer play a note pitch ear training. You try to understand it and type c,d,e,f,g... * [43]Computer show a note you try to understand it play keyboard * [44]Music machine ear training * [45]Piano music machine free online game you can compose melody and play it. Try compose melody. This is very easy. * [46]Music free online game. Try to repeat music. * [47]Note pair online game. Find all notes. This game is very useful for music memory improvement. * [48]Notes shooter online game. Try to recognize note as fast as you can. * [49]Piano note free online teacher * [50]Sound memory improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it. * [51]Drag music online game. Compose melody by notes. * [52]Piano note editor. Compose melody. Use mouse for composing. * [53]Find error at the melody online game. The computer play melody then replace one note. Try to find error Music machines * [54]Orchestra quiz online music * [55]Music quiz for kids * [56]Virtual band Music games for kids * [57]Rainbow piano for kids. Computer show the color. Kids need to press correct note. * [58]Can you play jingle bells? Look at the note sheet and play. * [59]Piano keyboard online game. Download piano keyboard movie on to your computer and play. Metronomes and fork * [60]Light metronome online movie * [61]Metronome online movie * [62]Guitar tuning fork its help tune guitar Guitar online games * [63]Guitar music machine * [64]Guitar chord finder * [65]Guitar online chords * [66]Guitar chords * [67]Basic guitar chords and how it * [68]Guitar chords machine with sound * [69]Guitar scales __________________________________________________________________ Free music games [70]AbabaSoft.com/music Copyright © 1998 - Références [1]CAT.INIST [2][USEMAP:bandeau-haut-droit.gif] logo CNRS [3]logo INIST [4]En savoir plus sur CAT.INIST ? © INIST Diffusion S.A. Service Clients / Customer Service 2, allée du parc de Brabois F-54514 Vandoeuvre Cedex France Tél : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.64 Fax : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.66 Courriel : [5]infoclient@inist.fr [6]Accueil / Home Imprimer / Print [7]Contact / Contact Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [8]Email Print [9]Bookmark and Share [10]Mendeley Back Titre du document / Document title Effects of pre-exercise listening to slow and fast rhythm music on supramaximal cycle performance and selected metabolic variables Auteur(s) / Author(s) YAMAMOTO T.^ (1) ; OHKUWA T.^ (2) ; ITOH H.^ (2) ; KITOH M.^ (3) ; TERASAWA J.^ (3) ; TSUDA T.^ (3) ; KITAGAWA S.^ (3) ; SATO Y.^ (1) ; Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s) ^(1) Research Center of Health, Physical Fitness and Sports, Nagoya University, 464-8601, JAPON ^(2) Department of General studies, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON ^(3) Department of Applied Chemistry, Nagoya Institute of Technology, Showa-ku, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON Résumé / Abstract We examined the effect of listening to two different types of music (with slow and fast rhythm), prior to supramaximal cycle exercise, on performance, heart rate, the concentration of lactate and ammonia in blood, and the concentration of catecholamines in plasma. Six male students participated in this study. After listening to slow rhythm or fast rhythm music for 20 min, the subjects performed supramaximal exercise for 45 s using a cycle ergometer. Listening to slow and fast rhythm music prior to supramaximal exercise did not significantly affect the mean power output. The plasma norepinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to slow rhythm music was significantly lower than before listening (p < 0.05). The plasma epinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to fast rhythm music was significantly higher than before listening (p < 0.05). The type of music had no effect on blood lactate and ammonia levels or on plasma catecholamine levels following exercise. In conclusion, listening to slow rhythm music decreases the plasma norepinephrine level, and listening to fast rhythm music increases the plasma epinephrine level. The type of music has no impact on power output during exercise. Revue / Journal Title Archives of physiology and biochemistry ISSN 1381-3455 Source / Source 2003, vol. 111, n^o3, pp. 211-214 [4 page(s) (article)] (14 ref.) Langue / Language Anglais Revue : Français Editeur / Publisher Taylor & Francis, Basingstoke, ROYAUME-UNI (1995) (Revue) Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords Dopamine agonist ; Neurotransmitter ; Catecholamine ; Human ; Bicycle ergometer ; Music ; Rhythm ; Dopamine ; Norepinephrine ; Epinephrine ; Physical performance ; Heart rate ; Physical exercise ; Mots-clés français / French Keywords Stimulant dopaminergique ; Neurotransmetteur ; Catécholamine ; Homme ; Bicyclette ergométrique ; Musique ; Rythme ; Dopamine ; Noradrénaline ; Adrénaline ; Performance physique ; Rythme cardiaque ; Exercice physique ; Mots-clés espagnols / Spanish Keywords Estimulante dopaminérgico ; Neurotransmisor ; Catecolamina ; Hombre ; Bicicleta ergométrica ; Música ; Ritmo ; Dopamina ; Noradrenalina ; Adrenalina ; Rendimiento físico ; Ritmo cardíaco ; Ejercicio físico ; Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords Slow music ; fast music ; epinephrine ; norepinephrine ; dopamine ; supramaximal exercise ; power output ; lactate ; ammonia ; heart rate ; Localisation / Location INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 827, 35400011637312.0030 Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 15397711 Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [11]Email Print [12]Bookmark and Share [13]Mendeley Back _______________________________ Rechercher dans CAT.INIST / Search in CAT.INIST Google Custom Search Références 5. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20CAT.INIST.FR 7. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20Cat@inist.fr [USEMAP] Basic Music Theory. Copyright Neil Hawes 1997 Rhythm * Rhythm in music is dependent on the fact that humans recognise a [1]beat occurring at a regular interval. * Rhythm in music is more than just a [2]beat, however; it is the way that sounds with differing lengths (or gaps between them) and accents can combine to produce patterns in time which contain a [3]beat. + These sounds do not have to be particularly musical; rhythms can be made by striking almost anything, as long as there can be difference in accent. + Differences in accent can mean different sounds or just different loudness (i.e. amplitudes) of sounds * It is common to speak of a particular rhythm, referring to a pattern of [4]note lengths which occurs in a piece of music. + It is important to understand that the rhythm is defined by the pattern; the overall speed of it could vary from performance to performance, but the rhythm would still be the same. + The speed or tempo of a piece of music is indicated by a [5]metronome marking and/or a [6]direction word or phrase; its rhythm is specified by various [7]note lengths creating [8]beats within [9]bars. * Modern songs often include [10]syncopation in their rhythm __________________________________________________________________ [11]Mail me [12]Copyright and disclaimer [13]Content and structure of these pages [14]Return to top Références 11. mailto:website@neilhawes.com Drums games, piano games, guitar games [1]Drums games. Music games Drums online games [2]Drums music machine free online music game [3]Drums player Online music machine [4]Drums map Drum flash movie [5]Music machine Ear music training [6]Drums editor Online drum game Music online games [7]Music Free online game Try to repeat music. [8]Ear training 01 Free music game [9]Piano note Free online teacher [10]Chords piano Write chords. then play the melody. [11]Sound memory Improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it. [12]Draw lessons How to draw free lessons [13]Online games Actions, Shooter, Logic online games [acleardot.gif] [acleardot.gif] What is music rhythm? The music rhythm is the beat. It is the most important element in music. It drives the music forward. It is the gasoline of music. Rhythms can be simple or complicated. Essential music vocabulary Meter It's the way we group the beats. We group eggs by the dozen. We group days by the week. We also group beats into two's or three's. That's meter. Rhythm The beat. The beat can be even or uneven, steady or unsteady. Note Values Long and short sounds in music are represented by notes. White notes have longer sounds than black notes. Tempo This is the speed of the music. Time Signature This is a number that appears at the beginning of the music. The top number tells you how many beats are in each measure (bar) and the bottom number tells you what kind of a note gets one beat. The most common times signatures are 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, and 6/8. Whole music notes These notes are whole notes. Each note is four beats long. Click the image to hear the note value. [14][whole.gif] Half music notes Here are half notes. Did you see the stems? These notes are twice as fast as whole notes. These note are two beats long. Click the image to hear the note value. [15][half.gif] Quarter music notes These notes are black. They are quarter notes. Each quarter note gets one beat. How many beats are in each measure? If you guessed four, you'd be right! Click the image to hear the note value. [16][quarter.gif] Eighth music notes These are eighth notes. Notice how the stems are connected by a beam. These notes move twice as fast as quarter notes. Two note are played for each beat of music. Click the image to hear the note value. [17][eighth_.gif] Combining Note Values In 4/4 time, different note values can be combined in each measure as long as they equal four beats. Click the examples to hear the rhythm patterns: [18][combo2.gif] [19][combo3.gif] [20][combo4.gif] Music tempo Tempo means speed. Musicians use Italian terms for different tempos. Here is a melody fragment. Click the image to hear the tune: [21][example.gif] Click the words below to hear this tune played at different tempos. Slow Medium Fast Largo Largo is the slowest tempo. Adagio Largo means slow or leisurely. Andante Andante means a walking pace. Moderato Moderato is medium. It is not too fast or too slow. Allegro Allegro is fast. It means cheerful in Italian. Vivace Vivace is quick and lively. Presto Presto is very fast. Meter Meter is how we hear the groupings of beats in music. Music will be in an even meter (groupings of 2's or 4's) or an odd meter (groupings of 3's). Even Meters Are Groupings of 2 Beats A [22]march is played in a meter of 2, which makes it an even meter. That means you will hear the beats of the march move in patterns of two's. Odd Meters Are Groupings of 3 Beats A [23]waltz is played in a meter of three, which makes it an odd meter. That means you will hear the beats of the waltz move in patterns of three's. Can you hear meter in music? Click the examples below to identify whether you hear the music moving in groups of two's or three's. [24]Example 1 [25]Example 2 [26]Example 3 [27]Example 4 [28]Example 5 Time Signatures The time signature helps us group the notes so we don't get lost. It's the way we organize beats in music. It's like grouping eggs by the dozen or days by the week. The top number tells us how many beats we can have in one measure. In 4/4 time we have four beats in each measure. What was the time signature in all of all the examples above? Remember this: A beat is not the same thing as a note. Notes can have more or less than one beat. A whole note in 4/4 time has four beats. A half note in 4/4 time has two beats. An eighth note in 4/4 time has just 1/2 beat. It takes two eighth notes to make one beat in 4/4 time. Time signatures and meter: The time signature will tell you the music's meter. If you can divide the top number by two, the music is in an even meter. If you can divide the top number by three, the music is in an odd meter. Let's look at some popular time signatures and see if we can add up the beats in each measure. 4/4 Time (Common Time) [Common_time.gif] Did you notice the number at the beginning of all the examples above? That's the time signature. It's 4/4. That means that there are four beats in each measure and the quarter note gets one beat. This time signature is also called Common Time because it is the most popular time signature in music. Listen to [29]Somewhere Over the Rainbow from The Wizard of Oz. It's in 4/4 time. Each measure equals four beats. It is in an even meter. [30][rainbow.gif] 3/4 Time (Waltz Time) [Three_four.gif] A 3/4 time signature would only have three beats per measure. Here is what it looks like. Listen to [31]America played in 3/4 time. 3/4 is also called waltz time. Did you notice the dots after some of the notes. Dotes make the notes longer. This song is in an odd meter because there are three beats per measure. [32][amaerica.gif] 2/4 Time [Two_four.gif] A 2/4 time signature has just two beats per measure. It looks like this. Listen to [33]You're a Grand Old Flag in 2/4 time. Do you see the line connecting the last two notes. It is called a tie. What is the meter of this song? Look at the time signature for your answer. [34][grand.gif] 6/8 Time [Six_eight.gif] A 6/8 time signature has six beats per measure. The bottom number is 8. This tells you that the eighth note gets one beat. Do you recognize the song [35]Follow the Yellow Brick Road from The Wizard of Oz? It's in 6/8 time. This song goes fast, making it sound like 2/4 rather than 6/8 time. This time signature can sound like an even or odd meter because you can divide 6 by 2 or 3. [36][wizaed.gif] Drums online games * [37]Drums music machine free online game * [38]Drums player online music machine * [39]Restore rhythm online ear training * [40]Drums map movie * [41]Drums editor online game Music piano and guitar online games * [42]Computer play a note pitch ear training. You try to understand it and type c,d,e,f,g... * [43]Computer show a note you try to understand it play keyboard * [44]Music machine ear training * [45]Piano music machine free online game you can compose melody and play it. Try compose melody. This is very easy. * [46]Music free online game. Try to repeat music. * [47]Note pair online game. Find all notes. This game is very useful for music memory improvement. * [48]Notes shooter online game. Try to recognize note as fast as you can. * [49]Piano note free online teacher * [50]Sound memory improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it. * [51]Drag music online game. Compose melody by notes. * [52]Piano note editor. Compose melody. Use mouse for composing. * [53]Find error at the melody online game. The computer play melody then replace one note. Try to find error Music machines * [54]Orchestra quiz online music * [55]Music quiz for kids * [56]Virtual band Music games for kids * [57]Rainbow piano for kids. Computer show the color. Kids need to press correct note. * [58]Can you play jingle bells? Look at the note sheet and play. * [59]Piano keyboard online game. Download piano keyboard movie on to your computer and play. Metronomes and fork * [60]Light metronome online movie * [61]Metronome online movie * [62]Guitar tuning fork its help tune guitar Guitar online games * [63]Guitar music machine * [64]Guitar chord finder * [65]Guitar online chords * [66]Guitar chords * [67]Basic guitar chords and how it * [68]Guitar chords machine with sound * [69]Guitar scales __________________________________________________________________ Free music games [70]AbabaSoft.com/music Copyright © 1998 - Références [1]CAT.INIST [2][USEMAP:bandeau-haut-droit.gif] logo CNRS [3]logo INIST [4]En savoir plus sur CAT.INIST ? © INIST Diffusion S.A. Service Clients / Customer Service 2, allée du parc de Brabois F-54514 Vandoeuvre Cedex France Tél : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.64 Fax : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.66 Courriel : [5]infoclient@inist.fr [6]Accueil / Home Imprimer / Print [7]Contact / Contact Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [8]Email Print [9]Bookmark and Share [10]Mendeley Back Titre du document / Document title Effects of pre-exercise listening to slow and fast rhythm music on supramaximal cycle performance and selected metabolic variables Auteur(s) / Author(s) YAMAMOTO T.^ (1) ; OHKUWA T.^ (2) ; ITOH H.^ (2) ; KITOH M.^ (3) ; TERASAWA J.^ (3) ; TSUDA T.^ (3) ; KITAGAWA S.^ (3) ; SATO Y.^ (1) ; Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s) ^(1) Research Center of Health, Physical Fitness and Sports, Nagoya University, 464-8601, JAPON ^(2) Department of General studies, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON ^(3) Department of Applied Chemistry, Nagoya Institute of Technology, Showa-ku, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON Résumé / Abstract We examined the effect of listening to two different types of music (with slow and fast rhythm), prior to supramaximal cycle exercise, on performance, heart rate, the concentration of lactate and ammonia in blood, and the concentration of catecholamines in plasma. Six male students participated in this study. After listening to slow rhythm or fast rhythm music for 20 min, the subjects performed supramaximal exercise for 45 s using a cycle ergometer. Listening to slow and fast rhythm music prior to supramaximal exercise did not significantly affect the mean power output. The plasma norepinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to slow rhythm music was significantly lower than before listening (p < 0.05). The plasma epinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to fast rhythm music was significantly higher than before listening (p < 0.05). The type of music had no effect on blood lactate and ammonia levels or on plasma catecholamine levels following exercise. In conclusion, listening to slow rhythm music decreases the plasma norepinephrine level, and listening to fast rhythm music increases the plasma epinephrine level. The type of music has no impact on power output during exercise. Revue / Journal Title Archives of physiology and biochemistry ISSN 1381-3455 Source / Source 2003, vol. 111, n^o3, pp. 211-214 [4 page(s) (article)] (14 ref.) Langue / Language Anglais Revue : Français Editeur / Publisher Taylor & Francis, Basingstoke, ROYAUME-UNI (1995) (Revue) Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords Dopamine agonist ; Neurotransmitter ; Catecholamine ; Human ; Bicycle ergometer ; Music ; Rhythm ; Dopamine ; Norepinephrine ; Epinephrine ; Physical performance ; Heart rate ; Physical exercise ; Mots-clés français / French Keywords Stimulant dopaminergique ; Neurotransmetteur ; Catécholamine ; Homme ; Bicyclette ergométrique ; Musique ; Rythme ; Dopamine ; Noradrénaline ; Adrénaline ; Performance physique ; Rythme cardiaque ; Exercice physique ; Mots-clés espagnols / Spanish Keywords Estimulante dopaminérgico ; Neurotransmisor ; Catecolamina ; Hombre ; Bicicleta ergométrica ; Música ; Ritmo ; Dopamina ; Noradrenalina ; Adrenalina ; Rendimiento físico ; Ritmo cardíaco ; Ejercicio físico ; Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords Slow music ; fast music ; epinephrine ; norepinephrine ; dopamine ; supramaximal exercise ; power output ; lactate ; ammonia ; heart rate ; Localisation / Location INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 827, 35400011637312.0030 Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 15397711 Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [11]Email Print [12]Bookmark and Share [13]Mendeley Back _______________________________ Rechercher dans CAT.INIST / Search in CAT.INIST Google Custom Search Références 5. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20CAT.INIST.FR 7. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20Cat@inist.fr [USEMAP] Basic Music Theory. Copyright Neil Hawes 1997 Rhythm * Rhythm in music is dependent on the fact that humans recognise a [1]beat occurring at a regular interval. * Rhythm in music is more than just a [2]beat, however; it is the way that sounds with differing lengths (or gaps between them) and accents can combine to produce patterns in time which contain a [3]beat. + These sounds do not have to be particularly musical; rhythms can be made by striking almost anything, as long as there can be difference in accent. + Differences in accent can mean different sounds or just different loudness (i.e. amplitudes) of sounds * It is common to speak of a particular rhythm, referring to a pattern of [4]note lengths which occurs in a piece of music. + It is important to understand that the rhythm is defined by the pattern; the overall speed of it could vary from performance to performance, but the rhythm would still be the same. + The speed or tempo of a piece of music is indicated by a [5]metronome marking and/or a [6]direction word or phrase; its rhythm is specified by various [7]note lengths creating [8]beats within [9]bars. * Modern songs often include [10]syncopation in their rhythm __________________________________________________________________ [11]Mail me [12]Copyright and disclaimer [13]Content and structure of these pages [14]Return to top Références 11. mailto:website@neilhawes.com [jazz-blues-pianist-3.jpg] [1]Home: jazz improvisation : pop blues| [2]Pop music videos| [3]Pop blues jazz albums| [4]Jazz improvisation - harmony| [5]Lingua italiana| [6]HELP - FAQ| Rhythm and swing * Swing jazz rhythm * [7]Music rhythm * [8]Learn music theory : polyrhythms Site menu * [9]Blues singer songwriter jazz pianist * [10]Pop music videos * [11]Jazz piano, tutorial videos * [12]Pop blues jazz albums * [13]Jazz pianist music stores Improvisation and music harmony : MIOP * [14]Jazz improvisation and music harmony : summary * [15]Music harmony concepts * [16]Scales, modes to improvise * [17]Blues improvisation * [18]Jazz melody and improvisation * Swing jazz rhythm * [19]Jazz techniques : practice Swing jazz rhythm in improvisation Swing is very important in improvisation. This word means stressing the upbeat. If you also give a "sliding" or "retardation" between notes, you can create the real swing jazz rhythm, which was born at the beginning of the XX century about. When you stress an upbeat you make perhaps a "swinging" rhythmics, (also being without a dragging or a sliding between notes), for modern rhythm too, (such as pop and rhythm and blues). * When you play swing music, that is Dixieland, blues, ragtime, swing, bebop, cool jazz, hard bop, you have to follow this scheme: basic rhythmic pattern ...in this way: swing jazz rhythm pattern Learn swing jazz rhythm In order to learn how to swing, you simply have to learn how to reason in up beat and stressing with it constantly. In other words, swing means "stressing the upbeat" with an implied octaves triplets clef. It's so a rhythm "sliding" effect created : the meaning of the American word "swing" is just similar to "sliding", "waving" or "rocking". * For example these measures : how to learn jazz swing ..must be played (in general) in this way: fundamental jazz swing rhythm In other words Swing has offbeat (upbeat) accents and an eighth-note triplets rhythmic base. Learning jazz swing Learning swing very well and have the ability to improvise, stressing and giving the right accent of phrases needs much time to practice it. Above all, you must pay attention at the beginning to stress upbeat octave notes constantly and to stop when you realize you are making the contrary. While stressing notes on your instrument, I suggest to upbeat by your foot, so that you can emphasize this rhythmic accent better. You have to get used to reason in upbeat, beginning all over again, as since we were children we have been starting clapping hands in downbeat. Swing-jazz rhythm can be so learned naturally after studying constantly in this direction. * You need some months to learn swing rhythm on your instrument. I remember you to stress always the upbeats. [20]Privacy Policy | musilosophy.com © 2005-2009 | All rights reserved | PIVA IT09999181002 Références Drums games, piano games, guitar games [1]Drums games. Music games Drums online games [2]Drums music machine free online music game [3]Drums player Online music machine [4]Drums map Drum flash movie [5]Music machine Ear music training [6]Drums editor Online drum game Music online games [7]Music Free online game Try to repeat music. [8]Ear training 01 Free music game [9]Piano note Free online teacher [10]Chords piano Write chords. then play the melody. [11]Sound memory Improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it. [12]Draw lessons How to draw free lessons [13]Online games Actions, Shooter, Logic online games [acleardot.gif] [acleardot.gif] What is music rhythm? The music rhythm is the beat. It is the most important element in music. It drives the music forward. It is the gasoline of music. Rhythms can be simple or complicated. Essential music vocabulary Meter It's the way we group the beats. We group eggs by the dozen. We group days by the week. We also group beats into two's or three's. That's meter. Rhythm The beat. The beat can be even or uneven, steady or unsteady. Note Values Long and short sounds in music are represented by notes. White notes have longer sounds than black notes. Tempo This is the speed of the music. Time Signature This is a number that appears at the beginning of the music. The top number tells you how many beats are in each measure (bar) and the bottom number tells you what kind of a note gets one beat. The most common times signatures are 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, and 6/8. Whole music notes These notes are whole notes. Each note is four beats long. Click the image to hear the note value. [14][whole.gif] Half music notes Here are half notes. Did you see the stems? These notes are twice as fast as whole notes. These note are two beats long. Click the image to hear the note value. [15][half.gif] Quarter music notes These notes are black. They are quarter notes. Each quarter note gets one beat. How many beats are in each measure? If you guessed four, you'd be right! Click the image to hear the note value. [16][quarter.gif] Eighth music notes These are eighth notes. Notice how the stems are connected by a beam. These notes move twice as fast as quarter notes. Two note are played for each beat of music. Click the image to hear the note value. [17][eighth_.gif] Combining Note Values In 4/4 time, different note values can be combined in each measure as long as they equal four beats. Click the examples to hear the rhythm patterns: [18][combo2.gif] [19][combo3.gif] [20][combo4.gif] Music tempo Tempo means speed. Musicians use Italian terms for different tempos. Here is a melody fragment. Click the image to hear the tune: [21][example.gif] Click the words below to hear this tune played at different tempos. Slow Medium Fast Largo Largo is the slowest tempo. Adagio Largo means slow or leisurely. Andante Andante means a walking pace. Moderato Moderato is medium. It is not too fast or too slow. Allegro Allegro is fast. It means cheerful in Italian. Vivace Vivace is quick and lively. Presto Presto is very fast. Meter Meter is how we hear the groupings of beats in music. Music will be in an even meter (groupings of 2's or 4's) or an odd meter (groupings of 3's). Even Meters Are Groupings of 2 Beats A [22]march is played in a meter of 2, which makes it an even meter. That means you will hear the beats of the march move in patterns of two's. Odd Meters Are Groupings of 3 Beats A [23]waltz is played in a meter of three, which makes it an odd meter. That means you will hear the beats of the waltz move in patterns of three's. Can you hear meter in music? Click the examples below to identify whether you hear the music moving in groups of two's or three's. [24]Example 1 [25]Example 2 [26]Example 3 [27]Example 4 [28]Example 5 Time Signatures The time signature helps us group the notes so we don't get lost. It's the way we organize beats in music. It's like grouping eggs by the dozen or days by the week. The top number tells us how many beats we can have in one measure. In 4/4 time we have four beats in each measure. What was the time signature in all of all the examples above? Remember this: A beat is not the same thing as a note. Notes can have more or less than one beat. A whole note in 4/4 time has four beats. A half note in 4/4 time has two beats. An eighth note in 4/4 time has just 1/2 beat. It takes two eighth notes to make one beat in 4/4 time. Time signatures and meter: The time signature will tell you the music's meter. If you can divide the top number by two, the music is in an even meter. If you can divide the top number by three, the music is in an odd meter. Let's look at some popular time signatures and see if we can add up the beats in each measure. 4/4 Time (Common Time) [Common_time.gif] Did you notice the number at the beginning of all the examples above? That's the time signature. It's 4/4. That means that there are four beats in each measure and the quarter note gets one beat. This time signature is also called Common Time because it is the most popular time signature in music. Listen to [29]Somewhere Over the Rainbow from The Wizard of Oz. It's in 4/4 time. Each measure equals four beats. It is in an even meter. [30][rainbow.gif] 3/4 Time (Waltz Time) [Three_four.gif] A 3/4 time signature would only have three beats per measure. Here is what it looks like. Listen to [31]America played in 3/4 time. 3/4 is also called waltz time. Did you notice the dots after some of the notes. Dotes make the notes longer. This song is in an odd meter because there are three beats per measure. [32][amaerica.gif] 2/4 Time [Two_four.gif] A 2/4 time signature has just two beats per measure. It looks like this. Listen to [33]You're a Grand Old Flag in 2/4 time. Do you see the line connecting the last two notes. It is called a tie. What is the meter of this song? Look at the time signature for your answer. [34][grand.gif] 6/8 Time [Six_eight.gif] A 6/8 time signature has six beats per measure. The bottom number is 8. This tells you that the eighth note gets one beat. Do you recognize the song [35]Follow the Yellow Brick Road from The Wizard of Oz? It's in 6/8 time. This song goes fast, making it sound like 2/4 rather than 6/8 time. This time signature can sound like an even or odd meter because you can divide 6 by 2 or 3. [36][wizaed.gif] Drums online games * [37]Drums music machine free online game * [38]Drums player online music machine * [39]Restore rhythm online ear training * [40]Drums map movie * [41]Drums editor online game Music piano and guitar online games * [42]Computer play a note pitch ear training. You try to understand it and type c,d,e,f,g... * [43]Computer show a note you try to understand it play keyboard * [44]Music machine ear training * [45]Piano music machine free online game you can compose melody and play it. Try compose melody. This is very easy. * [46]Music free online game. Try to repeat music. * [47]Note pair online game. Find all notes. This game is very useful for music memory improvement. * [48]Notes shooter online game. Try to recognize note as fast as you can. * [49]Piano note free online teacher * [50]Sound memory improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it. * [51]Drag music online game. Compose melody by notes. * [52]Piano note editor. Compose melody. Use mouse for composing. * [53]Find error at the melody online game. The computer play melody then replace one note. Try to find error Music machines * [54]Orchestra quiz online music * [55]Music quiz for kids * [56]Virtual band Music games for kids * [57]Rainbow piano for kids. Computer show the color. Kids need to press correct note. * [58]Can you play jingle bells? Look at the note sheet and play. * [59]Piano keyboard online game. Download piano keyboard movie on to your computer and play. Metronomes and fork * [60]Light metronome online movie * [61]Metronome online movie * [62]Guitar tuning fork its help tune guitar Guitar online games * [63]Guitar music machine * [64]Guitar chord finder * [65]Guitar online chords * [66]Guitar chords * [67]Basic guitar chords and how it * [68]Guitar chords machine with sound * [69]Guitar scales __________________________________________________________________ Free music games [70]AbabaSoft.com/music Copyright © 1998 - Références [1]CAT.INIST [2][USEMAP:bandeau-haut-droit.gif] logo CNRS [3]logo INIST [4]En savoir plus sur CAT.INIST ? © INIST Diffusion S.A. Service Clients / Customer Service 2, allée du parc de Brabois F-54514 Vandoeuvre Cedex France Tél : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.64 Fax : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.66 Courriel : [5]infoclient@inist.fr [6]Accueil / Home Imprimer / Print [7]Contact / Contact Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [8]Email Print [9]Bookmark and Share [10]Mendeley Back Titre du document / Document title Effects of pre-exercise listening to slow and fast rhythm music on supramaximal cycle performance and selected metabolic variables Auteur(s) / Author(s) YAMAMOTO T.^ (1) ; OHKUWA T.^ (2) ; ITOH H.^ (2) ; KITOH M.^ (3) ; TERASAWA J.^ (3) ; TSUDA T.^ (3) ; KITAGAWA S.^ (3) ; SATO Y.^ (1) ; Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s) ^(1) Research Center of Health, Physical Fitness and Sports, Nagoya University, 464-8601, JAPON ^(2) Department of General studies, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON ^(3) Department of Applied Chemistry, Nagoya Institute of Technology, Showa-ku, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON Résumé / Abstract We examined the effect of listening to two different types of music (with slow and fast rhythm), prior to supramaximal cycle exercise, on performance, heart rate, the concentration of lactate and ammonia in blood, and the concentration of catecholamines in plasma. Six male students participated in this study. After listening to slow rhythm or fast rhythm music for 20 min, the subjects performed supramaximal exercise for 45 s using a cycle ergometer. Listening to slow and fast rhythm music prior to supramaximal exercise did not significantly affect the mean power output. The plasma norepinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to slow rhythm music was significantly lower than before listening (p < 0.05). The plasma epinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to fast rhythm music was significantly higher than before listening (p < 0.05). The type of music had no effect on blood lactate and ammonia levels or on plasma catecholamine levels following exercise. In conclusion, listening to slow rhythm music decreases the plasma norepinephrine level, and listening to fast rhythm music increases the plasma epinephrine level. The type of music has no impact on power output during exercise. Revue / Journal Title Archives of physiology and biochemistry ISSN 1381-3455 Source / Source 2003, vol. 111, n^o3, pp. 211-214 [4 page(s) (article)] (14 ref.) Langue / Language Anglais Revue : Français Editeur / Publisher Taylor & Francis, Basingstoke, ROYAUME-UNI (1995) (Revue) Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords Dopamine agonist ; Neurotransmitter ; Catecholamine ; Human ; Bicycle ergometer ; Music ; Rhythm ; Dopamine ; Norepinephrine ; Epinephrine ; Physical performance ; Heart rate ; Physical exercise ; Mots-clés français / French Keywords Stimulant dopaminergique ; Neurotransmetteur ; Catécholamine ; Homme ; Bicyclette ergométrique ; Musique ; Rythme ; Dopamine ; Noradrénaline ; Adrénaline ; Performance physique ; Rythme cardiaque ; Exercice physique ; Mots-clés espagnols / Spanish Keywords Estimulante dopaminérgico ; Neurotransmisor ; Catecolamina ; Hombre ; Bicicleta ergométrica ; Música ; Ritmo ; Dopamina ; Noradrenalina ; Adrenalina ; Rendimiento físico ; Ritmo cardíaco ; Ejercicio físico ; Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords Slow music ; fast music ; epinephrine ; norepinephrine ; dopamine ; supramaximal exercise ; power output ; lactate ; ammonia ; heart rate ; Localisation / Location INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 827, 35400011637312.0030 Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 15397711 Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [11]Email Print [12]Bookmark and Share [13]Mendeley Back _______________________________ Rechercher dans CAT.INIST / Search in CAT.INIST Google Custom Search Références 5. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20CAT.INIST.FR 7. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20Cat@inist.fr [USEMAP] Basic Music Theory. Copyright Neil Hawes 1997 Rhythm * Rhythm in music is dependent on the fact that humans recognise a [1]beat occurring at a regular interval. * Rhythm in music is more than just a [2]beat, however; it is the way that sounds with differing lengths (or gaps between them) and accents can combine to produce patterns in time which contain a [3]beat. + These sounds do not have to be particularly musical; rhythms can be made by striking almost anything, as long as there can be difference in accent. + Differences in accent can mean different sounds or just different loudness (i.e. amplitudes) of sounds * It is common to speak of a particular rhythm, referring to a pattern of [4]note lengths which occurs in a piece of music. + It is important to understand that the rhythm is defined by the pattern; the overall speed of it could vary from performance to performance, but the rhythm would still be the same. + The speed or tempo of a piece of music is indicated by a [5]metronome marking and/or a [6]direction word or phrase; its rhythm is specified by various [7]note lengths creating [8]beats within [9]bars. * Modern songs often include [10]syncopation in their rhythm __________________________________________________________________ [11]Mail me [12]Copyright and disclaimer [13]Content and structure of these pages [14]Return to top Références 11. mailto:website@neilhawes.com [jazz-blues-pianist-3.jpg] [1]Home: jazz improvisation : pop blues| [2]Pop music videos| [3]Pop blues jazz albums| [4]Jazz improvisation - harmony| [5]Lingua italiana| [6]HELP - FAQ| Rhythm and swing * Swing jazz rhythm * [7]Music rhythm * [8]Learn music theory : polyrhythms Site menu * [9]Blues singer songwriter jazz pianist * [10]Pop music videos * [11]Jazz piano, tutorial videos * [12]Pop blues jazz albums * [13]Jazz pianist music stores Improvisation and music harmony : MIOP * [14]Jazz improvisation and music harmony : summary * [15]Music harmony concepts * [16]Scales, modes to improvise * [17]Blues improvisation * [18]Jazz melody and improvisation * Swing jazz rhythm * [19]Jazz techniques : practice Swing jazz rhythm in improvisation Swing is very important in improvisation. This word means stressing the upbeat. If you also give a "sliding" or "retardation" between notes, you can create the real swing jazz rhythm, which was born at the beginning of the XX century about. When you stress an upbeat you make perhaps a "swinging" rhythmics, (also being without a dragging or a sliding between notes), for modern rhythm too, (such as pop and rhythm and blues). * When you play swing music, that is Dixieland, blues, ragtime, swing, bebop, cool jazz, hard bop, you have to follow this scheme: basic rhythmic pattern ...in this way: swing jazz rhythm pattern Learn swing jazz rhythm In order to learn how to swing, you simply have to learn how to reason in up beat and stressing with it constantly. In other words, swing means "stressing the upbeat" with an implied octaves triplets clef. It's so a rhythm "sliding" effect created : the meaning of the American word "swing" is just similar to "sliding", "waving" or "rocking". * For example these measures : how to learn jazz swing ..must be played (in general) in this way: fundamental jazz swing rhythm In other words Swing has offbeat (upbeat) accents and an eighth-note triplets rhythmic base. Learning jazz swing Learning swing very well and have the ability to improvise, stressing and giving the right accent of phrases needs much time to practice it. Above all, you must pay attention at the beginning to stress upbeat octave notes constantly and to stop when you realize you are making the contrary. While stressing notes on your instrument, I suggest to upbeat by your foot, so that you can emphasize this rhythmic accent better. You have to get used to reason in upbeat, beginning all over again, as since we were children we have been starting clapping hands in downbeat. Swing-jazz rhythm can be so learned naturally after studying constantly in this direction. * You need some months to learn swing rhythm on your instrument. I remember you to stress always the upbeats. [20]Privacy Policy | musilosophy.com © 2005-2009 | All rights reserved | PIVA IT09999181002 Références Drums games, piano games, guitar games [1]Drums games. Music games Drums online games [2]Drums music machine free online music game [3]Drums player Online music machine [4]Drums map Drum flash movie [5]Music machine Ear music training [6]Drums editor Online drum game Music online games [7]Music Free online game Try to repeat music. [8]Ear training 01 Free music game [9]Piano note Free online teacher [10]Chords piano Write chords. then play the melody. [11]Sound memory Improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it. [12]Draw lessons How to draw free lessons [13]Online games Actions, Shooter, Logic online games [acleardot.gif] [acleardot.gif] What is music rhythm? The music rhythm is the beat. It is the most important element in music. It drives the music forward. It is the gasoline of music. Rhythms can be simple or complicated. Essential music vocabulary Meter It's the way we group the beats. We group eggs by the dozen. We group days by the week. We also group beats into two's or three's. That's meter. Rhythm The beat. The beat can be even or uneven, steady or unsteady. Note Values Long and short sounds in music are represented by notes. White notes have longer sounds than black notes. Tempo This is the speed of the music. Time Signature This is a number that appears at the beginning of the music. The top number tells you how many beats are in each measure (bar) and the bottom number tells you what kind of a note gets one beat. The most common times signatures are 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, and 6/8. Whole music notes These notes are whole notes. Each note is four beats long. Click the image to hear the note value. [14][whole.gif] Half music notes Here are half notes. Did you see the stems? These notes are twice as fast as whole notes. These note are two beats long. Click the image to hear the note value. [15][half.gif] Quarter music notes These notes are black. They are quarter notes. Each quarter note gets one beat. How many beats are in each measure? If you guessed four, you'd be right! Click the image to hear the note value. [16][quarter.gif] Eighth music notes These are eighth notes. Notice how the stems are connected by a beam. These notes move twice as fast as quarter notes. Two note are played for each beat of music. Click the image to hear the note value. [17][eighth_.gif] Combining Note Values In 4/4 time, different note values can be combined in each measure as long as they equal four beats. Click the examples to hear the rhythm patterns: [18][combo2.gif] [19][combo3.gif] [20][combo4.gif] Music tempo Tempo means speed. Musicians use Italian terms for different tempos. Here is a melody fragment. Click the image to hear the tune: [21][example.gif] Click the words below to hear this tune played at different tempos. Slow Medium Fast Largo Largo is the slowest tempo. Adagio Largo means slow or leisurely. Andante Andante means a walking pace. Moderato Moderato is medium. It is not too fast or too slow. Allegro Allegro is fast. It means cheerful in Italian. Vivace Vivace is quick and lively. Presto Presto is very fast. Meter Meter is how we hear the groupings of beats in music. Music will be in an even meter (groupings of 2's or 4's) or an odd meter (groupings of 3's). Even Meters Are Groupings of 2 Beats A [22]march is played in a meter of 2, which makes it an even meter. That means you will hear the beats of the march move in patterns of two's. Odd Meters Are Groupings of 3 Beats A [23]waltz is played in a meter of three, which makes it an odd meter. That means you will hear the beats of the waltz move in patterns of three's. Can you hear meter in music? Click the examples below to identify whether you hear the music moving in groups of two's or three's. [24]Example 1 [25]Example 2 [26]Example 3 [27]Example 4 [28]Example 5 Time Signatures The time signature helps us group the notes so we don't get lost. It's the way we organize beats in music. It's like grouping eggs by the dozen or days by the week. The top number tells us how many beats we can have in one measure. In 4/4 time we have four beats in each measure. What was the time signature in all of all the examples above? Remember this: A beat is not the same thing as a note. Notes can have more or less than one beat. A whole note in 4/4 time has four beats. A half note in 4/4 time has two beats. An eighth note in 4/4 time has just 1/2 beat. It takes two eighth notes to make one beat in 4/4 time. Time signatures and meter: The time signature will tell you the music's meter. If you can divide the top number by two, the music is in an even meter. If you can divide the top number by three, the music is in an odd meter. Let's look at some popular time signatures and see if we can add up the beats in each measure. 4/4 Time (Common Time) [Common_time.gif] Did you notice the number at the beginning of all the examples above? That's the time signature. It's 4/4. That means that there are four beats in each measure and the quarter note gets one beat. This time signature is also called Common Time because it is the most popular time signature in music. Listen to [29]Somewhere Over the Rainbow from The Wizard of Oz. It's in 4/4 time. Each measure equals four beats. It is in an even meter. [30][rainbow.gif] 3/4 Time (Waltz Time) [Three_four.gif] A 3/4 time signature would only have three beats per measure. Here is what it looks like. Listen to [31]America played in 3/4 time. 3/4 is also called waltz time. Did you notice the dots after some of the notes. Dotes make the notes longer. This song is in an odd meter because there are three beats per measure. [32][amaerica.gif] 2/4 Time [Two_four.gif] A 2/4 time signature has just two beats per measure. It looks like this. Listen to [33]You're a Grand Old Flag in 2/4 time. Do you see the line connecting the last two notes. It is called a tie. What is the meter of this song? Look at the time signature for your answer. [34][grand.gif] 6/8 Time [Six_eight.gif] A 6/8 time signature has six beats per measure. The bottom number is 8. This tells you that the eighth note gets one beat. Do you recognize the song [35]Follow the Yellow Brick Road from The Wizard of Oz? It's in 6/8 time. This song goes fast, making it sound like 2/4 rather than 6/8 time. This time signature can sound like an even or odd meter because you can divide 6 by 2 or 3. [36][wizaed.gif] Drums online games * [37]Drums music machine free online game * [38]Drums player online music machine * [39]Restore rhythm online ear training * [40]Drums map movie * [41]Drums editor online game Music piano and guitar online games * [42]Computer play a note pitch ear training. You try to understand it and type c,d,e,f,g... * [43]Computer show a note you try to understand it play keyboard * [44]Music machine ear training * [45]Piano music machine free online game you can compose melody and play it. Try compose melody. This is very easy. * [46]Music free online game. Try to repeat music. * [47]Note pair online game. Find all notes. This game is very useful for music memory improvement. * [48]Notes shooter online game. Try to recognize note as fast as you can. * [49]Piano note free online teacher * [50]Sound memory improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it. * [51]Drag music online game. Compose melody by notes. * [52]Piano note editor. Compose melody. Use mouse for composing. * [53]Find error at the melody online game. The computer play melody then replace one note. Try to find error Music machines * [54]Orchestra quiz online music * [55]Music quiz for kids * [56]Virtual band Music games for kids * [57]Rainbow piano for kids. Computer show the color. Kids need to press correct note. * [58]Can you play jingle bells? Look at the note sheet and play. * [59]Piano keyboard online game. Download piano keyboard movie on to your computer and play. Metronomes and fork * [60]Light metronome online movie * [61]Metronome online movie * [62]Guitar tuning fork its help tune guitar Guitar online games * [63]Guitar music machine * [64]Guitar chord finder * [65]Guitar online chords * [66]Guitar chords * [67]Basic guitar chords and how it * [68]Guitar chords machine with sound * [69]Guitar scales __________________________________________________________________ Free music games [70]AbabaSoft.com/music Copyright © 1998 - Références [1]CAT.INIST [2][USEMAP:bandeau-haut-droit.gif] logo CNRS [3]logo INIST [4]En savoir plus sur CAT.INIST ? © INIST Diffusion S.A. Service Clients / Customer Service 2, allée du parc de Brabois F-54514 Vandoeuvre Cedex France Tél : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.64 Fax : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.66 Courriel : [5]infoclient@inist.fr [6]Accueil / Home Imprimer / Print [7]Contact / Contact Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [8]Email Print [9]Bookmark and Share [10]Mendeley Back Titre du document / Document title Effects of pre-exercise listening to slow and fast rhythm music on supramaximal cycle performance and selected metabolic variables Auteur(s) / Author(s) YAMAMOTO T.^ (1) ; OHKUWA T.^ (2) ; ITOH H.^ (2) ; KITOH M.^ (3) ; TERASAWA J.^ (3) ; TSUDA T.^ (3) ; KITAGAWA S.^ (3) ; SATO Y.^ (1) ; Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s) ^(1) Research Center of Health, Physical Fitness and Sports, Nagoya University, 464-8601, JAPON ^(2) Department of General studies, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON ^(3) Department of Applied Chemistry, Nagoya Institute of Technology, Showa-ku, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON Résumé / Abstract We examined the effect of listening to two different types of music (with slow and fast rhythm), prior to supramaximal cycle exercise, on performance, heart rate, the concentration of lactate and ammonia in blood, and the concentration of catecholamines in plasma. Six male students participated in this study. After listening to slow rhythm or fast rhythm music for 20 min, the subjects performed supramaximal exercise for 45 s using a cycle ergometer. Listening to slow and fast rhythm music prior to supramaximal exercise did not significantly affect the mean power output. The plasma norepinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to slow rhythm music was significantly lower than before listening (p < 0.05). The plasma epinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to fast rhythm music was significantly higher than before listening (p < 0.05). The type of music had no effect on blood lactate and ammonia levels or on plasma catecholamine levels following exercise. In conclusion, listening to slow rhythm music decreases the plasma norepinephrine level, and listening to fast rhythm music increases the plasma epinephrine level. The type of music has no impact on power output during exercise. Revue / Journal Title Archives of physiology and biochemistry ISSN 1381-3455 Source / Source 2003, vol. 111, n^o3, pp. 211-214 [4 page(s) (article)] (14 ref.) Langue / Language Anglais Revue : Français Editeur / Publisher Taylor & Francis, Basingstoke, ROYAUME-UNI (1995) (Revue) Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords Dopamine agonist ; Neurotransmitter ; Catecholamine ; Human ; Bicycle ergometer ; Music ; Rhythm ; Dopamine ; Norepinephrine ; Epinephrine ; Physical performance ; Heart rate ; Physical exercise ; Mots-clés français / French Keywords Stimulant dopaminergique ; Neurotransmetteur ; Catécholamine ; Homme ; Bicyclette ergométrique ; Musique ; Rythme ; Dopamine ; Noradrénaline ; Adrénaline ; Performance physique ; Rythme cardiaque ; Exercice physique ; Mots-clés espagnols / Spanish Keywords Estimulante dopaminérgico ; Neurotransmisor ; Catecolamina ; Hombre ; Bicicleta ergométrica ; Música ; Ritmo ; Dopamina ; Noradrenalina ; Adrenalina ; Rendimiento físico ; Ritmo cardíaco ; Ejercicio físico ; Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords Slow music ; fast music ; epinephrine ; norepinephrine ; dopamine ; supramaximal exercise ; power output ; lactate ; ammonia ; heart rate ; Localisation / Location INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 827, 35400011637312.0030 Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 15397711 Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [11]Email Print [12]Bookmark and Share [13]Mendeley Back _______________________________ Rechercher dans CAT.INIST / Search in CAT.INIST Google Custom Search Références 5. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20CAT.INIST.FR 7. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20Cat@inist.fr [USEMAP] Basic Music Theory. Copyright Neil Hawes 1997 Rhythm * Rhythm in music is dependent on the fact that humans recognise a [1]beat occurring at a regular interval. * Rhythm in music is more than just a [2]beat, however; it is the way that sounds with differing lengths (or gaps between them) and accents can combine to produce patterns in time which contain a [3]beat. + These sounds do not have to be particularly musical; rhythms can be made by striking almost anything, as long as there can be difference in accent. + Differences in accent can mean different sounds or just different loudness (i.e. amplitudes) of sounds * It is common to speak of a particular rhythm, referring to a pattern of [4]note lengths which occurs in a piece of music. + It is important to understand that the rhythm is defined by the pattern; the overall speed of it could vary from performance to performance, but the rhythm would still be the same. + The speed or tempo of a piece of music is indicated by a [5]metronome marking and/or a [6]direction word or phrase; its rhythm is specified by various [7]note lengths creating [8]beats within [9]bars. * Modern songs often include [10]syncopation in their rhythm __________________________________________________________________ [11]Mail me [12]Copyright and disclaimer [13]Content and structure of these pages [14]Return to top Références 11. mailto:website@neilhawes.com [jazz-blues-pianist-3.jpg] [1]Home: jazz improvisation : pop blues| [2]Pop music videos| [3]Pop blues jazz albums| [4]Jazz improvisation - harmony| [5]Lingua italiana| [6]HELP - FAQ| Rhythm and swing * Swing jazz rhythm * [7]Music rhythm * [8]Learn music theory : polyrhythms Site menu * [9]Blues singer songwriter jazz pianist * [10]Pop music videos * [11]Jazz piano, tutorial videos * [12]Pop blues jazz albums * [13]Jazz pianist music stores Improvisation and music harmony : MIOP * [14]Jazz improvisation and music harmony : summary * [15]Music harmony concepts * [16]Scales, modes to improvise * [17]Blues improvisation * [18]Jazz melody and improvisation * Swing jazz rhythm * [19]Jazz techniques : practice Swing jazz rhythm in improvisation Swing is very important in improvisation. This word means stressing the upbeat. If you also give a "sliding" or "retardation" between notes, you can create the real swing jazz rhythm, which was born at the beginning of the XX century about. When you stress an upbeat you make perhaps a "swinging" rhythmics, (also being without a dragging or a sliding between notes), for modern rhythm too, (such as pop and rhythm and blues). * When you play swing music, that is Dixieland, blues, ragtime, swing, bebop, cool jazz, hard bop, you have to follow this scheme: basic rhythmic pattern ...in this way: swing jazz rhythm pattern Learn swing jazz rhythm In order to learn how to swing, you simply have to learn how to reason in up beat and stressing with it constantly. In other words, swing means "stressing the upbeat" with an implied octaves triplets clef. It's so a rhythm "sliding" effect created : the meaning of the American word "swing" is just similar to "sliding", "waving" or "rocking". * For example these measures : how to learn jazz swing ..must be played (in general) in this way: fundamental jazz swing rhythm In other words Swing has offbeat (upbeat) accents and an eighth-note triplets rhythmic base. Learning jazz swing Learning swing very well and have the ability to improvise, stressing and giving the right accent of phrases needs much time to practice it. Above all, you must pay attention at the beginning to stress upbeat octave notes constantly and to stop when you realize you are making the contrary. While stressing notes on your instrument, I suggest to upbeat by your foot, so that you can emphasize this rhythmic accent better. You have to get used to reason in upbeat, beginning all over again, as since we were children we have been starting clapping hands in downbeat. Swing-jazz rhythm can be so learned naturally after studying constantly in this direction. * You need some months to learn swing rhythm on your instrument. I remember you to stress always the upbeats. [20]Privacy Policy | musilosophy.com © 2005-2009 | All rights reserved | PIVA IT09999181002 Références #[1]RSS spacer Music Learning Workshop [2]Home [3]MLW Blog [4]Join Community [5]Theory [6]Workshops [7]Store sp [8]Home: [9]Basic Music Theory Elements: Music Theory Rhythm "Music Theory Rhythm" "Your Journey in Music Rhythm" Introduction: Your journey to learn and master the music theory rhythm begins in this section of the Music Learning Workshop. The music rhythm workshop provides us with the basics needed to get rhythm down cold. below we link to the beginner series of lessons. We start with the essential building blocks of how to fundamentally know rhythm and then expand our knowledge of rhythm music theory and know how until we achieve mastery. Learning Pyramid The Basic Building Blocks of Rhythm Rhythm forms the basis of music theory. It is what all other musical elements are based upon. You can only survive so long in your musical journey without the essential building block of rhythm. Ask professional musicians: what one element of music do you find to be most important? The answer will often be rhythm. As it is the one thing that is least forgiven by the listener. Our learning approach assumes a level of maturity in the student. Often it is related to the age of about 8 years old. However, with proper guidance younger ages can use the materials. We don't take a single element to explore, but instead take a bigger picture and zero in on the elements that make it work. When we teach notes names or values we do it all at once, because it is very important that you know how all of them are related right at the start. This allows you jump start and accelerate your learning process. Whatâs really neat is that if you get hung up you can go back and see exactly what that single thing is and how it relates to other items in context. [10]WHAT'S NEW JOIN THE WORKSHOP Sign Up to Claim Your Free Report: Learn a Song - Crucial Steps to Mastering a Song Quickly First Name: _______________ Email Address: _______________ Submit We hate spam as much as you do! Your name and email address will not be sold, shared or disclosed. Beginning Rhythm Music Theory Lessons The sequence of lessons below are designed specifically for the newbie music student. They start with an overview approach of just looking at music components such as what is a measure a note in definition. We then follow the approach detailed above. Take your time Beginning Rhythm [11]Rhythm Definitions [12]Note Symbols [13]Note Symbols Practice [14]Note Time Value [15]Time Signatures [16]Counting Rhythm Beats [17]Counting Rhythm Using Rests [18]Counting Rhythm Duple Pattern [19]Counting Rhythm Quadruple Pattern [20]Counting Rhythm Triplet pattern [21]Note Relationships [22]Reference Chart Beat vs Time There is no hurry, it is far more important that you understand the concepts than to rush through them to get to the next one. The better you understand each step the easier the next one will be. Start with some terms we will need to become familiar with when discussing rhythm and music theory and move on through the lessons to build up on the previous group of knowledge. This outline shows the components of rhythm available on this site that you can start learning. This sequence is designed to quickly lead you through the basics of what is needed to learn rhythm music theory. The Music Learning Workshop "Get It Down Cold" Workbooks will be available soon to lead you through the process. [23]Join the our community and you will be notified when they are available. [24]Basic Music Theory Elements: [25]Rhythm | [26]Notes | [27]Master Staff | [28]Intervals | [29]Scales | [30]Chords | [31]Key Signatures [32]Home [33]Workshops & Courses [34]Monthly Music Course [35]FAQ Monthly Course [36]Music LearningBlog [37]Music Theory Basics [38]Music Learning Know-How [39]Teaching Music Articles [40]Your Instrument and Theory [41]Playing Music * Playing Technique and Instruction [42]Recommends & Resources * Courses, Methods, Software, Equipment and More [43]MLW Book Store [44]FAQ ================ Beginning Rhythm * [45]Rhythm Definitions * [46]Note Symbols * [47]Note Symbols Practice * [48]Note Time Value * [49]Time Signatures * [50]Rhythm Counting Beats * [51]Rhythm Counting Rests * [52]Rhythm Duple Pattern * [53]Rhythm Quadruple Pattern * [54]Rhythm Triplet Pattern * [55]Note Relationships * [56]Rhythm Beat Chart Subscribe to Blog: [57]XML RSS [58] What is RSS feed? [59]My Yahoo! 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[73]top of Music Theory Rhythm [74]Home | [75]What's New | [76]Workshops | [77]Affiliate Program | [78]Site Map | [79]About Us | [80]Contact Us | [81]Disclaimer | [82]Privacy Policy | [83]Join MLW [84]Powered by Site Build It! | [85]Copyright©2008-2009 MusicLearningWorkshop.com - All Rights Reserved Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Rhythm In Nature [7]page up: Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications | by Frederick R. Clow [8]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications. Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual training, recitation, gymnastics, and play. Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human [40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality. The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. . . . When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak. Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. - Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20. . . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight years in [42]duration are superposed. . . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135. Continue to: * prev: [43]Rhythm In Nature * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]The Cycle Of A Generation Tags [46]sociology, [47]communication, [48]congenial groups, [49]cycles of change, [50]democracy, [51]factors of society, [52]government, [53]heredity, [54]human nature, [55]institutions, [56]location, [57]natural selection, [58]organizations, [59]population, [60]primary groups, [61]social classes [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [62]TOP [63]previous page: Rhythm In Nature [64]page up: Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications | by Frederick R. Clow [65]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [66]StasoSphere [ [67]Privacy Policy ] [ [68]Terms of Use ] [ [69]About Us ] [ [70]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:34:34 2009 Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Rhythm In Nature [7]page up: Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications | by Frederick R. Clow [8]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications. Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual training, recitation, gymnastics, and play. Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human [40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality. The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. . . . When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak. Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. - Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20. . . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight years in [42]duration are superposed. . . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135. Continue to: * prev: [43]Rhythm In Nature * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]The Cycle Of A Generation Tags [46]sociology, [47]communication, [48]congenial groups, [49]cycles of change, [50]democracy, [51]factors of society, [52]government, [53]heredity, [54]human nature, [55]institutions, [56]location, [57]natural selection, [58]organizations, [59]population, [60]primary groups, [61]social classes [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [62]TOP [63]previous page: Rhythm In Nature [64]page up: Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications | by Frederick R. Clow [65]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [66]StasoSphere [ [67]Privacy Policy ] [ [68]Terms of Use ] [ [69]About Us ] [ [70]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:34:34 2009 Références #[1]Welcome page [2]Help [3]Parent screen [4]skip navigation [5]Geography Compass Select Compass [Geography Compass........................] Go * [6]Home | * [7]My Compass | * [8]Help | * [9]Content Alerts | * [10]Contact Us | * [11]Links * [12]What is Geography Compass? | * [13]Subscribe | * [14]Editors | * [15]Editorial Board | * [16]Authors Cultural Towards Lefebvrian Socio-Nature? A Film about Rhythm, Nature and Science By [17]James Evans and [18]Phil Jones, School of Environment and Development, University of Manchester School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham (April 2008) __________________________________________________________________ Section: [19]Cultural Subjects: [20]Environment And Society, [21]Geography, [22]Urban Geography, [23]Cultural Geography. Key Topics: [24]nature , [25]representation. Abstract The first thing you will notice about this article is that it is actually a film. We did not set out to make a film, it just ended up that way. We started out making music out of environmental data, wondering why we only ever look at scientific data, why we do not listen to it. Wandering around the city passing through the transformed landscapes of channelised rivers and broken industrial spaces, we wanted to reveal the socio-natural rhythms of this hybrid city. The text you see below represents the shooting script for a film that explores Lefebvre's notion of rhythmanalysis in the context of socio-natural rhythms. The video accompanying it is far more interesting, including the environmental music that we produced by feeding scientific data through samplers and drum machines. The video questions the nature of scientific representation and whether the notion of rhythmanalysis can be stretched to explore rhythms beyond the human. Furthermore, the process of actually making the video, submitting it to this journal, and responding to the referees' comments made us question the very nature of what constitutes an academic paper in the twenty-first century. The accompanying commentary is our attempt to deal with these issues. To link to the film please go to DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00107.x This article abstract has been viewed 5348 times. [27]view [28]cite [29]Add to my Compass [30]Add to VLE/CMS [31]feedback __________________________________________________________________ Top 5 related articles * [32]Geographies for Moving Bodies: Thinking, Dancing, Spaces By [33]Derek P. McCormack , Oxford University Centre for the Environment (Vol. 3, October 2008) Geography Compass * [34]Colonialism, Landscape and the Subterranean By [35]Heidi V. Scott , Institute of Geography and Earth Sciences, Aberystwyth University (Vol. 3, October 2008) Geography Compass * [36]Climate-Suicide Relationships: A Research Problem in Need of Geographic Methods and Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives By P. Grady Dixon and Adam J. Kalkstein, Mississippi State UniversityUnited States Military Academy (Vol. 4, September 2009) Geography Compass * [37]Ethnomethodology and the Non-representational: What Are Disaffected Young White Men Capable of? By [38]Rob Loughenbury , University of Durham (Vol. 4, June 2009) Geography Compass * [39]The Legacies of 2007: Remapping the Black Presence in Britain By [40]Caroline Bressey , University College London (Vol. 4, April 2009) Geography Compass [[41]All related articles] Top 5 Related Blackwell Reference Chapters * [42]The Environment of the City ... or the Urbanization of Nature The question that now begins to gnaw at your mind is more anguished: outside Penthesilea does an outside ... By Erik Swyngedouw and Maria Kaïka From [43]Companion to the City * [44]Postcolonialism, Representation, and the City Topicality, the essence of good journalism, is perhaps less important for the longer-term perspectives ... By Anthony D. King From [45]Companion to the City * [46]The Immaterial City: Representation, Imagination, and Media Technologies J.-K. Huysmans's À Rebours (Against Nature) is a fictional study of a certain type of dandy in the latter ... By James Donald From [47]Companion to the City * [48]The Production of Nature It may seem strange to include a chapter on the production of nature in a volume about economic geography. ... By Noel Castree From [49]A Companion to Economic Geography [[50]All Related Reference Chapters] * [51]Economic * [52]Social * [53]Cultural * [54]Political * [55]Urban * [56]Development * [57]Climatology * [58]Hydrology & Water Resources * [59]Geomorphology * [60]Biogeography * [61]GIS * [62]Earth Observation * [63]Environment & Society * [64]Global Issues Quick Search Keyword search: ____________________ Select a section: [All........................] Select a content type: [All.................................] [65]Advanced Search Search Related Blackwell Reference Chapters [66]View Related Reference Books [67]Geography Compass - Personal Subscription Rates [68]Sign up for free Geography Compass content alerts [69]Keep up-to-date "...an indispensable reference tool for teachers, researchers, and students in Geography and related disciplines." Mike Bradshaw and Basil Gomez Geography Compass Editors-in-Chief [70]Blackwell Publishing Copyright © 2005-2007 [71]Blackwell Publishing | [72]Privacy Policy | [73]Contact us | [74]Help | [75]To the top... [76][ access key 0 : accessibility information including access key list ] [77][ access key 1 : home page ] [78][ access key 2 : skip navigation] [79][ access key 6 : help ] Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Rhythm In Nature [7]page up: Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications | by Frederick R. Clow [8]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications. Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual training, recitation, gymnastics, and play. Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human [40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality. The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. . . . When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak. Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. - Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20. . . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight years in [42]duration are superposed. . . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135. Continue to: * prev: [43]Rhythm In Nature * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]The Cycle Of A Generation Tags [46]sociology, [47]communication, [48]congenial groups, [49]cycles of change, [50]democracy, [51]factors of society, [52]government, [53]heredity, [54]human nature, [55]institutions, [56]location, [57]natural selection, [58]organizations, [59]population, [60]primary groups, [61]social classes [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [62]TOP [63]previous page: Rhythm In Nature [64]page up: Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications | by Frederick R. Clow [65]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [66]StasoSphere [ [67]Privacy Policy ] [ [68]Terms of Use ] [ [69]About Us ] [ [70]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:34:34 2009 Références #[1]Welcome page [2]Help [3]Parent screen [4]skip navigation [5]Geography Compass Select Compass [Geography Compass........................] Go * [6]Home | * [7]My Compass | * [8]Help | * [9]Content Alerts | * [10]Contact Us | * [11]Links * [12]What is Geography Compass? | * [13]Subscribe | * [14]Editors | * [15]Editorial Board | * [16]Authors Cultural Towards Lefebvrian Socio-Nature? A Film about Rhythm, Nature and Science By [17]James Evans and [18]Phil Jones, School of Environment and Development, University of Manchester School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham (April 2008) __________________________________________________________________ Section: [19]Cultural Subjects: [20]Environment And Society, [21]Geography, [22]Urban Geography, [23]Cultural Geography. Key Topics: [24]nature , [25]representation. Abstract The first thing you will notice about this article is that it is actually a film. We did not set out to make a film, it just ended up that way. We started out making music out of environmental data, wondering why we only ever look at scientific data, why we do not listen to it. Wandering around the city passing through the transformed landscapes of channelised rivers and broken industrial spaces, we wanted to reveal the socio-natural rhythms of this hybrid city. The text you see below represents the shooting script for a film that explores Lefebvre's notion of rhythmanalysis in the context of socio-natural rhythms. The video accompanying it is far more interesting, including the environmental music that we produced by feeding scientific data through samplers and drum machines. The video questions the nature of scientific representation and whether the notion of rhythmanalysis can be stretched to explore rhythms beyond the human. Furthermore, the process of actually making the video, submitting it to this journal, and responding to the referees' comments made us question the very nature of what constitutes an academic paper in the twenty-first century. The accompanying commentary is our attempt to deal with these issues. To link to the film please go to DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00107.x This article abstract has been viewed 5348 times. [27]view [28]cite [29]Add to my Compass [30]Add to VLE/CMS [31]feedback __________________________________________________________________ Top 5 related articles * [32]Geographies for Moving Bodies: Thinking, Dancing, Spaces By [33]Derek P. McCormack , Oxford University Centre for the Environment (Vol. 3, October 2008) Geography Compass * [34]Colonialism, Landscape and the Subterranean By [35]Heidi V. Scott , Institute of Geography and Earth Sciences, Aberystwyth University (Vol. 3, October 2008) Geography Compass * [36]Climate-Suicide Relationships: A Research Problem in Need of Geographic Methods and Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives By P. Grady Dixon and Adam J. Kalkstein, Mississippi State UniversityUnited States Military Academy (Vol. 4, September 2009) Geography Compass * [37]Ethnomethodology and the Non-representational: What Are Disaffected Young White Men Capable of? By [38]Rob Loughenbury , University of Durham (Vol. 4, June 2009) Geography Compass * [39]The Legacies of 2007: Remapping the Black Presence in Britain By [40]Caroline Bressey , University College London (Vol. 4, April 2009) Geography Compass [[41]All related articles] Top 5 Related Blackwell Reference Chapters * [42]The Environment of the City ... or the Urbanization of Nature The question that now begins to gnaw at your mind is more anguished: outside Penthesilea does an outside ... By Erik Swyngedouw and Maria Kaïka From [43]Companion to the City * [44]Postcolonialism, Representation, and the City Topicality, the essence of good journalism, is perhaps less important for the longer-term perspectives ... By Anthony D. King From [45]Companion to the City * [46]The Immaterial City: Representation, Imagination, and Media Technologies J.-K. Huysmans's À Rebours (Against Nature) is a fictional study of a certain type of dandy in the latter ... By James Donald From [47]Companion to the City * [48]The Production of Nature It may seem strange to include a chapter on the production of nature in a volume about economic geography. ... By Noel Castree From [49]A Companion to Economic Geography [[50]All Related Reference Chapters] * [51]Economic * [52]Social * [53]Cultural * [54]Political * [55]Urban * [56]Development * [57]Climatology * [58]Hydrology & Water Resources * [59]Geomorphology * [60]Biogeography * [61]GIS * [62]Earth Observation * [63]Environment & Society * [64]Global Issues Quick Search Keyword search: ____________________ Select a section: [All........................] Select a content type: [All.................................] [65]Advanced Search Search Related Blackwell Reference Chapters [66]View Related Reference Books [67]Geography Compass - Personal Subscription Rates [68]Sign up for free Geography Compass content alerts [69]Keep up-to-date "...an indispensable reference tool for teachers, researchers, and students in Geography and related disciplines." Mike Bradshaw and Basil Gomez Geography Compass Editors-in-Chief [70]Blackwell Publishing Copyright © 2005-2007 [71]Blackwell Publishing | [72]Privacy Policy | [73]Contact us | [74]Help | [75]To the top... [76][ access key 0 : accessibility information including access key list ] [77][ access key 1 : home page ] [78][ access key 2 : skip navigation] [79][ access key 6 : help ] Références [1]pmc logo image [2]Logo of nihpa [3]Journal List > [4]NIHPA Author Manuscripts Formats: * [5]Abstract | * Full Text | * [6]PDF (32K) J Public Health Policy. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2008 July 24. Published in final edited form as: [7]J Public Health Policy. 2006; 27(1): 2-12. doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200061. PMCID: PMC2483431 NIHMSID: NIHMS58476 [8]Copyright notice and [9]Disclaimer Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature Elena N. Naumova^* ^*Address for Correspondence: Department of Public Health and Family Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Avenue, Boston, MA 02111, USA. E-mail: elena.naumova/at/tufts.edu Small right arrow pointing to: The publisher's final edited version of this article is available at [10]J Public Health Policy. Small right arrow pointing to: See other articles in PMC that [11]cite the published article. Abstract Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences. Understanding seasonal fluctuations in diseases patterns presents us with a major challenge. To develop efficient strategies for disease prevention and control, we need to grasp the main determinants of temporal variations and their interactions. This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality by outlining several of its factors, using as illustrations respiratory and enteric water- or food-borne infections. Keywords: seasonality, water-borne infection, food-borne infection, respiratory infection * [12] Other Sectionsv + [13]Abstract + [14]Introduction + [15]Notion of Seasonality + [16]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [17]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [18]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [19]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [20]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [21]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [22]References Introduction Now let us consider the seasons and the way we can predict whether it is going to be a healthy or an unhealthy year. (Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 10)^[23]1 Seasonal fluctuations in birth and death, in sickness and health, are the haunting mysteries of mankind. People have made predictions from winds, tides, birds' migrations, spring blooms, sunsets, and constellations in hope of grasping the future. The complexity and uncertainty of ancient and modern means of prediction make us wonder to what extent we are able to understand the rhythm of nature. One might argue the future cannot be known, but from a practical point of view, a better understanding of changes in disease occurrences is essential for building efficient strategies for disease prevention and control. Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences. Since Hippocrates, observers worldwide have noted and documented marked fluctuations in the incidence of many diseases. In the modern view, the main determinants of temporal variations in disease manifestation are evolving host susceptibility, periodicity in pathogen abundance and transmissibility, and the ever-changing environment that can support or repress a host or pathogen. Interactions among these factors responsible for seasonal variation are interwoven into the intricate fabric of life. For many diseases, explanations for self-sustained oscillations still remain elusive. We lack adequate methods and sufficient analytical tools for comprehensive examination of seasonality in public health field studies. A dearth of observations, recorded over long periods at fine resolution, compounded by an enormous number of factors associated with periodic changes, obscure our ability to understand disease variation. Urgent need for effective strategies to prevent and control a spread of emerging infections in the rapidly changing world, however, demands a deeper insight into the cyclic nature of diseases. This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality and outline several factors associated with seasonality using as illustrations enteric water- or food-borne infections and respiratory infections. Then I propose a framework for systematic evaluation of seasonal oscillations. In every part of this presentation, and most importantly, I wish to stimulate discussion on this challenging topic. * [24] Other Sectionsv + [25]Abstract + [26]Introduction + [27]Notion of Seasonality + [28]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [29]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [30]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [31]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [32]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [33]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [34]References Notion of Seasonality Every disease occurs at any season of the year but some of them more frequently occur and are of greater severity at certain times. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 19) Seasonality, as noted above, refers to the cyclic appearance of events over a period of time. A seasonal pattern may appear as a tight cluster of isolated outbreaks that occurred during a relatively short time period, then spreading over a wide geographic area. For example, in a temporal curve of enteric infection cases (i.e. giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, or rotavirus infections), a compact cluster of outbreaks is followed by a long interval of low incidence. Systematic recurrence of such sequences forms a seasonal pattern typical of a specific pathogen in a given population and in a given locality. A seasonal increase in enteric or respiratory infection often produces a well-defined oscillating curve that starts to rise in one season and declines over the next one. The three main features characterize seasonality: * a point in time when a seasonal curve reaches its maximum, * an amplitude from peak to nadir, and * a duration of a seasonal increase defined by a shape of a curve. (The shape of a seasonal pattern reflects how fast a temporal curve reaches its peak and declines to nadir over a course of a full cycle. Depending on the length of a cycle whether it is one year or a half of a year, a seasonal curve would have one or two peaks.) Seasonal patterns, described by these three characteristics, may vary for different diseases, different locations, or different subpopulations. Many viral and bacterial infections in humans show marked seasonal changes. In some diseases, like salmonellosis and influenza, annual oscillations explain up to 60% of variability. Such impact should not be ignored and deserves a proper examination. * [35] Other Sectionsv + [36]Abstract + [37]Introduction + [38]Notion of Seasonality + [39]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [40]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [41]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [42]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [43]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [44]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [45]References Diseases Seasonal Patterns Diseases vary in their relationships one with another; some are opposed, some are mutually agreeable. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 3) Differences in diseases peaks reflect different etiology, heterogeneity in host susceptibility, or route of transmission. In temperate climates, Campylobacter and Salmonella infections are known to rise in summer, giardiasis in early fall, and rotavirus infection in mid-winter, etc. Interestingly, for the same infectious agent, infections recorded in two different locations may present a different pattern of incidence. A seasonal pattern for cryptosporidiosis in the United States exhibits one late summer peak ([46]1); in contrast, in the United Kingdom, two seasonal peaks are seen ([47]2). The UK picture reflects two dominant sources of exposure: one from animals in the late spring, and another from humans in the fall ([48]3). Close temporal clustering of seasonal peaks in diseases that share similar sources of exposure suggests dominant routes of transmissions. Peaks in water-borne cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis often cluster after a summer peak in ambient temperature. Such synchronization in disease manifestation can be governed by environmental and social factors. In some instances, periodicity of a given infection observed in a particular population may be not present in another. A seasonal peak in cryptosporidiosis cases observed in the general population is not apparent in the immunocompromized HIV-positive gay men, even though the incidence of cryptosporidiosis in HIV-positive population is very high. This suggests differences in dominant routes of transmission. Seasonal patterns can change over time. After intense vaccination campaigns in the 1950s and 1970s in the United Kingdom, the patterns of measles and pertussis changed, with the high rates of disease usually seen when children were attending school diminishing for measles and practically disappearing for pertusis ([49]4). Explanations for these phenomena remain elusive. A departure from a systematically observed pattern could reflect the evolution of a pathogen or a change in herd immunity. A simple rule to remember is that a discovery hides in outliers. Faced with an abundance of causal agents, a bare observation of a rise in the incidence of non-specific enteritis should be interpreted with caution. A seasonal pattern can represent a mix of temporal curves. Imagine two periodic curves of similar intensity, but one peaks in a spring and another in a fall; the sum of these two curves might lose the appearance of seasonality, covering two distinctly seasonal phenomena. Some infections are very rare. Their seasonal patterns are difficult to examine because the relevant data must be collected over a very long time and/or aggregated over large spatial units. Precision in evaluating seasonality can thus be jeopardized by time-dependent and/or space-dependent confounders. Seasonal fluctuations can be found beyond infectious diseases; chronic somatic diseases also exhibit substantial temporal variations. Plausibly, exacerbations in chronic conditions are driven by infectious agents or environmental changes. Understanding the interplay of an infection and a chronic disease may lead to better control for both. * [50] Other Sectionsv + [51]Abstract + [52]Introduction + [53]Notion of Seasonality + [54]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [55]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [56]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [57]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [58]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [59]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [60]References Seasonal Host Susceptibility When the weather is seasonable and the crops ripen at the regular times, diseases are regular in their appearance... (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 8) Poor nutrition directly affects host susceptibility. In places of food scarcity, researchers suspect that temporal patterns in birth weight and preterm delivery result from seasonal variations in food availability ([61]5). In general, due to a less developed immune system, young children are susceptible to infection; their immune response may be further weakened by seasonal cutbacks in essential micronutrients and vitamins. Anemnestic responses to an antigen determine whether an infection recurs. Short-lived immune memory together with seasonal changes in pathogen transmissibility contribute further to the complexity of seasonal patterns. Even a perfectly healthy person can experience a change in susceptibility to infection due to stress, injuries, or trauma. The probability of a marked impact of such factors on disease seasonality is virtually unknown. * [62] Other Sectionsv + [63]Abstract + [64]Introduction + [65]Notion of Seasonality + [66]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [67]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [68]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [69]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [70]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [71]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [72]References Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility Some diseases are produced by the manner of life that is followed; others by the life-giving air we breathe. (Hippocrates. The Nature of Man, 9) Temperature, humidity, and precipitation -- the defining factors of seasons -- are important determinants of pathogens' survival. Changes influence pathogens' potency and life expectancy, resulting in temporal fluctuations in pathogens' abundance. In many instances, seasonal changes in pathogen survival and transmission are inseparably related to both biological and social aspects of our lives. They are synchronized by weather. High ambient temperature, for example, provides a supportive environment for food-borne pathogens, favoring their multiplication in food and on food preparation surfaces ([73]6). Food contamination is believed to be a significant mode of transmission for infections caused by Salmonella and Campylobacter ([74]7); therefore, during warm weather, the risk for food-borne diseases increases ([75]8). Seasonal changes in level of contamination, availability of potable water, sanitation and hygiene practices, as well as crowding and person-to-person contacts, affect pathogens' transmissibility. Worldwide, water use differs from season to season ([76]9). In temperate climates, warm weather leads to higher water consumption and encourages outdoor activities -- swimming, camping, and recreational water use. In tropical regions, contamination of surface water increases during wet seasons. Although spread of pathogens via food is certainly possible, contaminated water is the dominant source of exposure for enteric infections caused by protozoa Cryptosporidium and Giardia ([77]10 --[78]12). Depending on locality, outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis associated with drinking or recreational water frequently occur during warm or wet seasons ([79]13,[80]14). With the onset of cooler weather, the "heating season" marks a change in indoor air quality. Inadequate and poorly designed ventilation in crowded public places and urban transit systems may boost exposure to air-borne pathogens by increasing their concentration in stagnant air and by re-circulating contaminated air. Higher relative humidity may also affect the stability of air-borne droplets in which viruses travel from person to person. * [81] Other Sectionsv + [82]Abstract + [83]Introduction + [84]Notion of Seasonality + [85]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [86]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [87]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [88]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [89]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [90]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [91]References Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects You will find, as a general rule, that the constitutions and the habits of a people follow the nature of the land where they live. (Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 24) Diseases do not watch calendars. Their incidence rises and falls because of changes in factors associated with the diseases. However, in every culture all social events are synchronized by calendars; and every calendar reflects the cyclic rhythm of nature. Traditional celebrations and gatherings observed by communities according to calendars affect pathogen transmission. Holidays, social activities, and seasonal travel are often associated with changes in food consumption and preparation, and are therefore associated with changes in disease incidence. Preparing meat on a barbecue increases the risk of Campylobacter infection ([92]15,[93]16) and foreign travel increases the risk for enteric infections. Aggregation of children in schools, daycare centers, and summer camps, reflecting school calendars, facilitates rapid exchange of pathogens. There are marked seasonal variations in transmission, and thus the incidence of enteric and respiratory infections. * [94] Other Sectionsv + [95]Abstract + [96]Introduction + [97]Notion of Seasonality + [98]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [99]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [100]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [101]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [102]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [103]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [104]References Climate Change, Extreme Weather Events, and Disease Seasonality The changes of the seasons are especially liable to beget diseases, as are great changes from heat to cold, or cold to heat in any season. Other changes in the weather have similarly severe effects. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 1) As weather affects human health by creating favorable conditions for pathogen proliferation and transmission, severe weather can affect the timing and intensity of infectious outbreaks, and natural disasters lead to drastic changes in population structure and pathogen ecology. Catastrophic events like tsunamis, hurricanes, devastating floods, and heat waves that cause deaths, population displacement, and infrastructural damage may have dramatic effects on the incidence of infections and their seasonal patterns. Recent work has shown highly significant associations between extreme precipitation and water-borne disease outbreaks ([105]17). Heavy precipitation, rapid snowmelt, and floods flush animal wastes from the land into surface waters and may overwhelm drinking and wastewater treatment systems. The latter leads to discharges in watersheds of untreated human wastes. As a result, pathogens can appear in drinking and recreational water in very high concentrations ([106]18,[107]19). A rapid snowmelt, resultant runoff, and filtration system failure at the overloaded local drinking water treatment plant were implicated in the largest known water-borne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis, which occurred in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1993 ([108]20). This outbreak happened in April, not within the usual seasonal peak for cryptosporidiosis cases. A flood, which also resulted from a rapid snowmelt, has been linked with a similar increased incidence of diarrhea ([109]21). Experts expect that global climate change will increase climate variability and the frequency of extreme precipitation events in temperate regions ([110]22,[111]23). "Global warming" may also increase the frequency and magnitude of other extreme weather events, such as heat waves and droughts, and thereby have profound effects on public health ([112]24,[113]25). In a comprehensive study conducted in the United Kingdom that described a short-term link between temperature and food poisoning, the authors also hypothesized that climate change could lead to changes in rates of food poisoning ([114]26). Integration of environmental parameters into disease forecasting and warning systems could allow public health officials to alert the populace when specific meteorological conditions pose predictable risks to health ([115]27). Simple messages about proper food preparation and refrigeration and the risks of using contaminated recreational waters could, for example, be provided before, during, and after extreme events. Better understanding of disease seasonality would also help to predict outbreaks of infections triggered by climate variability. * [116] Other Sectionsv + [117]Abstract + [118]Introduction + [119]Notion of Seasonality + [120]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [121]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [122]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [123]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [124]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [125]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [126]References Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking Desperate cases need the most desperate remedies. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, I, 6) At first, seasonal fluctuations should be systematically described. This requires a framework with sound definitions and analytic tools suitable for routine use by public health professionals. In public health sciences, the existing methodology currently lacks methods and tests for assessing complex interactions in the time-dependent factors responsible for disease seasonality. Next, reliable data with fine temporal resolution are a must. The vast majority of epidemiological studies have examined seasonal patterns of infections using quarterly or monthly data. This coarse temporal aggregation can thwart an otherwise detailed, accurate, and comprehensive analysis of seasonal patterns and may even be misleading ([127]28). Examination of daily or weekly rates can substantially improve evaluation of seasonal curves, but a systematic approach for using at least weekly aggregates is needed. Finally, reluctance to apply sophisticated mathematical models in public health studies must be overcome. Underlying processes in disease manifestation and spread are complex and multifaceted. Causal pathways are often obscured. To disentangle causal effects of many factors within the circular processes of self-sustaining oscillations demands the careful building of sound conceptual models of seasonality; models that can be tested. The emerging fields of computational epidemiology and intelligent data mining will complement established work in philosophy of science and mathematical biology to become an essential part of thinking in public health and policy. Acknowledgments I thank Drs Eileen O'Neil and Beth Rosenberg for their thoughtful suggestions, and the support of funding agencies: the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (U19AI062627), and the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R01ES013171). Footnotes ^1Hippocrates' citations are taken from: Lloyd, GER, editor. Hippocratic Writings. Trans. Chadwick J and Mann WN. London: Penguin; 1978. * [128] Other Sectionsv + [129]Abstract + [130]Introduction + [131]Notion of Seasonality + [132]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [133]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [134]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [135]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [136]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [137]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [138]References References 1. Naumova EN, Chen JT, Griffiths JK, Matyas BT, Estes-Smargiassi SA, Morris RD. Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. Public Health Rep. 2000;115(5):436-47. [[139]PubMed] 2. Naumova EN, Christodouleas J, Hunter PR, Syed Q. Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance system in 1990 --1999. J Water Health. 2005;3(2):185-96. [[140]PubMed] 3. McLauchlin J, Amar C, Pedraza-Diaz S, Nichols GL. Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in 1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from livestock animals. J Clin Microbiol. 2000;38(11):3984-90. [[141]PubMed] 4. Anderson RM, May RM. Infectious Diseases of Humans. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004. 5. Fallis G, Hilditch J. A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between rural Zaire and Ontario. Can J Public Health. 1989;80(3):205-8. [[142]PubMed] 6. Kusumaningrum HD, Riboldi G, Hazeleger WC, Beumer RR. Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces and cross-contamination to foods. Int J Food Microbiol. 2003;85(3):227-36. [[143]PubMed] 7. Mead PS, Slutsker L, Dietz V, McCaig LF, Bresee JS, Shapiro C, et al. Food-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999;5(5):607-25. [[144]PubMed] 8. Kovats RS, Edwards SJ, Hajat S, Armstrong BG, Ebi KL, Menne B. The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries. Epidemiol Infect. 2004;132(3):443-53. [[145]PubMed] 9. Gofti-Laroche L, Gratacap-Cavallier B, Genoulaz O, Joret JC, Hartemann P, Seigneurin JM, et al. A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study). Water Sci Technol. 2001;43(12):39-48. [[146]PubMed] 10. Pruss A. Review of epidemiological studies on health effects from exposure to recreational water. Int J Epidemiol. 1998;27(1):1-9. [[147]PubMed] 11. Rose JB, Huffman DE, Riley K, Farrah SR, Lukasik JO, Hamann CL. Reduction of enteric microorganisms at the Upper Occoquan Sewage Authority Water Reclamation Plant. Water Environ Res. 2001;73(6):711-20. [[148]PubMed] 12. Rose JB, Slifko TR. Giardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their impact on foods: a review. J Food Prot. 1999;62(9):1059-70. [[149]PubMed] 13. Barwick RS, Levy DA, Craun GF, Beach MJ, Calderon RL. Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks -- United States, 1997 --1998. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000;49(4):1-21. [[150]PubMed] 14. Clavel A, Alivares JL, Fleta J, Castillo J, Varea M, Ramos FJ, et al. Seasonality of cryptosporidiosis in children. Eur J Clin Microbiol Inf Dis. 1996;15:77-9. 15. Kapperud G, Skjerve E, Bean NH, Ostroff SM, Lassen J. Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of a case --control study in southeastern Norway. J Clin Microbiol. 1992;30(12):3117-21. [[151]PubMed] 16. Neimann J, Engberg J, Molbak K, Wegener HC. A case --control study of risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections in Denmark. Epidemiol Infect. 2003;130(3):353-66. [[152]PubMed] 17. Curriero FC, Patz JA, Rose JB, Lele S. The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948 --1994. Am J Pub Health. 2001;91(8):1194-9. [[153]PubMed] 18. Fayer R, Trout JM, Lewis EJ, Xiao L, Lal A, Jenkins MC, et al. Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay. Parasitol Res. 2002;88(11):998-1003. [[154]PubMed] 19. Kistemann T, Classen T, Koch C, Dangendorf F, Fischeder R, Gebel J, et al. Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during extreme rainfall and runoff. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002;68(5):2188-97. [[155]PubMed] 20. MacKenzie WR, Hoxie NJ, Proctor ME, Gradus MS, Blair KA, Peterson DE, et al. A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of Cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med. 1994;331(3):161-7. [[156]PubMed] 21. Wade TJ, Sandhu SK, Levy D, Lee S, LeChevallier MW, Katz L, et al. Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms? Am J Epidemiol. 2004;159(4):398-405. [[157]PubMed] 22. World Health Organization. Using climate to predict infectious disease outbreaks: a review. World Health Organization; Geneva, Switzerland: 2004. Publication no. WHO/SDE/OEH/04.01. 23. Easterling DR, Evans JL. Observed variability and trends in extreme climate events. Bull Am Meteorol Soc. 2000;81:417-25. 24. Charron D, Thomas M, Waltner-Toews D, Aramini J, Edge T, Kent R, et al. Vulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a review. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004;67(20 --22):1667-77. [[158]PubMed] 25. Patz JA, Epstein PR, Burke TA, Balbus JM. Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996;275(3):217-23. [[159]PubMed] 26. Bentham G, Langford IH. Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England and Wales. Int J Biometeorol. 1995;39(2):81-6. [[160]PubMed] 27. Ebi KL, Schmier JK. A stitch in time: improving public health early warning systems for extreme weather events. Epidemiol Rev. 2005;27:115-21. [[161]PubMed] 28. da Silva Lopes ACB. Spurious deterministic seasonality and auto-correlation corrections with quarterly data: further Monte Carlo results. Empir Econ. 1999;24(2):341-59. __________________________________________________________________ PubMed articles by these authors * [162]Naumova, E. PubMed related articles * [163]ReviewSeasonality of infectious diseases. Annu Rev Public Health. 2007; 28:127-43. [Annu Rev Public Health. 2007] * [164]ReviewSeasonality and the dynamics of infectious diseases. Ecol Lett. 2006 Apr; 9(4):467-84. [Ecol Lett. 2006] * [165]Seasonal infectious disease epidemiology. Proc Biol Sci. 2006 Oct 7; 273(1600):2541-50. [Proc Biol Sci. 2006] * [166]Seasonal control for an endemic disease with seasonal fluctuations. Theor Popul Biol. 1988 Apr; 33(2):115-25. [Theor Popul Biol. 1988] * [167]Seasonality of primarily childhood and young adult infectious diseases in the United States. Chronobiol Int. 2006; 23(5):1065-82. [Chronobiol Int. 2006] * » [168]See reviews... | » [169]See all... Recent Activity [170]Clear [171]Turn Off [172]Turn On * [173]Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of NatureMystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature Your browsing activity is empty. Activity recording is turned off. [174]Turn recording back on Links * [175]PubMed * [176]Taxonomy * [177]Taxonomy Tree * [178]Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. Public Health Rep. 2000 Sep-Oct; 115(5):436-47. [Public Health Rep. 2000] * [179]Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance system in 1990-1999. J Water Health. 2005 Jun; 3(2):185-96. [J Water Health. 2005] * [180]Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in 1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from livestock animals. J Clin Microbiol. 2000 Nov; 38(11):3984-90. [J Clin Microbiol. 2000] [181]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [182]A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between rural Zaire and Ontario. Can J Public Health. 1989 May-Jun; 80(3):205-8. [Can J Public Health. 1989] [183]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [184]Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces and cross-contamination to foods. Int J Food Microbiol. 2003 Aug 25; 85(3):227-36. [Int J Food Microbiol. 2003] * [185]ReviewFood-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999 Sep-Oct; 5(5):607-25. [Emerg Infect Dis. 1999] * [186]The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries. Epidemiol Infect. 2004 Jun; 132(3):443-53. [Epidemiol Infect. 2004] [187]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [188]A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study). Water Sci Technol. 2001; 43(12):39-48. [Water Sci Technol. 2001] * [189]ReviewReview of epidemiological studies on health effects from exposure to recreational water. Int J Epidemiol. 1998 Feb; 27(1):1-9. [Int J Epidemiol. 1998] * [190]ReviewGiardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their impact on foods: a review. J Food Prot. 1999 Sep; 62(9):1059-70. [J Food Prot. 1999] * [191]Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks--United States, 1997-1998. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000 May 26; 49(4):1-21. [MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000] [192]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [193]Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of a case-control study in southeastern Norway. J Clin Microbiol. 1992 Dec; 30(12):3117-21. [J Clin Microbiol. 1992] * [194]A case-control study of risk factors for sporadic campylobacter infections in Denmark. Epidemiol Infect. 2003 Jun; 130(3):353-66. [Epidemiol Infect. 2003] [195]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [196]The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948-1994. Am J Public Health. 2001 Aug; 91(8):1194-9. [Am J Public Health. 2001] * [197]Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay. Parasitol Res. 2002 Nov; 88(11):998-1003. [Parasitol Res. 2002] * [198]Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during extreme rainfall and runoff. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002 May; 68(5):2188-97. [Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002] * [199]A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med. 1994 Jul 21; 331(3):161-7. [N Engl J Med. 1994] * [200]Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms? Am J Epidemiol. 2004 Feb 15; 159(4):398-405. [Am J Epidemiol. 2004] [201]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [202]ReviewVulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a review. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004 Oct 22-Nov 26; 67(20-22):1667-77. [J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004] * [203]Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996 Jan 17; 275(3):217-23. [JAMA. 1996] * [204]Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England and Wales. Int J Biometeorol. 1995 Nov; 39(2):81-6. [Int J Biometeorol. 1995] [205]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [206]ReviewA stitch in time: improving public health early warning systems for extreme weather events. Epidemiol Rev. 2005; 27():115-21. 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Clow [8]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications. Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual training, recitation, gymnastics, and play. Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human [40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality. The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. . . . When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak. Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. - Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20. . . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight years in [42]duration are superposed. . . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135. Continue to: * prev: [43]Rhythm In Nature * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]The Cycle Of A Generation Tags [46]sociology, [47]communication, [48]congenial groups, [49]cycles of change, [50]democracy, [51]factors of society, [52]government, [53]heredity, [54]human nature, [55]institutions, [56]location, [57]natural selection, [58]organizations, [59]population, [60]primary groups, [61]social classes [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [62]TOP [63]previous page: Rhythm In Nature [64]page up: Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications | by Frederick R. Clow [65]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [66]StasoSphere [ [67]Privacy Policy ] [ [68]Terms of Use ] [ [69]About Us ] [ [70]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:34:34 2009 Références #[1]Welcome page [2]Help [3]Parent screen [4]skip navigation [5]Geography Compass Select Compass [Geography Compass........................] Go * [6]Home | * [7]My Compass | * [8]Help | * [9]Content Alerts | * [10]Contact Us | * [11]Links * [12]What is Geography Compass? | * [13]Subscribe | * [14]Editors | * [15]Editorial Board | * [16]Authors Cultural Towards Lefebvrian Socio-Nature? A Film about Rhythm, Nature and Science By [17]James Evans and [18]Phil Jones, School of Environment and Development, University of Manchester School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham (April 2008) __________________________________________________________________ Section: [19]Cultural Subjects: [20]Environment And Society, [21]Geography, [22]Urban Geography, [23]Cultural Geography. Key Topics: [24]nature , [25]representation. Abstract The first thing you will notice about this article is that it is actually a film. We did not set out to make a film, it just ended up that way. We started out making music out of environmental data, wondering why we only ever look at scientific data, why we do not listen to it. Wandering around the city passing through the transformed landscapes of channelised rivers and broken industrial spaces, we wanted to reveal the socio-natural rhythms of this hybrid city. The text you see below represents the shooting script for a film that explores Lefebvre's notion of rhythmanalysis in the context of socio-natural rhythms. The video accompanying it is far more interesting, including the environmental music that we produced by feeding scientific data through samplers and drum machines. The video questions the nature of scientific representation and whether the notion of rhythmanalysis can be stretched to explore rhythms beyond the human. Furthermore, the process of actually making the video, submitting it to this journal, and responding to the referees' comments made us question the very nature of what constitutes an academic paper in the twenty-first century. The accompanying commentary is our attempt to deal with these issues. To link to the film please go to DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00107.x This article abstract has been viewed 5348 times. [27]view [28]cite [29]Add to my Compass [30]Add to VLE/CMS [31]feedback __________________________________________________________________ Top 5 related articles * [32]Geographies for Moving Bodies: Thinking, Dancing, Spaces By [33]Derek P. McCormack , Oxford University Centre for the Environment (Vol. 3, October 2008) Geography Compass * [34]Colonialism, Landscape and the Subterranean By [35]Heidi V. Scott , Institute of Geography and Earth Sciences, Aberystwyth University (Vol. 3, October 2008) Geography Compass * [36]Climate-Suicide Relationships: A Research Problem in Need of Geographic Methods and Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives By P. Grady Dixon and Adam J. Kalkstein, Mississippi State UniversityUnited States Military Academy (Vol. 4, September 2009) Geography Compass * [37]Ethnomethodology and the Non-representational: What Are Disaffected Young White Men Capable of? 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By Noel Castree From [49]A Companion to Economic Geography [[50]All Related Reference Chapters] * [51]Economic * [52]Social * [53]Cultural * [54]Political * [55]Urban * [56]Development * [57]Climatology * [58]Hydrology & Water Resources * [59]Geomorphology * [60]Biogeography * [61]GIS * [62]Earth Observation * [63]Environment & Society * [64]Global Issues Quick Search Keyword search: ____________________ Select a section: [All........................] Select a content type: [All.................................] [65]Advanced Search Search Related Blackwell Reference Chapters [66]View Related Reference Books [67]Geography Compass - Personal Subscription Rates [68]Sign up for free Geography Compass content alerts [69]Keep up-to-date "...an indispensable reference tool for teachers, researchers, and students in Geography and related disciplines." Mike Bradshaw and Basil Gomez Geography Compass Editors-in-Chief [70]Blackwell Publishing Copyright © 2005-2007 [71]Blackwell Publishing | [72]Privacy Policy | [73]Contact us | [74]Help | [75]To the top... [76][ access key 0 : accessibility information including access key list ] [77][ access key 1 : home page ] [78][ access key 2 : skip navigation] [79][ access key 6 : help ] Références [1]pmc logo image [2]Logo of nihpa [3]Journal List > [4]NIHPA Author Manuscripts Formats: * [5]Abstract | * Full Text | * [6]PDF (32K) J Public Health Policy. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2008 July 24. Published in final edited form as: [7]J Public Health Policy. 2006; 27(1): 2-12. doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200061. PMCID: PMC2483431 NIHMSID: NIHMS58476 [8]Copyright notice and [9]Disclaimer Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature Elena N. Naumova^* ^*Address for Correspondence: Department of Public Health and Family Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Avenue, Boston, MA 02111, USA. E-mail: elena.naumova/at/tufts.edu Small right arrow pointing to: The publisher's final edited version of this article is available at [10]J Public Health Policy. Small right arrow pointing to: See other articles in PMC that [11]cite the published article. Abstract Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences. Understanding seasonal fluctuations in diseases patterns presents us with a major challenge. To develop efficient strategies for disease prevention and control, we need to grasp the main determinants of temporal variations and their interactions. This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality by outlining several of its factors, using as illustrations respiratory and enteric water- or food-borne infections. Keywords: seasonality, water-borne infection, food-borne infection, respiratory infection * [12] Other Sectionsv + [13]Abstract + [14]Introduction + [15]Notion of Seasonality + [16]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [17]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [18]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [19]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [20]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [21]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [22]References Introduction Now let us consider the seasons and the way we can predict whether it is going to be a healthy or an unhealthy year. (Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 10)^[23]1 Seasonal fluctuations in birth and death, in sickness and health, are the haunting mysteries of mankind. People have made predictions from winds, tides, birds' migrations, spring blooms, sunsets, and constellations in hope of grasping the future. The complexity and uncertainty of ancient and modern means of prediction make us wonder to what extent we are able to understand the rhythm of nature. One might argue the future cannot be known, but from a practical point of view, a better understanding of changes in disease occurrences is essential for building efficient strategies for disease prevention and control. Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences. Since Hippocrates, observers worldwide have noted and documented marked fluctuations in the incidence of many diseases. In the modern view, the main determinants of temporal variations in disease manifestation are evolving host susceptibility, periodicity in pathogen abundance and transmissibility, and the ever-changing environment that can support or repress a host or pathogen. Interactions among these factors responsible for seasonal variation are interwoven into the intricate fabric of life. For many diseases, explanations for self-sustained oscillations still remain elusive. We lack adequate methods and sufficient analytical tools for comprehensive examination of seasonality in public health field studies. A dearth of observations, recorded over long periods at fine resolution, compounded by an enormous number of factors associated with periodic changes, obscure our ability to understand disease variation. Urgent need for effective strategies to prevent and control a spread of emerging infections in the rapidly changing world, however, demands a deeper insight into the cyclic nature of diseases. This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality and outline several factors associated with seasonality using as illustrations enteric water- or food-borne infections and respiratory infections. Then I propose a framework for systematic evaluation of seasonal oscillations. In every part of this presentation, and most importantly, I wish to stimulate discussion on this challenging topic. * [24] Other Sectionsv + [25]Abstract + [26]Introduction + [27]Notion of Seasonality + [28]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [29]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [30]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [31]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [32]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [33]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [34]References Notion of Seasonality Every disease occurs at any season of the year but some of them more frequently occur and are of greater severity at certain times. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 19) Seasonality, as noted above, refers to the cyclic appearance of events over a period of time. A seasonal pattern may appear as a tight cluster of isolated outbreaks that occurred during a relatively short time period, then spreading over a wide geographic area. For example, in a temporal curve of enteric infection cases (i.e. giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, or rotavirus infections), a compact cluster of outbreaks is followed by a long interval of low incidence. Systematic recurrence of such sequences forms a seasonal pattern typical of a specific pathogen in a given population and in a given locality. A seasonal increase in enteric or respiratory infection often produces a well-defined oscillating curve that starts to rise in one season and declines over the next one. The three main features characterize seasonality: * a point in time when a seasonal curve reaches its maximum, * an amplitude from peak to nadir, and * a duration of a seasonal increase defined by a shape of a curve. (The shape of a seasonal pattern reflects how fast a temporal curve reaches its peak and declines to nadir over a course of a full cycle. Depending on the length of a cycle whether it is one year or a half of a year, a seasonal curve would have one or two peaks.) Seasonal patterns, described by these three characteristics, may vary for different diseases, different locations, or different subpopulations. Many viral and bacterial infections in humans show marked seasonal changes. In some diseases, like salmonellosis and influenza, annual oscillations explain up to 60% of variability. Such impact should not be ignored and deserves a proper examination. * [35] Other Sectionsv + [36]Abstract + [37]Introduction + [38]Notion of Seasonality + [39]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [40]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [41]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [42]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [43]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [44]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [45]References Diseases Seasonal Patterns Diseases vary in their relationships one with another; some are opposed, some are mutually agreeable. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 3) Differences in diseases peaks reflect different etiology, heterogeneity in host susceptibility, or route of transmission. In temperate climates, Campylobacter and Salmonella infections are known to rise in summer, giardiasis in early fall, and rotavirus infection in mid-winter, etc. Interestingly, for the same infectious agent, infections recorded in two different locations may present a different pattern of incidence. A seasonal pattern for cryptosporidiosis in the United States exhibits one late summer peak ([46]1); in contrast, in the United Kingdom, two seasonal peaks are seen ([47]2). The UK picture reflects two dominant sources of exposure: one from animals in the late spring, and another from humans in the fall ([48]3). Close temporal clustering of seasonal peaks in diseases that share similar sources of exposure suggests dominant routes of transmissions. Peaks in water-borne cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis often cluster after a summer peak in ambient temperature. Such synchronization in disease manifestation can be governed by environmental and social factors. In some instances, periodicity of a given infection observed in a particular population may be not present in another. A seasonal peak in cryptosporidiosis cases observed in the general population is not apparent in the immunocompromized HIV-positive gay men, even though the incidence of cryptosporidiosis in HIV-positive population is very high. This suggests differences in dominant routes of transmission. Seasonal patterns can change over time. After intense vaccination campaigns in the 1950s and 1970s in the United Kingdom, the patterns of measles and pertussis changed, with the high rates of disease usually seen when children were attending school diminishing for measles and practically disappearing for pertusis ([49]4). Explanations for these phenomena remain elusive. A departure from a systematically observed pattern could reflect the evolution of a pathogen or a change in herd immunity. A simple rule to remember is that a discovery hides in outliers. Faced with an abundance of causal agents, a bare observation of a rise in the incidence of non-specific enteritis should be interpreted with caution. A seasonal pattern can represent a mix of temporal curves. Imagine two periodic curves of similar intensity, but one peaks in a spring and another in a fall; the sum of these two curves might lose the appearance of seasonality, covering two distinctly seasonal phenomena. Some infections are very rare. Their seasonal patterns are difficult to examine because the relevant data must be collected over a very long time and/or aggregated over large spatial units. Precision in evaluating seasonality can thus be jeopardized by time-dependent and/or space-dependent confounders. Seasonal fluctuations can be found beyond infectious diseases; chronic somatic diseases also exhibit substantial temporal variations. Plausibly, exacerbations in chronic conditions are driven by infectious agents or environmental changes. Understanding the interplay of an infection and a chronic disease may lead to better control for both. * [50] Other Sectionsv + [51]Abstract + [52]Introduction + [53]Notion of Seasonality + [54]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [55]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [56]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [57]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [58]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [59]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [60]References Seasonal Host Susceptibility When the weather is seasonable and the crops ripen at the regular times, diseases are regular in their appearance... (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 8) Poor nutrition directly affects host susceptibility. In places of food scarcity, researchers suspect that temporal patterns in birth weight and preterm delivery result from seasonal variations in food availability ([61]5). In general, due to a less developed immune system, young children are susceptible to infection; their immune response may be further weakened by seasonal cutbacks in essential micronutrients and vitamins. Anemnestic responses to an antigen determine whether an infection recurs. Short-lived immune memory together with seasonal changes in pathogen transmissibility contribute further to the complexity of seasonal patterns. Even a perfectly healthy person can experience a change in susceptibility to infection due to stress, injuries, or trauma. The probability of a marked impact of such factors on disease seasonality is virtually unknown. * [62] Other Sectionsv + [63]Abstract + [64]Introduction + [65]Notion of Seasonality + [66]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [67]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [68]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [69]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [70]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [71]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [72]References Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility Some diseases are produced by the manner of life that is followed; others by the life-giving air we breathe. (Hippocrates. The Nature of Man, 9) Temperature, humidity, and precipitation -- the defining factors of seasons -- are important determinants of pathogens' survival. Changes influence pathogens' potency and life expectancy, resulting in temporal fluctuations in pathogens' abundance. In many instances, seasonal changes in pathogen survival and transmission are inseparably related to both biological and social aspects of our lives. They are synchronized by weather. High ambient temperature, for example, provides a supportive environment for food-borne pathogens, favoring their multiplication in food and on food preparation surfaces ([73]6). Food contamination is believed to be a significant mode of transmission for infections caused by Salmonella and Campylobacter ([74]7); therefore, during warm weather, the risk for food-borne diseases increases ([75]8). Seasonal changes in level of contamination, availability of potable water, sanitation and hygiene practices, as well as crowding and person-to-person contacts, affect pathogens' transmissibility. Worldwide, water use differs from season to season ([76]9). In temperate climates, warm weather leads to higher water consumption and encourages outdoor activities -- swimming, camping, and recreational water use. In tropical regions, contamination of surface water increases during wet seasons. Although spread of pathogens via food is certainly possible, contaminated water is the dominant source of exposure for enteric infections caused by protozoa Cryptosporidium and Giardia ([77]10 --[78]12). Depending on locality, outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis associated with drinking or recreational water frequently occur during warm or wet seasons ([79]13,[80]14). With the onset of cooler weather, the "heating season" marks a change in indoor air quality. Inadequate and poorly designed ventilation in crowded public places and urban transit systems may boost exposure to air-borne pathogens by increasing their concentration in stagnant air and by re-circulating contaminated air. Higher relative humidity may also affect the stability of air-borne droplets in which viruses travel from person to person. * [81] Other Sectionsv + [82]Abstract + [83]Introduction + [84]Notion of Seasonality + [85]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [86]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [87]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [88]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [89]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [90]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [91]References Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects You will find, as a general rule, that the constitutions and the habits of a people follow the nature of the land where they live. (Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 24) Diseases do not watch calendars. Their incidence rises and falls because of changes in factors associated with the diseases. However, in every culture all social events are synchronized by calendars; and every calendar reflects the cyclic rhythm of nature. Traditional celebrations and gatherings observed by communities according to calendars affect pathogen transmission. Holidays, social activities, and seasonal travel are often associated with changes in food consumption and preparation, and are therefore associated with changes in disease incidence. Preparing meat on a barbecue increases the risk of Campylobacter infection ([92]15,[93]16) and foreign travel increases the risk for enteric infections. Aggregation of children in schools, daycare centers, and summer camps, reflecting school calendars, facilitates rapid exchange of pathogens. There are marked seasonal variations in transmission, and thus the incidence of enteric and respiratory infections. * [94] Other Sectionsv + [95]Abstract + [96]Introduction + [97]Notion of Seasonality + [98]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [99]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [100]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [101]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [102]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [103]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [104]References Climate Change, Extreme Weather Events, and Disease Seasonality The changes of the seasons are especially liable to beget diseases, as are great changes from heat to cold, or cold to heat in any season. Other changes in the weather have similarly severe effects. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 1) As weather affects human health by creating favorable conditions for pathogen proliferation and transmission, severe weather can affect the timing and intensity of infectious outbreaks, and natural disasters lead to drastic changes in population structure and pathogen ecology. Catastrophic events like tsunamis, hurricanes, devastating floods, and heat waves that cause deaths, population displacement, and infrastructural damage may have dramatic effects on the incidence of infections and their seasonal patterns. Recent work has shown highly significant associations between extreme precipitation and water-borne disease outbreaks ([105]17). Heavy precipitation, rapid snowmelt, and floods flush animal wastes from the land into surface waters and may overwhelm drinking and wastewater treatment systems. The latter leads to discharges in watersheds of untreated human wastes. As a result, pathogens can appear in drinking and recreational water in very high concentrations ([106]18,[107]19). A rapid snowmelt, resultant runoff, and filtration system failure at the overloaded local drinking water treatment plant were implicated in the largest known water-borne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis, which occurred in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1993 ([108]20). This outbreak happened in April, not within the usual seasonal peak for cryptosporidiosis cases. A flood, which also resulted from a rapid snowmelt, has been linked with a similar increased incidence of diarrhea ([109]21). Experts expect that global climate change will increase climate variability and the frequency of extreme precipitation events in temperate regions ([110]22,[111]23). "Global warming" may also increase the frequency and magnitude of other extreme weather events, such as heat waves and droughts, and thereby have profound effects on public health ([112]24,[113]25). In a comprehensive study conducted in the United Kingdom that described a short-term link between temperature and food poisoning, the authors also hypothesized that climate change could lead to changes in rates of food poisoning ([114]26). Integration of environmental parameters into disease forecasting and warning systems could allow public health officials to alert the populace when specific meteorological conditions pose predictable risks to health ([115]27). Simple messages about proper food preparation and refrigeration and the risks of using contaminated recreational waters could, for example, be provided before, during, and after extreme events. Better understanding of disease seasonality would also help to predict outbreaks of infections triggered by climate variability. * [116] Other Sectionsv + [117]Abstract + [118]Introduction + [119]Notion of Seasonality + [120]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [121]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [122]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [123]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [124]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [125]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [126]References Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking Desperate cases need the most desperate remedies. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, I, 6) At first, seasonal fluctuations should be systematically described. This requires a framework with sound definitions and analytic tools suitable for routine use by public health professionals. In public health sciences, the existing methodology currently lacks methods and tests for assessing complex interactions in the time-dependent factors responsible for disease seasonality. Next, reliable data with fine temporal resolution are a must. The vast majority of epidemiological studies have examined seasonal patterns of infections using quarterly or monthly data. This coarse temporal aggregation can thwart an otherwise detailed, accurate, and comprehensive analysis of seasonal patterns and may even be misleading ([127]28). Examination of daily or weekly rates can substantially improve evaluation of seasonal curves, but a systematic approach for using at least weekly aggregates is needed. Finally, reluctance to apply sophisticated mathematical models in public health studies must be overcome. Underlying processes in disease manifestation and spread are complex and multifaceted. Causal pathways are often obscured. To disentangle causal effects of many factors within the circular processes of self-sustaining oscillations demands the careful building of sound conceptual models of seasonality; models that can be tested. The emerging fields of computational epidemiology and intelligent data mining will complement established work in philosophy of science and mathematical biology to become an essential part of thinking in public health and policy. Acknowledgments I thank Drs Eileen O'Neil and Beth Rosenberg for their thoughtful suggestions, and the support of funding agencies: the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (U19AI062627), and the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R01ES013171). Footnotes ^1Hippocrates' citations are taken from: Lloyd, GER, editor. Hippocratic Writings. Trans. Chadwick J and Mann WN. London: Penguin; 1978. * [128] Other Sectionsv + [129]Abstract + [130]Introduction + [131]Notion of Seasonality + [132]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [133]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [134]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [135]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [136]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [137]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [138]References References 1. Naumova EN, Chen JT, Griffiths JK, Matyas BT, Estes-Smargiassi SA, Morris RD. Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. Public Health Rep. 2000;115(5):436-47. [[139]PubMed] 2. Naumova EN, Christodouleas J, Hunter PR, Syed Q. Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance system in 1990 --1999. J Water Health. 2005;3(2):185-96. [[140]PubMed] 3. McLauchlin J, Amar C, Pedraza-Diaz S, Nichols GL. Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in 1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from livestock animals. J Clin Microbiol. 2000;38(11):3984-90. [[141]PubMed] 4. Anderson RM, May RM. Infectious Diseases of Humans. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004. 5. Fallis G, Hilditch J. A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between rural Zaire and Ontario. Can J Public Health. 1989;80(3):205-8. [[142]PubMed] 6. Kusumaningrum HD, Riboldi G, Hazeleger WC, Beumer RR. Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces and cross-contamination to foods. Int J Food Microbiol. 2003;85(3):227-36. [[143]PubMed] 7. Mead PS, Slutsker L, Dietz V, McCaig LF, Bresee JS, Shapiro C, et al. Food-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999;5(5):607-25. [[144]PubMed] 8. Kovats RS, Edwards SJ, Hajat S, Armstrong BG, Ebi KL, Menne B. The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries. Epidemiol Infect. 2004;132(3):443-53. [[145]PubMed] 9. Gofti-Laroche L, Gratacap-Cavallier B, Genoulaz O, Joret JC, Hartemann P, Seigneurin JM, et al. A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study). Water Sci Technol. 2001;43(12):39-48. [[146]PubMed] 10. Pruss A. Review of epidemiological studies on health effects from exposure to recreational water. Int J Epidemiol. 1998;27(1):1-9. [[147]PubMed] 11. Rose JB, Huffman DE, Riley K, Farrah SR, Lukasik JO, Hamann CL. Reduction of enteric microorganisms at the Upper Occoquan Sewage Authority Water Reclamation Plant. Water Environ Res. 2001;73(6):711-20. [[148]PubMed] 12. Rose JB, Slifko TR. Giardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their impact on foods: a review. J Food Prot. 1999;62(9):1059-70. [[149]PubMed] 13. Barwick RS, Levy DA, Craun GF, Beach MJ, Calderon RL. Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks -- United States, 1997 --1998. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000;49(4):1-21. [[150]PubMed] 14. Clavel A, Alivares JL, Fleta J, Castillo J, Varea M, Ramos FJ, et al. Seasonality of cryptosporidiosis in children. Eur J Clin Microbiol Inf Dis. 1996;15:77-9. 15. Kapperud G, Skjerve E, Bean NH, Ostroff SM, Lassen J. Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of a case --control study in southeastern Norway. J Clin Microbiol. 1992;30(12):3117-21. [[151]PubMed] 16. Neimann J, Engberg J, Molbak K, Wegener HC. A case --control study of risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections in Denmark. Epidemiol Infect. 2003;130(3):353-66. [[152]PubMed] 17. Curriero FC, Patz JA, Rose JB, Lele S. The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948 --1994. Am J Pub Health. 2001;91(8):1194-9. [[153]PubMed] 18. Fayer R, Trout JM, Lewis EJ, Xiao L, Lal A, Jenkins MC, et al. Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay. Parasitol Res. 2002;88(11):998-1003. [[154]PubMed] 19. Kistemann T, Classen T, Koch C, Dangendorf F, Fischeder R, Gebel J, et al. Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during extreme rainfall and runoff. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002;68(5):2188-97. [[155]PubMed] 20. MacKenzie WR, Hoxie NJ, Proctor ME, Gradus MS, Blair KA, Peterson DE, et al. A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of Cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med. 1994;331(3):161-7. [[156]PubMed] 21. Wade TJ, Sandhu SK, Levy D, Lee S, LeChevallier MW, Katz L, et al. Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms? Am J Epidemiol. 2004;159(4):398-405. [[157]PubMed] 22. World Health Organization. Using climate to predict infectious disease outbreaks: a review. World Health Organization; Geneva, Switzerland: 2004. Publication no. WHO/SDE/OEH/04.01. 23. Easterling DR, Evans JL. Observed variability and trends in extreme climate events. Bull Am Meteorol Soc. 2000;81:417-25. 24. Charron D, Thomas M, Waltner-Toews D, Aramini J, Edge T, Kent R, et al. Vulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a review. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004;67(20 --22):1667-77. [[158]PubMed] 25. Patz JA, Epstein PR, Burke TA, Balbus JM. Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996;275(3):217-23. [[159]PubMed] 26. Bentham G, Langford IH. Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England and Wales. Int J Biometeorol. 1995;39(2):81-6. [[160]PubMed] 27. Ebi KL, Schmier JK. A stitch in time: improving public health early warning systems for extreme weather events. Epidemiol Rev. 2005;27:115-21. [[161]PubMed] 28. da Silva Lopes ACB. Spurious deterministic seasonality and auto-correlation corrections with quarterly data: further Monte Carlo results. Empir Econ. 1999;24(2):341-59. __________________________________________________________________ PubMed articles by these authors * [162]Naumova, E. PubMed related articles * [163]ReviewSeasonality of infectious diseases. Annu Rev Public Health. 2007; 28:127-43. [Annu Rev Public Health. 2007] * [164]ReviewSeasonality and the dynamics of infectious diseases. Ecol Lett. 2006 Apr; 9(4):467-84. [Ecol Lett. 2006] * [165]Seasonal infectious disease epidemiology. Proc Biol Sci. 2006 Oct 7; 273(1600):2541-50. [Proc Biol Sci. 2006] * [166]Seasonal control for an endemic disease with seasonal fluctuations. Theor Popul Biol. 1988 Apr; 33(2):115-25. [Theor Popul Biol. 1988] * [167]Seasonality of primarily childhood and young adult infectious diseases in the United States. Chronobiol Int. 2006; 23(5):1065-82. [Chronobiol Int. 2006] * » [168]See reviews... | » [169]See all... Recent Activity [170]Clear [171]Turn Off [172]Turn On * [173]Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of NatureMystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature Your browsing activity is empty. Activity recording is turned off. [174]Turn recording back on Links * [175]PubMed * [176]Taxonomy * [177]Taxonomy Tree * [178]Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. Public Health Rep. 2000 Sep-Oct; 115(5):436-47. [Public Health Rep. 2000] * [179]Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance system in 1990-1999. J Water Health. 2005 Jun; 3(2):185-96. [J Water Health. 2005] * [180]Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in 1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from livestock animals. J Clin Microbiol. 2000 Nov; 38(11):3984-90. [J Clin Microbiol. 2000] [181]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [182]A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between rural Zaire and Ontario. Can J Public Health. 1989 May-Jun; 80(3):205-8. [Can J Public Health. 1989] [183]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [184]Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces and cross-contamination to foods. Int J Food Microbiol. 2003 Aug 25; 85(3):227-36. [Int J Food Microbiol. 2003] * [185]ReviewFood-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999 Sep-Oct; 5(5):607-25. [Emerg Infect Dis. 1999] * [186]The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries. Epidemiol Infect. 2004 Jun; 132(3):443-53. [Epidemiol Infect. 2004] [187]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [188]A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study). Water Sci Technol. 2001; 43(12):39-48. [Water Sci Technol. 2001] * [189]ReviewReview of epidemiological studies on health effects from exposure to recreational water. Int J Epidemiol. 1998 Feb; 27(1):1-9. [Int J Epidemiol. 1998] * [190]ReviewGiardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their impact on foods: a review. J Food Prot. 1999 Sep; 62(9):1059-70. [J Food Prot. 1999] * [191]Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks--United States, 1997-1998. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000 May 26; 49(4):1-21. [MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000] [192]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [193]Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of a case-control study in southeastern Norway. J Clin Microbiol. 1992 Dec; 30(12):3117-21. [J Clin Microbiol. 1992] * [194]A case-control study of risk factors for sporadic campylobacter infections in Denmark. Epidemiol Infect. 2003 Jun; 130(3):353-66. [Epidemiol Infect. 2003] [195]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [196]The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948-1994. Am J Public Health. 2001 Aug; 91(8):1194-9. [Am J Public Health. 2001] * [197]Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay. Parasitol Res. 2002 Nov; 88(11):998-1003. [Parasitol Res. 2002] * [198]Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during extreme rainfall and runoff. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002 May; 68(5):2188-97. [Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002] * [199]A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med. 1994 Jul 21; 331(3):161-7. [N Engl J Med. 1994] * [200]Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms? Am J Epidemiol. 2004 Feb 15; 159(4):398-405. [Am J Epidemiol. 2004] [201]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [202]ReviewVulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a review. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004 Oct 22-Nov 26; 67(20-22):1667-77. [J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004] * [203]Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996 Jan 17; 275(3):217-23. [JAMA. 1996] * [204]Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England and Wales. Int J Biometeorol. 1995 Nov; 39(2):81-6. [Int J Biometeorol. 1995] [205]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [206]ReviewA stitch in time: improving public health early warning systems for extreme weather events. Epidemiol Rev. 2005; 27():115-21. [Epidemiol Rev. 2005] [207]See more articles cited in this paragraph You are here: NCBI > [208]Literature > PubMed Central [209]Help Desk Simple NCBI Directory * Getting Started * [210]Site Map * [211]NCBI Help Manual * [212]NCBI Handbook * [213]Training & Tutorials * Resources * [214]Literature * [215]DNA & RNA * [216]Proteins * [217]Sequence Analysis * [218]Genes & Expression * [219]Genomes * [220]Maps & Markers * [221]Domains & Structures * [222]Genetics & Medicine * [223]Taxonomy * [224]Data & Software * [225]Training & Tutorials * [226]Homology * [227]Small Molecules * [228]Variation * Popular * [229]PubMed * [230]PubMed Central * [231]Bookshelf * [232]BLAST * [233]Gene * [234]Nucleotide * [235]Protein * [236]GEO * [237]Conserved Domains * [238]Structure * [239]PubChem * Featured * [240]GenBank * [241]Reference Sequences * [242]Map Viewer * [243]Genome Projects * [244]Human Genome * [245]Mouse Genome * [246]Influenza Virus * [247]Primer-BLAST * [248]Short Read Archive * NCBI Information * [249]About NCBI * [250]Research at NCBI * [251]NCBI Newsletter * [252]NCBI FTP Site * [253]Contact Us [254]NIH [255]DHHS [256]USA.gov [257]Copyright | [258]Disclaimer | [259]Privacy | [260]Accessibility | [261]Contact [262]National Center for Biotechnology Information , U.S. National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville Pike, Bethesda MD, 20894 USA Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [USEMAP] [USEMAP] #[1]Edit this page [2]Wikipedia (en) [3]copyright [4]Wikipedia RSS Feed [5]Wikipedia Atom Feed Circadian rhythm From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search "Human clock" redirects here. For the online clock, see [8]Humanclock. Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters. A circadian rhythm is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including [9]plants, [10]animals, [11]fungi and [12]cyanobacteria (see [13]bacterial circadian rhythms). The term "circadian", coined by [14]Franz Halberg,^[15][1] comes from the [16]Latin [17]circa, "around", and diem or dies, "day", meaning literally "approximately one day". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [18]tidal, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [19]chronobiology. Circadian rhythms are [20]endogenously generated, and can be entrained by external cues, called [21]zeitgebers, the primary one of which is [22]daylight. Contents * [23]1 History * [24]2 Criteria * [25]3 Origin * [26]4 Importance in animals + [27]4.1 Impact of light-dark cycle + [28]4.2 Arctic animals + [29]4.3 Butterfly migration * [30]5 Biological clock in mammals + [31]5.1 Determining the human circadian rhythm + [32]5.2 Outside the "master clock" * [33]6 Light and the biological clock * [34]7 Enforced longer cycles * [35]8 Human health + [36]8.1 Disruption + [37]8.2 Effect of drugs * [38]9 See also * [39]10 References + [40]10.1 Bibliography + [41]10.2 Notes * [42]11 External links [[43]edit] History The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [44]Alexander the Great, described [45]diurnal leaf movements of the [46]tamarind tree.^[47][2] The first modern observation of endogenous circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [48]Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant [49]Mimosa pudica continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli. In 1918, J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.^[50][3] [51]Joseph Takahashi discovered the genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.^[52][4]^[53][5] [[54]edit] Criteria To differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met: 1) the rhythms persist in the absence of cues, 2) they persist equally precisely over a range of temperatures, and 3) the rhythms can be adjusted to match the local time: * The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those "apparent" rhythms that are merely responses to external periodic cues. A rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been tested in conditions without external periodic input. * The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e., it maintains the same period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway. At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely coincidental. * The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [55]time zones illustrates the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next. Until rhythms are reset, a person usually experiences [56]jet lag. [[57]edit] Origin [58]Question book-new.svg This section needs additional [59]citations for [60]verification. Please help [61]improve this article by adding [62]reliable references. Unsourced material may be [63]challenged and [64]removed. (October 2007) Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [65]ultraviolet radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus [66]Neurospora, which exists today, retains this [67]clock-regulated mechanism. Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment.^[68][6] This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,^[69][7] as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian rhythms in quail.^[70][8] The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [71]cyanobacteria. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of Synechococcus elongatus can be reconstituted in vitro with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [72]ATP. Previous explanations of the [73]prokaryotic circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism. It is an unanswered question whether circadian clocks in eukaryotic organisms require translation/transcription-derived oscillations, for, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture (input - [74]central oscillator - output), they do not share any [75]homology. This implies probable independent origins. In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [76]Seymour Benzer first identified a genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behaviour: one had a shorter period, another had a longer one, and the third had none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named [77]period.^[78][9] The same gene was identified to be defective in the sleep disorder FASPS ([79]Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome) in human beings thirty years later, underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day. A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.^[80][10] At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronize the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [81]eyes travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock. [[82]edit] Importance in animals Circadian rhythmicity is present in the [83]sleeping and feeding patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear patterns of core body temperature, [84]brain wave activity, [85]hormone production, cell regeneration and other biological activities. In addition, [86]photoperiodism, the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation of day length. " Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food availability or predator activity is crucial for survival of many species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the photoperiod ('daylength') is the most predictive environmental cue for the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing of migration, hibernation and reproduction.^[87][11] " [[88]edit] Impact of light-dark cycle The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a [89]freerunning rhythm. Each "day", their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward, depending on whether their [90]endogenous period is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called [91]Zeitgebers (from the German, Time Givers).^[92][12] It is interesting to note that totally-blind subterranean mammals (e.g., [93]blind mole rat Spalax sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors (detect light) are still functional; as well, they do surface periodically.^[[94]citation needed] Freerunning organisms that normally have one consolidated sleep episode will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light/dark cycle in nature. The sleep-wake rhythm may, in these circumstances, become out of phase with other circadian or [95]ultradian rhythms such as [96]temperature and [97]digestion.^[[98]citation needed] Recent research has influenced the design of [99]spacecraft environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.^[[100]citation needed] [[101]edit] Arctic animals Norwegian researchers at the [102]University of Tromsø have shown that some Arctic animals ([103]ptarmigan, [104]reindeer) show circadian rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at [105]70 degrees North showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter, and spring, but not in the summer. Reindeer at [106]78 degrees North showed such rhythms only autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other Arctic animals as well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and the constant dark of winter.^[107][13]^[108][14] However, another study in northern Alaska found that [109]ground squirrels and [110]porcupines strictly maintained their circadian rhythms through 82 days and nights of sunshine. The researchers speculate that these two small mammals see that the apparent distance between the sun and the horizon is shortest once a day, and, thus, a sufficient signal to adjust by.^[111][15] [[112]edit] Butterfly migration The navigation of the fall migration of the [113]Eastern North American monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) to their overwintering grounds in central Mexico uses a time-compensated sun compass that depends upon a circadian clock in their antennae.^[114][16]^[115][17] [[116]edit] Biological clock in mammals Diagram illustrating the influence of light and darkness on circadian rhythms and related [117]physiology and behaviour through the [118]suprachiasmatic nucleus in humans. The primary circadian "clock" in [119]mammals is located in the [120]suprachiasmatic nucleus (or nuclei) ([121]SCN), a pair of distinct groups of [122]cells located in the [123]hypothalamus. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep-wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [124]retina of the eyes contains not only "classical" [125]photoreceptors but also photoresponsive retinal [126]ganglion cells. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called [127]melanopsin, follow a pathway called the [128]retinohypothalamic tract, leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues. It appears that the SCN takes the information on the lengths of the day and night from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [129]pineal gland, a tiny structure shaped like a [130]pine cone and located on the [131]epithalamus. In response the pineal secretes the hormone [132]melatonin. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day and its presence provides information about night-length. The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a 23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural solar day-night cycle on the planet [133]Mars).^[134][18] [[135]edit] Determining the human circadian rhythm The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's circadian rhythm are * melatonin secretion by the pineal gland and * core body temperature. For temperature studies, people must remain awake but calm and semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are taken continuously. The average human adult's temperature reaches its minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake time, though variation is great among normal [136]chronotypes. Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime. Its onset in dim light, dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO), at about 21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Its major [137]metabolite can also be measured in morning urine. Both DLMO and the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or saliva have been used as circadian markers. However, newer research indicates that the melatonin offset may be the most reliable marker. Benloucif et al. in Chicago in 2005 found that melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.^[138][19] One method used for measuring melatonin offset is to analyse a sequence of urine samples throughout the morning for the presence of the melatonin [139]metabolite 6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s). Laberge et al. in Quebec in 1997 used this method in a study that confirmed the frequently found delayed circadian phase in healthy adolescents.^[140][20] [[141]edit] Outside the "master clock" More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the "master clock". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the [142]oesophagus, [143]lungs, [144]liver, [145]pancreas, [146]spleen, [147]thymus, and the [148]skin.^[149][21] Though oscillators in the skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven so far.^[150][22]^[151][23] There is some evidence that also the olfactory bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting that also these structures may be weak oscillators. Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than to [152]light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have freerunning rhythms. [[153]edit] Light and the biological clock Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [154]phase response curve (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required [155]illuminance vary from species to species and lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans. Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm in humans are higher than the levels usually used in artificial lighting in homes. According to some researchers^[156][24] the illumination intensity that excites the circadian system has to reach up to 1000 [157]lux striking the retina. In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or colour) of light is a factor in the entrainment of the body clock. [158]Melanopsin is most efficiently excited by blue light, 420-440 nm^[159][25] according to some researchers while others have reported 470-485 nm. It is thought that the direction of the light may have an effect on entraining the circadian rhythm;^[160][24] light coming from above, resembling an image of a bright sky, has greater effect than light entering our eyes from below. [[161]edit] Enforced longer cycles Modern research under very controlled conditions has shown the human period for adults to be just slightly longer than 24 hours on average. Czeisler et al. at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes. The "clock" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's rotation.^[162][26] The 28-hour day is presented as a concept of [163]time management.^[164][27] It builds on the fact that the week of seven days at 24 hours and a "week" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of 168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours. Each "day" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern. Studies by [165]Nathaniel Kleitman^[166][28] in 1938 and by [167]Derk-Jan Dijk and [168]Charles Czeisler^[169][29]^[170][30] in 1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep-wake cycles, in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day,^[171][31] this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about 24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including [172]sleep latency and other functions.^[173][32] Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli like daylight and timekeeping. Early investigators determined the human circadian period to be 25 hours or more. They went to great lengths to shield subjects from time cues and daylight, but they were not aware of the effects of indoor electric lights. The subjects were allowed to turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase. These results became well known.^[174][26] Researchers allowed subjects to keep electric lighting on in the evening, as it was thought at that time that a couple of 60W bulbs would not have a resetting effect on the circadian rhythms of humans. More recent research^[[175]citation needed] has shown that adults have a built-in day, which averages just over 24 hours, that indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms and that most people attain their best-quality sleep during their [176]chronotype-determined sleep periods. [[177]edit] Human health Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with [178]angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [179]left ventricular (reverse) remodelling.^[[180]citation needed] A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms. A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during the day, a [181]power-nap, does not have any effect on normal circadian rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve productivity.^[182][33]^[183][34] There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the human circadian rhythm, such as [184]seasonal affective disorder (SAD), [185]delayed sleep phase syndrome (DSPS) and other [186]circadian rhythm disorders.^[187][35] Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [188]reticular activating system, which is crucial for maintaining a state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep-wake cycle may be a sign or complication of [189]uremia,^[190][36] [191]azotemia or [192]acute renal failure. [[193]edit] Disruption Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers have experienced the condition known as [194]jet lag, with its associated symptoms of [195]fatigue, disorientation and [196]insomnia. A number of other disorders, for example [197]bipolar disorder and some [198]sleep disorders, are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [199]bipolar disorder are positively influenced by [200]lithium's effect on clock genes.^[201][37] Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease [202][2] The suppression of melatonin production associated with the disruption of the circadian rhythm may increase the risk of developing cancer.^[203][38]^[204][39] [[205]edit] Effect of drugs Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such as [206]cocaine.^[207][40]^[208][41] Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.^[209][42] [[210]edit] See also * [211]Actigraphy (also known as Actimetry) * [212]Advanced sleep phase syndrome * [213]ARNTL * [214]ARNTL2 * [215]Bacterial circadian rhythms * [216]Chronobiology * [217]Chronotype * [218]Circadian oscillator * [219]Circadian rhythm sleep disorders * [220]Cryptochrome * [221]CRY1 and [222]CRY2, the cryptochrome family genes * [223]Delayed sleep phase syndrome * [224]Diurnal cycle * [225]Jet lag * [226]Light effects on circadian rhythm * [227]PER1, [228]PER2, and [229]PER3, the period family genes * [230]Power-nap [[231]edit] References [[232]edit] Bibliography * Aschoff J (ed.) (1965) Circadian Clocks. North Holland Press, Amsterdam * Avivi A, Albrecht U, Oster H, Joel A, Beiles A, Nevo E. 2001. Biological clock in total darkness: the Clock/MOP3 circadian system of the blind subterranean mole rat. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:13751-13756. * Avivi A, Oster H, Joel A, Beiles A, Albrecht U, Nevo E. 2002. Circadian genes in a blind subterranean mammal II: conservation and uniqueness of the three Period homologs in the blind subterranean mole rat, Spalax ehrenbergi superspecies. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:11718-11723. * Ditty JL, Williams SB, Golden SS (2003) A cyanobacterial circadian timing mechanism. Annu Rev Genet 37:513-543 * Dunlap JC, Loros J, DeCoursey PJ (2003) Chronobiology: Biological Timekeeping. Sinauer, Sunderland * Dvornyk V, Vinogradova ON, Nevo E (2003) Origin and evolution of circadian clock genes in prokaryotes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100:2495-2500 * Koukkari WL, Sothern RB (2006) Introducing Biological Rhythms. Springer, New York * Martino T, Arab S, Straume M, Belsham DD, Tata N, Cai F, Liu P, Trivieri M, Ralph M, Sole MJ. Day/night rhythms in gene expression of the normal murine heart. J Mol Med. 2004 Apr;82(4):256-64. Epub 2004 Feb 24. PMID: 14985853 * Refinetti R (2006) Circadian Physiology, 2nd ed. CRC Press, Boca Raton * Takahashi JS, Zatz M (1982) Regulation of circadian rhythmicity. Science 217:1104-1111 * Tomita J, Nakajima M, Kondo T, Iwasaki H (2005) No transcription-translation feedback in circadian rhythm of KaiC phosphorylation. Science 307: 251-254 * Moore-Ede, Martin C., Sulszman, Frank M., and Fuller, Charles A. (1982) "The Clocks that Time Us: Physiology of the Circadian Timing System." Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. [233]ISBN 0-674-13581-4. [[234]edit] Notes Centre 2. [237]^ Bretzl H. Botaniche Forchungen des Alexanderzuges. Leipzig: Teubner, 1903. 3. [238]^ Danchin, Antoine. [239]"Important dates 1900-1919". HKU-Pasteur Research Centre (Paris). 0.html. Retrieved 2008-01-12. 4. [241]^ "Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock". Chicago Tribune. April 29, 1994. 5. [242]^ Vitaterna, M.H.; King, D.P.; Chang, A.M.; Kornhauser, J.M.; Lowrey, P.L.; McDonald, J.D.; Dove, W.F.; Pinto, L.H. et al. (1994). "Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior.". Science 264 (264): 719-725. [243]doi:[244]10.1126/science.8171325. 6. [245]^ Sharma, Vijay Kumar (2003). [246]"Adaptive significance of circadian clocks" (Abstract). Chronobiology international 20 (6): 901-919. [247]doi:[248]10.1081/CBI-120026099. [249]ISSN [250]0742-0528. [251]PMID [252]14680135. Retrieved 2009-11-08. 7. [254]^ (Sheeba et al. 1999) 8. [255]^ (Guyomarc'h et al. 1998, Zivkovic et al. 1999) 9. [256]^ Purves, Dale et al (2001) [2001]. [257]"Molecular Mechanisms of Biological Clocks" (e-book). [258]NEUROSCIENCE (second ed.). Sunderland, MA, U.S.A.: Sinauer Associates. [259]ISBN [260]0-87893-742-0. 3. Retrieved 2008-05-30. 10. [262]^ [263]Circadian gene expression in individual fibroblast...[Cell. 2004] - PubMed Result 11. [264]^ Zivkovic, Bora "Coturnix" (2005-08-13 / July 25, 2007). [265]"Clock Tutorial #16: Photoperiodism - Models and Experimental Approaches". A Blog Around the Clock. ScienceBlogs. eriodi_1.php. Retrieved 2007-12-09. 12. [267]^ [268]"Circadian rhythms". Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. Armenian Medical Network. 2007. Retrieved 2007-09-19. 13. [270]^ Spilde, Ingrid (December 2005). [271]"Reinsdyr uten døgnrytme" (in Language: Norwegian, Bokmål). forskning.no. Retrieved 2007-11-24. 14. [273]^ Zivkovic, Bora, aka Coturnix, chronobiologist. [274]"Circadian Rhythms, or Not, in Arctic Reindeer". A Blog around the Clock. ScienceBlogs.com. _in_ar_1.php. Retrieved 2007-11-24. 15. [276]^ Zivkovic, Bora, aka Coturnix, chronobiologist (2007-02-11). [277]"Small Arctic Mammals Entrain to Something during the Long Summer Day". A Blog Around the Clock. ScienceBlogs.com. rain_t.php. Retrieved 2007-11-26. 16. [279]^ Merlin C, Gegear RJ, Reppert SM. (2009). Antennal Circadian Clocks Coordinate Sun Compass Orientation in Migratory Monarch Butterflies. Science 325: 1700-1704. [280]doi:[281]10.1126/science.1176221 17. [282]^ Kyriacou CP. (2009). Unraveling Traveling. Science 325:1629-1630 [283]doi:[284]10.1126/science.1178935 18. [285]^ Scheer, Frank A. J. L.; Kenneth P. Wright, Jr., Richard E. Kronauer, Charles A. Czeisler (2007-08-08). [286]"Plasticity of the Intrinsic Period of the Human Circadian Timing System". PLoS ONE 2 (1): e721. [287]doi:[288]10.1371/journal.pone.0000721. [289]PMID [290]17684566. [291]PMC [292]1934931. pone.0000721. Retrieved 2007-12-31. 19. [294]^ Benloucif, S.; Guico, M.J.; Reid, K.J.; Wolfe, L.F.; L'Hermite-Baleriaux, M.; Zee, P.C. (2005). [295]"Stability of melatonin and temperature as circadian phase markers and their relation to sleep times in humans". J Biol Rhythms (Chicago, Illinois, USA: Center for Sleep and Circadian Biology, Departments of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine) 20 (2): 178-88. [296]doi:[297]10.1177/0748730404273983. [298]PMID [299]15834114. issn=20045590. Retrieved 2007-12-18. 20. [301]^ Laberge, L.; Lesperance, P.; Tremblay, R.; Lambert, C.; Montplaisir, J. (1997). [302]"Phase delay of 6-sulphatoxymelatonin in normal adolescents". Sleep Research (Québec, Canada: Centre d'etude du Sommeil, Hopital du Sacre-Coeur, Département de Psychologie, Département de Pharmacologie, Departement de Psychiatrie, Université de Montréal) 26: 727. issn=19979287. Retrieved 2007-12-18. 21. [304]^ Zanello, S. et al., J. Inv. Dermatol. 2000, Vol. 115, 4 Oct.: Expression of the Circadian Clock Genes clock and period1 in Human Skin 22. [305]^ Kawara, S. et al. J. Inv. Derm. 2002, Vol 119, 6 Dec.: Low-dose UVB Rays Alter the mRNA Expression of the Circadian Clock Genes in cultured Human Keratinocytes 23. [306]^ Campbell, S. and Murphy, P, Science 1998, Vol 279, 16 Jan.: Extraocular Circadian Phototransduction in Humans 24. ^ [307]^a [308]^b Semjonova, Milena (2003). [309]"Healthy Lighting, from a lighting designer's perspective". Milena Lighting Design. 25. [311]^ Newman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: "Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment", Biochemistry. 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8. 26. ^ [312]^a [313]^b [314]"Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour". 1999. Retrieved 2007-09-23. "The variation between our subjects, with a 95 percent level of confidence, was no more than plus or minus 16 minutes, a remarkably small range." 27. [316]^ Digital Beat Productions (1997). [317]"28 Hour Day". 28. [319]^ Kleitman, Nathaniel (1962). Sleep and Wakefullness ed 2. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 29. [320]^ Dijk, Derk-Jan; Czeisler Charles (1994). "Paradoxical timing of the circadian rhythm of sleep propensity serves to consolidate sleep and wakefulness in humans". Neurosci Lett 166 (1): 63. [321]doi:[322]10.1016/0304-3940(94)90841-9. [323]PMID [324]8190360. 30. [325]^ Dijk, Derk-Jan; Czeisler Charles (1995). [326]"Contribution of the Circadian Pacemaker and the Sleep Homeostat to Sleep Propensity, Sleep Structure, Electrocephalographic Slow Waves, and Sleep Spindle Activity in Humans". J. Neurosci 15 (5): 3526. [327]PMID [328]7751928. 31. [330]^ Cromie, William J. (1999-07-15). [331]"Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour". The Harvard University Gazette. Retrieved 2008-02-19. 32. [333]^ Aldrich, Michael S (1999). [334]Sleep medicine. New York: Oxford University Press. [335]ISBN [336]0195129571. pg=RA1-PA65&dq=experimenting+with+the+28+hour+day&source=bl&ots=9R4 mo2fI1O&sig=om2zbYPnXnm_1HuZo2Tch6J1vyo&hl=en&ei=MBZeStGgIoyJkQWd17 znDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2. 33. [338]^ [339]"The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep". The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep. Behavioral medicine. 2001. Retrieved 2008-11-11. 34. [341]^ [342]"Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students". Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students. Liberty University. 2007. 3.htm. Retrieved 2008-11-11. 35. [344]^ [345]"Circadian Rhythms and Sleep". Circadian Rhythms and Sleep. Serendip. 2007. ml. Retrieved 2007-09-19. 36. [347]^ Sinert, Richard; Peter R Peacock, Jr (May 10, 2006). [348]"Renal Failure, Acute". eMedicine from WebMD. 2008-08-03. 37. [350]^ [351]NIMH · Science News from 2006 · Lithium Blocks Enzyme To Help Cells' Clocks Keep On Tickin' 38. [352]^ Straif K, Baan R, Grosse Y, Secretan B, El Ghissassi F, Bouvard V, Altieri A, Benbrahim-Tallaa L, Cogliano V, WHO International Agency for Research on Cancer Monograph Working Group. Carcinogenicity of shift-work, painting, and fire-fighting. [353][1] Lancet Oncol. 2007; 12(8):1065-1066. 39. [354]^ [355]WebMD: Night Shift Work May Cause Cancer 40. [356]^ Uz T, Akhisaroglu M, Ahmed R, Manev H (2003). "The pineal gland is critical for circadian Period1 expression in the striatum and for circadian cocaine sensitization in mice". Neuropsychopharmacology 28 (12): 2117-23. [357]doi:[358]10.1038/sj.npp.1300254. [359]PMID [360]12865893. 41. [361]^ Kurtuncu M, Arslan A, Akhisaroglu M, Manev H, Uz T (2004). "Involvement of the pineal gland in diurnal cocaine reward in mice". Eur J Pharmacol 489 (3): 203-5. [362]doi:[363]10.1016/j.ejphar.2004.03.010. [364]PMID [365]15087244. 42. [366]^ McClung C, Sidiropoulou K, Vitaterna M, Takahashi J, White F, Cooper D, Nestler E (2005). [367]"Regulation of dopaminergic transmission and cocaine reward by the Clock gene". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102 (26): 9377-81. [368]doi:[369]10.1073/pnas.0503584102. [370]PMID [371]15967985. [[372]edit] External links * [373]Circadian rhythm at the [374]Open Directory Project * Leloup J.C. (2009). "Circadian clocks and phosphorylation: Insights from computational modeling". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 4 (3): 290-303. [375]doi:[376]10.2478/s11535-009-0025-1. * Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A (2007). "Evolutionary mechanisms of circadian clocks". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 2 (2): 233-253. [377]doi:[378]10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z. 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See [440]Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [441]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * [442]Contact us * [443]Privacy policy * [444]About Wikipedia * [445]Disclaimers Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Rhythm In Nature [7]page up: Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications | by Frederick R. Clow [8]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications. Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual training, recitation, gymnastics, and play. Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human [40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality. The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. . . . When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak. Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. - Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20. . . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight years in [42]duration are superposed. . . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135. Continue to: * prev: [43]Rhythm In Nature * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]The Cycle Of A Generation Tags [46]sociology, [47]communication, [48]congenial groups, [49]cycles of change, [50]democracy, [51]factors of society, [52]government, [53]heredity, [54]human nature, [55]institutions, [56]location, [57]natural selection, [58]organizations, [59]population, [60]primary groups, [61]social classes [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [62]TOP [63]previous page: Rhythm In Nature [64]page up: Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications | by Frederick R. Clow [65]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [66]StasoSphere [ [67]Privacy Policy ] [ [68]Terms of Use ] [ [69]About Us ] [ [70]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:34:34 2009 Références #[1]Welcome page [2]Help [3]Parent screen [4]skip navigation [5]Geography Compass Select Compass [Geography Compass........................] Go * [6]Home | * [7]My Compass | * [8]Help | * [9]Content Alerts | * [10]Contact Us | * [11]Links * [12]What is Geography Compass? | * [13]Subscribe | * [14]Editors | * [15]Editorial Board | * [16]Authors Cultural Towards Lefebvrian Socio-Nature? A Film about Rhythm, Nature and Science By [17]James Evans and [18]Phil Jones, School of Environment and Development, University of Manchester School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham (April 2008) __________________________________________________________________ Section: [19]Cultural Subjects: [20]Environment And Society, [21]Geography, [22]Urban Geography, [23]Cultural Geography. Key Topics: [24]nature , [25]representation. Abstract The first thing you will notice about this article is that it is actually a film. We did not set out to make a film, it just ended up that way. We started out making music out of environmental data, wondering why we only ever look at scientific data, why we do not listen to it. Wandering around the city passing through the transformed landscapes of channelised rivers and broken industrial spaces, we wanted to reveal the socio-natural rhythms of this hybrid city. The text you see below represents the shooting script for a film that explores Lefebvre's notion of rhythmanalysis in the context of socio-natural rhythms. The video accompanying it is far more interesting, including the environmental music that we produced by feeding scientific data through samplers and drum machines. The video questions the nature of scientific representation and whether the notion of rhythmanalysis can be stretched to explore rhythms beyond the human. Furthermore, the process of actually making the video, submitting it to this journal, and responding to the referees' comments made us question the very nature of what constitutes an academic paper in the twenty-first century. The accompanying commentary is our attempt to deal with these issues. To link to the film please go to DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00107.x This article abstract has been viewed 5348 times. [27]view [28]cite [29]Add to my Compass [30]Add to VLE/CMS [31]feedback __________________________________________________________________ Top 5 related articles * [32]Geographies for Moving Bodies: Thinking, Dancing, Spaces By [33]Derek P. McCormack , Oxford University Centre for the Environment (Vol. 3, October 2008) Geography Compass * [34]Colonialism, Landscape and the Subterranean By [35]Heidi V. Scott , Institute of Geography and Earth Sciences, Aberystwyth University (Vol. 3, October 2008) Geography Compass * [36]Climate-Suicide Relationships: A Research Problem in Need of Geographic Methods and Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives By P. Grady Dixon and Adam J. Kalkstein, Mississippi State UniversityUnited States Military Academy (Vol. 4, September 2009) Geography Compass * [37]Ethnomethodology and the Non-representational: What Are Disaffected Young White Men Capable of? 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Mike Bradshaw and Basil Gomez Geography Compass Editors-in-Chief [70]Blackwell Publishing Copyright © 2005-2007 [71]Blackwell Publishing | [72]Privacy Policy | [73]Contact us | [74]Help | [75]To the top... [76][ access key 0 : accessibility information including access key list ] [77][ access key 1 : home page ] [78][ access key 2 : skip navigation] [79][ access key 6 : help ] Références [1]pmc logo image [2]Logo of nihpa [3]Journal List > [4]NIHPA Author Manuscripts Formats: * [5]Abstract | * Full Text | * [6]PDF (32K) J Public Health Policy. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2008 July 24. Published in final edited form as: [7]J Public Health Policy. 2006; 27(1): 2-12. doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200061. PMCID: PMC2483431 NIHMSID: NIHMS58476 [8]Copyright notice and [9]Disclaimer Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature Elena N. Naumova^* ^*Address for Correspondence: Department of Public Health and Family Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Avenue, Boston, MA 02111, USA. E-mail: elena.naumova/at/tufts.edu Small right arrow pointing to: The publisher's final edited version of this article is available at [10]J Public Health Policy. Small right arrow pointing to: See other articles in PMC that [11]cite the published article. Abstract Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences. Understanding seasonal fluctuations in diseases patterns presents us with a major challenge. To develop efficient strategies for disease prevention and control, we need to grasp the main determinants of temporal variations and their interactions. This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality by outlining several of its factors, using as illustrations respiratory and enteric water- or food-borne infections. Keywords: seasonality, water-borne infection, food-borne infection, respiratory infection * [12] Other Sectionsv + [13]Abstract + [14]Introduction + [15]Notion of Seasonality + [16]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [17]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [18]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [19]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [20]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [21]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [22]References Introduction Now let us consider the seasons and the way we can predict whether it is going to be a healthy or an unhealthy year. (Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 10)^[23]1 Seasonal fluctuations in birth and death, in sickness and health, are the haunting mysteries of mankind. People have made predictions from winds, tides, birds' migrations, spring blooms, sunsets, and constellations in hope of grasping the future. The complexity and uncertainty of ancient and modern means of prediction make us wonder to what extent we are able to understand the rhythm of nature. One might argue the future cannot be known, but from a practical point of view, a better understanding of changes in disease occurrences is essential for building efficient strategies for disease prevention and control. Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences. Since Hippocrates, observers worldwide have noted and documented marked fluctuations in the incidence of many diseases. In the modern view, the main determinants of temporal variations in disease manifestation are evolving host susceptibility, periodicity in pathogen abundance and transmissibility, and the ever-changing environment that can support or repress a host or pathogen. Interactions among these factors responsible for seasonal variation are interwoven into the intricate fabric of life. For many diseases, explanations for self-sustained oscillations still remain elusive. We lack adequate methods and sufficient analytical tools for comprehensive examination of seasonality in public health field studies. A dearth of observations, recorded over long periods at fine resolution, compounded by an enormous number of factors associated with periodic changes, obscure our ability to understand disease variation. Urgent need for effective strategies to prevent and control a spread of emerging infections in the rapidly changing world, however, demands a deeper insight into the cyclic nature of diseases. This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality and outline several factors associated with seasonality using as illustrations enteric water- or food-borne infections and respiratory infections. Then I propose a framework for systematic evaluation of seasonal oscillations. In every part of this presentation, and most importantly, I wish to stimulate discussion on this challenging topic. * [24] Other Sectionsv + [25]Abstract + [26]Introduction + [27]Notion of Seasonality + [28]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [29]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [30]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [31]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [32]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [33]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [34]References Notion of Seasonality Every disease occurs at any season of the year but some of them more frequently occur and are of greater severity at certain times. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 19) Seasonality, as noted above, refers to the cyclic appearance of events over a period of time. A seasonal pattern may appear as a tight cluster of isolated outbreaks that occurred during a relatively short time period, then spreading over a wide geographic area. For example, in a temporal curve of enteric infection cases (i.e. giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, or rotavirus infections), a compact cluster of outbreaks is followed by a long interval of low incidence. Systematic recurrence of such sequences forms a seasonal pattern typical of a specific pathogen in a given population and in a given locality. A seasonal increase in enteric or respiratory infection often produces a well-defined oscillating curve that starts to rise in one season and declines over the next one. The three main features characterize seasonality: * a point in time when a seasonal curve reaches its maximum, * an amplitude from peak to nadir, and * a duration of a seasonal increase defined by a shape of a curve. (The shape of a seasonal pattern reflects how fast a temporal curve reaches its peak and declines to nadir over a course of a full cycle. Depending on the length of a cycle whether it is one year or a half of a year, a seasonal curve would have one or two peaks.) Seasonal patterns, described by these three characteristics, may vary for different diseases, different locations, or different subpopulations. Many viral and bacterial infections in humans show marked seasonal changes. In some diseases, like salmonellosis and influenza, annual oscillations explain up to 60% of variability. Such impact should not be ignored and deserves a proper examination. * [35] Other Sectionsv + [36]Abstract + [37]Introduction + [38]Notion of Seasonality + [39]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [40]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [41]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [42]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [43]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [44]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [45]References Diseases Seasonal Patterns Diseases vary in their relationships one with another; some are opposed, some are mutually agreeable. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 3) Differences in diseases peaks reflect different etiology, heterogeneity in host susceptibility, or route of transmission. In temperate climates, Campylobacter and Salmonella infections are known to rise in summer, giardiasis in early fall, and rotavirus infection in mid-winter, etc. Interestingly, for the same infectious agent, infections recorded in two different locations may present a different pattern of incidence. A seasonal pattern for cryptosporidiosis in the United States exhibits one late summer peak ([46]1); in contrast, in the United Kingdom, two seasonal peaks are seen ([47]2). The UK picture reflects two dominant sources of exposure: one from animals in the late spring, and another from humans in the fall ([48]3). Close temporal clustering of seasonal peaks in diseases that share similar sources of exposure suggests dominant routes of transmissions. Peaks in water-borne cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis often cluster after a summer peak in ambient temperature. Such synchronization in disease manifestation can be governed by environmental and social factors. In some instances, periodicity of a given infection observed in a particular population may be not present in another. A seasonal peak in cryptosporidiosis cases observed in the general population is not apparent in the immunocompromized HIV-positive gay men, even though the incidence of cryptosporidiosis in HIV-positive population is very high. This suggests differences in dominant routes of transmission. Seasonal patterns can change over time. After intense vaccination campaigns in the 1950s and 1970s in the United Kingdom, the patterns of measles and pertussis changed, with the high rates of disease usually seen when children were attending school diminishing for measles and practically disappearing for pertusis ([49]4). Explanations for these phenomena remain elusive. A departure from a systematically observed pattern could reflect the evolution of a pathogen or a change in herd immunity. A simple rule to remember is that a discovery hides in outliers. Faced with an abundance of causal agents, a bare observation of a rise in the incidence of non-specific enteritis should be interpreted with caution. A seasonal pattern can represent a mix of temporal curves. Imagine two periodic curves of similar intensity, but one peaks in a spring and another in a fall; the sum of these two curves might lose the appearance of seasonality, covering two distinctly seasonal phenomena. Some infections are very rare. Their seasonal patterns are difficult to examine because the relevant data must be collected over a very long time and/or aggregated over large spatial units. Precision in evaluating seasonality can thus be jeopardized by time-dependent and/or space-dependent confounders. Seasonal fluctuations can be found beyond infectious diseases; chronic somatic diseases also exhibit substantial temporal variations. Plausibly, exacerbations in chronic conditions are driven by infectious agents or environmental changes. Understanding the interplay of an infection and a chronic disease may lead to better control for both. * [50] Other Sectionsv + [51]Abstract + [52]Introduction + [53]Notion of Seasonality + [54]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [55]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [56]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [57]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [58]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [59]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [60]References Seasonal Host Susceptibility When the weather is seasonable and the crops ripen at the regular times, diseases are regular in their appearance... (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 8) Poor nutrition directly affects host susceptibility. In places of food scarcity, researchers suspect that temporal patterns in birth weight and preterm delivery result from seasonal variations in food availability ([61]5). In general, due to a less developed immune system, young children are susceptible to infection; their immune response may be further weakened by seasonal cutbacks in essential micronutrients and vitamins. Anemnestic responses to an antigen determine whether an infection recurs. Short-lived immune memory together with seasonal changes in pathogen transmissibility contribute further to the complexity of seasonal patterns. Even a perfectly healthy person can experience a change in susceptibility to infection due to stress, injuries, or trauma. The probability of a marked impact of such factors on disease seasonality is virtually unknown. * [62] Other Sectionsv + [63]Abstract + [64]Introduction + [65]Notion of Seasonality + [66]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [67]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [68]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [69]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [70]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [71]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [72]References Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility Some diseases are produced by the manner of life that is followed; others by the life-giving air we breathe. (Hippocrates. The Nature of Man, 9) Temperature, humidity, and precipitation -- the defining factors of seasons -- are important determinants of pathogens' survival. Changes influence pathogens' potency and life expectancy, resulting in temporal fluctuations in pathogens' abundance. In many instances, seasonal changes in pathogen survival and transmission are inseparably related to both biological and social aspects of our lives. They are synchronized by weather. High ambient temperature, for example, provides a supportive environment for food-borne pathogens, favoring their multiplication in food and on food preparation surfaces ([73]6). Food contamination is believed to be a significant mode of transmission for infections caused by Salmonella and Campylobacter ([74]7); therefore, during warm weather, the risk for food-borne diseases increases ([75]8). Seasonal changes in level of contamination, availability of potable water, sanitation and hygiene practices, as well as crowding and person-to-person contacts, affect pathogens' transmissibility. Worldwide, water use differs from season to season ([76]9). In temperate climates, warm weather leads to higher water consumption and encourages outdoor activities -- swimming, camping, and recreational water use. In tropical regions, contamination of surface water increases during wet seasons. Although spread of pathogens via food is certainly possible, contaminated water is the dominant source of exposure for enteric infections caused by protozoa Cryptosporidium and Giardia ([77]10 --[78]12). Depending on locality, outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis associated with drinking or recreational water frequently occur during warm or wet seasons ([79]13,[80]14). With the onset of cooler weather, the "heating season" marks a change in indoor air quality. Inadequate and poorly designed ventilation in crowded public places and urban transit systems may boost exposure to air-borne pathogens by increasing their concentration in stagnant air and by re-circulating contaminated air. Higher relative humidity may also affect the stability of air-borne droplets in which viruses travel from person to person. * [81] Other Sectionsv + [82]Abstract + [83]Introduction + [84]Notion of Seasonality + [85]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [86]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [87]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [88]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [89]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [90]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [91]References Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects You will find, as a general rule, that the constitutions and the habits of a people follow the nature of the land where they live. (Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 24) Diseases do not watch calendars. Their incidence rises and falls because of changes in factors associated with the diseases. However, in every culture all social events are synchronized by calendars; and every calendar reflects the cyclic rhythm of nature. Traditional celebrations and gatherings observed by communities according to calendars affect pathogen transmission. Holidays, social activities, and seasonal travel are often associated with changes in food consumption and preparation, and are therefore associated with changes in disease incidence. Preparing meat on a barbecue increases the risk of Campylobacter infection ([92]15,[93]16) and foreign travel increases the risk for enteric infections. Aggregation of children in schools, daycare centers, and summer camps, reflecting school calendars, facilitates rapid exchange of pathogens. There are marked seasonal variations in transmission, and thus the incidence of enteric and respiratory infections. * [94] Other Sectionsv + [95]Abstract + [96]Introduction + [97]Notion of Seasonality + [98]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [99]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [100]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [101]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [102]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [103]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [104]References Climate Change, Extreme Weather Events, and Disease Seasonality The changes of the seasons are especially liable to beget diseases, as are great changes from heat to cold, or cold to heat in any season. Other changes in the weather have similarly severe effects. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 1) As weather affects human health by creating favorable conditions for pathogen proliferation and transmission, severe weather can affect the timing and intensity of infectious outbreaks, and natural disasters lead to drastic changes in population structure and pathogen ecology. Catastrophic events like tsunamis, hurricanes, devastating floods, and heat waves that cause deaths, population displacement, and infrastructural damage may have dramatic effects on the incidence of infections and their seasonal patterns. Recent work has shown highly significant associations between extreme precipitation and water-borne disease outbreaks ([105]17). Heavy precipitation, rapid snowmelt, and floods flush animal wastes from the land into surface waters and may overwhelm drinking and wastewater treatment systems. The latter leads to discharges in watersheds of untreated human wastes. As a result, pathogens can appear in drinking and recreational water in very high concentrations ([106]18,[107]19). A rapid snowmelt, resultant runoff, and filtration system failure at the overloaded local drinking water treatment plant were implicated in the largest known water-borne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis, which occurred in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1993 ([108]20). This outbreak happened in April, not within the usual seasonal peak for cryptosporidiosis cases. A flood, which also resulted from a rapid snowmelt, has been linked with a similar increased incidence of diarrhea ([109]21). Experts expect that global climate change will increase climate variability and the frequency of extreme precipitation events in temperate regions ([110]22,[111]23). "Global warming" may also increase the frequency and magnitude of other extreme weather events, such as heat waves and droughts, and thereby have profound effects on public health ([112]24,[113]25). In a comprehensive study conducted in the United Kingdom that described a short-term link between temperature and food poisoning, the authors also hypothesized that climate change could lead to changes in rates of food poisoning ([114]26). Integration of environmental parameters into disease forecasting and warning systems could allow public health officials to alert the populace when specific meteorological conditions pose predictable risks to health ([115]27). Simple messages about proper food preparation and refrigeration and the risks of using contaminated recreational waters could, for example, be provided before, during, and after extreme events. Better understanding of disease seasonality would also help to predict outbreaks of infections triggered by climate variability. * [116] Other Sectionsv + [117]Abstract + [118]Introduction + [119]Notion of Seasonality + [120]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [121]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [122]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [123]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [124]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [125]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [126]References Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking Desperate cases need the most desperate remedies. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, I, 6) At first, seasonal fluctuations should be systematically described. This requires a framework with sound definitions and analytic tools suitable for routine use by public health professionals. In public health sciences, the existing methodology currently lacks methods and tests for assessing complex interactions in the time-dependent factors responsible for disease seasonality. Next, reliable data with fine temporal resolution are a must. The vast majority of epidemiological studies have examined seasonal patterns of infections using quarterly or monthly data. This coarse temporal aggregation can thwart an otherwise detailed, accurate, and comprehensive analysis of seasonal patterns and may even be misleading ([127]28). Examination of daily or weekly rates can substantially improve evaluation of seasonal curves, but a systematic approach for using at least weekly aggregates is needed. Finally, reluctance to apply sophisticated mathematical models in public health studies must be overcome. Underlying processes in disease manifestation and spread are complex and multifaceted. Causal pathways are often obscured. To disentangle causal effects of many factors within the circular processes of self-sustaining oscillations demands the careful building of sound conceptual models of seasonality; models that can be tested. The emerging fields of computational epidemiology and intelligent data mining will complement established work in philosophy of science and mathematical biology to become an essential part of thinking in public health and policy. Acknowledgments I thank Drs Eileen O'Neil and Beth Rosenberg for their thoughtful suggestions, and the support of funding agencies: the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (U19AI062627), and the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R01ES013171). Footnotes ^1Hippocrates' citations are taken from: Lloyd, GER, editor. Hippocratic Writings. Trans. Chadwick J and Mann WN. London: Penguin; 1978. * [128] Other Sectionsv + [129]Abstract + [130]Introduction + [131]Notion of Seasonality + [132]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [133]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [134]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [135]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [136]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [137]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [138]References References 1. Naumova EN, Chen JT, Griffiths JK, Matyas BT, Estes-Smargiassi SA, Morris RD. Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. Public Health Rep. 2000;115(5):436-47. [[139]PubMed] 2. Naumova EN, Christodouleas J, Hunter PR, Syed Q. Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance system in 1990 --1999. J Water Health. 2005;3(2):185-96. [[140]PubMed] 3. McLauchlin J, Amar C, Pedraza-Diaz S, Nichols GL. Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in 1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from livestock animals. J Clin Microbiol. 2000;38(11):3984-90. [[141]PubMed] 4. Anderson RM, May RM. Infectious Diseases of Humans. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004. 5. Fallis G, Hilditch J. A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between rural Zaire and Ontario. Can J Public Health. 1989;80(3):205-8. [[142]PubMed] 6. Kusumaningrum HD, Riboldi G, Hazeleger WC, Beumer RR. Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces and cross-contamination to foods. Int J Food Microbiol. 2003;85(3):227-36. [[143]PubMed] 7. Mead PS, Slutsker L, Dietz V, McCaig LF, Bresee JS, Shapiro C, et al. Food-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999;5(5):607-25. 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J Food Prot. 1999;62(9):1059-70. [[149]PubMed] 13. Barwick RS, Levy DA, Craun GF, Beach MJ, Calderon RL. Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks -- United States, 1997 --1998. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000;49(4):1-21. [[150]PubMed] 14. Clavel A, Alivares JL, Fleta J, Castillo J, Varea M, Ramos FJ, et al. Seasonality of cryptosporidiosis in children. Eur J Clin Microbiol Inf Dis. 1996;15:77-9. 15. Kapperud G, Skjerve E, Bean NH, Ostroff SM, Lassen J. Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of a case --control study in southeastern Norway. J Clin Microbiol. 1992;30(12):3117-21. [[151]PubMed] 16. Neimann J, Engberg J, Molbak K, Wegener HC. A case --control study of risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections in Denmark. Epidemiol Infect. 2003;130(3):353-66. [[152]PubMed] 17. Curriero FC, Patz JA, Rose JB, Lele S. The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948 --1994. 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Using climate to predict infectious disease outbreaks: a review. World Health Organization; Geneva, Switzerland: 2004. Publication no. WHO/SDE/OEH/04.01. 23. Easterling DR, Evans JL. Observed variability and trends in extreme climate events. Bull Am Meteorol Soc. 2000;81:417-25. 24. Charron D, Thomas M, Waltner-Toews D, Aramini J, Edge T, Kent R, et al. Vulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a review. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004;67(20 --22):1667-77. [[158]PubMed] 25. Patz JA, Epstein PR, Burke TA, Balbus JM. Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996;275(3):217-23. [[159]PubMed] 26. Bentham G, Langford IH. Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England and Wales. Int J Biometeorol. 1995;39(2):81-6. [[160]PubMed] 27. Ebi KL, Schmier JK. A stitch in time: improving public health early warning systems for extreme weather events. Epidemiol Rev. 2005;27:115-21. [[161]PubMed] 28. da Silva Lopes ACB. Spurious deterministic seasonality and auto-correlation corrections with quarterly data: further Monte Carlo results. Empir Econ. 1999;24(2):341-59. __________________________________________________________________ PubMed articles by these authors * [162]Naumova, E. PubMed related articles * [163]ReviewSeasonality of infectious diseases. Annu Rev Public Health. 2007; 28:127-43. [Annu Rev Public Health. 2007] * [164]ReviewSeasonality and the dynamics of infectious diseases. Ecol Lett. 2006 Apr; 9(4):467-84. [Ecol Lett. 2006] * [165]Seasonal infectious disease epidemiology. Proc Biol Sci. 2006 Oct 7; 273(1600):2541-50. [Proc Biol Sci. 2006] * [166]Seasonal control for an endemic disease with seasonal fluctuations. Theor Popul Biol. 1988 Apr; 33(2):115-25. [Theor Popul Biol. 1988] * [167]Seasonality of primarily childhood and young adult infectious diseases in the United States. Chronobiol Int. 2006; 23(5):1065-82. [Chronobiol Int. 2006] * » [168]See reviews... | » [169]See all... 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[J Clin Microbiol. 2000] [181]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [182]A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between rural Zaire and Ontario. Can J Public Health. 1989 May-Jun; 80(3):205-8. [Can J Public Health. 1989] [183]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [184]Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces and cross-contamination to foods. Int J Food Microbiol. 2003 Aug 25; 85(3):227-36. [Int J Food Microbiol. 2003] * [185]ReviewFood-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999 Sep-Oct; 5(5):607-25. [Emerg Infect Dis. 1999] * [186]The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries. Epidemiol Infect. 2004 Jun; 132(3):443-53. [Epidemiol Infect. 2004] [187]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [188]A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study). Water Sci Technol. 2001; 43(12):39-48. [Water Sci Technol. 2001] * [189]ReviewReview of epidemiological studies on health effects from exposure to recreational water. Int J Epidemiol. 1998 Feb; 27(1):1-9. [Int J Epidemiol. 1998] * [190]ReviewGiardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their impact on foods: a review. J Food Prot. 1999 Sep; 62(9):1059-70. [J Food Prot. 1999] * [191]Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks--United States, 1997-1998. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000 May 26; 49(4):1-21. [MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000] [192]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [193]Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of a case-control study in southeastern Norway. J Clin Microbiol. 1992 Dec; 30(12):3117-21. [J Clin Microbiol. 1992] * [194]A case-control study of risk factors for sporadic campylobacter infections in Denmark. Epidemiol Infect. 2003 Jun; 130(3):353-66. [Epidemiol Infect. 2003] [195]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [196]The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948-1994. Am J Public Health. 2001 Aug; 91(8):1194-9. [Am J Public Health. 2001] * [197]Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay. Parasitol Res. 2002 Nov; 88(11):998-1003. [Parasitol Res. 2002] * [198]Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during extreme rainfall and runoff. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002 May; 68(5):2188-97. [Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002] * [199]A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med. 1994 Jul 21; 331(3):161-7. [N Engl J Med. 1994] * [200]Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms? Am J Epidemiol. 2004 Feb 15; 159(4):398-405. [Am J Epidemiol. 2004] [201]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [202]ReviewVulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a review. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004 Oct 22-Nov 26; 67(20-22):1667-77. [J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004] * [203]Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996 Jan 17; 275(3):217-23. [JAMA. 1996] * [204]Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England and Wales. Int J Biometeorol. 1995 Nov; 39(2):81-6. [Int J Biometeorol. 1995] [205]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [206]ReviewA stitch in time: improving public health early warning systems for extreme weather events. Epidemiol Rev. 2005; 27():115-21. [Epidemiol Rev. 2005] [207]See more articles cited in this paragraph You are here: NCBI > [208]Literature > PubMed Central [209]Help Desk Simple NCBI Directory * Getting Started * [210]Site Map * [211]NCBI Help Manual * [212]NCBI Handbook * [213]Training & Tutorials * Resources * [214]Literature * [215]DNA & RNA * [216]Proteins * [217]Sequence Analysis * [218]Genes & Expression * [219]Genomes * [220]Maps & Markers * [221]Domains & Structures * [222]Genetics & Medicine * [223]Taxonomy * [224]Data & Software * [225]Training & Tutorials * [226]Homology * [227]Small Molecules * [228]Variation * Popular * [229]PubMed * [230]PubMed Central * [231]Bookshelf * [232]BLAST * [233]Gene * [234]Nucleotide * [235]Protein * [236]GEO * [237]Conserved Domains * [238]Structure * [239]PubChem * Featured * [240]GenBank * [241]Reference Sequences * [242]Map Viewer * [243]Genome Projects * [244]Human Genome * [245]Mouse Genome * [246]Influenza Virus * [247]Primer-BLAST * [248]Short Read Archive * NCBI Information * [249]About NCBI * [250]Research at NCBI * [251]NCBI Newsletter * [252]NCBI FTP Site * [253]Contact Us [254]NIH [255]DHHS [256]USA.gov [257]Copyright | [258]Disclaimer | [259]Privacy | [260]Accessibility | [261]Contact [262]National Center for Biotechnology Information , U.S. National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville Pike, Bethesda MD, 20894 USA Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [USEMAP] [USEMAP] #[1]Edit this page [2]Wikipedia (en) [3]copyright [4]Wikipedia RSS Feed [5]Wikipedia Atom Feed Circadian rhythm From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search "Human clock" redirects here. For the online clock, see [8]Humanclock. Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters. A circadian rhythm is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including [9]plants, [10]animals, [11]fungi and [12]cyanobacteria (see [13]bacterial circadian rhythms). The term "circadian", coined by [14]Franz Halberg,^[15][1] comes from the [16]Latin [17]circa, "around", and diem or dies, "day", meaning literally "approximately one day". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [18]tidal, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [19]chronobiology. Circadian rhythms are [20]endogenously generated, and can be entrained by external cues, called [21]zeitgebers, the primary one of which is [22]daylight. Contents * [23]1 History * [24]2 Criteria * [25]3 Origin * [26]4 Importance in animals + [27]4.1 Impact of light-dark cycle + [28]4.2 Arctic animals + [29]4.3 Butterfly migration * [30]5 Biological clock in mammals + [31]5.1 Determining the human circadian rhythm + [32]5.2 Outside the "master clock" * [33]6 Light and the biological clock * [34]7 Enforced longer cycles * [35]8 Human health + [36]8.1 Disruption + [37]8.2 Effect of drugs * [38]9 See also * [39]10 References + [40]10.1 Bibliography + [41]10.2 Notes * [42]11 External links [[43]edit] History The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [44]Alexander the Great, described [45]diurnal leaf movements of the [46]tamarind tree.^[47][2] The first modern observation of endogenous circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [48]Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant [49]Mimosa pudica continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli. In 1918, J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.^[50][3] [51]Joseph Takahashi discovered the genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.^[52][4]^[53][5] [[54]edit] Criteria To differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met: 1) the rhythms persist in the absence of cues, 2) they persist equally precisely over a range of temperatures, and 3) the rhythms can be adjusted to match the local time: * The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those "apparent" rhythms that are merely responses to external periodic cues. A rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been tested in conditions without external periodic input. * The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e., it maintains the same period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway. At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely coincidental. * The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [55]time zones illustrates the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next. Until rhythms are reset, a person usually experiences [56]jet lag. [[57]edit] Origin [58]Question book-new.svg This section needs additional [59]citations for [60]verification. Please help [61]improve this article by adding [62]reliable references. Unsourced material may be [63]challenged and [64]removed. (October 2007) Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [65]ultraviolet radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus [66]Neurospora, which exists today, retains this [67]clock-regulated mechanism. Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment.^[68][6] This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,^[69][7] as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian rhythms in quail.^[70][8] The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [71]cyanobacteria. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of Synechococcus elongatus can be reconstituted in vitro with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [72]ATP. Previous explanations of the [73]prokaryotic circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism. It is an unanswered question whether circadian clocks in eukaryotic organisms require translation/transcription-derived oscillations, for, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture (input - [74]central oscillator - output), they do not share any [75]homology. This implies probable independent origins. In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [76]Seymour Benzer first identified a genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behaviour: one had a shorter period, another had a longer one, and the third had none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named [77]period.^[78][9] The same gene was identified to be defective in the sleep disorder FASPS ([79]Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome) in human beings thirty years later, underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day. A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.^[80][10] At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronize the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [81]eyes travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock. [[82]edit] Importance in animals Circadian rhythmicity is present in the [83]sleeping and feeding patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear patterns of core body temperature, [84]brain wave activity, [85]hormone production, cell regeneration and other biological activities. In addition, [86]photoperiodism, the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation of day length. " Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food availability or predator activity is crucial for survival of many species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the photoperiod ('daylength') is the most predictive environmental cue for the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing of migration, hibernation and reproduction.^[87][11] " [[88]edit] Impact of light-dark cycle The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a [89]freerunning rhythm. Each "day", their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward, depending on whether their [90]endogenous period is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called [91]Zeitgebers (from the German, Time Givers).^[92][12] It is interesting to note that totally-blind subterranean mammals (e.g., [93]blind mole rat Spalax sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors (detect light) are still functional; as well, they do surface periodically.^[[94]citation needed] Freerunning organisms that normally have one consolidated sleep episode will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light/dark cycle in nature. The sleep-wake rhythm may, in these circumstances, become out of phase with other circadian or [95]ultradian rhythms such as [96]temperature and [97]digestion.^[[98]citation needed] Recent research has influenced the design of [99]spacecraft environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.^[[100]citation needed] [[101]edit] Arctic animals Norwegian researchers at the [102]University of Tromsø have shown that some Arctic animals ([103]ptarmigan, [104]reindeer) show circadian rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at [105]70 degrees North showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter, and spring, but not in the summer. Reindeer at [106]78 degrees North showed such rhythms only autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other Arctic animals as well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and the constant dark of winter.^[107][13]^[108][14] However, another study in northern Alaska found that [109]ground squirrels and [110]porcupines strictly maintained their circadian rhythms through 82 days and nights of sunshine. The researchers speculate that these two small mammals see that the apparent distance between the sun and the horizon is shortest once a day, and, thus, a sufficient signal to adjust by.^[111][15] [[112]edit] Butterfly migration The navigation of the fall migration of the [113]Eastern North American monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) to their overwintering grounds in central Mexico uses a time-compensated sun compass that depends upon a circadian clock in their antennae.^[114][16]^[115][17] [[116]edit] Biological clock in mammals Diagram illustrating the influence of light and darkness on circadian rhythms and related [117]physiology and behaviour through the [118]suprachiasmatic nucleus in humans. The primary circadian "clock" in [119]mammals is located in the [120]suprachiasmatic nucleus (or nuclei) ([121]SCN), a pair of distinct groups of [122]cells located in the [123]hypothalamus. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep-wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [124]retina of the eyes contains not only "classical" [125]photoreceptors but also photoresponsive retinal [126]ganglion cells. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called [127]melanopsin, follow a pathway called the [128]retinohypothalamic tract, leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues. It appears that the SCN takes the information on the lengths of the day and night from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [129]pineal gland, a tiny structure shaped like a [130]pine cone and located on the [131]epithalamus. In response the pineal secretes the hormone [132]melatonin. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day and its presence provides information about night-length. The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a 23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural solar day-night cycle on the planet [133]Mars).^[134][18] [[135]edit] Determining the human circadian rhythm The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's circadian rhythm are * melatonin secretion by the pineal gland and * core body temperature. For temperature studies, people must remain awake but calm and semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are taken continuously. The average human adult's temperature reaches its minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake time, though variation is great among normal [136]chronotypes. Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime. Its onset in dim light, dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO), at about 21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Its major [137]metabolite can also be measured in morning urine. Both DLMO and the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or saliva have been used as circadian markers. However, newer research indicates that the melatonin offset may be the most reliable marker. Benloucif et al. in Chicago in 2005 found that melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.^[138][19] One method used for measuring melatonin offset is to analyse a sequence of urine samples throughout the morning for the presence of the melatonin [139]metabolite 6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s). Laberge et al. in Quebec in 1997 used this method in a study that confirmed the frequently found delayed circadian phase in healthy adolescents.^[140][20] [[141]edit] Outside the "master clock" More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the "master clock". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the [142]oesophagus, [143]lungs, [144]liver, [145]pancreas, [146]spleen, [147]thymus, and the [148]skin.^[149][21] Though oscillators in the skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven so far.^[150][22]^[151][23] There is some evidence that also the olfactory bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting that also these structures may be weak oscillators. Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than to [152]light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have freerunning rhythms. [[153]edit] Light and the biological clock Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [154]phase response curve (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required [155]illuminance vary from species to species and lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans. Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm in humans are higher than the levels usually used in artificial lighting in homes. According to some researchers^[156][24] the illumination intensity that excites the circadian system has to reach up to 1000 [157]lux striking the retina. In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or colour) of light is a factor in the entrainment of the body clock. [158]Melanopsin is most efficiently excited by blue light, 420-440 nm^[159][25] according to some researchers while others have reported 470-485 nm. It is thought that the direction of the light may have an effect on entraining the circadian rhythm;^[160][24] light coming from above, resembling an image of a bright sky, has greater effect than light entering our eyes from below. [[161]edit] Enforced longer cycles Modern research under very controlled conditions has shown the human period for adults to be just slightly longer than 24 hours on average. Czeisler et al. at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes. The "clock" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's rotation.^[162][26] The 28-hour day is presented as a concept of [163]time management.^[164][27] It builds on the fact that the week of seven days at 24 hours and a "week" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of 168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours. Each "day" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern. Studies by [165]Nathaniel Kleitman^[166][28] in 1938 and by [167]Derk-Jan Dijk and [168]Charles Czeisler^[169][29]^[170][30] in 1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep-wake cycles, in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day,^[171][31] this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about 24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including [172]sleep latency and other functions.^[173][32] Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli like daylight and timekeeping. Early investigators determined the human circadian period to be 25 hours or more. They went to great lengths to shield subjects from time cues and daylight, but they were not aware of the effects of indoor electric lights. The subjects were allowed to turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase. These results became well known.^[174][26] Researchers allowed subjects to keep electric lighting on in the evening, as it was thought at that time that a couple of 60W bulbs would not have a resetting effect on the circadian rhythms of humans. More recent research^[[175]citation needed] has shown that adults have a built-in day, which averages just over 24 hours, that indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms and that most people attain their best-quality sleep during their [176]chronotype-determined sleep periods. [[177]edit] Human health Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with [178]angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [179]left ventricular (reverse) remodelling.^[[180]citation needed] A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms. A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during the day, a [181]power-nap, does not have any effect on normal circadian rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve productivity.^[182][33]^[183][34] There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the human circadian rhythm, such as [184]seasonal affective disorder (SAD), [185]delayed sleep phase syndrome (DSPS) and other [186]circadian rhythm disorders.^[187][35] Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [188]reticular activating system, which is crucial for maintaining a state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep-wake cycle may be a sign or complication of [189]uremia,^[190][36] [191]azotemia or [192]acute renal failure. [[193]edit] Disruption Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers have experienced the condition known as [194]jet lag, with its associated symptoms of [195]fatigue, disorientation and [196]insomnia. A number of other disorders, for example [197]bipolar disorder and some [198]sleep disorders, are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [199]bipolar disorder are positively influenced by [200]lithium's effect on clock genes.^[201][37] Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease [202][2] The suppression of melatonin production associated with the disruption of the circadian rhythm may increase the risk of developing cancer.^[203][38]^[204][39] [[205]edit] Effect of drugs Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such as [206]cocaine.^[207][40]^[208][41] Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.^[209][42] [[210]edit] See also * [211]Actigraphy (also known as Actimetry) * [212]Advanced sleep phase syndrome * [213]ARNTL * [214]ARNTL2 * [215]Bacterial circadian rhythms * [216]Chronobiology * [217]Chronotype * [218]Circadian oscillator * [219]Circadian rhythm sleep disorders * [220]Cryptochrome * [221]CRY1 and [222]CRY2, the cryptochrome family genes * [223]Delayed sleep phase syndrome * [224]Diurnal cycle * [225]Jet lag * [226]Light effects on circadian rhythm * [227]PER1, [228]PER2, and [229]PER3, the period family genes * [230]Power-nap [[231]edit] References [[232]edit] Bibliography * Aschoff J (ed.) (1965) Circadian Clocks. North Holland Press, Amsterdam * Avivi A, Albrecht U, Oster H, Joel A, Beiles A, Nevo E. 2001. Biological clock in total darkness: the Clock/MOP3 circadian system of the blind subterranean mole rat. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:13751-13756. * Avivi A, Oster H, Joel A, Beiles A, Albrecht U, Nevo E. 2002. Circadian genes in a blind subterranean mammal II: conservation and uniqueness of the three Period homologs in the blind subterranean mole rat, Spalax ehrenbergi superspecies. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:11718-11723. * Ditty JL, Williams SB, Golden SS (2003) A cyanobacterial circadian timing mechanism. Annu Rev Genet 37:513-543 * Dunlap JC, Loros J, DeCoursey PJ (2003) Chronobiology: Biological Timekeeping. Sinauer, Sunderland * Dvornyk V, Vinogradova ON, Nevo E (2003) Origin and evolution of circadian clock genes in prokaryotes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100:2495-2500 * Koukkari WL, Sothern RB (2006) Introducing Biological Rhythms. Springer, New York * Martino T, Arab S, Straume M, Belsham DD, Tata N, Cai F, Liu P, Trivieri M, Ralph M, Sole MJ. Day/night rhythms in gene expression of the normal murine heart. J Mol Med. 2004 Apr;82(4):256-64. Epub 2004 Feb 24. PMID: 14985853 * Refinetti R (2006) Circadian Physiology, 2nd ed. CRC Press, Boca Raton * Takahashi JS, Zatz M (1982) Regulation of circadian rhythmicity. Science 217:1104-1111 * Tomita J, Nakajima M, Kondo T, Iwasaki H (2005) No transcription-translation feedback in circadian rhythm of KaiC phosphorylation. Science 307: 251-254 * Moore-Ede, Martin C., Sulszman, Frank M., and Fuller, Charles A. (1982) "The Clocks that Time Us: Physiology of the Circadian Timing System." Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. [233]ISBN 0-674-13581-4. [[234]edit] Notes Centre 2. [237]^ Bretzl H. Botaniche Forchungen des Alexanderzuges. Leipzig: Teubner, 1903. 3. [238]^ Danchin, Antoine. [239]"Important dates 1900-1919". HKU-Pasteur Research Centre (Paris). 0.html. Retrieved 2008-01-12. 4. [241]^ "Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock". Chicago Tribune. April 29, 1994. 5. [242]^ Vitaterna, M.H.; King, D.P.; Chang, A.M.; Kornhauser, J.M.; Lowrey, P.L.; McDonald, J.D.; Dove, W.F.; Pinto, L.H. et al. (1994). "Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior.". Science 264 (264): 719-725. [243]doi:[244]10.1126/science.8171325. 6. [245]^ Sharma, Vijay Kumar (2003). [246]"Adaptive significance of circadian clocks" (Abstract). Chronobiology international 20 (6): 901-919. [247]doi:[248]10.1081/CBI-120026099. [249]ISSN [250]0742-0528. [251]PMID [252]14680135. Retrieved 2009-11-08. 7. [254]^ (Sheeba et al. 1999) 8. [255]^ (Guyomarc'h et al. 1998, Zivkovic et al. 1999) 9. [256]^ Purves, Dale et al (2001) [2001]. [257]"Molecular Mechanisms of Biological Clocks" (e-book). [258]NEUROSCIENCE (second ed.). Sunderland, MA, U.S.A.: Sinauer Associates. [259]ISBN [260]0-87893-742-0. 3. Retrieved 2008-05-30. 10. 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Retrieved 2007-11-26. 16. [279]^ Merlin C, Gegear RJ, Reppert SM. (2009). Antennal Circadian Clocks Coordinate Sun Compass Orientation in Migratory Monarch Butterflies. Science 325: 1700-1704. [280]doi:[281]10.1126/science.1176221 17. [282]^ Kyriacou CP. (2009). Unraveling Traveling. Science 325:1629-1630 [283]doi:[284]10.1126/science.1178935 18. [285]^ Scheer, Frank A. J. L.; Kenneth P. Wright, Jr., Richard E. Kronauer, Charles A. Czeisler (2007-08-08). [286]"Plasticity of the Intrinsic Period of the Human Circadian Timing System". PLoS ONE 2 (1): e721. [287]doi:[288]10.1371/journal.pone.0000721. [289]PMID [290]17684566. [291]PMC [292]1934931. pone.0000721. Retrieved 2007-12-31. 19. [294]^ Benloucif, S.; Guico, M.J.; Reid, K.J.; Wolfe, L.F.; L'Hermite-Baleriaux, M.; Zee, P.C. (2005). [295]"Stability of melatonin and temperature as circadian phase markers and their relation to sleep times in humans". J Biol Rhythms (Chicago, Illinois, USA: Center for Sleep and Circadian Biology, Departments of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine) 20 (2): 178-88. [296]doi:[297]10.1177/0748730404273983. [298]PMID [299]15834114. issn=20045590. Retrieved 2007-12-18. 20. [301]^ Laberge, L.; Lesperance, P.; Tremblay, R.; Lambert, C.; Montplaisir, J. (1997). [302]"Phase delay of 6-sulphatoxymelatonin in normal adolescents". Sleep Research (Québec, Canada: Centre d'etude du Sommeil, Hopital du Sacre-Coeur, Département de Psychologie, Département de Pharmacologie, Departement de Psychiatrie, Université de Montréal) 26: 727. issn=19979287. Retrieved 2007-12-18. 21. [304]^ Zanello, S. et al., J. Inv. Dermatol. 2000, Vol. 115, 4 Oct.: Expression of the Circadian Clock Genes clock and period1 in Human Skin 22. [305]^ Kawara, S. et al. J. Inv. Derm. 2002, Vol 119, 6 Dec.: Low-dose UVB Rays Alter the mRNA Expression of the Circadian Clock Genes in cultured Human Keratinocytes 23. [306]^ Campbell, S. and Murphy, P, Science 1998, Vol 279, 16 Jan.: Extraocular Circadian Phototransduction in Humans 24. ^ [307]^a [308]^b Semjonova, Milena (2003). [309]"Healthy Lighting, from a lighting designer's perspective". Milena Lighting Design. 25. [311]^ Newman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: "Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment", Biochemistry. 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8. 26. ^ [312]^a [313]^b [314]"Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour". 1999. Retrieved 2007-09-23. "The variation between our subjects, with a 95 percent level of confidence, was no more than plus or minus 16 minutes, a remarkably small range." 27. [316]^ Digital Beat Productions (1997). [317]"28 Hour Day". 28. [319]^ Kleitman, Nathaniel (1962). Sleep and Wakefullness ed 2. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 29. [320]^ Dijk, Derk-Jan; Czeisler Charles (1994). "Paradoxical timing of the circadian rhythm of sleep propensity serves to consolidate sleep and wakefulness in humans". Neurosci Lett 166 (1): 63. [321]doi:[322]10.1016/0304-3940(94)90841-9. [323]PMID [324]8190360. 30. [325]^ Dijk, Derk-Jan; Czeisler Charles (1995). [326]"Contribution of the Circadian Pacemaker and the Sleep Homeostat to Sleep Propensity, Sleep Structure, Electrocephalographic Slow Waves, and Sleep Spindle Activity in Humans". J. Neurosci 15 (5): 3526. [327]PMID [328]7751928. 31. [330]^ Cromie, William J. (1999-07-15). [331]"Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour". The Harvard University Gazette. Retrieved 2008-02-19. 32. [333]^ Aldrich, Michael S (1999). [334]Sleep medicine. New York: Oxford University Press. [335]ISBN [336]0195129571. pg=RA1-PA65&dq=experimenting+with+the+28+hour+day&source=bl&ots=9R4 mo2fI1O&sig=om2zbYPnXnm_1HuZo2Tch6J1vyo&hl=en&ei=MBZeStGgIoyJkQWd17 znDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2. 33. [338]^ [339]"The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep". The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep. Behavioral medicine. 2001. Retrieved 2008-11-11. 34. [341]^ [342]"Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students". Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students. Liberty University. 2007. 3.htm. Retrieved 2008-11-11. 35. [344]^ [345]"Circadian Rhythms and Sleep". Circadian Rhythms and Sleep. Serendip. 2007. ml. Retrieved 2007-09-19. 36. [347]^ Sinert, Richard; Peter R Peacock, Jr (May 10, 2006). [348]"Renal Failure, Acute". eMedicine from WebMD. 2008-08-03. 37. [350]^ [351]NIMH · Science News from 2006 · Lithium Blocks Enzyme To Help Cells' Clocks Keep On Tickin' 38. [352]^ Straif K, Baan R, Grosse Y, Secretan B, El Ghissassi F, Bouvard V, Altieri A, Benbrahim-Tallaa L, Cogliano V, WHO International Agency for Research on Cancer Monograph Working Group. Carcinogenicity of shift-work, painting, and fire-fighting. [353][1] Lancet Oncol. 2007; 12(8):1065-1066. 39. [354]^ [355]WebMD: Night Shift Work May Cause Cancer 40. [356]^ Uz T, Akhisaroglu M, Ahmed R, Manev H (2003). "The pineal gland is critical for circadian Period1 expression in the striatum and for circadian cocaine sensitization in mice". Neuropsychopharmacology 28 (12): 2117-23. [357]doi:[358]10.1038/sj.npp.1300254. [359]PMID [360]12865893. 41. [361]^ Kurtuncu M, Arslan A, Akhisaroglu M, Manev H, Uz T (2004). "Involvement of the pineal gland in diurnal cocaine reward in mice". Eur J Pharmacol 489 (3): 203-5. [362]doi:[363]10.1016/j.ejphar.2004.03.010. [364]PMID [365]15087244. 42. [366]^ McClung C, Sidiropoulou K, Vitaterna M, Takahashi J, White F, Cooper D, Nestler E (2005). [367]"Regulation of dopaminergic transmission and cocaine reward by the Clock gene". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102 (26): 9377-81. [368]doi:[369]10.1073/pnas.0503584102. [370]PMID [371]15967985. [[372]edit] External links * [373]Circadian rhythm at the [374]Open Directory Project * Leloup J.C. (2009). "Circadian clocks and phosphorylation: Insights from computational modeling". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 4 (3): 290-303. [375]doi:[376]10.2478/s11535-009-0025-1. * Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A (2007). "Evolutionary mechanisms of circadian clocks". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 2 (2): 233-253. [377]doi:[378]10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z. [380]Categories: [381]Sleep | [382]Circadian rhythms | [383]Biology of bipolar disorder Hidden categories: [384]Articles needing additional references from October 2007 | [385]All articles needing additional references | [386]All articles with unsourced statements | [387]Articles with unsourced statements from September 2009 | [388]Articles with unsourced statements from November 2007 | [389]Articles with unsourced statements from January 2009 | [390]Articles with unsourced statements from December 2009 Views * [391]Article * [392]Discussion * [393]Edit this page * [394]History Personal tools * [395]Try Beta * [396]Log in / create account Navigation * [397]Main page * [398]Contents * [399]Featured content * [400]Current events * [401]Random article Search ____________________ Go Search Interaction * [402]About Wikipedia * [403]Community portal * [404]Recent changes * [405]Contact Wikipedia * [406]Donate to Wikipedia * [407]Help Toolbox * [408]What links here * [409]Related changes * [410]Upload file * [411]Special pages * [412]Printable version * [413]Permanent link * [414]Cite this page Languages * [415]Català * [416]Cesky * [417]Dansk * [418]Deutsch * [419]Ellynika' * [420]Español * [421]Français * [422]Italiano * [423]E+B+R+J+T+ * [424]Magyar * [425]Nederlands * [426]¥¬ * [427]ªNorsk (bokmål) * [428]ªNorsk (nynorsk) * [429]Polski * [430]Português * [431]Româna * [432]Russkij * [433]Simple English * [434]Srpski / Srpski * [435]Svenska * [436]a+r+d+w+ [437]Powered by MediaWiki [438]Wikimedia Foundation * This page was last modified on 16 January 2010 at 17:59. * Text is available under the [439]Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See [440]Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [441]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * [442]Contact us * [443]Privacy policy * [444]About Wikipedia * [445]Disclaimers Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1][dailyomlogo2.gif] Today's DailyOM brought to you by: [2][nav-signup.gif] [nav-line.gif] [3][nav-mydailyom.gif] [nav-line.gif] [4][nav-marketplace.gif] [nav-line.gif] [5][nav-community.gif] [nav-line.gif] [6][nav-courses.gif] [bambooborder2.jpg] [Articles......] _______________ [search.gif]-Submit [7][nav-giftshop.gif] [nav-line.gif] [8][nav-shoppingcart.gif] January 2, 2006 Universal Timing Life's Natural Rhythm Nature's natural rhythms orchestrate when day turns to night, when flowers must bloom, and provides the cue for when it is time for red and brown leaves to fall from trees. As human beings, our own inner rhythm is attuned to this universal sense of timing. Guided by the rising and setting of the sun, changes in temperature, and our own internal rhythm, we know when it is time to sleep, eat, or be active. While our minds and spirits are free to focus on other pursuits, our breath and our heartbeat are always there to remind us of life's pulsing rhythm that moves within and around us. Moving to this rhythm, we know when it is time to stop working and when to rest. Pushing our bodies to work beyond their natural rhythm diminishes our ability to renew and recharge. A feeling much like jet lag lets us know when we've overridden our own natural rhythm. When we feel the frantic calls of all we want to accomplish impelling us to move faster than is natural for us, we may want to breathe deeply instead and look at nature moving to its own organic timing: birds flying south, leaves shedding, or snow falling. A walk in nature can also let us re-attune is to her organic rhythm, while allowing us to move back in time with our own. When we move to our natural rhythm, we can achieve all we need to do with less effort. We may even notice that our soul moves to its own internal, natural rhythm - especially when it comes to our personal evolution. Comparing ourselves to others is unnecessary. Our best guide is to move to our own internal timing, while keeping time with the rhythm of nature. Click to follow DailyOM on [9]Twitter and [10]Facebook What do you think? [11]Discuss this article and share your opinion Want more DailyOM? [12]Register for your free email, or [13]browse all articles Life's Natural Rhythm Share the OM: [14][emailfriend.gif] [15]Email this to a friend [16][printerfriendly.gif] [17]Printable version [18][icon-mydailyom.gif] [19]Save in My DailyOM [20][icon-discuss.gif] [21]Discuss this article [22][horoscopes1.jpg] Today's friend of OM: Register now to receive your [23]free daily horoscope from DailyOM. 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For more information visit [24]DailyOM.com More DailyOM: [25]More Inspiration [26]Today's Horoscopes [27]OM Marketplace [28]Home | [29]Gift Shop | [30]My DailyOM | [31]Marketplace | [32]Community | [33]Archives | [34]Share The OM | [35]Contact Us [36]Subscribe | [37]Change Email | [38]User Settings | [39]Unsubscribe | [40]Privacy Policy | [41]Disclaimer | [42]Gift Shop FAQ | [43]Advertising Info [44]Make DailyOM Your Homepage | [45]Link To Us | [46]Publish DailyOM On Your Website © 2004-08 DailyOM - All Rights Reserved No portion of this site can be reprinted without express permission Artwork by [47]Wang Chang-Ming Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Rhythm In Nature [7]page up: Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications | by Frederick R. Clow [8]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications. Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual training, recitation, gymnastics, and play. Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human [40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality. The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. . . . When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak. Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. - Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20. . . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight years in [42]duration are superposed. . . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135. Continue to: * prev: [43]Rhythm In Nature * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]The Cycle Of A Generation Tags [46]sociology, [47]communication, [48]congenial groups, [49]cycles of change, [50]democracy, [51]factors of society, [52]government, [53]heredity, [54]human nature, [55]institutions, [56]location, [57]natural selection, [58]organizations, [59]population, [60]primary groups, [61]social classes [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [62]TOP [63]previous page: Rhythm In Nature [64]page up: Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications | by Frederick R. Clow [65]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [66]StasoSphere [ [67]Privacy Policy ] [ [68]Terms of Use ] [ [69]About Us ] [ [70]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:34:34 2009 Références #[1]Welcome page [2]Help [3]Parent screen [4]skip navigation [5]Geography Compass Select Compass [Geography Compass........................] Go * [6]Home | * [7]My Compass | * [8]Help | * [9]Content Alerts | * [10]Contact Us | * [11]Links * [12]What is Geography Compass? | * [13]Subscribe | * [14]Editors | * [15]Editorial Board | * [16]Authors Cultural Towards Lefebvrian Socio-Nature? A Film about Rhythm, Nature and Science By [17]James Evans and [18]Phil Jones, School of Environment and Development, University of Manchester School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham (April 2008) __________________________________________________________________ Section: [19]Cultural Subjects: [20]Environment And Society, [21]Geography, [22]Urban Geography, [23]Cultural Geography. Key Topics: [24]nature , [25]representation. Abstract The first thing you will notice about this article is that it is actually a film. We did not set out to make a film, it just ended up that way. We started out making music out of environmental data, wondering why we only ever look at scientific data, why we do not listen to it. Wandering around the city passing through the transformed landscapes of channelised rivers and broken industrial spaces, we wanted to reveal the socio-natural rhythms of this hybrid city. The text you see below represents the shooting script for a film that explores Lefebvre's notion of rhythmanalysis in the context of socio-natural rhythms. The video accompanying it is far more interesting, including the environmental music that we produced by feeding scientific data through samplers and drum machines. The video questions the nature of scientific representation and whether the notion of rhythmanalysis can be stretched to explore rhythms beyond the human. Furthermore, the process of actually making the video, submitting it to this journal, and responding to the referees' comments made us question the very nature of what constitutes an academic paper in the twenty-first century. The accompanying commentary is our attempt to deal with these issues. To link to the film please go to DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00107.x This article abstract has been viewed 5348 times. [27]view [28]cite [29]Add to my Compass [30]Add to VLE/CMS [31]feedback __________________________________________________________________ Top 5 related articles * [32]Geographies for Moving Bodies: Thinking, Dancing, Spaces By [33]Derek P. McCormack , Oxford University Centre for the Environment (Vol. 3, October 2008) Geography Compass * [34]Colonialism, Landscape and the Subterranean By [35]Heidi V. Scott , Institute of Geography and Earth Sciences, Aberystwyth University (Vol. 3, October 2008) Geography Compass * [36]Climate-Suicide Relationships: A Research Problem in Need of Geographic Methods and Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives By P. Grady Dixon and Adam J. Kalkstein, Mississippi State UniversityUnited States Military Academy (Vol. 4, September 2009) Geography Compass * [37]Ethnomethodology and the Non-representational: What Are Disaffected Young White Men Capable of? 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By James Donald From [47]Companion to the City * [48]The Production of Nature It may seem strange to include a chapter on the production of nature in a volume about economic geography. ... By Noel Castree From [49]A Companion to Economic Geography [[50]All Related Reference Chapters] * [51]Economic * [52]Social * [53]Cultural * [54]Political * [55]Urban * [56]Development * [57]Climatology * [58]Hydrology & Water Resources * [59]Geomorphology * [60]Biogeography * [61]GIS * [62]Earth Observation * [63]Environment & Society * [64]Global Issues Quick Search Keyword search: ____________________ Select a section: [All........................] Select a content type: [All.................................] [65]Advanced Search Search Related Blackwell Reference Chapters [66]View Related Reference Books [67]Geography Compass - Personal Subscription Rates [68]Sign up for free Geography Compass content alerts [69]Keep up-to-date "...an indispensable reference tool for teachers, researchers, and students in Geography and related disciplines." Mike Bradshaw and Basil Gomez Geography Compass Editors-in-Chief [70]Blackwell Publishing Copyright © 2005-2007 [71]Blackwell Publishing | [72]Privacy Policy | [73]Contact us | [74]Help | [75]To the top... [76][ access key 0 : accessibility information including access key list ] [77][ access key 1 : home page ] [78][ access key 2 : skip navigation] [79][ access key 6 : help ] Références [1]pmc logo image [2]Logo of nihpa [3]Journal List > [4]NIHPA Author Manuscripts Formats: * [5]Abstract | * Full Text | * [6]PDF (32K) J Public Health Policy. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2008 July 24. Published in final edited form as: [7]J Public Health Policy. 2006; 27(1): 2-12. doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200061. PMCID: PMC2483431 NIHMSID: NIHMS58476 [8]Copyright notice and [9]Disclaimer Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature Elena N. Naumova^* ^*Address for Correspondence: Department of Public Health and Family Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Avenue, Boston, MA 02111, USA. E-mail: elena.naumova/at/tufts.edu Small right arrow pointing to: The publisher's final edited version of this article is available at [10]J Public Health Policy. Small right arrow pointing to: See other articles in PMC that [11]cite the published article. Abstract Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences. Understanding seasonal fluctuations in diseases patterns presents us with a major challenge. To develop efficient strategies for disease prevention and control, we need to grasp the main determinants of temporal variations and their interactions. This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality by outlining several of its factors, using as illustrations respiratory and enteric water- or food-borne infections. Keywords: seasonality, water-borne infection, food-borne infection, respiratory infection * [12] Other Sectionsv + [13]Abstract + [14]Introduction + [15]Notion of Seasonality + [16]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [17]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [18]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [19]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [20]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [21]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [22]References Introduction Now let us consider the seasons and the way we can predict whether it is going to be a healthy or an unhealthy year. (Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 10)^[23]1 Seasonal fluctuations in birth and death, in sickness and health, are the haunting mysteries of mankind. People have made predictions from winds, tides, birds' migrations, spring blooms, sunsets, and constellations in hope of grasping the future. The complexity and uncertainty of ancient and modern means of prediction make us wonder to what extent we are able to understand the rhythm of nature. One might argue the future cannot be known, but from a practical point of view, a better understanding of changes in disease occurrences is essential for building efficient strategies for disease prevention and control. Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences. Since Hippocrates, observers worldwide have noted and documented marked fluctuations in the incidence of many diseases. In the modern view, the main determinants of temporal variations in disease manifestation are evolving host susceptibility, periodicity in pathogen abundance and transmissibility, and the ever-changing environment that can support or repress a host or pathogen. Interactions among these factors responsible for seasonal variation are interwoven into the intricate fabric of life. For many diseases, explanations for self-sustained oscillations still remain elusive. We lack adequate methods and sufficient analytical tools for comprehensive examination of seasonality in public health field studies. A dearth of observations, recorded over long periods at fine resolution, compounded by an enormous number of factors associated with periodic changes, obscure our ability to understand disease variation. Urgent need for effective strategies to prevent and control a spread of emerging infections in the rapidly changing world, however, demands a deeper insight into the cyclic nature of diseases. This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality and outline several factors associated with seasonality using as illustrations enteric water- or food-borne infections and respiratory infections. Then I propose a framework for systematic evaluation of seasonal oscillations. In every part of this presentation, and most importantly, I wish to stimulate discussion on this challenging topic. * [24] Other Sectionsv + [25]Abstract + [26]Introduction + [27]Notion of Seasonality + [28]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [29]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [30]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [31]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [32]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [33]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [34]References Notion of Seasonality Every disease occurs at any season of the year but some of them more frequently occur and are of greater severity at certain times. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 19) Seasonality, as noted above, refers to the cyclic appearance of events over a period of time. A seasonal pattern may appear as a tight cluster of isolated outbreaks that occurred during a relatively short time period, then spreading over a wide geographic area. For example, in a temporal curve of enteric infection cases (i.e. giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, or rotavirus infections), a compact cluster of outbreaks is followed by a long interval of low incidence. Systematic recurrence of such sequences forms a seasonal pattern typical of a specific pathogen in a given population and in a given locality. A seasonal increase in enteric or respiratory infection often produces a well-defined oscillating curve that starts to rise in one season and declines over the next one. The three main features characterize seasonality: * a point in time when a seasonal curve reaches its maximum, * an amplitude from peak to nadir, and * a duration of a seasonal increase defined by a shape of a curve. (The shape of a seasonal pattern reflects how fast a temporal curve reaches its peak and declines to nadir over a course of a full cycle. Depending on the length of a cycle whether it is one year or a half of a year, a seasonal curve would have one or two peaks.) Seasonal patterns, described by these three characteristics, may vary for different diseases, different locations, or different subpopulations. Many viral and bacterial infections in humans show marked seasonal changes. In some diseases, like salmonellosis and influenza, annual oscillations explain up to 60% of variability. Such impact should not be ignored and deserves a proper examination. * [35] Other Sectionsv + [36]Abstract + [37]Introduction + [38]Notion of Seasonality + [39]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [40]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [41]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [42]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [43]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [44]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [45]References Diseases Seasonal Patterns Diseases vary in their relationships one with another; some are opposed, some are mutually agreeable. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 3) Differences in diseases peaks reflect different etiology, heterogeneity in host susceptibility, or route of transmission. In temperate climates, Campylobacter and Salmonella infections are known to rise in summer, giardiasis in early fall, and rotavirus infection in mid-winter, etc. Interestingly, for the same infectious agent, infections recorded in two different locations may present a different pattern of incidence. A seasonal pattern for cryptosporidiosis in the United States exhibits one late summer peak ([46]1); in contrast, in the United Kingdom, two seasonal peaks are seen ([47]2). The UK picture reflects two dominant sources of exposure: one from animals in the late spring, and another from humans in the fall ([48]3). Close temporal clustering of seasonal peaks in diseases that share similar sources of exposure suggests dominant routes of transmissions. Peaks in water-borne cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis often cluster after a summer peak in ambient temperature. Such synchronization in disease manifestation can be governed by environmental and social factors. In some instances, periodicity of a given infection observed in a particular population may be not present in another. A seasonal peak in cryptosporidiosis cases observed in the general population is not apparent in the immunocompromized HIV-positive gay men, even though the incidence of cryptosporidiosis in HIV-positive population is very high. This suggests differences in dominant routes of transmission. Seasonal patterns can change over time. After intense vaccination campaigns in the 1950s and 1970s in the United Kingdom, the patterns of measles and pertussis changed, with the high rates of disease usually seen when children were attending school diminishing for measles and practically disappearing for pertusis ([49]4). Explanations for these phenomena remain elusive. A departure from a systematically observed pattern could reflect the evolution of a pathogen or a change in herd immunity. A simple rule to remember is that a discovery hides in outliers. Faced with an abundance of causal agents, a bare observation of a rise in the incidence of non-specific enteritis should be interpreted with caution. A seasonal pattern can represent a mix of temporal curves. Imagine two periodic curves of similar intensity, but one peaks in a spring and another in a fall; the sum of these two curves might lose the appearance of seasonality, covering two distinctly seasonal phenomena. Some infections are very rare. Their seasonal patterns are difficult to examine because the relevant data must be collected over a very long time and/or aggregated over large spatial units. Precision in evaluating seasonality can thus be jeopardized by time-dependent and/or space-dependent confounders. Seasonal fluctuations can be found beyond infectious diseases; chronic somatic diseases also exhibit substantial temporal variations. Plausibly, exacerbations in chronic conditions are driven by infectious agents or environmental changes. Understanding the interplay of an infection and a chronic disease may lead to better control for both. * [50] Other Sectionsv + [51]Abstract + [52]Introduction + [53]Notion of Seasonality + [54]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [55]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [56]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [57]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [58]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [59]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [60]References Seasonal Host Susceptibility When the weather is seasonable and the crops ripen at the regular times, diseases are regular in their appearance... (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 8) Poor nutrition directly affects host susceptibility. In places of food scarcity, researchers suspect that temporal patterns in birth weight and preterm delivery result from seasonal variations in food availability ([61]5). In general, due to a less developed immune system, young children are susceptible to infection; their immune response may be further weakened by seasonal cutbacks in essential micronutrients and vitamins. Anemnestic responses to an antigen determine whether an infection recurs. Short-lived immune memory together with seasonal changes in pathogen transmissibility contribute further to the complexity of seasonal patterns. Even a perfectly healthy person can experience a change in susceptibility to infection due to stress, injuries, or trauma. The probability of a marked impact of such factors on disease seasonality is virtually unknown. * [62] Other Sectionsv + [63]Abstract + [64]Introduction + [65]Notion of Seasonality + [66]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [67]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [68]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [69]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [70]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [71]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [72]References Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility Some diseases are produced by the manner of life that is followed; others by the life-giving air we breathe. (Hippocrates. The Nature of Man, 9) Temperature, humidity, and precipitation -- the defining factors of seasons -- are important determinants of pathogens' survival. Changes influence pathogens' potency and life expectancy, resulting in temporal fluctuations in pathogens' abundance. In many instances, seasonal changes in pathogen survival and transmission are inseparably related to both biological and social aspects of our lives. They are synchronized by weather. High ambient temperature, for example, provides a supportive environment for food-borne pathogens, favoring their multiplication in food and on food preparation surfaces ([73]6). Food contamination is believed to be a significant mode of transmission for infections caused by Salmonella and Campylobacter ([74]7); therefore, during warm weather, the risk for food-borne diseases increases ([75]8). Seasonal changes in level of contamination, availability of potable water, sanitation and hygiene practices, as well as crowding and person-to-person contacts, affect pathogens' transmissibility. Worldwide, water use differs from season to season ([76]9). In temperate climates, warm weather leads to higher water consumption and encourages outdoor activities -- swimming, camping, and recreational water use. In tropical regions, contamination of surface water increases during wet seasons. Although spread of pathogens via food is certainly possible, contaminated water is the dominant source of exposure for enteric infections caused by protozoa Cryptosporidium and Giardia ([77]10 --[78]12). Depending on locality, outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis associated with drinking or recreational water frequently occur during warm or wet seasons ([79]13,[80]14). With the onset of cooler weather, the "heating season" marks a change in indoor air quality. Inadequate and poorly designed ventilation in crowded public places and urban transit systems may boost exposure to air-borne pathogens by increasing their concentration in stagnant air and by re-circulating contaminated air. Higher relative humidity may also affect the stability of air-borne droplets in which viruses travel from person to person. * [81] Other Sectionsv + [82]Abstract + [83]Introduction + [84]Notion of Seasonality + [85]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [86]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [87]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [88]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [89]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [90]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [91]References Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects You will find, as a general rule, that the constitutions and the habits of a people follow the nature of the land where they live. (Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 24) Diseases do not watch calendars. Their incidence rises and falls because of changes in factors associated with the diseases. However, in every culture all social events are synchronized by calendars; and every calendar reflects the cyclic rhythm of nature. Traditional celebrations and gatherings observed by communities according to calendars affect pathogen transmission. Holidays, social activities, and seasonal travel are often associated with changes in food consumption and preparation, and are therefore associated with changes in disease incidence. Preparing meat on a barbecue increases the risk of Campylobacter infection ([92]15,[93]16) and foreign travel increases the risk for enteric infections. Aggregation of children in schools, daycare centers, and summer camps, reflecting school calendars, facilitates rapid exchange of pathogens. There are marked seasonal variations in transmission, and thus the incidence of enteric and respiratory infections. * [94] Other Sectionsv + [95]Abstract + [96]Introduction + [97]Notion of Seasonality + [98]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [99]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [100]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [101]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [102]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [103]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [104]References Climate Change, Extreme Weather Events, and Disease Seasonality The changes of the seasons are especially liable to beget diseases, as are great changes from heat to cold, or cold to heat in any season. Other changes in the weather have similarly severe effects. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 1) As weather affects human health by creating favorable conditions for pathogen proliferation and transmission, severe weather can affect the timing and intensity of infectious outbreaks, and natural disasters lead to drastic changes in population structure and pathogen ecology. Catastrophic events like tsunamis, hurricanes, devastating floods, and heat waves that cause deaths, population displacement, and infrastructural damage may have dramatic effects on the incidence of infections and their seasonal patterns. Recent work has shown highly significant associations between extreme precipitation and water-borne disease outbreaks ([105]17). Heavy precipitation, rapid snowmelt, and floods flush animal wastes from the land into surface waters and may overwhelm drinking and wastewater treatment systems. The latter leads to discharges in watersheds of untreated human wastes. As a result, pathogens can appear in drinking and recreational water in very high concentrations ([106]18,[107]19). A rapid snowmelt, resultant runoff, and filtration system failure at the overloaded local drinking water treatment plant were implicated in the largest known water-borne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis, which occurred in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1993 ([108]20). This outbreak happened in April, not within the usual seasonal peak for cryptosporidiosis cases. A flood, which also resulted from a rapid snowmelt, has been linked with a similar increased incidence of diarrhea ([109]21). Experts expect that global climate change will increase climate variability and the frequency of extreme precipitation events in temperate regions ([110]22,[111]23). "Global warming" may also increase the frequency and magnitude of other extreme weather events, such as heat waves and droughts, and thereby have profound effects on public health ([112]24,[113]25). In a comprehensive study conducted in the United Kingdom that described a short-term link between temperature and food poisoning, the authors also hypothesized that climate change could lead to changes in rates of food poisoning ([114]26). Integration of environmental parameters into disease forecasting and warning systems could allow public health officials to alert the populace when specific meteorological conditions pose predictable risks to health ([115]27). Simple messages about proper food preparation and refrigeration and the risks of using contaminated recreational waters could, for example, be provided before, during, and after extreme events. Better understanding of disease seasonality would also help to predict outbreaks of infections triggered by climate variability. * [116] Other Sectionsv + [117]Abstract + [118]Introduction + [119]Notion of Seasonality + [120]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [121]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [122]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [123]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [124]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [125]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [126]References Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking Desperate cases need the most desperate remedies. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, I, 6) At first, seasonal fluctuations should be systematically described. This requires a framework with sound definitions and analytic tools suitable for routine use by public health professionals. In public health sciences, the existing methodology currently lacks methods and tests for assessing complex interactions in the time-dependent factors responsible for disease seasonality. Next, reliable data with fine temporal resolution are a must. The vast majority of epidemiological studies have examined seasonal patterns of infections using quarterly or monthly data. This coarse temporal aggregation can thwart an otherwise detailed, accurate, and comprehensive analysis of seasonal patterns and may even be misleading ([127]28). Examination of daily or weekly rates can substantially improve evaluation of seasonal curves, but a systematic approach for using at least weekly aggregates is needed. Finally, reluctance to apply sophisticated mathematical models in public health studies must be overcome. Underlying processes in disease manifestation and spread are complex and multifaceted. Causal pathways are often obscured. To disentangle causal effects of many factors within the circular processes of self-sustaining oscillations demands the careful building of sound conceptual models of seasonality; models that can be tested. The emerging fields of computational epidemiology and intelligent data mining will complement established work in philosophy of science and mathematical biology to become an essential part of thinking in public health and policy. Acknowledgments I thank Drs Eileen O'Neil and Beth Rosenberg for their thoughtful suggestions, and the support of funding agencies: the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (U19AI062627), and the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R01ES013171). Footnotes ^1Hippocrates' citations are taken from: Lloyd, GER, editor. Hippocratic Writings. Trans. Chadwick J and Mann WN. London: Penguin; 1978. * [128] Other Sectionsv + [129]Abstract + [130]Introduction + [131]Notion of Seasonality + [132]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [133]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [134]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [135]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [136]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [137]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [138]References References 1. Naumova EN, Chen JT, Griffiths JK, Matyas BT, Estes-Smargiassi SA, Morris RD. Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. Public Health Rep. 2000;115(5):436-47. [[139]PubMed] 2. Naumova EN, Christodouleas J, Hunter PR, Syed Q. Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance system in 1990 --1999. J Water Health. 2005;3(2):185-96. [[140]PubMed] 3. McLauchlin J, Amar C, Pedraza-Diaz S, Nichols GL. Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in 1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from livestock animals. J Clin Microbiol. 2000;38(11):3984-90. [[141]PubMed] 4. Anderson RM, May RM. Infectious Diseases of Humans. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004. 5. Fallis G, Hilditch J. A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between rural Zaire and Ontario. Can J Public Health. 1989;80(3):205-8. [[142]PubMed] 6. Kusumaningrum HD, Riboldi G, Hazeleger WC, Beumer RR. Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces and cross-contamination to foods. Int J Food Microbiol. 2003;85(3):227-36. [[143]PubMed] 7. Mead PS, Slutsker L, Dietz V, McCaig LF, Bresee JS, Shapiro C, et al. Food-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999;5(5):607-25. [[144]PubMed] 8. Kovats RS, Edwards SJ, Hajat S, Armstrong BG, Ebi KL, Menne B. The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries. Epidemiol Infect. 2004;132(3):443-53. [[145]PubMed] 9. Gofti-Laroche L, Gratacap-Cavallier B, Genoulaz O, Joret JC, Hartemann P, Seigneurin JM, et al. A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study). Water Sci Technol. 2001;43(12):39-48. [[146]PubMed] 10. Pruss A. Review of epidemiological studies on health effects from exposure to recreational water. Int J Epidemiol. 1998;27(1):1-9. [[147]PubMed] 11. Rose JB, Huffman DE, Riley K, Farrah SR, Lukasik JO, Hamann CL. Reduction of enteric microorganisms at the Upper Occoquan Sewage Authority Water Reclamation Plant. Water Environ Res. 2001;73(6):711-20. [[148]PubMed] 12. Rose JB, Slifko TR. Giardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their impact on foods: a review. J Food Prot. 1999;62(9):1059-70. [[149]PubMed] 13. Barwick RS, Levy DA, Craun GF, Beach MJ, Calderon RL. Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks -- United States, 1997 --1998. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000;49(4):1-21. [[150]PubMed] 14. Clavel A, Alivares JL, Fleta J, Castillo J, Varea M, Ramos FJ, et al. Seasonality of cryptosporidiosis in children. Eur J Clin Microbiol Inf Dis. 1996;15:77-9. 15. Kapperud G, Skjerve E, Bean NH, Ostroff SM, Lassen J. Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of a case --control study in southeastern Norway. J Clin Microbiol. 1992;30(12):3117-21. [[151]PubMed] 16. Neimann J, Engberg J, Molbak K, Wegener HC. A case --control study of risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections in Denmark. Epidemiol Infect. 2003;130(3):353-66. [[152]PubMed] 17. Curriero FC, Patz JA, Rose JB, Lele S. The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948 --1994. Am J Pub Health. 2001;91(8):1194-9. [[153]PubMed] 18. Fayer R, Trout JM, Lewis EJ, Xiao L, Lal A, Jenkins MC, et al. Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay. Parasitol Res. 2002;88(11):998-1003. [[154]PubMed] 19. Kistemann T, Classen T, Koch C, Dangendorf F, Fischeder R, Gebel J, et al. Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during extreme rainfall and runoff. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002;68(5):2188-97. [[155]PubMed] 20. MacKenzie WR, Hoxie NJ, Proctor ME, Gradus MS, Blair KA, Peterson DE, et al. A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of Cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med. 1994;331(3):161-7. [[156]PubMed] 21. Wade TJ, Sandhu SK, Levy D, Lee S, LeChevallier MW, Katz L, et al. Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms? Am J Epidemiol. 2004;159(4):398-405. [[157]PubMed] 22. World Health Organization. Using climate to predict infectious disease outbreaks: a review. World Health Organization; Geneva, Switzerland: 2004. Publication no. WHO/SDE/OEH/04.01. 23. Easterling DR, Evans JL. Observed variability and trends in extreme climate events. Bull Am Meteorol Soc. 2000;81:417-25. 24. Charron D, Thomas M, Waltner-Toews D, Aramini J, Edge T, Kent R, et al. Vulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a review. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004;67(20 --22):1667-77. [[158]PubMed] 25. Patz JA, Epstein PR, Burke TA, Balbus JM. Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996;275(3):217-23. [[159]PubMed] 26. Bentham G, Langford IH. Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England and Wales. Int J Biometeorol. 1995;39(2):81-6. [[160]PubMed] 27. Ebi KL, Schmier JK. A stitch in time: improving public health early warning systems for extreme weather events. Epidemiol Rev. 2005;27:115-21. [[161]PubMed] 28. da Silva Lopes ACB. Spurious deterministic seasonality and auto-correlation corrections with quarterly data: further Monte Carlo results. Empir Econ. 1999;24(2):341-59. __________________________________________________________________ PubMed articles by these authors * [162]Naumova, E. PubMed related articles * [163]ReviewSeasonality of infectious diseases. Annu Rev Public Health. 2007; 28:127-43. [Annu Rev Public Health. 2007] * [164]ReviewSeasonality and the dynamics of infectious diseases. Ecol Lett. 2006 Apr; 9(4):467-84. [Ecol Lett. 2006] * [165]Seasonal infectious disease epidemiology. Proc Biol Sci. 2006 Oct 7; 273(1600):2541-50. [Proc Biol Sci. 2006] * [166]Seasonal control for an endemic disease with seasonal fluctuations. Theor Popul Biol. 1988 Apr; 33(2):115-25. [Theor Popul Biol. 1988] * [167]Seasonality of primarily childhood and young adult infectious diseases in the United States. Chronobiol Int. 2006; 23(5):1065-82. [Chronobiol Int. 2006] * » [168]See reviews... | » [169]See all... Recent Activity [170]Clear [171]Turn Off [172]Turn On * [173]Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of NatureMystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature Your browsing activity is empty. Activity recording is turned off. [174]Turn recording back on Links * [175]PubMed * [176]Taxonomy * [177]Taxonomy Tree * [178]Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. Public Health Rep. 2000 Sep-Oct; 115(5):436-47. [Public Health Rep. 2000] * [179]Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance system in 1990-1999. J Water Health. 2005 Jun; 3(2):185-96. [J Water Health. 2005] * [180]Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in 1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from livestock animals. J Clin Microbiol. 2000 Nov; 38(11):3984-90. [J Clin Microbiol. 2000] [181]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [182]A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between rural Zaire and Ontario. Can J Public Health. 1989 May-Jun; 80(3):205-8. [Can J Public Health. 1989] [183]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [184]Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces and cross-contamination to foods. Int J Food Microbiol. 2003 Aug 25; 85(3):227-36. [Int J Food Microbiol. 2003] * [185]ReviewFood-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999 Sep-Oct; 5(5):607-25. [Emerg Infect Dis. 1999] * [186]The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries. Epidemiol Infect. 2004 Jun; 132(3):443-53. [Epidemiol Infect. 2004] [187]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [188]A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study). Water Sci Technol. 2001; 43(12):39-48. [Water Sci Technol. 2001] * [189]ReviewReview of epidemiological studies on health effects from exposure to recreational water. Int J Epidemiol. 1998 Feb; 27(1):1-9. [Int J Epidemiol. 1998] * [190]ReviewGiardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their impact on foods: a review. J Food Prot. 1999 Sep; 62(9):1059-70. [J Food Prot. 1999] * [191]Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks--United States, 1997-1998. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000 May 26; 49(4):1-21. [MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000] [192]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [193]Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of a case-control study in southeastern Norway. J Clin Microbiol. 1992 Dec; 30(12):3117-21. [J Clin Microbiol. 1992] * [194]A case-control study of risk factors for sporadic campylobacter infections in Denmark. Epidemiol Infect. 2003 Jun; 130(3):353-66. [Epidemiol Infect. 2003] [195]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [196]The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948-1994. Am J Public Health. 2001 Aug; 91(8):1194-9. [Am J Public Health. 2001] * [197]Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay. Parasitol Res. 2002 Nov; 88(11):998-1003. [Parasitol Res. 2002] * [198]Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during extreme rainfall and runoff. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002 May; 68(5):2188-97. [Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002] * [199]A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med. 1994 Jul 21; 331(3):161-7. [N Engl J Med. 1994] * [200]Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms? Am J Epidemiol. 2004 Feb 15; 159(4):398-405. [Am J Epidemiol. 2004] [201]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [202]ReviewVulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a review. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004 Oct 22-Nov 26; 67(20-22):1667-77. [J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004] * [203]Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996 Jan 17; 275(3):217-23. [JAMA. 1996] * [204]Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England and Wales. Int J Biometeorol. 1995 Nov; 39(2):81-6. [Int J Biometeorol. 1995] [205]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [206]ReviewA stitch in time: improving public health early warning systems for extreme weather events. Epidemiol Rev. 2005; 27():115-21. 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For the online clock, see [8]Humanclock. Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters. A circadian rhythm is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including [9]plants, [10]animals, [11]fungi and [12]cyanobacteria (see [13]bacterial circadian rhythms). The term "circadian", coined by [14]Franz Halberg,^[15][1] comes from the [16]Latin [17]circa, "around", and diem or dies, "day", meaning literally "approximately one day". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [18]tidal, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [19]chronobiology. Circadian rhythms are [20]endogenously generated, and can be entrained by external cues, called [21]zeitgebers, the primary one of which is [22]daylight. Contents * [23]1 History * [24]2 Criteria * [25]3 Origin * [26]4 Importance in animals + [27]4.1 Impact of light-dark cycle + [28]4.2 Arctic animals + [29]4.3 Butterfly migration * [30]5 Biological clock in mammals + [31]5.1 Determining the human circadian rhythm + [32]5.2 Outside the "master clock" * [33]6 Light and the biological clock * [34]7 Enforced longer cycles * [35]8 Human health + [36]8.1 Disruption + [37]8.2 Effect of drugs * [38]9 See also * [39]10 References + [40]10.1 Bibliography + [41]10.2 Notes * [42]11 External links [[43]edit] History The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [44]Alexander the Great, described [45]diurnal leaf movements of the [46]tamarind tree.^[47][2] The first modern observation of endogenous circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [48]Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant [49]Mimosa pudica continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli. In 1918, J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.^[50][3] [51]Joseph Takahashi discovered the genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.^[52][4]^[53][5] [[54]edit] Criteria To differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met: 1) the rhythms persist in the absence of cues, 2) they persist equally precisely over a range of temperatures, and 3) the rhythms can be adjusted to match the local time: * The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those "apparent" rhythms that are merely responses to external periodic cues. A rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been tested in conditions without external periodic input. * The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e., it maintains the same period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway. At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely coincidental. * The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [55]time zones illustrates the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next. Until rhythms are reset, a person usually experiences [56]jet lag. [[57]edit] Origin [58]Question book-new.svg This section needs additional [59]citations for [60]verification. Please help [61]improve this article by adding [62]reliable references. Unsourced material may be [63]challenged and [64]removed. (October 2007) Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [65]ultraviolet radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus [66]Neurospora, which exists today, retains this [67]clock-regulated mechanism. Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment.^[68][6] This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,^[69][7] as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian rhythms in quail.^[70][8] The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [71]cyanobacteria. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of Synechococcus elongatus can be reconstituted in vitro with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [72]ATP. Previous explanations of the [73]prokaryotic circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism. It is an unanswered question whether circadian clocks in eukaryotic organisms require translation/transcription-derived oscillations, for, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture (input - [74]central oscillator - output), they do not share any [75]homology. This implies probable independent origins. In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [76]Seymour Benzer first identified a genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behaviour: one had a shorter period, another had a longer one, and the third had none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named [77]period.^[78][9] The same gene was identified to be defective in the sleep disorder FASPS ([79]Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome) in human beings thirty years later, underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day. A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.^[80][10] At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronize the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [81]eyes travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock. [[82]edit] Importance in animals Circadian rhythmicity is present in the [83]sleeping and feeding patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear patterns of core body temperature, [84]brain wave activity, [85]hormone production, cell regeneration and other biological activities. In addition, [86]photoperiodism, the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation of day length. " Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food availability or predator activity is crucial for survival of many species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the photoperiod ('daylength') is the most predictive environmental cue for the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing of migration, hibernation and reproduction.^[87][11] " [[88]edit] Impact of light-dark cycle The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a [89]freerunning rhythm. Each "day", their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward, depending on whether their [90]endogenous period is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called [91]Zeitgebers (from the German, Time Givers).^[92][12] It is interesting to note that totally-blind subterranean mammals (e.g., [93]blind mole rat Spalax sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors (detect light) are still functional; as well, they do surface periodically.^[[94]citation needed] Freerunning organisms that normally have one consolidated sleep episode will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light/dark cycle in nature. The sleep-wake rhythm may, in these circumstances, become out of phase with other circadian or [95]ultradian rhythms such as [96]temperature and [97]digestion.^[[98]citation needed] Recent research has influenced the design of [99]spacecraft environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.^[[100]citation needed] [[101]edit] Arctic animals Norwegian researchers at the [102]University of Tromsø have shown that some Arctic animals ([103]ptarmigan, [104]reindeer) show circadian rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at [105]70 degrees North showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter, and spring, but not in the summer. Reindeer at [106]78 degrees North showed such rhythms only autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other Arctic animals as well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and the constant dark of winter.^[107][13]^[108][14] However, another study in northern Alaska found that [109]ground squirrels and [110]porcupines strictly maintained their circadian rhythms through 82 days and nights of sunshine. The researchers speculate that these two small mammals see that the apparent distance between the sun and the horizon is shortest once a day, and, thus, a sufficient signal to adjust by.^[111][15] [[112]edit] Butterfly migration The navigation of the fall migration of the [113]Eastern North American monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) to their overwintering grounds in central Mexico uses a time-compensated sun compass that depends upon a circadian clock in their antennae.^[114][16]^[115][17] [[116]edit] Biological clock in mammals Diagram illustrating the influence of light and darkness on circadian rhythms and related [117]physiology and behaviour through the [118]suprachiasmatic nucleus in humans. The primary circadian "clock" in [119]mammals is located in the [120]suprachiasmatic nucleus (or nuclei) ([121]SCN), a pair of distinct groups of [122]cells located in the [123]hypothalamus. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep-wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [124]retina of the eyes contains not only "classical" [125]photoreceptors but also photoresponsive retinal [126]ganglion cells. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called [127]melanopsin, follow a pathway called the [128]retinohypothalamic tract, leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues. It appears that the SCN takes the information on the lengths of the day and night from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [129]pineal gland, a tiny structure shaped like a [130]pine cone and located on the [131]epithalamus. In response the pineal secretes the hormone [132]melatonin. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day and its presence provides information about night-length. The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a 23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural solar day-night cycle on the planet [133]Mars).^[134][18] [[135]edit] Determining the human circadian rhythm The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's circadian rhythm are * melatonin secretion by the pineal gland and * core body temperature. For temperature studies, people must remain awake but calm and semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are taken continuously. The average human adult's temperature reaches its minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake time, though variation is great among normal [136]chronotypes. Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime. Its onset in dim light, dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO), at about 21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Its major [137]metabolite can also be measured in morning urine. Both DLMO and the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or saliva have been used as circadian markers. However, newer research indicates that the melatonin offset may be the most reliable marker. Benloucif et al. in Chicago in 2005 found that melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.^[138][19] One method used for measuring melatonin offset is to analyse a sequence of urine samples throughout the morning for the presence of the melatonin [139]metabolite 6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s). Laberge et al. in Quebec in 1997 used this method in a study that confirmed the frequently found delayed circadian phase in healthy adolescents.^[140][20] [[141]edit] Outside the "master clock" More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the "master clock". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the [142]oesophagus, [143]lungs, [144]liver, [145]pancreas, [146]spleen, [147]thymus, and the [148]skin.^[149][21] Though oscillators in the skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven so far.^[150][22]^[151][23] There is some evidence that also the olfactory bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting that also these structures may be weak oscillators. Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than to [152]light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have freerunning rhythms. [[153]edit] Light and the biological clock Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [154]phase response curve (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required [155]illuminance vary from species to species and lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans. Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm in humans are higher than the levels usually used in artificial lighting in homes. According to some researchers^[156][24] the illumination intensity that excites the circadian system has to reach up to 1000 [157]lux striking the retina. In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or colour) of light is a factor in the entrainment of the body clock. [158]Melanopsin is most efficiently excited by blue light, 420-440 nm^[159][25] according to some researchers while others have reported 470-485 nm. It is thought that the direction of the light may have an effect on entraining the circadian rhythm;^[160][24] light coming from above, resembling an image of a bright sky, has greater effect than light entering our eyes from below. [[161]edit] Enforced longer cycles Modern research under very controlled conditions has shown the human period for adults to be just slightly longer than 24 hours on average. Czeisler et al. at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes. The "clock" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's rotation.^[162][26] The 28-hour day is presented as a concept of [163]time management.^[164][27] It builds on the fact that the week of seven days at 24 hours and a "week" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of 168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours. Each "day" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern. Studies by [165]Nathaniel Kleitman^[166][28] in 1938 and by [167]Derk-Jan Dijk and [168]Charles Czeisler^[169][29]^[170][30] in 1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep-wake cycles, in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day,^[171][31] this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about 24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including [172]sleep latency and other functions.^[173][32] Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli like daylight and timekeeping. Early investigators determined the human circadian period to be 25 hours or more. They went to great lengths to shield subjects from time cues and daylight, but they were not aware of the effects of indoor electric lights. The subjects were allowed to turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase. These results became well known.^[174][26] Researchers allowed subjects to keep electric lighting on in the evening, as it was thought at that time that a couple of 60W bulbs would not have a resetting effect on the circadian rhythms of humans. More recent research^[[175]citation needed] has shown that adults have a built-in day, which averages just over 24 hours, that indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms and that most people attain their best-quality sleep during their [176]chronotype-determined sleep periods. [[177]edit] Human health Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with [178]angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [179]left ventricular (reverse) remodelling.^[[180]citation needed] A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms. A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during the day, a [181]power-nap, does not have any effect on normal circadian rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve productivity.^[182][33]^[183][34] There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the human circadian rhythm, such as [184]seasonal affective disorder (SAD), [185]delayed sleep phase syndrome (DSPS) and other [186]circadian rhythm disorders.^[187][35] Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [188]reticular activating system, which is crucial for maintaining a state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep-wake cycle may be a sign or complication of [189]uremia,^[190][36] [191]azotemia or [192]acute renal failure. [[193]edit] Disruption Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers have experienced the condition known as [194]jet lag, with its associated symptoms of [195]fatigue, disorientation and [196]insomnia. A number of other disorders, for example [197]bipolar disorder and some [198]sleep disorders, are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [199]bipolar disorder are positively influenced by [200]lithium's effect on clock genes.^[201][37] Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease [202][2] The suppression of melatonin production associated with the disruption of the circadian rhythm may increase the risk of developing cancer.^[203][38]^[204][39] [[205]edit] Effect of drugs Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such as [206]cocaine.^[207][40]^[208][41] Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.^[209][42] [[210]edit] See also * [211]Actigraphy (also known as Actimetry) * [212]Advanced sleep phase syndrome * [213]ARNTL * [214]ARNTL2 * [215]Bacterial circadian rhythms * [216]Chronobiology * [217]Chronotype * [218]Circadian oscillator * [219]Circadian rhythm sleep disorders * [220]Cryptochrome * [221]CRY1 and [222]CRY2, the cryptochrome family genes * [223]Delayed sleep phase syndrome * [224]Diurnal cycle * [225]Jet lag * [226]Light effects on circadian rhythm * [227]PER1, [228]PER2, and [229]PER3, the period family genes * [230]Power-nap [[231]edit] References [[232]edit] Bibliography * Aschoff J (ed.) 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[306]^ Campbell, S. and Murphy, P, Science 1998, Vol 279, 16 Jan.: Extraocular Circadian Phototransduction in Humans 24. ^ [307]^a [308]^b Semjonova, Milena (2003). [309]"Healthy Lighting, from a lighting designer's perspective". Milena Lighting Design. 25. [311]^ Newman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: "Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment", Biochemistry. 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8. 26. ^ [312]^a [313]^b [314]"Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour". 1999. Retrieved 2007-09-23. "The variation between our subjects, with a 95 percent level of confidence, was no more than plus or minus 16 minutes, a remarkably small range." 27. [316]^ Digital Beat Productions (1997). [317]"28 Hour Day". 28. [319]^ Kleitman, Nathaniel (1962). Sleep and Wakefullness ed 2. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 29. [320]^ Dijk, Derk-Jan; Czeisler Charles (1994). "Paradoxical timing of the circadian rhythm of sleep propensity serves to consolidate sleep and wakefulness in humans". Neurosci Lett 166 (1): 63. [321]doi:[322]10.1016/0304-3940(94)90841-9. [323]PMID [324]8190360. 30. [325]^ Dijk, Derk-Jan; Czeisler Charles (1995). [326]"Contribution of the Circadian Pacemaker and the Sleep Homeostat to Sleep Propensity, Sleep Structure, Electrocephalographic Slow Waves, and Sleep Spindle Activity in Humans". J. Neurosci 15 (5): 3526. [327]PMID [328]7751928. 31. [330]^ Cromie, William J. (1999-07-15). [331]"Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour". The Harvard University Gazette. Retrieved 2008-02-19. 32. [333]^ Aldrich, Michael S (1999). [334]Sleep medicine. New York: Oxford University Press. [335]ISBN [336]0195129571. pg=RA1-PA65&dq=experimenting+with+the+28+hour+day&source=bl&ots=9R4 mo2fI1O&sig=om2zbYPnXnm_1HuZo2Tch6J1vyo&hl=en&ei=MBZeStGgIoyJkQWd17 znDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2. 33. [338]^ [339]"The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep". The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep. Behavioral medicine. 2001. Retrieved 2008-11-11. 34. [341]^ [342]"Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students". Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students. Liberty University. 2007. 3.htm. Retrieved 2008-11-11. 35. [344]^ [345]"Circadian Rhythms and Sleep". Circadian Rhythms and Sleep. Serendip. 2007. ml. Retrieved 2007-09-19. 36. [347]^ Sinert, Richard; Peter R Peacock, Jr (May 10, 2006). [348]"Renal Failure, Acute". eMedicine from WebMD. 2008-08-03. 37. [350]^ [351]NIMH · Science News from 2006 · Lithium Blocks Enzyme To Help Cells' Clocks Keep On Tickin' 38. [352]^ Straif K, Baan R, Grosse Y, Secretan B, El Ghissassi F, Bouvard V, Altieri A, Benbrahim-Tallaa L, Cogliano V, WHO International Agency for Research on Cancer Monograph Working Group. Carcinogenicity of shift-work, painting, and fire-fighting. [353][1] Lancet Oncol. 2007; 12(8):1065-1066. 39. [354]^ [355]WebMD: Night Shift Work May Cause Cancer 40. [356]^ Uz T, Akhisaroglu M, Ahmed R, Manev H (2003). "The pineal gland is critical for circadian Period1 expression in the striatum and for circadian cocaine sensitization in mice". Neuropsychopharmacology 28 (12): 2117-23. [357]doi:[358]10.1038/sj.npp.1300254. [359]PMID [360]12865893. 41. [361]^ Kurtuncu M, Arslan A, Akhisaroglu M, Manev H, Uz T (2004). "Involvement of the pineal gland in diurnal cocaine reward in mice". Eur J Pharmacol 489 (3): 203-5. [362]doi:[363]10.1016/j.ejphar.2004.03.010. [364]PMID [365]15087244. 42. [366]^ McClung C, Sidiropoulou K, Vitaterna M, Takahashi J, White F, Cooper D, Nestler E (2005). [367]"Regulation of dopaminergic transmission and cocaine reward by the Clock gene". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102 (26): 9377-81. [368]doi:[369]10.1073/pnas.0503584102. [370]PMID [371]15967985. [[372]edit] External links * [373]Circadian rhythm at the [374]Open Directory Project * Leloup J.C. (2009). "Circadian clocks and phosphorylation: Insights from computational modeling". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 4 (3): 290-303. [375]doi:[376]10.2478/s11535-009-0025-1. * Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A (2007). "Evolutionary mechanisms of circadian clocks". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 2 (2): 233-253. [377]doi:[378]10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z. [380]Categories: [381]Sleep | [382]Circadian rhythms | [383]Biology of bipolar disorder Hidden categories: [384]Articles needing additional references from October 2007 | [385]All articles needing additional references | [386]All articles with unsourced statements | [387]Articles with unsourced statements from September 2009 | [388]Articles with unsourced statements from November 2007 | [389]Articles with unsourced statements from January 2009 | [390]Articles with unsourced statements from December 2009 Views * [391]Article * [392]Discussion * [393]Edit this page * [394]History Personal tools * [395]Try Beta * [396]Log in / create account Navigation * [397]Main page * [398]Contents * [399]Featured content * [400]Current events * [401]Random article Search ____________________ Go Search Interaction * [402]About Wikipedia * [403]Community portal * [404]Recent changes * [405]Contact Wikipedia * [406]Donate to Wikipedia * [407]Help Toolbox * [408]What links here * [409]Related changes * [410]Upload file * [411]Special pages * [412]Printable version * [413]Permanent link * [414]Cite this page Languages * [415]Català * [416]Cesky * [417]Dansk * [418]Deutsch * [419]Ellynika' * [420]Español * [421]Français * [422]Italiano * [423]E+B+R+J+T+ * [424]Magyar * [425]Nederlands * [426]¥¬ * [427]ªNorsk (bokmål) * [428]ªNorsk (nynorsk) * [429]Polski * [430]Português * [431]Româna * [432]Russkij * [433]Simple English * [434]Srpski / Srpski * [435]Svenska * [436]a+r+d+w+ [437]Powered by MediaWiki [438]Wikimedia Foundation * This page was last modified on 16 January 2010 at 17:59. * Text is available under the [439]Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See [440]Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [441]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * [442]Contact us * [443]Privacy policy * [444]About Wikipedia * [445]Disclaimers Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1][dailyomlogo2.gif] Today's DailyOM brought to you by: [2][nav-signup.gif] [nav-line.gif] [3][nav-mydailyom.gif] [nav-line.gif] [4][nav-marketplace.gif] [nav-line.gif] [5][nav-community.gif] [nav-line.gif] [6][nav-courses.gif] [bambooborder2.jpg] [Articles......] _______________ [search.gif]-Submit [7][nav-giftshop.gif] [nav-line.gif] [8][nav-shoppingcart.gif] January 2, 2006 Universal Timing Life's Natural Rhythm Nature's natural rhythms orchestrate when day turns to night, when flowers must bloom, and provides the cue for when it is time for red and brown leaves to fall from trees. As human beings, our own inner rhythm is attuned to this universal sense of timing. Guided by the rising and setting of the sun, changes in temperature, and our own internal rhythm, we know when it is time to sleep, eat, or be active. While our minds and spirits are free to focus on other pursuits, our breath and our heartbeat are always there to remind us of life's pulsing rhythm that moves within and around us. Moving to this rhythm, we know when it is time to stop working and when to rest. Pushing our bodies to work beyond their natural rhythm diminishes our ability to renew and recharge. A feeling much like jet lag lets us know when we've overridden our own natural rhythm. When we feel the frantic calls of all we want to accomplish impelling us to move faster than is natural for us, we may want to breathe deeply instead and look at nature moving to its own organic timing: birds flying south, leaves shedding, or snow falling. A walk in nature can also let us re-attune is to her organic rhythm, while allowing us to move back in time with our own. When we move to our natural rhythm, we can achieve all we need to do with less effort. We may even notice that our soul moves to its own internal, natural rhythm - especially when it comes to our personal evolution. Comparing ourselves to others is unnecessary. Our best guide is to move to our own internal timing, while keeping time with the rhythm of nature. Click to follow DailyOM on [9]Twitter and [10]Facebook What do you think? [11]Discuss this article and share your opinion Want more DailyOM? [12]Register for your free email, or [13]browse all articles Life's Natural Rhythm Share the OM: [14][emailfriend.gif] [15]Email this to a friend [16][printerfriendly.gif] [17]Printable version [18][icon-mydailyom.gif] [19]Save in My DailyOM [20][icon-discuss.gif] [21]Discuss this article [22][horoscopes1.jpg] Today's friend of OM: Register now to receive your [23]free daily horoscope from DailyOM. 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For more information visit [24]DailyOM.com More DailyOM: [25]More Inspiration [26]Today's Horoscopes [27]OM Marketplace [28]Home | [29]Gift Shop | [30]My DailyOM | [31]Marketplace | [32]Community | [33]Archives | [34]Share The OM | [35]Contact Us [36]Subscribe | [37]Change Email | [38]User Settings | [39]Unsubscribe | [40]Privacy Policy | [41]Disclaimer | [42]Gift Shop FAQ | [43]Advertising Info [44]Make DailyOM Your Homepage | [45]Link To Us | [46]Publish DailyOM On Your Website © 2004-08 DailyOM - All Rights Reserved No portion of this site can be reprinted without express permission Artwork by [47]Wang Chang-Ming Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : JCPA LOGO Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs [1]Daniel Elazar Papers Index [2][USEMAP:nav-back.gif] American Political Culture The Generational Rhythm of American Politics The American Mosaic, Chapter 2 Daniel J. Elazar It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space. Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less pinpointed. This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast developments with great success. At the same time he has applied that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs. Early Studies of Generational Rhythms Students of society have noted the succession of generations since ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology on generational measures. The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs. It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon operating in history.^2 Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression, "forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5 Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The "generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7 Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of its beginnings and its ancestry. Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were the first to articulate systematic theories of generational progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that "History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals comes to dominate society.^9 These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed the principle that generations are articulated through historical events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained. Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a fourfold classification of generations as preparatory, revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10 Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11 Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation century.^13 After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri Peyre (1948).^16 More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused on problems of intergenerational differences and the political socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963) focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966) studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957) utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in Israel and the United States, respectively.^20 All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact, both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive theory. None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods. Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of three generations. Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin. Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature, art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular basis. Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under the heading of "a generation". Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History A number of theories of political cycles in American history have been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect "concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the "more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments" using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process. Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23 Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work. Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable directions. Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s) and the present. Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment occurs in every generation. While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts as follows: 1787-1801-1816 1816-1829-1841 1841-1861-1869 1869-1901-1918 1918-1931-? The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the following pattern: 1790-1796/1800 1800-1824/1828 1828-1824/1860 1860-1888/1896 1896-1932 His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their significance in the periodization process. Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if it is schematized as follows: 1789-1820 1828 1856-1860 1893/1894 1932 Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized as follows: 1896-1912 1912-1920-1932-1952 1952 Pomper also offers election dates and no more: 1836 1864-1876 1876-1892/1896 1928/1932-1952 1952-1964 None of these are complete theories and all must be considered within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit. Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era. In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however, the American people were treated to a display of federal activity -- and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow of time and events.) The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible pattern in the progression of political events in the United States over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26 The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a fixed moment, as individuals do now.... What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case, would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for 14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors. Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that 23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself assembled, can validly extend a debt. On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of 34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not of right. The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme, Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure of location in time. Human Social Rhythms As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the "lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation in any particular civil society and chart the relations among generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical patterns of its politics. During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years, averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited. Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life" ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and political roles as are given to mature men and women in society. Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention, if not physically, considered ready for retirement. Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote, and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be defined as the ending of one's serious political career without suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's 30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship. The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to "retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28 In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly established. Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby allowing a new generation to assume the reins. Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in social and political life than that found in the simple processes of human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings are recorded in history, we can do just that. Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the impact of the change and encourages new political action to assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at the most four generations are alive at any given time creates certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and politically unmanageable. Generations, Centuries and Events Since the founding of the first European settlements along the Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th century is the century of the United States as a world power. Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing point, thus: a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603) and the 17th century began with the opening of the American frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of the times. b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration for both countries. c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff). d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land frontier. Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn, the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments that will replace them. The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence. The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression will be related to major forces and factors shaping American history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the principal challenges facing the American people in each generation and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial, ethnic and religious groups. One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate. Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for analytical purposes than life ever is. The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany, but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies, and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate nation with its own civilization. The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century, which, from the first American recognition of common continental interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism, successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans. The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations, beginning at the point where America turned its back on European entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an industrialized continental nation with a strong national government; abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world power ready for overseas involvements. The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century -- reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the industrial revolution. As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first generation of the transformation of society as a result of the application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically dominant although economically weakened. The results of these phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder of the generation. Generations and Frontier Stages The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other historical and political phenomena. Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of human control over the natural environment and the utilization of the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control, i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American society is a product of this commitment which is virtually self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier situation that has created the major social and economic changes which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's political institutions. America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American life within that stage. The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the westward movement on a basically rural population interested in settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in Alaska. Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States, where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their existence and growth. By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth, in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation. After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and pace of development across the country. The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s, ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution, and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over. By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers, satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges, initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West. Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between the points of generational division and the shifts in the various frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are closely related to the opening of new centuries. Generations and Economic Periods One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a result, the governments of the United States have always maintained a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the governmental response. These changes have also developed on a generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth generation of American history) the American government continued a semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially unregulated by government. Demands for government regulation that built up during the last generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system. Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less government intervention. Centuries, Generations and Federalism The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first generation of American history brought the introduction of federal principles through the contracts and covenants that established the colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly, concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century. The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society. Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed have been major elements in the concrete response to the generation's challenges. Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of American history and politics. The changes in those relationships also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries. British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery. Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste system was in the making. During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation. Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was abolished in the North. The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was reaffirmed through the institution of segregation. From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say, to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American culture. While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era. The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the challenges changes from century to century. During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which, objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular progression of political events revolving around the development of a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and responses that gives each generation its particular character. While the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external -- or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation themselves. In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its sisters, and the other science independence when a common national constitution created a common national politics. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the political challenges that have dominated the American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the 19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the 20th century, they have essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and new generations is marked by several decisive political actions, often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so that they will achieve greater success and at the same time integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be recognized. The Bench Marks of American Political History: Critical Elections and New Deals In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds; first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each generation. The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs of voters, shifting them from one political party to another. Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a "critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one major element to another. Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the 1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and representatives to win control of Congress. The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968, only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the "normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in 1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems, won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the GOP controlled the Senate. A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations, personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders (or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate state parties which form the two national confederations known as the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties are confederations of the state parties, so is the national coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional coalitions. Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution, too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary inroads in the various electoral groups. Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means certain that the majority party will even win all the national elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards for the party faithful during the years of national "famine." As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad electoral groups.^33 While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election. Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical elections."^34 The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the development of the institution of the popularly elected president. Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and the House of Representatives. Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem. It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file" alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from balance to majority. "New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as the historical watersheds they are. In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S. Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B. Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s. The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational consolidation. The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington before undertaking any activities. The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an "outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation, usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time. President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and localities. These were all to become principal issues during the period of generational build-up. The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues of the new generation. Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been invariably preceded by critical elections through which the reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die -- determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to majority status. These critical elections, which attain their visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which face them. Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the 1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans. Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in 1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing period for the Democratic coalition. To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in American politics is not to suggest that events move in any lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the "normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too can be done that gives the theory its power. Summary Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more interest to European social philosophers than American social scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics, often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human social rhythms generally. Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them. The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation, constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political history recurring on a generational basis. Notes 1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970); Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979). 2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973). 3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5 (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers, chapter 32, verse 13. 7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte (London: G. Bell, 1896). 9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive (London, 1862). 10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani (Milano: Monanni, 1929). 11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen, der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4. (1875), pp. 36-41. 12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds., Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane, Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp., 1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). 13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method. 14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933). 15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti, ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales (Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F. Schoeningh, 1933). 16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926); Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig, 1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris: Boivin, 1948). 17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger, 1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4 (1972): 564-78. 18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956). 19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin, American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970). 20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield, Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970). 21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939). 22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key, Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961); Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968); Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). 23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210. 24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co. 1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government from the Civil War to the New Deal. 25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no. 1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992). 26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789. 27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President. 28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W. Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber, Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey, Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.: Brooks/Cole, 1989). 29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York: Macmillan, 1961). 30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965): Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989). 31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18. 32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability," Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171. 33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?" in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed., Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1983). 34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony; David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization, Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter, Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985). [3]Elazar Papers Index / [4]JCPA Home Page / [5]Top of Page Références [USEMAP] 1. javascript:history.go(-1) 3. mailto:jcenter@jcpa.org [USEMAP] JCPA LOGO Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs [1]Daniel Elazar Papers Index [2][USEMAP:nav-back.gif] American Political Culture The Generational Rhythm of American Politics The American Mosaic, Chapter 2 Daniel J. Elazar It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space. Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less pinpointed. This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast developments with great success. At the same time he has applied that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs. Early Studies of Generational Rhythms Students of society have noted the succession of generations since ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology on generational measures. The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs. It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon operating in history.^2 Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression, "forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5 Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The "generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7 Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of its beginnings and its ancestry. Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were the first to articulate systematic theories of generational progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that "History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals comes to dominate society.^9 These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed the principle that generations are articulated through historical events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained. Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a fourfold classification of generations as preparatory, revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10 Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11 Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation century.^13 After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri Peyre (1948).^16 More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused on problems of intergenerational differences and the political socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963) focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966) studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957) utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in Israel and the United States, respectively.^20 All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact, both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive theory. None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods. Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of three generations. Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin. Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature, art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular basis. Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under the heading of "a generation". Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History A number of theories of political cycles in American history have been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect "concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the "more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments" using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process. Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23 Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work. Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable directions. Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s) and the present. Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment occurs in every generation. While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts as follows: 1787-1801-1816 1816-1829-1841 1841-1861-1869 1869-1901-1918 1918-1931-? The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the following pattern: 1790-1796/1800 1800-1824/1828 1828-1824/1860 1860-1888/1896 1896-1932 His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their significance in the periodization process. Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if it is schematized as follows: 1789-1820 1828 1856-1860 1893/1894 1932 Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized as follows: 1896-1912 1912-1920-1932-1952 1952 Pomper also offers election dates and no more: 1836 1864-1876 1876-1892/1896 1928/1932-1952 1952-1964 None of these are complete theories and all must be considered within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit. Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era. In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however, the American people were treated to a display of federal activity -- and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow of time and events.) The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible pattern in the progression of political events in the United States over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26 The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a fixed moment, as individuals do now.... What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case, would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for 14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors. Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that 23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself assembled, can validly extend a debt. On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of 34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not of right. The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme, Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure of location in time. Human Social Rhythms As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the "lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation in any particular civil society and chart the relations among generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical patterns of its politics. During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years, averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited. Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life" ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and political roles as are given to mature men and women in society. Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention, if not physically, considered ready for retirement. Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote, and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be defined as the ending of one's serious political career without suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's 30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship. The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to "retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28 In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly established. Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby allowing a new generation to assume the reins. Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in social and political life than that found in the simple processes of human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings are recorded in history, we can do just that. Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the impact of the change and encourages new political action to assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at the most four generations are alive at any given time creates certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and politically unmanageable. Generations, Centuries and Events Since the founding of the first European settlements along the Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th century is the century of the United States as a world power. Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing point, thus: a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603) and the 17th century began with the opening of the American frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of the times. b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration for both countries. c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff). d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land frontier. Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn, the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments that will replace them. The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence. The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression will be related to major forces and factors shaping American history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the principal challenges facing the American people in each generation and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial, ethnic and religious groups. One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate. Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for analytical purposes than life ever is. The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany, but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies, and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate nation with its own civilization. The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century, which, from the first American recognition of common continental interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism, successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans. The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations, beginning at the point where America turned its back on European entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an industrialized continental nation with a strong national government; abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world power ready for overseas involvements. The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century -- reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the industrial revolution. As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first generation of the transformation of society as a result of the application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically dominant although economically weakened. The results of these phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder of the generation. Generations and Frontier Stages The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other historical and political phenomena. Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of human control over the natural environment and the utilization of the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control, i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American society is a product of this commitment which is virtually self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier situation that has created the major social and economic changes which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's political institutions. America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American life within that stage. The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the westward movement on a basically rural population interested in settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in Alaska. Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States, where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their existence and growth. By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth, in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation. After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and pace of development across the country. The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s, ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution, and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over. By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers, satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges, initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West. Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between the points of generational division and the shifts in the various frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are closely related to the opening of new centuries. Generations and Economic Periods One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a result, the governments of the United States have always maintained a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the governmental response. These changes have also developed on a generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth generation of American history) the American government continued a semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially unregulated by government. Demands for government regulation that built up during the last generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system. Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less government intervention. Centuries, Generations and Federalism The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first generation of American history brought the introduction of federal principles through the contracts and covenants that established the colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly, concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century. The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society. Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed have been major elements in the concrete response to the generation's challenges. Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of American history and politics. The changes in those relationships also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries. British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery. Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste system was in the making. During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation. Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was abolished in the North. The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was reaffirmed through the institution of segregation. From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say, to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American culture. While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era. The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the challenges changes from century to century. During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which, objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular progression of political events revolving around the development of a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and responses that gives each generation its particular character. While the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external -- or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation themselves. In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its sisters, and the other science independence when a common national constitution created a common national politics. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the political challenges that have dominated the American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the 19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the 20th century, they have essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and new generations is marked by several decisive political actions, often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so that they will achieve greater success and at the same time integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be recognized. The Bench Marks of American Political History: Critical Elections and New Deals In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds; first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each generation. The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs of voters, shifting them from one political party to another. Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a "critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one major element to another. Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the 1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and representatives to win control of Congress. The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968, only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the "normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in 1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems, won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the GOP controlled the Senate. A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations, personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders (or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate state parties which form the two national confederations known as the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties are confederations of the state parties, so is the national coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional coalitions. Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution, too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary inroads in the various electoral groups. Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means certain that the majority party will even win all the national elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards for the party faithful during the years of national "famine." As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad electoral groups.^33 While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election. Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical elections."^34 The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the development of the institution of the popularly elected president. Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and the House of Representatives. Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem. It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file" alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from balance to majority. "New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as the historical watersheds they are. In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S. Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B. Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s. The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational consolidation. The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington before undertaking any activities. The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an "outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation, usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time. President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and localities. These were all to become principal issues during the period of generational build-up. The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues of the new generation. Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been invariably preceded by critical elections through which the reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die -- determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to majority status. These critical elections, which attain their visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which face them. Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the 1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans. Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in 1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing period for the Democratic coalition. To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in American politics is not to suggest that events move in any lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the "normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too can be done that gives the theory its power. Summary Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more interest to European social philosophers than American social scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics, often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human social rhythms generally. Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them. The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation, constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political history recurring on a generational basis. Notes 1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970); Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979). 2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973). 3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5 (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers, chapter 32, verse 13. 7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte (London: G. Bell, 1896). 9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive (London, 1862). 10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani (Milano: Monanni, 1929). 11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen, der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4. (1875), pp. 36-41. 12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds., Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane, Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp., 1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). 13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method. 14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933). 15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti, ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales (Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F. Schoeningh, 1933). 16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926); Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig, 1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris: Boivin, 1948). 17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger, 1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4 (1972): 564-78. 18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956). 19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin, American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970). 20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield, Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970). 21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939). 22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key, Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961); Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968); Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). 23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210. 24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co. 1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government from the Civil War to the New Deal. 25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no. 1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992). 26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789. 27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President. 28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W. Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber, Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey, Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.: Brooks/Cole, 1989). 29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York: Macmillan, 1961). 30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965): Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989). 31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18. 32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability," Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171. 33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?" in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed., Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1983). 34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony; David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization, Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter, Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985). [3]Elazar Papers Index / [4]JCPA Home Page / [5]Top of Page Références [USEMAP] 1. javascript:history.go(-1) 3. mailto:jcenter@jcpa.org [USEMAP] [1]CAT.INIST [2][USEMAP:bandeau-haut-droit.gif] logo CNRS [3]logo INIST [4]En savoir plus sur CAT.INIST ? © INIST Diffusion S.A. Service Clients / Customer Service 2, allée du parc de Brabois F-54514 Vandoeuvre Cedex France Tél : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.64 Fax : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.66 Courriel : [5]infoclient@inist.fr [6]Accueil / Home Imprimer / Print [7]Contact / Contact Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [8]Email Print [9]Bookmark and Share [10]Mendeley Back Titre du document / Document title Rhythms of the secular : The politics of modernizing Arab poetic forms = Rythmes du séculaire : la politique de modernisation des formes poétiques arabes Auteur(s) / Author(s) FURANI Khaled^ (1) ; Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s) ^(1) Tel-Aviv University, ISRAEL Résumé / Abstract In this article, I ethnographically trace how Arab, mainly Palestinian, poets have modernized their literary tradition during the last seven decades. Shortly after the 1948 Israeli occupation of Palestine, the reign of the classical Arabic ode collapsed, and the modern forms of free verse and, later, the prose poem became dominant. Aiming to contribute to the ethnography of modernity, I examine how poets have adopted and abandoned poetic forms by analyzing their narratives on rhythm. I explore the political salience of rhythmical transformations and argue that the secular has been a vital and complex force in the modern abandonment of metrical discipline. The secular affects how poets seek to modernize their rhythm, vocabulary, and relation to public. It also affects, I conclude, the ways in which anthropologists can and do write about modernity. Revue / Journal Title American ethnologist ISSN 0094-0496 Source / Source 2008, vol. 35, n^o2, pp. 290-307 [18 page(s) (article)] (2 p.1/4) Langue / Language Anglais Editeur / Publisher American Ethnological Society, Washington, DC, ETATS-UNIS (1974) (Revue) Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords Rhythm ; Transformation ; Modernization ; Poet ; Modernity ; Poetry ; Israel ; Palestine ; Near East ; Mots-clés français / French Keywords Forme poétique ; Tradition littéraire ; Arabe palestinien ; Rythme ; Transformation ; Modernisation ; Poète ; Modernité ; Poésie ; Israël ; Palestine ; Proche-Orient ; Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords poetic form ; modernity and secularism ; Palestine-Israel ; Localisation / Location INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 16902, 35400019805879.0070 Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 20449527 Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [11]Email Print [12]Bookmark and Share [13]Mendeley Back _______________________________ Rechercher dans CAT.INIST / Search in CAT.INIST Google Custom Search Références 5. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20CAT.INIST.FR 7. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20Cat@inist.fr [USEMAP] JCPA LOGO Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs [1]Daniel Elazar Papers Index [2][USEMAP:nav-back.gif] American Political Culture The Generational Rhythm of American Politics The American Mosaic, Chapter 2 Daniel J. Elazar It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space. Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less pinpointed. This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast developments with great success. At the same time he has applied that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs. Early Studies of Generational Rhythms Students of society have noted the succession of generations since ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology on generational measures. The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs. It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon operating in history.^2 Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression, "forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5 Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The "generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7 Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of its beginnings and its ancestry. Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were the first to articulate systematic theories of generational progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that "History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals comes to dominate society.^9 These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed the principle that generations are articulated through historical events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained. Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a fourfold classification of generations as preparatory, revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10 Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11 Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation century.^13 After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri Peyre (1948).^16 More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused on problems of intergenerational differences and the political socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963) focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966) studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957) utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in Israel and the United States, respectively.^20 All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact, both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive theory. None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods. Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of three generations. Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin. Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature, art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular basis. Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under the heading of "a generation". Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History A number of theories of political cycles in American history have been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect "concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the "more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments" using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process. Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23 Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work. Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable directions. Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s) and the present. Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment occurs in every generation. While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts as follows: 1787-1801-1816 1816-1829-1841 1841-1861-1869 1869-1901-1918 1918-1931-? The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the following pattern: 1790-1796/1800 1800-1824/1828 1828-1824/1860 1860-1888/1896 1896-1932 His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their significance in the periodization process. Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if it is schematized as follows: 1789-1820 1828 1856-1860 1893/1894 1932 Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized as follows: 1896-1912 1912-1920-1932-1952 1952 Pomper also offers election dates and no more: 1836 1864-1876 1876-1892/1896 1928/1932-1952 1952-1964 None of these are complete theories and all must be considered within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit. Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era. In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however, the American people were treated to a display of federal activity -- and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow of time and events.) The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible pattern in the progression of political events in the United States over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26 The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a fixed moment, as individuals do now.... What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case, would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for 14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors. Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that 23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself assembled, can validly extend a debt. On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of 34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not of right. The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme, Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure of location in time. Human Social Rhythms As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the "lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation in any particular civil society and chart the relations among generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical patterns of its politics. During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years, averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited. Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life" ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and political roles as are given to mature men and women in society. Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention, if not physically, considered ready for retirement. Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote, and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be defined as the ending of one's serious political career without suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's 30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship. The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to "retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28 In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly established. Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby allowing a new generation to assume the reins. Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in social and political life than that found in the simple processes of human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings are recorded in history, we can do just that. Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the impact of the change and encourages new political action to assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at the most four generations are alive at any given time creates certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and politically unmanageable. Generations, Centuries and Events Since the founding of the first European settlements along the Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th century is the century of the United States as a world power. Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing point, thus: a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603) and the 17th century began with the opening of the American frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of the times. b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration for both countries. c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff). d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land frontier. Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn, the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments that will replace them. The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence. The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression will be related to major forces and factors shaping American history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the principal challenges facing the American people in each generation and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial, ethnic and religious groups. One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate. Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for analytical purposes than life ever is. The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany, but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies, and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate nation with its own civilization. The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century, which, from the first American recognition of common continental interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism, successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans. The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations, beginning at the point where America turned its back on European entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an industrialized continental nation with a strong national government; abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world power ready for overseas involvements. The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century -- reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the industrial revolution. As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first generation of the transformation of society as a result of the application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically dominant although economically weakened. The results of these phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder of the generation. Generations and Frontier Stages The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other historical and political phenomena. Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of human control over the natural environment and the utilization of the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control, i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American society is a product of this commitment which is virtually self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier situation that has created the major social and economic changes which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's political institutions. America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American life within that stage. The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the westward movement on a basically rural population interested in settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in Alaska. Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States, where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their existence and growth. By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth, in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation. After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and pace of development across the country. The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s, ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution, and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over. By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers, satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges, initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West. Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between the points of generational division and the shifts in the various frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are closely related to the opening of new centuries. Generations and Economic Periods One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a result, the governments of the United States have always maintained a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the governmental response. These changes have also developed on a generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth generation of American history) the American government continued a semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially unregulated by government. Demands for government regulation that built up during the last generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system. Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less government intervention. Centuries, Generations and Federalism The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first generation of American history brought the introduction of federal principles through the contracts and covenants that established the colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly, concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century. The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society. Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed have been major elements in the concrete response to the generation's challenges. Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of American history and politics. The changes in those relationships also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries. British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery. Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste system was in the making. During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation. Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was abolished in the North. The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was reaffirmed through the institution of segregation. From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say, to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American culture. While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era. The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the challenges changes from century to century. During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which, objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular progression of political events revolving around the development of a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and responses that gives each generation its particular character. While the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external -- or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation themselves. In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its sisters, and the other science independence when a common national constitution created a common national politics. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the political challenges that have dominated the American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the 19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the 20th century, they have essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and new generations is marked by several decisive political actions, often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so that they will achieve greater success and at the same time integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be recognized. The Bench Marks of American Political History: Critical Elections and New Deals In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds; first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each generation. The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs of voters, shifting them from one political party to another. Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a "critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one major element to another. Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the 1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and representatives to win control of Congress. The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968, only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the "normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in 1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems, won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the GOP controlled the Senate. A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations, personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders (or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate state parties which form the two national confederations known as the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties are confederations of the state parties, so is the national coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional coalitions. Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution, too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary inroads in the various electoral groups. Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means certain that the majority party will even win all the national elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards for the party faithful during the years of national "famine." As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad electoral groups.^33 While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election. Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical elections."^34 The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the development of the institution of the popularly elected president. Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and the House of Representatives. Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem. It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file" alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from balance to majority. "New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as the historical watersheds they are. In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S. Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B. Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s. The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational consolidation. The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington before undertaking any activities. The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an "outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation, usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time. President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and localities. These were all to become principal issues during the period of generational build-up. The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues of the new generation. Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been invariably preceded by critical elections through which the reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die -- determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to majority status. These critical elections, which attain their visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which face them. Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the 1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans. Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in 1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing period for the Democratic coalition. To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in American politics is not to suggest that events move in any lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the "normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too can be done that gives the theory its power. Summary Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more interest to European social philosophers than American social scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics, often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human social rhythms generally. Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them. The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation, constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political history recurring on a generational basis. Notes 1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970); Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979). 2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973). 3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5 (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers, chapter 32, verse 13. 7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte (London: G. Bell, 1896). 9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive (London, 1862). 10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani (Milano: Monanni, 1929). 11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen, der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4. (1875), pp. 36-41. 12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds., Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane, Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp., 1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). 13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method. 14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933). 15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti, ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales (Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F. Schoeningh, 1933). 16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926); Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig, 1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris: Boivin, 1948). 17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger, 1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4 (1972): 564-78. 18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956). 19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin, American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970). 20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield, Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970). 21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939). 22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key, Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961); Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968); Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). 23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210. 24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co. 1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government from the Civil War to the New Deal. 25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no. 1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992). 26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789. 27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President. 28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W. Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber, Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey, Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.: Brooks/Cole, 1989). 29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York: Macmillan, 1961). 30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965): Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989). 31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18. 32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability," Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171. 33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?" in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed., Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1983). 34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony; David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization, Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter, Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985). [3]Elazar Papers Index / [4]JCPA Home Page / [5]Top of Page Références [USEMAP] 1. javascript:history.go(-1) 3. mailto:jcenter@jcpa.org [USEMAP] [1]CAT.INIST [2][USEMAP:bandeau-haut-droit.gif] logo CNRS [3]logo INIST [4]En savoir plus sur CAT.INIST ? © INIST Diffusion S.A. Service Clients / Customer Service 2, allée du parc de Brabois F-54514 Vandoeuvre Cedex France Tél : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.64 Fax : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.66 Courriel : [5]infoclient@inist.fr [6]Accueil / Home Imprimer / Print [7]Contact / Contact Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [8]Email Print [9]Bookmark and Share [10]Mendeley Back Titre du document / Document title Rhythms of the secular : The politics of modernizing Arab poetic forms = Rythmes du séculaire : la politique de modernisation des formes poétiques arabes Auteur(s) / Author(s) FURANI Khaled^ (1) ; Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s) ^(1) Tel-Aviv University, ISRAEL Résumé / Abstract In this article, I ethnographically trace how Arab, mainly Palestinian, poets have modernized their literary tradition during the last seven decades. Shortly after the 1948 Israeli occupation of Palestine, the reign of the classical Arabic ode collapsed, and the modern forms of free verse and, later, the prose poem became dominant. Aiming to contribute to the ethnography of modernity, I examine how poets have adopted and abandoned poetic forms by analyzing their narratives on rhythm. I explore the political salience of rhythmical transformations and argue that the secular has been a vital and complex force in the modern abandonment of metrical discipline. The secular affects how poets seek to modernize their rhythm, vocabulary, and relation to public. It also affects, I conclude, the ways in which anthropologists can and do write about modernity. Revue / Journal Title American ethnologist ISSN 0094-0496 Source / Source 2008, vol. 35, n^o2, pp. 290-307 [18 page(s) (article)] (2 p.1/4) Langue / Language Anglais Editeur / Publisher American Ethnological Society, Washington, DC, ETATS-UNIS (1974) (Revue) Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords Rhythm ; Transformation ; Modernization ; Poet ; Modernity ; Poetry ; Israel ; Palestine ; Near East ; Mots-clés français / French Keywords Forme poétique ; Tradition littéraire ; Arabe palestinien ; Rythme ; Transformation ; Modernisation ; Poète ; Modernité ; Poésie ; Israël ; Palestine ; Proche-Orient ; Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords poetic form ; modernity and secularism ; Palestine-Israel ; Localisation / Location INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 16902, 35400019805879.0070 Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 20449527 Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [11]Email Print [12]Bookmark and Share [13]Mendeley Back _______________________________ Rechercher dans CAT.INIST / Search in CAT.INIST Google Custom Search Références 5. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20CAT.INIST.FR 7. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20Cat@inist.fr [USEMAP] * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * [1]LINGUIST List logo [2]Eastern Michigan University [3]Wayne State University * * [4]People & Organizations * [5]Jobs * [6]Calls & Conferences * [7]Publications * [8]Language Resources * [9]Text & Computer Tools * [10]Teaching & Learning * [11]Mailing Lists * [12]Search * * * [13][mail-logo-9.gif] E-mail this message to a friend Title: The Rhythm of Political Oratory Author: [14]Varvara Danilina Email: [15]click here to access email Degree Awarded: Moscow State University , Department of Foreigh Languages Degree Date: 2002 Linguistic Subfield(s): Discourse Analysis Sociolinguistics Subject Language(s): [16]English Director(s): [17]Ludmila Minaeva ___________________________________ Abstract: My doctoral dissertation was completed after four years of research on the rhythm of British and American political oratory. I sought to establish the rhythmic norm for political public speech and to find out, whether any deviations from this norm (i.e. from an expected rhythmic model) influence listeners and provoke their verbal reactions or bursts of applause. To accomplish this task I used a variety of linguistic and rhetorical methods, and drew upon social psychology and political science. There is no single linguistic perspective on speech rhythm. For instance, such distinguished scholars as D. Crystal and D. Abercrombie regard it as a purely phonetic phenomenon. At the same time, according to Moscow University school of thought, to which I belong, speech rhythm is created by a blend of phonetics, syntax and meaning of an utterance. As a result of my research, I established rhythmic regularities for political oratory at five levels. Firstly, I analyzed pauses that divide the stream of speech into segments (syntagmas), and classified all the pauses into syntactic, rhetorical or unintentional (unintentional pauses are caused by hesitation, deliberation, stammering, interruptions by listeners, etc). Secondly, I established the relative frequency of short, medium and long syntagmas between pauses, and thirdly, analyzed the rhythmic structures constituted by linear sequences of syntagmas. Fourthly, I studied the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables inside syntagmas. And finally, I considered all kinds of repetitions, both rhetorical and unintentional. This method of rhythmic analysis is based on earlier analytical models designed by my university colleagues. My own contribution consisted in adapting this method to the study of public speech, describing the typical rhythm of political oratory, and challenging some popular assumptions about speech rhythm. As for the impact of speech rhythm upon listeners, I started by analyzing audiences in order to understand psychological, social and political conditions of that process. G. Le Bon, Z. Freud and other scholars demonstrated conclusively that members of a crowd (and the audience of a public speech is a crowd) are connected with each other and with their leader (in our case, a speaker) by strong subconscious ties. However, the degree of unity or polarization of an audience may differ. Besides, each audience can be characterized according to several other criteria that determine listeners' responsiveness and the nature of their responses: their emotional state, the level of expertise in a particular subject, the demographic and social characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, social status, occupation, education), the existing evaluation of discussed issues, which is largely determined by listeners' ideologies, and finally, the attitude to the speaker, which can be positive, negative or indifferent. I have applied this model of audience analysis to determine peculiarities of the British parliamentary audience in October 1996, and of the US Congress in the aftermath of September 11, 2001. To analyze the reactions of these audiences to the rhythm of Prime Minister Major and President Bush's parliamentary addresses I used M. Atkinson's version of the conversation analysis method. I showed the two speeches as dialogues between the speakers and their listeners, and singled out phrases and syntagmas that immediately preceded audience responses, such as cheering, booing, laughter or bursts of applause. These phrases and syntagmas happened to be quite similar in terms of rhythm to other stretches of speech in the same addresses. Moreover, there proved to be little rhythmic difference between John Major and George Bush's speeches. In short, my research demonstrated that there is no direct interconnection between the rhythm of a public address and audience responses. [18]Add a dissertation [19]Update dissertation Page Updated: 17-Jan-2010 [20]Print This Page __________________________________________________________________ [21][transp.gif] [22][transp.gif] Please [23]report any bad links or misclassified data __________________________________________________________________ [24]LINGUIST Homepage | [25]Read LINGUIST | [26]Contact us [27]NSF Logo While the LINGUIST List makes every effort to ensure the linguistic relevance of sites listed on its pages, it cannot vouch for their contents. Références 13. JavaScript:; 15. JavaScript:; 20. Javascript:window.print(); 22. mailto:cranston@linguistlist.org [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] JCPA LOGO Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs [1]Daniel Elazar Papers Index [2][USEMAP:nav-back.gif] American Political Culture The Generational Rhythm of American Politics The American Mosaic, Chapter 2 Daniel J. Elazar It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space. Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less pinpointed. This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast developments with great success. At the same time he has applied that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs. Early Studies of Generational Rhythms Students of society have noted the succession of generations since ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology on generational measures. The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs. It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon operating in history.^2 Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression, "forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5 Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The "generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7 Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of its beginnings and its ancestry. Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were the first to articulate systematic theories of generational progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that "History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals comes to dominate society.^9 These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed the principle that generations are articulated through historical events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained. Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a fourfold classification of generations as preparatory, revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10 Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11 Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation century.^13 After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri Peyre (1948).^16 More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused on problems of intergenerational differences and the political socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963) focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966) studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957) utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in Israel and the United States, respectively.^20 All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact, both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive theory. None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods. Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of three generations. Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin. Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature, art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular basis. Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under the heading of "a generation". Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History A number of theories of political cycles in American history have been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect "concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the "more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments" using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process. Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23 Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work. Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable directions. Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s) and the present. Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment occurs in every generation. While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts as follows: 1787-1801-1816 1816-1829-1841 1841-1861-1869 1869-1901-1918 1918-1931-? The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the following pattern: 1790-1796/1800 1800-1824/1828 1828-1824/1860 1860-1888/1896 1896-1932 His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their significance in the periodization process. Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if it is schematized as follows: 1789-1820 1828 1856-1860 1893/1894 1932 Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized as follows: 1896-1912 1912-1920-1932-1952 1952 Pomper also offers election dates and no more: 1836 1864-1876 1876-1892/1896 1928/1932-1952 1952-1964 None of these are complete theories and all must be considered within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit. Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era. In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however, the American people were treated to a display of federal activity -- and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow of time and events.) The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible pattern in the progression of political events in the United States over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26 The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a fixed moment, as individuals do now.... What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case, would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for 14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors. Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that 23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself assembled, can validly extend a debt. On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of 34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not of right. The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme, Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure of location in time. Human Social Rhythms As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the "lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation in any particular civil society and chart the relations among generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical patterns of its politics. During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years, averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited. Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life" ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and political roles as are given to mature men and women in society. Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention, if not physically, considered ready for retirement. Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote, and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be defined as the ending of one's serious political career without suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's 30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship. The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to "retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28 In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly established. Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby allowing a new generation to assume the reins. Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in social and political life than that found in the simple processes of human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings are recorded in history, we can do just that. Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the impact of the change and encourages new political action to assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at the most four generations are alive at any given time creates certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and politically unmanageable. Generations, Centuries and Events Since the founding of the first European settlements along the Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th century is the century of the United States as a world power. Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing point, thus: a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603) and the 17th century began with the opening of the American frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of the times. b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration for both countries. c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff). d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land frontier. Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn, the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments that will replace them. The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence. The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression will be related to major forces and factors shaping American history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the principal challenges facing the American people in each generation and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial, ethnic and religious groups. One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate. Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for analytical purposes than life ever is. The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany, but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies, and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate nation with its own civilization. The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century, which, from the first American recognition of common continental interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism, successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans. The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations, beginning at the point where America turned its back on European entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an industrialized continental nation with a strong national government; abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world power ready for overseas involvements. The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century -- reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the industrial revolution. As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first generation of the transformation of society as a result of the application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically dominant although economically weakened. The results of these phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder of the generation. Generations and Frontier Stages The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other historical and political phenomena. Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of human control over the natural environment and the utilization of the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control, i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American society is a product of this commitment which is virtually self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier situation that has created the major social and economic changes which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's political institutions. America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American life within that stage. The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the westward movement on a basically rural population interested in settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in Alaska. Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States, where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their existence and growth. By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth, in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation. After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and pace of development across the country. The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s, ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution, and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over. By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers, satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges, initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West. Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between the points of generational division and the shifts in the various frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are closely related to the opening of new centuries. Generations and Economic Periods One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a result, the governments of the United States have always maintained a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the governmental response. These changes have also developed on a generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth generation of American history) the American government continued a semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially unregulated by government. Demands for government regulation that built up during the last generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system. Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less government intervention. Centuries, Generations and Federalism The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first generation of American history brought the introduction of federal principles through the contracts and covenants that established the colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly, concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century. The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society. Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed have been major elements in the concrete response to the generation's challenges. Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of American history and politics. The changes in those relationships also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries. British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery. Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste system was in the making. During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation. Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was abolished in the North. The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was reaffirmed through the institution of segregation. From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say, to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American culture. While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era. The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the challenges changes from century to century. During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which, objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular progression of political events revolving around the development of a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and responses that gives each generation its particular character. While the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external -- or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation themselves. In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its sisters, and the other science independence when a common national constitution created a common national politics. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the political challenges that have dominated the American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the 19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the 20th century, they have essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and new generations is marked by several decisive political actions, often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so that they will achieve greater success and at the same time integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be recognized. The Bench Marks of American Political History: Critical Elections and New Deals In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds; first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each generation. The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs of voters, shifting them from one political party to another. Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a "critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one major element to another. Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the 1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and representatives to win control of Congress. The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968, only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the "normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in 1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems, won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the GOP controlled the Senate. A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations, personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders (or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate state parties which form the two national confederations known as the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties are confederations of the state parties, so is the national coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional coalitions. Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution, too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary inroads in the various electoral groups. Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means certain that the majority party will even win all the national elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards for the party faithful during the years of national "famine." As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad electoral groups.^33 While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election. Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical elections."^34 The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the development of the institution of the popularly elected president. Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and the House of Representatives. Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem. It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file" alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from balance to majority. "New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as the historical watersheds they are. In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S. Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B. Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s. The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational consolidation. The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington before undertaking any activities. The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an "outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation, usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time. President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and localities. These were all to become principal issues during the period of generational build-up. The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues of the new generation. Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been invariably preceded by critical elections through which the reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die -- determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to majority status. These critical elections, which attain their visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which face them. Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the 1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans. Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in 1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing period for the Democratic coalition. To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in American politics is not to suggest that events move in any lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the "normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too can be done that gives the theory its power. Summary Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more interest to European social philosophers than American social scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics, often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human social rhythms generally. Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them. The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation, constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political history recurring on a generational basis. Notes 1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970); Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979). 2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973). 3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5 (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers, chapter 32, verse 13. 7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte (London: G. Bell, 1896). 9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive (London, 1862). 10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani (Milano: Monanni, 1929). 11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen, der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4. (1875), pp. 36-41. 12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds., Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane, Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp., 1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). 13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method. 14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933). 15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti, ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales (Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F. Schoeningh, 1933). 16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926); Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig, 1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris: Boivin, 1948). 17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger, 1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4 (1972): 564-78. 18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956). 19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin, American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970). 20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield, Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970). 21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939). 22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key, Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961); Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968); Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). 23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210. 24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co. 1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government from the Civil War to the New Deal. 25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no. 1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992). 26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789. 27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President. 28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W. Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber, Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey, Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.: Brooks/Cole, 1989). 29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York: Macmillan, 1961). 30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965): Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989). 31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18. 32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability," Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171. 33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?" in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed., Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1983). 34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony; David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization, Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter, Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985). [3]Elazar Papers Index / [4]JCPA Home Page / [5]Top of Page Références [USEMAP] 1. javascript:history.go(-1) 3. mailto:jcenter@jcpa.org [USEMAP] [1]CAT.INIST [2][USEMAP:bandeau-haut-droit.gif] logo CNRS [3]logo INIST [4]En savoir plus sur CAT.INIST ? © INIST Diffusion S.A. Service Clients / Customer Service 2, allée du parc de Brabois F-54514 Vandoeuvre Cedex France Tél : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.64 Fax : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.66 Courriel : [5]infoclient@inist.fr [6]Accueil / Home Imprimer / Print [7]Contact / Contact Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [8]Email Print [9]Bookmark and Share [10]Mendeley Back Titre du document / Document title Rhythms of the secular : The politics of modernizing Arab poetic forms = Rythmes du séculaire : la politique de modernisation des formes poétiques arabes Auteur(s) / Author(s) FURANI Khaled^ (1) ; Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s) ^(1) Tel-Aviv University, ISRAEL Résumé / Abstract In this article, I ethnographically trace how Arab, mainly Palestinian, poets have modernized their literary tradition during the last seven decades. Shortly after the 1948 Israeli occupation of Palestine, the reign of the classical Arabic ode collapsed, and the modern forms of free verse and, later, the prose poem became dominant. Aiming to contribute to the ethnography of modernity, I examine how poets have adopted and abandoned poetic forms by analyzing their narratives on rhythm. I explore the political salience of rhythmical transformations and argue that the secular has been a vital and complex force in the modern abandonment of metrical discipline. The secular affects how poets seek to modernize their rhythm, vocabulary, and relation to public. It also affects, I conclude, the ways in which anthropologists can and do write about modernity. Revue / Journal Title American ethnologist ISSN 0094-0496 Source / Source 2008, vol. 35, n^o2, pp. 290-307 [18 page(s) (article)] (2 p.1/4) Langue / Language Anglais Editeur / Publisher American Ethnological Society, Washington, DC, ETATS-UNIS (1974) (Revue) Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords Rhythm ; Transformation ; Modernization ; Poet ; Modernity ; Poetry ; Israel ; Palestine ; Near East ; Mots-clés français / French Keywords Forme poétique ; Tradition littéraire ; Arabe palestinien ; Rythme ; Transformation ; Modernisation ; Poète ; Modernité ; Poésie ; Israël ; Palestine ; Proche-Orient ; Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords poetic form ; modernity and secularism ; Palestine-Israel ; Localisation / Location INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 16902, 35400019805879.0070 Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 20449527 Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [11]Email Print [12]Bookmark and Share [13]Mendeley Back _______________________________ Rechercher dans CAT.INIST / Search in CAT.INIST Google Custom Search Références 5. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20CAT.INIST.FR 7. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20Cat@inist.fr [USEMAP] * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * [1]LINGUIST List logo [2]Eastern Michigan University [3]Wayne State University * * [4]People & Organizations * [5]Jobs * [6]Calls & Conferences * [7]Publications * [8]Language Resources * [9]Text & Computer Tools * [10]Teaching & Learning * [11]Mailing Lists * [12]Search * * * [13][mail-logo-9.gif] E-mail this message to a friend Title: The Rhythm of Political Oratory Author: [14]Varvara Danilina Email: [15]click here to access email Degree Awarded: Moscow State University , Department of Foreigh Languages Degree Date: 2002 Linguistic Subfield(s): Discourse Analysis Sociolinguistics Subject Language(s): [16]English Director(s): [17]Ludmila Minaeva ___________________________________ Abstract: My doctoral dissertation was completed after four years of research on the rhythm of British and American political oratory. I sought to establish the rhythmic norm for political public speech and to find out, whether any deviations from this norm (i.e. from an expected rhythmic model) influence listeners and provoke their verbal reactions or bursts of applause. To accomplish this task I used a variety of linguistic and rhetorical methods, and drew upon social psychology and political science. There is no single linguistic perspective on speech rhythm. For instance, such distinguished scholars as D. Crystal and D. Abercrombie regard it as a purely phonetic phenomenon. At the same time, according to Moscow University school of thought, to which I belong, speech rhythm is created by a blend of phonetics, syntax and meaning of an utterance. As a result of my research, I established rhythmic regularities for political oratory at five levels. Firstly, I analyzed pauses that divide the stream of speech into segments (syntagmas), and classified all the pauses into syntactic, rhetorical or unintentional (unintentional pauses are caused by hesitation, deliberation, stammering, interruptions by listeners, etc). Secondly, I established the relative frequency of short, medium and long syntagmas between pauses, and thirdly, analyzed the rhythmic structures constituted by linear sequences of syntagmas. Fourthly, I studied the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables inside syntagmas. And finally, I considered all kinds of repetitions, both rhetorical and unintentional. This method of rhythmic analysis is based on earlier analytical models designed by my university colleagues. My own contribution consisted in adapting this method to the study of public speech, describing the typical rhythm of political oratory, and challenging some popular assumptions about speech rhythm. As for the impact of speech rhythm upon listeners, I started by analyzing audiences in order to understand psychological, social and political conditions of that process. G. Le Bon, Z. Freud and other scholars demonstrated conclusively that members of a crowd (and the audience of a public speech is a crowd) are connected with each other and with their leader (in our case, a speaker) by strong subconscious ties. However, the degree of unity or polarization of an audience may differ. Besides, each audience can be characterized according to several other criteria that determine listeners' responsiveness and the nature of their responses: their emotional state, the level of expertise in a particular subject, the demographic and social characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, social status, occupation, education), the existing evaluation of discussed issues, which is largely determined by listeners' ideologies, and finally, the attitude to the speaker, which can be positive, negative or indifferent. I have applied this model of audience analysis to determine peculiarities of the British parliamentary audience in October 1996, and of the US Congress in the aftermath of September 11, 2001. To analyze the reactions of these audiences to the rhythm of Prime Minister Major and President Bush's parliamentary addresses I used M. Atkinson's version of the conversation analysis method. I showed the two speeches as dialogues between the speakers and their listeners, and singled out phrases and syntagmas that immediately preceded audience responses, such as cheering, booing, laughter or bursts of applause. These phrases and syntagmas happened to be quite similar in terms of rhythm to other stretches of speech in the same addresses. Moreover, there proved to be little rhythmic difference between John Major and George Bush's speeches. In short, my research demonstrated that there is no direct interconnection between the rhythm of a public address and audience responses. [18]Add a dissertation [19]Update dissertation Page Updated: 17-Jan-2010 [20]Print This Page __________________________________________________________________ [21][transp.gif] [22][transp.gif] Please [23]report any bad links or misclassified data __________________________________________________________________ [24]LINGUIST Homepage | [25]Read LINGUIST | [26]Contact us [27]NSF Logo While the LINGUIST List makes every effort to ensure the linguistic relevance of sites listed on its pages, it cannot vouch for their contents. Références 13. JavaScript:; 15. JavaScript:; 20. Javascript:window.print(); 22. mailto:cranston@linguistlist.org [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] #[1]Edit this page [2]Wikipedia (en) [3]copyright [4]Wikipedia RSS Feed [5]Wikipedia Atom Feed Afrobeat From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search Question book-new.svg This article does not [8]cite any [9]references or sources. Please help [10]improve this article by adding citations to [11]reliable sources. Unsourced material may be [12]challenged and [13]removed. (September 2008) Afrobeat is a combination of [14]Yoruba music, [15]jazz, [16]highlife, and [17]funk [18]rhythms, fused with [19]percussion and [20]vocal styles, popularized in [21]Africa in the 1970s. Its main creator was the [22]Nigerian multi-[23]instrumentalist and [24]bandleader [25]Fela Kuti who used it to revolutionise musical structure as well as the political context in his native Nigeria. It was Kuti who coined the term "afrobeat" upon his return from a U.S. tour with his group Nigeria 70 (formerly Koola Lobitos). The new sound hailed from a club that he established called the Afro-Shrine. Upon arriving in Nigeria, Kuti also changed the name of his group to Fela Ransome-Kuti & Africa 70. The band maintained a five-year residency in the Afro-Shrine from 1970 to 1975 while afrobeat thrived among Nigerian youth. Afrobeat is now one of the most recognisable music genres in the world and has influenced as many Western musicians as it has African ones with its exuberant style and polyrhythms. Contents * [26]1 Origins * [27]2 Influence * [28]3 Instrumentation * [29]4 Today * [30]5 External links [[31]edit] Origins Afrobeat originated from the southern part of [32]Nigeria in the 1960s where Kuti experimented with many different forms of contemporary music of the time. Prevalent in him and Lagbaja's music are native African harmonies and rhythms, taking different elements and combining, modernizing and improvising upon them. [33]Politics are essential to afrobeat, since founder Kuti used social criticism to pave the way for social change. His message can be described as confrontational and controversial, which can be related to the political climate of most of the African countries in the 1960s, many of which were dealing with political injustice and military corruption while recovering from the transition from colonial governments to self-determination. As the genre spread throughout the African continent many bands took up the style. The recordings of these bands and their songs were rarely heard or exported outside the originating countries but many can now be found on compilation albums and CDs from specialist record shops. [[34]edit] Influence Many jazz musicians have been attracted to afrobeat. From [35]Roy Ayers in the seventies to [36]Randy Weston in the nineties, there have been collaborations which have resulted in albums such as Africa: Centre of the World by Roy Ayers, released on the Polydor label in 1981. In 1994 [37]Branford Marsalis, the American jazz saxophonist, included samples of Fela's "Beast of No Nation" on his Buckshot leFonque album. The new generation of DJs and musicians of the 2000s who have fallen in love with both Kuti's material and other rare releases have made compilations and remixes of these recordings, thus re-introducing the genre to new generations of listeners and fans of afropop and groove. Afrobeat has profoundly influenced important contemporary producers and musicians like [38]Brian Eno and [39]David Byrne, who credit Fela Kuti as an essential muse. Both worked on [40]Talking Heads' highly-acclaimed 1980 album [41]Remain In Light which brought polyrhythmic afrobeat influences to Western music. More recently, the horn section of [42]Antibalas have been guest musicians on [43]TV On The Radio's highly-acclaimed 2008 album [44]Dear Science, as well as on British band [45]Foals' 2008 album [46]Antidotes. [[47]edit] Instrumentation Big band (15 to 30 pieces: Fela-era afrobeat) and energetic performances * Lead vocals (may play sax/key solos as well) * Chorus vocals (may include horn players) * Rhythm guitar(s) (plays funk strumming pattern) * Tenor guitar (plays a finger-picked osinato groove) * [48]Bass guitar * [49]Drum set, generally in the form [50]polyrhythmic percussion * Saxophone(s) * Trumpet(s) * Trombone(s) * Organ/keyboards * Rhythm [51]conga #1 * Rhythm [52]conga #2 * Solo (lead) [53]conga * [54]Akuba: a set of 3 small stick-hit congas (play flourishes/solos, and ostinatos). Also mistakenly called "gbedu". * "Sticks"/[55]claves (plays ostinato) * [56]Shekere [[57]edit] Today There are several active afrobeat bands worldwide today. Modern afrobeat bands/artistes include: * [58]Kokolo (band), New York City Afrobeat/Afrofunk group formed by songwriter/producer Ray Lugo * [59]Nomo, [60]Ann Arbor based group that weaves various styles into a primarily Afrobeat sound. * [61]Chicago Afrobeat Project Chicago based collective that uses afrobeat as a springboard and has an incendiary live show. * [62]Afrodizz, an eight-piece band from [63]Montreal, [64]Canada formed by jazz guitarist Gabriel Aldama * [65]The Afromotive, an Asheville, NC based multiracial seven-piece afrobeat band featuring thirty-third generation djembe player Adama Dembele from Cote d`Ivoire, West Africa. * [66]Tony Allen, the man who held the drum chair during Fela's productive "Africa 70" phase, and whose drumming was, according to [67]James Brown's autobiography, the influence behind his 'discovery' of funk.^[[68]citation needed] * [69]Antibalas, [70]Brooklyn, New York based multiracial Afrobeat Orchestra formed by baritone saxophonist Martin Perna * [71]Aphrodesia, San Francisco based group, first American group to perform with Femi Kuti at The Shrine in Lagos, Nigeria. * [72]Ayetoro, a group led by Nigerian pianist/composer [73]Funsho Ogundipe * [74]Bebe cool lives in Uganda famous for his reggea mixed with luganda pop and English making an Afrobeat rhythm in Uganda known as Luga flow.He also lives in kampala. * [75]Chopteeth, an international 14 piece outfit based in Washington D.C., with former members of Busta Rhymes, The Temptations, The Four Tops, and Gladys Knight & the Pips. * [76]Femi Kuti (Fela's first son and a saxophonist) and the Positive Force * [77]Seun Kuti (another of Kuti's sons, saxophonist now fronting his father's last and late band) * [78]Dele Sosimi's Gbedu Resurrection Dele is a former keyboardist and musical director of Fela's band. He cofounded Femi Kuti's Positive Force. * [79]Zozo Afrobeat A thirteen-member group based in NYC, founded by Kaleta, former Fela guitarist. * [80]Baba Ken and the Afro-Groove Connexion Oakland based multiracial afrobeat ensemble led by Nigerian bassist, Baba Ken Okulolo, founding member of the seminal 1970's afrofunk/afrorock band, Monomono. * [81]Jose Chameleone famous in East, central and South Africa.He stays and live is Uganda in kampala city.He sing pop and Afro beat music.He is one of the most famous artists of Afro beat in Africa and the whole world. * [82]Afrobeat Down Los Angeles based Afrobeat ensemble (est. 2002) working with former Fela Africa '70 member and catalyst of entire afrobeat movement, Sandra Izsadore. * [83]Weird MC Rap artiste who occasionally experinments with Afrobeat rhythm. * [84]Vibe Squad A Ghanaian music crew formed by EaZZY Da Opemfour made of Prego, Culchar, Wizzy Wii and Richie. * [85]Gnl zamba rap artist in Uganda one of the most successful rap afrobeat star in East Africa and central Africa.He is known for his rhythm of 2 pac shakur * [86]Mr. Something Something Canadian afrobeat group * [87]Crime Scene Infunkstigation A 10-piece Afrobeat/Funk/Hip Hop group based out of Calgary, AB [[88]edit] External links * [89]KOKOLO on Myspace * [90]KOKOLO on YouTube * [91]KOKOLO Official Homepage * [92]The Afrobeat Blog * [93]The Unofficial Seun Kuti Fan-Site - Unofficial fan-site for Seun Kuti & Egypt 80 with news, videos, music, pictures and much more] * [94]The Shrine The Unofficial Website for Fela Kuti, Femi Kuti and Afrobeat Music * [95]BBC Afrobeat Documentary [96]v o [97]d o [98]e Genres of [99]African popular music Afrobeat · [100]Apala · [101]Benga · [102]Bikutsi · [103]Cape Jazz · [104]Chimurenga · [105]Fuji · [106]Highlife · [107]Hiplife · [108]Isicathamiya · [109]Jit · [110]Jùjú · [111]Kizomba · [112]Kuduro · [113]Kwaito · [114]Kwela · [115]Makossa · [116]Maloya · [117]Marrabenta · [118]Mbalax · [119]Mbaqanga · [120]Mbube · [121]Morna · [122]Palm-wine · [123]Raï · [124]Sakara · [125]Sega · [126]Soukous/Congo/Lingala/Rumba · [127]Taarab [128]v o [129]d o [130]e [131]Funk music [132]Acid jazz o Afrobeat o [133]Brit funk o [134]Funk metal o [135]Deep Funk o [136]Drumfunk o [137]Free funk o [138]Funkcore o [139]Funktronica o [140]Funk rock o [141]G-funk o [142]Go-go o [143]Jazz-funk o [144]Liquid funk o [145]Neurofunk o [146]Nu-funk o [147]P-Funk o [148]Post-disco o [149]Punk-funk o [150]Skweee Related [151]List of funk musicians o [152]Minneapolis sound [154]Categories: [155]Funk genres | [156]African American music in Africa Hidden categories: [157]Articles lacking sources from September 2008 | [158]All articles lacking sources | [159]All articles with unsourced statements | [160]Articles with unsourced statements from July 2007 Views * [161]Article * [162]Discussion * [163]Edit this page * [164]History Personal tools * [165]Try Beta * [166]Log in / create account Navigation * [167]Main page * [168]Contents * [169]Featured content * [170]Current events * [171]Random article Search ____________________ Go Search Interaction * [172]About Wikipedia * [173]Community portal * [174]Recent changes * [175]Contact Wikipedia * [176]Donate to Wikipedia * [177]Help Toolbox * [178]What links here * [179]Related changes * [180]Upload file * [181]Special pages * [182]Printable version * [183]Permanent link * [184]Cite this page Languages * [185]Català * [186]Deutsch * [187]Español * [188]Français * [189]Hrvatski * [190]Italiano * [191]Nederlands * [192]¥¬ * [193]ªNorsk (bokmål) * [194]Polski * [195]Português * [196]Suomi [197]Powered by MediaWiki [198]Wikimedia Foundation * This page was last modified on 12 January 2010 at 06:03. * Text is available under the [199]Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See [200]Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [201]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * [202]Contact us * [203]Privacy policy * [204]About Wikipedia * [205]Disclaimers Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : JCPA LOGO Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs [1]Daniel Elazar Papers Index [2][USEMAP:nav-back.gif] American Political Culture The Generational Rhythm of American Politics The American Mosaic, Chapter 2 Daniel J. Elazar It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space. Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less pinpointed. This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast developments with great success. At the same time he has applied that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs. Early Studies of Generational Rhythms Students of society have noted the succession of generations since ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology on generational measures. The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs. It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon operating in history.^2 Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression, "forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5 Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The "generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7 Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of its beginnings and its ancestry. Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were the first to articulate systematic theories of generational progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that "History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals comes to dominate society.^9 These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed the principle that generations are articulated through historical events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained. Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a fourfold classification of generations as preparatory, revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10 Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11 Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation century.^13 After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri Peyre (1948).^16 More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused on problems of intergenerational differences and the political socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963) focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966) studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957) utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in Israel and the United States, respectively.^20 All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact, both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive theory. None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods. Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of three generations. Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin. Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature, art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular basis. Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under the heading of "a generation". Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History A number of theories of political cycles in American history have been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect "concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the "more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments" using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process. Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23 Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work. Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable directions. Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s) and the present. Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment occurs in every generation. While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts as follows: 1787-1801-1816 1816-1829-1841 1841-1861-1869 1869-1901-1918 1918-1931-? The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the following pattern: 1790-1796/1800 1800-1824/1828 1828-1824/1860 1860-1888/1896 1896-1932 His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their significance in the periodization process. Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if it is schematized as follows: 1789-1820 1828 1856-1860 1893/1894 1932 Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized as follows: 1896-1912 1912-1920-1932-1952 1952 Pomper also offers election dates and no more: 1836 1864-1876 1876-1892/1896 1928/1932-1952 1952-1964 None of these are complete theories and all must be considered within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit. Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era. In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however, the American people were treated to a display of federal activity -- and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow of time and events.) The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible pattern in the progression of political events in the United States over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26 The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a fixed moment, as individuals do now.... What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case, would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for 14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors. Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that 23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself assembled, can validly extend a debt. On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of 34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not of right. The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme, Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure of location in time. Human Social Rhythms As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the "lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation in any particular civil society and chart the relations among generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical patterns of its politics. During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years, averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited. Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life" ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and political roles as are given to mature men and women in society. Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention, if not physically, considered ready for retirement. Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote, and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be defined as the ending of one's serious political career without suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's 30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship. The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to "retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28 In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly established. Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby allowing a new generation to assume the reins. Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in social and political life than that found in the simple processes of human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings are recorded in history, we can do just that. Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the impact of the change and encourages new political action to assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at the most four generations are alive at any given time creates certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and politically unmanageable. Generations, Centuries and Events Since the founding of the first European settlements along the Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th century is the century of the United States as a world power. Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing point, thus: a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603) and the 17th century began with the opening of the American frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of the times. b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration for both countries. c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff). d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land frontier. Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn, the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments that will replace them. The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence. The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression will be related to major forces and factors shaping American history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the principal challenges facing the American people in each generation and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial, ethnic and religious groups. One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate. Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for analytical purposes than life ever is. The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany, but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies, and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate nation with its own civilization. The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century, which, from the first American recognition of common continental interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism, successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans. The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations, beginning at the point where America turned its back on European entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an industrialized continental nation with a strong national government; abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world power ready for overseas involvements. The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century -- reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the industrial revolution. As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first generation of the transformation of society as a result of the application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically dominant although economically weakened. The results of these phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder of the generation. Generations and Frontier Stages The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other historical and political phenomena. Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of human control over the natural environment and the utilization of the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control, i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American society is a product of this commitment which is virtually self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier situation that has created the major social and economic changes which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's political institutions. America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American life within that stage. The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the westward movement on a basically rural population interested in settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in Alaska. Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States, where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their existence and growth. By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth, in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation. After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and pace of development across the country. The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s, ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution, and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over. By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers, satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges, initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West. Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between the points of generational division and the shifts in the various frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are closely related to the opening of new centuries. Generations and Economic Periods One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a result, the governments of the United States have always maintained a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the governmental response. These changes have also developed on a generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth generation of American history) the American government continued a semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially unregulated by government. Demands for government regulation that built up during the last generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system. Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less government intervention. Centuries, Generations and Federalism The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first generation of American history brought the introduction of federal principles through the contracts and covenants that established the colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly, concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century. The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society. Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed have been major elements in the concrete response to the generation's challenges. Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of American history and politics. The changes in those relationships also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries. British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery. Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste system was in the making. During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation. Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was abolished in the North. The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was reaffirmed through the institution of segregation. From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say, to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American culture. While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era. The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the challenges changes from century to century. During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which, objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular progression of political events revolving around the development of a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and responses that gives each generation its particular character. While the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external -- or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation themselves. In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its sisters, and the other science independence when a common national constitution created a common national politics. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the political challenges that have dominated the American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the 19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the 20th century, they have essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and new generations is marked by several decisive political actions, often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so that they will achieve greater success and at the same time integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be recognized. The Bench Marks of American Political History: Critical Elections and New Deals In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds; first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each generation. The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs of voters, shifting them from one political party to another. Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a "critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one major element to another. Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the 1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and representatives to win control of Congress. The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968, only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the "normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in 1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems, won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the GOP controlled the Senate. A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations, personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders (or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate state parties which form the two national confederations known as the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties are confederations of the state parties, so is the national coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional coalitions. Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution, too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary inroads in the various electoral groups. Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means certain that the majority party will even win all the national elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards for the party faithful during the years of national "famine." As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad electoral groups.^33 While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election. Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical elections."^34 The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the development of the institution of the popularly elected president. Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and the House of Representatives. Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem. It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file" alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from balance to majority. "New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as the historical watersheds they are. In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S. Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B. Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s. The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational consolidation. The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington before undertaking any activities. The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an "outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation, usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time. President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and localities. These were all to become principal issues during the period of generational build-up. The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues of the new generation. Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been invariably preceded by critical elections through which the reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die -- determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to majority status. These critical elections, which attain their visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which face them. Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the 1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans. Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in 1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing period for the Democratic coalition. To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in American politics is not to suggest that events move in any lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the "normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too can be done that gives the theory its power. Summary Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more interest to European social philosophers than American social scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics, often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human social rhythms generally. Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them. The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation, constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political history recurring on a generational basis. Notes 1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970); Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979). 2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973). 3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5 (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers, chapter 32, verse 13. 7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte (London: G. Bell, 1896). 9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive (London, 1862). 10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani (Milano: Monanni, 1929). 11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen, der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4. (1875), pp. 36-41. 12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds., Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane, Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp., 1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). 13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method. 14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933). 15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti, ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales (Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F. Schoeningh, 1933). 16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926); Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig, 1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris: Boivin, 1948). 17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger, 1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4 (1972): 564-78. 18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956). 19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin, American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970). 20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield, Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970). 21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939). 22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key, Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961); Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968); Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). 23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210. 24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co. 1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government from the Civil War to the New Deal. 25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no. 1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992). 26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789. 27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President. 28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W. Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber, Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey, Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.: Brooks/Cole, 1989). 29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York: Macmillan, 1961). 30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965): Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989). 31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18. 32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability," Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171. 33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?" in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed., Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1983). 34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony; David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization, Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter, Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985). [3]Elazar Papers Index / [4]JCPA Home Page / [5]Top of Page Références [USEMAP] 1. javascript:history.go(-1) 3. mailto:jcenter@jcpa.org [USEMAP] JCPA LOGO Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs [1]Daniel Elazar Papers Index [2][USEMAP:nav-back.gif] American Political Culture The Generational Rhythm of American Politics The American Mosaic, Chapter 2 Daniel J. Elazar It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space. Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less pinpointed. This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast developments with great success. At the same time he has applied that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs. Early Studies of Generational Rhythms Students of society have noted the succession of generations since ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology on generational measures. The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs. It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon operating in history.^2 Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression, "forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5 Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The "generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7 Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of its beginnings and its ancestry. Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were the first to articulate systematic theories of generational progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that "History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals comes to dominate society.^9 These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed the principle that generations are articulated through historical events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained. Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a fourfold classification of generations as preparatory, revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10 Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11 Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation century.^13 After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri Peyre (1948).^16 More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused on problems of intergenerational differences and the political socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963) focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966) studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957) utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in Israel and the United States, respectively.^20 All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact, both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive theory. None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods. Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of three generations. Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin. Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature, art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular basis. Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under the heading of "a generation". Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History A number of theories of political cycles in American history have been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect "concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the "more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments" using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process. Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23 Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work. Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable directions. Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s) and the present. Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment occurs in every generation. While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts as follows: 1787-1801-1816 1816-1829-1841 1841-1861-1869 1869-1901-1918 1918-1931-? The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the following pattern: 1790-1796/1800 1800-1824/1828 1828-1824/1860 1860-1888/1896 1896-1932 His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their significance in the periodization process. Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if it is schematized as follows: 1789-1820 1828 1856-1860 1893/1894 1932 Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized as follows: 1896-1912 1912-1920-1932-1952 1952 Pomper also offers election dates and no more: 1836 1864-1876 1876-1892/1896 1928/1932-1952 1952-1964 None of these are complete theories and all must be considered within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit. Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era. In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however, the American people were treated to a display of federal activity -- and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow of time and events.) The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible pattern in the progression of political events in the United States over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26 The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a fixed moment, as individuals do now.... What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case, would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for 14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors. Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that 23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself assembled, can validly extend a debt. On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of 34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not of right. The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme, Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure of location in time. Human Social Rhythms As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the "lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation in any particular civil society and chart the relations among generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical patterns of its politics. During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years, averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited. Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life" ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and political roles as are given to mature men and women in society. Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention, if not physically, considered ready for retirement. Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote, and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be defined as the ending of one's serious political career without suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's 30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship. The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to "retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28 In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly established. Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby allowing a new generation to assume the reins. Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in social and political life than that found in the simple processes of human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings are recorded in history, we can do just that. Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the impact of the change and encourages new political action to assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at the most four generations are alive at any given time creates certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and politically unmanageable. Generations, Centuries and Events Since the founding of the first European settlements along the Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th century is the century of the United States as a world power. Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing point, thus: a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603) and the 17th century began with the opening of the American frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of the times. b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration for both countries. c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff). d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land frontier. Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn, the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments that will replace them. The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence. The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression will be related to major forces and factors shaping American history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the principal challenges facing the American people in each generation and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial, ethnic and religious groups. One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate. Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for analytical purposes than life ever is. The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany, but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies, and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate nation with its own civilization. The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century, which, from the first American recognition of common continental interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism, successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans. The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations, beginning at the point where America turned its back on European entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an industrialized continental nation with a strong national government; abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world power ready for overseas involvements. The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century -- reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the industrial revolution. As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first generation of the transformation of society as a result of the application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically dominant although economically weakened. The results of these phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder of the generation. Generations and Frontier Stages The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other historical and political phenomena. Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of human control over the natural environment and the utilization of the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control, i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American society is a product of this commitment which is virtually self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier situation that has created the major social and economic changes which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's political institutions. America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American life within that stage. The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the westward movement on a basically rural population interested in settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in Alaska. Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States, where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their existence and growth. By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth, in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation. After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and pace of development across the country. The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s, ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution, and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over. By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers, satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges, initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West. Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between the points of generational division and the shifts in the various frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are closely related to the opening of new centuries. Generations and Economic Periods One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a result, the governments of the United States have always maintained a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the governmental response. These changes have also developed on a generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth generation of American history) the American government continued a semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially unregulated by government. Demands for government regulation that built up during the last generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system. Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less government intervention. Centuries, Generations and Federalism The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first generation of American history brought the introduction of federal principles through the contracts and covenants that established the colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly, concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century. The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society. Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed have been major elements in the concrete response to the generation's challenges. Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of American history and politics. The changes in those relationships also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries. British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery. Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste system was in the making. During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation. Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was abolished in the North. The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was reaffirmed through the institution of segregation. From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say, to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American culture. While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era. The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the challenges changes from century to century. During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which, objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular progression of political events revolving around the development of a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and responses that gives each generation its particular character. While the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external -- or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation themselves. In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its sisters, and the other science independence when a common national constitution created a common national politics. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the political challenges that have dominated the American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the 19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the 20th century, they have essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and new generations is marked by several decisive political actions, often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so that they will achieve greater success and at the same time integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be recognized. The Bench Marks of American Political History: Critical Elections and New Deals In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds; first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each generation. The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs of voters, shifting them from one political party to another. Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a "critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one major element to another. Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the 1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and representatives to win control of Congress. The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968, only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the "normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in 1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems, won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the GOP controlled the Senate. A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations, personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders (or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate state parties which form the two national confederations known as the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties are confederations of the state parties, so is the national coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional coalitions. Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution, too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary inroads in the various electoral groups. Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means certain that the majority party will even win all the national elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards for the party faithful during the years of national "famine." As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad electoral groups.^33 While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election. Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical elections."^34 The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the development of the institution of the popularly elected president. Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and the House of Representatives. Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem. It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file" alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from balance to majority. "New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as the historical watersheds they are. In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S. Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B. Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s. The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational consolidation. The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington before undertaking any activities. The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an "outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation, usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time. President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and localities. These were all to become principal issues during the period of generational build-up. The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues of the new generation. Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been invariably preceded by critical elections through which the reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die -- determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to majority status. These critical elections, which attain their visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which face them. Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the 1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans. Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in 1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing period for the Democratic coalition. To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in American politics is not to suggest that events move in any lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the "normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too can be done that gives the theory its power. Summary Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more interest to European social philosophers than American social scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics, often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human social rhythms generally. Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them. The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation, constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political history recurring on a generational basis. Notes 1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970); Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979). 2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973). 3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5 (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers, chapter 32, verse 13. 7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte (London: G. Bell, 1896). 9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive (London, 1862). 10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani (Milano: Monanni, 1929). 11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen, der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4. (1875), pp. 36-41. 12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds., Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane, Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp., 1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). 13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method. 14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933). 15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti, ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales (Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F. Schoeningh, 1933). 16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926); Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig, 1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris: Boivin, 1948). 17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger, 1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4 (1972): 564-78. 18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956). 19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin, American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970). 20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield, Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970). 21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939). 22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key, Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961); Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968); Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). 23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210. 24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co. 1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government from the Civil War to the New Deal. 25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no. 1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992). 26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789. 27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President. 28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W. Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber, Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey, Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.: Brooks/Cole, 1989). 29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York: Macmillan, 1961). 30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965): Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989). 31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18. 32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability," Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171. 33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?" in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed., Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1983). 34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony; David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization, Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter, Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985). [3]Elazar Papers Index / [4]JCPA Home Page / [5]Top of Page Références [USEMAP] 1. javascript:history.go(-1) 3. mailto:jcenter@jcpa.org [USEMAP] [1]CAT.INIST [2][USEMAP:bandeau-haut-droit.gif] logo CNRS [3]logo INIST [4]En savoir plus sur CAT.INIST ? © INIST Diffusion S.A. Service Clients / Customer Service 2, allée du parc de Brabois F-54514 Vandoeuvre Cedex France Tél : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.64 Fax : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.66 Courriel : [5]infoclient@inist.fr [6]Accueil / Home Imprimer / Print [7]Contact / Contact Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [8]Email Print [9]Bookmark and Share [10]Mendeley Back Titre du document / Document title Rhythms of the secular : The politics of modernizing Arab poetic forms = Rythmes du séculaire : la politique de modernisation des formes poétiques arabes Auteur(s) / Author(s) FURANI Khaled^ (1) ; Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s) ^(1) Tel-Aviv University, ISRAEL Résumé / Abstract In this article, I ethnographically trace how Arab, mainly Palestinian, poets have modernized their literary tradition during the last seven decades. Shortly after the 1948 Israeli occupation of Palestine, the reign of the classical Arabic ode collapsed, and the modern forms of free verse and, later, the prose poem became dominant. Aiming to contribute to the ethnography of modernity, I examine how poets have adopted and abandoned poetic forms by analyzing their narratives on rhythm. I explore the political salience of rhythmical transformations and argue that the secular has been a vital and complex force in the modern abandonment of metrical discipline. The secular affects how poets seek to modernize their rhythm, vocabulary, and relation to public. It also affects, I conclude, the ways in which anthropologists can and do write about modernity. Revue / Journal Title American ethnologist ISSN 0094-0496 Source / Source 2008, vol. 35, n^o2, pp. 290-307 [18 page(s) (article)] (2 p.1/4) Langue / Language Anglais Editeur / Publisher American Ethnological Society, Washington, DC, ETATS-UNIS (1974) (Revue) Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords Rhythm ; Transformation ; Modernization ; Poet ; Modernity ; Poetry ; Israel ; Palestine ; Near East ; Mots-clés français / French Keywords Forme poétique ; Tradition littéraire ; Arabe palestinien ; Rythme ; Transformation ; Modernisation ; Poète ; Modernité ; Poésie ; Israël ; Palestine ; Proche-Orient ; Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords poetic form ; modernity and secularism ; Palestine-Israel ; Localisation / Location INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 16902, 35400019805879.0070 Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 20449527 Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [11]Email Print [12]Bookmark and Share [13]Mendeley Back _______________________________ Rechercher dans CAT.INIST / Search in CAT.INIST Google Custom Search Références 5. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20CAT.INIST.FR 7. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20Cat@inist.fr [USEMAP] JCPA LOGO Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs [1]Daniel Elazar Papers Index [2][USEMAP:nav-back.gif] American Political Culture The Generational Rhythm of American Politics The American Mosaic, Chapter 2 Daniel J. Elazar It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space. Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less pinpointed. This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast developments with great success. At the same time he has applied that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs. Early Studies of Generational Rhythms Students of society have noted the succession of generations since ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology on generational measures. The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs. It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon operating in history.^2 Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression, "forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5 Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The "generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7 Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of its beginnings and its ancestry. Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were the first to articulate systematic theories of generational progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that "History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals comes to dominate society.^9 These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed the principle that generations are articulated through historical events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained. Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a fourfold classification of generations as preparatory, revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10 Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11 Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation century.^13 After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri Peyre (1948).^16 More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused on problems of intergenerational differences and the political socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963) focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966) studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957) utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in Israel and the United States, respectively.^20 All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact, both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive theory. None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods. Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of three generations. Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin. Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature, art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular basis. Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under the heading of "a generation". Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History A number of theories of political cycles in American history have been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect "concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the "more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments" using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process. Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23 Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work. Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable directions. Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s) and the present. Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment occurs in every generation. While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts as follows: 1787-1801-1816 1816-1829-1841 1841-1861-1869 1869-1901-1918 1918-1931-? The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the following pattern: 1790-1796/1800 1800-1824/1828 1828-1824/1860 1860-1888/1896 1896-1932 His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their significance in the periodization process. Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if it is schematized as follows: 1789-1820 1828 1856-1860 1893/1894 1932 Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized as follows: 1896-1912 1912-1920-1932-1952 1952 Pomper also offers election dates and no more: 1836 1864-1876 1876-1892/1896 1928/1932-1952 1952-1964 None of these are complete theories and all must be considered within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit. Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era. In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however, the American people were treated to a display of federal activity -- and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow of time and events.) The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible pattern in the progression of political events in the United States over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26 The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a fixed moment, as individuals do now.... What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case, would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for 14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors. Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that 23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself assembled, can validly extend a debt. On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of 34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not of right. The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme, Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure of location in time. Human Social Rhythms As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the "lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation in any particular civil society and chart the relations among generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical patterns of its politics. During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years, averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited. Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life" ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and political roles as are given to mature men and women in society. Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention, if not physically, considered ready for retirement. Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote, and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be defined as the ending of one's serious political career without suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's 30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship. The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to "retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28 In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly established. Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby allowing a new generation to assume the reins. Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in social and political life than that found in the simple processes of human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings are recorded in history, we can do just that. Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the impact of the change and encourages new political action to assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at the most four generations are alive at any given time creates certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and politically unmanageable. Generations, Centuries and Events Since the founding of the first European settlements along the Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th century is the century of the United States as a world power. Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing point, thus: a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603) and the 17th century began with the opening of the American frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of the times. b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration for both countries. c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff). d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land frontier. Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn, the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments that will replace them. The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence. The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression will be related to major forces and factors shaping American history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the principal challenges facing the American people in each generation and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial, ethnic and religious groups. One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate. Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for analytical purposes than life ever is. The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany, but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies, and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate nation with its own civilization. The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century, which, from the first American recognition of common continental interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism, successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans. The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations, beginning at the point where America turned its back on European entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an industrialized continental nation with a strong national government; abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world power ready for overseas involvements. The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century -- reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the industrial revolution. As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first generation of the transformation of society as a result of the application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically dominant although economically weakened. The results of these phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder of the generation. Generations and Frontier Stages The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other historical and political phenomena. Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of human control over the natural environment and the utilization of the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control, i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American society is a product of this commitment which is virtually self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier situation that has created the major social and economic changes which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's political institutions. America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American life within that stage. The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the westward movement on a basically rural population interested in settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in Alaska. Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States, where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their existence and growth. By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth, in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation. After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and pace of development across the country. The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s, ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution, and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over. By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers, satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges, initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West. Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between the points of generational division and the shifts in the various frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are closely related to the opening of new centuries. Generations and Economic Periods One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a result, the governments of the United States have always maintained a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the governmental response. These changes have also developed on a generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth generation of American history) the American government continued a semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially unregulated by government. Demands for government regulation that built up during the last generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system. Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less government intervention. Centuries, Generations and Federalism The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first generation of American history brought the introduction of federal principles through the contracts and covenants that established the colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly, concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century. The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society. Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed have been major elements in the concrete response to the generation's challenges. Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of American history and politics. The changes in those relationships also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries. British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery. Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste system was in the making. During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation. Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was abolished in the North. The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was reaffirmed through the institution of segregation. From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say, to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American culture. While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era. The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the challenges changes from century to century. During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which, objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular progression of political events revolving around the development of a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and responses that gives each generation its particular character. While the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external -- or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation themselves. In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its sisters, and the other science independence when a common national constitution created a common national politics. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the political challenges that have dominated the American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the 19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the 20th century, they have essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and new generations is marked by several decisive political actions, often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so that they will achieve greater success and at the same time integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be recognized. The Bench Marks of American Political History: Critical Elections and New Deals In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds; first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each generation. The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs of voters, shifting them from one political party to another. Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a "critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one major element to another. Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the 1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and representatives to win control of Congress. The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968, only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the "normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in 1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems, won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the GOP controlled the Senate. A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations, personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders (or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate state parties which form the two national confederations known as the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties are confederations of the state parties, so is the national coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional coalitions. Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution, too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary inroads in the various electoral groups. Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means certain that the majority party will even win all the national elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards for the party faithful during the years of national "famine." As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad electoral groups.^33 While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election. Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical elections."^34 The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the development of the institution of the popularly elected president. Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and the House of Representatives. Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem. It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file" alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from balance to majority. "New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as the historical watersheds they are. In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S. Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B. Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s. The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational consolidation. The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington before undertaking any activities. The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an "outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation, usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time. President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and localities. These were all to become principal issues during the period of generational build-up. The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues of the new generation. Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been invariably preceded by critical elections through which the reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die -- determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to majority status. These critical elections, which attain their visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which face them. Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the 1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans. Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in 1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing period for the Democratic coalition. To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in American politics is not to suggest that events move in any lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the "normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too can be done that gives the theory its power. Summary Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more interest to European social philosophers than American social scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics, often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human social rhythms generally. Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them. The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation, constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political history recurring on a generational basis. Notes 1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970); Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979). 2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973). 3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5 (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers, chapter 32, verse 13. 7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte (London: G. Bell, 1896). 9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive (London, 1862). 10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani (Milano: Monanni, 1929). 11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen, der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4. (1875), pp. 36-41. 12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds., Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane, Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp., 1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). 13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method. 14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933). 15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti, ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales (Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F. Schoeningh, 1933). 16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926); Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig, 1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris: Boivin, 1948). 17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger, 1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4 (1972): 564-78. 18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956). 19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin, American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970). 20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield, Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970). 21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939). 22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key, Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961); Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968); Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). 23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210. 24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co. 1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government from the Civil War to the New Deal. 25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no. 1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992). 26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789. 27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President. 28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W. Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber, Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey, Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.: Brooks/Cole, 1989). 29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York: Macmillan, 1961). 30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965): Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989). 31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18. 32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability," Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171. 33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?" in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed., Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1983). 34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony; David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization, Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter, Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985). [3]Elazar Papers Index / [4]JCPA Home Page / [5]Top of Page Références [USEMAP] 1. javascript:history.go(-1) 3. mailto:jcenter@jcpa.org [USEMAP] [1]CAT.INIST [2][USEMAP:bandeau-haut-droit.gif] logo CNRS [3]logo INIST [4]En savoir plus sur CAT.INIST ? © INIST Diffusion S.A. Service Clients / Customer Service 2, allée du parc de Brabois F-54514 Vandoeuvre Cedex France Tél : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.64 Fax : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.66 Courriel : [5]infoclient@inist.fr [6]Accueil / Home Imprimer / Print [7]Contact / Contact Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [8]Email Print [9]Bookmark and Share [10]Mendeley Back Titre du document / Document title Rhythms of the secular : The politics of modernizing Arab poetic forms = Rythmes du séculaire : la politique de modernisation des formes poétiques arabes Auteur(s) / Author(s) FURANI Khaled^ (1) ; Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s) ^(1) Tel-Aviv University, ISRAEL Résumé / Abstract In this article, I ethnographically trace how Arab, mainly Palestinian, poets have modernized their literary tradition during the last seven decades. Shortly after the 1948 Israeli occupation of Palestine, the reign of the classical Arabic ode collapsed, and the modern forms of free verse and, later, the prose poem became dominant. Aiming to contribute to the ethnography of modernity, I examine how poets have adopted and abandoned poetic forms by analyzing their narratives on rhythm. I explore the political salience of rhythmical transformations and argue that the secular has been a vital and complex force in the modern abandonment of metrical discipline. The secular affects how poets seek to modernize their rhythm, vocabulary, and relation to public. It also affects, I conclude, the ways in which anthropologists can and do write about modernity. Revue / Journal Title American ethnologist ISSN 0094-0496 Source / Source 2008, vol. 35, n^o2, pp. 290-307 [18 page(s) (article)] (2 p.1/4) Langue / Language Anglais Editeur / Publisher American Ethnological Society, Washington, DC, ETATS-UNIS (1974) (Revue) Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords Rhythm ; Transformation ; Modernization ; Poet ; Modernity ; Poetry ; Israel ; Palestine ; Near East ; Mots-clés français / French Keywords Forme poétique ; Tradition littéraire ; Arabe palestinien ; Rythme ; Transformation ; Modernisation ; Poète ; Modernité ; Poésie ; Israël ; Palestine ; Proche-Orient ; Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords poetic form ; modernity and secularism ; Palestine-Israel ; Localisation / Location INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 16902, 35400019805879.0070 Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 20449527 Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [11]Email Print [12]Bookmark and Share [13]Mendeley Back _______________________________ Rechercher dans CAT.INIST / Search in CAT.INIST Google Custom Search Références 5. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20CAT.INIST.FR 7. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20Cat@inist.fr [USEMAP] * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * [1]LINGUIST List logo [2]Eastern Michigan University [3]Wayne State University * * [4]People & Organizations * [5]Jobs * [6]Calls & Conferences * [7]Publications * [8]Language Resources * [9]Text & Computer Tools * [10]Teaching & Learning * [11]Mailing Lists * [12]Search * * * [13][mail-logo-9.gif] E-mail this message to a friend Title: The Rhythm of Political Oratory Author: [14]Varvara Danilina Email: [15]click here to access email Degree Awarded: Moscow State University , Department of Foreigh Languages Degree Date: 2002 Linguistic Subfield(s): Discourse Analysis Sociolinguistics Subject Language(s): [16]English Director(s): [17]Ludmila Minaeva ___________________________________ Abstract: My doctoral dissertation was completed after four years of research on the rhythm of British and American political oratory. I sought to establish the rhythmic norm for political public speech and to find out, whether any deviations from this norm (i.e. from an expected rhythmic model) influence listeners and provoke their verbal reactions or bursts of applause. To accomplish this task I used a variety of linguistic and rhetorical methods, and drew upon social psychology and political science. There is no single linguistic perspective on speech rhythm. For instance, such distinguished scholars as D. Crystal and D. Abercrombie regard it as a purely phonetic phenomenon. At the same time, according to Moscow University school of thought, to which I belong, speech rhythm is created by a blend of phonetics, syntax and meaning of an utterance. As a result of my research, I established rhythmic regularities for political oratory at five levels. Firstly, I analyzed pauses that divide the stream of speech into segments (syntagmas), and classified all the pauses into syntactic, rhetorical or unintentional (unintentional pauses are caused by hesitation, deliberation, stammering, interruptions by listeners, etc). Secondly, I established the relative frequency of short, medium and long syntagmas between pauses, and thirdly, analyzed the rhythmic structures constituted by linear sequences of syntagmas. Fourthly, I studied the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables inside syntagmas. And finally, I considered all kinds of repetitions, both rhetorical and unintentional. This method of rhythmic analysis is based on earlier analytical models designed by my university colleagues. My own contribution consisted in adapting this method to the study of public speech, describing the typical rhythm of political oratory, and challenging some popular assumptions about speech rhythm. As for the impact of speech rhythm upon listeners, I started by analyzing audiences in order to understand psychological, social and political conditions of that process. G. Le Bon, Z. Freud and other scholars demonstrated conclusively that members of a crowd (and the audience of a public speech is a crowd) are connected with each other and with their leader (in our case, a speaker) by strong subconscious ties. However, the degree of unity or polarization of an audience may differ. Besides, each audience can be characterized according to several other criteria that determine listeners' responsiveness and the nature of their responses: their emotional state, the level of expertise in a particular subject, the demographic and social characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, social status, occupation, education), the existing evaluation of discussed issues, which is largely determined by listeners' ideologies, and finally, the attitude to the speaker, which can be positive, negative or indifferent. I have applied this model of audience analysis to determine peculiarities of the British parliamentary audience in October 1996, and of the US Congress in the aftermath of September 11, 2001. To analyze the reactions of these audiences to the rhythm of Prime Minister Major and President Bush's parliamentary addresses I used M. Atkinson's version of the conversation analysis method. I showed the two speeches as dialogues between the speakers and their listeners, and singled out phrases and syntagmas that immediately preceded audience responses, such as cheering, booing, laughter or bursts of applause. These phrases and syntagmas happened to be quite similar in terms of rhythm to other stretches of speech in the same addresses. Moreover, there proved to be little rhythmic difference between John Major and George Bush's speeches. In short, my research demonstrated that there is no direct interconnection between the rhythm of a public address and audience responses. [18]Add a dissertation [19]Update dissertation Page Updated: 17-Jan-2010 [20]Print This Page __________________________________________________________________ [21][transp.gif] [22][transp.gif] Please [23]report any bad links or misclassified data __________________________________________________________________ [24]LINGUIST Homepage | [25]Read LINGUIST | [26]Contact us [27]NSF Logo While the LINGUIST List makes every effort to ensure the linguistic relevance of sites listed on its pages, it cannot vouch for their contents. Références 13. JavaScript:; 15. JavaScript:; 20. Javascript:window.print(); 22. mailto:cranston@linguistlist.org [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] JCPA LOGO Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs [1]Daniel Elazar Papers Index [2][USEMAP:nav-back.gif] American Political Culture The Generational Rhythm of American Politics The American Mosaic, Chapter 2 Daniel J. Elazar It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space. Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less pinpointed. This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast developments with great success. At the same time he has applied that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs. Early Studies of Generational Rhythms Students of society have noted the succession of generations since ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology on generational measures. The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs. It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon operating in history.^2 Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression, "forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5 Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The "generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7 Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of its beginnings and its ancestry. Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were the first to articulate systematic theories of generational progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that "History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals comes to dominate society.^9 These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed the principle that generations are articulated through historical events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained. Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a fourfold classification of generations as preparatory, revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10 Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11 Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation century.^13 After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri Peyre (1948).^16 More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused on problems of intergenerational differences and the political socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963) focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966) studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957) utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in Israel and the United States, respectively.^20 All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact, both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive theory. None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods. Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of three generations. Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin. Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature, art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular basis. Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under the heading of "a generation". Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History A number of theories of political cycles in American history have been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect "concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the "more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments" using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process. Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23 Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work. Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable directions. Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s) and the present. Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment occurs in every generation. While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts as follows: 1787-1801-1816 1816-1829-1841 1841-1861-1869 1869-1901-1918 1918-1931-? The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the following pattern: 1790-1796/1800 1800-1824/1828 1828-1824/1860 1860-1888/1896 1896-1932 His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their significance in the periodization process. Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if it is schematized as follows: 1789-1820 1828 1856-1860 1893/1894 1932 Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized as follows: 1896-1912 1912-1920-1932-1952 1952 Pomper also offers election dates and no more: 1836 1864-1876 1876-1892/1896 1928/1932-1952 1952-1964 None of these are complete theories and all must be considered within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit. Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era. In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however, the American people were treated to a display of federal activity -- and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow of time and events.) The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible pattern in the progression of political events in the United States over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26 The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a fixed moment, as individuals do now.... What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case, would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for 14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors. Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that 23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself assembled, can validly extend a debt. On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of 34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not of right. The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme, Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure of location in time. Human Social Rhythms As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the "lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation in any particular civil society and chart the relations among generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical patterns of its politics. During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years, averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited. Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life" ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and political roles as are given to mature men and women in society. Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention, if not physically, considered ready for retirement. Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote, and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be defined as the ending of one's serious political career without suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's 30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship. The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to "retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28 In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly established. Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby allowing a new generation to assume the reins. Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in social and political life than that found in the simple processes of human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings are recorded in history, we can do just that. Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the impact of the change and encourages new political action to assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at the most four generations are alive at any given time creates certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and politically unmanageable. Generations, Centuries and Events Since the founding of the first European settlements along the Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th century is the century of the United States as a world power. Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing point, thus: a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603) and the 17th century began with the opening of the American frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of the times. b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration for both countries. c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff). d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land frontier. Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn, the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments that will replace them. The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence. The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression will be related to major forces and factors shaping American history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the principal challenges facing the American people in each generation and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial, ethnic and religious groups. One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate. Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for analytical purposes than life ever is. The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany, but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies, and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate nation with its own civilization. The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century, which, from the first American recognition of common continental interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism, successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans. The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations, beginning at the point where America turned its back on European entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an industrialized continental nation with a strong national government; abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world power ready for overseas involvements. The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century -- reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the industrial revolution. As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first generation of the transformation of society as a result of the application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically dominant although economically weakened. The results of these phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder of the generation. Generations and Frontier Stages The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other historical and political phenomena. Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of human control over the natural environment and the utilization of the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control, i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American society is a product of this commitment which is virtually self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier situation that has created the major social and economic changes which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's political institutions. America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American life within that stage. The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the westward movement on a basically rural population interested in settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in Alaska. Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States, where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their existence and growth. By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth, in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation. After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and pace of development across the country. The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s, ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution, and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over. By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers, satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges, initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West. Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between the points of generational division and the shifts in the various frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are closely related to the opening of new centuries. Generations and Economic Periods One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a result, the governments of the United States have always maintained a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the governmental response. These changes have also developed on a generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth generation of American history) the American government continued a semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially unregulated by government. Demands for government regulation that built up during the last generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system. Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less government intervention. Centuries, Generations and Federalism The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first generation of American history brought the introduction of federal principles through the contracts and covenants that established the colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly, concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century. The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society. Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed have been major elements in the concrete response to the generation's challenges. Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of American history and politics. The changes in those relationships also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries. British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery. Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste system was in the making. During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation. Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was abolished in the North. The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was reaffirmed through the institution of segregation. From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say, to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American culture. While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era. The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the challenges changes from century to century. During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which, objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular progression of political events revolving around the development of a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and responses that gives each generation its particular character. While the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external -- or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation themselves. In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its sisters, and the other science independence when a common national constitution created a common national politics. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the political challenges that have dominated the American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the 19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the 20th century, they have essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and new generations is marked by several decisive political actions, often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so that they will achieve greater success and at the same time integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be recognized. The Bench Marks of American Political History: Critical Elections and New Deals In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds; first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each generation. The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs of voters, shifting them from one political party to another. Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a "critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one major element to another. Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the 1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and representatives to win control of Congress. The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968, only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the "normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in 1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems, won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the GOP controlled the Senate. A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations, personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders (or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate state parties which form the two national confederations known as the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties are confederations of the state parties, so is the national coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional coalitions. Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution, too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary inroads in the various electoral groups. Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means certain that the majority party will even win all the national elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards for the party faithful during the years of national "famine." As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad electoral groups.^33 While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election. Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical elections."^34 The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the development of the institution of the popularly elected president. Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and the House of Representatives. Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem. It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file" alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from balance to majority. "New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as the historical watersheds they are. In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S. Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B. Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s. The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational consolidation. The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington before undertaking any activities. The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an "outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation, usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time. President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and localities. These were all to become principal issues during the period of generational build-up. The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues of the new generation. Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been invariably preceded by critical elections through which the reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die -- determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to majority status. These critical elections, which attain their visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which face them. Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the 1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans. Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in 1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing period for the Democratic coalition. To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in American politics is not to suggest that events move in any lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the "normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too can be done that gives the theory its power. Summary Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more interest to European social philosophers than American social scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics, often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human social rhythms generally. Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them. The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation, constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political history recurring on a generational basis. Notes 1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970); Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979). 2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973). 3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5 (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers, chapter 32, verse 13. 7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte (London: G. Bell, 1896). 9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive (London, 1862). 10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani (Milano: Monanni, 1929). 11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen, der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4. (1875), pp. 36-41. 12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds., Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane, Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp., 1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). 13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method. 14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933). 15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti, ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales (Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F. Schoeningh, 1933). 16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926); Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig, 1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris: Boivin, 1948). 17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger, 1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4 (1972): 564-78. 18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956). 19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin, American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970). 20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield, Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970). 21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939). 22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key, Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961); Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968); Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). 23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210. 24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co. 1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government from the Civil War to the New Deal. 25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no. 1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992). 26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789. 27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President. 28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W. Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber, Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey, Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.: Brooks/Cole, 1989). 29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York: Macmillan, 1961). 30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965): Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989). 31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18. 32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability," Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171. 33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?" in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed., Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1983). 34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony; David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization, Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter, Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985). [3]Elazar Papers Index / [4]JCPA Home Page / [5]Top of Page Références [USEMAP] 1. javascript:history.go(-1) 3. mailto:jcenter@jcpa.org [USEMAP] [1]CAT.INIST [2][USEMAP:bandeau-haut-droit.gif] logo CNRS [3]logo INIST [4]En savoir plus sur CAT.INIST ? © INIST Diffusion S.A. Service Clients / Customer Service 2, allée du parc de Brabois F-54514 Vandoeuvre Cedex France Tél : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.64 Fax : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.66 Courriel : [5]infoclient@inist.fr [6]Accueil / Home Imprimer / Print [7]Contact / Contact Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [8]Email Print [9]Bookmark and Share [10]Mendeley Back Titre du document / Document title Rhythms of the secular : The politics of modernizing Arab poetic forms = Rythmes du séculaire : la politique de modernisation des formes poétiques arabes Auteur(s) / Author(s) FURANI Khaled^ (1) ; Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s) ^(1) Tel-Aviv University, ISRAEL Résumé / Abstract In this article, I ethnographically trace how Arab, mainly Palestinian, poets have modernized their literary tradition during the last seven decades. Shortly after the 1948 Israeli occupation of Palestine, the reign of the classical Arabic ode collapsed, and the modern forms of free verse and, later, the prose poem became dominant. Aiming to contribute to the ethnography of modernity, I examine how poets have adopted and abandoned poetic forms by analyzing their narratives on rhythm. I explore the political salience of rhythmical transformations and argue that the secular has been a vital and complex force in the modern abandonment of metrical discipline. The secular affects how poets seek to modernize their rhythm, vocabulary, and relation to public. It also affects, I conclude, the ways in which anthropologists can and do write about modernity. Revue / Journal Title American ethnologist ISSN 0094-0496 Source / Source 2008, vol. 35, n^o2, pp. 290-307 [18 page(s) (article)] (2 p.1/4) Langue / Language Anglais Editeur / Publisher American Ethnological Society, Washington, DC, ETATS-UNIS (1974) (Revue) Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords Rhythm ; Transformation ; Modernization ; Poet ; Modernity ; Poetry ; Israel ; Palestine ; Near East ; Mots-clés français / French Keywords Forme poétique ; Tradition littéraire ; Arabe palestinien ; Rythme ; Transformation ; Modernisation ; Poète ; Modernité ; Poésie ; Israël ; Palestine ; Proche-Orient ; Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords poetic form ; modernity and secularism ; Palestine-Israel ; Localisation / Location INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 16902, 35400019805879.0070 Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 20449527 Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [11]Email Print [12]Bookmark and Share [13]Mendeley Back _______________________________ Rechercher dans CAT.INIST / Search in CAT.INIST Google Custom Search Références 5. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20CAT.INIST.FR 7. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20Cat@inist.fr [USEMAP] * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * [1]LINGUIST List logo [2]Eastern Michigan University [3]Wayne State University * * [4]People & Organizations * [5]Jobs * [6]Calls & Conferences * [7]Publications * [8]Language Resources * [9]Text & Computer Tools * [10]Teaching & Learning * [11]Mailing Lists * [12]Search * * * [13][mail-logo-9.gif] E-mail this message to a friend Title: The Rhythm of Political Oratory Author: [14]Varvara Danilina Email: [15]click here to access email Degree Awarded: Moscow State University , Department of Foreigh Languages Degree Date: 2002 Linguistic Subfield(s): Discourse Analysis Sociolinguistics Subject Language(s): [16]English Director(s): [17]Ludmila Minaeva ___________________________________ Abstract: My doctoral dissertation was completed after four years of research on the rhythm of British and American political oratory. I sought to establish the rhythmic norm for political public speech and to find out, whether any deviations from this norm (i.e. from an expected rhythmic model) influence listeners and provoke their verbal reactions or bursts of applause. To accomplish this task I used a variety of linguistic and rhetorical methods, and drew upon social psychology and political science. There is no single linguistic perspective on speech rhythm. For instance, such distinguished scholars as D. Crystal and D. Abercrombie regard it as a purely phonetic phenomenon. At the same time, according to Moscow University school of thought, to which I belong, speech rhythm is created by a blend of phonetics, syntax and meaning of an utterance. As a result of my research, I established rhythmic regularities for political oratory at five levels. Firstly, I analyzed pauses that divide the stream of speech into segments (syntagmas), and classified all the pauses into syntactic, rhetorical or unintentional (unintentional pauses are caused by hesitation, deliberation, stammering, interruptions by listeners, etc). Secondly, I established the relative frequency of short, medium and long syntagmas between pauses, and thirdly, analyzed the rhythmic structures constituted by linear sequences of syntagmas. Fourthly, I studied the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables inside syntagmas. And finally, I considered all kinds of repetitions, both rhetorical and unintentional. This method of rhythmic analysis is based on earlier analytical models designed by my university colleagues. My own contribution consisted in adapting this method to the study of public speech, describing the typical rhythm of political oratory, and challenging some popular assumptions about speech rhythm. As for the impact of speech rhythm upon listeners, I started by analyzing audiences in order to understand psychological, social and political conditions of that process. G. Le Bon, Z. Freud and other scholars demonstrated conclusively that members of a crowd (and the audience of a public speech is a crowd) are connected with each other and with their leader (in our case, a speaker) by strong subconscious ties. However, the degree of unity or polarization of an audience may differ. Besides, each audience can be characterized according to several other criteria that determine listeners' responsiveness and the nature of their responses: their emotional state, the level of expertise in a particular subject, the demographic and social characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, social status, occupation, education), the existing evaluation of discussed issues, which is largely determined by listeners' ideologies, and finally, the attitude to the speaker, which can be positive, negative or indifferent. I have applied this model of audience analysis to determine peculiarities of the British parliamentary audience in October 1996, and of the US Congress in the aftermath of September 11, 2001. To analyze the reactions of these audiences to the rhythm of Prime Minister Major and President Bush's parliamentary addresses I used M. Atkinson's version of the conversation analysis method. I showed the two speeches as dialogues between the speakers and their listeners, and singled out phrases and syntagmas that immediately preceded audience responses, such as cheering, booing, laughter or bursts of applause. These phrases and syntagmas happened to be quite similar in terms of rhythm to other stretches of speech in the same addresses. Moreover, there proved to be little rhythmic difference between John Major and George Bush's speeches. In short, my research demonstrated that there is no direct interconnection between the rhythm of a public address and audience responses. [18]Add a dissertation [19]Update dissertation Page Updated: 17-Jan-2010 [20]Print This Page __________________________________________________________________ [21][transp.gif] [22][transp.gif] Please [23]report any bad links or misclassified data __________________________________________________________________ [24]LINGUIST Homepage | [25]Read LINGUIST | [26]Contact us [27]NSF Logo While the LINGUIST List makes every effort to ensure the linguistic relevance of sites listed on its pages, it cannot vouch for their contents. Références 13. JavaScript:; 15. JavaScript:; 20. Javascript:window.print(); 22. mailto:cranston@linguistlist.org [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] #[1]Edit this page [2]Wikipedia (en) [3]copyright [4]Wikipedia RSS Feed [5]Wikipedia Atom Feed Afrobeat From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search Question book-new.svg This article does not [8]cite any [9]references or sources. Please help [10]improve this article by adding citations to [11]reliable sources. Unsourced material may be [12]challenged and [13]removed. (September 2008) Afrobeat is a combination of [14]Yoruba music, [15]jazz, [16]highlife, and [17]funk [18]rhythms, fused with [19]percussion and [20]vocal styles, popularized in [21]Africa in the 1970s. Its main creator was the [22]Nigerian multi-[23]instrumentalist and [24]bandleader [25]Fela Kuti who used it to revolutionise musical structure as well as the political context in his native Nigeria. It was Kuti who coined the term "afrobeat" upon his return from a U.S. tour with his group Nigeria 70 (formerly Koola Lobitos). The new sound hailed from a club that he established called the Afro-Shrine. Upon arriving in Nigeria, Kuti also changed the name of his group to Fela Ransome-Kuti & Africa 70. The band maintained a five-year residency in the Afro-Shrine from 1970 to 1975 while afrobeat thrived among Nigerian youth. Afrobeat is now one of the most recognisable music genres in the world and has influenced as many Western musicians as it has African ones with its exuberant style and polyrhythms. Contents * [26]1 Origins * [27]2 Influence * [28]3 Instrumentation * [29]4 Today * [30]5 External links [[31]edit] Origins Afrobeat originated from the southern part of [32]Nigeria in the 1960s where Kuti experimented with many different forms of contemporary music of the time. Prevalent in him and Lagbaja's music are native African harmonies and rhythms, taking different elements and combining, modernizing and improvising upon them. [33]Politics are essential to afrobeat, since founder Kuti used social criticism to pave the way for social change. His message can be described as confrontational and controversial, which can be related to the political climate of most of the African countries in the 1960s, many of which were dealing with political injustice and military corruption while recovering from the transition from colonial governments to self-determination. As the genre spread throughout the African continent many bands took up the style. The recordings of these bands and their songs were rarely heard or exported outside the originating countries but many can now be found on compilation albums and CDs from specialist record shops. [[34]edit] Influence Many jazz musicians have been attracted to afrobeat. From [35]Roy Ayers in the seventies to [36]Randy Weston in the nineties, there have been collaborations which have resulted in albums such as Africa: Centre of the World by Roy Ayers, released on the Polydor label in 1981. In 1994 [37]Branford Marsalis, the American jazz saxophonist, included samples of Fela's "Beast of No Nation" on his Buckshot leFonque album. The new generation of DJs and musicians of the 2000s who have fallen in love with both Kuti's material and other rare releases have made compilations and remixes of these recordings, thus re-introducing the genre to new generations of listeners and fans of afropop and groove. Afrobeat has profoundly influenced important contemporary producers and musicians like [38]Brian Eno and [39]David Byrne, who credit Fela Kuti as an essential muse. Both worked on [40]Talking Heads' highly-acclaimed 1980 album [41]Remain In Light which brought polyrhythmic afrobeat influences to Western music. More recently, the horn section of [42]Antibalas have been guest musicians on [43]TV On The Radio's highly-acclaimed 2008 album [44]Dear Science, as well as on British band [45]Foals' 2008 album [46]Antidotes. [[47]edit] Instrumentation Big band (15 to 30 pieces: Fela-era afrobeat) and energetic performances * Lead vocals (may play sax/key solos as well) * Chorus vocals (may include horn players) * Rhythm guitar(s) (plays funk strumming pattern) * Tenor guitar (plays a finger-picked osinato groove) * [48]Bass guitar * [49]Drum set, generally in the form [50]polyrhythmic percussion * Saxophone(s) * Trumpet(s) * Trombone(s) * Organ/keyboards * Rhythm [51]conga #1 * Rhythm [52]conga #2 * Solo (lead) [53]conga * [54]Akuba: a set of 3 small stick-hit congas (play flourishes/solos, and ostinatos). Also mistakenly called "gbedu". * "Sticks"/[55]claves (plays ostinato) * [56]Shekere [[57]edit] Today There are several active afrobeat bands worldwide today. Modern afrobeat bands/artistes include: * [58]Kokolo (band), New York City Afrobeat/Afrofunk group formed by songwriter/producer Ray Lugo * [59]Nomo, [60]Ann Arbor based group that weaves various styles into a primarily Afrobeat sound. * [61]Chicago Afrobeat Project Chicago based collective that uses afrobeat as a springboard and has an incendiary live show. * [62]Afrodizz, an eight-piece band from [63]Montreal, [64]Canada formed by jazz guitarist Gabriel Aldama * [65]The Afromotive, an Asheville, NC based multiracial seven-piece afrobeat band featuring thirty-third generation djembe player Adama Dembele from Cote d`Ivoire, West Africa. * [66]Tony Allen, the man who held the drum chair during Fela's productive "Africa 70" phase, and whose drumming was, according to [67]James Brown's autobiography, the influence behind his 'discovery' of funk.^[[68]citation needed] * [69]Antibalas, [70]Brooklyn, New York based multiracial Afrobeat Orchestra formed by baritone saxophonist Martin Perna * [71]Aphrodesia, San Francisco based group, first American group to perform with Femi Kuti at The Shrine in Lagos, Nigeria. * [72]Ayetoro, a group led by Nigerian pianist/composer [73]Funsho Ogundipe * [74]Bebe cool lives in Uganda famous for his reggea mixed with luganda pop and English making an Afrobeat rhythm in Uganda known as Luga flow.He also lives in kampala. * [75]Chopteeth, an international 14 piece outfit based in Washington D.C., with former members of Busta Rhymes, The Temptations, The Four Tops, and Gladys Knight & the Pips. * [76]Femi Kuti (Fela's first son and a saxophonist) and the Positive Force * [77]Seun Kuti (another of Kuti's sons, saxophonist now fronting his father's last and late band) * [78]Dele Sosimi's Gbedu Resurrection Dele is a former keyboardist and musical director of Fela's band. He cofounded Femi Kuti's Positive Force. * [79]Zozo Afrobeat A thirteen-member group based in NYC, founded by Kaleta, former Fela guitarist. * [80]Baba Ken and the Afro-Groove Connexion Oakland based multiracial afrobeat ensemble led by Nigerian bassist, Baba Ken Okulolo, founding member of the seminal 1970's afrofunk/afrorock band, Monomono. * [81]Jose Chameleone famous in East, central and South Africa.He stays and live is Uganda in kampala city.He sing pop and Afro beat music.He is one of the most famous artists of Afro beat in Africa and the whole world. * [82]Afrobeat Down Los Angeles based Afrobeat ensemble (est. 2002) working with former Fela Africa '70 member and catalyst of entire afrobeat movement, Sandra Izsadore. * [83]Weird MC Rap artiste who occasionally experinments with Afrobeat rhythm. * [84]Vibe Squad A Ghanaian music crew formed by EaZZY Da Opemfour made of Prego, Culchar, Wizzy Wii and Richie. * [85]Gnl zamba rap artist in Uganda one of the most successful rap afrobeat star in East Africa and central Africa.He is known for his rhythm of 2 pac shakur * [86]Mr. Something Something Canadian afrobeat group * [87]Crime Scene Infunkstigation A 10-piece Afrobeat/Funk/Hip Hop group based out of Calgary, AB [[88]edit] External links * [89]KOKOLO on Myspace * [90]KOKOLO on YouTube * [91]KOKOLO Official Homepage * [92]The Afrobeat Blog * [93]The Unofficial Seun Kuti Fan-Site - Unofficial fan-site for Seun Kuti & Egypt 80 with news, videos, music, pictures and much more] * [94]The Shrine The Unofficial Website for Fela Kuti, Femi Kuti and Afrobeat Music * [95]BBC Afrobeat Documentary [96]v o [97]d o [98]e Genres of [99]African popular music Afrobeat · [100]Apala · [101]Benga · [102]Bikutsi · [103]Cape Jazz · [104]Chimurenga · [105]Fuji · [106]Highlife · [107]Hiplife · [108]Isicathamiya · [109]Jit · [110]Jùjú · [111]Kizomba · [112]Kuduro · [113]Kwaito · [114]Kwela · [115]Makossa · [116]Maloya · [117]Marrabenta · [118]Mbalax · [119]Mbaqanga · [120]Mbube · [121]Morna · [122]Palm-wine · [123]Raï · [124]Sakara · [125]Sega · [126]Soukous/Congo/Lingala/Rumba · [127]Taarab [128]v o [129]d o [130]e [131]Funk music [132]Acid jazz o Afrobeat o [133]Brit funk o [134]Funk metal o [135]Deep Funk o [136]Drumfunk o [137]Free funk o [138]Funkcore o [139]Funktronica o [140]Funk rock o [141]G-funk o [142]Go-go o [143]Jazz-funk o [144]Liquid funk o [145]Neurofunk o [146]Nu-funk o [147]P-Funk o [148]Post-disco o [149]Punk-funk o [150]Skweee Related [151]List of funk musicians o [152]Minneapolis sound [154]Categories: [155]Funk genres | [156]African American music in Africa Hidden categories: [157]Articles lacking sources from September 2008 | [158]All articles lacking sources | [159]All articles with unsourced statements | [160]Articles with unsourced statements from July 2007 Views * [161]Article * [162]Discussion * [163]Edit this page * [164]History Personal tools * [165]Try Beta * [166]Log in / create account Navigation * [167]Main page * [168]Contents * [169]Featured content * [170]Current events * [171]Random article Search ____________________ Go Search Interaction * [172]About Wikipedia * [173]Community portal * [174]Recent changes * [175]Contact Wikipedia * [176]Donate to Wikipedia * [177]Help Toolbox * [178]What links here * [179]Related changes * [180]Upload file * [181]Special pages * [182]Printable version * [183]Permanent link * [184]Cite this page Languages * [185]Català * [186]Deutsch * [187]Español * [188]Français * [189]Hrvatski * [190]Italiano * [191]Nederlands * [192]¥¬ * [193]ªNorsk (bokmål) * [194]Polski * [195]Português * [196]Suomi [197]Powered by MediaWiki [198]Wikimedia Foundation * This page was last modified on 12 January 2010 at 06:03. * Text is available under the [199]Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See [200]Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [201]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * [202]Contact us * [203]Privacy policy * [204]About Wikipedia * [205]Disclaimers Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : #[1]rss [2]Jump to content Year * 1996 * 1997 * 1998 * 1999 * 2000 * 2001 * 2002 * 2003 * 2004 * [3]2005 * [4]2006 * [5]2007 * [6]2008 * [7]2009 * 2010 * 2011 * 2012 * 2013 * 2014 * 2015 * 2016 * 2017 * 2018 * 2019 Day * [8]24 * [9]23 * [10]22 * [11]21 * [12]20 * [13]19 * [14]18 * [15]17 * [16]16 * [17]15 * [18]14 * [19]13 * [20]12 * [21]11 * [22]10 * [23]09 * [24]08 * [25]07 * [26]06 * [27]05 * [28]04 * [29]03 * [30]02 * [31]01 [32]24 Ways to impress your friends * [33]Home * [34]Archives * [35]Authors * [36]Twitter * [37]RSS * ____________________ Go 12 12/2006 [38]Compose to a Vertical Rhythm by [39]Richard Rutter * [40]Article * [41]29 comments "Space in typography is like time in music. It is infinitely divisible, but a few proportional intervals can be much more useful than a limitless choice of arbitrary quantities." So says the typographer Robert Bringhurst, and just as regular use of time provides rhythm in music, so regular use of space provides rhythm in typography, and without rhythm the listener, or the reader, becomes disorientated and lost. On the Web, vertical rhythm - the spacing and arrangement of text as the reader descends the page - is contributed to by three factors: font size, line height and margin or padding. All of these factors must calculated with care in order that the rhythm is maintained. The basic unit of vertical space is line height. Establishing a suitable line height that can be applied to all text on the page, be it heading, body copy or sidenote, is the key to a solid dependable vertical rhythm, which will engage and guide the reader down the page. To see this in action, I've created [42]an example with headings, footnotes and sidenotes. Establishing a suitable line height The easiest place to begin determining a basic line height unit is with the font size of the body copy. For [43]the example I've chosen 12px. To ensure readability the body text will almost certainly need some leading, that is to say spacing between the lines. A line-height of 1.5em would give 6px spacing between the lines of body copy. This will create a total line height of 18px, which becomes our basic unit. Here's the CSS to get us to this point: 1. body { 2. font-size: 75%; 3. } 4. 5. html>body { 6. font-size: 12px; 7. } 8. 9. p { 10. line-height 1.5em; 11. } 12. Source: [44]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/1.txt There are many ways to size text in CSS and the above approach provides and accessible method of achieving the pixel-precision solid typography requires. By way of explanation, the first font-size reduces the body text from the 16px default (common to most browsers and OS set-ups) down to the 12px we require. This rule is primarily there for Internet Explorer 6 and below on Windows: the percentage value means that the text will scale predictably should a user bump the text size up or down. The second font-size sets the text size specifically and is ignored by IE6, but used by Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels. Spacing between paragraphs With our rhythmic unit set at 18px we need to ensure that it is maintained throughout the body copy. A common place to lose the rhythm is the gaps set between margins. The default treatment by web browsers of paragraphs is to insert a top- and bottom-margin of 1em. In our case this would give a spacing between the paragraphs of 12px and hence throw the text out of rhythm. If the rhythm of the page is to be maintained, the spacing of paragraphs should be related to the basic line height unit. This is achieved simply by setting top- and bottom-margins equal to the line height. In order that typographic integrity is maintained when text is resized by the user we must use ems for all our vertical measurements, including line-height, padding and margins. 1. p { 2. font-size:1em; 3. margin-top: 1.5em; 4. margin-bottom: 1.5em; 5. } 6. Source: [45]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/2.txt Browsers set margins on all block-level elements (such as headings, lists and blockquotes) so a way of ensuring that typographic attention is paid to all such elements is to reset the margins at the beginning of your style sheet. You could use a rule such as: 1. body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl ockquote,th,td { 2. margin:0; 3. padding:0; 4. } 5. Source: [46]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/3.txt Alternatively you could look into using the [47]Yahoo! UI Reset style sheet which removes most default styling, so providing a solid foundation upon which you can explicitly declare your design intentions. Variations in text size When there is a change in text size, perhaps with a heading or sidenotes, the differing text should also take up a multiple of the basic leading. This means that, in our example, every diversion from the basic text size should take up multiples of 18px. This can be accomplished by adjusting the line-height and margin accordingly, as described following. Headings Subheadings in the [48]example page are set to 14px. In order that the height of each line is 18px, the line-height should be set to 18 ÷ 14 = 1.286. Similarly the margins above and below the heading must be adjusted to fit. The temptation is to set heading margins to a simple 1em, but in order to maintain the rhythm, the top and bottom margins should be set at 1.286em so that the spacing is equal to the full 18px unit. 1. h2 { 2. font-size:1.1667em; 3. line-height: 1.286em; 4. margin-top: 1.286em; 5. margin-bottom: 1.286em; 6. } 7. Source: [49]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/4.txt One can also set asymmetrical margins for headings, provided the margins combine to be multiples of the basic line height. In our example, a top margin of 1½ lines is combined with a bottom margin of half a line as follows: 1. h2 { 2. font-size:1.1667em; 3. line-height: 1.286em; 4. margin-top: 1.929em; 5. margin-bottom: 0.643em; 6. } 7. Source: [50]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/5.txt Also in our example, the main heading is given a text size of 18px, therefore the line-height has been set to 1em, as has the margin: 1. h1 { 2. font-size:1.5em; 3. line-height: 1em; 4. margin-top: 0; 5. margin-bottom: 1em; 6. } 7. Source: [51]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/6.txt Sidenotes Sidenotes (and other supplementary material) are often set at a smaller size to the basic text. To keep the rhythm, this smaller text should still line up with body copy, so a calculation similar to that for headings is required. In our example, the sidenotes are set at 10px and so their line-height must be increased to 18 ÷ 10 = 1.8. 1. .sidenote { 2. font-size:0.8333em; 3. line-height:1.8em; 4. } 5. Source: [52]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/7.txt Borders One additional point where vertical rhythm is often lost is with the introduction of horizontal borders. These effectively act as shims pushing the subsequent text downwards, so a two pixel horizontal border will throw out the vertical rhythm by two pixels. A way around this is to specify horizontal lines using background images or, as in our example, specify the width of the border in ems and adjust the padding to take up the slack. The design of the footnote in our example requires a 1px horizontal border. The footnote contains 12px text, so 1px in ems is 1 ÷ 12 = 0.0833. I have added a margin of 1½ lines above the border (1.5 × 18 ÷ 12 = 2.5ems), so to maintain the rhythm the border + padding must equal a ½ (9px). We know the border is set to 1px, so the padding must be set to 8px. To specify this in ems we use the familiar calculation: 8 ÷ 12 = 0.667. Hit me with your rhythm stick Composing to a vertical rhythm helps engage and guide the reader down the page, but it takes typographic discipline to do so. It may seem like a lot of fiddly maths is involved (a few divisions and multiplications never hurt anyone) but good type setting is all about numbers, and it is this attention to detail which is the key to success. Like what you read? * [53]Tweet this article * or * [54]Leave a comment Comments * [55]12/12/2006 Wow this is a good article. * [57]12/12/2006 [58]Will thanks so much, this is great. * [59]12/12/2006 Interesting stuff. Also worth reading Eric Meyer's post on unitless line-heights: * [61]12/12/2006 It's worth mentioning that IE6 and below can go a bit extreme when resizing fonts set as ems. You can fix this by applying font-size: 100% to html. Don't know why this works, it just does. Oh, if you're working in quirks mode you'll also need to apply it to thead, tbody and tfoot, beacuse the fix doesn't inherit (don't apply it to table unless you want table to inherit font-sizes). You don't need thead, tbody or tfoot in your tables as tbody is implied. Obviously, you can't then apply your own font-sizes to html or tbody etc, else you'll overwrite the fix, which is why I chose those particular elements as they're rarely used for font-sizes. Jake. * [63]12/12/2006 [64]Mike Stenhouse donotremove.co.uk Hmmmmm, interesting! I've not tried this but I think there might be an easier way to set those heights... What if the line-height is set to, say, 1.5em on the body and 1 (unit-less - it's valid!) on each descendant element? Or maybe some variation on that. It might force the 18px to inherit into the children without awkward calculations. * [65]12/12/2006 Great article, Richard! Web typography--like all typography--deserves this level of detailed thinking, and I hope to see more designers embracing it. * [67]12/12/2006 [68]michael h Good introduction to typography theory, but I am convinced that the Owen Briggs method is the best approach to sizing. * [69]13/12/2006 I've been working on something similar recently, and I've discovered that if you set the line-height in pixels, most browsers will still scale it proportionally along with the text. As IE6's numbers fall off, I hope we can leave all this black magic scaling math behind and go back to setting font sizes in pixels and letting the browsers handle the scaling. * [71]13/12/2006 Mike - you're right about being able to simplify the line-height specifications, but it doesn't require setting unitless line-heights. In the example I use, I've set the font-size to be 12px on the body and calculated line-heights for all the subsequent elements. As I required one line height - 18px - for all elements I can remove the multiple statements and simply set line-height:1.5em on the body. The calculated line-height of 18px is inherited by all elements on the page. I've modifed the example to show this (checked in Firefox, Safari and IE6): However the maths would still need to be performed to calculate the correct margins, so while the extra line-height specifications are not strictly necessary (at least while the same line height for all text is required) you unfortunately don't save much on the calculations. * [73]13/12/2006 Jake - the extreme text sizing in IE can be fixed by applying any percentage font size to the body - it doesn't have to be 100% (hence my use of 75% fixed this too). You're right about the tables though. This rule does the job nicely to inherit the text size: table, thead, tbody, tr, th, td {font-size:1em} * [75]13/12/2006 [76]GreLI In the article next rule is used to reset margins: body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl ockquote,th,td { margin:0; padding:0; } I think it easier to use universal selector (* { margin: 0; padding: 0 }) instead. To fix table font-size inheritance it's enough to set table { font-size: 1em } Opera AFAIK don't change font-size if it set in pixels, but it can zoom pages (so does IE7). * [77]13/12/2006 GreLI - using the universal selector like that to zero all margins and padding can cause unpredictable results in some form controls (e.g. SELECT elements) in certain browsers. Rich - great article; now all someone needs to do is knock up a nice little app that spits out the right line-heights and margins for the elements you tell it... :) * [79]13/12/2006 It's unfortunate that pretty much no one composes with a scale when publishing for the web. Your article is a great step forward. Also overlooked are line lengths. Since the beginning of the web, It has been a standard practice to expand the line lengths out with the width of the browser (like your site is currently :), causing line lengths to expand way too long. If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even smaller. * [81]14/12/2006 I don't see it mentioned in the comments yet, but your quote above: "...Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels." is not correct, as IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized. * [83]18/12/2006 If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even smaller. You're right to mention line length as something that is overlooked, but on the screen it is not as simple as setting the measure in ems as their are more factors involved (screen size, liquid layouts, etc). Also I'd disagree that web line lengths should be shorter on the web. My personal preference would be for them to be longer - I find short line lengths on screen extremely hard work to read. That's just my opinion though. IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized. If you think of the reasons for changing text size then zooming a layout is just another form of resizing text and achieves the same goal. * [85]20/12/2006 Theodore, I think you would enjoy Richard's article entitled "Choose a comfortable measure" over at webtypography.net :) 1.2/ * [87]22/12/2006 [88]Rachel Maxim You've said in a few pages what has taken me years to figure out and refine :) - great info! * [89]23/12/2006 I really enjoyed this article. I have read your Elements of....for the web, as well as your blog about sizing text in ems. I have really been looking in to using this and getting the best `flow' with my typography. I also ordered the book Elements of Typographic Style just to give a better understanding. I think its a common misconception that text on the web will always look bland, and you have proved that it can have rhythm and style. * [91]02/01/2007 I've just been using some of these techniques on a client's site who needed 8 tabs all the same width, which fill the available space - I had it working fine in Firefox, but the tabs didn't fill the space in Safari or IE. I found that you really have to do the maths, rather than just use trial and error - they all round the numbers slightly differently. Once I'd checked my calculations, rather than tinkered with the numbers, it works fine everywhere, at least at standard font size. One other correction from someone's comment earlier on - you can resize text in IE7 - click the page icon at top right. Why you need both this and the ability to zoom, I'm not sure, but it's there at any rate. * [93]03/01/2007 [94]Ben G Can you set the margin above or below headings or paragraphs to less than your 18px base measurement? Won't margin collapsing cause whichever the largest margin is to take effect? Ben * [95]31/01/2009 [96]Daniel I've been using this article as the basis for designing my site with some "vertical rhythm". Everything is going well except with forms (input, textarea, etc.). I just haven't been able to use css to maintain the vertical rhythm (based on total line height of 18px). Any advise or insight as to how to get forms to play nicely? * [97]15/02/2009 [98]Silver Firefly I wanted to clarify something about the default browser text size and using the em unit. The article was a tad misleading when it covered the default browser text size and the em unit. A lot of designers have it in their heads that an em is equivalent to 16 pixels. An em is not equivalent to 16 pixels. It is equivalent to whatever is set in the user's browser, which is commonly 16px but depending on the user, it can be 20px or 12px or whatever they have set in their browser's settings. I hope after reading that statement, designers will start to realise that they have little control over how their website appears in other users' browsers. The majority of the control lies in the user's hands. Other than that, the article was very good. * [99]17/04/2009 Great article... and AWESOME site design. Inspirational! * [101]27/04/2009 Typesetting for websites is the future, like all things content-related. The Google knows it :). Thank you for that useful post. You webdesigners take care of your text! * [103]05/06/2009 [104]bonfield Inline bolding of elements (I'm using Helvetica, e.g.) seems to add a px of height on any line that uses it, and that subtly throws off the vertical rhythm for each line and it can add up depending -- anybody else run into this and solve it? * [105]18/06/2009 [106]Anonymous Does this truly keep the vertical rhythm? If you zoom in on the example, you'll see that the descender of the letter g in the H1 header "New England" crosses your rhythm marker's background line, while a lowercase g in the following paragraph does not. There appears to be some fudging going on. * [107]08/07/2009 I find it humorous that this site itself does not compose to a vertical rhythm. I've seen very few online that do. It's so difficult to implement across browsers it is usually brushed aside except for in the most simple design schemes. * [109]03/08/2009 [110]eric I've yet to see any empirical evidence that "vertical rhythm" applied to this degree has any impact on how well a reader is able to extract signal from the noise of the page. Meanwhile, I've seen many, many examples of mis-applied "vertical rhythms" resulting in squashed headings where the underlning on a link impinges on the text below. Which just looks clunky. When you've got something other than an aesthetic opinion from the margins -- maybe some actual data -- then I'll be interested in expending the effort needed to support real vertical rhythm. Until then, I just don't see how it's cost-effective. * [111]02/09/2009 Now, that was the kind of article I was looking for. That goes a lot deeper than I've been into the realms of line-spacing, leading (no kerning here though - can we do kerning with css?). I love the analogy to musical rhythym > therefore probably following on to mathematics/geometry/proportion. That is a great lead-in. Is there any room for the `golden ratio' in web design? Do graphic designers use it with/without realising it? Just that I haven't seen it discussed in the myriad pages concerning page layout/design that I've read so far... Thanks, Darren Impress us Name _________________________ Email _________________________ Website _________________________ Message _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ Be friendly / use [113]Textile Preview Submit About the author [114]Richard Rutter Richard Rutter is a user experience consultant and director of [115]Clearleft. He runs an ongoing project called [116]The Elements of Typographic Style Applied to the Web, where he extols the virtues of good web typography. Richard occasionally blogs at [117]Clagnut, where he writes about design, accessibility and web standards issues, as well as his passion for music and mountain biking. [118]More information Related articles * [119]Real Fonts and Rendering: The New Elephant in the Room 22/12/2009 by [120]Jeffrey Zeldman * [121]Spruce It Up 19/12/2009 by [122]Jonathan Snook * [123]Designing For The Switch 16/12/2009 by [124]Mark Boulton * [125]Type-Inspired Interfaces 07/12/2009 by [126]Dan Mall * [127]A Festive Type Folly 17/12/2008 by [128]Jon Tan * [129]Increase Your Font Stacks With Font Matrix 17/12/2007 by [130]Richard Rutter * [131]Typesetting Tables 07/12/2007 by [132]Mark Boulton * [133]Knockout Type - Thin Is Always In 17/12/2006 by [134]Shaun Inman * [135]An Explanation of Ems 02/12/2005 by [136]Richard Rutter [137]Article archives... 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It is infinitely divisible, but a few proportional intervals can be much more useful than a limitless choice of arbitrary quantities." So says the typographer Robert Bringhurst, and just as regular use of time provides rhythm in music, so regular use of space provides rhythm in typography, and without rhythm the listener, or the reader, becomes disorientated and lost. On the Web, vertical rhythm - the spacing and arrangement of text as the reader descends the page - is contributed to by three factors: font size, line height and margin or padding. All of these factors must calculated with care in order that the rhythm is maintained. The basic unit of vertical space is line height. Establishing a suitable line height that can be applied to all text on the page, be it heading, body copy or sidenote, is the key to a solid dependable vertical rhythm, which will engage and guide the reader down the page. To see this in action, I've created [42]an example with headings, footnotes and sidenotes. Establishing a suitable line height The easiest place to begin determining a basic line height unit is with the font size of the body copy. For [43]the example I've chosen 12px. To ensure readability the body text will almost certainly need some leading, that is to say spacing between the lines. A line-height of 1.5em would give 6px spacing between the lines of body copy. This will create a total line height of 18px, which becomes our basic unit. Here's the CSS to get us to this point: 1. body { 2. font-size: 75%; 3. } 4. 5. html>body { 6. font-size: 12px; 7. } 8. 9. p { 10. line-height 1.5em; 11. } 12. Source: [44]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/1.txt There are many ways to size text in CSS and the above approach provides and accessible method of achieving the pixel-precision solid typography requires. By way of explanation, the first font-size reduces the body text from the 16px default (common to most browsers and OS set-ups) down to the 12px we require. This rule is primarily there for Internet Explorer 6 and below on Windows: the percentage value means that the text will scale predictably should a user bump the text size up or down. The second font-size sets the text size specifically and is ignored by IE6, but used by Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels. Spacing between paragraphs With our rhythmic unit set at 18px we need to ensure that it is maintained throughout the body copy. A common place to lose the rhythm is the gaps set between margins. The default treatment by web browsers of paragraphs is to insert a top- and bottom-margin of 1em. In our case this would give a spacing between the paragraphs of 12px and hence throw the text out of rhythm. If the rhythm of the page is to be maintained, the spacing of paragraphs should be related to the basic line height unit. This is achieved simply by setting top- and bottom-margins equal to the line height. In order that typographic integrity is maintained when text is resized by the user we must use ems for all our vertical measurements, including line-height, padding and margins. 1. p { 2. font-size:1em; 3. margin-top: 1.5em; 4. margin-bottom: 1.5em; 5. } 6. Source: [45]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/2.txt Browsers set margins on all block-level elements (such as headings, lists and blockquotes) so a way of ensuring that typographic attention is paid to all such elements is to reset the margins at the beginning of your style sheet. You could use a rule such as: 1. body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl ockquote,th,td { 2. margin:0; 3. padding:0; 4. } 5. Source: [46]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/3.txt Alternatively you could look into using the [47]Yahoo! UI Reset style sheet which removes most default styling, so providing a solid foundation upon which you can explicitly declare your design intentions. Variations in text size When there is a change in text size, perhaps with a heading or sidenotes, the differing text should also take up a multiple of the basic leading. This means that, in our example, every diversion from the basic text size should take up multiples of 18px. This can be accomplished by adjusting the line-height and margin accordingly, as described following. Headings Subheadings in the [48]example page are set to 14px. In order that the height of each line is 18px, the line-height should be set to 18 ÷ 14 = 1.286. Similarly the margins above and below the heading must be adjusted to fit. The temptation is to set heading margins to a simple 1em, but in order to maintain the rhythm, the top and bottom margins should be set at 1.286em so that the spacing is equal to the full 18px unit. 1. h2 { 2. font-size:1.1667em; 3. line-height: 1.286em; 4. margin-top: 1.286em; 5. margin-bottom: 1.286em; 6. } 7. Source: [49]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/4.txt One can also set asymmetrical margins for headings, provided the margins combine to be multiples of the basic line height. In our example, a top margin of 1½ lines is combined with a bottom margin of half a line as follows: 1. h2 { 2. font-size:1.1667em; 3. line-height: 1.286em; 4. margin-top: 1.929em; 5. margin-bottom: 0.643em; 6. } 7. Source: [50]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/5.txt Also in our example, the main heading is given a text size of 18px, therefore the line-height has been set to 1em, as has the margin: 1. h1 { 2. font-size:1.5em; 3. line-height: 1em; 4. margin-top: 0; 5. margin-bottom: 1em; 6. } 7. Source: [51]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/6.txt Sidenotes Sidenotes (and other supplementary material) are often set at a smaller size to the basic text. To keep the rhythm, this smaller text should still line up with body copy, so a calculation similar to that for headings is required. In our example, the sidenotes are set at 10px and so their line-height must be increased to 18 ÷ 10 = 1.8. 1. .sidenote { 2. font-size:0.8333em; 3. line-height:1.8em; 4. } 5. Source: [52]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/7.txt Borders One additional point where vertical rhythm is often lost is with the introduction of horizontal borders. These effectively act as shims pushing the subsequent text downwards, so a two pixel horizontal border will throw out the vertical rhythm by two pixels. A way around this is to specify horizontal lines using background images or, as in our example, specify the width of the border in ems and adjust the padding to take up the slack. The design of the footnote in our example requires a 1px horizontal border. The footnote contains 12px text, so 1px in ems is 1 ÷ 12 = 0.0833. I have added a margin of 1½ lines above the border (1.5 × 18 ÷ 12 = 2.5ems), so to maintain the rhythm the border + padding must equal a ½ (9px). We know the border is set to 1px, so the padding must be set to 8px. To specify this in ems we use the familiar calculation: 8 ÷ 12 = 0.667. Hit me with your rhythm stick Composing to a vertical rhythm helps engage and guide the reader down the page, but it takes typographic discipline to do so. It may seem like a lot of fiddly maths is involved (a few divisions and multiplications never hurt anyone) but good type setting is all about numbers, and it is this attention to detail which is the key to success. Like what you read? * [53]Tweet this article * or * [54]Leave a comment Comments * [55]12/12/2006 Wow this is a good article. * [57]12/12/2006 [58]Will thanks so much, this is great. * [59]12/12/2006 Interesting stuff. Also worth reading Eric Meyer's post on unitless line-heights: * [61]12/12/2006 It's worth mentioning that IE6 and below can go a bit extreme when resizing fonts set as ems. You can fix this by applying font-size: 100% to html. Don't know why this works, it just does. Oh, if you're working in quirks mode you'll also need to apply it to thead, tbody and tfoot, beacuse the fix doesn't inherit (don't apply it to table unless you want table to inherit font-sizes). You don't need thead, tbody or tfoot in your tables as tbody is implied. Obviously, you can't then apply your own font-sizes to html or tbody etc, else you'll overwrite the fix, which is why I chose those particular elements as they're rarely used for font-sizes. Jake. * [63]12/12/2006 [64]Mike Stenhouse donotremove.co.uk Hmmmmm, interesting! I've not tried this but I think there might be an easier way to set those heights... What if the line-height is set to, say, 1.5em on the body and 1 (unit-less - it's valid!) on each descendant element? Or maybe some variation on that. It might force the 18px to inherit into the children without awkward calculations. * [65]12/12/2006 Great article, Richard! Web typography--like all typography--deserves this level of detailed thinking, and I hope to see more designers embracing it. * [67]12/12/2006 [68]michael h Good introduction to typography theory, but I am convinced that the Owen Briggs method is the best approach to sizing. * [69]13/12/2006 I've been working on something similar recently, and I've discovered that if you set the line-height in pixels, most browsers will still scale it proportionally along with the text. As IE6's numbers fall off, I hope we can leave all this black magic scaling math behind and go back to setting font sizes in pixels and letting the browsers handle the scaling. * [71]13/12/2006 Mike - you're right about being able to simplify the line-height specifications, but it doesn't require setting unitless line-heights. In the example I use, I've set the font-size to be 12px on the body and calculated line-heights for all the subsequent elements. As I required one line height - 18px - for all elements I can remove the multiple statements and simply set line-height:1.5em on the body. The calculated line-height of 18px is inherited by all elements on the page. I've modifed the example to show this (checked in Firefox, Safari and IE6): However the maths would still need to be performed to calculate the correct margins, so while the extra line-height specifications are not strictly necessary (at least while the same line height for all text is required) you unfortunately don't save much on the calculations. * [73]13/12/2006 Jake - the extreme text sizing in IE can be fixed by applying any percentage font size to the body - it doesn't have to be 100% (hence my use of 75% fixed this too). You're right about the tables though. This rule does the job nicely to inherit the text size: table, thead, tbody, tr, th, td {font-size:1em} * [75]13/12/2006 [76]GreLI In the article next rule is used to reset margins: body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl ockquote,th,td { margin:0; padding:0; } I think it easier to use universal selector (* { margin: 0; padding: 0 }) instead. To fix table font-size inheritance it's enough to set table { font-size: 1em } Opera AFAIK don't change font-size if it set in pixels, but it can zoom pages (so does IE7). * [77]13/12/2006 GreLI - using the universal selector like that to zero all margins and padding can cause unpredictable results in some form controls (e.g. SELECT elements) in certain browsers. Rich - great article; now all someone needs to do is knock up a nice little app that spits out the right line-heights and margins for the elements you tell it... :) * [79]13/12/2006 It's unfortunate that pretty much no one composes with a scale when publishing for the web. Your article is a great step forward. Also overlooked are line lengths. Since the beginning of the web, It has been a standard practice to expand the line lengths out with the width of the browser (like your site is currently :), causing line lengths to expand way too long. If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even smaller. * [81]14/12/2006 I don't see it mentioned in the comments yet, but your quote above: "...Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels." is not correct, as IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized. * [83]18/12/2006 If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even smaller. You're right to mention line length as something that is overlooked, but on the screen it is not as simple as setting the measure in ems as their are more factors involved (screen size, liquid layouts, etc). Also I'd disagree that web line lengths should be shorter on the web. My personal preference would be for them to be longer - I find short line lengths on screen extremely hard work to read. That's just my opinion though. IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized. If you think of the reasons for changing text size then zooming a layout is just another form of resizing text and achieves the same goal. * [85]20/12/2006 Theodore, I think you would enjoy Richard's article entitled "Choose a comfortable measure" over at webtypography.net :) 1.2/ * [87]22/12/2006 [88]Rachel Maxim You've said in a few pages what has taken me years to figure out and refine :) - great info! * [89]23/12/2006 I really enjoyed this article. I have read your Elements of....for the web, as well as your blog about sizing text in ems. I have really been looking in to using this and getting the best `flow' with my typography. I also ordered the book Elements of Typographic Style just to give a better understanding. I think its a common misconception that text on the web will always look bland, and you have proved that it can have rhythm and style. * [91]02/01/2007 I've just been using some of these techniques on a client's site who needed 8 tabs all the same width, which fill the available space - I had it working fine in Firefox, but the tabs didn't fill the space in Safari or IE. I found that you really have to do the maths, rather than just use trial and error - they all round the numbers slightly differently. Once I'd checked my calculations, rather than tinkered with the numbers, it works fine everywhere, at least at standard font size. One other correction from someone's comment earlier on - you can resize text in IE7 - click the page icon at top right. Why you need both this and the ability to zoom, I'm not sure, but it's there at any rate. * [93]03/01/2007 [94]Ben G Can you set the margin above or below headings or paragraphs to less than your 18px base measurement? Won't margin collapsing cause whichever the largest margin is to take effect? Ben * [95]31/01/2009 [96]Daniel I've been using this article as the basis for designing my site with some "vertical rhythm". Everything is going well except with forms (input, textarea, etc.). I just haven't been able to use css to maintain the vertical rhythm (based on total line height of 18px). Any advise or insight as to how to get forms to play nicely? * [97]15/02/2009 [98]Silver Firefly I wanted to clarify something about the default browser text size and using the em unit. The article was a tad misleading when it covered the default browser text size and the em unit. A lot of designers have it in their heads that an em is equivalent to 16 pixels. An em is not equivalent to 16 pixels. It is equivalent to whatever is set in the user's browser, which is commonly 16px but depending on the user, it can be 20px or 12px or whatever they have set in their browser's settings. I hope after reading that statement, designers will start to realise that they have little control over how their website appears in other users' browsers. The majority of the control lies in the user's hands. Other than that, the article was very good. * [99]17/04/2009 Great article... and AWESOME site design. Inspirational! * [101]27/04/2009 Typesetting for websites is the future, like all things content-related. The Google knows it :). Thank you for that useful post. You webdesigners take care of your text! * [103]05/06/2009 [104]bonfield Inline bolding of elements (I'm using Helvetica, e.g.) seems to add a px of height on any line that uses it, and that subtly throws off the vertical rhythm for each line and it can add up depending -- anybody else run into this and solve it? * [105]18/06/2009 [106]Anonymous Does this truly keep the vertical rhythm? If you zoom in on the example, you'll see that the descender of the letter g in the H1 header "New England" crosses your rhythm marker's background line, while a lowercase g in the following paragraph does not. There appears to be some fudging going on. * [107]08/07/2009 I find it humorous that this site itself does not compose to a vertical rhythm. I've seen very few online that do. It's so difficult to implement across browsers it is usually brushed aside except for in the most simple design schemes. * [109]03/08/2009 [110]eric I've yet to see any empirical evidence that "vertical rhythm" applied to this degree has any impact on how well a reader is able to extract signal from the noise of the page. Meanwhile, I've seen many, many examples of mis-applied "vertical rhythms" resulting in squashed headings where the underlning on a link impinges on the text below. Which just looks clunky. When you've got something other than an aesthetic opinion from the margins -- maybe some actual data -- then I'll be interested in expending the effort needed to support real vertical rhythm. Until then, I just don't see how it's cost-effective. * [111]02/09/2009 Now, that was the kind of article I was looking for. That goes a lot deeper than I've been into the realms of line-spacing, leading (no kerning here though - can we do kerning with css?). I love the analogy to musical rhythym > therefore probably following on to mathematics/geometry/proportion. That is a great lead-in. Is there any room for the `golden ratio' in web design? Do graphic designers use it with/without realising it? Just that I haven't seen it discussed in the myriad pages concerning page layout/design that I've read so far... Thanks, Darren Impress us Name _________________________ Email _________________________ Website _________________________ Message _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ Be friendly / use [113]Textile Preview Submit About the author [114]Richard Rutter Richard Rutter is a user experience consultant and director of [115]Clearleft. He runs an ongoing project called [116]The Elements of Typographic Style Applied to the Web, where he extols the virtues of good web typography. Richard occasionally blogs at [117]Clagnut, where he writes about design, accessibility and web standards issues, as well as his passion for music and mountain biking. [118]More information Related articles * [119]Real Fonts and Rendering: The New Elephant in the Room 22/12/2009 by [120]Jeffrey Zeldman * [121]Spruce It Up 19/12/2009 by [122]Jonathan Snook * [123]Designing For The Switch 16/12/2009 by [124]Mark Boulton * [125]Type-Inspired Interfaces 07/12/2009 by [126]Dan Mall * [127]A Festive Type Folly 17/12/2008 by [128]Jon Tan * [129]Increase Your Font Stacks With Font Matrix 17/12/2007 by [130]Richard Rutter * [131]Typesetting Tables 07/12/2007 by [132]Mark Boulton * [133]Knockout Type - Thin Is Always In 17/12/2006 by [134]Shaun Inman * [135]An Explanation of Ems 02/12/2005 by [136]Richard Rutter [137]Article archives... In association with: [138]Perch - a really little cms * 24 ways is an [139]edgeofmyseat.com production. * Edited by [140]Drew McLellan and [141]Brian Suda. * Design delivered by [142]Made by Elephant. * Possible only with the help of [143]our terrific authors. * Grab our [144]RSS feed and follow us on [145]Twitter for daily updates. * Hosted by [146]Memset. * * * * Références [1]Home > [2]Articles > [3]Web Design & Development > [4]Usability [5]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm [6]Jason Cranford Teague * By [7]Jason Cranford Teague * Dec 23, 2009 [8]Toggle Open Article Table of Contents [9]Article Contents [10]Close Table of Contents [11]Article Contents 1. [12]Web Measurements 2. [13]Type Size & Line Height 3. [14]Type Space 4. Text Alignment [15]Close Table of Contents [16]< Back Page 4 of 4 * [17]Print [18]Print * [19]Share This [20]Share This * [21]Discuss [22]Discuss [23]Close Window Jason Cranford Teague Jason Cranford Teague [24]Learn more... * [25]Articles * [26]Store * [27]Blogs [28]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm Dec 23, 2009 [29]Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers: Creating Meaning through Syntax Jul 23, 2009 [30]Designing Webbed Environments: The Importance of the Define and Design Phases May 12, 2006 [31]Creating Web Pages for Screen, Print, and Email Apr 28, 2006 [32]How to Style Forms in CSS Mar 17, 2006 [33]What Are CSS Sprites? Mar 3, 2006 [34]Ten Things You Can Do with CSS (That You Might Not Have Known You Could Do) Dec 22, 2005 [35]Fluid Web Typography [36]Fluid Web Typography Nov 24, 2009 [37]Fluid Web Typography, Adobe Reader [38]Fluid Web Typography, Adobe Reader Nov 24, 2009 [39]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers [40]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers Jun 30, 2009 [41]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers, Adobe Reader [42]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers, Adobe Reader Jun 30, 2009 [43]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, 4th Edition [44]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, 4th Edition Oct 17, 2006 [45]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, Adobe Reader, 4th Edition [46]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, Adobe Reader, 4th Edition Oct 17, 2006 [47]DHTML and CSS Advanced: Visual QuickPro Guide [48]DHTML and CSS Advanced: Visual QuickPro Guide Dec 15, 2004 [49]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 3rd Edition [50]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 3rd Edition Feb 20, 2004 [51]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 2nd Edition [52]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 2nd Edition May 30, 2001 [53]10 Last-minute Gifts for Web Designers By on December 17, 2009 1 Comment Q: What do I get for the Web designer who has everything? The short answer is real estate. The slightly longer answer is, anything that helps spark their creativity. The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah, Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [54]Saturnalia myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has everything they need to actually make Web sites? Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect. [55]Choosing the Right Color Value By on December 14, 2009 No Comments Q: Should I use Hex or RGB values to define colors in CSS? The short answer is RGB. The slightly longer answer is that Hex values have become the de facto standard for use in CSS code and both developers and designers are used to them. The long answer is that, in the final design on the screen, there is no difference between using Hex or RGB values in your code. Which system you use is really a matter of you own personal preference (and those of the team you are working with) as to whether or not you use Hex or RGB values to define colors. [56]Expand Your Font Repertoire By on November 30, 2009 No Comments Q: Are there alternatives to Arial, Times, and Georgia for Web designers? The short answer is YES! The slightly longer answer is that most designers use Arial, Times, or Georgia, and, to a lesser degree, Verdana, Trebuchet MS, Courier, and Comic Sans because they think that's all they have at their disposal, but they are wrong. The long answer is that the core Web fonts (the one listed above plus Impact and Web Dings) are used because they are almost guaranteed to be installed on the vast majority of computers your designs are likely to be installed on. One fact of life in Web design is that unless the end user's computer has access to the font file, then the browser cannot use it. [57]Pixels or Ems in Your Web Designs By on November 18, 2009 No Comments Q: What is the practical difference between px (pixel) and em (pronounced m)? When is it best to use one over the other? The short answer is that pixels measure dimensions relative to the screen while ems measure dimensions relative to type size. The slightly longer answer is that pixels are the natural unit for measuring dimensions on a screen and are often used when precise design is required. Ems are the natural unit for measuring type and used when you want to allow maximum design flexibility. [58]To CSS Reset or Not to CSS Reset By on November 10, 2009 No Comments Question: Which Global Reset for CSS Should I Use? The short answer is the simplest one possible. The slightly longer answer is that you should reset some styles, but do so with a good reason. The long answer is that the exact CSS reset you choose will depend on the needs of your design. I like to keep my own reset simple, relying on adding styles to specific tags as needed. However, there are several styles that are inconsistent or (in my opinion) poorly set in most browsers. [59]HTML 5 NOW! By on August 25, 20092 Comments Q: Can I start using HTML 5 now? The short answer is, yes. The slightly longer answer is, you can use some of the new features, but you will need to do a little [60]kludging to get it to work. The long answer is that HTML is a mark-up language meant to indicate the structure of a document. HTML 5 is the next evolutionary step in mark-up languages for the Web, but it is not implemented on most browsers that your audiences are likely to be using and it may be some time before it is. That said, there are some things you can do now to prepare for the future. [61]Big Things Ahead for HTML 5 By on August 17, 2009 No Comments Q: Will HTML5 or XHTML5 be the next big thing or just another collection of past standards and browser war fodder? The short answer is that, yes, [62]HTML 5 is the next big thing. The slightly longer answer is that it's going to be a while before you have to start worrying about HTML 5. The long answer is that, as with all standards, before it becomes relevant, the browser makers have to implement it and then you'll have to wait even longer before legacy browsers are no longer an issue. So, you have some time before you have to run out and buy a new HTML 5 Visual QuickStart Guide. The good news is that HTML 5 has gone to great lengths to stay backwards compatible, so you can begin to learn and implement it today. [63]Everyone is a Web Designer By on August 10, 2009 No Comments Q: What is a Web Designer anymore? It was easier to make Web sites all by yourself, even 5 years ago, but now there is just too much technology for one person to handle. If I want to make a Web site for a very small business, don't have I to be web "developer" now? The short answer is that everybody is a Web designer now. The slightly longer answer is that Web designers are practitioners of a highly specialized discipline that requires years of study to truly master. The long answer is that a good Web designer is a good designer, and this can come "naturally" or from training, but is not medium-dependent. However, a professional Web designer has to understand the medium well enough to know its strengths and limitations. Any designer can pump out something that looks brilliant when displayed in a Web browser window, but is slow to load, static when loaded, and completely unusable. [64]Frames are Dead, Long Live Iframes! By on July 24, 2009 No Comments Q: Is there a suitable alternative to frames? My wife is president of a local woman's club. She and I administer the club's web site, and the ladies like the list of links down one side of the pages. But I read that frames have been deprecated. Regardless, I want to keep the site simple. The short answer is yes-- use iframes. The slightly longer answer is no, not exactly, but we can get close. The long answer is there are a variety of ways to add content to your Web pages, but the question is: once it's on the page what are you going to do with it (or to it)? [65]Q: If I ask ten different web designers what pixel dimensions to use for web pages and whether to make them fixed-width or "stretchy," I get ten different answers. What's your answer, and why? By on July 20, 2009 No Comments The short answer is fixed at 974 pixels (px) wide. The slightly longer answer is whatever it takes to get the job done. The long answer is that asking a Web designer what size a Web page should be is like asking a painter what size a canvas should be or an architect how large a a building should be. While it's not purely a matter of taste--there are certain physical and ergonomic constraints--personal preference accounts for the wide variety of answers you might hear. [66]Ask me, ask me, ask me By on July 1, 2009 No Comments Do you have a question about Web standards, CSS, JavaScript, Ajax, interaction design, user experience, or Web typography? Maybe you just want to know "How'd they do that?" Ask me questions, and each week I will select a question to answer via my Peachpit.com blog. [67]Ask the Web Designer: Why Can't I Use Any Font I Want in My Web Designs? By on June 30, 2009 No Comments The short answer is that you can. The slightly longer answer is that you can't, at least not in any meaningful way yet. The long answer is that the ability to download fonts has actually been a part of the CSS standard (the language used to create Web designs) for over 10 years. The snag comes with what font formats a given browser supports. [NOTE: You may want to stop reading now, as the rest of this explanation might make your eyes bleed in frustration.] [68]Fluid Web Typography This chapter is from the book [69]Fluid Web Typography Jason Cranford Teague shows how giving careful consideration to the measurements and scale you are designing for is what separates good Web typography from great Web typography. Text Alignment Text alignment is generally taken for granted on the Web--left alignment suits most purposes most of the time. In order to create a sense of rhythm and movement on your page, helping to guide the reader's eye around and adding visual interest to the page, a little alignment variation can go a long way. Set body text alignment to minimize gaps and maximize scanning Text alignment in Web pages is, by default, to the left, with ragged edges on the right. Justified text--sometimes called newspaper columns, where both edges of the text are aligned--is rare on the Web. text-align: left; text-align: justify; In print, justified text is created using a variety of techniques including word spacing, letterspacing, hyphenation, and glyph reshaping. In addition, well-formed justification is calculated on a paragraph level to prevent "rivers" of white space flowing down the middle. On the Web, unfortunately, justification is simply created by adding small amounts of space between words. On the screen, where you can only add whole pixels, this often results in uncomfortably large amounts of space between some words, especially in narrower columns. Hyphenation is inexplicably absent from CSS. While it is proposed for inclusion in CSS 3, no work has currently been done on it. When choosing to use left or justified alignment, keep in mind these factors: * Justified text is often seen as more formal and structured, while left alignment is more informal and approachable. * Justified text reinforces the grid structure of a page but can be harder to scan, since it often creates rivers of white space throughout the text, which interrupts the eye path. * Left-aligned text adds an element of white space to the right edge, softening the overall appearance of the page. Combining Alignments [70]craigmod.com Craig Mod combines right-and left-justified columns of text to create motion and rhythm around his page. [71]04-17.jpg [72]Click to view larger image Center or right-justify text for effect and variety More rarely used, centering or right-justifying text can create a specific feeling on the page. text-align: center; text-align: right; Centering and right aligning text is integrally dependent on the design you are creating and how you want your readers to scan the page. While using a variety of justifications helps create rhythm and motion on your page, it can quickly seem cluttered or obnoxious. Always have a specific purpose for the variance of alignment, and use it sparingly. Here are a few ideas: * Bulleted or numbered lists should not be centered or right aligned, as this makes them harder to scan by moving the beginning of each line around. * Center section or module titles/headers if you want to make your site look a little different. Generally, section titles are best when left aligned, but centering them gives your designs a unique feel and may also improve scannability. * Right-align text in the left column of a page or table if it helps show a closer relationship between the elements in adjacent columns. Centered Section Titles [73]jontangerine.com Jon Tangerine combines centered subheadings with justified text in his blog (detail shown) to create solid structure with visual movement. [74]04-18.jpg [75]Click to view larger image Increase margins for longer quotations and style the citation Short quotes of less than three lines are included in a paragraph surround by quotation marks, requiring no other special formatting. In HTML, the blockquote tag is used to set off a block of text as a quotation, generally of two lines of text or longer. The quotation should be styled to distinguish it from other text by indenting its left and right margins and increasing the top and bottom margins. The amount of left/right indentation is based on the width of the column and then adjusted so that it does not conflict with any other indents. A good measure to offset blockquotes is to double the font size (2em), although more or less space may be required for wider or narrower columns: blockquote { margin: 2em; } note.jpg In this chapter, we are only considering spacing issues with blockquotes and citations. Chapters 5 and 6 offer other ways to style text, including weights, italics, backgrounds, and borders. These can be deployed to creatively display longer quotations. This will clearly space the blockquote away from the rest of the text, but it's also up to the copywriter to make it clear that the text is a quote and to supply its source, possibly using the cite tag, which indicates a citation. Turning the cite tag into a block-level element and right-aligning it when it is included in a blockquote creates a strong style. blockquote cite { display: block; text-align: right; } Blockquote Ideas [76]css-tricks.com/examples/Blockquotes CSS-Tricks has a page of blockquote ideas with sample code. The code above will force any text marked by the citation tag to a new line and right-align it. [77]04-20.jpg [78]Click to view larger image Set footnotes and scientific or mathematical annotations using positioning rather than vertical alignment Vertical text alignment allows you to adjust the position of inline text in relation to its natural baseline, shifting it up or down. For footnotes, mathematics, and scientific notation, it will not be enough to simply raise or lower the characters; you will also need to reduce their size relative to the surrounding text. These styles can be applied to the superscript and subscript tags, setting the vertical position to the baseline and then setting a position relative to that: sup, sub { font-size: .5em; vertical-align: baseline; position: relative; } sup { top: -.65em; } sup.math { top: -.8em } sub { top: .2em; } Although vertical-align provides several values to set the vertical position of the text, these have proved to be unreliable in multi-column layouts. The exact values will vary depending on the font, and you may also need to add some left/right margins to add breathing room. [79]04-21.jpg [80]Click to view larger image Type Inspirations: Jon Tangerine Beautiful typographic contrast. Insightful typography editorials. [81]jontangerine.com Jon is a designer living in Bristol, UK, with some of the cleanest pure Web typography I've seen. On top of this, his information and opinions on Web typography are required reading for anyone interested in the ongoing issues we face. [82]04-22.jpg [83]Click to view larger image How he does it: Jon uses a font stack of Web safe fonts, including Cochin, Baskerville, and Palatino Linotype, down to Georgia. He then combines a wide variety of sizes, styles, weights, and colors all scaled and spaced within a strong grid to provide clear eye paths and legible text. [84]04-25.jpg [85]Click to view larger image [86]04-26.jpg [87]Click to view larger image [88]04-27.jpg [89]Click to view larger image [90]04-28.jpg [91]Click to view larger image [92]< Back Page 4 of 4 * [93]Share This [94]Share This * [95][save_16.png] [96]Your Account Discussions Make a New Comment You must [97]log in in order to post a comment. 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It is infinitely divisible, but a few proportional intervals can be much more useful than a limitless choice of arbitrary quantities." So says the typographer Robert Bringhurst, and just as regular use of time provides rhythm in music, so regular use of space provides rhythm in typography, and without rhythm the listener, or the reader, becomes disorientated and lost. On the Web, vertical rhythm - the spacing and arrangement of text as the reader descends the page - is contributed to by three factors: font size, line height and margin or padding. All of these factors must calculated with care in order that the rhythm is maintained. The basic unit of vertical space is line height. Establishing a suitable line height that can be applied to all text on the page, be it heading, body copy or sidenote, is the key to a solid dependable vertical rhythm, which will engage and guide the reader down the page. To see this in action, I've created [42]an example with headings, footnotes and sidenotes. Establishing a suitable line height The easiest place to begin determining a basic line height unit is with the font size of the body copy. For [43]the example I've chosen 12px. To ensure readability the body text will almost certainly need some leading, that is to say spacing between the lines. A line-height of 1.5em would give 6px spacing between the lines of body copy. This will create a total line height of 18px, which becomes our basic unit. Here's the CSS to get us to this point: 1. body { 2. font-size: 75%; 3. } 4. 5. html>body { 6. font-size: 12px; 7. } 8. 9. p { 10. line-height 1.5em; 11. } 12. Source: [44]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/1.txt There are many ways to size text in CSS and the above approach provides and accessible method of achieving the pixel-precision solid typography requires. By way of explanation, the first font-size reduces the body text from the 16px default (common to most browsers and OS set-ups) down to the 12px we require. This rule is primarily there for Internet Explorer 6 and below on Windows: the percentage value means that the text will scale predictably should a user bump the text size up or down. The second font-size sets the text size specifically and is ignored by IE6, but used by Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels. Spacing between paragraphs With our rhythmic unit set at 18px we need to ensure that it is maintained throughout the body copy. A common place to lose the rhythm is the gaps set between margins. The default treatment by web browsers of paragraphs is to insert a top- and bottom-margin of 1em. In our case this would give a spacing between the paragraphs of 12px and hence throw the text out of rhythm. If the rhythm of the page is to be maintained, the spacing of paragraphs should be related to the basic line height unit. This is achieved simply by setting top- and bottom-margins equal to the line height. In order that typographic integrity is maintained when text is resized by the user we must use ems for all our vertical measurements, including line-height, padding and margins. 1. p { 2. font-size:1em; 3. margin-top: 1.5em; 4. margin-bottom: 1.5em; 5. } 6. Source: [45]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/2.txt Browsers set margins on all block-level elements (such as headings, lists and blockquotes) so a way of ensuring that typographic attention is paid to all such elements is to reset the margins at the beginning of your style sheet. You could use a rule such as: 1. body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl ockquote,th,td { 2. margin:0; 3. padding:0; 4. } 5. Source: [46]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/3.txt Alternatively you could look into using the [47]Yahoo! UI Reset style sheet which removes most default styling, so providing a solid foundation upon which you can explicitly declare your design intentions. Variations in text size When there is a change in text size, perhaps with a heading or sidenotes, the differing text should also take up a multiple of the basic leading. This means that, in our example, every diversion from the basic text size should take up multiples of 18px. This can be accomplished by adjusting the line-height and margin accordingly, as described following. Headings Subheadings in the [48]example page are set to 14px. In order that the height of each line is 18px, the line-height should be set to 18 ÷ 14 = 1.286. Similarly the margins above and below the heading must be adjusted to fit. The temptation is to set heading margins to a simple 1em, but in order to maintain the rhythm, the top and bottom margins should be set at 1.286em so that the spacing is equal to the full 18px unit. 1. h2 { 2. font-size:1.1667em; 3. line-height: 1.286em; 4. margin-top: 1.286em; 5. margin-bottom: 1.286em; 6. } 7. Source: [49]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/4.txt One can also set asymmetrical margins for headings, provided the margins combine to be multiples of the basic line height. In our example, a top margin of 1½ lines is combined with a bottom margin of half a line as follows: 1. h2 { 2. font-size:1.1667em; 3. line-height: 1.286em; 4. margin-top: 1.929em; 5. margin-bottom: 0.643em; 6. } 7. Source: [50]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/5.txt Also in our example, the main heading is given a text size of 18px, therefore the line-height has been set to 1em, as has the margin: 1. h1 { 2. font-size:1.5em; 3. line-height: 1em; 4. margin-top: 0; 5. margin-bottom: 1em; 6. } 7. Source: [51]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/6.txt Sidenotes Sidenotes (and other supplementary material) are often set at a smaller size to the basic text. To keep the rhythm, this smaller text should still line up with body copy, so a calculation similar to that for headings is required. In our example, the sidenotes are set at 10px and so their line-height must be increased to 18 ÷ 10 = 1.8. 1. .sidenote { 2. font-size:0.8333em; 3. line-height:1.8em; 4. } 5. Source: [52]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/7.txt Borders One additional point where vertical rhythm is often lost is with the introduction of horizontal borders. These effectively act as shims pushing the subsequent text downwards, so a two pixel horizontal border will throw out the vertical rhythm by two pixels. A way around this is to specify horizontal lines using background images or, as in our example, specify the width of the border in ems and adjust the padding to take up the slack. The design of the footnote in our example requires a 1px horizontal border. The footnote contains 12px text, so 1px in ems is 1 ÷ 12 = 0.0833. I have added a margin of 1½ lines above the border (1.5 × 18 ÷ 12 = 2.5ems), so to maintain the rhythm the border + padding must equal a ½ (9px). We know the border is set to 1px, so the padding must be set to 8px. To specify this in ems we use the familiar calculation: 8 ÷ 12 = 0.667. Hit me with your rhythm stick Composing to a vertical rhythm helps engage and guide the reader down the page, but it takes typographic discipline to do so. It may seem like a lot of fiddly maths is involved (a few divisions and multiplications never hurt anyone) but good type setting is all about numbers, and it is this attention to detail which is the key to success. Like what you read? * [53]Tweet this article * or * [54]Leave a comment Comments * [55]12/12/2006 Wow this is a good article. * [57]12/12/2006 [58]Will thanks so much, this is great. * [59]12/12/2006 Interesting stuff. Also worth reading Eric Meyer's post on unitless line-heights: * [61]12/12/2006 It's worth mentioning that IE6 and below can go a bit extreme when resizing fonts set as ems. You can fix this by applying font-size: 100% to html. Don't know why this works, it just does. Oh, if you're working in quirks mode you'll also need to apply it to thead, tbody and tfoot, beacuse the fix doesn't inherit (don't apply it to table unless you want table to inherit font-sizes). You don't need thead, tbody or tfoot in your tables as tbody is implied. Obviously, you can't then apply your own font-sizes to html or tbody etc, else you'll overwrite the fix, which is why I chose those particular elements as they're rarely used for font-sizes. Jake. * [63]12/12/2006 [64]Mike Stenhouse donotremove.co.uk Hmmmmm, interesting! I've not tried this but I think there might be an easier way to set those heights... What if the line-height is set to, say, 1.5em on the body and 1 (unit-less - it's valid!) on each descendant element? Or maybe some variation on that. It might force the 18px to inherit into the children without awkward calculations. * [65]12/12/2006 Great article, Richard! Web typography--like all typography--deserves this level of detailed thinking, and I hope to see more designers embracing it. * [67]12/12/2006 [68]michael h Good introduction to typography theory, but I am convinced that the Owen Briggs method is the best approach to sizing. * [69]13/12/2006 I've been working on something similar recently, and I've discovered that if you set the line-height in pixels, most browsers will still scale it proportionally along with the text. As IE6's numbers fall off, I hope we can leave all this black magic scaling math behind and go back to setting font sizes in pixels and letting the browsers handle the scaling. * [71]13/12/2006 Mike - you're right about being able to simplify the line-height specifications, but it doesn't require setting unitless line-heights. In the example I use, I've set the font-size to be 12px on the body and calculated line-heights for all the subsequent elements. As I required one line height - 18px - for all elements I can remove the multiple statements and simply set line-height:1.5em on the body. The calculated line-height of 18px is inherited by all elements on the page. I've modifed the example to show this (checked in Firefox, Safari and IE6): However the maths would still need to be performed to calculate the correct margins, so while the extra line-height specifications are not strictly necessary (at least while the same line height for all text is required) you unfortunately don't save much on the calculations. * [73]13/12/2006 Jake - the extreme text sizing in IE can be fixed by applying any percentage font size to the body - it doesn't have to be 100% (hence my use of 75% fixed this too). You're right about the tables though. This rule does the job nicely to inherit the text size: table, thead, tbody, tr, th, td {font-size:1em} * [75]13/12/2006 [76]GreLI In the article next rule is used to reset margins: body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl ockquote,th,td { margin:0; padding:0; } I think it easier to use universal selector (* { margin: 0; padding: 0 }) instead. To fix table font-size inheritance it's enough to set table { font-size: 1em } Opera AFAIK don't change font-size if it set in pixels, but it can zoom pages (so does IE7). * [77]13/12/2006 GreLI - using the universal selector like that to zero all margins and padding can cause unpredictable results in some form controls (e.g. SELECT elements) in certain browsers. Rich - great article; now all someone needs to do is knock up a nice little app that spits out the right line-heights and margins for the elements you tell it... :) * [79]13/12/2006 It's unfortunate that pretty much no one composes with a scale when publishing for the web. Your article is a great step forward. Also overlooked are line lengths. Since the beginning of the web, It has been a standard practice to expand the line lengths out with the width of the browser (like your site is currently :), causing line lengths to expand way too long. If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even smaller. * [81]14/12/2006 I don't see it mentioned in the comments yet, but your quote above: "...Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels." is not correct, as IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized. * [83]18/12/2006 If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even smaller. You're right to mention line length as something that is overlooked, but on the screen it is not as simple as setting the measure in ems as their are more factors involved (screen size, liquid layouts, etc). Also I'd disagree that web line lengths should be shorter on the web. My personal preference would be for them to be longer - I find short line lengths on screen extremely hard work to read. That's just my opinion though. IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized. If you think of the reasons for changing text size then zooming a layout is just another form of resizing text and achieves the same goal. * [85]20/12/2006 Theodore, I think you would enjoy Richard's article entitled "Choose a comfortable measure" over at webtypography.net :) 1.2/ * [87]22/12/2006 [88]Rachel Maxim You've said in a few pages what has taken me years to figure out and refine :) - great info! * [89]23/12/2006 I really enjoyed this article. I have read your Elements of....for the web, as well as your blog about sizing text in ems. I have really been looking in to using this and getting the best `flow' with my typography. I also ordered the book Elements of Typographic Style just to give a better understanding. I think its a common misconception that text on the web will always look bland, and you have proved that it can have rhythm and style. * [91]02/01/2007 I've just been using some of these techniques on a client's site who needed 8 tabs all the same width, which fill the available space - I had it working fine in Firefox, but the tabs didn't fill the space in Safari or IE. I found that you really have to do the maths, rather than just use trial and error - they all round the numbers slightly differently. Once I'd checked my calculations, rather than tinkered with the numbers, it works fine everywhere, at least at standard font size. One other correction from someone's comment earlier on - you can resize text in IE7 - click the page icon at top right. Why you need both this and the ability to zoom, I'm not sure, but it's there at any rate. * [93]03/01/2007 [94]Ben G Can you set the margin above or below headings or paragraphs to less than your 18px base measurement? Won't margin collapsing cause whichever the largest margin is to take effect? Ben * [95]31/01/2009 [96]Daniel I've been using this article as the basis for designing my site with some "vertical rhythm". Everything is going well except with forms (input, textarea, etc.). I just haven't been able to use css to maintain the vertical rhythm (based on total line height of 18px). Any advise or insight as to how to get forms to play nicely? * [97]15/02/2009 [98]Silver Firefly I wanted to clarify something about the default browser text size and using the em unit. The article was a tad misleading when it covered the default browser text size and the em unit. A lot of designers have it in their heads that an em is equivalent to 16 pixels. An em is not equivalent to 16 pixels. It is equivalent to whatever is set in the user's browser, which is commonly 16px but depending on the user, it can be 20px or 12px or whatever they have set in their browser's settings. I hope after reading that statement, designers will start to realise that they have little control over how their website appears in other users' browsers. The majority of the control lies in the user's hands. Other than that, the article was very good. * [99]17/04/2009 Great article... and AWESOME site design. Inspirational! * [101]27/04/2009 Typesetting for websites is the future, like all things content-related. The Google knows it :). Thank you for that useful post. You webdesigners take care of your text! * [103]05/06/2009 [104]bonfield Inline bolding of elements (I'm using Helvetica, e.g.) seems to add a px of height on any line that uses it, and that subtly throws off the vertical rhythm for each line and it can add up depending -- anybody else run into this and solve it? * [105]18/06/2009 [106]Anonymous Does this truly keep the vertical rhythm? If you zoom in on the example, you'll see that the descender of the letter g in the H1 header "New England" crosses your rhythm marker's background line, while a lowercase g in the following paragraph does not. There appears to be some fudging going on. * [107]08/07/2009 I find it humorous that this site itself does not compose to a vertical rhythm. I've seen very few online that do. It's so difficult to implement across browsers it is usually brushed aside except for in the most simple design schemes. * [109]03/08/2009 [110]eric I've yet to see any empirical evidence that "vertical rhythm" applied to this degree has any impact on how well a reader is able to extract signal from the noise of the page. Meanwhile, I've seen many, many examples of mis-applied "vertical rhythms" resulting in squashed headings where the underlning on a link impinges on the text below. Which just looks clunky. When you've got something other than an aesthetic opinion from the margins -- maybe some actual data -- then I'll be interested in expending the effort needed to support real vertical rhythm. Until then, I just don't see how it's cost-effective. * [111]02/09/2009 Now, that was the kind of article I was looking for. That goes a lot deeper than I've been into the realms of line-spacing, leading (no kerning here though - can we do kerning with css?). I love the analogy to musical rhythym > therefore probably following on to mathematics/geometry/proportion. That is a great lead-in. Is there any room for the `golden ratio' in web design? Do graphic designers use it with/without realising it? Just that I haven't seen it discussed in the myriad pages concerning page layout/design that I've read so far... Thanks, Darren Impress us Name _________________________ Email _________________________ Website _________________________ Message _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ Be friendly / use [113]Textile Preview Submit About the author [114]Richard Rutter Richard Rutter is a user experience consultant and director of [115]Clearleft. He runs an ongoing project called [116]The Elements of Typographic Style Applied to the Web, where he extols the virtues of good web typography. Richard occasionally blogs at [117]Clagnut, where he writes about design, accessibility and web standards issues, as well as his passion for music and mountain biking. [118]More information Related articles * [119]Real Fonts and Rendering: The New Elephant in the Room 22/12/2009 by [120]Jeffrey Zeldman * [121]Spruce It Up 19/12/2009 by [122]Jonathan Snook * [123]Designing For The Switch 16/12/2009 by [124]Mark Boulton * [125]Type-Inspired Interfaces 07/12/2009 by [126]Dan Mall * [127]A Festive Type Folly 17/12/2008 by [128]Jon Tan * [129]Increase Your Font Stacks With Font Matrix 17/12/2007 by [130]Richard Rutter * [131]Typesetting Tables 07/12/2007 by [132]Mark Boulton * [133]Knockout Type - Thin Is Always In 17/12/2006 by [134]Shaun Inman * [135]An Explanation of Ems 02/12/2005 by [136]Richard Rutter [137]Article archives... In association with: [138]Perch - a really little cms * 24 ways is an [139]edgeofmyseat.com production. * Edited by [140]Drew McLellan and [141]Brian Suda. * Design delivered by [142]Made by Elephant. * Possible only with the help of [143]our terrific authors. * Grab our [144]RSS feed and follow us on [145]Twitter for daily updates. * Hosted by [146]Memset. * * * * Références [1]Home > [2]Articles > [3]Web Design & Development > [4]Usability [5]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm [6]Jason Cranford Teague * By [7]Jason Cranford Teague * Dec 23, 2009 [8]Toggle Open Article Table of Contents [9]Article Contents [10]Close Table of Contents [11]Article Contents 1. [12]Web Measurements 2. [13]Type Size & Line Height 3. [14]Type Space 4. Text Alignment [15]Close Table of Contents [16]< Back Page 4 of 4 * [17]Print [18]Print * [19]Share This [20]Share This * [21]Discuss [22]Discuss [23]Close Window Jason Cranford Teague Jason Cranford Teague [24]Learn more... * [25]Articles * [26]Store * [27]Blogs [28]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm Dec 23, 2009 [29]Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers: Creating Meaning through Syntax Jul 23, 2009 [30]Designing Webbed Environments: The Importance of the Define and Design Phases May 12, 2006 [31]Creating Web Pages for Screen, Print, and Email Apr 28, 2006 [32]How to Style Forms in CSS Mar 17, 2006 [33]What Are CSS Sprites? Mar 3, 2006 [34]Ten Things You Can Do with CSS (That You Might Not Have Known You Could Do) Dec 22, 2005 [35]Fluid Web Typography [36]Fluid Web Typography Nov 24, 2009 [37]Fluid Web Typography, Adobe Reader [38]Fluid Web Typography, Adobe Reader Nov 24, 2009 [39]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers [40]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers Jun 30, 2009 [41]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers, Adobe Reader [42]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers, Adobe Reader Jun 30, 2009 [43]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, 4th Edition [44]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, 4th Edition Oct 17, 2006 [45]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, Adobe Reader, 4th Edition [46]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, Adobe Reader, 4th Edition Oct 17, 2006 [47]DHTML and CSS Advanced: Visual QuickPro Guide [48]DHTML and CSS Advanced: Visual QuickPro Guide Dec 15, 2004 [49]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 3rd Edition [50]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 3rd Edition Feb 20, 2004 [51]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 2nd Edition [52]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 2nd Edition May 30, 2001 [53]10 Last-minute Gifts for Web Designers By on December 17, 2009 1 Comment Q: What do I get for the Web designer who has everything? The short answer is real estate. The slightly longer answer is, anything that helps spark their creativity. The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah, Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [54]Saturnalia myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has everything they need to actually make Web sites? Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect. [55]Choosing the Right Color Value By on December 14, 2009 No Comments Q: Should I use Hex or RGB values to define colors in CSS? The short answer is RGB. The slightly longer answer is that Hex values have become the de facto standard for use in CSS code and both developers and designers are used to them. The long answer is that, in the final design on the screen, there is no difference between using Hex or RGB values in your code. Which system you use is really a matter of you own personal preference (and those of the team you are working with) as to whether or not you use Hex or RGB values to define colors. [56]Expand Your Font Repertoire By on November 30, 2009 No Comments Q: Are there alternatives to Arial, Times, and Georgia for Web designers? The short answer is YES! The slightly longer answer is that most designers use Arial, Times, or Georgia, and, to a lesser degree, Verdana, Trebuchet MS, Courier, and Comic Sans because they think that's all they have at their disposal, but they are wrong. The long answer is that the core Web fonts (the one listed above plus Impact and Web Dings) are used because they are almost guaranteed to be installed on the vast majority of computers your designs are likely to be installed on. One fact of life in Web design is that unless the end user's computer has access to the font file, then the browser cannot use it. [57]Pixels or Ems in Your Web Designs By on November 18, 2009 No Comments Q: What is the practical difference between px (pixel) and em (pronounced m)? When is it best to use one over the other? The short answer is that pixels measure dimensions relative to the screen while ems measure dimensions relative to type size. The slightly longer answer is that pixels are the natural unit for measuring dimensions on a screen and are often used when precise design is required. Ems are the natural unit for measuring type and used when you want to allow maximum design flexibility. [58]To CSS Reset or Not to CSS Reset By on November 10, 2009 No Comments Question: Which Global Reset for CSS Should I Use? The short answer is the simplest one possible. The slightly longer answer is that you should reset some styles, but do so with a good reason. The long answer is that the exact CSS reset you choose will depend on the needs of your design. I like to keep my own reset simple, relying on adding styles to specific tags as needed. However, there are several styles that are inconsistent or (in my opinion) poorly set in most browsers. [59]HTML 5 NOW! By on August 25, 20092 Comments Q: Can I start using HTML 5 now? The short answer is, yes. The slightly longer answer is, you can use some of the new features, but you will need to do a little [60]kludging to get it to work. The long answer is that HTML is a mark-up language meant to indicate the structure of a document. HTML 5 is the next evolutionary step in mark-up languages for the Web, but it is not implemented on most browsers that your audiences are likely to be using and it may be some time before it is. That said, there are some things you can do now to prepare for the future. [61]Big Things Ahead for HTML 5 By on August 17, 2009 No Comments Q: Will HTML5 or XHTML5 be the next big thing or just another collection of past standards and browser war fodder? The short answer is that, yes, [62]HTML 5 is the next big thing. The slightly longer answer is that it's going to be a while before you have to start worrying about HTML 5. The long answer is that, as with all standards, before it becomes relevant, the browser makers have to implement it and then you'll have to wait even longer before legacy browsers are no longer an issue. So, you have some time before you have to run out and buy a new HTML 5 Visual QuickStart Guide. The good news is that HTML 5 has gone to great lengths to stay backwards compatible, so you can begin to learn and implement it today. [63]Everyone is a Web Designer By on August 10, 2009 No Comments Q: What is a Web Designer anymore? It was easier to make Web sites all by yourself, even 5 years ago, but now there is just too much technology for one person to handle. If I want to make a Web site for a very small business, don't have I to be web "developer" now? The short answer is that everybody is a Web designer now. The slightly longer answer is that Web designers are practitioners of a highly specialized discipline that requires years of study to truly master. The long answer is that a good Web designer is a good designer, and this can come "naturally" or from training, but is not medium-dependent. However, a professional Web designer has to understand the medium well enough to know its strengths and limitations. Any designer can pump out something that looks brilliant when displayed in a Web browser window, but is slow to load, static when loaded, and completely unusable. [64]Frames are Dead, Long Live Iframes! By on July 24, 2009 No Comments Q: Is there a suitable alternative to frames? My wife is president of a local woman's club. She and I administer the club's web site, and the ladies like the list of links down one side of the pages. But I read that frames have been deprecated. Regardless, I want to keep the site simple. The short answer is yes-- use iframes. The slightly longer answer is no, not exactly, but we can get close. The long answer is there are a variety of ways to add content to your Web pages, but the question is: once it's on the page what are you going to do with it (or to it)? [65]Q: If I ask ten different web designers what pixel dimensions to use for web pages and whether to make them fixed-width or "stretchy," I get ten different answers. What's your answer, and why? By on July 20, 2009 No Comments The short answer is fixed at 974 pixels (px) wide. The slightly longer answer is whatever it takes to get the job done. The long answer is that asking a Web designer what size a Web page should be is like asking a painter what size a canvas should be or an architect how large a a building should be. While it's not purely a matter of taste--there are certain physical and ergonomic constraints--personal preference accounts for the wide variety of answers you might hear. [66]Ask me, ask me, ask me By on July 1, 2009 No Comments Do you have a question about Web standards, CSS, JavaScript, Ajax, interaction design, user experience, or Web typography? Maybe you just want to know "How'd they do that?" Ask me questions, and each week I will select a question to answer via my Peachpit.com blog. [67]Ask the Web Designer: Why Can't I Use Any Font I Want in My Web Designs? By on June 30, 2009 No Comments The short answer is that you can. The slightly longer answer is that you can't, at least not in any meaningful way yet. The long answer is that the ability to download fonts has actually been a part of the CSS standard (the language used to create Web designs) for over 10 years. The snag comes with what font formats a given browser supports. [NOTE: You may want to stop reading now, as the rest of this explanation might make your eyes bleed in frustration.] [68]Fluid Web Typography This chapter is from the book [69]Fluid Web Typography Jason Cranford Teague shows how giving careful consideration to the measurements and scale you are designing for is what separates good Web typography from great Web typography. Text Alignment Text alignment is generally taken for granted on the Web--left alignment suits most purposes most of the time. In order to create a sense of rhythm and movement on your page, helping to guide the reader's eye around and adding visual interest to the page, a little alignment variation can go a long way. Set body text alignment to minimize gaps and maximize scanning Text alignment in Web pages is, by default, to the left, with ragged edges on the right. Justified text--sometimes called newspaper columns, where both edges of the text are aligned--is rare on the Web. text-align: left; text-align: justify; In print, justified text is created using a variety of techniques including word spacing, letterspacing, hyphenation, and glyph reshaping. In addition, well-formed justification is calculated on a paragraph level to prevent "rivers" of white space flowing down the middle. On the Web, unfortunately, justification is simply created by adding small amounts of space between words. On the screen, where you can only add whole pixels, this often results in uncomfortably large amounts of space between some words, especially in narrower columns. Hyphenation is inexplicably absent from CSS. While it is proposed for inclusion in CSS 3, no work has currently been done on it. When choosing to use left or justified alignment, keep in mind these factors: * Justified text is often seen as more formal and structured, while left alignment is more informal and approachable. * Justified text reinforces the grid structure of a page but can be harder to scan, since it often creates rivers of white space throughout the text, which interrupts the eye path. * Left-aligned text adds an element of white space to the right edge, softening the overall appearance of the page. Combining Alignments [70]craigmod.com Craig Mod combines right-and left-justified columns of text to create motion and rhythm around his page. [71]04-17.jpg [72]Click to view larger image Center or right-justify text for effect and variety More rarely used, centering or right-justifying text can create a specific feeling on the page. text-align: center; text-align: right; Centering and right aligning text is integrally dependent on the design you are creating and how you want your readers to scan the page. While using a variety of justifications helps create rhythm and motion on your page, it can quickly seem cluttered or obnoxious. Always have a specific purpose for the variance of alignment, and use it sparingly. Here are a few ideas: * Bulleted or numbered lists should not be centered or right aligned, as this makes them harder to scan by moving the beginning of each line around. * Center section or module titles/headers if you want to make your site look a little different. Generally, section titles are best when left aligned, but centering them gives your designs a unique feel and may also improve scannability. * Right-align text in the left column of a page or table if it helps show a closer relationship between the elements in adjacent columns. Centered Section Titles [73]jontangerine.com Jon Tangerine combines centered subheadings with justified text in his blog (detail shown) to create solid structure with visual movement. [74]04-18.jpg [75]Click to view larger image Increase margins for longer quotations and style the citation Short quotes of less than three lines are included in a paragraph surround by quotation marks, requiring no other special formatting. In HTML, the blockquote tag is used to set off a block of text as a quotation, generally of two lines of text or longer. The quotation should be styled to distinguish it from other text by indenting its left and right margins and increasing the top and bottom margins. The amount of left/right indentation is based on the width of the column and then adjusted so that it does not conflict with any other indents. A good measure to offset blockquotes is to double the font size (2em), although more or less space may be required for wider or narrower columns: blockquote { margin: 2em; } note.jpg In this chapter, we are only considering spacing issues with blockquotes and citations. Chapters 5 and 6 offer other ways to style text, including weights, italics, backgrounds, and borders. These can be deployed to creatively display longer quotations. This will clearly space the blockquote away from the rest of the text, but it's also up to the copywriter to make it clear that the text is a quote and to supply its source, possibly using the cite tag, which indicates a citation. Turning the cite tag into a block-level element and right-aligning it when it is included in a blockquote creates a strong style. blockquote cite { display: block; text-align: right; } Blockquote Ideas [76]css-tricks.com/examples/Blockquotes CSS-Tricks has a page of blockquote ideas with sample code. The code above will force any text marked by the citation tag to a new line and right-align it. [77]04-20.jpg [78]Click to view larger image Set footnotes and scientific or mathematical annotations using positioning rather than vertical alignment Vertical text alignment allows you to adjust the position of inline text in relation to its natural baseline, shifting it up or down. For footnotes, mathematics, and scientific notation, it will not be enough to simply raise or lower the characters; you will also need to reduce their size relative to the surrounding text. These styles can be applied to the superscript and subscript tags, setting the vertical position to the baseline and then setting a position relative to that: sup, sub { font-size: .5em; vertical-align: baseline; position: relative; } sup { top: -.65em; } sup.math { top: -.8em } sub { top: .2em; } Although vertical-align provides several values to set the vertical position of the text, these have proved to be unreliable in multi-column layouts. The exact values will vary depending on the font, and you may also need to add some left/right margins to add breathing room. [79]04-21.jpg [80]Click to view larger image Type Inspirations: Jon Tangerine Beautiful typographic contrast. Insightful typography editorials. [81]jontangerine.com Jon is a designer living in Bristol, UK, with some of the cleanest pure Web typography I've seen. On top of this, his information and opinions on Web typography are required reading for anyone interested in the ongoing issues we face. [82]04-22.jpg [83]Click to view larger image How he does it: Jon uses a font stack of Web safe fonts, including Cochin, Baskerville, and Palatino Linotype, down to Georgia. He then combines a wide variety of sizes, styles, weights, and colors all scaled and spaced within a strong grid to provide clear eye paths and legible text. [84]04-25.jpg [85]Click to view larger image [86]04-26.jpg [87]Click to view larger image [88]04-27.jpg [89]Click to view larger image [90]04-28.jpg [91]Click to view larger image [92]< Back Page 4 of 4 * [93]Share This [94]Share This * [95][save_16.png] [96]Your Account Discussions Make a New Comment You must [97]log in in order to post a comment. Related Resources * [98]Podcasts * [99]Blogs * [100]Articles * [101]Store [102]Author Talk (Audio & Video) [103]Author Talk (Audio & Video) Recent Episodes + [104]Richard Harrington and Robbie Carman Interview [105]Richard Harrington + [106]Larry Jordan Interview [107]Larry Jordan [108]Subscribe [109]Photoshop with Matt (Video) [110]Photoshop with Matt (Video) Recent Episodes + [111]Evening Out Skin Tones [112]Matt Kloskowski + [113]Brightness vs. Exposure [114]Matt Kloskowski [115]Subscribe [116]See More Podcasts [117]Peachpit in 3D By [118]Rebecca Freed on December 30, 2009 No Comments The Peachpit offices join the Google 3D Warehouse, courtesy of Real World Google SketchUp 7 author Mike Tadros. [119]Jason Teague [120]10 Last-minute Gifts for Web Designers By [121]Jason Cranford Teague on December 17, 2009 1 Comment Q: What do I get for the Web designer who has everything? The short answer is real estate. The slightly longer answer is, anything that helps spark their creativity. The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah, Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [122]Saturnalia myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has everything they need to actually make Web sites? Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect. [123]Kara Murphy [124]Just in time for the holidays: Our video-a-day giveaway By [125]Kara Murphy on December 16, 2009 No Comments It's the holiday season, and I bet some of you are already thinking of your New Year's resolutions. If one of them is to learn something new in the field of Web design, development, presentation, branding, and much more, then you're in luck. 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This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Abstract Background Students suffering from psychosomatic symptoms, including drowsiness and feelings of melancholy, often have basic lifestyle problems. The aim of this study was to investigate whether psychosomatic complaints may be related to circadian dysfunction. Methods We examined 15 healthy students (4 men and 11 women) between 21 and 22 years old. To assess the presence of psychosomatic symptoms among the subjects, we developed a self-assessment psychosomatic complaints questionnaire consisting of five items pertaining to physical symptoms and five items concerning mental symptoms. The subjects rated their psychosomatic symptoms twice a day (08:00 and 20:00 h). We also assessed growth hormone secretion patterns by fluorescence enzyme immunoassay (FEIA). Salivary samples were collected from the subjects at home five times a day (20:00, 24:00, 04:00, 08:00, and 12:00 h) in Salivette tubes. Results The results indicated a relationship between the self-assessment scores and the salivary levels of growth hormone. Subjects with high self-assessment scores showed significant variability in growth hormone secretion over the day, whereas subjects with low self-assessment scores did not. Conclusion Psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with circadian dysfunction, as inferred from blunted rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion. Background Japanese students suffering from psychosomatic disorders, such as those involving mood and sleep, may exhibit basic problems in their lifestyle, including deleterious changes in their living environment and dietary or lifestyle disturbances [[72]1]. In particular, staying up late is associated with decreased appetite and missed breakfast the following morning, irregular bowel movements and sleepiness. Perhaps the biggest problem facing today's Japanese students is their lack of daily physical exercise, brought on by stressful academic courses over long periods of time, too much television and computer games and increased automobile use [[73]2]. Many Japanese youngsters stay up late at night [[74]3]. A circadian pacemaker in the central nervous system regulates human sleep cycles, hormone secretion, subject alertness, objective performance levels and other physiologic functions over a 24-h period. Core body temperature, plasma cortisol, and plasma melatonin are three variables frequently used to estimate the phase of the human pacemaker [[75]4], although many other hormones, including growth hormone, exhibit daily rhythmicity. Technical advances that make the assessment of biomarkers in saliva possible have enabled researchers to non-invasively study biosocial processes related to stress in naturalistic contexts. Chiappin et al [[76]5] showed the usefulness and possibility of salivary hormone analysis containing growth hormone. Rantonen [[77]6] found a linear correlation between salivary and serum growth hormone. Carroll et al. [[78]7] described negative effects of growth hormone insufficiency on psychological well-being, including reduced vitality and energy, depressed mood, emotional lability, impaired self-control, anxiety, and increased social isolation. Patients with growth hormone deficiencies report decreased energy levels, greater emotional lability, increased difficulties with sexual relationships and a greater sense of social isolation than control subjects [[79]8]. However, no direct relationship has been shown between growth hormone deficiency and psychometrically measured depression, apathy or psychosomatic well-being [[80]9]. The purpose of the present study was to investigate individual variation in the levels of growth hormone in healthy subjects and to examine the relationship between an individual's hormone profile and his or her psychosomatic complaints. Methods The subjects and self-assessment questionnaire Fifteen subjects (4 men and 11 women) without major medical disorders ranging in age from 21 to 22 years participated in this study. The study design was approved by the Ethics Committee of Chiba University, Japan, and informed consent was obtained from all subjects. A self-assessment questionnaire concerning psychosomatic symptoms was developed in accordance with data from the Health Behavior in School-Aged Children (HBSC) study of the WHO [[81]10]. The questionnaire for this study contained five items related to physical symptoms and five items pertaining to mental symptoms (Table [82]1). The questionnaire was used to measure each individual's psychosomatic symptoms at home twice each day (08:00 and 20:00 h). The items were rated on a 4-point scale, with 1 = not true at all and 4 = completely true. The total score for the 10-item scale ranged from 10 to 40, with higher scores indicating a greater degree of psychosomatic complaints. The subjects were allocated post hoc (median split) to a High (n = 7) or Low (n = 8) Self-Assessment Group based on their total morning score (with higher scores corresponding to lower self-assessment). [83]Table 1. Morning and evening psychosomatic condition scores collected from the self-assessment psychosomatic complaint questionnaire Sample collection Saliva was collected into Salivette tubes (Sarstedt, Germany) using polyester swabs from the subjects' mouths following 2 min of chewing. Samples were collected five times a day at home (20:00, 24:00, 04:00, 08:00, and 12:00 h). Both the day of sampling and the preceding day were required to be normal days (i.e., without special events or stressful circumstances). After sample collection, the saliva was stored at -20°C until being analysed. Salivary growth hormone assay On the day of testing, the samples were centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for 10 min to remove all mucin. A standard fluorescent determination immunoassay was used to assess the growth hormone concentrations in each sample. To avoid inter-assay variability, all determinations were performed in a single series. In the first step, 96-well fluoro-nunc plates (Nunc, Black MicroWell 137101, Denmark) were pre-coated with 100 µl of anti-growth hormone antibody (Quartett, 2071800210, Germany) and incubated for 1.5 h at room temperature. After incubation, the plate was washed three times with phosphate-buffered saline and blocked for 1 h. After washing, 100 µl of saliva or a standard solution was dispensed into each well and left for 1.5 h. After washing, primary antibody (Funakoshi, FU47500254, Japan) was added to the plates and incubated for 1.5 h. Next, incubation with a secondary antibody (Novus Biologicals, NB120-7112, USA) was performed for 1 h. After washing, rabbit anti-ovine immunoglobulin (Amersham Biosciences, ECF Western Blotting Reagent Pack, USA) was added. After 20 min of incubation, the plate was scanned using a Fluoromark Microplate Fluorometer (Bio-Rad, USA) with excitation at 485 nm and emission at 590 nm. Data analysis The significance of differences between group means was tested by analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by protected t tests when appropriate. The presence of daily rhythmicity in salivary growth hormone was tested by ANOVA and by the cosinor procedure [[84]11]. Results Self-assessment psychosomatic complaints questionnaire A factorial repeated measures ANOVA (high/low self-assessment versus morning/evening self-assessment scores) was conducted. ANOVA results showed significant differences (p < .05) between morning and evening self-assessment scores. Post hoc analyses revealed that, as shown in Table [85]1, the high self-assessment group (total 19.00) differed significantly from the low self-assessment group (total 32.75) in terms of their morning scores (Welch's t-test, t = -3.96, df = 7.57, p < 0.01). The low self-assessment group subjects complained of negative psychosomatic conditions including being easily irritated (p < .05), feeling melancholy (p < .05), having a desire to rest (p < .05), and feeling anxious (p < .01). Assessment of daily rhythmicity of salivary growth hormone secretion We collected saliva profiles from 15 healthy students (4 men and 11 women). The amplitude of salivary growth hormone, defined as the difference between the highest and lowest salivary concentrations, was used to produce a standardisation, or Z, score. As shown in Figure [86]1, noticeable variation was observed in the hormonal rhythms of the subjects, including differences in the salivary growth hormone secretion profiles of the high and low self-assessment groups. Cosinor analysis revealed no significant 24-hour rhythmicity in the secretion profiles of either group (p > .50), but a repeated measures ANOVA identified statistically significant (p < .05) time-related variations for growth hormone in the high self-assessment group. The secretion profile of the low self-assessment group did not exhibit the typical, sharp peak in the early morning [[87]12], and ANOVA showed no time-related variation (p > .10). At 08:00 h, salivary growth hormone levels were significantly lower (p < .05) in the low self-assessment group than in the high self-assessment group. [88]thumbnail Figure 1. Daily variation in salivary level of growth hormone in the high and low self-assessment groups. The results are presented as means ± S.E.M. * p < .05. Discussion Psychosocial factors have been previously shown to affect the psychosomatic symptoms reported by Japanese school children [[89]13]. Psychosomatic symptoms, which are largely mediated by the autonomic nervous system, are strongly influenced by an individual's lifestyle, and the current so-called 24-h society in Japan may have changed the environmental conditions of students. More than 80% of school refusal cases (school phobia) suffer from sleep disorders, with a tendency towards day/night reversal and easy fatigability, especially during the period immediately following their school social life [[90]14]. Thus, impairment in circadian rhythmicity may be a cause of school refusal in Japan. The present study was the first step in an attempt to investigate this hypothesis. Our assessment of salivary growth hormone secretion was not sensitive enough to detect significant daily rhythmicity, but the highest level measured in the subjects of our high self-assessment group occurred earlier in the day than the peak of the daily rhythm measured in a previous study [[91]15]. Peak hormonal secretions often shift to the morning if an activity continues long into the night. A link between deficiency of growth hormone and reduced quality of life or well-being has been reported by many researchers [[92]7]. Our results indicate a relationship between the self-assessment scores and the levels of growth hormone. Subjects with high self-assessment scores in the morning showed significant variability in growth hormone secretion during the day, whereas subjects with low self-assessment scores did not. Thus, psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with hormonal rhythms related to basic lifestyle habits. Nocturnal melatonin secretion can be suppressed by exposure to light on the order of several hundred lux, such as ordinary room light [[93]16]. Thus, a subject's pattern of melatonin secretion may reflect his or her life rhythm, and melatonin secretion appears to be an important index of circadian rhythmicity. Based on our previous finding that growth hormone and melatonin exhibit similar daily rhythmicity [[94]17], we believe that estimates of the state of the central circadian clock can be most accurate if they are based on the analysis of the secretion patterns of both melatonin and growth hormone. Some limitations of our study must be emphasized. First, it is possible that the sleep-disrupting effect of waking at 00.00 and 04.00 to produce a saliva sample had a disruptive effect on hormonal secretion. Second, we observed a larger difference in terms of gender than has been previously described [[95]18], with women having sevenfold higher serum growth hormone concentrations than men during the day. Though we did not directly examine sex differences in growth hormone secretion, we recognise it as an important topic for further research. Conclusion Psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with circadian dysfunction, as inferred from blunted rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Authors' contributions MN designed the experiments, collected data and wrote the manuscript. KY managed the laboratory and adjusted the schedule of subjects. SW participated in the design of the study and performed statistical analysis. MN supervised the study. All authors read and approved the final version of the article. Acknowledgements This study was supported in part by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (C) from the Japanese Ministry of Education to Nagane M. References 1. Okamoto M, Tan F, Suyama A, Okada H, Miyamoto T, Kishimoto T: The characteristics of fatigue symptoms and their association with the life style and the health status in school children. J Epidemiol 2000, 10:241-248. [96]PubMed Abstract [97]OpenURL 2. Murata M: Secular trends in growth and changes in eating patterns of Japanese children. Am J Clin Nutr 2000, 72(suppl):1379S-1383S. [98]PubMed Abstract | [99]Publisher Full Text [100]OpenURL 3. Harada T: Effects of evening light conditions on salivary melatonin of Japanese junior high school students. J Circadian Rhythms 2004, 2:4. [101]PubMed Abstract | [102]BioMed Central Full Text | [103]PubMed Central Full Text [104]OpenURL 4. Klerman E, Gershengorn HB, Duffy JF, Kronauer RE: Comparisons of the variability of three markers of the human circadian pacemaker. 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Zenker S, Haverkamp F, Klingmuller D: Growth hormone deficiency in pituitary disease: relationship to depression, apathy and somatic complaints. Eur J Endocrinol 2002, 147:165-171. [118]PubMed Abstract | [119]Publisher Full Text [120]OpenURL 10. Haugland S, Wold B, Stevenson J, Aaroe LE, Woynarowska B: Subjective health complaints in adolescence. Eur J Public Health 2001, 11:4-10. [121]PubMed Abstract | [122]Publisher Full Text [123]OpenURL 11. Nelson W, Tong YL, Lee JK, Halberg F: Methods for cosinor rhythmometry. Chronobiologia 1979, 6:305-323. [124]PubMed Abstract [125]OpenURL 12. Cauter EV, Leproult R, Plat L: Age-related changes in slow wave sleep and REM sleep and relationship with growth hormone and cortisol levels in healthy men. J Am Med Asso 2000, 284:861-868. [126]Publisher Full Text [127]OpenURL 13. Tanaka H, Tamai H, Terashima S, Takenaka Y, Tanaka T: Psychosocial factors affecting psychosomatic symptoms in Japanese schoolchildren. Pediatr Int 2000, 42:354-358. 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Nagane M, Yoshimura K, Watanabe SI, Nomura M: Examination of the validity of growth hormone as an index of the biological rhythm in comparison with cortisol and melatonin in Japanese healthy students. J Physiol Sci 2008, 58(Suppl):S87. [140]OpenURL 18. Engström BE, Karlsson FA, Wide L: Gender differences in diurnal growth hormone and epinephrine values in young adults during ambulation. Clin Chem 1999, 45:1235-1239. [141]PubMed Abstract | [142]Publisher Full Text [143]OpenURL [144]Have something to say? Post a comment on this article! __________________________________________________________________ [145][1578896537@Top,Bottom,x96!Bottom] [146]Terms and Conditions [147]Privacy statement [148]Information for advertisers [149]Jobs at BMC [150]Contact us © 1999-2010 BioMed Central Ltd unless otherwise stated. Part of [151]Springer Science+Business Media. Références Liens visibles 41. javascript:/// 46. javascript:/// Liens cachés : #[1]rss [2]Jump to content Year * 1996 * 1997 * 1998 * 1999 * 2000 * 2001 * 2002 * 2003 * 2004 * [3]2005 * [4]2006 * [5]2007 * [6]2008 * [7]2009 * 2010 * 2011 * 2012 * 2013 * 2014 * 2015 * 2016 * 2017 * 2018 * 2019 Day * [8]24 * [9]23 * [10]22 * [11]21 * [12]20 * [13]19 * [14]18 * [15]17 * [16]16 * [17]15 * [18]14 * [19]13 * [20]12 * [21]11 * [22]10 * [23]09 * [24]08 * [25]07 * [26]06 * [27]05 * [28]04 * [29]03 * [30]02 * [31]01 [32]24 Ways to impress your friends * [33]Home * [34]Archives * [35]Authors * [36]Twitter * [37]RSS * ____________________ Go 12 12/2006 [38]Compose to a Vertical Rhythm by [39]Richard Rutter * [40]Article * [41]29 comments "Space in typography is like time in music. It is infinitely divisible, but a few proportional intervals can be much more useful than a limitless choice of arbitrary quantities." So says the typographer Robert Bringhurst, and just as regular use of time provides rhythm in music, so regular use of space provides rhythm in typography, and without rhythm the listener, or the reader, becomes disorientated and lost. On the Web, vertical rhythm - the spacing and arrangement of text as the reader descends the page - is contributed to by three factors: font size, line height and margin or padding. All of these factors must calculated with care in order that the rhythm is maintained. The basic unit of vertical space is line height. Establishing a suitable line height that can be applied to all text on the page, be it heading, body copy or sidenote, is the key to a solid dependable vertical rhythm, which will engage and guide the reader down the page. To see this in action, I've created [42]an example with headings, footnotes and sidenotes. Establishing a suitable line height The easiest place to begin determining a basic line height unit is with the font size of the body copy. For [43]the example I've chosen 12px. To ensure readability the body text will almost certainly need some leading, that is to say spacing between the lines. A line-height of 1.5em would give 6px spacing between the lines of body copy. This will create a total line height of 18px, which becomes our basic unit. Here's the CSS to get us to this point: 1. body { 2. font-size: 75%; 3. } 4. 5. html>body { 6. font-size: 12px; 7. } 8. 9. p { 10. line-height 1.5em; 11. } 12. Source: [44]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/1.txt There are many ways to size text in CSS and the above approach provides and accessible method of achieving the pixel-precision solid typography requires. By way of explanation, the first font-size reduces the body text from the 16px default (common to most browsers and OS set-ups) down to the 12px we require. This rule is primarily there for Internet Explorer 6 and below on Windows: the percentage value means that the text will scale predictably should a user bump the text size up or down. The second font-size sets the text size specifically and is ignored by IE6, but used by Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels. Spacing between paragraphs With our rhythmic unit set at 18px we need to ensure that it is maintained throughout the body copy. A common place to lose the rhythm is the gaps set between margins. The default treatment by web browsers of paragraphs is to insert a top- and bottom-margin of 1em. In our case this would give a spacing between the paragraphs of 12px and hence throw the text out of rhythm. If the rhythm of the page is to be maintained, the spacing of paragraphs should be related to the basic line height unit. This is achieved simply by setting top- and bottom-margins equal to the line height. In order that typographic integrity is maintained when text is resized by the user we must use ems for all our vertical measurements, including line-height, padding and margins. 1. p { 2. font-size:1em; 3. margin-top: 1.5em; 4. margin-bottom: 1.5em; 5. } 6. Source: [45]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/2.txt Browsers set margins on all block-level elements (such as headings, lists and blockquotes) so a way of ensuring that typographic attention is paid to all such elements is to reset the margins at the beginning of your style sheet. You could use a rule such as: 1. body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl ockquote,th,td { 2. margin:0; 3. padding:0; 4. } 5. Source: [46]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/3.txt Alternatively you could look into using the [47]Yahoo! UI Reset style sheet which removes most default styling, so providing a solid foundation upon which you can explicitly declare your design intentions. Variations in text size When there is a change in text size, perhaps with a heading or sidenotes, the differing text should also take up a multiple of the basic leading. This means that, in our example, every diversion from the basic text size should take up multiples of 18px. This can be accomplished by adjusting the line-height and margin accordingly, as described following. Headings Subheadings in the [48]example page are set to 14px. In order that the height of each line is 18px, the line-height should be set to 18 ÷ 14 = 1.286. Similarly the margins above and below the heading must be adjusted to fit. The temptation is to set heading margins to a simple 1em, but in order to maintain the rhythm, the top and bottom margins should be set at 1.286em so that the spacing is equal to the full 18px unit. 1. h2 { 2. font-size:1.1667em; 3. line-height: 1.286em; 4. margin-top: 1.286em; 5. margin-bottom: 1.286em; 6. } 7. Source: [49]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/4.txt One can also set asymmetrical margins for headings, provided the margins combine to be multiples of the basic line height. In our example, a top margin of 1½ lines is combined with a bottom margin of half a line as follows: 1. h2 { 2. font-size:1.1667em; 3. line-height: 1.286em; 4. margin-top: 1.929em; 5. margin-bottom: 0.643em; 6. } 7. Source: [50]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/5.txt Also in our example, the main heading is given a text size of 18px, therefore the line-height has been set to 1em, as has the margin: 1. h1 { 2. font-size:1.5em; 3. line-height: 1em; 4. margin-top: 0; 5. margin-bottom: 1em; 6. } 7. Source: [51]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/6.txt Sidenotes Sidenotes (and other supplementary material) are often set at a smaller size to the basic text. To keep the rhythm, this smaller text should still line up with body copy, so a calculation similar to that for headings is required. In our example, the sidenotes are set at 10px and so their line-height must be increased to 18 ÷ 10 = 1.8. 1. .sidenote { 2. font-size:0.8333em; 3. line-height:1.8em; 4. } 5. Source: [52]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/7.txt Borders One additional point where vertical rhythm is often lost is with the introduction of horizontal borders. These effectively act as shims pushing the subsequent text downwards, so a two pixel horizontal border will throw out the vertical rhythm by two pixels. A way around this is to specify horizontal lines using background images or, as in our example, specify the width of the border in ems and adjust the padding to take up the slack. The design of the footnote in our example requires a 1px horizontal border. The footnote contains 12px text, so 1px in ems is 1 ÷ 12 = 0.0833. I have added a margin of 1½ lines above the border (1.5 × 18 ÷ 12 = 2.5ems), so to maintain the rhythm the border + padding must equal a ½ (9px). We know the border is set to 1px, so the padding must be set to 8px. To specify this in ems we use the familiar calculation: 8 ÷ 12 = 0.667. Hit me with your rhythm stick Composing to a vertical rhythm helps engage and guide the reader down the page, but it takes typographic discipline to do so. It may seem like a lot of fiddly maths is involved (a few divisions and multiplications never hurt anyone) but good type setting is all about numbers, and it is this attention to detail which is the key to success. Like what you read? * [53]Tweet this article * or * [54]Leave a comment Comments * [55]12/12/2006 Wow this is a good article. * [57]12/12/2006 [58]Will thanks so much, this is great. * [59]12/12/2006 Interesting stuff. Also worth reading Eric Meyer's post on unitless line-heights: * [61]12/12/2006 It's worth mentioning that IE6 and below can go a bit extreme when resizing fonts set as ems. You can fix this by applying font-size: 100% to html. Don't know why this works, it just does. Oh, if you're working in quirks mode you'll also need to apply it to thead, tbody and tfoot, beacuse the fix doesn't inherit (don't apply it to table unless you want table to inherit font-sizes). You don't need thead, tbody or tfoot in your tables as tbody is implied. Obviously, you can't then apply your own font-sizes to html or tbody etc, else you'll overwrite the fix, which is why I chose those particular elements as they're rarely used for font-sizes. Jake. * [63]12/12/2006 [64]Mike Stenhouse donotremove.co.uk Hmmmmm, interesting! I've not tried this but I think there might be an easier way to set those heights... What if the line-height is set to, say, 1.5em on the body and 1 (unit-less - it's valid!) on each descendant element? Or maybe some variation on that. It might force the 18px to inherit into the children without awkward calculations. * [65]12/12/2006 Great article, Richard! Web typography--like all typography--deserves this level of detailed thinking, and I hope to see more designers embracing it. * [67]12/12/2006 [68]michael h Good introduction to typography theory, but I am convinced that the Owen Briggs method is the best approach to sizing. * [69]13/12/2006 I've been working on something similar recently, and I've discovered that if you set the line-height in pixels, most browsers will still scale it proportionally along with the text. As IE6's numbers fall off, I hope we can leave all this black magic scaling math behind and go back to setting font sizes in pixels and letting the browsers handle the scaling. * [71]13/12/2006 Mike - you're right about being able to simplify the line-height specifications, but it doesn't require setting unitless line-heights. In the example I use, I've set the font-size to be 12px on the body and calculated line-heights for all the subsequent elements. As I required one line height - 18px - for all elements I can remove the multiple statements and simply set line-height:1.5em on the body. The calculated line-height of 18px is inherited by all elements on the page. I've modifed the example to show this (checked in Firefox, Safari and IE6): However the maths would still need to be performed to calculate the correct margins, so while the extra line-height specifications are not strictly necessary (at least while the same line height for all text is required) you unfortunately don't save much on the calculations. * [73]13/12/2006 Jake - the extreme text sizing in IE can be fixed by applying any percentage font size to the body - it doesn't have to be 100% (hence my use of 75% fixed this too). You're right about the tables though. This rule does the job nicely to inherit the text size: table, thead, tbody, tr, th, td {font-size:1em} * [75]13/12/2006 [76]GreLI In the article next rule is used to reset margins: body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl ockquote,th,td { margin:0; padding:0; } I think it easier to use universal selector (* { margin: 0; padding: 0 }) instead. To fix table font-size inheritance it's enough to set table { font-size: 1em } Opera AFAIK don't change font-size if it set in pixels, but it can zoom pages (so does IE7). * [77]13/12/2006 GreLI - using the universal selector like that to zero all margins and padding can cause unpredictable results in some form controls (e.g. SELECT elements) in certain browsers. Rich - great article; now all someone needs to do is knock up a nice little app that spits out the right line-heights and margins for the elements you tell it... :) * [79]13/12/2006 It's unfortunate that pretty much no one composes with a scale when publishing for the web. Your article is a great step forward. Also overlooked are line lengths. Since the beginning of the web, It has been a standard practice to expand the line lengths out with the width of the browser (like your site is currently :), causing line lengths to expand way too long. If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even smaller. * [81]14/12/2006 I don't see it mentioned in the comments yet, but your quote above: "...Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels." is not correct, as IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized. * [83]18/12/2006 If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even smaller. You're right to mention line length as something that is overlooked, but on the screen it is not as simple as setting the measure in ems as their are more factors involved (screen size, liquid layouts, etc). Also I'd disagree that web line lengths should be shorter on the web. My personal preference would be for them to be longer - I find short line lengths on screen extremely hard work to read. That's just my opinion though. IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized. If you think of the reasons for changing text size then zooming a layout is just another form of resizing text and achieves the same goal. * [85]20/12/2006 Theodore, I think you would enjoy Richard's article entitled "Choose a comfortable measure" over at webtypography.net :) 1.2/ * [87]22/12/2006 [88]Rachel Maxim You've said in a few pages what has taken me years to figure out and refine :) - great info! * [89]23/12/2006 I really enjoyed this article. I have read your Elements of....for the web, as well as your blog about sizing text in ems. I have really been looking in to using this and getting the best `flow' with my typography. I also ordered the book Elements of Typographic Style just to give a better understanding. I think its a common misconception that text on the web will always look bland, and you have proved that it can have rhythm and style. * [91]02/01/2007 I've just been using some of these techniques on a client's site who needed 8 tabs all the same width, which fill the available space - I had it working fine in Firefox, but the tabs didn't fill the space in Safari or IE. I found that you really have to do the maths, rather than just use trial and error - they all round the numbers slightly differently. Once I'd checked my calculations, rather than tinkered with the numbers, it works fine everywhere, at least at standard font size. One other correction from someone's comment earlier on - you can resize text in IE7 - click the page icon at top right. Why you need both this and the ability to zoom, I'm not sure, but it's there at any rate. * [93]03/01/2007 [94]Ben G Can you set the margin above or below headings or paragraphs to less than your 18px base measurement? Won't margin collapsing cause whichever the largest margin is to take effect? Ben * [95]31/01/2009 [96]Daniel I've been using this article as the basis for designing my site with some "vertical rhythm". Everything is going well except with forms (input, textarea, etc.). I just haven't been able to use css to maintain the vertical rhythm (based on total line height of 18px). Any advise or insight as to how to get forms to play nicely? * [97]15/02/2009 [98]Silver Firefly I wanted to clarify something about the default browser text size and using the em unit. The article was a tad misleading when it covered the default browser text size and the em unit. A lot of designers have it in their heads that an em is equivalent to 16 pixels. An em is not equivalent to 16 pixels. It is equivalent to whatever is set in the user's browser, which is commonly 16px but depending on the user, it can be 20px or 12px or whatever they have set in their browser's settings. I hope after reading that statement, designers will start to realise that they have little control over how their website appears in other users' browsers. The majority of the control lies in the user's hands. Other than that, the article was very good. * [99]17/04/2009 Great article... and AWESOME site design. Inspirational! * [101]27/04/2009 Typesetting for websites is the future, like all things content-related. The Google knows it :). Thank you for that useful post. You webdesigners take care of your text! * [103]05/06/2009 [104]bonfield Inline bolding of elements (I'm using Helvetica, e.g.) seems to add a px of height on any line that uses it, and that subtly throws off the vertical rhythm for each line and it can add up depending -- anybody else run into this and solve it? * [105]18/06/2009 [106]Anonymous Does this truly keep the vertical rhythm? If you zoom in on the example, you'll see that the descender of the letter g in the H1 header "New England" crosses your rhythm marker's background line, while a lowercase g in the following paragraph does not. There appears to be some fudging going on. * [107]08/07/2009 I find it humorous that this site itself does not compose to a vertical rhythm. I've seen very few online that do. It's so difficult to implement across browsers it is usually brushed aside except for in the most simple design schemes. * [109]03/08/2009 [110]eric I've yet to see any empirical evidence that "vertical rhythm" applied to this degree has any impact on how well a reader is able to extract signal from the noise of the page. Meanwhile, I've seen many, many examples of mis-applied "vertical rhythms" resulting in squashed headings where the underlning on a link impinges on the text below. Which just looks clunky. When you've got something other than an aesthetic opinion from the margins -- maybe some actual data -- then I'll be interested in expending the effort needed to support real vertical rhythm. Until then, I just don't see how it's cost-effective. * [111]02/09/2009 Now, that was the kind of article I was looking for. That goes a lot deeper than I've been into the realms of line-spacing, leading (no kerning here though - can we do kerning with css?). I love the analogy to musical rhythym > therefore probably following on to mathematics/geometry/proportion. That is a great lead-in. Is there any room for the `golden ratio' in web design? Do graphic designers use it with/without realising it? Just that I haven't seen it discussed in the myriad pages concerning page layout/design that I've read so far... Thanks, Darren Impress us Name _________________________ Email _________________________ Website _________________________ Message _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ Be friendly / use [113]Textile Preview Submit About the author [114]Richard Rutter Richard Rutter is a user experience consultant and director of [115]Clearleft. He runs an ongoing project called [116]The Elements of Typographic Style Applied to the Web, where he extols the virtues of good web typography. Richard occasionally blogs at [117]Clagnut, where he writes about design, accessibility and web standards issues, as well as his passion for music and mountain biking. [118]More information Related articles * [119]Real Fonts and Rendering: The New Elephant in the Room 22/12/2009 by [120]Jeffrey Zeldman * [121]Spruce It Up 19/12/2009 by [122]Jonathan Snook * [123]Designing For The Switch 16/12/2009 by [124]Mark Boulton * [125]Type-Inspired Interfaces 07/12/2009 by [126]Dan Mall * [127]A Festive Type Folly 17/12/2008 by [128]Jon Tan * [129]Increase Your Font Stacks With Font Matrix 17/12/2007 by [130]Richard Rutter * [131]Typesetting Tables 07/12/2007 by [132]Mark Boulton * [133]Knockout Type - Thin Is Always In 17/12/2006 by [134]Shaun Inman * [135]An Explanation of Ems 02/12/2005 by [136]Richard Rutter [137]Article archives... In association with: [138]Perch - a really little cms * 24 ways is an [139]edgeofmyseat.com production. * Edited by [140]Drew McLellan and [141]Brian Suda. * Design delivered by [142]Made by Elephant. * Possible only with the help of [143]our terrific authors. * Grab our [144]RSS feed and follow us on [145]Twitter for daily updates. * Hosted by [146]Memset. * * * * Références [1]Home > [2]Articles > [3]Web Design & Development > [4]Usability [5]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm [6]Jason Cranford Teague * By [7]Jason Cranford Teague * Dec 23, 2009 [8]Toggle Open Article Table of Contents [9]Article Contents [10]Close Table of Contents [11]Article Contents 1. [12]Web Measurements 2. [13]Type Size & Line Height 3. [14]Type Space 4. Text Alignment [15]Close Table of Contents [16]< Back Page 4 of 4 * [17]Print [18]Print * [19]Share This [20]Share This * [21]Discuss [22]Discuss [23]Close Window Jason Cranford Teague Jason Cranford Teague [24]Learn more... * [25]Articles * [26]Store * [27]Blogs [28]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm Dec 23, 2009 [29]Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers: Creating Meaning through Syntax Jul 23, 2009 [30]Designing Webbed Environments: The Importance of the Define and Design Phases May 12, 2006 [31]Creating Web Pages for Screen, Print, and Email Apr 28, 2006 [32]How to Style Forms in CSS Mar 17, 2006 [33]What Are CSS Sprites? Mar 3, 2006 [34]Ten Things You Can Do with CSS (That You Might Not Have Known You Could Do) Dec 22, 2005 [35]Fluid Web Typography [36]Fluid Web Typography Nov 24, 2009 [37]Fluid Web Typography, Adobe Reader [38]Fluid Web Typography, Adobe Reader Nov 24, 2009 [39]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers [40]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers Jun 30, 2009 [41]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers, Adobe Reader [42]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers, Adobe Reader Jun 30, 2009 [43]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, 4th Edition [44]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, 4th Edition Oct 17, 2006 [45]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, Adobe Reader, 4th Edition [46]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, Adobe Reader, 4th Edition Oct 17, 2006 [47]DHTML and CSS Advanced: Visual QuickPro Guide [48]DHTML and CSS Advanced: Visual QuickPro Guide Dec 15, 2004 [49]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 3rd Edition [50]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 3rd Edition Feb 20, 2004 [51]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 2nd Edition [52]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 2nd Edition May 30, 2001 [53]10 Last-minute Gifts for Web Designers By on December 17, 2009 1 Comment Q: What do I get for the Web designer who has everything? The short answer is real estate. The slightly longer answer is, anything that helps spark their creativity. The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah, Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [54]Saturnalia myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has everything they need to actually make Web sites? Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect. [55]Choosing the Right Color Value By on December 14, 2009 No Comments Q: Should I use Hex or RGB values to define colors in CSS? The short answer is RGB. The slightly longer answer is that Hex values have become the de facto standard for use in CSS code and both developers and designers are used to them. The long answer is that, in the final design on the screen, there is no difference between using Hex or RGB values in your code. Which system you use is really a matter of you own personal preference (and those of the team you are working with) as to whether or not you use Hex or RGB values to define colors. [56]Expand Your Font Repertoire By on November 30, 2009 No Comments Q: Are there alternatives to Arial, Times, and Georgia for Web designers? The short answer is YES! The slightly longer answer is that most designers use Arial, Times, or Georgia, and, to a lesser degree, Verdana, Trebuchet MS, Courier, and Comic Sans because they think that's all they have at their disposal, but they are wrong. The long answer is that the core Web fonts (the one listed above plus Impact and Web Dings) are used because they are almost guaranteed to be installed on the vast majority of computers your designs are likely to be installed on. One fact of life in Web design is that unless the end user's computer has access to the font file, then the browser cannot use it. [57]Pixels or Ems in Your Web Designs By on November 18, 2009 No Comments Q: What is the practical difference between px (pixel) and em (pronounced m)? When is it best to use one over the other? The short answer is that pixels measure dimensions relative to the screen while ems measure dimensions relative to type size. The slightly longer answer is that pixels are the natural unit for measuring dimensions on a screen and are often used when precise design is required. Ems are the natural unit for measuring type and used when you want to allow maximum design flexibility. [58]To CSS Reset or Not to CSS Reset By on November 10, 2009 No Comments Question: Which Global Reset for CSS Should I Use? The short answer is the simplest one possible. The slightly longer answer is that you should reset some styles, but do so with a good reason. The long answer is that the exact CSS reset you choose will depend on the needs of your design. I like to keep my own reset simple, relying on adding styles to specific tags as needed. However, there are several styles that are inconsistent or (in my opinion) poorly set in most browsers. [59]HTML 5 NOW! By on August 25, 20092 Comments Q: Can I start using HTML 5 now? The short answer is, yes. The slightly longer answer is, you can use some of the new features, but you will need to do a little [60]kludging to get it to work. The long answer is that HTML is a mark-up language meant to indicate the structure of a document. HTML 5 is the next evolutionary step in mark-up languages for the Web, but it is not implemented on most browsers that your audiences are likely to be using and it may be some time before it is. That said, there are some things you can do now to prepare for the future. [61]Big Things Ahead for HTML 5 By on August 17, 2009 No Comments Q: Will HTML5 or XHTML5 be the next big thing or just another collection of past standards and browser war fodder? The short answer is that, yes, [62]HTML 5 is the next big thing. The slightly longer answer is that it's going to be a while before you have to start worrying about HTML 5. The long answer is that, as with all standards, before it becomes relevant, the browser makers have to implement it and then you'll have to wait even longer before legacy browsers are no longer an issue. So, you have some time before you have to run out and buy a new HTML 5 Visual QuickStart Guide. The good news is that HTML 5 has gone to great lengths to stay backwards compatible, so you can begin to learn and implement it today. [63]Everyone is a Web Designer By on August 10, 2009 No Comments Q: What is a Web Designer anymore? It was easier to make Web sites all by yourself, even 5 years ago, but now there is just too much technology for one person to handle. If I want to make a Web site for a very small business, don't have I to be web "developer" now? The short answer is that everybody is a Web designer now. The slightly longer answer is that Web designers are practitioners of a highly specialized discipline that requires years of study to truly master. The long answer is that a good Web designer is a good designer, and this can come "naturally" or from training, but is not medium-dependent. However, a professional Web designer has to understand the medium well enough to know its strengths and limitations. Any designer can pump out something that looks brilliant when displayed in a Web browser window, but is slow to load, static when loaded, and completely unusable. [64]Frames are Dead, Long Live Iframes! By on July 24, 2009 No Comments Q: Is there a suitable alternative to frames? My wife is president of a local woman's club. She and I administer the club's web site, and the ladies like the list of links down one side of the pages. But I read that frames have been deprecated. Regardless, I want to keep the site simple. The short answer is yes-- use iframes. The slightly longer answer is no, not exactly, but we can get close. The long answer is there are a variety of ways to add content to your Web pages, but the question is: once it's on the page what are you going to do with it (or to it)? [65]Q: If I ask ten different web designers what pixel dimensions to use for web pages and whether to make them fixed-width or "stretchy," I get ten different answers. What's your answer, and why? By on July 20, 2009 No Comments The short answer is fixed at 974 pixels (px) wide. The slightly longer answer is whatever it takes to get the job done. The long answer is that asking a Web designer what size a Web page should be is like asking a painter what size a canvas should be or an architect how large a a building should be. While it's not purely a matter of taste--there are certain physical and ergonomic constraints--personal preference accounts for the wide variety of answers you might hear. [66]Ask me, ask me, ask me By on July 1, 2009 No Comments Do you have a question about Web standards, CSS, JavaScript, Ajax, interaction design, user experience, or Web typography? Maybe you just want to know "How'd they do that?" Ask me questions, and each week I will select a question to answer via my Peachpit.com blog. [67]Ask the Web Designer: Why Can't I Use Any Font I Want in My Web Designs? By on June 30, 2009 No Comments The short answer is that you can. The slightly longer answer is that you can't, at least not in any meaningful way yet. The long answer is that the ability to download fonts has actually been a part of the CSS standard (the language used to create Web designs) for over 10 years. The snag comes with what font formats a given browser supports. [NOTE: You may want to stop reading now, as the rest of this explanation might make your eyes bleed in frustration.] [68]Fluid Web Typography This chapter is from the book [69]Fluid Web Typography Jason Cranford Teague shows how giving careful consideration to the measurements and scale you are designing for is what separates good Web typography from great Web typography. Text Alignment Text alignment is generally taken for granted on the Web--left alignment suits most purposes most of the time. In order to create a sense of rhythm and movement on your page, helping to guide the reader's eye around and adding visual interest to the page, a little alignment variation can go a long way. Set body text alignment to minimize gaps and maximize scanning Text alignment in Web pages is, by default, to the left, with ragged edges on the right. Justified text--sometimes called newspaper columns, where both edges of the text are aligned--is rare on the Web. text-align: left; text-align: justify; In print, justified text is created using a variety of techniques including word spacing, letterspacing, hyphenation, and glyph reshaping. In addition, well-formed justification is calculated on a paragraph level to prevent "rivers" of white space flowing down the middle. On the Web, unfortunately, justification is simply created by adding small amounts of space between words. On the screen, where you can only add whole pixels, this often results in uncomfortably large amounts of space between some words, especially in narrower columns. Hyphenation is inexplicably absent from CSS. While it is proposed for inclusion in CSS 3, no work has currently been done on it. When choosing to use left or justified alignment, keep in mind these factors: * Justified text is often seen as more formal and structured, while left alignment is more informal and approachable. * Justified text reinforces the grid structure of a page but can be harder to scan, since it often creates rivers of white space throughout the text, which interrupts the eye path. * Left-aligned text adds an element of white space to the right edge, softening the overall appearance of the page. Combining Alignments [70]craigmod.com Craig Mod combines right-and left-justified columns of text to create motion and rhythm around his page. [71]04-17.jpg [72]Click to view larger image Center or right-justify text for effect and variety More rarely used, centering or right-justifying text can create a specific feeling on the page. text-align: center; text-align: right; Centering and right aligning text is integrally dependent on the design you are creating and how you want your readers to scan the page. While using a variety of justifications helps create rhythm and motion on your page, it can quickly seem cluttered or obnoxious. Always have a specific purpose for the variance of alignment, and use it sparingly. Here are a few ideas: * Bulleted or numbered lists should not be centered or right aligned, as this makes them harder to scan by moving the beginning of each line around. * Center section or module titles/headers if you want to make your site look a little different. Generally, section titles are best when left aligned, but centering them gives your designs a unique feel and may also improve scannability. * Right-align text in the left column of a page or table if it helps show a closer relationship between the elements in adjacent columns. Centered Section Titles [73]jontangerine.com Jon Tangerine combines centered subheadings with justified text in his blog (detail shown) to create solid structure with visual movement. [74]04-18.jpg [75]Click to view larger image Increase margins for longer quotations and style the citation Short quotes of less than three lines are included in a paragraph surround by quotation marks, requiring no other special formatting. In HTML, the blockquote tag is used to set off a block of text as a quotation, generally of two lines of text or longer. The quotation should be styled to distinguish it from other text by indenting its left and right margins and increasing the top and bottom margins. The amount of left/right indentation is based on the width of the column and then adjusted so that it does not conflict with any other indents. A good measure to offset blockquotes is to double the font size (2em), although more or less space may be required for wider or narrower columns: blockquote { margin: 2em; } note.jpg In this chapter, we are only considering spacing issues with blockquotes and citations. Chapters 5 and 6 offer other ways to style text, including weights, italics, backgrounds, and borders. These can be deployed to creatively display longer quotations. This will clearly space the blockquote away from the rest of the text, but it's also up to the copywriter to make it clear that the text is a quote and to supply its source, possibly using the cite tag, which indicates a citation. Turning the cite tag into a block-level element and right-aligning it when it is included in a blockquote creates a strong style. blockquote cite { display: block; text-align: right; } Blockquote Ideas [76]css-tricks.com/examples/Blockquotes CSS-Tricks has a page of blockquote ideas with sample code. The code above will force any text marked by the citation tag to a new line and right-align it. [77]04-20.jpg [78]Click to view larger image Set footnotes and scientific or mathematical annotations using positioning rather than vertical alignment Vertical text alignment allows you to adjust the position of inline text in relation to its natural baseline, shifting it up or down. For footnotes, mathematics, and scientific notation, it will not be enough to simply raise or lower the characters; you will also need to reduce their size relative to the surrounding text. These styles can be applied to the superscript and subscript tags, setting the vertical position to the baseline and then setting a position relative to that: sup, sub { font-size: .5em; vertical-align: baseline; position: relative; } sup { top: -.65em; } sup.math { top: -.8em } sub { top: .2em; } Although vertical-align provides several values to set the vertical position of the text, these have proved to be unreliable in multi-column layouts. The exact values will vary depending on the font, and you may also need to add some left/right margins to add breathing room. [79]04-21.jpg [80]Click to view larger image Type Inspirations: Jon Tangerine Beautiful typographic contrast. Insightful typography editorials. [81]jontangerine.com Jon is a designer living in Bristol, UK, with some of the cleanest pure Web typography I've seen. On top of this, his information and opinions on Web typography are required reading for anyone interested in the ongoing issues we face. [82]04-22.jpg [83]Click to view larger image How he does it: Jon uses a font stack of Web safe fonts, including Cochin, Baskerville, and Palatino Linotype, down to Georgia. He then combines a wide variety of sizes, styles, weights, and colors all scaled and spaced within a strong grid to provide clear eye paths and legible text. [84]04-25.jpg [85]Click to view larger image [86]04-26.jpg [87]Click to view larger image [88]04-27.jpg [89]Click to view larger image [90]04-28.jpg [91]Click to view larger image [92]< Back Page 4 of 4 * [93]Share This [94]Share This * [95][save_16.png] [96]Your Account Discussions Make a New Comment You must [97]log in in order to post a comment. 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The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah, Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [122]Saturnalia myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has everything they need to actually make Web sites? Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect. [123]Kara Murphy [124]Just in time for the holidays: Our video-a-day giveaway By [125]Kara Murphy on December 16, 2009 No Comments It's the holiday season, and I bet some of you are already thinking of your New Year's resolutions. If one of them is to learn something new in the field of Web design, development, presentation, branding, and much more, then you're in luck. 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This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Abstract Background Students suffering from psychosomatic symptoms, including drowsiness and feelings of melancholy, often have basic lifestyle problems. The aim of this study was to investigate whether psychosomatic complaints may be related to circadian dysfunction. Methods We examined 15 healthy students (4 men and 11 women) between 21 and 22 years old. To assess the presence of psychosomatic symptoms among the subjects, we developed a self-assessment psychosomatic complaints questionnaire consisting of five items pertaining to physical symptoms and five items concerning mental symptoms. The subjects rated their psychosomatic symptoms twice a day (08:00 and 20:00 h). We also assessed growth hormone secretion patterns by fluorescence enzyme immunoassay (FEIA). Salivary samples were collected from the subjects at home five times a day (20:00, 24:00, 04:00, 08:00, and 12:00 h) in Salivette tubes. Results The results indicated a relationship between the self-assessment scores and the salivary levels of growth hormone. Subjects with high self-assessment scores showed significant variability in growth hormone secretion over the day, whereas subjects with low self-assessment scores did not. Conclusion Psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with circadian dysfunction, as inferred from blunted rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion. Background Japanese students suffering from psychosomatic disorders, such as those involving mood and sleep, may exhibit basic problems in their lifestyle, including deleterious changes in their living environment and dietary or lifestyle disturbances [[72]1]. In particular, staying up late is associated with decreased appetite and missed breakfast the following morning, irregular bowel movements and sleepiness. Perhaps the biggest problem facing today's Japanese students is their lack of daily physical exercise, brought on by stressful academic courses over long periods of time, too much television and computer games and increased automobile use [[73]2]. Many Japanese youngsters stay up late at night [[74]3]. A circadian pacemaker in the central nervous system regulates human sleep cycles, hormone secretion, subject alertness, objective performance levels and other physiologic functions over a 24-h period. Core body temperature, plasma cortisol, and plasma melatonin are three variables frequently used to estimate the phase of the human pacemaker [[75]4], although many other hormones, including growth hormone, exhibit daily rhythmicity. Technical advances that make the assessment of biomarkers in saliva possible have enabled researchers to non-invasively study biosocial processes related to stress in naturalistic contexts. Chiappin et al [[76]5] showed the usefulness and possibility of salivary hormone analysis containing growth hormone. Rantonen [[77]6] found a linear correlation between salivary and serum growth hormone. Carroll et al. [[78]7] described negative effects of growth hormone insufficiency on psychological well-being, including reduced vitality and energy, depressed mood, emotional lability, impaired self-control, anxiety, and increased social isolation. Patients with growth hormone deficiencies report decreased energy levels, greater emotional lability, increased difficulties with sexual relationships and a greater sense of social isolation than control subjects [[79]8]. However, no direct relationship has been shown between growth hormone deficiency and psychometrically measured depression, apathy or psychosomatic well-being [[80]9]. The purpose of the present study was to investigate individual variation in the levels of growth hormone in healthy subjects and to examine the relationship between an individual's hormone profile and his or her psychosomatic complaints. Methods The subjects and self-assessment questionnaire Fifteen subjects (4 men and 11 women) without major medical disorders ranging in age from 21 to 22 years participated in this study. The study design was approved by the Ethics Committee of Chiba University, Japan, and informed consent was obtained from all subjects. A self-assessment questionnaire concerning psychosomatic symptoms was developed in accordance with data from the Health Behavior in School-Aged Children (HBSC) study of the WHO [[81]10]. The questionnaire for this study contained five items related to physical symptoms and five items pertaining to mental symptoms (Table [82]1). The questionnaire was used to measure each individual's psychosomatic symptoms at home twice each day (08:00 and 20:00 h). The items were rated on a 4-point scale, with 1 = not true at all and 4 = completely true. The total score for the 10-item scale ranged from 10 to 40, with higher scores indicating a greater degree of psychosomatic complaints. The subjects were allocated post hoc (median split) to a High (n = 7) or Low (n = 8) Self-Assessment Group based on their total morning score (with higher scores corresponding to lower self-assessment). [83]Table 1. Morning and evening psychosomatic condition scores collected from the self-assessment psychosomatic complaint questionnaire Sample collection Saliva was collected into Salivette tubes (Sarstedt, Germany) using polyester swabs from the subjects' mouths following 2 min of chewing. Samples were collected five times a day at home (20:00, 24:00, 04:00, 08:00, and 12:00 h). Both the day of sampling and the preceding day were required to be normal days (i.e., without special events or stressful circumstances). After sample collection, the saliva was stored at -20°C until being analysed. Salivary growth hormone assay On the day of testing, the samples were centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for 10 min to remove all mucin. A standard fluorescent determination immunoassay was used to assess the growth hormone concentrations in each sample. To avoid inter-assay variability, all determinations were performed in a single series. In the first step, 96-well fluoro-nunc plates (Nunc, Black MicroWell 137101, Denmark) were pre-coated with 100 µl of anti-growth hormone antibody (Quartett, 2071800210, Germany) and incubated for 1.5 h at room temperature. After incubation, the plate was washed three times with phosphate-buffered saline and blocked for 1 h. After washing, 100 µl of saliva or a standard solution was dispensed into each well and left for 1.5 h. After washing, primary antibody (Funakoshi, FU47500254, Japan) was added to the plates and incubated for 1.5 h. Next, incubation with a secondary antibody (Novus Biologicals, NB120-7112, USA) was performed for 1 h. After washing, rabbit anti-ovine immunoglobulin (Amersham Biosciences, ECF Western Blotting Reagent Pack, USA) was added. After 20 min of incubation, the plate was scanned using a Fluoromark Microplate Fluorometer (Bio-Rad, USA) with excitation at 485 nm and emission at 590 nm. Data analysis The significance of differences between group means was tested by analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by protected t tests when appropriate. The presence of daily rhythmicity in salivary growth hormone was tested by ANOVA and by the cosinor procedure [[84]11]. Results Self-assessment psychosomatic complaints questionnaire A factorial repeated measures ANOVA (high/low self-assessment versus morning/evening self-assessment scores) was conducted. ANOVA results showed significant differences (p < .05) between morning and evening self-assessment scores. Post hoc analyses revealed that, as shown in Table [85]1, the high self-assessment group (total 19.00) differed significantly from the low self-assessment group (total 32.75) in terms of their morning scores (Welch's t-test, t = -3.96, df = 7.57, p < 0.01). The low self-assessment group subjects complained of negative psychosomatic conditions including being easily irritated (p < .05), feeling melancholy (p < .05), having a desire to rest (p < .05), and feeling anxious (p < .01). Assessment of daily rhythmicity of salivary growth hormone secretion We collected saliva profiles from 15 healthy students (4 men and 11 women). The amplitude of salivary growth hormone, defined as the difference between the highest and lowest salivary concentrations, was used to produce a standardisation, or Z, score. As shown in Figure [86]1, noticeable variation was observed in the hormonal rhythms of the subjects, including differences in the salivary growth hormone secretion profiles of the high and low self-assessment groups. Cosinor analysis revealed no significant 24-hour rhythmicity in the secretion profiles of either group (p > .50), but a repeated measures ANOVA identified statistically significant (p < .05) time-related variations for growth hormone in the high self-assessment group. The secretion profile of the low self-assessment group did not exhibit the typical, sharp peak in the early morning [[87]12], and ANOVA showed no time-related variation (p > .10). At 08:00 h, salivary growth hormone levels were significantly lower (p < .05) in the low self-assessment group than in the high self-assessment group. [88]thumbnail Figure 1. Daily variation in salivary level of growth hormone in the high and low self-assessment groups. The results are presented as means ± S.E.M. * p < .05. Discussion Psychosocial factors have been previously shown to affect the psychosomatic symptoms reported by Japanese school children [[89]13]. Psychosomatic symptoms, which are largely mediated by the autonomic nervous system, are strongly influenced by an individual's lifestyle, and the current so-called 24-h society in Japan may have changed the environmental conditions of students. More than 80% of school refusal cases (school phobia) suffer from sleep disorders, with a tendency towards day/night reversal and easy fatigability, especially during the period immediately following their school social life [[90]14]. Thus, impairment in circadian rhythmicity may be a cause of school refusal in Japan. The present study was the first step in an attempt to investigate this hypothesis. Our assessment of salivary growth hormone secretion was not sensitive enough to detect significant daily rhythmicity, but the highest level measured in the subjects of our high self-assessment group occurred earlier in the day than the peak of the daily rhythm measured in a previous study [[91]15]. Peak hormonal secretions often shift to the morning if an activity continues long into the night. A link between deficiency of growth hormone and reduced quality of life or well-being has been reported by many researchers [[92]7]. Our results indicate a relationship between the self-assessment scores and the levels of growth hormone. Subjects with high self-assessment scores in the morning showed significant variability in growth hormone secretion during the day, whereas subjects with low self-assessment scores did not. Thus, psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with hormonal rhythms related to basic lifestyle habits. Nocturnal melatonin secretion can be suppressed by exposure to light on the order of several hundred lux, such as ordinary room light [[93]16]. Thus, a subject's pattern of melatonin secretion may reflect his or her life rhythm, and melatonin secretion appears to be an important index of circadian rhythmicity. Based on our previous finding that growth hormone and melatonin exhibit similar daily rhythmicity [[94]17], we believe that estimates of the state of the central circadian clock can be most accurate if they are based on the analysis of the secretion patterns of both melatonin and growth hormone. Some limitations of our study must be emphasized. First, it is possible that the sleep-disrupting effect of waking at 00.00 and 04.00 to produce a saliva sample had a disruptive effect on hormonal secretion. Second, we observed a larger difference in terms of gender than has been previously described [[95]18], with women having sevenfold higher serum growth hormone concentrations than men during the day. Though we did not directly examine sex differences in growth hormone secretion, we recognise it as an important topic for further research. Conclusion Psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with circadian dysfunction, as inferred from blunted rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Authors' contributions MN designed the experiments, collected data and wrote the manuscript. KY managed the laboratory and adjusted the schedule of subjects. SW participated in the design of the study and performed statistical analysis. MN supervised the study. All authors read and approved the final version of the article. Acknowledgements This study was supported in part by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (C) from the Japanese Ministry of Education to Nagane M. References 1. Okamoto M, Tan F, Suyama A, Okada H, Miyamoto T, Kishimoto T: The characteristics of fatigue symptoms and their association with the life style and the health status in school children. J Epidemiol 2000, 10:241-248. [96]PubMed Abstract [97]OpenURL 2. Murata M: Secular trends in growth and changes in eating patterns of Japanese children. Am J Clin Nutr 2000, 72(suppl):1379S-1383S. [98]PubMed Abstract | [99]Publisher Full Text [100]OpenURL 3. Harada T: Effects of evening light conditions on salivary melatonin of Japanese junior high school students. J Circadian Rhythms 2004, 2:4. [101]PubMed Abstract | [102]BioMed Central Full Text | [103]PubMed Central Full Text [104]OpenURL 4. Klerman E, Gershengorn HB, Duffy JF, Kronauer RE: Comparisons of the variability of three markers of the human circadian pacemaker. 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Références Liens visibles 41. javascript:/// 46. javascript:/// Liens cachés : #[1]Latest articles [2]Most viewed [3]Latest comments [4]PDF [5]XML version [6][1218719383@Top,Bottom,x96!Top] [7]Log on / register [8]BioMed Central home | [9]Journals A-Z | [10]Feedback | [11]Support | [12]My details [13]Home | [14]Browse articles | [15]Search | [16]Weblinks | [17]Submit article | [18]My JCR | [19]About JCR * [20]Top * [21]Abstract * [22]Background * [23]Methods * [24]Results * [25]Discussion * [26]Conclusion * [27]List of abbre... * [28]Competing interests * [29]Authors' contributions * [30]Acknowledgements * [31]References [32][1973347444@Top,Bottom,x96%21x96] [33]Journal of Circadian Rhythms [34]Volume 3 Viewing options: * [35]Abstract * Full text * [36]PDF (651KB) Associated material: * [37]Readers' comments [38]RSS * [39]PubMed record Related literature: * Articles citing this article [40]on Google Scholar [41]on PubMed Central * Other articles by authors [42]on Google Scholar [43]Conroy DA [44]Spielman AJ [45]Scott RQ [46]on PubMed [47]Conroy DA [48]Spielman AJ [49]Scott RQ * Related articles/pages [50]on Google [51]on Google Scholar [52]on PubMed Tools: * [53]Download citation(s) * [54]Download XML * [55]Email to a friend * [56]Order reprints * [57]Post a comment Post to: * [58]Citeulike * [59]Connotea * [60]Del.icio.us * [61]Facebook * [62]Twitter [63]Open Access [64]Highly Access Research Daily rhythm of cerebral blood flow velocity Deirdre A Conroy^1 [65]email , Arthur J Spielman^1^,2 [66]email and Rebecca Q Scott^3 [67]email ^1 Department of Psychology, The Graduate School and University Center of the City University of New York, New York, USA ^2 Department of Neurology and Neuroscience, New York Presbyterian Hospital, New York, USA ^3 Department of Health Psychology, Albert Einstein Medical College at Yeshiva University, Bronx, USA [email.gif] author email [email-ca.gif] corresponding author email Journal of Circadian Rhythms 2005, 3:3doi:10.1186/1740-3391-3-3 The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be Received: 21 December 2004 Accepted: 10 March 2005 Published: 10 March 2005 © 2005 Conroy et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Abstract Background CBFV (cerebral blood flow velocity) is lower in the morning than in the afternoon and evening. Two hypotheses have been proposed to explain the time of day changes in CBFV: 1) CBFV changes are due to sleep-associated processes or 2) time of day changes in CBFV are due to an endogenous circadian rhythm independent of sleep. The aim of this study was to examine CBFV over 30 hours of sustained wakefulness to determine whether CBFV exhibits fluctuations associated with time of day. Methods Eleven subjects underwent a modified constant routine protocol. CBFV from the middle cerebral artery was monitored by chronic recording of Transcranial Doppler (TCD) ultrasonography. Other variables included core body temperature (CBT), end-tidal carbon dioxide (EtCO2), blood pressure, and heart rate. Salivary dim light melatonin onset (DLMO) served as a measure of endogenous circadian phase position. Results A non-linear multiple regression, cosine fit analysis revealed that both the CBT and CBFV rhythm fit a 24 hour rhythm (R^2 = 0.62 and R^2 = 0.68, respectively). Circadian phase position of CBT occurred at 6:05 am while CBFV occurred at 12:02 pm, revealing a six hour, or 90 degree difference between these two rhythms (t = 4.9, df = 10, p < 0.01). Once aligned, the rhythm of CBFV closely tracked the rhythm of CBT as demonstrated by the substantial correlation between these two measures (r = 0.77, p < 0.01). Conclusion In conclusion, time of day variations in CBFV have an approximately 24 hour rhythm under constant conditions, suggesting regulation by a circadian oscillator. The 90 degree-phase angle difference between the CBT and CBFV rhythms may help explain previous findings of lower CBFV values in the morning. The phase difference occurs at a time period during which cognitive performance decrements have been observed and when both cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events occur more frequently. The mechanisms underlying this phase angle difference require further exploration. Background It has been well documented that cerebral blood flow velocity (CBFV) is lower in sleep [[70]1-[71]7] and in the morning shortly after awakening [[72]8-[73]10] than in the afternoon or evening. Generally accepted theories about the time of day changes in CBFV attribute the fall in CBFV to the physiological processes of the sleep period and the increase during the day to waking processes. The low CBFV in the morning is thought to be a consequence of the fall in the overall reduced metabolic level [[74]8,[75]10 ,[76]11] and reduced cognitive processing [[77]12]. Additionally, the reduced physical activity [[78]13], reduced body temperature, and the recumbent sleeping position have also been proposed as contributors [[79]14] to the decline in CBFV and analogous brain processes. An alternative to these explanations that attribute changes in CBFV to sleep and wake dependent processes is that this pattern of fluctuation reflects an endogenous process with circadian rhythmicity. The decline of CBFV across the sleep period and rise after subjects are awakened in the morning resemble the endogenous circadian changes in core body temperature (CBT), a reliable index of endogenous circadian rhythmicity. Both patterns are low during sleep, start to rise in the morning, reach their peak in the late afternoon, and then drop during the sleep period. The aim of this study was to examine CBFV over ~30 hours of sustained wakefulness to unmask and quantify contributions of the endogenous circadian system. By not permitting sleep, the evoked changes dependent on this change of state will not contribute to the observed CBFV changes. We hypothesized that time of day changes in CBFV are due to endogenous circadian regulation. Previous studies have been limited by several factors. First, the environmental conditions (light level) and the behavior of the subject (sleep, meals, and caffeine intake) were not controlled [[80]15,[81]13,[82]1 ,[83]16]. Second, CBFV measurements were obtained at only a few circadian points. For example, Ameriso et al. [[84]15] and Qureshi et al. [[85]16] assessed CBFV between 6-8 am, 1-3 pm, and 7-9 pm. Diamant et al [[86]13] assessed CBFV during the first 15 minutes of every hour across a 24 hour period. Given these brief time periods, the findings are only a schematic of the 24 hour profile. Third, primary output markers of the endogenous circadian pacemaker (such as core body temperature and melatonin production) were not assessed. We employed the "constant routine" protocol, which was designed specifically to unmask underlying circadian rhythms in constant conditions [[87]17]. CBFV was collected by Transcranial Doppler (TCD) ultrasonography for the entire study period. Core body temperature and salivary dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO) were measured for determination of circadian phase. Continuous electroencephalography (EEG) was performed to ensure wakefulness across the study. Additionally, measurements of blood pressure, heart rate, and end tidal carbon dioxide (Et[CO2]), three of the main regulators of CBFV, were collected every half hour. Methods Subject selection Twelve subjects (10 men and 2 women; ages 19-38, mean 28 years) agreed to participate. One subject discontinued her participation because of a headache 15 hours into the study. Subjects were in good health, as assessed by medical history, semi-structured clinical interview, and physical exam. Information regarding menstrual cycle was not obtained from female subjects. Subjects also underwent an independent standard cerebrovascular assessment and were determined to be normal. They reported no symptoms of sleep problems (such as insomnia, obstructive sleep apnea, narcolepsy, or restless legs syndrome). Subjects that were selected to participate kept to a designated sleep-wake schedule (that was negotiated from the subject's typical pattern) and filled out a sleep diary for the two weeks prior to the time in the laboratory. According to sleep diary reports, bedtimes ranged from 10:30 pm to 1:00 am and waketimes ranged from 6:00 am to 10:00 am. Alcohol and caffeine intake was discontinued for the entire week before the study. During the data collection, subjects were not permitted either alcohol or caffeine. All subjects were non-smokers. Laboratory constant routine protocol The study protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Boards of New York Presbyterian Hospital - Weill Medical College of Cornell University and The City College of New York. Subjects gave written and informed consent before participating. Subjects arrived at the sleep laboratory between 9:30 am and 10:00 am. They were oriented to the study procedures and to their bedroom. Electrodes were placed on the subject's head and face as they sat in a chair next to the bed. Data collection began at 11 am. Subjects remained in bed and awake in a semi recumbent position for 30 hours in an established "constant routine" (CR) protocol. Subjects remained in low (<25 lux) light levels which have been shown to have little or no entraining effect on the circadian pacemaker [[88]18]. They were not allowed to get out of bed to urinate. Instead they urinated in private in a urinal or bedpan. Subjects remained awake from 11:00 a.m. on Day 1 until 5 p.m. on Day 2. Throughout the study, subjects were provided small meals (Ensure ^® liquid formula plus one-quarter nutritional food bar) every 2 hours. Subject's typical total food and liquid intake for a day and a quarter were divided into 15 relatively equal portions. Only one subject participated in the CR per 30-hour period. This protocol represents a modified CR in two ways. First, subjects were allowed to watch television and were therefore were not in "time isolation." Television content was monitored so that subjects were not exposed to programs with highly emotional themes. Second, subjects needing to defecate were allowed to go to the bathroom, which was located a few steps away from the bedside. We chose this method as an alternative to using the bedpan to ensure subject's comfort and study compliance. Three subjects (subjects 05, 06, and 10) got out of bed once at 3:30, 21:30, and 15:30, respectively, to defecate. One subject, subject 12, got out of bed twice, at 22:30 and 6:35. Subject 10 used the bathroom only during the adaptation period. A paired-samples t-test was conducted to evaluate the impact of getting out of bed to defecate on subject's CBT and CBFV values. The CBT and CBFV values in the two hours before getting up were compared to the two hours after the subject got up. Subjects 5 showed a slight decrease in CBT from before (M = 98.12, SD = 0.14) to after the subject returned to the bed (M = 97.91, SD = 0.08), t(3) = -5.17, p = .014). Subject 6 showed a decline in CBFV from before (M = 56.14, SD = 2.3) to after the subject returned to the bed (M = 45.67, SD = 3.7), t(3) = 5.49, p = 0.012). There were no other significant differences detected between these two time periods for subject 5's CBFV, subject 6's CBT, or for both times subject 12 got out of the bed. By visual inspection, the overall shape of the curves in these subjects was not affected and therefore these subject's data were included in subsequent analyses. Transcranial Doppler ultrasound recordings The current study utilized TCD ultrasonography to measure cerebral blood flow velocity. TCD is a non-invasive instrument (consisting of one or two 2-Mhz transducers fitted to a headband, MARC500, Spencer Technologies, Nicolet Biomedical Inc) that is used predominantly as a diagnostic tool to assess cerebral hemodynamics in normal and pathological conditions. TCD ultrasonography is predicated on a theory that involves the measurement of moving objects when combined with radar. When the instrument emits the sound wave, it is reflected by the blood cells that are moving in the vector of the sound wave [[89]19]. CBFV was measured using either the right or left middle cerebral artery (MCA) using TCD sonography (TCD: DWL Multidop X-2, DWL Elektronische Systeme GmbH, D-78354 Sipplingen/Germany) through the temporal window. An observer who was present continuously during the recordings evaluated the quality of the signal. This enabled long-term recording of CBFV throughout the study. Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT) of the signal was used to analyze the velocity spectra. The mean velocity of the MCA was obtained from the integral of the maximal TCD frequency shifts over one beat divided by the corresponding beat interval and expressed in cm/sec. Analysis was conducted off line. Measurement of standard markers of the circadian pacemaker Body temperature recordings Core body temperature was recorded at 1-minute intervals with an indwelling rectal probe (MiniMitter, Co. Bend, OR). A wire lead connected the sensor out of the rectum to a data collection system worn on the belt. Temperature readings were collected and saved into the device and monitored at hourly intervals by the investigator. After the study, the recordings were visually inspected and artifacts resulting from removal or malfunction of the probe were excluded from further analysis. Salivary melatonin Salivary samples of 3 ml were collected every hour from 11:00 a.m. on Day 1 to 4:00 p.m. on Day 2. Ten of these samples were used only for the determination of the timing of the salivary dim light melatonin onset (DLMO). For nine subjects, salivary DLMO was assessed across a ten-hour time window that included the ten hours before the CBT minimum. Immediately after collection, each saliva sample was frozen and stored at -20°C. Saliva samples were assayed using Bühlmann Melatonin Radio Immunoassay (RIA) test kit for direct melatonin in human saliva (American Laboratory Products Co., Windham, NH). Analysis was conducted at New York State Institute for Basic Research. Salivary DLMO time was selected based on two criteria. The saliva sample needed to have melatonin concentration 3 pg/ml or above and later samples needed to show higher levels (Bühlmann laboratories). Second, the 3 pg/ml threshold needed to occur within 6-10 hours before core body temperature minimum [[90]20]. Polygraphic recordings Electroencephalography (EEG) was continually assessed across the 30 hours to ensure that subjects maintained wakefulness. The following montage was used according to the international 10-20 system: C3-A2, C4-A1, O1-A2, O2-A1, ROC-A1, LOC-A2, and submentalis electromyogram (EMG). One channel of electrocardiogram was continuously recorded by monitoring from two electrodes (one on each side of the body at the shoulder chest junction). The EEG software (Rembrant Sleep Collection Software Version 7.0) was used for data acquisition and display of the signals on a personal computer. Throughout the CR, the investigator (DAC) monitored the quality of the recordings. The recordings were scored by RQS and DAC. Blood pressure, heart rate, and end-tidal CO2 An automated blood pressure cuff was placed on the bicep of the subject and inflated two times each hour in order to determine changes in blood pressure and heart rate over time. Blood pressure and heart rate in one subject (02) was recorded via a finger blood pressure monitor (Omron Marshall Products, Model F-88). Blood pressure and heart rate in subjects 03, 04, 05, 06, and 07 were recorded with Omron Healthcare, Inc, Vernon Hills, Illinois 60061 Model # HEM-705CP Rating: DC 6V 4W Serial No: 2301182L. Blood pressure and heart rate for subjects 08, 09 and 10 was recorded with a similar blood pressure monitor (CVS Pharmacy Inc, Woonsocket, RI 02895 Model # 1086CVS). Blood pressure and heart rate recordings were not measured in subjects 11 and 12. Et[CO2 ]was continuously obtained. A nasal cannula for monitoring expired gases was placed under the nose. Relative changes in carbon dioxide content were measured by an Ohmeda 4700 Oxicap (BOC healthcare). Mean Et[CO2 ]levels were analyzed off-line. Et[CO2 ]recordings were not measured in subjects 11 and 12. Data Analyses Data reduction and statistical procedures CBT and CBFV values were first subjected to data rejection. All CBT values less than 96 degrees were determined to be artifact and were rejected. All CBFV values less than 20 cm/sec were determined to be artifact according to the clinical criteria set by the staff neurologist. Data reduction was accomplished by averaging into one minute, 30 minute or hourly bins. Correlations presented here were performed on mean values in 30 minute bins. To ensure that circadian measurements were made under basal conditions, the first five hours of the constant routine were excluded from all analyses to eliminate effects of study adaptation. The last hour was excluded to eliminate confounding effects such as expectation effects. The data are presented in this article in three ways. First, CBT and CBFV values were plotted according to time of day (Figures [91]1 and [92]2). Second, CBFV values were aligned according to the CBT nadir (Figure [93]3) and third, the CBFV nadir was aligned to the CBT nadir (Figure [94]4). To align CBFV to the CBT circadian nadir as shown in Figure [95]3, the CBT nadir of each individual subject was set to circadian time 0, or 0°. The CBFV value that corresponded to the CBT nadir was then also set to 0. Each half hour data point after the temperature nadir and corresponding CBFV values were then set to a circadian degree. There were a total of 48 data points across the 24 hour period. Therefore, each data point was equal to 7.5 degrees so that each data point would accumulate to 360°. Lastly, mean values were obtained for CBT and CBFV at each circadian degree. [96]thumbnail Figure 1. 24-hour Cosine Curve fit to Mean Core Body Temperature (°F). Time course of CBT according to time of day. Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/- SEM) of CBT (blue diamonds) fit with a 24-hour cosine curve (purple squares). Time of day is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate shows CBT values (degrees F). The vertical line indicates where the data was double plotted. Also displayed in the upper right corner is the non-linear cosine curve fit for mean CBT, R^2 = 0.62. The overall mean circadian phase position of the minimum was 6:05 am. [97]thumbnail Figure 2. 24-hour Cosine Curve fit to Mean Cerebral Blood Flow Velocity (cm/sec). Time course of CBFV according to time of day. Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/- SEM) of CBFV (blue diamonds) fit with a 24-hour cosine curve (purple squares). Time of day is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate shows CBFV values (cm/sec). The vertical line indicates where the data was double plotted. Also displayed in the upper right corner is the non-linear cosine curve fit for mean CBFV, R^2 = 0.67. The overall mean circadian phase position of the minimum was 12:02 pm. [98]thumbnail Figure 3. Mean CBT and CBFV Aligned to CBT Nadir. Time course of mean CBFV and mean CBT aligned to the nadir of CBT and then averaged. Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/-SEM) of CBT (purple squares) and CBFV (blue circles) aligned to the phase of the circadian temperature cycle. Circadian time in degrees is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate on the left shows CBT values (degrees F) and CBFV (cm/sec) on the right. The vertical line indicates the CBT nadir. [99]thumbnail Figure 4. Mean CBT and CBFV Aligned to Their Respective Nadir. Time course of mean CBFV and mean CBT aligned to each of their respective nadirs and then averaged. Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/-SEM) of CBT (purple squares) and CBFV (blue circles) aligned to the phase of the circadian temperature cycle. Circadian time in degrees is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate on the left shows CBT values (degrees F) and CBFV (cm/sec) on the right. The vertical line indicates both the CBT nadir and the CBFV nadir. The correlation coefficient between the aligned rhythms is 0.77 (p < 0.01). To align the CBFV nadir to the CBT nadir, first, the lowest value of CBT and the lowest value of CBFV were identified and set to circadian time 0, or 0°. Each half hour data point after the CBT nadir and CBFV nadir were then set to a circadian degree. There were a total of 48 data points across the 24 hour period. Therefore, each data point was equal to 7.5 degrees so that each data point would accumulate to 360°. Lastly, mean values were obtained for CBT and CBFV at each circadian degree. Estimation of circadian phase A 24-hour non-linear multiple regression -cosine curve fit analysis was performed on the CBT and CBFV data (SAS Institute, Cary, NC). This technique constrains the circadian period of CBT and CBFV to be within 24 hours. This technique used the following equations: model cbt = &avg_cbt + r * cos((2 * 3.1415) * (hours-&max_cbt)/24; model cbfv = &avg_cbt + r * cos((2 * 3.1415) * (hours-&max_cbfv)/24, where & = constants that center the curve at the actual average for each series (vertical centering) and the predicted maximum at the actual maximum (horizontal centering); r = the amplitude of the cosine wave. An additional analysis was performed which also yielded the estimated clock time for the CBT nadir and CBFV nadir (Synergy software, Kaleidagraph Version 3.6). Third, the minimum of the circadian rhythm of CBT and salivary DLMO were also used as markers of the endogenous circadian phase. A paired t-test was used to determine the overall phase difference between CBT and CBFV. Results Eleven subjects completed the protocol. The TCD probe was placed on either the right or left temple, whichever gave the better signal. Mean isonation depth of the TCD signal was 56.5 mm for the right MCA and 55.6 mm for the left MCA (range 53-60 mm). The constant routine ranged from 28 to 30 hours in duration. Polygraphic recordings confirmed sustained wakefulness across essentially the entire protocol in all but one subject. Subjects that had difficulty remaining awake were monitored closely and aroused when needed by engagement in conversation. Results from the polygraphic recordings are not presented here. We do not present the results of the polygraphic recordings because, for the purposes of this study, these recordings were used solely to monitor whether subjects were awake or asleep. The first five hours and the final hour of data from the constant routine were excluded from analysis. Core body temperature, cerebral blood flow velocity and the 24-hour day A 24 hour non-linear multiple regression, cosine fit analysis revealed that the overall mean CBT rhythm (n = 11) fit a 24 hour cosine rhythm (R^2 = 0.62, p < 0.01), Figure [100]1. The mean CBT across all subjects was 98.6 °F (+/- 0.03 °F). Figure [101]2 shows that a 24-hour non-linear multiple regression, cosine analysis fit a 24 hour cosine rhythm (R^2 = 0.67, p < 0.01), Figure [102]2. The mean CBFV across subjects was 40.6 cm/sec (+/- 0.54 cm/sec). Salivary DLMO occurred 7.7 hours prior to the CBT nadir in nine subjects, which served only as a secondary measure of endogenous circadian phase position in those subjects. The mean salivary melatonin concentration across the ten hour window was 15.3 pg/ml (+/-3.05 pg/ml). CBFV rhythm is 90 degrees out of phase with the CBT rhythm The overall mean circadian position of CBT occurred at 6:05 am and the mean position of CBFV occurred at 12:02 pm (Figure [103]3), yielding a 6 hour or 90 degree statistically significant difference (t = 4.9, DF = 10, p < 0.01). In individual subject data, the differences ranged from 0 to 8.5 hours. In eight subjects, the CBFV phase occurred later than the respective CBT phase, with mean difference of 5.2 hours. In two subjects, the CBFV nadir occurred earlier than the respective CBT nadir, with a mean difference of 6 hours. In one subject, there was no difference between the phase of CBT and CBFV. However, this subject's CBT rhythm was highly unusual, with the nadir occurring at 11:35 am on Day 2. Nevertheless, we felt the most appropriate way to present the data was to include this subject in the overall analysis. When the phase of CBFV was shifted so that the lowest value was aligned to the lowest CBT value, the two parameters were highly correlated (see Figure [104]4; r = 0.77, n = 98, p < 0.01). While the difference in the two rhythms variability was large, Fisher's z-transformed values revealed that the amplitudes of the two parameters were similar. The amplitude of CBFV yielded a z score of 4.25 and CBT yielded a z score of 3.06. Blood pressure recordings and systemic hemodynamic variables A Pearson correlation revealed a positive relationship between CBT and heart rate (r = 0.40, p < 0.01) across the 24 hour period. Diastolic blood pressure (DBP) and CBT showed a negative correlation (r = -0.30, p < 0.05). Et[CO2 ]showed a trend towards a direct relationship with CBFV (r = 0.24, p = 0.10). Blood pressure, heart rate, and Et[CO2 ]served only as regulators of CBFV and were not analyzed according to circadian phase. Discussion This study is the first to use the constant routine (CR) protocol to determine whether the endogenous circadian pacemaker contributes to the previously reported diurnal changes in CBFV. The current work demonstrates that, with limited periodic external stimuli and a constant posture, there is 24-hour rhythmicity in CBFV. Subjects showed a cycle of approximately 24 hours in CBT, which has been previously demonstrated with the CR [[105]21]. Figure [106]3 illustrates the intricate relationship between the rhythms across the study period. At approximately the CBT acrophase, the relationship between the two rhythms undergoes a transition. Between 180 and 240 degrees, CBFV is still rising and CBT is changing directions (first rising, reaching its peak and then falling). This period between 180 and 240 has been described as a "wake maintenance zone", a time in the circadian cycle during which humans are less likely to fall asleep [[107]22]. In our subjects, the CBT is near its zenith or just starting to fall at this time and CBFV is still steadily rising. Higher values in CBT and CBFV are associated with activation and therefore these two endogenous rhythms may be promoting wakefulness during this "wake maintenance zone". However, at the end of this transition period, CBT is falling and CBFV is still rising, perhaps reflecting continued activation of the cerebral cortex. Whereas the two-process model predicts increased tendency to sleep as CBT falls [[108]23], our finding may provide the mechanism by which wakefulness is effortlessly maintained before bedtime. Figure [109]3 further illustrates that as wakefulness is extended past the subject's habitual bedtime (approximately 270 degrees), the two rhythms decline together. Between 0 and 60 degrees, CBFV steadily declines and CBT is steadily rising. The lower CBFV values in the morning may play a role in cognitive performance impairments [[110]24], particularly the 3-4.5 hour phase difference in neurobehavioral functioning relative to the CBT rhythm that has been previously demonstrated in constant routine protocols [[111]25]. Earlier studies using simultaneous EEG and TCD to continuously measure CBFV across the sleep period have concluded that, except for periods of REM sleep, [[112]26 ,[113]27], there is a linear decline in CBFV across the night during periods of non-REM sleep [[114]1,[115]28]. Other groups utilizing these techniques simultaneously speculated that the decline in CBFV through the night was a "decoupling" of cerebral electrical activity and cerebral perfusion during non-REM sleep [[116]8-[117]10]. In all studies [[118]1,[119]8-[120]10,[121]28], CBFV values were lower in the morning during wakefulness than during wakefulness prior to sleep at night. The current findings show that the decline in CBFV is present during wakefulness in the night time hours and therefore may not be attributed solely to sleep and associated changes that normally influence CBFV (including factors such as the shift to recumbency, and reduced activity, metabolic rate and respiratory rate). Moreover, our interaction with the subjects and the monitoring of EEG for signs of sleep resulted in no sleep in all but one subject. The one exception was in a subject who lapsed into brief periods of sleep. Therefore, the fall in CBFV in 10 out of 11 subjects cannot be explained by the occurrence of non-REM sleep. It is possible, however, that the decline of CBFV across the night and early morning may be secondary to the sleep deprivation that is part of the constant routine. Brain imaging studies across sustained periods of wakefulness have shown significant decreases in absolute regional cerebral glucose metabolic rate in several areas of the brain [[122]29-[123]34]. The drop in CBT which preceded the parallel fall in CBFV needs to be considered as a possible explanation for the CBFV changes. The fall in CBT during sleeping hours is attributed in part to sleep-associated changes and in part to strong regular circadian forces independent of the sleep period. CBT is, in fact, one of the key and most extensively studied indices of the circadian phase. It is also known that CBT is highly correlated with brain temperature and brain metabolic rate [[124]35]. Imaging studies have documented the intimate relation between brain activity and increased metabolic rate and oxygen delivery through perfusion. Therefore, it is plausible that CBT is a direct influence on CBFV or an index of decreased metabolic need for blood flow. The prevailing hypothesis that there is tight coupling of normal neuronal activity and blood flow was formulated over 100 years ago [[125]36]. The drop in CBFV may be a consequence of the lowered cerebral activity secondary to lowered brain temperature. In contrast, two studies of exercise-induced hyperthermia showing decreased global and middle cerebral artery CBFV [[126]37 ,[127]38] do not support this hypothesized direct relationship between the two variables. However, one of the main purported mechanisms for the fall in CBFV in these exercise studies, the hyperventilation induced lowering of Pa[CO2], is unlikely present during waking while lying in bed at night. Therefore, CBT declines remain a plausible explanation for the portion of the 24 hours when CBFV declined. Mechanisms of CBFV regulation This protocol allowed the unique opportunity to evaluate blood pressure, heart rate, and Et[CO2 ]in the absence of sleep, in subjects with constant posture, and highly restricted movements. While blood pressure clearly falls during sleep in normal individuals, the absence of sleep in the current study obviates the explanation that CBFV declines are secondary to lowered blood pressure. Furthermore, we sampled blood pressure throughout the day and night and found a weak inverse relationship between DBP and CBT. This finding is in contrast to a careful study of circadian influence on blood pressure in the absence of sleep which showed no change in blood pressure during the descending portion of the body temperature curve [[128]39]. Nevertheless, our finding was weak and likely does not provide the explanation for the CBFV changes. The small-inverse relationship between Et [CO2 ]and CBT is similar to that found by Spengler et al. [[129]40], who showed a consistent but small amplitude circadian rhythm in mean end-tidal Et[CO2 ]on a CR protocol. Et[CO2 ]showed a trend towards a direct relationship with CBFV, which is consistent with previous studies showing that changes in Et[CO2 ]are associated with changes in CBFV [[130]41 ,[131]42]. Heart rate was correlated with CBT, consistent with the findings of Van Dongen et al [[132]39]. Clinical correlation The approximate 6 hour (90 degree) phase angle difference between the CBFV and CBT suggests that CBFV continues to decline into the early to mid-morning hours. This finding is consistent with a time window in the morning during which several physiological changes have been observed. For example, cerebral vasomotor reactivity to hypocapnia, hypercapnia, and normoventilation has been found to be most reduced in the morning [[133]15 ,[134]16]. It is tempting to suggest that the the low CBFV values in the morning may also help explain the well established diurnal variation of the onset of cerebrovascular accidents (CVAs) [[135]43]. A meta-analyses of 11,816 publications between 1966 to 1997 found that there was a 49% increased risk of strokes between 6 am and 12 pm [[136]44]. This time period is in agreement with studies on myocardial infarction (MI) and sudden death [[137]45]. The increased incidence of these events has been attributed, in part, to the surge of blood pressure [[138]13,[139]46,[140]47] and platelet aggregability [[141]48,[142]49] in the morning when patients are getting out of bed. Our results demonstrate that even in the absence of surges in blood pressure, the phase of CBFV reaches its lowest values during the hours before 12 pm. This further suggests that the endogenous rhythm of CBFV may be associated with the risk of CVAs in the late morning hours even without changes in posture or activity. Conclusion Overall, the results demonstrate that CBFV, in the absence of sleep, exhibits properties of a circadian rhythm, as it rises and falls across a 24 hour period. The 6 hour (90 degree) phase angle difference in the CBFV rhythm with respect to the CBT rhythm may help explain previous findings of lower CBFV values in the morning. The phase difference occurs at a time period during which cognitive performance decrements have been observed and when both cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events occur more frequently. The mechanisms underlying this phase angle difference require further exploration. List of abbreviations CBFV Cerebral Blood Flow Velocity CBT Core Body Temperature TCD Transcranial Doppler EtCO2 End tidal Carbon Dioxide DLMO Dim Light Melatonin Onset EEG Electroencephalogram MCA Middle Cerebral Artery FFT Fast Fourier Transformation CR Constant routine EMG Electromyogram SBP Systolic Blood Pressure DBP Diastolic Blood Pressure CVA Cerebrovascular accident MI Myocardial infarction Competing interests The author(s) declare that they have no competing interests. Authors' contributions DAC coordinated, carried out, analyzed, and interpreted the study. AJS participated in the analysis and interpretation of the findings. DAC drafted the manuscript and AJS provided final approval of this version. RQS participated in data collection and data analysis. DAC and AJS co-designed the study. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the volunteer participants who completed this extremely difficult protocol, to the research assistants: Jason Birnbaum, Will Carias, RN, Laura Diaz, Boris Dubrovsky, Mathew Ebben, Ph.D., Carrie Hildebrand, Lars Ross, Greg Sahlem, Mathew Tucker, Ayesha Udin, to those who helped with the data analysis: Scott Campbell, Ph.D. of New York Presbyterian Hospital, White Plains, Abdeslem ElIdrissi, Ph.D. of The Institute for Basic Research, Staten Island, NY, Larry Krasnoff, Ph.D. of Digitas, New York, and Andrew Scott, MBA, to those who provided their expert advice: William Fishbein, Ph.D. of The City College of New York, Paul Glovinsky, Ph.D. of The Sleep Disorders Center, Albany, NY, Margaret Moline, Ph.D. of Eisai, Inc, Charles Pollak, MD of The Center for Sleep Medicine, New York Presbyterian Hospital-Cornell, and Alan Segal, MD of The Department of Neurology, New York Presbyterian Hospital, and to others who helped make this study possible: Stacy Goldstein, Neil B. 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Références Liens visibles 42. javascript:/// 46. javascript:/// Liens cachés : #[1]rss [2]Jump to content Year * 1996 * 1997 * 1998 * 1999 * 2000 * 2001 * 2002 * 2003 * 2004 * [3]2005 * [4]2006 * [5]2007 * [6]2008 * [7]2009 * 2010 * 2011 * 2012 * 2013 * 2014 * 2015 * 2016 * 2017 * 2018 * 2019 Day * [8]24 * [9]23 * [10]22 * [11]21 * [12]20 * [13]19 * [14]18 * [15]17 * [16]16 * [17]15 * [18]14 * [19]13 * [20]12 * [21]11 * [22]10 * [23]09 * [24]08 * [25]07 * [26]06 * [27]05 * [28]04 * [29]03 * [30]02 * [31]01 [32]24 Ways to impress your friends * [33]Home * [34]Archives * [35]Authors * [36]Twitter * [37]RSS * ____________________ Go 12 12/2006 [38]Compose to a Vertical Rhythm by [39]Richard Rutter * [40]Article * [41]29 comments "Space in typography is like time in music. It is infinitely divisible, but a few proportional intervals can be much more useful than a limitless choice of arbitrary quantities." So says the typographer Robert Bringhurst, and just as regular use of time provides rhythm in music, so regular use of space provides rhythm in typography, and without rhythm the listener, or the reader, becomes disorientated and lost. On the Web, vertical rhythm - the spacing and arrangement of text as the reader descends the page - is contributed to by three factors: font size, line height and margin or padding. All of these factors must calculated with care in order that the rhythm is maintained. The basic unit of vertical space is line height. Establishing a suitable line height that can be applied to all text on the page, be it heading, body copy or sidenote, is the key to a solid dependable vertical rhythm, which will engage and guide the reader down the page. To see this in action, I've created [42]an example with headings, footnotes and sidenotes. Establishing a suitable line height The easiest place to begin determining a basic line height unit is with the font size of the body copy. For [43]the example I've chosen 12px. To ensure readability the body text will almost certainly need some leading, that is to say spacing between the lines. A line-height of 1.5em would give 6px spacing between the lines of body copy. This will create a total line height of 18px, which becomes our basic unit. Here's the CSS to get us to this point: 1. body { 2. font-size: 75%; 3. } 4. 5. html>body { 6. font-size: 12px; 7. } 8. 9. p { 10. line-height 1.5em; 11. } 12. Source: [44]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/1.txt There are many ways to size text in CSS and the above approach provides and accessible method of achieving the pixel-precision solid typography requires. By way of explanation, the first font-size reduces the body text from the 16px default (common to most browsers and OS set-ups) down to the 12px we require. This rule is primarily there for Internet Explorer 6 and below on Windows: the percentage value means that the text will scale predictably should a user bump the text size up or down. The second font-size sets the text size specifically and is ignored by IE6, but used by Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels. Spacing between paragraphs With our rhythmic unit set at 18px we need to ensure that it is maintained throughout the body copy. A common place to lose the rhythm is the gaps set between margins. The default treatment by web browsers of paragraphs is to insert a top- and bottom-margin of 1em. In our case this would give a spacing between the paragraphs of 12px and hence throw the text out of rhythm. If the rhythm of the page is to be maintained, the spacing of paragraphs should be related to the basic line height unit. This is achieved simply by setting top- and bottom-margins equal to the line height. In order that typographic integrity is maintained when text is resized by the user we must use ems for all our vertical measurements, including line-height, padding and margins. 1. p { 2. font-size:1em; 3. margin-top: 1.5em; 4. margin-bottom: 1.5em; 5. } 6. Source: [45]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/2.txt Browsers set margins on all block-level elements (such as headings, lists and blockquotes) so a way of ensuring that typographic attention is paid to all such elements is to reset the margins at the beginning of your style sheet. You could use a rule such as: 1. body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl ockquote,th,td { 2. margin:0; 3. padding:0; 4. } 5. Source: [46]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/3.txt Alternatively you could look into using the [47]Yahoo! UI Reset style sheet which removes most default styling, so providing a solid foundation upon which you can explicitly declare your design intentions. Variations in text size When there is a change in text size, perhaps with a heading or sidenotes, the differing text should also take up a multiple of the basic leading. This means that, in our example, every diversion from the basic text size should take up multiples of 18px. This can be accomplished by adjusting the line-height and margin accordingly, as described following. Headings Subheadings in the [48]example page are set to 14px. In order that the height of each line is 18px, the line-height should be set to 18 ÷ 14 = 1.286. Similarly the margins above and below the heading must be adjusted to fit. The temptation is to set heading margins to a simple 1em, but in order to maintain the rhythm, the top and bottom margins should be set at 1.286em so that the spacing is equal to the full 18px unit. 1. h2 { 2. font-size:1.1667em; 3. line-height: 1.286em; 4. margin-top: 1.286em; 5. margin-bottom: 1.286em; 6. } 7. Source: [49]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/4.txt One can also set asymmetrical margins for headings, provided the margins combine to be multiples of the basic line height. In our example, a top margin of 1½ lines is combined with a bottom margin of half a line as follows: 1. h2 { 2. font-size:1.1667em; 3. line-height: 1.286em; 4. margin-top: 1.929em; 5. margin-bottom: 0.643em; 6. } 7. Source: [50]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/5.txt Also in our example, the main heading is given a text size of 18px, therefore the line-height has been set to 1em, as has the margin: 1. h1 { 2. font-size:1.5em; 3. line-height: 1em; 4. margin-top: 0; 5. margin-bottom: 1em; 6. } 7. Source: [51]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/6.txt Sidenotes Sidenotes (and other supplementary material) are often set at a smaller size to the basic text. To keep the rhythm, this smaller text should still line up with body copy, so a calculation similar to that for headings is required. In our example, the sidenotes are set at 10px and so their line-height must be increased to 18 ÷ 10 = 1.8. 1. .sidenote { 2. font-size:0.8333em; 3. line-height:1.8em; 4. } 5. Source: [52]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/7.txt Borders One additional point where vertical rhythm is often lost is with the introduction of horizontal borders. These effectively act as shims pushing the subsequent text downwards, so a two pixel horizontal border will throw out the vertical rhythm by two pixels. A way around this is to specify horizontal lines using background images or, as in our example, specify the width of the border in ems and adjust the padding to take up the slack. The design of the footnote in our example requires a 1px horizontal border. The footnote contains 12px text, so 1px in ems is 1 ÷ 12 = 0.0833. I have added a margin of 1½ lines above the border (1.5 × 18 ÷ 12 = 2.5ems), so to maintain the rhythm the border + padding must equal a ½ (9px). We know the border is set to 1px, so the padding must be set to 8px. To specify this in ems we use the familiar calculation: 8 ÷ 12 = 0.667. Hit me with your rhythm stick Composing to a vertical rhythm helps engage and guide the reader down the page, but it takes typographic discipline to do so. It may seem like a lot of fiddly maths is involved (a few divisions and multiplications never hurt anyone) but good type setting is all about numbers, and it is this attention to detail which is the key to success. Like what you read? * [53]Tweet this article * or * [54]Leave a comment Comments * [55]12/12/2006 Wow this is a good article. * [57]12/12/2006 [58]Will thanks so much, this is great. * [59]12/12/2006 Interesting stuff. Also worth reading Eric Meyer's post on unitless line-heights: * [61]12/12/2006 It's worth mentioning that IE6 and below can go a bit extreme when resizing fonts set as ems. You can fix this by applying font-size: 100% to html. Don't know why this works, it just does. Oh, if you're working in quirks mode you'll also need to apply it to thead, tbody and tfoot, beacuse the fix doesn't inherit (don't apply it to table unless you want table to inherit font-sizes). You don't need thead, tbody or tfoot in your tables as tbody is implied. Obviously, you can't then apply your own font-sizes to html or tbody etc, else you'll overwrite the fix, which is why I chose those particular elements as they're rarely used for font-sizes. Jake. * [63]12/12/2006 [64]Mike Stenhouse donotremove.co.uk Hmmmmm, interesting! I've not tried this but I think there might be an easier way to set those heights... What if the line-height is set to, say, 1.5em on the body and 1 (unit-less - it's valid!) on each descendant element? Or maybe some variation on that. It might force the 18px to inherit into the children without awkward calculations. * [65]12/12/2006 Great article, Richard! Web typography--like all typography--deserves this level of detailed thinking, and I hope to see more designers embracing it. * [67]12/12/2006 [68]michael h Good introduction to typography theory, but I am convinced that the Owen Briggs method is the best approach to sizing. * [69]13/12/2006 I've been working on something similar recently, and I've discovered that if you set the line-height in pixels, most browsers will still scale it proportionally along with the text. As IE6's numbers fall off, I hope we can leave all this black magic scaling math behind and go back to setting font sizes in pixels and letting the browsers handle the scaling. * [71]13/12/2006 Mike - you're right about being able to simplify the line-height specifications, but it doesn't require setting unitless line-heights. In the example I use, I've set the font-size to be 12px on the body and calculated line-heights for all the subsequent elements. As I required one line height - 18px - for all elements I can remove the multiple statements and simply set line-height:1.5em on the body. The calculated line-height of 18px is inherited by all elements on the page. I've modifed the example to show this (checked in Firefox, Safari and IE6): However the maths would still need to be performed to calculate the correct margins, so while the extra line-height specifications are not strictly necessary (at least while the same line height for all text is required) you unfortunately don't save much on the calculations. * [73]13/12/2006 Jake - the extreme text sizing in IE can be fixed by applying any percentage font size to the body - it doesn't have to be 100% (hence my use of 75% fixed this too). You're right about the tables though. This rule does the job nicely to inherit the text size: table, thead, tbody, tr, th, td {font-size:1em} * [75]13/12/2006 [76]GreLI In the article next rule is used to reset margins: body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl ockquote,th,td { margin:0; padding:0; } I think it easier to use universal selector (* { margin: 0; padding: 0 }) instead. To fix table font-size inheritance it's enough to set table { font-size: 1em } Opera AFAIK don't change font-size if it set in pixels, but it can zoom pages (so does IE7). * [77]13/12/2006 GreLI - using the universal selector like that to zero all margins and padding can cause unpredictable results in some form controls (e.g. SELECT elements) in certain browsers. Rich - great article; now all someone needs to do is knock up a nice little app that spits out the right line-heights and margins for the elements you tell it... :) * [79]13/12/2006 It's unfortunate that pretty much no one composes with a scale when publishing for the web. Your article is a great step forward. Also overlooked are line lengths. Since the beginning of the web, It has been a standard practice to expand the line lengths out with the width of the browser (like your site is currently :), causing line lengths to expand way too long. If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even smaller. * [81]14/12/2006 I don't see it mentioned in the comments yet, but your quote above: "...Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels." is not correct, as IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized. * [83]18/12/2006 If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even smaller. You're right to mention line length as something that is overlooked, but on the screen it is not as simple as setting the measure in ems as their are more factors involved (screen size, liquid layouts, etc). Also I'd disagree that web line lengths should be shorter on the web. My personal preference would be for them to be longer - I find short line lengths on screen extremely hard work to read. That's just my opinion though. IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized. If you think of the reasons for changing text size then zooming a layout is just another form of resizing text and achieves the same goal. * [85]20/12/2006 Theodore, I think you would enjoy Richard's article entitled "Choose a comfortable measure" over at webtypography.net :) 1.2/ * [87]22/12/2006 [88]Rachel Maxim You've said in a few pages what has taken me years to figure out and refine :) - great info! * [89]23/12/2006 I really enjoyed this article. I have read your Elements of....for the web, as well as your blog about sizing text in ems. I have really been looking in to using this and getting the best `flow' with my typography. I also ordered the book Elements of Typographic Style just to give a better understanding. I think its a common misconception that text on the web will always look bland, and you have proved that it can have rhythm and style. * [91]02/01/2007 I've just been using some of these techniques on a client's site who needed 8 tabs all the same width, which fill the available space - I had it working fine in Firefox, but the tabs didn't fill the space in Safari or IE. I found that you really have to do the maths, rather than just use trial and error - they all round the numbers slightly differently. Once I'd checked my calculations, rather than tinkered with the numbers, it works fine everywhere, at least at standard font size. One other correction from someone's comment earlier on - you can resize text in IE7 - click the page icon at top right. Why you need both this and the ability to zoom, I'm not sure, but it's there at any rate. * [93]03/01/2007 [94]Ben G Can you set the margin above or below headings or paragraphs to less than your 18px base measurement? Won't margin collapsing cause whichever the largest margin is to take effect? Ben * [95]31/01/2009 [96]Daniel I've been using this article as the basis for designing my site with some "vertical rhythm". Everything is going well except with forms (input, textarea, etc.). I just haven't been able to use css to maintain the vertical rhythm (based on total line height of 18px). Any advise or insight as to how to get forms to play nicely? * [97]15/02/2009 [98]Silver Firefly I wanted to clarify something about the default browser text size and using the em unit. The article was a tad misleading when it covered the default browser text size and the em unit. A lot of designers have it in their heads that an em is equivalent to 16 pixels. An em is not equivalent to 16 pixels. It is equivalent to whatever is set in the user's browser, which is commonly 16px but depending on the user, it can be 20px or 12px or whatever they have set in their browser's settings. I hope after reading that statement, designers will start to realise that they have little control over how their website appears in other users' browsers. The majority of the control lies in the user's hands. Other than that, the article was very good. * [99]17/04/2009 Great article... and AWESOME site design. Inspirational! * [101]27/04/2009 Typesetting for websites is the future, like all things content-related. The Google knows it :). Thank you for that useful post. You webdesigners take care of your text! * [103]05/06/2009 [104]bonfield Inline bolding of elements (I'm using Helvetica, e.g.) seems to add a px of height on any line that uses it, and that subtly throws off the vertical rhythm for each line and it can add up depending -- anybody else run into this and solve it? * [105]18/06/2009 [106]Anonymous Does this truly keep the vertical rhythm? If you zoom in on the example, you'll see that the descender of the letter g in the H1 header "New England" crosses your rhythm marker's background line, while a lowercase g in the following paragraph does not. There appears to be some fudging going on. * [107]08/07/2009 I find it humorous that this site itself does not compose to a vertical rhythm. I've seen very few online that do. It's so difficult to implement across browsers it is usually brushed aside except for in the most simple design schemes. * [109]03/08/2009 [110]eric I've yet to see any empirical evidence that "vertical rhythm" applied to this degree has any impact on how well a reader is able to extract signal from the noise of the page. Meanwhile, I've seen many, many examples of mis-applied "vertical rhythms" resulting in squashed headings where the underlning on a link impinges on the text below. Which just looks clunky. When you've got something other than an aesthetic opinion from the margins -- maybe some actual data -- then I'll be interested in expending the effort needed to support real vertical rhythm. Until then, I just don't see how it's cost-effective. * [111]02/09/2009 Now, that was the kind of article I was looking for. That goes a lot deeper than I've been into the realms of line-spacing, leading (no kerning here though - can we do kerning with css?). I love the analogy to musical rhythym > therefore probably following on to mathematics/geometry/proportion. That is a great lead-in. Is there any room for the `golden ratio' in web design? Do graphic designers use it with/without realising it? Just that I haven't seen it discussed in the myriad pages concerning page layout/design that I've read so far... Thanks, Darren Impress us Name _________________________ Email _________________________ Website _________________________ Message _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ Be friendly / use [113]Textile Preview Submit About the author [114]Richard Rutter Richard Rutter is a user experience consultant and director of [115]Clearleft. He runs an ongoing project called [116]The Elements of Typographic Style Applied to the Web, where he extols the virtues of good web typography. Richard occasionally blogs at [117]Clagnut, where he writes about design, accessibility and web standards issues, as well as his passion for music and mountain biking. [118]More information Related articles * [119]Real Fonts and Rendering: The New Elephant in the Room 22/12/2009 by [120]Jeffrey Zeldman * [121]Spruce It Up 19/12/2009 by [122]Jonathan Snook * [123]Designing For The Switch 16/12/2009 by [124]Mark Boulton * [125]Type-Inspired Interfaces 07/12/2009 by [126]Dan Mall * [127]A Festive Type Folly 17/12/2008 by [128]Jon Tan * [129]Increase Your Font Stacks With Font Matrix 17/12/2007 by [130]Richard Rutter * [131]Typesetting Tables 07/12/2007 by [132]Mark Boulton * [133]Knockout Type - Thin Is Always In 17/12/2006 by [134]Shaun Inman * [135]An Explanation of Ems 02/12/2005 by [136]Richard Rutter [137]Article archives... In association with: [138]Perch - a really little cms * 24 ways is an [139]edgeofmyseat.com production. * Edited by [140]Drew McLellan and [141]Brian Suda. * Design delivered by [142]Made by Elephant. * Possible only with the help of [143]our terrific authors. * Grab our [144]RSS feed and follow us on [145]Twitter for daily updates. * Hosted by [146]Memset. * * * * Références [1]Home > [2]Articles > [3]Web Design & Development > [4]Usability [5]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm [6]Jason Cranford Teague * By [7]Jason Cranford Teague * Dec 23, 2009 [8]Toggle Open Article Table of Contents [9]Article Contents [10]Close Table of Contents [11]Article Contents 1. [12]Web Measurements 2. [13]Type Size & Line Height 3. [14]Type Space 4. Text Alignment [15]Close Table of Contents [16]< Back Page 4 of 4 * [17]Print [18]Print * [19]Share This [20]Share This * [21]Discuss [22]Discuss [23]Close Window Jason Cranford Teague Jason Cranford Teague [24]Learn more... * [25]Articles * [26]Store * [27]Blogs [28]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm Dec 23, 2009 [29]Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers: Creating Meaning through Syntax Jul 23, 2009 [30]Designing Webbed Environments: The Importance of the Define and Design Phases May 12, 2006 [31]Creating Web Pages for Screen, Print, and Email Apr 28, 2006 [32]How to Style Forms in CSS Mar 17, 2006 [33]What Are CSS Sprites? Mar 3, 2006 [34]Ten Things You Can Do with CSS (That You Might Not Have Known You Could Do) Dec 22, 2005 [35]Fluid Web Typography [36]Fluid Web Typography Nov 24, 2009 [37]Fluid Web Typography, Adobe Reader [38]Fluid Web Typography, Adobe Reader Nov 24, 2009 [39]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers [40]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers Jun 30, 2009 [41]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers, Adobe Reader [42]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers, Adobe Reader Jun 30, 2009 [43]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, 4th Edition [44]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, 4th Edition Oct 17, 2006 [45]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, Adobe Reader, 4th Edition [46]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, Adobe Reader, 4th Edition Oct 17, 2006 [47]DHTML and CSS Advanced: Visual QuickPro Guide [48]DHTML and CSS Advanced: Visual QuickPro Guide Dec 15, 2004 [49]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 3rd Edition [50]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 3rd Edition Feb 20, 2004 [51]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 2nd Edition [52]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 2nd Edition May 30, 2001 [53]10 Last-minute Gifts for Web Designers By on December 17, 2009 1 Comment Q: What do I get for the Web designer who has everything? The short answer is real estate. The slightly longer answer is, anything that helps spark their creativity. The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah, Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [54]Saturnalia myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has everything they need to actually make Web sites? Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect. [55]Choosing the Right Color Value By on December 14, 2009 No Comments Q: Should I use Hex or RGB values to define colors in CSS? The short answer is RGB. The slightly longer answer is that Hex values have become the de facto standard for use in CSS code and both developers and designers are used to them. The long answer is that, in the final design on the screen, there is no difference between using Hex or RGB values in your code. Which system you use is really a matter of you own personal preference (and those of the team you are working with) as to whether or not you use Hex or RGB values to define colors. [56]Expand Your Font Repertoire By on November 30, 2009 No Comments Q: Are there alternatives to Arial, Times, and Georgia for Web designers? The short answer is YES! The slightly longer answer is that most designers use Arial, Times, or Georgia, and, to a lesser degree, Verdana, Trebuchet MS, Courier, and Comic Sans because they think that's all they have at their disposal, but they are wrong. The long answer is that the core Web fonts (the one listed above plus Impact and Web Dings) are used because they are almost guaranteed to be installed on the vast majority of computers your designs are likely to be installed on. One fact of life in Web design is that unless the end user's computer has access to the font file, then the browser cannot use it. [57]Pixels or Ems in Your Web Designs By on November 18, 2009 No Comments Q: What is the practical difference between px (pixel) and em (pronounced m)? When is it best to use one over the other? The short answer is that pixels measure dimensions relative to the screen while ems measure dimensions relative to type size. The slightly longer answer is that pixels are the natural unit for measuring dimensions on a screen and are often used when precise design is required. Ems are the natural unit for measuring type and used when you want to allow maximum design flexibility. [58]To CSS Reset or Not to CSS Reset By on November 10, 2009 No Comments Question: Which Global Reset for CSS Should I Use? The short answer is the simplest one possible. The slightly longer answer is that you should reset some styles, but do so with a good reason. The long answer is that the exact CSS reset you choose will depend on the needs of your design. I like to keep my own reset simple, relying on adding styles to specific tags as needed. However, there are several styles that are inconsistent or (in my opinion) poorly set in most browsers. [59]HTML 5 NOW! By on August 25, 20092 Comments Q: Can I start using HTML 5 now? The short answer is, yes. The slightly longer answer is, you can use some of the new features, but you will need to do a little [60]kludging to get it to work. The long answer is that HTML is a mark-up language meant to indicate the structure of a document. HTML 5 is the next evolutionary step in mark-up languages for the Web, but it is not implemented on most browsers that your audiences are likely to be using and it may be some time before it is. That said, there are some things you can do now to prepare for the future. [61]Big Things Ahead for HTML 5 By on August 17, 2009 No Comments Q: Will HTML5 or XHTML5 be the next big thing or just another collection of past standards and browser war fodder? The short answer is that, yes, [62]HTML 5 is the next big thing. The slightly longer answer is that it's going to be a while before you have to start worrying about HTML 5. The long answer is that, as with all standards, before it becomes relevant, the browser makers have to implement it and then you'll have to wait even longer before legacy browsers are no longer an issue. So, you have some time before you have to run out and buy a new HTML 5 Visual QuickStart Guide. The good news is that HTML 5 has gone to great lengths to stay backwards compatible, so you can begin to learn and implement it today. [63]Everyone is a Web Designer By on August 10, 2009 No Comments Q: What is a Web Designer anymore? It was easier to make Web sites all by yourself, even 5 years ago, but now there is just too much technology for one person to handle. If I want to make a Web site for a very small business, don't have I to be web "developer" now? The short answer is that everybody is a Web designer now. The slightly longer answer is that Web designers are practitioners of a highly specialized discipline that requires years of study to truly master. The long answer is that a good Web designer is a good designer, and this can come "naturally" or from training, but is not medium-dependent. However, a professional Web designer has to understand the medium well enough to know its strengths and limitations. Any designer can pump out something that looks brilliant when displayed in a Web browser window, but is slow to load, static when loaded, and completely unusable. [64]Frames are Dead, Long Live Iframes! By on July 24, 2009 No Comments Q: Is there a suitable alternative to frames? My wife is president of a local woman's club. She and I administer the club's web site, and the ladies like the list of links down one side of the pages. But I read that frames have been deprecated. Regardless, I want to keep the site simple. The short answer is yes-- use iframes. The slightly longer answer is no, not exactly, but we can get close. The long answer is there are a variety of ways to add content to your Web pages, but the question is: once it's on the page what are you going to do with it (or to it)? [65]Q: If I ask ten different web designers what pixel dimensions to use for web pages and whether to make them fixed-width or "stretchy," I get ten different answers. What's your answer, and why? By on July 20, 2009 No Comments The short answer is fixed at 974 pixels (px) wide. The slightly longer answer is whatever it takes to get the job done. The long answer is that asking a Web designer what size a Web page should be is like asking a painter what size a canvas should be or an architect how large a a building should be. While it's not purely a matter of taste--there are certain physical and ergonomic constraints--personal preference accounts for the wide variety of answers you might hear. [66]Ask me, ask me, ask me By on July 1, 2009 No Comments Do you have a question about Web standards, CSS, JavaScript, Ajax, interaction design, user experience, or Web typography? Maybe you just want to know "How'd they do that?" Ask me questions, and each week I will select a question to answer via my Peachpit.com blog. [67]Ask the Web Designer: Why Can't I Use Any Font I Want in My Web Designs? By on June 30, 2009 No Comments The short answer is that you can. The slightly longer answer is that you can't, at least not in any meaningful way yet. The long answer is that the ability to download fonts has actually been a part of the CSS standard (the language used to create Web designs) for over 10 years. The snag comes with what font formats a given browser supports. [NOTE: You may want to stop reading now, as the rest of this explanation might make your eyes bleed in frustration.] [68]Fluid Web Typography This chapter is from the book [69]Fluid Web Typography Jason Cranford Teague shows how giving careful consideration to the measurements and scale you are designing for is what separates good Web typography from great Web typography. Text Alignment Text alignment is generally taken for granted on the Web--left alignment suits most purposes most of the time. In order to create a sense of rhythm and movement on your page, helping to guide the reader's eye around and adding visual interest to the page, a little alignment variation can go a long way. Set body text alignment to minimize gaps and maximize scanning Text alignment in Web pages is, by default, to the left, with ragged edges on the right. Justified text--sometimes called newspaper columns, where both edges of the text are aligned--is rare on the Web. text-align: left; text-align: justify; In print, justified text is created using a variety of techniques including word spacing, letterspacing, hyphenation, and glyph reshaping. In addition, well-formed justification is calculated on a paragraph level to prevent "rivers" of white space flowing down the middle. On the Web, unfortunately, justification is simply created by adding small amounts of space between words. On the screen, where you can only add whole pixels, this often results in uncomfortably large amounts of space between some words, especially in narrower columns. Hyphenation is inexplicably absent from CSS. While it is proposed for inclusion in CSS 3, no work has currently been done on it. When choosing to use left or justified alignment, keep in mind these factors: * Justified text is often seen as more formal and structured, while left alignment is more informal and approachable. * Justified text reinforces the grid structure of a page but can be harder to scan, since it often creates rivers of white space throughout the text, which interrupts the eye path. * Left-aligned text adds an element of white space to the right edge, softening the overall appearance of the page. Combining Alignments [70]craigmod.com Craig Mod combines right-and left-justified columns of text to create motion and rhythm around his page. [71]04-17.jpg [72]Click to view larger image Center or right-justify text for effect and variety More rarely used, centering or right-justifying text can create a specific feeling on the page. text-align: center; text-align: right; Centering and right aligning text is integrally dependent on the design you are creating and how you want your readers to scan the page. While using a variety of justifications helps create rhythm and motion on your page, it can quickly seem cluttered or obnoxious. Always have a specific purpose for the variance of alignment, and use it sparingly. Here are a few ideas: * Bulleted or numbered lists should not be centered or right aligned, as this makes them harder to scan by moving the beginning of each line around. * Center section or module titles/headers if you want to make your site look a little different. Generally, section titles are best when left aligned, but centering them gives your designs a unique feel and may also improve scannability. * Right-align text in the left column of a page or table if it helps show a closer relationship between the elements in adjacent columns. Centered Section Titles [73]jontangerine.com Jon Tangerine combines centered subheadings with justified text in his blog (detail shown) to create solid structure with visual movement. [74]04-18.jpg [75]Click to view larger image Increase margins for longer quotations and style the citation Short quotes of less than three lines are included in a paragraph surround by quotation marks, requiring no other special formatting. In HTML, the blockquote tag is used to set off a block of text as a quotation, generally of two lines of text or longer. The quotation should be styled to distinguish it from other text by indenting its left and right margins and increasing the top and bottom margins. The amount of left/right indentation is based on the width of the column and then adjusted so that it does not conflict with any other indents. A good measure to offset blockquotes is to double the font size (2em), although more or less space may be required for wider or narrower columns: blockquote { margin: 2em; } note.jpg In this chapter, we are only considering spacing issues with blockquotes and citations. Chapters 5 and 6 offer other ways to style text, including weights, italics, backgrounds, and borders. These can be deployed to creatively display longer quotations. This will clearly space the blockquote away from the rest of the text, but it's also up to the copywriter to make it clear that the text is a quote and to supply its source, possibly using the cite tag, which indicates a citation. Turning the cite tag into a block-level element and right-aligning it when it is included in a blockquote creates a strong style. blockquote cite { display: block; text-align: right; } Blockquote Ideas [76]css-tricks.com/examples/Blockquotes CSS-Tricks has a page of blockquote ideas with sample code. The code above will force any text marked by the citation tag to a new line and right-align it. [77]04-20.jpg [78]Click to view larger image Set footnotes and scientific or mathematical annotations using positioning rather than vertical alignment Vertical text alignment allows you to adjust the position of inline text in relation to its natural baseline, shifting it up or down. For footnotes, mathematics, and scientific notation, it will not be enough to simply raise or lower the characters; you will also need to reduce their size relative to the surrounding text. These styles can be applied to the superscript and subscript tags, setting the vertical position to the baseline and then setting a position relative to that: sup, sub { font-size: .5em; vertical-align: baseline; position: relative; } sup { top: -.65em; } sup.math { top: -.8em } sub { top: .2em; } Although vertical-align provides several values to set the vertical position of the text, these have proved to be unreliable in multi-column layouts. The exact values will vary depending on the font, and you may also need to add some left/right margins to add breathing room. [79]04-21.jpg [80]Click to view larger image Type Inspirations: Jon Tangerine Beautiful typographic contrast. Insightful typography editorials. [81]jontangerine.com Jon is a designer living in Bristol, UK, with some of the cleanest pure Web typography I've seen. On top of this, his information and opinions on Web typography are required reading for anyone interested in the ongoing issues we face. [82]04-22.jpg [83]Click to view larger image How he does it: Jon uses a font stack of Web safe fonts, including Cochin, Baskerville, and Palatino Linotype, down to Georgia. He then combines a wide variety of sizes, styles, weights, and colors all scaled and spaced within a strong grid to provide clear eye paths and legible text. [84]04-25.jpg [85]Click to view larger image [86]04-26.jpg [87]Click to view larger image [88]04-27.jpg [89]Click to view larger image [90]04-28.jpg [91]Click to view larger image [92]< Back Page 4 of 4 * [93]Share This [94]Share This * [95][save_16.png] [96]Your Account Discussions Make a New Comment You must [97]log in in order to post a comment. 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All rights reserved. 1249 Eighth Street, Berkeley, CA 94710 [192]Informit Network [Other Network Sites......] Références Liens visibles 8. javascript:void(0); 9. javascript:void(0); 10. javascript:hideTOC(); 11. javascript:hideTOC(); 15. javascript:hideTOC(); 23. javascript:showme('authorInformation','closed'); 71. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-17.jpg') 72. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-17.jpg') 74. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-18.jpg') 75. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-18.jpg') 77. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-20.jpg') 78. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-20.jpg') 79. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-21.jpg') 80. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-21.jpg') 82. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-22.jpg') 83. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-22.jpg') 84. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-25.jpg') 85. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-25.jpg') 86. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-26.jpg') 87. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-26.jpg') 88. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-27.jpg') 89. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-27.jpg') 90. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-28.jpg') 91. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-28.jpg') Liens cachés : #[1]Latest articles [2]Most viewed [3]Latest comments [4]PDF [5]XML version [6][1578896537@Top,Bottom,x96!Top] [7]Log on / register [8]BioMed Central home | [9]Journals A-Z | [10]Feedback | [11]Support | [12]My details [13]Home | [14]Browse articles | [15]Search | [16]Weblinks | [17]Submit article | [18]My JCR | [19]About JCR * [20]Top * [21]Abstract * [22]Background * [23]Methods * [24]Results * [25]Discussion * [26]Conclusion * [27]Competing interests * [28]Authors' contributions * [29]Acknowledgements * [30]References [31][1973347444@Top,Bottom,x96%21x96] [32]Journal of Circadian Rhythms [33]Volume 7 Viewing options: * [34]Abstract * Full text * [35]PDF (243KB) Associated material: * [36]Readers' comments [37]RSS * [38]PubMed record Related literature: * Articles citing this article [39]on Google Scholar [40]on PubMed Central * Other articles by authors [41]on Google Scholar [42]Nagane M [43]Yoshimura K [44]Watanabe SI [45]Nomura M [46]on PubMed [47]Nagane M [48]Yoshimura K [49]Watanabe SI [50]Nomura M * Related articles/pages [51]on Google [52]on Google Scholar [53]on PubMed Tools: * [54]Download citation(s) * [55]Download XML * [56]Email to a friend * [57]Order reprints * [58]Post a comment * [59]Nominate for award Post to: * [60]Citeulike * [61]Connotea * [62]Del.icio.us * [63]Facebook * [64]Twitter [65]Open Access Research A possible connection between psychosomatic symptoms and daily rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion in healthy Japanese students Mitsuo Nagane^1 [66]email , Kazunori Yoshimura^2 [67]email , Shu-Ichi Watanabe^3 [68]email and Masahiko Nomura^4 [69]email ^1 Department of Educational Physiology, Chiba University, Chiba 263-8522, Japan ^2 Department of Rehabilitation, Nihon Institute of Medical Science, Japan ^3 Department of Physiology, Saitama Medical University, Japan ^4 International Education and Training Center, Saitama Medical University, Japan [email.gif] author email [email-ca.gif] corresponding author email Journal of Circadian Rhythms 2009, 7:10doi:10.1186/1740-3391-7-10 The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be Received: 3 February 2009 Accepted: 5 August 2009 Published: 5 August 2009 © 2009 Nagane et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Abstract Background Students suffering from psychosomatic symptoms, including drowsiness and feelings of melancholy, often have basic lifestyle problems. The aim of this study was to investigate whether psychosomatic complaints may be related to circadian dysfunction. Methods We examined 15 healthy students (4 men and 11 women) between 21 and 22 years old. To assess the presence of psychosomatic symptoms among the subjects, we developed a self-assessment psychosomatic complaints questionnaire consisting of five items pertaining to physical symptoms and five items concerning mental symptoms. The subjects rated their psychosomatic symptoms twice a day (08:00 and 20:00 h). We also assessed growth hormone secretion patterns by fluorescence enzyme immunoassay (FEIA). Salivary samples were collected from the subjects at home five times a day (20:00, 24:00, 04:00, 08:00, and 12:00 h) in Salivette tubes. Results The results indicated a relationship between the self-assessment scores and the salivary levels of growth hormone. Subjects with high self-assessment scores showed significant variability in growth hormone secretion over the day, whereas subjects with low self-assessment scores did not. Conclusion Psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with circadian dysfunction, as inferred from blunted rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion. Background Japanese students suffering from psychosomatic disorders, such as those involving mood and sleep, may exhibit basic problems in their lifestyle, including deleterious changes in their living environment and dietary or lifestyle disturbances [[72]1]. In particular, staying up late is associated with decreased appetite and missed breakfast the following morning, irregular bowel movements and sleepiness. Perhaps the biggest problem facing today's Japanese students is their lack of daily physical exercise, brought on by stressful academic courses over long periods of time, too much television and computer games and increased automobile use [[73]2]. Many Japanese youngsters stay up late at night [[74]3]. A circadian pacemaker in the central nervous system regulates human sleep cycles, hormone secretion, subject alertness, objective performance levels and other physiologic functions over a 24-h period. Core body temperature, plasma cortisol, and plasma melatonin are three variables frequently used to estimate the phase of the human pacemaker [[75]4], although many other hormones, including growth hormone, exhibit daily rhythmicity. Technical advances that make the assessment of biomarkers in saliva possible have enabled researchers to non-invasively study biosocial processes related to stress in naturalistic contexts. Chiappin et al [[76]5] showed the usefulness and possibility of salivary hormone analysis containing growth hormone. Rantonen [[77]6] found a linear correlation between salivary and serum growth hormone. Carroll et al. [[78]7] described negative effects of growth hormone insufficiency on psychological well-being, including reduced vitality and energy, depressed mood, emotional lability, impaired self-control, anxiety, and increased social isolation. Patients with growth hormone deficiencies report decreased energy levels, greater emotional lability, increased difficulties with sexual relationships and a greater sense of social isolation than control subjects [[79]8]. However, no direct relationship has been shown between growth hormone deficiency and psychometrically measured depression, apathy or psychosomatic well-being [[80]9]. The purpose of the present study was to investigate individual variation in the levels of growth hormone in healthy subjects and to examine the relationship between an individual's hormone profile and his or her psychosomatic complaints. Methods The subjects and self-assessment questionnaire Fifteen subjects (4 men and 11 women) without major medical disorders ranging in age from 21 to 22 years participated in this study. The study design was approved by the Ethics Committee of Chiba University, Japan, and informed consent was obtained from all subjects. A self-assessment questionnaire concerning psychosomatic symptoms was developed in accordance with data from the Health Behavior in School-Aged Children (HBSC) study of the WHO [[81]10]. The questionnaire for this study contained five items related to physical symptoms and five items pertaining to mental symptoms (Table [82]1). The questionnaire was used to measure each individual's psychosomatic symptoms at home twice each day (08:00 and 20:00 h). The items were rated on a 4-point scale, with 1 = not true at all and 4 = completely true. The total score for the 10-item scale ranged from 10 to 40, with higher scores indicating a greater degree of psychosomatic complaints. The subjects were allocated post hoc (median split) to a High (n = 7) or Low (n = 8) Self-Assessment Group based on their total morning score (with higher scores corresponding to lower self-assessment). [83]Table 1. Morning and evening psychosomatic condition scores collected from the self-assessment psychosomatic complaint questionnaire Sample collection Saliva was collected into Salivette tubes (Sarstedt, Germany) using polyester swabs from the subjects' mouths following 2 min of chewing. Samples were collected five times a day at home (20:00, 24:00, 04:00, 08:00, and 12:00 h). Both the day of sampling and the preceding day were required to be normal days (i.e., without special events or stressful circumstances). After sample collection, the saliva was stored at -20°C until being analysed. Salivary growth hormone assay On the day of testing, the samples were centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for 10 min to remove all mucin. A standard fluorescent determination immunoassay was used to assess the growth hormone concentrations in each sample. To avoid inter-assay variability, all determinations were performed in a single series. In the first step, 96-well fluoro-nunc plates (Nunc, Black MicroWell 137101, Denmark) were pre-coated with 100 µl of anti-growth hormone antibody (Quartett, 2071800210, Germany) and incubated for 1.5 h at room temperature. After incubation, the plate was washed three times with phosphate-buffered saline and blocked for 1 h. After washing, 100 µl of saliva or a standard solution was dispensed into each well and left for 1.5 h. After washing, primary antibody (Funakoshi, FU47500254, Japan) was added to the plates and incubated for 1.5 h. Next, incubation with a secondary antibody (Novus Biologicals, NB120-7112, USA) was performed for 1 h. After washing, rabbit anti-ovine immunoglobulin (Amersham Biosciences, ECF Western Blotting Reagent Pack, USA) was added. After 20 min of incubation, the plate was scanned using a Fluoromark Microplate Fluorometer (Bio-Rad, USA) with excitation at 485 nm and emission at 590 nm. Data analysis The significance of differences between group means was tested by analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by protected t tests when appropriate. The presence of daily rhythmicity in salivary growth hormone was tested by ANOVA and by the cosinor procedure [[84]11]. Results Self-assessment psychosomatic complaints questionnaire A factorial repeated measures ANOVA (high/low self-assessment versus morning/evening self-assessment scores) was conducted. ANOVA results showed significant differences (p < .05) between morning and evening self-assessment scores. Post hoc analyses revealed that, as shown in Table [85]1, the high self-assessment group (total 19.00) differed significantly from the low self-assessment group (total 32.75) in terms of their morning scores (Welch's t-test, t = -3.96, df = 7.57, p < 0.01). The low self-assessment group subjects complained of negative psychosomatic conditions including being easily irritated (p < .05), feeling melancholy (p < .05), having a desire to rest (p < .05), and feeling anxious (p < .01). Assessment of daily rhythmicity of salivary growth hormone secretion We collected saliva profiles from 15 healthy students (4 men and 11 women). The amplitude of salivary growth hormone, defined as the difference between the highest and lowest salivary concentrations, was used to produce a standardisation, or Z, score. As shown in Figure [86]1, noticeable variation was observed in the hormonal rhythms of the subjects, including differences in the salivary growth hormone secretion profiles of the high and low self-assessment groups. Cosinor analysis revealed no significant 24-hour rhythmicity in the secretion profiles of either group (p > .50), but a repeated measures ANOVA identified statistically significant (p < .05) time-related variations for growth hormone in the high self-assessment group. The secretion profile of the low self-assessment group did not exhibit the typical, sharp peak in the early morning [[87]12], and ANOVA showed no time-related variation (p > .10). At 08:00 h, salivary growth hormone levels were significantly lower (p < .05) in the low self-assessment group than in the high self-assessment group. [88]thumbnail Figure 1. Daily variation in salivary level of growth hormone in the high and low self-assessment groups. The results are presented as means ± S.E.M. * p < .05. Discussion Psychosocial factors have been previously shown to affect the psychosomatic symptoms reported by Japanese school children [[89]13]. Psychosomatic symptoms, which are largely mediated by the autonomic nervous system, are strongly influenced by an individual's lifestyle, and the current so-called 24-h society in Japan may have changed the environmental conditions of students. More than 80% of school refusal cases (school phobia) suffer from sleep disorders, with a tendency towards day/night reversal and easy fatigability, especially during the period immediately following their school social life [[90]14]. Thus, impairment in circadian rhythmicity may be a cause of school refusal in Japan. The present study was the first step in an attempt to investigate this hypothesis. Our assessment of salivary growth hormone secretion was not sensitive enough to detect significant daily rhythmicity, but the highest level measured in the subjects of our high self-assessment group occurred earlier in the day than the peak of the daily rhythm measured in a previous study [[91]15]. Peak hormonal secretions often shift to the morning if an activity continues long into the night. A link between deficiency of growth hormone and reduced quality of life or well-being has been reported by many researchers [[92]7]. Our results indicate a relationship between the self-assessment scores and the levels of growth hormone. Subjects with high self-assessment scores in the morning showed significant variability in growth hormone secretion during the day, whereas subjects with low self-assessment scores did not. Thus, psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with hormonal rhythms related to basic lifestyle habits. Nocturnal melatonin secretion can be suppressed by exposure to light on the order of several hundred lux, such as ordinary room light [[93]16]. Thus, a subject's pattern of melatonin secretion may reflect his or her life rhythm, and melatonin secretion appears to be an important index of circadian rhythmicity. Based on our previous finding that growth hormone and melatonin exhibit similar daily rhythmicity [[94]17], we believe that estimates of the state of the central circadian clock can be most accurate if they are based on the analysis of the secretion patterns of both melatonin and growth hormone. Some limitations of our study must be emphasized. First, it is possible that the sleep-disrupting effect of waking at 00.00 and 04.00 to produce a saliva sample had a disruptive effect on hormonal secretion. Second, we observed a larger difference in terms of gender than has been previously described [[95]18], with women having sevenfold higher serum growth hormone concentrations than men during the day. Though we did not directly examine sex differences in growth hormone secretion, we recognise it as an important topic for further research. Conclusion Psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with circadian dysfunction, as inferred from blunted rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Authors' contributions MN designed the experiments, collected data and wrote the manuscript. KY managed the laboratory and adjusted the schedule of subjects. SW participated in the design of the study and performed statistical analysis. MN supervised the study. All authors read and approved the final version of the article. 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Nagane M, Yoshimura K, Watanabe SI, Nomura M: Examination of the validity of growth hormone as an index of the biological rhythm in comparison with cortisol and melatonin in Japanese healthy students. J Physiol Sci 2008, 58(Suppl):S87. [140]OpenURL 18. Engström BE, Karlsson FA, Wide L: Gender differences in diurnal growth hormone and epinephrine values in young adults during ambulation. Clin Chem 1999, 45:1235-1239. [141]PubMed Abstract | [142]Publisher Full Text [143]OpenURL [144]Have something to say? Post a comment on this article! __________________________________________________________________ [145][1578896537@Top,Bottom,x96!Bottom] [146]Terms and Conditions [147]Privacy statement [148]Information for advertisers [149]Jobs at BMC [150]Contact us © 1999-2010 BioMed Central Ltd unless otherwise stated. Part of [151]Springer Science+Business Media. Références Liens visibles 41. javascript:/// 46. javascript:/// Liens cachés : #[1]Latest articles [2]Most viewed [3]Latest comments [4]PDF [5]XML version [6][1218719383@Top,Bottom,x96!Top] [7]Log on / register [8]BioMed Central home | [9]Journals A-Z | [10]Feedback | [11]Support | [12]My details [13]Home | [14]Browse articles | [15]Search | [16]Weblinks | [17]Submit article | [18]My JCR | [19]About JCR * [20]Top * [21]Abstract * [22]Background * [23]Methods * [24]Results * [25]Discussion * [26]Conclusion * [27]List of abbre... * [28]Competing interests * [29]Authors' contributions * [30]Acknowledgements * [31]References [32][1973347444@Top,Bottom,x96%21x96] [33]Journal of Circadian Rhythms [34]Volume 3 Viewing options: * [35]Abstract * Full text * [36]PDF (651KB) Associated material: * [37]Readers' comments [38]RSS * [39]PubMed record Related literature: * Articles citing this article [40]on Google Scholar [41]on PubMed Central * Other articles by authors [42]on Google Scholar [43]Conroy DA [44]Spielman AJ [45]Scott RQ [46]on PubMed [47]Conroy DA [48]Spielman AJ [49]Scott RQ * Related articles/pages [50]on Google [51]on Google Scholar [52]on PubMed Tools: * [53]Download citation(s) * [54]Download XML * [55]Email to a friend * [56]Order reprints * [57]Post a comment Post to: * [58]Citeulike * [59]Connotea * [60]Del.icio.us * [61]Facebook * [62]Twitter [63]Open Access [64]Highly Access Research Daily rhythm of cerebral blood flow velocity Deirdre A Conroy^1 [65]email , Arthur J Spielman^1^,2 [66]email and Rebecca Q Scott^3 [67]email ^1 Department of Psychology, The Graduate School and University Center of the City University of New York, New York, USA ^2 Department of Neurology and Neuroscience, New York Presbyterian Hospital, New York, USA ^3 Department of Health Psychology, Albert Einstein Medical College at Yeshiva University, Bronx, USA [email.gif] author email [email-ca.gif] corresponding author email Journal of Circadian Rhythms 2005, 3:3doi:10.1186/1740-3391-3-3 The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be Received: 21 December 2004 Accepted: 10 March 2005 Published: 10 March 2005 © 2005 Conroy et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Abstract Background CBFV (cerebral blood flow velocity) is lower in the morning than in the afternoon and evening. Two hypotheses have been proposed to explain the time of day changes in CBFV: 1) CBFV changes are due to sleep-associated processes or 2) time of day changes in CBFV are due to an endogenous circadian rhythm independent of sleep. The aim of this study was to examine CBFV over 30 hours of sustained wakefulness to determine whether CBFV exhibits fluctuations associated with time of day. Methods Eleven subjects underwent a modified constant routine protocol. CBFV from the middle cerebral artery was monitored by chronic recording of Transcranial Doppler (TCD) ultrasonography. Other variables included core body temperature (CBT), end-tidal carbon dioxide (EtCO2), blood pressure, and heart rate. Salivary dim light melatonin onset (DLMO) served as a measure of endogenous circadian phase position. Results A non-linear multiple regression, cosine fit analysis revealed that both the CBT and CBFV rhythm fit a 24 hour rhythm (R^2 = 0.62 and R^2 = 0.68, respectively). Circadian phase position of CBT occurred at 6:05 am while CBFV occurred at 12:02 pm, revealing a six hour, or 90 degree difference between these two rhythms (t = 4.9, df = 10, p < 0.01). Once aligned, the rhythm of CBFV closely tracked the rhythm of CBT as demonstrated by the substantial correlation between these two measures (r = 0.77, p < 0.01). Conclusion In conclusion, time of day variations in CBFV have an approximately 24 hour rhythm under constant conditions, suggesting regulation by a circadian oscillator. The 90 degree-phase angle difference between the CBT and CBFV rhythms may help explain previous findings of lower CBFV values in the morning. The phase difference occurs at a time period during which cognitive performance decrements have been observed and when both cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events occur more frequently. The mechanisms underlying this phase angle difference require further exploration. Background It has been well documented that cerebral blood flow velocity (CBFV) is lower in sleep [[70]1-[71]7] and in the morning shortly after awakening [[72]8-[73]10] than in the afternoon or evening. Generally accepted theories about the time of day changes in CBFV attribute the fall in CBFV to the physiological processes of the sleep period and the increase during the day to waking processes. The low CBFV in the morning is thought to be a consequence of the fall in the overall reduced metabolic level [[74]8,[75]10 ,[76]11] and reduced cognitive processing [[77]12]. Additionally, the reduced physical activity [[78]13], reduced body temperature, and the recumbent sleeping position have also been proposed as contributors [[79]14] to the decline in CBFV and analogous brain processes. An alternative to these explanations that attribute changes in CBFV to sleep and wake dependent processes is that this pattern of fluctuation reflects an endogenous process with circadian rhythmicity. The decline of CBFV across the sleep period and rise after subjects are awakened in the morning resemble the endogenous circadian changes in core body temperature (CBT), a reliable index of endogenous circadian rhythmicity. Both patterns are low during sleep, start to rise in the morning, reach their peak in the late afternoon, and then drop during the sleep period. The aim of this study was to examine CBFV over ~30 hours of sustained wakefulness to unmask and quantify contributions of the endogenous circadian system. By not permitting sleep, the evoked changes dependent on this change of state will not contribute to the observed CBFV changes. We hypothesized that time of day changes in CBFV are due to endogenous circadian regulation. Previous studies have been limited by several factors. First, the environmental conditions (light level) and the behavior of the subject (sleep, meals, and caffeine intake) were not controlled [[80]15,[81]13,[82]1 ,[83]16]. Second, CBFV measurements were obtained at only a few circadian points. For example, Ameriso et al. [[84]15] and Qureshi et al. [[85]16] assessed CBFV between 6-8 am, 1-3 pm, and 7-9 pm. Diamant et al [[86]13] assessed CBFV during the first 15 minutes of every hour across a 24 hour period. Given these brief time periods, the findings are only a schematic of the 24 hour profile. Third, primary output markers of the endogenous circadian pacemaker (such as core body temperature and melatonin production) were not assessed. We employed the "constant routine" protocol, which was designed specifically to unmask underlying circadian rhythms in constant conditions [[87]17]. CBFV was collected by Transcranial Doppler (TCD) ultrasonography for the entire study period. Core body temperature and salivary dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO) were measured for determination of circadian phase. Continuous electroencephalography (EEG) was performed to ensure wakefulness across the study. Additionally, measurements of blood pressure, heart rate, and end tidal carbon dioxide (Et[CO2]), three of the main regulators of CBFV, were collected every half hour. Methods Subject selection Twelve subjects (10 men and 2 women; ages 19-38, mean 28 years) agreed to participate. One subject discontinued her participation because of a headache 15 hours into the study. Subjects were in good health, as assessed by medical history, semi-structured clinical interview, and physical exam. Information regarding menstrual cycle was not obtained from female subjects. Subjects also underwent an independent standard cerebrovascular assessment and were determined to be normal. They reported no symptoms of sleep problems (such as insomnia, obstructive sleep apnea, narcolepsy, or restless legs syndrome). Subjects that were selected to participate kept to a designated sleep-wake schedule (that was negotiated from the subject's typical pattern) and filled out a sleep diary for the two weeks prior to the time in the laboratory. According to sleep diary reports, bedtimes ranged from 10:30 pm to 1:00 am and waketimes ranged from 6:00 am to 10:00 am. Alcohol and caffeine intake was discontinued for the entire week before the study. During the data collection, subjects were not permitted either alcohol or caffeine. All subjects were non-smokers. Laboratory constant routine protocol The study protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Boards of New York Presbyterian Hospital - Weill Medical College of Cornell University and The City College of New York. Subjects gave written and informed consent before participating. Subjects arrived at the sleep laboratory between 9:30 am and 10:00 am. They were oriented to the study procedures and to their bedroom. Electrodes were placed on the subject's head and face as they sat in a chair next to the bed. Data collection began at 11 am. Subjects remained in bed and awake in a semi recumbent position for 30 hours in an established "constant routine" (CR) protocol. Subjects remained in low (<25 lux) light levels which have been shown to have little or no entraining effect on the circadian pacemaker [[88]18]. They were not allowed to get out of bed to urinate. Instead they urinated in private in a urinal or bedpan. Subjects remained awake from 11:00 a.m. on Day 1 until 5 p.m. on Day 2. Throughout the study, subjects were provided small meals (Ensure ^® liquid formula plus one-quarter nutritional food bar) every 2 hours. Subject's typical total food and liquid intake for a day and a quarter were divided into 15 relatively equal portions. Only one subject participated in the CR per 30-hour period. This protocol represents a modified CR in two ways. First, subjects were allowed to watch television and were therefore were not in "time isolation." Television content was monitored so that subjects were not exposed to programs with highly emotional themes. Second, subjects needing to defecate were allowed to go to the bathroom, which was located a few steps away from the bedside. We chose this method as an alternative to using the bedpan to ensure subject's comfort and study compliance. Three subjects (subjects 05, 06, and 10) got out of bed once at 3:30, 21:30, and 15:30, respectively, to defecate. One subject, subject 12, got out of bed twice, at 22:30 and 6:35. Subject 10 used the bathroom only during the adaptation period. A paired-samples t-test was conducted to evaluate the impact of getting out of bed to defecate on subject's CBT and CBFV values. The CBT and CBFV values in the two hours before getting up were compared to the two hours after the subject got up. Subjects 5 showed a slight decrease in CBT from before (M = 98.12, SD = 0.14) to after the subject returned to the bed (M = 97.91, SD = 0.08), t(3) = -5.17, p = .014). Subject 6 showed a decline in CBFV from before (M = 56.14, SD = 2.3) to after the subject returned to the bed (M = 45.67, SD = 3.7), t(3) = 5.49, p = 0.012). There were no other significant differences detected between these two time periods for subject 5's CBFV, subject 6's CBT, or for both times subject 12 got out of the bed. By visual inspection, the overall shape of the curves in these subjects was not affected and therefore these subject's data were included in subsequent analyses. Transcranial Doppler ultrasound recordings The current study utilized TCD ultrasonography to measure cerebral blood flow velocity. TCD is a non-invasive instrument (consisting of one or two 2-Mhz transducers fitted to a headband, MARC500, Spencer Technologies, Nicolet Biomedical Inc) that is used predominantly as a diagnostic tool to assess cerebral hemodynamics in normal and pathological conditions. TCD ultrasonography is predicated on a theory that involves the measurement of moving objects when combined with radar. When the instrument emits the sound wave, it is reflected by the blood cells that are moving in the vector of the sound wave [[89]19]. CBFV was measured using either the right or left middle cerebral artery (MCA) using TCD sonography (TCD: DWL Multidop X-2, DWL Elektronische Systeme GmbH, D-78354 Sipplingen/Germany) through the temporal window. An observer who was present continuously during the recordings evaluated the quality of the signal. This enabled long-term recording of CBFV throughout the study. Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT) of the signal was used to analyze the velocity spectra. The mean velocity of the MCA was obtained from the integral of the maximal TCD frequency shifts over one beat divided by the corresponding beat interval and expressed in cm/sec. Analysis was conducted off line. Measurement of standard markers of the circadian pacemaker Body temperature recordings Core body temperature was recorded at 1-minute intervals with an indwelling rectal probe (MiniMitter, Co. Bend, OR). A wire lead connected the sensor out of the rectum to a data collection system worn on the belt. Temperature readings were collected and saved into the device and monitored at hourly intervals by the investigator. After the study, the recordings were visually inspected and artifacts resulting from removal or malfunction of the probe were excluded from further analysis. Salivary melatonin Salivary samples of 3 ml were collected every hour from 11:00 a.m. on Day 1 to 4:00 p.m. on Day 2. Ten of these samples were used only for the determination of the timing of the salivary dim light melatonin onset (DLMO). For nine subjects, salivary DLMO was assessed across a ten-hour time window that included the ten hours before the CBT minimum. Immediately after collection, each saliva sample was frozen and stored at -20°C. Saliva samples were assayed using Bühlmann Melatonin Radio Immunoassay (RIA) test kit for direct melatonin in human saliva (American Laboratory Products Co., Windham, NH). Analysis was conducted at New York State Institute for Basic Research. Salivary DLMO time was selected based on two criteria. The saliva sample needed to have melatonin concentration 3 pg/ml or above and later samples needed to show higher levels (Bühlmann laboratories). Second, the 3 pg/ml threshold needed to occur within 6-10 hours before core body temperature minimum [[90]20]. Polygraphic recordings Electroencephalography (EEG) was continually assessed across the 30 hours to ensure that subjects maintained wakefulness. The following montage was used according to the international 10-20 system: C3-A2, C4-A1, O1-A2, O2-A1, ROC-A1, LOC-A2, and submentalis electromyogram (EMG). One channel of electrocardiogram was continuously recorded by monitoring from two electrodes (one on each side of the body at the shoulder chest junction). The EEG software (Rembrant Sleep Collection Software Version 7.0) was used for data acquisition and display of the signals on a personal computer. Throughout the CR, the investigator (DAC) monitored the quality of the recordings. The recordings were scored by RQS and DAC. Blood pressure, heart rate, and end-tidal CO2 An automated blood pressure cuff was placed on the bicep of the subject and inflated two times each hour in order to determine changes in blood pressure and heart rate over time. Blood pressure and heart rate in one subject (02) was recorded via a finger blood pressure monitor (Omron Marshall Products, Model F-88). Blood pressure and heart rate in subjects 03, 04, 05, 06, and 07 were recorded with Omron Healthcare, Inc, Vernon Hills, Illinois 60061 Model # HEM-705CP Rating: DC 6V 4W Serial No: 2301182L. Blood pressure and heart rate for subjects 08, 09 and 10 was recorded with a similar blood pressure monitor (CVS Pharmacy Inc, Woonsocket, RI 02895 Model # 1086CVS). Blood pressure and heart rate recordings were not measured in subjects 11 and 12. Et[CO2 ]was continuously obtained. A nasal cannula for monitoring expired gases was placed under the nose. Relative changes in carbon dioxide content were measured by an Ohmeda 4700 Oxicap (BOC healthcare). Mean Et[CO2 ]levels were analyzed off-line. Et[CO2 ]recordings were not measured in subjects 11 and 12. Data Analyses Data reduction and statistical procedures CBT and CBFV values were first subjected to data rejection. All CBT values less than 96 degrees were determined to be artifact and were rejected. All CBFV values less than 20 cm/sec were determined to be artifact according to the clinical criteria set by the staff neurologist. Data reduction was accomplished by averaging into one minute, 30 minute or hourly bins. Correlations presented here were performed on mean values in 30 minute bins. To ensure that circadian measurements were made under basal conditions, the first five hours of the constant routine were excluded from all analyses to eliminate effects of study adaptation. The last hour was excluded to eliminate confounding effects such as expectation effects. The data are presented in this article in three ways. First, CBT and CBFV values were plotted according to time of day (Figures [91]1 and [92]2). Second, CBFV values were aligned according to the CBT nadir (Figure [93]3) and third, the CBFV nadir was aligned to the CBT nadir (Figure [94]4). To align CBFV to the CBT circadian nadir as shown in Figure [95]3, the CBT nadir of each individual subject was set to circadian time 0, or 0°. The CBFV value that corresponded to the CBT nadir was then also set to 0. Each half hour data point after the temperature nadir and corresponding CBFV values were then set to a circadian degree. There were a total of 48 data points across the 24 hour period. Therefore, each data point was equal to 7.5 degrees so that each data point would accumulate to 360°. Lastly, mean values were obtained for CBT and CBFV at each circadian degree. [96]thumbnail Figure 1. 24-hour Cosine Curve fit to Mean Core Body Temperature (°F). Time course of CBT according to time of day. Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/- SEM) of CBT (blue diamonds) fit with a 24-hour cosine curve (purple squares). Time of day is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate shows CBT values (degrees F). The vertical line indicates where the data was double plotted. Also displayed in the upper right corner is the non-linear cosine curve fit for mean CBT, R^2 = 0.62. The overall mean circadian phase position of the minimum was 6:05 am. [97]thumbnail Figure 2. 24-hour Cosine Curve fit to Mean Cerebral Blood Flow Velocity (cm/sec). Time course of CBFV according to time of day. Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/- SEM) of CBFV (blue diamonds) fit with a 24-hour cosine curve (purple squares). Time of day is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate shows CBFV values (cm/sec). The vertical line indicates where the data was double plotted. Also displayed in the upper right corner is the non-linear cosine curve fit for mean CBFV, R^2 = 0.67. The overall mean circadian phase position of the minimum was 12:02 pm. [98]thumbnail Figure 3. Mean CBT and CBFV Aligned to CBT Nadir. Time course of mean CBFV and mean CBT aligned to the nadir of CBT and then averaged. Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/-SEM) of CBT (purple squares) and CBFV (blue circles) aligned to the phase of the circadian temperature cycle. Circadian time in degrees is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate on the left shows CBT values (degrees F) and CBFV (cm/sec) on the right. The vertical line indicates the CBT nadir. [99]thumbnail Figure 4. Mean CBT and CBFV Aligned to Their Respective Nadir. Time course of mean CBFV and mean CBT aligned to each of their respective nadirs and then averaged. Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/-SEM) of CBT (purple squares) and CBFV (blue circles) aligned to the phase of the circadian temperature cycle. Circadian time in degrees is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate on the left shows CBT values (degrees F) and CBFV (cm/sec) on the right. The vertical line indicates both the CBT nadir and the CBFV nadir. The correlation coefficient between the aligned rhythms is 0.77 (p < 0.01). To align the CBFV nadir to the CBT nadir, first, the lowest value of CBT and the lowest value of CBFV were identified and set to circadian time 0, or 0°. Each half hour data point after the CBT nadir and CBFV nadir were then set to a circadian degree. There were a total of 48 data points across the 24 hour period. Therefore, each data point was equal to 7.5 degrees so that each data point would accumulate to 360°. Lastly, mean values were obtained for CBT and CBFV at each circadian degree. Estimation of circadian phase A 24-hour non-linear multiple regression -cosine curve fit analysis was performed on the CBT and CBFV data (SAS Institute, Cary, NC). This technique constrains the circadian period of CBT and CBFV to be within 24 hours. This technique used the following equations: model cbt = &avg_cbt + r * cos((2 * 3.1415) * (hours-&max_cbt)/24; model cbfv = &avg_cbt + r * cos((2 * 3.1415) * (hours-&max_cbfv)/24, where & = constants that center the curve at the actual average for each series (vertical centering) and the predicted maximum at the actual maximum (horizontal centering); r = the amplitude of the cosine wave. An additional analysis was performed which also yielded the estimated clock time for the CBT nadir and CBFV nadir (Synergy software, Kaleidagraph Version 3.6). Third, the minimum of the circadian rhythm of CBT and salivary DLMO were also used as markers of the endogenous circadian phase. A paired t-test was used to determine the overall phase difference between CBT and CBFV. Results Eleven subjects completed the protocol. The TCD probe was placed on either the right or left temple, whichever gave the better signal. Mean isonation depth of the TCD signal was 56.5 mm for the right MCA and 55.6 mm for the left MCA (range 53-60 mm). The constant routine ranged from 28 to 30 hours in duration. Polygraphic recordings confirmed sustained wakefulness across essentially the entire protocol in all but one subject. Subjects that had difficulty remaining awake were monitored closely and aroused when needed by engagement in conversation. Results from the polygraphic recordings are not presented here. We do not present the results of the polygraphic recordings because, for the purposes of this study, these recordings were used solely to monitor whether subjects were awake or asleep. The first five hours and the final hour of data from the constant routine were excluded from analysis. Core body temperature, cerebral blood flow velocity and the 24-hour day A 24 hour non-linear multiple regression, cosine fit analysis revealed that the overall mean CBT rhythm (n = 11) fit a 24 hour cosine rhythm (R^2 = 0.62, p < 0.01), Figure [100]1. The mean CBT across all subjects was 98.6 °F (+/- 0.03 °F). Figure [101]2 shows that a 24-hour non-linear multiple regression, cosine analysis fit a 24 hour cosine rhythm (R^2 = 0.67, p < 0.01), Figure [102]2. The mean CBFV across subjects was 40.6 cm/sec (+/- 0.54 cm/sec). Salivary DLMO occurred 7.7 hours prior to the CBT nadir in nine subjects, which served only as a secondary measure of endogenous circadian phase position in those subjects. The mean salivary melatonin concentration across the ten hour window was 15.3 pg/ml (+/-3.05 pg/ml). CBFV rhythm is 90 degrees out of phase with the CBT rhythm The overall mean circadian position of CBT occurred at 6:05 am and the mean position of CBFV occurred at 12:02 pm (Figure [103]3), yielding a 6 hour or 90 degree statistically significant difference (t = 4.9, DF = 10, p < 0.01). In individual subject data, the differences ranged from 0 to 8.5 hours. In eight subjects, the CBFV phase occurred later than the respective CBT phase, with mean difference of 5.2 hours. In two subjects, the CBFV nadir occurred earlier than the respective CBT nadir, with a mean difference of 6 hours. In one subject, there was no difference between the phase of CBT and CBFV. However, this subject's CBT rhythm was highly unusual, with the nadir occurring at 11:35 am on Day 2. Nevertheless, we felt the most appropriate way to present the data was to include this subject in the overall analysis. When the phase of CBFV was shifted so that the lowest value was aligned to the lowest CBT value, the two parameters were highly correlated (see Figure [104]4; r = 0.77, n = 98, p < 0.01). While the difference in the two rhythms variability was large, Fisher's z-transformed values revealed that the amplitudes of the two parameters were similar. The amplitude of CBFV yielded a z score of 4.25 and CBT yielded a z score of 3.06. Blood pressure recordings and systemic hemodynamic variables A Pearson correlation revealed a positive relationship between CBT and heart rate (r = 0.40, p < 0.01) across the 24 hour period. Diastolic blood pressure (DBP) and CBT showed a negative correlation (r = -0.30, p < 0.05). Et[CO2 ]showed a trend towards a direct relationship with CBFV (r = 0.24, p = 0.10). Blood pressure, heart rate, and Et[CO2 ]served only as regulators of CBFV and were not analyzed according to circadian phase. Discussion This study is the first to use the constant routine (CR) protocol to determine whether the endogenous circadian pacemaker contributes to the previously reported diurnal changes in CBFV. The current work demonstrates that, with limited periodic external stimuli and a constant posture, there is 24-hour rhythmicity in CBFV. Subjects showed a cycle of approximately 24 hours in CBT, which has been previously demonstrated with the CR [[105]21]. Figure [106]3 illustrates the intricate relationship between the rhythms across the study period. At approximately the CBT acrophase, the relationship between the two rhythms undergoes a transition. Between 180 and 240 degrees, CBFV is still rising and CBT is changing directions (first rising, reaching its peak and then falling). This period between 180 and 240 has been described as a "wake maintenance zone", a time in the circadian cycle during which humans are less likely to fall asleep [[107]22]. In our subjects, the CBT is near its zenith or just starting to fall at this time and CBFV is still steadily rising. Higher values in CBT and CBFV are associated with activation and therefore these two endogenous rhythms may be promoting wakefulness during this "wake maintenance zone". However, at the end of this transition period, CBT is falling and CBFV is still rising, perhaps reflecting continued activation of the cerebral cortex. Whereas the two-process model predicts increased tendency to sleep as CBT falls [[108]23], our finding may provide the mechanism by which wakefulness is effortlessly maintained before bedtime. Figure [109]3 further illustrates that as wakefulness is extended past the subject's habitual bedtime (approximately 270 degrees), the two rhythms decline together. Between 0 and 60 degrees, CBFV steadily declines and CBT is steadily rising. The lower CBFV values in the morning may play a role in cognitive performance impairments [[110]24], particularly the 3-4.5 hour phase difference in neurobehavioral functioning relative to the CBT rhythm that has been previously demonstrated in constant routine protocols [[111]25]. Earlier studies using simultaneous EEG and TCD to continuously measure CBFV across the sleep period have concluded that, except for periods of REM sleep, [[112]26 ,[113]27], there is a linear decline in CBFV across the night during periods of non-REM sleep [[114]1,[115]28]. Other groups utilizing these techniques simultaneously speculated that the decline in CBFV through the night was a "decoupling" of cerebral electrical activity and cerebral perfusion during non-REM sleep [[116]8-[117]10]. In all studies [[118]1,[119]8-[120]10,[121]28], CBFV values were lower in the morning during wakefulness than during wakefulness prior to sleep at night. The current findings show that the decline in CBFV is present during wakefulness in the night time hours and therefore may not be attributed solely to sleep and associated changes that normally influence CBFV (including factors such as the shift to recumbency, and reduced activity, metabolic rate and respiratory rate). Moreover, our interaction with the subjects and the monitoring of EEG for signs of sleep resulted in no sleep in all but one subject. The one exception was in a subject who lapsed into brief periods of sleep. Therefore, the fall in CBFV in 10 out of 11 subjects cannot be explained by the occurrence of non-REM sleep. It is possible, however, that the decline of CBFV across the night and early morning may be secondary to the sleep deprivation that is part of the constant routine. Brain imaging studies across sustained periods of wakefulness have shown significant decreases in absolute regional cerebral glucose metabolic rate in several areas of the brain [[122]29-[123]34]. The drop in CBT which preceded the parallel fall in CBFV needs to be considered as a possible explanation for the CBFV changes. The fall in CBT during sleeping hours is attributed in part to sleep-associated changes and in part to strong regular circadian forces independent of the sleep period. CBT is, in fact, one of the key and most extensively studied indices of the circadian phase. It is also known that CBT is highly correlated with brain temperature and brain metabolic rate [[124]35]. Imaging studies have documented the intimate relation between brain activity and increased metabolic rate and oxygen delivery through perfusion. Therefore, it is plausible that CBT is a direct influence on CBFV or an index of decreased metabolic need for blood flow. The prevailing hypothesis that there is tight coupling of normal neuronal activity and blood flow was formulated over 100 years ago [[125]36]. The drop in CBFV may be a consequence of the lowered cerebral activity secondary to lowered brain temperature. In contrast, two studies of exercise-induced hyperthermia showing decreased global and middle cerebral artery CBFV [[126]37 ,[127]38] do not support this hypothesized direct relationship between the two variables. However, one of the main purported mechanisms for the fall in CBFV in these exercise studies, the hyperventilation induced lowering of Pa[CO2], is unlikely present during waking while lying in bed at night. Therefore, CBT declines remain a plausible explanation for the portion of the 24 hours when CBFV declined. Mechanisms of CBFV regulation This protocol allowed the unique opportunity to evaluate blood pressure, heart rate, and Et[CO2 ]in the absence of sleep, in subjects with constant posture, and highly restricted movements. While blood pressure clearly falls during sleep in normal individuals, the absence of sleep in the current study obviates the explanation that CBFV declines are secondary to lowered blood pressure. Furthermore, we sampled blood pressure throughout the day and night and found a weak inverse relationship between DBP and CBT. This finding is in contrast to a careful study of circadian influence on blood pressure in the absence of sleep which showed no change in blood pressure during the descending portion of the body temperature curve [[128]39]. Nevertheless, our finding was weak and likely does not provide the explanation for the CBFV changes. The small-inverse relationship between Et [CO2 ]and CBT is similar to that found by Spengler et al. [[129]40], who showed a consistent but small amplitude circadian rhythm in mean end-tidal Et[CO2 ]on a CR protocol. Et[CO2 ]showed a trend towards a direct relationship with CBFV, which is consistent with previous studies showing that changes in Et[CO2 ]are associated with changes in CBFV [[130]41 ,[131]42]. Heart rate was correlated with CBT, consistent with the findings of Van Dongen et al [[132]39]. Clinical correlation The approximate 6 hour (90 degree) phase angle difference between the CBFV and CBT suggests that CBFV continues to decline into the early to mid-morning hours. This finding is consistent with a time window in the morning during which several physiological changes have been observed. For example, cerebral vasomotor reactivity to hypocapnia, hypercapnia, and normoventilation has been found to be most reduced in the morning [[133]15 ,[134]16]. It is tempting to suggest that the the low CBFV values in the morning may also help explain the well established diurnal variation of the onset of cerebrovascular accidents (CVAs) [[135]43]. A meta-analyses of 11,816 publications between 1966 to 1997 found that there was a 49% increased risk of strokes between 6 am and 12 pm [[136]44]. This time period is in agreement with studies on myocardial infarction (MI) and sudden death [[137]45]. The increased incidence of these events has been attributed, in part, to the surge of blood pressure [[138]13,[139]46,[140]47] and platelet aggregability [[141]48,[142]49] in the morning when patients are getting out of bed. Our results demonstrate that even in the absence of surges in blood pressure, the phase of CBFV reaches its lowest values during the hours before 12 pm. This further suggests that the endogenous rhythm of CBFV may be associated with the risk of CVAs in the late morning hours even without changes in posture or activity. Conclusion Overall, the results demonstrate that CBFV, in the absence of sleep, exhibits properties of a circadian rhythm, as it rises and falls across a 24 hour period. The 6 hour (90 degree) phase angle difference in the CBFV rhythm with respect to the CBT rhythm may help explain previous findings of lower CBFV values in the morning. The phase difference occurs at a time period during which cognitive performance decrements have been observed and when both cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events occur more frequently. The mechanisms underlying this phase angle difference require further exploration. List of abbreviations CBFV Cerebral Blood Flow Velocity CBT Core Body Temperature TCD Transcranial Doppler EtCO2 End tidal Carbon Dioxide DLMO Dim Light Melatonin Onset EEG Electroencephalogram MCA Middle Cerebral Artery FFT Fast Fourier Transformation CR Constant routine EMG Electromyogram SBP Systolic Blood Pressure DBP Diastolic Blood Pressure CVA Cerebrovascular accident MI Myocardial infarction Competing interests The author(s) declare that they have no competing interests. Authors' contributions DAC coordinated, carried out, analyzed, and interpreted the study. AJS participated in the analysis and interpretation of the findings. DAC drafted the manuscript and AJS provided final approval of this version. RQS participated in data collection and data analysis. DAC and AJS co-designed the study. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the volunteer participants who completed this extremely difficult protocol, to the research assistants: Jason Birnbaum, Will Carias, RN, Laura Diaz, Boris Dubrovsky, Mathew Ebben, Ph.D., Carrie Hildebrand, Lars Ross, Greg Sahlem, Mathew Tucker, Ayesha Udin, to those who helped with the data analysis: Scott Campbell, Ph.D. of New York Presbyterian Hospital, White Plains, Abdeslem ElIdrissi, Ph.D. of The Institute for Basic Research, Staten Island, NY, Larry Krasnoff, Ph.D. of Digitas, New York, and Andrew Scott, MBA, to those who provided their expert advice: William Fishbein, Ph.D. of The City College of New York, Paul Glovinsky, Ph.D. of The Sleep Disorders Center, Albany, NY, Margaret Moline, Ph.D. of Eisai, Inc, Charles Pollak, MD of The Center for Sleep Medicine, New York Presbyterian Hospital-Cornell, and Alan Segal, MD of The Department of Neurology, New York Presbyterian Hospital, and to others who helped make this study possible: Stacy Goldstein, Neil B. 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Post a comment on this article! __________________________________________________________________ [254][1218719383@Top,Bottom,x96!Bottom] [255]Terms and Conditions [256]Privacy statement [257]Information for advertisers [258]Jobs at BMC [259]Contact us © 1999-2010 BioMed Central Ltd unless otherwise stated. Part of [260]Springer Science+Business Media. Références Liens visibles 42. javascript:/// 46. javascript:/// Liens cachés : Rhythm and Meter in English Poetry English poetry employs five basic rhythms of varying stressed (/) and unstressed (x) syllables. The meters are iambs, trochees, spondees, anapests and dactyls. In this document the stressed syllables are marked in boldface type rather than the tradition al "/" and "x." Each unit of rhythm is called a "foot" of poetry. The meters with two-syllable feet are * IAMBIC (x /) : That time of year thou mayst in me behold * TROCHAIC (/ x): Tell me not in mournful numbers * SPONDAIC (/ /): Break, break, break/ On thy cold gray stones, O Sea! Meters with three-syllable feet are * ANAPESTIC (x x /): And the sound of a voice that is still * DACTYLIC (/ x x): This is the forest primeval, the murmuring pines and the hemlock (a trochee replaces the final dactyl) Each line of a poem contains a certain number of feet of iambs, trochees, spondees, dactyls or anapests. A line of one foot is a monometer, 2 feet is a dimeter, and so on--trimeter (3), tetrameter (4), pentameter (5), hexameter (6), heptameter (7), and o ctameter (8). The number of syllables in a line varies therefore according to the meter. A good example of trochaic monometer, for example, is this poem entitled "Fleas": Adam Had'em. Here are some more serious examples of the various meters. iambic pentameter (5 iambs, 10 syllables) * That time | of year | thou mayst | in me | behold trochaic tetrameter (4 trochees, 8 syllables) * Tell me | not in | mournful | numbers anapestic trimeter (3 anapests, 9 syllables) * And the sound | of a voice | that is still dactylic hexameter (6 dactyls, 17 syllables; a trochee replaces the last dactyl) * This is the | forest pri | meval, the | murmuring | pine and the | hemlocks __________________________________________________________________ [1]A note on the source. __________________________________________________________________ [2]POETRY HOME | [3]ENGLISH 88 READING LIST | [4]POETRY NEWS | [5]FILREIS HOME ________________________________________ Search __________________________________________________________________ Last modified: Wednesday, 18-Jul-2007 16:27:43 EDT Références #[1]rss [2]Jump to content Year * 1996 * 1997 * 1998 * 1999 * 2000 * 2001 * 2002 * 2003 * 2004 * [3]2005 * [4]2006 * [5]2007 * [6]2008 * [7]2009 * 2010 * 2011 * 2012 * 2013 * 2014 * 2015 * 2016 * 2017 * 2018 * 2019 Day * [8]24 * [9]23 * [10]22 * [11]21 * [12]20 * [13]19 * [14]18 * [15]17 * [16]16 * [17]15 * [18]14 * [19]13 * [20]12 * [21]11 * [22]10 * [23]09 * [24]08 * [25]07 * [26]06 * [27]05 * [28]04 * [29]03 * [30]02 * [31]01 [32]24 Ways to impress your friends * [33]Home * [34]Archives * [35]Authors * [36]Twitter * [37]RSS * ____________________ Go 12 12/2006 [38]Compose to a Vertical Rhythm by [39]Richard Rutter * [40]Article * [41]29 comments "Space in typography is like time in music. It is infinitely divisible, but a few proportional intervals can be much more useful than a limitless choice of arbitrary quantities." So says the typographer Robert Bringhurst, and just as regular use of time provides rhythm in music, so regular use of space provides rhythm in typography, and without rhythm the listener, or the reader, becomes disorientated and lost. On the Web, vertical rhythm - the spacing and arrangement of text as the reader descends the page - is contributed to by three factors: font size, line height and margin or padding. All of these factors must calculated with care in order that the rhythm is maintained. The basic unit of vertical space is line height. Establishing a suitable line height that can be applied to all text on the page, be it heading, body copy or sidenote, is the key to a solid dependable vertical rhythm, which will engage and guide the reader down the page. To see this in action, I've created [42]an example with headings, footnotes and sidenotes. Establishing a suitable line height The easiest place to begin determining a basic line height unit is with the font size of the body copy. For [43]the example I've chosen 12px. To ensure readability the body text will almost certainly need some leading, that is to say spacing between the lines. A line-height of 1.5em would give 6px spacing between the lines of body copy. This will create a total line height of 18px, which becomes our basic unit. Here's the CSS to get us to this point: 1. body { 2. font-size: 75%; 3. } 4. 5. html>body { 6. font-size: 12px; 7. } 8. 9. p { 10. line-height 1.5em; 11. } 12. Source: [44]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/1.txt There are many ways to size text in CSS and the above approach provides and accessible method of achieving the pixel-precision solid typography requires. By way of explanation, the first font-size reduces the body text from the 16px default (common to most browsers and OS set-ups) down to the 12px we require. This rule is primarily there for Internet Explorer 6 and below on Windows: the percentage value means that the text will scale predictably should a user bump the text size up or down. The second font-size sets the text size specifically and is ignored by IE6, but used by Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels. Spacing between paragraphs With our rhythmic unit set at 18px we need to ensure that it is maintained throughout the body copy. A common place to lose the rhythm is the gaps set between margins. The default treatment by web browsers of paragraphs is to insert a top- and bottom-margin of 1em. In our case this would give a spacing between the paragraphs of 12px and hence throw the text out of rhythm. If the rhythm of the page is to be maintained, the spacing of paragraphs should be related to the basic line height unit. This is achieved simply by setting top- and bottom-margins equal to the line height. In order that typographic integrity is maintained when text is resized by the user we must use ems for all our vertical measurements, including line-height, padding and margins. 1. p { 2. font-size:1em; 3. margin-top: 1.5em; 4. margin-bottom: 1.5em; 5. } 6. Source: [45]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/2.txt Browsers set margins on all block-level elements (such as headings, lists and blockquotes) so a way of ensuring that typographic attention is paid to all such elements is to reset the margins at the beginning of your style sheet. You could use a rule such as: 1. body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl ockquote,th,td { 2. margin:0; 3. padding:0; 4. } 5. Source: [46]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/3.txt Alternatively you could look into using the [47]Yahoo! UI Reset style sheet which removes most default styling, so providing a solid foundation upon which you can explicitly declare your design intentions. Variations in text size When there is a change in text size, perhaps with a heading or sidenotes, the differing text should also take up a multiple of the basic leading. This means that, in our example, every diversion from the basic text size should take up multiples of 18px. This can be accomplished by adjusting the line-height and margin accordingly, as described following. Headings Subheadings in the [48]example page are set to 14px. In order that the height of each line is 18px, the line-height should be set to 18 ÷ 14 = 1.286. Similarly the margins above and below the heading must be adjusted to fit. The temptation is to set heading margins to a simple 1em, but in order to maintain the rhythm, the top and bottom margins should be set at 1.286em so that the spacing is equal to the full 18px unit. 1. h2 { 2. font-size:1.1667em; 3. line-height: 1.286em; 4. margin-top: 1.286em; 5. margin-bottom: 1.286em; 6. } 7. Source: [49]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/4.txt One can also set asymmetrical margins for headings, provided the margins combine to be multiples of the basic line height. In our example, a top margin of 1½ lines is combined with a bottom margin of half a line as follows: 1. h2 { 2. font-size:1.1667em; 3. line-height: 1.286em; 4. margin-top: 1.929em; 5. margin-bottom: 0.643em; 6. } 7. Source: [50]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/5.txt Also in our example, the main heading is given a text size of 18px, therefore the line-height has been set to 1em, as has the margin: 1. h1 { 2. font-size:1.5em; 3. line-height: 1em; 4. margin-top: 0; 5. margin-bottom: 1em; 6. } 7. Source: [51]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/6.txt Sidenotes Sidenotes (and other supplementary material) are often set at a smaller size to the basic text. To keep the rhythm, this smaller text should still line up with body copy, so a calculation similar to that for headings is required. In our example, the sidenotes are set at 10px and so their line-height must be increased to 18 ÷ 10 = 1.8. 1. .sidenote { 2. font-size:0.8333em; 3. line-height:1.8em; 4. } 5. Source: [52]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/7.txt Borders One additional point where vertical rhythm is often lost is with the introduction of horizontal borders. These effectively act as shims pushing the subsequent text downwards, so a two pixel horizontal border will throw out the vertical rhythm by two pixels. A way around this is to specify horizontal lines using background images or, as in our example, specify the width of the border in ems and adjust the padding to take up the slack. The design of the footnote in our example requires a 1px horizontal border. The footnote contains 12px text, so 1px in ems is 1 ÷ 12 = 0.0833. I have added a margin of 1½ lines above the border (1.5 × 18 ÷ 12 = 2.5ems), so to maintain the rhythm the border + padding must equal a ½ (9px). We know the border is set to 1px, so the padding must be set to 8px. To specify this in ems we use the familiar calculation: 8 ÷ 12 = 0.667. Hit me with your rhythm stick Composing to a vertical rhythm helps engage and guide the reader down the page, but it takes typographic discipline to do so. It may seem like a lot of fiddly maths is involved (a few divisions and multiplications never hurt anyone) but good type setting is all about numbers, and it is this attention to detail which is the key to success. Like what you read? * [53]Tweet this article * or * [54]Leave a comment Comments * [55]12/12/2006 Wow this is a good article. * [57]12/12/2006 [58]Will thanks so much, this is great. * [59]12/12/2006 Interesting stuff. Also worth reading Eric Meyer's post on unitless line-heights: * [61]12/12/2006 It's worth mentioning that IE6 and below can go a bit extreme when resizing fonts set as ems. You can fix this by applying font-size: 100% to html. Don't know why this works, it just does. Oh, if you're working in quirks mode you'll also need to apply it to thead, tbody and tfoot, beacuse the fix doesn't inherit (don't apply it to table unless you want table to inherit font-sizes). You don't need thead, tbody or tfoot in your tables as tbody is implied. Obviously, you can't then apply your own font-sizes to html or tbody etc, else you'll overwrite the fix, which is why I chose those particular elements as they're rarely used for font-sizes. Jake. * [63]12/12/2006 [64]Mike Stenhouse donotremove.co.uk Hmmmmm, interesting! I've not tried this but I think there might be an easier way to set those heights... What if the line-height is set to, say, 1.5em on the body and 1 (unit-less - it's valid!) on each descendant element? Or maybe some variation on that. It might force the 18px to inherit into the children without awkward calculations. * [65]12/12/2006 Great article, Richard! Web typography--like all typography--deserves this level of detailed thinking, and I hope to see more designers embracing it. * [67]12/12/2006 [68]michael h Good introduction to typography theory, but I am convinced that the Owen Briggs method is the best approach to sizing. * [69]13/12/2006 I've been working on something similar recently, and I've discovered that if you set the line-height in pixels, most browsers will still scale it proportionally along with the text. As IE6's numbers fall off, I hope we can leave all this black magic scaling math behind and go back to setting font sizes in pixels and letting the browsers handle the scaling. * [71]13/12/2006 Mike - you're right about being able to simplify the line-height specifications, but it doesn't require setting unitless line-heights. In the example I use, I've set the font-size to be 12px on the body and calculated line-heights for all the subsequent elements. As I required one line height - 18px - for all elements I can remove the multiple statements and simply set line-height:1.5em on the body. The calculated line-height of 18px is inherited by all elements on the page. I've modifed the example to show this (checked in Firefox, Safari and IE6): However the maths would still need to be performed to calculate the correct margins, so while the extra line-height specifications are not strictly necessary (at least while the same line height for all text is required) you unfortunately don't save much on the calculations. * [73]13/12/2006 Jake - the extreme text sizing in IE can be fixed by applying any percentage font size to the body - it doesn't have to be 100% (hence my use of 75% fixed this too). You're right about the tables though. This rule does the job nicely to inherit the text size: table, thead, tbody, tr, th, td {font-size:1em} * [75]13/12/2006 [76]GreLI In the article next rule is used to reset margins: body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl ockquote,th,td { margin:0; padding:0; } I think it easier to use universal selector (* { margin: 0; padding: 0 }) instead. To fix table font-size inheritance it's enough to set table { font-size: 1em } Opera AFAIK don't change font-size if it set in pixels, but it can zoom pages (so does IE7). * [77]13/12/2006 GreLI - using the universal selector like that to zero all margins and padding can cause unpredictable results in some form controls (e.g. SELECT elements) in certain browsers. Rich - great article; now all someone needs to do is knock up a nice little app that spits out the right line-heights and margins for the elements you tell it... :) * [79]13/12/2006 It's unfortunate that pretty much no one composes with a scale when publishing for the web. Your article is a great step forward. Also overlooked are line lengths. Since the beginning of the web, It has been a standard practice to expand the line lengths out with the width of the browser (like your site is currently :), causing line lengths to expand way too long. If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even smaller. * [81]14/12/2006 I don't see it mentioned in the comments yet, but your quote above: "...Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels." is not correct, as IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized. * [83]18/12/2006 If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even smaller. You're right to mention line length as something that is overlooked, but on the screen it is not as simple as setting the measure in ems as their are more factors involved (screen size, liquid layouts, etc). Also I'd disagree that web line lengths should be shorter on the web. My personal preference would be for them to be longer - I find short line lengths on screen extremely hard work to read. That's just my opinion though. IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized. If you think of the reasons for changing text size then zooming a layout is just another form of resizing text and achieves the same goal. * [85]20/12/2006 Theodore, I think you would enjoy Richard's article entitled "Choose a comfortable measure" over at webtypography.net :) 1.2/ * [87]22/12/2006 [88]Rachel Maxim You've said in a few pages what has taken me years to figure out and refine :) - great info! * [89]23/12/2006 I really enjoyed this article. I have read your Elements of....for the web, as well as your blog about sizing text in ems. I have really been looking in to using this and getting the best `flow' with my typography. I also ordered the book Elements of Typographic Style just to give a better understanding. I think its a common misconception that text on the web will always look bland, and you have proved that it can have rhythm and style. * [91]02/01/2007 I've just been using some of these techniques on a client's site who needed 8 tabs all the same width, which fill the available space - I had it working fine in Firefox, but the tabs didn't fill the space in Safari or IE. I found that you really have to do the maths, rather than just use trial and error - they all round the numbers slightly differently. Once I'd checked my calculations, rather than tinkered with the numbers, it works fine everywhere, at least at standard font size. One other correction from someone's comment earlier on - you can resize text in IE7 - click the page icon at top right. Why you need both this and the ability to zoom, I'm not sure, but it's there at any rate. * [93]03/01/2007 [94]Ben G Can you set the margin above or below headings or paragraphs to less than your 18px base measurement? Won't margin collapsing cause whichever the largest margin is to take effect? Ben * [95]31/01/2009 [96]Daniel I've been using this article as the basis for designing my site with some "vertical rhythm". Everything is going well except with forms (input, textarea, etc.). I just haven't been able to use css to maintain the vertical rhythm (based on total line height of 18px). Any advise or insight as to how to get forms to play nicely? * [97]15/02/2009 [98]Silver Firefly I wanted to clarify something about the default browser text size and using the em unit. The article was a tad misleading when it covered the default browser text size and the em unit. A lot of designers have it in their heads that an em is equivalent to 16 pixels. An em is not equivalent to 16 pixels. It is equivalent to whatever is set in the user's browser, which is commonly 16px but depending on the user, it can be 20px or 12px or whatever they have set in their browser's settings. I hope after reading that statement, designers will start to realise that they have little control over how their website appears in other users' browsers. The majority of the control lies in the user's hands. Other than that, the article was very good. * [99]17/04/2009 Great article... and AWESOME site design. Inspirational! * [101]27/04/2009 Typesetting for websites is the future, like all things content-related. The Google knows it :). Thank you for that useful post. You webdesigners take care of your text! * [103]05/06/2009 [104]bonfield Inline bolding of elements (I'm using Helvetica, e.g.) seems to add a px of height on any line that uses it, and that subtly throws off the vertical rhythm for each line and it can add up depending -- anybody else run into this and solve it? * [105]18/06/2009 [106]Anonymous Does this truly keep the vertical rhythm? If you zoom in on the example, you'll see that the descender of the letter g in the H1 header "New England" crosses your rhythm marker's background line, while a lowercase g in the following paragraph does not. There appears to be some fudging going on. * [107]08/07/2009 I find it humorous that this site itself does not compose to a vertical rhythm. I've seen very few online that do. It's so difficult to implement across browsers it is usually brushed aside except for in the most simple design schemes. * [109]03/08/2009 [110]eric I've yet to see any empirical evidence that "vertical rhythm" applied to this degree has any impact on how well a reader is able to extract signal from the noise of the page. Meanwhile, I've seen many, many examples of mis-applied "vertical rhythms" resulting in squashed headings where the underlning on a link impinges on the text below. Which just looks clunky. When you've got something other than an aesthetic opinion from the margins -- maybe some actual data -- then I'll be interested in expending the effort needed to support real vertical rhythm. Until then, I just don't see how it's cost-effective. * [111]02/09/2009 Now, that was the kind of article I was looking for. That goes a lot deeper than I've been into the realms of line-spacing, leading (no kerning here though - can we do kerning with css?). I love the analogy to musical rhythym > therefore probably following on to mathematics/geometry/proportion. That is a great lead-in. Is there any room for the `golden ratio' in web design? Do graphic designers use it with/without realising it? Just that I haven't seen it discussed in the myriad pages concerning page layout/design that I've read so far... Thanks, Darren Impress us Name _________________________ Email _________________________ Website _________________________ Message _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ Be friendly / use [113]Textile Preview Submit About the author [114]Richard Rutter Richard Rutter is a user experience consultant and director of [115]Clearleft. He runs an ongoing project called [116]The Elements of Typographic Style Applied to the Web, where he extols the virtues of good web typography. Richard occasionally blogs at [117]Clagnut, where he writes about design, accessibility and web standards issues, as well as his passion for music and mountain biking. [118]More information Related articles * [119]Real Fonts and Rendering: The New Elephant in the Room 22/12/2009 by [120]Jeffrey Zeldman * [121]Spruce It Up 19/12/2009 by [122]Jonathan Snook * [123]Designing For The Switch 16/12/2009 by [124]Mark Boulton * [125]Type-Inspired Interfaces 07/12/2009 by [126]Dan Mall * [127]A Festive Type Folly 17/12/2008 by [128]Jon Tan * [129]Increase Your Font Stacks With Font Matrix 17/12/2007 by [130]Richard Rutter * [131]Typesetting Tables 07/12/2007 by [132]Mark Boulton * [133]Knockout Type - Thin Is Always In 17/12/2006 by [134]Shaun Inman * [135]An Explanation of Ems 02/12/2005 by [136]Richard Rutter [137]Article archives... In association with: [138]Perch - a really little cms * 24 ways is an [139]edgeofmyseat.com production. * Edited by [140]Drew McLellan and [141]Brian Suda. * Design delivered by [142]Made by Elephant. * Possible only with the help of [143]our terrific authors. * Grab our [144]RSS feed and follow us on [145]Twitter for daily updates. * Hosted by [146]Memset. * * * * Références [1]Home > [2]Articles > [3]Web Design & Development > [4]Usability [5]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm [6]Jason Cranford Teague * By [7]Jason Cranford Teague * Dec 23, 2009 [8]Toggle Open Article Table of Contents [9]Article Contents [10]Close Table of Contents [11]Article Contents 1. [12]Web Measurements 2. [13]Type Size & Line Height 3. [14]Type Space 4. Text Alignment [15]Close Table of Contents [16]< Back Page 4 of 4 * [17]Print [18]Print * [19]Share This [20]Share This * [21]Discuss [22]Discuss [23]Close Window Jason Cranford Teague Jason Cranford Teague [24]Learn more... * [25]Articles * [26]Store * [27]Blogs [28]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm Dec 23, 2009 [29]Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers: Creating Meaning through Syntax Jul 23, 2009 [30]Designing Webbed Environments: The Importance of the Define and Design Phases May 12, 2006 [31]Creating Web Pages for Screen, Print, and Email Apr 28, 2006 [32]How to Style Forms in CSS Mar 17, 2006 [33]What Are CSS Sprites? Mar 3, 2006 [34]Ten Things You Can Do with CSS (That You Might Not Have Known You Could Do) Dec 22, 2005 [35]Fluid Web Typography [36]Fluid Web Typography Nov 24, 2009 [37]Fluid Web Typography, Adobe Reader [38]Fluid Web Typography, Adobe Reader Nov 24, 2009 [39]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers [40]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers Jun 30, 2009 [41]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers, Adobe Reader [42]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers, Adobe Reader Jun 30, 2009 [43]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, 4th Edition [44]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, 4th Edition Oct 17, 2006 [45]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, Adobe Reader, 4th Edition [46]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, Adobe Reader, 4th Edition Oct 17, 2006 [47]DHTML and CSS Advanced: Visual QuickPro Guide [48]DHTML and CSS Advanced: Visual QuickPro Guide Dec 15, 2004 [49]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 3rd Edition [50]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 3rd Edition Feb 20, 2004 [51]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 2nd Edition [52]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 2nd Edition May 30, 2001 [53]10 Last-minute Gifts for Web Designers By on December 17, 2009 1 Comment Q: What do I get for the Web designer who has everything? The short answer is real estate. The slightly longer answer is, anything that helps spark their creativity. The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah, Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [54]Saturnalia myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has everything they need to actually make Web sites? Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect. [55]Choosing the Right Color Value By on December 14, 2009 No Comments Q: Should I use Hex or RGB values to define colors in CSS? The short answer is RGB. The slightly longer answer is that Hex values have become the de facto standard for use in CSS code and both developers and designers are used to them. The long answer is that, in the final design on the screen, there is no difference between using Hex or RGB values in your code. Which system you use is really a matter of you own personal preference (and those of the team you are working with) as to whether or not you use Hex or RGB values to define colors. [56]Expand Your Font Repertoire By on November 30, 2009 No Comments Q: Are there alternatives to Arial, Times, and Georgia for Web designers? The short answer is YES! The slightly longer answer is that most designers use Arial, Times, or Georgia, and, to a lesser degree, Verdana, Trebuchet MS, Courier, and Comic Sans because they think that's all they have at their disposal, but they are wrong. The long answer is that the core Web fonts (the one listed above plus Impact and Web Dings) are used because they are almost guaranteed to be installed on the vast majority of computers your designs are likely to be installed on. One fact of life in Web design is that unless the end user's computer has access to the font file, then the browser cannot use it. [57]Pixels or Ems in Your Web Designs By on November 18, 2009 No Comments Q: What is the practical difference between px (pixel) and em (pronounced m)? When is it best to use one over the other? The short answer is that pixels measure dimensions relative to the screen while ems measure dimensions relative to type size. The slightly longer answer is that pixels are the natural unit for measuring dimensions on a screen and are often used when precise design is required. Ems are the natural unit for measuring type and used when you want to allow maximum design flexibility. [58]To CSS Reset or Not to CSS Reset By on November 10, 2009 No Comments Question: Which Global Reset for CSS Should I Use? The short answer is the simplest one possible. The slightly longer answer is that you should reset some styles, but do so with a good reason. The long answer is that the exact CSS reset you choose will depend on the needs of your design. I like to keep my own reset simple, relying on adding styles to specific tags as needed. However, there are several styles that are inconsistent or (in my opinion) poorly set in most browsers. [59]HTML 5 NOW! By on August 25, 20092 Comments Q: Can I start using HTML 5 now? The short answer is, yes. The slightly longer answer is, you can use some of the new features, but you will need to do a little [60]kludging to get it to work. The long answer is that HTML is a mark-up language meant to indicate the structure of a document. HTML 5 is the next evolutionary step in mark-up languages for the Web, but it is not implemented on most browsers that your audiences are likely to be using and it may be some time before it is. That said, there are some things you can do now to prepare for the future. [61]Big Things Ahead for HTML 5 By on August 17, 2009 No Comments Q: Will HTML5 or XHTML5 be the next big thing or just another collection of past standards and browser war fodder? The short answer is that, yes, [62]HTML 5 is the next big thing. The slightly longer answer is that it's going to be a while before you have to start worrying about HTML 5. The long answer is that, as with all standards, before it becomes relevant, the browser makers have to implement it and then you'll have to wait even longer before legacy browsers are no longer an issue. So, you have some time before you have to run out and buy a new HTML 5 Visual QuickStart Guide. The good news is that HTML 5 has gone to great lengths to stay backwards compatible, so you can begin to learn and implement it today. [63]Everyone is a Web Designer By on August 10, 2009 No Comments Q: What is a Web Designer anymore? It was easier to make Web sites all by yourself, even 5 years ago, but now there is just too much technology for one person to handle. If I want to make a Web site for a very small business, don't have I to be web "developer" now? The short answer is that everybody is a Web designer now. The slightly longer answer is that Web designers are practitioners of a highly specialized discipline that requires years of study to truly master. The long answer is that a good Web designer is a good designer, and this can come "naturally" or from training, but is not medium-dependent. However, a professional Web designer has to understand the medium well enough to know its strengths and limitations. Any designer can pump out something that looks brilliant when displayed in a Web browser window, but is slow to load, static when loaded, and completely unusable. [64]Frames are Dead, Long Live Iframes! By on July 24, 2009 No Comments Q: Is there a suitable alternative to frames? My wife is president of a local woman's club. She and I administer the club's web site, and the ladies like the list of links down one side of the pages. But I read that frames have been deprecated. Regardless, I want to keep the site simple. The short answer is yes-- use iframes. The slightly longer answer is no, not exactly, but we can get close. The long answer is there are a variety of ways to add content to your Web pages, but the question is: once it's on the page what are you going to do with it (or to it)? [65]Q: If I ask ten different web designers what pixel dimensions to use for web pages and whether to make them fixed-width or "stretchy," I get ten different answers. What's your answer, and why? By on July 20, 2009 No Comments The short answer is fixed at 974 pixels (px) wide. The slightly longer answer is whatever it takes to get the job done. The long answer is that asking a Web designer what size a Web page should be is like asking a painter what size a canvas should be or an architect how large a a building should be. While it's not purely a matter of taste--there are certain physical and ergonomic constraints--personal preference accounts for the wide variety of answers you might hear. [66]Ask me, ask me, ask me By on July 1, 2009 No Comments Do you have a question about Web standards, CSS, JavaScript, Ajax, interaction design, user experience, or Web typography? Maybe you just want to know "How'd they do that?" Ask me questions, and each week I will select a question to answer via my Peachpit.com blog. [67]Ask the Web Designer: Why Can't I Use Any Font I Want in My Web Designs? By on June 30, 2009 No Comments The short answer is that you can. The slightly longer answer is that you can't, at least not in any meaningful way yet. The long answer is that the ability to download fonts has actually been a part of the CSS standard (the language used to create Web designs) for over 10 years. The snag comes with what font formats a given browser supports. [NOTE: You may want to stop reading now, as the rest of this explanation might make your eyes bleed in frustration.] [68]Fluid Web Typography This chapter is from the book [69]Fluid Web Typography Jason Cranford Teague shows how giving careful consideration to the measurements and scale you are designing for is what separates good Web typography from great Web typography. Text Alignment Text alignment is generally taken for granted on the Web--left alignment suits most purposes most of the time. In order to create a sense of rhythm and movement on your page, helping to guide the reader's eye around and adding visual interest to the page, a little alignment variation can go a long way. Set body text alignment to minimize gaps and maximize scanning Text alignment in Web pages is, by default, to the left, with ragged edges on the right. Justified text--sometimes called newspaper columns, where both edges of the text are aligned--is rare on the Web. text-align: left; text-align: justify; In print, justified text is created using a variety of techniques including word spacing, letterspacing, hyphenation, and glyph reshaping. In addition, well-formed justification is calculated on a paragraph level to prevent "rivers" of white space flowing down the middle. On the Web, unfortunately, justification is simply created by adding small amounts of space between words. On the screen, where you can only add whole pixels, this often results in uncomfortably large amounts of space between some words, especially in narrower columns. Hyphenation is inexplicably absent from CSS. While it is proposed for inclusion in CSS 3, no work has currently been done on it. When choosing to use left or justified alignment, keep in mind these factors: * Justified text is often seen as more formal and structured, while left alignment is more informal and approachable. * Justified text reinforces the grid structure of a page but can be harder to scan, since it often creates rivers of white space throughout the text, which interrupts the eye path. * Left-aligned text adds an element of white space to the right edge, softening the overall appearance of the page. Combining Alignments [70]craigmod.com Craig Mod combines right-and left-justified columns of text to create motion and rhythm around his page. [71]04-17.jpg [72]Click to view larger image Center or right-justify text for effect and variety More rarely used, centering or right-justifying text can create a specific feeling on the page. text-align: center; text-align: right; Centering and right aligning text is integrally dependent on the design you are creating and how you want your readers to scan the page. While using a variety of justifications helps create rhythm and motion on your page, it can quickly seem cluttered or obnoxious. Always have a specific purpose for the variance of alignment, and use it sparingly. Here are a few ideas: * Bulleted or numbered lists should not be centered or right aligned, as this makes them harder to scan by moving the beginning of each line around. * Center section or module titles/headers if you want to make your site look a little different. Generally, section titles are best when left aligned, but centering them gives your designs a unique feel and may also improve scannability. * Right-align text in the left column of a page or table if it helps show a closer relationship between the elements in adjacent columns. Centered Section Titles [73]jontangerine.com Jon Tangerine combines centered subheadings with justified text in his blog (detail shown) to create solid structure with visual movement. [74]04-18.jpg [75]Click to view larger image Increase margins for longer quotations and style the citation Short quotes of less than three lines are included in a paragraph surround by quotation marks, requiring no other special formatting. In HTML, the blockquote tag is used to set off a block of text as a quotation, generally of two lines of text or longer. The quotation should be styled to distinguish it from other text by indenting its left and right margins and increasing the top and bottom margins. The amount of left/right indentation is based on the width of the column and then adjusted so that it does not conflict with any other indents. A good measure to offset blockquotes is to double the font size (2em), although more or less space may be required for wider or narrower columns: blockquote { margin: 2em; } note.jpg In this chapter, we are only considering spacing issues with blockquotes and citations. Chapters 5 and 6 offer other ways to style text, including weights, italics, backgrounds, and borders. These can be deployed to creatively display longer quotations. This will clearly space the blockquote away from the rest of the text, but it's also up to the copywriter to make it clear that the text is a quote and to supply its source, possibly using the cite tag, which indicates a citation. Turning the cite tag into a block-level element and right-aligning it when it is included in a blockquote creates a strong style. blockquote cite { display: block; text-align: right; } Blockquote Ideas [76]css-tricks.com/examples/Blockquotes CSS-Tricks has a page of blockquote ideas with sample code. The code above will force any text marked by the citation tag to a new line and right-align it. [77]04-20.jpg [78]Click to view larger image Set footnotes and scientific or mathematical annotations using positioning rather than vertical alignment Vertical text alignment allows you to adjust the position of inline text in relation to its natural baseline, shifting it up or down. For footnotes, mathematics, and scientific notation, it will not be enough to simply raise or lower the characters; you will also need to reduce their size relative to the surrounding text. These styles can be applied to the superscript and subscript tags, setting the vertical position to the baseline and then setting a position relative to that: sup, sub { font-size: .5em; vertical-align: baseline; position: relative; } sup { top: -.65em; } sup.math { top: -.8em } sub { top: .2em; } Although vertical-align provides several values to set the vertical position of the text, these have proved to be unreliable in multi-column layouts. The exact values will vary depending on the font, and you may also need to add some left/right margins to add breathing room. [79]04-21.jpg [80]Click to view larger image Type Inspirations: Jon Tangerine Beautiful typographic contrast. Insightful typography editorials. [81]jontangerine.com Jon is a designer living in Bristol, UK, with some of the cleanest pure Web typography I've seen. On top of this, his information and opinions on Web typography are required reading for anyone interested in the ongoing issues we face. [82]04-22.jpg [83]Click to view larger image How he does it: Jon uses a font stack of Web safe fonts, including Cochin, Baskerville, and Palatino Linotype, down to Georgia. He then combines a wide variety of sizes, styles, weights, and colors all scaled and spaced within a strong grid to provide clear eye paths and legible text. [84]04-25.jpg [85]Click to view larger image [86]04-26.jpg [87]Click to view larger image [88]04-27.jpg [89]Click to view larger image [90]04-28.jpg [91]Click to view larger image [92]< Back Page 4 of 4 * [93]Share This [94]Share This * [95][save_16.png] [96]Your Account Discussions Make a New Comment You must [97]log in in order to post a comment. 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The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah, Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [122]Saturnalia myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has everything they need to actually make Web sites? Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect. [123]Kara Murphy [124]Just in time for the holidays: Our video-a-day giveaway By [125]Kara Murphy on December 16, 2009 No Comments It's the holiday season, and I bet some of you are already thinking of your New Year's resolutions. If one of them is to learn something new in the field of Web design, development, presentation, branding, and much more, then you're in luck. 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All rights reserved. 1249 Eighth Street, Berkeley, CA 94710 [192]Informit Network [Other Network Sites......] Références Liens visibles 8. javascript:void(0); 9. javascript:void(0); 10. javascript:hideTOC(); 11. javascript:hideTOC(); 15. javascript:hideTOC(); 23. javascript:showme('authorInformation','closed'); 71. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-17.jpg') 72. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-17.jpg') 74. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-18.jpg') 75. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-18.jpg') 77. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-20.jpg') 78. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-20.jpg') 79. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-21.jpg') 80. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-21.jpg') 82. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-22.jpg') 83. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-22.jpg') 84. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-25.jpg') 85. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-25.jpg') 86. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-26.jpg') 87. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-26.jpg') 88. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-27.jpg') 89. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-27.jpg') 90. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-28.jpg') 91. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-28.jpg') Liens cachés : #[1]Latest articles [2]Most viewed [3]Latest comments [4]PDF [5]XML version [6][1578896537@Top,Bottom,x96!Top] [7]Log on / register [8]BioMed Central home | [9]Journals A-Z | [10]Feedback | [11]Support | [12]My details [13]Home | [14]Browse articles | [15]Search | [16]Weblinks | [17]Submit article | [18]My JCR | [19]About JCR * [20]Top * [21]Abstract * [22]Background * [23]Methods * [24]Results * [25]Discussion * [26]Conclusion * [27]Competing interests * [28]Authors' contributions * [29]Acknowledgements * [30]References [31][1973347444@Top,Bottom,x96%21x96] [32]Journal of Circadian Rhythms [33]Volume 7 Viewing options: * [34]Abstract * Full text * [35]PDF (243KB) Associated material: * [36]Readers' comments [37]RSS * [38]PubMed record Related literature: * Articles citing this article [39]on Google Scholar [40]on PubMed Central * Other articles by authors [41]on Google Scholar [42]Nagane M [43]Yoshimura K [44]Watanabe SI [45]Nomura M [46]on PubMed [47]Nagane M [48]Yoshimura K [49]Watanabe SI [50]Nomura M * Related articles/pages [51]on Google [52]on Google Scholar [53]on PubMed Tools: * [54]Download citation(s) * [55]Download XML * [56]Email to a friend * [57]Order reprints * [58]Post a comment * [59]Nominate for award Post to: * [60]Citeulike * [61]Connotea * [62]Del.icio.us * [63]Facebook * [64]Twitter [65]Open Access Research A possible connection between psychosomatic symptoms and daily rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion in healthy Japanese students Mitsuo Nagane^1 [66]email , Kazunori Yoshimura^2 [67]email , Shu-Ichi Watanabe^3 [68]email and Masahiko Nomura^4 [69]email ^1 Department of Educational Physiology, Chiba University, Chiba 263-8522, Japan ^2 Department of Rehabilitation, Nihon Institute of Medical Science, Japan ^3 Department of Physiology, Saitama Medical University, Japan ^4 International Education and Training Center, Saitama Medical University, Japan [email.gif] author email [email-ca.gif] corresponding author email Journal of Circadian Rhythms 2009, 7:10doi:10.1186/1740-3391-7-10 The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be Received: 3 February 2009 Accepted: 5 August 2009 Published: 5 August 2009 © 2009 Nagane et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Abstract Background Students suffering from psychosomatic symptoms, including drowsiness and feelings of melancholy, often have basic lifestyle problems. The aim of this study was to investigate whether psychosomatic complaints may be related to circadian dysfunction. Methods We examined 15 healthy students (4 men and 11 women) between 21 and 22 years old. To assess the presence of psychosomatic symptoms among the subjects, we developed a self-assessment psychosomatic complaints questionnaire consisting of five items pertaining to physical symptoms and five items concerning mental symptoms. The subjects rated their psychosomatic symptoms twice a day (08:00 and 20:00 h). We also assessed growth hormone secretion patterns by fluorescence enzyme immunoassay (FEIA). Salivary samples were collected from the subjects at home five times a day (20:00, 24:00, 04:00, 08:00, and 12:00 h) in Salivette tubes. Results The results indicated a relationship between the self-assessment scores and the salivary levels of growth hormone. Subjects with high self-assessment scores showed significant variability in growth hormone secretion over the day, whereas subjects with low self-assessment scores did not. Conclusion Psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with circadian dysfunction, as inferred from blunted rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion. Background Japanese students suffering from psychosomatic disorders, such as those involving mood and sleep, may exhibit basic problems in their lifestyle, including deleterious changes in their living environment and dietary or lifestyle disturbances [[72]1]. In particular, staying up late is associated with decreased appetite and missed breakfast the following morning, irregular bowel movements and sleepiness. Perhaps the biggest problem facing today's Japanese students is their lack of daily physical exercise, brought on by stressful academic courses over long periods of time, too much television and computer games and increased automobile use [[73]2]. Many Japanese youngsters stay up late at night [[74]3]. A circadian pacemaker in the central nervous system regulates human sleep cycles, hormone secretion, subject alertness, objective performance levels and other physiologic functions over a 24-h period. Core body temperature, plasma cortisol, and plasma melatonin are three variables frequently used to estimate the phase of the human pacemaker [[75]4], although many other hormones, including growth hormone, exhibit daily rhythmicity. Technical advances that make the assessment of biomarkers in saliva possible have enabled researchers to non-invasively study biosocial processes related to stress in naturalistic contexts. Chiappin et al [[76]5] showed the usefulness and possibility of salivary hormone analysis containing growth hormone. Rantonen [[77]6] found a linear correlation between salivary and serum growth hormone. Carroll et al. [[78]7] described negative effects of growth hormone insufficiency on psychological well-being, including reduced vitality and energy, depressed mood, emotional lability, impaired self-control, anxiety, and increased social isolation. Patients with growth hormone deficiencies report decreased energy levels, greater emotional lability, increased difficulties with sexual relationships and a greater sense of social isolation than control subjects [[79]8]. However, no direct relationship has been shown between growth hormone deficiency and psychometrically measured depression, apathy or psychosomatic well-being [[80]9]. The purpose of the present study was to investigate individual variation in the levels of growth hormone in healthy subjects and to examine the relationship between an individual's hormone profile and his or her psychosomatic complaints. Methods The subjects and self-assessment questionnaire Fifteen subjects (4 men and 11 women) without major medical disorders ranging in age from 21 to 22 years participated in this study. The study design was approved by the Ethics Committee of Chiba University, Japan, and informed consent was obtained from all subjects. A self-assessment questionnaire concerning psychosomatic symptoms was developed in accordance with data from the Health Behavior in School-Aged Children (HBSC) study of the WHO [[81]10]. The questionnaire for this study contained five items related to physical symptoms and five items pertaining to mental symptoms (Table [82]1). The questionnaire was used to measure each individual's psychosomatic symptoms at home twice each day (08:00 and 20:00 h). The items were rated on a 4-point scale, with 1 = not true at all and 4 = completely true. The total score for the 10-item scale ranged from 10 to 40, with higher scores indicating a greater degree of psychosomatic complaints. The subjects were allocated post hoc (median split) to a High (n = 7) or Low (n = 8) Self-Assessment Group based on their total morning score (with higher scores corresponding to lower self-assessment). [83]Table 1. Morning and evening psychosomatic condition scores collected from the self-assessment psychosomatic complaint questionnaire Sample collection Saliva was collected into Salivette tubes (Sarstedt, Germany) using polyester swabs from the subjects' mouths following 2 min of chewing. Samples were collected five times a day at home (20:00, 24:00, 04:00, 08:00, and 12:00 h). Both the day of sampling and the preceding day were required to be normal days (i.e., without special events or stressful circumstances). After sample collection, the saliva was stored at -20°C until being analysed. Salivary growth hormone assay On the day of testing, the samples were centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for 10 min to remove all mucin. A standard fluorescent determination immunoassay was used to assess the growth hormone concentrations in each sample. To avoid inter-assay variability, all determinations were performed in a single series. In the first step, 96-well fluoro-nunc plates (Nunc, Black MicroWell 137101, Denmark) were pre-coated with 100 µl of anti-growth hormone antibody (Quartett, 2071800210, Germany) and incubated for 1.5 h at room temperature. After incubation, the plate was washed three times with phosphate-buffered saline and blocked for 1 h. After washing, 100 µl of saliva or a standard solution was dispensed into each well and left for 1.5 h. After washing, primary antibody (Funakoshi, FU47500254, Japan) was added to the plates and incubated for 1.5 h. Next, incubation with a secondary antibody (Novus Biologicals, NB120-7112, USA) was performed for 1 h. After washing, rabbit anti-ovine immunoglobulin (Amersham Biosciences, ECF Western Blotting Reagent Pack, USA) was added. After 20 min of incubation, the plate was scanned using a Fluoromark Microplate Fluorometer (Bio-Rad, USA) with excitation at 485 nm and emission at 590 nm. Data analysis The significance of differences between group means was tested by analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by protected t tests when appropriate. The presence of daily rhythmicity in salivary growth hormone was tested by ANOVA and by the cosinor procedure [[84]11]. Results Self-assessment psychosomatic complaints questionnaire A factorial repeated measures ANOVA (high/low self-assessment versus morning/evening self-assessment scores) was conducted. ANOVA results showed significant differences (p < .05) between morning and evening self-assessment scores. Post hoc analyses revealed that, as shown in Table [85]1, the high self-assessment group (total 19.00) differed significantly from the low self-assessment group (total 32.75) in terms of their morning scores (Welch's t-test, t = -3.96, df = 7.57, p < 0.01). The low self-assessment group subjects complained of negative psychosomatic conditions including being easily irritated (p < .05), feeling melancholy (p < .05), having a desire to rest (p < .05), and feeling anxious (p < .01). Assessment of daily rhythmicity of salivary growth hormone secretion We collected saliva profiles from 15 healthy students (4 men and 11 women). The amplitude of salivary growth hormone, defined as the difference between the highest and lowest salivary concentrations, was used to produce a standardisation, or Z, score. As shown in Figure [86]1, noticeable variation was observed in the hormonal rhythms of the subjects, including differences in the salivary growth hormone secretion profiles of the high and low self-assessment groups. Cosinor analysis revealed no significant 24-hour rhythmicity in the secretion profiles of either group (p > .50), but a repeated measures ANOVA identified statistically significant (p < .05) time-related variations for growth hormone in the high self-assessment group. The secretion profile of the low self-assessment group did not exhibit the typical, sharp peak in the early morning [[87]12], and ANOVA showed no time-related variation (p > .10). At 08:00 h, salivary growth hormone levels were significantly lower (p < .05) in the low self-assessment group than in the high self-assessment group. [88]thumbnail Figure 1. Daily variation in salivary level of growth hormone in the high and low self-assessment groups. The results are presented as means ± S.E.M. * p < .05. Discussion Psychosocial factors have been previously shown to affect the psychosomatic symptoms reported by Japanese school children [[89]13]. Psychosomatic symptoms, which are largely mediated by the autonomic nervous system, are strongly influenced by an individual's lifestyle, and the current so-called 24-h society in Japan may have changed the environmental conditions of students. More than 80% of school refusal cases (school phobia) suffer from sleep disorders, with a tendency towards day/night reversal and easy fatigability, especially during the period immediately following their school social life [[90]14]. Thus, impairment in circadian rhythmicity may be a cause of school refusal in Japan. The present study was the first step in an attempt to investigate this hypothesis. Our assessment of salivary growth hormone secretion was not sensitive enough to detect significant daily rhythmicity, but the highest level measured in the subjects of our high self-assessment group occurred earlier in the day than the peak of the daily rhythm measured in a previous study [[91]15]. Peak hormonal secretions often shift to the morning if an activity continues long into the night. A link between deficiency of growth hormone and reduced quality of life or well-being has been reported by many researchers [[92]7]. Our results indicate a relationship between the self-assessment scores and the levels of growth hormone. Subjects with high self-assessment scores in the morning showed significant variability in growth hormone secretion during the day, whereas subjects with low self-assessment scores did not. Thus, psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with hormonal rhythms related to basic lifestyle habits. Nocturnal melatonin secretion can be suppressed by exposure to light on the order of several hundred lux, such as ordinary room light [[93]16]. Thus, a subject's pattern of melatonin secretion may reflect his or her life rhythm, and melatonin secretion appears to be an important index of circadian rhythmicity. Based on our previous finding that growth hormone and melatonin exhibit similar daily rhythmicity [[94]17], we believe that estimates of the state of the central circadian clock can be most accurate if they are based on the analysis of the secretion patterns of both melatonin and growth hormone. Some limitations of our study must be emphasized. First, it is possible that the sleep-disrupting effect of waking at 00.00 and 04.00 to produce a saliva sample had a disruptive effect on hormonal secretion. Second, we observed a larger difference in terms of gender than has been previously described [[95]18], with women having sevenfold higher serum growth hormone concentrations than men during the day. Though we did not directly examine sex differences in growth hormone secretion, we recognise it as an important topic for further research. Conclusion Psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with circadian dysfunction, as inferred from blunted rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Authors' contributions MN designed the experiments, collected data and wrote the manuscript. KY managed the laboratory and adjusted the schedule of subjects. SW participated in the design of the study and performed statistical analysis. MN supervised the study. All authors read and approved the final version of the article. Acknowledgements This study was supported in part by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (C) from the Japanese Ministry of Education to Nagane M. References 1. Okamoto M, Tan F, Suyama A, Okada H, Miyamoto T, Kishimoto T: The characteristics of fatigue symptoms and their association with the life style and the health status in school children. J Epidemiol 2000, 10:241-248. [96]PubMed Abstract [97]OpenURL 2. Murata M: Secular trends in growth and changes in eating patterns of Japanese children. Am J Clin Nutr 2000, 72(suppl):1379S-1383S. [98]PubMed Abstract | [99]Publisher Full Text [100]OpenURL 3. Harada T: Effects of evening light conditions on salivary melatonin of Japanese junior high school students. J Circadian Rhythms 2004, 2:4. [101]PubMed Abstract | [102]BioMed Central Full Text | [103]PubMed Central Full Text [104]OpenURL 4. Klerman E, Gershengorn HB, Duffy JF, Kronauer RE: Comparisons of the variability of three markers of the human circadian pacemaker. J Biol Rhyth 2002, 17:181-193. [105]Publisher Full Text [106]OpenURL 5. Chiappin S, Antonelli G, Gatti R, De Palo EF: Saliva specimen: A new laboratory tool for diagnostic and basic investigation. Clinica Chimica Acta 2007, 383:30-40. [107]Publisher Full Text [108]OpenURL 6. Rantonen PJ, Penttila I, Meurman JH, Savolainen K, Narvanen S, Helenius T: Growth hormone and cortisol in serum and saliva. Acta Odontol Scand 2000, 58:299-303. [109]PubMed Abstract | [110]Publisher Full Text [111]OpenURL 7. Carroll PV, Christ ER: Growth Hormone Deficiency in Adulthood and the effects of growth hormone replacement: A review. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998, 83:382-395. [112]PubMed Abstract | [113]Publisher Full Text [114]OpenURL 8. Rosen T, Wiren L, Wilhelmsen L, Wiklund I, Bengtsson BA: Decreased psychological well-being in adult patients with growth hormone deficiency. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1994, 40:111-116. [115]PubMed Abstract | [116]Publisher Full Text [117]OpenURL 9. Zenker S, Haverkamp F, Klingmuller D: Growth hormone deficiency in pituitary disease: relationship to depression, apathy and somatic complaints. Eur J Endocrinol 2002, 147:165-171. [118]PubMed Abstract | [119]Publisher Full Text [120]OpenURL 10. Haugland S, Wold B, Stevenson J, Aaroe LE, Woynarowska B: Subjective health complaints in adolescence. Eur J Public Health 2001, 11:4-10. [121]PubMed Abstract | [122]Publisher Full Text [123]OpenURL 11. Nelson W, Tong YL, Lee JK, Halberg F: Methods for cosinor rhythmometry. Chronobiologia 1979, 6:305-323. [124]PubMed Abstract [125]OpenURL 12. Cauter EV, Leproult R, Plat L: Age-related changes in slow wave sleep and REM sleep and relationship with growth hormone and cortisol levels in healthy men. J Am Med Asso 2000, 284:861-868. [126]Publisher Full Text [127]OpenURL 13. Tanaka H, Tamai H, Terashima S, Takenaka Y, Tanaka T: Psychosocial factors affecting psychosomatic symptoms in Japanese schoolchildren. Pediatr Int 2000, 42:354-358. [128]PubMed Abstract | [129]Publisher Full Text [130]OpenURL 14. Miike T, Tomoda A, Jhodoi T, Iwatani N, Mabe H: Learning and memorization impairment in childhood chronic fatigue syndrome manifesting as school phobia in Japan. Brain Dev 2004, 26:442-447. [131]PubMed Abstract | [132]Publisher Full Text [133]OpenURL 15. Albertsson-Wikland K, Rosberg S, Karlberg J, Groth T: Analysis of 24-hour growth hormone profiles in healthy boys and girls of normal stature: relation to puberty. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994, 78:1195-1201. [134]PubMed Abstract | [135]Publisher Full Text [136]OpenURL 16. Aoki H, Yamada N, Ozeki Y, Yamane H, Kato N: Minimum light intensity required to suppress nocturnal melatonin concentration in human saliva. Neurosci Lett 1998, 252:91-94. [137]PubMed Abstract | [138]Publisher Full Text [139]OpenURL 17. Nagane M, Yoshimura K, Watanabe SI, Nomura M: Examination of the validity of growth hormone as an index of the biological rhythm in comparison with cortisol and melatonin in Japanese healthy students. J Physiol Sci 2008, 58(Suppl):S87. [140]OpenURL 18. Engström BE, Karlsson FA, Wide L: Gender differences in diurnal growth hormone and epinephrine values in young adults during ambulation. Clin Chem 1999, 45:1235-1239. [141]PubMed Abstract | [142]Publisher Full Text [143]OpenURL [144]Have something to say? Post a comment on this article! __________________________________________________________________ [145][1578896537@Top,Bottom,x96!Bottom] [146]Terms and Conditions [147]Privacy statement [148]Information for advertisers [149]Jobs at BMC [150]Contact us © 1999-2010 BioMed Central Ltd unless otherwise stated. Part of [151]Springer Science+Business Media. Références Liens visibles 41. javascript:/// 46. javascript:/// Liens cachés : #[1]Latest articles [2]Most viewed [3]Latest comments [4]PDF [5]XML version [6][1218719383@Top,Bottom,x96!Top] [7]Log on / register [8]BioMed Central home | [9]Journals A-Z | [10]Feedback | [11]Support | [12]My details [13]Home | [14]Browse articles | [15]Search | [16]Weblinks | [17]Submit article | [18]My JCR | [19]About JCR * [20]Top * [21]Abstract * [22]Background * [23]Methods * [24]Results * [25]Discussion * [26]Conclusion * [27]List of abbre... * [28]Competing interests * [29]Authors' contributions * [30]Acknowledgements * [31]References [32][1973347444@Top,Bottom,x96%21x96] [33]Journal of Circadian Rhythms [34]Volume 3 Viewing options: * [35]Abstract * Full text * [36]PDF (651KB) Associated material: * [37]Readers' comments [38]RSS * [39]PubMed record Related literature: * Articles citing this article [40]on Google Scholar [41]on PubMed Central * Other articles by authors [42]on Google Scholar [43]Conroy DA [44]Spielman AJ [45]Scott RQ [46]on PubMed [47]Conroy DA [48]Spielman AJ [49]Scott RQ * Related articles/pages [50]on Google [51]on Google Scholar [52]on PubMed Tools: * [53]Download citation(s) * [54]Download XML * [55]Email to a friend * [56]Order reprints * [57]Post a comment Post to: * [58]Citeulike * [59]Connotea * [60]Del.icio.us * [61]Facebook * [62]Twitter [63]Open Access [64]Highly Access Research Daily rhythm of cerebral blood flow velocity Deirdre A Conroy^1 [65]email , Arthur J Spielman^1^,2 [66]email and Rebecca Q Scott^3 [67]email ^1 Department of Psychology, The Graduate School and University Center of the City University of New York, New York, USA ^2 Department of Neurology and Neuroscience, New York Presbyterian Hospital, New York, USA ^3 Department of Health Psychology, Albert Einstein Medical College at Yeshiva University, Bronx, USA [email.gif] author email [email-ca.gif] corresponding author email Journal of Circadian Rhythms 2005, 3:3doi:10.1186/1740-3391-3-3 The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be Received: 21 December 2004 Accepted: 10 March 2005 Published: 10 March 2005 © 2005 Conroy et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Abstract Background CBFV (cerebral blood flow velocity) is lower in the morning than in the afternoon and evening. Two hypotheses have been proposed to explain the time of day changes in CBFV: 1) CBFV changes are due to sleep-associated processes or 2) time of day changes in CBFV are due to an endogenous circadian rhythm independent of sleep. The aim of this study was to examine CBFV over 30 hours of sustained wakefulness to determine whether CBFV exhibits fluctuations associated with time of day. Methods Eleven subjects underwent a modified constant routine protocol. CBFV from the middle cerebral artery was monitored by chronic recording of Transcranial Doppler (TCD) ultrasonography. Other variables included core body temperature (CBT), end-tidal carbon dioxide (EtCO2), blood pressure, and heart rate. Salivary dim light melatonin onset (DLMO) served as a measure of endogenous circadian phase position. Results A non-linear multiple regression, cosine fit analysis revealed that both the CBT and CBFV rhythm fit a 24 hour rhythm (R^2 = 0.62 and R^2 = 0.68, respectively). Circadian phase position of CBT occurred at 6:05 am while CBFV occurred at 12:02 pm, revealing a six hour, or 90 degree difference between these two rhythms (t = 4.9, df = 10, p < 0.01). Once aligned, the rhythm of CBFV closely tracked the rhythm of CBT as demonstrated by the substantial correlation between these two measures (r = 0.77, p < 0.01). Conclusion In conclusion, time of day variations in CBFV have an approximately 24 hour rhythm under constant conditions, suggesting regulation by a circadian oscillator. The 90 degree-phase angle difference between the CBT and CBFV rhythms may help explain previous findings of lower CBFV values in the morning. The phase difference occurs at a time period during which cognitive performance decrements have been observed and when both cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events occur more frequently. The mechanisms underlying this phase angle difference require further exploration. Background It has been well documented that cerebral blood flow velocity (CBFV) is lower in sleep [[70]1-[71]7] and in the morning shortly after awakening [[72]8-[73]10] than in the afternoon or evening. Generally accepted theories about the time of day changes in CBFV attribute the fall in CBFV to the physiological processes of the sleep period and the increase during the day to waking processes. The low CBFV in the morning is thought to be a consequence of the fall in the overall reduced metabolic level [[74]8,[75]10 ,[76]11] and reduced cognitive processing [[77]12]. Additionally, the reduced physical activity [[78]13], reduced body temperature, and the recumbent sleeping position have also been proposed as contributors [[79]14] to the decline in CBFV and analogous brain processes. An alternative to these explanations that attribute changes in CBFV to sleep and wake dependent processes is that this pattern of fluctuation reflects an endogenous process with circadian rhythmicity. The decline of CBFV across the sleep period and rise after subjects are awakened in the morning resemble the endogenous circadian changes in core body temperature (CBT), a reliable index of endogenous circadian rhythmicity. Both patterns are low during sleep, start to rise in the morning, reach their peak in the late afternoon, and then drop during the sleep period. The aim of this study was to examine CBFV over ~30 hours of sustained wakefulness to unmask and quantify contributions of the endogenous circadian system. By not permitting sleep, the evoked changes dependent on this change of state will not contribute to the observed CBFV changes. We hypothesized that time of day changes in CBFV are due to endogenous circadian regulation. Previous studies have been limited by several factors. First, the environmental conditions (light level) and the behavior of the subject (sleep, meals, and caffeine intake) were not controlled [[80]15,[81]13,[82]1 ,[83]16]. Second, CBFV measurements were obtained at only a few circadian points. For example, Ameriso et al. [[84]15] and Qureshi et al. [[85]16] assessed CBFV between 6-8 am, 1-3 pm, and 7-9 pm. Diamant et al [[86]13] assessed CBFV during the first 15 minutes of every hour across a 24 hour period. Given these brief time periods, the findings are only a schematic of the 24 hour profile. Third, primary output markers of the endogenous circadian pacemaker (such as core body temperature and melatonin production) were not assessed. We employed the "constant routine" protocol, which was designed specifically to unmask underlying circadian rhythms in constant conditions [[87]17]. CBFV was collected by Transcranial Doppler (TCD) ultrasonography for the entire study period. Core body temperature and salivary dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO) were measured for determination of circadian phase. Continuous electroencephalography (EEG) was performed to ensure wakefulness across the study. Additionally, measurements of blood pressure, heart rate, and end tidal carbon dioxide (Et[CO2]), three of the main regulators of CBFV, were collected every half hour. Methods Subject selection Twelve subjects (10 men and 2 women; ages 19-38, mean 28 years) agreed to participate. One subject discontinued her participation because of a headache 15 hours into the study. Subjects were in good health, as assessed by medical history, semi-structured clinical interview, and physical exam. Information regarding menstrual cycle was not obtained from female subjects. Subjects also underwent an independent standard cerebrovascular assessment and were determined to be normal. They reported no symptoms of sleep problems (such as insomnia, obstructive sleep apnea, narcolepsy, or restless legs syndrome). Subjects that were selected to participate kept to a designated sleep-wake schedule (that was negotiated from the subject's typical pattern) and filled out a sleep diary for the two weeks prior to the time in the laboratory. According to sleep diary reports, bedtimes ranged from 10:30 pm to 1:00 am and waketimes ranged from 6:00 am to 10:00 am. Alcohol and caffeine intake was discontinued for the entire week before the study. During the data collection, subjects were not permitted either alcohol or caffeine. All subjects were non-smokers. Laboratory constant routine protocol The study protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Boards of New York Presbyterian Hospital - Weill Medical College of Cornell University and The City College of New York. Subjects gave written and informed consent before participating. Subjects arrived at the sleep laboratory between 9:30 am and 10:00 am. They were oriented to the study procedures and to their bedroom. Electrodes were placed on the subject's head and face as they sat in a chair next to the bed. Data collection began at 11 am. Subjects remained in bed and awake in a semi recumbent position for 30 hours in an established "constant routine" (CR) protocol. Subjects remained in low (<25 lux) light levels which have been shown to have little or no entraining effect on the circadian pacemaker [[88]18]. They were not allowed to get out of bed to urinate. Instead they urinated in private in a urinal or bedpan. Subjects remained awake from 11:00 a.m. on Day 1 until 5 p.m. on Day 2. Throughout the study, subjects were provided small meals (Ensure ^® liquid formula plus one-quarter nutritional food bar) every 2 hours. Subject's typical total food and liquid intake for a day and a quarter were divided into 15 relatively equal portions. Only one subject participated in the CR per 30-hour period. This protocol represents a modified CR in two ways. First, subjects were allowed to watch television and were therefore were not in "time isolation." Television content was monitored so that subjects were not exposed to programs with highly emotional themes. Second, subjects needing to defecate were allowed to go to the bathroom, which was located a few steps away from the bedside. We chose this method as an alternative to using the bedpan to ensure subject's comfort and study compliance. Three subjects (subjects 05, 06, and 10) got out of bed once at 3:30, 21:30, and 15:30, respectively, to defecate. One subject, subject 12, got out of bed twice, at 22:30 and 6:35. Subject 10 used the bathroom only during the adaptation period. A paired-samples t-test was conducted to evaluate the impact of getting out of bed to defecate on subject's CBT and CBFV values. The CBT and CBFV values in the two hours before getting up were compared to the two hours after the subject got up. Subjects 5 showed a slight decrease in CBT from before (M = 98.12, SD = 0.14) to after the subject returned to the bed (M = 97.91, SD = 0.08), t(3) = -5.17, p = .014). Subject 6 showed a decline in CBFV from before (M = 56.14, SD = 2.3) to after the subject returned to the bed (M = 45.67, SD = 3.7), t(3) = 5.49, p = 0.012). There were no other significant differences detected between these two time periods for subject 5's CBFV, subject 6's CBT, or for both times subject 12 got out of the bed. By visual inspection, the overall shape of the curves in these subjects was not affected and therefore these subject's data were included in subsequent analyses. Transcranial Doppler ultrasound recordings The current study utilized TCD ultrasonography to measure cerebral blood flow velocity. TCD is a non-invasive instrument (consisting of one or two 2-Mhz transducers fitted to a headband, MARC500, Spencer Technologies, Nicolet Biomedical Inc) that is used predominantly as a diagnostic tool to assess cerebral hemodynamics in normal and pathological conditions. TCD ultrasonography is predicated on a theory that involves the measurement of moving objects when combined with radar. When the instrument emits the sound wave, it is reflected by the blood cells that are moving in the vector of the sound wave [[89]19]. CBFV was measured using either the right or left middle cerebral artery (MCA) using TCD sonography (TCD: DWL Multidop X-2, DWL Elektronische Systeme GmbH, D-78354 Sipplingen/Germany) through the temporal window. An observer who was present continuously during the recordings evaluated the quality of the signal. This enabled long-term recording of CBFV throughout the study. Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT) of the signal was used to analyze the velocity spectra. The mean velocity of the MCA was obtained from the integral of the maximal TCD frequency shifts over one beat divided by the corresponding beat interval and expressed in cm/sec. Analysis was conducted off line. Measurement of standard markers of the circadian pacemaker Body temperature recordings Core body temperature was recorded at 1-minute intervals with an indwelling rectal probe (MiniMitter, Co. Bend, OR). A wire lead connected the sensor out of the rectum to a data collection system worn on the belt. Temperature readings were collected and saved into the device and monitored at hourly intervals by the investigator. After the study, the recordings were visually inspected and artifacts resulting from removal or malfunction of the probe were excluded from further analysis. Salivary melatonin Salivary samples of 3 ml were collected every hour from 11:00 a.m. on Day 1 to 4:00 p.m. on Day 2. Ten of these samples were used only for the determination of the timing of the salivary dim light melatonin onset (DLMO). For nine subjects, salivary DLMO was assessed across a ten-hour time window that included the ten hours before the CBT minimum. Immediately after collection, each saliva sample was frozen and stored at -20°C. Saliva samples were assayed using Bühlmann Melatonin Radio Immunoassay (RIA) test kit for direct melatonin in human saliva (American Laboratory Products Co., Windham, NH). Analysis was conducted at New York State Institute for Basic Research. Salivary DLMO time was selected based on two criteria. The saliva sample needed to have melatonin concentration 3 pg/ml or above and later samples needed to show higher levels (Bühlmann laboratories). Second, the 3 pg/ml threshold needed to occur within 6-10 hours before core body temperature minimum [[90]20]. Polygraphic recordings Electroencephalography (EEG) was continually assessed across the 30 hours to ensure that subjects maintained wakefulness. The following montage was used according to the international 10-20 system: C3-A2, C4-A1, O1-A2, O2-A1, ROC-A1, LOC-A2, and submentalis electromyogram (EMG). One channel of electrocardiogram was continuously recorded by monitoring from two electrodes (one on each side of the body at the shoulder chest junction). The EEG software (Rembrant Sleep Collection Software Version 7.0) was used for data acquisition and display of the signals on a personal computer. Throughout the CR, the investigator (DAC) monitored the quality of the recordings. The recordings were scored by RQS and DAC. Blood pressure, heart rate, and end-tidal CO2 An automated blood pressure cuff was placed on the bicep of the subject and inflated two times each hour in order to determine changes in blood pressure and heart rate over time. Blood pressure and heart rate in one subject (02) was recorded via a finger blood pressure monitor (Omron Marshall Products, Model F-88). Blood pressure and heart rate in subjects 03, 04, 05, 06, and 07 were recorded with Omron Healthcare, Inc, Vernon Hills, Illinois 60061 Model # HEM-705CP Rating: DC 6V 4W Serial No: 2301182L. Blood pressure and heart rate for subjects 08, 09 and 10 was recorded with a similar blood pressure monitor (CVS Pharmacy Inc, Woonsocket, RI 02895 Model # 1086CVS). Blood pressure and heart rate recordings were not measured in subjects 11 and 12. Et[CO2 ]was continuously obtained. A nasal cannula for monitoring expired gases was placed under the nose. Relative changes in carbon dioxide content were measured by an Ohmeda 4700 Oxicap (BOC healthcare). Mean Et[CO2 ]levels were analyzed off-line. Et[CO2 ]recordings were not measured in subjects 11 and 12. Data Analyses Data reduction and statistical procedures CBT and CBFV values were first subjected to data rejection. All CBT values less than 96 degrees were determined to be artifact and were rejected. All CBFV values less than 20 cm/sec were determined to be artifact according to the clinical criteria set by the staff neurologist. Data reduction was accomplished by averaging into one minute, 30 minute or hourly bins. Correlations presented here were performed on mean values in 30 minute bins. To ensure that circadian measurements were made under basal conditions, the first five hours of the constant routine were excluded from all analyses to eliminate effects of study adaptation. The last hour was excluded to eliminate confounding effects such as expectation effects. The data are presented in this article in three ways. First, CBT and CBFV values were plotted according to time of day (Figures [91]1 and [92]2). Second, CBFV values were aligned according to the CBT nadir (Figure [93]3) and third, the CBFV nadir was aligned to the CBT nadir (Figure [94]4). To align CBFV to the CBT circadian nadir as shown in Figure [95]3, the CBT nadir of each individual subject was set to circadian time 0, or 0°. The CBFV value that corresponded to the CBT nadir was then also set to 0. Each half hour data point after the temperature nadir and corresponding CBFV values were then set to a circadian degree. There were a total of 48 data points across the 24 hour period. Therefore, each data point was equal to 7.5 degrees so that each data point would accumulate to 360°. Lastly, mean values were obtained for CBT and CBFV at each circadian degree. [96]thumbnail Figure 1. 24-hour Cosine Curve fit to Mean Core Body Temperature (°F). Time course of CBT according to time of day. Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/- SEM) of CBT (blue diamonds) fit with a 24-hour cosine curve (purple squares). Time of day is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate shows CBT values (degrees F). The vertical line indicates where the data was double plotted. Also displayed in the upper right corner is the non-linear cosine curve fit for mean CBT, R^2 = 0.62. The overall mean circadian phase position of the minimum was 6:05 am. [97]thumbnail Figure 2. 24-hour Cosine Curve fit to Mean Cerebral Blood Flow Velocity (cm/sec). Time course of CBFV according to time of day. Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/- SEM) of CBFV (blue diamonds) fit with a 24-hour cosine curve (purple squares). Time of day is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate shows CBFV values (cm/sec). The vertical line indicates where the data was double plotted. Also displayed in the upper right corner is the non-linear cosine curve fit for mean CBFV, R^2 = 0.67. The overall mean circadian phase position of the minimum was 12:02 pm. [98]thumbnail Figure 3. Mean CBT and CBFV Aligned to CBT Nadir. Time course of mean CBFV and mean CBT aligned to the nadir of CBT and then averaged. Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/-SEM) of CBT (purple squares) and CBFV (blue circles) aligned to the phase of the circadian temperature cycle. Circadian time in degrees is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate on the left shows CBT values (degrees F) and CBFV (cm/sec) on the right. The vertical line indicates the CBT nadir. [99]thumbnail Figure 4. Mean CBT and CBFV Aligned to Their Respective Nadir. Time course of mean CBFV and mean CBT aligned to each of their respective nadirs and then averaged. Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/-SEM) of CBT (purple squares) and CBFV (blue circles) aligned to the phase of the circadian temperature cycle. Circadian time in degrees is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate on the left shows CBT values (degrees F) and CBFV (cm/sec) on the right. The vertical line indicates both the CBT nadir and the CBFV nadir. The correlation coefficient between the aligned rhythms is 0.77 (p < 0.01). To align the CBFV nadir to the CBT nadir, first, the lowest value of CBT and the lowest value of CBFV were identified and set to circadian time 0, or 0°. Each half hour data point after the CBT nadir and CBFV nadir were then set to a circadian degree. There were a total of 48 data points across the 24 hour period. Therefore, each data point was equal to 7.5 degrees so that each data point would accumulate to 360°. Lastly, mean values were obtained for CBT and CBFV at each circadian degree. Estimation of circadian phase A 24-hour non-linear multiple regression -cosine curve fit analysis was performed on the CBT and CBFV data (SAS Institute, Cary, NC). This technique constrains the circadian period of CBT and CBFV to be within 24 hours. This technique used the following equations: model cbt = &avg_cbt + r * cos((2 * 3.1415) * (hours-&max_cbt)/24; model cbfv = &avg_cbt + r * cos((2 * 3.1415) * (hours-&max_cbfv)/24, where & = constants that center the curve at the actual average for each series (vertical centering) and the predicted maximum at the actual maximum (horizontal centering); r = the amplitude of the cosine wave. An additional analysis was performed which also yielded the estimated clock time for the CBT nadir and CBFV nadir (Synergy software, Kaleidagraph Version 3.6). Third, the minimum of the circadian rhythm of CBT and salivary DLMO were also used as markers of the endogenous circadian phase. A paired t-test was used to determine the overall phase difference between CBT and CBFV. Results Eleven subjects completed the protocol. The TCD probe was placed on either the right or left temple, whichever gave the better signal. Mean isonation depth of the TCD signal was 56.5 mm for the right MCA and 55.6 mm for the left MCA (range 53-60 mm). The constant routine ranged from 28 to 30 hours in duration. Polygraphic recordings confirmed sustained wakefulness across essentially the entire protocol in all but one subject. Subjects that had difficulty remaining awake were monitored closely and aroused when needed by engagement in conversation. Results from the polygraphic recordings are not presented here. We do not present the results of the polygraphic recordings because, for the purposes of this study, these recordings were used solely to monitor whether subjects were awake or asleep. The first five hours and the final hour of data from the constant routine were excluded from analysis. Core body temperature, cerebral blood flow velocity and the 24-hour day A 24 hour non-linear multiple regression, cosine fit analysis revealed that the overall mean CBT rhythm (n = 11) fit a 24 hour cosine rhythm (R^2 = 0.62, p < 0.01), Figure [100]1. The mean CBT across all subjects was 98.6 °F (+/- 0.03 °F). Figure [101]2 shows that a 24-hour non-linear multiple regression, cosine analysis fit a 24 hour cosine rhythm (R^2 = 0.67, p < 0.01), Figure [102]2. The mean CBFV across subjects was 40.6 cm/sec (+/- 0.54 cm/sec). Salivary DLMO occurred 7.7 hours prior to the CBT nadir in nine subjects, which served only as a secondary measure of endogenous circadian phase position in those subjects. The mean salivary melatonin concentration across the ten hour window was 15.3 pg/ml (+/-3.05 pg/ml). CBFV rhythm is 90 degrees out of phase with the CBT rhythm The overall mean circadian position of CBT occurred at 6:05 am and the mean position of CBFV occurred at 12:02 pm (Figure [103]3), yielding a 6 hour or 90 degree statistically significant difference (t = 4.9, DF = 10, p < 0.01). In individual subject data, the differences ranged from 0 to 8.5 hours. In eight subjects, the CBFV phase occurred later than the respective CBT phase, with mean difference of 5.2 hours. In two subjects, the CBFV nadir occurred earlier than the respective CBT nadir, with a mean difference of 6 hours. In one subject, there was no difference between the phase of CBT and CBFV. However, this subject's CBT rhythm was highly unusual, with the nadir occurring at 11:35 am on Day 2. Nevertheless, we felt the most appropriate way to present the data was to include this subject in the overall analysis. When the phase of CBFV was shifted so that the lowest value was aligned to the lowest CBT value, the two parameters were highly correlated (see Figure [104]4; r = 0.77, n = 98, p < 0.01). While the difference in the two rhythms variability was large, Fisher's z-transformed values revealed that the amplitudes of the two parameters were similar. The amplitude of CBFV yielded a z score of 4.25 and CBT yielded a z score of 3.06. Blood pressure recordings and systemic hemodynamic variables A Pearson correlation revealed a positive relationship between CBT and heart rate (r = 0.40, p < 0.01) across the 24 hour period. Diastolic blood pressure (DBP) and CBT showed a negative correlation (r = -0.30, p < 0.05). Et[CO2 ]showed a trend towards a direct relationship with CBFV (r = 0.24, p = 0.10). Blood pressure, heart rate, and Et[CO2 ]served only as regulators of CBFV and were not analyzed according to circadian phase. Discussion This study is the first to use the constant routine (CR) protocol to determine whether the endogenous circadian pacemaker contributes to the previously reported diurnal changes in CBFV. The current work demonstrates that, with limited periodic external stimuli and a constant posture, there is 24-hour rhythmicity in CBFV. Subjects showed a cycle of approximately 24 hours in CBT, which has been previously demonstrated with the CR [[105]21]. Figure [106]3 illustrates the intricate relationship between the rhythms across the study period. At approximately the CBT acrophase, the relationship between the two rhythms undergoes a transition. Between 180 and 240 degrees, CBFV is still rising and CBT is changing directions (first rising, reaching its peak and then falling). This period between 180 and 240 has been described as a "wake maintenance zone", a time in the circadian cycle during which humans are less likely to fall asleep [[107]22]. In our subjects, the CBT is near its zenith or just starting to fall at this time and CBFV is still steadily rising. Higher values in CBT and CBFV are associated with activation and therefore these two endogenous rhythms may be promoting wakefulness during this "wake maintenance zone". However, at the end of this transition period, CBT is falling and CBFV is still rising, perhaps reflecting continued activation of the cerebral cortex. Whereas the two-process model predicts increased tendency to sleep as CBT falls [[108]23], our finding may provide the mechanism by which wakefulness is effortlessly maintained before bedtime. Figure [109]3 further illustrates that as wakefulness is extended past the subject's habitual bedtime (approximately 270 degrees), the two rhythms decline together. Between 0 and 60 degrees, CBFV steadily declines and CBT is steadily rising. The lower CBFV values in the morning may play a role in cognitive performance impairments [[110]24], particularly the 3-4.5 hour phase difference in neurobehavioral functioning relative to the CBT rhythm that has been previously demonstrated in constant routine protocols [[111]25]. Earlier studies using simultaneous EEG and TCD to continuously measure CBFV across the sleep period have concluded that, except for periods of REM sleep, [[112]26 ,[113]27], there is a linear decline in CBFV across the night during periods of non-REM sleep [[114]1,[115]28]. Other groups utilizing these techniques simultaneously speculated that the decline in CBFV through the night was a "decoupling" of cerebral electrical activity and cerebral perfusion during non-REM sleep [[116]8-[117]10]. In all studies [[118]1,[119]8-[120]10,[121]28], CBFV values were lower in the morning during wakefulness than during wakefulness prior to sleep at night. The current findings show that the decline in CBFV is present during wakefulness in the night time hours and therefore may not be attributed solely to sleep and associated changes that normally influence CBFV (including factors such as the shift to recumbency, and reduced activity, metabolic rate and respiratory rate). Moreover, our interaction with the subjects and the monitoring of EEG for signs of sleep resulted in no sleep in all but one subject. The one exception was in a subject who lapsed into brief periods of sleep. Therefore, the fall in CBFV in 10 out of 11 subjects cannot be explained by the occurrence of non-REM sleep. It is possible, however, that the decline of CBFV across the night and early morning may be secondary to the sleep deprivation that is part of the constant routine. Brain imaging studies across sustained periods of wakefulness have shown significant decreases in absolute regional cerebral glucose metabolic rate in several areas of the brain [[122]29-[123]34]. The drop in CBT which preceded the parallel fall in CBFV needs to be considered as a possible explanation for the CBFV changes. The fall in CBT during sleeping hours is attributed in part to sleep-associated changes and in part to strong regular circadian forces independent of the sleep period. CBT is, in fact, one of the key and most extensively studied indices of the circadian phase. It is also known that CBT is highly correlated with brain temperature and brain metabolic rate [[124]35]. Imaging studies have documented the intimate relation between brain activity and increased metabolic rate and oxygen delivery through perfusion. Therefore, it is plausible that CBT is a direct influence on CBFV or an index of decreased metabolic need for blood flow. The prevailing hypothesis that there is tight coupling of normal neuronal activity and blood flow was formulated over 100 years ago [[125]36]. The drop in CBFV may be a consequence of the lowered cerebral activity secondary to lowered brain temperature. In contrast, two studies of exercise-induced hyperthermia showing decreased global and middle cerebral artery CBFV [[126]37 ,[127]38] do not support this hypothesized direct relationship between the two variables. However, one of the main purported mechanisms for the fall in CBFV in these exercise studies, the hyperventilation induced lowering of Pa[CO2], is unlikely present during waking while lying in bed at night. Therefore, CBT declines remain a plausible explanation for the portion of the 24 hours when CBFV declined. Mechanisms of CBFV regulation This protocol allowed the unique opportunity to evaluate blood pressure, heart rate, and Et[CO2 ]in the absence of sleep, in subjects with constant posture, and highly restricted movements. While blood pressure clearly falls during sleep in normal individuals, the absence of sleep in the current study obviates the explanation that CBFV declines are secondary to lowered blood pressure. Furthermore, we sampled blood pressure throughout the day and night and found a weak inverse relationship between DBP and CBT. This finding is in contrast to a careful study of circadian influence on blood pressure in the absence of sleep which showed no change in blood pressure during the descending portion of the body temperature curve [[128]39]. Nevertheless, our finding was weak and likely does not provide the explanation for the CBFV changes. The small-inverse relationship between Et [CO2 ]and CBT is similar to that found by Spengler et al. [[129]40], who showed a consistent but small amplitude circadian rhythm in mean end-tidal Et[CO2 ]on a CR protocol. Et[CO2 ]showed a trend towards a direct relationship with CBFV, which is consistent with previous studies showing that changes in Et[CO2 ]are associated with changes in CBFV [[130]41 ,[131]42]. Heart rate was correlated with CBT, consistent with the findings of Van Dongen et al [[132]39]. Clinical correlation The approximate 6 hour (90 degree) phase angle difference between the CBFV and CBT suggests that CBFV continues to decline into the early to mid-morning hours. This finding is consistent with a time window in the morning during which several physiological changes have been observed. For example, cerebral vasomotor reactivity to hypocapnia, hypercapnia, and normoventilation has been found to be most reduced in the morning [[133]15 ,[134]16]. It is tempting to suggest that the the low CBFV values in the morning may also help explain the well established diurnal variation of the onset of cerebrovascular accidents (CVAs) [[135]43]. A meta-analyses of 11,816 publications between 1966 to 1997 found that there was a 49% increased risk of strokes between 6 am and 12 pm [[136]44]. This time period is in agreement with studies on myocardial infarction (MI) and sudden death [[137]45]. The increased incidence of these events has been attributed, in part, to the surge of blood pressure [[138]13,[139]46,[140]47] and platelet aggregability [[141]48,[142]49] in the morning when patients are getting out of bed. Our results demonstrate that even in the absence of surges in blood pressure, the phase of CBFV reaches its lowest values during the hours before 12 pm. This further suggests that the endogenous rhythm of CBFV may be associated with the risk of CVAs in the late morning hours even without changes in posture or activity. Conclusion Overall, the results demonstrate that CBFV, in the absence of sleep, exhibits properties of a circadian rhythm, as it rises and falls across a 24 hour period. The 6 hour (90 degree) phase angle difference in the CBFV rhythm with respect to the CBT rhythm may help explain previous findings of lower CBFV values in the morning. The phase difference occurs at a time period during which cognitive performance decrements have been observed and when both cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events occur more frequently. The mechanisms underlying this phase angle difference require further exploration. List of abbreviations CBFV Cerebral Blood Flow Velocity CBT Core Body Temperature TCD Transcranial Doppler EtCO2 End tidal Carbon Dioxide DLMO Dim Light Melatonin Onset EEG Electroencephalogram MCA Middle Cerebral Artery FFT Fast Fourier Transformation CR Constant routine EMG Electromyogram SBP Systolic Blood Pressure DBP Diastolic Blood Pressure CVA Cerebrovascular accident MI Myocardial infarction Competing interests The author(s) declare that they have no competing interests. Authors' contributions DAC coordinated, carried out, analyzed, and interpreted the study. AJS participated in the analysis and interpretation of the findings. DAC drafted the manuscript and AJS provided final approval of this version. RQS participated in data collection and data analysis. DAC and AJS co-designed the study. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the volunteer participants who completed this extremely difficult protocol, to the research assistants: Jason Birnbaum, Will Carias, RN, Laura Diaz, Boris Dubrovsky, Mathew Ebben, Ph.D., Carrie Hildebrand, Lars Ross, Greg Sahlem, Mathew Tucker, Ayesha Udin, to those who helped with the data analysis: Scott Campbell, Ph.D. of New York Presbyterian Hospital, White Plains, Abdeslem ElIdrissi, Ph.D. of The Institute for Basic Research, Staten Island, NY, Larry Krasnoff, Ph.D. of Digitas, New York, and Andrew Scott, MBA, to those who provided their expert advice: William Fishbein, Ph.D. of The City College of New York, Paul Glovinsky, Ph.D. of The Sleep Disorders Center, Albany, NY, Margaret Moline, Ph.D. of Eisai, Inc, Charles Pollak, MD of The Center for Sleep Medicine, New York Presbyterian Hospital-Cornell, and Alan Segal, MD of The Department of Neurology, New York Presbyterian Hospital, and to others who helped make this study possible: Stacy Goldstein, Neil B. 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Post a comment on this article! __________________________________________________________________ [254][1218719383@Top,Bottom,x96!Bottom] [255]Terms and Conditions [256]Privacy statement [257]Information for advertisers [258]Jobs at BMC [259]Contact us © 1999-2010 BioMed Central Ltd unless otherwise stated. Part of [260]Springer Science+Business Media. Références Liens visibles 42. javascript:/// 46. javascript:/// Liens cachés : Rhythm and Meter in English Poetry English poetry employs five basic rhythms of varying stressed (/) and unstressed (x) syllables. The meters are iambs, trochees, spondees, anapests and dactyls. In this document the stressed syllables are marked in boldface type rather than the tradition al "/" and "x." Each unit of rhythm is called a "foot" of poetry. The meters with two-syllable feet are * IAMBIC (x /) : That time of year thou mayst in me behold * TROCHAIC (/ x): Tell me not in mournful numbers * SPONDAIC (/ /): Break, break, break/ On thy cold gray stones, O Sea! Meters with three-syllable feet are * ANAPESTIC (x x /): And the sound of a voice that is still * DACTYLIC (/ x x): This is the forest primeval, the murmuring pines and the hemlock (a trochee replaces the final dactyl) Each line of a poem contains a certain number of feet of iambs, trochees, spondees, dactyls or anapests. A line of one foot is a monometer, 2 feet is a dimeter, and so on--trimeter (3), tetrameter (4), pentameter (5), hexameter (6), heptameter (7), and o ctameter (8). The number of syllables in a line varies therefore according to the meter. A good example of trochaic monometer, for example, is this poem entitled "Fleas": Adam Had'em. Here are some more serious examples of the various meters. iambic pentameter (5 iambs, 10 syllables) * That time | of year | thou mayst | in me | behold trochaic tetrameter (4 trochees, 8 syllables) * Tell me | not in | mournful | numbers anapestic trimeter (3 anapests, 9 syllables) * And the sound | of a voice | that is still dactylic hexameter (6 dactyls, 17 syllables; a trochee replaces the last dactyl) * This is the | forest pri | meval, the | murmuring | pine and the | hemlocks __________________________________________________________________ [1]A note on the source. __________________________________________________________________ [2]POETRY HOME | [3]ENGLISH 88 READING LIST | [4]POETRY NEWS | [5]FILREIS HOME ________________________________________ Search __________________________________________________________________ Last modified: Wednesday, 18-Jul-2007 16:27:43 EDT Références #[1]Edit this page [2]Wikipedia (en) [3]copyright [4]Wikipedia RSS Feed [5]Wikipedia Atom Feed Meter (poetry) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search [8]Question book-new.svg This article needs additional [9]citations for [10]verification. Please help [11]improve this article by adding [12]reliable references. Unsourced material may be [13]challenged and [14]removed. (February 2009) In [15]poetry, the meter (or metre) is the basic [16]rhythmic structure of a [17]verse. Many traditional [18]verse forms prescribe a specific verse meter, or a certain set of meters alternating in a particular order. [19]Prosody is a more general [20]linguistic term, that includes poetical meter but also the rhythmic aspects of [21]prose, whether formal or informal. The [22]scansion of a [23]poem is the analysis of its metrical structure. Contents * [24]1 Fundamentals + [25]1.1 Feet + [26]1.2 Caesurae + [27]1.3 Metric variations + [28]1.4 Enumeration * [29]2 Meter in various languages + [30]2.1 Sanskrit + [31]2.2 Greek and Latin + [32]2.3 Classical Arabic o [33]2.3.1 The Arabic Meters + [34]2.4 Old English + [35]2.5 Modern English o [36]2.5.1 Metrical systems o [37]2.5.2 Frequently-used meters + [38]2.6 French + [39]2.7 Spanish + [40]2.8 Italian + [41]2.9 Ottoman Turkish + [42]2.10 Brazilian Portuguese * [43]3 History * [44]4 Dissent * [45]5 Notes * [46]6 See also [[47]edit] Fundamentals The meter usually depends on [48]acoustic properties of the [49]spoken words, such as the [50]length or [51]stress of their [52]syllables, independently of their meaning. The sound attributes that determine the meter may vary from language to language, and sometimes between poetic traditions. [[53]edit] Feet In most [54]Western classical poetic traditions, the meter of a verse can be described as a sequence of [55]feet, each foot being a specific sequence of syllable types -- such as unstressed/stressed (the norm for [56]English poetry) or long/short (as in most classical [57]Latin and [58]Greek poetry). The most common meter in English poetry, the so-called [59]iambic pentameter, is a sequence of five [60]iambic feet or iambs, each consisting of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one ("da-DUM") : So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see, So long lives this, and this gives life to thee. da DUM da DUM da DUM da DUM da DUM This approach to analyzing and classifying meters originates from [61]ancient Greek tragedians and poets such as [62]Homer, [63]Pindar, [64]Hesiod, and [65]Sappho. [[66]edit] Caesurae Another component of a verse's meter are the [67]caesurae (literally, cuts), which are pauses inserted between certain syllables of the verse. In Latin and Greek poetry, a caesura is a break within a foot caused by the end of a word. In English poetry, a caesura refers to a break within a line, for example: Till the Spinner of the Years Said 'Now!' And each one hears, And consumation comes, and jars two hemispheres. The caesura would be the 'Now!' [[68]edit] Metric variations Poems with a well-defined overall metric pattern often have a few lines that violate that pattern. A common variation is the inversion of a foot, which turns an iamb ("da-DUM") into a [69]trochee ("DUM-da"). Another common variation is a headless verse, which lacks the first syllable of the first foot. Yet a third variation is [70]catalexis, where the end of a line is shortened by a foot, or two or part thereof - an example of this is at the end of each verse in Keats' 'La Belle Dame sans Merci': 'And on thy cheeks a fading rose (4 feet) Fast withereth too' (2 feet) [[71]edit] Enumeration In [72]South Asian and Indian traditions where syllabic scripts are used metric patterns are enumerated using two symbols, a [73]breve and a [74]macron (or 'u' and '-'), to represent syllables of one time unit and two time units respectively. They are named 'Laghu' and 'Guru'. A meter is defined by specifying the count of time units for each line, number of lines, position of Laghu and Guru, and sequence of these symbols in each line.. [[75]edit] Meter in various languages [[76]edit] Sanskrit Main article: [77]Sanskrit prosody Main article: [78]Vedic meter Classical Sanskrit and Vedic Sanskrit use meters for most ancient treatises that are set to verse. Prominent Vedic meters include Gayatri, Ushnik, Anushtupa, Brhati, Pankti, Tristubh and Jagati. The basic meter for epic verse is the Sloka. Sanskrit meter is quantitative, similar in general principles to classical Greek and Latin meter. The [79]Bhagavad Gita is mainly written in anustupa (with some vasanta-tilaka sections) interspersed with some [80]Tristubh. For example, when [81]Krishna reveals his divinity to [82]Arjuna the meter changes to [83]Tristubh. [84]Tristubh is the most prevalent meter of the ancient [85]Rigveda, accounting for roughly 40% of its verses [[86]edit] Greek and Latin The metrical "feet" in the classical languages were based on the length of time taken to pronounce each syllable, which were categorized according to their [87]weight as either "long" syllables or "short" syllables (indicated as daa and duh below). These are also called "heavy" and "light" syllables, respectively, to distinguish from long and short vowels. The foot is often compared to a musical measure and the long and short syllables to whole notes and half notes. In English poetry, feet are determined by emphasis rather than length, with stressed and unstressed syllables serving the same function as long and short syllables in classical meter. The basic unit in Greek and Latin prosody is a [88]mora, which is defined as a single short syllable. A long syllable is equivalent to two moras. A long syllable contains either a long vowel, a [89]diphthong, or a short vowel followed by two or more consonants. Various rules of [90]elision sometimes prevent a grammatical syllable from making a full syllable, and certain other lengthening and shortening rules (such as [91]correption) can create long or short syllables in contexts where one would expect the opposite. The most important Classical meter is the [92]dactylic hexameter, the meter of Homer and Virgil. This form uses verses of six feet. The first four feet are [93]dactyls (daa-duh-duh), but can be [94]spondees (daa-daa). The fifth foot is almost always a dactyl. The sixth foot is either a spondee or a [95]trochee (daa-duh). The initial syllable of either foot is called the ictus, the basic "beat" of the verse. There is usually a [96]caesura after the ictus of the third foot. The opening line of the [97]Æneid is a typical line of dactylic hexameter: Arma vi | rumque ca | no, Troi | ae qui | primus ab | oris ("I sing of arms and the man, who first from the shores of Troy. . . ") In this example, the first and second feet are dactyls; their first syllables, "Ar" and "rum" respectively, contain short vowels, but count as long because the vowels are both followed by two consonants. The third and fourth feet are spondees, the first of which is divided by the main [98]caesura of the verse. The fifth foot is a dactyl, as is nearly always the case. The final foot is a spondee. The dactylic hexameter was imitated in English by [99]Henry Wadsworth Longfellow in his poem [100]Evangeline: This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the hemlocks, Bearded with moss, and in garments green, indistinct in the twilight, Stand like Druids of old, with voices sad and prophetic, Stand like harpers hoar, with beards that rest on their bosoms. Also important in Greek and Latin poetry is the [101]dactylic pentameter. This was a line of verse, made up of two equal parts, each of which contains two dactyls followed by a long syllable, which counts as a half foot. In this way, the number of feet amounts to five in total. Spondees can take the place of the dactyls in the first half, but never in the second. The long syllable at the close of the first half of the verse always ends a word, giving rise to a [102]caesura. Dactylic pentameter is never used in isolation. Rather, a line of dactylic pentameter follows a line of dactylic hexameter in the [103]elegiac [104]distich or [105]elegiac couplet, a form of verse that was used for the composition of elegies and other [106]tragic and solemn verse in the Greek and Latin world, as well as love poetry that was sometimes light and cheerful. An example from [107]Ovid's [108]Tristia: Vergili | um vi | di tan | tum, nec a | mara Ti | bullo Tempus a | miciti | ae || fata de | dere me | ae. ("I saw only Vergil, greedy Fate gave Tibullus no time for me.") The Greeks and Romans also used a number of [109]lyric meters, which were typically used for shorter poems than elegiacs or hexameter. In [110]Aeolic verse, one important line was called the [111]hendecasyllabic, a line of eleven syllables. This meter was used most often in the [112]Sapphic stanza, named after the Greek poet [113]Sappho, who wrote many of her poems in the form. A hendecasyllabic is a line with a never-varying structure: two trochees, followed by a dactyl, then two more trochees. In the Sapphic [114]stanza, three hendecasyllabics are followed by an "Adonic" line, made up of a dactyl and a trochee. This is the form of [115]Catullus 51 (itself an homage to Sappho 31): Ille | mi par | esse de | o vi | detur; ille, | si fas | est, supe | rare | divos, qui se | dens ad | versus i | denti | dem te spectat et | audit ("He seems to me to be like a god; if it is permitted, he seems above the gods, he who sitting across from you gazes at you and listens to you.") The Sapphic stanza was imitated in [116]English by [117]Algernon Charles Swinburne in a poem he simply called Sapphics: Saw the white implacable Aphrodite, Saw the hair unbound and the feet unsandalled Shine as fire of sunset on western waters; Saw the reluctant... [[118]edit] Classical Arabic The metrical system of Classical Arabic poetry, like those of classical Greek and Latin, is based on the weight of syllables classified as either "long" or "short." A short syllable contains a short vowel with no following consonants. For example, the word kataba, which syllabifies as ka-ta-ba, contains three short vowels. A long syllable contains either a long vowel, or a short vowel followed by a consonant as is the case in the word maktubun which syllabifies as mak-tu-bun. These are the only syllable types possible in Arabic phonology which, by and large, does not allow a syllable to end in more than one consonant or a consonant to occur in the same syllable after a long vowel. In other words, with very few exceptions, syllables of the type -ak- or -akr- are not found in classical Arabic. Each verse consists of a certain number of metrical feet (tafa`il or ajza') and a certain combination of possible feet constitutes a meter (baHr.) The traditional Arabic practice for writing out a poem's meter is to use a concatenation of various derivations of the verbal root F-`-L ( f+e+l+). Thus, the following hemistich qifa nabki min dhikra Habibin wamanzili q+f+a+ n+b+k+ m+n+ dkk+r+j+ hkb+y+b+=+ w+m+n+z+l+1+ Would be traditionally scanned as Fa`ulun mafa`ilun fa`ulun mafa`ilun f+e+w+l+n+ m+f+a+e+y+l+n+ f+e+w+l+n+ m+f+a+e+l+n+ Which, according to the system more current in the west, can be represented as: u-- u--- u-- u-u- [[119]edit] The Arabic Meters Classical Arabic has sixteen established metres. Though each of them allows for a certain amount of variation, their basic patterns are as follows, using "-" for a long syllable, "u" for a short one, "x" for a syllable that can be long or short and "o" for a position that can either contain one long or two shorts: The T-.awil (a+l+tjw+y+l+): u-x u-x- u-x u-u- f+e+w+l+n+ m+f+a+e+y+l+n+ f+e+w+l+n+ m+f+a+e+y+l+n+ The Madid (a+l+m+d+y+d+): xu-- xu- xu- f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ f+a+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ The Basit-. (a+l+b+s+y+tj): x-u- xu- x-u- uu- m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+n+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+e+l+n+ The Kamil (a+l+k+a+m+l+): o-u- o-u- o-u- m+t+f+a+e+l+n+ m+t+f+a+e+l+n+ m+t+f+a+e+l+n+ The Wafir (a+l+w+a+f+r+): u-o- u-o- u-- m+f+a+e+l+t+n+ m+f+a+e+l+t+n+ f+e+w+l+n+ The Hajaz (a+l+h+g+z+): u--x u--x m+f+a+e+y+l+n+ m+f+a+e+y+l+n+ The Rajaz (a+l+r+g+z+): x-u- x-u- x-u- m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ The Ramal (a+l+r+m+l+): xu-- xu-- xu- f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ f+a+e+l+n+ The Sari` (a+l+s+r+y+e+): xxu- xxu- -u- m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+n+ The MunsariH (a+l+m+n+s+r+hk): x-u- -x-u -uu- m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+'+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ The Khafif (a+l+x+f+y+f+): xu-- x-u- xu-- f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ The Mud-.ari` (a+l+m+dda+r+e+): u-x x-u-- m+f+a+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ The Muqtad-.ib (a+l+m+q+t+ddb+): xu- u- uu- f+a+e+l+a+t+'+ m+f+t+e+l+n+ The Mujtathth (a+l+m+g+t+tk): x-u- xu-- m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ The Mutadarik (a+l+m+t+d+a+r+k+): o- o- o- o- (Here, each "o" can also be "xu") f+a+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+n+ The Mutaqarib (a+l+m+t+q+a+r+b+): u-x u-x u-x u- f+e+w+l+n+ f+e+w+l+n+ f+e+w+l+n+ f+e+w+l+ [[120]edit] Old English The metric system of [121]Old English poetry was different from that of modern English, and more related to the verse forms of most of older [122]Germanic languages. It used [123]alliterative verse, a metrical pattern involving varied numbers of syllables but a fixed number (usually four) of strong stresses in each line. The unstressed syllables were relatively unimportant, but the caesurae played a major role in [124]Old English poetry. [[125]edit] Modern English Most English meter is classified according to the same system as Classical meter with an important difference. English is an accentual language, and therefore beats and offbeats (stressed and unstressed syllables) take the place of the long and short syllables of classical systems. In most English verse, the meter can be considered as a sort of back beat, against which natural speech rhythms vary expressively. The most common characteristic feet of English verse are the [126]iamb in two syllables and the [127]anapest in three. (See [128]Foot (prosody) for a complete list of the metrical feet and their names.) [[129]edit] Metrical systems The number of metrical systems in English is not agreed upon.^[130][1] The four major types^[131][2] are: [132]accentual verse, [133]accentual-syllabic verse, [134]syllabic verse and [135]quantitative verse. The [136]alliterative verse of Old English could also be added to this list, or included as a special type of accentual verse. Accentual verse focuses on the number of stresses in a line, while ignoring the number of offbeats and syllables; accentual-syllabic verse focuses on regulating both the number of stresses and the total number of syllables in a line; syllabic verse only counts the number of syllables in a line; quantitative verse regulates the patterns of long and short syllables (this sort of verse is often considered alien to English).^[137][3] It is to be noted, however, that the use of foreign meters in English is all but exceptional.^[138][4] [[139]edit] Frequently-used meters The most frequently encountered meter of English verse is the [140]iambic pentameter, in which the metrical norm is five iambic feet per line, though metrical substitution is common and rhythmic variations practically inexhaustible. [141]John Milton's [142]Paradise Lost, most [143]sonnets, and much else besides in English are written in iambic pentameter. Lines of unrhymed iambic pentameter are commonly known as [144]blank verse. Blank verse in the English language is most famously represented in the plays of [145]William Shakespeare and the great works of Milton, though [146]Tennyson ([147]Ulysses, [148]The Princess) and [149]Wordsworth ([150]The Prelude) also make notable use of it. A rhymed pair of lines of iambic pentameter make a [151]heroic couplet, a [152]verse form which was used so often in the eighteenth century that it is now used mostly for humorous effect (although see [153]Pale Fire for a non-trivial case). The most famous writers of heroic couplets are [154]Dryden and [155]Pope. Another important meter in English is the [156]ballad meter, also called the "common meter", which is a four line stanza, with two pairs of a line of [157]iambic tetrameter followed by a line of [158]iambic trimeter; the [159]rhymes usually fall on the lines of trimeter, although in many instances the tetrameter also rhymes. This is the meter of most of the Border and Scots or English ballads. In [160]hymnody it is called the "common meter", as it is the most common of the named [161]hymn meters used to pair many hymn lyrics with melodies, such as [162]Amazing Grace:^[163][5] Amazing Grace! how sweet the sound That saved a wretch like me; I once was lost, but now am found; Was blind, but now I see. [164]Emily Dickinson is famous for her frequent use of ballad meter: Great streets of silence led away To neighborhoods of pause; Here was no notice -- no dissent -- No universe -- no laws. [[165]edit] French In [166]French poetry, meter is determined solely by the number of syllables in a line, because it is considered as less important than rhymes. A silent 'e' counts as a syllable before a consonant, but is elided before a vowel (where [167]h aspiré counts as a consonant). At the end of a line, the "e" remains unelided but is hypermetrical (outside the count of syllables, like a feminine ending in English verse), in that case, the rhyme is also called "feminine", whereas it is called "masculine" in the other cases. The most frequently encountered meter in Classical French poetry is the [168]alexandrine, composed of two [169]hemistiches of six syllables each. Two famous alexandrines are La fille de Minos et de Pasiphaë ([170]Jean Racine) (the daughter of Minos and Pasiphae), and Waterloo ! Waterloo ! Waterloo ! Morne plaine! ([171]Victor Hugo) (Waterloo! Waterloo! Waterloo! Gloomy plain!) Classical French poetry also had a complex set of [172]rules for rhymes that goes beyond how words merely sound. These are usually taken into account when describing the meter of a poem. [[173]edit] Spanish In [174]Spanish poetry the meter is determined by the number of syllables the verse has. Still it is the phonetic accent in the last word of the verse that decides the final count of the line. If the accent of the final word is at the last syllable, then the poetic rule states that one syllable shall be added to the actual count of syllables in the said line, thus having a higher number of poetic syllables than the number of grammatical syllables. If the accent lies on the second to last syllable of the last word in the verse, then the final count of poetic syllables will be the same as the grammatical number of syllables. Furthermore, if the accent lies on the third to last syllable, then one syllable is subtracted from the actual count, having then less poetic syllables than grammatical syllables. Interestingly, Spanish poetry uses poetic licenses, unique to Romance languages, to change the number of syllables by manipulating mainly the vowels in the line. For example: Cuando salí de Collores, fue en una jaquita baya, por un sendero entre mayas, arropás de cundiamores... This stanza from Valle de Collores by [175]Luis Llorens Torres, uses eight poetic syllables. Given that all words at the end of each line have their phonetic accent on the second to last syllables, no syllables in the final count is either added or subtracted. Still in the second and third verse the grammatical count of syllables is nine. Poetic licenses permit the union of two vowels that are next to each other but in different syllables and count them as one. "Fue en..." has actually two syllables, but applying this license both vowels unite and form only one, giving the final count of eight syllables. "Sendero entre..." has five grammatical syllables, but uniting the "o" from "sendero" and the first "e" from "entre", gives only four syllables, permitting it to have eight syllables in the verse as well. This license is called a [176]synalepha (Spanish: [177]sinalefa). There are many types of licenses, used either to add or subtract syllables, that may be applied when needed after taking in consideration the poetic rules of the last word. Yet all have in common that they only manipulate vowels that are close to each other and not interrupted by consonants. Some common meters in Spanish verse are: * [178]Septenary: A line with the seven poetic syllables * [179]Octosyllable: A line with eight poetic syllables. This meter is commonly used in romances, narrative poems similar to English ballads, and in most proverbs. * [180]Hendecasyllable: A line with eleven poetic syllables. This meter plays a similar role to pentameter in English verse. It is commonly used in sonnets, among other things. * [181]Alexandrine: A line consisting of twelve syllables. [[182]edit] Italian In Italian poetry, meter is determined solely by the position of the last accent in a line. Syllables are enumerated with respect to a verse which ends with a paroxytone, so that a Septenary (having seven syllables) is defined as a verse whose last accent falls on the sixth syllable: it may so contain eight syllables (Ei fu. Siccome immobile) or just six (la terra al nunzio sta). Moreover, when a word ends with a vowel and the next one starts with a vowel, they are considered to be in the same syllable: so Gli anni e i giorni consists of only four syllables ("Gli an" "ni e i" "gior" "ni"). Even-syllabic verses have a fixed stress pattern. Because of the mostly [183]trochaic nature of the Italian language, verses with an even number of syllables are far easier to compose, and the [184]Novenary is usually regarded as the most difficult verse. Some common meters in Italian verse are: * Sexenary: A line whose last stressed syllabe is on the fifth, with a fixed stress on the second one as well (Al Re Travicello / Piovuto ai ranocchi, Giusti) * [185]Septenary: A line whose last stressed syllable is the sixth one. * [186]Octosyllable: A line whose last accent falls on the seventh syllable. More often than not, the secondary accents fall on the first, third and fifth syllable, especially in nursery rhymes for which this meter is particularly well-suited. * [187]Hendecasyllable: A line whose last accent falls on the tenth syllable. It therefore usually consists of eleven syllables; there are various kinds of possible accentations . It is used in sonnets, in ottava rima, and in many other works. [188]The Divine Comedy, in particular, is composed entirely of hendecasyllables, whose main stress pattern is 4th and 10th syllable. [[189]edit] Ottoman Turkish In the [190]Ottoman Turkish language, the structures of the poetic foot (t+f+e+l+ tef'ile) and of poetic meter (w+z+n+ vezin) were indirectly borrowed from the [191]Arabic poetic tradition through the medium of the [192]Persian language. [193]Ottoman poetry, also known as Dîvân poetry, was generally written in quantitative, [194]mora-timed meter. The [195]moras, or syllables, are divided into three basic types: * Open, or [196]light, syllables (açik hece) consist of either a short [197]vowel alone, or a [198]consonant followed by a short vowel + Examples: a-dam ("man"); zir-ve ("summit, peak") * Closed, or heavy, syllables (kapali hece) consist of either a long vowel alone, a consonant followed by a long vowel, or a short vowel followed by a consonant + Examples: Â-dem ("[199]Adam"); kâ-fir ("non-Muslim"); at ("horse") * Lengthened, or superheavy, syllables (meddli hece) count as one closed plus one open syllable and consist of a vowel followed by a [200]consonant cluster, or a long vowel followed by a consonant + Examples: kürk ("fur"); âb ("water") In writing out a poem's poetic meter, open syllables are symbolized by "." and closed syllables are symbolized by "-". From the different syllable types, a total of sixteen different types of poetic foot--the majority of which are either three or four syllables in length--are constructed, which are named and scanned as follows: fa` (-) fe ul (. -) fa` lün (- -) fe i lün (. . -) fâ i lün (- . -) fe û lün (. - -) mef' û lü (- - .) fe i lâ tün (. . - -) fâ i lâ tün (- . - -) fâ i lâ tü (- . - .) me fâ i lün (. - . -) me fâ' î lün (. - - -) me fâ î lü (. - - .) müf te i lün (- . . -) müs tef i lün (- - . -) mü te fâ i lün (. . - . -) These individual poetic feet are then combined in a number of different ways, most often with four feet per line, so as to give the poetic meter for a line of verse. Some of the most commonly used meters are the following: * me fâ' î lün / me fâ' î lün / me fâ' î lün / me fâ' î lün . - - - / . - - - / . - - - / . - - - Ezelden sah-i `ask-.uñ bende-i fermaniyüz cana Mah-.abbet mülkinüñ sultan-i `ali-saniyüz cana Oh beloved, since the origin we have been the slaves of the shah of love Oh beloved, we are the famed sultan of the heart's domain^[201][6] --[202]Bâkî (1526-1600) * me fâ i lün / fe i lâ tün / me fâ i lün / fe i lün . - . - / . . - - / . - . - / . . - H-.ata' o nerkis-i sehladadir sözümde degil Egerçi her süh-.anim bi-bedel begendiremem Though I may fail to please with my matchless verse The fault lies in those languid eyes and not my words --Seyh Gâlib (1757-1799) * fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lün - . - - / - . - - / - . - - / - . - Bir seker h-.and ile bezm-i sevka cam ettiñ beni Nim s-.un peymaneyi sak-.i tamam ettiñ beni At the gathering of desire you made me a wine-cup with your sugar smile Oh saki, give me only half a cup of wine, you've made me drunk enough^[203][7] --[204]Nedîm (1681?-1730) * fe i lâ tün / fe i lâ tün / fe i lâ tün / fe i lün . . - - / . . - - / . . - - / . . - Men ne h-.acet ki k-.ilam derd-i dilüm yara `ayan K-.amu derd-i dilümi yar bilübdür bilübem What use in revealing my sickness of heart to my love I know my love knows the whole of my sickness of heart --[205]Fuzûlî (1483?-1556) * mef' û lü / me fâ î lü / me fâ î lü / fâ û lün - - . / . - - . / . - - . / - - . Sevk-.uz ki dem-i bülbül-i seydada nihanuz H-.unuz ki dil-i gonçe-i h-.amrada nihanuz We are desire hidden in the love-crazed call of the nightingale We are blood hidden in the crimson heart of the unbloomed rose^[206][8] --[207]Nesâtî (?-1674) [[208]edit] Brazilian Portuguese Meters were extensively explored in Brazilian literature, notably during [209]Parnassianism. The most notable ones were: * Redondilha menor: composed of 5 syllables. * Redondilha maior: composed of 7 syllables. * [210]Decasyllable (decassílabo): composed of 10 syllables. Mostly used in [211]Parnassian [212]sonnets. + Heroic (heróico): stresses on the sixth and tenth syllables. + [213]Sapphic (sáfico): stresses on the fourth, eighth and tenth syllables. + Martelo: stresses on the third, sixth and tenth syllables. + Gaita galega or moinheira: stresses on the fourth, seventh and tenth syllables. * [214]Hendecasyllable (dodecassílabo): composed of 12 syllables. + [215]Alexandrine (alexandrino): divided into two [216]hemistiches. * Barbarian (bárbaro): composed of 13 or more syllables. + Lucasian (lucasiano): composed of 16 feet, divided into two [217]hemistiches of 8 syllables each. [[218]edit] History Further information: [219]History of poetry Metrical texts are first attested in early [220]Indo-European languages. The earliest known unambiguously metrical texts, and at the same time the only metrical texts with a claim of dating to the [221]Late Bronze Age, are the hymns of the [222]Rigveda. That the texts of the [223]Ancient Near East (Sumerian, Egyptian or Semitic) should not exhibit meter is surprising, and may be partly due to the nature of [224]Bronze Age writing. There were, in fact, attempts to reconstruct metrical qualities of the poetic portions of the [225]Hebrew Bible, e.g. by [226]Gustav Bickell^[227][9] or [228]Julius Ley^[229][10], but they remained inconclusive^[230][11] (see [231]Biblical poetry). Early Iron Age metrical poetry is found in the Iranian [232]Avesta and in the Greek works attributed to [233]Homer and [234]Hesiod. [235]Latin verse survives from the [236]Old Latin period (ca. 2nd c. BC), in the [237]Saturnian meter. [238]Persian poetry arises in the [239]Sassanid era. [240]Tamil poetry of the early centuries AD may be the earliest known non-Indo-European metrical texts (with the possible exception of the Chinese [241]Shi Jing). The oldest surviving fragment of [242]Germanic poetry is the verse on one of the [243]Gallehus horns (ca. AD 400). [244]Irish and [245]Arabic poetry both have early records dating from about the 6th century. [246]Medieval poetry was metrical without exception, spanning traditions as diverse as European [247]Minnesang, [248]Trouvère or [249]Bardic poetry, Classical [250]Persian and [251]Sanskrit poetry, [252]Tang dynasty [253]Chinese poetry or the [254]Japanese [255]Heian period [256]Man'yoshu. Renaissance and Early Modern poetry in Europe is characterized by a return to templates of Classical Antiquity, a tradition begun by [257]Petrarca's generation and continued into the time of [258]Shakespeare and [259]Milton. [[260]edit] Dissent Not all poets accept the idea that meter is a fundamental part of poetry. Twentieth century [261]American poets [262]Marianne Moore, [263]William Carlos Williams, and [264]Robinson Jeffers, were poets who believed that meter was imposed into poetry by man, not a fundamental part of its nature. In an essay titled "Robinson Jeffers, & The Metric Fallacy" [265]Dan Schneider echoes Jeffers' sentiments: "What if someone actually said to you that all music was composed of just 2 notes? Or if someone claimed that there were just 2 colors in creation? Now, ponder if such a thing were true. Imagine the clunkiness & mechanicality of such music. Think of the visual arts devoid of not just color, but sepia tones, & even shades of gray." Jeffers called his technique "rolling stresses". Moore went even further than Jeffers, openly declaring her poetry was written in syllabic form, and wholly denying meter. These syllabic lines from her famous poem [266]"Poetry" illustrate her contempt for meter, and other poetic tools (even the syllabic pattern of this poem does not remain perfectly consistent): nor is it valid to discriminate against "business documents and school-books": all these phenomena are important. One must make a distinction however: when dragged into prominence by half poets, the result is not poetry Williams tried to form poetry whose subject matter was centered on the lives of common people. He came up with the concept of the [267]variable foot. Williams spurned traditional meter in most of his poems, preferring what he called "colloquial idioms." Another poet that turned his back on traditional concepts of meter was Britain's [268]Gerard Manley Hopkins. Hopkins' major innovation was what he called [269]sprung rhythm. He claimed most poetry was written in this older rhythmic structure inherited from the Norman side of the English literary heritage, based on repeating groups of two or three syllables, with the stressed syllable falling in the same place on each repetition. Sprung rhythm is structured around feet with a variable number of syllables, generally between one and four syllables per foot, with the stress always falling on the first syllable in a foot. [[270]edit] Notes 1. [271]^ For example, [272]Robert Wallace, in his 1993 essay '[273]Meter in English (essay)' asserts that there is only one meter in English: Accentual-Syllabic. The essay is reprinted in [274]David Baker (editor), [275]Meter in English, A Critical Engagement, University of Arkansas Press, 1996. [276]ISBN 1-55728-444-X. 2. [277]^ see for example, [278]Paul Fussell, [279]Poetic Meter and Poetic Form, McGraw Hill, 1965, revised 1979. [280]ISBN 0-07-553606-4. 3. [281]^ [282]Charles O. Hartman writes that quantitative meters "continue to resist importation in English" ([283]Free Verse: An Essay on Prosody, Northwestern University Press, 1980. [284]ISBN 0-8101-1316-3, page 34). 4. [285]^ According to [286]Leonardo Malcovati (Prosody in England and Elsewhere: A Comparative Approach, Gival Press, 2006. [287]ISBN 1-928589-26-X), '[very] little of it is native'. 5. [288]^ The [289]ballad meter commonality among a wide range of song lyrics allow words and music to be interchanged seamlessly between various songs, such as [290]Amazing Grace, the Ballad of [291]Gilligan's Isle, [292]House of the Rising Sun, theme from the [293]Mickey Mouse Club, and others. 6. [294]^ Andrews, Walter G. Ottoman Lyric Poetry: An Anthology. [295]ISBN 0-292-70472-0. p. 93. 7. [296]^ Ibid. p. 134. 8. [297]^ Ibid. p. 131. 9. [298]^ "Metrices biblicae regulae exemplis illustratae", 1879, "Carmina Vet. Test. metrice", 1882 10. [299]^ "Leitfaden der Metrik der hebräischen Poesie", 1887 11. [300]^ the [301]Catholic Encyclopedia s.v. Hebrew Poetry of the Old Testament calls them 'Procrustean'. [[302]edit] See also * [303]Foot (prosody) * [304]Meter (music) * [305]List of classical meters. [307]Categories: [308]Poetic devices | [309]Prosody Hidden categories: [310]Articles needing additional references from February 2009 | [311]All articles needing additional references Views * [312]Article * [313]Discussion * [314]Edit this page * [315]History Personal tools * [316]Try Beta * [317]Log in / create account Navigation * [318]Main page * [319]Contents * [320]Featured content * [321]Current events * [322]Random article Search ____________________ Go Search Interaction * [323]About Wikipedia * [324]Community portal * [325]Recent changes * [326]Contact Wikipedia * [327]Donate to Wikipedia * [328]Help Toolbox * [329]What links here * [330]Related changes * [331]Upload file * [332]Special pages * [333]Printable version * [334]Permanent link * [335]Cite this page Languages * [336]B"lgarski * [337]Català * [338]Cesky * [339]Dansk * [340]Deutsch * [341]Español * [342]Esperanto * [343]Euskara * [344]f+a+r+s+ * [345]Français * * [346]­´ * [347]Bahasa Indonesia * [348]Italiano * [349]E+B+R+J+T+ * [350]Latina * [351]Latviesu * [352]Magyar * [353]Nederlands * [354]¥¬ * [355]ªNorsk (bokmål) * [356]Polski * [357]Português * [358]Russkij * [359]Suomi * [360]Svenska * [361]¤®¿´ * [362]Ukrayins'ka * [363]Winaray [364]Powered by MediaWiki [365]Wikimedia Foundation * This page was last modified on 11 January 2010 at 02:12. * Text is available under the [366]Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See [367]Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [368]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * [369]Contact us * [370]Privacy policy * [371]About Wikipedia * [372]Disclaimers Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : #[1]Edit this page [2]Wikipedia (en) [3]copyright [4]Wikipedia RSS Feed [5]Wikipedia Atom Feed Rhythm From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search For other uses, see [8]Rhythm (disambiguation). Rhythm (from [9]greek rhuthµo'*s - rhythmos, "any measured flow or movement, symmetry") is the variation of the length and accentuation of a series of sounds or other events. Contents * [10]1 Rhythm in linguistics * [11]2 Origins of human appreciation of rhythm * [12]3 Rhythm notation and the oral tradition + [13]3.1 African music + [14]3.2 Indian music + [15]3.3 Western music * [16]4 Types * [17]5 See also * [18]6 Notes * [19]7 Sources * [20]8 Further reading [[21]edit] Rhythm in linguistics The study of rhythm, stress, and [22]pitch in [23]speech is called [24]prosody; it is a topic in [25]linguistics. Narmour (1980, p. 147-53) describes three categories of prosodic rules which create rhythmic successions which are additive (same duration repeated), cumulative (short-long), or countercumulative (long-short). Cumulation is associated with closure or relaxation, countercumulation with openness or tension, while additive rhythms are open-ended and repetitive. Richard Middleton points out this method cannot account for [26]syncopation and suggests the concept of [27]transformation. A [28]rhythmic unit is a [29]durational pattern which occupies a period of time equivalent to a [30]pulse or pulses on an underlying [31]metric level, as opposed to a [32]rhythmic gesture which does not (DeLone et al. (Eds.), 1975 [[33]edit] Origins of human appreciation of rhythm In his series How Music Works, [34]Howard Goodall presents theories that rhythm recalls how we walk and the heartbeat we heard in the womb. More likely is that a simple pulse or [35]di-dah beat recalls the footsteps of another person. Our sympathetic urge to dance is designed to boost our energy levels in order to cope with someone, or some animal chasing us - a fight or flight response. From a less darwinist perspective, perceiving rhythm is the ability to master the otherwise invisible dimension, time. Rhythm is possibly also rooted in courtship ritual.^[36][1] Neurologist [37]Oliver Sacks posits that human affinity for rhythm is fundamental, so much that a person's sense of rhythm cannot be lost in the way that music and language can (e.g. by [38]stroke). In addition, he states that [39]chimpanzees and other animals show no similar appreciation for rhythm.^[40][2] [[41]edit] Rhythm notation and the oral tradition Worldwide there are many different approaches to passing on rhythmic phrases and patterns, as they exist in traditional music, from generation to generation. [[42]edit] African music In the [43]Griot tradition of Africa everything related to music has been passed on orally. [44]Babatunde Olatunji (1927-2003), a Nigerian drummer who lived and worked in the [45]United States, developed a simple series of spoken sounds for teaching the rhythms of the hand drum. He used six vocal sounds: Goon Doon Go Do Pa Ta. There are three basic sounds on the drum, but each can be played with either the left or the right hand. This simple system is now used worldwide, particularly by [46]Djembe players. [[47]edit] Indian music Indian music has also been passed on orally. Tabla players would learn to speak complex rhythm patterns and phrases before attempting to play them. [48]Sheila Chandra, an English pop singer of Indian descent, made performances based around her singing these patterns. In [49]Indian Classical music, the [50]Tala of a composition is the rhythmic pattern over which the whole piece is structured. [[51]edit] Western music Standard [52]music notation contains rhythmic information and is adapted specifically for drums and percussion instruments. The drums are generally used to keep other instruments in 'time'. They do this by supplying beats/strikes in time at a certain pace, i.e. 70 beats per minute (bpm). In [53]Rock music, a drum beat is used to keep a [54]bass/[55]guitar line in time. [[56]edit] Types In [57]Western music, rhythms are usually arranged with respect to a [58]time signature, partially signifying a meter. The speed of the underlying [59]pulse is sometimes called the [60]beat. The [61]tempo is a measure of how quickly the pulse repeats. The tempo is usually measured in 'beats per minute' (bpm); 60 bpm means a speed of one beat per second. The length of the meter, or metric unit (usually corresponding with [62]measure length), is usually grouped into either two or three beats, being called [63]duple meter and [64]triple meter, respectively. If each beat is divided by two or four, it is [65]simple meter, if by three (or six) [66]compound meter. According to [67]Pierre Boulez, beat structures beyond four are "simply not natural".^[68][3]. His reference is to western European music. Standard notation of a clave pattern on audio clip clave pattern.ogg [69]Syncopated rhythms are rhythms that accent parts of the beat not already stressed by [70]counting. Playing simultaneous rhythms in more than one time signature is called [71]polymeter. See also [72]polyrhythm. In recent years, rhythm and meter have become an important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these areas includes books by [73]Maury Yeston, [74]Fred Lerdahl and [75]Ray Jackendoff, [76]Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty, William Rothstein, and Joel Lester. Grid notation of single a clave pattern Some [77]genres of music make different use of rhythm than others. Most Western music is based on [78]subdivision, while non-Western music uses more [79]additive rhythm. [80]African music makes heavy use of [81]polyrhythms, and [82]Indian music uses [83]complex cycles such as 7 and 13, while [84]Balinese music often uses complex [85]interlocking rhythms. By comparison, a lot of Western [86]classical music is fairly rhythmically (or metrically) simple; it stays in a [87]simple meter such as 4/4 or 3/4 and makes little use of [88]syncopation. [89]Clave is a common underlying rhythm in [90]African, [91]Cuban music, and [92]Brazilian music. [93]Claves (Submit) Play sound Four beats followed by three Clave patterns __________________________________________________________________ Problems listening to this file? See [94]media help. In the 20th century, [95]composers like [96]Igor Stravinsky, [97]Bela Bartok, [98]Philip Glass, and [99]Steve Reich wrote more rhythmically complex music using [100]odd meters, and techniques such as [101]phasing and [102]additive rhythm. At the same time, modernists such as [103]Olivier Messiaen and his pupils used increased complexity to disrupt the sense of a regular beat, leading eventually to the widespread use of [104]irrational rhythms in [105]New Complexity. This use may be explained by a comment of [106]John Cage's^[[107]where?] where he notes that regular rhythms cause sounds to be heard as a group rather than individually; the irregular rhythms highlight the rapidly changing pitch relationships that would otherwise be subsumed into irrelevant rhythmic groupings (Sandow 2004, p. 257). [108]LaMonte Young also wrote music in which the sense of a regular beat is absent because the music consists only of long sustained tones ([109]drones). In the 1930s, [110]Henry Cowell wrote music involving multiple simultaneous periodic rhythms and collaborated with [111]Léon Thérémin to invent the [112]Rhythmicon, the first electronic [113]rhythm machine, in order to perform them. Similarly, [114]Conlon Nancarrow wrote for the [115]player piano. [[116]edit] See also * [117]Meter (music) * [118]Prosody (linguistics) * [119]Riddim * [120]Morse Code * [121]Soul (music) * [122]Time scale (music) * [123]Timing (linguistics) [[124]edit] Notes 1. [125]^ [126]Mithen, Steven (2005). [127]The Singing Neanderthals: The Origins of Music, Language, Mind and Body.. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.. [128]ISBN [129]0297643177. 2. [131]^ [132]Jon Stewart, [133]Oliver Sacks. (2009-06-29). [134]The Daily Show with Jon Stewart. [Television production]. Comedy Central. itle=oliver-sacks. "People often tried to teach their dogs to dance--it doesn't work." 3. [136]^ In [137]Discovering Music: Rhythm with [138]Leonard Slatkin at 5:05 [[139]edit] Sources * Hasty, Christopher (1997). Meter as Rhythm. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [140]ISBN 0-19-510066-2. * London, Justin (2004). Hearing in Time: Psychological Aspects of Musical Meter. [141]ISBN 0-19-516081-9. * Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music. Philadelphia: Open University Press. [142]ISBN 0-335-15275-9. * Narmour (1980). Cited in DeLone et al. (Eds.) (1975). Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. [143]ISBN 0-13-049346-5. * Sandow, Greg (2004). "A Fine Madness", The Pleasure of Modernist Music. [144]ISBN 1-58046-143-3. * Yeston, Maury (1976). "The Stratification of Musical Rhythm". [[145]edit] Further reading * McGaughey, William (2001). "Rhythm and Self-Consciousness: New Ideals for an Electronic Civilization". Minneapolis: Thistlerose Publications. [146]ISBN 0-9605630-4-0. * Honing, H. (2002). [147]"Structure and interpretation of rhythm and timing." Tijdschrift voor Muziektheorie [Dutch Journal of Music Theory] 7(3): 227-232. * Lewis, Andrew (2005). Rhythm--What it is and How to Improve Your Sense of It. San Francisco: [148]RhythmSource Press. [149]ISBN 978-0-9754667-0-4. * Williams, C. F. A., The Aristoxenian Theory of Musical Rhythm, (Cambridge Library Collection - Music), Cambridge University Press; 1st edition, 2009. * Toussaint, G. T., "The geometry of musical rhythm," In J. Akiyama, M. Kano, and X. Tan, editors, Proceedings of the Japan Conference on Discrete and Computational Geometry, Vol. 3742, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2005, pp. 198-212. [150]v o [151]d o [152]e [153]Musical notation and [154]development [155]Staff [156]Bar & Bar line · [157]Clef · [158]Da capo · [159]Dal segno · [160]Key signature · [161]Ledger line · [162]Musical mode · [163]Musical scale · [164]Rehearsal letter · [165]Repeat sign · [166]Time signature · [167]Transposition · [168]Transposing instrument [169]G (treble) clef symbol [170]Notes [171]Accidental ([172]Flat · [173]Natural · [174]Sharp) · [175]Dotted note · [176]Grace note · [177]Note value ([178]Beam · [179]Note head · [180]Stem) · [181]Pitch · [182]Rest · [183]Interval · [184]Letter notation [185]Articulation [186]Dynamics · [187]Ornament ([188]Trill · [189]Mordent · [190]Grace note) · [191]Ossia · [192]Portato · [193]Accent · [194]Legato · [195]Tenuto · [196]Marcato · [197]Staccato · [198]Staccatissimo · [199]Tie · [200]Slur · [201]Fermata [202]Development [203]Coda · [204]Exposition · [205]Harmony · [206]Melody · [207]Motif · [208]Recapitulation · Rhythm ([209]Beat · [210]Meter · [211]Tempo) · [212]Theme · [213]Tonality · [214]Atonality Related [215]Chord chart · [216]Figured bass · [217]Graphic notation · [218]Lead sheet · [219]Eye music · [220]Modern musical symbols · [221]Neume · [222]Tablature [224]Categories: [225]Rhythm | [226]Greek loanwords Hidden categories: [227]Vague or ambiguous geographic scope Views * [228]Article * [229]Discussion * [230]Edit this page * [231]History Personal tools * [232]Try Beta * [233]Log in / create account Navigation * [234]Main page * [235]Contents * [236]Featured content * [237]Current events * [238]Random article Search ____________________ Go Search Interaction * [239]About Wikipedia * [240]Community portal * [241]Recent changes * [242]Contact Wikipedia * [243]Donate to Wikipedia * [244]Help Toolbox * [245]What links here * [246]Related changes * [247]Upload file * [248]Special pages * [249]Printable version * [250]Permanent link * [251]Cite this page Languages * [252]Bosanski * [253]Català * [254]Dansk * [255]Deutsch * [256]Eesti * [257]Español * [258]Esperanto * [259]f+a+r+s+ * [260]Français * [261]­´ * [262]Hrvatski * [263]Bahasa Indonesia * [264]Íslenska * [265]Italiano * [266]E+B+R+J+T+ * [267]¥ £ * [268]Latviesu * [269]Líguru * [270]Makedonski * [271]®²¯¾³ * [272]Nederlands * [273]¥¬ * [274]ªNorsk (bokmål) * [275]ªNorsk (nynorsk) * [276]Polski * [277]Português * [278]Russkij * [279]Simple English * [280]Slovencina * [281]Slovenscina * [282]Suomi * [283]Svenska * [284]Türkçe * [285]Ukrayins'ka * [286]­ [287]Powered by MediaWiki [288]Wikimedia Foundation * This page was last modified on 16 January 2010 at 18:08. * Text is available under the [289]Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See [290]Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [291]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * [292]Contact us * [293]Privacy policy * [294]About Wikipedia * [295]Disclaimers Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : #[1]Edit this page [2]Wikipedia (en) [3]copyright [4]Wikipedia RSS Feed [5]Wikipedia Atom Feed Rhythm From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search For other uses, see [8]Rhythm (disambiguation). Rhythm (from [9]greek rhuthµo'*s - rhythmos, "any measured flow or movement, symmetry") is the variation of the length and accentuation of a series of sounds or other events. Contents * [10]1 Rhythm in linguistics * [11]2 Origins of human appreciation of rhythm * [12]3 Rhythm notation and the oral tradition + [13]3.1 African music + [14]3.2 Indian music + [15]3.3 Western music * [16]4 Types * [17]5 See also * [18]6 Notes * [19]7 Sources * [20]8 Further reading [[21]edit] Rhythm in linguistics The study of rhythm, stress, and [22]pitch in [23]speech is called [24]prosody; it is a topic in [25]linguistics. Narmour (1980, p. 147-53) describes three categories of prosodic rules which create rhythmic successions which are additive (same duration repeated), cumulative (short-long), or countercumulative (long-short). Cumulation is associated with closure or relaxation, countercumulation with openness or tension, while additive rhythms are open-ended and repetitive. Richard Middleton points out this method cannot account for [26]syncopation and suggests the concept of [27]transformation. A [28]rhythmic unit is a [29]durational pattern which occupies a period of time equivalent to a [30]pulse or pulses on an underlying [31]metric level, as opposed to a [32]rhythmic gesture which does not (DeLone et al. (Eds.), 1975 [[33]edit] Origins of human appreciation of rhythm In his series How Music Works, [34]Howard Goodall presents theories that rhythm recalls how we walk and the heartbeat we heard in the womb. More likely is that a simple pulse or [35]di-dah beat recalls the footsteps of another person. Our sympathetic urge to dance is designed to boost our energy levels in order to cope with someone, or some animal chasing us - a fight or flight response. From a less darwinist perspective, perceiving rhythm is the ability to master the otherwise invisible dimension, time. Rhythm is possibly also rooted in courtship ritual.^[36][1] Neurologist [37]Oliver Sacks posits that human affinity for rhythm is fundamental, so much that a person's sense of rhythm cannot be lost in the way that music and language can (e.g. by [38]stroke). In addition, he states that [39]chimpanzees and other animals show no similar appreciation for rhythm.^[40][2] [[41]edit] Rhythm notation and the oral tradition Worldwide there are many different approaches to passing on rhythmic phrases and patterns, as they exist in traditional music, from generation to generation. [[42]edit] African music In the [43]Griot tradition of Africa everything related to music has been passed on orally. [44]Babatunde Olatunji (1927-2003), a Nigerian drummer who lived and worked in the [45]United States, developed a simple series of spoken sounds for teaching the rhythms of the hand drum. He used six vocal sounds: Goon Doon Go Do Pa Ta. There are three basic sounds on the drum, but each can be played with either the left or the right hand. This simple system is now used worldwide, particularly by [46]Djembe players. [[47]edit] Indian music Indian music has also been passed on orally. Tabla players would learn to speak complex rhythm patterns and phrases before attempting to play them. [48]Sheila Chandra, an English pop singer of Indian descent, made performances based around her singing these patterns. In [49]Indian Classical music, the [50]Tala of a composition is the rhythmic pattern over which the whole piece is structured. [[51]edit] Western music Standard [52]music notation contains rhythmic information and is adapted specifically for drums and percussion instruments. The drums are generally used to keep other instruments in 'time'. They do this by supplying beats/strikes in time at a certain pace, i.e. 70 beats per minute (bpm). In [53]Rock music, a drum beat is used to keep a [54]bass/[55]guitar line in time. [[56]edit] Types In [57]Western music, rhythms are usually arranged with respect to a [58]time signature, partially signifying a meter. The speed of the underlying [59]pulse is sometimes called the [60]beat. The [61]tempo is a measure of how quickly the pulse repeats. The tempo is usually measured in 'beats per minute' (bpm); 60 bpm means a speed of one beat per second. The length of the meter, or metric unit (usually corresponding with [62]measure length), is usually grouped into either two or three beats, being called [63]duple meter and [64]triple meter, respectively. If each beat is divided by two or four, it is [65]simple meter, if by three (or six) [66]compound meter. According to [67]Pierre Boulez, beat structures beyond four are "simply not natural".^[68][3]. His reference is to western European music. Standard notation of a clave pattern on audio clip clave pattern.ogg [69]Syncopated rhythms are rhythms that accent parts of the beat not already stressed by [70]counting. Playing simultaneous rhythms in more than one time signature is called [71]polymeter. See also [72]polyrhythm. In recent years, rhythm and meter have become an important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these areas includes books by [73]Maury Yeston, [74]Fred Lerdahl and [75]Ray Jackendoff, [76]Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty, William Rothstein, and Joel Lester. Grid notation of single a clave pattern Some [77]genres of music make different use of rhythm than others. Most Western music is based on [78]subdivision, while non-Western music uses more [79]additive rhythm. [80]African music makes heavy use of [81]polyrhythms, and [82]Indian music uses [83]complex cycles such as 7 and 13, while [84]Balinese music often uses complex [85]interlocking rhythms. By comparison, a lot of Western [86]classical music is fairly rhythmically (or metrically) simple; it stays in a [87]simple meter such as 4/4 or 3/4 and makes little use of [88]syncopation. [89]Clave is a common underlying rhythm in [90]African, [91]Cuban music, and [92]Brazilian music. [93]Claves (Submit) Play sound Four beats followed by three Clave patterns __________________________________________________________________ Problems listening to this file? See [94]media help. In the 20th century, [95]composers like [96]Igor Stravinsky, [97]Bela Bartok, [98]Philip Glass, and [99]Steve Reich wrote more rhythmically complex music using [100]odd meters, and techniques such as [101]phasing and [102]additive rhythm. At the same time, modernists such as [103]Olivier Messiaen and his pupils used increased complexity to disrupt the sense of a regular beat, leading eventually to the widespread use of [104]irrational rhythms in [105]New Complexity. This use may be explained by a comment of [106]John Cage's^[[107]where?] where he notes that regular rhythms cause sounds to be heard as a group rather than individually; the irregular rhythms highlight the rapidly changing pitch relationships that would otherwise be subsumed into irrelevant rhythmic groupings (Sandow 2004, p. 257). [108]LaMonte Young also wrote music in which the sense of a regular beat is absent because the music consists only of long sustained tones ([109]drones). In the 1930s, [110]Henry Cowell wrote music involving multiple simultaneous periodic rhythms and collaborated with [111]Léon Thérémin to invent the [112]Rhythmicon, the first electronic [113]rhythm machine, in order to perform them. Similarly, [114]Conlon Nancarrow wrote for the [115]player piano. [[116]edit] See also * [117]Meter (music) * [118]Prosody (linguistics) * [119]Riddim * [120]Morse Code * [121]Soul (music) * [122]Time scale (music) * [123]Timing (linguistics) [[124]edit] Notes 1. [125]^ [126]Mithen, Steven (2005). [127]The Singing Neanderthals: The Origins of Music, Language, Mind and Body.. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.. [128]ISBN [129]0297643177. 2. [131]^ [132]Jon Stewart, [133]Oliver Sacks. (2009-06-29). [134]The Daily Show with Jon Stewart. [Television production]. Comedy Central. itle=oliver-sacks. "People often tried to teach their dogs to dance--it doesn't work." 3. [136]^ In [137]Discovering Music: Rhythm with [138]Leonard Slatkin at 5:05 [[139]edit] Sources * Hasty, Christopher (1997). Meter as Rhythm. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [140]ISBN 0-19-510066-2. * London, Justin (2004). Hearing in Time: Psychological Aspects of Musical Meter. [141]ISBN 0-19-516081-9. * Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music. Philadelphia: Open University Press. [142]ISBN 0-335-15275-9. * Narmour (1980). Cited in DeLone et al. (Eds.) (1975). Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. [143]ISBN 0-13-049346-5. * Sandow, Greg (2004). "A Fine Madness", The Pleasure of Modernist Music. [144]ISBN 1-58046-143-3. * Yeston, Maury (1976). "The Stratification of Musical Rhythm". [[145]edit] Further reading * McGaughey, William (2001). "Rhythm and Self-Consciousness: New Ideals for an Electronic Civilization". Minneapolis: Thistlerose Publications. [146]ISBN 0-9605630-4-0. * Honing, H. (2002). [147]"Structure and interpretation of rhythm and timing." Tijdschrift voor Muziektheorie [Dutch Journal of Music Theory] 7(3): 227-232. * Lewis, Andrew (2005). Rhythm--What it is and How to Improve Your Sense of It. San Francisco: [148]RhythmSource Press. [149]ISBN 978-0-9754667-0-4. * Williams, C. F. A., The Aristoxenian Theory of Musical Rhythm, (Cambridge Library Collection - Music), Cambridge University Press; 1st edition, 2009. * Toussaint, G. T., "The geometry of musical rhythm," In J. Akiyama, M. Kano, and X. Tan, editors, Proceedings of the Japan Conference on Discrete and Computational Geometry, Vol. 3742, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2005, pp. 198-212. [150]v o [151]d o [152]e [153]Musical notation and [154]development [155]Staff [156]Bar & Bar line · [157]Clef · [158]Da capo · [159]Dal segno · [160]Key signature · [161]Ledger line · [162]Musical mode · [163]Musical scale · [164]Rehearsal letter · [165]Repeat sign · [166]Time signature · [167]Transposition · [168]Transposing instrument [169]G (treble) clef symbol [170]Notes [171]Accidental ([172]Flat · [173]Natural · [174]Sharp) · [175]Dotted note · [176]Grace note · [177]Note value ([178]Beam · [179]Note head · [180]Stem) · [181]Pitch · [182]Rest · [183]Interval · [184]Letter notation [185]Articulation [186]Dynamics · [187]Ornament ([188]Trill · [189]Mordent · [190]Grace note) · [191]Ossia · [192]Portato · [193]Accent · [194]Legato · [195]Tenuto · [196]Marcato · [197]Staccato · [198]Staccatissimo · [199]Tie · [200]Slur · [201]Fermata [202]Development [203]Coda · [204]Exposition · [205]Harmony · [206]Melody · [207]Motif · [208]Recapitulation · Rhythm ([209]Beat · [210]Meter · [211]Tempo) · [212]Theme · [213]Tonality · [214]Atonality Related [215]Chord chart · [216]Figured bass · [217]Graphic notation · [218]Lead sheet · [219]Eye music · [220]Modern musical symbols · [221]Neume · [222]Tablature [224]Categories: [225]Rhythm | [226]Greek loanwords Hidden categories: [227]Vague or ambiguous geographic scope Views * [228]Article * [229]Discussion * [230]Edit this page * [231]History Personal tools * [232]Try Beta * [233]Log in / create account Navigation * [234]Main page * [235]Contents * [236]Featured content * [237]Current events * [238]Random article Search ____________________ Go Search Interaction * [239]About Wikipedia * [240]Community portal * [241]Recent changes * [242]Contact Wikipedia * [243]Donate to Wikipedia * [244]Help Toolbox * [245]What links here * [246]Related changes * [247]Upload file * [248]Special pages * [249]Printable version * [250]Permanent link * [251]Cite this page Languages * [252]Bosanski * [253]Català * [254]Dansk * [255]Deutsch * [256]Eesti * [257]Español * [258]Esperanto * [259]f+a+r+s+ * [260]Français * [261]­´ * [262]Hrvatski * [263]Bahasa Indonesia * [264]Íslenska * [265]Italiano * [266]E+B+R+J+T+ * [267]¥ £ * [268]Latviesu * [269]Líguru * [270]Makedonski * [271]®²¯¾³ * [272]Nederlands * [273]¥¬ * [274]ªNorsk (bokmål) * [275]ªNorsk (nynorsk) * [276]Polski * [277]Português * [278]Russkij * [279]Simple English * [280]Slovencina * [281]Slovenscina * [282]Suomi * [283]Svenska * [284]Türkçe * [285]Ukrayins'ka * [286]­ [287]Powered by MediaWiki [288]Wikimedia Foundation * This page was last modified on 16 January 2010 at 18:08. * Text is available under the [289]Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See [290]Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [291]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * [292]Contact us * [293]Privacy policy * [294]About Wikipedia * [295]Disclaimers Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1]Daniel Laberge music Rhythm explained including 27 rhythm exercises by Daniel Laberge Rhythm figure Hi rhythm lovers, I've devised these exercises in the early seventies while teaching music. I could not find any existing book that saw rhythm the way I did. This method is based on "rhythmic figures" or rhythm possibilities. Each one lasts one beat. I simply counted the rhythmic possibilities one could encounter for each type of beat divisions. There are: o Four rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by two o Eight rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by three o Sixteen rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by four I composed the exercises back then and used them for my teaching, but I only wrote the theory that goes along in 2002. The book is called "Rhythm explained" and I am gradually placing its content here. Each exercise is preceded by a lesson, with graphic representations, and includes an audio rendition to help you. You can choose between three speeds. For jazz musicians, the binary exercises also have a swing or double swing performance. Go to the bottom of the page for a link to the swing version. Choose among the following exercises: Beat exercises [2]Rhythm exercise 1-1 Featured figures [3][onequarternote1.gif] [4] [onehalfnote1.gif] [5] [dottedhalfnote1.gif] [6] [wholenote1.gif] [7]Rhythm exercise 1-2 Featured figures [8][quarternoterest1.gif] [9] [halfnoterest1.gif] [10] [wholenoterest1.gif] [11]Rhythm exercise 1-3 Featured figures [12][quarternoterest1.gif] [13] [halfnoterest1.gif] [14] [dottedhalfnoterest1.gif] [15] [wholenoterest1.gif] Binary beat division The binary family is large as it includes: o Division by two o Division by four o Part of division by six o Division by eight This section is concerned with the simple division by two. Any binary beat has two alternating parts: the downbeat and the upbeat. Binary beat [binarybeat1.gif] As you can see, there are only two places in a beat where events or notes can be positioned or played: o The downbeat o The upbeat How rhythmic possibilities work This means that for any given beat you can have any of the four following possibilities: 1 o Only one event on the downbeat. 2 o Events on both the downbeat and the upbeat. 3 o No event at all. 4 o Only one event on the upbeat. [possibilitiesbytwosimple1.gif] The rhythmic figure used to represent a binary beat is called: TWO EIGHTH NOTES [masterfigurebinary1.gif] Binary master rhythmic figure Simple binary rhythmic figures 4 possibilities: o 2 Primary o 2 Secondary [possibilitiesbytwo1.gif] Secondary rhythmic figures lack the event that falls on the beat. There is a secondary figure for each primary one. Because the beat is so important, secondary figures have appeared after the primary ones had been well established. The absence of event falling on the beat can be due to a silence or a sound that is held over from the preceding beat. Because of this, there are two ways to notate secondary figures: o With a rest o With a tie [primarysecondary1.gif] Primary and secondary rhythmic figures Choose among the following exercises: Binary exercises PRIMARY [16]Rhythm exercise 2-1 Featured figure [17][twoeighthnotes2.gif] [18]Rhythm exercise 2-2 Featured figures [19][twoeighthnotes2.gif] [20] [quarternoterest2.gif] SECONDARY [21]Rhythm exercise 2-3 Featured figure [22][dottedquarternoteeighth2.gif] [23]Rhythm exercise 2-4 Featured figure [24][eighthnotesyncopationa2.gif] [25]Rhythm exercise 2-5 Featured figure [26][twoeighttieonequarter2.gif] MULTIPLE SYNCOPATIONS [27]Rhythm exercise 2-6 Featured figure [28][doublesyncopationa2.gif] Ternary beat division The ternary family is small as it includes: o Division by three o Part of division by six Everything goes in thirds in ternary music. Any ternary beat has one downbeat and two upbeats. Ternary beat [ternarybeat1.gif] The rhythmic figure used to represent a ternary beat is called: THREE EIGHTH NOTES [masterfigureternary1.gif] Ternary master rhythmic figure Writing ternary rhythm In ternary music writing, each eighth note is worth one third of a beat. Since two eighth notes always equal one quarter note, these now equal two thirds of a beat. It takes a dotted quarter note to represent one beat. [ternarywriting1.gif] Ternary rhythmic figures 8 possibilities: o 4 Primary o 4 Secondary [possibilitiesbythree1.gif] Choose among the following exercises: Ternary exercises PRIMARY [29]Rhythm exercise 3-1 Featured figure [30][threeeighth2.gif] [31]Rhythm exercise 3-2 Featured figure [32][onequarteroneeighth2.gif] [33]Rhythm exercise 3-3 Featured figure [34][oneeighthonequarter2.gif] SECONDARY [35]Rhythm exercise 3-1s Featured figure [36][8threst2eighth2.gif] OR [37] [tie3eighth2.gif] [38]Rhythm exercise 3-2s Featured figure [39][quarternoterestoneeighth2.gif] OR [40] [tiequarternote1eighth.gif] [41]Rhythm exercise 3-3s Featured figure [42][8threst1quarternote2.gif] OR [43] [tie1eighth1quarter2.gif] Division by four Beats divided by four are part of the binary family. Everything goes in quarters in this feel. Beat divided by four [binarybeat2.gif] The rhythmic figure used to represent a beat divided by four is called: FOUR SIXTEENTH NOTES [masterfigurebyfour1.gif] Division by four master rhythmic figure Binary rhythmic figures 16 possibilities: o 8 Primary o 8 Secondary [possibilitiesbyfour1.gif] Choose among the following exercises: Division by four exercises PRIMARY [44]Rhythm exercise 4-1 Featured figure [45][foursixteenth2.gif] [46]Rhythm exercise 4-2 Featured figure [47][oneeighthtwosixteenth2.gif] [48]Rhythm exercise 4-3 Featured figure [49][twosixteenthoneeighth2.gif] [50]Rhythm exercise 4-4 Featured figure [51][dottedeighthonesixteenth2.gif] [52]Rhythm exercise 4-5 Featured figure [53][onesixteenthdottedeighth2.gif] [54]Rhythm exercise 4-6 Featured figure [55][16th8th16th2.gif] SECONDARY [56]Rhythm exercise 4-1s Featured figure [57][16threst3sixteenth2.gif] OR [58] [tiefoursixteenth2.gif] [59]Rhythm exercise 4-2s Featured figure [60][8threst2sixteenth2.gif] OR [61] [tie1eighth2sixteenth2.gif] [62]Rhythm exercise 4-3s Featured figure [63][16threst1sixteenth1eighth2.gif] OR [64] [tie2sixteenth1eighth2.gif] [65]Rhythm exercise 4-4s Featured figure [66][dotted8threst1sixteenth2.gif] OR [67] [tiedottereight1sixteenth2.gif] [68]Rhythm exercise 4-5s Featured figure [69][16threstdotted8th.gif] OR [70] [tie16thdotted8th2.gif] [71]Rhythm exercise 4-6s Featured figure [72][16threst1eighth1sixteenth2.gif] OR [73] [tieone16thone8thone16th2.gif] [74]Bugs, problems and comments [75]Daniel Laberge music Références Liens visibles 74. javascript:; Liens cachés : #[1]Edit this page [2]Wikipedia (en) [3]copyright [4]Wikipedia RSS Feed [5]Wikipedia Atom Feed Rhythm From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search For other uses, see [8]Rhythm (disambiguation). Rhythm (from [9]greek rhuthµo'*s - rhythmos, "any measured flow or movement, symmetry") is the variation of the length and accentuation of a series of sounds or other events. Contents * [10]1 Rhythm in linguistics * [11]2 Origins of human appreciation of rhythm * [12]3 Rhythm notation and the oral tradition + [13]3.1 African music + [14]3.2 Indian music + [15]3.3 Western music * [16]4 Types * [17]5 See also * [18]6 Notes * [19]7 Sources * [20]8 Further reading [[21]edit] Rhythm in linguistics The study of rhythm, stress, and [22]pitch in [23]speech is called [24]prosody; it is a topic in [25]linguistics. Narmour (1980, p. 147-53) describes three categories of prosodic rules which create rhythmic successions which are additive (same duration repeated), cumulative (short-long), or countercumulative (long-short). Cumulation is associated with closure or relaxation, countercumulation with openness or tension, while additive rhythms are open-ended and repetitive. Richard Middleton points out this method cannot account for [26]syncopation and suggests the concept of [27]transformation. A [28]rhythmic unit is a [29]durational pattern which occupies a period of time equivalent to a [30]pulse or pulses on an underlying [31]metric level, as opposed to a [32]rhythmic gesture which does not (DeLone et al. (Eds.), 1975 [[33]edit] Origins of human appreciation of rhythm In his series How Music Works, [34]Howard Goodall presents theories that rhythm recalls how we walk and the heartbeat we heard in the womb. More likely is that a simple pulse or [35]di-dah beat recalls the footsteps of another person. Our sympathetic urge to dance is designed to boost our energy levels in order to cope with someone, or some animal chasing us - a fight or flight response. From a less darwinist perspective, perceiving rhythm is the ability to master the otherwise invisible dimension, time. Rhythm is possibly also rooted in courtship ritual.^[36][1] Neurologist [37]Oliver Sacks posits that human affinity for rhythm is fundamental, so much that a person's sense of rhythm cannot be lost in the way that music and language can (e.g. by [38]stroke). In addition, he states that [39]chimpanzees and other animals show no similar appreciation for rhythm.^[40][2] [[41]edit] Rhythm notation and the oral tradition Worldwide there are many different approaches to passing on rhythmic phrases and patterns, as they exist in traditional music, from generation to generation. [[42]edit] African music In the [43]Griot tradition of Africa everything related to music has been passed on orally. [44]Babatunde Olatunji (1927-2003), a Nigerian drummer who lived and worked in the [45]United States, developed a simple series of spoken sounds for teaching the rhythms of the hand drum. He used six vocal sounds: Goon Doon Go Do Pa Ta. There are three basic sounds on the drum, but each can be played with either the left or the right hand. This simple system is now used worldwide, particularly by [46]Djembe players. [[47]edit] Indian music Indian music has also been passed on orally. Tabla players would learn to speak complex rhythm patterns and phrases before attempting to play them. [48]Sheila Chandra, an English pop singer of Indian descent, made performances based around her singing these patterns. In [49]Indian Classical music, the [50]Tala of a composition is the rhythmic pattern over which the whole piece is structured. [[51]edit] Western music Standard [52]music notation contains rhythmic information and is adapted specifically for drums and percussion instruments. The drums are generally used to keep other instruments in 'time'. They do this by supplying beats/strikes in time at a certain pace, i.e. 70 beats per minute (bpm). In [53]Rock music, a drum beat is used to keep a [54]bass/[55]guitar line in time. [[56]edit] Types In [57]Western music, rhythms are usually arranged with respect to a [58]time signature, partially signifying a meter. The speed of the underlying [59]pulse is sometimes called the [60]beat. The [61]tempo is a measure of how quickly the pulse repeats. The tempo is usually measured in 'beats per minute' (bpm); 60 bpm means a speed of one beat per second. The length of the meter, or metric unit (usually corresponding with [62]measure length), is usually grouped into either two or three beats, being called [63]duple meter and [64]triple meter, respectively. If each beat is divided by two or four, it is [65]simple meter, if by three (or six) [66]compound meter. According to [67]Pierre Boulez, beat structures beyond four are "simply not natural".^[68][3]. His reference is to western European music. Standard notation of a clave pattern on audio clip clave pattern.ogg [69]Syncopated rhythms are rhythms that accent parts of the beat not already stressed by [70]counting. Playing simultaneous rhythms in more than one time signature is called [71]polymeter. See also [72]polyrhythm. In recent years, rhythm and meter have become an important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these areas includes books by [73]Maury Yeston, [74]Fred Lerdahl and [75]Ray Jackendoff, [76]Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty, William Rothstein, and Joel Lester. Grid notation of single a clave pattern Some [77]genres of music make different use of rhythm than others. Most Western music is based on [78]subdivision, while non-Western music uses more [79]additive rhythm. [80]African music makes heavy use of [81]polyrhythms, and [82]Indian music uses [83]complex cycles such as 7 and 13, while [84]Balinese music often uses complex [85]interlocking rhythms. By comparison, a lot of Western [86]classical music is fairly rhythmically (or metrically) simple; it stays in a [87]simple meter such as 4/4 or 3/4 and makes little use of [88]syncopation. [89]Clave is a common underlying rhythm in [90]African, [91]Cuban music, and [92]Brazilian music. [93]Claves (Submit) Play sound Four beats followed by three Clave patterns __________________________________________________________________ Problems listening to this file? See [94]media help. In the 20th century, [95]composers like [96]Igor Stravinsky, [97]Bela Bartok, [98]Philip Glass, and [99]Steve Reich wrote more rhythmically complex music using [100]odd meters, and techniques such as [101]phasing and [102]additive rhythm. At the same time, modernists such as [103]Olivier Messiaen and his pupils used increased complexity to disrupt the sense of a regular beat, leading eventually to the widespread use of [104]irrational rhythms in [105]New Complexity. This use may be explained by a comment of [106]John Cage's^[[107]where?] where he notes that regular rhythms cause sounds to be heard as a group rather than individually; the irregular rhythms highlight the rapidly changing pitch relationships that would otherwise be subsumed into irrelevant rhythmic groupings (Sandow 2004, p. 257). [108]LaMonte Young also wrote music in which the sense of a regular beat is absent because the music consists only of long sustained tones ([109]drones). In the 1930s, [110]Henry Cowell wrote music involving multiple simultaneous periodic rhythms and collaborated with [111]Léon Thérémin to invent the [112]Rhythmicon, the first electronic [113]rhythm machine, in order to perform them. Similarly, [114]Conlon Nancarrow wrote for the [115]player piano. [[116]edit] See also * [117]Meter (music) * [118]Prosody (linguistics) * [119]Riddim * [120]Morse Code * [121]Soul (music) * [122]Time scale (music) * [123]Timing (linguistics) [[124]edit] Notes 1. [125]^ [126]Mithen, Steven (2005). [127]The Singing Neanderthals: The Origins of Music, Language, Mind and Body.. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.. [128]ISBN [129]0297643177. 2. [131]^ [132]Jon Stewart, [133]Oliver Sacks. (2009-06-29). [134]The Daily Show with Jon Stewart. [Television production]. Comedy Central. itle=oliver-sacks. "People often tried to teach their dogs to dance--it doesn't work." 3. [136]^ In [137]Discovering Music: Rhythm with [138]Leonard Slatkin at 5:05 [[139]edit] Sources * Hasty, Christopher (1997). Meter as Rhythm. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [140]ISBN 0-19-510066-2. * London, Justin (2004). Hearing in Time: Psychological Aspects of Musical Meter. [141]ISBN 0-19-516081-9. * Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music. Philadelphia: Open University Press. [142]ISBN 0-335-15275-9. * Narmour (1980). Cited in DeLone et al. (Eds.) (1975). Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. [143]ISBN 0-13-049346-5. * Sandow, Greg (2004). "A Fine Madness", The Pleasure of Modernist Music. [144]ISBN 1-58046-143-3. * Yeston, Maury (1976). "The Stratification of Musical Rhythm". [[145]edit] Further reading * McGaughey, William (2001). "Rhythm and Self-Consciousness: New Ideals for an Electronic Civilization". Minneapolis: Thistlerose Publications. [146]ISBN 0-9605630-4-0. * Honing, H. (2002). [147]"Structure and interpretation of rhythm and timing." Tijdschrift voor Muziektheorie [Dutch Journal of Music Theory] 7(3): 227-232. * Lewis, Andrew (2005). Rhythm--What it is and How to Improve Your Sense of It. San Francisco: [148]RhythmSource Press. [149]ISBN 978-0-9754667-0-4. * Williams, C. F. A., The Aristoxenian Theory of Musical Rhythm, (Cambridge Library Collection - Music), Cambridge University Press; 1st edition, 2009. * Toussaint, G. T., "The geometry of musical rhythm," In J. Akiyama, M. Kano, and X. Tan, editors, Proceedings of the Japan Conference on Discrete and Computational Geometry, Vol. 3742, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2005, pp. 198-212. 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See [290]Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [291]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * [292]Contact us * [293]Privacy policy * [294]About Wikipedia * [295]Disclaimers Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1]Daniel Laberge music Rhythm explained including 27 rhythm exercises by Daniel Laberge Rhythm figure Hi rhythm lovers, I've devised these exercises in the early seventies while teaching music. I could not find any existing book that saw rhythm the way I did. This method is based on "rhythmic figures" or rhythm possibilities. Each one lasts one beat. I simply counted the rhythmic possibilities one could encounter for each type of beat divisions. There are: o Four rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by two o Eight rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by three o Sixteen rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by four I composed the exercises back then and used them for my teaching, but I only wrote the theory that goes along in 2002. The book is called "Rhythm explained" and I am gradually placing its content here. Each exercise is preceded by a lesson, with graphic representations, and includes an audio rendition to help you. You can choose between three speeds. For jazz musicians, the binary exercises also have a swing or double swing performance. Go to the bottom of the page for a link to the swing version. Choose among the following exercises: Beat exercises [2]Rhythm exercise 1-1 Featured figures [3][onequarternote1.gif] [4] [onehalfnote1.gif] [5] [dottedhalfnote1.gif] [6] [wholenote1.gif] [7]Rhythm exercise 1-2 Featured figures [8][quarternoterest1.gif] [9] [halfnoterest1.gif] [10] [wholenoterest1.gif] [11]Rhythm exercise 1-3 Featured figures [12][quarternoterest1.gif] [13] [halfnoterest1.gif] [14] [dottedhalfnoterest1.gif] [15] [wholenoterest1.gif] Binary beat division The binary family is large as it includes: o Division by two o Division by four o Part of division by six o Division by eight This section is concerned with the simple division by two. Any binary beat has two alternating parts: the downbeat and the upbeat. Binary beat [binarybeat1.gif] As you can see, there are only two places in a beat where events or notes can be positioned or played: o The downbeat o The upbeat How rhythmic possibilities work This means that for any given beat you can have any of the four following possibilities: 1 o Only one event on the downbeat. 2 o Events on both the downbeat and the upbeat. 3 o No event at all. 4 o Only one event on the upbeat. [possibilitiesbytwosimple1.gif] The rhythmic figure used to represent a binary beat is called: TWO EIGHTH NOTES [masterfigurebinary1.gif] Binary master rhythmic figure Simple binary rhythmic figures 4 possibilities: o 2 Primary o 2 Secondary [possibilitiesbytwo1.gif] Secondary rhythmic figures lack the event that falls on the beat. There is a secondary figure for each primary one. Because the beat is so important, secondary figures have appeared after the primary ones had been well established. The absence of event falling on the beat can be due to a silence or a sound that is held over from the preceding beat. Because of this, there are two ways to notate secondary figures: o With a rest o With a tie [primarysecondary1.gif] Primary and secondary rhythmic figures Choose among the following exercises: Binary exercises PRIMARY [16]Rhythm exercise 2-1 Featured figure [17][twoeighthnotes2.gif] [18]Rhythm exercise 2-2 Featured figures [19][twoeighthnotes2.gif] [20] [quarternoterest2.gif] SECONDARY [21]Rhythm exercise 2-3 Featured figure [22][dottedquarternoteeighth2.gif] [23]Rhythm exercise 2-4 Featured figure [24][eighthnotesyncopationa2.gif] [25]Rhythm exercise 2-5 Featured figure [26][twoeighttieonequarter2.gif] MULTIPLE SYNCOPATIONS [27]Rhythm exercise 2-6 Featured figure [28][doublesyncopationa2.gif] Ternary beat division The ternary family is small as it includes: o Division by three o Part of division by six Everything goes in thirds in ternary music. Any ternary beat has one downbeat and two upbeats. Ternary beat [ternarybeat1.gif] The rhythmic figure used to represent a ternary beat is called: THREE EIGHTH NOTES [masterfigureternary1.gif] Ternary master rhythmic figure Writing ternary rhythm In ternary music writing, each eighth note is worth one third of a beat. Since two eighth notes always equal one quarter note, these now equal two thirds of a beat. It takes a dotted quarter note to represent one beat. [ternarywriting1.gif] Ternary rhythmic figures 8 possibilities: o 4 Primary o 4 Secondary [possibilitiesbythree1.gif] Choose among the following exercises: Ternary exercises PRIMARY [29]Rhythm exercise 3-1 Featured figure [30][threeeighth2.gif] [31]Rhythm exercise 3-2 Featured figure [32][onequarteroneeighth2.gif] [33]Rhythm exercise 3-3 Featured figure [34][oneeighthonequarter2.gif] SECONDARY [35]Rhythm exercise 3-1s Featured figure [36][8threst2eighth2.gif] OR [37] [tie3eighth2.gif] [38]Rhythm exercise 3-2s Featured figure [39][quarternoterestoneeighth2.gif] OR [40] [tiequarternote1eighth.gif] [41]Rhythm exercise 3-3s Featured figure [42][8threst1quarternote2.gif] OR [43] [tie1eighth1quarter2.gif] Division by four Beats divided by four are part of the binary family. Everything goes in quarters in this feel. Beat divided by four [binarybeat2.gif] The rhythmic figure used to represent a beat divided by four is called: FOUR SIXTEENTH NOTES [masterfigurebyfour1.gif] Division by four master rhythmic figure Binary rhythmic figures 16 possibilities: o 8 Primary o 8 Secondary [possibilitiesbyfour1.gif] Choose among the following exercises: Division by four exercises PRIMARY [44]Rhythm exercise 4-1 Featured figure [45][foursixteenth2.gif] [46]Rhythm exercise 4-2 Featured figure [47][oneeighthtwosixteenth2.gif] [48]Rhythm exercise 4-3 Featured figure [49][twosixteenthoneeighth2.gif] [50]Rhythm exercise 4-4 Featured figure [51][dottedeighthonesixteenth2.gif] [52]Rhythm exercise 4-5 Featured figure [53][onesixteenthdottedeighth2.gif] [54]Rhythm exercise 4-6 Featured figure [55][16th8th16th2.gif] SECONDARY [56]Rhythm exercise 4-1s Featured figure [57][16threst3sixteenth2.gif] OR [58] [tiefoursixteenth2.gif] [59]Rhythm exercise 4-2s Featured figure [60][8threst2sixteenth2.gif] OR [61] [tie1eighth2sixteenth2.gif] [62]Rhythm exercise 4-3s Featured figure [63][16threst1sixteenth1eighth2.gif] OR [64] [tie2sixteenth1eighth2.gif] [65]Rhythm exercise 4-4s Featured figure [66][dotted8threst1sixteenth2.gif] OR [67] [tiedottereight1sixteenth2.gif] [68]Rhythm exercise 4-5s Featured figure [69][16threstdotted8th.gif] OR [70] [tie16thdotted8th2.gif] [71]Rhythm exercise 4-6s Featured figure [72][16threst1eighth1sixteenth2.gif] OR [73] [tieone16thone8thone16th2.gif] [74]Bugs, problems and comments [75]Daniel Laberge music Références Liens visibles 74. javascript:; Liens cachés : #[1]ORGY IN RHYTHM - Atom [2]ORGY IN RHYTHM - RSS IFRAME: IN+RHYTHM&publishMode=PUBLISH_MODE_BLOGSPOT&navbarType=BLACK&layoutType [4]skip to main | [5]skip to sidebar ORGY IN RHYTHM [6]JAZZ HIP TRIO - JAZZ EN RELIEF Jazz Hip Trio for Riviera France from 1967. Jean-Bernard Eisinger Piano ; Roger Luccioni Bass ;Daniel Humair Drums. More beautiful music from France on this the first Jazz Hip Trio LP. "Orange Boom" was the big tune back in the day but the rest is just fabulous. Needless to say.....All Killer No Filler Another first in public blogland here at OIR. [7]12 comments made-how about you? 12.1.10 [8]MAL WALDRON - TOKYO BOUND Mal Waldron for RCA Victor Japan from 1970. Mal Waldron-Piano;Takeshi Inomata-Drums;Yasuo Arakawa-Bass Tremendous all killer trio date with Waldron joined by a top flight Japanese rhythm section on four original compositions which only saw a release in Japan.Check out the rocking intensity of "Rock One For Jimbo San" and "Japanese Island" which builds from an ominous brooding intro into a marvellous modal waltz."Atomic Energy" blows up with a headlong banging vamp from Waldron's left hand while the right runs all over the keys and then to close "Mount Fujiyama" a more introspective rumination and dissection of the tune's theme. Inomata's drumming is a revelation throughout the session intricate yet swinging with fantastic use of cymbals.(Don't forget to check out Inomata's Sound of Sounds lp also recorded in 1970 which I posted [9]here during the summer) Respect to El Goog for introducing me to this great album.I finally picked a copy up from Japan via ebay last month - not cheap but worth every penny. Very highly recomnmended. [10]37 comments made-how about you? 20.12.09 [11]THE HERBIE HANCOCK TRIO Herbie Hancock for Sony Japan from 1977. Herbie Hancock-Piano;Ron Carter-Bass;Tony Williams-Drums The big three keep it strictly acoustic for this Japanese only release from CBS Sony. 4 originals from Herb plus a rapid romp through "Milestones"...tough stuff. The first V.S.O.P. tour triggered a flood of recording activity in July 1977, but only a fraction of it was released in the U.S. This session, recorded in San Francisco just days before the Quintet concerts in Berkeley and San Diego, finds Herbie Hancock, Ron Carter and Tony Williams mixing it up sans the horns and the results are more reflective and cerebral than the full Quintet concerts. Hancock is thoroughly in control of the agenda while Williams throws in those meter-fracturing flurries that keep everyone on their toes. There is a startling re-interpretation of "Speak like a Child" which is significantly tougher and busier than the wistful Blue Note version, as well as challenging Hancock originals like "Watcha Waiting For" and "Watch It." This is uncompromising acoustic jazz, commercial anathema in the electronic '70s -and thus, only Japan got to hear it. Richard S. Ginell. [12]16 comments made-how about you? 13.12.09 [13]JAZZ HIP TRIO - PORTRAITS Jazz Hip Trio for Riviera France from 1968. Jean-Bernard Eisinger Piano ; Roger Luccioni Bass ;Daniel Humair Drums. Piano trios are the theme for my the next few posts and what better way to start than with some beautiful music from France on it's first time out in blogland here at OIR. 10 original compositions which grow and grow on repeated listening - get past the "Sidewinder" influenced dance floor intro tune "Bat Rock" and you're in for a swinging set of subtle trio sounds.Of course it's gotta be...... All Killer No Filler [14]23 comments made-how about you? 6.12.09 [15]THE DIAMOND FIVE - BRILLIANT ! The Diamond Five for Fontana from 1964. Personnel: Cees Slinger: piano; Harry Verbeke: tenor sax; Cees Smal: trumpet, cornet and valve trombone; Jacques Schols: bass; Johnny Engels: drums. Please check the comments as Chazz has also ripped The Five Diamonds-Finally After Forty Years cd reissue from Japan and will be posting the link shortly.Over to you Chazz! I don't post donations at OIR but just had to make an exception when this was winged across the pond to me from Chazz Katz.It's a very rare piece of hard bop from Holland which made a blink and miss it reissue on cd some years ago in Japan (original vinyl goes for silly money anywhere between $600-$1000) and has never appeared in blogland before.Here's the notes and cheers to Chazz for his rip! Nice work chap - All Killer No Filler! The Diamond Five, a Dutch quintet led by pianist Cees Slinger, was founded in 1959 and lasted until 1965. They were based at the Sheherazade Club in Amsterdam and were quite popular, playing all over Holland and accompanying expatriate American musicians on their visits to Amsterdam. However, when the club closed its doors due to a shift in popular interest from jazz to rock music, the quintet disbanded. This 1964 recording is their only session available on CD. The music is hard bop on the surface, but is neither formulaic nor a copy of the genres imported from the U.S. The musicians are quite unique in their style. Slinger plays sparse notes on his solos, utilizing well-placed pauses in the music to create melodic hard bop with hints of more forward-looking styles. The other outstanding soloist is tenor saxophonist Harry Verbeke, whose solos (in contrast to that of the leader) are filled with a multitude of notes played in the modal vein. The others are also quite stellar, the bass and the drums providing a loose bluesy support and horn man Cees Smal adding something unique with the sounds of his different horns, switching between valve trombone, cornet and trumpet. [16]26 comments made-how about you? 26.11.09 [17]BOBBY HUTCHERSON - CIRRUS Bobby Hutcherson for Blue Note from 1974. Hutch is playing four sets in London this weekend so Katonah from Private Press and I will be propping up the bar for his late spot at Scotts tomorrow night. So here's a 3rd repost for his evergreen "Cirrus" ....All Killer No Filler. This was my very first Bobby Hutcherson post here at OIR back in may 2006.It was ripped from my vinyl copy @192 in those days-I've reupped it @320 this time and taken it from the superb Mosaic Select box set.Here's my original narrative: Cirrus finds Bobby Hutcherson resuming his partnership with tenor saxophonist Harold Land, and the results are marvellous. The pair work with pianist Bill Henderson, trumpeter Woody Shaw, bassist Ray Drummond, drummer Larry Hancock, saxophonist/flautist Emmanuel Boyd and percussionist Kenneth Nash on this set of originals.The album starts with a great version of Woody Shaw's "Rosewood" while the rest of the set is written by Hutcherson and includes "Even Later".Highlight of the lp for me is the atmospheric and brooding "Zuri Dance" - what a corker ! [18]36 comments made-how about you? 13.11.09 [19]DAVE PIKE - LET THE MINSTRELS PLAY ON Dave Pike for Muse from 1978. Vibraphone - Dave Pike / Bass - Luther Hughes / Cello - Luther Hughes / Drums - Ted Hawkes / Guitar - Ron Eschete / Keyboards , Sax - Tom Ranier / Vocals - Carol Eschete. KGML has just posted "Spirits Samba" so dug the lp out for those who would like to hear more. Picked this up in Tony Monson's Disc Empire in the early 80s after hearing Chris Bangs spinning "Swan Lake" and found it had yet another bona fide jazz dance classic to be featured in the shape of "Spirits Samba". Here's an apathetic review from amg: Some Afro-Latin, some fusion and things in between from vibist Dave Pike. Pike is a good player, but sometimes his arrangements bog down between pop and jazz. His style is more remniscent of Red Norvo, with its lighter, less aggressive and flowing lines. [20]12 comments made-how about you? 12.11.09 [21]RANDY WESTON - BLUE MOSES Randy Weston For CTI from 1972. Arranged By - Don Sebesky;Bass - Bill Wood (2) (tracks: B1) , Ron Carter ;Drums - Bill Cobham ;English Horn, Clarinet, Flute - George Marge ;Flugelhorn - Alan Rubin , John Frosk , Marvin Stamm ;Flute - Hubert Laws ;French Horn - Brooks Tillotson , James Buffington ;Oboe, Clarinet, Flute - Romeo Penque ;Piano - Randy Weston Saxophone [Tenor] - Grover Washington, Jr ;Synthesizer [Moog] - David Horowitz Trombone - Garnett Brown , Warren Covington , Wayne Andre ;Trombone - Paul Faulise Trumpet - Freddie Hubbard ;Vocals - Madasme Meddah Super heavyweight banger from CTI - trust Randy Weston to dispense with Creed Taylor's saccharine stylings.All Killer blah blah blah.... Another underwhelming review from Mr Yannow: Randy Weston's most popular record, this Lp (which he had mixed feelings about) features Weston not only on piano but electric keyboards. Backed by Don Sebesky arrangements and assisted by trumpeter Freddie Hubbard and tenor-saxophonist Grover Washington Jr., Weston plays quite well on four of his compositions; best-known are "Ganawa (Blue Moses)" and "Marrakesh Blues." The music retains the African feel of most of Weston's latter-day playing but also has some commercial touches that do not hurt the performances. This rewarding date has not yet been reissued on CD. ~ Scott Yanow, All Music Guide Fantastic cover art from Pete Turner - I highly recommend his book[22] here. [23]16 comments made-how about you? 7.11.09 [24]BLACKCLASSICAL - 1ST BIRTHDAY MEGAMIX Blackclassical has taken off his flat cap ,put the racing pigeons away and is celebrating his first year on t'interwebs with a mighty mp3 mash up of spiritual jazz goodness[25] here.Proof indeed that it's not all grim up north. Happy Birthday you old bastard - now get the lagers in and make sure they've got vodka tops you tightarse. [26]3 comments made-how about you? 6.11.09 [27]TUBBT HAYES - TUBBS IN N.Y. Tubby Hayes for Fontana from 1961. Saxophone [Tenor] - Tubby Hayes; Bass - George Duvivier; Drums - Dave Bailey ;Piano - Horace Parlan ; Trumpet - Clark Terry;Vibraphone - Eddie Costa Another first in blogland for this British vinyl rarity at OIR with Tubbs keeping heavy company in NYC . Apparently there was legal wrangling about who owns the masters so don't hold your breath waiting for a cd issue.The last one got pulled pronto upon release in 1990. The swaggering "A Pint Of Bitter" was my very first exposure to Hayes back in the early 80s - I just love that tune - but the rest is just as good with flat out romps through "Opus Ocean" and "Airegin" plus a wonderfuly swinging "Soon" . Nice! [28]26 comments made-how about you? 31.10.09 [29]TUBBY HAYES QUARTET - TUBBY'S GROOVE Tubby Hayes for Tempo from 1960. Tubby Hayes (ts), Terry Shannon (p), Phil Bates (b), Phil Seamen (d). "Tin Tin Deo" killin' it every time for me on this rare piece of British wax from 50 years ago. Simon Spillet has written a fascinating piece on Tubby at[30] Jazzscript and here's his take on this album: I think it's one of Tubby's best ever studio recordings and catches him very much in his prime. I suppose that the stand-out track for me has to be Sunny Monday with its unaccompanied tenor choruses. The tone is big, the rhythmic delivery is full of confidence and the sheer enthusiasm shines through half a century on. [31]23 comments made-how about you? 30.10.09 [32]STAFFAN ABELEEN QUINTET -PERSEPOLIS Staffan Abeleen for Philips Sweden from 1964. Staffan Abeleen-Piano ; Lasse Farnlof - Trumpet ; Bjorn Netz - Tenor ; Bjorn Alke - Bass ; Bosse Skoglund - Drums More top draw business from Sweden making a first appearance in blogland.Modal to bossa to ballads this one's got the lot: ALL KILLER NO FILLER [33]15 comments made-how about you? 15.10.09 [34]BERNT ROSENGREN BIG BAND - FIRST MOVES Bernt Rosengren for EMI Sweden from 1977. Bassoon, Horn - Lars Bagge/Clarinet, Clarinet [Bass], Saxophone [Soprano, Alto, Baritone] - Lennart Jansson /Congas - Johnny Martinez , René Martinez , Sabu Martinez Cornet , Flugelhorn - Lars Färnlöf /Drums - Leif Wennerström/Flute, Saxophone -Bernt Rosengren /Horn [English], Saxophone - Tommy Koverhult / Percussion - Okay Temiz / Piano - Claes-Göran Fagerstedt / Piano, Piano [Electric] - Bobo Stenson / Saxophone [Baritone] - Gunnar Bergsten / Saxophone [Tenor] - Anders Lindskog / Trombone - Jan Jansson , Janus Miezek , Lars Olofsson , Lennart Löfgren / Trombone [Bass] - Sven Larsson /Trumpet - Björn Borg /Trumpet , Flugelhorn - Bertil Lövgren , Maffy Falay / Bass - Torbjörn Hultcrantz Back over to Sweden for this killer big band session led by Bernt Rosengren and featuring some big names such as a pre-ECM Bobo Stenson,the wonderful Lars Farnlof and none other than the mighty Sabu Martinez. Check out the percussion destruction of "Felicidade" with Sabu plus sons Johnny and Rene Martinez beating the crap out of the Jobim bossa standard... Murdah!!! [35]19 comments made-how about you? 1.10.09 [36]JAZZ QUINTET 60 Jazz Quintet 60 from 1962 for Metronome Denmark. Allan Botschinsky (tp), Niels Husum (ts), Bent Axen (p), Niels-Henning Orsted Pedersen (b), Bjarne Rostvold (ds). Legendary Scandinavian rarity (Check the second mortgage prices on [37]Popsike) from Denmark featuring a who's who of the Danish Jazz scene from the past 50 years. First time it's has been posted in public blogland so don't sleep on this one : ALL KILLER NO FILLER ! [38]27 comments made-how about you? 27.9.09 [39]STAFFAN ABELEEN QUINTET - DOWNSTREAM Staffan Abeleen Quintet for Philips Sweden from 1966. Staffan Abeleen - Piano ; Lasse Farnlof - Trumpet ; Bjorn Netz - Sax ; Bosse Skugland - Drums ; Paul Danielsson - Bass. All compositions by Lars Farnlof Scandinavia is the destination for my next batch of posts and what better way to start than with this superb album by The Staffen Abeleen Quintet playing the compositions of the wonderful Lars Farnlof. Another first appearance in blogland but let the music do the talking ... ALL KILLER NO FILLER [40]15 comments made-how about you? 19.9.09 [41]ARCHIE SHEPP & THE FAMILY OF PERCUSSION - HERE COMES THE FAMILY I have had lots of requests for a repost of this bomb from Archie Shepp and The Family of Percussion - so here it is. First posted at OIR september 2006. The Family of Percussion (Peter Giger,Trilok Gurtu,Doug Hammond and Tom Nicholas)are joined by Archie Shepp on this hard to find 1980 release from Nagara in Germany. On "Here Comes the Family"the Family establish the basic form of the piece with their rhythmic and vocal opening with Shepp's flute fluttering above it all.Then he lets rip with what the liner notes call 'Poetic Recitation'but would probably be called rapping these days over a funky percussive backdrop .This tune is why the lp remains in such demand - a big play list favourite of djs world wide. Next up is Shepp's "Street Song" the best cut on the lp for me,on which he blows his tenor freely over the drums,congas,bells and gongs.The piece ends in a crescendo of percussion culminating in a gong crash which fades into silence."Euterpe's Favorit"has Shepp back on flute with the family weaving a mystical feel behind him on bells,whistles,water pipes,gongs,rattles and drums. "Ardopetori"starts side 2 with a mid tempo infectious rhythm established by shakers and log drum which builds slowly with Shepp soloing freely again on tenor. "For Ti Roro"wraps it up and begins with the gentle,caribean sounds of steel drums until Shepp's soprano bursts in with a frenzy of excitement.This is the most free track with all the musicians reacting to each otherboth collectively and singularly until it finishes fittingly with the sound of the congas. This came out on lp and cd but quickly dissapeared without trace.if you want a copy you gonna have to dig hard and have deep pockets! [42]18 comments made-how about you? [43]HIROSHI SUZUKI - CAT Hiroshi Suzuki for Columbia Japan from 1975. Hiroshi Suzuki-Trombone ; Hiromasa Suzuki-Keyboards ; Akira Ishikawa-Drums ; Takeru Muraoka-Sax ; Kunimitsu Inaba-Bass More super rare J Jazz making a first appearance in blogland and this is an absolute beauty made up of 5 long cuts that hit the perfect balance between jazz and fusion.Acoustic bass meshed with subtle funky drums topped with lashings of Rhodes,trombone and sax deliver a really stretched out understated rolling groove. The album just grows and grows with repeated listening and it's a big favourite over here at Bacoso's Big Top - no surprise that it's ALL KILLER NO FILLER ! [44]34 comments made-how about you? 7.9.09 [45]T. INOMATA & SOUND L.T.D. - SOUNDS OF SOUND L.T.D. Takeshi Inomata for Columbia Japan from 1970. Takeshi Inomata (Drums & Percussion) Jun Suzuki (Electric Bass) Shigetok Kamiya (Electric Guitar) Ryo Kawasaki (Electric Guitar) Sho Imai (Trombone & Bass Trombone) Shigemichi Dohmoto (Trombone & Bass Trombone) Takao Uematsu (Tenor Sax & Soprano Sax) Fantastic lp of funky jazz from the Columbia issued Groovy Sound Series. No idea who plays on it as the credits are all in Japanese but it's a monster session. Check out "Mustache" and "Tak's Tune" for some severe beats from drummer/leader Takeshi Inomata. All Killer No Filler - Highly Recommended! [46]22 comments made-how about you? 29.8.09 [47]HIDEO SHIRAKI - IN FIESTA Hideo Shiraki for Teichiku Japan from 1961. Rare super tough hard bop session from Japan featuring the killer koto led and drum driven bomb "In Fiesta". Reissued in Japan by Kyoto Jazz Massive for Think in a blink and miss it moment back in 2005 but now out of print. The old Dusty Groove blurb: A brilliant early album from Japanese drummer Hideo Shiraki a jazz session that bristles with the same intensity as key late 50s work by Benny Golson or Gigi Gryce! Although Hideo's leading the group on drums, his work on the kit is remarkably subtle done with the snappingly rhythmic style that marked some of Golson's best modern experiments of a few years before not nearly as bombastic as his stint with Art Blakey, and more in the rhythmically stepping quality of his work with Art Farmer in the Jazztet. Key players on the session include Hidehiko Matsumoto on tenor and flute and Yuzuru Sera on piano both of whom give the album a fluid grace that's really beautiful soulful edges that allow the record to stand equally next to anything coming out of the US at the time. One track features a bit of koto at the start -- echoing Shiraki's later world jazz experiments but most of the set is straight modern hardbop, with tracks that include "Blue Romeo", "Etude No 1", "Just One Or Eight", "You Don't Know What Love Is", and Benny Golson's "Five Spot After Dark". [48]14 comments made-how about you? 18.8.09 [49]LLOYD MCNEILL - TREASURES Lloyd McNeill for Baobab from 1976. Lloyd McNeill-Flute ; Dom Salvador-Piano ; Cecil McBee-Bass ; Portinho , Brian Brake-Drums ; Ray Armando-Percussion. One for the flute freaks on a private press out of NYC. Heavy Brazilian infuences at work on this wonderful spiritual jazz session from the great Lloyd McNeill.Two originals,one standard and a cracking version of Salvador's "Salvation Army" which featured on Dom's '76 Muse debut "Minha Familia"(Available at [50]Ile Oxumare). Here's some info on Lloyd McNeill from the excellent [51]Hipwax: The first thing to know about Lloyd McNeill is that his are the very best soul-jazz flute LPs, and each is first-rate, a masterpiece of self-direction. The second thing to know is there is much more to him than his recorded legacy. He is one of those incredible, super-sensitive people who excels at every artistic idiom and endeavor; making wonderful music is just part of his flowing creativity. A professor (at Rutgers University, earlier Dartmouth), he has much to say about music and creativity as well as an impeccable gift for saying it...sensibly. McNeill's writings on his musical experiences provide invaluable documents of "the period" (late 1960s-1970s) as well as a rare glimpse at the joy of a relatively unsung master. McNeill has played with jazz legends --Andrew White (his longtime collaborator/producer), Eric Dolphy, Sabu Martinez, Mulatu Astatke, among many others-- and he has had a significant hand in the arts scene of Washington, D.C. The major galleries of art, including those of the Smithsonian, sponsored multi-media "happenings" that soared far above the hippie caricature of acid rock with light show. During the first flowering of post-Civil Rights, African-American culture, the Lloyd McNeill Quartet's improvisitory, simultaneuous jazz and large-scale painting "happened" while a lucky, perhaps unsuspecting public drank it in. McNeill believes his influences and their results in his art, music, and poetry are inseparable and mutually reinforcing. Time spent with Picasso in Cannes, 1965 led to new expressions in all three, for instance. And when one brushes against a force such as Picasso, just the idea of "meeting Picasso" has a certain momentum, never mind the inevitable casting of rays of a different kind of light. Canvas, vinyl, the stage, paper, and books of poetry offer a few key imprints of McNeill, and McNeill consistently pays tribute to many illustrious peers. There are six albums, all produced and entirely under the artist's control. Each title surpasses anything comparable on the major labels, even Blue Note. The Black Jazz label may be roughly similar in style, but Asha and Baobab are wholly Lloyd McNeill. The records reflect none of the usual external trends from the decade in which they were recorded; all sound like 1971 rather than 1979. The final record even reprises the first (the exotic, broodingly moody "Asha"), and the sound throughout remains somewhat interchangeable and timeless. But each record has its own themes and currents, and even improvisation has its signatures and fingerprints. Buying: Long out of print, collectors items, Lloyd McNeill records should be snapped up on sight. Hip Wax is pleased to offer two titles for which limited stock remains [52]here. Warning - McNeill lps can be damaging to the [53]wallet. [54]29 comments made-how about you? 14.8.09 [55]If Spike Lee Did Movies In Audio... Greg's back on the mix with his old mucker Monohub - another mashed up bomb in memory of Coltrane and the late,great George Russell.Grab it [56]HERE. Here's the blurb from big daddy himself: I did a version of this a while back and was planning to publish on July 17th as a memorial to the day that John Coltrane died, but, a combination of lack of time, work commitments and other things got in the way... Anyway I redid it and am glad that i did as it's much better than the original. This one strictly for the heads... and defo not for the feint hearted. If you liked the Black State of Vietnam mix then this is for you... So as i said; In respect of John Coltrane and George Russell. Much thanks to Monohub too although he plays down his part in this, his genius did have a lot to do with it... [57]1 comments made-how about you? 3.8.09 [58]SADAO WATANABE AND CHARLIE MARIANO - IBERIAN WALTZ Sadao and Charlie for Tact Japan from 1967. Sadao Watanabe (as) , Charlie Mariano (as) , Masabumi Kikuchi (p) , Masanaga Harada (b) , Masahiko Togashi (ds) , Fumio Watanabe (ds) This received a "Japan Jazz Award" on release. Some severe blowing on this double alto led sextet featuring a young band of soon to be Japanese jazz luminaries. The fast and furious "Palisades" was comped on the Sleepwalker Shibuya Jazz Classics.However the 16 minute title cut is the stand out tune an intense modal waltz with a Spanish tinge featuring coruscating solos from Mariano and Watanabe - hard core stuff. Recommended. [59]16 comments made-how about you? 28.7.09 [60]JAMES MARENTIC SEXTET - NIMBUS James Marentic for Discovery from 1982. James Marentic-Sax/Flute; Tom Harrell -Trumpet/Flugelhorn; Slide Hampton-Trombone; Larry Willis-Piano; Anthony Cox-Bass; Victor Lewis-Drums. Storming post hard bop outing for Mr Marentic and his all star band. Check out the banging latin romp "Baile de las Cucharachas " which kicks off the lp in fine style and the Coltrane inspired "Nimbus". "Aphrodesia" has the inspiration of Kenny Dorham stamped all over it and no prizes for guessing who "Mr Silver I Presume" is aimed at If you enjoyed Tom Harrell's "Aurora" post then this should be right up your street,round your corner and down your block! [61]8 comments made-how about you? 23.7.09 [62]CARTER JEFFERSON - THE RISE OF ATLANTIS Carter Jefferson for Timeless from 1978. Terrific post bop album with latin influences -All Killer No Filler! John Hicks (Piano), Terumasa Hino (Trumpet), Woody Shaw (Producer), Clint Houston (Bass), Victor Lewis (Drums),Carter Jefferson (Sax ), Lani Groves (Vocals), Shunzo Ohno (Trumpet), Steve Thornton (Percussion), Harry Whitaker (Piano) Here's the customary underwhelming AMG review : Tenor saxophonist Carter Jefferson made somewhat of a name for himself when trumpeter Woody Shaw chose him as a member of his first working quintet. Shaw is the producer of this album, Jefferson's fine debut (and evidently only) recording as a leader. Taking a cue from Shaw, the saxophonist sticks essentially to a quintet of trumpet and sax backed by all-star rhythm sections. Three of the tracks include hard bop trumpeter Terumasa Hino while the other three feature little-known Japanese trumpeter Shunzo Ono. Most of the tunes are firmly in the school of hard bop, the sort of music that Woody Shaw played so well. While there is not any new ground broken, it is all performed competently enough. While not as emotionally charged as his work with Shaw, Jefferson impresses with a fluid, mobile attack that shows a solid grasp of his material. If the groups seem to be sometimes merely going through the motions, there are nonetheless enough fine moments to make this a worthwhile purchase.AMG. A reliable and advanced soloist who spent most of his career as a sideman, Carter Jefferson is best-remembered for his association with Woody Shaw during 1977-1980. Jefferson started on clarinet and played alto before settling on tenor, going on tour early in the backup bands of the Temptations, the Supremes, and Little Richard. In 1971, he moved to New York to attend New York University and soon spent two years with Mongo Santamaria and a period in 1973 as a member of Art Blakey's Jazz Messengers. After his important stint with Woody Shaw (with whom he recorded several times), Jefferson worked with many top players, including Elvin Jones, Roy Haynes, Cedar Walton, Jerry Gonzalez & the Fort Apache Band, Malachi Thompson, and Jack Walrath's Masters of Suspense. His premature death in Poland after emergency surgery was a major loss. Carter Jefferson only led one record, The Rise of Atlantis, on the Timeless label in 1978. AMG. [63]33 comments made-how about you? 10.7.09 [64]JULIO GUTIERREZ - PROGRESSIVE LATIN Julio Gutierrez for Gema from 1960. The title says it all for this groundbreaking heavyweight descarga session...Highly recommended. Has anyone out there got a copy of Gutierrez's "Havana BC" they want to sell me?If so leave me a message in the comments. Progressive Latin should be considered a classic of Latin jazz if it isn't already. "Cosa Buena" cooks, and "Closing Time" is a slower bossa nova with flute and horns that captures the mood of a good night out at its end. "Yambambe," an Afro rhythm behind mostly piano, sounds more sophisticated than its simple construction. "El Altiplano" is supposed to be an Incan melody with Afro elements. In any case, vocal interjections pave the way for a longer descarga where a variety of intriguing elements (horns, flute piano, even organ) work together in their own weird ways and combinations. The "Route 66" theme arrangement is a coup; the sax and flute are recorded gorgeously, and the piano and conga pace it ideally, with brief drum solo breaks. "Sad City" is a haunting flute piece, while "Guantanamera" has an interesting change but there is only so much one can expect from this tune. "Malaguena" is another long descarga that gets a little wild. Progressive Latin is something of a masterpiece from the great arranger Julio Gutierrez. Tony Wilds What impressed me most about this album is Julio's use of space and the length of the tunes, considering that in the era when it was recorded, 2 1/2 minute tunes were standard. Great musicians like El Negro Vivar (trumpet) and Chombo Silva (sax) were able to beautifully stretch out over an almost post-bop/Afro-Cuban jazz setting. There is some serious blowing on this disc. This is another essential Latin jazz gem from the late 50s/early 60s. Jose Rizo [65]22 comments made-how about you? 4.7.09 [66]Older Posts Subscribe to: [67]Posts (Atom) JAZZ - LATIN - SOUNDTRACKS . RARE - OBSCURE -DELETED . ALL RIPS @ 320 FROM ORIGINAL VINYL OR CD. JAZZ - LATIN - SOUNDTRACKS . RARE - OBSCURE -DELETED . ALL RIPS @ 320 FROM ORIGINAL VINYL OR CD. 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Rhythm (from [9]greek rhuthµo'*s - rhythmos, "any measured flow or movement, symmetry") is the variation of the length and accentuation of a series of sounds or other events. Contents * [10]1 Rhythm in linguistics * [11]2 Origins of human appreciation of rhythm * [12]3 Rhythm notation and the oral tradition + [13]3.1 African music + [14]3.2 Indian music + [15]3.3 Western music * [16]4 Types * [17]5 See also * [18]6 Notes * [19]7 Sources * [20]8 Further reading [[21]edit] Rhythm in linguistics The study of rhythm, stress, and [22]pitch in [23]speech is called [24]prosody; it is a topic in [25]linguistics. Narmour (1980, p. 147-53) describes three categories of prosodic rules which create rhythmic successions which are additive (same duration repeated), cumulative (short-long), or countercumulative (long-short). Cumulation is associated with closure or relaxation, countercumulation with openness or tension, while additive rhythms are open-ended and repetitive. Richard Middleton points out this method cannot account for [26]syncopation and suggests the concept of [27]transformation. A [28]rhythmic unit is a [29]durational pattern which occupies a period of time equivalent to a [30]pulse or pulses on an underlying [31]metric level, as opposed to a [32]rhythmic gesture which does not (DeLone et al. (Eds.), 1975 [[33]edit] Origins of human appreciation of rhythm In his series How Music Works, [34]Howard Goodall presents theories that rhythm recalls how we walk and the heartbeat we heard in the womb. More likely is that a simple pulse or [35]di-dah beat recalls the footsteps of another person. Our sympathetic urge to dance is designed to boost our energy levels in order to cope with someone, or some animal chasing us - a fight or flight response. From a less darwinist perspective, perceiving rhythm is the ability to master the otherwise invisible dimension, time. Rhythm is possibly also rooted in courtship ritual.^[36][1] Neurologist [37]Oliver Sacks posits that human affinity for rhythm is fundamental, so much that a person's sense of rhythm cannot be lost in the way that music and language can (e.g. by [38]stroke). In addition, he states that [39]chimpanzees and other animals show no similar appreciation for rhythm.^[40][2] [[41]edit] Rhythm notation and the oral tradition Worldwide there are many different approaches to passing on rhythmic phrases and patterns, as they exist in traditional music, from generation to generation. [[42]edit] African music In the [43]Griot tradition of Africa everything related to music has been passed on orally. [44]Babatunde Olatunji (1927-2003), a Nigerian drummer who lived and worked in the [45]United States, developed a simple series of spoken sounds for teaching the rhythms of the hand drum. He used six vocal sounds: Goon Doon Go Do Pa Ta. There are three basic sounds on the drum, but each can be played with either the left or the right hand. This simple system is now used worldwide, particularly by [46]Djembe players. [[47]edit] Indian music Indian music has also been passed on orally. Tabla players would learn to speak complex rhythm patterns and phrases before attempting to play them. [48]Sheila Chandra, an English pop singer of Indian descent, made performances based around her singing these patterns. In [49]Indian Classical music, the [50]Tala of a composition is the rhythmic pattern over which the whole piece is structured. [[51]edit] Western music Standard [52]music notation contains rhythmic information and is adapted specifically for drums and percussion instruments. The drums are generally used to keep other instruments in 'time'. They do this by supplying beats/strikes in time at a certain pace, i.e. 70 beats per minute (bpm). In [53]Rock music, a drum beat is used to keep a [54]bass/[55]guitar line in time. [[56]edit] Types In [57]Western music, rhythms are usually arranged with respect to a [58]time signature, partially signifying a meter. The speed of the underlying [59]pulse is sometimes called the [60]beat. The [61]tempo is a measure of how quickly the pulse repeats. The tempo is usually measured in 'beats per minute' (bpm); 60 bpm means a speed of one beat per second. The length of the meter, or metric unit (usually corresponding with [62]measure length), is usually grouped into either two or three beats, being called [63]duple meter and [64]triple meter, respectively. If each beat is divided by two or four, it is [65]simple meter, if by three (or six) [66]compound meter. According to [67]Pierre Boulez, beat structures beyond four are "simply not natural".^[68][3]. His reference is to western European music. Standard notation of a clave pattern on audio clip clave pattern.ogg [69]Syncopated rhythms are rhythms that accent parts of the beat not already stressed by [70]counting. Playing simultaneous rhythms in more than one time signature is called [71]polymeter. See also [72]polyrhythm. In recent years, rhythm and meter have become an important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these areas includes books by [73]Maury Yeston, [74]Fred Lerdahl and [75]Ray Jackendoff, [76]Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty, William Rothstein, and Joel Lester. Grid notation of single a clave pattern Some [77]genres of music make different use of rhythm than others. Most Western music is based on [78]subdivision, while non-Western music uses more [79]additive rhythm. [80]African music makes heavy use of [81]polyrhythms, and [82]Indian music uses [83]complex cycles such as 7 and 13, while [84]Balinese music often uses complex [85]interlocking rhythms. By comparison, a lot of Western [86]classical music is fairly rhythmically (or metrically) simple; it stays in a [87]simple meter such as 4/4 or 3/4 and makes little use of [88]syncopation. [89]Clave is a common underlying rhythm in [90]African, [91]Cuban music, and [92]Brazilian music. [93]Claves (Submit) Play sound Four beats followed by three Clave patterns __________________________________________________________________ Problems listening to this file? See [94]media help. In the 20th century, [95]composers like [96]Igor Stravinsky, [97]Bela Bartok, [98]Philip Glass, and [99]Steve Reich wrote more rhythmically complex music using [100]odd meters, and techniques such as [101]phasing and [102]additive rhythm. At the same time, modernists such as [103]Olivier Messiaen and his pupils used increased complexity to disrupt the sense of a regular beat, leading eventually to the widespread use of [104]irrational rhythms in [105]New Complexity. This use may be explained by a comment of [106]John Cage's^[[107]where?] where he notes that regular rhythms cause sounds to be heard as a group rather than individually; the irregular rhythms highlight the rapidly changing pitch relationships that would otherwise be subsumed into irrelevant rhythmic groupings (Sandow 2004, p. 257). [108]LaMonte Young also wrote music in which the sense of a regular beat is absent because the music consists only of long sustained tones ([109]drones). In the 1930s, [110]Henry Cowell wrote music involving multiple simultaneous periodic rhythms and collaborated with [111]Léon Thérémin to invent the [112]Rhythmicon, the first electronic [113]rhythm machine, in order to perform them. Similarly, [114]Conlon Nancarrow wrote for the [115]player piano. [[116]edit] See also * [117]Meter (music) * [118]Prosody (linguistics) * [119]Riddim * [120]Morse Code * [121]Soul (music) * [122]Time scale (music) * [123]Timing (linguistics) [[124]edit] Notes 1. [125]^ [126]Mithen, Steven (2005). [127]The Singing Neanderthals: The Origins of Music, Language, Mind and Body.. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.. [128]ISBN [129]0297643177. 2. [131]^ [132]Jon Stewart, [133]Oliver Sacks. (2009-06-29). [134]The Daily Show with Jon Stewart. [Television production]. Comedy Central. itle=oliver-sacks. "People often tried to teach their dogs to dance--it doesn't work." 3. [136]^ In [137]Discovering Music: Rhythm with [138]Leonard Slatkin at 5:05 [[139]edit] Sources * Hasty, Christopher (1997). Meter as Rhythm. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [140]ISBN 0-19-510066-2. * London, Justin (2004). Hearing in Time: Psychological Aspects of Musical Meter. [141]ISBN 0-19-516081-9. * Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music. Philadelphia: Open University Press. [142]ISBN 0-335-15275-9. * Narmour (1980). Cited in DeLone et al. (Eds.) (1975). Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. [143]ISBN 0-13-049346-5. * Sandow, Greg (2004). "A Fine Madness", The Pleasure of Modernist Music. [144]ISBN 1-58046-143-3. * Yeston, Maury (1976). "The Stratification of Musical Rhythm". [[145]edit] Further reading * McGaughey, William (2001). "Rhythm and Self-Consciousness: New Ideals for an Electronic Civilization". Minneapolis: Thistlerose Publications. [146]ISBN 0-9605630-4-0. * Honing, H. (2002). [147]"Structure and interpretation of rhythm and timing." Tijdschrift voor Muziektheorie [Dutch Journal of Music Theory] 7(3): 227-232. * Lewis, Andrew (2005). Rhythm--What it is and How to Improve Your Sense of It. San Francisco: [148]RhythmSource Press. [149]ISBN 978-0-9754667-0-4. * Williams, C. F. A., The Aristoxenian Theory of Musical Rhythm, (Cambridge Library Collection - Music), Cambridge University Press; 1st edition, 2009. * Toussaint, G. T., "The geometry of musical rhythm," In J. Akiyama, M. Kano, and X. Tan, editors, Proceedings of the Japan Conference on Discrete and Computational Geometry, Vol. 3742, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2005, pp. 198-212. 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See [290]Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [291]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * [292]Contact us * [293]Privacy policy * [294]About Wikipedia * [295]Disclaimers Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1]Daniel Laberge music Rhythm explained including 27 rhythm exercises by Daniel Laberge Rhythm figure Hi rhythm lovers, I've devised these exercises in the early seventies while teaching music. I could not find any existing book that saw rhythm the way I did. This method is based on "rhythmic figures" or rhythm possibilities. Each one lasts one beat. I simply counted the rhythmic possibilities one could encounter for each type of beat divisions. There are: o Four rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by two o Eight rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by three o Sixteen rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by four I composed the exercises back then and used them for my teaching, but I only wrote the theory that goes along in 2002. The book is called "Rhythm explained" and I am gradually placing its content here. Each exercise is preceded by a lesson, with graphic representations, and includes an audio rendition to help you. You can choose between three speeds. For jazz musicians, the binary exercises also have a swing or double swing performance. Go to the bottom of the page for a link to the swing version. Choose among the following exercises: Beat exercises [2]Rhythm exercise 1-1 Featured figures [3][onequarternote1.gif] [4] [onehalfnote1.gif] [5] [dottedhalfnote1.gif] [6] [wholenote1.gif] [7]Rhythm exercise 1-2 Featured figures [8][quarternoterest1.gif] [9] [halfnoterest1.gif] [10] [wholenoterest1.gif] [11]Rhythm exercise 1-3 Featured figures [12][quarternoterest1.gif] [13] [halfnoterest1.gif] [14] [dottedhalfnoterest1.gif] [15] [wholenoterest1.gif] Binary beat division The binary family is large as it includes: o Division by two o Division by four o Part of division by six o Division by eight This section is concerned with the simple division by two. Any binary beat has two alternating parts: the downbeat and the upbeat. Binary beat [binarybeat1.gif] As you can see, there are only two places in a beat where events or notes can be positioned or played: o The downbeat o The upbeat How rhythmic possibilities work This means that for any given beat you can have any of the four following possibilities: 1 o Only one event on the downbeat. 2 o Events on both the downbeat and the upbeat. 3 o No event at all. 4 o Only one event on the upbeat. [possibilitiesbytwosimple1.gif] The rhythmic figure used to represent a binary beat is called: TWO EIGHTH NOTES [masterfigurebinary1.gif] Binary master rhythmic figure Simple binary rhythmic figures 4 possibilities: o 2 Primary o 2 Secondary [possibilitiesbytwo1.gif] Secondary rhythmic figures lack the event that falls on the beat. There is a secondary figure for each primary one. Because the beat is so important, secondary figures have appeared after the primary ones had been well established. The absence of event falling on the beat can be due to a silence or a sound that is held over from the preceding beat. Because of this, there are two ways to notate secondary figures: o With a rest o With a tie [primarysecondary1.gif] Primary and secondary rhythmic figures Choose among the following exercises: Binary exercises PRIMARY [16]Rhythm exercise 2-1 Featured figure [17][twoeighthnotes2.gif] [18]Rhythm exercise 2-2 Featured figures [19][twoeighthnotes2.gif] [20] [quarternoterest2.gif] SECONDARY [21]Rhythm exercise 2-3 Featured figure [22][dottedquarternoteeighth2.gif] [23]Rhythm exercise 2-4 Featured figure [24][eighthnotesyncopationa2.gif] [25]Rhythm exercise 2-5 Featured figure [26][twoeighttieonequarter2.gif] MULTIPLE SYNCOPATIONS [27]Rhythm exercise 2-6 Featured figure [28][doublesyncopationa2.gif] Ternary beat division The ternary family is small as it includes: o Division by three o Part of division by six Everything goes in thirds in ternary music. Any ternary beat has one downbeat and two upbeats. Ternary beat [ternarybeat1.gif] The rhythmic figure used to represent a ternary beat is called: THREE EIGHTH NOTES [masterfigureternary1.gif] Ternary master rhythmic figure Writing ternary rhythm In ternary music writing, each eighth note is worth one third of a beat. Since two eighth notes always equal one quarter note, these now equal two thirds of a beat. It takes a dotted quarter note to represent one beat. [ternarywriting1.gif] Ternary rhythmic figures 8 possibilities: o 4 Primary o 4 Secondary [possibilitiesbythree1.gif] Choose among the following exercises: Ternary exercises PRIMARY [29]Rhythm exercise 3-1 Featured figure [30][threeeighth2.gif] [31]Rhythm exercise 3-2 Featured figure [32][onequarteroneeighth2.gif] [33]Rhythm exercise 3-3 Featured figure [34][oneeighthonequarter2.gif] SECONDARY [35]Rhythm exercise 3-1s Featured figure [36][8threst2eighth2.gif] OR [37] [tie3eighth2.gif] [38]Rhythm exercise 3-2s Featured figure [39][quarternoterestoneeighth2.gif] OR [40] [tiequarternote1eighth.gif] [41]Rhythm exercise 3-3s Featured figure [42][8threst1quarternote2.gif] OR [43] [tie1eighth1quarter2.gif] Division by four Beats divided by four are part of the binary family. Everything goes in quarters in this feel. Beat divided by four [binarybeat2.gif] The rhythmic figure used to represent a beat divided by four is called: FOUR SIXTEENTH NOTES [masterfigurebyfour1.gif] Division by four master rhythmic figure Binary rhythmic figures 16 possibilities: o 8 Primary o 8 Secondary [possibilitiesbyfour1.gif] Choose among the following exercises: Division by four exercises PRIMARY [44]Rhythm exercise 4-1 Featured figure [45][foursixteenth2.gif] [46]Rhythm exercise 4-2 Featured figure [47][oneeighthtwosixteenth2.gif] [48]Rhythm exercise 4-3 Featured figure [49][twosixteenthoneeighth2.gif] [50]Rhythm exercise 4-4 Featured figure [51][dottedeighthonesixteenth2.gif] [52]Rhythm exercise 4-5 Featured figure [53][onesixteenthdottedeighth2.gif] [54]Rhythm exercise 4-6 Featured figure [55][16th8th16th2.gif] SECONDARY [56]Rhythm exercise 4-1s Featured figure [57][16threst3sixteenth2.gif] OR [58] [tiefoursixteenth2.gif] [59]Rhythm exercise 4-2s Featured figure [60][8threst2sixteenth2.gif] OR [61] [tie1eighth2sixteenth2.gif] [62]Rhythm exercise 4-3s Featured figure [63][16threst1sixteenth1eighth2.gif] OR [64] [tie2sixteenth1eighth2.gif] [65]Rhythm exercise 4-4s Featured figure [66][dotted8threst1sixteenth2.gif] OR [67] [tiedottereight1sixteenth2.gif] [68]Rhythm exercise 4-5s Featured figure [69][16threstdotted8th.gif] OR [70] [tie16thdotted8th2.gif] [71]Rhythm exercise 4-6s Featured figure [72][16threst1eighth1sixteenth2.gif] OR [73] [tieone16thone8thone16th2.gif] [74]Bugs, problems and comments [75]Daniel Laberge music Références Liens visibles 74. javascript:; Liens cachés : #[1]ORGY IN RHYTHM - Atom [2]ORGY IN RHYTHM - RSS IFRAME: IN+RHYTHM&publishMode=PUBLISH_MODE_BLOGSPOT&navbarType=BLACK&layoutType [4]skip to main | [5]skip to sidebar ORGY IN RHYTHM [6]JAZZ HIP TRIO - JAZZ EN RELIEF Jazz Hip Trio for Riviera France from 1967. Jean-Bernard Eisinger Piano ; Roger Luccioni Bass ;Daniel Humair Drums. More beautiful music from France on this the first Jazz Hip Trio LP. "Orange Boom" was the big tune back in the day but the rest is just fabulous. Needless to say.....All Killer No Filler Another first in public blogland here at OIR. [7]12 comments made-how about you? 12.1.10 [8]MAL WALDRON - TOKYO BOUND Mal Waldron for RCA Victor Japan from 1970. Mal Waldron-Piano;Takeshi Inomata-Drums;Yasuo Arakawa-Bass Tremendous all killer trio date with Waldron joined by a top flight Japanese rhythm section on four original compositions which only saw a release in Japan.Check out the rocking intensity of "Rock One For Jimbo San" and "Japanese Island" which builds from an ominous brooding intro into a marvellous modal waltz."Atomic Energy" blows up with a headlong banging vamp from Waldron's left hand while the right runs all over the keys and then to close "Mount Fujiyama" a more introspective rumination and dissection of the tune's theme. Inomata's drumming is a revelation throughout the session intricate yet swinging with fantastic use of cymbals.(Don't forget to check out Inomata's Sound of Sounds lp also recorded in 1970 which I posted [9]here during the summer) Respect to El Goog for introducing me to this great album.I finally picked a copy up from Japan via ebay last month - not cheap but worth every penny. Very highly recomnmended. [10]37 comments made-how about you? 20.12.09 [11]THE HERBIE HANCOCK TRIO Herbie Hancock for Sony Japan from 1977. Herbie Hancock-Piano;Ron Carter-Bass;Tony Williams-Drums The big three keep it strictly acoustic for this Japanese only release from CBS Sony. 4 originals from Herb plus a rapid romp through "Milestones"...tough stuff. The first V.S.O.P. tour triggered a flood of recording activity in July 1977, but only a fraction of it was released in the U.S. This session, recorded in San Francisco just days before the Quintet concerts in Berkeley and San Diego, finds Herbie Hancock, Ron Carter and Tony Williams mixing it up sans the horns and the results are more reflective and cerebral than the full Quintet concerts. Hancock is thoroughly in control of the agenda while Williams throws in those meter-fracturing flurries that keep everyone on their toes. There is a startling re-interpretation of "Speak like a Child" which is significantly tougher and busier than the wistful Blue Note version, as well as challenging Hancock originals like "Watcha Waiting For" and "Watch It." This is uncompromising acoustic jazz, commercial anathema in the electronic '70s -and thus, only Japan got to hear it. Richard S. Ginell. [12]16 comments made-how about you? 13.12.09 [13]JAZZ HIP TRIO - PORTRAITS Jazz Hip Trio for Riviera France from 1968. Jean-Bernard Eisinger Piano ; Roger Luccioni Bass ;Daniel Humair Drums. Piano trios are the theme for my the next few posts and what better way to start than with some beautiful music from France on it's first time out in blogland here at OIR. 10 original compositions which grow and grow on repeated listening - get past the "Sidewinder" influenced dance floor intro tune "Bat Rock" and you're in for a swinging set of subtle trio sounds.Of course it's gotta be...... All Killer No Filler [14]23 comments made-how about you? 6.12.09 [15]THE DIAMOND FIVE - BRILLIANT ! The Diamond Five for Fontana from 1964. Personnel: Cees Slinger: piano; Harry Verbeke: tenor sax; Cees Smal: trumpet, cornet and valve trombone; Jacques Schols: bass; Johnny Engels: drums. Please check the comments as Chazz has also ripped The Five Diamonds-Finally After Forty Years cd reissue from Japan and will be posting the link shortly.Over to you Chazz! I don't post donations at OIR but just had to make an exception when this was winged across the pond to me from Chazz Katz.It's a very rare piece of hard bop from Holland which made a blink and miss it reissue on cd some years ago in Japan (original vinyl goes for silly money anywhere between $600-$1000) and has never appeared in blogland before.Here's the notes and cheers to Chazz for his rip! Nice work chap - All Killer No Filler! The Diamond Five, a Dutch quintet led by pianist Cees Slinger, was founded in 1959 and lasted until 1965. They were based at the Sheherazade Club in Amsterdam and were quite popular, playing all over Holland and accompanying expatriate American musicians on their visits to Amsterdam. However, when the club closed its doors due to a shift in popular interest from jazz to rock music, the quintet disbanded. This 1964 recording is their only session available on CD. The music is hard bop on the surface, but is neither formulaic nor a copy of the genres imported from the U.S. The musicians are quite unique in their style. Slinger plays sparse notes on his solos, utilizing well-placed pauses in the music to create melodic hard bop with hints of more forward-looking styles. The other outstanding soloist is tenor saxophonist Harry Verbeke, whose solos (in contrast to that of the leader) are filled with a multitude of notes played in the modal vein. The others are also quite stellar, the bass and the drums providing a loose bluesy support and horn man Cees Smal adding something unique with the sounds of his different horns, switching between valve trombone, cornet and trumpet. [16]26 comments made-how about you? 26.11.09 [17]BOBBY HUTCHERSON - CIRRUS Bobby Hutcherson for Blue Note from 1974. Hutch is playing four sets in London this weekend so Katonah from Private Press and I will be propping up the bar for his late spot at Scotts tomorrow night. So here's a 3rd repost for his evergreen "Cirrus" ....All Killer No Filler. This was my very first Bobby Hutcherson post here at OIR back in may 2006.It was ripped from my vinyl copy @192 in those days-I've reupped it @320 this time and taken it from the superb Mosaic Select box set.Here's my original narrative: Cirrus finds Bobby Hutcherson resuming his partnership with tenor saxophonist Harold Land, and the results are marvellous. The pair work with pianist Bill Henderson, trumpeter Woody Shaw, bassist Ray Drummond, drummer Larry Hancock, saxophonist/flautist Emmanuel Boyd and percussionist Kenneth Nash on this set of originals.The album starts with a great version of Woody Shaw's "Rosewood" while the rest of the set is written by Hutcherson and includes "Even Later".Highlight of the lp for me is the atmospheric and brooding "Zuri Dance" - what a corker ! [18]36 comments made-how about you? 13.11.09 [19]DAVE PIKE - LET THE MINSTRELS PLAY ON Dave Pike for Muse from 1978. Vibraphone - Dave Pike / Bass - Luther Hughes / Cello - Luther Hughes / Drums - Ted Hawkes / Guitar - Ron Eschete / Keyboards , Sax - Tom Ranier / Vocals - Carol Eschete. KGML has just posted "Spirits Samba" so dug the lp out for those who would like to hear more. Picked this up in Tony Monson's Disc Empire in the early 80s after hearing Chris Bangs spinning "Swan Lake" and found it had yet another bona fide jazz dance classic to be featured in the shape of "Spirits Samba". Here's an apathetic review from amg: Some Afro-Latin, some fusion and things in between from vibist Dave Pike. Pike is a good player, but sometimes his arrangements bog down between pop and jazz. His style is more remniscent of Red Norvo, with its lighter, less aggressive and flowing lines. [20]12 comments made-how about you? 12.11.09 [21]RANDY WESTON - BLUE MOSES Randy Weston For CTI from 1972. Arranged By - Don Sebesky;Bass - Bill Wood (2) (tracks: B1) , Ron Carter ;Drums - Bill Cobham ;English Horn, Clarinet, Flute - George Marge ;Flugelhorn - Alan Rubin , John Frosk , Marvin Stamm ;Flute - Hubert Laws ;French Horn - Brooks Tillotson , James Buffington ;Oboe, Clarinet, Flute - Romeo Penque ;Piano - Randy Weston Saxophone [Tenor] - Grover Washington, Jr ;Synthesizer [Moog] - David Horowitz Trombone - Garnett Brown , Warren Covington , Wayne Andre ;Trombone - Paul Faulise Trumpet - Freddie Hubbard ;Vocals - Madasme Meddah Super heavyweight banger from CTI - trust Randy Weston to dispense with Creed Taylor's saccharine stylings.All Killer blah blah blah.... Another underwhelming review from Mr Yannow: Randy Weston's most popular record, this Lp (which he had mixed feelings about) features Weston not only on piano but electric keyboards. Backed by Don Sebesky arrangements and assisted by trumpeter Freddie Hubbard and tenor-saxophonist Grover Washington Jr., Weston plays quite well on four of his compositions; best-known are "Ganawa (Blue Moses)" and "Marrakesh Blues." The music retains the African feel of most of Weston's latter-day playing but also has some commercial touches that do not hurt the performances. This rewarding date has not yet been reissued on CD. ~ Scott Yanow, All Music Guide Fantastic cover art from Pete Turner - I highly recommend his book[22] here. [23]16 comments made-how about you? 7.11.09 [24]BLACKCLASSICAL - 1ST BIRTHDAY MEGAMIX Blackclassical has taken off his flat cap ,put the racing pigeons away and is celebrating his first year on t'interwebs with a mighty mp3 mash up of spiritual jazz goodness[25] here.Proof indeed that it's not all grim up north. Happy Birthday you old bastard - now get the lagers in and make sure they've got vodka tops you tightarse. [26]3 comments made-how about you? 6.11.09 [27]TUBBT HAYES - TUBBS IN N.Y. Tubby Hayes for Fontana from 1961. Saxophone [Tenor] - Tubby Hayes; Bass - George Duvivier; Drums - Dave Bailey ;Piano - Horace Parlan ; Trumpet - Clark Terry;Vibraphone - Eddie Costa Another first in blogland for this British vinyl rarity at OIR with Tubbs keeping heavy company in NYC . Apparently there was legal wrangling about who owns the masters so don't hold your breath waiting for a cd issue.The last one got pulled pronto upon release in 1990. The swaggering "A Pint Of Bitter" was my very first exposure to Hayes back in the early 80s - I just love that tune - but the rest is just as good with flat out romps through "Opus Ocean" and "Airegin" plus a wonderfuly swinging "Soon" . Nice! [28]26 comments made-how about you? 31.10.09 [29]TUBBY HAYES QUARTET - TUBBY'S GROOVE Tubby Hayes for Tempo from 1960. Tubby Hayes (ts), Terry Shannon (p), Phil Bates (b), Phil Seamen (d). "Tin Tin Deo" killin' it every time for me on this rare piece of British wax from 50 years ago. Simon Spillet has written a fascinating piece on Tubby at[30] Jazzscript and here's his take on this album: I think it's one of Tubby's best ever studio recordings and catches him very much in his prime. I suppose that the stand-out track for me has to be Sunny Monday with its unaccompanied tenor choruses. The tone is big, the rhythmic delivery is full of confidence and the sheer enthusiasm shines through half a century on. [31]23 comments made-how about you? 30.10.09 [32]STAFFAN ABELEEN QUINTET -PERSEPOLIS Staffan Abeleen for Philips Sweden from 1964. Staffan Abeleen-Piano ; Lasse Farnlof - Trumpet ; Bjorn Netz - Tenor ; Bjorn Alke - Bass ; Bosse Skoglund - Drums More top draw business from Sweden making a first appearance in blogland.Modal to bossa to ballads this one's got the lot: ALL KILLER NO FILLER [33]15 comments made-how about you? 15.10.09 [34]BERNT ROSENGREN BIG BAND - FIRST MOVES Bernt Rosengren for EMI Sweden from 1977. Bassoon, Horn - Lars Bagge/Clarinet, Clarinet [Bass], Saxophone [Soprano, Alto, Baritone] - Lennart Jansson /Congas - Johnny Martinez , René Martinez , Sabu Martinez Cornet , Flugelhorn - Lars Färnlöf /Drums - Leif Wennerström/Flute, Saxophone -Bernt Rosengren /Horn [English], Saxophone - Tommy Koverhult / Percussion - Okay Temiz / Piano - Claes-Göran Fagerstedt / Piano, Piano [Electric] - Bobo Stenson / Saxophone [Baritone] - Gunnar Bergsten / Saxophone [Tenor] - Anders Lindskog / Trombone - Jan Jansson , Janus Miezek , Lars Olofsson , Lennart Löfgren / Trombone [Bass] - Sven Larsson /Trumpet - Björn Borg /Trumpet , Flugelhorn - Bertil Lövgren , Maffy Falay / Bass - Torbjörn Hultcrantz Back over to Sweden for this killer big band session led by Bernt Rosengren and featuring some big names such as a pre-ECM Bobo Stenson,the wonderful Lars Farnlof and none other than the mighty Sabu Martinez. Check out the percussion destruction of "Felicidade" with Sabu plus sons Johnny and Rene Martinez beating the crap out of the Jobim bossa standard... Murdah!!! [35]19 comments made-how about you? 1.10.09 [36]JAZZ QUINTET 60 Jazz Quintet 60 from 1962 for Metronome Denmark. Allan Botschinsky (tp), Niels Husum (ts), Bent Axen (p), Niels-Henning Orsted Pedersen (b), Bjarne Rostvold (ds). Legendary Scandinavian rarity (Check the second mortgage prices on [37]Popsike) from Denmark featuring a who's who of the Danish Jazz scene from the past 50 years. First time it's has been posted in public blogland so don't sleep on this one : ALL KILLER NO FILLER ! [38]27 comments made-how about you? 27.9.09 [39]STAFFAN ABELEEN QUINTET - DOWNSTREAM Staffan Abeleen Quintet for Philips Sweden from 1966. Staffan Abeleen - Piano ; Lasse Farnlof - Trumpet ; Bjorn Netz - Sax ; Bosse Skugland - Drums ; Paul Danielsson - Bass. All compositions by Lars Farnlof Scandinavia is the destination for my next batch of posts and what better way to start than with this superb album by The Staffen Abeleen Quintet playing the compositions of the wonderful Lars Farnlof. Another first appearance in blogland but let the music do the talking ... ALL KILLER NO FILLER [40]15 comments made-how about you? 19.9.09 [41]ARCHIE SHEPP & THE FAMILY OF PERCUSSION - HERE COMES THE FAMILY I have had lots of requests for a repost of this bomb from Archie Shepp and The Family of Percussion - so here it is. First posted at OIR september 2006. The Family of Percussion (Peter Giger,Trilok Gurtu,Doug Hammond and Tom Nicholas)are joined by Archie Shepp on this hard to find 1980 release from Nagara in Germany. On "Here Comes the Family"the Family establish the basic form of the piece with their rhythmic and vocal opening with Shepp's flute fluttering above it all.Then he lets rip with what the liner notes call 'Poetic Recitation'but would probably be called rapping these days over a funky percussive backdrop .This tune is why the lp remains in such demand - a big play list favourite of djs world wide. Next up is Shepp's "Street Song" the best cut on the lp for me,on which he blows his tenor freely over the drums,congas,bells and gongs.The piece ends in a crescendo of percussion culminating in a gong crash which fades into silence."Euterpe's Favorit"has Shepp back on flute with the family weaving a mystical feel behind him on bells,whistles,water pipes,gongs,rattles and drums. "Ardopetori"starts side 2 with a mid tempo infectious rhythm established by shakers and log drum which builds slowly with Shepp soloing freely again on tenor. "For Ti Roro"wraps it up and begins with the gentle,caribean sounds of steel drums until Shepp's soprano bursts in with a frenzy of excitement.This is the most free track with all the musicians reacting to each otherboth collectively and singularly until it finishes fittingly with the sound of the congas. This came out on lp and cd but quickly dissapeared without trace.if you want a copy you gonna have to dig hard and have deep pockets! [42]18 comments made-how about you? [43]HIROSHI SUZUKI - CAT Hiroshi Suzuki for Columbia Japan from 1975. Hiroshi Suzuki-Trombone ; Hiromasa Suzuki-Keyboards ; Akira Ishikawa-Drums ; Takeru Muraoka-Sax ; Kunimitsu Inaba-Bass More super rare J Jazz making a first appearance in blogland and this is an absolute beauty made up of 5 long cuts that hit the perfect balance between jazz and fusion.Acoustic bass meshed with subtle funky drums topped with lashings of Rhodes,trombone and sax deliver a really stretched out understated rolling groove. The album just grows and grows with repeated listening and it's a big favourite over here at Bacoso's Big Top - no surprise that it's ALL KILLER NO FILLER ! [44]34 comments made-how about you? 7.9.09 [45]T. INOMATA & SOUND L.T.D. - SOUNDS OF SOUND L.T.D. Takeshi Inomata for Columbia Japan from 1970. Takeshi Inomata (Drums & Percussion) Jun Suzuki (Electric Bass) Shigetok Kamiya (Electric Guitar) Ryo Kawasaki (Electric Guitar) Sho Imai (Trombone & Bass Trombone) Shigemichi Dohmoto (Trombone & Bass Trombone) Takao Uematsu (Tenor Sax & Soprano Sax) Fantastic lp of funky jazz from the Columbia issued Groovy Sound Series. No idea who plays on it as the credits are all in Japanese but it's a monster session. Check out "Mustache" and "Tak's Tune" for some severe beats from drummer/leader Takeshi Inomata. All Killer No Filler - Highly Recommended! [46]22 comments made-how about you? 29.8.09 [47]HIDEO SHIRAKI - IN FIESTA Hideo Shiraki for Teichiku Japan from 1961. Rare super tough hard bop session from Japan featuring the killer koto led and drum driven bomb "In Fiesta". Reissued in Japan by Kyoto Jazz Massive for Think in a blink and miss it moment back in 2005 but now out of print. The old Dusty Groove blurb: A brilliant early album from Japanese drummer Hideo Shiraki a jazz session that bristles with the same intensity as key late 50s work by Benny Golson or Gigi Gryce! Although Hideo's leading the group on drums, his work on the kit is remarkably subtle done with the snappingly rhythmic style that marked some of Golson's best modern experiments of a few years before not nearly as bombastic as his stint with Art Blakey, and more in the rhythmically stepping quality of his work with Art Farmer in the Jazztet. Key players on the session include Hidehiko Matsumoto on tenor and flute and Yuzuru Sera on piano both of whom give the album a fluid grace that's really beautiful soulful edges that allow the record to stand equally next to anything coming out of the US at the time. One track features a bit of koto at the start -- echoing Shiraki's later world jazz experiments but most of the set is straight modern hardbop, with tracks that include "Blue Romeo", "Etude No 1", "Just One Or Eight", "You Don't Know What Love Is", and Benny Golson's "Five Spot After Dark". [48]14 comments made-how about you? 18.8.09 [49]LLOYD MCNEILL - TREASURES Lloyd McNeill for Baobab from 1976. Lloyd McNeill-Flute ; Dom Salvador-Piano ; Cecil McBee-Bass ; Portinho , Brian Brake-Drums ; Ray Armando-Percussion. One for the flute freaks on a private press out of NYC. Heavy Brazilian infuences at work on this wonderful spiritual jazz session from the great Lloyd McNeill.Two originals,one standard and a cracking version of Salvador's "Salvation Army" which featured on Dom's '76 Muse debut "Minha Familia"(Available at [50]Ile Oxumare). Here's some info on Lloyd McNeill from the excellent [51]Hipwax: The first thing to know about Lloyd McNeill is that his are the very best soul-jazz flute LPs, and each is first-rate, a masterpiece of self-direction. The second thing to know is there is much more to him than his recorded legacy. He is one of those incredible, super-sensitive people who excels at every artistic idiom and endeavor; making wonderful music is just part of his flowing creativity. A professor (at Rutgers University, earlier Dartmouth), he has much to say about music and creativity as well as an impeccable gift for saying it...sensibly. McNeill's writings on his musical experiences provide invaluable documents of "the period" (late 1960s-1970s) as well as a rare glimpse at the joy of a relatively unsung master. McNeill has played with jazz legends --Andrew White (his longtime collaborator/producer), Eric Dolphy, Sabu Martinez, Mulatu Astatke, among many others-- and he has had a significant hand in the arts scene of Washington, D.C. The major galleries of art, including those of the Smithsonian, sponsored multi-media "happenings" that soared far above the hippie caricature of acid rock with light show. During the first flowering of post-Civil Rights, African-American culture, the Lloyd McNeill Quartet's improvisitory, simultaneuous jazz and large-scale painting "happened" while a lucky, perhaps unsuspecting public drank it in. McNeill believes his influences and their results in his art, music, and poetry are inseparable and mutually reinforcing. Time spent with Picasso in Cannes, 1965 led to new expressions in all three, for instance. And when one brushes against a force such as Picasso, just the idea of "meeting Picasso" has a certain momentum, never mind the inevitable casting of rays of a different kind of light. Canvas, vinyl, the stage, paper, and books of poetry offer a few key imprints of McNeill, and McNeill consistently pays tribute to many illustrious peers. There are six albums, all produced and entirely under the artist's control. Each title surpasses anything comparable on the major labels, even Blue Note. The Black Jazz label may be roughly similar in style, but Asha and Baobab are wholly Lloyd McNeill. The records reflect none of the usual external trends from the decade in which they were recorded; all sound like 1971 rather than 1979. The final record even reprises the first (the exotic, broodingly moody "Asha"), and the sound throughout remains somewhat interchangeable and timeless. But each record has its own themes and currents, and even improvisation has its signatures and fingerprints. Buying: Long out of print, collectors items, Lloyd McNeill records should be snapped up on sight. Hip Wax is pleased to offer two titles for which limited stock remains [52]here. Warning - McNeill lps can be damaging to the [53]wallet. [54]29 comments made-how about you? 14.8.09 [55]If Spike Lee Did Movies In Audio... Greg's back on the mix with his old mucker Monohub - another mashed up bomb in memory of Coltrane and the late,great George Russell.Grab it [56]HERE. Here's the blurb from big daddy himself: I did a version of this a while back and was planning to publish on July 17th as a memorial to the day that John Coltrane died, but, a combination of lack of time, work commitments and other things got in the way... Anyway I redid it and am glad that i did as it's much better than the original. This one strictly for the heads... and defo not for the feint hearted. If you liked the Black State of Vietnam mix then this is for you... So as i said; In respect of John Coltrane and George Russell. Much thanks to Monohub too although he plays down his part in this, his genius did have a lot to do with it... [57]1 comments made-how about you? 3.8.09 [58]SADAO WATANABE AND CHARLIE MARIANO - IBERIAN WALTZ Sadao and Charlie for Tact Japan from 1967. Sadao Watanabe (as) , Charlie Mariano (as) , Masabumi Kikuchi (p) , Masanaga Harada (b) , Masahiko Togashi (ds) , Fumio Watanabe (ds) This received a "Japan Jazz Award" on release. Some severe blowing on this double alto led sextet featuring a young band of soon to be Japanese jazz luminaries. The fast and furious "Palisades" was comped on the Sleepwalker Shibuya Jazz Classics.However the 16 minute title cut is the stand out tune an intense modal waltz with a Spanish tinge featuring coruscating solos from Mariano and Watanabe - hard core stuff. Recommended. [59]16 comments made-how about you? 28.7.09 [60]JAMES MARENTIC SEXTET - NIMBUS James Marentic for Discovery from 1982. James Marentic-Sax/Flute; Tom Harrell -Trumpet/Flugelhorn; Slide Hampton-Trombone; Larry Willis-Piano; Anthony Cox-Bass; Victor Lewis-Drums. Storming post hard bop outing for Mr Marentic and his all star band. Check out the banging latin romp "Baile de las Cucharachas " which kicks off the lp in fine style and the Coltrane inspired "Nimbus". "Aphrodesia" has the inspiration of Kenny Dorham stamped all over it and no prizes for guessing who "Mr Silver I Presume" is aimed at If you enjoyed Tom Harrell's "Aurora" post then this should be right up your street,round your corner and down your block! [61]8 comments made-how about you? 23.7.09 [62]CARTER JEFFERSON - THE RISE OF ATLANTIS Carter Jefferson for Timeless from 1978. Terrific post bop album with latin influences -All Killer No Filler! John Hicks (Piano), Terumasa Hino (Trumpet), Woody Shaw (Producer), Clint Houston (Bass), Victor Lewis (Drums),Carter Jefferson (Sax ), Lani Groves (Vocals), Shunzo Ohno (Trumpet), Steve Thornton (Percussion), Harry Whitaker (Piano) Here's the customary underwhelming AMG review : Tenor saxophonist Carter Jefferson made somewhat of a name for himself when trumpeter Woody Shaw chose him as a member of his first working quintet. Shaw is the producer of this album, Jefferson's fine debut (and evidently only) recording as a leader. Taking a cue from Shaw, the saxophonist sticks essentially to a quintet of trumpet and sax backed by all-star rhythm sections. Three of the tracks include hard bop trumpeter Terumasa Hino while the other three feature little-known Japanese trumpeter Shunzo Ono. Most of the tunes are firmly in the school of hard bop, the sort of music that Woody Shaw played so well. While there is not any new ground broken, it is all performed competently enough. While not as emotionally charged as his work with Shaw, Jefferson impresses with a fluid, mobile attack that shows a solid grasp of his material. If the groups seem to be sometimes merely going through the motions, there are nonetheless enough fine moments to make this a worthwhile purchase.AMG. A reliable and advanced soloist who spent most of his career as a sideman, Carter Jefferson is best-remembered for his association with Woody Shaw during 1977-1980. Jefferson started on clarinet and played alto before settling on tenor, going on tour early in the backup bands of the Temptations, the Supremes, and Little Richard. In 1971, he moved to New York to attend New York University and soon spent two years with Mongo Santamaria and a period in 1973 as a member of Art Blakey's Jazz Messengers. After his important stint with Woody Shaw (with whom he recorded several times), Jefferson worked with many top players, including Elvin Jones, Roy Haynes, Cedar Walton, Jerry Gonzalez & the Fort Apache Band, Malachi Thompson, and Jack Walrath's Masters of Suspense. His premature death in Poland after emergency surgery was a major loss. Carter Jefferson only led one record, The Rise of Atlantis, on the Timeless label in 1978. AMG. [63]33 comments made-how about you? 10.7.09 [64]JULIO GUTIERREZ - PROGRESSIVE LATIN Julio Gutierrez for Gema from 1960. The title says it all for this groundbreaking heavyweight descarga session...Highly recommended. Has anyone out there got a copy of Gutierrez's "Havana BC" they want to sell me?If so leave me a message in the comments. Progressive Latin should be considered a classic of Latin jazz if it isn't already. "Cosa Buena" cooks, and "Closing Time" is a slower bossa nova with flute and horns that captures the mood of a good night out at its end. "Yambambe," an Afro rhythm behind mostly piano, sounds more sophisticated than its simple construction. "El Altiplano" is supposed to be an Incan melody with Afro elements. In any case, vocal interjections pave the way for a longer descarga where a variety of intriguing elements (horns, flute piano, even organ) work together in their own weird ways and combinations. The "Route 66" theme arrangement is a coup; the sax and flute are recorded gorgeously, and the piano and conga pace it ideally, with brief drum solo breaks. "Sad City" is a haunting flute piece, while "Guantanamera" has an interesting change but there is only so much one can expect from this tune. "Malaguena" is another long descarga that gets a little wild. Progressive Latin is something of a masterpiece from the great arranger Julio Gutierrez. Tony Wilds What impressed me most about this album is Julio's use of space and the length of the tunes, considering that in the era when it was recorded, 2 1/2 minute tunes were standard. Great musicians like El Negro Vivar (trumpet) and Chombo Silva (sax) were able to beautifully stretch out over an almost post-bop/Afro-Cuban jazz setting. There is some serious blowing on this disc. This is another essential Latin jazz gem from the late 50s/early 60s. Jose Rizo [65]22 comments made-how about you? 4.7.09 [66]Older Posts Subscribe to: [67]Posts (Atom) JAZZ - LATIN - SOUNDTRACKS . RARE - OBSCURE -DELETED . ALL RIPS @ 320 FROM ORIGINAL VINYL OR CD. JAZZ - LATIN - SOUNDTRACKS . RARE - OBSCURE -DELETED . ALL RIPS @ 320 FROM ORIGINAL VINYL OR CD. [68]My Photo Bacoso [69]View my complete profile PLACES & SPACES * [70]Axelgrease * [71]Call It Anything * [72]Cuban Posters * [73]Djalma's Soul Food * [74]El Goog Ja * [75]Far From Ubiquit * [76]Flying Dutchman Records * [77]Groovy Merchant * [78]Ile Oxumare * [79]India Navigation * [80]jazzfluteweinstein * [81]Killer Groove Music Library * [82]LiquidJazz.com * [83]Magic Purple Sunshine * [84]Mainstream shad shack * [85]My Favourite Sound© * [86]My Jazz World * [87]never enough rhodes * [88]Nine Sisters * [89]Nothing Is v2.0 * [90]pharaoh's dance * [91]private press * [92]Quimsy's Mumbo Jumbo * [93]SG Canvas * [94]Strata-East Fan Club * [95]The CTI never sleeps * [96]Von Fat Bakon * [97]WONDERFULSOUND DIGGIN' IN THE CRATES * [98]Jan 2010 (1) * [99]Dec 2009 (3) * [100]Nov 2009 (5) * [101]Oct 2009 (4) * [102]Sep 2009 (4) * [103]Aug 2009 (4) * [104]Jul 2009 (4) * [105]Jun 2009 (8) * [106]May 2009 (5) * [107]Apr 2009 (1) * [108]Mar 2009 (4) * [109]Feb 2009 (9) * [110]Jan 2009 (13) * [111]Dec 2008 (6) * [112]Nov 2008 (15) * [113]Oct 2008 (9) * [114]Sep 2008 (3) * [115]Jul 2008 (1) * [116]Jun 2008 (28) * [117]May 2008 (4) * [118]Apr 2008 (6) * [119]Mar 2008 (26) * [120]Feb 2008 (17) * [121]Jan 2008 (10) * [122]Dec 2007 (12) * [123]Nov 2007 (16) * [124]Oct 2007 (21) * [125]Sep 2007 (21) * [126]Aug 2007 (16) * [127]Jul 2007 (10) * [128]Jun 2007 (19) * [129]May 2007 (18) * [130]Apr 2007 (17) * [131]Mar 2007 (19) * [132]Feb 2007 (17) * [133]Jan 2007 (21) * [134]Dec 2006 (19) * [135]Nov 2006 (29) * [136]Oct 2006 (20) * [137]Sep 2006 (29) * [138]Aug 2006 (34) * [139]Jul 2006 (18) * [140]Jun 2006 (22) * [141]May 2006 (40) * [142]Apr 2006 (52) * [143]Mar 2006 (19) Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [spacer1.gif] [blackrainbowhdr01.jpg] IFRAME: uments&banner=0JB0A4VDS5FZSF8J66G2&f=ifr About Rhythmweb A Grassroots Network [dada01a.jpg] (at left: World Unity Drum Festival, Club Dada, Dallas, August 1994. My son Jules, shown at age 12 at left) Rhythmweb started in December of 1996, as a reflection of my virtual search for music and musicians on the Web, and as an excuse to woodshed web design. Since then we have been amazed by the reponse we have recieved, from all corners of the globe. From the Mid-East to Australia, and from South Africa to Europe to New Orleans to Brazil to Papua, NewGuinea, musicians are connecting. Truly, rhythm is a universal language, love of music a universal love. Thanks to all our new friends for connecting with us. Our mission is to further the use of rhythm, music, and percussion & related arts as a healing tool. We LOVE music. We LOVE the Web. When our schedule permits, we surf several [kids097.jpg] hours a night, then we post the fruits of our travels... Every time we meet someone interesting with a rhythm related website, we post a link. Some very worthwhile friendships have evolved along the way, and we've discovered lots of good music. We have since integrated affiliate links to CDs, books, and so forth, but our basic mission remains the same. We are NOT a bunch of suits, drooling e-commerce. We're musicians, artists. We believe it's important for people at the grassroots level to network during this crucial moment in history. If you'll notice, the vast majority of links on rhythmweb are GRASSROOTS musicians, trying to get over in this new economy. You will see no big over-rated stars from the conglomerate record companies. Plenty of that elsewhere. [eric_october03-01b-225.jpg] There are also fan pages and correspondent pages here, on a large number of working musicians. Thanks very much to all for your help. We are actively seeking musicians in various parts of the world to drop us a line now and then, and let us know what the percussion scene is like in your area. If you have a drum lesson you'd like to share with our readers, please let us know, and perhaps we can steer you some traffic in return. If you have an instrument, a CD, or a DVD you'd like for us to review, we may do that too, time permitting; please drop us a line about it. And to the thousands of hobbyist , semi-pro and professional percussionists who come seeking info, and bringing life and enthusiasm, welcome. Don't hesitate to introduce yourself, and send us some feedback, and some links. Drum on, Stu IFRAME: m&mode=books&p=13&o=1&f=ifr [3]Shop at Amazon.com [4]Previous Page | [5]Contact | [6]Home [7][clown.gif] © 1996-2008 Eric Stuer All rights reserved RHYTHMWEB P.O. Box 836711 Richardson TX 75083 RHYTHM WEB(TM); and RHYTHMWEB(TM); are trademarks, and any unauthorized use of the names is a violation of applicable law. Références 4. javascript:history.go(-1); [USEMAP] #[1]Edit this page [2]Wikipedia (en) [3]copyright [4]Wikipedia RSS Feed [5]Wikipedia Atom Feed Rhythm From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search For other uses, see [8]Rhythm (disambiguation). Rhythm (from [9]greek rhuthµo'*s - rhythmos, "any measured flow or movement, symmetry") is the variation of the length and accentuation of a series of sounds or other events. Contents * [10]1 Rhythm in linguistics * [11]2 Origins of human appreciation of rhythm * [12]3 Rhythm notation and the oral tradition + [13]3.1 African music + [14]3.2 Indian music + [15]3.3 Western music * [16]4 Types * [17]5 See also * [18]6 Notes * [19]7 Sources * [20]8 Further reading [[21]edit] Rhythm in linguistics The study of rhythm, stress, and [22]pitch in [23]speech is called [24]prosody; it is a topic in [25]linguistics. Narmour (1980, p. 147-53) describes three categories of prosodic rules which create rhythmic successions which are additive (same duration repeated), cumulative (short-long), or countercumulative (long-short). Cumulation is associated with closure or relaxation, countercumulation with openness or tension, while additive rhythms are open-ended and repetitive. Richard Middleton points out this method cannot account for [26]syncopation and suggests the concept of [27]transformation. A [28]rhythmic unit is a [29]durational pattern which occupies a period of time equivalent to a [30]pulse or pulses on an underlying [31]metric level, as opposed to a [32]rhythmic gesture which does not (DeLone et al. (Eds.), 1975 [[33]edit] Origins of human appreciation of rhythm In his series How Music Works, [34]Howard Goodall presents theories that rhythm recalls how we walk and the heartbeat we heard in the womb. More likely is that a simple pulse or [35]di-dah beat recalls the footsteps of another person. Our sympathetic urge to dance is designed to boost our energy levels in order to cope with someone, or some animal chasing us - a fight or flight response. From a less darwinist perspective, perceiving rhythm is the ability to master the otherwise invisible dimension, time. Rhythm is possibly also rooted in courtship ritual.^[36][1] Neurologist [37]Oliver Sacks posits that human affinity for rhythm is fundamental, so much that a person's sense of rhythm cannot be lost in the way that music and language can (e.g. by [38]stroke). In addition, he states that [39]chimpanzees and other animals show no similar appreciation for rhythm.^[40][2] [[41]edit] Rhythm notation and the oral tradition Worldwide there are many different approaches to passing on rhythmic phrases and patterns, as they exist in traditional music, from generation to generation. [[42]edit] African music In the [43]Griot tradition of Africa everything related to music has been passed on orally. [44]Babatunde Olatunji (1927-2003), a Nigerian drummer who lived and worked in the [45]United States, developed a simple series of spoken sounds for teaching the rhythms of the hand drum. He used six vocal sounds: Goon Doon Go Do Pa Ta. There are three basic sounds on the drum, but each can be played with either the left or the right hand. This simple system is now used worldwide, particularly by [46]Djembe players. [[47]edit] Indian music Indian music has also been passed on orally. Tabla players would learn to speak complex rhythm patterns and phrases before attempting to play them. [48]Sheila Chandra, an English pop singer of Indian descent, made performances based around her singing these patterns. In [49]Indian Classical music, the [50]Tala of a composition is the rhythmic pattern over which the whole piece is structured. [[51]edit] Western music Standard [52]music notation contains rhythmic information and is adapted specifically for drums and percussion instruments. The drums are generally used to keep other instruments in 'time'. They do this by supplying beats/strikes in time at a certain pace, i.e. 70 beats per minute (bpm). In [53]Rock music, a drum beat is used to keep a [54]bass/[55]guitar line in time. [[56]edit] Types In [57]Western music, rhythms are usually arranged with respect to a [58]time signature, partially signifying a meter. The speed of the underlying [59]pulse is sometimes called the [60]beat. The [61]tempo is a measure of how quickly the pulse repeats. The tempo is usually measured in 'beats per minute' (bpm); 60 bpm means a speed of one beat per second. The length of the meter, or metric unit (usually corresponding with [62]measure length), is usually grouped into either two or three beats, being called [63]duple meter and [64]triple meter, respectively. If each beat is divided by two or four, it is [65]simple meter, if by three (or six) [66]compound meter. According to [67]Pierre Boulez, beat structures beyond four are "simply not natural".^[68][3]. His reference is to western European music. Standard notation of a clave pattern on audio clip clave pattern.ogg [69]Syncopated rhythms are rhythms that accent parts of the beat not already stressed by [70]counting. Playing simultaneous rhythms in more than one time signature is called [71]polymeter. See also [72]polyrhythm. In recent years, rhythm and meter have become an important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these areas includes books by [73]Maury Yeston, [74]Fred Lerdahl and [75]Ray Jackendoff, [76]Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty, William Rothstein, and Joel Lester. Grid notation of single a clave pattern Some [77]genres of music make different use of rhythm than others. Most Western music is based on [78]subdivision, while non-Western music uses more [79]additive rhythm. [80]African music makes heavy use of [81]polyrhythms, and [82]Indian music uses [83]complex cycles such as 7 and 13, while [84]Balinese music often uses complex [85]interlocking rhythms. By comparison, a lot of Western [86]classical music is fairly rhythmically (or metrically) simple; it stays in a [87]simple meter such as 4/4 or 3/4 and makes little use of [88]syncopation. [89]Clave is a common underlying rhythm in [90]African, [91]Cuban music, and [92]Brazilian music. [93]Claves (Submit) Play sound Four beats followed by three Clave patterns __________________________________________________________________ Problems listening to this file? See [94]media help. In the 20th century, [95]composers like [96]Igor Stravinsky, [97]Bela Bartok, [98]Philip Glass, and [99]Steve Reich wrote more rhythmically complex music using [100]odd meters, and techniques such as [101]phasing and [102]additive rhythm. At the same time, modernists such as [103]Olivier Messiaen and his pupils used increased complexity to disrupt the sense of a regular beat, leading eventually to the widespread use of [104]irrational rhythms in [105]New Complexity. This use may be explained by a comment of [106]John Cage's^[[107]where?] where he notes that regular rhythms cause sounds to be heard as a group rather than individually; the irregular rhythms highlight the rapidly changing pitch relationships that would otherwise be subsumed into irrelevant rhythmic groupings (Sandow 2004, p. 257). [108]LaMonte Young also wrote music in which the sense of a regular beat is absent because the music consists only of long sustained tones ([109]drones). In the 1930s, [110]Henry Cowell wrote music involving multiple simultaneous periodic rhythms and collaborated with [111]Léon Thérémin to invent the [112]Rhythmicon, the first electronic [113]rhythm machine, in order to perform them. Similarly, [114]Conlon Nancarrow wrote for the [115]player piano. [[116]edit] See also * [117]Meter (music) * [118]Prosody (linguistics) * [119]Riddim * [120]Morse Code * [121]Soul (music) * [122]Time scale (music) * [123]Timing (linguistics) [[124]edit] Notes 1. [125]^ [126]Mithen, Steven (2005). [127]The Singing Neanderthals: The Origins of Music, Language, Mind and Body.. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.. [128]ISBN [129]0297643177. 2. [131]^ [132]Jon Stewart, [133]Oliver Sacks. (2009-06-29). [134]The Daily Show with Jon Stewart. [Television production]. Comedy Central. itle=oliver-sacks. "People often tried to teach their dogs to dance--it doesn't work." 3. [136]^ In [137]Discovering Music: Rhythm with [138]Leonard Slatkin at 5:05 [[139]edit] Sources * Hasty, Christopher (1997). Meter as Rhythm. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [140]ISBN 0-19-510066-2. * London, Justin (2004). Hearing in Time: Psychological Aspects of Musical Meter. [141]ISBN 0-19-516081-9. * Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music. Philadelphia: Open University Press. [142]ISBN 0-335-15275-9. * Narmour (1980). Cited in DeLone et al. (Eds.) (1975). Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. [143]ISBN 0-13-049346-5. * Sandow, Greg (2004). "A Fine Madness", The Pleasure of Modernist Music. [144]ISBN 1-58046-143-3. * Yeston, Maury (1976). "The Stratification of Musical Rhythm". [[145]edit] Further reading * McGaughey, William (2001). "Rhythm and Self-Consciousness: New Ideals for an Electronic Civilization". Minneapolis: Thistlerose Publications. [146]ISBN 0-9605630-4-0. * Honing, H. (2002). [147]"Structure and interpretation of rhythm and timing." Tijdschrift voor Muziektheorie [Dutch Journal of Music Theory] 7(3): 227-232. * Lewis, Andrew (2005). Rhythm--What it is and How to Improve Your Sense of It. San Francisco: [148]RhythmSource Press. [149]ISBN 978-0-9754667-0-4. * Williams, C. F. A., The Aristoxenian Theory of Musical Rhythm, (Cambridge Library Collection - Music), Cambridge University Press; 1st edition, 2009. * Toussaint, G. T., "The geometry of musical rhythm," In J. Akiyama, M. Kano, and X. Tan, editors, Proceedings of the Japan Conference on Discrete and Computational Geometry, Vol. 3742, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2005, pp. 198-212. 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See [290]Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [291]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * [292]Contact us * [293]Privacy policy * [294]About Wikipedia * [295]Disclaimers Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1]Daniel Laberge music Rhythm explained including 27 rhythm exercises by Daniel Laberge Rhythm figure Hi rhythm lovers, I've devised these exercises in the early seventies while teaching music. I could not find any existing book that saw rhythm the way I did. This method is based on "rhythmic figures" or rhythm possibilities. Each one lasts one beat. I simply counted the rhythmic possibilities one could encounter for each type of beat divisions. There are: o Four rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by two o Eight rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by three o Sixteen rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by four I composed the exercises back then and used them for my teaching, but I only wrote the theory that goes along in 2002. The book is called "Rhythm explained" and I am gradually placing its content here. Each exercise is preceded by a lesson, with graphic representations, and includes an audio rendition to help you. You can choose between three speeds. For jazz musicians, the binary exercises also have a swing or double swing performance. Go to the bottom of the page for a link to the swing version. Choose among the following exercises: Beat exercises [2]Rhythm exercise 1-1 Featured figures [3][onequarternote1.gif] [4] [onehalfnote1.gif] [5] [dottedhalfnote1.gif] [6] [wholenote1.gif] [7]Rhythm exercise 1-2 Featured figures [8][quarternoterest1.gif] [9] [halfnoterest1.gif] [10] [wholenoterest1.gif] [11]Rhythm exercise 1-3 Featured figures [12][quarternoterest1.gif] [13] [halfnoterest1.gif] [14] [dottedhalfnoterest1.gif] [15] [wholenoterest1.gif] Binary beat division The binary family is large as it includes: o Division by two o Division by four o Part of division by six o Division by eight This section is concerned with the simple division by two. Any binary beat has two alternating parts: the downbeat and the upbeat. Binary beat [binarybeat1.gif] As you can see, there are only two places in a beat where events or notes can be positioned or played: o The downbeat o The upbeat How rhythmic possibilities work This means that for any given beat you can have any of the four following possibilities: 1 o Only one event on the downbeat. 2 o Events on both the downbeat and the upbeat. 3 o No event at all. 4 o Only one event on the upbeat. [possibilitiesbytwosimple1.gif] The rhythmic figure used to represent a binary beat is called: TWO EIGHTH NOTES [masterfigurebinary1.gif] Binary master rhythmic figure Simple binary rhythmic figures 4 possibilities: o 2 Primary o 2 Secondary [possibilitiesbytwo1.gif] Secondary rhythmic figures lack the event that falls on the beat. There is a secondary figure for each primary one. Because the beat is so important, secondary figures have appeared after the primary ones had been well established. The absence of event falling on the beat can be due to a silence or a sound that is held over from the preceding beat. Because of this, there are two ways to notate secondary figures: o With a rest o With a tie [primarysecondary1.gif] Primary and secondary rhythmic figures Choose among the following exercises: Binary exercises PRIMARY [16]Rhythm exercise 2-1 Featured figure [17][twoeighthnotes2.gif] [18]Rhythm exercise 2-2 Featured figures [19][twoeighthnotes2.gif] [20] [quarternoterest2.gif] SECONDARY [21]Rhythm exercise 2-3 Featured figure [22][dottedquarternoteeighth2.gif] [23]Rhythm exercise 2-4 Featured figure [24][eighthnotesyncopationa2.gif] [25]Rhythm exercise 2-5 Featured figure [26][twoeighttieonequarter2.gif] MULTIPLE SYNCOPATIONS [27]Rhythm exercise 2-6 Featured figure [28][doublesyncopationa2.gif] Ternary beat division The ternary family is small as it includes: o Division by three o Part of division by six Everything goes in thirds in ternary music. Any ternary beat has one downbeat and two upbeats. Ternary beat [ternarybeat1.gif] The rhythmic figure used to represent a ternary beat is called: THREE EIGHTH NOTES [masterfigureternary1.gif] Ternary master rhythmic figure Writing ternary rhythm In ternary music writing, each eighth note is worth one third of a beat. Since two eighth notes always equal one quarter note, these now equal two thirds of a beat. It takes a dotted quarter note to represent one beat. [ternarywriting1.gif] Ternary rhythmic figures 8 possibilities: o 4 Primary o 4 Secondary [possibilitiesbythree1.gif] Choose among the following exercises: Ternary exercises PRIMARY [29]Rhythm exercise 3-1 Featured figure [30][threeeighth2.gif] [31]Rhythm exercise 3-2 Featured figure [32][onequarteroneeighth2.gif] [33]Rhythm exercise 3-3 Featured figure [34][oneeighthonequarter2.gif] SECONDARY [35]Rhythm exercise 3-1s Featured figure [36][8threst2eighth2.gif] OR [37] [tie3eighth2.gif] [38]Rhythm exercise 3-2s Featured figure [39][quarternoterestoneeighth2.gif] OR [40] [tiequarternote1eighth.gif] [41]Rhythm exercise 3-3s Featured figure [42][8threst1quarternote2.gif] OR [43] [tie1eighth1quarter2.gif] Division by four Beats divided by four are part of the binary family. Everything goes in quarters in this feel. Beat divided by four [binarybeat2.gif] The rhythmic figure used to represent a beat divided by four is called: FOUR SIXTEENTH NOTES [masterfigurebyfour1.gif] Division by four master rhythmic figure Binary rhythmic figures 16 possibilities: o 8 Primary o 8 Secondary [possibilitiesbyfour1.gif] Choose among the following exercises: Division by four exercises PRIMARY [44]Rhythm exercise 4-1 Featured figure [45][foursixteenth2.gif] [46]Rhythm exercise 4-2 Featured figure [47][oneeighthtwosixteenth2.gif] [48]Rhythm exercise 4-3 Featured figure [49][twosixteenthoneeighth2.gif] [50]Rhythm exercise 4-4 Featured figure [51][dottedeighthonesixteenth2.gif] [52]Rhythm exercise 4-5 Featured figure [53][onesixteenthdottedeighth2.gif] [54]Rhythm exercise 4-6 Featured figure [55][16th8th16th2.gif] SECONDARY [56]Rhythm exercise 4-1s Featured figure [57][16threst3sixteenth2.gif] OR [58] [tiefoursixteenth2.gif] [59]Rhythm exercise 4-2s Featured figure [60][8threst2sixteenth2.gif] OR [61] [tie1eighth2sixteenth2.gif] [62]Rhythm exercise 4-3s Featured figure [63][16threst1sixteenth1eighth2.gif] OR [64] [tie2sixteenth1eighth2.gif] [65]Rhythm exercise 4-4s Featured figure [66][dotted8threst1sixteenth2.gif] OR [67] [tiedottereight1sixteenth2.gif] [68]Rhythm exercise 4-5s Featured figure [69][16threstdotted8th.gif] OR [70] [tie16thdotted8th2.gif] [71]Rhythm exercise 4-6s Featured figure [72][16threst1eighth1sixteenth2.gif] OR [73] [tieone16thone8thone16th2.gif] [74]Bugs, problems and comments [75]Daniel Laberge music Références Liens visibles 74. javascript:; Liens cachés : #[1]ORGY IN RHYTHM - Atom [2]ORGY IN RHYTHM - RSS IFRAME: IN+RHYTHM&publishMode=PUBLISH_MODE_BLOGSPOT&navbarType=BLACK&layoutType [4]skip to main | [5]skip to sidebar ORGY IN RHYTHM [6]JAZZ HIP TRIO - JAZZ EN RELIEF Jazz Hip Trio for Riviera France from 1967. Jean-Bernard Eisinger Piano ; Roger Luccioni Bass ;Daniel Humair Drums. More beautiful music from France on this the first Jazz Hip Trio LP. "Orange Boom" was the big tune back in the day but the rest is just fabulous. Needless to say.....All Killer No Filler Another first in public blogland here at OIR. [7]12 comments made-how about you? 12.1.10 [8]MAL WALDRON - TOKYO BOUND Mal Waldron for RCA Victor Japan from 1970. Mal Waldron-Piano;Takeshi Inomata-Drums;Yasuo Arakawa-Bass Tremendous all killer trio date with Waldron joined by a top flight Japanese rhythm section on four original compositions which only saw a release in Japan.Check out the rocking intensity of "Rock One For Jimbo San" and "Japanese Island" which builds from an ominous brooding intro into a marvellous modal waltz."Atomic Energy" blows up with a headlong banging vamp from Waldron's left hand while the right runs all over the keys and then to close "Mount Fujiyama" a more introspective rumination and dissection of the tune's theme. Inomata's drumming is a revelation throughout the session intricate yet swinging with fantastic use of cymbals.(Don't forget to check out Inomata's Sound of Sounds lp also recorded in 1970 which I posted [9]here during the summer) Respect to El Goog for introducing me to this great album.I finally picked a copy up from Japan via ebay last month - not cheap but worth every penny. Very highly recomnmended. [10]37 comments made-how about you? 20.12.09 [11]THE HERBIE HANCOCK TRIO Herbie Hancock for Sony Japan from 1977. Herbie Hancock-Piano;Ron Carter-Bass;Tony Williams-Drums The big three keep it strictly acoustic for this Japanese only release from CBS Sony. 4 originals from Herb plus a rapid romp through "Milestones"...tough stuff. The first V.S.O.P. tour triggered a flood of recording activity in July 1977, but only a fraction of it was released in the U.S. This session, recorded in San Francisco just days before the Quintet concerts in Berkeley and San Diego, finds Herbie Hancock, Ron Carter and Tony Williams mixing it up sans the horns and the results are more reflective and cerebral than the full Quintet concerts. Hancock is thoroughly in control of the agenda while Williams throws in those meter-fracturing flurries that keep everyone on their toes. There is a startling re-interpretation of "Speak like a Child" which is significantly tougher and busier than the wistful Blue Note version, as well as challenging Hancock originals like "Watcha Waiting For" and "Watch It." This is uncompromising acoustic jazz, commercial anathema in the electronic '70s -and thus, only Japan got to hear it. Richard S. Ginell. [12]16 comments made-how about you? 13.12.09 [13]JAZZ HIP TRIO - PORTRAITS Jazz Hip Trio for Riviera France from 1968. Jean-Bernard Eisinger Piano ; Roger Luccioni Bass ;Daniel Humair Drums. Piano trios are the theme for my the next few posts and what better way to start than with some beautiful music from France on it's first time out in blogland here at OIR. 10 original compositions which grow and grow on repeated listening - get past the "Sidewinder" influenced dance floor intro tune "Bat Rock" and you're in for a swinging set of subtle trio sounds.Of course it's gotta be...... All Killer No Filler [14]23 comments made-how about you? 6.12.09 [15]THE DIAMOND FIVE - BRILLIANT ! The Diamond Five for Fontana from 1964. Personnel: Cees Slinger: piano; Harry Verbeke: tenor sax; Cees Smal: trumpet, cornet and valve trombone; Jacques Schols: bass; Johnny Engels: drums. Please check the comments as Chazz has also ripped The Five Diamonds-Finally After Forty Years cd reissue from Japan and will be posting the link shortly.Over to you Chazz! I don't post donations at OIR but just had to make an exception when this was winged across the pond to me from Chazz Katz.It's a very rare piece of hard bop from Holland which made a blink and miss it reissue on cd some years ago in Japan (original vinyl goes for silly money anywhere between $600-$1000) and has never appeared in blogland before.Here's the notes and cheers to Chazz for his rip! Nice work chap - All Killer No Filler! The Diamond Five, a Dutch quintet led by pianist Cees Slinger, was founded in 1959 and lasted until 1965. They were based at the Sheherazade Club in Amsterdam and were quite popular, playing all over Holland and accompanying expatriate American musicians on their visits to Amsterdam. However, when the club closed its doors due to a shift in popular interest from jazz to rock music, the quintet disbanded. This 1964 recording is their only session available on CD. The music is hard bop on the surface, but is neither formulaic nor a copy of the genres imported from the U.S. The musicians are quite unique in their style. Slinger plays sparse notes on his solos, utilizing well-placed pauses in the music to create melodic hard bop with hints of more forward-looking styles. The other outstanding soloist is tenor saxophonist Harry Verbeke, whose solos (in contrast to that of the leader) are filled with a multitude of notes played in the modal vein. The others are also quite stellar, the bass and the drums providing a loose bluesy support and horn man Cees Smal adding something unique with the sounds of his different horns, switching between valve trombone, cornet and trumpet. [16]26 comments made-how about you? 26.11.09 [17]BOBBY HUTCHERSON - CIRRUS Bobby Hutcherson for Blue Note from 1974. Hutch is playing four sets in London this weekend so Katonah from Private Press and I will be propping up the bar for his late spot at Scotts tomorrow night. So here's a 3rd repost for his evergreen "Cirrus" ....All Killer No Filler. This was my very first Bobby Hutcherson post here at OIR back in may 2006.It was ripped from my vinyl copy @192 in those days-I've reupped it @320 this time and taken it from the superb Mosaic Select box set.Here's my original narrative: Cirrus finds Bobby Hutcherson resuming his partnership with tenor saxophonist Harold Land, and the results are marvellous. The pair work with pianist Bill Henderson, trumpeter Woody Shaw, bassist Ray Drummond, drummer Larry Hancock, saxophonist/flautist Emmanuel Boyd and percussionist Kenneth Nash on this set of originals.The album starts with a great version of Woody Shaw's "Rosewood" while the rest of the set is written by Hutcherson and includes "Even Later".Highlight of the lp for me is the atmospheric and brooding "Zuri Dance" - what a corker ! [18]36 comments made-how about you? 13.11.09 [19]DAVE PIKE - LET THE MINSTRELS PLAY ON Dave Pike for Muse from 1978. Vibraphone - Dave Pike / Bass - Luther Hughes / Cello - Luther Hughes / Drums - Ted Hawkes / Guitar - Ron Eschete / Keyboards , Sax - Tom Ranier / Vocals - Carol Eschete. KGML has just posted "Spirits Samba" so dug the lp out for those who would like to hear more. Picked this up in Tony Monson's Disc Empire in the early 80s after hearing Chris Bangs spinning "Swan Lake" and found it had yet another bona fide jazz dance classic to be featured in the shape of "Spirits Samba". Here's an apathetic review from amg: Some Afro-Latin, some fusion and things in between from vibist Dave Pike. Pike is a good player, but sometimes his arrangements bog down between pop and jazz. His style is more remniscent of Red Norvo, with its lighter, less aggressive and flowing lines. [20]12 comments made-how about you? 12.11.09 [21]RANDY WESTON - BLUE MOSES Randy Weston For CTI from 1972. Arranged By - Don Sebesky;Bass - Bill Wood (2) (tracks: B1) , Ron Carter ;Drums - Bill Cobham ;English Horn, Clarinet, Flute - George Marge ;Flugelhorn - Alan Rubin , John Frosk , Marvin Stamm ;Flute - Hubert Laws ;French Horn - Brooks Tillotson , James Buffington ;Oboe, Clarinet, Flute - Romeo Penque ;Piano - Randy Weston Saxophone [Tenor] - Grover Washington, Jr ;Synthesizer [Moog] - David Horowitz Trombone - Garnett Brown , Warren Covington , Wayne Andre ;Trombone - Paul Faulise Trumpet - Freddie Hubbard ;Vocals - Madasme Meddah Super heavyweight banger from CTI - trust Randy Weston to dispense with Creed Taylor's saccharine stylings.All Killer blah blah blah.... Another underwhelming review from Mr Yannow: Randy Weston's most popular record, this Lp (which he had mixed feelings about) features Weston not only on piano but electric keyboards. Backed by Don Sebesky arrangements and assisted by trumpeter Freddie Hubbard and tenor-saxophonist Grover Washington Jr., Weston plays quite well on four of his compositions; best-known are "Ganawa (Blue Moses)" and "Marrakesh Blues." The music retains the African feel of most of Weston's latter-day playing but also has some commercial touches that do not hurt the performances. This rewarding date has not yet been reissued on CD. ~ Scott Yanow, All Music Guide Fantastic cover art from Pete Turner - I highly recommend his book[22] here. [23]16 comments made-how about you? 7.11.09 [24]BLACKCLASSICAL - 1ST BIRTHDAY MEGAMIX Blackclassical has taken off his flat cap ,put the racing pigeons away and is celebrating his first year on t'interwebs with a mighty mp3 mash up of spiritual jazz goodness[25] here.Proof indeed that it's not all grim up north. Happy Birthday you old bastard - now get the lagers in and make sure they've got vodka tops you tightarse. [26]3 comments made-how about you? 6.11.09 [27]TUBBT HAYES - TUBBS IN N.Y. Tubby Hayes for Fontana from 1961. Saxophone [Tenor] - Tubby Hayes; Bass - George Duvivier; Drums - Dave Bailey ;Piano - Horace Parlan ; Trumpet - Clark Terry;Vibraphone - Eddie Costa Another first in blogland for this British vinyl rarity at OIR with Tubbs keeping heavy company in NYC . Apparently there was legal wrangling about who owns the masters so don't hold your breath waiting for a cd issue.The last one got pulled pronto upon release in 1990. The swaggering "A Pint Of Bitter" was my very first exposure to Hayes back in the early 80s - I just love that tune - but the rest is just as good with flat out romps through "Opus Ocean" and "Airegin" plus a wonderfuly swinging "Soon" . Nice! [28]26 comments made-how about you? 31.10.09 [29]TUBBY HAYES QUARTET - TUBBY'S GROOVE Tubby Hayes for Tempo from 1960. Tubby Hayes (ts), Terry Shannon (p), Phil Bates (b), Phil Seamen (d). "Tin Tin Deo" killin' it every time for me on this rare piece of British wax from 50 years ago. Simon Spillet has written a fascinating piece on Tubby at[30] Jazzscript and here's his take on this album: I think it's one of Tubby's best ever studio recordings and catches him very much in his prime. I suppose that the stand-out track for me has to be Sunny Monday with its unaccompanied tenor choruses. The tone is big, the rhythmic delivery is full of confidence and the sheer enthusiasm shines through half a century on. [31]23 comments made-how about you? 30.10.09 [32]STAFFAN ABELEEN QUINTET -PERSEPOLIS Staffan Abeleen for Philips Sweden from 1964. Staffan Abeleen-Piano ; Lasse Farnlof - Trumpet ; Bjorn Netz - Tenor ; Bjorn Alke - Bass ; Bosse Skoglund - Drums More top draw business from Sweden making a first appearance in blogland.Modal to bossa to ballads this one's got the lot: ALL KILLER NO FILLER [33]15 comments made-how about you? 15.10.09 [34]BERNT ROSENGREN BIG BAND - FIRST MOVES Bernt Rosengren for EMI Sweden from 1977. Bassoon, Horn - Lars Bagge/Clarinet, Clarinet [Bass], Saxophone [Soprano, Alto, Baritone] - Lennart Jansson /Congas - Johnny Martinez , René Martinez , Sabu Martinez Cornet , Flugelhorn - Lars Färnlöf /Drums - Leif Wennerström/Flute, Saxophone -Bernt Rosengren /Horn [English], Saxophone - Tommy Koverhult / Percussion - Okay Temiz / Piano - Claes-Göran Fagerstedt / Piano, Piano [Electric] - Bobo Stenson / Saxophone [Baritone] - Gunnar Bergsten / Saxophone [Tenor] - Anders Lindskog / Trombone - Jan Jansson , Janus Miezek , Lars Olofsson , Lennart Löfgren / Trombone [Bass] - Sven Larsson /Trumpet - Björn Borg /Trumpet , Flugelhorn - Bertil Lövgren , Maffy Falay / Bass - Torbjörn Hultcrantz Back over to Sweden for this killer big band session led by Bernt Rosengren and featuring some big names such as a pre-ECM Bobo Stenson,the wonderful Lars Farnlof and none other than the mighty Sabu Martinez. Check out the percussion destruction of "Felicidade" with Sabu plus sons Johnny and Rene Martinez beating the crap out of the Jobim bossa standard... Murdah!!! [35]19 comments made-how about you? 1.10.09 [36]JAZZ QUINTET 60 Jazz Quintet 60 from 1962 for Metronome Denmark. Allan Botschinsky (tp), Niels Husum (ts), Bent Axen (p), Niels-Henning Orsted Pedersen (b), Bjarne Rostvold (ds). Legendary Scandinavian rarity (Check the second mortgage prices on [37]Popsike) from Denmark featuring a who's who of the Danish Jazz scene from the past 50 years. First time it's has been posted in public blogland so don't sleep on this one : ALL KILLER NO FILLER ! [38]27 comments made-how about you? 27.9.09 [39]STAFFAN ABELEEN QUINTET - DOWNSTREAM Staffan Abeleen Quintet for Philips Sweden from 1966. Staffan Abeleen - Piano ; Lasse Farnlof - Trumpet ; Bjorn Netz - Sax ; Bosse Skugland - Drums ; Paul Danielsson - Bass. All compositions by Lars Farnlof Scandinavia is the destination for my next batch of posts and what better way to start than with this superb album by The Staffen Abeleen Quintet playing the compositions of the wonderful Lars Farnlof. Another first appearance in blogland but let the music do the talking ... ALL KILLER NO FILLER [40]15 comments made-how about you? 19.9.09 [41]ARCHIE SHEPP & THE FAMILY OF PERCUSSION - HERE COMES THE FAMILY I have had lots of requests for a repost of this bomb from Archie Shepp and The Family of Percussion - so here it is. First posted at OIR september 2006. The Family of Percussion (Peter Giger,Trilok Gurtu,Doug Hammond and Tom Nicholas)are joined by Archie Shepp on this hard to find 1980 release from Nagara in Germany. On "Here Comes the Family"the Family establish the basic form of the piece with their rhythmic and vocal opening with Shepp's flute fluttering above it all.Then he lets rip with what the liner notes call 'Poetic Recitation'but would probably be called rapping these days over a funky percussive backdrop .This tune is why the lp remains in such demand - a big play list favourite of djs world wide. Next up is Shepp's "Street Song" the best cut on the lp for me,on which he blows his tenor freely over the drums,congas,bells and gongs.The piece ends in a crescendo of percussion culminating in a gong crash which fades into silence."Euterpe's Favorit"has Shepp back on flute with the family weaving a mystical feel behind him on bells,whistles,water pipes,gongs,rattles and drums. "Ardopetori"starts side 2 with a mid tempo infectious rhythm established by shakers and log drum which builds slowly with Shepp soloing freely again on tenor. "For Ti Roro"wraps it up and begins with the gentle,caribean sounds of steel drums until Shepp's soprano bursts in with a frenzy of excitement.This is the most free track with all the musicians reacting to each otherboth collectively and singularly until it finishes fittingly with the sound of the congas. This came out on lp and cd but quickly dissapeared without trace.if you want a copy you gonna have to dig hard and have deep pockets! [42]18 comments made-how about you? [43]HIROSHI SUZUKI - CAT Hiroshi Suzuki for Columbia Japan from 1975. Hiroshi Suzuki-Trombone ; Hiromasa Suzuki-Keyboards ; Akira Ishikawa-Drums ; Takeru Muraoka-Sax ; Kunimitsu Inaba-Bass More super rare J Jazz making a first appearance in blogland and this is an absolute beauty made up of 5 long cuts that hit the perfect balance between jazz and fusion.Acoustic bass meshed with subtle funky drums topped with lashings of Rhodes,trombone and sax deliver a really stretched out understated rolling groove. The album just grows and grows with repeated listening and it's a big favourite over here at Bacoso's Big Top - no surprise that it's ALL KILLER NO FILLER ! [44]34 comments made-how about you? 7.9.09 [45]T. INOMATA & SOUND L.T.D. - SOUNDS OF SOUND L.T.D. Takeshi Inomata for Columbia Japan from 1970. Takeshi Inomata (Drums & Percussion) Jun Suzuki (Electric Bass) Shigetok Kamiya (Electric Guitar) Ryo Kawasaki (Electric Guitar) Sho Imai (Trombone & Bass Trombone) Shigemichi Dohmoto (Trombone & Bass Trombone) Takao Uematsu (Tenor Sax & Soprano Sax) Fantastic lp of funky jazz from the Columbia issued Groovy Sound Series. No idea who plays on it as the credits are all in Japanese but it's a monster session. Check out "Mustache" and "Tak's Tune" for some severe beats from drummer/leader Takeshi Inomata. All Killer No Filler - Highly Recommended! [46]22 comments made-how about you? 29.8.09 [47]HIDEO SHIRAKI - IN FIESTA Hideo Shiraki for Teichiku Japan from 1961. Rare super tough hard bop session from Japan featuring the killer koto led and drum driven bomb "In Fiesta". Reissued in Japan by Kyoto Jazz Massive for Think in a blink and miss it moment back in 2005 but now out of print. The old Dusty Groove blurb: A brilliant early album from Japanese drummer Hideo Shiraki a jazz session that bristles with the same intensity as key late 50s work by Benny Golson or Gigi Gryce! Although Hideo's leading the group on drums, his work on the kit is remarkably subtle done with the snappingly rhythmic style that marked some of Golson's best modern experiments of a few years before not nearly as bombastic as his stint with Art Blakey, and more in the rhythmically stepping quality of his work with Art Farmer in the Jazztet. Key players on the session include Hidehiko Matsumoto on tenor and flute and Yuzuru Sera on piano both of whom give the album a fluid grace that's really beautiful soulful edges that allow the record to stand equally next to anything coming out of the US at the time. One track features a bit of koto at the start -- echoing Shiraki's later world jazz experiments but most of the set is straight modern hardbop, with tracks that include "Blue Romeo", "Etude No 1", "Just One Or Eight", "You Don't Know What Love Is", and Benny Golson's "Five Spot After Dark". [48]14 comments made-how about you? 18.8.09 [49]LLOYD MCNEILL - TREASURES Lloyd McNeill for Baobab from 1976. Lloyd McNeill-Flute ; Dom Salvador-Piano ; Cecil McBee-Bass ; Portinho , Brian Brake-Drums ; Ray Armando-Percussion. One for the flute freaks on a private press out of NYC. Heavy Brazilian infuences at work on this wonderful spiritual jazz session from the great Lloyd McNeill.Two originals,one standard and a cracking version of Salvador's "Salvation Army" which featured on Dom's '76 Muse debut "Minha Familia"(Available at [50]Ile Oxumare). Here's some info on Lloyd McNeill from the excellent [51]Hipwax: The first thing to know about Lloyd McNeill is that his are the very best soul-jazz flute LPs, and each is first-rate, a masterpiece of self-direction. The second thing to know is there is much more to him than his recorded legacy. He is one of those incredible, super-sensitive people who excels at every artistic idiom and endeavor; making wonderful music is just part of his flowing creativity. A professor (at Rutgers University, earlier Dartmouth), he has much to say about music and creativity as well as an impeccable gift for saying it...sensibly. McNeill's writings on his musical experiences provide invaluable documents of "the period" (late 1960s-1970s) as well as a rare glimpse at the joy of a relatively unsung master. McNeill has played with jazz legends --Andrew White (his longtime collaborator/producer), Eric Dolphy, Sabu Martinez, Mulatu Astatke, among many others-- and he has had a significant hand in the arts scene of Washington, D.C. The major galleries of art, including those of the Smithsonian, sponsored multi-media "happenings" that soared far above the hippie caricature of acid rock with light show. During the first flowering of post-Civil Rights, African-American culture, the Lloyd McNeill Quartet's improvisitory, simultaneuous jazz and large-scale painting "happened" while a lucky, perhaps unsuspecting public drank it in. McNeill believes his influences and their results in his art, music, and poetry are inseparable and mutually reinforcing. Time spent with Picasso in Cannes, 1965 led to new expressions in all three, for instance. And when one brushes against a force such as Picasso, just the idea of "meeting Picasso" has a certain momentum, never mind the inevitable casting of rays of a different kind of light. Canvas, vinyl, the stage, paper, and books of poetry offer a few key imprints of McNeill, and McNeill consistently pays tribute to many illustrious peers. There are six albums, all produced and entirely under the artist's control. Each title surpasses anything comparable on the major labels, even Blue Note. The Black Jazz label may be roughly similar in style, but Asha and Baobab are wholly Lloyd McNeill. The records reflect none of the usual external trends from the decade in which they were recorded; all sound like 1971 rather than 1979. The final record even reprises the first (the exotic, broodingly moody "Asha"), and the sound throughout remains somewhat interchangeable and timeless. But each record has its own themes and currents, and even improvisation has its signatures and fingerprints. Buying: Long out of print, collectors items, Lloyd McNeill records should be snapped up on sight. Hip Wax is pleased to offer two titles for which limited stock remains [52]here. Warning - McNeill lps can be damaging to the [53]wallet. [54]29 comments made-how about you? 14.8.09 [55]If Spike Lee Did Movies In Audio... Greg's back on the mix with his old mucker Monohub - another mashed up bomb in memory of Coltrane and the late,great George Russell.Grab it [56]HERE. Here's the blurb from big daddy himself: I did a version of this a while back and was planning to publish on July 17th as a memorial to the day that John Coltrane died, but, a combination of lack of time, work commitments and other things got in the way... Anyway I redid it and am glad that i did as it's much better than the original. This one strictly for the heads... and defo not for the feint hearted. If you liked the Black State of Vietnam mix then this is for you... So as i said; In respect of John Coltrane and George Russell. Much thanks to Monohub too although he plays down his part in this, his genius did have a lot to do with it... [57]1 comments made-how about you? 3.8.09 [58]SADAO WATANABE AND CHARLIE MARIANO - IBERIAN WALTZ Sadao and Charlie for Tact Japan from 1967. Sadao Watanabe (as) , Charlie Mariano (as) , Masabumi Kikuchi (p) , Masanaga Harada (b) , Masahiko Togashi (ds) , Fumio Watanabe (ds) This received a "Japan Jazz Award" on release. Some severe blowing on this double alto led sextet featuring a young band of soon to be Japanese jazz luminaries. The fast and furious "Palisades" was comped on the Sleepwalker Shibuya Jazz Classics.However the 16 minute title cut is the stand out tune an intense modal waltz with a Spanish tinge featuring coruscating solos from Mariano and Watanabe - hard core stuff. Recommended. [59]16 comments made-how about you? 28.7.09 [60]JAMES MARENTIC SEXTET - NIMBUS James Marentic for Discovery from 1982. James Marentic-Sax/Flute; Tom Harrell -Trumpet/Flugelhorn; Slide Hampton-Trombone; Larry Willis-Piano; Anthony Cox-Bass; Victor Lewis-Drums. Storming post hard bop outing for Mr Marentic and his all star band. Check out the banging latin romp "Baile de las Cucharachas " which kicks off the lp in fine style and the Coltrane inspired "Nimbus". "Aphrodesia" has the inspiration of Kenny Dorham stamped all over it and no prizes for guessing who "Mr Silver I Presume" is aimed at If you enjoyed Tom Harrell's "Aurora" post then this should be right up your street,round your corner and down your block! [61]8 comments made-how about you? 23.7.09 [62]CARTER JEFFERSON - THE RISE OF ATLANTIS Carter Jefferson for Timeless from 1978. Terrific post bop album with latin influences -All Killer No Filler! John Hicks (Piano), Terumasa Hino (Trumpet), Woody Shaw (Producer), Clint Houston (Bass), Victor Lewis (Drums),Carter Jefferson (Sax ), Lani Groves (Vocals), Shunzo Ohno (Trumpet), Steve Thornton (Percussion), Harry Whitaker (Piano) Here's the customary underwhelming AMG review : Tenor saxophonist Carter Jefferson made somewhat of a name for himself when trumpeter Woody Shaw chose him as a member of his first working quintet. Shaw is the producer of this album, Jefferson's fine debut (and evidently only) recording as a leader. Taking a cue from Shaw, the saxophonist sticks essentially to a quintet of trumpet and sax backed by all-star rhythm sections. Three of the tracks include hard bop trumpeter Terumasa Hino while the other three feature little-known Japanese trumpeter Shunzo Ono. Most of the tunes are firmly in the school of hard bop, the sort of music that Woody Shaw played so well. While there is not any new ground broken, it is all performed competently enough. While not as emotionally charged as his work with Shaw, Jefferson impresses with a fluid, mobile attack that shows a solid grasp of his material. If the groups seem to be sometimes merely going through the motions, there are nonetheless enough fine moments to make this a worthwhile purchase.AMG. A reliable and advanced soloist who spent most of his career as a sideman, Carter Jefferson is best-remembered for his association with Woody Shaw during 1977-1980. Jefferson started on clarinet and played alto before settling on tenor, going on tour early in the backup bands of the Temptations, the Supremes, and Little Richard. In 1971, he moved to New York to attend New York University and soon spent two years with Mongo Santamaria and a period in 1973 as a member of Art Blakey's Jazz Messengers. After his important stint with Woody Shaw (with whom he recorded several times), Jefferson worked with many top players, including Elvin Jones, Roy Haynes, Cedar Walton, Jerry Gonzalez & the Fort Apache Band, Malachi Thompson, and Jack Walrath's Masters of Suspense. His premature death in Poland after emergency surgery was a major loss. Carter Jefferson only led one record, The Rise of Atlantis, on the Timeless label in 1978. AMG. [63]33 comments made-how about you? 10.7.09 [64]JULIO GUTIERREZ - PROGRESSIVE LATIN Julio Gutierrez for Gema from 1960. The title says it all for this groundbreaking heavyweight descarga session...Highly recommended. Has anyone out there got a copy of Gutierrez's "Havana BC" they want to sell me?If so leave me a message in the comments. Progressive Latin should be considered a classic of Latin jazz if it isn't already. "Cosa Buena" cooks, and "Closing Time" is a slower bossa nova with flute and horns that captures the mood of a good night out at its end. "Yambambe," an Afro rhythm behind mostly piano, sounds more sophisticated than its simple construction. "El Altiplano" is supposed to be an Incan melody with Afro elements. In any case, vocal interjections pave the way for a longer descarga where a variety of intriguing elements (horns, flute piano, even organ) work together in their own weird ways and combinations. The "Route 66" theme arrangement is a coup; the sax and flute are recorded gorgeously, and the piano and conga pace it ideally, with brief drum solo breaks. "Sad City" is a haunting flute piece, while "Guantanamera" has an interesting change but there is only so much one can expect from this tune. "Malaguena" is another long descarga that gets a little wild. Progressive Latin is something of a masterpiece from the great arranger Julio Gutierrez. Tony Wilds What impressed me most about this album is Julio's use of space and the length of the tunes, considering that in the era when it was recorded, 2 1/2 minute tunes were standard. Great musicians like El Negro Vivar (trumpet) and Chombo Silva (sax) were able to beautifully stretch out over an almost post-bop/Afro-Cuban jazz setting. There is some serious blowing on this disc. This is another essential Latin jazz gem from the late 50s/early 60s. Jose Rizo [65]22 comments made-how about you? 4.7.09 [66]Older Posts Subscribe to: [67]Posts (Atom) JAZZ - LATIN - SOUNDTRACKS . RARE - OBSCURE -DELETED . ALL RIPS @ 320 FROM ORIGINAL VINYL OR CD. JAZZ - LATIN - SOUNDTRACKS . RARE - OBSCURE -DELETED . ALL RIPS @ 320 FROM ORIGINAL VINYL OR CD. [68]My Photo Bacoso [69]View my complete profile PLACES & SPACES * [70]Axelgrease * [71]Call It Anything * [72]Cuban Posters * [73]Djalma's Soul Food * [74]El Goog Ja * [75]Far From Ubiquit * [76]Flying Dutchman Records * [77]Groovy Merchant * [78]Ile Oxumare * [79]India Navigation * [80]jazzfluteweinstein * [81]Killer Groove Music Library * [82]LiquidJazz.com * [83]Magic Purple Sunshine * [84]Mainstream shad shack * [85]My Favourite Sound© * [86]My Jazz World * [87]never enough rhodes * [88]Nine Sisters * [89]Nothing Is v2.0 * [90]pharaoh's dance * [91]private press * [92]Quimsy's Mumbo Jumbo * [93]SG Canvas * [94]Strata-East Fan Club * [95]The CTI never sleeps * [96]Von Fat Bakon * [97]WONDERFULSOUND DIGGIN' IN THE CRATES * [98]Jan 2010 (1) * [99]Dec 2009 (3) * [100]Nov 2009 (5) * [101]Oct 2009 (4) * [102]Sep 2009 (4) * [103]Aug 2009 (4) * [104]Jul 2009 (4) * [105]Jun 2009 (8) * [106]May 2009 (5) * [107]Apr 2009 (1) * [108]Mar 2009 (4) * [109]Feb 2009 (9) * [110]Jan 2009 (13) * [111]Dec 2008 (6) * [112]Nov 2008 (15) * [113]Oct 2008 (9) * [114]Sep 2008 (3) * [115]Jul 2008 (1) * [116]Jun 2008 (28) * [117]May 2008 (4) * [118]Apr 2008 (6) * [119]Mar 2008 (26) * [120]Feb 2008 (17) * [121]Jan 2008 (10) * [122]Dec 2007 (12) * [123]Nov 2007 (16) * [124]Oct 2007 (21) * [125]Sep 2007 (21) * [126]Aug 2007 (16) * [127]Jul 2007 (10) * [128]Jun 2007 (19) * [129]May 2007 (18) * [130]Apr 2007 (17) * [131]Mar 2007 (19) * [132]Feb 2007 (17) * [133]Jan 2007 (21) * [134]Dec 2006 (19) * [135]Nov 2006 (29) * [136]Oct 2006 (20) * [137]Sep 2006 (29) * [138]Aug 2006 (34) * [139]Jul 2006 (18) * [140]Jun 2006 (22) * [141]May 2006 (40) * [142]Apr 2006 (52) * [143]Mar 2006 (19) Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [spacer1.gif] [blackrainbowhdr01.jpg] IFRAME: uments&banner=0JB0A4VDS5FZSF8J66G2&f=ifr About Rhythmweb A Grassroots Network [dada01a.jpg] (at left: World Unity Drum Festival, Club Dada, Dallas, August 1994. My son Jules, shown at age 12 at left) Rhythmweb started in December of 1996, as a reflection of my virtual search for music and musicians on the Web, and as an excuse to woodshed web design. Since then we have been amazed by the reponse we have recieved, from all corners of the globe. From the Mid-East to Australia, and from South Africa to Europe to New Orleans to Brazil to Papua, NewGuinea, musicians are connecting. Truly, rhythm is a universal language, love of music a universal love. Thanks to all our new friends for connecting with us. Our mission is to further the use of rhythm, music, and percussion & related arts as a healing tool. We LOVE music. We LOVE the Web. When our schedule permits, we surf several [kids097.jpg] hours a night, then we post the fruits of our travels... Every time we meet someone interesting with a rhythm related website, we post a link. Some very worthwhile friendships have evolved along the way, and we've discovered lots of good music. We have since integrated affiliate links to CDs, books, and so forth, but our basic mission remains the same. We are NOT a bunch of suits, drooling e-commerce. We're musicians, artists. We believe it's important for people at the grassroots level to network during this crucial moment in history. If you'll notice, the vast majority of links on rhythmweb are GRASSROOTS musicians, trying to get over in this new economy. You will see no big over-rated stars from the conglomerate record companies. Plenty of that elsewhere. [eric_october03-01b-225.jpg] There are also fan pages and correspondent pages here, on a large number of working musicians. Thanks very much to all for your help. We are actively seeking musicians in various parts of the world to drop us a line now and then, and let us know what the percussion scene is like in your area. If you have a drum lesson you'd like to share with our readers, please let us know, and perhaps we can steer you some traffic in return. 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ABSTRACT FULL TEXT FULL-TEXT PDF (2346 KB) CITATION ALERT CITED BY RELATED ARTICLES EXPORT CITATION EMAIL TO A COLLEAGUE RIGHTS/PERMISSIONS [36]Standard image available [37]DOWNLOAD IMAGES NEED REPRINTS? BOOKMARK ARTICLE RR-interval irregularity precedes ventricular fibrillation in ST elevation acute myocardial infarction [38]Miguel E. Lemmert, MD[39]a[40] Corresponding Author Information [41]email address , [42]Mohamed Majidi, MD[43]a, [44]Mitchell W. Krucoff, MD[45]*, [46]Sebastiaan C.A.M. Bekkers, MD[47]a, [48]Harry J.G.M. Crijns, MD, PhD, FHRS[49]a, [50]Hein J.J. Wellens, MD, PhD, FHRS[51]a, [52]Andrzej S. Kosinski, PhD[53]*, [54]Anton P.M. Gorgels, MD, PhD, FHRS[55]a Received 9 August 2009; accepted 15 September 2009. published online 22 September 2009. Background Sudden cardiac arrest is a leading cause of death in industrialized countries, and ischemic ventricular fibrillation (VF) is a frequent cause. Objective The purpose of this study was to determine whether patients with ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) who develop ischemic VF show more overall RR-interval irregularity (RRI) than do STEMI patients without ischemic VF. Methods Ischemic VF was identified in 41 patients from 1,473 digital 12-lead Holter recordings from three separate STEMI studies. Continuous 3-lead and 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG) snapshots recorded every minute were compared between all ischemic VF patients and 123 random patients without ischemic VF. Time intervals from start of Holter to ischemic VF and equivalent intervals in the controls were used for calculations. ECG variables related to conduction intervals and severity of ischemia were measured using the most ischemic 12-lead ECG. RRI was calculated as the square root of the mean squared differences of successive RR intervals. For RRI, all QRS complexes, including ventricular ectopic beats, were used. Results No baseline differences were observed between the study and control groups, except for male preponderance among ischemic VF patients (90% vs 72%, P = .019). QRS interval, ECG ischemia severity, RRI, and number of ventricular ectopic beats were significantly associated with ischemic VF. Multivariate analysis revealed RRI (odds ratio 1.006, 95% confidence interval 1.001-1.010, P = .016) and ST deviation score (odds ratio 1.073, 95% confidence interval 1.041-1.106, P <.001) as the only statistically significant predictors of ischemic VF. Conclusion In the period before ischemic VF, RRI and ST deviation score are associated with ischemic VF in STEMI patients. These findings could have important pathophysiologic and clinical implications. Keywords: [56]Cardiac arrest, [57]Electrocardiography, [58]Myocardial infarction, [59]Sudden death, [60]Ventricular fibrillation Abbreviations: [61]AUC, [62]area under receiver operating characteristic curve, [63]AV, [64]atrioventricular, [65]ECG, [66]electrocardiogram, [67]HRV, [68]heart rate variability, [69]IQR, [70]interquartile range, [71]ROC, [72]receiver operating characteristic, [73]RRI, [74]RR-interval irregularity, [75]STEMI, [76]ST elevation myocardial infarction, [77]VF, [78]ventricular fibrillation Article Outline o [79]Abstract o [80]Introduction o [81]Methods o [82]Patient population o [83]ECG data o [84]RRI and ventricular ectopic beats o [85]Twelve-lead ECG measurements o [86]Statistical analysis o [87]Results o [88]Baseline characteristics and laboratory values o [89]ECG characteristics o [90]Cutoff values o [91]Discussion o [92]Baseline characteristics o [93]Single 12-lead ECG measurements o [94]Continuous ECG measurements o [95]RRI and total number of ventricular ectopic beats o [96]Heart rate variability o [97]Study limitations o [98]Clinical implications and future research o [99]Conclusion o [100]Acknowledgment o [101]References o [102]Copyright Introduction [103]return to Article Outline Sudden cardiac arrest is one of the leading causes of death in industrialized countries, and ischemic ventricular fibrillation (VF) is one of the most frequent causes.[104]1, [105]2 To date, research aimed at predicting VF has predominantly focused on the postmyocardial infarction stage and nonischemic conditions. Familial history of sudden death recently was demonstrated to be an important risk factor for VF in an ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) population,[106]3 suggesting that genetic factors are involved and that predisposition to ischemic VF differs among patients. Inhomogeneity of intramyocardial conduction velocity plays a role as a substrate for reentrant ventricular arrhythmias and sudden death during acute ischemia.[107]4, [108]5, [109]6, [110]7, [111]8 In the current study, we introduce the novel electrocardiographic (ECG) parameter of overall RR-interval irregularity (RRI), which is measured by taking all QRS complexes into account, irrespective of their origin. A greater RRI could lead to increased inhomogeneity of conduction velocities and refractory periods, facilitating ischemic VF. Using single 12-lead ECGs, our group recently demonstrated longer PR and QRS conduction intervals in first STEMI patients developing ischemic VF.[112]9 This finding supports the concept of increased inhomogeneity in conduction velocity and calls upon further elucidation of the concept. Thus, we tested the hypothesis that cardiac rhythm characteristics preceding ischemic VF are different from those in ischemic patients without VF, particularly with regard to the novel ECG parameter RRI. Methods [113]return to Article Outline Patient population A retrospective database consisting of 1,473 24-hour Holter recordings was retrieved from the ECG core laboratory of the Duke Clinical Research Institute (Durham, NC, USA). The database consists of Holter recordings from STEMI patients who were included in three separate safety-efficacy STEMI studies between April 2002 and November 2003. The database includes all analyzable Holter recordings from two cohorts (CASTEMI[114]10 and EMERALD,[115]11 n = 1,031) treated with direct percutaneous coronary intervention and one cohort treated with thrombolytic therapy (RAPSODY, n = 442). All of these patients were older than 18 years, had presented with diagnostic ST elevation on standard ECG, and had symptom duration <= 6 hours. As part of the study protocols, all patients were connected to 24-hour digital 12-lead Holter recorders immediately after hospital admission, prior to any therapeutic intervention in the hospital. For the current study, all 1,473 Holter recordings were examined for ischemic VF. Ischemic VF was defined as irregular undulations of varying shape and amplitude on ECG without discrete QRS or T waves. To ensure the ischemic nature of the VF, only patients with VF that occurred before percutaneous coronary intervention and/or in the presence of persisting ST deviation were included in the study. Patients in whom VF occurred in conjunction with ECG signs of reperfusion were considered to have reperfusion VF rather than ischemic VF and were not included in the study (n = 5). Patients who showed regular monomorphic ventricular tachycardias rather than VF also were excluded from the study (n = 19). Forty-one patients (2.8%) with ischemic VF were identified (study group). For comparison, for each VF patient, three patients without ischemic VF (control group) were selected, only matched for the original study cohort. Selection was done randomly using the statistical software SPSS for Windows (release 12.0.1, SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL, USA), providing a total of 123 control patients. Clinical descriptors noted include baseline characteristics (gender, age, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, current smoking, and history of acute myocardial infarction), coronary angiographic data (culprit lesion), and plasma levels of cardiac enzymes. ECG data Holter recordings (DR180+, NorthEast Monitoring, Maynard, MA, USA) consisted of digital 24-hour 3-lead recordings (leads V5, V1, and III), with a complete Mason-Likar 12-lead ECG (calibration 10 mm/mV, speed 25 mm/s) available every minute and featured designated analysis software (Holter 5 LX Analysis version 5.2, NorthEast Monitoring). For each VF patient, the time interval from start of recording to onset of ischemic VF and the equivalent time interval in the three matched controls were used for analysis, disregarding the residual recording time. Computerized labeling of QRS complexes and RR intervals on Holter recordings was reviewed and corrected on a beat-to-beat basis by a trained physician (M.E.L.). RRI and ventricular ectopic beats For this analysis, we introduce RRI as a novel parameter. RRI was calculated using the designated software's capability to calculate heart rate variability (HRV). HRV is the variation in heart rate resulting from sympathetic and vagal influences on the sinus node. HRV disregards all ECG complexes other than sinus beats. Using continuous 3-lead Holter recordings, the software is capable of several HRV measurements within the time domain. Similar to standard HRV measurements, RRI calculations were performed using the three leads of the Holter recordings. Contrary to standard HRV measurements, RRI takes all ECG complexes, irrespective of their origin, into account, including (episodes of) atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter, paced rhythms, and supraventricular and ventricular complexes. To enable RRI measurements by the software, all ECG complexes were manually labeled as sinus beats. Time intervals before onset of ischemic VF frequently were short. Therefore, the square root of the mean squared differences of successive RR intervals method was used because it reflects short-term variations in RR intervals, as previously described in detail.[116]12 For the software to perform HRV measurements and thus RRI measurements, a minimum of 5 minutes of recording time is required. The total number of ventricular ectopic beats was counted for each patient, again during the time interval from start of recording to onset of ischemic VF and the equivalent time interval in the control patients. Twelve-lead ECG measurements Our group recently showed significant differences in PR and QRS conduction intervals as well as severity of ischemia between VF patients and control patients. For this reason, similar measurements were made in the current study using the designated software, which features electronic calipers for 12-lead ECGs. For each patient, one 12-lead ECG showing the most pronounced ST-segment deviation was used because these ECGs are expected to be the best representation of ischemia-induced conduction defects. The measurements have been described previously,[117]9 with the difference that, because of the digital ECG data and the accompanying Holter software, the measurements were done using the electronic calipers of the analysis software instead of manually. Statistical analysis Data analysis and case-control randomization were performed using SPSS for Windows (release 12.0.1). Continuous variables are expressed as median and interquartile range (IQR) and categorical variables as percentages. For comparison of continuous variables, a Student's t-test for normally distributed data or a Mann-Whitney test or Wilcoxon signed-rank test for non-normally distributed data was used. For comparison of categorical variables, a Pearson chi-square test or Fisher exact test was used. All statistical tests were two-tailed, and P <.05 was considered significant. ECG characteristics showing a significant univariate relation with the occurrence of VF but lacking multicollinearity (defined as r > 0.4) were included in multivariate logistic regression. Variables were removed stepwise from the model when P was >.10. Variables with P <.05 in the final model were considered independent contributors and are reported in the results. In the final model, tests were done for interactions between main predictors. The predictive accuracy of the final model is reported as the area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (AUC). Cutoff values for ECG characteristics by which most VF patients can be correctly classified are identified by applying the Pythagorean theorem to ROC curves, which is a mathematical determination of the cutoff value with the graphically shortest distance to a sensitivity and specificity of 1. Results [118]return to Article Outline Baseline characteristics and laboratory values No statistically significant differences regarding baseline characteristics and laboratory values were found between the VF patients and the controls, except for a significantly higher percentage of males among the VF patients (90% vs 72%, P = .019; [119]Table 1). Table 1. Baseline characteristics of the study population Ischemic VF (n = 41) No ischemic VF (n = 123) P value Age (years) 61 (54-71) 59 (52-71) .54 Male 90 72 .019 Anterior wall infarction 31 29 .84 Culprit artery .32 Left anterior descending branch 20 21 Right coronary artery 77 66 Left circumflex branch 3 13 Comorbidity/risk factor Diabetes mellitus 10 18 .32 Hypertension 39 42 .71 Hypercholesterolemia 33 26 .41 Smoking 38 38 1 Prior myocardial infarction 11 11 1 Original study cohort .30 CASTEMI[120]10 3 97 EMERALD[121]11 3 97 RAPSODY 2 98 Laboratory values Initial CK 1.6 (0.3-10.3) 2.6 (0.7-6.9) .70 Post PCI CK 8.1 (5.6-21.9) 10.1 (5.0-14.5) .75 Initial CK-MB 3.1 (1.7-7.7) 4.2 (0.6-7.6) .77 Post PCI CK-MB 6.9 (2.0-11.0) 8.5 (4.1-13.1) .41 Post PCI troponin-T 50.9 (27.5-74.2) 15.4 (8.2-61.8) 1 Note: Information on the culprit artery was available for 127 patients from the PCI cohorts (CASTEMI and EMERALD). For the thrombolytics cohort (RAPSODY), the distinction between anterior wall infarctions and nonanterior wall infarctions was available. Values are given as median (interquartile range) or percent. CK = creatine kinase; CK-MB = creatine kinase-MB isoenzyme; PCI = percutaneous coronary intervention; VF = ventricular fibrillation. ECG characteristics ECG characteristics are listed in [122]Table 2. All patients were in sinus rhythm, except for six (four VF patients, two controls) with atrial fibrillation, which precluded assessment of sinus rate and PR interval. One VF patient had a paced rhythm during part of the Holter recording. One VF patient and two control patients showed atrioventricular (AV) nodal escape rhythms. Two additional control patients had high-degree AV block. Table 2. ECG characteristics of the study population Ischemic VF (n = 41) No ischemic VF (n = 123) P value Sinus rate (min-1) 74 (62-85) 73 (65-85) .719 PQ (ms) 177 (160-216) 164 (153-181) .055 QRS (ms) 103 (88-115) 93 (83-104) .018 QTc Bazett (ms) 417 (390-446) 414 (396-414) .822 Peak ST deviation (mm) 7 (5-10) 4 (2-7) <.001 Grade of ischemia 3 (2-3) 2 (2-3) .004 No. of leads with ST deviation 10 (9-11) 7 (4-10) <.001 STdev (mm) 36 (26-50) 20 (11-30) <.001 Measuring time (minutes) 29 (16-57) 29 (16-57) N/A Total no. of ventricular ectopic beats 73 (19-268) 19 (2-106) .006 RRI (ms) 132 (100-197) 73 (39-122) <.001 RRI-5 min (ms) 186 (97-237) 44 (22-101) <.001 Values are given as median (interquartile range). RRI = RR-interval irregularity; RRI-5 min = RR-interval irregularity in the last 5 minutes of measuring time; STdev = ST deviation score, the sum of all ST deviations on 12-lead ECG; VF = ventricular fibrillation. With regard to measurements using single 12-lead ECGs, VF patients showed a longer QRS interval [103 ms (IQR 88-115 ms) vs 93 ms (IQR 83-104 ms), P = .018] and a larger amount of ischemia, as measured by peak ST deviation, grade of ischemia,[123]13 total number of leads with ST deviation, and ST deviation score. With regard to continuous ECG measurements, the median measuring time was 29 minutes (IQR 16-57 minutes). Because the requirement of at least 5 minutes of recording time prior to ischemic VF could not be met, the computer software did not allow RRI measurement in three VF patients and subsequently nine control patients. VF patients showed a higher RRI [132 ms (IQR 100-197 ms) vs 73 ms (IQR 39-122 ms), P <.001] and more ventricular ectopic beats [73 (IQR 19-268) vs 19 (2-106), P = .006]. Excluding the recordings with atrial fibrillation from the analysis, did not affect the results regarding the RRI measurements. Logistic regression was applied, with presence of ischemic VF as the dependent variable and variables showing univariate significance (QRS interval, ST deviation score, total number of ventricular ectopic beats, RRI) as the independent variables. Because we recently showed ST deviation score to be an independent predictor of ischemic VF[124]9 and we wanted to correct for multicollinearity between the variables measuring the amount of ischemia, ST deviation score was the only ischemia parameter entered in the logistic regression. This multivariate analysis revealed that only a higher RRI (odds ratio 1.006, 95% confidence interval 1.001-1.010, P = .016) and a higher ST deviation score (odds ratio 1.073, 95% confidence interval 1.041-1.106, P <.001) were independently associated with an increased chance of ischemic VF ([125]Table 3). The interpretation of these odds ratios is that an increase in RRI of 1 ms corresponds to an increased chance of ischemic VF of 0.6%. Table 3. Multivariate analysis of the study population Odds ratio 95% Confidence interval P value RR-interval irregularity (ms) 1.006 1.001-1.010 .016 STdev (mm) 1.073 1.041-1.106 <.001 Area under the receiver operating characteristic curve is 0.835. STdev = ST deviation score, the sum of all ST deviations on 12-lead ECG. For our study population, this means that, based on only RRI measurements, patients who developed VF had a 41.5% (1.006 ^ [132 ms - 73 ms] = 1.415) more chance of doing so than the patients who did not develop VF. Similarly, an increase in ST deviation score of 1 mm implies an increased chance of ischemic VF of 7.3%. The predictive accuracy of this model assessed by the AUC was 0.835. In addition, to examine a fixed and shortest possible time frame prior to ischemic VF, RRI was measured in the last 5 minutes of measuring time. This showed an even more marked difference in RRI between VF and control patients [186 ms (97-237 ms) vs 44 ms (22-101 ms), P <.001]. Multivariate analysis using this RRI of the last 5 minutes yielded an RRI odds ratio of 1.012 (95% confidence interval 1.007-1.018, P <.001), with a predictive model accuracy (AUC) of 0.896 (not shown in [126]Table 3). Of note, measurement of RRI in the last 5 minutes was not possible in 7 VF patients and 27 controls because occasional artifact during this time period in these patients reduced the analyzable recording time to less than the required 5 minutes. Cutoff values Based on the optimal (mathematical) balance between sensitivity and specificity, cutoff values for RRI and the ST deviation score were identified. According to these criteria, the cutoff value for RRI is 110 ms, with sensitivity of 74% and specificity of 75%. The cutoff value for the ST deviation score is 27 mm, yielding sensitivity of 74% and specificity of 70%. Discussion [127]return to Article Outline To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to show that heart rate irregularity, measured as the novel parameter RRI, plays a significant role preceding ischemic VF on continuous ECG recordings retrieved from a large STEMI database. Baseline characteristics No differences in baseline characteristics were found, except for male preponderance in the VF patients. This is not in accordance with previous research in which no gender difference with regard to ischemic VF or sudden cardiac arrest was found.[128]9, [129]14, [130]15, [131]16, [132]17, [133]18 Our finding could be an observation by chance, due to multiple exploratory tests that in no way are related to any hypothesis tested in this study. Single 12-lead ECG measurements The significantly longer QRS interval and the larger amount of ischemia in the VF patients are in agreement with our previous findings on single 12-lead STEMI ECGs.[134]9 Briefly, in that study we found longer conduction intervals in VF patients that may, depending on the site of the occlusion and amount of ischemia, indicate an inhomogeneity in conduction velocity providing the substrate for ischemic VF. The current study adds a continuous aspect to the period preceding ischemic VF. In a multivariate regression model including continuous ECG measurements, only RRI and the amount of ischemia appear to be independently associated with the occurrence of ischemic VF. Continuous ECG measurements The parameters related specifically to the continuous ECG measurements are RRI and total number of ventricular ectopic beats. RRI and total number of ventricular ectopic beats RRI is a novel and unique ECG parameter that combines into a single parameter the multitude of ECG complexes and rhythms occurring in the acute phase of a STEMI by measuring RRI resulting from all such complexes. Examples of large and small RRIs are shown in [135]Figure 1. [136]View full-size image. [137]View Large Image [138]Download to PowerPoint [139]Standard image available Figure 1. RR-interval irregularity (RRI) in ventricular fibrillation (VF) patient (A) and matched control patient (B). Primarily due to irregular runs of ventricular ectopic beats, the VF patient had an RRI of 257 ms prior to the ischemic VF (red arrow), whereas the control patient had an RRI of 20 ms in the equivalent time interval. Green complexes indicate sinus beats; red complexes indicate ventricular ectopic beats; blue complexes indicate artifact (not used for any calculations). To our knowledge, the only continuous ECG parameter suggested to be associated with ischemic VF occurring in the acute phase of a STEMI is an increased number of ventricular ectopic beats prior to ischemic VF.[140]19 However, the predictive value of these so-called warning arrhythmias has been questioned by other researchers.[141]20, [142]21 In our study population, we were able to reproduce the finding that frequent ventricular ectopic beats represent a harbinger of ischemic VF. These previously reported contradictory results may be explained by our additional finding that the total number of ventricular ectopic beats was not an independent predictor of ischemic VF. RRI was the only independent continuous ECG predictor of ischemic VF, suggesting that the mere presence of ventricular ectopic beats is less important than rhythm irregularity. The manner in which RRI is associated with ischemic VF could be as follows. RRI leads to inhomogeneity in conduction velocity and refractory periods. Beat-to-beat changes in refractoriness, induced by RRI, may become pronounced in ischemic areas due to ischemia-related postrepolarization refractoriness, an effect suggested by our data to be even more pronounced in the final 5 minutes preceding ischemic VF. Subsequent, relatively shortly coupled beats may block or conduct slowly in these areas and instantaneously create a substrate vulnerable to ischemic VF. Shortly coupled beats do not necessarily induce reentry and VF; rather, they set the stage. The finding that the number of leads showing ST deviation was associated with ischemic VF might indicate a role for more widespread myocardial ischemia rather than merely local severity of ischemia. This could add to the heterogeneity of postrepolarization refractoriness. Although not an independent predictor, this concept is supported by a larger region at risk associated with VF found in a previous study using coronary angiography.[143]16 Heart rate variability The RRI measurements were performed using the software's mathematical capabilities to calculate HRV. Although technically possible, actual HRV measurements are not reported here. HRV has been recognized as a marker of the relationship between the autonomic nervous system and cardiac mortality. A decreased HRV has been proposed as a predictor of ventricular arrhythmias and sudden death in different patient populations, mostly consisting of patients in the postmyocardial infarction phase or with nonischemic cardiac diseases.[144]12, [145]22, [146]23, [147]24, [148]25 Most studies attributing a predictive role to HRV were specifically designed to measure this parameter for sufficiently long periods of sinus rhythm in a chronic care setting. The current study relates to a completely different clinical situation, not only because of its acutely ischemic population but also because of the relatively short measuring times with frequent ventricular ectopy. Thus, the clinical meaning of standard HRV measurements would be questionable in our study population. Study limitations The population studied was a selected population because all patients survived until hospital admission. Therefore, whether our findings can be generalized to the situation outside the hospital is not known. The study variables were derived from three separate studies, so possibly the study population was not homogeneous. In spite of this, the association we found between RRI, amount of ischemia, and ischemic VF was very consistent across studies. All patients were derived from STEMI intervention trials who met certain ST-segment criteria for inclusion. Therefore, whether the results are applicable to non-STEMI patients or patients with demand ischemia rather than supply ischemia is not known. Finally, we have no information on use of medication. However, in a previous study we found no influence of any type of medication on development of ischemic VF.[149]9 Furthermore, it is more likely that medications such as beta-blocking agents would influence RR-interval duration rather than RRI. In this regard, it should be noted that there was no difference in sinus rate between VF patients and control patients. However, it should be taken into account that the current database of Holter recordings prior to ischemic VF is unique in its size and possibly the best available. Clinical implications and future research The results of this study are important for a better understanding of ischemic VF. Moreover, it provides simple variables with possible implications for clinical use. There is an increased need for monitoring high-risk cardiac patients outside the hospital setting, and the development of monitoring devices with alarm features has been advocated by our group and others.[150]26, [151]27, [152]28 When incorporated within the algorithms of arrhythmia sensing devices, a warning predictor of ischemic VF could lead to improved early identification of individuals at risk. The predictive accuracy of 0.835 by multivariate analysis was high ([153]Table 3). This indicates that RRI and the ST deviation score may be useful as predictors of ischemic VF in STEMI patients. The cutoff value for RRI is 110 ms, with sensitivity of 74% and specificity of 75%. The cutoff value for the ST deviation score is 27 mm, yielding sensitivity of 74% and specificity of 70%. Because false-positive identification of STEMI patients at risk for ischemic VF is preferable to false-negative failure to identify, it could be speculated that different (ranges of) cutoff values with higher sensitivities at the cost of lower specificities should be chosen. Sensitivities of (approximately) 80% and 90% and corresponding cutoff values for RRI and the ST deviation score are shown in [154]Figure 2, [155]Figure 3. [156]View full-size image. [157]View Large Image [158]Download to PowerPoint [159]Standard image available Figure 2. Sensitivity and specificity for all cutoff values for RR-interval irregularity (RRI). [160]View full-size image. [161]View Large Image [162]Download to PowerPoint [163]Standard image available Figure 3. Sensitivity and specificity for all cutoff values for the ST deviation score (STdev). This study was aimed at STEMI patients who suffer from supply ischemia. One could speculate whether the results can be extrapolated to patients suffering from demand ischemia due to a severe stenosis. In that case, RRI could play a similar role in these patients, leading to ischemic VF (e.g., during exercise or diminished blood supply during sleep). Because the majority of sudden cardiac arrests occurs outside the hospital, a warning predictor of ischemic VF could be useful in patients with known coronary artery disease. The model proposed in the current study could serve as an ischemia model that could be used in future research studying patients who are potential victims of ischemic VF due to demand ischemia. Such populations are currently being studied by our group. Conclusion [164]return to Article Outline Overall RRI and the amount of ischemia are suggested to be useful predictors of ischemic VF occurring in the acute phase of STEMI. Acknowledgments [165]return to Article Outline We thank W.R. Dassen, PhD, for statistical advice. 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Decreased nocturnal standard deviation of averaged NN intervals (An independent marker to identify patients at risk in the Brugada Syndrome). Eur Heart J. 2003;22:2061-2069. [195]24. 24Carpeggiani C, L'Abbate A, Landi P, et al. Early assessment of heart rate variability is predictive of in-hospital death and major complications after acute myocardial infarction. Int J Cardiol. 2004;3:361-368. [196]25. 25Reed MJ, Robertson CE, Addison PS. Heart rate variability measurements and the prediction of ventricular arrhythmias. QJM. 2005;2:87-95. [197]26. 26Wellens HJ, Gorgels AP, de Munter H. Cardiac arrest outside of a hospital: how can we improve results of resuscitation?. Circulation. 2003;15:1948-1950. [198]27. 27Arzbaecher R, Jenkins J, Burke M, et al. Database testing of a subcutaneous monitor with wireless alarm. J Electrocardiol. 2006;4(Suppl):S50-S53. [199]28. 28Fischell TA, Fischell DR, Fischell RE, et al. Real-time detection and alerting for acute ST-segment elevation myocardial ischemia using an implantable, high-fidelity, intracardiac electrogram monitoring system with long-range telemetry in an ambulatory porcine model. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;11:2306-2314. [200]a Department of Cardiology, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands [201]* Duke University Medical Center/Duke Clinical Research Institute, Durham, North Carolina, USA [202]Corresponding Author Information Address reprint requests and correspondence: Dr. Miguel E. Lemmert, Maastricht University Medical Center, Department of Cardiology, PO Box 5800, 6202 AZ Maastricht, The Netherlands This research was supported by an unrestricted grant from Philips Healthcare, Seattle, Washington. PII: S1547-5271(09)01043-1 doi:10.1016/j.hrthm.2009.09.024 © 2010 Heart Rhythm Society. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. [203]View previous. 12 of 28 [204]View next. [205]Copyright © 2010 Elsevier, Inc. 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Références Liens visibles 36. javascript:openPopupWin('/imagesinfo','',400,200,200,200); 41. mailto:mlemmert@gmail.com 136. javascript:openImgWin('/article/S1547-5271(09)01043-1/journalimage?img=PIIS1547527109010431.gr1.lrg.gif&fig=fig1&kwhquery=&issn=1547-5271&ishighres=false&allhighres=false&free=yes','journalimage'); 137. javascript:openImgWin('/article/S1547-5271(09)01043-1/journalimage?img=PIIS1547527109010431.gr1.lrg.gif&fig=fig1&kwhquery=&issn=1547-5271&ishighres=false&allhighres=false&free=yes','journalimage'); 139. javascript:openPopupWin('/imagesinfo','',400,200,200,200); 156. javascript:openImgWin('/article/S1547-5271(09)01043-1/journalimage?img=PIIS1547527109010431.gr2.lrg.gif&fig=fig2&kwhquery=&issn=1547-5271&ishighres=false&allhighres=false&free=yes','journalimage'); 157. javascript:openImgWin('/article/S1547-5271(09)01043-1/journalimage?img=PIIS1547527109010431.gr2.lrg.gif&fig=fig2&kwhquery=&issn=1547-5271&ishighres=false&allhighres=false&free=yes','journalimage'); 159. javascript:openPopupWin('/imagesinfo','',400,200,200,200); 160. javascript:openImgWin('/article/S1547-5271(09)01043-1/journalimage?img=PIIS1547527109010431.gr3.lrg.gif&fig=fig3&kwhquery=&issn=1547-5271&ishighres=false&allhighres=false&free=yes','journalimage'); 161. javascript:openImgWin('/article/S1547-5271(09)01043-1/journalimage?img=PIIS1547527109010431.gr3.lrg.gif&fig=fig3&kwhquery=&issn=1547-5271&ishighres=false&allhighres=false&free=yes','journalimage'); 163. javascript:openPopupWin('/imagesinfo','',400,200,200,200); Liens cachés : #[1]Edit this page [2]Wikipedia (en) [3]copyright [4]Wikipedia RSS Feed [5]Wikipedia Atom Feed Rhythm From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search For other uses, see [8]Rhythm (disambiguation). Rhythm (from [9]greek rhuthµo'*s - rhythmos, "any measured flow or movement, symmetry") is the variation of the length and accentuation of a series of sounds or other events. Contents * [10]1 Rhythm in linguistics * [11]2 Origins of human appreciation of rhythm * [12]3 Rhythm notation and the oral tradition + [13]3.1 African music + [14]3.2 Indian music + [15]3.3 Western music * [16]4 Types * [17]5 See also * [18]6 Notes * [19]7 Sources * [20]8 Further reading [[21]edit] Rhythm in linguistics The study of rhythm, stress, and [22]pitch in [23]speech is called [24]prosody; it is a topic in [25]linguistics. Narmour (1980, p. 147-53) describes three categories of prosodic rules which create rhythmic successions which are additive (same duration repeated), cumulative (short-long), or countercumulative (long-short). Cumulation is associated with closure or relaxation, countercumulation with openness or tension, while additive rhythms are open-ended and repetitive. Richard Middleton points out this method cannot account for [26]syncopation and suggests the concept of [27]transformation. A [28]rhythmic unit is a [29]durational pattern which occupies a period of time equivalent to a [30]pulse or pulses on an underlying [31]metric level, as opposed to a [32]rhythmic gesture which does not (DeLone et al. (Eds.), 1975 [[33]edit] Origins of human appreciation of rhythm In his series How Music Works, [34]Howard Goodall presents theories that rhythm recalls how we walk and the heartbeat we heard in the womb. More likely is that a simple pulse or [35]di-dah beat recalls the footsteps of another person. Our sympathetic urge to dance is designed to boost our energy levels in order to cope with someone, or some animal chasing us - a fight or flight response. From a less darwinist perspective, perceiving rhythm is the ability to master the otherwise invisible dimension, time. Rhythm is possibly also rooted in courtship ritual.^[36][1] Neurologist [37]Oliver Sacks posits that human affinity for rhythm is fundamental, so much that a person's sense of rhythm cannot be lost in the way that music and language can (e.g. by [38]stroke). In addition, he states that [39]chimpanzees and other animals show no similar appreciation for rhythm.^[40][2] [[41]edit] Rhythm notation and the oral tradition Worldwide there are many different approaches to passing on rhythmic phrases and patterns, as they exist in traditional music, from generation to generation. [[42]edit] African music In the [43]Griot tradition of Africa everything related to music has been passed on orally. [44]Babatunde Olatunji (1927-2003), a Nigerian drummer who lived and worked in the [45]United States, developed a simple series of spoken sounds for teaching the rhythms of the hand drum. He used six vocal sounds: Goon Doon Go Do Pa Ta. There are three basic sounds on the drum, but each can be played with either the left or the right hand. This simple system is now used worldwide, particularly by [46]Djembe players. [[47]edit] Indian music Indian music has also been passed on orally. Tabla players would learn to speak complex rhythm patterns and phrases before attempting to play them. [48]Sheila Chandra, an English pop singer of Indian descent, made performances based around her singing these patterns. In [49]Indian Classical music, the [50]Tala of a composition is the rhythmic pattern over which the whole piece is structured. [[51]edit] Western music Standard [52]music notation contains rhythmic information and is adapted specifically for drums and percussion instruments. The drums are generally used to keep other instruments in 'time'. They do this by supplying beats/strikes in time at a certain pace, i.e. 70 beats per minute (bpm). In [53]Rock music, a drum beat is used to keep a [54]bass/[55]guitar line in time. [[56]edit] Types In [57]Western music, rhythms are usually arranged with respect to a [58]time signature, partially signifying a meter. The speed of the underlying [59]pulse is sometimes called the [60]beat. The [61]tempo is a measure of how quickly the pulse repeats. The tempo is usually measured in 'beats per minute' (bpm); 60 bpm means a speed of one beat per second. The length of the meter, or metric unit (usually corresponding with [62]measure length), is usually grouped into either two or three beats, being called [63]duple meter and [64]triple meter, respectively. If each beat is divided by two or four, it is [65]simple meter, if by three (or six) [66]compound meter. According to [67]Pierre Boulez, beat structures beyond four are "simply not natural".^[68][3]. His reference is to western European music. Standard notation of a clave pattern on audio clip clave pattern.ogg [69]Syncopated rhythms are rhythms that accent parts of the beat not already stressed by [70]counting. Playing simultaneous rhythms in more than one time signature is called [71]polymeter. See also [72]polyrhythm. In recent years, rhythm and meter have become an important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these areas includes books by [73]Maury Yeston, [74]Fred Lerdahl and [75]Ray Jackendoff, [76]Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty, William Rothstein, and Joel Lester. Grid notation of single a clave pattern Some [77]genres of music make different use of rhythm than others. Most Western music is based on [78]subdivision, while non-Western music uses more [79]additive rhythm. [80]African music makes heavy use of [81]polyrhythms, and [82]Indian music uses [83]complex cycles such as 7 and 13, while [84]Balinese music often uses complex [85]interlocking rhythms. By comparison, a lot of Western [86]classical music is fairly rhythmically (or metrically) simple; it stays in a [87]simple meter such as 4/4 or 3/4 and makes little use of [88]syncopation. [89]Clave is a common underlying rhythm in [90]African, [91]Cuban music, and [92]Brazilian music. [93]Claves (Submit) Play sound Four beats followed by three Clave patterns __________________________________________________________________ Problems listening to this file? See [94]media help. In the 20th century, [95]composers like [96]Igor Stravinsky, [97]Bela Bartok, [98]Philip Glass, and [99]Steve Reich wrote more rhythmically complex music using [100]odd meters, and techniques such as [101]phasing and [102]additive rhythm. At the same time, modernists such as [103]Olivier Messiaen and his pupils used increased complexity to disrupt the sense of a regular beat, leading eventually to the widespread use of [104]irrational rhythms in [105]New Complexity. This use may be explained by a comment of [106]John Cage's^[[107]where?] where he notes that regular rhythms cause sounds to be heard as a group rather than individually; the irregular rhythms highlight the rapidly changing pitch relationships that would otherwise be subsumed into irrelevant rhythmic groupings (Sandow 2004, p. 257). [108]LaMonte Young also wrote music in which the sense of a regular beat is absent because the music consists only of long sustained tones ([109]drones). In the 1930s, [110]Henry Cowell wrote music involving multiple simultaneous periodic rhythms and collaborated with [111]Léon Thérémin to invent the [112]Rhythmicon, the first electronic [113]rhythm machine, in order to perform them. Similarly, [114]Conlon Nancarrow wrote for the [115]player piano. [[116]edit] See also * [117]Meter (music) * [118]Prosody (linguistics) * [119]Riddim * [120]Morse Code * [121]Soul (music) * [122]Time scale (music) * [123]Timing (linguistics) [[124]edit] Notes 1. [125]^ [126]Mithen, Steven (2005). [127]The Singing Neanderthals: The Origins of Music, Language, Mind and Body.. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.. [128]ISBN [129]0297643177. 2. [131]^ [132]Jon Stewart, [133]Oliver Sacks. (2009-06-29). [134]The Daily Show with Jon Stewart. [Television production]. Comedy Central. itle=oliver-sacks. "People often tried to teach their dogs to dance--it doesn't work." 3. [136]^ In [137]Discovering Music: Rhythm with [138]Leonard Slatkin at 5:05 [[139]edit] Sources * Hasty, Christopher (1997). Meter as Rhythm. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [140]ISBN 0-19-510066-2. * London, Justin (2004). Hearing in Time: Psychological Aspects of Musical Meter. [141]ISBN 0-19-516081-9. * Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music. Philadelphia: Open University Press. [142]ISBN 0-335-15275-9. * Narmour (1980). Cited in DeLone et al. (Eds.) (1975). Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. [143]ISBN 0-13-049346-5. * Sandow, Greg (2004). "A Fine Madness", The Pleasure of Modernist Music. [144]ISBN 1-58046-143-3. * Yeston, Maury (1976). "The Stratification of Musical Rhythm". [[145]edit] Further reading * McGaughey, William (2001). "Rhythm and Self-Consciousness: New Ideals for an Electronic Civilization". Minneapolis: Thistlerose Publications. [146]ISBN 0-9605630-4-0. * Honing, H. (2002). [147]"Structure and interpretation of rhythm and timing." Tijdschrift voor Muziektheorie [Dutch Journal of Music Theory] 7(3): 227-232. * Lewis, Andrew (2005). Rhythm--What it is and How to Improve Your Sense of It. San Francisco: [148]RhythmSource Press. [149]ISBN 978-0-9754667-0-4. * Williams, C. F. A., The Aristoxenian Theory of Musical Rhythm, (Cambridge Library Collection - Music), Cambridge University Press; 1st edition, 2009. * Toussaint, G. T., "The geometry of musical rhythm," In J. Akiyama, M. Kano, and X. Tan, editors, Proceedings of the Japan Conference on Discrete and Computational Geometry, Vol. 3742, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2005, pp. 198-212. [150]v o [151]d o [152]e [153]Musical notation and [154]development [155]Staff [156]Bar & Bar line · [157]Clef · [158]Da capo · [159]Dal segno · [160]Key signature · [161]Ledger line · [162]Musical mode · [163]Musical scale · [164]Rehearsal letter · [165]Repeat sign · [166]Time signature · [167]Transposition · [168]Transposing instrument [169]G (treble) clef symbol [170]Notes [171]Accidental ([172]Flat · [173]Natural · [174]Sharp) · [175]Dotted note · [176]Grace note · [177]Note value ([178]Beam · [179]Note head · [180]Stem) · [181]Pitch · [182]Rest · [183]Interval · [184]Letter notation [185]Articulation [186]Dynamics · [187]Ornament ([188]Trill · [189]Mordent · [190]Grace note) · [191]Ossia · [192]Portato · [193]Accent · [194]Legato · [195]Tenuto · [196]Marcato · [197]Staccato · [198]Staccatissimo · [199]Tie · [200]Slur · [201]Fermata [202]Development [203]Coda · [204]Exposition · [205]Harmony · [206]Melody · [207]Motif · [208]Recapitulation · Rhythm ([209]Beat · [210]Meter · [211]Tempo) · [212]Theme · [213]Tonality · [214]Atonality Related [215]Chord chart · [216]Figured bass · [217]Graphic notation · [218]Lead sheet · [219]Eye music · [220]Modern musical symbols · [221]Neume · [222]Tablature [224]Categories: [225]Rhythm | [226]Greek loanwords Hidden categories: [227]Vague or ambiguous geographic scope Views * [228]Article * [229]Discussion * [230]Edit this page * [231]History Personal tools * [232]Try Beta * [233]Log in / create account Navigation * [234]Main page * [235]Contents * [236]Featured content * [237]Current events * [238]Random article Search ____________________ Go Search Interaction * [239]About Wikipedia * [240]Community portal * [241]Recent changes * [242]Contact Wikipedia * [243]Donate to Wikipedia * [244]Help Toolbox * [245]What links here * [246]Related changes * [247]Upload file * [248]Special pages * [249]Printable version * [250]Permanent link * [251]Cite this page Languages * [252]Bosanski * [253]Català * [254]Dansk * [255]Deutsch * [256]Eesti * [257]Español * [258]Esperanto * [259]f+a+r+s+ * [260]Français * [261]­´ * [262]Hrvatski * [263]Bahasa Indonesia * [264]Íslenska * [265]Italiano * [266]E+B+R+J+T+ * [267]¥ £ * [268]Latviesu * [269]Líguru * [270]Makedonski * [271]®²¯¾³ * [272]Nederlands * [273]¥¬ * [274]ªNorsk (bokmål) * [275]ªNorsk (nynorsk) * [276]Polski * [277]Português * [278]Russkij * [279]Simple English * [280]Slovencina * [281]Slovenscina * [282]Suomi * [283]Svenska * [284]Türkçe * [285]Ukrayins'ka * [286]­ [287]Powered by MediaWiki [288]Wikimedia Foundation * This page was last modified on 16 January 2010 at 18:08. * Text is available under the [289]Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See [290]Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [291]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * [292]Contact us * [293]Privacy policy * [294]About Wikipedia * [295]Disclaimers Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1]Daniel Laberge music Rhythm explained including 27 rhythm exercises by Daniel Laberge Rhythm figure Hi rhythm lovers, I've devised these exercises in the early seventies while teaching music. I could not find any existing book that saw rhythm the way I did. This method is based on "rhythmic figures" or rhythm possibilities. Each one lasts one beat. I simply counted the rhythmic possibilities one could encounter for each type of beat divisions. There are: o Four rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by two o Eight rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by three o Sixteen rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by four I composed the exercises back then and used them for my teaching, but I only wrote the theory that goes along in 2002. The book is called "Rhythm explained" and I am gradually placing its content here. Each exercise is preceded by a lesson, with graphic representations, and includes an audio rendition to help you. You can choose between three speeds. For jazz musicians, the binary exercises also have a swing or double swing performance. Go to the bottom of the page for a link to the swing version. Choose among the following exercises: Beat exercises [2]Rhythm exercise 1-1 Featured figures [3][onequarternote1.gif] [4] [onehalfnote1.gif] [5] [dottedhalfnote1.gif] [6] [wholenote1.gif] [7]Rhythm exercise 1-2 Featured figures [8][quarternoterest1.gif] [9] [halfnoterest1.gif] [10] [wholenoterest1.gif] [11]Rhythm exercise 1-3 Featured figures [12][quarternoterest1.gif] [13] [halfnoterest1.gif] [14] [dottedhalfnoterest1.gif] [15] [wholenoterest1.gif] Binary beat division The binary family is large as it includes: o Division by two o Division by four o Part of division by six o Division by eight This section is concerned with the simple division by two. Any binary beat has two alternating parts: the downbeat and the upbeat. Binary beat [binarybeat1.gif] As you can see, there are only two places in a beat where events or notes can be positioned or played: o The downbeat o The upbeat How rhythmic possibilities work This means that for any given beat you can have any of the four following possibilities: 1 o Only one event on the downbeat. 2 o Events on both the downbeat and the upbeat. 3 o No event at all. 4 o Only one event on the upbeat. [possibilitiesbytwosimple1.gif] The rhythmic figure used to represent a binary beat is called: TWO EIGHTH NOTES [masterfigurebinary1.gif] Binary master rhythmic figure Simple binary rhythmic figures 4 possibilities: o 2 Primary o 2 Secondary [possibilitiesbytwo1.gif] Secondary rhythmic figures lack the event that falls on the beat. There is a secondary figure for each primary one. Because the beat is so important, secondary figures have appeared after the primary ones had been well established. The absence of event falling on the beat can be due to a silence or a sound that is held over from the preceding beat. Because of this, there are two ways to notate secondary figures: o With a rest o With a tie [primarysecondary1.gif] Primary and secondary rhythmic figures Choose among the following exercises: Binary exercises PRIMARY [16]Rhythm exercise 2-1 Featured figure [17][twoeighthnotes2.gif] [18]Rhythm exercise 2-2 Featured figures [19][twoeighthnotes2.gif] [20] [quarternoterest2.gif] SECONDARY [21]Rhythm exercise 2-3 Featured figure [22][dottedquarternoteeighth2.gif] [23]Rhythm exercise 2-4 Featured figure [24][eighthnotesyncopationa2.gif] [25]Rhythm exercise 2-5 Featured figure [26][twoeighttieonequarter2.gif] MULTIPLE SYNCOPATIONS [27]Rhythm exercise 2-6 Featured figure [28][doublesyncopationa2.gif] Ternary beat division The ternary family is small as it includes: o Division by three o Part of division by six Everything goes in thirds in ternary music. Any ternary beat has one downbeat and two upbeats. Ternary beat [ternarybeat1.gif] The rhythmic figure used to represent a ternary beat is called: THREE EIGHTH NOTES [masterfigureternary1.gif] Ternary master rhythmic figure Writing ternary rhythm In ternary music writing, each eighth note is worth one third of a beat. Since two eighth notes always equal one quarter note, these now equal two thirds of a beat. It takes a dotted quarter note to represent one beat. [ternarywriting1.gif] Ternary rhythmic figures 8 possibilities: o 4 Primary o 4 Secondary [possibilitiesbythree1.gif] Choose among the following exercises: Ternary exercises PRIMARY [29]Rhythm exercise 3-1 Featured figure [30][threeeighth2.gif] [31]Rhythm exercise 3-2 Featured figure [32][onequarteroneeighth2.gif] [33]Rhythm exercise 3-3 Featured figure [34][oneeighthonequarter2.gif] SECONDARY [35]Rhythm exercise 3-1s Featured figure [36][8threst2eighth2.gif] OR [37] [tie3eighth2.gif] [38]Rhythm exercise 3-2s Featured figure [39][quarternoterestoneeighth2.gif] OR [40] [tiequarternote1eighth.gif] [41]Rhythm exercise 3-3s Featured figure [42][8threst1quarternote2.gif] OR [43] [tie1eighth1quarter2.gif] Division by four Beats divided by four are part of the binary family. Everything goes in quarters in this feel. Beat divided by four [binarybeat2.gif] The rhythmic figure used to represent a beat divided by four is called: FOUR SIXTEENTH NOTES [masterfigurebyfour1.gif] Division by four master rhythmic figure Binary rhythmic figures 16 possibilities: o 8 Primary o 8 Secondary [possibilitiesbyfour1.gif] Choose among the following exercises: Division by four exercises PRIMARY [44]Rhythm exercise 4-1 Featured figure [45][foursixteenth2.gif] [46]Rhythm exercise 4-2 Featured figure [47][oneeighthtwosixteenth2.gif] [48]Rhythm exercise 4-3 Featured figure [49][twosixteenthoneeighth2.gif] [50]Rhythm exercise 4-4 Featured figure [51][dottedeighthonesixteenth2.gif] [52]Rhythm exercise 4-5 Featured figure [53][onesixteenthdottedeighth2.gif] [54]Rhythm exercise 4-6 Featured figure [55][16th8th16th2.gif] SECONDARY [56]Rhythm exercise 4-1s Featured figure [57][16threst3sixteenth2.gif] OR [58] [tiefoursixteenth2.gif] [59]Rhythm exercise 4-2s Featured figure [60][8threst2sixteenth2.gif] OR [61] [tie1eighth2sixteenth2.gif] [62]Rhythm exercise 4-3s Featured figure [63][16threst1sixteenth1eighth2.gif] OR [64] [tie2sixteenth1eighth2.gif] [65]Rhythm exercise 4-4s Featured figure [66][dotted8threst1sixteenth2.gif] OR [67] [tiedottereight1sixteenth2.gif] [68]Rhythm exercise 4-5s Featured figure [69][16threstdotted8th.gif] OR [70] [tie16thdotted8th2.gif] [71]Rhythm exercise 4-6s Featured figure [72][16threst1eighth1sixteenth2.gif] OR [73] [tieone16thone8thone16th2.gif] [74]Bugs, problems and comments [75]Daniel Laberge music Références Liens visibles 74. javascript:; Liens cachés : #[1]ORGY IN RHYTHM - Atom [2]ORGY IN RHYTHM - RSS IFRAME: IN+RHYTHM&publishMode=PUBLISH_MODE_BLOGSPOT&navbarType=BLACK&layoutType [4]skip to main | [5]skip to sidebar ORGY IN RHYTHM [6]JAZZ HIP TRIO - JAZZ EN RELIEF Jazz Hip Trio for Riviera France from 1967. Jean-Bernard Eisinger Piano ; Roger Luccioni Bass ;Daniel Humair Drums. More beautiful music from France on this the first Jazz Hip Trio LP. "Orange Boom" was the big tune back in the day but the rest is just fabulous. Needless to say.....All Killer No Filler Another first in public blogland here at OIR. [7]12 comments made-how about you? 12.1.10 [8]MAL WALDRON - TOKYO BOUND Mal Waldron for RCA Victor Japan from 1970. Mal Waldron-Piano;Takeshi Inomata-Drums;Yasuo Arakawa-Bass Tremendous all killer trio date with Waldron joined by a top flight Japanese rhythm section on four original compositions which only saw a release in Japan.Check out the rocking intensity of "Rock One For Jimbo San" and "Japanese Island" which builds from an ominous brooding intro into a marvellous modal waltz."Atomic Energy" blows up with a headlong banging vamp from Waldron's left hand while the right runs all over the keys and then to close "Mount Fujiyama" a more introspective rumination and dissection of the tune's theme. Inomata's drumming is a revelation throughout the session intricate yet swinging with fantastic use of cymbals.(Don't forget to check out Inomata's Sound of Sounds lp also recorded in 1970 which I posted [9]here during the summer) Respect to El Goog for introducing me to this great album.I finally picked a copy up from Japan via ebay last month - not cheap but worth every penny. Very highly recomnmended. [10]37 comments made-how about you? 20.12.09 [11]THE HERBIE HANCOCK TRIO Herbie Hancock for Sony Japan from 1977. Herbie Hancock-Piano;Ron Carter-Bass;Tony Williams-Drums The big three keep it strictly acoustic for this Japanese only release from CBS Sony. 4 originals from Herb plus a rapid romp through "Milestones"...tough stuff. The first V.S.O.P. tour triggered a flood of recording activity in July 1977, but only a fraction of it was released in the U.S. This session, recorded in San Francisco just days before the Quintet concerts in Berkeley and San Diego, finds Herbie Hancock, Ron Carter and Tony Williams mixing it up sans the horns and the results are more reflective and cerebral than the full Quintet concerts. Hancock is thoroughly in control of the agenda while Williams throws in those meter-fracturing flurries that keep everyone on their toes. There is a startling re-interpretation of "Speak like a Child" which is significantly tougher and busier than the wistful Blue Note version, as well as challenging Hancock originals like "Watcha Waiting For" and "Watch It." This is uncompromising acoustic jazz, commercial anathema in the electronic '70s -and thus, only Japan got to hear it. Richard S. Ginell. [12]16 comments made-how about you? 13.12.09 [13]JAZZ HIP TRIO - PORTRAITS Jazz Hip Trio for Riviera France from 1968. Jean-Bernard Eisinger Piano ; Roger Luccioni Bass ;Daniel Humair Drums. Piano trios are the theme for my the next few posts and what better way to start than with some beautiful music from France on it's first time out in blogland here at OIR. 10 original compositions which grow and grow on repeated listening - get past the "Sidewinder" influenced dance floor intro tune "Bat Rock" and you're in for a swinging set of subtle trio sounds.Of course it's gotta be...... All Killer No Filler [14]23 comments made-how about you? 6.12.09 [15]THE DIAMOND FIVE - BRILLIANT ! The Diamond Five for Fontana from 1964. Personnel: Cees Slinger: piano; Harry Verbeke: tenor sax; Cees Smal: trumpet, cornet and valve trombone; Jacques Schols: bass; Johnny Engels: drums. Please check the comments as Chazz has also ripped The Five Diamonds-Finally After Forty Years cd reissue from Japan and will be posting the link shortly.Over to you Chazz! I don't post donations at OIR but just had to make an exception when this was winged across the pond to me from Chazz Katz.It's a very rare piece of hard bop from Holland which made a blink and miss it reissue on cd some years ago in Japan (original vinyl goes for silly money anywhere between $600-$1000) and has never appeared in blogland before.Here's the notes and cheers to Chazz for his rip! Nice work chap - All Killer No Filler! The Diamond Five, a Dutch quintet led by pianist Cees Slinger, was founded in 1959 and lasted until 1965. They were based at the Sheherazade Club in Amsterdam and were quite popular, playing all over Holland and accompanying expatriate American musicians on their visits to Amsterdam. However, when the club closed its doors due to a shift in popular interest from jazz to rock music, the quintet disbanded. This 1964 recording is their only session available on CD. The music is hard bop on the surface, but is neither formulaic nor a copy of the genres imported from the U.S. The musicians are quite unique in their style. Slinger plays sparse notes on his solos, utilizing well-placed pauses in the music to create melodic hard bop with hints of more forward-looking styles. The other outstanding soloist is tenor saxophonist Harry Verbeke, whose solos (in contrast to that of the leader) are filled with a multitude of notes played in the modal vein. The others are also quite stellar, the bass and the drums providing a loose bluesy support and horn man Cees Smal adding something unique with the sounds of his different horns, switching between valve trombone, cornet and trumpet. [16]26 comments made-how about you? 26.11.09 [17]BOBBY HUTCHERSON - CIRRUS Bobby Hutcherson for Blue Note from 1974. Hutch is playing four sets in London this weekend so Katonah from Private Press and I will be propping up the bar for his late spot at Scotts tomorrow night. So here's a 3rd repost for his evergreen "Cirrus" ....All Killer No Filler. This was my very first Bobby Hutcherson post here at OIR back in may 2006.It was ripped from my vinyl copy @192 in those days-I've reupped it @320 this time and taken it from the superb Mosaic Select box set.Here's my original narrative: Cirrus finds Bobby Hutcherson resuming his partnership with tenor saxophonist Harold Land, and the results are marvellous. The pair work with pianist Bill Henderson, trumpeter Woody Shaw, bassist Ray Drummond, drummer Larry Hancock, saxophonist/flautist Emmanuel Boyd and percussionist Kenneth Nash on this set of originals.The album starts with a great version of Woody Shaw's "Rosewood" while the rest of the set is written by Hutcherson and includes "Even Later".Highlight of the lp for me is the atmospheric and brooding "Zuri Dance" - what a corker ! [18]36 comments made-how about you? 13.11.09 [19]DAVE PIKE - LET THE MINSTRELS PLAY ON Dave Pike for Muse from 1978. Vibraphone - Dave Pike / Bass - Luther Hughes / Cello - Luther Hughes / Drums - Ted Hawkes / Guitar - Ron Eschete / Keyboards , Sax - Tom Ranier / Vocals - Carol Eschete. KGML has just posted "Spirits Samba" so dug the lp out for those who would like to hear more. Picked this up in Tony Monson's Disc Empire in the early 80s after hearing Chris Bangs spinning "Swan Lake" and found it had yet another bona fide jazz dance classic to be featured in the shape of "Spirits Samba". Here's an apathetic review from amg: Some Afro-Latin, some fusion and things in between from vibist Dave Pike. Pike is a good player, but sometimes his arrangements bog down between pop and jazz. His style is more remniscent of Red Norvo, with its lighter, less aggressive and flowing lines. [20]12 comments made-how about you? 12.11.09 [21]RANDY WESTON - BLUE MOSES Randy Weston For CTI from 1972. Arranged By - Don Sebesky;Bass - Bill Wood (2) (tracks: B1) , Ron Carter ;Drums - Bill Cobham ;English Horn, Clarinet, Flute - George Marge ;Flugelhorn - Alan Rubin , John Frosk , Marvin Stamm ;Flute - Hubert Laws ;French Horn - Brooks Tillotson , James Buffington ;Oboe, Clarinet, Flute - Romeo Penque ;Piano - Randy Weston Saxophone [Tenor] - Grover Washington, Jr ;Synthesizer [Moog] - David Horowitz Trombone - Garnett Brown , Warren Covington , Wayne Andre ;Trombone - Paul Faulise Trumpet - Freddie Hubbard ;Vocals - Madasme Meddah Super heavyweight banger from CTI - trust Randy Weston to dispense with Creed Taylor's saccharine stylings.All Killer blah blah blah.... Another underwhelming review from Mr Yannow: Randy Weston's most popular record, this Lp (which he had mixed feelings about) features Weston not only on piano but electric keyboards. Backed by Don Sebesky arrangements and assisted by trumpeter Freddie Hubbard and tenor-saxophonist Grover Washington Jr., Weston plays quite well on four of his compositions; best-known are "Ganawa (Blue Moses)" and "Marrakesh Blues." The music retains the African feel of most of Weston's latter-day playing but also has some commercial touches that do not hurt the performances. This rewarding date has not yet been reissued on CD. ~ Scott Yanow, All Music Guide Fantastic cover art from Pete Turner - I highly recommend his book[22] here. [23]16 comments made-how about you? 7.11.09 [24]BLACKCLASSICAL - 1ST BIRTHDAY MEGAMIX Blackclassical has taken off his flat cap ,put the racing pigeons away and is celebrating his first year on t'interwebs with a mighty mp3 mash up of spiritual jazz goodness[25] here.Proof indeed that it's not all grim up north. Happy Birthday you old bastard - now get the lagers in and make sure they've got vodka tops you tightarse. [26]3 comments made-how about you? 6.11.09 [27]TUBBT HAYES - TUBBS IN N.Y. Tubby Hayes for Fontana from 1961. Saxophone [Tenor] - Tubby Hayes; Bass - George Duvivier; Drums - Dave Bailey ;Piano - Horace Parlan ; Trumpet - Clark Terry;Vibraphone - Eddie Costa Another first in blogland for this British vinyl rarity at OIR with Tubbs keeping heavy company in NYC . Apparently there was legal wrangling about who owns the masters so don't hold your breath waiting for a cd issue.The last one got pulled pronto upon release in 1990. The swaggering "A Pint Of Bitter" was my very first exposure to Hayes back in the early 80s - I just love that tune - but the rest is just as good with flat out romps through "Opus Ocean" and "Airegin" plus a wonderfuly swinging "Soon" . Nice! [28]26 comments made-how about you? 31.10.09 [29]TUBBY HAYES QUARTET - TUBBY'S GROOVE Tubby Hayes for Tempo from 1960. Tubby Hayes (ts), Terry Shannon (p), Phil Bates (b), Phil Seamen (d). "Tin Tin Deo" killin' it every time for me on this rare piece of British wax from 50 years ago. Simon Spillet has written a fascinating piece on Tubby at[30] Jazzscript and here's his take on this album: I think it's one of Tubby's best ever studio recordings and catches him very much in his prime. I suppose that the stand-out track for me has to be Sunny Monday with its unaccompanied tenor choruses. The tone is big, the rhythmic delivery is full of confidence and the sheer enthusiasm shines through half a century on. [31]23 comments made-how about you? 30.10.09 [32]STAFFAN ABELEEN QUINTET -PERSEPOLIS Staffan Abeleen for Philips Sweden from 1964. Staffan Abeleen-Piano ; Lasse Farnlof - Trumpet ; Bjorn Netz - Tenor ; Bjorn Alke - Bass ; Bosse Skoglund - Drums More top draw business from Sweden making a first appearance in blogland.Modal to bossa to ballads this one's got the lot: ALL KILLER NO FILLER [33]15 comments made-how about you? 15.10.09 [34]BERNT ROSENGREN BIG BAND - FIRST MOVES Bernt Rosengren for EMI Sweden from 1977. Bassoon, Horn - Lars Bagge/Clarinet, Clarinet [Bass], Saxophone [Soprano, Alto, Baritone] - Lennart Jansson /Congas - Johnny Martinez , René Martinez , Sabu Martinez Cornet , Flugelhorn - Lars Färnlöf /Drums - Leif Wennerström/Flute, Saxophone -Bernt Rosengren /Horn [English], Saxophone - Tommy Koverhult / Percussion - Okay Temiz / Piano - Claes-Göran Fagerstedt / Piano, Piano [Electric] - Bobo Stenson / Saxophone [Baritone] - Gunnar Bergsten / Saxophone [Tenor] - Anders Lindskog / Trombone - Jan Jansson , Janus Miezek , Lars Olofsson , Lennart Löfgren / Trombone [Bass] - Sven Larsson /Trumpet - Björn Borg /Trumpet , Flugelhorn - Bertil Lövgren , Maffy Falay / Bass - Torbjörn Hultcrantz Back over to Sweden for this killer big band session led by Bernt Rosengren and featuring some big names such as a pre-ECM Bobo Stenson,the wonderful Lars Farnlof and none other than the mighty Sabu Martinez. Check out the percussion destruction of "Felicidade" with Sabu plus sons Johnny and Rene Martinez beating the crap out of the Jobim bossa standard... Murdah!!! [35]19 comments made-how about you? 1.10.09 [36]JAZZ QUINTET 60 Jazz Quintet 60 from 1962 for Metronome Denmark. Allan Botschinsky (tp), Niels Husum (ts), Bent Axen (p), Niels-Henning Orsted Pedersen (b), Bjarne Rostvold (ds). Legendary Scandinavian rarity (Check the second mortgage prices on [37]Popsike) from Denmark featuring a who's who of the Danish Jazz scene from the past 50 years. First time it's has been posted in public blogland so don't sleep on this one : ALL KILLER NO FILLER ! [38]27 comments made-how about you? 27.9.09 [39]STAFFAN ABELEEN QUINTET - DOWNSTREAM Staffan Abeleen Quintet for Philips Sweden from 1966. Staffan Abeleen - Piano ; Lasse Farnlof - Trumpet ; Bjorn Netz - Sax ; Bosse Skugland - Drums ; Paul Danielsson - Bass. All compositions by Lars Farnlof Scandinavia is the destination for my next batch of posts and what better way to start than with this superb album by The Staffen Abeleen Quintet playing the compositions of the wonderful Lars Farnlof. Another first appearance in blogland but let the music do the talking ... ALL KILLER NO FILLER [40]15 comments made-how about you? 19.9.09 [41]ARCHIE SHEPP & THE FAMILY OF PERCUSSION - HERE COMES THE FAMILY I have had lots of requests for a repost of this bomb from Archie Shepp and The Family of Percussion - so here it is. First posted at OIR september 2006. The Family of Percussion (Peter Giger,Trilok Gurtu,Doug Hammond and Tom Nicholas)are joined by Archie Shepp on this hard to find 1980 release from Nagara in Germany. On "Here Comes the Family"the Family establish the basic form of the piece with their rhythmic and vocal opening with Shepp's flute fluttering above it all.Then he lets rip with what the liner notes call 'Poetic Recitation'but would probably be called rapping these days over a funky percussive backdrop .This tune is why the lp remains in such demand - a big play list favourite of djs world wide. Next up is Shepp's "Street Song" the best cut on the lp for me,on which he blows his tenor freely over the drums,congas,bells and gongs.The piece ends in a crescendo of percussion culminating in a gong crash which fades into silence."Euterpe's Favorit"has Shepp back on flute with the family weaving a mystical feel behind him on bells,whistles,water pipes,gongs,rattles and drums. "Ardopetori"starts side 2 with a mid tempo infectious rhythm established by shakers and log drum which builds slowly with Shepp soloing freely again on tenor. "For Ti Roro"wraps it up and begins with the gentle,caribean sounds of steel drums until Shepp's soprano bursts in with a frenzy of excitement.This is the most free track with all the musicians reacting to each otherboth collectively and singularly until it finishes fittingly with the sound of the congas. This came out on lp and cd but quickly dissapeared without trace.if you want a copy you gonna have to dig hard and have deep pockets! [42]18 comments made-how about you? [43]HIROSHI SUZUKI - CAT Hiroshi Suzuki for Columbia Japan from 1975. Hiroshi Suzuki-Trombone ; Hiromasa Suzuki-Keyboards ; Akira Ishikawa-Drums ; Takeru Muraoka-Sax ; Kunimitsu Inaba-Bass More super rare J Jazz making a first appearance in blogland and this is an absolute beauty made up of 5 long cuts that hit the perfect balance between jazz and fusion.Acoustic bass meshed with subtle funky drums topped with lashings of Rhodes,trombone and sax deliver a really stretched out understated rolling groove. The album just grows and grows with repeated listening and it's a big favourite over here at Bacoso's Big Top - no surprise that it's ALL KILLER NO FILLER ! [44]34 comments made-how about you? 7.9.09 [45]T. INOMATA & SOUND L.T.D. - SOUNDS OF SOUND L.T.D. Takeshi Inomata for Columbia Japan from 1970. Takeshi Inomata (Drums & Percussion) Jun Suzuki (Electric Bass) Shigetok Kamiya (Electric Guitar) Ryo Kawasaki (Electric Guitar) Sho Imai (Trombone & Bass Trombone) Shigemichi Dohmoto (Trombone & Bass Trombone) Takao Uematsu (Tenor Sax & Soprano Sax) Fantastic lp of funky jazz from the Columbia issued Groovy Sound Series. No idea who plays on it as the credits are all in Japanese but it's a monster session. Check out "Mustache" and "Tak's Tune" for some severe beats from drummer/leader Takeshi Inomata. All Killer No Filler - Highly Recommended! [46]22 comments made-how about you? 29.8.09 [47]HIDEO SHIRAKI - IN FIESTA Hideo Shiraki for Teichiku Japan from 1961. Rare super tough hard bop session from Japan featuring the killer koto led and drum driven bomb "In Fiesta". Reissued in Japan by Kyoto Jazz Massive for Think in a blink and miss it moment back in 2005 but now out of print. The old Dusty Groove blurb: A brilliant early album from Japanese drummer Hideo Shiraki a jazz session that bristles with the same intensity as key late 50s work by Benny Golson or Gigi Gryce! Although Hideo's leading the group on drums, his work on the kit is remarkably subtle done with the snappingly rhythmic style that marked some of Golson's best modern experiments of a few years before not nearly as bombastic as his stint with Art Blakey, and more in the rhythmically stepping quality of his work with Art Farmer in the Jazztet. Key players on the session include Hidehiko Matsumoto on tenor and flute and Yuzuru Sera on piano both of whom give the album a fluid grace that's really beautiful soulful edges that allow the record to stand equally next to anything coming out of the US at the time. One track features a bit of koto at the start -- echoing Shiraki's later world jazz experiments but most of the set is straight modern hardbop, with tracks that include "Blue Romeo", "Etude No 1", "Just One Or Eight", "You Don't Know What Love Is", and Benny Golson's "Five Spot After Dark". [48]14 comments made-how about you? 18.8.09 [49]LLOYD MCNEILL - TREASURES Lloyd McNeill for Baobab from 1976. Lloyd McNeill-Flute ; Dom Salvador-Piano ; Cecil McBee-Bass ; Portinho , Brian Brake-Drums ; Ray Armando-Percussion. One for the flute freaks on a private press out of NYC. Heavy Brazilian infuences at work on this wonderful spiritual jazz session from the great Lloyd McNeill.Two originals,one standard and a cracking version of Salvador's "Salvation Army" which featured on Dom's '76 Muse debut "Minha Familia"(Available at [50]Ile Oxumare). Here's some info on Lloyd McNeill from the excellent [51]Hipwax: The first thing to know about Lloyd McNeill is that his are the very best soul-jazz flute LPs, and each is first-rate, a masterpiece of self-direction. The second thing to know is there is much more to him than his recorded legacy. He is one of those incredible, super-sensitive people who excels at every artistic idiom and endeavor; making wonderful music is just part of his flowing creativity. A professor (at Rutgers University, earlier Dartmouth), he has much to say about music and creativity as well as an impeccable gift for saying it...sensibly. McNeill's writings on his musical experiences provide invaluable documents of "the period" (late 1960s-1970s) as well as a rare glimpse at the joy of a relatively unsung master. McNeill has played with jazz legends --Andrew White (his longtime collaborator/producer), Eric Dolphy, Sabu Martinez, Mulatu Astatke, among many others-- and he has had a significant hand in the arts scene of Washington, D.C. The major galleries of art, including those of the Smithsonian, sponsored multi-media "happenings" that soared far above the hippie caricature of acid rock with light show. During the first flowering of post-Civil Rights, African-American culture, the Lloyd McNeill Quartet's improvisitory, simultaneuous jazz and large-scale painting "happened" while a lucky, perhaps unsuspecting public drank it in. McNeill believes his influences and their results in his art, music, and poetry are inseparable and mutually reinforcing. Time spent with Picasso in Cannes, 1965 led to new expressions in all three, for instance. And when one brushes against a force such as Picasso, just the idea of "meeting Picasso" has a certain momentum, never mind the inevitable casting of rays of a different kind of light. Canvas, vinyl, the stage, paper, and books of poetry offer a few key imprints of McNeill, and McNeill consistently pays tribute to many illustrious peers. There are six albums, all produced and entirely under the artist's control. Each title surpasses anything comparable on the major labels, even Blue Note. The Black Jazz label may be roughly similar in style, but Asha and Baobab are wholly Lloyd McNeill. The records reflect none of the usual external trends from the decade in which they were recorded; all sound like 1971 rather than 1979. The final record even reprises the first (the exotic, broodingly moody "Asha"), and the sound throughout remains somewhat interchangeable and timeless. But each record has its own themes and currents, and even improvisation has its signatures and fingerprints. Buying: Long out of print, collectors items, Lloyd McNeill records should be snapped up on sight. Hip Wax is pleased to offer two titles for which limited stock remains [52]here. Warning - McNeill lps can be damaging to the [53]wallet. [54]29 comments made-how about you? 14.8.09 [55]If Spike Lee Did Movies In Audio... Greg's back on the mix with his old mucker Monohub - another mashed up bomb in memory of Coltrane and the late,great George Russell.Grab it [56]HERE. Here's the blurb from big daddy himself: I did a version of this a while back and was planning to publish on July 17th as a memorial to the day that John Coltrane died, but, a combination of lack of time, work commitments and other things got in the way... Anyway I redid it and am glad that i did as it's much better than the original. This one strictly for the heads... and defo not for the feint hearted. If you liked the Black State of Vietnam mix then this is for you... So as i said; In respect of John Coltrane and George Russell. Much thanks to Monohub too although he plays down his part in this, his genius did have a lot to do with it... [57]1 comments made-how about you? 3.8.09 [58]SADAO WATANABE AND CHARLIE MARIANO - IBERIAN WALTZ Sadao and Charlie for Tact Japan from 1967. Sadao Watanabe (as) , Charlie Mariano (as) , Masabumi Kikuchi (p) , Masanaga Harada (b) , Masahiko Togashi (ds) , Fumio Watanabe (ds) This received a "Japan Jazz Award" on release. Some severe blowing on this double alto led sextet featuring a young band of soon to be Japanese jazz luminaries. The fast and furious "Palisades" was comped on the Sleepwalker Shibuya Jazz Classics.However the 16 minute title cut is the stand out tune an intense modal waltz with a Spanish tinge featuring coruscating solos from Mariano and Watanabe - hard core stuff. Recommended. [59]16 comments made-how about you? 28.7.09 [60]JAMES MARENTIC SEXTET - NIMBUS James Marentic for Discovery from 1982. James Marentic-Sax/Flute; Tom Harrell -Trumpet/Flugelhorn; Slide Hampton-Trombone; Larry Willis-Piano; Anthony Cox-Bass; Victor Lewis-Drums. Storming post hard bop outing for Mr Marentic and his all star band. Check out the banging latin romp "Baile de las Cucharachas " which kicks off the lp in fine style and the Coltrane inspired "Nimbus". "Aphrodesia" has the inspiration of Kenny Dorham stamped all over it and no prizes for guessing who "Mr Silver I Presume" is aimed at If you enjoyed Tom Harrell's "Aurora" post then this should be right up your street,round your corner and down your block! [61]8 comments made-how about you? 23.7.09 [62]CARTER JEFFERSON - THE RISE OF ATLANTIS Carter Jefferson for Timeless from 1978. Terrific post bop album with latin influences -All Killer No Filler! John Hicks (Piano), Terumasa Hino (Trumpet), Woody Shaw (Producer), Clint Houston (Bass), Victor Lewis (Drums),Carter Jefferson (Sax ), Lani Groves (Vocals), Shunzo Ohno (Trumpet), Steve Thornton (Percussion), Harry Whitaker (Piano) Here's the customary underwhelming AMG review : Tenor saxophonist Carter Jefferson made somewhat of a name for himself when trumpeter Woody Shaw chose him as a member of his first working quintet. Shaw is the producer of this album, Jefferson's fine debut (and evidently only) recording as a leader. Taking a cue from Shaw, the saxophonist sticks essentially to a quintet of trumpet and sax backed by all-star rhythm sections. Three of the tracks include hard bop trumpeter Terumasa Hino while the other three feature little-known Japanese trumpeter Shunzo Ono. Most of the tunes are firmly in the school of hard bop, the sort of music that Woody Shaw played so well. While there is not any new ground broken, it is all performed competently enough. While not as emotionally charged as his work with Shaw, Jefferson impresses with a fluid, mobile attack that shows a solid grasp of his material. If the groups seem to be sometimes merely going through the motions, there are nonetheless enough fine moments to make this a worthwhile purchase.AMG. A reliable and advanced soloist who spent most of his career as a sideman, Carter Jefferson is best-remembered for his association with Woody Shaw during 1977-1980. Jefferson started on clarinet and played alto before settling on tenor, going on tour early in the backup bands of the Temptations, the Supremes, and Little Richard. In 1971, he moved to New York to attend New York University and soon spent two years with Mongo Santamaria and a period in 1973 as a member of Art Blakey's Jazz Messengers. After his important stint with Woody Shaw (with whom he recorded several times), Jefferson worked with many top players, including Elvin Jones, Roy Haynes, Cedar Walton, Jerry Gonzalez & the Fort Apache Band, Malachi Thompson, and Jack Walrath's Masters of Suspense. His premature death in Poland after emergency surgery was a major loss. Carter Jefferson only led one record, The Rise of Atlantis, on the Timeless label in 1978. AMG. [63]33 comments made-how about you? 10.7.09 [64]JULIO GUTIERREZ - PROGRESSIVE LATIN Julio Gutierrez for Gema from 1960. The title says it all for this groundbreaking heavyweight descarga session...Highly recommended. Has anyone out there got a copy of Gutierrez's "Havana BC" they want to sell me?If so leave me a message in the comments. Progressive Latin should be considered a classic of Latin jazz if it isn't already. "Cosa Buena" cooks, and "Closing Time" is a slower bossa nova with flute and horns that captures the mood of a good night out at its end. "Yambambe," an Afro rhythm behind mostly piano, sounds more sophisticated than its simple construction. "El Altiplano" is supposed to be an Incan melody with Afro elements. In any case, vocal interjections pave the way for a longer descarga where a variety of intriguing elements (horns, flute piano, even organ) work together in their own weird ways and combinations. The "Route 66" theme arrangement is a coup; the sax and flute are recorded gorgeously, and the piano and conga pace it ideally, with brief drum solo breaks. "Sad City" is a haunting flute piece, while "Guantanamera" has an interesting change but there is only so much one can expect from this tune. "Malaguena" is another long descarga that gets a little wild. Progressive Latin is something of a masterpiece from the great arranger Julio Gutierrez. Tony Wilds What impressed me most about this album is Julio's use of space and the length of the tunes, considering that in the era when it was recorded, 2 1/2 minute tunes were standard. Great musicians like El Negro Vivar (trumpet) and Chombo Silva (sax) were able to beautifully stretch out over an almost post-bop/Afro-Cuban jazz setting. There is some serious blowing on this disc. This is another essential Latin jazz gem from the late 50s/early 60s. Jose Rizo [65]22 comments made-how about you? 4.7.09 [66]Older Posts Subscribe to: [67]Posts (Atom) JAZZ - LATIN - SOUNDTRACKS . RARE - OBSCURE -DELETED . ALL RIPS @ 320 FROM ORIGINAL VINYL OR CD. JAZZ - LATIN - SOUNDTRACKS . RARE - OBSCURE -DELETED . ALL RIPS @ 320 FROM ORIGINAL VINYL OR CD. [68]My Photo Bacoso [69]View my complete profile PLACES & SPACES * [70]Axelgrease * [71]Call It Anything * [72]Cuban Posters * [73]Djalma's Soul Food * [74]El Goog Ja * [75]Far From Ubiquit * [76]Flying Dutchman Records * [77]Groovy Merchant * [78]Ile Oxumare * [79]India Navigation * [80]jazzfluteweinstein * [81]Killer Groove Music Library * [82]LiquidJazz.com * [83]Magic Purple Sunshine * [84]Mainstream shad shack * [85]My Favourite Sound© * [86]My Jazz World * [87]never enough rhodes * [88]Nine Sisters * [89]Nothing Is v2.0 * [90]pharaoh's dance * [91]private press * [92]Quimsy's Mumbo Jumbo * [93]SG Canvas * [94]Strata-East Fan Club * [95]The CTI never sleeps * [96]Von Fat Bakon * [97]WONDERFULSOUND DIGGIN' IN THE CRATES * [98]Jan 2010 (1) * [99]Dec 2009 (3) * [100]Nov 2009 (5) * [101]Oct 2009 (4) * [102]Sep 2009 (4) * [103]Aug 2009 (4) * [104]Jul 2009 (4) * [105]Jun 2009 (8) * [106]May 2009 (5) * [107]Apr 2009 (1) * [108]Mar 2009 (4) * [109]Feb 2009 (9) * [110]Jan 2009 (13) * [111]Dec 2008 (6) * [112]Nov 2008 (15) * [113]Oct 2008 (9) * [114]Sep 2008 (3) * [115]Jul 2008 (1) * [116]Jun 2008 (28) * [117]May 2008 (4) * [118]Apr 2008 (6) * [119]Mar 2008 (26) * [120]Feb 2008 (17) * [121]Jan 2008 (10) * [122]Dec 2007 (12) * [123]Nov 2007 (16) * [124]Oct 2007 (21) * [125]Sep 2007 (21) * [126]Aug 2007 (16) * [127]Jul 2007 (10) * [128]Jun 2007 (19) * [129]May 2007 (18) * [130]Apr 2007 (17) * [131]Mar 2007 (19) * [132]Feb 2007 (17) * [133]Jan 2007 (21) * [134]Dec 2006 (19) * [135]Nov 2006 (29) * [136]Oct 2006 (20) * [137]Sep 2006 (29) * [138]Aug 2006 (34) * [139]Jul 2006 (18) * [140]Jun 2006 (22) * [141]May 2006 (40) * [142]Apr 2006 (52) * [143]Mar 2006 (19) Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [spacer1.gif] [blackrainbowhdr01.jpg] IFRAME: uments&banner=0JB0A4VDS5FZSF8J66G2&f=ifr About Rhythmweb A Grassroots Network [dada01a.jpg] (at left: World Unity Drum Festival, Club Dada, Dallas, August 1994. My son Jules, shown at age 12 at left) Rhythmweb started in December of 1996, as a reflection of my virtual search for music and musicians on the Web, and as an excuse to woodshed web design. Since then we have been amazed by the reponse we have recieved, from all corners of the globe. From the Mid-East to Australia, and from South Africa to Europe to New Orleans to Brazil to Papua, NewGuinea, musicians are connecting. Truly, rhythm is a universal language, love of music a universal love. Thanks to all our new friends for connecting with us. Our mission is to further the use of rhythm, music, and percussion & related arts as a healing tool. We LOVE music. We LOVE the Web. When our schedule permits, we surf several [kids097.jpg] hours a night, then we post the fruits of our travels... Every time we meet someone interesting with a rhythm related website, we post a link. Some very worthwhile friendships have evolved along the way, and we've discovered lots of good music. We have since integrated affiliate links to CDs, books, and so forth, but our basic mission remains the same. We are NOT a bunch of suits, drooling e-commerce. We're musicians, artists. We believe it's important for people at the grassroots level to network during this crucial moment in history. If you'll notice, the vast majority of links on rhythmweb are GRASSROOTS musicians, trying to get over in this new economy. You will see no big over-rated stars from the conglomerate record companies. Plenty of that elsewhere. [eric_october03-01b-225.jpg] There are also fan pages and correspondent pages here, on a large number of working musicians. Thanks very much to all for your help. We are actively seeking musicians in various parts of the world to drop us a line now and then, and let us know what the percussion scene is like in your area. If you have a drum lesson you'd like to share with our readers, please let us know, and perhaps we can steer you some traffic in return. If you have an instrument, a CD, or a DVD you'd like for us to review, we may do that too, time permitting; please drop us a line about it. And to the thousands of hobbyist , semi-pro and professional percussionists who come seeking info, and bringing life and enthusiasm, welcome. Don't hesitate to introduce yourself, and send us some feedback, and some links. Drum on, Stu IFRAME: m&mode=books&p=13&o=1&f=ifr [3]Shop at Amazon.com [4]Previous Page | [5]Contact | [6]Home [7][clown.gif] © 1996-2008 Eric Stuer All rights reserved RHYTHMWEB P.O. Box 836711 Richardson TX 75083 RHYTHM WEB(TM); and RHYTHMWEB(TM); are trademarks, and any unauthorized use of the names is a violation of applicable law. 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ABSTRACT FULL TEXT FULL-TEXT PDF (2346 KB) CITATION ALERT CITED BY RELATED ARTICLES EXPORT CITATION EMAIL TO A COLLEAGUE RIGHTS/PERMISSIONS [36]Standard image available [37]DOWNLOAD IMAGES NEED REPRINTS? BOOKMARK ARTICLE RR-interval irregularity precedes ventricular fibrillation in ST elevation acute myocardial infarction [38]Miguel E. Lemmert, MD[39]a[40] Corresponding Author Information [41]email address , [42]Mohamed Majidi, MD[43]a, [44]Mitchell W. Krucoff, MD[45]*, [46]Sebastiaan C.A.M. Bekkers, MD[47]a, [48]Harry J.G.M. Crijns, MD, PhD, FHRS[49]a, [50]Hein J.J. Wellens, MD, PhD, FHRS[51]a, [52]Andrzej S. Kosinski, PhD[53]*, [54]Anton P.M. Gorgels, MD, PhD, FHRS[55]a Received 9 August 2009; accepted 15 September 2009. published online 22 September 2009. Background Sudden cardiac arrest is a leading cause of death in industrialized countries, and ischemic ventricular fibrillation (VF) is a frequent cause. Objective The purpose of this study was to determine whether patients with ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) who develop ischemic VF show more overall RR-interval irregularity (RRI) than do STEMI patients without ischemic VF. Methods Ischemic VF was identified in 41 patients from 1,473 digital 12-lead Holter recordings from three separate STEMI studies. Continuous 3-lead and 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG) snapshots recorded every minute were compared between all ischemic VF patients and 123 random patients without ischemic VF. Time intervals from start of Holter to ischemic VF and equivalent intervals in the controls were used for calculations. ECG variables related to conduction intervals and severity of ischemia were measured using the most ischemic 12-lead ECG. RRI was calculated as the square root of the mean squared differences of successive RR intervals. For RRI, all QRS complexes, including ventricular ectopic beats, were used. Results No baseline differences were observed between the study and control groups, except for male preponderance among ischemic VF patients (90% vs 72%, P = .019). QRS interval, ECG ischemia severity, RRI, and number of ventricular ectopic beats were significantly associated with ischemic VF. Multivariate analysis revealed RRI (odds ratio 1.006, 95% confidence interval 1.001-1.010, P = .016) and ST deviation score (odds ratio 1.073, 95% confidence interval 1.041-1.106, P <.001) as the only statistically significant predictors of ischemic VF. Conclusion In the period before ischemic VF, RRI and ST deviation score are associated with ischemic VF in STEMI patients. These findings could have important pathophysiologic and clinical implications. Keywords: [56]Cardiac arrest, [57]Electrocardiography, [58]Myocardial infarction, [59]Sudden death, [60]Ventricular fibrillation Abbreviations: [61]AUC, [62]area under receiver operating characteristic curve, [63]AV, [64]atrioventricular, [65]ECG, [66]electrocardiogram, [67]HRV, [68]heart rate variability, [69]IQR, [70]interquartile range, [71]ROC, [72]receiver operating characteristic, [73]RRI, [74]RR-interval irregularity, [75]STEMI, [76]ST elevation myocardial infarction, [77]VF, [78]ventricular fibrillation Article Outline o [79]Abstract o [80]Introduction o [81]Methods o [82]Patient population o [83]ECG data o [84]RRI and ventricular ectopic beats o [85]Twelve-lead ECG measurements o [86]Statistical analysis o [87]Results o [88]Baseline characteristics and laboratory values o [89]ECG characteristics o [90]Cutoff values o [91]Discussion o [92]Baseline characteristics o [93]Single 12-lead ECG measurements o [94]Continuous ECG measurements o [95]RRI and total number of ventricular ectopic beats o [96]Heart rate variability o [97]Study limitations o [98]Clinical implications and future research o [99]Conclusion o [100]Acknowledgment o [101]References o [102]Copyright Introduction [103]return to Article Outline Sudden cardiac arrest is one of the leading causes of death in industrialized countries, and ischemic ventricular fibrillation (VF) is one of the most frequent causes.[104]1, [105]2 To date, research aimed at predicting VF has predominantly focused on the postmyocardial infarction stage and nonischemic conditions. Familial history of sudden death recently was demonstrated to be an important risk factor for VF in an ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) population,[106]3 suggesting that genetic factors are involved and that predisposition to ischemic VF differs among patients. Inhomogeneity of intramyocardial conduction velocity plays a role as a substrate for reentrant ventricular arrhythmias and sudden death during acute ischemia.[107]4, [108]5, [109]6, [110]7, [111]8 In the current study, we introduce the novel electrocardiographic (ECG) parameter of overall RR-interval irregularity (RRI), which is measured by taking all QRS complexes into account, irrespective of their origin. A greater RRI could lead to increased inhomogeneity of conduction velocities and refractory periods, facilitating ischemic VF. Using single 12-lead ECGs, our group recently demonstrated longer PR and QRS conduction intervals in first STEMI patients developing ischemic VF.[112]9 This finding supports the concept of increased inhomogeneity in conduction velocity and calls upon further elucidation of the concept. Thus, we tested the hypothesis that cardiac rhythm characteristics preceding ischemic VF are different from those in ischemic patients without VF, particularly with regard to the novel ECG parameter RRI. Methods [113]return to Article Outline Patient population A retrospective database consisting of 1,473 24-hour Holter recordings was retrieved from the ECG core laboratory of the Duke Clinical Research Institute (Durham, NC, USA). The database consists of Holter recordings from STEMI patients who were included in three separate safety-efficacy STEMI studies between April 2002 and November 2003. The database includes all analyzable Holter recordings from two cohorts (CASTEMI[114]10 and EMERALD,[115]11 n = 1,031) treated with direct percutaneous coronary intervention and one cohort treated with thrombolytic therapy (RAPSODY, n = 442). All of these patients were older than 18 years, had presented with diagnostic ST elevation on standard ECG, and had symptom duration <= 6 hours. As part of the study protocols, all patients were connected to 24-hour digital 12-lead Holter recorders immediately after hospital admission, prior to any therapeutic intervention in the hospital. For the current study, all 1,473 Holter recordings were examined for ischemic VF. Ischemic VF was defined as irregular undulations of varying shape and amplitude on ECG without discrete QRS or T waves. To ensure the ischemic nature of the VF, only patients with VF that occurred before percutaneous coronary intervention and/or in the presence of persisting ST deviation were included in the study. Patients in whom VF occurred in conjunction with ECG signs of reperfusion were considered to have reperfusion VF rather than ischemic VF and were not included in the study (n = 5). Patients who showed regular monomorphic ventricular tachycardias rather than VF also were excluded from the study (n = 19). Forty-one patients (2.8%) with ischemic VF were identified (study group). For comparison, for each VF patient, three patients without ischemic VF (control group) were selected, only matched for the original study cohort. Selection was done randomly using the statistical software SPSS for Windows (release 12.0.1, SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL, USA), providing a total of 123 control patients. Clinical descriptors noted include baseline characteristics (gender, age, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, current smoking, and history of acute myocardial infarction), coronary angiographic data (culprit lesion), and plasma levels of cardiac enzymes. ECG data Holter recordings (DR180+, NorthEast Monitoring, Maynard, MA, USA) consisted of digital 24-hour 3-lead recordings (leads V5, V1, and III), with a complete Mason-Likar 12-lead ECG (calibration 10 mm/mV, speed 25 mm/s) available every minute and featured designated analysis software (Holter 5 LX Analysis version 5.2, NorthEast Monitoring). For each VF patient, the time interval from start of recording to onset of ischemic VF and the equivalent time interval in the three matched controls were used for analysis, disregarding the residual recording time. Computerized labeling of QRS complexes and RR intervals on Holter recordings was reviewed and corrected on a beat-to-beat basis by a trained physician (M.E.L.). RRI and ventricular ectopic beats For this analysis, we introduce RRI as a novel parameter. RRI was calculated using the designated software's capability to calculate heart rate variability (HRV). HRV is the variation in heart rate resulting from sympathetic and vagal influences on the sinus node. HRV disregards all ECG complexes other than sinus beats. Using continuous 3-lead Holter recordings, the software is capable of several HRV measurements within the time domain. Similar to standard HRV measurements, RRI calculations were performed using the three leads of the Holter recordings. Contrary to standard HRV measurements, RRI takes all ECG complexes, irrespective of their origin, into account, including (episodes of) atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter, paced rhythms, and supraventricular and ventricular complexes. To enable RRI measurements by the software, all ECG complexes were manually labeled as sinus beats. Time intervals before onset of ischemic VF frequently were short. Therefore, the square root of the mean squared differences of successive RR intervals method was used because it reflects short-term variations in RR intervals, as previously described in detail.[116]12 For the software to perform HRV measurements and thus RRI measurements, a minimum of 5 minutes of recording time is required. The total number of ventricular ectopic beats was counted for each patient, again during the time interval from start of recording to onset of ischemic VF and the equivalent time interval in the control patients. Twelve-lead ECG measurements Our group recently showed significant differences in PR and QRS conduction intervals as well as severity of ischemia between VF patients and control patients. For this reason, similar measurements were made in the current study using the designated software, which features electronic calipers for 12-lead ECGs. For each patient, one 12-lead ECG showing the most pronounced ST-segment deviation was used because these ECGs are expected to be the best representation of ischemia-induced conduction defects. The measurements have been described previously,[117]9 with the difference that, because of the digital ECG data and the accompanying Holter software, the measurements were done using the electronic calipers of the analysis software instead of manually. Statistical analysis Data analysis and case-control randomization were performed using SPSS for Windows (release 12.0.1). Continuous variables are expressed as median and interquartile range (IQR) and categorical variables as percentages. For comparison of continuous variables, a Student's t-test for normally distributed data or a Mann-Whitney test or Wilcoxon signed-rank test for non-normally distributed data was used. For comparison of categorical variables, a Pearson chi-square test or Fisher exact test was used. All statistical tests were two-tailed, and P <.05 was considered significant. ECG characteristics showing a significant univariate relation with the occurrence of VF but lacking multicollinearity (defined as r > 0.4) were included in multivariate logistic regression. Variables were removed stepwise from the model when P was >.10. Variables with P <.05 in the final model were considered independent contributors and are reported in the results. In the final model, tests were done for interactions between main predictors. The predictive accuracy of the final model is reported as the area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (AUC). Cutoff values for ECG characteristics by which most VF patients can be correctly classified are identified by applying the Pythagorean theorem to ROC curves, which is a mathematical determination of the cutoff value with the graphically shortest distance to a sensitivity and specificity of 1. Results [118]return to Article Outline Baseline characteristics and laboratory values No statistically significant differences regarding baseline characteristics and laboratory values were found between the VF patients and the controls, except for a significantly higher percentage of males among the VF patients (90% vs 72%, P = .019; [119]Table 1). Table 1. Baseline characteristics of the study population Ischemic VF (n = 41) No ischemic VF (n = 123) P value Age (years) 61 (54-71) 59 (52-71) .54 Male 90 72 .019 Anterior wall infarction 31 29 .84 Culprit artery .32 Left anterior descending branch 20 21 Right coronary artery 77 66 Left circumflex branch 3 13 Comorbidity/risk factor Diabetes mellitus 10 18 .32 Hypertension 39 42 .71 Hypercholesterolemia 33 26 .41 Smoking 38 38 1 Prior myocardial infarction 11 11 1 Original study cohort .30 CASTEMI[120]10 3 97 EMERALD[121]11 3 97 RAPSODY 2 98 Laboratory values Initial CK 1.6 (0.3-10.3) 2.6 (0.7-6.9) .70 Post PCI CK 8.1 (5.6-21.9) 10.1 (5.0-14.5) .75 Initial CK-MB 3.1 (1.7-7.7) 4.2 (0.6-7.6) .77 Post PCI CK-MB 6.9 (2.0-11.0) 8.5 (4.1-13.1) .41 Post PCI troponin-T 50.9 (27.5-74.2) 15.4 (8.2-61.8) 1 Note: Information on the culprit artery was available for 127 patients from the PCI cohorts (CASTEMI and EMERALD). For the thrombolytics cohort (RAPSODY), the distinction between anterior wall infarctions and nonanterior wall infarctions was available. Values are given as median (interquartile range) or percent. CK = creatine kinase; CK-MB = creatine kinase-MB isoenzyme; PCI = percutaneous coronary intervention; VF = ventricular fibrillation. ECG characteristics ECG characteristics are listed in [122]Table 2. All patients were in sinus rhythm, except for six (four VF patients, two controls) with atrial fibrillation, which precluded assessment of sinus rate and PR interval. One VF patient had a paced rhythm during part of the Holter recording. One VF patient and two control patients showed atrioventricular (AV) nodal escape rhythms. Two additional control patients had high-degree AV block. Table 2. ECG characteristics of the study population Ischemic VF (n = 41) No ischemic VF (n = 123) P value Sinus rate (min-1) 74 (62-85) 73 (65-85) .719 PQ (ms) 177 (160-216) 164 (153-181) .055 QRS (ms) 103 (88-115) 93 (83-104) .018 QTc Bazett (ms) 417 (390-446) 414 (396-414) .822 Peak ST deviation (mm) 7 (5-10) 4 (2-7) <.001 Grade of ischemia 3 (2-3) 2 (2-3) .004 No. of leads with ST deviation 10 (9-11) 7 (4-10) <.001 STdev (mm) 36 (26-50) 20 (11-30) <.001 Measuring time (minutes) 29 (16-57) 29 (16-57) N/A Total no. of ventricular ectopic beats 73 (19-268) 19 (2-106) .006 RRI (ms) 132 (100-197) 73 (39-122) <.001 RRI-5 min (ms) 186 (97-237) 44 (22-101) <.001 Values are given as median (interquartile range). RRI = RR-interval irregularity; RRI-5 min = RR-interval irregularity in the last 5 minutes of measuring time; STdev = ST deviation score, the sum of all ST deviations on 12-lead ECG; VF = ventricular fibrillation. With regard to measurements using single 12-lead ECGs, VF patients showed a longer QRS interval [103 ms (IQR 88-115 ms) vs 93 ms (IQR 83-104 ms), P = .018] and a larger amount of ischemia, as measured by peak ST deviation, grade of ischemia,[123]13 total number of leads with ST deviation, and ST deviation score. With regard to continuous ECG measurements, the median measuring time was 29 minutes (IQR 16-57 minutes). Because the requirement of at least 5 minutes of recording time prior to ischemic VF could not be met, the computer software did not allow RRI measurement in three VF patients and subsequently nine control patients. VF patients showed a higher RRI [132 ms (IQR 100-197 ms) vs 73 ms (IQR 39-122 ms), P <.001] and more ventricular ectopic beats [73 (IQR 19-268) vs 19 (2-106), P = .006]. Excluding the recordings with atrial fibrillation from the analysis, did not affect the results regarding the RRI measurements. Logistic regression was applied, with presence of ischemic VF as the dependent variable and variables showing univariate significance (QRS interval, ST deviation score, total number of ventricular ectopic beats, RRI) as the independent variables. Because we recently showed ST deviation score to be an independent predictor of ischemic VF[124]9 and we wanted to correct for multicollinearity between the variables measuring the amount of ischemia, ST deviation score was the only ischemia parameter entered in the logistic regression. This multivariate analysis revealed that only a higher RRI (odds ratio 1.006, 95% confidence interval 1.001-1.010, P = .016) and a higher ST deviation score (odds ratio 1.073, 95% confidence interval 1.041-1.106, P <.001) were independently associated with an increased chance of ischemic VF ([125]Table 3). The interpretation of these odds ratios is that an increase in RRI of 1 ms corresponds to an increased chance of ischemic VF of 0.6%. Table 3. Multivariate analysis of the study population Odds ratio 95% Confidence interval P value RR-interval irregularity (ms) 1.006 1.001-1.010 .016 STdev (mm) 1.073 1.041-1.106 <.001 Area under the receiver operating characteristic curve is 0.835. STdev = ST deviation score, the sum of all ST deviations on 12-lead ECG. For our study population, this means that, based on only RRI measurements, patients who developed VF had a 41.5% (1.006 ^ [132 ms - 73 ms] = 1.415) more chance of doing so than the patients who did not develop VF. Similarly, an increase in ST deviation score of 1 mm implies an increased chance of ischemic VF of 7.3%. The predictive accuracy of this model assessed by the AUC was 0.835. In addition, to examine a fixed and shortest possible time frame prior to ischemic VF, RRI was measured in the last 5 minutes of measuring time. This showed an even more marked difference in RRI between VF and control patients [186 ms (97-237 ms) vs 44 ms (22-101 ms), P <.001]. Multivariate analysis using this RRI of the last 5 minutes yielded an RRI odds ratio of 1.012 (95% confidence interval 1.007-1.018, P <.001), with a predictive model accuracy (AUC) of 0.896 (not shown in [126]Table 3). Of note, measurement of RRI in the last 5 minutes was not possible in 7 VF patients and 27 controls because occasional artifact during this time period in these patients reduced the analyzable recording time to less than the required 5 minutes. Cutoff values Based on the optimal (mathematical) balance between sensitivity and specificity, cutoff values for RRI and the ST deviation score were identified. According to these criteria, the cutoff value for RRI is 110 ms, with sensitivity of 74% and specificity of 75%. The cutoff value for the ST deviation score is 27 mm, yielding sensitivity of 74% and specificity of 70%. Discussion [127]return to Article Outline To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to show that heart rate irregularity, measured as the novel parameter RRI, plays a significant role preceding ischemic VF on continuous ECG recordings retrieved from a large STEMI database. Baseline characteristics No differences in baseline characteristics were found, except for male preponderance in the VF patients. This is not in accordance with previous research in which no gender difference with regard to ischemic VF or sudden cardiac arrest was found.[128]9, [129]14, [130]15, [131]16, [132]17, [133]18 Our finding could be an observation by chance, due to multiple exploratory tests that in no way are related to any hypothesis tested in this study. Single 12-lead ECG measurements The significantly longer QRS interval and the larger amount of ischemia in the VF patients are in agreement with our previous findings on single 12-lead STEMI ECGs.[134]9 Briefly, in that study we found longer conduction intervals in VF patients that may, depending on the site of the occlusion and amount of ischemia, indicate an inhomogeneity in conduction velocity providing the substrate for ischemic VF. The current study adds a continuous aspect to the period preceding ischemic VF. In a multivariate regression model including continuous ECG measurements, only RRI and the amount of ischemia appear to be independently associated with the occurrence of ischemic VF. Continuous ECG measurements The parameters related specifically to the continuous ECG measurements are RRI and total number of ventricular ectopic beats. RRI and total number of ventricular ectopic beats RRI is a novel and unique ECG parameter that combines into a single parameter the multitude of ECG complexes and rhythms occurring in the acute phase of a STEMI by measuring RRI resulting from all such complexes. Examples of large and small RRIs are shown in [135]Figure 1. [136]View full-size image. [137]View Large Image [138]Download to PowerPoint [139]Standard image available Figure 1. RR-interval irregularity (RRI) in ventricular fibrillation (VF) patient (A) and matched control patient (B). Primarily due to irregular runs of ventricular ectopic beats, the VF patient had an RRI of 257 ms prior to the ischemic VF (red arrow), whereas the control patient had an RRI of 20 ms in the equivalent time interval. Green complexes indicate sinus beats; red complexes indicate ventricular ectopic beats; blue complexes indicate artifact (not used for any calculations). To our knowledge, the only continuous ECG parameter suggested to be associated with ischemic VF occurring in the acute phase of a STEMI is an increased number of ventricular ectopic beats prior to ischemic VF.[140]19 However, the predictive value of these so-called warning arrhythmias has been questioned by other researchers.[141]20, [142]21 In our study population, we were able to reproduce the finding that frequent ventricular ectopic beats represent a harbinger of ischemic VF. These previously reported contradictory results may be explained by our additional finding that the total number of ventricular ectopic beats was not an independent predictor of ischemic VF. RRI was the only independent continuous ECG predictor of ischemic VF, suggesting that the mere presence of ventricular ectopic beats is less important than rhythm irregularity. The manner in which RRI is associated with ischemic VF could be as follows. RRI leads to inhomogeneity in conduction velocity and refractory periods. Beat-to-beat changes in refractoriness, induced by RRI, may become pronounced in ischemic areas due to ischemia-related postrepolarization refractoriness, an effect suggested by our data to be even more pronounced in the final 5 minutes preceding ischemic VF. Subsequent, relatively shortly coupled beats may block or conduct slowly in these areas and instantaneously create a substrate vulnerable to ischemic VF. Shortly coupled beats do not necessarily induce reentry and VF; rather, they set the stage. The finding that the number of leads showing ST deviation was associated with ischemic VF might indicate a role for more widespread myocardial ischemia rather than merely local severity of ischemia. This could add to the heterogeneity of postrepolarization refractoriness. Although not an independent predictor, this concept is supported by a larger region at risk associated with VF found in a previous study using coronary angiography.[143]16 Heart rate variability The RRI measurements were performed using the software's mathematical capabilities to calculate HRV. Although technically possible, actual HRV measurements are not reported here. HRV has been recognized as a marker of the relationship between the autonomic nervous system and cardiac mortality. A decreased HRV has been proposed as a predictor of ventricular arrhythmias and sudden death in different patient populations, mostly consisting of patients in the postmyocardial infarction phase or with nonischemic cardiac diseases.[144]12, [145]22, [146]23, [147]24, [148]25 Most studies attributing a predictive role to HRV were specifically designed to measure this parameter for sufficiently long periods of sinus rhythm in a chronic care setting. The current study relates to a completely different clinical situation, not only because of its acutely ischemic population but also because of the relatively short measuring times with frequent ventricular ectopy. Thus, the clinical meaning of standard HRV measurements would be questionable in our study population. Study limitations The population studied was a selected population because all patients survived until hospital admission. Therefore, whether our findings can be generalized to the situation outside the hospital is not known. The study variables were derived from three separate studies, so possibly the study population was not homogeneous. In spite of this, the association we found between RRI, amount of ischemia, and ischemic VF was very consistent across studies. All patients were derived from STEMI intervention trials who met certain ST-segment criteria for inclusion. Therefore, whether the results are applicable to non-STEMI patients or patients with demand ischemia rather than supply ischemia is not known. Finally, we have no information on use of medication. However, in a previous study we found no influence of any type of medication on development of ischemic VF.[149]9 Furthermore, it is more likely that medications such as beta-blocking agents would influence RR-interval duration rather than RRI. In this regard, it should be noted that there was no difference in sinus rate between VF patients and control patients. However, it should be taken into account that the current database of Holter recordings prior to ischemic VF is unique in its size and possibly the best available. Clinical implications and future research The results of this study are important for a better understanding of ischemic VF. Moreover, it provides simple variables with possible implications for clinical use. There is an increased need for monitoring high-risk cardiac patients outside the hospital setting, and the development of monitoring devices with alarm features has been advocated by our group and others.[150]26, [151]27, [152]28 When incorporated within the algorithms of arrhythmia sensing devices, a warning predictor of ischemic VF could lead to improved early identification of individuals at risk. The predictive accuracy of 0.835 by multivariate analysis was high ([153]Table 3). This indicates that RRI and the ST deviation score may be useful as predictors of ischemic VF in STEMI patients. The cutoff value for RRI is 110 ms, with sensitivity of 74% and specificity of 75%. The cutoff value for the ST deviation score is 27 mm, yielding sensitivity of 74% and specificity of 70%. Because false-positive identification of STEMI patients at risk for ischemic VF is preferable to false-negative failure to identify, it could be speculated that different (ranges of) cutoff values with higher sensitivities at the cost of lower specificities should be chosen. Sensitivities of (approximately) 80% and 90% and corresponding cutoff values for RRI and the ST deviation score are shown in [154]Figure 2, [155]Figure 3. [156]View full-size image. [157]View Large Image [158]Download to PowerPoint [159]Standard image available Figure 2. Sensitivity and specificity for all cutoff values for RR-interval irregularity (RRI). [160]View full-size image. [161]View Large Image [162]Download to PowerPoint [163]Standard image available Figure 3. Sensitivity and specificity for all cutoff values for the ST deviation score (STdev). This study was aimed at STEMI patients who suffer from supply ischemia. One could speculate whether the results can be extrapolated to patients suffering from demand ischemia due to a severe stenosis. In that case, RRI could play a similar role in these patients, leading to ischemic VF (e.g., during exercise or diminished blood supply during sleep). Because the majority of sudden cardiac arrests occurs outside the hospital, a warning predictor of ischemic VF could be useful in patients with known coronary artery disease. The model proposed in the current study could serve as an ischemia model that could be used in future research studying patients who are potential victims of ischemic VF due to demand ischemia. Such populations are currently being studied by our group. Conclusion [164]return to Article Outline Overall RRI and the amount of ischemia are suggested to be useful predictors of ischemic VF occurring in the acute phase of STEMI. Acknowledgments [165]return to Article Outline We thank W.R. Dassen, PhD, for statistical advice. 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Decreased nocturnal standard deviation of averaged NN intervals (An independent marker to identify patients at risk in the Brugada Syndrome). Eur Heart J. 2003;22:2061-2069. [195]24. 24Carpeggiani C, L'Abbate A, Landi P, et al. Early assessment of heart rate variability is predictive of in-hospital death and major complications after acute myocardial infarction. Int J Cardiol. 2004;3:361-368. [196]25. 25Reed MJ, Robertson CE, Addison PS. Heart rate variability measurements and the prediction of ventricular arrhythmias. QJM. 2005;2:87-95. [197]26. 26Wellens HJ, Gorgels AP, de Munter H. Cardiac arrest outside of a hospital: how can we improve results of resuscitation?. Circulation. 2003;15:1948-1950. [198]27. 27Arzbaecher R, Jenkins J, Burke M, et al. Database testing of a subcutaneous monitor with wireless alarm. J Electrocardiol. 2006;4(Suppl):S50-S53. [199]28. 28Fischell TA, Fischell DR, Fischell RE, et al. Real-time detection and alerting for acute ST-segment elevation myocardial ischemia using an implantable, high-fidelity, intracardiac electrogram monitoring system with long-range telemetry in an ambulatory porcine model. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;11:2306-2314. [200]a Department of Cardiology, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands [201]* Duke University Medical Center/Duke Clinical Research Institute, Durham, North Carolina, USA [202]Corresponding Author Information Address reprint requests and correspondence: Dr. Miguel E. Lemmert, Maastricht University Medical Center, Department of Cardiology, PO Box 5800, 6202 AZ Maastricht, The Netherlands This research was supported by an unrestricted grant from Philips Healthcare, Seattle, Washington. PII: S1547-5271(09)01043-1 doi:10.1016/j.hrthm.2009.09.024 © 2010 Heart Rhythm Society. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. [203]View previous. 12 of 28 [204]View next. [205]Copyright © 2010 Elsevier, Inc. 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Références Liens visibles 36. javascript:openPopupWin('/imagesinfo','',400,200,200,200); 41. mailto:mlemmert@gmail.com 136. javascript:openImgWin('/article/S1547-5271(09)01043-1/journalimage?img=PIIS1547527109010431.gr1.lrg.gif&fig=fig1&kwhquery=&issn=1547-5271&ishighres=false&allhighres=false&free=yes','journalimage'); 137. javascript:openImgWin('/article/S1547-5271(09)01043-1/journalimage?img=PIIS1547527109010431.gr1.lrg.gif&fig=fig1&kwhquery=&issn=1547-5271&ishighres=false&allhighres=false&free=yes','journalimage'); 139. javascript:openPopupWin('/imagesinfo','',400,200,200,200); 156. javascript:openImgWin('/article/S1547-5271(09)01043-1/journalimage?img=PIIS1547527109010431.gr2.lrg.gif&fig=fig2&kwhquery=&issn=1547-5271&ishighres=false&allhighres=false&free=yes','journalimage'); 157. javascript:openImgWin('/article/S1547-5271(09)01043-1/journalimage?img=PIIS1547527109010431.gr2.lrg.gif&fig=fig2&kwhquery=&issn=1547-5271&ishighres=false&allhighres=false&free=yes','journalimage'); 159. javascript:openPopupWin('/imagesinfo','',400,200,200,200); 160. javascript:openImgWin('/article/S1547-5271(09)01043-1/journalimage?img=PIIS1547527109010431.gr3.lrg.gif&fig=fig3&kwhquery=&issn=1547-5271&ishighres=false&allhighres=false&free=yes','journalimage'); 161. javascript:openImgWin('/article/S1547-5271(09)01043-1/journalimage?img=PIIS1547527109010431.gr3.lrg.gif&fig=fig3&kwhquery=&issn=1547-5271&ishighres=false&allhighres=false&free=yes','journalimage'); 163. javascript:openPopupWin('/imagesinfo','',400,200,200,200); Liens cachés : Wheeler English Lines & Rhymes: Rhythm from The teachers and Writers Handbook of Poetic Forms, edited by Ron Padgett. and your text, Elements of Literature, Second Course (Holt, Rinehart) Rhythm is a musical quality produced by the repetition of stressed and unstressed syllables. Rhythm occurs in all forms of language, both written and spoken, but is particularly important in poetry The most obvious king of rhythm is the regular repetition of stressed and unstessed syllables found in some poetry. Writers also create rhythm by repeating words and phrases or even by repeating whole lines and sentences, as Walt Whitman does in "Song of Myself": I hear the sound I love, the soung of the hyman voice, I hear all sounds running together, combined, fused, or following, Sounds of the city and sounds out of the city, sounds of the day and night, Talkative young ones to those that like them, the loud laugh of work-people at their meals... [yellowrose_l.jpg] [whitedaisy1_l.jpg] People often use a combination of two words to describe regular rhythm or meter. For example, you might refer to the meter of a sonnet as iambic pentameter The first word, such as iambic, refers to the beat pattern, in this case an unaccented syllable followed by an accented syllable (the most common in English). The second refers to the length of the line. In the case of pentameter we mean five feet (or ten syllables, long. Below are some commonly used words to describe the meter of regular poetry. The most common units ("feet") of rhythm in English are: The iamb, consisting of two syllables, only the second accented (as in "good-bye") The trochee, two syllables, only the first accented (as in "awful") The anapest, three syllables, with only the third stressed (as in "Halloween") The dactyl, one stressed syllable followed by two unstressed (as in "wonderful") The spondee, two consecutive syllables that are both stressed (as in "big deal") Many American poets in the past thirty years have written poetry using everyday language, and because much American speech is iambic in pattern, the poetry shows a lot of iambic rhythm. [golddaisy_l.jpg] Rhythm (or "measure") in writing is like the beat in music. In poetry, rhythm implies that certain words are produced more force- fully than others, and may be held for longer duration. The repetition of a pattern of such emphasis is what produces a "rhythmic effect." The word rhythm comes from the Greek, meaning "measured motion." In speech, we use rhythm without consciously creating recognizable patterns. For example, almost every telephone conversation ends rhythmically, with the conversants understanding as much by rhythm as by the meaning of the words, that it is time to hang up. Frequently such conversations end with Conversant A uttering a five- or six-syllable line, followed by Conversant B's five to six syllables, followed by A's two- to four-syllable line, followed by B's two to four syllables, and so on until the receivers are cradled. Well I gotta go now. Okay, see you later. Sure, pal. So long. See you. Take care. Bye bye. Bye bye. In poems, as in songs, a rhythm may be obvious or muted. A poem like Vachel Lindsay's "The Congo" consciously recreates the rhythms of a tribal dance: Fat black bucks in a wine-barrel room Barrel-house kings, with feet unstable, Sagged and reeled and pounded on the table, Pounded on the table, Beat an empty barrel with the handle of a broom, Hard as they were able Boom, boom, BOOM, With a silk umbrella and the handle of a broom, Boomlay, boomlay, boomlay, BOOM. On the other hand, some "free verse" has underlying rhythmical patterns that, while variable and not "regular" like Vachel Lindsay's, do nonetheless give a feeling of unity to the work. For example, read aloud the following lines a few times: A chimney, breathing a little smoke. The sun, I can't see making a bit of pink I can't quite see in the blue. The pink of five tulips at five P.M. on the day before March first. -From "February" by James Schuyler [1]suggested assignments [2]project [3]rhythm [4]rhyme [5]repetition [6]figures of speech [7]schoolnotes [8]home Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : #[1]Techniques & Culture, Numéros [2]Techniques & Culture, Documents [3]Navigation - [4]Plan du site [5]Techniques & Culture Revue semestrielle d'anthropologie des techniques Langue du site [Français] OK [6]Accueil > [7]Numéros > [8]48-49 > Le corps, le rythme et l'esthétique(...) ____________________ (Submit) Chercher [9]Sommaire - [10]Document suivant [11]48-49 | 2007 : Temps, corps, techniques et esthétique Le corps, le rythme et l'esthétique sociale chez André Leroi-Gourhan Alexandra Bidet p. 15-38 [12]Résumé | | [13]Citation | [14]Auteur Résumés [15]Français [16]English L'oeuvre d'André Leroi-Gourhan est traversée par une anthropologie du rythme. Celle-ci ne part pas d'une socialité constituée, de rythmes dits « sociaux », mais inscrit au contraire l'analyse de la rythmicité dans une approche de l'homme comme être vivant, comme totalité indivise. Elle pose en des termes renouvelés le problème classique du groupement des hommes et des liens entre l'individu et son milieu. Avec la question de la genèse de la socialité, c'est le lien entre corporéité et socialité, entre affect et symbole, qui est ici au coeur d'une approche du rythme comme « insertion dans l'existence ». The entire works of Leroi-Gourhan are embedded in an anthropology of rhythm. The latter does not originate from a constituted sociality, from rhythms said to be "social", but on the contrary the analysis of rhythmic is part of an approach of Man as a living being, as an indivisible whole. It renews the classical question of the grouping of humans and of the relationships between the individual and his background. With the question of the genesis of sociality, it is the link between corporeity and sociality, between affect and symbol, which are here at the heart of an approach of rhythm as an "insertion into existence". [17]Haut de page [18]Signaler ce document Ce document sera publié en ligne en texte intégral en juin 2010. Plan De la corporéité aux rythmes Du rythme comme « insertion affective » : rythme et valeurs Leroi-Gourhan et Lévi-Strauss : rythmicité et théorie du symbolisme De l'efficacité de l'esthétique sociale : une pensée pragmatique Le social comme « charnière » « L'homme est une création du désir, non pas une création du besoin. » G. Bachelard, La Psychanalyse du feu, cité par A. Leroi-Gourhan (1982 : 180). « On connaît mieux les échanges de prestige que les échanges quotidiens, les prestations rituelles que les services banaux, la circulation des monnaies dotales que celle des légumes, beaucoup mieux la pensée des sociétés que leur corps [...]. Alors que Durkheim et Mauss ont luxueusement défendu le "fait social total", ils ont supposé l'infrastructure techno-économique connue » (Leroi-Gourhan 1964 : 210). Le rythme serait-il rétif à toute forme de pensée ? On a pu souligner la polysémie de la notion de rythme, les apories des démarches qui visent à lui assigner une origine, ou encore l'existence d'un « panrythmisme » spontané prompt à déceler du rythme en toutes choses (Sauvanet & Wunenburger 1996). Dans l'anthropologie, l'archéologie et l'ethnologie préhistorique d'André Leroi-Gourhan, une place majeure est accordée à la rythmicité et aux ry (...) [19]Haut de page Pour citer cet article Référence électronique Alexandra Bidet, « Le corps, le rythme et l'esthétique sociale chez André Leroi-Gourhan », Techniques & Culture [En ligne], 48-49 | 2007, mis en ligne le 13 juin 2010, Consulté le 18 janvier 2010. URL : [20]Haut de page Auteur [21]Alexandra Bidet Chargée de recherches [22]Haut de page Droits d'auteur Tous droits réservés [23]Haut de page [24]Sommaire - [25]Document suivant Navigation Index * [26]Auteur * [27]Index de mots-clés * [28]Index géographique Derniers numéros * [29]51 | 2009 Des Choses, des gestes, des mots * [30]50 | 2008 Les natures de l'homme * [31]48-49 | 2007 Temps, corps, techniques et esthétique Numéros en texte intégral * [32]45 | 2005 Apprendre la mer * [33]43-44 | 2004 Mythes. L'origine des manières de faire * [34]42 | 2003 Du virtuel@l'âge du fer.com * [35]41 | 2003 Briques : le cru et le cuit * [36]40 | 2003 Efficacité technique, efficacité sociale * [37]39 | 2002 Sports et corps en jeu * [38]38 | 2002 La céruse [39]Tous les numéros Sommaires * [40]37 | 2001 L'araire en Himalaya * [41]35-36 | 2001 Traversées * [42]34 | 2000 Soieries médiévales * [43]33 | 1999 Entre histoire et tradition * [44]31-32 | 1999 Dynamique des pratiques alimentaires * [45]30 | 1998 Labyrinthe * [46]29 | 1998 De la Chines et des Andes * [47]28 | 1997 Accès aux savoirs d'autrui * [48]27 | 1996 Du chat cuit au Chaco * [49]25-26 | 1996 Les objets de la médecine * [50]23-24 | 1995 Cultures de bêtes... 0utils qui pensent ? * [51]22 | 1995 Varia * [52]21 | 1994 Atouts et outils de l'ethnologie des techniques * [53]20 | 1993 Variables et constantes * [54]19 | 1993 Itinéraires, escales * [55]17-18 | 1992 Préhistoire et ethnologie, le geste retrouvé * [56]16 | 1991 Des Machines et des hommes * [57]15 | 1991 Du soufflé à la forge * [58]14 | 1990 Inde * [59]13 | 1990 Corpus * [60]12 | 1989 Symboles et procès techniques * [61]11 | 1988 Persistances et Innovations * [62]10 | 1988 D'autres idées pour observer * [63]9 | 1987 Des idées pour observer * [64]8 | 2006 Techniques moyen-orientales * [65]7 | 2006 De l'Himalaya au haut Atlas. De l'Asir aux Andes * [66]6 | 1986 Par où passe la technologie II * [67]5 | 1985 Par où passe la technologie I * [68]4 | 1985 Aspects des agricultures insolites de l'Amérique indienne * [69]3 | 1984 "Des choses dont la recherche est laborieuse..." * [70]2 | 1983 Actes de la table ronde "Technologie culture" * [71]1 | 1983 Actes de la table ronde "Technologie culture" Syndication * RSS [72]Fil des numéros * RSS [73]Fil des documents Lettres d'information * [74]La Lettre de Revues.org Affiliations/partenaires * [75]Revues.org * [76]Logo FMSH ISSN électronique 1952-420X [77]Plan du site - [78]Flux de syndication [79]Nous adhérons à Revues.org - [80]Édité avec Lodel - [81]Accès réservé __________________________________________________________________ * [82]Revues.org * [-- Publications --................................................ ...............................] * [83]Calenda * [84]Hypothèses * [85]La Lettre * [86]Enquêtes Revues.org * [87]Léo, le blog * [88]Cléo Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : #[1]Techniques & Culture, Numéros [2]Techniques & Culture, Documents [3]Navigation - [4]Plan du site [5]Techniques & Culture Revue semestrielle d'anthropologie des techniques Langue du site [Français] OK [6]Accueil > [7]Numéros > [8]48-49 > Le corps, le rythme et l'esthétique(...) ____________________ (Submit) Chercher [9]Sommaire - [10]Document suivant [11]48-49 | 2007 : Temps, corps, techniques et esthétique Le corps, le rythme et l'esthétique sociale chez André Leroi-Gourhan Alexandra Bidet p. 15-38 [12]Résumé | | [13]Citation | [14]Auteur Résumés [15]Français [16]English L'oeuvre d'André Leroi-Gourhan est traversée par une anthropologie du rythme. Celle-ci ne part pas d'une socialité constituée, de rythmes dits « sociaux », mais inscrit au contraire l'analyse de la rythmicité dans une approche de l'homme comme être vivant, comme totalité indivise. Elle pose en des termes renouvelés le problème classique du groupement des hommes et des liens entre l'individu et son milieu. Avec la question de la genèse de la socialité, c'est le lien entre corporéité et socialité, entre affect et symbole, qui est ici au coeur d'une approche du rythme comme « insertion dans l'existence ». The entire works of Leroi-Gourhan are embedded in an anthropology of rhythm. The latter does not originate from a constituted sociality, from rhythms said to be "social", but on the contrary the analysis of rhythmic is part of an approach of Man as a living being, as an indivisible whole. It renews the classical question of the grouping of humans and of the relationships between the individual and his background. With the question of the genesis of sociality, it is the link between corporeity and sociality, between affect and symbol, which are here at the heart of an approach of rhythm as an "insertion into existence". [17]Haut de page [18]Signaler ce document Ce document sera publié en ligne en texte intégral en juin 2010. Plan De la corporéité aux rythmes Du rythme comme « insertion affective » : rythme et valeurs Leroi-Gourhan et Lévi-Strauss : rythmicité et théorie du symbolisme De l'efficacité de l'esthétique sociale : une pensée pragmatique Le social comme « charnière » « L'homme est une création du désir, non pas une création du besoin. » G. Bachelard, La Psychanalyse du feu, cité par A. Leroi-Gourhan (1982 : 180). « On connaît mieux les échanges de prestige que les échanges quotidiens, les prestations rituelles que les services banaux, la circulation des monnaies dotales que celle des légumes, beaucoup mieux la pensée des sociétés que leur corps [...]. Alors que Durkheim et Mauss ont luxueusement défendu le "fait social total", ils ont supposé l'infrastructure techno-économique connue » (Leroi-Gourhan 1964 : 210). Le rythme serait-il rétif à toute forme de pensée ? On a pu souligner la polysémie de la notion de rythme, les apories des démarches qui visent à lui assigner une origine, ou encore l'existence d'un « panrythmisme » spontané prompt à déceler du rythme en toutes choses (Sauvanet & Wunenburger 1996). Dans l'anthropologie, l'archéologie et l'ethnologie préhistorique d'André Leroi-Gourhan, une place majeure est accordée à la rythmicité et aux ry (...) [19]Haut de page Pour citer cet article Référence électronique Alexandra Bidet, « Le corps, le rythme et l'esthétique sociale chez André Leroi-Gourhan », Techniques & Culture [En ligne], 48-49 | 2007, mis en ligne le 13 juin 2010, Consulté le 18 janvier 2010. URL : [20]Haut de page Auteur [21]Alexandra Bidet Chargée de recherches [22]Haut de page Droits d'auteur Tous droits réservés [23]Haut de page [24]Sommaire - [25]Document suivant Navigation Index * [26]Auteur * [27]Index de mots-clés * [28]Index géographique Derniers numéros * [29]51 | 2009 Des Choses, des gestes, des mots * [30]50 | 2008 Les natures de l'homme * [31]48-49 | 2007 Temps, corps, techniques et esthétique Numéros en texte intégral * [32]45 | 2005 Apprendre la mer * [33]43-44 | 2004 Mythes. L'origine des manières de faire * [34]42 | 2003 Du virtuel@l'âge du fer.com * [35]41 | 2003 Briques : le cru et le cuit * [36]40 | 2003 Efficacité technique, efficacité sociale * [37]39 | 2002 Sports et corps en jeu * [38]38 | 2002 La céruse [39]Tous les numéros Sommaires * [40]37 | 2001 L'araire en Himalaya * [41]35-36 | 2001 Traversées * [42]34 | 2000 Soieries médiévales * [43]33 | 1999 Entre histoire et tradition * [44]31-32 | 1999 Dynamique des pratiques alimentaires * [45]30 | 1998 Labyrinthe * [46]29 | 1998 De la Chines et des Andes * [47]28 | 1997 Accès aux savoirs d'autrui * [48]27 | 1996 Du chat cuit au Chaco * [49]25-26 | 1996 Les objets de la médecine * [50]23-24 | 1995 Cultures de bêtes... 0utils qui pensent ? * [51]22 | 1995 Varia * [52]21 | 1994 Atouts et outils de l'ethnologie des techniques * [53]20 | 1993 Variables et constantes * [54]19 | 1993 Itinéraires, escales * [55]17-18 | 1992 Préhistoire et ethnologie, le geste retrouvé * [56]16 | 1991 Des Machines et des hommes * [57]15 | 1991 Du soufflé à la forge * [58]14 | 1990 Inde * [59]13 | 1990 Corpus * [60]12 | 1989 Symboles et procès techniques * [61]11 | 1988 Persistances et Innovations * [62]10 | 1988 D'autres idées pour observer * [63]9 | 1987 Des idées pour observer * [64]8 | 2006 Techniques moyen-orientales * [65]7 | 2006 De l'Himalaya au haut Atlas. De l'Asir aux Andes * [66]6 | 1986 Par où passe la technologie II * [67]5 | 1985 Par où passe la technologie I * [68]4 | 1985 Aspects des agricultures insolites de l'Amérique indienne * [69]3 | 1984 "Des choses dont la recherche est laborieuse..." * [70]2 | 1983 Actes de la table ronde "Technologie culture" * [71]1 | 1983 Actes de la table ronde "Technologie culture" Syndication * RSS [72]Fil des numéros * RSS [73]Fil des documents Lettres d'information * [74]La Lettre de Revues.org Affiliations/partenaires * [75]Revues.org * [76]Logo FMSH ISSN électronique 1952-420X [77]Plan du site - [78]Flux de syndication [79]Nous adhérons à Revues.org - [80]Édité avec Lodel - [81]Accès réservé __________________________________________________________________ * [82]Revues.org * [-- Publications --................................................ ...............................] * [83]Calenda * [84]Hypothèses * [85]La Lettre * [86]Enquêtes Revues.org * [87]Léo, le blog * [88]Cléo Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : Not Found The requested URL /dossiers/chronobiologie.php was not found on this server. __________________________________________________________________ Apache/1.3.29 Server at www.placedubienetre.com Port 80 #[1]Techniques & Culture, Numéros [2]Techniques & Culture, Documents [3]Navigation - [4]Plan du site [5]Techniques & Culture Revue semestrielle d'anthropologie des techniques Langue du site [Français] OK [6]Accueil > [7]Numéros > [8]48-49 > Le corps, le rythme et l'esthétique(...) ____________________ (Submit) Chercher [9]Sommaire - [10]Document suivant [11]48-49 | 2007 : Temps, corps, techniques et esthétique Le corps, le rythme et l'esthétique sociale chez André Leroi-Gourhan Alexandra Bidet p. 15-38 [12]Résumé | | [13]Citation | [14]Auteur Résumés [15]Français [16]English L'oeuvre d'André Leroi-Gourhan est traversée par une anthropologie du rythme. Celle-ci ne part pas d'une socialité constituée, de rythmes dits « sociaux », mais inscrit au contraire l'analyse de la rythmicité dans une approche de l'homme comme être vivant, comme totalité indivise. Elle pose en des termes renouvelés le problème classique du groupement des hommes et des liens entre l'individu et son milieu. Avec la question de la genèse de la socialité, c'est le lien entre corporéité et socialité, entre affect et symbole, qui est ici au coeur d'une approche du rythme comme « insertion dans l'existence ». The entire works of Leroi-Gourhan are embedded in an anthropology of rhythm. The latter does not originate from a constituted sociality, from rhythms said to be "social", but on the contrary the analysis of rhythmic is part of an approach of Man as a living being, as an indivisible whole. It renews the classical question of the grouping of humans and of the relationships between the individual and his background. With the question of the genesis of sociality, it is the link between corporeity and sociality, between affect and symbol, which are here at the heart of an approach of rhythm as an "insertion into existence". [17]Haut de page [18]Signaler ce document Ce document sera publié en ligne en texte intégral en juin 2010. Plan De la corporéité aux rythmes Du rythme comme « insertion affective » : rythme et valeurs Leroi-Gourhan et Lévi-Strauss : rythmicité et théorie du symbolisme De l'efficacité de l'esthétique sociale : une pensée pragmatique Le social comme « charnière » « L'homme est une création du désir, non pas une création du besoin. » G. Bachelard, La Psychanalyse du feu, cité par A. Leroi-Gourhan (1982 : 180). « On connaît mieux les échanges de prestige que les échanges quotidiens, les prestations rituelles que les services banaux, la circulation des monnaies dotales que celle des légumes, beaucoup mieux la pensée des sociétés que leur corps [...]. Alors que Durkheim et Mauss ont luxueusement défendu le "fait social total", ils ont supposé l'infrastructure techno-économique connue » (Leroi-Gourhan 1964 : 210). Le rythme serait-il rétif à toute forme de pensée ? On a pu souligner la polysémie de la notion de rythme, les apories des démarches qui visent à lui assigner une origine, ou encore l'existence d'un « panrythmisme » spontané prompt à déceler du rythme en toutes choses (Sauvanet & Wunenburger 1996). Dans l'anthropologie, l'archéologie et l'ethnologie préhistorique d'André Leroi-Gourhan, une place majeure est accordée à la rythmicité et aux ry (...) [19]Haut de page Pour citer cet article Référence électronique Alexandra Bidet, « Le corps, le rythme et l'esthétique sociale chez André Leroi-Gourhan », Techniques & Culture [En ligne], 48-49 | 2007, mis en ligne le 13 juin 2010, Consulté le 18 janvier 2010. URL : [20]Haut de page Auteur [21]Alexandra Bidet Chargée de recherches [22]Haut de page Droits d'auteur Tous droits réservés [23]Haut de page [24]Sommaire - [25]Document suivant Navigation Index * [26]Auteur * [27]Index de mots-clés * [28]Index géographique Derniers numéros * [29]51 | 2009 Des Choses, des gestes, des mots * [30]50 | 2008 Les natures de l'homme * [31]48-49 | 2007 Temps, corps, techniques et esthétique Numéros en texte intégral * [32]45 | 2005 Apprendre la mer * [33]43-44 | 2004 Mythes. L'origine des manières de faire * [34]42 | 2003 Du virtuel@l'âge du fer.com * [35]41 | 2003 Briques : le cru et le cuit * [36]40 | 2003 Efficacité technique, efficacité sociale * [37]39 | 2002 Sports et corps en jeu * [38]38 | 2002 La céruse [39]Tous les numéros Sommaires * [40]37 | 2001 L'araire en Himalaya * [41]35-36 | 2001 Traversées * [42]34 | 2000 Soieries médiévales * [43]33 | 1999 Entre histoire et tradition * [44]31-32 | 1999 Dynamique des pratiques alimentaires * [45]30 | 1998 Labyrinthe * [46]29 | 1998 De la Chines et des Andes * [47]28 | 1997 Accès aux savoirs d'autrui * [48]27 | 1996 Du chat cuit au Chaco * [49]25-26 | 1996 Les objets de la médecine * [50]23-24 | 1995 Cultures de bêtes... 0utils qui pensent ? * [51]22 | 1995 Varia * [52]21 | 1994 Atouts et outils de l'ethnologie des techniques * [53]20 | 1993 Variables et constantes * [54]19 | 1993 Itinéraires, escales * [55]17-18 | 1992 Préhistoire et ethnologie, le geste retrouvé * [56]16 | 1991 Des Machines et des hommes * [57]15 | 1991 Du soufflé à la forge * [58]14 | 1990 Inde * [59]13 | 1990 Corpus * [60]12 | 1989 Symboles et procès techniques * [61]11 | 1988 Persistances et Innovations * [62]10 | 1988 D'autres idées pour observer * [63]9 | 1987 Des idées pour observer * [64]8 | 2006 Techniques moyen-orientales * [65]7 | 2006 De l'Himalaya au haut Atlas. De l'Asir aux Andes * [66]6 | 1986 Par où passe la technologie II * [67]5 | 1985 Par où passe la technologie I * [68]4 | 1985 Aspects des agricultures insolites de l'Amérique indienne * [69]3 | 1984 "Des choses dont la recherche est laborieuse..." * [70]2 | 1983 Actes de la table ronde "Technologie culture" * [71]1 | 1983 Actes de la table ronde "Technologie culture" Syndication * RSS [72]Fil des numéros * RSS [73]Fil des documents Lettres d'information * [74]La Lettre de Revues.org Affiliations/partenaires * [75]Revues.org * [76]Logo FMSH ISSN électronique 1952-420X [77]Plan du site - [78]Flux de syndication [79]Nous adhérons à Revues.org - [80]Édité avec Lodel - [81]Accès réservé __________________________________________________________________ * [82]Revues.org * [-- Publications --................................................ ...............................] * [83]Calenda * [84]Hypothèses * [85]La Lettre * [86]Enquêtes Revues.org * [87]Léo, le blog * [88]Cléo Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : Not Found The requested URL /dossiers/chronobiologie.php was not found on this server. __________________________________________________________________ Apache/1.3.29 Server at www.placedubienetre.com Port 80 #[1]Syndiquer tout le site : Liberté et psychiatrie [2]Liberté et psychiatrie Liberté et psychiatrie Un espace de réflexion et de recherche - Paris Articles les plus récents Articles les plus récents [3]Monsieur le Président, devenez camusien !, par Michel Onfray mardi 24 novembre 2009 par [4]LIBERTE et PSYCHIATRIE 1 2 Monsieur le Président, je vous fais une lettre, que vous lirez peut-être, si vous avez le temps. Vous venez de manifester votre désir d'accueillir les cendres d'Albert Camus au Panthéon, ce temple de la République au fronton duquel, chacun le sait, se trouvent inscrites ces paroles : « Aux (...) [5]suite [6]Les soins d'accompagnement en psychiatrie dimanche 8 novembre 2009 par [7]Frédéric VACHER La finalité des soins en psychiatrie ne s'est jamais limitée à masquer ou dissimuler les symptômes de la psychose et de la schizophrénie. Et, même si cette première étape est nécessaire, elle ne vise qu'à établir un dialogue entre la personne malade et les soignants. Ensuite, à partir de ce lien, les soignants vont accompagner le malade et l'aider à reconstruire un environnement qui lui permette de vivre en harmonie avec lui-même et avec les autres. [8]suite [9]Santé mentale et travail samedi 12 septembre 2009 par [10]Frédéric VACHER La souffrance mentale au travail est une réalité de plus en plus répandue. Aujourd'hui, elle est devenue un enjeu majeur de santé publique dans les pays industrialisés. L'inadéquation entre ce qui est demandé aux salariés et leur environnement de travail produit des effets nocifs sur la santé psychique. [11]suite [12]Soins aides-soignants en psychiatrie dimanche 31 mai 2009 par [13]Florent VENUAT L'entretien infirmier, la toilette et la mise sous contentions. [14]suite [15]Projet de loi "Hôpital, patients, santé et territoires" - HPST - Les mandarins et les directeurs dimanche 31 mai 2009 par [16]Frédéric VACHER Le 18 mars dernier, après plusieurs semaines de débat, le projet de loi "Hôpital, patients, santé et territoires" (HPST) a été adopté par l'Assemblée nationale. Le Sénat l'examinera dans le courant du mois de mai. L'adoption de cette loi donnera lieu à des évolutions importantes dans le fonctionnement du système hospitalier français, et notamment dans le domaine de la psychiatrie avec la fin de la sectorisation. [17]suite [18]Évolution de la pratique aide-soignante en psychiatrie dimanche 31 mai 2009 par [19]Florent VENUAT La psychiatrie a suscité pendant longtemps beaucoup d'interrogations, de fantasmes et de valeurs négatives. Ce n'est qu'au cours des dernières décennies que le "fou" a acquis le statut de malade mental. De même, l'évolution du métier a permis au soignant de passer du statut de "gardien de fou" à celui d'un professionnel reconnu pour ses compétences de soin. [20]suite [21]Rôle de l'aide-soignant en psychiatrie dimanche 31 mai 2009 par [22]Florent VENUAT Il est sûrement plus gratifiant et rassurant de soigner le corps que l'esprit : la guérison du patient est plus concrète. En psychiatrie, à défaut de guérir, les soignants soulagent et préviennent les risques. [23]suite [24]Réforme de l'hospitalisation d'office et sécurisation des hôpitaux psychiatriques dimanche 31 mai 2009 par [25]Frédéric VACHER Le 2 décembre 2008, Nicolas Sarkozy s'est rendu au Centre hospitalier Erasme, à Antony (92). Cette première visite d'un président de la République aux personnels d'un hôpital psychiatrique a été pour lui l'occasion de rendre hommage à l'engagement et au dévouement de tous les professionnels qui y travaillent. Dans son discours, Nicolas Sarkozy a également annoncé une réforme de l'hospitalisation d'office et un aménagement des conditions liées aux sorties d'essai, et dévoilé les moyens qui seront alloués à la sécurisation des établissements psychiatriques. [26]suite [27]Le souci de l'humain, un défi pour la psychiatrie samedi 30 mai 2009 par [28]Frédéric VACHER Le 50e anniversaire de l'Association de santé mentale (ASM 13) a été l'occasion d'organiser un congrès à Paris sur le thème "Le souci de l'humain". Un défi pour la psychiatrie". Plus encore qu'il y a quelques décennies, le souci de l'humain constitue un défi pour la société contemporaine. Défi pratique, théorique et éthique, la psychiatrie est la seule discipline médicale à se trouver confrontée avec autant d'acuité à une problématique typiquement humaine, celle de la liberté. [29]suite [30]L'expertise psychiatrique, entre la clinique et la justice mardi 11 novembre 2008 par [31]Frédéric VACHER Dans le cadre de l'année européenne du dialogue interculturel, le Parc de la Villette a organisé à Paris les 15 et 16 septembre 2008 un congrès international sur le thème "Culture psychiatrique et culture judiciaire, relire Michel Foucault". Ces journées ont été l'occasion de redécouvrir le point de vue de ce philosophe sur la place de la folie dans la société. [32]suite 10/62 Articles 1 | [33]2 | [34]3 | [35]4 | [36]5 | [37]6 | [38]7 |[39]> Annonces générales : * + [40]Monsieur le Président, devenez camusien !, par Michel Onfray + [41]Atelier d'écriture Magic Plum + [42]Qui sommes-nous ? + [43]Revue « Soins Psychiatrie » Dernières brèves * Nouvelles brèves + 7 décembre 2009 [44]Promotion d'un soin relationnel infirmier en psychiatrie + 11 novembre 2009 [45]GO TO CHINA Navigation * [46]Accueil du site * [47]Contact * [48]Agenda * [49]Plan du site * [50]Sites Web * [51]En résumé * Rechercher + Rechercher : __________ >> Rubriques * [52]Ressource humaine + [53]Santé mentale et travail * [54]Culture + [55]Monsieur le Président, devenez camusien !, par Michel Onfray * [56]Psychiatrie + [57]Société + [58]Santé Mentale + [59]Psychothérapies + [60]Pédopsychiatrie + [61]Anorexie + [62]Congrès * [63]Les soins + [64]Soins Infirmiers + [65]Psychomotricité + [66]Ergothérapie + [67]Aides-Soignants * [68]CATTP + [69]Ateliers + [70]Ecriture + [71]Colloques [72]Accueil du site | [73]Contact | [74]Plan du site | [75]Se connecter | [76]Statistiques | visites : 76800 [77]Suivre la vie du site fr [78]? [79]Site réalisé avec SPIP 2.0.10 + [80]AHUNTSIC [81]Wikio [82]Creative Commons License [83]Wikio - Top des blogs - Santé [84]Partager 8 visiteurs en ce moment Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : #[1]Techniques & Culture, Numéros [2]Techniques & Culture, Documents [3]Navigation - [4]Plan du site [5]Techniques & Culture Revue semestrielle d'anthropologie des techniques Langue du site [Français] OK [6]Accueil > [7]Numéros > [8]48-49 > Le corps, le rythme et l'esthétique(...) ____________________ (Submit) Chercher [9]Sommaire - [10]Document suivant [11]48-49 | 2007 : Temps, corps, techniques et esthétique Le corps, le rythme et l'esthétique sociale chez André Leroi-Gourhan Alexandra Bidet p. 15-38 [12]Résumé | | [13]Citation | [14]Auteur Résumés [15]Français [16]English L'oeuvre d'André Leroi-Gourhan est traversée par une anthropologie du rythme. Celle-ci ne part pas d'une socialité constituée, de rythmes dits « sociaux », mais inscrit au contraire l'analyse de la rythmicité dans une approche de l'homme comme être vivant, comme totalité indivise. Elle pose en des termes renouvelés le problème classique du groupement des hommes et des liens entre l'individu et son milieu. Avec la question de la genèse de la socialité, c'est le lien entre corporéité et socialité, entre affect et symbole, qui est ici au coeur d'une approche du rythme comme « insertion dans l'existence ». The entire works of Leroi-Gourhan are embedded in an anthropology of rhythm. The latter does not originate from a constituted sociality, from rhythms said to be "social", but on the contrary the analysis of rhythmic is part of an approach of Man as a living being, as an indivisible whole. It renews the classical question of the grouping of humans and of the relationships between the individual and his background. With the question of the genesis of sociality, it is the link between corporeity and sociality, between affect and symbol, which are here at the heart of an approach of rhythm as an "insertion into existence". [17]Haut de page [18]Signaler ce document Ce document sera publié en ligne en texte intégral en juin 2010. Plan De la corporéité aux rythmes Du rythme comme « insertion affective » : rythme et valeurs Leroi-Gourhan et Lévi-Strauss : rythmicité et théorie du symbolisme De l'efficacité de l'esthétique sociale : une pensée pragmatique Le social comme « charnière » « L'homme est une création du désir, non pas une création du besoin. » G. Bachelard, La Psychanalyse du feu, cité par A. Leroi-Gourhan (1982 : 180). « On connaît mieux les échanges de prestige que les échanges quotidiens, les prestations rituelles que les services banaux, la circulation des monnaies dotales que celle des légumes, beaucoup mieux la pensée des sociétés que leur corps [...]. Alors que Durkheim et Mauss ont luxueusement défendu le "fait social total", ils ont supposé l'infrastructure techno-économique connue » (Leroi-Gourhan 1964 : 210). Le rythme serait-il rétif à toute forme de pensée ? On a pu souligner la polysémie de la notion de rythme, les apories des démarches qui visent à lui assigner une origine, ou encore l'existence d'un « panrythmisme » spontané prompt à déceler du rythme en toutes choses (Sauvanet & Wunenburger 1996). Dans l'anthropologie, l'archéologie et l'ethnologie préhistorique d'André Leroi-Gourhan, une place majeure est accordée à la rythmicité et aux ry (...) [19]Haut de page Pour citer cet article Référence électronique Alexandra Bidet, « Le corps, le rythme et l'esthétique sociale chez André Leroi-Gourhan », Techniques & Culture [En ligne], 48-49 | 2007, mis en ligne le 13 juin 2010, Consulté le 18 janvier 2010. URL : [20]Haut de page Auteur [21]Alexandra Bidet Chargée de recherches [22]Haut de page Droits d'auteur Tous droits réservés [23]Haut de page [24]Sommaire - [25]Document suivant Navigation Index * [26]Auteur * [27]Index de mots-clés * [28]Index géographique Derniers numéros * [29]51 | 2009 Des Choses, des gestes, des mots * [30]50 | 2008 Les natures de l'homme * [31]48-49 | 2007 Temps, corps, techniques et esthétique Numéros en texte intégral * [32]45 | 2005 Apprendre la mer * [33]43-44 | 2004 Mythes. L'origine des manières de faire * [34]42 | 2003 Du virtuel@l'âge du fer.com * [35]41 | 2003 Briques : le cru et le cuit * [36]40 | 2003 Efficacité technique, efficacité sociale * [37]39 | 2002 Sports et corps en jeu * [38]38 | 2002 La céruse [39]Tous les numéros Sommaires * [40]37 | 2001 L'araire en Himalaya * [41]35-36 | 2001 Traversées * [42]34 | 2000 Soieries médiévales * [43]33 | 1999 Entre histoire et tradition * [44]31-32 | 1999 Dynamique des pratiques alimentaires * [45]30 | 1998 Labyrinthe * [46]29 | 1998 De la Chines et des Andes * [47]28 | 1997 Accès aux savoirs d'autrui * [48]27 | 1996 Du chat cuit au Chaco * [49]25-26 | 1996 Les objets de la médecine * [50]23-24 | 1995 Cultures de bêtes... 0utils qui pensent ? * [51]22 | 1995 Varia * [52]21 | 1994 Atouts et outils de l'ethnologie des techniques * [53]20 | 1993 Variables et constantes * [54]19 | 1993 Itinéraires, escales * [55]17-18 | 1992 Préhistoire et ethnologie, le geste retrouvé * [56]16 | 1991 Des Machines et des hommes * [57]15 | 1991 Du soufflé à la forge * [58]14 | 1990 Inde * [59]13 | 1990 Corpus * [60]12 | 1989 Symboles et procès techniques * [61]11 | 1988 Persistances et Innovations * [62]10 | 1988 D'autres idées pour observer * [63]9 | 1987 Des idées pour observer * [64]8 | 2006 Techniques moyen-orientales * [65]7 | 2006 De l'Himalaya au haut Atlas. De l'Asir aux Andes * [66]6 | 1986 Par où passe la technologie II * [67]5 | 1985 Par où passe la technologie I * [68]4 | 1985 Aspects des agricultures insolites de l'Amérique indienne * [69]3 | 1984 "Des choses dont la recherche est laborieuse..." * [70]2 | 1983 Actes de la table ronde "Technologie culture" * [71]1 | 1983 Actes de la table ronde "Technologie culture" Syndication * RSS [72]Fil des numéros * RSS [73]Fil des documents Lettres d'information * [74]La Lettre de Revues.org Affiliations/partenaires * [75]Revues.org * [76]Logo FMSH ISSN électronique 1952-420X [77]Plan du site - [78]Flux de syndication [79]Nous adhérons à Revues.org - [80]Édité avec Lodel - [81]Accès réservé __________________________________________________________________ * [82]Revues.org * [-- Publications --................................................ ...............................] * [83]Calenda * [84]Hypothèses * [85]La Lettre * [86]Enquêtes Revues.org * [87]Léo, le blog * [88]Cléo Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : Not Found The requested URL /dossiers/chronobiologie.php was not found on this server. __________________________________________________________________ Apache/1.3.29 Server at www.placedubienetre.com Port 80 #[1]Syndiquer tout le site : Liberté et psychiatrie [2]Liberté et psychiatrie Liberté et psychiatrie Un espace de réflexion et de recherche - Paris Articles les plus récents Articles les plus récents [3]Monsieur le Président, devenez camusien !, par Michel Onfray mardi 24 novembre 2009 par [4]LIBERTE et PSYCHIATRIE 1 2 Monsieur le Président, je vous fais une lettre, que vous lirez peut-être, si vous avez le temps. Vous venez de manifester votre désir d'accueillir les cendres d'Albert Camus au Panthéon, ce temple de la République au fronton duquel, chacun le sait, se trouvent inscrites ces paroles : « Aux (...) [5]suite [6]Les soins d'accompagnement en psychiatrie dimanche 8 novembre 2009 par [7]Frédéric VACHER La finalité des soins en psychiatrie ne s'est jamais limitée à masquer ou dissimuler les symptômes de la psychose et de la schizophrénie. Et, même si cette première étape est nécessaire, elle ne vise qu'à établir un dialogue entre la personne malade et les soignants. Ensuite, à partir de ce lien, les soignants vont accompagner le malade et l'aider à reconstruire un environnement qui lui permette de vivre en harmonie avec lui-même et avec les autres. [8]suite [9]Santé mentale et travail samedi 12 septembre 2009 par [10]Frédéric VACHER La souffrance mentale au travail est une réalité de plus en plus répandue. Aujourd'hui, elle est devenue un enjeu majeur de santé publique dans les pays industrialisés. L'inadéquation entre ce qui est demandé aux salariés et leur environnement de travail produit des effets nocifs sur la santé psychique. [11]suite [12]Soins aides-soignants en psychiatrie dimanche 31 mai 2009 par [13]Florent VENUAT L'entretien infirmier, la toilette et la mise sous contentions. [14]suite [15]Projet de loi "Hôpital, patients, santé et territoires" - HPST - Les mandarins et les directeurs dimanche 31 mai 2009 par [16]Frédéric VACHER Le 18 mars dernier, après plusieurs semaines de débat, le projet de loi "Hôpital, patients, santé et territoires" (HPST) a été adopté par l'Assemblée nationale. Le Sénat l'examinera dans le courant du mois de mai. L'adoption de cette loi donnera lieu à des évolutions importantes dans le fonctionnement du système hospitalier français, et notamment dans le domaine de la psychiatrie avec la fin de la sectorisation. [17]suite [18]Évolution de la pratique aide-soignante en psychiatrie dimanche 31 mai 2009 par [19]Florent VENUAT La psychiatrie a suscité pendant longtemps beaucoup d'interrogations, de fantasmes et de valeurs négatives. Ce n'est qu'au cours des dernières décennies que le "fou" a acquis le statut de malade mental. De même, l'évolution du métier a permis au soignant de passer du statut de "gardien de fou" à celui d'un professionnel reconnu pour ses compétences de soin. [20]suite [21]Rôle de l'aide-soignant en psychiatrie dimanche 31 mai 2009 par [22]Florent VENUAT Il est sûrement plus gratifiant et rassurant de soigner le corps que l'esprit : la guérison du patient est plus concrète. En psychiatrie, à défaut de guérir, les soignants soulagent et préviennent les risques. [23]suite [24]Réforme de l'hospitalisation d'office et sécurisation des hôpitaux psychiatriques dimanche 31 mai 2009 par [25]Frédéric VACHER Le 2 décembre 2008, Nicolas Sarkozy s'est rendu au Centre hospitalier Erasme, à Antony (92). Cette première visite d'un président de la République aux personnels d'un hôpital psychiatrique a été pour lui l'occasion de rendre hommage à l'engagement et au dévouement de tous les professionnels qui y travaillent. Dans son discours, Nicolas Sarkozy a également annoncé une réforme de l'hospitalisation d'office et un aménagement des conditions liées aux sorties d'essai, et dévoilé les moyens qui seront alloués à la sécurisation des établissements psychiatriques. [26]suite [27]Le souci de l'humain, un défi pour la psychiatrie samedi 30 mai 2009 par [28]Frédéric VACHER Le 50e anniversaire de l'Association de santé mentale (ASM 13) a été l'occasion d'organiser un congrès à Paris sur le thème "Le souci de l'humain". Un défi pour la psychiatrie". Plus encore qu'il y a quelques décennies, le souci de l'humain constitue un défi pour la société contemporaine. Défi pratique, théorique et éthique, la psychiatrie est la seule discipline médicale à se trouver confrontée avec autant d'acuité à une problématique typiquement humaine, celle de la liberté. [29]suite [30]L'expertise psychiatrique, entre la clinique et la justice mardi 11 novembre 2008 par [31]Frédéric VACHER Dans le cadre de l'année européenne du dialogue interculturel, le Parc de la Villette a organisé à Paris les 15 et 16 septembre 2008 un congrès international sur le thème "Culture psychiatrique et culture judiciaire, relire Michel Foucault". Ces journées ont été l'occasion de redécouvrir le point de vue de ce philosophe sur la place de la folie dans la société. [32]suite 10/62 Articles 1 | [33]2 | [34]3 | [35]4 | [36]5 | [37]6 | [38]7 |[39]> Annonces générales : * + [40]Monsieur le Président, devenez camusien !, par Michel Onfray + [41]Atelier d'écriture Magic Plum + [42]Qui sommes-nous ? + [43]Revue « Soins Psychiatrie » Dernières brèves * Nouvelles brèves + 7 décembre 2009 [44]Promotion d'un soin relationnel infirmier en psychiatrie + 11 novembre 2009 [45]GO TO CHINA Navigation * [46]Accueil du site * [47]Contact * [48]Agenda * [49]Plan du site * [50]Sites Web * [51]En résumé * Rechercher + Rechercher : __________ >> Rubriques * [52]Ressource humaine + [53]Santé mentale et travail * [54]Culture + [55]Monsieur le Président, devenez camusien !, par Michel Onfray * [56]Psychiatrie + [57]Société + [58]Santé Mentale + [59]Psychothérapies + [60]Pédopsychiatrie + [61]Anorexie + [62]Congrès * [63]Les soins + [64]Soins Infirmiers + [65]Psychomotricité + [66]Ergothérapie + [67]Aides-Soignants * [68]CATTP + [69]Ateliers + [70]Ecriture + [71]Colloques [72]Accueil du site | [73]Contact | [74]Plan du site | [75]Se connecter | [76]Statistiques | visites : 76800 [77]Suivre la vie du site fr [78]? [79]Site réalisé avec SPIP 2.0.10 + [80]AHUNTSIC [81]Wikio [82]Creative Commons License [83]Wikio - Top des blogs - Santé [84]Partager 8 visiteurs en ce moment Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : #[1]Les derniers articles [2]Les derniers articles Lun. 18 Janv. [3]LE JOURNAL [4]MEDIAPART [5]LE JOURNAL [6]LES CLUB [7]LE CLUB RECHERCHER _______________ Recherche [Dans le site..] Connexion utilisateur Identifiant _____ Mot de passe _____ Submit [8]Identifiant ou mot de passe oublié ? [9]Nos Unes de la semaine * [10]Participer * [11]Blogs * [12]Editions Anonyme 24 contacts 0 édition 0 billet 11 articles d'édition 5 commentaires Ses favoris Ses amis Ses liens Ses éditions Thématiques du blog [13]Suppression du ministère : les soutiens se multiplient 18 Janvier 2010 Par [14]Eric Fassin Communiqué : Le 4 décembre 2009, un collectif de chercheurs dont le travail porte sur les nations et les nationalismes, sur l'immigration, l'asile et les minorités visibles, ainsi que sur le racisme et la xénophobie, s'élevait contre l'organisation étatique d'un « grand débat » sur l'identité nationale, en soulignant combien les « dérapages » étaient inscrits, non seulement dans une telle mise en scène, mais plus fondamentalement dans l'institutionnalisation de cette politique par un ministère. [15]Lire la suite Edition : [16]En finir avec le ministère de l'immigration et de l'identité nationale [17]Haïti sous le charme. 18 Janvier 2010 Par [18]Nola Tularosa © Nola Tularosa [19]Lire la suite [20]La charte change 11 Janvier 2010 Par [21]Géraldine Delacroix Journal et Club à la fois, Mediapart a pour ambition de susciter et faire vivre le débat démocratique. Pour cela, chaque abonné dispose d'un blog, où publier librement ses points de vue, informations, vidéos, liens... Comme les articles du journal, chaque billet de blog peut être commenté par les abonnés. Ces derniers peuvent également se regrouper pour faire paraître ensemble des Editions participatives sur les thèmes de leur choix. [22]Lire la suite * [23]Faites vos voeux avec Mediapart * [24]mobile.mediapart.fr. Pour nous lire partout, toujours [25]Le cahier spécial de Mediapart dans les kiosques 16 Décembre 2009 Par [26]La rédaction de Mediapart [27]Lire la suite MEDIAVU' [28]Voyage en Bretagne Par : Claude Le Gall «Voyageur et curieux, humaniste porteur de sa culture authentique, Claude Le Gall appartient à cette race de photographes qui pratiquent l'image fixe pour se constituer un territoire et dire serein [29]Lire la suite [30]Marre de voir les banques se goinfrer ! 18 Janvier 2010 Par [31]fracar Sur le modèle du groupe de pression de citoyens américains "Move your money", je pense que nous devons en France faire aussi pression sur nos institutions bancaires ! [32]Lire la suite [33]avec Antigone 18 Janvier 2010 Par [34]marie cosnay 18 avril 2009 [35]Lire la suite [36]AVE CESAR ! regard sur la France de Sarkozy vue par le cinéma 17 Janvier 2010 Par [37]Vingtras Etant membre de l'Académie des arts et techniques du cinéma,j'ai reçu à mi-décembre 2009,une centaine de DVD des films français (ou étrangers) sortis sur nos écrans lors de l'année en cours. [38]Lire la suite [39]Pourquoi pas ... 18 Janvier 2010 Par [40]bertrandbuchs [41]Lire la suite [42]Victor Hugo sera à Mardi ça fait désordre 1e 19Janvier à 20h 17 Janvier 2010 Par [43]François Bernheim Victor Hugo sera à Mardi ça fait désordre 1e 19Janvier à 20h [44]Lire la suite [45]Hervé Novelli est-il plus soluble dans son « identité régionale » que dans la cancoillotte ? 17 Janvier 2010 Par [46]Raphael JORNET Cancoillotte.jpg (suite de chroniques préélectorales ordinaires d'un électeur potentiel dans la Région Centre. C`est ça ou rien. Je ne vous demande pas de choisir, vous seriez capable de choisir « rien ! ») Aujourd'hui: de l'importance de la cancoillotte en milieu chevrier. Entre deux coups de Chinon, revenons à Hervé Novelli. Episode 2. Novelli le retour. Comme dans Alien. Non, ce n'est pas une obsession. Pas d'acharnement, ni de harcèlement moral. C'est citoyen. Pardon? Vous me demandez quoi?... Non même pas, il n'est pas mon type d'homme ! Mais j'ai trois vraies bonnes raisons de lui coller aux baskets: [47]Lire la suite [48]Identité nationale: pourquoi et comment la Ligue débat-elle ? 18 Janvier 2010 Par [49]Charles Conte Nombreux sont ceux qui refusent de participer au débat sur l'identité nationale initié par Éric Besson au motif que ce débat est une grossière opération électorale [50]Lire la suite Edition : [51]Comment Faire Société * [52]Mentions légales | * [53]Charte éditoriale | * [54]CGV | * [55]Mediapart.fr est réalisé avec [56]Drupal Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : #[1]Techniques & Culture, Numéros [2]Techniques & Culture, Documents [3]Navigation - [4]Plan du site [5]Techniques & Culture Revue semestrielle d'anthropologie des techniques Langue du site [Français] OK [6]Accueil > [7]Numéros > [8]48-49 > Le corps, le rythme et l'esthétique(...) ____________________ (Submit) Chercher [9]Sommaire - [10]Document suivant [11]48-49 | 2007 : Temps, corps, techniques et esthétique Le corps, le rythme et l'esthétique sociale chez André Leroi-Gourhan Alexandra Bidet p. 15-38 [12]Résumé | | [13]Citation | [14]Auteur Résumés [15]Français [16]English L'oeuvre d'André Leroi-Gourhan est traversée par une anthropologie du rythme. Celle-ci ne part pas d'une socialité constituée, de rythmes dits « sociaux », mais inscrit au contraire l'analyse de la rythmicité dans une approche de l'homme comme être vivant, comme totalité indivise. Elle pose en des termes renouvelés le problème classique du groupement des hommes et des liens entre l'individu et son milieu. Avec la question de la genèse de la socialité, c'est le lien entre corporéité et socialité, entre affect et symbole, qui est ici au coeur d'une approche du rythme comme « insertion dans l'existence ». The entire works of Leroi-Gourhan are embedded in an anthropology of rhythm. The latter does not originate from a constituted sociality, from rhythms said to be "social", but on the contrary the analysis of rhythmic is part of an approach of Man as a living being, as an indivisible whole. It renews the classical question of the grouping of humans and of the relationships between the individual and his background. With the question of the genesis of sociality, it is the link between corporeity and sociality, between affect and symbol, which are here at the heart of an approach of rhythm as an "insertion into existence". [17]Haut de page [18]Signaler ce document Ce document sera publié en ligne en texte intégral en juin 2010. Plan De la corporéité aux rythmes Du rythme comme « insertion affective » : rythme et valeurs Leroi-Gourhan et Lévi-Strauss : rythmicité et théorie du symbolisme De l'efficacité de l'esthétique sociale : une pensée pragmatique Le social comme « charnière » « L'homme est une création du désir, non pas une création du besoin. » G. Bachelard, La Psychanalyse du feu, cité par A. Leroi-Gourhan (1982 : 180). « On connaît mieux les échanges de prestige que les échanges quotidiens, les prestations rituelles que les services banaux, la circulation des monnaies dotales que celle des légumes, beaucoup mieux la pensée des sociétés que leur corps [...]. Alors que Durkheim et Mauss ont luxueusement défendu le "fait social total", ils ont supposé l'infrastructure techno-économique connue » (Leroi-Gourhan 1964 : 210). Le rythme serait-il rétif à toute forme de pensée ? On a pu souligner la polysémie de la notion de rythme, les apories des démarches qui visent à lui assigner une origine, ou encore l'existence d'un « panrythmisme » spontané prompt à déceler du rythme en toutes choses (Sauvanet & Wunenburger 1996). Dans l'anthropologie, l'archéologie et l'ethnologie préhistorique d'André Leroi-Gourhan, une place majeure est accordée à la rythmicité et aux ry (...) [19]Haut de page Pour citer cet article Référence électronique Alexandra Bidet, « Le corps, le rythme et l'esthétique sociale chez André Leroi-Gourhan », Techniques & Culture [En ligne], 48-49 | 2007, mis en ligne le 13 juin 2010, Consulté le 18 janvier 2010. URL : [20]Haut de page Auteur [21]Alexandra Bidet Chargée de recherches [22]Haut de page Droits d'auteur Tous droits réservés [23]Haut de page [24]Sommaire - [25]Document suivant Navigation Index * [26]Auteur * [27]Index de mots-clés * [28]Index géographique Derniers numéros * [29]51 | 2009 Des Choses, des gestes, des mots * [30]50 | 2008 Les natures de l'homme * [31]48-49 | 2007 Temps, corps, techniques et esthétique Numéros en texte intégral * [32]45 | 2005 Apprendre la mer * [33]43-44 | 2004 Mythes. L'origine des manières de faire * [34]42 | 2003 Du virtuel@l'âge du fer.com * [35]41 | 2003 Briques : le cru et le cuit * [36]40 | 2003 Efficacité technique, efficacité sociale * [37]39 | 2002 Sports et corps en jeu * [38]38 | 2002 La céruse [39]Tous les numéros Sommaires * [40]37 | 2001 L'araire en Himalaya * [41]35-36 | 2001 Traversées * [42]34 | 2000 Soieries médiévales * [43]33 | 1999 Entre histoire et tradition * [44]31-32 | 1999 Dynamique des pratiques alimentaires * [45]30 | 1998 Labyrinthe * [46]29 | 1998 De la Chines et des Andes * [47]28 | 1997 Accès aux savoirs d'autrui * [48]27 | 1996 Du chat cuit au Chaco * [49]25-26 | 1996 Les objets de la médecine * [50]23-24 | 1995 Cultures de bêtes... 0utils qui pensent ? * [51]22 | 1995 Varia * [52]21 | 1994 Atouts et outils de l'ethnologie des techniques * [53]20 | 1993 Variables et constantes * [54]19 | 1993 Itinéraires, escales * [55]17-18 | 1992 Préhistoire et ethnologie, le geste retrouvé * [56]16 | 1991 Des Machines et des hommes * [57]15 | 1991 Du soufflé à la forge * [58]14 | 1990 Inde * [59]13 | 1990 Corpus * [60]12 | 1989 Symboles et procès techniques * [61]11 | 1988 Persistances et Innovations * [62]10 | 1988 D'autres idées pour observer * [63]9 | 1987 Des idées pour observer * [64]8 | 2006 Techniques moyen-orientales * [65]7 | 2006 De l'Himalaya au haut Atlas. De l'Asir aux Andes * [66]6 | 1986 Par où passe la technologie II * [67]5 | 1985 Par où passe la technologie I * [68]4 | 1985 Aspects des agricultures insolites de l'Amérique indienne * [69]3 | 1984 "Des choses dont la recherche est laborieuse..." * [70]2 | 1983 Actes de la table ronde "Technologie culture" * [71]1 | 1983 Actes de la table ronde "Technologie culture" Syndication * RSS [72]Fil des numéros * RSS [73]Fil des documents Lettres d'information * [74]La Lettre de Revues.org Affiliations/partenaires * [75]Revues.org * [76]Logo FMSH ISSN électronique 1952-420X [77]Plan du site - [78]Flux de syndication [79]Nous adhérons à Revues.org - [80]Édité avec Lodel - [81]Accès réservé __________________________________________________________________ * [82]Revues.org * [-- Publications --................................................ ...............................] * [83]Calenda * [84]Hypothèses * [85]La Lettre * [86]Enquêtes Revues.org * [87]Léo, le blog * [88]Cléo Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : Not Found The requested URL /dossiers/chronobiologie.php was not found on this server. __________________________________________________________________ Apache/1.3.29 Server at www.placedubienetre.com Port 80 #[1]Syndiquer tout le site : Liberté et psychiatrie [2]Liberté et psychiatrie Liberté et psychiatrie Un espace de réflexion et de recherche - Paris Articles les plus récents Articles les plus récents [3]Monsieur le Président, devenez camusien !, par Michel Onfray mardi 24 novembre 2009 par [4]LIBERTE et PSYCHIATRIE 1 2 Monsieur le Président, je vous fais une lettre, que vous lirez peut-être, si vous avez le temps. Vous venez de manifester votre désir d'accueillir les cendres d'Albert Camus au Panthéon, ce temple de la République au fronton duquel, chacun le sait, se trouvent inscrites ces paroles : « Aux (...) [5]suite [6]Les soins d'accompagnement en psychiatrie dimanche 8 novembre 2009 par [7]Frédéric VACHER La finalité des soins en psychiatrie ne s'est jamais limitée à masquer ou dissimuler les symptômes de la psychose et de la schizophrénie. Et, même si cette première étape est nécessaire, elle ne vise qu'à établir un dialogue entre la personne malade et les soignants. Ensuite, à partir de ce lien, les soignants vont accompagner le malade et l'aider à reconstruire un environnement qui lui permette de vivre en harmonie avec lui-même et avec les autres. [8]suite [9]Santé mentale et travail samedi 12 septembre 2009 par [10]Frédéric VACHER La souffrance mentale au travail est une réalité de plus en plus répandue. Aujourd'hui, elle est devenue un enjeu majeur de santé publique dans les pays industrialisés. L'inadéquation entre ce qui est demandé aux salariés et leur environnement de travail produit des effets nocifs sur la santé psychique. [11]suite [12]Soins aides-soignants en psychiatrie dimanche 31 mai 2009 par [13]Florent VENUAT L'entretien infirmier, la toilette et la mise sous contentions. [14]suite [15]Projet de loi "Hôpital, patients, santé et territoires" - HPST - Les mandarins et les directeurs dimanche 31 mai 2009 par [16]Frédéric VACHER Le 18 mars dernier, après plusieurs semaines de débat, le projet de loi "Hôpital, patients, santé et territoires" (HPST) a été adopté par l'Assemblée nationale. Le Sénat l'examinera dans le courant du mois de mai. L'adoption de cette loi donnera lieu à des évolutions importantes dans le fonctionnement du système hospitalier français, et notamment dans le domaine de la psychiatrie avec la fin de la sectorisation. [17]suite [18]Évolution de la pratique aide-soignante en psychiatrie dimanche 31 mai 2009 par [19]Florent VENUAT La psychiatrie a suscité pendant longtemps beaucoup d'interrogations, de fantasmes et de valeurs négatives. Ce n'est qu'au cours des dernières décennies que le "fou" a acquis le statut de malade mental. De même, l'évolution du métier a permis au soignant de passer du statut de "gardien de fou" à celui d'un professionnel reconnu pour ses compétences de soin. [20]suite [21]Rôle de l'aide-soignant en psychiatrie dimanche 31 mai 2009 par [22]Florent VENUAT Il est sûrement plus gratifiant et rassurant de soigner le corps que l'esprit : la guérison du patient est plus concrète. En psychiatrie, à défaut de guérir, les soignants soulagent et préviennent les risques. [23]suite [24]Réforme de l'hospitalisation d'office et sécurisation des hôpitaux psychiatriques dimanche 31 mai 2009 par [25]Frédéric VACHER Le 2 décembre 2008, Nicolas Sarkozy s'est rendu au Centre hospitalier Erasme, à Antony (92). Cette première visite d'un président de la République aux personnels d'un hôpital psychiatrique a été pour lui l'occasion de rendre hommage à l'engagement et au dévouement de tous les professionnels qui y travaillent. Dans son discours, Nicolas Sarkozy a également annoncé une réforme de l'hospitalisation d'office et un aménagement des conditions liées aux sorties d'essai, et dévoilé les moyens qui seront alloués à la sécurisation des établissements psychiatriques. [26]suite [27]Le souci de l'humain, un défi pour la psychiatrie samedi 30 mai 2009 par [28]Frédéric VACHER Le 50e anniversaire de l'Association de santé mentale (ASM 13) a été l'occasion d'organiser un congrès à Paris sur le thème "Le souci de l'humain". Un défi pour la psychiatrie". Plus encore qu'il y a quelques décennies, le souci de l'humain constitue un défi pour la société contemporaine. Défi pratique, théorique et éthique, la psychiatrie est la seule discipline médicale à se trouver confrontée avec autant d'acuité à une problématique typiquement humaine, celle de la liberté. [29]suite [30]L'expertise psychiatrique, entre la clinique et la justice mardi 11 novembre 2008 par [31]Frédéric VACHER Dans le cadre de l'année européenne du dialogue interculturel, le Parc de la Villette a organisé à Paris les 15 et 16 septembre 2008 un congrès international sur le thème "Culture psychiatrique et culture judiciaire, relire Michel Foucault". Ces journées ont été l'occasion de redécouvrir le point de vue de ce philosophe sur la place de la folie dans la société. [32]suite 10/62 Articles 1 | [33]2 | [34]3 | [35]4 | [36]5 | [37]6 | [38]7 |[39]> Annonces générales : * + [40]Monsieur le Président, devenez camusien !, par Michel Onfray + [41]Atelier d'écriture Magic Plum + [42]Qui sommes-nous ? + [43]Revue « Soins Psychiatrie » Dernières brèves * Nouvelles brèves + 7 décembre 2009 [44]Promotion d'un soin relationnel infirmier en psychiatrie + 11 novembre 2009 [45]GO TO CHINA Navigation * [46]Accueil du site * [47]Contact * [48]Agenda * [49]Plan du site * [50]Sites Web * [51]En résumé * Rechercher + Rechercher : __________ >> Rubriques * [52]Ressource humaine + [53]Santé mentale et travail * [54]Culture + [55]Monsieur le Président, devenez camusien !, par Michel Onfray * [56]Psychiatrie + [57]Société + [58]Santé Mentale + [59]Psychothérapies + [60]Pédopsychiatrie + [61]Anorexie + [62]Congrès * [63]Les soins + [64]Soins Infirmiers + [65]Psychomotricité + [66]Ergothérapie + [67]Aides-Soignants * [68]CATTP + [69]Ateliers + [70]Ecriture + [71]Colloques [72]Accueil du site | [73]Contact | [74]Plan du site | [75]Se connecter | [76]Statistiques | visites : 76800 [77]Suivre la vie du site fr [78]? [79]Site réalisé avec SPIP 2.0.10 + [80]AHUNTSIC [81]Wikio [82]Creative Commons License [83]Wikio - Top des blogs - Santé [84]Partager 8 visiteurs en ce moment Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : #[1]Les derniers articles [2]Les derniers articles Lun. 18 Janv. [3]LE JOURNAL [4]MEDIAPART [5]LE JOURNAL [6]LES CLUB [7]LE CLUB RECHERCHER _______________ Recherche [Dans le site..] Connexion utilisateur Identifiant _____ Mot de passe _____ Submit [8]Identifiant ou mot de passe oublié ? 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[15]Lire la suite Edition : [16]En finir avec le ministère de l'immigration et de l'identité nationale [17]Haïti sous le charme. 18 Janvier 2010 Par [18]Nola Tularosa © Nola Tularosa [19]Lire la suite [20]La charte change 11 Janvier 2010 Par [21]Géraldine Delacroix Journal et Club à la fois, Mediapart a pour ambition de susciter et faire vivre le débat démocratique. Pour cela, chaque abonné dispose d'un blog, où publier librement ses points de vue, informations, vidéos, liens... Comme les articles du journal, chaque billet de blog peut être commenté par les abonnés. Ces derniers peuvent également se regrouper pour faire paraître ensemble des Editions participatives sur les thèmes de leur choix. [22]Lire la suite * [23]Faites vos voeux avec Mediapart * [24]mobile.mediapart.fr. Pour nous lire partout, toujours [25]Le cahier spécial de Mediapart dans les kiosques 16 Décembre 2009 Par [26]La rédaction de Mediapart [27]Lire la suite MEDIAVU' [28]Voyage en Bretagne Par : Claude Le Gall «Voyageur et curieux, humaniste porteur de sa culture authentique, Claude Le Gall appartient à cette race de photographes qui pratiquent l'image fixe pour se constituer un territoire et dire serein [29]Lire la suite [30]Marre de voir les banques se goinfrer ! 18 Janvier 2010 Par [31]fracar Sur le modèle du groupe de pression de citoyens américains "Move your money", je pense que nous devons en France faire aussi pression sur nos institutions bancaires ! [32]Lire la suite [33]avec Antigone 18 Janvier 2010 Par [34]marie cosnay 18 avril 2009 [35]Lire la suite [36]AVE CESAR ! regard sur la France de Sarkozy vue par le cinéma 17 Janvier 2010 Par [37]Vingtras Etant membre de l'Académie des arts et techniques du cinéma,j'ai reçu à mi-décembre 2009,une centaine de DVD des films français (ou étrangers) sortis sur nos écrans lors de l'année en cours. [38]Lire la suite [39]Pourquoi pas ... 18 Janvier 2010 Par [40]bertrandbuchs [41]Lire la suite [42]Victor Hugo sera à Mardi ça fait désordre 1e 19Janvier à 20h 17 Janvier 2010 Par [43]François Bernheim Victor Hugo sera à Mardi ça fait désordre 1e 19Janvier à 20h [44]Lire la suite [45]Hervé Novelli est-il plus soluble dans son « identité régionale » que dans la cancoillotte ? 17 Janvier 2010 Par [46]Raphael JORNET Cancoillotte.jpg (suite de chroniques préélectorales ordinaires d'un électeur potentiel dans la Région Centre. C`est ça ou rien. Je ne vous demande pas de choisir, vous seriez capable de choisir « rien ! ») Aujourd'hui: de l'importance de la cancoillotte en milieu chevrier. Entre deux coups de Chinon, revenons à Hervé Novelli. Episode 2. Novelli le retour. Comme dans Alien. Non, ce n'est pas une obsession. Pas d'acharnement, ni de harcèlement moral. C'est citoyen. Pardon? Vous me demandez quoi?... Non même pas, il n'est pas mon type d'homme ! Mais j'ai trois vraies bonnes raisons de lui coller aux baskets: [47]Lire la suite [48]Identité nationale: pourquoi et comment la Ligue débat-elle ? 18 Janvier 2010 Par [49]Charles Conte Nombreux sont ceux qui refusent de participer au débat sur l'identité nationale initié par Éric Besson au motif que ce débat est une grossière opération électorale [50]Lire la suite Edition : [51]Comment Faire Société * [52]Mentions légales | * [53]Charte éditoriale | * [54]CGV | * [55]Mediapart.fr est réalisé avec [56]Drupal Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [rubriques_r1_c1.gif] Activités [spacer.gif] [1]<<< Sommaire [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [bouton_r1_c1.gif] [spacer.gif] [2]Cours réguliers [spacer.gif] [bouton_r3_c1.gif] [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [bouton_r1_c1.gif] [spacer.gif] [3]Formation continuée [spacer.gif] [bouton_r3_c1.gif] [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [bouton_r1_c1.gif] [spacer.gif] [4]Cours par correspondance [spacer.gif] [bouton_r3_c1.gif] [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [bouton_r1_c1.gif] [spacer.gif] [5]Animations [spacer.gif] [bouton_r3_c1.gif] [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [bouton_r1_c1.gif] [spacer.gif] [6]Conférences [spacer.gif] [bouton_r3_c1.gif] [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [bouton_r1_c1.gif] [spacer.gif] [7]Concerts [spacer.gif] [bouton_r3_c1.gif] [spacer.gif] [rubriques_r2_c2.gif] [8]Programme -|- [9]Horaire des sessions Programme de la Formation continuée en Rythme Objectif La performance et lintégration rythmiques sont intimement liée au corps en mouvement : lexpérience personnelle ainsi que des recherches scientifiques le prouvent. Or il se fait que, dans notre enseignement musical, non seulement le travail du rythme est extrêmement négligé, mais en plus lapproche corporelle est quasi totalement absente. Lobjectif de cette formation est de remédier à cette carence en proposant une sensibilisation à la réalité rythmique dans une perspective pédagogique alternative et complémentaire. Premier temps Pour cette raison, le point de départ de cette formation consiste en une prise de conscience et une acceptation du corps et de ses mouvements. Celle-ci a lieu de manière non directive et en situation, cest-à-dire quon veille à laisser à chacun la possibilité de se découvrir par lui-même en organisant des activités propices à cet effet. On privilégie donc le travail corporel, la redécouverte des messages venant de lintérieur: une ouverture aux sensations kinesthésiques, à la gravitation, à la sensation de poids qui en découle, à léquilibre. Une prise de conscience pour chaque individu de son tonus musculaire et de lagitation ou linertie qui en résultent dans lexécution de certains mouvements. Une attention aux rythmes fondamentaux du corps comme la respiration ou les battements cardiaques mais aussi aux fluctuations de la vigilance, aux rythmes circhoraux, circadiens etc. Finalement, un examen des résistances du corps, des blocages psychomoteurs inhibant la transmission des informations rythmiques, une exploration de laise ou du malaise des différentes parties du corps dans le geste rythmé. Deuxième temps On sattache ensuite petit à petit à retrouver le lien entre cette expérience motrice et la pratique rythmique. Il sagit de développer un nouvel apprentissage au travers du vécu rythmique, de construire, fonder une élaboration rythmique sur cette base solide de sensations corporelles et psychologiques. Il faut bien comprendre que celle-ci doit demeurer toujours la condition préalable à toute tentative daborder lune ou lautre forme de complexité rythmique. On restera donc sans cesse vigilant vis-à-vis de cette tentation à "se faire illusion", à se prouver par une forme de coercition sur soi-même quon est capable de réaliser telle ou telle gageure, quand il ne sagit la plupart du temps que dune contrefaçon dénuée de sens. Tout rythme - aussi complexe soit-il - devra toujours prendre sa source (et son sens) dans lexpérience vécue de la pulsation fondamentale. Dans cette perspective de rencontre entre corps et rythme, que signifient un temps fort, une syncope, un contretemps du point de vue corporel ? À quelles sensations correspondent la pulsation binaire, la pulsation ternaire ? Quelles valeurs rythmiques, quels tempos se marient le mieux avec les différentes parties du corps? Dans quels cas le corps simplique-t-il tout entier, en partie? Quels rapports rythmiques existe-t-il entre les différents segments corporels ? Et par extension: quels sont les gestes qui peuvent aider dans la prise de conscience - et la réalisation - de tel ou tel rythme ? Quelle est la représentation mentale élémentaire qui fait associer tel mouvement, telle attitude à tel phénomène rythmique? Troisième temps Vient ensuite le moment de cette formation où est abordé le travail sur le rythme lui-même, cest-à-dire lexamen des relations existant entre les différents éléments dun rythme et leur interaction: linfluence de laccentuation, le statut du contretemps, la notion dunités ou densembles rythmiques, le rôle de la hauteur, la polyrythmie etc. On sattache alors à développer en parallèle la faculté dintériorisation rythmique. On apprend à sentir sans nécessairement exprimer, à imaginer tout ce qui est implicite dans un rythme en se bornant à ne laisser apparaître que certains éléments. Ainsi, pour chaque interprète, le rythme devra demeurer un tout signifiant vécu intérieurement, mais dont une partie seulement sera rendue sonore. On sattache ici à percevoir, à analyser, à pratiquer des exemples rythmiques sur base des expériences vécues au cours des sessions précédentes. On y aborde les problèmes de division de la pulsation (en 2, 3, 4, 5 etc.), de juxtapositions de telles divisions, de leurs mélanges (2 contre 3 etc.); les différentes polyrythmies résultant de la superposition dune autre pulsation à la pulsation de base (groupement par 3 croches en 4/4 par exemple); linfluence de laccentuation et de la durée ainsi que des paramètres non rythmiques comme la hauteur, le timbre, la courbe mélodique ou lharmonie sur la perception dun rythme; enfin la composition de rythmes en cycles - la genèse donc de la structure, de la forme rythmique et son appréhension pratique. Quatrième temps Finalement, on envisage lexpérience rythmique acquise pendant les phases précédentes sous langle de la pratique instrumentale et pédagogique de chacun. Sur le plan instrumental, on examine à quels niveaux gestuels ou moteurs se situe larticulation du vécu rythmique de lindividu par rapport à son instrument. Le rythme se ressent-il au niveau du diaphragme, de la glotte, de la langue ou bien au niveau de lépaule, du coude, de lavant-bras, du poignet, des doigts ? Quel est le rapport entre le geste instrumental et le rythme produit ? Certains mouvements concomitants sont-ils favorables à lexécution signifiante de certains rythmes ? Est visé ici le travail de jonction entre lexpérience rythmique et la pratique instrumentale en vue de linterprétation, une interprétation qui ne résulte plus seulement dune obédience stylistique ou dune interrogation rationnelle, mais qui émane, en outre, dune expérience personnelle, dun vécu chargé de sens. Sur le plan pédagogique, on se pose la question des modalités selon lesquelles ce savoir peut se transmettre denseignant (riche de son acquis) à enseigné (inexpérimenté par définition). On envisage les aptitudes de base à développer chez lenfant au vu de sa compétence rythmique ainsi que les exercices adaptés à cet effet. On évoque les différentes situations dapprentissage susceptibles de favoriser lintégration rythmique de lélève. Intervient également la question de lattitude de lenseignant vis-à-vis de la matière dispensée ainsi que celle du rapport enseignant - enseigné le plus approprié à lacquisition des compétences, à la passation du savoir. On passe finalement en revue toute une série de situations concrètes vécues par les uns et les autres dans la perspective dune meilleure adaptation de lapproche pédagogique de lenseignant aux besoins de lélève. On évoque les cas difficiles en tentant de les comprendre et dy apporter des éléments de solution. On tente de dégager des exemples étudiés une philosophie et une méthodologie générales de lenseignement du rythme [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [rubriques_r4_c1.gif] [spacer.gif] [ [10]Magazine -|- [11]Discographie -|- [12]Activités -|- [13]Test -|- [14]Réflexions et textes -|- [15]Liens -|- [16]Forum -|- [17]Bibliographie ] [ [18]Contact ] - [ [19]English ] Références #[1]jeux machine à sous et casino gratuit RSS Feed [2]jeux machine à sous et casino gratuit machine à sous en ligne [3]Skip menu * [4]Accueil * [5]Contacter le webmaster [6]Les super-héros inspirent de nouveau Cryptologic Par corinne en date du 15 décembre 2009 Cryptologic, l'un des plus populaires développeurs de jeux en ligne, est surtout connu pour ses jeux issus des adaptations. Avec ses machines à sous en ligne basées sur des films, des super-héros et d'autres formes de culture pop, Cryptologic a une empreinte unique sur les jeux de casino en ligne. Pour bien finir l'année, Cryptologic lance trois nouvelles machines à sous inspirées du monde du film. La machine à sous Superman est la première à être lancée. Comme le héros du même nom, ce jeu possède des capacités surnaturelles. Grâce à ses 50 lignes de paiement, la machine à sous offre aux joueurs beaucoup de chances de gagner. Avec les intrigues de la bande dessinée, les joueurs seront en mesure de s'engager dans la poursuite romantique de Louis Lane, tout en sauvant Metropolis de la furie de Lex Luthor. Le nouveau jeu offre aussi aux joueurs des possibilités multiples de gagner des tours gratuits et des parties bonus. Le deuxième jeu qui sera propulsé par Cryptologic est Braveheart. Basé sur le populaire film de Mel Gibson, le jeu racontera l'histoire de la lutte pour la libération écossaise. Le joueur accumule des points au fur et à mesure que le combat progresse. Les paiements varient en fonction des jackpots proposés, qui sont très généreux. Et, enfin, le jeu le plus insolite de l'ensemble: Forrest Gump. Le célèbre proverbe "La vie est comme une boîte de chocolats - on ne sait jamais ce qu'on recevra", ne pouvait être plus vrai. Basé sur le drame historique, la machine à sous Forrest Gump garantit aux joueurs une expérience très agréable. Ajouté dans [7]actualités, [8]jeux casino, [9]machine à sous | [10]Commentaire » [11]Les machines à sous connaissent une bonne saison Par corinne en date du 10 décembre 2009 Les analystes de Wall Street sont revenus de la dernière Global Gaming Expo avec une vision optimiste sur l'industrie des machines à sous de Nevada. Il reste à voir si cette attitude se traduit par une croissance des ventes et des revenus dans le secteur de la fabrication des matériels de jeu. Pourtant, les analystes ont indiqué qu'au lendemain de la G2E, les investisseurs étaient plus optimistes quant aux entreprises de machines à sous, que jamais auparavant. "Les opérateurs de casino semblaient plus optimistes en se promenant dans les salles de l'exposition", a opiné l'analyste Justin Sebastiano dans une note de recherche. "Nous croyons que cette meilleure humeur était le résultat d'une combinaison des nouveaux concepts de jeu de cette année et des budgets plus élevés pour les machines à sous en 2010." Les fabricants de machines à sous n'ont pas connu des périodes extrêmement prolifiques cette dernière décennie. Jusqu'en 2005, les opérateurs de casino ajoutaient des machines à sous utilisant les tickets TITO ( Ticket-In Ticket-Out). Mais le fléchissement de l'économie au cours des deux dernières années a déterminé les casinos d'échanger les anciens jeux pour de nouveaux produits. L'analyste Todd Eilers de Roth Capital Partners fait connaître que MGM Mirage et Harrah's Entertainment ont décidé de remplacer en 2010 les machines à sous de leurs casinos en proportion de 2% jusqu'à 10%. Un autre complexe (non précisé par Eilers) envisage de remplacer jusqu'à 40% de sa plateforme d'anciennes machines à sous. "Le signe le plus encourageant cette année est que les exploitants de casinos cherchaient en fait à acheter des jeux et de la technologie par rapport à l'année dernière quand ils faisaient simplement une visite à G2E", a précisé Eilers. Les deux analystes estiment, d'ailleurs, que les jeux de G2E 2009 étaient de loin supérieurs à ceux proposés au salon il y a un an. Sebastiano apprécie que les machines à sous de Bally Technologies, WMS Industries et International Gaming Technology ont été impressionnantes. "La plupart des investisseurs et des exploitants de casinos ont été déçus par les jeux présentés à G2E l'an dernier", a déclaré Sebastiano. "Ce n'est pas de même avec la G2E de cette année. A notre avis, l'optimisme a été engendré par quelques jeux accrocheurs". Les fabricants de machines à sous ont présenté plusieurs tendances et thèmes communs, tels que les jeux en communauté avancés, les jeux Roue multiple, des graphiques 3D ou des jeux personnalisés. Ajouté dans [12]actualités, [13]machine à sous | [14]Commentaire » [15]Une société de Las Vegas crée les machines à sous adaptées au rythme du joueur Par corinne en date du 29 septembre 2009 La Commission des Jeux du Nevada a récemment autorisé une société basée à Las Vegas qui s'emploie à développer des machines à sous d'une qualité technique supérieure. Ces machines à sous pourront correspondre aux différents rythmes souhaités par les joueurs. Pour arriver à respecter le rythme de chaque joueur, le jeu sera doté d'un programme personnalisé qui suivra la manière de jouer et le temps que chaque joueur passe devant la machine à sous. Ainsi, la machine pourrait fonctionner à un rythme plus lent, avec des récompenses moins élevées pour ceux qui cherchent à jouer plus longtemps. Le slot peut également fonctionner à un rythme plus rapide et proposer des récompenses plus élevées. "Quand les joueurs entrent dans un casino, ils ont une idée assez précise sur le type de jeu qu'ils veulent jouer, mais personne n'est capable de leur dire comment trouver le jeu qui leur convient", a expliqué John Acres, le PDG de Talo Nevada, la société en cause. "Certains joueurs ne savent même pas ce qu'ils veulent vraiment, jusqu'à ce qu'ils essaient quelque chose", a ajouté Acres. Demandé si un programme de jeu personnalisé pourrait modifier le taux de paiement des machines à sous, Acres a répondu qu'une machine pourrait offrir des récompenses rapidement ou lentement, tout en gardant un pourcentage de remboursement programmé. John Acres, fondateur d'Acres Gaming, est connu pour avoir inventé le système moderne de suivi du jeu aux machines à sous. Il a également fondé Gaming Standards Association et a inventé une ligne de vélos. Acres Gaming est une compagnie spécialisée dans le développement de concepts et technologies liés au bonus des jeux et au suivi des machines à sous fabriquées par plusieurs sociétés. La Commission des Jeux du Nevada a autorisé Talo Nevada en tant que fabricant et distributeur. Ajouté dans [16]actualités, [17]machine à sous | [18]Commentaires (*) » [19]Les casinos de France lancent "Magic Casinos Jackpot" Par corinne en date du 20 septembre 2009 Pour enrayer la baisse constante de leurs gains et faire face à la concurrence croissante, les casinos terrestres de France ont adopté une attitude combative, lançant un jackpot commun. C'est la première fois dans leur histoire que plus de la moitié des casinos français se donnent la main pour réaliser un projet d'une telle ampleur. Pour créer "Magic Casinos Jackpot", 100 des 197 casinos de France, ainsi que les groupes Barrière, Tranchant, Joa et Eméraude, ont formé une alliance de conjoncture qui profitera aux joueurs. Seul le groupe Partouche s'est tenu à l'écart, préférant faire cavalier seul devant la menace des jeux en ligne et la concurrence des monopoles d'Etat. Dans les établissements nommés, 331 machines à sous ont été reliées pour former un réseau national, comparable à la loterie. Les dimensions du réseau permettra au jackpot d'atteindre même 5 millions d'euros au moment où il sera décroché. Le jackpot sera tout le temps affiché sur un bandeau qui surmonte les machines à sous faisant partie du réseau. Ce n'est pas donc un secret que le premier jackpot a dépassé 350.000 euros, quelques heures après son lancement. L'investissement a coûté 10 millions d'euros. La performance technique est aussi remarquable, la faisabilité du réseau étant antérieurement testé à plus petite échelle. Les casinos inclus dans le projet sont reconnaissables grâce à une inscription "Magic Casinos Jackpot" affichée sur le mur frontal. Chacun de ces casinos héberge 2 à 8 machines à sous connectées au réseau. Alors que le domaine casinotier est une profession individualiste par tradition, les présidents des quatre groupes associés ont salué "une alliance historique, une grande première". La démarche devrait aider à revitaliser les casinos frappés par la crise. Les 197 casinos de France ont enregistré pour leur dernier exercice une baisse du produit brut des jeux de 8.4% par rapport à l'exercice antérieur. La crise ne cesse de toucher notamment le secteur des machines à sous et c'est à juste raison que les casinotiers ont mis les points sur les "i", par un projet qui augmente l'attractivité des slots. Bien qu'il n'ait pas fait front commun avec les autres, le groupe Partouche a une initiative similaire - Mégapot - qui date d'avant le projet de ses confrères. Ajouté dans [20]casino, [21]jackpots, [22]machine à sous | [23]Commentaire (1) » [24]Les films de Hollywood inspirent les machines à sous de PartyCasino Par corinne en date du 2 septembre 2009 PartyCasino a des nouvelles réjouissantes quant à son répertoire de machines à sous. Le casino a ajouté sur sa liste de jeux des machines à sous vidéo inspirés des films hollywoodiens. Avec des productions telles que "The Godfather", "Rambo", "The terminator", "Gone with the Wind" et de beaux jackpots, ces jeux ont le succès garanti parmi tous les types de joueurs! Les nouvelles machines à sous ont 20 lignes de paiement et 5 rouleaux. La mise minimale est de 0.01 $/£/EUR et les jackpots sont soit fixes soit progressifs, en fonction du jeu choisi. Les jeux sont dotés de symboles scatter, wild et des symboles qui déclenchent des tours gratuits. Pour les jeux qu'ils préfèrent, les clients du casino peuvent choisir la fonction Auto-play. Chaque jeu a une fonction spéciale, grâce à laquelle on peut gagner de l'argent supplémentaire et des tours gratuits. Chaque niveau de ces jeux bonus a de merveilleux graphismes et engendre autant d'adrénaline que les films eux-mêmes. Ajouté dans [25]machine à sous | [26]Commentaire » [27]Nouvelle machine à sous Wealth Spa lancée par Microgaming Par corinne en date du 11 août 2009 En accord avec les tendances de l'été, Microgaming lance la nouvelle machine à sous vidéo Wealth Spa, ce qui démontre, en outre, leur engagement à l'innovation et au développement des jeux haut de gamme. Wealth Spa est une machine à sous à 5 rouleaux et 20 lignes de paiement, avec une offre de bonus portant sur une expérience spa de luxe. Grâce à un éventail de symboles wild et scatters, le joueur pourra accumuler des jetons d'or très précieux. Ces jetons ouvriront une série de bonus sur cinq niveaux, chaque niveau ayant fait l'objet d'un minutieux processus de design. Les jetons d'or sont crédités lorsqu'ils apparaissent sur le cinquième rouleau. Ils peuvent être utilisés pour accéder immédiatement au jeu bonus ou peuvent être gardés pour atteindre un niveau plus élevé. L'apparition d'un seul jeton déclenche le premier jeu bonus - Smoothie Bonus, deux jetons déclenchent le Bonus Hot Stone, trois jetons occasionnent le jeu bonus Body Wax, tandis que les quatre jetons d'or apparus sur les rouleaux ouvrent la voie vers le jeu bonus Bath Oil. Cinq jetons vont déclencher automatiquement le Bonus Massage, pendant lequel les joueurs peuvent gagner 25 tours gratuits et la chance de remporter le jackpot. Roger Raatgever, le chef de direction de Microgaming a commenté: "A Microgaming, nous cherchons toujours à créer de nouveaux jeux de haute qualité; l'année passée, nous avons lancé des jeux de casino originaux tels MySlot et Great Galaxy Grab. Notre dernier jeu Wealth Spa offre des bonus sur plusieurs niveaux, une qualité des graphiques inégalée et un jeu vraiment passionnant." Wealth Spa représente une nouvelle expérience de jeu divertissante, avec un éventail de paris qui vont de 0,01 à 0,25 par ligne. Pour la mise minimale, les prix vont jusqu'à 12,500.00 jetons, tandis que les prix provenus des bonus vont de 2,800.00 à 25,000.00 jetons. Ajouté dans [28]machine à sous | [29]Commentaires (*) » [30]Qu'est-ce qui fait l'attrait des machines à sous? Par corinne en date du 6 août 2009 Avez-vous jamais réfléchi si tout l'arsenal d'une machine à sous - les images, les sifflets, les personnages, les feux clignotants, la musique, les boutons - avait quelque chose à voir avec l'argent que vous y placez, pour gagner ou perdre la mise? Tout autre appareil pourrait faire la même chose avec cet argent, mais personne ne passerait des heures devant un tel appareil, s'il n'était pas pour les feux étincelants, les images avec des fruits, et l'idée d'un gros jackpot. Donc, la question qui se pose c'est: qu'est ce qui rend les machines à sous si attrayantes? Louis Weigele, le président du Conseil du jeu problématique d'Ohio, nous offre une explication. Voilà, donc, l'argument d'un psychologue: Les joueurs sont divisés en deux camps: les joueurs actifs (action gamblers) et les joueurs "fuyards" (escape gamblers). Les joueurs actifs sont les personnes qui aiment vraiment jouer, sentir l'émotion du jeu, affronter d'autres joueurs et défier le hasard. En général, on les voit sur les pistes des courses, assis aux tables de poker ou de blackjack. L'autre grand groupe, dit Weigele, est celui des joueurs "fuyards" qui passent souvent des heures entières devant une machine à sous vidéo. "Ils n'aiment pas vraiment jouer, ils jouent simplement pour passer le temps", estime le psychologue, en parlant des joueurs problématiques. En fait, les machines à sous ne sont pas de simples appareils. Elles peuvent évoquer une histoire, le sujet d'un film de succès, une personnalité. Les jeux sont conçus englobant beaucoup de stimuli, pour captiver et maintenir l'attention du joueur. Il ne s'agit pas que d'y mettre de l'argent et attendre. Les joueurs font des choix, recherchent des combinaisons gagnantes et décident d'augmenter leurs mises ou d'encaisser le gain. La participation active est essentielle pour les joueurs. Les joueurs qui contrôlent physiquement une machine à sous sont susceptibles de miser plus d'argent que les autres aux paris subsidiaires. Ajouté dans [31]machine à sous, [32]études | [33]Commentaires (*) » [34]Nouvelle machine à sous "La Fiesta" Par corinne en date du 15 juin 2009 Les machines à sous basées sur des thèmes mexicains ont gagné une grande popularité. Certes, cela a à voir avec la vivacité de la culture mexicaine et ses symboles faciles à reconnaître. Maintenant, une nouvelle machine à sous célèbre la culture et la civilisation mexicaines, à travers des symboles tels que: la piñata, les roses, les maracas, les trompettes, les guitares et les belles femmes. Les joueurs qui gardent le son pendant qu'ils jouent auront l'occasion d'écouter de la musique en style mexicain. Le jeu compte 5 rouleaux et 25 lignes de paiement. Les paris vont de 0.01$ à 10$, respectant tous les budgets. Même sans disposer d'un jackpot progressif, La Fiesta offre un jackpot fixé à 10.000$. Celui-ci est payé lorsque cinq symboles piñata apparaissent sur une ligne payante active. Pour un pari maximal, le paiement correspondant est de 100.000$. Mais qu'est-ce qu'une piñata? Une piñata est un jouet mexicain, d'habitude sous la forme d'un animal. Le symbole piñata de la machine à sous "La Fiesta" est un cochon. Il fonctionne comme un symbole wild et peut remplacer tout autre symbole, à l'exception de la rose, qui est un scatter. Quand il substitue d'autres symboles pour former une combinaison gagnante, les paiements sont doublés. Si vous avez la chance de tomber sur une combinaison gagnante avec des symboles piñata, vous serez les témoins d'un drôle de spectacle: le petit cochon se mettra à danser devant vous et des feux d'artifices éclateront derrière lui. Trois ou plusieurs symboles piñata apparaissant n'importe où sur les rouleaux déclenchent un jeu bonus. Ceci peut être joué jusqu'à trois fois. "La Fiesta" a été lancée par la société Vegas Technology. Le même fournisseur de logiciels de jeu a créé dernièrement trois autres machines à sous. Sur le marché des jeux en ligne, La Fiesta concurrence avec un jackpot progressif - Jackpot Piñata, lancé par Real Time Gaming. Ajouté dans [35]machine à sous | [36]Commentaires (*) » [37]Le groupe Joa lance un casino en ligne Par corinne en date du 15 juin 2009 Après avoir changé son visage commercial, l'ex groupe Moliflor - rébaptisé Joa(casinos), se prépare à lancer en France un casino en ligne. Initiative très courageuse, voire hardie, sur un marché encore fermé aux sites de jeux. En effet, tous les grands casinotiers français sont sur le bloc de départ dans la course qui sera lancée le 1er janvier 2010. Le groupe de Lucien Barrière a choisi de faire les essais au Royaume-Uni, avec un site en 3D qui a tout pour remporter des succès. C'est la voie la plus sage, mais qui n'a pas convenu à Partouche. Impatients, les dirigeants du groupe n'ont plus attendu la date de l'ouverture officielle du marché et ont choisi le chemin sans détours. Le groupe offre d'orès et déjà des services de jeux aux internautes français. L'autre élément de la "trinité" - Tranchant - est toujours en attente. Joa ne leur cède en rien. Les prévisions de la future législation française en domaine concernent les paris sportifs, les courses hippiques et le poker en ligne. Le sujet des casinos en ligne, avec toute la suite de jeux qu'on y trouve, reste flou... Mais cela n'a pas empêché Joa d'agir. Disponible pour le moment en mode démo (mode fun, avec de l'argent virtuel), Joa-online.com propose des parties de poker, mais également tous les autres jeux qu'on trouve dans un casino terrestre. La course sur le marché en ligne est à peine au début et elle ne sera pas gagnée d'avance par un acteur ou autre. Le "lifting" subi par l'ex Moliflor, qui a avalé 2.5 millions d'euros, a été la première étape. Pour tenir tête à ses forts concurrents, Joa devra innover. Affaire à suivre. Ajouté dans [38]casino en ligne | [39]Commentaire » [40]Mythes et fausses impressions sur les machines à sous Par corinne en date du 6 janvier 2009 Puisqu'elles sont des jeux de hasard par excellence, les machines à sous ont laissé créer autour d'elles un complexe de mythes qui essayent d'expliquer les gains et les pertes. Voilà les plus entendues: On dit que: Les meilleures machines à sous sont tenues ensemble dans la salle Il serait stupide d'un casino de cantonner ses meilleures machines à sous dans un seul endroit. Celles-ci sont répandues dans la salle, pour que les gens puissent voir les autres gagner. C'est justement l'une des principales raisons qui déterminent les gens de jouer plus longtemps. Voyons: continueriez-vous à jouer s'il n'y avait pas un autour de vous qui gagne? Les machines à sous ont des périodes cycliques de gains Cela ne pourrait pas être plus loin de la vérité. Chaque tournoiement des rouleaux est aléatoire et ne suit aucun schéma. Si une machine semble payer plus ou moins à de certains moments, c'est grâce aux numéros aléatoires générés. Mais ce n'est pas une garantie que tout va continuer de la même manière pour la prochaine période de temps! Tirer la manche est mieux qu'appuyer sur le bouton C'est exactement la même chose, tirer un levier ou appuyer sur un bouton aboutira toujours au même résultat. Tout ce qu'on fait, dans les deux cas, est d'envoyer un petit signal électrique pour démarrer le jeu, donc la façon dont on le fait n'a aucune importance, vous obtenez toujours le même résultat. Seulement les machines mécaniques sont des machines à sous véritables Les slots mécaniques ne sont meilleurs que parce qu'ils peuvent être trompés. Ils fonctionnent sur le même principe que toute autre machine à sous. En fait, les machines électroniques offrent de meilleurs paiements, des jackpots plus élevés, plus de variété dans les jeux, plus de lignes de paiement et plus de rouleaux. Ces jeux sont supérieurs aux jeux mécaniques et montrent les avantages de la nouvelle technologie. On peut augmenter ses chances en appuyant sur le bouton au bon moment Même si c'est un peu vrai avec la génération de nombres aléatoires, les chances d'agir à ce "bon moment" sont à des milliards contre vous. Les machines à sous génèrent des centaines de nombres aléatoires par seconde, calculez, donc, vos chances de tomber sur la micro-seconde gagnante! Mon slot préféré paie davantage Tout le monde a, sans doute, une machine à sous préférée sur laquelle on a gagné. Mais il s'agit toujours de la chance de se trouver là au moment opportun. Cette même machine qui a offert un prix à quelqu'un a pris de l'argent de l'autrui. Avoir une machine favorite est une question de chois, mais assurez-vous que c'est une machine qui correspond à votre style de jeu. Et renoncez à l'idée qu'elle paie plus que les autres! Ajouté dans [41]machine à sous | [42]Commentaires (*) » [43]« anciens articles Categories * [44]actualités * [45]casino * [46]casino en ligne * [47]études * [48]jackpots * [49]jeux casino * [50]machine à sous Archives * [51]décembre 2009 * [52]septembre 2009 * [53]août 2009 * [54]juin 2009 * [55]janvier 2009 * [56]décembre 2008 Blogoliste * [57]affiliation gambling * [58]casino * [59]casino en ligne * [60]machine à sous Méta * [61]Connexion * [62]Entries (RSS) * [63]Comments (RSS) [64]Mesure d'audience ROI statistique webanalytics par WebAnalytics __________________________________________________________________ Copyright © [65]jeux machine à sous et casino gratuit | Designed by [66]Free Slots Références #[1]jeux machine à sous et casino gratuit RSS Feed [2]jeux machine à sous et casino gratuit machine à sous en ligne [3]Skip menu * [4]Accueil * [5]Contacter le webmaster [6]Les super-héros inspirent de nouveau Cryptologic Par corinne en date du 15 décembre 2009 Cryptologic, l'un des plus populaires développeurs de jeux en ligne, est surtout connu pour ses jeux issus des adaptations. Avec ses machines à sous en ligne basées sur des films, des super-héros et d'autres formes de culture pop, Cryptologic a une empreinte unique sur les jeux de casino en ligne. Pour bien finir l'année, Cryptologic lance trois nouvelles machines à sous inspirées du monde du film. La machine à sous Superman est la première à être lancée. Comme le héros du même nom, ce jeu possède des capacités surnaturelles. Grâce à ses 50 lignes de paiement, la machine à sous offre aux joueurs beaucoup de chances de gagner. Avec les intrigues de la bande dessinée, les joueurs seront en mesure de s'engager dans la poursuite romantique de Louis Lane, tout en sauvant Metropolis de la furie de Lex Luthor. Le nouveau jeu offre aussi aux joueurs des possibilités multiples de gagner des tours gratuits et des parties bonus. Le deuxième jeu qui sera propulsé par Cryptologic est Braveheart. Basé sur le populaire film de Mel Gibson, le jeu racontera l'histoire de la lutte pour la libération écossaise. Le joueur accumule des points au fur et à mesure que le combat progresse. Les paiements varient en fonction des jackpots proposés, qui sont très généreux. Et, enfin, le jeu le plus insolite de l'ensemble: Forrest Gump. Le célèbre proverbe "La vie est comme une boîte de chocolats - on ne sait jamais ce qu'on recevra", ne pouvait être plus vrai. Basé sur le drame historique, la machine à sous Forrest Gump garantit aux joueurs une expérience très agréable. Ajouté dans [7]actualités, [8]jeux casino, [9]machine à sous | [10]Commentaire » [11]Les machines à sous connaissent une bonne saison Par corinne en date du 10 décembre 2009 Les analystes de Wall Street sont revenus de la dernière Global Gaming Expo avec une vision optimiste sur l'industrie des machines à sous de Nevada. Il reste à voir si cette attitude se traduit par une croissance des ventes et des revenus dans le secteur de la fabrication des matériels de jeu. Pourtant, les analystes ont indiqué qu'au lendemain de la G2E, les investisseurs étaient plus optimistes quant aux entreprises de machines à sous, que jamais auparavant. "Les opérateurs de casino semblaient plus optimistes en se promenant dans les salles de l'exposition", a opiné l'analyste Justin Sebastiano dans une note de recherche. "Nous croyons que cette meilleure humeur était le résultat d'une combinaison des nouveaux concepts de jeu de cette année et des budgets plus élevés pour les machines à sous en 2010." Les fabricants de machines à sous n'ont pas connu des périodes extrêmement prolifiques cette dernière décennie. Jusqu'en 2005, les opérateurs de casino ajoutaient des machines à sous utilisant les tickets TITO ( Ticket-In Ticket-Out). Mais le fléchissement de l'économie au cours des deux dernières années a déterminé les casinos d'échanger les anciens jeux pour de nouveaux produits. L'analyste Todd Eilers de Roth Capital Partners fait connaître que MGM Mirage et Harrah's Entertainment ont décidé de remplacer en 2010 les machines à sous de leurs casinos en proportion de 2% jusqu'à 10%. Un autre complexe (non précisé par Eilers) envisage de remplacer jusqu'à 40% de sa plateforme d'anciennes machines à sous. "Le signe le plus encourageant cette année est que les exploitants de casinos cherchaient en fait à acheter des jeux et de la technologie par rapport à l'année dernière quand ils faisaient simplement une visite à G2E", a précisé Eilers. Les deux analystes estiment, d'ailleurs, que les jeux de G2E 2009 étaient de loin supérieurs à ceux proposés au salon il y a un an. Sebastiano apprécie que les machines à sous de Bally Technologies, WMS Industries et International Gaming Technology ont été impressionnantes. "La plupart des investisseurs et des exploitants de casinos ont été déçus par les jeux présentés à G2E l'an dernier", a déclaré Sebastiano. "Ce n'est pas de même avec la G2E de cette année. A notre avis, l'optimisme a été engendré par quelques jeux accrocheurs". Les fabricants de machines à sous ont présenté plusieurs tendances et thèmes communs, tels que les jeux en communauté avancés, les jeux Roue multiple, des graphiques 3D ou des jeux personnalisés. Ajouté dans [12]actualités, [13]machine à sous | [14]Commentaire » [15]Une société de Las Vegas crée les machines à sous adaptées au rythme du joueur Par corinne en date du 29 septembre 2009 La Commission des Jeux du Nevada a récemment autorisé une société basée à Las Vegas qui s'emploie à développer des machines à sous d'une qualité technique supérieure. Ces machines à sous pourront correspondre aux différents rythmes souhaités par les joueurs. Pour arriver à respecter le rythme de chaque joueur, le jeu sera doté d'un programme personnalisé qui suivra la manière de jouer et le temps que chaque joueur passe devant la machine à sous. Ainsi, la machine pourrait fonctionner à un rythme plus lent, avec des récompenses moins élevées pour ceux qui cherchent à jouer plus longtemps. Le slot peut également fonctionner à un rythme plus rapide et proposer des récompenses plus élevées. "Quand les joueurs entrent dans un casino, ils ont une idée assez précise sur le type de jeu qu'ils veulent jouer, mais personne n'est capable de leur dire comment trouver le jeu qui leur convient", a expliqué John Acres, le PDG de Talo Nevada, la société en cause. "Certains joueurs ne savent même pas ce qu'ils veulent vraiment, jusqu'à ce qu'ils essaient quelque chose", a ajouté Acres. Demandé si un programme de jeu personnalisé pourrait modifier le taux de paiement des machines à sous, Acres a répondu qu'une machine pourrait offrir des récompenses rapidement ou lentement, tout en gardant un pourcentage de remboursement programmé. John Acres, fondateur d'Acres Gaming, est connu pour avoir inventé le système moderne de suivi du jeu aux machines à sous. Il a également fondé Gaming Standards Association et a inventé une ligne de vélos. Acres Gaming est une compagnie spécialisée dans le développement de concepts et technologies liés au bonus des jeux et au suivi des machines à sous fabriquées par plusieurs sociétés. La Commission des Jeux du Nevada a autorisé Talo Nevada en tant que fabricant et distributeur. Ajouté dans [16]actualités, [17]machine à sous | [18]Commentaires (*) » [19]Les casinos de France lancent "Magic Casinos Jackpot" Par corinne en date du 20 septembre 2009 Pour enrayer la baisse constante de leurs gains et faire face à la concurrence croissante, les casinos terrestres de France ont adopté une attitude combative, lançant un jackpot commun. C'est la première fois dans leur histoire que plus de la moitié des casinos français se donnent la main pour réaliser un projet d'une telle ampleur. Pour créer "Magic Casinos Jackpot", 100 des 197 casinos de France, ainsi que les groupes Barrière, Tranchant, Joa et Eméraude, ont formé une alliance de conjoncture qui profitera aux joueurs. Seul le groupe Partouche s'est tenu à l'écart, préférant faire cavalier seul devant la menace des jeux en ligne et la concurrence des monopoles d'Etat. Dans les établissements nommés, 331 machines à sous ont été reliées pour former un réseau national, comparable à la loterie. Les dimensions du réseau permettra au jackpot d'atteindre même 5 millions d'euros au moment où il sera décroché. Le jackpot sera tout le temps affiché sur un bandeau qui surmonte les machines à sous faisant partie du réseau. Ce n'est pas donc un secret que le premier jackpot a dépassé 350.000 euros, quelques heures après son lancement. L'investissement a coûté 10 millions d'euros. La performance technique est aussi remarquable, la faisabilité du réseau étant antérieurement testé à plus petite échelle. Les casinos inclus dans le projet sont reconnaissables grâce à une inscription "Magic Casinos Jackpot" affichée sur le mur frontal. Chacun de ces casinos héberge 2 à 8 machines à sous connectées au réseau. Alors que le domaine casinotier est une profession individualiste par tradition, les présidents des quatre groupes associés ont salué "une alliance historique, une grande première". La démarche devrait aider à revitaliser les casinos frappés par la crise. Les 197 casinos de France ont enregistré pour leur dernier exercice une baisse du produit brut des jeux de 8.4% par rapport à l'exercice antérieur. La crise ne cesse de toucher notamment le secteur des machines à sous et c'est à juste raison que les casinotiers ont mis les points sur les "i", par un projet qui augmente l'attractivité des slots. Bien qu'il n'ait pas fait front commun avec les autres, le groupe Partouche a une initiative similaire - Mégapot - qui date d'avant le projet de ses confrères. Ajouté dans [20]casino, [21]jackpots, [22]machine à sous | [23]Commentaire (1) » [24]Les films de Hollywood inspirent les machines à sous de PartyCasino Par corinne en date du 2 septembre 2009 PartyCasino a des nouvelles réjouissantes quant à son répertoire de machines à sous. Le casino a ajouté sur sa liste de jeux des machines à sous vidéo inspirés des films hollywoodiens. Avec des productions telles que "The Godfather", "Rambo", "The terminator", "Gone with the Wind" et de beaux jackpots, ces jeux ont le succès garanti parmi tous les types de joueurs! Les nouvelles machines à sous ont 20 lignes de paiement et 5 rouleaux. La mise minimale est de 0.01 $/£/EUR et les jackpots sont soit fixes soit progressifs, en fonction du jeu choisi. Les jeux sont dotés de symboles scatter, wild et des symboles qui déclenchent des tours gratuits. Pour les jeux qu'ils préfèrent, les clients du casino peuvent choisir la fonction Auto-play. Chaque jeu a une fonction spéciale, grâce à laquelle on peut gagner de l'argent supplémentaire et des tours gratuits. Chaque niveau de ces jeux bonus a de merveilleux graphismes et engendre autant d'adrénaline que les films eux-mêmes. Ajouté dans [25]machine à sous | [26]Commentaire » [27]Nouvelle machine à sous Wealth Spa lancée par Microgaming Par corinne en date du 11 août 2009 En accord avec les tendances de l'été, Microgaming lance la nouvelle machine à sous vidéo Wealth Spa, ce qui démontre, en outre, leur engagement à l'innovation et au développement des jeux haut de gamme. Wealth Spa est une machine à sous à 5 rouleaux et 20 lignes de paiement, avec une offre de bonus portant sur une expérience spa de luxe. Grâce à un éventail de symboles wild et scatters, le joueur pourra accumuler des jetons d'or très précieux. Ces jetons ouvriront une série de bonus sur cinq niveaux, chaque niveau ayant fait l'objet d'un minutieux processus de design. Les jetons d'or sont crédités lorsqu'ils apparaissent sur le cinquième rouleau. Ils peuvent être utilisés pour accéder immédiatement au jeu bonus ou peuvent être gardés pour atteindre un niveau plus élevé. L'apparition d'un seul jeton déclenche le premier jeu bonus - Smoothie Bonus, deux jetons déclenchent le Bonus Hot Stone, trois jetons occasionnent le jeu bonus Body Wax, tandis que les quatre jetons d'or apparus sur les rouleaux ouvrent la voie vers le jeu bonus Bath Oil. Cinq jetons vont déclencher automatiquement le Bonus Massage, pendant lequel les joueurs peuvent gagner 25 tours gratuits et la chance de remporter le jackpot. Roger Raatgever, le chef de direction de Microgaming a commenté: "A Microgaming, nous cherchons toujours à créer de nouveaux jeux de haute qualité; l'année passée, nous avons lancé des jeux de casino originaux tels MySlot et Great Galaxy Grab. Notre dernier jeu Wealth Spa offre des bonus sur plusieurs niveaux, une qualité des graphiques inégalée et un jeu vraiment passionnant." Wealth Spa représente une nouvelle expérience de jeu divertissante, avec un éventail de paris qui vont de 0,01 à 0,25 par ligne. Pour la mise minimale, les prix vont jusqu'à 12,500.00 jetons, tandis que les prix provenus des bonus vont de 2,800.00 à 25,000.00 jetons. Ajouté dans [28]machine à sous | [29]Commentaires (*) » [30]Qu'est-ce qui fait l'attrait des machines à sous? Par corinne en date du 6 août 2009 Avez-vous jamais réfléchi si tout l'arsenal d'une machine à sous - les images, les sifflets, les personnages, les feux clignotants, la musique, les boutons - avait quelque chose à voir avec l'argent que vous y placez, pour gagner ou perdre la mise? Tout autre appareil pourrait faire la même chose avec cet argent, mais personne ne passerait des heures devant un tel appareil, s'il n'était pas pour les feux étincelants, les images avec des fruits, et l'idée d'un gros jackpot. Donc, la question qui se pose c'est: qu'est ce qui rend les machines à sous si attrayantes? Louis Weigele, le président du Conseil du jeu problématique d'Ohio, nous offre une explication. Voilà, donc, l'argument d'un psychologue: Les joueurs sont divisés en deux camps: les joueurs actifs (action gamblers) et les joueurs "fuyards" (escape gamblers). Les joueurs actifs sont les personnes qui aiment vraiment jouer, sentir l'émotion du jeu, affronter d'autres joueurs et défier le hasard. En général, on les voit sur les pistes des courses, assis aux tables de poker ou de blackjack. L'autre grand groupe, dit Weigele, est celui des joueurs "fuyards" qui passent souvent des heures entières devant une machine à sous vidéo. "Ils n'aiment pas vraiment jouer, ils jouent simplement pour passer le temps", estime le psychologue, en parlant des joueurs problématiques. En fait, les machines à sous ne sont pas de simples appareils. Elles peuvent évoquer une histoire, le sujet d'un film de succès, une personnalité. Les jeux sont conçus englobant beaucoup de stimuli, pour captiver et maintenir l'attention du joueur. Il ne s'agit pas que d'y mettre de l'argent et attendre. Les joueurs font des choix, recherchent des combinaisons gagnantes et décident d'augmenter leurs mises ou d'encaisser le gain. La participation active est essentielle pour les joueurs. Les joueurs qui contrôlent physiquement une machine à sous sont susceptibles de miser plus d'argent que les autres aux paris subsidiaires. Ajouté dans [31]machine à sous, [32]études | [33]Commentaires (*) » [34]Nouvelle machine à sous "La Fiesta" Par corinne en date du 15 juin 2009 Les machines à sous basées sur des thèmes mexicains ont gagné une grande popularité. Certes, cela a à voir avec la vivacité de la culture mexicaine et ses symboles faciles à reconnaître. Maintenant, une nouvelle machine à sous célèbre la culture et la civilisation mexicaines, à travers des symboles tels que: la piñata, les roses, les maracas, les trompettes, les guitares et les belles femmes. Les joueurs qui gardent le son pendant qu'ils jouent auront l'occasion d'écouter de la musique en style mexicain. Le jeu compte 5 rouleaux et 25 lignes de paiement. Les paris vont de 0.01$ à 10$, respectant tous les budgets. Même sans disposer d'un jackpot progressif, La Fiesta offre un jackpot fixé à 10.000$. Celui-ci est payé lorsque cinq symboles piñata apparaissent sur une ligne payante active. Pour un pari maximal, le paiement correspondant est de 100.000$. Mais qu'est-ce qu'une piñata? Une piñata est un jouet mexicain, d'habitude sous la forme d'un animal. Le symbole piñata de la machine à sous "La Fiesta" est un cochon. Il fonctionne comme un symbole wild et peut remplacer tout autre symbole, à l'exception de la rose, qui est un scatter. Quand il substitue d'autres symboles pour former une combinaison gagnante, les paiements sont doublés. Si vous avez la chance de tomber sur une combinaison gagnante avec des symboles piñata, vous serez les témoins d'un drôle de spectacle: le petit cochon se mettra à danser devant vous et des feux d'artifices éclateront derrière lui. Trois ou plusieurs symboles piñata apparaissant n'importe où sur les rouleaux déclenchent un jeu bonus. Ceci peut être joué jusqu'à trois fois. "La Fiesta" a été lancée par la société Vegas Technology. Le même fournisseur de logiciels de jeu a créé dernièrement trois autres machines à sous. Sur le marché des jeux en ligne, La Fiesta concurrence avec un jackpot progressif - Jackpot Piñata, lancé par Real Time Gaming. Ajouté dans [35]machine à sous | [36]Commentaires (*) » [37]Le groupe Joa lance un casino en ligne Par corinne en date du 15 juin 2009 Après avoir changé son visage commercial, l'ex groupe Moliflor - rébaptisé Joa(casinos), se prépare à lancer en France un casino en ligne. Initiative très courageuse, voire hardie, sur un marché encore fermé aux sites de jeux. En effet, tous les grands casinotiers français sont sur le bloc de départ dans la course qui sera lancée le 1er janvier 2010. Le groupe de Lucien Barrière a choisi de faire les essais au Royaume-Uni, avec un site en 3D qui a tout pour remporter des succès. C'est la voie la plus sage, mais qui n'a pas convenu à Partouche. Impatients, les dirigeants du groupe n'ont plus attendu la date de l'ouverture officielle du marché et ont choisi le chemin sans détours. Le groupe offre d'orès et déjà des services de jeux aux internautes français. L'autre élément de la "trinité" - Tranchant - est toujours en attente. Joa ne leur cède en rien. Les prévisions de la future législation française en domaine concernent les paris sportifs, les courses hippiques et le poker en ligne. Le sujet des casinos en ligne, avec toute la suite de jeux qu'on y trouve, reste flou... Mais cela n'a pas empêché Joa d'agir. Disponible pour le moment en mode démo (mode fun, avec de l'argent virtuel), Joa-online.com propose des parties de poker, mais également tous les autres jeux qu'on trouve dans un casino terrestre. La course sur le marché en ligne est à peine au début et elle ne sera pas gagnée d'avance par un acteur ou autre. Le "lifting" subi par l'ex Moliflor, qui a avalé 2.5 millions d'euros, a été la première étape. Pour tenir tête à ses forts concurrents, Joa devra innover. Affaire à suivre. Ajouté dans [38]casino en ligne | [39]Commentaire » [40]Mythes et fausses impressions sur les machines à sous Par corinne en date du 6 janvier 2009 Puisqu'elles sont des jeux de hasard par excellence, les machines à sous ont laissé créer autour d'elles un complexe de mythes qui essayent d'expliquer les gains et les pertes. Voilà les plus entendues: On dit que: Les meilleures machines à sous sont tenues ensemble dans la salle Il serait stupide d'un casino de cantonner ses meilleures machines à sous dans un seul endroit. Celles-ci sont répandues dans la salle, pour que les gens puissent voir les autres gagner. C'est justement l'une des principales raisons qui déterminent les gens de jouer plus longtemps. Voyons: continueriez-vous à jouer s'il n'y avait pas un autour de vous qui gagne? Les machines à sous ont des périodes cycliques de gains Cela ne pourrait pas être plus loin de la vérité. Chaque tournoiement des rouleaux est aléatoire et ne suit aucun schéma. Si une machine semble payer plus ou moins à de certains moments, c'est grâce aux numéros aléatoires générés. Mais ce n'est pas une garantie que tout va continuer de la même manière pour la prochaine période de temps! Tirer la manche est mieux qu'appuyer sur le bouton C'est exactement la même chose, tirer un levier ou appuyer sur un bouton aboutira toujours au même résultat. Tout ce qu'on fait, dans les deux cas, est d'envoyer un petit signal électrique pour démarrer le jeu, donc la façon dont on le fait n'a aucune importance, vous obtenez toujours le même résultat. Seulement les machines mécaniques sont des machines à sous véritables Les slots mécaniques ne sont meilleurs que parce qu'ils peuvent être trompés. Ils fonctionnent sur le même principe que toute autre machine à sous. En fait, les machines électroniques offrent de meilleurs paiements, des jackpots plus élevés, plus de variété dans les jeux, plus de lignes de paiement et plus de rouleaux. Ces jeux sont supérieurs aux jeux mécaniques et montrent les avantages de la nouvelle technologie. On peut augmenter ses chances en appuyant sur le bouton au bon moment Même si c'est un peu vrai avec la génération de nombres aléatoires, les chances d'agir à ce "bon moment" sont à des milliards contre vous. Les machines à sous génèrent des centaines de nombres aléatoires par seconde, calculez, donc, vos chances de tomber sur la micro-seconde gagnante! Mon slot préféré paie davantage Tout le monde a, sans doute, une machine à sous préférée sur laquelle on a gagné. Mais il s'agit toujours de la chance de se trouver là au moment opportun. Cette même machine qui a offert un prix à quelqu'un a pris de l'argent de l'autrui. Avoir une machine favorite est une question de chois, mais assurez-vous que c'est une machine qui correspond à votre style de jeu. Et renoncez à l'idée qu'elle paie plus que les autres! Ajouté dans [41]machine à sous | [42]Commentaires (*) » [43]« anciens articles Categories * [44]actualités * [45]casino * [46]casino en ligne * [47]études * [48]jackpots * [49]jeux casino * [50]machine à sous Archives * [51]décembre 2009 * [52]septembre 2009 * [53]août 2009 * [54]juin 2009 * [55]janvier 2009 * [56]décembre 2008 Blogoliste * [57]affiliation gambling * [58]casino * [59]casino en ligne * [60]machine à sous Méta * [61]Connexion * [62]Entries (RSS) * [63]Comments (RSS) [64]Mesure d'audience ROI statistique webanalytics par WebAnalytics __________________________________________________________________ Copyright © [65]jeux machine à sous et casino gratuit | Designed by [66]Free Slots Références #[1]next [2]Wikipédia (fr) [3]copyright [4]Flux RSS de Wikipédia [5]Flux Atom de Wikipédia Mauvais titre Un article de Wikipédia, l'encyclopédie libre. 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Ce document provient de « Affichages * [10]Page spéciale Outils personnels * [11]Essayer la bêta Açai * [12]Créer un compte ou se connecter Rechercher ____________________ Lire Rechercher Navigation * [13]Accueil * [14]Portails thématiques * [15]Index alphabétique * [16]Un article au hasard * [17]Contacter Wikipédia Contribuer * [18]Aide * [19]Communauté * [20]Modifications récentes * [21]Accueil des nouveaux arrivants * [22]Faire un don Boîte à outils * [23]Importer un fichier * [24]Pages spéciales [25]Powered by MediaWiki [26]Wikimedia Foundation * [27]Politique de confidentialité * [28]À propos de Wikipédia * [29]Avertissements Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : #[1]jeux machine à sous et casino gratuit RSS Feed [2]jeux machine à sous et casino gratuit machine à sous en ligne [3]Skip menu * [4]Accueil * [5]Contacter le webmaster [6]Les super-héros inspirent de nouveau Cryptologic Par corinne en date du 15 décembre 2009 Cryptologic, l'un des plus populaires développeurs de jeux en ligne, est surtout connu pour ses jeux issus des adaptations. Avec ses machines à sous en ligne basées sur des films, des super-héros et d'autres formes de culture pop, Cryptologic a une empreinte unique sur les jeux de casino en ligne. Pour bien finir l'année, Cryptologic lance trois nouvelles machines à sous inspirées du monde du film. La machine à sous Superman est la première à être lancée. Comme le héros du même nom, ce jeu possède des capacités surnaturelles. Grâce à ses 50 lignes de paiement, la machine à sous offre aux joueurs beaucoup de chances de gagner. Avec les intrigues de la bande dessinée, les joueurs seront en mesure de s'engager dans la poursuite romantique de Louis Lane, tout en sauvant Metropolis de la furie de Lex Luthor. Le nouveau jeu offre aussi aux joueurs des possibilités multiples de gagner des tours gratuits et des parties bonus. Le deuxième jeu qui sera propulsé par Cryptologic est Braveheart. Basé sur le populaire film de Mel Gibson, le jeu racontera l'histoire de la lutte pour la libération écossaise. Le joueur accumule des points au fur et à mesure que le combat progresse. Les paiements varient en fonction des jackpots proposés, qui sont très généreux. Et, enfin, le jeu le plus insolite de l'ensemble: Forrest Gump. Le célèbre proverbe "La vie est comme une boîte de chocolats - on ne sait jamais ce qu'on recevra", ne pouvait être plus vrai. Basé sur le drame historique, la machine à sous Forrest Gump garantit aux joueurs une expérience très agréable. Ajouté dans [7]actualités, [8]jeux casino, [9]machine à sous | [10]Commentaire » [11]Les machines à sous connaissent une bonne saison Par corinne en date du 10 décembre 2009 Les analystes de Wall Street sont revenus de la dernière Global Gaming Expo avec une vision optimiste sur l'industrie des machines à sous de Nevada. Il reste à voir si cette attitude se traduit par une croissance des ventes et des revenus dans le secteur de la fabrication des matériels de jeu. Pourtant, les analystes ont indiqué qu'au lendemain de la G2E, les investisseurs étaient plus optimistes quant aux entreprises de machines à sous, que jamais auparavant. "Les opérateurs de casino semblaient plus optimistes en se promenant dans les salles de l'exposition", a opiné l'analyste Justin Sebastiano dans une note de recherche. "Nous croyons que cette meilleure humeur était le résultat d'une combinaison des nouveaux concepts de jeu de cette année et des budgets plus élevés pour les machines à sous en 2010." Les fabricants de machines à sous n'ont pas connu des périodes extrêmement prolifiques cette dernière décennie. Jusqu'en 2005, les opérateurs de casino ajoutaient des machines à sous utilisant les tickets TITO ( Ticket-In Ticket-Out). Mais le fléchissement de l'économie au cours des deux dernières années a déterminé les casinos d'échanger les anciens jeux pour de nouveaux produits. L'analyste Todd Eilers de Roth Capital Partners fait connaître que MGM Mirage et Harrah's Entertainment ont décidé de remplacer en 2010 les machines à sous de leurs casinos en proportion de 2% jusqu'à 10%. Un autre complexe (non précisé par Eilers) envisage de remplacer jusqu'à 40% de sa plateforme d'anciennes machines à sous. "Le signe le plus encourageant cette année est que les exploitants de casinos cherchaient en fait à acheter des jeux et de la technologie par rapport à l'année dernière quand ils faisaient simplement une visite à G2E", a précisé Eilers. Les deux analystes estiment, d'ailleurs, que les jeux de G2E 2009 étaient de loin supérieurs à ceux proposés au salon il y a un an. Sebastiano apprécie que les machines à sous de Bally Technologies, WMS Industries et International Gaming Technology ont été impressionnantes. "La plupart des investisseurs et des exploitants de casinos ont été déçus par les jeux présentés à G2E l'an dernier", a déclaré Sebastiano. "Ce n'est pas de même avec la G2E de cette année. A notre avis, l'optimisme a été engendré par quelques jeux accrocheurs". Les fabricants de machines à sous ont présenté plusieurs tendances et thèmes communs, tels que les jeux en communauté avancés, les jeux Roue multiple, des graphiques 3D ou des jeux personnalisés. Ajouté dans [12]actualités, [13]machine à sous | [14]Commentaire » [15]Une société de Las Vegas crée les machines à sous adaptées au rythme du joueur Par corinne en date du 29 septembre 2009 La Commission des Jeux du Nevada a récemment autorisé une société basée à Las Vegas qui s'emploie à développer des machines à sous d'une qualité technique supérieure. Ces machines à sous pourront correspondre aux différents rythmes souhaités par les joueurs. Pour arriver à respecter le rythme de chaque joueur, le jeu sera doté d'un programme personnalisé qui suivra la manière de jouer et le temps que chaque joueur passe devant la machine à sous. Ainsi, la machine pourrait fonctionner à un rythme plus lent, avec des récompenses moins élevées pour ceux qui cherchent à jouer plus longtemps. Le slot peut également fonctionner à un rythme plus rapide et proposer des récompenses plus élevées. "Quand les joueurs entrent dans un casino, ils ont une idée assez précise sur le type de jeu qu'ils veulent jouer, mais personne n'est capable de leur dire comment trouver le jeu qui leur convient", a expliqué John Acres, le PDG de Talo Nevada, la société en cause. "Certains joueurs ne savent même pas ce qu'ils veulent vraiment, jusqu'à ce qu'ils essaient quelque chose", a ajouté Acres. Demandé si un programme de jeu personnalisé pourrait modifier le taux de paiement des machines à sous, Acres a répondu qu'une machine pourrait offrir des récompenses rapidement ou lentement, tout en gardant un pourcentage de remboursement programmé. John Acres, fondateur d'Acres Gaming, est connu pour avoir inventé le système moderne de suivi du jeu aux machines à sous. Il a également fondé Gaming Standards Association et a inventé une ligne de vélos. Acres Gaming est une compagnie spécialisée dans le développement de concepts et technologies liés au bonus des jeux et au suivi des machines à sous fabriquées par plusieurs sociétés. La Commission des Jeux du Nevada a autorisé Talo Nevada en tant que fabricant et distributeur. Ajouté dans [16]actualités, [17]machine à sous | [18]Commentaires (*) » [19]Les casinos de France lancent "Magic Casinos Jackpot" Par corinne en date du 20 septembre 2009 Pour enrayer la baisse constante de leurs gains et faire face à la concurrence croissante, les casinos terrestres de France ont adopté une attitude combative, lançant un jackpot commun. C'est la première fois dans leur histoire que plus de la moitié des casinos français se donnent la main pour réaliser un projet d'une telle ampleur. Pour créer "Magic Casinos Jackpot", 100 des 197 casinos de France, ainsi que les groupes Barrière, Tranchant, Joa et Eméraude, ont formé une alliance de conjoncture qui profitera aux joueurs. Seul le groupe Partouche s'est tenu à l'écart, préférant faire cavalier seul devant la menace des jeux en ligne et la concurrence des monopoles d'Etat. Dans les établissements nommés, 331 machines à sous ont été reliées pour former un réseau national, comparable à la loterie. Les dimensions du réseau permettra au jackpot d'atteindre même 5 millions d'euros au moment où il sera décroché. Le jackpot sera tout le temps affiché sur un bandeau qui surmonte les machines à sous faisant partie du réseau. Ce n'est pas donc un secret que le premier jackpot a dépassé 350.000 euros, quelques heures après son lancement. L'investissement a coûté 10 millions d'euros. La performance technique est aussi remarquable, la faisabilité du réseau étant antérieurement testé à plus petite échelle. Les casinos inclus dans le projet sont reconnaissables grâce à une inscription "Magic Casinos Jackpot" affichée sur le mur frontal. Chacun de ces casinos héberge 2 à 8 machines à sous connectées au réseau. Alors que le domaine casinotier est une profession individualiste par tradition, les présidents des quatre groupes associés ont salué "une alliance historique, une grande première". La démarche devrait aider à revitaliser les casinos frappés par la crise. Les 197 casinos de France ont enregistré pour leur dernier exercice une baisse du produit brut des jeux de 8.4% par rapport à l'exercice antérieur. La crise ne cesse de toucher notamment le secteur des machines à sous et c'est à juste raison que les casinotiers ont mis les points sur les "i", par un projet qui augmente l'attractivité des slots. Bien qu'il n'ait pas fait front commun avec les autres, le groupe Partouche a une initiative similaire - Mégapot - qui date d'avant le projet de ses confrères. Ajouté dans [20]casino, [21]jackpots, [22]machine à sous | [23]Commentaire (1) » [24]Les films de Hollywood inspirent les machines à sous de PartyCasino Par corinne en date du 2 septembre 2009 PartyCasino a des nouvelles réjouissantes quant à son répertoire de machines à sous. Le casino a ajouté sur sa liste de jeux des machines à sous vidéo inspirés des films hollywoodiens. Avec des productions telles que "The Godfather", "Rambo", "The terminator", "Gone with the Wind" et de beaux jackpots, ces jeux ont le succès garanti parmi tous les types de joueurs! Les nouvelles machines à sous ont 20 lignes de paiement et 5 rouleaux. La mise minimale est de 0.01 $/£/EUR et les jackpots sont soit fixes soit progressifs, en fonction du jeu choisi. Les jeux sont dotés de symboles scatter, wild et des symboles qui déclenchent des tours gratuits. Pour les jeux qu'ils préfèrent, les clients du casino peuvent choisir la fonction Auto-play. Chaque jeu a une fonction spéciale, grâce à laquelle on peut gagner de l'argent supplémentaire et des tours gratuits. Chaque niveau de ces jeux bonus a de merveilleux graphismes et engendre autant d'adrénaline que les films eux-mêmes. Ajouté dans [25]machine à sous | [26]Commentaire » [27]Nouvelle machine à sous Wealth Spa lancée par Microgaming Par corinne en date du 11 août 2009 En accord avec les tendances de l'été, Microgaming lance la nouvelle machine à sous vidéo Wealth Spa, ce qui démontre, en outre, leur engagement à l'innovation et au développement des jeux haut de gamme. Wealth Spa est une machine à sous à 5 rouleaux et 20 lignes de paiement, avec une offre de bonus portant sur une expérience spa de luxe. Grâce à un éventail de symboles wild et scatters, le joueur pourra accumuler des jetons d'or très précieux. Ces jetons ouvriront une série de bonus sur cinq niveaux, chaque niveau ayant fait l'objet d'un minutieux processus de design. Les jetons d'or sont crédités lorsqu'ils apparaissent sur le cinquième rouleau. Ils peuvent être utilisés pour accéder immédiatement au jeu bonus ou peuvent être gardés pour atteindre un niveau plus élevé. L'apparition d'un seul jeton déclenche le premier jeu bonus - Smoothie Bonus, deux jetons déclenchent le Bonus Hot Stone, trois jetons occasionnent le jeu bonus Body Wax, tandis que les quatre jetons d'or apparus sur les rouleaux ouvrent la voie vers le jeu bonus Bath Oil. Cinq jetons vont déclencher automatiquement le Bonus Massage, pendant lequel les joueurs peuvent gagner 25 tours gratuits et la chance de remporter le jackpot. Roger Raatgever, le chef de direction de Microgaming a commenté: "A Microgaming, nous cherchons toujours à créer de nouveaux jeux de haute qualité; l'année passée, nous avons lancé des jeux de casino originaux tels MySlot et Great Galaxy Grab. Notre dernier jeu Wealth Spa offre des bonus sur plusieurs niveaux, une qualité des graphiques inégalée et un jeu vraiment passionnant." Wealth Spa représente une nouvelle expérience de jeu divertissante, avec un éventail de paris qui vont de 0,01 à 0,25 par ligne. Pour la mise minimale, les prix vont jusqu'à 12,500.00 jetons, tandis que les prix provenus des bonus vont de 2,800.00 à 25,000.00 jetons. Ajouté dans [28]machine à sous | [29]Commentaires (*) » [30]Qu'est-ce qui fait l'attrait des machines à sous? Par corinne en date du 6 août 2009 Avez-vous jamais réfléchi si tout l'arsenal d'une machine à sous - les images, les sifflets, les personnages, les feux clignotants, la musique, les boutons - avait quelque chose à voir avec l'argent que vous y placez, pour gagner ou perdre la mise? Tout autre appareil pourrait faire la même chose avec cet argent, mais personne ne passerait des heures devant un tel appareil, s'il n'était pas pour les feux étincelants, les images avec des fruits, et l'idée d'un gros jackpot. Donc, la question qui se pose c'est: qu'est ce qui rend les machines à sous si attrayantes? Louis Weigele, le président du Conseil du jeu problématique d'Ohio, nous offre une explication. Voilà, donc, l'argument d'un psychologue: Les joueurs sont divisés en deux camps: les joueurs actifs (action gamblers) et les joueurs "fuyards" (escape gamblers). Les joueurs actifs sont les personnes qui aiment vraiment jouer, sentir l'émotion du jeu, affronter d'autres joueurs et défier le hasard. En général, on les voit sur les pistes des courses, assis aux tables de poker ou de blackjack. L'autre grand groupe, dit Weigele, est celui des joueurs "fuyards" qui passent souvent des heures entières devant une machine à sous vidéo. "Ils n'aiment pas vraiment jouer, ils jouent simplement pour passer le temps", estime le psychologue, en parlant des joueurs problématiques. En fait, les machines à sous ne sont pas de simples appareils. Elles peuvent évoquer une histoire, le sujet d'un film de succès, une personnalité. Les jeux sont conçus englobant beaucoup de stimuli, pour captiver et maintenir l'attention du joueur. Il ne s'agit pas que d'y mettre de l'argent et attendre. Les joueurs font des choix, recherchent des combinaisons gagnantes et décident d'augmenter leurs mises ou d'encaisser le gain. La participation active est essentielle pour les joueurs. Les joueurs qui contrôlent physiquement une machine à sous sont susceptibles de miser plus d'argent que les autres aux paris subsidiaires. Ajouté dans [31]machine à sous, [32]études | [33]Commentaires (*) » [34]Nouvelle machine à sous "La Fiesta" Par corinne en date du 15 juin 2009 Les machines à sous basées sur des thèmes mexicains ont gagné une grande popularité. Certes, cela a à voir avec la vivacité de la culture mexicaine et ses symboles faciles à reconnaître. Maintenant, une nouvelle machine à sous célèbre la culture et la civilisation mexicaines, à travers des symboles tels que: la piñata, les roses, les maracas, les trompettes, les guitares et les belles femmes. Les joueurs qui gardent le son pendant qu'ils jouent auront l'occasion d'écouter de la musique en style mexicain. Le jeu compte 5 rouleaux et 25 lignes de paiement. Les paris vont de 0.01$ à 10$, respectant tous les budgets. Même sans disposer d'un jackpot progressif, La Fiesta offre un jackpot fixé à 10.000$. Celui-ci est payé lorsque cinq symboles piñata apparaissent sur une ligne payante active. Pour un pari maximal, le paiement correspondant est de 100.000$. Mais qu'est-ce qu'une piñata? Une piñata est un jouet mexicain, d'habitude sous la forme d'un animal. Le symbole piñata de la machine à sous "La Fiesta" est un cochon. Il fonctionne comme un symbole wild et peut remplacer tout autre symbole, à l'exception de la rose, qui est un scatter. Quand il substitue d'autres symboles pour former une combinaison gagnante, les paiements sont doublés. Si vous avez la chance de tomber sur une combinaison gagnante avec des symboles piñata, vous serez les témoins d'un drôle de spectacle: le petit cochon se mettra à danser devant vous et des feux d'artifices éclateront derrière lui. Trois ou plusieurs symboles piñata apparaissant n'importe où sur les rouleaux déclenchent un jeu bonus. Ceci peut être joué jusqu'à trois fois. "La Fiesta" a été lancée par la société Vegas Technology. Le même fournisseur de logiciels de jeu a créé dernièrement trois autres machines à sous. Sur le marché des jeux en ligne, La Fiesta concurrence avec un jackpot progressif - Jackpot Piñata, lancé par Real Time Gaming. Ajouté dans [35]machine à sous | [36]Commentaires (*) » [37]Le groupe Joa lance un casino en ligne Par corinne en date du 15 juin 2009 Après avoir changé son visage commercial, l'ex groupe Moliflor - rébaptisé Joa(casinos), se prépare à lancer en France un casino en ligne. Initiative très courageuse, voire hardie, sur un marché encore fermé aux sites de jeux. En effet, tous les grands casinotiers français sont sur le bloc de départ dans la course qui sera lancée le 1er janvier 2010. Le groupe de Lucien Barrière a choisi de faire les essais au Royaume-Uni, avec un site en 3D qui a tout pour remporter des succès. C'est la voie la plus sage, mais qui n'a pas convenu à Partouche. Impatients, les dirigeants du groupe n'ont plus attendu la date de l'ouverture officielle du marché et ont choisi le chemin sans détours. Le groupe offre d'orès et déjà des services de jeux aux internautes français. L'autre élément de la "trinité" - Tranchant - est toujours en attente. Joa ne leur cède en rien. Les prévisions de la future législation française en domaine concernent les paris sportifs, les courses hippiques et le poker en ligne. Le sujet des casinos en ligne, avec toute la suite de jeux qu'on y trouve, reste flou... Mais cela n'a pas empêché Joa d'agir. Disponible pour le moment en mode démo (mode fun, avec de l'argent virtuel), Joa-online.com propose des parties de poker, mais également tous les autres jeux qu'on trouve dans un casino terrestre. La course sur le marché en ligne est à peine au début et elle ne sera pas gagnée d'avance par un acteur ou autre. Le "lifting" subi par l'ex Moliflor, qui a avalé 2.5 millions d'euros, a été la première étape. Pour tenir tête à ses forts concurrents, Joa devra innover. Affaire à suivre. Ajouté dans [38]casino en ligne | [39]Commentaire » [40]Mythes et fausses impressions sur les machines à sous Par corinne en date du 6 janvier 2009 Puisqu'elles sont des jeux de hasard par excellence, les machines à sous ont laissé créer autour d'elles un complexe de mythes qui essayent d'expliquer les gains et les pertes. Voilà les plus entendues: On dit que: Les meilleures machines à sous sont tenues ensemble dans la salle Il serait stupide d'un casino de cantonner ses meilleures machines à sous dans un seul endroit. Celles-ci sont répandues dans la salle, pour que les gens puissent voir les autres gagner. C'est justement l'une des principales raisons qui déterminent les gens de jouer plus longtemps. Voyons: continueriez-vous à jouer s'il n'y avait pas un autour de vous qui gagne? Les machines à sous ont des périodes cycliques de gains Cela ne pourrait pas être plus loin de la vérité. Chaque tournoiement des rouleaux est aléatoire et ne suit aucun schéma. Si une machine semble payer plus ou moins à de certains moments, c'est grâce aux numéros aléatoires générés. Mais ce n'est pas une garantie que tout va continuer de la même manière pour la prochaine période de temps! Tirer la manche est mieux qu'appuyer sur le bouton C'est exactement la même chose, tirer un levier ou appuyer sur un bouton aboutira toujours au même résultat. Tout ce qu'on fait, dans les deux cas, est d'envoyer un petit signal électrique pour démarrer le jeu, donc la façon dont on le fait n'a aucune importance, vous obtenez toujours le même résultat. Seulement les machines mécaniques sont des machines à sous véritables Les slots mécaniques ne sont meilleurs que parce qu'ils peuvent être trompés. Ils fonctionnent sur le même principe que toute autre machine à sous. En fait, les machines électroniques offrent de meilleurs paiements, des jackpots plus élevés, plus de variété dans les jeux, plus de lignes de paiement et plus de rouleaux. Ces jeux sont supérieurs aux jeux mécaniques et montrent les avantages de la nouvelle technologie. On peut augmenter ses chances en appuyant sur le bouton au bon moment Même si c'est un peu vrai avec la génération de nombres aléatoires, les chances d'agir à ce "bon moment" sont à des milliards contre vous. Les machines à sous génèrent des centaines de nombres aléatoires par seconde, calculez, donc, vos chances de tomber sur la micro-seconde gagnante! Mon slot préféré paie davantage Tout le monde a, sans doute, une machine à sous préférée sur laquelle on a gagné. Mais il s'agit toujours de la chance de se trouver là au moment opportun. Cette même machine qui a offert un prix à quelqu'un a pris de l'argent de l'autrui. Avoir une machine favorite est une question de chois, mais assurez-vous que c'est une machine qui correspond à votre style de jeu. Et renoncez à l'idée qu'elle paie plus que les autres! Ajouté dans [41]machine à sous | [42]Commentaires (*) » [43]« anciens articles Categories * [44]actualités * [45]casino * [46]casino en ligne * [47]études * [48]jackpots * [49]jeux casino * [50]machine à sous Archives * [51]décembre 2009 * [52]septembre 2009 * [53]août 2009 * [54]juin 2009 * [55]janvier 2009 * [56]décembre 2008 Blogoliste * [57]affiliation gambling * [58]casino * [59]casino en ligne * [60]machine à sous Méta * [61]Connexion * [62]Entries (RSS) * [63]Comments (RSS) [64]Mesure d'audience ROI statistique webanalytics par WebAnalytics __________________________________________________________________ Copyright © [65]jeux machine à sous et casino gratuit | Designed by [66]Free Slots Références #[1]next [2]Wikipédia (fr) [3]copyright [4]Flux RSS de Wikipédia [5]Flux Atom de Wikipédia Mauvais titre Un article de Wikipédia, l'encyclopédie libre. 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Ce document provient de « Affichages * [10]Page spéciale Outils personnels * [11]Essayer la bêta Açai * [12]Créer un compte ou se connecter Rechercher ____________________ Lire Rechercher Navigation * [13]Accueil * [14]Portails thématiques * [15]Index alphabétique * [16]Un article au hasard * [17]Contacter Wikipédia Contribuer * [18]Aide * [19]Communauté * [20]Modifications récentes * [21]Accueil des nouveaux arrivants * [22]Faire un don Boîte à outils * [23]Importer un fichier * [24]Pages spéciales [25]Powered by MediaWiki [26]Wikimedia Foundation * [27]Politique de confidentialité * [28]À propos de Wikipédia * [29]Avertissements Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : FRAME: [1]image FRAME: [2]top Références #[1]jeux machine à sous et casino gratuit RSS Feed [2]jeux machine à sous et casino gratuit machine à sous en ligne [3]Skip menu * [4]Accueil * [5]Contacter le webmaster [6]Les super-héros inspirent de nouveau Cryptologic Par corinne en date du 15 décembre 2009 Cryptologic, l'un des plus populaires développeurs de jeux en ligne, est surtout connu pour ses jeux issus des adaptations. Avec ses machines à sous en ligne basées sur des films, des super-héros et d'autres formes de culture pop, Cryptologic a une empreinte unique sur les jeux de casino en ligne. Pour bien finir l'année, Cryptologic lance trois nouvelles machines à sous inspirées du monde du film. La machine à sous Superman est la première à être lancée. Comme le héros du même nom, ce jeu possède des capacités surnaturelles. Grâce à ses 50 lignes de paiement, la machine à sous offre aux joueurs beaucoup de chances de gagner. Avec les intrigues de la bande dessinée, les joueurs seront en mesure de s'engager dans la poursuite romantique de Louis Lane, tout en sauvant Metropolis de la furie de Lex Luthor. Le nouveau jeu offre aussi aux joueurs des possibilités multiples de gagner des tours gratuits et des parties bonus. Le deuxième jeu qui sera propulsé par Cryptologic est Braveheart. Basé sur le populaire film de Mel Gibson, le jeu racontera l'histoire de la lutte pour la libération écossaise. Le joueur accumule des points au fur et à mesure que le combat progresse. Les paiements varient en fonction des jackpots proposés, qui sont très généreux. Et, enfin, le jeu le plus insolite de l'ensemble: Forrest Gump. Le célèbre proverbe "La vie est comme une boîte de chocolats - on ne sait jamais ce qu'on recevra", ne pouvait être plus vrai. Basé sur le drame historique, la machine à sous Forrest Gump garantit aux joueurs une expérience très agréable. Ajouté dans [7]actualités, [8]jeux casino, [9]machine à sous | [10]Commentaire » [11]Les machines à sous connaissent une bonne saison Par corinne en date du 10 décembre 2009 Les analystes de Wall Street sont revenus de la dernière Global Gaming Expo avec une vision optimiste sur l'industrie des machines à sous de Nevada. Il reste à voir si cette attitude se traduit par une croissance des ventes et des revenus dans le secteur de la fabrication des matériels de jeu. Pourtant, les analystes ont indiqué qu'au lendemain de la G2E, les investisseurs étaient plus optimistes quant aux entreprises de machines à sous, que jamais auparavant. "Les opérateurs de casino semblaient plus optimistes en se promenant dans les salles de l'exposition", a opiné l'analyste Justin Sebastiano dans une note de recherche. "Nous croyons que cette meilleure humeur était le résultat d'une combinaison des nouveaux concepts de jeu de cette année et des budgets plus élevés pour les machines à sous en 2010." Les fabricants de machines à sous n'ont pas connu des périodes extrêmement prolifiques cette dernière décennie. Jusqu'en 2005, les opérateurs de casino ajoutaient des machines à sous utilisant les tickets TITO ( Ticket-In Ticket-Out). Mais le fléchissement de l'économie au cours des deux dernières années a déterminé les casinos d'échanger les anciens jeux pour de nouveaux produits. L'analyste Todd Eilers de Roth Capital Partners fait connaître que MGM Mirage et Harrah's Entertainment ont décidé de remplacer en 2010 les machines à sous de leurs casinos en proportion de 2% jusqu'à 10%. Un autre complexe (non précisé par Eilers) envisage de remplacer jusqu'à 40% de sa plateforme d'anciennes machines à sous. "Le signe le plus encourageant cette année est que les exploitants de casinos cherchaient en fait à acheter des jeux et de la technologie par rapport à l'année dernière quand ils faisaient simplement une visite à G2E", a précisé Eilers. Les deux analystes estiment, d'ailleurs, que les jeux de G2E 2009 étaient de loin supérieurs à ceux proposés au salon il y a un an. Sebastiano apprécie que les machines à sous de Bally Technologies, WMS Industries et International Gaming Technology ont été impressionnantes. "La plupart des investisseurs et des exploitants de casinos ont été déçus par les jeux présentés à G2E l'an dernier", a déclaré Sebastiano. "Ce n'est pas de même avec la G2E de cette année. A notre avis, l'optimisme a été engendré par quelques jeux accrocheurs". Les fabricants de machines à sous ont présenté plusieurs tendances et thèmes communs, tels que les jeux en communauté avancés, les jeux Roue multiple, des graphiques 3D ou des jeux personnalisés. Ajouté dans [12]actualités, [13]machine à sous | [14]Commentaire » [15]Une société de Las Vegas crée les machines à sous adaptées au rythme du joueur Par corinne en date du 29 septembre 2009 La Commission des Jeux du Nevada a récemment autorisé une société basée à Las Vegas qui s'emploie à développer des machines à sous d'une qualité technique supérieure. Ces machines à sous pourront correspondre aux différents rythmes souhaités par les joueurs. Pour arriver à respecter le rythme de chaque joueur, le jeu sera doté d'un programme personnalisé qui suivra la manière de jouer et le temps que chaque joueur passe devant la machine à sous. Ainsi, la machine pourrait fonctionner à un rythme plus lent, avec des récompenses moins élevées pour ceux qui cherchent à jouer plus longtemps. Le slot peut également fonctionner à un rythme plus rapide et proposer des récompenses plus élevées. "Quand les joueurs entrent dans un casino, ils ont une idée assez précise sur le type de jeu qu'ils veulent jouer, mais personne n'est capable de leur dire comment trouver le jeu qui leur convient", a expliqué John Acres, le PDG de Talo Nevada, la société en cause. "Certains joueurs ne savent même pas ce qu'ils veulent vraiment, jusqu'à ce qu'ils essaient quelque chose", a ajouté Acres. Demandé si un programme de jeu personnalisé pourrait modifier le taux de paiement des machines à sous, Acres a répondu qu'une machine pourrait offrir des récompenses rapidement ou lentement, tout en gardant un pourcentage de remboursement programmé. John Acres, fondateur d'Acres Gaming, est connu pour avoir inventé le système moderne de suivi du jeu aux machines à sous. Il a également fondé Gaming Standards Association et a inventé une ligne de vélos. Acres Gaming est une compagnie spécialisée dans le développement de concepts et technologies liés au bonus des jeux et au suivi des machines à sous fabriquées par plusieurs sociétés. La Commission des Jeux du Nevada a autorisé Talo Nevada en tant que fabricant et distributeur. Ajouté dans [16]actualités, [17]machine à sous | [18]Commentaires (*) » [19]Les casinos de France lancent "Magic Casinos Jackpot" Par corinne en date du 20 septembre 2009 Pour enrayer la baisse constante de leurs gains et faire face à la concurrence croissante, les casinos terrestres de France ont adopté une attitude combative, lançant un jackpot commun. C'est la première fois dans leur histoire que plus de la moitié des casinos français se donnent la main pour réaliser un projet d'une telle ampleur. Pour créer "Magic Casinos Jackpot", 100 des 197 casinos de France, ainsi que les groupes Barrière, Tranchant, Joa et Eméraude, ont formé une alliance de conjoncture qui profitera aux joueurs. Seul le groupe Partouche s'est tenu à l'écart, préférant faire cavalier seul devant la menace des jeux en ligne et la concurrence des monopoles d'Etat. Dans les établissements nommés, 331 machines à sous ont été reliées pour former un réseau national, comparable à la loterie. Les dimensions du réseau permettra au jackpot d'atteindre même 5 millions d'euros au moment où il sera décroché. Le jackpot sera tout le temps affiché sur un bandeau qui surmonte les machines à sous faisant partie du réseau. Ce n'est pas donc un secret que le premier jackpot a dépassé 350.000 euros, quelques heures après son lancement. L'investissement a coûté 10 millions d'euros. La performance technique est aussi remarquable, la faisabilité du réseau étant antérieurement testé à plus petite échelle. Les casinos inclus dans le projet sont reconnaissables grâce à une inscription "Magic Casinos Jackpot" affichée sur le mur frontal. Chacun de ces casinos héberge 2 à 8 machines à sous connectées au réseau. Alors que le domaine casinotier est une profession individualiste par tradition, les présidents des quatre groupes associés ont salué "une alliance historique, une grande première". La démarche devrait aider à revitaliser les casinos frappés par la crise. Les 197 casinos de France ont enregistré pour leur dernier exercice une baisse du produit brut des jeux de 8.4% par rapport à l'exercice antérieur. La crise ne cesse de toucher notamment le secteur des machines à sous et c'est à juste raison que les casinotiers ont mis les points sur les "i", par un projet qui augmente l'attractivité des slots. Bien qu'il n'ait pas fait front commun avec les autres, le groupe Partouche a une initiative similaire - Mégapot - qui date d'avant le projet de ses confrères. Ajouté dans [20]casino, [21]jackpots, [22]machine à sous | [23]Commentaire (1) » [24]Les films de Hollywood inspirent les machines à sous de PartyCasino Par corinne en date du 2 septembre 2009 PartyCasino a des nouvelles réjouissantes quant à son répertoire de machines à sous. Le casino a ajouté sur sa liste de jeux des machines à sous vidéo inspirés des films hollywoodiens. Avec des productions telles que "The Godfather", "Rambo", "The terminator", "Gone with the Wind" et de beaux jackpots, ces jeux ont le succès garanti parmi tous les types de joueurs! Les nouvelles machines à sous ont 20 lignes de paiement et 5 rouleaux. La mise minimale est de 0.01 $/£/EUR et les jackpots sont soit fixes soit progressifs, en fonction du jeu choisi. Les jeux sont dotés de symboles scatter, wild et des symboles qui déclenchent des tours gratuits. Pour les jeux qu'ils préfèrent, les clients du casino peuvent choisir la fonction Auto-play. Chaque jeu a une fonction spéciale, grâce à laquelle on peut gagner de l'argent supplémentaire et des tours gratuits. Chaque niveau de ces jeux bonus a de merveilleux graphismes et engendre autant d'adrénaline que les films eux-mêmes. Ajouté dans [25]machine à sous | [26]Commentaire » [27]Nouvelle machine à sous Wealth Spa lancée par Microgaming Par corinne en date du 11 août 2009 En accord avec les tendances de l'été, Microgaming lance la nouvelle machine à sous vidéo Wealth Spa, ce qui démontre, en outre, leur engagement à l'innovation et au développement des jeux haut de gamme. Wealth Spa est une machine à sous à 5 rouleaux et 20 lignes de paiement, avec une offre de bonus portant sur une expérience spa de luxe. Grâce à un éventail de symboles wild et scatters, le joueur pourra accumuler des jetons d'or très précieux. Ces jetons ouvriront une série de bonus sur cinq niveaux, chaque niveau ayant fait l'objet d'un minutieux processus de design. Les jetons d'or sont crédités lorsqu'ils apparaissent sur le cinquième rouleau. Ils peuvent être utilisés pour accéder immédiatement au jeu bonus ou peuvent être gardés pour atteindre un niveau plus élevé. L'apparition d'un seul jeton déclenche le premier jeu bonus - Smoothie Bonus, deux jetons déclenchent le Bonus Hot Stone, trois jetons occasionnent le jeu bonus Body Wax, tandis que les quatre jetons d'or apparus sur les rouleaux ouvrent la voie vers le jeu bonus Bath Oil. Cinq jetons vont déclencher automatiquement le Bonus Massage, pendant lequel les joueurs peuvent gagner 25 tours gratuits et la chance de remporter le jackpot. Roger Raatgever, le chef de direction de Microgaming a commenté: "A Microgaming, nous cherchons toujours à créer de nouveaux jeux de haute qualité; l'année passée, nous avons lancé des jeux de casino originaux tels MySlot et Great Galaxy Grab. Notre dernier jeu Wealth Spa offre des bonus sur plusieurs niveaux, une qualité des graphiques inégalée et un jeu vraiment passionnant." Wealth Spa représente une nouvelle expérience de jeu divertissante, avec un éventail de paris qui vont de 0,01 à 0,25 par ligne. Pour la mise minimale, les prix vont jusqu'à 12,500.00 jetons, tandis que les prix provenus des bonus vont de 2,800.00 à 25,000.00 jetons. Ajouté dans [28]machine à sous | [29]Commentaires (*) » [30]Qu'est-ce qui fait l'attrait des machines à sous? Par corinne en date du 6 août 2009 Avez-vous jamais réfléchi si tout l'arsenal d'une machine à sous - les images, les sifflets, les personnages, les feux clignotants, la musique, les boutons - avait quelque chose à voir avec l'argent que vous y placez, pour gagner ou perdre la mise? Tout autre appareil pourrait faire la même chose avec cet argent, mais personne ne passerait des heures devant un tel appareil, s'il n'était pas pour les feux étincelants, les images avec des fruits, et l'idée d'un gros jackpot. Donc, la question qui se pose c'est: qu'est ce qui rend les machines à sous si attrayantes? Louis Weigele, le président du Conseil du jeu problématique d'Ohio, nous offre une explication. Voilà, donc, l'argument d'un psychologue: Les joueurs sont divisés en deux camps: les joueurs actifs (action gamblers) et les joueurs "fuyards" (escape gamblers). Les joueurs actifs sont les personnes qui aiment vraiment jouer, sentir l'émotion du jeu, affronter d'autres joueurs et défier le hasard. En général, on les voit sur les pistes des courses, assis aux tables de poker ou de blackjack. L'autre grand groupe, dit Weigele, est celui des joueurs "fuyards" qui passent souvent des heures entières devant une machine à sous vidéo. "Ils n'aiment pas vraiment jouer, ils jouent simplement pour passer le temps", estime le psychologue, en parlant des joueurs problématiques. En fait, les machines à sous ne sont pas de simples appareils. Elles peuvent évoquer une histoire, le sujet d'un film de succès, une personnalité. Les jeux sont conçus englobant beaucoup de stimuli, pour captiver et maintenir l'attention du joueur. Il ne s'agit pas que d'y mettre de l'argent et attendre. Les joueurs font des choix, recherchent des combinaisons gagnantes et décident d'augmenter leurs mises ou d'encaisser le gain. La participation active est essentielle pour les joueurs. Les joueurs qui contrôlent physiquement une machine à sous sont susceptibles de miser plus d'argent que les autres aux paris subsidiaires. Ajouté dans [31]machine à sous, [32]études | [33]Commentaires (*) » [34]Nouvelle machine à sous "La Fiesta" Par corinne en date du 15 juin 2009 Les machines à sous basées sur des thèmes mexicains ont gagné une grande popularité. Certes, cela a à voir avec la vivacité de la culture mexicaine et ses symboles faciles à reconnaître. Maintenant, une nouvelle machine à sous célèbre la culture et la civilisation mexicaines, à travers des symboles tels que: la piñata, les roses, les maracas, les trompettes, les guitares et les belles femmes. Les joueurs qui gardent le son pendant qu'ils jouent auront l'occasion d'écouter de la musique en style mexicain. Le jeu compte 5 rouleaux et 25 lignes de paiement. Les paris vont de 0.01$ à 10$, respectant tous les budgets. Même sans disposer d'un jackpot progressif, La Fiesta offre un jackpot fixé à 10.000$. Celui-ci est payé lorsque cinq symboles piñata apparaissent sur une ligne payante active. Pour un pari maximal, le paiement correspondant est de 100.000$. Mais qu'est-ce qu'une piñata? Une piñata est un jouet mexicain, d'habitude sous la forme d'un animal. Le symbole piñata de la machine à sous "La Fiesta" est un cochon. Il fonctionne comme un symbole wild et peut remplacer tout autre symbole, à l'exception de la rose, qui est un scatter. Quand il substitue d'autres symboles pour former une combinaison gagnante, les paiements sont doublés. Si vous avez la chance de tomber sur une combinaison gagnante avec des symboles piñata, vous serez les témoins d'un drôle de spectacle: le petit cochon se mettra à danser devant vous et des feux d'artifices éclateront derrière lui. Trois ou plusieurs symboles piñata apparaissant n'importe où sur les rouleaux déclenchent un jeu bonus. Ceci peut être joué jusqu'à trois fois. "La Fiesta" a été lancée par la société Vegas Technology. Le même fournisseur de logiciels de jeu a créé dernièrement trois autres machines à sous. Sur le marché des jeux en ligne, La Fiesta concurrence avec un jackpot progressif - Jackpot Piñata, lancé par Real Time Gaming. Ajouté dans [35]machine à sous | [36]Commentaires (*) » [37]Le groupe Joa lance un casino en ligne Par corinne en date du 15 juin 2009 Après avoir changé son visage commercial, l'ex groupe Moliflor - rébaptisé Joa(casinos), se prépare à lancer en France un casino en ligne. Initiative très courageuse, voire hardie, sur un marché encore fermé aux sites de jeux. En effet, tous les grands casinotiers français sont sur le bloc de départ dans la course qui sera lancée le 1er janvier 2010. Le groupe de Lucien Barrière a choisi de faire les essais au Royaume-Uni, avec un site en 3D qui a tout pour remporter des succès. C'est la voie la plus sage, mais qui n'a pas convenu à Partouche. Impatients, les dirigeants du groupe n'ont plus attendu la date de l'ouverture officielle du marché et ont choisi le chemin sans détours. Le groupe offre d'orès et déjà des services de jeux aux internautes français. L'autre élément de la "trinité" - Tranchant - est toujours en attente. Joa ne leur cède en rien. Les prévisions de la future législation française en domaine concernent les paris sportifs, les courses hippiques et le poker en ligne. Le sujet des casinos en ligne, avec toute la suite de jeux qu'on y trouve, reste flou... Mais cela n'a pas empêché Joa d'agir. Disponible pour le moment en mode démo (mode fun, avec de l'argent virtuel), Joa-online.com propose des parties de poker, mais également tous les autres jeux qu'on trouve dans un casino terrestre. La course sur le marché en ligne est à peine au début et elle ne sera pas gagnée d'avance par un acteur ou autre. Le "lifting" subi par l'ex Moliflor, qui a avalé 2.5 millions d'euros, a été la première étape. Pour tenir tête à ses forts concurrents, Joa devra innover. Affaire à suivre. Ajouté dans [38]casino en ligne | [39]Commentaire » [40]Mythes et fausses impressions sur les machines à sous Par corinne en date du 6 janvier 2009 Puisqu'elles sont des jeux de hasard par excellence, les machines à sous ont laissé créer autour d'elles un complexe de mythes qui essayent d'expliquer les gains et les pertes. Voilà les plus entendues: On dit que: Les meilleures machines à sous sont tenues ensemble dans la salle Il serait stupide d'un casino de cantonner ses meilleures machines à sous dans un seul endroit. Celles-ci sont répandues dans la salle, pour que les gens puissent voir les autres gagner. C'est justement l'une des principales raisons qui déterminent les gens de jouer plus longtemps. Voyons: continueriez-vous à jouer s'il n'y avait pas un autour de vous qui gagne? Les machines à sous ont des périodes cycliques de gains Cela ne pourrait pas être plus loin de la vérité. Chaque tournoiement des rouleaux est aléatoire et ne suit aucun schéma. Si une machine semble payer plus ou moins à de certains moments, c'est grâce aux numéros aléatoires générés. Mais ce n'est pas une garantie que tout va continuer de la même manière pour la prochaine période de temps! Tirer la manche est mieux qu'appuyer sur le bouton C'est exactement la même chose, tirer un levier ou appuyer sur un bouton aboutira toujours au même résultat. Tout ce qu'on fait, dans les deux cas, est d'envoyer un petit signal électrique pour démarrer le jeu, donc la façon dont on le fait n'a aucune importance, vous obtenez toujours le même résultat. Seulement les machines mécaniques sont des machines à sous véritables Les slots mécaniques ne sont meilleurs que parce qu'ils peuvent être trompés. Ils fonctionnent sur le même principe que toute autre machine à sous. En fait, les machines électroniques offrent de meilleurs paiements, des jackpots plus élevés, plus de variété dans les jeux, plus de lignes de paiement et plus de rouleaux. Ces jeux sont supérieurs aux jeux mécaniques et montrent les avantages de la nouvelle technologie. On peut augmenter ses chances en appuyant sur le bouton au bon moment Même si c'est un peu vrai avec la génération de nombres aléatoires, les chances d'agir à ce "bon moment" sont à des milliards contre vous. Les machines à sous génèrent des centaines de nombres aléatoires par seconde, calculez, donc, vos chances de tomber sur la micro-seconde gagnante! Mon slot préféré paie davantage Tout le monde a, sans doute, une machine à sous préférée sur laquelle on a gagné. Mais il s'agit toujours de la chance de se trouver là au moment opportun. Cette même machine qui a offert un prix à quelqu'un a pris de l'argent de l'autrui. Avoir une machine favorite est une question de chois, mais assurez-vous que c'est une machine qui correspond à votre style de jeu. Et renoncez à l'idée qu'elle paie plus que les autres! 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Invention n°68 : Easy Dance Machine Publiée le 2003-04-18 Note de: 7.9/10 (64 notes) 4 sur 5 Une invention de [1]Chandon Je suis très heureux de vous présenter encore une fois une invention destinée à résoudre un de ces innombrables petits riens qui vous pourrit la vie. Et l'Easy Dance Machine sonne assurément la fin d'un des fléaux de la vie sociale : la danse. Ah, qui n'a pas éprouvé, adolescent(e), l'intense frustation de ne pas oser aborder quelqu'un qui vous avait tapé dans l'oeil lors d'une soirée... Mais rien à faire : pas moyen de l'inviter sur la piste, vous êtes un peu comme un bloc de 2 tonnes de granit à qui on demanderait de danser le limbo... Si seulement vous aviez le sens du rythme ! Et pas question de passer pour ridicule devant tous vos soi-disant amis qui n'attendent que ça pour vous chambrer ! Il doit pourtant bien y avoir un moyen, nom de nom !!! [edm2.jpg] Et oui, l'Easy Dance Machine est un dispositif d'aide à la danse, se composant d'électrodes à coller sur les muscles des jambes, reliées à un petit appareil style pager que l'on accroche à la ceinture qui contient les commandes. Lors d'une danse, l'appareil va délivrer automatiquement des impulsions électriques aux muscles des jambes, les faisant bouger au rythme de la musique (un peu comme les spots lumineux). Ainsi, plus besoin de passer de longues heures à apprendre à danser : avec le EDM, 5 mn de mise en place, et à vous les joies de la danse ! Pour aller un peu plus dans le détail, rappelez vous cet ingénieur français Cristophe Cayrol qui a inventé un appareil destiné à repérer les mines et à faire dévier instantanément la jambe pour éviter de marcher dessus. Vous y êtes ? Bon, maintenant rappellez vous le téléshopping d'hier où il y avait la nana avec ses électrodes pour faire maigrir. Vous visualisez ? Bon, et bien prenez le tout, secouez dans un sac, et servez chaud. Détail de l'appareil : Celui-ci se compose d'un petit boitier de commande relié à 3 séries d'électrodes : une pour vérifier la fréquence cardiaque, et 2 x 8 à positionner sur chaque jambe, sur les muscles indiqués dans la notice. L'ordinateur embarqué reçoit le rythme de la musique via un micro, analyse le signal sonore et le converti en impulsions électriques, une fois identifié le type de danse (815 tempos différents sont embarqués, ce qui prend environ 0,02 sec à l'ordinateur pour se caler). [edm1.jpg] 1. ventouse en matériau anti-allergénique contenant l'électrode, à placer sur le muscle 2. cable transportant le flux électrique, isolé, avec gaîne en kevlar 3. capteur relié à l'électrode, délivrant les impulsions électriques en fonction du signal émis 4. écran à cristaux liquides rétro-éclairé, contenant les informations suivantes : - rythme cardiaque (fonction d'alerte suivant un seuil paramétrable) - témoin de charge. La batterie lithium/ion vous permet de danser environ 2 heures - durée de danse - rythme/intensité de danse sous forme de graphique 5. bouton marche/arrêt ergonomique 6. molette de contrôle de l'intensité du signal électrique fourni. Suivant les individus, la réaction à l'intensité peut varier. 7. micro enregistrant le rythme et le restituant sous forme de signaux électriques à l'ordinateur embarqué 8. batterie lithium/ion 9. molette de contrôle du rythme. Par défaut, le rythme généré est automatiquement calqué sur celui reçu par le micro. Néanmoins, pour des raisons de confort, vous pouvez vous même faire varier ce rythme selon vos besoins. 10. trappe de sortie du cablage électrique. Tout le circuit électrique est bien entendu isolé et résistant aux frottements ainsi qu'à l'humidité ambiante. 11. clip permettant d'accrocher le boitier de contrôle à la ceinture, à l'instar d'un téléphone portable. La boîte contient : - 17 électrodes souples à coller sur des endroits précis - boitier de commande avec écran à cristaux liquides - notice d'installation pour la pose des électrodes - un cd de test pour s'entrainer chez soi avant le grand soir. ATTENTION ! Ne pas oublier d'éteindre l'appareil entre 2 danses : imaginez, vous avez fini une danse, et vous allez servir un punch à votre cavalièr(e). Hélas, la musique reprend au moment où vous lui donnez le verre, et vous n'aviez pas coupé l'appareil ! Catastrophe ! Vous vous remettez à danser instantanément, renversant du punch de partout, et en particulier sur la zoulie robe de soirée de la dame (ou le costume du gars, au choix)! Plus class, ne coupez pas l'appareil mais mettez le sur 'intensity low'. Vous garderez légèrement le rythme, style le type méga cool qui ne peut s'empêcher de danser en entendant de la musique. Effet assuré ! De plus, l'EDM possède une double fonction, puisque qu'il muscle dans le même temps vos jambes ! A vous les jambes galbées et musclées, sans effort ! Au fait, n'oubliez pas de bouger le haut du corps en rythme, pour ne pas avoir trop l'air d'une marionnette... Une future version 'Luxe' est prévue avec un système de cartes mémoire pouvant s'insérer sur l'appareil. Ces cartes seront chargées avec un style de danse (par exemple la carte "Michael Jackson" ou la carte "John Travolta") et vous permettront de danser "à la manière de" sur tous les rythmes. Vous pourrez vous échanger ainsi les cartes, les collectionner...(il est prévu quelques cartes rares comme la mythique carte "Yvette Horner" ou la carte "Patrick Hernandez") 9 [2]Retour à l'accueil 0 [3]login # [4]logout © InventeursFous.com 2007 Références #[1]jeux machine à sous et casino gratuit RSS Feed [2]jeux machine à sous et casino gratuit machine à sous en ligne [3]Skip menu * [4]Accueil * [5]Contacter le webmaster [6]Les super-héros inspirent de nouveau Cryptologic Par corinne en date du 15 décembre 2009 Cryptologic, l'un des plus populaires développeurs de jeux en ligne, est surtout connu pour ses jeux issus des adaptations. Avec ses machines à sous en ligne basées sur des films, des super-héros et d'autres formes de culture pop, Cryptologic a une empreinte unique sur les jeux de casino en ligne. Pour bien finir l'année, Cryptologic lance trois nouvelles machines à sous inspirées du monde du film. La machine à sous Superman est la première à être lancée. Comme le héros du même nom, ce jeu possède des capacités surnaturelles. Grâce à ses 50 lignes de paiement, la machine à sous offre aux joueurs beaucoup de chances de gagner. Avec les intrigues de la bande dessinée, les joueurs seront en mesure de s'engager dans la poursuite romantique de Louis Lane, tout en sauvant Metropolis de la furie de Lex Luthor. Le nouveau jeu offre aussi aux joueurs des possibilités multiples de gagner des tours gratuits et des parties bonus. Le deuxième jeu qui sera propulsé par Cryptologic est Braveheart. Basé sur le populaire film de Mel Gibson, le jeu racontera l'histoire de la lutte pour la libération écossaise. Le joueur accumule des points au fur et à mesure que le combat progresse. Les paiements varient en fonction des jackpots proposés, qui sont très généreux. Et, enfin, le jeu le plus insolite de l'ensemble: Forrest Gump. Le célèbre proverbe "La vie est comme une boîte de chocolats - on ne sait jamais ce qu'on recevra", ne pouvait être plus vrai. Basé sur le drame historique, la machine à sous Forrest Gump garantit aux joueurs une expérience très agréable. Ajouté dans [7]actualités, [8]jeux casino, [9]machine à sous | [10]Commentaire » [11]Les machines à sous connaissent une bonne saison Par corinne en date du 10 décembre 2009 Les analystes de Wall Street sont revenus de la dernière Global Gaming Expo avec une vision optimiste sur l'industrie des machines à sous de Nevada. Il reste à voir si cette attitude se traduit par une croissance des ventes et des revenus dans le secteur de la fabrication des matériels de jeu. Pourtant, les analystes ont indiqué qu'au lendemain de la G2E, les investisseurs étaient plus optimistes quant aux entreprises de machines à sous, que jamais auparavant. "Les opérateurs de casino semblaient plus optimistes en se promenant dans les salles de l'exposition", a opiné l'analyste Justin Sebastiano dans une note de recherche. "Nous croyons que cette meilleure humeur était le résultat d'une combinaison des nouveaux concepts de jeu de cette année et des budgets plus élevés pour les machines à sous en 2010." Les fabricants de machines à sous n'ont pas connu des périodes extrêmement prolifiques cette dernière décennie. Jusqu'en 2005, les opérateurs de casino ajoutaient des machines à sous utilisant les tickets TITO ( Ticket-In Ticket-Out). Mais le fléchissement de l'économie au cours des deux dernières années a déterminé les casinos d'échanger les anciens jeux pour de nouveaux produits. L'analyste Todd Eilers de Roth Capital Partners fait connaître que MGM Mirage et Harrah's Entertainment ont décidé de remplacer en 2010 les machines à sous de leurs casinos en proportion de 2% jusqu'à 10%. Un autre complexe (non précisé par Eilers) envisage de remplacer jusqu'à 40% de sa plateforme d'anciennes machines à sous. "Le signe le plus encourageant cette année est que les exploitants de casinos cherchaient en fait à acheter des jeux et de la technologie par rapport à l'année dernière quand ils faisaient simplement une visite à G2E", a précisé Eilers. Les deux analystes estiment, d'ailleurs, que les jeux de G2E 2009 étaient de loin supérieurs à ceux proposés au salon il y a un an. Sebastiano apprécie que les machines à sous de Bally Technologies, WMS Industries et International Gaming Technology ont été impressionnantes. "La plupart des investisseurs et des exploitants de casinos ont été déçus par les jeux présentés à G2E l'an dernier", a déclaré Sebastiano. "Ce n'est pas de même avec la G2E de cette année. A notre avis, l'optimisme a été engendré par quelques jeux accrocheurs". Les fabricants de machines à sous ont présenté plusieurs tendances et thèmes communs, tels que les jeux en communauté avancés, les jeux Roue multiple, des graphiques 3D ou des jeux personnalisés. Ajouté dans [12]actualités, [13]machine à sous | [14]Commentaire » [15]Une société de Las Vegas crée les machines à sous adaptées au rythme du joueur Par corinne en date du 29 septembre 2009 La Commission des Jeux du Nevada a récemment autorisé une société basée à Las Vegas qui s'emploie à développer des machines à sous d'une qualité technique supérieure. Ces machines à sous pourront correspondre aux différents rythmes souhaités par les joueurs. Pour arriver à respecter le rythme de chaque joueur, le jeu sera doté d'un programme personnalisé qui suivra la manière de jouer et le temps que chaque joueur passe devant la machine à sous. Ainsi, la machine pourrait fonctionner à un rythme plus lent, avec des récompenses moins élevées pour ceux qui cherchent à jouer plus longtemps. Le slot peut également fonctionner à un rythme plus rapide et proposer des récompenses plus élevées. "Quand les joueurs entrent dans un casino, ils ont une idée assez précise sur le type de jeu qu'ils veulent jouer, mais personne n'est capable de leur dire comment trouver le jeu qui leur convient", a expliqué John Acres, le PDG de Talo Nevada, la société en cause. "Certains joueurs ne savent même pas ce qu'ils veulent vraiment, jusqu'à ce qu'ils essaient quelque chose", a ajouté Acres. Demandé si un programme de jeu personnalisé pourrait modifier le taux de paiement des machines à sous, Acres a répondu qu'une machine pourrait offrir des récompenses rapidement ou lentement, tout en gardant un pourcentage de remboursement programmé. John Acres, fondateur d'Acres Gaming, est connu pour avoir inventé le système moderne de suivi du jeu aux machines à sous. Il a également fondé Gaming Standards Association et a inventé une ligne de vélos. Acres Gaming est une compagnie spécialisée dans le développement de concepts et technologies liés au bonus des jeux et au suivi des machines à sous fabriquées par plusieurs sociétés. La Commission des Jeux du Nevada a autorisé Talo Nevada en tant que fabricant et distributeur. Ajouté dans [16]actualités, [17]machine à sous | [18]Commentaires (*) » [19]Les casinos de France lancent "Magic Casinos Jackpot" Par corinne en date du 20 septembre 2009 Pour enrayer la baisse constante de leurs gains et faire face à la concurrence croissante, les casinos terrestres de France ont adopté une attitude combative, lançant un jackpot commun. C'est la première fois dans leur histoire que plus de la moitié des casinos français se donnent la main pour réaliser un projet d'une telle ampleur. Pour créer "Magic Casinos Jackpot", 100 des 197 casinos de France, ainsi que les groupes Barrière, Tranchant, Joa et Eméraude, ont formé une alliance de conjoncture qui profitera aux joueurs. Seul le groupe Partouche s'est tenu à l'écart, préférant faire cavalier seul devant la menace des jeux en ligne et la concurrence des monopoles d'Etat. Dans les établissements nommés, 331 machines à sous ont été reliées pour former un réseau national, comparable à la loterie. Les dimensions du réseau permettra au jackpot d'atteindre même 5 millions d'euros au moment où il sera décroché. Le jackpot sera tout le temps affiché sur un bandeau qui surmonte les machines à sous faisant partie du réseau. Ce n'est pas donc un secret que le premier jackpot a dépassé 350.000 euros, quelques heures après son lancement. L'investissement a coûté 10 millions d'euros. La performance technique est aussi remarquable, la faisabilité du réseau étant antérieurement testé à plus petite échelle. Les casinos inclus dans le projet sont reconnaissables grâce à une inscription "Magic Casinos Jackpot" affichée sur le mur frontal. Chacun de ces casinos héberge 2 à 8 machines à sous connectées au réseau. Alors que le domaine casinotier est une profession individualiste par tradition, les présidents des quatre groupes associés ont salué "une alliance historique, une grande première". La démarche devrait aider à revitaliser les casinos frappés par la crise. Les 197 casinos de France ont enregistré pour leur dernier exercice une baisse du produit brut des jeux de 8.4% par rapport à l'exercice antérieur. La crise ne cesse de toucher notamment le secteur des machines à sous et c'est à juste raison que les casinotiers ont mis les points sur les "i", par un projet qui augmente l'attractivité des slots. Bien qu'il n'ait pas fait front commun avec les autres, le groupe Partouche a une initiative similaire - Mégapot - qui date d'avant le projet de ses confrères. Ajouté dans [20]casino, [21]jackpots, [22]machine à sous | [23]Commentaire (1) » [24]Les films de Hollywood inspirent les machines à sous de PartyCasino Par corinne en date du 2 septembre 2009 PartyCasino a des nouvelles réjouissantes quant à son répertoire de machines à sous. Le casino a ajouté sur sa liste de jeux des machines à sous vidéo inspirés des films hollywoodiens. Avec des productions telles que "The Godfather", "Rambo", "The terminator", "Gone with the Wind" et de beaux jackpots, ces jeux ont le succès garanti parmi tous les types de joueurs! Les nouvelles machines à sous ont 20 lignes de paiement et 5 rouleaux. La mise minimale est de 0.01 $/£/EUR et les jackpots sont soit fixes soit progressifs, en fonction du jeu choisi. Les jeux sont dotés de symboles scatter, wild et des symboles qui déclenchent des tours gratuits. Pour les jeux qu'ils préfèrent, les clients du casino peuvent choisir la fonction Auto-play. Chaque jeu a une fonction spéciale, grâce à laquelle on peut gagner de l'argent supplémentaire et des tours gratuits. Chaque niveau de ces jeux bonus a de merveilleux graphismes et engendre autant d'adrénaline que les films eux-mêmes. Ajouté dans [25]machine à sous | [26]Commentaire » [27]Nouvelle machine à sous Wealth Spa lancée par Microgaming Par corinne en date du 11 août 2009 En accord avec les tendances de l'été, Microgaming lance la nouvelle machine à sous vidéo Wealth Spa, ce qui démontre, en outre, leur engagement à l'innovation et au développement des jeux haut de gamme. Wealth Spa est une machine à sous à 5 rouleaux et 20 lignes de paiement, avec une offre de bonus portant sur une expérience spa de luxe. Grâce à un éventail de symboles wild et scatters, le joueur pourra accumuler des jetons d'or très précieux. Ces jetons ouvriront une série de bonus sur cinq niveaux, chaque niveau ayant fait l'objet d'un minutieux processus de design. Les jetons d'or sont crédités lorsqu'ils apparaissent sur le cinquième rouleau. Ils peuvent être utilisés pour accéder immédiatement au jeu bonus ou peuvent être gardés pour atteindre un niveau plus élevé. L'apparition d'un seul jeton déclenche le premier jeu bonus - Smoothie Bonus, deux jetons déclenchent le Bonus Hot Stone, trois jetons occasionnent le jeu bonus Body Wax, tandis que les quatre jetons d'or apparus sur les rouleaux ouvrent la voie vers le jeu bonus Bath Oil. Cinq jetons vont déclencher automatiquement le Bonus Massage, pendant lequel les joueurs peuvent gagner 25 tours gratuits et la chance de remporter le jackpot. Roger Raatgever, le chef de direction de Microgaming a commenté: "A Microgaming, nous cherchons toujours à créer de nouveaux jeux de haute qualité; l'année passée, nous avons lancé des jeux de casino originaux tels MySlot et Great Galaxy Grab. Notre dernier jeu Wealth Spa offre des bonus sur plusieurs niveaux, une qualité des graphiques inégalée et un jeu vraiment passionnant." Wealth Spa représente une nouvelle expérience de jeu divertissante, avec un éventail de paris qui vont de 0,01 à 0,25 par ligne. Pour la mise minimale, les prix vont jusqu'à 12,500.00 jetons, tandis que les prix provenus des bonus vont de 2,800.00 à 25,000.00 jetons. Ajouté dans [28]machine à sous | [29]Commentaires (*) » [30]Qu'est-ce qui fait l'attrait des machines à sous? Par corinne en date du 6 août 2009 Avez-vous jamais réfléchi si tout l'arsenal d'une machine à sous - les images, les sifflets, les personnages, les feux clignotants, la musique, les boutons - avait quelque chose à voir avec l'argent que vous y placez, pour gagner ou perdre la mise? Tout autre appareil pourrait faire la même chose avec cet argent, mais personne ne passerait des heures devant un tel appareil, s'il n'était pas pour les feux étincelants, les images avec des fruits, et l'idée d'un gros jackpot. Donc, la question qui se pose c'est: qu'est ce qui rend les machines à sous si attrayantes? Louis Weigele, le président du Conseil du jeu problématique d'Ohio, nous offre une explication. Voilà, donc, l'argument d'un psychologue: Les joueurs sont divisés en deux camps: les joueurs actifs (action gamblers) et les joueurs "fuyards" (escape gamblers). Les joueurs actifs sont les personnes qui aiment vraiment jouer, sentir l'émotion du jeu, affronter d'autres joueurs et défier le hasard. En général, on les voit sur les pistes des courses, assis aux tables de poker ou de blackjack. L'autre grand groupe, dit Weigele, est celui des joueurs "fuyards" qui passent souvent des heures entières devant une machine à sous vidéo. "Ils n'aiment pas vraiment jouer, ils jouent simplement pour passer le temps", estime le psychologue, en parlant des joueurs problématiques. En fait, les machines à sous ne sont pas de simples appareils. Elles peuvent évoquer une histoire, le sujet d'un film de succès, une personnalité. Les jeux sont conçus englobant beaucoup de stimuli, pour captiver et maintenir l'attention du joueur. Il ne s'agit pas que d'y mettre de l'argent et attendre. Les joueurs font des choix, recherchent des combinaisons gagnantes et décident d'augmenter leurs mises ou d'encaisser le gain. La participation active est essentielle pour les joueurs. Les joueurs qui contrôlent physiquement une machine à sous sont susceptibles de miser plus d'argent que les autres aux paris subsidiaires. Ajouté dans [31]machine à sous, [32]études | [33]Commentaires (*) » [34]Nouvelle machine à sous "La Fiesta" Par corinne en date du 15 juin 2009 Les machines à sous basées sur des thèmes mexicains ont gagné une grande popularité. Certes, cela a à voir avec la vivacité de la culture mexicaine et ses symboles faciles à reconnaître. Maintenant, une nouvelle machine à sous célèbre la culture et la civilisation mexicaines, à travers des symboles tels que: la piñata, les roses, les maracas, les trompettes, les guitares et les belles femmes. Les joueurs qui gardent le son pendant qu'ils jouent auront l'occasion d'écouter de la musique en style mexicain. Le jeu compte 5 rouleaux et 25 lignes de paiement. Les paris vont de 0.01$ à 10$, respectant tous les budgets. Même sans disposer d'un jackpot progressif, La Fiesta offre un jackpot fixé à 10.000$. Celui-ci est payé lorsque cinq symboles piñata apparaissent sur une ligne payante active. Pour un pari maximal, le paiement correspondant est de 100.000$. Mais qu'est-ce qu'une piñata? Une piñata est un jouet mexicain, d'habitude sous la forme d'un animal. Le symbole piñata de la machine à sous "La Fiesta" est un cochon. Il fonctionne comme un symbole wild et peut remplacer tout autre symbole, à l'exception de la rose, qui est un scatter. Quand il substitue d'autres symboles pour former une combinaison gagnante, les paiements sont doublés. Si vous avez la chance de tomber sur une combinaison gagnante avec des symboles piñata, vous serez les témoins d'un drôle de spectacle: le petit cochon se mettra à danser devant vous et des feux d'artifices éclateront derrière lui. Trois ou plusieurs symboles piñata apparaissant n'importe où sur les rouleaux déclenchent un jeu bonus. Ceci peut être joué jusqu'à trois fois. "La Fiesta" a été lancée par la société Vegas Technology. Le même fournisseur de logiciels de jeu a créé dernièrement trois autres machines à sous. Sur le marché des jeux en ligne, La Fiesta concurrence avec un jackpot progressif - Jackpot Piñata, lancé par Real Time Gaming. Ajouté dans [35]machine à sous | [36]Commentaires (*) » [37]Le groupe Joa lance un casino en ligne Par corinne en date du 15 juin 2009 Après avoir changé son visage commercial, l'ex groupe Moliflor - rébaptisé Joa(casinos), se prépare à lancer en France un casino en ligne. Initiative très courageuse, voire hardie, sur un marché encore fermé aux sites de jeux. En effet, tous les grands casinotiers français sont sur le bloc de départ dans la course qui sera lancée le 1er janvier 2010. Le groupe de Lucien Barrière a choisi de faire les essais au Royaume-Uni, avec un site en 3D qui a tout pour remporter des succès. C'est la voie la plus sage, mais qui n'a pas convenu à Partouche. Impatients, les dirigeants du groupe n'ont plus attendu la date de l'ouverture officielle du marché et ont choisi le chemin sans détours. Le groupe offre d'orès et déjà des services de jeux aux internautes français. L'autre élément de la "trinité" - Tranchant - est toujours en attente. Joa ne leur cède en rien. Les prévisions de la future législation française en domaine concernent les paris sportifs, les courses hippiques et le poker en ligne. Le sujet des casinos en ligne, avec toute la suite de jeux qu'on y trouve, reste flou... Mais cela n'a pas empêché Joa d'agir. Disponible pour le moment en mode démo (mode fun, avec de l'argent virtuel), Joa-online.com propose des parties de poker, mais également tous les autres jeux qu'on trouve dans un casino terrestre. La course sur le marché en ligne est à peine au début et elle ne sera pas gagnée d'avance par un acteur ou autre. Le "lifting" subi par l'ex Moliflor, qui a avalé 2.5 millions d'euros, a été la première étape. Pour tenir tête à ses forts concurrents, Joa devra innover. Affaire à suivre. Ajouté dans [38]casino en ligne | [39]Commentaire » [40]Mythes et fausses impressions sur les machines à sous Par corinne en date du 6 janvier 2009 Puisqu'elles sont des jeux de hasard par excellence, les machines à sous ont laissé créer autour d'elles un complexe de mythes qui essayent d'expliquer les gains et les pertes. Voilà les plus entendues: On dit que: Les meilleures machines à sous sont tenues ensemble dans la salle Il serait stupide d'un casino de cantonner ses meilleures machines à sous dans un seul endroit. Celles-ci sont répandues dans la salle, pour que les gens puissent voir les autres gagner. C'est justement l'une des principales raisons qui déterminent les gens de jouer plus longtemps. Voyons: continueriez-vous à jouer s'il n'y avait pas un autour de vous qui gagne? Les machines à sous ont des périodes cycliques de gains Cela ne pourrait pas être plus loin de la vérité. Chaque tournoiement des rouleaux est aléatoire et ne suit aucun schéma. Si une machine semble payer plus ou moins à de certains moments, c'est grâce aux numéros aléatoires générés. Mais ce n'est pas une garantie que tout va continuer de la même manière pour la prochaine période de temps! Tirer la manche est mieux qu'appuyer sur le bouton C'est exactement la même chose, tirer un levier ou appuyer sur un bouton aboutira toujours au même résultat. Tout ce qu'on fait, dans les deux cas, est d'envoyer un petit signal électrique pour démarrer le jeu, donc la façon dont on le fait n'a aucune importance, vous obtenez toujours le même résultat. Seulement les machines mécaniques sont des machines à sous véritables Les slots mécaniques ne sont meilleurs que parce qu'ils peuvent être trompés. Ils fonctionnent sur le même principe que toute autre machine à sous. En fait, les machines électroniques offrent de meilleurs paiements, des jackpots plus élevés, plus de variété dans les jeux, plus de lignes de paiement et plus de rouleaux. Ces jeux sont supérieurs aux jeux mécaniques et montrent les avantages de la nouvelle technologie. On peut augmenter ses chances en appuyant sur le bouton au bon moment Même si c'est un peu vrai avec la génération de nombres aléatoires, les chances d'agir à ce "bon moment" sont à des milliards contre vous. Les machines à sous génèrent des centaines de nombres aléatoires par seconde, calculez, donc, vos chances de tomber sur la micro-seconde gagnante! Mon slot préféré paie davantage Tout le monde a, sans doute, une machine à sous préférée sur laquelle on a gagné. Mais il s'agit toujours de la chance de se trouver là au moment opportun. Cette même machine qui a offert un prix à quelqu'un a pris de l'argent de l'autrui. Avoir une machine favorite est une question de chois, mais assurez-vous que c'est une machine qui correspond à votre style de jeu. Et renoncez à l'idée qu'elle paie plus que les autres! 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Invention n°68 : Easy Dance Machine Publiée le 2003-04-18 Note de: 7.9/10 (64 notes) 4 sur 5 Une invention de [1]Chandon Je suis très heureux de vous présenter encore une fois une invention destinée à résoudre un de ces innombrables petits riens qui vous pourrit la vie. Et l'Easy Dance Machine sonne assurément la fin d'un des fléaux de la vie sociale : la danse. Ah, qui n'a pas éprouvé, adolescent(e), l'intense frustation de ne pas oser aborder quelqu'un qui vous avait tapé dans l'oeil lors d'une soirée... Mais rien à faire : pas moyen de l'inviter sur la piste, vous êtes un peu comme un bloc de 2 tonnes de granit à qui on demanderait de danser le limbo... Si seulement vous aviez le sens du rythme ! Et pas question de passer pour ridicule devant tous vos soi-disant amis qui n'attendent que ça pour vous chambrer ! Il doit pourtant bien y avoir un moyen, nom de nom !!! [edm2.jpg] Et oui, l'Easy Dance Machine est un dispositif d'aide à la danse, se composant d'électrodes à coller sur les muscles des jambes, reliées à un petit appareil style pager que l'on accroche à la ceinture qui contient les commandes. Lors d'une danse, l'appareil va délivrer automatiquement des impulsions électriques aux muscles des jambes, les faisant bouger au rythme de la musique (un peu comme les spots lumineux). Ainsi, plus besoin de passer de longues heures à apprendre à danser : avec le EDM, 5 mn de mise en place, et à vous les joies de la danse ! Pour aller un peu plus dans le détail, rappelez vous cet ingénieur français Cristophe Cayrol qui a inventé un appareil destiné à repérer les mines et à faire dévier instantanément la jambe pour éviter de marcher dessus. Vous y êtes ? Bon, maintenant rappellez vous le téléshopping d'hier où il y avait la nana avec ses électrodes pour faire maigrir. Vous visualisez ? Bon, et bien prenez le tout, secouez dans un sac, et servez chaud. Détail de l'appareil : Celui-ci se compose d'un petit boitier de commande relié à 3 séries d'électrodes : une pour vérifier la fréquence cardiaque, et 2 x 8 à positionner sur chaque jambe, sur les muscles indiqués dans la notice. L'ordinateur embarqué reçoit le rythme de la musique via un micro, analyse le signal sonore et le converti en impulsions électriques, une fois identifié le type de danse (815 tempos différents sont embarqués, ce qui prend environ 0,02 sec à l'ordinateur pour se caler). [edm1.jpg] 1. ventouse en matériau anti-allergénique contenant l'électrode, à placer sur le muscle 2. cable transportant le flux électrique, isolé, avec gaîne en kevlar 3. capteur relié à l'électrode, délivrant les impulsions électriques en fonction du signal émis 4. écran à cristaux liquides rétro-éclairé, contenant les informations suivantes : - rythme cardiaque (fonction d'alerte suivant un seuil paramétrable) - témoin de charge. La batterie lithium/ion vous permet de danser environ 2 heures - durée de danse - rythme/intensité de danse sous forme de graphique 5. bouton marche/arrêt ergonomique 6. molette de contrôle de l'intensité du signal électrique fourni. Suivant les individus, la réaction à l'intensité peut varier. 7. micro enregistrant le rythme et le restituant sous forme de signaux électriques à l'ordinateur embarqué 8. batterie lithium/ion 9. molette de contrôle du rythme. Par défaut, le rythme généré est automatiquement calqué sur celui reçu par le micro. Néanmoins, pour des raisons de confort, vous pouvez vous même faire varier ce rythme selon vos besoins. 10. trappe de sortie du cablage électrique. Tout le circuit électrique est bien entendu isolé et résistant aux frottements ainsi qu'à l'humidité ambiante. 11. clip permettant d'accrocher le boitier de contrôle à la ceinture, à l'instar d'un téléphone portable. La boîte contient : - 17 électrodes souples à coller sur des endroits précis - boitier de commande avec écran à cristaux liquides - notice d'installation pour la pose des électrodes - un cd de test pour s'entrainer chez soi avant le grand soir. ATTENTION ! Ne pas oublier d'éteindre l'appareil entre 2 danses : imaginez, vous avez fini une danse, et vous allez servir un punch à votre cavalièr(e). Hélas, la musique reprend au moment où vous lui donnez le verre, et vous n'aviez pas coupé l'appareil ! Catastrophe ! Vous vous remettez à danser instantanément, renversant du punch de partout, et en particulier sur la zoulie robe de soirée de la dame (ou le costume du gars, au choix)! Plus class, ne coupez pas l'appareil mais mettez le sur 'intensity low'. Vous garderez légèrement le rythme, style le type méga cool qui ne peut s'empêcher de danser en entendant de la musique. Effet assuré ! De plus, l'EDM possède une double fonction, puisque qu'il muscle dans le même temps vos jambes ! A vous les jambes galbées et musclées, sans effort ! Au fait, n'oubliez pas de bouger le haut du corps en rythme, pour ne pas avoir trop l'air d'une marionnette... Une future version 'Luxe' est prévue avec un système de cartes mémoire pouvant s'insérer sur l'appareil. Ces cartes seront chargées avec un style de danse (par exemple la carte "Michael Jackson" ou la carte "John Travolta") et vous permettront de danser "à la manière de" sur tous les rythmes. 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Plus d'infos : [279]www.copiepresse.be » Pour toute autre question ou information, [280]contactez lesoir.be. __________________________________________________________________ Références 277. mailto:info@copiepresse.be #[1]jeux machine à sous et casino gratuit RSS Feed [2]jeux machine à sous et casino gratuit machine à sous en ligne [3]Skip menu * [4]Accueil * [5]Contacter le webmaster [6]Les super-héros inspirent de nouveau Cryptologic Par corinne en date du 15 décembre 2009 Cryptologic, l'un des plus populaires développeurs de jeux en ligne, est surtout connu pour ses jeux issus des adaptations. Avec ses machines à sous en ligne basées sur des films, des super-héros et d'autres formes de culture pop, Cryptologic a une empreinte unique sur les jeux de casino en ligne. Pour bien finir l'année, Cryptologic lance trois nouvelles machines à sous inspirées du monde du film. La machine à sous Superman est la première à être lancée. Comme le héros du même nom, ce jeu possède des capacités surnaturelles. Grâce à ses 50 lignes de paiement, la machine à sous offre aux joueurs beaucoup de chances de gagner. Avec les intrigues de la bande dessinée, les joueurs seront en mesure de s'engager dans la poursuite romantique de Louis Lane, tout en sauvant Metropolis de la furie de Lex Luthor. Le nouveau jeu offre aussi aux joueurs des possibilités multiples de gagner des tours gratuits et des parties bonus. Le deuxième jeu qui sera propulsé par Cryptologic est Braveheart. Basé sur le populaire film de Mel Gibson, le jeu racontera l'histoire de la lutte pour la libération écossaise. Le joueur accumule des points au fur et à mesure que le combat progresse. Les paiements varient en fonction des jackpots proposés, qui sont très généreux. Et, enfin, le jeu le plus insolite de l'ensemble: Forrest Gump. Le célèbre proverbe "La vie est comme une boîte de chocolats - on ne sait jamais ce qu'on recevra", ne pouvait être plus vrai. Basé sur le drame historique, la machine à sous Forrest Gump garantit aux joueurs une expérience très agréable. Ajouté dans [7]actualités, [8]jeux casino, [9]machine à sous | [10]Commentaire » [11]Les machines à sous connaissent une bonne saison Par corinne en date du 10 décembre 2009 Les analystes de Wall Street sont revenus de la dernière Global Gaming Expo avec une vision optimiste sur l'industrie des machines à sous de Nevada. Il reste à voir si cette attitude se traduit par une croissance des ventes et des revenus dans le secteur de la fabrication des matériels de jeu. Pourtant, les analystes ont indiqué qu'au lendemain de la G2E, les investisseurs étaient plus optimistes quant aux entreprises de machines à sous, que jamais auparavant. "Les opérateurs de casino semblaient plus optimistes en se promenant dans les salles de l'exposition", a opiné l'analyste Justin Sebastiano dans une note de recherche. "Nous croyons que cette meilleure humeur était le résultat d'une combinaison des nouveaux concepts de jeu de cette année et des budgets plus élevés pour les machines à sous en 2010." Les fabricants de machines à sous n'ont pas connu des périodes extrêmement prolifiques cette dernière décennie. Jusqu'en 2005, les opérateurs de casino ajoutaient des machines à sous utilisant les tickets TITO ( Ticket-In Ticket-Out). Mais le fléchissement de l'économie au cours des deux dernières années a déterminé les casinos d'échanger les anciens jeux pour de nouveaux produits. L'analyste Todd Eilers de Roth Capital Partners fait connaître que MGM Mirage et Harrah's Entertainment ont décidé de remplacer en 2010 les machines à sous de leurs casinos en proportion de 2% jusqu'à 10%. Un autre complexe (non précisé par Eilers) envisage de remplacer jusqu'à 40% de sa plateforme d'anciennes machines à sous. "Le signe le plus encourageant cette année est que les exploitants de casinos cherchaient en fait à acheter des jeux et de la technologie par rapport à l'année dernière quand ils faisaient simplement une visite à G2E", a précisé Eilers. Les deux analystes estiment, d'ailleurs, que les jeux de G2E 2009 étaient de loin supérieurs à ceux proposés au salon il y a un an. Sebastiano apprécie que les machines à sous de Bally Technologies, WMS Industries et International Gaming Technology ont été impressionnantes. "La plupart des investisseurs et des exploitants de casinos ont été déçus par les jeux présentés à G2E l'an dernier", a déclaré Sebastiano. "Ce n'est pas de même avec la G2E de cette année. A notre avis, l'optimisme a été engendré par quelques jeux accrocheurs". Les fabricants de machines à sous ont présenté plusieurs tendances et thèmes communs, tels que les jeux en communauté avancés, les jeux Roue multiple, des graphiques 3D ou des jeux personnalisés. Ajouté dans [12]actualités, [13]machine à sous | [14]Commentaire » [15]Une société de Las Vegas crée les machines à sous adaptées au rythme du joueur Par corinne en date du 29 septembre 2009 La Commission des Jeux du Nevada a récemment autorisé une société basée à Las Vegas qui s'emploie à développer des machines à sous d'une qualité technique supérieure. Ces machines à sous pourront correspondre aux différents rythmes souhaités par les joueurs. Pour arriver à respecter le rythme de chaque joueur, le jeu sera doté d'un programme personnalisé qui suivra la manière de jouer et le temps que chaque joueur passe devant la machine à sous. Ainsi, la machine pourrait fonctionner à un rythme plus lent, avec des récompenses moins élevées pour ceux qui cherchent à jouer plus longtemps. Le slot peut également fonctionner à un rythme plus rapide et proposer des récompenses plus élevées. "Quand les joueurs entrent dans un casino, ils ont une idée assez précise sur le type de jeu qu'ils veulent jouer, mais personne n'est capable de leur dire comment trouver le jeu qui leur convient", a expliqué John Acres, le PDG de Talo Nevada, la société en cause. "Certains joueurs ne savent même pas ce qu'ils veulent vraiment, jusqu'à ce qu'ils essaient quelque chose", a ajouté Acres. Demandé si un programme de jeu personnalisé pourrait modifier le taux de paiement des machines à sous, Acres a répondu qu'une machine pourrait offrir des récompenses rapidement ou lentement, tout en gardant un pourcentage de remboursement programmé. John Acres, fondateur d'Acres Gaming, est connu pour avoir inventé le système moderne de suivi du jeu aux machines à sous. Il a également fondé Gaming Standards Association et a inventé une ligne de vélos. Acres Gaming est une compagnie spécialisée dans le développement de concepts et technologies liés au bonus des jeux et au suivi des machines à sous fabriquées par plusieurs sociétés. La Commission des Jeux du Nevada a autorisé Talo Nevada en tant que fabricant et distributeur. Ajouté dans [16]actualités, [17]machine à sous | [18]Commentaires (*) » [19]Les casinos de France lancent "Magic Casinos Jackpot" Par corinne en date du 20 septembre 2009 Pour enrayer la baisse constante de leurs gains et faire face à la concurrence croissante, les casinos terrestres de France ont adopté une attitude combative, lançant un jackpot commun. C'est la première fois dans leur histoire que plus de la moitié des casinos français se donnent la main pour réaliser un projet d'une telle ampleur. Pour créer "Magic Casinos Jackpot", 100 des 197 casinos de France, ainsi que les groupes Barrière, Tranchant, Joa et Eméraude, ont formé une alliance de conjoncture qui profitera aux joueurs. Seul le groupe Partouche s'est tenu à l'écart, préférant faire cavalier seul devant la menace des jeux en ligne et la concurrence des monopoles d'Etat. Dans les établissements nommés, 331 machines à sous ont été reliées pour former un réseau national, comparable à la loterie. Les dimensions du réseau permettra au jackpot d'atteindre même 5 millions d'euros au moment où il sera décroché. Le jackpot sera tout le temps affiché sur un bandeau qui surmonte les machines à sous faisant partie du réseau. Ce n'est pas donc un secret que le premier jackpot a dépassé 350.000 euros, quelques heures après son lancement. L'investissement a coûté 10 millions d'euros. La performance technique est aussi remarquable, la faisabilité du réseau étant antérieurement testé à plus petite échelle. Les casinos inclus dans le projet sont reconnaissables grâce à une inscription "Magic Casinos Jackpot" affichée sur le mur frontal. Chacun de ces casinos héberge 2 à 8 machines à sous connectées au réseau. Alors que le domaine casinotier est une profession individualiste par tradition, les présidents des quatre groupes associés ont salué "une alliance historique, une grande première". La démarche devrait aider à revitaliser les casinos frappés par la crise. Les 197 casinos de France ont enregistré pour leur dernier exercice une baisse du produit brut des jeux de 8.4% par rapport à l'exercice antérieur. La crise ne cesse de toucher notamment le secteur des machines à sous et c'est à juste raison que les casinotiers ont mis les points sur les "i", par un projet qui augmente l'attractivité des slots. Bien qu'il n'ait pas fait front commun avec les autres, le groupe Partouche a une initiative similaire - Mégapot - qui date d'avant le projet de ses confrères. Ajouté dans [20]casino, [21]jackpots, [22]machine à sous | [23]Commentaire (1) » [24]Les films de Hollywood inspirent les machines à sous de PartyCasino Par corinne en date du 2 septembre 2009 PartyCasino a des nouvelles réjouissantes quant à son répertoire de machines à sous. Le casino a ajouté sur sa liste de jeux des machines à sous vidéo inspirés des films hollywoodiens. Avec des productions telles que "The Godfather", "Rambo", "The terminator", "Gone with the Wind" et de beaux jackpots, ces jeux ont le succès garanti parmi tous les types de joueurs! Les nouvelles machines à sous ont 20 lignes de paiement et 5 rouleaux. La mise minimale est de 0.01 $/£/EUR et les jackpots sont soit fixes soit progressifs, en fonction du jeu choisi. Les jeux sont dotés de symboles scatter, wild et des symboles qui déclenchent des tours gratuits. Pour les jeux qu'ils préfèrent, les clients du casino peuvent choisir la fonction Auto-play. Chaque jeu a une fonction spéciale, grâce à laquelle on peut gagner de l'argent supplémentaire et des tours gratuits. Chaque niveau de ces jeux bonus a de merveilleux graphismes et engendre autant d'adrénaline que les films eux-mêmes. Ajouté dans [25]machine à sous | [26]Commentaire » [27]Nouvelle machine à sous Wealth Spa lancée par Microgaming Par corinne en date du 11 août 2009 En accord avec les tendances de l'été, Microgaming lance la nouvelle machine à sous vidéo Wealth Spa, ce qui démontre, en outre, leur engagement à l'innovation et au développement des jeux haut de gamme. Wealth Spa est une machine à sous à 5 rouleaux et 20 lignes de paiement, avec une offre de bonus portant sur une expérience spa de luxe. Grâce à un éventail de symboles wild et scatters, le joueur pourra accumuler des jetons d'or très précieux. Ces jetons ouvriront une série de bonus sur cinq niveaux, chaque niveau ayant fait l'objet d'un minutieux processus de design. Les jetons d'or sont crédités lorsqu'ils apparaissent sur le cinquième rouleau. Ils peuvent être utilisés pour accéder immédiatement au jeu bonus ou peuvent être gardés pour atteindre un niveau plus élevé. L'apparition d'un seul jeton déclenche le premier jeu bonus - Smoothie Bonus, deux jetons déclenchent le Bonus Hot Stone, trois jetons occasionnent le jeu bonus Body Wax, tandis que les quatre jetons d'or apparus sur les rouleaux ouvrent la voie vers le jeu bonus Bath Oil. Cinq jetons vont déclencher automatiquement le Bonus Massage, pendant lequel les joueurs peuvent gagner 25 tours gratuits et la chance de remporter le jackpot. Roger Raatgever, le chef de direction de Microgaming a commenté: "A Microgaming, nous cherchons toujours à créer de nouveaux jeux de haute qualité; l'année passée, nous avons lancé des jeux de casino originaux tels MySlot et Great Galaxy Grab. Notre dernier jeu Wealth Spa offre des bonus sur plusieurs niveaux, une qualité des graphiques inégalée et un jeu vraiment passionnant." Wealth Spa représente une nouvelle expérience de jeu divertissante, avec un éventail de paris qui vont de 0,01 à 0,25 par ligne. Pour la mise minimale, les prix vont jusqu'à 12,500.00 jetons, tandis que les prix provenus des bonus vont de 2,800.00 à 25,000.00 jetons. Ajouté dans [28]machine à sous | [29]Commentaires (*) » [30]Qu'est-ce qui fait l'attrait des machines à sous? Par corinne en date du 6 août 2009 Avez-vous jamais réfléchi si tout l'arsenal d'une machine à sous - les images, les sifflets, les personnages, les feux clignotants, la musique, les boutons - avait quelque chose à voir avec l'argent que vous y placez, pour gagner ou perdre la mise? Tout autre appareil pourrait faire la même chose avec cet argent, mais personne ne passerait des heures devant un tel appareil, s'il n'était pas pour les feux étincelants, les images avec des fruits, et l'idée d'un gros jackpot. Donc, la question qui se pose c'est: qu'est ce qui rend les machines à sous si attrayantes? Louis Weigele, le président du Conseil du jeu problématique d'Ohio, nous offre une explication. Voilà, donc, l'argument d'un psychologue: Les joueurs sont divisés en deux camps: les joueurs actifs (action gamblers) et les joueurs "fuyards" (escape gamblers). Les joueurs actifs sont les personnes qui aiment vraiment jouer, sentir l'émotion du jeu, affronter d'autres joueurs et défier le hasard. En général, on les voit sur les pistes des courses, assis aux tables de poker ou de blackjack. L'autre grand groupe, dit Weigele, est celui des joueurs "fuyards" qui passent souvent des heures entières devant une machine à sous vidéo. "Ils n'aiment pas vraiment jouer, ils jouent simplement pour passer le temps", estime le psychologue, en parlant des joueurs problématiques. En fait, les machines à sous ne sont pas de simples appareils. Elles peuvent évoquer une histoire, le sujet d'un film de succès, une personnalité. Les jeux sont conçus englobant beaucoup de stimuli, pour captiver et maintenir l'attention du joueur. Il ne s'agit pas que d'y mettre de l'argent et attendre. Les joueurs font des choix, recherchent des combinaisons gagnantes et décident d'augmenter leurs mises ou d'encaisser le gain. La participation active est essentielle pour les joueurs. Les joueurs qui contrôlent physiquement une machine à sous sont susceptibles de miser plus d'argent que les autres aux paris subsidiaires. Ajouté dans [31]machine à sous, [32]études | [33]Commentaires (*) » [34]Nouvelle machine à sous "La Fiesta" Par corinne en date du 15 juin 2009 Les machines à sous basées sur des thèmes mexicains ont gagné une grande popularité. Certes, cela a à voir avec la vivacité de la culture mexicaine et ses symboles faciles à reconnaître. Maintenant, une nouvelle machine à sous célèbre la culture et la civilisation mexicaines, à travers des symboles tels que: la piñata, les roses, les maracas, les trompettes, les guitares et les belles femmes. Les joueurs qui gardent le son pendant qu'ils jouent auront l'occasion d'écouter de la musique en style mexicain. Le jeu compte 5 rouleaux et 25 lignes de paiement. Les paris vont de 0.01$ à 10$, respectant tous les budgets. Même sans disposer d'un jackpot progressif, La Fiesta offre un jackpot fixé à 10.000$. Celui-ci est payé lorsque cinq symboles piñata apparaissent sur une ligne payante active. Pour un pari maximal, le paiement correspondant est de 100.000$. Mais qu'est-ce qu'une piñata? Une piñata est un jouet mexicain, d'habitude sous la forme d'un animal. Le symbole piñata de la machine à sous "La Fiesta" est un cochon. Il fonctionne comme un symbole wild et peut remplacer tout autre symbole, à l'exception de la rose, qui est un scatter. Quand il substitue d'autres symboles pour former une combinaison gagnante, les paiements sont doublés. Si vous avez la chance de tomber sur une combinaison gagnante avec des symboles piñata, vous serez les témoins d'un drôle de spectacle: le petit cochon se mettra à danser devant vous et des feux d'artifices éclateront derrière lui. Trois ou plusieurs symboles piñata apparaissant n'importe où sur les rouleaux déclenchent un jeu bonus. Ceci peut être joué jusqu'à trois fois. "La Fiesta" a été lancée par la société Vegas Technology. Le même fournisseur de logiciels de jeu a créé dernièrement trois autres machines à sous. Sur le marché des jeux en ligne, La Fiesta concurrence avec un jackpot progressif - Jackpot Piñata, lancé par Real Time Gaming. Ajouté dans [35]machine à sous | [36]Commentaires (*) » [37]Le groupe Joa lance un casino en ligne Par corinne en date du 15 juin 2009 Après avoir changé son visage commercial, l'ex groupe Moliflor - rébaptisé Joa(casinos), se prépare à lancer en France un casino en ligne. Initiative très courageuse, voire hardie, sur un marché encore fermé aux sites de jeux. En effet, tous les grands casinotiers français sont sur le bloc de départ dans la course qui sera lancée le 1er janvier 2010. Le groupe de Lucien Barrière a choisi de faire les essais au Royaume-Uni, avec un site en 3D qui a tout pour remporter des succès. C'est la voie la plus sage, mais qui n'a pas convenu à Partouche. Impatients, les dirigeants du groupe n'ont plus attendu la date de l'ouverture officielle du marché et ont choisi le chemin sans détours. Le groupe offre d'orès et déjà des services de jeux aux internautes français. L'autre élément de la "trinité" - Tranchant - est toujours en attente. Joa ne leur cède en rien. Les prévisions de la future législation française en domaine concernent les paris sportifs, les courses hippiques et le poker en ligne. Le sujet des casinos en ligne, avec toute la suite de jeux qu'on y trouve, reste flou... Mais cela n'a pas empêché Joa d'agir. Disponible pour le moment en mode démo (mode fun, avec de l'argent virtuel), Joa-online.com propose des parties de poker, mais également tous les autres jeux qu'on trouve dans un casino terrestre. La course sur le marché en ligne est à peine au début et elle ne sera pas gagnée d'avance par un acteur ou autre. Le "lifting" subi par l'ex Moliflor, qui a avalé 2.5 millions d'euros, a été la première étape. Pour tenir tête à ses forts concurrents, Joa devra innover. Affaire à suivre. Ajouté dans [38]casino en ligne | [39]Commentaire » [40]Mythes et fausses impressions sur les machines à sous Par corinne en date du 6 janvier 2009 Puisqu'elles sont des jeux de hasard par excellence, les machines à sous ont laissé créer autour d'elles un complexe de mythes qui essayent d'expliquer les gains et les pertes. Voilà les plus entendues: On dit que: Les meilleures machines à sous sont tenues ensemble dans la salle Il serait stupide d'un casino de cantonner ses meilleures machines à sous dans un seul endroit. Celles-ci sont répandues dans la salle, pour que les gens puissent voir les autres gagner. C'est justement l'une des principales raisons qui déterminent les gens de jouer plus longtemps. Voyons: continueriez-vous à jouer s'il n'y avait pas un autour de vous qui gagne? Les machines à sous ont des périodes cycliques de gains Cela ne pourrait pas être plus loin de la vérité. Chaque tournoiement des rouleaux est aléatoire et ne suit aucun schéma. Si une machine semble payer plus ou moins à de certains moments, c'est grâce aux numéros aléatoires générés. Mais ce n'est pas une garantie que tout va continuer de la même manière pour la prochaine période de temps! Tirer la manche est mieux qu'appuyer sur le bouton C'est exactement la même chose, tirer un levier ou appuyer sur un bouton aboutira toujours au même résultat. Tout ce qu'on fait, dans les deux cas, est d'envoyer un petit signal électrique pour démarrer le jeu, donc la façon dont on le fait n'a aucune importance, vous obtenez toujours le même résultat. Seulement les machines mécaniques sont des machines à sous véritables Les slots mécaniques ne sont meilleurs que parce qu'ils peuvent être trompés. Ils fonctionnent sur le même principe que toute autre machine à sous. En fait, les machines électroniques offrent de meilleurs paiements, des jackpots plus élevés, plus de variété dans les jeux, plus de lignes de paiement et plus de rouleaux. Ces jeux sont supérieurs aux jeux mécaniques et montrent les avantages de la nouvelle technologie. On peut augmenter ses chances en appuyant sur le bouton au bon moment Même si c'est un peu vrai avec la génération de nombres aléatoires, les chances d'agir à ce "bon moment" sont à des milliards contre vous. Les machines à sous génèrent des centaines de nombres aléatoires par seconde, calculez, donc, vos chances de tomber sur la micro-seconde gagnante! Mon slot préféré paie davantage Tout le monde a, sans doute, une machine à sous préférée sur laquelle on a gagné. Mais il s'agit toujours de la chance de se trouver là au moment opportun. Cette même machine qui a offert un prix à quelqu'un a pris de l'argent de l'autrui. Avoir une machine favorite est une question de chois, mais assurez-vous que c'est une machine qui correspond à votre style de jeu. Et renoncez à l'idée qu'elle paie plus que les autres! 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Invention n°68 : Easy Dance Machine Publiée le 2003-04-18 Note de: 7.9/10 (64 notes) 4 sur 5 Une invention de [1]Chandon Je suis très heureux de vous présenter encore une fois une invention destinée à résoudre un de ces innombrables petits riens qui vous pourrit la vie. Et l'Easy Dance Machine sonne assurément la fin d'un des fléaux de la vie sociale : la danse. Ah, qui n'a pas éprouvé, adolescent(e), l'intense frustation de ne pas oser aborder quelqu'un qui vous avait tapé dans l'oeil lors d'une soirée... Mais rien à faire : pas moyen de l'inviter sur la piste, vous êtes un peu comme un bloc de 2 tonnes de granit à qui on demanderait de danser le limbo... Si seulement vous aviez le sens du rythme ! Et pas question de passer pour ridicule devant tous vos soi-disant amis qui n'attendent que ça pour vous chambrer ! Il doit pourtant bien y avoir un moyen, nom de nom !!! [edm2.jpg] Et oui, l'Easy Dance Machine est un dispositif d'aide à la danse, se composant d'électrodes à coller sur les muscles des jambes, reliées à un petit appareil style pager que l'on accroche à la ceinture qui contient les commandes. Lors d'une danse, l'appareil va délivrer automatiquement des impulsions électriques aux muscles des jambes, les faisant bouger au rythme de la musique (un peu comme les spots lumineux). Ainsi, plus besoin de passer de longues heures à apprendre à danser : avec le EDM, 5 mn de mise en place, et à vous les joies de la danse ! Pour aller un peu plus dans le détail, rappelez vous cet ingénieur français Cristophe Cayrol qui a inventé un appareil destiné à repérer les mines et à faire dévier instantanément la jambe pour éviter de marcher dessus. Vous y êtes ? Bon, maintenant rappellez vous le téléshopping d'hier où il y avait la nana avec ses électrodes pour faire maigrir. Vous visualisez ? Bon, et bien prenez le tout, secouez dans un sac, et servez chaud. Détail de l'appareil : Celui-ci se compose d'un petit boitier de commande relié à 3 séries d'électrodes : une pour vérifier la fréquence cardiaque, et 2 x 8 à positionner sur chaque jambe, sur les muscles indiqués dans la notice. L'ordinateur embarqué reçoit le rythme de la musique via un micro, analyse le signal sonore et le converti en impulsions électriques, une fois identifié le type de danse (815 tempos différents sont embarqués, ce qui prend environ 0,02 sec à l'ordinateur pour se caler). [edm1.jpg] 1. ventouse en matériau anti-allergénique contenant l'électrode, à placer sur le muscle 2. cable transportant le flux électrique, isolé, avec gaîne en kevlar 3. capteur relié à l'électrode, délivrant les impulsions électriques en fonction du signal émis 4. écran à cristaux liquides rétro-éclairé, contenant les informations suivantes : - rythme cardiaque (fonction d'alerte suivant un seuil paramétrable) - témoin de charge. La batterie lithium/ion vous permet de danser environ 2 heures - durée de danse - rythme/intensité de danse sous forme de graphique 5. bouton marche/arrêt ergonomique 6. molette de contrôle de l'intensité du signal électrique fourni. Suivant les individus, la réaction à l'intensité peut varier. 7. micro enregistrant le rythme et le restituant sous forme de signaux électriques à l'ordinateur embarqué 8. batterie lithium/ion 9. molette de contrôle du rythme. Par défaut, le rythme généré est automatiquement calqué sur celui reçu par le micro. Néanmoins, pour des raisons de confort, vous pouvez vous même faire varier ce rythme selon vos besoins. 10. trappe de sortie du cablage électrique. Tout le circuit électrique est bien entendu isolé et résistant aux frottements ainsi qu'à l'humidité ambiante. 11. clip permettant d'accrocher le boitier de contrôle à la ceinture, à l'instar d'un téléphone portable. La boîte contient : - 17 électrodes souples à coller sur des endroits précis - boitier de commande avec écran à cristaux liquides - notice d'installation pour la pose des électrodes - un cd de test pour s'entrainer chez soi avant le grand soir. ATTENTION ! Ne pas oublier d'éteindre l'appareil entre 2 danses : imaginez, vous avez fini une danse, et vous allez servir un punch à votre cavalièr(e). Hélas, la musique reprend au moment où vous lui donnez le verre, et vous n'aviez pas coupé l'appareil ! Catastrophe ! Vous vous remettez à danser instantanément, renversant du punch de partout, et en particulier sur la zoulie robe de soirée de la dame (ou le costume du gars, au choix)! Plus class, ne coupez pas l'appareil mais mettez le sur 'intensity low'. Vous garderez légèrement le rythme, style le type méga cool qui ne peut s'empêcher de danser en entendant de la musique. Effet assuré ! De plus, l'EDM possède une double fonction, puisque qu'il muscle dans le même temps vos jambes ! A vous les jambes galbées et musclées, sans effort ! Au fait, n'oubliez pas de bouger le haut du corps en rythme, pour ne pas avoir trop l'air d'une marionnette... Une future version 'Luxe' est prévue avec un système de cartes mémoire pouvant s'insérer sur l'appareil. Ces cartes seront chargées avec un style de danse (par exemple la carte "Michael Jackson" ou la carte "John Travolta") et vous permettront de danser "à la manière de" sur tous les rythmes. 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[190]le fil info CAPTION: Le Fil info Heure de la dépêche Titre de la dépêche 18:52 [191]Le bureau de poste d'Olne braqué 18:51 [192]Bill Clinton, émissaire des Nations unies, est arrivé en Haïti 18:49 [193]Haïti: 87 Belges dont on est toujours sans nouvelle 18:47 [194]Haïti: la téléphonie mobile à Port-au-Prince remise en service à 70% 18:13 [195]Trois clubs de D1 et cinq de D2 ont des dettes envers l'ONSS * [196]lancer le fil * [197]le flux rss * [198]le widget * [199]la toolbar [200]? recevoir la newsletter quotidienne gratuite * ____________________ * (Submit) s'inscrire __________________________________________________________________ [_] Je m'inscris également à la news flash (un mail d'alerte en cas d'événement important, 3 fois par semaine maximum) [_] Je désire recevoir des informations et offres du journal Le Soir et de ses partenaires (Submit) fermer [201]multimedia * [202]24h en images · * [203]portfolios · * [204]infographies · * [205]vidéo [206]Mgr Léonard est le nouveau primat de Belgique * [207]Golden Globes : les images de la cérémonie * [208]Open d'Austalie : 1er jour * [209]Golden Globes : les vainqueurs * [210]Haïti : 40 Belges de retour * [211]Haïti : match de la solidarité à Melbourne * [212]Haïti : l'aide est distribuée, mais la terreur règne * [213]Ukraine : duel présidentiel serré * [214]Haïti : une histoire meurtrie * [215]Haïti : mobilisation mondiale après le séisme * [216]Haïti touché au coeur * [217]Afrique : un continent en guerre * [218]Nathan Soret, jeune blogueur * [219]L'audition de Karel De Gucht devant les eurodéputés * [220]Herman Van Rompuy - Président du Conseil de l'Europe * [221]Al dente - PPDA * [222]Al dente - Yves Leterme les plus * [223]consultés · * [224]recommandés · * [225]commentés 1. [226]Louvain coupe le cordon ombilical avec Malines 2. [227]Witsel exclu, Anderlecht corrige le Standard (0-4) 3. [228]Witsel suspendu 2 matchs, le Standard s'y oppose 4. [229]Le détenu Alexandre Varga s'est pendu 5. [230]Mgr Léonard est le nouveau primat de Belgique 1. [231]Le direct commenté Henin-Flipkens 6-4, 6-3 2. [232]Louvain coupe le cordon ombilical avec Malines 3. [233]Haïti : l'Union européenne promet son aide financière 4. [234]Witsel exclu, Anderlecht corrige le Standard (0-4) 5. [235]« Sherpa » de Philippe Vauchel au Manège à Namur 1. [236]Anderlecht humilie le Standard à Sclessin (0-4) 2. [237]Mgr Léonard succèderait au cardinal Danneels 3. [238]Mgr Léonard désigné par le pape 4. [239]L'ONEM exclut 20chômeurs par jour 5. 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S.A. - lesoir.be - Bruxelles 2010 * "Ce site est protégé par le droit d'auteur, tous droits réservés." * * [275]Informations légales * [276]Cim Metriweb * Toute reproduction et/ou rediffusion de contenu par quelque moyen que ce soit doit faire l'objet d'une autorisation spécifique auprès de Copiepresse au 02/558.97.80 ou via [277]info@copiepresse.be. Sont toutefois autorisés la reproduction et l'agrégation des contenus de [278]Flux RSS ou Widget, limitées à un usage privé, individuel et non commercial, ou un lien vers la page d'accueil. Plus d'infos : [279]www.copiepresse.be » Pour toute autre question ou information, [280]contactez lesoir.be. __________________________________________________________________ Références 277. mailto:info@copiepresse.be [1][home.gif] [EMBED] [EMBED] [EMBED] [EMBED] [EMBED] [EMBED] [EMBED] JEUX DE RYTHME 1. La machine: A partir de sons déjà trouvés ou spontanément, une personne propose un geste et un son très répititifs constituant le départ d'une machine. Les autres personnes s'ajoutent à la structure progressivement. On peut ajouter des contraintes d'espace (se toucher ou être éloignés) de positions (allongé, debout, assis, ou alterner...), de types de sons,... Une fois que la machine tourne, on peut lui prêter des intentions, des rythmes, retirer ou ajouter des éléments, l'arrêter, la démarrer, l'emballer, la rallentir à l'extrême, la déplacer... 2. On choisit un son commun ou chaque personne choisit un son personnel. Sur une mesure de quatre temps (plus tard, on pourra changer), chacun répète ce son sur chaque temps. Petit à petit, on retirera un son, puis deux, puis,... On pourra ajouter des sons, changer de son. La cellule rythmique ainsi créée évoluera. Variante: plutôt que de partir d'un son par temps et de "vider" les temps, on part en plaçant un son sur le temps de son choix. La cellule peut également évoluer. On a intêret à varier les types de sons en hauteur, et qualité (ex: oum, kissa, pipila, kss, chouk, tchi, zing,...). On peut penser à des imitations d'instruments, d'animaux,... 3. Si la cellule ainsi inventée plaît, on l'enregistre ou on la note. Elle pourra servir de refrain autour duquel on inventera des couplets ou d'ostinato sur lequel se soperposeront de nouveaux rythmes ou textes. On pourra la varier et en inventer d'autres... On peut aussi la jouer en canon. 4. On peut par ce principe partir avec l'idée d'imiter une horloge, un attelage, une locomotive, une machine, une section rythmique, etc,...Ces cellules peuvent comme les précédentes être rallenties, accélérées... 5. En cercle, faire circuler un son associé à un geste. On peut changer de geste, de son, de sens,... Variante: même travail avecun rythme Variante: une personne pense à quelque chose, le traduit en rythme, le passe dans le cercle. A la fin, on dit ce que cela évoquait. 6. Un groupe invente un rythme et le propose en avançant six fois. L'autre ou les autres groupes l'imite à partir de la troisième fois. On change les rôles. Variante, en deux temps: une personne propose un geste, repris par le groupe, repris par le groupe. Si ça marche, le groupe le propose aux autres qui l'imitent. 7. Faire passer une chaussure en rythme. Changer de sens sur un signe. Le faire les yeux fermés. 8. Dans le noir, une personne fait un rythme avec une lampe de poche. Les autres l'imitent en son ou en lumière. 9. En le faisant bien partir du ventre, se passer un son en rythme. -"mh", -"ha", -"mh ha ..." -composer de petits rythmes à se faire passer: "mh mh ha", "mh ha mh" -y ajouter un claquement de mains ou de pieds. On peut aussi faire de petites séquences rythmiques avec pied gauche, pied droit, mains. -construire un tapis sonore collectif sur lequel on peut improviser.(à tour de rôle ou librement) 10. Faire le travail du 1. sur un cadre imposé: [La%20voi1.gif] ou [La%20voi2.gif] on peut inventer diverses formules, changer de voyelles ou de sons à chaque changement de mesure ou de nuance. On peut jouer en canon ou improviser sur cette structure. On peut changer de hauteur ou non. On peut le faire sur le mode parlé. On peut alterner.... 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Ce document provient de « Affichages * [10]Page spéciale Outils personnels * [11]Essayer la bêta Açai * [12]Créer un compte ou se connecter Rechercher ____________________ Lire Rechercher Navigation * [13]Accueil * [14]Portails thématiques * [15]Index alphabétique * [16]Un article au hasard * [17]Contacter Wikipédia Contribuer * [18]Aide * [19]Communauté * [20]Modifications récentes * [21]Accueil des nouveaux arrivants * [22]Faire un don Boîte à outils * [23]Importer un fichier * [24]Pages spéciales [25]Powered by MediaWiki [26]Wikimedia Foundation * [27]Politique de confidentialité * [28]À propos de Wikipédia * [29]Avertissements Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : * [1]Aller au contenu * [2]Aller à la navigation [3]Le CNRS : Centre national de la recherche scientique Moteur de recherche Rechercher ________________ [ok.gif]-Submit __________________________________________________________________ Vous êtes ici : [4]CNRS > [5]Presse > [6]Journal du CNRS > [7]La musique, pourquoi elle rythme nos vies / N°209 Juin 2007 / La musique > [8]La musique, pourquoi elle rythme nos vies Espace presse > Le journal du CNRS [9]Retour au sommaire La symphonie neuronale L'été arrive et nous rejoue ses tempos endiablés, mélodies fredonnées et autres airs cadencés. Cette année encore, la Fête de la musique est célébrée dans plus de 120 pays. D'où nous vient ce goût pour la musique, partagé par toutes les cultures à toutes les époques ? « La musique offre aux passions le moyen de jouir d'elles-mêmes », disait Nietzsche dans Le gai savoir. Parfois angoissante, souvent apaisante ou stimulante, elle influence les comportements humains. Impossible donc de limiter cet art aux seules sensations auditives ! Alors, des chercheurs du CNRS déjouent les cheminements perceptifs et cognitifs à l'uvre. Ils analysent les signes révélateurs des émotions produites et les processus cérébraux activés par ce langage non verbal, décryptent ce qui apparaît être une véritable stratégie commune de perception Depuis janvier 2006, une grande partie de ces spécialistes français de la musique ont d'ailleurs regroupé leurs savoir-faire dans un projet financé par l'Agence nationale de la recherche (ANR) et intitulé « La spécificité de la musique : contribution de la musique à l'étude des bases neurales et cognitives de la mémoire humaine et applications thérapeutiques ». En effet, étudier la musique sous le rapport de la biologie permet, au-delà des enseignements musicaux, de mieux saisir comment fonctionne le cerveau. Qui n'a jamais eu de frissons dès les premières notes d'un morceau ? Intriguée, Stéphanie Khalfa, chercheuse CNRS au Laboratoire de neurophysiologie et neuropsychologie de l'Inserm, à Marseille, examine les réponses physiologiques du corps humain aux différentes musiques chez cinquante sujets. « Des changements apparaissent très tôt, une à trois secondes après le début de l'écoute. Ils révèlent des émotions de gaieté ou de peur. Les muscles zygomatiques au niveau des pommettes faciales s'activent, la pression sanguine varie et on observe une micro-transpiration au niveau des paumes des mains », explique-t-elle. Quant à notre respiration, elle est entraînée par le tempo mais réagit peu aux autres caractéristiques musicales, comme les graves et aigus ou le volume. De plus, après un stress psychologique induit, une musique apaisante mélodie d'ambiance lente, harmonique et au tempo régulier diminue significativement la concentration sanguine en hormone de stress, dite cortisol, au bout d'un quart d'heure d'écoute. La musique adoucirait donc les murs ? « Toutes n'ont pas cet effet bénéfique, précise Stéphanie Khalfa. Une musique comportant des disparités de rythme et des dissonances, comme la techno, augmente le stress, même lorsqu'elle est appréciée. » cerveau __________________________________________________________________ © D'après P. Plateaux, Cerveau & Psycho n° 19 __________________________________________________________________ D'autres chercheurs, au Laboratoire d'études de l'apprentissage et du développement (LEAD)^1 de Dijon, ont observé des réponses émotionnelles à la musique instrumentale dès 250 millisecondes d'écoute. Ces émotions ne sont pas seulement la conséquence d'effets de surface (explosion sonore, forte dissonance) mais résultent de traitements cognitifs très élaborés, de l'harmonie notamment. Mais par quels processus neuronaux une mélodie peut-elle ainsi stimuler nos émotions ? Les oreilles captent les mouvements de molécules d'air créés par l'instrument de musique ou les baffles du haut-parleur, puis les transforment en influx nerveux. Ensuite, des réseaux distincts du système nerveux central de l'organisme réagissent à l'écoute musicale et au style de musique. Séverine Samson, professeure de psychologie à l'université de Lille et neuropsychologue à l'hôpital de la Salpêtrière à Paris, collabore avec le laboratoire CNRS de neurosciences cognitives et imagerie cérébrale (Lena). Elle observe des patients épileptiques ayant subi une ablation de certaines zones cérébrales pour le traitement de leurs crises. Résultat : « L'amygdale est essentielle à la perception de la peur induite par l'écoute musicale, une lésion d'une seule amygdale entraîne un fort déficit dans le traitement de ce stimulus. Lorsqu'il s'agit de juger des dissonances désagréables dans l'harmonie d'un morceau, ce sont là des structures proches de l'hippocampe qui jouent un rôle déterminant. » cerveau [10]schéma musique __________________________________________________________________ © D'après D. Bailly, Cerveau & Psycho n° 7 Cliquez sur l'image pour l'agrandir. __________________________________________________________________ Paroles et musique Là où s'arrête le pouvoir des mots commence celui de la musique, disait Richard Wagner Les effets d'une mélodie sur notre cerveau sont souvent étudiés à la lumière de ceux d'un matériel sonore complexe mieux connu : le langage. Ces systèmes perceptifs sont liés, mais distincts. D'ailleurs, près de 5 % de la population est « amusicale » congénitale : ces personnes n'ont aucun problème cognitif ou de langage mais ont des problèmes de perception musicale. Par exemple, elles ne détectent pas une fausse note. Depuis plusieurs années, les chercheurs de l'Institut de neurosciences cognitives de la Méditerranée (INCM)^2 à Marseille effectuent des études comparatives entre langage et musique grâce aux techniques d'imagerie, par électroencéphalogramme (EEG) et par résonance magnétique fonctionnelle (IRMf), celle-ci mesurant l'activité cérébrale selon la consommation d'oxygène des zones du cerveau. Ainsi, selon Mireille Besson, directrice de recherche à l'INCM, « le rythme et les règles de l'harmonie ou du contrepoint sollicitent des zones de l'hémisphère gauche souvent attribuées au langage, en particulier à la syntaxe. Mais le timbre de l'instrument stimulerait plutôt l'hémisphère droit. » Bref, la perception du langage comme de la musique s'effectue par étapes, explique Daniele Schön, chercheuse à l'INCM. « Par exemple, dans l'apprentissage d'une langue étrangère, le cerveau segmente d'abord les informations sonores. Puis, du sens est attribué aux chaînes des sons. » Résultat étonnant : la vitesse d'émergence d'un mot est multipliée par trois si l'information est chantée plutôt que parlée ! « D'où l'intérêt des comptines destinées aux jeunes enfants », note Daniele Schön. La quantité d'informations extraite est énorme durant la première minute, puis elle augmente lentement. La mémoire entre en jeu Si plusieurs réseaux neuronaux sont impliqués dans la perception de la musique, comment le cerveau parvient-il à traiter la complexité de l'information musicale ? Les scientifiques savent aujourd'hui qu'il élabore une stratégie basée sur la familiarité, l'apprentissage implicite et la mémoire. Démonstration : Barbara Tillmann, chargée de recherche dans l'unité « Neurosciences sensorielles, comportement, cognition »^3 de Lyon, s'est intéressée à la reconnaissance de mélodies familières. « Après 500 millisecondes d'écoute, les jugements de familiarité des auditeurs se différencient pour des morceaux musicaux connus ou non. » Les réseaux neuronaux impliqués lors de cette perception de la familiarité musicale sont similaires à ceux activés par les odeurs familières, selon ses résultats publiés en février dans la revue Cerebral Cortex^4. femme __________________________________________________________________ © E. Perrin/CNRS Photothèque Une langue étrangère est apprise trois fois plus vite si elle est chantée. Pour observer les zones cérébrales activées, cette femme porte un casque muni de 32 électrodes. Les variations électriques du cerveau (électroencéphalogramme) sont alors reproduites en 3D. __________________________________________________________________ Une part de mémoire à court terme spécifiquement auditive influe également. Laurent Demany, chercheur au laboratoire bordelais « Mouvement adaptation cognition »^5, a observé un phénomène paradoxal dû à cette mémoire. Il a constaté qu'il est possible d'entendre consciemment un mouvement mélodique (un changement de hauteur tonale) entre deux sons successifs alors que pourtant le premier de ces sons a été masqué par un ensemble d'autres sons simultanés et n'a pas été perçu consciemment ! « Cela peut se produire même si les deux sons successifs sont séparés par plusieurs secondes de silence, et s'ils ne sont pas présentés à la même oreille. Le cerveau relie automatiquement des sons dans le temps et détecte des changements indépendamment de l'attention et de la conscience », explique-t-il. « Cette mémoire auditive est hypersensible aux changements de fréquence, et donc de hauteur tonale », précise le chercheur : dans un délai d'une demi-seconde à deux secondes, la mémoire à court terme oublie plus vite l'intensité d'un son que sa hauteur. Après quinze secondes d'écoute d'un morceau musical, un autre processus de mémoire entre en jeu, comme l'a montré Barbara Tillmann : il nous devient plus facile de discriminer avec précision les autres caractéristiques de cet extrait (mélodie, harmonie, etc.). Notre mémoire musicale aurait donc tendance à se bonifier avec le temps d'écoute. Pour détecter les capacités d'apprentissage de notre cerveau, Barbara Tillmann a utilisé avec Bénédicte Poulin-Charronnat, chercheuse au LEAD à Dijon, une nouvelle grammaire musicale établissant des règles d'écriture de suites de notes. Elles ont créé des séquences de cinq et six notes, fréquentes ou impossibles d'après cette grammaire. Elles ont alors testé la sensibilité de quarante personnes à ces règles musicales. « Dans 60 % des cas, les transgressions aux règles suivies sont détectées en moins d'un quart d'heure d'écoute. Les auditeurs ne s'en rendent pas compte, mais ils ont saisi certaines des caractéristiques de la nouvelle structure musicale », commente Bénédicte Poulin-Charronnat. Cet apprentissage implicite existe au sein de chaque culture, où une musique environnante est omniprésente. Nous sommes tous des musiciens en herbe Mais alors, il n'y aurait aucune différence entre musiciens et non-musiciens, dès lors que chacun perçoit de manière implicite et rapide la musique ? En fait, les experts sont plus performants pour distinguer la dimension élémentaire du son musical (la hauteur, la durée ou l'intensité), mais lorsqu'il s'agit de comprendre des structures des extraits, la perception musicale des experts et des non-experts est proche. Ainsi, d'après Emmanuel Bigand, directeur du LEAD, qui a mené de nombreux tests entre musiciens et non-musiciens, « les novices ont des connaissances très sophistiquées, même s'ils ne savent pas les exprimer ». « Et ce dès l'âge de six ans », annonce le directeur de recherche. Pour le découvrir, il a analysé avec son équipe les attentes perceptives qui se forment automatiquement à l'écoute d'un morceau de musique (tâche d'amorçage). Bilan : tous les auditeurs, issus du conservatoire ou non, anticipent les mêmes structures musicales complexes (harmoniques, par exemple). De plus, en situation de découverte, la forme d'un morceau est difficilement détectée si sa durée dépasse les trente secondes, même si l'on est musicien de haut niveau. C'est en situation d'écoute répétée que cette forme se précise. Une écoute passive quotidienne de musique permet donc un apprentissage implicite, dont le traitement est plus précis et plus rapide chez les musiciens. Mireille Besson, de l'INCM, a cherché avec son équipe à préciser cette sensibilité affinée : « Si la même mélodie est jouée un tout petit peu plus aiguë ou un tout petit peu plus grave (d'un cinquième de ton, c'est-à-dire d'un cinquième de la différence entre do et ré par exemple), cette différence est facilement perçue par les musiciens mais pas par les non-musiciens » (72 % des non-musiciens ne la perçoivent pas, contre 35 % des musiciens). Cela relève-t-il d'une prédisposition génétique ? Vingt enfants inexpérimentés ont suivi un entraînement à la musique. Bilan : en six mois, ils ont développé les mêmes capacités auditives que celles connues chez des enfants ayant suivi quatre ans de conservatoire. L'oreille musicale n'est donc pas innée, elle s'acquiert ! François Madurell est musicologue, responsable du groupe Museco à l'Observatoire musical français et collaborateur du LEAD. Selon lui, ces résultats confirment l'idée que « la ségrégation entre musique pour auditeurs profanes et musique savante relève de connotations sociales. Les représentations liées à certains répertoires peuvent provoquer des refus, mais il n'y a pas d'obstacle cognitif. Par exemple, les réticences face à la musique de chambre dépendent souvent de facteurs extérieurs à la musique, comme la tenue vestimentaire des musiciens, les codes de comportement lors du concert et le sentiment que cette musique est destinée à des catégories sociales privilégiées. » Quant à l'oreille absolue, elle consiste à « identifier la hauteur précise d'un son et à le nommer sans l'aide d'une note de référence. De grands musiciens ne l'ont pas, elle serait davantage liée à un apprentissage instrumental précoce, avant quatre ans. » Elle favorise la reconnaissance de chaque note sans influer sur la perception et l'appréciation d'un morceau dans son ensemble. Parfois même, l'oreille absolue est ressentie comme une gêne durant l'écoute musicale. Pour François Madurell, la qualité de l'oreille du futur musicien pourrait dépendre du type d'apprentissage. Les méthodes traditionnelles reposent sur un couplage « visuo-moteur » : l'élève associe la lecture d'une note à un geste sur l'instrument. « Des apprentissages privilégiant d'autres couplages (audition/chant et audition/action motrice) seraient plus propices au développement de l'écoute intérieure et de l'intelligence musicale. » Bref, l'enseignement de la musique permet de développer la rapidité d'analyse et la sensibilité des musiciens. Mais les capacités de perception lors de l'écoute restent très proches entre experts et profanes. Thérapies musicales Si la musique adoucit les murs, soigne-elle les maux ? Que pensent nos chercheurs de la musicothérapie ? Des études récentes menées chez des enfants dyslexiques (problèmes de lecture et d'écriture) et des personnes souffrant de la maladie d'Alzheimer démontrent peu à peu l'intérêt de la musique à stimuler le cerveau. Mireille Besson et Michel Habib, de l'INCM de Marseille, ont fait écouter à des jeunes dyslexiques de dix ans des comptines, en variant la hauteur tonale. enfant dyslex __________________________________________________________________ © E. Perrin/CNRS Photothèque Etude de la perception musicale des sons graves à aigus d'un enfant dyslexique. __________________________________________________________________ « Même lorsque la variation de hauteur est très perceptible par des enfants qui lisent normalement, 45 % des enfants dyslexiques ne l'entendent pas. » Après un entraînement phonologique de huit semaines, leur perception auditive est améliorée. « Ils ne font plus d'erreur sur ces grandes variations d'un demi-ton, seulement 3 % d'entre eux se trompent encore. Cette sensibilité sonore augmente leurs capacités de lecture. Pourquoi ? Peut-être parce que s'ils ne reconnaissent pas les différences entre certains sons de leur langue, ils ne les repèrent pas à l'écrit », propose la chercheuse. D'autres résultats montrent également de fortes relations entre la sensibilité des dyslexiques à la prosodie, c'est-à-dire à la musique du langage (intonation des voix, etc.), et le développement des capacités de lecture. La musique pourrait alors pallier certains troubles de la dyslexie en favorisant la sensibilité auditive. Et ce, sans confronter l'enfant à son déficit, à la différence des entraînements actuels basés sur des exercices de langage. À l'université de Caen, Hervé Platel, professeur de neuropsychologie, étudie des patients déments Alzheimer en clinique. « Malgré les troubles avérés du langage et des concepts sémantiques, certaines capacités musicales sont conservées », explique Hervé Platel. Pour savoir si un apprentissage musical est encore possible chez ces patients, le chercheur leur a organisé six séances d'une heure et demie d'enseignement de chansons nouvelles. « Ils sont effectivement capables de restituer une mélodie lorsqu'on les aide à retrouver les paroles de la chanson. Maintenant, il faut déterminer quels substrats cérébraux sont alors activés, car l'apprentissage ne s'effectue pas pour des textes présentés sans mélodie. » À suivre donc Décidément, la musique n'a pas fini de jouer avec notre corps et notre esprit ! Aude Olivier Du disque dur au disque d'or piano __________________________________________________________________ © L. Médard/CNRS Photothèque Jean-Claude Risset, Médaille d'or du CNRS, est l'un des pionniers de l'informatique musicale et de la synthèse sonore. __________________________________________________________________ Il y a cinquante ans, dans l'enceinte des célèbres laboratoires Bell Telephone dans le New Jersey, Max Mathews réalisait le premier enregistrement numérique et aussi la première pièce musicale synthétisée par un ordinateur, une composition de 17 secondes. Mathews, ingénieur et musicien américain, avait compris avant tout le monde que ces énormes calculateurs ouvraient un champ d'exploration musicale illimité. Très vite, s'est formé autour de lui un groupe de pionniers de l'informatique musicale. Au carrefour de la programmation, de l'acoustique, de la psychologie de la perception auditive et de la musique contemporaine, ce groupe hétéroclite a découvert la synthèse sonore, c'est-à-dire les procédés pour créer des sons à partir de programmes informatiques. Jean-Claude Risset, Médaille d'or du CNRS en 1999, qui avait rejoint les laboratoires Bell en 1964, figure parmi ces pionniers. Ce chercheur et compositeur participera plus tard à la création de l'Ircam (Institut de recherche et coordination acoustique/musique) avec Pierre Boulez, avant de rejoindre le Laboratoire de mécanique et d'acoustique (LMA) du CNRS à Marseille, où il travaille actuellement. « Ce n'étaient pas tellement les applications commerciales de ces travaux qui nous motivaient à cette époque. Nous cherchions surtout à créer une nouvelle musique avec de nouvelles sonorités. Étant donné que tous les sons peuvent être décrits par des nombres, l'ordinateur permet non seulement de composer avec des sons, mais aussi de composer les sons eux-mêmes. » Jean-Claude Risset crée alors quelques-unes des premières uvres musicales importantes, comme la suite Little Boy, qui ne comprend que des sons synthétiques n'existant pas dans le monde réel. Dans le même temps, il poursuit son travail de synthèse sonore et élabore un important catalogue de sons synthétiques. Au fil des ans, les progrès de l'informatique musicale suivent de près l'accroissement de la puissance des ordinateurs. En 1967, John Chowning met au point la synthèse musicale par modulation de fréquence, un procédé simple pour créer et contrôler le timbre des sons. Cette invention, dont le brevet est l'un des plus lucratifs de l'université Stanford, permet l'apparition des premiers synthétiseurs Yamaha, qui ne sont autre chose que des ordinateurs dédiés exclusivement à la musique. C'est ainsi que l'informatique musicale, qui était jusque-là un domaine réservé à la musique d'avant-garde, prend d'assaut la scène pop sous l'impulsion de groupes comme Kraftwerk, puis de la techno et de tous ses avatars. À présent, la synthèse sonore est à la portée de quiconque possède un PC, et les catalogues de sons en accès libre sont extraordinairement fournis. Cependant, la recherche en informatique musicale découvre constamment de nouvelles possibilités. Ainsi, au LMA, l'équipe de Daniel Arfib et Jean-Claude Risset cherche à sortir l'informatique musicale de son environnement virtuel en inventant des instruments de musique basés sur l'ordinateur. « Ces instruments utilisent des périphériques comme des joysticks ou des tablettes graphiques. Nous essayons ensuite que le jeu sur ces instruments soit aussi fin que celui sur un instrument classique. Pour cela, il faut que les informations qui reviennent à l'utilisateur (le feed-back visuel et auditif) lorsqu'il manipule l'instrument soient adaptées et cohérentes », explique Daniel Arfib. Perpétuant l'esprit des pionniers de l'informatique musicale, ces travaux sont à la fois une tentative pour repousser les limites technologiques et une exploration artistique d'avant-garde. S.E. CONTACTS : Jean-Claude Risset, [11]jcrisset@lma.cnrs-mrs.fr Daniel Arfib, [12]arfib@lma.cnrs-mrs.fr Glossaire Tempo : il détermine la vitesse d'exécution d'une pièce musicale. Il est traditionnellement indiqué par des termes italiens comme largo pour un tempo lent, andante pour un tempo modéré ou allegro pour un tempo rapide. Rythme : c'est l'un des éléments qui permettent de caractériser une phrase musicale. Le rythme détermine la durée des notes les unes par rapport aux autres. Lorsqu'on parle d'un rythme dans le sens d'une forme musicale (valse, tango, bossa), il s'agit d'une brève cellule rythmique qui se répète et donne son caractère à la pièce. Dissonance : elle correspond à un ensemble de sons dont la succession ou la simultanéité est désagréable ou bien produit un effet de tension musicale qui est parfois recherché. L'impression de dissonance varie selon le courant culturel, l'époque et les individus. Harmonie : c'est l'art d'enchaîner des accords, de combiner des sons entre eux pour les rendre agréables à l'oreille. Contrepoint : méthode de composition dans laquelle on donne plus d'importance à la mélodie qu'à la combinaison de plusieurs sons superposés. Timbre : comparé souvent à la couleur, il représente la différence perçue par l'auditeur entre deux sons de même hauteur et de même intensité. Le timbre est formé par le rapport entre les différents harmoniques de la note jouée ou chantée. Hauteur : la hauteur d'un son est liée à sa fréquence, c'est-à-dire à la vitesse de vibration du son dans l'air mesurée en hertz. Plus la fréquence est élevée, plus le son « monte » dans les aigus ; plus la fréquence est faible, plus il « descend » dans les graves. Intensité : elle correspond au volume d'un son fort ou faible mesuré en décibels (dBA) selon l'amplitude de la vibration produite. Écoute intérieure : capacité d'entendre ce que l'on va jouer avant de le jouer. Notes : 1. Laboratoire CNRS / Université Dijon. 2. Institut CNRS / Université Aix-Marseille-II. 3. Unité CNRS / Université Lyon-I. 4. Cerebral Cortex Advance Access, 8 fév. 2007, DOI:10.1093/cercor/bhl173. 5. Laboratoire CNRS / Universités Bordeaux-I et II. Contact > Stéphanie Khalfa, [13]skhalfa@skhalfa.com > Séverine Samson, [14]severine.samson@univ-lille3.fr > Mireille Besson, [15]mireille.besson@incm.cnrs-mrs.fr > Daniele Schön, [16]daniele.schon@incm.cnrs-mrs.fr > Barbara Tillmann, [17]btillmann@olfac.univ-lyon1.fr > Laurent Demany, [18]laurent.demany@psyac.u-bordeaux2.fr > Bénédicte Poulin-Charronnat, [19]benedicte.poulin@u-bourgogne.fr > Emmanuel Bigand, [20]bigand@u-bourgogne.fr > François Madurell, [21]francois.madurell@free.fr > Hervé Platel, [22]herve.platel@unicaen.fr __________________________________________________________________ [23]Haut de page [Archives des numéros......................................] L'enquête [24]La musique, pourquoi elle rythme nos vies [25]VIE DES LABOS * [26]Les protéines dans le sang * [27]Mais qui sont nos députés ? * [28]Traquer le VIH dans ses retranchements * [29]Réchauffement climatique : n'oublions pas les polluants ! * [30]Culture du manioc : les clefs du succès * [31]Des Gallo-Romains très à cheval sur les rituels * [32]Brèves * [33]La supraconduction billes en tête * [34]Une protéine qui travaille à l'il * [35]Jurassique parc [36]INNOVATION * [37]Deux gouttes de liquide dans le numérique * [38]Un logiciel qui fait le lien * [39]Fils de cristal * [40]Brèves [41]JEUNES CHERCHEURS * [42]Emmanuel Grimaud [43]ZOOM * [44]À l'école des Scribes [45]PAROLE D'EXPERT * [46]L'immigration, c'est notre histoire [47]IN SITU * [48]Le tout numérique pour les sciences humaines et sociales * [49]Ça plane pour le CNRS ! * [50]La Renaissance à livre ouvert * [51]Une année autour du soleil * [52]Brèves [53]RENCONTRE AVEC * [54]Guy Guyot, ingénieur [55]HORIZON * [56]Cathy Jackson * [57]Plus de quarante ans de coopération * [58]Brèves [59]GUIDE * [60]3 questions à * [61]Livres * [62]Expositions * [63]Conférences, manifestations... 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Ce document provient de « Affichages * [10]Page spéciale Outils personnels * [11]Essayer la bêta Açai * [12]Créer un compte ou se connecter Rechercher ____________________ Lire Rechercher Navigation * [13]Accueil * [14]Portails thématiques * [15]Index alphabétique * [16]Un article au hasard * [17]Contacter Wikipédia Contribuer * [18]Aide * [19]Communauté * [20]Modifications récentes * [21]Accueil des nouveaux arrivants * [22]Faire un don Boîte à outils * [23]Importer un fichier * [24]Pages spéciales [25]Powered by MediaWiki [26]Wikimedia Foundation * [27]Politique de confidentialité * [28]À propos de Wikipédia * [29]Avertissements Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : * [1]Aller au contenu * [2]Aller à la navigation [3]Le CNRS : Centre national de la recherche scientique Moteur de recherche Rechercher ________________ [ok.gif]-Submit __________________________________________________________________ Vous êtes ici : [4]CNRS > [5]Presse > [6]Journal du CNRS > [7]La musique, pourquoi elle rythme nos vies / N°209 Juin 2007 / La musique > [8]La musique, pourquoi elle rythme nos vies Espace presse > Le journal du CNRS [9]Retour au sommaire La symphonie neuronale L'été arrive et nous rejoue ses tempos endiablés, mélodies fredonnées et autres airs cadencés. Cette année encore, la Fête de la musique est célébrée dans plus de 120 pays. D'où nous vient ce goût pour la musique, partagé par toutes les cultures à toutes les époques ? « La musique offre aux passions le moyen de jouir d'elles-mêmes », disait Nietzsche dans Le gai savoir. Parfois angoissante, souvent apaisante ou stimulante, elle influence les comportements humains. Impossible donc de limiter cet art aux seules sensations auditives ! Alors, des chercheurs du CNRS déjouent les cheminements perceptifs et cognitifs à l'uvre. Ils analysent les signes révélateurs des émotions produites et les processus cérébraux activés par ce langage non verbal, décryptent ce qui apparaît être une véritable stratégie commune de perception Depuis janvier 2006, une grande partie de ces spécialistes français de la musique ont d'ailleurs regroupé leurs savoir-faire dans un projet financé par l'Agence nationale de la recherche (ANR) et intitulé « La spécificité de la musique : contribution de la musique à l'étude des bases neurales et cognitives de la mémoire humaine et applications thérapeutiques ». En effet, étudier la musique sous le rapport de la biologie permet, au-delà des enseignements musicaux, de mieux saisir comment fonctionne le cerveau. Qui n'a jamais eu de frissons dès les premières notes d'un morceau ? Intriguée, Stéphanie Khalfa, chercheuse CNRS au Laboratoire de neurophysiologie et neuropsychologie de l'Inserm, à Marseille, examine les réponses physiologiques du corps humain aux différentes musiques chez cinquante sujets. « Des changements apparaissent très tôt, une à trois secondes après le début de l'écoute. Ils révèlent des émotions de gaieté ou de peur. Les muscles zygomatiques au niveau des pommettes faciales s'activent, la pression sanguine varie et on observe une micro-transpiration au niveau des paumes des mains », explique-t-elle. Quant à notre respiration, elle est entraînée par le tempo mais réagit peu aux autres caractéristiques musicales, comme les graves et aigus ou le volume. De plus, après un stress psychologique induit, une musique apaisante mélodie d'ambiance lente, harmonique et au tempo régulier diminue significativement la concentration sanguine en hormone de stress, dite cortisol, au bout d'un quart d'heure d'écoute. La musique adoucirait donc les murs ? « Toutes n'ont pas cet effet bénéfique, précise Stéphanie Khalfa. Une musique comportant des disparités de rythme et des dissonances, comme la techno, augmente le stress, même lorsqu'elle est appréciée. » cerveau __________________________________________________________________ © D'après P. Plateaux, Cerveau & Psycho n° 19 __________________________________________________________________ D'autres chercheurs, au Laboratoire d'études de l'apprentissage et du développement (LEAD)^1 de Dijon, ont observé des réponses émotionnelles à la musique instrumentale dès 250 millisecondes d'écoute. Ces émotions ne sont pas seulement la conséquence d'effets de surface (explosion sonore, forte dissonance) mais résultent de traitements cognitifs très élaborés, de l'harmonie notamment. Mais par quels processus neuronaux une mélodie peut-elle ainsi stimuler nos émotions ? Les oreilles captent les mouvements de molécules d'air créés par l'instrument de musique ou les baffles du haut-parleur, puis les transforment en influx nerveux. Ensuite, des réseaux distincts du système nerveux central de l'organisme réagissent à l'écoute musicale et au style de musique. Séverine Samson, professeure de psychologie à l'université de Lille et neuropsychologue à l'hôpital de la Salpêtrière à Paris, collabore avec le laboratoire CNRS de neurosciences cognitives et imagerie cérébrale (Lena). Elle observe des patients épileptiques ayant subi une ablation de certaines zones cérébrales pour le traitement de leurs crises. Résultat : « L'amygdale est essentielle à la perception de la peur induite par l'écoute musicale, une lésion d'une seule amygdale entraîne un fort déficit dans le traitement de ce stimulus. Lorsqu'il s'agit de juger des dissonances désagréables dans l'harmonie d'un morceau, ce sont là des structures proches de l'hippocampe qui jouent un rôle déterminant. » cerveau [10]schéma musique __________________________________________________________________ © D'après D. Bailly, Cerveau & Psycho n° 7 Cliquez sur l'image pour l'agrandir. __________________________________________________________________ Paroles et musique Là où s'arrête le pouvoir des mots commence celui de la musique, disait Richard Wagner Les effets d'une mélodie sur notre cerveau sont souvent étudiés à la lumière de ceux d'un matériel sonore complexe mieux connu : le langage. Ces systèmes perceptifs sont liés, mais distincts. D'ailleurs, près de 5 % de la population est « amusicale » congénitale : ces personnes n'ont aucun problème cognitif ou de langage mais ont des problèmes de perception musicale. Par exemple, elles ne détectent pas une fausse note. Depuis plusieurs années, les chercheurs de l'Institut de neurosciences cognitives de la Méditerranée (INCM)^2 à Marseille effectuent des études comparatives entre langage et musique grâce aux techniques d'imagerie, par électroencéphalogramme (EEG) et par résonance magnétique fonctionnelle (IRMf), celle-ci mesurant l'activité cérébrale selon la consommation d'oxygène des zones du cerveau. Ainsi, selon Mireille Besson, directrice de recherche à l'INCM, « le rythme et les règles de l'harmonie ou du contrepoint sollicitent des zones de l'hémisphère gauche souvent attribuées au langage, en particulier à la syntaxe. Mais le timbre de l'instrument stimulerait plutôt l'hémisphère droit. » Bref, la perception du langage comme de la musique s'effectue par étapes, explique Daniele Schön, chercheuse à l'INCM. « Par exemple, dans l'apprentissage d'une langue étrangère, le cerveau segmente d'abord les informations sonores. Puis, du sens est attribué aux chaînes des sons. » Résultat étonnant : la vitesse d'émergence d'un mot est multipliée par trois si l'information est chantée plutôt que parlée ! « D'où l'intérêt des comptines destinées aux jeunes enfants », note Daniele Schön. La quantité d'informations extraite est énorme durant la première minute, puis elle augmente lentement. La mémoire entre en jeu Si plusieurs réseaux neuronaux sont impliqués dans la perception de la musique, comment le cerveau parvient-il à traiter la complexité de l'information musicale ? Les scientifiques savent aujourd'hui qu'il élabore une stratégie basée sur la familiarité, l'apprentissage implicite et la mémoire. Démonstration : Barbara Tillmann, chargée de recherche dans l'unité « Neurosciences sensorielles, comportement, cognition »^3 de Lyon, s'est intéressée à la reconnaissance de mélodies familières. « Après 500 millisecondes d'écoute, les jugements de familiarité des auditeurs se différencient pour des morceaux musicaux connus ou non. » Les réseaux neuronaux impliqués lors de cette perception de la familiarité musicale sont similaires à ceux activés par les odeurs familières, selon ses résultats publiés en février dans la revue Cerebral Cortex^4. femme __________________________________________________________________ © E. Perrin/CNRS Photothèque Une langue étrangère est apprise trois fois plus vite si elle est chantée. Pour observer les zones cérébrales activées, cette femme porte un casque muni de 32 électrodes. Les variations électriques du cerveau (électroencéphalogramme) sont alors reproduites en 3D. __________________________________________________________________ Une part de mémoire à court terme spécifiquement auditive influe également. Laurent Demany, chercheur au laboratoire bordelais « Mouvement adaptation cognition »^5, a observé un phénomène paradoxal dû à cette mémoire. Il a constaté qu'il est possible d'entendre consciemment un mouvement mélodique (un changement de hauteur tonale) entre deux sons successifs alors que pourtant le premier de ces sons a été masqué par un ensemble d'autres sons simultanés et n'a pas été perçu consciemment ! « Cela peut se produire même si les deux sons successifs sont séparés par plusieurs secondes de silence, et s'ils ne sont pas présentés à la même oreille. Le cerveau relie automatiquement des sons dans le temps et détecte des changements indépendamment de l'attention et de la conscience », explique-t-il. « Cette mémoire auditive est hypersensible aux changements de fréquence, et donc de hauteur tonale », précise le chercheur : dans un délai d'une demi-seconde à deux secondes, la mémoire à court terme oublie plus vite l'intensité d'un son que sa hauteur. Après quinze secondes d'écoute d'un morceau musical, un autre processus de mémoire entre en jeu, comme l'a montré Barbara Tillmann : il nous devient plus facile de discriminer avec précision les autres caractéristiques de cet extrait (mélodie, harmonie, etc.). Notre mémoire musicale aurait donc tendance à se bonifier avec le temps d'écoute. Pour détecter les capacités d'apprentissage de notre cerveau, Barbara Tillmann a utilisé avec Bénédicte Poulin-Charronnat, chercheuse au LEAD à Dijon, une nouvelle grammaire musicale établissant des règles d'écriture de suites de notes. Elles ont créé des séquences de cinq et six notes, fréquentes ou impossibles d'après cette grammaire. Elles ont alors testé la sensibilité de quarante personnes à ces règles musicales. « Dans 60 % des cas, les transgressions aux règles suivies sont détectées en moins d'un quart d'heure d'écoute. Les auditeurs ne s'en rendent pas compte, mais ils ont saisi certaines des caractéristiques de la nouvelle structure musicale », commente Bénédicte Poulin-Charronnat. Cet apprentissage implicite existe au sein de chaque culture, où une musique environnante est omniprésente. Nous sommes tous des musiciens en herbe Mais alors, il n'y aurait aucune différence entre musiciens et non-musiciens, dès lors que chacun perçoit de manière implicite et rapide la musique ? En fait, les experts sont plus performants pour distinguer la dimension élémentaire du son musical (la hauteur, la durée ou l'intensité), mais lorsqu'il s'agit de comprendre des structures des extraits, la perception musicale des experts et des non-experts est proche. Ainsi, d'après Emmanuel Bigand, directeur du LEAD, qui a mené de nombreux tests entre musiciens et non-musiciens, « les novices ont des connaissances très sophistiquées, même s'ils ne savent pas les exprimer ». « Et ce dès l'âge de six ans », annonce le directeur de recherche. Pour le découvrir, il a analysé avec son équipe les attentes perceptives qui se forment automatiquement à l'écoute d'un morceau de musique (tâche d'amorçage). Bilan : tous les auditeurs, issus du conservatoire ou non, anticipent les mêmes structures musicales complexes (harmoniques, par exemple). De plus, en situation de découverte, la forme d'un morceau est difficilement détectée si sa durée dépasse les trente secondes, même si l'on est musicien de haut niveau. C'est en situation d'écoute répétée que cette forme se précise. Une écoute passive quotidienne de musique permet donc un apprentissage implicite, dont le traitement est plus précis et plus rapide chez les musiciens. Mireille Besson, de l'INCM, a cherché avec son équipe à préciser cette sensibilité affinée : « Si la même mélodie est jouée un tout petit peu plus aiguë ou un tout petit peu plus grave (d'un cinquième de ton, c'est-à-dire d'un cinquième de la différence entre do et ré par exemple), cette différence est facilement perçue par les musiciens mais pas par les non-musiciens » (72 % des non-musiciens ne la perçoivent pas, contre 35 % des musiciens). Cela relève-t-il d'une prédisposition génétique ? Vingt enfants inexpérimentés ont suivi un entraînement à la musique. Bilan : en six mois, ils ont développé les mêmes capacités auditives que celles connues chez des enfants ayant suivi quatre ans de conservatoire. L'oreille musicale n'est donc pas innée, elle s'acquiert ! François Madurell est musicologue, responsable du groupe Museco à l'Observatoire musical français et collaborateur du LEAD. Selon lui, ces résultats confirment l'idée que « la ségrégation entre musique pour auditeurs profanes et musique savante relève de connotations sociales. Les représentations liées à certains répertoires peuvent provoquer des refus, mais il n'y a pas d'obstacle cognitif. Par exemple, les réticences face à la musique de chambre dépendent souvent de facteurs extérieurs à la musique, comme la tenue vestimentaire des musiciens, les codes de comportement lors du concert et le sentiment que cette musique est destinée à des catégories sociales privilégiées. » Quant à l'oreille absolue, elle consiste à « identifier la hauteur précise d'un son et à le nommer sans l'aide d'une note de référence. De grands musiciens ne l'ont pas, elle serait davantage liée à un apprentissage instrumental précoce, avant quatre ans. » Elle favorise la reconnaissance de chaque note sans influer sur la perception et l'appréciation d'un morceau dans son ensemble. Parfois même, l'oreille absolue est ressentie comme une gêne durant l'écoute musicale. Pour François Madurell, la qualité de l'oreille du futur musicien pourrait dépendre du type d'apprentissage. Les méthodes traditionnelles reposent sur un couplage « visuo-moteur » : l'élève associe la lecture d'une note à un geste sur l'instrument. « Des apprentissages privilégiant d'autres couplages (audition/chant et audition/action motrice) seraient plus propices au développement de l'écoute intérieure et de l'intelligence musicale. » Bref, l'enseignement de la musique permet de développer la rapidité d'analyse et la sensibilité des musiciens. Mais les capacités de perception lors de l'écoute restent très proches entre experts et profanes. Thérapies musicales Si la musique adoucit les murs, soigne-elle les maux ? Que pensent nos chercheurs de la musicothérapie ? Des études récentes menées chez des enfants dyslexiques (problèmes de lecture et d'écriture) et des personnes souffrant de la maladie d'Alzheimer démontrent peu à peu l'intérêt de la musique à stimuler le cerveau. Mireille Besson et Michel Habib, de l'INCM de Marseille, ont fait écouter à des jeunes dyslexiques de dix ans des comptines, en variant la hauteur tonale. enfant dyslex __________________________________________________________________ © E. Perrin/CNRS Photothèque Etude de la perception musicale des sons graves à aigus d'un enfant dyslexique. __________________________________________________________________ « Même lorsque la variation de hauteur est très perceptible par des enfants qui lisent normalement, 45 % des enfants dyslexiques ne l'entendent pas. » Après un entraînement phonologique de huit semaines, leur perception auditive est améliorée. « Ils ne font plus d'erreur sur ces grandes variations d'un demi-ton, seulement 3 % d'entre eux se trompent encore. Cette sensibilité sonore augmente leurs capacités de lecture. Pourquoi ? Peut-être parce que s'ils ne reconnaissent pas les différences entre certains sons de leur langue, ils ne les repèrent pas à l'écrit », propose la chercheuse. D'autres résultats montrent également de fortes relations entre la sensibilité des dyslexiques à la prosodie, c'est-à-dire à la musique du langage (intonation des voix, etc.), et le développement des capacités de lecture. La musique pourrait alors pallier certains troubles de la dyslexie en favorisant la sensibilité auditive. Et ce, sans confronter l'enfant à son déficit, à la différence des entraînements actuels basés sur des exercices de langage. À l'université de Caen, Hervé Platel, professeur de neuropsychologie, étudie des patients déments Alzheimer en clinique. « Malgré les troubles avérés du langage et des concepts sémantiques, certaines capacités musicales sont conservées », explique Hervé Platel. Pour savoir si un apprentissage musical est encore possible chez ces patients, le chercheur leur a organisé six séances d'une heure et demie d'enseignement de chansons nouvelles. « Ils sont effectivement capables de restituer une mélodie lorsqu'on les aide à retrouver les paroles de la chanson. Maintenant, il faut déterminer quels substrats cérébraux sont alors activés, car l'apprentissage ne s'effectue pas pour des textes présentés sans mélodie. » À suivre donc Décidément, la musique n'a pas fini de jouer avec notre corps et notre esprit ! Aude Olivier Du disque dur au disque d'or piano __________________________________________________________________ © L. Médard/CNRS Photothèque Jean-Claude Risset, Médaille d'or du CNRS, est l'un des pionniers de l'informatique musicale et de la synthèse sonore. __________________________________________________________________ Il y a cinquante ans, dans l'enceinte des célèbres laboratoires Bell Telephone dans le New Jersey, Max Mathews réalisait le premier enregistrement numérique et aussi la première pièce musicale synthétisée par un ordinateur, une composition de 17 secondes. Mathews, ingénieur et musicien américain, avait compris avant tout le monde que ces énormes calculateurs ouvraient un champ d'exploration musicale illimité. Très vite, s'est formé autour de lui un groupe de pionniers de l'informatique musicale. Au carrefour de la programmation, de l'acoustique, de la psychologie de la perception auditive et de la musique contemporaine, ce groupe hétéroclite a découvert la synthèse sonore, c'est-à-dire les procédés pour créer des sons à partir de programmes informatiques. Jean-Claude Risset, Médaille d'or du CNRS en 1999, qui avait rejoint les laboratoires Bell en 1964, figure parmi ces pionniers. Ce chercheur et compositeur participera plus tard à la création de l'Ircam (Institut de recherche et coordination acoustique/musique) avec Pierre Boulez, avant de rejoindre le Laboratoire de mécanique et d'acoustique (LMA) du CNRS à Marseille, où il travaille actuellement. « Ce n'étaient pas tellement les applications commerciales de ces travaux qui nous motivaient à cette époque. Nous cherchions surtout à créer une nouvelle musique avec de nouvelles sonorités. Étant donné que tous les sons peuvent être décrits par des nombres, l'ordinateur permet non seulement de composer avec des sons, mais aussi de composer les sons eux-mêmes. » Jean-Claude Risset crée alors quelques-unes des premières uvres musicales importantes, comme la suite Little Boy, qui ne comprend que des sons synthétiques n'existant pas dans le monde réel. Dans le même temps, il poursuit son travail de synthèse sonore et élabore un important catalogue de sons synthétiques. Au fil des ans, les progrès de l'informatique musicale suivent de près l'accroissement de la puissance des ordinateurs. En 1967, John Chowning met au point la synthèse musicale par modulation de fréquence, un procédé simple pour créer et contrôler le timbre des sons. Cette invention, dont le brevet est l'un des plus lucratifs de l'université Stanford, permet l'apparition des premiers synthétiseurs Yamaha, qui ne sont autre chose que des ordinateurs dédiés exclusivement à la musique. C'est ainsi que l'informatique musicale, qui était jusque-là un domaine réservé à la musique d'avant-garde, prend d'assaut la scène pop sous l'impulsion de groupes comme Kraftwerk, puis de la techno et de tous ses avatars. À présent, la synthèse sonore est à la portée de quiconque possède un PC, et les catalogues de sons en accès libre sont extraordinairement fournis. Cependant, la recherche en informatique musicale découvre constamment de nouvelles possibilités. Ainsi, au LMA, l'équipe de Daniel Arfib et Jean-Claude Risset cherche à sortir l'informatique musicale de son environnement virtuel en inventant des instruments de musique basés sur l'ordinateur. « Ces instruments utilisent des périphériques comme des joysticks ou des tablettes graphiques. Nous essayons ensuite que le jeu sur ces instruments soit aussi fin que celui sur un instrument classique. Pour cela, il faut que les informations qui reviennent à l'utilisateur (le feed-back visuel et auditif) lorsqu'il manipule l'instrument soient adaptées et cohérentes », explique Daniel Arfib. Perpétuant l'esprit des pionniers de l'informatique musicale, ces travaux sont à la fois une tentative pour repousser les limites technologiques et une exploration artistique d'avant-garde. S.E. CONTACTS : Jean-Claude Risset, [11]jcrisset@lma.cnrs-mrs.fr Daniel Arfib, [12]arfib@lma.cnrs-mrs.fr Glossaire Tempo : il détermine la vitesse d'exécution d'une pièce musicale. Il est traditionnellement indiqué par des termes italiens comme largo pour un tempo lent, andante pour un tempo modéré ou allegro pour un tempo rapide. Rythme : c'est l'un des éléments qui permettent de caractériser une phrase musicale. Le rythme détermine la durée des notes les unes par rapport aux autres. Lorsqu'on parle d'un rythme dans le sens d'une forme musicale (valse, tango, bossa), il s'agit d'une brève cellule rythmique qui se répète et donne son caractère à la pièce. Dissonance : elle correspond à un ensemble de sons dont la succession ou la simultanéité est désagréable ou bien produit un effet de tension musicale qui est parfois recherché. L'impression de dissonance varie selon le courant culturel, l'époque et les individus. Harmonie : c'est l'art d'enchaîner des accords, de combiner des sons entre eux pour les rendre agréables à l'oreille. Contrepoint : méthode de composition dans laquelle on donne plus d'importance à la mélodie qu'à la combinaison de plusieurs sons superposés. Timbre : comparé souvent à la couleur, il représente la différence perçue par l'auditeur entre deux sons de même hauteur et de même intensité. Le timbre est formé par le rapport entre les différents harmoniques de la note jouée ou chantée. Hauteur : la hauteur d'un son est liée à sa fréquence, c'est-à-dire à la vitesse de vibration du son dans l'air mesurée en hertz. Plus la fréquence est élevée, plus le son « monte » dans les aigus ; plus la fréquence est faible, plus il « descend » dans les graves. Intensité : elle correspond au volume d'un son fort ou faible mesuré en décibels (dBA) selon l'amplitude de la vibration produite. Écoute intérieure : capacité d'entendre ce que l'on va jouer avant de le jouer. Notes : 1. Laboratoire CNRS / Université Dijon. 2. Institut CNRS / Université Aix-Marseille-II. 3. Unité CNRS / Université Lyon-I. 4. Cerebral Cortex Advance Access, 8 fév. 2007, DOI:10.1093/cercor/bhl173. 5. Laboratoire CNRS / Universités Bordeaux-I et II. Contact > Stéphanie Khalfa, [13]skhalfa@skhalfa.com > Séverine Samson, [14]severine.samson@univ-lille3.fr > Mireille Besson, [15]mireille.besson@incm.cnrs-mrs.fr > Daniele Schön, [16]daniele.schon@incm.cnrs-mrs.fr > Barbara Tillmann, [17]btillmann@olfac.univ-lyon1.fr > Laurent Demany, [18]laurent.demany@psyac.u-bordeaux2.fr > Bénédicte Poulin-Charronnat, [19]benedicte.poulin@u-bourgogne.fr > Emmanuel Bigand, [20]bigand@u-bourgogne.fr > François Madurell, [21]francois.madurell@free.fr > Hervé Platel, [22]herve.platel@unicaen.fr __________________________________________________________________ [23]Haut de page [Archives des numéros......................................] L'enquête [24]La musique, pourquoi elle rythme nos vies [25]VIE DES LABOS * [26]Les protéines dans le sang * [27]Mais qui sont nos députés ? * [28]Traquer le VIH dans ses retranchements * [29]Réchauffement climatique : n'oublions pas les polluants ! * [30]Culture du manioc : les clefs du succès * [31]Des Gallo-Romains très à cheval sur les rituels * [32]Brèves * [33]La supraconduction billes en tête * [34]Une protéine qui travaille à l'il * [35]Jurassique parc [36]INNOVATION * [37]Deux gouttes de liquide dans le numérique * [38]Un logiciel qui fait le lien * [39]Fils de cristal * [40]Brèves [41]JEUNES CHERCHEURS * [42]Emmanuel Grimaud [43]ZOOM * [44]À l'école des Scribes [45]PAROLE D'EXPERT * [46]L'immigration, c'est notre histoire [47]IN SITU * [48]Le tout numérique pour les sciences humaines et sociales * [49]Ça plane pour le CNRS ! * [50]La Renaissance à livre ouvert * [51]Une année autour du soleil * [52]Brèves [53]RENCONTRE AVEC * [54]Guy Guyot, ingénieur [55]HORIZON * [56]Cathy Jackson * [57]Plus de quarante ans de coopération * [58]Brèves [59]GUIDE * [60]3 questions à * [61]Livres * [62]Expositions * [63]Conférences, manifestations... 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Ce document provient de « Affichages * [10]Page spéciale Outils personnels * [11]Essayer la bêta Açai * [12]Créer un compte ou se connecter Rechercher ____________________ Lire Rechercher Navigation * [13]Accueil * [14]Portails thématiques * [15]Index alphabétique * [16]Un article au hasard * [17]Contacter Wikipédia Contribuer * [18]Aide * [19]Communauté * [20]Modifications récentes * [21]Accueil des nouveaux arrivants * [22]Faire un don Boîte à outils * [23]Importer un fichier * [24]Pages spéciales [25]Powered by MediaWiki [26]Wikimedia Foundation * [27]Politique de confidentialité * [28]À propos de Wikipédia * [29]Avertissements Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : * [1]Aller au contenu * [2]Aller à la navigation [3]Le CNRS : Centre national de la recherche scientique Moteur de recherche Rechercher ________________ [ok.gif]-Submit __________________________________________________________________ Vous êtes ici : [4]CNRS > [5]Presse > [6]Journal du CNRS > [7]La musique, pourquoi elle rythme nos vies / N°209 Juin 2007 / La musique > [8]La musique, pourquoi elle rythme nos vies Espace presse > Le journal du CNRS [9]Retour au sommaire La symphonie neuronale L'été arrive et nous rejoue ses tempos endiablés, mélodies fredonnées et autres airs cadencés. Cette année encore, la Fête de la musique est célébrée dans plus de 120 pays. D'où nous vient ce goût pour la musique, partagé par toutes les cultures à toutes les époques ? « La musique offre aux passions le moyen de jouir d'elles-mêmes », disait Nietzsche dans Le gai savoir. Parfois angoissante, souvent apaisante ou stimulante, elle influence les comportements humains. Impossible donc de limiter cet art aux seules sensations auditives ! Alors, des chercheurs du CNRS déjouent les cheminements perceptifs et cognitifs à l'uvre. Ils analysent les signes révélateurs des émotions produites et les processus cérébraux activés par ce langage non verbal, décryptent ce qui apparaît être une véritable stratégie commune de perception Depuis janvier 2006, une grande partie de ces spécialistes français de la musique ont d'ailleurs regroupé leurs savoir-faire dans un projet financé par l'Agence nationale de la recherche (ANR) et intitulé « La spécificité de la musique : contribution de la musique à l'étude des bases neurales et cognitives de la mémoire humaine et applications thérapeutiques ». En effet, étudier la musique sous le rapport de la biologie permet, au-delà des enseignements musicaux, de mieux saisir comment fonctionne le cerveau. Qui n'a jamais eu de frissons dès les premières notes d'un morceau ? Intriguée, Stéphanie Khalfa, chercheuse CNRS au Laboratoire de neurophysiologie et neuropsychologie de l'Inserm, à Marseille, examine les réponses physiologiques du corps humain aux différentes musiques chez cinquante sujets. « Des changements apparaissent très tôt, une à trois secondes après le début de l'écoute. Ils révèlent des émotions de gaieté ou de peur. Les muscles zygomatiques au niveau des pommettes faciales s'activent, la pression sanguine varie et on observe une micro-transpiration au niveau des paumes des mains », explique-t-elle. Quant à notre respiration, elle est entraînée par le tempo mais réagit peu aux autres caractéristiques musicales, comme les graves et aigus ou le volume. De plus, après un stress psychologique induit, une musique apaisante mélodie d'ambiance lente, harmonique et au tempo régulier diminue significativement la concentration sanguine en hormone de stress, dite cortisol, au bout d'un quart d'heure d'écoute. La musique adoucirait donc les murs ? « Toutes n'ont pas cet effet bénéfique, précise Stéphanie Khalfa. Une musique comportant des disparités de rythme et des dissonances, comme la techno, augmente le stress, même lorsqu'elle est appréciée. » cerveau __________________________________________________________________ © D'après P. Plateaux, Cerveau & Psycho n° 19 __________________________________________________________________ D'autres chercheurs, au Laboratoire d'études de l'apprentissage et du développement (LEAD)^1 de Dijon, ont observé des réponses émotionnelles à la musique instrumentale dès 250 millisecondes d'écoute. Ces émotions ne sont pas seulement la conséquence d'effets de surface (explosion sonore, forte dissonance) mais résultent de traitements cognitifs très élaborés, de l'harmonie notamment. Mais par quels processus neuronaux une mélodie peut-elle ainsi stimuler nos émotions ? Les oreilles captent les mouvements de molécules d'air créés par l'instrument de musique ou les baffles du haut-parleur, puis les transforment en influx nerveux. Ensuite, des réseaux distincts du système nerveux central de l'organisme réagissent à l'écoute musicale et au style de musique. Séverine Samson, professeure de psychologie à l'université de Lille et neuropsychologue à l'hôpital de la Salpêtrière à Paris, collabore avec le laboratoire CNRS de neurosciences cognitives et imagerie cérébrale (Lena). Elle observe des patients épileptiques ayant subi une ablation de certaines zones cérébrales pour le traitement de leurs crises. Résultat : « L'amygdale est essentielle à la perception de la peur induite par l'écoute musicale, une lésion d'une seule amygdale entraîne un fort déficit dans le traitement de ce stimulus. Lorsqu'il s'agit de juger des dissonances désagréables dans l'harmonie d'un morceau, ce sont là des structures proches de l'hippocampe qui jouent un rôle déterminant. » cerveau [10]schéma musique __________________________________________________________________ © D'après D. Bailly, Cerveau & Psycho n° 7 Cliquez sur l'image pour l'agrandir. __________________________________________________________________ Paroles et musique Là où s'arrête le pouvoir des mots commence celui de la musique, disait Richard Wagner Les effets d'une mélodie sur notre cerveau sont souvent étudiés à la lumière de ceux d'un matériel sonore complexe mieux connu : le langage. Ces systèmes perceptifs sont liés, mais distincts. D'ailleurs, près de 5 % de la population est « amusicale » congénitale : ces personnes n'ont aucun problème cognitif ou de langage mais ont des problèmes de perception musicale. Par exemple, elles ne détectent pas une fausse note. Depuis plusieurs années, les chercheurs de l'Institut de neurosciences cognitives de la Méditerranée (INCM)^2 à Marseille effectuent des études comparatives entre langage et musique grâce aux techniques d'imagerie, par électroencéphalogramme (EEG) et par résonance magnétique fonctionnelle (IRMf), celle-ci mesurant l'activité cérébrale selon la consommation d'oxygène des zones du cerveau. Ainsi, selon Mireille Besson, directrice de recherche à l'INCM, « le rythme et les règles de l'harmonie ou du contrepoint sollicitent des zones de l'hémisphère gauche souvent attribuées au langage, en particulier à la syntaxe. Mais le timbre de l'instrument stimulerait plutôt l'hémisphère droit. » Bref, la perception du langage comme de la musique s'effectue par étapes, explique Daniele Schön, chercheuse à l'INCM. « Par exemple, dans l'apprentissage d'une langue étrangère, le cerveau segmente d'abord les informations sonores. Puis, du sens est attribué aux chaînes des sons. » Résultat étonnant : la vitesse d'émergence d'un mot est multipliée par trois si l'information est chantée plutôt que parlée ! « D'où l'intérêt des comptines destinées aux jeunes enfants », note Daniele Schön. La quantité d'informations extraite est énorme durant la première minute, puis elle augmente lentement. La mémoire entre en jeu Si plusieurs réseaux neuronaux sont impliqués dans la perception de la musique, comment le cerveau parvient-il à traiter la complexité de l'information musicale ? Les scientifiques savent aujourd'hui qu'il élabore une stratégie basée sur la familiarité, l'apprentissage implicite et la mémoire. Démonstration : Barbara Tillmann, chargée de recherche dans l'unité « Neurosciences sensorielles, comportement, cognition »^3 de Lyon, s'est intéressée à la reconnaissance de mélodies familières. « Après 500 millisecondes d'écoute, les jugements de familiarité des auditeurs se différencient pour des morceaux musicaux connus ou non. » Les réseaux neuronaux impliqués lors de cette perception de la familiarité musicale sont similaires à ceux activés par les odeurs familières, selon ses résultats publiés en février dans la revue Cerebral Cortex^4. femme __________________________________________________________________ © E. Perrin/CNRS Photothèque Une langue étrangère est apprise trois fois plus vite si elle est chantée. Pour observer les zones cérébrales activées, cette femme porte un casque muni de 32 électrodes. Les variations électriques du cerveau (électroencéphalogramme) sont alors reproduites en 3D. __________________________________________________________________ Une part de mémoire à court terme spécifiquement auditive influe également. Laurent Demany, chercheur au laboratoire bordelais « Mouvement adaptation cognition »^5, a observé un phénomène paradoxal dû à cette mémoire. Il a constaté qu'il est possible d'entendre consciemment un mouvement mélodique (un changement de hauteur tonale) entre deux sons successifs alors que pourtant le premier de ces sons a été masqué par un ensemble d'autres sons simultanés et n'a pas été perçu consciemment ! « Cela peut se produire même si les deux sons successifs sont séparés par plusieurs secondes de silence, et s'ils ne sont pas présentés à la même oreille. Le cerveau relie automatiquement des sons dans le temps et détecte des changements indépendamment de l'attention et de la conscience », explique-t-il. « Cette mémoire auditive est hypersensible aux changements de fréquence, et donc de hauteur tonale », précise le chercheur : dans un délai d'une demi-seconde à deux secondes, la mémoire à court terme oublie plus vite l'intensité d'un son que sa hauteur. Après quinze secondes d'écoute d'un morceau musical, un autre processus de mémoire entre en jeu, comme l'a montré Barbara Tillmann : il nous devient plus facile de discriminer avec précision les autres caractéristiques de cet extrait (mélodie, harmonie, etc.). Notre mémoire musicale aurait donc tendance à se bonifier avec le temps d'écoute. Pour détecter les capacités d'apprentissage de notre cerveau, Barbara Tillmann a utilisé avec Bénédicte Poulin-Charronnat, chercheuse au LEAD à Dijon, une nouvelle grammaire musicale établissant des règles d'écriture de suites de notes. Elles ont créé des séquences de cinq et six notes, fréquentes ou impossibles d'après cette grammaire. Elles ont alors testé la sensibilité de quarante personnes à ces règles musicales. « Dans 60 % des cas, les transgressions aux règles suivies sont détectées en moins d'un quart d'heure d'écoute. Les auditeurs ne s'en rendent pas compte, mais ils ont saisi certaines des caractéristiques de la nouvelle structure musicale », commente Bénédicte Poulin-Charronnat. Cet apprentissage implicite existe au sein de chaque culture, où une musique environnante est omniprésente. Nous sommes tous des musiciens en herbe Mais alors, il n'y aurait aucune différence entre musiciens et non-musiciens, dès lors que chacun perçoit de manière implicite et rapide la musique ? En fait, les experts sont plus performants pour distinguer la dimension élémentaire du son musical (la hauteur, la durée ou l'intensité), mais lorsqu'il s'agit de comprendre des structures des extraits, la perception musicale des experts et des non-experts est proche. Ainsi, d'après Emmanuel Bigand, directeur du LEAD, qui a mené de nombreux tests entre musiciens et non-musiciens, « les novices ont des connaissances très sophistiquées, même s'ils ne savent pas les exprimer ». « Et ce dès l'âge de six ans », annonce le directeur de recherche. Pour le découvrir, il a analysé avec son équipe les attentes perceptives qui se forment automatiquement à l'écoute d'un morceau de musique (tâche d'amorçage). Bilan : tous les auditeurs, issus du conservatoire ou non, anticipent les mêmes structures musicales complexes (harmoniques, par exemple). De plus, en situation de découverte, la forme d'un morceau est difficilement détectée si sa durée dépasse les trente secondes, même si l'on est musicien de haut niveau. C'est en situation d'écoute répétée que cette forme se précise. Une écoute passive quotidienne de musique permet donc un apprentissage implicite, dont le traitement est plus précis et plus rapide chez les musiciens. Mireille Besson, de l'INCM, a cherché avec son équipe à préciser cette sensibilité affinée : « Si la même mélodie est jouée un tout petit peu plus aiguë ou un tout petit peu plus grave (d'un cinquième de ton, c'est-à-dire d'un cinquième de la différence entre do et ré par exemple), cette différence est facilement perçue par les musiciens mais pas par les non-musiciens » (72 % des non-musiciens ne la perçoivent pas, contre 35 % des musiciens). Cela relève-t-il d'une prédisposition génétique ? Vingt enfants inexpérimentés ont suivi un entraînement à la musique. Bilan : en six mois, ils ont développé les mêmes capacités auditives que celles connues chez des enfants ayant suivi quatre ans de conservatoire. L'oreille musicale n'est donc pas innée, elle s'acquiert ! François Madurell est musicologue, responsable du groupe Museco à l'Observatoire musical français et collaborateur du LEAD. Selon lui, ces résultats confirment l'idée que « la ségrégation entre musique pour auditeurs profanes et musique savante relève de connotations sociales. Les représentations liées à certains répertoires peuvent provoquer des refus, mais il n'y a pas d'obstacle cognitif. Par exemple, les réticences face à la musique de chambre dépendent souvent de facteurs extérieurs à la musique, comme la tenue vestimentaire des musiciens, les codes de comportement lors du concert et le sentiment que cette musique est destinée à des catégories sociales privilégiées. » Quant à l'oreille absolue, elle consiste à « identifier la hauteur précise d'un son et à le nommer sans l'aide d'une note de référence. De grands musiciens ne l'ont pas, elle serait davantage liée à un apprentissage instrumental précoce, avant quatre ans. » Elle favorise la reconnaissance de chaque note sans influer sur la perception et l'appréciation d'un morceau dans son ensemble. Parfois même, l'oreille absolue est ressentie comme une gêne durant l'écoute musicale. Pour François Madurell, la qualité de l'oreille du futur musicien pourrait dépendre du type d'apprentissage. Les méthodes traditionnelles reposent sur un couplage « visuo-moteur » : l'élève associe la lecture d'une note à un geste sur l'instrument. « Des apprentissages privilégiant d'autres couplages (audition/chant et audition/action motrice) seraient plus propices au développement de l'écoute intérieure et de l'intelligence musicale. » Bref, l'enseignement de la musique permet de développer la rapidité d'analyse et la sensibilité des musiciens. Mais les capacités de perception lors de l'écoute restent très proches entre experts et profanes. Thérapies musicales Si la musique adoucit les murs, soigne-elle les maux ? Que pensent nos chercheurs de la musicothérapie ? Des études récentes menées chez des enfants dyslexiques (problèmes de lecture et d'écriture) et des personnes souffrant de la maladie d'Alzheimer démontrent peu à peu l'intérêt de la musique à stimuler le cerveau. Mireille Besson et Michel Habib, de l'INCM de Marseille, ont fait écouter à des jeunes dyslexiques de dix ans des comptines, en variant la hauteur tonale. enfant dyslex __________________________________________________________________ © E. Perrin/CNRS Photothèque Etude de la perception musicale des sons graves à aigus d'un enfant dyslexique. __________________________________________________________________ « Même lorsque la variation de hauteur est très perceptible par des enfants qui lisent normalement, 45 % des enfants dyslexiques ne l'entendent pas. » Après un entraînement phonologique de huit semaines, leur perception auditive est améliorée. « Ils ne font plus d'erreur sur ces grandes variations d'un demi-ton, seulement 3 % d'entre eux se trompent encore. Cette sensibilité sonore augmente leurs capacités de lecture. Pourquoi ? Peut-être parce que s'ils ne reconnaissent pas les différences entre certains sons de leur langue, ils ne les repèrent pas à l'écrit », propose la chercheuse. D'autres résultats montrent également de fortes relations entre la sensibilité des dyslexiques à la prosodie, c'est-à-dire à la musique du langage (intonation des voix, etc.), et le développement des capacités de lecture. La musique pourrait alors pallier certains troubles de la dyslexie en favorisant la sensibilité auditive. Et ce, sans confronter l'enfant à son déficit, à la différence des entraînements actuels basés sur des exercices de langage. À l'université de Caen, Hervé Platel, professeur de neuropsychologie, étudie des patients déments Alzheimer en clinique. « Malgré les troubles avérés du langage et des concepts sémantiques, certaines capacités musicales sont conservées », explique Hervé Platel. Pour savoir si un apprentissage musical est encore possible chez ces patients, le chercheur leur a organisé six séances d'une heure et demie d'enseignement de chansons nouvelles. « Ils sont effectivement capables de restituer une mélodie lorsqu'on les aide à retrouver les paroles de la chanson. Maintenant, il faut déterminer quels substrats cérébraux sont alors activés, car l'apprentissage ne s'effectue pas pour des textes présentés sans mélodie. » À suivre donc Décidément, la musique n'a pas fini de jouer avec notre corps et notre esprit ! Aude Olivier Du disque dur au disque d'or piano __________________________________________________________________ © L. Médard/CNRS Photothèque Jean-Claude Risset, Médaille d'or du CNRS, est l'un des pionniers de l'informatique musicale et de la synthèse sonore. __________________________________________________________________ Il y a cinquante ans, dans l'enceinte des célèbres laboratoires Bell Telephone dans le New Jersey, Max Mathews réalisait le premier enregistrement numérique et aussi la première pièce musicale synthétisée par un ordinateur, une composition de 17 secondes. Mathews, ingénieur et musicien américain, avait compris avant tout le monde que ces énormes calculateurs ouvraient un champ d'exploration musicale illimité. Très vite, s'est formé autour de lui un groupe de pionniers de l'informatique musicale. Au carrefour de la programmation, de l'acoustique, de la psychologie de la perception auditive et de la musique contemporaine, ce groupe hétéroclite a découvert la synthèse sonore, c'est-à-dire les procédés pour créer des sons à partir de programmes informatiques. Jean-Claude Risset, Médaille d'or du CNRS en 1999, qui avait rejoint les laboratoires Bell en 1964, figure parmi ces pionniers. Ce chercheur et compositeur participera plus tard à la création de l'Ircam (Institut de recherche et coordination acoustique/musique) avec Pierre Boulez, avant de rejoindre le Laboratoire de mécanique et d'acoustique (LMA) du CNRS à Marseille, où il travaille actuellement. « Ce n'étaient pas tellement les applications commerciales de ces travaux qui nous motivaient à cette époque. Nous cherchions surtout à créer une nouvelle musique avec de nouvelles sonorités. Étant donné que tous les sons peuvent être décrits par des nombres, l'ordinateur permet non seulement de composer avec des sons, mais aussi de composer les sons eux-mêmes. » Jean-Claude Risset crée alors quelques-unes des premières uvres musicales importantes, comme la suite Little Boy, qui ne comprend que des sons synthétiques n'existant pas dans le monde réel. Dans le même temps, il poursuit son travail de synthèse sonore et élabore un important catalogue de sons synthétiques. Au fil des ans, les progrès de l'informatique musicale suivent de près l'accroissement de la puissance des ordinateurs. En 1967, John Chowning met au point la synthèse musicale par modulation de fréquence, un procédé simple pour créer et contrôler le timbre des sons. Cette invention, dont le brevet est l'un des plus lucratifs de l'université Stanford, permet l'apparition des premiers synthétiseurs Yamaha, qui ne sont autre chose que des ordinateurs dédiés exclusivement à la musique. C'est ainsi que l'informatique musicale, qui était jusque-là un domaine réservé à la musique d'avant-garde, prend d'assaut la scène pop sous l'impulsion de groupes comme Kraftwerk, puis de la techno et de tous ses avatars. À présent, la synthèse sonore est à la portée de quiconque possède un PC, et les catalogues de sons en accès libre sont extraordinairement fournis. Cependant, la recherche en informatique musicale découvre constamment de nouvelles possibilités. Ainsi, au LMA, l'équipe de Daniel Arfib et Jean-Claude Risset cherche à sortir l'informatique musicale de son environnement virtuel en inventant des instruments de musique basés sur l'ordinateur. « Ces instruments utilisent des périphériques comme des joysticks ou des tablettes graphiques. Nous essayons ensuite que le jeu sur ces instruments soit aussi fin que celui sur un instrument classique. Pour cela, il faut que les informations qui reviennent à l'utilisateur (le feed-back visuel et auditif) lorsqu'il manipule l'instrument soient adaptées et cohérentes », explique Daniel Arfib. Perpétuant l'esprit des pionniers de l'informatique musicale, ces travaux sont à la fois une tentative pour repousser les limites technologiques et une exploration artistique d'avant-garde. S.E. CONTACTS : Jean-Claude Risset, [11]jcrisset@lma.cnrs-mrs.fr Daniel Arfib, [12]arfib@lma.cnrs-mrs.fr Glossaire Tempo : il détermine la vitesse d'exécution d'une pièce musicale. Il est traditionnellement indiqué par des termes italiens comme largo pour un tempo lent, andante pour un tempo modéré ou allegro pour un tempo rapide. Rythme : c'est l'un des éléments qui permettent de caractériser une phrase musicale. Le rythme détermine la durée des notes les unes par rapport aux autres. Lorsqu'on parle d'un rythme dans le sens d'une forme musicale (valse, tango, bossa), il s'agit d'une brève cellule rythmique qui se répète et donne son caractère à la pièce. Dissonance : elle correspond à un ensemble de sons dont la succession ou la simultanéité est désagréable ou bien produit un effet de tension musicale qui est parfois recherché. L'impression de dissonance varie selon le courant culturel, l'époque et les individus. Harmonie : c'est l'art d'enchaîner des accords, de combiner des sons entre eux pour les rendre agréables à l'oreille. Contrepoint : méthode de composition dans laquelle on donne plus d'importance à la mélodie qu'à la combinaison de plusieurs sons superposés. Timbre : comparé souvent à la couleur, il représente la différence perçue par l'auditeur entre deux sons de même hauteur et de même intensité. Le timbre est formé par le rapport entre les différents harmoniques de la note jouée ou chantée. Hauteur : la hauteur d'un son est liée à sa fréquence, c'est-à-dire à la vitesse de vibration du son dans l'air mesurée en hertz. Plus la fréquence est élevée, plus le son « monte » dans les aigus ; plus la fréquence est faible, plus il « descend » dans les graves. Intensité : elle correspond au volume d'un son fort ou faible mesuré en décibels (dBA) selon l'amplitude de la vibration produite. Écoute intérieure : capacité d'entendre ce que l'on va jouer avant de le jouer. Notes : 1. Laboratoire CNRS / Université Dijon. 2. Institut CNRS / Université Aix-Marseille-II. 3. Unité CNRS / Université Lyon-I. 4. Cerebral Cortex Advance Access, 8 fév. 2007, DOI:10.1093/cercor/bhl173. 5. Laboratoire CNRS / Universités Bordeaux-I et II. Contact > Stéphanie Khalfa, [13]skhalfa@skhalfa.com > Séverine Samson, [14]severine.samson@univ-lille3.fr > Mireille Besson, [15]mireille.besson@incm.cnrs-mrs.fr > Daniele Schön, [16]daniele.schon@incm.cnrs-mrs.fr > Barbara Tillmann, [17]btillmann@olfac.univ-lyon1.fr > Laurent Demany, [18]laurent.demany@psyac.u-bordeaux2.fr > Bénédicte Poulin-Charronnat, [19]benedicte.poulin@u-bourgogne.fr > Emmanuel Bigand, [20]bigand@u-bourgogne.fr > François Madurell, [21]francois.madurell@free.fr > Hervé Platel, [22]herve.platel@unicaen.fr __________________________________________________________________ [23]Haut de page [Archives des numéros......................................] L'enquête [24]La musique, pourquoi elle rythme nos vies [25]VIE DES LABOS * [26]Les protéines dans le sang * [27]Mais qui sont nos députés ? * [28]Traquer le VIH dans ses retranchements * [29]Réchauffement climatique : n'oublions pas les polluants ! * [30]Culture du manioc : les clefs du succès * [31]Des Gallo-Romains très à cheval sur les rituels * [32]Brèves * [33]La supraconduction billes en tête * [34]Une protéine qui travaille à l'il * [35]Jurassique parc [36]INNOVATION * [37]Deux gouttes de liquide dans le numérique * [38]Un logiciel qui fait le lien * [39]Fils de cristal * [40]Brèves [41]JEUNES CHERCHEURS * [42]Emmanuel Grimaud [43]ZOOM * [44]À l'école des Scribes [45]PAROLE D'EXPERT * [46]L'immigration, c'est notre histoire [47]IN SITU * [48]Le tout numérique pour les sciences humaines et sociales * [49]Ça plane pour le CNRS ! * [50]La Renaissance à livre ouvert * [51]Une année autour du soleil * [52]Brèves [53]RENCONTRE AVEC * [54]Guy Guyot, ingénieur [55]HORIZON * [56]Cathy Jackson * [57]Plus de quarante ans de coopération * [58]Brèves [59]GUIDE * [60]3 questions à * [61]Livres * [62]Expositions * [63]Conférences, manifestations... 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Additionally, a 404 Not Found error was encountered while trying to use an ErrorDocument to handle the request. __________________________________________________________________ Apache/1.3.27 Server at www.entretemps.asso.fr Port 80 [1]ACCUEIL I [2]ACTUALITE I [3]ESPACE COURS I [4]ESPACE MEDIA I [5]PARTITIONS I [6]SERVICES UTILES I [7]DOSSIERS I [8]JEUX I [9]DICO IL ETAIT UNE FOIS... LE RYTHME Taper le(s) mots en minuscule et sans accent __________________ Go [10]RECHERCHER UNE VIDEO [11]PARTAGER| PRENDRE CONTACT AVEC LE RYTHME Lorsqu'on débute au piano, comme sur n'importe quel autre instrument, on est rapidement mis en déroute par le rythme : problème de mise en place, de compréhension des différentes figures rythmiques ou bien d'indépendance entre la main droite et la main gauche. Cette leçon vous propose d'aborder sous différents angles, le problème délicat du rythme. Harpiste Egyptien La naissance du rythme Il est difficile de savoir comment est apparu le rythme. L'homme primitif a-t-il été inspiré par le rythme de ses pieds, au cours d'une longue marche sur la piste ? La périodicité d'un geste de travail a t-elle créé en lui un écho dans le domaine des sons ? Ou bien, bondissant de joie autour d'une proie chèrement conquise, a-t-il découvert dans la régularité de ses détentes musculaires une volupté qui lui a révélé le principe de la danse et du rythme ? S'il a heurté ses paumes en cadence, est-ce pour donner du relief à ses essais chorégraphiques ou pour encourager ceux de son entourage ? Autant d'interrogations et de problèmes insolubles soulevés parmi les spécialistes, encore aujourd'hui sans réponse. Si les bas-reliefs, les sculptures et les peintures nous apportent quelques révélations sur la vie sociale des hommes dans l'antiquité la plus reculée, si, sur toute la surface de la terre, les peuples qui s'ignoraient faisaient au même instant les mêmes découvertes musicales en inventant à peu près les mêmes instruments, rien ne nous a été apporté par nos ancêtres sur la naissance du rythme. L'écriture musicale L'écriture musicale proche de celle que nous connaissons aujourd'hui est apparue après le Moyen Age, après bien des interdits et des bouleversements idéologiques. Elle est devenue rapidement pour les compositeurs un moyen "intellectuel" pour repousser les limites de la pensée. Il y a peu encore, le rythme était considéré par les compositeurs comme un accessoire de second plan, privilégiant les écritures mélodiques, les recherches harmoniques et les orchestrations savantes. L'arrivée des rythmes jazz au début du XXème siècle a bouleversé la vision, la conception et l'inspiration de nombreux compositeurs classiques : Stravinsky, Milhaud, Gershwin... les rythmes modernes étaient nés. Orgue Portatif du Moyen-Age La liberté d'exécution face au rythme En écrivant un [12]rythme nous radicalisons sa vie, nous le structurons suivant un concept mathématique de division du temps par 2 (système [13]binaire) ou par 3 (système [14]ternaire). Par-là même, nous éradiquons le côté instinctif du rythme qui est relié à la vie, au côté naturel. Si vous écoutez les chants des oiseaux ou des insectes dans la nature, vous vous apercevrez que leurs expressions sont simples ou bien complexes et que leurs cadences rythmiques sont parfaites. D'ailleurs, le compositeur Stravinsky avait été sensible à cette écoute naturelle des sons et s'en était inspiré dans ses compositions. Le plus difficile pour nous est donc d'apporter aux figures rythmiques écrites une liberté d'exécution la plus naturelle possible sans nous éloigner de l'original. Nous devons ressentir une sorte de détachement de soi face au rythme pour le maîtriser et l'intégrer. La liberté dans le rythme n'est pas due à une sorte de hasard, ni réservée à des êtres privilégiés d'un don surnaturel. Il existe bien sûr des personnes plus sensibles que d'autres à la perception rythmique. Il faut, je crois, aimer avant tout le rythme. Nous pouvons aborder le rythme de deux manières : * 1 - ORALEMENT : aujourd'hui encore, dans un grand nombre d'école en Inde, le rythme est transmis entre le maître et l'élève de manière orale. Il n'y a pas d'écriture ou simplement quelques repères basiques. Les résultats sont souvent rapides et étonnants. Le niveau atteint dans la précision comme dans la complexité et l'inventivité dépasse de loin les rythmes basiques qu'utilisent au quotidien les musiciens occidentaux. Il n'y a pas de limite propre à un rythme oral... seul le travail de l'imaginaire, de l'imitation (répétition de motif) et la capacité à mémoriser sont mis en avant. * 2 - PAR ECRIT : pour asseoir le rythme nous l'entourons de mesure cyclique en 2, 3, 4 [15]temps ou bien plus. Cela nous aide à mieux ressentir les figures rythmiques dans un espace défini. Cette approche demande une analyse (compréhension), une mémorisation et une interprétation au stade final. D'une manière générale, le rythme dans la musique moderne est souvent répétitif, tandis que, dans la musique classique, il est plutôt évolutif. Pourquoi le rythme est-t-il une des matières musicales les plus difficiles à comprendre et à restituer ? Si la lecture de notes est assez mécanique et consiste avant tout à lire et à mémoriser la position des signes sur une [16]portée, enseigner le rythme est par contre une tâche bien plus difficile, qui demande certaines qualités : la réflexion, la perception, l'écoute et la sensibilité. Chaque personne qui le souhaite peut, demain, lire de la musique, mais il n'en sera pas de même avec le rythme. Trop souvent, les professeurs abordent les contraintes de son apprentissage avec maladresse ou avec superficialité, de peur de décourager et de faire fuir leur élève. Le rapport au tempo Le rythme écrit répond à des divisions du temps par 2 ([17]croche), 3 ([18]triolet), 4 ([19]double-croche), 6 ([20]sextolet), etc. Hélas, nous n'avons pas dans nos têtes un tic tac qui résonne et qui nous raccorde par un lien magique à l'univers des tempos rythmiques... sinon, que ferions-nous de cet objet si redoutable qu'est le métronome ?.. ;-)) De plus, la musique ne se contente pas de l'interprétation d'un rythme bien carré... il faut lui apporter la vie... c'est à dire le rendre vivant, en l'interprétant. La plupart d'entre vous ont déjà entendu une boîte à rythmes. Que remarquez-vous ? le tempo ne bouge pas, il est immuable pendant une durée ininterrompue. En musique moderne, il faut se rapprocher le plus possible de cette pulsation robotique mais sans excès ou si vous préférez sans trop de rigueur, sinon votre jeu d'instrumentiste risque de perdre toute "chaleur humaine", ce qui rendrait la musique rigide et froide (sauf pour les musiques composées volontairement dans ce sens avec l'utilisation de machines électroniques : boîtes à rythmes, séquenceurs). Vous devez ressentir la pulsation, le [21]tempo comme une respiration intérieure que vous portez en vous plus qu'elle ne vous transporte (risque d'accélération ou de ralentissement du tempo). Vous devez avoir un sentiment de liberté face au rythme. Nous résumons... Vous Résumez... L'exécution d'un rythme passe par plusieurs phases, à savoir : * 1) Connaître la valeur des différentes figures rythmiques par rapport à l'unité de temps. Exemple : que vaut la croche ou la double-croche par rapport à l'unité de temps, etc. * 2) La mise en place des différentes figures rythmiques : indépendance des 2 mains (un rythme différent sur les 2 mains à assembler) * 3) La maîtrise des différentes figures rythmiques : l'aisance, la domination du rythme les figures sont dissoutes en vous... vous les possédez. Vous devez avoir un sentiment de liberté face à elles, sans aucun frein, sauf votre capacité technique propre à les restituer à une certaine vitesse. * 4) L'interprétation des différentes figures rythmiques : rendre aussi vivants que possible les rythmes sans les dénaturer (le langage musical a quelques noms singuliers pour définir cet état : [22]swing (musique jazz), [23]groove (musique funk), [24]rubato (tempo libre en musique classique), [25]pêche (orchestration), etc.) SUITE : [26]MES PREMIERS RYTHMES ECRITS . [27]SOMMAIRE "LECONS GRATUITES" [28]SOMMAIRE "ESPACE COURS" ATTENTION ! POUR ACCEDER A TOUT LES SERVICES DU SITE, VOUS DEVEZ ACTIVER LA FONCTION [29]JAVASCRIPT DE VOTRE NAVIGATEUR. Références Not Found The requested URL /jardinons/lune/biodynamie/rythmes/index.html was not found on this server. __________________________________________________________________ Apache/1.3.37 Server at www.lesbeauxjardins.com Port 80 Not Found The requested URL /jardinons/lune/biodynamie/rythmes/index.html was not found on this server. __________________________________________________________________ Apache/1.3.37 Server at www.lesbeauxjardins.com Port 80 [2]You can return to the index... 404 - Not Found Références Not Found The requested URL /jardinons/lune/biodynamie/rythmes/index.html was not found on this server. __________________________________________________________________ Apache/1.3.37 Server at www.lesbeauxjardins.com Port 80 [2]You can return to the index... 404 - Not Found Références #[1]Selwane [logoshort-trans.png] * [2]Contact * [3]Livre d'Or ____________________ * [4]Accueil * [5]Selwane + [6]Patrimoine + [7]Visitez Salé * [8]Webzine + [9]w+g+++h+++tm n+++zH++r+ + [10]Actualités + [11]Société + [12]Culture + [13]Musique + [14]Art de vivre + [15]Technologies + [16]Sports + [17]Dossiers * Multimédia + [18]En photo + [19]En vidéo + [20]En musique + [21]Jeux * Dossiers + [22]Festival Mawâzine 2008 + [23]Mghrib Music Awards 2008 + [24]Aid Miloud - Procession des Cièrges + [25]Dossier de l\'Aid + [26]Elections législatives 2007 + [27]Casa Music 2007 + [28]Festival Gnaouas d'Essaouira 2007 + [29]Jazz au Chellah 2007 + [30]Festival LBoulevard 2007 + [31]Festival Mawâzine 2007 + [32]Repères de la mémoire de Salé (1900-2006) + [33]Colloque sociolinguistique urbaine + [34]Festival Dakhla + [35]StarAcademy 3 + [36]Festival Essaouira 2006 + [37]Coupe du monde Vovinam VVD Algérie 2006 + [38]a+l+g+a+m+e+tm a+l+sne+b+y+tm + [39]Larbi le Taxi driver [40]Accueil arrow [41]Webzine arrow [42]Art de vivre arrow Vivons au rythme de la nature... [43]À propos de Selwane.com [44]Contactez-nous/Envoyer un article Vivons au rythme de la nature... [45]Version imprimable [46]Suggérer par mail Ecrit par j.lamnate pour Selwane.com La santé, le bien-être et la forme intellectuelle et physique ne sont pas le fruit du hasard. C'est une question d'investissement personnel mais un investissement dans des limites raisonnables. Faire de l'escercice est bon pour la santé, vous le savez déjà .une alimentation saine est essentielle .vous le savez également. Etre détendu est bon pour le moral. On ne vous apprend rien. Vous voulez être actif et prendre soin de votre santé avant qu'il soit trop tard mais ne savez par où commencer.. Exercice physique alimentation et relaxation tels sont les trois piliers de la santé.Il aide à atteindre l'indispensable équilibre entre le corps et l'esprit. Exercice physique: tous les médecins vous le diront : « un sport d'endurance régulier comme la natation ou le vélo est une véritable fontaine de jouvence, car il accroit l'irrigation des cellules réduit ou prévient les risque de calcification des vaisseaux et augmente les performances. Alors, pratiquer un sport et mener une vie active c'est poser les premiers jalons de la santé et du bien être. Alimentation: manger sain, c'est tout simplement s'alimenter de façon équilibrée. Cela signifier avant tout avoir un régime alimentaire varié. Consommer régulièrement des produis à base de céréale ou viande, mais sans abuser, et ne pas priver Totalement de sucre, de sel ou de plat contenant des matière grasse. Tout est une question de dosage. Une alimentation variée permet de couvrir les besoins de l'organisme en proténes, en vitamines, minéraux et oligoéléments des nutriments vitaux... (Voir la pyramide alimentaire) Relaxation : trouver la sérénité outre la forme physique et une alimentation équilibrée il faut, pour jouir d'un organisme en parfait santé, être capable de se déconnecter du monde extérieur, d'être à l'agréables moments de détente, de reconstitua ses forces et faire de même coup obstacle au stress. Alors pratiquer régulièrement des escercices de relaxation mentale et coporelle et le meilleur moyen pour prévenir voire éliminer le stress .l' objectif est de supprimer les tentions musculaire et les blocages physiques et psychique de et à l'équilibre intérieur et comme méthode de relaxation en trouve : la méditation, le yoga, l'entraînement autogére, la respiration et la relaxation musculaire progressive sachant que : La nature est un exemple permanant d'équilibre : elle suscite certains états D'âme, génère des besoins physiques et des produits alimentaires saisonniers Printemps, été, automne, hiver : nous vivons au rythme de la nature. Les trois piliers (Exercice, alimentation et relaxation se complètent et se renforcent mutuellement et permettent ainsi d'éviter bien des maux. [47]< Précédent [48]Suivant > [49][ Retour ] [50]Participez à la réussite de votre portail! Connectez-vous Nom d'utilisateur __________ Mot de passe __________ [_] Se souvenir de moi Se connecter [51]Perdu votre mot de passe ? Webzine [52]w+g+++h+++tm n+++zH++r+ [53]Actualité [54]Culture [55]Sport [56]Technologie [57]Société [58]Musique [59]Art de vivre [60]Dossiers flash infos s+h+r+tm f+y+ f+n+ a+l+f+a+d+w+ b+m+d+y+n+tm a+l+g+d+y+d+tm [61]Lire la suite... © 2003 - 2010 Selwane.com All rights reserved. [62]ayyoo | [63]Selwane.TV | [64]amwaj.ma | [65]settatbladi.ma Références Liens visibles 49. javascript:history.go(-1) Liens cachés : Not Found The requested URL /jardinons/lune/biodynamie/rythmes/index.html was not found on this server. __________________________________________________________________ Apache/1.3.37 Server at www.lesbeauxjardins.com Port 80 [2]You can return to the index... 404 - Not Found Références #[1]Selwane [logoshort-trans.png] * [2]Contact * [3]Livre d'Or ____________________ * [4]Accueil * [5]Selwane + [6]Patrimoine + [7]Visitez Salé * [8]Webzine + [9]w+g+++h+++tm n+++zH++r+ + [10]Actualités + [11]Société + [12]Culture + [13]Musique + [14]Art de vivre + [15]Technologies + [16]Sports + [17]Dossiers * Multimédia + [18]En photo + [19]En vidéo + [20]En musique + [21]Jeux * Dossiers + [22]Festival Mawâzine 2008 + [23]Mghrib Music Awards 2008 + [24]Aid Miloud - Procession des Cièrges + [25]Dossier de l\'Aid + [26]Elections législatives 2007 + [27]Casa Music 2007 + [28]Festival Gnaouas d'Essaouira 2007 + [29]Jazz au Chellah 2007 + [30]Festival LBoulevard 2007 + [31]Festival Mawâzine 2007 + [32]Repères de la mémoire de Salé (1900-2006) + [33]Colloque sociolinguistique urbaine + [34]Festival Dakhla + [35]StarAcademy 3 + [36]Festival Essaouira 2006 + [37]Coupe du monde Vovinam VVD Algérie 2006 + [38]a+l+g+a+m+e+tm a+l+sne+b+y+tm + [39]Larbi le Taxi driver [40]Accueil arrow [41]Webzine arrow [42]Art de vivre arrow Vivons au rythme de la nature... [43]À propos de Selwane.com [44]Contactez-nous/Envoyer un article Vivons au rythme de la nature... [45]Version imprimable [46]Suggérer par mail Ecrit par j.lamnate pour Selwane.com La santé, le bien-être et la forme intellectuelle et physique ne sont pas le fruit du hasard. C'est une question d'investissement personnel mais un investissement dans des limites raisonnables. Faire de l'escercice est bon pour la santé, vous le savez déjà .une alimentation saine est essentielle .vous le savez également. Etre détendu est bon pour le moral. On ne vous apprend rien. Vous voulez être actif et prendre soin de votre santé avant qu'il soit trop tard mais ne savez par où commencer.. Exercice physique alimentation et relaxation tels sont les trois piliers de la santé.Il aide à atteindre l'indispensable équilibre entre le corps et l'esprit. Exercice physique: tous les médecins vous le diront : « un sport d'endurance régulier comme la natation ou le vélo est une véritable fontaine de jouvence, car il accroit l'irrigation des cellules réduit ou prévient les risque de calcification des vaisseaux et augmente les performances. Alors, pratiquer un sport et mener une vie active c'est poser les premiers jalons de la santé et du bien être. Alimentation: manger sain, c'est tout simplement s'alimenter de façon équilibrée. Cela signifier avant tout avoir un régime alimentaire varié. Consommer régulièrement des produis à base de céréale ou viande, mais sans abuser, et ne pas priver Totalement de sucre, de sel ou de plat contenant des matière grasse. Tout est une question de dosage. Une alimentation variée permet de couvrir les besoins de l'organisme en proténes, en vitamines, minéraux et oligoéléments des nutriments vitaux... (Voir la pyramide alimentaire) Relaxation : trouver la sérénité outre la forme physique et une alimentation équilibrée il faut, pour jouir d'un organisme en parfait santé, être capable de se déconnecter du monde extérieur, d'être à l'agréables moments de détente, de reconstitua ses forces et faire de même coup obstacle au stress. Alors pratiquer régulièrement des escercices de relaxation mentale et coporelle et le meilleur moyen pour prévenir voire éliminer le stress .l' objectif est de supprimer les tentions musculaire et les blocages physiques et psychique de et à l'équilibre intérieur et comme méthode de relaxation en trouve : la méditation, le yoga, l'entraînement autogére, la respiration et la relaxation musculaire progressive sachant que : La nature est un exemple permanant d'équilibre : elle suscite certains états D'âme, génère des besoins physiques et des produits alimentaires saisonniers Printemps, été, automne, hiver : nous vivons au rythme de la nature. Les trois piliers (Exercice, alimentation et relaxation se complètent et se renforcent mutuellement et permettent ainsi d'éviter bien des maux. [47]< Précédent [48]Suivant > [49][ Retour ] [50]Participez à la réussite de votre portail! Connectez-vous Nom d'utilisateur __________ Mot de passe __________ [_] Se souvenir de moi Se connecter [51]Perdu votre mot de passe ? Webzine [52]w+g+++h+++tm n+++zH++r+ [53]Actualité [54]Culture [55]Sport [56]Technologie [57]Société [58]Musique [59]Art de vivre [60]Dossiers flash infos s+h+r+tm f+y+ f+n+ a+l+f+a+d+w+ b+m+d+y+n+tm a+l+g+d+y+d+tm [61]Lire la suite... © 2003 - 2010 Selwane.com All rights reserved. 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[69]Subscribe to RSS | [70]Hosted by Typhon Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : Not Found The requested URL /jardinons/lune/biodynamie/rythmes/index.html was not found on this server. __________________________________________________________________ Apache/1.3.37 Server at www.lesbeauxjardins.com Port 80 [2]You can return to the index... 404 - Not Found Références #[1]Selwane [logoshort-trans.png] * [2]Contact * [3]Livre d'Or ____________________ * [4]Accueil * [5]Selwane + [6]Patrimoine + [7]Visitez Salé * [8]Webzine + [9]w+g+++h+++tm n+++zH++r+ + [10]Actualités + [11]Société + [12]Culture + [13]Musique + [14]Art de vivre + [15]Technologies + [16]Sports + [17]Dossiers * Multimédia + [18]En photo + [19]En vidéo + [20]En musique + [21]Jeux * Dossiers + [22]Festival Mawâzine 2008 + [23]Mghrib Music Awards 2008 + [24]Aid Miloud - Procession des Cièrges + [25]Dossier de l\'Aid + [26]Elections législatives 2007 + [27]Casa Music 2007 + [28]Festival Gnaouas d'Essaouira 2007 + [29]Jazz au Chellah 2007 + [30]Festival LBoulevard 2007 + [31]Festival Mawâzine 2007 + [32]Repères de la mémoire de Salé (1900-2006) + [33]Colloque sociolinguistique urbaine + [34]Festival Dakhla + [35]StarAcademy 3 + [36]Festival Essaouira 2006 + [37]Coupe du monde Vovinam VVD Algérie 2006 + [38]a+l+g+a+m+e+tm a+l+sne+b+y+tm + [39]Larbi le Taxi driver [40]Accueil arrow [41]Webzine arrow [42]Art de vivre arrow Vivons au rythme de la nature... [43]À propos de Selwane.com [44]Contactez-nous/Envoyer un article Vivons au rythme de la nature... [45]Version imprimable [46]Suggérer par mail Ecrit par j.lamnate pour Selwane.com La santé, le bien-être et la forme intellectuelle et physique ne sont pas le fruit du hasard. C'est une question d'investissement personnel mais un investissement dans des limites raisonnables. Faire de l'escercice est bon pour la santé, vous le savez déjà .une alimentation saine est essentielle .vous le savez également. Etre détendu est bon pour le moral. On ne vous apprend rien. Vous voulez être actif et prendre soin de votre santé avant qu'il soit trop tard mais ne savez par où commencer.. Exercice physique alimentation et relaxation tels sont les trois piliers de la santé.Il aide à atteindre l'indispensable équilibre entre le corps et l'esprit. Exercice physique: tous les médecins vous le diront : « un sport d'endurance régulier comme la natation ou le vélo est une véritable fontaine de jouvence, car il accroit l'irrigation des cellules réduit ou prévient les risque de calcification des vaisseaux et augmente les performances. Alors, pratiquer un sport et mener une vie active c'est poser les premiers jalons de la santé et du bien être. Alimentation: manger sain, c'est tout simplement s'alimenter de façon équilibrée. Cela signifier avant tout avoir un régime alimentaire varié. Consommer régulièrement des produis à base de céréale ou viande, mais sans abuser, et ne pas priver Totalement de sucre, de sel ou de plat contenant des matière grasse. Tout est une question de dosage. Une alimentation variée permet de couvrir les besoins de l'organisme en proténes, en vitamines, minéraux et oligoéléments des nutriments vitaux... (Voir la pyramide alimentaire) Relaxation : trouver la sérénité outre la forme physique et une alimentation équilibrée il faut, pour jouir d'un organisme en parfait santé, être capable de se déconnecter du monde extérieur, d'être à l'agréables moments de détente, de reconstitua ses forces et faire de même coup obstacle au stress. Alors pratiquer régulièrement des escercices de relaxation mentale et coporelle et le meilleur moyen pour prévenir voire éliminer le stress .l' objectif est de supprimer les tentions musculaire et les blocages physiques et psychique de et à l'équilibre intérieur et comme méthode de relaxation en trouve : la méditation, le yoga, l'entraînement autogére, la respiration et la relaxation musculaire progressive sachant que : La nature est un exemple permanant d'équilibre : elle suscite certains états D'âme, génère des besoins physiques et des produits alimentaires saisonniers Printemps, été, automne, hiver : nous vivons au rythme de la nature. Les trois piliers (Exercice, alimentation et relaxation se complètent et se renforcent mutuellement et permettent ainsi d'éviter bien des maux. [47]< Précédent [48]Suivant > [49][ Retour ] [50]Participez à la réussite de votre portail! Connectez-vous Nom d'utilisateur __________ Mot de passe __________ [_] Se souvenir de moi Se connecter [51]Perdu votre mot de passe ? Webzine [52]w+g+++h+++tm n+++zH++r+ [53]Actualité [54]Culture [55]Sport [56]Technologie [57]Société [58]Musique [59]Art de vivre [60]Dossiers flash infos s+h+r+tm f+y+ f+n+ a+l+f+a+d+w+ b+m+d+y+n+tm a+l+g+d+y+d+tm [61]Lire la suite... © 2003 - 2010 Selwane.com All rights reserved. [62]ayyoo | [63]Selwane.TV | [64]amwaj.ma | [65]settatbladi.ma Références Liens visibles 49. javascript:history.go(-1) Liens cachés : #[1]Fubiz(TM) RSS Feed * [2]EN * [3]FR [4]Fubiz(TM) Daily dose of inspiration __________________________________________________________________ * [5]HOME * [6]MOSAIC * [7]GALERIES * [8]MEMBERS * [9]ARCHIVES * [10]ABOUT * [11]CONTACT * 404 Oopz... Page not found. The content you are looking for might have been removed, had its name changed, or is temporarily unavailable. If you are looking for something specific, perhaps searching will help. 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Ce n'est pas seulement l'appartenance aux autres et à une communauté qui est en cause, mais aussi l'appartenance à l'univers, à la terre, à l'eau, à tout ce qui vit, à toute l'humanité. (Jean Vanier) [38][e_franco_160.gif] [p.gif] [39][ic_doc_r.gif] Les promesses contestées de la pédagogie en Francophonie Marc Chevrier [spacer.gif] [40][ic_doc_r.gif] 2009, année de la monnaie et de la solidarité locales? Jacques Dufresne [spacer.gif] [41][ic_dossier_r.gif] Pic Pétrolier [spacer.gif] [42][ic_dossier_r.gif] Google [spacer.gif] [43][ic_doc_r.gif] La Francophonie c'est Facebook Jacques Dufresne [spacer.gif] [44][e_mort_160.gif] [p.gif] [45][ic_doc_r.gif] Le tremblement de terre de san Francisco (1906) William James [spacer.gif] [46][ic_doc_r.gif] Les policiers en crise outillés pour choisir la vie Josée Descôteaux [spacer.gif] [47][ic_doc_r.gif] Comment doit-on comprendre le recours collectif intenté contre Loto-Québec? Pierre Desjardins [spacer.gif] [48][ic_doc_r.gif] Immigration et santé au Canada [spacer.gif] [49][ic_doc_r.gif] Copán (Honduras) [spacer.gif] Lectures La corruption du meilleur engendre le pire [50][Cayley - 2.jpg] Cet ouvrage posthume est la clef de voûte de l'oeuvre d'Ivan Illich. Il allait de soi qu'il confie l'essentiel de sa pensée à un ami dans le cadre d'un dialogue. Le commentaire de l'éditeur est juste: «Ces entretiens constituent une sorte de "testament spirituel" qui éclaire l'ensemble de l'oeuvre d'Ivan Illich. Il pose l'histoire du bon Samaritain et son acte de miséricorde spontanée - sans considération d'origine ni de religion - comme le véritable fondement d'une éthique capable d'unir au lieu de diviser.Un essai d'une force et d'une perspicacité rares à l'heure où les différentes croyances s'affrontent et se combattent.» [51]>> [spacer.gif?OpenImageResource] Dossier Rythme [spacer.gif?OpenImageResource] «Il y a rythme lorsqu'une structure évolue de manière périodique sur fond d'altération novatrice. L'intérêt actuel croissant pour le fait rythmique vient probablement de ce qu'il réunit en lui, paradoxalement, les traits propres aux structures rigides, qui l'apparente à un mécanisme, et les conditions de la variation, de la novation, de la création d'effets différenciés; qu'il se tient aussi à mi-chemin d'une approche objectivante qui vise à le quantifier et d'une phénoménologie, puisque le travail de l'altérité dans la répétition ne se mesure jamais mieux qu'à travers le filtre de la réceptivité « esthétique » d'un sujet (sensation, émotion, affect).» Jean-Jacques Wunenburger, Les rythmes, Lectures et théories, Ouvrage collectif, Centre culturel international de Cerizy, Conversciences, L'Harmattan, Paris 1992. Enjeux Pour Ludwig Klages, il y a entre le rythme et la mesure une différence de nature, semblable à celle qui sépare le vivant du mécanique. Voici un commentaire sur La nature du rythme, de Ludwig Klages, dont la première traduction française vient de paraître. (La nature du rythme, Ludwig Klages, préfacé et traduit par Olivier Hanse, éd. L'Harmattan, 2004) «Pour notre auteur, le rythme fait appel à un rapport vivant et non à une objectivation du donné. Le réduire à un objet de pensée, à l'instar du sujet posant l'extériorité du monde, c'est en trahir la nature : réifier la chose, c'est la penser en dehors d'elle-même. Par sa perpétuelle mobilité, échappant à toute fixité, il tient plus en effet du phénomène que du fait. En questionner l'expérience seul fait sens : l'approche phénoménologique sera de fait plus appropriée (bien que ne sous-tendant pas un ego transcendantal comme chez Husserl). Elle invite en un premier temps à une psychologie descriptive. L'écoute, activité complexe où les différents caractères du son (timbre, intonation, intensité) sont interdépendants, est emblématique du vécu comme jeu du percept et de l'affect. Elle est transie par le mouvement rythmique (ce que la psychologie gestalt modélise comme loi de ségrégation des unités) alors que l'analyse décompose la pluridimensionnalité esthétique du rythme en mécanique de la mesure. La division en intervalles réguliers traduit bien plutôt l'esprit qui découpe à son gré que le mouvement ; elle substitue à une perception qualitative un temps inertiel, dont Max Scheler fait la racine de l'hyper-sublimation de notre civilisation. Le seul caractère répétitif manifeste bien à cet égard l'image de l'homme-machine, parangon d'une histoire qui se finirait dans et par les masses. La différence entre rythme et mesure n'est en fait pas de degré mais de nature. Certes ils peuvent se superposer mais cela n'a rien de permanent ou d'obligé. Bien plus, le phénomène de continuité qu'anime le rythme reste inaccessible à l'entendement, à l'image du flux et reflux de la vague qu'on ne peut que suivre mais non prédire. Car le rythme traduit essentiellement une modulation du mouvement en interaction avec un ensemble, en cela il renouvelle tandis que la mesure ne fait que répéter, faisant abstraction de la richesse du matériau qu'il soit sonore, pictural, chorégraphique ou architectural. Il est bel et bien à la vérité le pouls du divers ondoyant. Ce serait néanmoins contresens de déduire que Klages interprète la psychologie en fonction de sa métaphysique du vital : l'élaboration créatrice va du senti et du perçu au créé spirituel toujours neuf, à l'Erlebnis (vécu). Bien plus, la confusion entre mesure et rythme est surtout révélatrice de celle entre esprit et vie, caractéristique de la Modernité logocentrique. Le rythme, à l'instar de la couleur, de la texture ou encore de la gestualité, est bien le refoulé de l'Occident. Or ce courant d'énergie vitale nous replonge dans l'humus prolifique qui précède et détermine toute idée, dans cet insaisissable monde de la vie (Lebenswelt). L'antagonisme chez Klages entre rythme et mesure, comme entre corps spiritualisé et esprit, loin de toute opposition manichéenne, appelle bien plutôt à faire de la vie l'aventure de la raison artistique. Car nous sommes englobés dans les rythmes, traversés de part en part par eux ; les romantiques avaient fort à propos reconnu là la marque d'une correspondance de l'âme et du monde. L'intuition donatrice n'est dès lors en rien éïdétique, elle n'est pas vision des essences génériques mais ouverture à la transcendance de la Vie, au sens cosmique de la nature : « même cet échange, celui entre le corps vivant et un monde extérieur qui se détache perpétuellement de lui, ne pourrait avoir lieu sans la capacité de fusion que l'être vivant a par l'intermédiaire de son âme » (p. 97). L'extase de la phénomènalité, née du contact de l'âme avec une image démonique (du grec daemon, génie familier, être intermédiaire entre humain et divin), se donne comme libération non du corps mais de l'esprit. Transformant l'organisme humain en épiphanie de l'homme, elle manifeste la vitalité universelle : "Car le surnaturel, rappellera Péguy dans son poème Ève, est lui-même charnel". » Source: Boris Chapuis,[52] texte complet. Essentiel Les deux plus célèbres définitions: «L'ordre dans le mouvement» Platon «La périodicité perçue.» Matila C. Ghyka. Commentaire de Pierre Sauvanet sur ces deux définitions: «Qu'y a-t-il de commun entre elles? Est-il vraiment possible, voire souhaitable d'arriver à une définition de «le rythme». Paul Valéry lui-même a échoué dans cette tâche et il fut le seul à avouer son échec. »1 Voici l'une des leçons que Valéry a tirée de son échec: «Il ne faut pas mêler et encore moins confondre période et rythme. Il n'est pas exact de dire rythme des flots, rythme du coeur -etc.»^ 2 Certes, tout rythme est d'essence périodique, mais la réciproque n'est pas vraie. Toute période n'est pas rythmique. Il faut, en effet, que l'être vivant composé soit de la partie.»^3 Définition de Pierre Sauvanet ^4 «Voici maintenant une définition du rythme qui s'applique à la fois à l'approche de tout ce qu'on comprend d'habitude sous le mot rythme, et à l'étude du rythme singulier dans un domaine précis. Voici donc, non pas une, mais deux définitions. Selon la définition générale, on conviendra d'appeler rythme "tout phénomène, perçu ou agi, auquel on peut attribuer au moins deux des qualités suivantes: structure, périodicité, mouvement." Et selon une définition restreinte: "Tout phénomène, perçu ou agi, auquel on peut attribuer chacune de ces trois qualités."» 1- Pierre Sauvanet, Le rythme encore une définition, in Les rythmes, Lectures et théories, Ouvrage collectif, sous la direction de Jean-Jacques Wunenburger, Centre culturel international de Cerizy, Conversciences, L'Harmattan, Paris 1992. 2- Valéry, Cahiers, in Oeuvres, Pleiade, Tome 1, p.1282 3-id., p 1355 4-Pierre Sauvanet, Le rythme encore une définition, in Les rythmes, Lectures et théories, Ouvrage collectif, sous la direction de Jean-Jacques Wunenburger, Centre culturel international de Cerizy, Conversciences, L'Harmattan, Paris 1992. p.238 Documentation Michel Cornu, [53]Temps et musique Ghyka, M.C. Essai sur le rythme, Gallimard 1938. Meschonnic H. La critique du rythme, Verdier 1982. Edgar Willems, Le rythme musical, P.U.F. 1954. Ce livre contient une liste des définitions du rythme à ce jour. Paul Fraisse, Structure et rythme. Cahiers de musiques traditionnelles, Vol 10, 1997 Rythmes, Georg Éditeur [spacer.gif?OpenImageResource] [spacer.gif?OpenImageResource] [spacer.gif?OpenImageResource] [spacer.gif?OpenImageResource] ____________________ [54]> [spacer.gif?OpenImageResource] [spacer.gif?OpenImageResource] [spacer.gif?OpenImageResource] [p.gif] [p.gif] Raccourcis intéressants [p.gif] [55]Le rythme en littérature [spacer.gif?OpenImageResource] [spacer.gif?OpenImageResource] [p.gif] [p.gif] À lire également sur ce sujet [p.gif] Littératures [56]La recherche d'une identité Bernard Courteau Culture, francité, poème, Nelligan, Beauchemin, St-Denys Garneau, écriture, rythme L'homme dont la conscience est plus grande que le pouvoir des mots se fait naturellement poète. [57]Ce que Poussin pensait de Virgile Le Magasin pittoresque Virgile, Scarron, génie, harmonie, rythme Divers [58]Au commencement était le rythme Boris Chapuis Rythme, Klages, D.H.Lawrence, Commentaire de la première traduction française de La nature du rythme, Ludwig Klages, préfacé et traduit par Olivier Hanse, éd. L'Harmattan, 2004, 116 p., 11,80 EUR. [59]Quand des yeux tendres nous contemplent Rabindranath Tagore Destin, poète, rythme, mots, coeur, changement, amour, amitié, solitude, union « Quand le destin d'humeur changeante nous accorde des faveurs nouvelles ; quand le fleuve des plaisirs, naguère desséché, inonde soudain notre vie... » [spacer.gif?OpenImageResource] [spacer.gif?OpenImageResource] [spacer.gif?OpenImageResource] [spacer.gif?OpenImageResource] [spacer.gif?OpenImageResource] [spacer.gif?OpenImageResource] [60]Envoyer [spacer.gif?OpenImageResource] [61]Imprimer Dernière mise à jour: 05/25/2006 L'Encyclopédie de L'Agora - 1998 - 2010 [spacer.gif?OpenImageResource] [spacer.gif?OpenImageResource] [spacer.gif?OpenImageResource] [62]Accueil [63]Qui sommes-nous? [64]Charte [65]Recherche [66]Contact [67]Partenaires [68]Index thématique [69]Tous les dossiers [70]Noms communs [71]Personnes [72]Lieux [73]Le magazine en ligne [74]Abonnements et tarifs [75]Colloques [76]Services de diffusion Références Liens visibles 2. javascript:return false(); 3. javascript:return false(); 4. javascript:return false(); 5. javascript:return false(); 6. javascript:return false(); 7. javascript: return false; 8. javascript:Categorie('Arts') 9. javascript:Categorie('Economie_et_ecologie') 10. javascript:Categorie('Geographie') 11. javascript:Categorie('Grandes_questions') 12. javascript:Categorie('Histoire') 13. javascript:Categorie('Lhumain') 14. javascript:Categorie('Le_divin') 15. javascript:Categorie('Lettres') 16. javascript:Categorie('Politique_et_societe') 17. javascript:Categorie('Sciences_et_techniques') 18. javascript:Categorie('Univers') 19. javascript:Categorie('Vie') 20. javascript: return false; 21. javascript:Partenaire('Communautes_francophones_canadiennes') 23. javascript:Partenaire('La_Voix_des_sans_voix') 24. javascript:Partenaire('Le_Curateur_public_du_Quebec') 25. javascript: return false; 28. javascript: return false; 29. javascript:Colloque('/colloque/cttei2004.nsf') 30. javascript:Colloque('/colloque/professions.nsf') 31. javascript:Colloque('/colloque/gga.nsf') 32. javascript:Colloque('/colloque/cfe2005.nsf') 33. javascript:Colloque('/colloque/pses2005.nsf') 52. javascript:Dossier('Ludwig_Klages') 54. javascript:Recherche() 56. javascript: Document('Poesie--La_recherche_dune_identite_par_Bernard_Courteau') 57. javascript: Document('Nicolas_Poussin--Ce_que_Poussin_pensait_de_Virgile_par_Le_Magasin_pittoresque') 58. javascript: Document('Ludwig_Klages--Au_commencement_etait_le_rythme_par_Boris_Chapuis') 59. javascript: Document('Rabindranath_Tagore--Quand_des_yeux_tendres_nous_contemplent_par_Rabindranath_Tagore') 66. javascript:Courrier('') Liens cachés : Bad Request (Invalid URL) Bad Request (Invalid URL) #[1]Technical analysis in english RSS Feed [2]Analyses technique en français RSS Feed [3]Forex [4]Home [5]Forum [6]Forex Analysis [7]Charts [8]Tools [9]Converter [10]Trade Now [11]mataf pib etats unis croissance trimestre Filter by language: [12][drapeau-2.gif] - [13][drapeau-4.gif] - [14][drapeau-1.gif] - [15][drapeau-5.gif] - [16][drapeau-3.gif] - [17][drapeau-6.gif] [drapeau-1.gif] [18]Léconomie allemande se contracte au rythme le plus rapide depuis 1987 (CEP News) Francfort - La production totale de léconomie allemande a reculé pour un troisième trimestre consécutif, cette fois au rythme le plus rapide en plus de 20 ans, a rapporté vendredi lagence fédérale de statistique Destatis.Selon les estimations préliminaires, léconomie allemande sest contractée de 2,1 % par rapport au trimestre précédent, tandis que les économistes sattendaient à un meilleur résultat de -1,8 %. Au trimestre précédent, léconomie sétait contractée de 0,5 %. Le recul du quatrième trimestre est le [19]croissance pib par trimestre - [20]actualite sur l economie pour cette semaine - [21]sujet de francais du 2eme trimestre 2am [drapeau-1.gif] [22]Laugmentation des coûts de main-doeuvre ralentit tout comme la productivité grimpe aux États-Unis Laugmentation de 1,3 % affichée au trimestre précédent a été révisée en hausse à + 1,5 %.Le coût unitaire de la main-doeuvre augmenté de 1,8 % au rythme annuel, ceci malgré laugmentation de 2,8 % attendue par le consensus. Au rythme trimestriel, lestimation préliminaire du coût unitaire de main-doeuvre a été révisée en baisse à 2,6 % de 2,8 %.Le nombre dheures de travail a fléchi de 8,4 % au cours du trimestre, en baisse de la contraction de 3,4 [23]pib etats unis croissance trimestre - [24]pib etat unis augmentation - [25]productivite preliminaire etats unis [drapeau-1.gif] [26]Léconomie de France sest contractée de 1,2 % au T4, selon des statisticiens rebelles Le PIB de la France au quatrième trimestre sest contracté de 1,2 % comparativement au T3, selon des statisticiens de lInsee qui ont ignoré lembargo sur les données.Le résultat saligne aux attentes consensuelles dune contraction de 1,2 % au T4 après la croissance de 0,1 % au T3.De plus, la croissance annuelle aurait gagné 0,7 % comparativement à 2007, soit un contraste particulier à la contraction de 0,9 % attendue et la croissance de 0,6 % affichée [27]croissance pib par trimestre - [28]croissance pib france - [29]taux de croissance france donnees historiques [drapeau-1.gif] [30]Le PIB de la zone euro se contracte à un rythme record au quatrième trimestre (CEP News) Francfort - Léconomie de la zone euro sest contractée à un rythme record à la fin de 2008, suggérant que la récession actuelle dans lunion monétaire sera à la fois profonde et prolongée.Selon les estimations préliminaires dEurostat, la production sest contractée de 1,5 %, un record, au quatrième trimestre. Les économistes sattendaient à un recul moins prononcé de 1,3 % après le repli de 0,2 % observé au trimestre précédent.LAllemagne a pavé la voie en se contractant de [31]croissance pib par trimestre - [32]taux de change en moyenne trimestre - [33]sujet de francais du 2eme trimestre 2am [drapeau-1.gif] [34]Le PIB des États-Unis diminue moins que prévu au quatrième trimestre La contraction du PIB pour le quatrième trimestre de 2008 sest établie à 3,8 % contre les attentes médianes dun recul de 5,5 %. Au trimestre précédent, le PIB avait diminué de 0,5 %, résultat qui na pas été révisé.Au premier trimestre de 1982, le PIB sétait contracté de 6,4 %.Il sagit dun troisième trimestre de croissance négative depuis le début de la crise du crédit en août 2007, alors quon avait observé une contraction de 0,2 % au troisième [35]croissance et pib des etats unis 2008 - [36]contraction et expansions de volatilite - [37]taux de change en moyenne trimestre [drapeau-1.gif] [38]Les cotes de crédit des États-Unis et du Royaume-Uni sont « mises à lépreuve » Lagence dévaluation du crédit Moodys dit que les cotes de crédit AAA des États-Unis et du Royaume-Uni sont « mises à lépreuve » à cause des chocs à la croissance économique, tandis que celles de lAllemagne, du Canada, de la France et de la Scandinavie, tout aussi de AAA, ne sont « relativement pas mises à lépreuve. » EKFCEP Newswires - CEP News © 2008. Tous droits réservés. www.economicnews.ca [39]perspectives mises en chantier france 2009 - [40]le royaume unis apres la crise economique 2008 - [41]taux de croissance du pib des etats unis en 2008 [drapeau-1.gif] [42]La NABE prévoit une croissance « supérieure à la tendance » aux États-Unis en 2010 Léconomie américaine pourrait connaître une croissance « supérieure à la tendance » en 2010, selon les dernières prévisions de la National Association of Business Economics (NABE).Les prévisions tablent sur une contraction de 5 % du produit intérieur brut au premier trimestre de 2009, suivie dune autre contraction, de 1,7 % celle-là, résultant en une croissance de positive de 0,9 % pour lannée entière.« La bonne nouvelle est que lactivité économique devrait saccroître durant la seconde moitié de [43]pib etats unis croissance trimestre - [44]les previsions de croissance en france 2009 - [45]previsions croissance m3 2009 [drapeau-6.gif] [46]Etats-Unis - Productivité - définitif (14h30) 3T Les gains de productivité ont progressé à un rythme plus élevé que prévu aux Etats-Unis au troisième trimestre, selon des chiffres publiés aujourd'hui par le Département du Travail. La productivité a augmenté de 1,3% en rythme annuel sur le trimestre clos fin septembre, alors que le consensus prévoyait une hausse de 0,9%, très inférieure aux ga [47]que ce passe t il aujourd hui en etats unis - [48]forum crise etats unis - [49]pib usa 3t 2009 [drapeau-6.gif] [50]Etats-Unis - PIB - données définitives 1T La croissance américaine a été révisée en hausse à 1,0% au premier trimestre (en rythme annuel), au lieu de 0,9% annoncé précédemment, a indiqué jeudi le département du Commerce, ce qui devrait renforcer l'espoir que les Etats-Unis échappent pour l'instant à la récession.C'est une révision conforme aux attentes des analystes. Au trimest [51]pib des etats unis en 2006 - [52]etats unis pib - [53]pib etats unis 2006 [drapeau-6.gif] [54]Etats-Unis - PIB - données préliminaires (14h30) 2T La croissance américaine renoue avec la croissance: le Produit intérieur brut (PIB) américain a en effet progressé de 3,3% au deuixième trimestre en rythme annualisé, selon les nouvelles estimations publiées jeudi par le département du Commerce. Les estimations initiales tablaient sur une croissance de 1,9% sur un an, alors que les économistes anti [55]pib etats unis - [56]pib par etats americains - [57]pib 2t 2009 Charts EUR USD Tag Cloud [58]previsions taux de change usd [59]goldtoday us [60]convertion des franc suisse en euros [61]cuantos euros es un marco [62]valeur du rand an franc cfa [63]monnaie d echange euro dollars [64]current us dollar to philippine peso exchange [65]change dirham cad [66]echanges euros contre dinar algerien [67]exchange rate pound kenya schillings * Forex Analysis + [68]Euro / Dollar + [69]British Pound / Dollar + [70]Dollar / Swiss Franc + [71]Dollar / Yen + [72]Euro / Yen + [73]US Dollar / Canadian Dollar * + [74]Euro / Canadian Dollar + [75]Australian dollar / US Dollar + [76]British Pound / Yen + [77]Euro / British Pound + [78]Euro / Swiss Franc + [79]Euro / Australian dollar * Trading Tools + [80]Correlation + [81]Forex pivot points + [82]Forex volatility + [83]Adjust the position sizing + [84]Forex calendar + [85]Pip Value * Forum + [86]Forex discussions + [87]Forex brokers + [88]Trading platform + [89]Forex News + [90]Forex Books + [91]Softwares * Converter + [92]US Dollar + [93]Euro + [94]Yuan Renminbi + [95]Australian Dollar + [96]Canadian Dollar + [97]Baht (Thailand) * + [98]Iraqi Dinar + [99]Naira (Nigeria) + [100]Philippine Peso + [101]Colombian Peso + [102]UAE Dirham + [103]Rupiah (Indonesia) © www.Mataf.net 2002 - 2010. [104]Contact | Author : [105]Arnaud Jeulin Mataf.net is an information site on the foreign exchange market. We can not guarantee the information available on this site, but if you notice a mistake you can contact us, we will do our best to correct it. Our advice is only informative, they only reflects our vision of the market. They are based on our experience on forex, we can not hold the truth. You are responsible for the use of such boards. It is prohibited to publish, reproduce or distribute in any way or any of the content of the website Mataf.net, whether in written, graphic or image, without our express permission. [106]Analyse d'audience Références 12. javascript:change_lang('en'); 13. javascript:change_lang('es'); 14. javascript:change_lang('fr'); 15. javascript:change_lang('it'); 16. javascript:change_lang('pt'); 17. javascript:change_lang('fo'); Bad Request (Invalid URL) #[1]Technical analysis in english RSS Feed [2]Analyses technique en français RSS Feed [3]Forex [4]Home [5]Forum [6]Forex Analysis [7]Charts [8]Tools [9]Converter [10]Trade Now [11]mataf pib etats unis croissance trimestre Filter by language: [12][drapeau-2.gif] - [13][drapeau-4.gif] - [14][drapeau-1.gif] - [15][drapeau-5.gif] - [16][drapeau-3.gif] - [17][drapeau-6.gif] [drapeau-1.gif] [18]Léconomie allemande se contracte au rythme le plus rapide depuis 1987 (CEP News) Francfort - La production totale de léconomie allemande a reculé pour un troisième trimestre consécutif, cette fois au rythme le plus rapide en plus de 20 ans, a rapporté vendredi lagence fédérale de statistique Destatis.Selon les estimations préliminaires, léconomie allemande sest contractée de 2,1 % par rapport au trimestre précédent, tandis que les économistes sattendaient à un meilleur résultat de -1,8 %. Au trimestre précédent, léconomie sétait contractée de 0,5 %. Le recul du quatrième trimestre est le [19]croissance pib par trimestre - [20]actualite sur l economie pour cette semaine - [21]sujet de francais du 2eme trimestre 2am [drapeau-1.gif] [22]Laugmentation des coûts de main-doeuvre ralentit tout comme la productivité grimpe aux États-Unis Laugmentation de 1,3 % affichée au trimestre précédent a été révisée en hausse à + 1,5 %.Le coût unitaire de la main-doeuvre augmenté de 1,8 % au rythme annuel, ceci malgré laugmentation de 2,8 % attendue par le consensus. Au rythme trimestriel, lestimation préliminaire du coût unitaire de main-doeuvre a été révisée en baisse à 2,6 % de 2,8 %.Le nombre dheures de travail a fléchi de 8,4 % au cours du trimestre, en baisse de la contraction de 3,4 [23]pib etats unis croissance trimestre - [24]pib etat unis augmentation - [25]productivite preliminaire etats unis [drapeau-1.gif] [26]Léconomie de France sest contractée de 1,2 % au T4, selon des statisticiens rebelles Le PIB de la France au quatrième trimestre sest contracté de 1,2 % comparativement au T3, selon des statisticiens de lInsee qui ont ignoré lembargo sur les données.Le résultat saligne aux attentes consensuelles dune contraction de 1,2 % au T4 après la croissance de 0,1 % au T3.De plus, la croissance annuelle aurait gagné 0,7 % comparativement à 2007, soit un contraste particulier à la contraction de 0,9 % attendue et la croissance de 0,6 % affichée [27]croissance pib par trimestre - [28]croissance pib france - [29]taux de croissance france donnees historiques [drapeau-1.gif] [30]Le PIB de la zone euro se contracte à un rythme record au quatrième trimestre (CEP News) Francfort - Léconomie de la zone euro sest contractée à un rythme record à la fin de 2008, suggérant que la récession actuelle dans lunion monétaire sera à la fois profonde et prolongée.Selon les estimations préliminaires dEurostat, la production sest contractée de 1,5 %, un record, au quatrième trimestre. Les économistes sattendaient à un recul moins prononcé de 1,3 % après le repli de 0,2 % observé au trimestre précédent.LAllemagne a pavé la voie en se contractant de [31]croissance pib par trimestre - [32]taux de change en moyenne trimestre - [33]sujet de francais du 2eme trimestre 2am [drapeau-1.gif] [34]Le PIB des États-Unis diminue moins que prévu au quatrième trimestre La contraction du PIB pour le quatrième trimestre de 2008 sest établie à 3,8 % contre les attentes médianes dun recul de 5,5 %. Au trimestre précédent, le PIB avait diminué de 0,5 %, résultat qui na pas été révisé.Au premier trimestre de 1982, le PIB sétait contracté de 6,4 %.Il sagit dun troisième trimestre de croissance négative depuis le début de la crise du crédit en août 2007, alors quon avait observé une contraction de 0,2 % au troisième [35]croissance et pib des etats unis 2008 - [36]contraction et expansions de volatilite - [37]taux de change en moyenne trimestre [drapeau-1.gif] [38]Les cotes de crédit des États-Unis et du Royaume-Uni sont « mises à lépreuve » Lagence dévaluation du crédit Moodys dit que les cotes de crédit AAA des États-Unis et du Royaume-Uni sont « mises à lépreuve » à cause des chocs à la croissance économique, tandis que celles de lAllemagne, du Canada, de la France et de la Scandinavie, tout aussi de AAA, ne sont « relativement pas mises à lépreuve. » EKFCEP Newswires - CEP News © 2008. Tous droits réservés. www.economicnews.ca [39]perspectives mises en chantier france 2009 - [40]le royaume unis apres la crise economique 2008 - [41]taux de croissance du pib des etats unis en 2008 [drapeau-1.gif] [42]La NABE prévoit une croissance « supérieure à la tendance » aux États-Unis en 2010 Léconomie américaine pourrait connaître une croissance « supérieure à la tendance » en 2010, selon les dernières prévisions de la National Association of Business Economics (NABE).Les prévisions tablent sur une contraction de 5 % du produit intérieur brut au premier trimestre de 2009, suivie dune autre contraction, de 1,7 % celle-là, résultant en une croissance de positive de 0,9 % pour lannée entière.« La bonne nouvelle est que lactivité économique devrait saccroître durant la seconde moitié de [43]pib etats unis croissance trimestre - [44]les previsions de croissance en france 2009 - [45]previsions croissance m3 2009 [drapeau-6.gif] [46]Etats-Unis - Productivité - définitif (14h30) 3T Les gains de productivité ont progressé à un rythme plus élevé que prévu aux Etats-Unis au troisième trimestre, selon des chiffres publiés aujourd'hui par le Département du Travail. La productivité a augmenté de 1,3% en rythme annuel sur le trimestre clos fin septembre, alors que le consensus prévoyait une hausse de 0,9%, très inférieure aux ga [47]que ce passe t il aujourd hui en etats unis - [48]forum crise etats unis - [49]pib usa 3t 2009 [drapeau-6.gif] [50]Etats-Unis - PIB - données définitives 1T La croissance américaine a été révisée en hausse à 1,0% au premier trimestre (en rythme annuel), au lieu de 0,9% annoncé précédemment, a indiqué jeudi le département du Commerce, ce qui devrait renforcer l'espoir que les Etats-Unis échappent pour l'instant à la récession.C'est une révision conforme aux attentes des analystes. Au trimest [51]pib des etats unis en 2006 - [52]etats unis pib - [53]pib etats unis 2006 [drapeau-6.gif] [54]Etats-Unis - PIB - données préliminaires (14h30) 2T La croissance américaine renoue avec la croissance: le Produit intérieur brut (PIB) américain a en effet progressé de 3,3% au deuixième trimestre en rythme annualisé, selon les nouvelles estimations publiées jeudi par le département du Commerce. Les estimations initiales tablaient sur une croissance de 1,9% sur un an, alors que les économistes anti [55]pib etats unis - [56]pib par etats americains - [57]pib 2t 2009 Charts EUR USD Tag Cloud [58]previsions taux de change usd [59]goldtoday us [60]convertion des franc suisse en euros [61]cuantos euros es un marco [62]valeur du rand an franc cfa [63]monnaie d echange euro dollars [64]current us dollar to philippine peso exchange [65]change dirham cad [66]echanges euros contre dinar algerien [67]exchange rate pound kenya schillings * Forex Analysis + [68]Euro / Dollar + [69]British Pound / Dollar + [70]Dollar / Swiss Franc + [71]Dollar / Yen + [72]Euro / Yen + [73]US Dollar / Canadian Dollar * + [74]Euro / Canadian Dollar + [75]Australian dollar / US Dollar + [76]British Pound / Yen + [77]Euro / British Pound + [78]Euro / Swiss Franc + [79]Euro / Australian dollar * Trading Tools + [80]Correlation + [81]Forex pivot points + [82]Forex volatility + [83]Adjust the position sizing + [84]Forex calendar + [85]Pip Value * Forum + [86]Forex discussions + [87]Forex brokers + [88]Trading platform + [89]Forex News + [90]Forex Books + [91]Softwares * Converter + [92]US Dollar + [93]Euro + [94]Yuan Renminbi + [95]Australian Dollar + [96]Canadian Dollar + [97]Baht (Thailand) * + [98]Iraqi Dinar + [99]Naira (Nigeria) + [100]Philippine Peso + [101]Colombian Peso + [102]UAE Dirham + [103]Rupiah (Indonesia) © www.Mataf.net 2002 - 2010. [104]Contact | Author : [105]Arnaud Jeulin Mataf.net is an information site on the foreign exchange market. We can not guarantee the information available on this site, but if you notice a mistake you can contact us, we will do our best to correct it. Our advice is only informative, they only reflects our vision of the market. They are based on our experience on forex, we can not hold the truth. You are responsible for the use of such boards. It is prohibited to publish, reproduce or distribute in any way or any of the content of the website Mataf.net, whether in written, graphic or image, without our express permission. [106]Analyse d'audience Références 12. javascript:change_lang('en'); 13. javascript:change_lang('es'); 14. javascript:change_lang('fr'); 15. javascript:change_lang('it'); 16. javascript:change_lang('pt'); 17. javascript:change_lang('fo'); Not Found The requested URL /Nicolas/OeuvresNic/Deutschland.html was not found on this server. Additionally, a 404 Not Found error was encountered while trying to use an ErrorDocument to handle the request. __________________________________________________________________ Apache/1.3.27 Server at www.entretemps.asso.fr Port 80 Bad Request (Invalid URL) #[1]Technical analysis in english RSS Feed [2]Analyses technique en français RSS Feed [3]Forex [4]Home [5]Forum [6]Forex Analysis [7]Charts [8]Tools [9]Converter [10]Trade Now [11]mataf pib etats unis croissance trimestre Filter by language: [12][drapeau-2.gif] - [13][drapeau-4.gif] - [14][drapeau-1.gif] - [15][drapeau-5.gif] - [16][drapeau-3.gif] - [17][drapeau-6.gif] [drapeau-1.gif] [18]Léconomie allemande se contracte au rythme le plus rapide depuis 1987 (CEP News) Francfort - La production totale de léconomie allemande a reculé pour un troisième trimestre consécutif, cette fois au rythme le plus rapide en plus de 20 ans, a rapporté vendredi lagence fédérale de statistique Destatis.Selon les estimations préliminaires, léconomie allemande sest contractée de 2,1 % par rapport au trimestre précédent, tandis que les économistes sattendaient à un meilleur résultat de -1,8 %. Au trimestre précédent, léconomie sétait contractée de 0,5 %. Le recul du quatrième trimestre est le [19]croissance pib par trimestre - [20]actualite sur l economie pour cette semaine - [21]sujet de francais du 2eme trimestre 2am [drapeau-1.gif] [22]Laugmentation des coûts de main-doeuvre ralentit tout comme la productivité grimpe aux États-Unis Laugmentation de 1,3 % affichée au trimestre précédent a été révisée en hausse à + 1,5 %.Le coût unitaire de la main-doeuvre augmenté de 1,8 % au rythme annuel, ceci malgré laugmentation de 2,8 % attendue par le consensus. Au rythme trimestriel, lestimation préliminaire du coût unitaire de main-doeuvre a été révisée en baisse à 2,6 % de 2,8 %.Le nombre dheures de travail a fléchi de 8,4 % au cours du trimestre, en baisse de la contraction de 3,4 [23]pib etats unis croissance trimestre - [24]pib etat unis augmentation - [25]productivite preliminaire etats unis [drapeau-1.gif] [26]Léconomie de France sest contractée de 1,2 % au T4, selon des statisticiens rebelles Le PIB de la France au quatrième trimestre sest contracté de 1,2 % comparativement au T3, selon des statisticiens de lInsee qui ont ignoré lembargo sur les données.Le résultat saligne aux attentes consensuelles dune contraction de 1,2 % au T4 après la croissance de 0,1 % au T3.De plus, la croissance annuelle aurait gagné 0,7 % comparativement à 2007, soit un contraste particulier à la contraction de 0,9 % attendue et la croissance de 0,6 % affichée [27]croissance pib par trimestre - [28]croissance pib france - [29]taux de croissance france donnees historiques [drapeau-1.gif] [30]Le PIB de la zone euro se contracte à un rythme record au quatrième trimestre (CEP News) Francfort - Léconomie de la zone euro sest contractée à un rythme record à la fin de 2008, suggérant que la récession actuelle dans lunion monétaire sera à la fois profonde et prolongée.Selon les estimations préliminaires dEurostat, la production sest contractée de 1,5 %, un record, au quatrième trimestre. Les économistes sattendaient à un recul moins prononcé de 1,3 % après le repli de 0,2 % observé au trimestre précédent.LAllemagne a pavé la voie en se contractant de [31]croissance pib par trimestre - [32]taux de change en moyenne trimestre - [33]sujet de francais du 2eme trimestre 2am [drapeau-1.gif] [34]Le PIB des États-Unis diminue moins que prévu au quatrième trimestre La contraction du PIB pour le quatrième trimestre de 2008 sest établie à 3,8 % contre les attentes médianes dun recul de 5,5 %. Au trimestre précédent, le PIB avait diminué de 0,5 %, résultat qui na pas été révisé.Au premier trimestre de 1982, le PIB sétait contracté de 6,4 %.Il sagit dun troisième trimestre de croissance négative depuis le début de la crise du crédit en août 2007, alors quon avait observé une contraction de 0,2 % au troisième [35]croissance et pib des etats unis 2008 - [36]contraction et expansions de volatilite - [37]taux de change en moyenne trimestre [drapeau-1.gif] [38]Les cotes de crédit des États-Unis et du Royaume-Uni sont « mises à lépreuve » Lagence dévaluation du crédit Moodys dit que les cotes de crédit AAA des États-Unis et du Royaume-Uni sont « mises à lépreuve » à cause des chocs à la croissance économique, tandis que celles de lAllemagne, du Canada, de la France et de la Scandinavie, tout aussi de AAA, ne sont « relativement pas mises à lépreuve. » EKFCEP Newswires - CEP News © 2008. Tous droits réservés. www.economicnews.ca [39]perspectives mises en chantier france 2009 - [40]le royaume unis apres la crise economique 2008 - [41]taux de croissance du pib des etats unis en 2008 [drapeau-1.gif] [42]La NABE prévoit une croissance « supérieure à la tendance » aux États-Unis en 2010 Léconomie américaine pourrait connaître une croissance « supérieure à la tendance » en 2010, selon les dernières prévisions de la National Association of Business Economics (NABE).Les prévisions tablent sur une contraction de 5 % du produit intérieur brut au premier trimestre de 2009, suivie dune autre contraction, de 1,7 % celle-là, résultant en une croissance de positive de 0,9 % pour lannée entière.« La bonne nouvelle est que lactivité économique devrait saccroître durant la seconde moitié de [43]pib etats unis croissance trimestre - [44]les previsions de croissance en france 2009 - [45]previsions croissance m3 2009 [drapeau-6.gif] [46]Etats-Unis - Productivité - définitif (14h30) 3T Les gains de productivité ont progressé à un rythme plus élevé que prévu aux Etats-Unis au troisième trimestre, selon des chiffres publiés aujourd'hui par le Département du Travail. La productivité a augmenté de 1,3% en rythme annuel sur le trimestre clos fin septembre, alors que le consensus prévoyait une hausse de 0,9%, très inférieure aux ga [47]que ce passe t il aujourd hui en etats unis - [48]forum crise etats unis - [49]pib usa 3t 2009 [drapeau-6.gif] [50]Etats-Unis - PIB - données définitives 1T La croissance américaine a été révisée en hausse à 1,0% au premier trimestre (en rythme annuel), au lieu de 0,9% annoncé précédemment, a indiqué jeudi le département du Commerce, ce qui devrait renforcer l'espoir que les Etats-Unis échappent pour l'instant à la récession.C'est une révision conforme aux attentes des analystes. Au trimest [51]pib des etats unis en 2006 - [52]etats unis pib - [53]pib etats unis 2006 [drapeau-6.gif] [54]Etats-Unis - PIB - données préliminaires (14h30) 2T La croissance américaine renoue avec la croissance: le Produit intérieur brut (PIB) américain a en effet progressé de 3,3% au deuixième trimestre en rythme annualisé, selon les nouvelles estimations publiées jeudi par le département du Commerce. Les estimations initiales tablaient sur une croissance de 1,9% sur un an, alors que les économistes anti [55]pib etats unis - [56]pib par etats americains - [57]pib 2t 2009 Charts EUR USD Tag Cloud [58]previsions taux de change usd [59]goldtoday us [60]convertion des franc suisse en euros [61]cuantos euros es un marco [62]valeur du rand an franc cfa [63]monnaie d echange euro dollars [64]current us dollar to philippine peso exchange [65]change dirham cad [66]echanges euros contre dinar algerien [67]exchange rate pound kenya schillings * Forex Analysis + [68]Euro / Dollar + [69]British Pound / Dollar + [70]Dollar / Swiss Franc + [71]Dollar / Yen + [72]Euro / Yen + [73]US Dollar / Canadian Dollar * + [74]Euro / Canadian Dollar + [75]Australian dollar / US Dollar + [76]British Pound / Yen + [77]Euro / British Pound + [78]Euro / Swiss Franc + [79]Euro / Australian dollar * Trading Tools + [80]Correlation + [81]Forex pivot points + [82]Forex volatility + [83]Adjust the position sizing + [84]Forex calendar + [85]Pip Value * Forum + [86]Forex discussions + [87]Forex brokers + [88]Trading platform + [89]Forex News + [90]Forex Books + [91]Softwares * Converter + [92]US Dollar + [93]Euro + [94]Yuan Renminbi + [95]Australian Dollar + [96]Canadian Dollar + [97]Baht (Thailand) * + [98]Iraqi Dinar + [99]Naira (Nigeria) + [100]Philippine Peso + [101]Colombian Peso + [102]UAE Dirham + [103]Rupiah (Indonesia) © www.Mataf.net 2002 - 2010. [104]Contact | Author : [105]Arnaud Jeulin Mataf.net is an information site on the foreign exchange market. We can not guarantee the information available on this site, but if you notice a mistake you can contact us, we will do our best to correct it. Our advice is only informative, they only reflects our vision of the market. They are based on our experience on forex, we can not hold the truth. You are responsible for the use of such boards. It is prohibited to publish, reproduce or distribute in any way or any of the content of the website Mataf.net, whether in written, graphic or image, without our express permission. [106]Analyse d'audience Références 12. javascript:change_lang('en'); 13. javascript:change_lang('es'); 14. javascript:change_lang('fr'); 15. javascript:change_lang('it'); 16. javascript:change_lang('pt'); 17. javascript:change_lang('fo'); Not Found The requested URL /Nicolas/OeuvresNic/Deutschland.html was not found on this server. Additionally, a 404 Not Found error was encountered while trying to use an ErrorDocument to handle the request. __________________________________________________________________ Apache/1.3.27 Server at www.entretemps.asso.fr Port 80 Not Found The requested URL /fr/fiches/dph/fiche-dph-7392.html was not found on this server. Bad Request (Invalid URL) #[1]Technical analysis in english RSS Feed [2]Analyses technique en français RSS Feed [3]Forex [4]Home [5]Forum [6]Forex Analysis [7]Charts [8]Tools [9]Converter [10]Trade Now [11]mataf pib etats unis croissance trimestre Filter by language: [12][drapeau-2.gif] - [13][drapeau-4.gif] - [14][drapeau-1.gif] - [15][drapeau-5.gif] - [16][drapeau-3.gif] - [17][drapeau-6.gif] [drapeau-1.gif] [18]Léconomie allemande se contracte au rythme le plus rapide depuis 1987 (CEP News) Francfort - La production totale de léconomie allemande a reculé pour un troisième trimestre consécutif, cette fois au rythme le plus rapide en plus de 20 ans, a rapporté vendredi lagence fédérale de statistique Destatis.Selon les estimations préliminaires, léconomie allemande sest contractée de 2,1 % par rapport au trimestre précédent, tandis que les économistes sattendaient à un meilleur résultat de -1,8 %. Au trimestre précédent, léconomie sétait contractée de 0,5 %. Le recul du quatrième trimestre est le [19]croissance pib par trimestre - [20]actualite sur l economie pour cette semaine - [21]sujet de francais du 2eme trimestre 2am [drapeau-1.gif] [22]Laugmentation des coûts de main-doeuvre ralentit tout comme la productivité grimpe aux États-Unis Laugmentation de 1,3 % affichée au trimestre précédent a été révisée en hausse à + 1,5 %.Le coût unitaire de la main-doeuvre augmenté de 1,8 % au rythme annuel, ceci malgré laugmentation de 2,8 % attendue par le consensus. Au rythme trimestriel, lestimation préliminaire du coût unitaire de main-doeuvre a été révisée en baisse à 2,6 % de 2,8 %.Le nombre dheures de travail a fléchi de 8,4 % au cours du trimestre, en baisse de la contraction de 3,4 [23]pib etats unis croissance trimestre - [24]pib etat unis augmentation - [25]productivite preliminaire etats unis [drapeau-1.gif] [26]Léconomie de France sest contractée de 1,2 % au T4, selon des statisticiens rebelles Le PIB de la France au quatrième trimestre sest contracté de 1,2 % comparativement au T3, selon des statisticiens de lInsee qui ont ignoré lembargo sur les données.Le résultat saligne aux attentes consensuelles dune contraction de 1,2 % au T4 après la croissance de 0,1 % au T3.De plus, la croissance annuelle aurait gagné 0,7 % comparativement à 2007, soit un contraste particulier à la contraction de 0,9 % attendue et la croissance de 0,6 % affichée [27]croissance pib par trimestre - [28]croissance pib france - [29]taux de croissance france donnees historiques [drapeau-1.gif] [30]Le PIB de la zone euro se contracte à un rythme record au quatrième trimestre (CEP News) Francfort - Léconomie de la zone euro sest contractée à un rythme record à la fin de 2008, suggérant que la récession actuelle dans lunion monétaire sera à la fois profonde et prolongée.Selon les estimations préliminaires dEurostat, la production sest contractée de 1,5 %, un record, au quatrième trimestre. Les économistes sattendaient à un recul moins prononcé de 1,3 % après le repli de 0,2 % observé au trimestre précédent.LAllemagne a pavé la voie en se contractant de [31]croissance pib par trimestre - [32]taux de change en moyenne trimestre - [33]sujet de francais du 2eme trimestre 2am [drapeau-1.gif] [34]Le PIB des États-Unis diminue moins que prévu au quatrième trimestre La contraction du PIB pour le quatrième trimestre de 2008 sest établie à 3,8 % contre les attentes médianes dun recul de 5,5 %. Au trimestre précédent, le PIB avait diminué de 0,5 %, résultat qui na pas été révisé.Au premier trimestre de 1982, le PIB sétait contracté de 6,4 %.Il sagit dun troisième trimestre de croissance négative depuis le début de la crise du crédit en août 2007, alors quon avait observé une contraction de 0,2 % au troisième [35]croissance et pib des etats unis 2008 - [36]contraction et expansions de volatilite - [37]taux de change en moyenne trimestre [drapeau-1.gif] [38]Les cotes de crédit des États-Unis et du Royaume-Uni sont « mises à lépreuve » Lagence dévaluation du crédit Moodys dit que les cotes de crédit AAA des États-Unis et du Royaume-Uni sont « mises à lépreuve » à cause des chocs à la croissance économique, tandis que celles de lAllemagne, du Canada, de la France et de la Scandinavie, tout aussi de AAA, ne sont « relativement pas mises à lépreuve. » EKFCEP Newswires - CEP News © 2008. Tous droits réservés. www.economicnews.ca [39]perspectives mises en chantier france 2009 - [40]le royaume unis apres la crise economique 2008 - [41]taux de croissance du pib des etats unis en 2008 [drapeau-1.gif] [42]La NABE prévoit une croissance « supérieure à la tendance » aux États-Unis en 2010 Léconomie américaine pourrait connaître une croissance « supérieure à la tendance » en 2010, selon les dernières prévisions de la National Association of Business Economics (NABE).Les prévisions tablent sur une contraction de 5 % du produit intérieur brut au premier trimestre de 2009, suivie dune autre contraction, de 1,7 % celle-là, résultant en une croissance de positive de 0,9 % pour lannée entière.« La bonne nouvelle est que lactivité économique devrait saccroître durant la seconde moitié de [43]pib etats unis croissance trimestre - [44]les previsions de croissance en france 2009 - [45]previsions croissance m3 2009 [drapeau-6.gif] [46]Etats-Unis - Productivité - définitif (14h30) 3T Les gains de productivité ont progressé à un rythme plus élevé que prévu aux Etats-Unis au troisième trimestre, selon des chiffres publiés aujourd'hui par le Département du Travail. La productivité a augmenté de 1,3% en rythme annuel sur le trimestre clos fin septembre, alors que le consensus prévoyait une hausse de 0,9%, très inférieure aux ga [47]que ce passe t il aujourd hui en etats unis - [48]forum crise etats unis - [49]pib usa 3t 2009 [drapeau-6.gif] [50]Etats-Unis - PIB - données définitives 1T La croissance américaine a été révisée en hausse à 1,0% au premier trimestre (en rythme annuel), au lieu de 0,9% annoncé précédemment, a indiqué jeudi le département du Commerce, ce qui devrait renforcer l'espoir que les Etats-Unis échappent pour l'instant à la récession.C'est une révision conforme aux attentes des analystes. Au trimest [51]pib des etats unis en 2006 - [52]etats unis pib - [53]pib etats unis 2006 [drapeau-6.gif] [54]Etats-Unis - PIB - données préliminaires (14h30) 2T La croissance américaine renoue avec la croissance: le Produit intérieur brut (PIB) américain a en effet progressé de 3,3% au deuixième trimestre en rythme annualisé, selon les nouvelles estimations publiées jeudi par le département du Commerce. Les estimations initiales tablaient sur une croissance de 1,9% sur un an, alors que les économistes anti [55]pib etats unis - [56]pib par etats americains - [57]pib 2t 2009 Charts EUR USD Tag Cloud [58]previsions taux de change usd [59]goldtoday us [60]convertion des franc suisse en euros [61]cuantos euros es un marco [62]valeur du rand an franc cfa [63]monnaie d echange euro dollars [64]current us dollar to philippine peso exchange [65]change dirham cad [66]echanges euros contre dinar algerien [67]exchange rate pound kenya schillings * Forex Analysis + [68]Euro / Dollar + [69]British Pound / Dollar + [70]Dollar / Swiss Franc + [71]Dollar / Yen + [72]Euro / Yen + [73]US Dollar / Canadian Dollar * + [74]Euro / Canadian Dollar + [75]Australian dollar / US Dollar + [76]British Pound / Yen + [77]Euro / British Pound + [78]Euro / Swiss Franc + [79]Euro / Australian dollar * Trading Tools + [80]Correlation + [81]Forex pivot points + [82]Forex volatility + [83]Adjust the position sizing + [84]Forex calendar + [85]Pip Value * Forum + [86]Forex discussions + [87]Forex brokers + [88]Trading platform + [89]Forex News + [90]Forex Books + [91]Softwares * Converter + [92]US Dollar + [93]Euro + [94]Yuan Renminbi + [95]Australian Dollar + [96]Canadian Dollar + [97]Baht (Thailand) * + [98]Iraqi Dinar + [99]Naira (Nigeria) + [100]Philippine Peso + [101]Colombian Peso + [102]UAE Dirham + [103]Rupiah (Indonesia) © www.Mataf.net 2002 - 2010. [104]Contact | Author : [105]Arnaud Jeulin Mataf.net is an information site on the foreign exchange market. We can not guarantee the information available on this site, but if you notice a mistake you can contact us, we will do our best to correct it. Our advice is only informative, they only reflects our vision of the market. They are based on our experience on forex, we can not hold the truth. You are responsible for the use of such boards. It is prohibited to publish, reproduce or distribute in any way or any of the content of the website Mataf.net, whether in written, graphic or image, without our express permission. [106]Analyse d'audience Références 12. javascript:change_lang('en'); 13. javascript:change_lang('es'); 14. javascript:change_lang('fr'); 15. javascript:change_lang('it'); 16. javascript:change_lang('pt'); 17. javascript:change_lang('fo'); Not Found The requested URL /Nicolas/OeuvresNic/Deutschland.html was not found on this server. Additionally, a 404 Not Found error was encountered while trying to use an ErrorDocument to handle the request. __________________________________________________________________ Apache/1.3.27 Server at www.entretemps.asso.fr Port 80 Not Found The requested URL /fr/fiches/dph/fiche-dph-7392.html was not found on this server. Not Found The requested URL /v3/oeuvre-critiquerythme.html was not found on this server. Additionally, a 301 Moved Permanently error was encountered while trying to use an ErrorDocument to handle the request. __________________________________________________________________ Apache/2.2.3 (CentOS) Server at www.editions-verdier.fr Port 80 Bad Request (Invalid URL) #[1]Technical analysis in english RSS Feed [2]Analyses technique en français RSS Feed [3]Forex [4]Home [5]Forum [6]Forex Analysis [7]Charts [8]Tools [9]Converter [10]Trade Now [11]mataf pib etats unis croissance trimestre Filter by language: [12][drapeau-2.gif] - [13][drapeau-4.gif] - [14][drapeau-1.gif] - [15][drapeau-5.gif] - [16][drapeau-3.gif] - [17][drapeau-6.gif] [drapeau-1.gif] [18]Léconomie allemande se contracte au rythme le plus rapide depuis 1987 (CEP News) Francfort - La production totale de léconomie allemande a reculé pour un troisième trimestre consécutif, cette fois au rythme le plus rapide en plus de 20 ans, a rapporté vendredi lagence fédérale de statistique Destatis.Selon les estimations préliminaires, léconomie allemande sest contractée de 2,1 % par rapport au trimestre précédent, tandis que les économistes sattendaient à un meilleur résultat de -1,8 %. Au trimestre précédent, léconomie sétait contractée de 0,5 %. Le recul du quatrième trimestre est le [19]croissance pib par trimestre - [20]actualite sur l economie pour cette semaine - [21]sujet de francais du 2eme trimestre 2am [drapeau-1.gif] [22]Laugmentation des coûts de main-doeuvre ralentit tout comme la productivité grimpe aux États-Unis Laugmentation de 1,3 % affichée au trimestre précédent a été révisée en hausse à + 1,5 %.Le coût unitaire de la main-doeuvre augmenté de 1,8 % au rythme annuel, ceci malgré laugmentation de 2,8 % attendue par le consensus. Au rythme trimestriel, lestimation préliminaire du coût unitaire de main-doeuvre a été révisée en baisse à 2,6 % de 2,8 %.Le nombre dheures de travail a fléchi de 8,4 % au cours du trimestre, en baisse de la contraction de 3,4 [23]pib etats unis croissance trimestre - [24]pib etat unis augmentation - [25]productivite preliminaire etats unis [drapeau-1.gif] [26]Léconomie de France sest contractée de 1,2 % au T4, selon des statisticiens rebelles Le PIB de la France au quatrième trimestre sest contracté de 1,2 % comparativement au T3, selon des statisticiens de lInsee qui ont ignoré lembargo sur les données.Le résultat saligne aux attentes consensuelles dune contraction de 1,2 % au T4 après la croissance de 0,1 % au T3.De plus, la croissance annuelle aurait gagné 0,7 % comparativement à 2007, soit un contraste particulier à la contraction de 0,9 % attendue et la croissance de 0,6 % affichée [27]croissance pib par trimestre - [28]croissance pib france - [29]taux de croissance france donnees historiques [drapeau-1.gif] [30]Le PIB de la zone euro se contracte à un rythme record au quatrième trimestre (CEP News) Francfort - Léconomie de la zone euro sest contractée à un rythme record à la fin de 2008, suggérant que la récession actuelle dans lunion monétaire sera à la fois profonde et prolongée.Selon les estimations préliminaires dEurostat, la production sest contractée de 1,5 %, un record, au quatrième trimestre. Les économistes sattendaient à un recul moins prononcé de 1,3 % après le repli de 0,2 % observé au trimestre précédent.LAllemagne a pavé la voie en se contractant de [31]croissance pib par trimestre - [32]taux de change en moyenne trimestre - [33]sujet de francais du 2eme trimestre 2am [drapeau-1.gif] [34]Le PIB des États-Unis diminue moins que prévu au quatrième trimestre La contraction du PIB pour le quatrième trimestre de 2008 sest établie à 3,8 % contre les attentes médianes dun recul de 5,5 %. Au trimestre précédent, le PIB avait diminué de 0,5 %, résultat qui na pas été révisé.Au premier trimestre de 1982, le PIB sétait contracté de 6,4 %.Il sagit dun troisième trimestre de croissance négative depuis le début de la crise du crédit en août 2007, alors quon avait observé une contraction de 0,2 % au troisième [35]croissance et pib des etats unis 2008 - [36]contraction et expansions de volatilite - [37]taux de change en moyenne trimestre [drapeau-1.gif] [38]Les cotes de crédit des États-Unis et du Royaume-Uni sont « mises à lépreuve » Lagence dévaluation du crédit Moodys dit que les cotes de crédit AAA des États-Unis et du Royaume-Uni sont « mises à lépreuve » à cause des chocs à la croissance économique, tandis que celles de lAllemagne, du Canada, de la France et de la Scandinavie, tout aussi de AAA, ne sont « relativement pas mises à lépreuve. » EKFCEP Newswires - CEP News © 2008. Tous droits réservés. www.economicnews.ca [39]perspectives mises en chantier france 2009 - [40]le royaume unis apres la crise economique 2008 - [41]taux de croissance du pib des etats unis en 2008 [drapeau-1.gif] [42]La NABE prévoit une croissance « supérieure à la tendance » aux États-Unis en 2010 Léconomie américaine pourrait connaître une croissance « supérieure à la tendance » en 2010, selon les dernières prévisions de la National Association of Business Economics (NABE).Les prévisions tablent sur une contraction de 5 % du produit intérieur brut au premier trimestre de 2009, suivie dune autre contraction, de 1,7 % celle-là, résultant en une croissance de positive de 0,9 % pour lannée entière.« La bonne nouvelle est que lactivité économique devrait saccroître durant la seconde moitié de [43]pib etats unis croissance trimestre - [44]les previsions de croissance en france 2009 - [45]previsions croissance m3 2009 [drapeau-6.gif] [46]Etats-Unis - Productivité - définitif (14h30) 3T Les gains de productivité ont progressé à un rythme plus élevé que prévu aux Etats-Unis au troisième trimestre, selon des chiffres publiés aujourd'hui par le Département du Travail. La productivité a augmenté de 1,3% en rythme annuel sur le trimestre clos fin septembre, alors que le consensus prévoyait une hausse de 0,9%, très inférieure aux ga [47]que ce passe t il aujourd hui en etats unis - [48]forum crise etats unis - [49]pib usa 3t 2009 [drapeau-6.gif] [50]Etats-Unis - PIB - données définitives 1T La croissance américaine a été révisée en hausse à 1,0% au premier trimestre (en rythme annuel), au lieu de 0,9% annoncé précédemment, a indiqué jeudi le département du Commerce, ce qui devrait renforcer l'espoir que les Etats-Unis échappent pour l'instant à la récession.C'est une révision conforme aux attentes des analystes. Au trimest [51]pib des etats unis en 2006 - [52]etats unis pib - [53]pib etats unis 2006 [drapeau-6.gif] [54]Etats-Unis - PIB - données préliminaires (14h30) 2T La croissance américaine renoue avec la croissance: le Produit intérieur brut (PIB) américain a en effet progressé de 3,3% au deuixième trimestre en rythme annualisé, selon les nouvelles estimations publiées jeudi par le département du Commerce. Les estimations initiales tablaient sur une croissance de 1,9% sur un an, alors que les économistes anti [55]pib etats unis - [56]pib par etats americains - [57]pib 2t 2009 Charts EUR USD Tag Cloud [58]previsions taux de change usd [59]goldtoday us [60]convertion des franc suisse en euros [61]cuantos euros es un marco [62]valeur du rand an franc cfa [63]monnaie d echange euro dollars [64]current us dollar to philippine peso exchange [65]change dirham cad [66]echanges euros contre dinar algerien [67]exchange rate pound kenya schillings * Forex Analysis + [68]Euro / Dollar + [69]British Pound / Dollar + [70]Dollar / Swiss Franc + [71]Dollar / Yen + [72]Euro / Yen + [73]US Dollar / Canadian Dollar * + [74]Euro / Canadian Dollar + [75]Australian dollar / US Dollar + [76]British Pound / Yen + [77]Euro / British Pound + [78]Euro / Swiss Franc + [79]Euro / Australian dollar * Trading Tools + [80]Correlation + [81]Forex pivot points + [82]Forex volatility + [83]Adjust the position sizing + [84]Forex calendar + [85]Pip Value * Forum + [86]Forex discussions + [87]Forex brokers + [88]Trading platform + [89]Forex News + [90]Forex Books + [91]Softwares * Converter + [92]US Dollar + [93]Euro + [94]Yuan Renminbi + [95]Australian Dollar + [96]Canadian Dollar + [97]Baht (Thailand) * + [98]Iraqi Dinar + [99]Naira (Nigeria) + [100]Philippine Peso + [101]Colombian Peso + [102]UAE Dirham + [103]Rupiah (Indonesia) © www.Mataf.net 2002 - 2010. [104]Contact | Author : [105]Arnaud Jeulin Mataf.net is an information site on the foreign exchange market. We can not guarantee the information available on this site, but if you notice a mistake you can contact us, we will do our best to correct it. Our advice is only informative, they only reflects our vision of the market. They are based on our experience on forex, we can not hold the truth. You are responsible for the use of such boards. It is prohibited to publish, reproduce or distribute in any way or any of the content of the website Mataf.net, whether in written, graphic or image, without our express permission. [106]Analyse d'audience Références 12. javascript:change_lang('en'); 13. javascript:change_lang('es'); 14. javascript:change_lang('fr'); 15. javascript:change_lang('it'); 16. javascript:change_lang('pt'); 17. javascript:change_lang('fo'); Not Found The requested URL /Nicolas/OeuvresNic/Deutschland.html was not found on this server. Additionally, a 404 Not Found error was encountered while trying to use an ErrorDocument to handle the request. __________________________________________________________________ Apache/1.3.27 Server at www.entretemps.asso.fr Port 80 Not Found The requested URL /fr/fiches/dph/fiche-dph-7392.html was not found on this server. Not Found The requested URL /v3/oeuvre-critiquerythme.html was not found on this server. Additionally, a 301 Moved Permanently error was encountered while trying to use an ErrorDocument to handle the request. __________________________________________________________________ Apache/2.2.3 (CentOS) Server at www.editions-verdier.fr Port 80 #[1]next [2]Wikipédia (fr) [3]copyright [4]Flux RSS de Wikipédia [5]Flux Atom de Wikipédia Mauvais titre Un article de Wikipédia, l'encyclopédie libre. Aller à : [6]Navigation, [7]rechercher Le titre de la page demandée est invalide, vide, ou il s'agit d'un titre inter-langue ou inter-projet mal lié. Il contient peut-être un ou plusieurs caractères qui ne peuvent pas être utilisés dans les titres. Revenir à la page [8]Wikipédia:Accueil principal. Ce document provient de « Affichages * [10]Page spéciale Outils personnels * [11]Essayer la bêta Açai * [12]Créer un compte ou se connecter Rechercher ____________________ Lire Rechercher Navigation * [13]Accueil * [14]Portails thématiques * [15]Index alphabétique * [16]Un article au hasard * [17]Contacter Wikipédia Contribuer * [18]Aide * [19]Communauté * [20]Modifications récentes * [21]Accueil des nouveaux arrivants * [22]Faire un don Boîte à outils * [23]Importer un fichier * [24]Pages spéciales [25]Powered by MediaWiki [26]Wikimedia Foundation * [27]Politique de confidentialité * [28]À propos de Wikipédia * [29]Avertissements Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : Bad Request (Invalid URL) #[1]Technical analysis in english RSS Feed [2]Analyses technique en français RSS Feed [3]Forex [4]Home [5]Forum [6]Forex Analysis [7]Charts [8]Tools [9]Converter [10]Trade Now [11]mataf pib etats unis croissance trimestre Filter by language: [12][drapeau-2.gif] - [13][drapeau-4.gif] - [14][drapeau-1.gif] - [15][drapeau-5.gif] - [16][drapeau-3.gif] - [17][drapeau-6.gif] [drapeau-1.gif] [18]Léconomie allemande se contracte au rythme le plus rapide depuis 1987 (CEP News) Francfort - La production totale de léconomie allemande a reculé pour un troisième trimestre consécutif, cette fois au rythme le plus rapide en plus de 20 ans, a rapporté vendredi lagence fédérale de statistique Destatis.Selon les estimations préliminaires, léconomie allemande sest contractée de 2,1 % par rapport au trimestre précédent, tandis que les économistes sattendaient à un meilleur résultat de -1,8 %. Au trimestre précédent, léconomie sétait contractée de 0,5 %. Le recul du quatrième trimestre est le [19]croissance pib par trimestre - [20]actualite sur l economie pour cette semaine - [21]sujet de francais du 2eme trimestre 2am [drapeau-1.gif] [22]Laugmentation des coûts de main-doeuvre ralentit tout comme la productivité grimpe aux États-Unis Laugmentation de 1,3 % affichée au trimestre précédent a été révisée en hausse à + 1,5 %.Le coût unitaire de la main-doeuvre augmenté de 1,8 % au rythme annuel, ceci malgré laugmentation de 2,8 % attendue par le consensus. Au rythme trimestriel, lestimation préliminaire du coût unitaire de main-doeuvre a été révisée en baisse à 2,6 % de 2,8 %.Le nombre dheures de travail a fléchi de 8,4 % au cours du trimestre, en baisse de la contraction de 3,4 [23]pib etats unis croissance trimestre - [24]pib etat unis augmentation - [25]productivite preliminaire etats unis [drapeau-1.gif] [26]Léconomie de France sest contractée de 1,2 % au T4, selon des statisticiens rebelles Le PIB de la France au quatrième trimestre sest contracté de 1,2 % comparativement au T3, selon des statisticiens de lInsee qui ont ignoré lembargo sur les données.Le résultat saligne aux attentes consensuelles dune contraction de 1,2 % au T4 après la croissance de 0,1 % au T3.De plus, la croissance annuelle aurait gagné 0,7 % comparativement à 2007, soit un contraste particulier à la contraction de 0,9 % attendue et la croissance de 0,6 % affichée [27]croissance pib par trimestre - [28]croissance pib france - [29]taux de croissance france donnees historiques [drapeau-1.gif] [30]Le PIB de la zone euro se contracte à un rythme record au quatrième trimestre (CEP News) Francfort - Léconomie de la zone euro sest contractée à un rythme record à la fin de 2008, suggérant que la récession actuelle dans lunion monétaire sera à la fois profonde et prolongée.Selon les estimations préliminaires dEurostat, la production sest contractée de 1,5 %, un record, au quatrième trimestre. Les économistes sattendaient à un recul moins prononcé de 1,3 % après le repli de 0,2 % observé au trimestre précédent.LAllemagne a pavé la voie en se contractant de [31]croissance pib par trimestre - [32]taux de change en moyenne trimestre - [33]sujet de francais du 2eme trimestre 2am [drapeau-1.gif] [34]Le PIB des États-Unis diminue moins que prévu au quatrième trimestre La contraction du PIB pour le quatrième trimestre de 2008 sest établie à 3,8 % contre les attentes médianes dun recul de 5,5 %. Au trimestre précédent, le PIB avait diminué de 0,5 %, résultat qui na pas été révisé.Au premier trimestre de 1982, le PIB sétait contracté de 6,4 %.Il sagit dun troisième trimestre de croissance négative depuis le début de la crise du crédit en août 2007, alors quon avait observé une contraction de 0,2 % au troisième [35]croissance et pib des etats unis 2008 - [36]contraction et expansions de volatilite - [37]taux de change en moyenne trimestre [drapeau-1.gif] [38]Les cotes de crédit des États-Unis et du Royaume-Uni sont « mises à lépreuve » Lagence dévaluation du crédit Moodys dit que les cotes de crédit AAA des États-Unis et du Royaume-Uni sont « mises à lépreuve » à cause des chocs à la croissance économique, tandis que celles de lAllemagne, du Canada, de la France et de la Scandinavie, tout aussi de AAA, ne sont « relativement pas mises à lépreuve. » EKFCEP Newswires - CEP News © 2008. Tous droits réservés. www.economicnews.ca [39]perspectives mises en chantier france 2009 - [40]le royaume unis apres la crise economique 2008 - [41]taux de croissance du pib des etats unis en 2008 [drapeau-1.gif] [42]La NABE prévoit une croissance « supérieure à la tendance » aux États-Unis en 2010 Léconomie américaine pourrait connaître une croissance « supérieure à la tendance » en 2010, selon les dernières prévisions de la National Association of Business Economics (NABE).Les prévisions tablent sur une contraction de 5 % du produit intérieur brut au premier trimestre de 2009, suivie dune autre contraction, de 1,7 % celle-là, résultant en une croissance de positive de 0,9 % pour lannée entière.« La bonne nouvelle est que lactivité économique devrait saccroître durant la seconde moitié de [43]pib etats unis croissance trimestre - [44]les previsions de croissance en france 2009 - [45]previsions croissance m3 2009 [drapeau-6.gif] [46]Etats-Unis - Productivité - définitif (14h30) 3T Les gains de productivité ont progressé à un rythme plus élevé que prévu aux Etats-Unis au troisième trimestre, selon des chiffres publiés aujourd'hui par le Département du Travail. La productivité a augmenté de 1,3% en rythme annuel sur le trimestre clos fin septembre, alors que le consensus prévoyait une hausse de 0,9%, très inférieure aux ga [47]que ce passe t il aujourd hui en etats unis - [48]forum crise etats unis - [49]pib usa 3t 2009 [drapeau-6.gif] [50]Etats-Unis - PIB - données définitives 1T La croissance américaine a été révisée en hausse à 1,0% au premier trimestre (en rythme annuel), au lieu de 0,9% annoncé précédemment, a indiqué jeudi le département du Commerce, ce qui devrait renforcer l'espoir que les Etats-Unis échappent pour l'instant à la récession.C'est une révision conforme aux attentes des analystes. Au trimest [51]pib des etats unis en 2006 - [52]etats unis pib - [53]pib etats unis 2006 [drapeau-6.gif] [54]Etats-Unis - PIB - données préliminaires (14h30) 2T La croissance américaine renoue avec la croissance: le Produit intérieur brut (PIB) américain a en effet progressé de 3,3% au deuixième trimestre en rythme annualisé, selon les nouvelles estimations publiées jeudi par le département du Commerce. Les estimations initiales tablaient sur une croissance de 1,9% sur un an, alors que les économistes anti [55]pib etats unis - [56]pib par etats americains - [57]pib 2t 2009 Charts EUR USD Tag Cloud [58]previsions taux de change usd [59]goldtoday us [60]convertion des franc suisse en euros [61]cuantos euros es un marco [62]valeur du rand an franc cfa [63]monnaie d echange euro dollars [64]current us dollar to philippine peso exchange [65]change dirham cad [66]echanges euros contre dinar algerien [67]exchange rate pound kenya schillings * Forex Analysis + [68]Euro / Dollar + [69]British Pound / Dollar + [70]Dollar / Swiss Franc + [71]Dollar / Yen + [72]Euro / Yen + [73]US Dollar / Canadian Dollar * + [74]Euro / Canadian Dollar + [75]Australian dollar / US Dollar + [76]British Pound / Yen + [77]Euro / British Pound + [78]Euro / Swiss Franc + [79]Euro / Australian dollar * Trading Tools + [80]Correlation + [81]Forex pivot points + [82]Forex volatility + [83]Adjust the position sizing + [84]Forex calendar + [85]Pip Value * Forum + [86]Forex discussions + [87]Forex brokers + [88]Trading platform + [89]Forex News + [90]Forex Books + [91]Softwares * Converter + [92]US Dollar + [93]Euro + [94]Yuan Renminbi + [95]Australian Dollar + [96]Canadian Dollar + [97]Baht (Thailand) * + [98]Iraqi Dinar + [99]Naira (Nigeria) + [100]Philippine Peso + [101]Colombian Peso + [102]UAE Dirham + [103]Rupiah (Indonesia) © www.Mataf.net 2002 - 2010. [104]Contact | Author : [105]Arnaud Jeulin Mataf.net is an information site on the foreign exchange market. We can not guarantee the information available on this site, but if you notice a mistake you can contact us, we will do our best to correct it. Our advice is only informative, they only reflects our vision of the market. They are based on our experience on forex, we can not hold the truth. You are responsible for the use of such boards. It is prohibited to publish, reproduce or distribute in any way or any of the content of the website Mataf.net, whether in written, graphic or image, without our express permission. [106]Analyse d'audience Références 12. javascript:change_lang('en'); 13. javascript:change_lang('es'); 14. javascript:change_lang('fr'); 15. javascript:change_lang('it'); 16. javascript:change_lang('pt'); 17. javascript:change_lang('fo'); Not Found The requested URL /Nicolas/OeuvresNic/Deutschland.html was not found on this server. Additionally, a 404 Not Found error was encountered while trying to use an ErrorDocument to handle the request. __________________________________________________________________ Apache/1.3.27 Server at www.entretemps.asso.fr Port 80 Not Found The requested URL /fr/fiches/dph/fiche-dph-7392.html was not found on this server. Not Found The requested URL /v3/oeuvre-critiquerythme.html was not found on this server. Additionally, a 301 Moved Permanently error was encountered while trying to use an ErrorDocument to handle the request. __________________________________________________________________ Apache/2.2.3 (CentOS) Server at www.editions-verdier.fr Port 80 #[1]next [2]Wikipédia (fr) [3]copyright [4]Flux RSS de Wikipédia [5]Flux Atom de Wikipédia Mauvais titre Un article de Wikipédia, l'encyclopédie libre. Aller à : [6]Navigation, [7]rechercher Le titre de la page demandée est invalide, vide, ou il s'agit d'un titre inter-langue ou inter-projet mal lié. Il contient peut-être un ou plusieurs caractères qui ne peuvent pas être utilisés dans les titres. Revenir à la page [8]Wikipédia:Accueil principal. Ce document provient de « Affichages * [10]Page spéciale Outils personnels * [11]Essayer la bêta Açai * [12]Créer un compte ou se connecter Rechercher ____________________ Lire Rechercher Navigation * [13]Accueil * [14]Portails thématiques * [15]Index alphabétique * [16]Un article au hasard * [17]Contacter Wikipédia Contribuer * [18]Aide * [19]Communauté * [20]Modifications récentes * [21]Accueil des nouveaux arrivants * [22]Faire un don Boîte à outils * [23]Importer un fichier * [24]Pages spéciales [25]Powered by MediaWiki [26]Wikimedia Foundation * [27]Politique de confidentialité * [28]À propos de Wikipédia * [29]Avertissements Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : Vous avez dit prose? __________________________________________________________________ [1]Poétique de la prose ou prose poétique ? Le rythme contre le prosaïsme __________________________________________________________________ [2]Du mélange des genres __________________________________________________________________ [3]Du rythme avant toute chose... __________________________________________________________________ [4]Le rythme de l'écriture de Duras : prosaïque, dit-elle ? [5]Forcément prosaïque [6]Poème, forcément [7]...et pour cela préfère la voix [8][USEMAP:bandeau2.jpg] [9]Dossier : Vous avez dit prose? __________________________________________________________________ Poétique de la prose ou prose poétique ? Le rythme contre le prosaïsme Sylvie Freyermuth Université du Luxembourg FLSHASE, UR IPSE Correspondant du Centre de Recherche sur l'Imaginaire, Université Grenoble 3, E.A. 610 Professeur associé au Centre Écritures, Université Paul Verlaine-Metz, E.A. 3943 [10]Sylvie.Freyermuth@uni.lu Résumé : Il est singulier de constater que le changement de classe syntaxique du lexème poétique opère un glissement sémantique non négligeable, compliqué encore par la distinction du genre. Alors que le substantif féminin la poétique met l'accent sur l'action de créer - en prose ou en vers, du reste - et les caractères esthétiques d'une oeuvre, le substantif masculin le poétique, dérivé de l'adjectif poétique, se cantonne comme ce dernier au domaine de la poésie. De plus, lorsqu'on fait le choix de fédérer en une catégorie commune - la prose - un ensemble hétérogène de textes, dont la nature et la visée pragmatique sont très diverses, pour les opposer à un autre ensemble de textes qui serait caractérisé par le « poétique », on n'est pas loin d'une position réductrice qui consiste à tirer cette dernière catégorie du côté de la versification, critère a priori discriminant le plus apte à distinguer la poésie de la prose qui rassemble systématiquement les textes non versifiés. Cette bipolarité est remise en question par un croisement des propriétés : poème en prose et prose poétique, hybridation à laquelle échappe totalement l'adjectif prosaïque qui, pour être calqué sur la morphologie de poétique n'en exprime pas moins un jugement de valeur péjoratif, puisqu'il qualifie les textes « plats », sans saillie particulière, presque triviaux. Se lit en creux une définition de la poésie et de la prose qui s'apparente à mon sens à une conception classique de la rhétorique comme typologie des figures. Je propose de dépasser cette dichotomie afin de montrer qu'une prose dont l'ambition esthétique s'attache à une description la plus neutre du monde, comme celle de Duras, par exemple, ou encore comme certains textes faussement prosaïques de Ponge, peut être tirée vers le poétique grâce à une exploitation fine du rythme conçu au sens large du terme, c'est-à-dire au-delà de toute restriction à l'univers musical. Abstract : It is singular to note that the syntactic change of class of the lexeme poetic operates a significant semantic shift, complicated still by the distinction of gender. Whereas the feminine substantive la poétique (poetics) emphasizes on creating action - in prose or verse, besides - and the aesthetic features of a work, the masculine substantive le poétique, derived from the adjective poétique, is confined like this last word, with the field of poetry. Moreover, when one makes the choice to federate in a common category - the prose - a heterogeneous unit of texts, whose nature and pragmatic aiming are very diverse, to oppose them to another whole of texts which would be characterized by poetics, one is not far from a reducing position which consists in drawing this last category to versification, discriminating criterion a priori the most able to distinguish poetry from the prose which systematically gathers not versified texts. This bipolarity is questioned by a crossing of the properties: poetic prose and prose poem, hybridization from which escapes completely the adjective prosaic which, despite being copied on the morphology of the adjective poetic, expresses pejorative value judgment, since it qualifies the "dull" texts, without particular relief, almost trivial. According to my mind, that seems to correspond to a definition of poetry and prose, included in classical rhetorical typology of figures. I propose to surpass this dichotomy in order to show that a prose whose aesthetic ambition aims at the most neutral description of the world, as Duras' style, for example, can be drawn towards poetics, thanks to a fine work about rhythm conceived in a large sense, i.e. beyond any restriction to musical universe. Telle qu'elle est formulée, la question « Vous avez dit "prose" ? » agit comme une mise en garde contre la notion, ou tout au moins comme une invite à la réflexion sur la pertinence de lire en creux, dans cette appellation, la partition bipolaire prose/poésie qui vient communément à l'esprit [[11]1]. Lorsqu'on fait le choix de fédérer en une catégorie commune - la prose - un ensemble hétérogène de textes [[12]2], dont la nature et la visée pragmatique sont très diverses, pour les opposer à un autre ensemble de textes qui serait caractérisé par le « poétique », on n'est pas loin d'une position réductrice qui consiste à tirer cette dernière catégorie du côté de la versification, critère discriminant a priori le plus apte à distinguer la poésie de la prose, terme qui dénote systématiquement les textes non versifiés. Il est également singulier de constater que le changement de classe syntaxique du lexème poétique opère un glissement sémantique non négligeable, compliqué encore par la distinction du genre. Alors que le substantif la poétique met l'accent sur l'action de créer - en prose ou en vers, du reste - et les propriétés esthétiques d'une oeuvre, le substantif le poétique, dérivé de l'adjectif poétique, se cantonne comme ce dernier au domaine de la poésie. Cette bipolarité est remise en question par un croisement des traits distinctifs : poème en prose et prose poétique, hybridation à laquelle échappe totalement l'adjectif prosaïque qui, pour être calqué sur la morphologie de poétique n'en exprime pas moins un jugement de valeur péjoratif [[13]3] (je renvoie aux travaux de Gérard Dessons), puisqu'il qualifie les textes « plats », sans saillie particulière, presque triviaux. Apparaît en filigrane une définition de la poésie et de la prose qui s'apparente à mon sens à une conception classique de la rhétorique comme typologie des figures [[14]4]. Je propose de dépasser cette dichotomie afin de montrer qu'une prose dont l'ambition esthétique s'attache à une description la plus neutre du monde, comme celle de Duras par exemple, peut être tirée vers le poétique grâce à une exploitation fine du rythme conçu au sens large du terme, c'est-à-dire au-delà de toute restriction à l'univers musical stricto sensu. Du mélange des genres Dans son article du DITL [[15]5], Dominique Jouve évoque le problème posé par le mélange des genres, et notamment l'alternance dans une même oeuvre de passages en prose avec d'autres en vers, motivée par le désir d'insérer dans la « neutralité » de la prose un moment d'intensité émotionnelle et musicale. Ainsi elle évoque Jacques Réda : On peut trouver une confirmation de cette idée lorsqu'un poète comme Jacques Réda (dans Autobiographie chapitre dix) joue de la disposition du «même» texte, tantôt en prose tantôt en vers. On constate alors que la disposition en vers impose un remodelage du vocabulaire (par suppression, essentiellement), de la syntaxe, de la pensée. Le texte en prose, par comparaison, semble plus neutre, d'une objectivité un peu terne. [...] (Ibid.) Et dans sa démonstration, elle finit par isoler un critère qui distingue fortement la poésie de la prose, à savoir la musique agissant essentiellement par le truchement du vers : S'il est vrai que l'émotion poétique est aussi puissante par quelque moyen qu'elle s'atteigne, vers mesuré, vers libre ou poème en prose, il n'est pas indifférent que le vers soit associé ici davantage que la prose au lyrisme en son sens propre : le chant, la musique. C'est en effet du nombre et de la place des accents qu'il s'agit, donc d'un élément essentiel de ce qui fait de la langue une musique. (Ibid.) Dominique Jouve poursuit en introduisant dans sa typologie une dimension spatiale : [...] le vers qui aux origines de notre culture se définit par son rapport à la musique, devient avant tout une affaire d'espace : la voix se met en page. En retour, l'attention accordée à la disposition produit des effets de rythme visuels et auditifs. (Ibid.) Dans sa distinction des différents types de prose [[16]6], Dominique Jouve prend appui sur les travaux de Suzanne Bernard [[17]7]. Bien qu'elle reconnaisse devoir prendre en considération « [l]es reprises de mots ou de motifs, et de toutes les figures (chiasmes, reprises, symétries) qui ont à voir avec l'arrangement des mots » (Ibid.), Dominique Jouve accorde une dimension trop importante à mon gré au décompte exact des syllabes, comme s'il s'agissait de démasquer un vers caché dans un ensemble en prose qui donnerait ainsi à ce dernier sa qualité de prose poétique. Qu'on en juge : La plus redoutable est celle du statut du e caduc : que l'on considère qu'il a valeur nulle par élision, valeur faible par coupe enjambante ou valeur forte lors d'un effet de syncope, il faut pouvoir justifier sa position pour chaque exemple. Il va de soi que les décomptes rythmiques ainsi obtenus ne représentent le plus souvent qu'une des dictions possibles. (Ibid.) Quant au poème en prose, Dominique Jouve le définit comme « une prose poétique qui se constitue en poème » (Ibid.) et résume ainsi la distinction faite par Suzanne Bernard : La grande différence que S. Bernard fait entre le poème en prose et la prose rythmée, c'est, comme son nom l'indique, que le premier a l'organisation d'un vrai poème. Alors que les passages en prose rythmée dépendent d'un ensemble autre qui lui impose ses lois propres (roman, conte, nouvelle, récit, mémoires, autobiographie. etc), le poème en prose est doublement structuré comme poème. (Ibid.) Quoi qu'il en soit, quel que soit le type de prose considéré, on remarque l'invariance de certains critères tels que « allitérations, assonances, réseaux sémantiques, répétitions, reprises de sons, de sens, de constructions » (Ibid.), toutes choses valables également dans l'analyse de la poésie versifiée. De là naît un doute sur la pertinence de la partition radicale prose/poésie, ce dont ne disconvient pas Dominique Jouve lorsqu'elle affirme : Les frontières entre prose ordinaire (mais cela existe-t-il ?), prose rythmée, prose poétique et poème en prose sont décidément, il faut y insister, subtiles et délicates, peut-être impossibles à tracer avec exactitude ; (Ibid.) Je fais mienne cette prévention, sans hésiter, et veux évoquer à présent l'opposition prosaïque / poétique. Dans son article mentionné supra, Gérard Dessons citant Littré rappelle qu'à l'origine le prosaïsme, notion péjorative, signifie « écrire en vers comme on écrit en prose » et avec Pierre Larousse sort du cadre restrictif du vers pour qualifier un défaut de style à l'intérieur d'un passage relevé, la prose étant réservée à l'expression ordinaire. De ce fait, le prosaïsme est mis en lumière par un effet de contraste, une introduction du monde ordinaire dans ce qui est censé être poétique parce qu'euphémisé, dans ce qui transporte et permet alors l'élévation de l'âme. Gérard Dessons résume parfaitement la situation en ces termes : Le sens commun a donc placé le prosaïsme du côté du commun, de la crudité, de la vulgarité, de la bassesse, de la bêtise, de l'intimisme, du dépouillement, du réalisme, du naturalisme, de la réflexion opposée à l'exaltation. On « s'enlise » dans le prosaïsme, on le « frôle » comme un danger. Souvent, le prosaïsme « menace » l'écrivain. (Ibid.) Du rythme avant toute chose... Pour ma part, je prends le parti de l'abolition de la frontière qui oppose radicalement prose à poésie, prosaïque à poétique, pour distinguer dans la notion de rythme l'élément fondamental qui permet ce dépassement des antinomies. Je rejoins en cela la position d'Eric Bordas [[18]8] qui affirme : De la même façon, et dans le domaine de la langue, ce que nous appelons rythme en poésie versifiée classique correspond-il au rythme de la prose ? La prose, d'ailleurs, a-t-elle un rythme ? Une réponse catégorique n'est pas possible sans quelques mises au point générales, et l'on anticipera tout de suite la conclusion en affirmant que ce clivage artificiel, qui oppose prose et poésie, est absolument intenable. Ce que je nomme rythme, l'écrivain Jean-Paul Goux [[19]9] l'appelle allure. Belle dénomination qui invite à se représenter le maintien, le port élégant d'une personne, le déplacement racé et gracieux du cheval ; quoi qu'il en soit, rythme ou allure impliquent la présence d'une vie dans l'écrit. C'est ce qui détermine selon Goux, la différence entre une phrase qui peut être considérée comme une oeuvre esthétique, et une autre qui n'est qu'une phrase « selon la grammaire ». Rappelant la correspondance exaltée que Flaubert entretenait avec Louise Colet (septembre 1853) sur le style, il affirme : Une phrase qui n'a ni train ni tenue, ni allant ni contenance, peut être encore une phrase selon la grammaire, elle n'est pour l'écrivain ou pour la critique esthétique qu'un « quelque chose qui n'a plus de nom dans aucune langue ». (Ibid.) Autre idée intéressante défendue par Goux : il existe des phrases motrices, celles qui ont de l'allure - ou du rythme - et « qui peuvent impulser le désir de lire ou celui d'écrire, l'un et l'autre parfois miraculeusement conjoints. » (Ibid.) L'écrivain mène une expérience tout à fait intéressante en comparant deux extraits de romans, qu'il laisse volontairement anonymes, tous deux légitimés par le champ éditorial ; le premier est perçu comme scolaire et maladroit : il enchaîne des « phrases selon la grammaire », minimalistes, et celles-ci se subordonnent à l'ordre du récit. Le second au contraire, contient ces fameuses phrases motrices, dont le mouvement, entièrement entraîné par la syntaxe, s'impose au récit. Goux en apporte la preuve en imprimant à la deuxième séquence la structure syntaxique de la première et conclut : Si rien n'a changé dans l'ordre du récit, tout a changé dans l'ordre de l'allure. C'est donc que la prose du roman ne se réduit pas au récit ; et on est bien d'accord : « Il n'y a pas la prose, mais des proses. » (Ibid.) Et la syntaxe est un facteur décisif pour le rythme de la séquence [[20]10]. Convaincue depuis de nombreuses années que l'on ne peut circonscrire la présence d'un rythme à la seule dimension poétique (versifiée ou non), et que celui-ci est généré par la syntaxe, je propose d'en donner une illustration à partir de quelques exemples. Nous verrons ainsi que des écritures dont on a vite fait de les classer dans la catégorie « prosaïque » échappent à cette taxinomie grâce au rythme. Le rythme de l'écriture de Duras : prosaïque, dit-elle ? J'ai choisi des extraits de deux romans de Duras : L'amant (1984) [[21]11] et Les yeux bleus cheveux noirs (1986) [[22]12]. Dans l'un et l'autre, un désir de neutralité, le choix d'un minimalisme syntaxique et lexical, voire d'une monotonie affectée [[23]13], qui rappellent l'écriture blanche évoquée par Barthes dans Le degré zéro de l'écriture [[24]14], pourraient tirer la prose vers le prosaïque [[25]15]. Forcément prosaïque Ce tropisme prosaïque est révélé par divers phénomènes. Dans l'extrait de L'amant analysé, la volonté de détachement de la narratrice s'affirme lorsque le je est abandonné au profit de la dénomination la petite. Ce passage ne comporte aucun patronyme, seulement des SN [[26]16] renvoyant à des rôles (la petite, le passeur, la mère, Madame la Directrice - une fois dans la bouche du passeur) ou à une entité dont l'unicité est rendue évidente par la situation extralinguistique (le chapeau de feutre/d'homme, le fleuve, le soleil, le moteur du bac). La cohésion de l'ensemble est assurée par un chaînage anaphorique constitué par le pronom clitique de 3e personne il/elle, qui n'apporte donc aucune information supplémentaire. Le même phénomène se reproduit dans Les yeux bleus cheveux noirs. Indépendamment de la situation narrative qui est singulière - l'histoire est racontée par un acteur qui apparaît dès l'incipit [[27]17] - les personnages sont anonymes du début à la fin : Elle [cf. supra « la femme de l'histoire »] est jeune. Elle porte des tennis blancs. On voit son corps long et souple, la blancheur de sa peau dans cet été de soleil, ses cheveux noirs. [...] (Ibid., p. 10) Peu après le cri, par cette porte que la femme regarde [...], un jeune étranger vient d'entrer dans le hall. Un jeune étranger aux yeux bleus cheveux noirs. Le jeune étranger rejoint la jeune femme. Comme elle il est jeune. Il est grand comme elle, comme elle il est en blanc. Il s'arrête. C'était elle qu'il avait perdue. (Ibid., p. 11) [...] Il lui dit cependant que lui aussi, maintenant, il croit qu'il doit s'agir entre eux de ce qu'elle disait dans les premiers jours de leur histoire. Elle se cache le visage contre le sol, elle pleure. (Ibid., p. 149) Seuls les pronoms clitiques de 3e personne remplissent ici leur rôle de désignateurs premiers et autonomes [[28]18]. Dans les deux extraits également, on remarque une description parcimonieuse, comme s'il importait davantage de placer des personnages en situation à la manière d'indications scénaristiques ou scéniques [[29]19]: l'information minimale requise sur les vêtements, les postures et les déplacements afin de se figurer la scène. L'intensité sémantique extrêmement faible de la copule être, met au premier plan une entité (vivante ou non) et un trait distinctif. Par exemple, dans L'amant : La petite au chapeau de feutre est dans la lumière limoneuse du fleuve [...]. Le chapeau d'homme colore de rose toute la scène. C'est la seule couleur. (Ibid., p. 29-30) Ou dans Les yeux bleus cheveux noirs : Elle est jeune. [...] Elle est en short blanc. [...] Comme elle il est jeune. Il est grand comme elle, comme elle il est en blanc. (Ibid., p. 10-11) Ou encore (Ibid., p. 23) : Elle est une femme. Elle dort. Elle a l'air de le faire. On ne sait pas. Comme on le remarque dans l'exemple précédent, les phrases, pour syntaxiquement complexes qu'elles puissent être, n'en sont pas moins minimales du point de vue de la constitution des groupes et des expansions : Autour du bac, le fleuve, il est à ras bord, ses eaux en marche traversent les eaux stagnantes des rizières, elles ne se mélangent pas. (L'amant, p. 30) Et dans Les yeux bleus cheveux noirs (p. 63) : C'est sans doute encore la nuit. Aucune clarté ne vient encore du dehors. Autour des draps blancs, l'homme qui marche, qui tourne. Même le surdécoupage (des microséquences constituées d'une seule phrase simple) accentue ce dénuement de la parole : Elle a ouvert les yeux. Ils ne se regardent pas. Cela dure depuis plusieurs nuits. (Ibid., p. 63) Les verbes employés impriment également une neutralité au sein de la narration ; ainsi, l'introduction des prises de parole des personnages se réduit presque toujours au verbe le plus neutre, le plus dénué d'émotion - dire, demander, dénotant la seule fonction locutoire : La petite connaît le passeur depuis qu'elle est enfant. Le passeur lui sourit et lui demande des nouvelles de Madame le Directrice. Il dit qu'il la voit passer souvent de nuit, qu'elle va souvent à la concession du Cambodge. La mère va bien dit la petite. (L'amant, p. 30) Dans Les yeux bleus cheveux noirs : Elle a l'habitude déjà. Elle voit qu'il s'empêche de crier. Elle dit : [...]. Elle le rejoint contre le mur. Ils pleurent. Elle dit : [...]. Elle s'approche de lui tout comme si elle partageait sa souffrance, il la reconnaît mal tout à coup. Elle dit : [...]. Elle lui dit de venir. Venez. Elle dit que c'est un velours, un vertige, mais aussi, il ne faut pas croire, un désert, une chose malfaisante qui porte aussi au crime et à la folie. Elle lui demande de venir voir ça [...]. (p. 50-51) En outre, la neutralisation agit à travers un gommage progressif des procès au profit du fréquent recours à la phrase nominale : Le fleuve coule sourdement, il ne fait aucun bruit, le sang dans le corps. Pas de vent au dehors de l'eau. Le moteur du bac, le seul bruit de la scène [[30]20], celui d'un vieux moteur déglingué aux bielles coulées. De temps en temps, par rafales légères, des bruits de voix. (L'amant, p. 30) Celle-ci pose les choses de manière atomisée plus qu'elle ne les organise dans un ensemble cohérent dont chaque élément aurait sa raison d'être et sa justification. Pour tendre vers le silence [[31]21]. Comme l'ont montré ces quelques brefs exemples, l'écriture de Marguerite Duras a toutes les propriétés nécessaires pour favoriser le passage de la prose au prosaïque. Cependant, le fait d'inscrire le texte dans l'épaisseur d'une voix fait entendre un rythme qui fait échapper cette écriture à la platitude. Poème, forcément Avec Henri Meschonnic, je crois qu'il faut modifier le rapport conventionnel au langage [[32]22], celui qui s'accommode si bien de la bipolarité [prose/poésie, prosaïque/poétique] et ne pas hésiter à avancer l'idée selon laquelle l'écriture durassienne, aussi prosaïque d'apparence soit-elle, est foncièrement poétique ou, pour ne pas prêter à confusion, est poème, parce que « contre toutes les poétisations, [...] il y a un poème seulement si une forme de vie transforme une forme de langage et si réciproquement une forme de langage transforme une forme de vie. » (H. Meschonnic, Ibid.) Dans cette perspective dynamique et interactive, le langage (je préfère dire la langue qui est actualisation du langage, au sens linguistique du terme et non dans le sens de belle langue qu'attaque Meschonnic) jouit d'une autonomie par rapport à celui qui le produit : il n'est ni outil, ni medium, mais expérience existentielle. Ainsi pour Meschonnic : Le poème est ce qui nous apprend à ne plus nous servir du langage. Il est seul à nous apprendre que, contrairement aux apparences et aux coutumes de pensée, nous ne nous servons pas du langage. [...] Mais nous devenons langage. On ne peut plus se contenter de dire, sinon comme un préalable, mais si vague, que nous sommes langage. Il est plus juste de dire que nous devenons langage. Plus ou moins. Question de sens. De sens du langage. Mais seul le poème qui est poème nous l'apprend. Pas celui qui ressemble à la poésie. Toute faite. D'avance. Le poème de la poésie. Lui, il ne rencontre que notre culture. (Ibid.) De là, Meschonnic dénonce avec feu les poètes usurpateurs, ceux qui n'ont pas compris que le rythme est autre chose que l'alternance du pan-pan sur la joue du métricien métronome. [...] Parce que le rythme est une forme-sujet. La forme-sujet. [...] Et si le rythme-poème est une forme-sujet, le rythme n'est plus une notion formelle, la forme elle-même n'est plus une notion formelle, celle du signe, mais une forme d'historicisation, une forme d'individuation. À bas le vieux couple de la forme et du sens. Est poème tout ce qui, dans le langage, réalise ce récitatif qu'est une subjectivation maximale du discours. Prose, vers, ou ligne. (Ibid.) Il est très clair que le poème n'a plus rien à voir ici avec la notion de genre, mais qu'il est fondamentalement une affaire de rythme, lui-même étant le résultat d'une appropriation subjective du texte. Néanmoins, je ne suis pas complètement Meschonnic, surtout lorsqu'il affirme que « les mots ne sont pas faits pour désigner les choses » mais qu'« [i]ls sont là pour nous situer parmi les choses » (Ibid.), parce qu'il s'agit d'une posture constructiviste entièrement centrée sur le sujet, alors qu'il existe des noyaux durs de sens hors desquels il serait impossible de se comprendre mutuellement et que le sens peut être généré à partir de faits de langue constants, repérables et analysables. Je reconnais cependant la part individuelle qui entre dans l'interprétation, et j'adhère à cette idée d'incarnation du rythme dans la prise de possession du texte par chaque lecteur. C'est en ce sens que ce qui est écrit devient poème. Voici ce qu'expose Meschonnic, et qui prend véritablement les accents d'un manifeste, comme en témoigne le titre même du texte dont est extrait ce passage : C'est ici que le poème peut et doit battre le signe. Dévaster la représentation convenue, enseignée, canonique. Parce que le poème est le moment d'une écoute. Et le signe ne fait que nous donner à voir. Il est sourd, et il rend sourd. Seul le poème peut nous mettre en voix, nous faire passer de voix en voix, faire de nous une écoute. Nous donner tout le langage comme écoute. Et le continu de cette écoute inclut, impose un continu entre les sujets que nous sommes, le langage que nous devenons, l'éthique en acte qu'est cette écoute, d'où une politique du poème. Une politique de la pensée. Le parti du rythme. (Ibid.) Selon Meschonnic, le signe est la manifestation la plus pauvre des propriétés de la langue dont on oublie à tort qu'elle est faite pour être portée par une voix dans la continuité du sujet et non pas dans le caractère discret du signe linguistique. Il affirme aussi que « justement un poème ne dit pas. Il fait. Et une pensée intervient. » (Ibid.) Or le signe se contente de dire et de montrer, pas d'insuffler la vie comme le fait le rythme. Prenant délibérément le parti du rythme, je souhaite montrer, dans la dernière phase de ce travail, comment j'ai pu entendre une écriture, réputée atone et blanche, épouser une ligne mélodique et échapper ainsi au carcan prosaïque qui l'étouffait. Dans cette analyse, on verra que les effets de la syntaxe, du lexique et des relations sémantiques, qui se combinent selon diverses dominantes, produisent un agencement sophistiqué de rythmes ternaire et binaire. Retournons à L'amant (p. 29-32) : La petite au chapeau de feutre est... dans la lumière limoneuse du fleuve (1), seule sur le pont du bac (2), accoudée au bastingage (3). [[33]23] La première phrase de la séquence repose entièrement sur un rythme ternaire : le thème et son verbe sont mis en distribution sur 3 syntagmes juxtaposés, qui posent la description du personnage central à l'aide d'informations strictement nécessaires à la compréhension et à la visualisation de la scène, et par un effet très cinématographique de zoom, resserrent le cadrage du plan d'ensemble au plan rapproché. Cet effet de focalisation sur la jeune fille à l'étrange couvre-chef, symbole de son émancipation, est confirmé par la phrase « Le chapeau d'homme colore de rose toute la scène. » reprise par « C'est la seule couleur. » Le rythme ternaire lie également ces phrases : le chapeau de feutre devient le chapeau d'homme qui colore de rose, pour finir sur la seule couleur, métonymie du chapeau. Les passages illustrant auparavant l'écriture blanche par affaiblissement des procès entrent eux aussi dans l'incantation rythmique ternaire. Par exemple : Le fleuve coule sourdement (1), il ne fait aucun bruit (2), le sang dans le corps (3). Pas de vent au dehors de l'eau. Le moteur du bac (1), le seul bruit de la scène (2), celui d'un vieux moteur déglingué aux bielles coulées (3). De temps en temps (1), par rafales légères (2), des bruits de voix (3). Et puis les aboiements des chiens, ils viennent... de partout (1), de derrière la brume (2), de tous les villages (3). (Ibid., p. 30) Ce rythme ternaire comprend en contrepoint un rythme binaire complexe qui s'appuie cette fois davantage sur une dominante lexicale et sémantique. Par exemple : Dans le soleil brumeux du fleuve (A), le soleil de la chaleur (B), les rives se sont effacées (C), le fleuve paraît rejoindre l'horizon (D). (Ibid., p. 30) Si l'on sélectionne le SN le soleil, à cause de l'insistance produite par la répétition, on note une duplication par juxtaposition, le SNP [[34]24] de la chaleur ayant alors valeur explicative de l'adjectif brumeux ; le 3e syntagme est lui-même répété par le 4e, car le groupe verbal se sont effacées est explicité par un autre groupe verbal paraît rejoindre l'horizon. On repère donc ici un calque du rythme binaire dont le 2e membre précise sémantiquement le 1er, phénomène accentué encore par une identité fonctionnelle (2 groupes prépositionnels (la 2e préposition dans est elliptique) locatifs / 2 propositions indépendantes) : A-B / C-D. Mais le motif qui semble simple, parce que nettement segmenté, se complique par le jeu des anaphores : le SN les rives se rattache à son référent fleuve (le soleil brumeux du fleuve) par l'anaphore infidèle partie/tout, alors que ce même substantif est répété dans le dernier segment, ce qui provoque une clôture de la séquence : A-C/A-D. Les deux appariements étant non seulement justifiés par la relation anaphorique mais également par un lien sémantique : brumeux / se sont effacées. En outre, ce phénomène indique un glissement du rôle de personnage central occupé par la petite au chapeau de feutre vers le fleuve et signale par là un transfert de point de vue - d'externe il devient interne, car c'est avec les yeux de la petite accoudée au bastingage que l'on regarde alentour. Le rythme sémantique est aussi visible dans l'exemple supra : moteur du bac, seul bruit, vieux moteur déglingué. La combinaison ternaire/binaire se retrouve dans le passage suivant : Autour du bac (1), le fleuve (2), il est à ras bord (A), ses eaux en marche traversent les eaux stagnantes des rivières (B), elles ne se mélangent pas (C). (Ibid., p. 30) Les deux entités principales - le bac, lieu de la rencontre entre la petite et le Chinois, et le fleuve qui est un être à part entière - sont juxtaposées et ouvrent une succession de 3 éléments qui réfèrent au SN le fleuve par relation anaphorique en glissando il / ses eaux / elles, mimésis de l'écoulement ininterrompu de son courant puissant, comme le confirme la suite : Il a ramassé tout ce qu'(1) il a trouvé depuis le Tonlésap (A), la forêt cambodgienne (B). Il emmène tout ce qui vient (2), L'énumération hétéroclite qui suit est l'explicitation du quantifieur tout : des paillottes (1), des forêts (2) , identité de texture des incendies éteints (1), des oiseaux morts (2), sur la valeur négative de l'épithète ; mais on peut aussi apparier selon la catégorie des substantifs : des oiseaux morts (1), des tigres (2), des buffles (3), [noyés] (A), [rythme ternaire] Le participe passé adjectivé qualifie la série des 3 animaux autant qu'il relance l'énumération avec : des hommes (B), des leurres [[35]25] (1), des îles de jacinthes d'eau agglutinées (2), des objets et végétaux Enfin, le reste de la phrase présente un apparent rythme ternaire avec 3 occurrences de tout ; mais le rythme binaire s'insinue dans cette macrostructure : tout (1) [A] va vers le Pacifique, rien (2) n'a le temps de couler, marque une opposition (1)/(2) tout [B] est emporté par la tempête profonde (a) et vertigineuse (b) du courant intérieur, indique un mouvement tout [C] reste en suspens à la surface de la force du fleuve indique une absence de mouvement. On retrouve donc : - une opposition en (1)/(2) et en [B]/[C] : mouvement / inertie ; - une coordination d'adjectifs épithètes : la tempête profonde (a) et vertigineuse (b) ; - un parallélisme syntaxique pour les compléments déterminatifs : par la tempête profonde et vertigineuse du courant intérieur / la surface de la force du fleuve ; - un redoublement en (1)-[B] / (2)-[C] : tout va vers - tout est emporté = mouvement / rien n'a le temps de couler - tout reste en suspens = inertie. Le résultat vocal d'une lecture selon ce tempo, régi par les motifs syntaxiques et sémantiques, est de toute évidence extrêmement éloigné de la prose atone et blanche évoquée au début. Examinons pour terminer deux extraits de Les yeux bleus cheveux noirs. Voici une micro-séquence : Comme elle il est jeune. Il est grand comme elle, comme elle il est en blanc. (Ibid., p. 11) C'est un exemple d'hybridation ternaire/binaire. Binaire à cause des deux êtres représentés par le clitique de 3e personne il /elle et comparés : il est comme elle. Ternaire par la présence des 3 occurrences de la comparaison qui apparaissent dans une structure embrassée : début de proposition : Comme elle il [...] / fin de proposition : Il [...] comme elle / début de proposition : Comme elle il [...] ; ou encore, combiné au système de comparaison : elle /il ; il/elle ; elle/il. Autrement dit, on peut déceler dans cette alternance l'annonce de toutes les possibilités d'échanges et de dominations successives entre les deux amants. Enfin, cet extrait de la page 40, qui rappelle la musique du fleuve dans L'amant : 1e phrase : Le silence de la chambre est profond (1), aucun bruit n'arrive plus (2) ni des routes (A) ni de la ville (B) ni de la mer (C). 2e phrase : La nuit est à son terme (1), partout limpide et noire (2), la lune a disparu (3). 3e phrase : Ils ont peur. 4e phrase : Il écoute (1), les yeux au sol (2), ce silence effrayant (3). La première phrase de la séquence combine rythme binaire dans la macrostructure et ternaire dans la microstructure : juxtaposition de deux propositions évoquant le silence absolu (2 éléments) et succession sans ponctuation de 3 occurrences de négation (ni) avec locatif (routes, ville, mer). Suivent deux rythmes ternaires (2e phrase et 4e phrase), entrecoupés d'une phrase minimale (3e phrase) qui occupe une position charnière : Ils ont peur. Le dernier élément de la dernière phrase clôt la séquence rythmique en concaténant le silence (1e phrase) et la peur (3e phrase) : ce silence effrayant. Une nouvelle fois, le dénuement de la parole est totalement habité par le tempo qui extrait le texte de la catégorie prosaïque initiale. ...et pour cela préfère la voix Ces quelques brefs exemples auront montré, je l'espère, que l'approche strictement textuelle et rationalisée d'un écrit peut être une source d'enfermement dans une typologie très contraignante et stérilisante. Peut-on réellement conserver les couples antagonistes prose/poésie ; prosaïque/poétique ? Je ne le crois pas. En empruntant l'acception que Meschonnic donne du terme poème, je laisse à cet ardent défenseur de la voix et du rythme les mots de la conclusion : Est poème tout ce qui, dans le langage, réalise ce récitatif qu'est une subjectivation maximale du discours. Prose, vers, ou ligne. [...] En somme, le poème manifeste et il y a à manifester pour le poème le refus de la séparation entre le langage et la vie. (Ibid.) __________________________________________________________________ [36]1 Cf. Dominique Jouve : Dictionnaire International des Termes Littéraires, article « Prose » : [37]2 Cf. Dominique Jouve, ibid. : « On confond sous le nom de prose des usages littéraires et non littéraires de la langue: une circulaire administrative, une lettre personnelle et un roman de Balzac ont des titres égaux à la dénomination de prose. » [38]3 Voir à ce sujet l'article de Gérard Dessons : « Prose, prosaïque, prosaïsme », Semen, 16, Rythme de la prose, 2003, [En ligne], mis en Consulté le 05 janvier 2009. [39]4 Pour la question du « renouvellement » de l'analyse des figures, voir Marc Bonhomme, Pragmatique des figures de discours, Paris, Honoré Champion, 2005 ; et Le discours métonymique, Berne, Peter Lang, coll. « Sciences pour la communication », 2006 [40]5 Dominique Jouve, Dictionnaire international des termes littéraires... [41]6 « On distingue traditionnellement prose oratoire, prose poétique et poème en prose. », Dominique Jouve, Dictionnaire International... [42]7 Suzanne Bernard, Le poème en prose de Baudelaire jusqu'à nos jours, Paris, Nizet, [1959]1978. [43]8 Éric Bordas, « Le rythme de la prose », Semen, 16, Rythme de la prose, 2003, [En ligne], mis en ligne le 1er mai 2007. 2009. [44]9 Jean-Paul Goux, « De l'allure », Semen, 16, Rythme de la prose, 2003, [En ligne], mis en ligne le 1er mai 2007. 2009. [45]10 Il faut noter que Goux entend par phrase : « [...] ce que j'appelle phrase est le plus souvent une microséquence qui comporte elle-même plusieurs unités phrastiques ; le critère de découpage de ces microséquences, est aléatoire, mais son principe est la « visibilité » d'une allure ou d'une absence d'allure. » (Ibid.) [46]11 Marguerite Duras, L'amant, Paris, Les Éditions de Minuit, 1984. J'ai isolé quelques séquences, de la p. 29 à la p. 31. [47]12 Marguerite Duras, Les yeux bleus cheveux noirs, Paris, Les Éditions de Minuit, 1986. [48]13 À ce sujet, le souvenir d'une lecture de Duras faite par Michaël Lonsdale à laquelle j'avais assisté il y a une trentaine d'années, résonne encore dans mon oreille comme une musique monocorde. [49]14 Cf. Roland Barthes, Le degré zéro de l'écriture, Paris, Le Seuil, collection « Points », 1953 et 1972. On relira avec profit les pages 55 et 56 : « Dans ce même effort de dégagement du langage littéraire, voici une autre solution : créer une écriture blanche, libérée de toute servitude à un ordre marqué du langage. [...] La nouvelle écriture neutre se place au milieu de ces cris et de ces jugements, sans participer à aucun d'eux ; elle est faite précisément de leur absence ; mais cette absence est totale, elle n'implique aucun refuge, aucun secret ; on ne peut donc dire que c'est une écriture impassible ; c'est plutôt une écriture innocente. Il s'agit de dépasser ici la Littérature en se confiant à une sorte de langue basique également éloignée des langages vivants et du langage littéraire proprement dit ». [50]15 À ce sujet, voir Pascal Michelucci : « La motivation des styles chez Marguerite Duras : cris et silence dans Moderato cantabile et La douleur », Études françaises, vol. 39, n° 2, 2003, p. 95-107, document consulté sur internet le 12 janvier 2009 : Michelucci] se place dans une interrogation plus grande qui porte sur l'identification des critères qui font le statut de l'auteur au XXe siècle : à l'heure où le code du bien-dire et du bien-écrire s'est effondré, que dire des choix stylistiques négatifs de tout un pan de la littérature moderniste qui rejette le calcul affiché du style écrit et place son intérêt dans la revalorisation du parler spontané, non seulement dans la parole représentée des personnages, comme chez Céline ou Queneau, mais aussi dans l'ensemble plus grand de tous ses choix stylistiques.[...] Les cris et le silence constituent à nos yeux autant de traces dans l'énonciation des romans de Duras : les nombreuses apparitions des termes nous renseignent sur la genèse du style d'auteur qui est celui de Duras. Elles comblent par ailleurs une lacune rhétorique dans sa réception et les épitextes critiques portant sur son oeuvre, en offrant un lexique qui permet de parler d'un art qui échappe à la pratique belle-lettriste ». [51]16 SN = syntagme nominal. [52]17 « Une soirée d'été, dit l'acteur, serait au coeur de l'histoire. » (Ibid., p. 9) On notera aussi la présence du conditionnel qui place d'emblée la totalité de la narration sous l'emprise de la construction virtuelle, déjà annoncée par la présence de l'acteur et du mot histoire. Même si la partie centrale du roman peut faire oublier son emboîtement polyphonique, la fin vient le rappeler : « C'est la dernière nuit dit l'acteur. » (Ibid., p. 149) Un autre degré d'emboîtement polyphonique est franchi à la page 112, par l'effet du conditionnel portant sur l'acte même de narration de l'acteur : « Pendant le spectacle, dirait l'acteur, une fois, lentement la lumière baisserait et la lecture cesserait. » [53]18 Pour cette question, voir Georges Kleiber, « Quand il n'a pas d'antécédent », in Langages, 97, p. 24-50, 1990 ; « Anaphore-deixis : où en sommes-nous? », in L'information grammaticale, 5, p. 3-18, 1991 ; « Cap sur les topiques avec le pronom il », in L'information grammaticale, 54, p. 15-25, 1992 ; Anaphores et pronoms, Louvain-La-Neuve, Duculot, Coll. « Champs linguistiques », 1994 ; « Contexte, interprétation et mémoire : Approche standard vs. approche cognitive ». in Langue française, 103, p. 9-22, 1994 ; et Sylvie Freyermuth, Jean Rouaud et le périple initiatique : une poétique de la fluidité, Paris, Budapest, Turin, L'Harmattan, Coll. « Critiques littéraires », 2006, et « Encodage et décodage du pronom ana-cataphorique : réflexion stylistique sur un outil de cohésion romanesque dans l'oeuvre de Jean Rouaud », Actes du Colloque international "Littérature et linguistique : diachronie / synchronie - autour des travaux de Michèle Perret'", 2002, Chambéry, CD-ROM, D. Lagorgette et M. Lignereux (dir.), Chambéry, Université de Savoie, p. 352-363, 2007. [54]19 Pascal Michelucci, « La motivation des styles chez Marguerite Duras : cris et silence dans Moderato cantabile et La douleur »..., donne ces deux références concernant le caractère cinématographique de l'écriture de Duras : Béatrice Slama, « Le silence et la voix », Corps écrit, no 12, 1984, p. 185-192, et Liliane Papin, « Film et écriture du silence : de Chaplin à Duras », Stanford French Review, 13, 2-3, automne 1989, p. 211-228. [55]20 On retrouve curieusement la même idée dans Les yeux bleus cheveux noirs à travers l'évocation de l'histoire. Ici, il pourrait s'agir de la mise en place d'une séquence cinématographique, cadrée en plan d'ensemble. [56]21 Pascal Michelucci (cf.supra, « La motivation des styles chez Marguerite Duras : cris et silence dans Moderato cantabile et La douleur »...), qui travaille sur l'interaction silence/cri, rappelle le voeu de Duras de décanter le plus possible l'écriture. [57]22 Henri Meschonnic parle de langage, au sens de faculté d'expression ; mais je crois qu'il faut aussi, dans certains cas, entendre langue. [58]23 La mise en page a été modifiée pour lire plus aisément la disposition rythmique. [59]24 SNP = syntagme nominal prépositionnel. [60]25 On peut noter la possibilité d'employer également ce terme dans son sens abstrait. 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[119]Partager cet article sur del.icio.us [120]Envoyer cet article sur Blogmarks ELYSEE Sarkozy : les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme" NOUVELOBS.COM | 06.02.2009 | 13:01 [121]Réagissez à l'article 299 réactions Lors de son intervention télévisée, le chef de l'Etat a notamment déclaré : "Que les Français soient inquiets (face à la crise), c'est normal". > Il a dit réfléchir à une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu. > La taxe professionnelle sera supprimée en 2010. > Les partenaires sociaux seront reçus le 18 février. Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters) Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters) Le chef de l'Etat a déclaré, jeudi 5 février, que la France et le monde faisaient face à "la crise du siècle", au début de son intervention télévisée. "C'est la crise du siècle, elle est sans précédent", a-t-il répété Nicolas Sarkozy. ([122]> Lire toutes les déclarations). "Je dois en tenir compte et faire en sorte que la France rentre le plus tard possible dans la crise et sorte le plus tôt de la crise", a-t-il ajouté. "Je dois en plus protéger au maximum ceux qui déjà dans la croissance mondiale étaient exclus", a-t-il ajouté. "Que les Français soient inquiets, c'est normal. Je le comprends, je l'entends", a-t-il expliqué. Les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme", a-t-il rapidement affirmé. "La rupture n'a jamais été un objectif, c'est juste un moyen", a, par ailleurs, expliqué Nicolas Sarkozy. L'émission était diffusée simultanément sur TF1, France 2, M6 et RTL. Elle est présentée par David Pujadas et Laurence, avec les interventions de Guy Lagache et Alain Duhamel. Une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu ? Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il recevrait les partenaires sociaux le 18 février, notamment pour voir comment "aller plus loin" sur l'indemnisation du chômage partiel. Il a également dit réfléchir à une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu pour aider les classes moyennes, l'une des "pistes" qu'il soumettra aux syndicats le 18 février. "L'Etat est prêt à faire un effort" pour "mieux protéger" les jeunes en fin de CDD et qui ne retrouvent pas d'emploi du fait de la crise financière et économique, a affirmé le président de la République. Le chef de l'Etat a aussi annoncé qu'il "supprimerait la taxe professionnnelle en 2010". "Je vous l'annonce: on supprimera la taxe professionnelle en France en 2010 parce que je veux que l'on garde des usines en France", a déclaré Nicolas Sarkozy lors de son intervention télévisée sur la crise. La mesure sera générale: "On ne peut pas dire on va supprimer pour l'industrie automobile mais pas pour l'industrie sidérurgique ou textile", a-t-il ajouté. "Je ne peux pas dire aux actionnaires pour le coup: ne délocalisez plus, relocalisez, et en même temps leur laisser des charges et des contraintes qui font qu'ils ne s'en sortiront plus", selon le chef de l'Etat. Réfléchir sur le "partage du profit" Le président a jugé nécessaire de réfléchir au "partage du profit" entre les salariés et les actionnaires, demandant aux partenaires sociaux de parvenir à un accord sans quoi "l'Etat prendra ses responsabilités". "Je veux que le 18 février nous discutions d'un sujet essentiel en France qui est le partage du profit", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat, évoquant le "sentiment d'injustice majeur" suscité dans cette crise par "le comportement d'un certain nombre de dirigeants d'institutions bancaires". "Comment on arbitre entre le souhait légitime des actionnaires de gagner de l'argent avec les entreprises et la demande des salariés d'être associés aux bénéfices des entreprises dont ils ont contribué à créer la richesse?", s'est interrogé Nicolas Sarkozy, jugeant qu'en la matière "le compte n'y est pas". "Quand une entreprise distribue aux actionnaires tous les bénéfices d'une année, elle ne peut plus investir" pour l'avenir, a-t-il ajouté, dénonçant une "logique purement financière et spéculative". Le sujet sera au programme de sa rencontre avec les partenaires sociaux le 18 février. "J'engage les organisations syndicales et le patronat à en discuter. Soit ils arrivent à quelque chose, soit l'Etat prendra ses responsabilités", a-t-il prévenu. Il a indiqué qu'il estimait quant à lui que "la règle des trois tiers est bonne": un tiers des bénéfices vont aux salariés, un tiers aux actionnaires sous forme de dividendes et un tiers sont réinvestis dans l'entreprise pour financer son développement". Combat sur la TVA Nicolas Sarkozy a réaffirmé sa volonté d'obtenir un consensus européen concernant des baisses de la TVA sur la restauration, les "produits propres" et des "produits culturels". "C'est parfaitement anormal que quand on achète une voiture propre, on paie plus cher que quand on achète une voiture qui pollue, et ça vaut aussi pour les bâtiments construits en haute qualité environnementale", a dit le chef de l'Etat, souhaitant "un système de TVA réduite pour tous les produits propres". "Je pense également que sur les produits culturels, il faut aller plus loin", a ajouté Nicolas Sarkozy. "Pourquoi la TVA sur le livre est-elle à 5,5 (%), et la TVA sur le disque à 19,6 (%), comme la TVA sur la vidéo? Il faut mettre cette TVA à 5,5", a-t-il déclaré. "Comme cela on est tranquille" "Est-ce que les réformes que la France doit mettre en oeuvre, pour avoir le même emploi lorsque nous seront sortis de la crise, est-ce que ces réformes restent d'actualité? La réponse est oui", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat, précisant qu'elles devaient être conduites "au même rythme". "Si on doit arrêter, comme cela s'est si souvent fait dans le passé, chaque réforme quand il y a une manifestation, alors mieux vaut ne faire aucune réforme. Et comme cela on est tranquille", a-t-il dit. La rupture, "c'est la rupture avec cette habitude". Les quelque 1,4 milliard d'euros d'intérêts que l'Etat percevra cette année au titre des intérêts pour son financement aux banques seront "intégralement" affectés au financement de "mesures sociales", a annoncé Nicolas Sarkozy. Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il allait demander au président de la Cour des comptes Philippe Seguin de "conduire un certain nombre d'enquêtes" sur la bonne utilisation des fonds accordés aux banques pour faire face à la crise. Tacle aux traders Nicolas Sarkozy veut "changer" le système de rémunération des "traders" mais est sceptique sur un plafonnement systématique du salaire des dirigeants, a-t-il déclaré. "Je suis plus choqué par le système de rémunération de ceux qu'on appelle les traders, que les présidents de banques. C'est ce système-là que je veux changer", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat. "J'ai vu ce que M. Obama a décidé, je suis en train d'y réfléchir, moi je ne suis pas trop pour une règle générale", a-t-il ajouté. "Mettre tout le monde sous la toise, je ne suis pas sûr que ce soit la meilleure formule". "J'ajoute que Barack Obama a prévu un système d'actions gratuites derrière une rémunération bloquée, j'aimerais en savoir un peu plus", a souligné Nicolas Sarkozy. Maintien de la politique sur la Fonction publique Nicolas Sarkozy a affirmé qu'il n'engagerait "pas de dépenses publiques supplémentaires", et qu'il s'en tiendrait à la "règle du non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux". "Je n'engagerai pas de dépenses publiques supplémentaires, notamment sur la règle du non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux", a affirmé le président de la République. Selon lui, on reviendra ainsi "au même nombre de fonctionnaires qu'en 1992", quand François Mitterrand était président. "Je n'ai pas le souvenir que la France était alors sous-administrée", a-t-il argué. Relations aux paradis fiscaux Très sévère sur la question des paradis fiscaux, Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé son intention de "poser des questions" à Andorre, Monaco et au Luxembourg. La France exigera la moralisation des paradis fiscaux et "ça m'amènera à revoir nos relations avec Andorre", "à poser la question de nos relations avec Monaco (et) à poser un certain nombre de questions à nos voisins luxembourgeois", a-t-il déclaré. Baisse dans les sondages D'autant que le chef de l'Etat, comme son Premier ministre, enregistre une forte baisse dans les derniers sondages. Moins cinq points à 39% de "confiance" contre 55% de défiance selon un CSA paru mercredi dans Le Parisien. Forts du succès de leur journée d'action de la semaine dernière, les syndicats attendent le président au tournant, suspendant leurs prochaines initiatives au contenu de sa prestation télévisée. Le patron de la CFDT François Chérèque a réclamé un "changement de cap", en clair, des mesures pour maintenir le pouvoir d'achat, tandis que celui de FO Jean-Claude Mailly a prévenu que sans "relance par la consommation", il y aura "remobilisation". Le ton est également offensif dans l'opposition. La Première secrétaire du PS Martine Aubry a demandé au président de "définir enfin un plan de relance adapté". Et, dans une rare unanimité, la gauche toute entière a signé mercredi un texte sommant le pouvoir de "changer de cap". Ne pas se laisser "enfumer" Jeudi matin, Jean-Luc Mélenchon (Parti de gauche) invitait le pays à ne pas se laisser "enfumer" par Nicolas Sarkozy et à se mettre "en lutte", tandis qu'Olivier Besancenot (LCR) voyait déjà dans son intervention "des motivations supplémentaires à continuer le combat". Jusque-là, le discours du chef de l'Etat est resté inflexible. Oui, il a entendu les "inquiétudes légitimes" des Français "qui craignent pour leur emploi", mais pas question pour lui de recourir à une relance par la consommation, "parce que ça n'a jamais marché". Nicolas Sarkozy devrait aussi enrober son propos d'une bonne dose de volontarisme. "On va se battre pour que la France sorte plus forte de la crise", insiste-t-il régulièrement. "Se concentrer sur les objectifs essentiels" Mais certains ne l'entendent pas de la même oreille dans la majorité. Le député UMP Hervé Mariton a reproché au gouvernement de s'éparpiller dans les réformes lui demandant de "se concentrer sur les objectifs essentiels" et son collègue François Goulard a préconisé une "suspension" temporaire du très controversé bouclier fiscal. En outre, le gouvernement a vu poindre ces derniers jours un nouveau "front" du mécontentement dans les universités, avec la montée de la grogne des enseignants-chercheurs et des étudiants. Mais comme François Fillon lundi, le porte-parole du gouvernement a exclu mercredi tout virage politique. "Cette émission n'est pas faite seulement pour le million et demi de Français qui a manifesté", a dit Luc Chatel, mais plutôt pour "mettre en perspective son action face à la crise". [123]Augmenter la taille du texte [124]Réduire la taille du texte [125]Imprimer cet article [126]Envoyer cet article à un ami [127]Réagissez à l'article [128]Réagir à cet article en créant votre Blog [129]Traduction français / anglais [130]Traduction français / espagnol [131]Partager cet article sur Wikio [132]Partager cet article sur Scoopeo [133]Digger cet article [134]Partager cet article avec mes amis sur Facebook ! [135]Partager cet article sur del.icio.us [136]Envoyer cet article sur Blogmarks Les réactions des lecteurs rifif [137]-10 POINTS -10 points serait un sondage plus réaliste que ces sondages effectués par des instituts de sondages aux mains des amis de sarkozy ! Il aura beau museler les manifestan... 08.02 à 16h05 - [138]Alerter scafandre [139]Il faut qu'il démissionne... avant de mettre littéralement la France en faillite. Il est inconscient... Vous avez des communes qui ont investi dans la construction de collèges, de ponts... en fonct... 07.02 à 21h16 - [140]Alerter [141]Réagissez ! [142]Toutes les réactions (299) [143]Conditions de modération L'essentiel Politique [144]IDENTITE NATIONALE [145]"Déferlement de musulmans" : Gaudin regrette avoir eu un "mot malheureux" 18.01 à 16h59 [146]MAYOTTE [147]Courte étape dans l'océan Indien pour Sarkozy 18.01 à 14h52 [148]POLEMIQUE [149]Reporters enlevés : "cynisme effrayant" de Guéant 18.01 à 14h47 [150]MARSEILLE [151]Buffet dénonce "une idéologie xénophobe dans les plus hautes autorités de l'Etat" 18.01 à 13h46 [152]IDENTITE NATIONALE [153]Et si "une Française porte la burqa"...? 18.01 à 10h51 [154]SOCIAL [155]Internet : un tarif réduit pour les plus démunis ? 18.01 à 09h05 [156]COLLECTIVITES LOCALES [157]Les départements en "graves difficultés financières" 18.01 à 08h53 [158]IDENTITE NATIONALE [159]"Déferlement de musulmans" : Gaudin regrette avoir eu un "mot malheureux" 18.01 à 08h06 [160]MARSEILLE [161]Valls fustige les "amalgames dangereux" de Gaudin 18.01 à 07h56 [162]ELECTIONS REGIONALES [163]Régionales : Aubry vise toujours le grand chelem 18.01 à 07h29 [164]AFGHANISTAN [165]Journalistes enlevés : Guéant provoque la polémique 18.01 à 07h10 [166]SENAT [167]La réforme des collectivités "manque de visibilité" 18.01 à 07h05 [168]CHARENTE-MARITIME [169]Régionales : Sarnez accuse Royal de "débauchage" 17.01 à 14h58 [170]DROIT DE VOTE [171]Mélenchon favorable au droit de vote des étrangers 17.01 à 13h56 [172]CONSEIL CONSTITUTIONNEL [173]Emmanuelle Mignon ne siègera pas parmi les Sages 17.01 à 12h55 Plus sur le sujet Sur Nouvelobs.com * [174]Les principales déclarations de Nicolas Sarkozy * [175]Aubry Sarkozy est un président "hésitant" qui "ne sait pas où il va" * [176]Intervention télévisée de Sarkozy Les appels au boycott se multiplient * [177]Onze organisations de gauche demandent un "changement de cap" * [178]Interview présidentielle Les choix contestables de l'Elysée * [179]Grèves Parisot y voit "quelque chose de pervers" * [180]Le texte commun des onze organisations de gauche * [181]Revue de presse * [182]Les réactions * [183]Delanoë Sarkozy a "privilégié la polémique" sur le SMA * [184]Sarkozy fait des ouvertures, les syndicats méfiants * [185]15,1 millions de téléspectateurs pour l'intervention de Sarkozy * [186]Les principales mesures de Nicolas Sarkozy Dans Le Nouvel Observateur * [187]"Sarkozy comme Cendrillon", (05/02/09) * [188]"La vraie nature de Sarkozy", par François Bazin (05/02/09) * [189]"Sarkozy peut-il encore réformer ?", par Hervé Algalarrondo (05/02/09) * [190]"Les ficelles de Sarkozy", (22/01/09) * [191]"Les choix de Sarkozy", par Denis Olivennes (22/01/09) Sur Internet * [192]Le site de l'Elysée * [193]Le baromètre de confiance de l'exécutif sur le site du CSA * [194]Le baromètre des actions présidentielles sur le site du CSA * [195]La biographie officielle de Nicolas Sarkozy * [196]Le blog de François Fillon * [197]La biographie officielle de François Fillon * [198]Le site de TNS-Sofres nouvelobs.com __________________________________________________________________ ClubObs Déjà membre de Clubobs.com, identifiez-vous ____________________ [_] Mémoriser ____________________ Ok [199]Mot de passe oublié ? * [200]> A la une * [201]> Opinions * [202]> Blogs * [203]> Revues de presse * [204]> Dossiers * [205]> Forums en direct * [206]> Archives * [207]> Automobile * [208]> High-tech * [209]> Météo * [210]> Annonces * [211]> Débats * [212]> Voyages * [213]> Immobilier * [214]> Emploi * [215]> Comme au Cinema.com * [216]> Rencontres * [217]> Newsletters [218]Site Internet certifiée par l'OJD La fréquentation de ce site est certifiée par l'OJD [219]Contacts | [220]Plan du site | [221]Publicité | [222]Conditions d'utilisation | [223]Données personnelles | [224]Copyright | [225]Index | © Le Nouvel Observateur - Tous droits réservés. nouvelobs.com est une marque exclusive du Nouvel Observateur. 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[119]Partager cet article sur del.icio.us [120]Envoyer cet article sur Blogmarks ELYSEE Sarkozy : les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme" NOUVELOBS.COM | 06.02.2009 | 13:01 [121]Réagissez à l'article 299 réactions Lors de son intervention télévisée, le chef de l'Etat a notamment déclaré : "Que les Français soient inquiets (face à la crise), c'est normal". > Il a dit réfléchir à une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu. > La taxe professionnelle sera supprimée en 2010. > Les partenaires sociaux seront reçus le 18 février. Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters) Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters) Le chef de l'Etat a déclaré, jeudi 5 février, que la France et le monde faisaient face à "la crise du siècle", au début de son intervention télévisée. "C'est la crise du siècle, elle est sans précédent", a-t-il répété Nicolas Sarkozy. ([122]> Lire toutes les déclarations). "Je dois en tenir compte et faire en sorte que la France rentre le plus tard possible dans la crise et sorte le plus tôt de la crise", a-t-il ajouté. "Je dois en plus protéger au maximum ceux qui déjà dans la croissance mondiale étaient exclus", a-t-il ajouté. "Que les Français soient inquiets, c'est normal. Je le comprends, je l'entends", a-t-il expliqué. Les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme", a-t-il rapidement affirmé. "La rupture n'a jamais été un objectif, c'est juste un moyen", a, par ailleurs, expliqué Nicolas Sarkozy. L'émission était diffusée simultanément sur TF1, France 2, M6 et RTL. Elle est présentée par David Pujadas et Laurence, avec les interventions de Guy Lagache et Alain Duhamel. Une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu ? Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il recevrait les partenaires sociaux le 18 février, notamment pour voir comment "aller plus loin" sur l'indemnisation du chômage partiel. Il a également dit réfléchir à une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu pour aider les classes moyennes, l'une des "pistes" qu'il soumettra aux syndicats le 18 février. "L'Etat est prêt à faire un effort" pour "mieux protéger" les jeunes en fin de CDD et qui ne retrouvent pas d'emploi du fait de la crise financière et économique, a affirmé le président de la République. Le chef de l'Etat a aussi annoncé qu'il "supprimerait la taxe professionnnelle en 2010". "Je vous l'annonce: on supprimera la taxe professionnelle en France en 2010 parce que je veux que l'on garde des usines en France", a déclaré Nicolas Sarkozy lors de son intervention télévisée sur la crise. La mesure sera générale: "On ne peut pas dire on va supprimer pour l'industrie automobile mais pas pour l'industrie sidérurgique ou textile", a-t-il ajouté. "Je ne peux pas dire aux actionnaires pour le coup: ne délocalisez plus, relocalisez, et en même temps leur laisser des charges et des contraintes qui font qu'ils ne s'en sortiront plus", selon le chef de l'Etat. Réfléchir sur le "partage du profit" Le président a jugé nécessaire de réfléchir au "partage du profit" entre les salariés et les actionnaires, demandant aux partenaires sociaux de parvenir à un accord sans quoi "l'Etat prendra ses responsabilités". "Je veux que le 18 février nous discutions d'un sujet essentiel en France qui est le partage du profit", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat, évoquant le "sentiment d'injustice majeur" suscité dans cette crise par "le comportement d'un certain nombre de dirigeants d'institutions bancaires". "Comment on arbitre entre le souhait légitime des actionnaires de gagner de l'argent avec les entreprises et la demande des salariés d'être associés aux bénéfices des entreprises dont ils ont contribué à créer la richesse?", s'est interrogé Nicolas Sarkozy, jugeant qu'en la matière "le compte n'y est pas". "Quand une entreprise distribue aux actionnaires tous les bénéfices d'une année, elle ne peut plus investir" pour l'avenir, a-t-il ajouté, dénonçant une "logique purement financière et spéculative". Le sujet sera au programme de sa rencontre avec les partenaires sociaux le 18 février. "J'engage les organisations syndicales et le patronat à en discuter. Soit ils arrivent à quelque chose, soit l'Etat prendra ses responsabilités", a-t-il prévenu. Il a indiqué qu'il estimait quant à lui que "la règle des trois tiers est bonne": un tiers des bénéfices vont aux salariés, un tiers aux actionnaires sous forme de dividendes et un tiers sont réinvestis dans l'entreprise pour financer son développement". Combat sur la TVA Nicolas Sarkozy a réaffirmé sa volonté d'obtenir un consensus européen concernant des baisses de la TVA sur la restauration, les "produits propres" et des "produits culturels". "C'est parfaitement anormal que quand on achète une voiture propre, on paie plus cher que quand on achète une voiture qui pollue, et ça vaut aussi pour les bâtiments construits en haute qualité environnementale", a dit le chef de l'Etat, souhaitant "un système de TVA réduite pour tous les produits propres". "Je pense également que sur les produits culturels, il faut aller plus loin", a ajouté Nicolas Sarkozy. "Pourquoi la TVA sur le livre est-elle à 5,5 (%), et la TVA sur le disque à 19,6 (%), comme la TVA sur la vidéo? Il faut mettre cette TVA à 5,5", a-t-il déclaré. "Comme cela on est tranquille" "Est-ce que les réformes que la France doit mettre en oeuvre, pour avoir le même emploi lorsque nous seront sortis de la crise, est-ce que ces réformes restent d'actualité? La réponse est oui", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat, précisant qu'elles devaient être conduites "au même rythme". "Si on doit arrêter, comme cela s'est si souvent fait dans le passé, chaque réforme quand il y a une manifestation, alors mieux vaut ne faire aucune réforme. Et comme cela on est tranquille", a-t-il dit. La rupture, "c'est la rupture avec cette habitude". Les quelque 1,4 milliard d'euros d'intérêts que l'Etat percevra cette année au titre des intérêts pour son financement aux banques seront "intégralement" affectés au financement de "mesures sociales", a annoncé Nicolas Sarkozy. Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il allait demander au président de la Cour des comptes Philippe Seguin de "conduire un certain nombre d'enquêtes" sur la bonne utilisation des fonds accordés aux banques pour faire face à la crise. Tacle aux traders Nicolas Sarkozy veut "changer" le système de rémunération des "traders" mais est sceptique sur un plafonnement systématique du salaire des dirigeants, a-t-il déclaré. "Je suis plus choqué par le système de rémunération de ceux qu'on appelle les traders, que les présidents de banques. C'est ce système-là que je veux changer", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat. "J'ai vu ce que M. Obama a décidé, je suis en train d'y réfléchir, moi je ne suis pas trop pour une règle générale", a-t-il ajouté. "Mettre tout le monde sous la toise, je ne suis pas sûr que ce soit la meilleure formule". "J'ajoute que Barack Obama a prévu un système d'actions gratuites derrière une rémunération bloquée, j'aimerais en savoir un peu plus", a souligné Nicolas Sarkozy. Maintien de la politique sur la Fonction publique Nicolas Sarkozy a affirmé qu'il n'engagerait "pas de dépenses publiques supplémentaires", et qu'il s'en tiendrait à la "règle du non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux". "Je n'engagerai pas de dépenses publiques supplémentaires, notamment sur la règle du non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux", a affirmé le président de la République. Selon lui, on reviendra ainsi "au même nombre de fonctionnaires qu'en 1992", quand François Mitterrand était président. "Je n'ai pas le souvenir que la France était alors sous-administrée", a-t-il argué. Relations aux paradis fiscaux Très sévère sur la question des paradis fiscaux, Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé son intention de "poser des questions" à Andorre, Monaco et au Luxembourg. La France exigera la moralisation des paradis fiscaux et "ça m'amènera à revoir nos relations avec Andorre", "à poser la question de nos relations avec Monaco (et) à poser un certain nombre de questions à nos voisins luxembourgeois", a-t-il déclaré. Baisse dans les sondages D'autant que le chef de l'Etat, comme son Premier ministre, enregistre une forte baisse dans les derniers sondages. Moins cinq points à 39% de "confiance" contre 55% de défiance selon un CSA paru mercredi dans Le Parisien. Forts du succès de leur journée d'action de la semaine dernière, les syndicats attendent le président au tournant, suspendant leurs prochaines initiatives au contenu de sa prestation télévisée. Le patron de la CFDT François Chérèque a réclamé un "changement de cap", en clair, des mesures pour maintenir le pouvoir d'achat, tandis que celui de FO Jean-Claude Mailly a prévenu que sans "relance par la consommation", il y aura "remobilisation". Le ton est également offensif dans l'opposition. La Première secrétaire du PS Martine Aubry a demandé au président de "définir enfin un plan de relance adapté". Et, dans une rare unanimité, la gauche toute entière a signé mercredi un texte sommant le pouvoir de "changer de cap". Ne pas se laisser "enfumer" Jeudi matin, Jean-Luc Mélenchon (Parti de gauche) invitait le pays à ne pas se laisser "enfumer" par Nicolas Sarkozy et à se mettre "en lutte", tandis qu'Olivier Besancenot (LCR) voyait déjà dans son intervention "des motivations supplémentaires à continuer le combat". Jusque-là, le discours du chef de l'Etat est resté inflexible. Oui, il a entendu les "inquiétudes légitimes" des Français "qui craignent pour leur emploi", mais pas question pour lui de recourir à une relance par la consommation, "parce que ça n'a jamais marché". Nicolas Sarkozy devrait aussi enrober son propos d'une bonne dose de volontarisme. "On va se battre pour que la France sorte plus forte de la crise", insiste-t-il régulièrement. "Se concentrer sur les objectifs essentiels" Mais certains ne l'entendent pas de la même oreille dans la majorité. Le député UMP Hervé Mariton a reproché au gouvernement de s'éparpiller dans les réformes lui demandant de "se concentrer sur les objectifs essentiels" et son collègue François Goulard a préconisé une "suspension" temporaire du très controversé bouclier fiscal. En outre, le gouvernement a vu poindre ces derniers jours un nouveau "front" du mécontentement dans les universités, avec la montée de la grogne des enseignants-chercheurs et des étudiants. Mais comme François Fillon lundi, le porte-parole du gouvernement a exclu mercredi tout virage politique. "Cette émission n'est pas faite seulement pour le million et demi de Français qui a manifesté", a dit Luc Chatel, mais plutôt pour "mettre en perspective son action face à la crise". [123]Augmenter la taille du texte [124]Réduire la taille du texte [125]Imprimer cet article [126]Envoyer cet article à un ami [127]Réagissez à l'article [128]Réagir à cet article en créant votre Blog [129]Traduction français / anglais [130]Traduction français / espagnol [131]Partager cet article sur Wikio [132]Partager cet article sur Scoopeo [133]Digger cet article [134]Partager cet article avec mes amis sur Facebook ! [135]Partager cet article sur del.icio.us [136]Envoyer cet article sur Blogmarks Les réactions des lecteurs rifif [137]-10 POINTS -10 points serait un sondage plus réaliste que ces sondages effectués par des instituts de sondages aux mains des amis de sarkozy ! Il aura beau museler les manifestan... 08.02 à 16h05 - [138]Alerter scafandre [139]Il faut qu'il démissionne... avant de mettre littéralement la France en faillite. Il est inconscient... Vous avez des communes qui ont investi dans la construction de collèges, de ponts... en fonct... 07.02 à 21h16 - [140]Alerter [141]Réagissez ! [142]Toutes les réactions (299) [143]Conditions de modération L'essentiel Politique [144]IDENTITE NATIONALE [145]"Déferlement de musulmans" : Gaudin regrette avoir eu un "mot malheureux" 18.01 à 16h59 [146]MAYOTTE [147]Courte étape dans l'océan Indien pour Sarkozy 18.01 à 14h52 [148]POLEMIQUE [149]Reporters enlevés : "cynisme effrayant" de Guéant 18.01 à 14h47 [150]MARSEILLE [151]Buffet dénonce "une idéologie xénophobe dans les plus hautes autorités de l'Etat" 18.01 à 13h46 [152]IDENTITE NATIONALE [153]Et si "une Française porte la burqa"...? 18.01 à 10h51 [154]SOCIAL [155]Internet : un tarif réduit pour les plus démunis ? 18.01 à 09h05 [156]COLLECTIVITES LOCALES [157]Les départements en "graves difficultés financières" 18.01 à 08h53 [158]IDENTITE NATIONALE [159]"Déferlement de musulmans" : Gaudin regrette avoir eu un "mot malheureux" 18.01 à 08h06 [160]MARSEILLE [161]Valls fustige les "amalgames dangereux" de Gaudin 18.01 à 07h56 [162]ELECTIONS REGIONALES [163]Régionales : Aubry vise toujours le grand chelem 18.01 à 07h29 [164]AFGHANISTAN [165]Journalistes enlevés : Guéant provoque la polémique 18.01 à 07h10 [166]SENAT [167]La réforme des collectivités "manque de visibilité" 18.01 à 07h05 [168]CHARENTE-MARITIME [169]Régionales : Sarnez accuse Royal de "débauchage" 17.01 à 14h58 [170]DROIT DE VOTE [171]Mélenchon favorable au droit de vote des étrangers 17.01 à 13h56 [172]CONSEIL CONSTITUTIONNEL [173]Emmanuelle Mignon ne siègera pas parmi les Sages 17.01 à 12h55 Plus sur le sujet Sur Nouvelobs.com * [174]Les principales déclarations de Nicolas Sarkozy * [175]Aubry Sarkozy est un président "hésitant" qui "ne sait pas où il va" * [176]Intervention télévisée de Sarkozy Les appels au boycott se multiplient * [177]Onze organisations de gauche demandent un "changement de cap" * [178]Interview présidentielle Les choix contestables de l'Elysée * [179]Grèves Parisot y voit "quelque chose de pervers" * [180]Le texte commun des onze organisations de gauche * [181]Revue de presse * [182]Les réactions * [183]Delanoë Sarkozy a "privilégié la polémique" sur le SMA * [184]Sarkozy fait des ouvertures, les syndicats méfiants * [185]15,1 millions de téléspectateurs pour l'intervention de Sarkozy * [186]Les principales mesures de Nicolas Sarkozy Dans Le Nouvel Observateur * [187]"Sarkozy comme Cendrillon", (05/02/09) * [188]"La vraie nature de Sarkozy", par François Bazin (05/02/09) * [189]"Sarkozy peut-il encore réformer ?", par Hervé Algalarrondo (05/02/09) * [190]"Les ficelles de Sarkozy", (22/01/09) * [191]"Les choix de Sarkozy", par Denis Olivennes (22/01/09) Sur Internet * [192]Le site de l'Elysée * [193]Le baromètre de confiance de l'exécutif sur le site du CSA * [194]Le baromètre des actions présidentielles sur le site du CSA * [195]La biographie officielle de Nicolas Sarkozy * [196]Le blog de François Fillon * [197]La biographie officielle de François Fillon * [198]Le site de TNS-Sofres nouvelobs.com __________________________________________________________________ ClubObs Déjà membre de Clubobs.com, identifiez-vous ____________________ [_] Mémoriser ____________________ Ok [199]Mot de passe oublié ? * [200]> A la une * [201]> Opinions * [202]> Blogs * [203]> Revues de presse * [204]> Dossiers * [205]> Forums en direct * [206]> Archives * [207]> Automobile * [208]> High-tech * [209]> Météo * [210]> Annonces * [211]> Débats * [212]> Voyages * [213]> Immobilier * [214]> Emploi * [215]> Comme au Cinema.com * [216]> Rencontres * [217]> Newsletters [218]Site Internet certifiée par l'OJD La fréquentation de ce site est certifiée par l'OJD [219]Contacts | [220]Plan du site | [221]Publicité | [222]Conditions d'utilisation | [223]Données personnelles | [224]Copyright | [225]Index | © Le Nouvel Observateur - Tous droits réservés. nouvelobs.com est une marque exclusive du Nouvel Observateur. 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Formulant ses voeux pour la nouvelle années devant les représentants des partenaires sociaux, le chef de l'Etat a d'abord voulu les «remercier pour l'ampleur de la tâche que vous avez accomplie en 2008. L'urgence des problèmes à résoudre, l'attente des Français vous ont imposé, comme au gouvernement et au Parlement, un rythme de travail particulièrement exigeant». «Je ne vous surprendrai pas en vous disant que nous n'avons pas l'intention de ralentir le rythme en 2009, leur a-t-il ensuite déclaré. Et ce n'est certainement pas au moment où l'impact social de la crise se fait sentir --on a eu l'impact financier, l'impact économique, bien sûr l'impact social-- qu'on va en tirer la conclusion qu'il faut ralentir», a-t-il ajouté. 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[119]Partager cet article sur del.icio.us [120]Envoyer cet article sur Blogmarks ELYSEE Sarkozy : les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme" NOUVELOBS.COM | 06.02.2009 | 13:01 [121]Réagissez à l'article 299 réactions Lors de son intervention télévisée, le chef de l'Etat a notamment déclaré : "Que les Français soient inquiets (face à la crise), c'est normal". > Il a dit réfléchir à une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu. > La taxe professionnelle sera supprimée en 2010. > Les partenaires sociaux seront reçus le 18 février. Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters) Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters) Le chef de l'Etat a déclaré, jeudi 5 février, que la France et le monde faisaient face à "la crise du siècle", au début de son intervention télévisée. "C'est la crise du siècle, elle est sans précédent", a-t-il répété Nicolas Sarkozy. ([122]> Lire toutes les déclarations). "Je dois en tenir compte et faire en sorte que la France rentre le plus tard possible dans la crise et sorte le plus tôt de la crise", a-t-il ajouté. "Je dois en plus protéger au maximum ceux qui déjà dans la croissance mondiale étaient exclus", a-t-il ajouté. "Que les Français soient inquiets, c'est normal. Je le comprends, je l'entends", a-t-il expliqué. Les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme", a-t-il rapidement affirmé. "La rupture n'a jamais été un objectif, c'est juste un moyen", a, par ailleurs, expliqué Nicolas Sarkozy. L'émission était diffusée simultanément sur TF1, France 2, M6 et RTL. Elle est présentée par David Pujadas et Laurence, avec les interventions de Guy Lagache et Alain Duhamel. Une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu ? Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il recevrait les partenaires sociaux le 18 février, notamment pour voir comment "aller plus loin" sur l'indemnisation du chômage partiel. Il a également dit réfléchir à une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu pour aider les classes moyennes, l'une des "pistes" qu'il soumettra aux syndicats le 18 février. "L'Etat est prêt à faire un effort" pour "mieux protéger" les jeunes en fin de CDD et qui ne retrouvent pas d'emploi du fait de la crise financière et économique, a affirmé le président de la République. Le chef de l'Etat a aussi annoncé qu'il "supprimerait la taxe professionnnelle en 2010". "Je vous l'annonce: on supprimera la taxe professionnelle en France en 2010 parce que je veux que l'on garde des usines en France", a déclaré Nicolas Sarkozy lors de son intervention télévisée sur la crise. La mesure sera générale: "On ne peut pas dire on va supprimer pour l'industrie automobile mais pas pour l'industrie sidérurgique ou textile", a-t-il ajouté. "Je ne peux pas dire aux actionnaires pour le coup: ne délocalisez plus, relocalisez, et en même temps leur laisser des charges et des contraintes qui font qu'ils ne s'en sortiront plus", selon le chef de l'Etat. Réfléchir sur le "partage du profit" Le président a jugé nécessaire de réfléchir au "partage du profit" entre les salariés et les actionnaires, demandant aux partenaires sociaux de parvenir à un accord sans quoi "l'Etat prendra ses responsabilités". "Je veux que le 18 février nous discutions d'un sujet essentiel en France qui est le partage du profit", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat, évoquant le "sentiment d'injustice majeur" suscité dans cette crise par "le comportement d'un certain nombre de dirigeants d'institutions bancaires". "Comment on arbitre entre le souhait légitime des actionnaires de gagner de l'argent avec les entreprises et la demande des salariés d'être associés aux bénéfices des entreprises dont ils ont contribué à créer la richesse?", s'est interrogé Nicolas Sarkozy, jugeant qu'en la matière "le compte n'y est pas". "Quand une entreprise distribue aux actionnaires tous les bénéfices d'une année, elle ne peut plus investir" pour l'avenir, a-t-il ajouté, dénonçant une "logique purement financière et spéculative". Le sujet sera au programme de sa rencontre avec les partenaires sociaux le 18 février. "J'engage les organisations syndicales et le patronat à en discuter. Soit ils arrivent à quelque chose, soit l'Etat prendra ses responsabilités", a-t-il prévenu. Il a indiqué qu'il estimait quant à lui que "la règle des trois tiers est bonne": un tiers des bénéfices vont aux salariés, un tiers aux actionnaires sous forme de dividendes et un tiers sont réinvestis dans l'entreprise pour financer son développement". Combat sur la TVA Nicolas Sarkozy a réaffirmé sa volonté d'obtenir un consensus européen concernant des baisses de la TVA sur la restauration, les "produits propres" et des "produits culturels". "C'est parfaitement anormal que quand on achète une voiture propre, on paie plus cher que quand on achète une voiture qui pollue, et ça vaut aussi pour les bâtiments construits en haute qualité environnementale", a dit le chef de l'Etat, souhaitant "un système de TVA réduite pour tous les produits propres". "Je pense également que sur les produits culturels, il faut aller plus loin", a ajouté Nicolas Sarkozy. "Pourquoi la TVA sur le livre est-elle à 5,5 (%), et la TVA sur le disque à 19,6 (%), comme la TVA sur la vidéo? Il faut mettre cette TVA à 5,5", a-t-il déclaré. "Comme cela on est tranquille" "Est-ce que les réformes que la France doit mettre en oeuvre, pour avoir le même emploi lorsque nous seront sortis de la crise, est-ce que ces réformes restent d'actualité? La réponse est oui", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat, précisant qu'elles devaient être conduites "au même rythme". "Si on doit arrêter, comme cela s'est si souvent fait dans le passé, chaque réforme quand il y a une manifestation, alors mieux vaut ne faire aucune réforme. Et comme cela on est tranquille", a-t-il dit. La rupture, "c'est la rupture avec cette habitude". Les quelque 1,4 milliard d'euros d'intérêts que l'Etat percevra cette année au titre des intérêts pour son financement aux banques seront "intégralement" affectés au financement de "mesures sociales", a annoncé Nicolas Sarkozy. Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il allait demander au président de la Cour des comptes Philippe Seguin de "conduire un certain nombre d'enquêtes" sur la bonne utilisation des fonds accordés aux banques pour faire face à la crise. Tacle aux traders Nicolas Sarkozy veut "changer" le système de rémunération des "traders" mais est sceptique sur un plafonnement systématique du salaire des dirigeants, a-t-il déclaré. "Je suis plus choqué par le système de rémunération de ceux qu'on appelle les traders, que les présidents de banques. C'est ce système-là que je veux changer", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat. "J'ai vu ce que M. Obama a décidé, je suis en train d'y réfléchir, moi je ne suis pas trop pour une règle générale", a-t-il ajouté. "Mettre tout le monde sous la toise, je ne suis pas sûr que ce soit la meilleure formule". "J'ajoute que Barack Obama a prévu un système d'actions gratuites derrière une rémunération bloquée, j'aimerais en savoir un peu plus", a souligné Nicolas Sarkozy. Maintien de la politique sur la Fonction publique Nicolas Sarkozy a affirmé qu'il n'engagerait "pas de dépenses publiques supplémentaires", et qu'il s'en tiendrait à la "règle du non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux". "Je n'engagerai pas de dépenses publiques supplémentaires, notamment sur la règle du non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux", a affirmé le président de la République. Selon lui, on reviendra ainsi "au même nombre de fonctionnaires qu'en 1992", quand François Mitterrand était président. "Je n'ai pas le souvenir que la France était alors sous-administrée", a-t-il argué. Relations aux paradis fiscaux Très sévère sur la question des paradis fiscaux, Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé son intention de "poser des questions" à Andorre, Monaco et au Luxembourg. La France exigera la moralisation des paradis fiscaux et "ça m'amènera à revoir nos relations avec Andorre", "à poser la question de nos relations avec Monaco (et) à poser un certain nombre de questions à nos voisins luxembourgeois", a-t-il déclaré. Baisse dans les sondages D'autant que le chef de l'Etat, comme son Premier ministre, enregistre une forte baisse dans les derniers sondages. Moins cinq points à 39% de "confiance" contre 55% de défiance selon un CSA paru mercredi dans Le Parisien. Forts du succès de leur journée d'action de la semaine dernière, les syndicats attendent le président au tournant, suspendant leurs prochaines initiatives au contenu de sa prestation télévisée. Le patron de la CFDT François Chérèque a réclamé un "changement de cap", en clair, des mesures pour maintenir le pouvoir d'achat, tandis que celui de FO Jean-Claude Mailly a prévenu que sans "relance par la consommation", il y aura "remobilisation". Le ton est également offensif dans l'opposition. La Première secrétaire du PS Martine Aubry a demandé au président de "définir enfin un plan de relance adapté". Et, dans une rare unanimité, la gauche toute entière a signé mercredi un texte sommant le pouvoir de "changer de cap". Ne pas se laisser "enfumer" Jeudi matin, Jean-Luc Mélenchon (Parti de gauche) invitait le pays à ne pas se laisser "enfumer" par Nicolas Sarkozy et à se mettre "en lutte", tandis qu'Olivier Besancenot (LCR) voyait déjà dans son intervention "des motivations supplémentaires à continuer le combat". Jusque-là, le discours du chef de l'Etat est resté inflexible. Oui, il a entendu les "inquiétudes légitimes" des Français "qui craignent pour leur emploi", mais pas question pour lui de recourir à une relance par la consommation, "parce que ça n'a jamais marché". Nicolas Sarkozy devrait aussi enrober son propos d'une bonne dose de volontarisme. "On va se battre pour que la France sorte plus forte de la crise", insiste-t-il régulièrement. "Se concentrer sur les objectifs essentiels" Mais certains ne l'entendent pas de la même oreille dans la majorité. Le député UMP Hervé Mariton a reproché au gouvernement de s'éparpiller dans les réformes lui demandant de "se concentrer sur les objectifs essentiels" et son collègue François Goulard a préconisé une "suspension" temporaire du très controversé bouclier fiscal. En outre, le gouvernement a vu poindre ces derniers jours un nouveau "front" du mécontentement dans les universités, avec la montée de la grogne des enseignants-chercheurs et des étudiants. Mais comme François Fillon lundi, le porte-parole du gouvernement a exclu mercredi tout virage politique. "Cette émission n'est pas faite seulement pour le million et demi de Français qui a manifesté", a dit Luc Chatel, mais plutôt pour "mettre en perspective son action face à la crise". [123]Augmenter la taille du texte [124]Réduire la taille du texte [125]Imprimer cet article [126]Envoyer cet article à un ami [127]Réagissez à l'article [128]Réagir à cet article en créant votre Blog [129]Traduction français / anglais [130]Traduction français / espagnol [131]Partager cet article sur Wikio [132]Partager cet article sur Scoopeo [133]Digger cet article [134]Partager cet article avec mes amis sur Facebook ! [135]Partager cet article sur del.icio.us [136]Envoyer cet article sur Blogmarks Les réactions des lecteurs rifif [137]-10 POINTS -10 points serait un sondage plus réaliste que ces sondages effectués par des instituts de sondages aux mains des amis de sarkozy ! Il aura beau museler les manifestan... 08.02 à 16h05 - [138]Alerter scafandre [139]Il faut qu'il démissionne... avant de mettre littéralement la France en faillite. Il est inconscient... Vous avez des communes qui ont investi dans la construction de collèges, de ponts... en fonct... 07.02 à 21h16 - [140]Alerter [141]Réagissez ! [142]Toutes les réactions (299) [143]Conditions de modération L'essentiel Politique [144]IDENTITE NATIONALE [145]"Déferlement de musulmans" : Gaudin regrette avoir eu un "mot malheureux" 18.01 à 16h59 [146]MAYOTTE [147]Courte étape dans l'océan Indien pour Sarkozy 18.01 à 14h52 [148]POLEMIQUE [149]Reporters enlevés : "cynisme effrayant" de Guéant 18.01 à 14h47 [150]MARSEILLE [151]Buffet dénonce "une idéologie xénophobe dans les plus hautes autorités de l'Etat" 18.01 à 13h46 [152]IDENTITE NATIONALE [153]Et si "une Française porte la burqa"...? 18.01 à 10h51 [154]SOCIAL [155]Internet : un tarif réduit pour les plus démunis ? 18.01 à 09h05 [156]COLLECTIVITES LOCALES [157]Les départements en "graves difficultés financières" 18.01 à 08h53 [158]IDENTITE NATIONALE [159]"Déferlement de musulmans" : Gaudin regrette avoir eu un "mot malheureux" 18.01 à 08h06 [160]MARSEILLE [161]Valls fustige les "amalgames dangereux" de Gaudin 18.01 à 07h56 [162]ELECTIONS REGIONALES [163]Régionales : Aubry vise toujours le grand chelem 18.01 à 07h29 [164]AFGHANISTAN [165]Journalistes enlevés : Guéant provoque la polémique 18.01 à 07h10 [166]SENAT [167]La réforme des collectivités "manque de visibilité" 18.01 à 07h05 [168]CHARENTE-MARITIME [169]Régionales : Sarnez accuse Royal de "débauchage" 17.01 à 14h58 [170]DROIT DE VOTE [171]Mélenchon favorable au droit de vote des étrangers 17.01 à 13h56 [172]CONSEIL CONSTITUTIONNEL [173]Emmanuelle Mignon ne siègera pas parmi les Sages 17.01 à 12h55 Plus sur le sujet Sur Nouvelobs.com * [174]Les principales déclarations de Nicolas Sarkozy * [175]Aubry Sarkozy est un président "hésitant" qui "ne sait pas où il va" * [176]Intervention télévisée de Sarkozy Les appels au boycott se multiplient * [177]Onze organisations de gauche demandent un "changement de cap" * [178]Interview présidentielle Les choix contestables de l'Elysée * [179]Grèves Parisot y voit "quelque chose de pervers" * [180]Le texte commun des onze organisations de gauche * [181]Revue de presse * [182]Les réactions * [183]Delanoë Sarkozy a "privilégié la polémique" sur le SMA * [184]Sarkozy fait des ouvertures, les syndicats méfiants * [185]15,1 millions de téléspectateurs pour l'intervention de Sarkozy * [186]Les principales mesures de Nicolas Sarkozy Dans Le Nouvel Observateur * [187]"Sarkozy comme Cendrillon", (05/02/09) * [188]"La vraie nature de Sarkozy", par François Bazin (05/02/09) * [189]"Sarkozy peut-il encore réformer ?", par Hervé Algalarrondo (05/02/09) * [190]"Les ficelles de Sarkozy", (22/01/09) * [191]"Les choix de Sarkozy", par Denis Olivennes (22/01/09) Sur Internet * [192]Le site de l'Elysée * [193]Le baromètre de confiance de l'exécutif sur le site du CSA * [194]Le baromètre des actions présidentielles sur le site du CSA * [195]La biographie officielle de Nicolas Sarkozy * [196]Le blog de François Fillon * [197]La biographie officielle de François Fillon * [198]Le site de TNS-Sofres nouvelobs.com __________________________________________________________________ ClubObs Déjà membre de Clubobs.com, identifiez-vous ____________________ [_] Mémoriser ____________________ Ok [199]Mot de passe oublié ? * [200]> A la une * [201]> Opinions * [202]> Blogs * [203]> Revues de presse * [204]> Dossiers * [205]> Forums en direct * [206]> Archives * [207]> Automobile * [208]> High-tech * [209]> Météo * [210]> Annonces * [211]> Débats * [212]> Voyages * [213]> Immobilier * [214]> Emploi * [215]> Comme au Cinema.com * [216]> Rencontres * [217]> Newsletters [218]Site Internet certifiée par l'OJD La fréquentation de ce site est certifiée par l'OJD [219]Contacts | [220]Plan du site | [221]Publicité | [222]Conditions d'utilisation | [223]Données personnelles | [224]Copyright | [225]Index | © Le Nouvel Observateur - Tous droits réservés. nouvelobs.com est une marque exclusive du Nouvel Observateur. 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Formulant ses voeux pour la nouvelle années devant les représentants des partenaires sociaux, le chef de l'Etat a d'abord voulu les «remercier pour l'ampleur de la tâche que vous avez accomplie en 2008. L'urgence des problèmes à résoudre, l'attente des Français vous ont imposé, comme au gouvernement et au Parlement, un rythme de travail particulièrement exigeant». «Je ne vous surprendrai pas en vous disant que nous n'avons pas l'intention de ralentir le rythme en 2009, leur a-t-il ensuite déclaré. Et ce n'est certainement pas au moment où l'impact social de la crise se fait sentir --on a eu l'impact financier, l'impact économique, bien sûr l'impact social-- qu'on va en tirer la conclusion qu'il faut ralentir», a-t-il ajouté. 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[119]Partager cet article sur del.icio.us [120]Envoyer cet article sur Blogmarks ELYSEE Sarkozy : les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme" NOUVELOBS.COM | 06.02.2009 | 13:01 [121]Réagissez à l'article 299 réactions Lors de son intervention télévisée, le chef de l'Etat a notamment déclaré : "Que les Français soient inquiets (face à la crise), c'est normal". > Il a dit réfléchir à une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu. > La taxe professionnelle sera supprimée en 2010. > Les partenaires sociaux seront reçus le 18 février. Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters) Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters) Le chef de l'Etat a déclaré, jeudi 5 février, que la France et le monde faisaient face à "la crise du siècle", au début de son intervention télévisée. "C'est la crise du siècle, elle est sans précédent", a-t-il répété Nicolas Sarkozy. ([122]> Lire toutes les déclarations). "Je dois en tenir compte et faire en sorte que la France rentre le plus tard possible dans la crise et sorte le plus tôt de la crise", a-t-il ajouté. "Je dois en plus protéger au maximum ceux qui déjà dans la croissance mondiale étaient exclus", a-t-il ajouté. "Que les Français soient inquiets, c'est normal. Je le comprends, je l'entends", a-t-il expliqué. Les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme", a-t-il rapidement affirmé. "La rupture n'a jamais été un objectif, c'est juste un moyen", a, par ailleurs, expliqué Nicolas Sarkozy. L'émission était diffusée simultanément sur TF1, France 2, M6 et RTL. Elle est présentée par David Pujadas et Laurence, avec les interventions de Guy Lagache et Alain Duhamel. Une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu ? Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il recevrait les partenaires sociaux le 18 février, notamment pour voir comment "aller plus loin" sur l'indemnisation du chômage partiel. Il a également dit réfléchir à une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu pour aider les classes moyennes, l'une des "pistes" qu'il soumettra aux syndicats le 18 février. "L'Etat est prêt à faire un effort" pour "mieux protéger" les jeunes en fin de CDD et qui ne retrouvent pas d'emploi du fait de la crise financière et économique, a affirmé le président de la République. Le chef de l'Etat a aussi annoncé qu'il "supprimerait la taxe professionnnelle en 2010". "Je vous l'annonce: on supprimera la taxe professionnelle en France en 2010 parce que je veux que l'on garde des usines en France", a déclaré Nicolas Sarkozy lors de son intervention télévisée sur la crise. La mesure sera générale: "On ne peut pas dire on va supprimer pour l'industrie automobile mais pas pour l'industrie sidérurgique ou textile", a-t-il ajouté. "Je ne peux pas dire aux actionnaires pour le coup: ne délocalisez plus, relocalisez, et en même temps leur laisser des charges et des contraintes qui font qu'ils ne s'en sortiront plus", selon le chef de l'Etat. Réfléchir sur le "partage du profit" Le président a jugé nécessaire de réfléchir au "partage du profit" entre les salariés et les actionnaires, demandant aux partenaires sociaux de parvenir à un accord sans quoi "l'Etat prendra ses responsabilités". "Je veux que le 18 février nous discutions d'un sujet essentiel en France qui est le partage du profit", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat, évoquant le "sentiment d'injustice majeur" suscité dans cette crise par "le comportement d'un certain nombre de dirigeants d'institutions bancaires". "Comment on arbitre entre le souhait légitime des actionnaires de gagner de l'argent avec les entreprises et la demande des salariés d'être associés aux bénéfices des entreprises dont ils ont contribué à créer la richesse?", s'est interrogé Nicolas Sarkozy, jugeant qu'en la matière "le compte n'y est pas". "Quand une entreprise distribue aux actionnaires tous les bénéfices d'une année, elle ne peut plus investir" pour l'avenir, a-t-il ajouté, dénonçant une "logique purement financière et spéculative". Le sujet sera au programme de sa rencontre avec les partenaires sociaux le 18 février. "J'engage les organisations syndicales et le patronat à en discuter. Soit ils arrivent à quelque chose, soit l'Etat prendra ses responsabilités", a-t-il prévenu. Il a indiqué qu'il estimait quant à lui que "la règle des trois tiers est bonne": un tiers des bénéfices vont aux salariés, un tiers aux actionnaires sous forme de dividendes et un tiers sont réinvestis dans l'entreprise pour financer son développement". Combat sur la TVA Nicolas Sarkozy a réaffirmé sa volonté d'obtenir un consensus européen concernant des baisses de la TVA sur la restauration, les "produits propres" et des "produits culturels". "C'est parfaitement anormal que quand on achète une voiture propre, on paie plus cher que quand on achète une voiture qui pollue, et ça vaut aussi pour les bâtiments construits en haute qualité environnementale", a dit le chef de l'Etat, souhaitant "un système de TVA réduite pour tous les produits propres". "Je pense également que sur les produits culturels, il faut aller plus loin", a ajouté Nicolas Sarkozy. "Pourquoi la TVA sur le livre est-elle à 5,5 (%), et la TVA sur le disque à 19,6 (%), comme la TVA sur la vidéo? Il faut mettre cette TVA à 5,5", a-t-il déclaré. "Comme cela on est tranquille" "Est-ce que les réformes que la France doit mettre en oeuvre, pour avoir le même emploi lorsque nous seront sortis de la crise, est-ce que ces réformes restent d'actualité? La réponse est oui", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat, précisant qu'elles devaient être conduites "au même rythme". "Si on doit arrêter, comme cela s'est si souvent fait dans le passé, chaque réforme quand il y a une manifestation, alors mieux vaut ne faire aucune réforme. Et comme cela on est tranquille", a-t-il dit. La rupture, "c'est la rupture avec cette habitude". Les quelque 1,4 milliard d'euros d'intérêts que l'Etat percevra cette année au titre des intérêts pour son financement aux banques seront "intégralement" affectés au financement de "mesures sociales", a annoncé Nicolas Sarkozy. Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il allait demander au président de la Cour des comptes Philippe Seguin de "conduire un certain nombre d'enquêtes" sur la bonne utilisation des fonds accordés aux banques pour faire face à la crise. Tacle aux traders Nicolas Sarkozy veut "changer" le système de rémunération des "traders" mais est sceptique sur un plafonnement systématique du salaire des dirigeants, a-t-il déclaré. "Je suis plus choqué par le système de rémunération de ceux qu'on appelle les traders, que les présidents de banques. C'est ce système-là que je veux changer", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat. "J'ai vu ce que M. Obama a décidé, je suis en train d'y réfléchir, moi je ne suis pas trop pour une règle générale", a-t-il ajouté. "Mettre tout le monde sous la toise, je ne suis pas sûr que ce soit la meilleure formule". "J'ajoute que Barack Obama a prévu un système d'actions gratuites derrière une rémunération bloquée, j'aimerais en savoir un peu plus", a souligné Nicolas Sarkozy. Maintien de la politique sur la Fonction publique Nicolas Sarkozy a affirmé qu'il n'engagerait "pas de dépenses publiques supplémentaires", et qu'il s'en tiendrait à la "règle du non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux". "Je n'engagerai pas de dépenses publiques supplémentaires, notamment sur la règle du non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux", a affirmé le président de la République. Selon lui, on reviendra ainsi "au même nombre de fonctionnaires qu'en 1992", quand François Mitterrand était président. "Je n'ai pas le souvenir que la France était alors sous-administrée", a-t-il argué. Relations aux paradis fiscaux Très sévère sur la question des paradis fiscaux, Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé son intention de "poser des questions" à Andorre, Monaco et au Luxembourg. La France exigera la moralisation des paradis fiscaux et "ça m'amènera à revoir nos relations avec Andorre", "à poser la question de nos relations avec Monaco (et) à poser un certain nombre de questions à nos voisins luxembourgeois", a-t-il déclaré. Baisse dans les sondages D'autant que le chef de l'Etat, comme son Premier ministre, enregistre une forte baisse dans les derniers sondages. Moins cinq points à 39% de "confiance" contre 55% de défiance selon un CSA paru mercredi dans Le Parisien. Forts du succès de leur journée d'action de la semaine dernière, les syndicats attendent le président au tournant, suspendant leurs prochaines initiatives au contenu de sa prestation télévisée. Le patron de la CFDT François Chérèque a réclamé un "changement de cap", en clair, des mesures pour maintenir le pouvoir d'achat, tandis que celui de FO Jean-Claude Mailly a prévenu que sans "relance par la consommation", il y aura "remobilisation". Le ton est également offensif dans l'opposition. La Première secrétaire du PS Martine Aubry a demandé au président de "définir enfin un plan de relance adapté". Et, dans une rare unanimité, la gauche toute entière a signé mercredi un texte sommant le pouvoir de "changer de cap". Ne pas se laisser "enfumer" Jeudi matin, Jean-Luc Mélenchon (Parti de gauche) invitait le pays à ne pas se laisser "enfumer" par Nicolas Sarkozy et à se mettre "en lutte", tandis qu'Olivier Besancenot (LCR) voyait déjà dans son intervention "des motivations supplémentaires à continuer le combat". Jusque-là, le discours du chef de l'Etat est resté inflexible. Oui, il a entendu les "inquiétudes légitimes" des Français "qui craignent pour leur emploi", mais pas question pour lui de recourir à une relance par la consommation, "parce que ça n'a jamais marché". Nicolas Sarkozy devrait aussi enrober son propos d'une bonne dose de volontarisme. "On va se battre pour que la France sorte plus forte de la crise", insiste-t-il régulièrement. "Se concentrer sur les objectifs essentiels" Mais certains ne l'entendent pas de la même oreille dans la majorité. Le député UMP Hervé Mariton a reproché au gouvernement de s'éparpiller dans les réformes lui demandant de "se concentrer sur les objectifs essentiels" et son collègue François Goulard a préconisé une "suspension" temporaire du très controversé bouclier fiscal. En outre, le gouvernement a vu poindre ces derniers jours un nouveau "front" du mécontentement dans les universités, avec la montée de la grogne des enseignants-chercheurs et des étudiants. Mais comme François Fillon lundi, le porte-parole du gouvernement a exclu mercredi tout virage politique. "Cette émission n'est pas faite seulement pour le million et demi de Français qui a manifesté", a dit Luc Chatel, mais plutôt pour "mettre en perspective son action face à la crise". [123]Augmenter la taille du texte [124]Réduire la taille du texte [125]Imprimer cet article [126]Envoyer cet article à un ami [127]Réagissez à l'article [128]Réagir à cet article en créant votre Blog [129]Traduction français / anglais [130]Traduction français / espagnol [131]Partager cet article sur Wikio [132]Partager cet article sur Scoopeo [133]Digger cet article [134]Partager cet article avec mes amis sur Facebook ! [135]Partager cet article sur del.icio.us [136]Envoyer cet article sur Blogmarks Les réactions des lecteurs rifif [137]-10 POINTS -10 points serait un sondage plus réaliste que ces sondages effectués par des instituts de sondages aux mains des amis de sarkozy ! Il aura beau museler les manifestan... 08.02 à 16h05 - [138]Alerter scafandre [139]Il faut qu'il démissionne... avant de mettre littéralement la France en faillite. Il est inconscient... Vous avez des communes qui ont investi dans la construction de collèges, de ponts... en fonct... 07.02 à 21h16 - [140]Alerter [141]Réagissez ! 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Formulant ses voeux pour la nouvelle années devant les représentants des partenaires sociaux, le chef de l'Etat a d'abord voulu les «remercier pour l'ampleur de la tâche que vous avez accomplie en 2008. L'urgence des problèmes à résoudre, l'attente des Français vous ont imposé, comme au gouvernement et au Parlement, un rythme de travail particulièrement exigeant». «Je ne vous surprendrai pas en vous disant que nous n'avons pas l'intention de ralentir le rythme en 2009, leur a-t-il ensuite déclaré. Et ce n'est certainement pas au moment où l'impact social de la crise se fait sentir --on a eu l'impact financier, l'impact économique, bien sûr l'impact social-- qu'on va en tirer la conclusion qu'il faut ralentir», a-t-il ajouté. 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[119]Partager cet article sur del.icio.us [120]Envoyer cet article sur Blogmarks ELYSEE Sarkozy : les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme" NOUVELOBS.COM | 06.02.2009 | 13:01 [121]Réagissez à l'article 299 réactions Lors de son intervention télévisée, le chef de l'Etat a notamment déclaré : "Que les Français soient inquiets (face à la crise), c'est normal". > Il a dit réfléchir à une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu. > La taxe professionnelle sera supprimée en 2010. > Les partenaires sociaux seront reçus le 18 février. Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters) Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters) Le chef de l'Etat a déclaré, jeudi 5 février, que la France et le monde faisaient face à "la crise du siècle", au début de son intervention télévisée. "C'est la crise du siècle, elle est sans précédent", a-t-il répété Nicolas Sarkozy. ([122]> Lire toutes les déclarations). "Je dois en tenir compte et faire en sorte que la France rentre le plus tard possible dans la crise et sorte le plus tôt de la crise", a-t-il ajouté. "Je dois en plus protéger au maximum ceux qui déjà dans la croissance mondiale étaient exclus", a-t-il ajouté. "Que les Français soient inquiets, c'est normal. Je le comprends, je l'entends", a-t-il expliqué. Les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme", a-t-il rapidement affirmé. "La rupture n'a jamais été un objectif, c'est juste un moyen", a, par ailleurs, expliqué Nicolas Sarkozy. L'émission était diffusée simultanément sur TF1, France 2, M6 et RTL. Elle est présentée par David Pujadas et Laurence, avec les interventions de Guy Lagache et Alain Duhamel. Une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu ? Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il recevrait les partenaires sociaux le 18 février, notamment pour voir comment "aller plus loin" sur l'indemnisation du chômage partiel. Il a également dit réfléchir à une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu pour aider les classes moyennes, l'une des "pistes" qu'il soumettra aux syndicats le 18 février. "L'Etat est prêt à faire un effort" pour "mieux protéger" les jeunes en fin de CDD et qui ne retrouvent pas d'emploi du fait de la crise financière et économique, a affirmé le président de la République. Le chef de l'Etat a aussi annoncé qu'il "supprimerait la taxe professionnnelle en 2010". "Je vous l'annonce: on supprimera la taxe professionnelle en France en 2010 parce que je veux que l'on garde des usines en France", a déclaré Nicolas Sarkozy lors de son intervention télévisée sur la crise. La mesure sera générale: "On ne peut pas dire on va supprimer pour l'industrie automobile mais pas pour l'industrie sidérurgique ou textile", a-t-il ajouté. "Je ne peux pas dire aux actionnaires pour le coup: ne délocalisez plus, relocalisez, et en même temps leur laisser des charges et des contraintes qui font qu'ils ne s'en sortiront plus", selon le chef de l'Etat. Réfléchir sur le "partage du profit" Le président a jugé nécessaire de réfléchir au "partage du profit" entre les salariés et les actionnaires, demandant aux partenaires sociaux de parvenir à un accord sans quoi "l'Etat prendra ses responsabilités". "Je veux que le 18 février nous discutions d'un sujet essentiel en France qui est le partage du profit", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat, évoquant le "sentiment d'injustice majeur" suscité dans cette crise par "le comportement d'un certain nombre de dirigeants d'institutions bancaires". "Comment on arbitre entre le souhait légitime des actionnaires de gagner de l'argent avec les entreprises et la demande des salariés d'être associés aux bénéfices des entreprises dont ils ont contribué à créer la richesse?", s'est interrogé Nicolas Sarkozy, jugeant qu'en la matière "le compte n'y est pas". "Quand une entreprise distribue aux actionnaires tous les bénéfices d'une année, elle ne peut plus investir" pour l'avenir, a-t-il ajouté, dénonçant une "logique purement financière et spéculative". Le sujet sera au programme de sa rencontre avec les partenaires sociaux le 18 février. "J'engage les organisations syndicales et le patronat à en discuter. Soit ils arrivent à quelque chose, soit l'Etat prendra ses responsabilités", a-t-il prévenu. Il a indiqué qu'il estimait quant à lui que "la règle des trois tiers est bonne": un tiers des bénéfices vont aux salariés, un tiers aux actionnaires sous forme de dividendes et un tiers sont réinvestis dans l'entreprise pour financer son développement". Combat sur la TVA Nicolas Sarkozy a réaffirmé sa volonté d'obtenir un consensus européen concernant des baisses de la TVA sur la restauration, les "produits propres" et des "produits culturels". "C'est parfaitement anormal que quand on achète une voiture propre, on paie plus cher que quand on achète une voiture qui pollue, et ça vaut aussi pour les bâtiments construits en haute qualité environnementale", a dit le chef de l'Etat, souhaitant "un système de TVA réduite pour tous les produits propres". "Je pense également que sur les produits culturels, il faut aller plus loin", a ajouté Nicolas Sarkozy. "Pourquoi la TVA sur le livre est-elle à 5,5 (%), et la TVA sur le disque à 19,6 (%), comme la TVA sur la vidéo? Il faut mettre cette TVA à 5,5", a-t-il déclaré. "Comme cela on est tranquille" "Est-ce que les réformes que la France doit mettre en oeuvre, pour avoir le même emploi lorsque nous seront sortis de la crise, est-ce que ces réformes restent d'actualité? La réponse est oui", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat, précisant qu'elles devaient être conduites "au même rythme". "Si on doit arrêter, comme cela s'est si souvent fait dans le passé, chaque réforme quand il y a une manifestation, alors mieux vaut ne faire aucune réforme. Et comme cela on est tranquille", a-t-il dit. La rupture, "c'est la rupture avec cette habitude". Les quelque 1,4 milliard d'euros d'intérêts que l'Etat percevra cette année au titre des intérêts pour son financement aux banques seront "intégralement" affectés au financement de "mesures sociales", a annoncé Nicolas Sarkozy. Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il allait demander au président de la Cour des comptes Philippe Seguin de "conduire un certain nombre d'enquêtes" sur la bonne utilisation des fonds accordés aux banques pour faire face à la crise. Tacle aux traders Nicolas Sarkozy veut "changer" le système de rémunération des "traders" mais est sceptique sur un plafonnement systématique du salaire des dirigeants, a-t-il déclaré. "Je suis plus choqué par le système de rémunération de ceux qu'on appelle les traders, que les présidents de banques. C'est ce système-là que je veux changer", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat. "J'ai vu ce que M. Obama a décidé, je suis en train d'y réfléchir, moi je ne suis pas trop pour une règle générale", a-t-il ajouté. "Mettre tout le monde sous la toise, je ne suis pas sûr que ce soit la meilleure formule". "J'ajoute que Barack Obama a prévu un système d'actions gratuites derrière une rémunération bloquée, j'aimerais en savoir un peu plus", a souligné Nicolas Sarkozy. Maintien de la politique sur la Fonction publique Nicolas Sarkozy a affirmé qu'il n'engagerait "pas de dépenses publiques supplémentaires", et qu'il s'en tiendrait à la "règle du non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux". "Je n'engagerai pas de dépenses publiques supplémentaires, notamment sur la règle du non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux", a affirmé le président de la République. Selon lui, on reviendra ainsi "au même nombre de fonctionnaires qu'en 1992", quand François Mitterrand était président. "Je n'ai pas le souvenir que la France était alors sous-administrée", a-t-il argué. Relations aux paradis fiscaux Très sévère sur la question des paradis fiscaux, Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé son intention de "poser des questions" à Andorre, Monaco et au Luxembourg. La France exigera la moralisation des paradis fiscaux et "ça m'amènera à revoir nos relations avec Andorre", "à poser la question de nos relations avec Monaco (et) à poser un certain nombre de questions à nos voisins luxembourgeois", a-t-il déclaré. Baisse dans les sondages D'autant que le chef de l'Etat, comme son Premier ministre, enregistre une forte baisse dans les derniers sondages. Moins cinq points à 39% de "confiance" contre 55% de défiance selon un CSA paru mercredi dans Le Parisien. Forts du succès de leur journée d'action de la semaine dernière, les syndicats attendent le président au tournant, suspendant leurs prochaines initiatives au contenu de sa prestation télévisée. Le patron de la CFDT François Chérèque a réclamé un "changement de cap", en clair, des mesures pour maintenir le pouvoir d'achat, tandis que celui de FO Jean-Claude Mailly a prévenu que sans "relance par la consommation", il y aura "remobilisation". Le ton est également offensif dans l'opposition. La Première secrétaire du PS Martine Aubry a demandé au président de "définir enfin un plan de relance adapté". Et, dans une rare unanimité, la gauche toute entière a signé mercredi un texte sommant le pouvoir de "changer de cap". Ne pas se laisser "enfumer" Jeudi matin, Jean-Luc Mélenchon (Parti de gauche) invitait le pays à ne pas se laisser "enfumer" par Nicolas Sarkozy et à se mettre "en lutte", tandis qu'Olivier Besancenot (LCR) voyait déjà dans son intervention "des motivations supplémentaires à continuer le combat". Jusque-là, le discours du chef de l'Etat est resté inflexible. Oui, il a entendu les "inquiétudes légitimes" des Français "qui craignent pour leur emploi", mais pas question pour lui de recourir à une relance par la consommation, "parce que ça n'a jamais marché". Nicolas Sarkozy devrait aussi enrober son propos d'une bonne dose de volontarisme. "On va se battre pour que la France sorte plus forte de la crise", insiste-t-il régulièrement. "Se concentrer sur les objectifs essentiels" Mais certains ne l'entendent pas de la même oreille dans la majorité. Le député UMP Hervé Mariton a reproché au gouvernement de s'éparpiller dans les réformes lui demandant de "se concentrer sur les objectifs essentiels" et son collègue François Goulard a préconisé une "suspension" temporaire du très controversé bouclier fiscal. En outre, le gouvernement a vu poindre ces derniers jours un nouveau "front" du mécontentement dans les universités, avec la montée de la grogne des enseignants-chercheurs et des étudiants. Mais comme François Fillon lundi, le porte-parole du gouvernement a exclu mercredi tout virage politique. "Cette émission n'est pas faite seulement pour le million et demi de Français qui a manifesté", a dit Luc Chatel, mais plutôt pour "mettre en perspective son action face à la crise". [123]Augmenter la taille du texte [124]Réduire la taille du texte [125]Imprimer cet article [126]Envoyer cet article à un ami [127]Réagissez à l'article [128]Réagir à cet article en créant votre Blog [129]Traduction français / anglais [130]Traduction français / espagnol [131]Partager cet article sur Wikio [132]Partager cet article sur Scoopeo [133]Digger cet article [134]Partager cet article avec mes amis sur Facebook ! [135]Partager cet article sur del.icio.us [136]Envoyer cet article sur Blogmarks Les réactions des lecteurs rifif [137]-10 POINTS -10 points serait un sondage plus réaliste que ces sondages effectués par des instituts de sondages aux mains des amis de sarkozy ! Il aura beau museler les manifestan... 08.02 à 16h05 - [138]Alerter scafandre [139]Il faut qu'il démissionne... avant de mettre littéralement la France en faillite. Il est inconscient... Vous avez des communes qui ont investi dans la construction de collèges, de ponts... en fonct... 07.02 à 21h16 - [140]Alerter [141]Réagissez ! [142]Toutes les réactions (299) [143]Conditions de modération L'essentiel Politique [144]IDENTITE NATIONALE [145]"Déferlement de musulmans" : Gaudin regrette avoir eu un "mot malheureux" 18.01 à 16h59 [146]MAYOTTE [147]Courte étape dans l'océan Indien pour Sarkozy 18.01 à 14h52 [148]POLEMIQUE [149]Reporters enlevés : "cynisme effrayant" de Guéant 18.01 à 14h47 [150]MARSEILLE [151]Buffet dénonce "une idéologie xénophobe dans les plus hautes autorités de l'Etat" 18.01 à 13h46 [152]IDENTITE NATIONALE [153]Et si "une Française porte la burqa"...? 18.01 à 10h51 [154]SOCIAL [155]Internet : un tarif réduit pour les plus démunis ? 18.01 à 09h05 [156]COLLECTIVITES LOCALES [157]Les départements en "graves difficultés financières" 18.01 à 08h53 [158]IDENTITE NATIONALE [159]"Déferlement de musulmans" : Gaudin regrette avoir eu un "mot malheureux" 18.01 à 08h06 [160]MARSEILLE [161]Valls fustige les "amalgames dangereux" de Gaudin 18.01 à 07h56 [162]ELECTIONS REGIONALES [163]Régionales : Aubry vise toujours le grand chelem 18.01 à 07h29 [164]AFGHANISTAN [165]Journalistes enlevés : Guéant provoque la polémique 18.01 à 07h10 [166]SENAT [167]La réforme des collectivités "manque de visibilité" 18.01 à 07h05 [168]CHARENTE-MARITIME [169]Régionales : Sarnez accuse Royal de "débauchage" 17.01 à 14h58 [170]DROIT DE VOTE [171]Mélenchon favorable au droit de vote des étrangers 17.01 à 13h56 [172]CONSEIL CONSTITUTIONNEL [173]Emmanuelle Mignon ne siègera pas parmi les Sages 17.01 à 12h55 Plus sur le sujet Sur Nouvelobs.com * [174]Les principales déclarations de Nicolas Sarkozy * [175]Aubry Sarkozy est un président "hésitant" qui "ne sait pas où il va" * [176]Intervention télévisée de Sarkozy Les appels au boycott se multiplient * [177]Onze organisations de gauche demandent un "changement de cap" * [178]Interview présidentielle Les choix contestables de l'Elysée * [179]Grèves Parisot y voit "quelque chose de pervers" * [180]Le texte commun des onze organisations de gauche * [181]Revue de presse * [182]Les réactions * [183]Delanoë Sarkozy a "privilégié la polémique" sur le SMA * [184]Sarkozy fait des ouvertures, les syndicats méfiants * [185]15,1 millions de téléspectateurs pour l'intervention de Sarkozy * [186]Les principales mesures de Nicolas Sarkozy Dans Le Nouvel Observateur * [187]"Sarkozy comme Cendrillon", (05/02/09) * [188]"La vraie nature de Sarkozy", par François Bazin (05/02/09) * [189]"Sarkozy peut-il encore réformer ?", par Hervé Algalarrondo (05/02/09) * [190]"Les ficelles de Sarkozy", (22/01/09) * [191]"Les choix de Sarkozy", par Denis Olivennes (22/01/09) Sur Internet * [192]Le site de l'Elysée * [193]Le baromètre de confiance de l'exécutif sur le site du CSA * [194]Le baromètre des actions présidentielles sur le site du CSA * [195]La biographie officielle de Nicolas Sarkozy * [196]Le blog de François Fillon * [197]La biographie officielle de François Fillon * [198]Le site de TNS-Sofres nouvelobs.com __________________________________________________________________ ClubObs Déjà membre de Clubobs.com, identifiez-vous ____________________ [_] Mémoriser ____________________ Ok [199]Mot de passe oublié ? * [200]> A la une * [201]> Opinions * [202]> Blogs * [203]> Revues de presse * [204]> Dossiers * [205]> Forums en direct * [206]> Archives * [207]> Automobile * [208]> High-tech * [209]> Météo * [210]> Annonces * [211]> Débats * [212]> Voyages * [213]> Immobilier * [214]> Emploi * [215]> Comme au Cinema.com * [216]> Rencontres * [217]> Newsletters [218]Site Internet certifiée par l'OJD La fréquentation de ce site est certifiée par l'OJD [219]Contacts | [220]Plan du site | [221]Publicité | [222]Conditions d'utilisation | [223]Données personnelles | [224]Copyright | [225]Index | © Le Nouvel Observateur - Tous droits réservés. nouvelobs.com est une marque exclusive du Nouvel Observateur. 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Formulant ses voeux pour la nouvelle années devant les représentants des partenaires sociaux, le chef de l'Etat a d'abord voulu les «remercier pour l'ampleur de la tâche que vous avez accomplie en 2008. L'urgence des problèmes à résoudre, l'attente des Français vous ont imposé, comme au gouvernement et au Parlement, un rythme de travail particulièrement exigeant». «Je ne vous surprendrai pas en vous disant que nous n'avons pas l'intention de ralentir le rythme en 2009, leur a-t-il ensuite déclaré. Et ce n'est certainement pas au moment où l'impact social de la crise se fait sentir --on a eu l'impact financier, l'impact économique, bien sûr l'impact social-- qu'on va en tirer la conclusion qu'il faut ralentir», a-t-il ajouté. Leparisien.fr avec A Cet article a été publié dans la rubrique [139]Politique FLASH ACTUALITÉ [DERNIÈRE MINUTE] * 18h57 [140]Emmanuelle Haïm renonce à diriger "Idoménée" à l'Opéra de Paris * 18h55 [141]La production cinéma "résiste" dit le CNC, "en crise" selon les producteurs * 18h49 [142]Ligue 1: Marseille au milieu du gué * 18h41 [143]Jean-Claude Juncker reconduit à la tête de l'Eurogroupe * 18h26 [144]France: le déficit public de "l'ordre de 8,2%" du PIB en 2010 * 18h16 [145]Rebsamen (PS): pétition pour inverser la charge de la preuve de nationalité * 18h05 [146]Strauss-Kahn responsable politique préféré des Français [147]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES * 18h41 [148]Jean-Claude Juncker reconduit à la tête de l'Eurogroupe * 18h26 [149]France: le déficit public de "l'ordre de 8,2%" du PIB en 2010 * 17h53 [150]Plan de départs PSA: 5.700 volontaires d'ici la fin du dispositif fin mars * 17h42 [151]Etats-Unis: Vivendi accuse l'avocat des plaignants de créer un "préjudice" * 17h18 [152]Eurostar pourrait payer 11 millions d'euros de dédommagement à ses clients * 16h24 [153]GDF Suez a tenté sans succès de prendre le contrôle d'International Power * 16h11 [154]Le déficit public attendu à 8,2% en 2010, soit moins que prévu [155]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES * 18h16 [156]Rebsamen (PS): pétition pour inverser la charge de la preuve de nationalité * 18h05 [157]Strauss-Kahn responsable politique préféré des Français * 17h10 [158]Collomb (PS) prêt à voter certains articles de la réforme des collectivités * 16h56 [159]Propos sur les musulmans: Gaudin évoque "un mot malheureux" * 16h28 [160]Réforme territoriale: les élus landais demandent un référendum * 16h14 [161]Le Nouveau centre veut s'emparer de "grands sujets" comme l'homoparentalité * 16h12 [162]Besson dresse son bilan 2009 : plus de 29.000 sans-papiers expulsés [163]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES * 17h06 [164]Séisme de magnitude 6 à l'ouest du Guatemala * 16h27 [165]La police a tué plus de 10.000 personnes en douze ans à Rio selon une étude * 14h40 [166]Le Yémen réclame à Washington ses ressortissants détenus à Guantanamo * 13h52 [167]Enquête sur la guerre en Irak: Tony Blair témoignera le 29 janvier * 13h21 [168]Silvio Berlusconi absent à la reprise du procès sur les droits télévisés * 11h26 [169]Les talibans ont porté la guerre dans le centre de Kaboul * 10h46 [170]L'UE promet près d'un demi-milliard d'euros pour Haïti [171]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES * 18h49 [172]Ligue 1: Marseille au milieu du gué * 17h10 [173]Football: pas de sanction pour Thierry Henry après sa main contre l'Eire * 16h50 [174]Ligue 1: pour Bordeaux, l'essentiel c'est l'écart * 16h26 [175]Coupe de l'America: le bras de fer se poursuit entre Oracle et Alinghi * 15h08 [176]Euro de patinage artistique: Joubert de retour pour un ultime test avant les JO * 10h55 [177]Euro de handball: les Français pour un triplé inédit * 08h04 [178]Open d'Australie de tennis: Sharapova éliminée, Nadal, Murray et Roddick qualifiés [179]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES * 18h57 [180]Emmanuelle Haïm renonce à diriger "Idoménée" à l'Opéra de Paris * 18h55 [181]La production cinéma "résiste" dit le CNC, "en crise" selon les producteurs * 17h05 [182]Les films de la semaine: un Gainsbourg, un homme sérieux et des Barons * 14h28 [183]Le Festival d'Aix-en-Provence se "redéveloppe" en 2010 * 06h36 [184]"Avatar" grand vainqueur des Golden Globes, "In the air" déçoit * 20h48 [185]Mode à Milan: esprit rebelle et inspirations militaires * 20h16 [186]"Avatar" continue de dominer le box-office nord-américain [187]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES Sites du Groupe Amaury [188]Paris Job [189]France Football [190]L'equipe [191]L'echo republicain [192]ASO [193]Velo magazine [194]Journal du Golf . 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[2]Mise à jour 19:42 [3]Le Figaro.fr * [4]Actualité * [5]Economie * [6]Culture * [7]Madame * [8]Sport * [9]Services INFO [10]> Politique [11]> Société [12]> International [13]> Médias [14]> Environnement [15]> Science et Tech [16]> Santé [17]> Web [18]> Auto [19]> Météo DÉBATS [20]> Figaro Magazine [21]> Éditos [22]> Blogs [23]> Repères EN IMAGES [24]> Vidéos [25]> Le Talk [26]> Photos [27]> Quiz Formulaire de Recherche ____________________ RECHERCHER Exemples : [28]Politique, [29]Grippe A, [30]Auto, [31]FigaroScope, [32]Immobilier __________________________________________________________________ * . * . . . [33]Haïti : la récolte de fonds décolle après l'appel de l'ONU [34]Haïti : la récolte de fonds décolle après l'appel de l'ONU
Les annonces d'aide humanitaire et de fonds pour venir en aide à Haïti continuent d'affluer, suite à l'appel d'urgence lancé par l'ONU. L'organisation entend récolter 562 millions de dollars. [35]» DOSSIER SPECIAL - Haïti dévasté . [36]L'hôpital général de Port-au-Prince manque de tout REPORTAGE - Face au désastre, les secours peinent à s'orgraniser dans la capitale haïtienne. . . . [37]Les secours sorganisent dans la douleur EN IMAGES - Dans la capitale haïtienne, les secours internationaux font face à dénormes difficultés. Il faut à la fois chercher des survivants, apporter des vivres aux rescapés, opérer les blessés, évacuer les corps, sécuriser la ville et penser à la reconstruction. . . [38]Haïti : 70.000 corps ont été enterrés Le gouvernement a décrété dimanche l'état d'urgence et une période de deuil national de 30 jours. 280 centres d'urgence s'ouvrent lundi, pour distribuer des vivres et héberger les sans-abris, estimés à 300.000. [39]» DOSSIER SPECIAL - Haïti dévasté . . [40]Numérisation du patrimoine : comment l'argent sera réparti [41]Numérisation du patrimoine :
comment l'argent sera réparti
INFO LE FIGARO - La Bibliothèque nationale de France et le Centre national du cinéma seront les mieux lotis. . [42]La création d'entreprises atteint un record INFO FIGARO - Les Français ont créé 560.000 entreprises l'an dernier, grâce au succès du statut de l'auto-entrepreneur. [43]» Auto-entrepreneur : comment ça marche ? . . . [44]Thierry Henry échappe à la sanction La commission de discipline de la FIFA a estimé lundi qu'elle ne disposait pas de base juridique pour sanctionner la main de l'attaquant français lors du match contre l'Eire, en barrages du Mondial-2010. . . [45]Boursiers : l'Etat précise ses objectifs La conférence de grandes écoles a de son côté effectué un revirement en affirmant partager les objectifs fixés par le gouvernement. [46]» Sarkozy veut 30 % de boursiers dans les grandes écoles . . [47]L'UNI fait place à un nouveau syndicat étudiant de droite Dès mardi, le syndicat étudiant de droite né en 1968 deviendra le Mouvement des étudiants (MET). . . [48]France : le déficit attendu à 8,2% du PIB en 2010 INFO FIGARO - Le déficit public sera moins mauvais que prévu : il était jusqu'alors anticipé à 8,5 %. . . . [49]Sarkozy en visite dans l'océan Indien Le chef de l'État est à Mayotte et à la Réunion pour la cérémonie des voeux à l'outre-mer. . . [50]Besson veut faire signer une charte aux jeunes Français Les droits et les devoirs de tout citoyen seraient rappelés à l'occasion de ce serment républicain. [51]» Identité : Jean-Claude Gaudin crée à son tour la polémique . . [52]Des squatteurs priés de quitter la place des Vosges La justice a ordonné lundi l'expulsion des militants pour le droit au logement, qui occupent depuis plus de deux mois un hôtel particulier de cette prestigieuse place parisienne. . . [53]Audiences : Europe 1 pourrait détrôner NRJ Le sondage 126000 Radio de Médiamétrie, qui sera publié mardi, pourrait une nouvelle fois bousculer la hierarchie entre stations. . . Zoom Figaro Cheveux [20091109PHOWWW00546.jpg] Conseils d'experts Questions RH [20091109PHOWWW00547.jpg] McDonald's Frida Kahlo [20091109PHOWWW00548.jpg] Exposée à Bruxelles Cinéma [20091109PHOWWW00348.jpg] Toutes les séances . [54]Ces délégués du procureur qui travaillent au noir [55]Ces délégués du procureur
qui travaillent au noir
Chargés de sermonner les petits délinquants, ils ne sont pas déclarés par la Chancellerie. Bercy tarde à régler le problème. . [56]Les talibans revendiquent une série d'attaques à Kaboul Des insurgés se sont lancés lundi matin à l'assaut du centre de la capitale afghane où se trouvent plusieurs ministères et le palais présidentiel. Les affrontements avec l'armée afghane ont fait au moins 5 morts et 71 blessés. Sept assaillants ont été tués. . . [57]Expatriés aux USA, la présidence Obama a-t-elle changé votre vie ? APPEL A TÉMOIGNAGES - Si vous vivez aux Etats-Unis, votre quotidien a-t-il changé depuis l'arrivée de Barack Obama à la Maison Blanche ? Si oui, comment ? . . . [58]TGV : la SNCF remet à plat sa stratégie La baisse de fréquentation de certaines lignes obligerait à des réductions de trains voire des annulations selon les Echos. Les lignes nord-est et est-Atlantique sont particulièrement concernées. [59]» Deutsche Bahn prête à livrer bataille avec la SNCF [60]» La SNCF augmente les tarifs du TGV de 1,9% en 2010 . . . [61]Régionales : Laporte jette l'éponge INFO LE FIGARO.FR - Lancien secrétaire dEtat aux Sports faisait planer depuis plusieurs semaines le mystère sur son éventuelle candidature en Ile-de-France. . . [62]Paris et Berlin déconseillent l'utilisation d'Internet Explorer Après que Microsoft a admis qu'une faille dans son navigateur était à l'origine de l'attaque contre Google en Chine, les autorités officielles de sécurité informatique en France et en Allemagne recommandent de ne pas utiliser le logiciel avant qu'il ne soit corrigé. . . [63]Le Turc, qui avait tenté de tuer Jean-Paul II, est libre [64]Le Turc, qui avait tenté de tuer
Jean-Paul II, est libre 
Mehmet Ali Agca, un ex-militant ultranationaliste fait monter les enchères pour publier ses Mémoires. . [65]Un Français en prison à Abu Dhabi pour une plaisanterie Pour avoir parlé de «bombe» dans un avion, Jean-Louis Lioret, ingénieur à la retraite, est incarcéré depuis six jours. . . . [66]«Ali le Chimique» condamné à mort Ce cousin de Saddam Hussein avait fait gazer 5 000 Kurdes en 1988. . . [67]Alliot-Marie confie à Pierre Botton une mission sur la prison «Je sais de quoi je parle», assure l'ancien homme d'affaires et ex-gendre de Michel Noir, écroué dans les années 1990. . . [68]Le tapis rouge des Golden Globes [69]Le tapis rouge
des Golden Globes EN IMAGES - Malgré l'éloge des critiques, Marion Cotillard nominée pour la comédie musicale "Nine", n'a pas reçu le prix de la meilleure actrice qui a été décerné à Meryl Streep. [70]» Retour sur la cérémonie en images . [71]Avatar domine les Golden Globes Le film de James Cameron a remporté dimanche le doublé du meilleur film dramatique et du meilleur réalisateur. En revanche, Marion Cotillard et Un prophète, qui portaient les espoirs tricolores, sont repartis bredouilles. [72]» VIDEO - Les Golden Globes, du rire aux larmes . . [73]Bertrand : «Une étrangère portant la burqa ne pourra pas être naturalisée» Le secrétaire général de l'UMP, Xavier Bertrand, qui a entamé ses déplacements de campagne ce week-end en Paca, veut mobiliser sa famille politique. . . . [74]Guéant écarte l'idée d'un remaniement Le secrétaire général de l'Élysée a confirmé, dimanche, le maintien de Fillon après les régionales. [75]» Fillon fait l'éloge de la durée à Matignon [76]» Journalistes enlevés : indignation après les propos de Guéant . . [77]Faut-il repousser l'âge légal de la retraite au-delà de 60 ans ? Votants [picto-votant.gif] . . [78]Les chirurgiens esthétiques contrôlent leur réputation sur le Web Ils font parfois appel à des sociétés privées pour préserver leur image en ligne. [79]» Les patients en quête d'information sur la Toile . . . [80]Ukraine : le candidat pro-russe en tête Viktor Ianoukovitch affrontera Ioulia Timochenko au second tour de l'élection présidentielle ukrainienne, le 7 février. [81]» Bataille présidentielle en Ukraine . . [82]Joann Sfar : «Un film amoureux sur Gainsbourg» [83]Joann Sfar : «Un film amoureux
sur Gainsbourg»
INTERVIEW - Après Marjane Satrapi et Riad Sattouf, l'auteur de BD passe derrière la caméra et signe un conte musical aussi poétiqueque subversif sur l'Homme à tête de chou. En salle mercredi. . . [84]Un prêt-à-porter concis et stylé DÉFILÉS - Milan a donné le coup denvoi des collections masculines automne-hiver 2010-2011. [85]» EN IMAGES - Ermenegildo Zegna, [86]Dolce & Gabbana, [87]Burberry, [88]Emporio Armani... [89]» VIDEO - Bottega Venetta, [90]Burberry . . [91]Un site web retrouve des vidéos en fonction des mots prononcés Le service Voxalead indexe les émissions de radio et de télévision à partir des paroles enregistrées. . . [92]Nissan joue au Cube [93]Nissan joue au Cube EN IMAGES - La marque japonaise fait le pari de vendre en Europe cette étonnante berline compacte qui affirme sa différence au travers d'un style cubique et asymétrique. . * ____________________ OK [94]Les Blogs [95][feed-icon-16x16.png] [96]Les dessous du social [97]Tamilutte, FOrtifiant contre la pandémie sociale CHEZ FO, on a depuis longtemps de l'humour et le sens de... [98]Les dessous du social par [99]Marc Landré [100]Le blog des Marchés de la bourse et des investisseurs [101]Plutôt un risque de « syndrome Intel » que de déception sur les profits Que dire de cette séance de Bourse de lundi, sans saveur,... [102]Le blog des Marchés de la bourse et des investisseurs par [103]Roland Laskine [104]La Blog Team de Sport24 [105]Jacques Peridon: l'éditorialiste qui fait peur à l'OM! Connaissez vous Jacques Peridon? Non? Oui? Peu... [106]La Blog Team de Sport24 par [107]Bruno Roger-Petit [108]Voir tous les blogs . . La revue de net Chaque jour, cinq liens sélectionnés par lefigaro.fr + LItalie [109]censure la vidéo sur Internet + Photos : Martin Luther King [110]en famille + Le New York Times [111]payant sur le web (eng) + Le rapport sur [112]la numérisation des livres décrypté + Lécologie [113]naméliore pas le climat familial (eng) . . Logo Figaro [114][20080606PHOWWW00354.jpg] [115]Gagnez un séjour en thalasso [116]Participez et gagnez un séjour au Carnac thalasso & spa Resort. . . [117][20080606PHOWWW00353.jpg] [118]Surprenante Madonna [119] Dolce & Gabbana invente la sexy mamma-donna . . [120][20080606PHOWWW00350.jpg] [121]Exprimez-vous [122] Devrait-il y avoir davantage d'hommes dans les mouvements féministes ? . . [123]Mode - [124]Beauté - [125]Joaillerie - [126]Déco - [127]Célébrités . [128]mercato . . [129]Comment choisir son assurance vie ? Posez vos questions à Marie-Christine Sonkin, directrice adjointe de la rédaction du Journal des Finances. Elle répondra en vidéo le 19 janvier. . . «Clint Eastwood au coeur de la mêlée et au coeur du public» CRITIQUE - Pour Olivier Delcroix, avec «Invictus», qui réunit à l'écran Morgan Freeman et Matt Damon, Eastwood livre un film passionnant sur le rugby et l'apartheid. . . Météo ____________________ rech [130]France - [131]Monde - [132]Plage . [EMBED] . [133]La grande crue de 1910 à Paris [134]La grande crue de 1910 à Paris EN IMAGES - A loccasion du centenaire de la crue, deux expos sont organisées à Paris. . . . [135]L'IVG, un sujet qui fâche en Europe Trente-cinq ans après sa légalisation en France, l'interruption volontaire de grossesse fait toujours polémique chez certains de nos voisins. . . [136]Jyvais . Économie [137]Proglio bouleverse la direction d'EDF [138]Le nouveau président d'EDF installe son équipe dirigeante. . [139]Evaluer son patron, un facteur d'efficacité [140]Une étude britannique met en évidence la relation entre santé au travail et franchise vis-à-vis de son employeur. . . . . . Vos commentaires sur... [141]Haïti : Le leadership de Washington sur les secours [142]«Dans un monde idéal ce serait à l'ONU de désigner le pays chargé de tenir ce rôle majeur. Mais il semble qu'on y préfère les grands discours aux actions rationnelles et efficaces !» par DUBLEYOU 76 . . [143]Aubry estime avoir les «capacités» de présider la France [144]«Peut-être devrait-elle commencer par expliquer ce qu'elle compte faire. Le meilleur opposant n'est pas forcément le meilleur candidat» par Piémont . . [145]L'IVG reste un sujet qui fâche chez nos voisins occidentaux [146]«Si 35 ans après cela pose encore problème et choque les populations, il faudrait peut-être se poser des questions ? Ce n'est pas parce qu'une loi a été votée qu'elle reste valable des décennies après» par Ebtg . . [147]» Retrouvez toute notre sélection de commentaires des internautes [148]en cliquant ici[149]. . . . . . . Trouvez les meilleurs restos, films, spectacles, concerts et expos à Paris et en Ile de France ! ____________________ [Resto / Bars...........] Rechercher . . [150]Easy Voyage . Services + [151]Services météo + [152]Services sorties + [153]Services bourse + [154]Services voyages + [155]Services Guide-tv + [156]Services boutiques + Annonces + [157]annonces_emploi + [158]Annonces immobilières + [159]Annonces automobile + [160]Annonces rencontres + . [_] [_] [_] [_] [_] [_] [_] Annonces emploi [161]cadremploi.fr [Fonction...............][Secteur................][Localisation.... .......]_________________________ Ok [162]Recherche detaillée . . . Annonces Automobiles [163]AutoScout24 [Marque..........] [Modeles] Année [de..] Prix () de [1.000..] Distance [Rayon.] [164]Recherche détaillée [Energie...] [Professionnels et particuliers] [à...] [à......] ____________________ (Afficher les résultats) Valider . Logo Evène 18 Janvier - Sainte Prisca - [165]Offrez-lui des fleurs [3441.jpg] [166]La citation du jour "Lire n'est pas un acte de consommation culturelle, c'est une conversation." [167]Alain Finkielkraut [168]Entretien avec Guy Rossi-Landi - Février 1999 . . [4262.jpg] [169]Anniversaire du jour [170]Philippe Starck Designer français 61 ans . . [171]Chronique du jour C'est arrivé le 18 Janvier 1975 Une bande qui fait du bruit Dans les kiosques, une nouvelle parution s'apprête à faire grand bruit. Il s'agit d'un trimestriel, certifié "réservé aux adultes", flanqué d'un titre au graphisme métallique : Métal hurlant. A l'o... . . 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[119]Partager cet article sur del.icio.us [120]Envoyer cet article sur Blogmarks ELYSEE Sarkozy : les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme" NOUVELOBS.COM | 06.02.2009 | 13:01 [121]Réagissez à l'article 299 réactions Lors de son intervention télévisée, le chef de l'Etat a notamment déclaré : "Que les Français soient inquiets (face à la crise), c'est normal". > Il a dit réfléchir à une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu. > La taxe professionnelle sera supprimée en 2010. > Les partenaires sociaux seront reçus le 18 février. Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters) Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters) Le chef de l'Etat a déclaré, jeudi 5 février, que la France et le monde faisaient face à "la crise du siècle", au début de son intervention télévisée. "C'est la crise du siècle, elle est sans précédent", a-t-il répété Nicolas Sarkozy. ([122]> Lire toutes les déclarations). "Je dois en tenir compte et faire en sorte que la France rentre le plus tard possible dans la crise et sorte le plus tôt de la crise", a-t-il ajouté. "Je dois en plus protéger au maximum ceux qui déjà dans la croissance mondiale étaient exclus", a-t-il ajouté. "Que les Français soient inquiets, c'est normal. Je le comprends, je l'entends", a-t-il expliqué. Les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme", a-t-il rapidement affirmé. "La rupture n'a jamais été un objectif, c'est juste un moyen", a, par ailleurs, expliqué Nicolas Sarkozy. L'émission était diffusée simultanément sur TF1, France 2, M6 et RTL. Elle est présentée par David Pujadas et Laurence, avec les interventions de Guy Lagache et Alain Duhamel. Une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu ? Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il recevrait les partenaires sociaux le 18 février, notamment pour voir comment "aller plus loin" sur l'indemnisation du chômage partiel. Il a également dit réfléchir à une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu pour aider les classes moyennes, l'une des "pistes" qu'il soumettra aux syndicats le 18 février. "L'Etat est prêt à faire un effort" pour "mieux protéger" les jeunes en fin de CDD et qui ne retrouvent pas d'emploi du fait de la crise financière et économique, a affirmé le président de la République. Le chef de l'Etat a aussi annoncé qu'il "supprimerait la taxe professionnnelle en 2010". "Je vous l'annonce: on supprimera la taxe professionnelle en France en 2010 parce que je veux que l'on garde des usines en France", a déclaré Nicolas Sarkozy lors de son intervention télévisée sur la crise. La mesure sera générale: "On ne peut pas dire on va supprimer pour l'industrie automobile mais pas pour l'industrie sidérurgique ou textile", a-t-il ajouté. "Je ne peux pas dire aux actionnaires pour le coup: ne délocalisez plus, relocalisez, et en même temps leur laisser des charges et des contraintes qui font qu'ils ne s'en sortiront plus", selon le chef de l'Etat. Réfléchir sur le "partage du profit" Le président a jugé nécessaire de réfléchir au "partage du profit" entre les salariés et les actionnaires, demandant aux partenaires sociaux de parvenir à un accord sans quoi "l'Etat prendra ses responsabilités". "Je veux que le 18 février nous discutions d'un sujet essentiel en France qui est le partage du profit", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat, évoquant le "sentiment d'injustice majeur" suscité dans cette crise par "le comportement d'un certain nombre de dirigeants d'institutions bancaires". "Comment on arbitre entre le souhait légitime des actionnaires de gagner de l'argent avec les entreprises et la demande des salariés d'être associés aux bénéfices des entreprises dont ils ont contribué à créer la richesse?", s'est interrogé Nicolas Sarkozy, jugeant qu'en la matière "le compte n'y est pas". "Quand une entreprise distribue aux actionnaires tous les bénéfices d'une année, elle ne peut plus investir" pour l'avenir, a-t-il ajouté, dénonçant une "logique purement financière et spéculative". Le sujet sera au programme de sa rencontre avec les partenaires sociaux le 18 février. "J'engage les organisations syndicales et le patronat à en discuter. Soit ils arrivent à quelque chose, soit l'Etat prendra ses responsabilités", a-t-il prévenu. Il a indiqué qu'il estimait quant à lui que "la règle des trois tiers est bonne": un tiers des bénéfices vont aux salariés, un tiers aux actionnaires sous forme de dividendes et un tiers sont réinvestis dans l'entreprise pour financer son développement". Combat sur la TVA Nicolas Sarkozy a réaffirmé sa volonté d'obtenir un consensus européen concernant des baisses de la TVA sur la restauration, les "produits propres" et des "produits culturels". "C'est parfaitement anormal que quand on achète une voiture propre, on paie plus cher que quand on achète une voiture qui pollue, et ça vaut aussi pour les bâtiments construits en haute qualité environnementale", a dit le chef de l'Etat, souhaitant "un système de TVA réduite pour tous les produits propres". "Je pense également que sur les produits culturels, il faut aller plus loin", a ajouté Nicolas Sarkozy. "Pourquoi la TVA sur le livre est-elle à 5,5 (%), et la TVA sur le disque à 19,6 (%), comme la TVA sur la vidéo? Il faut mettre cette TVA à 5,5", a-t-il déclaré. "Comme cela on est tranquille" "Est-ce que les réformes que la France doit mettre en oeuvre, pour avoir le même emploi lorsque nous seront sortis de la crise, est-ce que ces réformes restent d'actualité? La réponse est oui", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat, précisant qu'elles devaient être conduites "au même rythme". "Si on doit arrêter, comme cela s'est si souvent fait dans le passé, chaque réforme quand il y a une manifestation, alors mieux vaut ne faire aucune réforme. Et comme cela on est tranquille", a-t-il dit. La rupture, "c'est la rupture avec cette habitude". Les quelque 1,4 milliard d'euros d'intérêts que l'Etat percevra cette année au titre des intérêts pour son financement aux banques seront "intégralement" affectés au financement de "mesures sociales", a annoncé Nicolas Sarkozy. Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il allait demander au président de la Cour des comptes Philippe Seguin de "conduire un certain nombre d'enquêtes" sur la bonne utilisation des fonds accordés aux banques pour faire face à la crise. Tacle aux traders Nicolas Sarkozy veut "changer" le système de rémunération des "traders" mais est sceptique sur un plafonnement systématique du salaire des dirigeants, a-t-il déclaré. "Je suis plus choqué par le système de rémunération de ceux qu'on appelle les traders, que les présidents de banques. C'est ce système-là que je veux changer", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat. "J'ai vu ce que M. Obama a décidé, je suis en train d'y réfléchir, moi je ne suis pas trop pour une règle générale", a-t-il ajouté. "Mettre tout le monde sous la toise, je ne suis pas sûr que ce soit la meilleure formule". "J'ajoute que Barack Obama a prévu un système d'actions gratuites derrière une rémunération bloquée, j'aimerais en savoir un peu plus", a souligné Nicolas Sarkozy. Maintien de la politique sur la Fonction publique Nicolas Sarkozy a affirmé qu'il n'engagerait "pas de dépenses publiques supplémentaires", et qu'il s'en tiendrait à la "règle du non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux". "Je n'engagerai pas de dépenses publiques supplémentaires, notamment sur la règle du non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux", a affirmé le président de la République. Selon lui, on reviendra ainsi "au même nombre de fonctionnaires qu'en 1992", quand François Mitterrand était président. "Je n'ai pas le souvenir que la France était alors sous-administrée", a-t-il argué. Relations aux paradis fiscaux Très sévère sur la question des paradis fiscaux, Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé son intention de "poser des questions" à Andorre, Monaco et au Luxembourg. La France exigera la moralisation des paradis fiscaux et "ça m'amènera à revoir nos relations avec Andorre", "à poser la question de nos relations avec Monaco (et) à poser un certain nombre de questions à nos voisins luxembourgeois", a-t-il déclaré. Baisse dans les sondages D'autant que le chef de l'Etat, comme son Premier ministre, enregistre une forte baisse dans les derniers sondages. Moins cinq points à 39% de "confiance" contre 55% de défiance selon un CSA paru mercredi dans Le Parisien. Forts du succès de leur journée d'action de la semaine dernière, les syndicats attendent le président au tournant, suspendant leurs prochaines initiatives au contenu de sa prestation télévisée. Le patron de la CFDT François Chérèque a réclamé un "changement de cap", en clair, des mesures pour maintenir le pouvoir d'achat, tandis que celui de FO Jean-Claude Mailly a prévenu que sans "relance par la consommation", il y aura "remobilisation". Le ton est également offensif dans l'opposition. La Première secrétaire du PS Martine Aubry a demandé au président de "définir enfin un plan de relance adapté". Et, dans une rare unanimité, la gauche toute entière a signé mercredi un texte sommant le pouvoir de "changer de cap". Ne pas se laisser "enfumer" Jeudi matin, Jean-Luc Mélenchon (Parti de gauche) invitait le pays à ne pas se laisser "enfumer" par Nicolas Sarkozy et à se mettre "en lutte", tandis qu'Olivier Besancenot (LCR) voyait déjà dans son intervention "des motivations supplémentaires à continuer le combat". Jusque-là, le discours du chef de l'Etat est resté inflexible. Oui, il a entendu les "inquiétudes légitimes" des Français "qui craignent pour leur emploi", mais pas question pour lui de recourir à une relance par la consommation, "parce que ça n'a jamais marché". Nicolas Sarkozy devrait aussi enrober son propos d'une bonne dose de volontarisme. "On va se battre pour que la France sorte plus forte de la crise", insiste-t-il régulièrement. "Se concentrer sur les objectifs essentiels" Mais certains ne l'entendent pas de la même oreille dans la majorité. Le député UMP Hervé Mariton a reproché au gouvernement de s'éparpiller dans les réformes lui demandant de "se concentrer sur les objectifs essentiels" et son collègue François Goulard a préconisé une "suspension" temporaire du très controversé bouclier fiscal. En outre, le gouvernement a vu poindre ces derniers jours un nouveau "front" du mécontentement dans les universités, avec la montée de la grogne des enseignants-chercheurs et des étudiants. Mais comme François Fillon lundi, le porte-parole du gouvernement a exclu mercredi tout virage politique. "Cette émission n'est pas faite seulement pour le million et demi de Français qui a manifesté", a dit Luc Chatel, mais plutôt pour "mettre en perspective son action face à la crise". [123]Augmenter la taille du texte [124]Réduire la taille du texte [125]Imprimer cet article [126]Envoyer cet article à un ami [127]Réagissez à l'article [128]Réagir à cet article en créant votre Blog [129]Traduction français / anglais [130]Traduction français / espagnol [131]Partager cet article sur Wikio [132]Partager cet article sur Scoopeo [133]Digger cet article [134]Partager cet article avec mes amis sur Facebook ! [135]Partager cet article sur del.icio.us [136]Envoyer cet article sur Blogmarks Les réactions des lecteurs rifif [137]-10 POINTS -10 points serait un sondage plus réaliste que ces sondages effectués par des instituts de sondages aux mains des amis de sarkozy ! Il aura beau museler les manifestan... 08.02 à 16h05 - [138]Alerter scafandre [139]Il faut qu'il démissionne... avant de mettre littéralement la France en faillite. Il est inconscient... Vous avez des communes qui ont investi dans la construction de collèges, de ponts... en fonct... 07.02 à 21h16 - [140]Alerter [141]Réagissez ! [142]Toutes les réactions (299) [143]Conditions de modération L'essentiel Politique [144]IDENTITE NATIONALE [145]"Déferlement de musulmans" : Gaudin regrette avoir eu un "mot malheureux" 18.01 à 16h59 [146]MAYOTTE [147]Courte étape dans l'océan Indien pour Sarkozy 18.01 à 14h52 [148]POLEMIQUE [149]Reporters enlevés : "cynisme effrayant" de Guéant 18.01 à 14h47 [150]MARSEILLE [151]Buffet dénonce "une idéologie xénophobe dans les plus hautes autorités de l'Etat" 18.01 à 13h46 [152]IDENTITE NATIONALE [153]Et si "une Française porte la burqa"...? 18.01 à 10h51 [154]SOCIAL [155]Internet : un tarif réduit pour les plus démunis ? 18.01 à 09h05 [156]COLLECTIVITES LOCALES [157]Les départements en "graves difficultés financières" 18.01 à 08h53 [158]IDENTITE NATIONALE [159]"Déferlement de musulmans" : Gaudin regrette avoir eu un "mot malheureux" 18.01 à 08h06 [160]MARSEILLE [161]Valls fustige les "amalgames dangereux" de Gaudin 18.01 à 07h56 [162]ELECTIONS REGIONALES [163]Régionales : Aubry vise toujours le grand chelem 18.01 à 07h29 [164]AFGHANISTAN [165]Journalistes enlevés : Guéant provoque la polémique 18.01 à 07h10 [166]SENAT [167]La réforme des collectivités "manque de visibilité" 18.01 à 07h05 [168]CHARENTE-MARITIME [169]Régionales : Sarnez accuse Royal de "débauchage" 17.01 à 14h58 [170]DROIT DE VOTE [171]Mélenchon favorable au droit de vote des étrangers 17.01 à 13h56 [172]CONSEIL CONSTITUTIONNEL [173]Emmanuelle Mignon ne siègera pas parmi les Sages 17.01 à 12h55 Plus sur le sujet Sur Nouvelobs.com * [174]Les principales déclarations de Nicolas Sarkozy * [175]Aubry Sarkozy est un président "hésitant" qui "ne sait pas où il va" * [176]Intervention télévisée de Sarkozy Les appels au boycott se multiplient * [177]Onze organisations de gauche demandent un "changement de cap" * [178]Interview présidentielle Les choix contestables de l'Elysée * [179]Grèves Parisot y voit "quelque chose de pervers" * [180]Le texte commun des onze organisations de gauche * [181]Revue de presse * [182]Les réactions * [183]Delanoë Sarkozy a "privilégié la polémique" sur le SMA * [184]Sarkozy fait des ouvertures, les syndicats méfiants * [185]15,1 millions de téléspectateurs pour l'intervention de Sarkozy * [186]Les principales mesures de Nicolas Sarkozy Dans Le Nouvel Observateur * [187]"Sarkozy comme Cendrillon", (05/02/09) * [188]"La vraie nature de Sarkozy", par François Bazin (05/02/09) * [189]"Sarkozy peut-il encore réformer ?", par Hervé Algalarrondo (05/02/09) * [190]"Les ficelles de Sarkozy", (22/01/09) * [191]"Les choix de Sarkozy", par Denis Olivennes (22/01/09) Sur Internet * [192]Le site de l'Elysée * [193]Le baromètre de confiance de l'exécutif sur le site du CSA * [194]Le baromètre des actions présidentielles sur le site du CSA * [195]La biographie officielle de Nicolas Sarkozy * [196]Le blog de François Fillon * [197]La biographie officielle de François Fillon * [198]Le site de TNS-Sofres nouvelobs.com __________________________________________________________________ ClubObs Déjà membre de Clubobs.com, identifiez-vous ____________________ [_] Mémoriser ____________________ Ok [199]Mot de passe oublié ? * [200]> A la une * [201]> Opinions * [202]> Blogs * [203]> Revues de presse * [204]> Dossiers * [205]> Forums en direct * [206]> Archives * [207]> Automobile * [208]> High-tech * [209]> Météo * [210]> Annonces * [211]> Débats * [212]> Voyages * [213]> Immobilier * [214]> Emploi * [215]> Comme au Cinema.com * [216]> Rencontres * [217]> Newsletters [218]Site Internet certifiée par l'OJD La fréquentation de ce site est certifiée par l'OJD [219]Contacts | [220]Plan du site | [221]Publicité | [222]Conditions d'utilisation | [223]Données personnelles | [224]Copyright | [225]Index | © Le Nouvel Observateur - Tous droits réservés. nouvelobs.com est une marque exclusive du Nouvel Observateur. 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Formulant ses voeux pour la nouvelle années devant les représentants des partenaires sociaux, le chef de l'Etat a d'abord voulu les «remercier pour l'ampleur de la tâche que vous avez accomplie en 2008. L'urgence des problèmes à résoudre, l'attente des Français vous ont imposé, comme au gouvernement et au Parlement, un rythme de travail particulièrement exigeant». «Je ne vous surprendrai pas en vous disant que nous n'avons pas l'intention de ralentir le rythme en 2009, leur a-t-il ensuite déclaré. Et ce n'est certainement pas au moment où l'impact social de la crise se fait sentir --on a eu l'impact financier, l'impact économique, bien sûr l'impact social-- qu'on va en tirer la conclusion qu'il faut ralentir», a-t-il ajouté. Leparisien.fr avec A Cet article a été publié dans la rubrique [139]Politique FLASH ACTUALITÉ [DERNIÈRE MINUTE] * 18h57 [140]Emmanuelle Haïm renonce à diriger "Idoménée" à l'Opéra de Paris * 18h55 [141]La production cinéma "résiste" dit le CNC, "en crise" selon les producteurs * 18h49 [142]Ligue 1: Marseille au milieu du gué * 18h41 [143]Jean-Claude Juncker reconduit à la tête de l'Eurogroupe * 18h26 [144]France: le déficit public de "l'ordre de 8,2%" du PIB en 2010 * 18h16 [145]Rebsamen (PS): pétition pour inverser la charge de la preuve de nationalité * 18h05 [146]Strauss-Kahn responsable politique préféré des Français [147]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES * 18h41 [148]Jean-Claude Juncker reconduit à la tête de l'Eurogroupe * 18h26 [149]France: le déficit public de "l'ordre de 8,2%" du PIB en 2010 * 17h53 [150]Plan de départs PSA: 5.700 volontaires d'ici la fin du dispositif fin mars * 17h42 [151]Etats-Unis: Vivendi accuse l'avocat des plaignants de créer un "préjudice" * 17h18 [152]Eurostar pourrait payer 11 millions d'euros de dédommagement à ses clients * 16h24 [153]GDF Suez a tenté sans succès de prendre le contrôle d'International Power * 16h11 [154]Le déficit public attendu à 8,2% en 2010, soit moins que prévu [155]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES * 18h16 [156]Rebsamen (PS): pétition pour inverser la charge de la preuve de nationalité * 18h05 [157]Strauss-Kahn responsable politique préféré des Français * 17h10 [158]Collomb (PS) prêt à voter certains articles de la réforme des collectivités * 16h56 [159]Propos sur les musulmans: Gaudin évoque "un mot malheureux" * 16h28 [160]Réforme territoriale: les élus landais demandent un référendum * 16h14 [161]Le Nouveau centre veut s'emparer de "grands sujets" comme l'homoparentalité * 16h12 [162]Besson dresse son bilan 2009 : plus de 29.000 sans-papiers expulsés [163]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES * 17h06 [164]Séisme de magnitude 6 à l'ouest du Guatemala * 16h27 [165]La police a tué plus de 10.000 personnes en douze ans à Rio selon une étude * 14h40 [166]Le Yémen réclame à Washington ses ressortissants détenus à Guantanamo * 13h52 [167]Enquête sur la guerre en Irak: Tony Blair témoignera le 29 janvier * 13h21 [168]Silvio Berlusconi absent à la reprise du procès sur les droits télévisés * 11h26 [169]Les talibans ont porté la guerre dans le centre de Kaboul * 10h46 [170]L'UE promet près d'un demi-milliard d'euros pour Haïti [171]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES * 18h49 [172]Ligue 1: Marseille au milieu du gué * 17h10 [173]Football: pas de sanction pour Thierry Henry après sa main contre l'Eire * 16h50 [174]Ligue 1: pour Bordeaux, l'essentiel c'est l'écart * 16h26 [175]Coupe de l'America: le bras de fer se poursuit entre Oracle et Alinghi * 15h08 [176]Euro de patinage artistique: Joubert de retour pour un ultime test avant les JO * 10h55 [177]Euro de handball: les Français pour un triplé inédit * 08h04 [178]Open d'Australie de tennis: Sharapova éliminée, Nadal, Murray et Roddick qualifiés [179]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES * 18h57 [180]Emmanuelle Haïm renonce à diriger "Idoménée" à l'Opéra de Paris * 18h55 [181]La production cinéma "résiste" dit le CNC, "en crise" selon les producteurs * 17h05 [182]Les films de la semaine: un Gainsbourg, un homme sérieux et des Barons * 14h28 [183]Le Festival d'Aix-en-Provence se "redéveloppe" en 2010 * 06h36 [184]"Avatar" grand vainqueur des Golden Globes, "In the air" déçoit * 20h48 [185]Mode à Milan: esprit rebelle et inspirations militaires * 20h16 [186]"Avatar" continue de dominer le box-office nord-américain [187]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES Sites du Groupe Amaury [188]Paris Job [189]France Football [190]L'equipe [191]L'echo republicain [192]ASO [193]Velo magazine [194]Journal du Golf . 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[2]Mise à jour 19:42 [3]Le Figaro.fr * [4]Actualité * [5]Economie * [6]Culture * [7]Madame * [8]Sport * [9]Services INFO [10]> Politique [11]> Société [12]> International [13]> Médias [14]> Environnement [15]> Science et Tech [16]> Santé [17]> Web [18]> Auto [19]> Météo DÉBATS [20]> Figaro Magazine [21]> Éditos [22]> Blogs [23]> Repères EN IMAGES [24]> Vidéos [25]> Le Talk [26]> Photos [27]> Quiz Formulaire de Recherche ____________________ RECHERCHER Exemples : [28]Politique, [29]Grippe A, [30]Auto, [31]FigaroScope, [32]Immobilier __________________________________________________________________ * . * . . . [33]Haïti : la récolte de fonds décolle après l'appel de l'ONU [34]Haïti : la récolte de fonds décolle après l'appel de l'ONU
Les annonces d'aide humanitaire et de fonds pour venir en aide à Haïti continuent d'affluer, suite à l'appel d'urgence lancé par l'ONU. L'organisation entend récolter 562 millions de dollars. [35]» DOSSIER SPECIAL - Haïti dévasté . [36]L'hôpital général de Port-au-Prince manque de tout REPORTAGE - Face au désastre, les secours peinent à s'orgraniser dans la capitale haïtienne. . . . [37]Les secours sorganisent dans la douleur EN IMAGES - Dans la capitale haïtienne, les secours internationaux font face à dénormes difficultés. Il faut à la fois chercher des survivants, apporter des vivres aux rescapés, opérer les blessés, évacuer les corps, sécuriser la ville et penser à la reconstruction. . . [38]Haïti : 70.000 corps ont été enterrés Le gouvernement a décrété dimanche l'état d'urgence et une période de deuil national de 30 jours. 280 centres d'urgence s'ouvrent lundi, pour distribuer des vivres et héberger les sans-abris, estimés à 300.000. [39]» DOSSIER SPECIAL - Haïti dévasté . . [40]Numérisation du patrimoine : comment l'argent sera réparti [41]Numérisation du patrimoine :
comment l'argent sera réparti
INFO LE FIGARO - La Bibliothèque nationale de France et le Centre national du cinéma seront les mieux lotis. . [42]La création d'entreprises atteint un record INFO FIGARO - Les Français ont créé 560.000 entreprises l'an dernier, grâce au succès du statut de l'auto-entrepreneur. [43]» Auto-entrepreneur : comment ça marche ? . . . [44]Thierry Henry échappe à la sanction La commission de discipline de la FIFA a estimé lundi qu'elle ne disposait pas de base juridique pour sanctionner la main de l'attaquant français lors du match contre l'Eire, en barrages du Mondial-2010. . . [45]Boursiers : l'Etat précise ses objectifs La conférence de grandes écoles a de son côté effectué un revirement en affirmant partager les objectifs fixés par le gouvernement. [46]» Sarkozy veut 30 % de boursiers dans les grandes écoles . . [47]L'UNI fait place à un nouveau syndicat étudiant de droite Dès mardi, le syndicat étudiant de droite né en 1968 deviendra le Mouvement des étudiants (MET). . . [48]France : le déficit attendu à 8,2% du PIB en 2010 INFO FIGARO - Le déficit public sera moins mauvais que prévu : il était jusqu'alors anticipé à 8,5 %. . . . [49]Sarkozy en visite dans l'océan Indien Le chef de l'État est à Mayotte et à la Réunion pour la cérémonie des voeux à l'outre-mer. . . [50]Besson veut faire signer une charte aux jeunes Français Les droits et les devoirs de tout citoyen seraient rappelés à l'occasion de ce serment républicain. [51]» Identité : Jean-Claude Gaudin crée à son tour la polémique . . [52]Des squatteurs priés de quitter la place des Vosges La justice a ordonné lundi l'expulsion des militants pour le droit au logement, qui occupent depuis plus de deux mois un hôtel particulier de cette prestigieuse place parisienne. . . [53]Audiences : Europe 1 pourrait détrôner NRJ Le sondage 126000 Radio de Médiamétrie, qui sera publié mardi, pourrait une nouvelle fois bousculer la hierarchie entre stations. . . Zoom Figaro Cheveux [20091109PHOWWW00546.jpg] Conseils d'experts Questions RH [20091109PHOWWW00547.jpg] McDonald's Frida Kahlo [20091109PHOWWW00548.jpg] Exposée à Bruxelles Cinéma [20091109PHOWWW00348.jpg] Toutes les séances . [54]Ces délégués du procureur qui travaillent au noir [55]Ces délégués du procureur
qui travaillent au noir
Chargés de sermonner les petits délinquants, ils ne sont pas déclarés par la Chancellerie. Bercy tarde à régler le problème. . [56]Les talibans revendiquent une série d'attaques à Kaboul Des insurgés se sont lancés lundi matin à l'assaut du centre de la capitale afghane où se trouvent plusieurs ministères et le palais présidentiel. Les affrontements avec l'armée afghane ont fait au moins 5 morts et 71 blessés. Sept assaillants ont été tués. . . [57]Expatriés aux USA, la présidence Obama a-t-elle changé votre vie ? APPEL A TÉMOIGNAGES - Si vous vivez aux Etats-Unis, votre quotidien a-t-il changé depuis l'arrivée de Barack Obama à la Maison Blanche ? Si oui, comment ? . . . [58]TGV : la SNCF remet à plat sa stratégie La baisse de fréquentation de certaines lignes obligerait à des réductions de trains voire des annulations selon les Echos. Les lignes nord-est et est-Atlantique sont particulièrement concernées. [59]» Deutsche Bahn prête à livrer bataille avec la SNCF [60]» La SNCF augmente les tarifs du TGV de 1,9% en 2010 . . . [61]Régionales : Laporte jette l'éponge INFO LE FIGARO.FR - Lancien secrétaire dEtat aux Sports faisait planer depuis plusieurs semaines le mystère sur son éventuelle candidature en Ile-de-France. . . [62]Paris et Berlin déconseillent l'utilisation d'Internet Explorer Après que Microsoft a admis qu'une faille dans son navigateur était à l'origine de l'attaque contre Google en Chine, les autorités officielles de sécurité informatique en France et en Allemagne recommandent de ne pas utiliser le logiciel avant qu'il ne soit corrigé. . . [63]Le Turc, qui avait tenté de tuer Jean-Paul II, est libre [64]Le Turc, qui avait tenté de tuer
Jean-Paul II, est libre 
Mehmet Ali Agca, un ex-militant ultranationaliste fait monter les enchères pour publier ses Mémoires. . [65]Un Français en prison à Abu Dhabi pour une plaisanterie Pour avoir parlé de «bombe» dans un avion, Jean-Louis Lioret, ingénieur à la retraite, est incarcéré depuis six jours. . . . [66]«Ali le Chimique» condamné à mort Ce cousin de Saddam Hussein avait fait gazer 5 000 Kurdes en 1988. . . [67]Alliot-Marie confie à Pierre Botton une mission sur la prison «Je sais de quoi je parle», assure l'ancien homme d'affaires et ex-gendre de Michel Noir, écroué dans les années 1990. . . [68]Le tapis rouge des Golden Globes [69]Le tapis rouge
des Golden Globes EN IMAGES - Malgré l'éloge des critiques, Marion Cotillard nominée pour la comédie musicale "Nine", n'a pas reçu le prix de la meilleure actrice qui a été décerné à Meryl Streep. [70]» Retour sur la cérémonie en images . [71]Avatar domine les Golden Globes Le film de James Cameron a remporté dimanche le doublé du meilleur film dramatique et du meilleur réalisateur. En revanche, Marion Cotillard et Un prophète, qui portaient les espoirs tricolores, sont repartis bredouilles. [72]» VIDEO - Les Golden Globes, du rire aux larmes . . [73]Bertrand : «Une étrangère portant la burqa ne pourra pas être naturalisée» Le secrétaire général de l'UMP, Xavier Bertrand, qui a entamé ses déplacements de campagne ce week-end en Paca, veut mobiliser sa famille politique. . . . [74]Guéant écarte l'idée d'un remaniement Le secrétaire général de l'Élysée a confirmé, dimanche, le maintien de Fillon après les régionales. [75]» Fillon fait l'éloge de la durée à Matignon [76]» Journalistes enlevés : indignation après les propos de Guéant . . [77]Faut-il repousser l'âge légal de la retraite au-delà de 60 ans ? Votants [picto-votant.gif] . . [78]Les chirurgiens esthétiques contrôlent leur réputation sur le Web Ils font parfois appel à des sociétés privées pour préserver leur image en ligne. [79]» Les patients en quête d'information sur la Toile . . . [80]Ukraine : le candidat pro-russe en tête Viktor Ianoukovitch affrontera Ioulia Timochenko au second tour de l'élection présidentielle ukrainienne, le 7 février. [81]» Bataille présidentielle en Ukraine . . [82]Joann Sfar : «Un film amoureux sur Gainsbourg» [83]Joann Sfar : «Un film amoureux
sur Gainsbourg»
INTERVIEW - Après Marjane Satrapi et Riad Sattouf, l'auteur de BD passe derrière la caméra et signe un conte musical aussi poétiqueque subversif sur l'Homme à tête de chou. En salle mercredi. . . [84]Un prêt-à-porter concis et stylé DÉFILÉS - Milan a donné le coup denvoi des collections masculines automne-hiver 2010-2011. [85]» EN IMAGES - Ermenegildo Zegna, [86]Dolce & Gabbana, [87]Burberry, [88]Emporio Armani... [89]» VIDEO - Bottega Venetta, [90]Burberry . . [91]Un site web retrouve des vidéos en fonction des mots prononcés Le service Voxalead indexe les émissions de radio et de télévision à partir des paroles enregistrées. . . 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Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1][bandeau.png] [2]Accueil [3]www.revuedumauss.com [4]www.jornaldomauss.org [5]Présentation ____________________ [6]Sylvain Dzimira Pascal Michon, Les rythmes du politique Démocratie et capitalisme mondialisé (note suivie d'une correspondance entre P. Michon, S. Dzimira et Sénèque...) Les prairies ordinaires, 2007, 318 p., 17 EUR. [7][printer.png] [8][article_pdf.png] [9]envoyer l'article par mail title= Article publié le 29 avril 2008 /3 commentaires Pour citer cet article : [10]Sylvain Dzimira, « Les rythmes du politique, Démocratie et capitalisme mondialisé (note suivie d'une correspondance entre P. Michon, S. Dzimira et Sénèque...) », Revue du MAUSS permanente, 29 avril 2008 [en ligne]. L'ambition de cet ouvrage donne tout simplement le vertige : relevant l'inanité des théories critiques, à ce point incapables de saisir notre modernité démocratique qu'elles corroborent selon lui une réalité qu'elles croient dénoncer, Pascal Michon ne propose rien de moins que de repenser la démocratie, en élaborant quasiment de toutes pièces un appareillage conceptuel, et en s'efforçant de déduire des conclusions normatives des découvertes que lui permettent les lunettes dont il se chausse, très loin de la très académique neutralité axiologique. Une ambition théorique d'autant plus étonnante qu'elle est le fait d'un historien (et non d'un sociologue ou d'un philosophe politiques qu'on pourrait croire mieux armés conceptuellement a priori), et quand on connaît l'hyperspécialisation de ses confrères (lui n'hésite pas à mobiliser « les sciences sociales » et la philosophie) et leur refus quasi généralisé de théoriser quoi que ce soit. Que pouvons-nous en penser ? Commençons par présenter l'ouvrage. PRESENTATION L'avant propos est désarçonnant, car, « tout le monde en prend pour son grade » ! Journalistes, universitaires « installés dans les chaires trop grandes pour eux de prédécesseurs célèbres » [p. 9], « intellectuels » de gauche devenus libéraux, intellectuels de droite invoquant des icônes de la gauche, tous incapables de penser quoi que ce soit de pertinent sur leur monde... Cela laisse un impression désagréable qui heureusement se dissipe rapidement, car les pages qui suivent donnent sérieusement à penser (nous les avons d'ailleurs publiées dans [11]La Revue du MAUSS Permanente). P. Michon y soutient que, reprise telle quelle par des « disciples » aveugles, la pensée libertaire et contestatrice d'hier est devenue l'un des soutiens de premier plan du nouvel ordre libéral, au même titre que la pensée libérale. D'ailleurs, elles se retrouvent dans la même dénonciation des entraves à l'auto-réalisation des individus, dans un même nominalisme nihiliste teinté d'un empirisme plat (rien n'existe au fond, qui ne s'observe pas, surtout pas « la société » ou les « sujets collectifs »), et dans une même sacralisation de la neutralité axiologique. Sont ainsi appelés à la barre : Marcela Iuacub, Antonio Negri, Michael Hart et Bruno Latour. Si ces postures étaient réellement contestatrices dans un contexte où l'individu était malmené par des pensées homogénéisantes, édifiant des totalités en surplomb, censées parfois tracer la voie du salut pour tous - phénoménologie, existentialisme, historicisme, marxisme sont cités - elles participent aujourd'hui très largement du monde nouveau qu'elles dénoncent par ailleurs, où le seul ordre qui vaille est celui qui s'établit spontanément (la neutralité axiologique est un allié précieux) par les choix des individus, qui seuls sont censés exister. Les « disciples » faussement contestataires ne sont pas les seuls à oeuvrer au nouvel ordre libéral : ils sont accompagnés par des « héritiers » (qu'on retrouve en nombre dans les médias, à l'université, dans la recherche, bref « tout ce qui constitue le fondement objectif de la vie de la pensée » [p. 23]) qui n'ont fait qu'emprunter les concepts et les programmes de recherche à leurs prédécesseurs, à qui ils doivent leurs places et leurs statuts. Cultivant une posture de « rentiers », excellant dans la « phagocytose académique » [p. 25], allant jusqu'à détourner les voix de leurs Maîtres (ainsi d'Ewald), « ce groupe est, pour P. Michon, le deuxième grand responsable de l'épuisement actuel de la pensée critique » [p. 24]. L'état des lieux laissés par leurs occupants est en effet accablant, mais suffisamment juste pour que nous citions longuement son auteur : « L'ouverture à l'autre, les parcours transversaux, la transdisciplinarité, le travail théorique, la contestation de l'ordre en cours et la créativité conceptuelle, qui avaient fondé jusque là l'organisation des savoirs, sont désormais systématiquement rejetés au profit d'une nouvelle constellation : spécialisation extrême, ignorance des autres disciplines [et souvent, même, des autres savoirs spécialisés de sa propre discipline, SD], enquêtes de terrain étroites, empirisme radical, approbation positiviste à l'égard de ce qui est et répétition académique du passé » [p. 27]. Notons que c'est avec le souci de ne pas reproduire ce qu'il dénonce - une pensée à la gloire de l'individu, nominaliste, platement empiriste, faussement neutre d'un point de vue axiologique - que P. Michon se lance dans ce qui apparaît comme une contribution à la théorie de la démocratie. Mais que ne parviennent pas à penser les théories critiques au juste ? Oscillant entre deux visions du monde radicalement opposées - tantôt monde de liberté totale, tantôt monde d'oppression totale - elles sont incapables de saisir que c'est là l'expression des « deux faces [interdépendantes] de l'individuation », dont il s'agit de comprendre la « simultanéité » et la « succession » [p. 31]. Autrement dit, elles sont incapables de saisir les nouvelles formes qu'a prises le pouvoir dans un monde vécu comme univers de liberté totale pour l'individu. Pour restituer le plus fidèlement possible sa pensée, nous ne pourrons pas nous passer des définitions que P. Michon donne de l'individuation et de la notion de rythme qui l'accompagne. « Par individuation, écrit-il, j'entends l'ensemble des processus corporels, langagiers et sociaux par lesquels sont sans cesse produits et reproduits, augmentés et minorés, les individus singuliers (les individus observés dans leur singularité psychique) et collectifs (les groupes). [...] J'appellerai rythmes les configurations spécifiques de ces processus d'individuation » ; ce sont « des manières de produire et de distinguer des individus singuliers et collectifs » [p. 32]. Aujourd'hui, soutient P. Michon, « [le pouvoir] se joue avant tout dans l'organisation et le contrôle des rythmes des processus d'individuation, ainsi que dans les classements qu'ils produisent » [p. 32]. La première partie de l'ouvrage est consacrée à l'explicitation de sa notion d'individuation et la deuxième aux formes que prend le pouvoir aujourd'hui. Dans la troisième partie de l'ouvrage, P. Michon « aborde la question [à ses yeux] la plus difficile et la plus importante de toutes : celle de la plus ou moins grande qualité des rythmes de l'individuation et des divers pouvoirs qui s'y expriment » [p. 33]. Le pouvoir se joue dans les rythmes, selon P. Michon. Or, tous les exercices du pouvoir ne s'équivalent pas. C'est donc que tous les rythmes ne s'équivalent pas. C'est pourquoi, comprenons-nous, P. Michon considère ne pas pouvoir se dispenser de rechercher des critères éthiques qui lui permettront de distinguer les bons rythmes des mauvais, en quelque sorte. Enfin, une fois ces critères identifiés, il évalue la qualité des rythmes du « monde nouveau » qu'est le nôtre. Restituons rapidement chacune de ces parties (pour aider à la compréhension de l'ouvrage tout en suivant sa progression, nous avons repris le titre de chacune de ses parties et indiqué entre parenthèses la question qu'elle nous semble poser). Individuation (ou comment penser le processus de construction des sujets individuels et collectifs ?) Pour insister sur le fait que les rythmes s'inscrivent dans le temps, et que les individus singuliers et collectifs qu'ils produisent ont eux-mêmes une dimension historique, que leur identité est évolutive (un souci bien compréhensif de la part d'un historien) même si elle peut-être relativement stable, P. Michon recourt à une nouvelle notion : celle de fluement. Il précise ainsi sa notion de rythme en lui donnant une nouvelle définition : « J'appellerai rythme toute manière de fluer des individus et poserai que tout processus d'individuation est organisé de façon rythmique » [p. 42]. Il s'attache donc à comprendre comment le corps (le rapport à son corps, entre les corps), le langage et les rapports sociaux produisent les individus singuliers et collectifs [[12]1] Pour ce qui est de la question du corps, P. Michon mobilise Marcel Mauss - [13]son fameux article sur les techniques du corps - Norbert Elias - La civilisation des moeurs et La société de cour - et Michel Foucault - Surveiller et punir - pour rappeler l'idée au fond assez simple selon laquelle le rapport à son propre corps (jusque dans notre manière de marcher), et au corps d'autrui (pratiques sexuelles, danses etc.) est culturellement, historiquement, socialement marqué, et que cela participe de la construction des sujets. Il semble distinguer au moins deux manières de produire par les corps les sujets, deux « rythmes corporels » : l'une, rare, inscrit les corps dans un « schéma mécanique et binaire » [p. 54] ; on la retrouve idéaltyptiquement dans l'usine taylorienne ou fordiste ou encore à l'armée. L'autre, la plus fréquente, sort du modèle binaire et arithmétique classique » [ibid.]. Mais on n'en sait pas beaucoup plus. Passons aux « rythmes du langage » (ou encore fluement du langage ou discursivité). Le langage (les manières de s'exprimer, de parler etc.), soutient en substance P. Michon, participe à la construction des sujets, et rend compte de cette construction. Pour comprendre comment le langage peut participer à la construction des sujets, P. Michon s'appuie sur Victor Kemplerer - La langue du IIIème Reich. Carnets d'un philologue - qui rend compte de la « nazification du langage » [p. 55]. Pour saisir comment un langage peut rendre compte des sujets socialisés, il s'appuie sur notamment Walter Benjamin - son Charles Baudelaire, un poète lyrique à l'apogée du capitalisme - qui montre que le langage qu'emploie Baudelaire renvoie « à l'expérience abîmée des individus plongés dans la Grande Ville » [p. 58]. Enfin, les « rythmes du social ». Là aussi, les relations sociales sont rythmées, elles s'inscrivent dans une temporalité qui suit ses propres rythmes, qui façonnent les identités individuelles et collectives par conséquent variables en même temps que stables. Pour l'illustrer, P. Michon s'appuie une nouvelle fois sur M. Mauss (notamment) et son [14]« Essai sur les variations saisonnières des sociétés eskimos » qui l'été se dispersent et l'hiver se rassemblent et vivent en état d'effervescence, un peu comme les Kwakiutls. Ces variations des « rythmes du social » correspondent en fait à des « variations d'intensité des interactions » [p. 71]. Bref, voilà ce qui participe à la construction de l'identité, à la fois permanente et en mouvement, des sujets individuels et collectifs, à la construction de leur « âme » : nos rapports au corps, nos rapports entre les corps, notre langage, nos relations sociales, tout cela étant étroitement entrelacé : « Les processus d'individuation sont à la fois des phénomènes langagiers, corporels et sociaux, écrit P. Michon ; ils déploient simultanément une discursivité, une corporéité et une socialité - et c'est de l'entrecroisement de leurs rythmes qu'apparaît `l'âme' » [p.76]. La notion de rythme permet donc d'appréhender des manières historiquement construites de se déplacer, de parler, d'être en relation, qui construisent les identités des sujets individuels et collectifs. À ce titre, elle a une vertu heuristique. Mais P. Michon l'appréhende également comme « un concept politique et éthique » [p. 81]. Il distingue en effet deux types de rythme qui n'ont pas les mêmes effets éthiques et politiques. Un premier type de rythme produit des sujets individuels et collectifs qui se « renforcent » mutuellement. Un deuxième type produit des sujets individuels et collectifs qui jouent l'un contre l'autre : l'affirmation des premiers se fait aux dépens des deuxièmes ou inversement. P. Michon considère « qu'une éthique et une politique démocratiques peuvent se définir comme orientées vers la production de manière de fluer de la socialité, des corps et des langages (...) qui soient à la fois singulières et partageables » et toujours « réactualisables » [pp. 81-82]. Ainsi, P. Michon suggère que les sociétés démocratiques doivent s'orienter vers des rythmes du premier type. Pouvoir (ou comment la notion de rythme permet de penser la contrainte subie par les sujets dans un monde hors contrainte - ou du moins, qui se pense comme tel ?) Après avoir précisé comment ses notions d'individuation et de rythme permettent de comprendre les manières dont les sujets individuels et collectifs sont construits, P. Michon, aborde la question de la manière dont ces rythmes produisent du pouvoir, caractéristique de notre « nouveau monde ». D'abord, P. Michon situe sa manière de voir les choses sur le « marché des idées » : ses vues se distinguent de l'utilitarisme dominant, pour qui le pouvoir, assis sur la violence ou la contrainte qui l'euphémise, est orienté vers la satisfaction des intérêts des individus, et le Pouvoir, les institutions politiques, vers l'évitement de la déflagration de la société en raison de la lutte de tous contre tous. Or, cette manière de voir ne permet pas de saisir qu'aujourd'hui, le pouvoir - qu'il s'exerce à l'échelle individuelle ou institutionnelle - passe moins par la violence ou la contrainte que par une certaine « façon de pénétrer les corps-langages, d'organiser leurs manières de fluer et de déterminer ainsi leur individuation mouvante » [p. 93]. « Le pouvoir, écrit-il plus loin, s'est émancipé de la forme système (...), et s'appuie désormais moins sur sa capacité à assurer un ordre optimisé que sur un spectre de stratégies utilisant, au contraire, la fluidité même du monde - stratégies qui vont du contrôle souple et de la création des manières de fluer des corps-langages-groupes à l'utilisation plus ou moins délibérée du chaos, comme on le voit avec les États-Unis et le Royaume-Uni au Moyen-Orient » [p. 94-95]. Aujourd'hui, les personnes sont moins assujetties que les sujets sont produits. Pour penser cette nouvelle forme du pouvoir, il faut penser autrement le rapport du tout aux parties, s'émanciper tant des théories qui consacrent une autonomie totale des individus, de celles qui en font de simples marionnettes du système, et rechercher une voie moyenne à l'instar des « théories intermédiaires » - comme celles de Elias, Bourdieu, Foucault, Touraine, Habermas, Honneth, Giddens, Bauman, Caillé, Thévenot, Boltanski. [p. 101 et suiv.] qui tentent de « penser l'un par l'autre ce qu'elles conçoivent comme les deux côtés de la vie socio-politique : les `systèmes' et les `interactions entre les individus' » [p. 101] ce par quoi il faut comprendre « un rapport réel entre des pôles dont l'existence ne se conçoit que dans leur interdépendance et leurs échanges incessants » [p. 102]. De ce point de vue « le pouvoir constitue moins un simple état de fait que le milieu et le moyen à travers lequel se construisent les individus singuliers et collectifs, les classements et les hiérarchies qui les relient les uns aux autres, ainsi que les effets de domination qui apparaissent au sein de ces classements et de ces hiérarchies » [p. 103-104]. Néanmoins, parce qu' « elles n'ont pas prêté attention à l'organisation temporelle [...] de ces interactions » [p. 106], elles manquent les rythmes du politique où se joue la question du pouvoir. P. Michon propose alors une définition du pouvoir comme « médium rythmique » [p. 107], c'est-à-dire, comprenons-nous, comme processus historique de production et de contrôle des personnes et des groupes par imposition d'un rythme « de toutes choses : de vie, de temps, de pensée, de discours » comme il l'écrit plus loin [p. 129]. Compte tenu de cette nouvelle modalité du pouvoir, reste à savoir quel critère on pourrait se donner pour juger que notre démocratie se porte bien, ou pas ? Démocratie (ou quel(s) critère(s) se donner pour évaluer la démocratie moderne ?) Ou encore : que doit-on faire pour que dans notre nouveau monde où le pouvoir s'exerce par un contrôle sur le processus de construction des corps-langages-groupes, notre démocratie se porte bien ? Quelle place pour l'État ? [[15]2] Lutter contre l'État comme le pensait Pierre Clastres ? P. Michon ne le croit pas : outre que P. Clastres aurait perdu « la conscience du temps et de l'histoire », « le modèle politique et éthique arythmique qu'[il] propose [est] assez peu offensif vis-à-vis de la réalité du capitalisme » [p. 123]. Bref, la définition d'une « démocratie comme arythmie » ne convient pas. Mieux vaut partir de Roland Barthes, selon P. Michon, et plus précisément de la présentation qu'il fait des collectivités religieuses « idiorrythmiques » qui vivaient dans les déserts syriens et égyptiens « où chaque moine a (...) licence de mener son rythme particulier de vie » [p. 126]. D'abord parce qu'elles sont parvenues à éviter les excès du repli sur soi et de la fusion communautaire, de la « solitude et [du] coenobium » [p. 127], dessinant selon lui une sorte de « socialisme qui n'aurait pas abandonné l'individu » [pp. 127-128]. Ensuite parce qu'en se retirant dans le désert, elles sont parvenues à échapper au rythme d'un pouvoir supérieur. Bref, c'est plutôt dans cette société idiorrythmique, i.e. qui se fixe à elle-même son propre rythme, qu'il voit - provisoirement du moins - un idéal type de la démocratie. Néanmoins, quand P. Clastres pense l'État sans penser le rythme, R. Barthes pense le rythme sans penser l'État [p. 140]. Sur le chemin de sa quête d'une éthique et d'une politique du rythme, P. Michon se tourne alors vers Marcel Mauss. Non seulement les descriptions que ce dernier fait de la vie saisonnière des sociétés archaïques rendent bien compte du caractère rythmique de ces sociétés, mais le potlatch illustre de manière spectaculaire à ses yeux la « nature rythmique du politique » [p. 142], au sens où c'est dans ce moment que se « redéfini[ssent] périodiquement le statut et l'identité des groupes et des personnes dans le système tribal » [p. 142]. Il retient de M. Mauss et des travaux de Marcel Granet sur la Chine que la société n'est pas contre l'État comme le pense P. Clastres, que l'État n'est pas contre la société comme le pense R. Barthes. « Leurs relations, pense-t-il, doivent [plutôt] être évaluées en fonction des interactions historiques, toujours mouvantes, entre les rythmes imposés par l'État aux corps-langages-groupes et ceux imposés à celui-là par ceux-ci. [...] L'État n'est pas nécessairement « l'ennemi » de la société : il peut certes devenir tyrannique et informer les processus d'individuation à son profit, mais il peut tout aussi bien devenir l'instrument grâce auquel la société peut chercher à assurer une individuation de bonne qualité » [p. 147]. Bref, l'État a toute sa place dans une démocratie idiorrythmique. Encore faut-il qu'il ne dénie pas son rythme propre, sans l'imposer pour autant à la société. « Les différents projets démocratiques qui sont au apparus vers la fin de cette période apparaissent comme autant de tentatives politiques pour réintroduire dans l'État, devenu permanent, une temporalité tenant compte des rythmes propres de la société » [p. 154]. Voilà ce qu'il nous faut : « Rerythmer le corps-langage arythmique de l'État moderne, lui redonner la temporalité et la multiplicité interne dont il s'est débarrassé, réhistoriciser une forme de pouvoir qui se prétend hors de l'histoire » [p. 154]. Les nouveaux rythmes d'un monde fluide Mais notre démocratie ne s'est-elle pas édifiée sur la maîtrise par « le peuple » de la discipline exercée par l'État sur les corps et sur les esprits ? Sans doute, répond P. Michon, mais de nouvelles formes rythmiques se sont imposées « aux multitudes » [[16]3], peut-être plus fortes qu'auparavant. C'est toute l'ambivalence de notre modernité démocratique. « Tout s'est [...] passé comme si l'apparition des libertés civiles puis la mutation démocratique de l'État n'avaient pu se faire qu'au prix de la diffusion de nouveaux modes rythmiques d'individuation fondés sur un assujettissement renforcé et de nouvelles formes d'exclusion » [p. 194]. En quoi consiste plus précisément la nouveauté de nos « formes de production des individus singuliers et collectifs », déjà rapidement évoqués ? C'est qu'ils sont « beaucoup plus fluides, en tout cas libérés de toute métrique, sinon de toute discipline » [p. 211]. S'appuyant sur Gabriel Tarde, P. Michon précise qu'elles sont le fait du progrès technique dans l'imprimerie, la communication et les transports, qui permet de produire des groupes 1) sans que leurs membres se rassemblent physiquement (pensons à l'internet), 2) sur la seule base d'idées communes (chacun pouvant se reconnaître dans un « courant d'opinion »), et 3) « en perpétuelle métamorphose » (c'est ce qui semble leur conférer un caractère fluide) [p. 215] ; groupes d'individus, « myriades d'atomes » séparés mais non isolés (qui prennent le visage du « public »), qui « imposent une fluidité de plus en plus grande aux groupements institutionnalisés traditionnels et [qui] transforment, tendanciellement, les sociétés modernes en société de masse » [p. 215]. Les rythmes d'individuation sont encore plus fluides en ce sens que, comme l'avait relevé Georg Simmel que P. Michon mobilise aussi - en même temps qu'ils sont désormais en connexion permanente, inscrits dans une « temporalité continue, sans halte ni repos » [p. 220], ils peuvent choisir leurs propres rythmes de vie. D'un point de vue simmelien, la monnaie y a fait bien sûr pour beaucoup. Désormais dominante, cette manière, fluide, de produire des individus singuliers et collectifs est elle-même ambivalente. G. Tarde, par exemple, est plutôt sensible aux dangers pour la démocratie que porte la possibilité de produire un « public », une « opinion publique », si celle ci devait être instrumentalisée par des puissances animées par une volonté d'assujettissement. Simmel, lui, est plus sensible aux possibilités accrues pour les individus de choisir leurs propres rythmes. Il voit davantage le danger dans le refus de cette fluidification du rythme, et dans l'aspiration au retour à des rythmes plus disciplinés et cadencés. Avec G. Tarde et G. Simmel, on voit clairement que le rythme, la manière dont les hommes se produisent, dont les corps-langages-groupes se construisent, n'est pas sans incidences politiques. Il y a donc lieu de les distinguer selon leur « qualité éthique et politique » [p. 232]. P. Michon, inspiré par Ossip Mandesltam [[17]4], se donne alors un indicateur de la mesure de cette qualité des rythmes : la « rythmicité ». Et vient une définition rythmique des groupements démocratiques : ils sont « dotés d'une rythmicité forte. Ils se caractérisent par leur multiplicité interne et par le fait qu'ils permettent aux contradictions et aux conflits de s'exprimer sans que ceux-ci ne débouchent sur la suppression de l'un des termes antagonistes, assurant ainsi l'une par l'autre la promotion du singulier et celle des groupes auxquels il appartient. » [p. 233]. Mais qu'en est-il du rythme, de la manière dont se produisent les corps-langages-groupes censée porter ces groupements démocratiques ? On n'en sait trop rien sinon qu'il est lui-même traversé par cette exigence paradoxale de fabriquer du commun et du singulier, de la cohésion et du conflit. On en sait davantage sur le rythme des groupements à rythmicité faible, dont la foule et les « sociétés de masses » sont les idéaux-types : ils « sont très souvent marqués par des techniques rythmiques de type métriques - [...] manifestations, meetings politiques, matchs de football -, proches de la cadence, de la simple alternance binaire [...] ou mécanique - [...] parades militaires, sparkiades et autres spectacles de masse » [p. 233-234]. Mais les rythmes à rythmicité faible peuvent être encore « flous, très peu accentués et à basse tension interne » [p. 234], comme on peut en rencontrer dans les entreprises aujourd'hui, « rythmes aussi peu favorables à l'individuation que les rythmes binaires et disciplinaires qu'ils ont remplacés » [p . 234], typiques des organisations tayloristes ou de l'armée. À la recherche des formes justes d'un monde fluidifié Ce qu'il faut donc, c'est rechercher « les formes justes d'un monde fluidifié » [p. 237]. Il se tourne alors vers ce qu'il appelle « l'utopie maussienne » [p. 233], qui consiste à voir la morale du don - de la triple obligation de donner, recevoir et rendre - tempérer, contenir, celle de l'intérêt, aujourd'hui dominante, et qui revient selon lui à « assurer la maximisation de leur individuation [celle des individus singuliers et collectifs] par une mise en tension du soi et du collectif » [p. 238]. Car, plus qu'une simple transaction, P. Michon voit dans le don archaïque, agonistique, un rythme particulier, « l'occasion d'une réunion et d'une mise en branle périodiques et organisées des corps-langages, c'est à dire de la production d' `âmes' par des techniques rythmiques particulières » [p. 239]. Voyant chez M. Mauss une définition rythmique du don - comme forme de production des corps-langages-groupes - susceptible d'étayer un projet éthico-politique, P. Michon la considère comme un « point de départ » [p. 241] pour réfléchir à l'énoncé de critères qui permettent de distinguer les bons des mauvais rythmes. Il déduit des réflexions de Mauss sur la circulation et la fortification de l'âme des peuples au cours des potlatchs que « toute politique démocratique consistera [...] à rechercher, non pas seulement, comme le pensaient Georg Simmel et R. Barthes, une idiorrythmie, une simple liberté rythmique personnelle indépendante des rythmes collectifs, mais une eurythmie simultanément corporelle, discursive et sociale - une maximisation de l'individualisation singulière et collective » [p. 242]. Au regard de la démocratie, le seul bon rythme est celui qui maximise la production des individus singuliers et collectifs... Néanmoins, M. Mauss ne parvient pas à nous fournir les critères qui permettraient de distinguer les bons [[18]5] des mauvais rythmes d'individuation, parce que, dans ses conclusions de morale et de politique de son célèbre Essai, il développe une « conception pacifiste et consensualiste de la démocratie, et ne tient aucun compte du rôle que joue précisément le conflit dans [les] processus d'individuation » [p. 248]. P. Michon voit davantage le bon rythme de l'individuation démocratique chez les Nuer tels qu'ils sont décrits par Evans-Pritchard, qui alternent successivement « don et refus du don, l'alliance et la lutte » [p. 252]. Ainsi, « tout en restant disponibles à la générosité et à l'engagement solidaire, [ils] jouissent pleinement de leur autonomie. [...] Les Nuer ont inventé un système, poursuit plus loin P. Michon, dans lequel, loin de s'opposer, solidarité et individualité se renforcent l'une l'autre » [ibid.]. Bref, le bon rythme d'individuation démocratique est celui qui repose sur « l'alternance du conflit et de l'alliance ». [p. 252], ou plus précisément, il s'opère lorsque « l'alliance et le conflit alternent tout en étant compris sans cesse l'un dans l'autre, un peu comme, dans la pensée chinoise, le yin et le yang se succèdent tout en impliquant déjà chaque fois leur opposé »[p. 254]. Ou encore, le bon rythme d'individuation démocratique est celui qui permet de « considérer nos adversaires comme des alliés en puissance, mais aussi ceux qui sont nos alliés comme de potentiels adversaires » [p. 254]. Ce qui le conduit à défendre une définition de la démocratie comme « eurythmie de l'usage de la violence » [p. 254]. Seul ce rythme « maximise » l'individuation des individus singuliers et collectifs, permet l'affirmation la plus intense des « Je » et du « Nous ». [p. 255] [[19]6]. De ce point de vue, le système économique le plus juste est donc celui qui fait autant de place à l'adversité qu'à l'alliance. Il le voit dans une sorte de « mixture » qui organiserait l'adversité par la concurrence marchande et la reconnaissance de la propriété privée, et l'alliance par l'organisation collective de la production et une certaine « mise en commun de la propriété » [p. 274]. Il en vient ainsi à définir la démocratie, « non seulement comme une eurythmie de l'usage de la violence, mais comme une eurythmie des usages de la propriété et du marché » [ibid.], dont la rythmicité est donc forte. C'est à l'aune de ce critère du bon rythme d'individuation démocratique qu'il évalue la qualité des rythmes du « monde nouveau » qu'est le nôtre. Capitalisme mondialisé (notre société capitaliste est-elle bien démocratique ? Que faire pour la rendre plus démocratique ?) Le rythme du capitalisme s'est modifié. Cadencé, binaire, métrique dans les organisations tayloristes, il s'est depuis une trentaine d'années fluidifié dans les organisations dites flexibles, dont l'objectif est de répondre au mieux à la demande des clients (en vue de maximiser le profit). Jouant la carte de la responsabilisation individuelle, des horaires variables, de l'accroissement de la mobilité professionnelle, ces organisations développent des rythmes d'individuation plus lâches, moins métriques et peuvent donner l'impression qu'elles libèrent les formes de vie dans le travail. Mais, s'appuyant sur l'ouvrage de Richard Senett, Le travail en miettes (1998), P. Michon montre qu'il n'en est rien. Confrontés à des objectifs de court terme quasiment inatteignables, à un temps hors travail qu'ils ne maîtrisent même plus, à des parcours professionnels bigarrés, les individus subissent une nouvelle forme d'assujettissement. Et l'individualisation à outrance du rapport au travail a sapé « les liens de confiance et d'engagement mutuels » constitutifs de tout groupe [p 292]. On a désormais affaire à des individus singuliers et collectifs à faible rythmicité. Notre monde est flexible, mais il est encore médiatique. On assiste à un développement sans précédent des moyens de communication, qui, lui aussi, à l'instar de la flexibilité, pourrait faire croire à une libération des formes d'individuation ici langagière. Mais il n'en est rien. Le discours est aseptisé, consensuel, l'information « désincarnée et dépolitisée ». Bref, qu'il s'agisse de nos rapports au langage, au corps, aux autres, nous vivons dans un monde à faible rythmicité, i.e. dont ni l'individu, ni le collectif ne sortent gagnants. « Ainsi, note P. Michon, les démocraties libérales, qui se voyaient jusque là comme des machines à produire des individus émancipés, tendent-elles à devenir aujourd'hui d'immenses dispositifs qui assurent, à travers une fluidification généralisée des corporéités, des discursivités, et des socialités, la multiplication d'individus faibles et flottants, constamment happés par les besoins de la production et de l'échange marchand et les interactions dans lesquels ils sont pris » [p. 307]. Pour éviter les « tempêtes » dont ce monde est porteur, il est urgent pour P. Michon que nous retrouvions de nouveaux rythmes d'individuation langagière, corporelle et sociale, « à partir des capacités des individus à s'associer au niveau local, voire translocal » [p. 311], « dans l`expérience de corps-langage-groupe en lutte » [p. 312]. Mais cela ne pourra pas se faire, selon lui, sans « toucher aux rapports de production et à la répartition des revenus » [ibid.], et donc sans une « puissance supérieure à celle des entreprises et du marché » [ibid.], qui pourrait-être l'Europe, en tant qu'entité politique. DISCUSSION Que penser de cet ouvrage ? À vrai dire, il nous laisse une curieuse impression. Les efforts que déploie P. Michon pour concevoir un appareillage conceptuel afin de saisir l'état de notre démocratie moderne forcent le respect. On est là, se dit-on, en présence d'un auteur qui développe sa propre pensée, en discussion permanente avec des auteurs d'horizons multiples, de surcroît d'une manière fort rigoureuse, puisqu'il ne s'épargne aucun effort pour définir les notions qu'il crée. La progression de l'ouvrage elle-même laisse apparaître un auteur méthodique et prudent dans ses diagnostics : ce n'est qu'après avoir défini ce qu'il appelle individuation, explicité ses rapports avec le pouvoir, qu'il se permet, chaussé des lunettes qu'il vient de se fabriquer, de porter un diagnostic sur notre démocratie. Enfin, on sent bien, intuitivement, qu'avec sa notion de rythme, il pointe sur une dimension de la réalité sociale très largement ignorée par les spécialistes en sciences sociales [[20]7]mais qui pourrait bien être importante si, comme il le soutient, c'est dans les rythmes que se jouent les relations de pouvoir. De l'usage du concept Mais c'est ce même appareillage conceptuel qui nous laisse perplexe. Créé de toutes pièces par P. Michon, il est bien difficile à saisir malgré les efforts qu'il fournit pour définir les notions employées. Individuation, rythme, arythmie, idiorrythmie, eurythmie, fluement (finalement très peu utilisé), rythmicité (forte et faible) : tout cela pourrait décourager le lecteur pressé (et a rendu cette recension bien difficile). À ce propos d'ailleurs, les ralliements qu'il opère de certains auteurs à la cause de l'individuation et du rythme paraissent un peu forcés ! Présenter M. Foucault comme l'auteur d'une « histoire des rythmes d'individuation » [p. 195], et M. Mauss comme le découvreur de la notion d'eurythmie [p. 243, cf. supra] est pour le moins assez peu usuel. Si ces points de vue, rapidement glissés, pouvaient aider à la compréhension des idées de P. Michon, ils pourraient se justifier. Mais pour notre part, nous ne pouvons pas dire qu'ils nous aient beaucoup aidés. Bien sûr, son langage se comprend au regard des défaillances qu'il identifie chez les auteurs qui appréhendent notre démocratie, et qui résident justement, selon lui, dans leur incapacité à saisir ce qu'il appelle individuation et rythme pourtant au coeur des relations de pouvoir selon lui. Nous sommes tout simplement, de son point de vue, en présence d'« une réalité nouvelle » qui demande « des dispositifs théoriques, eux aussi, totalement nouveaux » (nous soulignons) [p. 30]. Par ailleurs, P. Michon a suffisamment critiqué l'intelligentsia française pour son manque de créativité intellectuelle pour ne pas se faire lui-même inventif... Néanmoins, la nouveauté est-elle toujours un indice de la pertinence ? Ne peut-on rien apprendre de ceux qui nous ont précédés ? Qu'y a-t-il de honteux à s'inscrire dans une tradition de pensée ? Soyons sévère (et un peu injuste, car P. Michon s'efforce, sans être toujours très convaincant, de rallier des prédécesseurs plus ou moins connus à ses concepts) : n'y a-t-il pas dans cette posture de créativité radicale, quasiment nihiliste, quelque chose du mythe de l'autoréalisation de soi emblématique de notre époque et qu'il condamne lui-même ? Toujours est-il que nous nous demandons si P. Michon n'aurait pas pu, tout de même, dire les choses plus simplement. Que dit-il au juste ? Que nos identités se construisent dans nos relations aux autres, qui engagent notre corps et notre langage. Que ces relations peuvent être placées sous des registres différents (elles peuvent être rythmées différemment), qu'elles peuvent être notamment plus ou moins contraintes (rythme cadencé, métré, binaire etc.) ou libres (rythme fluide). Que dans ces relations se jouent des relations de pouvoir sur les personnes (pouvoir de contrainte, parfois médiatisé par le savoir), et, par-là, la capacité pour elles de se réaliser de manière autonome, ou pas (pouvoir d'agir). Dans une première phase du capitalisme, un réel pouvoir sur les personnes s'exerçait via l'organisation de relations sociales contraignantes qui engageaient leurs corps et leurs langages, et qui freinaient leur pouvoir d'agir, individuellement et collectivement. L'organisation tayloriste en constitue l'idéal-type. Aujourd'hui, apparemment délivrées des contraintes systémiques dans leurs relations aux autres, visiblement libérées du pouvoir qui s'exerçait sur elles-mêmes (l'organisation du travail flexible faisant appel à l'initiative et à la responsabilité de ses salariés joue ici comme idéal-type), les personnes n'ont pour autant pas gagné en pouvoir d'agir, ni individuellement, ni collectivement. Le pouvoir exercé sur les personnes prend paradoxalement le canal de l'exhortation de leur pouvoir d'agir (qui se réduit bien souvent à celui de produire et de consommer). Si bien que notre démocratie n'est pas tout à fait démocratique, « étant entendu » qu'une bonne démocratie est celle qui renforce le pouvoir d'agir des individus et des groupes. D'une certaine manière, même, notre société est moins démocratique qu'auparavant car elle paraît faussement l'être plus, alors qu'autrefois elle paraissait bien ne pas l'être assez. Ce que nous pouvons en déduire, c'est qu'il nous faut cultiver des relations sociales, créer des institutions qui soient porteuses de ce pouvoir d'agir individuellement et collectivement, qui nous permettent de retrouver la maîtrise de nos destins à la fois individuels et collectifs. Nous aimerions savoir ce que ce résumé omet d'essentiel que l'emploi de ses notions d'individuation, de rythme, de fluement, d'arythmie, d'idiorrythmie etc. auraient fait apparaître. Sur la démocratie Puisque l'ouvrage se présente comme une contribution à la théorie de la démocratie, attardons-nous maintenant sur cette contribution, et d'abord sur son positionnement sur le marché des idées. Pour le dire vite, P. Michon souhaite se distinguer à la fois de l'individualisme méthodologique, qui ne voit que des individus libres, et du holisme qui ne voit que des individus contraints. Il leur reproche au fond leur incapacité à saisir que la contrainte prend aujourd'hui les allures de la liberté. Son souci est bien de se doter de concepts qui permettent de comprendre ce paradoxe. Il le tente dans le cadre d'un interactionnisme ou d'un relationnisme qui se laisse percevoir dans sa définition de l'individuation, comme processus de construction des identités et des normes dans le cadre de relations qui engagent le corps et le langage (d'ailleurs, qu'est-ce donc que l'individuation ainsi traduite - nous espérons ne pas trahir la pensée de P. Michon - sinon ce que les sociologues appellent socialisation ?). De ce point de vue, la démarche nous paraît très cohérente. P. Michon dit encore vouloir se distinguer des théories utilitaristes du pouvoir (notons d'ailleurs qu'il situe dans l'utilitarisme l'origine de la fluidification de notre monde [[21]8], sans qu'on sache s'il s'agit de l'utilitarisme en tant que pratique ou en tant que théorie, et sans qu'il nous dise véritablement en quoi il serait à l'origine de la fluidification de notre monde). Il dit en effet ne pas souscrire aux théories qui définissent le pouvoir comme pouvoir de contrainte en vue de satisfaire ses intérêts personnels, et qui envisagent le Pouvoir comme l'ensemble des institutions visant l'évitement la déflagration sociale dans la guerre de tous contre tous. De fait, ce n'est pas ainsi qu'il considère le pouvoir puisque, pour lui, le pouvoir de contrainte et d'assujettissement s'exerce moins qu'il ne se joue dans les manières dont les relations se construisent en engageant le corps et le langage. Cela lui permet de faire apparaître que des relations placées sous le signe de la liberté, ou du moins de l'absence apparente de contraintes (de la fluidité) peuvent au final s'avérer très contraignantes ; autrement dit, qu'un réel pouvoir de contrainte peut se manifester sans qu'une volonté quelconque d'assujettissement soit véritablement exprimée. Situation qui caractérise notre société démocratique contemporaine selon lui (si nous avons bien compris). De ce point de vue, pas de doute, P.Michon ne s'inscrit pas dans la tradition utilitariste. Quoique... plaçant par ailleurs le pouvoir sous le signe de « stratégies qui vont du contrôle souple et de la création plus ou moins délibérée du chaos » [p. 94-95 par exemple, cf. supra], on peut se demander quelle place il accorde à l'intérêt calculé dans cette affaire, et donc quel rapport sa conception du pouvoir entretient avec l'utilitarisme ? Concernant la relation de sa conception de la démocratie avec l'utilitarisme, les choses sont beaucoup plus ambiguës. En effet, il définit assez curieusement la démocratie comme le régime ou l'état social plutôt (P. Michon ne se prononce pas trop à ce sujet) qui « maximise » l'individuation : « Toute politique démocratique consistera, écrit-il, [...] à rechercher [...] une eurythmie simultanément corporelle, discursive et sociale - une maximisation de l'individuation singulière et collective » [p. 242]. Nous ne comprenons tout simplement pas qui maximise, qui calcule au mieux quoi, ni en en vue de quoi ! Reprenons sa définition de l'individuation : que signifie calculer « un processus corporel, langagier et social par lesquels sont sans cesse produits et reproduits les individus singuliers et collectifs » ? À vrai dire, la question « en vue de quoi il faut maximiser l'individuation », pourrait trouver sa réponse quelques lignes plus haut, quand P. Michon relève que dans un des derniers passages de l' [22]« Essai sur le don » , M. Mauss situe le secret du bonheur dans une vie bien rythmée, alternant les moments de travail et de repos, de solitude et de vie sociale, d'accumulation des richesses et de dépenses généreuses. Voilà donc ce qu'aurait en vue une politique véritablement démocratique, qui viserait la maximisation de l'individuation : le bonheur de tous et de chacun (manifestement mesurables et calculables). Ainsi placée sous le signe du calcul (maximisateur), du bonheur, du plus grand bonheur, et d'un grand calculateur, une telle conception de la démocratie nous semble bien s'inscrire dans la tradition utilitariste. D'ailleurs, nous nous demandons vraiment si les communautés religieuses syriennes qui représentent pour lui un bon idéal-type de la bonne démocratie conduisaient une politique de maximisation de l'individuation ! À moins que par maximisation il ne faille pas comprendre maximisation, c'est à dire calcul... Nous avons tendance à penser en effet que cette expression est malheureuse, et que P. Michon est davantage spinoziste que benthamien, car il nous semble que pour lui, une démocratie s'évalue non pas par le bonheur de ses membres, mais par la « puissance d'agir » de tous et de chacun [[23]9]. Enfin, le critère qu'il se donne pour identifier un groupement démocratique nous semble très largement autoréférentiel. En effet, qu'est-ce qu'un groupement démocratique pour P. Michon ? Un groupement dont la rythmicité est forte. Mais la caractéristique qu'il donne d'un groupe dont la rythmicité est forte n'est rien d'autre que celle d'un groupement démocratique, i.e. qui sait cultiver le conflit dans les limites de l'amitié. Nous aurions aimé qu'il précise plutôt sous quel registre il place une telle relation...à la fois teintée d'agôn et de philia... Ce qui nous amène à M. Mauss. Sur Marcel Mauss Ce que P. Michon souligne en s'appuyant sur M. Mauss, c'est combien la vie de certains peuples archaïques est saisonnière, ou encore, rythmée. Les Eskimos comme les Kwakiutls, par exemple, se dispersent l'été, période d'accumulation, et se retrouvent l'hiver, période d'effervescence sociale, de dépenses généreuses, d'invitations mutuelles, bref, de dons en tous genres. P. Michon donne au rythme de la vie sociale une importance qu'elle n'a généralement pas chez les commentateurs de M. Mauss. Il nous alerte ainsi sur les rythmes de nos propres vies sociales, et en particulier, sur « la nature rythmique du politique » [p. 142]. À mieux y réfléchir, les dons eux-mêmes obéissent en effet à des rythmes propres qui leur sont constitutifs : il y a des moments pour donner, de même qu'il y a des moments pour ne pas donner, et la spirale du don elle-même - celle de la triple obligation de donner, recevoir et rendre plus - obéit bien à un rythme (à trois temps) plus ou moins obligé. Si ces rythmes ne sont pas respectés, si l'on donne mal à propos, à contre-temps, si l'on rend trop rapidement, ou encore si le temps du don est réduit à presque rien ou cantonné à la sphère privée, on saisit bien que cela puisse compromettre les alliances et la vie sociale elle-même. On comprend mieux ainsi en quoi les rythmes de nos vies sociales ne sont pas sans effets éthiques et politiques. C'est un véritable chantier qu'ouvre ainsi P. Michon, qui mérite à nos yeux que les MAUSSiens, entre autres, s'y penchent davantage qu'ils ont pu le faire. D'autant que la démarche de P. Michon, qui s'efforce de déduire de ses réflexions socio-anthropologiques des conclusions de morale et de politique, s'inscrit pleinement dans une démarche maussienne. D'ailleurs, les conclusions de politiques économiques auxquelles aboutit P. Michon font étonnement écho aux positions politiques de M. Mauss, quand ce dernier plaide pour une « mixture » de capitalisme et de socialisme, de propriété privée et de propriété collective, de marché et de solidarité etc. Mixture qui, tout en étant attentive à la dimension collective de nos existences, n'en oublierait pas pour autant que les individus ont des aspirations singulières, pas moins légitimes que les aspirations collectives. En fait, on a chez M. Mauss le « socialisme qui n'aurait pas abandonné l'individu » [pp. 127-128] cher à R. Barthes et auquel semble sensible P. Michon. Pour autant, et ce n'est pas que nous voulions défendre M. Mauss à tout prix, nous ne partageons pas toujours les lectures qu'en fait P. Michon. Par exemple, nous avons du mal à le suivre quand il soutient que M. Mauss ne parvient tout simplement pas à penser l'histoire. Les considérations de M. Mauss dans son « Essai sur le don », « conservent, en dépit de tout, écrit P. Michon, une attache à un principe ultime de stabilité et d'atemporalité » [p. 248]. Vraiment, nous ne voyons pas en quoi. « L'Essai sur le don » est une vaste épopée du don ! Nous avons encore du mal à suivre P. Michon quand il parle « d'utopie maussienne », car les positions politiques de M. Mauss sont tout sauf utopiques. Le socialisme démocratique et associationniste qu'il défend n'est pas à rêver. Il est déjà en partie advenu, par et dans les coopératives de consommation notamment. Il a moins à être inventé qu'à être encouragé. M. Mauss n'est pas un utopiste. Il est même bien conscient de l'écart qui existe entre le possible et le souhaitable, et ne plaide que pour le possible, mais tout le possible, en direction du souhaitable. C'est un possibiliste [[24]10]. De la même manière, nous ne le suivons pas quand il soutient que M. Mauss « garde une conception pacifiste et consensualiste de la démocratie » [ibid.]. Il suffit de mettre en rapport son « Essai sur le don » et sa critique du bolchevisme, écrits sensiblement au même moment, et pour voir combien la conception maussienne de la démocratie est agonistique, et pour comprendre qu'elle est ancrée, justement, sur « le roc de la morale éternelle » qu'est le don agonistique selon M. Mauss. La définition que P. Michon donne de la démocratie comme état social qui fait toute leur place à la fois à l'alliance et au conflit, qui se contiennent l'un l'autre, le conflit évitant à l'alliance de basculer dans la fusion et l'alliance permettant au conflit de ne pas sombrer dans la déflagration, nous semble très maussienne. Elle pourrait-même trouver son fondement anthropologique dans le don agonistique, qui présente exactement la caractéristique que P. Michon prête à la démocratie. D'ailleurs, la définition qu'il donne de la démocratie comme eurythmie rejoint tout à fait la voie du milieu éthique et politique qui est celle de M. Mauss [[25]11]. Finalement, si nous avions à écrire la question que se pose P. Michon et la réponse qu'il y apporte, sans recourir à ses concepts parfois difficiles d'accès, nous les formulerions ainsi : « Que pouvons-nous faire pour retrouver notre autonomie dans un monde où le pouvoir de contrainte sur les personnes s'exerce non plus directement mais via d'invisibles processus qui façonnent leurs manières de se parler, de se mouvoir et de se lier ? Commencer par expérimenter des manières propres de nous parler, de nous mouvoir, de nous lier, qui nous permettent de retrouver la maîtrise de nos vies individuelles et collectives ». Ou, encore plus brièvement, forcément appauvrissant, et en reprenant sa métaphore musicale : « Que faire dans un monde où nous sommes tous emportés par une cadence infernale qui nous oppresse et nous opprime ? Ne pas s'arrêter de jouer (voie a-rythmique), ne pas jouer seul dans son coin (voie idiorrythmique), mais simplement retrouver le bon rythme pour soi et pour tous ! (voie eurythmique) ». Malgré les réserves que nous avons pu émettre, le lecteur aura saisi que l'ouvrage de P. Michon donne véritablement à penser. Nous espérons qu'il retiendra l'attention d'un grand nombre et notamment des MAUSSiens, car il pointe sur une dimension de la vie sociale, son caractère rythmé, qu'ils ont finalement peu interrogée, alors qu'il se pourrait qu'elle ne soit pas sans effets éthico-politiques. Cela mérite bien un examen attentif. Bibliographie sommaire de Pascal Michon Michon, P., Éléments d'une histoire du sujet, Paris, Kimé, 1999 -- [26]Rythmes, pouvoir, mondialisation, PUF, 2005. Ouvrages en collaboration -- (avec E. Barjolle, G. Dessons, V. Fabbri), Avec Henri Meschonnic : Les gestes dans la voix, Rumeur des Ages, 2003. -- (avec G. Desson et S. Martin), Henri Meschonnic, la pensée et le poème, In Press, 2005. -- (avec Ph. Hauser, F. Carnevale, A. Brossat), Foucault dans tous ses éclats, L'Harmattan, 2005. On peut aussi retrouver P. Michon dans les numéros 25 [27]Malaise dans la démocratie , 26 [28]Alter-démocratie, Alter-économie et 28 [29]Penser la crise de l'école de La Revue du MAUSS semestrielle. [30]Pour commander les numéros Ici, un article paru dans le mensuel [31]Sciences Humaines en novembre 2005 __________________________________________________________________ Réponse de Pascal Michon Cher Sylvain, tout d'abord, je voudrais vous remercier de votre recension extrêmement scrupuleuse. C'est un réconfort de voir qu'il existe encore, dans nos corporations de sciences sociales, des lecteurs curieux. J'ai plus l'habitude des débats internes, dans l'entre-soi disciplinaire qui permet à la fois de facilement se comprendre et d'éviter de se frotter aux savoirs des autres disciplines. De nombreux lecteurs de mon livre précédent, par exemple, se sont arrêtés aux chapitres qui les « concernaient », passant du même coup à côté du mouvement de pensée qui les liaient les uns aux autres - les sociologues ont lu les sections sociologiques, les psy les sections psy, les littéraires les sections littéraires... Tout ce petit monde est resté chez soi et les vaches ont été bien gardées. J'ai aussi aimé la façon dont vous avez procédé, présentant, tout d'abord, le texte dans ses grandes lignes puis proposant, dans un deuxième temps, une lecture critique. C'est de très bonne méthode et je vous en remercie également, car cela donne à entendre aux lecteurs, sans interférences, une grande partie des enjeux de mon travail. Je vais me concentrer dans cette réponse sur ceux de ces enjeux que vous n'avez pu complètement traiter, soit parce qu'on ne peut tout dire dans une recension, soit parce qu'il reste toujours des angles moins bien éclairés quel que soit le point de vue que l'on adopte. 1. Mon livre est un essai. Bien qu'il tente, comme vous le remarquez, de construire méthodiquement ses concepts à partir du matériel analytique disponible, il ne prétend pas répondre à tous les problèmes qui se posent, ni fournir une théorie complète de son objet : les rythmes de l'individuation singulière et collective. Il voudrait juste faire émerger celui-ci dans la conscience scientifique. Si cet objectif était atteint, cela me suffirait grandement. Mon livre constitue plus une proposition de recherche, l'esquisse d'un programme de travail, qu'une réponse globalisante qui donnerait une clé pour toutes les serrures contemporaines. On m'a déjà reproché cette « ambition », comme vous dîtes, ou même le côté « totalisant » de ma démarche. À cela je réponds habituellement : 1. que nous ne pouvons plus nous satisfaire, de par la nature même du nouveau monde dans lequel nous sommes entrés, de déclarations d'intention concernant la transdisciplinarité, il nous faut la mettre en pratique activement et individuellement (c'est-à-dire pas seulement par une juxtaposition de spécialistes) car aucune discipline ne peut, encore plus aujourd'hui qu'hier, comprendre à elle seule ce qui est train d'émerger. Mauss, qui était passé à travers une période historique par bien des points semblables à la nôtre, l'avait d'ailleurs bien compris : « C'est aux confins des sciences, à leurs bords extérieurs, aussi souvent qu'à leurs principes, qu'à leur noyau et à leur centre que se font leurs progrès » (« Rapports réels et pratiques de la psychologie et de la sociologie », 1924) ; 2. que les sciences sociales ne peuvent progresser que par un déplacement radical de point de vue. Je milite, pour cette raison, comme Alain Caillé, en faveur d'un changement de paradigme. En simplifiant outrageusement, on peut dire qu'après l'affaissement des paradigmes structuralistes et systémistes, l'individualisme méthodologique, sous différentes formes, a pris le dessus. Or, cette mutation n'a pas apporté les résultats escomptés. En fait, ni l'un ni l'autre de ces paradigmes ne peut rendre compte de la période présente. Il est vrai qu'un certain nombre de « théories intermédiaires » ou « centristes » dans la classification de Margaret Archer, (Elias, Bourdieu, Foucault, Touraine, Habermas, Giddens, Bauman, Caillé, Boltanski, Thévenot, entre autres) ont essayé, partant du même constat, de dépasser les dualismes traditionnels des sciences sociales. Mais elles connaissent aujourd'hui des ratés qui tiennent, me semble-t-il, essentiellement à leur difficulté à conjuguer primat de la temporalité, éthique et politique. D'où la nécessité d'un nouveau modèle général - comme celui que fournit le rythme - pour relancer la réflexion ; 3. qu'on confond souvent, de manière polémique, totalisation et puissance d'un concept. Le concept de rythme n'est pas globalisant ou totalisant, il possède tout simplement une puissance que j'essaie, avec mes moyens, d'explorer. C'est cette puissance de problématisation nouvelle qui dérange les habitudes de pensée et les partages du territoire institutionnel qui leur sont liés - et qui explique ces caricatures absurdes qui me sont parfois opposées. 2. Mon livre porte sur la question de l'individuation singulière et collective. Pour des raisons de précision et pour ne pas embrouiller l'exposé, j'ai expressément laissé de côté la question du ou des « sujets ». D'où un certain flou dans votre présentation qui confond, comme beaucoup de monde il est vrai, ces deux questions. Mais, si vous y prêtez attention vous le verrez aisément, le rapport entre les deux est loin d'être évident et devrait être analysé à nouveaux frais. Pour rester bref, on peut dire qu'un individu singulier ou collectif n'atteint le statut de sujet que lorsqu'il devient un agent d'un processus particulier. D'où une difficulté, une multiplicité, une discontinuité et une instabilité très grandes de la subjectivation, dont les rapports à l'individuation restent en fait entièrement à repenser. En tout état de cause, individuation est loin de signifier subjectivation (c'est, d'ailleurs, l'un des problèmes que posent les propositions d'AlainTouraine qui ne fait pas cette distinction). 3. J'ai beaucoup insisté sur un aspect décisif du concept de rythme qui n'apparaît pas dans votre recension : son aspect a-métrique. Le matériel très divers et assez abondant dont nous disposons (que ce soit au niveau des corps, du langage ou des interactions sociales) montre qu'il est impossible de se satisfaire de sa définition métrique traditionnelle. Si nous nous limitons à cette définition, nous réduisons la diversité des fluements du réel à un schéma binaire et numérique simpliste et nous introduisons sans même en avoir conscience une politique et une éthique anti-démocratiques. Une définition plus utilisable pour penser ce que nous devons penser aujourd'hui est celle qui avait cours avant que Platon associe rhuthmos et métron, et qui faisait du rythme une « manière de fluer ». J'ai aussi montré que cette définition peut être précisée grâce à la remotivation par Diderot de la notion de « manière », qu'il repense à partir de la question de la qualité (et donc de l'individuation) artistique, c'est-à-dire comme concept d'une forme qui reste active en dehors de son contexte originel. Ces précisions sont loin d'être des détails insignifiants, elles engagent toute la théorie des rythmes de l'individuation, aussi bien dans ses capacités heuristiques, que dans ses conséquences éthiques et politiques. 4. Ici, on le voit, la sociologie a un grand besoin de la linguistique (Benveniste), de la poétique (Meschonnic) et de la philosophie (Deleuze, Foucault, Simondon). Or, je note que vous accordez toute votre attention aux auteurs sociologiques ou anthropologiques que je cite, mais que vous ne dîtes rien des discussions philosophiques, poétiques et linguistiques, qui encadrent ces analyses (Benveniste, Meschonnic, Deleuze, Foucault et Simondon sont étrangement absents de votre CR). Je me demande si vous ne raisonnez pas encore ici, à votre insu, en termes disciplinaires, comme si poétique, linguistique ou philosophie n'avaient rien à apporter aux sciences sociales ou ne constituaient que des décorations non-essentielles d'un propos plus consistant qui reviendrait de droit à ces dernières. 5. Sur vos critiques maintenant. Vous trouvez que j'exagère en caractérisant Surveiller et punir comme un grand livre sur les rythmes de l'individuation. Je sais bien que la vulgate présente Foucault comme un auteur intéressé uniquement par l'espace, les répartitions, les quadrillages, etc. Mais, précisément, cette vulgate laisse totalement de côté le profond intérêt de Foucault pour tous les phénomènes temporels, en particulier pour toutes les techniques utilisées pour rythmer les corps, les discours et la vie des groupes. Il me semble que les descriptions qu'il fait de l'apprentissage militaire, des formes du travail dans les manufactures, de la vie en prison, des méthodes de dressage scolaires parlent d'elles-mêmes. Elles corroborent, du reste, des analyses engagées par Thompson au cours de la décennie précédente et constituent un ensemble d'analyses des rythmes de l'individuation qui n'a que peu d'équivalents dans la littérature scientifique disponible. 6. Pour Mauss (comme pour Foucault), vous trouvez ma lecture rythmique « peu usuelle ». Mais je voudrais vous faire remarquer que Mauss dit lui-même explicitement dans le Manuel d'ethnographie ceci : « Socialement et individuellement, l'homme est un animal rythmique ». Vous m'accorderez que cette phrase est une affirmation extrêmement forte. Or, tout le monde s'empresse de la laisser de côté. Je vous retourne donc (mais aussi à tous les Maussiens) la question : quel sort faites-vous à cette affirmation ? Ne pensez-vous pas que, sous cette forme condensée présentée sur un patron aristotélicien, elle indique une entrée à partir de laquelle on pourrait au moins relire une bonne part de son oeuvre ? Ou bien pensez-vous que cette phrase a été proférée comme une simple fioriture rhétorique sans signification profonde. Pour ma part, j'ai montré dans ma thèse (dont une partie a été publiée dans mes Éléments d'une histoire du sujet en 1999 et... dans la revue du MAUSS en 2005, mais qui n'a pas eu l'heur d'attirer l'attention des spécialistes - elle n'est jamais citée dans les livres sur Mauss), textes à l'appui, que Mauss n'a jamais engagé, comme l'a soutenu Lévi-Strauss pour des raisons de pure stratégie universitaire (sa concurrence après la mort de Mauss avec Gurvitch pour récupérer l'héritage), une théorie préstructuraliste du social, et que par voie de conséquence son intérêt pour le « symbolique » doit être réévalué et réintégré à un intérêt plus général pour le rythme. J'ai complété en 2005 ce travail dans Rythmes, pouvoir, mondialisation, qui malheureusement n'est pas cité non plus. Pourtant, dans son texte de 1924 « Rapports réels et pratiques de la psychologie et de la sociologie », Mauss explique à son auditoire que la sociologie pourrait servir de modèle à la psychologie au moins pour l'étude de deux ordres de faits qui lui semblent les deux apports les plus importants des travaux sociologiques réalisés depuis le début du siècle : le « symbole » et le « rythme ». On voit bien à travers cette affirmation que ces deux concepts sont liés dans son esprit ou tout au moins qu'ils possèdent une importance aussi grande l'une que l'autre. Or, que disent les commentateurs : toujours la même chose (qu'ils reprennent sans aucune distance critique de Lévi-Strauss), Mauss serait simplement l'inventeur ou la popularisateur du concept de « symbolique ». Le rythme là encore tombe à la trappe. D'où ma deuxième question : que faites-vous de cette nouvelle affirmation de l'importance du rythme ? Quel statut donnez-vous dans votre lecture à cet intérêt pour le rythme ? Je pense, pour ma part, que cette conférence nous montre une fois encore que Mauss n'était pas du tout en train de préparer une épistémologie ou une méthodologie structurale, ni même une science du symbolique au sens qui dominera par la suite chez les structuralistes, mais qu'il était, bien au contraire, dès le début, dominé par la question de la production des individus singuliers et collectifs dans le temps. Sa question n'était pas de trouver des constantes dans le fonctionnement des systèmes sociaux (il rejette explicitement la notion de structure), mais de comprendre ces systèmes en pénétrant l'organisation des flux qui les constituent (c'est pourquoi il oppose la « physiologie » à la simple et trompeuse « anatomie sociale »). Il est, du reste, en cela complètement de son époque et rejoint des préoccupations que l'on retrouve, sous des formes très diverses cela s'entend, chez ses adversaires (Bergson, Tarde) ou chez ses amis (Durkheim, Hubert, Granet). 7. Sur la question du rapport à « la tradition » et de ce que vous voyez dans mon travail comme une « posture de créativité radicale, quasiment nihiliste » qui ne serait au fond l'expression que d'un « mythe d'autoréalisation de soi emblématique de notre époque ». Je ne comprends pas votre critique. Y-a-t-il jamais invention conceptuelle qui ne soit négation d'une partie au moins des concepts en cours ? J'en doute. D'autre part, si je revendique une certaine radicalité, je ne vois aucun nihilisme dans ma démarche. Au contraire, j'ai grand soin du passé et, pour ce qui est du présent, j'ai plutôt l'impression de procéder par affirmations et avancées créatrices. Il me semble que vous confondez négation et nihilisme. Enfin, l'idée que mon travail verserait dans un « mythe d'autoréalisation » me semble doublement fausse : parce que l'autoréalisation n'est pas une notion que l'on devrait rejeter sans précaution ; mais aussi parce que c'est une caractérisation au fond psychologisante et donc réductrice d'une proposition théorique qui ne devrait faire l'objet, en bonne méthode scientifique, que de critiques théoriques. 8. Sur la question de la complexité inutile que vous voyez dans mes propositions (« Nous nous demandons si P. Michon n'aurait pas pu, tout de même, dire les choses plus simplement ») et sur le fait que vous tentiez de traduire mes propos en un langage plus simple (vous me demandez « si ce résumé omet quelque chose d'essentiel que les notions de rythme, de fluement, d'arythmie, d'idiorrythmie, d'eurythmie, etc. auraient fait apparaître »). C'est un essai dont je vous remercie sincèrement car cela pourra certainement aider à la compréhension de mon travail par de nombreux sociologues ou spécialistes de sciences sociales. Je suis également très sensible au fait que vous soyez le premier membre du Mauss à reconnaître et à justifier de manière détaillée le fait que le rythme est une question fondamentale qui devrait être prise en considération. En même temps, j'ai l'impression que votre réduction à un ensemble de communs dénominateurs comporte un danger : celui de laisser penser que ce que j'avance est réductible à du déjà connu ou à du déjà pensé par les sciences sociales : « Que dit-il au juste ? Que nos identités se construisent dans nos relations aux autres, qui engagent notre corps et notre langage [...] Que dans ces relations se jouent des relations de pouvoir sur les personnes ». Au fond, la théorie du rythme n'apporterait rien de plus que ce que les sociologues-économistes savent déjà depuis fort longtemps. À savoir que les sociétés et les individus sont pris dans des interactions mouvantes qui les rendent plus instables et fluides qu'on ne le croit généralement. Pourquoi, dès lors, en effet, dire de manière si compliquée des choses si simples ? Mais précisément, je ne me suis pas contenté de reprendre les différentes théories interactionnistes en cours, ou même de prolonger les auteurs qui se sont frottés, depuis ces trente dernières années, à la question des rapports réciproques entre individu singulier et individu collectif, individu et système. Je le reconnais bien volontiers, les auteurs très divers qui ont proposé des visions intermédiaires nous ont fait faire de grands progrès. Mais leurs conceptions ne suffisent plus au regard des réalités nouvelles du XXI^e siècle ou bien elles rencontrent des difficultés qui les rendent moins efficaces. En dehors du fait qu'on peut souvent repérer (comme dans la philosophie hobbesienne qui forme le socle de la pensée d'Elias) le lieu où le dualisme rejeté au départ se réintroduit subrepticement, je crois que leurs instruments sont déjà en partie inadaptés. Et la raison en est simple : si elles ont toutes été conçues comme des tentatives pour échapper aux dualismes traditionnels des sciences sociales, elles n'ont pas été pensées à partir du mouvement, des intensités, des flux et de leurs qualités eux-mêmes. Il nous faut donc accomplir ce qu'elles n'ont pas encore réussi à faire : une inversion radicale du regard qui pose le langage et le temps comme premiers et, à partir de là, repenser toutes les questions qui se posent à nous. Faute de quoi, soit nous retomberons vite dans les paradoxes et les difficultés que nous connaissons bien : le système et l'individu, la poule et l'oeuf, soit nous resterons sans boussole quand il nous faudra juger de la qualité des « objets intermédiaires » que nous étudierons. Le « don » est un exemple typique de cette deuxième difficulté : il permet de dynamiter le dualisme individualiste utilitariste, mais, tel qu'il reste pour le moment théorisé au sein du MAUSS, il ne permet pas encore de poser la question de l'organisation temporelle des flux de dons, des rythmes corporels, langagiers et sociaux qui sont déterminés par ces flux, et donc de la qualité de l'individuation singulière et collective qui en découle. On se contente le plus souvent d'une définition du don comme opposé de l'échange utilitariste, faisant de facto de celui-là une simple négation (et donc une certaine façon de conserver) celui-ci. On manque alors toute la diversité qualitative (souvent ambivalente) de la triple obligation donner-recevoir-rendre et l'on se retrouve avec une affirmation toute binaire de ce que serait le bien éthique et politique. 9. Sur ma redéfinition de la démocratie et son supposé fonds « utilitariste ». Vous citez une de mes propositions qui définit la démocratie comme le régime ou l'état social (c'est bien sûr les deux à la fois) qui permettra de « rechercher une eurythmie simultanément corporelle, discursive et sociale - une maximisation de l'individuation singulière et collective ». Et vous expliquez que vous ne « compren[ez] tout simplement pas qui maximise, qui calcule au mieux quoi, ni en vue de quoi ! ». Le problème avec la question qui, c'est qu'elle présuppose un sujet déjà là. Autrement dit, elle indique déjà sa réponse. Pour ce qui me concerne, je l'ai dit plus haut, j'ai volontairement distingué la question de la subjectivation de celle de l'individuation. Cette position ne peut être tenue que jusqu'à un certain point, je vous l'accorde, mais je continue à penser qu'elle est nécessaire dans un premier temps, même s'il faudra réfléchir à l'avenir plus précisément à la façon de relier les deux aspects. Ma certitude à cet égard est que de toute façon la subjectivation ne réussit pas toujours, que le sujet ne peut donc être posé comme un principe antécédent à l'action et qu'il constitue plutôt une entité qui apparaît ou pas au cours de l'activité des corps-langages (au sens du génitif objectif, car pour moi c'est l'activité qui est première). Vous reprochez, ensuite, à l'expression « maximisation » d'être trop marquée par le principe typiquement utilitariste d'un calcul du plus grand bien comme une simple addition des biens individuels. Si c'était ce que j'ai dit, je serais d'accord avec vous. Mais je maintiens l'expression « maximisation » car celle-ci est motivée par le système discursif dans lequel elle apparaît. Et comme vous l'avez senti, celui-ci est entièrement traversé par un souci de type spinoziste pour une maximisation (dans les conditions qui leurs sont faites) de ce que peuvent les corps-langages, maximisation qui ne peut en aucun cas être réduite à une augmentation additive des petits bonheurs personnels. L'utilitarisme se fonde sur un calcul des atomes de bonheur, alors que j'essaie (à l'instar de Mauss en réalité) de penser le bonheur (ou la « joie », si vous préférez, pour rester dans le ton du XVII^e siècle) comme exaltation de la puissance de vivre. Pour finir sur ce point, je voudrais repréciser ce que j'ai déjà dit dans mon livre et écarter des malentendus qui pointent dans quelques-unes de vos remarques : les propos de Barthes sur le bonheur « idiorrythmique » sont très suggestifs (par la rareté même de tels propos) mais bien évidemment insuffisants (ne serait-ce que parce qu'il reconnaît lui-même qu'il s'agit d'une utopie domestique plus que sociale). Quant à ceux de Mauss sur « l'eurythmie », ils indiquent une piste à mon sens plus féconde, mais ils sont, quant à eux, plus qu'élémentaires et doivent être réélaborés rigoureusement. Ces exemples ne constituent donc pas des réponses aux questions éthiques et politiques que nous nous posons, mais des incitations à chercher dans la direction qu'ils pointent. 10. Sur Mauss qui ne « parviendrait tout simplement pas à penser l'histoire ». Je ne crois pas avoir dit cela. J'ai même montré dans Eléments d'une histoire du sujet que Mauss est l'un de ceux qui, dans la première moitié du XX^e siècle, pense la question de l'historicité radicale des êtres humains, sans en revenir au néo-kantisme sociologique de Durkheim, mais sans tomber non plus dans les problèmes de la phénoménologie, du bergsonisme ou de la philosophie de l'historicité essentielle heideggérienne. Ce que j'ai dit, c'est que Mauss, en dépit de son souci d'historisation constant, aboutit non seulement à une éthique et une politique fondées sur un principe anhistorique, celui-là même que vous citez quelques lignes plus loin : « le roc de la morale éternelle » - ce qui est en soi un problème. Mais aussi qu'il propose comme modèle, dans tout l'Essai sur le don et en particulier dans ses « conclusions de morale », le système de prestations totales de clan à clan, qui est « exactement, toutes proportions gardées, du même type que celui vers lequel nous voudrions voir nos sociétés se diriger ». Or, ce système « où tout est complémentaire » ne connaît pas le conflit, dont il parle pourtant tout au long de l'essai. À vrai dire, cette subtile contradiction n'est pas à retenir contre Mauss, elle indique toutefois que c'est à partir de là qu'il faut reprendre la question. Si maintenant vous pensez que l'on peut trouver des textes allant dans un sens différent qui donnerait un sens agonistique à la démocratie, je serai le premier à m'en réjouir. Mais cela voudra dire que le problème relevait simplement de l'interprétation érudite des méandres d'une oeuvre et que nous sommes d'accord sur la chose même - ce qui est pour moi la seule qui compte. 11. Sur le terme d' « utopie maussienne ». Vous me reprenez en arguant que Mauss n'était pas un utopiste, mais un « possibiliste », attaché à des projets concrets. Vous avez certainement raison. Toutefois, mon usage du mot « utopie » n'était en rien négatif dans mon esprit, bien au contraire. Ensuite, personne ne pourra nier que l'idée que les sociétés modernes devraient réintroduire massivement le don au fondement de leur économie reste largement un projet d'avenir, c'est-à-dire dans le meilleur sens du terme... une utopie. Pascal Michon Paris, le 7 mai 2008 __________________________________________________________________ Sénèque. De la tranquillité de l'âme Cher Pascal, je viens de terminer la lecture de De la tranquillité de l'âme de Sénèque. Quelle ne fut pas ma surprise de voir l'un des derniers chapitres intitulé : « Il faut alterner "temps forts" et "temps faibles" » En voici un extrait : [...] Solitude et société doivent se composer et se succéder. La solitude nous donnera le désir de fréquenter les hommes, la société, celui de nous fréquenter nous-mêmes, et chacune sera l'antidote de l'autre, la solitude nous guérissant de l'horreur de la foule, et la foule, de l'ennui de la solitude". J'avais déjà lu de Sénèque Les bienfaits : un essai sur le don - sur la triple obligation de donner, recevoir et rendre - avant l'heure (jamais cité par Mauss). Un indice de plus que pensée du don et pensée du rythme peuvent et même doivent se rencontrer ? Amicalement Sylvain Créteil, le 7 mai 2008 3 commentaires Les rythmes du politique 27 août 2009, par Ces concepts de rythmes du politique me semblent proches de ceux de Deleuze-Guattari, grands lecteurs de Simondon et de l'individuation, notamment de l'agencement collectif d'énonciation territoire par exemple. Ils permettent de les renouveler et de les penser sous un autre biais. Mais pour trouver de nouveaux rythmes reste la question de l'invention également de nouveaux énoncés. Les rythmes du politique 8 septembre 2009, par Pascal Michon Je vous remercie beaucoup de cette comparaison ainsi que du texte auquel vous renvoyez. J'ai expliqué succinctement dans le chapitre « Styles, rythmes et ritournelles » des Rythmes du politique ce qui distingue ma position de celle de Deleuze et Guattari. De même, pour Simondon dans celui intitulé « Les rythmes comme cycles de l'ontogénèse ? ». En bref, j'ai une grande admiration pour ces travaux qui ont beaucoup compté dans ma réflexion mais, dans l'un et l'autre cas, ils me semblent buter sur la question du langage. Plutôt que de nouveaux énoncés, je pense donc qu'il nous faut chercher, entre autres, de nouveaux modes d'énonciation. Pascal Michon [33]Réaction au commentaire » Répondre à cet article [34][puce_gazette.png] Gazette [35][puce_supplement.png] Supplément [36][puce_lectures.png] Lectures [37][puce_societe.png] Vers une société civile mondiale [38][puce_publications.png] Publications [39][puce_plan.png] Plan du site [40][puce_plan.png] Auteurs [41]Suivre la vie du site RSS 2.0 Recensions [42]>Multiculturalisme dites-vous ? Francesco Fistetti [43]>Pour un socialisme décent [44]>De la lutte des classes à la lutte des places Michel Lussault [45]>Gli economisti e i selvaggi. L'imperialismo della scienza economica e i suoi limiti Roberto Marchionatti [46]>Donner et prendre. La coopération en entreprise Norbert Alter [47]>Le symbolique et le sacré. Théories de la religion Camille Tarot [48]>De Gauche ? Alain Caillé, Roger Sue (dir.) [49]>Histoire et création. Textes philosophiques inédits (1945-1967) Cornelius Castoriadis [50]>Bibliothèque du MAUSS n°31 [51]>La nouvelle écologie politique - Economie et développement humain Jean-Paul Fitoussi, Eloi Laurent Notes [[52]1] Pour une approche goffmannienne du corps et de la manière dont il participe à la construction de l'identité des personnes, on peut lire l'article de [53]Sylvain Pasquier publié dans La Revue du MAUSS Permanente. [[54]2] Les sous-titres de cette partie, assez longue, sont de nous. [[55]3] Pascal Michon préfère parler de multitudes plutôt que de peuple, ce dernier étant sans doute trop homogénéisant pour lui. [[56]4] O. Mendesltam est l'auteur d'un petit ouvrage où il est question de la Révolution bolchevique intitulé L'État et le rythme (1920), dans lequel P. Michon voit « l'une des toutes premières politiques du rythme » [p. 229]. [[57]5] Le bon, si le calcul de maximisation n'admet qu'une solution... [[58]6] Pour P. Michon, seuls Lewis Coser (Les fonctions du conflit social) et Gilbert Simondon (L'individuation psychique et collective) ont développé cette manière de voir les choses. [[59]7] On peut néanmoins citer : Henri Meschonnic dans les travaux duquel il s'incrit, et notamment son Politique du rythme, politique du sujet, Verdier, 1985 [[60]8] « L'utilitarisme et [...] l'économie politique [...] sont à la base de [...] la fluidification du monde » [p. 236]. [[61]9] Un Spinoza plus proche de Mauss (qui l'affectionnait d'ailleurs) que de Bentham... Un Spinoza peu lordonien, donc... [[62]10] Nous renvoyons ici aux Ecrits politiques de Marcel Mauss, présentés par Marcel Fournier (Fayard, 1997), ainsi qu'à notre ouvrage, [63]Marcel Mauss, savant et politique , La Découverte, 2007. [[64]11] S. Dzimira, op. Cit. 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[119]Partager cet article sur del.icio.us [120]Envoyer cet article sur Blogmarks ELYSEE Sarkozy : les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme" NOUVELOBS.COM | 06.02.2009 | 13:01 [121]Réagissez à l'article 299 réactions Lors de son intervention télévisée, le chef de l'Etat a notamment déclaré : "Que les Français soient inquiets (face à la crise), c'est normal". > Il a dit réfléchir à une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu. > La taxe professionnelle sera supprimée en 2010. > Les partenaires sociaux seront reçus le 18 février. Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters) Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters) Le chef de l'Etat a déclaré, jeudi 5 février, que la France et le monde faisaient face à "la crise du siècle", au début de son intervention télévisée. "C'est la crise du siècle, elle est sans précédent", a-t-il répété Nicolas Sarkozy. ([122]> Lire toutes les déclarations). "Je dois en tenir compte et faire en sorte que la France rentre le plus tard possible dans la crise et sorte le plus tôt de la crise", a-t-il ajouté. "Je dois en plus protéger au maximum ceux qui déjà dans la croissance mondiale étaient exclus", a-t-il ajouté. "Que les Français soient inquiets, c'est normal. Je le comprends, je l'entends", a-t-il expliqué. Les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme", a-t-il rapidement affirmé. "La rupture n'a jamais été un objectif, c'est juste un moyen", a, par ailleurs, expliqué Nicolas Sarkozy. L'émission était diffusée simultanément sur TF1, France 2, M6 et RTL. Elle est présentée par David Pujadas et Laurence, avec les interventions de Guy Lagache et Alain Duhamel. Une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu ? Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il recevrait les partenaires sociaux le 18 février, notamment pour voir comment "aller plus loin" sur l'indemnisation du chômage partiel. Il a également dit réfléchir à une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu pour aider les classes moyennes, l'une des "pistes" qu'il soumettra aux syndicats le 18 février. "L'Etat est prêt à faire un effort" pour "mieux protéger" les jeunes en fin de CDD et qui ne retrouvent pas d'emploi du fait de la crise financière et économique, a affirmé le président de la République. Le chef de l'Etat a aussi annoncé qu'il "supprimerait la taxe professionnnelle en 2010". "Je vous l'annonce: on supprimera la taxe professionnelle en France en 2010 parce que je veux que l'on garde des usines en France", a déclaré Nicolas Sarkozy lors de son intervention télévisée sur la crise. La mesure sera générale: "On ne peut pas dire on va supprimer pour l'industrie automobile mais pas pour l'industrie sidérurgique ou textile", a-t-il ajouté. "Je ne peux pas dire aux actionnaires pour le coup: ne délocalisez plus, relocalisez, et en même temps leur laisser des charges et des contraintes qui font qu'ils ne s'en sortiront plus", selon le chef de l'Etat. Réfléchir sur le "partage du profit" Le président a jugé nécessaire de réfléchir au "partage du profit" entre les salariés et les actionnaires, demandant aux partenaires sociaux de parvenir à un accord sans quoi "l'Etat prendra ses responsabilités". "Je veux que le 18 février nous discutions d'un sujet essentiel en France qui est le partage du profit", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat, évoquant le "sentiment d'injustice majeur" suscité dans cette crise par "le comportement d'un certain nombre de dirigeants d'institutions bancaires". "Comment on arbitre entre le souhait légitime des actionnaires de gagner de l'argent avec les entreprises et la demande des salariés d'être associés aux bénéfices des entreprises dont ils ont contribué à créer la richesse?", s'est interrogé Nicolas Sarkozy, jugeant qu'en la matière "le compte n'y est pas". "Quand une entreprise distribue aux actionnaires tous les bénéfices d'une année, elle ne peut plus investir" pour l'avenir, a-t-il ajouté, dénonçant une "logique purement financière et spéculative". Le sujet sera au programme de sa rencontre avec les partenaires sociaux le 18 février. "J'engage les organisations syndicales et le patronat à en discuter. Soit ils arrivent à quelque chose, soit l'Etat prendra ses responsabilités", a-t-il prévenu. Il a indiqué qu'il estimait quant à lui que "la règle des trois tiers est bonne": un tiers des bénéfices vont aux salariés, un tiers aux actionnaires sous forme de dividendes et un tiers sont réinvestis dans l'entreprise pour financer son développement". Combat sur la TVA Nicolas Sarkozy a réaffirmé sa volonté d'obtenir un consensus européen concernant des baisses de la TVA sur la restauration, les "produits propres" et des "produits culturels". "C'est parfaitement anormal que quand on achète une voiture propre, on paie plus cher que quand on achète une voiture qui pollue, et ça vaut aussi pour les bâtiments construits en haute qualité environnementale", a dit le chef de l'Etat, souhaitant "un système de TVA réduite pour tous les produits propres". "Je pense également que sur les produits culturels, il faut aller plus loin", a ajouté Nicolas Sarkozy. "Pourquoi la TVA sur le livre est-elle à 5,5 (%), et la TVA sur le disque à 19,6 (%), comme la TVA sur la vidéo? Il faut mettre cette TVA à 5,5", a-t-il déclaré. "Comme cela on est tranquille" "Est-ce que les réformes que la France doit mettre en oeuvre, pour avoir le même emploi lorsque nous seront sortis de la crise, est-ce que ces réformes restent d'actualité? La réponse est oui", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat, précisant qu'elles devaient être conduites "au même rythme". "Si on doit arrêter, comme cela s'est si souvent fait dans le passé, chaque réforme quand il y a une manifestation, alors mieux vaut ne faire aucune réforme. Et comme cela on est tranquille", a-t-il dit. La rupture, "c'est la rupture avec cette habitude". Les quelque 1,4 milliard d'euros d'intérêts que l'Etat percevra cette année au titre des intérêts pour son financement aux banques seront "intégralement" affectés au financement de "mesures sociales", a annoncé Nicolas Sarkozy. Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il allait demander au président de la Cour des comptes Philippe Seguin de "conduire un certain nombre d'enquêtes" sur la bonne utilisation des fonds accordés aux banques pour faire face à la crise. Tacle aux traders Nicolas Sarkozy veut "changer" le système de rémunération des "traders" mais est sceptique sur un plafonnement systématique du salaire des dirigeants, a-t-il déclaré. "Je suis plus choqué par le système de rémunération de ceux qu'on appelle les traders, que les présidents de banques. C'est ce système-là que je veux changer", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat. "J'ai vu ce que M. Obama a décidé, je suis en train d'y réfléchir, moi je ne suis pas trop pour une règle générale", a-t-il ajouté. "Mettre tout le monde sous la toise, je ne suis pas sûr que ce soit la meilleure formule". "J'ajoute que Barack Obama a prévu un système d'actions gratuites derrière une rémunération bloquée, j'aimerais en savoir un peu plus", a souligné Nicolas Sarkozy. Maintien de la politique sur la Fonction publique Nicolas Sarkozy a affirmé qu'il n'engagerait "pas de dépenses publiques supplémentaires", et qu'il s'en tiendrait à la "règle du non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux". "Je n'engagerai pas de dépenses publiques supplémentaires, notamment sur la règle du non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux", a affirmé le président de la République. Selon lui, on reviendra ainsi "au même nombre de fonctionnaires qu'en 1992", quand François Mitterrand était président. "Je n'ai pas le souvenir que la France était alors sous-administrée", a-t-il argué. Relations aux paradis fiscaux Très sévère sur la question des paradis fiscaux, Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé son intention de "poser des questions" à Andorre, Monaco et au Luxembourg. La France exigera la moralisation des paradis fiscaux et "ça m'amènera à revoir nos relations avec Andorre", "à poser la question de nos relations avec Monaco (et) à poser un certain nombre de questions à nos voisins luxembourgeois", a-t-il déclaré. Baisse dans les sondages D'autant que le chef de l'Etat, comme son Premier ministre, enregistre une forte baisse dans les derniers sondages. Moins cinq points à 39% de "confiance" contre 55% de défiance selon un CSA paru mercredi dans Le Parisien. Forts du succès de leur journée d'action de la semaine dernière, les syndicats attendent le président au tournant, suspendant leurs prochaines initiatives au contenu de sa prestation télévisée. Le patron de la CFDT François Chérèque a réclamé un "changement de cap", en clair, des mesures pour maintenir le pouvoir d'achat, tandis que celui de FO Jean-Claude Mailly a prévenu que sans "relance par la consommation", il y aura "remobilisation". Le ton est également offensif dans l'opposition. La Première secrétaire du PS Martine Aubry a demandé au président de "définir enfin un plan de relance adapté". Et, dans une rare unanimité, la gauche toute entière a signé mercredi un texte sommant le pouvoir de "changer de cap". Ne pas se laisser "enfumer" Jeudi matin, Jean-Luc Mélenchon (Parti de gauche) invitait le pays à ne pas se laisser "enfumer" par Nicolas Sarkozy et à se mettre "en lutte", tandis qu'Olivier Besancenot (LCR) voyait déjà dans son intervention "des motivations supplémentaires à continuer le combat". Jusque-là, le discours du chef de l'Etat est resté inflexible. Oui, il a entendu les "inquiétudes légitimes" des Français "qui craignent pour leur emploi", mais pas question pour lui de recourir à une relance par la consommation, "parce que ça n'a jamais marché". Nicolas Sarkozy devrait aussi enrober son propos d'une bonne dose de volontarisme. "On va se battre pour que la France sorte plus forte de la crise", insiste-t-il régulièrement. "Se concentrer sur les objectifs essentiels" Mais certains ne l'entendent pas de la même oreille dans la majorité. Le député UMP Hervé Mariton a reproché au gouvernement de s'éparpiller dans les réformes lui demandant de "se concentrer sur les objectifs essentiels" et son collègue François Goulard a préconisé une "suspension" temporaire du très controversé bouclier fiscal. En outre, le gouvernement a vu poindre ces derniers jours un nouveau "front" du mécontentement dans les universités, avec la montée de la grogne des enseignants-chercheurs et des étudiants. Mais comme François Fillon lundi, le porte-parole du gouvernement a exclu mercredi tout virage politique. "Cette émission n'est pas faite seulement pour le million et demi de Français qui a manifesté", a dit Luc Chatel, mais plutôt pour "mettre en perspective son action face à la crise". [123]Augmenter la taille du texte [124]Réduire la taille du texte [125]Imprimer cet article [126]Envoyer cet article à un ami [127]Réagissez à l'article [128]Réagir à cet article en créant votre Blog [129]Traduction français / anglais [130]Traduction français / espagnol [131]Partager cet article sur Wikio [132]Partager cet article sur Scoopeo [133]Digger cet article [134]Partager cet article avec mes amis sur Facebook ! [135]Partager cet article sur del.icio.us [136]Envoyer cet article sur Blogmarks Les réactions des lecteurs rifif [137]-10 POINTS -10 points serait un sondage plus réaliste que ces sondages effectués par des instituts de sondages aux mains des amis de sarkozy ! Il aura beau museler les manifestan... 08.02 à 16h05 - [138]Alerter scafandre [139]Il faut qu'il démissionne... avant de mettre littéralement la France en faillite. Il est inconscient... Vous avez des communes qui ont investi dans la construction de collèges, de ponts... en fonct... 07.02 à 21h16 - [140]Alerter [141]Réagissez ! [142]Toutes les réactions (299) [143]Conditions de modération L'essentiel Politique [144]IDENTITE NATIONALE [145]"Déferlement de musulmans" : Gaudin regrette avoir eu un "mot malheureux" 18.01 à 16h59 [146]MAYOTTE [147]Courte étape dans l'océan Indien pour Sarkozy 18.01 à 14h52 [148]POLEMIQUE [149]Reporters enlevés : "cynisme effrayant" de Guéant 18.01 à 14h47 [150]MARSEILLE [151]Buffet dénonce "une idéologie xénophobe dans les plus hautes autorités de l'Etat" 18.01 à 13h46 [152]IDENTITE NATIONALE [153]Et si "une Française porte la burqa"...? 18.01 à 10h51 [154]SOCIAL [155]Internet : un tarif réduit pour les plus démunis ? 18.01 à 09h05 [156]COLLECTIVITES LOCALES [157]Les départements en "graves difficultés financières" 18.01 à 08h53 [158]IDENTITE NATIONALE [159]"Déferlement de musulmans" : Gaudin regrette avoir eu un "mot malheureux" 18.01 à 08h06 [160]MARSEILLE [161]Valls fustige les "amalgames dangereux" de Gaudin 18.01 à 07h56 [162]ELECTIONS REGIONALES [163]Régionales : Aubry vise toujours le grand chelem 18.01 à 07h29 [164]AFGHANISTAN [165]Journalistes enlevés : Guéant provoque la polémique 18.01 à 07h10 [166]SENAT [167]La réforme des collectivités "manque de visibilité" 18.01 à 07h05 [168]CHARENTE-MARITIME [169]Régionales : Sarnez accuse Royal de "débauchage" 17.01 à 14h58 [170]DROIT DE VOTE [171]Mélenchon favorable au droit de vote des étrangers 17.01 à 13h56 [172]CONSEIL CONSTITUTIONNEL [173]Emmanuelle Mignon ne siègera pas parmi les Sages 17.01 à 12h55 Plus sur le sujet Sur Nouvelobs.com * [174]Les principales déclarations de Nicolas Sarkozy * [175]Aubry Sarkozy est un président "hésitant" qui "ne sait pas où il va" * [176]Intervention télévisée de Sarkozy Les appels au boycott se multiplient * [177]Onze organisations de gauche demandent un "changement de cap" * [178]Interview présidentielle Les choix contestables de l'Elysée * [179]Grèves Parisot y voit "quelque chose de pervers" * [180]Le texte commun des onze organisations de gauche * [181]Revue de presse * [182]Les réactions * [183]Delanoë Sarkozy a "privilégié la polémique" sur le SMA * [184]Sarkozy fait des ouvertures, les syndicats méfiants * [185]15,1 millions de téléspectateurs pour l'intervention de Sarkozy * [186]Les principales mesures de Nicolas Sarkozy Dans Le Nouvel Observateur * [187]"Sarkozy comme Cendrillon", (05/02/09) * [188]"La vraie nature de Sarkozy", par François Bazin (05/02/09) * [189]"Sarkozy peut-il encore réformer ?", par Hervé Algalarrondo (05/02/09) * [190]"Les ficelles de Sarkozy", (22/01/09) * [191]"Les choix de Sarkozy", par Denis Olivennes (22/01/09) Sur Internet * [192]Le site de l'Elysée * [193]Le baromètre de confiance de l'exécutif sur le site du CSA * [194]Le baromètre des actions présidentielles sur le site du CSA * [195]La biographie officielle de Nicolas Sarkozy * [196]Le blog de François Fillon * [197]La biographie officielle de François Fillon * [198]Le site de TNS-Sofres nouvelobs.com __________________________________________________________________ ClubObs Déjà membre de Clubobs.com, identifiez-vous ____________________ [_] Mémoriser ____________________ Ok [199]Mot de passe oublié ? * [200]> A la une * [201]> Opinions * [202]> Blogs * [203]> Revues de presse * [204]> Dossiers * [205]> Forums en direct * [206]> Archives * [207]> Automobile * [208]> High-tech * [209]> Météo * [210]> Annonces * [211]> Débats * [212]> Voyages * [213]> Immobilier * [214]> Emploi * [215]> Comme au Cinema.com * [216]> Rencontres * [217]> Newsletters [218]Site Internet certifiée par l'OJD La fréquentation de ce site est certifiée par l'OJD [219]Contacts | [220]Plan du site | [221]Publicité | [222]Conditions d'utilisation | [223]Données personnelles | [224]Copyright | [225]Index | © Le Nouvel Observateur - Tous droits réservés. nouvelobs.com est une marque exclusive du Nouvel Observateur. 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Formulant ses voeux pour la nouvelle années devant les représentants des partenaires sociaux, le chef de l'Etat a d'abord voulu les «remercier pour l'ampleur de la tâche que vous avez accomplie en 2008. L'urgence des problèmes à résoudre, l'attente des Français vous ont imposé, comme au gouvernement et au Parlement, un rythme de travail particulièrement exigeant». «Je ne vous surprendrai pas en vous disant que nous n'avons pas l'intention de ralentir le rythme en 2009, leur a-t-il ensuite déclaré. Et ce n'est certainement pas au moment où l'impact social de la crise se fait sentir --on a eu l'impact financier, l'impact économique, bien sûr l'impact social-- qu'on va en tirer la conclusion qu'il faut ralentir», a-t-il ajouté. Leparisien.fr avec A Cet article a été publié dans la rubrique [139]Politique FLASH ACTUALITÉ [DERNIÈRE MINUTE] * 18h57 [140]Emmanuelle Haïm renonce à diriger "Idoménée" à l'Opéra de Paris * 18h55 [141]La production cinéma "résiste" dit le CNC, "en crise" selon les producteurs * 18h49 [142]Ligue 1: Marseille au milieu du gué * 18h41 [143]Jean-Claude Juncker reconduit à la tête de l'Eurogroupe * 18h26 [144]France: le déficit public de "l'ordre de 8,2%" du PIB en 2010 * 18h16 [145]Rebsamen (PS): pétition pour inverser la charge de la preuve de nationalité * 18h05 [146]Strauss-Kahn responsable politique préféré des Français [147]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES * 18h41 [148]Jean-Claude Juncker reconduit à la tête de l'Eurogroupe * 18h26 [149]France: le déficit public de "l'ordre de 8,2%" du PIB en 2010 * 17h53 [150]Plan de départs PSA: 5.700 volontaires d'ici la fin du dispositif fin mars * 17h42 [151]Etats-Unis: Vivendi accuse l'avocat des plaignants de créer un "préjudice" * 17h18 [152]Eurostar pourrait payer 11 millions d'euros de dédommagement à ses clients * 16h24 [153]GDF Suez a tenté sans succès de prendre le contrôle d'International Power * 16h11 [154]Le déficit public attendu à 8,2% en 2010, soit moins que prévu [155]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES * 18h16 [156]Rebsamen (PS): pétition pour inverser la charge de la preuve de nationalité * 18h05 [157]Strauss-Kahn responsable politique préféré des Français * 17h10 [158]Collomb (PS) prêt à voter certains articles de la réforme des collectivités * 16h56 [159]Propos sur les musulmans: Gaudin évoque "un mot malheureux" * 16h28 [160]Réforme territoriale: les élus landais demandent un référendum * 16h14 [161]Le Nouveau centre veut s'emparer de "grands sujets" comme l'homoparentalité * 16h12 [162]Besson dresse son bilan 2009 : plus de 29.000 sans-papiers expulsés [163]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES * 17h06 [164]Séisme de magnitude 6 à l'ouest du Guatemala * 16h27 [165]La police a tué plus de 10.000 personnes en douze ans à Rio selon une étude * 14h40 [166]Le Yémen réclame à Washington ses ressortissants détenus à Guantanamo * 13h52 [167]Enquête sur la guerre en Irak: Tony Blair témoignera le 29 janvier * 13h21 [168]Silvio Berlusconi absent à la reprise du procès sur les droits télévisés * 11h26 [169]Les talibans ont porté la guerre dans le centre de Kaboul * 10h46 [170]L'UE promet près d'un demi-milliard d'euros pour Haïti [171]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES * 18h49 [172]Ligue 1: Marseille au milieu du gué * 17h10 [173]Football: pas de sanction pour Thierry Henry après sa main contre l'Eire * 16h50 [174]Ligue 1: pour Bordeaux, l'essentiel c'est l'écart * 16h26 [175]Coupe de l'America: le bras de fer se poursuit entre Oracle et Alinghi * 15h08 [176]Euro de patinage artistique: Joubert de retour pour un ultime test avant les JO * 10h55 [177]Euro de handball: les Français pour un triplé inédit * 08h04 [178]Open d'Australie de tennis: Sharapova éliminée, Nadal, Murray et Roddick qualifiés [179]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES * 18h57 [180]Emmanuelle Haïm renonce à diriger "Idoménée" à l'Opéra de Paris * 18h55 [181]La production cinéma "résiste" dit le CNC, "en crise" selon les producteurs * 17h05 [182]Les films de la semaine: un Gainsbourg, un homme sérieux et des Barons * 14h28 [183]Le Festival d'Aix-en-Provence se "redéveloppe" en 2010 * 06h36 [184]"Avatar" grand vainqueur des Golden Globes, "In the air" déçoit * 20h48 [185]Mode à Milan: esprit rebelle et inspirations militaires * 20h16 [186]"Avatar" continue de dominer le box-office nord-américain [187]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES Sites du Groupe Amaury [188]Paris Job [189]France Football [190]L'equipe [191]L'echo republicain [192]ASO [193]Velo magazine [194]Journal du Golf . 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[2]Mise à jour 19:42 [3]Le Figaro.fr * [4]Actualité * [5]Economie * [6]Culture * [7]Madame * [8]Sport * [9]Services INFO [10]> Politique [11]> Société [12]> International [13]> Médias [14]> Environnement [15]> Science et Tech [16]> Santé [17]> Web [18]> Auto [19]> Météo DÉBATS [20]> Figaro Magazine [21]> Éditos [22]> Blogs [23]> Repères EN IMAGES [24]> Vidéos [25]> Le Talk [26]> Photos [27]> Quiz Formulaire de Recherche ____________________ RECHERCHER Exemples : [28]Politique, [29]Grippe A, [30]Auto, [31]FigaroScope, [32]Immobilier __________________________________________________________________ * . * . . . [33]Haïti : la récolte de fonds décolle après l'appel de l'ONU [34]Haïti : la récolte de fonds décolle après l'appel de l'ONU
Les annonces d'aide humanitaire et de fonds pour venir en aide à Haïti continuent d'affluer, suite à l'appel d'urgence lancé par l'ONU. L'organisation entend récolter 562 millions de dollars. [35]» DOSSIER SPECIAL - Haïti dévasté . [36]L'hôpital général de Port-au-Prince manque de tout REPORTAGE - Face au désastre, les secours peinent à s'orgraniser dans la capitale haïtienne. . . . [37]Les secours sorganisent dans la douleur EN IMAGES - Dans la capitale haïtienne, les secours internationaux font face à dénormes difficultés. Il faut à la fois chercher des survivants, apporter des vivres aux rescapés, opérer les blessés, évacuer les corps, sécuriser la ville et penser à la reconstruction. . . [38]Haïti : 70.000 corps ont été enterrés Le gouvernement a décrété dimanche l'état d'urgence et une période de deuil national de 30 jours. 280 centres d'urgence s'ouvrent lundi, pour distribuer des vivres et héberger les sans-abris, estimés à 300.000. [39]» DOSSIER SPECIAL - Haïti dévasté . . [40]Numérisation du patrimoine : comment l'argent sera réparti [41]Numérisation du patrimoine :
comment l'argent sera réparti
INFO LE FIGARO - La Bibliothèque nationale de France et le Centre national du cinéma seront les mieux lotis. . [42]La création d'entreprises atteint un record INFO FIGARO - Les Français ont créé 560.000 entreprises l'an dernier, grâce au succès du statut de l'auto-entrepreneur. [43]» Auto-entrepreneur : comment ça marche ? . . . [44]Thierry Henry échappe à la sanction La commission de discipline de la FIFA a estimé lundi qu'elle ne disposait pas de base juridique pour sanctionner la main de l'attaquant français lors du match contre l'Eire, en barrages du Mondial-2010. . . [45]Boursiers : l'Etat précise ses objectifs La conférence de grandes écoles a de son côté effectué un revirement en affirmant partager les objectifs fixés par le gouvernement. [46]» Sarkozy veut 30 % de boursiers dans les grandes écoles . . [47]L'UNI fait place à un nouveau syndicat étudiant de droite Dès mardi, le syndicat étudiant de droite né en 1968 deviendra le Mouvement des étudiants (MET). . . [48]France : le déficit attendu à 8,2% du PIB en 2010 INFO FIGARO - Le déficit public sera moins mauvais que prévu : il était jusqu'alors anticipé à 8,5 %. . . . [49]Sarkozy en visite dans l'océan Indien Le chef de l'État est à Mayotte et à la Réunion pour la cérémonie des voeux à l'outre-mer. . . [50]Besson veut faire signer une charte aux jeunes Français Les droits et les devoirs de tout citoyen seraient rappelés à l'occasion de ce serment républicain. [51]» Identité : Jean-Claude Gaudin crée à son tour la polémique . . [52]Des squatteurs priés de quitter la place des Vosges La justice a ordonné lundi l'expulsion des militants pour le droit au logement, qui occupent depuis plus de deux mois un hôtel particulier de cette prestigieuse place parisienne. . . [53]Audiences : Europe 1 pourrait détrôner NRJ Le sondage 126000 Radio de Médiamétrie, qui sera publié mardi, pourrait une nouvelle fois bousculer la hierarchie entre stations. . . Zoom Figaro Cheveux [20091109PHOWWW00546.jpg] Conseils d'experts Questions RH [20091109PHOWWW00547.jpg] McDonald's Frida Kahlo [20091109PHOWWW00548.jpg] Exposée à Bruxelles Cinéma [20091109PHOWWW00348.jpg] Toutes les séances . [54]Ces délégués du procureur qui travaillent au noir [55]Ces délégués du procureur
qui travaillent au noir
Chargés de sermonner les petits délinquants, ils ne sont pas déclarés par la Chancellerie. Bercy tarde à régler le problème. . [56]Les talibans revendiquent une série d'attaques à Kaboul Des insurgés se sont lancés lundi matin à l'assaut du centre de la capitale afghane où se trouvent plusieurs ministères et le palais présidentiel. Les affrontements avec l'armée afghane ont fait au moins 5 morts et 71 blessés. Sept assaillants ont été tués. . . [57]Expatriés aux USA, la présidence Obama a-t-elle changé votre vie ? APPEL A TÉMOIGNAGES - Si vous vivez aux Etats-Unis, votre quotidien a-t-il changé depuis l'arrivée de Barack Obama à la Maison Blanche ? Si oui, comment ? . . . [58]TGV : la SNCF remet à plat sa stratégie La baisse de fréquentation de certaines lignes obligerait à des réductions de trains voire des annulations selon les Echos. Les lignes nord-est et est-Atlantique sont particulièrement concernées. [59]» Deutsche Bahn prête à livrer bataille avec la SNCF [60]» La SNCF augmente les tarifs du TGV de 1,9% en 2010 . . . [61]Régionales : Laporte jette l'éponge INFO LE FIGARO.FR - Lancien secrétaire dEtat aux Sports faisait planer depuis plusieurs semaines le mystère sur son éventuelle candidature en Ile-de-France. . . [62]Paris et Berlin déconseillent l'utilisation d'Internet Explorer Après que Microsoft a admis qu'une faille dans son navigateur était à l'origine de l'attaque contre Google en Chine, les autorités officielles de sécurité informatique en France et en Allemagne recommandent de ne pas utiliser le logiciel avant qu'il ne soit corrigé. . . [63]Le Turc, qui avait tenté de tuer Jean-Paul II, est libre [64]Le Turc, qui avait tenté de tuer
Jean-Paul II, est libre 
Mehmet Ali Agca, un ex-militant ultranationaliste fait monter les enchères pour publier ses Mémoires. . [65]Un Français en prison à Abu Dhabi pour une plaisanterie Pour avoir parlé de «bombe» dans un avion, Jean-Louis Lioret, ingénieur à la retraite, est incarcéré depuis six jours. . . . [66]«Ali le Chimique» condamné à mort Ce cousin de Saddam Hussein avait fait gazer 5 000 Kurdes en 1988. . . [67]Alliot-Marie confie à Pierre Botton une mission sur la prison «Je sais de quoi je parle», assure l'ancien homme d'affaires et ex-gendre de Michel Noir, écroué dans les années 1990. . . [68]Le tapis rouge des Golden Globes [69]Le tapis rouge
des Golden Globes EN IMAGES - Malgré l'éloge des critiques, Marion Cotillard nominée pour la comédie musicale "Nine", n'a pas reçu le prix de la meilleure actrice qui a été décerné à Meryl Streep. [70]» Retour sur la cérémonie en images . [71]Avatar domine les Golden Globes Le film de James Cameron a remporté dimanche le doublé du meilleur film dramatique et du meilleur réalisateur. En revanche, Marion Cotillard et Un prophète, qui portaient les espoirs tricolores, sont repartis bredouilles. [72]» VIDEO - Les Golden Globes, du rire aux larmes . . [73]Bertrand : «Une étrangère portant la burqa ne pourra pas être naturalisée» Le secrétaire général de l'UMP, Xavier Bertrand, qui a entamé ses déplacements de campagne ce week-end en Paca, veut mobiliser sa famille politique. . . . [74]Guéant écarte l'idée d'un remaniement Le secrétaire général de l'Élysée a confirmé, dimanche, le maintien de Fillon après les régionales. [75]» Fillon fait l'éloge de la durée à Matignon [76]» Journalistes enlevés : indignation après les propos de Guéant . . [77]Faut-il repousser l'âge légal de la retraite au-delà de 60 ans ? Votants [picto-votant.gif] . . [78]Les chirurgiens esthétiques contrôlent leur réputation sur le Web Ils font parfois appel à des sociétés privées pour préserver leur image en ligne. [79]» Les patients en quête d'information sur la Toile . . . [80]Ukraine : le candidat pro-russe en tête Viktor Ianoukovitch affrontera Ioulia Timochenko au second tour de l'élection présidentielle ukrainienne, le 7 février. [81]» Bataille présidentielle en Ukraine . . [82]Joann Sfar : «Un film amoureux sur Gainsbourg» [83]Joann Sfar : «Un film amoureux
sur Gainsbourg»
INTERVIEW - Après Marjane Satrapi et Riad Sattouf, l'auteur de BD passe derrière la caméra et signe un conte musical aussi poétiqueque subversif sur l'Homme à tête de chou. En salle mercredi. . . [84]Un prêt-à-porter concis et stylé DÉFILÉS - Milan a donné le coup denvoi des collections masculines automne-hiver 2010-2011. [85]» EN IMAGES - Ermenegildo Zegna, [86]Dolce & Gabbana, [87]Burberry, [88]Emporio Armani... [89]» VIDEO - Bottega Venetta, [90]Burberry . . [91]Un site web retrouve des vidéos en fonction des mots prononcés Le service Voxalead indexe les émissions de radio et de télévision à partir des paroles enregistrées. . . [92]Nissan joue au Cube [93]Nissan joue au Cube EN IMAGES - La marque japonaise fait le pari de vendre en Europe cette étonnante berline compacte qui affirme sa différence au travers d'un style cubique et asymétrique. . * ____________________ OK [94]Les Blogs [95][feed-icon-16x16.png] [96]Les dessous du social [97]Tamilutte, FOrtifiant contre la pandémie sociale CHEZ FO, on a depuis longtemps de l'humour et le sens de... [98]Les dessous du social par [99]Marc Landré [100]Le blog des Marchés de la bourse et des investisseurs [101]Plutôt un risque de « syndrome Intel » que de déception sur les profits Que dire de cette séance de Bourse de lundi, sans saveur,... [102]Le blog des Marchés de la bourse et des investisseurs par [103]Roland Laskine [104]La Blog Team de Sport24 [105]Jacques Peridon: l'éditorialiste qui fait peur à l'OM! Connaissez vous Jacques Peridon? Non? Oui? Peu... [106]La Blog Team de Sport24 par [107]Bruno Roger-Petit [108]Voir tous les blogs . . La revue de net Chaque jour, cinq liens sélectionnés par lefigaro.fr + LItalie [109]censure la vidéo sur Internet + Photos : Martin Luther King [110]en famille + Le New York Times [111]payant sur le web (eng) + Le rapport sur [112]la numérisation des livres décrypté + Lécologie [113]naméliore pas le climat familial (eng) . . Logo Figaro [114][20080606PHOWWW00354.jpg] [115]Gagnez un séjour en thalasso [116]Participez et gagnez un séjour au Carnac thalasso & spa Resort. . . [117][20080606PHOWWW00353.jpg] [118]Surprenante Madonna [119] Dolce & Gabbana invente la sexy mamma-donna . . [120][20080606PHOWWW00350.jpg] [121]Exprimez-vous [122] Devrait-il y avoir davantage d'hommes dans les mouvements féministes ? . . [123]Mode - [124]Beauté - [125]Joaillerie - [126]Déco - [127]Célébrités . [128]mercato . . [129]Comment choisir son assurance vie ? Posez vos questions à Marie-Christine Sonkin, directrice adjointe de la rédaction du Journal des Finances. Elle répondra en vidéo le 19 janvier. . . «Clint Eastwood au coeur de la mêlée et au coeur du public» CRITIQUE - Pour Olivier Delcroix, avec «Invictus», qui réunit à l'écran Morgan Freeman et Matt Damon, Eastwood livre un film passionnant sur le rugby et l'apartheid. . . Météo ____________________ rech [130]France - [131]Monde - [132]Plage . [EMBED] . [133]La grande crue de 1910 à Paris [134]La grande crue de 1910 à Paris EN IMAGES - A loccasion du centenaire de la crue, deux expos sont organisées à Paris. . . . [135]L'IVG, un sujet qui fâche en Europe Trente-cinq ans après sa légalisation en France, l'interruption volontaire de grossesse fait toujours polémique chez certains de nos voisins. . . [136]Jyvais . Économie [137]Proglio bouleverse la direction d'EDF [138]Le nouveau président d'EDF installe son équipe dirigeante. . [139]Evaluer son patron, un facteur d'efficacité [140]Une étude britannique met en évidence la relation entre santé au travail et franchise vis-à-vis de son employeur. . . . . . Vos commentaires sur... [141]Haïti : Le leadership de Washington sur les secours [142]«Dans un monde idéal ce serait à l'ONU de désigner le pays chargé de tenir ce rôle majeur. Mais il semble qu'on y préfère les grands discours aux actions rationnelles et efficaces !» par DUBLEYOU 76 . . [143]Aubry estime avoir les «capacités» de présider la France [144]«Peut-être devrait-elle commencer par expliquer ce qu'elle compte faire. Le meilleur opposant n'est pas forcément le meilleur candidat» par Piémont . . [145]L'IVG reste un sujet qui fâche chez nos voisins occidentaux [146]«Si 35 ans après cela pose encore problème et choque les populations, il faudrait peut-être se poser des questions ? Ce n'est pas parce qu'une loi a été votée qu'elle reste valable des décennies après» par Ebtg . . [147]» Retrouvez toute notre sélection de commentaires des internautes [148]en cliquant ici[149]. . . . . . . Trouvez les meilleurs restos, films, spectacles, concerts et expos à Paris et en Ile de France ! ____________________ [Resto / Bars...........] Rechercher . . [150]Easy Voyage . Services + [151]Services météo + [152]Services sorties + [153]Services bourse + [154]Services voyages + [155]Services Guide-tv + [156]Services boutiques + Annonces + [157]annonces_emploi + [158]Annonces immobilières + [159]Annonces automobile + [160]Annonces rencontres + . [_] [_] [_] [_] [_] [_] [_] Annonces emploi [161]cadremploi.fr [Fonction...............][Secteur................][Localisation.... .......]_________________________ Ok [162]Recherche detaillée . . . Annonces Automobiles [163]AutoScout24 [Marque..........] [Modeles] Année [de..] Prix () de [1.000..] Distance [Rayon.] [164]Recherche détaillée [Energie...] [Professionnels et particuliers] [à...] [à......] ____________________ (Afficher les résultats) Valider . Logo Evène 18 Janvier - Sainte Prisca - [165]Offrez-lui des fleurs [3441.jpg] [166]La citation du jour "Lire n'est pas un acte de consommation culturelle, c'est une conversation." [167]Alain Finkielkraut [168]Entretien avec Guy Rossi-Landi - Février 1999 . . [4262.jpg] [169]Anniversaire du jour [170]Philippe Starck Designer français 61 ans . . [171]Chronique du jour C'est arrivé le 18 Janvier 1975 Une bande qui fait du bruit Dans les kiosques, une nouvelle parution s'apprête à faire grand bruit. Il s'agit d'un trimestriel, certifié "réservé aux adultes", flanqué d'un titre au graphisme métallique : Métal hurlant. A l'o... . . [172]Le guide cadeaux culture - EVENE . . . . . . ____________________ Rechercher newsletter ____________________ OK . IFRAME: [173]frametvmag [174]Abonnement | [175]Archives | [176]Boutique [177]Charte de modération [178]Contacts | [179]Index actualités | [180]Le Figaro en PDF | [181]Le Figaro en 3D avec Yoowalk | [182]Mentions légales | [183]Newsletters | [184]Plan du site | [185]Publicités | [186]RSS | [187]Sitemap | [188]Toutes les biographies avec le Whos Who France | [189]jeux concours avec Ledemondujeu | [190]Futura Sciences | [191]Symbaloo | [192]Livre.fr Sites du Groupe Figaro : [193]Actualité sportive avec Sport24.com | [194]Cinéma avec Evene.fr | [195]Economie avec le JDF.com | [196]Emploi avec Cadremploi.fr | [197]Formation avec Kelformation.com | [198]Explorimmoneuf | [199]Immobilier avec Explorimmo.com | [200]Immobilier de prestige avec Propriétés de France | [201]La Solitaire du Figaro | [202]Locations vacances avec Bertrand vacances | [203]Mode et Beauté avec Lefigaro.fr/madame | [204]Programmes télé avec TV Mag.com | [205]Résidences secondaires | [206]Spectacles avec TickeTac.com | [207]Vacances de rêve avec Belles Maisons A Louer | [208]Ventes privées sur Bazarchic.com . [209]Abonnement [210][20071026PHOWWW00431.jpg] . . . [211]Figaro en PDF . [212]Figaro sélection [213][20091113PHOWWW00377.jpg] . [214]Privilèges [215][20090918PHOWWW00224.jpg] . . . [216]Sport24.com [217][20091020PHOWWW00305.jpg] . [218]Carnet du jour [219][20071029PHOWWW00500.jpg] . . . [220]Figaro magazine [221][20081226PHOWWW00254.jpg] . [222]Madame Figaro [223][20090619PHOWWW00349.jpg] . [224]Salon de Detroit [225]En images [226][20100114PHOWWW00381.jpg] . [227]Camus [228]Portrait [229][20091223PHOWWW00424.jpg] . [230]People [231]Tapis rouge [232][20091202PHOWWW00394.jpg] . [233]more.madame [234]Art numérique [235][20091119PHOWWW00374.jpg] . [236]Bijoux [237]Idées cadeaux [238][20091222PHOWWW00119.jpg] . [239]High-tech [240]Vivre en 3D [241][3dc5b19c-faba-11de-8568-9cd2bbe29056.jpg] . [242]Blog [243]L'actu high-tech [244][20090722PHOWWW00246.jpg] . [245]Cinéma [246]Films de 2010 [247][f214ceae-fab9-11de-8568-9cd2bbe29056.jpg] . [248]Ecofiscalité [249]En Suède [250][20091231PHOWWW00249.jpg] . [251]Romans [252]Top des ventes [253][20100114PHOWWW00380.jpg] . [254]Hôtels [255]Spectaculaires [256][20091229PHOWWW00241.jpg] . [257]Rentrée [258]théâtrale [259][33910c4a-fab9-11de-8568-9cd2bbe29056.jpg] . [260]Rétro [261]Partis en 2009 [262][20091230PHOWWW00132.jpg] . [263]Les éditos [264]Tous les jours [265][20090610PHOWWW00336.jpg] . [266]Paris hippiques [267][20091028PHOWWW00365.jpg] . [268]Galerie Photo [269][20090319PHOWWW00273.jpg] . [270]Newsletters [271][20071026PHOWWW00455.jpg] . [272]Rencontres [273][20071029PHOWWW00504.jpg] . [274]Figaro Cadeaux [275][20080401PHOWWW00195.jpg] . [276]Mobile [277][20081121PHOWWW00303.jpg] . [278]Alerte Actu [279][20091019PHOWWW00158.jpg] . . Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1][bandeau.png] [2]Accueil [3]www.revuedumauss.com [4]www.jornaldomauss.org [5]Présentation ____________________ [6]Sylvain Dzimira Pascal Michon, Les rythmes du politique Démocratie et capitalisme mondialisé (note suivie d'une correspondance entre P. Michon, S. Dzimira et Sénèque...) Les prairies ordinaires, 2007, 318 p., 17 EUR. [7][printer.png] [8][article_pdf.png] [9]envoyer l'article par mail title= Article publié le 29 avril 2008 /3 commentaires Pour citer cet article : [10]Sylvain Dzimira, « Les rythmes du politique, Démocratie et capitalisme mondialisé (note suivie d'une correspondance entre P. Michon, S. Dzimira et Sénèque...) », Revue du MAUSS permanente, 29 avril 2008 [en ligne]. L'ambition de cet ouvrage donne tout simplement le vertige : relevant l'inanité des théories critiques, à ce point incapables de saisir notre modernité démocratique qu'elles corroborent selon lui une réalité qu'elles croient dénoncer, Pascal Michon ne propose rien de moins que de repenser la démocratie, en élaborant quasiment de toutes pièces un appareillage conceptuel, et en s'efforçant de déduire des conclusions normatives des découvertes que lui permettent les lunettes dont il se chausse, très loin de la très académique neutralité axiologique. Une ambition théorique d'autant plus étonnante qu'elle est le fait d'un historien (et non d'un sociologue ou d'un philosophe politiques qu'on pourrait croire mieux armés conceptuellement a priori), et quand on connaît l'hyperspécialisation de ses confrères (lui n'hésite pas à mobiliser « les sciences sociales » et la philosophie) et leur refus quasi généralisé de théoriser quoi que ce soit. Que pouvons-nous en penser ? Commençons par présenter l'ouvrage. PRESENTATION L'avant propos est désarçonnant, car, « tout le monde en prend pour son grade » ! Journalistes, universitaires « installés dans les chaires trop grandes pour eux de prédécesseurs célèbres » [p. 9], « intellectuels » de gauche devenus libéraux, intellectuels de droite invoquant des icônes de la gauche, tous incapables de penser quoi que ce soit de pertinent sur leur monde... Cela laisse un impression désagréable qui heureusement se dissipe rapidement, car les pages qui suivent donnent sérieusement à penser (nous les avons d'ailleurs publiées dans [11]La Revue du MAUSS Permanente). P. Michon y soutient que, reprise telle quelle par des « disciples » aveugles, la pensée libertaire et contestatrice d'hier est devenue l'un des soutiens de premier plan du nouvel ordre libéral, au même titre que la pensée libérale. D'ailleurs, elles se retrouvent dans la même dénonciation des entraves à l'auto-réalisation des individus, dans un même nominalisme nihiliste teinté d'un empirisme plat (rien n'existe au fond, qui ne s'observe pas, surtout pas « la société » ou les « sujets collectifs »), et dans une même sacralisation de la neutralité axiologique. Sont ainsi appelés à la barre : Marcela Iuacub, Antonio Negri, Michael Hart et Bruno Latour. Si ces postures étaient réellement contestatrices dans un contexte où l'individu était malmené par des pensées homogénéisantes, édifiant des totalités en surplomb, censées parfois tracer la voie du salut pour tous - phénoménologie, existentialisme, historicisme, marxisme sont cités - elles participent aujourd'hui très largement du monde nouveau qu'elles dénoncent par ailleurs, où le seul ordre qui vaille est celui qui s'établit spontanément (la neutralité axiologique est un allié précieux) par les choix des individus, qui seuls sont censés exister. Les « disciples » faussement contestataires ne sont pas les seuls à oeuvrer au nouvel ordre libéral : ils sont accompagnés par des « héritiers » (qu'on retrouve en nombre dans les médias, à l'université, dans la recherche, bref « tout ce qui constitue le fondement objectif de la vie de la pensée » [p. 23]) qui n'ont fait qu'emprunter les concepts et les programmes de recherche à leurs prédécesseurs, à qui ils doivent leurs places et leurs statuts. Cultivant une posture de « rentiers », excellant dans la « phagocytose académique » [p. 25], allant jusqu'à détourner les voix de leurs Maîtres (ainsi d'Ewald), « ce groupe est, pour P. Michon, le deuxième grand responsable de l'épuisement actuel de la pensée critique » [p. 24]. L'état des lieux laissés par leurs occupants est en effet accablant, mais suffisamment juste pour que nous citions longuement son auteur : « L'ouverture à l'autre, les parcours transversaux, la transdisciplinarité, le travail théorique, la contestation de l'ordre en cours et la créativité conceptuelle, qui avaient fondé jusque là l'organisation des savoirs, sont désormais systématiquement rejetés au profit d'une nouvelle constellation : spécialisation extrême, ignorance des autres disciplines [et souvent, même, des autres savoirs spécialisés de sa propre discipline, SD], enquêtes de terrain étroites, empirisme radical, approbation positiviste à l'égard de ce qui est et répétition académique du passé » [p. 27]. Notons que c'est avec le souci de ne pas reproduire ce qu'il dénonce - une pensée à la gloire de l'individu, nominaliste, platement empiriste, faussement neutre d'un point de vue axiologique - que P. Michon se lance dans ce qui apparaît comme une contribution à la théorie de la démocratie. Mais que ne parviennent pas à penser les théories critiques au juste ? Oscillant entre deux visions du monde radicalement opposées - tantôt monde de liberté totale, tantôt monde d'oppression totale - elles sont incapables de saisir que c'est là l'expression des « deux faces [interdépendantes] de l'individuation », dont il s'agit de comprendre la « simultanéité » et la « succession » [p. 31]. Autrement dit, elles sont incapables de saisir les nouvelles formes qu'a prises le pouvoir dans un monde vécu comme univers de liberté totale pour l'individu. Pour restituer le plus fidèlement possible sa pensée, nous ne pourrons pas nous passer des définitions que P. Michon donne de l'individuation et de la notion de rythme qui l'accompagne. « Par individuation, écrit-il, j'entends l'ensemble des processus corporels, langagiers et sociaux par lesquels sont sans cesse produits et reproduits, augmentés et minorés, les individus singuliers (les individus observés dans leur singularité psychique) et collectifs (les groupes). [...] J'appellerai rythmes les configurations spécifiques de ces processus d'individuation » ; ce sont « des manières de produire et de distinguer des individus singuliers et collectifs » [p. 32]. Aujourd'hui, soutient P. Michon, « [le pouvoir] se joue avant tout dans l'organisation et le contrôle des rythmes des processus d'individuation, ainsi que dans les classements qu'ils produisent » [p. 32]. La première partie de l'ouvrage est consacrée à l'explicitation de sa notion d'individuation et la deuxième aux formes que prend le pouvoir aujourd'hui. Dans la troisième partie de l'ouvrage, P. Michon « aborde la question [à ses yeux] la plus difficile et la plus importante de toutes : celle de la plus ou moins grande qualité des rythmes de l'individuation et des divers pouvoirs qui s'y expriment » [p. 33]. Le pouvoir se joue dans les rythmes, selon P. Michon. Or, tous les exercices du pouvoir ne s'équivalent pas. C'est donc que tous les rythmes ne s'équivalent pas. C'est pourquoi, comprenons-nous, P. Michon considère ne pas pouvoir se dispenser de rechercher des critères éthiques qui lui permettront de distinguer les bons rythmes des mauvais, en quelque sorte. Enfin, une fois ces critères identifiés, il évalue la qualité des rythmes du « monde nouveau » qu'est le nôtre. Restituons rapidement chacune de ces parties (pour aider à la compréhension de l'ouvrage tout en suivant sa progression, nous avons repris le titre de chacune de ses parties et indiqué entre parenthèses la question qu'elle nous semble poser). Individuation (ou comment penser le processus de construction des sujets individuels et collectifs ?) Pour insister sur le fait que les rythmes s'inscrivent dans le temps, et que les individus singuliers et collectifs qu'ils produisent ont eux-mêmes une dimension historique, que leur identité est évolutive (un souci bien compréhensif de la part d'un historien) même si elle peut-être relativement stable, P. Michon recourt à une nouvelle notion : celle de fluement. Il précise ainsi sa notion de rythme en lui donnant une nouvelle définition : « J'appellerai rythme toute manière de fluer des individus et poserai que tout processus d'individuation est organisé de façon rythmique » [p. 42]. Il s'attache donc à comprendre comment le corps (le rapport à son corps, entre les corps), le langage et les rapports sociaux produisent les individus singuliers et collectifs [[12]1] Pour ce qui est de la question du corps, P. Michon mobilise Marcel Mauss - [13]son fameux article sur les techniques du corps - Norbert Elias - La civilisation des moeurs et La société de cour - et Michel Foucault - Surveiller et punir - pour rappeler l'idée au fond assez simple selon laquelle le rapport à son propre corps (jusque dans notre manière de marcher), et au corps d'autrui (pratiques sexuelles, danses etc.) est culturellement, historiquement, socialement marqué, et que cela participe de la construction des sujets. Il semble distinguer au moins deux manières de produire par les corps les sujets, deux « rythmes corporels » : l'une, rare, inscrit les corps dans un « schéma mécanique et binaire » [p. 54] ; on la retrouve idéaltyptiquement dans l'usine taylorienne ou fordiste ou encore à l'armée. L'autre, la plus fréquente, sort du modèle binaire et arithmétique classique » [ibid.]. Mais on n'en sait pas beaucoup plus. Passons aux « rythmes du langage » (ou encore fluement du langage ou discursivité). Le langage (les manières de s'exprimer, de parler etc.), soutient en substance P. Michon, participe à la construction des sujets, et rend compte de cette construction. Pour comprendre comment le langage peut participer à la construction des sujets, P. Michon s'appuie sur Victor Kemplerer - La langue du IIIème Reich. Carnets d'un philologue - qui rend compte de la « nazification du langage » [p. 55]. Pour saisir comment un langage peut rendre compte des sujets socialisés, il s'appuie sur notamment Walter Benjamin - son Charles Baudelaire, un poète lyrique à l'apogée du capitalisme - qui montre que le langage qu'emploie Baudelaire renvoie « à l'expérience abîmée des individus plongés dans la Grande Ville » [p. 58]. Enfin, les « rythmes du social ». Là aussi, les relations sociales sont rythmées, elles s'inscrivent dans une temporalité qui suit ses propres rythmes, qui façonnent les identités individuelles et collectives par conséquent variables en même temps que stables. Pour l'illustrer, P. Michon s'appuie une nouvelle fois sur M. Mauss (notamment) et son [14]« Essai sur les variations saisonnières des sociétés eskimos » qui l'été se dispersent et l'hiver se rassemblent et vivent en état d'effervescence, un peu comme les Kwakiutls. Ces variations des « rythmes du social » correspondent en fait à des « variations d'intensité des interactions » [p. 71]. Bref, voilà ce qui participe à la construction de l'identité, à la fois permanente et en mouvement, des sujets individuels et collectifs, à la construction de leur « âme » : nos rapports au corps, nos rapports entre les corps, notre langage, nos relations sociales, tout cela étant étroitement entrelacé : « Les processus d'individuation sont à la fois des phénomènes langagiers, corporels et sociaux, écrit P. Michon ; ils déploient simultanément une discursivité, une corporéité et une socialité - et c'est de l'entrecroisement de leurs rythmes qu'apparaît `l'âme' » [p.76]. La notion de rythme permet donc d'appréhender des manières historiquement construites de se déplacer, de parler, d'être en relation, qui construisent les identités des sujets individuels et collectifs. À ce titre, elle a une vertu heuristique. Mais P. Michon l'appréhende également comme « un concept politique et éthique » [p. 81]. Il distingue en effet deux types de rythme qui n'ont pas les mêmes effets éthiques et politiques. Un premier type de rythme produit des sujets individuels et collectifs qui se « renforcent » mutuellement. Un deuxième type produit des sujets individuels et collectifs qui jouent l'un contre l'autre : l'affirmation des premiers se fait aux dépens des deuxièmes ou inversement. P. Michon considère « qu'une éthique et une politique démocratiques peuvent se définir comme orientées vers la production de manière de fluer de la socialité, des corps et des langages (...) qui soient à la fois singulières et partageables » et toujours « réactualisables » [pp. 81-82]. Ainsi, P. Michon suggère que les sociétés démocratiques doivent s'orienter vers des rythmes du premier type. Pouvoir (ou comment la notion de rythme permet de penser la contrainte subie par les sujets dans un monde hors contrainte - ou du moins, qui se pense comme tel ?) Après avoir précisé comment ses notions d'individuation et de rythme permettent de comprendre les manières dont les sujets individuels et collectifs sont construits, P. Michon, aborde la question de la manière dont ces rythmes produisent du pouvoir, caractéristique de notre « nouveau monde ». D'abord, P. Michon situe sa manière de voir les choses sur le « marché des idées » : ses vues se distinguent de l'utilitarisme dominant, pour qui le pouvoir, assis sur la violence ou la contrainte qui l'euphémise, est orienté vers la satisfaction des intérêts des individus, et le Pouvoir, les institutions politiques, vers l'évitement de la déflagration de la société en raison de la lutte de tous contre tous. Or, cette manière de voir ne permet pas de saisir qu'aujourd'hui, le pouvoir - qu'il s'exerce à l'échelle individuelle ou institutionnelle - passe moins par la violence ou la contrainte que par une certaine « façon de pénétrer les corps-langages, d'organiser leurs manières de fluer et de déterminer ainsi leur individuation mouvante » [p. 93]. « Le pouvoir, écrit-il plus loin, s'est émancipé de la forme système (...), et s'appuie désormais moins sur sa capacité à assurer un ordre optimisé que sur un spectre de stratégies utilisant, au contraire, la fluidité même du monde - stratégies qui vont du contrôle souple et de la création des manières de fluer des corps-langages-groupes à l'utilisation plus ou moins délibérée du chaos, comme on le voit avec les États-Unis et le Royaume-Uni au Moyen-Orient » [p. 94-95]. Aujourd'hui, les personnes sont moins assujetties que les sujets sont produits. Pour penser cette nouvelle forme du pouvoir, il faut penser autrement le rapport du tout aux parties, s'émanciper tant des théories qui consacrent une autonomie totale des individus, de celles qui en font de simples marionnettes du système, et rechercher une voie moyenne à l'instar des « théories intermédiaires » - comme celles de Elias, Bourdieu, Foucault, Touraine, Habermas, Honneth, Giddens, Bauman, Caillé, Thévenot, Boltanski. [p. 101 et suiv.] qui tentent de « penser l'un par l'autre ce qu'elles conçoivent comme les deux côtés de la vie socio-politique : les `systèmes' et les `interactions entre les individus' » [p. 101] ce par quoi il faut comprendre « un rapport réel entre des pôles dont l'existence ne se conçoit que dans leur interdépendance et leurs échanges incessants » [p. 102]. De ce point de vue « le pouvoir constitue moins un simple état de fait que le milieu et le moyen à travers lequel se construisent les individus singuliers et collectifs, les classements et les hiérarchies qui les relient les uns aux autres, ainsi que les effets de domination qui apparaissent au sein de ces classements et de ces hiérarchies » [p. 103-104]. Néanmoins, parce qu' « elles n'ont pas prêté attention à l'organisation temporelle [...] de ces interactions » [p. 106], elles manquent les rythmes du politique où se joue la question du pouvoir. P. Michon propose alors une définition du pouvoir comme « médium rythmique » [p. 107], c'est-à-dire, comprenons-nous, comme processus historique de production et de contrôle des personnes et des groupes par imposition d'un rythme « de toutes choses : de vie, de temps, de pensée, de discours » comme il l'écrit plus loin [p. 129]. Compte tenu de cette nouvelle modalité du pouvoir, reste à savoir quel critère on pourrait se donner pour juger que notre démocratie se porte bien, ou pas ? Démocratie (ou quel(s) critère(s) se donner pour évaluer la démocratie moderne ?) Ou encore : que doit-on faire pour que dans notre nouveau monde où le pouvoir s'exerce par un contrôle sur le processus de construction des corps-langages-groupes, notre démocratie se porte bien ? Quelle place pour l'État ? [[15]2] Lutter contre l'État comme le pensait Pierre Clastres ? P. Michon ne le croit pas : outre que P. Clastres aurait perdu « la conscience du temps et de l'histoire », « le modèle politique et éthique arythmique qu'[il] propose [est] assez peu offensif vis-à-vis de la réalité du capitalisme » [p. 123]. Bref, la définition d'une « démocratie comme arythmie » ne convient pas. Mieux vaut partir de Roland Barthes, selon P. Michon, et plus précisément de la présentation qu'il fait des collectivités religieuses « idiorrythmiques » qui vivaient dans les déserts syriens et égyptiens « où chaque moine a (...) licence de mener son rythme particulier de vie » [p. 126]. D'abord parce qu'elles sont parvenues à éviter les excès du repli sur soi et de la fusion communautaire, de la « solitude et [du] coenobium » [p. 127], dessinant selon lui une sorte de « socialisme qui n'aurait pas abandonné l'individu » [pp. 127-128]. Ensuite parce qu'en se retirant dans le désert, elles sont parvenues à échapper au rythme d'un pouvoir supérieur. Bref, c'est plutôt dans cette société idiorrythmique, i.e. qui se fixe à elle-même son propre rythme, qu'il voit - provisoirement du moins - un idéal type de la démocratie. Néanmoins, quand P. Clastres pense l'État sans penser le rythme, R. Barthes pense le rythme sans penser l'État [p. 140]. Sur le chemin de sa quête d'une éthique et d'une politique du rythme, P. Michon se tourne alors vers Marcel Mauss. Non seulement les descriptions que ce dernier fait de la vie saisonnière des sociétés archaïques rendent bien compte du caractère rythmique de ces sociétés, mais le potlatch illustre de manière spectaculaire à ses yeux la « nature rythmique du politique » [p. 142], au sens où c'est dans ce moment que se « redéfini[ssent] périodiquement le statut et l'identité des groupes et des personnes dans le système tribal » [p. 142]. Il retient de M. Mauss et des travaux de Marcel Granet sur la Chine que la société n'est pas contre l'État comme le pense P. Clastres, que l'État n'est pas contre la société comme le pense R. Barthes. « Leurs relations, pense-t-il, doivent [plutôt] être évaluées en fonction des interactions historiques, toujours mouvantes, entre les rythmes imposés par l'État aux corps-langages-groupes et ceux imposés à celui-là par ceux-ci. [...] L'État n'est pas nécessairement « l'ennemi » de la société : il peut certes devenir tyrannique et informer les processus d'individuation à son profit, mais il peut tout aussi bien devenir l'instrument grâce auquel la société peut chercher à assurer une individuation de bonne qualité » [p. 147]. Bref, l'État a toute sa place dans une démocratie idiorrythmique. Encore faut-il qu'il ne dénie pas son rythme propre, sans l'imposer pour autant à la société. « Les différents projets démocratiques qui sont au apparus vers la fin de cette période apparaissent comme autant de tentatives politiques pour réintroduire dans l'État, devenu permanent, une temporalité tenant compte des rythmes propres de la société » [p. 154]. Voilà ce qu'il nous faut : « Rerythmer le corps-langage arythmique de l'État moderne, lui redonner la temporalité et la multiplicité interne dont il s'est débarrassé, réhistoriciser une forme de pouvoir qui se prétend hors de l'histoire » [p. 154]. Les nouveaux rythmes d'un monde fluide Mais notre démocratie ne s'est-elle pas édifiée sur la maîtrise par « le peuple » de la discipline exercée par l'État sur les corps et sur les esprits ? Sans doute, répond P. Michon, mais de nouvelles formes rythmiques se sont imposées « aux multitudes » [[16]3], peut-être plus fortes qu'auparavant. C'est toute l'ambivalence de notre modernité démocratique. « Tout s'est [...] passé comme si l'apparition des libertés civiles puis la mutation démocratique de l'État n'avaient pu se faire qu'au prix de la diffusion de nouveaux modes rythmiques d'individuation fondés sur un assujettissement renforcé et de nouvelles formes d'exclusion » [p. 194]. En quoi consiste plus précisément la nouveauté de nos « formes de production des individus singuliers et collectifs », déjà rapidement évoqués ? C'est qu'ils sont « beaucoup plus fluides, en tout cas libérés de toute métrique, sinon de toute discipline » [p. 211]. S'appuyant sur Gabriel Tarde, P. Michon précise qu'elles sont le fait du progrès technique dans l'imprimerie, la communication et les transports, qui permet de produire des groupes 1) sans que leurs membres se rassemblent physiquement (pensons à l'internet), 2) sur la seule base d'idées communes (chacun pouvant se reconnaître dans un « courant d'opinion »), et 3) « en perpétuelle métamorphose » (c'est ce qui semble leur conférer un caractère fluide) [p. 215] ; groupes d'individus, « myriades d'atomes » séparés mais non isolés (qui prennent le visage du « public »), qui « imposent une fluidité de plus en plus grande aux groupements institutionnalisés traditionnels et [qui] transforment, tendanciellement, les sociétés modernes en société de masse » [p. 215]. Les rythmes d'individuation sont encore plus fluides en ce sens que, comme l'avait relevé Georg Simmel que P. Michon mobilise aussi - en même temps qu'ils sont désormais en connexion permanente, inscrits dans une « temporalité continue, sans halte ni repos » [p. 220], ils peuvent choisir leurs propres rythmes de vie. D'un point de vue simmelien, la monnaie y a fait bien sûr pour beaucoup. Désormais dominante, cette manière, fluide, de produire des individus singuliers et collectifs est elle-même ambivalente. G. Tarde, par exemple, est plutôt sensible aux dangers pour la démocratie que porte la possibilité de produire un « public », une « opinion publique », si celle ci devait être instrumentalisée par des puissances animées par une volonté d'assujettissement. Simmel, lui, est plus sensible aux possibilités accrues pour les individus de choisir leurs propres rythmes. Il voit davantage le danger dans le refus de cette fluidification du rythme, et dans l'aspiration au retour à des rythmes plus disciplinés et cadencés. Avec G. Tarde et G. Simmel, on voit clairement que le rythme, la manière dont les hommes se produisent, dont les corps-langages-groupes se construisent, n'est pas sans incidences politiques. Il y a donc lieu de les distinguer selon leur « qualité éthique et politique » [p. 232]. P. Michon, inspiré par Ossip Mandesltam [[17]4], se donne alors un indicateur de la mesure de cette qualité des rythmes : la « rythmicité ». Et vient une définition rythmique des groupements démocratiques : ils sont « dotés d'une rythmicité forte. Ils se caractérisent par leur multiplicité interne et par le fait qu'ils permettent aux contradictions et aux conflits de s'exprimer sans que ceux-ci ne débouchent sur la suppression de l'un des termes antagonistes, assurant ainsi l'une par l'autre la promotion du singulier et celle des groupes auxquels il appartient. » [p. 233]. Mais qu'en est-il du rythme, de la manière dont se produisent les corps-langages-groupes censée porter ces groupements démocratiques ? On n'en sait trop rien sinon qu'il est lui-même traversé par cette exigence paradoxale de fabriquer du commun et du singulier, de la cohésion et du conflit. On en sait davantage sur le rythme des groupements à rythmicité faible, dont la foule et les « sociétés de masses » sont les idéaux-types : ils « sont très souvent marqués par des techniques rythmiques de type métriques - [...] manifestations, meetings politiques, matchs de football -, proches de la cadence, de la simple alternance binaire [...] ou mécanique - [...] parades militaires, sparkiades et autres spectacles de masse » [p. 233-234]. Mais les rythmes à rythmicité faible peuvent être encore « flous, très peu accentués et à basse tension interne » [p. 234], comme on peut en rencontrer dans les entreprises aujourd'hui, « rythmes aussi peu favorables à l'individuation que les rythmes binaires et disciplinaires qu'ils ont remplacés » [p . 234], typiques des organisations tayloristes ou de l'armée. À la recherche des formes justes d'un monde fluidifié Ce qu'il faut donc, c'est rechercher « les formes justes d'un monde fluidifié » [p. 237]. Il se tourne alors vers ce qu'il appelle « l'utopie maussienne » [p. 233], qui consiste à voir la morale du don - de la triple obligation de donner, recevoir et rendre - tempérer, contenir, celle de l'intérêt, aujourd'hui dominante, et qui revient selon lui à « assurer la maximisation de leur individuation [celle des individus singuliers et collectifs] par une mise en tension du soi et du collectif » [p. 238]. Car, plus qu'une simple transaction, P. Michon voit dans le don archaïque, agonistique, un rythme particulier, « l'occasion d'une réunion et d'une mise en branle périodiques et organisées des corps-langages, c'est à dire de la production d' `âmes' par des techniques rythmiques particulières » [p. 239]. Voyant chez M. Mauss une définition rythmique du don - comme forme de production des corps-langages-groupes - susceptible d'étayer un projet éthico-politique, P. Michon la considère comme un « point de départ » [p. 241] pour réfléchir à l'énoncé de critères qui permettent de distinguer les bons des mauvais rythmes. Il déduit des réflexions de Mauss sur la circulation et la fortification de l'âme des peuples au cours des potlatchs que « toute politique démocratique consistera [...] à rechercher, non pas seulement, comme le pensaient Georg Simmel et R. Barthes, une idiorrythmie, une simple liberté rythmique personnelle indépendante des rythmes collectifs, mais une eurythmie simultanément corporelle, discursive et sociale - une maximisation de l'individualisation singulière et collective » [p. 242]. Au regard de la démocratie, le seul bon rythme est celui qui maximise la production des individus singuliers et collectifs... Néanmoins, M. Mauss ne parvient pas à nous fournir les critères qui permettraient de distinguer les bons [[18]5] des mauvais rythmes d'individuation, parce que, dans ses conclusions de morale et de politique de son célèbre Essai, il développe une « conception pacifiste et consensualiste de la démocratie, et ne tient aucun compte du rôle que joue précisément le conflit dans [les] processus d'individuation » [p. 248]. P. Michon voit davantage le bon rythme de l'individuation démocratique chez les Nuer tels qu'ils sont décrits par Evans-Pritchard, qui alternent successivement « don et refus du don, l'alliance et la lutte » [p. 252]. Ainsi, « tout en restant disponibles à la générosité et à l'engagement solidaire, [ils] jouissent pleinement de leur autonomie. [...] Les Nuer ont inventé un système, poursuit plus loin P. Michon, dans lequel, loin de s'opposer, solidarité et individualité se renforcent l'une l'autre » [ibid.]. Bref, le bon rythme d'individuation démocratique est celui qui repose sur « l'alternance du conflit et de l'alliance ». [p. 252], ou plus précisément, il s'opère lorsque « l'alliance et le conflit alternent tout en étant compris sans cesse l'un dans l'autre, un peu comme, dans la pensée chinoise, le yin et le yang se succèdent tout en impliquant déjà chaque fois leur opposé »[p. 254]. Ou encore, le bon rythme d'individuation démocratique est celui qui permet de « considérer nos adversaires comme des alliés en puissance, mais aussi ceux qui sont nos alliés comme de potentiels adversaires » [p. 254]. Ce qui le conduit à défendre une définition de la démocratie comme « eurythmie de l'usage de la violence » [p. 254]. Seul ce rythme « maximise » l'individuation des individus singuliers et collectifs, permet l'affirmation la plus intense des « Je » et du « Nous ». [p. 255] [[19]6]. De ce point de vue, le système économique le plus juste est donc celui qui fait autant de place à l'adversité qu'à l'alliance. Il le voit dans une sorte de « mixture » qui organiserait l'adversité par la concurrence marchande et la reconnaissance de la propriété privée, et l'alliance par l'organisation collective de la production et une certaine « mise en commun de la propriété » [p. 274]. Il en vient ainsi à définir la démocratie, « non seulement comme une eurythmie de l'usage de la violence, mais comme une eurythmie des usages de la propriété et du marché » [ibid.], dont la rythmicité est donc forte. C'est à l'aune de ce critère du bon rythme d'individuation démocratique qu'il évalue la qualité des rythmes du « monde nouveau » qu'est le nôtre. Capitalisme mondialisé (notre société capitaliste est-elle bien démocratique ? Que faire pour la rendre plus démocratique ?) Le rythme du capitalisme s'est modifié. Cadencé, binaire, métrique dans les organisations tayloristes, il s'est depuis une trentaine d'années fluidifié dans les organisations dites flexibles, dont l'objectif est de répondre au mieux à la demande des clients (en vue de maximiser le profit). Jouant la carte de la responsabilisation individuelle, des horaires variables, de l'accroissement de la mobilité professionnelle, ces organisations développent des rythmes d'individuation plus lâches, moins métriques et peuvent donner l'impression qu'elles libèrent les formes de vie dans le travail. Mais, s'appuyant sur l'ouvrage de Richard Senett, Le travail en miettes (1998), P. Michon montre qu'il n'en est rien. Confrontés à des objectifs de court terme quasiment inatteignables, à un temps hors travail qu'ils ne maîtrisent même plus, à des parcours professionnels bigarrés, les individus subissent une nouvelle forme d'assujettissement. Et l'individualisation à outrance du rapport au travail a sapé « les liens de confiance et d'engagement mutuels » constitutifs de tout groupe [p 292]. On a désormais affaire à des individus singuliers et collectifs à faible rythmicité. Notre monde est flexible, mais il est encore médiatique. On assiste à un développement sans précédent des moyens de communication, qui, lui aussi, à l'instar de la flexibilité, pourrait faire croire à une libération des formes d'individuation ici langagière. Mais il n'en est rien. Le discours est aseptisé, consensuel, l'information « désincarnée et dépolitisée ». Bref, qu'il s'agisse de nos rapports au langage, au corps, aux autres, nous vivons dans un monde à faible rythmicité, i.e. dont ni l'individu, ni le collectif ne sortent gagnants. « Ainsi, note P. Michon, les démocraties libérales, qui se voyaient jusque là comme des machines à produire des individus émancipés, tendent-elles à devenir aujourd'hui d'immenses dispositifs qui assurent, à travers une fluidification généralisée des corporéités, des discursivités, et des socialités, la multiplication d'individus faibles et flottants, constamment happés par les besoins de la production et de l'échange marchand et les interactions dans lesquels ils sont pris » [p. 307]. Pour éviter les « tempêtes » dont ce monde est porteur, il est urgent pour P. Michon que nous retrouvions de nouveaux rythmes d'individuation langagière, corporelle et sociale, « à partir des capacités des individus à s'associer au niveau local, voire translocal » [p. 311], « dans l`expérience de corps-langage-groupe en lutte » [p. 312]. Mais cela ne pourra pas se faire, selon lui, sans « toucher aux rapports de production et à la répartition des revenus » [ibid.], et donc sans une « puissance supérieure à celle des entreprises et du marché » [ibid.], qui pourrait-être l'Europe, en tant qu'entité politique. DISCUSSION Que penser de cet ouvrage ? À vrai dire, il nous laisse une curieuse impression. Les efforts que déploie P. Michon pour concevoir un appareillage conceptuel afin de saisir l'état de notre démocratie moderne forcent le respect. On est là, se dit-on, en présence d'un auteur qui développe sa propre pensée, en discussion permanente avec des auteurs d'horizons multiples, de surcroît d'une manière fort rigoureuse, puisqu'il ne s'épargne aucun effort pour définir les notions qu'il crée. La progression de l'ouvrage elle-même laisse apparaître un auteur méthodique et prudent dans ses diagnostics : ce n'est qu'après avoir défini ce qu'il appelle individuation, explicité ses rapports avec le pouvoir, qu'il se permet, chaussé des lunettes qu'il vient de se fabriquer, de porter un diagnostic sur notre démocratie. Enfin, on sent bien, intuitivement, qu'avec sa notion de rythme, il pointe sur une dimension de la réalité sociale très largement ignorée par les spécialistes en sciences sociales [[20]7]mais qui pourrait bien être importante si, comme il le soutient, c'est dans les rythmes que se jouent les relations de pouvoir. De l'usage du concept Mais c'est ce même appareillage conceptuel qui nous laisse perplexe. Créé de toutes pièces par P. Michon, il est bien difficile à saisir malgré les efforts qu'il fournit pour définir les notions employées. Individuation, rythme, arythmie, idiorrythmie, eurythmie, fluement (finalement très peu utilisé), rythmicité (forte et faible) : tout cela pourrait décourager le lecteur pressé (et a rendu cette recension bien difficile). À ce propos d'ailleurs, les ralliements qu'il opère de certains auteurs à la cause de l'individuation et du rythme paraissent un peu forcés ! Présenter M. Foucault comme l'auteur d'une « histoire des rythmes d'individuation » [p. 195], et M. Mauss comme le découvreur de la notion d'eurythmie [p. 243, cf. supra] est pour le moins assez peu usuel. Si ces points de vue, rapidement glissés, pouvaient aider à la compréhension des idées de P. Michon, ils pourraient se justifier. Mais pour notre part, nous ne pouvons pas dire qu'ils nous aient beaucoup aidés. Bien sûr, son langage se comprend au regard des défaillances qu'il identifie chez les auteurs qui appréhendent notre démocratie, et qui résident justement, selon lui, dans leur incapacité à saisir ce qu'il appelle individuation et rythme pourtant au coeur des relations de pouvoir selon lui. Nous sommes tout simplement, de son point de vue, en présence d'« une réalité nouvelle » qui demande « des dispositifs théoriques, eux aussi, totalement nouveaux » (nous soulignons) [p. 30]. Par ailleurs, P. Michon a suffisamment critiqué l'intelligentsia française pour son manque de créativité intellectuelle pour ne pas se faire lui-même inventif... Néanmoins, la nouveauté est-elle toujours un indice de la pertinence ? Ne peut-on rien apprendre de ceux qui nous ont précédés ? Qu'y a-t-il de honteux à s'inscrire dans une tradition de pensée ? Soyons sévère (et un peu injuste, car P. Michon s'efforce, sans être toujours très convaincant, de rallier des prédécesseurs plus ou moins connus à ses concepts) : n'y a-t-il pas dans cette posture de créativité radicale, quasiment nihiliste, quelque chose du mythe de l'autoréalisation de soi emblématique de notre époque et qu'il condamne lui-même ? Toujours est-il que nous nous demandons si P. Michon n'aurait pas pu, tout de même, dire les choses plus simplement. Que dit-il au juste ? Que nos identités se construisent dans nos relations aux autres, qui engagent notre corps et notre langage. Que ces relations peuvent être placées sous des registres différents (elles peuvent être rythmées différemment), qu'elles peuvent être notamment plus ou moins contraintes (rythme cadencé, métré, binaire etc.) ou libres (rythme fluide). Que dans ces relations se jouent des relations de pouvoir sur les personnes (pouvoir de contrainte, parfois médiatisé par le savoir), et, par-là, la capacité pour elles de se réaliser de manière autonome, ou pas (pouvoir d'agir). Dans une première phase du capitalisme, un réel pouvoir sur les personnes s'exerçait via l'organisation de relations sociales contraignantes qui engageaient leurs corps et leurs langages, et qui freinaient leur pouvoir d'agir, individuellement et collectivement. L'organisation tayloriste en constitue l'idéal-type. Aujourd'hui, apparemment délivrées des contraintes systémiques dans leurs relations aux autres, visiblement libérées du pouvoir qui s'exerçait sur elles-mêmes (l'organisation du travail flexible faisant appel à l'initiative et à la responsabilité de ses salariés joue ici comme idéal-type), les personnes n'ont pour autant pas gagné en pouvoir d'agir, ni individuellement, ni collectivement. Le pouvoir exercé sur les personnes prend paradoxalement le canal de l'exhortation de leur pouvoir d'agir (qui se réduit bien souvent à celui de produire et de consommer). Si bien que notre démocratie n'est pas tout à fait démocratique, « étant entendu » qu'une bonne démocratie est celle qui renforce le pouvoir d'agir des individus et des groupes. D'une certaine manière, même, notre société est moins démocratique qu'auparavant car elle paraît faussement l'être plus, alors qu'autrefois elle paraissait bien ne pas l'être assez. Ce que nous pouvons en déduire, c'est qu'il nous faut cultiver des relations sociales, créer des institutions qui soient porteuses de ce pouvoir d'agir individuellement et collectivement, qui nous permettent de retrouver la maîtrise de nos destins à la fois individuels et collectifs. Nous aimerions savoir ce que ce résumé omet d'essentiel que l'emploi de ses notions d'individuation, de rythme, de fluement, d'arythmie, d'idiorrythmie etc. auraient fait apparaître. Sur la démocratie Puisque l'ouvrage se présente comme une contribution à la théorie de la démocratie, attardons-nous maintenant sur cette contribution, et d'abord sur son positionnement sur le marché des idées. Pour le dire vite, P. Michon souhaite se distinguer à la fois de l'individualisme méthodologique, qui ne voit que des individus libres, et du holisme qui ne voit que des individus contraints. Il leur reproche au fond leur incapacité à saisir que la contrainte prend aujourd'hui les allures de la liberté. Son souci est bien de se doter de concepts qui permettent de comprendre ce paradoxe. Il le tente dans le cadre d'un interactionnisme ou d'un relationnisme qui se laisse percevoir dans sa définition de l'individuation, comme processus de construction des identités et des normes dans le cadre de relations qui engagent le corps et le langage (d'ailleurs, qu'est-ce donc que l'individuation ainsi traduite - nous espérons ne pas trahir la pensée de P. Michon - sinon ce que les sociologues appellent socialisation ?). De ce point de vue, la démarche nous paraît très cohérente. P. Michon dit encore vouloir se distinguer des théories utilitaristes du pouvoir (notons d'ailleurs qu'il situe dans l'utilitarisme l'origine de la fluidification de notre monde [[21]8], sans qu'on sache s'il s'agit de l'utilitarisme en tant que pratique ou en tant que théorie, et sans qu'il nous dise véritablement en quoi il serait à l'origine de la fluidification de notre monde). Il dit en effet ne pas souscrire aux théories qui définissent le pouvoir comme pouvoir de contrainte en vue de satisfaire ses intérêts personnels, et qui envisagent le Pouvoir comme l'ensemble des institutions visant l'évitement la déflagration sociale dans la guerre de tous contre tous. De fait, ce n'est pas ainsi qu'il considère le pouvoir puisque, pour lui, le pouvoir de contrainte et d'assujettissement s'exerce moins qu'il ne se joue dans les manières dont les relations se construisent en engageant le corps et le langage. Cela lui permet de faire apparaître que des relations placées sous le signe de la liberté, ou du moins de l'absence apparente de contraintes (de la fluidité) peuvent au final s'avérer très contraignantes ; autrement dit, qu'un réel pouvoir de contrainte peut se manifester sans qu'une volonté quelconque d'assujettissement soit véritablement exprimée. Situation qui caractérise notre société démocratique contemporaine selon lui (si nous avons bien compris). De ce point de vue, pas de doute, P.Michon ne s'inscrit pas dans la tradition utilitariste. Quoique... plaçant par ailleurs le pouvoir sous le signe de « stratégies qui vont du contrôle souple et de la création plus ou moins délibérée du chaos » [p. 94-95 par exemple, cf. supra], on peut se demander quelle place il accorde à l'intérêt calculé dans cette affaire, et donc quel rapport sa conception du pouvoir entretient avec l'utilitarisme ? Concernant la relation de sa conception de la démocratie avec l'utilitarisme, les choses sont beaucoup plus ambiguës. En effet, il définit assez curieusement la démocratie comme le régime ou l'état social plutôt (P. Michon ne se prononce pas trop à ce sujet) qui « maximise » l'individuation : « Toute politique démocratique consistera, écrit-il, [...] à rechercher [...] une eurythmie simultanément corporelle, discursive et sociale - une maximisation de l'individuation singulière et collective » [p. 242]. Nous ne comprenons tout simplement pas qui maximise, qui calcule au mieux quoi, ni en en vue de quoi ! Reprenons sa définition de l'individuation : que signifie calculer « un processus corporel, langagier et social par lesquels sont sans cesse produits et reproduits les individus singuliers et collectifs » ? À vrai dire, la question « en vue de quoi il faut maximiser l'individuation », pourrait trouver sa réponse quelques lignes plus haut, quand P. Michon relève que dans un des derniers passages de l' [22]« Essai sur le don » , M. Mauss situe le secret du bonheur dans une vie bien rythmée, alternant les moments de travail et de repos, de solitude et de vie sociale, d'accumulation des richesses et de dépenses généreuses. Voilà donc ce qu'aurait en vue une politique véritablement démocratique, qui viserait la maximisation de l'individuation : le bonheur de tous et de chacun (manifestement mesurables et calculables). Ainsi placée sous le signe du calcul (maximisateur), du bonheur, du plus grand bonheur, et d'un grand calculateur, une telle conception de la démocratie nous semble bien s'inscrire dans la tradition utilitariste. D'ailleurs, nous nous demandons vraiment si les communautés religieuses syriennes qui représentent pour lui un bon idéal-type de la bonne démocratie conduisaient une politique de maximisation de l'individuation ! À moins que par maximisation il ne faille pas comprendre maximisation, c'est à dire calcul... Nous avons tendance à penser en effet que cette expression est malheureuse, et que P. Michon est davantage spinoziste que benthamien, car il nous semble que pour lui, une démocratie s'évalue non pas par le bonheur de ses membres, mais par la « puissance d'agir » de tous et de chacun [[23]9]. Enfin, le critère qu'il se donne pour identifier un groupement démocratique nous semble très largement autoréférentiel. En effet, qu'est-ce qu'un groupement démocratique pour P. Michon ? Un groupement dont la rythmicité est forte. Mais la caractéristique qu'il donne d'un groupe dont la rythmicité est forte n'est rien d'autre que celle d'un groupement démocratique, i.e. qui sait cultiver le conflit dans les limites de l'amitié. Nous aurions aimé qu'il précise plutôt sous quel registre il place une telle relation...à la fois teintée d'agôn et de philia... Ce qui nous amène à M. Mauss. Sur Marcel Mauss Ce que P. Michon souligne en s'appuyant sur M. Mauss, c'est combien la vie de certains peuples archaïques est saisonnière, ou encore, rythmée. Les Eskimos comme les Kwakiutls, par exemple, se dispersent l'été, période d'accumulation, et se retrouvent l'hiver, période d'effervescence sociale, de dépenses généreuses, d'invitations mutuelles, bref, de dons en tous genres. P. Michon donne au rythme de la vie sociale une importance qu'elle n'a généralement pas chez les commentateurs de M. Mauss. Il nous alerte ainsi sur les rythmes de nos propres vies sociales, et en particulier, sur « la nature rythmique du politique » [p. 142]. À mieux y réfléchir, les dons eux-mêmes obéissent en effet à des rythmes propres qui leur sont constitutifs : il y a des moments pour donner, de même qu'il y a des moments pour ne pas donner, et la spirale du don elle-même - celle de la triple obligation de donner, recevoir et rendre plus - obéit bien à un rythme (à trois temps) plus ou moins obligé. Si ces rythmes ne sont pas respectés, si l'on donne mal à propos, à contre-temps, si l'on rend trop rapidement, ou encore si le temps du don est réduit à presque rien ou cantonné à la sphère privée, on saisit bien que cela puisse compromettre les alliances et la vie sociale elle-même. On comprend mieux ainsi en quoi les rythmes de nos vies sociales ne sont pas sans effets éthiques et politiques. C'est un véritable chantier qu'ouvre ainsi P. Michon, qui mérite à nos yeux que les MAUSSiens, entre autres, s'y penchent davantage qu'ils ont pu le faire. D'autant que la démarche de P. Michon, qui s'efforce de déduire de ses réflexions socio-anthropologiques des conclusions de morale et de politique, s'inscrit pleinement dans une démarche maussienne. D'ailleurs, les conclusions de politiques économiques auxquelles aboutit P. Michon font étonnement écho aux positions politiques de M. Mauss, quand ce dernier plaide pour une « mixture » de capitalisme et de socialisme, de propriété privée et de propriété collective, de marché et de solidarité etc. Mixture qui, tout en étant attentive à la dimension collective de nos existences, n'en oublierait pas pour autant que les individus ont des aspirations singulières, pas moins légitimes que les aspirations collectives. En fait, on a chez M. Mauss le « socialisme qui n'aurait pas abandonné l'individu » [pp. 127-128] cher à R. Barthes et auquel semble sensible P. Michon. Pour autant, et ce n'est pas que nous voulions défendre M. Mauss à tout prix, nous ne partageons pas toujours les lectures qu'en fait P. Michon. Par exemple, nous avons du mal à le suivre quand il soutient que M. Mauss ne parvient tout simplement pas à penser l'histoire. Les considérations de M. Mauss dans son « Essai sur le don », « conservent, en dépit de tout, écrit P. Michon, une attache à un principe ultime de stabilité et d'atemporalité » [p. 248]. Vraiment, nous ne voyons pas en quoi. « L'Essai sur le don » est une vaste épopée du don ! Nous avons encore du mal à suivre P. Michon quand il parle « d'utopie maussienne », car les positions politiques de M. Mauss sont tout sauf utopiques. Le socialisme démocratique et associationniste qu'il défend n'est pas à rêver. Il est déjà en partie advenu, par et dans les coopératives de consommation notamment. Il a moins à être inventé qu'à être encouragé. M. Mauss n'est pas un utopiste. Il est même bien conscient de l'écart qui existe entre le possible et le souhaitable, et ne plaide que pour le possible, mais tout le possible, en direction du souhaitable. C'est un possibiliste [[24]10]. De la même manière, nous ne le suivons pas quand il soutient que M. Mauss « garde une conception pacifiste et consensualiste de la démocratie » [ibid.]. Il suffit de mettre en rapport son « Essai sur le don » et sa critique du bolchevisme, écrits sensiblement au même moment, et pour voir combien la conception maussienne de la démocratie est agonistique, et pour comprendre qu'elle est ancrée, justement, sur « le roc de la morale éternelle » qu'est le don agonistique selon M. Mauss. La définition que P. Michon donne de la démocratie comme état social qui fait toute leur place à la fois à l'alliance et au conflit, qui se contiennent l'un l'autre, le conflit évitant à l'alliance de basculer dans la fusion et l'alliance permettant au conflit de ne pas sombrer dans la déflagration, nous semble très maussienne. Elle pourrait-même trouver son fondement anthropologique dans le don agonistique, qui présente exactement la caractéristique que P. Michon prête à la démocratie. D'ailleurs, la définition qu'il donne de la démocratie comme eurythmie rejoint tout à fait la voie du milieu éthique et politique qui est celle de M. Mauss [[25]11]. Finalement, si nous avions à écrire la question que se pose P. Michon et la réponse qu'il y apporte, sans recourir à ses concepts parfois difficiles d'accès, nous les formulerions ainsi : « Que pouvons-nous faire pour retrouver notre autonomie dans un monde où le pouvoir de contrainte sur les personnes s'exerce non plus directement mais via d'invisibles processus qui façonnent leurs manières de se parler, de se mouvoir et de se lier ? Commencer par expérimenter des manières propres de nous parler, de nous mouvoir, de nous lier, qui nous permettent de retrouver la maîtrise de nos vies individuelles et collectives ». Ou, encore plus brièvement, forcément appauvrissant, et en reprenant sa métaphore musicale : « Que faire dans un monde où nous sommes tous emportés par une cadence infernale qui nous oppresse et nous opprime ? Ne pas s'arrêter de jouer (voie a-rythmique), ne pas jouer seul dans son coin (voie idiorrythmique), mais simplement retrouver le bon rythme pour soi et pour tous ! (voie eurythmique) ». Malgré les réserves que nous avons pu émettre, le lecteur aura saisi que l'ouvrage de P. Michon donne véritablement à penser. Nous espérons qu'il retiendra l'attention d'un grand nombre et notamment des MAUSSiens, car il pointe sur une dimension de la vie sociale, son caractère rythmé, qu'ils ont finalement peu interrogée, alors qu'il se pourrait qu'elle ne soit pas sans effets éthico-politiques. Cela mérite bien un examen attentif. Bibliographie sommaire de Pascal Michon Michon, P., Éléments d'une histoire du sujet, Paris, Kimé, 1999 -- [26]Rythmes, pouvoir, mondialisation, PUF, 2005. Ouvrages en collaboration -- (avec E. Barjolle, G. Dessons, V. Fabbri), Avec Henri Meschonnic : Les gestes dans la voix, Rumeur des Ages, 2003. -- (avec G. Desson et S. Martin), Henri Meschonnic, la pensée et le poème, In Press, 2005. -- (avec Ph. Hauser, F. Carnevale, A. Brossat), Foucault dans tous ses éclats, L'Harmattan, 2005. On peut aussi retrouver P. Michon dans les numéros 25 [27]Malaise dans la démocratie , 26 [28]Alter-démocratie, Alter-économie et 28 [29]Penser la crise de l'école de La Revue du MAUSS semestrielle. [30]Pour commander les numéros Ici, un article paru dans le mensuel [31]Sciences Humaines en novembre 2005 __________________________________________________________________ Réponse de Pascal Michon Cher Sylvain, tout d'abord, je voudrais vous remercier de votre recension extrêmement scrupuleuse. C'est un réconfort de voir qu'il existe encore, dans nos corporations de sciences sociales, des lecteurs curieux. J'ai plus l'habitude des débats internes, dans l'entre-soi disciplinaire qui permet à la fois de facilement se comprendre et d'éviter de se frotter aux savoirs des autres disciplines. De nombreux lecteurs de mon livre précédent, par exemple, se sont arrêtés aux chapitres qui les « concernaient », passant du même coup à côté du mouvement de pensée qui les liaient les uns aux autres - les sociologues ont lu les sections sociologiques, les psy les sections psy, les littéraires les sections littéraires... Tout ce petit monde est resté chez soi et les vaches ont été bien gardées. J'ai aussi aimé la façon dont vous avez procédé, présentant, tout d'abord, le texte dans ses grandes lignes puis proposant, dans un deuxième temps, une lecture critique. C'est de très bonne méthode et je vous en remercie également, car cela donne à entendre aux lecteurs, sans interférences, une grande partie des enjeux de mon travail. Je vais me concentrer dans cette réponse sur ceux de ces enjeux que vous n'avez pu complètement traiter, soit parce qu'on ne peut tout dire dans une recension, soit parce qu'il reste toujours des angles moins bien éclairés quel que soit le point de vue que l'on adopte. 1. Mon livre est un essai. Bien qu'il tente, comme vous le remarquez, de construire méthodiquement ses concepts à partir du matériel analytique disponible, il ne prétend pas répondre à tous les problèmes qui se posent, ni fournir une théorie complète de son objet : les rythmes de l'individuation singulière et collective. Il voudrait juste faire émerger celui-ci dans la conscience scientifique. Si cet objectif était atteint, cela me suffirait grandement. Mon livre constitue plus une proposition de recherche, l'esquisse d'un programme de travail, qu'une réponse globalisante qui donnerait une clé pour toutes les serrures contemporaines. On m'a déjà reproché cette « ambition », comme vous dîtes, ou même le côté « totalisant » de ma démarche. À cela je réponds habituellement : 1. que nous ne pouvons plus nous satisfaire, de par la nature même du nouveau monde dans lequel nous sommes entrés, de déclarations d'intention concernant la transdisciplinarité, il nous faut la mettre en pratique activement et individuellement (c'est-à-dire pas seulement par une juxtaposition de spécialistes) car aucune discipline ne peut, encore plus aujourd'hui qu'hier, comprendre à elle seule ce qui est train d'émerger. Mauss, qui était passé à travers une période historique par bien des points semblables à la nôtre, l'avait d'ailleurs bien compris : « C'est aux confins des sciences, à leurs bords extérieurs, aussi souvent qu'à leurs principes, qu'à leur noyau et à leur centre que se font leurs progrès » (« Rapports réels et pratiques de la psychologie et de la sociologie », 1924) ; 2. que les sciences sociales ne peuvent progresser que par un déplacement radical de point de vue. Je milite, pour cette raison, comme Alain Caillé, en faveur d'un changement de paradigme. En simplifiant outrageusement, on peut dire qu'après l'affaissement des paradigmes structuralistes et systémistes, l'individualisme méthodologique, sous différentes formes, a pris le dessus. Or, cette mutation n'a pas apporté les résultats escomptés. En fait, ni l'un ni l'autre de ces paradigmes ne peut rendre compte de la période présente. Il est vrai qu'un certain nombre de « théories intermédiaires » ou « centristes » dans la classification de Margaret Archer, (Elias, Bourdieu, Foucault, Touraine, Habermas, Giddens, Bauman, Caillé, Boltanski, Thévenot, entre autres) ont essayé, partant du même constat, de dépasser les dualismes traditionnels des sciences sociales. Mais elles connaissent aujourd'hui des ratés qui tiennent, me semble-t-il, essentiellement à leur difficulté à conjuguer primat de la temporalité, éthique et politique. D'où la nécessité d'un nouveau modèle général - comme celui que fournit le rythme - pour relancer la réflexion ; 3. qu'on confond souvent, de manière polémique, totalisation et puissance d'un concept. Le concept de rythme n'est pas globalisant ou totalisant, il possède tout simplement une puissance que j'essaie, avec mes moyens, d'explorer. C'est cette puissance de problématisation nouvelle qui dérange les habitudes de pensée et les partages du territoire institutionnel qui leur sont liés - et qui explique ces caricatures absurdes qui me sont parfois opposées. 2. Mon livre porte sur la question de l'individuation singulière et collective. Pour des raisons de précision et pour ne pas embrouiller l'exposé, j'ai expressément laissé de côté la question du ou des « sujets ». D'où un certain flou dans votre présentation qui confond, comme beaucoup de monde il est vrai, ces deux questions. Mais, si vous y prêtez attention vous le verrez aisément, le rapport entre les deux est loin d'être évident et devrait être analysé à nouveaux frais. Pour rester bref, on peut dire qu'un individu singulier ou collectif n'atteint le statut de sujet que lorsqu'il devient un agent d'un processus particulier. D'où une difficulté, une multiplicité, une discontinuité et une instabilité très grandes de la subjectivation, dont les rapports à l'individuation restent en fait entièrement à repenser. En tout état de cause, individuation est loin de signifier subjectivation (c'est, d'ailleurs, l'un des problèmes que posent les propositions d'AlainTouraine qui ne fait pas cette distinction). 3. J'ai beaucoup insisté sur un aspect décisif du concept de rythme qui n'apparaît pas dans votre recension : son aspect a-métrique. Le matériel très divers et assez abondant dont nous disposons (que ce soit au niveau des corps, du langage ou des interactions sociales) montre qu'il est impossible de se satisfaire de sa définition métrique traditionnelle. Si nous nous limitons à cette définition, nous réduisons la diversité des fluements du réel à un schéma binaire et numérique simpliste et nous introduisons sans même en avoir conscience une politique et une éthique anti-démocratiques. Une définition plus utilisable pour penser ce que nous devons penser aujourd'hui est celle qui avait cours avant que Platon associe rhuthmos et métron, et qui faisait du rythme une « manière de fluer ». J'ai aussi montré que cette définition peut être précisée grâce à la remotivation par Diderot de la notion de « manière », qu'il repense à partir de la question de la qualité (et donc de l'individuation) artistique, c'est-à-dire comme concept d'une forme qui reste active en dehors de son contexte originel. Ces précisions sont loin d'être des détails insignifiants, elles engagent toute la théorie des rythmes de l'individuation, aussi bien dans ses capacités heuristiques, que dans ses conséquences éthiques et politiques. 4. Ici, on le voit, la sociologie a un grand besoin de la linguistique (Benveniste), de la poétique (Meschonnic) et de la philosophie (Deleuze, Foucault, Simondon). Or, je note que vous accordez toute votre attention aux auteurs sociologiques ou anthropologiques que je cite, mais que vous ne dîtes rien des discussions philosophiques, poétiques et linguistiques, qui encadrent ces analyses (Benveniste, Meschonnic, Deleuze, Foucault et Simondon sont étrangement absents de votre CR). Je me demande si vous ne raisonnez pas encore ici, à votre insu, en termes disciplinaires, comme si poétique, linguistique ou philosophie n'avaient rien à apporter aux sciences sociales ou ne constituaient que des décorations non-essentielles d'un propos plus consistant qui reviendrait de droit à ces dernières. 5. Sur vos critiques maintenant. Vous trouvez que j'exagère en caractérisant Surveiller et punir comme un grand livre sur les rythmes de l'individuation. Je sais bien que la vulgate présente Foucault comme un auteur intéressé uniquement par l'espace, les répartitions, les quadrillages, etc. Mais, précisément, cette vulgate laisse totalement de côté le profond intérêt de Foucault pour tous les phénomènes temporels, en particulier pour toutes les techniques utilisées pour rythmer les corps, les discours et la vie des groupes. Il me semble que les descriptions qu'il fait de l'apprentissage militaire, des formes du travail dans les manufactures, de la vie en prison, des méthodes de dressage scolaires parlent d'elles-mêmes. Elles corroborent, du reste, des analyses engagées par Thompson au cours de la décennie précédente et constituent un ensemble d'analyses des rythmes de l'individuation qui n'a que peu d'équivalents dans la littérature scientifique disponible. 6. Pour Mauss (comme pour Foucault), vous trouvez ma lecture rythmique « peu usuelle ». Mais je voudrais vous faire remarquer que Mauss dit lui-même explicitement dans le Manuel d'ethnographie ceci : « Socialement et individuellement, l'homme est un animal rythmique ». Vous m'accorderez que cette phrase est une affirmation extrêmement forte. Or, tout le monde s'empresse de la laisser de côté. Je vous retourne donc (mais aussi à tous les Maussiens) la question : quel sort faites-vous à cette affirmation ? Ne pensez-vous pas que, sous cette forme condensée présentée sur un patron aristotélicien, elle indique une entrée à partir de laquelle on pourrait au moins relire une bonne part de son oeuvre ? Ou bien pensez-vous que cette phrase a été proférée comme une simple fioriture rhétorique sans signification profonde. Pour ma part, j'ai montré dans ma thèse (dont une partie a été publiée dans mes Éléments d'une histoire du sujet en 1999 et... dans la revue du MAUSS en 2005, mais qui n'a pas eu l'heur d'attirer l'attention des spécialistes - elle n'est jamais citée dans les livres sur Mauss), textes à l'appui, que Mauss n'a jamais engagé, comme l'a soutenu Lévi-Strauss pour des raisons de pure stratégie universitaire (sa concurrence après la mort de Mauss avec Gurvitch pour récupérer l'héritage), une théorie préstructuraliste du social, et que par voie de conséquence son intérêt pour le « symbolique » doit être réévalué et réintégré à un intérêt plus général pour le rythme. J'ai complété en 2005 ce travail dans Rythmes, pouvoir, mondialisation, qui malheureusement n'est pas cité non plus. Pourtant, dans son texte de 1924 « Rapports réels et pratiques de la psychologie et de la sociologie », Mauss explique à son auditoire que la sociologie pourrait servir de modèle à la psychologie au moins pour l'étude de deux ordres de faits qui lui semblent les deux apports les plus importants des travaux sociologiques réalisés depuis le début du siècle : le « symbole » et le « rythme ». On voit bien à travers cette affirmation que ces deux concepts sont liés dans son esprit ou tout au moins qu'ils possèdent une importance aussi grande l'une que l'autre. Or, que disent les commentateurs : toujours la même chose (qu'ils reprennent sans aucune distance critique de Lévi-Strauss), Mauss serait simplement l'inventeur ou la popularisateur du concept de « symbolique ». Le rythme là encore tombe à la trappe. D'où ma deuxième question : que faites-vous de cette nouvelle affirmation de l'importance du rythme ? Quel statut donnez-vous dans votre lecture à cet intérêt pour le rythme ? Je pense, pour ma part, que cette conférence nous montre une fois encore que Mauss n'était pas du tout en train de préparer une épistémologie ou une méthodologie structurale, ni même une science du symbolique au sens qui dominera par la suite chez les structuralistes, mais qu'il était, bien au contraire, dès le début, dominé par la question de la production des individus singuliers et collectifs dans le temps. Sa question n'était pas de trouver des constantes dans le fonctionnement des systèmes sociaux (il rejette explicitement la notion de structure), mais de comprendre ces systèmes en pénétrant l'organisation des flux qui les constituent (c'est pourquoi il oppose la « physiologie » à la simple et trompeuse « anatomie sociale »). Il est, du reste, en cela complètement de son époque et rejoint des préoccupations que l'on retrouve, sous des formes très diverses cela s'entend, chez ses adversaires (Bergson, Tarde) ou chez ses amis (Durkheim, Hubert, Granet). 7. Sur la question du rapport à « la tradition » et de ce que vous voyez dans mon travail comme une « posture de créativité radicale, quasiment nihiliste » qui ne serait au fond l'expression que d'un « mythe d'autoréalisation de soi emblématique de notre époque ». Je ne comprends pas votre critique. Y-a-t-il jamais invention conceptuelle qui ne soit négation d'une partie au moins des concepts en cours ? J'en doute. D'autre part, si je revendique une certaine radicalité, je ne vois aucun nihilisme dans ma démarche. Au contraire, j'ai grand soin du passé et, pour ce qui est du présent, j'ai plutôt l'impression de procéder par affirmations et avancées créatrices. Il me semble que vous confondez négation et nihilisme. Enfin, l'idée que mon travail verserait dans un « mythe d'autoréalisation » me semble doublement fausse : parce que l'autoréalisation n'est pas une notion que l'on devrait rejeter sans précaution ; mais aussi parce que c'est une caractérisation au fond psychologisante et donc réductrice d'une proposition théorique qui ne devrait faire l'objet, en bonne méthode scientifique, que de critiques théoriques. 8. Sur la question de la complexité inutile que vous voyez dans mes propositions (« Nous nous demandons si P. Michon n'aurait pas pu, tout de même, dire les choses plus simplement ») et sur le fait que vous tentiez de traduire mes propos en un langage plus simple (vous me demandez « si ce résumé omet quelque chose d'essentiel que les notions de rythme, de fluement, d'arythmie, d'idiorrythmie, d'eurythmie, etc. auraient fait apparaître »). C'est un essai dont je vous remercie sincèrement car cela pourra certainement aider à la compréhension de mon travail par de nombreux sociologues ou spécialistes de sciences sociales. Je suis également très sensible au fait que vous soyez le premier membre du Mauss à reconnaître et à justifier de manière détaillée le fait que le rythme est une question fondamentale qui devrait être prise en considération. En même temps, j'ai l'impression que votre réduction à un ensemble de communs dénominateurs comporte un danger : celui de laisser penser que ce que j'avance est réductible à du déjà connu ou à du déjà pensé par les sciences sociales : « Que dit-il au juste ? Que nos identités se construisent dans nos relations aux autres, qui engagent notre corps et notre langage [...] Que dans ces relations se jouent des relations de pouvoir sur les personnes ». Au fond, la théorie du rythme n'apporterait rien de plus que ce que les sociologues-économistes savent déjà depuis fort longtemps. À savoir que les sociétés et les individus sont pris dans des interactions mouvantes qui les rendent plus instables et fluides qu'on ne le croit généralement. Pourquoi, dès lors, en effet, dire de manière si compliquée des choses si simples ? Mais précisément, je ne me suis pas contenté de reprendre les différentes théories interactionnistes en cours, ou même de prolonger les auteurs qui se sont frottés, depuis ces trente dernières années, à la question des rapports réciproques entre individu singulier et individu collectif, individu et système. Je le reconnais bien volontiers, les auteurs très divers qui ont proposé des visions intermédiaires nous ont fait faire de grands progrès. Mais leurs conceptions ne suffisent plus au regard des réalités nouvelles du XXI^e siècle ou bien elles rencontrent des difficultés qui les rendent moins efficaces. En dehors du fait qu'on peut souvent repérer (comme dans la philosophie hobbesienne qui forme le socle de la pensée d'Elias) le lieu où le dualisme rejeté au départ se réintroduit subrepticement, je crois que leurs instruments sont déjà en partie inadaptés. Et la raison en est simple : si elles ont toutes été conçues comme des tentatives pour échapper aux dualismes traditionnels des sciences sociales, elles n'ont pas été pensées à partir du mouvement, des intensités, des flux et de leurs qualités eux-mêmes. Il nous faut donc accomplir ce qu'elles n'ont pas encore réussi à faire : une inversion radicale du regard qui pose le langage et le temps comme premiers et, à partir de là, repenser toutes les questions qui se posent à nous. Faute de quoi, soit nous retomberons vite dans les paradoxes et les difficultés que nous connaissons bien : le système et l'individu, la poule et l'oeuf, soit nous resterons sans boussole quand il nous faudra juger de la qualité des « objets intermédiaires » que nous étudierons. Le « don » est un exemple typique de cette deuxième difficulté : il permet de dynamiter le dualisme individualiste utilitariste, mais, tel qu'il reste pour le moment théorisé au sein du MAUSS, il ne permet pas encore de poser la question de l'organisation temporelle des flux de dons, des rythmes corporels, langagiers et sociaux qui sont déterminés par ces flux, et donc de la qualité de l'individuation singulière et collective qui en découle. On se contente le plus souvent d'une définition du don comme opposé de l'échange utilitariste, faisant de facto de celui-là une simple négation (et donc une certaine façon de conserver) celui-ci. On manque alors toute la diversité qualitative (souvent ambivalente) de la triple obligation donner-recevoir-rendre et l'on se retrouve avec une affirmation toute binaire de ce que serait le bien éthique et politique. 9. Sur ma redéfinition de la démocratie et son supposé fonds « utilitariste ». Vous citez une de mes propositions qui définit la démocratie comme le régime ou l'état social (c'est bien sûr les deux à la fois) qui permettra de « rechercher une eurythmie simultanément corporelle, discursive et sociale - une maximisation de l'individuation singulière et collective ». Et vous expliquez que vous ne « compren[ez] tout simplement pas qui maximise, qui calcule au mieux quoi, ni en vue de quoi ! ». Le problème avec la question qui, c'est qu'elle présuppose un sujet déjà là. Autrement dit, elle indique déjà sa réponse. Pour ce qui me concerne, je l'ai dit plus haut, j'ai volontairement distingué la question de la subjectivation de celle de l'individuation. Cette position ne peut être tenue que jusqu'à un certain point, je vous l'accorde, mais je continue à penser qu'elle est nécessaire dans un premier temps, même s'il faudra réfléchir à l'avenir plus précisément à la façon de relier les deux aspects. Ma certitude à cet égard est que de toute façon la subjectivation ne réussit pas toujours, que le sujet ne peut donc être posé comme un principe antécédent à l'action et qu'il constitue plutôt une entité qui apparaît ou pas au cours de l'activité des corps-langages (au sens du génitif objectif, car pour moi c'est l'activité qui est première). Vous reprochez, ensuite, à l'expression « maximisation » d'être trop marquée par le principe typiquement utilitariste d'un calcul du plus grand bien comme une simple addition des biens individuels. Si c'était ce que j'ai dit, je serais d'accord avec vous. Mais je maintiens l'expression « maximisation » car celle-ci est motivée par le système discursif dans lequel elle apparaît. Et comme vous l'avez senti, celui-ci est entièrement traversé par un souci de type spinoziste pour une maximisation (dans les conditions qui leurs sont faites) de ce que peuvent les corps-langages, maximisation qui ne peut en aucun cas être réduite à une augmentation additive des petits bonheurs personnels. L'utilitarisme se fonde sur un calcul des atomes de bonheur, alors que j'essaie (à l'instar de Mauss en réalité) de penser le bonheur (ou la « joie », si vous préférez, pour rester dans le ton du XVII^e siècle) comme exaltation de la puissance de vivre. Pour finir sur ce point, je voudrais repréciser ce que j'ai déjà dit dans mon livre et écarter des malentendus qui pointent dans quelques-unes de vos remarques : les propos de Barthes sur le bonheur « idiorrythmique » sont très suggestifs (par la rareté même de tels propos) mais bien évidemment insuffisants (ne serait-ce que parce qu'il reconnaît lui-même qu'il s'agit d'une utopie domestique plus que sociale). Quant à ceux de Mauss sur « l'eurythmie », ils indiquent une piste à mon sens plus féconde, mais ils sont, quant à eux, plus qu'élémentaires et doivent être réélaborés rigoureusement. Ces exemples ne constituent donc pas des réponses aux questions éthiques et politiques que nous nous posons, mais des incitations à chercher dans la direction qu'ils pointent. 10. Sur Mauss qui ne « parviendrait tout simplement pas à penser l'histoire ». Je ne crois pas avoir dit cela. J'ai même montré dans Eléments d'une histoire du sujet que Mauss est l'un de ceux qui, dans la première moitié du XX^e siècle, pense la question de l'historicité radicale des êtres humains, sans en revenir au néo-kantisme sociologique de Durkheim, mais sans tomber non plus dans les problèmes de la phénoménologie, du bergsonisme ou de la philosophie de l'historicité essentielle heideggérienne. Ce que j'ai dit, c'est que Mauss, en dépit de son souci d'historisation constant, aboutit non seulement à une éthique et une politique fondées sur un principe anhistorique, celui-là même que vous citez quelques lignes plus loin : « le roc de la morale éternelle » - ce qui est en soi un problème. Mais aussi qu'il propose comme modèle, dans tout l'Essai sur le don et en particulier dans ses « conclusions de morale », le système de prestations totales de clan à clan, qui est « exactement, toutes proportions gardées, du même type que celui vers lequel nous voudrions voir nos sociétés se diriger ». Or, ce système « où tout est complémentaire » ne connaît pas le conflit, dont il parle pourtant tout au long de l'essai. À vrai dire, cette subtile contradiction n'est pas à retenir contre Mauss, elle indique toutefois que c'est à partir de là qu'il faut reprendre la question. Si maintenant vous pensez que l'on peut trouver des textes allant dans un sens différent qui donnerait un sens agonistique à la démocratie, je serai le premier à m'en réjouir. Mais cela voudra dire que le problème relevait simplement de l'interprétation érudite des méandres d'une oeuvre et que nous sommes d'accord sur la chose même - ce qui est pour moi la seule qui compte. 11. Sur le terme d' « utopie maussienne ». Vous me reprenez en arguant que Mauss n'était pas un utopiste, mais un « possibiliste », attaché à des projets concrets. Vous avez certainement raison. Toutefois, mon usage du mot « utopie » n'était en rien négatif dans mon esprit, bien au contraire. Ensuite, personne ne pourra nier que l'idée que les sociétés modernes devraient réintroduire massivement le don au fondement de leur économie reste largement un projet d'avenir, c'est-à-dire dans le meilleur sens du terme... une utopie. Pascal Michon Paris, le 7 mai 2008 __________________________________________________________________ Sénèque. De la tranquillité de l'âme Cher Pascal, je viens de terminer la lecture de De la tranquillité de l'âme de Sénèque. Quelle ne fut pas ma surprise de voir l'un des derniers chapitres intitulé : « Il faut alterner "temps forts" et "temps faibles" » En voici un extrait : [...] Solitude et société doivent se composer et se succéder. La solitude nous donnera le désir de fréquenter les hommes, la société, celui de nous fréquenter nous-mêmes, et chacune sera l'antidote de l'autre, la solitude nous guérissant de l'horreur de la foule, et la foule, de l'ennui de la solitude". J'avais déjà lu de Sénèque Les bienfaits : un essai sur le don - sur la triple obligation de donner, recevoir et rendre - avant l'heure (jamais cité par Mauss). Un indice de plus que pensée du don et pensée du rythme peuvent et même doivent se rencontrer ? Amicalement Sylvain Créteil, le 7 mai 2008 3 commentaires Les rythmes du politique 27 août 2009, par Ces concepts de rythmes du politique me semblent proches de ceux de Deleuze-Guattari, grands lecteurs de Simondon et de l'individuation, notamment de l'agencement collectif d'énonciation territoire par exemple. Ils permettent de les renouveler et de les penser sous un autre biais. Mais pour trouver de nouveaux rythmes reste la question de l'invention également de nouveaux énoncés. Les rythmes du politique 8 septembre 2009, par Pascal Michon Je vous remercie beaucoup de cette comparaison ainsi que du texte auquel vous renvoyez. J'ai expliqué succinctement dans le chapitre « Styles, rythmes et ritournelles » des Rythmes du politique ce qui distingue ma position de celle de Deleuze et Guattari. De même, pour Simondon dans celui intitulé « Les rythmes comme cycles de l'ontogénèse ? ». En bref, j'ai une grande admiration pour ces travaux qui ont beaucoup compté dans ma réflexion mais, dans l'un et l'autre cas, ils me semblent buter sur la question du langage. Plutôt que de nouveaux énoncés, je pense donc qu'il nous faut chercher, entre autres, de nouveaux modes d'énonciation. Pascal Michon [33]Réaction au commentaire » Répondre à cet article [34][puce_gazette.png] Gazette [35][puce_supplement.png] Supplément [36][puce_lectures.png] Lectures [37][puce_societe.png] Vers une société civile mondiale [38][puce_publications.png] Publications [39][puce_plan.png] Plan du site [40][puce_plan.png] Auteurs [41]Suivre la vie du site RSS 2.0 Recensions [42]>Multiculturalisme dites-vous ? Francesco Fistetti [43]>Pour un socialisme décent [44]>De la lutte des classes à la lutte des places Michel Lussault [45]>Gli economisti e i selvaggi. L'imperialismo della scienza economica e i suoi limiti Roberto Marchionatti [46]>Donner et prendre. La coopération en entreprise Norbert Alter [47]>Le symbolique et le sacré. Théories de la religion Camille Tarot [48]>De Gauche ? Alain Caillé, Roger Sue (dir.) [49]>Histoire et création. Textes philosophiques inédits (1945-1967) Cornelius Castoriadis [50]>Bibliothèque du MAUSS n°31 [51]>La nouvelle écologie politique - Economie et développement humain Jean-Paul Fitoussi, Eloi Laurent Notes [[52]1] Pour une approche goffmannienne du corps et de la manière dont il participe à la construction de l'identité des personnes, on peut lire l'article de [53]Sylvain Pasquier publié dans La Revue du MAUSS Permanente. [[54]2] Les sous-titres de cette partie, assez longue, sont de nous. [[55]3] Pascal Michon préfère parler de multitudes plutôt que de peuple, ce dernier étant sans doute trop homogénéisant pour lui. [[56]4] O. Mendesltam est l'auteur d'un petit ouvrage où il est question de la Révolution bolchevique intitulé L'État et le rythme (1920), dans lequel P. Michon voit « l'une des toutes premières politiques du rythme » [p. 229]. [[57]5] Le bon, si le calcul de maximisation n'admet qu'une solution... [[58]6] Pour P. Michon, seuls Lewis Coser (Les fonctions du conflit social) et Gilbert Simondon (L'individuation psychique et collective) ont développé cette manière de voir les choses. [[59]7] On peut néanmoins citer : Henri Meschonnic dans les travaux duquel il s'incrit, et notamment son Politique du rythme, politique du sujet, Verdier, 1985 [[60]8] « L'utilitarisme et [...] l'économie politique [...] sont à la base de [...] la fluidification du monde » [p. 236]. [[61]9] Un Spinoza plus proche de Mauss (qui l'affectionnait d'ailleurs) que de Bentham... Un Spinoza peu lordonien, donc... [[62]10] Nous renvoyons ici aux Ecrits politiques de Marcel Mauss, présentés par Marcel Fournier (Fayard, 1997), ainsi qu'à notre ouvrage, [63]Marcel Mauss, savant et politique , La Découverte, 2007. [[64]11] S. Dzimira, op. Cit. 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[119]Partager cet article sur del.icio.us [120]Envoyer cet article sur Blogmarks ELYSEE Sarkozy : les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme" NOUVELOBS.COM | 06.02.2009 | 13:01 [121]Réagissez à l'article 299 réactions Lors de son intervention télévisée, le chef de l'Etat a notamment déclaré : "Que les Français soient inquiets (face à la crise), c'est normal". > Il a dit réfléchir à une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu. > La taxe professionnelle sera supprimée en 2010. > Les partenaires sociaux seront reçus le 18 février. Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters) Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters) Le chef de l'Etat a déclaré, jeudi 5 février, que la France et le monde faisaient face à "la crise du siècle", au début de son intervention télévisée. "C'est la crise du siècle, elle est sans précédent", a-t-il répété Nicolas Sarkozy. ([122]> Lire toutes les déclarations). "Je dois en tenir compte et faire en sorte que la France rentre le plus tard possible dans la crise et sorte le plus tôt de la crise", a-t-il ajouté. "Je dois en plus protéger au maximum ceux qui déjà dans la croissance mondiale étaient exclus", a-t-il ajouté. "Que les Français soient inquiets, c'est normal. Je le comprends, je l'entends", a-t-il expliqué. Les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme", a-t-il rapidement affirmé. "La rupture n'a jamais été un objectif, c'est juste un moyen", a, par ailleurs, expliqué Nicolas Sarkozy. L'émission était diffusée simultanément sur TF1, France 2, M6 et RTL. Elle est présentée par David Pujadas et Laurence, avec les interventions de Guy Lagache et Alain Duhamel. Une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu ? Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il recevrait les partenaires sociaux le 18 février, notamment pour voir comment "aller plus loin" sur l'indemnisation du chômage partiel. Il a également dit réfléchir à une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu pour aider les classes moyennes, l'une des "pistes" qu'il soumettra aux syndicats le 18 février. "L'Etat est prêt à faire un effort" pour "mieux protéger" les jeunes en fin de CDD et qui ne retrouvent pas d'emploi du fait de la crise financière et économique, a affirmé le président de la République. Le chef de l'Etat a aussi annoncé qu'il "supprimerait la taxe professionnnelle en 2010". "Je vous l'annonce: on supprimera la taxe professionnelle en France en 2010 parce que je veux que l'on garde des usines en France", a déclaré Nicolas Sarkozy lors de son intervention télévisée sur la crise. La mesure sera générale: "On ne peut pas dire on va supprimer pour l'industrie automobile mais pas pour l'industrie sidérurgique ou textile", a-t-il ajouté. "Je ne peux pas dire aux actionnaires pour le coup: ne délocalisez plus, relocalisez, et en même temps leur laisser des charges et des contraintes qui font qu'ils ne s'en sortiront plus", selon le chef de l'Etat. Réfléchir sur le "partage du profit" Le président a jugé nécessaire de réfléchir au "partage du profit" entre les salariés et les actionnaires, demandant aux partenaires sociaux de parvenir à un accord sans quoi "l'Etat prendra ses responsabilités". "Je veux que le 18 février nous discutions d'un sujet essentiel en France qui est le partage du profit", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat, évoquant le "sentiment d'injustice majeur" suscité dans cette crise par "le comportement d'un certain nombre de dirigeants d'institutions bancaires". "Comment on arbitre entre le souhait légitime des actionnaires de gagner de l'argent avec les entreprises et la demande des salariés d'être associés aux bénéfices des entreprises dont ils ont contribué à créer la richesse?", s'est interrogé Nicolas Sarkozy, jugeant qu'en la matière "le compte n'y est pas". "Quand une entreprise distribue aux actionnaires tous les bénéfices d'une année, elle ne peut plus investir" pour l'avenir, a-t-il ajouté, dénonçant une "logique purement financière et spéculative". Le sujet sera au programme de sa rencontre avec les partenaires sociaux le 18 février. "J'engage les organisations syndicales et le patronat à en discuter. Soit ils arrivent à quelque chose, soit l'Etat prendra ses responsabilités", a-t-il prévenu. Il a indiqué qu'il estimait quant à lui que "la règle des trois tiers est bonne": un tiers des bénéfices vont aux salariés, un tiers aux actionnaires sous forme de dividendes et un tiers sont réinvestis dans l'entreprise pour financer son développement". Combat sur la TVA Nicolas Sarkozy a réaffirmé sa volonté d'obtenir un consensus européen concernant des baisses de la TVA sur la restauration, les "produits propres" et des "produits culturels". "C'est parfaitement anormal que quand on achète une voiture propre, on paie plus cher que quand on achète une voiture qui pollue, et ça vaut aussi pour les bâtiments construits en haute qualité environnementale", a dit le chef de l'Etat, souhaitant "un système de TVA réduite pour tous les produits propres". "Je pense également que sur les produits culturels, il faut aller plus loin", a ajouté Nicolas Sarkozy. "Pourquoi la TVA sur le livre est-elle à 5,5 (%), et la TVA sur le disque à 19,6 (%), comme la TVA sur la vidéo? Il faut mettre cette TVA à 5,5", a-t-il déclaré. "Comme cela on est tranquille" "Est-ce que les réformes que la France doit mettre en oeuvre, pour avoir le même emploi lorsque nous seront sortis de la crise, est-ce que ces réformes restent d'actualité? La réponse est oui", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat, précisant qu'elles devaient être conduites "au même rythme". "Si on doit arrêter, comme cela s'est si souvent fait dans le passé, chaque réforme quand il y a une manifestation, alors mieux vaut ne faire aucune réforme. Et comme cela on est tranquille", a-t-il dit. La rupture, "c'est la rupture avec cette habitude". Les quelque 1,4 milliard d'euros d'intérêts que l'Etat percevra cette année au titre des intérêts pour son financement aux banques seront "intégralement" affectés au financement de "mesures sociales", a annoncé Nicolas Sarkozy. Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il allait demander au président de la Cour des comptes Philippe Seguin de "conduire un certain nombre d'enquêtes" sur la bonne utilisation des fonds accordés aux banques pour faire face à la crise. Tacle aux traders Nicolas Sarkozy veut "changer" le système de rémunération des "traders" mais est sceptique sur un plafonnement systématique du salaire des dirigeants, a-t-il déclaré. "Je suis plus choqué par le système de rémunération de ceux qu'on appelle les traders, que les présidents de banques. C'est ce système-là que je veux changer", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat. "J'ai vu ce que M. Obama a décidé, je suis en train d'y réfléchir, moi je ne suis pas trop pour une règle générale", a-t-il ajouté. "Mettre tout le monde sous la toise, je ne suis pas sûr que ce soit la meilleure formule". "J'ajoute que Barack Obama a prévu un système d'actions gratuites derrière une rémunération bloquée, j'aimerais en savoir un peu plus", a souligné Nicolas Sarkozy. Maintien de la politique sur la Fonction publique Nicolas Sarkozy a affirmé qu'il n'engagerait "pas de dépenses publiques supplémentaires", et qu'il s'en tiendrait à la "règle du non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux". "Je n'engagerai pas de dépenses publiques supplémentaires, notamment sur la règle du non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux", a affirmé le président de la République. Selon lui, on reviendra ainsi "au même nombre de fonctionnaires qu'en 1992", quand François Mitterrand était président. "Je n'ai pas le souvenir que la France était alors sous-administrée", a-t-il argué. Relations aux paradis fiscaux Très sévère sur la question des paradis fiscaux, Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé son intention de "poser des questions" à Andorre, Monaco et au Luxembourg. La France exigera la moralisation des paradis fiscaux et "ça m'amènera à revoir nos relations avec Andorre", "à poser la question de nos relations avec Monaco (et) à poser un certain nombre de questions à nos voisins luxembourgeois", a-t-il déclaré. Baisse dans les sondages D'autant que le chef de l'Etat, comme son Premier ministre, enregistre une forte baisse dans les derniers sondages. Moins cinq points à 39% de "confiance" contre 55% de défiance selon un CSA paru mercredi dans Le Parisien. Forts du succès de leur journée d'action de la semaine dernière, les syndicats attendent le président au tournant, suspendant leurs prochaines initiatives au contenu de sa prestation télévisée. Le patron de la CFDT François Chérèque a réclamé un "changement de cap", en clair, des mesures pour maintenir le pouvoir d'achat, tandis que celui de FO Jean-Claude Mailly a prévenu que sans "relance par la consommation", il y aura "remobilisation". Le ton est également offensif dans l'opposition. La Première secrétaire du PS Martine Aubry a demandé au président de "définir enfin un plan de relance adapté". Et, dans une rare unanimité, la gauche toute entière a signé mercredi un texte sommant le pouvoir de "changer de cap". Ne pas se laisser "enfumer" Jeudi matin, Jean-Luc Mélenchon (Parti de gauche) invitait le pays à ne pas se laisser "enfumer" par Nicolas Sarkozy et à se mettre "en lutte", tandis qu'Olivier Besancenot (LCR) voyait déjà dans son intervention "des motivations supplémentaires à continuer le combat". Jusque-là, le discours du chef de l'Etat est resté inflexible. Oui, il a entendu les "inquiétudes légitimes" des Français "qui craignent pour leur emploi", mais pas question pour lui de recourir à une relance par la consommation, "parce que ça n'a jamais marché". Nicolas Sarkozy devrait aussi enrober son propos d'une bonne dose de volontarisme. "On va se battre pour que la France sorte plus forte de la crise", insiste-t-il régulièrement. "Se concentrer sur les objectifs essentiels" Mais certains ne l'entendent pas de la même oreille dans la majorité. Le député UMP Hervé Mariton a reproché au gouvernement de s'éparpiller dans les réformes lui demandant de "se concentrer sur les objectifs essentiels" et son collègue François Goulard a préconisé une "suspension" temporaire du très controversé bouclier fiscal. En outre, le gouvernement a vu poindre ces derniers jours un nouveau "front" du mécontentement dans les universités, avec la montée de la grogne des enseignants-chercheurs et des étudiants. Mais comme François Fillon lundi, le porte-parole du gouvernement a exclu mercredi tout virage politique. "Cette émission n'est pas faite seulement pour le million et demi de Français qui a manifesté", a dit Luc Chatel, mais plutôt pour "mettre en perspective son action face à la crise". [123]Augmenter la taille du texte [124]Réduire la taille du texte [125]Imprimer cet article [126]Envoyer cet article à un ami [127]Réagissez à l'article [128]Réagir à cet article en créant votre Blog [129]Traduction français / anglais [130]Traduction français / espagnol [131]Partager cet article sur Wikio [132]Partager cet article sur Scoopeo [133]Digger cet article [134]Partager cet article avec mes amis sur Facebook ! [135]Partager cet article sur del.icio.us [136]Envoyer cet article sur Blogmarks Les réactions des lecteurs rifif [137]-10 POINTS -10 points serait un sondage plus réaliste que ces sondages effectués par des instituts de sondages aux mains des amis de sarkozy ! Il aura beau museler les manifestan... 08.02 à 16h05 - [138]Alerter scafandre [139]Il faut qu'il démissionne... avant de mettre littéralement la France en faillite. Il est inconscient... Vous avez des communes qui ont investi dans la construction de collèges, de ponts... en fonct... 07.02 à 21h16 - [140]Alerter [141]Réagissez ! [142]Toutes les réactions (299) [143]Conditions de modération L'essentiel Politique [144]IDENTITE NATIONALE [145]"Déferlement de musulmans" : Gaudin regrette avoir eu un "mot malheureux" 18.01 à 16h59 [146]MAYOTTE [147]Courte étape dans l'océan Indien pour Sarkozy 18.01 à 14h52 [148]POLEMIQUE [149]Reporters enlevés : "cynisme effrayant" de Guéant 18.01 à 14h47 [150]MARSEILLE [151]Buffet dénonce "une idéologie xénophobe dans les plus hautes autorités de l'Etat" 18.01 à 13h46 [152]IDENTITE NATIONALE [153]Et si "une Française porte la burqa"...? 18.01 à 10h51 [154]SOCIAL [155]Internet : un tarif réduit pour les plus démunis ? 18.01 à 09h05 [156]COLLECTIVITES LOCALES [157]Les départements en "graves difficultés financières" 18.01 à 08h53 [158]IDENTITE NATIONALE [159]"Déferlement de musulmans" : Gaudin regrette avoir eu un "mot malheureux" 18.01 à 08h06 [160]MARSEILLE [161]Valls fustige les "amalgames dangereux" de Gaudin 18.01 à 07h56 [162]ELECTIONS REGIONALES [163]Régionales : Aubry vise toujours le grand chelem 18.01 à 07h29 [164]AFGHANISTAN [165]Journalistes enlevés : Guéant provoque la polémique 18.01 à 07h10 [166]SENAT [167]La réforme des collectivités "manque de visibilité" 18.01 à 07h05 [168]CHARENTE-MARITIME [169]Régionales : Sarnez accuse Royal de "débauchage" 17.01 à 14h58 [170]DROIT DE VOTE [171]Mélenchon favorable au droit de vote des étrangers 17.01 à 13h56 [172]CONSEIL CONSTITUTIONNEL [173]Emmanuelle Mignon ne siègera pas parmi les Sages 17.01 à 12h55 Plus sur le sujet Sur Nouvelobs.com * [174]Les principales déclarations de Nicolas Sarkozy * [175]Aubry Sarkozy est un président "hésitant" qui "ne sait pas où il va" * [176]Intervention télévisée de Sarkozy Les appels au boycott se multiplient * [177]Onze organisations de gauche demandent un "changement de cap" * [178]Interview présidentielle Les choix contestables de l'Elysée * [179]Grèves Parisot y voit "quelque chose de pervers" * [180]Le texte commun des onze organisations de gauche * [181]Revue de presse * [182]Les réactions * [183]Delanoë Sarkozy a "privilégié la polémique" sur le SMA * [184]Sarkozy fait des ouvertures, les syndicats méfiants * [185]15,1 millions de téléspectateurs pour l'intervention de Sarkozy * [186]Les principales mesures de Nicolas Sarkozy Dans Le Nouvel Observateur * [187]"Sarkozy comme Cendrillon", (05/02/09) * [188]"La vraie nature de Sarkozy", par François Bazin (05/02/09) * [189]"Sarkozy peut-il encore réformer ?", par Hervé Algalarrondo (05/02/09) * [190]"Les ficelles de Sarkozy", (22/01/09) * [191]"Les choix de Sarkozy", par Denis Olivennes (22/01/09) Sur Internet * [192]Le site de l'Elysée * [193]Le baromètre de confiance de l'exécutif sur le site du CSA * [194]Le baromètre des actions présidentielles sur le site du CSA * [195]La biographie officielle de Nicolas Sarkozy * [196]Le blog de François Fillon * [197]La biographie officielle de François Fillon * [198]Le site de TNS-Sofres nouvelobs.com __________________________________________________________________ ClubObs Déjà membre de Clubobs.com, identifiez-vous ____________________ [_] Mémoriser ____________________ Ok [199]Mot de passe oublié ? * [200]> A la une * [201]> Opinions * [202]> Blogs * [203]> Revues de presse * [204]> Dossiers * [205]> Forums en direct * [206]> Archives * [207]> Automobile * [208]> High-tech * [209]> Météo * [210]> Annonces * [211]> Débats * [212]> Voyages * [213]> Immobilier * [214]> Emploi * [215]> Comme au Cinema.com * [216]> Rencontres * [217]> Newsletters [218]Site Internet certifiée par l'OJD La fréquentation de ce site est certifiée par l'OJD [219]Contacts | [220]Plan du site | [221]Publicité | [222]Conditions d'utilisation | [223]Données personnelles | [224]Copyright | [225]Index | © Le Nouvel Observateur - Tous droits réservés. nouvelobs.com est une marque exclusive du Nouvel Observateur. 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Formulant ses voeux pour la nouvelle années devant les représentants des partenaires sociaux, le chef de l'Etat a d'abord voulu les «remercier pour l'ampleur de la tâche que vous avez accomplie en 2008. L'urgence des problèmes à résoudre, l'attente des Français vous ont imposé, comme au gouvernement et au Parlement, un rythme de travail particulièrement exigeant». «Je ne vous surprendrai pas en vous disant que nous n'avons pas l'intention de ralentir le rythme en 2009, leur a-t-il ensuite déclaré. Et ce n'est certainement pas au moment où l'impact social de la crise se fait sentir --on a eu l'impact financier, l'impact économique, bien sûr l'impact social-- qu'on va en tirer la conclusion qu'il faut ralentir», a-t-il ajouté. Leparisien.fr avec A Cet article a été publié dans la rubrique [139]Politique FLASH ACTUALITÉ [DERNIÈRE MINUTE] * 18h57 [140]Emmanuelle Haïm renonce à diriger "Idoménée" à l'Opéra de Paris * 18h55 [141]La production cinéma "résiste" dit le CNC, "en crise" selon les producteurs * 18h49 [142]Ligue 1: Marseille au milieu du gué * 18h41 [143]Jean-Claude Juncker reconduit à la tête de l'Eurogroupe * 18h26 [144]France: le déficit public de "l'ordre de 8,2%" du PIB en 2010 * 18h16 [145]Rebsamen (PS): pétition pour inverser la charge de la preuve de nationalité * 18h05 [146]Strauss-Kahn responsable politique préféré des Français [147]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES * 18h41 [148]Jean-Claude Juncker reconduit à la tête de l'Eurogroupe * 18h26 [149]France: le déficit public de "l'ordre de 8,2%" du PIB en 2010 * 17h53 [150]Plan de départs PSA: 5.700 volontaires d'ici la fin du dispositif fin mars * 17h42 [151]Etats-Unis: Vivendi accuse l'avocat des plaignants de créer un "préjudice" * 17h18 [152]Eurostar pourrait payer 11 millions d'euros de dédommagement à ses clients * 16h24 [153]GDF Suez a tenté sans succès de prendre le contrôle d'International Power * 16h11 [154]Le déficit public attendu à 8,2% en 2010, soit moins que prévu [155]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES * 18h16 [156]Rebsamen (PS): pétition pour inverser la charge de la preuve de nationalité * 18h05 [157]Strauss-Kahn responsable politique préféré des Français * 17h10 [158]Collomb (PS) prêt à voter certains articles de la réforme des collectivités * 16h56 [159]Propos sur les musulmans: Gaudin évoque "un mot malheureux" * 16h28 [160]Réforme territoriale: les élus landais demandent un référendum * 16h14 [161]Le Nouveau centre veut s'emparer de "grands sujets" comme l'homoparentalité * 16h12 [162]Besson dresse son bilan 2009 : plus de 29.000 sans-papiers expulsés [163]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES * 17h06 [164]Séisme de magnitude 6 à l'ouest du Guatemala * 16h27 [165]La police a tué plus de 10.000 personnes en douze ans à Rio selon une étude * 14h40 [166]Le Yémen réclame à Washington ses ressortissants détenus à Guantanamo * 13h52 [167]Enquête sur la guerre en Irak: Tony Blair témoignera le 29 janvier * 13h21 [168]Silvio Berlusconi absent à la reprise du procès sur les droits télévisés * 11h26 [169]Les talibans ont porté la guerre dans le centre de Kaboul * 10h46 [170]L'UE promet près d'un demi-milliard d'euros pour Haïti [171]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES * 18h49 [172]Ligue 1: Marseille au milieu du gué * 17h10 [173]Football: pas de sanction pour Thierry Henry après sa main contre l'Eire * 16h50 [174]Ligue 1: pour Bordeaux, l'essentiel c'est l'écart * 16h26 [175]Coupe de l'America: le bras de fer se poursuit entre Oracle et Alinghi * 15h08 [176]Euro de patinage artistique: Joubert de retour pour un ultime test avant les JO * 10h55 [177]Euro de handball: les Français pour un triplé inédit * 08h04 [178]Open d'Australie de tennis: Sharapova éliminée, Nadal, Murray et Roddick qualifiés [179]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES * 18h57 [180]Emmanuelle Haïm renonce à diriger "Idoménée" à l'Opéra de Paris * 18h55 [181]La production cinéma "résiste" dit le CNC, "en crise" selon les producteurs * 17h05 [182]Les films de la semaine: un Gainsbourg, un homme sérieux et des Barons * 14h28 [183]Le Festival d'Aix-en-Provence se "redéveloppe" en 2010 * 06h36 [184]"Avatar" grand vainqueur des Golden Globes, "In the air" déçoit * 20h48 [185]Mode à Milan: esprit rebelle et inspirations militaires * 20h16 [186]"Avatar" continue de dominer le box-office nord-américain [187]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES Sites du Groupe Amaury [188]Paris Job [189]France Football [190]L'equipe [191]L'echo republicain [192]ASO [193]Velo magazine [194]Journal du Golf . 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[2]Mise à jour 19:42 [3]Le Figaro.fr * [4]Actualité * [5]Economie * [6]Culture * [7]Madame * [8]Sport * [9]Services INFO [10]> Politique [11]> Société [12]> International [13]> Médias [14]> Environnement [15]> Science et Tech [16]> Santé [17]> Web [18]> Auto [19]> Météo DÉBATS [20]> Figaro Magazine [21]> Éditos [22]> Blogs [23]> Repères EN IMAGES [24]> Vidéos [25]> Le Talk [26]> Photos [27]> Quiz Formulaire de Recherche ____________________ RECHERCHER Exemples : [28]Politique, [29]Grippe A, [30]Auto, [31]FigaroScope, [32]Immobilier __________________________________________________________________ * . * . . . [33]Haïti : la récolte de fonds décolle après l'appel de l'ONU [34]Haïti : la récolte de fonds décolle après l'appel de l'ONU
Les annonces d'aide humanitaire et de fonds pour venir en aide à Haïti continuent d'affluer, suite à l'appel d'urgence lancé par l'ONU. L'organisation entend récolter 562 millions de dollars. [35]» DOSSIER SPECIAL - Haïti dévasté . [36]L'hôpital général de Port-au-Prince manque de tout REPORTAGE - Face au désastre, les secours peinent à s'orgraniser dans la capitale haïtienne. . . . [37]Les secours sorganisent dans la douleur EN IMAGES - Dans la capitale haïtienne, les secours internationaux font face à dénormes difficultés. Il faut à la fois chercher des survivants, apporter des vivres aux rescapés, opérer les blessés, évacuer les corps, sécuriser la ville et penser à la reconstruction. . . [38]Haïti : 70.000 corps ont été enterrés Le gouvernement a décrété dimanche l'état d'urgence et une période de deuil national de 30 jours. 280 centres d'urgence s'ouvrent lundi, pour distribuer des vivres et héberger les sans-abris, estimés à 300.000. [39]» DOSSIER SPECIAL - Haïti dévasté . . [40]Numérisation du patrimoine : comment l'argent sera réparti [41]Numérisation du patrimoine :
comment l'argent sera réparti
INFO LE FIGARO - La Bibliothèque nationale de France et le Centre national du cinéma seront les mieux lotis. . [42]La création d'entreprises atteint un record INFO FIGARO - Les Français ont créé 560.000 entreprises l'an dernier, grâce au succès du statut de l'auto-entrepreneur. [43]» Auto-entrepreneur : comment ça marche ? . . . [44]Thierry Henry échappe à la sanction La commission de discipline de la FIFA a estimé lundi qu'elle ne disposait pas de base juridique pour sanctionner la main de l'attaquant français lors du match contre l'Eire, en barrages du Mondial-2010. . . [45]Boursiers : l'Etat précise ses objectifs La conférence de grandes écoles a de son côté effectué un revirement en affirmant partager les objectifs fixés par le gouvernement. [46]» Sarkozy veut 30 % de boursiers dans les grandes écoles . . [47]L'UNI fait place à un nouveau syndicat étudiant de droite Dès mardi, le syndicat étudiant de droite né en 1968 deviendra le Mouvement des étudiants (MET). . . [48]France : le déficit attendu à 8,2% du PIB en 2010 INFO FIGARO - Le déficit public sera moins mauvais que prévu : il était jusqu'alors anticipé à 8,5 %. . . . [49]Sarkozy en visite dans l'océan Indien Le chef de l'État est à Mayotte et à la Réunion pour la cérémonie des voeux à l'outre-mer. . . [50]Besson veut faire signer une charte aux jeunes Français Les droits et les devoirs de tout citoyen seraient rappelés à l'occasion de ce serment républicain. [51]» Identité : Jean-Claude Gaudin crée à son tour la polémique . . [52]Des squatteurs priés de quitter la place des Vosges La justice a ordonné lundi l'expulsion des militants pour le droit au logement, qui occupent depuis plus de deux mois un hôtel particulier de cette prestigieuse place parisienne. . . [53]Audiences : Europe 1 pourrait détrôner NRJ Le sondage 126000 Radio de Médiamétrie, qui sera publié mardi, pourrait une nouvelle fois bousculer la hierarchie entre stations. . . Zoom Figaro Cheveux [20091109PHOWWW00546.jpg] Conseils d'experts Questions RH [20091109PHOWWW00547.jpg] McDonald's Frida Kahlo [20091109PHOWWW00548.jpg] Exposée à Bruxelles Cinéma [20091109PHOWWW00348.jpg] Toutes les séances . [54]Ces délégués du procureur qui travaillent au noir [55]Ces délégués du procureur
qui travaillent au noir
Chargés de sermonner les petits délinquants, ils ne sont pas déclarés par la Chancellerie. Bercy tarde à régler le problème. . [56]Les talibans revendiquent une série d'attaques à Kaboul Des insurgés se sont lancés lundi matin à l'assaut du centre de la capitale afghane où se trouvent plusieurs ministères et le palais présidentiel. Les affrontements avec l'armée afghane ont fait au moins 5 morts et 71 blessés. Sept assaillants ont été tués. . . [57]Expatriés aux USA, la présidence Obama a-t-elle changé votre vie ? APPEL A TÉMOIGNAGES - Si vous vivez aux Etats-Unis, votre quotidien a-t-il changé depuis l'arrivée de Barack Obama à la Maison Blanche ? Si oui, comment ? . . . [58]TGV : la SNCF remet à plat sa stratégie La baisse de fréquentation de certaines lignes obligerait à des réductions de trains voire des annulations selon les Echos. Les lignes nord-est et est-Atlantique sont particulièrement concernées. [59]» Deutsche Bahn prête à livrer bataille avec la SNCF [60]» La SNCF augmente les tarifs du TGV de 1,9% en 2010 . . . [61]Régionales : Laporte jette l'éponge INFO LE FIGARO.FR - Lancien secrétaire dEtat aux Sports faisait planer depuis plusieurs semaines le mystère sur son éventuelle candidature en Ile-de-France. . . [62]Paris et Berlin déconseillent l'utilisation d'Internet Explorer Après que Microsoft a admis qu'une faille dans son navigateur était à l'origine de l'attaque contre Google en Chine, les autorités officielles de sécurité informatique en France et en Allemagne recommandent de ne pas utiliser le logiciel avant qu'il ne soit corrigé. . . [63]Le Turc, qui avait tenté de tuer Jean-Paul II, est libre [64]Le Turc, qui avait tenté de tuer
Jean-Paul II, est libre 
Mehmet Ali Agca, un ex-militant ultranationaliste fait monter les enchères pour publier ses Mémoires. . [65]Un Français en prison à Abu Dhabi pour une plaisanterie Pour avoir parlé de «bombe» dans un avion, Jean-Louis Lioret, ingénieur à la retraite, est incarcéré depuis six jours. . . . [66]«Ali le Chimique» condamné à mort Ce cousin de Saddam Hussein avait fait gazer 5 000 Kurdes en 1988. . . [67]Alliot-Marie confie à Pierre Botton une mission sur la prison «Je sais de quoi je parle», assure l'ancien homme d'affaires et ex-gendre de Michel Noir, écroué dans les années 1990. . . [68]Le tapis rouge des Golden Globes [69]Le tapis rouge
des Golden Globes EN IMAGES - Malgré l'éloge des critiques, Marion Cotillard nominée pour la comédie musicale "Nine", n'a pas reçu le prix de la meilleure actrice qui a été décerné à Meryl Streep. [70]» Retour sur la cérémonie en images . [71]Avatar domine les Golden Globes Le film de James Cameron a remporté dimanche le doublé du meilleur film dramatique et du meilleur réalisateur. En revanche, Marion Cotillard et Un prophète, qui portaient les espoirs tricolores, sont repartis bredouilles. [72]» VIDEO - Les Golden Globes, du rire aux larmes . . [73]Bertrand : «Une étrangère portant la burqa ne pourra pas être naturalisée» Le secrétaire général de l'UMP, Xavier Bertrand, qui a entamé ses déplacements de campagne ce week-end en Paca, veut mobiliser sa famille politique. . . . [74]Guéant écarte l'idée d'un remaniement Le secrétaire général de l'Élysée a confirmé, dimanche, le maintien de Fillon après les régionales. [75]» Fillon fait l'éloge de la durée à Matignon [76]» Journalistes enlevés : indignation après les propos de Guéant . . [77]Faut-il repousser l'âge légal de la retraite au-delà de 60 ans ? Votants [picto-votant.gif] . . [78]Les chirurgiens esthétiques contrôlent leur réputation sur le Web Ils font parfois appel à des sociétés privées pour préserver leur image en ligne. [79]» Les patients en quête d'information sur la Toile . . . [80]Ukraine : le candidat pro-russe en tête Viktor Ianoukovitch affrontera Ioulia Timochenko au second tour de l'élection présidentielle ukrainienne, le 7 février. [81]» Bataille présidentielle en Ukraine . . [82]Joann Sfar : «Un film amoureux sur Gainsbourg» [83]Joann Sfar : «Un film amoureux
sur Gainsbourg»
INTERVIEW - Après Marjane Satrapi et Riad Sattouf, l'auteur de BD passe derrière la caméra et signe un conte musical aussi poétiqueque subversif sur l'Homme à tête de chou. En salle mercredi. . . [84]Un prêt-à-porter concis et stylé DÉFILÉS - Milan a donné le coup denvoi des collections masculines automne-hiver 2010-2011. [85]» EN IMAGES - Ermenegildo Zegna, [86]Dolce & Gabbana, [87]Burberry, [88]Emporio Armani... [89]» VIDEO - Bottega Venetta, [90]Burberry . . [91]Un site web retrouve des vidéos en fonction des mots prononcés Le service Voxalead indexe les émissions de radio et de télévision à partir des paroles enregistrées. . . [92]Nissan joue au Cube [93]Nissan joue au Cube EN IMAGES - La marque japonaise fait le pari de vendre en Europe cette étonnante berline compacte qui affirme sa différence au travers d'un style cubique et asymétrique. . * ____________________ OK [94]Les Blogs [95][feed-icon-16x16.png] [96]Les dessous du social [97]Tamilutte, FOrtifiant contre la pandémie sociale CHEZ FO, on a depuis longtemps de l'humour et le sens de... [98]Les dessous du social par [99]Marc Landré [100]Le blog des Marchés de la bourse et des investisseurs [101]Plutôt un risque de « syndrome Intel » que de déception sur les profits Que dire de cette séance de Bourse de lundi, sans saveur,... [102]Le blog des Marchés de la bourse et des investisseurs par [103]Roland Laskine [104]La Blog Team de Sport24 [105]Jacques Peridon: l'éditorialiste qui fait peur à l'OM! Connaissez vous Jacques Peridon? Non? Oui? Peu... [106]La Blog Team de Sport24 par [107]Bruno Roger-Petit [108]Voir tous les blogs . . La revue de net Chaque jour, cinq liens sélectionnés par lefigaro.fr + LItalie [109]censure la vidéo sur Internet + Photos : Martin Luther King [110]en famille + Le New York Times [111]payant sur le web (eng) + Le rapport sur [112]la numérisation des livres décrypté + Lécologie [113]naméliore pas le climat familial (eng) . . Logo Figaro [114][20080606PHOWWW00354.jpg] [115]Gagnez un séjour en thalasso [116]Participez et gagnez un séjour au Carnac thalasso & spa Resort. . . [117][20080606PHOWWW00353.jpg] [118]Surprenante Madonna [119] Dolce & Gabbana invente la sexy mamma-donna . . [120][20080606PHOWWW00350.jpg] [121]Exprimez-vous [122] Devrait-il y avoir davantage d'hommes dans les mouvements féministes ? . . [123]Mode - [124]Beauté - [125]Joaillerie - [126]Déco - [127]Célébrités . [128]mercato . . [129]Comment choisir son assurance vie ? Posez vos questions à Marie-Christine Sonkin, directrice adjointe de la rédaction du Journal des Finances. Elle répondra en vidéo le 19 janvier. . . «Clint Eastwood au coeur de la mêlée et au coeur du public» CRITIQUE - Pour Olivier Delcroix, avec «Invictus», qui réunit à l'écran Morgan Freeman et Matt Damon, Eastwood livre un film passionnant sur le rugby et l'apartheid. . . Météo ____________________ rech [130]France - [131]Monde - [132]Plage . [EMBED] . [133]La grande crue de 1910 à Paris [134]La grande crue de 1910 à Paris EN IMAGES - A loccasion du centenaire de la crue, deux expos sont organisées à Paris. . . . [135]L'IVG, un sujet qui fâche en Europe Trente-cinq ans après sa légalisation en France, l'interruption volontaire de grossesse fait toujours polémique chez certains de nos voisins. . . [136]Jyvais . Économie [137]Proglio bouleverse la direction d'EDF [138]Le nouveau président d'EDF installe son équipe dirigeante. . [139]Evaluer son patron, un facteur d'efficacité [140]Une étude britannique met en évidence la relation entre santé au travail et franchise vis-à-vis de son employeur. . . . . . Vos commentaires sur... [141]Haïti : Le leadership de Washington sur les secours [142]«Dans un monde idéal ce serait à l'ONU de désigner le pays chargé de tenir ce rôle majeur. Mais il semble qu'on y préfère les grands discours aux actions rationnelles et efficaces !» par DUBLEYOU 76 . . [143]Aubry estime avoir les «capacités» de présider la France [144]«Peut-être devrait-elle commencer par expliquer ce qu'elle compte faire. Le meilleur opposant n'est pas forcément le meilleur candidat» par Piémont . . [145]L'IVG reste un sujet qui fâche chez nos voisins occidentaux [146]«Si 35 ans après cela pose encore problème et choque les populations, il faudrait peut-être se poser des questions ? Ce n'est pas parce qu'une loi a été votée qu'elle reste valable des décennies après» par Ebtg . . [147]» Retrouvez toute notre sélection de commentaires des internautes [148]en cliquant ici[149]. . . . . . . Trouvez les meilleurs restos, films, spectacles, concerts et expos à Paris et en Ile de France ! ____________________ [Resto / Bars...........] Rechercher . . [150]Easy Voyage . Services + [151]Services météo + [152]Services sorties + [153]Services bourse + [154]Services voyages + [155]Services Guide-tv + [156]Services boutiques + Annonces + [157]annonces_emploi + [158]Annonces immobilières + [159]Annonces automobile + [160]Annonces rencontres + . [_] [_] [_] [_] [_] [_] [_] Annonces emploi [161]cadremploi.fr [Fonction...............][Secteur................][Localisation.... .......]_________________________ Ok [162]Recherche detaillée . . . Annonces Automobiles [163]AutoScout24 [Marque..........] [Modeles] Année [de..] Prix () de [1.000..] Distance [Rayon.] [164]Recherche détaillée [Energie...] [Professionnels et particuliers] [à...] [à......] ____________________ (Afficher les résultats) Valider . Logo Evène 18 Janvier - Sainte Prisca - [165]Offrez-lui des fleurs [3441.jpg] [166]La citation du jour "Lire n'est pas un acte de consommation culturelle, c'est une conversation." [167]Alain Finkielkraut [168]Entretien avec Guy Rossi-Landi - Février 1999 . . [4262.jpg] [169]Anniversaire du jour [170]Philippe Starck Designer français 61 ans . . [171]Chronique du jour C'est arrivé le 18 Janvier 1975 Une bande qui fait du bruit Dans les kiosques, une nouvelle parution s'apprête à faire grand bruit. Il s'agit d'un trimestriel, certifié "réservé aux adultes", flanqué d'un titre au graphisme métallique : Métal hurlant. A l'o... . . 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Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1][bandeau.png] [2]Accueil [3]www.revuedumauss.com [4]www.jornaldomauss.org [5]Présentation ____________________ [6]Sylvain Dzimira Pascal Michon, Les rythmes du politique Démocratie et capitalisme mondialisé (note suivie d'une correspondance entre P. Michon, S. Dzimira et Sénèque...) Les prairies ordinaires, 2007, 318 p., 17 EUR. [7][printer.png] [8][article_pdf.png] [9]envoyer l'article par mail title= Article publié le 29 avril 2008 /3 commentaires Pour citer cet article : [10]Sylvain Dzimira, « Les rythmes du politique, Démocratie et capitalisme mondialisé (note suivie d'une correspondance entre P. Michon, S. Dzimira et Sénèque...) », Revue du MAUSS permanente, 29 avril 2008 [en ligne]. L'ambition de cet ouvrage donne tout simplement le vertige : relevant l'inanité des théories critiques, à ce point incapables de saisir notre modernité démocratique qu'elles corroborent selon lui une réalité qu'elles croient dénoncer, Pascal Michon ne propose rien de moins que de repenser la démocratie, en élaborant quasiment de toutes pièces un appareillage conceptuel, et en s'efforçant de déduire des conclusions normatives des découvertes que lui permettent les lunettes dont il se chausse, très loin de la très académique neutralité axiologique. Une ambition théorique d'autant plus étonnante qu'elle est le fait d'un historien (et non d'un sociologue ou d'un philosophe politiques qu'on pourrait croire mieux armés conceptuellement a priori), et quand on connaît l'hyperspécialisation de ses confrères (lui n'hésite pas à mobiliser « les sciences sociales » et la philosophie) et leur refus quasi généralisé de théoriser quoi que ce soit. Que pouvons-nous en penser ? Commençons par présenter l'ouvrage. PRESENTATION L'avant propos est désarçonnant, car, « tout le monde en prend pour son grade » ! Journalistes, universitaires « installés dans les chaires trop grandes pour eux de prédécesseurs célèbres » [p. 9], « intellectuels » de gauche devenus libéraux, intellectuels de droite invoquant des icônes de la gauche, tous incapables de penser quoi que ce soit de pertinent sur leur monde... Cela laisse un impression désagréable qui heureusement se dissipe rapidement, car les pages qui suivent donnent sérieusement à penser (nous les avons d'ailleurs publiées dans [11]La Revue du MAUSS Permanente). P. Michon y soutient que, reprise telle quelle par des « disciples » aveugles, la pensée libertaire et contestatrice d'hier est devenue l'un des soutiens de premier plan du nouvel ordre libéral, au même titre que la pensée libérale. D'ailleurs, elles se retrouvent dans la même dénonciation des entraves à l'auto-réalisation des individus, dans un même nominalisme nihiliste teinté d'un empirisme plat (rien n'existe au fond, qui ne s'observe pas, surtout pas « la société » ou les « sujets collectifs »), et dans une même sacralisation de la neutralité axiologique. Sont ainsi appelés à la barre : Marcela Iuacub, Antonio Negri, Michael Hart et Bruno Latour. Si ces postures étaient réellement contestatrices dans un contexte où l'individu était malmené par des pensées homogénéisantes, édifiant des totalités en surplomb, censées parfois tracer la voie du salut pour tous - phénoménologie, existentialisme, historicisme, marxisme sont cités - elles participent aujourd'hui très largement du monde nouveau qu'elles dénoncent par ailleurs, où le seul ordre qui vaille est celui qui s'établit spontanément (la neutralité axiologique est un allié précieux) par les choix des individus, qui seuls sont censés exister. Les « disciples » faussement contestataires ne sont pas les seuls à oeuvrer au nouvel ordre libéral : ils sont accompagnés par des « héritiers » (qu'on retrouve en nombre dans les médias, à l'université, dans la recherche, bref « tout ce qui constitue le fondement objectif de la vie de la pensée » [p. 23]) qui n'ont fait qu'emprunter les concepts et les programmes de recherche à leurs prédécesseurs, à qui ils doivent leurs places et leurs statuts. Cultivant une posture de « rentiers », excellant dans la « phagocytose académique » [p. 25], allant jusqu'à détourner les voix de leurs Maîtres (ainsi d'Ewald), « ce groupe est, pour P. Michon, le deuxième grand responsable de l'épuisement actuel de la pensée critique » [p. 24]. L'état des lieux laissés par leurs occupants est en effet accablant, mais suffisamment juste pour que nous citions longuement son auteur : « L'ouverture à l'autre, les parcours transversaux, la transdisciplinarité, le travail théorique, la contestation de l'ordre en cours et la créativité conceptuelle, qui avaient fondé jusque là l'organisation des savoirs, sont désormais systématiquement rejetés au profit d'une nouvelle constellation : spécialisation extrême, ignorance des autres disciplines [et souvent, même, des autres savoirs spécialisés de sa propre discipline, SD], enquêtes de terrain étroites, empirisme radical, approbation positiviste à l'égard de ce qui est et répétition académique du passé » [p. 27]. Notons que c'est avec le souci de ne pas reproduire ce qu'il dénonce - une pensée à la gloire de l'individu, nominaliste, platement empiriste, faussement neutre d'un point de vue axiologique - que P. Michon se lance dans ce qui apparaît comme une contribution à la théorie de la démocratie. Mais que ne parviennent pas à penser les théories critiques au juste ? Oscillant entre deux visions du monde radicalement opposées - tantôt monde de liberté totale, tantôt monde d'oppression totale - elles sont incapables de saisir que c'est là l'expression des « deux faces [interdépendantes] de l'individuation », dont il s'agit de comprendre la « simultanéité » et la « succession » [p. 31]. Autrement dit, elles sont incapables de saisir les nouvelles formes qu'a prises le pouvoir dans un monde vécu comme univers de liberté totale pour l'individu. Pour restituer le plus fidèlement possible sa pensée, nous ne pourrons pas nous passer des définitions que P. Michon donne de l'individuation et de la notion de rythme qui l'accompagne. « Par individuation, écrit-il, j'entends l'ensemble des processus corporels, langagiers et sociaux par lesquels sont sans cesse produits et reproduits, augmentés et minorés, les individus singuliers (les individus observés dans leur singularité psychique) et collectifs (les groupes). [...] J'appellerai rythmes les configurations spécifiques de ces processus d'individuation » ; ce sont « des manières de produire et de distinguer des individus singuliers et collectifs » [p. 32]. Aujourd'hui, soutient P. Michon, « [le pouvoir] se joue avant tout dans l'organisation et le contrôle des rythmes des processus d'individuation, ainsi que dans les classements qu'ils produisent » [p. 32]. La première partie de l'ouvrage est consacrée à l'explicitation de sa notion d'individuation et la deuxième aux formes que prend le pouvoir aujourd'hui. Dans la troisième partie de l'ouvrage, P. Michon « aborde la question [à ses yeux] la plus difficile et la plus importante de toutes : celle de la plus ou moins grande qualité des rythmes de l'individuation et des divers pouvoirs qui s'y expriment » [p. 33]. Le pouvoir se joue dans les rythmes, selon P. Michon. Or, tous les exercices du pouvoir ne s'équivalent pas. C'est donc que tous les rythmes ne s'équivalent pas. C'est pourquoi, comprenons-nous, P. Michon considère ne pas pouvoir se dispenser de rechercher des critères éthiques qui lui permettront de distinguer les bons rythmes des mauvais, en quelque sorte. Enfin, une fois ces critères identifiés, il évalue la qualité des rythmes du « monde nouveau » qu'est le nôtre. Restituons rapidement chacune de ces parties (pour aider à la compréhension de l'ouvrage tout en suivant sa progression, nous avons repris le titre de chacune de ses parties et indiqué entre parenthèses la question qu'elle nous semble poser). Individuation (ou comment penser le processus de construction des sujets individuels et collectifs ?) Pour insister sur le fait que les rythmes s'inscrivent dans le temps, et que les individus singuliers et collectifs qu'ils produisent ont eux-mêmes une dimension historique, que leur identité est évolutive (un souci bien compréhensif de la part d'un historien) même si elle peut-être relativement stable, P. Michon recourt à une nouvelle notion : celle de fluement. Il précise ainsi sa notion de rythme en lui donnant une nouvelle définition : « J'appellerai rythme toute manière de fluer des individus et poserai que tout processus d'individuation est organisé de façon rythmique » [p. 42]. Il s'attache donc à comprendre comment le corps (le rapport à son corps, entre les corps), le langage et les rapports sociaux produisent les individus singuliers et collectifs [[12]1] Pour ce qui est de la question du corps, P. Michon mobilise Marcel Mauss - [13]son fameux article sur les techniques du corps - Norbert Elias - La civilisation des moeurs et La société de cour - et Michel Foucault - Surveiller et punir - pour rappeler l'idée au fond assez simple selon laquelle le rapport à son propre corps (jusque dans notre manière de marcher), et au corps d'autrui (pratiques sexuelles, danses etc.) est culturellement, historiquement, socialement marqué, et que cela participe de la construction des sujets. Il semble distinguer au moins deux manières de produire par les corps les sujets, deux « rythmes corporels » : l'une, rare, inscrit les corps dans un « schéma mécanique et binaire » [p. 54] ; on la retrouve idéaltyptiquement dans l'usine taylorienne ou fordiste ou encore à l'armée. L'autre, la plus fréquente, sort du modèle binaire et arithmétique classique » [ibid.]. Mais on n'en sait pas beaucoup plus. Passons aux « rythmes du langage » (ou encore fluement du langage ou discursivité). Le langage (les manières de s'exprimer, de parler etc.), soutient en substance P. Michon, participe à la construction des sujets, et rend compte de cette construction. Pour comprendre comment le langage peut participer à la construction des sujets, P. Michon s'appuie sur Victor Kemplerer - La langue du IIIème Reich. Carnets d'un philologue - qui rend compte de la « nazification du langage » [p. 55]. Pour saisir comment un langage peut rendre compte des sujets socialisés, il s'appuie sur notamment Walter Benjamin - son Charles Baudelaire, un poète lyrique à l'apogée du capitalisme - qui montre que le langage qu'emploie Baudelaire renvoie « à l'expérience abîmée des individus plongés dans la Grande Ville » [p. 58]. Enfin, les « rythmes du social ». Là aussi, les relations sociales sont rythmées, elles s'inscrivent dans une temporalité qui suit ses propres rythmes, qui façonnent les identités individuelles et collectives par conséquent variables en même temps que stables. Pour l'illustrer, P. Michon s'appuie une nouvelle fois sur M. Mauss (notamment) et son [14]« Essai sur les variations saisonnières des sociétés eskimos » qui l'été se dispersent et l'hiver se rassemblent et vivent en état d'effervescence, un peu comme les Kwakiutls. Ces variations des « rythmes du social » correspondent en fait à des « variations d'intensité des interactions » [p. 71]. Bref, voilà ce qui participe à la construction de l'identité, à la fois permanente et en mouvement, des sujets individuels et collectifs, à la construction de leur « âme » : nos rapports au corps, nos rapports entre les corps, notre langage, nos relations sociales, tout cela étant étroitement entrelacé : « Les processus d'individuation sont à la fois des phénomènes langagiers, corporels et sociaux, écrit P. Michon ; ils déploient simultanément une discursivité, une corporéité et une socialité - et c'est de l'entrecroisement de leurs rythmes qu'apparaît `l'âme' » [p.76]. La notion de rythme permet donc d'appréhender des manières historiquement construites de se déplacer, de parler, d'être en relation, qui construisent les identités des sujets individuels et collectifs. À ce titre, elle a une vertu heuristique. Mais P. Michon l'appréhende également comme « un concept politique et éthique » [p. 81]. Il distingue en effet deux types de rythme qui n'ont pas les mêmes effets éthiques et politiques. Un premier type de rythme produit des sujets individuels et collectifs qui se « renforcent » mutuellement. Un deuxième type produit des sujets individuels et collectifs qui jouent l'un contre l'autre : l'affirmation des premiers se fait aux dépens des deuxièmes ou inversement. P. Michon considère « qu'une éthique et une politique démocratiques peuvent se définir comme orientées vers la production de manière de fluer de la socialité, des corps et des langages (...) qui soient à la fois singulières et partageables » et toujours « réactualisables » [pp. 81-82]. Ainsi, P. Michon suggère que les sociétés démocratiques doivent s'orienter vers des rythmes du premier type. Pouvoir (ou comment la notion de rythme permet de penser la contrainte subie par les sujets dans un monde hors contrainte - ou du moins, qui se pense comme tel ?) Après avoir précisé comment ses notions d'individuation et de rythme permettent de comprendre les manières dont les sujets individuels et collectifs sont construits, P. Michon, aborde la question de la manière dont ces rythmes produisent du pouvoir, caractéristique de notre « nouveau monde ». D'abord, P. Michon situe sa manière de voir les choses sur le « marché des idées » : ses vues se distinguent de l'utilitarisme dominant, pour qui le pouvoir, assis sur la violence ou la contrainte qui l'euphémise, est orienté vers la satisfaction des intérêts des individus, et le Pouvoir, les institutions politiques, vers l'évitement de la déflagration de la société en raison de la lutte de tous contre tous. Or, cette manière de voir ne permet pas de saisir qu'aujourd'hui, le pouvoir - qu'il s'exerce à l'échelle individuelle ou institutionnelle - passe moins par la violence ou la contrainte que par une certaine « façon de pénétrer les corps-langages, d'organiser leurs manières de fluer et de déterminer ainsi leur individuation mouvante » [p. 93]. « Le pouvoir, écrit-il plus loin, s'est émancipé de la forme système (...), et s'appuie désormais moins sur sa capacité à assurer un ordre optimisé que sur un spectre de stratégies utilisant, au contraire, la fluidité même du monde - stratégies qui vont du contrôle souple et de la création des manières de fluer des corps-langages-groupes à l'utilisation plus ou moins délibérée du chaos, comme on le voit avec les États-Unis et le Royaume-Uni au Moyen-Orient » [p. 94-95]. Aujourd'hui, les personnes sont moins assujetties que les sujets sont produits. Pour penser cette nouvelle forme du pouvoir, il faut penser autrement le rapport du tout aux parties, s'émanciper tant des théories qui consacrent une autonomie totale des individus, de celles qui en font de simples marionnettes du système, et rechercher une voie moyenne à l'instar des « théories intermédiaires » - comme celles de Elias, Bourdieu, Foucault, Touraine, Habermas, Honneth, Giddens, Bauman, Caillé, Thévenot, Boltanski. [p. 101 et suiv.] qui tentent de « penser l'un par l'autre ce qu'elles conçoivent comme les deux côtés de la vie socio-politique : les `systèmes' et les `interactions entre les individus' » [p. 101] ce par quoi il faut comprendre « un rapport réel entre des pôles dont l'existence ne se conçoit que dans leur interdépendance et leurs échanges incessants » [p. 102]. De ce point de vue « le pouvoir constitue moins un simple état de fait que le milieu et le moyen à travers lequel se construisent les individus singuliers et collectifs, les classements et les hiérarchies qui les relient les uns aux autres, ainsi que les effets de domination qui apparaissent au sein de ces classements et de ces hiérarchies » [p. 103-104]. Néanmoins, parce qu' « elles n'ont pas prêté attention à l'organisation temporelle [...] de ces interactions » [p. 106], elles manquent les rythmes du politique où se joue la question du pouvoir. P. Michon propose alors une définition du pouvoir comme « médium rythmique » [p. 107], c'est-à-dire, comprenons-nous, comme processus historique de production et de contrôle des personnes et des groupes par imposition d'un rythme « de toutes choses : de vie, de temps, de pensée, de discours » comme il l'écrit plus loin [p. 129]. Compte tenu de cette nouvelle modalité du pouvoir, reste à savoir quel critère on pourrait se donner pour juger que notre démocratie se porte bien, ou pas ? Démocratie (ou quel(s) critère(s) se donner pour évaluer la démocratie moderne ?) Ou encore : que doit-on faire pour que dans notre nouveau monde où le pouvoir s'exerce par un contrôle sur le processus de construction des corps-langages-groupes, notre démocratie se porte bien ? Quelle place pour l'État ? [[15]2] Lutter contre l'État comme le pensait Pierre Clastres ? P. Michon ne le croit pas : outre que P. Clastres aurait perdu « la conscience du temps et de l'histoire », « le modèle politique et éthique arythmique qu'[il] propose [est] assez peu offensif vis-à-vis de la réalité du capitalisme » [p. 123]. Bref, la définition d'une « démocratie comme arythmie » ne convient pas. Mieux vaut partir de Roland Barthes, selon P. Michon, et plus précisément de la présentation qu'il fait des collectivités religieuses « idiorrythmiques » qui vivaient dans les déserts syriens et égyptiens « où chaque moine a (...) licence de mener son rythme particulier de vie » [p. 126]. D'abord parce qu'elles sont parvenues à éviter les excès du repli sur soi et de la fusion communautaire, de la « solitude et [du] coenobium » [p. 127], dessinant selon lui une sorte de « socialisme qui n'aurait pas abandonné l'individu » [pp. 127-128]. Ensuite parce qu'en se retirant dans le désert, elles sont parvenues à échapper au rythme d'un pouvoir supérieur. Bref, c'est plutôt dans cette société idiorrythmique, i.e. qui se fixe à elle-même son propre rythme, qu'il voit - provisoirement du moins - un idéal type de la démocratie. Néanmoins, quand P. Clastres pense l'État sans penser le rythme, R. Barthes pense le rythme sans penser l'État [p. 140]. Sur le chemin de sa quête d'une éthique et d'une politique du rythme, P. Michon se tourne alors vers Marcel Mauss. Non seulement les descriptions que ce dernier fait de la vie saisonnière des sociétés archaïques rendent bien compte du caractère rythmique de ces sociétés, mais le potlatch illustre de manière spectaculaire à ses yeux la « nature rythmique du politique » [p. 142], au sens où c'est dans ce moment que se « redéfini[ssent] périodiquement le statut et l'identité des groupes et des personnes dans le système tribal » [p. 142]. Il retient de M. Mauss et des travaux de Marcel Granet sur la Chine que la société n'est pas contre l'État comme le pense P. Clastres, que l'État n'est pas contre la société comme le pense R. Barthes. « Leurs relations, pense-t-il, doivent [plutôt] être évaluées en fonction des interactions historiques, toujours mouvantes, entre les rythmes imposés par l'État aux corps-langages-groupes et ceux imposés à celui-là par ceux-ci. [...] L'État n'est pas nécessairement « l'ennemi » de la société : il peut certes devenir tyrannique et informer les processus d'individuation à son profit, mais il peut tout aussi bien devenir l'instrument grâce auquel la société peut chercher à assurer une individuation de bonne qualité » [p. 147]. Bref, l'État a toute sa place dans une démocratie idiorrythmique. Encore faut-il qu'il ne dénie pas son rythme propre, sans l'imposer pour autant à la société. « Les différents projets démocratiques qui sont au apparus vers la fin de cette période apparaissent comme autant de tentatives politiques pour réintroduire dans l'État, devenu permanent, une temporalité tenant compte des rythmes propres de la société » [p. 154]. Voilà ce qu'il nous faut : « Rerythmer le corps-langage arythmique de l'État moderne, lui redonner la temporalité et la multiplicité interne dont il s'est débarrassé, réhistoriciser une forme de pouvoir qui se prétend hors de l'histoire » [p. 154]. Les nouveaux rythmes d'un monde fluide Mais notre démocratie ne s'est-elle pas édifiée sur la maîtrise par « le peuple » de la discipline exercée par l'État sur les corps et sur les esprits ? Sans doute, répond P. Michon, mais de nouvelles formes rythmiques se sont imposées « aux multitudes » [[16]3], peut-être plus fortes qu'auparavant. C'est toute l'ambivalence de notre modernité démocratique. « Tout s'est [...] passé comme si l'apparition des libertés civiles puis la mutation démocratique de l'État n'avaient pu se faire qu'au prix de la diffusion de nouveaux modes rythmiques d'individuation fondés sur un assujettissement renforcé et de nouvelles formes d'exclusion » [p. 194]. En quoi consiste plus précisément la nouveauté de nos « formes de production des individus singuliers et collectifs », déjà rapidement évoqués ? C'est qu'ils sont « beaucoup plus fluides, en tout cas libérés de toute métrique, sinon de toute discipline » [p. 211]. S'appuyant sur Gabriel Tarde, P. Michon précise qu'elles sont le fait du progrès technique dans l'imprimerie, la communication et les transports, qui permet de produire des groupes 1) sans que leurs membres se rassemblent physiquement (pensons à l'internet), 2) sur la seule base d'idées communes (chacun pouvant se reconnaître dans un « courant d'opinion »), et 3) « en perpétuelle métamorphose » (c'est ce qui semble leur conférer un caractère fluide) [p. 215] ; groupes d'individus, « myriades d'atomes » séparés mais non isolés (qui prennent le visage du « public »), qui « imposent une fluidité de plus en plus grande aux groupements institutionnalisés traditionnels et [qui] transforment, tendanciellement, les sociétés modernes en société de masse » [p. 215]. Les rythmes d'individuation sont encore plus fluides en ce sens que, comme l'avait relevé Georg Simmel que P. Michon mobilise aussi - en même temps qu'ils sont désormais en connexion permanente, inscrits dans une « temporalité continue, sans halte ni repos » [p. 220], ils peuvent choisir leurs propres rythmes de vie. D'un point de vue simmelien, la monnaie y a fait bien sûr pour beaucoup. Désormais dominante, cette manière, fluide, de produire des individus singuliers et collectifs est elle-même ambivalente. G. Tarde, par exemple, est plutôt sensible aux dangers pour la démocratie que porte la possibilité de produire un « public », une « opinion publique », si celle ci devait être instrumentalisée par des puissances animées par une volonté d'assujettissement. Simmel, lui, est plus sensible aux possibilités accrues pour les individus de choisir leurs propres rythmes. Il voit davantage le danger dans le refus de cette fluidification du rythme, et dans l'aspiration au retour à des rythmes plus disciplinés et cadencés. Avec G. Tarde et G. Simmel, on voit clairement que le rythme, la manière dont les hommes se produisent, dont les corps-langages-groupes se construisent, n'est pas sans incidences politiques. Il y a donc lieu de les distinguer selon leur « qualité éthique et politique » [p. 232]. P. Michon, inspiré par Ossip Mandesltam [[17]4], se donne alors un indicateur de la mesure de cette qualité des rythmes : la « rythmicité ». Et vient une définition rythmique des groupements démocratiques : ils sont « dotés d'une rythmicité forte. Ils se caractérisent par leur multiplicité interne et par le fait qu'ils permettent aux contradictions et aux conflits de s'exprimer sans que ceux-ci ne débouchent sur la suppression de l'un des termes antagonistes, assurant ainsi l'une par l'autre la promotion du singulier et celle des groupes auxquels il appartient. » [p. 233]. Mais qu'en est-il du rythme, de la manière dont se produisent les corps-langages-groupes censée porter ces groupements démocratiques ? On n'en sait trop rien sinon qu'il est lui-même traversé par cette exigence paradoxale de fabriquer du commun et du singulier, de la cohésion et du conflit. On en sait davantage sur le rythme des groupements à rythmicité faible, dont la foule et les « sociétés de masses » sont les idéaux-types : ils « sont très souvent marqués par des techniques rythmiques de type métriques - [...] manifestations, meetings politiques, matchs de football -, proches de la cadence, de la simple alternance binaire [...] ou mécanique - [...] parades militaires, sparkiades et autres spectacles de masse » [p. 233-234]. Mais les rythmes à rythmicité faible peuvent être encore « flous, très peu accentués et à basse tension interne » [p. 234], comme on peut en rencontrer dans les entreprises aujourd'hui, « rythmes aussi peu favorables à l'individuation que les rythmes binaires et disciplinaires qu'ils ont remplacés » [p . 234], typiques des organisations tayloristes ou de l'armée. À la recherche des formes justes d'un monde fluidifié Ce qu'il faut donc, c'est rechercher « les formes justes d'un monde fluidifié » [p. 237]. Il se tourne alors vers ce qu'il appelle « l'utopie maussienne » [p. 233], qui consiste à voir la morale du don - de la triple obligation de donner, recevoir et rendre - tempérer, contenir, celle de l'intérêt, aujourd'hui dominante, et qui revient selon lui à « assurer la maximisation de leur individuation [celle des individus singuliers et collectifs] par une mise en tension du soi et du collectif » [p. 238]. Car, plus qu'une simple transaction, P. Michon voit dans le don archaïque, agonistique, un rythme particulier, « l'occasion d'une réunion et d'une mise en branle périodiques et organisées des corps-langages, c'est à dire de la production d' `âmes' par des techniques rythmiques particulières » [p. 239]. Voyant chez M. Mauss une définition rythmique du don - comme forme de production des corps-langages-groupes - susceptible d'étayer un projet éthico-politique, P. Michon la considère comme un « point de départ » [p. 241] pour réfléchir à l'énoncé de critères qui permettent de distinguer les bons des mauvais rythmes. Il déduit des réflexions de Mauss sur la circulation et la fortification de l'âme des peuples au cours des potlatchs que « toute politique démocratique consistera [...] à rechercher, non pas seulement, comme le pensaient Georg Simmel et R. Barthes, une idiorrythmie, une simple liberté rythmique personnelle indépendante des rythmes collectifs, mais une eurythmie simultanément corporelle, discursive et sociale - une maximisation de l'individualisation singulière et collective » [p. 242]. Au regard de la démocratie, le seul bon rythme est celui qui maximise la production des individus singuliers et collectifs... Néanmoins, M. Mauss ne parvient pas à nous fournir les critères qui permettraient de distinguer les bons [[18]5] des mauvais rythmes d'individuation, parce que, dans ses conclusions de morale et de politique de son célèbre Essai, il développe une « conception pacifiste et consensualiste de la démocratie, et ne tient aucun compte du rôle que joue précisément le conflit dans [les] processus d'individuation » [p. 248]. P. Michon voit davantage le bon rythme de l'individuation démocratique chez les Nuer tels qu'ils sont décrits par Evans-Pritchard, qui alternent successivement « don et refus du don, l'alliance et la lutte » [p. 252]. Ainsi, « tout en restant disponibles à la générosité et à l'engagement solidaire, [ils] jouissent pleinement de leur autonomie. [...] Les Nuer ont inventé un système, poursuit plus loin P. Michon, dans lequel, loin de s'opposer, solidarité et individualité se renforcent l'une l'autre » [ibid.]. Bref, le bon rythme d'individuation démocratique est celui qui repose sur « l'alternance du conflit et de l'alliance ». [p. 252], ou plus précisément, il s'opère lorsque « l'alliance et le conflit alternent tout en étant compris sans cesse l'un dans l'autre, un peu comme, dans la pensée chinoise, le yin et le yang se succèdent tout en impliquant déjà chaque fois leur opposé »[p. 254]. Ou encore, le bon rythme d'individuation démocratique est celui qui permet de « considérer nos adversaires comme des alliés en puissance, mais aussi ceux qui sont nos alliés comme de potentiels adversaires » [p. 254]. Ce qui le conduit à défendre une définition de la démocratie comme « eurythmie de l'usage de la violence » [p. 254]. Seul ce rythme « maximise » l'individuation des individus singuliers et collectifs, permet l'affirmation la plus intense des « Je » et du « Nous ». [p. 255] [[19]6]. De ce point de vue, le système économique le plus juste est donc celui qui fait autant de place à l'adversité qu'à l'alliance. Il le voit dans une sorte de « mixture » qui organiserait l'adversité par la concurrence marchande et la reconnaissance de la propriété privée, et l'alliance par l'organisation collective de la production et une certaine « mise en commun de la propriété » [p. 274]. Il en vient ainsi à définir la démocratie, « non seulement comme une eurythmie de l'usage de la violence, mais comme une eurythmie des usages de la propriété et du marché » [ibid.], dont la rythmicité est donc forte. C'est à l'aune de ce critère du bon rythme d'individuation démocratique qu'il évalue la qualité des rythmes du « monde nouveau » qu'est le nôtre. Capitalisme mondialisé (notre société capitaliste est-elle bien démocratique ? Que faire pour la rendre plus démocratique ?) Le rythme du capitalisme s'est modifié. Cadencé, binaire, métrique dans les organisations tayloristes, il s'est depuis une trentaine d'années fluidifié dans les organisations dites flexibles, dont l'objectif est de répondre au mieux à la demande des clients (en vue de maximiser le profit). Jouant la carte de la responsabilisation individuelle, des horaires variables, de l'accroissement de la mobilité professionnelle, ces organisations développent des rythmes d'individuation plus lâches, moins métriques et peuvent donner l'impression qu'elles libèrent les formes de vie dans le travail. Mais, s'appuyant sur l'ouvrage de Richard Senett, Le travail en miettes (1998), P. Michon montre qu'il n'en est rien. Confrontés à des objectifs de court terme quasiment inatteignables, à un temps hors travail qu'ils ne maîtrisent même plus, à des parcours professionnels bigarrés, les individus subissent une nouvelle forme d'assujettissement. Et l'individualisation à outrance du rapport au travail a sapé « les liens de confiance et d'engagement mutuels » constitutifs de tout groupe [p 292]. On a désormais affaire à des individus singuliers et collectifs à faible rythmicité. Notre monde est flexible, mais il est encore médiatique. On assiste à un développement sans précédent des moyens de communication, qui, lui aussi, à l'instar de la flexibilité, pourrait faire croire à une libération des formes d'individuation ici langagière. Mais il n'en est rien. Le discours est aseptisé, consensuel, l'information « désincarnée et dépolitisée ». Bref, qu'il s'agisse de nos rapports au langage, au corps, aux autres, nous vivons dans un monde à faible rythmicité, i.e. dont ni l'individu, ni le collectif ne sortent gagnants. « Ainsi, note P. Michon, les démocraties libérales, qui se voyaient jusque là comme des machines à produire des individus émancipés, tendent-elles à devenir aujourd'hui d'immenses dispositifs qui assurent, à travers une fluidification généralisée des corporéités, des discursivités, et des socialités, la multiplication d'individus faibles et flottants, constamment happés par les besoins de la production et de l'échange marchand et les interactions dans lesquels ils sont pris » [p. 307]. Pour éviter les « tempêtes » dont ce monde est porteur, il est urgent pour P. Michon que nous retrouvions de nouveaux rythmes d'individuation langagière, corporelle et sociale, « à partir des capacités des individus à s'associer au niveau local, voire translocal » [p. 311], « dans l`expérience de corps-langage-groupe en lutte » [p. 312]. Mais cela ne pourra pas se faire, selon lui, sans « toucher aux rapports de production et à la répartition des revenus » [ibid.], et donc sans une « puissance supérieure à celle des entreprises et du marché » [ibid.], qui pourrait-être l'Europe, en tant qu'entité politique. DISCUSSION Que penser de cet ouvrage ? À vrai dire, il nous laisse une curieuse impression. Les efforts que déploie P. Michon pour concevoir un appareillage conceptuel afin de saisir l'état de notre démocratie moderne forcent le respect. On est là, se dit-on, en présence d'un auteur qui développe sa propre pensée, en discussion permanente avec des auteurs d'horizons multiples, de surcroît d'une manière fort rigoureuse, puisqu'il ne s'épargne aucun effort pour définir les notions qu'il crée. La progression de l'ouvrage elle-même laisse apparaître un auteur méthodique et prudent dans ses diagnostics : ce n'est qu'après avoir défini ce qu'il appelle individuation, explicité ses rapports avec le pouvoir, qu'il se permet, chaussé des lunettes qu'il vient de se fabriquer, de porter un diagnostic sur notre démocratie. Enfin, on sent bien, intuitivement, qu'avec sa notion de rythme, il pointe sur une dimension de la réalité sociale très largement ignorée par les spécialistes en sciences sociales [[20]7]mais qui pourrait bien être importante si, comme il le soutient, c'est dans les rythmes que se jouent les relations de pouvoir. De l'usage du concept Mais c'est ce même appareillage conceptuel qui nous laisse perplexe. Créé de toutes pièces par P. Michon, il est bien difficile à saisir malgré les efforts qu'il fournit pour définir les notions employées. Individuation, rythme, arythmie, idiorrythmie, eurythmie, fluement (finalement très peu utilisé), rythmicité (forte et faible) : tout cela pourrait décourager le lecteur pressé (et a rendu cette recension bien difficile). À ce propos d'ailleurs, les ralliements qu'il opère de certains auteurs à la cause de l'individuation et du rythme paraissent un peu forcés ! Présenter M. Foucault comme l'auteur d'une « histoire des rythmes d'individuation » [p. 195], et M. Mauss comme le découvreur de la notion d'eurythmie [p. 243, cf. supra] est pour le moins assez peu usuel. Si ces points de vue, rapidement glissés, pouvaient aider à la compréhension des idées de P. Michon, ils pourraient se justifier. Mais pour notre part, nous ne pouvons pas dire qu'ils nous aient beaucoup aidés. Bien sûr, son langage se comprend au regard des défaillances qu'il identifie chez les auteurs qui appréhendent notre démocratie, et qui résident justement, selon lui, dans leur incapacité à saisir ce qu'il appelle individuation et rythme pourtant au coeur des relations de pouvoir selon lui. Nous sommes tout simplement, de son point de vue, en présence d'« une réalité nouvelle » qui demande « des dispositifs théoriques, eux aussi, totalement nouveaux » (nous soulignons) [p. 30]. Par ailleurs, P. Michon a suffisamment critiqué l'intelligentsia française pour son manque de créativité intellectuelle pour ne pas se faire lui-même inventif... Néanmoins, la nouveauté est-elle toujours un indice de la pertinence ? Ne peut-on rien apprendre de ceux qui nous ont précédés ? Qu'y a-t-il de honteux à s'inscrire dans une tradition de pensée ? Soyons sévère (et un peu injuste, car P. Michon s'efforce, sans être toujours très convaincant, de rallier des prédécesseurs plus ou moins connus à ses concepts) : n'y a-t-il pas dans cette posture de créativité radicale, quasiment nihiliste, quelque chose du mythe de l'autoréalisation de soi emblématique de notre époque et qu'il condamne lui-même ? Toujours est-il que nous nous demandons si P. Michon n'aurait pas pu, tout de même, dire les choses plus simplement. Que dit-il au juste ? Que nos identités se construisent dans nos relations aux autres, qui engagent notre corps et notre langage. Que ces relations peuvent être placées sous des registres différents (elles peuvent être rythmées différemment), qu'elles peuvent être notamment plus ou moins contraintes (rythme cadencé, métré, binaire etc.) ou libres (rythme fluide). Que dans ces relations se jouent des relations de pouvoir sur les personnes (pouvoir de contrainte, parfois médiatisé par le savoir), et, par-là, la capacité pour elles de se réaliser de manière autonome, ou pas (pouvoir d'agir). Dans une première phase du capitalisme, un réel pouvoir sur les personnes s'exerçait via l'organisation de relations sociales contraignantes qui engageaient leurs corps et leurs langages, et qui freinaient leur pouvoir d'agir, individuellement et collectivement. L'organisation tayloriste en constitue l'idéal-type. Aujourd'hui, apparemment délivrées des contraintes systémiques dans leurs relations aux autres, visiblement libérées du pouvoir qui s'exerçait sur elles-mêmes (l'organisation du travail flexible faisant appel à l'initiative et à la responsabilité de ses salariés joue ici comme idéal-type), les personnes n'ont pour autant pas gagné en pouvoir d'agir, ni individuellement, ni collectivement. Le pouvoir exercé sur les personnes prend paradoxalement le canal de l'exhortation de leur pouvoir d'agir (qui se réduit bien souvent à celui de produire et de consommer). Si bien que notre démocratie n'est pas tout à fait démocratique, « étant entendu » qu'une bonne démocratie est celle qui renforce le pouvoir d'agir des individus et des groupes. D'une certaine manière, même, notre société est moins démocratique qu'auparavant car elle paraît faussement l'être plus, alors qu'autrefois elle paraissait bien ne pas l'être assez. Ce que nous pouvons en déduire, c'est qu'il nous faut cultiver des relations sociales, créer des institutions qui soient porteuses de ce pouvoir d'agir individuellement et collectivement, qui nous permettent de retrouver la maîtrise de nos destins à la fois individuels et collectifs. Nous aimerions savoir ce que ce résumé omet d'essentiel que l'emploi de ses notions d'individuation, de rythme, de fluement, d'arythmie, d'idiorrythmie etc. auraient fait apparaître. Sur la démocratie Puisque l'ouvrage se présente comme une contribution à la théorie de la démocratie, attardons-nous maintenant sur cette contribution, et d'abord sur son positionnement sur le marché des idées. Pour le dire vite, P. Michon souhaite se distinguer à la fois de l'individualisme méthodologique, qui ne voit que des individus libres, et du holisme qui ne voit que des individus contraints. Il leur reproche au fond leur incapacité à saisir que la contrainte prend aujourd'hui les allures de la liberté. Son souci est bien de se doter de concepts qui permettent de comprendre ce paradoxe. Il le tente dans le cadre d'un interactionnisme ou d'un relationnisme qui se laisse percevoir dans sa définition de l'individuation, comme processus de construction des identités et des normes dans le cadre de relations qui engagent le corps et le langage (d'ailleurs, qu'est-ce donc que l'individuation ainsi traduite - nous espérons ne pas trahir la pensée de P. Michon - sinon ce que les sociologues appellent socialisation ?). De ce point de vue, la démarche nous paraît très cohérente. P. Michon dit encore vouloir se distinguer des théories utilitaristes du pouvoir (notons d'ailleurs qu'il situe dans l'utilitarisme l'origine de la fluidification de notre monde [[21]8], sans qu'on sache s'il s'agit de l'utilitarisme en tant que pratique ou en tant que théorie, et sans qu'il nous dise véritablement en quoi il serait à l'origine de la fluidification de notre monde). Il dit en effet ne pas souscrire aux théories qui définissent le pouvoir comme pouvoir de contrainte en vue de satisfaire ses intérêts personnels, et qui envisagent le Pouvoir comme l'ensemble des institutions visant l'évitement la déflagration sociale dans la guerre de tous contre tous. De fait, ce n'est pas ainsi qu'il considère le pouvoir puisque, pour lui, le pouvoir de contrainte et d'assujettissement s'exerce moins qu'il ne se joue dans les manières dont les relations se construisent en engageant le corps et le langage. Cela lui permet de faire apparaître que des relations placées sous le signe de la liberté, ou du moins de l'absence apparente de contraintes (de la fluidité) peuvent au final s'avérer très contraignantes ; autrement dit, qu'un réel pouvoir de contrainte peut se manifester sans qu'une volonté quelconque d'assujettissement soit véritablement exprimée. Situation qui caractérise notre société démocratique contemporaine selon lui (si nous avons bien compris). De ce point de vue, pas de doute, P.Michon ne s'inscrit pas dans la tradition utilitariste. Quoique... plaçant par ailleurs le pouvoir sous le signe de « stratégies qui vont du contrôle souple et de la création plus ou moins délibérée du chaos » [p. 94-95 par exemple, cf. supra], on peut se demander quelle place il accorde à l'intérêt calculé dans cette affaire, et donc quel rapport sa conception du pouvoir entretient avec l'utilitarisme ? Concernant la relation de sa conception de la démocratie avec l'utilitarisme, les choses sont beaucoup plus ambiguës. En effet, il définit assez curieusement la démocratie comme le régime ou l'état social plutôt (P. Michon ne se prononce pas trop à ce sujet) qui « maximise » l'individuation : « Toute politique démocratique consistera, écrit-il, [...] à rechercher [...] une eurythmie simultanément corporelle, discursive et sociale - une maximisation de l'individuation singulière et collective » [p. 242]. Nous ne comprenons tout simplement pas qui maximise, qui calcule au mieux quoi, ni en en vue de quoi ! Reprenons sa définition de l'individuation : que signifie calculer « un processus corporel, langagier et social par lesquels sont sans cesse produits et reproduits les individus singuliers et collectifs » ? À vrai dire, la question « en vue de quoi il faut maximiser l'individuation », pourrait trouver sa réponse quelques lignes plus haut, quand P. Michon relève que dans un des derniers passages de l' [22]« Essai sur le don » , M. Mauss situe le secret du bonheur dans une vie bien rythmée, alternant les moments de travail et de repos, de solitude et de vie sociale, d'accumulation des richesses et de dépenses généreuses. Voilà donc ce qu'aurait en vue une politique véritablement démocratique, qui viserait la maximisation de l'individuation : le bonheur de tous et de chacun (manifestement mesurables et calculables). Ainsi placée sous le signe du calcul (maximisateur), du bonheur, du plus grand bonheur, et d'un grand calculateur, une telle conception de la démocratie nous semble bien s'inscrire dans la tradition utilitariste. D'ailleurs, nous nous demandons vraiment si les communautés religieuses syriennes qui représentent pour lui un bon idéal-type de la bonne démocratie conduisaient une politique de maximisation de l'individuation ! À moins que par maximisation il ne faille pas comprendre maximisation, c'est à dire calcul... Nous avons tendance à penser en effet que cette expression est malheureuse, et que P. Michon est davantage spinoziste que benthamien, car il nous semble que pour lui, une démocratie s'évalue non pas par le bonheur de ses membres, mais par la « puissance d'agir » de tous et de chacun [[23]9]. Enfin, le critère qu'il se donne pour identifier un groupement démocratique nous semble très largement autoréférentiel. En effet, qu'est-ce qu'un groupement démocratique pour P. Michon ? Un groupement dont la rythmicité est forte. Mais la caractéristique qu'il donne d'un groupe dont la rythmicité est forte n'est rien d'autre que celle d'un groupement démocratique, i.e. qui sait cultiver le conflit dans les limites de l'amitié. Nous aurions aimé qu'il précise plutôt sous quel registre il place une telle relation...à la fois teintée d'agôn et de philia... Ce qui nous amène à M. Mauss. Sur Marcel Mauss Ce que P. Michon souligne en s'appuyant sur M. Mauss, c'est combien la vie de certains peuples archaïques est saisonnière, ou encore, rythmée. Les Eskimos comme les Kwakiutls, par exemple, se dispersent l'été, période d'accumulation, et se retrouvent l'hiver, période d'effervescence sociale, de dépenses généreuses, d'invitations mutuelles, bref, de dons en tous genres. P. Michon donne au rythme de la vie sociale une importance qu'elle n'a généralement pas chez les commentateurs de M. Mauss. Il nous alerte ainsi sur les rythmes de nos propres vies sociales, et en particulier, sur « la nature rythmique du politique » [p. 142]. À mieux y réfléchir, les dons eux-mêmes obéissent en effet à des rythmes propres qui leur sont constitutifs : il y a des moments pour donner, de même qu'il y a des moments pour ne pas donner, et la spirale du don elle-même - celle de la triple obligation de donner, recevoir et rendre plus - obéit bien à un rythme (à trois temps) plus ou moins obligé. Si ces rythmes ne sont pas respectés, si l'on donne mal à propos, à contre-temps, si l'on rend trop rapidement, ou encore si le temps du don est réduit à presque rien ou cantonné à la sphère privée, on saisit bien que cela puisse compromettre les alliances et la vie sociale elle-même. On comprend mieux ainsi en quoi les rythmes de nos vies sociales ne sont pas sans effets éthiques et politiques. C'est un véritable chantier qu'ouvre ainsi P. Michon, qui mérite à nos yeux que les MAUSSiens, entre autres, s'y penchent davantage qu'ils ont pu le faire. D'autant que la démarche de P. Michon, qui s'efforce de déduire de ses réflexions socio-anthropologiques des conclusions de morale et de politique, s'inscrit pleinement dans une démarche maussienne. D'ailleurs, les conclusions de politiques économiques auxquelles aboutit P. Michon font étonnement écho aux positions politiques de M. Mauss, quand ce dernier plaide pour une « mixture » de capitalisme et de socialisme, de propriété privée et de propriété collective, de marché et de solidarité etc. Mixture qui, tout en étant attentive à la dimension collective de nos existences, n'en oublierait pas pour autant que les individus ont des aspirations singulières, pas moins légitimes que les aspirations collectives. En fait, on a chez M. Mauss le « socialisme qui n'aurait pas abandonné l'individu » [pp. 127-128] cher à R. Barthes et auquel semble sensible P. Michon. Pour autant, et ce n'est pas que nous voulions défendre M. Mauss à tout prix, nous ne partageons pas toujours les lectures qu'en fait P. Michon. Par exemple, nous avons du mal à le suivre quand il soutient que M. Mauss ne parvient tout simplement pas à penser l'histoire. Les considérations de M. Mauss dans son « Essai sur le don », « conservent, en dépit de tout, écrit P. Michon, une attache à un principe ultime de stabilité et d'atemporalité » [p. 248]. Vraiment, nous ne voyons pas en quoi. « L'Essai sur le don » est une vaste épopée du don ! Nous avons encore du mal à suivre P. Michon quand il parle « d'utopie maussienne », car les positions politiques de M. Mauss sont tout sauf utopiques. Le socialisme démocratique et associationniste qu'il défend n'est pas à rêver. Il est déjà en partie advenu, par et dans les coopératives de consommation notamment. Il a moins à être inventé qu'à être encouragé. M. Mauss n'est pas un utopiste. Il est même bien conscient de l'écart qui existe entre le possible et le souhaitable, et ne plaide que pour le possible, mais tout le possible, en direction du souhaitable. C'est un possibiliste [[24]10]. De la même manière, nous ne le suivons pas quand il soutient que M. Mauss « garde une conception pacifiste et consensualiste de la démocratie » [ibid.]. Il suffit de mettre en rapport son « Essai sur le don » et sa critique du bolchevisme, écrits sensiblement au même moment, et pour voir combien la conception maussienne de la démocratie est agonistique, et pour comprendre qu'elle est ancrée, justement, sur « le roc de la morale éternelle » qu'est le don agonistique selon M. Mauss. La définition que P. Michon donne de la démocratie comme état social qui fait toute leur place à la fois à l'alliance et au conflit, qui se contiennent l'un l'autre, le conflit évitant à l'alliance de basculer dans la fusion et l'alliance permettant au conflit de ne pas sombrer dans la déflagration, nous semble très maussienne. Elle pourrait-même trouver son fondement anthropologique dans le don agonistique, qui présente exactement la caractéristique que P. Michon prête à la démocratie. D'ailleurs, la définition qu'il donne de la démocratie comme eurythmie rejoint tout à fait la voie du milieu éthique et politique qui est celle de M. Mauss [[25]11]. Finalement, si nous avions à écrire la question que se pose P. Michon et la réponse qu'il y apporte, sans recourir à ses concepts parfois difficiles d'accès, nous les formulerions ainsi : « Que pouvons-nous faire pour retrouver notre autonomie dans un monde où le pouvoir de contrainte sur les personnes s'exerce non plus directement mais via d'invisibles processus qui façonnent leurs manières de se parler, de se mouvoir et de se lier ? Commencer par expérimenter des manières propres de nous parler, de nous mouvoir, de nous lier, qui nous permettent de retrouver la maîtrise de nos vies individuelles et collectives ». Ou, encore plus brièvement, forcément appauvrissant, et en reprenant sa métaphore musicale : « Que faire dans un monde où nous sommes tous emportés par une cadence infernale qui nous oppresse et nous opprime ? Ne pas s'arrêter de jouer (voie a-rythmique), ne pas jouer seul dans son coin (voie idiorrythmique), mais simplement retrouver le bon rythme pour soi et pour tous ! (voie eurythmique) ». Malgré les réserves que nous avons pu émettre, le lecteur aura saisi que l'ouvrage de P. Michon donne véritablement à penser. Nous espérons qu'il retiendra l'attention d'un grand nombre et notamment des MAUSSiens, car il pointe sur une dimension de la vie sociale, son caractère rythmé, qu'ils ont finalement peu interrogée, alors qu'il se pourrait qu'elle ne soit pas sans effets éthico-politiques. Cela mérite bien un examen attentif. Bibliographie sommaire de Pascal Michon Michon, P., Éléments d'une histoire du sujet, Paris, Kimé, 1999 -- [26]Rythmes, pouvoir, mondialisation, PUF, 2005. Ouvrages en collaboration -- (avec E. Barjolle, G. Dessons, V. Fabbri), Avec Henri Meschonnic : Les gestes dans la voix, Rumeur des Ages, 2003. -- (avec G. Desson et S. Martin), Henri Meschonnic, la pensée et le poème, In Press, 2005. -- (avec Ph. Hauser, F. Carnevale, A. Brossat), Foucault dans tous ses éclats, L'Harmattan, 2005. On peut aussi retrouver P. Michon dans les numéros 25 [27]Malaise dans la démocratie , 26 [28]Alter-démocratie, Alter-économie et 28 [29]Penser la crise de l'école de La Revue du MAUSS semestrielle. [30]Pour commander les numéros Ici, un article paru dans le mensuel [31]Sciences Humaines en novembre 2005 __________________________________________________________________ Réponse de Pascal Michon Cher Sylvain, tout d'abord, je voudrais vous remercier de votre recension extrêmement scrupuleuse. C'est un réconfort de voir qu'il existe encore, dans nos corporations de sciences sociales, des lecteurs curieux. J'ai plus l'habitude des débats internes, dans l'entre-soi disciplinaire qui permet à la fois de facilement se comprendre et d'éviter de se frotter aux savoirs des autres disciplines. De nombreux lecteurs de mon livre précédent, par exemple, se sont arrêtés aux chapitres qui les « concernaient », passant du même coup à côté du mouvement de pensée qui les liaient les uns aux autres - les sociologues ont lu les sections sociologiques, les psy les sections psy, les littéraires les sections littéraires... Tout ce petit monde est resté chez soi et les vaches ont été bien gardées. J'ai aussi aimé la façon dont vous avez procédé, présentant, tout d'abord, le texte dans ses grandes lignes puis proposant, dans un deuxième temps, une lecture critique. C'est de très bonne méthode et je vous en remercie également, car cela donne à entendre aux lecteurs, sans interférences, une grande partie des enjeux de mon travail. Je vais me concentrer dans cette réponse sur ceux de ces enjeux que vous n'avez pu complètement traiter, soit parce qu'on ne peut tout dire dans une recension, soit parce qu'il reste toujours des angles moins bien éclairés quel que soit le point de vue que l'on adopte. 1. Mon livre est un essai. Bien qu'il tente, comme vous le remarquez, de construire méthodiquement ses concepts à partir du matériel analytique disponible, il ne prétend pas répondre à tous les problèmes qui se posent, ni fournir une théorie complète de son objet : les rythmes de l'individuation singulière et collective. Il voudrait juste faire émerger celui-ci dans la conscience scientifique. Si cet objectif était atteint, cela me suffirait grandement. Mon livre constitue plus une proposition de recherche, l'esquisse d'un programme de travail, qu'une réponse globalisante qui donnerait une clé pour toutes les serrures contemporaines. On m'a déjà reproché cette « ambition », comme vous dîtes, ou même le côté « totalisant » de ma démarche. À cela je réponds habituellement : 1. que nous ne pouvons plus nous satisfaire, de par la nature même du nouveau monde dans lequel nous sommes entrés, de déclarations d'intention concernant la transdisciplinarité, il nous faut la mettre en pratique activement et individuellement (c'est-à-dire pas seulement par une juxtaposition de spécialistes) car aucune discipline ne peut, encore plus aujourd'hui qu'hier, comprendre à elle seule ce qui est train d'émerger. Mauss, qui était passé à travers une période historique par bien des points semblables à la nôtre, l'avait d'ailleurs bien compris : « C'est aux confins des sciences, à leurs bords extérieurs, aussi souvent qu'à leurs principes, qu'à leur noyau et à leur centre que se font leurs progrès » (« Rapports réels et pratiques de la psychologie et de la sociologie », 1924) ; 2. que les sciences sociales ne peuvent progresser que par un déplacement radical de point de vue. Je milite, pour cette raison, comme Alain Caillé, en faveur d'un changement de paradigme. En simplifiant outrageusement, on peut dire qu'après l'affaissement des paradigmes structuralistes et systémistes, l'individualisme méthodologique, sous différentes formes, a pris le dessus. Or, cette mutation n'a pas apporté les résultats escomptés. En fait, ni l'un ni l'autre de ces paradigmes ne peut rendre compte de la période présente. Il est vrai qu'un certain nombre de « théories intermédiaires » ou « centristes » dans la classification de Margaret Archer, (Elias, Bourdieu, Foucault, Touraine, Habermas, Giddens, Bauman, Caillé, Boltanski, Thévenot, entre autres) ont essayé, partant du même constat, de dépasser les dualismes traditionnels des sciences sociales. Mais elles connaissent aujourd'hui des ratés qui tiennent, me semble-t-il, essentiellement à leur difficulté à conjuguer primat de la temporalité, éthique et politique. D'où la nécessité d'un nouveau modèle général - comme celui que fournit le rythme - pour relancer la réflexion ; 3. qu'on confond souvent, de manière polémique, totalisation et puissance d'un concept. Le concept de rythme n'est pas globalisant ou totalisant, il possède tout simplement une puissance que j'essaie, avec mes moyens, d'explorer. C'est cette puissance de problématisation nouvelle qui dérange les habitudes de pensée et les partages du territoire institutionnel qui leur sont liés - et qui explique ces caricatures absurdes qui me sont parfois opposées. 2. Mon livre porte sur la question de l'individuation singulière et collective. Pour des raisons de précision et pour ne pas embrouiller l'exposé, j'ai expressément laissé de côté la question du ou des « sujets ». D'où un certain flou dans votre présentation qui confond, comme beaucoup de monde il est vrai, ces deux questions. Mais, si vous y prêtez attention vous le verrez aisément, le rapport entre les deux est loin d'être évident et devrait être analysé à nouveaux frais. Pour rester bref, on peut dire qu'un individu singulier ou collectif n'atteint le statut de sujet que lorsqu'il devient un agent d'un processus particulier. D'où une difficulté, une multiplicité, une discontinuité et une instabilité très grandes de la subjectivation, dont les rapports à l'individuation restent en fait entièrement à repenser. En tout état de cause, individuation est loin de signifier subjectivation (c'est, d'ailleurs, l'un des problèmes que posent les propositions d'AlainTouraine qui ne fait pas cette distinction). 3. J'ai beaucoup insisté sur un aspect décisif du concept de rythme qui n'apparaît pas dans votre recension : son aspect a-métrique. Le matériel très divers et assez abondant dont nous disposons (que ce soit au niveau des corps, du langage ou des interactions sociales) montre qu'il est impossible de se satisfaire de sa définition métrique traditionnelle. Si nous nous limitons à cette définition, nous réduisons la diversité des fluements du réel à un schéma binaire et numérique simpliste et nous introduisons sans même en avoir conscience une politique et une éthique anti-démocratiques. Une définition plus utilisable pour penser ce que nous devons penser aujourd'hui est celle qui avait cours avant que Platon associe rhuthmos et métron, et qui faisait du rythme une « manière de fluer ». J'ai aussi montré que cette définition peut être précisée grâce à la remotivation par Diderot de la notion de « manière », qu'il repense à partir de la question de la qualité (et donc de l'individuation) artistique, c'est-à-dire comme concept d'une forme qui reste active en dehors de son contexte originel. Ces précisions sont loin d'être des détails insignifiants, elles engagent toute la théorie des rythmes de l'individuation, aussi bien dans ses capacités heuristiques, que dans ses conséquences éthiques et politiques. 4. Ici, on le voit, la sociologie a un grand besoin de la linguistique (Benveniste), de la poétique (Meschonnic) et de la philosophie (Deleuze, Foucault, Simondon). Or, je note que vous accordez toute votre attention aux auteurs sociologiques ou anthropologiques que je cite, mais que vous ne dîtes rien des discussions philosophiques, poétiques et linguistiques, qui encadrent ces analyses (Benveniste, Meschonnic, Deleuze, Foucault et Simondon sont étrangement absents de votre CR). Je me demande si vous ne raisonnez pas encore ici, à votre insu, en termes disciplinaires, comme si poétique, linguistique ou philosophie n'avaient rien à apporter aux sciences sociales ou ne constituaient que des décorations non-essentielles d'un propos plus consistant qui reviendrait de droit à ces dernières. 5. Sur vos critiques maintenant. Vous trouvez que j'exagère en caractérisant Surveiller et punir comme un grand livre sur les rythmes de l'individuation. Je sais bien que la vulgate présente Foucault comme un auteur intéressé uniquement par l'espace, les répartitions, les quadrillages, etc. Mais, précisément, cette vulgate laisse totalement de côté le profond intérêt de Foucault pour tous les phénomènes temporels, en particulier pour toutes les techniques utilisées pour rythmer les corps, les discours et la vie des groupes. Il me semble que les descriptions qu'il fait de l'apprentissage militaire, des formes du travail dans les manufactures, de la vie en prison, des méthodes de dressage scolaires parlent d'elles-mêmes. Elles corroborent, du reste, des analyses engagées par Thompson au cours de la décennie précédente et constituent un ensemble d'analyses des rythmes de l'individuation qui n'a que peu d'équivalents dans la littérature scientifique disponible. 6. Pour Mauss (comme pour Foucault), vous trouvez ma lecture rythmique « peu usuelle ». Mais je voudrais vous faire remarquer que Mauss dit lui-même explicitement dans le Manuel d'ethnographie ceci : « Socialement et individuellement, l'homme est un animal rythmique ». Vous m'accorderez que cette phrase est une affirmation extrêmement forte. Or, tout le monde s'empresse de la laisser de côté. Je vous retourne donc (mais aussi à tous les Maussiens) la question : quel sort faites-vous à cette affirmation ? Ne pensez-vous pas que, sous cette forme condensée présentée sur un patron aristotélicien, elle indique une entrée à partir de laquelle on pourrait au moins relire une bonne part de son oeuvre ? Ou bien pensez-vous que cette phrase a été proférée comme une simple fioriture rhétorique sans signification profonde. Pour ma part, j'ai montré dans ma thèse (dont une partie a été publiée dans mes Éléments d'une histoire du sujet en 1999 et... dans la revue du MAUSS en 2005, mais qui n'a pas eu l'heur d'attirer l'attention des spécialistes - elle n'est jamais citée dans les livres sur Mauss), textes à l'appui, que Mauss n'a jamais engagé, comme l'a soutenu Lévi-Strauss pour des raisons de pure stratégie universitaire (sa concurrence après la mort de Mauss avec Gurvitch pour récupérer l'héritage), une théorie préstructuraliste du social, et que par voie de conséquence son intérêt pour le « symbolique » doit être réévalué et réintégré à un intérêt plus général pour le rythme. J'ai complété en 2005 ce travail dans Rythmes, pouvoir, mondialisation, qui malheureusement n'est pas cité non plus. Pourtant, dans son texte de 1924 « Rapports réels et pratiques de la psychologie et de la sociologie », Mauss explique à son auditoire que la sociologie pourrait servir de modèle à la psychologie au moins pour l'étude de deux ordres de faits qui lui semblent les deux apports les plus importants des travaux sociologiques réalisés depuis le début du siècle : le « symbole » et le « rythme ». On voit bien à travers cette affirmation que ces deux concepts sont liés dans son esprit ou tout au moins qu'ils possèdent une importance aussi grande l'une que l'autre. Or, que disent les commentateurs : toujours la même chose (qu'ils reprennent sans aucune distance critique de Lévi-Strauss), Mauss serait simplement l'inventeur ou la popularisateur du concept de « symbolique ». Le rythme là encore tombe à la trappe. D'où ma deuxième question : que faites-vous de cette nouvelle affirmation de l'importance du rythme ? Quel statut donnez-vous dans votre lecture à cet intérêt pour le rythme ? Je pense, pour ma part, que cette conférence nous montre une fois encore que Mauss n'était pas du tout en train de préparer une épistémologie ou une méthodologie structurale, ni même une science du symbolique au sens qui dominera par la suite chez les structuralistes, mais qu'il était, bien au contraire, dès le début, dominé par la question de la production des individus singuliers et collectifs dans le temps. Sa question n'était pas de trouver des constantes dans le fonctionnement des systèmes sociaux (il rejette explicitement la notion de structure), mais de comprendre ces systèmes en pénétrant l'organisation des flux qui les constituent (c'est pourquoi il oppose la « physiologie » à la simple et trompeuse « anatomie sociale »). Il est, du reste, en cela complètement de son époque et rejoint des préoccupations que l'on retrouve, sous des formes très diverses cela s'entend, chez ses adversaires (Bergson, Tarde) ou chez ses amis (Durkheim, Hubert, Granet). 7. Sur la question du rapport à « la tradition » et de ce que vous voyez dans mon travail comme une « posture de créativité radicale, quasiment nihiliste » qui ne serait au fond l'expression que d'un « mythe d'autoréalisation de soi emblématique de notre époque ». Je ne comprends pas votre critique. Y-a-t-il jamais invention conceptuelle qui ne soit négation d'une partie au moins des concepts en cours ? J'en doute. D'autre part, si je revendique une certaine radicalité, je ne vois aucun nihilisme dans ma démarche. Au contraire, j'ai grand soin du passé et, pour ce qui est du présent, j'ai plutôt l'impression de procéder par affirmations et avancées créatrices. Il me semble que vous confondez négation et nihilisme. Enfin, l'idée que mon travail verserait dans un « mythe d'autoréalisation » me semble doublement fausse : parce que l'autoréalisation n'est pas une notion que l'on devrait rejeter sans précaution ; mais aussi parce que c'est une caractérisation au fond psychologisante et donc réductrice d'une proposition théorique qui ne devrait faire l'objet, en bonne méthode scientifique, que de critiques théoriques. 8. Sur la question de la complexité inutile que vous voyez dans mes propositions (« Nous nous demandons si P. Michon n'aurait pas pu, tout de même, dire les choses plus simplement ») et sur le fait que vous tentiez de traduire mes propos en un langage plus simple (vous me demandez « si ce résumé omet quelque chose d'essentiel que les notions de rythme, de fluement, d'arythmie, d'idiorrythmie, d'eurythmie, etc. auraient fait apparaître »). C'est un essai dont je vous remercie sincèrement car cela pourra certainement aider à la compréhension de mon travail par de nombreux sociologues ou spécialistes de sciences sociales. Je suis également très sensible au fait que vous soyez le premier membre du Mauss à reconnaître et à justifier de manière détaillée le fait que le rythme est une question fondamentale qui devrait être prise en considération. En même temps, j'ai l'impression que votre réduction à un ensemble de communs dénominateurs comporte un danger : celui de laisser penser que ce que j'avance est réductible à du déjà connu ou à du déjà pensé par les sciences sociales : « Que dit-il au juste ? Que nos identités se construisent dans nos relations aux autres, qui engagent notre corps et notre langage [...] Que dans ces relations se jouent des relations de pouvoir sur les personnes ». Au fond, la théorie du rythme n'apporterait rien de plus que ce que les sociologues-économistes savent déjà depuis fort longtemps. À savoir que les sociétés et les individus sont pris dans des interactions mouvantes qui les rendent plus instables et fluides qu'on ne le croit généralement. Pourquoi, dès lors, en effet, dire de manière si compliquée des choses si simples ? Mais précisément, je ne me suis pas contenté de reprendre les différentes théories interactionnistes en cours, ou même de prolonger les auteurs qui se sont frottés, depuis ces trente dernières années, à la question des rapports réciproques entre individu singulier et individu collectif, individu et système. Je le reconnais bien volontiers, les auteurs très divers qui ont proposé des visions intermédiaires nous ont fait faire de grands progrès. Mais leurs conceptions ne suffisent plus au regard des réalités nouvelles du XXI^e siècle ou bien elles rencontrent des difficultés qui les rendent moins efficaces. En dehors du fait qu'on peut souvent repérer (comme dans la philosophie hobbesienne qui forme le socle de la pensée d'Elias) le lieu où le dualisme rejeté au départ se réintroduit subrepticement, je crois que leurs instruments sont déjà en partie inadaptés. Et la raison en est simple : si elles ont toutes été conçues comme des tentatives pour échapper aux dualismes traditionnels des sciences sociales, elles n'ont pas été pensées à partir du mouvement, des intensités, des flux et de leurs qualités eux-mêmes. Il nous faut donc accomplir ce qu'elles n'ont pas encore réussi à faire : une inversion radicale du regard qui pose le langage et le temps comme premiers et, à partir de là, repenser toutes les questions qui se posent à nous. Faute de quoi, soit nous retomberons vite dans les paradoxes et les difficultés que nous connaissons bien : le système et l'individu, la poule et l'oeuf, soit nous resterons sans boussole quand il nous faudra juger de la qualité des « objets intermédiaires » que nous étudierons. Le « don » est un exemple typique de cette deuxième difficulté : il permet de dynamiter le dualisme individualiste utilitariste, mais, tel qu'il reste pour le moment théorisé au sein du MAUSS, il ne permet pas encore de poser la question de l'organisation temporelle des flux de dons, des rythmes corporels, langagiers et sociaux qui sont déterminés par ces flux, et donc de la qualité de l'individuation singulière et collective qui en découle. On se contente le plus souvent d'une définition du don comme opposé de l'échange utilitariste, faisant de facto de celui-là une simple négation (et donc une certaine façon de conserver) celui-ci. On manque alors toute la diversité qualitative (souvent ambivalente) de la triple obligation donner-recevoir-rendre et l'on se retrouve avec une affirmation toute binaire de ce que serait le bien éthique et politique. 9. Sur ma redéfinition de la démocratie et son supposé fonds « utilitariste ». Vous citez une de mes propositions qui définit la démocratie comme le régime ou l'état social (c'est bien sûr les deux à la fois) qui permettra de « rechercher une eurythmie simultanément corporelle, discursive et sociale - une maximisation de l'individuation singulière et collective ». Et vous expliquez que vous ne « compren[ez] tout simplement pas qui maximise, qui calcule au mieux quoi, ni en vue de quoi ! ». Le problème avec la question qui, c'est qu'elle présuppose un sujet déjà là. Autrement dit, elle indique déjà sa réponse. Pour ce qui me concerne, je l'ai dit plus haut, j'ai volontairement distingué la question de la subjectivation de celle de l'individuation. Cette position ne peut être tenue que jusqu'à un certain point, je vous l'accorde, mais je continue à penser qu'elle est nécessaire dans un premier temps, même s'il faudra réfléchir à l'avenir plus précisément à la façon de relier les deux aspects. Ma certitude à cet égard est que de toute façon la subjectivation ne réussit pas toujours, que le sujet ne peut donc être posé comme un principe antécédent à l'action et qu'il constitue plutôt une entité qui apparaît ou pas au cours de l'activité des corps-langages (au sens du génitif objectif, car pour moi c'est l'activité qui est première). Vous reprochez, ensuite, à l'expression « maximisation » d'être trop marquée par le principe typiquement utilitariste d'un calcul du plus grand bien comme une simple addition des biens individuels. Si c'était ce que j'ai dit, je serais d'accord avec vous. Mais je maintiens l'expression « maximisation » car celle-ci est motivée par le système discursif dans lequel elle apparaît. Et comme vous l'avez senti, celui-ci est entièrement traversé par un souci de type spinoziste pour une maximisation (dans les conditions qui leurs sont faites) de ce que peuvent les corps-langages, maximisation qui ne peut en aucun cas être réduite à une augmentation additive des petits bonheurs personnels. L'utilitarisme se fonde sur un calcul des atomes de bonheur, alors que j'essaie (à l'instar de Mauss en réalité) de penser le bonheur (ou la « joie », si vous préférez, pour rester dans le ton du XVII^e siècle) comme exaltation de la puissance de vivre. Pour finir sur ce point, je voudrais repréciser ce que j'ai déjà dit dans mon livre et écarter des malentendus qui pointent dans quelques-unes de vos remarques : les propos de Barthes sur le bonheur « idiorrythmique » sont très suggestifs (par la rareté même de tels propos) mais bien évidemment insuffisants (ne serait-ce que parce qu'il reconnaît lui-même qu'il s'agit d'une utopie domestique plus que sociale). Quant à ceux de Mauss sur « l'eurythmie », ils indiquent une piste à mon sens plus féconde, mais ils sont, quant à eux, plus qu'élémentaires et doivent être réélaborés rigoureusement. Ces exemples ne constituent donc pas des réponses aux questions éthiques et politiques que nous nous posons, mais des incitations à chercher dans la direction qu'ils pointent. 10. Sur Mauss qui ne « parviendrait tout simplement pas à penser l'histoire ». Je ne crois pas avoir dit cela. J'ai même montré dans Eléments d'une histoire du sujet que Mauss est l'un de ceux qui, dans la première moitié du XX^e siècle, pense la question de l'historicité radicale des êtres humains, sans en revenir au néo-kantisme sociologique de Durkheim, mais sans tomber non plus dans les problèmes de la phénoménologie, du bergsonisme ou de la philosophie de l'historicité essentielle heideggérienne. Ce que j'ai dit, c'est que Mauss, en dépit de son souci d'historisation constant, aboutit non seulement à une éthique et une politique fondées sur un principe anhistorique, celui-là même que vous citez quelques lignes plus loin : « le roc de la morale éternelle » - ce qui est en soi un problème. Mais aussi qu'il propose comme modèle, dans tout l'Essai sur le don et en particulier dans ses « conclusions de morale », le système de prestations totales de clan à clan, qui est « exactement, toutes proportions gardées, du même type que celui vers lequel nous voudrions voir nos sociétés se diriger ». Or, ce système « où tout est complémentaire » ne connaît pas le conflit, dont il parle pourtant tout au long de l'essai. À vrai dire, cette subtile contradiction n'est pas à retenir contre Mauss, elle indique toutefois que c'est à partir de là qu'il faut reprendre la question. Si maintenant vous pensez que l'on peut trouver des textes allant dans un sens différent qui donnerait un sens agonistique à la démocratie, je serai le premier à m'en réjouir. Mais cela voudra dire que le problème relevait simplement de l'interprétation érudite des méandres d'une oeuvre et que nous sommes d'accord sur la chose même - ce qui est pour moi la seule qui compte. 11. Sur le terme d' « utopie maussienne ». Vous me reprenez en arguant que Mauss n'était pas un utopiste, mais un « possibiliste », attaché à des projets concrets. Vous avez certainement raison. Toutefois, mon usage du mot « utopie » n'était en rien négatif dans mon esprit, bien au contraire. Ensuite, personne ne pourra nier que l'idée que les sociétés modernes devraient réintroduire massivement le don au fondement de leur économie reste largement un projet d'avenir, c'est-à-dire dans le meilleur sens du terme... une utopie. Pascal Michon Paris, le 7 mai 2008 __________________________________________________________________ Sénèque. De la tranquillité de l'âme Cher Pascal, je viens de terminer la lecture de De la tranquillité de l'âme de Sénèque. Quelle ne fut pas ma surprise de voir l'un des derniers chapitres intitulé : « Il faut alterner "temps forts" et "temps faibles" » En voici un extrait : [...] Solitude et société doivent se composer et se succéder. La solitude nous donnera le désir de fréquenter les hommes, la société, celui de nous fréquenter nous-mêmes, et chacune sera l'antidote de l'autre, la solitude nous guérissant de l'horreur de la foule, et la foule, de l'ennui de la solitude". J'avais déjà lu de Sénèque Les bienfaits : un essai sur le don - sur la triple obligation de donner, recevoir et rendre - avant l'heure (jamais cité par Mauss). Un indice de plus que pensée du don et pensée du rythme peuvent et même doivent se rencontrer ? Amicalement Sylvain Créteil, le 7 mai 2008 3 commentaires Les rythmes du politique 27 août 2009, par Ces concepts de rythmes du politique me semblent proches de ceux de Deleuze-Guattari, grands lecteurs de Simondon et de l'individuation, notamment de l'agencement collectif d'énonciation territoire par exemple. Ils permettent de les renouveler et de les penser sous un autre biais. Mais pour trouver de nouveaux rythmes reste la question de l'invention également de nouveaux énoncés. Les rythmes du politique 8 septembre 2009, par Pascal Michon Je vous remercie beaucoup de cette comparaison ainsi que du texte auquel vous renvoyez. J'ai expliqué succinctement dans le chapitre « Styles, rythmes et ritournelles » des Rythmes du politique ce qui distingue ma position de celle de Deleuze et Guattari. De même, pour Simondon dans celui intitulé « Les rythmes comme cycles de l'ontogénèse ? ». En bref, j'ai une grande admiration pour ces travaux qui ont beaucoup compté dans ma réflexion mais, dans l'un et l'autre cas, ils me semblent buter sur la question du langage. Plutôt que de nouveaux énoncés, je pense donc qu'il nous faut chercher, entre autres, de nouveaux modes d'énonciation. Pascal Michon [33]Réaction au commentaire » Répondre à cet article [34][puce_gazette.png] Gazette [35][puce_supplement.png] Supplément [36][puce_lectures.png] Lectures [37][puce_societe.png] Vers une société civile mondiale [38][puce_publications.png] Publications [39][puce_plan.png] Plan du site [40][puce_plan.png] Auteurs [41]Suivre la vie du site RSS 2.0 Recensions [42]>Multiculturalisme dites-vous ? Francesco Fistetti [43]>Pour un socialisme décent [44]>De la lutte des classes à la lutte des places Michel Lussault [45]>Gli economisti e i selvaggi. L'imperialismo della scienza economica e i suoi limiti Roberto Marchionatti [46]>Donner et prendre. La coopération en entreprise Norbert Alter [47]>Le symbolique et le sacré. Théories de la religion Camille Tarot [48]>De Gauche ? Alain Caillé, Roger Sue (dir.) [49]>Histoire et création. Textes philosophiques inédits (1945-1967) Cornelius Castoriadis [50]>Bibliothèque du MAUSS n°31 [51]>La nouvelle écologie politique - Economie et développement humain Jean-Paul Fitoussi, Eloi Laurent Notes [[52]1] Pour une approche goffmannienne du corps et de la manière dont il participe à la construction de l'identité des personnes, on peut lire l'article de [53]Sylvain Pasquier publié dans La Revue du MAUSS Permanente. [[54]2] Les sous-titres de cette partie, assez longue, sont de nous. [[55]3] Pascal Michon préfère parler de multitudes plutôt que de peuple, ce dernier étant sans doute trop homogénéisant pour lui. [[56]4] O. Mendesltam est l'auteur d'un petit ouvrage où il est question de la Révolution bolchevique intitulé L'État et le rythme (1920), dans lequel P. Michon voit « l'une des toutes premières politiques du rythme » [p. 229]. [[57]5] Le bon, si le calcul de maximisation n'admet qu'une solution... [[58]6] Pour P. Michon, seuls Lewis Coser (Les fonctions du conflit social) et Gilbert Simondon (L'individuation psychique et collective) ont développé cette manière de voir les choses. [[59]7] On peut néanmoins citer : Henri Meschonnic dans les travaux duquel il s'incrit, et notamment son Politique du rythme, politique du sujet, Verdier, 1985 [[60]8] « L'utilitarisme et [...] l'économie politique [...] sont à la base de [...] la fluidification du monde » [p. 236]. [[61]9] Un Spinoza plus proche de Mauss (qui l'affectionnait d'ailleurs) que de Bentham... Un Spinoza peu lordonien, donc... [[62]10] Nous renvoyons ici aux Ecrits politiques de Marcel Mauss, présentés par Marcel Fournier (Fayard, 1997), ainsi qu'à notre ouvrage, [63]Marcel Mauss, savant et politique , La Découverte, 2007. [[64]11] S. Dzimira, op. Cit. 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Les ménages consomment, les entreprises investissent [...] Mais tout de même Au quatrième trimestre 1999, la croissance a certes été légèrement inférieure aux prévisions (+3,6% en rythme annuel contre +4%). Mais le détail des chiffres de ce quatrième trimestre est jugé encourageant par les hommes de l'art. Les entreprises, notamment, ont accru leurs investissements (+8,2% en rythme annuel) et commencent à restocker. autant de signes que la croissance est bien partie pour durer. [...] Certes, l'appréciation par [...] la fin de l'accélération de la croissance. elle se stabilise à un bon niveau, commente un expert. En d'autres termes, l'activité atteint son rythme de croisière avec, pour l'année 2000, une croissance comprise entre 3,4% et 3,5%. [...] des bonnes nouvelles. Vendredi, une volée de statistiques est venue confirmer que la croissance française se portait bien. Moins bien, sans [...] que l'activité économique aux Etats-Unis, qui, selon les dernières estimations du département du Commerce, a progressé de 6,9% au dernier trimestre 1999 en rythme annuel (lire en page Finances). [...] [32]Lire la suite... Tags : o [33]Rythme o [34]Annuel pages [35]4,4%: La croissance américaine en 2004 a atteint son rythme le plus élevé depuis [...] La croissance américaine a atteint 4,4 % en 2004, soit le rythme le plus élevé depuis 1999, en dépit d'un ralentissement au 4e trimestre à 3,1 % dû surtout au lourd déficit commercial. Selon le département du Commerce, les trois derniers mois de 2004 ont enregistré la plus faible hausse depuis le 1er trimestre 2003. [...] Mais, sur l'ensemble de l'année, la croissance s'est accélérée à 4,4 % après 3 % en 2003 et 1,9 % en 2002, confirmant le ressaisissement de l'économie américaine. Ce sont les consommateurs qui ont tiré l'essentiel de la croissance en 2004, avec des dépenses en hausse de 3,8 % et un investissement immobilier florissant (+9,5%), portés par les taux d'intérêt peu élevés. [...] 4,4%. La croissance américaine en 2004 a atteint son rythme le plus élevé depuis - Libération. [...] [36]Lire la suite... Tags : o [37]Rythme o [38]Élève [39]+ 4 %: la progression en rythme annuel de la croissance américaine [...] La croissance américaine s'est assagie au quatrième trimestre 2003 après son emballement de l'été. Le produit intérieur brut (PIB) a progressé de 4 % en rythme annuel, après une croissance spectaculaire de 8,2 % au troisième trimestre. Ce ralentissement s'explique d'abord par une pause des dépenses de consommation, qui ont crû de 2,6 % seulement après un bond de 6,9 % au trimestre précédent. [...] + 4 %. la progression en rythme annuel de la croissance américaine - Libération. [...] [40]Lire la suite... Tags : o [41]Consommation impôt o [42]Confiance points [43]0,2 %. Encore un souffle de croissance aux Etats-Unis. [...] Au premier trimestre, la croissance du PIB en rythme annuel s'était élevée à 1,3 %. En outre, l'indice des prix lié au PIB a augmenté de 2,2 % au deuxième trimestre (au lieu d'une hausse de 2,3 % prévue dans la première estimation). Le chiffre de la croissance meilleur que prévu pour le deuxième trimestre a rassuré les investisseurs. [...] Le produit intérieur brut (PIB) des Etats-Unis a progressé de 0,2 % en rythme annuel au deuxième trimestre 2001, selon la deuxième estimation publiée hier par le département du Commerce. Il s'agit du plus faible taux de croissance trimestriel exprimé en rythme annuel depuis le premier trimestre 1993. [...] Toutefois, les analystes tablaient généralement sur une croissance nulle pour cette période. La première estimation, publiée fin juillet, faisait état d'une croissance de 0,7 % pour la période considérée. La troisième et dernière estimation sera annoncée le 28 septembre. [...] [44]Lire la suite... Tags : o [45]City deuxième trimestre [46]Etats-Unis: des taux bas pour relancer le bateau [...] Plus tôt, hier, une nouvelle statistique était venu confirmer le ralentissement de l'économie. après une croissance de + 5,5 % (en rythme annualisé) au deuxième trimestre, de + 2,2 % au troisième, l'économie a terminé l'année avec seulement + 1,4 % de croissance, un chiffre plus faible que prévu. [...] Au total, la croissance moyenne pour 2000 est plus qu'honorable. + 5 %. Mais le ralentissement est brutal, puisque, comme l'a indiqué Alan Greenspan, l'activité progresse aujourd'hui à un rythme proche de zéro. [...] [47]Lire la suite... [48]L'Insee repeint 1996 en rose paleLa consommation ayant rebondi en janvier, la [...] Elle n'affichera pas plus de 1% de croissance en rythme annuel au premier semestre. Une demande intérieure atone, des coûts salariaux trop élevés, un secteur du bâtiment en chute libre empêcheront vraisemblablement la RFA d'emboîter le pas à la dynamique internationale avant la seconde partie de l'année. [...] La demande mondiale adressée à la France accélérerait à partir du printemps avec un taux de croissance en rythme annuel de 5%. Pour un peu, on craindrait presque la surchauffe en fin d'année... S'il n'y avait pas un bémol de taille. L'Allemagne, notre principal partenaire, est mal en point. [...] (Insee) est une maison sérieuse. Et en tant que telle, elle ne change pas ses prévisions de croissance quand elle y croit. Même lorsque le ministre de l'Economie affiche un chiffre différent. Pour le premier semestre de cette année, foi d'Insee, le PIB de la France devrait croître de 0,8%, soit 1,5% en rythme annuel. [...] [49]Lire la suite... Tags : o [50]Insee o [51]Rose o [52]Confiance impôts [53]Etats-Unis: la croissance ralentit [...] La croissance économique aux Etats-Unis devrait se situer à 5,2 % en 2000 et à 3,3 % en 2001, selon les dernières projections publiées hier par les économistes d'entreprises américains (Nabe). Cette décélération marquée et attendue du rythme de la croissance devrait probablement convaincre la Réserve fédérale (Fed) de cesser de remonter ses taux directeurs, a indiqué le Nabe. [...] La Fed avait relevé son taux interbancaire au jour le jour à six reprises entre juin 1999 et mai 2000, pour freiner le rythme jugé trop rapide de la croissance. [...] [54]Lire la suite... [55]Le miracle thaïlandais tourne au krach. Une spéculation immobilière effrénée a [...] ralentissement de la croissance A Bangkok, capitale de la Thaïlande, le bébé tigre du Sud-Est asiatique, là où les courbes de croissance ont enflammé les imaginations pendant plus de dix ans, des milliards de dollars fuient depuis plusieurs jours la Bourse à un rythme échevelé. [...] Peu réglementés, ils sont vite devenus les champions de la spéculation immobilière. Entre 1990 et 1996, les crédits immobiliers ont été multipliés par trois. C'est un rythme de croissance qui a été sans commune mesure avec celui de l'économie réelle, qui avait plutôt tendance à marquer le pas. [...] Croissance en chute libre. Depuis le milieu des années 80, la Thaïlande avait pourtant décroché les palmes de la croissance, avec des taux d'expansion frôlant les deux chiffres. Mais,de 8,5% en 1995, le taux de croissance est tombé à moins de 7% l'an dernier. [...] [56]Lire la suite... Tags : o [57]Valeurs financières immobilier [58]+ 9,5 %, la croissance chinoise n'a montré aucun signe de ralentissement au premier [...] Avec un taux de croissance de 9,5 % au premier trimestre (en rythme annuel) et des investissements toujours disproportionnés, l'économie chinoise ne marque aucun signe de ralentissement en dépit de la politique de lutte contre la surchauffe. Le rythme de la croissance est égal à celui enregistré sur l'ensemble de 2004, qui avait vu la plus forte croissance en sept ans, a indiqué hier le Bureau national des statistiques (BNS). [...] Le taux de croissance annoncé hier a surpris les analystes, qui avaient parié sur un léger ralentissement. Le gouvernement chinois a récemment fixé un objectif de croissance de 8 % pour 2005. Ce niveau [...] La production industrielle a enregistré une hausse de 16,2 % entre janvier et mars. Une fois encore, la croissance a été tirée par les investissements, qui ont augmenté de 22,8 % entre janvier et mars. Le montant des investissements est encore trop élevé, a commenté le porte-parole du BNS, Zheng Jingping, au cours d'une conférence de presse. [...] [59]Lire la suite... Tags : o [60]Croissance opinion problème o [61]Croissance opinion objectif [62]Conjoncture. Des inquiétudes derrière les prévisions de reprise. Les ménages ne [...] La croissance française a bénéficié dans cette première phase d'une évolution favorable de nos exportations et des mesures de soutien décidées par le gouvernement Balladur. A quel rythme la croissance va-t-elle se poursuivre Sur ce plan, les indicateurs d'opinion des entreprises sont loin d'être au beau fixe, comme il y a un an. [...] Mais c'est la consommation qui va décider du rythme de progression de l'investissement. Or, dans le deuxième acte de la reprise, c'est l'investisse-ment qui devient le moteur principal. Si la consommation était trop faible, l'élan qu'imprime le redémarrage de l'investissement à la croissance de l'activité s'atténuerait. [...] Chômage. moins bien que les autres pays industriels La décrue du chômage se poursuit sur un rythme assez lent malgré la bonne tenue de la croissance. Bien que le taux de chômage [...] baisse par l'Insee ces derniers mois, il reste très nettement supérieur à celui des autres pays industriels (8,2% en Allemagne, 8,7% en Grande-Bretagne, 5,7% aux Etats-Unis). [...] [63]Lire la suite... 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[119]Partager cet article sur del.icio.us [120]Envoyer cet article sur Blogmarks ELYSEE Sarkozy : les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme" NOUVELOBS.COM | 06.02.2009 | 13:01 [121]Réagissez à l'article 299 réactions Lors de son intervention télévisée, le chef de l'Etat a notamment déclaré : "Que les Français soient inquiets (face à la crise), c'est normal". > Il a dit réfléchir à une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu. > La taxe professionnelle sera supprimée en 2010. > Les partenaires sociaux seront reçus le 18 février. Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters) Nicolas Sarkozy lors de l'émission télévisée (Reuters) Le chef de l'Etat a déclaré, jeudi 5 février, que la France et le monde faisaient face à "la crise du siècle", au début de son intervention télévisée. "C'est la crise du siècle, elle est sans précédent", a-t-il répété Nicolas Sarkozy. ([122]> Lire toutes les déclarations). "Je dois en tenir compte et faire en sorte que la France rentre le plus tard possible dans la crise et sorte le plus tôt de la crise", a-t-il ajouté. "Je dois en plus protéger au maximum ceux qui déjà dans la croissance mondiale étaient exclus", a-t-il ajouté. "Que les Français soient inquiets, c'est normal. Je le comprends, je l'entends", a-t-il expliqué. Les réformes restent "d'actualité", conduites "au même rythme", a-t-il rapidement affirmé. "La rupture n'a jamais été un objectif, c'est juste un moyen", a, par ailleurs, expliqué Nicolas Sarkozy. L'émission était diffusée simultanément sur TF1, France 2, M6 et RTL. Elle est présentée par David Pujadas et Laurence, avec les interventions de Guy Lagache et Alain Duhamel. Une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu ? Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il recevrait les partenaires sociaux le 18 février, notamment pour voir comment "aller plus loin" sur l'indemnisation du chômage partiel. Il a également dit réfléchir à une suppression de la 1ère tranche de l'impôt sur le revenu pour aider les classes moyennes, l'une des "pistes" qu'il soumettra aux syndicats le 18 février. "L'Etat est prêt à faire un effort" pour "mieux protéger" les jeunes en fin de CDD et qui ne retrouvent pas d'emploi du fait de la crise financière et économique, a affirmé le président de la République. Le chef de l'Etat a aussi annoncé qu'il "supprimerait la taxe professionnnelle en 2010". "Je vous l'annonce: on supprimera la taxe professionnelle en France en 2010 parce que je veux que l'on garde des usines en France", a déclaré Nicolas Sarkozy lors de son intervention télévisée sur la crise. La mesure sera générale: "On ne peut pas dire on va supprimer pour l'industrie automobile mais pas pour l'industrie sidérurgique ou textile", a-t-il ajouté. "Je ne peux pas dire aux actionnaires pour le coup: ne délocalisez plus, relocalisez, et en même temps leur laisser des charges et des contraintes qui font qu'ils ne s'en sortiront plus", selon le chef de l'Etat. Réfléchir sur le "partage du profit" Le président a jugé nécessaire de réfléchir au "partage du profit" entre les salariés et les actionnaires, demandant aux partenaires sociaux de parvenir à un accord sans quoi "l'Etat prendra ses responsabilités". "Je veux que le 18 février nous discutions d'un sujet essentiel en France qui est le partage du profit", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat, évoquant le "sentiment d'injustice majeur" suscité dans cette crise par "le comportement d'un certain nombre de dirigeants d'institutions bancaires". "Comment on arbitre entre le souhait légitime des actionnaires de gagner de l'argent avec les entreprises et la demande des salariés d'être associés aux bénéfices des entreprises dont ils ont contribué à créer la richesse?", s'est interrogé Nicolas Sarkozy, jugeant qu'en la matière "le compte n'y est pas". "Quand une entreprise distribue aux actionnaires tous les bénéfices d'une année, elle ne peut plus investir" pour l'avenir, a-t-il ajouté, dénonçant une "logique purement financière et spéculative". Le sujet sera au programme de sa rencontre avec les partenaires sociaux le 18 février. "J'engage les organisations syndicales et le patronat à en discuter. Soit ils arrivent à quelque chose, soit l'Etat prendra ses responsabilités", a-t-il prévenu. Il a indiqué qu'il estimait quant à lui que "la règle des trois tiers est bonne": un tiers des bénéfices vont aux salariés, un tiers aux actionnaires sous forme de dividendes et un tiers sont réinvestis dans l'entreprise pour financer son développement". Combat sur la TVA Nicolas Sarkozy a réaffirmé sa volonté d'obtenir un consensus européen concernant des baisses de la TVA sur la restauration, les "produits propres" et des "produits culturels". "C'est parfaitement anormal que quand on achète une voiture propre, on paie plus cher que quand on achète une voiture qui pollue, et ça vaut aussi pour les bâtiments construits en haute qualité environnementale", a dit le chef de l'Etat, souhaitant "un système de TVA réduite pour tous les produits propres". "Je pense également que sur les produits culturels, il faut aller plus loin", a ajouté Nicolas Sarkozy. "Pourquoi la TVA sur le livre est-elle à 5,5 (%), et la TVA sur le disque à 19,6 (%), comme la TVA sur la vidéo? Il faut mettre cette TVA à 5,5", a-t-il déclaré. "Comme cela on est tranquille" "Est-ce que les réformes que la France doit mettre en oeuvre, pour avoir le même emploi lorsque nous seront sortis de la crise, est-ce que ces réformes restent d'actualité? La réponse est oui", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat, précisant qu'elles devaient être conduites "au même rythme". "Si on doit arrêter, comme cela s'est si souvent fait dans le passé, chaque réforme quand il y a une manifestation, alors mieux vaut ne faire aucune réforme. Et comme cela on est tranquille", a-t-il dit. La rupture, "c'est la rupture avec cette habitude". Les quelque 1,4 milliard d'euros d'intérêts que l'Etat percevra cette année au titre des intérêts pour son financement aux banques seront "intégralement" affectés au financement de "mesures sociales", a annoncé Nicolas Sarkozy. Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé qu'il allait demander au président de la Cour des comptes Philippe Seguin de "conduire un certain nombre d'enquêtes" sur la bonne utilisation des fonds accordés aux banques pour faire face à la crise. Tacle aux traders Nicolas Sarkozy veut "changer" le système de rémunération des "traders" mais est sceptique sur un plafonnement systématique du salaire des dirigeants, a-t-il déclaré. "Je suis plus choqué par le système de rémunération de ceux qu'on appelle les traders, que les présidents de banques. C'est ce système-là que je veux changer", a déclaré le chef de l'Etat. "J'ai vu ce que M. Obama a décidé, je suis en train d'y réfléchir, moi je ne suis pas trop pour une règle générale", a-t-il ajouté. "Mettre tout le monde sous la toise, je ne suis pas sûr que ce soit la meilleure formule". "J'ajoute que Barack Obama a prévu un système d'actions gratuites derrière une rémunération bloquée, j'aimerais en savoir un peu plus", a souligné Nicolas Sarkozy. Maintien de la politique sur la Fonction publique Nicolas Sarkozy a affirmé qu'il n'engagerait "pas de dépenses publiques supplémentaires", et qu'il s'en tiendrait à la "règle du non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux". "Je n'engagerai pas de dépenses publiques supplémentaires, notamment sur la règle du non-remplacement d'un fonctionnaire sur deux", a affirmé le président de la République. Selon lui, on reviendra ainsi "au même nombre de fonctionnaires qu'en 1992", quand François Mitterrand était président. "Je n'ai pas le souvenir que la France était alors sous-administrée", a-t-il argué. Relations aux paradis fiscaux Très sévère sur la question des paradis fiscaux, Nicolas Sarkozy a annoncé son intention de "poser des questions" à Andorre, Monaco et au Luxembourg. La France exigera la moralisation des paradis fiscaux et "ça m'amènera à revoir nos relations avec Andorre", "à poser la question de nos relations avec Monaco (et) à poser un certain nombre de questions à nos voisins luxembourgeois", a-t-il déclaré. Baisse dans les sondages D'autant que le chef de l'Etat, comme son Premier ministre, enregistre une forte baisse dans les derniers sondages. Moins cinq points à 39% de "confiance" contre 55% de défiance selon un CSA paru mercredi dans Le Parisien. Forts du succès de leur journée d'action de la semaine dernière, les syndicats attendent le président au tournant, suspendant leurs prochaines initiatives au contenu de sa prestation télévisée. Le patron de la CFDT François Chérèque a réclamé un "changement de cap", en clair, des mesures pour maintenir le pouvoir d'achat, tandis que celui de FO Jean-Claude Mailly a prévenu que sans "relance par la consommation", il y aura "remobilisation". Le ton est également offensif dans l'opposition. La Première secrétaire du PS Martine Aubry a demandé au président de "définir enfin un plan de relance adapté". Et, dans une rare unanimité, la gauche toute entière a signé mercredi un texte sommant le pouvoir de "changer de cap". Ne pas se laisser "enfumer" Jeudi matin, Jean-Luc Mélenchon (Parti de gauche) invitait le pays à ne pas se laisser "enfumer" par Nicolas Sarkozy et à se mettre "en lutte", tandis qu'Olivier Besancenot (LCR) voyait déjà dans son intervention "des motivations supplémentaires à continuer le combat". Jusque-là, le discours du chef de l'Etat est resté inflexible. Oui, il a entendu les "inquiétudes légitimes" des Français "qui craignent pour leur emploi", mais pas question pour lui de recourir à une relance par la consommation, "parce que ça n'a jamais marché". Nicolas Sarkozy devrait aussi enrober son propos d'une bonne dose de volontarisme. "On va se battre pour que la France sorte plus forte de la crise", insiste-t-il régulièrement. "Se concentrer sur les objectifs essentiels" Mais certains ne l'entendent pas de la même oreille dans la majorité. Le député UMP Hervé Mariton a reproché au gouvernement de s'éparpiller dans les réformes lui demandant de "se concentrer sur les objectifs essentiels" et son collègue François Goulard a préconisé une "suspension" temporaire du très controversé bouclier fiscal. En outre, le gouvernement a vu poindre ces derniers jours un nouveau "front" du mécontentement dans les universités, avec la montée de la grogne des enseignants-chercheurs et des étudiants. Mais comme François Fillon lundi, le porte-parole du gouvernement a exclu mercredi tout virage politique. "Cette émission n'est pas faite seulement pour le million et demi de Français qui a manifesté", a dit Luc Chatel, mais plutôt pour "mettre en perspective son action face à la crise". [123]Augmenter la taille du texte [124]Réduire la taille du texte [125]Imprimer cet article [126]Envoyer cet article à un ami [127]Réagissez à l'article [128]Réagir à cet article en créant votre Blog [129]Traduction français / anglais [130]Traduction français / espagnol [131]Partager cet article sur Wikio [132]Partager cet article sur Scoopeo [133]Digger cet article [134]Partager cet article avec mes amis sur Facebook ! [135]Partager cet article sur del.icio.us [136]Envoyer cet article sur Blogmarks Les réactions des lecteurs rifif [137]-10 POINTS -10 points serait un sondage plus réaliste que ces sondages effectués par des instituts de sondages aux mains des amis de sarkozy ! Il aura beau museler les manifestan... 08.02 à 16h05 - [138]Alerter scafandre [139]Il faut qu'il démissionne... avant de mettre littéralement la France en faillite. Il est inconscient... Vous avez des communes qui ont investi dans la construction de collèges, de ponts... en fonct... 07.02 à 21h16 - [140]Alerter [141]Réagissez ! [142]Toutes les réactions (299) [143]Conditions de modération L'essentiel Politique [144]IDENTITE NATIONALE [145]"Déferlement de musulmans" : Gaudin regrette avoir eu un "mot malheureux" 18.01 à 16h59 [146]MAYOTTE [147]Courte étape dans l'océan Indien pour Sarkozy 18.01 à 14h52 [148]POLEMIQUE [149]Reporters enlevés : "cynisme effrayant" de Guéant 18.01 à 14h47 [150]MARSEILLE [151]Buffet dénonce "une idéologie xénophobe dans les plus hautes autorités de l'Etat" 18.01 à 13h46 [152]IDENTITE NATIONALE [153]Et si "une Française porte la burqa"...? 18.01 à 10h51 [154]SOCIAL [155]Internet : un tarif réduit pour les plus démunis ? 18.01 à 09h05 [156]COLLECTIVITES LOCALES [157]Les départements en "graves difficultés financières" 18.01 à 08h53 [158]IDENTITE NATIONALE [159]"Déferlement de musulmans" : Gaudin regrette avoir eu un "mot malheureux" 18.01 à 08h06 [160]MARSEILLE [161]Valls fustige les "amalgames dangereux" de Gaudin 18.01 à 07h56 [162]ELECTIONS REGIONALES [163]Régionales : Aubry vise toujours le grand chelem 18.01 à 07h29 [164]AFGHANISTAN [165]Journalistes enlevés : Guéant provoque la polémique 18.01 à 07h10 [166]SENAT [167]La réforme des collectivités "manque de visibilité" 18.01 à 07h05 [168]CHARENTE-MARITIME [169]Régionales : Sarnez accuse Royal de "débauchage" 17.01 à 14h58 [170]DROIT DE VOTE [171]Mélenchon favorable au droit de vote des étrangers 17.01 à 13h56 [172]CONSEIL CONSTITUTIONNEL [173]Emmanuelle Mignon ne siègera pas parmi les Sages 17.01 à 12h55 Plus sur le sujet Sur Nouvelobs.com * [174]Les principales déclarations de Nicolas Sarkozy * [175]Aubry Sarkozy est un président "hésitant" qui "ne sait pas où il va" * [176]Intervention télévisée de Sarkozy Les appels au boycott se multiplient * [177]Onze organisations de gauche demandent un "changement de cap" * [178]Interview présidentielle Les choix contestables de l'Elysée * [179]Grèves Parisot y voit "quelque chose de pervers" * [180]Le texte commun des onze organisations de gauche * [181]Revue de presse * [182]Les réactions * [183]Delanoë Sarkozy a "privilégié la polémique" sur le SMA * [184]Sarkozy fait des ouvertures, les syndicats méfiants * [185]15,1 millions de téléspectateurs pour l'intervention de Sarkozy * [186]Les principales mesures de Nicolas Sarkozy Dans Le Nouvel Observateur * [187]"Sarkozy comme Cendrillon", (05/02/09) * [188]"La vraie nature de Sarkozy", par François Bazin (05/02/09) * [189]"Sarkozy peut-il encore réformer ?", par Hervé Algalarrondo (05/02/09) * [190]"Les ficelles de Sarkozy", (22/01/09) * [191]"Les choix de Sarkozy", par Denis Olivennes (22/01/09) Sur Internet * [192]Le site de l'Elysée * [193]Le baromètre de confiance de l'exécutif sur le site du CSA * [194]Le baromètre des actions présidentielles sur le site du CSA * [195]La biographie officielle de Nicolas Sarkozy * [196]Le blog de François Fillon * [197]La biographie officielle de François Fillon * [198]Le site de TNS-Sofres nouvelobs.com __________________________________________________________________ ClubObs Déjà membre de Clubobs.com, identifiez-vous ____________________ [_] Mémoriser ____________________ Ok [199]Mot de passe oublié ? * [200]> A la une * [201]> Opinions * [202]> Blogs * [203]> Revues de presse * [204]> Dossiers * [205]> Forums en direct * [206]> Archives * [207]> Automobile * [208]> High-tech * [209]> Météo * [210]> Annonces * [211]> Débats * [212]> Voyages * [213]> Immobilier * [214]> Emploi * [215]> Comme au Cinema.com * [216]> Rencontres * [217]> Newsletters [218]Site Internet certifiée par l'OJD La fréquentation de ce site est certifiée par l'OJD [219]Contacts | [220]Plan du site | [221]Publicité | [222]Conditions d'utilisation | [223]Données personnelles | [224]Copyright | [225]Index | © Le Nouvel Observateur - Tous droits réservés. nouvelobs.com est une marque exclusive du Nouvel Observateur. 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Formulant ses voeux pour la nouvelle années devant les représentants des partenaires sociaux, le chef de l'Etat a d'abord voulu les «remercier pour l'ampleur de la tâche que vous avez accomplie en 2008. L'urgence des problèmes à résoudre, l'attente des Français vous ont imposé, comme au gouvernement et au Parlement, un rythme de travail particulièrement exigeant». «Je ne vous surprendrai pas en vous disant que nous n'avons pas l'intention de ralentir le rythme en 2009, leur a-t-il ensuite déclaré. Et ce n'est certainement pas au moment où l'impact social de la crise se fait sentir --on a eu l'impact financier, l'impact économique, bien sûr l'impact social-- qu'on va en tirer la conclusion qu'il faut ralentir», a-t-il ajouté. Leparisien.fr avec A Cet article a été publié dans la rubrique [139]Politique FLASH ACTUALITÉ [DERNIÈRE MINUTE] * 18h57 [140]Emmanuelle Haïm renonce à diriger "Idoménée" à l'Opéra de Paris * 18h55 [141]La production cinéma "résiste" dit le CNC, "en crise" selon les producteurs * 18h49 [142]Ligue 1: Marseille au milieu du gué * 18h41 [143]Jean-Claude Juncker reconduit à la tête de l'Eurogroupe * 18h26 [144]France: le déficit public de "l'ordre de 8,2%" du PIB en 2010 * 18h16 [145]Rebsamen (PS): pétition pour inverser la charge de la preuve de nationalité * 18h05 [146]Strauss-Kahn responsable politique préféré des Français [147]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES * 18h41 [148]Jean-Claude Juncker reconduit à la tête de l'Eurogroupe * 18h26 [149]France: le déficit public de "l'ordre de 8,2%" du PIB en 2010 * 17h53 [150]Plan de départs PSA: 5.700 volontaires d'ici la fin du dispositif fin mars * 17h42 [151]Etats-Unis: Vivendi accuse l'avocat des plaignants de créer un "préjudice" * 17h18 [152]Eurostar pourrait payer 11 millions d'euros de dédommagement à ses clients * 16h24 [153]GDF Suez a tenté sans succès de prendre le contrôle d'International Power * 16h11 [154]Le déficit public attendu à 8,2% en 2010, soit moins que prévu [155]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES * 18h16 [156]Rebsamen (PS): pétition pour inverser la charge de la preuve de nationalité * 18h05 [157]Strauss-Kahn responsable politique préféré des Français * 17h10 [158]Collomb (PS) prêt à voter certains articles de la réforme des collectivités * 16h56 [159]Propos sur les musulmans: Gaudin évoque "un mot malheureux" * 16h28 [160]Réforme territoriale: les élus landais demandent un référendum * 16h14 [161]Le Nouveau centre veut s'emparer de "grands sujets" comme l'homoparentalité * 16h12 [162]Besson dresse son bilan 2009 : plus de 29.000 sans-papiers expulsés [163]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES * 17h06 [164]Séisme de magnitude 6 à l'ouest du Guatemala * 16h27 [165]La police a tué plus de 10.000 personnes en douze ans à Rio selon une étude * 14h40 [166]Le Yémen réclame à Washington ses ressortissants détenus à Guantanamo * 13h52 [167]Enquête sur la guerre en Irak: Tony Blair témoignera le 29 janvier * 13h21 [168]Silvio Berlusconi absent à la reprise du procès sur les droits télévisés * 11h26 [169]Les talibans ont porté la guerre dans le centre de Kaboul * 10h46 [170]L'UE promet près d'un demi-milliard d'euros pour Haïti [171]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES * 18h49 [172]Ligue 1: Marseille au milieu du gué * 17h10 [173]Football: pas de sanction pour Thierry Henry après sa main contre l'Eire * 16h50 [174]Ligue 1: pour Bordeaux, l'essentiel c'est l'écart * 16h26 [175]Coupe de l'America: le bras de fer se poursuit entre Oracle et Alinghi * 15h08 [176]Euro de patinage artistique: Joubert de retour pour un ultime test avant les JO * 10h55 [177]Euro de handball: les Français pour un triplé inédit * 08h04 [178]Open d'Australie de tennis: Sharapova éliminée, Nadal, Murray et Roddick qualifiés [179]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES * 18h57 [180]Emmanuelle Haïm renonce à diriger "Idoménée" à l'Opéra de Paris * 18h55 [181]La production cinéma "résiste" dit le CNC, "en crise" selon les producteurs * 17h05 [182]Les films de la semaine: un Gainsbourg, un homme sérieux et des Barons * 14h28 [183]Le Festival d'Aix-en-Provence se "redéveloppe" en 2010 * 06h36 [184]"Avatar" grand vainqueur des Golden Globes, "In the air" déçoit * 20h48 [185]Mode à Milan: esprit rebelle et inspirations militaires * 20h16 [186]"Avatar" continue de dominer le box-office nord-américain [187]TOUTES LES DÉPÊCHES Sites du Groupe Amaury [188]Paris Job [189]France Football [190]L'equipe [191]L'echo republicain [192]ASO [193]Velo magazine [194]Journal du Golf . 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[2]Mise à jour 19:42 [3]Le Figaro.fr * [4]Actualité * [5]Economie * [6]Culture * [7]Madame * [8]Sport * [9]Services INFO [10]> Politique [11]> Société [12]> International [13]> Médias [14]> Environnement [15]> Science et Tech [16]> Santé [17]> Web [18]> Auto [19]> Météo DÉBATS [20]> Figaro Magazine [21]> Éditos [22]> Blogs [23]> Repères EN IMAGES [24]> Vidéos [25]> Le Talk [26]> Photos [27]> Quiz Formulaire de Recherche ____________________ RECHERCHER Exemples : [28]Politique, [29]Grippe A, [30]Auto, [31]FigaroScope, [32]Immobilier __________________________________________________________________ * . * . . . [33]Haïti : la récolte de fonds décolle après l'appel de l'ONU [34]Haïti : la récolte de fonds décolle après l'appel de l'ONU
Les annonces d'aide humanitaire et de fonds pour venir en aide à Haïti continuent d'affluer, suite à l'appel d'urgence lancé par l'ONU. L'organisation entend récolter 562 millions de dollars. [35]» DOSSIER SPECIAL - Haïti dévasté . [36]L'hôpital général de Port-au-Prince manque de tout REPORTAGE - Face au désastre, les secours peinent à s'orgraniser dans la capitale haïtienne. . . . [37]Les secours sorganisent dans la douleur EN IMAGES - Dans la capitale haïtienne, les secours internationaux font face à dénormes difficultés. Il faut à la fois chercher des survivants, apporter des vivres aux rescapés, opérer les blessés, évacuer les corps, sécuriser la ville et penser à la reconstruction. . . [38]Haïti : 70.000 corps ont été enterrés Le gouvernement a décrété dimanche l'état d'urgence et une période de deuil national de 30 jours. 280 centres d'urgence s'ouvrent lundi, pour distribuer des vivres et héberger les sans-abris, estimés à 300.000. [39]» DOSSIER SPECIAL - Haïti dévasté . . [40]Numérisation du patrimoine : comment l'argent sera réparti [41]Numérisation du patrimoine :
comment l'argent sera réparti
INFO LE FIGARO - La Bibliothèque nationale de France et le Centre national du cinéma seront les mieux lotis. . [42]La création d'entreprises atteint un record INFO FIGARO - Les Français ont créé 560.000 entreprises l'an dernier, grâce au succès du statut de l'auto-entrepreneur. [43]» Auto-entrepreneur : comment ça marche ? . . . [44]Thierry Henry échappe à la sanction La commission de discipline de la FIFA a estimé lundi qu'elle ne disposait pas de base juridique pour sanctionner la main de l'attaquant français lors du match contre l'Eire, en barrages du Mondial-2010. . . [45]Boursiers : l'Etat précise ses objectifs La conférence de grandes écoles a de son côté effectué un revirement en affirmant partager les objectifs fixés par le gouvernement. [46]» Sarkozy veut 30 % de boursiers dans les grandes écoles . . [47]L'UNI fait place à un nouveau syndicat étudiant de droite Dès mardi, le syndicat étudiant de droite né en 1968 deviendra le Mouvement des étudiants (MET). . . [48]France : le déficit attendu à 8,2% du PIB en 2010 INFO FIGARO - Le déficit public sera moins mauvais que prévu : il était jusqu'alors anticipé à 8,5 %. . . . [49]Sarkozy en visite dans l'océan Indien Le chef de l'État est à Mayotte et à la Réunion pour la cérémonie des voeux à l'outre-mer. . . [50]Besson veut faire signer une charte aux jeunes Français Les droits et les devoirs de tout citoyen seraient rappelés à l'occasion de ce serment républicain. [51]» Identité : Jean-Claude Gaudin crée à son tour la polémique . . [52]Des squatteurs priés de quitter la place des Vosges La justice a ordonné lundi l'expulsion des militants pour le droit au logement, qui occupent depuis plus de deux mois un hôtel particulier de cette prestigieuse place parisienne. . . [53]Audiences : Europe 1 pourrait détrôner NRJ Le sondage 126000 Radio de Médiamétrie, qui sera publié mardi, pourrait une nouvelle fois bousculer la hierarchie entre stations. . . Zoom Figaro Cheveux [20091109PHOWWW00546.jpg] Conseils d'experts Questions RH [20091109PHOWWW00547.jpg] McDonald's Frida Kahlo [20091109PHOWWW00548.jpg] Exposée à Bruxelles Cinéma [20091109PHOWWW00348.jpg] Toutes les séances . [54]Ces délégués du procureur qui travaillent au noir [55]Ces délégués du procureur
qui travaillent au noir
Chargés de sermonner les petits délinquants, ils ne sont pas déclarés par la Chancellerie. Bercy tarde à régler le problème. . [56]Les talibans revendiquent une série d'attaques à Kaboul Des insurgés se sont lancés lundi matin à l'assaut du centre de la capitale afghane où se trouvent plusieurs ministères et le palais présidentiel. Les affrontements avec l'armée afghane ont fait au moins 5 morts et 71 blessés. Sept assaillants ont été tués. . . [57]Expatriés aux USA, la présidence Obama a-t-elle changé votre vie ? APPEL A TÉMOIGNAGES - Si vous vivez aux Etats-Unis, votre quotidien a-t-il changé depuis l'arrivée de Barack Obama à la Maison Blanche ? Si oui, comment ? . . . [58]TGV : la SNCF remet à plat sa stratégie La baisse de fréquentation de certaines lignes obligerait à des réductions de trains voire des annulations selon les Echos. Les lignes nord-est et est-Atlantique sont particulièrement concernées. [59]» Deutsche Bahn prête à livrer bataille avec la SNCF [60]» La SNCF augmente les tarifs du TGV de 1,9% en 2010 . . . [61]Régionales : Laporte jette l'éponge INFO LE FIGARO.FR - Lancien secrétaire dEtat aux Sports faisait planer depuis plusieurs semaines le mystère sur son éventuelle candidature en Ile-de-France. . . [62]Paris et Berlin déconseillent l'utilisation d'Internet Explorer Après que Microsoft a admis qu'une faille dans son navigateur était à l'origine de l'attaque contre Google en Chine, les autorités officielles de sécurité informatique en France et en Allemagne recommandent de ne pas utiliser le logiciel avant qu'il ne soit corrigé. . . [63]Le Turc, qui avait tenté de tuer Jean-Paul II, est libre [64]Le Turc, qui avait tenté de tuer
Jean-Paul II, est libre 
Mehmet Ali Agca, un ex-militant ultranationaliste fait monter les enchères pour publier ses Mémoires. . [65]Un Français en prison à Abu Dhabi pour une plaisanterie Pour avoir parlé de «bombe» dans un avion, Jean-Louis Lioret, ingénieur à la retraite, est incarcéré depuis six jours. . . . [66]«Ali le Chimique» condamné à mort Ce cousin de Saddam Hussein avait fait gazer 5 000 Kurdes en 1988. . . [67]Alliot-Marie confie à Pierre Botton une mission sur la prison «Je sais de quoi je parle», assure l'ancien homme d'affaires et ex-gendre de Michel Noir, écroué dans les années 1990. . . [68]Le tapis rouge des Golden Globes [69]Le tapis rouge
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Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1][bandeau.png] [2]Accueil [3]www.revuedumauss.com [4]www.jornaldomauss.org [5]Présentation ____________________ [6]Sylvain Dzimira Pascal Michon, Les rythmes du politique Démocratie et capitalisme mondialisé (note suivie d'une correspondance entre P. Michon, S. Dzimira et Sénèque...) Les prairies ordinaires, 2007, 318 p., 17 EUR. [7][printer.png] [8][article_pdf.png] [9]envoyer l'article par mail title= Article publié le 29 avril 2008 /3 commentaires Pour citer cet article : [10]Sylvain Dzimira, « Les rythmes du politique, Démocratie et capitalisme mondialisé (note suivie d'une correspondance entre P. Michon, S. Dzimira et Sénèque...) », Revue du MAUSS permanente, 29 avril 2008 [en ligne]. L'ambition de cet ouvrage donne tout simplement le vertige : relevant l'inanité des théories critiques, à ce point incapables de saisir notre modernité démocratique qu'elles corroborent selon lui une réalité qu'elles croient dénoncer, Pascal Michon ne propose rien de moins que de repenser la démocratie, en élaborant quasiment de toutes pièces un appareillage conceptuel, et en s'efforçant de déduire des conclusions normatives des découvertes que lui permettent les lunettes dont il se chausse, très loin de la très académique neutralité axiologique. Une ambition théorique d'autant plus étonnante qu'elle est le fait d'un historien (et non d'un sociologue ou d'un philosophe politiques qu'on pourrait croire mieux armés conceptuellement a priori), et quand on connaît l'hyperspécialisation de ses confrères (lui n'hésite pas à mobiliser « les sciences sociales » et la philosophie) et leur refus quasi généralisé de théoriser quoi que ce soit. Que pouvons-nous en penser ? Commençons par présenter l'ouvrage. PRESENTATION L'avant propos est désarçonnant, car, « tout le monde en prend pour son grade » ! Journalistes, universitaires « installés dans les chaires trop grandes pour eux de prédécesseurs célèbres » [p. 9], « intellectuels » de gauche devenus libéraux, intellectuels de droite invoquant des icônes de la gauche, tous incapables de penser quoi que ce soit de pertinent sur leur monde... Cela laisse un impression désagréable qui heureusement se dissipe rapidement, car les pages qui suivent donnent sérieusement à penser (nous les avons d'ailleurs publiées dans [11]La Revue du MAUSS Permanente). P. Michon y soutient que, reprise telle quelle par des « disciples » aveugles, la pensée libertaire et contestatrice d'hier est devenue l'un des soutiens de premier plan du nouvel ordre libéral, au même titre que la pensée libérale. D'ailleurs, elles se retrouvent dans la même dénonciation des entraves à l'auto-réalisation des individus, dans un même nominalisme nihiliste teinté d'un empirisme plat (rien n'existe au fond, qui ne s'observe pas, surtout pas « la société » ou les « sujets collectifs »), et dans une même sacralisation de la neutralité axiologique. Sont ainsi appelés à la barre : Marcela Iuacub, Antonio Negri, Michael Hart et Bruno Latour. Si ces postures étaient réellement contestatrices dans un contexte où l'individu était malmené par des pensées homogénéisantes, édifiant des totalités en surplomb, censées parfois tracer la voie du salut pour tous - phénoménologie, existentialisme, historicisme, marxisme sont cités - elles participent aujourd'hui très largement du monde nouveau qu'elles dénoncent par ailleurs, où le seul ordre qui vaille est celui qui s'établit spontanément (la neutralité axiologique est un allié précieux) par les choix des individus, qui seuls sont censés exister. Les « disciples » faussement contestataires ne sont pas les seuls à oeuvrer au nouvel ordre libéral : ils sont accompagnés par des « héritiers » (qu'on retrouve en nombre dans les médias, à l'université, dans la recherche, bref « tout ce qui constitue le fondement objectif de la vie de la pensée » [p. 23]) qui n'ont fait qu'emprunter les concepts et les programmes de recherche à leurs prédécesseurs, à qui ils doivent leurs places et leurs statuts. Cultivant une posture de « rentiers », excellant dans la « phagocytose académique » [p. 25], allant jusqu'à détourner les voix de leurs Maîtres (ainsi d'Ewald), « ce groupe est, pour P. Michon, le deuxième grand responsable de l'épuisement actuel de la pensée critique » [p. 24]. L'état des lieux laissés par leurs occupants est en effet accablant, mais suffisamment juste pour que nous citions longuement son auteur : « L'ouverture à l'autre, les parcours transversaux, la transdisciplinarité, le travail théorique, la contestation de l'ordre en cours et la créativité conceptuelle, qui avaient fondé jusque là l'organisation des savoirs, sont désormais systématiquement rejetés au profit d'une nouvelle constellation : spécialisation extrême, ignorance des autres disciplines [et souvent, même, des autres savoirs spécialisés de sa propre discipline, SD], enquêtes de terrain étroites, empirisme radical, approbation positiviste à l'égard de ce qui est et répétition académique du passé » [p. 27]. Notons que c'est avec le souci de ne pas reproduire ce qu'il dénonce - une pensée à la gloire de l'individu, nominaliste, platement empiriste, faussement neutre d'un point de vue axiologique - que P. Michon se lance dans ce qui apparaît comme une contribution à la théorie de la démocratie. Mais que ne parviennent pas à penser les théories critiques au juste ? Oscillant entre deux visions du monde radicalement opposées - tantôt monde de liberté totale, tantôt monde d'oppression totale - elles sont incapables de saisir que c'est là l'expression des « deux faces [interdépendantes] de l'individuation », dont il s'agit de comprendre la « simultanéité » et la « succession » [p. 31]. Autrement dit, elles sont incapables de saisir les nouvelles formes qu'a prises le pouvoir dans un monde vécu comme univers de liberté totale pour l'individu. Pour restituer le plus fidèlement possible sa pensée, nous ne pourrons pas nous passer des définitions que P. Michon donne de l'individuation et de la notion de rythme qui l'accompagne. « Par individuation, écrit-il, j'entends l'ensemble des processus corporels, langagiers et sociaux par lesquels sont sans cesse produits et reproduits, augmentés et minorés, les individus singuliers (les individus observés dans leur singularité psychique) et collectifs (les groupes). [...] J'appellerai rythmes les configurations spécifiques de ces processus d'individuation » ; ce sont « des manières de produire et de distinguer des individus singuliers et collectifs » [p. 32]. Aujourd'hui, soutient P. Michon, « [le pouvoir] se joue avant tout dans l'organisation et le contrôle des rythmes des processus d'individuation, ainsi que dans les classements qu'ils produisent » [p. 32]. La première partie de l'ouvrage est consacrée à l'explicitation de sa notion d'individuation et la deuxième aux formes que prend le pouvoir aujourd'hui. Dans la troisième partie de l'ouvrage, P. Michon « aborde la question [à ses yeux] la plus difficile et la plus importante de toutes : celle de la plus ou moins grande qualité des rythmes de l'individuation et des divers pouvoirs qui s'y expriment » [p. 33]. Le pouvoir se joue dans les rythmes, selon P. Michon. Or, tous les exercices du pouvoir ne s'équivalent pas. C'est donc que tous les rythmes ne s'équivalent pas. C'est pourquoi, comprenons-nous, P. Michon considère ne pas pouvoir se dispenser de rechercher des critères éthiques qui lui permettront de distinguer les bons rythmes des mauvais, en quelque sorte. Enfin, une fois ces critères identifiés, il évalue la qualité des rythmes du « monde nouveau » qu'est le nôtre. Restituons rapidement chacune de ces parties (pour aider à la compréhension de l'ouvrage tout en suivant sa progression, nous avons repris le titre de chacune de ses parties et indiqué entre parenthèses la question qu'elle nous semble poser). Individuation (ou comment penser le processus de construction des sujets individuels et collectifs ?) Pour insister sur le fait que les rythmes s'inscrivent dans le temps, et que les individus singuliers et collectifs qu'ils produisent ont eux-mêmes une dimension historique, que leur identité est évolutive (un souci bien compréhensif de la part d'un historien) même si elle peut-être relativement stable, P. Michon recourt à une nouvelle notion : celle de fluement. Il précise ainsi sa notion de rythme en lui donnant une nouvelle définition : « J'appellerai rythme toute manière de fluer des individus et poserai que tout processus d'individuation est organisé de façon rythmique » [p. 42]. Il s'attache donc à comprendre comment le corps (le rapport à son corps, entre les corps), le langage et les rapports sociaux produisent les individus singuliers et collectifs [[12]1] Pour ce qui est de la question du corps, P. Michon mobilise Marcel Mauss - [13]son fameux article sur les techniques du corps - Norbert Elias - La civilisation des moeurs et La société de cour - et Michel Foucault - Surveiller et punir - pour rappeler l'idée au fond assez simple selon laquelle le rapport à son propre corps (jusque dans notre manière de marcher), et au corps d'autrui (pratiques sexuelles, danses etc.) est culturellement, historiquement, socialement marqué, et que cela participe de la construction des sujets. Il semble distinguer au moins deux manières de produire par les corps les sujets, deux « rythmes corporels » : l'une, rare, inscrit les corps dans un « schéma mécanique et binaire » [p. 54] ; on la retrouve idéaltyptiquement dans l'usine taylorienne ou fordiste ou encore à l'armée. L'autre, la plus fréquente, sort du modèle binaire et arithmétique classique » [ibid.]. Mais on n'en sait pas beaucoup plus. Passons aux « rythmes du langage » (ou encore fluement du langage ou discursivité). Le langage (les manières de s'exprimer, de parler etc.), soutient en substance P. Michon, participe à la construction des sujets, et rend compte de cette construction. Pour comprendre comment le langage peut participer à la construction des sujets, P. Michon s'appuie sur Victor Kemplerer - La langue du IIIème Reich. Carnets d'un philologue - qui rend compte de la « nazification du langage » [p. 55]. Pour saisir comment un langage peut rendre compte des sujets socialisés, il s'appuie sur notamment Walter Benjamin - son Charles Baudelaire, un poète lyrique à l'apogée du capitalisme - qui montre que le langage qu'emploie Baudelaire renvoie « à l'expérience abîmée des individus plongés dans la Grande Ville » [p. 58]. Enfin, les « rythmes du social ». Là aussi, les relations sociales sont rythmées, elles s'inscrivent dans une temporalité qui suit ses propres rythmes, qui façonnent les identités individuelles et collectives par conséquent variables en même temps que stables. Pour l'illustrer, P. Michon s'appuie une nouvelle fois sur M. Mauss (notamment) et son [14]« Essai sur les variations saisonnières des sociétés eskimos » qui l'été se dispersent et l'hiver se rassemblent et vivent en état d'effervescence, un peu comme les Kwakiutls. Ces variations des « rythmes du social » correspondent en fait à des « variations d'intensité des interactions » [p. 71]. Bref, voilà ce qui participe à la construction de l'identité, à la fois permanente et en mouvement, des sujets individuels et collectifs, à la construction de leur « âme » : nos rapports au corps, nos rapports entre les corps, notre langage, nos relations sociales, tout cela étant étroitement entrelacé : « Les processus d'individuation sont à la fois des phénomènes langagiers, corporels et sociaux, écrit P. Michon ; ils déploient simultanément une discursivité, une corporéité et une socialité - et c'est de l'entrecroisement de leurs rythmes qu'apparaît `l'âme' » [p.76]. La notion de rythme permet donc d'appréhender des manières historiquement construites de se déplacer, de parler, d'être en relation, qui construisent les identités des sujets individuels et collectifs. À ce titre, elle a une vertu heuristique. Mais P. Michon l'appréhende également comme « un concept politique et éthique » [p. 81]. Il distingue en effet deux types de rythme qui n'ont pas les mêmes effets éthiques et politiques. Un premier type de rythme produit des sujets individuels et collectifs qui se « renforcent » mutuellement. Un deuxième type produit des sujets individuels et collectifs qui jouent l'un contre l'autre : l'affirmation des premiers se fait aux dépens des deuxièmes ou inversement. P. Michon considère « qu'une éthique et une politique démocratiques peuvent se définir comme orientées vers la production de manière de fluer de la socialité, des corps et des langages (...) qui soient à la fois singulières et partageables » et toujours « réactualisables » [pp. 81-82]. Ainsi, P. Michon suggère que les sociétés démocratiques doivent s'orienter vers des rythmes du premier type. Pouvoir (ou comment la notion de rythme permet de penser la contrainte subie par les sujets dans un monde hors contrainte - ou du moins, qui se pense comme tel ?) Après avoir précisé comment ses notions d'individuation et de rythme permettent de comprendre les manières dont les sujets individuels et collectifs sont construits, P. Michon, aborde la question de la manière dont ces rythmes produisent du pouvoir, caractéristique de notre « nouveau monde ». D'abord, P. Michon situe sa manière de voir les choses sur le « marché des idées » : ses vues se distinguent de l'utilitarisme dominant, pour qui le pouvoir, assis sur la violence ou la contrainte qui l'euphémise, est orienté vers la satisfaction des intérêts des individus, et le Pouvoir, les institutions politiques, vers l'évitement de la déflagration de la société en raison de la lutte de tous contre tous. Or, cette manière de voir ne permet pas de saisir qu'aujourd'hui, le pouvoir - qu'il s'exerce à l'échelle individuelle ou institutionnelle - passe moins par la violence ou la contrainte que par une certaine « façon de pénétrer les corps-langages, d'organiser leurs manières de fluer et de déterminer ainsi leur individuation mouvante » [p. 93]. « Le pouvoir, écrit-il plus loin, s'est émancipé de la forme système (...), et s'appuie désormais moins sur sa capacité à assurer un ordre optimisé que sur un spectre de stratégies utilisant, au contraire, la fluidité même du monde - stratégies qui vont du contrôle souple et de la création des manières de fluer des corps-langages-groupes à l'utilisation plus ou moins délibérée du chaos, comme on le voit avec les États-Unis et le Royaume-Uni au Moyen-Orient » [p. 94-95]. Aujourd'hui, les personnes sont moins assujetties que les sujets sont produits. Pour penser cette nouvelle forme du pouvoir, il faut penser autrement le rapport du tout aux parties, s'émanciper tant des théories qui consacrent une autonomie totale des individus, de celles qui en font de simples marionnettes du système, et rechercher une voie moyenne à l'instar des « théories intermédiaires » - comme celles de Elias, Bourdieu, Foucault, Touraine, Habermas, Honneth, Giddens, Bauman, Caillé, Thévenot, Boltanski. [p. 101 et suiv.] qui tentent de « penser l'un par l'autre ce qu'elles conçoivent comme les deux côtés de la vie socio-politique : les `systèmes' et les `interactions entre les individus' » [p. 101] ce par quoi il faut comprendre « un rapport réel entre des pôles dont l'existence ne se conçoit que dans leur interdépendance et leurs échanges incessants » [p. 102]. De ce point de vue « le pouvoir constitue moins un simple état de fait que le milieu et le moyen à travers lequel se construisent les individus singuliers et collectifs, les classements et les hiérarchies qui les relient les uns aux autres, ainsi que les effets de domination qui apparaissent au sein de ces classements et de ces hiérarchies » [p. 103-104]. Néanmoins, parce qu' « elles n'ont pas prêté attention à l'organisation temporelle [...] de ces interactions » [p. 106], elles manquent les rythmes du politique où se joue la question du pouvoir. P. Michon propose alors une définition du pouvoir comme « médium rythmique » [p. 107], c'est-à-dire, comprenons-nous, comme processus historique de production et de contrôle des personnes et des groupes par imposition d'un rythme « de toutes choses : de vie, de temps, de pensée, de discours » comme il l'écrit plus loin [p. 129]. Compte tenu de cette nouvelle modalité du pouvoir, reste à savoir quel critère on pourrait se donner pour juger que notre démocratie se porte bien, ou pas ? Démocratie (ou quel(s) critère(s) se donner pour évaluer la démocratie moderne ?) Ou encore : que doit-on faire pour que dans notre nouveau monde où le pouvoir s'exerce par un contrôle sur le processus de construction des corps-langages-groupes, notre démocratie se porte bien ? Quelle place pour l'État ? [[15]2] Lutter contre l'État comme le pensait Pierre Clastres ? P. Michon ne le croit pas : outre que P. Clastres aurait perdu « la conscience du temps et de l'histoire », « le modèle politique et éthique arythmique qu'[il] propose [est] assez peu offensif vis-à-vis de la réalité du capitalisme » [p. 123]. Bref, la définition d'une « démocratie comme arythmie » ne convient pas. Mieux vaut partir de Roland Barthes, selon P. Michon, et plus précisément de la présentation qu'il fait des collectivités religieuses « idiorrythmiques » qui vivaient dans les déserts syriens et égyptiens « où chaque moine a (...) licence de mener son rythme particulier de vie » [p. 126]. D'abord parce qu'elles sont parvenues à éviter les excès du repli sur soi et de la fusion communautaire, de la « solitude et [du] coenobium » [p. 127], dessinant selon lui une sorte de « socialisme qui n'aurait pas abandonné l'individu » [pp. 127-128]. Ensuite parce qu'en se retirant dans le désert, elles sont parvenues à échapper au rythme d'un pouvoir supérieur. Bref, c'est plutôt dans cette société idiorrythmique, i.e. qui se fixe à elle-même son propre rythme, qu'il voit - provisoirement du moins - un idéal type de la démocratie. Néanmoins, quand P. Clastres pense l'État sans penser le rythme, R. Barthes pense le rythme sans penser l'État [p. 140]. Sur le chemin de sa quête d'une éthique et d'une politique du rythme, P. Michon se tourne alors vers Marcel Mauss. Non seulement les descriptions que ce dernier fait de la vie saisonnière des sociétés archaïques rendent bien compte du caractère rythmique de ces sociétés, mais le potlatch illustre de manière spectaculaire à ses yeux la « nature rythmique du politique » [p. 142], au sens où c'est dans ce moment que se « redéfini[ssent] périodiquement le statut et l'identité des groupes et des personnes dans le système tribal » [p. 142]. Il retient de M. Mauss et des travaux de Marcel Granet sur la Chine que la société n'est pas contre l'État comme le pense P. Clastres, que l'État n'est pas contre la société comme le pense R. Barthes. « Leurs relations, pense-t-il, doivent [plutôt] être évaluées en fonction des interactions historiques, toujours mouvantes, entre les rythmes imposés par l'État aux corps-langages-groupes et ceux imposés à celui-là par ceux-ci. [...] L'État n'est pas nécessairement « l'ennemi » de la société : il peut certes devenir tyrannique et informer les processus d'individuation à son profit, mais il peut tout aussi bien devenir l'instrument grâce auquel la société peut chercher à assurer une individuation de bonne qualité » [p. 147]. Bref, l'État a toute sa place dans une démocratie idiorrythmique. Encore faut-il qu'il ne dénie pas son rythme propre, sans l'imposer pour autant à la société. « Les différents projets démocratiques qui sont au apparus vers la fin de cette période apparaissent comme autant de tentatives politiques pour réintroduire dans l'État, devenu permanent, une temporalité tenant compte des rythmes propres de la société » [p. 154]. Voilà ce qu'il nous faut : « Rerythmer le corps-langage arythmique de l'État moderne, lui redonner la temporalité et la multiplicité interne dont il s'est débarrassé, réhistoriciser une forme de pouvoir qui se prétend hors de l'histoire » [p. 154]. Les nouveaux rythmes d'un monde fluide Mais notre démocratie ne s'est-elle pas édifiée sur la maîtrise par « le peuple » de la discipline exercée par l'État sur les corps et sur les esprits ? Sans doute, répond P. Michon, mais de nouvelles formes rythmiques se sont imposées « aux multitudes » [[16]3], peut-être plus fortes qu'auparavant. C'est toute l'ambivalence de notre modernité démocratique. « Tout s'est [...] passé comme si l'apparition des libertés civiles puis la mutation démocratique de l'État n'avaient pu se faire qu'au prix de la diffusion de nouveaux modes rythmiques d'individuation fondés sur un assujettissement renforcé et de nouvelles formes d'exclusion » [p. 194]. En quoi consiste plus précisément la nouveauté de nos « formes de production des individus singuliers et collectifs », déjà rapidement évoqués ? C'est qu'ils sont « beaucoup plus fluides, en tout cas libérés de toute métrique, sinon de toute discipline » [p. 211]. S'appuyant sur Gabriel Tarde, P. Michon précise qu'elles sont le fait du progrès technique dans l'imprimerie, la communication et les transports, qui permet de produire des groupes 1) sans que leurs membres se rassemblent physiquement (pensons à l'internet), 2) sur la seule base d'idées communes (chacun pouvant se reconnaître dans un « courant d'opinion »), et 3) « en perpétuelle métamorphose » (c'est ce qui semble leur conférer un caractère fluide) [p. 215] ; groupes d'individus, « myriades d'atomes » séparés mais non isolés (qui prennent le visage du « public »), qui « imposent une fluidité de plus en plus grande aux groupements institutionnalisés traditionnels et [qui] transforment, tendanciellement, les sociétés modernes en société de masse » [p. 215]. Les rythmes d'individuation sont encore plus fluides en ce sens que, comme l'avait relevé Georg Simmel que P. Michon mobilise aussi - en même temps qu'ils sont désormais en connexion permanente, inscrits dans une « temporalité continue, sans halte ni repos » [p. 220], ils peuvent choisir leurs propres rythmes de vie. D'un point de vue simmelien, la monnaie y a fait bien sûr pour beaucoup. Désormais dominante, cette manière, fluide, de produire des individus singuliers et collectifs est elle-même ambivalente. G. Tarde, par exemple, est plutôt sensible aux dangers pour la démocratie que porte la possibilité de produire un « public », une « opinion publique », si celle ci devait être instrumentalisée par des puissances animées par une volonté d'assujettissement. Simmel, lui, est plus sensible aux possibilités accrues pour les individus de choisir leurs propres rythmes. Il voit davantage le danger dans le refus de cette fluidification du rythme, et dans l'aspiration au retour à des rythmes plus disciplinés et cadencés. Avec G. Tarde et G. Simmel, on voit clairement que le rythme, la manière dont les hommes se produisent, dont les corps-langages-groupes se construisent, n'est pas sans incidences politiques. Il y a donc lieu de les distinguer selon leur « qualité éthique et politique » [p. 232]. P. Michon, inspiré par Ossip Mandesltam [[17]4], se donne alors un indicateur de la mesure de cette qualité des rythmes : la « rythmicité ». Et vient une définition rythmique des groupements démocratiques : ils sont « dotés d'une rythmicité forte. Ils se caractérisent par leur multiplicité interne et par le fait qu'ils permettent aux contradictions et aux conflits de s'exprimer sans que ceux-ci ne débouchent sur la suppression de l'un des termes antagonistes, assurant ainsi l'une par l'autre la promotion du singulier et celle des groupes auxquels il appartient. » [p. 233]. Mais qu'en est-il du rythme, de la manière dont se produisent les corps-langages-groupes censée porter ces groupements démocratiques ? On n'en sait trop rien sinon qu'il est lui-même traversé par cette exigence paradoxale de fabriquer du commun et du singulier, de la cohésion et du conflit. On en sait davantage sur le rythme des groupements à rythmicité faible, dont la foule et les « sociétés de masses » sont les idéaux-types : ils « sont très souvent marqués par des techniques rythmiques de type métriques - [...] manifestations, meetings politiques, matchs de football -, proches de la cadence, de la simple alternance binaire [...] ou mécanique - [...] parades militaires, sparkiades et autres spectacles de masse » [p. 233-234]. Mais les rythmes à rythmicité faible peuvent être encore « flous, très peu accentués et à basse tension interne » [p. 234], comme on peut en rencontrer dans les entreprises aujourd'hui, « rythmes aussi peu favorables à l'individuation que les rythmes binaires et disciplinaires qu'ils ont remplacés » [p . 234], typiques des organisations tayloristes ou de l'armée. À la recherche des formes justes d'un monde fluidifié Ce qu'il faut donc, c'est rechercher « les formes justes d'un monde fluidifié » [p. 237]. Il se tourne alors vers ce qu'il appelle « l'utopie maussienne » [p. 233], qui consiste à voir la morale du don - de la triple obligation de donner, recevoir et rendre - tempérer, contenir, celle de l'intérêt, aujourd'hui dominante, et qui revient selon lui à « assurer la maximisation de leur individuation [celle des individus singuliers et collectifs] par une mise en tension du soi et du collectif » [p. 238]. Car, plus qu'une simple transaction, P. Michon voit dans le don archaïque, agonistique, un rythme particulier, « l'occasion d'une réunion et d'une mise en branle périodiques et organisées des corps-langages, c'est à dire de la production d' `âmes' par des techniques rythmiques particulières » [p. 239]. Voyant chez M. Mauss une définition rythmique du don - comme forme de production des corps-langages-groupes - susceptible d'étayer un projet éthico-politique, P. Michon la considère comme un « point de départ » [p. 241] pour réfléchir à l'énoncé de critères qui permettent de distinguer les bons des mauvais rythmes. Il déduit des réflexions de Mauss sur la circulation et la fortification de l'âme des peuples au cours des potlatchs que « toute politique démocratique consistera [...] à rechercher, non pas seulement, comme le pensaient Georg Simmel et R. Barthes, une idiorrythmie, une simple liberté rythmique personnelle indépendante des rythmes collectifs, mais une eurythmie simultanément corporelle, discursive et sociale - une maximisation de l'individualisation singulière et collective » [p. 242]. Au regard de la démocratie, le seul bon rythme est celui qui maximise la production des individus singuliers et collectifs... Néanmoins, M. Mauss ne parvient pas à nous fournir les critères qui permettraient de distinguer les bons [[18]5] des mauvais rythmes d'individuation, parce que, dans ses conclusions de morale et de politique de son célèbre Essai, il développe une « conception pacifiste et consensualiste de la démocratie, et ne tient aucun compte du rôle que joue précisément le conflit dans [les] processus d'individuation » [p. 248]. P. Michon voit davantage le bon rythme de l'individuation démocratique chez les Nuer tels qu'ils sont décrits par Evans-Pritchard, qui alternent successivement « don et refus du don, l'alliance et la lutte » [p. 252]. Ainsi, « tout en restant disponibles à la générosité et à l'engagement solidaire, [ils] jouissent pleinement de leur autonomie. [...] Les Nuer ont inventé un système, poursuit plus loin P. Michon, dans lequel, loin de s'opposer, solidarité et individualité se renforcent l'une l'autre » [ibid.]. Bref, le bon rythme d'individuation démocratique est celui qui repose sur « l'alternance du conflit et de l'alliance ». [p. 252], ou plus précisément, il s'opère lorsque « l'alliance et le conflit alternent tout en étant compris sans cesse l'un dans l'autre, un peu comme, dans la pensée chinoise, le yin et le yang se succèdent tout en impliquant déjà chaque fois leur opposé »[p. 254]. Ou encore, le bon rythme d'individuation démocratique est celui qui permet de « considérer nos adversaires comme des alliés en puissance, mais aussi ceux qui sont nos alliés comme de potentiels adversaires » [p. 254]. Ce qui le conduit à défendre une définition de la démocratie comme « eurythmie de l'usage de la violence » [p. 254]. Seul ce rythme « maximise » l'individuation des individus singuliers et collectifs, permet l'affirmation la plus intense des « Je » et du « Nous ». [p. 255] [[19]6]. De ce point de vue, le système économique le plus juste est donc celui qui fait autant de place à l'adversité qu'à l'alliance. Il le voit dans une sorte de « mixture » qui organiserait l'adversité par la concurrence marchande et la reconnaissance de la propriété privée, et l'alliance par l'organisation collective de la production et une certaine « mise en commun de la propriété » [p. 274]. Il en vient ainsi à définir la démocratie, « non seulement comme une eurythmie de l'usage de la violence, mais comme une eurythmie des usages de la propriété et du marché » [ibid.], dont la rythmicité est donc forte. C'est à l'aune de ce critère du bon rythme d'individuation démocratique qu'il évalue la qualité des rythmes du « monde nouveau » qu'est le nôtre. Capitalisme mondialisé (notre société capitaliste est-elle bien démocratique ? Que faire pour la rendre plus démocratique ?) Le rythme du capitalisme s'est modifié. Cadencé, binaire, métrique dans les organisations tayloristes, il s'est depuis une trentaine d'années fluidifié dans les organisations dites flexibles, dont l'objectif est de répondre au mieux à la demande des clients (en vue de maximiser le profit). Jouant la carte de la responsabilisation individuelle, des horaires variables, de l'accroissement de la mobilité professionnelle, ces organisations développent des rythmes d'individuation plus lâches, moins métriques et peuvent donner l'impression qu'elles libèrent les formes de vie dans le travail. Mais, s'appuyant sur l'ouvrage de Richard Senett, Le travail en miettes (1998), P. Michon montre qu'il n'en est rien. Confrontés à des objectifs de court terme quasiment inatteignables, à un temps hors travail qu'ils ne maîtrisent même plus, à des parcours professionnels bigarrés, les individus subissent une nouvelle forme d'assujettissement. Et l'individualisation à outrance du rapport au travail a sapé « les liens de confiance et d'engagement mutuels » constitutifs de tout groupe [p 292]. On a désormais affaire à des individus singuliers et collectifs à faible rythmicité. Notre monde est flexible, mais il est encore médiatique. On assiste à un développement sans précédent des moyens de communication, qui, lui aussi, à l'instar de la flexibilité, pourrait faire croire à une libération des formes d'individuation ici langagière. Mais il n'en est rien. Le discours est aseptisé, consensuel, l'information « désincarnée et dépolitisée ». Bref, qu'il s'agisse de nos rapports au langage, au corps, aux autres, nous vivons dans un monde à faible rythmicité, i.e. dont ni l'individu, ni le collectif ne sortent gagnants. « Ainsi, note P. Michon, les démocraties libérales, qui se voyaient jusque là comme des machines à produire des individus émancipés, tendent-elles à devenir aujourd'hui d'immenses dispositifs qui assurent, à travers une fluidification généralisée des corporéités, des discursivités, et des socialités, la multiplication d'individus faibles et flottants, constamment happés par les besoins de la production et de l'échange marchand et les interactions dans lesquels ils sont pris » [p. 307]. Pour éviter les « tempêtes » dont ce monde est porteur, il est urgent pour P. Michon que nous retrouvions de nouveaux rythmes d'individuation langagière, corporelle et sociale, « à partir des capacités des individus à s'associer au niveau local, voire translocal » [p. 311], « dans l`expérience de corps-langage-groupe en lutte » [p. 312]. Mais cela ne pourra pas se faire, selon lui, sans « toucher aux rapports de production et à la répartition des revenus » [ibid.], et donc sans une « puissance supérieure à celle des entreprises et du marché » [ibid.], qui pourrait-être l'Europe, en tant qu'entité politique. DISCUSSION Que penser de cet ouvrage ? À vrai dire, il nous laisse une curieuse impression. Les efforts que déploie P. Michon pour concevoir un appareillage conceptuel afin de saisir l'état de notre démocratie moderne forcent le respect. On est là, se dit-on, en présence d'un auteur qui développe sa propre pensée, en discussion permanente avec des auteurs d'horizons multiples, de surcroît d'une manière fort rigoureuse, puisqu'il ne s'épargne aucun effort pour définir les notions qu'il crée. La progression de l'ouvrage elle-même laisse apparaître un auteur méthodique et prudent dans ses diagnostics : ce n'est qu'après avoir défini ce qu'il appelle individuation, explicité ses rapports avec le pouvoir, qu'il se permet, chaussé des lunettes qu'il vient de se fabriquer, de porter un diagnostic sur notre démocratie. Enfin, on sent bien, intuitivement, qu'avec sa notion de rythme, il pointe sur une dimension de la réalité sociale très largement ignorée par les spécialistes en sciences sociales [[20]7]mais qui pourrait bien être importante si, comme il le soutient, c'est dans les rythmes que se jouent les relations de pouvoir. De l'usage du concept Mais c'est ce même appareillage conceptuel qui nous laisse perplexe. Créé de toutes pièces par P. Michon, il est bien difficile à saisir malgré les efforts qu'il fournit pour définir les notions employées. Individuation, rythme, arythmie, idiorrythmie, eurythmie, fluement (finalement très peu utilisé), rythmicité (forte et faible) : tout cela pourrait décourager le lecteur pressé (et a rendu cette recension bien difficile). À ce propos d'ailleurs, les ralliements qu'il opère de certains auteurs à la cause de l'individuation et du rythme paraissent un peu forcés ! Présenter M. Foucault comme l'auteur d'une « histoire des rythmes d'individuation » [p. 195], et M. Mauss comme le découvreur de la notion d'eurythmie [p. 243, cf. supra] est pour le moins assez peu usuel. Si ces points de vue, rapidement glissés, pouvaient aider à la compréhension des idées de P. Michon, ils pourraient se justifier. Mais pour notre part, nous ne pouvons pas dire qu'ils nous aient beaucoup aidés. Bien sûr, son langage se comprend au regard des défaillances qu'il identifie chez les auteurs qui appréhendent notre démocratie, et qui résident justement, selon lui, dans leur incapacité à saisir ce qu'il appelle individuation et rythme pourtant au coeur des relations de pouvoir selon lui. Nous sommes tout simplement, de son point de vue, en présence d'« une réalité nouvelle » qui demande « des dispositifs théoriques, eux aussi, totalement nouveaux » (nous soulignons) [p. 30]. Par ailleurs, P. Michon a suffisamment critiqué l'intelligentsia française pour son manque de créativité intellectuelle pour ne pas se faire lui-même inventif... Néanmoins, la nouveauté est-elle toujours un indice de la pertinence ? Ne peut-on rien apprendre de ceux qui nous ont précédés ? Qu'y a-t-il de honteux à s'inscrire dans une tradition de pensée ? Soyons sévère (et un peu injuste, car P. Michon s'efforce, sans être toujours très convaincant, de rallier des prédécesseurs plus ou moins connus à ses concepts) : n'y a-t-il pas dans cette posture de créativité radicale, quasiment nihiliste, quelque chose du mythe de l'autoréalisation de soi emblématique de notre époque et qu'il condamne lui-même ? Toujours est-il que nous nous demandons si P. Michon n'aurait pas pu, tout de même, dire les choses plus simplement. Que dit-il au juste ? Que nos identités se construisent dans nos relations aux autres, qui engagent notre corps et notre langage. Que ces relations peuvent être placées sous des registres différents (elles peuvent être rythmées différemment), qu'elles peuvent être notamment plus ou moins contraintes (rythme cadencé, métré, binaire etc.) ou libres (rythme fluide). Que dans ces relations se jouent des relations de pouvoir sur les personnes (pouvoir de contrainte, parfois médiatisé par le savoir), et, par-là, la capacité pour elles de se réaliser de manière autonome, ou pas (pouvoir d'agir). Dans une première phase du capitalisme, un réel pouvoir sur les personnes s'exerçait via l'organisation de relations sociales contraignantes qui engageaient leurs corps et leurs langages, et qui freinaient leur pouvoir d'agir, individuellement et collectivement. L'organisation tayloriste en constitue l'idéal-type. Aujourd'hui, apparemment délivrées des contraintes systémiques dans leurs relations aux autres, visiblement libérées du pouvoir qui s'exerçait sur elles-mêmes (l'organisation du travail flexible faisant appel à l'initiative et à la responsabilité de ses salariés joue ici comme idéal-type), les personnes n'ont pour autant pas gagné en pouvoir d'agir, ni individuellement, ni collectivement. Le pouvoir exercé sur les personnes prend paradoxalement le canal de l'exhortation de leur pouvoir d'agir (qui se réduit bien souvent à celui de produire et de consommer). Si bien que notre démocratie n'est pas tout à fait démocratique, « étant entendu » qu'une bonne démocratie est celle qui renforce le pouvoir d'agir des individus et des groupes. D'une certaine manière, même, notre société est moins démocratique qu'auparavant car elle paraît faussement l'être plus, alors qu'autrefois elle paraissait bien ne pas l'être assez. Ce que nous pouvons en déduire, c'est qu'il nous faut cultiver des relations sociales, créer des institutions qui soient porteuses de ce pouvoir d'agir individuellement et collectivement, qui nous permettent de retrouver la maîtrise de nos destins à la fois individuels et collectifs. Nous aimerions savoir ce que ce résumé omet d'essentiel que l'emploi de ses notions d'individuation, de rythme, de fluement, d'arythmie, d'idiorrythmie etc. auraient fait apparaître. Sur la démocratie Puisque l'ouvrage se présente comme une contribution à la théorie de la démocratie, attardons-nous maintenant sur cette contribution, et d'abord sur son positionnement sur le marché des idées. Pour le dire vite, P. Michon souhaite se distinguer à la fois de l'individualisme méthodologique, qui ne voit que des individus libres, et du holisme qui ne voit que des individus contraints. Il leur reproche au fond leur incapacité à saisir que la contrainte prend aujourd'hui les allures de la liberté. Son souci est bien de se doter de concepts qui permettent de comprendre ce paradoxe. Il le tente dans le cadre d'un interactionnisme ou d'un relationnisme qui se laisse percevoir dans sa définition de l'individuation, comme processus de construction des identités et des normes dans le cadre de relations qui engagent le corps et le langage (d'ailleurs, qu'est-ce donc que l'individuation ainsi traduite - nous espérons ne pas trahir la pensée de P. Michon - sinon ce que les sociologues appellent socialisation ?). De ce point de vue, la démarche nous paraît très cohérente. P. Michon dit encore vouloir se distinguer des théories utilitaristes du pouvoir (notons d'ailleurs qu'il situe dans l'utilitarisme l'origine de la fluidification de notre monde [[21]8], sans qu'on sache s'il s'agit de l'utilitarisme en tant que pratique ou en tant que théorie, et sans qu'il nous dise véritablement en quoi il serait à l'origine de la fluidification de notre monde). Il dit en effet ne pas souscrire aux théories qui définissent le pouvoir comme pouvoir de contrainte en vue de satisfaire ses intérêts personnels, et qui envisagent le Pouvoir comme l'ensemble des institutions visant l'évitement la déflagration sociale dans la guerre de tous contre tous. De fait, ce n'est pas ainsi qu'il considère le pouvoir puisque, pour lui, le pouvoir de contrainte et d'assujettissement s'exerce moins qu'il ne se joue dans les manières dont les relations se construisent en engageant le corps et le langage. Cela lui permet de faire apparaître que des relations placées sous le signe de la liberté, ou du moins de l'absence apparente de contraintes (de la fluidité) peuvent au final s'avérer très contraignantes ; autrement dit, qu'un réel pouvoir de contrainte peut se manifester sans qu'une volonté quelconque d'assujettissement soit véritablement exprimée. Situation qui caractérise notre société démocratique contemporaine selon lui (si nous avons bien compris). De ce point de vue, pas de doute, P.Michon ne s'inscrit pas dans la tradition utilitariste. Quoique... plaçant par ailleurs le pouvoir sous le signe de « stratégies qui vont du contrôle souple et de la création plus ou moins délibérée du chaos » [p. 94-95 par exemple, cf. supra], on peut se demander quelle place il accorde à l'intérêt calculé dans cette affaire, et donc quel rapport sa conception du pouvoir entretient avec l'utilitarisme ? Concernant la relation de sa conception de la démocratie avec l'utilitarisme, les choses sont beaucoup plus ambiguës. En effet, il définit assez curieusement la démocratie comme le régime ou l'état social plutôt (P. Michon ne se prononce pas trop à ce sujet) qui « maximise » l'individuation : « Toute politique démocratique consistera, écrit-il, [...] à rechercher [...] une eurythmie simultanément corporelle, discursive et sociale - une maximisation de l'individuation singulière et collective » [p. 242]. Nous ne comprenons tout simplement pas qui maximise, qui calcule au mieux quoi, ni en en vue de quoi ! Reprenons sa définition de l'individuation : que signifie calculer « un processus corporel, langagier et social par lesquels sont sans cesse produits et reproduits les individus singuliers et collectifs » ? À vrai dire, la question « en vue de quoi il faut maximiser l'individuation », pourrait trouver sa réponse quelques lignes plus haut, quand P. Michon relève que dans un des derniers passages de l' [22]« Essai sur le don » , M. Mauss situe le secret du bonheur dans une vie bien rythmée, alternant les moments de travail et de repos, de solitude et de vie sociale, d'accumulation des richesses et de dépenses généreuses. Voilà donc ce qu'aurait en vue une politique véritablement démocratique, qui viserait la maximisation de l'individuation : le bonheur de tous et de chacun (manifestement mesurables et calculables). Ainsi placée sous le signe du calcul (maximisateur), du bonheur, du plus grand bonheur, et d'un grand calculateur, une telle conception de la démocratie nous semble bien s'inscrire dans la tradition utilitariste. D'ailleurs, nous nous demandons vraiment si les communautés religieuses syriennes qui représentent pour lui un bon idéal-type de la bonne démocratie conduisaient une politique de maximisation de l'individuation ! À moins que par maximisation il ne faille pas comprendre maximisation, c'est à dire calcul... Nous avons tendance à penser en effet que cette expression est malheureuse, et que P. Michon est davantage spinoziste que benthamien, car il nous semble que pour lui, une démocratie s'évalue non pas par le bonheur de ses membres, mais par la « puissance d'agir » de tous et de chacun [[23]9]. Enfin, le critère qu'il se donne pour identifier un groupement démocratique nous semble très largement autoréférentiel. En effet, qu'est-ce qu'un groupement démocratique pour P. Michon ? Un groupement dont la rythmicité est forte. Mais la caractéristique qu'il donne d'un groupe dont la rythmicité est forte n'est rien d'autre que celle d'un groupement démocratique, i.e. qui sait cultiver le conflit dans les limites de l'amitié. Nous aurions aimé qu'il précise plutôt sous quel registre il place une telle relation...à la fois teintée d'agôn et de philia... Ce qui nous amène à M. Mauss. Sur Marcel Mauss Ce que P. Michon souligne en s'appuyant sur M. Mauss, c'est combien la vie de certains peuples archaïques est saisonnière, ou encore, rythmée. Les Eskimos comme les Kwakiutls, par exemple, se dispersent l'été, période d'accumulation, et se retrouvent l'hiver, période d'effervescence sociale, de dépenses généreuses, d'invitations mutuelles, bref, de dons en tous genres. P. Michon donne au rythme de la vie sociale une importance qu'elle n'a généralement pas chez les commentateurs de M. Mauss. Il nous alerte ainsi sur les rythmes de nos propres vies sociales, et en particulier, sur « la nature rythmique du politique » [p. 142]. À mieux y réfléchir, les dons eux-mêmes obéissent en effet à des rythmes propres qui leur sont constitutifs : il y a des moments pour donner, de même qu'il y a des moments pour ne pas donner, et la spirale du don elle-même - celle de la triple obligation de donner, recevoir et rendre plus - obéit bien à un rythme (à trois temps) plus ou moins obligé. Si ces rythmes ne sont pas respectés, si l'on donne mal à propos, à contre-temps, si l'on rend trop rapidement, ou encore si le temps du don est réduit à presque rien ou cantonné à la sphère privée, on saisit bien que cela puisse compromettre les alliances et la vie sociale elle-même. On comprend mieux ainsi en quoi les rythmes de nos vies sociales ne sont pas sans effets éthiques et politiques. C'est un véritable chantier qu'ouvre ainsi P. Michon, qui mérite à nos yeux que les MAUSSiens, entre autres, s'y penchent davantage qu'ils ont pu le faire. D'autant que la démarche de P. Michon, qui s'efforce de déduire de ses réflexions socio-anthropologiques des conclusions de morale et de politique, s'inscrit pleinement dans une démarche maussienne. D'ailleurs, les conclusions de politiques économiques auxquelles aboutit P. Michon font étonnement écho aux positions politiques de M. Mauss, quand ce dernier plaide pour une « mixture » de capitalisme et de socialisme, de propriété privée et de propriété collective, de marché et de solidarité etc. Mixture qui, tout en étant attentive à la dimension collective de nos existences, n'en oublierait pas pour autant que les individus ont des aspirations singulières, pas moins légitimes que les aspirations collectives. En fait, on a chez M. Mauss le « socialisme qui n'aurait pas abandonné l'individu » [pp. 127-128] cher à R. Barthes et auquel semble sensible P. Michon. Pour autant, et ce n'est pas que nous voulions défendre M. Mauss à tout prix, nous ne partageons pas toujours les lectures qu'en fait P. Michon. Par exemple, nous avons du mal à le suivre quand il soutient que M. Mauss ne parvient tout simplement pas à penser l'histoire. Les considérations de M. Mauss dans son « Essai sur le don », « conservent, en dépit de tout, écrit P. Michon, une attache à un principe ultime de stabilité et d'atemporalité » [p. 248]. Vraiment, nous ne voyons pas en quoi. « L'Essai sur le don » est une vaste épopée du don ! Nous avons encore du mal à suivre P. Michon quand il parle « d'utopie maussienne », car les positions politiques de M. Mauss sont tout sauf utopiques. Le socialisme démocratique et associationniste qu'il défend n'est pas à rêver. Il est déjà en partie advenu, par et dans les coopératives de consommation notamment. Il a moins à être inventé qu'à être encouragé. M. Mauss n'est pas un utopiste. Il est même bien conscient de l'écart qui existe entre le possible et le souhaitable, et ne plaide que pour le possible, mais tout le possible, en direction du souhaitable. C'est un possibiliste [[24]10]. De la même manière, nous ne le suivons pas quand il soutient que M. Mauss « garde une conception pacifiste et consensualiste de la démocratie » [ibid.]. Il suffit de mettre en rapport son « Essai sur le don » et sa critique du bolchevisme, écrits sensiblement au même moment, et pour voir combien la conception maussienne de la démocratie est agonistique, et pour comprendre qu'elle est ancrée, justement, sur « le roc de la morale éternelle » qu'est le don agonistique selon M. Mauss. La définition que P. Michon donne de la démocratie comme état social qui fait toute leur place à la fois à l'alliance et au conflit, qui se contiennent l'un l'autre, le conflit évitant à l'alliance de basculer dans la fusion et l'alliance permettant au conflit de ne pas sombrer dans la déflagration, nous semble très maussienne. Elle pourrait-même trouver son fondement anthropologique dans le don agonistique, qui présente exactement la caractéristique que P. Michon prête à la démocratie. D'ailleurs, la définition qu'il donne de la démocratie comme eurythmie rejoint tout à fait la voie du milieu éthique et politique qui est celle de M. Mauss [[25]11]. Finalement, si nous avions à écrire la question que se pose P. Michon et la réponse qu'il y apporte, sans recourir à ses concepts parfois difficiles d'accès, nous les formulerions ainsi : « Que pouvons-nous faire pour retrouver notre autonomie dans un monde où le pouvoir de contrainte sur les personnes s'exerce non plus directement mais via d'invisibles processus qui façonnent leurs manières de se parler, de se mouvoir et de se lier ? Commencer par expérimenter des manières propres de nous parler, de nous mouvoir, de nous lier, qui nous permettent de retrouver la maîtrise de nos vies individuelles et collectives ». Ou, encore plus brièvement, forcément appauvrissant, et en reprenant sa métaphore musicale : « Que faire dans un monde où nous sommes tous emportés par une cadence infernale qui nous oppresse et nous opprime ? Ne pas s'arrêter de jouer (voie a-rythmique), ne pas jouer seul dans son coin (voie idiorrythmique), mais simplement retrouver le bon rythme pour soi et pour tous ! (voie eurythmique) ». Malgré les réserves que nous avons pu émettre, le lecteur aura saisi que l'ouvrage de P. Michon donne véritablement à penser. Nous espérons qu'il retiendra l'attention d'un grand nombre et notamment des MAUSSiens, car il pointe sur une dimension de la vie sociale, son caractère rythmé, qu'ils ont finalement peu interrogée, alors qu'il se pourrait qu'elle ne soit pas sans effets éthico-politiques. Cela mérite bien un examen attentif. Bibliographie sommaire de Pascal Michon Michon, P., Éléments d'une histoire du sujet, Paris, Kimé, 1999 -- [26]Rythmes, pouvoir, mondialisation, PUF, 2005. Ouvrages en collaboration -- (avec E. Barjolle, G. Dessons, V. Fabbri), Avec Henri Meschonnic : Les gestes dans la voix, Rumeur des Ages, 2003. -- (avec G. Desson et S. Martin), Henri Meschonnic, la pensée et le poème, In Press, 2005. -- (avec Ph. Hauser, F. Carnevale, A. Brossat), Foucault dans tous ses éclats, L'Harmattan, 2005. On peut aussi retrouver P. Michon dans les numéros 25 [27]Malaise dans la démocratie , 26 [28]Alter-démocratie, Alter-économie et 28 [29]Penser la crise de l'école de La Revue du MAUSS semestrielle. [30]Pour commander les numéros Ici, un article paru dans le mensuel [31]Sciences Humaines en novembre 2005 __________________________________________________________________ Réponse de Pascal Michon Cher Sylvain, tout d'abord, je voudrais vous remercier de votre recension extrêmement scrupuleuse. C'est un réconfort de voir qu'il existe encore, dans nos corporations de sciences sociales, des lecteurs curieux. J'ai plus l'habitude des débats internes, dans l'entre-soi disciplinaire qui permet à la fois de facilement se comprendre et d'éviter de se frotter aux savoirs des autres disciplines. De nombreux lecteurs de mon livre précédent, par exemple, se sont arrêtés aux chapitres qui les « concernaient », passant du même coup à côté du mouvement de pensée qui les liaient les uns aux autres - les sociologues ont lu les sections sociologiques, les psy les sections psy, les littéraires les sections littéraires... Tout ce petit monde est resté chez soi et les vaches ont été bien gardées. J'ai aussi aimé la façon dont vous avez procédé, présentant, tout d'abord, le texte dans ses grandes lignes puis proposant, dans un deuxième temps, une lecture critique. C'est de très bonne méthode et je vous en remercie également, car cela donne à entendre aux lecteurs, sans interférences, une grande partie des enjeux de mon travail. Je vais me concentrer dans cette réponse sur ceux de ces enjeux que vous n'avez pu complètement traiter, soit parce qu'on ne peut tout dire dans une recension, soit parce qu'il reste toujours des angles moins bien éclairés quel que soit le point de vue que l'on adopte. 1. Mon livre est un essai. Bien qu'il tente, comme vous le remarquez, de construire méthodiquement ses concepts à partir du matériel analytique disponible, il ne prétend pas répondre à tous les problèmes qui se posent, ni fournir une théorie complète de son objet : les rythmes de l'individuation singulière et collective. Il voudrait juste faire émerger celui-ci dans la conscience scientifique. Si cet objectif était atteint, cela me suffirait grandement. Mon livre constitue plus une proposition de recherche, l'esquisse d'un programme de travail, qu'une réponse globalisante qui donnerait une clé pour toutes les serrures contemporaines. On m'a déjà reproché cette « ambition », comme vous dîtes, ou même le côté « totalisant » de ma démarche. À cela je réponds habituellement : 1. que nous ne pouvons plus nous satisfaire, de par la nature même du nouveau monde dans lequel nous sommes entrés, de déclarations d'intention concernant la transdisciplinarité, il nous faut la mettre en pratique activement et individuellement (c'est-à-dire pas seulement par une juxtaposition de spécialistes) car aucune discipline ne peut, encore plus aujourd'hui qu'hier, comprendre à elle seule ce qui est train d'émerger. Mauss, qui était passé à travers une période historique par bien des points semblables à la nôtre, l'avait d'ailleurs bien compris : « C'est aux confins des sciences, à leurs bords extérieurs, aussi souvent qu'à leurs principes, qu'à leur noyau et à leur centre que se font leurs progrès » (« Rapports réels et pratiques de la psychologie et de la sociologie », 1924) ; 2. que les sciences sociales ne peuvent progresser que par un déplacement radical de point de vue. Je milite, pour cette raison, comme Alain Caillé, en faveur d'un changement de paradigme. En simplifiant outrageusement, on peut dire qu'après l'affaissement des paradigmes structuralistes et systémistes, l'individualisme méthodologique, sous différentes formes, a pris le dessus. Or, cette mutation n'a pas apporté les résultats escomptés. En fait, ni l'un ni l'autre de ces paradigmes ne peut rendre compte de la période présente. Il est vrai qu'un certain nombre de « théories intermédiaires » ou « centristes » dans la classification de Margaret Archer, (Elias, Bourdieu, Foucault, Touraine, Habermas, Giddens, Bauman, Caillé, Boltanski, Thévenot, entre autres) ont essayé, partant du même constat, de dépasser les dualismes traditionnels des sciences sociales. Mais elles connaissent aujourd'hui des ratés qui tiennent, me semble-t-il, essentiellement à leur difficulté à conjuguer primat de la temporalité, éthique et politique. D'où la nécessité d'un nouveau modèle général - comme celui que fournit le rythme - pour relancer la réflexion ; 3. qu'on confond souvent, de manière polémique, totalisation et puissance d'un concept. Le concept de rythme n'est pas globalisant ou totalisant, il possède tout simplement une puissance que j'essaie, avec mes moyens, d'explorer. C'est cette puissance de problématisation nouvelle qui dérange les habitudes de pensée et les partages du territoire institutionnel qui leur sont liés - et qui explique ces caricatures absurdes qui me sont parfois opposées. 2. Mon livre porte sur la question de l'individuation singulière et collective. Pour des raisons de précision et pour ne pas embrouiller l'exposé, j'ai expressément laissé de côté la question du ou des « sujets ». D'où un certain flou dans votre présentation qui confond, comme beaucoup de monde il est vrai, ces deux questions. Mais, si vous y prêtez attention vous le verrez aisément, le rapport entre les deux est loin d'être évident et devrait être analysé à nouveaux frais. Pour rester bref, on peut dire qu'un individu singulier ou collectif n'atteint le statut de sujet que lorsqu'il devient un agent d'un processus particulier. D'où une difficulté, une multiplicité, une discontinuité et une instabilité très grandes de la subjectivation, dont les rapports à l'individuation restent en fait entièrement à repenser. En tout état de cause, individuation est loin de signifier subjectivation (c'est, d'ailleurs, l'un des problèmes que posent les propositions d'AlainTouraine qui ne fait pas cette distinction). 3. J'ai beaucoup insisté sur un aspect décisif du concept de rythme qui n'apparaît pas dans votre recension : son aspect a-métrique. Le matériel très divers et assez abondant dont nous disposons (que ce soit au niveau des corps, du langage ou des interactions sociales) montre qu'il est impossible de se satisfaire de sa définition métrique traditionnelle. Si nous nous limitons à cette définition, nous réduisons la diversité des fluements du réel à un schéma binaire et numérique simpliste et nous introduisons sans même en avoir conscience une politique et une éthique anti-démocratiques. Une définition plus utilisable pour penser ce que nous devons penser aujourd'hui est celle qui avait cours avant que Platon associe rhuthmos et métron, et qui faisait du rythme une « manière de fluer ». J'ai aussi montré que cette définition peut être précisée grâce à la remotivation par Diderot de la notion de « manière », qu'il repense à partir de la question de la qualité (et donc de l'individuation) artistique, c'est-à-dire comme concept d'une forme qui reste active en dehors de son contexte originel. Ces précisions sont loin d'être des détails insignifiants, elles engagent toute la théorie des rythmes de l'individuation, aussi bien dans ses capacités heuristiques, que dans ses conséquences éthiques et politiques. 4. Ici, on le voit, la sociologie a un grand besoin de la linguistique (Benveniste), de la poétique (Meschonnic) et de la philosophie (Deleuze, Foucault, Simondon). Or, je note que vous accordez toute votre attention aux auteurs sociologiques ou anthropologiques que je cite, mais que vous ne dîtes rien des discussions philosophiques, poétiques et linguistiques, qui encadrent ces analyses (Benveniste, Meschonnic, Deleuze, Foucault et Simondon sont étrangement absents de votre CR). Je me demande si vous ne raisonnez pas encore ici, à votre insu, en termes disciplinaires, comme si poétique, linguistique ou philosophie n'avaient rien à apporter aux sciences sociales ou ne constituaient que des décorations non-essentielles d'un propos plus consistant qui reviendrait de droit à ces dernières. 5. Sur vos critiques maintenant. Vous trouvez que j'exagère en caractérisant Surveiller et punir comme un grand livre sur les rythmes de l'individuation. Je sais bien que la vulgate présente Foucault comme un auteur intéressé uniquement par l'espace, les répartitions, les quadrillages, etc. Mais, précisément, cette vulgate laisse totalement de côté le profond intérêt de Foucault pour tous les phénomènes temporels, en particulier pour toutes les techniques utilisées pour rythmer les corps, les discours et la vie des groupes. Il me semble que les descriptions qu'il fait de l'apprentissage militaire, des formes du travail dans les manufactures, de la vie en prison, des méthodes de dressage scolaires parlent d'elles-mêmes. Elles corroborent, du reste, des analyses engagées par Thompson au cours de la décennie précédente et constituent un ensemble d'analyses des rythmes de l'individuation qui n'a que peu d'équivalents dans la littérature scientifique disponible. 6. Pour Mauss (comme pour Foucault), vous trouvez ma lecture rythmique « peu usuelle ». Mais je voudrais vous faire remarquer que Mauss dit lui-même explicitement dans le Manuel d'ethnographie ceci : « Socialement et individuellement, l'homme est un animal rythmique ». Vous m'accorderez que cette phrase est une affirmation extrêmement forte. Or, tout le monde s'empresse de la laisser de côté. Je vous retourne donc (mais aussi à tous les Maussiens) la question : quel sort faites-vous à cette affirmation ? Ne pensez-vous pas que, sous cette forme condensée présentée sur un patron aristotélicien, elle indique une entrée à partir de laquelle on pourrait au moins relire une bonne part de son oeuvre ? Ou bien pensez-vous que cette phrase a été proférée comme une simple fioriture rhétorique sans signification profonde. Pour ma part, j'ai montré dans ma thèse (dont une partie a été publiée dans mes Éléments d'une histoire du sujet en 1999 et... dans la revue du MAUSS en 2005, mais qui n'a pas eu l'heur d'attirer l'attention des spécialistes - elle n'est jamais citée dans les livres sur Mauss), textes à l'appui, que Mauss n'a jamais engagé, comme l'a soutenu Lévi-Strauss pour des raisons de pure stratégie universitaire (sa concurrence après la mort de Mauss avec Gurvitch pour récupérer l'héritage), une théorie préstructuraliste du social, et que par voie de conséquence son intérêt pour le « symbolique » doit être réévalué et réintégré à un intérêt plus général pour le rythme. J'ai complété en 2005 ce travail dans Rythmes, pouvoir, mondialisation, qui malheureusement n'est pas cité non plus. Pourtant, dans son texte de 1924 « Rapports réels et pratiques de la psychologie et de la sociologie », Mauss explique à son auditoire que la sociologie pourrait servir de modèle à la psychologie au moins pour l'étude de deux ordres de faits qui lui semblent les deux apports les plus importants des travaux sociologiques réalisés depuis le début du siècle : le « symbole » et le « rythme ». On voit bien à travers cette affirmation que ces deux concepts sont liés dans son esprit ou tout au moins qu'ils possèdent une importance aussi grande l'une que l'autre. Or, que disent les commentateurs : toujours la même chose (qu'ils reprennent sans aucune distance critique de Lévi-Strauss), Mauss serait simplement l'inventeur ou la popularisateur du concept de « symbolique ». Le rythme là encore tombe à la trappe. D'où ma deuxième question : que faites-vous de cette nouvelle affirmation de l'importance du rythme ? Quel statut donnez-vous dans votre lecture à cet intérêt pour le rythme ? Je pense, pour ma part, que cette conférence nous montre une fois encore que Mauss n'était pas du tout en train de préparer une épistémologie ou une méthodologie structurale, ni même une science du symbolique au sens qui dominera par la suite chez les structuralistes, mais qu'il était, bien au contraire, dès le début, dominé par la question de la production des individus singuliers et collectifs dans le temps. Sa question n'était pas de trouver des constantes dans le fonctionnement des systèmes sociaux (il rejette explicitement la notion de structure), mais de comprendre ces systèmes en pénétrant l'organisation des flux qui les constituent (c'est pourquoi il oppose la « physiologie » à la simple et trompeuse « anatomie sociale »). Il est, du reste, en cela complètement de son époque et rejoint des préoccupations que l'on retrouve, sous des formes très diverses cela s'entend, chez ses adversaires (Bergson, Tarde) ou chez ses amis (Durkheim, Hubert, Granet). 7. Sur la question du rapport à « la tradition » et de ce que vous voyez dans mon travail comme une « posture de créativité radicale, quasiment nihiliste » qui ne serait au fond l'expression que d'un « mythe d'autoréalisation de soi emblématique de notre époque ». Je ne comprends pas votre critique. Y-a-t-il jamais invention conceptuelle qui ne soit négation d'une partie au moins des concepts en cours ? J'en doute. D'autre part, si je revendique une certaine radicalité, je ne vois aucun nihilisme dans ma démarche. Au contraire, j'ai grand soin du passé et, pour ce qui est du présent, j'ai plutôt l'impression de procéder par affirmations et avancées créatrices. Il me semble que vous confondez négation et nihilisme. Enfin, l'idée que mon travail verserait dans un « mythe d'autoréalisation » me semble doublement fausse : parce que l'autoréalisation n'est pas une notion que l'on devrait rejeter sans précaution ; mais aussi parce que c'est une caractérisation au fond psychologisante et donc réductrice d'une proposition théorique qui ne devrait faire l'objet, en bonne méthode scientifique, que de critiques théoriques. 8. Sur la question de la complexité inutile que vous voyez dans mes propositions (« Nous nous demandons si P. Michon n'aurait pas pu, tout de même, dire les choses plus simplement ») et sur le fait que vous tentiez de traduire mes propos en un langage plus simple (vous me demandez « si ce résumé omet quelque chose d'essentiel que les notions de rythme, de fluement, d'arythmie, d'idiorrythmie, d'eurythmie, etc. auraient fait apparaître »). C'est un essai dont je vous remercie sincèrement car cela pourra certainement aider à la compréhension de mon travail par de nombreux sociologues ou spécialistes de sciences sociales. Je suis également très sensible au fait que vous soyez le premier membre du Mauss à reconnaître et à justifier de manière détaillée le fait que le rythme est une question fondamentale qui devrait être prise en considération. En même temps, j'ai l'impression que votre réduction à un ensemble de communs dénominateurs comporte un danger : celui de laisser penser que ce que j'avance est réductible à du déjà connu ou à du déjà pensé par les sciences sociales : « Que dit-il au juste ? Que nos identités se construisent dans nos relations aux autres, qui engagent notre corps et notre langage [...] Que dans ces relations se jouent des relations de pouvoir sur les personnes ». Au fond, la théorie du rythme n'apporterait rien de plus que ce que les sociologues-économistes savent déjà depuis fort longtemps. À savoir que les sociétés et les individus sont pris dans des interactions mouvantes qui les rendent plus instables et fluides qu'on ne le croit généralement. Pourquoi, dès lors, en effet, dire de manière si compliquée des choses si simples ? Mais précisément, je ne me suis pas contenté de reprendre les différentes théories interactionnistes en cours, ou même de prolonger les auteurs qui se sont frottés, depuis ces trente dernières années, à la question des rapports réciproques entre individu singulier et individu collectif, individu et système. Je le reconnais bien volontiers, les auteurs très divers qui ont proposé des visions intermédiaires nous ont fait faire de grands progrès. Mais leurs conceptions ne suffisent plus au regard des réalités nouvelles du XXI^e siècle ou bien elles rencontrent des difficultés qui les rendent moins efficaces. En dehors du fait qu'on peut souvent repérer (comme dans la philosophie hobbesienne qui forme le socle de la pensée d'Elias) le lieu où le dualisme rejeté au départ se réintroduit subrepticement, je crois que leurs instruments sont déjà en partie inadaptés. Et la raison en est simple : si elles ont toutes été conçues comme des tentatives pour échapper aux dualismes traditionnels des sciences sociales, elles n'ont pas été pensées à partir du mouvement, des intensités, des flux et de leurs qualités eux-mêmes. Il nous faut donc accomplir ce qu'elles n'ont pas encore réussi à faire : une inversion radicale du regard qui pose le langage et le temps comme premiers et, à partir de là, repenser toutes les questions qui se posent à nous. Faute de quoi, soit nous retomberons vite dans les paradoxes et les difficultés que nous connaissons bien : le système et l'individu, la poule et l'oeuf, soit nous resterons sans boussole quand il nous faudra juger de la qualité des « objets intermédiaires » que nous étudierons. Le « don » est un exemple typique de cette deuxième difficulté : il permet de dynamiter le dualisme individualiste utilitariste, mais, tel qu'il reste pour le moment théorisé au sein du MAUSS, il ne permet pas encore de poser la question de l'organisation temporelle des flux de dons, des rythmes corporels, langagiers et sociaux qui sont déterminés par ces flux, et donc de la qualité de l'individuation singulière et collective qui en découle. On se contente le plus souvent d'une définition du don comme opposé de l'échange utilitariste, faisant de facto de celui-là une simple négation (et donc une certaine façon de conserver) celui-ci. On manque alors toute la diversité qualitative (souvent ambivalente) de la triple obligation donner-recevoir-rendre et l'on se retrouve avec une affirmation toute binaire de ce que serait le bien éthique et politique. 9. Sur ma redéfinition de la démocratie et son supposé fonds « utilitariste ». Vous citez une de mes propositions qui définit la démocratie comme le régime ou l'état social (c'est bien sûr les deux à la fois) qui permettra de « rechercher une eurythmie simultanément corporelle, discursive et sociale - une maximisation de l'individuation singulière et collective ». Et vous expliquez que vous ne « compren[ez] tout simplement pas qui maximise, qui calcule au mieux quoi, ni en vue de quoi ! ». Le problème avec la question qui, c'est qu'elle présuppose un sujet déjà là. Autrement dit, elle indique déjà sa réponse. Pour ce qui me concerne, je l'ai dit plus haut, j'ai volontairement distingué la question de la subjectivation de celle de l'individuation. Cette position ne peut être tenue que jusqu'à un certain point, je vous l'accorde, mais je continue à penser qu'elle est nécessaire dans un premier temps, même s'il faudra réfléchir à l'avenir plus précisément à la façon de relier les deux aspects. Ma certitude à cet égard est que de toute façon la subjectivation ne réussit pas toujours, que le sujet ne peut donc être posé comme un principe antécédent à l'action et qu'il constitue plutôt une entité qui apparaît ou pas au cours de l'activité des corps-langages (au sens du génitif objectif, car pour moi c'est l'activité qui est première). Vous reprochez, ensuite, à l'expression « maximisation » d'être trop marquée par le principe typiquement utilitariste d'un calcul du plus grand bien comme une simple addition des biens individuels. Si c'était ce que j'ai dit, je serais d'accord avec vous. Mais je maintiens l'expression « maximisation » car celle-ci est motivée par le système discursif dans lequel elle apparaît. Et comme vous l'avez senti, celui-ci est entièrement traversé par un souci de type spinoziste pour une maximisation (dans les conditions qui leurs sont faites) de ce que peuvent les corps-langages, maximisation qui ne peut en aucun cas être réduite à une augmentation additive des petits bonheurs personnels. L'utilitarisme se fonde sur un calcul des atomes de bonheur, alors que j'essaie (à l'instar de Mauss en réalité) de penser le bonheur (ou la « joie », si vous préférez, pour rester dans le ton du XVII^e siècle) comme exaltation de la puissance de vivre. Pour finir sur ce point, je voudrais repréciser ce que j'ai déjà dit dans mon livre et écarter des malentendus qui pointent dans quelques-unes de vos remarques : les propos de Barthes sur le bonheur « idiorrythmique » sont très suggestifs (par la rareté même de tels propos) mais bien évidemment insuffisants (ne serait-ce que parce qu'il reconnaît lui-même qu'il s'agit d'une utopie domestique plus que sociale). Quant à ceux de Mauss sur « l'eurythmie », ils indiquent une piste à mon sens plus féconde, mais ils sont, quant à eux, plus qu'élémentaires et doivent être réélaborés rigoureusement. Ces exemples ne constituent donc pas des réponses aux questions éthiques et politiques que nous nous posons, mais des incitations à chercher dans la direction qu'ils pointent. 10. Sur Mauss qui ne « parviendrait tout simplement pas à penser l'histoire ». Je ne crois pas avoir dit cela. J'ai même montré dans Eléments d'une histoire du sujet que Mauss est l'un de ceux qui, dans la première moitié du XX^e siècle, pense la question de l'historicité radicale des êtres humains, sans en revenir au néo-kantisme sociologique de Durkheim, mais sans tomber non plus dans les problèmes de la phénoménologie, du bergsonisme ou de la philosophie de l'historicité essentielle heideggérienne. Ce que j'ai dit, c'est que Mauss, en dépit de son souci d'historisation constant, aboutit non seulement à une éthique et une politique fondées sur un principe anhistorique, celui-là même que vous citez quelques lignes plus loin : « le roc de la morale éternelle » - ce qui est en soi un problème. Mais aussi qu'il propose comme modèle, dans tout l'Essai sur le don et en particulier dans ses « conclusions de morale », le système de prestations totales de clan à clan, qui est « exactement, toutes proportions gardées, du même type que celui vers lequel nous voudrions voir nos sociétés se diriger ». Or, ce système « où tout est complémentaire » ne connaît pas le conflit, dont il parle pourtant tout au long de l'essai. À vrai dire, cette subtile contradiction n'est pas à retenir contre Mauss, elle indique toutefois que c'est à partir de là qu'il faut reprendre la question. Si maintenant vous pensez que l'on peut trouver des textes allant dans un sens différent qui donnerait un sens agonistique à la démocratie, je serai le premier à m'en réjouir. Mais cela voudra dire que le problème relevait simplement de l'interprétation érudite des méandres d'une oeuvre et que nous sommes d'accord sur la chose même - ce qui est pour moi la seule qui compte. 11. Sur le terme d' « utopie maussienne ». Vous me reprenez en arguant que Mauss n'était pas un utopiste, mais un « possibiliste », attaché à des projets concrets. Vous avez certainement raison. Toutefois, mon usage du mot « utopie » n'était en rien négatif dans mon esprit, bien au contraire. Ensuite, personne ne pourra nier que l'idée que les sociétés modernes devraient réintroduire massivement le don au fondement de leur économie reste largement un projet d'avenir, c'est-à-dire dans le meilleur sens du terme... une utopie. Pascal Michon Paris, le 7 mai 2008 __________________________________________________________________ Sénèque. De la tranquillité de l'âme Cher Pascal, je viens de terminer la lecture de De la tranquillité de l'âme de Sénèque. Quelle ne fut pas ma surprise de voir l'un des derniers chapitres intitulé : « Il faut alterner "temps forts" et "temps faibles" » En voici un extrait : [...] Solitude et société doivent se composer et se succéder. La solitude nous donnera le désir de fréquenter les hommes, la société, celui de nous fréquenter nous-mêmes, et chacune sera l'antidote de l'autre, la solitude nous guérissant de l'horreur de la foule, et la foule, de l'ennui de la solitude". J'avais déjà lu de Sénèque Les bienfaits : un essai sur le don - sur la triple obligation de donner, recevoir et rendre - avant l'heure (jamais cité par Mauss). Un indice de plus que pensée du don et pensée du rythme peuvent et même doivent se rencontrer ? Amicalement Sylvain Créteil, le 7 mai 2008 3 commentaires Les rythmes du politique 27 août 2009, par Ces concepts de rythmes du politique me semblent proches de ceux de Deleuze-Guattari, grands lecteurs de Simondon et de l'individuation, notamment de l'agencement collectif d'énonciation territoire par exemple. Ils permettent de les renouveler et de les penser sous un autre biais. Mais pour trouver de nouveaux rythmes reste la question de l'invention également de nouveaux énoncés. Les rythmes du politique 8 septembre 2009, par Pascal Michon Je vous remercie beaucoup de cette comparaison ainsi que du texte auquel vous renvoyez. J'ai expliqué succinctement dans le chapitre « Styles, rythmes et ritournelles » des Rythmes du politique ce qui distingue ma position de celle de Deleuze et Guattari. De même, pour Simondon dans celui intitulé « Les rythmes comme cycles de l'ontogénèse ? ». En bref, j'ai une grande admiration pour ces travaux qui ont beaucoup compté dans ma réflexion mais, dans l'un et l'autre cas, ils me semblent buter sur la question du langage. Plutôt que de nouveaux énoncés, je pense donc qu'il nous faut chercher, entre autres, de nouveaux modes d'énonciation. Pascal Michon [33]Réaction au commentaire » Répondre à cet article [34][puce_gazette.png] Gazette [35][puce_supplement.png] Supplément [36][puce_lectures.png] Lectures [37][puce_societe.png] Vers une société civile mondiale [38][puce_publications.png] Publications [39][puce_plan.png] Plan du site [40][puce_plan.png] Auteurs [41]Suivre la vie du site RSS 2.0 Recensions [42]>Multiculturalisme dites-vous ? Francesco Fistetti [43]>Pour un socialisme décent [44]>De la lutte des classes à la lutte des places Michel Lussault [45]>Gli economisti e i selvaggi. L'imperialismo della scienza economica e i suoi limiti Roberto Marchionatti [46]>Donner et prendre. La coopération en entreprise Norbert Alter [47]>Le symbolique et le sacré. Théories de la religion Camille Tarot [48]>De Gauche ? Alain Caillé, Roger Sue (dir.) [49]>Histoire et création. Textes philosophiques inédits (1945-1967) Cornelius Castoriadis [50]>Bibliothèque du MAUSS n°31 [51]>La nouvelle écologie politique - Economie et développement humain Jean-Paul Fitoussi, Eloi Laurent Notes [[52]1] Pour une approche goffmannienne du corps et de la manière dont il participe à la construction de l'identité des personnes, on peut lire l'article de [53]Sylvain Pasquier publié dans La Revue du MAUSS Permanente. [[54]2] Les sous-titres de cette partie, assez longue, sont de nous. [[55]3] Pascal Michon préfère parler de multitudes plutôt que de peuple, ce dernier étant sans doute trop homogénéisant pour lui. [[56]4] O. Mendesltam est l'auteur d'un petit ouvrage où il est question de la Révolution bolchevique intitulé L'État et le rythme (1920), dans lequel P. Michon voit « l'une des toutes premières politiques du rythme » [p. 229]. [[57]5] Le bon, si le calcul de maximisation n'admet qu'une solution... [[58]6] Pour P. Michon, seuls Lewis Coser (Les fonctions du conflit social) et Gilbert Simondon (L'individuation psychique et collective) ont développé cette manière de voir les choses. [[59]7] On peut néanmoins citer : Henri Meschonnic dans les travaux duquel il s'incrit, et notamment son Politique du rythme, politique du sujet, Verdier, 1985 [[60]8] « L'utilitarisme et [...] l'économie politique [...] sont à la base de [...] la fluidification du monde » [p. 236]. [[61]9] Un Spinoza plus proche de Mauss (qui l'affectionnait d'ailleurs) que de Bentham... Un Spinoza peu lordonien, donc... [[62]10] Nous renvoyons ici aux Ecrits politiques de Marcel Mauss, présentés par Marcel Fournier (Fayard, 1997), ainsi qu'à notre ouvrage, [63]Marcel Mauss, savant et politique , La Découverte, 2007. [[64]11] S. Dzimira, op. Cit. 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Les ménages consomment, les entreprises investissent [...] Mais tout de même Au quatrième trimestre 1999, la croissance a certes été légèrement inférieure aux prévisions (+3,6% en rythme annuel contre +4%). Mais le détail des chiffres de ce quatrième trimestre est jugé encourageant par les hommes de l'art. Les entreprises, notamment, ont accru leurs investissements (+8,2% en rythme annuel) et commencent à restocker. autant de signes que la croissance est bien partie pour durer. [...] Certes, l'appréciation par [...] la fin de l'accélération de la croissance. elle se stabilise à un bon niveau, commente un expert. En d'autres termes, l'activité atteint son rythme de croisière avec, pour l'année 2000, une croissance comprise entre 3,4% et 3,5%. [...] des bonnes nouvelles. Vendredi, une volée de statistiques est venue confirmer que la croissance française se portait bien. Moins bien, sans [...] que l'activité économique aux Etats-Unis, qui, selon les dernières estimations du département du Commerce, a progressé de 6,9% au dernier trimestre 1999 en rythme annuel (lire en page Finances). [...] [32]Lire la suite... Tags : o [33]Rythme o [34]Annuel pages [35]4,4%: La croissance américaine en 2004 a atteint son rythme le plus élevé depuis [...] La croissance américaine a atteint 4,4 % en 2004, soit le rythme le plus élevé depuis 1999, en dépit d'un ralentissement au 4e trimestre à 3,1 % dû surtout au lourd déficit commercial. Selon le département du Commerce, les trois derniers mois de 2004 ont enregistré la plus faible hausse depuis le 1er trimestre 2003. [...] Mais, sur l'ensemble de l'année, la croissance s'est accélérée à 4,4 % après 3 % en 2003 et 1,9 % en 2002, confirmant le ressaisissement de l'économie américaine. Ce sont les consommateurs qui ont tiré l'essentiel de la croissance en 2004, avec des dépenses en hausse de 3,8 % et un investissement immobilier florissant (+9,5%), portés par les taux d'intérêt peu élevés. [...] 4,4%. La croissance américaine en 2004 a atteint son rythme le plus élevé depuis - Libération. [...] [36]Lire la suite... Tags : o [37]Rythme o [38]Élève [39]+ 4 %: la progression en rythme annuel de la croissance américaine [...] La croissance américaine s'est assagie au quatrième trimestre 2003 après son emballement de l'été. Le produit intérieur brut (PIB) a progressé de 4 % en rythme annuel, après une croissance spectaculaire de 8,2 % au troisième trimestre. Ce ralentissement s'explique d'abord par une pause des dépenses de consommation, qui ont crû de 2,6 % seulement après un bond de 6,9 % au trimestre précédent. [...] + 4 %. la progression en rythme annuel de la croissance américaine - Libération. [...] [40]Lire la suite... Tags : o [41]Consommation impôt o [42]Confiance points [43]0,2 %. Encore un souffle de croissance aux Etats-Unis. [...] Au premier trimestre, la croissance du PIB en rythme annuel s'était élevée à 1,3 %. En outre, l'indice des prix lié au PIB a augmenté de 2,2 % au deuxième trimestre (au lieu d'une hausse de 2,3 % prévue dans la première estimation). Le chiffre de la croissance meilleur que prévu pour le deuxième trimestre a rassuré les investisseurs. [...] Le produit intérieur brut (PIB) des Etats-Unis a progressé de 0,2 % en rythme annuel au deuxième trimestre 2001, selon la deuxième estimation publiée hier par le département du Commerce. Il s'agit du plus faible taux de croissance trimestriel exprimé en rythme annuel depuis le premier trimestre 1993. [...] Toutefois, les analystes tablaient généralement sur une croissance nulle pour cette période. La première estimation, publiée fin juillet, faisait état d'une croissance de 0,7 % pour la période considérée. La troisième et dernière estimation sera annoncée le 28 septembre. [...] [44]Lire la suite... Tags : o [45]City deuxième trimestre [46]Etats-Unis: des taux bas pour relancer le bateau [...] Plus tôt, hier, une nouvelle statistique était venu confirmer le ralentissement de l'économie. après une croissance de + 5,5 % (en rythme annualisé) au deuxième trimestre, de + 2,2 % au troisième, l'économie a terminé l'année avec seulement + 1,4 % de croissance, un chiffre plus faible que prévu. [...] Au total, la croissance moyenne pour 2000 est plus qu'honorable. + 5 %. Mais le ralentissement est brutal, puisque, comme l'a indiqué Alan Greenspan, l'activité progresse aujourd'hui à un rythme proche de zéro. [...] [47]Lire la suite... [48]L'Insee repeint 1996 en rose paleLa consommation ayant rebondi en janvier, la [...] Elle n'affichera pas plus de 1% de croissance en rythme annuel au premier semestre. Une demande intérieure atone, des coûts salariaux trop élevés, un secteur du bâtiment en chute libre empêcheront vraisemblablement la RFA d'emboîter le pas à la dynamique internationale avant la seconde partie de l'année. [...] La demande mondiale adressée à la France accélérerait à partir du printemps avec un taux de croissance en rythme annuel de 5%. Pour un peu, on craindrait presque la surchauffe en fin d'année... S'il n'y avait pas un bémol de taille. L'Allemagne, notre principal partenaire, est mal en point. [...] (Insee) est une maison sérieuse. Et en tant que telle, elle ne change pas ses prévisions de croissance quand elle y croit. Même lorsque le ministre de l'Economie affiche un chiffre différent. Pour le premier semestre de cette année, foi d'Insee, le PIB de la France devrait croître de 0,8%, soit 1,5% en rythme annuel. [...] [49]Lire la suite... Tags : o [50]Insee o [51]Rose o [52]Confiance impôts [53]Etats-Unis: la croissance ralentit [...] La croissance économique aux Etats-Unis devrait se situer à 5,2 % en 2000 et à 3,3 % en 2001, selon les dernières projections publiées hier par les économistes d'entreprises américains (Nabe). Cette décélération marquée et attendue du rythme de la croissance devrait probablement convaincre la Réserve fédérale (Fed) de cesser de remonter ses taux directeurs, a indiqué le Nabe. [...] La Fed avait relevé son taux interbancaire au jour le jour à six reprises entre juin 1999 et mai 2000, pour freiner le rythme jugé trop rapide de la croissance. [...] [54]Lire la suite... [55]Le miracle thaïlandais tourne au krach. Une spéculation immobilière effrénée a [...] ralentissement de la croissance A Bangkok, capitale de la Thaïlande, le bébé tigre du Sud-Est asiatique, là où les courbes de croissance ont enflammé les imaginations pendant plus de dix ans, des milliards de dollars fuient depuis plusieurs jours la Bourse à un rythme échevelé. [...] Peu réglementés, ils sont vite devenus les champions de la spéculation immobilière. Entre 1990 et 1996, les crédits immobiliers ont été multipliés par trois. C'est un rythme de croissance qui a été sans commune mesure avec celui de l'économie réelle, qui avait plutôt tendance à marquer le pas. [...] Croissance en chute libre. Depuis le milieu des années 80, la Thaïlande avait pourtant décroché les palmes de la croissance, avec des taux d'expansion frôlant les deux chiffres. Mais,de 8,5% en 1995, le taux de croissance est tombé à moins de 7% l'an dernier. [...] [56]Lire la suite... Tags : o [57]Valeurs financières immobilier [58]+ 9,5 %, la croissance chinoise n'a montré aucun signe de ralentissement au premier [...] Avec un taux de croissance de 9,5 % au premier trimestre (en rythme annuel) et des investissements toujours disproportionnés, l'économie chinoise ne marque aucun signe de ralentissement en dépit de la politique de lutte contre la surchauffe. Le rythme de la croissance est égal à celui enregistré sur l'ensemble de 2004, qui avait vu la plus forte croissance en sept ans, a indiqué hier le Bureau national des statistiques (BNS). [...] Le taux de croissance annoncé hier a surpris les analystes, qui avaient parié sur un léger ralentissement. Le gouvernement chinois a récemment fixé un objectif de croissance de 8 % pour 2005. Ce niveau [...] La production industrielle a enregistré une hausse de 16,2 % entre janvier et mars. Une fois encore, la croissance a été tirée par les investissements, qui ont augmenté de 22,8 % entre janvier et mars. Le montant des investissements est encore trop élevé, a commenté le porte-parole du BNS, Zheng Jingping, au cours d'une conférence de presse. [...] [59]Lire la suite... Tags : o [60]Croissance opinion problème o [61]Croissance opinion objectif [62]Conjoncture. Des inquiétudes derrière les prévisions de reprise. Les ménages ne [...] La croissance française a bénéficié dans cette première phase d'une évolution favorable de nos exportations et des mesures de soutien décidées par le gouvernement Balladur. A quel rythme la croissance va-t-elle se poursuivre Sur ce plan, les indicateurs d'opinion des entreprises sont loin d'être au beau fixe, comme il y a un an. [...] Mais c'est la consommation qui va décider du rythme de progression de l'investissement. Or, dans le deuxième acte de la reprise, c'est l'investisse-ment qui devient le moteur principal. Si la consommation était trop faible, l'élan qu'imprime le redémarrage de l'investissement à la croissance de l'activité s'atténuerait. [...] Chômage. moins bien que les autres pays industriels La décrue du chômage se poursuit sur un rythme assez lent malgré la bonne tenue de la croissance. Bien que le taux de chômage [...] baisse par l'Insee ces derniers mois, il reste très nettement supérieur à celui des autres pays industriels (8,2% en Allemagne, 8,7% en Grande-Bretagne, 5,7% aux Etats-Unis). [...] [63]Lire la suite... 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[...] La forme souffre parce qu'elle n'est pas libre. La forme est la chose du rythme et c'est le rythme qui est créateur. La forme est déjà une réalisation du rythme. Et puis, le temps passant, j'ai compris qu'il y avait encore quelque chose avant le rythme (et avant la matière). [...] Je l'ai donc vu aussi bien dans la composition que me proposait l'univers que dans ma propre composition, où il était majeur. Un jour, j'ai réalisé que le rythme était à l'origine de la forme, que la forme finalement obéissait elle-même au rythme, et j'ai dit. [...] Quand on travaille à partir du cubisme, avec un modèle par exemple la nature , on prend possession de l'espace et, petit à petit, on comprend la forme. La forme livre le secret de son rythme et, bientôt, à travers l'espace, la forme et le rythme (ils apparaissent alors comme des éléments séparés que l'on conjugue. [...] [32]Lire la suite... [33]Championnats du monde de ski à Sestrières. Slalom: le rythme ou le blues. Pour [...] A la différence des slaloms, disons scabreux, où, à cause des ruptures de rythme, pas forcément volontaires, la skieuse doit se replacer toutes les trois portes pour rectifier sa trajectoire. Si l'on veut conserver le rythme, il faut à tout prix éviter aux concurrentes de se bloquer à cause d'une porte mal placée, il faut que le traceur sache tenir ses athlètes. [...] Le rythme s'enfuit aussi. Manque de repères, jour sans Dimanche dernier, en tout cas, à Laax, Patricia Chauvet, troisième de la première manche, a raté la seconde. Parce que, après une porte, elle a perdu le rythme. Elle s'est écartée de la ligne [...] et trop quand on sait que les meilleures passent à quelques millimètres des piquets, c'est en tout cas suffisant pour se retrouver finalement neuvième à l'arrivée. Le faux rythme, quand tu es en course, tu ne le remarques pas forcément tout de suite, donc tu ne le corriges pas immédiatement. Il faut absolument lutter contre. [...] [34]Lire la suite... Tags : o [35]Puissance o [36]Partie o [37]Entraînement [38]Aurelie Nemours en formes [...] Un jour, raconte-t-elle, j'ai réalisé que le rythme était à l'origine de la forme, que la forme finalement obéissait elle-même au rythme, et j'ai dit. la forme souffre parce qu'elle n'est pas libre. La forme est la chose du rythme et c'est le rythme qui est créateur. [...] La forme est déjà une réalisation du rythme. Et puis, le temps passant, j'ai compris qu'il y avait encore quelque chose avant le rythme (et avant la matière). c'est le [...] Quand on travaille à partir du cubisme, avec un modèle par exemple la nature , on prend possession de l'espace et, petit à petit, on comprend la forme. La forme livre le secret de son rythme et, bientôt, à travers l'espace, la forme et le rythme (ils apparaissent alors comme des éléments séparés que l'on conjugue. ce n'est que plus tard que l'on découvre qu'ils ne font qu'un), on tente le tableau, on commence la peinture. (1). [...] [39]Lire la suite... [40]""Paroles du Sage""(""l'Ecclésiaste""). Claude Régy et Henri Meschonnic : [...] RÉGY. L'immense majorité des gens confond le rythme et la métrique, le rythme et la rapidité, la musique et le langage comme si la musicologie était le seul domaine du rythme. On apprend aux acteurs à jouer les mots, leur sens et non la force des mots, ils imitent le sens par la gestuelle, la tonalité. [...] Le rythme est une notion plurielle et par rythme je n'entends pas l'alternance temps fort-temps faible, mais j'en reviens à cette référence quasi archéologique d'un article où Benveniste, dès 1951, retrouve chez Platon ce qui fait le mouvement dans le langage. [...] Les unités réelles du discours sont des unités de rythme. c'est la physique du langage qui mène. On prend la pensée dans la bouche. oui, par bouchées. Le rythme dans la Bible est un véritable levier théorique. on se retrouve dans un continu, perdu depuis Héraclite. [...] [41]Lire la suite... [42]Aurélie Nemours, point à la ligne [...] La forme souffre parce qu'elle n'est pas libre. La forme est la chose du rythme et c'est le rythme qui est créateur. La forme est déjà une réalisation du rythme. Et puis, le temps passant, j'ai compris qu'il y avait encore quelque chose avant le rythme (et avant la matière). c'est le nombre. Je suis devenue peintre le jour où j'ai vraiment réalisé le nombre. [...] Partition. Ses maîtres mots étaient donc rythme, nombre et couleur. Ils suffisent à [...] parcours à trois pôles. Un jour, racontait-elle, j'ai réalisé que le rythme était à l'origine de la forme, que la forme finalement obéissait elle-même au rythme, et j'ai dit. [...] forme livre le secret de son rythme et, bientôt, à travers l'espace, la forme et le rythme (ils apparaissent alors comme des éléments séparés que l'on conjugue. ce n'est que plus tard qu'on découvre qu'ils ne font qu'un), on tente le tableau, on commence la peinture. [...] [43]Lire la suite... [44]REPRISE. A revoir à Paris, son premier film politique pro New Deal.«American [...] Quatrièmement, j'accélérais le rythme des scènes d'un tiers. Capra avait remarqué qu'alors, elles apparaissaient comme jouées à un rythme normal. [...] Cette accélération du rythme est l'amélioration la plus importante que j'aie apporté à ma propre technique cinématographique. [...] De ce point de vue aussi, son film (son vingt-et-unième long métrage) fait date. C'est pendant que je tournais American Madness que je fis une découverte surprenante en ce qui concerne le rythme. Au vu des rushes, qu'il trouve languissantes, Capra décide d'éliminer les longs déplacements, les entrées et les sorties des acteurs. [...] [45]Lire la suite... [46]«Le djembé, c'est thérapeutique». Tambour de cérémonie de l'Ouest africain, [...] La superposition des deux en créé un troisième. Tadadadadoum, tadada, dit Tony. Oui, c'est ça. Blan. Blan. Blan. La main plus ouverte, Claire. Francis, les flap bien dégagés. Après des hésitations, le rythme finit par s'installer. Immuable. Répétitif. Obsédant. [...] Les yeux clos, Francis ondule du buste et de la tête. Claire sourit dans le vague. Tony improvise alors un troisième rythme qui s'ajoute aux autres et en crée un quatrième. Puis, le maître presse le mouvement et augmente progressivement l'intensité sonore. [...] Quand on est angoissé, on tape dessus et on se sent tout de suite mieux. Les enfants, ça les détend, ils adorent ça. La vibration vous rentre dans le ventre, on sent le rythme, on est en harmonie avec soi-même. Ensuite, on prend sur soi, on essaie de se concentrer, d'arriver à maîtriser son esprit. [...] [47]Lire la suite... Tags : o [48]Compte o [49]Presse o [50]Élèves [51]Cowl back [...] Il faut se connaître. Puisque mon comique n'est pas dans les bons mots, les jeux de langue, c'est une question de rythme. les mouvements ont un rythme, le bégaiement a un rythme, le flux de la parole a un rythme, les hésitations aussi. Mon rythme, c'est l'hésitation. je suis un comique hésitant. [...] [52]Lire la suite... [53]Etes-vous sédentaire ou actif ? [...] football, vélo (rythme soutenu), boxe et sports de combats. compter 250 points pour une demi-heure. [...] golf (sans caddy), nage (rythme lent). compter 150 points pour une demi-heure. [...] tennis, danse (rythme soutenu), basket-ball, roller... compter 180 points pour une demi-heure. [...] [54]Lire la suite... [55]Mammifères à deux montres. La rétine de l'oeil servirait également à réguler [...] De la bactérie à l'homme, en passant par l'escargot et le cacatoès, tous les êtres vivants sont en phase avec l'alternance du jour et de la nuit. Soit un rythme d'environ vingt-quatre heures, dit circadien. Tous n'utilisent pas les mêmes moyens pour garder le rythme. [...] Jusqu'à présent, les biologistes n'avaient trouvé chez eux qu'un seul donneur de temps ou oscillateur. le noyau suprachiasmatique. Certes la glande pinéale joue un rôle non négligeable dans le contrôle du rythme des mammifères. elle produit la mélatonine, qui intervient dans l'alternance veille/sommeil. Mais cette production est commandée par le NSC. [...] Pour sortir de cette double contrainte, les deux chercheurs ont eu l'astuce de prendre des rétines de hamsters dorés des animaux dont les tissus sont préadaptés à une survie à basse température. Cultivées pendant quatre jours à 27$C, les rétines ont produit leur propre mélatonine en suivant parfaitement le rythme circadien. [...] [56]Lire la suite... 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Not Found The requested URL /etud/cardio/troubles_du_rythme(1).htm was not found on this server. #[1]next [2]Wikipédia (fr) [3]copyright [4]Flux RSS de Wikipédia [5]Flux Atom de Wikipédia Mauvais titre Un article de Wikipédia, l'encyclopédie libre. Aller à : [6]Navigation, [7]rechercher Le titre de la page demandée est invalide, vide, ou il s'agit d'un titre inter-langue ou inter-projet mal lié. Il contient peut-être un ou plusieurs caractères qui ne peuvent pas être utilisés dans les titres. Revenir à la page [8]Wikipédia:Accueil principal. Ce document provient de « Affichages * [10]Page spéciale Outils personnels * [11]Essayer la bêta Açai * [12]Créer un compte ou se connecter Rechercher ____________________ Lire Rechercher Navigation * [13]Accueil * [14]Portails thématiques * [15]Index alphabétique * [16]Un article au hasard * [17]Contacter Wikipédia Contribuer * [18]Aide * [19]Communauté * [20]Modifications récentes * [21]Accueil des nouveaux arrivants * [22]Faire un don Boîte à outils * [23]Importer un fichier * [24]Pages spéciales [25]Powered by MediaWiki [26]Wikimedia Foundation * [27]Politique de confidentialité * [28]À propos de Wikipédia * [29]Avertissements Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : Not Found The requested URL /etud/cardio/troubles_du_rythme(1).htm was not found on this server. #[1]next [2]Wikipédia (fr) [3]copyright [4]Flux RSS de Wikipédia [5]Flux Atom de Wikipédia Mauvais titre Un article de Wikipédia, l'encyclopédie libre. Aller à : [6]Navigation, [7]rechercher Le titre de la page demandée est invalide, vide, ou il s'agit d'un titre inter-langue ou inter-projet mal lié. Il contient peut-être un ou plusieurs caractères qui ne peuvent pas être utilisés dans les titres. Revenir à la page [8]Wikipédia:Accueil principal. Ce document provient de « Affichages * [10]Page spéciale Outils personnels * [11]Essayer la bêta Açai * [12]Créer un compte ou se connecter Rechercher ____________________ Lire Rechercher Navigation * [13]Accueil * [14]Portails thématiques * [15]Index alphabétique * [16]Un article au hasard * [17]Contacter Wikipédia Contribuer * [18]Aide * [19]Communauté * [20]Modifications récentes * [21]Accueil des nouveaux arrivants * [22]Faire un don Boîte à outils * [23]Importer un fichier * [24]Pages spéciales [25]Powered by MediaWiki [26]Wikimedia Foundation * [27]Politique de confidentialité * [28]À propos de Wikipédia * [29]Avertissements Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : #[1]Modifier [2]Wikipédia (fr) [3]copyright [4]Flux RSS de Wikipédia [5]Flux Atom de Wikipédia Rythme (poésie) Un article de Wikipédia, l'encyclopédie libre. Aller à : [6]Navigation, [7]rechercher [8]Page d'aide sur l'homonymie Pour les articles [9]homonymes, voir [10]Rythme (homonymie). [11]VictorHugosmallColor.png Cet article est une [12]ébauche concernant la [13]littérature. Vous pouvez partager vos connaissances en l'améliorant ([14]comment ?) selon les recommandations des [15]projets correspondants. Les origines [16]antiques de la notion de rythme se confondent avec celles de la poésie : la [17]métrique gréco-latine inclut en effet une théorie du rythme extrêmement élaborée. Toutes les métriques (quantitatives, syllabiques, accentuelles) sont susceptible d'induire des rythmes. De manière générale, le rythme poétique (ou métrique) est associé au [18]schéma métrique abstrait d'un vers (modèle) et non à l'énoncé linguistique qui le constitue. Il est donc, conceptuellement, distinct de ce qu'on pourrait appeler le rythme prosaïque de l'énoncé (ou rythme [19]prosodique). Sommaire * [20]1 En métrique quantitative * [21]2 En métrique syllabique * [22]3 En métrique accentuelle * [23]4 Notes et références * [24]5 Bibliographie [[25]modifier] En métrique quantitative En métrique gréco-latine, tout [26]vers se décompose en pieds élémentaires qui peuvent être considérées comme ses plus petites unités rythmiques. Par exemple, dans un vers [27]dactylique, on peut se représenter chaque pied (- UU) comme un mouvement d'abaissement, ou thésis suivi d'un mouvement d'élévation, ou arsis. Avec le thésis, parfois dénommé demi-pied « fort » est associé l'ictus, qui correspond au moment ou le pied (ou la main) qui « bat » le vers frappe le sol (ou la table) ^[28][1]. C'est l'impression de mouvement qui naît de la récurrence des cycles arsis-thésis qu'on appelle rythme. Un hexamètre dactylique, par exemple, connaît six ictus sur ses six demi-pieds impairs. Le fait que le vers soit (mentalement ou physiquement) « battu » n'implique pas nécessairement que les ictus se traduisent par un renforcement dans la voix de celui qui dit ou chante le vers : il suffit que ceux-ci soient reconnus comme tels par l'auditeur pour que le rythme existe dans son esprit. Comme on l'a vu, le rythme poétique (ou métrique) est associé au schéma métrique du vers et n'est donc pas directement lié à l'énoncé linguistique qui constitue le vers. Par exemple, si l'on considérait le premier vers de l'[29]Enéide comme un énoncé en prose, on pourrait marquer ses [30]accents toniques de la manière suivante : árma virúmque cáno Trójae quí prímus ab óris Il n'est pas interdit d'imaginer que la récurrence de l'accent induise un rythme qu'on pourrait qualifier de prosodique. Si l'on se souvient maintenant qu'il s'agit d'un hexamètre dactylique, on marquera comme suit ses ictus métriques : árma virúmque canó Trojáe qui prímus ab óris On voit bien que la coïncidence n'est que partielle, et que rien n'oblige formellement les ictus à coïncider avec les accents toniques. Il n'est pas interdit de penser que les subtiles tensions susceptibles de se manifester entre rythme métrique et rythme prosodique participent de l'esthétique de cette poésie. [[31]modifier] En métrique syllabique En métrique syllabique, par exemple en français, les seuls lieux remarquables des schémas métriques, et par conséquent susceptibles de servir de base à un rythme métrique, sont la [32]rime (dernière syllabe numéraire du vers) et, s'il y a lieu, la [33]césure. Une des caractéristiques de la poésie classique est d'éviter au maximum les tensions rythmiques à la césure et à la rime, et donc de caler le rythme prosodique (lié aux accents toniques) sur le rythme métrique. Il n'en va pas de même au Moyen-Age et à la période romantique. La césure «lyrique», largement pratiquée par les trouvères, se caractérise par une non-coïncidence entre rythme métrique et rythme prosodique. Dans le décasyllabe : Douce dame s'ainz riens d'amours conui ([34]Thibaut de Champagne) l'ictus métrique lié à la césure (4^e syllabe) correspond à une syllabe féminine qui est donc dépourvue d'accent tonique. Les romantiques, et encore plus les post-romantiques, se jouent de la césure et y introduisent toutes sortes de tensions rythmiques. Dans : Et la tigresse épouvantable d'Hyrcanie ([35]Paul Verlaine) le poète associe à la césure (6^e syllabe) la deuxième syllabe du mot épouvantable, en elle-même fort peu susceptible de porter un accent tonique. [[36]modifier] En métrique accentuelle Dans ce type de métrique, les schémas comprennent des positions fortes, qui sont destinées à recevoir des syllabes accentuées. Il existe donc, en principe un calage systématique du rythme prosodique sur le rythme métrique. Ce type de métrique est donc, en théorie, celui qui permet le moins de subtilités rythmiques. [[37]modifier] Notes et références 1. [38]^| Certains traités tardifs inversent l'arsis et le thésis et font correspondre l'ictus au premier des deux [[39]modifier] Bibliographie Pierre Lusson, "Bibliographie du rythme", Mezura n°45, Cahiers de poétique comparée Publications Langues'O, 2001. [40]Henri Meschonnic et Gérard Dessons, Traité du rythme, des vers et des proses, Dunod, 1998. Jacques Roubaud, "T.R.A.(M,m) (question d'une poétique formelle, I)" - théorie du rythme abstrait -, Mezura n°24, Cahiers de poétique comparée Publications Langues'O, 1990. * [41]Portail de la poésie [42]Portail de la poésie Ce document provient de « [44]Catégorie : [45]Versification Catégorie cachée : [46]Wikipédia:ébauche littérature Affichages * [47]Article * [48]Discussion * [49]Modifier * [50]historique Outils personnels * [51]Essayer la bêta Açai * [52]Créer un compte ou se connecter Rechercher ____________________ Lire Rechercher Navigation * [53]Accueil * [54]Portails thématiques * [55]Index alphabétique * [56]Un article au hasard * [57]Contacter Wikipédia Contribuer * [58]Aide * [59]Communauté * [60]Modifications récentes * [61]Accueil des nouveaux arrivants * [62]Faire un don Imprimer / exporter * [63]Créer un livre * [64]Télécharger comme PDF * [65]Version imprimable Boîte à outils * [66]Pages liées * [67]Suivi des pages liées * [68]Importer un fichier * [69]Pages spéciales * [70]Adresse de cette version * [71]Citer cette page [72]Powered by MediaWiki [73]Wikimedia Foundation * Dernière modification de cette page le 19 octobre 2009 à 18:32. * [74]Droit d'auteur : les textes sont disponibles sous [75]licence Creative Commons paternité partage à l'identique ; d'autres conditions peuvent s'appliquer. Voyez les [76]conditions d'utilisation pour plus de détails, ainsi que les [77]crédits graphiques. Wikipedia® est une marque déposée de la [78]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., organisation de bienfaisance régie par le paragraphe [79]501(c)(3) du code fiscal des États-Unis. * [80]Politique de confidentialité * [81]À propos de Wikipédia * [82]Avertissements Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : Not Found The requested URL /Inedits/Gerard/Gerard_Linearite.html was not found on this server. __________________________________________________________________ Apache/2.2.3 (Debian) DAV/2 SVN/1.4.2 mod_python/3.2.10 Python/2.4.4 PHP/5.2.0-8+etch16 Server at www.revue-texto.net Port 80 Not Found The requested URL /Inedits/Gerard/Gerard_Linearite.html was not found on this server. __________________________________________________________________ Apache/2.2.3 (Debian) DAV/2 SVN/1.4.2 mod_python/3.2.10 Python/2.4.4 PHP/5.2.0-8+etch16 Server at www.revue-texto.net Port 80 Not Found The requested URL /etudes_textes/txt_application/rimbaud/rythme_sonorites.htm was not found on this server. Not Found The requested URL /Inedits/Gerard/Gerard_Linearite.html was not found on this server. __________________________________________________________________ Apache/2.2.3 (Debian) DAV/2 SVN/1.4.2 mod_python/3.2.10 Python/2.4.4 PHP/5.2.0-8+etch16 Server at www.revue-texto.net Port 80 Not Found The requested URL /etudes_textes/txt_application/rimbaud/rythme_sonorites.htm was not found on this server. Décembre 2009 [[1] détails ] 147 853 visiteurs 282 170 pages lues [rfm.gif] La Gazette musicale [2][recherche.jpg] [3] Biographies musicales -- E[4]ncyclopédie -- S[5]'abonner au bulletin -- A[6]nnonces -- [7]Forum -- [8]Liste de discussion [9]cliquer pour prendre contact [trait_typ_01.gif] Entendre [trait_typ_01.gif] [10][voyage_au_pays_de_ma_nonkak.jpg] Voyage au Pays de Ma Nonkak, Conte d'AbyGaëlle sur une musique de J'hel. Atelier Hybrid'music, 2009 [A. 415652 ; 30 EUR] [11][electro_couac.jpg] Olivier Calmel Electro Couac, Sha-Docks. Yes or No Prod 2009 / Believe distribution [12][katsavara_et_de_l'_aube.jpg] Guigla Katsarava (piano), Et de l'aube émerge... Polymnie 150 658, 2009 (oeuvres de Scriabine, Szymanowski, Zaborov) [13][joseph_moog_metamorphose.jpg] Metamorphose(n). Joseph Moog (piano). Transcriptions et para- phrases pour le piano (Liszt, Fredmann, Moszkowski, Godowski, Busoni). Claves Records, 2009 [14][wolff_ruines.jpg] Jean-Claude Wolff, Ruines, Clartés stellaires (hommage à Hector Berlioz). Ensemble « Le Temps Retrouvé », Serge Coste, dir. [15][liz_mc_comb.jpg] Liz McComb, The Sacred Concert. Disque GVE / Naïve, 2009 [trait_typ_01.gif] Lire [trait_typ_01.gif] [16][charpentier_petits_motets_01.jpg] Cessac Catherine (éditrice), Marc-Antoine Charpentier, Petits motets (v.1) : motets à une ou deux voix. Édition critique, « Patrimoine Musical Français : monumentales » (1.4.1), Éditions du Centre de Musique Baroque de Versailles, 2009 [17][un_son_desenchante.jpg] Olive Jean-Paul, Un son désenchanté. « Collection d'esthétique » (73), Klincksieck, Paris 2008 [282 p., ISBN-19782252036822 ; 29 EUR] [18][musique_et_bruit.jpg] Le Vot Gérard (dir.) & Streletski Gérard (édit.), Bruit et musique (actes du colloque du 23 janvier 2008) Publications du département musique et musicologie, Université Lyon 2, Lumière, Lyon 2009 [X-326 p., ill ; ISBN 978-2-9527137-1-9 ; 25 EUR] [trait_typ_01.gif] Le temps demain [trait_typ_01.gif] [md_france48h.jpg] [trait_typ_01.gif] Actualités [trait_typ_01.gif] [19]Rétrospective des actualités musicales |||[20] [voir.gif] 18 janvier 2010 [21]Voir Piano international : nouvelle saison de piano en Limousin [22]Voir Enseignement supérieur / recherche : communiqué intersyndical pour la journée du 21 janvier 2010 [23]Voir William Christie retrouve la démesure baroque de la « Fairy Queen » de Purcell [24]Voir « Eugène Onéguine » à l'Opéra de Lille [25]Voir « Tempest: without a Body », l'ange de la mort du Samoan Ponifasio à Strasbourg [26]Voir « Le Ciel est pour Tous », l'intolérance religieuse selon Catherine Anne [27]Voir « Les femmes savantes « de Molière, comme au temps du Roi Soleil à Toulouse [28]Voir Jean-Paul Belmondo distingué par les critiques de cinéma de Los Angeles [29]Voir Le musée parisien du Luxembourg ferme ses portes pour plusieurs mois [30]Voir La plus ancienne amputation en France remonte à la préhistoire [31]Voir [Agenda] Les Sons d'hiver 2010 du Val-de-Marne, dès le 29 janvier [32]Voir [Le Populaire] Le pianoforte, sa vie, son histoire 17 janvier 2010 [33]Voir Cinq cent personnes se rassemblent en soutien à la comédienne Rayhana, agressée à Paris [34]Voir Banlieues Bleues : 27e édition [35]Voir La famille de Jacques Lanzmann indignée par les propos de Dutronc [36]Voir La violence, la guerre et l'identité dansées au théâtre marseillais du Merlan [37]Voir Johnny Depp dans les montagnes de Serbie: quand Hollywood se met au vert [38]Voir Izis, un des plus grands photographes français, méconnu, exposé à Paris [39]Voir Dany Laferrière : « Notre peuple ne mérite pas ça » [40]Voir Le Bayern Munich dédommage une poétesse plagiée par Karl-Heinz Rummenigge [41]Voir Le film Welcome de Philippe Lioret ainsi que Jacques Audiard récompensés 16 janvie 2010r [42]Voir Ils ont dit Django Reinhardt ... à l'occasion de ses cent ans [43]Voir Jonas Kaufmann, parfait héros romantique pour ses débuts en Werther [44]Voir Décès d'Ed Thigpen, batteur d'Oscar Peterson et Ella Fitzgerald [45]Voir Gainsbourg plus vrai que nature dans une « Vie héroïque » signée Joann Sfar [46]Voir Films français à l'étranger: après une année record, 2009 en berne [47]Voir Les dix longs métrages en langue française qui ont enregistré le plus d'entrées à l'étranger depuis dix ans [48]Voir L'image de "cinéma d'auteur" des films français "rend parfois plus difficile" leur exportation [49]Voir |Le Journal du Dimanche] Werther : la plus belle voix au monde [50]Voir [Le Progrès] Un violon de 18 000 euros écrasé dans le tramway [51]Voir [Le Figaro] Les orchestres symphoniques cherchent la bonne recette 15 janvier 2010 [52]Voir L'auteur et comédienne Rayhana agressée à Paris [53]Voir Les nominés aux Victoires de la musique classique 2010 [54]Voir Décès du crooner américain Teddy Pendergrass, légende de la soul music [55]Voir Ouverture jeudi du festival de cirque de Monte-Carlo [56]Voir Sénégal: décès du poète et comédien d'origine haïtienne Lucien Lemoine [57]Voir Décès du photographe américain Dennis Stock de l'agence Magnum [58]Voir Haïti : mort de l'écrivain Georges Anglade [59]Voir A 81 ans, Tintin entame de nouvelles aventures en Chine [60]Voir Le Muséum d'histoire naturelle met en ligne les espèces présentes et disparues en France [61]Voir [Nouvel Observateur] Boltanski entre au Grand-Palais 14 janvier 2010 [62]Voir Benoît Jacquot débute à l'Opéra de Paris, aves une mise en scène de « Werther » de Jules Massenet [63]Voir L'Académie du jazz a décerné ses lauriers 2009 [64]Voir Dutronc, Biolay, Christophe au festival Chorus des Hauts-de-Seine [65]Voir Jacques Dutronc revisite ses classiques sur la scène du Zénith [66]Voir L'humour acide de « La Noce » de Bertold Brecht [67]Voir « Les estivants » de Gorki mis en scène âr Eric Lacascade à Rennes [68]Voir Monumenta: des médiateurs pour accompagner l'émotion du public [69]Voir Le spectre lumineux d'une lointaine exoplanète capté depuis la Terre [70]Voir [L'Italie à Paris] Le violon de Mozart avec Giuliano Carmignola [71]Voir [Libé Lille] Poignant Onéguine à l'Opéra de Lille [72]Voir [Éco 89] Lady Gaga : du clip musical à l'émission de télé-achat [73]Voir [Libé Lyon] Les notes salées de l'Orchestre national de Lyon 13 janvier 2010 [74]Voir Un spectacle multimédia à Bastille [75]Voir Biennale des quatuors à cordes à la Cité de la musique [76]Voir Pauline Viardot cent ans après être morte [77]Voir Un album inédit de Jimi Hendrix, « Valleys of Neptune », en vente en mars [78]Voir Les nominations aux Victoires de la musique [79]Voir Quand Bollywood s'empare de l'opéra français [80]Voir Farruquito recouvre la liberté [81]Voir Vampire Weekend se dévergonde sous le soleil de Mexico avec «Contra » [82]Voir Premiers pas de stars sur les planches par temps de mépris des arts et de la culture [83]Voir Johnny Depp en Serbie pour le festival de cinéma d'Emir Kusturica [84]Voir James Ellroy en star du polar au théâtre du Rond-Point [85]Voir L'Ecole de journalisme de Sciences Po a été reconnue par la profession [86]Voir Le philosophe Daniel Bensaïd est mort [87]Voir Les films de la semaine [88]Voir Décès de Miep Gies, la femme qui aida Anne Frank et sa famille à survivre 12janvier 2010 [89]Voir Le nouveau jazz français excelle à New York aux côtés du rock mongol [90]Voir À 17 ans, Alexander Prior codirige l'orchestre symphonique de Seattle [91]Voir Mort de Otmar Suitner, grand dirigeant du Staatsoper de Berlin [92]Voir La salsa séduit de plus en plus d'Ethiopiens [93]Voir Denis Podalydès dans « Le cas Jekyll » au Théâtre de Chaillot [94]Voir Décès d'Éric Rohmer [95]Voir Herta Müller, Nobel de littérature, espionnée par un autre écrivain [96]Voir Découverte archéologique à Gaza près de la frontière égyptienne [97]Voir Plainte jordanienne auprès de l'UNESCO, sur la propriété des manuscrits de la mer Morte [98]Voir Découverte d'une habitation de l'âge de pierre près de Tel-Aviv [99]Voir [France-Soir] Manu Katché : « Duffy m'a confondu avec Manu Chao » [100]Voir [Le Figaro] L'esprit d'un grand musicien (Karajan) [101]Voir [Le Figaro] Le disque compact ne serait pas né sans lui (Karajan) [102]Voir [Radio France] Profession : copiste-graveur [103]Voir [Le Devoir.com] Le Metropolitan Opera au cinéma ; Le Chevalier à la rose, opéra viennois [104]Rétrospective des actualités musicales |||[105] [voir.gif] [106]février 2009 - [107]mars 2009 - [108]avril 2009 - [109]mai 2009 - [110]juin 2009 - [111]juillet 2009 - [112]août 2009 - [113]septembre 2009 - [114]octobre 2009 - [115]novembre 2009 - [116]décembre 2009 - [117]janvier 2010 [cul_200.gif] [trait_typ_01.gif] Événement [trait_typ_01.gif] 19 janviezr 2010, 12h30 Genève, Temple de la Fusterie La Moya Trombone Quartet [118][19a.jpg] [119][charpentier_histoires_sacrees_6.jpg] Gosione C. Jane & Bisaro Xavier (éditeurs), Marc-Antoine Charpentier : Histoires sacrées (v. 6). « Patrimoine Musical Français », Éditions du Centre de Musique Baroque de Versailles 2009 [ ISMN CXXVI-173 p. ; M-707034-57-6 ; 115,00 EUR] [trait_typ_01.gif] Lire sur le site [trait_typ_01.gif] Consultation [120]Biographies de musiciens [121]Encyclopédie musicale [122]Discographies [123]Iconographies [124]Analyses musicales [125]Cours de musique Services [126]Petites annonces [127]Téléchargements Articles, documents [128]Articles et documents [129]Collaborations éditoriales [130]Textes de référence Lire & voir [131]Nouveaux livres [132]Vu & lu sur la toile Université [133]Colloques & conférences [134]Universités en France [135]Bibliothèques Administration [136]C'est quoi ce site ? [137]Statistiques [138]Collaborations éditoriales [139]S'abonner au bulletin [140]Forum du site [141]Liste musicologie.org [142]Soutien financier Annuaires [143]Quelques éditeurs [144]Quelques institutions [145]Périodiques musicaux M[146]agasins de musique [147]Quelques bons forums Adresses utiles [148]Bulletin Officiel [149]Journal Officiel [150]Bibliothèque de France [151]Library of Congress [152]British Library [153]ICCU (Opac Italie) [154]München (BSB) [155]BN Madrid [156]SUDOC [157]Pages jaunes [158]Presse internationale [159]WebAnalytics [trait_typ_01.gif] Agenda [trait_typ_01.gif] [160]Colloques, séminaires, rencontres IFRAME: [161]agenda [trait_typ_01.gif] Feuilleton [trait_typ_01.gif] [162][brahms_couverture.jpg] [163](7°) [voir.gif] musicologie.org, 56 rue de la Fédération, F-93100 Montreuil -- 01 55 86 27 92 -- [164]Contact La copie des pages de ce site nécessite notre autorisation Références Not Found The requested URL /Inedits/Gerard/Gerard_Linearite.html was not found on this server. __________________________________________________________________ Apache/2.2.3 (Debian) DAV/2 SVN/1.4.2 mod_python/3.2.10 Python/2.4.4 PHP/5.2.0-8+etch16 Server at www.revue-texto.net Port 80 Not Found The requested URL /etudes_textes/txt_application/rimbaud/rythme_sonorites.htm was not found on this server. Décembre 2009 [[1] détails ] 147 853 visiteurs 282 170 pages lues [rfm.gif] La Gazette musicale [2][recherche.jpg] [3] Biographies musicales -- E[4]ncyclopédie -- S[5]'abonner au bulletin -- A[6]nnonces -- [7]Forum -- [8]Liste de discussion [9]cliquer pour prendre contact [trait_typ_01.gif] Entendre [trait_typ_01.gif] [10][voyage_au_pays_de_ma_nonkak.jpg] Voyage au Pays de Ma Nonkak, Conte d'AbyGaëlle sur une musique de J'hel. Atelier Hybrid'music, 2009 [A. 415652 ; 30 EUR] [11][electro_couac.jpg] Olivier Calmel Electro Couac, Sha-Docks. Yes or No Prod 2009 / Believe distribution [12][katsavara_et_de_l'_aube.jpg] Guigla Katsarava (piano), Et de l'aube émerge... Polymnie 150 658, 2009 (oeuvres de Scriabine, Szymanowski, Zaborov) [13][joseph_moog_metamorphose.jpg] Metamorphose(n). Joseph Moog (piano). Transcriptions et para- phrases pour le piano (Liszt, Fredmann, Moszkowski, Godowski, Busoni). Claves Records, 2009 [14][wolff_ruines.jpg] Jean-Claude Wolff, Ruines, Clartés stellaires (hommage à Hector Berlioz). Ensemble « Le Temps Retrouvé », Serge Coste, dir. [15][liz_mc_comb.jpg] Liz McComb, The Sacred Concert. Disque GVE / Naïve, 2009 [trait_typ_01.gif] Lire [trait_typ_01.gif] [16][charpentier_petits_motets_01.jpg] Cessac Catherine (éditrice), Marc-Antoine Charpentier, Petits motets (v.1) : motets à une ou deux voix. Édition critique, « Patrimoine Musical Français : monumentales » (1.4.1), Éditions du Centre de Musique Baroque de Versailles, 2009 [17][un_son_desenchante.jpg] Olive Jean-Paul, Un son désenchanté. « Collection d'esthétique » (73), Klincksieck, Paris 2008 [282 p., ISBN-19782252036822 ; 29 EUR] [18][musique_et_bruit.jpg] Le Vot Gérard (dir.) & Streletski Gérard (édit.), Bruit et musique (actes du colloque du 23 janvier 2008) Publications du département musique et musicologie, Université Lyon 2, Lumière, Lyon 2009 [X-326 p., ill ; ISBN 978-2-9527137-1-9 ; 25 EUR] [trait_typ_01.gif] Le temps demain [trait_typ_01.gif] [md_france48h.jpg] [trait_typ_01.gif] Actualités [trait_typ_01.gif] [19]Rétrospective des actualités musicales |||[20] [voir.gif] 18 janvier 2010 [21]Voir Piano international : nouvelle saison de piano en Limousin [22]Voir Enseignement supérieur / recherche : communiqué intersyndical pour la journée du 21 janvier 2010 [23]Voir William Christie retrouve la démesure baroque de la « Fairy Queen » de Purcell [24]Voir « Eugène Onéguine » à l'Opéra de Lille [25]Voir « Tempest: without a Body », l'ange de la mort du Samoan Ponifasio à Strasbourg [26]Voir « Le Ciel est pour Tous », l'intolérance religieuse selon Catherine Anne [27]Voir « Les femmes savantes « de Molière, comme au temps du Roi Soleil à Toulouse [28]Voir Jean-Paul Belmondo distingué par les critiques de cinéma de Los Angeles [29]Voir Le musée parisien du Luxembourg ferme ses portes pour plusieurs mois [30]Voir La plus ancienne amputation en France remonte à la préhistoire [31]Voir [Agenda] Les Sons d'hiver 2010 du Val-de-Marne, dès le 29 janvier [32]Voir [Le Populaire] Le pianoforte, sa vie, son histoire 17 janvier 2010 [33]Voir Cinq cent personnes se rassemblent en soutien à la comédienne Rayhana, agressée à Paris [34]Voir Banlieues Bleues : 27e édition [35]Voir La famille de Jacques Lanzmann indignée par les propos de Dutronc [36]Voir La violence, la guerre et l'identité dansées au théâtre marseillais du Merlan [37]Voir Johnny Depp dans les montagnes de Serbie: quand Hollywood se met au vert [38]Voir Izis, un des plus grands photographes français, méconnu, exposé à Paris [39]Voir Dany Laferrière : « Notre peuple ne mérite pas ça » [40]Voir Le Bayern Munich dédommage une poétesse plagiée par Karl-Heinz Rummenigge [41]Voir Le film Welcome de Philippe Lioret ainsi que Jacques Audiard récompensés 16 janvie 2010r [42]Voir Ils ont dit Django Reinhardt ... à l'occasion de ses cent ans [43]Voir Jonas Kaufmann, parfait héros romantique pour ses débuts en Werther [44]Voir Décès d'Ed Thigpen, batteur d'Oscar Peterson et Ella Fitzgerald [45]Voir Gainsbourg plus vrai que nature dans une « Vie héroïque » signée Joann Sfar [46]Voir Films français à l'étranger: après une année record, 2009 en berne [47]Voir Les dix longs métrages en langue française qui ont enregistré le plus d'entrées à l'étranger depuis dix ans [48]Voir L'image de "cinéma d'auteur" des films français "rend parfois plus difficile" leur exportation [49]Voir |Le Journal du Dimanche] Werther : la plus belle voix au monde [50]Voir [Le Progrès] Un violon de 18 000 euros écrasé dans le tramway [51]Voir [Le Figaro] Les orchestres symphoniques cherchent la bonne recette 15 janvier 2010 [52]Voir L'auteur et comédienne Rayhana agressée à Paris [53]Voir Les nominés aux Victoires de la musique classique 2010 [54]Voir Décès du crooner américain Teddy Pendergrass, légende de la soul music [55]Voir Ouverture jeudi du festival de cirque de Monte-Carlo [56]Voir Sénégal: décès du poète et comédien d'origine haïtienne Lucien Lemoine [57]Voir Décès du photographe américain Dennis Stock de l'agence Magnum [58]Voir Haïti : mort de l'écrivain Georges Anglade [59]Voir A 81 ans, Tintin entame de nouvelles aventures en Chine [60]Voir Le Muséum d'histoire naturelle met en ligne les espèces présentes et disparues en France [61]Voir [Nouvel Observateur] Boltanski entre au Grand-Palais 14 janvier 2010 [62]Voir Benoît Jacquot débute à l'Opéra de Paris, aves une mise en scène de « Werther » de Jules Massenet [63]Voir L'Académie du jazz a décerné ses lauriers 2009 [64]Voir Dutronc, Biolay, Christophe au festival Chorus des Hauts-de-Seine [65]Voir Jacques Dutronc revisite ses classiques sur la scène du Zénith [66]Voir L'humour acide de « La Noce » de Bertold Brecht [67]Voir « Les estivants » de Gorki mis en scène âr Eric Lacascade à Rennes [68]Voir Monumenta: des médiateurs pour accompagner l'émotion du public [69]Voir Le spectre lumineux d'une lointaine exoplanète capté depuis la Terre [70]Voir [L'Italie à Paris] Le violon de Mozart avec Giuliano Carmignola [71]Voir [Libé Lille] Poignant Onéguine à l'Opéra de Lille [72]Voir [Éco 89] Lady Gaga : du clip musical à l'émission de télé-achat [73]Voir [Libé Lyon] Les notes salées de l'Orchestre national de Lyon 13 janvier 2010 [74]Voir Un spectacle multimédia à Bastille [75]Voir Biennale des quatuors à cordes à la Cité de la musique [76]Voir Pauline Viardot cent ans après être morte [77]Voir Un album inédit de Jimi Hendrix, « Valleys of Neptune », en vente en mars [78]Voir Les nominations aux Victoires de la musique [79]Voir Quand Bollywood s'empare de l'opéra français [80]Voir Farruquito recouvre la liberté [81]Voir Vampire Weekend se dévergonde sous le soleil de Mexico avec «Contra » [82]Voir Premiers pas de stars sur les planches par temps de mépris des arts et de la culture [83]Voir Johnny Depp en Serbie pour le festival de cinéma d'Emir Kusturica [84]Voir James Ellroy en star du polar au théâtre du Rond-Point [85]Voir L'Ecole de journalisme de Sciences Po a été reconnue par la profession [86]Voir Le philosophe Daniel Bensaïd est mort [87]Voir Les films de la semaine [88]Voir Décès de Miep Gies, la femme qui aida Anne Frank et sa famille à survivre 12janvier 2010 [89]Voir Le nouveau jazz français excelle à New York aux côtés du rock mongol [90]Voir À 17 ans, Alexander Prior codirige l'orchestre symphonique de Seattle [91]Voir Mort de Otmar Suitner, grand dirigeant du Staatsoper de Berlin [92]Voir La salsa séduit de plus en plus d'Ethiopiens [93]Voir Denis Podalydès dans « Le cas Jekyll » au Théâtre de Chaillot [94]Voir Décès d'Éric Rohmer [95]Voir Herta Müller, Nobel de littérature, espionnée par un autre écrivain [96]Voir Découverte archéologique à Gaza près de la frontière égyptienne [97]Voir Plainte jordanienne auprès de l'UNESCO, sur la propriété des manuscrits de la mer Morte [98]Voir Découverte d'une habitation de l'âge de pierre près de Tel-Aviv [99]Voir [France-Soir] Manu Katché : « Duffy m'a confondu avec Manu Chao » [100]Voir [Le Figaro] L'esprit d'un grand musicien (Karajan) [101]Voir [Le Figaro] Le disque compact ne serait pas né sans lui (Karajan) [102]Voir [Radio France] Profession : copiste-graveur [103]Voir [Le Devoir.com] Le Metropolitan Opera au cinéma ; Le Chevalier à la rose, opéra viennois [104]Rétrospective des actualités musicales |||[105] [voir.gif] [106]février 2009 - [107]mars 2009 - [108]avril 2009 - [109]mai 2009 - [110]juin 2009 - [111]juillet 2009 - [112]août 2009 - [113]septembre 2009 - [114]octobre 2009 - [115]novembre 2009 - [116]décembre 2009 - [117]janvier 2010 [cul_200.gif] [trait_typ_01.gif] Événement [trait_typ_01.gif] 19 janviezr 2010, 12h30 Genève, Temple de la Fusterie La Moya Trombone Quartet [118][19a.jpg] [119][charpentier_histoires_sacrees_6.jpg] Gosione C. Jane & Bisaro Xavier (éditeurs), Marc-Antoine Charpentier : Histoires sacrées (v. 6). « Patrimoine Musical Français », Éditions du Centre de Musique Baroque de Versailles 2009 [ ISMN CXXVI-173 p. ; M-707034-57-6 ; 115,00 EUR] [trait_typ_01.gif] Lire sur le site [trait_typ_01.gif] Consultation [120]Biographies de musiciens [121]Encyclopédie musicale [122]Discographies [123]Iconographies [124]Analyses musicales [125]Cours de musique Services [126]Petites annonces [127]Téléchargements Articles, documents [128]Articles et documents [129]Collaborations éditoriales [130]Textes de référence Lire & voir [131]Nouveaux livres [132]Vu & lu sur la toile Université [133]Colloques & conférences [134]Universités en France [135]Bibliothèques Administration [136]C'est quoi ce site ? [137]Statistiques [138]Collaborations éditoriales [139]S'abonner au bulletin [140]Forum du site [141]Liste musicologie.org [142]Soutien financier Annuaires [143]Quelques éditeurs [144]Quelques institutions [145]Périodiques musicaux M[146]agasins de musique [147]Quelques bons forums Adresses utiles [148]Bulletin Officiel [149]Journal Officiel [150]Bibliothèque de France [151]Library of Congress [152]British Library [153]ICCU (Opac Italie) [154]München (BSB) [155]BN Madrid [156]SUDOC [157]Pages jaunes [158]Presse internationale [159]WebAnalytics [trait_typ_01.gif] Agenda [trait_typ_01.gif] [160]Colloques, séminaires, rencontres IFRAME: [161]agenda [trait_typ_01.gif] Feuilleton [trait_typ_01.gif] [162][brahms_couverture.jpg] [163](7°) [voir.gif] musicologie.org, 56 rue de la Fédération, F-93100 Montreuil -- 01 55 86 27 92 -- [164]Contact La copie des pages de ce site nécessite notre autorisation Références #[1]Metapedia (Français) Mauvais titre Un article de Metapedia. 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Décembre 2009 [[1] détails ] 147 853 visiteurs 282 170 pages lues [rfm.gif] La Gazette musicale [2][recherche.jpg] [3] Biographies musicales -- E[4]ncyclopédie -- S[5]'abonner au bulletin -- A[6]nnonces -- [7]Forum -- [8]Liste de discussion [9]cliquer pour prendre contact [trait_typ_01.gif] Entendre [trait_typ_01.gif] [10][voyage_au_pays_de_ma_nonkak.jpg] Voyage au Pays de Ma Nonkak, Conte d'AbyGaëlle sur une musique de J'hel. Atelier Hybrid'music, 2009 [A. 415652 ; 30 EUR] [11][electro_couac.jpg] Olivier Calmel Electro Couac, Sha-Docks. Yes or No Prod 2009 / Believe distribution [12][katsavara_et_de_l'_aube.jpg] Guigla Katsarava (piano), Et de l'aube émerge... Polymnie 150 658, 2009 (oeuvres de Scriabine, Szymanowski, Zaborov) [13][joseph_moog_metamorphose.jpg] Metamorphose(n). Joseph Moog (piano). Transcriptions et para- phrases pour le piano (Liszt, Fredmann, Moszkowski, Godowski, Busoni). Claves Records, 2009 [14][wolff_ruines.jpg] Jean-Claude Wolff, Ruines, Clartés stellaires (hommage à Hector Berlioz). Ensemble « Le Temps Retrouvé », Serge Coste, dir. [15][liz_mc_comb.jpg] Liz McComb, The Sacred Concert. Disque GVE / Naïve, 2009 [trait_typ_01.gif] Lire [trait_typ_01.gif] [16][charpentier_petits_motets_01.jpg] Cessac Catherine (éditrice), Marc-Antoine Charpentier, Petits motets (v.1) : motets à une ou deux voix. Édition critique, « Patrimoine Musical Français : monumentales » (1.4.1), Éditions du Centre de Musique Baroque de Versailles, 2009 [17][un_son_desenchante.jpg] Olive Jean-Paul, Un son désenchanté. « Collection d'esthétique » (73), Klincksieck, Paris 2008 [282 p., ISBN-19782252036822 ; 29 EUR] [18][musique_et_bruit.jpg] Le Vot Gérard (dir.) & Streletski Gérard (édit.), Bruit et musique (actes du colloque du 23 janvier 2008) Publications du département musique et musicologie, Université Lyon 2, Lumière, Lyon 2009 [X-326 p., ill ; ISBN 978-2-9527137-1-9 ; 25 EUR] [trait_typ_01.gif] Le temps demain [trait_typ_01.gif] [md_france48h.jpg] [trait_typ_01.gif] Actualités [trait_typ_01.gif] [19]Rétrospective des actualités musicales |||[20] [voir.gif] 18 janvier 2010 [21]Voir Piano international : nouvelle saison de piano en Limousin [22]Voir Enseignement supérieur / recherche : communiqué intersyndical pour la journée du 21 janvier 2010 [23]Voir William Christie retrouve la démesure baroque de la « Fairy Queen » de Purcell [24]Voir « Eugène Onéguine » à l'Opéra de Lille [25]Voir « Tempest: without a Body », l'ange de la mort du Samoan Ponifasio à Strasbourg [26]Voir « Le Ciel est pour Tous », l'intolérance religieuse selon Catherine Anne [27]Voir « Les femmes savantes « de Molière, comme au temps du Roi Soleil à Toulouse [28]Voir Jean-Paul Belmondo distingué par les critiques de cinéma de Los Angeles [29]Voir Le musée parisien du Luxembourg ferme ses portes pour plusieurs mois [30]Voir La plus ancienne amputation en France remonte à la préhistoire [31]Voir [Agenda] Les Sons d'hiver 2010 du Val-de-Marne, dès le 29 janvier [32]Voir [Le Populaire] Le pianoforte, sa vie, son histoire 17 janvier 2010 [33]Voir Cinq cent personnes se rassemblent en soutien à la comédienne Rayhana, agressée à Paris [34]Voir Banlieues Bleues : 27e édition [35]Voir La famille de Jacques Lanzmann indignée par les propos de Dutronc [36]Voir La violence, la guerre et l'identité dansées au théâtre marseillais du Merlan [37]Voir Johnny Depp dans les montagnes de Serbie: quand Hollywood se met au vert [38]Voir Izis, un des plus grands photographes français, méconnu, exposé à Paris [39]Voir Dany Laferrière : « Notre peuple ne mérite pas ça » [40]Voir Le Bayern Munich dédommage une poétesse plagiée par Karl-Heinz Rummenigge [41]Voir Le film Welcome de Philippe Lioret ainsi que Jacques Audiard récompensés 16 janvie 2010r [42]Voir Ils ont dit Django Reinhardt ... à l'occasion de ses cent ans [43]Voir Jonas Kaufmann, parfait héros romantique pour ses débuts en Werther [44]Voir Décès d'Ed Thigpen, batteur d'Oscar Peterson et Ella Fitzgerald [45]Voir Gainsbourg plus vrai que nature dans une « Vie héroïque » signée Joann Sfar [46]Voir Films français à l'étranger: après une année record, 2009 en berne [47]Voir Les dix longs métrages en langue française qui ont enregistré le plus d'entrées à l'étranger depuis dix ans [48]Voir L'image de "cinéma d'auteur" des films français "rend parfois plus difficile" leur exportation [49]Voir |Le Journal du Dimanche] Werther : la plus belle voix au monde [50]Voir [Le Progrès] Un violon de 18 000 euros écrasé dans le tramway [51]Voir [Le Figaro] Les orchestres symphoniques cherchent la bonne recette 15 janvier 2010 [52]Voir L'auteur et comédienne Rayhana agressée à Paris [53]Voir Les nominés aux Victoires de la musique classique 2010 [54]Voir Décès du crooner américain Teddy Pendergrass, légende de la soul music [55]Voir Ouverture jeudi du festival de cirque de Monte-Carlo [56]Voir Sénégal: décès du poète et comédien d'origine haïtienne Lucien Lemoine [57]Voir Décès du photographe américain Dennis Stock de l'agence Magnum [58]Voir Haïti : mort de l'écrivain Georges Anglade [59]Voir A 81 ans, Tintin entame de nouvelles aventures en Chine [60]Voir Le Muséum d'histoire naturelle met en ligne les espèces présentes et disparues en France [61]Voir [Nouvel Observateur] Boltanski entre au Grand-Palais 14 janvier 2010 [62]Voir Benoît Jacquot débute à l'Opéra de Paris, aves une mise en scène de « Werther » de Jules Massenet [63]Voir L'Académie du jazz a décerné ses lauriers 2009 [64]Voir Dutronc, Biolay, Christophe au festival Chorus des Hauts-de-Seine [65]Voir Jacques Dutronc revisite ses classiques sur la scène du Zénith [66]Voir L'humour acide de « La Noce » de Bertold Brecht [67]Voir « Les estivants » de Gorki mis en scène âr Eric Lacascade à Rennes [68]Voir Monumenta: des médiateurs pour accompagner l'émotion du public [69]Voir Le spectre lumineux d'une lointaine exoplanète capté depuis la Terre [70]Voir [L'Italie à Paris] Le violon de Mozart avec Giuliano Carmignola [71]Voir [Libé Lille] Poignant Onéguine à l'Opéra de Lille [72]Voir [Éco 89] Lady Gaga : du clip musical à l'émission de télé-achat [73]Voir [Libé Lyon] Les notes salées de l'Orchestre national de Lyon 13 janvier 2010 [74]Voir Un spectacle multimédia à Bastille [75]Voir Biennale des quatuors à cordes à la Cité de la musique [76]Voir Pauline Viardot cent ans après être morte [77]Voir Un album inédit de Jimi Hendrix, « Valleys of Neptune », en vente en mars [78]Voir Les nominations aux Victoires de la musique [79]Voir Quand Bollywood s'empare de l'opéra français [80]Voir Farruquito recouvre la liberté [81]Voir Vampire Weekend se dévergonde sous le soleil de Mexico avec «Contra » [82]Voir Premiers pas de stars sur les planches par temps de mépris des arts et de la culture [83]Voir Johnny Depp en Serbie pour le festival de cinéma d'Emir Kusturica [84]Voir James Ellroy en star du polar au théâtre du Rond-Point [85]Voir L'Ecole de journalisme de Sciences Po a été reconnue par la profession [86]Voir Le philosophe Daniel Bensaïd est mort [87]Voir Les films de la semaine [88]Voir Décès de Miep Gies, la femme qui aida Anne Frank et sa famille à survivre 12janvier 2010 [89]Voir Le nouveau jazz français excelle à New York aux côtés du rock mongol [90]Voir À 17 ans, Alexander Prior codirige l'orchestre symphonique de Seattle [91]Voir Mort de Otmar Suitner, grand dirigeant du Staatsoper de Berlin [92]Voir La salsa séduit de plus en plus d'Ethiopiens [93]Voir Denis Podalydès dans « Le cas Jekyll » au Théâtre de Chaillot [94]Voir Décès d'Éric Rohmer [95]Voir Herta Müller, Nobel de littérature, espionnée par un autre écrivain [96]Voir Découverte archéologique à Gaza près de la frontière égyptienne [97]Voir Plainte jordanienne auprès de l'UNESCO, sur la propriété des manuscrits de la mer Morte [98]Voir Découverte d'une habitation de l'âge de pierre près de Tel-Aviv [99]Voir [France-Soir] Manu Katché : « Duffy m'a confondu avec Manu Chao » [100]Voir [Le Figaro] L'esprit d'un grand musicien (Karajan) [101]Voir [Le Figaro] Le disque compact ne serait pas né sans lui (Karajan) [102]Voir [Radio France] Profession : copiste-graveur [103]Voir [Le Devoir.com] Le Metropolitan Opera au cinéma ; Le Chevalier à la rose, opéra viennois [104]Rétrospective des actualités musicales |||[105] [voir.gif] [106]février 2009 - [107]mars 2009 - [108]avril 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Comme d'autres grandes villes, Lille vient de lancer une concertation avec les parents et les enseignants pour raccourcir les journées en travaillant le mercredi matin. Fin mai, les conseils d'écoles devront se positionner. L'école, le mercredi matin ? A Lille, le débat est lancé. Depuis un mois, la ville mène officiellement une concertation sur la semaine scolaire de 4 jours. Avec une idée : donner la possibilité aux écoles qui le souhaiteraient de travailler le mercredi matin pour raccourcir les journées de classe. Selon Maurice Thoré, l'élu en charge des écoles, « les chronobiologistes sont unanimes : 6 heures de classe par jour, soit la durée la plus longue au monde, ce sont des élèves moins attentifs, plus fatigués. Avec, pour certains, les deux heures d'aide personnalisée, c'est trop ». Le propos est bien rôdé, très critique envers la politique éducative du gouvernement. Depuis début avril, les réunions de quartiers consacrées à la concertation commencent toujours de la même manière. Ce soir, à la mairie de quartier de Wazemmes, devant les parents et les enseignants Maurice Thoré, prend les mêmes précautions pour justifier la démarche de la ville : « notre devoir est d'engager avec vous une concertation collective que le ministère a confisquée l'an dernier en supprimant le samedi matin de manière unilatérale ». Espérer convaincre sans contraindre, tel est le leitmotiv de l'élu. Il sait que le débat est passionnel, souvent animé par un tourbillon d'avis divers, parfois tranchés. Alors, il se veut pédagogue. Au final, « la ville n'a pas de pouvoir de décision. Ce sera aux conseils d'école des 84 écoles lilloises de se positionner, l'Inspecteur d'académie validant les changements de schéma scolaire ». De son côté, la ville s'engage à mettre en place des activités périscolaires au sein d'un PEG (projet éducatif global) pour prendre en charge les enfants qui finiront l'école plus tôt. Car sans cela, pas de nouvelle organisation scolaire possible. « C'est l'élément structurant » qui doit permettre d'articuler de manière cohérente temps scolaire et périscolaire explique AlainThirel, coordonnateur du PEG à la ville de Lille. Et d'évoquer, les plans « lecture, nature, musique, patrimoine, à l'oeuvre depuis 2001 qui sont à disposition des écoles pour concevoir leur nouvelle organisation ». Un service supplémentaire « représentant 4,5 millions d'euros par an sans le moindre coût pour les familles » explique Alain Thirel. « La gratuité, certes, mais avec une qualité de l'encadrement » pointe une mère d'élève. « 600 vacataires sont actuellement employés à la mairie sur le périscolaire. La ville va t-elle enclencher des formations pour professionnaliser le secteur ? ». Selon Maurice Thoré, « les parents les plus opposés sont ceux qui proposent de nombreuses activités à leurs enfants en dehors de l'école ». Pour les autres, cet éventuel changement des rythmes de la semaine interroge. « On veut comprendre ce que feront nos enfants durant la journée témoigne une mère d'élève. Il faudra à nouveau se réorganiser ». Une autre rebondit : « Si il y a de l'école le mercredi, quid des clubs de sport ou activités culturelles ? Des nouvelles plages horaires sont elles prévues le samedi ? » Même certains, comme Catherine, « regrettent le samedi scolaire ou demandent que les vacances d'été soient raccourcies ». Inutile d'espérer car la loi ne le permet pas. « Ce sont des champs de compétences du ministère » explique l'élu. Pour Martine Haidon, directrice en maternelle, « voilà bien la preuve que les marges de manoeuvres sont bien ténues et ne permettent pas de réfléchir à tous les possibles pour faire que l'école soit plus respectueuse de l'enfant ». Avec toute l'équipe enseignante, elle ne pense pas proposer de changement au conseil d'école. Les parents qu'elle a réunis sont aussi du même avis. « C'est le toujours plus sans contrepartie » explique-t-elle évoquant un sentiment d'être constamment prise entre le marteau et l'enclume. « Le rouleau compresseur des réformes nous a lessivés avec des conditions de travail se dégradant encore et toujours ». Et, travailler le mercredi matin c'est aussi « participer aux animations pédagogiques l'après midi, payer plus pour les gardes d'enfants sans pour autant finir plus tôt en semaine avec l'aide personnalisée, les préparations ou les réunions ». Et de conclure « Oui pour travailler autrement mais en posant tous les éléments sur la table qui sont pour la plupart du ressort du ministère ». Ce constat, les enseignants de l'école André le font aussi. Après de longues discussions, l'équipe pense pourtant se lancer dans l'aventure du mercredi matin scolaire. Avec un espoir. « Moins de fatigue pour les enfants, ce peut-être moins de fatigue pour nous aussi et de plus grandes satisfactions professionnelles » explique Françoise, la directrice. Mais, l'expérience ne pourra se faire à n'importe quel prix. « Nous voulons discuter avec la mairie de la pause méridienne : réduire son temps pour reprendre plus tôt et en faire un vrai moment de repos pour les élèves ». Et puis, il y a l'occupation des salles sur le temps périscolaire. « Tout doit être mis au clair concernant le matériel utilisé, les activités pratiquées. Chacun doit rester dans son domaine de compétences » insiste Françoise. Pierre Laumenerch, secrétaire départemental du SNUipp, confirme. « La décision finale revient au conseil d'école. En outre, la ville doit apporter des garanties sur des questions pratiques : utilisation et statut des locaux scolaires, responsabilités des enseignants, pérennité des dispositifs périscolaires » « Il n'y a pas de modèle. La concertation aura eu au moins le mérite de mettre en lumière ce principe » reconnaît Maurice Thoré, l'élu. « Il nous faudra nous adapter à chaque école, construire des organisations en dentelle. On espère débuter l'expérimentation l'année prochaine avec quelques écoles volontaires. D'autres qui le souhaitent peuvent se donner le temps de la concertation avec nos services durant encore une année ». De son côté, l'inspection académique demande que « le retour au mercredi se fasse sur un territoire cohérent ». Rien n'est tranché donc. La réflexion continue. Le chantier des rythmes ne fait que commencer. __________________________________________________________________ Débats en cours C'est la circulaire du 5 juin 2008 qui permet d'ouvrir le débat sur l'organisation de la semaine scolaire. Elle donne en effet la possibilité de travailler sur neuf demi-journées, avec le mercredi matin, le samedi restant obligatoirement vaqué. Dans le texte, la proposition revient aux conseils d'école, après avis de la commune et accord de l'inspection académique. Ainsi, tout comme Lille, Grenoble, Angers, Brest ont également lancé une concertation pour modifier les rythmes de la semaine. Mais, ce qui est envisageable pour des grandes et de moyennes villes apparaît plus complexe pour des petites communes de milieu rural notamment. En effet, ces dernières ne possèdent ni les structures, ni les personnels qui ne leur permettent pas d'avoir les mêmes marges de manoeuvre que les pôles urbains (transports-activités périscolaires). En Ille-et-Vilaine, c'est l'inspecteur d'académie qui propose aux écoles volontaires de déposer un projet d'organisation sur neuf demi-journées. Dans son courrier, il pointe les « contraintes fortes » qu'impose un éventuel changement : « les animations pédagogiques les mercredis après-midi, le remplacement court rendu plus difficile, les mercredis matin », ainsi que « la formation continue remplacée par des stagiaires ». 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Décembre 2009 [[1] détails ] 147 853 visiteurs 282 170 pages lues [rfm.gif] La Gazette musicale [2][recherche.jpg] [3] Biographies musicales -- E[4]ncyclopédie -- S[5]'abonner au bulletin -- A[6]nnonces -- [7]Forum -- [8]Liste de discussion [9]cliquer pour prendre contact [trait_typ_01.gif] Entendre [trait_typ_01.gif] [10][voyage_au_pays_de_ma_nonkak.jpg] Voyage au Pays de Ma Nonkak, Conte d'AbyGaëlle sur une musique de J'hel. Atelier Hybrid'music, 2009 [A. 415652 ; 30 EUR] [11][electro_couac.jpg] Olivier Calmel Electro Couac, Sha-Docks. Yes or No Prod 2009 / Believe distribution [12][katsavara_et_de_l'_aube.jpg] Guigla Katsarava (piano), Et de l'aube émerge... Polymnie 150 658, 2009 (oeuvres de Scriabine, Szymanowski, Zaborov) [13][joseph_moog_metamorphose.jpg] Metamorphose(n). Joseph Moog (piano). Transcriptions et para- phrases pour le piano (Liszt, Fredmann, Moszkowski, Godowski, Busoni). Claves Records, 2009 [14][wolff_ruines.jpg] Jean-Claude Wolff, Ruines, Clartés stellaires (hommage à Hector Berlioz). Ensemble « Le Temps Retrouvé », Serge Coste, dir. [15][liz_mc_comb.jpg] Liz McComb, The Sacred Concert. Disque GVE / Naïve, 2009 [trait_typ_01.gif] Lire [trait_typ_01.gif] [16][charpentier_petits_motets_01.jpg] Cessac Catherine (éditrice), Marc-Antoine Charpentier, Petits motets (v.1) : motets à une ou deux voix. Édition critique, « Patrimoine Musical Français : monumentales » (1.4.1), Éditions du Centre de Musique Baroque de Versailles, 2009 [17][un_son_desenchante.jpg] Olive Jean-Paul, Un son désenchanté. « Collection d'esthétique » (73), Klincksieck, Paris 2008 [282 p., ISBN-19782252036822 ; 29 EUR] [18][musique_et_bruit.jpg] Le Vot Gérard (dir.) & Streletski Gérard (édit.), Bruit et musique (actes du colloque du 23 janvier 2008) Publications du département musique et musicologie, Université Lyon 2, Lumière, Lyon 2009 [X-326 p., ill ; ISBN 978-2-9527137-1-9 ; 25 EUR] [trait_typ_01.gif] Le temps demain [trait_typ_01.gif] [md_france48h.jpg] [trait_typ_01.gif] Actualités [trait_typ_01.gif] [19]Rétrospective des actualités musicales |||[20] [voir.gif] 18 janvier 2010 [21]Voir Piano international : nouvelle saison de piano en Limousin [22]Voir Enseignement supérieur / recherche : communiqué intersyndical pour la journée du 21 janvier 2010 [23]Voir William Christie retrouve la démesure baroque de la « Fairy Queen » de Purcell [24]Voir « Eugène Onéguine » à l'Opéra de Lille [25]Voir « Tempest: without a Body », l'ange de la mort du Samoan Ponifasio à Strasbourg [26]Voir « Le Ciel est pour Tous », l'intolérance religieuse selon Catherine Anne [27]Voir « Les femmes savantes « de Molière, comme au temps du Roi Soleil à Toulouse [28]Voir Jean-Paul Belmondo distingué par les critiques de cinéma de Los Angeles [29]Voir Le musée parisien du Luxembourg ferme ses portes pour plusieurs mois [30]Voir La plus ancienne amputation en France remonte à la préhistoire [31]Voir [Agenda] Les Sons d'hiver 2010 du Val-de-Marne, dès le 29 janvier [32]Voir [Le Populaire] Le pianoforte, sa vie, son histoire 17 janvier 2010 [33]Voir Cinq cent personnes se rassemblent en soutien à la comédienne Rayhana, agressée à Paris [34]Voir Banlieues Bleues : 27e édition [35]Voir La famille de Jacques Lanzmann indignée par les propos de Dutronc [36]Voir La violence, la guerre et l'identité dansées au théâtre marseillais du Merlan [37]Voir Johnny Depp dans les montagnes de Serbie: quand Hollywood se met au vert [38]Voir Izis, un des plus grands photographes français, méconnu, exposé à Paris [39]Voir Dany Laferrière : « Notre peuple ne mérite pas ça » [40]Voir Le Bayern Munich dédommage une poétesse plagiée par Karl-Heinz Rummenigge [41]Voir Le film Welcome de Philippe Lioret ainsi que Jacques Audiard récompensés 16 janvie 2010r [42]Voir Ils ont dit Django Reinhardt ... à l'occasion de ses cent ans [43]Voir Jonas Kaufmann, parfait héros romantique pour ses débuts en Werther [44]Voir Décès d'Ed Thigpen, batteur d'Oscar Peterson et Ella Fitzgerald [45]Voir Gainsbourg plus vrai que nature dans une « Vie héroïque » signée Joann Sfar [46]Voir Films français à l'étranger: après une année record, 2009 en berne [47]Voir Les dix longs métrages en langue française qui ont enregistré le plus d'entrées à l'étranger depuis dix ans [48]Voir L'image de "cinéma d'auteur" des films français "rend parfois plus difficile" leur exportation [49]Voir |Le Journal du Dimanche] Werther : la plus belle voix au monde [50]Voir [Le Progrès] Un violon de 18 000 euros écrasé dans le tramway [51]Voir [Le Figaro] Les orchestres symphoniques cherchent la bonne recette 15 janvier 2010 [52]Voir L'auteur et comédienne Rayhana agressée à Paris [53]Voir Les nominés aux Victoires de la musique classique 2010 [54]Voir Décès du crooner américain Teddy Pendergrass, légende de la soul music [55]Voir Ouverture jeudi du festival de cirque de Monte-Carlo [56]Voir Sénégal: décès du poète et comédien d'origine haïtienne Lucien Lemoine [57]Voir Décès du photographe américain Dennis Stock de l'agence Magnum [58]Voir Haïti : mort de l'écrivain Georges Anglade [59]Voir A 81 ans, Tintin entame de nouvelles aventures en Chine [60]Voir Le Muséum d'histoire naturelle met en ligne les espèces présentes et disparues en France [61]Voir [Nouvel Observateur] Boltanski entre au Grand-Palais 14 janvier 2010 [62]Voir Benoît Jacquot débute à l'Opéra de Paris, aves une mise en scène de « Werther » de Jules Massenet [63]Voir L'Académie du jazz a décerné ses lauriers 2009 [64]Voir Dutronc, Biolay, Christophe au festival Chorus des Hauts-de-Seine [65]Voir Jacques Dutronc revisite ses classiques sur la scène du Zénith [66]Voir L'humour acide de « La Noce » de Bertold Brecht [67]Voir « Les estivants » de Gorki mis en scène âr Eric Lacascade à Rennes [68]Voir Monumenta: des médiateurs pour accompagner l'émotion du public [69]Voir Le spectre lumineux d'une lointaine exoplanète capté depuis la Terre [70]Voir [L'Italie à Paris] Le violon de Mozart avec Giuliano Carmignola [71]Voir [Libé Lille] Poignant Onéguine à l'Opéra de Lille [72]Voir [Éco 89] Lady Gaga : du clip musical à l'émission de télé-achat [73]Voir [Libé Lyon] Les notes salées de l'Orchestre national de Lyon 13 janvier 2010 [74]Voir Un spectacle multimédia à Bastille [75]Voir Biennale des quatuors à cordes à la Cité de la musique [76]Voir Pauline Viardot cent 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Suitner, grand dirigeant du Staatsoper de Berlin [92]Voir La salsa séduit de plus en plus d'Ethiopiens [93]Voir Denis Podalydès dans « Le cas Jekyll » au Théâtre de Chaillot [94]Voir Décès d'Éric Rohmer [95]Voir Herta Müller, Nobel de littérature, espionnée par un autre écrivain [96]Voir Découverte archéologique à Gaza près de la frontière égyptienne [97]Voir Plainte jordanienne auprès de l'UNESCO, sur la propriété des manuscrits de la mer Morte [98]Voir Découverte d'une habitation de l'âge de pierre près de Tel-Aviv [99]Voir [France-Soir] Manu Katché : « Duffy m'a confondu avec Manu Chao » [100]Voir [Le Figaro] L'esprit d'un grand musicien (Karajan) [101]Voir [Le Figaro] Le disque compact ne serait pas né sans lui (Karajan) [102]Voir [Radio France] Profession : copiste-graveur [103]Voir [Le Devoir.com] Le Metropolitan Opera au cinéma ; Le Chevalier à la rose, opéra viennois [104]Rétrospective des actualités musicales |||[105] [voir.gif] [106]février 2009 - [107]mars 2009 - [108]avril 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Jane & Bisaro Xavier (éditeurs), Marc-Antoine Charpentier : Histoires sacrées (v. 6). « Patrimoine Musical Français », Éditions du Centre de Musique Baroque de Versailles 2009 [ ISMN CXXVI-173 p. ; M-707034-57-6 ; 115,00 EUR] [trait_typ_01.gif] Lire sur le site [trait_typ_01.gif] Consultation [120]Biographies de musiciens [121]Encyclopédie musicale [122]Discographies [123]Iconographies [124]Analyses musicales [125]Cours de musique Services [126]Petites annonces [127]Téléchargements Articles, documents [128]Articles et documents [129]Collaborations éditoriales [130]Textes de référence Lire & voir [131]Nouveaux livres [132]Vu & lu sur la toile Université [133]Colloques & conférences [134]Universités en France [135]Bibliothèques Administration [136]C'est quoi ce site ? 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Comme d'autres grandes villes, Lille vient de lancer une concertation avec les parents et les enseignants pour raccourcir les journées en travaillant le mercredi matin. Fin mai, les conseils d'écoles devront se positionner. L'école, le mercredi matin ? A Lille, le débat est lancé. Depuis un mois, la ville mène officiellement une concertation sur la semaine scolaire de 4 jours. Avec une idée : donner la possibilité aux écoles qui le souhaiteraient de travailler le mercredi matin pour raccourcir les journées de classe. Selon Maurice Thoré, l'élu en charge des écoles, « les chronobiologistes sont unanimes : 6 heures de classe par jour, soit la durée la plus longue au monde, ce sont des élèves moins attentifs, plus fatigués. Avec, pour certains, les deux heures d'aide personnalisée, c'est trop ». Le propos est bien rôdé, très critique envers la politique éducative du gouvernement. Depuis début avril, les réunions de quartiers consacrées à la concertation commencent toujours de la même manière. Ce soir, à la mairie de quartier de Wazemmes, devant les parents et les enseignants Maurice Thoré, prend les mêmes précautions pour justifier la démarche de la ville : « notre devoir est d'engager avec vous une concertation collective que le ministère a confisquée l'an dernier en supprimant le samedi matin de manière unilatérale ». Espérer convaincre sans contraindre, tel est le leitmotiv de l'élu. Il sait que le débat est passionnel, souvent animé par un tourbillon d'avis divers, parfois tranchés. Alors, il se veut pédagogue. Au final, « la ville n'a pas de pouvoir de décision. Ce sera aux conseils d'école des 84 écoles lilloises de se positionner, l'Inspecteur d'académie validant les changements de schéma scolaire ». De son côté, la ville s'engage à mettre en place des activités périscolaires au sein d'un PEG (projet éducatif global) pour prendre en charge les enfants qui finiront l'école plus tôt. Car sans cela, pas de nouvelle organisation scolaire possible. « C'est l'élément structurant » qui doit permettre d'articuler de manière cohérente temps scolaire et périscolaire explique AlainThirel, coordonnateur du PEG à la ville de Lille. Et d'évoquer, les plans « lecture, nature, musique, patrimoine, à l'oeuvre depuis 2001 qui sont à disposition des écoles pour concevoir leur nouvelle organisation ». Un service supplémentaire « représentant 4,5 millions d'euros par an sans le moindre coût pour les familles » explique Alain Thirel. « La gratuité, certes, mais avec une qualité de l'encadrement » pointe une mère d'élève. « 600 vacataires sont actuellement employés à la mairie sur le périscolaire. La ville va t-elle enclencher des formations pour professionnaliser le secteur ? ». Selon Maurice Thoré, « les parents les plus opposés sont ceux qui proposent de nombreuses activités à leurs enfants en dehors de l'école ». Pour les autres, cet éventuel changement des rythmes de la semaine interroge. « On veut comprendre ce que feront nos enfants durant la journée témoigne une mère d'élève. Il faudra à nouveau se réorganiser ». Une autre rebondit : « Si il y a de l'école le mercredi, quid des clubs de sport ou activités culturelles ? Des nouvelles plages horaires sont elles prévues le samedi ? » Même certains, comme Catherine, « regrettent le samedi scolaire ou demandent que les vacances d'été soient raccourcies ». Inutile d'espérer car la loi ne le permet pas. « Ce sont des champs de compétences du ministère » explique l'élu. Pour Martine Haidon, directrice en maternelle, « voilà bien la preuve que les marges de manoeuvres sont bien ténues et ne permettent pas de réfléchir à tous les possibles pour faire que l'école soit plus respectueuse de l'enfant ». Avec toute l'équipe enseignante, elle ne pense pas proposer de changement au conseil d'école. Les parents qu'elle a réunis sont aussi du même avis. « C'est le toujours plus sans contrepartie » explique-t-elle évoquant un sentiment d'être constamment prise entre le marteau et l'enclume. « Le rouleau compresseur des réformes nous a lessivés avec des conditions de travail se dégradant encore et toujours ». Et, travailler le mercredi matin c'est aussi « participer aux animations pédagogiques l'après midi, payer plus pour les gardes d'enfants sans pour autant finir plus tôt en semaine avec l'aide personnalisée, les préparations ou les réunions ». Et de conclure « Oui pour travailler autrement mais en posant tous les éléments sur la table qui sont pour la plupart du ressort du ministère ». Ce constat, les enseignants de l'école André le font aussi. Après de longues discussions, l'équipe pense pourtant se lancer dans l'aventure du mercredi matin scolaire. Avec un espoir. « Moins de fatigue pour les enfants, ce peut-être moins de fatigue pour nous aussi et de plus grandes satisfactions professionnelles » explique Françoise, la directrice. Mais, l'expérience ne pourra se faire à n'importe quel prix. « Nous voulons discuter avec la mairie de la pause méridienne : réduire son temps pour reprendre plus tôt et en faire un vrai moment de repos pour les élèves ». Et puis, il y a l'occupation des salles sur le temps périscolaire. « Tout doit être mis au clair concernant le matériel utilisé, les activités pratiquées. Chacun doit rester dans son domaine de compétences » insiste Françoise. Pierre Laumenerch, secrétaire départemental du SNUipp, confirme. « La décision finale revient au conseil d'école. En outre, la ville doit apporter des garanties sur des questions pratiques : utilisation et statut des locaux scolaires, responsabilités des enseignants, pérennité des dispositifs périscolaires » « Il n'y a pas de modèle. La concertation aura eu au moins le mérite de mettre en lumière ce principe » reconnaît Maurice Thoré, l'élu. « Il nous faudra nous adapter à chaque école, construire des organisations en dentelle. On espère débuter l'expérimentation l'année prochaine avec quelques écoles volontaires. D'autres qui le souhaitent peuvent se donner le temps de la concertation avec nos services durant encore une année ». De son côté, l'inspection académique demande que « le retour au mercredi se fasse sur un territoire cohérent ». Rien n'est tranché donc. La réflexion continue. Le chantier des rythmes ne fait que commencer. __________________________________________________________________ Débats en cours C'est la circulaire du 5 juin 2008 qui permet d'ouvrir le débat sur l'organisation de la semaine scolaire. Elle donne en effet la possibilité de travailler sur neuf demi-journées, avec le mercredi matin, le samedi restant obligatoirement vaqué. Dans le texte, la proposition revient aux conseils d'école, après avis de la commune et accord de l'inspection académique. Ainsi, tout comme Lille, Grenoble, Angers, Brest ont également lancé une concertation pour modifier les rythmes de la semaine. Mais, ce qui est envisageable pour des grandes et de moyennes villes apparaît plus complexe pour des petites communes de milieu rural notamment. En effet, ces dernières ne possèdent ni les structures, ni les personnels qui ne leur permettent pas d'avoir les mêmes marges de manoeuvre que les pôles urbains (transports-activités périscolaires). En Ille-et-Vilaine, c'est l'inspecteur d'académie qui propose aux écoles volontaires de déposer un projet d'organisation sur neuf demi-journées. Dans son courrier, il pointe les « contraintes fortes » qu'impose un éventuel changement : « les animations pédagogiques les mercredis après-midi, le remplacement court rendu plus difficile, les mercredis matin », ainsi que « la formation continue remplacée par des stagiaires ». 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SKAYEM Références Not Found The requested URL /Inedits/Gerard/Gerard_Linearite.html was not found on this server. __________________________________________________________________ Apache/2.2.3 (Debian) DAV/2 SVN/1.4.2 mod_python/3.2.10 Python/2.4.4 PHP/5.2.0-8+etch16 Server at www.revue-texto.net Port 80 Not Found The requested URL /etudes_textes/txt_application/rimbaud/rythme_sonorites.htm was not found on this server. Décembre 2009 [[1] détails ] 147 853 visiteurs 282 170 pages lues [rfm.gif] La Gazette musicale [2][recherche.jpg] [3] Biographies musicales -- E[4]ncyclopédie -- S[5]'abonner au bulletin -- A[6]nnonces -- [7]Forum -- [8]Liste de discussion [9]cliquer pour prendre contact [trait_typ_01.gif] Entendre [trait_typ_01.gif] [10][voyage_au_pays_de_ma_nonkak.jpg] Voyage au Pays de Ma Nonkak, Conte d'AbyGaëlle sur une musique de J'hel. Atelier Hybrid'music, 2009 [A. 415652 ; 30 EUR] [11][electro_couac.jpg] Olivier Calmel Electro Couac, Sha-Docks. Yes or No Prod 2009 / Believe distribution [12][katsavara_et_de_l'_aube.jpg] Guigla Katsarava (piano), Et de l'aube émerge... Polymnie 150 658, 2009 (oeuvres de Scriabine, Szymanowski, Zaborov) [13][joseph_moog_metamorphose.jpg] Metamorphose(n). Joseph Moog (piano). Transcriptions et para- phrases pour le piano (Liszt, Fredmann, Moszkowski, Godowski, Busoni). Claves Records, 2009 [14][wolff_ruines.jpg] Jean-Claude Wolff, Ruines, Clartés stellaires (hommage à Hector Berlioz). Ensemble « Le Temps Retrouvé », Serge Coste, dir. [15][liz_mc_comb.jpg] Liz McComb, The Sacred Concert. Disque GVE / Naïve, 2009 [trait_typ_01.gif] Lire [trait_typ_01.gif] [16][charpentier_petits_motets_01.jpg] Cessac Catherine (éditrice), Marc-Antoine Charpentier, Petits motets (v.1) : motets à une ou deux voix. Édition critique, « Patrimoine Musical Français : monumentales » (1.4.1), Éditions du Centre de Musique Baroque de Versailles, 2009 [17][un_son_desenchante.jpg] Olive Jean-Paul, Un son désenchanté. « Collection d'esthétique » (73), Klincksieck, Paris 2008 [282 p., ISBN-19782252036822 ; 29 EUR] [18][musique_et_bruit.jpg] Le Vot Gérard (dir.) & Streletski Gérard (édit.), Bruit et musique (actes du colloque du 23 janvier 2008) Publications du département musique et musicologie, Université Lyon 2, Lumière, Lyon 2009 [X-326 p., ill ; ISBN 978-2-9527137-1-9 ; 25 EUR] [trait_typ_01.gif] Le temps demain [trait_typ_01.gif] [md_france48h.jpg] [trait_typ_01.gif] Actualités [trait_typ_01.gif] [19]Rétrospective des actualités musicales |||[20] [voir.gif] 18 janvier 2010 [21]Voir Piano international : nouvelle saison de piano en Limousin [22]Voir Enseignement supérieur / recherche : communiqué intersyndical pour la journée du 21 janvier 2010 [23]Voir William Christie retrouve la démesure baroque de 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Jane & Bisaro Xavier (éditeurs), Marc-Antoine Charpentier : Histoires sacrées (v. 6). « Patrimoine Musical Français », Éditions du Centre de Musique Baroque de Versailles 2009 [ ISMN CXXVI-173 p. ; M-707034-57-6 ; 115,00 EUR] [trait_typ_01.gif] Lire sur le site [trait_typ_01.gif] Consultation [120]Biographies de musiciens [121]Encyclopédie musicale [122]Discographies [123]Iconographies [124]Analyses musicales [125]Cours de musique Services [126]Petites annonces [127]Téléchargements Articles, documents [128]Articles et documents [129]Collaborations éditoriales [130]Textes de référence Lire & voir [131]Nouveaux livres [132]Vu & lu sur la toile Université [133]Colloques & conférences [134]Universités en France [135]Bibliothèques Administration [136]C'est quoi ce site ? 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Comme d'autres grandes villes, Lille vient de lancer une concertation avec les parents et les enseignants pour raccourcir les journées en travaillant le mercredi matin. Fin mai, les conseils d'écoles devront se positionner. L'école, le mercredi matin ? A Lille, le débat est lancé. Depuis un mois, la ville mène officiellement une concertation sur la semaine scolaire de 4 jours. Avec une idée : donner la possibilité aux écoles qui le souhaiteraient de travailler le mercredi matin pour raccourcir les journées de classe. Selon Maurice Thoré, l'élu en charge des écoles, « les chronobiologistes sont unanimes : 6 heures de classe par jour, soit la durée la plus longue au monde, ce sont des élèves moins attentifs, plus fatigués. Avec, pour certains, les deux heures d'aide personnalisée, c'est trop ». Le propos est bien rôdé, très critique envers la politique éducative du gouvernement. Depuis début avril, les réunions de quartiers consacrées à la concertation commencent toujours de la même manière. Ce soir, à la mairie de quartier de Wazemmes, devant les parents et les enseignants Maurice Thoré, prend les mêmes précautions pour justifier la démarche de la ville : « notre devoir est d'engager avec vous une concertation collective que le ministère a confisquée l'an dernier en supprimant le samedi matin de manière unilatérale ». Espérer convaincre sans contraindre, tel est le leitmotiv de l'élu. Il sait que le débat est passionnel, souvent animé par un tourbillon d'avis divers, parfois tranchés. Alors, il se veut pédagogue. Au final, « la ville n'a pas de pouvoir de décision. Ce sera aux conseils d'école des 84 écoles lilloises de se positionner, l'Inspecteur d'académie validant les changements de schéma scolaire ». De son côté, la ville s'engage à mettre en place des activités périscolaires au sein d'un PEG (projet éducatif global) pour prendre en charge les enfants qui finiront l'école plus tôt. Car sans cela, pas de nouvelle organisation scolaire possible. « C'est l'élément structurant » qui doit permettre d'articuler de manière cohérente temps scolaire et périscolaire explique AlainThirel, coordonnateur du PEG à la ville de Lille. Et d'évoquer, les plans « lecture, nature, musique, patrimoine, à l'oeuvre depuis 2001 qui sont à disposition des écoles pour concevoir leur nouvelle organisation ». Un service supplémentaire « représentant 4,5 millions d'euros par an sans le moindre coût pour les familles » explique Alain Thirel. « La gratuité, certes, mais avec une qualité de l'encadrement » pointe une mère d'élève. « 600 vacataires sont actuellement employés à la mairie sur le périscolaire. La ville va t-elle enclencher des formations pour professionnaliser le secteur ? ». Selon Maurice Thoré, « les parents les plus opposés sont ceux qui proposent de nombreuses activités à leurs enfants en dehors de l'école ». Pour les autres, cet éventuel changement des rythmes de la semaine interroge. « On veut comprendre ce que feront nos enfants durant la journée témoigne une mère d'élève. Il faudra à nouveau se réorganiser ». Une autre rebondit : « Si il y a de l'école le mercredi, quid des clubs de sport ou activités culturelles ? Des nouvelles plages horaires sont elles prévues le samedi ? » Même certains, comme Catherine, « regrettent le samedi scolaire ou demandent que les vacances d'été soient raccourcies ». Inutile d'espérer car la loi ne le permet pas. « Ce sont des champs de compétences du ministère » explique l'élu. Pour Martine Haidon, directrice en maternelle, « voilà bien la preuve que les marges de manoeuvres sont bien ténues et ne permettent pas de réfléchir à tous les possibles pour faire que l'école soit plus respectueuse de l'enfant ». Avec toute l'équipe enseignante, elle ne pense pas proposer de changement au conseil d'école. Les parents qu'elle a réunis sont aussi du même avis. « C'est le toujours plus sans contrepartie » explique-t-elle évoquant un sentiment d'être constamment prise entre le marteau et l'enclume. « Le rouleau compresseur des réformes nous a lessivés avec des conditions de travail se dégradant encore et toujours ». Et, travailler le mercredi matin c'est aussi « participer aux animations pédagogiques l'après midi, payer plus pour les gardes d'enfants sans pour autant finir plus tôt en semaine avec l'aide personnalisée, les préparations ou les réunions ». Et de conclure « Oui pour travailler autrement mais en posant tous les éléments sur la table qui sont pour la plupart du ressort du ministère ». Ce constat, les enseignants de l'école André le font aussi. Après de longues discussions, l'équipe pense pourtant se lancer dans l'aventure du mercredi matin scolaire. Avec un espoir. « Moins de fatigue pour les enfants, ce peut-être moins de fatigue pour nous aussi et de plus grandes satisfactions professionnelles » explique Françoise, la directrice. Mais, l'expérience ne pourra se faire à n'importe quel prix. « Nous voulons discuter avec la mairie de la pause méridienne : réduire son temps pour reprendre plus tôt et en faire un vrai moment de repos pour les élèves ». Et puis, il y a l'occupation des salles sur le temps périscolaire. « Tout doit être mis au clair concernant le matériel utilisé, les activités pratiquées. Chacun doit rester dans son domaine de compétences » insiste Françoise. Pierre Laumenerch, secrétaire départemental du SNUipp, confirme. « La décision finale revient au conseil d'école. En outre, la ville doit apporter des garanties sur des questions pratiques : utilisation et statut des locaux scolaires, responsabilités des enseignants, pérennité des dispositifs périscolaires » « Il n'y a pas de modèle. La concertation aura eu au moins le mérite de mettre en lumière ce principe » reconnaît Maurice Thoré, l'élu. « Il nous faudra nous adapter à chaque école, construire des organisations en dentelle. On espère débuter l'expérimentation l'année prochaine avec quelques écoles volontaires. D'autres qui le souhaitent peuvent se donner le temps de la concertation avec nos services durant encore une année ». De son côté, l'inspection académique demande que « le retour au mercredi se fasse sur un territoire cohérent ». Rien n'est tranché donc. La réflexion continue. Le chantier des rythmes ne fait que commencer. __________________________________________________________________ Débats en cours C'est la circulaire du 5 juin 2008 qui permet d'ouvrir le débat sur l'organisation de la semaine scolaire. Elle donne en effet la possibilité de travailler sur neuf demi-journées, avec le mercredi matin, le samedi restant obligatoirement vaqué. Dans le texte, la proposition revient aux conseils d'école, après avis de la commune et accord de l'inspection académique. Ainsi, tout comme Lille, Grenoble, Angers, Brest ont également lancé une concertation pour modifier les rythmes de la semaine. Mais, ce qui est envisageable pour des grandes et de moyennes villes apparaît plus complexe pour des petites communes de milieu rural notamment. En effet, ces dernières ne possèdent ni les structures, ni les personnels qui ne leur permettent pas d'avoir les mêmes marges de manoeuvre que les pôles urbains (transports-activités périscolaires). En Ille-et-Vilaine, c'est l'inspecteur d'académie qui propose aux écoles volontaires de déposer un projet d'organisation sur neuf demi-journées. Dans son courrier, il pointe les « contraintes fortes » qu'impose un éventuel changement : « les animations pédagogiques les mercredis après-midi, le remplacement court rendu plus difficile, les mercredis matin », ainsi que « la formation continue remplacée par des stagiaires ». 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SKAYEM Références #[1]Semen - Articles [2]Semen - Numéros [3]Aller au contenu | [4]Aller au menu | [5]Recherche [6]Semen [7]16-2003, Rythme de la prose Le rythme de la prose Éric Bordas [8]Index | [9]Texte | [10]Bibliographie | [11]Notes | [12]Citation | [13]Auteur * [14]Signaler ce document * [15]Sommaire * [16]Article suivant Index Mots clés : [17]Prose, [18]Rythme, [19]Sémantique, [20]Sémiotique, [21]Style Texte intégral 1 Comme chacun sait, le rythme est partout : dans la vie quotidienne (en tant qu'expérience), comme dans les discours savants (en tant que référence). Dans le monde, comme dans la prose du monde qui rend celui-ci sensible à défaut de toujours le rendre intelligible. La récurrence de cette perception et de cette mention, rythme elle-même nos tentatives de rapprochement du mouvement et du temps pour permettre une appréhension plus claire du sujet recteur. Conséquence bien connue et inévitable : le mot (banalisé) tend à remplacer le concept (incertain), pour évacuer les questions de fond, à commencer par les définitions concurrentes[22]1. Ainsi, par exemple, se demande Pierre Sauvanet, dans une thèse magistrale de philosophie consacré à cet objet instable (2000, t. 1, p. 147), « qu'y a-t-il au juste de commun entre les trois expressions suivantes : un rythme ternaire, un rythme cardiaque, un rythme syncopé ? ». Filons-nous une métaphore ? mais laquelle, au juste ? N'avons-nous pas plutôt trois référents bien distincts, trois objets perceptibles par leurs qualités rythmiques, que nous assimilons à une superstructure cognitive qui serait ce rythme magique. Car la superposition des emplois lexicaux ne saurait passer pour une syncrèse acceptable : « rythme ternaire désigne a priori une pure structure formelle, à laquelle seule une périodicité potentielle conférerait a posteriori une temporalité ; rythme cardiaque désigne au contraire a priori un simple cycle de battements, se répétant à intervalles réguliers, auquel seule une structure de pensée a posteriori conférerait une intelligibilité ; quant au rythme syncopé, il renvoie à la dimension fondamentale du mouvement, qui s'oppose à tout ce qui est mécanique ou métrique, et qui se laisse difficilement appréhender a priori. Seule l'analyse théorique permet de le distinguer » (Sauvanet, ibid.). Parlons-nous donc encore de la même chose ? * [23]1 Voir les « 100 définitions du rythme » réunies par (...) 2 De la même façon, et dans le domaine de la langue, ce que nous appelons rythme en poésie versifiée classique correspond-il au rythme de la prose ? La prose, d'ailleurs, a-t-elle un rythme ? Une réponse catégorique n'est pas possible sans quelques mises au point générales, et l'on anticipera tout de suite la conclusion en affirmant que ce clivage artificiel, qui oppose prose et poésie, est absolument intenable. 3 4 On a la (bonne) habitude de commencer toute réflexion sur le rythme par la définition de Platon : « ... cet ordre du mouvement a reçu le nom de rythme »[24]2. L'organisation du mouvement rythmé (et rythmique) s'opère formellement grâce à l'existence de « relais de même nature » (Pineau, 1979, p. 12) que la perception, auditive et/ou visuelle, sensible quoi qu'il en soit, repère dans une construction générale, une configuration des matériaux traités. Le mouvement est ainsi défini par l'alternance dynamique des « élans » et des « posés »[25]3 : ces relais doivent être assez rapprochés pour que leur réunion fasse forme. Du point de vue de la motivation d'un tel mouvement physique, Nicolas Abraham (1972), se fondant sur la psychanalyse, a montré, à la source de l'énergie rythmique, la pression permanente du désir humain cherchant sans cesse à se donner des moyens de se satisfaire, puis insuffisamment satisfait par chacun des moyens qu'il a élaborés et remis en quête par le sentiment de frustration qui découle de cette expérience. En fait, il apparaît très vite que le principal problème à résoudre est celui d'un métalangage : comment dire le rythme comme configuration temporelle organisée ? * [26]2 Lois, 665a. * [27]3 Traduction, aussi simple que possible, des mots grecs (...) 5 Benveniste, dans son étude lexicale de ce qu'il présentait comme « le principe du mouvement cadencé » (1966, p. 335), a admis l'effort de métaphorisation presque indispensable pour suggérer un contenu sémantique à l'idée de rythme, sans pour autant cacher ses réticences devant les dérives imprécises que semblable conceptualisation par l'image ne pouvait qu'entraîner. Objet d'une évidente présence en musique bien sûr, mais aussi en poésie versifiée, le rythme se perçoit -- à défaut de se définir -- comme une « alternance de marques (temps fort, temps faible) du même et du différent » (Dessons & Meschonnic, 1998, p. 33), de vide et de plein, de longues et de brèves, comme un découpage, par intervalles, du son sur fond de silence. Cette conception peut conduire à oublier que le rythme est fondamentalement un mouvement, et non un compte, un pointage, oubli entériné par la métrique, qui entretient une notion fausse des unités (vers, phrase ou strophe) en privilégiant le schéma sur le discours, et qui rend l'analyse du rythme de la prose presque toujours caduque[28]4. C'est pourquoi, approfondissant l'approche de Benveniste, Henri Meschonnic (1982, pp. 69-70) nous a appris à penser le rythme comme « une structure », « un niveau », qui est l'organisation même du sens dans le discours[29]5. Le rythme découvre le sens de l'énoncé, et, partant, la trace du sujet de/dans cet énoncé[30]6. De sorte que c'est toute une critique du signe linguistique que la reconnaissance de la notion de rythme implique par elle-même : le rythme, comme organisation du continu dans le langage (Goux, 1999), met en évidence la structure discontinue du signe dans la paradigmatique langagière. Tout ceci -- dont il faut bien mesurer l'importance, car il s'agit rien de moins que d'une redistribution des hiérarchies porteuses de sens, de valeurs et construisant les formes mêmes de toute communication -- peut se ramener à la formule de Benveniste dans son travail sur le rythme pour proposer la reconnaissance d'autres paradigmes fondateurs que ceux du signe : le « sémantique sans sémiotique »[31]7. On comprend que les études de Benveniste et de Meschonnic, et aujourd'hui également de Gérard Dessons (1995), cherchent à remplacer une linguistique du discours qui avoue sur ce point précis ses limites[32]8, par une poétique de l'énonciation, plus attentive à la question des instabilités des sujets sémantiques, au-delà des supports privilégiés. * [33]4 Voir les critiques très sévères de G. Dessons & H. (...) * [34]5 On prendra garde à ne pas confondre système (ensemble (...) * [35]6 « Si le sens est une activité du sujet, si le rythme (...) * [36]7 « Le sémiotique (le signe) doit être RECONNU ; le (...) * [37]8 C'est également la conclusion du bilan de Wunenburger (...) 6 Compte tenu de ces précautions méthodologiques, on entendra par rythme, dans une précision de la définition platonicienne, « l'organisation du mouvement de la parole par un sujet » (Dessons & Meschonnic, 1998, p. 28), idée qui a le mérite de replacer le sujet recteur au centre de la réflexion. Que cette organisation soit à l'oeuvre dans le matériau linguistique de la prose, c'est une évidence que seule la carence des outils d'analyse ou même de réflexion pourrait sembler contredire. Mais il est bien évident que les problèmes posés par sa reconnaissance sont considérables. 7 Tout d'abord, parce que le rythme, on l'a vu, implique la présence concrète et active du silence comme superstructure sensible. Or, comme le signalait déjà Daniel Delas il y a quelques années (1991), en un avertissement qui n'a peut-être pas été assez entendu, il est certain que la linguistique ne connaît guère le silence, mais seulement la pause, qu'elle subordonne toujours au continuum de la chaîne parlée et/ou à celui de la logique de la pensée. Nous aurions tout à gagner à apprendre à ne pas penser le silence par défaut, moins encore à le vivre comme une menace d'aphasie, mais à l'envisager comme un discours actif, qui a sa syntaxe, à défaut d'avoir une grammaire et un lexique. Une syntaxe concrétisée dans les pulsations rythmiques de son apparition/disparition, par exemple. 8 Autre problème théorique posé par l'idée même d'un rythme non mesurable en unités métriques de convention, la gestion de la prise en charge du temps impliqué -- par opposition au temps représenté dans le discours parlé. Et si le rythme, autre aspect du silence, n'était qu'un réseau vide, n'existant seulement que dans son application à la densité figurative d'une sémiotique spécifique ? quelle serait alors la durée de cette vibration ? quelle serait sa chronologie originale, entre présent, passé et futur ? 9 Troisième et dernier problème ici envisagé, comment analyser le rythme d'une langue dans un matériau non esthétisé, sans une linguistique de la voix, qui ne soit pas une poétique du discours ? Sur ce point, plus que sur les deux précédents encore, il conviendrait de parvenir à assouplir les relations entre linguistique et littérature si l'on veut vraiment pouvoir obtenir une réponse à la question, et non rester sur des positions de principes. Le rythme de/dans la langue n'existe que par une mise en voix, qui implique une présence au monde à partir de laquelle certains réseaux sémiotiques peuvent se déployer. C'est là la différence majeure avec la perception d'un rythme temporel, qui est un rythme historique, non articulé en unités auditives : rythme des événements, rythme des saisons, etc. 10 Compte tenu de ces trois difficultés d'intellection, on a choisi, dans le présent volume, d'envisager le rythme comme une « grille d'orientation et de densification » du discours (Ceriani, 1988, p. 37), en un mot comme une aspectualisation du programme discursif, parfois présenté dans sa variante narrative. Ainsi, le rythme de base, le rythme fondateur de toute énonciation, peut être conçu comme structure « de contrôle responsable de la dynamique à la fois temporelle et volitive » de la production et de l'attente narrative, mais aussi poétique (Ceriani, ibid.), une structure qui est une empreinte absolue. 11 On a donc choisi de partir du phénomène rythmique, dans sa concrétude, par opposition à l'abstraction du rythme comme concept immanent. Jean-Paul Goux ouvre le volume, en scientifique et en écrivain, pour insister sur l'importance d'une syntaxe très large dans la perception et l'appréhension du rythme dans la prose narrative, un rythme qui est d'abord « allure », allant dans la continuité -- trace de voix, et marque de style. Puis, trois étapes complémentaires permettent de cerner cette présence active. 12 -- Dans sa dimension linguistique, le rythme est un régulateur perceptif, qui peut jouer un rôle unique dans l'activité de contrainte du sens. Albert Di Cristo analyse la métrique de la parole ordinaire, et tout le dispositif de modélisation du système accentuel français ; la métrique s'oppose au rythme, et ce ailleurs que dans l'opposition esthétique prose vs poésie. Sabine Pétillon, pour sa part, se penche sur l'énonciation des parenthèses, des formes de suspension, à partir desquelles le sens bifurque et propose des interactions parfois retorses ; son support de réalisation privilégiée est l'unité phrase, que le rythme contribue à définir, voire à inventer. Il est clair que le rythme structure les possibilités de production et de réception de n'importe quel message. 13 -- Cinq études consacrées à la poétique, non des textes, mais du matériau langagier choisi, envisagent ensuite le rythme, non plus comme une structure à proprement parler, mais comme un dispositif pragmatique. Jacques-Philippe Saint-Gérand montre comment les dictionnaires, encyclopédies et autres manuels de rhétorique et de poétique, du XVIIIe siècle au début du XXe siècle, se sont épuisés à poursuivre une impossible définition du « rhythme » en dévitalisant ce principe temporel par des aplatissements dynamiques hors contexte énonciatif. Le dialogue avec les déclarations de musiciens et de poètes fut un rendez-vous manqué. Jean-Michel Gouvard relit la Grammaire générale de Beauzée pour revenir à la source de l'analyse moderne de la prosodie. Il rend hommage à l'originalité d'une pensée qui a anticipé la reconnaissance d'une différence radicale entre accentuation de type mécanique et accentuation liée à l'expressivité. Benoît de Cornulier fait le point sur les « problèmes d'analyse rythmique du non-métrique », régulièrement rappelés par les métriciens depuis Jean Mazaleyrat. Son travail vise à nuancer l'opposition prose/poésie, tout en soulignant pourtant les incompatibilités méthodologiques de base. De façon radicalement différente, Gérard Dessons creuse la dimension prosaïque de « tout ce qui n'est point vers », pour montrer que le clivage est une erreur totale, en particulier, donc, en ce qui concerne le rythme[38]9 : refusant la reconnaissance négative de la prose, il retrouve le prosaïsme dans le rythme de certains vers. Enfin, Philippe Jousset propose une phénoménologie de la prose comme objet de connaissance, dans le monde et sur le monde : il écoute le rythme des configurations narratives ou poétiques pour se demander comment parle la prose. * [39]9 Voir Illouz & Neefs (2002) pour un approfondissement (...) 14 -- Deux dernières études privilégient la dimension stylistique du phénomène physique. Le rythme est alors envisagé comme stratégie de caractérisation, plus ou moins maîtrisée, dosage aspectuel et configuration d'une attente qui fait sens dans sa complémentarité avec le silence. Marie-Christine Lala, relisant Duras, Bataille et Artaud, écrivains de la violence s'il en est, et de ce que l'on appelle « folie », étudie les différences de liaison dans le continu du matériau discursif, autant que dans les continuités de la rupture en tant que principe. Son étude place la voix au centre de la vérité de la prose, la voix qui est un autre aspect, sinon l'aspect même, du style. Impossible de réaliser un volume sur le rythme de la parole et de la phrase, ou du texte, sans une étude sur le théâtre[40]10 : Arnaud Bernadet a choisi le théâtre de Koltès, ce théâtre de la « démystification de la voix », qui prend le risque du silence, en un nouveau phrasé : le récitatif de cette prose ose le registre de l'amuïssement, racontant « moins l'indicible qu'il ne le réalise ». * [41]10 On lira les passionnantes réflexions d'A. Vitez, (...) 15 16 C'est à la somme de Pierre Sauvanet (2000, t. 2, p. 179) que l'on empruntera le mot de la fin. « Ce que permet une pensée du rythme, c'est peut-être ceci : à partir d'un point d'ancrage local, passer au global sans tomber dans le total. Le rythme n'est pas tout, tout n'est pas rythme, mais les phénomènes de rythmicité offrent une perspective globalisante, à travers le schème et le concept de rythme comme différentiel et comme mixte (structure, périodicité, mouvement) ». Peut-être faudrait-il donc préférer le terme de rythmique à celui de rythme -- comme on oppose le musical à la musique. Le rythme est d'abord et exclusivement la propriété abstraite de ce qui est rythmique. « Le rythmique permet de quitter le terrain d'une totalité pan-rythmique pour tenter de penser, non le tout, mais les différents aspects du rythme dans chacun de ses phénomènes. Avec le rythme, la pensée ne vise donc pas un objet identique à soi : tout juste peut-elle prétendre à fournir un canevas conceptuel, à mieux fixer le sens des mots que nous employons quand nous disons `rythme' » (Sauvanet, ibid.). 17 Épreuve de liberté intellectuelle, comme on parle d' «épreuve de résistance », mais risque également, l'idée de rythme peut nous permettre de nous dégager du fétichisme du signe et du sens à comprendre, pour faire accepter l'évidence d'une présence au monde. Bibliographie ABRAHAM, Nicolas [1972] : « Le temps, le rythme et l'inconscient », Revue française de psychanalyse, Paris, vol. XXXVI. BENVENISTE, Émile [1966, 1974] : Problèmes de linguistique générale, Paris, Gallimard (2 tomes). CERIANI, Giulia [1988] : « L'empreinte rythmique : régulation, information, contraintes », Cahiers de Sémiotique Textuelle, Nanterre, n° 14, pp. 37-48. DELAS, Daniel [1991] : « Silence et rythme », RITM, Nanterre, n° 1, pp. 11-20. DESSONS, Gérard [1995] : Introduction à la poétique, Paris, Dunod. DESSONS, Gérard, & MESCHONNIC, Henri [1998] : Traité du rythme. Des vers et des proses, Paris, Dunod. GOUX, Jean-Paul [1999] : La Fabrique du continu, Seyssel, Champ-Vallon. ILLOUZ, Jean-Nicolas, & NEEFS, Jacques (éd.) [2002] : Crise de prose, Saint-Denis, PUV. MESCHONNIC, Henri [1982] : Critique du rythme. Anthropologie historique du langage, Lagrasse, Verdier. PINEAU, Joseph [1979] : Le Mouvement rythmique en français. Principes et méthodes d'analyse, Paris, Klincksieck. SAUVANET, Pierre [1996] : « À quelles conditions un discours philosophique sur le rythme est-il possible ? (réponse à Henri Meschonnic) », in P. Sauvanet & J.-J. Wunenburger (éd.), Rythmes et philosophie, Paris, Kimé, pp. 23-39. SAUVANET, Pierre [2000] : Le Rythme et la raison (tome 1 : Rythmologiques, tome 2 : Rythmanalyses), Paris, Kimé. TODOROV, Tzvetan (éd.) [1965] : Théorie de la littérature, Paris, Seuil. VITEZ, Antoine [1982] : « À l'intérieur du parlé, du geste, du mouvement. Entretien avec H. Meschonnic », Langue française, Paris, n° 56, pp. 24-34. WUNENBURGER, Jean-Jacques (éd.) [1992] : Les Rythmes : lectures et théories, Paris, L'Harmattan. Notes [42]1 Voir les « 100 définitions du rythme » réunies par P. Sauvanet dans sa somme philosophique (2000, t. 1, pp. 230-245), qui vont de définitions épistémologiques (Aristoxène de Tarente : « Le rythme apparaît lorsque la division des temps prend un ordre déterminé ») à des intuitions plus lapidaires (Pablo Casals : « Le rythme, c'est le retard »). De ce bel ensemble, on distinguera l'analyse de Diderot (Salon de 1767) : « Qu'est-ce donc que le rythme ? me demandez-vous. C'est un choix particulier d'expressions, c'est une certaine distribution de syllabes longues ou brèves, dures ou douces, sourdes ou aigres, légères ou pesantes, lentes ou rapides, plaintives ou gaies, ou un enchaînement de petites onomatopées analogues aux idées qu'on a et dont on est fortement occupé, aux sensations qu'on ressent, et qu'on veut exciter, aux phénomènes dont on cherche à rendre les accidents, aux passions qu'on éprouve et au cri animal qu'elles arracheraient, à la nature, au caractère, au mouvement des actions qu'on se propose de rendre ; et cet art-là n'est pas plus de conventions que les effets de la lumière et les couleurs de l'arc-en-ciel ; il ne s'apprend point, il ne se communique point, il peut seulement se perfectionner. Il est inspiré par un goût naturel, par la mobilité de l'âme, par la sensibilité. C'est l'image même de l'âme ». [43]2 Lois, 665a. [44]3 Traduction, aussi simple que possible, des mots grecs arsis et thésis. [45]4 Voir les critiques très sévères de G. Dessons & H. Meschonnic, op. cit., p. 32. L'idée vient des Formalistes russes en fait ; voir l'article décisif de O. Brik, « Rythme et syntaxe », ou les remarques de B. Eikhenbaum, in Tzv. Todorov (1965). [46]5 On prendra garde à ne pas confondre système (ensemble organisé par des unités qui sont interdépendantes) et structure (ensemble d'unités solidaires, mais pas nécessairement interdépendantes). Pour une discussion des propositions de Meschonnic, voir Sauvanet (1996). [47]6 « Si le sens est une activité du sujet, si le rythme est une organisation du sens dans le discours, le rythme est nécessairement une organisation ou configuration du sujet dans son discours », H. Meschonnic, ibid., p. 71. [48]7 « Le sémiotique (le signe) doit être RECONNU ; le sémantique (le discours) doit être COMPRIS. [...] Le privilège de la langue est de comporter à la fois la signifiance des signes et la signifiance de l'énonciation. De là provient son pouvoir majeur, celui de créer un deuxième niveau d'énonciation, où il devient possible de tenir des propos signifiants sur la signifiance », É. Benveniste (1974, pp. 64-65). [49]8 C'est également la conclusion du bilan de Wunenburger (1992). [50]9 Voir Illouz & Neefs (2002) pour un approfondissement de cette idée, historicisée tout au long du XIXe siècle. [51]10 On lira les passionnantes réflexions d'A. Vitez, interrogé par H. Meschonnic (1982), pour mesurer toute la pluralité de réalisation de la voix au théâtre. Pour citer cet article Référence électronique Éric Bordas, « Le rythme de la prose », Semen, 16, Rythme de la prose, 2003, [En ligne], mis en ligne le 1 mai 2007. 2010. Auteur [52]Éric Bordas Université de la Sorbonne Nouvelle - Paris 3 Navigation Chercher ____________________ OK Index * [53]Auteurs * [54]Mots clés Actualités * [55]Appels à contribution Semen Texte intégral * [56]26-2008 Médiaculture et médiacritique * [57]25-2008 Le discours de presse au dix-neuvième siècle : pratiques socio-discursives émergentes * [58]24-2007 Linguistique et poésie : le poème et ses réseaux * [59]23-2007 Sémiotique et communication. Etat des lieux et perspectives d'un dialogue * [60]22-2006 Énonciation et responsabilité dans les médias * [61]21-2006 Catégories pour l'analyse du discours politique * [62]20-2005 Le rapport de place dans l'épistolaire * [63]19-2005 L'ordre des mots * [64]18-2004 De la culture orale à la production écrite : Littératures africaines * [65]17-2004 Argumentation et prise de position : pratiques discursives * [66]16-2003 Rythme de la prose * [67]15-2002 Figures du discours et ambiguïté * [68]14-2002 Textes, Dicours, Sujet * [69]13-2001 Genres de la presse écrite et analyse de discours * [70]12-2000 Répétition, altération, reformulation dans les textes et discours * [71]11-1999 Vers une sémiotique différentielle * [72]10-1995 Sémiotique(s) de la lecture * [73]09-1994 Texte, lecture, interprétation * [74]08-1993 Configurations discursives * [75]05-1989 La médiacritique littéraire * [76]03-1987 La réécriture du texte littéraire * [77]02-1985 De Saussure aux média * [78]01-1983 Lecture et lecteur Présentation * [79]Organisation scientifique * [80]Se procurer la revue * [81]Éditeur et institutions Informations * [82]Crédits du site * [83]Contacts * [84]À propos Lettres d'information * [85]La Lettre de Revues.org * [86]Revues.org * [87]RSS * [88]Lodel (accès réservé) __________________________________________________________________ ISSN électronique : 1957-780X [89]Plan du site - [90]Crédits du site - [91]Contacts - [92]À propos [93]Nous adhérons à Revues.org - [94]Édité avec Lodel - [95]Flux de syndication __________________________________________________________________ * [96]Revues.org * [-- Publications --................................................ ...............................] * [97]Calenda * [98]Hypothèses * [99]La Lettre * [100]Enquêtes Revues.org * [101]Léo, le blog * [102]Cléo Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : Not Found The requested URL /Inedits/Gerard/Gerard_Linearite.html was not found on this server. __________________________________________________________________ Apache/2.2.3 (Debian) DAV/2 SVN/1.4.2 mod_python/3.2.10 Python/2.4.4 PHP/5.2.0-8+etch16 Server at www.revue-texto.net Port 80 Not Found The requested URL /etudes_textes/txt_application/rimbaud/rythme_sonorites.htm was not found on this server. Décembre 2009 [[1] détails ] 147 853 visiteurs 282 170 pages lues [rfm.gif] La Gazette musicale [2][recherche.jpg] [3] Biographies musicales -- E[4]ncyclopédie -- S[5]'abonner au bulletin -- A[6]nnonces -- [7]Forum -- [8]Liste de discussion [9]cliquer pour prendre contact [trait_typ_01.gif] Entendre [trait_typ_01.gif] [10][voyage_au_pays_de_ma_nonkak.jpg] Voyage au Pays de Ma Nonkak, Conte d'AbyGaëlle sur une musique de J'hel. Atelier Hybrid'music, 2009 [A. 415652 ; 30 EUR] [11][electro_couac.jpg] Olivier Calmel Electro Couac, Sha-Docks. Yes or No Prod 2009 / Believe distribution [12][katsavara_et_de_l'_aube.jpg] Guigla Katsarava (piano), Et de l'aube émerge... Polymnie 150 658, 2009 (oeuvres de Scriabine, Szymanowski, Zaborov) [13][joseph_moog_metamorphose.jpg] Metamorphose(n). Joseph Moog (piano). Transcriptions et para- phrases pour le piano (Liszt, Fredmann, Moszkowski, Godowski, Busoni). Claves Records, 2009 [14][wolff_ruines.jpg] Jean-Claude Wolff, Ruines, Clartés stellaires (hommage à Hector Berlioz). Ensemble « Le Temps Retrouvé », Serge Coste, dir. [15][liz_mc_comb.jpg] Liz McComb, The Sacred Concert. Disque GVE / Naïve, 2009 [trait_typ_01.gif] Lire [trait_typ_01.gif] [16][charpentier_petits_motets_01.jpg] Cessac Catherine (éditrice), Marc-Antoine Charpentier, Petits motets (v.1) : motets à une ou deux voix. Édition critique, « Patrimoine Musical Français : monumentales » (1.4.1), Éditions du Centre de Musique Baroque de Versailles, 2009 [17][un_son_desenchante.jpg] Olive Jean-Paul, Un son désenchanté. « Collection d'esthétique » (73), Klincksieck, Paris 2008 [282 p., ISBN-19782252036822 ; 29 EUR] [18][musique_et_bruit.jpg] Le Vot Gérard (dir.) & Streletski Gérard (édit.), Bruit et musique (actes du colloque du 23 janvier 2008) Publications du département musique et musicologie, Université Lyon 2, Lumière, Lyon 2009 [X-326 p., ill ; ISBN 978-2-9527137-1-9 ; 25 EUR] [trait_typ_01.gif] Le temps demain [trait_typ_01.gif] [md_france48h.jpg] [trait_typ_01.gif] Actualités [trait_typ_01.gif] [19]Rétrospective des actualités musicales |||[20] [voir.gif] 18 janvier 2010 [21]Voir Piano international : nouvelle saison de piano en Limousin [22]Voir Enseignement supérieur / recherche : communiqué intersyndical pour la journée du 21 janvier 2010 [23]Voir William Christie retrouve la démesure baroque de la « Fairy Queen » de Purcell [24]Voir « Eugène Onéguine » à l'Opéra de Lille [25]Voir « Tempest: without a Body », l'ange de la mort du Samoan Ponifasio à Strasbourg [26]Voir « Le Ciel est pour Tous », l'intolérance religieuse selon Catherine Anne [27]Voir « Les femmes savantes « de Molière, comme au temps du Roi Soleil à Toulouse [28]Voir Jean-Paul Belmondo distingué par les critiques de cinéma de Los Angeles [29]Voir Le musée parisien du Luxembourg ferme ses portes pour plusieurs mois [30]Voir La plus ancienne amputation en France remonte à la préhistoire [31]Voir [Agenda] Les Sons d'hiver 2010 du Val-de-Marne, dès le 29 janvier [32]Voir [Le Populaire] Le pianoforte, sa vie, son histoire 17 janvier 2010 [33]Voir Cinq cent personnes se rassemblent en soutien à la comédienne Rayhana, agressée à Paris [34]Voir Banlieues Bleues : 27e édition [35]Voir La famille de Jacques Lanzmann indignée par les propos de Dutronc [36]Voir La violence, la guerre et l'identité dansées au théâtre marseillais du Merlan [37]Voir Johnny Depp dans les montagnes de Serbie: quand Hollywood se met au vert [38]Voir Izis, un des plus grands photographes français, méconnu, exposé à Paris [39]Voir Dany Laferrière : « Notre peuple ne mérite pas ça » [40]Voir Le Bayern Munich dédommage une poétesse plagiée par Karl-Heinz Rummenigge [41]Voir Le film Welcome de Philippe Lioret ainsi que Jacques Audiard récompensés 16 janvie 2010r [42]Voir Ils ont dit Django Reinhardt ... à l'occasion de ses cent ans [43]Voir Jonas Kaufmann, parfait héros romantique pour ses débuts en Werther [44]Voir Décès d'Ed Thigpen, batteur d'Oscar Peterson et Ella Fitzgerald [45]Voir Gainsbourg plus vrai que nature dans une « Vie héroïque » signée Joann Sfar [46]Voir Films français à l'étranger: après une année record, 2009 en berne [47]Voir Les dix longs métrages en langue française qui ont enregistré le plus d'entrées à l'étranger depuis dix ans [48]Voir L'image de "cinéma d'auteur" des films français "rend parfois plus difficile" leur exportation [49]Voir |Le Journal du Dimanche] Werther : la plus belle voix au monde [50]Voir [Le Progrès] Un violon de 18 000 euros écrasé dans le tramway [51]Voir [Le Figaro] Les orchestres symphoniques cherchent la bonne recette 15 janvier 2010 [52]Voir L'auteur et comédienne Rayhana agressée à Paris [53]Voir Les nominés aux Victoires de la musique classique 2010 [54]Voir Décès du crooner américain Teddy Pendergrass, légende de la soul music [55]Voir Ouverture jeudi du festival de cirque de Monte-Carlo [56]Voir Sénégal: décès du poète et comédien d'origine haïtienne Lucien Lemoine [57]Voir Décès du photographe américain Dennis Stock de l'agence Magnum [58]Voir Haïti : mort de l'écrivain Georges Anglade [59]Voir A 81 ans, Tintin entame de nouvelles aventures en Chine [60]Voir Le Muséum d'histoire naturelle met en ligne les espèces présentes et disparues en France [61]Voir [Nouvel Observateur] Boltanski entre au Grand-Palais 14 janvier 2010 [62]Voir Benoît Jacquot débute à l'Opéra de Paris, aves une mise en scène de « Werther » de Jules Massenet [63]Voir L'Académie du jazz a décerné ses lauriers 2009 [64]Voir Dutronc, Biolay, Christophe au festival Chorus des Hauts-de-Seine [65]Voir Jacques Dutronc revisite ses classiques sur la scène du Zénith [66]Voir L'humour acide de « La Noce » de Bertold Brecht [67]Voir « Les estivants » de Gorki mis en scène âr Eric Lacascade à Rennes [68]Voir Monumenta: des médiateurs pour accompagner l'émotion du public [69]Voir Le spectre lumineux d'une lointaine exoplanète capté depuis la Terre [70]Voir [L'Italie à Paris] Le violon de Mozart avec Giuliano Carmignola [71]Voir [Libé Lille] Poignant Onéguine à l'Opéra de Lille [72]Voir [Éco 89] Lady Gaga : du clip musical à l'émission de télé-achat [73]Voir [Libé Lyon] Les notes salées de l'Orchestre national de Lyon 13 janvier 2010 [74]Voir Un spectacle multimédia à Bastille [75]Voir Biennale des quatuors à cordes à la Cité de la musique [76]Voir Pauline Viardot cent ans après être morte [77]Voir Un album inédit de Jimi Hendrix, « Valleys of Neptune », en vente en mars [78]Voir Les nominations aux Victoires de la musique [79]Voir Quand Bollywood s'empare de l'opéra français [80]Voir Farruquito recouvre la liberté [81]Voir Vampire Weekend se dévergonde sous le soleil de Mexico avec «Contra » [82]Voir Premiers pas de stars sur les planches par temps de mépris des arts et de la culture [83]Voir Johnny Depp en Serbie pour le festival de cinéma d'Emir Kusturica [84]Voir James Ellroy en star du polar au théâtre du Rond-Point [85]Voir L'Ecole de journalisme de Sciences Po a été reconnue par la profession [86]Voir Le philosophe Daniel Bensaïd est mort [87]Voir Les films de la semaine [88]Voir Décès de Miep Gies, la femme qui aida Anne Frank et sa famille à survivre 12janvier 2010 [89]Voir Le nouveau jazz français excelle à New York aux côtés du rock mongol [90]Voir À 17 ans, Alexander Prior codirige l'orchestre symphonique de Seattle [91]Voir Mort de Otmar Suitner, grand dirigeant du Staatsoper de Berlin [92]Voir La salsa séduit de plus en plus d'Ethiopiens [93]Voir Denis Podalydès dans « Le cas Jekyll » au Théâtre de Chaillot [94]Voir Décès d'Éric Rohmer [95]Voir Herta Müller, Nobel de littérature, espionnée par un autre écrivain [96]Voir Découverte archéologique à Gaza près de la frontière égyptienne [97]Voir Plainte jordanienne auprès de l'UNESCO, sur la propriété des manuscrits de la mer Morte [98]Voir Découverte d'une habitation de l'âge de pierre près de Tel-Aviv [99]Voir [France-Soir] Manu Katché : « Duffy m'a confondu avec Manu Chao » [100]Voir [Le Figaro] L'esprit d'un grand musicien (Karajan) [101]Voir [Le Figaro] Le disque compact ne serait pas né sans lui (Karajan) [102]Voir [Radio France] Profession : copiste-graveur [103]Voir [Le Devoir.com] Le Metropolitan Opera au cinéma ; Le Chevalier à la rose, opéra viennois [104]Rétrospective des actualités musicales |||[105] [voir.gif] [106]février 2009 - [107]mars 2009 - [108]avril 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Comme d'autres grandes villes, Lille vient de lancer une concertation avec les parents et les enseignants pour raccourcir les journées en travaillant le mercredi matin. Fin mai, les conseils d'écoles devront se positionner. L'école, le mercredi matin ? A Lille, le débat est lancé. Depuis un mois, la ville mène officiellement une concertation sur la semaine scolaire de 4 jours. Avec une idée : donner la possibilité aux écoles qui le souhaiteraient de travailler le mercredi matin pour raccourcir les journées de classe. Selon Maurice Thoré, l'élu en charge des écoles, « les chronobiologistes sont unanimes : 6 heures de classe par jour, soit la durée la plus longue au monde, ce sont des élèves moins attentifs, plus fatigués. Avec, pour certains, les deux heures d'aide personnalisée, c'est trop ». Le propos est bien rôdé, très critique envers la politique éducative du gouvernement. Depuis début avril, les réunions de quartiers consacrées à la concertation commencent toujours de la même manière. Ce soir, à la mairie de quartier de Wazemmes, devant les parents et les enseignants Maurice Thoré, prend les mêmes précautions pour justifier la démarche de la ville : « notre devoir est d'engager avec vous une concertation collective que le ministère a confisquée l'an dernier en supprimant le samedi matin de manière unilatérale ». Espérer convaincre sans contraindre, tel est le leitmotiv de l'élu. Il sait que le débat est passionnel, souvent animé par un tourbillon d'avis divers, parfois tranchés. Alors, il se veut pédagogue. Au final, « la ville n'a pas de pouvoir de décision. Ce sera aux conseils d'école des 84 écoles lilloises de se positionner, l'Inspecteur d'académie validant les changements de schéma scolaire ». De son côté, la ville s'engage à mettre en place des activités périscolaires au sein d'un PEG (projet éducatif global) pour prendre en charge les enfants qui finiront l'école plus tôt. Car sans cela, pas de nouvelle organisation scolaire possible. « C'est l'élément structurant » qui doit permettre d'articuler de manière cohérente temps scolaire et périscolaire explique AlainThirel, coordonnateur du PEG à la ville de Lille. Et d'évoquer, les plans « lecture, nature, musique, patrimoine, à l'oeuvre depuis 2001 qui sont à disposition des écoles pour concevoir leur nouvelle organisation ». Un service supplémentaire « représentant 4,5 millions d'euros par an sans le moindre coût pour les familles » explique Alain Thirel. « La gratuité, certes, mais avec une qualité de l'encadrement » pointe une mère d'élève. « 600 vacataires sont actuellement employés à la mairie sur le périscolaire. La ville va t-elle enclencher des formations pour professionnaliser le secteur ? ». Selon Maurice Thoré, « les parents les plus opposés sont ceux qui proposent de nombreuses activités à leurs enfants en dehors de l'école ». Pour les autres, cet éventuel changement des rythmes de la semaine interroge. « On veut comprendre ce que feront nos enfants durant la journée témoigne une mère d'élève. Il faudra à nouveau se réorganiser ». Une autre rebondit : « Si il y a de l'école le mercredi, quid des clubs de sport ou activités culturelles ? Des nouvelles plages horaires sont elles prévues le samedi ? » Même certains, comme Catherine, « regrettent le samedi scolaire ou demandent que les vacances d'été soient raccourcies ». Inutile d'espérer car la loi ne le permet pas. « Ce sont des champs de compétences du ministère » explique l'élu. Pour Martine Haidon, directrice en maternelle, « voilà bien la preuve que les marges de manoeuvres sont bien ténues et ne permettent pas de réfléchir à tous les possibles pour faire que l'école soit plus respectueuse de l'enfant ». Avec toute l'équipe enseignante, elle ne pense pas proposer de changement au conseil d'école. Les parents qu'elle a réunis sont aussi du même avis. « C'est le toujours plus sans contrepartie » explique-t-elle évoquant un sentiment d'être constamment prise entre le marteau et l'enclume. « Le rouleau compresseur des réformes nous a lessivés avec des conditions de travail se dégradant encore et toujours ». Et, travailler le mercredi matin c'est aussi « participer aux animations pédagogiques l'après midi, payer plus pour les gardes d'enfants sans pour autant finir plus tôt en semaine avec l'aide personnalisée, les préparations ou les réunions ». Et de conclure « Oui pour travailler autrement mais en posant tous les éléments sur la table qui sont pour la plupart du ressort du ministère ». Ce constat, les enseignants de l'école André le font aussi. Après de longues discussions, l'équipe pense pourtant se lancer dans l'aventure du mercredi matin scolaire. Avec un espoir. « Moins de fatigue pour les enfants, ce peut-être moins de fatigue pour nous aussi et de plus grandes satisfactions professionnelles » explique Françoise, la directrice. Mais, l'expérience ne pourra se faire à n'importe quel prix. « Nous voulons discuter avec la mairie de la pause méridienne : réduire son temps pour reprendre plus tôt et en faire un vrai moment de repos pour les élèves ». Et puis, il y a l'occupation des salles sur le temps périscolaire. « Tout doit être mis au clair concernant le matériel utilisé, les activités pratiquées. Chacun doit rester dans son domaine de compétences » insiste Françoise. Pierre Laumenerch, secrétaire départemental du SNUipp, confirme. « La décision finale revient au conseil d'école. En outre, la ville doit apporter des garanties sur des questions pratiques : utilisation et statut des locaux scolaires, responsabilités des enseignants, pérennité des dispositifs périscolaires » « Il n'y a pas de modèle. La concertation aura eu au moins le mérite de mettre en lumière ce principe » reconnaît Maurice Thoré, l'élu. « Il nous faudra nous adapter à chaque école, construire des organisations en dentelle. On espère débuter l'expérimentation l'année prochaine avec quelques écoles volontaires. D'autres qui le souhaitent peuvent se donner le temps de la concertation avec nos services durant encore une année ». De son côté, l'inspection académique demande que « le retour au mercredi se fasse sur un territoire cohérent ». Rien n'est tranché donc. La réflexion continue. Le chantier des rythmes ne fait que commencer. __________________________________________________________________ Débats en cours C'est la circulaire du 5 juin 2008 qui permet d'ouvrir le débat sur l'organisation de la semaine scolaire. Elle donne en effet la possibilité de travailler sur neuf demi-journées, avec le mercredi matin, le samedi restant obligatoirement vaqué. Dans le texte, la proposition revient aux conseils d'école, après avis de la commune et accord de l'inspection académique. Ainsi, tout comme Lille, Grenoble, Angers, Brest ont également lancé une concertation pour modifier les rythmes de la semaine. Mais, ce qui est envisageable pour des grandes et de moyennes villes apparaît plus complexe pour des petites communes de milieu rural notamment. En effet, ces dernières ne possèdent ni les structures, ni les personnels qui ne leur permettent pas d'avoir les mêmes marges de manoeuvre que les pôles urbains (transports-activités périscolaires). En Ille-et-Vilaine, c'est l'inspecteur d'académie qui propose aux écoles volontaires de déposer un projet d'organisation sur neuf demi-journées. Dans son courrier, il pointe les « contraintes fortes » qu'impose un éventuel changement : « les animations pédagogiques les mercredis après-midi, le remplacement court rendu plus difficile, les mercredis matin », ainsi que « la formation continue remplacée par des stagiaires ». 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SKAYEM Références #[1]Semen - Articles [2]Semen - Numéros [3]Aller au contenu | [4]Aller au menu | [5]Recherche [6]Semen [7]16-2003, Rythme de la prose Le rythme de la prose Éric Bordas [8]Index | [9]Texte | [10]Bibliographie | [11]Notes | [12]Citation | [13]Auteur * [14]Signaler ce document * [15]Sommaire * [16]Article suivant Index Mots clés : [17]Prose, [18]Rythme, [19]Sémantique, [20]Sémiotique, [21]Style Texte intégral 1 Comme chacun sait, le rythme est partout : dans la vie quotidienne (en tant qu'expérience), comme dans les discours savants (en tant que référence). Dans le monde, comme dans la prose du monde qui rend celui-ci sensible à défaut de toujours le rendre intelligible. La récurrence de cette perception et de cette mention, rythme elle-même nos tentatives de rapprochement du mouvement et du temps pour permettre une appréhension plus claire du sujet recteur. Conséquence bien connue et inévitable : le mot (banalisé) tend à remplacer le concept (incertain), pour évacuer les questions de fond, à commencer par les définitions concurrentes[22]1. Ainsi, par exemple, se demande Pierre Sauvanet, dans une thèse magistrale de philosophie consacré à cet objet instable (2000, t. 1, p. 147), « qu'y a-t-il au juste de commun entre les trois expressions suivantes : un rythme ternaire, un rythme cardiaque, un rythme syncopé ? ». Filons-nous une métaphore ? mais laquelle, au juste ? N'avons-nous pas plutôt trois référents bien distincts, trois objets perceptibles par leurs qualités rythmiques, que nous assimilons à une superstructure cognitive qui serait ce rythme magique. Car la superposition des emplois lexicaux ne saurait passer pour une syncrèse acceptable : « rythme ternaire désigne a priori une pure structure formelle, à laquelle seule une périodicité potentielle conférerait a posteriori une temporalité ; rythme cardiaque désigne au contraire a priori un simple cycle de battements, se répétant à intervalles réguliers, auquel seule une structure de pensée a posteriori conférerait une intelligibilité ; quant au rythme syncopé, il renvoie à la dimension fondamentale du mouvement, qui s'oppose à tout ce qui est mécanique ou métrique, et qui se laisse difficilement appréhender a priori. Seule l'analyse théorique permet de le distinguer » (Sauvanet, ibid.). Parlons-nous donc encore de la même chose ? * [23]1 Voir les « 100 définitions du rythme » réunies par (...) 2 De la même façon, et dans le domaine de la langue, ce que nous appelons rythme en poésie versifiée classique correspond-il au rythme de la prose ? La prose, d'ailleurs, a-t-elle un rythme ? Une réponse catégorique n'est pas possible sans quelques mises au point générales, et l'on anticipera tout de suite la conclusion en affirmant que ce clivage artificiel, qui oppose prose et poésie, est absolument intenable. 3 4 On a la (bonne) habitude de commencer toute réflexion sur le rythme par la définition de Platon : « ... cet ordre du mouvement a reçu le nom de rythme »[24]2. L'organisation du mouvement rythmé (et rythmique) s'opère formellement grâce à l'existence de « relais de même nature » (Pineau, 1979, p. 12) que la perception, auditive et/ou visuelle, sensible quoi qu'il en soit, repère dans une construction générale, une configuration des matériaux traités. Le mouvement est ainsi défini par l'alternance dynamique des « élans » et des « posés »[25]3 : ces relais doivent être assez rapprochés pour que leur réunion fasse forme. Du point de vue de la motivation d'un tel mouvement physique, Nicolas Abraham (1972), se fondant sur la psychanalyse, a montré, à la source de l'énergie rythmique, la pression permanente du désir humain cherchant sans cesse à se donner des moyens de se satisfaire, puis insuffisamment satisfait par chacun des moyens qu'il a élaborés et remis en quête par le sentiment de frustration qui découle de cette expérience. En fait, il apparaît très vite que le principal problème à résoudre est celui d'un métalangage : comment dire le rythme comme configuration temporelle organisée ? * [26]2 Lois, 665a. * [27]3 Traduction, aussi simple que possible, des mots grecs (...) 5 Benveniste, dans son étude lexicale de ce qu'il présentait comme « le principe du mouvement cadencé » (1966, p. 335), a admis l'effort de métaphorisation presque indispensable pour suggérer un contenu sémantique à l'idée de rythme, sans pour autant cacher ses réticences devant les dérives imprécises que semblable conceptualisation par l'image ne pouvait qu'entraîner. Objet d'une évidente présence en musique bien sûr, mais aussi en poésie versifiée, le rythme se perçoit -- à défaut de se définir -- comme une « alternance de marques (temps fort, temps faible) du même et du différent » (Dessons & Meschonnic, 1998, p. 33), de vide et de plein, de longues et de brèves, comme un découpage, par intervalles, du son sur fond de silence. Cette conception peut conduire à oublier que le rythme est fondamentalement un mouvement, et non un compte, un pointage, oubli entériné par la métrique, qui entretient une notion fausse des unités (vers, phrase ou strophe) en privilégiant le schéma sur le discours, et qui rend l'analyse du rythme de la prose presque toujours caduque[28]4. C'est pourquoi, approfondissant l'approche de Benveniste, Henri Meschonnic (1982, pp. 69-70) nous a appris à penser le rythme comme « une structure », « un niveau », qui est l'organisation même du sens dans le discours[29]5. Le rythme découvre le sens de l'énoncé, et, partant, la trace du sujet de/dans cet énoncé[30]6. De sorte que c'est toute une critique du signe linguistique que la reconnaissance de la notion de rythme implique par elle-même : le rythme, comme organisation du continu dans le langage (Goux, 1999), met en évidence la structure discontinue du signe dans la paradigmatique langagière. Tout ceci -- dont il faut bien mesurer l'importance, car il s'agit rien de moins que d'une redistribution des hiérarchies porteuses de sens, de valeurs et construisant les formes mêmes de toute communication -- peut se ramener à la formule de Benveniste dans son travail sur le rythme pour proposer la reconnaissance d'autres paradigmes fondateurs que ceux du signe : le « sémantique sans sémiotique »[31]7. On comprend que les études de Benveniste et de Meschonnic, et aujourd'hui également de Gérard Dessons (1995), cherchent à remplacer une linguistique du discours qui avoue sur ce point précis ses limites[32]8, par une poétique de l'énonciation, plus attentive à la question des instabilités des sujets sémantiques, au-delà des supports privilégiés. * [33]4 Voir les critiques très sévères de G. Dessons & H. (...) * [34]5 On prendra garde à ne pas confondre système (ensemble (...) * [35]6 « Si le sens est une activité du sujet, si le rythme (...) * [36]7 « Le sémiotique (le signe) doit être RECONNU ; le (...) * [37]8 C'est également la conclusion du bilan de Wunenburger (...) 6 Compte tenu de ces précautions méthodologiques, on entendra par rythme, dans une précision de la définition platonicienne, « l'organisation du mouvement de la parole par un sujet » (Dessons & Meschonnic, 1998, p. 28), idée qui a le mérite de replacer le sujet recteur au centre de la réflexion. Que cette organisation soit à l'oeuvre dans le matériau linguistique de la prose, c'est une évidence que seule la carence des outils d'analyse ou même de réflexion pourrait sembler contredire. Mais il est bien évident que les problèmes posés par sa reconnaissance sont considérables. 7 Tout d'abord, parce que le rythme, on l'a vu, implique la présence concrète et active du silence comme superstructure sensible. Or, comme le signalait déjà Daniel Delas il y a quelques années (1991), en un avertissement qui n'a peut-être pas été assez entendu, il est certain que la linguistique ne connaît guère le silence, mais seulement la pause, qu'elle subordonne toujours au continuum de la chaîne parlée et/ou à celui de la logique de la pensée. Nous aurions tout à gagner à apprendre à ne pas penser le silence par défaut, moins encore à le vivre comme une menace d'aphasie, mais à l'envisager comme un discours actif, qui a sa syntaxe, à défaut d'avoir une grammaire et un lexique. Une syntaxe concrétisée dans les pulsations rythmiques de son apparition/disparition, par exemple. 8 Autre problème théorique posé par l'idée même d'un rythme non mesurable en unités métriques de convention, la gestion de la prise en charge du temps impliqué -- par opposition au temps représenté dans le discours parlé. Et si le rythme, autre aspect du silence, n'était qu'un réseau vide, n'existant seulement que dans son application à la densité figurative d'une sémiotique spécifique ? quelle serait alors la durée de cette vibration ? quelle serait sa chronologie originale, entre présent, passé et futur ? 9 Troisième et dernier problème ici envisagé, comment analyser le rythme d'une langue dans un matériau non esthétisé, sans une linguistique de la voix, qui ne soit pas une poétique du discours ? Sur ce point, plus que sur les deux précédents encore, il conviendrait de parvenir à assouplir les relations entre linguistique et littérature si l'on veut vraiment pouvoir obtenir une réponse à la question, et non rester sur des positions de principes. Le rythme de/dans la langue n'existe que par une mise en voix, qui implique une présence au monde à partir de laquelle certains réseaux sémiotiques peuvent se déployer. C'est là la différence majeure avec la perception d'un rythme temporel, qui est un rythme historique, non articulé en unités auditives : rythme des événements, rythme des saisons, etc. 10 Compte tenu de ces trois difficultés d'intellection, on a choisi, dans le présent volume, d'envisager le rythme comme une « grille d'orientation et de densification » du discours (Ceriani, 1988, p. 37), en un mot comme une aspectualisation du programme discursif, parfois présenté dans sa variante narrative. Ainsi, le rythme de base, le rythme fondateur de toute énonciation, peut être conçu comme structure « de contrôle responsable de la dynamique à la fois temporelle et volitive » de la production et de l'attente narrative, mais aussi poétique (Ceriani, ibid.), une structure qui est une empreinte absolue. 11 On a donc choisi de partir du phénomène rythmique, dans sa concrétude, par opposition à l'abstraction du rythme comme concept immanent. Jean-Paul Goux ouvre le volume, en scientifique et en écrivain, pour insister sur l'importance d'une syntaxe très large dans la perception et l'appréhension du rythme dans la prose narrative, un rythme qui est d'abord « allure », allant dans la continuité -- trace de voix, et marque de style. Puis, trois étapes complémentaires permettent de cerner cette présence active. 12 -- Dans sa dimension linguistique, le rythme est un régulateur perceptif, qui peut jouer un rôle unique dans l'activité de contrainte du sens. Albert Di Cristo analyse la métrique de la parole ordinaire, et tout le dispositif de modélisation du système accentuel français ; la métrique s'oppose au rythme, et ce ailleurs que dans l'opposition esthétique prose vs poésie. Sabine Pétillon, pour sa part, se penche sur l'énonciation des parenthèses, des formes de suspension, à partir desquelles le sens bifurque et propose des interactions parfois retorses ; son support de réalisation privilégiée est l'unité phrase, que le rythme contribue à définir, voire à inventer. Il est clair que le rythme structure les possibilités de production et de réception de n'importe quel message. 13 -- Cinq études consacrées à la poétique, non des textes, mais du matériau langagier choisi, envisagent ensuite le rythme, non plus comme une structure à proprement parler, mais comme un dispositif pragmatique. Jacques-Philippe Saint-Gérand montre comment les dictionnaires, encyclopédies et autres manuels de rhétorique et de poétique, du XVIIIe siècle au début du XXe siècle, se sont épuisés à poursuivre une impossible définition du « rhythme » en dévitalisant ce principe temporel par des aplatissements dynamiques hors contexte énonciatif. Le dialogue avec les déclarations de musiciens et de poètes fut un rendez-vous manqué. Jean-Michel Gouvard relit la Grammaire générale de Beauzée pour revenir à la source de l'analyse moderne de la prosodie. Il rend hommage à l'originalité d'une pensée qui a anticipé la reconnaissance d'une différence radicale entre accentuation de type mécanique et accentuation liée à l'expressivité. Benoît de Cornulier fait le point sur les « problèmes d'analyse rythmique du non-métrique », régulièrement rappelés par les métriciens depuis Jean Mazaleyrat. Son travail vise à nuancer l'opposition prose/poésie, tout en soulignant pourtant les incompatibilités méthodologiques de base. De façon radicalement différente, Gérard Dessons creuse la dimension prosaïque de « tout ce qui n'est point vers », pour montrer que le clivage est une erreur totale, en particulier, donc, en ce qui concerne le rythme[38]9 : refusant la reconnaissance négative de la prose, il retrouve le prosaïsme dans le rythme de certains vers. Enfin, Philippe Jousset propose une phénoménologie de la prose comme objet de connaissance, dans le monde et sur le monde : il écoute le rythme des configurations narratives ou poétiques pour se demander comment parle la prose. * [39]9 Voir Illouz & Neefs (2002) pour un approfondissement (...) 14 -- Deux dernières études privilégient la dimension stylistique du phénomène physique. Le rythme est alors envisagé comme stratégie de caractérisation, plus ou moins maîtrisée, dosage aspectuel et configuration d'une attente qui fait sens dans sa complémentarité avec le silence. Marie-Christine Lala, relisant Duras, Bataille et Artaud, écrivains de la violence s'il en est, et de ce que l'on appelle « folie », étudie les différences de liaison dans le continu du matériau discursif, autant que dans les continuités de la rupture en tant que principe. Son étude place la voix au centre de la vérité de la prose, la voix qui est un autre aspect, sinon l'aspect même, du style. Impossible de réaliser un volume sur le rythme de la parole et de la phrase, ou du texte, sans une étude sur le théâtre[40]10 : Arnaud Bernadet a choisi le théâtre de Koltès, ce théâtre de la « démystification de la voix », qui prend le risque du silence, en un nouveau phrasé : le récitatif de cette prose ose le registre de l'amuïssement, racontant « moins l'indicible qu'il ne le réalise ». * [41]10 On lira les passionnantes réflexions d'A. Vitez, (...) 15 16 C'est à la somme de Pierre Sauvanet (2000, t. 2, p. 179) que l'on empruntera le mot de la fin. « Ce que permet une pensée du rythme, c'est peut-être ceci : à partir d'un point d'ancrage local, passer au global sans tomber dans le total. Le rythme n'est pas tout, tout n'est pas rythme, mais les phénomènes de rythmicité offrent une perspective globalisante, à travers le schème et le concept de rythme comme différentiel et comme mixte (structure, périodicité, mouvement) ». Peut-être faudrait-il donc préférer le terme de rythmique à celui de rythme -- comme on oppose le musical à la musique. Le rythme est d'abord et exclusivement la propriété abstraite de ce qui est rythmique. « Le rythmique permet de quitter le terrain d'une totalité pan-rythmique pour tenter de penser, non le tout, mais les différents aspects du rythme dans chacun de ses phénomènes. Avec le rythme, la pensée ne vise donc pas un objet identique à soi : tout juste peut-elle prétendre à fournir un canevas conceptuel, à mieux fixer le sens des mots que nous employons quand nous disons `rythme' » (Sauvanet, ibid.). 17 Épreuve de liberté intellectuelle, comme on parle d' «épreuve de résistance », mais risque également, l'idée de rythme peut nous permettre de nous dégager du fétichisme du signe et du sens à comprendre, pour faire accepter l'évidence d'une présence au monde. Bibliographie ABRAHAM, Nicolas [1972] : « Le temps, le rythme et l'inconscient », Revue française de psychanalyse, Paris, vol. XXXVI. BENVENISTE, Émile [1966, 1974] : Problèmes de linguistique générale, Paris, Gallimard (2 tomes). CERIANI, Giulia [1988] : « L'empreinte rythmique : régulation, information, contraintes », Cahiers de Sémiotique Textuelle, Nanterre, n° 14, pp. 37-48. DELAS, Daniel [1991] : « Silence et rythme », RITM, Nanterre, n° 1, pp. 11-20. DESSONS, Gérard [1995] : Introduction à la poétique, Paris, Dunod. DESSONS, Gérard, & MESCHONNIC, Henri [1998] : Traité du rythme. Des vers et des proses, Paris, Dunod. GOUX, Jean-Paul [1999] : La Fabrique du continu, Seyssel, Champ-Vallon. ILLOUZ, Jean-Nicolas, & NEEFS, Jacques (éd.) [2002] : Crise de prose, Saint-Denis, PUV. MESCHONNIC, Henri [1982] : Critique du rythme. Anthropologie historique du langage, Lagrasse, Verdier. PINEAU, Joseph [1979] : Le Mouvement rythmique en français. Principes et méthodes d'analyse, Paris, Klincksieck. SAUVANET, Pierre [1996] : « À quelles conditions un discours philosophique sur le rythme est-il possible ? (réponse à Henri Meschonnic) », in P. Sauvanet & J.-J. Wunenburger (éd.), Rythmes et philosophie, Paris, Kimé, pp. 23-39. SAUVANET, Pierre [2000] : Le Rythme et la raison (tome 1 : Rythmologiques, tome 2 : Rythmanalyses), Paris, Kimé. TODOROV, Tzvetan (éd.) [1965] : Théorie de la littérature, Paris, Seuil. VITEZ, Antoine [1982] : « À l'intérieur du parlé, du geste, du mouvement. Entretien avec H. Meschonnic », Langue française, Paris, n° 56, pp. 24-34. WUNENBURGER, Jean-Jacques (éd.) [1992] : Les Rythmes : lectures et théories, Paris, L'Harmattan. Notes [42]1 Voir les « 100 définitions du rythme » réunies par P. Sauvanet dans sa somme philosophique (2000, t. 1, pp. 230-245), qui vont de définitions épistémologiques (Aristoxène de Tarente : « Le rythme apparaît lorsque la division des temps prend un ordre déterminé ») à des intuitions plus lapidaires (Pablo Casals : « Le rythme, c'est le retard »). De ce bel ensemble, on distinguera l'analyse de Diderot (Salon de 1767) : « Qu'est-ce donc que le rythme ? me demandez-vous. C'est un choix particulier d'expressions, c'est une certaine distribution de syllabes longues ou brèves, dures ou douces, sourdes ou aigres, légères ou pesantes, lentes ou rapides, plaintives ou gaies, ou un enchaînement de petites onomatopées analogues aux idées qu'on a et dont on est fortement occupé, aux sensations qu'on ressent, et qu'on veut exciter, aux phénomènes dont on cherche à rendre les accidents, aux passions qu'on éprouve et au cri animal qu'elles arracheraient, à la nature, au caractère, au mouvement des actions qu'on se propose de rendre ; et cet art-là n'est pas plus de conventions que les effets de la lumière et les couleurs de l'arc-en-ciel ; il ne s'apprend point, il ne se communique point, il peut seulement se perfectionner. Il est inspiré par un goût naturel, par la mobilité de l'âme, par la sensibilité. C'est l'image même de l'âme ». [43]2 Lois, 665a. [44]3 Traduction, aussi simple que possible, des mots grecs arsis et thésis. [45]4 Voir les critiques très sévères de G. Dessons & H. Meschonnic, op. cit., p. 32. L'idée vient des Formalistes russes en fait ; voir l'article décisif de O. Brik, « Rythme et syntaxe », ou les remarques de B. Eikhenbaum, in Tzv. Todorov (1965). [46]5 On prendra garde à ne pas confondre système (ensemble organisé par des unités qui sont interdépendantes) et structure (ensemble d'unités solidaires, mais pas nécessairement interdépendantes). Pour une discussion des propositions de Meschonnic, voir Sauvanet (1996). [47]6 « Si le sens est une activité du sujet, si le rythme est une organisation du sens dans le discours, le rythme est nécessairement une organisation ou configuration du sujet dans son discours », H. Meschonnic, ibid., p. 71. [48]7 « Le sémiotique (le signe) doit être RECONNU ; le sémantique (le discours) doit être COMPRIS. [...] Le privilège de la langue est de comporter à la fois la signifiance des signes et la signifiance de l'énonciation. De là provient son pouvoir majeur, celui de créer un deuxième niveau d'énonciation, où il devient possible de tenir des propos signifiants sur la signifiance », É. Benveniste (1974, pp. 64-65). [49]8 C'est également la conclusion du bilan de Wunenburger (1992). [50]9 Voir Illouz & Neefs (2002) pour un approfondissement de cette idée, historicisée tout au long du XIXe siècle. [51]10 On lira les passionnantes réflexions d'A. Vitez, interrogé par H. Meschonnic (1982), pour mesurer toute la pluralité de réalisation de la voix au théâtre. Pour citer cet article Référence électronique Éric Bordas, « Le rythme de la prose », Semen, 16, Rythme de la prose, 2003, [En ligne], mis en ligne le 1 mai 2007. 2010. Auteur [52]Éric Bordas Université de la Sorbonne Nouvelle - Paris 3 Navigation Chercher ____________________ OK Index * [53]Auteurs * [54]Mots clés Actualités * [55]Appels à contribution Semen Texte intégral * [56]26-2008 Médiaculture et médiacritique * [57]25-2008 Le discours de presse au dix-neuvième siècle : pratiques socio-discursives émergentes * [58]24-2007 Linguistique et poésie : le poème et ses réseaux * [59]23-2007 Sémiotique et communication. Etat des lieux et perspectives d'un dialogue * [60]22-2006 Énonciation et responsabilité dans les médias * [61]21-2006 Catégories pour l'analyse du discours politique * [62]20-2005 Le rapport de place dans l'épistolaire * [63]19-2005 L'ordre des mots * [64]18-2004 De la culture orale à la production écrite : Littératures africaines * [65]17-2004 Argumentation et prise de position : pratiques discursives * [66]16-2003 Rythme de la prose * [67]15-2002 Figures du discours et ambiguïté * [68]14-2002 Textes, Dicours, Sujet * [69]13-2001 Genres de la presse écrite et analyse de discours * [70]12-2000 Répétition, altération, reformulation dans les textes et discours * [71]11-1999 Vers une sémiotique différentielle * [72]10-1995 Sémiotique(s) de la lecture * [73]09-1994 Texte, lecture, interprétation * [74]08-1993 Configurations discursives * [75]05-1989 La médiacritique littéraire * [76]03-1987 La réécriture du texte littéraire * [77]02-1985 De Saussure aux média * [78]01-1983 Lecture et lecteur Présentation * [79]Organisation scientifique * [80]Se procurer la revue * [81]Éditeur et institutions Informations * [82]Crédits du site * [83]Contacts * [84]À propos Lettres d'information * [85]La Lettre de Revues.org * [86]Revues.org * [87]RSS * [88]Lodel (accès réservé) __________________________________________________________________ ISSN électronique : 1957-780X [89]Plan du site - [90]Crédits du site - [91]Contacts - [92]À propos [93]Nous adhérons à Revues.org - [94]Édité avec Lodel - [95]Flux de syndication __________________________________________________________________ * [96]Revues.org * [-- Publications --................................................ ...............................] * [97]Calenda * [98]Hypothèses * [99]La Lettre * [100]Enquêtes Revues.org * [101]Léo, le blog * [102]Cléo Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : #[1]Semen - Articles [2]Semen - Numéros [3]Aller au contenu | [4]Aller au menu | [5]Recherche [6]Semen [7]16-2003, Rythme de la prose Problèmes d'analyse rythmique du non-métrique Benoît de Cornulier [8]Index | [9]Plan | [10]Texte | [11]Bibliographie | [12]Notes | [13]Citation | [14]Auteur * [15]Signaler ce document * [16]Sommaire * [17]Article précédent * [18]Article suivant Index Mots clés : [19]Ambiguïté (rythmique), [20]Conditionnement (du rythme), [21]Elision (mentale), [22]Formatage, [23]Rythme (non-métrique) Plan [24]1. Pas le rythme, des rythmes [25]2. Traitements rythmiques. Exemple français littéraire [26]3. Gratuité d'un traitement rythmique. [27]4. Sélection et complétude métriques. [28]Bilan Texte intégral 1 L'analyse rythmique de textes non-métriques dans une tradition donnée s'est longtemps faite, et se fait encore souvent, à la lumière de l'analyse des textes métriques surtout littéraires (communiqués par l'écriture). Il peut valoir la peine de souligner l'influence, pas forcément justifiée, qui résulte parfois de l'analyse métrique sur l'analyse non-métrique, tout en signalant des problèmes que l'analyse métrique elle-même peut révéler. [29]1. Pas le rythme, des rythmes 2 Commençons par rappeler qu'un texte, en tant que suite d'énoncés, n'a pas un rythme et un seul, puisque l'effet rythmique qu'il procure dépend de la manière dont il est présenté et reçu. Ce qui suit peut être lu comme de la prose : (A) C'est plutôt le sabbat du second Faust que l'autre. Un rhythmique sabbat, rhythmique, extrêmement rhythmique. - Imaginez un jardin de Lenôtre, correct, ridicule et charmant. 3 On pourrait en proposer une analyse rythmique s'inspirant de ce qui suit : Le sentiment du rythme dans une phrase française est (...) fondé sur la perception d'une série de rapports entre les nombres syllabiques de groupes délimités par leurs accents. (Jean Mazaleyrat, 1974, p. 14) 4 Par exemple, en comptant les syllabes de certains syntagmes ou groupes, on pourrait envisager pour le segment médian l'analyse suivante en comptant : Un rhythmique sabbat (6), rhythmique (2), extrêmement rhythmique (6) ? -> Un rhythmique sabbat (6), rhythmique, extrêmement rhythmique (8) ? 5 Mais en 1866 ces mêmes mots avaient été disposés dans les Poèmes saturniens de Verlaine en alinéas et paragraphe réguliers : [30]Image1 [31]Agrandir 6 Ce formatage était censé induire un lecteur cultivé à traiter dans sa tête ces alinéas en vers de rythme 6 6, à traiter le tout en une strophe, couple de paires de vers rimés en [otK (@)] et [2A], et pouvait encore induire certains lecteurs à distinguer le rythme bi-vocalique des finales en [otK (@)], féminines, de celui des autres, masculines. Dans ce traitement rythmique métrique, la longueur de « extrêmement / Rythmique » en nombre de voyelles (6) avait de bonnes chances de n'être pas sensible. 7 8 On sait en effet depuis longtemps, par des exemples multiples, qu'un même texte peut être lu et reçu comme de la prose ou comme des vers (parfois de plusieurs manières) selon la manière dont il est présenté. On pourrait multiplier les variantes, et même en envisager d'autre nature ; par exemple, ces mots pourraient être mis en musique de plusieurs manières impliquant des regroupements variés. Même si le découpage en hémistiches et vers se retrouvait identique dans un air donné, les nombres de voyelles (6 ou 8) qui participent au rythme métrique du quatrain à lire ont de grandes chances de ne plus être sensibles dans le chant : c'est une expérience largement partagée, que, quand on entend chanter des « vers » de même mètre, s'il s'en trouve un de nombre différent, alors qu'il pourrait paraître boiteux à la lecture, il ne se distingue pas dans le chant. Qui sent, en chantant la Marseillaise, que Égorger nos fils et non compagnes est, ou plutôt, pourrait être, à la lecture de sa strophe écrite, un vers faux ? Le sentiment du rythme chronorythmique du chant n'est pas le sentiment du rythme numérique (plus phonologique) qui fait le vers de mètre 8 (Ils viennent jusque dans nos bras / Égorger nos fils, nos compagnes).[32]1 * [33]1 On peut s'imaginer percevoir dans le chant ces (...) 9 10 Ces observations ont des conséquences assez évidentes, mais qu'on oublie volontiers, c'est pourquoi on se permettra ici de rappeler la plus simple : 11 Rythme de phrase. Le rythme d'une phrase, ça n'existe pas. 12 Pour qu'on puisse parler, avec l'article défini, du rythme (le rythme) de la phrase (être grammatical unique que des énonciations diverses peuvent réaliser), il faudrait en effet d'abord que la phrase ait un rythme ; et, de plus, qu'elle en ait un seul. Or non seulement des énonciations d'une phrase peuvent se rythmer de plusieurs manières très différentes, mais l'énonciation d'une phrase peut se répartir contextuellement, par exemple, en deux morceaux de vers, de telle manière qu'elle ne soit pas elle-même, dans son unité, un objet rythmique.[34]2 * [35]2 Voir Gérard Dessons et Henry Meschonnic, 1998, p. 70 sv. 13 Ce qu'on nomme analyse rythmique n'est souvent qu'un métrage syllabique de constituants grammaticaux d'une phrase (en admettant qu'elle ne soit syllabable que d'une manière) ; cette activité comptable produit des nombres abstraits, pas une analyse rythmique. L'analyse rythmique du discours n'a pas pour objet des phrases, même des énoncés, qui puissent être analysés, mesurés et métrés comme le lit de Figaro (tant de long, tant de large, quelle que soit la date et le métricien). Plutôt que propriété d'un objet supposé dont l'esprit pourrait seulement reconnaître ou ne pas reconnaître le rythme, le rythme est dans l'activité mentale (événementielle) d'un esprit qui sent du rythme en traitant d'une certaine manière, par exemple, des énonciations ou une activité discursive (qui peut inclure non seulement des énonciations, mais des aspects de leur contexte pragmatique). Au théâtre ou dans la communication orale, le traitement rythmique du discours peut s'intégrer à celui de l'action du locuteur. Dans l'esprit d'un lecteur lisant silencieusement ou pensant verbalement (on peut penser des vers comme on peut penser de la musique), il peut ne pas y avoir de contrepartie physique extérieure du discours rythmé. [36]2. Traitements rythmiques. Exemple français littéraire 14 L'organisation rythmique de l'activité mentale d'un esprit traitant du discours dépend en partie de la nature des énoncés, mais ce qui précède rappelle qu'elle est, spectaculairement et parfois de manière essentielle, conditionnable par d'autres paramètres. A cause, notamment, de son caractère littéraire, la poésie française "classique", si on peut par cette étiquette désigner assez arbitrairement la poésie publiée en recueils d'environ 1550 à 1870 (dates très approximatives), nous donnera d'abord un exemple d'un système complexe de conditionnement codifié du traitement rythmique du discours. 15 La phrase qu'on peut écrire : (B) Qu'il vienne, qu'il vienne, le temps dont on s'éprenne. 16 pouvait donner lieu, phoniquement, vers 1873 comme encore de nos jours, à des interprétations ou traitements syllabiques différents, notamment selon qu'on y suppose ou non un emploi de [ @ ] à la fin de l'une ou l'autre occurrence de « vienne » et à la fin de « s'éprenne ». On peut aussi imaginer des dictions ou interprétations (mentales mais éventuellement silencieuses) favorisant des regroupements différents, par exemple, pour s'en tenir à des regroupements assez concordants avec la structure de l'énoncé : une diction continue assez unifiée du tout ; une diction binaire, en coupant soit après la première occurrence de « vienne », soit après la seconde ; une diction ternaire en coupant après les deux... 17 Dans Une Saison en enfer de Rimbaud (1873), dans le poème intitulé Chanson de la plus haute Tour, cette phrase était imprimée en deux alinéas métriques (vers) regroupé en un paragraphe métrique (comme ce qu'on nommait souvent une stance ou une strophe) ; ce paragraphe était répété, formant un refrain dont les trois occurrences étaient séparées par des couplets de vers de rythme 5 (sauf un inégal de rythme 4), au moins conventionnellement féminins. 18 Cette disposition graphique avait un rôle déterminé par une longue tradition dont les lecteurs visés par ce texte étaient censés être imprégnés. Par sa nature écrite et par son formatage, le texte s'annonçait au regard comme de la poésie versifiée, donc (normalement) métrique, c'est-à-dire, plus particulièrement, présentant des régularités rythmiques plus ou moins familières dans cette tradition. On s'attendait en particulier à ce qu'un texte métrique soit métrique de part en part, et à ce que son organisation métrique soit ostensiblement signalée, et en partie (vers, stances) déterminée graphiquement par son formatage. A partir de ces orientations initiales, une structure métrique était censée être normalement reconnaissable conformément à ce qu'on peut appeler un principe d'Évidence immédiate de la structure métrique, à l'application duquel convergeaient un grand nombre de contraintes hétérogènes sur le texte, dont : sa présentation graphique, sa prononciation supposée et la conformité de ses rythmes au répertoire des combinaisons de mètres. A partir d'un tel conditionnement, la structure métrique était censée s'imposer par sa régularité même dans le texte (extrapolation métrique, renforcée par l'attente d'exhaustivité métrique). (Sur cet aspect de la poésie, voir Cornulier et Murat, 2000). 19 L'imprégnation supposée par cette tradition littéraire vers la fin du Second Empire pouvait induire l'esprit d'un lecteur cultivé à se mettre, pour ainsi dire, en mode métrique (littéraire), et déterminer les éléments d'organisation rythmique suivants (dans la transcription phonétique, les barres verticales notent des pauses) : [37]Image2 [38]Agrandir 20 En effet la tradition habituait à sentir des régularités remarquables impliquant la distinction de ces trois parties d'un vers ou d'une expression rythmée : sa dernière voyelle masculine, qu'on peut nommer sa tonique ; sa partie anatonique, incluant sa tonique et ce qui éventuellement la précède ; sa partie catatonique, incluant sa tonique et ce qui éventuellement la suit. Les régularités repérables sur ces parties du vers étaient essentiellement : 21 1) un rythme anatonique déterminé par le nombre de voyelles de la partie anatonique, dont la régularité caractérise le mètre comme rythme anatonique régulier ;[39]3 * [40]3 Identifier cette forme (par un terme tel (...) 22 2) la forme phonémique catatonique, c'est-à-dire la forme (en phonèmes) de la partie catatonique, dont la régularité caractérise la rime comme forme catatonique régulière ; 23 3) la cadence, c'est-à-dire le rythme catatonique, simplement caractérisé (en poésie) par le nombre de voyelles de la forme catatonique.[41]4 * [42]4 On ne prétend pas ici que la cadence était (...) 24 Il s'en faut de beaucoup que ces éléments soient complètement déterminés par la structure syntaxique-sémantique, morphologique et phonologique de la phrase. 25 Le formatage graphique en alinéas métriques (vers) déterminait d'abord la syllabation : le lecteur métrique était induit à traiter chaque vers comme une continuité syllabique et chaque entrevers comme une discontinuité syllabique ; dans ce cadre, l'emploi du [@] du premier « vienne » était dicté par la langue des vers. La tradition métrique induisait, à partir de là, à sentir le rythme anatonique de chacun des vers (5 et 6), puisque c'était l'élément obligé d'une métrique attendue ; c'est donc la pression métrique imposée par la tradition littéraire au lecteur de l'époque qui l'induisait à élaborer ces rythmes. 26 Dans cette interprétation rythmique, le second vers pouvait apparaître comme le seul 6-voyelles du poème (particularité plutôt problématique en tradition purement littéraire). 27 28 Toutefois Arthur Rimbaud pouvait aussi rythmer cet énoncé d'une manière toute différente. On sait par le témoignage de son professeur de rhétorique qu'il connaissait la chanson populaire de l'avoine (dialectalement « avène »), répandue dans toutes la France, et dont le refrain, dans certaines de ses variantes régionales, se disait et se rythmait plus ou moins comme suit (le rythme musical est noté à droite[43]5) : * [44]5 L'écriture rythmique employée ici est définie dans (...) [45]Image3 [46]Agrandir 29 Dans cette interprétation chronorythmique, quoique les deux expressions aient des nombres de voyelles anatoniques différents (5 et 6, sans négliger l'e féminin du premier « avène »), elles sont sensiblement isométriques.[47]6 Il est vraisemblable qu'en écrivant son refrain de la Saison, Rimbaud les a pensées au moins occasionnellement sur ce rythme, en sachant que des collègues comme Verlaine ne manqueraient pas de reconnaître ce modèle de tradition orale au moins offert comme en contrepoint de l'interprétation littéraire métriquement problématique. La double référence à la tradition littéraire (numérique) et à la tradition orale (chronorythmique) permettait d'installer une ambiguïté rythmique sans simplement abolir la pertinence du traitement rythmique littéraire. * [48]6 Le sentiment d'isochronie entre « Avène, (...) [49]3. Gratuité d'un traitement rythmique. 30 La comparaison d'un traitement rythmique de tradition orale (en intervalles de durée entre certaines attaques de voyelles) et d'un traitement rythmique de tradition littéraire (en nombre de voyelles) permet de souligner la liberté de choix de certains traitements rythmiques. C'est une mise en perspective dans une tradition de poésie littéraire qui peut induire un esprit à percevoir, ou plutôt construire une séquence des 5 valeurs rythmiques à partir des voyelles anatoniques de [kkilvjEn@ kilvjEn@],[50]7 sans se contenter de construire, par exemple, à partir de chaque occurrence de [kkilvjEn@], son rythme anatonique (2) et sa cadence (2). * [51]7 Dans un traitement continu de « Qu'il vienne, (...) 31 Dans la tradition métricienne, il n'est pas habituel de distinguer le métrage des suites grammaticales et l'analyse rythmique des énonciations, et on fait souvent comme si le rythme était une propriété objective de parties distinguées des énoncés. On a pourtant deux raisons de rejeter le présupposé selon lequel tout esprit qui traite distinctement une expression (assez brève) élabore automatiquement un rythme fondé sur son nombre de voyelles anatoniques. Première raison, négative : personne (à ma connaissance) n'a songé à établir ce présupposé qu'on ne formule même pas ; il suffit de l'expliciter pour en douter. Deuxième raison : on a vu qu'une virtualité rythmique pouvait en cacher une autre ; le traitement chronorythmique d'un « vers » de la Marseillaise ou de « Qu'il vienne, qu'il vienne » peut empêcher de reconnaître une inégalité contextuelle de nombre vocalique selon un traitement numérique ; inversement, un traitement littéraire du vers peut priver de reconnaître une régularité chronométrique possible pour une diction qu'on pourrait en faire (comme en chant). 32 Ainsi, en l'absence de justifications expresses, il est arbitraire de décider qu'une suite non-métrique quelconque doit être exhaustivement divisée en segments dont un rythme anatonique potentiel soit supposé réalisé. [52]4. Sélection et complétude métriques. 33 Un système métrique déterminé, dans une langue déterminée, et même sur des segments du texte déterminés, peut encore donner lieu à des applications variées au niveau de la sélection des signaux ou sons auxquels est appliqué tel type de traitement rythmique. L'un des rythmes les plus universellement répandus dans les traditions orales peut être décrit comme une paire de deux couples d'événements instantanés en série isochrone, en prenant pour exemple le cri collectif « Untel, une chanson ! », parfois scandé collectivement avec le nom de quelqu'un à la place de « Machin » : [53]Image4 [54]Agrandir 34 Dans l'exemple figuré ici, « Un- tel, un' chanson ! », les attaques des voyelles des syllabes distinguées en gras sont seules pertinentes au niveau isochrone 2 (deux couples de coups). A ce niveau, la première voyelle de « chanson » n'est pas pertinente. Pourtant il peut exister au moins localement une série isochrone (niveau 1 ci-dessus) relativement à laquelle l'attaque de cette voyelle intermédiaire est pertinente. Il y a donc une forme rythmique à l'égard de laquelle la première voyelle de « chanson » n'est pas pertinente (niveau 2) et il y a un rythme à l'égard duquel elle l'est (niveau 1). 35 Il n'y a pas toujours comme ici un niveau métrique inférieur auquel les voyelles qui n'ont pas eu l'honneur de contribuer au rythme au niveau supérieur ont un rôle à jouer, comme qui dirait, en seconde division ; ainsi, dans certaines formules de tradition orale anglaise, entre deux voyelles métriquement groupées d'une manière chronométrique, des voyelles intermédiaires peuvent intervenir plus ou moins librement. 36 A leur tour, les voyelles de « Un » et « -ne », pertinentes au niveau 2, peuvent cesser d'être rythmiquement pertinentes à un niveau supérieur, si, en répétant indéfiniment ce cri, on forme une série rythmique isochrone (de niveau 3) en traitant les voyelles de « tel » et de « -son » comme correspondant à des « temps » plus « forts ». La dichotomie entre voyelles (absolument) métriques et voyelles (absolument) extramétriques est donc trompeuse : il peut y avoir plutôt différentes formes rythmiques (ici hiérarchiquement ordonnées) à chacune desquelles peuvent éventuellement contribuer des voyelles plus ou moins rigoureusement sélectionnées.[55]8 * [56]8 De tels rythmes sont analysés dans Cornulier 2000. 37 J'ai parlé de voyelles (ou de leurs attaques) là où parfois on parle de syllabes, parce qu'il apparaît à l'analyse chronorythmique que ce sont essentiellement les attaques des voyelles (noyaux des syllabes) qui sont métriquement pertinentes. Pas les consonnes : celles-ci ne sont pratiquement jamais sélectionnées à cet égard : elles ne contribuent pas à l'isochronie métrique. 38 A travers diverses traditions, la rime, impliquant une équivalence de forme catatonique, illustre cette possibilité de sélectionner plus ou moins rigoureusement des éléments de la parole pour un type rythmique, et notamment d'ignorer les consonnes. Dans la poésie française "classique", il s'agit d'une rime intégrale en ce sens qu'elle implique tous les phonèmes catatoniques du vers, consonnes comprises : « clair » rime avec « mer », mais pas avec « mets ». Dans certains types de chanson traditionnelle et dans certaines traditions littéraires, l'équivalence entre voyelles catatoniques suffit (rime vocalique, parfois dite assonance). Dans d'autres types (comme parfois en espagnol), les voyelles posttoniques du vers ne sont pas toutes sélectionnées (on peut parler de rime vocalique partielle ou sélective). Parfois encore, peut-être, la tonique est seule sélectionnée (rime tonique), comme ce pourrait être le cas dans Auprès de ma blon-de / Il fait bon, fait bon, fait bon.... Un esprit conditionné par l'un ou l'autre système peut être induit par lui à dégager spontanément des formes catatoniques complètes ou sélectives (vocaliques) selon le cas. Quant à la cadence, la seule distinction réglée en poésie française "classique", celle des masculines (simples) et féminines (doubles), ignore les consonnes. 39 On présuppose couramment que, même hors de toute métrique, si une expression déterminée a un rythme anatonique, il est univoquement déterminé par le nombre total de ses voyelles anatoniques. Ainsi, si « Le temps dont on s'éprenne » [ l@t2ad2Ot2OsepKEn@ ] a un rythme anatonique continu, ce ne pourra être que 6 (on veille à n'oublier aucune voyelle). Il y a dans cette analyse un présupposé, qu'on peut appeler de sélection maximale : à savoir que toutes les voyelles sont sélectionnées et contribuent à ce rythme. Nous venons de voir cependant qu'existaient en tradition orale des rythmes (anatoniques) sélectifs quant à la partie du matériel phonémique qui y contribuait. 40 Dans la poésie française "classique", pour les rythmes anatonique métriques, le principe de sélection maximale est fondé sur d'amples observations : on constate des régularités de rythme anatonique dont le caractère systématique garantit la pertinence, et qui impliquent la prise en compte de toutes les voyelles anatoniques. Par exemple, tous les alexandrins de Malherbe non seulement ont, mais ont seulement 12 voyelles anatoniques : pour rendre compte de cette régularité remarquable, il faut donc systématiquement les prendre toutes en considération. 41 Dans ce domaine même, pourtant, l'examen des faits impose souvent des nuances ; pour ne prendre qu'un exemple ancien dans le domaine de l'audition, dans cet hémistiche de mesure 6 de Corneille (Le Cid 2 :2, 1636), « - Parle. - Ote-moi d'un doute », vers 1636, l'acteur jouant le rôle du comte devait pouvoir prononcer [parl@] sans élision devant l'initiale jonctive par « Ote ». Mais la reconnaissance du mètre 6-6 impliquait que cette voyelle ne contribue pas au rythme anatonique de l'hémistiche. La relative banalité de cette situation oblige à penser que de nombreux auditeurs étaient accoutumés à former dans leur esprit des rythmes anatoniques en sélectionnant spontanément, dans les sons qu'ils entendaient, ceux qui étaient régulièrement pertinents. A s'en tenir à la notion négative et ancienne d'élision, on pourrait dire qu'il y avait alors élision mentale, à défaut d'élision matérielle ; on peut préférer dire, en termes positifs, que la voyelle optionnelle de [parl (@)], dont l'emploi était normal en finale de réplique, n'était pas mentalement sélectionnée devant mot jonctif parce que telle était la règle de traitement rythmique (continu) à l'intérieur du sous-vers, même en diction fractionnée : soit une voyelle métriquement négligeable, c'est-à-dire régulièrement négligeable dans la formation d'un rythme métrique. 42 Ce type de phénomène est banal et codifié dans d'autres traditions. Dans cette invocation de la Divine Comédie (Inferno 2 :7 ; apostrophe ajoutée devant les toniques de mot ; tonique du vers distinguée en gras) : [57]Image5 [58]Agrandir 43 on peut compter 14 voyelles sont 13 anatoniques du vers (ligne 1) alors que le mètre doit en recruter 10. La tradition poétique invite, non pas à élider, mais à ignorer mentalement dans la formation du rythme métrique les posttoniques de « muse » [ muze] devant « alto », de « alto » devant « ingegno », et de « ingegno » devant « or ». On dit souvent qu'en de tels cas deux voyelles distinctes en réalité sont « prises ensemble » (synalèphe) en sorte qu'elles n'en forment qu'une ; il n'est pas nécessaire de supposer une telle opération si on reconnaît là un cas codifié de non-sélection d'une voyelle relativement à un rythme. 44 Par contraste, il y a lieu d'expliciter en métrique française "classique" un principe codifiant la sélection des voyelles pertinentes pour le rythme anatonique : Principe de sélection maximale : En métrique française littéraire "classique", toutes les voyelles non sujettes à élision devant mot jonctif contribuent à la formation du rythme anatonique d'un sous-vers ou d'un vers simple. 45 Ce principe contribue à la complétude et à l'Évidence de la structure métrique en réduisant l'ambiguïté rythmique. Sa simplicité, consistant en l'exhaustivité même et contribuant à l'évidence du rythme, est peut-être la cause de sa généralité (plusieurs autres traditions littéraires tendent vers un tel principe), mais cette simplicité et cette généralité ne devraient pas cacher le fait qu'il s'agit tout de même d'un principe choisi parmi d'autres possibles (y compris l'absence de règle). Sauf justification expresse, on n'est pas fondé à l'appliquer automatiquement et sans justification à n'importe quel texte non-métrique, de tradition orale ou même littéraire quelconque, ou même sans prétention esthétique ; par exemple à une petite phrase du code de la route ou au salut de quelqu'un qui nous demande en nous croisant « Comment ça va c'matin ? » : il n'est pas démontré qu'un rythme discernable (en l'occurrence, de longueur 6) soit mentalement élaboré à chaque fois qu'on entend ou qu'on lit quelque chose comme ça ; ni, par conséquent, que la réunion de deux petits énoncés dont chacun, mesuré, présente une suite anatonique de longueur 6, constitue un alexandrin ; pour que leur énonciation soit traitée en alexandrin, il faudrait, d'abord, que ces rythmes de longueur 6, puis leur réunion en une paire, soit mentalement construits. [59]Bilan 46 Voici un bilan de quelques-unes des conclusions suggérées par les remarques précédentes. 47 Les phrases n'ont pas un rythme (et un seul). Il peut y avoir du rythme, partiellement déterminé par leur structure grammaticale, dans l'activité mentale au cours de laquelle elles sont traitées. 48 La détermination et la complétude normales dans le traitement rythmique des textes métriques ne sont pas des propriétés universelles des textes. Il n'y a pas lieu de les supposer sans justification dans un texte non-métrique quelconque. 49 Dans une tradition de poésie littéraire métrique déterminée peuvent se tendre à se constituer des principes (sujets à évoluer historiquement) déterminant la construction du rythme dans la tête des lecteurs, ou des auditeurs, et contribuant non pas à une identité (utopique), mais à une certaine homologie entre l'intention rythmique de l'auteur et la reconstruction rythmique dans la tête de consom-mateurs, surtout en ce qui concerne des aspects métriques du rythme. 50 Si un tradition métrique implique (non anecdotiquement) la pertinence de certains types de formes rythmiques, il y de grandes chances que ces types de formes soient pertinents dans des textes non-métriques.[60]9 Ainsi la métrique française littéraire révèle la pertinence de la forme catatonique, de sa longueur, et celle de la forme anatonique. Le discours métrique (poésie, chant, slogans...) est par là un terrain précieux d'observation pour l'analyse des sons, qui peut emprunter, et non seulement prêter à l'analyse métrique. * [61]9 Il est triste d'imaginer les poètes forgeant des (...) 51 Si une tradition métrique n'implique pas la pertinence de certains types de rythme, il serait imprudent d'en conclure directement qu'ils n'existent pas, même dans des textes non-métriques. Ainsi la tradition littéraire française n'a guère exploité quant au mètre la distinction bref/long au niveau des voyelles ou syllabes ; on sait pourtant qu'elle était bien établie dans certains parlers ; mais elle n'était pas assez invariante d'un dialecte à l'autre et d'une époque à l'autre pour se codifier en une tradition transversale dialectalement et historiquement : les nécessités de la communication ou de la transmission littéraire l'ont filtrée (voir par exemple Morin 1999). Cela ne rend pas cette distinction également négligeable dans n'importe quel texte non-métrique de n'importe quelle époque et dans n'importe quelles conditions (à cet égard auditeur et lecteur n'ont pas le même statut). 52 Ajoutons qu'une métrique littéraire permet, par ses régularités mêmes, de transmettre non seulement des énoncés, mais du discours avec du rythme. A cet égard notamment, elle n'entre pas avec la prose ou le non-métrique dans une relation symétrique de concurrence telle qu'il s'agirait de choisir entre du rythme régulier et du rythme libre. En favorisant la transmission (reproduction) de rythmes, la poésie métrique permet d'élaborer des rythmes communicables d'une précision et d'une complexité très supérieure à ce que permet un système non doté de telles conditions de communication.[62]10 * [63]10 L'isochronie et la tonalité permettent de (...) Bibliographie Billy, Dominique [1999] : éd., Métriques du Moyen Age et de la Renaissance, L'Harmattan. Cornulier (de), Benoît, et Murat, Michel [2001] : « Métrique et formes versifiées », dans Jarrety 2001, 493-502. Cornulier (de), Benoît [1995] : Art poëtique, Presses Universitaires de Lyon. Cornulier (de), Benoît [2000] : « Sul legame del ritmo et delle parole. Nozioni di ritmica orale », dans Studi di Estetica 21, Éditions CLUEB, Université de Bologne, Italie. Jarrety, Michel [2001] éd., Dictionnaire de poésie de Baudelaire à nos jours, Presses Universitaires de France. Mazaleyrat, Jean [1974] : Éléments de métrique française, Colin. Morin, Yves-Charles [1999] : « L'hexamètre héroïque de Jean Antoine de Baïf », dans Billy 1999, 163-184. Rimbaud, Arthur [1873] : Une Saison en enfer, Alliance Typographique, Bruxelles. Notes [64]1 On peut s'imaginer percevoir dans le chant ces égalités et inégalités de nombre syllabique quand elles sont associées à des égalités et inégalités chronorythmiques. [65]2 Voir Gérard Dessons et Henry Meschonnic, 1998, p. 70 sv. [66]3 Identifier cette forme (par un terme tel qu'anatonique) aide à ne pas se figurer que c'est par une convention propres aux poètes que les voyelles postérieures à la tonique du vers étaient négligées comme « extramétriques » : simplement, les voyelles posttoniques n'appartiennent pas à la partie anatonique où se définit le mètre, tout comme les prétoniques n'appartiennent pas à la partie catatonique où se définit la rime (sans qu'on ait besoin de déclarer extra-rimiques ces dernières). [67]4 On ne prétend pas ici que la cadence était effectivement féminine (sentie telle) pour tous les lecteurs, ni même que tous étaient sensibles à son apparence graphique. Elle est en tout cas devenue aujourd'hui métriquement indifférente à la majorité des lecteurs cultivés, même sur un plan purement graphique, puisque les exceptions à l'Alternance ne sont généralement plus remarquées. [68]5 L'écriture rythmique employée ici est définie dans l'Art poëtique (1995 : 280). En une notation musicale (figeant arbitrairement la durée des syllabes), on pourrait noter : croche, noire pointée ; croche, noire pointée ; puis 6 croches. [69]6 Le sentiment d'isochronie entre « Avène, Avène » et « que le beau temps t'amène » dans le chant peut reposer notamment sur l'égalité de durée entre les deux couples d'attaques des voyelles notées en gras ; voir Cornulier 2000. [70]7 Dans un traitement continu de « Qu'il vienne, qu'il vienne », la valeur rythmique de la première voyelle féminine peut, en s'incorporant à la seconde séquence rythmique anatonique (récupération rythmique), donner le rythme 2-3 (« 2=3 » si on note la continuité). Dans la tradition littéraire "classique", le vers composé français semble impliquer, par exemple pour le mètre 6-6, le cumul d'un traitement rythmique discontinu des hémistiches 6+6 (excluant la récupération à la césure) et continu du vers 6=6 (excluant la surnuméraire à la césure). [71]8 De tels rythmes sont analysés dans Cornulier 2000. [72]9 Il est triste d'imaginer les poètes forgeant des conventions purement artificielles comme si une tradition musicale avait pu s'établir sur la réglementation d'ultra-sons. [73]10 L'isochronie et la tonalité permettent de construire, en chantant dans une tradition musicale, des rythmes d'une complexité encore bien supérieure à celle de la métrique littéraire. Mais alors la métrique n'est plus du tout immanente au texte linguistique. Pour citer cet article Référence électronique Benoît de Cornulier, « Problèmes d'analyse rythmique du non-métrique », Semen, 16, Rythme de la prose, 2003, [En ligne], mis en ligne le 1 mai janvier 2010. Auteur [74]Benoît de Cornulier Centre d'Études Métriques (CALD) Navigation Chercher ____________________ OK Index * [75]Auteurs * [76]Mots clés Actualités * [77]Appels à contribution Semen Texte intégral * [78]26-2008 Médiaculture et médiacritique * [79]25-2008 Le discours de presse au dix-neuvième siècle : pratiques socio-discursives émergentes * [80]24-2007 Linguistique et poésie : le poème et ses réseaux * [81]23-2007 Sémiotique et communication. 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L'être humain est réglé par des rythmes biologiques. Ces "horloges biologiques" ont été mises en évidence lors d'expériences d'isolement (isolement sensoriel) telles celles (déjà anciennes : 1962) de Michel SIFFRE au gouffre de Scarrasson dans les Alpes du Sud (1) ou celles réalisées ultérieurement à l'occasion des vols spatiaux. L'organisation dans le temps de l'organisme, de ses modifications et des mécanismes qui le contrôlent porte le nom de chronobiologie. Ces rythmes sont génétiquement déterminés et sont synchronisés (c'est-à-dire régulièrement "remis à l'heure" par les temps forts de la vie courante sur terre: alternance jour- nuit, alternance vieille-sommeil. Ces temps forts qui "re-calent" les rythmes régulièrement (et les empêchent de se dérégler) sont appelés synchroniseurs. Suivant la durée de leurs cycles, on distingue les rythmes dits ultradiens, dont la période est inférieure à 20 heures (qui rythment par exemple la prise de nourriture), les rythmes dits circadiens, dont la période est comprise entre 20 et 28 heures (qui rythment par exemple les sécrétions hormonales) et les rythmes infradiens, dont la période peut aller de 28 heures ...à plus d'un an (qui rythment par exemple [90]les cycles menstruels de la femme). Ces rythmes biologiques, qui scandent notre vie, expliquent les variations de performances aussi bien des étudiants que des athlètes (suivant l'heure du jour ou le moment de l'année), l'intolérance au travail de nuit, l'évolution des maladies (suivant les différents moments de la journée ou les périodes de l'année) et les variations des effets [91]des médicaments selon l'heure de leur administration. 1- en 1962, Michel SIFFRE, spécialiste de chronobiologie étudiant "l'horloge interne de l'homme", est resté 61 jours à l'écart de tout repère temporel sur un glacier souterrain, démontrant ainsi la différence existant entre la durée spontanée du cycle veille-sommeil (24 heures 30 minutes) et le cycle circadien (24 heures). Il a ensuite supervisé différentes expériences du même type avant de descendre pendant 205 jours au fond de Midnight Cave (Texas), en collaboration avec la NASA. Francis Pradeau, Médecin des hôpitaux, le 02/10/2000 [92]Envoie ton témoignage ! 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L'être humain est réglé par des rythmes biologiques. Ces "horloges biologiques" ont été mises en évidence lors d'expériences d'isolement (isolement sensoriel) telles celles (déjà anciennes : 1962) de Michel SIFFRE au gouffre de Scarrasson dans les Alpes du Sud (1) ou celles réalisées ultérieurement à l'occasion des vols spatiaux. L'organisation dans le temps de l'organisme, de ses modifications et des mécanismes qui le contrôlent porte le nom de chronobiologie. Ces rythmes sont génétiquement déterminés et sont synchronisés (c'est-à-dire régulièrement "remis à l'heure" par les temps forts de la vie courante sur terre: alternance jour- nuit, alternance vieille-sommeil. Ces temps forts qui "re-calent" les rythmes régulièrement (et les empêchent de se dérégler) sont appelés synchroniseurs. Suivant la durée de leurs cycles, on distingue les rythmes dits ultradiens, dont la période est inférieure à 20 heures (qui rythment par exemple la prise de nourriture), les rythmes dits circadiens, dont la période est comprise entre 20 et 28 heures (qui rythment par exemple les sécrétions hormonales) et les rythmes infradiens, dont la période peut aller de 28 heures ...à plus d'un an (qui rythment par exemple [90]les cycles menstruels de la femme). Ces rythmes biologiques, qui scandent notre vie, expliquent les variations de performances aussi bien des étudiants que des athlètes (suivant l'heure du jour ou le moment de l'année), l'intolérance au travail de nuit, l'évolution des maladies (suivant les différents moments de la journée ou les périodes de l'année) et les variations des effets [91]des médicaments selon l'heure de leur administration. 1- en 1962, Michel SIFFRE, spécialiste de chronobiologie étudiant "l'horloge interne de l'homme", est resté 61 jours à l'écart de tout repère temporel sur un glacier souterrain, démontrant ainsi la différence existant entre la durée spontanée du cycle veille-sommeil (24 heures 30 minutes) et le cycle circadien (24 heures). Il a ensuite supervisé différentes expériences du même type avant de descendre pendant 205 jours au fond de Midnight Cave (Texas), en collaboration avec la NASA. Francis Pradeau, Médecin des hôpitaux, le 02/10/2000 [92]Envoie ton témoignage ! [93]S'inscrire ____________________ OK ! * * * * Témoignages (2) * [94]Seaeyes, le 26/01 à 14h15 [95]g l impresion d etre regle pour fonctione o top la nuit mais c ... * [96]zorba, le 05/11 à 16h43 [97]c'est donc pour celà que je me réveille toujours à la même heure ... [98]Tous les témoignages Toi aussi envoie ton témoignage [99]Pour participer, tu dois t'identifier. [100]Si tu n'es pas encore inscrit, fais-le, c'est gratuit ! Plus d'infos FoRme * [101]Dur de décalotter ? Assouplis ton prépuce ! * [102]Assieds-toi correctement ! * [103]10 conseils pour des pieds sensuels * [104]Des boutons blancs sur les mamelons * [105]Des petits moutons sur la mite ? [106]Ce site respecte les principes de la charte HONcode de HON Ce site respecte les [107]principes de la charte HONcode. [108]Vérifiez ici. [109]skyrock * [110]Contact * · [111]Les jobs * · [112]C.G.U. * · [113]Engagement Références Liens visibles Liens cachés :  * [1][feed-icon.png] ¿ * [2]Blog * [3]Dossiers * [4]Menus * [5]Rest. Collective * [6]Participer * [7]Contact Bienvenue sur Alimentation et Santé La page que vous souhaitez voir n'existe plus, ou a été déplacée. N'hésitez pas à consulter [8]le plan du site. ©2002-2009 Alimentation et Santé® - Tous droits réservés - [9]Crédits - [10]Plan du site - [11]Accueil Références 7. mailto:contact@alimentation-et-sante.com #[1]Tasanté.com [2]taSanté.com [3]Skyrock.com · [4]Skyrock.fm · [5]Skyrock Mobile · [6]Skyrock Messager · [7]Ladiz · [8]Tropmalin · [9]Bonbiz [10]taSanté.com Pseudo ____________________ Pass ____________________ valider [11]Pas encore inscrit ? [12]Mot de passe perdu ? * 289 [13]tests[14]Macho ou loveur ? * 26 [15]forums[16]Tes trucs pour penser positif. * 13 324 [17]Questions/réponses * 42 677 [18]inscrits [19]Mary42 [20]titif84 [21]trattos * 32 [22]connectés sur le chat * [23]SeXo + [24]Première fois + [25]Au lit + [26]Contraception + [27]Homosexualité + [28]IST + [29]Kâma Sûtra + [30]Forums * [31]SenTimenTs + [32]En couple + [33]Séduction, drague + [34]Amitié + [35]Solitude + [36]Forums * [37]PuberTé + [38]Filles + [39]Mecs + [40]Adolescence + [41]Questions de peau + [42]Forums * [43]PsYcho + [44]Personnalité + [45]Souffrances + [46]Toi et les autres + [47]Société + [48]Forums * [49]DéPendanCes + [50]Clopes + [51]Alcool + [52]Illicite + [53]Autres dépendances + [54]Forums * [55]FoRme + [56]A table + [57]Sport + [58]Mon corps + [59]Poids + [60]Mieux être + [61]Forums * [62]BeauTé + [63]Soins + [64]Esthétique + [65]Les poils + [66]Tendance + [67]Forums * [68]Se SoigNeR + [69]Aider, être aidé + [70]Médecins + [71]Maladies + [72]Urgences + [73]Médicaments + [74]Prévention + [75]Forums * [76]PratiK + [77]Lexique + [78]Annuaire web + [79]Adresses + [80]Question/réponse + [81]Vidéos + [82]Recherche * [83]Tests + [84]Tous les tests + [85]Liste des tests + * [86]Forums + [87]Liste des forums Tu es ici : [88]forme > [89]mon corps > article imprimer l'article Les rythmes de vie Le corps humain est tellement bien fait qu'il dispose d'une véritable horloge interne lui permettant de "s'auto-réguler". L'être humain est réglé par des rythmes biologiques. Ces "horloges biologiques" ont été mises en évidence lors d'expériences d'isolement (isolement sensoriel) telles celles (déjà anciennes : 1962) de Michel SIFFRE au gouffre de Scarrasson dans les Alpes du Sud (1) ou celles réalisées ultérieurement à l'occasion des vols spatiaux. L'organisation dans le temps de l'organisme, de ses modifications et des mécanismes qui le contrôlent porte le nom de chronobiologie. Ces rythmes sont génétiquement déterminés et sont synchronisés (c'est-à-dire régulièrement "remis à l'heure" par les temps forts de la vie courante sur terre: alternance jour- nuit, alternance vieille-sommeil. Ces temps forts qui "re-calent" les rythmes régulièrement (et les empêchent de se dérégler) sont appelés synchroniseurs. Suivant la durée de leurs cycles, on distingue les rythmes dits ultradiens, dont la période est inférieure à 20 heures (qui rythment par exemple la prise de nourriture), les rythmes dits circadiens, dont la période est comprise entre 20 et 28 heures (qui rythment par exemple les sécrétions hormonales) et les rythmes infradiens, dont la période peut aller de 28 heures ...à plus d'un an (qui rythment par exemple [90]les cycles menstruels de la femme). Ces rythmes biologiques, qui scandent notre vie, expliquent les variations de performances aussi bien des étudiants que des athlètes (suivant l'heure du jour ou le moment de l'année), l'intolérance au travail de nuit, l'évolution des maladies (suivant les différents moments de la journée ou les périodes de l'année) et les variations des effets [91]des médicaments selon l'heure de leur administration. 1- en 1962, Michel SIFFRE, spécialiste de chronobiologie étudiant "l'horloge interne de l'homme", est resté 61 jours à l'écart de tout repère temporel sur un glacier souterrain, démontrant ainsi la différence existant entre la durée spontanée du cycle veille-sommeil (24 heures 30 minutes) et le cycle circadien (24 heures). Il a ensuite supervisé différentes expériences du même type avant de descendre pendant 205 jours au fond de Midnight Cave (Texas), en collaboration avec la NASA. Francis Pradeau, Médecin des hôpitaux, le 02/10/2000 [92]Envoie ton témoignage ! [93]S'inscrire ____________________ OK ! * * * * Témoignages (2) * [94]Seaeyes, le 26/01 à 14h15 [95]g l impresion d etre regle pour fonctione o top la nuit mais c ... * [96]zorba, le 05/11 à 16h43 [97]c'est donc pour celà que je me réveille toujours à la même heure ... [98]Tous les témoignages Toi aussi envoie ton témoignage [99]Pour participer, tu dois t'identifier. [100]Si tu n'es pas encore inscrit, fais-le, c'est gratuit ! Plus d'infos FoRme * [101]Dur de décalotter ? Assouplis ton prépuce ! * [102]Assieds-toi correctement ! * [103]10 conseils pour des pieds sensuels * [104]Des boutons blancs sur les mamelons * [105]Des petits moutons sur la mite ? [106]Ce site respecte les principes de la charte HONcode de HON Ce site respecte les [107]principes de la charte HONcode. [108]Vérifiez ici. [109]skyrock * [110]Contact * · [111]Les jobs * · [112]C.G.U. * · [113]Engagement Références Liens visibles Liens cachés :  * [1][feed-icon.png] ¿ * [2]Blog * [3]Dossiers * [4]Menus * [5]Rest. Collective * [6]Participer * [7]Contact Bienvenue sur Alimentation et Santé La page que vous souhaitez voir n'existe plus, ou a été déplacée. N'hésitez pas à consulter [8]le plan du site. ©2002-2009 Alimentation et Santé® - Tous droits réservés - [9]Crédits - [10]Plan du site - [11]Accueil Références 7. mailto:contact@alimentation-et-sante.com Bad Request (Invalid URL) #[1]Tasanté.com [2]taSanté.com [3]Skyrock.com · [4]Skyrock.fm · [5]Skyrock Mobile · [6]Skyrock Messager · [7]Ladiz · [8]Tropmalin · [9]Bonbiz [10]taSanté.com Pseudo ____________________ Pass ____________________ valider [11]Pas encore inscrit ? [12]Mot de passe perdu ? * 289 [13]tests[14]Macho ou loveur ? * 26 [15]forums[16]Tes trucs pour penser positif. * 13 324 [17]Questions/réponses * 42 677 [18]inscrits [19]Mary42 [20]titif84 [21]trattos * 32 [22]connectés sur le chat * [23]SeXo + [24]Première fois + [25]Au lit + [26]Contraception + [27]Homosexualité + [28]IST + [29]Kâma Sûtra + [30]Forums * [31]SenTimenTs + [32]En couple + [33]Séduction, drague + [34]Amitié + [35]Solitude + [36]Forums * [37]PuberTé + [38]Filles + [39]Mecs + [40]Adolescence + [41]Questions de peau + [42]Forums * [43]PsYcho + [44]Personnalité + [45]Souffrances + [46]Toi et les autres + [47]Société + [48]Forums * [49]DéPendanCes + [50]Clopes + [51]Alcool + [52]Illicite + [53]Autres dépendances + [54]Forums * [55]FoRme + [56]A table + [57]Sport + [58]Mon corps + [59]Poids + [60]Mieux être + [61]Forums * [62]BeauTé + [63]Soins + [64]Esthétique + [65]Les poils + [66]Tendance + [67]Forums * [68]Se SoigNeR + [69]Aider, être aidé + [70]Médecins + [71]Maladies + [72]Urgences + [73]Médicaments + [74]Prévention + [75]Forums * [76]PratiK + [77]Lexique + [78]Annuaire web + [79]Adresses + [80]Question/réponse + [81]Vidéos + [82]Recherche * [83]Tests + [84]Tous les tests + [85]Liste des tests + * [86]Forums + [87]Liste des forums Tu es ici : [88]forme > [89]mon corps > article imprimer l'article Les rythmes de vie Le corps humain est tellement bien fait qu'il dispose d'une véritable horloge interne lui permettant de "s'auto-réguler". L'être humain est réglé par des rythmes biologiques. Ces "horloges biologiques" ont été mises en évidence lors d'expériences d'isolement (isolement sensoriel) telles celles (déjà anciennes : 1962) de Michel SIFFRE au gouffre de Scarrasson dans les Alpes du Sud (1) ou celles réalisées ultérieurement à l'occasion des vols spatiaux. L'organisation dans le temps de l'organisme, de ses modifications et des mécanismes qui le contrôlent porte le nom de chronobiologie. Ces rythmes sont génétiquement déterminés et sont synchronisés (c'est-à-dire régulièrement "remis à l'heure" par les temps forts de la vie courante sur terre: alternance jour- nuit, alternance vieille-sommeil. Ces temps forts qui "re-calent" les rythmes régulièrement (et les empêchent de se dérégler) sont appelés synchroniseurs. Suivant la durée de leurs cycles, on distingue les rythmes dits ultradiens, dont la période est inférieure à 20 heures (qui rythment par exemple la prise de nourriture), les rythmes dits circadiens, dont la période est comprise entre 20 et 28 heures (qui rythment par exemple les sécrétions hormonales) et les rythmes infradiens, dont la période peut aller de 28 heures ...à plus d'un an (qui rythment par exemple [90]les cycles menstruels de la femme). Ces rythmes biologiques, qui scandent notre vie, expliquent les variations de performances aussi bien des étudiants que des athlètes (suivant l'heure du jour ou le moment de l'année), l'intolérance au travail de nuit, l'évolution des maladies (suivant les différents moments de la journée ou les périodes de l'année) et les variations des effets [91]des médicaments selon l'heure de leur administration. 1- en 1962, Michel SIFFRE, spécialiste de chronobiologie étudiant "l'horloge interne de l'homme", est resté 61 jours à l'écart de tout repère temporel sur un glacier souterrain, démontrant ainsi la différence existant entre la durée spontanée du cycle veille-sommeil (24 heures 30 minutes) et le cycle circadien (24 heures). Il a ensuite supervisé différentes expériences du même type avant de descendre pendant 205 jours au fond de Midnight Cave (Texas), en collaboration avec la NASA. Francis Pradeau, Médecin des hôpitaux, le 02/10/2000 [92]Envoie ton témoignage ! [93]S'inscrire ____________________ OK ! * * * * Témoignages (2) * [94]Seaeyes, le 26/01 à 14h15 [95]g l impresion d etre regle pour fonctione o top la nuit mais c ... * [96]zorba, le 05/11 à 16h43 [97]c'est donc pour celà que je me réveille toujours à la même heure ... [98]Tous les témoignages Toi aussi envoie ton témoignage [99]Pour participer, tu dois t'identifier. [100]Si tu n'es pas encore inscrit, fais-le, c'est gratuit ! Plus d'infos FoRme * [101]Dur de décalotter ? Assouplis ton prépuce ! * [102]Assieds-toi correctement ! * [103]10 conseils pour des pieds sensuels * [104]Des boutons blancs sur les mamelons * [105]Des petits moutons sur la mite ? [106]Ce site respecte les principes de la charte HONcode de HON Ce site respecte les [107]principes de la charte HONcode. [108]Vérifiez ici. [109]skyrock * [110]Contact * · [111]Les jobs * · [112]C.G.U. * · [113]Engagement Références Liens visibles Liens cachés :  * [1][feed-icon.png] ¿ * [2]Blog * [3]Dossiers * [4]Menus * [5]Rest. Collective * [6]Participer * [7]Contact Bienvenue sur Alimentation et Santé La page que vous souhaitez voir n'existe plus, ou a été déplacée. N'hésitez pas à consulter [8]le plan du site. ©2002-2009 Alimentation et Santé® - Tous droits réservés - [9]Crédits - [10]Plan du site - [11]Accueil Références 7. mailto:contact@alimentation-et-sante.com Bad Request (Invalid URL) Ouvrons l'oeil sur le sommeil Dormir c'est vivre aussi PROSOM - ADESSI TABLE DES MATIERES [1]Rythme de vie, rythme de nuit [2]Connaître le sommeil, c'est déjà mieux dormir. [3]A chacun son sommeil [4]Chaque âge a son sommeil [5]Insomnie, insomnies [6]Des conseils pour préparer le sommeil [7]Le réveil du bon pied [8]Mieux connaitre, mieux vivre son sommeil [9]Crédits IMPRESSION [10]Version imprimable (Tout l'article dans une seule page) Rythme de vie, rythme de nuit [fig1.jpg] Le sommeil n'est pas une interruption d'activité, c'est une autre forme d'activité de l'organisme. Le bon sens nous fait dire qu'il est indispensable à la récupération de la fatigue physique et de la fatigue nerveuse chez tous. On sait aussi qu'il est nécessaire pour la croissance et la maturation du système nerveux chez l'enfant. De plus, durant le sommeil et plus particulièrement pendant le stade du rêve, un certain nombre de fonctions s'accomplissent: mémorisation et organisation des informations acquises dans la journée, résolution des tensions accumulées le jour en les revivant, en les transformant... L'organisme fonctionne par cycles de 1h 1/2 à 2 h, de jour et de nuit. Les cycles se succèdent dans la nuit autant de fois que l'organisme en a besoin pour récupérer, grandir, mûrir et accomplir des fonctions mentales importantes. Durant la journée, I'organisme fonctionne aussi de façon cyclique: chacun passe régulièrement de temps forts à des temps faibles, d'un état de grande forme à des "coups de pompe". Il semble aussi que, chez presque tous on constate une diminution globale de vigilance entre 11 h du matin et 15 h. Un cycle de sommeil dure de 1 heure 30 à 2 heures. La nuit est une succesion de plusieurs cycles (4 à 5). [11]Page suivante [12][reverso.gif] [13]FR>EN - [14]FR>DE - [15]FR>RU [16]Transmettre l'url de la page [17]Haut de la page Références 16. javascript:onClick=location='mailto:?subject='+top.document.title+'&body=Voici un document internet qui pourrait vous interresser: '+top.document.location+'' #[1]About.com ____________________ (Submit) Search [2]About.com [3]Art History 1. [4]Home 2. [5]Education 3. [6]Art History [7][education_arthistory;kw=;site=arthistory;chan=education;pos=lb;sz=7 28x90;ord=1A1HKXJ0C20SA0p7N] * [8]Share * * [9]Art History * [10]Artists * [11]Styles * [12]Works of Art * Free Art History Newsletter! ____________________ (Submit) Sign Up * [13]Discuss in my Forum rhythm By [14]Shelley Esaak, About.com Guide See More About: * [15]art definitions * [16]principles of design Definition: (noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat. A pattern has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the colors of a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from one component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying movement. Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're placed one next to the other. Really, it's easier to "see" rhythm in just about anything other than the visual arts. Literally-minded types should stick to music for rhythm. Pronunciation: rih·them Related Articles * [17]Guitar Strumming 101 - Strumming Pattern Exercise Number One * [18]From a Father to His Children - Clement Clarke Moore * [19]Music clip art and instruments and musicians and musical notes plus other m... * [20]Pittsburgh Arts Summer Camps - Performing & Visual Arts Summer Programs in ... * [21]United Kingdom Travel by Interest - Find History, Art, Theatre, Music and M... 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[52]More > [53]How to Ace the GRE Being well prepared is the first step; here are more essential suggestions. [54]More > [55]About.com [56]Art History 1. [57]Home 2. [58]Education 3. [59]Art History 4. [60]Art History 101 5. [61]Art History Glossary 6. [62]Words Beginning With R 7. Art History Glossary - R - rhythm> * [63]Most Popular * [64]Latest Articles Add to: * [65]iGoogle * [66]My Yahoo! * [67]RSS * [68]Advertising Info * [69]News & Events * [70]Work at About * [71]SiteMap * [72]All Topics * [73]Reprints * [74]Help * [75]User Agreement * [76]Ethics Policy * [77]Patent Info. * [78]Privacy Policy * [79]Our Story * [80]Write for About ©2010 About.com, a part of [81]The New York Times Company. All rights reserved. Références [1]Click Here [2]ArtLex Art Dictionary ,ø¤º°`°ºº¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø ,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º° r rhythm - A visual tempo or beat. The [3]principle of design that refers to a regular repetition of [4]elements of art to produce the look and feel of [5]movement. It is often achieved through the careful placement of repeated components which invite the viewer's eye to jump rapidly or glide smoothly from one to the next. In any [6]artwork, it is possible to distinguish between rhythm of [7]color, [8]line, and [9]form. In the continuity of the three comes the whole rhythm of that work. Rhythm unites the [10]visual culture with [11]music, but in visual culture, rhythm is more evident in the [12]applied arts than in the [13]fine arts. In the former, it is often the foremost means of [14]aesthetic [15]expression. Rhythm originated in the Greek word rhymthmos, meaning measured flow, which they passed into Latin as rhythmus, meaning movement in [16]time. Its first uses in English were literary, in reference to themetrical rhyming of verses. English speakers began to use rhythm concerning repetition of musical beats in the late 18th century, and about visual elements in the same period. Each [17]artist, every [18]period, every [19]culture produces a characteristic sort of rhythm. Recognizing a work's rhythmical peculiarities often aids in [20]identify the culture or [21]time in which it was produced, if not the individual artist who produced it. Rhythm's importance can be demonstrated by noting how many important rhythmic cycles we observe in [22]nature -- consider the alternating tension and relaxation in the heart's beating or in the ocean's waves, the revolutions of the earth around the sun, the comings and goings of generations. Each of us has personal rhythms to our days, weeks, and years. Life, indeed, would be chaotic without rhythm. Participating in the tempo of this flow gives us excitement and calm, yearning and contentment, yin and yang. It is natural that we would employ rhythms to organize and [23]unify our works, much as they do the rest of our experience. There are several types of visual rhythm. These include: regular rhythms - The background design behind this text has a regular rhythm. (In the following examples, let the letters A, B, etc. stand for visual elements of any sort) AB-AB-AB is the most common type. Picture alternating stripes of two colors, for instance. (In English prosody, a student of poetry might read this as either "iambs" or "trochees". An iamb is a metrical foot consisting of two syllables, the first syllable accented, the second accented, as in AB-AB-AB. It becomes trochaic meter if the accenting is reversed, as in AB-AB-AB.) Some more examples: ABC-ABC-ABC (In English prosody, a student of poetry might read this as "anapests" or "dactyls". An anapest is a metrical foot consisting of three syllables, the first two syllables unaccented, the third accented, as in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL. A dactyl consists of three syllables, the first accented, the second and third unaccented, as in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL.) ABBB-ABBB-ABBB ABCB-ABCB-ABCB ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA alternating rhythms - some examples: ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE-ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE- ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF-ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF- ABCD-DCCBBA-ABCD-DCCBBA progressive rhythms - Progression occurs when there is a gradual increase or decrease in the size, number, color, or some other quality of the elements repeated. some examples: AB-AABB-AAABBB-AAAABBBB AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB- ABC-ABD-ABE-ABF-ABG-ABH-ABI flowing rhythms - random rhythms - Each of these types of rhythm might be altered periodically. [24]Music theory might be defined as the study of rhythms and their periodic alterations. Example of works displaying rhythm: [rhythm_matis.danc1.th.jpg] see thumbnail to left Henri Matisse (French, 1869-1954), [25]Dance (first version), 1909, [26]oil on [27]canvas, 8 feet 6 1/2 inches x 12 feet 9 1/2 inches (259.7 x 390.1 cm), Museum of [e3_3_1_8d_french_art20.jpg] Modern Art, NY. Matisse painted a second version of see thumbnail to right [28]Dance in 1910, [29]oil on [30]canvas, 102 x 154 inches (260 x 391 cm), Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia. Dance, together with Music, was commissioned by S.I.Shchukin to [31]decorate the staircase in his Moscow mansion. Matisse took the [32]motif of the round dance, used as a [33]symbol back as far as French [34]Renaissance, to represent the [35]rhythm and [36]expression of the 20th century. The spaciousness and expressive [37]lines [38]emphasize the dynamics of the [39]figures. [40]Simplified and schematic [41]forms intensify the [42]brightness and [43]resonance of the three colors -- red, blue and green. See [44]music. Dance, Matisse once said, meant "life and rhythm." See [45]dance, [46]music, and [47]movement. [destij_mond.broadwa.th.gif] see thumbnail to left Piet Mondrian (Dutch, 1872-1944), [48]Broadway Boogie Woogie. 1942-43, [49]oil on [50]canvas, 50 x 50 inches (127 x 127 cm), at the Museum of Modern Art, New York. See [51]De Stijl and [52]grid. [3L00164.jpg] see thumbnail to right Paul Klee (Swiss, 1879-1940), [53]Rhythmisches (In Rhythm), 1930, [54]oil on woven jute, 69.6 x 50.5 cm, Georges Pompidou Center, Paris. See [55]Bauhaus and [56]Swiss art. [femns_taeuber_circles_th.jpg] see thumbnail to left Sophie Taeuber-Arp (Swiss, 1889-1943; to France 1928), [57]Composition of Circles and Overlapping Angles (Composition à cercles et à bras superposés), 1930, [58]oil on [59]canvas, 19 1/2 x 25 1/4 inches (49.5 x 64.1 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. See [60]feminism and feminist art. [40x10pixel.space.gif] [femns_taeuber_echelon_th.jpg] see thumbnail to right Sophie Taeuber-Arp, [61]Echelonnement désaxé, 1934, [62]gouache on [63]paper, 13 7/8 X 10 5/8 inches (35.1 X 27 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. [bauhau_aalber.walldes.th.jpg] see thumbnail to left Anni Albers (born Analise Fleischman, married Josef Albers) (German, 1899-1994), [64]Design for Wall Hanging, 1926, [65]gouache and [66]pencil on paper, 14 x 11 1/2 inches (35.6 x 29.2 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. See [67]Bauhaus and [68]textile. Quote: "Rhythm and harmony find their way into the inward places of the soul." Plato (427?-327? BCE), Greek philosopher. The Republic, Book III, 401d, as translated by B. Jowett, 1901. See [69]harmony. Also see [70]animation, [71]arrangement, [72]chronology, [73]cinema, [74]composition, [75]dance, [76]direction, [77]egg-and-dart, [78]eurythmy, [79]four-dimensional, [80]harmonic sequence, [81]harmony, [82]kinetic, [83]juxtaposition, [84]measure, [85]metamorphosis, [86]mobile, [87]movement, [88]obsession, [89]pattern, [90]periodicity, [91]music, [92]sequence, [93]space-time, [94]time, and [95]whirligig. [96][grid.1.gif] [97]ArtLex Art Dictionary [98]Copyright © 1996- current year delahunt(at)artlex.com Références [1]Ning [2]Create a Ning Network! ____________________ [3]Search * [4]Sign Up * [5]Sign In [6]DesignerNet * [7]Main * [8]My Page * [9]Syllabus + [10]Introduction + [11]Course Description + [12]Assignments/Schedule + [13]Materials + [14]Grading + [15]Make-up Work + [16]Exams/Quizzes + [17]Policies * [18]Class Resources + [19]Assignments + [20]Basic Design Principles + [21]Concept + [22]Concept and Culture + [23]Purpose of Concept + [24]Unity + [25]Principles of Unity + [26]The Look of Unity + [27]Rhythm in Art + [28]Large Scale (& small) * [29]Websites to Visit + [30]K3Order * [31]Photos * [32]Testing * [33]OldMembers * [34]Videos * [35]Blogs * [36]Groups Rhythm in Art Take a look at this definition of Rhythm in Art. As noted in the definition, it can be likened to rhythm in music, and can be said to be a "patterened repitition" What do you think? Is rhythm a "visual beat?" (noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat. A pattern has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the colors of a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from one component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying movement. Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're placed one next to the other. it's sometimes easier to comprehend rhythm in just about anything other than the visual arts, but once understood, heightened sensitivity to this aspect can animate design and art making it visually interactive. "Rhythm of the Hills" by Judy Neale "Rhythm Joie De Vivre" by Robert Delaunay This very graphic and design-oriented painting uses repeated circles, half-circles, joined shapes and contrasting colors to create movement. "Although trained in fine arts in Paris, Delaunay worked in set design before beginning his painting career in 1905. He found his initial influences in the Neo-Impressionists, but gradually moved on to join Der Blaue Reiter in 1911. His Paris cityscapes began to take on a distinctive style that studied the effect of contrasting color patterning. Delaunay's unique method spurred friend and poet, Guillaume Apollinaire, to place his paintings in a new movement, which he called Orphism." - World Wide Art Resources Tamara De Limpicka's "The Model" This piece which is a very graphically-designed painting, in which the raised right arm drives the eyes to the right side of the model's torso; the focal point of the right breast then captures the viewer's attention, and directs it with a "pointer"... a triangular fold in the model's garment pulling the viewer to the left arm of the figure. The curve of the left arm uses the multiple pointers of the model's fingers to direct the eye strongly to the left into the garment's downward-sweeping folds, and down the highlighted leg. As if that were not enough to invest the piece with rhythm, the artist then uses a strong graphical "s" shape in the background to reinforce the motion using the model's shadow to create a feeling of movement as part of the pattern in the background. The overall positioning of the figure creates visual torque, creating a feeling of anticipated movement adding to the dynamicism of the design Welcome to DesignerNet [37]Sign Up or [38]Sign In About [39]Jane Ann Nelson [40]Jane Ann Nelson created this [41]Ning Network. [42]Create a Ning Network! » © 2010 Created by [43]Jane Ann Nelson on Ning. [44]Create a Ning Network! [45]Badges | [46]Report an Issue | [47]Privacy | [48]Terms of Service Hello, you need to enable JavaScript to use DesignerNet. Please check your browser settings or contact your system administrator. [jstrk_off.gif] Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1]LEARN NC * [2]Home * [3]Help * Search * [LEARN NC..........] * _______________ * Search LEARN NC K-12 teaching and learning · from the UNC School of Education * Classroom + [4]Lesson Plans + [5]Best Practices + [6]Learning Materials + [7]Reference + [8]Field Trips + [9]Multimedia + [10]Best of the Web * Standards + [11]NC Standard Course of Study & Aligned Resources + [12]NC Professional Teaching Standards & Aligned Resources * Online Courses + [13]Open for Enrollment + [14]Course Catalog * My LEARN NC + [15]Email Updates + [16]Conference 2009 Rhythm, pattern, color, and texture in art and poetry In this lesson, students will discover the meaning of "rhythm," "patterns," "color," and "texture" through the performance and modeled analysis of a class "symphony." Students will also evaluate the impact of each element on the whole work and note personal reactions and connections to this art form. Students will then work in small groups to apply the same elements and personal evaluation and connections to a historical work of visual art. At the end of the lesson, students will reflect on ways these two experiences are similar. A lesson plan for grade 7 Visual Arts Education and English Language Arts By [17]Carol Horne Learn more Related pages * [18]Old Hat, New Hat: 3-D Pattern Hats: After students read Old Hat, New Hat by Jan and Stan Berenstain, they create their own new 3-D hats. * [19]Rhythm stars: This lesson will introduce the main components of rhythm: quarter, eighth, and sixteenth notes. * [20]How do I express what I believe? - Part 2: This is the second in a three-part lesson series seeking to examine belief systems and how they impact culture in the United States. This lesson, "How do I express what I believe?" requires 3 sessions at 40 minutes each to complete. The lesson series also seeks to let students examine their own personal belief system. In this lesson, the student will learn about the American tradition of the Face Jug/Pot and how it is used to express belief. The student will also create a Face Jug/Pot to express his/her belief, and this pot will be used in the third lesson entitled. "How do I present what I believe?" Related topics * Learn more about [21]arts, [22]color, [23]hands-on, [24]patterns, [25]rhythm, and [26]texture. Help Please read our [27]disclaimer for lesson plans. Legal The text of this page is copyright ©2008. See [28]terms of use. Images and other media may be licensed separately; see captions for more information and [29]read the fine print. [30]Creative Commons License Print * [31]Print Share * [32]Email * [33]Delicious [34]Delicious * [35]Digg [36]Digg * [37]Facebook [38]Facebook * [39]StumbleUpon [40]StumbleUpon Learning outcomes Students will: * learn to identify examples of "rhythm," "patterns," "color," and "texture" in order to analyze a whole class symphony of various sounds and movements. * learn to apply these same elements to a work of visual art. * evaluate the overall impact of each element and will investigate their personal reactions and connections to both of these art forms. * learn to reflect on the similarities of their analyses of both of these art forms. Teacher planning Time required for lesson 85 minutes Materials/resources * Adjust space for class to "perform" assigned individual movements as a whole group standing in one long line as the teacher stands in front of students to "conduct." If this is not possible, make sure students have enough space to "perform" as they stand alongside their desks. * Write variety of individual sounds and movements on index cards to distribute to each student, e.g. "bark like a dog; make a whooshing sound as you move like a wave; high-five and yell, `Yeah!'; whistle like an admirer; click your heels and say, `There's no place like home!'; sing the first bar of the Friskies' `Meow, meow, meow, meow' song; frog hop as you `ribbitt' twice; etc. * Set up a tape recorder and blank tape cued to record the class "symphony." * Make two overhead transparencies and two hard copies per student of the graphic organizer titled, "Elements of Art-Making Connections!" for analysis of the elements of "rhythm and patterns," "color," "texture," etc. (See attachment of a blank copy.) You will also need a transparency pen. * Pre-select a poster, transparency, or website image of a work of visual art preferrably from a historical period familiar to students and a narrative piece. (See "Relevant Web Sites" below for a suggested link to "Cleopatra and the Peasant.") * Complete a graphic organizer for the selected work of visual art to use as a suggested "answer key" for easy reference during small group facilitation. (See "Attachments" below for a suggested key of possible answers for "Elements of Art - Cleopatra and the Peasant" art image.) Technology resources Student computers with color monitors and Internet connection bookmarked at the site of the selected work of visual art. (optional) A classroom computer with color monitor and Internet connection set on site of selected work of visual art and connected to an LCD projector, which projects computer image onto classroom screen. (optional) Pre-activities No previous knowledge is needed for the opening "symphony" activity. However, to integrate social studies, students should be familiar with the general historical context of the work of visual art used in the second activity. If the "Cleopatra and the Peasant" piece is used, for instance, it would be helpful if students have had some background in the ancient Egyptian period prior to the viewing of this piece. If you are using another historical narrative piece, select one for which students have had some previous study. If your students will be accessing the Internet to view the visual art at a selected website, students should have obtained permission to use the Internet. They should also know how to go to bookmarked sites. Students should also have had some experience with small group collaboration with their peers. Students should have experience with writing one-sentence summaries for information presented textually or orally. Activities Because of the variety of activities, this lesson will work well as a block period, or it may be divided into two consecutive class periods. Initiating Activity - Whole Class "Symphony" (40 minutes) 1. Because we want to create an atmosphere of discovery and an air of mystery, the teacher will distribute one prepared index card to each student on which some type of sound is written without undue explanation. 2. Next, line up your students in a straight line facing you, and position yourself in front of them as the "conductor," if space permits. Explain now that the whole class will create a "symphony" using the assigned sounds while you conduct students' coming in, out, and level of volume. Briefly teach the students the signals indicated by the conductor's hand and arm movements for: making their sound/motion; decreasing the sound; increasing the sound; cutting the sound off; etc. 3. As a practice, point to each student individually to try out his assigned sound/motion along with your signals. Next, explain that at times there may be solos, duets, trios, etc., or times when the whole group will perform together. Those determinations will be indicated by the conductor, so students must watch the conductor carefully. 4. After students understand their "assignment," you, the conductor, will proceed to conduct a class symphony as you see fit. Before you start, explain that this production will be tape recorded. (Turn on your tape recorder when ready.) As you begin, experiment with different combinations of single, small group, and larger group participation as well as crescendo/decrescendo effects. You may also include periods of silence. Remember the elements you want to elicit in this improvised piece are: rhythm/patterns, color, and texture, which are discussed below. After several minutes of composing/performing, turn off the tape recorder. (See also another way of doing this activity described in "Supplemental Resources/Information for Teachers" section below.) 5. As students return to their seats, distribute copies of the blank "Elements of Art" graphic organizer to be used for an analysis of the class performance. (See "Attachments" below.) Using your overhead transparency and pen, prepare to conduct a whole class explanation/discussion of each element listed. 6. You will need to explain each of the specialized vocabulary terms below in the suggested ways. Elements for Musical Composition: Rhythm/Patterns These are listed together because patterns help to create rhythm. Rhythm is created with the recurrence (pattern) of varying stresses and tone lengths. These may be balanced against a steady, underlying succession of beats. Color You should be accepting of students' definitions here, but you may explain that "color" is created musically through such qualities as vitality, vividness, or interest. Musically speaking, "color" refers to the timbre, or tonal quality of the voice/instrument or the effect created by the combination of such qualities. Texture Explain that in music, "texture" is created by contrasts of rich, smooth, melodic, lyrical tones vs. stiff, staccato, harsh tones. 7. Before playing back the recording of the production, you may assign one-third of the class to listen for examples of rhythm and patterns, another one-third of the class can listen for examples of color, and the remaining one-third can listen for examples of texture. As they listen, they should note examples on their charts. 8. Next, ask students to share their examples of each element. Facilitate their sharing in light of the meaning of each element, remembering that your present objective is to help students to understand the meanings of all the elements and analyze examples from a musical piece. As examples are shared and discussed, model writing them on your overhead transparency; engage students by asking them to fill in examples for each element on their charts throughout the class discussion. 9. To review the elements and encourage students to engage in mental evaluation of their performance, ask students to assess which element they believe had the greatest impact on their overall performance. Did their piece seem to emphasize rhythm and pattern? Or did "color" or "texture" make the greatest impact, in their opinion? Get the students to explain and record their choices on their graphic organizers. 10. Last, to allow students to make this experience personally relevant, invite them to write single words that might describe their feelings or emotions toward their symphony. (Examples might be: exciting, interesting, invigorating, stimulating, etc.) In the last column, invite students to note something from their personal experience that the class symphony reminds them of. It could be a personal experience or feeling, or it might be one they've read about or seen portrayed in a movie or real life of a friend. Second Activity: Analyze the Elements in Visual Art (35 minutes) 1. Make a transition to the next activity by arranging students for partner or small group collaboration. If you are remaining in the classroom, arrange students in small groups of three to five with desks facing one another to encourage collaboration. If students are at computer stations, pair them up to encourage collaboration. 2. The teacher will need to use an overhead projector to initiate modeling of analysis of elements on the second overhead transparency of the graphic organizer. 3. Introduce the selected work of art and artist as you display the painting or image. (Ask students to navigate to the bookmarked website, if they are at computer stations.) Initiate discussion through use of a "hook" question. For example, if you are using the "Cleopatra and the Peasant" painting by Eugene Delacroix, ask: "Why do you think there is a little snake coiling out of the basket of plums?" As students brainstorm possibilities, work in bits of historical information. For example, remind them of who Cleopatra was and the culture and time in which she lived. (Note: Refer to "Supplemental Information" below. Also, if you access the Ackland Online website listed below under "Relevant Websites," background information about the painting will be provided.) Through questioning and discussion, develop the story behind the painting. 4. You may also mention that the painting was created in Europe in the 1800's. You may ask if students can locate clues in the painting to illustrate this fact. (Cleopatra was portrayed in this painting as a 19th century European woman in style of dress and ethnicity, for example, rather than an ancient Egyptian woman who lived during ancient Roman times.) 5. As you continue to develop the history of the story, initiate one possible answer under each of the first three columns of the graphic organizer for "rhythm/patterns," "color," and "texture." Students may copy these onto their charts. 6. Take this opportunity to weave in a review and explanation of the terms below and how they relate to analysis of a work of visual art. Definitions of Elements for Visual Art: Rhythm/Patterns The recurrence of lines, colors, and shapes (perhaps in a pattern) to create movement within a work of art. Color Qualities brought out by the use of hues (colors) and their variations. Texture Use of materials, such as paint, to create the impression of a feature, (e.g. satin, glass, or fur); or the use of real materials within the work of art, (e.g. hair, leather, or metal.) 7. After students have an understanding of the information in the painting and the elements and have written at least one example of each element on their charts, direct the small groups or partners to continue with their analyses. They should also discuss and complete the last three sections in which they evaluate which element had the greatest impact on the work of art as a whole, explore their personal feelings, and note their personal connections to the art. 8. During partner/group discussion time, the teacher should circulate to facilitate the above activities. 9. Within the last few minutes of this activity, ask students to share examples of answers recorded on their graphic organizers. Reflection Activity (10 minutes) 1. Facilitate a five-minute discussion of similarities of the symphony and work of visual art with the whole group through questioning. (Examples: "In what ways are symphonies like visual art?") Encourage students to refer to their two charts. Assist them in making oral connections between these two art forms. 2. On a slip of notebook paper during the remaining five minutes, have students write "exit slips," meaning they will get to exit your class after they have handed you their "tickets," or exit slips, out of class. 3. On the slip of paper ask students to answer the following question in one concise sentence: "What did I learn today about the elements of art in music AND in visual art?" The teacher can gain insight about the kinds of things the students learned as a result of the day's lesson by reading the exits slips. The teacher may elect to give the students some type of daily credit for completing the slips satisfactorily. Assessment The following two types of assessments may be used in addition to teacher observation: 1. Two completed graphic organizers titled, "Elements of Art," one for the symphony activity and the other for the visual art activity. The teacher may collect these and give credit for quality of answers or for participation (completion.) 2. Exit slip - This is the reflection the students made at the end of the lesson during which they were asked to summarize in one statement something they learned about the elements of both a musical composition and a work of visual art. The teacher can quickly assess the level of understanding by reading and assessing the quality of these answers for a daily grade. Supplemental information Alternate "symphony" activity: One other way to conduct this initiating activity is for the teacher NOT to be the conductor. Instead, assign sounds on cards as previously described and tell students to begin making their sounds together and continue until you indicate for them to stop. At first, the combined sounds will not be coordinated. However, as time goes along, the students will naturally begin to add their own rhythms, loudness/softness, etc. In the follow-up analysis of this musical production, it could be pointed out how the first part lacked the elements listed on the chart; but as the "music" proceeded, these elements became evident. Historical Background for the Life of Cleopatra: Cleopatra became queen of ancient Egypt in 51 B.C. Though she lacked beauty, she was intelligent, witty, charming, ambitious, and concerned about the well-being of her subjects. Cleopatra developed loyal and romantic relationships with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, great Roman leaders. Antony aspired to rule Rome alone and, due to the wealth of Egypt, hoped to obtain financial aid from Cleopatra. They fell in love and Cleopatra had several children by Antony. Cleopatra's ambition was for her children to become rulers of Rome. Because Antony gave preferential treatment to his children by Cleopatra, other Roman leaders became jealous. They thought Cleopatra was greedy and had too much control over Antony. A war broke out between the two of them and Octavian, Antony's former brother-in-law and one of the rival rulers of Rome. As Octavian came after Cleopatra and Antony, she spread a rumor that she had committed suicide. When Antony heard the report, he stabbed himself. He later died in her arms. When Cleopatra's attempts to make up to Octavian failed, she put a poisonous snake on her arm and indeed did commit suicide. Antony's and Cleopatra's love story has taken many dramatic and artistic forms through the ages. In the painting, "Cleopatra and the Peasant," the peasant is shown as suggesting to Cleopatra (or enticing her by his slight smile and her serious expression of consideration) with the idea of taking her life with a snake. The peasant is holding a basket of plums under his leopard pelt. A snake is emerging from the plums. A jpg image of Cleopatra by Delacroix along with credit information has been provided as an attachment below. Related websites Color image of "Cleopatra and the Peasant," by Eugene Delacroix: Ackland Museum Online: Comments For special needs students, such as LD, the teacher may provide a hard copy for each of the two completed "Elements of Art" graphic organizers, saving time for the student in copying information onto the charts. Enrichment can be provided by encouraging students to formulate their own questions about either work of art (musical, as in the class symphony, or the historical work of visual art,) and their elements. Allow students to conduct their own research to answer these questions using CD ROMS, Internet art sites, NC Wise Owl, a research site, which has been included under "Relevant Websites," etc. North Carolina Curriculum Alignment Visual Arts Education (2001) Grade 7 * Goal 1: The learner will develop critical and creative thinking skills and perceptual awareness necessary for understanding and producing art. + [41]Objective 1.06: Recognize and discuss the use of multiple senses in visual arts. * Goal 2: The learner will develop skills necessary for understanding and applying media, techniques, and processes. + [42]Objective 2.02: Explore and identify the unique properties and potential of materials using proper vocabulary and terminology. * Goal 3: The learner will organize the components of a work into a cohesive whole through knowledge of organizational principles of design and art elements. + [43]Objective 3.03: Explore and discuss that diverse solutions are preferable to predetermined visual solutions. + [44]Objective 3.04: Explore and discuss the value of intuitive perceptions in the problem-solving process. * Goal 5: The learner will understand the visual arts in relation to history and cultures. + [45]Objective 5.02: Describe characteristics of specific works of art that belong to a particular culture, time and place. * Goal 7: The learner will perceive connections between visual arts and other disciplines. + [46]Objective 7.01: Explain connections, similarities and differences between the visual arts and other disciplines. + [47]Objective 7.03: Compare characteristics of visual arts within a particular historical period or style with ideas, issues or themes in other disciplines. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill LEARN NC, a program of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill [48]School of Education, finds the most innovative and successful practices in K-12 education and makes them available to the teachers and students of North Carolina -- and the world. [49]About LEARN NC | [50]Site map | [51]Search | [52]Staff | [53]Partners | [54]Legal | [55]Help | [56]Contact us For more great resources for K-12 teaching and learning, visit us on the web at www.learnnc.org. Références #[1]About.com ____________________ (Submit) Search [2]About.com [3]Art History 1. [4]Home 2. [5]Education 3. [6]Art History [7][education_arthistory;kw=;site=arthistory;chan=education;pos=lb;sz=7 28x90;ord=1A1JJ6U0P20SA0xBC] * [8]Share * * [9]Art History * [10]Artists * [11]Styles * [12]Works of Art * Free Art History Newsletter! ____________________ (Submit) Sign Up * [13]Discuss in my Forum rhythm By [14]Shelley Esaak, About.com Guide See More About: * [15]art definitions * [16]principles of design Definition: (noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat. A pattern has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the colors of a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from one component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying movement. Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're placed one next to the other. Really, it's easier to "see" rhythm in just about anything other than the visual arts. Literally-minded types should stick to music for rhythm. Pronunciation: rih·them Related Articles * [17]Guitar Strumming 101 - Strumming Pattern Exercise Number One * [18]From a Father to His Children - Clement Clarke Moore * [19]Music clip art and instruments and musicians and musical notes plus other m... * [20]Pittsburgh Arts Summer Camps - Performing & Visual Arts Summer Programs in ... * [21]United Kingdom Travel by Interest - Find History, Art, Theatre, Music and M... 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[52]More > [53]How to Ace the GRE Being well prepared is the first step; here are more essential suggestions. [54]More > [55]About.com [56]Art History 1. [57]Home 2. [58]Education 3. [59]Art History 4. [60]Art History 101 5. [61]Art History Glossary 6. [62]Words Beginning With R 7. Art History Glossary - R - rhythm> * [63]Most Popular * [64]Latest Articles Add to: * [65]iGoogle * [66]My Yahoo! * [67]RSS * [68]Advertising Info * [69]News & Events * [70]Work at About * [71]SiteMap * [72]All Topics * [73]Reprints * [74]Help * [75]User Agreement * [76]Ethics Policy * [77]Patent Info. * [78]Privacy Policy * [79]Our Story * [80]Write for About ©2010 About.com, a part of [81]The New York Times Company. All rights reserved. Références #[1]About.com ____________________ (Submit) Search [2]About.com [3]Art History 1. [4]Home 2. [5]Education 3. [6]Art History [7][education_arthistory;kw=;site=arthistory;chan=education;pos=lb;sz=7 28x90;ord=1A1HKXJ0C20SA0p7N] * [8]Share * * [9]Art History * [10]Artists * [11]Styles * [12]Works of Art * Free Art History Newsletter! ____________________ (Submit) Sign Up * [13]Discuss in my Forum rhythm By [14]Shelley Esaak, About.com Guide See More About: * [15]art definitions * [16]principles of design Definition: (noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat. A pattern has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the colors of a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from one component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying movement. Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're placed one next to the other. Really, it's easier to "see" rhythm in just about anything other than the visual arts. Literally-minded types should stick to music for rhythm. Pronunciation: rih·them Related Articles * [17]Guitar Strumming 101 - Strumming Pattern Exercise Number One * [18]From a Father to His Children - Clement Clarke Moore * [19]Music clip art and instruments and musicians and musical notes plus other m... * [20]Pittsburgh Arts Summer Camps - Performing & Visual Arts Summer Programs in ... * [21]United Kingdom Travel by Interest - Find History, Art, Theatre, Music and M... [22]Shelley Esaak [23]Shelley Esaak Art History Guide * [24]Sign up for my Newsletter * [25]My Blog * [26]My Forum Explore Art History Must Reads * [27]60-Second Artist Bios * [28]What Is Art? * [29]Leonardo da Vinci Paintings * [30]Teaching Tool: Picturing America * [31]Timeline: Modern Art Movements Most Popular [32]The Last Supper[33]The Sistine Chapel Ceiling[34]What are the Elements of Art?[35]What Is Art?[36]Art History Jobs - Fellowship and Internship Postings See More About: * [37]art definitions * [38]principles of design By Category * [39]Artists A to Z * [40]Art History 101 * [41]Timelines of Art History * [42]Ancient Art History * [43]Medieval Art History * [44]Renaissance Art History * [45]Modern Art History * [46]Contemporary Art History * [47]Images / Picture Galleries * [48]Types of Visual Art * [49]Art by Location / Culture * [50]Art Museums / Galleries About.com Special Features [51]Dinosaur Discoveries of the Decade The top 10 fossil discoveries between 2000 and 2010. [52]More > [53]How to Ace the GRE Being well prepared is the first step; here are more essential suggestions. [54]More > [55]About.com [56]Art History 1. [57]Home 2. [58]Education 3. [59]Art History 4. [60]Art History 101 5. [61]Art History Glossary 6. [62]Words Beginning With R 7. Art History Glossary - R - rhythm> * [63]Most Popular * [64]Latest Articles Add to: * [65]iGoogle * [66]My Yahoo! * [67]RSS * [68]Advertising Info * [69]News & Events * [70]Work at About * [71]SiteMap * [72]All Topics * [73]Reprints * [74]Help * [75]User Agreement * [76]Ethics Policy * [77]Patent Info. * [78]Privacy Policy * [79]Our Story * [80]Write for About ©2010 About.com, a part of [81]The New York Times Company. All rights reserved. Références [1]Click Here [2]ArtLex Art Dictionary ,ø¤º°`°ºº¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø ,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º° r rhythm - A visual tempo or beat. The [3]principle of design that refers to a regular repetition of [4]elements of art to produce the look and feel of [5]movement. It is often achieved through the careful placement of repeated components which invite the viewer's eye to jump rapidly or glide smoothly from one to the next. In any [6]artwork, it is possible to distinguish between rhythm of [7]color, [8]line, and [9]form. In the continuity of the three comes the whole rhythm of that work. Rhythm unites the [10]visual culture with [11]music, but in visual culture, rhythm is more evident in the [12]applied arts than in the [13]fine arts. In the former, it is often the foremost means of [14]aesthetic [15]expression. Rhythm originated in the Greek word rhymthmos, meaning measured flow, which they passed into Latin as rhythmus, meaning movement in [16]time. Its first uses in English were literary, in reference to themetrical rhyming of verses. English speakers began to use rhythm concerning repetition of musical beats in the late 18th century, and about visual elements in the same period. Each [17]artist, every [18]period, every [19]culture produces a characteristic sort of rhythm. Recognizing a work's rhythmical peculiarities often aids in [20]identify the culture or [21]time in which it was produced, if not the individual artist who produced it. Rhythm's importance can be demonstrated by noting how many important rhythmic cycles we observe in [22]nature -- consider the alternating tension and relaxation in the heart's beating or in the ocean's waves, the revolutions of the earth around the sun, the comings and goings of generations. Each of us has personal rhythms to our days, weeks, and years. Life, indeed, would be chaotic without rhythm. Participating in the tempo of this flow gives us excitement and calm, yearning and contentment, yin and yang. It is natural that we would employ rhythms to organize and [23]unify our works, much as they do the rest of our experience. There are several types of visual rhythm. These include: regular rhythms - The background design behind this text has a regular rhythm. (In the following examples, let the letters A, B, etc. stand for visual elements of any sort) AB-AB-AB is the most common type. Picture alternating stripes of two colors, for instance. (In English prosody, a student of poetry might read this as either "iambs" or "trochees". An iamb is a metrical foot consisting of two syllables, the first syllable accented, the second accented, as in AB-AB-AB. It becomes trochaic meter if the accenting is reversed, as in AB-AB-AB.) Some more examples: ABC-ABC-ABC (In English prosody, a student of poetry might read this as "anapests" or "dactyls". An anapest is a metrical foot consisting of three syllables, the first two syllables unaccented, the third accented, as in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL. A dactyl consists of three syllables, the first accented, the second and third unaccented, as in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL.) ABBB-ABBB-ABBB ABCB-ABCB-ABCB ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA alternating rhythms - some examples: ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE-ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE- ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF-ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF- ABCD-DCCBBA-ABCD-DCCBBA progressive rhythms - Progression occurs when there is a gradual increase or decrease in the size, number, color, or some other quality of the elements repeated. some examples: AB-AABB-AAABBB-AAAABBBB AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB- ABC-ABD-ABE-ABF-ABG-ABH-ABI flowing rhythms - random rhythms - Each of these types of rhythm might be altered periodically. [24]Music theory might be defined as the study of rhythms and their periodic alterations. Example of works displaying rhythm: [rhythm_matis.danc1.th.jpg] see thumbnail to left Henri Matisse (French, 1869-1954), [25]Dance (first version), 1909, [26]oil on [27]canvas, 8 feet 6 1/2 inches x 12 feet 9 1/2 inches (259.7 x 390.1 cm), Museum of [e3_3_1_8d_french_art20.jpg] Modern Art, NY. Matisse painted a second version of see thumbnail to right [28]Dance in 1910, [29]oil on [30]canvas, 102 x 154 inches (260 x 391 cm), Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia. Dance, together with Music, was commissioned by S.I.Shchukin to [31]decorate the staircase in his Moscow mansion. Matisse took the [32]motif of the round dance, used as a [33]symbol back as far as French [34]Renaissance, to represent the [35]rhythm and [36]expression of the 20th century. The spaciousness and expressive [37]lines [38]emphasize the dynamics of the [39]figures. [40]Simplified and schematic [41]forms intensify the [42]brightness and [43]resonance of the three colors -- red, blue and green. See [44]music. Dance, Matisse once said, meant "life and rhythm." See [45]dance, [46]music, and [47]movement. [destij_mond.broadwa.th.gif] see thumbnail to left Piet Mondrian (Dutch, 1872-1944), [48]Broadway Boogie Woogie. 1942-43, [49]oil on [50]canvas, 50 x 50 inches (127 x 127 cm), at the Museum of Modern Art, New York. See [51]De Stijl and [52]grid. [3L00164.jpg] see thumbnail to right Paul Klee (Swiss, 1879-1940), [53]Rhythmisches (In Rhythm), 1930, [54]oil on woven jute, 69.6 x 50.5 cm, Georges Pompidou Center, Paris. See [55]Bauhaus and [56]Swiss art. [femns_taeuber_circles_th.jpg] see thumbnail to left Sophie Taeuber-Arp (Swiss, 1889-1943; to France 1928), [57]Composition of Circles and Overlapping Angles (Composition à cercles et à bras superposés), 1930, [58]oil on [59]canvas, 19 1/2 x 25 1/4 inches (49.5 x 64.1 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. See [60]feminism and feminist art. [40x10pixel.space.gif] [femns_taeuber_echelon_th.jpg] see thumbnail to right Sophie Taeuber-Arp, [61]Echelonnement désaxé, 1934, [62]gouache on [63]paper, 13 7/8 X 10 5/8 inches (35.1 X 27 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. [bauhau_aalber.walldes.th.jpg] see thumbnail to left Anni Albers (born Analise Fleischman, married Josef Albers) (German, 1899-1994), [64]Design for Wall Hanging, 1926, [65]gouache and [66]pencil on paper, 14 x 11 1/2 inches (35.6 x 29.2 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. See [67]Bauhaus and [68]textile. Quote: "Rhythm and harmony find their way into the inward places of the soul." Plato (427?-327? BCE), Greek philosopher. The Republic, Book III, 401d, as translated by B. Jowett, 1901. See [69]harmony. Also see [70]animation, [71]arrangement, [72]chronology, [73]cinema, [74]composition, [75]dance, [76]direction, [77]egg-and-dart, [78]eurythmy, [79]four-dimensional, [80]harmonic sequence, [81]harmony, [82]kinetic, [83]juxtaposition, [84]measure, [85]metamorphosis, [86]mobile, [87]movement, [88]obsession, [89]pattern, [90]periodicity, [91]music, [92]sequence, [93]space-time, [94]time, and [95]whirligig. [96][grid.1.gif] [97]ArtLex Art Dictionary [98]Copyright © 1996- current year delahunt(at)artlex.com Références [1]Ning [2]Create a Ning Network! ____________________ [3]Search * [4]Sign Up * [5]Sign In [6]DesignerNet * [7]Main * [8]My Page * [9]Syllabus + [10]Introduction + [11]Course Description + [12]Assignments/Schedule + [13]Materials + [14]Grading + [15]Make-up Work + [16]Exams/Quizzes + [17]Policies * [18]Class Resources + [19]Assignments + [20]Basic Design Principles + [21]Concept + [22]Concept and Culture + [23]Purpose of Concept + [24]Unity + [25]Principles of Unity + [26]The Look of Unity + [27]Rhythm in Art + [28]Large Scale (& small) * [29]Websites to Visit + [30]K3Order * [31]Photos * [32]Testing * [33]OldMembers * [34]Videos * [35]Blogs * [36]Groups Rhythm in Art Take a look at this definition of Rhythm in Art. As noted in the definition, it can be likened to rhythm in music, and can be said to be a "patterened repitition" What do you think? Is rhythm a "visual beat?" (noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat. A pattern has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the colors of a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from one component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying movement. Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're placed one next to the other. it's sometimes easier to comprehend rhythm in just about anything other than the visual arts, but once understood, heightened sensitivity to this aspect can animate design and art making it visually interactive. "Rhythm of the Hills" by Judy Neale "Rhythm Joie De Vivre" by Robert Delaunay This very graphic and design-oriented painting uses repeated circles, half-circles, joined shapes and contrasting colors to create movement. "Although trained in fine arts in Paris, Delaunay worked in set design before beginning his painting career in 1905. He found his initial influences in the Neo-Impressionists, but gradually moved on to join Der Blaue Reiter in 1911. His Paris cityscapes began to take on a distinctive style that studied the effect of contrasting color patterning. Delaunay's unique method spurred friend and poet, Guillaume Apollinaire, to place his paintings in a new movement, which he called Orphism." - World Wide Art Resources Tamara De Limpicka's "The Model" This piece which is a very graphically-designed painting, in which the raised right arm drives the eyes to the right side of the model's torso; the focal point of the right breast then captures the viewer's attention, and directs it with a "pointer"... a triangular fold in the model's garment pulling the viewer to the left arm of the figure. The curve of the left arm uses the multiple pointers of the model's fingers to direct the eye strongly to the left into the garment's downward-sweeping folds, and down the highlighted leg. As if that were not enough to invest the piece with rhythm, the artist then uses a strong graphical "s" shape in the background to reinforce the motion using the model's shadow to create a feeling of movement as part of the pattern in the background. The overall positioning of the figure creates visual torque, creating a feeling of anticipated movement adding to the dynamicism of the design Welcome to DesignerNet [37]Sign Up or [38]Sign In About [39]Jane Ann Nelson [40]Jane Ann Nelson created this [41]Ning Network. [42]Create a Ning Network! » © 2010 Created by [43]Jane Ann Nelson on Ning. [44]Create a Ning Network! [45]Badges | [46]Report an Issue | [47]Privacy | [48]Terms of Service Hello, you need to enable JavaScript to use DesignerNet. Please check your browser settings or contact your system administrator. [jstrk_off.gif] Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1]LEARN NC * [2]Home * [3]Help * Search * [LEARN NC..........] * _______________ * Search LEARN NC K-12 teaching and learning · from the UNC School of Education * Classroom + [4]Lesson Plans + [5]Best Practices + [6]Learning Materials + [7]Reference + [8]Field Trips + [9]Multimedia + [10]Best of the Web * Standards + [11]NC Standard Course of Study & Aligned Resources + [12]NC Professional Teaching Standards & Aligned Resources * Online Courses + [13]Open for Enrollment + [14]Course Catalog * My LEARN NC + [15]Email Updates + [16]Conference 2009 Rhythm, pattern, color, and texture in art and poetry In this lesson, students will discover the meaning of "rhythm," "patterns," "color," and "texture" through the performance and modeled analysis of a class "symphony." Students will also evaluate the impact of each element on the whole work and note personal reactions and connections to this art form. Students will then work in small groups to apply the same elements and personal evaluation and connections to a historical work of visual art. At the end of the lesson, students will reflect on ways these two experiences are similar. A lesson plan for grade 7 Visual Arts Education and English Language Arts By [17]Carol Horne Learn more Related pages * [18]Old Hat, New Hat: 3-D Pattern Hats: After students read Old Hat, New Hat by Jan and Stan Berenstain, they create their own new 3-D hats. * [19]Rhythm stars: This lesson will introduce the main components of rhythm: quarter, eighth, and sixteenth notes. * [20]How do I express what I believe? - Part 2: This is the second in a three-part lesson series seeking to examine belief systems and how they impact culture in the United States. This lesson, "How do I express what I believe?" requires 3 sessions at 40 minutes each to complete. The lesson series also seeks to let students examine their own personal belief system. In this lesson, the student will learn about the American tradition of the Face Jug/Pot and how it is used to express belief. The student will also create a Face Jug/Pot to express his/her belief, and this pot will be used in the third lesson entitled. "How do I present what I believe?" Related topics * Learn more about [21]arts, [22]color, [23]hands-on, [24]patterns, [25]rhythm, and [26]texture. Help Please read our [27]disclaimer for lesson plans. Legal The text of this page is copyright ©2008. See [28]terms of use. Images and other media may be licensed separately; see captions for more information and [29]read the fine print. [30]Creative Commons License Print * [31]Print Share * [32]Email * [33]Delicious [34]Delicious * [35]Digg [36]Digg * [37]Facebook [38]Facebook * [39]StumbleUpon [40]StumbleUpon Learning outcomes Students will: * learn to identify examples of "rhythm," "patterns," "color," and "texture" in order to analyze a whole class symphony of various sounds and movements. * learn to apply these same elements to a work of visual art. * evaluate the overall impact of each element and will investigate their personal reactions and connections to both of these art forms. * learn to reflect on the similarities of their analyses of both of these art forms. Teacher planning Time required for lesson 85 minutes Materials/resources * Adjust space for class to "perform" assigned individual movements as a whole group standing in one long line as the teacher stands in front of students to "conduct." If this is not possible, make sure students have enough space to "perform" as they stand alongside their desks. * Write variety of individual sounds and movements on index cards to distribute to each student, e.g. "bark like a dog; make a whooshing sound as you move like a wave; high-five and yell, `Yeah!'; whistle like an admirer; click your heels and say, `There's no place like home!'; sing the first bar of the Friskies' `Meow, meow, meow, meow' song; frog hop as you `ribbitt' twice; etc. * Set up a tape recorder and blank tape cued to record the class "symphony." * Make two overhead transparencies and two hard copies per student of the graphic organizer titled, "Elements of Art-Making Connections!" for analysis of the elements of "rhythm and patterns," "color," "texture," etc. (See attachment of a blank copy.) You will also need a transparency pen. * Pre-select a poster, transparency, or website image of a work of visual art preferrably from a historical period familiar to students and a narrative piece. (See "Relevant Web Sites" below for a suggested link to "Cleopatra and the Peasant.") * Complete a graphic organizer for the selected work of visual art to use as a suggested "answer key" for easy reference during small group facilitation. (See "Attachments" below for a suggested key of possible answers for "Elements of Art - Cleopatra and the Peasant" art image.) Technology resources Student computers with color monitors and Internet connection bookmarked at the site of the selected work of visual art. (optional) A classroom computer with color monitor and Internet connection set on site of selected work of visual art and connected to an LCD projector, which projects computer image onto classroom screen. (optional) Pre-activities No previous knowledge is needed for the opening "symphony" activity. However, to integrate social studies, students should be familiar with the general historical context of the work of visual art used in the second activity. If the "Cleopatra and the Peasant" piece is used, for instance, it would be helpful if students have had some background in the ancient Egyptian period prior to the viewing of this piece. If you are using another historical narrative piece, select one for which students have had some previous study. If your students will be accessing the Internet to view the visual art at a selected website, students should have obtained permission to use the Internet. They should also know how to go to bookmarked sites. Students should also have had some experience with small group collaboration with their peers. Students should have experience with writing one-sentence summaries for information presented textually or orally. Activities Because of the variety of activities, this lesson will work well as a block period, or it may be divided into two consecutive class periods. Initiating Activity - Whole Class "Symphony" (40 minutes) 1. Because we want to create an atmosphere of discovery and an air of mystery, the teacher will distribute one prepared index card to each student on which some type of sound is written without undue explanation. 2. Next, line up your students in a straight line facing you, and position yourself in front of them as the "conductor," if space permits. Explain now that the whole class will create a "symphony" using the assigned sounds while you conduct students' coming in, out, and level of volume. Briefly teach the students the signals indicated by the conductor's hand and arm movements for: making their sound/motion; decreasing the sound; increasing the sound; cutting the sound off; etc. 3. As a practice, point to each student individually to try out his assigned sound/motion along with your signals. Next, explain that at times there may be solos, duets, trios, etc., or times when the whole group will perform together. Those determinations will be indicated by the conductor, so students must watch the conductor carefully. 4. After students understand their "assignment," you, the conductor, will proceed to conduct a class symphony as you see fit. Before you start, explain that this production will be tape recorded. (Turn on your tape recorder when ready.) As you begin, experiment with different combinations of single, small group, and larger group participation as well as crescendo/decrescendo effects. You may also include periods of silence. Remember the elements you want to elicit in this improvised piece are: rhythm/patterns, color, and texture, which are discussed below. After several minutes of composing/performing, turn off the tape recorder. (See also another way of doing this activity described in "Supplemental Resources/Information for Teachers" section below.) 5. As students return to their seats, distribute copies of the blank "Elements of Art" graphic organizer to be used for an analysis of the class performance. (See "Attachments" below.) Using your overhead transparency and pen, prepare to conduct a whole class explanation/discussion of each element listed. 6. You will need to explain each of the specialized vocabulary terms below in the suggested ways. Elements for Musical Composition: Rhythm/Patterns These are listed together because patterns help to create rhythm. Rhythm is created with the recurrence (pattern) of varying stresses and tone lengths. These may be balanced against a steady, underlying succession of beats. Color You should be accepting of students' definitions here, but you may explain that "color" is created musically through such qualities as vitality, vividness, or interest. Musically speaking, "color" refers to the timbre, or tonal quality of the voice/instrument or the effect created by the combination of such qualities. Texture Explain that in music, "texture" is created by contrasts of rich, smooth, melodic, lyrical tones vs. stiff, staccato, harsh tones. 7. Before playing back the recording of the production, you may assign one-third of the class to listen for examples of rhythm and patterns, another one-third of the class can listen for examples of color, and the remaining one-third can listen for examples of texture. As they listen, they should note examples on their charts. 8. Next, ask students to share their examples of each element. Facilitate their sharing in light of the meaning of each element, remembering that your present objective is to help students to understand the meanings of all the elements and analyze examples from a musical piece. As examples are shared and discussed, model writing them on your overhead transparency; engage students by asking them to fill in examples for each element on their charts throughout the class discussion. 9. To review the elements and encourage students to engage in mental evaluation of their performance, ask students to assess which element they believe had the greatest impact on their overall performance. Did their piece seem to emphasize rhythm and pattern? Or did "color" or "texture" make the greatest impact, in their opinion? Get the students to explain and record their choices on their graphic organizers. 10. Last, to allow students to make this experience personally relevant, invite them to write single words that might describe their feelings or emotions toward their symphony. (Examples might be: exciting, interesting, invigorating, stimulating, etc.) In the last column, invite students to note something from their personal experience that the class symphony reminds them of. It could be a personal experience or feeling, or it might be one they've read about or seen portrayed in a movie or real life of a friend. Second Activity: Analyze the Elements in Visual Art (35 minutes) 1. Make a transition to the next activity by arranging students for partner or small group collaboration. If you are remaining in the classroom, arrange students in small groups of three to five with desks facing one another to encourage collaboration. If students are at computer stations, pair them up to encourage collaboration. 2. The teacher will need to use an overhead projector to initiate modeling of analysis of elements on the second overhead transparency of the graphic organizer. 3. Introduce the selected work of art and artist as you display the painting or image. (Ask students to navigate to the bookmarked website, if they are at computer stations.) Initiate discussion through use of a "hook" question. For example, if you are using the "Cleopatra and the Peasant" painting by Eugene Delacroix, ask: "Why do you think there is a little snake coiling out of the basket of plums?" As students brainstorm possibilities, work in bits of historical information. For example, remind them of who Cleopatra was and the culture and time in which she lived. (Note: Refer to "Supplemental Information" below. Also, if you access the Ackland Online website listed below under "Relevant Websites," background information about the painting will be provided.) Through questioning and discussion, develop the story behind the painting. 4. You may also mention that the painting was created in Europe in the 1800's. You may ask if students can locate clues in the painting to illustrate this fact. (Cleopatra was portrayed in this painting as a 19th century European woman in style of dress and ethnicity, for example, rather than an ancient Egyptian woman who lived during ancient Roman times.) 5. As you continue to develop the history of the story, initiate one possible answer under each of the first three columns of the graphic organizer for "rhythm/patterns," "color," and "texture." Students may copy these onto their charts. 6. Take this opportunity to weave in a review and explanation of the terms below and how they relate to analysis of a work of visual art. Definitions of Elements for Visual Art: Rhythm/Patterns The recurrence of lines, colors, and shapes (perhaps in a pattern) to create movement within a work of art. Color Qualities brought out by the use of hues (colors) and their variations. Texture Use of materials, such as paint, to create the impression of a feature, (e.g. satin, glass, or fur); or the use of real materials within the work of art, (e.g. hair, leather, or metal.) 7. After students have an understanding of the information in the painting and the elements and have written at least one example of each element on their charts, direct the small groups or partners to continue with their analyses. They should also discuss and complete the last three sections in which they evaluate which element had the greatest impact on the work of art as a whole, explore their personal feelings, and note their personal connections to the art. 8. During partner/group discussion time, the teacher should circulate to facilitate the above activities. 9. Within the last few minutes of this activity, ask students to share examples of answers recorded on their graphic organizers. Reflection Activity (10 minutes) 1. Facilitate a five-minute discussion of similarities of the symphony and work of visual art with the whole group through questioning. (Examples: "In what ways are symphonies like visual art?") Encourage students to refer to their two charts. Assist them in making oral connections between these two art forms. 2. On a slip of notebook paper during the remaining five minutes, have students write "exit slips," meaning they will get to exit your class after they have handed you their "tickets," or exit slips, out of class. 3. On the slip of paper ask students to answer the following question in one concise sentence: "What did I learn today about the elements of art in music AND in visual art?" The teacher can gain insight about the kinds of things the students learned as a result of the day's lesson by reading the exits slips. The teacher may elect to give the students some type of daily credit for completing the slips satisfactorily. Assessment The following two types of assessments may be used in addition to teacher observation: 1. Two completed graphic organizers titled, "Elements of Art," one for the symphony activity and the other for the visual art activity. The teacher may collect these and give credit for quality of answers or for participation (completion.) 2. Exit slip - This is the reflection the students made at the end of the lesson during which they were asked to summarize in one statement something they learned about the elements of both a musical composition and a work of visual art. The teacher can quickly assess the level of understanding by reading and assessing the quality of these answers for a daily grade. Supplemental information Alternate "symphony" activity: One other way to conduct this initiating activity is for the teacher NOT to be the conductor. Instead, assign sounds on cards as previously described and tell students to begin making their sounds together and continue until you indicate for them to stop. At first, the combined sounds will not be coordinated. However, as time goes along, the students will naturally begin to add their own rhythms, loudness/softness, etc. In the follow-up analysis of this musical production, it could be pointed out how the first part lacked the elements listed on the chart; but as the "music" proceeded, these elements became evident. Historical Background for the Life of Cleopatra: Cleopatra became queen of ancient Egypt in 51 B.C. Though she lacked beauty, she was intelligent, witty, charming, ambitious, and concerned about the well-being of her subjects. Cleopatra developed loyal and romantic relationships with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, great Roman leaders. Antony aspired to rule Rome alone and, due to the wealth of Egypt, hoped to obtain financial aid from Cleopatra. They fell in love and Cleopatra had several children by Antony. Cleopatra's ambition was for her children to become rulers of Rome. Because Antony gave preferential treatment to his children by Cleopatra, other Roman leaders became jealous. They thought Cleopatra was greedy and had too much control over Antony. A war broke out between the two of them and Octavian, Antony's former brother-in-law and one of the rival rulers of Rome. As Octavian came after Cleopatra and Antony, she spread a rumor that she had committed suicide. When Antony heard the report, he stabbed himself. He later died in her arms. When Cleopatra's attempts to make up to Octavian failed, she put a poisonous snake on her arm and indeed did commit suicide. Antony's and Cleopatra's love story has taken many dramatic and artistic forms through the ages. In the painting, "Cleopatra and the Peasant," the peasant is shown as suggesting to Cleopatra (or enticing her by his slight smile and her serious expression of consideration) with the idea of taking her life with a snake. The peasant is holding a basket of plums under his leopard pelt. A snake is emerging from the plums. A jpg image of Cleopatra by Delacroix along with credit information has been provided as an attachment below. Related websites Color image of "Cleopatra and the Peasant," by Eugene Delacroix: Ackland Museum Online: Comments For special needs students, such as LD, the teacher may provide a hard copy for each of the two completed "Elements of Art" graphic organizers, saving time for the student in copying information onto the charts. Enrichment can be provided by encouraging students to formulate their own questions about either work of art (musical, as in the class symphony, or the historical work of visual art,) and their elements. Allow students to conduct their own research to answer these questions using CD ROMS, Internet art sites, NC Wise Owl, a research site, which has been included under "Relevant Websites," etc. North Carolina Curriculum Alignment Visual Arts Education (2001) Grade 7 * Goal 1: The learner will develop critical and creative thinking skills and perceptual awareness necessary for understanding and producing art. + [41]Objective 1.06: Recognize and discuss the use of multiple senses in visual arts. * Goal 2: The learner will develop skills necessary for understanding and applying media, techniques, and processes. + [42]Objective 2.02: Explore and identify the unique properties and potential of materials using proper vocabulary and terminology. * Goal 3: The learner will organize the components of a work into a cohesive whole through knowledge of organizational principles of design and art elements. + [43]Objective 3.03: Explore and discuss that diverse solutions are preferable to predetermined visual solutions. + [44]Objective 3.04: Explore and discuss the value of intuitive perceptions in the problem-solving process. * Goal 5: The learner will understand the visual arts in relation to history and cultures. + [45]Objective 5.02: Describe characteristics of specific works of art that belong to a particular culture, time and place. * Goal 7: The learner will perceive connections between visual arts and other disciplines. + [46]Objective 7.01: Explain connections, similarities and differences between the visual arts and other disciplines. + [47]Objective 7.03: Compare characteristics of visual arts within a particular historical period or style with ideas, issues or themes in other disciplines. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill LEARN NC, a program of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill [48]School of Education, finds the most innovative and successful practices in K-12 education and makes them available to the teachers and students of North Carolina -- and the world. [49]About LEARN NC | [50]Site map | [51]Search | [52]Staff | [53]Partners | [54]Legal | [55]Help | [56]Contact us For more great resources for K-12 teaching and learning, visit us on the web at www.learnnc.org. Références #[1]About.com ____________________ (Submit) Search [2]About.com [3]Art History 1. [4]Home 2. [5]Education 3. [6]Art History [7][education_arthistory;kw=;site=arthistory;chan=education;pos=lb;sz=7 28x90;ord=1A1JJ6U0P20SA0xBC] * [8]Share * * [9]Art History * [10]Artists * [11]Styles * [12]Works of Art * Free Art History Newsletter! ____________________ (Submit) Sign Up * [13]Discuss in my Forum rhythm By [14]Shelley Esaak, About.com Guide See More About: * [15]art definitions * [16]principles of design Definition: (noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat. A pattern has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the colors of a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from one component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying movement. Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're placed one next to the other. Really, it's easier to "see" rhythm in just about anything other than the visual arts. Literally-minded types should stick to music for rhythm. Pronunciation: rih·them Related Articles * [17]Guitar Strumming 101 - Strumming Pattern Exercise Number One * [18]From a Father to His Children - Clement Clarke Moore * [19]Music clip art and instruments and musicians and musical notes plus other m... * [20]Pittsburgh Arts Summer Camps - Performing & Visual Arts Summer Programs in ... * [21]United Kingdom Travel by Interest - Find History, Art, Theatre, Music and M... [22]Shelley Esaak [23]Shelley Esaak Art History Guide * [24]Sign up for my Newsletter * [25]My Blog * [26]My Forum Explore Art History Must Reads * [27]60-Second Artist Bios * [28]What Is Art? * [29]Leonardo da Vinci Paintings * [30]Teaching Tool: Picturing America * [31]Timeline: Modern Art Movements Most Popular [32]The Last Supper[33]The Sistine Chapel Ceiling[34]What are the Elements of Art?[35]What Is Art?[36]Art History Jobs - Fellowship and Internship Postings See More About: * [37]art definitions * [38]principles of design By Category * [39]Artists A to Z * [40]Art History 101 * [41]Timelines of Art History * [42]Ancient Art History * [43]Medieval Art History * [44]Renaissance Art History * [45]Modern Art History * [46]Contemporary Art History * [47]Images / Picture Galleries * [48]Types of Visual Art * [49]Art by Location / Culture * [50]Art Museums / Galleries About.com Special Features [51]Dinosaur Discoveries of the Decade The top 10 fossil discoveries between 2000 and 2010. [52]More > [53]How to Ace the GRE Being well prepared is the first step; here are more essential suggestions. [54]More > [55]About.com [56]Art History 1. [57]Home 2. [58]Education 3. [59]Art History 4. [60]Art History 101 5. [61]Art History Glossary 6. [62]Words Beginning With R 7. Art History Glossary - R - rhythm> * [63]Most Popular * [64]Latest Articles Add to: * [65]iGoogle * [66]My Yahoo! * [67]RSS * [68]Advertising Info * [69]News & Events * [70]Work at About * [71]SiteMap * [72]All Topics * [73]Reprints * [74]Help * [75]User Agreement * [76]Ethics Policy * [77]Patent Info. * [78]Privacy Policy * [79]Our Story * [80]Write for About ©2010 About.com, a part of [81]The New York Times Company. All rights reserved. Références [1]Click Here [2]ArtLex Art Dictionary ,ø¤º°`°ºº¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø ,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º° r rhythm - A visual tempo or beat. The [3]principle of design that refers to a regular repetition of [4]elements of art to produce the look and feel of [5]movement. It is often achieved through the careful placement of repeated components which invite the viewer's eye to jump rapidly or glide smoothly from one to the next. In any [6]artwork, it is possible to distinguish between rhythm of [7]color, [8]line, and [9]form. In the continuity of the three comes the whole rhythm of that work. Rhythm unites the [10]visual culture with [11]music, but in visual culture, rhythm is more evident in the [12]applied arts than in the [13]fine arts. In the former, it is often the foremost means of [14]aesthetic [15]expression. Rhythm originated in the Greek word rhymthmos, meaning measured flow, which they passed into Latin as rhythmus, meaning movement in [16]time. Its first uses in English were literary, in reference to themetrical rhyming of verses. English speakers began to use rhythm concerning repetition of musical beats in the late 18th century, and about visual elements in the same period. Each [17]artist, every [18]period, every [19]culture produces a characteristic sort of rhythm. Recognizing a work's rhythmical peculiarities often aids in [20]identify the culture or [21]time in which it was produced, if not the individual artist who produced it. Rhythm's importance can be demonstrated by noting how many important rhythmic cycles we observe in [22]nature -- consider the alternating tension and relaxation in the heart's beating or in the ocean's waves, the revolutions of the earth around the sun, the comings and goings of generations. Each of us has personal rhythms to our days, weeks, and years. Life, indeed, would be chaotic without rhythm. Participating in the tempo of this flow gives us excitement and calm, yearning and contentment, yin and yang. It is natural that we would employ rhythms to organize and [23]unify our works, much as they do the rest of our experience. There are several types of visual rhythm. These include: regular rhythms - The background design behind this text has a regular rhythm. (In the following examples, let the letters A, B, etc. stand for visual elements of any sort) AB-AB-AB is the most common type. Picture alternating stripes of two colors, for instance. (In English prosody, a student of poetry might read this as either "iambs" or "trochees". An iamb is a metrical foot consisting of two syllables, the first syllable accented, the second accented, as in AB-AB-AB. It becomes trochaic meter if the accenting is reversed, as in AB-AB-AB.) Some more examples: ABC-ABC-ABC (In English prosody, a student of poetry might read this as "anapests" or "dactyls". An anapest is a metrical foot consisting of three syllables, the first two syllables unaccented, the third accented, as in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL. A dactyl consists of three syllables, the first accented, the second and third unaccented, as in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL.) ABBB-ABBB-ABBB ABCB-ABCB-ABCB ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA alternating rhythms - some examples: ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE-ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE- ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF-ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF- ABCD-DCCBBA-ABCD-DCCBBA progressive rhythms - Progression occurs when there is a gradual increase or decrease in the size, number, color, or some other quality of the elements repeated. some examples: AB-AABB-AAABBB-AAAABBBB AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB- ABC-ABD-ABE-ABF-ABG-ABH-ABI flowing rhythms - random rhythms - Each of these types of rhythm might be altered periodically. [24]Music theory might be defined as the study of rhythms and their periodic alterations. Example of works displaying rhythm: [rhythm_matis.danc1.th.jpg] see thumbnail to left Henri Matisse (French, 1869-1954), [25]Dance (first version), 1909, [26]oil on [27]canvas, 8 feet 6 1/2 inches x 12 feet 9 1/2 inches (259.7 x 390.1 cm), Museum of [e3_3_1_8d_french_art20.jpg] Modern Art, NY. Matisse painted a second version of see thumbnail to right [28]Dance in 1910, [29]oil on [30]canvas, 102 x 154 inches (260 x 391 cm), Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia. Dance, together with Music, was commissioned by S.I.Shchukin to [31]decorate the staircase in his Moscow mansion. Matisse took the [32]motif of the round dance, used as a [33]symbol back as far as French [34]Renaissance, to represent the [35]rhythm and [36]expression of the 20th century. The spaciousness and expressive [37]lines [38]emphasize the dynamics of the [39]figures. [40]Simplified and schematic [41]forms intensify the [42]brightness and [43]resonance of the three colors -- red, blue and green. See [44]music. Dance, Matisse once said, meant "life and rhythm." See [45]dance, [46]music, and [47]movement. [destij_mond.broadwa.th.gif] see thumbnail to left Piet Mondrian (Dutch, 1872-1944), [48]Broadway Boogie Woogie. 1942-43, [49]oil on [50]canvas, 50 x 50 inches (127 x 127 cm), at the Museum of Modern Art, New York. See [51]De Stijl and [52]grid. [3L00164.jpg] see thumbnail to right Paul Klee (Swiss, 1879-1940), [53]Rhythmisches (In Rhythm), 1930, [54]oil on woven jute, 69.6 x 50.5 cm, Georges Pompidou Center, Paris. See [55]Bauhaus and [56]Swiss art. [femns_taeuber_circles_th.jpg] see thumbnail to left Sophie Taeuber-Arp (Swiss, 1889-1943; to France 1928), [57]Composition of Circles and Overlapping Angles (Composition à cercles et à bras superposés), 1930, [58]oil on [59]canvas, 19 1/2 x 25 1/4 inches (49.5 x 64.1 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. See [60]feminism and feminist art. [40x10pixel.space.gif] [femns_taeuber_echelon_th.jpg] see thumbnail to right Sophie Taeuber-Arp, [61]Echelonnement désaxé, 1934, [62]gouache on [63]paper, 13 7/8 X 10 5/8 inches (35.1 X 27 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. [bauhau_aalber.walldes.th.jpg] see thumbnail to left Anni Albers (born Analise Fleischman, married Josef Albers) (German, 1899-1994), [64]Design for Wall Hanging, 1926, [65]gouache and [66]pencil on paper, 14 x 11 1/2 inches (35.6 x 29.2 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. See [67]Bauhaus and [68]textile. Quote: "Rhythm and harmony find their way into the inward places of the soul." Plato (427?-327? BCE), Greek philosopher. The Republic, Book III, 401d, as translated by B. Jowett, 1901. See [69]harmony. Also see [70]animation, [71]arrangement, [72]chronology, [73]cinema, [74]composition, [75]dance, [76]direction, [77]egg-and-dart, [78]eurythmy, [79]four-dimensional, [80]harmonic sequence, [81]harmony, [82]kinetic, [83]juxtaposition, [84]measure, [85]metamorphosis, [86]mobile, [87]movement, [88]obsession, [89]pattern, [90]periodicity, [91]music, [92]sequence, [93]space-time, [94]time, and [95]whirligig. [96][grid.1.gif] [97]ArtLex Art Dictionary [98]Copyright © 1996- current year delahunt(at)artlex.com Références #[1]About.com ____________________ (Submit) Search [2]About.com [3]Art History 1. [4]Home 2. [5]Education 3. [6]Art History [7][education_arthistory;kw=;site=arthistory;chan=education;pos=lb;sz=7 28x90;ord=1A1HKXJ0C20SA0p7N] * [8]Share * * [9]Art History * [10]Artists * [11]Styles * [12]Works of Art * Free Art History Newsletter! ____________________ (Submit) Sign Up * [13]Discuss in my Forum rhythm By [14]Shelley Esaak, About.com Guide See More About: * [15]art definitions * [16]principles of design Definition: (noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat. A pattern has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the colors of a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from one component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying movement. Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're placed one next to the other. Really, it's easier to "see" rhythm in just about anything other than the visual arts. Literally-minded types should stick to music for rhythm. Pronunciation: rih·them Related Articles * [17]Guitar Strumming 101 - Strumming Pattern Exercise Number One * [18]From a Father to His Children - Clement Clarke Moore * [19]Music clip art and instruments and musicians and musical notes plus other m... * [20]Pittsburgh Arts Summer Camps - Performing & Visual Arts Summer Programs in ... * [21]United Kingdom Travel by Interest - Find History, Art, Theatre, Music and M... [22]Shelley Esaak [23]Shelley Esaak Art History Guide * [24]Sign up for my Newsletter * [25]My Blog * [26]My Forum Explore Art History Must Reads * [27]60-Second Artist Bios * [28]What Is Art? * [29]Leonardo da Vinci Paintings * [30]Teaching Tool: Picturing America * [31]Timeline: Modern Art Movements Most Popular [32]The Last Supper[33]The Sistine Chapel Ceiling[34]What are the Elements of Art?[35]What Is Art?[36]Art History Jobs - Fellowship and Internship Postings See More About: * [37]art definitions * [38]principles of design By Category * [39]Artists A to Z * [40]Art History 101 * [41]Timelines of Art History * [42]Ancient Art History * [43]Medieval Art History * [44]Renaissance Art History * [45]Modern Art History * [46]Contemporary Art History * [47]Images / Picture Galleries * [48]Types of Visual Art * [49]Art by Location / Culture * [50]Art Museums / Galleries About.com Special Features [51]Dinosaur Discoveries of the Decade The top 10 fossil discoveries between 2000 and 2010. [52]More > [53]How to Ace the GRE Being well prepared is the first step; here are more essential suggestions. [54]More > [55]About.com [56]Art History 1. [57]Home 2. [58]Education 3. [59]Art History 4. [60]Art History 101 5. [61]Art History Glossary 6. [62]Words Beginning With R 7. Art History Glossary - R - rhythm> * [63]Most Popular * [64]Latest Articles Add to: * [65]iGoogle * [66]My Yahoo! * [67]RSS * [68]Advertising Info * [69]News & Events * [70]Work at About * [71]SiteMap * [72]All Topics * [73]Reprints * [74]Help * [75]User Agreement * [76]Ethics Policy * [77]Patent Info. * [78]Privacy Policy * [79]Our Story * [80]Write for About ©2010 About.com, a part of [81]The New York Times Company. All rights reserved. Références [1]Click Here [2]ArtLex Art Dictionary ,ø¤º°`°ºº¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø ,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º° r rhythm - A visual tempo or beat. The [3]principle of design that refers to a regular repetition of [4]elements of art to produce the look and feel of [5]movement. It is often achieved through the careful placement of repeated components which invite the viewer's eye to jump rapidly or glide smoothly from one to the next. In any [6]artwork, it is possible to distinguish between rhythm of [7]color, [8]line, and [9]form. In the continuity of the three comes the whole rhythm of that work. Rhythm unites the [10]visual culture with [11]music, but in visual culture, rhythm is more evident in the [12]applied arts than in the [13]fine arts. In the former, it is often the foremost means of [14]aesthetic [15]expression. Rhythm originated in the Greek word rhymthmos, meaning measured flow, which they passed into Latin as rhythmus, meaning movement in [16]time. Its first uses in English were literary, in reference to themetrical rhyming of verses. English speakers began to use rhythm concerning repetition of musical beats in the late 18th century, and about visual elements in the same period. Each [17]artist, every [18]period, every [19]culture produces a characteristic sort of rhythm. Recognizing a work's rhythmical peculiarities often aids in [20]identify the culture or [21]time in which it was produced, if not the individual artist who produced it. Rhythm's importance can be demonstrated by noting how many important rhythmic cycles we observe in [22]nature -- consider the alternating tension and relaxation in the heart's beating or in the ocean's waves, the revolutions of the earth around the sun, the comings and goings of generations. Each of us has personal rhythms to our days, weeks, and years. Life, indeed, would be chaotic without rhythm. Participating in the tempo of this flow gives us excitement and calm, yearning and contentment, yin and yang. It is natural that we would employ rhythms to organize and [23]unify our works, much as they do the rest of our experience. There are several types of visual rhythm. These include: regular rhythms - The background design behind this text has a regular rhythm. (In the following examples, let the letters A, B, etc. stand for visual elements of any sort) AB-AB-AB is the most common type. Picture alternating stripes of two colors, for instance. (In English prosody, a student of poetry might read this as either "iambs" or "trochees". An iamb is a metrical foot consisting of two syllables, the first syllable accented, the second accented, as in AB-AB-AB. It becomes trochaic meter if the accenting is reversed, as in AB-AB-AB.) Some more examples: ABC-ABC-ABC (In English prosody, a student of poetry might read this as "anapests" or "dactyls". An anapest is a metrical foot consisting of three syllables, the first two syllables unaccented, the third accented, as in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL. A dactyl consists of three syllables, the first accented, the second and third unaccented, as in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL.) ABBB-ABBB-ABBB ABCB-ABCB-ABCB ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA alternating rhythms - some examples: ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE-ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE- ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF-ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF- ABCD-DCCBBA-ABCD-DCCBBA progressive rhythms - Progression occurs when there is a gradual increase or decrease in the size, number, color, or some other quality of the elements repeated. some examples: AB-AABB-AAABBB-AAAABBBB AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB- ABC-ABD-ABE-ABF-ABG-ABH-ABI flowing rhythms - random rhythms - Each of these types of rhythm might be altered periodically. [24]Music theory might be defined as the study of rhythms and their periodic alterations. Example of works displaying rhythm: [rhythm_matis.danc1.th.jpg] see thumbnail to left Henri Matisse (French, 1869-1954), [25]Dance (first version), 1909, [26]oil on [27]canvas, 8 feet 6 1/2 inches x 12 feet 9 1/2 inches (259.7 x 390.1 cm), Museum of [e3_3_1_8d_french_art20.jpg] Modern Art, NY. Matisse painted a second version of see thumbnail to right [28]Dance in 1910, [29]oil on [30]canvas, 102 x 154 inches (260 x 391 cm), Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia. Dance, together with Music, was commissioned by S.I.Shchukin to [31]decorate the staircase in his Moscow mansion. Matisse took the [32]motif of the round dance, used as a [33]symbol back as far as French [34]Renaissance, to represent the [35]rhythm and [36]expression of the 20th century. The spaciousness and expressive [37]lines [38]emphasize the dynamics of the [39]figures. [40]Simplified and schematic [41]forms intensify the [42]brightness and [43]resonance of the three colors -- red, blue and green. See [44]music. Dance, Matisse once said, meant "life and rhythm." See [45]dance, [46]music, and [47]movement. [destij_mond.broadwa.th.gif] see thumbnail to left Piet Mondrian (Dutch, 1872-1944), [48]Broadway Boogie Woogie. 1942-43, [49]oil on [50]canvas, 50 x 50 inches (127 x 127 cm), at the Museum of Modern Art, New York. See [51]De Stijl and [52]grid. [3L00164.jpg] see thumbnail to right Paul Klee (Swiss, 1879-1940), [53]Rhythmisches (In Rhythm), 1930, [54]oil on woven jute, 69.6 x 50.5 cm, Georges Pompidou Center, Paris. See [55]Bauhaus and [56]Swiss art. [femns_taeuber_circles_th.jpg] see thumbnail to left Sophie Taeuber-Arp (Swiss, 1889-1943; to France 1928), [57]Composition of Circles and Overlapping Angles (Composition à cercles et à bras superposés), 1930, [58]oil on [59]canvas, 19 1/2 x 25 1/4 inches (49.5 x 64.1 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. See [60]feminism and feminist art. [40x10pixel.space.gif] [femns_taeuber_echelon_th.jpg] see thumbnail to right Sophie Taeuber-Arp, [61]Echelonnement désaxé, 1934, [62]gouache on [63]paper, 13 7/8 X 10 5/8 inches (35.1 X 27 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. [bauhau_aalber.walldes.th.jpg] see thumbnail to left Anni Albers (born Analise Fleischman, married Josef Albers) (German, 1899-1994), [64]Design for Wall Hanging, 1926, [65]gouache and [66]pencil on paper, 14 x 11 1/2 inches (35.6 x 29.2 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. See [67]Bauhaus and [68]textile. Quote: "Rhythm and harmony find their way into the inward places of the soul." Plato (427?-327? BCE), Greek philosopher. The Republic, Book III, 401d, as translated by B. Jowett, 1901. See [69]harmony. Also see [70]animation, [71]arrangement, [72]chronology, [73]cinema, [74]composition, [75]dance, [76]direction, [77]egg-and-dart, [78]eurythmy, [79]four-dimensional, [80]harmonic sequence, [81]harmony, [82]kinetic, [83]juxtaposition, [84]measure, [85]metamorphosis, [86]mobile, [87]movement, [88]obsession, [89]pattern, [90]periodicity, [91]music, [92]sequence, [93]space-time, [94]time, and [95]whirligig. [96][grid.1.gif] [97]ArtLex Art Dictionary [98]Copyright © 1996- current year delahunt(at)artlex.com Références [1]Ning [2]Create a Ning Network! ____________________ [3]Search * [4]Sign Up * [5]Sign In [6]DesignerNet * [7]Main * [8]My Page * [9]Syllabus + [10]Introduction + [11]Course Description + [12]Assignments/Schedule + [13]Materials + [14]Grading + [15]Make-up Work + [16]Exams/Quizzes + [17]Policies * [18]Class Resources + [19]Assignments + [20]Basic Design Principles + [21]Concept + [22]Concept and Culture + [23]Purpose of Concept + [24]Unity + [25]Principles of Unity + [26]The Look of Unity + [27]Rhythm in Art + [28]Large Scale (& small) * [29]Websites to Visit + [30]K3Order * [31]Photos * [32]Testing * [33]OldMembers * [34]Videos * [35]Blogs * [36]Groups Rhythm in Art Take a look at this definition of Rhythm in Art. As noted in the definition, it can be likened to rhythm in music, and can be said to be a "patterened repitition" What do you think? Is rhythm a "visual beat?" (noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat. A pattern has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the colors of a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from one component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying movement. Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're placed one next to the other. it's sometimes easier to comprehend rhythm in just about anything other than the visual arts, but once understood, heightened sensitivity to this aspect can animate design and art making it visually interactive. "Rhythm of the Hills" by Judy Neale "Rhythm Joie De Vivre" by Robert Delaunay This very graphic and design-oriented painting uses repeated circles, half-circles, joined shapes and contrasting colors to create movement. "Although trained in fine arts in Paris, Delaunay worked in set design before beginning his painting career in 1905. He found his initial influences in the Neo-Impressionists, but gradually moved on to join Der Blaue Reiter in 1911. His Paris cityscapes began to take on a distinctive style that studied the effect of contrasting color patterning. Delaunay's unique method spurred friend and poet, Guillaume Apollinaire, to place his paintings in a new movement, which he called Orphism." - World Wide Art Resources Tamara De Limpicka's "The Model" This piece which is a very graphically-designed painting, in which the raised right arm drives the eyes to the right side of the model's torso; the focal point of the right breast then captures the viewer's attention, and directs it with a "pointer"... a triangular fold in the model's garment pulling the viewer to the left arm of the figure. The curve of the left arm uses the multiple pointers of the model's fingers to direct the eye strongly to the left into the garment's downward-sweeping folds, and down the highlighted leg. As if that were not enough to invest the piece with rhythm, the artist then uses a strong graphical "s" shape in the background to reinforce the motion using the model's shadow to create a feeling of movement as part of the pattern in the background. The overall positioning of the figure creates visual torque, creating a feeling of anticipated movement adding to the dynamicism of the design Welcome to DesignerNet [37]Sign Up or [38]Sign In About [39]Jane Ann Nelson [40]Jane Ann Nelson created this [41]Ning Network. [42]Create a Ning Network! » © 2010 Created by [43]Jane Ann Nelson on Ning. [44]Create a Ning Network! [45]Badges | [46]Report an Issue | [47]Privacy | [48]Terms of Service Hello, you need to enable JavaScript to use DesignerNet. Please check your browser settings or contact your system administrator. [jstrk_off.gif] Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1]LEARN NC * [2]Home * [3]Help * Search * [LEARN NC..........] * _______________ * Search LEARN NC K-12 teaching and learning · from the UNC School of Education * Classroom + [4]Lesson Plans + [5]Best Practices + [6]Learning Materials + [7]Reference + [8]Field Trips + [9]Multimedia + [10]Best of the Web * Standards + [11]NC Standard Course of Study & Aligned Resources + [12]NC Professional Teaching Standards & Aligned Resources * Online Courses + [13]Open for Enrollment + [14]Course Catalog * My LEARN NC + [15]Email Updates + [16]Conference 2009 Rhythm, pattern, color, and texture in art and poetry In this lesson, students will discover the meaning of "rhythm," "patterns," "color," and "texture" through the performance and modeled analysis of a class "symphony." Students will also evaluate the impact of each element on the whole work and note personal reactions and connections to this art form. Students will then work in small groups to apply the same elements and personal evaluation and connections to a historical work of visual art. At the end of the lesson, students will reflect on ways these two experiences are similar. A lesson plan for grade 7 Visual Arts Education and English Language Arts By [17]Carol Horne Learn more Related pages * [18]Old Hat, New Hat: 3-D Pattern Hats: After students read Old Hat, New Hat by Jan and Stan Berenstain, they create their own new 3-D hats. * [19]Rhythm stars: This lesson will introduce the main components of rhythm: quarter, eighth, and sixteenth notes. * [20]How do I express what I believe? - Part 2: This is the second in a three-part lesson series seeking to examine belief systems and how they impact culture in the United States. This lesson, "How do I express what I believe?" requires 3 sessions at 40 minutes each to complete. The lesson series also seeks to let students examine their own personal belief system. In this lesson, the student will learn about the American tradition of the Face Jug/Pot and how it is used to express belief. The student will also create a Face Jug/Pot to express his/her belief, and this pot will be used in the third lesson entitled. "How do I present what I believe?" Related topics * Learn more about [21]arts, [22]color, [23]hands-on, [24]patterns, [25]rhythm, and [26]texture. Help Please read our [27]disclaimer for lesson plans. Legal The text of this page is copyright ©2008. See [28]terms of use. Images and other media may be licensed separately; see captions for more information and [29]read the fine print. [30]Creative Commons License Print * [31]Print Share * [32]Email * [33]Delicious [34]Delicious * [35]Digg [36]Digg * [37]Facebook [38]Facebook * [39]StumbleUpon [40]StumbleUpon Learning outcomes Students will: * learn to identify examples of "rhythm," "patterns," "color," and "texture" in order to analyze a whole class symphony of various sounds and movements. * learn to apply these same elements to a work of visual art. * evaluate the overall impact of each element and will investigate their personal reactions and connections to both of these art forms. * learn to reflect on the similarities of their analyses of both of these art forms. Teacher planning Time required for lesson 85 minutes Materials/resources * Adjust space for class to "perform" assigned individual movements as a whole group standing in one long line as the teacher stands in front of students to "conduct." If this is not possible, make sure students have enough space to "perform" as they stand alongside their desks. * Write variety of individual sounds and movements on index cards to distribute to each student, e.g. "bark like a dog; make a whooshing sound as you move like a wave; high-five and yell, `Yeah!'; whistle like an admirer; click your heels and say, `There's no place like home!'; sing the first bar of the Friskies' `Meow, meow, meow, meow' song; frog hop as you `ribbitt' twice; etc. * Set up a tape recorder and blank tape cued to record the class "symphony." * Make two overhead transparencies and two hard copies per student of the graphic organizer titled, "Elements of Art-Making Connections!" for analysis of the elements of "rhythm and patterns," "color," "texture," etc. (See attachment of a blank copy.) You will also need a transparency pen. * Pre-select a poster, transparency, or website image of a work of visual art preferrably from a historical period familiar to students and a narrative piece. (See "Relevant Web Sites" below for a suggested link to "Cleopatra and the Peasant.") * Complete a graphic organizer for the selected work of visual art to use as a suggested "answer key" for easy reference during small group facilitation. (See "Attachments" below for a suggested key of possible answers for "Elements of Art - Cleopatra and the Peasant" art image.) Technology resources Student computers with color monitors and Internet connection bookmarked at the site of the selected work of visual art. (optional) A classroom computer with color monitor and Internet connection set on site of selected work of visual art and connected to an LCD projector, which projects computer image onto classroom screen. (optional) Pre-activities No previous knowledge is needed for the opening "symphony" activity. However, to integrate social studies, students should be familiar with the general historical context of the work of visual art used in the second activity. If the "Cleopatra and the Peasant" piece is used, for instance, it would be helpful if students have had some background in the ancient Egyptian period prior to the viewing of this piece. If you are using another historical narrative piece, select one for which students have had some previous study. If your students will be accessing the Internet to view the visual art at a selected website, students should have obtained permission to use the Internet. They should also know how to go to bookmarked sites. Students should also have had some experience with small group collaboration with their peers. Students should have experience with writing one-sentence summaries for information presented textually or orally. Activities Because of the variety of activities, this lesson will work well as a block period, or it may be divided into two consecutive class periods. Initiating Activity - Whole Class "Symphony" (40 minutes) 1. Because we want to create an atmosphere of discovery and an air of mystery, the teacher will distribute one prepared index card to each student on which some type of sound is written without undue explanation. 2. Next, line up your students in a straight line facing you, and position yourself in front of them as the "conductor," if space permits. Explain now that the whole class will create a "symphony" using the assigned sounds while you conduct students' coming in, out, and level of volume. Briefly teach the students the signals indicated by the conductor's hand and arm movements for: making their sound/motion; decreasing the sound; increasing the sound; cutting the sound off; etc. 3. As a practice, point to each student individually to try out his assigned sound/motion along with your signals. Next, explain that at times there may be solos, duets, trios, etc., or times when the whole group will perform together. Those determinations will be indicated by the conductor, so students must watch the conductor carefully. 4. After students understand their "assignment," you, the conductor, will proceed to conduct a class symphony as you see fit. Before you start, explain that this production will be tape recorded. (Turn on your tape recorder when ready.) As you begin, experiment with different combinations of single, small group, and larger group participation as well as crescendo/decrescendo effects. You may also include periods of silence. Remember the elements you want to elicit in this improvised piece are: rhythm/patterns, color, and texture, which are discussed below. After several minutes of composing/performing, turn off the tape recorder. (See also another way of doing this activity described in "Supplemental Resources/Information for Teachers" section below.) 5. As students return to their seats, distribute copies of the blank "Elements of Art" graphic organizer to be used for an analysis of the class performance. (See "Attachments" below.) Using your overhead transparency and pen, prepare to conduct a whole class explanation/discussion of each element listed. 6. You will need to explain each of the specialized vocabulary terms below in the suggested ways. Elements for Musical Composition: Rhythm/Patterns These are listed together because patterns help to create rhythm. Rhythm is created with the recurrence (pattern) of varying stresses and tone lengths. These may be balanced against a steady, underlying succession of beats. Color You should be accepting of students' definitions here, but you may explain that "color" is created musically through such qualities as vitality, vividness, or interest. Musically speaking, "color" refers to the timbre, or tonal quality of the voice/instrument or the effect created by the combination of such qualities. Texture Explain that in music, "texture" is created by contrasts of rich, smooth, melodic, lyrical tones vs. stiff, staccato, harsh tones. 7. Before playing back the recording of the production, you may assign one-third of the class to listen for examples of rhythm and patterns, another one-third of the class can listen for examples of color, and the remaining one-third can listen for examples of texture. As they listen, they should note examples on their charts. 8. Next, ask students to share their examples of each element. Facilitate their sharing in light of the meaning of each element, remembering that your present objective is to help students to understand the meanings of all the elements and analyze examples from a musical piece. As examples are shared and discussed, model writing them on your overhead transparency; engage students by asking them to fill in examples for each element on their charts throughout the class discussion. 9. To review the elements and encourage students to engage in mental evaluation of their performance, ask students to assess which element they believe had the greatest impact on their overall performance. Did their piece seem to emphasize rhythm and pattern? Or did "color" or "texture" make the greatest impact, in their opinion? Get the students to explain and record their choices on their graphic organizers. 10. Last, to allow students to make this experience personally relevant, invite them to write single words that might describe their feelings or emotions toward their symphony. (Examples might be: exciting, interesting, invigorating, stimulating, etc.) In the last column, invite students to note something from their personal experience that the class symphony reminds them of. It could be a personal experience or feeling, or it might be one they've read about or seen portrayed in a movie or real life of a friend. Second Activity: Analyze the Elements in Visual Art (35 minutes) 1. Make a transition to the next activity by arranging students for partner or small group collaboration. If you are remaining in the classroom, arrange students in small groups of three to five with desks facing one another to encourage collaboration. If students are at computer stations, pair them up to encourage collaboration. 2. The teacher will need to use an overhead projector to initiate modeling of analysis of elements on the second overhead transparency of the graphic organizer. 3. Introduce the selected work of art and artist as you display the painting or image. (Ask students to navigate to the bookmarked website, if they are at computer stations.) Initiate discussion through use of a "hook" question. For example, if you are using the "Cleopatra and the Peasant" painting by Eugene Delacroix, ask: "Why do you think there is a little snake coiling out of the basket of plums?" As students brainstorm possibilities, work in bits of historical information. For example, remind them of who Cleopatra was and the culture and time in which she lived. (Note: Refer to "Supplemental Information" below. Also, if you access the Ackland Online website listed below under "Relevant Websites," background information about the painting will be provided.) Through questioning and discussion, develop the story behind the painting. 4. You may also mention that the painting was created in Europe in the 1800's. You may ask if students can locate clues in the painting to illustrate this fact. (Cleopatra was portrayed in this painting as a 19th century European woman in style of dress and ethnicity, for example, rather than an ancient Egyptian woman who lived during ancient Roman times.) 5. As you continue to develop the history of the story, initiate one possible answer under each of the first three columns of the graphic organizer for "rhythm/patterns," "color," and "texture." Students may copy these onto their charts. 6. Take this opportunity to weave in a review and explanation of the terms below and how they relate to analysis of a work of visual art. Definitions of Elements for Visual Art: Rhythm/Patterns The recurrence of lines, colors, and shapes (perhaps in a pattern) to create movement within a work of art. Color Qualities brought out by the use of hues (colors) and their variations. Texture Use of materials, such as paint, to create the impression of a feature, (e.g. satin, glass, or fur); or the use of real materials within the work of art, (e.g. hair, leather, or metal.) 7. After students have an understanding of the information in the painting and the elements and have written at least one example of each element on their charts, direct the small groups or partners to continue with their analyses. They should also discuss and complete the last three sections in which they evaluate which element had the greatest impact on the work of art as a whole, explore their personal feelings, and note their personal connections to the art. 8. During partner/group discussion time, the teacher should circulate to facilitate the above activities. 9. Within the last few minutes of this activity, ask students to share examples of answers recorded on their graphic organizers. Reflection Activity (10 minutes) 1. Facilitate a five-minute discussion of similarities of the symphony and work of visual art with the whole group through questioning. (Examples: "In what ways are symphonies like visual art?") Encourage students to refer to their two charts. Assist them in making oral connections between these two art forms. 2. On a slip of notebook paper during the remaining five minutes, have students write "exit slips," meaning they will get to exit your class after they have handed you their "tickets," or exit slips, out of class. 3. On the slip of paper ask students to answer the following question in one concise sentence: "What did I learn today about the elements of art in music AND in visual art?" The teacher can gain insight about the kinds of things the students learned as a result of the day's lesson by reading the exits slips. The teacher may elect to give the students some type of daily credit for completing the slips satisfactorily. Assessment The following two types of assessments may be used in addition to teacher observation: 1. Two completed graphic organizers titled, "Elements of Art," one for the symphony activity and the other for the visual art activity. The teacher may collect these and give credit for quality of answers or for participation (completion.) 2. Exit slip - This is the reflection the students made at the end of the lesson during which they were asked to summarize in one statement something they learned about the elements of both a musical composition and a work of visual art. The teacher can quickly assess the level of understanding by reading and assessing the quality of these answers for a daily grade. Supplemental information Alternate "symphony" activity: One other way to conduct this initiating activity is for the teacher NOT to be the conductor. Instead, assign sounds on cards as previously described and tell students to begin making their sounds together and continue until you indicate for them to stop. At first, the combined sounds will not be coordinated. However, as time goes along, the students will naturally begin to add their own rhythms, loudness/softness, etc. In the follow-up analysis of this musical production, it could be pointed out how the first part lacked the elements listed on the chart; but as the "music" proceeded, these elements became evident. Historical Background for the Life of Cleopatra: Cleopatra became queen of ancient Egypt in 51 B.C. Though she lacked beauty, she was intelligent, witty, charming, ambitious, and concerned about the well-being of her subjects. Cleopatra developed loyal and romantic relationships with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, great Roman leaders. Antony aspired to rule Rome alone and, due to the wealth of Egypt, hoped to obtain financial aid from Cleopatra. They fell in love and Cleopatra had several children by Antony. Cleopatra's ambition was for her children to become rulers of Rome. Because Antony gave preferential treatment to his children by Cleopatra, other Roman leaders became jealous. They thought Cleopatra was greedy and had too much control over Antony. A war broke out between the two of them and Octavian, Antony's former brother-in-law and one of the rival rulers of Rome. As Octavian came after Cleopatra and Antony, she spread a rumor that she had committed suicide. When Antony heard the report, he stabbed himself. He later died in her arms. When Cleopatra's attempts to make up to Octavian failed, she put a poisonous snake on her arm and indeed did commit suicide. Antony's and Cleopatra's love story has taken many dramatic and artistic forms through the ages. In the painting, "Cleopatra and the Peasant," the peasant is shown as suggesting to Cleopatra (or enticing her by his slight smile and her serious expression of consideration) with the idea of taking her life with a snake. The peasant is holding a basket of plums under his leopard pelt. A snake is emerging from the plums. A jpg image of Cleopatra by Delacroix along with credit information has been provided as an attachment below. Related websites Color image of "Cleopatra and the Peasant," by Eugene Delacroix: Ackland Museum Online: Comments For special needs students, such as LD, the teacher may provide a hard copy for each of the two completed "Elements of Art" graphic organizers, saving time for the student in copying information onto the charts. Enrichment can be provided by encouraging students to formulate their own questions about either work of art (musical, as in the class symphony, or the historical work of visual art,) and their elements. Allow students to conduct their own research to answer these questions using CD ROMS, Internet art sites, NC Wise Owl, a research site, which has been included under "Relevant Websites," etc. North Carolina Curriculum Alignment Visual Arts Education (2001) Grade 7 * Goal 1: The learner will develop critical and creative thinking skills and perceptual awareness necessary for understanding and producing art. + [41]Objective 1.06: Recognize and discuss the use of multiple senses in visual arts. * Goal 2: The learner will develop skills necessary for understanding and applying media, techniques, and processes. + [42]Objective 2.02: Explore and identify the unique properties and potential of materials using proper vocabulary and terminology. * Goal 3: The learner will organize the components of a work into a cohesive whole through knowledge of organizational principles of design and art elements. + [43]Objective 3.03: Explore and discuss that diverse solutions are preferable to predetermined visual solutions. + [44]Objective 3.04: Explore and discuss the value of intuitive perceptions in the problem-solving process. * Goal 5: The learner will understand the visual arts in relation to history and cultures. + [45]Objective 5.02: Describe characteristics of specific works of art that belong to a particular culture, time and place. * Goal 7: The learner will perceive connections between visual arts and other disciplines. + [46]Objective 7.01: Explain connections, similarities and differences between the visual arts and other disciplines. + [47]Objective 7.03: Compare characteristics of visual arts within a particular historical period or style with ideas, issues or themes in other disciplines. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill LEARN NC, a program of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill [48]School of Education, finds the most innovative and successful practices in K-12 education and makes them available to the teachers and students of North Carolina -- and the world. [49]About LEARN NC | [50]Site map | [51]Search | [52]Staff | [53]Partners | [54]Legal | [55]Help | [56]Contact us For more great resources for K-12 teaching and learning, visit us on the web at www.learnnc.org. Références #[1]About.com ____________________ (Submit) Search [2]About.com [3]Art History 1. [4]Home 2. [5]Education 3. [6]Art History [7][education_arthistory;kw=;site=arthistory;chan=education;pos=lb;sz=7 28x90;ord=1A1JJ6U0P20SA0xBC] * [8]Share * * [9]Art History * [10]Artists * [11]Styles * [12]Works of Art * Free Art History Newsletter! ____________________ (Submit) Sign Up * [13]Discuss in my Forum rhythm By [14]Shelley Esaak, About.com Guide See More About: * [15]art definitions * [16]principles of design Definition: (noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat. A pattern has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the colors of a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from one component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying movement. Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're placed one next to the other. Really, it's easier to "see" rhythm in just about anything other than the visual arts. Literally-minded types should stick to music for rhythm. Pronunciation: rih·them Related Articles * [17]Guitar Strumming 101 - Strumming Pattern Exercise Number One * [18]From a Father to His Children - Clement Clarke Moore * [19]Music clip art and instruments and musicians and musical notes plus other m... * [20]Pittsburgh Arts Summer Camps - Performing & Visual Arts Summer Programs in ... * [21]United Kingdom Travel by Interest - Find History, Art, Theatre, Music and M... 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[52]More > [53]How to Ace the GRE Being well prepared is the first step; here are more essential suggestions. [54]More > [55]About.com [56]Art History 1. [57]Home 2. [58]Education 3. [59]Art History 4. [60]Art History 101 5. [61]Art History Glossary 6. [62]Words Beginning With R 7. Art History Glossary - R - rhythm> * [63]Most Popular * [64]Latest Articles Add to: * [65]iGoogle * [66]My Yahoo! * [67]RSS * [68]Advertising Info * [69]News & Events * [70]Work at About * [71]SiteMap * [72]All Topics * [73]Reprints * [74]Help * [75]User Agreement * [76]Ethics Policy * [77]Patent Info. * [78]Privacy Policy * [79]Our Story * [80]Write for About ©2010 About.com, a part of [81]The New York Times Company. All rights reserved. Références [1]Click Here [2]ArtLex Art Dictionary ,ø¤º°`°ºº¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø ,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º° r rhythm - A visual tempo or beat. The [3]principle of design that refers to a regular repetition of [4]elements of art to produce the look and feel of [5]movement. It is often achieved through the careful placement of repeated components which invite the viewer's eye to jump rapidly or glide smoothly from one to the next. In any [6]artwork, it is possible to distinguish between rhythm of [7]color, [8]line, and [9]form. In the continuity of the three comes the whole rhythm of that work. Rhythm unites the [10]visual culture with [11]music, but in visual culture, rhythm is more evident in the [12]applied arts than in the [13]fine arts. In the former, it is often the foremost means of [14]aesthetic [15]expression. Rhythm originated in the Greek word rhymthmos, meaning measured flow, which they passed into Latin as rhythmus, meaning movement in [16]time. Its first uses in English were literary, in reference to themetrical rhyming of verses. English speakers began to use rhythm concerning repetition of musical beats in the late 18th century, and about visual elements in the same period. Each [17]artist, every [18]period, every [19]culture produces a characteristic sort of rhythm. Recognizing a work's rhythmical peculiarities often aids in [20]identify the culture or [21]time in which it was produced, if not the individual artist who produced it. Rhythm's importance can be demonstrated by noting how many important rhythmic cycles we observe in [22]nature -- consider the alternating tension and relaxation in the heart's beating or in the ocean's waves, the revolutions of the earth around the sun, the comings and goings of generations. Each of us has personal rhythms to our days, weeks, and years. Life, indeed, would be chaotic without rhythm. Participating in the tempo of this flow gives us excitement and calm, yearning and contentment, yin and yang. It is natural that we would employ rhythms to organize and [23]unify our works, much as they do the rest of our experience. There are several types of visual rhythm. These include: regular rhythms - The background design behind this text has a regular rhythm. (In the following examples, let the letters A, B, etc. stand for visual elements of any sort) AB-AB-AB is the most common type. Picture alternating stripes of two colors, for instance. (In English prosody, a student of poetry might read this as either "iambs" or "trochees". An iamb is a metrical foot consisting of two syllables, the first syllable accented, the second accented, as in AB-AB-AB. It becomes trochaic meter if the accenting is reversed, as in AB-AB-AB.) Some more examples: ABC-ABC-ABC (In English prosody, a student of poetry might read this as "anapests" or "dactyls". An anapest is a metrical foot consisting of three syllables, the first two syllables unaccented, the third accented, as in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL. A dactyl consists of three syllables, the first accented, the second and third unaccented, as in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL.) ABBB-ABBB-ABBB ABCB-ABCB-ABCB ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA alternating rhythms - some examples: ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE-ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE- ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF-ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF- ABCD-DCCBBA-ABCD-DCCBBA progressive rhythms - Progression occurs when there is a gradual increase or decrease in the size, number, color, or some other quality of the elements repeated. some examples: AB-AABB-AAABBB-AAAABBBB AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB- ABC-ABD-ABE-ABF-ABG-ABH-ABI flowing rhythms - random rhythms - Each of these types of rhythm might be altered periodically. [24]Music theory might be defined as the study of rhythms and their periodic alterations. Example of works displaying rhythm: [rhythm_matis.danc1.th.jpg] see thumbnail to left Henri Matisse (French, 1869-1954), [25]Dance (first version), 1909, [26]oil on [27]canvas, 8 feet 6 1/2 inches x 12 feet 9 1/2 inches (259.7 x 390.1 cm), Museum of [e3_3_1_8d_french_art20.jpg] Modern Art, NY. Matisse painted a second version of see thumbnail to right [28]Dance in 1910, [29]oil on [30]canvas, 102 x 154 inches (260 x 391 cm), Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia. Dance, together with Music, was commissioned by S.I.Shchukin to [31]decorate the staircase in his Moscow mansion. Matisse took the [32]motif of the round dance, used as a [33]symbol back as far as French [34]Renaissance, to represent the [35]rhythm and [36]expression of the 20th century. The spaciousness and expressive [37]lines [38]emphasize the dynamics of the [39]figures. [40]Simplified and schematic [41]forms intensify the [42]brightness and [43]resonance of the three colors -- red, blue and green. See [44]music. Dance, Matisse once said, meant "life and rhythm." See [45]dance, [46]music, and [47]movement. [destij_mond.broadwa.th.gif] see thumbnail to left Piet Mondrian (Dutch, 1872-1944), [48]Broadway Boogie Woogie. 1942-43, [49]oil on [50]canvas, 50 x 50 inches (127 x 127 cm), at the Museum of Modern Art, New York. See [51]De Stijl and [52]grid. [3L00164.jpg] see thumbnail to right Paul Klee (Swiss, 1879-1940), [53]Rhythmisches (In Rhythm), 1930, [54]oil on woven jute, 69.6 x 50.5 cm, Georges Pompidou Center, Paris. See [55]Bauhaus and [56]Swiss art. [femns_taeuber_circles_th.jpg] see thumbnail to left Sophie Taeuber-Arp (Swiss, 1889-1943; to France 1928), [57]Composition of Circles and Overlapping Angles (Composition à cercles et à bras superposés), 1930, [58]oil on [59]canvas, 19 1/2 x 25 1/4 inches (49.5 x 64.1 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. See [60]feminism and feminist art. [40x10pixel.space.gif] [femns_taeuber_echelon_th.jpg] see thumbnail to right Sophie Taeuber-Arp, [61]Echelonnement désaxé, 1934, [62]gouache on [63]paper, 13 7/8 X 10 5/8 inches (35.1 X 27 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. [bauhau_aalber.walldes.th.jpg] see thumbnail to left Anni Albers (born Analise Fleischman, married Josef Albers) (German, 1899-1994), [64]Design for Wall Hanging, 1926, [65]gouache and [66]pencil on paper, 14 x 11 1/2 inches (35.6 x 29.2 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. See [67]Bauhaus and [68]textile. Quote: "Rhythm and harmony find their way into the inward places of the soul." Plato (427?-327? BCE), Greek philosopher. The Republic, Book III, 401d, as translated by B. Jowett, 1901. See [69]harmony. Also see [70]animation, [71]arrangement, [72]chronology, [73]cinema, [74]composition, [75]dance, [76]direction, [77]egg-and-dart, [78]eurythmy, [79]four-dimensional, [80]harmonic sequence, [81]harmony, [82]kinetic, [83]juxtaposition, [84]measure, [85]metamorphosis, [86]mobile, [87]movement, [88]obsession, [89]pattern, [90]periodicity, [91]music, [92]sequence, [93]space-time, [94]time, and [95]whirligig. [96][grid.1.gif] [97]ArtLex Art Dictionary [98]Copyright © 1996- current year delahunt(at)artlex.com Références [1]Ning [2]Create a Ning Network! ____________________ [3]Search * [4]Sign Up * [5]Sign In [6]DesignerNet * [7]Main * [8]My Page * [9]Syllabus + [10]Introduction + [11]Course Description + [12]Assignments/Schedule + [13]Materials + [14]Grading + [15]Make-up Work + [16]Exams/Quizzes + [17]Policies * [18]Class Resources + [19]Assignments + [20]Basic Design Principles + [21]Concept + [22]Concept and Culture + [23]Purpose of Concept + [24]Unity + [25]Principles of Unity + [26]The Look of Unity + [27]Rhythm in Art + [28]Large Scale (& small) * [29]Websites to Visit + [30]K3Order * [31]Photos * [32]Testing * [33]OldMembers * [34]Videos * [35]Blogs * [36]Groups Rhythm in Art Take a look at this definition of Rhythm in Art. As noted in the definition, it can be likened to rhythm in music, and can be said to be a "patterened repitition" What do you think? Is rhythm a "visual beat?" (noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat. A pattern has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the colors of a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from one component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying movement. Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're placed one next to the other. it's sometimes easier to comprehend rhythm in just about anything other than the visual arts, but once understood, heightened sensitivity to this aspect can animate design and art making it visually interactive. "Rhythm of the Hills" by Judy Neale "Rhythm Joie De Vivre" by Robert Delaunay This very graphic and design-oriented painting uses repeated circles, half-circles, joined shapes and contrasting colors to create movement. "Although trained in fine arts in Paris, Delaunay worked in set design before beginning his painting career in 1905. He found his initial influences in the Neo-Impressionists, but gradually moved on to join Der Blaue Reiter in 1911. His Paris cityscapes began to take on a distinctive style that studied the effect of contrasting color patterning. Delaunay's unique method spurred friend and poet, Guillaume Apollinaire, to place his paintings in a new movement, which he called Orphism." - World Wide Art Resources Tamara De Limpicka's "The Model" This piece which is a very graphically-designed painting, in which the raised right arm drives the eyes to the right side of the model's torso; the focal point of the right breast then captures the viewer's attention, and directs it with a "pointer"... a triangular fold in the model's garment pulling the viewer to the left arm of the figure. The curve of the left arm uses the multiple pointers of the model's fingers to direct the eye strongly to the left into the garment's downward-sweeping folds, and down the highlighted leg. As if that were not enough to invest the piece with rhythm, the artist then uses a strong graphical "s" shape in the background to reinforce the motion using the model's shadow to create a feeling of movement as part of the pattern in the background. The overall positioning of the figure creates visual torque, creating a feeling of anticipated movement adding to the dynamicism of the design Welcome to DesignerNet [37]Sign Up or [38]Sign In About [39]Jane Ann Nelson [40]Jane Ann Nelson created this [41]Ning Network. [42]Create a Ning Network! » © 2010 Created by [43]Jane Ann Nelson on Ning. [44]Create a Ning Network! [45]Badges | [46]Report an Issue | [47]Privacy | [48]Terms of Service Hello, you need to enable JavaScript to use DesignerNet. Please check your browser settings or contact your system administrator. [jstrk_off.gif] Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : #[1]About.com ____________________ (Submit) Search [2]About.com [3]Art History 1. [4]Home 2. [5]Education 3. [6]Art History [7][education_arthistory;kw=;site=arthistory;chan=education;pos=lb;sz=7 28x90;ord=1A1HKXJ0C20SA0p7N] * [8]Share * * [9]Art History * [10]Artists * [11]Styles * [12]Works of Art * Free Art History Newsletter! ____________________ (Submit) Sign Up * [13]Discuss in my Forum rhythm By [14]Shelley Esaak, About.com Guide See More About: * [15]art definitions * [16]principles of design Definition: (noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat. A pattern has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the colors of a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from one component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying movement. Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're placed one next to the other. Really, it's easier to "see" rhythm in just about anything other than the visual arts. Literally-minded types should stick to music for rhythm. Pronunciation: rih·them Related Articles * [17]Guitar Strumming 101 - Strumming Pattern Exercise Number One * [18]From a Father to His Children - Clement Clarke Moore * [19]Music clip art and instruments and musicians and musical notes plus other m... * [20]Pittsburgh Arts Summer Camps - Performing & Visual Arts Summer Programs in ... * [21]United Kingdom Travel by Interest - Find History, Art, Theatre, Music and M... 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[52]More > [53]How to Ace the GRE Being well prepared is the first step; here are more essential suggestions. [54]More > [55]About.com [56]Art History 1. [57]Home 2. [58]Education 3. [59]Art History 4. [60]Art History 101 5. [61]Art History Glossary 6. [62]Words Beginning With R 7. Art History Glossary - R - rhythm> * [63]Most Popular * [64]Latest Articles Add to: * [65]iGoogle * [66]My Yahoo! * [67]RSS * [68]Advertising Info * [69]News & Events * [70]Work at About * [71]SiteMap * [72]All Topics * [73]Reprints * [74]Help * [75]User Agreement * [76]Ethics Policy * [77]Patent Info. * [78]Privacy Policy * [79]Our Story * [80]Write for About ©2010 About.com, a part of [81]The New York Times Company. All rights reserved. Références [1]Click Here [2]ArtLex Art Dictionary ,ø¤º°`°ºº¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø ,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º° r rhythm - A visual tempo or beat. The [3]principle of design that refers to a regular repetition of [4]elements of art to produce the look and feel of [5]movement. It is often achieved through the careful placement of repeated components which invite the viewer's eye to jump rapidly or glide smoothly from one to the next. In any [6]artwork, it is possible to distinguish between rhythm of [7]color, [8]line, and [9]form. In the continuity of the three comes the whole rhythm of that work. Rhythm unites the [10]visual culture with [11]music, but in visual culture, rhythm is more evident in the [12]applied arts than in the [13]fine arts. In the former, it is often the foremost means of [14]aesthetic [15]expression. Rhythm originated in the Greek word rhymthmos, meaning measured flow, which they passed into Latin as rhythmus, meaning movement in [16]time. Its first uses in English were literary, in reference to themetrical rhyming of verses. English speakers began to use rhythm concerning repetition of musical beats in the late 18th century, and about visual elements in the same period. Each [17]artist, every [18]period, every [19]culture produces a characteristic sort of rhythm. Recognizing a work's rhythmical peculiarities often aids in [20]identify the culture or [21]time in which it was produced, if not the individual artist who produced it. Rhythm's importance can be demonstrated by noting how many important rhythmic cycles we observe in [22]nature -- consider the alternating tension and relaxation in the heart's beating or in the ocean's waves, the revolutions of the earth around the sun, the comings and goings of generations. Each of us has personal rhythms to our days, weeks, and years. Life, indeed, would be chaotic without rhythm. Participating in the tempo of this flow gives us excitement and calm, yearning and contentment, yin and yang. It is natural that we would employ rhythms to organize and [23]unify our works, much as they do the rest of our experience. There are several types of visual rhythm. These include: regular rhythms - The background design behind this text has a regular rhythm. (In the following examples, let the letters A, B, etc. stand for visual elements of any sort) AB-AB-AB is the most common type. Picture alternating stripes of two colors, for instance. (In English prosody, a student of poetry might read this as either "iambs" or "trochees". An iamb is a metrical foot consisting of two syllables, the first syllable accented, the second accented, as in AB-AB-AB. It becomes trochaic meter if the accenting is reversed, as in AB-AB-AB.) Some more examples: ABC-ABC-ABC (In English prosody, a student of poetry might read this as "anapests" or "dactyls". An anapest is a metrical foot consisting of three syllables, the first two syllables unaccented, the third accented, as in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL. A dactyl consists of three syllables, the first accented, the second and third unaccented, as in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL.) ABBB-ABBB-ABBB ABCB-ABCB-ABCB ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA alternating rhythms - some examples: ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE-ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE- ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF-ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF- ABCD-DCCBBA-ABCD-DCCBBA progressive rhythms - Progression occurs when there is a gradual increase or decrease in the size, number, color, or some other quality of the elements repeated. some examples: AB-AABB-AAABBB-AAAABBBB AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB- ABC-ABD-ABE-ABF-ABG-ABH-ABI flowing rhythms - random rhythms - Each of these types of rhythm might be altered periodically. [24]Music theory might be defined as the study of rhythms and their periodic alterations. Example of works displaying rhythm: [rhythm_matis.danc1.th.jpg] see thumbnail to left Henri Matisse (French, 1869-1954), [25]Dance (first version), 1909, [26]oil on [27]canvas, 8 feet 6 1/2 inches x 12 feet 9 1/2 inches (259.7 x 390.1 cm), Museum of [e3_3_1_8d_french_art20.jpg] Modern Art, NY. Matisse painted a second version of see thumbnail to right [28]Dance in 1910, [29]oil on [30]canvas, 102 x 154 inches (260 x 391 cm), Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia. Dance, together with Music, was commissioned by S.I.Shchukin to [31]decorate the staircase in his Moscow mansion. Matisse took the [32]motif of the round dance, used as a [33]symbol back as far as French [34]Renaissance, to represent the [35]rhythm and [36]expression of the 20th century. The spaciousness and expressive [37]lines [38]emphasize the dynamics of the [39]figures. [40]Simplified and schematic [41]forms intensify the [42]brightness and [43]resonance of the three colors -- red, blue and green. See [44]music. Dance, Matisse once said, meant "life and rhythm." See [45]dance, [46]music, and [47]movement. [destij_mond.broadwa.th.gif] see thumbnail to left Piet Mondrian (Dutch, 1872-1944), [48]Broadway Boogie Woogie. 1942-43, [49]oil on [50]canvas, 50 x 50 inches (127 x 127 cm), at the Museum of Modern Art, New York. See [51]De Stijl and [52]grid. [3L00164.jpg] see thumbnail to right Paul Klee (Swiss, 1879-1940), [53]Rhythmisches (In Rhythm), 1930, [54]oil on woven jute, 69.6 x 50.5 cm, Georges Pompidou Center, Paris. See [55]Bauhaus and [56]Swiss art. [femns_taeuber_circles_th.jpg] see thumbnail to left Sophie Taeuber-Arp (Swiss, 1889-1943; to France 1928), [57]Composition of Circles and Overlapping Angles (Composition à cercles et à bras superposés), 1930, [58]oil on [59]canvas, 19 1/2 x 25 1/4 inches (49.5 x 64.1 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. See [60]feminism and feminist art. [40x10pixel.space.gif] [femns_taeuber_echelon_th.jpg] see thumbnail to right Sophie Taeuber-Arp, [61]Echelonnement désaxé, 1934, [62]gouache on [63]paper, 13 7/8 X 10 5/8 inches (35.1 X 27 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. [bauhau_aalber.walldes.th.jpg] see thumbnail to left Anni Albers (born Analise Fleischman, married Josef Albers) (German, 1899-1994), [64]Design for Wall Hanging, 1926, [65]gouache and [66]pencil on paper, 14 x 11 1/2 inches (35.6 x 29.2 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. See [67]Bauhaus and [68]textile. Quote: "Rhythm and harmony find their way into the inward places of the soul." Plato (427?-327? BCE), Greek philosopher. The Republic, Book III, 401d, as translated by B. Jowett, 1901. See [69]harmony. Also see [70]animation, [71]arrangement, [72]chronology, [73]cinema, [74]composition, [75]dance, [76]direction, [77]egg-and-dart, [78]eurythmy, [79]four-dimensional, [80]harmonic sequence, [81]harmony, [82]kinetic, [83]juxtaposition, [84]measure, [85]metamorphosis, [86]mobile, [87]movement, [88]obsession, [89]pattern, [90]periodicity, [91]music, [92]sequence, [93]space-time, [94]time, and [95]whirligig. [96][grid.1.gif] [97]ArtLex Art Dictionary [98]Copyright © 1996- current year delahunt(at)artlex.com Références [1]Ning [2]Create a Ning Network! ____________________ [3]Search * [4]Sign Up * [5]Sign In [6]DesignerNet * [7]Main * [8]My Page * [9]Syllabus + [10]Introduction + [11]Course Description + [12]Assignments/Schedule + [13]Materials + [14]Grading + [15]Make-up Work + [16]Exams/Quizzes + [17]Policies * [18]Class Resources + [19]Assignments + [20]Basic Design Principles + [21]Concept + [22]Concept and Culture + [23]Purpose of Concept + [24]Unity + [25]Principles of Unity + [26]The Look of Unity + [27]Rhythm in Art + [28]Large Scale (& small) * [29]Websites to Visit + [30]K3Order * [31]Photos * [32]Testing * [33]OldMembers * [34]Videos * [35]Blogs * [36]Groups Rhythm in Art Take a look at this definition of Rhythm in Art. As noted in the definition, it can be likened to rhythm in music, and can be said to be a "patterened repitition" What do you think? Is rhythm a "visual beat?" (noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat. A pattern has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the colors of a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from one component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying movement. Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're placed one next to the other. it's sometimes easier to comprehend rhythm in just about anything other than the visual arts, but once understood, heightened sensitivity to this aspect can animate design and art making it visually interactive. "Rhythm of the Hills" by Judy Neale "Rhythm Joie De Vivre" by Robert Delaunay This very graphic and design-oriented painting uses repeated circles, half-circles, joined shapes and contrasting colors to create movement. "Although trained in fine arts in Paris, Delaunay worked in set design before beginning his painting career in 1905. He found his initial influences in the Neo-Impressionists, but gradually moved on to join Der Blaue Reiter in 1911. His Paris cityscapes began to take on a distinctive style that studied the effect of contrasting color patterning. Delaunay's unique method spurred friend and poet, Guillaume Apollinaire, to place his paintings in a new movement, which he called Orphism." - World Wide Art Resources Tamara De Limpicka's "The Model" This piece which is a very graphically-designed painting, in which the raised right arm drives the eyes to the right side of the model's torso; the focal point of the right breast then captures the viewer's attention, and directs it with a "pointer"... a triangular fold in the model's garment pulling the viewer to the left arm of the figure. The curve of the left arm uses the multiple pointers of the model's fingers to direct the eye strongly to the left into the garment's downward-sweeping folds, and down the highlighted leg. As if that were not enough to invest the piece with rhythm, the artist then uses a strong graphical "s" shape in the background to reinforce the motion using the model's shadow to create a feeling of movement as part of the pattern in the background. The overall positioning of the figure creates visual torque, creating a feeling of anticipated movement adding to the dynamicism of the design Welcome to DesignerNet [37]Sign Up or [38]Sign In About [39]Jane Ann Nelson [40]Jane Ann Nelson created this [41]Ning Network. [42]Create a Ning Network! » © 2010 Created by [43]Jane Ann Nelson on Ning. [44]Create a Ning Network! [45]Badges | [46]Report an Issue | [47]Privacy | [48]Terms of Service Hello, you need to enable JavaScript to use DesignerNet. Please check your browser settings or contact your system administrator. [jstrk_off.gif] Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1]LEARN NC * [2]Home * [3]Help * Search * [LEARN NC..........] * _______________ * Search LEARN NC K-12 teaching and learning · from the UNC School of Education * Classroom + [4]Lesson Plans + [5]Best Practices + [6]Learning Materials + [7]Reference + [8]Field Trips + [9]Multimedia + [10]Best of the Web * Standards + [11]NC Standard Course of Study & Aligned Resources + [12]NC Professional Teaching Standards & Aligned Resources * Online Courses + [13]Open for Enrollment + [14]Course Catalog * My LEARN NC + [15]Email Updates + [16]Conference 2009 Rhythm, pattern, color, and texture in art and poetry In this lesson, students will discover the meaning of "rhythm," "patterns," "color," and "texture" through the performance and modeled analysis of a class "symphony." Students will also evaluate the impact of each element on the whole work and note personal reactions and connections to this art form. Students will then work in small groups to apply the same elements and personal evaluation and connections to a historical work of visual art. At the end of the lesson, students will reflect on ways these two experiences are similar. A lesson plan for grade 7 Visual Arts Education and English Language Arts By [17]Carol Horne Learn more Related pages * [18]Old Hat, New Hat: 3-D Pattern Hats: After students read Old Hat, New Hat by Jan and Stan Berenstain, they create their own new 3-D hats. * [19]Rhythm stars: This lesson will introduce the main components of rhythm: quarter, eighth, and sixteenth notes. * [20]How do I express what I believe? - Part 2: This is the second in a three-part lesson series seeking to examine belief systems and how they impact culture in the United States. This lesson, "How do I express what I believe?" requires 3 sessions at 40 minutes each to complete. The lesson series also seeks to let students examine their own personal belief system. In this lesson, the student will learn about the American tradition of the Face Jug/Pot and how it is used to express belief. The student will also create a Face Jug/Pot to express his/her belief, and this pot will be used in the third lesson entitled. "How do I present what I believe?" Related topics * Learn more about [21]arts, [22]color, [23]hands-on, [24]patterns, [25]rhythm, and [26]texture. Help Please read our [27]disclaimer for lesson plans. Legal The text of this page is copyright ©2008. See [28]terms of use. Images and other media may be licensed separately; see captions for more information and [29]read the fine print. [30]Creative Commons License Print * [31]Print Share * [32]Email * [33]Delicious [34]Delicious * [35]Digg [36]Digg * [37]Facebook [38]Facebook * [39]StumbleUpon [40]StumbleUpon Learning outcomes Students will: * learn to identify examples of "rhythm," "patterns," "color," and "texture" in order to analyze a whole class symphony of various sounds and movements. * learn to apply these same elements to a work of visual art. * evaluate the overall impact of each element and will investigate their personal reactions and connections to both of these art forms. * learn to reflect on the similarities of their analyses of both of these art forms. Teacher planning Time required for lesson 85 minutes Materials/resources * Adjust space for class to "perform" assigned individual movements as a whole group standing in one long line as the teacher stands in front of students to "conduct." If this is not possible, make sure students have enough space to "perform" as they stand alongside their desks. * Write variety of individual sounds and movements on index cards to distribute to each student, e.g. "bark like a dog; make a whooshing sound as you move like a wave; high-five and yell, `Yeah!'; whistle like an admirer; click your heels and say, `There's no place like home!'; sing the first bar of the Friskies' `Meow, meow, meow, meow' song; frog hop as you `ribbitt' twice; etc. * Set up a tape recorder and blank tape cued to record the class "symphony." * Make two overhead transparencies and two hard copies per student of the graphic organizer titled, "Elements of Art-Making Connections!" for analysis of the elements of "rhythm and patterns," "color," "texture," etc. (See attachment of a blank copy.) You will also need a transparency pen. * Pre-select a poster, transparency, or website image of a work of visual art preferrably from a historical period familiar to students and a narrative piece. (See "Relevant Web Sites" below for a suggested link to "Cleopatra and the Peasant.") * Complete a graphic organizer for the selected work of visual art to use as a suggested "answer key" for easy reference during small group facilitation. (See "Attachments" below for a suggested key of possible answers for "Elements of Art - Cleopatra and the Peasant" art image.) Technology resources Student computers with color monitors and Internet connection bookmarked at the site of the selected work of visual art. (optional) A classroom computer with color monitor and Internet connection set on site of selected work of visual art and connected to an LCD projector, which projects computer image onto classroom screen. (optional) Pre-activities No previous knowledge is needed for the opening "symphony" activity. However, to integrate social studies, students should be familiar with the general historical context of the work of visual art used in the second activity. If the "Cleopatra and the Peasant" piece is used, for instance, it would be helpful if students have had some background in the ancient Egyptian period prior to the viewing of this piece. If you are using another historical narrative piece, select one for which students have had some previous study. If your students will be accessing the Internet to view the visual art at a selected website, students should have obtained permission to use the Internet. They should also know how to go to bookmarked sites. Students should also have had some experience with small group collaboration with their peers. Students should have experience with writing one-sentence summaries for information presented textually or orally. Activities Because of the variety of activities, this lesson will work well as a block period, or it may be divided into two consecutive class periods. Initiating Activity - Whole Class "Symphony" (40 minutes) 1. Because we want to create an atmosphere of discovery and an air of mystery, the teacher will distribute one prepared index card to each student on which some type of sound is written without undue explanation. 2. Next, line up your students in a straight line facing you, and position yourself in front of them as the "conductor," if space permits. Explain now that the whole class will create a "symphony" using the assigned sounds while you conduct students' coming in, out, and level of volume. Briefly teach the students the signals indicated by the conductor's hand and arm movements for: making their sound/motion; decreasing the sound; increasing the sound; cutting the sound off; etc. 3. As a practice, point to each student individually to try out his assigned sound/motion along with your signals. Next, explain that at times there may be solos, duets, trios, etc., or times when the whole group will perform together. Those determinations will be indicated by the conductor, so students must watch the conductor carefully. 4. After students understand their "assignment," you, the conductor, will proceed to conduct a class symphony as you see fit. Before you start, explain that this production will be tape recorded. (Turn on your tape recorder when ready.) As you begin, experiment with different combinations of single, small group, and larger group participation as well as crescendo/decrescendo effects. You may also include periods of silence. Remember the elements you want to elicit in this improvised piece are: rhythm/patterns, color, and texture, which are discussed below. After several minutes of composing/performing, turn off the tape recorder. (See also another way of doing this activity described in "Supplemental Resources/Information for Teachers" section below.) 5. As students return to their seats, distribute copies of the blank "Elements of Art" graphic organizer to be used for an analysis of the class performance. (See "Attachments" below.) Using your overhead transparency and pen, prepare to conduct a whole class explanation/discussion of each element listed. 6. You will need to explain each of the specialized vocabulary terms below in the suggested ways. Elements for Musical Composition: Rhythm/Patterns These are listed together because patterns help to create rhythm. Rhythm is created with the recurrence (pattern) of varying stresses and tone lengths. These may be balanced against a steady, underlying succession of beats. Color You should be accepting of students' definitions here, but you may explain that "color" is created musically through such qualities as vitality, vividness, or interest. Musically speaking, "color" refers to the timbre, or tonal quality of the voice/instrument or the effect created by the combination of such qualities. Texture Explain that in music, "texture" is created by contrasts of rich, smooth, melodic, lyrical tones vs. stiff, staccato, harsh tones. 7. Before playing back the recording of the production, you may assign one-third of the class to listen for examples of rhythm and patterns, another one-third of the class can listen for examples of color, and the remaining one-third can listen for examples of texture. As they listen, they should note examples on their charts. 8. Next, ask students to share their examples of each element. Facilitate their sharing in light of the meaning of each element, remembering that your present objective is to help students to understand the meanings of all the elements and analyze examples from a musical piece. As examples are shared and discussed, model writing them on your overhead transparency; engage students by asking them to fill in examples for each element on their charts throughout the class discussion. 9. To review the elements and encourage students to engage in mental evaluation of their performance, ask students to assess which element they believe had the greatest impact on their overall performance. Did their piece seem to emphasize rhythm and pattern? Or did "color" or "texture" make the greatest impact, in their opinion? Get the students to explain and record their choices on their graphic organizers. 10. Last, to allow students to make this experience personally relevant, invite them to write single words that might describe their feelings or emotions toward their symphony. (Examples might be: exciting, interesting, invigorating, stimulating, etc.) In the last column, invite students to note something from their personal experience that the class symphony reminds them of. It could be a personal experience or feeling, or it might be one they've read about or seen portrayed in a movie or real life of a friend. Second Activity: Analyze the Elements in Visual Art (35 minutes) 1. Make a transition to the next activity by arranging students for partner or small group collaboration. If you are remaining in the classroom, arrange students in small groups of three to five with desks facing one another to encourage collaboration. If students are at computer stations, pair them up to encourage collaboration. 2. The teacher will need to use an overhead projector to initiate modeling of analysis of elements on the second overhead transparency of the graphic organizer. 3. Introduce the selected work of art and artist as you display the painting or image. (Ask students to navigate to the bookmarked website, if they are at computer stations.) Initiate discussion through use of a "hook" question. For example, if you are using the "Cleopatra and the Peasant" painting by Eugene Delacroix, ask: "Why do you think there is a little snake coiling out of the basket of plums?" As students brainstorm possibilities, work in bits of historical information. For example, remind them of who Cleopatra was and the culture and time in which she lived. (Note: Refer to "Supplemental Information" below. Also, if you access the Ackland Online website listed below under "Relevant Websites," background information about the painting will be provided.) Through questioning and discussion, develop the story behind the painting. 4. You may also mention that the painting was created in Europe in the 1800's. You may ask if students can locate clues in the painting to illustrate this fact. (Cleopatra was portrayed in this painting as a 19th century European woman in style of dress and ethnicity, for example, rather than an ancient Egyptian woman who lived during ancient Roman times.) 5. As you continue to develop the history of the story, initiate one possible answer under each of the first three columns of the graphic organizer for "rhythm/patterns," "color," and "texture." Students may copy these onto their charts. 6. Take this opportunity to weave in a review and explanation of the terms below and how they relate to analysis of a work of visual art. Definitions of Elements for Visual Art: Rhythm/Patterns The recurrence of lines, colors, and shapes (perhaps in a pattern) to create movement within a work of art. Color Qualities brought out by the use of hues (colors) and their variations. Texture Use of materials, such as paint, to create the impression of a feature, (e.g. satin, glass, or fur); or the use of real materials within the work of art, (e.g. hair, leather, or metal.) 7. After students have an understanding of the information in the painting and the elements and have written at least one example of each element on their charts, direct the small groups or partners to continue with their analyses. They should also discuss and complete the last three sections in which they evaluate which element had the greatest impact on the work of art as a whole, explore their personal feelings, and note their personal connections to the art. 8. During partner/group discussion time, the teacher should circulate to facilitate the above activities. 9. Within the last few minutes of this activity, ask students to share examples of answers recorded on their graphic organizers. Reflection Activity (10 minutes) 1. Facilitate a five-minute discussion of similarities of the symphony and work of visual art with the whole group through questioning. (Examples: "In what ways are symphonies like visual art?") Encourage students to refer to their two charts. Assist them in making oral connections between these two art forms. 2. On a slip of notebook paper during the remaining five minutes, have students write "exit slips," meaning they will get to exit your class after they have handed you their "tickets," or exit slips, out of class. 3. On the slip of paper ask students to answer the following question in one concise sentence: "What did I learn today about the elements of art in music AND in visual art?" The teacher can gain insight about the kinds of things the students learned as a result of the day's lesson by reading the exits slips. The teacher may elect to give the students some type of daily credit for completing the slips satisfactorily. Assessment The following two types of assessments may be used in addition to teacher observation: 1. Two completed graphic organizers titled, "Elements of Art," one for the symphony activity and the other for the visual art activity. The teacher may collect these and give credit for quality of answers or for participation (completion.) 2. Exit slip - This is the reflection the students made at the end of the lesson during which they were asked to summarize in one statement something they learned about the elements of both a musical composition and a work of visual art. The teacher can quickly assess the level of understanding by reading and assessing the quality of these answers for a daily grade. Supplemental information Alternate "symphony" activity: One other way to conduct this initiating activity is for the teacher NOT to be the conductor. Instead, assign sounds on cards as previously described and tell students to begin making their sounds together and continue until you indicate for them to stop. At first, the combined sounds will not be coordinated. However, as time goes along, the students will naturally begin to add their own rhythms, loudness/softness, etc. In the follow-up analysis of this musical production, it could be pointed out how the first part lacked the elements listed on the chart; but as the "music" proceeded, these elements became evident. Historical Background for the Life of Cleopatra: Cleopatra became queen of ancient Egypt in 51 B.C. Though she lacked beauty, she was intelligent, witty, charming, ambitious, and concerned about the well-being of her subjects. Cleopatra developed loyal and romantic relationships with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, great Roman leaders. Antony aspired to rule Rome alone and, due to the wealth of Egypt, hoped to obtain financial aid from Cleopatra. They fell in love and Cleopatra had several children by Antony. Cleopatra's ambition was for her children to become rulers of Rome. Because Antony gave preferential treatment to his children by Cleopatra, other Roman leaders became jealous. They thought Cleopatra was greedy and had too much control over Antony. A war broke out between the two of them and Octavian, Antony's former brother-in-law and one of the rival rulers of Rome. As Octavian came after Cleopatra and Antony, she spread a rumor that she had committed suicide. When Antony heard the report, he stabbed himself. He later died in her arms. When Cleopatra's attempts to make up to Octavian failed, she put a poisonous snake on her arm and indeed did commit suicide. Antony's and Cleopatra's love story has taken many dramatic and artistic forms through the ages. In the painting, "Cleopatra and the Peasant," the peasant is shown as suggesting to Cleopatra (or enticing her by his slight smile and her serious expression of consideration) with the idea of taking her life with a snake. The peasant is holding a basket of plums under his leopard pelt. A snake is emerging from the plums. A jpg image of Cleopatra by Delacroix along with credit information has been provided as an attachment below. Related websites Color image of "Cleopatra and the Peasant," by Eugene Delacroix: Ackland Museum Online: Comments For special needs students, such as LD, the teacher may provide a hard copy for each of the two completed "Elements of Art" graphic organizers, saving time for the student in copying information onto the charts. Enrichment can be provided by encouraging students to formulate their own questions about either work of art (musical, as in the class symphony, or the historical work of visual art,) and their elements. Allow students to conduct their own research to answer these questions using CD ROMS, Internet art sites, NC Wise Owl, a research site, which has been included under "Relevant Websites," etc. North Carolina Curriculum Alignment Visual Arts Education (2001) Grade 7 * Goal 1: The learner will develop critical and creative thinking skills and perceptual awareness necessary for understanding and producing art. + [41]Objective 1.06: Recognize and discuss the use of multiple senses in visual arts. * Goal 2: The learner will develop skills necessary for understanding and applying media, techniques, and processes. + [42]Objective 2.02: Explore and identify the unique properties and potential of materials using proper vocabulary and terminology. * Goal 3: The learner will organize the components of a work into a cohesive whole through knowledge of organizational principles of design and art elements. + [43]Objective 3.03: Explore and discuss that diverse solutions are preferable to predetermined visual solutions. + [44]Objective 3.04: Explore and discuss the value of intuitive perceptions in the problem-solving process. * Goal 5: The learner will understand the visual arts in relation to history and cultures. + [45]Objective 5.02: Describe characteristics of specific works of art that belong to a particular culture, time and place. * Goal 7: The learner will perceive connections between visual arts and other disciplines. + [46]Objective 7.01: Explain connections, similarities and differences between the visual arts and other disciplines. + [47]Objective 7.03: Compare characteristics of visual arts within a particular historical period or style with ideas, issues or themes in other disciplines. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill LEARN NC, a program of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill [48]School of Education, finds the most innovative and successful practices in K-12 education and makes them available to the teachers and students of North Carolina -- and the world. [49]About LEARN NC | [50]Site map | [51]Search | [52]Staff | [53]Partners | [54]Legal | [55]Help | [56]Contact us For more great resources for K-12 teaching and learning, visit us on the web at www.learnnc.org. Références #[1]About.com ____________________ (Submit) Search [2]About.com [3]Art History 1. [4]Home 2. [5]Education 3. [6]Art History [7][education_arthistory;kw=;site=arthistory;chan=education;pos=lb;sz=7 28x90;ord=1A1JJ6U0P20SA0xBC] * [8]Share * * [9]Art History * [10]Artists * [11]Styles * [12]Works of Art * Free Art History Newsletter! ____________________ (Submit) Sign Up * [13]Discuss in my Forum rhythm By [14]Shelley Esaak, About.com Guide See More About: * [15]art definitions * [16]principles of design Definition: (noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat. A pattern has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the colors of a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from one component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying movement. Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're placed one next to the other. Really, it's easier to "see" rhythm in just about anything other than the visual arts. Literally-minded types should stick to music for rhythm. Pronunciation: rih·them Related Articles * [17]Guitar Strumming 101 - Strumming Pattern Exercise Number One * [18]From a Father to His Children - Clement Clarke Moore * [19]Music clip art and instruments and musicians and musical notes plus other m... * [20]Pittsburgh Arts Summer Camps - Performing & Visual Arts Summer Programs in ... * [21]United Kingdom Travel by Interest - Find History, Art, Theatre, Music and M... 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[52]More > [53]How to Ace the GRE Being well prepared is the first step; here are more essential suggestions. [54]More > [55]About.com [56]Art History 1. [57]Home 2. [58]Education 3. [59]Art History 4. [60]Art History 101 5. [61]Art History Glossary 6. [62]Words Beginning With R 7. Art History Glossary - R - rhythm> * [63]Most Popular * [64]Latest Articles Add to: * [65]iGoogle * [66]My Yahoo! * [67]RSS * [68]Advertising Info * [69]News & Events * [70]Work at About * [71]SiteMap * [72]All Topics * [73]Reprints * [74]Help * [75]User Agreement * [76]Ethics Policy * [77]Patent Info. * [78]Privacy Policy * [79]Our Story * [80]Write for About ©2010 About.com, a part of [81]The New York Times Company. All rights reserved. Références [1]Click Here [2]ArtLex Art Dictionary ,ø¤º°`°ºº¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø ,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º°`°º¤ø,¸,ø¤º° r rhythm - A visual tempo or beat. The [3]principle of design that refers to a regular repetition of [4]elements of art to produce the look and feel of [5]movement. It is often achieved through the careful placement of repeated components which invite the viewer's eye to jump rapidly or glide smoothly from one to the next. In any [6]artwork, it is possible to distinguish between rhythm of [7]color, [8]line, and [9]form. In the continuity of the three comes the whole rhythm of that work. Rhythm unites the [10]visual culture with [11]music, but in visual culture, rhythm is more evident in the [12]applied arts than in the [13]fine arts. In the former, it is often the foremost means of [14]aesthetic [15]expression. Rhythm originated in the Greek word rhymthmos, meaning measured flow, which they passed into Latin as rhythmus, meaning movement in [16]time. Its first uses in English were literary, in reference to themetrical rhyming of verses. English speakers began to use rhythm concerning repetition of musical beats in the late 18th century, and about visual elements in the same period. Each [17]artist, every [18]period, every [19]culture produces a characteristic sort of rhythm. Recognizing a work's rhythmical peculiarities often aids in [20]identify the culture or [21]time in which it was produced, if not the individual artist who produced it. Rhythm's importance can be demonstrated by noting how many important rhythmic cycles we observe in [22]nature -- consider the alternating tension and relaxation in the heart's beating or in the ocean's waves, the revolutions of the earth around the sun, the comings and goings of generations. Each of us has personal rhythms to our days, weeks, and years. Life, indeed, would be chaotic without rhythm. Participating in the tempo of this flow gives us excitement and calm, yearning and contentment, yin and yang. It is natural that we would employ rhythms to organize and [23]unify our works, much as they do the rest of our experience. There are several types of visual rhythm. These include: regular rhythms - The background design behind this text has a regular rhythm. (In the following examples, let the letters A, B, etc. stand for visual elements of any sort) AB-AB-AB is the most common type. Picture alternating stripes of two colors, for instance. (In English prosody, a student of poetry might read this as either "iambs" or "trochees". An iamb is a metrical foot consisting of two syllables, the first syllable accented, the second accented, as in AB-AB-AB. It becomes trochaic meter if the accenting is reversed, as in AB-AB-AB.) Some more examples: ABC-ABC-ABC (In English prosody, a student of poetry might read this as "anapests" or "dactyls". An anapest is a metrical foot consisting of three syllables, the first two syllables unaccented, the third accented, as in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL. A dactyl consists of three syllables, the first accented, the second and third unaccented, as in ABC-DEF-GHI-JKL.) ABBB-ABBB-ABBB ABCB-ABCB-ABCB ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA-ABCDCDA alternating rhythms - some examples: ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE-ABA-CDC-ABA-EFE- ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF-ABC-ABC-ABC-DEF-DEF-DEF- ABCD-DCCBBA-ABCD-DCCBBA progressive rhythms - Progression occurs when there is a gradual increase or decrease in the size, number, color, or some other quality of the elements repeated. some examples: AB-AABB-AAABBB-AAAABBBB AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-AB- ABC-ABD-ABE-ABF-ABG-ABH-ABI flowing rhythms - random rhythms - Each of these types of rhythm might be altered periodically. [24]Music theory might be defined as the study of rhythms and their periodic alterations. Example of works displaying rhythm: [rhythm_matis.danc1.th.jpg] see thumbnail to left Henri Matisse (French, 1869-1954), [25]Dance (first version), 1909, [26]oil on [27]canvas, 8 feet 6 1/2 inches x 12 feet 9 1/2 inches (259.7 x 390.1 cm), Museum of [e3_3_1_8d_french_art20.jpg] Modern Art, NY. Matisse painted a second version of see thumbnail to right [28]Dance in 1910, [29]oil on [30]canvas, 102 x 154 inches (260 x 391 cm), Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia. Dance, together with Music, was commissioned by S.I.Shchukin to [31]decorate the staircase in his Moscow mansion. Matisse took the [32]motif of the round dance, used as a [33]symbol back as far as French [34]Renaissance, to represent the [35]rhythm and [36]expression of the 20th century. The spaciousness and expressive [37]lines [38]emphasize the dynamics of the [39]figures. [40]Simplified and schematic [41]forms intensify the [42]brightness and [43]resonance of the three colors -- red, blue and green. See [44]music. Dance, Matisse once said, meant "life and rhythm." See [45]dance, [46]music, and [47]movement. [destij_mond.broadwa.th.gif] see thumbnail to left Piet Mondrian (Dutch, 1872-1944), [48]Broadway Boogie Woogie. 1942-43, [49]oil on [50]canvas, 50 x 50 inches (127 x 127 cm), at the Museum of Modern Art, New York. See [51]De Stijl and [52]grid. [3L00164.jpg] see thumbnail to right Paul Klee (Swiss, 1879-1940), [53]Rhythmisches (In Rhythm), 1930, [54]oil on woven jute, 69.6 x 50.5 cm, Georges Pompidou Center, Paris. See [55]Bauhaus and [56]Swiss art. [femns_taeuber_circles_th.jpg] see thumbnail to left Sophie Taeuber-Arp (Swiss, 1889-1943; to France 1928), [57]Composition of Circles and Overlapping Angles (Composition à cercles et à bras superposés), 1930, [58]oil on [59]canvas, 19 1/2 x 25 1/4 inches (49.5 x 64.1 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. See [60]feminism and feminist art. [40x10pixel.space.gif] [femns_taeuber_echelon_th.jpg] see thumbnail to right Sophie Taeuber-Arp, [61]Echelonnement désaxé, 1934, [62]gouache on [63]paper, 13 7/8 X 10 5/8 inches (35.1 X 27 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. [bauhau_aalber.walldes.th.jpg] see thumbnail to left Anni Albers (born Analise Fleischman, married Josef Albers) (German, 1899-1994), [64]Design for Wall Hanging, 1926, [65]gouache and [66]pencil on paper, 14 x 11 1/2 inches (35.6 x 29.2 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY. See [67]Bauhaus and [68]textile. Quote: "Rhythm and harmony find their way into the inward places of the soul." Plato (427?-327? BCE), Greek philosopher. The Republic, Book III, 401d, as translated by B. Jowett, 1901. See [69]harmony. Also see [70]animation, [71]arrangement, [72]chronology, [73]cinema, [74]composition, [75]dance, [76]direction, [77]egg-and-dart, [78]eurythmy, [79]four-dimensional, [80]harmonic sequence, [81]harmony, [82]kinetic, [83]juxtaposition, [84]measure, [85]metamorphosis, [86]mobile, [87]movement, [88]obsession, [89]pattern, [90]periodicity, [91]music, [92]sequence, [93]space-time, [94]time, and [95]whirligig. [96][grid.1.gif] [97]ArtLex Art Dictionary [98]Copyright © 1996- current year delahunt(at)artlex.com Références [1]Ning [2]Create a Ning Network! ____________________ [3]Search * [4]Sign Up * [5]Sign In [6]DesignerNet * [7]Main * [8]My Page * [9]Syllabus + [10]Introduction + [11]Course Description + [12]Assignments/Schedule + [13]Materials + [14]Grading + [15]Make-up Work + [16]Exams/Quizzes + [17]Policies * [18]Class Resources + [19]Assignments + [20]Basic Design Principles + [21]Concept + [22]Concept and Culture + [23]Purpose of Concept + [24]Unity + [25]Principles of Unity + [26]The Look of Unity + [27]Rhythm in Art + [28]Large Scale (& small) * [29]Websites to Visit + [30]K3Order * [31]Photos * [32]Testing * [33]OldMembers * [34]Videos * [35]Blogs * [36]Groups Rhythm in Art Take a look at this definition of Rhythm in Art. As noted in the definition, it can be likened to rhythm in music, and can be said to be a "patterened repitition" What do you think? Is rhythm a "visual beat?" (noun) - Rhythm is a principle of art that's difficult to summarize in words. Assuming that you've picked up on a rhythm in music before, take what you heard with your ears and try to translate that to something you'd see with your eyes. Rhythm, in art, is a visual beat. A pattern has rhythm, but not all rhythm is patterned. For example, the colors of a piece can convey rhythm, by making your eyes travel from one component to another. Lines can produce rhythm by implying movement. Forms, too, can cause rhythm by the ways in which they're placed one next to the other. it's sometimes easier to comprehend rhythm in just about anything other than the visual arts, but once understood, heightened sensitivity to this aspect can animate design and art making it visually interactive. "Rhythm of the Hills" by Judy Neale "Rhythm Joie De Vivre" by Robert Delaunay This very graphic and design-oriented painting uses repeated circles, half-circles, joined shapes and contrasting colors to create movement. "Although trained in fine arts in Paris, Delaunay worked in set design before beginning his painting career in 1905. He found his initial influences in the Neo-Impressionists, but gradually moved on to join Der Blaue Reiter in 1911. His Paris cityscapes began to take on a distinctive style that studied the effect of contrasting color patterning. Delaunay's unique method spurred friend and poet, Guillaume Apollinaire, to place his paintings in a new movement, which he called Orphism." - World Wide Art Resources Tamara De Limpicka's "The Model" This piece which is a very graphically-designed painting, in which the raised right arm drives the eyes to the right side of the model's torso; the focal point of the right breast then captures the viewer's attention, and directs it with a "pointer"... a triangular fold in the model's garment pulling the viewer to the left arm of the figure. The curve of the left arm uses the multiple pointers of the model's fingers to direct the eye strongly to the left into the garment's downward-sweeping folds, and down the highlighted leg. As if that were not enough to invest the piece with rhythm, the artist then uses a strong graphical "s" shape in the background to reinforce the motion using the model's shadow to create a feeling of movement as part of the pattern in the background. The overall positioning of the figure creates visual torque, creating a feeling of anticipated movement adding to the dynamicism of the design Welcome to DesignerNet [37]Sign Up or [38]Sign In About [39]Jane Ann Nelson [40]Jane Ann Nelson created this [41]Ning Network. [42]Create a Ning Network! » © 2010 Created by [43]Jane Ann Nelson on Ning. [44]Create a Ning Network! [45]Badges | [46]Report an Issue | [47]Privacy | [48]Terms of Service Hello, you need to enable JavaScript to use DesignerNet. Please check your browser settings or contact your system administrator. [jstrk_off.gif] Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1]LEARN NC * [2]Home * [3]Help * Search * [LEARN NC..........] * _______________ * Search LEARN NC K-12 teaching and learning · from the UNC School of Education * Classroom + [4]Lesson Plans + [5]Best Practices + [6]Learning Materials + [7]Reference + [8]Field Trips + [9]Multimedia + [10]Best of the Web * Standards + [11]NC Standard Course of Study & Aligned Resources + [12]NC Professional Teaching Standards & Aligned Resources * Online Courses + [13]Open for Enrollment + [14]Course Catalog * My LEARN NC + [15]Email Updates + [16]Conference 2009 Rhythm, pattern, color, and texture in art and poetry In this lesson, students will discover the meaning of "rhythm," "patterns," "color," and "texture" through the performance and modeled analysis of a class "symphony." Students will also evaluate the impact of each element on the whole work and note personal reactions and connections to this art form. Students will then work in small groups to apply the same elements and personal evaluation and connections to a historical work of visual art. At the end of the lesson, students will reflect on ways these two experiences are similar. A lesson plan for grade 7 Visual Arts Education and English Language Arts By [17]Carol Horne Learn more Related pages * [18]Old Hat, New Hat: 3-D Pattern Hats: After students read Old Hat, New Hat by Jan and Stan Berenstain, they create their own new 3-D hats. * [19]Rhythm stars: This lesson will introduce the main components of rhythm: quarter, eighth, and sixteenth notes. * [20]How do I express what I believe? - Part 2: This is the second in a three-part lesson series seeking to examine belief systems and how they impact culture in the United States. This lesson, "How do I express what I believe?" requires 3 sessions at 40 minutes each to complete. The lesson series also seeks to let students examine their own personal belief system. In this lesson, the student will learn about the American tradition of the Face Jug/Pot and how it is used to express belief. The student will also create a Face Jug/Pot to express his/her belief, and this pot will be used in the third lesson entitled. "How do I present what I believe?" Related topics * Learn more about [21]arts, [22]color, [23]hands-on, [24]patterns, [25]rhythm, and [26]texture. Help Please read our [27]disclaimer for lesson plans. Legal The text of this page is copyright ©2008. See [28]terms of use. Images and other media may be licensed separately; see captions for more information and [29]read the fine print. [30]Creative Commons License Print * [31]Print Share * [32]Email * [33]Delicious [34]Delicious * [35]Digg [36]Digg * [37]Facebook [38]Facebook * [39]StumbleUpon [40]StumbleUpon Learning outcomes Students will: * learn to identify examples of "rhythm," "patterns," "color," and "texture" in order to analyze a whole class symphony of various sounds and movements. * learn to apply these same elements to a work of visual art. * evaluate the overall impact of each element and will investigate their personal reactions and connections to both of these art forms. * learn to reflect on the similarities of their analyses of both of these art forms. Teacher planning Time required for lesson 85 minutes Materials/resources * Adjust space for class to "perform" assigned individual movements as a whole group standing in one long line as the teacher stands in front of students to "conduct." If this is not possible, make sure students have enough space to "perform" as they stand alongside their desks. * Write variety of individual sounds and movements on index cards to distribute to each student, e.g. "bark like a dog; make a whooshing sound as you move like a wave; high-five and yell, `Yeah!'; whistle like an admirer; click your heels and say, `There's no place like home!'; sing the first bar of the Friskies' `Meow, meow, meow, meow' song; frog hop as you `ribbitt' twice; etc. * Set up a tape recorder and blank tape cued to record the class "symphony." * Make two overhead transparencies and two hard copies per student of the graphic organizer titled, "Elements of Art-Making Connections!" for analysis of the elements of "rhythm and patterns," "color," "texture," etc. (See attachment of a blank copy.) You will also need a transparency pen. * Pre-select a poster, transparency, or website image of a work of visual art preferrably from a historical period familiar to students and a narrative piece. (See "Relevant Web Sites" below for a suggested link to "Cleopatra and the Peasant.") * Complete a graphic organizer for the selected work of visual art to use as a suggested "answer key" for easy reference during small group facilitation. (See "Attachments" below for a suggested key of possible answers for "Elements of Art - Cleopatra and the Peasant" art image.) Technology resources Student computers with color monitors and Internet connection bookmarked at the site of the selected work of visual art. (optional) A classroom computer with color monitor and Internet connection set on site of selected work of visual art and connected to an LCD projector, which projects computer image onto classroom screen. (optional) Pre-activities No previous knowledge is needed for the opening "symphony" activity. However, to integrate social studies, students should be familiar with the general historical context of the work of visual art used in the second activity. If the "Cleopatra and the Peasant" piece is used, for instance, it would be helpful if students have had some background in the ancient Egyptian period prior to the viewing of this piece. If you are using another historical narrative piece, select one for which students have had some previous study. If your students will be accessing the Internet to view the visual art at a selected website, students should have obtained permission to use the Internet. They should also know how to go to bookmarked sites. Students should also have had some experience with small group collaboration with their peers. Students should have experience with writing one-sentence summaries for information presented textually or orally. Activities Because of the variety of activities, this lesson will work well as a block period, or it may be divided into two consecutive class periods. Initiating Activity - Whole Class "Symphony" (40 minutes) 1. Because we want to create an atmosphere of discovery and an air of mystery, the teacher will distribute one prepared index card to each student on which some type of sound is written without undue explanation. 2. Next, line up your students in a straight line facing you, and position yourself in front of them as the "conductor," if space permits. Explain now that the whole class will create a "symphony" using the assigned sounds while you conduct students' coming in, out, and level of volume. Briefly teach the students the signals indicated by the conductor's hand and arm movements for: making their sound/motion; decreasing the sound; increasing the sound; cutting the sound off; etc. 3. As a practice, point to each student individually to try out his assigned sound/motion along with your signals. Next, explain that at times there may be solos, duets, trios, etc., or times when the whole group will perform together. Those determinations will be indicated by the conductor, so students must watch the conductor carefully. 4. After students understand their "assignment," you, the conductor, will proceed to conduct a class symphony as you see fit. Before you start, explain that this production will be tape recorded. (Turn on your tape recorder when ready.) As you begin, experiment with different combinations of single, small group, and larger group participation as well as crescendo/decrescendo effects. You may also include periods of silence. Remember the elements you want to elicit in this improvised piece are: rhythm/patterns, color, and texture, which are discussed below. After several minutes of composing/performing, turn off the tape recorder. (See also another way of doing this activity described in "Supplemental Resources/Information for Teachers" section below.) 5. As students return to their seats, distribute copies of the blank "Elements of Art" graphic organizer to be used for an analysis of the class performance. (See "Attachments" below.) Using your overhead transparency and pen, prepare to conduct a whole class explanation/discussion of each element listed. 6. You will need to explain each of the specialized vocabulary terms below in the suggested ways. Elements for Musical Composition: Rhythm/Patterns These are listed together because patterns help to create rhythm. Rhythm is created with the recurrence (pattern) of varying stresses and tone lengths. These may be balanced against a steady, underlying succession of beats. Color You should be accepting of students' definitions here, but you may explain that "color" is created musically through such qualities as vitality, vividness, or interest. Musically speaking, "color" refers to the timbre, or tonal quality of the voice/instrument or the effect created by the combination of such qualities. Texture Explain that in music, "texture" is created by contrasts of rich, smooth, melodic, lyrical tones vs. stiff, staccato, harsh tones. 7. Before playing back the recording of the production, you may assign one-third of the class to listen for examples of rhythm and patterns, another one-third of the class can listen for examples of color, and the remaining one-third can listen for examples of texture. As they listen, they should note examples on their charts. 8. Next, ask students to share their examples of each element. Facilitate their sharing in light of the meaning of each element, remembering that your present objective is to help students to understand the meanings of all the elements and analyze examples from a musical piece. As examples are shared and discussed, model writing them on your overhead transparency; engage students by asking them to fill in examples for each element on their charts throughout the class discussion. 9. To review the elements and encourage students to engage in mental evaluation of their performance, ask students to assess which element they believe had the greatest impact on their overall performance. Did their piece seem to emphasize rhythm and pattern? Or did "color" or "texture" make the greatest impact, in their opinion? Get the students to explain and record their choices on their graphic organizers. 10. Last, to allow students to make this experience personally relevant, invite them to write single words that might describe their feelings or emotions toward their symphony. (Examples might be: exciting, interesting, invigorating, stimulating, etc.) In the last column, invite students to note something from their personal experience that the class symphony reminds them of. It could be a personal experience or feeling, or it might be one they've read about or seen portrayed in a movie or real life of a friend. Second Activity: Analyze the Elements in Visual Art (35 minutes) 1. Make a transition to the next activity by arranging students for partner or small group collaboration. If you are remaining in the classroom, arrange students in small groups of three to five with desks facing one another to encourage collaboration. If students are at computer stations, pair them up to encourage collaboration. 2. The teacher will need to use an overhead projector to initiate modeling of analysis of elements on the second overhead transparency of the graphic organizer. 3. Introduce the selected work of art and artist as you display the painting or image. (Ask students to navigate to the bookmarked website, if they are at computer stations.) Initiate discussion through use of a "hook" question. For example, if you are using the "Cleopatra and the Peasant" painting by Eugene Delacroix, ask: "Why do you think there is a little snake coiling out of the basket of plums?" As students brainstorm possibilities, work in bits of historical information. For example, remind them of who Cleopatra was and the culture and time in which she lived. (Note: Refer to "Supplemental Information" below. Also, if you access the Ackland Online website listed below under "Relevant Websites," background information about the painting will be provided.) Through questioning and discussion, develop the story behind the painting. 4. You may also mention that the painting was created in Europe in the 1800's. You may ask if students can locate clues in the painting to illustrate this fact. (Cleopatra was portrayed in this painting as a 19th century European woman in style of dress and ethnicity, for example, rather than an ancient Egyptian woman who lived during ancient Roman times.) 5. As you continue to develop the history of the story, initiate one possible answer under each of the first three columns of the graphic organizer for "rhythm/patterns," "color," and "texture." Students may copy these onto their charts. 6. Take this opportunity to weave in a review and explanation of the terms below and how they relate to analysis of a work of visual art. Definitions of Elements for Visual Art: Rhythm/Patterns The recurrence of lines, colors, and shapes (perhaps in a pattern) to create movement within a work of art. Color Qualities brought out by the use of hues (colors) and their variations. Texture Use of materials, such as paint, to create the impression of a feature, (e.g. satin, glass, or fur); or the use of real materials within the work of art, (e.g. hair, leather, or metal.) 7. After students have an understanding of the information in the painting and the elements and have written at least one example of each element on their charts, direct the small groups or partners to continue with their analyses. They should also discuss and complete the last three sections in which they evaluate which element had the greatest impact on the work of art as a whole, explore their personal feelings, and note their personal connections to the art. 8. During partner/group discussion time, the teacher should circulate to facilitate the above activities. 9. Within the last few minutes of this activity, ask students to share examples of answers recorded on their graphic organizers. Reflection Activity (10 minutes) 1. Facilitate a five-minute discussion of similarities of the symphony and work of visual art with the whole group through questioning. (Examples: "In what ways are symphonies like visual art?") Encourage students to refer to their two charts. Assist them in making oral connections between these two art forms. 2. On a slip of notebook paper during the remaining five minutes, have students write "exit slips," meaning they will get to exit your class after they have handed you their "tickets," or exit slips, out of class. 3. On the slip of paper ask students to answer the following question in one concise sentence: "What did I learn today about the elements of art in music AND in visual art?" The teacher can gain insight about the kinds of things the students learned as a result of the day's lesson by reading the exits slips. The teacher may elect to give the students some type of daily credit for completing the slips satisfactorily. Assessment The following two types of assessments may be used in addition to teacher observation: 1. Two completed graphic organizers titled, "Elements of Art," one for the symphony activity and the other for the visual art activity. The teacher may collect these and give credit for quality of answers or for participation (completion.) 2. Exit slip - This is the reflection the students made at the end of the lesson during which they were asked to summarize in one statement something they learned about the elements of both a musical composition and a work of visual art. The teacher can quickly assess the level of understanding by reading and assessing the quality of these answers for a daily grade. Supplemental information Alternate "symphony" activity: One other way to conduct this initiating activity is for the teacher NOT to be the conductor. Instead, assign sounds on cards as previously described and tell students to begin making their sounds together and continue until you indicate for them to stop. At first, the combined sounds will not be coordinated. However, as time goes along, the students will naturally begin to add their own rhythms, loudness/softness, etc. In the follow-up analysis of this musical production, it could be pointed out how the first part lacked the elements listed on the chart; but as the "music" proceeded, these elements became evident. Historical Background for the Life of Cleopatra: Cleopatra became queen of ancient Egypt in 51 B.C. Though she lacked beauty, she was intelligent, witty, charming, ambitious, and concerned about the well-being of her subjects. Cleopatra developed loyal and romantic relationships with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, great Roman leaders. Antony aspired to rule Rome alone and, due to the wealth of Egypt, hoped to obtain financial aid from Cleopatra. They fell in love and Cleopatra had several children by Antony. Cleopatra's ambition was for her children to become rulers of Rome. Because Antony gave preferential treatment to his children by Cleopatra, other Roman leaders became jealous. They thought Cleopatra was greedy and had too much control over Antony. A war broke out between the two of them and Octavian, Antony's former brother-in-law and one of the rival rulers of Rome. As Octavian came after Cleopatra and Antony, she spread a rumor that she had committed suicide. When Antony heard the report, he stabbed himself. He later died in her arms. When Cleopatra's attempts to make up to Octavian failed, she put a poisonous snake on her arm and indeed did commit suicide. Antony's and Cleopatra's love story has taken many dramatic and artistic forms through the ages. In the painting, "Cleopatra and the Peasant," the peasant is shown as suggesting to Cleopatra (or enticing her by his slight smile and her serious expression of consideration) with the idea of taking her life with a snake. The peasant is holding a basket of plums under his leopard pelt. A snake is emerging from the plums. A jpg image of Cleopatra by Delacroix along with credit information has been provided as an attachment below. Related websites Color image of "Cleopatra and the Peasant," by Eugene Delacroix: Ackland Museum Online: Comments For special needs students, such as LD, the teacher may provide a hard copy for each of the two completed "Elements of Art" graphic organizers, saving time for the student in copying information onto the charts. Enrichment can be provided by encouraging students to formulate their own questions about either work of art (musical, as in the class symphony, or the historical work of visual art,) and their elements. Allow students to conduct their own research to answer these questions using CD ROMS, Internet art sites, NC Wise Owl, a research site, which has been included under "Relevant Websites," etc. North Carolina Curriculum Alignment Visual Arts Education (2001) Grade 7 * Goal 1: The learner will develop critical and creative thinking skills and perceptual awareness necessary for understanding and producing art. + [41]Objective 1.06: Recognize and discuss the use of multiple senses in visual arts. * Goal 2: The learner will develop skills necessary for understanding and applying media, techniques, and processes. + [42]Objective 2.02: Explore and identify the unique properties and potential of materials using proper vocabulary and terminology. * Goal 3: The learner will organize the components of a work into a cohesive whole through knowledge of organizational principles of design and art elements. + [43]Objective 3.03: Explore and discuss that diverse solutions are preferable to predetermined visual solutions. + [44]Objective 3.04: Explore and discuss the value of intuitive perceptions in the problem-solving process. * Goal 5: The learner will understand the visual arts in relation to history and cultures. + [45]Objective 5.02: Describe characteristics of specific works of art that belong to a particular culture, time and place. * Goal 7: The learner will perceive connections between visual arts and other disciplines. + [46]Objective 7.01: Explain connections, similarities and differences between the visual arts and other disciplines. + [47]Objective 7.03: Compare characteristics of visual arts within a particular historical period or style with ideas, issues or themes in other disciplines. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill LEARN NC, a program of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill [48]School of Education, finds the most innovative and successful practices in K-12 education and makes them available to the teachers and students of North Carolina -- and the world. [49]About LEARN NC | [50]Site map | [51]Search | [52]Staff | [53]Partners | [54]Legal | [55]Help | [56]Contact us For more great resources for K-12 teaching and learning, visit us on the web at www.learnnc.org. Références FREE Online Classroom Tools [1]LOGIN OR [2]REGISTER FOR FREE [3]HotChalk [4]LessonPlansPage.com [hc-header-roundedbottom.jpg] * * [5]Lesson Plans | * [6]Teaching Degrees | * [7]Articles & Blogs | * [8]Forums | * [9]Contribute | * [10]HotChalk Tools | * [11]About | * [12]Advertising Lesson Plans [13][icon_ruler.gif] Math [14][icon_book.gif] Language Arts [15][icon_science.gif] Science [16][icon_globe.gif] Social Studies [17][icon_art.gif] Art [18][icon_laptop.gif] Computers & Internet [19][icon_music.gif] Music [20][icon_soccer.gif] P.E. & Health [21][icon_apple.gif] Other [22][icon_pencil.gif] Multi-Disciplinary Sections * [23]Online Degrees Guide * [24]HotChalk Tools * [25]Seasonal Lesson Plans * [26]Most Recent Additions * [27]Inspired Teachers * [28]Science Projects * [29]Math Worksheets * [30]Teacher Discussions * [31]Lesson Plan Guide * [32]Search This Site * [33]Join Our Newsletter * [34]Contribute !!! * [35]Advertising Information * [36]Take Our Survey! * [37]Tell A Friend! Special Features [38]Black History Month Lesson Plans Sponsored by Target * [39]Efficient Reading * [40]Masters in Education * [41]Previous Articles [42][hotchalklogo-template-sidebar.gif] * [43]About HotChalk * [44]Learn More * [45]MyClasses * [46]MyLibrary * [47]MyDesk * [48]Join for FREE! Resource Sites [49]Education Master's [50]Teacher Magazines [51]Teaching Jobs Site Information [52]About This Site [53]How To Use [54]Contact Info [55]Advertising Info [56]Educational Links [57]Having Problems? [58]Online Degrees Teacher's Guide [59]Join Our Facebook Page [60]Bookmark and Share Join LPP Newsletter: _________________________ Subscribe! Search This Site: _____________ Search! rhythm game using body percussion [61][print.gif] Printable Version for your convenience! Title - rhythm game using body percussion By - Michelle L. Miller Primary Subject - Music Secondary Subjects - Grade Level - 4-8 Objective: Students will be able to accurately write and count rhythms. Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests. Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding. To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3 teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat pat snap snap palms up-- quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest). Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The whole lesson takes about 30 minutes. Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as performed by teacher. Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills development and have fun at the same time!! NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well. Have fun!! E-Mail [62]Michelle L. Miller! * * [63]Lesson Plans | * [64]Teaching Degrees | * [65]Articles & Blogs | * [66]Forums | * [67]Contribute | * [68]HotChalk Tools | * [69]About | * [70]Advertising © 1996 - 2010 HotChalk, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Last Modified December 23, 2009 [71]Privacy Policy | [72]Anti-Spam Policy | [73]Terms of Use Please manually type in our email address to contact us (to prevent spam). Quantcast Références 62. mailto:Michellelmiller@avon.net #[1]Daily Health and Medical News [2]Weekly Health and Medical News Digest [3]Health and Medical Slideshows [5]Biorhythms Specialty IFRAME: &xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos=1 01 [7]MedicineNet.com ___________________________________ Search [8]About Us | [9]Privacy Policy | [10]Site Map January 17, 2010 [11]MedicineNet home [12]Picture Slideshows [13]Diseases and conditions [14]Symptoms and signs [15]Procedures and tests [16]Medications [17]Picture Image Collection [18]MedTerms medical dictionary [19]Pet Health [clearpixel.gif] [20]home > [21]biorhythms index > biorhythms article [clearpixel.gif] [clearpixel.gif] [clearpixel.gif] Font Size [22]A [23]A [24]A * 1 * [25]2 * [26]3 * [27]4 * [28]5 * [29]6 * [30]7 * [31]8 * [32]Next » * [33]Biorhythms Index * [34]Glossary Biorhythms [35]View Asthma Slideshow [36]Asthma Slideshow View Asthma Slideshow [37]Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow View Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow [38]Worst Cities for Asthma, 2009 Slideshow Pictures of the Worst Cities for Asthma Slideshow Medical Author: [39]William C. Shiel, Jr., MD, FACP, FACR Medical Editor: [40]Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD * [41]What are biologic rhythms? * [42]How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness? * [43]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms? * [44]Angina * [45]Heart attack * [46]High blood pressure (hypertension) * [47]Hay fever (allergic rhinitis) * [48]Asthma * [49]Can the "body clock" affect diagnostic testing? * [50]Can drug therapy be matched to the "body clock?" * [51]Chronobiology: marking time, making progress What are biologic rhythms? What are biologic rhythms? In essence, they're the rhythms of life. All forms of life on earth, including our bodies, respond rhythmically to the regular cycles of the sun, moon, and seasons. For example, as night turns into day, vital body functions, including heart rate and [52]blood pressure, speed up in anticipation of increased physical activity. These and other predictable fluctuations in body function, taking place during specific time cycles, are our biologic rhythms. They are regulated by "biologic clock" mechanisms located in the brain. Although biologic rhythms can be "reprogrammed" by environmental influences (such as when a person regularly works the night shift and sleeps during the day), they are genetically "hard-wired" into our cells, tissues, and organs. Medical chronobiologists have found that biologic rhythms can affect the severity of disease symptoms, diagnostic test results, and even the body's response to drug therapy. Now these investigators are working to discover how the rhythms of life can be used to improve the practice of medicine - and your health. These time-related medical observations, and others still in the exciting process of discovery, are rooted in chronobiology (chronos - time; bios - life; logos - science), the study of biologic rhythms. How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness? Among the various biologic rhythm cycles that medical chronobiologists study, the 24-hour day/night-activity/rest cycle is considered a key chronobiologic factor in medical [53]diagnosis and treatment. Formally known as the [54]circadian rhythm, it's also referred to as the "body clock." Why is the 24-hour body clock so important? Because so many of our normal body functions follow daily patterns of speeding up and slowing down, intensifying and diminishing, in alignment with circadian rhythm. Interestingly, so do the symptoms of a number of [55]chronic disorders: Allergic rhinitis: (nasal inflammation associated with hay fever) Symptoms of sneezing, [56]runny nose, and stuffy nose are typically worse in the early waking hours than later during the day. Asthma: In most patients, symptoms are more than 100 times as likely to occur in the few hours prior to awakening than during the day. Stable angina: [57]Chest pain and [58]electrocardiographic (ECG, EKG) abnormalities are most common during the first 4 to 6 hours after awakening. [59]Prinzmetal's angina: ECG abnormalities are most common during [60]sleep; chest pain can occur even while at rest. Heart attack: Heart attack most commonly occurs in the early waking hours. Stroke: [61]Strokes most commonly occur in the early waking hours. Hypertension: The highest blood pressure readings typically occur from late morning to middle afternoon; lowest occur during early sleep. Therapy now exists that works with your body clock; consult your physician about this treatment. Clinical studies are underway to further this research. [62]Rheumatoid arthritis: RA symptoms are most intense upon awakening. [63]Osteoarthritis: Symptoms of osteoarthritis worsen in the afternoon and evening. Ulcer disease: The pain typically occurs after stomach emptying, following daytime meals, and in the very early morning, disrupting sleep. [64]Epilepsy: Seizures often occur only at particular times of the day or night; individual patterns differ among patients. * 1 * [65]2 * [66]3 * [67]4 * [68]5 * [69]6 * [70]7 * [71]8 * [72]Next » * [73]Biorhythms Index * [74]Glossary Next: [75]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms? » [76]Printer-Friendly Format | [77]Email to a Friend [header-doctor-topics_2.gif] Suggested Reading by Our Doctors MedicineNet Doctors * [78]Chemotherapy - Get information on chemotherapy treatment for cancer, side effects of medications and how chemo works. Chemotherapy is a type of cancer treatment often given along with radiation therapy and surgery. * [79]Rheumatoid Arthritis - Learn more about rheumatoid arthritis, an autoimmune disease that causes chronic joint inflammation, which has symptoms that include stiffness, fever, muscle and joint aches, loss of appetite, and fatigue. Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis incorporates the use of first-line drugs (aspirin and corticosteroids for pain and inflammation) and second-line drugs (methotrexate and hydroxychloroquine to prevent joint destruction and promote remission). * [80]Radiation Therapy - [81]Read more Biorhythms related articles » Latest Medical News * [82]Nightly Snacking May Speed Weight Gain [footer-doctor-topics_2.gif] [83]Privacy Policy Allergies & Asthma Improve treatments & prevent attacks. _____________________ [btn_submit2.gif]-Submit [clearpixel.gif] [84]Are you Depressed? Take the Quiz [85]Your Guide to Symptoms & Signs: Pinpoint Your Pain IFRAME: 1&xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos= 121 From WebMD Asthma and Allergy Resources * [87]Asthma Attack Slideshow * [88]How to Use Your Inhaler * [89]The Best Cities for Asthma Featured Centers * [90]12 Ways to Prevent the Spread of Viruses * [91]Longevity Foods: Eat Well, Live Longer * [92]Sad? Irritable? Assess Your Symptoms * [93]Healthy Home: To Buy or Not to Buy Organic? Health Solutions From Our Sponsors * [94]Osteoporosis Info * [95]Overactive Bladder Rx Biorhythms [96]Hay Fever » What is hay fever? What are the symptoms and signs? Hay fever is a misnomer. Hay is not a usual cause of this problem, and it does not cause fever. Early descriptions of sneezing, nasal congestion, and eye irritation while harvesting field hay promoted this popular term. Allergic rhinitis is the correct term used to describe this allergic reaction, and many different substances cause the allergic symptoms noted in hay fever. Rhinitis means "irritation of the nose" and is a derivative of rhino, meaning nose. Allergic rhinitis which occurs during a specific season is called "seasonal allergic rhinitis." When it occurs throughout the year, it is called "perennial allergic rhinitis." Symptoms of allergic rhinitis, or hay fever, frequently include nasal congestion, a clear runny nose, sneezing, nose and eye itching, and excess tear production in the eyes. Postnasal dripping of clear mucus frequently causes a cough. Loss of the sense ... [97]Read the Hay Fever article » Featured on MedicineNet * [98]Tips to Ease Nighttime Pain * [99]Check Your Fibromyalgia Symptoms * [100]Depression Tips Slideshow * [101]Are You at Risk for Diabetic Nerve Pain? Top 10 Biorhythms Related Articles * [102]Chemo Infusion and Chemoembolization of Liver * [103]Chemotherapy * [104]Chemotherapy Treatment for Breast Cancer * [105]Heart Attack * [106]High Blood Pressure * [107]Osteoarthritis * [108]Radiation Therapy * [109]Radiation Therapy for Breast Cancer * [110]Rheumatoid Arthritis * [111]Stroke * [112]Complete List » New on MedicineNet * [113]Michael C. 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Références Liens visibles 76. javascript:myVoid() Liens cachés : * [1]Skip to main content * [2]Text only version of this page * [3]Access keys help [4]BBC Home ____________________ Search [5]Explore the BBC 17 January 2010 [6]Accessibility help [7]Text only [8][USEMAP:banner_new.jpg] [9]Animals [10]Prehistoric Life [11]Human Body & Mind [12]Space [13]TV & Radio Follow-up [14]BBC Homepage [15]Science & Nature Homepage In [16]Human Body & Mind: [17]The mind [18]The body [19]Brain Sex [20]Sleep [21]Take part in the Brain Test Britain experiment __________________________________________________________________ [22]Contact Us Like this page? [23]Send it to a friend! You are here: [24]BBC > [25]Science & Nature > [26]Human Body & Mind > [27]Sleep > Daily Rhythm Test Daily Rhythm Test Our internal body clock governs our daily or circadian rhythm - telling us when to wake up and when to feel sleepy. Circadian comes from the Latin circa, meaning about and dies, meaning day. This test will produce a chart showing your natural sleeping and waking pattern over a 24 hour period. If you're having problems sleeping it could be your natural body clock is at odds with your routine. 1) Do you consider yourself a morning person or an evening person? (_) Evening (_) More evening than morning (_) Cant tell (_) More morning than evening (_) Morning 2) At what time of day do you feel at your best? (_) 5am - 9am (_) 9am - 11am (_) 11am - 5pm (_) 5pm - 10pm (_) 10pm - 1am 3) Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, if you were entirely free to plan your day - at what time would you go to bed? (_) 8pm - 9pm (_) 9pm - 10.15pm (_) 10.15pm - 12.30am (_) 12.30am - 1.45am (_) 1.45am - 3am 4) Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, if you were entirely free to plan your day - at what time would you get up? (_) 5.00am - 6.30am (_) 6.30am - 7.45am (_) 7.45am - 9.45am (_) 9.45am - 11.00am (_) 11.00am - Midday View results [28]Science & Nature Homepage [29]Animals | [30]Prehistoric Life | [31]Human Body & Mind | [32]Space | [33]TV & Radio follow-up [34]Go to top [35]About the BBC | [36]Help | [37]Terms of Use | [38]Privacy & Cookies Policy Références [USEMAP] [1]SpringerLink Logo [2]Institutional Login Welcome! To use the personalized features of this site, please [3]log in or [4]register. If you have forgotten your username or password, we can [5]help. My Menu [6]Marked Items [7]Alerts [8]Order History Saved Items [9]All [10]Favorites * [11]Content Types + [12]All + [13]Publications + [14]Journals + [15]Book Series + [16]Books + [17]Reference Works + [18]Protocols * [19]Subject Collections + [20]Architecture and Design + [21]Behavioral Science + [22]Biomedical and Life Sciences + [23]Business and Economics + [24]Chemistry and Materials Science + [25]Computer Science + [26]Earth and Environmental Science + [27]Engineering + [28]Humanities, Social Sciences and Law + [29]Mathematics and Statistics + [30]Medicine + [31]Physics and Astronomy + [32]Professional and Applied Computing [English.......] Go Journal Article [33]Printable view Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Journal [34]Surgery Today Publisher Springer Japan ISSN 0941-1291 (Print) 1436-2813 (Online) Issue [35]Volume 17, Number 3 / May, 1987 Category Short Communication DOI 10.1007/BF02470602 Pages 209-212 Subject Collection [36]Medicine SpringerLink Date Thursday, July 20, 2006 [37]Add to marked items [38]Add to shopping cart [39]Add to saved items [40]Permissions & Reprints [41]Recommend this article [42]PDF (237.9 KB)[43] Free Preview Free Preview Short Communication Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Jun Narumi^1 Contact Information , Kozo Suma^1, Hidemi Kaneko^1, Yasuo Takeuchi^1, Kenji Inoue^1, Kenji Shiroma^1 and Yuji Koyama^1 (1) Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, 2nd Hospital of Tokyo Women's Medical College, 2-1-10 Nishiogu, Arakawaku, 116 Tokyo, Japan Received: 7 April 1986 Abstract The postoperative deep body temperature rhythms of fifteen patients who received aorto-coronary bypass surgery (group I), and of seven patients who received non-cardiac major surgery (group II), were studied. Postoperative patients, especially those who received aortocoronary bypass surgery, showed greatly disturbed deep body temperature rhythm. There existed infradian and ultradian rhythm in both groups, and there existed two patients in group I who did not show sinusoidal rhythm. The patients of group I also showed a longer period of rhythm than did those of group II. The mesor and amplitude of the patients in group I showed a greater individual variation than did those in group II. The acrophase of both groups deviated widely. The patients who underwent cardiac surgery needed a longer time for temperature rhythm recovery than did those who underwent general surgery. Key Words deep body temperature rhythm - intensive care unit - post-operative patients __________________________________________________________________ Fulltext Preview (Small, [44]Large) Image of the first page of the fulltext [45]Click here to visit our sponsor References secured to subscribers. [46]more options Find ____________________ ... Go Query Builder Close | Clear * [47]Title (ti) * [48]Summary (su) * [49]Author (au) * [50]ISSN (issn) * [51]ISBN (isbn) * [52]DOI (doi) * * [53]And * [54]Or * [55]Not * [56]( * [57]) * [58]* (wildcard) * [59]"" (exact) (_) Within all content (_) Within this journal (_) Within this issue Export this article Export this article as [60]RIS | [61]Text [62]Frequently asked questions | [63]General information on journals and books | [64]Send us your feedback | [65]Impressum | [66]Contact © Springer. [67]Part of Springer Science+Business Media [68]Privacy, Disclaimer, Terms and Conditions, © Copyright Information [69]MetaPress Privacy Policy Remote Address: 84.99.202.28 o Server: mpweb01 HTTP User Agent: Lynx/2.8.7pre.6 libwww-FM/2.14 SSL-MM/1.4.1 Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1]Home [2]Search Holisticonline [3]Grandmas Remedies Quality vitamins, natural remedies [4]Specialgifts.com Big savings on gemstones, jewelry and gifts. [5]Alternative Medicine [6]Stress Management [7]Conditions/ Treatments [8]Preferred Providers [9]Holistic Living [10]Alternative Therapies [11]Acupuncture [12]Aromatherapy [13]Ayurveda [14]Biofeedback [15]Chelation Therapy [16]Herbal Medicine [17]Homeopathy [18]Humor Therapy [19]Hydrotherapy [20]Imagery [21]Light Therapy [22]Massage [23]Meditation [24]NLP [25]Nutrition [26]Prayer/ Spiritual [27]Reiki [28]Shiatsu [29]Yoga [30]FAQ (Health) [31]Feedback [32]Register [33]Media Light Therapy HOL-emblem Rhythms and Body Clock Circadian Rhythm From the Latin circa (about) dies (a day), the circadian rhythm is the twenty-four-hour cycle of light/dark, wakefulness/sleep to which most human physiologic processes are set. At regular intervals each day, the body tends to become hungry, tired, active, listless, energized. Body temperature, heart-beat, blood pressure, hormone levels, and urine flow rise and fall in this relatively predictable, rhythmic pattern - a pattern initiated and governed by exposure to sunlight and darkness. Experiments where humans were placed in isolation chambers, cut off from all potential environmental cues, have shown that, in the absence of natural daylight, rhythms are still maintained. But in the absence of the day light, the rhythms tend to deviate from 24 hours. For instance, the rhythms was found to expand to 24-30 hours, thus disrupting the biological processes over a long period of time. The fact that animals and humans can continue to function according to daily and annual rhythms in the absence of external environmental stimuli means that animals and humans possess some kind of biological clock, which act as a backup mechanism in case it cannot get the proper stimuli from the natural events such as sunshine. This behavior can be illustrated by our clocks. Let us say, our clock is running slow. Over a period of time, the clock may lag the actual time because of this defect. Usually, we will reset the clock when it gets far out of sync by other external stimuli like a radio or phone time. Now, if we do not have access to this external synchronizing signal, the clock can get far out of line with the reality. Our body clocks functions the same way. The biological clock can keep the time; but in the absence of correction from the day/light cycle provided by the sun, the biological clock tend go out of sync affecting our physical and mental health. A similar thing happens when we travel across time zones; we tend to experience what is known as "jet lag". However, in the absence of natural light our body clocks may lose or gain a little time. This in turn could lead to the desynchronization of different rhythms. For example, in the absence of sufficient environmental light the sleep-wake and associated rest-activity rhythms may lengthen to a cycle of between 30 and 48 hours, while the temperature rhythm may remain at a period of, say, 25 hours. Such desynchronization of the body's intricate rhythms is suspected to trigger problems: hormonal imbalances, sleep disorders and mood disturbances. Circannual Rhythm Circannual rhythm is the annual or yearly cycle used by all living things. Circaseptan Rhythm Circaseptan rhythm is a seven-day cycle in which the biological processes of life, including disease symptoms and development, resolve. Many physicians believe that transplant patients tend to have more rejection episodes seven, fourteen, twenty-one, and twenty-eight days after surgery. They further believe that medications administered to the patients at particular times may be more effective than at other times. These are all related to the circaseptan rhythm. How does the brain know when it is light or dark? Deep within the brain, inside the hypothalamus, lie two clusters of cells (i.e., neurons) called the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN). Each of these SCN is composed of more than 8,000 neurons. The SCN act as the body's circadian pacemaker. In mammals, the SCN appear to get their information from photoreceptors in the retina, which transmit signals about light and dark through the optic nerves to the hypothalamus. Once these messages enter the SCN, a series of physiological reactions takes place. What happens after the light/dark signal reaches the SCN? We are not sure. The pathway from the retina through the optic nerves to the SCN extends further to reach the pineal gland, which lies adjacent to the hypothalamus above the brain stem. Stimulated by the message it receives from the SCN, the pineal gland either secretes its main hormone, melatonin, or inhibits melatonin's release, which may result in the production of serotonin as was explained before. Next Topic: [34]Light Therapy for Seasonal Affective Disorder [[35]Light Therapy Home][[36]Alternative Therapies Home][[37]Holistic-online.com Home] [narule_200.GIF] Holisticonline.com is developed and maintained by ICBS, Inc. Send mail to: [38]info@holisticonline.com with comments about this web site. [39]Copyright © [40]1998-2007 ICBS, Inc. [41]Terms of Use All Rights Reserved. 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As discussed earlier, the hypothalamus is the link between the nervous and endocrine systems. Given that the nervous system is also associated with the immune system, it is possible that the hypothalamus exerts its effect on the immune system as well. Thus, the combination of these systems can alter body biochemistry, contributing to shifts in body rhythms such as the circadian, seasonal, and social rhythms. Circadian Rhythm and Bipolar Disorder [441]advertisement The circadian rhythm is the 24-hour cycle of the body, the exact length of which is determined by the amount of light that the hypothalamus senses in a day-night cycle. The name "circadian" refers to a period of time that is "around a day long". Clear patterns of brain wave activity and hormone production are coupled to this cycle. When the circadian rhythm is upset (as can be the case with jet lag and sleep problems) mood disturbances can result. It is known that in some people sleep deprivation causes mania, whereas in others it can alleviate the symptoms of depression. Thus, regulation of circadian rhythm is important for managing bipolar symptoms and mood episodes. Dysregulation of this system is typically experienced as a powerful source of stress. Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) and Bipolar Disorder Similar to circadian rhythms but longer in duration are seasonal rhythms. These are determined by the amount of daylight experienced within a given season. Dysregulation of seasonal rhythms has been linked with Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD; also known as winter depression). SAD-affected individuals begin to feel increasingly depressed as the amount of light disappears during the winter. Their depression lifts as springtime approaches and the days lengthen. During times of the year with long days, these people typically experience no undue mood disturbance. Social Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder Both circadian and seasonal rhythms can affect individuals' social rhythms. The social rhythm comprises of a daily routine such as waking up at a specific time, going to school or work, and interacting with family members, friends, peers and colleagues. Even healthy people can experience mood changes when their social rhythms are disturbed by insomnia, seasonal changes or work schedules. It is no great leap to see that if someone is susceptible to bipolar disorder, a change in their body rhythms might constitute sufficient stress to precipitate bipolar symptoms. When considering the possible causes of bipolar disorders, it is necessary to bear in mind the complex nature of mood polarity. It is likely that that the problem originates in multiple biologic systems - the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems with a basis in the genetic machinery that regulates these systems. For example, a gene important in the function of the hypothalamus may become mutated or infected by a retrovirus leading to deregulation of neurotransmitters, hormones, and/or immune components. The resulting change is measurable as biochemical imbalances in either the brain or body but these biochemical imbalances are not necessarily causing the underlying dysfunction, but instead may simply be themselves symptoms or links in a chain of causes that lead to bipolar illness. [442]« Previous[443]1...[444]12[445]13[446]14[447]15[448]16[449]17[450]18...[4 51]34[452]Next » Share: [453][twitter.jpg] [454][facebook.jpg] [455][linkedin.jpg] [456][stumble.jpg] [457][delicious.jpg] [458][buzz.jpg] [459][google.jpg] [460][diigo.jpg] [461][squidoo.jpg] [462][digg.jpg] [463][reddit.jpg] [464][bitly.jpg] Link: (Here's how to do it ... ) To link to this article: 1. Copy the HTML link code shown in the box just below. 2. 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Miller Primary Subject - Music Secondary Subjects - Grade Level - 4-8 Objective: Students will be able to accurately write and count rhythms. Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests. Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding. To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3 teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat pat snap snap palms up-- quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest). Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The whole lesson takes about 30 minutes. Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as performed by teacher. Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills development and have fun at the same time!! NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well. Have fun!! E-Mail [64]Michelle L. Miller! * * [65]Lesson Plans | * [66]Teaching Degrees | * [67]Articles & Blogs | * [68]Forums | * [69]Contribute | * [70]HotChalk Tools | * [71]About | * [72]Advertising © 1996 - 2009 HotChalk, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Last Major Update: January 19, 2010 [73]Privacy Policy | [74]Anti-Spam Policy | [75]Terms of Use Please manually type in our email address to contact us (to prevent spam). Quantcast Références 64. mailto:Michellelmiller@avon.net FREE Online Classroom Tools [1]LOGIN OR [2]REGISTER FOR FREE [3]HotChalk [4]LessonPlansPage.com [hc-header-roundedbottom.jpg] * * [5]Lesson Plans | * [6]Teaching Degrees | * [7]Articles & Blogs | * [8]Forums | * [9]Contribute | * [10]HotChalk Tools | * [11]About | * [12]Advertising Lesson Plans [13][icon_ruler.gif] Math [14][icon_book.gif] Language Arts [15][icon_science.gif] Science [16][icon_globe.gif] Social Studies [17][icon_art.gif] Art [18][icon_laptop.gif] Computers & Internet [19][icon_music.gif] Music [20][icon_soccer.gif] P.E. & Health [21][icon_apple.gif] Other [22][icon_pencil.gif] Multi-Disciplinary Sections * [23]Online Degrees Guide * [24]HotChalk Tools * [25]Seasonal Lesson Plans * [26]Most Recent Additions * [27]Inspired Teachers * [28]Science Projects * [29]Math Worksheets * [30]Teacher Discussions * [31]Lesson Plan Guide * [32]Search This Site * [33]Join Our Newsletter * [34]Contribute !!! * [35]Advertising Information * [36]Take Our Survey! * [37]Tell A Friend! Special Features [38]Black History Month Lesson Plans Sponsored by Target * [39]Efficient Reading * [40]Masters in Education * [41]Previous Articles [42][hotchalklogo-template-sidebar.gif] * [43]About HotChalk * [44]Learn More * [45]MyClasses * [46]MyLibrary * [47]MyDesk * [48]Join for FREE! Resource Sites [49]Education Master's [50]Teacher Magazines [51]Teaching Jobs Site Information [52]About This Site [53]How To Use [54]Contact Info [55]Advertising Info [56]Educational Links [57]Having Problems? [58]Online Degrees Teacher's Guide [59]Join Our Facebook Page [60]Bookmark and Share Join LPP Newsletter: _________________________ Subscribe! Search This Site: _____________ Search! rhythm game using body percussion [61][print.gif] Printable Version for your convenience! Title - rhythm game using body percussion By - Michelle L. Miller Primary Subject - Music Secondary Subjects - Grade Level - 4-8 Objective: Students will be able to accurately write and count rhythms. Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests. Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding. To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3 teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat pat snap snap palms up-- quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest). Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The whole lesson takes about 30 minutes. Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as performed by teacher. Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills development and have fun at the same time!! NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well. Have fun!! E-Mail [62]Michelle L. Miller! * * [63]Lesson Plans | * [64]Teaching Degrees | * [65]Articles & Blogs | * [66]Forums | * [67]Contribute | * [68]HotChalk Tools | * [69]About | * [70]Advertising © 1996 - 2010 HotChalk, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Last Modified December 23, 2009 [71]Privacy Policy | [72]Anti-Spam Policy | [73]Terms of Use Please manually type in our email address to contact us (to prevent spam). Quantcast Références 62. mailto:Michellelmiller@avon.net #[1]Daily Health and Medical News [2]Weekly Health and Medical News Digest [3]Health and Medical Slideshows [5]Biorhythms Specialty IFRAME: &xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos=1 01 [7]MedicineNet.com ___________________________________ Search [8]About Us | [9]Privacy Policy | [10]Site Map January 17, 2010 [11]MedicineNet home [12]Picture Slideshows [13]Diseases and conditions [14]Symptoms and signs [15]Procedures and tests [16]Medications [17]Picture Image Collection [18]MedTerms medical dictionary [19]Pet Health [clearpixel.gif] [20]home > [21]biorhythms index > biorhythms article [clearpixel.gif] [clearpixel.gif] [clearpixel.gif] Font Size [22]A [23]A [24]A * 1 * [25]2 * [26]3 * [27]4 * [28]5 * [29]6 * [30]7 * [31]8 * [32]Next » * [33]Biorhythms Index * [34]Glossary Biorhythms [35]View Asthma Slideshow [36]Asthma Slideshow View Asthma Slideshow [37]Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow View Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow [38]Worst Cities for Asthma, 2009 Slideshow Pictures of the Worst Cities for Asthma Slideshow Medical Author: [39]William C. Shiel, Jr., MD, FACP, FACR Medical Editor: [40]Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD * [41]What are biologic rhythms? * [42]How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness? * [43]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms? * [44]Angina * [45]Heart attack * [46]High blood pressure (hypertension) * [47]Hay fever (allergic rhinitis) * [48]Asthma * [49]Can the "body clock" affect diagnostic testing? * [50]Can drug therapy be matched to the "body clock?" * [51]Chronobiology: marking time, making progress What are biologic rhythms? What are biologic rhythms? In essence, they're the rhythms of life. All forms of life on earth, including our bodies, respond rhythmically to the regular cycles of the sun, moon, and seasons. For example, as night turns into day, vital body functions, including heart rate and [52]blood pressure, speed up in anticipation of increased physical activity. These and other predictable fluctuations in body function, taking place during specific time cycles, are our biologic rhythms. They are regulated by "biologic clock" mechanisms located in the brain. Although biologic rhythms can be "reprogrammed" by environmental influences (such as when a person regularly works the night shift and sleeps during the day), they are genetically "hard-wired" into our cells, tissues, and organs. Medical chronobiologists have found that biologic rhythms can affect the severity of disease symptoms, diagnostic test results, and even the body's response to drug therapy. Now these investigators are working to discover how the rhythms of life can be used to improve the practice of medicine - and your health. These time-related medical observations, and others still in the exciting process of discovery, are rooted in chronobiology (chronos - time; bios - life; logos - science), the study of biologic rhythms. How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness? Among the various biologic rhythm cycles that medical chronobiologists study, the 24-hour day/night-activity/rest cycle is considered a key chronobiologic factor in medical [53]diagnosis and treatment. Formally known as the [54]circadian rhythm, it's also referred to as the "body clock." Why is the 24-hour body clock so important? Because so many of our normal body functions follow daily patterns of speeding up and slowing down, intensifying and diminishing, in alignment with circadian rhythm. Interestingly, so do the symptoms of a number of [55]chronic disorders: Allergic rhinitis: (nasal inflammation associated with hay fever) Symptoms of sneezing, [56]runny nose, and stuffy nose are typically worse in the early waking hours than later during the day. Asthma: In most patients, symptoms are more than 100 times as likely to occur in the few hours prior to awakening than during the day. Stable angina: [57]Chest pain and [58]electrocardiographic (ECG, EKG) abnormalities are most common during the first 4 to 6 hours after awakening. [59]Prinzmetal's angina: ECG abnormalities are most common during [60]sleep; chest pain can occur even while at rest. Heart attack: Heart attack most commonly occurs in the early waking hours. Stroke: [61]Strokes most commonly occur in the early waking hours. Hypertension: The highest blood pressure readings typically occur from late morning to middle afternoon; lowest occur during early sleep. Therapy now exists that works with your body clock; consult your physician about this treatment. Clinical studies are underway to further this research. [62]Rheumatoid arthritis: RA symptoms are most intense upon awakening. [63]Osteoarthritis: Symptoms of osteoarthritis worsen in the afternoon and evening. Ulcer disease: The pain typically occurs after stomach emptying, following daytime meals, and in the very early morning, disrupting sleep. [64]Epilepsy: Seizures often occur only at particular times of the day or night; individual patterns differ among patients. * 1 * [65]2 * [66]3 * [67]4 * [68]5 * [69]6 * [70]7 * [71]8 * [72]Next » * [73]Biorhythms Index * [74]Glossary Next: [75]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms? » [76]Printer-Friendly Format | [77]Email to a Friend [header-doctor-topics_2.gif] Suggested Reading by Our Doctors MedicineNet Doctors * [78]Chemotherapy - Get information on chemotherapy treatment for cancer, side effects of medications and how chemo works. Chemotherapy is a type of cancer treatment often given along with radiation therapy and surgery. * [79]Rheumatoid Arthritis - Learn more about rheumatoid arthritis, an autoimmune disease that causes chronic joint inflammation, which has symptoms that include stiffness, fever, muscle and joint aches, loss of appetite, and fatigue. Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis incorporates the use of first-line drugs (aspirin and corticosteroids for pain and inflammation) and second-line drugs (methotrexate and hydroxychloroquine to prevent joint destruction and promote remission). * [80]Radiation Therapy - [81]Read more Biorhythms related articles » Latest Medical News * [82]Nightly Snacking May Speed Weight Gain [footer-doctor-topics_2.gif] [83]Privacy Policy Allergies & Asthma Improve treatments & prevent attacks. _____________________ [btn_submit2.gif]-Submit [clearpixel.gif] [84]Are you Depressed? Take the Quiz [85]Your Guide to Symptoms & Signs: Pinpoint Your Pain IFRAME: 1&xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos= 121 From WebMD Asthma and Allergy Resources * [87]Asthma Attack Slideshow * [88]How to Use Your Inhaler * [89]The Best Cities for Asthma Featured Centers * [90]12 Ways to Prevent the Spread of Viruses * [91]Longevity Foods: Eat Well, Live Longer * [92]Sad? Irritable? Assess Your Symptoms * [93]Healthy Home: To Buy or Not to Buy Organic? Health Solutions From Our Sponsors * [94]Osteoporosis Info * [95]Overactive Bladder Rx Biorhythms [96]Hay Fever » What is hay fever? What are the symptoms and signs? Hay fever is a misnomer. Hay is not a usual cause of this problem, and it does not cause fever. Early descriptions of sneezing, nasal congestion, and eye irritation while harvesting field hay promoted this popular term. Allergic rhinitis is the correct term used to describe this allergic reaction, and many different substances cause the allergic symptoms noted in hay fever. Rhinitis means "irritation of the nose" and is a derivative of rhino, meaning nose. Allergic rhinitis which occurs during a specific season is called "seasonal allergic rhinitis." When it occurs throughout the year, it is called "perennial allergic rhinitis." Symptoms of allergic rhinitis, or hay fever, frequently include nasal congestion, a clear runny nose, sneezing, nose and eye itching, and excess tear production in the eyes. Postnasal dripping of clear mucus frequently causes a cough. Loss of the sense ... [97]Read the Hay Fever article » Featured on MedicineNet * [98]Tips to Ease Nighttime Pain * [99]Check Your Fibromyalgia Symptoms * [100]Depression Tips Slideshow * [101]Are You at Risk for Diabetic Nerve Pain? Top 10 Biorhythms Related Articles * [102]Chemo Infusion and Chemoembolization of Liver * [103]Chemotherapy * [104]Chemotherapy Treatment for Breast Cancer * [105]Heart Attack * [106]High Blood Pressure * [107]Osteoarthritis * [108]Radiation Therapy * [109]Radiation Therapy for Breast Cancer * [110]Rheumatoid Arthritis * [111]Stroke * [112]Complete List » New on MedicineNet * [113]Michael C. 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Références Liens visibles 76. javascript:myVoid() Liens cachés : * [1]Skip to main content * [2]Text only version of this page * [3]Access keys help [4]BBC Home ____________________ Search [5]Explore the BBC 17 January 2010 [6]Accessibility help [7]Text only [8][USEMAP:banner_new.jpg] [9]Animals [10]Prehistoric Life [11]Human Body & Mind [12]Space [13]TV & Radio Follow-up [14]BBC Homepage [15]Science & Nature Homepage In [16]Human Body & Mind: [17]The mind [18]The body [19]Brain Sex [20]Sleep [21]Take part in the Brain Test Britain experiment __________________________________________________________________ [22]Contact Us Like this page? [23]Send it to a friend! You are here: [24]BBC > [25]Science & Nature > [26]Human Body & Mind > [27]Sleep > Daily Rhythm Test Daily Rhythm Test Our internal body clock governs our daily or circadian rhythm - telling us when to wake up and when to feel sleepy. Circadian comes from the Latin circa, meaning about and dies, meaning day. This test will produce a chart showing your natural sleeping and waking pattern over a 24 hour period. If you're having problems sleeping it could be your natural body clock is at odds with your routine. 1) Do you consider yourself a morning person or an evening person? (_) Evening (_) More evening than morning (_) Cant tell (_) More morning than evening (_) Morning 2) At what time of day do you feel at your best? (_) 5am - 9am (_) 9am - 11am (_) 11am - 5pm (_) 5pm - 10pm (_) 10pm - 1am 3) Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, if you were entirely free to plan your day - at what time would you go to bed? (_) 8pm - 9pm (_) 9pm - 10.15pm (_) 10.15pm - 12.30am (_) 12.30am - 1.45am (_) 1.45am - 3am 4) Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, if you were entirely free to plan your day - at what time would you get up? (_) 5.00am - 6.30am (_) 6.30am - 7.45am (_) 7.45am - 9.45am (_) 9.45am - 11.00am (_) 11.00am - Midday View results [28]Science & Nature Homepage [29]Animals | [30]Prehistoric Life | [31]Human Body & Mind | [32]Space | [33]TV & Radio follow-up [34]Go to top [35]About the BBC | [36]Help | [37]Terms of Use | [38]Privacy & Cookies Policy Références [USEMAP] [1]SpringerLink Logo [2]Institutional Login Welcome! To use the personalized features of this site, please [3]log in or [4]register. If you have forgotten your username or password, we can [5]help. My Menu [6]Marked Items [7]Alerts [8]Order History Saved Items [9]All [10]Favorites * [11]Content Types + [12]All + [13]Publications + [14]Journals + [15]Book Series + [16]Books + [17]Reference Works + [18]Protocols * [19]Subject Collections + [20]Architecture and Design + [21]Behavioral Science + [22]Biomedical and Life Sciences + [23]Business and Economics + [24]Chemistry and Materials Science + [25]Computer Science + [26]Earth and Environmental Science + [27]Engineering + [28]Humanities, Social Sciences and Law + [29]Mathematics and Statistics + [30]Medicine + [31]Physics and Astronomy + [32]Professional and Applied Computing [English.......] Go Journal Article [33]Printable view Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Journal [34]Surgery Today Publisher Springer Japan ISSN 0941-1291 (Print) 1436-2813 (Online) Issue [35]Volume 17, Number 3 / May, 1987 Category Short Communication DOI 10.1007/BF02470602 Pages 209-212 Subject Collection [36]Medicine SpringerLink Date Thursday, July 20, 2006 [37]Add to marked items [38]Add to shopping cart [39]Add to saved items [40]Permissions & Reprints [41]Recommend this article [42]PDF (237.9 KB)[43] Free Preview Free Preview Short Communication Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Jun Narumi^1 Contact Information , Kozo Suma^1, Hidemi Kaneko^1, Yasuo Takeuchi^1, Kenji Inoue^1, Kenji Shiroma^1 and Yuji Koyama^1 (1) Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, 2nd Hospital of Tokyo Women's Medical College, 2-1-10 Nishiogu, Arakawaku, 116 Tokyo, Japan Received: 7 April 1986 Abstract The postoperative deep body temperature rhythms of fifteen patients who received aorto-coronary bypass surgery (group I), and of seven patients who received non-cardiac major surgery (group II), were studied. Postoperative patients, especially those who received aortocoronary bypass surgery, showed greatly disturbed deep body temperature rhythm. There existed infradian and ultradian rhythm in both groups, and there existed two patients in group I who did not show sinusoidal rhythm. The patients of group I also showed a longer period of rhythm than did those of group II. The mesor and amplitude of the patients in group I showed a greater individual variation than did those in group II. The acrophase of both groups deviated widely. The patients who underwent cardiac surgery needed a longer time for temperature rhythm recovery than did those who underwent general surgery. Key Words deep body temperature rhythm - intensive care unit - post-operative patients __________________________________________________________________ Fulltext Preview (Small, [44]Large) Image of the first page of the fulltext [45]Click here to visit our sponsor References secured to subscribers. [46]more options Find ____________________ ... Go Query Builder Close | Clear * [47]Title (ti) * [48]Summary (su) * [49]Author (au) * [50]ISSN (issn) * [51]ISBN (isbn) * [52]DOI (doi) * * [53]And * [54]Or * [55]Not * [56]( * [57]) * [58]* (wildcard) * [59]"" (exact) (_) Within all content (_) Within this journal (_) Within this issue Export this article Export this article as [60]RIS | [61]Text [62]Frequently asked questions | [63]General information on journals and books | [64]Send us your feedback | [65]Impressum | [66]Contact © Springer. [67]Part of Springer Science+Business Media [68]Privacy, Disclaimer, Terms and Conditions, © Copyright Information [69]MetaPress Privacy Policy Remote Address: 84.99.202.28 o Server: mpweb01 HTTP User Agent: Lynx/2.8.7pre.6 libwww-FM/2.14 SSL-MM/1.4.1 Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1]Home [2]Search Holisticonline [3]Grandmas Remedies Quality vitamins, natural remedies [4]Specialgifts.com Big savings on gemstones, jewelry and gifts. [5]Alternative Medicine [6]Stress Management [7]Conditions/ Treatments [8]Preferred Providers [9]Holistic Living [10]Alternative Therapies [11]Acupuncture [12]Aromatherapy [13]Ayurveda [14]Biofeedback [15]Chelation Therapy [16]Herbal Medicine [17]Homeopathy [18]Humor Therapy [19]Hydrotherapy [20]Imagery [21]Light Therapy [22]Massage [23]Meditation [24]NLP [25]Nutrition [26]Prayer/ Spiritual [27]Reiki [28]Shiatsu [29]Yoga [30]FAQ (Health) [31]Feedback [32]Register [33]Media Light Therapy HOL-emblem Rhythms and Body Clock Circadian Rhythm From the Latin circa (about) dies (a day), the circadian rhythm is the twenty-four-hour cycle of light/dark, wakefulness/sleep to which most human physiologic processes are set. At regular intervals each day, the body tends to become hungry, tired, active, listless, energized. Body temperature, heart-beat, blood pressure, hormone levels, and urine flow rise and fall in this relatively predictable, rhythmic pattern - a pattern initiated and governed by exposure to sunlight and darkness. Experiments where humans were placed in isolation chambers, cut off from all potential environmental cues, have shown that, in the absence of natural daylight, rhythms are still maintained. But in the absence of the day light, the rhythms tend to deviate from 24 hours. For instance, the rhythms was found to expand to 24-30 hours, thus disrupting the biological processes over a long period of time. The fact that animals and humans can continue to function according to daily and annual rhythms in the absence of external environmental stimuli means that animals and humans possess some kind of biological clock, which act as a backup mechanism in case it cannot get the proper stimuli from the natural events such as sunshine. This behavior can be illustrated by our clocks. Let us say, our clock is running slow. Over a period of time, the clock may lag the actual time because of this defect. Usually, we will reset the clock when it gets far out of sync by other external stimuli like a radio or phone time. Now, if we do not have access to this external synchronizing signal, the clock can get far out of line with the reality. Our body clocks functions the same way. The biological clock can keep the time; but in the absence of correction from the day/light cycle provided by the sun, the biological clock tend go out of sync affecting our physical and mental health. A similar thing happens when we travel across time zones; we tend to experience what is known as "jet lag". However, in the absence of natural light our body clocks may lose or gain a little time. This in turn could lead to the desynchronization of different rhythms. For example, in the absence of sufficient environmental light the sleep-wake and associated rest-activity rhythms may lengthen to a cycle of between 30 and 48 hours, while the temperature rhythm may remain at a period of, say, 25 hours. Such desynchronization of the body's intricate rhythms is suspected to trigger problems: hormonal imbalances, sleep disorders and mood disturbances. Circannual Rhythm Circannual rhythm is the annual or yearly cycle used by all living things. Circaseptan Rhythm Circaseptan rhythm is a seven-day cycle in which the biological processes of life, including disease symptoms and development, resolve. Many physicians believe that transplant patients tend to have more rejection episodes seven, fourteen, twenty-one, and twenty-eight days after surgery. They further believe that medications administered to the patients at particular times may be more effective than at other times. These are all related to the circaseptan rhythm. How does the brain know when it is light or dark? Deep within the brain, inside the hypothalamus, lie two clusters of cells (i.e., neurons) called the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN). Each of these SCN is composed of more than 8,000 neurons. The SCN act as the body's circadian pacemaker. In mammals, the SCN appear to get their information from photoreceptors in the retina, which transmit signals about light and dark through the optic nerves to the hypothalamus. Once these messages enter the SCN, a series of physiological reactions takes place. What happens after the light/dark signal reaches the SCN? We are not sure. The pathway from the retina through the optic nerves to the SCN extends further to reach the pineal gland, which lies adjacent to the hypothalamus above the brain stem. Stimulated by the message it receives from the SCN, the pineal gland either secretes its main hormone, melatonin, or inhibits melatonin's release, which may result in the production of serotonin as was explained before. Next Topic: [34]Light Therapy for Seasonal Affective Disorder [[35]Light Therapy Home][[36]Alternative Therapies Home][[37]Holistic-online.com Home] [narule_200.GIF] Holisticonline.com is developed and maintained by ICBS, Inc. Send mail to: [38]info@holisticonline.com with comments about this web site. [39]Copyright © [40]1998-2007 ICBS, Inc. [41]Terms of Use All Rights Reserved. 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As discussed earlier, the hypothalamus is the link between the nervous and endocrine systems. Given that the nervous system is also associated with the immune system, it is possible that the hypothalamus exerts its effect on the immune system as well. Thus, the combination of these systems can alter body biochemistry, contributing to shifts in body rhythms such as the circadian, seasonal, and social rhythms. Circadian Rhythm and Bipolar Disorder [441]advertisement The circadian rhythm is the 24-hour cycle of the body, the exact length of which is determined by the amount of light that the hypothalamus senses in a day-night cycle. The name "circadian" refers to a period of time that is "around a day long". Clear patterns of brain wave activity and hormone production are coupled to this cycle. When the circadian rhythm is upset (as can be the case with jet lag and sleep problems) mood disturbances can result. It is known that in some people sleep deprivation causes mania, whereas in others it can alleviate the symptoms of depression. Thus, regulation of circadian rhythm is important for managing bipolar symptoms and mood episodes. Dysregulation of this system is typically experienced as a powerful source of stress. Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) and Bipolar Disorder Similar to circadian rhythms but longer in duration are seasonal rhythms. These are determined by the amount of daylight experienced within a given season. Dysregulation of seasonal rhythms has been linked with Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD; also known as winter depression). SAD-affected individuals begin to feel increasingly depressed as the amount of light disappears during the winter. Their depression lifts as springtime approaches and the days lengthen. During times of the year with long days, these people typically experience no undue mood disturbance. Social Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder Both circadian and seasonal rhythms can affect individuals' social rhythms. The social rhythm comprises of a daily routine such as waking up at a specific time, going to school or work, and interacting with family members, friends, peers and colleagues. Even healthy people can experience mood changes when their social rhythms are disturbed by insomnia, seasonal changes or work schedules. It is no great leap to see that if someone is susceptible to bipolar disorder, a change in their body rhythms might constitute sufficient stress to precipitate bipolar symptoms. When considering the possible causes of bipolar disorders, it is necessary to bear in mind the complex nature of mood polarity. It is likely that that the problem originates in multiple biologic systems - the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems with a basis in the genetic machinery that regulates these systems. For example, a gene important in the function of the hypothalamus may become mutated or infected by a retrovirus leading to deregulation of neurotransmitters, hormones, and/or immune components. The resulting change is measurable as biochemical imbalances in either the brain or body but these biochemical imbalances are not necessarily causing the underlying dysfunction, but instead may simply be themselves symptoms or links in a chain of causes that lead to bipolar illness. [442]« Previous[443]1...[444]12[445]13[446]14[447]15[448]16[449]17[450]18...[4 51]34[452]Next » Share: [453][twitter.jpg] [454][facebook.jpg] [455][linkedin.jpg] [456][stumble.jpg] [457][delicious.jpg] [458][buzz.jpg] [459][google.jpg] [460][diigo.jpg] [461][squidoo.jpg] [462][digg.jpg] [463][reddit.jpg] [464][bitly.jpg] Link: (Here's how to do it ... ) To link to this article: 1. Copy the HTML link code shown in the box just below. 2. Paste this HTML code into your blog or web page, into a forum post or a blog comment you make, into your Facebook feed, etc. Body Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder Thank you! Reader Comments Discuss this issue below or in our [465]forums. Add Comment [466]Follow us on Twitter! [spacer.gif] [467]Find us on Facebook! [spacer.gif] IFRAME: [468]a471eef6 [469]Get Support for Bipolar Disorder [spacer.gif] Mental Help Net [470]Terms of Use/Privacy Policy[471]Our Mission[472]Contributors[473]Jobs[474]Advertising on Mental Help Net[475]Contact Us [spacer.gif] [476]advertisement [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [477]Powered by CenterSite.Net [spacer.gif] [478]This website is certified by Health On the Net Foundation. Click to verify. 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Special Features [38]Black History Month Lesson Plans Sponsored by Target * [39]Efficient Reading * [40]Masters in Education * [41]Previous Articles [42][hotchalklogo-template-sidebar.gif] * [43]About HotChalk * [44]Learn More * [45]MyClasses * [46]MyLibrary * [47]MyDesk * [48]Join for FREE! Vote For Us [49]@ SitesForTeachers [50]@ Teach-nology Resource Sites [51]Education Master's [52]Teacher Magazines [53]Teaching Jobs Site Information [54]About This Site [55]How To Use [56]Contact Info [57]Advertising Info [58]Educational Links [59]Having Problems? [60]Online Degrees Teacher's Guide [61]Join Our Facebook Page [62]Bookmark and Share Join LPP Newsletter: _________________________ Subscribe! Search This Site: _____________ Search! rhythm game using body percussion [63][print.gif] Printable Version for your convenience! Title - rhythm game using body percussion By - Michelle L. Miller Primary Subject - Music Secondary Subjects - Grade Level - 4-8 Objective: Students will be able to accurately write and count rhythms. Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests. Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding. To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3 teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat pat snap snap palms up-- quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest). Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The whole lesson takes about 30 minutes. Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as performed by teacher. Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills development and have fun at the same time!! NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well. Have fun!! E-Mail [64]Michelle L. Miller! * * [65]Lesson Plans | * [66]Teaching Degrees | * [67]Articles & Blogs | * [68]Forums | * [69]Contribute | * [70]HotChalk Tools | * [71]About | * [72]Advertising © 1996 - 2009 HotChalk, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Last Major Update: January 19, 2010 [73]Privacy Policy | [74]Anti-Spam Policy | [75]Terms of Use Please manually type in our email address to contact us (to prevent spam). Quantcast Références 64. mailto:Michellelmiller@avon.net #[1]Daily Health and Medical News [2]Weekly Health and Medical News Digest [3]Health and Medical Slideshows [5]Biorhythms Specialty IFRAME: &xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos=1 01 [7]MedicineNet.com ___________________________________ Search [8]About Us | [9]Privacy Policy | [10]Site Map January 19, 2010 [11]MedicineNet home [12]Picture Slideshows [13]Diseases and conditions [14]Symptoms and signs [15]Procedures and tests [16]Medications [17]Picture Image Collection [18]MedTerms medical dictionary [19]Pet Health [clearpixel.gif] [20]home > [21]biorhythms index > biorhythms article [clearpixel.gif] [clearpixel.gif] [clearpixel.gif] Font Size [22]A [23]A [24]A * 1 * [25]2 * [26]3 * [27]4 * [28]5 * [29]6 * [30]7 * [31]8 * [32]Next » * [33]Biorhythms Index * [34]Glossary Biorhythms [35]View Asthma Slideshow [36]Asthma Slideshow View Asthma Slideshow [37]Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow View Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow [38]Worst Cities for Asthma, 2009 Slideshow Pictures of the Worst Cities for Asthma Slideshow Medical Author: [39]William C. Shiel, Jr., MD, FACP, FACR Medical Editor: [40]Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD * [41]What are biologic rhythms? * [42]How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness? * [43]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms? * [44]Angina * [45]Heart attack * [46]High blood pressure (hypertension) * [47]Hay fever (allergic rhinitis) * [48]Asthma * [49]Can the "body clock" affect diagnostic testing? * [50]Can drug therapy be matched to the "body clock?" * [51]Chronobiology: marking time, making progress What are biologic rhythms? What are biologic rhythms? In essence, they're the rhythms of life. All forms of life on earth, including our bodies, respond rhythmically to the regular cycles of the sun, moon, and seasons. For example, as night turns into day, vital body functions, including heart rate and [52]blood pressure, speed up in anticipation of increased physical activity. These and other predictable fluctuations in body function, taking place during specific time cycles, are our biologic rhythms. They are regulated by "biologic clock" mechanisms located in the brain. Although biologic rhythms can be "reprogrammed" by environmental influences (such as when a person regularly works the night shift and sleeps during the day), they are genetically "hard-wired" into our cells, tissues, and organs. Medical chronobiologists have found that biologic rhythms can affect the severity of disease symptoms, diagnostic test results, and even the body's response to drug therapy. Now these investigators are working to discover how the rhythms of life can be used to improve the practice of medicine - and your health. These time-related medical observations, and others still in the exciting process of discovery, are rooted in chronobiology (chronos - time; bios - life; logos - science), the study of biologic rhythms. How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness? Among the various biologic rhythm cycles that medical chronobiologists study, the 24-hour day/night-activity/rest cycle is considered a key chronobiologic factor in medical [53]diagnosis and treatment. Formally known as the [54]circadian rhythm, it's also referred to as the "body clock." Why is the 24-hour body clock so important? Because so many of our normal body functions follow daily patterns of speeding up and slowing down, intensifying and diminishing, in alignment with circadian rhythm. Interestingly, so do the symptoms of a number of [55]chronic disorders: Allergic rhinitis: (nasal inflammation associated with hay fever) Symptoms of sneezing, [56]runny nose, and stuffy nose are typically worse in the early waking hours than later during the day. Asthma: In most patients, symptoms are more than 100 times as likely to occur in the few hours prior to awakening than during the day. Stable angina: [57]Chest pain and [58]electrocardiographic (ECG, EKG) abnormalities are most common during the first 4 to 6 hours after awakening. [59]Prinzmetal's angina: ECG abnormalities are most common during [60]sleep; chest pain can occur even while at rest. Heart attack: Heart attack most commonly occurs in the early waking hours. Stroke: [61]Strokes most commonly occur in the early waking hours. Hypertension: The highest blood pressure readings typically occur from late morning to middle afternoon; lowest occur during early sleep. Therapy now exists that works with your body clock; consult your physician about this treatment. Clinical studies are underway to further this research. [62]Rheumatoid arthritis: RA symptoms are most intense upon awakening. [63]Osteoarthritis: Symptoms of osteoarthritis worsen in the afternoon and evening. Ulcer disease: The pain typically occurs after stomach emptying, following daytime meals, and in the very early morning, disrupting sleep. [64]Epilepsy: Seizures often occur only at particular times of the day or night; individual patterns differ among patients. * 1 * [65]2 * [66]3 * [67]4 * [68]5 * [69]6 * [70]7 * [71]8 * [72]Next » * [73]Biorhythms Index * [74]Glossary Next: [75]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms? » [76]Printer-Friendly Format | [77]Email to a Friend [header-doctor-topics_2.gif] Suggested Reading by Our Doctors MedicineNet Doctors * [78]Chemotherapy - Get information on chemotherapy treatment for cancer, side effects of medications and how chemo works. Chemotherapy is a type of cancer treatment often given along with radiation therapy and surgery. * [79]Rheumatoid Arthritis - Learn more about rheumatoid arthritis, an autoimmune disease that causes chronic joint inflammation, which has symptoms that include stiffness, fever, muscle and joint aches, loss of appetite, and fatigue. Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis incorporates the use of first-line drugs (aspirin and corticosteroids for pain and inflammation) and second-line drugs (methotrexate and hydroxychloroquine to prevent joint destruction and promote remission). * [80]Radiation Therapy - [81]Read more Biorhythms related articles » Latest Medical News * [82]Nightly Snacking May Speed Weight Gain [footer-doctor-topics_2.gif] [83]Privacy Policy Allergies & Asthma Improve treatments & prevent attacks. _____________________ [btn_submit2.gif]-Submit [clearpixel.gif] [84]Are you Depressed? Take the Quiz [85]Your Guide to Symptoms & Signs: Pinpoint Your Pain IFRAME: 8&xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos= 121 From WebMD Asthma and Allergy Resources * [87]Allergy Issues? Get Personalized Advice * [88]How to Use Your Inhaler * [89]The Best Cities for Asthma Featured Centers * [90]12 Ways to Prevent the Spread of Viruses * [91]10 Surprising Benefits of Treating Your Depression * [92]Healthy Home: To Buy or Not to Buy Organic? Health Solutions From Our Sponsors * [93]Osteoporosis Info * [94]BPH Treatment & Savings * [95]MS Rx Options Biorhythms [96]Jet Lag » What is jet lag? Jet lag, also called desynchronosis, is a temporary disorder that causes fatigue, insomnia, and other symptoms as a result of air travel across time zones. What are other symptoms of jet lag? Besides fatigue and insomnia, a jet lag sufferer may experience anxiety, constipation, diarrhea, confusion, dehydration, headache, irritability, nausea, sweating, coordination problems, and even memory loss. Some individuals report additional symptoms, such as heartbeat irregularities and increased susceptibility to illness. What is a time zone? A time zone is a geographical region which has the same time everywhere within it. The world has 24 time zones, one for each hour in the day. Each zone runs from north to south in strips that are approximately 1,000 miles (1,600 kilometers) wide. (The actual width of each zone varies to accommodate political and geographical boundaries.) As... [97]Read the Jet Lag article » Featured on MedicineNet * [98]Tips to Ease Nighttime Pain * [99]Check Your Fibromyalgia Symptoms * [100]Depression Tips Slideshow * [101]Are You at Risk for Diabetic Nerve Pain? Top 10 Biorhythms Related Articles * [102]Chemo Infusion and Chemoembolization of Liver * [103]Chemotherapy * [104]Chemotherapy Treatment for Breast Cancer * [105]Heart Attack * [106]High Blood Pressure * [107]Osteoarthritis * [108]Radiation Therapy * [109]Radiation Therapy for Breast Cancer * [110]Rheumatoid Arthritis * [111]Stroke * [112]Complete List » New on MedicineNet * [113]Michael C. Hall Has Hodgkin's * [114]Cryptosporidiosis Causes * [115]Shigella Infection Symptoms * [116]Lymphedema Causes * [117]C-Reactive Protein (CRP) * [118]Sinus Headache Treatment * [119]Pictures Slideshows Interactive Slideshows [120]Adult Skin Problems Slideshow IFRAME: 08&xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos =113 IFRAME: [122]/htmlchunks/slideshow/slidermodule/6_slides_line.htm IFRAME: [123]/htmlchunks/footer/footer_new_medicinenet.html Health categories: [124]Slideshows | [125]Diseases & Conditions | [126]Symptoms & Signs | [127]Procedures & Tests | [128]Medications | [129]Image Collection | [130]Medical Dictionary | [131]Pet Health Popular health centers: [132]Allergies | [133]Arthritis | [134]Blood Pressure | [135]Cancer | [136]Chronic Pain | [137]Cold & Flu | [138]Diabetes | [139]Digestion | [140]Eyesight | [141]Health & Living | [142]Healthy Kids [143]Hearing & Ear | [144]Heart | [145]Infectious Disease | [146]Men's Health | [147]Mental Health | [148]News & Views | [149]Pregnancy | [150]Sexual Health | [151]Skin | [152]Women's Health | [153]More... 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Références Liens visibles 76. javascript:myVoid() Liens cachés : FREE Online Classroom Tools [1]LOGIN OR [2]REGISTER FOR FREE [3]HotChalk [4]LessonPlansPage.com [hc-header-roundedbottom.jpg] * * [5]Lesson Plans | * [6]Teaching Degrees | * [7]Articles & Blogs | * [8]Forums | * [9]Contribute | * [10]HotChalk Tools | * [11]About | * [12]Advertising Lesson Plans [13][icon_ruler.gif] Math [14][icon_book.gif] Language Arts [15][icon_science.gif] Science [16][icon_globe.gif] Social Studies [17][icon_art.gif] Art [18][icon_laptop.gif] Computers & Internet [19][icon_music.gif] Music [20][icon_soccer.gif] P.E. & Health [21][icon_apple.gif] Other [22][icon_pencil.gif] Multi-Disciplinary Sections * [23]Online Degrees Guide * [24]HotChalk Tools * [25]Seasonal Lesson Plans * [26]Most Recent Additions * [27]Inspired Teachers * [28]Science Projects * [29]Math Worksheets * [30]Teacher Discussions * [31]Lesson Plan Guide * [32]Search This Site * [33]Join Our Newsletter * [34]Contribute !!! * [35]Advertising Information * [36]Take Our Survey! * [37]Tell A Friend! Special Features [38]Black History Month Lesson Plans Sponsored by Target * [39]Efficient Reading * [40]Masters in Education * [41]Previous Articles [42][hotchalklogo-template-sidebar.gif] * [43]About HotChalk * [44]Learn More * [45]MyClasses * [46]MyLibrary * [47]MyDesk * [48]Join for FREE! Resource Sites [49]Education Master's [50]Teacher Magazines [51]Teaching Jobs Site Information [52]About This Site [53]How To Use [54]Contact Info [55]Advertising Info [56]Educational Links [57]Having Problems? [58]Online Degrees Teacher's Guide [59]Join Our Facebook Page [60]Bookmark and Share Join LPP Newsletter: _________________________ Subscribe! Search This Site: _____________ Search! rhythm game using body percussion [61][print.gif] Printable Version for your convenience! Title - rhythm game using body percussion By - Michelle L. Miller Primary Subject - Music Secondary Subjects - Grade Level - 4-8 Objective: Students will be able to accurately write and count rhythms. Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests. Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding. To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3 teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat pat snap snap palms up-- quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest). Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The whole lesson takes about 30 minutes. Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as performed by teacher. Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills development and have fun at the same time!! NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well. Have fun!! E-Mail [62]Michelle L. Miller! * * [63]Lesson Plans | * [64]Teaching Degrees | * [65]Articles & Blogs | * [66]Forums | * [67]Contribute | * [68]HotChalk Tools | * [69]About | * [70]Advertising © 1996 - 2010 HotChalk, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Last Modified December 23, 2009 [71]Privacy Policy | [72]Anti-Spam Policy | [73]Terms of Use Please manually type in our email address to contact us (to prevent spam). Quantcast Références 62. mailto:Michellelmiller@avon.net #[1]Daily Health and Medical News [2]Weekly Health and Medical News Digest [3]Health and Medical Slideshows [5]Biorhythms Specialty IFRAME: &xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos=1 01 [7]MedicineNet.com ___________________________________ Search [8]About Us | [9]Privacy Policy | [10]Site Map January 17, 2010 [11]MedicineNet home [12]Picture Slideshows [13]Diseases and conditions [14]Symptoms and signs [15]Procedures and tests [16]Medications [17]Picture Image Collection [18]MedTerms medical dictionary [19]Pet Health [clearpixel.gif] [20]home > [21]biorhythms index > biorhythms article [clearpixel.gif] [clearpixel.gif] [clearpixel.gif] Font Size [22]A [23]A [24]A * 1 * [25]2 * [26]3 * [27]4 * [28]5 * [29]6 * [30]7 * [31]8 * [32]Next » * [33]Biorhythms Index * [34]Glossary Biorhythms [35]View Asthma Slideshow [36]Asthma Slideshow View Asthma Slideshow [37]Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow View Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow [38]Worst Cities for Asthma, 2009 Slideshow Pictures of the Worst Cities for Asthma Slideshow Medical Author: [39]William C. Shiel, Jr., MD, FACP, FACR Medical Editor: [40]Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD * [41]What are biologic rhythms? * [42]How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness? * [43]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms? * [44]Angina * [45]Heart attack * [46]High blood pressure (hypertension) * [47]Hay fever (allergic rhinitis) * [48]Asthma * [49]Can the "body clock" affect diagnostic testing? * [50]Can drug therapy be matched to the "body clock?" * [51]Chronobiology: marking time, making progress What are biologic rhythms? What are biologic rhythms? In essence, they're the rhythms of life. All forms of life on earth, including our bodies, respond rhythmically to the regular cycles of the sun, moon, and seasons. For example, as night turns into day, vital body functions, including heart rate and [52]blood pressure, speed up in anticipation of increased physical activity. These and other predictable fluctuations in body function, taking place during specific time cycles, are our biologic rhythms. They are regulated by "biologic clock" mechanisms located in the brain. Although biologic rhythms can be "reprogrammed" by environmental influences (such as when a person regularly works the night shift and sleeps during the day), they are genetically "hard-wired" into our cells, tissues, and organs. Medical chronobiologists have found that biologic rhythms can affect the severity of disease symptoms, diagnostic test results, and even the body's response to drug therapy. Now these investigators are working to discover how the rhythms of life can be used to improve the practice of medicine - and your health. These time-related medical observations, and others still in the exciting process of discovery, are rooted in chronobiology (chronos - time; bios - life; logos - science), the study of biologic rhythms. How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness? Among the various biologic rhythm cycles that medical chronobiologists study, the 24-hour day/night-activity/rest cycle is considered a key chronobiologic factor in medical [53]diagnosis and treatment. Formally known as the [54]circadian rhythm, it's also referred to as the "body clock." Why is the 24-hour body clock so important? Because so many of our normal body functions follow daily patterns of speeding up and slowing down, intensifying and diminishing, in alignment with circadian rhythm. Interestingly, so do the symptoms of a number of [55]chronic disorders: Allergic rhinitis: (nasal inflammation associated with hay fever) Symptoms of sneezing, [56]runny nose, and stuffy nose are typically worse in the early waking hours than later during the day. Asthma: In most patients, symptoms are more than 100 times as likely to occur in the few hours prior to awakening than during the day. Stable angina: [57]Chest pain and [58]electrocardiographic (ECG, EKG) abnormalities are most common during the first 4 to 6 hours after awakening. [59]Prinzmetal's angina: ECG abnormalities are most common during [60]sleep; chest pain can occur even while at rest. Heart attack: Heart attack most commonly occurs in the early waking hours. Stroke: [61]Strokes most commonly occur in the early waking hours. Hypertension: The highest blood pressure readings typically occur from late morning to middle afternoon; lowest occur during early sleep. Therapy now exists that works with your body clock; consult your physician about this treatment. Clinical studies are underway to further this research. [62]Rheumatoid arthritis: RA symptoms are most intense upon awakening. [63]Osteoarthritis: Symptoms of osteoarthritis worsen in the afternoon and evening. Ulcer disease: The pain typically occurs after stomach emptying, following daytime meals, and in the very early morning, disrupting sleep. [64]Epilepsy: Seizures often occur only at particular times of the day or night; individual patterns differ among patients. * 1 * [65]2 * [66]3 * [67]4 * [68]5 * [69]6 * [70]7 * [71]8 * [72]Next » * [73]Biorhythms Index * [74]Glossary Next: [75]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms? » [76]Printer-Friendly Format | [77]Email to a Friend [header-doctor-topics_2.gif] Suggested Reading by Our Doctors MedicineNet Doctors * [78]Chemotherapy - Get information on chemotherapy treatment for cancer, side effects of medications and how chemo works. Chemotherapy is a type of cancer treatment often given along with radiation therapy and surgery. * [79]Rheumatoid Arthritis - Learn more about rheumatoid arthritis, an autoimmune disease that causes chronic joint inflammation, which has symptoms that include stiffness, fever, muscle and joint aches, loss of appetite, and fatigue. Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis incorporates the use of first-line drugs (aspirin and corticosteroids for pain and inflammation) and second-line drugs (methotrexate and hydroxychloroquine to prevent joint destruction and promote remission). * [80]Radiation Therapy - [81]Read more Biorhythms related articles » Latest Medical News * [82]Nightly Snacking May Speed Weight Gain [footer-doctor-topics_2.gif] [83]Privacy Policy Allergies & Asthma Improve treatments & prevent attacks. _____________________ [btn_submit2.gif]-Submit [clearpixel.gif] [84]Are you Depressed? Take the Quiz [85]Your Guide to Symptoms & Signs: Pinpoint Your Pain IFRAME: 1&xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos= 121 From WebMD Asthma and Allergy Resources * [87]Asthma Attack Slideshow * [88]How to Use Your Inhaler * [89]The Best Cities for Asthma Featured Centers * [90]12 Ways to Prevent the Spread of Viruses * [91]Longevity Foods: Eat Well, Live Longer * [92]Sad? Irritable? Assess Your Symptoms * [93]Healthy Home: To Buy or Not to Buy Organic? Health Solutions From Our Sponsors * [94]Osteoporosis Info * [95]Overactive Bladder Rx Biorhythms [96]Hay Fever » What is hay fever? What are the symptoms and signs? Hay fever is a misnomer. Hay is not a usual cause of this problem, and it does not cause fever. Early descriptions of sneezing, nasal congestion, and eye irritation while harvesting field hay promoted this popular term. Allergic rhinitis is the correct term used to describe this allergic reaction, and many different substances cause the allergic symptoms noted in hay fever. Rhinitis means "irritation of the nose" and is a derivative of rhino, meaning nose. Allergic rhinitis which occurs during a specific season is called "seasonal allergic rhinitis." When it occurs throughout the year, it is called "perennial allergic rhinitis." Symptoms of allergic rhinitis, or hay fever, frequently include nasal congestion, a clear runny nose, sneezing, nose and eye itching, and excess tear production in the eyes. Postnasal dripping of clear mucus frequently causes a cough. Loss of the sense ... [97]Read the Hay Fever article » Featured on MedicineNet * [98]Tips to Ease Nighttime Pain * [99]Check Your Fibromyalgia Symptoms * [100]Depression Tips Slideshow * [101]Are You at Risk for Diabetic Nerve Pain? Top 10 Biorhythms Related Articles * [102]Chemo Infusion and Chemoembolization of Liver * [103]Chemotherapy * [104]Chemotherapy Treatment for Breast Cancer * [105]Heart Attack * [106]High Blood Pressure * [107]Osteoarthritis * [108]Radiation Therapy * [109]Radiation Therapy for Breast Cancer * [110]Rheumatoid Arthritis * [111]Stroke * [112]Complete List » New on MedicineNet * [113]Michael C. Hall Has Hodgkin's * [114]Cryptosporidiosis Causes * [115]Shigella Infection Symptoms * [116]Lymphedema Causes * [117]C-Reactive Protein (CRP) * [118]Sinus Headache Treatment * [119]Pictures Slideshows Interactive Slideshows [120]Adult Skin Problems Slideshow IFRAME: 31&xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos =113 IFRAME: [122]/htmlchunks/slideshow/slidermodule/6_slides_line.htm IFRAME: [123]/htmlchunks/footer/footer_new_medicinenet.html Health categories: [124]Slideshows | [125]Diseases & Conditions | [126]Symptoms & Signs | [127]Procedures & Tests | [128]Medications | [129]Image Collection | [130]Medical Dictionary | [131]Pet Health Popular health centers: [132]Allergies | [133]Arthritis | [134]Blood Pressure | [135]Cancer | [136]Chronic Pain | [137]Cold & Flu | [138]Diabetes | [139]Digestion | [140]Eyesight | [141]Health & Living | [142]Healthy Kids [143]Hearing & Ear | [144]Heart | [145]Infectious Disease | [146]Men's Health | [147]Mental Health | [148]News & Views | [149]Pregnancy | [150]Sexual Health | [151]Skin | [152]Women's Health | [153]More... 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Références Liens visibles 76. javascript:myVoid() Liens cachés : * [1]Skip to main content * [2]Text only version of this page * [3]Access keys help [4]BBC Home ____________________ Search [5]Explore the BBC 17 January 2010 [6]Accessibility help [7]Text only [8][USEMAP:banner_new.jpg] [9]Animals [10]Prehistoric Life [11]Human Body & Mind [12]Space [13]TV & Radio Follow-up [14]BBC Homepage [15]Science & Nature Homepage In [16]Human Body & Mind: [17]The mind [18]The body [19]Brain Sex [20]Sleep [21]Take part in the Brain Test Britain experiment __________________________________________________________________ [22]Contact Us Like this page? [23]Send it to a friend! You are here: [24]BBC > [25]Science & Nature > [26]Human Body & Mind > [27]Sleep > Daily Rhythm Test Daily Rhythm Test Our internal body clock governs our daily or circadian rhythm - telling us when to wake up and when to feel sleepy. Circadian comes from the Latin circa, meaning about and dies, meaning day. This test will produce a chart showing your natural sleeping and waking pattern over a 24 hour period. If you're having problems sleeping it could be your natural body clock is at odds with your routine. 1) Do you consider yourself a morning person or an evening person? (_) Evening (_) More evening than morning (_) Cant tell (_) More morning than evening (_) Morning 2) At what time of day do you feel at your best? (_) 5am - 9am (_) 9am - 11am (_) 11am - 5pm (_) 5pm - 10pm (_) 10pm - 1am 3) Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, if you were entirely free to plan your day - at what time would you go to bed? (_) 8pm - 9pm (_) 9pm - 10.15pm (_) 10.15pm - 12.30am (_) 12.30am - 1.45am (_) 1.45am - 3am 4) Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, if you were entirely free to plan your day - at what time would you get up? (_) 5.00am - 6.30am (_) 6.30am - 7.45am (_) 7.45am - 9.45am (_) 9.45am - 11.00am (_) 11.00am - Midday View results [28]Science & Nature Homepage [29]Animals | [30]Prehistoric Life | [31]Human Body & Mind | [32]Space | [33]TV & Radio follow-up [34]Go to top [35]About the BBC | [36]Help | [37]Terms of Use | [38]Privacy & Cookies Policy Références [USEMAP] [1]SpringerLink Logo [2]Institutional Login Welcome! To use the personalized features of this site, please [3]log in or [4]register. If you have forgotten your username or password, we can [5]help. My Menu [6]Marked Items [7]Alerts [8]Order History Saved Items [9]All [10]Favorites * [11]Content Types + [12]All + [13]Publications + [14]Journals + [15]Book Series + [16]Books + [17]Reference Works + [18]Protocols * [19]Subject Collections + [20]Architecture and Design + [21]Behavioral Science + [22]Biomedical and Life Sciences + [23]Business and Economics + [24]Chemistry and Materials Science + [25]Computer Science + [26]Earth and Environmental Science + [27]Engineering + [28]Humanities, Social Sciences and Law + [29]Mathematics and Statistics + [30]Medicine + [31]Physics and Astronomy + [32]Professional and Applied Computing [English.......] Go Journal Article [33]Printable view Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Journal [34]Surgery Today Publisher Springer Japan ISSN 0941-1291 (Print) 1436-2813 (Online) Issue [35]Volume 17, Number 3 / May, 1987 Category Short Communication DOI 10.1007/BF02470602 Pages 209-212 Subject Collection [36]Medicine SpringerLink Date Thursday, July 20, 2006 [37]Add to marked items [38]Add to shopping cart [39]Add to saved items [40]Permissions & Reprints [41]Recommend this article [42]PDF (237.9 KB)[43] Free Preview Free Preview Short Communication Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Jun Narumi^1 Contact Information , Kozo Suma^1, Hidemi Kaneko^1, Yasuo Takeuchi^1, Kenji Inoue^1, Kenji Shiroma^1 and Yuji Koyama^1 (1) Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, 2nd Hospital of Tokyo Women's Medical College, 2-1-10 Nishiogu, Arakawaku, 116 Tokyo, Japan Received: 7 April 1986 Abstract The postoperative deep body temperature rhythms of fifteen patients who received aorto-coronary bypass surgery (group I), and of seven patients who received non-cardiac major surgery (group II), were studied. Postoperative patients, especially those who received aortocoronary bypass surgery, showed greatly disturbed deep body temperature rhythm. There existed infradian and ultradian rhythm in both groups, and there existed two patients in group I who did not show sinusoidal rhythm. The patients of group I also showed a longer period of rhythm than did those of group II. The mesor and amplitude of the patients in group I showed a greater individual variation than did those in group II. The acrophase of both groups deviated widely. The patients who underwent cardiac surgery needed a longer time for temperature rhythm recovery than did those who underwent general surgery. Key Words deep body temperature rhythm - intensive care unit - post-operative patients __________________________________________________________________ Fulltext Preview (Small, [44]Large) Image of the first page of the fulltext [45]Click here to visit our sponsor References secured to subscribers. [46]more options Find ____________________ ... Go Query Builder Close | Clear * [47]Title (ti) * [48]Summary (su) * [49]Author (au) * [50]ISSN (issn) * [51]ISBN (isbn) * [52]DOI (doi) * * [53]And * [54]Or * [55]Not * [56]( * [57]) * [58]* (wildcard) * [59]"" (exact) (_) Within all content (_) Within this journal (_) Within this issue Export this article Export this article as [60]RIS | [61]Text [62]Frequently asked questions | [63]General information on journals and books | [64]Send us your feedback | [65]Impressum | [66]Contact © Springer. [67]Part of Springer Science+Business Media [68]Privacy, Disclaimer, Terms and Conditions, © Copyright Information [69]MetaPress Privacy Policy Remote Address: 84.99.202.28 o Server: mpweb01 HTTP User Agent: Lynx/2.8.7pre.6 libwww-FM/2.14 SSL-MM/1.4.1 Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1]Home [2]Search Holisticonline [3]Grandmas Remedies Quality vitamins, natural remedies [4]Specialgifts.com Big savings on gemstones, jewelry and gifts. [5]Alternative Medicine [6]Stress Management [7]Conditions/ Treatments [8]Preferred Providers [9]Holistic Living [10]Alternative Therapies [11]Acupuncture [12]Aromatherapy [13]Ayurveda [14]Biofeedback [15]Chelation Therapy [16]Herbal Medicine [17]Homeopathy [18]Humor Therapy [19]Hydrotherapy [20]Imagery [21]Light Therapy [22]Massage [23]Meditation [24]NLP [25]Nutrition [26]Prayer/ Spiritual [27]Reiki [28]Shiatsu [29]Yoga [30]FAQ (Health) [31]Feedback [32]Register [33]Media Light Therapy HOL-emblem Rhythms and Body Clock Circadian Rhythm From the Latin circa (about) dies (a day), the circadian rhythm is the twenty-four-hour cycle of light/dark, wakefulness/sleep to which most human physiologic processes are set. At regular intervals each day, the body tends to become hungry, tired, active, listless, energized. Body temperature, heart-beat, blood pressure, hormone levels, and urine flow rise and fall in this relatively predictable, rhythmic pattern - a pattern initiated and governed by exposure to sunlight and darkness. Experiments where humans were placed in isolation chambers, cut off from all potential environmental cues, have shown that, in the absence of natural daylight, rhythms are still maintained. But in the absence of the day light, the rhythms tend to deviate from 24 hours. For instance, the rhythms was found to expand to 24-30 hours, thus disrupting the biological processes over a long period of time. The fact that animals and humans can continue to function according to daily and annual rhythms in the absence of external environmental stimuli means that animals and humans possess some kind of biological clock, which act as a backup mechanism in case it cannot get the proper stimuli from the natural events such as sunshine. This behavior can be illustrated by our clocks. Let us say, our clock is running slow. Over a period of time, the clock may lag the actual time because of this defect. Usually, we will reset the clock when it gets far out of sync by other external stimuli like a radio or phone time. Now, if we do not have access to this external synchronizing signal, the clock can get far out of line with the reality. Our body clocks functions the same way. The biological clock can keep the time; but in the absence of correction from the day/light cycle provided by the sun, the biological clock tend go out of sync affecting our physical and mental health. A similar thing happens when we travel across time zones; we tend to experience what is known as "jet lag". However, in the absence of natural light our body clocks may lose or gain a little time. This in turn could lead to the desynchronization of different rhythms. For example, in the absence of sufficient environmental light the sleep-wake and associated rest-activity rhythms may lengthen to a cycle of between 30 and 48 hours, while the temperature rhythm may remain at a period of, say, 25 hours. Such desynchronization of the body's intricate rhythms is suspected to trigger problems: hormonal imbalances, sleep disorders and mood disturbances. Circannual Rhythm Circannual rhythm is the annual or yearly cycle used by all living things. Circaseptan Rhythm Circaseptan rhythm is a seven-day cycle in which the biological processes of life, including disease symptoms and development, resolve. Many physicians believe that transplant patients tend to have more rejection episodes seven, fourteen, twenty-one, and twenty-eight days after surgery. They further believe that medications administered to the patients at particular times may be more effective than at other times. These are all related to the circaseptan rhythm. How does the brain know when it is light or dark? Deep within the brain, inside the hypothalamus, lie two clusters of cells (i.e., neurons) called the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN). Each of these SCN is composed of more than 8,000 neurons. The SCN act as the body's circadian pacemaker. In mammals, the SCN appear to get their information from photoreceptors in the retina, which transmit signals about light and dark through the optic nerves to the hypothalamus. Once these messages enter the SCN, a series of physiological reactions takes place. What happens after the light/dark signal reaches the SCN? We are not sure. The pathway from the retina through the optic nerves to the SCN extends further to reach the pineal gland, which lies adjacent to the hypothalamus above the brain stem. Stimulated by the message it receives from the SCN, the pineal gland either secretes its main hormone, melatonin, or inhibits melatonin's release, which may result in the production of serotonin as was explained before. Next Topic: [34]Light Therapy for Seasonal Affective Disorder [[35]Light Therapy Home][[36]Alternative Therapies Home][[37]Holistic-online.com Home] [narule_200.GIF] Holisticonline.com is developed and maintained by ICBS, Inc. Send mail to: [38]info@holisticonline.com with comments about this web site. [39]Copyright © [40]1998-2007 ICBS, Inc. [41]Terms of Use All Rights Reserved. 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[256]Three things you can do immediately when you find yourself getting depressed[257]An Interview with Yulonda Brown on Surviving Abuse and Bipolar Disorder[258]Depression: A New Frontier in It's Treatment[259]Our Bipolar Topic Center has been Updated[260]Feeling Depressed: Influenced by the Attitudes and Opinions of Others?[261]Bipolar kids see aggression when it isn't there[262]Bipolar Disorder and the Need for Psychoeducation[263]Disentangling Rapid-Cycling Bipolar From Borderline [264]Videos [265]Bipolar Disorder Video[266]Major Depression Video[267]Bipolar Disorder Video[268]Antidepressants Video[269]Meet Sue Bergeson: Depression and Bipolar Support Alliance[270]Managing Bipolar Disorder[271]Bipolar Disorder - Questions to Ask Your Doctor[272]Bipolar Disorder - Working with Your Doctor[273]Bipolar Disorder - Working Toward Wellness[274]Bipolar Disorder in Children: The Importance of Family Support[275]Bipolar Disorder: Why Are Clinical Trials so Important[276]Bipolar Disorder: Why Did it Take so Long to Get Diagnosed?[277]Balancing Bipolar Disorder[278]The Road to Recovery from Bipolar Disorder[279]Advice for Someone Recently Diagnosed with Bipolar Disorder[280]How to Find Information about Bipolar Disorder[281]Are There Genetic Risk Factors for Bipolar Disorder[282]Does Bipolar Disorder Affect Children?[283]Getting Help for Family Members of Bipolar Patients Video[284]Types of Depression Video [285]Links [286][3] Associations[287][9] Community[288][31] Information[289][1] Journals[290][1] Assessment[291][1] Research[292][20] Videos[293][2] Personal Experiences[294][21] Blogs [295]Book Reviews [296]Active Treatment of Depression[297]Adult Bipolar Disorders[298]Agents in My Brain[299]American Mania[300]An Unquiet Mind[301]Bipolar Disorder[302]Bipolar Disorder Demystified[303]Bipolar Disorder in Childhood and Early Adolescence[304]Bipolar Disorders[305]Bipolar Kids[306]Crazy[307]Daughter of the Queen of Sheba[308]Depression Is a Choice[309]Detour[310]Electroboy[311]Essential Psychopharmacology of Depression and Bipolar Disorder[312]Hurry Down Sunshine[313]I am Not Sick I Don't Need Help![314]Lithium for Medea[315]Loving Someone With Bipolar Disorder[316]Madness[317]Manic[318]Manic Depression[319]Mommy I'm Still in Here[320]Mood Genes[321]New Hope for Children and Teens with Bipolar Disorder[322]New Hope For People With Bipolar Disorder[323]Night Falls Fast[324]Overcoming Depression[325]Scattershot[326]Surviving Manic Depression[327]Swing Low[328]The Best Awful[329]The Bipolar Child[330]The Bipolar Disorder Survival Guide[331]The Devil and Daniel Johnston[332]The Hypomanic Edge[333]The Naked Bird Watcher[334]The Noonday Demon[335]The Pits and the Pendulum[336]The Years of Silence are Past[337]To Walk on Eggshells[338]Toxic Psychiatry[339]Undoing Depression[340]What Goes Up[341]What Works for Bipolar Kids[342]Zelda [343]Self-Help Groups [344]Dep-Anon Community Talk about this issue in our [345]mental health support community Therapist Search Find a Therapist: _______ Go! 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As discussed earlier, the hypothalamus is the link between the nervous and endocrine systems. Given that the nervous system is also associated with the immune system, it is possible that the hypothalamus exerts its effect on the immune system as well. Thus, the combination of these systems can alter body biochemistry, contributing to shifts in body rhythms such as the circadian, seasonal, and social rhythms. Circadian Rhythm and Bipolar Disorder [441]advertisement The circadian rhythm is the 24-hour cycle of the body, the exact length of which is determined by the amount of light that the hypothalamus senses in a day-night cycle. The name "circadian" refers to a period of time that is "around a day long". Clear patterns of brain wave activity and hormone production are coupled to this cycle. When the circadian rhythm is upset (as can be the case with jet lag and sleep problems) mood disturbances can result. It is known that in some people sleep deprivation causes mania, whereas in others it can alleviate the symptoms of depression. Thus, regulation of circadian rhythm is important for managing bipolar symptoms and mood episodes. Dysregulation of this system is typically experienced as a powerful source of stress. Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) and Bipolar Disorder Similar to circadian rhythms but longer in duration are seasonal rhythms. These are determined by the amount of daylight experienced within a given season. Dysregulation of seasonal rhythms has been linked with Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD; also known as winter depression). SAD-affected individuals begin to feel increasingly depressed as the amount of light disappears during the winter. Their depression lifts as springtime approaches and the days lengthen. During times of the year with long days, these people typically experience no undue mood disturbance. Social Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder Both circadian and seasonal rhythms can affect individuals' social rhythms. The social rhythm comprises of a daily routine such as waking up at a specific time, going to school or work, and interacting with family members, friends, peers and colleagues. Even healthy people can experience mood changes when their social rhythms are disturbed by insomnia, seasonal changes or work schedules. It is no great leap to see that if someone is susceptible to bipolar disorder, a change in their body rhythms might constitute sufficient stress to precipitate bipolar symptoms. When considering the possible causes of bipolar disorders, it is necessary to bear in mind the complex nature of mood polarity. It is likely that that the problem originates in multiple biologic systems - the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems with a basis in the genetic machinery that regulates these systems. For example, a gene important in the function of the hypothalamus may become mutated or infected by a retrovirus leading to deregulation of neurotransmitters, hormones, and/or immune components. The resulting change is measurable as biochemical imbalances in either the brain or body but these biochemical imbalances are not necessarily causing the underlying dysfunction, but instead may simply be themselves symptoms or links in a chain of causes that lead to bipolar illness. [442]« Previous[443]1...[444]12[445]13[446]14[447]15[448]16[449]17[450]18...[4 51]34[452]Next » Share: [453][twitter.jpg] [454][facebook.jpg] [455][linkedin.jpg] [456][stumble.jpg] [457][delicious.jpg] [458][buzz.jpg] [459][google.jpg] [460][diigo.jpg] [461][squidoo.jpg] [462][digg.jpg] [463][reddit.jpg] [464][bitly.jpg] Link: (Here's how to do it ... ) To link to this article: 1. Copy the HTML link code shown in the box just below. 2. Paste this HTML code into your blog or web page, into a forum post or a blog comment you make, into your Facebook feed, etc. Body Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder Thank you! Reader Comments Discuss this issue below or in our [465]forums. Add Comment [466]Follow us on Twitter! [spacer.gif] [467]Find us on Facebook! [spacer.gif] IFRAME: [468]a471eef6 [469]Get Support for Bipolar Disorder [spacer.gif] Mental Help Net [470]Terms of Use/Privacy Policy[471]Our Mission[472]Contributors[473]Jobs[474]Advertising on Mental Help Net[475]Contact Us [spacer.gif] [476]advertisement [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [477]Powered by CenterSite.Net [spacer.gif] [478]This website is certified by Health On the Net Foundation. Click to verify. [spacer.gif] __________________________________________________________________ [479]About Us | [480]About CenterSite | [481]Terms & Privacy | [482]Submit/Update Listings Copyright © [483]CenterSite, LLC, 1995-2010 [mhn_footer_pg_cnt.php] [484]Quantcast Références Liens visibles 10. javascript:void(0) 11. javascript:void(0) 18. javascript:void(0) 22. javascript:void(0) 32. javascript:void(0) 35. javascript:void(0) 44. javascript:void(0) Liens cachés : FREE Online Classroom Tools [1]LOGIN OR [2]REGISTER FOR FREE [3]HotChalk [4]LessonPlansPage.com [hc-header-roundedbottom.jpg] * * [5]Lesson Plans | * [6]Teaching Degrees | * [7]Articles & Blogs | * [8]Forums | * [9]Contribute | * [10]HotChalk Tools | * [11]About | * [12]Advertising Lesson Plans [13][icon_ruler.gif] Math [14][icon_book.gif] Language Arts [15][icon_science.gif] Science [16][icon_globe.gif] Social Studies [17][icon_art.gif] Art [18][icon_laptop.gif] Computers & Internet [19][icon_music.gif] Music [20][icon_soccer.gif] P.E. & Health [21][icon_apple.gif] Other [22][icon_pencil.gif] Multi-Disciplinary Sections * [23]Online Degrees Guide * [24]HotChalk Tools * [25]Seasonal Lesson Plans * [26]Most Recent Additions * [27]Inspired Teachers * [28]Science Projects * [29]Math Worksheets * [30]Teacher Discussions * [31]Lesson Plan Guide * [32]Search This Site * [33]Join Our Newsletter * [34]Contribute !!! * [35]Advertising Information * [36]Take Our Survey! * [37]Tell A Friend! Special Features [38]Black History Month Lesson Plans Sponsored by Target * [39]Efficient Reading * [40]Masters in Education * [41]Previous Articles [42][hotchalklogo-template-sidebar.gif] * [43]About HotChalk * [44]Learn More * [45]MyClasses * [46]MyLibrary * [47]MyDesk * [48]Join for FREE! Vote For Us [49]@ SitesForTeachers [50]@ Teach-nology Resource Sites [51]Education Master's [52]Teacher Magazines [53]Teaching Jobs Site Information [54]About This Site [55]How To Use [56]Contact Info [57]Advertising Info [58]Educational Links [59]Having Problems? [60]Online Degrees Teacher's Guide [61]Join Our Facebook Page [62]Bookmark and Share Join LPP Newsletter: _________________________ Subscribe! Search This Site: _____________ Search! rhythm game using body percussion [63][print.gif] Printable Version for your convenience! Title - rhythm game using body percussion By - Michelle L. Miller Primary Subject - Music Secondary Subjects - Grade Level - 4-8 Objective: Students will be able to accurately write and count rhythms. Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests. Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding. To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3 teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat pat snap snap palms up-- quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest). Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The whole lesson takes about 30 minutes. Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as performed by teacher. Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills development and have fun at the same time!! NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well. Have fun!! E-Mail [64]Michelle L. Miller! * * [65]Lesson Plans | * [66]Teaching Degrees | * [67]Articles & Blogs | * [68]Forums | * [69]Contribute | * [70]HotChalk Tools | * [71]About | * [72]Advertising © 1996 - 2009 HotChalk, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Last Major Update: January 19, 2010 [73]Privacy Policy | [74]Anti-Spam Policy | [75]Terms of Use Please manually type in our email address to contact us (to prevent spam). Quantcast Références 64. mailto:Michellelmiller@avon.net #[1]Daily Health and Medical News [2]Weekly Health and Medical News Digest [3]Health and Medical Slideshows [5]Biorhythms Specialty IFRAME: &xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos=1 01 [7]MedicineNet.com ___________________________________ Search [8]About Us | [9]Privacy Policy | [10]Site Map January 19, 2010 [11]MedicineNet home [12]Picture Slideshows [13]Diseases and conditions [14]Symptoms and signs [15]Procedures and tests [16]Medications [17]Picture Image Collection [18]MedTerms medical dictionary [19]Pet Health [clearpixel.gif] [20]home > [21]biorhythms index > biorhythms article [clearpixel.gif] [clearpixel.gif] [clearpixel.gif] Font Size [22]A [23]A [24]A * 1 * [25]2 * [26]3 * [27]4 * [28]5 * [29]6 * [30]7 * [31]8 * [32]Next » * [33]Biorhythms Index * [34]Glossary Biorhythms [35]View Asthma Slideshow [36]Asthma Slideshow View Asthma Slideshow [37]Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow View Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow [38]Worst Cities for Asthma, 2009 Slideshow Pictures of the Worst Cities for Asthma Slideshow Medical Author: [39]William C. Shiel, Jr., MD, FACP, FACR Medical Editor: [40]Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD * [41]What are biologic rhythms? * [42]How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness? * [43]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms? * [44]Angina * [45]Heart attack * [46]High blood pressure (hypertension) * [47]Hay fever (allergic rhinitis) * [48]Asthma * [49]Can the "body clock" affect diagnostic testing? * [50]Can drug therapy be matched to the "body clock?" * [51]Chronobiology: marking time, making progress What are biologic rhythms? What are biologic rhythms? In essence, they're the rhythms of life. All forms of life on earth, including our bodies, respond rhythmically to the regular cycles of the sun, moon, and seasons. For example, as night turns into day, vital body functions, including heart rate and [52]blood pressure, speed up in anticipation of increased physical activity. These and other predictable fluctuations in body function, taking place during specific time cycles, are our biologic rhythms. They are regulated by "biologic clock" mechanisms located in the brain. Although biologic rhythms can be "reprogrammed" by environmental influences (such as when a person regularly works the night shift and sleeps during the day), they are genetically "hard-wired" into our cells, tissues, and organs. Medical chronobiologists have found that biologic rhythms can affect the severity of disease symptoms, diagnostic test results, and even the body's response to drug therapy. Now these investigators are working to discover how the rhythms of life can be used to improve the practice of medicine - and your health. These time-related medical observations, and others still in the exciting process of discovery, are rooted in chronobiology (chronos - time; bios - life; logos - science), the study of biologic rhythms. How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness? Among the various biologic rhythm cycles that medical chronobiologists study, the 24-hour day/night-activity/rest cycle is considered a key chronobiologic factor in medical [53]diagnosis and treatment. Formally known as the [54]circadian rhythm, it's also referred to as the "body clock." Why is the 24-hour body clock so important? Because so many of our normal body functions follow daily patterns of speeding up and slowing down, intensifying and diminishing, in alignment with circadian rhythm. Interestingly, so do the symptoms of a number of [55]chronic disorders: Allergic rhinitis: (nasal inflammation associated with hay fever) Symptoms of sneezing, [56]runny nose, and stuffy nose are typically worse in the early waking hours than later during the day. Asthma: In most patients, symptoms are more than 100 times as likely to occur in the few hours prior to awakening than during the day. Stable angina: [57]Chest pain and [58]electrocardiographic (ECG, EKG) abnormalities are most common during the first 4 to 6 hours after awakening. [59]Prinzmetal's angina: ECG abnormalities are most common during [60]sleep; chest pain can occur even while at rest. Heart attack: Heart attack most commonly occurs in the early waking hours. Stroke: [61]Strokes most commonly occur in the early waking hours. Hypertension: The highest blood pressure readings typically occur from late morning to middle afternoon; lowest occur during early sleep. Therapy now exists that works with your body clock; consult your physician about this treatment. Clinical studies are underway to further this research. [62]Rheumatoid arthritis: RA symptoms are most intense upon awakening. [63]Osteoarthritis: Symptoms of osteoarthritis worsen in the afternoon and evening. Ulcer disease: The pain typically occurs after stomach emptying, following daytime meals, and in the very early morning, disrupting sleep. [64]Epilepsy: Seizures often occur only at particular times of the day or night; individual patterns differ among patients. * 1 * [65]2 * [66]3 * [67]4 * [68]5 * [69]6 * [70]7 * [71]8 * [72]Next » * [73]Biorhythms Index * [74]Glossary Next: [75]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms? » [76]Printer-Friendly Format | [77]Email to a Friend [header-doctor-topics_2.gif] Suggested Reading by Our Doctors MedicineNet Doctors * [78]Chemotherapy - Get information on chemotherapy treatment for cancer, side effects of medications and how chemo works. Chemotherapy is a type of cancer treatment often given along with radiation therapy and surgery. * [79]Rheumatoid Arthritis - Learn more about rheumatoid arthritis, an autoimmune disease that causes chronic joint inflammation, which has symptoms that include stiffness, fever, muscle and joint aches, loss of appetite, and fatigue. Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis incorporates the use of first-line drugs (aspirin and corticosteroids for pain and inflammation) and second-line drugs (methotrexate and hydroxychloroquine to prevent joint destruction and promote remission). * [80]Radiation Therapy - [81]Read more Biorhythms related articles » Latest Medical News * [82]Nightly Snacking May Speed Weight Gain [footer-doctor-topics_2.gif] [83]Privacy Policy Allergies & Asthma Improve treatments & prevent attacks. _____________________ [btn_submit2.gif]-Submit [clearpixel.gif] [84]Are you Depressed? Take the Quiz [85]Your Guide to Symptoms & Signs: Pinpoint Your Pain IFRAME: 8&xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos= 121 From WebMD Asthma and Allergy Resources * [87]Allergy Issues? Get Personalized Advice * [88]How to Use Your Inhaler * [89]The Best Cities for Asthma Featured Centers * [90]12 Ways to Prevent the Spread of Viruses * [91]10 Surprising Benefits of Treating Your Depression * [92]Healthy Home: To Buy or Not to Buy Organic? Health Solutions From Our Sponsors * [93]Osteoporosis Info * [94]BPH Treatment & Savings * [95]MS Rx Options Biorhythms [96]Jet Lag » What is jet lag? Jet lag, also called desynchronosis, is a temporary disorder that causes fatigue, insomnia, and other symptoms as a result of air travel across time zones. What are other symptoms of jet lag? Besides fatigue and insomnia, a jet lag sufferer may experience anxiety, constipation, diarrhea, confusion, dehydration, headache, irritability, nausea, sweating, coordination problems, and even memory loss. Some individuals report additional symptoms, such as heartbeat irregularities and increased susceptibility to illness. What is a time zone? A time zone is a geographical region which has the same time everywhere within it. The world has 24 time zones, one for each hour in the day. Each zone runs from north to south in strips that are approximately 1,000 miles (1,600 kilometers) wide. (The actual width of each zone varies to accommodate political and geographical boundaries.) As... [97]Read the Jet Lag article » Featured on MedicineNet * [98]Tips to Ease Nighttime Pain * [99]Check Your Fibromyalgia Symptoms * [100]Depression Tips Slideshow * [101]Are You at Risk for Diabetic Nerve Pain? Top 10 Biorhythms Related Articles * [102]Chemo Infusion and Chemoembolization of Liver * [103]Chemotherapy * [104]Chemotherapy Treatment for Breast Cancer * [105]Heart Attack * [106]High Blood Pressure * [107]Osteoarthritis * [108]Radiation Therapy * [109]Radiation Therapy for Breast Cancer * [110]Rheumatoid Arthritis * [111]Stroke * [112]Complete List » New on MedicineNet * [113]Michael C. 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Références Liens visibles 76. javascript:myVoid() Liens cachés : * [1]Skip to main content * [2]Text only version of this page * [3]Access keys help [4]BBC Home ____________________ Search [5]Explore the BBC 19 January 2010 [6]Accessibility help [7]Text only [8][USEMAP:banner_new.jpg] [9]Animals [10]Prehistoric Life [11]Human Body & Mind [12]Space [13]TV & Radio Follow-up [14]BBC Homepage [15]Science & Nature Homepage In [16]Human Body & Mind: [17]The mind [18]The body [19]Brain Sex [20]Sleep [21]Take part in the Brain Test Britain experiment __________________________________________________________________ [22]Contact Us Like this page? [23]Send it to a friend! You are here: [24]BBC > [25]Science & Nature > [26]Human Body & Mind > [27]Sleep > Daily Rhythm Test Daily Rhythm Test Our internal body clock governs our daily or circadian rhythm - telling us when to wake up and when to feel sleepy. Circadian comes from the Latin circa, meaning about and dies, meaning day. This test will produce a chart showing your natural sleeping and waking pattern over a 24 hour period. If you're having problems sleeping it could be your natural body clock is at odds with your routine. 1) Do you consider yourself a morning person or an evening person? (_) Evening (_) More evening than morning (_) Cant tell (_) More morning than evening (_) Morning 2) At what time of day do you feel at your best? (_) 5am - 9am (_) 9am - 11am (_) 11am - 5pm (_) 5pm - 10pm (_) 10pm - 1am 3) Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, if you were entirely free to plan your day - at what time would you go to bed? (_) 8pm - 9pm (_) 9pm - 10.15pm (_) 10.15pm - 12.30am (_) 12.30am - 1.45am (_) 1.45am - 3am 4) Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, if you were entirely free to plan your day - at what time would you get up? (_) 5.00am - 6.30am (_) 6.30am - 7.45am (_) 7.45am - 9.45am (_) 9.45am - 11.00am (_) 11.00am - Midday View results [28]Science & Nature Homepage [29]Animals | [30]Prehistoric Life | [31]Human Body & Mind | [32]Space | [33]TV & Radio follow-up [34]Go to top [35]About the BBC | [36]Help | [37]Terms of Use | [38]Privacy & Cookies Policy Références [USEMAP] FREE Online Classroom Tools [1]LOGIN OR [2]REGISTER FOR FREE [3]HotChalk [4]LessonPlansPage.com [hc-header-roundedbottom.jpg] * * [5]Lesson Plans | * [6]Teaching Degrees | * [7]Articles & Blogs | * [8]Forums | * [9]Contribute | * [10]HotChalk Tools | * [11]About | * [12]Advertising Lesson Plans [13][icon_ruler.gif] Math [14][icon_book.gif] Language Arts [15][icon_science.gif] Science [16][icon_globe.gif] Social Studies [17][icon_art.gif] Art [18][icon_laptop.gif] Computers & Internet [19][icon_music.gif] Music [20][icon_soccer.gif] P.E. & Health [21][icon_apple.gif] Other [22][icon_pencil.gif] Multi-Disciplinary Sections * [23]Online Degrees Guide * [24]HotChalk Tools * [25]Seasonal Lesson Plans * [26]Most Recent Additions * [27]Inspired Teachers * [28]Science Projects * [29]Math Worksheets * [30]Teacher Discussions * [31]Lesson Plan Guide * [32]Search This Site * [33]Join Our Newsletter * [34]Contribute !!! * [35]Advertising Information * [36]Take Our Survey! * [37]Tell A Friend! Special Features [38]Black History Month Lesson Plans Sponsored by Target * [39]Efficient Reading * [40]Masters in Education * [41]Previous Articles [42][hotchalklogo-template-sidebar.gif] * [43]About HotChalk * [44]Learn More * [45]MyClasses * [46]MyLibrary * [47]MyDesk * [48]Join for FREE! Resource Sites [49]Education Master's [50]Teacher Magazines [51]Teaching Jobs Site Information [52]About This Site [53]How To Use [54]Contact Info [55]Advertising Info [56]Educational Links [57]Having Problems? [58]Online Degrees Teacher's Guide [59]Join Our Facebook Page [60]Bookmark and Share Join LPP Newsletter: _________________________ Subscribe! Search This Site: _____________ Search! rhythm game using body percussion [61][print.gif] Printable Version for your convenience! Title - rhythm game using body percussion By - Michelle L. Miller Primary Subject - Music Secondary Subjects - Grade Level - 4-8 Objective: Students will be able to accurately write and count rhythms. Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests. Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding. To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3 teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat pat snap snap palms up-- quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest). Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The whole lesson takes about 30 minutes. Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as performed by teacher. Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills development and have fun at the same time!! NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well. Have fun!! E-Mail [62]Michelle L. Miller! * * [63]Lesson Plans | * [64]Teaching Degrees | * [65]Articles & Blogs | * [66]Forums | * [67]Contribute | * [68]HotChalk Tools | * [69]About | * [70]Advertising © 1996 - 2010 HotChalk, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Last Modified December 23, 2009 [71]Privacy Policy | [72]Anti-Spam Policy | [73]Terms of Use Please manually type in our email address to contact us (to prevent spam). Quantcast Références 62. mailto:Michellelmiller@avon.net #[1]Daily Health and Medical News [2]Weekly Health and Medical News Digest [3]Health and Medical Slideshows [5]Biorhythms Specialty IFRAME: &xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos=1 01 [7]MedicineNet.com ___________________________________ Search [8]About Us | [9]Privacy Policy | [10]Site Map January 17, 2010 [11]MedicineNet home [12]Picture Slideshows [13]Diseases and conditions [14]Symptoms and signs [15]Procedures and tests [16]Medications [17]Picture Image Collection [18]MedTerms medical dictionary [19]Pet Health [clearpixel.gif] [20]home > [21]biorhythms index > biorhythms article [clearpixel.gif] [clearpixel.gif] [clearpixel.gif] Font Size [22]A [23]A [24]A * 1 * [25]2 * [26]3 * [27]4 * [28]5 * [29]6 * [30]7 * [31]8 * [32]Next » * [33]Biorhythms Index * [34]Glossary Biorhythms [35]View Asthma Slideshow [36]Asthma Slideshow View Asthma Slideshow [37]Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow View Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow [38]Worst Cities for Asthma, 2009 Slideshow Pictures of the Worst Cities for Asthma Slideshow Medical Author: [39]William C. Shiel, Jr., MD, FACP, FACR Medical Editor: [40]Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD * [41]What are biologic rhythms? * [42]How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness? * [43]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms? * [44]Angina * [45]Heart attack * [46]High blood pressure (hypertension) * [47]Hay fever (allergic rhinitis) * [48]Asthma * [49]Can the "body clock" affect diagnostic testing? * [50]Can drug therapy be matched to the "body clock?" * [51]Chronobiology: marking time, making progress What are biologic rhythms? What are biologic rhythms? In essence, they're the rhythms of life. All forms of life on earth, including our bodies, respond rhythmically to the regular cycles of the sun, moon, and seasons. For example, as night turns into day, vital body functions, including heart rate and [52]blood pressure, speed up in anticipation of increased physical activity. These and other predictable fluctuations in body function, taking place during specific time cycles, are our biologic rhythms. They are regulated by "biologic clock" mechanisms located in the brain. Although biologic rhythms can be "reprogrammed" by environmental influences (such as when a person regularly works the night shift and sleeps during the day), they are genetically "hard-wired" into our cells, tissues, and organs. Medical chronobiologists have found that biologic rhythms can affect the severity of disease symptoms, diagnostic test results, and even the body's response to drug therapy. Now these investigators are working to discover how the rhythms of life can be used to improve the practice of medicine - and your health. These time-related medical observations, and others still in the exciting process of discovery, are rooted in chronobiology (chronos - time; bios - life; logos - science), the study of biologic rhythms. How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness? Among the various biologic rhythm cycles that medical chronobiologists study, the 24-hour day/night-activity/rest cycle is considered a key chronobiologic factor in medical [53]diagnosis and treatment. Formally known as the [54]circadian rhythm, it's also referred to as the "body clock." Why is the 24-hour body clock so important? Because so many of our normal body functions follow daily patterns of speeding up and slowing down, intensifying and diminishing, in alignment with circadian rhythm. Interestingly, so do the symptoms of a number of [55]chronic disorders: Allergic rhinitis: (nasal inflammation associated with hay fever) Symptoms of sneezing, [56]runny nose, and stuffy nose are typically worse in the early waking hours than later during the day. Asthma: In most patients, symptoms are more than 100 times as likely to occur in the few hours prior to awakening than during the day. Stable angina: [57]Chest pain and [58]electrocardiographic (ECG, EKG) abnormalities are most common during the first 4 to 6 hours after awakening. [59]Prinzmetal's angina: ECG abnormalities are most common during [60]sleep; chest pain can occur even while at rest. Heart attack: Heart attack most commonly occurs in the early waking hours. Stroke: [61]Strokes most commonly occur in the early waking hours. Hypertension: The highest blood pressure readings typically occur from late morning to middle afternoon; lowest occur during early sleep. Therapy now exists that works with your body clock; consult your physician about this treatment. Clinical studies are underway to further this research. [62]Rheumatoid arthritis: RA symptoms are most intense upon awakening. [63]Osteoarthritis: Symptoms of osteoarthritis worsen in the afternoon and evening. Ulcer disease: The pain typically occurs after stomach emptying, following daytime meals, and in the very early morning, disrupting sleep. [64]Epilepsy: Seizures often occur only at particular times of the day or night; individual patterns differ among patients. * 1 * [65]2 * [66]3 * [67]4 * [68]5 * [69]6 * [70]7 * [71]8 * [72]Next » * [73]Biorhythms Index * [74]Glossary Next: [75]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms? » [76]Printer-Friendly Format | [77]Email to a Friend [header-doctor-topics_2.gif] Suggested Reading by Our Doctors MedicineNet Doctors * [78]Chemotherapy - Get information on chemotherapy treatment for cancer, side effects of medications and how chemo works. Chemotherapy is a type of cancer treatment often given along with radiation therapy and surgery. * [79]Rheumatoid Arthritis - Learn more about rheumatoid arthritis, an autoimmune disease that causes chronic joint inflammation, which has symptoms that include stiffness, fever, muscle and joint aches, loss of appetite, and fatigue. Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis incorporates the use of first-line drugs (aspirin and corticosteroids for pain and inflammation) and second-line drugs (methotrexate and hydroxychloroquine to prevent joint destruction and promote remission). * [80]Radiation Therapy - [81]Read more Biorhythms related articles » Latest Medical News * [82]Nightly Snacking May Speed Weight Gain [footer-doctor-topics_2.gif] [83]Privacy Policy Allergies & Asthma Improve treatments & prevent attacks. _____________________ [btn_submit2.gif]-Submit [clearpixel.gif] [84]Are you Depressed? Take the Quiz [85]Your Guide to Symptoms & Signs: Pinpoint Your Pain IFRAME: 1&xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos= 121 From WebMD Asthma and Allergy Resources * [87]Asthma Attack Slideshow * [88]How to Use Your Inhaler * [89]The Best Cities for Asthma Featured Centers * [90]12 Ways to Prevent the Spread of Viruses * [91]Longevity Foods: Eat Well, Live Longer * [92]Sad? Irritable? Assess Your Symptoms * [93]Healthy Home: To Buy or Not to Buy Organic? Health Solutions From Our Sponsors * [94]Osteoporosis Info * [95]Overactive Bladder Rx Biorhythms [96]Hay Fever » What is hay fever? What are the symptoms and signs? Hay fever is a misnomer. Hay is not a usual cause of this problem, and it does not cause fever. Early descriptions of sneezing, nasal congestion, and eye irritation while harvesting field hay promoted this popular term. Allergic rhinitis is the correct term used to describe this allergic reaction, and many different substances cause the allergic symptoms noted in hay fever. Rhinitis means "irritation of the nose" and is a derivative of rhino, meaning nose. Allergic rhinitis which occurs during a specific season is called "seasonal allergic rhinitis." When it occurs throughout the year, it is called "perennial allergic rhinitis." Symptoms of allergic rhinitis, or hay fever, frequently include nasal congestion, a clear runny nose, sneezing, nose and eye itching, and excess tear production in the eyes. Postnasal dripping of clear mucus frequently causes a cough. Loss of the sense ... [97]Read the Hay Fever article » Featured on MedicineNet * [98]Tips to Ease Nighttime Pain * [99]Check Your Fibromyalgia Symptoms * [100]Depression Tips Slideshow * [101]Are You at Risk for Diabetic Nerve Pain? Top 10 Biorhythms Related Articles * [102]Chemo Infusion and Chemoembolization of Liver * [103]Chemotherapy * [104]Chemotherapy Treatment for Breast Cancer * [105]Heart Attack * [106]High Blood Pressure * [107]Osteoarthritis * [108]Radiation Therapy * [109]Radiation Therapy for Breast Cancer * [110]Rheumatoid Arthritis * [111]Stroke * [112]Complete List » New on MedicineNet * [113]Michael C. Hall Has Hodgkin's * [114]Cryptosporidiosis Causes * [115]Shigella Infection Symptoms * [116]Lymphedema Causes * [117]C-Reactive Protein (CRP) * [118]Sinus Headache Treatment * [119]Pictures Slideshows Interactive Slideshows [120]Adult Skin Problems Slideshow IFRAME: 31&xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos =113 IFRAME: [122]/htmlchunks/slideshow/slidermodule/6_slides_line.htm IFRAME: [123]/htmlchunks/footer/footer_new_medicinenet.html Health categories: [124]Slideshows | [125]Diseases & Conditions | [126]Symptoms & Signs | [127]Procedures & Tests | [128]Medications | [129]Image Collection | [130]Medical Dictionary | [131]Pet Health Popular health centers: [132]Allergies | [133]Arthritis | [134]Blood Pressure | [135]Cancer | [136]Chronic Pain | [137]Cold & Flu | [138]Diabetes | [139]Digestion | [140]Eyesight | [141]Health & Living | [142]Healthy Kids [143]Hearing & Ear | [144]Heart | [145]Infectious Disease | [146]Men's Health | [147]Mental Health | [148]News & Views | [149]Pregnancy | [150]Sexual Health | [151]Skin | [152]Women's Health | [153]More... 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Références Liens visibles 76. javascript:myVoid() Liens cachés : * [1]Skip to main content * [2]Text only version of this page * [3]Access keys help [4]BBC Home ____________________ Search [5]Explore the BBC 17 January 2010 [6]Accessibility help [7]Text only [8][USEMAP:banner_new.jpg] [9]Animals [10]Prehistoric Life [11]Human Body & Mind [12]Space [13]TV & Radio Follow-up [14]BBC Homepage [15]Science & Nature Homepage In [16]Human Body & Mind: [17]The mind [18]The body [19]Brain Sex [20]Sleep [21]Take part in the Brain Test Britain experiment __________________________________________________________________ [22]Contact Us Like this page? [23]Send it to a friend! You are here: [24]BBC > [25]Science & Nature > [26]Human Body & Mind > [27]Sleep > Daily Rhythm Test Daily Rhythm Test Our internal body clock governs our daily or circadian rhythm - telling us when to wake up and when to feel sleepy. Circadian comes from the Latin circa, meaning about and dies, meaning day. This test will produce a chart showing your natural sleeping and waking pattern over a 24 hour period. If you're having problems sleeping it could be your natural body clock is at odds with your routine. 1) Do you consider yourself a morning person or an evening person? (_) Evening (_) More evening than morning (_) Cant tell (_) More morning than evening (_) Morning 2) At what time of day do you feel at your best? (_) 5am - 9am (_) 9am - 11am (_) 11am - 5pm (_) 5pm - 10pm (_) 10pm - 1am 3) Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, if you were entirely free to plan your day - at what time would you go to bed? (_) 8pm - 9pm (_) 9pm - 10.15pm (_) 10.15pm - 12.30am (_) 12.30am - 1.45am (_) 1.45am - 3am 4) Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, if you were entirely free to plan your day - at what time would you get up? (_) 5.00am - 6.30am (_) 6.30am - 7.45am (_) 7.45am - 9.45am (_) 9.45am - 11.00am (_) 11.00am - Midday View results [28]Science & Nature Homepage [29]Animals | [30]Prehistoric Life | [31]Human Body & Mind | [32]Space | [33]TV & Radio follow-up [34]Go to top [35]About the BBC | [36]Help | [37]Terms of Use | [38]Privacy & Cookies Policy Références [USEMAP] [1]SpringerLink Logo [2]Institutional Login Welcome! To use the personalized features of this site, please [3]log in or [4]register. If you have forgotten your username or password, we can [5]help. My Menu [6]Marked Items [7]Alerts [8]Order History Saved Items [9]All [10]Favorites * [11]Content Types + [12]All + [13]Publications + [14]Journals + [15]Book Series + [16]Books + [17]Reference Works + [18]Protocols * [19]Subject Collections + [20]Architecture and Design + [21]Behavioral Science + [22]Biomedical and Life Sciences + [23]Business and Economics + [24]Chemistry and Materials Science + [25]Computer Science + [26]Earth and Environmental Science + [27]Engineering + [28]Humanities, Social Sciences and Law + [29]Mathematics and Statistics + [30]Medicine + [31]Physics and Astronomy + [32]Professional and Applied Computing [English.......] Go Journal Article [33]Printable view Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Journal [34]Surgery Today Publisher Springer Japan ISSN 0941-1291 (Print) 1436-2813 (Online) Issue [35]Volume 17, Number 3 / May, 1987 Category Short Communication DOI 10.1007/BF02470602 Pages 209-212 Subject Collection [36]Medicine SpringerLink Date Thursday, July 20, 2006 [37]Add to marked items [38]Add to shopping cart [39]Add to saved items [40]Permissions & Reprints [41]Recommend this article [42]PDF (237.9 KB)[43] Free Preview Free Preview Short Communication Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Jun Narumi^1 Contact Information , Kozo Suma^1, Hidemi Kaneko^1, Yasuo Takeuchi^1, Kenji Inoue^1, Kenji Shiroma^1 and Yuji Koyama^1 (1) Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, 2nd Hospital of Tokyo Women's Medical College, 2-1-10 Nishiogu, Arakawaku, 116 Tokyo, Japan Received: 7 April 1986 Abstract The postoperative deep body temperature rhythms of fifteen patients who received aorto-coronary bypass surgery (group I), and of seven patients who received non-cardiac major surgery (group II), were studied. Postoperative patients, especially those who received aortocoronary bypass surgery, showed greatly disturbed deep body temperature rhythm. There existed infradian and ultradian rhythm in both groups, and there existed two patients in group I who did not show sinusoidal rhythm. The patients of group I also showed a longer period of rhythm than did those of group II. The mesor and amplitude of the patients in group I showed a greater individual variation than did those in group II. The acrophase of both groups deviated widely. The patients who underwent cardiac surgery needed a longer time for temperature rhythm recovery than did those who underwent general surgery. Key Words deep body temperature rhythm - intensive care unit - post-operative patients __________________________________________________________________ Fulltext Preview (Small, [44]Large) Image of the first page of the fulltext [45]Click here to visit our sponsor References secured to subscribers. 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[5]Alternative Medicine [6]Stress Management [7]Conditions/ Treatments [8]Preferred Providers [9]Holistic Living [10]Alternative Therapies [11]Acupuncture [12]Aromatherapy [13]Ayurveda [14]Biofeedback [15]Chelation Therapy [16]Herbal Medicine [17]Homeopathy [18]Humor Therapy [19]Hydrotherapy [20]Imagery [21]Light Therapy [22]Massage [23]Meditation [24]NLP [25]Nutrition [26]Prayer/ Spiritual [27]Reiki [28]Shiatsu [29]Yoga [30]FAQ (Health) [31]Feedback [32]Register [33]Media Light Therapy HOL-emblem Rhythms and Body Clock Circadian Rhythm From the Latin circa (about) dies (a day), the circadian rhythm is the twenty-four-hour cycle of light/dark, wakefulness/sleep to which most human physiologic processes are set. At regular intervals each day, the body tends to become hungry, tired, active, listless, energized. Body temperature, heart-beat, blood pressure, hormone levels, and urine flow rise and fall in this relatively predictable, rhythmic pattern - a pattern initiated and governed by exposure to sunlight and darkness. Experiments where humans were placed in isolation chambers, cut off from all potential environmental cues, have shown that, in the absence of natural daylight, rhythms are still maintained. But in the absence of the day light, the rhythms tend to deviate from 24 hours. For instance, the rhythms was found to expand to 24-30 hours, thus disrupting the biological processes over a long period of time. The fact that animals and humans can continue to function according to daily and annual rhythms in the absence of external environmental stimuli means that animals and humans possess some kind of biological clock, which act as a backup mechanism in case it cannot get the proper stimuli from the natural events such as sunshine. This behavior can be illustrated by our clocks. Let us say, our clock is running slow. Over a period of time, the clock may lag the actual time because of this defect. Usually, we will reset the clock when it gets far out of sync by other external stimuli like a radio or phone time. Now, if we do not have access to this external synchronizing signal, the clock can get far out of line with the reality. Our body clocks functions the same way. The biological clock can keep the time; but in the absence of correction from the day/light cycle provided by the sun, the biological clock tend go out of sync affecting our physical and mental health. A similar thing happens when we travel across time zones; we tend to experience what is known as "jet lag". However, in the absence of natural light our body clocks may lose or gain a little time. This in turn could lead to the desynchronization of different rhythms. For example, in the absence of sufficient environmental light the sleep-wake and associated rest-activity rhythms may lengthen to a cycle of between 30 and 48 hours, while the temperature rhythm may remain at a period of, say, 25 hours. Such desynchronization of the body's intricate rhythms is suspected to trigger problems: hormonal imbalances, sleep disorders and mood disturbances. Circannual Rhythm Circannual rhythm is the annual or yearly cycle used by all living things. Circaseptan Rhythm Circaseptan rhythm is a seven-day cycle in which the biological processes of life, including disease symptoms and development, resolve. Many physicians believe that transplant patients tend to have more rejection episodes seven, fourteen, twenty-one, and twenty-eight days after surgery. They further believe that medications administered to the patients at particular times may be more effective than at other times. These are all related to the circaseptan rhythm. How does the brain know when it is light or dark? Deep within the brain, inside the hypothalamus, lie two clusters of cells (i.e., neurons) called the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN). Each of these SCN is composed of more than 8,000 neurons. The SCN act as the body's circadian pacemaker. In mammals, the SCN appear to get their information from photoreceptors in the retina, which transmit signals about light and dark through the optic nerves to the hypothalamus. Once these messages enter the SCN, a series of physiological reactions takes place. What happens after the light/dark signal reaches the SCN? We are not sure. The pathway from the retina through the optic nerves to the SCN extends further to reach the pineal gland, which lies adjacent to the hypothalamus above the brain stem. Stimulated by the message it receives from the SCN, the pineal gland either secretes its main hormone, melatonin, or inhibits melatonin's release, which may result in the production of serotonin as was explained before. Next Topic: [34]Light Therapy for Seasonal Affective Disorder [[35]Light Therapy Home][[36]Alternative Therapies Home][[37]Holistic-online.com Home] [narule_200.GIF] Holisticonline.com is developed and maintained by ICBS, Inc. Send mail to: [38]info@holisticonline.com with comments about this web site. [39]Copyright © [40]1998-2007 ICBS, Inc. [41]Terms of Use All Rights Reserved. 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[256]Three things you can do immediately when you find yourself getting depressed[257]An Interview with Yulonda Brown on Surviving Abuse and Bipolar Disorder[258]Depression: A New Frontier in It's Treatment[259]Our Bipolar Topic Center has been Updated[260]Feeling Depressed: Influenced by the Attitudes and Opinions of Others?[261]Bipolar kids see aggression when it isn't there[262]Bipolar Disorder and the Need for Psychoeducation[263]Disentangling Rapid-Cycling Bipolar From Borderline [264]Videos [265]Bipolar Disorder Video[266]Major Depression Video[267]Bipolar Disorder Video[268]Antidepressants Video[269]Meet Sue Bergeson: Depression and Bipolar Support Alliance[270]Managing Bipolar Disorder[271]Bipolar Disorder - Questions to Ask Your Doctor[272]Bipolar Disorder - Working with Your Doctor[273]Bipolar Disorder - Working Toward Wellness[274]Bipolar Disorder in Children: The Importance of Family Support[275]Bipolar Disorder: Why Are Clinical Trials so Important[276]Bipolar Disorder: Why Did it Take so Long to Get Diagnosed?[277]Balancing Bipolar Disorder[278]The Road to Recovery from Bipolar Disorder[279]Advice for Someone Recently Diagnosed with Bipolar Disorder[280]How to Find Information about Bipolar Disorder[281]Are There Genetic Risk Factors for Bipolar Disorder[282]Does Bipolar Disorder Affect Children?[283]Getting Help for Family Members of Bipolar Patients Video[284]Types of Depression Video [285]Links [286][3] Associations[287][9] Community[288][31] Information[289][1] Journals[290][1] Assessment[291][1] Research[292][20] Videos[293][2] Personal Experiences[294][21] Blogs [295]Book Reviews [296]Active Treatment of Depression[297]Adult Bipolar Disorders[298]Agents in My Brain[299]American Mania[300]An Unquiet Mind[301]Bipolar Disorder[302]Bipolar Disorder Demystified[303]Bipolar Disorder in Childhood and Early Adolescence[304]Bipolar Disorders[305]Bipolar Kids[306]Crazy[307]Daughter of the Queen of Sheba[308]Depression Is a Choice[309]Detour[310]Electroboy[311]Essential Psychopharmacology of Depression and Bipolar Disorder[312]Hurry Down Sunshine[313]I am Not Sick I Don't Need Help![314]Lithium for Medea[315]Loving Someone With Bipolar Disorder[316]Madness[317]Manic[318]Manic Depression[319]Mommy I'm Still in Here[320]Mood Genes[321]New Hope for Children and Teens with Bipolar Disorder[322]New Hope For People With Bipolar Disorder[323]Night Falls Fast[324]Overcoming Depression[325]Scattershot[326]Surviving Manic Depression[327]Swing Low[328]The Best Awful[329]The Bipolar Child[330]The Bipolar Disorder Survival Guide[331]The Devil and Daniel Johnston[332]The Hypomanic Edge[333]The Naked Bird Watcher[334]The Noonday Demon[335]The Pits and the Pendulum[336]The Years of Silence are Past[337]To Walk on Eggshells[338]Toxic Psychiatry[339]Undoing Depression[340]What Goes Up[341]What Works for Bipolar Kids[342]Zelda [343]Self-Help Groups [344]Dep-Anon Community Talk about this issue in our [345]mental health support community Therapist Search Find a Therapist: _______ Go! 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As discussed earlier, the hypothalamus is the link between the nervous and endocrine systems. Given that the nervous system is also associated with the immune system, it is possible that the hypothalamus exerts its effect on the immune system as well. Thus, the combination of these systems can alter body biochemistry, contributing to shifts in body rhythms such as the circadian, seasonal, and social rhythms. Circadian Rhythm and Bipolar Disorder [441]advertisement The circadian rhythm is the 24-hour cycle of the body, the exact length of which is determined by the amount of light that the hypothalamus senses in a day-night cycle. The name "circadian" refers to a period of time that is "around a day long". Clear patterns of brain wave activity and hormone production are coupled to this cycle. When the circadian rhythm is upset (as can be the case with jet lag and sleep problems) mood disturbances can result. It is known that in some people sleep deprivation causes mania, whereas in others it can alleviate the symptoms of depression. Thus, regulation of circadian rhythm is important for managing bipolar symptoms and mood episodes. Dysregulation of this system is typically experienced as a powerful source of stress. Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) and Bipolar Disorder Similar to circadian rhythms but longer in duration are seasonal rhythms. These are determined by the amount of daylight experienced within a given season. Dysregulation of seasonal rhythms has been linked with Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD; also known as winter depression). SAD-affected individuals begin to feel increasingly depressed as the amount of light disappears during the winter. Their depression lifts as springtime approaches and the days lengthen. During times of the year with long days, these people typically experience no undue mood disturbance. Social Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder Both circadian and seasonal rhythms can affect individuals' social rhythms. The social rhythm comprises of a daily routine such as waking up at a specific time, going to school or work, and interacting with family members, friends, peers and colleagues. Even healthy people can experience mood changes when their social rhythms are disturbed by insomnia, seasonal changes or work schedules. It is no great leap to see that if someone is susceptible to bipolar disorder, a change in their body rhythms might constitute sufficient stress to precipitate bipolar symptoms. When considering the possible causes of bipolar disorders, it is necessary to bear in mind the complex nature of mood polarity. It is likely that that the problem originates in multiple biologic systems - the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems with a basis in the genetic machinery that regulates these systems. For example, a gene important in the function of the hypothalamus may become mutated or infected by a retrovirus leading to deregulation of neurotransmitters, hormones, and/or immune components. The resulting change is measurable as biochemical imbalances in either the brain or body but these biochemical imbalances are not necessarily causing the underlying dysfunction, but instead may simply be themselves symptoms or links in a chain of causes that lead to bipolar illness. [442]« Previous[443]1...[444]12[445]13[446]14[447]15[448]16[449]17[450]18...[4 51]34[452]Next » Share: [453][twitter.jpg] [454][facebook.jpg] [455][linkedin.jpg] [456][stumble.jpg] [457][delicious.jpg] [458][buzz.jpg] [459][google.jpg] [460][diigo.jpg] [461][squidoo.jpg] [462][digg.jpg] [463][reddit.jpg] [464][bitly.jpg] Link: (Here's how to do it ... ) To link to this article: 1. Copy the HTML link code shown in the box just below. 2. Paste this HTML code into your blog or web page, into a forum post or a blog comment you make, into your Facebook feed, etc. Body Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder Thank you! Reader Comments Discuss this issue below or in our [465]forums. Add Comment [466]Follow us on Twitter! [spacer.gif] [467]Find us on Facebook! [spacer.gif] IFRAME: [468]a471eef6 [469]Get Support for Bipolar Disorder [spacer.gif] Mental Help Net [470]Terms of Use/Privacy Policy[471]Our Mission[472]Contributors[473]Jobs[474]Advertising on Mental Help Net[475]Contact Us [spacer.gif] [476]advertisement [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [477]Powered by CenterSite.Net [spacer.gif] [478]This website is certified by Health On the Net Foundation. Click to verify. [spacer.gif] __________________________________________________________________ [479]About Us | [480]About CenterSite | [481]Terms & Privacy | [482]Submit/Update Listings Copyright © [483]CenterSite, LLC, 1995-2010 [mhn_footer_pg_cnt.php] [484]Quantcast Références Liens visibles 10. javascript:void(0) 11. javascript:void(0) 18. javascript:void(0) 22. javascript:void(0) 32. javascript:void(0) 35. javascript:void(0) 44. javascript:void(0) Liens cachés : FREE Online Classroom Tools [1]LOGIN OR [2]REGISTER FOR FREE [3]HotChalk [4]LessonPlansPage.com [hc-header-roundedbottom.jpg] * * [5]Lesson Plans | * [6]Teaching Degrees | * [7]Articles & Blogs | * [8]Forums | * [9]Contribute | * [10]HotChalk Tools | * [11]About | * [12]Advertising Lesson Plans [13][icon_ruler.gif] Math [14][icon_book.gif] Language Arts [15][icon_science.gif] Science [16][icon_globe.gif] Social Studies [17][icon_art.gif] Art [18][icon_laptop.gif] Computers & Internet [19][icon_music.gif] Music [20][icon_soccer.gif] P.E. & Health [21][icon_apple.gif] Other [22][icon_pencil.gif] Multi-Disciplinary Sections * [23]Online Degrees Guide * [24]HotChalk Tools * [25]Seasonal Lesson Plans * [26]Most Recent Additions * [27]Inspired Teachers * [28]Science Projects * [29]Math Worksheets * [30]Teacher Discussions * [31]Lesson Plan Guide * [32]Search This Site * [33]Join Our Newsletter * [34]Contribute !!! * [35]Advertising Information * [36]Take Our Survey! * [37]Tell A Friend! Special Features [38]Black History Month Lesson Plans Sponsored by Target * [39]Efficient Reading * [40]Masters in Education * [41]Previous Articles [42][hotchalklogo-template-sidebar.gif] * [43]About HotChalk * [44]Learn More * [45]MyClasses * [46]MyLibrary * [47]MyDesk * [48]Join for FREE! Vote For Us [49]@ SitesForTeachers [50]@ Teach-nology Resource Sites [51]Education Master's [52]Teacher Magazines [53]Teaching Jobs Site Information [54]About This Site [55]How To Use [56]Contact Info [57]Advertising Info [58]Educational Links [59]Having Problems? [60]Online Degrees Teacher's Guide [61]Join Our Facebook Page [62]Bookmark and Share Join LPP Newsletter: _________________________ Subscribe! Search This Site: _____________ Search! rhythm game using body percussion [63][print.gif] Printable Version for your convenience! Title - rhythm game using body percussion By - Michelle L. Miller Primary Subject - Music Secondary Subjects - Grade Level - 4-8 Objective: Students will be able to accurately write and count rhythms. Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests. Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding. To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3 teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat pat snap snap palms up-- quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest). Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The whole lesson takes about 30 minutes. Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as performed by teacher. Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills development and have fun at the same time!! NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well. Have fun!! E-Mail [64]Michelle L. Miller! * * [65]Lesson Plans | * [66]Teaching Degrees | * [67]Articles & Blogs | * [68]Forums | * [69]Contribute | * [70]HotChalk Tools | * [71]About | * [72]Advertising © 1996 - 2009 HotChalk, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Last Major Update: January 19, 2010 [73]Privacy Policy | [74]Anti-Spam Policy | [75]Terms of Use Please manually type in our email address to contact us (to prevent spam). 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Shiel, Jr., MD, FACP, FACR Medical Editor: [40]Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD * [41]What are biologic rhythms? * [42]How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness? * [43]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms? * [44]Angina * [45]Heart attack * [46]High blood pressure (hypertension) * [47]Hay fever (allergic rhinitis) * [48]Asthma * [49]Can the "body clock" affect diagnostic testing? * [50]Can drug therapy be matched to the "body clock?" * [51]Chronobiology: marking time, making progress What are biologic rhythms? What are biologic rhythms? In essence, they're the rhythms of life. All forms of life on earth, including our bodies, respond rhythmically to the regular cycles of the sun, moon, and seasons. For example, as night turns into day, vital body functions, including heart rate and [52]blood pressure, speed up in anticipation of increased physical activity. These and other predictable fluctuations in body function, taking place during specific time cycles, are our biologic rhythms. They are regulated by "biologic clock" mechanisms located in the brain. Although biologic rhythms can be "reprogrammed" by environmental influences (such as when a person regularly works the night shift and sleeps during the day), they are genetically "hard-wired" into our cells, tissues, and organs. Medical chronobiologists have found that biologic rhythms can affect the severity of disease symptoms, diagnostic test results, and even the body's response to drug therapy. Now these investigators are working to discover how the rhythms of life can be used to improve the practice of medicine - and your health. These time-related medical observations, and others still in the exciting process of discovery, are rooted in chronobiology (chronos - time; bios - life; logos - science), the study of biologic rhythms. How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness? Among the various biologic rhythm cycles that medical chronobiologists study, the 24-hour day/night-activity/rest cycle is considered a key chronobiologic factor in medical [53]diagnosis and treatment. Formally known as the [54]circadian rhythm, it's also referred to as the "body clock." Why is the 24-hour body clock so important? Because so many of our normal body functions follow daily patterns of speeding up and slowing down, intensifying and diminishing, in alignment with circadian rhythm. Interestingly, so do the symptoms of a number of [55]chronic disorders: Allergic rhinitis: (nasal inflammation associated with hay fever) Symptoms of sneezing, [56]runny nose, and stuffy nose are typically worse in the early waking hours than later during the day. Asthma: In most patients, symptoms are more than 100 times as likely to occur in the few hours prior to awakening than during the day. Stable angina: [57]Chest pain and [58]electrocardiographic (ECG, EKG) abnormalities are most common during the first 4 to 6 hours after awakening. [59]Prinzmetal's angina: ECG abnormalities are most common during [60]sleep; chest pain can occur even while at rest. Heart attack: Heart attack most commonly occurs in the early waking hours. Stroke: [61]Strokes most commonly occur in the early waking hours. Hypertension: The highest blood pressure readings typically occur from late morning to middle afternoon; lowest occur during early sleep. Therapy now exists that works with your body clock; consult your physician about this treatment. Clinical studies are underway to further this research. [62]Rheumatoid arthritis: RA symptoms are most intense upon awakening. [63]Osteoarthritis: Symptoms of osteoarthritis worsen in the afternoon and evening. Ulcer disease: The pain typically occurs after stomach emptying, following daytime meals, and in the very early morning, disrupting sleep. [64]Epilepsy: Seizures often occur only at particular times of the day or night; individual patterns differ among patients. * 1 * [65]2 * [66]3 * [67]4 * [68]5 * [69]6 * [70]7 * [71]8 * [72]Next » * [73]Biorhythms Index * [74]Glossary Next: [75]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms? » [76]Printer-Friendly Format | [77]Email to a Friend [header-doctor-topics_2.gif] Suggested Reading by Our Doctors MedicineNet Doctors * [78]Chemotherapy - Get information on chemotherapy treatment for cancer, side effects of medications and how chemo works. Chemotherapy is a type of cancer treatment often given along with radiation therapy and surgery. * [79]Rheumatoid Arthritis - Learn more about rheumatoid arthritis, an autoimmune disease that causes chronic joint inflammation, which has symptoms that include stiffness, fever, muscle and joint aches, loss of appetite, and fatigue. Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis incorporates the use of first-line drugs (aspirin and corticosteroids for pain and inflammation) and second-line drugs (methotrexate and hydroxychloroquine to prevent joint destruction and promote remission). * [80]Radiation Therapy - [81]Read more Biorhythms related articles » Latest Medical News * [82]Nightly Snacking May Speed Weight Gain [footer-doctor-topics_2.gif] [83]Privacy Policy Allergies & Asthma Improve treatments & prevent attacks. _____________________ [btn_submit2.gif]-Submit [clearpixel.gif] [84]Are you Depressed? Take the Quiz [85]Your Guide to Symptoms & Signs: Pinpoint Your Pain IFRAME: 8&xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos= 121 From WebMD Asthma and Allergy Resources * [87]Allergy Issues? Get Personalized Advice * [88]How to Use Your Inhaler * [89]The Best Cities for Asthma Featured Centers * [90]12 Ways to Prevent the Spread of Viruses * [91]10 Surprising Benefits of Treating Your Depression * [92]Healthy Home: To Buy or Not to Buy Organic? Health Solutions From Our Sponsors * [93]Osteoporosis Info * [94]BPH Treatment & Savings * [95]MS Rx Options Biorhythms [96]Jet Lag » What is jet lag? Jet lag, also called desynchronosis, is a temporary disorder that causes fatigue, insomnia, and other symptoms as a result of air travel across time zones. What are other symptoms of jet lag? Besides fatigue and insomnia, a jet lag sufferer may experience anxiety, constipation, diarrhea, confusion, dehydration, headache, irritability, nausea, sweating, coordination problems, and even memory loss. Some individuals report additional symptoms, such as heartbeat irregularities and increased susceptibility to illness. What is a time zone? A time zone is a geographical region which has the same time everywhere within it. The world has 24 time zones, one for each hour in the day. Each zone runs from north to south in strips that are approximately 1,000 miles (1,600 kilometers) wide. (The actual width of each zone varies to accommodate political and geographical boundaries.) As... [97]Read the Jet Lag article » Featured on MedicineNet * [98]Tips to Ease Nighttime Pain * [99]Check Your Fibromyalgia Symptoms * [100]Depression Tips Slideshow * [101]Are You at Risk for Diabetic Nerve Pain? Top 10 Biorhythms Related Articles * [102]Chemo Infusion and Chemoembolization of Liver * [103]Chemotherapy * [104]Chemotherapy Treatment for Breast Cancer * [105]Heart Attack * [106]High Blood Pressure * [107]Osteoarthritis * [108]Radiation Therapy * [109]Radiation Therapy for Breast Cancer * [110]Rheumatoid Arthritis * [111]Stroke * [112]Complete List » New on MedicineNet * [113]Michael C. Hall Has Hodgkin's * [114]Cryptosporidiosis Causes * [115]Shigella Infection Symptoms * [116]Lymphedema Causes * [117]C-Reactive Protein (CRP) * [118]Sinus Headache Treatment * [119]Pictures Slideshows Interactive Slideshows [120]Adult Skin Problems Slideshow IFRAME: 08&xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos =113 IFRAME: [122]/htmlchunks/slideshow/slidermodule/6_slides_line.htm IFRAME: [123]/htmlchunks/footer/footer_new_medicinenet.html Health categories: [124]Slideshows | [125]Diseases & Conditions | [126]Symptoms & Signs | [127]Procedures & Tests | [128]Medications | [129]Image Collection | [130]Medical Dictionary | [131]Pet Health Popular health centers: [132]Allergies | [133]Arthritis | [134]Blood Pressure | [135]Cancer | [136]Chronic Pain | [137]Cold & Flu | [138]Diabetes | [139]Digestion | [140]Eyesight | [141]Health & Living | [142]Healthy Kids [143]Hearing & Ear | [144]Heart | [145]Infectious Disease | [146]Men's Health | [147]Mental Health | [148]News & Views | [149]Pregnancy | [150]Sexual Health | [151]Skin | [152]Women's Health | [153]More... 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Références Liens visibles 76. javascript:myVoid() Liens cachés : * [1]Skip to main content * [2]Text only version of this page * [3]Access keys help [4]BBC Home ____________________ Search [5]Explore the BBC 19 January 2010 [6]Accessibility help [7]Text only [8][USEMAP:banner_new.jpg] [9]Animals [10]Prehistoric Life [11]Human Body & Mind [12]Space [13]TV & Radio Follow-up [14]BBC Homepage [15]Science & Nature Homepage In [16]Human Body & Mind: [17]The mind [18]The body [19]Brain Sex [20]Sleep [21]Take part in the Brain Test Britain experiment __________________________________________________________________ [22]Contact Us Like this page? [23]Send it to a friend! You are here: [24]BBC > [25]Science & Nature > [26]Human Body & Mind > [27]Sleep > Daily Rhythm Test Daily Rhythm Test Our internal body clock governs our daily or circadian rhythm - telling us when to wake up and when to feel sleepy. Circadian comes from the Latin circa, meaning about and dies, meaning day. This test will produce a chart showing your natural sleeping and waking pattern over a 24 hour period. If you're having problems sleeping it could be your natural body clock is at odds with your routine. 1) Do you consider yourself a morning person or an evening person? (_) Evening (_) More evening than morning (_) Cant tell (_) More morning than evening (_) Morning 2) At what time of day do you feel at your best? (_) 5am - 9am (_) 9am - 11am (_) 11am - 5pm (_) 5pm - 10pm (_) 10pm - 1am 3) Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, if you were entirely free to plan your day - at what time would you go to bed? (_) 8pm - 9pm (_) 9pm - 10.15pm (_) 10.15pm - 12.30am (_) 12.30am - 1.45am (_) 1.45am - 3am 4) Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, if you were entirely free to plan your day - at what time would you get up? (_) 5.00am - 6.30am (_) 6.30am - 7.45am (_) 7.45am - 9.45am (_) 9.45am - 11.00am (_) 11.00am - Midday View results [28]Science & Nature Homepage [29]Animals | [30]Prehistoric Life | [31]Human Body & Mind | [32]Space | [33]TV & Radio follow-up [34]Go to top [35]About the BBC | [36]Help | [37]Terms of Use | [38]Privacy & Cookies Policy Références [USEMAP] [1]SpringerLink Logo [2]Institutional Login Welcome! To use the personalized features of this site, please [3]log in or [4]register. If you have forgotten your username or password, we can [5]help. My Menu [6]Marked Items [7]Alerts [8]Order History Saved Items [9]All [10]Favorites * [11]Content Types + [12]All + [13]Publications + [14]Journals + [15]Book Series + [16]Books + [17]Reference Works + [18]Protocols * [19]Subject Collections + [20]Architecture and Design + [21]Behavioral Science + [22]Biomedical and Life Sciences + [23]Business and Economics + [24]Chemistry and Materials Science + [25]Computer Science + [26]Earth and Environmental Science + [27]Engineering + [28]Humanities, Social Sciences and Law + [29]Mathematics and Statistics + [30]Medicine + [31]Physics and Astronomy + [32]Professional and Applied Computing [English.......] Go Journal Article [33]Printable view Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Journal [34]Surgery Today Publisher Springer Japan ISSN 0941-1291 (Print) 1436-2813 (Online) Issue [35]Volume 17, Number 3 / May, 1987 Category Short Communication DOI 10.1007/BF02470602 Pages 209-212 Subject Collection [36]Medicine SpringerLink Date Thursday, July 20, 2006 [37]Add to marked items [38]Add to shopping cart [39]Add to saved items [40]Permissions & Reprints [41]Recommend this article [42]PDF (237.9 KB)[43] Free Preview Free Preview Short Communication Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Jun Narumi^1 Contact Information , Kozo Suma^1, Hidemi Kaneko^1, Yasuo Takeuchi^1, Kenji Inoue^1, Kenji Shiroma^1 and Yuji Koyama^1 (1) Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, 2nd Hospital of Tokyo Women's Medical College, 2-1-10 Nishiogu, Arakawaku, 116 Tokyo, Japan Received: 7 April 1986 Abstract The postoperative deep body temperature rhythms of fifteen patients who received aorto-coronary bypass surgery (group I), and of seven patients who received non-cardiac major surgery (group II), were studied. Postoperative patients, especially those who received aortocoronary bypass surgery, showed greatly disturbed deep body temperature rhythm. There existed infradian and ultradian rhythm in both groups, and there existed two patients in group I who did not show sinusoidal rhythm. The patients of group I also showed a longer period of rhythm than did those of group II. The mesor and amplitude of the patients in group I showed a greater individual variation than did those in group II. The acrophase of both groups deviated widely. The patients who underwent cardiac surgery needed a longer time for temperature rhythm recovery than did those who underwent general surgery. Key Words deep body temperature rhythm - intensive care unit - post-operative patients __________________________________________________________________ Fulltext Preview (Small, [44]Large) Image of the first page of the fulltext [45]Click here to visit our sponsor References secured to subscribers. 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[67]Part of Springer Science+Business Media [68]Privacy, Disclaimer, Terms and Conditions, © Copyright Information [69]MetaPress Privacy Policy Remote Address: 84.99.202.28 o Server: mpweb23 HTTP User Agent: Lynx/2.8.7pre.6 libwww-FM/2.14 SSL-MM/1.4.1 Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : FREE Online Classroom Tools [1]LOGIN OR [2]REGISTER FOR FREE [3]HotChalk [4]LessonPlansPage.com [hc-header-roundedbottom.jpg] * * [5]Lesson Plans | * [6]Teaching Degrees | * [7]Articles & Blogs | * [8]Forums | * [9]Contribute | * [10]HotChalk Tools | * [11]About | * [12]Advertising Lesson Plans [13][icon_ruler.gif] Math [14][icon_book.gif] Language Arts [15][icon_science.gif] Science [16][icon_globe.gif] Social Studies [17][icon_art.gif] Art [18][icon_laptop.gif] Computers & Internet [19][icon_music.gif] Music [20][icon_soccer.gif] P.E. & Health [21][icon_apple.gif] Other [22][icon_pencil.gif] Multi-Disciplinary Sections * [23]Online Degrees Guide * [24]HotChalk Tools * [25]Seasonal Lesson Plans * [26]Most Recent Additions * [27]Inspired Teachers * [28]Science Projects * [29]Math Worksheets * [30]Teacher Discussions * [31]Lesson Plan Guide * [32]Search This Site * [33]Join Our Newsletter * [34]Contribute !!! * [35]Advertising Information * [36]Take Our Survey! * [37]Tell A Friend! Special Features [38]Black History Month Lesson Plans Sponsored by Target * [39]Efficient Reading * [40]Masters in Education * [41]Previous Articles [42][hotchalklogo-template-sidebar.gif] * [43]About HotChalk * [44]Learn More * [45]MyClasses * [46]MyLibrary * [47]MyDesk * [48]Join for FREE! Resource Sites [49]Education Master's [50]Teacher Magazines [51]Teaching Jobs Site Information [52]About This Site [53]How To Use [54]Contact Info [55]Advertising Info [56]Educational Links [57]Having Problems? [58]Online Degrees Teacher's Guide [59]Join Our Facebook Page [60]Bookmark and Share Join LPP Newsletter: _________________________ Subscribe! Search This Site: _____________ Search! rhythm game using body percussion [61][print.gif] Printable Version for your convenience! Title - rhythm game using body percussion By - Michelle L. Miller Primary Subject - Music Secondary Subjects - Grade Level - 4-8 Objective: Students will be able to accurately write and count rhythms. Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests. Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding. To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3 teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat pat snap snap palms up-- quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest). Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The whole lesson takes about 30 minutes. Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as performed by teacher. Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills development and have fun at the same time!! NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well. Have fun!! E-Mail [62]Michelle L. Miller! * * [63]Lesson Plans | * [64]Teaching Degrees | * [65]Articles & Blogs | * [66]Forums | * [67]Contribute | * [68]HotChalk Tools | * [69]About | * [70]Advertising © 1996 - 2010 HotChalk, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Last Modified December 23, 2009 [71]Privacy Policy | [72]Anti-Spam Policy | [73]Terms of Use Please manually type in our email address to contact us (to prevent spam). Quantcast Références 62. mailto:Michellelmiller@avon.net #[1]Daily Health and Medical News [2]Weekly Health and Medical News Digest [3]Health and Medical Slideshows [5]Biorhythms Specialty IFRAME: &xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos=1 01 [7]MedicineNet.com ___________________________________ Search [8]About Us | [9]Privacy Policy | [10]Site Map January 17, 2010 [11]MedicineNet home [12]Picture Slideshows [13]Diseases and conditions [14]Symptoms and signs [15]Procedures and tests [16]Medications [17]Picture Image Collection [18]MedTerms medical dictionary [19]Pet Health [clearpixel.gif] [20]home > [21]biorhythms index > biorhythms article [clearpixel.gif] [clearpixel.gif] [clearpixel.gif] Font Size [22]A [23]A [24]A * 1 * [25]2 * [26]3 * [27]4 * [28]5 * [29]6 * [30]7 * [31]8 * [32]Next » * [33]Biorhythms Index * [34]Glossary Biorhythms [35]View Asthma Slideshow [36]Asthma Slideshow View Asthma Slideshow [37]Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow View Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow [38]Worst Cities for Asthma, 2009 Slideshow Pictures of the Worst Cities for Asthma Slideshow Medical Author: [39]William C. Shiel, Jr., MD, FACP, FACR Medical Editor: [40]Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD * [41]What are biologic rhythms? * [42]How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness? * [43]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms? * [44]Angina * [45]Heart attack * [46]High blood pressure (hypertension) * [47]Hay fever (allergic rhinitis) * [48]Asthma * [49]Can the "body clock" affect diagnostic testing? * [50]Can drug therapy be matched to the "body clock?" * [51]Chronobiology: marking time, making progress What are biologic rhythms? What are biologic rhythms? In essence, they're the rhythms of life. All forms of life on earth, including our bodies, respond rhythmically to the regular cycles of the sun, moon, and seasons. For example, as night turns into day, vital body functions, including heart rate and [52]blood pressure, speed up in anticipation of increased physical activity. These and other predictable fluctuations in body function, taking place during specific time cycles, are our biologic rhythms. They are regulated by "biologic clock" mechanisms located in the brain. Although biologic rhythms can be "reprogrammed" by environmental influences (such as when a person regularly works the night shift and sleeps during the day), they are genetically "hard-wired" into our cells, tissues, and organs. Medical chronobiologists have found that biologic rhythms can affect the severity of disease symptoms, diagnostic test results, and even the body's response to drug therapy. Now these investigators are working to discover how the rhythms of life can be used to improve the practice of medicine - and your health. These time-related medical observations, and others still in the exciting process of discovery, are rooted in chronobiology (chronos - time; bios - life; logos - science), the study of biologic rhythms. How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness? Among the various biologic rhythm cycles that medical chronobiologists study, the 24-hour day/night-activity/rest cycle is considered a key chronobiologic factor in medical [53]diagnosis and treatment. Formally known as the [54]circadian rhythm, it's also referred to as the "body clock." Why is the 24-hour body clock so important? Because so many of our normal body functions follow daily patterns of speeding up and slowing down, intensifying and diminishing, in alignment with circadian rhythm. Interestingly, so do the symptoms of a number of [55]chronic disorders: Allergic rhinitis: (nasal inflammation associated with hay fever) Symptoms of sneezing, [56]runny nose, and stuffy nose are typically worse in the early waking hours than later during the day. Asthma: In most patients, symptoms are more than 100 times as likely to occur in the few hours prior to awakening than during the day. Stable angina: [57]Chest pain and [58]electrocardiographic (ECG, EKG) abnormalities are most common during the first 4 to 6 hours after awakening. [59]Prinzmetal's angina: ECG abnormalities are most common during [60]sleep; chest pain can occur even while at rest. Heart attack: Heart attack most commonly occurs in the early waking hours. Stroke: [61]Strokes most commonly occur in the early waking hours. Hypertension: The highest blood pressure readings typically occur from late morning to middle afternoon; lowest occur during early sleep. Therapy now exists that works with your body clock; consult your physician about this treatment. Clinical studies are underway to further this research. [62]Rheumatoid arthritis: RA symptoms are most intense upon awakening. [63]Osteoarthritis: Symptoms of osteoarthritis worsen in the afternoon and evening. Ulcer disease: The pain typically occurs after stomach emptying, following daytime meals, and in the very early morning, disrupting sleep. [64]Epilepsy: Seizures often occur only at particular times of the day or night; individual patterns differ among patients. * 1 * [65]2 * [66]3 * [67]4 * [68]5 * [69]6 * [70]7 * [71]8 * [72]Next » * [73]Biorhythms Index * [74]Glossary Next: [75]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms? » [76]Printer-Friendly Format | [77]Email to a Friend [header-doctor-topics_2.gif] Suggested Reading by Our Doctors MedicineNet Doctors * [78]Chemotherapy - Get information on chemotherapy treatment for cancer, side effects of medications and how chemo works. Chemotherapy is a type of cancer treatment often given along with radiation therapy and surgery. * [79]Rheumatoid Arthritis - Learn more about rheumatoid arthritis, an autoimmune disease that causes chronic joint inflammation, which has symptoms that include stiffness, fever, muscle and joint aches, loss of appetite, and fatigue. Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis incorporates the use of first-line drugs (aspirin and corticosteroids for pain and inflammation) and second-line drugs (methotrexate and hydroxychloroquine to prevent joint destruction and promote remission). * [80]Radiation Therapy - [81]Read more Biorhythms related articles » Latest Medical News * [82]Nightly Snacking May Speed Weight Gain [footer-doctor-topics_2.gif] [83]Privacy Policy Allergies & Asthma Improve treatments & prevent attacks. _____________________ [btn_submit2.gif]-Submit [clearpixel.gif] [84]Are you Depressed? Take the Quiz [85]Your Guide to Symptoms & Signs: Pinpoint Your Pain IFRAME: 1&xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos= 121 From WebMD Asthma and Allergy Resources * [87]Asthma Attack Slideshow * [88]How to Use Your Inhaler * [89]The Best Cities for Asthma Featured Centers * [90]12 Ways to Prevent the Spread of Viruses * [91]Longevity Foods: Eat Well, Live Longer * [92]Sad? Irritable? Assess Your Symptoms * [93]Healthy Home: To Buy or Not to Buy Organic? Health Solutions From Our Sponsors * [94]Osteoporosis Info * [95]Overactive Bladder Rx Biorhythms [96]Hay Fever » What is hay fever? What are the symptoms and signs? Hay fever is a misnomer. Hay is not a usual cause of this problem, and it does not cause fever. Early descriptions of sneezing, nasal congestion, and eye irritation while harvesting field hay promoted this popular term. Allergic rhinitis is the correct term used to describe this allergic reaction, and many different substances cause the allergic symptoms noted in hay fever. Rhinitis means "irritation of the nose" and is a derivative of rhino, meaning nose. Allergic rhinitis which occurs during a specific season is called "seasonal allergic rhinitis." When it occurs throughout the year, it is called "perennial allergic rhinitis." Symptoms of allergic rhinitis, or hay fever, frequently include nasal congestion, a clear runny nose, sneezing, nose and eye itching, and excess tear production in the eyes. Postnasal dripping of clear mucus frequently causes a cough. Loss of the sense ... [97]Read the Hay Fever article » Featured on MedicineNet * [98]Tips to Ease Nighttime Pain * [99]Check Your Fibromyalgia Symptoms * [100]Depression Tips Slideshow * [101]Are You at Risk for Diabetic Nerve Pain? Top 10 Biorhythms Related Articles * [102]Chemo Infusion and Chemoembolization of Liver * [103]Chemotherapy * [104]Chemotherapy Treatment for Breast Cancer * [105]Heart Attack * [106]High Blood Pressure * [107]Osteoarthritis * [108]Radiation Therapy * [109]Radiation Therapy for Breast Cancer * [110]Rheumatoid Arthritis * [111]Stroke * [112]Complete List » New on MedicineNet * [113]Michael C. Hall Has Hodgkin's * [114]Cryptosporidiosis Causes * [115]Shigella Infection Symptoms * [116]Lymphedema Causes * [117]C-Reactive Protein (CRP) * [118]Sinus Headache Treatment * [119]Pictures Slideshows Interactive Slideshows [120]Adult Skin Problems Slideshow IFRAME: 31&xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos =113 IFRAME: [122]/htmlchunks/slideshow/slidermodule/6_slides_line.htm IFRAME: [123]/htmlchunks/footer/footer_new_medicinenet.html Health categories: [124]Slideshows | [125]Diseases & Conditions | [126]Symptoms & Signs | [127]Procedures & Tests | [128]Medications | [129]Image Collection | [130]Medical Dictionary | [131]Pet Health Popular health centers: [132]Allergies | [133]Arthritis | [134]Blood Pressure | [135]Cancer | [136]Chronic Pain | [137]Cold & Flu | [138]Diabetes | [139]Digestion | [140]Eyesight | [141]Health & Living | [142]Healthy Kids [143]Hearing & Ear | [144]Heart | [145]Infectious Disease | [146]Men's Health | [147]Mental Health | [148]News & Views | [149]Pregnancy | [150]Sexual Health | [151]Skin | [152]Women's Health | [153]More... 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Références Liens visibles 76. javascript:myVoid() Liens cachés : * [1]Skip to main content * [2]Text only version of this page * [3]Access keys help [4]BBC Home ____________________ Search [5]Explore the BBC 17 January 2010 [6]Accessibility help [7]Text only [8][USEMAP:banner_new.jpg] [9]Animals [10]Prehistoric Life [11]Human Body & Mind [12]Space [13]TV & Radio Follow-up [14]BBC Homepage [15]Science & Nature Homepage In [16]Human Body & Mind: [17]The mind [18]The body [19]Brain Sex [20]Sleep [21]Take part in the Brain Test Britain experiment __________________________________________________________________ [22]Contact Us Like this page? [23]Send it to a friend! You are here: [24]BBC > [25]Science & Nature > [26]Human Body & Mind > [27]Sleep > Daily Rhythm Test Daily Rhythm Test Our internal body clock governs our daily or circadian rhythm - telling us when to wake up and when to feel sleepy. Circadian comes from the Latin circa, meaning about and dies, meaning day. This test will produce a chart showing your natural sleeping and waking pattern over a 24 hour period. If you're having problems sleeping it could be your natural body clock is at odds with your routine. 1) Do you consider yourself a morning person or an evening person? (_) Evening (_) More evening than morning (_) Cant tell (_) More morning than evening (_) Morning 2) At what time of day do you feel at your best? (_) 5am - 9am (_) 9am - 11am (_) 11am - 5pm (_) 5pm - 10pm (_) 10pm - 1am 3) Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, if you were entirely free to plan your day - at what time would you go to bed? (_) 8pm - 9pm (_) 9pm - 10.15pm (_) 10.15pm - 12.30am (_) 12.30am - 1.45am (_) 1.45am - 3am 4) Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, if you were entirely free to plan your day - at what time would you get up? (_) 5.00am - 6.30am (_) 6.30am - 7.45am (_) 7.45am - 9.45am (_) 9.45am - 11.00am (_) 11.00am - Midday View results [28]Science & Nature Homepage [29]Animals | [30]Prehistoric Life | [31]Human Body & Mind | [32]Space | [33]TV & Radio follow-up [34]Go to top [35]About the BBC | [36]Help | [37]Terms of Use | [38]Privacy & Cookies Policy Références [USEMAP] [1]SpringerLink Logo [2]Institutional Login Welcome! To use the personalized features of this site, please [3]log in or [4]register. If you have forgotten your username or password, we can [5]help. My Menu [6]Marked Items [7]Alerts [8]Order History Saved Items [9]All [10]Favorites * [11]Content Types + [12]All + [13]Publications + [14]Journals + [15]Book Series + [16]Books + [17]Reference Works + [18]Protocols * [19]Subject Collections + [20]Architecture and Design + [21]Behavioral Science + [22]Biomedical and Life Sciences + [23]Business and Economics + [24]Chemistry and Materials Science + [25]Computer Science + [26]Earth and Environmental Science + [27]Engineering + [28]Humanities, Social Sciences and Law + [29]Mathematics and Statistics + [30]Medicine + [31]Physics and Astronomy + [32]Professional and Applied Computing [English.......] Go Journal Article [33]Printable view Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Journal [34]Surgery Today Publisher Springer Japan ISSN 0941-1291 (Print) 1436-2813 (Online) Issue [35]Volume 17, Number 3 / May, 1987 Category Short Communication DOI 10.1007/BF02470602 Pages 209-212 Subject Collection [36]Medicine SpringerLink Date Thursday, July 20, 2006 [37]Add to marked items [38]Add to shopping cart [39]Add to saved items [40]Permissions & Reprints [41]Recommend this article [42]PDF (237.9 KB)[43] Free Preview Free Preview Short Communication Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Jun Narumi^1 Contact Information , Kozo Suma^1, Hidemi Kaneko^1, Yasuo Takeuchi^1, Kenji Inoue^1, Kenji Shiroma^1 and Yuji Koyama^1 (1) Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, 2nd Hospital of Tokyo Women's Medical College, 2-1-10 Nishiogu, Arakawaku, 116 Tokyo, Japan Received: 7 April 1986 Abstract The postoperative deep body temperature rhythms of fifteen patients who received aorto-coronary bypass surgery (group I), and of seven patients who received non-cardiac major surgery (group II), were studied. Postoperative patients, especially those who received aortocoronary bypass surgery, showed greatly disturbed deep body temperature rhythm. There existed infradian and ultradian rhythm in both groups, and there existed two patients in group I who did not show sinusoidal rhythm. The patients of group I also showed a longer period of rhythm than did those of group II. The mesor and amplitude of the patients in group I showed a greater individual variation than did those in group II. The acrophase of both groups deviated widely. The patients who underwent cardiac surgery needed a longer time for temperature rhythm recovery than did those who underwent general surgery. Key Words deep body temperature rhythm - intensive care unit - post-operative patients __________________________________________________________________ Fulltext Preview (Small, [44]Large) Image of the first page of the fulltext [45]Click here to visit our sponsor References secured to subscribers. [46]more options Find ____________________ ... Go Query Builder Close | Clear * [47]Title (ti) * [48]Summary (su) * [49]Author (au) * [50]ISSN (issn) * [51]ISBN (isbn) * [52]DOI (doi) * * [53]And * [54]Or * [55]Not * [56]( * [57]) * [58]* (wildcard) * [59]"" (exact) (_) Within all content (_) Within this journal (_) Within this issue Export this article Export this article as [60]RIS | [61]Text [62]Frequently asked questions | [63]General information on journals and books | [64]Send us your feedback | [65]Impressum | [66]Contact © Springer. [67]Part of Springer Science+Business Media [68]Privacy, Disclaimer, Terms and Conditions, © Copyright Information [69]MetaPress Privacy Policy Remote Address: 84.99.202.28 o Server: mpweb01 HTTP User Agent: Lynx/2.8.7pre.6 libwww-FM/2.14 SSL-MM/1.4.1 Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1]Home [2]Search Holisticonline [3]Grandmas Remedies Quality vitamins, natural remedies [4]Specialgifts.com Big savings on gemstones, jewelry and gifts. [5]Alternative Medicine [6]Stress Management [7]Conditions/ Treatments [8]Preferred Providers [9]Holistic Living [10]Alternative Therapies [11]Acupuncture [12]Aromatherapy [13]Ayurveda [14]Biofeedback [15]Chelation Therapy [16]Herbal Medicine [17]Homeopathy [18]Humor Therapy [19]Hydrotherapy [20]Imagery [21]Light Therapy [22]Massage [23]Meditation [24]NLP [25]Nutrition [26]Prayer/ Spiritual [27]Reiki [28]Shiatsu [29]Yoga [30]FAQ (Health) [31]Feedback [32]Register [33]Media Light Therapy HOL-emblem Rhythms and Body Clock Circadian Rhythm From the Latin circa (about) dies (a day), the circadian rhythm is the twenty-four-hour cycle of light/dark, wakefulness/sleep to which most human physiologic processes are set. At regular intervals each day, the body tends to become hungry, tired, active, listless, energized. Body temperature, heart-beat, blood pressure, hormone levels, and urine flow rise and fall in this relatively predictable, rhythmic pattern - a pattern initiated and governed by exposure to sunlight and darkness. Experiments where humans were placed in isolation chambers, cut off from all potential environmental cues, have shown that, in the absence of natural daylight, rhythms are still maintained. But in the absence of the day light, the rhythms tend to deviate from 24 hours. For instance, the rhythms was found to expand to 24-30 hours, thus disrupting the biological processes over a long period of time. The fact that animals and humans can continue to function according to daily and annual rhythms in the absence of external environmental stimuli means that animals and humans possess some kind of biological clock, which act as a backup mechanism in case it cannot get the proper stimuli from the natural events such as sunshine. This behavior can be illustrated by our clocks. Let us say, our clock is running slow. Over a period of time, the clock may lag the actual time because of this defect. Usually, we will reset the clock when it gets far out of sync by other external stimuli like a radio or phone time. Now, if we do not have access to this external synchronizing signal, the clock can get far out of line with the reality. Our body clocks functions the same way. The biological clock can keep the time; but in the absence of correction from the day/light cycle provided by the sun, the biological clock tend go out of sync affecting our physical and mental health. A similar thing happens when we travel across time zones; we tend to experience what is known as "jet lag". However, in the absence of natural light our body clocks may lose or gain a little time. This in turn could lead to the desynchronization of different rhythms. For example, in the absence of sufficient environmental light the sleep-wake and associated rest-activity rhythms may lengthen to a cycle of between 30 and 48 hours, while the temperature rhythm may remain at a period of, say, 25 hours. Such desynchronization of the body's intricate rhythms is suspected to trigger problems: hormonal imbalances, sleep disorders and mood disturbances. Circannual Rhythm Circannual rhythm is the annual or yearly cycle used by all living things. Circaseptan Rhythm Circaseptan rhythm is a seven-day cycle in which the biological processes of life, including disease symptoms and development, resolve. Many physicians believe that transplant patients tend to have more rejection episodes seven, fourteen, twenty-one, and twenty-eight days after surgery. They further believe that medications administered to the patients at particular times may be more effective than at other times. These are all related to the circaseptan rhythm. How does the brain know when it is light or dark? Deep within the brain, inside the hypothalamus, lie two clusters of cells (i.e., neurons) called the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN). Each of these SCN is composed of more than 8,000 neurons. The SCN act as the body's circadian pacemaker. In mammals, the SCN appear to get their information from photoreceptors in the retina, which transmit signals about light and dark through the optic nerves to the hypothalamus. Once these messages enter the SCN, a series of physiological reactions takes place. What happens after the light/dark signal reaches the SCN? We are not sure. The pathway from the retina through the optic nerves to the SCN extends further to reach the pineal gland, which lies adjacent to the hypothalamus above the brain stem. Stimulated by the message it receives from the SCN, the pineal gland either secretes its main hormone, melatonin, or inhibits melatonin's release, which may result in the production of serotonin as was explained before. Next Topic: [34]Light Therapy for Seasonal Affective Disorder [[35]Light Therapy Home][[36]Alternative Therapies Home][[37]Holistic-online.com Home] [narule_200.GIF] Holisticonline.com is developed and maintained by ICBS, Inc. Send mail to: [38]info@holisticonline.com with comments about this web site. [39]Copyright © [40]1998-2007 ICBS, Inc. [41]Terms of Use All Rights Reserved. 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As discussed earlier, the hypothalamus is the link between the nervous and endocrine systems. Given that the nervous system is also associated with the immune system, it is possible that the hypothalamus exerts its effect on the immune system as well. Thus, the combination of these systems can alter body biochemistry, contributing to shifts in body rhythms such as the circadian, seasonal, and social rhythms. Circadian Rhythm and Bipolar Disorder [441]advertisement The circadian rhythm is the 24-hour cycle of the body, the exact length of which is determined by the amount of light that the hypothalamus senses in a day-night cycle. The name "circadian" refers to a period of time that is "around a day long". Clear patterns of brain wave activity and hormone production are coupled to this cycle. When the circadian rhythm is upset (as can be the case with jet lag and sleep problems) mood disturbances can result. It is known that in some people sleep deprivation causes mania, whereas in others it can alleviate the symptoms of depression. Thus, regulation of circadian rhythm is important for managing bipolar symptoms and mood episodes. Dysregulation of this system is typically experienced as a powerful source of stress. Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) and Bipolar Disorder Similar to circadian rhythms but longer in duration are seasonal rhythms. These are determined by the amount of daylight experienced within a given season. Dysregulation of seasonal rhythms has been linked with Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD; also known as winter depression). SAD-affected individuals begin to feel increasingly depressed as the amount of light disappears during the winter. Their depression lifts as springtime approaches and the days lengthen. During times of the year with long days, these people typically experience no undue mood disturbance. Social Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder Both circadian and seasonal rhythms can affect individuals' social rhythms. The social rhythm comprises of a daily routine such as waking up at a specific time, going to school or work, and interacting with family members, friends, peers and colleagues. Even healthy people can experience mood changes when their social rhythms are disturbed by insomnia, seasonal changes or work schedules. It is no great leap to see that if someone is susceptible to bipolar disorder, a change in their body rhythms might constitute sufficient stress to precipitate bipolar symptoms. When considering the possible causes of bipolar disorders, it is necessary to bear in mind the complex nature of mood polarity. It is likely that that the problem originates in multiple biologic systems - the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems with a basis in the genetic machinery that regulates these systems. For example, a gene important in the function of the hypothalamus may become mutated or infected by a retrovirus leading to deregulation of neurotransmitters, hormones, and/or immune components. The resulting change is measurable as biochemical imbalances in either the brain or body but these biochemical imbalances are not necessarily causing the underlying dysfunction, but instead may simply be themselves symptoms or links in a chain of causes that lead to bipolar illness. [442]« Previous[443]1...[444]12[445]13[446]14[447]15[448]16[449]17[450]18...[4 51]34[452]Next » Share: [453][twitter.jpg] [454][facebook.jpg] [455][linkedin.jpg] [456][stumble.jpg] [457][delicious.jpg] [458][buzz.jpg] [459][google.jpg] [460][diigo.jpg] [461][squidoo.jpg] [462][digg.jpg] [463][reddit.jpg] [464][bitly.jpg] Link: (Here's how to do it ... ) To link to this article: 1. Copy the HTML link code shown in the box just below. 2. Paste this HTML code into your blog or web page, into a forum post or a blog comment you make, into your Facebook feed, etc. Body Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder Thank you! Reader Comments Discuss this issue below or in our [465]forums. Add Comment [466]Follow us on Twitter! [spacer.gif] [467]Find us on Facebook! [spacer.gif] IFRAME: [468]a471eef6 [469]Get Support for Bipolar Disorder [spacer.gif] Mental Help Net [470]Terms of Use/Privacy Policy[471]Our Mission[472]Contributors[473]Jobs[474]Advertising on Mental Help Net[475]Contact Us [spacer.gif] [476]advertisement [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [477]Powered by CenterSite.Net [spacer.gif] [478]This website is certified by Health On the Net Foundation. Click to verify. 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Miller Primary Subject - Music Secondary Subjects - Grade Level - 4-8 Objective: Students will be able to accurately write and count rhythms. Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests. Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding. To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3 teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat pat snap snap palms up-- quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest). Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The whole lesson takes about 30 minutes. Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as performed by teacher. Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills development and have fun at the same time!! NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well. Have fun!! E-Mail [64]Michelle L. Miller! * * [65]Lesson Plans | * [66]Teaching Degrees | * [67]Articles & Blogs | * [68]Forums | * [69]Contribute | * [70]HotChalk Tools | * [71]About | * [72]Advertising © 1996 - 2009 HotChalk, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Last Major Update: January 19, 2010 [73]Privacy Policy | [74]Anti-Spam Policy | [75]Terms of Use Please manually type in our email address to contact us (to prevent spam). Quantcast Références 64. mailto:Michellelmiller@avon.net #[1]Daily Health and Medical News [2]Weekly Health and Medical News Digest [3]Health and Medical Slideshows [5]Biorhythms Specialty IFRAME: &xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos=1 01 [7]MedicineNet.com ___________________________________ Search [8]About Us | [9]Privacy Policy | [10]Site Map January 19, 2010 [11]MedicineNet home [12]Picture Slideshows [13]Diseases and conditions [14]Symptoms and signs [15]Procedures and tests [16]Medications [17]Picture Image Collection [18]MedTerms medical dictionary [19]Pet Health [clearpixel.gif] [20]home > [21]biorhythms index > biorhythms article [clearpixel.gif] [clearpixel.gif] [clearpixel.gif] Font Size [22]A [23]A [24]A * 1 * [25]2 * [26]3 * [27]4 * [28]5 * [29]6 * [30]7 * [31]8 * [32]Next » * [33]Biorhythms Index * [34]Glossary Biorhythms [35]View Asthma Slideshow [36]Asthma Slideshow View Asthma Slideshow [37]Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow View Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow [38]Worst Cities for Asthma, 2009 Slideshow Pictures of the Worst Cities for Asthma Slideshow Medical Author: [39]William C. Shiel, Jr., MD, FACP, FACR Medical Editor: [40]Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD * [41]What are biologic rhythms? * [42]How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness? * [43]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms? * [44]Angina * [45]Heart attack * [46]High blood pressure (hypertension) * [47]Hay fever (allergic rhinitis) * [48]Asthma * [49]Can the "body clock" affect diagnostic testing? * [50]Can drug therapy be matched to the "body clock?" * [51]Chronobiology: marking time, making progress What are biologic rhythms? What are biologic rhythms? In essence, they're the rhythms of life. All forms of life on earth, including our bodies, respond rhythmically to the regular cycles of the sun, moon, and seasons. For example, as night turns into day, vital body functions, including heart rate and [52]blood pressure, speed up in anticipation of increased physical activity. These and other predictable fluctuations in body function, taking place during specific time cycles, are our biologic rhythms. They are regulated by "biologic clock" mechanisms located in the brain. Although biologic rhythms can be "reprogrammed" by environmental influences (such as when a person regularly works the night shift and sleeps during the day), they are genetically "hard-wired" into our cells, tissues, and organs. Medical chronobiologists have found that biologic rhythms can affect the severity of disease symptoms, diagnostic test results, and even the body's response to drug therapy. Now these investigators are working to discover how the rhythms of life can be used to improve the practice of medicine - and your health. These time-related medical observations, and others still in the exciting process of discovery, are rooted in chronobiology (chronos - time; bios - life; logos - science), the study of biologic rhythms. How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness? Among the various biologic rhythm cycles that medical chronobiologists study, the 24-hour day/night-activity/rest cycle is considered a key chronobiologic factor in medical [53]diagnosis and treatment. Formally known as the [54]circadian rhythm, it's also referred to as the "body clock." Why is the 24-hour body clock so important? Because so many of our normal body functions follow daily patterns of speeding up and slowing down, intensifying and diminishing, in alignment with circadian rhythm. Interestingly, so do the symptoms of a number of [55]chronic disorders: Allergic rhinitis: (nasal inflammation associated with hay fever) Symptoms of sneezing, [56]runny nose, and stuffy nose are typically worse in the early waking hours than later during the day. Asthma: In most patients, symptoms are more than 100 times as likely to occur in the few hours prior to awakening than during the day. Stable angina: [57]Chest pain and [58]electrocardiographic (ECG, EKG) abnormalities are most common during the first 4 to 6 hours after awakening. [59]Prinzmetal's angina: ECG abnormalities are most common during [60]sleep; chest pain can occur even while at rest. Heart attack: Heart attack most commonly occurs in the early waking hours. Stroke: [61]Strokes most commonly occur in the early waking hours. Hypertension: The highest blood pressure readings typically occur from late morning to middle afternoon; lowest occur during early sleep. Therapy now exists that works with your body clock; consult your physician about this treatment. Clinical studies are underway to further this research. [62]Rheumatoid arthritis: RA symptoms are most intense upon awakening. [63]Osteoarthritis: Symptoms of osteoarthritis worsen in the afternoon and evening. Ulcer disease: The pain typically occurs after stomach emptying, following daytime meals, and in the very early morning, disrupting sleep. [64]Epilepsy: Seizures often occur only at particular times of the day or night; individual patterns differ among patients. * 1 * [65]2 * [66]3 * [67]4 * [68]5 * [69]6 * [70]7 * [71]8 * [72]Next » * [73]Biorhythms Index * [74]Glossary Next: [75]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms? » [76]Printer-Friendly Format | [77]Email to a Friend [header-doctor-topics_2.gif] Suggested Reading by Our Doctors MedicineNet Doctors * [78]Chemotherapy - Get information on chemotherapy treatment for cancer, side effects of medications and how chemo works. Chemotherapy is a type of cancer treatment often given along with radiation therapy and surgery. * [79]Rheumatoid Arthritis - Learn more about rheumatoid arthritis, an autoimmune disease that causes chronic joint inflammation, which has symptoms that include stiffness, fever, muscle and joint aches, loss of appetite, and fatigue. Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis incorporates the use of first-line drugs (aspirin and corticosteroids for pain and inflammation) and second-line drugs (methotrexate and hydroxychloroquine to prevent joint destruction and promote remission). * [80]Radiation Therapy - [81]Read more Biorhythms related articles » Latest Medical News * [82]Nightly Snacking May Speed Weight Gain [footer-doctor-topics_2.gif] [83]Privacy Policy Allergies & Asthma Improve treatments & prevent attacks. _____________________ [btn_submit2.gif]-Submit [clearpixel.gif] [84]Are you Depressed? Take the Quiz [85]Your Guide to Symptoms & Signs: Pinpoint Your Pain IFRAME: 8&xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos= 121 From WebMD Asthma and Allergy Resources * [87]Allergy Issues? Get Personalized Advice * [88]How to Use Your Inhaler * [89]The Best Cities for Asthma Featured Centers * [90]12 Ways to Prevent the Spread of Viruses * [91]10 Surprising Benefits of Treating Your Depression * [92]Healthy Home: To Buy or Not to Buy Organic? Health Solutions From Our Sponsors * [93]Osteoporosis Info * [94]BPH Treatment & Savings * [95]MS Rx Options Biorhythms [96]Jet Lag » What is jet lag? Jet lag, also called desynchronosis, is a temporary disorder that causes fatigue, insomnia, and other symptoms as a result of air travel across time zones. What are other symptoms of jet lag? Besides fatigue and insomnia, a jet lag sufferer may experience anxiety, constipation, diarrhea, confusion, dehydration, headache, irritability, nausea, sweating, coordination problems, and even memory loss. Some individuals report additional symptoms, such as heartbeat irregularities and increased susceptibility to illness. What is a time zone? A time zone is a geographical region which has the same time everywhere within it. The world has 24 time zones, one for each hour in the day. Each zone runs from north to south in strips that are approximately 1,000 miles (1,600 kilometers) wide. (The actual width of each zone varies to accommodate political and geographical boundaries.) As... [97]Read the Jet Lag article » Featured on MedicineNet * [98]Tips to Ease Nighttime Pain * [99]Check Your Fibromyalgia Symptoms * [100]Depression Tips Slideshow * [101]Are You at Risk for Diabetic Nerve Pain? Top 10 Biorhythms Related Articles * [102]Chemo Infusion and Chemoembolization of Liver * [103]Chemotherapy * [104]Chemotherapy Treatment for Breast Cancer * [105]Heart Attack * [106]High Blood Pressure * [107]Osteoarthritis * [108]Radiation Therapy * [109]Radiation Therapy for Breast Cancer * [110]Rheumatoid Arthritis * [111]Stroke * [112]Complete List » New on MedicineNet * [113]Michael C. Hall Has Hodgkin's * [114]Cryptosporidiosis Causes * [115]Shigella Infection Symptoms * [116]Lymphedema Causes * [117]C-Reactive Protein (CRP) * [118]Sinus Headache Treatment * [119]Pictures Slideshows Interactive Slideshows [120]Adult Skin Problems Slideshow IFRAME: 08&xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos =113 IFRAME: [122]/htmlchunks/slideshow/slidermodule/6_slides_line.htm IFRAME: [123]/htmlchunks/footer/footer_new_medicinenet.html Health categories: [124]Slideshows | [125]Diseases & Conditions | [126]Symptoms & Signs | [127]Procedures & Tests | [128]Medications | [129]Image Collection | [130]Medical Dictionary | [131]Pet Health Popular health centers: [132]Allergies | [133]Arthritis | [134]Blood Pressure | [135]Cancer | [136]Chronic Pain | [137]Cold & Flu | [138]Diabetes | [139]Digestion | [140]Eyesight | [141]Health & Living | [142]Healthy Kids [143]Hearing & Ear | [144]Heart | [145]Infectious Disease | [146]Men's Health | [147]Mental Health | [148]News & Views | [149]Pregnancy | [150]Sexual Health | [151]Skin | [152]Women's Health | [153]More... 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Références Liens visibles 76. javascript:myVoid() Liens cachés : * [1]Skip to main content * [2]Text only version of this page * [3]Access keys help [4]BBC Home ____________________ Search [5]Explore the BBC 19 January 2010 [6]Accessibility help [7]Text only [8][USEMAP:banner_new.jpg] [9]Animals [10]Prehistoric Life [11]Human Body & Mind [12]Space [13]TV & Radio Follow-up [14]BBC Homepage [15]Science & Nature Homepage In [16]Human Body & Mind: [17]The mind [18]The body [19]Brain Sex [20]Sleep [21]Take part in the Brain Test Britain experiment __________________________________________________________________ [22]Contact Us Like this page? [23]Send it to a friend! You are here: [24]BBC > [25]Science & Nature > [26]Human Body & Mind > [27]Sleep > Daily Rhythm Test Daily Rhythm Test Our internal body clock governs our daily or circadian rhythm - telling us when to wake up and when to feel sleepy. Circadian comes from the Latin circa, meaning about and dies, meaning day. This test will produce a chart showing your natural sleeping and waking pattern over a 24 hour period. If you're having problems sleeping it could be your natural body clock is at odds with your routine. 1) Do you consider yourself a morning person or an evening person? (_) Evening (_) More evening than morning (_) Cant tell (_) More morning than evening (_) Morning 2) At what time of day do you feel at your best? (_) 5am - 9am (_) 9am - 11am (_) 11am - 5pm (_) 5pm - 10pm (_) 10pm - 1am 3) Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, if you were entirely free to plan your day - at what time would you go to bed? (_) 8pm - 9pm (_) 9pm - 10.15pm (_) 10.15pm - 12.30am (_) 12.30am - 1.45am (_) 1.45am - 3am 4) Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, if you were entirely free to plan your day - at what time would you get up? 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My Menu [6]Marked Items [7]Alerts [8]Order History Saved Items [9]All [10]Favorites * [11]Content Types + [12]All + [13]Publications + [14]Journals + [15]Book Series + [16]Books + [17]Reference Works + [18]Protocols * [19]Subject Collections + [20]Architecture and Design + [21]Behavioral Science + [22]Biomedical and Life Sciences + [23]Business and Economics + [24]Chemistry and Materials Science + [25]Computer Science + [26]Earth and Environmental Science + [27]Engineering + [28]Humanities, Social Sciences and Law + [29]Mathematics and Statistics + [30]Medicine + [31]Physics and Astronomy + [32]Professional and Applied Computing [English.......] Go Journal Article [33]Printable view Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Journal [34]Surgery Today Publisher Springer Japan ISSN 0941-1291 (Print) 1436-2813 (Online) Issue [35]Volume 17, Number 3 / May, 1987 Category Short Communication DOI 10.1007/BF02470602 Pages 209-212 Subject Collection [36]Medicine SpringerLink Date Thursday, July 20, 2006 [37]Add to marked items [38]Add to shopping cart [39]Add to saved items [40]Permissions & Reprints [41]Recommend this article [42]PDF (237.9 KB)[43] Free Preview Free Preview Short Communication Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Jun Narumi^1 Contact Information , Kozo Suma^1, Hidemi Kaneko^1, Yasuo Takeuchi^1, Kenji Inoue^1, Kenji Shiroma^1 and Yuji Koyama^1 (1) Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, 2nd Hospital of Tokyo Women's Medical College, 2-1-10 Nishiogu, Arakawaku, 116 Tokyo, Japan Received: 7 April 1986 Abstract The postoperative deep body temperature rhythms of fifteen patients who received aorto-coronary bypass surgery (group I), and of seven patients who received non-cardiac major surgery (group II), were studied. Postoperative patients, especially those who received aortocoronary bypass surgery, showed greatly disturbed deep body temperature rhythm. There existed infradian and ultradian rhythm in both groups, and there existed two patients in group I who did not show sinusoidal rhythm. The patients of group I also showed a longer period of rhythm than did those of group II. The mesor and amplitude of the patients in group I showed a greater individual variation than did those in group II. The acrophase of both groups deviated widely. The patients who underwent cardiac surgery needed a longer time for temperature rhythm recovery than did those who underwent general surgery. Key Words deep body temperature rhythm - intensive care unit - post-operative patients __________________________________________________________________ Fulltext Preview (Small, [44]Large) Image of the first page of the fulltext [45]Click here to visit our sponsor References secured to subscribers. 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[5]Alternative Medicine [6]Stress Management [7]Conditions/ Treatments [8]Preferred Providers [9]Holistic Living [10]Alternative Therapies [11]Acupuncture [12]Aromatherapy [13]Ayurveda [14]Biofeedback [15]Chelation Therapy [16]Herbal Medicine [17]Homeopathy [18]Humor Therapy [19]Hydrotherapy [20]Imagery [21]Light Therapy [22]Massage [23]Meditation [24]NLP [25]Nutrition [26]Prayer/ Spiritual [27]Reiki [28]Shiatsu [29]Yoga [30]FAQ (Health) [31]Feedback [32]Register [33]Media Light Therapy HOL-emblem Rhythms and Body Clock Circadian Rhythm From the Latin circa (about) dies (a day), the circadian rhythm is the twenty-four-hour cycle of light/dark, wakefulness/sleep to which most human physiologic processes are set. At regular intervals each day, the body tends to become hungry, tired, active, listless, energized. Body temperature, heart-beat, blood pressure, hormone levels, and urine flow rise and fall in this relatively predictable, rhythmic pattern - a pattern initiated and governed by exposure to sunlight and darkness. Experiments where humans were placed in isolation chambers, cut off from all potential environmental cues, have shown that, in the absence of natural daylight, rhythms are still maintained. But in the absence of the day light, the rhythms tend to deviate from 24 hours. For instance, the rhythms was found to expand to 24-30 hours, thus disrupting the biological processes over a long period of time. The fact that animals and humans can continue to function according to daily and annual rhythms in the absence of external environmental stimuli means that animals and humans possess some kind of biological clock, which act as a backup mechanism in case it cannot get the proper stimuli from the natural events such as sunshine. This behavior can be illustrated by our clocks. Let us say, our clock is running slow. Over a period of time, the clock may lag the actual time because of this defect. Usually, we will reset the clock when it gets far out of sync by other external stimuli like a radio or phone time. Now, if we do not have access to this external synchronizing signal, the clock can get far out of line with the reality. Our body clocks functions the same way. The biological clock can keep the time; but in the absence of correction from the day/light cycle provided by the sun, the biological clock tend go out of sync affecting our physical and mental health. A similar thing happens when we travel across time zones; we tend to experience what is known as "jet lag". However, in the absence of natural light our body clocks may lose or gain a little time. This in turn could lead to the desynchronization of different rhythms. For example, in the absence of sufficient environmental light the sleep-wake and associated rest-activity rhythms may lengthen to a cycle of between 30 and 48 hours, while the temperature rhythm may remain at a period of, say, 25 hours. Such desynchronization of the body's intricate rhythms is suspected to trigger problems: hormonal imbalances, sleep disorders and mood disturbances. Circannual Rhythm Circannual rhythm is the annual or yearly cycle used by all living things. Circaseptan Rhythm Circaseptan rhythm is a seven-day cycle in which the biological processes of life, including disease symptoms and development, resolve. Many physicians believe that transplant patients tend to have more rejection episodes seven, fourteen, twenty-one, and twenty-eight days after surgery. They further believe that medications administered to the patients at particular times may be more effective than at other times. These are all related to the circaseptan rhythm. How does the brain know when it is light or dark? Deep within the brain, inside the hypothalamus, lie two clusters of cells (i.e., neurons) called the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN). Each of these SCN is composed of more than 8,000 neurons. The SCN act as the body's circadian pacemaker. In mammals, the SCN appear to get their information from photoreceptors in the retina, which transmit signals about light and dark through the optic nerves to the hypothalamus. Once these messages enter the SCN, a series of physiological reactions takes place. What happens after the light/dark signal reaches the SCN? We are not sure. The pathway from the retina through the optic nerves to the SCN extends further to reach the pineal gland, which lies adjacent to the hypothalamus above the brain stem. Stimulated by the message it receives from the SCN, the pineal gland either secretes its main hormone, melatonin, or inhibits melatonin's release, which may result in the production of serotonin as was explained before. Next Topic: [34]Light Therapy for Seasonal Affective Disorder [[35]Light Therapy Home][[36]Alternative Therapies Home][[37]Holistic-online.com Home] [narule_200.GIF] Holisticonline.com is developed and maintained by ICBS, Inc. Send mail to: [38]info@holisticonline.com with comments about this web site. [39]Copyright © [40]1998-2007 ICBS, Inc. [41]Terms of Use All Rights Reserved. Références 38. mailto:info@holisticonline.com FREE Online Classroom Tools [1]LOGIN OR [2]REGISTER FOR FREE [3]HotChalk [4]LessonPlansPage.com [hc-header-roundedbottom.jpg] * * [5]Lesson Plans | * [6]Teaching Degrees | * [7]Articles & Blogs | * [8]Forums | * [9]Contribute | * [10]HotChalk Tools | * [11]About | * [12]Advertising Lesson Plans [13][icon_ruler.gif] Math [14][icon_book.gif] Language Arts [15][icon_science.gif] Science [16][icon_globe.gif] Social Studies [17][icon_art.gif] Art [18][icon_laptop.gif] Computers & Internet [19][icon_music.gif] Music [20][icon_soccer.gif] P.E. & Health [21][icon_apple.gif] Other [22][icon_pencil.gif] Multi-Disciplinary Sections * [23]Online Degrees Guide * [24]HotChalk Tools * [25]Seasonal Lesson Plans * [26]Most Recent Additions * [27]Inspired Teachers * [28]Science Projects * [29]Math Worksheets * [30]Teacher Discussions * [31]Lesson Plan Guide * [32]Search This Site * [33]Join Our Newsletter * [34]Contribute !!! * [35]Advertising Information * [36]Take Our Survey! * [37]Tell A Friend! Special Features [38]Black History Month Lesson Plans Sponsored by Target * [39]Efficient Reading * [40]Masters in Education * [41]Previous Articles [42][hotchalklogo-template-sidebar.gif] * [43]About HotChalk * [44]Learn More * [45]MyClasses * [46]MyLibrary * [47]MyDesk * [48]Join for FREE! Resource Sites [49]Education Master's [50]Teacher Magazines [51]Teaching Jobs Site Information [52]About This Site [53]How To Use [54]Contact Info [55]Advertising Info [56]Educational Links [57]Having Problems? [58]Online Degrees Teacher's Guide [59]Join Our Facebook Page [60]Bookmark and Share Join LPP Newsletter: _________________________ Subscribe! Search This Site: _____________ Search! rhythm game using body percussion [61][print.gif] Printable Version for your convenience! Title - rhythm game using body percussion By - Michelle L. Miller Primary Subject - Music Secondary Subjects - Grade Level - 4-8 Objective: Students will be able to accurately write and count rhythms. Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests. Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding. To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3 teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat pat snap snap palms up-- quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest). Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The whole lesson takes about 30 minutes. Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as performed by teacher. Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills development and have fun at the same time!! NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well. Have fun!! E-Mail [62]Michelle L. Miller! * * [63]Lesson Plans | * [64]Teaching Degrees | * [65]Articles & Blogs | * [66]Forums | * [67]Contribute | * [68]HotChalk Tools | * [69]About | * [70]Advertising © 1996 - 2010 HotChalk, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Last Modified December 23, 2009 [71]Privacy Policy | [72]Anti-Spam Policy | [73]Terms of Use Please manually type in our email address to contact us (to prevent spam). Quantcast Références 62. mailto:Michellelmiller@avon.net #[1]Daily Health and Medical News [2]Weekly Health and Medical News Digest [3]Health and Medical Slideshows [5]Biorhythms Specialty IFRAME: &xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos=1 01 [7]MedicineNet.com ___________________________________ Search [8]About Us | [9]Privacy Policy | [10]Site Map January 17, 2010 [11]MedicineNet home [12]Picture Slideshows [13]Diseases and conditions [14]Symptoms and signs [15]Procedures and tests [16]Medications [17]Picture Image Collection [18]MedTerms medical dictionary [19]Pet Health [clearpixel.gif] [20]home > [21]biorhythms index > biorhythms article [clearpixel.gif] [clearpixel.gif] [clearpixel.gif] Font Size [22]A [23]A [24]A * 1 * [25]2 * [26]3 * [27]4 * [28]5 * [29]6 * [30]7 * [31]8 * [32]Next » * [33]Biorhythms Index * [34]Glossary Biorhythms [35]View Asthma Slideshow [36]Asthma Slideshow View Asthma Slideshow [37]Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow View Asthma Myths Quiz Slideshow [38]Worst Cities for Asthma, 2009 Slideshow Pictures of the Worst Cities for Asthma Slideshow Medical Author: [39]William C. Shiel, Jr., MD, FACP, FACR Medical Editor: [40]Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD * [41]What are biologic rhythms? * [42]How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness? * [43]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms? * [44]Angina * [45]Heart attack * [46]High blood pressure (hypertension) * [47]Hay fever (allergic rhinitis) * [48]Asthma * [49]Can the "body clock" affect diagnostic testing? * [50]Can drug therapy be matched to the "body clock?" * [51]Chronobiology: marking time, making progress What are biologic rhythms? What are biologic rhythms? In essence, they're the rhythms of life. All forms of life on earth, including our bodies, respond rhythmically to the regular cycles of the sun, moon, and seasons. For example, as night turns into day, vital body functions, including heart rate and [52]blood pressure, speed up in anticipation of increased physical activity. These and other predictable fluctuations in body function, taking place during specific time cycles, are our biologic rhythms. They are regulated by "biologic clock" mechanisms located in the brain. Although biologic rhythms can be "reprogrammed" by environmental influences (such as when a person regularly works the night shift and sleeps during the day), they are genetically "hard-wired" into our cells, tissues, and organs. Medical chronobiologists have found that biologic rhythms can affect the severity of disease symptoms, diagnostic test results, and even the body's response to drug therapy. Now these investigators are working to discover how the rhythms of life can be used to improve the practice of medicine - and your health. These time-related medical observations, and others still in the exciting process of discovery, are rooted in chronobiology (chronos - time; bios - life; logos - science), the study of biologic rhythms. How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness? Among the various biologic rhythm cycles that medical chronobiologists study, the 24-hour day/night-activity/rest cycle is considered a key chronobiologic factor in medical [53]diagnosis and treatment. Formally known as the [54]circadian rhythm, it's also referred to as the "body clock." Why is the 24-hour body clock so important? Because so many of our normal body functions follow daily patterns of speeding up and slowing down, intensifying and diminishing, in alignment with circadian rhythm. Interestingly, so do the symptoms of a number of [55]chronic disorders: Allergic rhinitis: (nasal inflammation associated with hay fever) Symptoms of sneezing, [56]runny nose, and stuffy nose are typically worse in the early waking hours than later during the day. Asthma: In most patients, symptoms are more than 100 times as likely to occur in the few hours prior to awakening than during the day. Stable angina: [57]Chest pain and [58]electrocardiographic (ECG, EKG) abnormalities are most common during the first 4 to 6 hours after awakening. [59]Prinzmetal's angina: ECG abnormalities are most common during [60]sleep; chest pain can occur even while at rest. Heart attack: Heart attack most commonly occurs in the early waking hours. Stroke: [61]Strokes most commonly occur in the early waking hours. Hypertension: The highest blood pressure readings typically occur from late morning to middle afternoon; lowest occur during early sleep. Therapy now exists that works with your body clock; consult your physician about this treatment. Clinical studies are underway to further this research. [62]Rheumatoid arthritis: RA symptoms are most intense upon awakening. [63]Osteoarthritis: Symptoms of osteoarthritis worsen in the afternoon and evening. Ulcer disease: The pain typically occurs after stomach emptying, following daytime meals, and in the very early morning, disrupting sleep. [64]Epilepsy: Seizures often occur only at particular times of the day or night; individual patterns differ among patients. * 1 * [65]2 * [66]3 * [67]4 * [68]5 * [69]6 * [70]7 * [71]8 * [72]Next » * [73]Biorhythms Index * [74]Glossary Next: [75]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms? » [76]Printer-Friendly Format | [77]Email to a Friend [header-doctor-topics_2.gif] Suggested Reading by Our Doctors MedicineNet Doctors * [78]Chemotherapy - Get information on chemotherapy treatment for cancer, side effects of medications and how chemo works. Chemotherapy is a type of cancer treatment often given along with radiation therapy and surgery. * [79]Rheumatoid Arthritis - Learn more about rheumatoid arthritis, an autoimmune disease that causes chronic joint inflammation, which has symptoms that include stiffness, fever, muscle and joint aches, loss of appetite, and fatigue. Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis incorporates the use of first-line drugs (aspirin and corticosteroids for pain and inflammation) and second-line drugs (methotrexate and hydroxychloroquine to prevent joint destruction and promote remission). * [80]Radiation Therapy - [81]Read more Biorhythms related articles » Latest Medical News * [82]Nightly Snacking May Speed Weight Gain [footer-doctor-topics_2.gif] [83]Privacy Policy Allergies & Asthma Improve treatments & prevent attacks. _____________________ [btn_submit2.gif]-Submit [clearpixel.gif] [84]Are you Depressed? Take the Quiz [85]Your Guide to Symptoms & Signs: Pinpoint Your Pain IFRAME: 1&xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos= 121 From WebMD Asthma and Allergy Resources * [87]Asthma Attack Slideshow * [88]How to Use Your Inhaler * [89]The Best Cities for Asthma Featured Centers * [90]12 Ways to Prevent the Spread of Viruses * [91]Longevity Foods: Eat Well, Live Longer * [92]Sad? Irritable? Assess Your Symptoms * [93]Healthy Home: To Buy or Not to Buy Organic? Health Solutions From Our Sponsors * [94]Osteoporosis Info * [95]Overactive Bladder Rx Biorhythms [96]Hay Fever » What is hay fever? What are the symptoms and signs? Hay fever is a misnomer. Hay is not a usual cause of this problem, and it does not cause fever. Early descriptions of sneezing, nasal congestion, and eye irritation while harvesting field hay promoted this popular term. Allergic rhinitis is the correct term used to describe this allergic reaction, and many different substances cause the allergic symptoms noted in hay fever. Rhinitis means "irritation of the nose" and is a derivative of rhino, meaning nose. Allergic rhinitis which occurs during a specific season is called "seasonal allergic rhinitis." When it occurs throughout the year, it is called "perennial allergic rhinitis." Symptoms of allergic rhinitis, or hay fever, frequently include nasal congestion, a clear runny nose, sneezing, nose and eye itching, and excess tear production in the eyes. Postnasal dripping of clear mucus frequently causes a cough. Loss of the sense ... [97]Read the Hay Fever article » Featured on MedicineNet * [98]Tips to Ease Nighttime Pain * [99]Check Your Fibromyalgia Symptoms * [100]Depression Tips Slideshow * [101]Are You at Risk for Diabetic Nerve Pain? Top 10 Biorhythms Related Articles * [102]Chemo Infusion and Chemoembolization of Liver * [103]Chemotherapy * [104]Chemotherapy Treatment for Breast Cancer * [105]Heart Attack * [106]High Blood Pressure * [107]Osteoarthritis * [108]Radiation Therapy * [109]Radiation Therapy for Breast Cancer * [110]Rheumatoid Arthritis * [111]Stroke * [112]Complete List » New on MedicineNet * [113]Michael C. Hall Has Hodgkin's * [114]Cryptosporidiosis Causes * [115]Shigella Infection Symptoms * [116]Lymphedema Causes * [117]C-Reactive Protein (CRP) * [118]Sinus Headache Treatment * [119]Pictures Slideshows Interactive Slideshows [120]Adult Skin Problems Slideshow IFRAME: 31&xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos =113 IFRAME: [122]/htmlchunks/slideshow/slidermodule/6_slides_line.htm IFRAME: [123]/htmlchunks/footer/footer_new_medicinenet.html Health categories: [124]Slideshows | [125]Diseases & Conditions | [126]Symptoms & Signs | [127]Procedures & Tests | [128]Medications | [129]Image Collection | [130]Medical Dictionary | [131]Pet Health Popular health centers: [132]Allergies | [133]Arthritis | [134]Blood Pressure | [135]Cancer | [136]Chronic Pain | [137]Cold & Flu | [138]Diabetes | [139]Digestion | [140]Eyesight | [141]Health & Living | [142]Healthy Kids [143]Hearing & Ear | [144]Heart | [145]Infectious Disease | [146]Men's Health | [147]Mental Health | [148]News & Views | [149]Pregnancy | [150]Sexual Health | [151]Skin | [152]Women's Health | [153]More... 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Références Liens visibles 76. javascript:myVoid() Liens cachés : * [1]Skip to main content * [2]Text only version of this page * [3]Access keys help [4]BBC Home ____________________ Search [5]Explore the BBC 17 January 2010 [6]Accessibility help [7]Text only [8][USEMAP:banner_new.jpg] [9]Animals [10]Prehistoric Life [11]Human Body & Mind [12]Space [13]TV & Radio Follow-up [14]BBC Homepage [15]Science & Nature Homepage In [16]Human Body & Mind: [17]The mind [18]The body [19]Brain Sex [20]Sleep [21]Take part in the Brain Test Britain experiment __________________________________________________________________ [22]Contact Us Like this page? [23]Send it to a friend! You are here: [24]BBC > [25]Science & Nature > [26]Human Body & Mind > [27]Sleep > Daily Rhythm Test Daily Rhythm Test Our internal body clock governs our daily or circadian rhythm - telling us when to wake up and when to feel sleepy. Circadian comes from the Latin circa, meaning about and dies, meaning day. This test will produce a chart showing your natural sleeping and waking pattern over a 24 hour period. If you're having problems sleeping it could be your natural body clock is at odds with your routine. 1) Do you consider yourself a morning person or an evening person? (_) Evening (_) More evening than morning (_) Cant tell (_) More morning than evening (_) Morning 2) At what time of day do you feel at your best? (_) 5am - 9am (_) 9am - 11am (_) 11am - 5pm (_) 5pm - 10pm (_) 10pm - 1am 3) Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, if you were entirely free to plan your day - at what time would you go to bed? (_) 8pm - 9pm (_) 9pm - 10.15pm (_) 10.15pm - 12.30am (_) 12.30am - 1.45am (_) 1.45am - 3am 4) Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, if you were entirely free to plan your day - at what time would you get up? (_) 5.00am - 6.30am (_) 6.30am - 7.45am (_) 7.45am - 9.45am (_) 9.45am - 11.00am (_) 11.00am - Midday View results [28]Science & Nature Homepage [29]Animals | [30]Prehistoric Life | [31]Human Body & Mind | [32]Space | [33]TV & Radio follow-up [34]Go to top [35]About the BBC | [36]Help | [37]Terms of Use | [38]Privacy & Cookies Policy Références [USEMAP] [1]SpringerLink Logo [2]Institutional Login Welcome! To use the personalized features of this site, please [3]log in or [4]register. If you have forgotten your username or password, we can [5]help. My Menu [6]Marked Items [7]Alerts [8]Order History Saved Items [9]All [10]Favorites * [11]Content Types + [12]All + [13]Publications + [14]Journals + [15]Book Series + [16]Books + [17]Reference Works + [18]Protocols * [19]Subject Collections + [20]Architecture and Design + [21]Behavioral Science + [22]Biomedical and Life Sciences + [23]Business and Economics + [24]Chemistry and Materials Science + [25]Computer Science + [26]Earth and Environmental Science + [27]Engineering + [28]Humanities, Social Sciences and Law + [29]Mathematics and Statistics + [30]Medicine + [31]Physics and Astronomy + [32]Professional and Applied Computing [English.......] Go Journal Article [33]Printable view Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Journal [34]Surgery Today Publisher Springer Japan ISSN 0941-1291 (Print) 1436-2813 (Online) Issue [35]Volume 17, Number 3 / May, 1987 Category Short Communication DOI 10.1007/BF02470602 Pages 209-212 Subject Collection [36]Medicine SpringerLink Date Thursday, July 20, 2006 [37]Add to marked items [38]Add to shopping cart [39]Add to saved items [40]Permissions & Reprints [41]Recommend this article [42]PDF (237.9 KB)[43] Free Preview Free Preview Short Communication Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Jun Narumi^1 Contact Information , Kozo Suma^1, Hidemi Kaneko^1, Yasuo Takeuchi^1, Kenji Inoue^1, Kenji Shiroma^1 and Yuji Koyama^1 (1) Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, 2nd Hospital of Tokyo Women's Medical College, 2-1-10 Nishiogu, Arakawaku, 116 Tokyo, Japan Received: 7 April 1986 Abstract The postoperative deep body temperature rhythms of fifteen patients who received aorto-coronary bypass surgery (group I), and of seven patients who received non-cardiac major surgery (group II), were studied. Postoperative patients, especially those who received aortocoronary bypass surgery, showed greatly disturbed deep body temperature rhythm. There existed infradian and ultradian rhythm in both groups, and there existed two patients in group I who did not show sinusoidal rhythm. The patients of group I also showed a longer period of rhythm than did those of group II. The mesor and amplitude of the patients in group I showed a greater individual variation than did those in group II. The acrophase of both groups deviated widely. The patients who underwent cardiac surgery needed a longer time for temperature rhythm recovery than did those who underwent general surgery. Key Words deep body temperature rhythm - intensive care unit - post-operative patients __________________________________________________________________ Fulltext Preview (Small, [44]Large) Image of the first page of the fulltext [45]Click here to visit our sponsor References secured to subscribers. 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[5]Alternative Medicine [6]Stress Management [7]Conditions/ Treatments [8]Preferred Providers [9]Holistic Living [10]Alternative Therapies [11]Acupuncture [12]Aromatherapy [13]Ayurveda [14]Biofeedback [15]Chelation Therapy [16]Herbal Medicine [17]Homeopathy [18]Humor Therapy [19]Hydrotherapy [20]Imagery [21]Light Therapy [22]Massage [23]Meditation [24]NLP [25]Nutrition [26]Prayer/ Spiritual [27]Reiki [28]Shiatsu [29]Yoga [30]FAQ (Health) [31]Feedback [32]Register [33]Media Light Therapy HOL-emblem Rhythms and Body Clock Circadian Rhythm From the Latin circa (about) dies (a day), the circadian rhythm is the twenty-four-hour cycle of light/dark, wakefulness/sleep to which most human physiologic processes are set. At regular intervals each day, the body tends to become hungry, tired, active, listless, energized. Body temperature, heart-beat, blood pressure, hormone levels, and urine flow rise and fall in this relatively predictable, rhythmic pattern - a pattern initiated and governed by exposure to sunlight and darkness. Experiments where humans were placed in isolation chambers, cut off from all potential environmental cues, have shown that, in the absence of natural daylight, rhythms are still maintained. But in the absence of the day light, the rhythms tend to deviate from 24 hours. For instance, the rhythms was found to expand to 24-30 hours, thus disrupting the biological processes over a long period of time. The fact that animals and humans can continue to function according to daily and annual rhythms in the absence of external environmental stimuli means that animals and humans possess some kind of biological clock, which act as a backup mechanism in case it cannot get the proper stimuli from the natural events such as sunshine. This behavior can be illustrated by our clocks. Let us say, our clock is running slow. Over a period of time, the clock may lag the actual time because of this defect. Usually, we will reset the clock when it gets far out of sync by other external stimuli like a radio or phone time. Now, if we do not have access to this external synchronizing signal, the clock can get far out of line with the reality. Our body clocks functions the same way. The biological clock can keep the time; but in the absence of correction from the day/light cycle provided by the sun, the biological clock tend go out of sync affecting our physical and mental health. A similar thing happens when we travel across time zones; we tend to experience what is known as "jet lag". However, in the absence of natural light our body clocks may lose or gain a little time. This in turn could lead to the desynchronization of different rhythms. For example, in the absence of sufficient environmental light the sleep-wake and associated rest-activity rhythms may lengthen to a cycle of between 30 and 48 hours, while the temperature rhythm may remain at a period of, say, 25 hours. Such desynchronization of the body's intricate rhythms is suspected to trigger problems: hormonal imbalances, sleep disorders and mood disturbances. Circannual Rhythm Circannual rhythm is the annual or yearly cycle used by all living things. Circaseptan Rhythm Circaseptan rhythm is a seven-day cycle in which the biological processes of life, including disease symptoms and development, resolve. Many physicians believe that transplant patients tend to have more rejection episodes seven, fourteen, twenty-one, and twenty-eight days after surgery. They further believe that medications administered to the patients at particular times may be more effective than at other times. These are all related to the circaseptan rhythm. How does the brain know when it is light or dark? Deep within the brain, inside the hypothalamus, lie two clusters of cells (i.e., neurons) called the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN). Each of these SCN is composed of more than 8,000 neurons. The SCN act as the body's circadian pacemaker. In mammals, the SCN appear to get their information from photoreceptors in the retina, which transmit signals about light and dark through the optic nerves to the hypothalamus. Once these messages enter the SCN, a series of physiological reactions takes place. What happens after the light/dark signal reaches the SCN? We are not sure. The pathway from the retina through the optic nerves to the SCN extends further to reach the pineal gland, which lies adjacent to the hypothalamus above the brain stem. Stimulated by the message it receives from the SCN, the pineal gland either secretes its main hormone, melatonin, or inhibits melatonin's release, which may result in the production of serotonin as was explained before. Next Topic: [34]Light Therapy for Seasonal Affective Disorder [[35]Light Therapy Home][[36]Alternative Therapies Home][[37]Holistic-online.com Home] [narule_200.GIF] Holisticonline.com is developed and maintained by ICBS, Inc. Send mail to: [38]info@holisticonline.com with comments about this web site. [39]Copyright © [40]1998-2007 ICBS, Inc. [41]Terms of Use All Rights Reserved. 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[256]Three things you can do immediately when you find yourself getting depressed[257]An Interview with Yulonda Brown on Surviving Abuse and Bipolar Disorder[258]Depression: A New Frontier in It's Treatment[259]Our Bipolar Topic Center has been Updated[260]Feeling Depressed: Influenced by the Attitudes and Opinions of Others?[261]Bipolar kids see aggression when it isn't there[262]Bipolar Disorder and the Need for Psychoeducation[263]Disentangling Rapid-Cycling Bipolar From Borderline [264]Videos [265]Bipolar Disorder Video[266]Major Depression Video[267]Bipolar Disorder Video[268]Antidepressants Video[269]Meet Sue Bergeson: Depression and Bipolar Support Alliance[270]Managing Bipolar Disorder[271]Bipolar Disorder - Questions to Ask Your Doctor[272]Bipolar Disorder - Working with Your Doctor[273]Bipolar Disorder - Working Toward Wellness[274]Bipolar Disorder in Children: The Importance of Family Support[275]Bipolar Disorder: Why Are Clinical Trials so Important[276]Bipolar Disorder: Why Did it Take so Long to Get Diagnosed?[277]Balancing Bipolar Disorder[278]The Road to Recovery from Bipolar Disorder[279]Advice for Someone Recently Diagnosed with Bipolar Disorder[280]How to Find Information about Bipolar Disorder[281]Are There Genetic Risk Factors for Bipolar Disorder[282]Does Bipolar Disorder Affect Children?[283]Getting Help for Family Members of Bipolar Patients Video[284]Types of Depression Video [285]Links [286][3] Associations[287][9] Community[288][31] Information[289][1] Journals[290][1] Assessment[291][1] Research[292][20] Videos[293][2] Personal Experiences[294][21] Blogs [295]Book Reviews [296]Active Treatment of Depression[297]Adult Bipolar Disorders[298]Agents in My Brain[299]American Mania[300]An Unquiet Mind[301]Bipolar Disorder[302]Bipolar Disorder Demystified[303]Bipolar Disorder in Childhood and Early Adolescence[304]Bipolar Disorders[305]Bipolar Kids[306]Crazy[307]Daughter of the Queen of Sheba[308]Depression Is a Choice[309]Detour[310]Electroboy[311]Essential Psychopharmacology of Depression and Bipolar Disorder[312]Hurry Down Sunshine[313]I am Not Sick I Don't Need Help![314]Lithium for Medea[315]Loving Someone With Bipolar Disorder[316]Madness[317]Manic[318]Manic Depression[319]Mommy I'm Still in Here[320]Mood Genes[321]New Hope for Children and Teens with Bipolar Disorder[322]New Hope For People With Bipolar Disorder[323]Night Falls Fast[324]Overcoming Depression[325]Scattershot[326]Surviving Manic Depression[327]Swing Low[328]The Best Awful[329]The Bipolar Child[330]The Bipolar Disorder Survival Guide[331]The Devil and Daniel Johnston[332]The Hypomanic Edge[333]The Naked Bird Watcher[334]The Noonday Demon[335]The Pits and the Pendulum[336]The Years of Silence are Past[337]To Walk on Eggshells[338]Toxic Psychiatry[339]Undoing Depression[340]What Goes Up[341]What Works for Bipolar Kids[342]Zelda [343]Self-Help Groups [344]Dep-Anon Community Talk about this issue in our [345]mental health support community Therapist Search Find a Therapist: _______ Go! 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As discussed earlier, the hypothalamus is the link between the nervous and endocrine systems. Given that the nervous system is also associated with the immune system, it is possible that the hypothalamus exerts its effect on the immune system as well. Thus, the combination of these systems can alter body biochemistry, contributing to shifts in body rhythms such as the circadian, seasonal, and social rhythms. Circadian Rhythm and Bipolar Disorder [441]advertisement The circadian rhythm is the 24-hour cycle of the body, the exact length of which is determined by the amount of light that the hypothalamus senses in a day-night cycle. The name "circadian" refers to a period of time that is "around a day long". Clear patterns of brain wave activity and hormone production are coupled to this cycle. When the circadian rhythm is upset (as can be the case with jet lag and sleep problems) mood disturbances can result. It is known that in some people sleep deprivation causes mania, whereas in others it can alleviate the symptoms of depression. Thus, regulation of circadian rhythm is important for managing bipolar symptoms and mood episodes. Dysregulation of this system is typically experienced as a powerful source of stress. Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) and Bipolar Disorder Similar to circadian rhythms but longer in duration are seasonal rhythms. These are determined by the amount of daylight experienced within a given season. Dysregulation of seasonal rhythms has been linked with Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD; also known as winter depression). SAD-affected individuals begin to feel increasingly depressed as the amount of light disappears during the winter. Their depression lifts as springtime approaches and the days lengthen. During times of the year with long days, these people typically experience no undue mood disturbance. Social Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder Both circadian and seasonal rhythms can affect individuals' social rhythms. The social rhythm comprises of a daily routine such as waking up at a specific time, going to school or work, and interacting with family members, friends, peers and colleagues. Even healthy people can experience mood changes when their social rhythms are disturbed by insomnia, seasonal changes or work schedules. It is no great leap to see that if someone is susceptible to bipolar disorder, a change in their body rhythms might constitute sufficient stress to precipitate bipolar symptoms. When considering the possible causes of bipolar disorders, it is necessary to bear in mind the complex nature of mood polarity. It is likely that that the problem originates in multiple biologic systems - the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems with a basis in the genetic machinery that regulates these systems. For example, a gene important in the function of the hypothalamus may become mutated or infected by a retrovirus leading to deregulation of neurotransmitters, hormones, and/or immune components. The resulting change is measurable as biochemical imbalances in either the brain or body but these biochemical imbalances are not necessarily causing the underlying dysfunction, but instead may simply be themselves symptoms or links in a chain of causes that lead to bipolar illness. [442]« Previous[443]1...[444]12[445]13[446]14[447]15[448]16[449]17[450]18...[4 51]34[452]Next » Share: [453][twitter.jpg] [454][facebook.jpg] [455][linkedin.jpg] [456][stumble.jpg] [457][delicious.jpg] [458][buzz.jpg] [459][google.jpg] [460][diigo.jpg] [461][squidoo.jpg] [462][digg.jpg] [463][reddit.jpg] [464][bitly.jpg] Link: (Here's how to do it ... ) To link to this article: 1. Copy the HTML link code shown in the box just below. 2. Paste this HTML code into your blog or web page, into a forum post or a blog comment you make, into your Facebook feed, etc. Body Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder Thank you! Reader Comments Discuss this issue below or in our [465]forums. Add Comment [466]Follow us on Twitter! [spacer.gif] [467]Find us on Facebook! [spacer.gif] IFRAME: [468]a471eef6 [469]Get Support for Bipolar Disorder [spacer.gif] Mental Help Net [470]Terms of Use/Privacy Policy[471]Our Mission[472]Contributors[473]Jobs[474]Advertising on Mental Help Net[475]Contact Us [spacer.gif] [476]advertisement [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [477]Powered by CenterSite.Net [spacer.gif] [478]This website is certified by Health On the Net Foundation. Click to verify. [spacer.gif] __________________________________________________________________ [479]About Us | [480]About CenterSite | [481]Terms & Privacy | [482]Submit/Update Listings Copyright © [483]CenterSite, LLC, 1995-2010 [mhn_footer_pg_cnt.php] [484]Quantcast Références Liens visibles 10. javascript:void(0) 11. javascript:void(0) 18. javascript:void(0) 22. javascript:void(0) 32. javascript:void(0) 35. javascript:void(0) 44. javascript:void(0) Liens cachés : FREE Online Classroom Tools [1]LOGIN OR [2]REGISTER FOR FREE [3]HotChalk [4]LessonPlansPage.com [hc-header-roundedbottom.jpg] * * [5]Lesson Plans | * [6]Teaching Degrees | * [7]Articles & Blogs | * [8]Forums | * [9]Contribute | * [10]HotChalk Tools | * [11]About | * [12]Advertising Lesson Plans [13][icon_ruler.gif] Math [14][icon_book.gif] Language Arts [15][icon_science.gif] Science [16][icon_globe.gif] Social Studies [17][icon_art.gif] Art [18][icon_laptop.gif] Computers & Internet [19][icon_music.gif] Music [20][icon_soccer.gif] P.E. & Health [21][icon_apple.gif] Other [22][icon_pencil.gif] Multi-Disciplinary Sections * [23]Online Degrees Guide * [24]HotChalk Tools * [25]Seasonal Lesson Plans * [26]Most Recent Additions * [27]Inspired Teachers * [28]Science Projects * [29]Math Worksheets * [30]Teacher Discussions * [31]Lesson Plan Guide * [32]Search This Site * [33]Join Our Newsletter * [34]Contribute !!! * [35]Advertising Information * [36]Take Our Survey! * [37]Tell A Friend! Special Features [38]Black History Month Lesson Plans Sponsored by Target * [39]Efficient Reading * [40]Masters in Education * [41]Previous Articles [42][hotchalklogo-template-sidebar.gif] * [43]About HotChalk * [44]Learn More * [45]MyClasses * [46]MyLibrary * [47]MyDesk * [48]Join for FREE! Vote For Us [49]@ SitesForTeachers [50]@ Teach-nology Resource Sites [51]Education Master's [52]Teacher Magazines [53]Teaching Jobs Site Information [54]About This Site [55]How To Use [56]Contact Info [57]Advertising Info [58]Educational Links [59]Having Problems? [60]Online Degrees Teacher's Guide [61]Join Our Facebook Page [62]Bookmark and Share Join LPP Newsletter: _________________________ Subscribe! Search This Site: _____________ Search! rhythm game using body percussion [63][print.gif] Printable Version for your convenience! Title - rhythm game using body percussion By - Michelle L. Miller Primary Subject - Music Secondary Subjects - Grade Level - 4-8 Objective: Students will be able to accurately write and count rhythms. Write a whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth notes in a group of two, sixteenth notes in a group of four, and a quarter rest on the board. Under each symbol write a body percussion element to be used for each. I use "slide" (drag hands from shoulders to hips) for whole notes, "brush" (brush hands along arms from shoulder to shoulder) for half notes, "clap" (clap hands) for quarter notes, "snap snap" (snap fingers alternating hands) for eighth notes, pat thighs for sixteenth notes, and palms up for quarter rests. Distinguish these patterns and their counting values to students. Write a 4-beat rhythm on the board and ask students to substitute body percussion for written notes/rests. Have students "play" rhythm back to teacher to show understanding. To implement as a game: divide students into teams (I usually use 3 teams and number off students). One person from each team goes up to the board and faces teacher. Teacher counts off 4 beats of prep, then plays a 4-beat pattern with body percussion (such as clap pat pat pat pat snap snap palms up-- quarter note, 4 sixteenths, 2 eighths, quarter rest). Students on "go" face the board and write the rhythm as performed. Play for students as needed to check accuracy; after a few times they only need one play. The first team member to write the rhythm accurately gets 3 points, second one done gets 2 points (if correct), last one done gets 1 point (if correct). No points are taken away for incorrect answers. The team with the most points at the end of class wins. The whole lesson takes about 30 minutes. Evaluation: students can accurately write and count rhythms as performed by teacher. Follow-up: students learn the importance of listening skills development and have fun at the same time!! NOTE: I've used this game for about two years now and my students love it (even my jr. high kids)!! It's a great game for learning rhythms and counting. I use elements of this game for my band students as well. Have fun!! E-Mail [64]Michelle L. Miller! * * [65]Lesson Plans | * [66]Teaching Degrees | * [67]Articles & Blogs | * [68]Forums | * [69]Contribute | * [70]HotChalk Tools | * [71]About | * [72]Advertising © 1996 - 2009 HotChalk, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Last Major Update: January 19, 2010 [73]Privacy Policy | [74]Anti-Spam Policy | [75]Terms of Use Please manually type in our email address to contact us (to prevent spam). 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Shiel, Jr., MD, FACP, FACR Medical Editor: [40]Melissa Conrad Stöppler, MD * [41]What are biologic rhythms? * [42]How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness? * [43]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms? * [44]Angina * [45]Heart attack * [46]High blood pressure (hypertension) * [47]Hay fever (allergic rhinitis) * [48]Asthma * [49]Can the "body clock" affect diagnostic testing? * [50]Can drug therapy be matched to the "body clock?" * [51]Chronobiology: marking time, making progress What are biologic rhythms? What are biologic rhythms? In essence, they're the rhythms of life. All forms of life on earth, including our bodies, respond rhythmically to the regular cycles of the sun, moon, and seasons. For example, as night turns into day, vital body functions, including heart rate and [52]blood pressure, speed up in anticipation of increased physical activity. These and other predictable fluctuations in body function, taking place during specific time cycles, are our biologic rhythms. They are regulated by "biologic clock" mechanisms located in the brain. Although biologic rhythms can be "reprogrammed" by environmental influences (such as when a person regularly works the night shift and sleeps during the day), they are genetically "hard-wired" into our cells, tissues, and organs. Medical chronobiologists have found that biologic rhythms can affect the severity of disease symptoms, diagnostic test results, and even the body's response to drug therapy. Now these investigators are working to discover how the rhythms of life can be used to improve the practice of medicine - and your health. These time-related medical observations, and others still in the exciting process of discovery, are rooted in chronobiology (chronos - time; bios - life; logos - science), the study of biologic rhythms. How does the "body clock" affects symptoms of illness? Among the various biologic rhythm cycles that medical chronobiologists study, the 24-hour day/night-activity/rest cycle is considered a key chronobiologic factor in medical [53]diagnosis and treatment. Formally known as the [54]circadian rhythm, it's also referred to as the "body clock." Why is the 24-hour body clock so important? Because so many of our normal body functions follow daily patterns of speeding up and slowing down, intensifying and diminishing, in alignment with circadian rhythm. Interestingly, so do the symptoms of a number of [55]chronic disorders: Allergic rhinitis: (nasal inflammation associated with hay fever) Symptoms of sneezing, [56]runny nose, and stuffy nose are typically worse in the early waking hours than later during the day. Asthma: In most patients, symptoms are more than 100 times as likely to occur in the few hours prior to awakening than during the day. Stable angina: [57]Chest pain and [58]electrocardiographic (ECG, EKG) abnormalities are most common during the first 4 to 6 hours after awakening. [59]Prinzmetal's angina: ECG abnormalities are most common during [60]sleep; chest pain can occur even while at rest. Heart attack: Heart attack most commonly occurs in the early waking hours. Stroke: [61]Strokes most commonly occur in the early waking hours. Hypertension: The highest blood pressure readings typically occur from late morning to middle afternoon; lowest occur during early sleep. Therapy now exists that works with your body clock; consult your physician about this treatment. Clinical studies are underway to further this research. [62]Rheumatoid arthritis: RA symptoms are most intense upon awakening. [63]Osteoarthritis: Symptoms of osteoarthritis worsen in the afternoon and evening. Ulcer disease: The pain typically occurs after stomach emptying, following daytime meals, and in the very early morning, disrupting sleep. [64]Epilepsy: Seizures often occur only at particular times of the day or night; individual patterns differ among patients. * 1 * [65]2 * [66]3 * [67]4 * [68]5 * [69]6 * [70]7 * [71]8 * [72]Next » * [73]Biorhythms Index * [74]Glossary Next: [75]What are examples of specific diseases affected by biorhythms? » [76]Printer-Friendly Format | [77]Email to a Friend [header-doctor-topics_2.gif] Suggested Reading by Our Doctors MedicineNet Doctors * [78]Chemotherapy - Get information on chemotherapy treatment for cancer, side effects of medications and how chemo works. Chemotherapy is a type of cancer treatment often given along with radiation therapy and surgery. * [79]Rheumatoid Arthritis - Learn more about rheumatoid arthritis, an autoimmune disease that causes chronic joint inflammation, which has symptoms that include stiffness, fever, muscle and joint aches, loss of appetite, and fatigue. Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis incorporates the use of first-line drugs (aspirin and corticosteroids for pain and inflammation) and second-line drugs (methotrexate and hydroxychloroquine to prevent joint destruction and promote remission). * [80]Radiation Therapy - [81]Read more Biorhythms related articles » Latest Medical News * [82]Nightly Snacking May Speed Weight Gain [footer-doctor-topics_2.gif] [83]Privacy Policy Allergies & Asthma Improve treatments & prevent attacks. _____________________ [btn_submit2.gif]-Submit [clearpixel.gif] [84]Are you Depressed? Take the Quiz [85]Your Guide to Symptoms & Signs: Pinpoint Your Pain IFRAME: 8&xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos= 121 From WebMD Asthma and Allergy Resources * [87]Allergy Issues? Get Personalized Advice * [88]How to Use Your Inhaler * [89]The Best Cities for Asthma Featured Centers * [90]12 Ways to Prevent the Spread of Viruses * [91]10 Surprising Benefits of Treating Your Depression * [92]Healthy Home: To Buy or Not to Buy Organic? Health Solutions From Our Sponsors * [93]Osteoporosis Info * [94]BPH Treatment & Savings * [95]MS Rx Options Biorhythms [96]Jet Lag » What is jet lag? Jet lag, also called desynchronosis, is a temporary disorder that causes fatigue, insomnia, and other symptoms as a result of air travel across time zones. What are other symptoms of jet lag? Besides fatigue and insomnia, a jet lag sufferer may experience anxiety, constipation, diarrhea, confusion, dehydration, headache, irritability, nausea, sweating, coordination problems, and even memory loss. Some individuals report additional symptoms, such as heartbeat irregularities and increased susceptibility to illness. What is a time zone? A time zone is a geographical region which has the same time everywhere within it. The world has 24 time zones, one for each hour in the day. Each zone runs from north to south in strips that are approximately 1,000 miles (1,600 kilometers) wide. (The actual width of each zone varies to accommodate political and geographical boundaries.) As... [97]Read the Jet Lag article » Featured on MedicineNet * [98]Tips to Ease Nighttime Pain * [99]Check Your Fibromyalgia Symptoms * [100]Depression Tips Slideshow * [101]Are You at Risk for Diabetic Nerve Pain? Top 10 Biorhythms Related Articles * [102]Chemo Infusion and Chemoembolization of Liver * [103]Chemotherapy * [104]Chemotherapy Treatment for Breast Cancer * [105]Heart Attack * [106]High Blood Pressure * [107]Osteoarthritis * [108]Radiation Therapy * [109]Radiation Therapy for Breast Cancer * [110]Rheumatoid Arthritis * [111]Stroke * [112]Complete List » New on MedicineNet * [113]Michael C. Hall Has Hodgkin's * [114]Cryptosporidiosis Causes * [115]Shigella Infection Symptoms * [116]Lymphedema Causes * [117]C-Reactive Protein (CRP) * [118]Sinus Headache Treatment * [119]Pictures Slideshows Interactive Slideshows [120]Adult Skin Problems Slideshow IFRAME: 08&xpg=1660&artid=6969&site=2&affiliate=22&uri=subject%3Dbiorhythms&pos =113 IFRAME: [122]/htmlchunks/slideshow/slidermodule/6_slides_line.htm IFRAME: [123]/htmlchunks/footer/footer_new_medicinenet.html Health categories: [124]Slideshows | [125]Diseases & Conditions | [126]Symptoms & Signs | [127]Procedures & Tests | [128]Medications | [129]Image Collection | [130]Medical Dictionary | [131]Pet Health Popular health centers: [132]Allergies | [133]Arthritis | [134]Blood Pressure | [135]Cancer | [136]Chronic Pain | [137]Cold & Flu | [138]Diabetes | [139]Digestion | [140]Eyesight | [141]Health & Living | [142]Healthy Kids [143]Hearing & Ear | [144]Heart | [145]Infectious Disease | [146]Men's Health | [147]Mental Health | [148]News & Views | [149]Pregnancy | [150]Sexual Health | [151]Skin | [152]Women's Health | [153]More... 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Références Liens visibles 76. javascript:myVoid() Liens cachés : * [1]Skip to main content * [2]Text only version of this page * [3]Access keys help [4]BBC Home ____________________ Search [5]Explore the BBC 19 January 2010 [6]Accessibility help [7]Text only [8][USEMAP:banner_new.jpg] [9]Animals [10]Prehistoric Life [11]Human Body & Mind [12]Space [13]TV & Radio Follow-up [14]BBC Homepage [15]Science & Nature Homepage In [16]Human Body & Mind: [17]The mind [18]The body [19]Brain Sex [20]Sleep [21]Take part in the Brain Test Britain experiment __________________________________________________________________ [22]Contact Us Like this page? [23]Send it to a friend! You are here: [24]BBC > [25]Science & Nature > [26]Human Body & Mind > [27]Sleep > Daily Rhythm Test Daily Rhythm Test Our internal body clock governs our daily or circadian rhythm - telling us when to wake up and when to feel sleepy. Circadian comes from the Latin circa, meaning about and dies, meaning day. This test will produce a chart showing your natural sleeping and waking pattern over a 24 hour period. If you're having problems sleeping it could be your natural body clock is at odds with your routine. 1) Do you consider yourself a morning person or an evening person? (_) Evening (_) More evening than morning (_) Cant tell (_) More morning than evening (_) Morning 2) At what time of day do you feel at your best? (_) 5am - 9am (_) 9am - 11am (_) 11am - 5pm (_) 5pm - 10pm (_) 10pm - 1am 3) Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, if you were entirely free to plan your day - at what time would you go to bed? (_) 8pm - 9pm (_) 9pm - 10.15pm (_) 10.15pm - 12.30am (_) 12.30am - 1.45am (_) 1.45am - 3am 4) Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, if you were entirely free to plan your day - at what time would you get up? (_) 5.00am - 6.30am (_) 6.30am - 7.45am (_) 7.45am - 9.45am (_) 9.45am - 11.00am (_) 11.00am - Midday View results [28]Science & Nature Homepage [29]Animals | [30]Prehistoric Life | [31]Human Body & Mind | [32]Space | [33]TV & Radio follow-up [34]Go to top [35]About the BBC | [36]Help | [37]Terms of Use | [38]Privacy & Cookies Policy Références [USEMAP] [1]SpringerLink Logo [2]Institutional Login Welcome! To use the personalized features of this site, please [3]log in or [4]register. If you have forgotten your username or password, we can [5]help. My Menu [6]Marked Items [7]Alerts [8]Order History Saved Items [9]All [10]Favorites * [11]Content Types + [12]All + [13]Publications + [14]Journals + [15]Book Series + [16]Books + [17]Reference Works + [18]Protocols * [19]Subject Collections + [20]Architecture and Design + [21]Behavioral Science + [22]Biomedical and Life Sciences + [23]Business and Economics + [24]Chemistry and Materials Science + [25]Computer Science + [26]Earth and Environmental Science + [27]Engineering + [28]Humanities, Social Sciences and Law + [29]Mathematics and Statistics + [30]Medicine + [31]Physics and Astronomy + [32]Professional and Applied Computing [English.......] Go Journal Article [33]Printable view Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Journal [34]Surgery Today Publisher Springer Japan ISSN 0941-1291 (Print) 1436-2813 (Online) Issue [35]Volume 17, Number 3 / May, 1987 Category Short Communication DOI 10.1007/BF02470602 Pages 209-212 Subject Collection [36]Medicine SpringerLink Date Thursday, July 20, 2006 [37]Add to marked items [38]Add to shopping cart [39]Add to saved items [40]Permissions & Reprints [41]Recommend this article [42]PDF (237.9 KB)[43] Free Preview Free Preview Short Communication Postoperative deep body temperature rhythm Jun Narumi^1 Contact Information , Kozo Suma^1, Hidemi Kaneko^1, Yasuo Takeuchi^1, Kenji Inoue^1, Kenji Shiroma^1 and Yuji Koyama^1 (1) Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, 2nd Hospital of Tokyo Women's Medical College, 2-1-10 Nishiogu, Arakawaku, 116 Tokyo, Japan Received: 7 April 1986 Abstract The postoperative deep body temperature rhythms of fifteen patients who received aorto-coronary bypass surgery (group I), and of seven patients who received non-cardiac major surgery (group II), were studied. Postoperative patients, especially those who received aortocoronary bypass surgery, showed greatly disturbed deep body temperature rhythm. There existed infradian and ultradian rhythm in both groups, and there existed two patients in group I who did not show sinusoidal rhythm. The patients of group I also showed a longer period of rhythm than did those of group II. The mesor and amplitude of the patients in group I showed a greater individual variation than did those in group II. The acrophase of both groups deviated widely. The patients who underwent cardiac surgery needed a longer time for temperature rhythm recovery than did those who underwent general surgery. Key Words deep body temperature rhythm - intensive care unit - post-operative patients __________________________________________________________________ Fulltext Preview (Small, [44]Large) Image of the first page of the fulltext [45]Click here to visit our sponsor References secured to subscribers. [46]more options Find ____________________ ... Go Query Builder Close | Clear * [47]Title (ti) * [48]Summary (su) * [49]Author (au) * [50]ISSN (issn) * [51]ISBN (isbn) * [52]DOI (doi) * * [53]And * [54]Or * [55]Not * [56]( * [57]) * [58]* (wildcard) * [59]"" (exact) (_) Within all content (_) Within this journal (_) Within this issue Export this article Export this article as [60]RIS | [61]Text [62]Frequently asked questions | [63]General information on journals and books | [64]Send us your feedback | [65]Impressum | [66]Contact © Springer. [67]Part of Springer Science+Business Media [68]Privacy, Disclaimer, Terms and Conditions, © Copyright Information [69]MetaPress Privacy Policy Remote Address: 84.99.202.28 o Server: mpweb23 HTTP User Agent: Lynx/2.8.7pre.6 libwww-FM/2.14 SSL-MM/1.4.1 Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1]Home [2]Search Holisticonline [3]Grandmas Remedies Quality vitamins, natural remedies [4]Specialgifts.com Big savings on gemstones, jewelry and gifts. [5]Alternative Medicine [6]Stress Management [7]Conditions/ Treatments [8]Preferred Providers [9]Holistic Living [10]Alternative Therapies [11]Acupuncture [12]Aromatherapy [13]Ayurveda [14]Biofeedback [15]Chelation Therapy [16]Herbal Medicine [17]Homeopathy [18]Humor Therapy [19]Hydrotherapy [20]Imagery [21]Light Therapy [22]Massage [23]Meditation [24]NLP [25]Nutrition [26]Prayer/ Spiritual [27]Reiki [28]Shiatsu [29]Yoga [30]FAQ (Health) [31]Feedback [32]Register [33]Media Light Therapy HOL-emblem Rhythms and Body Clock Circadian Rhythm From the Latin circa (about) dies (a day), the circadian rhythm is the twenty-four-hour cycle of light/dark, wakefulness/sleep to which most human physiologic processes are set. At regular intervals each day, the body tends to become hungry, tired, active, listless, energized. Body temperature, heart-beat, blood pressure, hormone levels, and urine flow rise and fall in this relatively predictable, rhythmic pattern - a pattern initiated and governed by exposure to sunlight and darkness. Experiments where humans were placed in isolation chambers, cut off from all potential environmental cues, have shown that, in the absence of natural daylight, rhythms are still maintained. But in the absence of the day light, the rhythms tend to deviate from 24 hours. For instance, the rhythms was found to expand to 24-30 hours, thus disrupting the biological processes over a long period of time. The fact that animals and humans can continue to function according to daily and annual rhythms in the absence of external environmental stimuli means that animals and humans possess some kind of biological clock, which act as a backup mechanism in case it cannot get the proper stimuli from the natural events such as sunshine. This behavior can be illustrated by our clocks. Let us say, our clock is running slow. Over a period of time, the clock may lag the actual time because of this defect. Usually, we will reset the clock when it gets far out of sync by other external stimuli like a radio or phone time. Now, if we do not have access to this external synchronizing signal, the clock can get far out of line with the reality. Our body clocks functions the same way. The biological clock can keep the time; but in the absence of correction from the day/light cycle provided by the sun, the biological clock tend go out of sync affecting our physical and mental health. A similar thing happens when we travel across time zones; we tend to experience what is known as "jet lag". However, in the absence of natural light our body clocks may lose or gain a little time. This in turn could lead to the desynchronization of different rhythms. For example, in the absence of sufficient environmental light the sleep-wake and associated rest-activity rhythms may lengthen to a cycle of between 30 and 48 hours, while the temperature rhythm may remain at a period of, say, 25 hours. Such desynchronization of the body's intricate rhythms is suspected to trigger problems: hormonal imbalances, sleep disorders and mood disturbances. Circannual Rhythm Circannual rhythm is the annual or yearly cycle used by all living things. Circaseptan Rhythm Circaseptan rhythm is a seven-day cycle in which the biological processes of life, including disease symptoms and development, resolve. Many physicians believe that transplant patients tend to have more rejection episodes seven, fourteen, twenty-one, and twenty-eight days after surgery. They further believe that medications administered to the patients at particular times may be more effective than at other times. These are all related to the circaseptan rhythm. How does the brain know when it is light or dark? Deep within the brain, inside the hypothalamus, lie two clusters of cells (i.e., neurons) called the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN). Each of these SCN is composed of more than 8,000 neurons. The SCN act as the body's circadian pacemaker. In mammals, the SCN appear to get their information from photoreceptors in the retina, which transmit signals about light and dark through the optic nerves to the hypothalamus. Once these messages enter the SCN, a series of physiological reactions takes place. What happens after the light/dark signal reaches the SCN? We are not sure. The pathway from the retina through the optic nerves to the SCN extends further to reach the pineal gland, which lies adjacent to the hypothalamus above the brain stem. Stimulated by the message it receives from the SCN, the pineal gland either secretes its main hormone, melatonin, or inhibits melatonin's release, which may result in the production of serotonin as was explained before. Next Topic: [34]Light Therapy for Seasonal Affective Disorder [[35]Light Therapy Home][[36]Alternative Therapies Home][[37]Holistic-online.com Home] [narule_200.GIF] Holisticonline.com is developed and maintained by ICBS, Inc. Send mail to: [38]info@holisticonline.com with comments about this web site. [39]Copyright © [40]1998-2007 ICBS, Inc. [41]Terms of Use All Rights Reserved. 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Here's One Way to Find Out[240]Bipolar Mood Swings? 4 Steps to Nip Them in the Bud[241]Bipolar Disorder: 5 Steps to Sleep [242]Bipolar Disorder, Treating the Whole Person[243]Handling Difficult Emotions: The Path Less Traveled[244] To Do: 3 Steps to Healing When You're Feeling Blue [245]Depression: How We Get Stuck and What Can Help[246]Break Free from the Mental Recession or Depression by Doing Less[247]Feeling Depressed? Here's 1 practice that could begin to turn it around[248]How you can be triggered into depressionwithout even knowing it[249]Marijuana Makes It Worse: Severe Mental Illnesses[250]Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation device for treatment-resistant Major Depression just approved by the FDA[251]National Depression Screening Day is just around the corner (October 10th!)[252]Press "D" for Depression Therapy[253]Few People Who Are Depressed Receive Mental Health Services[254]Pleasure...Depressions Kryptonite?[255]We've all heard of dental floss, but mental floss to prevent stress, anxiety, and depression? [256]Three things you can do immediately when you find yourself getting depressed[257]An Interview with Yulonda Brown on Surviving Abuse and Bipolar Disorder[258]Depression: A New Frontier in It's Treatment[259]Our Bipolar Topic Center has been Updated[260]Feeling Depressed: Influenced by the Attitudes and Opinions of Others?[261]Bipolar kids see aggression when it isn't there[262]Bipolar Disorder and the Need for Psychoeducation[263]Disentangling Rapid-Cycling Bipolar From Borderline [264]Videos [265]Bipolar Disorder Video[266]Major Depression Video[267]Bipolar Disorder Video[268]Antidepressants Video[269]Meet Sue Bergeson: Depression and Bipolar Support Alliance[270]Managing Bipolar Disorder[271]Bipolar Disorder - Questions to Ask Your Doctor[272]Bipolar Disorder - Working with Your Doctor[273]Bipolar Disorder - Working Toward Wellness[274]Bipolar Disorder in Children: The Importance of Family Support[275]Bipolar Disorder: Why Are Clinical Trials so Important[276]Bipolar Disorder: Why Did it Take so Long to Get Diagnosed?[277]Balancing Bipolar Disorder[278]The Road to Recovery from Bipolar Disorder[279]Advice for Someone Recently Diagnosed with Bipolar Disorder[280]How to Find Information about Bipolar Disorder[281]Are There Genetic Risk Factors for Bipolar Disorder[282]Does Bipolar Disorder Affect Children?[283]Getting Help for Family Members of Bipolar Patients Video[284]Types of Depression Video [285]Links [286][3] Associations[287][9] Community[288][31] Information[289][1] Journals[290][1] Assessment[291][1] Research[292][20] Videos[293][2] Personal Experiences[294][21] Blogs [295]Book Reviews [296]Active Treatment of Depression[297]Adult Bipolar Disorders[298]Agents in My Brain[299]American Mania[300]An Unquiet Mind[301]Bipolar Disorder[302]Bipolar Disorder Demystified[303]Bipolar Disorder in Childhood and Early Adolescence[304]Bipolar Disorders[305]Bipolar Kids[306]Crazy[307]Daughter of the Queen of Sheba[308]Depression Is a Choice[309]Detour[310]Electroboy[311]Essential Psychopharmacology of Depression and Bipolar Disorder[312]Hurry Down Sunshine[313]I am Not Sick I Don't Need Help![314]Lithium for Medea[315]Loving Someone With Bipolar Disorder[316]Madness[317]Manic[318]Manic Depression[319]Mommy I'm Still in Here[320]Mood Genes[321]New Hope for Children and Teens with Bipolar Disorder[322]New Hope For People With Bipolar Disorder[323]Night Falls Fast[324]Overcoming Depression[325]Scattershot[326]Surviving Manic Depression[327]Swing Low[328]The Best Awful[329]The Bipolar Child[330]The Bipolar Disorder Survival Guide[331]The Devil and Daniel Johnston[332]The Hypomanic Edge[333]The Naked Bird Watcher[334]The Noonday Demon[335]The Pits and the Pendulum[336]The Years of Silence are Past[337]To Walk on Eggshells[338]Toxic Psychiatry[339]Undoing Depression[340]What Goes Up[341]What Works for Bipolar Kids[342]Zelda [343]Self-Help Groups [344]Dep-Anon Community Talk about this issue in our [345]mental health support community Therapist Search Find a Therapist: _______ Go! (USA/CAN only) Use our [346]Advanced Search to locate a therapist outside of North America. Related Topics [347]Depression: Major Depression & Unipolar Varieties [348]Suicide [349]Addictions: Alcohol and Substance Abuse [350]View the Depression Primer - an illustrated book about Depression * [351]Mental Disorders + [352]Autism + [353]ADHD + [354]Alcohol & Substance Abuse + [355]Anxiety Disorders + [356]Bipolar Disorder + [357]Conversion Disorders + [358]Depression (Unipolar) + [359]Depression Primer + [360]Disorders of Childhood + [361]Eating Disorders + [362]Dissociative Disorders + [363]Impulse Control Disorders + [364]Internet Addiction + [365]Obsessive Compulsive Disorder + [366]Personality Disorders + [367]Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder + [368]Schizophrenia + [369]Sexual Disorders + [370]Suicide & Self-Harm + [371]Tourettes and other Tic Disorders * [372]Medical Disorders + [373]Alzheimers And Other Dementias + [374]Cancer + [375]Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease + [376]Colds and Flu + [377]Crohns Disease / Irritable Bowel + [378]Diabetes + [379]Epilepsy + [380]Heart Disease + [381]High Blood Pressure + [382]Memory Problems + [383]Men's Health + [384]Multiple Sclerosis + [385]Sexually Transmitted Diseases + [386]Sleep Disorders + [387]Stroke + [388]Women's Health * [389]Wellness + [390]Anger Management + [391]Emotional Resilience + [392]Exercise + [393]Smoking + [394]Stress Reduction + [395]Weight Loss * [396]Life Issues + [397]Abuse + [398]Adoption + [399]Child Care + [400]Dating + [401]Disabilities + [402]Disasters + [403]Divorce + [404]Domestic Violence and Rape + [405]Elder Care + [406]Family & Relationship Issues + [407]Grief & Bereavement Issues + [408]Pain Management + [409]Parenting o [410]Parenting o [411]Child & Adolescent Development Overview o [412]Child Development and Parenting: Infants o [413]Child Development and Parenting: Early Childhood o [414]Pregnancy o [415]Infertility o [416]Child Care + [417]Relationship Problems + [418]Self Esteem + [419]Sexuality & Sexual Problems + [420]Speech Problems + [421]Terrorism & War * [422]Healthcare + [423]Health Insurance + [424]Health Policy & Advocacy + [425]Health Sciences + [426]Mental Health Professions * [427]Treatments & Interventions + [428]Alternative Medicine + [429]Assessment + [430]Medications + [431]Psychotherapy * [432]Lifespan Development + [433]Pregnancy + [434]Child & Adolescent Development Overview + [435]Child Development and Parenting: Infants + [436]Child Development and Parenting: Early Childhood + [437]Sexuality & Sexual Problems + [438]Homosexuality & Bisexuality + [439]Aging & Geriatrics + [440]Death & Dying Body Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder Rashmi Nemade, Ph.D. & Mark Dombeck, Ph.D. Updated: Aug 7th 2009 Nervous system, endocrine, and/or immune system difficulties may conspire to affect one of the less measurable causes of bipolar disorders: disturbances in body rhythms. As discussed earlier, the hypothalamus is the link between the nervous and endocrine systems. Given that the nervous system is also associated with the immune system, it is possible that the hypothalamus exerts its effect on the immune system as well. Thus, the combination of these systems can alter body biochemistry, contributing to shifts in body rhythms such as the circadian, seasonal, and social rhythms. Circadian Rhythm and Bipolar Disorder [441]advertisement The circadian rhythm is the 24-hour cycle of the body, the exact length of which is determined by the amount of light that the hypothalamus senses in a day-night cycle. The name "circadian" refers to a period of time that is "around a day long". Clear patterns of brain wave activity and hormone production are coupled to this cycle. When the circadian rhythm is upset (as can be the case with jet lag and sleep problems) mood disturbances can result. It is known that in some people sleep deprivation causes mania, whereas in others it can alleviate the symptoms of depression. Thus, regulation of circadian rhythm is important for managing bipolar symptoms and mood episodes. Dysregulation of this system is typically experienced as a powerful source of stress. Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) and Bipolar Disorder Similar to circadian rhythms but longer in duration are seasonal rhythms. These are determined by the amount of daylight experienced within a given season. Dysregulation of seasonal rhythms has been linked with Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD; also known as winter depression). SAD-affected individuals begin to feel increasingly depressed as the amount of light disappears during the winter. Their depression lifts as springtime approaches and the days lengthen. During times of the year with long days, these people typically experience no undue mood disturbance. Social Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder Both circadian and seasonal rhythms can affect individuals' social rhythms. The social rhythm comprises of a daily routine such as waking up at a specific time, going to school or work, and interacting with family members, friends, peers and colleagues. Even healthy people can experience mood changes when their social rhythms are disturbed by insomnia, seasonal changes or work schedules. It is no great leap to see that if someone is susceptible to bipolar disorder, a change in their body rhythms might constitute sufficient stress to precipitate bipolar symptoms. When considering the possible causes of bipolar disorders, it is necessary to bear in mind the complex nature of mood polarity. It is likely that that the problem originates in multiple biologic systems - the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems with a basis in the genetic machinery that regulates these systems. For example, a gene important in the function of the hypothalamus may become mutated or infected by a retrovirus leading to deregulation of neurotransmitters, hormones, and/or immune components. The resulting change is measurable as biochemical imbalances in either the brain or body but these biochemical imbalances are not necessarily causing the underlying dysfunction, but instead may simply be themselves symptoms or links in a chain of causes that lead to bipolar illness. [442]« Previous[443]1...[444]12[445]13[446]14[447]15[448]16[449]17[450]18...[4 51]34[452]Next » Share: [453][twitter.jpg] [454][facebook.jpg] [455][linkedin.jpg] [456][stumble.jpg] [457][delicious.jpg] [458][buzz.jpg] [459][google.jpg] [460][diigo.jpg] [461][squidoo.jpg] [462][digg.jpg] [463][reddit.jpg] [464][bitly.jpg] Link: (Here's how to do it ... ) To link to this article: 1. Copy the HTML link code shown in the box just below. 2. Paste this HTML code into your blog or web page, into a forum post or a blog comment you make, into your Facebook feed, etc. Body Rhythms and Bipolar Disorder Thank you! Reader Comments Discuss this issue below or in our [465]forums. Add Comment [466]Follow us on Twitter! [spacer.gif] [467]Find us on Facebook! [spacer.gif] IFRAME: [468]a471eef6 [469]Get Support for Bipolar Disorder [spacer.gif] Mental Help Net [470]Terms of Use/Privacy Policy[471]Our Mission[472]Contributors[473]Jobs[474]Advertising on Mental Help Net[475]Contact Us [spacer.gif] [476]advertisement [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [477]Powered by CenterSite.Net [spacer.gif] [478]This website is certified by Health On the Net Foundation. Click to verify. [spacer.gif] __________________________________________________________________ [479]About Us | [480]About CenterSite | [481]Terms & Privacy | [482]Submit/Update Listings Copyright © [483]CenterSite, LLC, 1995-2010 [mhn_footer_pg_cnt.php] [484]Quantcast Références Liens visibles 10. javascript:void(0) 11. javascript:void(0) 18. javascript:void(0) 22. javascript:void(0) 32. javascript:void(0) 35. javascript:void(0) 44. javascript:void(0) Liens cachés : [PhilFront.jpg] [1][phil_tulga_logo.gif] [2][eyes.gif] Morse Code Music - connecting rhythm and language with Morse Code - Welcome to my Morse Code Music page! It includes: 1) an explanation on how to [3]translate Morse Code into music; 2) an online [4]Morse Code Music generator you can play right now on your computer; and 3) multimedia [5]activities that integrate Morse Code with other areas of the curriculum! So, take a couple of minutes and learn more about Morse Code and the wonderful connections we can make between language and music. Translating Morse Code into Music With International Morse Code, each letter of the alphabet is represented by short and long sounds called dots and dashes. Each dot, or short sound, will be played as an eighth note. . dot short sound [eighth%20note.jpg] eighth note Each dash, or long sound, will be played as a quarter note. - dash long sound [quarter%20note.jpg] quarter note Between each letter, there will be an eighth rest. [eighth%20rest.jpg] eighth rest Each rhythm will be played in 4/4 time: four counts to a measure, with the quarter note getting one count. [time%20signature.jpg] time signature To hear how this works, please see the Morse Code Music activity below. Morse Code Music How to play Morse Code Music: Scroll down until to see the keyboard on the screen. Using your mouse, click on the first letter in your name notice that it appears on the screen. Now, finish typing your name with your mouse or keyboard. Press the Play button and hear your name in Morse Code! To delete a character, just press the Backspace key. For a different sound, press the Tones or Voices buttons on the left of the keyboard. You may also want to listen to some of Phil's favorite words and by pressing the Words button. You will also find [6]drum language from the Congo, ancient [7]Aztec drum rhythms, and popular modern dance beats from around the world all played with Morse Code. You're ready, let's get started! Technical Note: You must have Macromedia Flash Player 6 for this activity to work. If you don't have it, you may obtain this free download from Macromedia at: Extensions Learn how to make music with Morse Code letters and words. [9][products-philguiro.jpg] [10]"Morse Code Mambo" lesson plan and group activity Play Morse Code words with Phil's free multimedia activities. [11][Unifix.gif] [12]Unifix Cube Drum Machine [13][FractionPies.gif] [14]Playing Fraction Pies [15][Counting.gif] [16]Counting Music Copyright © 2004 - 2006 Phil Tulga [17]Home [18]Web Design by DT Tech Web Design by DT Tech Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [PhilFront.jpg] [1][phil_tulga_logo.gif] [2][eyes.gif] Morse Code Music - connecting rhythm and language with Morse Code - Welcome to my Morse Code Music page! It includes: 1) an explanation on how to [3]translate Morse Code into music; 2) an online [4]Morse Code Music generator you can play right now on your computer; and 3) multimedia [5]activities that integrate Morse Code with other areas of the curriculum! So, take a couple of minutes and learn more about Morse Code and the wonderful connections we can make between language and music. Translating Morse Code into Music With International Morse Code, each letter of the alphabet is represented by short and long sounds called dots and dashes. Each dot, or short sound, will be played as an eighth note. . dot short sound [eighth%20note.jpg] eighth note Each dash, or long sound, will be played as a quarter note. - dash long sound [quarter%20note.jpg] quarter note Between each letter, there will be an eighth rest. [eighth%20rest.jpg] eighth rest Each rhythm will be played in 4/4 time: four counts to a measure, with the quarter note getting one count. [time%20signature.jpg] time signature To hear how this works, please see the Morse Code Music activity below. Morse Code Music How to play Morse Code Music: Scroll down until to see the keyboard on the screen. Using your mouse, click on the first letter in your name notice that it appears on the screen. Now, finish typing your name with your mouse or keyboard. Press the Play button and hear your name in Morse Code! To delete a character, just press the Backspace key. For a different sound, press the Tones or Voices buttons on the left of the keyboard. You may also want to listen to some of Phil's favorite words and by pressing the Words button. You will also find [6]drum language from the Congo, ancient [7]Aztec drum rhythms, and popular modern dance beats from around the world all played with Morse Code. You're ready, let's get started! Technical Note: You must have Macromedia Flash Player 6 for this activity to work. If you don't have it, you may obtain this free download from Macromedia at: Extensions Learn how to make music with Morse Code letters and words. [9][products-philguiro.jpg] [10]"Morse Code Mambo" lesson plan and group activity Play Morse Code words with Phil's free multimedia activities. [11][Unifix.gif] [12]Unifix Cube Drum Machine [13][FractionPies.gif] [14]Playing Fraction Pies [15][Counting.gif] [16]Counting Music Copyright © 2004 - 2006 Phil Tulga [17]Home [18]Web Design by DT Tech Web Design by DT Tech Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : #[1]eyePlorer.com You have deactivated Javascript. Probably some of the features of eyePlorer.com will not work correctly. We recommend to activate Javascript. 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Moderator: [13]Michael Horowitz [14]Post a reply ____________________ Search 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [15]rhythm engine [16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its the only way always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London [18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django 100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good players! If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out there and support these guys books are not always the answer LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL WORKSHOPS Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010 Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt, these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of techniques and musical ideas. These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts Council England. WORKSHOPS £35 o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass. o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the masters themselves Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from 13.30 - 15.30 Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227 [20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records January Workshops at a Glance: Sunday 17 January Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance Battersea Monday 18 January Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Tuesday 19 January Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea Wednesday 20 January Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Thursday 21 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea Friday 22 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Saturday 23 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith Sunday 24 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to happen. ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS AND STUDENTS SUNDAY 17th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions. An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg, Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others. [23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY 17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at [25]www.wegottickets.com MONDAY 18th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients, intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive. Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music, their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous, humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY 18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [27]www.wegottickets.com TUESDAY 19th JANUARY Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [28]www.quecumbar.co.uk A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind, multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger, and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene. [29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com [31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from [32]www.wegottickets.com WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson. [34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl [36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ; Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [39]www.quecumbar.co.uk Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona. [40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [42]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [43]www.quecumbar.co.uk Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha [45]www.bielballestertrio.com Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [46]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs, demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg, Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label, El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in Spain. [49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com [51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY 24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at [53]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line). Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist, he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour. [55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY (Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from [56]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London SW11 3JB SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy. He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of 15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with "Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of the top 1.4% of entrants. "...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard; "It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again", Zutphen Paper. [58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo, Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill, technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of Gypsy Swing, WORKSHOP VENUES: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [60]www.institut-francais.org.uk Tube: South Kensington How to get there: From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6 Jazz Cafe POSK The Polish Cultural Centre 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same. There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction. Thomas's School 28-40 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3JB [63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Royal Academy of Dance 36 Battersea Square, Battersea, London SW11 3RA [64]www.rad.org.uk [65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Le QuecumBar & Brasserie 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3HX [66]www.quecumbar.co.uk [67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf How to find us by Bus Route 170: The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station. (A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station about £10) 170 from Victoria Station: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right 170 from Clapham Junction: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right By Train: Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from, Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch the 170 bus By Car: Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends London Airports: Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx or train to central London Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch the 170 bus. Map of where Le QuecumBar is: 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3 HX: [68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud to have the support of our world class musician patrons: Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg [69]quecumbar Posts: 3 Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm Location: London + [70]E-mail quecumbar + [71]Website [72]Top __________________________________________________________________ [73]Post a reply 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [74]Return to Gypsy Rhythm Jump to: [ Gypsy Rhythm................................................] Go Who is online Users browsing this forum: No registered users and 1 guest * [75]Board index * [76]The team o [77]Delete all board cookies o All times are UTC - 8 hours [ DST ] Revolution Style © 2007, 2008 by [78]Semi_Deus Powered by [79]phpBB © 2000, 2002, 2005, 2007 phpBB Group Références Liens visibles 20. mailto:info@quecumbar.co.uk 24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr 31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com Liens cachés : [1]Skip to main content (WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION * Biblio. Data * [2]Description * [3]Claims * [4]National Phase * [5]Notices * [6]Documents Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau * [7]Link + [8]Permanent Link + [9]Bookmark this page __________________________________________________________________ Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.: PCT/US1999/000569 Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999 IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01) Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake Village, CA 91361 (US). Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US). Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box 640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US). Priority Data: 09/013,353 26.01.1998 US Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30) corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system. A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity information and may contain polyphonic information. Designated States: JP. European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB, GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE). Publication Language: English (EN) Filing Language: English (EN) [10]Scam Warning | [11]RSS | [12]Terms of use [13]WIPO Home services * [14]Español * [15]Français * [16]日本語 ____________________ Search * [17]Contact us * [18]Accessibility * [19]Site map * [20]Home * [21]IP Services * [22]PATENTSCOPE® * [23]Patent Search [24]PATENTSCOPE® * [25]About Patents * [26]PCT Resources * [27]Database Search * [28]PCT Applications * [29]National Collections & PCT * [30]External Databases * [31]Patent Analysis * [32]Glossary [33]Data Services [34]Publications [35]Projects & Programs [36]Patent Law [37]Priority Documents Related Links * [38]Patent Classification: IPC * [39]Statistics * [40]Life Sciences * [41]WIPO Standards E-Newsletters * [42]Subscription [43]ABOUT WIPO [44]IP SERVICES [45]PROGRAM ACTIVITIES [46]RESOURCES [47]NEWS & EVENTS Références A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event by David Lindsay Copyright 2002. All right reserved. In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm. Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event. Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our scope. The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known. The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand, and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.) A C G T T G C A These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three: A C G T || ||| ||| || T G C A In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological organisms--play a determining role. Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy. Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is constant, by the following coefficients: A=2 C=3 G=3 T=2 Given an arbitrary DNA sequence: A C G T A A T A T T C T the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes: 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation progresses away from the initiation site: A C G T A A T A T T C T -------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event. H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins, which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four: 2332 2222 2232 Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond breakage are activated simultaneously: A C G T A A T A T T C T || ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger -- will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied equally to molecular processes or musical ones. Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is varied its energy profile. The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could, for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate, while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and unstressed "beats," such that: A=2=unstressed beat (-) C=3=stressed beat (´) G=3=stressed beat (´) T=2=unstressed beat (-) Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation process. Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication will suffice. Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry. In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward resonance. Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering a suspension bridge. The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription. 1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences," Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts (Sept. 1995). For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here. [2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles. For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here. website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan University. Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project [1]CRE Personnel What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project? The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision, continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data (e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that represents these programs and data visually. Expressive timing One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say, tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat). All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this project. Composition and combination techniques Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of such structures. Applications Here are some possible applications of CRE: * Anything that any standard drum machine does * Automated percussion tracks with "human feel" * A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the same rhythms with "human feel" * Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable (e.g. the 30-second commercial) * Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with irrationally-related durations * Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at will, in real time * Making a program that improvises by "driving around in rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or invention according to some combination of generative processes) * Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without altering the tree structure. Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since this list provides checkpoints for the software development. __________________________________________________________________ Page maintained by Vijay Iyer Last modified July 15, 1996 __________________________________________________________________ [2]Up to Vijay's page [3]Up to CNMAT homepage [4]Send mail to the CRE group [5]Send mail to Vijay Iyer Références 4. mailto:cdm@icsi.berkeley.edu 5. mailto:vijay@cnmat.berkeley.edu #[1]Suite101: Arts Education [2]Freelance Writing Jobs | [3]Today's Articles | [4]Sign In [icon_searchfilter_1.gif] ____________________ [5][v4_button_widget_search.png] Articles Writers Find [6]Suite101 Browse Sections [7]Home [8]Education & Career [9]Arts Education [10]Music Education [11]Write For Us » [12]Print Article [13]Subscribe [14]Share Article [15]Jennifer Wagaman Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students Lesson Ideas Involving Rhythm for Young Students [16]Dec 16, 2008 [17]Jennifer Wagaman Be creative and resourceful when teaching kindergarten students about rhythm. [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Teaching rhythm to Kindergarten students can be a fun way to get students moving around the classroom. When writing lesson plans with the objective towards learning rhythm, consider not only the manner in which you teach the students, but which songs would provide the best lesson opportunity, as well as which songs will work for the short attention span the students have. How to Teach Rhythm Use the body demonstrate the beat, also called body percussion, will help students feel the beat and learn the rhythm. This can involve having the students clap, tap, or stomp their feet while singing. This reinforces beat in a tactile manner, and helps the students stay focused on what you are doing. You can also use any opportunity you have to get the students up and moving about the room while singing songs. Although this does take decent [18]classroom management skills, it may also help your student's behavior as they are not required to sit still throughout the class period. What Songs Teach Rhythm Teaching children about rhythm can be a great time to introduce some fun songs. Lessons involving rhythm can be taught with any song that has a steady beat, which basically means that most songs are good to teach rhythm. Pick songs that the students either already know or are easy to teach, as this will ensure that they already know the basic rhythm. Some good songs to use for teaching rhythm include songs like Engine Engine Number Nine, and Skip to My Lou. For Engine Engine Number Nine, after teaching the song, have the students form a train and move around the room to the beat of the train in the song. For Skip to My Lou, have the students walk, march, or skip around the room to the beat of the song. Keep Attention Span in Mind Because a Kindergarten age child has a relatively short attention span, keep your songs short and varied. Do several songs per class period. It is better to do 3 five minute songs, assuming a 20 minute class period, than to spend 15 minutes on one song. So once again, choose songs that are either easy to teach, or that the students are already somewhat familiar with. Do not be afraid to experiment with your class as you teach the concept of rhythm. Reflect on your lesson after you have taught it, decide where there is room for improvement, and work to improve it for the next class you teach it to. You may also be interested in using [19]STOMP to teach rhythm in the classroom. Read more [20]tips for music teachers. The copyright of the article Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in [21]Arts Education is owned by [22]Jennifer Wagaman. Permission to republish Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in print or online must be granted by the author in writing. [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Ideas for Teaching Rhythm, Mary R. Vogt Ideas for Teaching Rhythm [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [comment_icon_f1.png] What do you think about this article? __________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ NOTE: Because you are not a Suite101 member, your comment will be moderated before it is viewable. post your comment What is 5+5? ______ [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Comments Apr 15, 2009 7:59 AM Guest : I particularly like the idea of reflecting on the lesson after its implementation. Reflection and teaching reflectively should be encouraged among music teachers. Cheers Mark Minott [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] 1 Comment: Related Articles [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [23]Lessons about Sound and Rhythm * [24]Kindergarten Drama Lesson on Expressing Feelings * [25]Teaching Poetry Through Movement, Drama & Art * [26]Enhance Student Reading Skills * [27]Group Music Lessons for Young Children * [28]Syllable Count Poems Lesson * [29]How to Make Fun Butterfly Crafts for Kids [30]more in arts education [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Related Topics [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [31]Music Education * [32]Arts Education Curriculum * [33]Dance Education * [34]Drama Education * [35]Theater Education * [36]Visual Arts Education [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Reference [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [37]how to teach rhythm * [38]teaching rhythm to kindergarten students * [39]lesson ideas for teaching rhythm * [40]what songs will teach rhythm * [41]teaching music to kindergarten students * [42]reflection on how a lesson went [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [43]Enter Suite101.com`s New Tagline Contest
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Moderator: [13]Michael Horowitz [14]Post a reply ____________________ Search 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [15]rhythm engine [16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its the only way always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London [18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django 100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good players! If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out there and support these guys books are not always the answer LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL WORKSHOPS Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010 Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt, these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of techniques and musical ideas. These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts Council England. WORKSHOPS £35 o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass. o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the masters themselves Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from 13.30 - 15.30 Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227 [20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records January Workshops at a Glance: Sunday 17 January Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance Battersea Monday 18 January Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Tuesday 19 January Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea Wednesday 20 January Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Thursday 21 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea Friday 22 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Saturday 23 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith Sunday 24 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to happen. ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS AND STUDENTS SUNDAY 17th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions. An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg, Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others. [23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY 17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at [25]www.wegottickets.com MONDAY 18th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients, intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive. Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music, their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous, humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY 18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [27]www.wegottickets.com TUESDAY 19th JANUARY Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [28]www.quecumbar.co.uk A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind, multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger, and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene. [29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com [31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from [32]www.wegottickets.com WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson. [34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl [36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ; Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [39]www.quecumbar.co.uk Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona. [40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [42]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [43]www.quecumbar.co.uk Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha [45]www.bielballestertrio.com Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [46]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs, demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg, Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label, El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in Spain. [49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com [51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY 24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at [53]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line). Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist, he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour. [55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY (Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from [56]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London SW11 3JB SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy. He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of 15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with "Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of the top 1.4% of entrants. "...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard; "It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again", Zutphen Paper. [58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo, Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill, technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of Gypsy Swing, WORKSHOP VENUES: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [60]www.institut-francais.org.uk Tube: South Kensington How to get there: From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6 Jazz Cafe POSK The Polish Cultural Centre 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same. There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction. Thomas's School 28-40 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3JB [63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Royal Academy of Dance 36 Battersea Square, Battersea, London SW11 3RA [64]www.rad.org.uk [65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Le QuecumBar & Brasserie 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3HX [66]www.quecumbar.co.uk [67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf How to find us by Bus Route 170: The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station. (A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station about £10) 170 from Victoria Station: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right 170 from Clapham Junction: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right By Train: Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from, Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch the 170 bus By Car: Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends London Airports: Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx or train to central London Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch the 170 bus. Map of where Le QuecumBar is: 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3 HX: [68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud to have the support of our world class musician patrons: Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg [69]quecumbar Posts: 3 Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm Location: London + [70]E-mail quecumbar + [71]Website [72]Top __________________________________________________________________ [73]Post a reply 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [74]Return to Gypsy Rhythm Jump to: [ Gypsy Rhythm................................................] Go Who is online Users browsing this forum: No registered users and 1 guest * [75]Board index * [76]The team o [77]Delete all board cookies o All times are UTC - 8 hours [ DST ] Revolution Style © 2007, 2008 by [78]Semi_Deus Powered by [79]phpBB © 2000, 2002, 2005, 2007 phpBB Group Références Liens visibles 20. mailto:info@quecumbar.co.uk 24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr 31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com Liens cachés : [1]Skip to main content (WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION * Biblio. Data * [2]Description * [3]Claims * [4]National Phase * [5]Notices * [6]Documents Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau * [7]Link + [8]Permanent Link + [9]Bookmark this page __________________________________________________________________ Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.: PCT/US1999/000569 Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999 IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01) Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake Village, CA 91361 (US). Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US). Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box 640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US). Priority Data: 09/013,353 26.01.1998 US Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30) corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system. A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity information and may contain polyphonic information. Designated States: JP. European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB, GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE). Publication Language: English (EN) Filing Language: English (EN) [10]Scam Warning | [11]RSS | [12]Terms of use [13]WIPO Home services * [14]Español * [15]Français * [16]日本語 ____________________ Search * [17]Contact us * [18]Accessibility * [19]Site map * [20]Home * [21]IP Services * [22]PATENTSCOPE® * [23]Patent Search [24]PATENTSCOPE® * [25]About Patents * [26]PCT Resources * [27]Database Search * [28]PCT Applications * [29]National Collections & PCT * [30]External Databases * [31]Patent Analysis * [32]Glossary [33]Data Services [34]Publications [35]Projects & Programs [36]Patent Law [37]Priority Documents Related Links * [38]Patent Classification: IPC * [39]Statistics * [40]Life Sciences * [41]WIPO Standards E-Newsletters * [42]Subscription [43]ABOUT WIPO [44]IP SERVICES [45]PROGRAM ACTIVITIES [46]RESOURCES [47]NEWS & EVENTS Références A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event by David Lindsay Copyright 2002. All right reserved. In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm. Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event. Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our scope. The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known. The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand, and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.) A C G T T G C A These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three: A C G T || ||| ||| || T G C A In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological organisms--play a determining role. Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy. Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is constant, by the following coefficients: A=2 C=3 G=3 T=2 Given an arbitrary DNA sequence: A C G T A A T A T T C T the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes: 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation progresses away from the initiation site: A C G T A A T A T T C T -------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event. H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins, which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four: 2332 2222 2232 Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond breakage are activated simultaneously: A C G T A A T A T T C T || ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger -- will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied equally to molecular processes or musical ones. Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is varied its energy profile. The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could, for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate, while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and unstressed "beats," such that: A=2=unstressed beat (-) C=3=stressed beat (´) G=3=stressed beat (´) T=2=unstressed beat (-) Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation process. Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication will suffice. Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry. In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward resonance. Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering a suspension bridge. The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription. 1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences," Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts (Sept. 1995). For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here. [2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles. For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here. website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan University. Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project [1]CRE Personnel What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project? The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision, continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data (e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that represents these programs and data visually. Expressive timing One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say, tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat). All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this project. Composition and combination techniques Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of such structures. Applications Here are some possible applications of CRE: * Anything that any standard drum machine does * Automated percussion tracks with "human feel" * A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the same rhythms with "human feel" * Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable (e.g. the 30-second commercial) * Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with irrationally-related durations * Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at will, in real time * Making a program that improvises by "driving around in rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or invention according to some combination of generative processes) * Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without altering the tree structure. Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since this list provides checkpoints for the software development. __________________________________________________________________ Page maintained by Vijay Iyer Last modified July 15, 1996 __________________________________________________________________ [2]Up to Vijay's page [3]Up to CNMAT homepage [4]Send mail to the CRE group [5]Send mail to Vijay Iyer Références 4. mailto:cdm@icsi.berkeley.edu 5. mailto:vijay@cnmat.berkeley.edu #[1]Suite101: Arts Education [2]Freelance Writing Jobs | [3]Today's Articles | [4]Sign In [icon_searchfilter_1.gif] ____________________ [5][v4_button_widget_search.png] Articles Writers Find [6]Suite101 Browse Sections [7]Home [8]Education & Career [9]Arts Education [10]Music Education [11]Write For Us » [12]Print Article [13]Subscribe [14]Share Article [15]Jennifer Wagaman Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students Lesson Ideas Involving Rhythm for Young Students [16]Dec 16, 2008 [17]Jennifer Wagaman Be creative and resourceful when teaching kindergarten students about rhythm. [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Teaching rhythm to Kindergarten students can be a fun way to get students moving around the classroom. When writing lesson plans with the objective towards learning rhythm, consider not only the manner in which you teach the students, but which songs would provide the best lesson opportunity, as well as which songs will work for the short attention span the students have. How to Teach Rhythm Use the body demonstrate the beat, also called body percussion, will help students feel the beat and learn the rhythm. This can involve having the students clap, tap, or stomp their feet while singing. This reinforces beat in a tactile manner, and helps the students stay focused on what you are doing. You can also use any opportunity you have to get the students up and moving about the room while singing songs. Although this does take decent [18]classroom management skills, it may also help your student's behavior as they are not required to sit still throughout the class period. What Songs Teach Rhythm Teaching children about rhythm can be a great time to introduce some fun songs. Lessons involving rhythm can be taught with any song that has a steady beat, which basically means that most songs are good to teach rhythm. Pick songs that the students either already know or are easy to teach, as this will ensure that they already know the basic rhythm. Some good songs to use for teaching rhythm include songs like Engine Engine Number Nine, and Skip to My Lou. For Engine Engine Number Nine, after teaching the song, have the students form a train and move around the room to the beat of the train in the song. For Skip to My Lou, have the students walk, march, or skip around the room to the beat of the song. Keep Attention Span in Mind Because a Kindergarten age child has a relatively short attention span, keep your songs short and varied. Do several songs per class period. It is better to do 3 five minute songs, assuming a 20 minute class period, than to spend 15 minutes on one song. So once again, choose songs that are either easy to teach, or that the students are already somewhat familiar with. Do not be afraid to experiment with your class as you teach the concept of rhythm. Reflect on your lesson after you have taught it, decide where there is room for improvement, and work to improve it for the next class you teach it to. You may also be interested in using [19]STOMP to teach rhythm in the classroom. Read more [20]tips for music teachers. The copyright of the article Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in [21]Arts Education is owned by [22]Jennifer Wagaman. Permission to republish Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in print or online must be granted by the author in writing. [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Ideas for Teaching Rhythm, Mary R. Vogt Ideas for Teaching Rhythm [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [comment_icon_f1.png] What do you think about this article? __________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ NOTE: Because you are not a Suite101 member, your comment will be moderated before it is viewable. post your comment What is 5+5? ______ [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Comments Apr 15, 2009 7:59 AM Guest : I particularly like the idea of reflecting on the lesson after its implementation. Reflection and teaching reflectively should be encouraged among music teachers. Cheers Mark Minott [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] 1 Comment: Related Articles [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [23]Lessons about Sound and Rhythm * [24]Kindergarten Drama Lesson on Expressing Feelings * [25]Teaching Poetry Through Movement, Drama & Art * [26]Enhance Student Reading Skills * [27]Group Music Lessons for Young Children * [28]Syllable Count Poems Lesson * [29]How to Make Fun Butterfly Crafts for Kids [30]more in arts education [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Related Topics [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [31]Music Education * [32]Arts Education Curriculum * [33]Dance Education * [34]Drama Education * [35]Theater Education * [36]Visual Arts Education [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Reference [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [37]how to teach rhythm * [38]teaching rhythm to kindergarten students * [39]lesson ideas for teaching rhythm * [40]what songs will teach rhythm * [41]teaching music to kindergarten students * [42]reflection on how a lesson went [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [43]Enter Suite101.com`s New Tagline Contest
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Probably some of the features of eyePlorer.com will not work correctly. We recommend to activate Javascript. [2]Video introduction | [3]Blog | [4]Newsletter | [5]Feedback | [6]Jobs | [7]FAQ | [8]Movies | [9]Disclaimer | [10]About us [11]eyePlorer.com on Facebook [12]eyePlorer.com on Twitter Références Liens visibles 5. mailto:feedback@eyeplorer.com?subject=eyePlorer.com%20Feedback Liens cachés : * [1]DjangoBooks Home Djangobooks.com Gypsy Jazz and Django Reinhardt Discussion Area [2]Skip to content ____________________ Search [3]Advanced search * [4]Board index < [5]Books - Ask the Author < [6]Gypsy Rhythm * [7]Change font size * [8]FAQ * [9]Search * [10]Register * [11]Login [12]rhythm engine A support group for my Gypsy Rhythm book. Ask questions about Gypsy Rhythm technique, share your own learning experiences, and learn new tips and tricks. Moderator: [13]Michael Horowitz [14]Post a reply ____________________ Search 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [15]rhythm engine [16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its the only way always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London [18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django 100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good players! If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out there and support these guys books are not always the answer LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL WORKSHOPS Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010 Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt, these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of techniques and musical ideas. These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts Council England. WORKSHOPS £35 o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass. o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the masters themselves Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from 13.30 - 15.30 Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227 [20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records January Workshops at a Glance: Sunday 17 January Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance Battersea Monday 18 January Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Tuesday 19 January Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea Wednesday 20 January Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Thursday 21 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea Friday 22 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Saturday 23 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith Sunday 24 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to happen. ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS AND STUDENTS SUNDAY 17th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions. An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg, Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others. [23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY 17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at [25]www.wegottickets.com MONDAY 18th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients, intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive. Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music, their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous, humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY 18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [27]www.wegottickets.com TUESDAY 19th JANUARY Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [28]www.quecumbar.co.uk A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind, multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger, and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene. [29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com [31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from [32]www.wegottickets.com WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson. [34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl [36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ; Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [39]www.quecumbar.co.uk Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona. [40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [42]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [43]www.quecumbar.co.uk Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha [45]www.bielballestertrio.com Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [46]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs, demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg, Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label, El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in Spain. [49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com [51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY 24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at [53]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line). Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist, he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour. [55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY (Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from [56]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London SW11 3JB SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy. He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of 15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with "Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of the top 1.4% of entrants. "...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard; "It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again", Zutphen Paper. [58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo, Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill, technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of Gypsy Swing, WORKSHOP VENUES: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [60]www.institut-francais.org.uk Tube: South Kensington How to get there: From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6 Jazz Cafe POSK The Polish Cultural Centre 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same. There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction. Thomas's School 28-40 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3JB [63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Royal Academy of Dance 36 Battersea Square, Battersea, London SW11 3RA [64]www.rad.org.uk [65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Le QuecumBar & Brasserie 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3HX [66]www.quecumbar.co.uk [67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf How to find us by Bus Route 170: The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station. (A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station about £10) 170 from Victoria Station: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right 170 from Clapham Junction: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right By Train: Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from, Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch the 170 bus By Car: Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends London Airports: Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx or train to central London Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch the 170 bus. Map of where Le QuecumBar is: 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3 HX: [68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud to have the support of our world class musician patrons: Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg [69]quecumbar Posts: 3 Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm Location: London + [70]E-mail quecumbar + [71]Website [72]Top __________________________________________________________________ [73]Post a reply 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [74]Return to Gypsy Rhythm Jump to: [ Gypsy Rhythm................................................] Go Who is online Users browsing this forum: Yahoo [Bot] and 1 guest * [75]Board index * [76]The team o [77]Delete all board cookies o All times are UTC - 8 hours [ DST ] Revolution Style © 2007, 2008 by [78]Semi_Deus Powered by [79]phpBB © 2000, 2002, 2005, 2007 phpBB Group Références Liens visibles 20. mailto:info@quecumbar.co.uk 24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr 31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com Liens cachés : #[1]eyePlorer.com You have deactivated Javascript. Probably some of the features of eyePlorer.com will not work correctly. We recommend to activate Javascript. [2]Video introduction | [3]Blog | [4]Newsletter | [5]Feedback | [6]Jobs | [7]FAQ | [8]Movies | [9]Disclaimer | [10]About us [11]eyePlorer.com on Facebook [12]eyePlorer.com on Twitter Références Liens visibles 5. mailto:feedback@eyeplorer.com?subject=eyePlorer.com%20Feedback Liens cachés : * [1]DjangoBooks Home Djangobooks.com Gypsy Jazz and Django Reinhardt Discussion Area [2]Skip to content ____________________ Search [3]Advanced search * [4]Board index < [5]Books - Ask the Author < [6]Gypsy Rhythm * [7]Change font size * [8]FAQ * [9]Search * [10]Register * [11]Login [12]rhythm engine A support group for my Gypsy Rhythm book. Ask questions about Gypsy Rhythm technique, share your own learning experiences, and learn new tips and tricks. Moderator: [13]Michael Horowitz [14]Post a reply ____________________ Search 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [15]rhythm engine [16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its the only way always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London [18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django 100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good players! If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out there and support these guys books are not always the answer LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL WORKSHOPS Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010 Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt, these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of techniques and musical ideas. These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts Council England. WORKSHOPS £35 o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass. o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the masters themselves Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from 13.30 - 15.30 Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227 [20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records January Workshops at a Glance: Sunday 17 January Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance Battersea Monday 18 January Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Tuesday 19 January Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea Wednesday 20 January Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Thursday 21 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea Friday 22 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Saturday 23 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith Sunday 24 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to happen. ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS AND STUDENTS SUNDAY 17th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions. An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg, Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others. [23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY 17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at [25]www.wegottickets.com MONDAY 18th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients, intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive. Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music, their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous, humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY 18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [27]www.wegottickets.com TUESDAY 19th JANUARY Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [28]www.quecumbar.co.uk A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind, multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger, and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene. [29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com [31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from [32]www.wegottickets.com WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson. [34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl [36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ; Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [39]www.quecumbar.co.uk Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona. [40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [42]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [43]www.quecumbar.co.uk Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha [45]www.bielballestertrio.com Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [46]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs, demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg, Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label, El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in Spain. [49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com [51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY 24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at [53]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line). Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist, he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour. [55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY (Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from [56]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London SW11 3JB SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy. He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of 15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with "Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of the top 1.4% of entrants. "...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard; "It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again", Zutphen Paper. [58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo, Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill, technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of Gypsy Swing, WORKSHOP VENUES: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [60]www.institut-francais.org.uk Tube: South Kensington How to get there: From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6 Jazz Cafe POSK The Polish Cultural Centre 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same. There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction. Thomas's School 28-40 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3JB [63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Royal Academy of Dance 36 Battersea Square, Battersea, London SW11 3RA [64]www.rad.org.uk [65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Le QuecumBar & Brasserie 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3HX [66]www.quecumbar.co.uk [67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf How to find us by Bus Route 170: The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station. (A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station about £10) 170 from Victoria Station: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right 170 from Clapham Junction: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right By Train: Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from, Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch the 170 bus By Car: Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends London Airports: Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx or train to central London Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch the 170 bus. Map of where Le QuecumBar is: 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3 HX: [68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud to have the support of our world class musician patrons: Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg [69]quecumbar Posts: 3 Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm Location: London + [70]E-mail quecumbar + [71]Website [72]Top __________________________________________________________________ [73]Post a reply 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [74]Return to Gypsy Rhythm Jump to: [ Gypsy Rhythm................................................] Go Who is online Users browsing this forum: No registered users and 1 guest * [75]Board index * [76]The team o [77]Delete all board cookies o All times are UTC - 8 hours [ DST ] Revolution Style © 2007, 2008 by [78]Semi_Deus Powered by [79]phpBB © 2000, 2002, 2005, 2007 phpBB Group Références Liens visibles 20. mailto:info@quecumbar.co.uk 24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr 31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com Liens cachés : [1]Skip to main content (WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION * Biblio. Data * [2]Description * [3]Claims * [4]National Phase * [5]Notices * [6]Documents Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau * [7]Link + [8]Permanent Link + [9]Bookmark this page __________________________________________________________________ Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.: PCT/US1999/000569 Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999 IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01) Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake Village, CA 91361 (US). Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US). Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box 640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US). Priority Data: 09/013,353 26.01.1998 US Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30) corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system. A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity information and may contain polyphonic information. Designated States: JP. European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB, GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE). Publication Language: English (EN) Filing Language: English (EN) [10]Scam Warning | [11]RSS | [12]Terms of use [13]WIPO Home services * [14]Español * [15]Français * [16]日本語 ____________________ Search * [17]Contact us * [18]Accessibility * [19]Site map * [20]Home * [21]IP Services * [22]PATENTSCOPE® * [23]Patent Search [24]PATENTSCOPE® * [25]About Patents * [26]PCT Resources * [27]Database Search * [28]PCT Applications * [29]National Collections & PCT * [30]External Databases * [31]Patent Analysis * [32]Glossary [33]Data Services [34]Publications [35]Projects & Programs [36]Patent Law [37]Priority Documents Related Links * [38]Patent Classification: IPC * [39]Statistics * [40]Life Sciences * [41]WIPO Standards E-Newsletters * [42]Subscription [43]ABOUT WIPO [44]IP SERVICES [45]PROGRAM ACTIVITIES [46]RESOURCES [47]NEWS & EVENTS Références A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event by David Lindsay Copyright 2002. All right reserved. In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm. Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event. Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our scope. The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known. The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand, and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.) A C G T T G C A These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three: A C G T || ||| ||| || T G C A In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological organisms--play a determining role. Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy. Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is constant, by the following coefficients: A=2 C=3 G=3 T=2 Given an arbitrary DNA sequence: A C G T A A T A T T C T the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes: 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation progresses away from the initiation site: A C G T A A T A T T C T -------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event. H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins, which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four: 2332 2222 2232 Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond breakage are activated simultaneously: A C G T A A T A T T C T || ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger -- will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied equally to molecular processes or musical ones. Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is varied its energy profile. The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could, for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate, while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and unstressed "beats," such that: A=2=unstressed beat (-) C=3=stressed beat (´) G=3=stressed beat (´) T=2=unstressed beat (-) Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation process. Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication will suffice. Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry. In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward resonance. Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering a suspension bridge. The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription. 1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences," Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts (Sept. 1995). For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here. [2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles. For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here. website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan University. Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project [1]CRE Personnel What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project? The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision, continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data (e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that represents these programs and data visually. Expressive timing One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say, tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat). All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this project. Composition and combination techniques Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of such structures. Applications Here are some possible applications of CRE: * Anything that any standard drum machine does * Automated percussion tracks with "human feel" * A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the same rhythms with "human feel" * Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable (e.g. the 30-second commercial) * Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with irrationally-related durations * Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at will, in real time * Making a program that improvises by "driving around in rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or invention according to some combination of generative processes) * Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without altering the tree structure. Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since this list provides checkpoints for the software development. __________________________________________________________________ Page maintained by Vijay Iyer Last modified July 15, 1996 __________________________________________________________________ [2]Up to Vijay's page [3]Up to CNMAT homepage [4]Send mail to the CRE group [5]Send mail to Vijay Iyer Références 4. mailto:cdm@icsi.berkeley.edu 5. mailto:vijay@cnmat.berkeley.edu #[1]Suite101: Arts Education [2]Freelance Writing Jobs | [3]Today's Articles | [4]Sign In [icon_searchfilter_1.gif] ____________________ [5][v4_button_widget_search.png] Articles Writers Find [6]Suite101 Browse Sections [7]Home [8]Education & Career [9]Arts Education [10]Music Education [11]Write For Us » [12]Print Article [13]Subscribe [14]Share Article [15]Jennifer Wagaman Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students Lesson Ideas Involving Rhythm for Young Students [16]Dec 16, 2008 [17]Jennifer Wagaman Be creative and resourceful when teaching kindergarten students about rhythm. [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Teaching rhythm to Kindergarten students can be a fun way to get students moving around the classroom. When writing lesson plans with the objective towards learning rhythm, consider not only the manner in which you teach the students, but which songs would provide the best lesson opportunity, as well as which songs will work for the short attention span the students have. How to Teach Rhythm Use the body demonstrate the beat, also called body percussion, will help students feel the beat and learn the rhythm. This can involve having the students clap, tap, or stomp their feet while singing. This reinforces beat in a tactile manner, and helps the students stay focused on what you are doing. You can also use any opportunity you have to get the students up and moving about the room while singing songs. Although this does take decent [18]classroom management skills, it may also help your student's behavior as they are not required to sit still throughout the class period. What Songs Teach Rhythm Teaching children about rhythm can be a great time to introduce some fun songs. Lessons involving rhythm can be taught with any song that has a steady beat, which basically means that most songs are good to teach rhythm. Pick songs that the students either already know or are easy to teach, as this will ensure that they already know the basic rhythm. Some good songs to use for teaching rhythm include songs like Engine Engine Number Nine, and Skip to My Lou. For Engine Engine Number Nine, after teaching the song, have the students form a train and move around the room to the beat of the train in the song. For Skip to My Lou, have the students walk, march, or skip around the room to the beat of the song. Keep Attention Span in Mind Because a Kindergarten age child has a relatively short attention span, keep your songs short and varied. Do several songs per class period. It is better to do 3 five minute songs, assuming a 20 minute class period, than to spend 15 minutes on one song. So once again, choose songs that are either easy to teach, or that the students are already somewhat familiar with. Do not be afraid to experiment with your class as you teach the concept of rhythm. Reflect on your lesson after you have taught it, decide where there is room for improvement, and work to improve it for the next class you teach it to. You may also be interested in using [19]STOMP to teach rhythm in the classroom. Read more [20]tips for music teachers. The copyright of the article Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in [21]Arts Education is owned by [22]Jennifer Wagaman. Permission to republish Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in print or online must be granted by the author in writing. [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Ideas for Teaching Rhythm, Mary R. Vogt Ideas for Teaching Rhythm [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [comment_icon_f1.png] What do you think about this article? __________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ NOTE: Because you are not a Suite101 member, your comment will be moderated before it is viewable. post your comment What is 5+5? ______ [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Comments Apr 15, 2009 7:59 AM Guest : I particularly like the idea of reflecting on the lesson after its implementation. Reflection and teaching reflectively should be encouraged among music teachers. Cheers Mark Minott [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] 1 Comment: Related Articles [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [23]Lessons about Sound and Rhythm * [24]Kindergarten Drama Lesson on Expressing Feelings * [25]Teaching Poetry Through Movement, Drama & Art * [26]Enhance Student Reading Skills * [27]Group Music Lessons for Young Children * [28]Syllable Count Poems Lesson * [29]How to Make Fun Butterfly Crafts for Kids [30]more in arts education [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Related Topics [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [31]Music Education * [32]Arts Education Curriculum * [33]Dance Education * [34]Drama Education * [35]Theater Education * [36]Visual Arts Education [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Reference [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [37]how to teach rhythm * [38]teaching rhythm to kindergarten students * [39]lesson ideas for teaching rhythm * [40]what songs will teach rhythm * [41]teaching music to kindergarten students * [42]reflection on how a lesson went [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [43]Enter Suite101.com`s New Tagline Contest
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Probably some of the features of eyePlorer.com will not work correctly. We recommend to activate Javascript. [2]Video introduction | [3]Blog | [4]Newsletter | [5]Feedback | [6]Jobs | [7]FAQ | [8]Movies | [9]Disclaimer | [10]About us [11]eyePlorer.com on Facebook [12]eyePlorer.com on Twitter Références Liens visibles 5. mailto:feedback@eyeplorer.com?subject=eyePlorer.com%20Feedback Liens cachés : * [1]DjangoBooks Home Djangobooks.com Gypsy Jazz and Django Reinhardt Discussion Area [2]Skip to content ____________________ Search [3]Advanced search * [4]Board index < [5]Books - Ask the Author < [6]Gypsy Rhythm * [7]Change font size * [8]FAQ * [9]Search * [10]Register * [11]Login [12]rhythm engine A support group for my Gypsy Rhythm book. Ask questions about Gypsy Rhythm technique, share your own learning experiences, and learn new tips and tricks. Moderator: [13]Michael Horowitz [14]Post a reply ____________________ Search 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [15]rhythm engine [16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its the only way always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London [18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django 100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good players! If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out there and support these guys books are not always the answer LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL WORKSHOPS Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010 Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt, these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of techniques and musical ideas. These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts Council England. WORKSHOPS £35 o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass. o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the masters themselves Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from 13.30 - 15.30 Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227 [20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records January Workshops at a Glance: Sunday 17 January Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance Battersea Monday 18 January Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Tuesday 19 January Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea Wednesday 20 January Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Thursday 21 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea Friday 22 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Saturday 23 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith Sunday 24 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to happen. ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS AND STUDENTS SUNDAY 17th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions. An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg, Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others. [23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY 17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at [25]www.wegottickets.com MONDAY 18th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients, intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive. Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music, their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous, humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY 18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [27]www.wegottickets.com TUESDAY 19th JANUARY Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [28]www.quecumbar.co.uk A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind, multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger, and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene. [29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com [31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from [32]www.wegottickets.com WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson. [34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl [36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ; Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [39]www.quecumbar.co.uk Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona. [40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [42]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [43]www.quecumbar.co.uk Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha [45]www.bielballestertrio.com Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [46]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs, demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg, Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label, El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in Spain. [49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com [51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY 24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at [53]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line). Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist, he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour. [55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY (Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from [56]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London SW11 3JB SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy. He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of 15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with "Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of the top 1.4% of entrants. "...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard; "It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again", Zutphen Paper. [58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo, Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill, technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of Gypsy Swing, WORKSHOP VENUES: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [60]www.institut-francais.org.uk Tube: South Kensington How to get there: From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6 Jazz Cafe POSK The Polish Cultural Centre 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same. There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction. Thomas's School 28-40 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3JB [63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Royal Academy of Dance 36 Battersea Square, Battersea, London SW11 3RA [64]www.rad.org.uk [65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Le QuecumBar & Brasserie 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3HX [66]www.quecumbar.co.uk [67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf How to find us by Bus Route 170: The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station. (A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station about £10) 170 from Victoria Station: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right 170 from Clapham Junction: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right By Train: Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from, Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch the 170 bus By Car: Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends London Airports: Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx or train to central London Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch the 170 bus. Map of where Le QuecumBar is: 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3 HX: [68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud to have the support of our world class musician patrons: Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg [69]quecumbar Posts: 3 Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm Location: London + [70]E-mail quecumbar + [71]Website [72]Top __________________________________________________________________ [73]Post a reply 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [74]Return to Gypsy Rhythm Jump to: [ Gypsy Rhythm................................................] Go Who is online Users browsing this forum: Yahoo [Bot] and 1 guest * [75]Board index * [76]The team o [77]Delete all board cookies o All times are UTC - 8 hours [ DST ] Revolution Style © 2007, 2008 by [78]Semi_Deus Powered by [79]phpBB © 2000, 2002, 2005, 2007 phpBB Group Références Liens visibles 20. mailto:info@quecumbar.co.uk 24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr 31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com Liens cachés : [1]Skip to main content (WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION * Biblio. Data * [2]Description * [3]Claims * [4]National Phase * [5]Notices * [6]Documents Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau * [7]Link + [8]Permanent Link + [9]Bookmark this page __________________________________________________________________ Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.: PCT/US1999/000569 Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999 IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01) Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake Village, CA 91361 (US). Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US). Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box 640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US). Priority Data: 09/013,353 26.01.1998 US Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30) corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system. A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity information and may contain polyphonic information. Designated States: JP. European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB, GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE). Publication Language: English (EN) Filing Language: English (EN) [10]Scam Warning | [11]RSS | [12]Terms of use [13]WIPO Home services * [14]Español * [15]Français * [16]日本語 ____________________ Search * [17]Contact us * [18]Accessibility * [19]Site map * [20]Home * [21]IP Services * [22]PATENTSCOPE® * [23]Patent Search [24]PATENTSCOPE® * [25]About Patents * [26]PCT Resources * [27]PCT Service Centre * [28]Database Search * [29]PCT Applications * [30]National Collections & PCT * [31]External Databases * [32]Patent Analysis * [33]Glossary [34]Data Services [35]Publications [36]Projects & Programs [37]Patent Law [38]Priority Documents Related Links * [39]Patent Classification: IPC * [40]Statistics * [41]Life Sciences * [42]WIPO Standards E-Newsletters * [43]Subscription [44]ABOUT WIPO [45]IP SERVICES [46]PROGRAM ACTIVITIES [47]RESOURCES [48]NEWS & EVENTS Références #[1]eyePlorer.com You have deactivated Javascript. Probably some of the features of eyePlorer.com will not work correctly. We recommend to activate Javascript. [2]Video introduction | [3]Blog | [4]Newsletter | [5]Feedback | [6]Jobs | [7]FAQ | [8]Movies | [9]Disclaimer | [10]About us [11]eyePlorer.com on Facebook [12]eyePlorer.com on Twitter Références Liens visibles 5. mailto:feedback@eyeplorer.com?subject=eyePlorer.com%20Feedback Liens cachés : * [1]DjangoBooks Home Djangobooks.com Gypsy Jazz and Django Reinhardt Discussion Area [2]Skip to content ____________________ Search [3]Advanced search * [4]Board index < [5]Books - Ask the Author < [6]Gypsy Rhythm * [7]Change font size * [8]FAQ * [9]Search * [10]Register * [11]Login [12]rhythm engine A support group for my Gypsy Rhythm book. Ask questions about Gypsy Rhythm technique, share your own learning experiences, and learn new tips and tricks. Moderator: [13]Michael Horowitz [14]Post a reply ____________________ Search 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [15]rhythm engine [16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its the only way always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London [18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django 100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good players! If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out there and support these guys books are not always the answer LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL WORKSHOPS Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010 Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt, these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of techniques and musical ideas. These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts Council England. WORKSHOPS £35 o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass. o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the masters themselves Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from 13.30 - 15.30 Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227 [20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records January Workshops at a Glance: Sunday 17 January Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance Battersea Monday 18 January Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Tuesday 19 January Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea Wednesday 20 January Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Thursday 21 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea Friday 22 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Saturday 23 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith Sunday 24 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to happen. ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS AND STUDENTS SUNDAY 17th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions. An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg, Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others. [23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY 17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at [25]www.wegottickets.com MONDAY 18th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients, intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive. Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music, their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous, humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY 18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [27]www.wegottickets.com TUESDAY 19th JANUARY Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [28]www.quecumbar.co.uk A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind, multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger, and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene. [29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com [31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from [32]www.wegottickets.com WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson. [34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl [36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ; Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [39]www.quecumbar.co.uk Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona. [40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [42]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [43]www.quecumbar.co.uk Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha [45]www.bielballestertrio.com Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [46]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs, demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg, Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label, El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in Spain. [49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com [51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY 24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at [53]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line). Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist, he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour. [55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY (Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from [56]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London SW11 3JB SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy. He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of 15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with "Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of the top 1.4% of entrants. "...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard; "It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again", Zutphen Paper. [58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo, Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill, technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of Gypsy Swing, WORKSHOP VENUES: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [60]www.institut-francais.org.uk Tube: South Kensington How to get there: From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6 Jazz Cafe POSK The Polish Cultural Centre 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same. There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction. Thomas's School 28-40 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3JB [63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Royal Academy of Dance 36 Battersea Square, Battersea, London SW11 3RA [64]www.rad.org.uk [65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Le QuecumBar & Brasserie 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3HX [66]www.quecumbar.co.uk [67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf How to find us by Bus Route 170: The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station. (A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station about £10) 170 from Victoria Station: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right 170 from Clapham Junction: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right By Train: Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from, Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch the 170 bus By Car: Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends London Airports: Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx or train to central London Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch the 170 bus. Map of where Le QuecumBar is: 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3 HX: [68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud to have the support of our world class musician patrons: Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg [69]quecumbar Posts: 3 Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm Location: London + [70]E-mail quecumbar + [71]Website [72]Top __________________________________________________________________ [73]Post a reply 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [74]Return to Gypsy Rhythm Jump to: [ Gypsy Rhythm................................................] Go Who is online Users browsing this forum: No registered users and 1 guest * [75]Board index * [76]The team o [77]Delete all board cookies o All times are UTC - 8 hours [ DST ] Revolution Style © 2007, 2008 by [78]Semi_Deus Powered by [79]phpBB © 2000, 2002, 2005, 2007 phpBB Group Références Liens visibles 20. mailto:info@quecumbar.co.uk 24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr 31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com Liens cachés : [1]Skip to main content (WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION * Biblio. Data * [2]Description * [3]Claims * [4]National Phase * [5]Notices * [6]Documents Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau * [7]Link + [8]Permanent Link + [9]Bookmark this page __________________________________________________________________ Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.: PCT/US1999/000569 Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999 IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01) Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake Village, CA 91361 (US). Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US). Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box 640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US). Priority Data: 09/013,353 26.01.1998 US Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30) corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system. A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity information and may contain polyphonic information. Designated States: JP. European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB, GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE). Publication Language: English (EN) Filing Language: English (EN) [10]Scam Warning | [11]RSS | [12]Terms of use [13]WIPO Home services * [14]Español * [15]Français * [16]日本語 ____________________ Search * [17]Contact us * [18]Accessibility * [19]Site map * [20]Home * [21]IP Services * [22]PATENTSCOPE® * [23]Patent Search [24]PATENTSCOPE® * [25]About Patents * [26]PCT Resources * [27]Database Search * [28]PCT Applications * [29]National Collections & PCT * [30]External Databases * [31]Patent Analysis * [32]Glossary [33]Data Services [34]Publications [35]Projects & Programs [36]Patent Law [37]Priority Documents Related Links * [38]Patent Classification: IPC * [39]Statistics * [40]Life Sciences * [41]WIPO Standards E-Newsletters * [42]Subscription [43]ABOUT WIPO [44]IP SERVICES [45]PROGRAM ACTIVITIES [46]RESOURCES [47]NEWS & EVENTS Références A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event by David Lindsay Copyright 2002. All right reserved. In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm. Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event. Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our scope. The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known. The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand, and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.) A C G T T G C A These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three: A C G T || ||| ||| || T G C A In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological organisms--play a determining role. Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy. Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is constant, by the following coefficients: A=2 C=3 G=3 T=2 Given an arbitrary DNA sequence: A C G T A A T A T T C T the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes: 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation progresses away from the initiation site: A C G T A A T A T T C T -------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event. H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins, which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four: 2332 2222 2232 Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond breakage are activated simultaneously: A C G T A A T A T T C T || ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger -- will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied equally to molecular processes or musical ones. Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is varied its energy profile. The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could, for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate, while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and unstressed "beats," such that: A=2=unstressed beat (-) C=3=stressed beat (´) G=3=stressed beat (´) T=2=unstressed beat (-) Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation process. Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication will suffice. Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry. In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward resonance. Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering a suspension bridge. The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription. 1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences," Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts (Sept. 1995). For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here. [2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles. For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here. website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan University. Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project [1]CRE Personnel What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project? The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision, continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data (e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that represents these programs and data visually. Expressive timing One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say, tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat). All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this project. Composition and combination techniques Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of such structures. Applications Here are some possible applications of CRE: * Anything that any standard drum machine does * Automated percussion tracks with "human feel" * A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the same rhythms with "human feel" * Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable (e.g. the 30-second commercial) * Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with irrationally-related durations * Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at will, in real time * Making a program that improvises by "driving around in rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or invention according to some combination of generative processes) * Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without altering the tree structure. Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since this list provides checkpoints for the software development. __________________________________________________________________ Page maintained by Vijay Iyer Last modified July 15, 1996 __________________________________________________________________ [2]Up to Vijay's page [3]Up to CNMAT homepage [4]Send mail to the CRE group [5]Send mail to Vijay Iyer Références 4. mailto:cdm@icsi.berkeley.edu 5. mailto:vijay@cnmat.berkeley.edu #[1]Suite101: Arts Education [2]Freelance Writing Jobs | [3]Today's Articles | [4]Sign In [icon_searchfilter_1.gif] ____________________ [5][v4_button_widget_search.png] Articles Writers Find [6]Suite101 Browse Sections [7]Home [8]Education & Career [9]Arts Education [10]Music Education [11]Write For Us » [12]Print Article [13]Subscribe [14]Share Article [15]Jennifer Wagaman Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students Lesson Ideas Involving Rhythm for Young Students [16]Dec 16, 2008 [17]Jennifer Wagaman Be creative and resourceful when teaching kindergarten students about rhythm. [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Teaching rhythm to Kindergarten students can be a fun way to get students moving around the classroom. When writing lesson plans with the objective towards learning rhythm, consider not only the manner in which you teach the students, but which songs would provide the best lesson opportunity, as well as which songs will work for the short attention span the students have. How to Teach Rhythm Use the body demonstrate the beat, also called body percussion, will help students feel the beat and learn the rhythm. This can involve having the students clap, tap, or stomp their feet while singing. This reinforces beat in a tactile manner, and helps the students stay focused on what you are doing. You can also use any opportunity you have to get the students up and moving about the room while singing songs. Although this does take decent [18]classroom management skills, it may also help your student's behavior as they are not required to sit still throughout the class period. What Songs Teach Rhythm Teaching children about rhythm can be a great time to introduce some fun songs. Lessons involving rhythm can be taught with any song that has a steady beat, which basically means that most songs are good to teach rhythm. Pick songs that the students either already know or are easy to teach, as this will ensure that they already know the basic rhythm. Some good songs to use for teaching rhythm include songs like Engine Engine Number Nine, and Skip to My Lou. For Engine Engine Number Nine, after teaching the song, have the students form a train and move around the room to the beat of the train in the song. For Skip to My Lou, have the students walk, march, or skip around the room to the beat of the song. Keep Attention Span in Mind Because a Kindergarten age child has a relatively short attention span, keep your songs short and varied. Do several songs per class period. It is better to do 3 five minute songs, assuming a 20 minute class period, than to spend 15 minutes on one song. So once again, choose songs that are either easy to teach, or that the students are already somewhat familiar with. Do not be afraid to experiment with your class as you teach the concept of rhythm. Reflect on your lesson after you have taught it, decide where there is room for improvement, and work to improve it for the next class you teach it to. You may also be interested in using [19]STOMP to teach rhythm in the classroom. Read more [20]tips for music teachers. The copyright of the article Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in [21]Arts Education is owned by [22]Jennifer Wagaman. Permission to republish Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in print or online must be granted by the author in writing. [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Ideas for Teaching Rhythm, Mary R. Vogt Ideas for Teaching Rhythm [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [comment_icon_f1.png] What do you think about this article? __________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ NOTE: Because you are not a Suite101 member, your comment will be moderated before it is viewable. post your comment What is 5+5? ______ [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Comments Apr 15, 2009 7:59 AM Guest : I particularly like the idea of reflecting on the lesson after its implementation. Reflection and teaching reflectively should be encouraged among music teachers. Cheers Mark Minott [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] 1 Comment: Related Articles [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [23]Lessons about Sound and Rhythm * [24]Kindergarten Drama Lesson on Expressing Feelings * [25]Teaching Poetry Through Movement, Drama & Art * [26]Enhance Student Reading Skills * [27]Group Music Lessons for Young Children * [28]Syllable Count Poems Lesson * [29]How to Make Fun Butterfly Crafts for Kids [30]more in arts education [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Related Topics [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [31]Music Education * [32]Arts Education Curriculum * [33]Dance Education * [34]Drama Education * [35]Theater Education * [36]Visual Arts Education [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Reference [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [37]how to teach rhythm * [38]teaching rhythm to kindergarten students * [39]lesson ideas for teaching rhythm * [40]what songs will teach rhythm * [41]teaching music to kindergarten students * [42]reflection on how a lesson went [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [43]Enter Suite101.com`s New Tagline Contest
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Probably some of the features of eyePlorer.com will not work correctly. We recommend to activate Javascript. [2]Video introduction | [3]Blog | [4]Newsletter | [5]Feedback | [6]Jobs | [7]FAQ | [8]Movies | [9]Disclaimer | [10]About us [11]eyePlorer.com on Facebook [12]eyePlorer.com on Twitter Références Liens visibles 5. mailto:feedback@eyeplorer.com?subject=eyePlorer.com%20Feedback Liens cachés : * [1]DjangoBooks Home Djangobooks.com Gypsy Jazz and Django Reinhardt Discussion Area [2]Skip to content ____________________ Search [3]Advanced search * [4]Board index < [5]Books - Ask the Author < [6]Gypsy Rhythm * [7]Change font size * [8]FAQ * [9]Search * [10]Register * [11]Login [12]rhythm engine A support group for my Gypsy Rhythm book. Ask questions about Gypsy Rhythm technique, share your own learning experiences, and learn new tips and tricks. Moderator: [13]Michael Horowitz [14]Post a reply ____________________ Search 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [15]rhythm engine [16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its the only way always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London [18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django 100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good players! If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out there and support these guys books are not always the answer LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL WORKSHOPS Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010 Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt, these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of techniques and musical ideas. These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts Council England. WORKSHOPS £35 o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass. o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the masters themselves Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from 13.30 - 15.30 Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227 [20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records January Workshops at a Glance: Sunday 17 January Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance Battersea Monday 18 January Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Tuesday 19 January Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea Wednesday 20 January Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Thursday 21 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea Friday 22 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Saturday 23 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith Sunday 24 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to happen. ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS AND STUDENTS SUNDAY 17th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions. An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg, Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others. [23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY 17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at [25]www.wegottickets.com MONDAY 18th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients, intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive. Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music, their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous, humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY 18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [27]www.wegottickets.com TUESDAY 19th JANUARY Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [28]www.quecumbar.co.uk A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind, multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger, and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene. [29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com [31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from [32]www.wegottickets.com WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson. [34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl [36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ; Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [39]www.quecumbar.co.uk Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona. [40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [42]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [43]www.quecumbar.co.uk Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha [45]www.bielballestertrio.com Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [46]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs, demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg, Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label, El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in Spain. [49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com [51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY 24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at [53]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line). Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist, he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour. [55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY (Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from [56]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London SW11 3JB SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy. He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of 15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with "Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of the top 1.4% of entrants. "...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard; "It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again", Zutphen Paper. [58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo, Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill, technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of Gypsy Swing, WORKSHOP VENUES: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [60]www.institut-francais.org.uk Tube: South Kensington How to get there: From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6 Jazz Cafe POSK The Polish Cultural Centre 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same. There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction. Thomas's School 28-40 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3JB [63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Royal Academy of Dance 36 Battersea Square, Battersea, London SW11 3RA [64]www.rad.org.uk [65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Le QuecumBar & Brasserie 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3HX [66]www.quecumbar.co.uk [67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf How to find us by Bus Route 170: The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station. (A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station about £10) 170 from Victoria Station: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right 170 from Clapham Junction: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right By Train: Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from, Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch the 170 bus By Car: Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends London Airports: Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx or train to central London Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch the 170 bus. Map of where Le QuecumBar is: 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3 HX: [68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud to have the support of our world class musician patrons: Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg [69]quecumbar Posts: 3 Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm Location: London + [70]E-mail quecumbar + [71]Website [72]Top __________________________________________________________________ [73]Post a reply 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [74]Return to Gypsy Rhythm Jump to: [ Gypsy Rhythm................................................] Go Who is online Users browsing this forum: Yahoo [Bot] and 1 guest * [75]Board index * [76]The team o [77]Delete all board cookies o All times are UTC - 8 hours [ DST ] Revolution Style © 2007, 2008 by [78]Semi_Deus Powered by [79]phpBB © 2000, 2002, 2005, 2007 phpBB Group Références Liens visibles 20. mailto:info@quecumbar.co.uk 24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr 31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com Liens cachés : [1]Skip to main content (WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION * Biblio. Data * [2]Description * [3]Claims * [4]National Phase * [5]Notices * [6]Documents Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau * [7]Link + [8]Permanent Link + [9]Bookmark this page __________________________________________________________________ Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.: PCT/US1999/000569 Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999 IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01) Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake Village, CA 91361 (US). Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US). Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box 640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US). Priority Data: 09/013,353 26.01.1998 US Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30) corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system. A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity information and may contain polyphonic information. Designated States: JP. European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB, GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE). Publication Language: English (EN) Filing Language: English (EN) [10]Scam Warning | [11]RSS | [12]Terms of use [13]WIPO Home services * [14]Español * [15]Français * [16]日本語 ____________________ Search * [17]Contact us * [18]Accessibility * [19]Site map * [20]Home * [21]IP Services * [22]PATENTSCOPE® * [23]Patent Search [24]PATENTSCOPE® * [25]About Patents * [26]PCT Resources * [27]PCT Service Centre * [28]Database Search * [29]PCT Applications * [30]National Collections & PCT * [31]External Databases * [32]Patent Analysis * [33]Glossary [34]Data Services [35]Publications [36]Projects & Programs [37]Patent Law [38]Priority Documents Related Links * [39]Patent Classification: IPC * [40]Statistics * [41]Life Sciences * [42]WIPO Standards E-Newsletters * [43]Subscription [44]ABOUT WIPO [45]IP SERVICES [46]PROGRAM ACTIVITIES [47]RESOURCES [48]NEWS & EVENTS Références A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event by David Lindsay Copyright 2002. All right reserved. In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm. Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event. Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our scope. The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known. The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand, and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.) A C G T T G C A These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three: A C G T || ||| ||| || T G C A In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological organisms--play a determining role. Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy. Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is constant, by the following coefficients: A=2 C=3 G=3 T=2 Given an arbitrary DNA sequence: A C G T A A T A T T C T the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes: 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation progresses away from the initiation site: A C G T A A T A T T C T -------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event. H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins, which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four: 2332 2222 2232 Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond breakage are activated simultaneously: A C G T A A T A T T C T || ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger -- will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied equally to molecular processes or musical ones. Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is varied its energy profile. The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could, for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate, while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and unstressed "beats," such that: A=2=unstressed beat (-) C=3=stressed beat (´) G=3=stressed beat (´) T=2=unstressed beat (-) Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation process. Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication will suffice. Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry. In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward resonance. Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering a suspension bridge. The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription. 1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences," Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts (Sept. 1995). For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here. [2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles. For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here. website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan University. Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : #[1]eyePlorer.com You have deactivated Javascript. Probably some of the features of eyePlorer.com will not work correctly. We recommend to activate Javascript. [2]Video introduction | [3]Blog | [4]Newsletter | [5]Feedback | [6]Jobs | [7]FAQ | [8]Movies | [9]Disclaimer | [10]About us [11]eyePlorer.com on Facebook [12]eyePlorer.com on Twitter Références Liens visibles 5. mailto:feedback@eyeplorer.com?subject=eyePlorer.com%20Feedback Liens cachés : * [1]DjangoBooks Home Djangobooks.com Gypsy Jazz and Django Reinhardt Discussion Area [2]Skip to content ____________________ Search [3]Advanced search * [4]Board index < [5]Books - Ask the Author < [6]Gypsy Rhythm * [7]Change font size * [8]FAQ * [9]Search * [10]Register * [11]Login [12]rhythm engine A support group for my Gypsy Rhythm book. Ask questions about Gypsy Rhythm technique, share your own learning experiences, and learn new tips and tricks. Moderator: [13]Michael Horowitz [14]Post a reply ____________________ Search 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [15]rhythm engine [16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its the only way always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London [18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django 100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good players! If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out there and support these guys books are not always the answer LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL WORKSHOPS Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010 Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt, these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of techniques and musical ideas. These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts Council England. WORKSHOPS £35 o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass. o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the masters themselves Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from 13.30 - 15.30 Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227 [20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records January Workshops at a Glance: Sunday 17 January Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance Battersea Monday 18 January Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Tuesday 19 January Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea Wednesday 20 January Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Thursday 21 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea Friday 22 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Saturday 23 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith Sunday 24 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to happen. ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS AND STUDENTS SUNDAY 17th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions. An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg, Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others. [23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY 17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at [25]www.wegottickets.com MONDAY 18th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients, intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive. Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music, their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous, humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY 18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [27]www.wegottickets.com TUESDAY 19th JANUARY Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [28]www.quecumbar.co.uk A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind, multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger, and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene. [29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com [31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from [32]www.wegottickets.com WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson. [34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl [36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ; Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [39]www.quecumbar.co.uk Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona. [40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [42]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [43]www.quecumbar.co.uk Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha [45]www.bielballestertrio.com Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [46]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs, demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg, Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label, El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in Spain. [49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com [51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY 24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at [53]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line). Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist, he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour. [55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY (Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from [56]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London SW11 3JB SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy. He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of 15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with "Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of the top 1.4% of entrants. "...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard; "It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again", Zutphen Paper. [58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo, Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill, technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of Gypsy Swing, WORKSHOP VENUES: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [60]www.institut-francais.org.uk Tube: South Kensington How to get there: From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6 Jazz Cafe POSK The Polish Cultural Centre 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same. There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction. Thomas's School 28-40 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3JB [63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Royal Academy of Dance 36 Battersea Square, Battersea, London SW11 3RA [64]www.rad.org.uk [65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Le QuecumBar & Brasserie 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3HX [66]www.quecumbar.co.uk [67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf How to find us by Bus Route 170: The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station. (A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station about £10) 170 from Victoria Station: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right 170 from Clapham Junction: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right By Train: Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from, Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch the 170 bus By Car: Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends London Airports: Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx or train to central London Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch the 170 bus. Map of where Le QuecumBar is: 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3 HX: [68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud to have the support of our world class musician patrons: Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg [69]quecumbar Posts: 3 Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm Location: London + [70]E-mail quecumbar + [71]Website [72]Top __________________________________________________________________ [73]Post a reply 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [74]Return to Gypsy Rhythm Jump to: [ Gypsy Rhythm................................................] Go Who is online Users browsing this forum: No registered users and 1 guest * [75]Board index * [76]The team o [77]Delete all board cookies o All times are UTC - 8 hours [ DST ] Revolution Style © 2007, 2008 by [78]Semi_Deus Powered by [79]phpBB © 2000, 2002, 2005, 2007 phpBB Group Références Liens visibles 20. mailto:info@quecumbar.co.uk 24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr 31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com Liens cachés : [1]Skip to main content (WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION * Biblio. Data * [2]Description * [3]Claims * [4]National Phase * [5]Notices * [6]Documents Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau * [7]Link + [8]Permanent Link + [9]Bookmark this page __________________________________________________________________ Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.: PCT/US1999/000569 Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999 IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01) Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake Village, CA 91361 (US). Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US). Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box 640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US). Priority Data: 09/013,353 26.01.1998 US Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30) corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system. A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity information and may contain polyphonic information. Designated States: JP. European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB, GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE). Publication Language: English (EN) Filing Language: English (EN) [10]Scam Warning | [11]RSS | [12]Terms of use [13]WIPO Home services * [14]Español * [15]Français * [16]日本語 ____________________ Search * [17]Contact us * [18]Accessibility * [19]Site map * [20]Home * [21]IP Services * [22]PATENTSCOPE® * [23]Patent Search [24]PATENTSCOPE® * [25]About Patents * [26]PCT Resources * [27]Database Search * [28]PCT Applications * [29]National Collections & PCT * [30]External Databases * [31]Patent Analysis * [32]Glossary [33]Data Services [34]Publications [35]Projects & Programs [36]Patent Law [37]Priority Documents Related Links * [38]Patent Classification: IPC * [39]Statistics * [40]Life Sciences * [41]WIPO Standards E-Newsletters * [42]Subscription [43]ABOUT WIPO [44]IP SERVICES [45]PROGRAM ACTIVITIES [46]RESOURCES [47]NEWS & EVENTS Références A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event by David Lindsay Copyright 2002. All right reserved. In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm. Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event. Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our scope. The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known. The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand, and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.) A C G T T G C A These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three: A C G T || ||| ||| || T G C A In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological organisms--play a determining role. Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy. Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is constant, by the following coefficients: A=2 C=3 G=3 T=2 Given an arbitrary DNA sequence: A C G T A A T A T T C T the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes: 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation progresses away from the initiation site: A C G T A A T A T T C T -------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event. H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins, which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four: 2332 2222 2232 Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond breakage are activated simultaneously: A C G T A A T A T T C T || ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger -- will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied equally to molecular processes or musical ones. Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is varied its energy profile. The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could, for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate, while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and unstressed "beats," such that: A=2=unstressed beat (-) C=3=stressed beat (´) G=3=stressed beat (´) T=2=unstressed beat (-) Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation process. Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication will suffice. Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry. In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward resonance. Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering a suspension bridge. The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription. 1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences," Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts (Sept. 1995). For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here. [2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles. For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here. website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan University. Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project [1]CRE Personnel What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project? The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision, continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data (e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that represents these programs and data visually. Expressive timing One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say, tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat). All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this project. Composition and combination techniques Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of such structures. Applications Here are some possible applications of CRE: * Anything that any standard drum machine does * Automated percussion tracks with "human feel" * A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the same rhythms with "human feel" * Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable (e.g. the 30-second commercial) * Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with irrationally-related durations * Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at will, in real time * Making a program that improvises by "driving around in rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or invention according to some combination of generative processes) * Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without altering the tree structure. Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since this list provides checkpoints for the software development. __________________________________________________________________ Page maintained by Vijay Iyer Last modified July 15, 1996 __________________________________________________________________ [2]Up to Vijay's page [3]Up to CNMAT homepage [4]Send mail to the CRE group [5]Send mail to Vijay Iyer Références 4. mailto:cdm@icsi.berkeley.edu 5. mailto:vijay@cnmat.berkeley.edu #[1]Suite101: Arts Education [2]Freelance Writing Jobs | [3]Today's Articles | [4]Sign In [icon_searchfilter_1.gif] ____________________ [5][v4_button_widget_search.png] Articles Writers Find [6]Suite101 Browse Sections [7]Home [8]Education & Career [9]Arts Education [10]Music Education [11]Write For Us » [12]Print Article [13]Subscribe [14]Share Article [15]Jennifer Wagaman Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students Lesson Ideas Involving Rhythm for Young Students [16]Dec 16, 2008 [17]Jennifer Wagaman Be creative and resourceful when teaching kindergarten students about rhythm. [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Teaching rhythm to Kindergarten students can be a fun way to get students moving around the classroom. When writing lesson plans with the objective towards learning rhythm, consider not only the manner in which you teach the students, but which songs would provide the best lesson opportunity, as well as which songs will work for the short attention span the students have. How to Teach Rhythm Use the body demonstrate the beat, also called body percussion, will help students feel the beat and learn the rhythm. This can involve having the students clap, tap, or stomp their feet while singing. This reinforces beat in a tactile manner, and helps the students stay focused on what you are doing. You can also use any opportunity you have to get the students up and moving about the room while singing songs. Although this does take decent [18]classroom management skills, it may also help your student's behavior as they are not required to sit still throughout the class period. What Songs Teach Rhythm Teaching children about rhythm can be a great time to introduce some fun songs. Lessons involving rhythm can be taught with any song that has a steady beat, which basically means that most songs are good to teach rhythm. Pick songs that the students either already know or are easy to teach, as this will ensure that they already know the basic rhythm. Some good songs to use for teaching rhythm include songs like Engine Engine Number Nine, and Skip to My Lou. For Engine Engine Number Nine, after teaching the song, have the students form a train and move around the room to the beat of the train in the song. For Skip to My Lou, have the students walk, march, or skip around the room to the beat of the song. Keep Attention Span in Mind Because a Kindergarten age child has a relatively short attention span, keep your songs short and varied. Do several songs per class period. It is better to do 3 five minute songs, assuming a 20 minute class period, than to spend 15 minutes on one song. So once again, choose songs that are either easy to teach, or that the students are already somewhat familiar with. Do not be afraid to experiment with your class as you teach the concept of rhythm. Reflect on your lesson after you have taught it, decide where there is room for improvement, and work to improve it for the next class you teach it to. You may also be interested in using [19]STOMP to teach rhythm in the classroom. Read more [20]tips for music teachers. The copyright of the article Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in [21]Arts Education is owned by [22]Jennifer Wagaman. Permission to republish Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in print or online must be granted by the author in writing. [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Ideas for Teaching Rhythm, Mary R. Vogt Ideas for Teaching Rhythm [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [comment_icon_f1.png] What do you think about this article? __________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ NOTE: Because you are not a Suite101 member, your comment will be moderated before it is viewable. post your comment What is 5+5? ______ [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Comments Apr 15, 2009 7:59 AM Guest : I particularly like the idea of reflecting on the lesson after its implementation. Reflection and teaching reflectively should be encouraged among music teachers. Cheers Mark Minott [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] 1 Comment: Related Articles [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [23]Lessons about Sound and Rhythm * [24]Kindergarten Drama Lesson on Expressing Feelings * [25]Teaching Poetry Through Movement, Drama & Art * [26]Enhance Student Reading Skills * [27]Group Music Lessons for Young Children * [28]Syllable Count Poems Lesson * [29]How to Make Fun Butterfly Crafts for Kids [30]more in arts education [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Related Topics [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [31]Music Education * [32]Arts Education Curriculum * [33]Dance Education * [34]Drama Education * [35]Theater Education * [36]Visual Arts Education [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Reference [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [37]how to teach rhythm * [38]teaching rhythm to kindergarten students * [39]lesson ideas for teaching rhythm * [40]what songs will teach rhythm * [41]teaching music to kindergarten students * [42]reflection on how a lesson went [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [43]Enter Suite101.com`s New Tagline Contest
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Probably some of the features of eyePlorer.com will not work correctly. We recommend to activate Javascript. [2]Video introduction | [3]Blog | [4]Newsletter | [5]Feedback | [6]Jobs | [7]FAQ | [8]Movies | [9]Disclaimer | [10]About us [11]eyePlorer.com on Facebook [12]eyePlorer.com on Twitter Références Liens visibles 5. mailto:feedback@eyeplorer.com?subject=eyePlorer.com%20Feedback Liens cachés : * [1]DjangoBooks Home Djangobooks.com Gypsy Jazz and Django Reinhardt Discussion Area [2]Skip to content ____________________ Search [3]Advanced search * [4]Board index < [5]Books - Ask the Author < [6]Gypsy Rhythm * [7]Change font size * [8]FAQ * [9]Search * [10]Register * [11]Login [12]rhythm engine A support group for my Gypsy Rhythm book. Ask questions about Gypsy Rhythm technique, share your own learning experiences, and learn new tips and tricks. Moderator: [13]Michael Horowitz [14]Post a reply ____________________ Search 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [15]rhythm engine [16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its the only way always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London [18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django 100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good players! If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out there and support these guys books are not always the answer LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL WORKSHOPS Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010 Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt, these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of techniques and musical ideas. These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts Council England. WORKSHOPS £35 o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass. o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the masters themselves Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from 13.30 - 15.30 Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227 [20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records January Workshops at a Glance: Sunday 17 January Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance Battersea Monday 18 January Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Tuesday 19 January Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea Wednesday 20 January Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Thursday 21 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea Friday 22 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Saturday 23 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith Sunday 24 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to happen. ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS AND STUDENTS SUNDAY 17th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions. An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg, Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others. [23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY 17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at [25]www.wegottickets.com MONDAY 18th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients, intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive. Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music, their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous, humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY 18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [27]www.wegottickets.com TUESDAY 19th JANUARY Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [28]www.quecumbar.co.uk A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind, multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger, and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene. [29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com [31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from [32]www.wegottickets.com WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson. [34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl [36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ; Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [39]www.quecumbar.co.uk Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona. [40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [42]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [43]www.quecumbar.co.uk Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha [45]www.bielballestertrio.com Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [46]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs, demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg, Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label, El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in Spain. [49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com [51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY 24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at [53]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line). Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist, he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour. [55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY (Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from [56]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London SW11 3JB SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy. He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of 15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with "Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of the top 1.4% of entrants. "...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard; "It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again", Zutphen Paper. [58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo, Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill, technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of Gypsy Swing, WORKSHOP VENUES: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [60]www.institut-francais.org.uk Tube: South Kensington How to get there: From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6 Jazz Cafe POSK The Polish Cultural Centre 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same. There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction. Thomas's School 28-40 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3JB [63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Royal Academy of Dance 36 Battersea Square, Battersea, London SW11 3RA [64]www.rad.org.uk [65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Le QuecumBar & Brasserie 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3HX [66]www.quecumbar.co.uk [67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf How to find us by Bus Route 170: The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station. (A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station about £10) 170 from Victoria Station: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right 170 from Clapham Junction: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right By Train: Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from, Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch the 170 bus By Car: Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends London Airports: Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx or train to central London Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch the 170 bus. Map of where Le QuecumBar is: 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3 HX: [68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud to have the support of our world class musician patrons: Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg [69]quecumbar Posts: 3 Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm Location: London + [70]E-mail quecumbar + [71]Website [72]Top __________________________________________________________________ [73]Post a reply 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [74]Return to Gypsy Rhythm Jump to: [ Gypsy Rhythm................................................] Go Who is online Users browsing this forum: Yahoo [Bot] and 1 guest * [75]Board index * [76]The team o [77]Delete all board cookies o All times are UTC - 8 hours [ DST ] Revolution Style © 2007, 2008 by [78]Semi_Deus Powered by [79]phpBB © 2000, 2002, 2005, 2007 phpBB Group Références Liens visibles 20. mailto:info@quecumbar.co.uk 24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr 31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com Liens cachés : [1]Skip to main content (WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION * Biblio. Data * [2]Description * [3]Claims * [4]National Phase * [5]Notices * [6]Documents Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau * [7]Link + [8]Permanent Link + [9]Bookmark this page __________________________________________________________________ Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.: PCT/US1999/000569 Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999 IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01) Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake Village, CA 91361 (US). Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US). Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box 640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US). Priority Data: 09/013,353 26.01.1998 US Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30) corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system. A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity information and may contain polyphonic information. Designated States: JP. European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB, GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE). Publication Language: English (EN) Filing Language: English (EN) [10]Scam Warning | [11]RSS | [12]Terms of use [13]WIPO Home services * [14]Español * [15]Français * [16]日本語 ____________________ Search * [17]Contact us * [18]Accessibility * [19]Site map * [20]Home * [21]IP Services * [22]PATENTSCOPE® * [23]Patent Search [24]PATENTSCOPE® * [25]About Patents * [26]PCT Resources * [27]PCT Service Centre * [28]Database Search * [29]PCT Applications * [30]National Collections & PCT * [31]External Databases * [32]Patent Analysis * [33]Glossary [34]Data Services [35]Publications [36]Projects & Programs [37]Patent Law [38]Priority Documents Related Links * [39]Patent Classification: IPC * [40]Statistics * [41]Life Sciences * [42]WIPO Standards E-Newsletters * [43]Subscription [44]ABOUT WIPO [45]IP SERVICES [46]PROGRAM ACTIVITIES [47]RESOURCES [48]NEWS & EVENTS Références A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event by David Lindsay Copyright 2002. All right reserved. In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm. Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event. Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our scope. The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known. The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand, and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.) A C G T T G C A These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three: A C G T || ||| ||| || T G C A In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological organisms--play a determining role. Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy. Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is constant, by the following coefficients: A=2 C=3 G=3 T=2 Given an arbitrary DNA sequence: A C G T A A T A T T C T the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes: 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation progresses away from the initiation site: A C G T A A T A T T C T -------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event. H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins, which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four: 2332 2222 2232 Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond breakage are activated simultaneously: A C G T A A T A T T C T || ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger -- will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied equally to molecular processes or musical ones. Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is varied its energy profile. The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could, for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate, while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and unstressed "beats," such that: A=2=unstressed beat (-) C=3=stressed beat (´) G=3=stressed beat (´) T=2=unstressed beat (-) Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation process. Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication will suffice. Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry. In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward resonance. Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering a suspension bridge. The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription. 1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences," Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts (Sept. 1995). For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here. [2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles. For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here. website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan University. Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project [1]CRE Personnel What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project? The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision, continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data (e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that represents these programs and data visually. Expressive timing One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say, tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat). All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this project. Composition and combination techniques Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of such structures. Applications Here are some possible applications of CRE: * Anything that any standard drum machine does * Automated percussion tracks with "human feel" * A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the same rhythms with "human feel" * Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable (e.g. the 30-second commercial) * Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with irrationally-related durations * Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at will, in real time * Making a program that improvises by "driving around in rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or invention according to some combination of generative processes) * Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without altering the tree structure. Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since this list provides checkpoints for the software development. __________________________________________________________________ Page maintained by Vijay Iyer Last modified July 15, 1996 __________________________________________________________________ [2]Up to Vijay's page [3]Up to CNMAT homepage [4]Send mail to the CRE group [5]Send mail to Vijay Iyer Références 4. mailto:cdm@icsi.berkeley.edu 5. mailto:vijay@cnmat.berkeley.edu #[1]eyePlorer.com You have deactivated Javascript. Probably some of the features of eyePlorer.com will not work correctly. We recommend to activate Javascript. [2]Video introduction | [3]Blog | [4]Newsletter | [5]Feedback | [6]Jobs | [7]FAQ | [8]Movies | [9]Disclaimer | [10]About us [11]eyePlorer.com on Facebook [12]eyePlorer.com on Twitter Références Liens visibles 5. mailto:feedback@eyeplorer.com?subject=eyePlorer.com%20Feedback Liens cachés : * [1]DjangoBooks Home Djangobooks.com Gypsy Jazz and Django Reinhardt Discussion Area [2]Skip to content ____________________ Search [3]Advanced search * [4]Board index < [5]Books - Ask the Author < [6]Gypsy Rhythm * [7]Change font size * [8]FAQ * [9]Search * [10]Register * [11]Login [12]rhythm engine A support group for my Gypsy Rhythm book. Ask questions about Gypsy Rhythm technique, share your own learning experiences, and learn new tips and tricks. Moderator: [13]Michael Horowitz [14]Post a reply ____________________ Search 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [15]rhythm engine [16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its the only way always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London [18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django 100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good players! If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out there and support these guys books are not always the answer LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL WORKSHOPS Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010 Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt, these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of techniques and musical ideas. These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts Council England. WORKSHOPS £35 o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass. o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the masters themselves Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from 13.30 - 15.30 Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227 [20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records January Workshops at a Glance: Sunday 17 January Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance Battersea Monday 18 January Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Tuesday 19 January Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea Wednesday 20 January Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Thursday 21 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea Friday 22 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Saturday 23 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith Sunday 24 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to happen. ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS AND STUDENTS SUNDAY 17th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions. An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg, Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others. [23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY 17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at [25]www.wegottickets.com MONDAY 18th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients, intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive. Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music, their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous, humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY 18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [27]www.wegottickets.com TUESDAY 19th JANUARY Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [28]www.quecumbar.co.uk A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind, multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger, and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene. [29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com [31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from [32]www.wegottickets.com WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson. [34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl [36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ; Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [39]www.quecumbar.co.uk Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona. [40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [42]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [43]www.quecumbar.co.uk Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha [45]www.bielballestertrio.com Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [46]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs, demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg, Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label, El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in Spain. [49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com [51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY 24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at [53]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line). Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist, he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour. [55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY (Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from [56]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London SW11 3JB SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy. He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of 15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with "Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of the top 1.4% of entrants. "...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard; "It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again", Zutphen Paper. [58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo, Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill, technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of Gypsy Swing, WORKSHOP VENUES: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [60]www.institut-francais.org.uk Tube: South Kensington How to get there: From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6 Jazz Cafe POSK The Polish Cultural Centre 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same. There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction. Thomas's School 28-40 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3JB [63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Royal Academy of Dance 36 Battersea Square, Battersea, London SW11 3RA [64]www.rad.org.uk [65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Le QuecumBar & Brasserie 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3HX [66]www.quecumbar.co.uk [67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf How to find us by Bus Route 170: The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station. (A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station about £10) 170 from Victoria Station: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right 170 from Clapham Junction: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right By Train: Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from, Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch the 170 bus By Car: Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends London Airports: Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx or train to central London Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch the 170 bus. Map of where Le QuecumBar is: 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3 HX: [68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud to have the support of our world class musician patrons: Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg [69]quecumbar Posts: 3 Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm Location: London + [70]E-mail quecumbar + [71]Website [72]Top __________________________________________________________________ [73]Post a reply 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [74]Return to Gypsy Rhythm Jump to: [ Gypsy Rhythm................................................] Go Who is online Users browsing this forum: No registered users and 1 guest * [75]Board index * [76]The team o [77]Delete all board cookies o All times are UTC - 8 hours [ DST ] Revolution Style © 2007, 2008 by [78]Semi_Deus Powered by [79]phpBB © 2000, 2002, 2005, 2007 phpBB Group Références Liens visibles 20. mailto:info@quecumbar.co.uk 24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr 31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com Liens cachés : [1]Skip to main content (WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION * Biblio. Data * [2]Description * [3]Claims * [4]National Phase * [5]Notices * [6]Documents Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau * [7]Link + [8]Permanent Link + [9]Bookmark this page __________________________________________________________________ Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.: PCT/US1999/000569 Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999 IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01) Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake Village, CA 91361 (US). Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US). Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box 640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US). Priority Data: 09/013,353 26.01.1998 US Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30) corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system. A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity information and may contain polyphonic information. Designated States: JP. European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB, GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE). Publication Language: English (EN) Filing Language: English (EN) [10]Scam Warning | [11]RSS | [12]Terms of use [13]WIPO Home services * [14]Español * [15]Français * [16]日本語 ____________________ Search * [17]Contact us * [18]Accessibility * [19]Site map * [20]Home * [21]IP Services * [22]PATENTSCOPE® * [23]Patent Search [24]PATENTSCOPE® * [25]About Patents * [26]PCT Resources * [27]Database Search * [28]PCT Applications * [29]National Collections & PCT * [30]External Databases * [31]Patent Analysis * [32]Glossary [33]Data Services [34]Publications [35]Projects & Programs [36]Patent Law [37]Priority Documents Related Links * [38]Patent Classification: IPC * [39]Statistics * [40]Life Sciences * [41]WIPO Standards E-Newsletters * [42]Subscription [43]ABOUT WIPO [44]IP SERVICES [45]PROGRAM ACTIVITIES [46]RESOURCES [47]NEWS & EVENTS Références A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event by David Lindsay Copyright 2002. All right reserved. In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm. Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event. Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our scope. The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known. The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand, and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.) A C G T T G C A These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three: A C G T || ||| ||| || T G C A In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological organisms--play a determining role. Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy. Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is constant, by the following coefficients: A=2 C=3 G=3 T=2 Given an arbitrary DNA sequence: A C G T A A T A T T C T the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes: 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation progresses away from the initiation site: A C G T A A T A T T C T -------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event. H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins, which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four: 2332 2222 2232 Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond breakage are activated simultaneously: A C G T A A T A T T C T || ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger -- will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied equally to molecular processes or musical ones. Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is varied its energy profile. The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could, for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate, while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and unstressed "beats," such that: A=2=unstressed beat (-) C=3=stressed beat (´) G=3=stressed beat (´) T=2=unstressed beat (-) Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation process. Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication will suffice. Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry. In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward resonance. Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering a suspension bridge. The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription. 1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences," Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts (Sept. 1995). For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here. [2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles. For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here. website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan University. Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project [1]CRE Personnel What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project? The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision, continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data (e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that represents these programs and data visually. Expressive timing One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say, tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat). All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this project. Composition and combination techniques Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of such structures. Applications Here are some possible applications of CRE: * Anything that any standard drum machine does * Automated percussion tracks with "human feel" * A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the same rhythms with "human feel" * Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable (e.g. the 30-second commercial) * Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with irrationally-related durations * Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at will, in real time * Making a program that improvises by "driving around in rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or invention according to some combination of generative processes) * Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without altering the tree structure. Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since this list provides checkpoints for the software development. __________________________________________________________________ Page maintained by Vijay Iyer Last modified July 15, 1996 __________________________________________________________________ [2]Up to Vijay's page [3]Up to CNMAT homepage [4]Send mail to the CRE group [5]Send mail to Vijay Iyer Références 4. mailto:cdm@icsi.berkeley.edu 5. mailto:vijay@cnmat.berkeley.edu #[1]Suite101: Arts Education [2]Freelance Writing Jobs | [3]Today's Articles | [4]Sign In [icon_searchfilter_1.gif] ____________________ [5][v4_button_widget_search.png] Articles Writers Find [6]Suite101 Browse Sections [7]Home [8]Education & Career [9]Arts Education [10]Music Education [11]Write For Us » [12]Print Article [13]Subscribe [14]Share Article [15]Jennifer Wagaman Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students Lesson Ideas Involving Rhythm for Young Students [16]Dec 16, 2008 [17]Jennifer Wagaman Be creative and resourceful when teaching kindergarten students about rhythm. [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Teaching rhythm to Kindergarten students can be a fun way to get students moving around the classroom. When writing lesson plans with the objective towards learning rhythm, consider not only the manner in which you teach the students, but which songs would provide the best lesson opportunity, as well as which songs will work for the short attention span the students have. How to Teach Rhythm Use the body demonstrate the beat, also called body percussion, will help students feel the beat and learn the rhythm. This can involve having the students clap, tap, or stomp their feet while singing. This reinforces beat in a tactile manner, and helps the students stay focused on what you are doing. You can also use any opportunity you have to get the students up and moving about the room while singing songs. Although this does take decent [18]classroom management skills, it may also help your student's behavior as they are not required to sit still throughout the class period. What Songs Teach Rhythm Teaching children about rhythm can be a great time to introduce some fun songs. Lessons involving rhythm can be taught with any song that has a steady beat, which basically means that most songs are good to teach rhythm. Pick songs that the students either already know or are easy to teach, as this will ensure that they already know the basic rhythm. Some good songs to use for teaching rhythm include songs like Engine Engine Number Nine, and Skip to My Lou. For Engine Engine Number Nine, after teaching the song, have the students form a train and move around the room to the beat of the train in the song. For Skip to My Lou, have the students walk, march, or skip around the room to the beat of the song. Keep Attention Span in Mind Because a Kindergarten age child has a relatively short attention span, keep your songs short and varied. Do several songs per class period. It is better to do 3 five minute songs, assuming a 20 minute class period, than to spend 15 minutes on one song. So once again, choose songs that are either easy to teach, or that the students are already somewhat familiar with. Do not be afraid to experiment with your class as you teach the concept of rhythm. Reflect on your lesson after you have taught it, decide where there is room for improvement, and work to improve it for the next class you teach it to. You may also be interested in using [19]STOMP to teach rhythm in the classroom. Read more [20]tips for music teachers. The copyright of the article Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in [21]Arts Education is owned by [22]Jennifer Wagaman. Permission to republish Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in print or online must be granted by the author in writing. [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Ideas for Teaching Rhythm, Mary R. Vogt Ideas for Teaching Rhythm [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [comment_icon_f1.png] What do you think about this article? __________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ NOTE: Because you are not a Suite101 member, your comment will be moderated before it is viewable. post your comment What is 5+5? ______ [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Comments Apr 15, 2009 7:59 AM Guest : I particularly like the idea of reflecting on the lesson after its implementation. Reflection and teaching reflectively should be encouraged among music teachers. Cheers Mark Minott [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] 1 Comment: Related Articles [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [23]Lessons about Sound and Rhythm * [24]Kindergarten Drama Lesson on Expressing Feelings * [25]Teaching Poetry Through Movement, Drama & Art * [26]Enhance Student Reading Skills * [27]Group Music Lessons for Young Children * [28]Syllable Count Poems Lesson * [29]How to Make Fun Butterfly Crafts for Kids [30]more in arts education [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Related Topics [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [31]Music Education * [32]Arts Education Curriculum * [33]Dance Education * [34]Drama Education * [35]Theater Education * [36]Visual Arts Education [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Reference [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [37]how to teach rhythm * [38]teaching rhythm to kindergarten students * [39]lesson ideas for teaching rhythm * [40]what songs will teach rhythm * [41]teaching music to kindergarten students * [42]reflection on how a lesson went [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [43]Enter Suite101.com`s New Tagline Contest
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Probably some of the features of eyePlorer.com will not work correctly. We recommend to activate Javascript. [2]Video introduction | [3]Blog | [4]Newsletter | [5]Feedback | [6]Jobs | [7]FAQ | [8]Movies | [9]Disclaimer | [10]About us [11]eyePlorer.com on Facebook [12]eyePlorer.com on Twitter Références Liens visibles 5. mailto:feedback@eyeplorer.com?subject=eyePlorer.com%20Feedback Liens cachés : * [1]DjangoBooks Home Djangobooks.com Gypsy Jazz and Django Reinhardt Discussion Area [2]Skip to content ____________________ Search [3]Advanced search * [4]Board index < [5]Books - Ask the Author < [6]Gypsy Rhythm * [7]Change font size * [8]FAQ * [9]Search * [10]Register * [11]Login [12]rhythm engine A support group for my Gypsy Rhythm book. Ask questions about Gypsy Rhythm technique, share your own learning experiences, and learn new tips and tricks. Moderator: [13]Michael Horowitz [14]Post a reply ____________________ Search 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [15]rhythm engine [16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its the only way always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London [18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django 100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good players! If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out there and support these guys books are not always the answer LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL WORKSHOPS Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010 Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt, these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of techniques and musical ideas. These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts Council England. WORKSHOPS £35 o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass. o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the masters themselves Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from 13.30 - 15.30 Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227 [20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records January Workshops at a Glance: Sunday 17 January Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance Battersea Monday 18 January Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Tuesday 19 January Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea Wednesday 20 January Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Thursday 21 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea Friday 22 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Saturday 23 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith Sunday 24 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to happen. ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS AND STUDENTS SUNDAY 17th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions. An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg, Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others. [23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY 17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at [25]www.wegottickets.com MONDAY 18th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients, intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive. Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music, their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous, humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY 18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [27]www.wegottickets.com TUESDAY 19th JANUARY Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [28]www.quecumbar.co.uk A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind, multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger, and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene. [29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com [31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from [32]www.wegottickets.com WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson. [34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl [36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ; Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [39]www.quecumbar.co.uk Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona. [40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [42]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [43]www.quecumbar.co.uk Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha [45]www.bielballestertrio.com Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [46]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs, demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg, Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label, El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in Spain. [49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com [51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY 24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at [53]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line). Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist, he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour. [55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY (Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from [56]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London SW11 3JB SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy. He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of 15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with "Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of the top 1.4% of entrants. "...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard; "It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again", Zutphen Paper. [58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo, Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill, technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of Gypsy Swing, WORKSHOP VENUES: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [60]www.institut-francais.org.uk Tube: South Kensington How to get there: From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6 Jazz Cafe POSK The Polish Cultural Centre 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same. There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction. Thomas's School 28-40 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3JB [63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Royal Academy of Dance 36 Battersea Square, Battersea, London SW11 3RA [64]www.rad.org.uk [65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Le QuecumBar & Brasserie 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3HX [66]www.quecumbar.co.uk [67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf How to find us by Bus Route 170: The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station. (A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station about £10) 170 from Victoria Station: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right 170 from Clapham Junction: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right By Train: Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from, Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch the 170 bus By Car: Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends London Airports: Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx or train to central London Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch the 170 bus. Map of where Le QuecumBar is: 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3 HX: [68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud to have the support of our world class musician patrons: Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg [69]quecumbar Posts: 3 Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm Location: London + [70]E-mail quecumbar + [71]Website [72]Top __________________________________________________________________ [73]Post a reply 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [74]Return to Gypsy Rhythm Jump to: [ Gypsy Rhythm................................................] Go Who is online Users browsing this forum: Yahoo [Bot] and 1 guest * [75]Board index * [76]The team o [77]Delete all board cookies o All times are UTC - 8 hours [ DST ] Revolution Style © 2007, 2008 by [78]Semi_Deus Powered by [79]phpBB © 2000, 2002, 2005, 2007 phpBB Group Références Liens visibles 20. mailto:info@quecumbar.co.uk 24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr 31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com Liens cachés : [1]Skip to main content (WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION * Biblio. Data * [2]Description * [3]Claims * [4]National Phase * [5]Notices * [6]Documents Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau * [7]Link + [8]Permanent Link + [9]Bookmark this page __________________________________________________________________ Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.: PCT/US1999/000569 Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999 IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01) Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake Village, CA 91361 (US). Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US). Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box 640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US). Priority Data: 09/013,353 26.01.1998 US Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30) corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system. A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity information and may contain polyphonic information. Designated States: JP. European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB, GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE). Publication Language: English (EN) Filing Language: English (EN) [10]Scam Warning | [11]RSS | [12]Terms of use [13]WIPO Home services * [14]Español * [15]Français * [16]日本語 ____________________ Search * [17]Contact us * [18]Accessibility * [19]Site map * [20]Home * [21]IP Services * [22]PATENTSCOPE® * [23]Patent Search [24]PATENTSCOPE® * [25]About Patents * [26]PCT Resources * [27]PCT Service Centre * [28]Database Search * [29]PCT Applications * [30]National Collections & PCT * [31]External Databases * [32]Patent Analysis * [33]Glossary [34]Data Services [35]Publications [36]Projects & Programs [37]Patent Law [38]Priority Documents Related Links * [39]Patent Classification: IPC * [40]Statistics * [41]Life Sciences * [42]WIPO Standards E-Newsletters * [43]Subscription [44]ABOUT WIPO [45]IP SERVICES [46]PROGRAM ACTIVITIES [47]RESOURCES [48]NEWS & EVENTS Références A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event by David Lindsay Copyright 2002. All right reserved. In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm. Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event. Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our scope. The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known. The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand, and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.) A C G T T G C A These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three: A C G T || ||| ||| || T G C A In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological organisms--play a determining role. Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy. Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is constant, by the following coefficients: A=2 C=3 G=3 T=2 Given an arbitrary DNA sequence: A C G T A A T A T T C T the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes: 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation progresses away from the initiation site: A C G T A A T A T T C T -------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event. H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins, which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four: 2332 2222 2232 Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond breakage are activated simultaneously: A C G T A A T A T T C T || ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger -- will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied equally to molecular processes or musical ones. Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is varied its energy profile. The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could, for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate, while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and unstressed "beats," such that: A=2=unstressed beat (-) C=3=stressed beat (´) G=3=stressed beat (´) T=2=unstressed beat (-) Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation process. Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication will suffice. Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry. In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward resonance. Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering a suspension bridge. The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription. 1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences," Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts (Sept. 1995). For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here. [2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles. For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here. website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan University. Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project [1]CRE Personnel What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project? The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision, continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data (e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that represents these programs and data visually. Expressive timing One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say, tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat). All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this project. Composition and combination techniques Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of such structures. Applications Here are some possible applications of CRE: * Anything that any standard drum machine does * Automated percussion tracks with "human feel" * A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the same rhythms with "human feel" * Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable (e.g. the 30-second commercial) * Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with irrationally-related durations * Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at will, in real time * Making a program that improvises by "driving around in rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or invention according to some combination of generative processes) * Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without altering the tree structure. Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since this list provides checkpoints for the software development. __________________________________________________________________ Page maintained by Vijay Iyer Last modified July 15, 1996 __________________________________________________________________ [2]Up to Vijay's page [3]Up to CNMAT homepage [4]Send mail to the CRE group [5]Send mail to Vijay Iyer Références 4. mailto:cdm@icsi.berkeley.edu 5. mailto:vijay@cnmat.berkeley.edu #[1]Suite101: Arts Education [2]Freelance Writing Jobs | [3]Today's Articles | [4]Sign In [icon_searchfilter_1.gif] ____________________ [5][v4_button_widget_search.png] Articles Writers Find [6]Suite101 Browse Sections [7]Home [8]Education & Career [9]Arts Education [10]Music Education [11]Write For Us » [12]Print Article [13]Subscribe [14]Share Article [15]Jennifer Wagaman Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students Lesson Ideas Involving Rhythm for Young Students [16]Dec 16, 2008 [17]Jennifer Wagaman Be creative and resourceful when teaching kindergarten students about rhythm. [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Teaching rhythm to Kindergarten students can be a fun way to get students moving around the classroom. When writing lesson plans with the objective towards learning rhythm, consider not only the manner in which you teach the students, but which songs would provide the best lesson opportunity, as well as which songs will work for the short attention span the students have. How to Teach Rhythm Use the body demonstrate the beat, also called body percussion, will help students feel the beat and learn the rhythm. This can involve having the students clap, tap, or stomp their feet while singing. This reinforces beat in a tactile manner, and helps the students stay focused on what you are doing. You can also use any opportunity you have to get the students up and moving about the room while singing songs. Although this does take decent [18]classroom management skills, it may also help your student's behavior as they are not required to sit still throughout the class period. What Songs Teach Rhythm Teaching children about rhythm can be a great time to introduce some fun songs. Lessons involving rhythm can be taught with any song that has a steady beat, which basically means that most songs are good to teach rhythm. Pick songs that the students either already know or are easy to teach, as this will ensure that they already know the basic rhythm. Some good songs to use for teaching rhythm include songs like Engine Engine Number Nine, and Skip to My Lou. For Engine Engine Number Nine, after teaching the song, have the students form a train and move around the room to the beat of the train in the song. For Skip to My Lou, have the students walk, march, or skip around the room to the beat of the song. Keep Attention Span in Mind Because a Kindergarten age child has a relatively short attention span, keep your songs short and varied. Do several songs per class period. It is better to do 3 five minute songs, assuming a 20 minute class period, than to spend 15 minutes on one song. So once again, choose songs that are either easy to teach, or that the students are already somewhat familiar with. Do not be afraid to experiment with your class as you teach the concept of rhythm. Reflect on your lesson after you have taught it, decide where there is room for improvement, and work to improve it for the next class you teach it to. You may also be interested in using [19]STOMP to teach rhythm in the classroom. Read more [20]tips for music teachers. The copyright of the article Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in [21]Arts Education is owned by [22]Jennifer Wagaman. Permission to republish Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in print or online must be granted by the author in writing. [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Ideas for Teaching Rhythm, Mary R. Vogt Ideas for Teaching Rhythm [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [comment_icon_f1.png] What do you think about this article? __________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ NOTE: Because you are not a Suite101 member, your comment will be moderated before it is viewable. post your comment What is 9+10? ______ [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Comments Apr 15, 2009 7:59 AM Guest : I particularly like the idea of reflecting on the lesson after its implementation. Reflection and teaching reflectively should be encouraged among music teachers. Cheers Mark Minott [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] 1 Comment: Related Articles [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [23]Lessons about Sound and Rhythm * [24]Kindergarten Drama Lesson on Expressing Feelings * [25]Teaching Poetry Through Movement, Drama & Art * [26]Enhance Student Reading Skills * [27]Group Music Lessons for Young Children * [28]Syllable Count Poems Lesson * [29]How to Make Fun Butterfly Crafts for Kids [30]more in arts education [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Related Topics [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [31]Music Education * [32]Arts Education Curriculum * [33]Dance Education * [34]Drama Education * [35]Theater Education * [36]Visual Arts Education [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Reference [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [37]how to teach rhythm * [38]teaching rhythm to kindergarten students * [39]lesson ideas for teaching rhythm * [40]what songs will teach rhythm * [41]teaching music to kindergarten students * [42]reflection on how a lesson went [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [43]Enter Suite101.com`s New Tagline Contest
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Probably some of the features of eyePlorer.com will not work correctly. We recommend to activate Javascript. [2]Video introduction | [3]Blog | [4]Newsletter | [5]Feedback | [6]Jobs | [7]FAQ | [8]Movies | [9]Disclaimer | [10]About us [11]eyePlorer.com on Facebook [12]eyePlorer.com on Twitter Références Liens visibles 5. mailto:feedback@eyeplorer.com?subject=eyePlorer.com%20Feedback Liens cachés : * [1]DjangoBooks Home Djangobooks.com Gypsy Jazz and Django Reinhardt Discussion Area [2]Skip to content ____________________ Search [3]Advanced search * [4]Board index < [5]Books - Ask the Author < [6]Gypsy Rhythm * [7]Change font size * [8]FAQ * [9]Search * [10]Register * [11]Login [12]rhythm engine A support group for my Gypsy Rhythm book. Ask questions about Gypsy Rhythm technique, share your own learning experiences, and learn new tips and tricks. Moderator: [13]Michael Horowitz [14]Post a reply ____________________ Search 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [15]rhythm engine [16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its the only way always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London [18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django 100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good players! If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out there and support these guys books are not always the answer LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL WORKSHOPS Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010 Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt, these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of techniques and musical ideas. These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts Council England. WORKSHOPS £35 o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass. o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the masters themselves Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from 13.30 - 15.30 Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227 [20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records January Workshops at a Glance: Sunday 17 January Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance Battersea Monday 18 January Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Tuesday 19 January Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea Wednesday 20 January Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Thursday 21 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea Friday 22 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Saturday 23 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith Sunday 24 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to happen. ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS AND STUDENTS SUNDAY 17th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions. An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg, Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others. [23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY 17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at [25]www.wegottickets.com MONDAY 18th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients, intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive. Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music, their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous, humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY 18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [27]www.wegottickets.com TUESDAY 19th JANUARY Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [28]www.quecumbar.co.uk A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind, multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger, and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene. [29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com [31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from [32]www.wegottickets.com WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson. [34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl [36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ; Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [39]www.quecumbar.co.uk Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona. [40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [42]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [43]www.quecumbar.co.uk Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha [45]www.bielballestertrio.com Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [46]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs, demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg, Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label, El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in Spain. [49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com [51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY 24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at [53]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line). Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist, he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour. [55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY (Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from [56]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London SW11 3JB SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy. He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of 15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with "Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of the top 1.4% of entrants. "...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard; "It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again", Zutphen Paper. [58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo, Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill, technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of Gypsy Swing, WORKSHOP VENUES: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [60]www.institut-francais.org.uk Tube: South Kensington How to get there: From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6 Jazz Cafe POSK The Polish Cultural Centre 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same. There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction. Thomas's School 28-40 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3JB [63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Royal Academy of Dance 36 Battersea Square, Battersea, London SW11 3RA [64]www.rad.org.uk [65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Le QuecumBar & Brasserie 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3HX [66]www.quecumbar.co.uk [67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf How to find us by Bus Route 170: The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station. (A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station about £10) 170 from Victoria Station: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right 170 from Clapham Junction: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right By Train: Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from, Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch the 170 bus By Car: Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends London Airports: Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx or train to central London Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch the 170 bus. Map of where Le QuecumBar is: 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3 HX: [68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud to have the support of our world class musician patrons: Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg [69]quecumbar Posts: 3 Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm Location: London + [70]E-mail quecumbar + [71]Website [72]Top __________________________________________________________________ [73]Post a reply 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [74]Return to Gypsy Rhythm Jump to: [ Gypsy Rhythm................................................] Go Who is online Users browsing this forum: No registered users and 1 guest * [75]Board index * [76]The team o [77]Delete all board cookies o All times are UTC - 8 hours [ DST ] Revolution Style © 2007, 2008 by [78]Semi_Deus Powered by [79]phpBB © 2000, 2002, 2005, 2007 phpBB Group Références Liens visibles 20. mailto:info@quecumbar.co.uk 24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr 31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com Liens cachés : [1]Skip to main content (WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION * Biblio. Data * [2]Description * [3]Claims * [4]National Phase * [5]Notices * [6]Documents Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau * [7]Link + [8]Permanent Link + [9]Bookmark this page __________________________________________________________________ Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.: PCT/US1999/000569 Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999 IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01) Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake Village, CA 91361 (US). Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US). Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box 640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US). Priority Data: 09/013,353 26.01.1998 US Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30) corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system. A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity information and may contain polyphonic information. Designated States: JP. European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB, GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE). Publication Language: English (EN) Filing Language: English (EN) [10]Scam Warning | [11]RSS | [12]Terms of use [13]WIPO Home services * [14]Español * [15]Français * [16]日本語 ____________________ Search * [17]Contact us * [18]Accessibility * [19]Site map * [20]Home * [21]IP Services * [22]PATENTSCOPE® * [23]Patent Search [24]PATENTSCOPE® * [25]About Patents * [26]PCT Resources * [27]PCT Service Centre * [28]Database Search * [29]PCT Applications * [30]National Collections & PCT * [31]External Databases * [32]Patent Analysis * [33]Glossary [34]Data Services [35]Publications [36]Projects & Programs [37]Patent Law [38]Priority Documents Related Links * [39]Patent Classification: IPC * [40]Statistics * [41]Life Sciences * [42]WIPO Standards E-Newsletters * [43]Subscription [44]ABOUT WIPO [45]IP SERVICES [46]PROGRAM ACTIVITIES [47]RESOURCES [48]NEWS & EVENTS Références A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event by David Lindsay Copyright 2002. All right reserved. In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm. Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event. Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our scope. The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known. The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand, and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.) A C G T T G C A These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three: A C G T || ||| ||| || T G C A In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological organisms--play a determining role. Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy. Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is constant, by the following coefficients: A=2 C=3 G=3 T=2 Given an arbitrary DNA sequence: A C G T A A T A T T C T the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes: 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation progresses away from the initiation site: A C G T A A T A T T C T -------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event. H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins, which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four: 2332 2222 2232 Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond breakage are activated simultaneously: A C G T A A T A T T C T || ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger -- will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied equally to molecular processes or musical ones. Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is varied its energy profile. The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could, for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate, while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and unstressed "beats," such that: A=2=unstressed beat (-) C=3=stressed beat (´) G=3=stressed beat (´) T=2=unstressed beat (-) Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation process. Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication will suffice. Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry. In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward resonance. Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering a suspension bridge. The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription. 1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences," Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts (Sept. 1995). For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here. [2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles. For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here. website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan University. Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project [1]CRE Personnel What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project? The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision, continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data (e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that represents these programs and data visually. Expressive timing One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say, tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat). All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this project. Composition and combination techniques Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of such structures. Applications Here are some possible applications of CRE: * Anything that any standard drum machine does * Automated percussion tracks with "human feel" * A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the same rhythms with "human feel" * Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable (e.g. the 30-second commercial) * Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with irrationally-related durations * Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at will, in real time * Making a program that improvises by "driving around in rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or invention according to some combination of generative processes) * Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without altering the tree structure. Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since this list provides checkpoints for the software development. __________________________________________________________________ Page maintained by Vijay Iyer Last modified July 15, 1996 __________________________________________________________________ [2]Up to Vijay's page [3]Up to CNMAT homepage [4]Send mail to the CRE group [5]Send mail to Vijay Iyer Références 4. mailto:cdm@icsi.berkeley.edu 5. mailto:vijay@cnmat.berkeley.edu #[1]Suite101: Arts Education [2]Freelance Writing Jobs | [3]Today's Articles | [4]Sign In [icon_searchfilter_1.gif] ____________________ [5][v4_button_widget_search.png] Articles Writers Find [6]Suite101 Browse Sections [7]Home [8]Education & Career [9]Arts Education [10]Music Education [11]Write For Us » [12]Print Article [13]Subscribe [14]Share Article [15]Jennifer Wagaman Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students Lesson Ideas Involving Rhythm for Young Students [16]Dec 16, 2008 [17]Jennifer Wagaman Be creative and resourceful when teaching kindergarten students about rhythm. [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Teaching rhythm to Kindergarten students can be a fun way to get students moving around the classroom. When writing lesson plans with the objective towards learning rhythm, consider not only the manner in which you teach the students, but which songs would provide the best lesson opportunity, as well as which songs will work for the short attention span the students have. How to Teach Rhythm Use the body demonstrate the beat, also called body percussion, will help students feel the beat and learn the rhythm. This can involve having the students clap, tap, or stomp their feet while singing. This reinforces beat in a tactile manner, and helps the students stay focused on what you are doing. You can also use any opportunity you have to get the students up and moving about the room while singing songs. Although this does take decent [18]classroom management skills, it may also help your student's behavior as they are not required to sit still throughout the class period. What Songs Teach Rhythm Teaching children about rhythm can be a great time to introduce some fun songs. Lessons involving rhythm can be taught with any song that has a steady beat, which basically means that most songs are good to teach rhythm. Pick songs that the students either already know or are easy to teach, as this will ensure that they already know the basic rhythm. Some good songs to use for teaching rhythm include songs like Engine Engine Number Nine, and Skip to My Lou. For Engine Engine Number Nine, after teaching the song, have the students form a train and move around the room to the beat of the train in the song. For Skip to My Lou, have the students walk, march, or skip around the room to the beat of the song. Keep Attention Span in Mind Because a Kindergarten age child has a relatively short attention span, keep your songs short and varied. Do several songs per class period. It is better to do 3 five minute songs, assuming a 20 minute class period, than to spend 15 minutes on one song. So once again, choose songs that are either easy to teach, or that the students are already somewhat familiar with. Do not be afraid to experiment with your class as you teach the concept of rhythm. Reflect on your lesson after you have taught it, decide where there is room for improvement, and work to improve it for the next class you teach it to. You may also be interested in using [19]STOMP to teach rhythm in the classroom. Read more [20]tips for music teachers. The copyright of the article Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in [21]Arts Education is owned by [22]Jennifer Wagaman. Permission to republish Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in print or online must be granted by the author in writing. [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Ideas for Teaching Rhythm, Mary R. Vogt Ideas for Teaching Rhythm [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [comment_icon_f1.png] What do you think about this article? __________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ NOTE: Because you are not a Suite101 member, your comment will be moderated before it is viewable. post your comment What is 5+5? ______ [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Comments Apr 15, 2009 7:59 AM Guest : I particularly like the idea of reflecting on the lesson after its implementation. Reflection and teaching reflectively should be encouraged among music teachers. Cheers Mark Minott [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] 1 Comment: Related Articles [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [23]Lessons about Sound and Rhythm * [24]Kindergarten Drama Lesson on Expressing Feelings * [25]Teaching Poetry Through Movement, Drama & Art * [26]Enhance Student Reading Skills * [27]Group Music Lessons for Young Children * [28]Syllable Count Poems Lesson * [29]How to Make Fun Butterfly Crafts for Kids [30]more in arts education [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Related Topics [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [31]Music Education * [32]Arts Education Curriculum * [33]Dance Education * [34]Drama Education * [35]Theater Education * [36]Visual Arts Education [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Reference [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [37]how to teach rhythm * [38]teaching rhythm to kindergarten students * [39]lesson ideas for teaching rhythm * [40]what songs will teach rhythm * [41]teaching music to kindergarten students * [42]reflection on how a lesson went [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [43]Enter Suite101.com`s New Tagline Contest
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And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons Ready to be hooked on new religions. Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife. Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life." And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee, Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge, Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton, Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Fly, fly, fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Swim, swim, swim to Daddy Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy, And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life, Of life, of life, of life. Yeah! Yeah! Yeah! Man! Related for [56]Sweet Charity: sheet music [57]Buy Musical Sheet Music cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD dvd [59]Buy Musical DVD Links: [60]Broadway Musicals Lyrics Scroller [61]Add/correct lyrics | [62]Request lyrics | [63]Links | [64]Privacy | [65]Contact us © STLyrics.com 2002 - Références #[1]eyePlorer.com You have deactivated Javascript. Probably some of the features of eyePlorer.com will not work correctly. We recommend to activate Javascript. 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Moderator: [13]Michael Horowitz [14]Post a reply ____________________ Search 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [15]rhythm engine [16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its the only way always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London [18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django 100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good players! If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out there and support these guys books are not always the answer LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL WORKSHOPS Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010 Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt, these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of techniques and musical ideas. These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts Council England. WORKSHOPS £35 o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass. o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the masters themselves Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from 13.30 - 15.30 Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227 [20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records January Workshops at a Glance: Sunday 17 January Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance Battersea Monday 18 January Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Tuesday 19 January Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea Wednesday 20 January Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Thursday 21 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea Friday 22 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Saturday 23 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith Sunday 24 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to happen. ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS AND STUDENTS SUNDAY 17th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions. An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg, Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others. [23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY 17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at [25]www.wegottickets.com MONDAY 18th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients, intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive. Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music, their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous, humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY 18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [27]www.wegottickets.com TUESDAY 19th JANUARY Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [28]www.quecumbar.co.uk A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind, multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger, and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene. [29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com [31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from [32]www.wegottickets.com WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson. [34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl [36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ; Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [39]www.quecumbar.co.uk Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona. [40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [42]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [43]www.quecumbar.co.uk Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha [45]www.bielballestertrio.com Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [46]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs, demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg, Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label, El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in Spain. [49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com [51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY 24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at [53]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line). Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist, he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour. [55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY (Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from [56]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London SW11 3JB SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy. He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of 15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with "Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of the top 1.4% of entrants. "...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard; "It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again", Zutphen Paper. [58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo, Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill, technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of Gypsy Swing, WORKSHOP VENUES: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [60]www.institut-francais.org.uk Tube: South Kensington How to get there: From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6 Jazz Cafe POSK The Polish Cultural Centre 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same. There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction. Thomas's School 28-40 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3JB [63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Royal Academy of Dance 36 Battersea Square, Battersea, London SW11 3RA [64]www.rad.org.uk [65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Le QuecumBar & Brasserie 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3HX [66]www.quecumbar.co.uk [67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf How to find us by Bus Route 170: The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station. (A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station about £10) 170 from Victoria Station: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right 170 from Clapham Junction: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right By Train: Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from, Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch the 170 bus By Car: Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends London Airports: Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx or train to central London Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch the 170 bus. Map of where Le QuecumBar is: 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3 HX: [68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud to have the support of our world class musician patrons: Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg [69]quecumbar Posts: 3 Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm Location: London + [70]E-mail quecumbar + [71]Website [72]Top __________________________________________________________________ [73]Post a reply 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [74]Return to Gypsy Rhythm Jump to: [ Gypsy Rhythm................................................] Go Who is online Users browsing this forum: No registered users and 1 guest * [75]Board index * [76]The team o [77]Delete all board cookies o All times are UTC - 8 hours [ DST ] Revolution Style © 2007, 2008 by [78]Semi_Deus Powered by [79]phpBB © 2000, 2002, 2005, 2007 phpBB Group Références Liens visibles 20. mailto:info@quecumbar.co.uk 24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr 31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com Liens cachés : [1]Skip to main content (WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION * Biblio. Data * [2]Description * [3]Claims * [4]National Phase * [5]Notices * [6]Documents Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau * [7]Link + [8]Permanent Link + [9]Bookmark this page __________________________________________________________________ Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.: PCT/US1999/000569 Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999 IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01) Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake Village, CA 91361 (US). Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US). Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box 640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US). Priority Data: 09/013,353 26.01.1998 US Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30) corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system. A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity information and may contain polyphonic information. Designated States: JP. European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB, GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE). Publication Language: English (EN) Filing Language: English (EN) [10]Scam Warning | [11]RSS | [12]Terms of use [13]WIPO Home services * [14]Español * [15]Français * [16]日本語 ____________________ Search * [17]Contact us * [18]Accessibility * [19]Site map * [20]Home * [21]IP Services * [22]PATENTSCOPE® * [23]Patent Search [24]PATENTSCOPE® * [25]About Patents * [26]PCT Resources * [27]PCT Service Centre * [28]Database Search * [29]PCT Applications * [30]National Collections & PCT * [31]External Databases * [32]Patent Analysis * [33]Glossary [34]Data Services [35]Publications [36]Projects & Programs [37]Patent Law [38]Priority Documents Related Links * [39]Patent Classification: IPC * [40]Statistics * [41]Life Sciences * [42]WIPO Standards E-Newsletters * [43]Subscription [44]ABOUT WIPO [45]IP SERVICES [46]PROGRAM ACTIVITIES [47]RESOURCES [48]NEWS & EVENTS Références A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event by David Lindsay Copyright 2002. All right reserved. In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm. Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event. Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our scope. The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known. The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand, and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.) A C G T T G C A These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three: A C G T || ||| ||| || T G C A In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological organisms--play a determining role. Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy. Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is constant, by the following coefficients: A=2 C=3 G=3 T=2 Given an arbitrary DNA sequence: A C G T A A T A T T C T the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes: 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation progresses away from the initiation site: A C G T A A T A T T C T -------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event. H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins, which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four: 2332 2222 2232 Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond breakage are activated simultaneously: A C G T A A T A T T C T || ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger -- will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied equally to molecular processes or musical ones. Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is varied its energy profile. The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could, for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate, while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and unstressed "beats," such that: A=2=unstressed beat (-) C=3=stressed beat (´) G=3=stressed beat (´) T=2=unstressed beat (-) Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation process. Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication will suffice. Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry. In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward resonance. Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering a suspension bridge. The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription. 1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences," Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts (Sept. 1995). For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here. [2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles. For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here. website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan University. Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project [1]CRE Personnel What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project? The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision, continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data (e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that represents these programs and data visually. Expressive timing One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say, tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat). All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this project. Composition and combination techniques Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of such structures. Applications Here are some possible applications of CRE: * Anything that any standard drum machine does * Automated percussion tracks with "human feel" * A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the same rhythms with "human feel" * Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable (e.g. the 30-second commercial) * Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with irrationally-related durations * Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at will, in real time * Making a program that improvises by "driving around in rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or invention according to some combination of generative processes) * Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without altering the tree structure. Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since this list provides checkpoints for the software development. __________________________________________________________________ Page maintained by Vijay Iyer Last modified July 15, 1996 __________________________________________________________________ [2]Up to Vijay's page [3]Up to CNMAT homepage [4]Send mail to the CRE group [5]Send mail to Vijay Iyer Références 4. mailto:cdm@icsi.berkeley.edu 5. mailto:vijay@cnmat.berkeley.edu #[1]Suite101: Arts Education [2]Freelance Writing Jobs | [3]Today's Articles | [4]Sign In [icon_searchfilter_1.gif] ____________________ [5][v4_button_widget_search.png] Articles Writers Find [6]Suite101 Browse Sections [7]Home [8]Education & Career [9]Arts Education [10]Music Education [11]Write For Us » [12]Print Article [13]Subscribe [14]Share Article [15]Jennifer Wagaman Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students Lesson Ideas Involving Rhythm for Young Students [16]Dec 16, 2008 [17]Jennifer Wagaman Be creative and resourceful when teaching kindergarten students about rhythm. [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Teaching rhythm to Kindergarten students can be a fun way to get students moving around the classroom. When writing lesson plans with the objective towards learning rhythm, consider not only the manner in which you teach the students, but which songs would provide the best lesson opportunity, as well as which songs will work for the short attention span the students have. How to Teach Rhythm Use the body demonstrate the beat, also called body percussion, will help students feel the beat and learn the rhythm. This can involve having the students clap, tap, or stomp their feet while singing. This reinforces beat in a tactile manner, and helps the students stay focused on what you are doing. You can also use any opportunity you have to get the students up and moving about the room while singing songs. Although this does take decent [18]classroom management skills, it may also help your student's behavior as they are not required to sit still throughout the class period. What Songs Teach Rhythm Teaching children about rhythm can be a great time to introduce some fun songs. Lessons involving rhythm can be taught with any song that has a steady beat, which basically means that most songs are good to teach rhythm. Pick songs that the students either already know or are easy to teach, as this will ensure that they already know the basic rhythm. Some good songs to use for teaching rhythm include songs like Engine Engine Number Nine, and Skip to My Lou. For Engine Engine Number Nine, after teaching the song, have the students form a train and move around the room to the beat of the train in the song. For Skip to My Lou, have the students walk, march, or skip around the room to the beat of the song. Keep Attention Span in Mind Because a Kindergarten age child has a relatively short attention span, keep your songs short and varied. Do several songs per class period. It is better to do 3 five minute songs, assuming a 20 minute class period, than to spend 15 minutes on one song. So once again, choose songs that are either easy to teach, or that the students are already somewhat familiar with. Do not be afraid to experiment with your class as you teach the concept of rhythm. Reflect on your lesson after you have taught it, decide where there is room for improvement, and work to improve it for the next class you teach it to. You may also be interested in using [19]STOMP to teach rhythm in the classroom. Read more [20]tips for music teachers. The copyright of the article Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in [21]Arts Education is owned by [22]Jennifer Wagaman. Permission to republish Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in print or online must be granted by the author in writing. [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Ideas for Teaching Rhythm, Mary R. Vogt Ideas for Teaching Rhythm [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [comment_icon_f1.png] What do you think about this article? __________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ NOTE: Because you are not a Suite101 member, your comment will be moderated before it is viewable. post your comment What is 5+5? ______ [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Comments Apr 15, 2009 7:59 AM Guest : I particularly like the idea of reflecting on the lesson after its implementation. Reflection and teaching reflectively should be encouraged among music teachers. Cheers Mark Minott [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] 1 Comment: Related Articles [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [23]Lessons about Sound and Rhythm * [24]Kindergarten Drama Lesson on Expressing Feelings * [25]Teaching Poetry Through Movement, Drama & Art * [26]Enhance Student Reading Skills * [27]Group Music Lessons for Young Children * [28]Syllable Count Poems Lesson * [29]How to Make Fun Butterfly Crafts for Kids [30]more in arts education [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Related Topics [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [31]Music Education * [32]Arts Education Curriculum * [33]Dance Education * [34]Drama Education * [35]Theater Education * [36]Visual Arts Education [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Reference [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [37]how to teach rhythm * [38]teaching rhythm to kindergarten students * [39]lesson ideas for teaching rhythm * [40]what songs will teach rhythm * [41]teaching music to kindergarten students * [42]reflection on how a lesson went [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [43]Enter Suite101.com`s New Tagline Contest
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And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons Ready to be hooked on new religions. Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife. Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life." And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee, Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge, Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton, Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Fly, fly, fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Swim, swim, swim to Daddy Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy, And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life, Of life, of life, of life. Yeah! Yeah! Yeah! Man! Related for [56]Sweet Charity: sheet music [57]Buy Musical Sheet Music cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD dvd [59]Buy Musical DVD Links: [60]Broadway Musicals Lyrics Scroller [61]Add/correct lyrics | [62]Request lyrics | [63]Links | [64]Privacy | [65]Contact us © STLyrics.com 2002 - Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]The Rhythm Of Life / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [7]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [8]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life. Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language, instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as the most graceful. Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ, and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres, and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D, of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last. It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life. Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense, so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature. Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt, thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles, there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks. As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become. When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given. We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely, or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall you receive the best. With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in modern times. Continue to: * prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 Tags [46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics, [51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music, [56]vibration [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [57]TOP [58]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [59]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [60]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [61]StasoSphere [ [62]Privacy Policy ] [ [63]Terms of Use ] [ [64]About Us ] [ [65]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:35:04 2009 Références #[1]eyePlorer.com You have deactivated Javascript. Probably some of the features of eyePlorer.com will not work correctly. We recommend to activate Javascript. 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Moderator: [13]Michael Horowitz [14]Post a reply ____________________ Search 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [15]rhythm engine [16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its the only way always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London [18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django 100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good players! If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out there and support these guys books are not always the answer LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL WORKSHOPS Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010 Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt, these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of techniques and musical ideas. These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts Council England. WORKSHOPS £35 o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass. o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the masters themselves Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from 13.30 - 15.30 Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227 [20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records January Workshops at a Glance: Sunday 17 January Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance Battersea Monday 18 January Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Tuesday 19 January Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea Wednesday 20 January Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Thursday 21 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea Friday 22 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Saturday 23 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith Sunday 24 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to happen. ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS AND STUDENTS SUNDAY 17th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions. An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg, Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others. [23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY 17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at [25]www.wegottickets.com MONDAY 18th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients, intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive. Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music, their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous, humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY 18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [27]www.wegottickets.com TUESDAY 19th JANUARY Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [28]www.quecumbar.co.uk A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind, multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger, and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene. [29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com [31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from [32]www.wegottickets.com WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson. [34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl [36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ; Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [39]www.quecumbar.co.uk Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona. [40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [42]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [43]www.quecumbar.co.uk Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha [45]www.bielballestertrio.com Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [46]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs, demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg, Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label, El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in Spain. [49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com [51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY 24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at [53]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line). Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist, he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour. [55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY (Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from [56]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London SW11 3JB SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy. He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of 15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with "Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of the top 1.4% of entrants. "...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard; "It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again", Zutphen Paper. [58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo, Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill, technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of Gypsy Swing, WORKSHOP VENUES: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [60]www.institut-francais.org.uk Tube: South Kensington How to get there: From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6 Jazz Cafe POSK The Polish Cultural Centre 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same. There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction. Thomas's School 28-40 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3JB [63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Royal Academy of Dance 36 Battersea Square, Battersea, London SW11 3RA [64]www.rad.org.uk [65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Le QuecumBar & Brasserie 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3HX [66]www.quecumbar.co.uk [67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf How to find us by Bus Route 170: The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station. (A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station about £10) 170 from Victoria Station: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right 170 from Clapham Junction: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right By Train: Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from, Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch the 170 bus By Car: Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends London Airports: Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx or train to central London Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch the 170 bus. Map of where Le QuecumBar is: 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3 HX: [68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud to have the support of our world class musician patrons: Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg [69]quecumbar Posts: 3 Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm Location: London + [70]E-mail quecumbar + [71]Website [72]Top __________________________________________________________________ [73]Post a reply 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [74]Return to Gypsy Rhythm Jump to: [ Gypsy Rhythm................................................] Go Who is online Users browsing this forum: No registered users and 1 guest * [75]Board index * [76]The team o [77]Delete all board cookies o All times are UTC - 8 hours [ DST ] Revolution Style © 2007, 2008 by [78]Semi_Deus Powered by [79]phpBB © 2000, 2002, 2005, 2007 phpBB Group Références Liens visibles 20. mailto:info@quecumbar.co.uk 24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr 31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com Liens cachés : [1]Skip to main content (WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION * Biblio. Data * [2]Description * [3]Claims * [4]National Phase * [5]Notices * [6]Documents Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau * [7]Link + [8]Permanent Link + [9]Bookmark this page __________________________________________________________________ Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.: PCT/US1999/000569 Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999 IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01) Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake Village, CA 91361 (US). Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US). Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box 640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US). Priority Data: 09/013,353 26.01.1998 US Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30) corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system. A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity information and may contain polyphonic information. Designated States: JP. European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB, GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE). Publication Language: English (EN) Filing Language: English (EN) [10]Scam Warning | [11]RSS | [12]Terms of use [13]WIPO Home services * [14]Español * [15]Français * [16]日本語 ____________________ Search * [17]Contact us * [18]Accessibility * [19]Site map * [20]Home * [21]IP Services * [22]PATENTSCOPE® * [23]Patent Search [24]PATENTSCOPE® * [25]About Patents * [26]PCT Resources * [27]PCT Service Centre * [28]Database Search * [29]PCT Applications * [30]National Collections & PCT * [31]External Databases * [32]Patent Analysis * [33]Glossary [34]Data Services [35]Publications [36]Projects & Programs [37]Patent Law [38]Priority Documents Related Links * [39]Patent Classification: IPC * [40]Statistics * [41]Life Sciences * [42]WIPO Standards E-Newsletters * [43]Subscription [44]ABOUT WIPO [45]IP SERVICES [46]PROGRAM ACTIVITIES [47]RESOURCES [48]NEWS & EVENTS Références A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event by David Lindsay Copyright 2002. All right reserved. In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm. Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event. Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our scope. The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known. The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand, and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.) A C G T T G C A These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three: A C G T || ||| ||| || T G C A In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological organisms--play a determining role. Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy. Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is constant, by the following coefficients: A=2 C=3 G=3 T=2 Given an arbitrary DNA sequence: A C G T A A T A T T C T the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes: 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation progresses away from the initiation site: A C G T A A T A T T C T -------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event. H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins, which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four: 2332 2222 2232 Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond breakage are activated simultaneously: A C G T A A T A T T C T || ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger -- will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied equally to molecular processes or musical ones. Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is varied its energy profile. The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could, for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate, while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and unstressed "beats," such that: A=2=unstressed beat (-) C=3=stressed beat (´) G=3=stressed beat (´) T=2=unstressed beat (-) Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation process. Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication will suffice. Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry. In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward resonance. Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering a suspension bridge. The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription. 1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences," Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts (Sept. 1995). For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here. [2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles. For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here. website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan University. Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project [1]CRE Personnel What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project? The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision, continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data (e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that represents these programs and data visually. Expressive timing One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say, tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat). All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this project. Composition and combination techniques Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of such structures. Applications Here are some possible applications of CRE: * Anything that any standard drum machine does * Automated percussion tracks with "human feel" * A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the same rhythms with "human feel" * Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable (e.g. the 30-second commercial) * Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with irrationally-related durations * Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at will, in real time * Making a program that improvises by "driving around in rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or invention according to some combination of generative processes) * Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without altering the tree structure. Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since this list provides checkpoints for the software development. __________________________________________________________________ Page maintained by Vijay Iyer Last modified July 15, 1996 __________________________________________________________________ [2]Up to Vijay's page [3]Up to CNMAT homepage [4]Send mail to the CRE group [5]Send mail to Vijay Iyer Références 4. mailto:cdm@icsi.berkeley.edu 5. mailto:vijay@cnmat.berkeley.edu #[1]Suite101: Arts Education [2]Freelance Writing Jobs | [3]Today's Articles | [4]Sign In [icon_searchfilter_1.gif] ____________________ [5][v4_button_widget_search.png] Articles Writers Find [6]Suite101 Browse Sections [7]Home [8]Education & Career [9]Arts Education [10]Music Education [11]Write For Us » [12]Print Article [13]Subscribe [14]Share Article [15]Jennifer Wagaman Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students Lesson Ideas Involving Rhythm for Young Students [16]Dec 16, 2008 [17]Jennifer Wagaman Be creative and resourceful when teaching kindergarten students about rhythm. [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Teaching rhythm to Kindergarten students can be a fun way to get students moving around the classroom. When writing lesson plans with the objective towards learning rhythm, consider not only the manner in which you teach the students, but which songs would provide the best lesson opportunity, as well as which songs will work for the short attention span the students have. How to Teach Rhythm Use the body demonstrate the beat, also called body percussion, will help students feel the beat and learn the rhythm. This can involve having the students clap, tap, or stomp their feet while singing. This reinforces beat in a tactile manner, and helps the students stay focused on what you are doing. You can also use any opportunity you have to get the students up and moving about the room while singing songs. Although this does take decent [18]classroom management skills, it may also help your student's behavior as they are not required to sit still throughout the class period. What Songs Teach Rhythm Teaching children about rhythm can be a great time to introduce some fun songs. Lessons involving rhythm can be taught with any song that has a steady beat, which basically means that most songs are good to teach rhythm. Pick songs that the students either already know or are easy to teach, as this will ensure that they already know the basic rhythm. Some good songs to use for teaching rhythm include songs like Engine Engine Number Nine, and Skip to My Lou. For Engine Engine Number Nine, after teaching the song, have the students form a train and move around the room to the beat of the train in the song. For Skip to My Lou, have the students walk, march, or skip around the room to the beat of the song. Keep Attention Span in Mind Because a Kindergarten age child has a relatively short attention span, keep your songs short and varied. Do several songs per class period. It is better to do 3 five minute songs, assuming a 20 minute class period, than to spend 15 minutes on one song. So once again, choose songs that are either easy to teach, or that the students are already somewhat familiar with. Do not be afraid to experiment with your class as you teach the concept of rhythm. Reflect on your lesson after you have taught it, decide where there is room for improvement, and work to improve it for the next class you teach it to. You may also be interested in using [19]STOMP to teach rhythm in the classroom. Read more [20]tips for music teachers. The copyright of the article Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in [21]Arts Education is owned by [22]Jennifer Wagaman. Permission to republish Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in print or online must be granted by the author in writing. [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Ideas for Teaching Rhythm, Mary R. Vogt Ideas for Teaching Rhythm [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [comment_icon_f1.png] What do you think about this article? __________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ NOTE: Because you are not a Suite101 member, your comment will be moderated before it is viewable. post your comment What is 5+5? ______ [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Comments Apr 15, 2009 7:59 AM Guest : I particularly like the idea of reflecting on the lesson after its implementation. Reflection and teaching reflectively should be encouraged among music teachers. Cheers Mark Minott [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] 1 Comment: Related Articles [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [23]Lessons about Sound and Rhythm * [24]Kindergarten Drama Lesson on Expressing Feelings * [25]Teaching Poetry Through Movement, Drama & Art * [26]Enhance Student Reading Skills * [27]Group Music Lessons for Young Children * [28]Syllable Count Poems Lesson * [29]How to Make Fun Butterfly Crafts for Kids [30]more in arts education [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Related Topics [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [31]Music Education * [32]Arts Education Curriculum * [33]Dance Education * [34]Drama Education * [35]Theater Education * [36]Visual Arts Education [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Reference [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [37]how to teach rhythm * [38]teaching rhythm to kindergarten students * [39]lesson ideas for teaching rhythm * [40]what songs will teach rhythm * [41]teaching music to kindergarten students * [42]reflection on how a lesson went [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [43]Enter Suite101.com`s New Tagline Contest
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And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons Ready to be hooked on new religions. Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife. Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life." And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee, Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge, Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton, Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Fly, fly, fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Swim, swim, swim to Daddy Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy, And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life, Of life, of life, of life. Yeah! Yeah! Yeah! Man! Related for [56]Sweet Charity: sheet music [57]Buy Musical Sheet Music cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD dvd [59]Buy Musical DVD Links: [60]Broadway Musicals Lyrics Scroller [61]Add/correct lyrics | [62]Request lyrics | [63]Links | [64]Privacy | [65]Contact us © STLyrics.com 2002 - Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]The Rhythm Of Life / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [7]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [8]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life. Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language, instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as the most graceful. Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ, and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres, and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D, of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last. It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life. Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense, so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature. Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt, thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles, there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks. As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become. When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given. We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely, or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall you receive the best. With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in modern times. Continue to: * prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 Tags [46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics, [51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music, [56]vibration [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [57]TOP [58]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [59]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [60]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [61]StasoSphere [ [62]Privacy Policy ] [ [63]Terms of Use ] [ [64]About Us ] [ [65]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:35:04 2009 Références #[1]top [2]search [3]All news stories [4]Spotlight news only [5]Feature stories [6]Customize feed [7]Science and technology news * [8]Home * [9]Nanotechnology * [10]Physics * [11]Space & Earth * [12]Electronics * [13]Technology * [14]Chemistry * [15]Biology * [16]Medicine & Health * [17]Other Sciences * [18]Psychology & Psychiatry * [19]Research * [20]Medications * [21]Cancer * [22]Genetics * [23]HIV & AIDS * [24]Diseases * [25]Other * [26]Health * [27]Neuroscience Keeping the rhythm of life in sync May 28, 2008 Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or physical stress. The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be too fast, too slow, or irregular. All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal rhythm and not even know it. Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath, swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur because of abnormal heart rhythm. To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by placing electrodes on the skin. Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case, other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart catheterization. Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia. Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some of its pumping function. Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm. Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help restore the rhythm of life. Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs [29]print this article [30]email this article [31]download pdf [32]blog this article [33]bookmark this article [34]Stumble it [35]Digg this [36]share on Facebook [37]retweet [38]share on Reddit [39]add to delicious Rate this story - 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * rank * [40]1 * [41]2 * [42]3 * [43]4 * [44]5 [45]view popular Rank Filter _ (Submit) Filter (Submit) Off Move the slider to adjust rank threshold, so that you can hide some of the comments. Display comments: [46]newest first * [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 1 / 5 (1) "...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life..." Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood through our system of vessels. It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy and thin pipes. It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word "pump" to describe the heart. What about "metronome"? + [48]report abuse + o Current rank o [49]1 o [50]2 o [51]3 o [52]4 o [53]5 * [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 4 / 5 (1) Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong. Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels, and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation. As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick, as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation" or taking a highschool biology class. + [55]report abuse + o Current rank o [56]1 o [57]2 o [58]3 o [59]4 o [60]5 * [61]print * [62]email * [63]pdf * [64]txt * [65]blog * [66]bookmark * [67]aA * [68]Aa May 28, 2008 [69]all stories Comments: [70]2 * rank * [71]1 * [72]2 * [73]3 * [74]4 * [75]5 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * [76]Stumble this up * [77]share on Facebook * * [78]Digg this * [79]retweet * * [80]share this * share on Facebook [81]Facebook * retweet [82]ReTweet * share on MySpace [83]MySpace * share on Slashdot [84]Slashdot * share on Google [85]Google * share on Reddit [86]Reddit * add to delicious [87]Delicious * save to Yahoo! bookmarks [88]Yahoo! bookmarks * share on Windows Live [89]Windows Live * Add to Mixx! 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Probably some of the features of eyePlorer.com will not work correctly. We recommend to activate Javascript. [2]Video introduction | [3]Blog | [4]Newsletter | [5]Feedback | [6]Jobs | [7]FAQ | [8]Movies | [9]Disclaimer | [10]About us [11]eyePlorer.com on Facebook [12]eyePlorer.com on Twitter Références Liens visibles 5. mailto:feedback@eyeplorer.com?subject=eyePlorer.com%20Feedback Liens cachés : * [1]DjangoBooks Home Djangobooks.com Gypsy Jazz and Django Reinhardt Discussion Area [2]Skip to content ____________________ Search [3]Advanced search * [4]Board index < [5]Books - Ask the Author < [6]Gypsy Rhythm * [7]Change font size * [8]FAQ * [9]Search * [10]Register * [11]Login [12]rhythm engine A support group for my Gypsy Rhythm book. Ask questions about Gypsy Rhythm technique, share your own learning experiences, and learn new tips and tricks. Moderator: [13]Michael Horowitz [14]Post a reply ____________________ Search 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [15]rhythm engine [16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its the only way always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London [18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django 100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good players! If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out there and support these guys books are not always the answer LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL WORKSHOPS Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010 Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt, these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of techniques and musical ideas. These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts Council England. WORKSHOPS £35 o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass. o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the masters themselves Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from 13.30 - 15.30 Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227 [20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records January Workshops at a Glance: Sunday 17 January Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance Battersea Monday 18 January Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Tuesday 19 January Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea Wednesday 20 January Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Thursday 21 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea Friday 22 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Saturday 23 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith Sunday 24 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to happen. ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS AND STUDENTS SUNDAY 17th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions. An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg, Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others. [23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY 17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at [25]www.wegottickets.com MONDAY 18th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients, intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive. Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music, their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous, humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY 18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [27]www.wegottickets.com TUESDAY 19th JANUARY Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [28]www.quecumbar.co.uk A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind, multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger, and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene. [29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com [31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from [32]www.wegottickets.com WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson. [34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl [36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ; Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [39]www.quecumbar.co.uk Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona. [40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [42]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [43]www.quecumbar.co.uk Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha [45]www.bielballestertrio.com Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [46]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs, demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg, Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label, El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in Spain. [49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com [51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY 24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at [53]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line). Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist, he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour. [55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY (Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from [56]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London SW11 3JB SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy. He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of 15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with "Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of the top 1.4% of entrants. "...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard; "It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again", Zutphen Paper. [58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo, Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill, technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of Gypsy Swing, WORKSHOP VENUES: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [60]www.institut-francais.org.uk Tube: South Kensington How to get there: From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6 Jazz Cafe POSK The Polish Cultural Centre 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same. There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction. Thomas's School 28-40 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3JB [63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Royal Academy of Dance 36 Battersea Square, Battersea, London SW11 3RA [64]www.rad.org.uk [65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Le QuecumBar & Brasserie 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3HX [66]www.quecumbar.co.uk [67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf How to find us by Bus Route 170: The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station. (A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station about £10) 170 from Victoria Station: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right 170 from Clapham Junction: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right By Train: Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from, Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch the 170 bus By Car: Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends London Airports: Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx or train to central London Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch the 170 bus. Map of where Le QuecumBar is: 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3 HX: [68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud to have the support of our world class musician patrons: Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg [69]quecumbar Posts: 3 Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm Location: London + [70]E-mail quecumbar + [71]Website [72]Top __________________________________________________________________ [73]Post a reply 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [74]Return to Gypsy Rhythm Jump to: [ Gypsy Rhythm................................................] Go Who is online Users browsing this forum: No registered users and 1 guest * [75]Board index * [76]The team o [77]Delete all board cookies o All times are UTC - 8 hours [ DST ] Revolution Style © 2007, 2008 by [78]Semi_Deus Powered by [79]phpBB © 2000, 2002, 2005, 2007 phpBB Group Références Liens visibles 20. mailto:info@quecumbar.co.uk 24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr 31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com Liens cachés : [1]Skip to main content (WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION * Biblio. Data * [2]Description * [3]Claims * [4]National Phase * [5]Notices * [6]Documents Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau * [7]Link + [8]Permanent Link + [9]Bookmark this page __________________________________________________________________ Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.: PCT/US1999/000569 Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999 IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01) Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake Village, CA 91361 (US). Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US). Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box 640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US). Priority Data: 09/013,353 26.01.1998 US Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30) corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system. A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity information and may contain polyphonic information. Designated States: JP. European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB, GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE). Publication Language: English (EN) Filing Language: English (EN) [10]Scam Warning | [11]RSS | [12]Terms of use [13]WIPO Home services * [14]Español * [15]Français * [16]日本語 ____________________ Search * [17]Contact us * [18]Accessibility * [19]Site map * [20]Home * [21]IP Services * [22]PATENTSCOPE® * [23]Patent Search [24]PATENTSCOPE® * [25]About Patents * [26]PCT Resources * [27]PCT Service Centre * [28]Database Search * [29]PCT Applications * [30]National Collections & PCT * [31]External Databases * [32]Patent Analysis * [33]Glossary [34]Data Services [35]Publications [36]Projects & Programs [37]Patent Law [38]Priority Documents Related Links * [39]Patent Classification: IPC * [40]Statistics * [41]Life Sciences * [42]WIPO Standards E-Newsletters * [43]Subscription [44]ABOUT WIPO [45]IP SERVICES [46]PROGRAM ACTIVITIES [47]RESOURCES [48]NEWS & EVENTS Références A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event by David Lindsay Copyright 2002. All right reserved. In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm. Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event. Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our scope. The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known. The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand, and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.) A C G T T G C A These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three: A C G T || ||| ||| || T G C A In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological organisms--play a determining role. Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy. Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is constant, by the following coefficients: A=2 C=3 G=3 T=2 Given an arbitrary DNA sequence: A C G T A A T A T T C T the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes: 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation progresses away from the initiation site: A C G T A A T A T T C T -------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event. H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins, which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four: 2332 2222 2232 Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond breakage are activated simultaneously: A C G T A A T A T T C T || ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger -- will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied equally to molecular processes or musical ones. Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is varied its energy profile. The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could, for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate, while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and unstressed "beats," such that: A=2=unstressed beat (-) C=3=stressed beat (´) G=3=stressed beat (´) T=2=unstressed beat (-) Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation process. Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication will suffice. Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry. In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward resonance. Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering a suspension bridge. The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription. 1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences," Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts (Sept. 1995). For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here. [2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles. For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here. website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan University. Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project [1]CRE Personnel What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project? The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision, continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data (e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that represents these programs and data visually. Expressive timing One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say, tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat). All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this project. Composition and combination techniques Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of such structures. Applications Here are some possible applications of CRE: * Anything that any standard drum machine does * Automated percussion tracks with "human feel" * A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the same rhythms with "human feel" * Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable (e.g. the 30-second commercial) * Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with irrationally-related durations * Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at will, in real time * Making a program that improvises by "driving around in rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or invention according to some combination of generative processes) * Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without altering the tree structure. Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since this list provides checkpoints for the software development. __________________________________________________________________ Page maintained by Vijay Iyer Last modified July 15, 1996 __________________________________________________________________ [2]Up to Vijay's page [3]Up to CNMAT homepage [4]Send mail to the CRE group [5]Send mail to Vijay Iyer Références 4. mailto:cdm@icsi.berkeley.edu 5. mailto:vijay@cnmat.berkeley.edu #[1]Suite101: Arts Education [2]Freelance Writing Jobs | [3]Today's Articles | [4]Sign In [icon_searchfilter_1.gif] ____________________ [5][v4_button_widget_search.png] Articles Writers Find [6]Suite101 Browse Sections [7]Home [8]Education & Career [9]Arts Education [10]Music Education [11]Write For Us » [12]Print Article [13]Subscribe [14]Share Article [15]Jennifer Wagaman Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students Lesson Ideas Involving Rhythm for Young Students [16]Dec 16, 2008 [17]Jennifer Wagaman Be creative and resourceful when teaching kindergarten students about rhythm. [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Teaching rhythm to Kindergarten students can be a fun way to get students moving around the classroom. When writing lesson plans with the objective towards learning rhythm, consider not only the manner in which you teach the students, but which songs would provide the best lesson opportunity, as well as which songs will work for the short attention span the students have. How to Teach Rhythm Use the body demonstrate the beat, also called body percussion, will help students feel the beat and learn the rhythm. This can involve having the students clap, tap, or stomp their feet while singing. This reinforces beat in a tactile manner, and helps the students stay focused on what you are doing. You can also use any opportunity you have to get the students up and moving about the room while singing songs. Although this does take decent [18]classroom management skills, it may also help your student's behavior as they are not required to sit still throughout the class period. What Songs Teach Rhythm Teaching children about rhythm can be a great time to introduce some fun songs. Lessons involving rhythm can be taught with any song that has a steady beat, which basically means that most songs are good to teach rhythm. Pick songs that the students either already know or are easy to teach, as this will ensure that they already know the basic rhythm. Some good songs to use for teaching rhythm include songs like Engine Engine Number Nine, and Skip to My Lou. For Engine Engine Number Nine, after teaching the song, have the students form a train and move around the room to the beat of the train in the song. For Skip to My Lou, have the students walk, march, or skip around the room to the beat of the song. Keep Attention Span in Mind Because a Kindergarten age child has a relatively short attention span, keep your songs short and varied. Do several songs per class period. It is better to do 3 five minute songs, assuming a 20 minute class period, than to spend 15 minutes on one song. So once again, choose songs that are either easy to teach, or that the students are already somewhat familiar with. Do not be afraid to experiment with your class as you teach the concept of rhythm. Reflect on your lesson after you have taught it, decide where there is room for improvement, and work to improve it for the next class you teach it to. You may also be interested in using [19]STOMP to teach rhythm in the classroom. Read more [20]tips for music teachers. The copyright of the article Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in [21]Arts Education is owned by [22]Jennifer Wagaman. Permission to republish Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in print or online must be granted by the author in writing. [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Ideas for Teaching Rhythm, Mary R. Vogt Ideas for Teaching Rhythm [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [comment_icon_f1.png] What do you think about this article? __________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ NOTE: Because you are not a Suite101 member, your comment will be moderated before it is viewable. post your comment What is 5+5? ______ [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Comments Apr 15, 2009 7:59 AM Guest : I particularly like the idea of reflecting on the lesson after its implementation. Reflection and teaching reflectively should be encouraged among music teachers. Cheers Mark Minott [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] 1 Comment: Related Articles [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [23]Lessons about Sound and Rhythm * [24]Kindergarten Drama Lesson on Expressing Feelings * [25]Teaching Poetry Through Movement, Drama & Art * [26]Enhance Student Reading Skills * [27]Group Music Lessons for Young Children * [28]Syllable Count Poems Lesson * [29]How to Make Fun Butterfly Crafts for Kids [30]more in arts education [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Related Topics [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [31]Music Education * [32]Arts Education Curriculum * [33]Dance Education * [34]Drama Education * [35]Theater Education * [36]Visual Arts Education [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Reference [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [37]how to teach rhythm * [38]teaching rhythm to kindergarten students * [39]lesson ideas for teaching rhythm * [40]what songs will teach rhythm * [41]teaching music to kindergarten students * [42]reflection on how a lesson went [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [43]Enter Suite101.com`s New Tagline Contest
More in Education & Career [44]Arts Education [45]Campus Life [46]Career Advice [47]Colleges [48]Continuing Education [49]Curricula/Lesson Plans [50]Day Care [51]Educational Issues [52]Gifted Education [53]Homeschooling [54]Language Study [55]Middle/High School [56]New Teacher Support [57]Primary School [58]Special Needs Education [59]Teacher Tips/Training [60]Training/Professional Development [61]Universities [62]Work/Study Abroad [63]Youth Development [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Article by Section [64]Business & Finance [65]Education & Career [66]Film & TV [67]Food & Drink [68]Health & Wellness [69]History [70]Home & Style [71]Mind & Soul [72]Music [73]Outdoor & Recreation [74]Partners & Parents [75]Plants & Animals [76]Politics & Society [77]Reading & Literature [78]Science & Nature [79]Sports [80]Technology [81]Travel [82]Visual & Performing Arts [83]Writing & Publishing More About Suite101 [84]FAQ for Writers [85]Today's Articles [86]Contact Us [87]About Us [88]Press Room [89]Freelance Writing Jobs [90]Site Map [91]Terms & Conditions [92]Privacy Policy [93]Careers Suite101 Links [94]suite101.de [95]suite101.fr [96]suite101.net [97]Suite101.com articles Latest Articles ; Quantcast Références 5. javascript:document.getElementById('header_search_2').submit(); 12. javascript:self.print(); 14. javascript:ajax('share_links.cfm?article_id=84690','hoverArticleShare'); toggleDivPop('hoverArticleShare'); 15. javascript:ajax('member_bio.cfm?article_owner_id=622867','hoverArticleAuthor'); toggleDivPop('hoverArticleAuthor'); Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics [1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics Browse by soundtrack Search in soundtracks Browse by artist name [2]A [3]B [4]C [5]D [6]E [7]F [8]G [9]H [10]I [11]J [12]K [13]L [14]M [15]N [16]O [17]P [18]Q [19]R [20]S [21]T [22]U [23]V [24]W [25]X [26]Y [27]Z [28]# ____________ Search [29]A [30]B [31]C [32]D [33]E [34]F [35]G [36]H [37]I [38]J [39]K [40]L [41]M [42]N [43]O [44]P [45]Q [46]R [47]S [48]T [49]U [50]V [51]W [52]X [53]Y [54]Z [55]# [0.gif] - Rhythm of Life Lyrics Ensemble: Daddy started out in San Francisco, Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean, Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy, Spread the picture on a wider screen." And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons Ready to be hooked on new religions. Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife. Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life." And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee, Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge, Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton, Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Fly, fly, fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Swim, swim, swim to Daddy Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy, And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life, Of life, of life, of life. Yeah! Yeah! Yeah! Man! Related for [56]Sweet Charity: sheet music [57]Buy Musical Sheet Music cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD dvd [59]Buy Musical DVD Links: [60]Broadway Musicals Lyrics Scroller [61]Add/correct lyrics | [62]Request lyrics | [63]Links | [64]Privacy | [65]Contact us © STLyrics.com 2002 - Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]The Rhythm Of Life / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [7]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [8]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life. Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language, instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as the most graceful. Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ, and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres, and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D, of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last. It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life. Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense, so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature. Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt, thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles, there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks. As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become. When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given. We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely, or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall you receive the best. With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in modern times. Continue to: * prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 Tags [46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics, [51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music, [56]vibration [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [57]TOP [58]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [59]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [60]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [61]StasoSphere [ [62]Privacy Policy ] [ [63]Terms of Use ] [ [64]About Us ] [ [65]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:35:04 2009 Références #[1]top [2]search [3]All news stories [4]Spotlight news only [5]Feature stories [6]Customize feed [7]Science and technology news * [8]Home * [9]Nanotechnology * [10]Physics * [11]Space & Earth * [12]Electronics * [13]Technology * [14]Chemistry * [15]Biology * [16]Medicine & Health * [17]Other Sciences * [18]Psychology & Psychiatry * [19]Research * [20]Medications * [21]Cancer * [22]Genetics * [23]HIV & AIDS * [24]Diseases * [25]Other * [26]Health * [27]Neuroscience Keeping the rhythm of life in sync May 28, 2008 Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or physical stress. The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be too fast, too slow, or irregular. All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal rhythm and not even know it. Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath, swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur because of abnormal heart rhythm. To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by placing electrodes on the skin. Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case, other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart catheterization. Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia. Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some of its pumping function. Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm. Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help restore the rhythm of life. Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs [29]print this article [30]email this article [31]download pdf [32]blog this article [33]bookmark this article [34]Stumble it [35]Digg this [36]share on Facebook [37]retweet [38]share on Reddit [39]add to delicious Rate this story - 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * rank * [40]1 * [41]2 * [42]3 * [43]4 * [44]5 [45]view popular Rank Filter _ (Submit) Filter (Submit) Off Move the slider to adjust rank threshold, so that you can hide some of the comments. Display comments: [46]newest first * [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 1 / 5 (1) "...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life..." Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood through our system of vessels. It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy and thin pipes. It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word "pump" to describe the heart. What about "metronome"? + [48]report abuse + o Current rank o [49]1 o [50]2 o [51]3 o [52]4 o [53]5 * [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 4 / 5 (1) Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong. Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels, and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation. As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick, as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation" or taking a highschool biology class. + [55]report abuse + o Current rank o [56]1 o [57]2 o [58]3 o [59]4 o [60]5 * [61]print * [62]email * [63]pdf * [64]txt * [65]blog * [66]bookmark * [67]aA * [68]Aa May 28, 2008 [69]all stories Comments: [70]2 * rank * [71]1 * [72]2 * [73]3 * [74]4 * [75]5 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * [76]Stumble this up * [77]share on Facebook * * [78]Digg this * [79]retweet * * [80]share this * share on Facebook [81]Facebook * retweet [82]ReTweet * share on MySpace [83]MySpace * share on Slashdot [84]Slashdot * share on Google [85]Google * share on Reddit [86]Reddit * add to delicious [87]Delicious * save to Yahoo! bookmarks [88]Yahoo! bookmarks * share on Windows Live [89]Windows Live * Add to Mixx! 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Rhythm Of Life lyrics (Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus) If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus) Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down (repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade) [phone_left.gif] [109]Send "Rhythm Of Life" Ringtone to your Cell Phone! 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Moderator: [13]Michael Horowitz [14]Post a reply ____________________ Search 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [15]rhythm engine [16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its the only way always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London [18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django 100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good players! If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out there and support these guys books are not always the answer LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL WORKSHOPS Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010 Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt, these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of techniques and musical ideas. These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts Council England. WORKSHOPS £35 o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass. o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the masters themselves Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from 13.30 - 15.30 Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227 [20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records January Workshops at a Glance: Sunday 17 January Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance Battersea Monday 18 January Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Tuesday 19 January Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea Wednesday 20 January Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Thursday 21 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea Friday 22 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Saturday 23 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith Sunday 24 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to happen. ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS AND STUDENTS SUNDAY 17th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions. An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg, Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others. [23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY 17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at [25]www.wegottickets.com MONDAY 18th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients, intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive. Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music, their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous, humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY 18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [27]www.wegottickets.com TUESDAY 19th JANUARY Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [28]www.quecumbar.co.uk A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind, multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger, and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene. [29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com [31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from [32]www.wegottickets.com WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson. [34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl [36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ; Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [39]www.quecumbar.co.uk Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona. [40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [42]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [43]www.quecumbar.co.uk Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha [45]www.bielballestertrio.com Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [46]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs, demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg, Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label, El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in Spain. [49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com [51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY 24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at [53]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line). Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist, he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour. [55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY (Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from [56]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London SW11 3JB SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy. He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of 15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with "Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of the top 1.4% of entrants. "...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard; "It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again", Zutphen Paper. [58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo, Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill, technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of Gypsy Swing, WORKSHOP VENUES: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [60]www.institut-francais.org.uk Tube: South Kensington How to get there: From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6 Jazz Cafe POSK The Polish Cultural Centre 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same. There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction. Thomas's School 28-40 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3JB [63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Royal Academy of Dance 36 Battersea Square, Battersea, London SW11 3RA [64]www.rad.org.uk [65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Le QuecumBar & Brasserie 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3HX [66]www.quecumbar.co.uk [67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf How to find us by Bus Route 170: The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station. (A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station about £10) 170 from Victoria Station: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right 170 from Clapham Junction: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right By Train: Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from, Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch the 170 bus By Car: Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends London Airports: Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx or train to central London Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch the 170 bus. Map of where Le QuecumBar is: 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3 HX: [68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud to have the support of our world class musician patrons: Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg [69]quecumbar Posts: 3 Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm Location: London + [70]E-mail quecumbar + [71]Website [72]Top __________________________________________________________________ [73]Post a reply 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [74]Return to Gypsy Rhythm Jump to: [ Gypsy Rhythm................................................] Go Who is online Users browsing this forum: No registered users and 1 guest * [75]Board index * [76]The team o [77]Delete all board cookies o All times are UTC - 8 hours [ DST ] Revolution Style © 2007, 2008 by [78]Semi_Deus Powered by [79]phpBB © 2000, 2002, 2005, 2007 phpBB Group Références Liens visibles 20. mailto:info@quecumbar.co.uk 24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr 31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com Liens cachés : [1]Skip to main content (WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION * Biblio. Data * [2]Description * [3]Claims * [4]National Phase * [5]Notices * [6]Documents Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau * [7]Link + [8]Permanent Link + [9]Bookmark this page __________________________________________________________________ Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.: PCT/US1999/000569 Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999 IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01) Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake Village, CA 91361 (US). Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US). Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box 640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US). Priority Data: 09/013,353 26.01.1998 US Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30) corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system. A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity information and may contain polyphonic information. Designated States: JP. European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB, GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE). Publication Language: English (EN) Filing Language: English (EN) [10]Scam Warning | [11]RSS | [12]Terms of use [13]WIPO Home services * [14]Español * [15]Français * [16]日本語 ____________________ Search * [17]Contact us * [18]Accessibility * [19]Site map * [20]Home * [21]IP Services * [22]PATENTSCOPE® * [23]Patent Search [24]PATENTSCOPE® * [25]About Patents * [26]PCT Resources * [27]PCT Service Centre * [28]Database Search * [29]PCT Applications * [30]National Collections & PCT * [31]External Databases * [32]Patent Analysis * [33]Glossary [34]Data Services [35]Publications [36]Projects & Programs [37]Patent Law [38]Priority Documents Related Links * [39]Patent Classification: IPC * [40]Statistics * [41]Life Sciences * [42]WIPO Standards E-Newsletters * [43]Subscription [44]ABOUT WIPO [45]IP SERVICES [46]PROGRAM ACTIVITIES [47]RESOURCES [48]NEWS & EVENTS Références A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event by David Lindsay Copyright 2002. All right reserved. In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm. Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event. Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our scope. The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known. The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand, and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.) A C G T T G C A These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three: A C G T || ||| ||| || T G C A In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological organisms--play a determining role. Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy. Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is constant, by the following coefficients: A=2 C=3 G=3 T=2 Given an arbitrary DNA sequence: A C G T A A T A T T C T the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes: 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation progresses away from the initiation site: A C G T A A T A T T C T -------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event. H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins, which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four: 2332 2222 2232 Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond breakage are activated simultaneously: A C G T A A T A T T C T || ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger -- will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied equally to molecular processes or musical ones. Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is varied its energy profile. The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could, for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate, while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and unstressed "beats," such that: A=2=unstressed beat (-) C=3=stressed beat (´) G=3=stressed beat (´) T=2=unstressed beat (-) Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation process. Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication will suffice. Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry. In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward resonance. Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering a suspension bridge. The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription. 1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences," Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts (Sept. 1995). For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here. [2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles. For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here. website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan University. Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project [1]CRE Personnel What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project? The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision, continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data (e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that represents these programs and data visually. Expressive timing One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say, tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat). All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this project. Composition and combination techniques Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of such structures. Applications Here are some possible applications of CRE: * Anything that any standard drum machine does * Automated percussion tracks with "human feel" * A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the same rhythms with "human feel" * Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable (e.g. the 30-second commercial) * Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with irrationally-related durations * Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at will, in real time * Making a program that improvises by "driving around in rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or invention according to some combination of generative processes) * Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without altering the tree structure. Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since this list provides checkpoints for the software development. __________________________________________________________________ Page maintained by Vijay Iyer Last modified July 15, 1996 __________________________________________________________________ [2]Up to Vijay's page [3]Up to CNMAT homepage [4]Send mail to the CRE group [5]Send mail to Vijay Iyer Références 4. mailto:cdm@icsi.berkeley.edu 5. mailto:vijay@cnmat.berkeley.edu #[1]Suite101: Arts Education [2]Freelance Writing Jobs | [3]Today's Articles | [4]Sign In [icon_searchfilter_1.gif] ____________________ [5][v4_button_widget_search.png] Articles Writers Find [6]Suite101 Browse Sections [7]Home [8]Education & Career [9]Arts Education [10]Music Education [11]Write For Us » [12]Print Article [13]Subscribe [14]Share Article [15]Jennifer Wagaman Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students Lesson Ideas Involving Rhythm for Young Students [16]Dec 16, 2008 [17]Jennifer Wagaman Be creative and resourceful when teaching kindergarten students about rhythm. [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Teaching rhythm to Kindergarten students can be a fun way to get students moving around the classroom. When writing lesson plans with the objective towards learning rhythm, consider not only the manner in which you teach the students, but which songs would provide the best lesson opportunity, as well as which songs will work for the short attention span the students have. How to Teach Rhythm Use the body demonstrate the beat, also called body percussion, will help students feel the beat and learn the rhythm. This can involve having the students clap, tap, or stomp their feet while singing. This reinforces beat in a tactile manner, and helps the students stay focused on what you are doing. You can also use any opportunity you have to get the students up and moving about the room while singing songs. Although this does take decent [18]classroom management skills, it may also help your student's behavior as they are not required to sit still throughout the class period. What Songs Teach Rhythm Teaching children about rhythm can be a great time to introduce some fun songs. Lessons involving rhythm can be taught with any song that has a steady beat, which basically means that most songs are good to teach rhythm. Pick songs that the students either already know or are easy to teach, as this will ensure that they already know the basic rhythm. Some good songs to use for teaching rhythm include songs like Engine Engine Number Nine, and Skip to My Lou. For Engine Engine Number Nine, after teaching the song, have the students form a train and move around the room to the beat of the train in the song. For Skip to My Lou, have the students walk, march, or skip around the room to the beat of the song. Keep Attention Span in Mind Because a Kindergarten age child has a relatively short attention span, keep your songs short and varied. Do several songs per class period. It is better to do 3 five minute songs, assuming a 20 minute class period, than to spend 15 minutes on one song. So once again, choose songs that are either easy to teach, or that the students are already somewhat familiar with. Do not be afraid to experiment with your class as you teach the concept of rhythm. Reflect on your lesson after you have taught it, decide where there is room for improvement, and work to improve it for the next class you teach it to. You may also be interested in using [19]STOMP to teach rhythm in the classroom. Read more [20]tips for music teachers. The copyright of the article Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in [21]Arts Education is owned by [22]Jennifer Wagaman. Permission to republish Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in print or online must be granted by the author in writing. [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Ideas for Teaching Rhythm, Mary R. Vogt Ideas for Teaching Rhythm [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [comment_icon_f1.png] What do you think about this article? __________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ NOTE: Because you are not a Suite101 member, your comment will be moderated before it is viewable. post your comment What is 5+5? ______ [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Comments Apr 15, 2009 7:59 AM Guest : I particularly like the idea of reflecting on the lesson after its implementation. Reflection and teaching reflectively should be encouraged among music teachers. Cheers Mark Minott [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] 1 Comment: Related Articles [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [23]Lessons about Sound and Rhythm * [24]Kindergarten Drama Lesson on Expressing Feelings * [25]Teaching Poetry Through Movement, Drama & Art * [26]Enhance Student Reading Skills * [27]Group Music Lessons for Young Children * [28]Syllable Count Poems Lesson * [29]How to Make Fun Butterfly Crafts for Kids [30]more in arts education [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Related Topics [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [31]Music Education * [32]Arts Education Curriculum * [33]Dance Education * [34]Drama Education * [35]Theater Education * [36]Visual Arts Education [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Reference [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [37]how to teach rhythm * [38]teaching rhythm to kindergarten students * [39]lesson ideas for teaching rhythm * [40]what songs will teach rhythm * [41]teaching music to kindergarten students * [42]reflection on how a lesson went [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [43]Enter Suite101.com`s New Tagline Contest
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And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons Ready to be hooked on new religions. Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife. Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life." And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee, Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge, Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton, Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Fly, fly, fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Swim, swim, swim to Daddy Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy, And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life, Of life, of life, of life. Yeah! Yeah! Yeah! Man! Related for [56]Sweet Charity: sheet music [57]Buy Musical Sheet Music cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD dvd [59]Buy Musical DVD Links: [60]Broadway Musicals Lyrics Scroller [61]Add/correct lyrics | [62]Request lyrics | [63]Links | [64]Privacy | [65]Contact us © STLyrics.com 2002 - Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]The Rhythm Of Life / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [7]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [8]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life. Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language, instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as the most graceful. Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ, and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres, and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D, of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last. It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life. Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense, so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature. Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt, thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles, there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks. As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become. When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given. We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely, or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall you receive the best. With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in modern times. Continue to: * prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 Tags [46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics, [51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music, [56]vibration [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [57]TOP [58]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [59]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [60]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [61]StasoSphere [ [62]Privacy Policy ] [ [63]Terms of Use ] [ [64]About Us ] [ [65]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:35:04 2009 Références #[1]top [2]search [3]All news stories [4]Spotlight news only [5]Feature stories [6]Customize feed [7]Science and technology news * [8]Home * [9]Nanotechnology * [10]Physics * [11]Space & Earth * [12]Electronics * [13]Technology * [14]Chemistry * [15]Biology * [16]Medicine & Health * [17]Other Sciences * [18]Psychology & Psychiatry * [19]Research * [20]Medications * [21]Cancer * [22]Genetics * [23]HIV & AIDS * [24]Diseases * [25]Other * [26]Health * [27]Neuroscience Keeping the rhythm of life in sync May 28, 2008 Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or physical stress. The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be too fast, too slow, or irregular. All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal rhythm and not even know it. Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath, swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur because of abnormal heart rhythm. To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by placing electrodes on the skin. Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case, other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart catheterization. Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia. Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some of its pumping function. Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm. Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help restore the rhythm of life. Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs [29]print this article [30]email this article [31]download pdf [32]blog this article [33]bookmark this article [34]Stumble it [35]Digg this [36]share on Facebook [37]retweet [38]share on Reddit [39]add to delicious Rate this story - 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * rank * [40]1 * [41]2 * [42]3 * [43]4 * [44]5 [45]view popular Rank Filter _ (Submit) Filter (Submit) Off Move the slider to adjust rank threshold, so that you can hide some of the comments. Display comments: [46]newest first * [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 1 / 5 (1) "...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life..." Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood through our system of vessels. It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy and thin pipes. It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word "pump" to describe the heart. What about "metronome"? + [48]report abuse + o Current rank o [49]1 o [50]2 o [51]3 o [52]4 o [53]5 * [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 4 / 5 (1) Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong. Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels, and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation. As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick, as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation" or taking a highschool biology class. + [55]report abuse + o Current rank o [56]1 o [57]2 o [58]3 o [59]4 o [60]5 * [61]print * [62]email * [63]pdf * [64]txt * [65]blog * [66]bookmark * [67]aA * [68]Aa May 28, 2008 [69]all stories Comments: [70]2 * rank * [71]1 * [72]2 * [73]3 * [74]4 * [75]5 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * [76]Stumble this up * [77]share on Facebook * * [78]Digg this * [79]retweet * * [80]share this * share on Facebook [81]Facebook * retweet [82]ReTweet * share on MySpace [83]MySpace * share on Slashdot [84]Slashdot * share on Google [85]Google * share on Reddit [86]Reddit * add to delicious [87]Delicious * save to Yahoo! bookmarks [88]Yahoo! bookmarks * share on Windows Live [89]Windows Live * Add to Mixx! 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Rhythm Of Life lyrics (Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus) If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus) Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down (repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade) [phone_left.gif] [109]Send "Rhythm Of Life" Ringtone to your Cell Phone! 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[130]www.lastlocation.com [131][get.media?sid=21908&m=3&tp=7&d=s&c=1] Références [1][LOGO-SVART.gif] [MARKERING-raud-firkant-STOR.gif] A new column written by one of our editors is published every two week _______________ Search [Search entire Voices.] powered by [2]FreeFind [3]Toppbanner [4]Toppbanner [5]Toppbanner [6]Toppbanner [7]Toppbanner May 19, 2008 [*bilde.jpg] 5 most recent columns January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By Diego Schapira December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara Wheeler December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice. By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist. By Helen Oosthuizen Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli () 1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful presence. I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the universe is not threatening for me as before. Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office, when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity arising randomly, above the background sound. Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific scenarios I could never imagine before. 2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome. That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances, making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those dangerous noises. When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands. His sounds were so emotionally intense that their message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards, listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside. My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people, without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds. In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes. Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors' desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist. I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing: the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness necessary for improving quality of life. 3rd Movement: Trio In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea which considers that a good development of each system is possible when there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system. Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with rhythm entrainment and music. As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration. To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes schema to structure and order internal and external events using rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the emotional response to music. Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion, and metaphorical thinking. Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration. Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer, because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory. There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks. And, thus, they can still feel joy. 4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy, particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to train psychologists and physicians in this field. This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music. References Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music: The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers. Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of Illinois. To cite this page: Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Moderated discussion Add your comments and responses to this essay in our Moderated Discussions. Contributions should be e-mailed to either [13]Joke Bradt or [14]Thomas Wosch View contributions on this essay: [yet no contribution] [15]Guidelines for discussions ©2009. VOICES. All rights reserved [16]Site Meter Références Liens visibles 13. javascript:decrypt_and_email(1) 14. javascript:decrypt_and_email(2) Liens cachés : 17. mailto: 18. javascript:decrypt_and_email(25) [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] #[1]eyePlorer.com You have deactivated Javascript. Probably some of the features of eyePlorer.com will not work correctly. We recommend to activate Javascript. 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Moderator: [13]Michael Horowitz [14]Post a reply ____________________ Search 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [15]rhythm engine [16]Post by [17]quecumbar » Sun Dec 20, 2009 11:00 am rhythm is the engine that drives the train - learn form the source its the only way always watch the right hand - apparently thats the secret Anyway enough of that Le QuecumBar in London [18]www.quecumbar.co.uk has some stonking workshops for the Django 100th birthday festival get yourselves here and support all the musicians holding them everyone can learn something - even the good players! If these musicians are not supported when they come to UK or anywhere else - then there is not much reason to come here so please get out there and support these guys books are not always the answer LE QUECUMBAR INTERNATIONAL GYPSY SWING GUITAR FESTIVAL WORKSHOPS Sunday 17th January - Monday 25th January 2010 Honouring the 100th Birthday of Gypsy guitar genius Django Reinhardt, these workshops are a rare opportunity to learn and communicate directly from some of World's finest players of the Django Reinhardt Gypsy Swing/Jazz style. This festival brings together more workshops of this style than has ever been offered before anywhere worldwide, a chance for musicians to learn from the source with Gypsies and non-Gypsy leaders of the style. Everyone who plays or wishes to play this style will benefit enormously from the cultural exchange of techniques and musical ideas. These workshops are supported by the National Lottery, through Arts Council England. WORKSHOPS £35 o For Gyspy Swing/Jazz guitar, Balkan Gypsy violin and Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass. o Workshops are limited to 12 people and held for all levels except beginners and are a perfect introduction to Gypsy music from the masters themselves Times for all workshops: 10.30 to 12.30, one hour for lunch then from 13.30 - 15.30 Tickets for all workshops: [19]www.wegottickets.com Contact for all workshops: Sylvia Rushbrooke 0207 787 2227 [20]info@quecumbar.co.uk [21]www.quecumbar.co.uk Workshops organised by Le QuecumBar and Le Q Records January Workshops at a Glance: Sunday 17 January Sebastien Giniaux, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance Battersea Monday 18 January Olivier Kikteff, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Tuesday 19 January Tcha Limberger, Balkan Gypsy violin, Le QuecumBar Battersea Wednesday 20 January Paulus Schafer, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Thursday 21 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Biel Ballester, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Le QuecumBar, Battersea Leo Hipaucha, Double Bass Gypsy Swing/Jazz, Le QuecumBar Battersea Friday 22 January Ritary Gaguenetti, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere South Kensington Saturday 23 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Thomas's School, Battersea Kussi Weiss Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Polish Club, Hammersmith Sunday 24 January Lollo Meier, Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar, Royal Academy of Dance, Battersea We thank the venues involved who have given help and space for these to happen. ALL WORKSHOP PROCEEDS GO TO THE MUSICIANS, THESE ARE NON -PROFIT WORKSHOPS TO HELP SHARE THIS MUSIC AROUND THE GLOBE WITH ITS EXPERTS AND STUDENTS SUNDAY 17th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with SEBASTIEN GINIAUX, France Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London, SW11 3RA [22]www.rad.org.uk Sebastien began playing the cello at age 6, and at 18 started teaching himself the guitar, learning by ear. Influenced by Django, he then added Gypsy music, classical and modern jazz to his repertoire. He is a composer, arranger and band member for Norig and Taraf de Haidouks, and one of the soloists of Selmer #607. In his own acoustic trio he plays Gypsy swing/jazz, Balkan Gypsy, Malian music and his own compositions. An instinctive, sensitive, eclectic, passionate and prodigiously gifted musician, one of the hottest on the young Parisien Gypsy swing/jazz scene today, he can also be found playing with Stochelo Rosenberg, Toumani Diabaté, Cyrille-Aimée Daudel, Adrien Moignard, Mathieu Chatelain and Caravan Palace, amongst many others. [23]www.myspace.com/sebastienginiaux [24]sebastien.giniaux@free.fr Sebastien will be playing in concert with David Reinhardt for the opening night of the Le QuecumBar Gypsy Swing Guitar Festival on SUNDAY 17th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £20 at [25]www.wegottickets.com MONDAY 18th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with OLIVIER KIKTEFF, France Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [26]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Olivier seeks to create original and inspirational music that is popular and accessible to everyone. He stamps his personality on his music and accomplishes a wild melding of exciting ingredients, intelligent and creative arrangements, and driving emotion whilst retaining musical interpretations that are clear, fluid and sensitive. Playing wild and fiery breakneck Gypsy guitar rhythms their music, their performances are breathless, dynamic, creative, dexterous, humorous and full of colour that demands your attention. Olivier will be playing in concert with his band LES DOIGTS DE L'HOMME on MONDAY 18th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [27]www.wegottickets.com TUESDAY 19th JANUARY Balkan Gypsy violin workshop with TCHA LIMBERGER, Belgian Gypsy Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [28]www.quecumbar.co.uk A rare opportunity and worth the effort to work with a true master of this style: Tcha is an inspirational teacher and rarely gets time for these work shops in the UK. He is happy to teach from basics to more advanced and has a wealth of information and experience to impart to any student enthusiastic and interested in this style. Tcha is a blind, multilingual multi-instrumentalist, Tcha has accomplishments that span violin, guitar, clarinet, and vocals. Born into a family of Gypsy musicians, he began performing with the De Piottos on clarinet, later swapping his clarinet for a guitar to play rhythm alongside Koen de Cauter in the ground-breaking Waso. At 17, he took up violin, inspired by stories of his grandfather, legendary violinist Piotto Limberger, and recordings from Hungarian Toki Horvat. Later, in Budapest, he studied classical and Gypsy music under Horvat Bela. He has worked closely with many Gypsy legends, including Fapy Lafertin and Angelo DeBarre. Tcha now lives in Transylvania and has set up a number of orchestras, in addition to making many recordings as a freelance instrumentalist. He also has students visit his home in Transylvania and is one of the hardest-working musicians on the scene. [29]www.myspace.com/limbergertcha [30]www.lejazzetal.com [31]tcha.limberger@gmail.com Tcha will be playing in concert with his band THE TCHA LIMBERGER TRIO on TUESDAY 19th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 from [32]www.wegottickets.com WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with PAULUS SCHAFER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere Contact, 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [33]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Paulus, from a Dutch Sinti Gypsy family, is a young rising star on today's Gypsy Jazz scene. In 2000, he founded his Paulus Schäfer Gipsy Band, which marries an authentic Hot Club sound with a more contemporary, funkier style, and which is now in great demand at numerous European festivals. With three albums under his belt, Paulus has developed an individualistic, energetic, upbeat sound. His virtuosity is apparent in his arrangements and improvisations, which fuse elements of Stochelo Rosenberg and George Benson. [34]www.sintimusicrecords.nl [35]www.paulusschafer.nl [36]www.myspace.com/sintimusic [37]www.sinisttimusic.nl ; Paulus will be playing in concert with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY at Le QuecumBar All tickets £20 at [38]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with BIEL BALLESTER, Spain Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [39]www.quecumbar.co.uk Born in Mallorca, gifted guitarist, composer, arranger and teacher Biel Ballester studied classical guitar at the prestigious Luthier School in Barcelona. He is a totally self-taught Gypsy swing player and was spotted as a potential master more than 10 years ago in Samois, where he spent many hours listening to, meeting and playing with Gypsy and non-Gypsy masters of the style. He has played with the best around the world. The Rosenberg Trio, Robin Nolan, Gustav Lundgren, Stephane Wrembel and other Gypsy greats. A masterful player, with a clean, light and fluid style, Biel showcases his creativity not only in his fluid Latin-flavoured interpretations of Django's classics, but also in his own highly-regarded compositions. Their original compositions are acclaimed in the Gypsy Swing world and beyond, with two tracks featured on the soundtrack of Woody Allen's film, Vicky Christina Barcelona. [40]www.myspace.com/bielballester [41]www.bielballestertrio.com Biel Ballester will be performing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [42]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz double bass workshop with LEO HIPAUCHA, Argentina Work shop venue: Le QuecumBar, 42-44 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3HX [43]www.quecumbar.co.uk Renowned bass player and Barcelona resident player, Leo graduated from Walter Malosseti's Superior Jazz School (Buenos Aires), and also studied bass in the Manuel de Falla conservatory. Since 1993 he has worked as a session musician for TV and radio in Argentina and has recorded many CDs. He has played with outstanding Argentinean artists including Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico (Fabulosos Cadillacs), Diego Torresand and Sandra Mihanovich and has toured with Gloria Gaynor and James Brown. [44]www.myspace.com/leandrohipaucha [45]www.bielballestertrio.com Leo will be playing in concert with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY at Le QuecumBar. All tickets £15 at [46]www.wegottickets.com THURSDAY 21st JANUARY and FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with RITARY GAGUENETTI, French Gypsy Work shop venue: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere, 17 Queensberry Place, London SW7 2DT [47]www.institut-francais.org.uk Nearest tube South Kensington Ritary a Sinti Gypsy born in 1978, Ritary began playing at 14, first learning from his father and teaching himself by listening to the Gypsy masters. He matured into a charismatic, virtuoso musician with a style that is smooth and melodious, clean and precise. At just 31, he is a young guitar master and composer and has recorded numerous CDs, demonstrating a musicality, versatility and technical expertise beyond his years. He is equally at home with traditional Django tunes as with bebop, funk and R&B, as displayed on his latest acclaimed album Gipsy Soul. He has collaborated with Matcho Winterstein, Andreas Oberg, Yorgui Loeffler and other greats, touring Europe, the USA and Canada with his trio to rapturous welcomes. His is a perfect example of this music's enduring adaptability. Ritary appears by courtesy of his label, El Pescador de Estrellas, promoting jazz and world music based in Spain. [49]www.myspace.com/elpescadordeestrellas [50]www.ritary.com [51]www.myspace.com/ritary [52]www.myspace.com/rgacoustic Ritary will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on WEDNESDAY 20th JANUARY with Paulus Schafer, Andy Aitchson, Ducato Piotrowski and Noah Schafer, on THURSDAY 21st JANUARY with THE BIEL BALLESTER TRIO, on SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday) with Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass, on SUNDAY 24th JANUARY With Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass and on MONDAY 25th JANUARY "GRAND FINALE with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. Tickets from £15 to £30 at [53]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with KUSSI WEISS, German Gypsy Work shop venue: Jazz Cafe POSK, The Polish Cultural Centre, 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF [54]www.jazzcafeposk.co.uk Nearest Tube: Ravenscourt Park (District Line). Kussi hails from a family of some of the most important and famous Sinti musicians in Northern Germany. As in Gypsy musical tradition, he began playing at just 10, taught by his uncle, Maurice Weiss, and released his first CD at age 19. At just 32, he has released numerous CDs and appeared at many international festivals. A virtuoso guitarist, he offers an elegant combination of Django Reinhardt's music with modern elements. His unique guitar style captivates his listeners with its authentic, acoustic traditional Gypsy Swing, and he endears himself to his audiences with his shy and unassuming demeanour. [55]www.myspace.com/gipsyconnectionquartette Kussi will be playing in concert at Le QuecumBar on FRIDAY 22nd JANUARY with his band KUSSI WEISS QUINTET, and on SATURDAY 23RD JANUARY (Django's birthday) with an all-star line up: Patron Lollo Meier: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. Tickets £20 and £25 from [56]www.wegottickets.com SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: Thomas's School, 28-40 Battersea High Street,London SW11 3JB SUNDAY 24 th JANUARY Gypsy Swing/Jazz guitar workshop with LOLLO MEIER, Dutch Gypsy Work shop venue: The Royal Academy of Dance, 36 Battersea Square, London SW11 3RA [57]www.rad.org.uk Lollo was raised on Gypsy Swing from an early age and now a guitar master, composer, bandleader and arranger, Lollo comes from an elite family of Gypsy players and is cousin to the great Fapy Lafertin and Stochelo Rosenberg. His goal: to carry on the music of Django with a style and technique that's traditional, melodious, lyrical, sensitive and joyful. His mellifluous compositions have a refreshing authentic Django flavour and are played with extraordinary talent, unique style and amazing suppleness that clearly reflect that he makes the music he loves. His quartet, sought after around the globe for private functions and renowned jazz festivals, is famous for playing lesser-known Django tunes and his own compositions. A man of style, grace and humour, Lollo touches his audiences with his pure melodious playing and makes Django's music as fresh today as it was 80 years ago. Outside of performing, he spends much of his time teaching sought-after master-classes, sharing his artistry and passing down Django's legacy. He is a remarkable man with a remarkable style of playing. Out of 15,000 international entries in the 2005 International Song Writing competition held in Nashville, USA, Lollo Meier became a finalist with "Melody for Le QuecumBar," gained honorary status and became part of the top 1.4% of entrants. "...Brilliancies came and went so fast that there was hardly time to applaud...", Jack Massarik, London Evening Standard; "It felt like the legendary Django Reinhardt was performing again", Zutphen Paper. [58]www.lollomeier.nl [59]www.myspace.com/lollomeier Lollo will also be playing in the following concerts at Le QuecumBar SATURDAY 23rd JANUARY (Django's birthday), with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Kussi Weiss: German Gypsy, guitar; Hugo Richter: German Gypsy, accordion; Dietmar Osterburg: German, bass. SUNDAY 24th JANUARY with Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Feigeli Prisor: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. MONDAY 25th JANUARY "Grande Finale" with Stochelo Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, guitar; Patron Ritary Gaguenetti: French Gypsy, guitar; Wattie Rosenberg: Dutch Gypsy, violin; Sani van Mullem: Dutch Gypsy, bass. An extraordinary and fitting finale for Django Reinhardt's 100th birthday, each night is a world first, with an all-star line-up and stellar performances. Three nights of Gypsy swing/jazz heaven with unrivalled talent from across Europe to honour and celebrate their Gypsy icon and founder of the genre. A formidable line-up, culminating in a last night that features three world master soloists, Stochelo, Lollo and Ritary, a unique and very special event featuring multiple stars on the same stage together, where their musical prowess, skill, technique and sensitivity can be enjoyed and appreciated in an intimate café-style atmosphere. These are nights like the nights when the music was born on the streets of 1930s Paris, when Django was the King of Gypsy Swing, WORKSHOP VENUES: Institut Francais/Cine Lumiere 17 Queensberry Place London SW7 2DT [60]www.institut-francais.org.uk Tube: South Kensington How to get there: From Victoria underground catch a tube on the Circle or District line its 2 stops or take a taxi at about £6 Jazz Cafe POSK The Polish Cultural Centre 238-246 King Street, Hammersmith, London W6 0RF Tube: Ravenscourt Park - District Line Royal Academy of Dance, Thomas's School and Le QuecumBar are almost next door to each other so the directions for all three are the same. There is no tube station but we are serviced by the very good 170 bus that runs from Victoria to Roehampton passing Clapham Junction. Thomas's School 28-40 Battersea High Street, London SW11 3JB [63]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Royal Academy of Dance 36 Battersea Square, Battersea, London SW11 3RA [64]www.rad.org.uk [65]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Le QuecumBar & Brasserie 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3HX [66]www.quecumbar.co.uk [67]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf How to find us by Bus Route 170: The 170 runs between Victoria Station and Clapham Junction or Clapham Junction to Victoria Station. (A taxi from Clapham Junction is about £5 and from Victoria Station about £10) 170 from Victoria Station: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, got off the bus and walk back, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance then on to walk through Battersea Square into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right 170 from Clapham Junction: The 170 bus stops at Vicarage Crescent near Battersea Square, walk forward, you will pass the Royal Academy of Dance on the opposite side of the road walk through Battersea Square on your right into Battersea High Street and Thomas's and Le QuecumBar are about 80 yards on the right By Train: Clapham Junction is the nearest train station and is a 15 minute walk or a short 170 bus ride. Depending on where you are travelling from, Victoria station may be the best option from where you can also catch the 170 bus By Car: Parking after 4.30 is free and at weekends London Airports: Gatwick: This is the best airport to come into - there is a direct train to Clapham Junction around 25 minutes and approx £17 return Stanstead: To Victoria Station by coach ie Terravision coach £10 approx or train to central London Heathrow: Take a London-bound Piccadilly Line train from Heathrow to Hammersmith. Here there is cross-platform interchange to the District Line (be careful of the step from the Piccadilly Line train). Take any eastbound District Line (except any that might be going to High Street Kensington, Edgware Road or Olympia) to Victoria. From Victoria catch the 170 bus. Map of where Le QuecumBar is: 42-44 Battersea High Street London SW11 3 HX: [68]www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?x=526926&y= ... hp=ids.srf Outside of Paris, the worlds dedicated gypsy swing venue. We are proud to have the support of our world class musician patrons: Angelo Debarre John Jorgenson Dave Kelbie John Etheridge Lollo Meier Robin Nolan Hank Marvin Andreas Oberg [69]quecumbar Posts: 3 Joined: Fri Jan 21, 2005 1:07 pm Location: London + [70]E-mail quecumbar + [71]Website [72]Top __________________________________________________________________ [73]Post a reply 1 post o Page 1 of 1 [74]Return to Gypsy Rhythm Jump to: [ Gypsy Rhythm................................................] Go Who is online Users browsing this forum: No registered users and 1 guest * [75]Board index * [76]The team o [77]Delete all board cookies o All times are UTC - 8 hours [ DST ] Revolution Style © 2007, 2008 by [78]Semi_Deus Powered by [79]phpBB © 2000, 2002, 2005, 2007 phpBB Group Références Liens visibles 20. mailto:info@quecumbar.co.uk 24. mailto:sebastien.giniaux@free.fr 31. mailto:tcha.limberger@gmail.com Liens cachés : [1]Skip to main content (WO/1999/038152) PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION * Biblio. Data * [2]Description * [3]Claims * [4]National Phase * [5]Notices * [6]Documents Latest bibliographic data on file with the International Bureau * [7]Link + [8]Permanent Link + [9]Bookmark this page __________________________________________________________________ Pub. No.: WO/1999/038152 International Application No.: PCT/US1999/000569 Publication Date: 29.07.1999 International Filing Date: 11.01.1999 IPC: G10H 1/00 (2006.01), G10H 1/36 (2006.01) Applicant: THE HOTZ CORPORATION [US/US]; 749-H Lakefield Road Westlake Village, CA 91361 (US). Inventor: HOTZ, Jimmy, C.; (US). Agent: D'ALESSANDRO, Kenneth et al.; D'Alessandro & Ritchie P.O. Box 640640 San Jose, CA 95164-0640 (US). Priority Data: 09/013,353 26.01.1998 US Title: PHRASE AND RHYTHM ENGINES FOR MUSIC GENERATION Abstract: A rhythm engine (18) for an electronic musical instrument provides a plurality of rhythm structure tables (30) selectable by a user through a rhythm table selector (34). Each rhythm table (30) corresponds to a particular rhythmic beat or pattern and defines a series of trigger events in time and magnitude (velocity). A gesture controller (12) generates a series of musical note signals, each of which includes a note-on signal and a note-off signal. These musical note signals are then input to the rhythm engine (18), processed along with the selected rhythm structure table (30), and output as processed musical note trigger signals at timing intervals dictated by the selected rhythm structure table (30) and with corresponding velocities also dictated by the rhythm structure table (30). The rhythm structure table selection may be changed as a user plays, either by the user or automatically as dictated by a prerecorded musical piece being played along with by the user. Processed musical note trigger signals may then be applied to other conventional components of a digital music system. A phrase engine (16) is also provided which provides a plurality of phrase structure tables (40) and operates similarly to the rhythm engine (18) above except that phrases differ from rhythms in that phrases contain note values as well as duration and velocity information and may contain polyphonic information. Designated States: JP. European Patent Office (EPO) (AT, BE, CH, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, GB, GR, IE, IT, LU, MC, NL, PT, SE). Publication Language: English (EN) Filing Language: English (EN) [10]Scam Warning | [11]RSS | [12]Terms of use [13]WIPO Home services * [14]Español * [15]Français * [16]日本語 ____________________ Search * [17]Contact us * [18]Accessibility * [19]Site map * [20]Home * [21]IP Services * [22]PATENTSCOPE® * [23]Patent Search [24]PATENTSCOPE® * [25]About Patents * [26]PCT Resources * [27]PCT Service Centre * [28]Database Search * [29]PCT Applications * [30]National Collections & PCT * [31]External Databases * [32]Patent Analysis * [33]Glossary [34]Data Services [35]Publications [36]Projects & Programs [37]Patent Law [38]Priority Documents Related Links * [39]Patent Classification: IPC * [40]Statistics * [41]Life Sciences * [42]WIPO Standards E-Newsletters * [43]Subscription [44]ABOUT WIPO [45]IP SERVICES [46]PROGRAM ACTIVITIES [47]RESOURCES [48]NEWS & EVENTS Références A Striking Resemblance: DNA Dissociation as a Rhythmic Event by David Lindsay Copyright 2002. All right reserved. In seeking new interpretations of genetics, a number of scientists and musicians have generated musical sequences based on patterns that can be found in DNA. As the field of genomics expands, so have the methods of arriving at musical representations of DNA multiplied. The present paper offers a new approach that concentrates on the element of rhythm. Most musical interpretations of DNA to date have been concerned with the possible tonal qualities of the four nucleic acids that make up the genetic code, with an emphasis on the proteins that are created from them. As an alternative, one may look to the natural processes during which the DNA strands are dissociated, or broken apart. During replication and transcription, the strands dissociate sequentially and so raise the possibility of a characteristic temporal event. Gena and Strom have pursued the subject of dissociation as it relates to the creation of amino acids, with significant results.^1 The present approach begins one step earlier, investigating the DNA dissociation process apart from subsequent coding events. By looking solely at DNA dissociation, to the exclusion of the amino acids and proteins generated, we are able to include the process of replication within our scope. The basic processes and elements of DNA dissociation are well known. The pairing of nucleic acids in the DNA molecule follows a uniform rule: adenine (A) is paired with thymine (T) on the opposite strand, and cytosine (C) with guanine (G.) A C G T T G C A These pairs are held together with hydrogen bonds (H-bonds), which also obey a fixed principle: A and T are bound by two H-bonds, C and G by three H-bonds. Thus a DNA molecule can be thought of as a ladder with rungs that are clustered in groups of either two or three: A C G T || ||| ||| || T G C A In order to separate the opposing DNA strands, the H-bonds must be broken. Indeed, it is the breaking of the H-bonds that constitutes the dissociation of DNA. This breakage is achieved through a chain of events in which ATP molecules--the basic source of energy in biological organisms--play a determining role. Because more energy is needed to break three H-bonds than is needed to break two, dissociation suggests a non-uniform expenditure of energy. Alternatively, one may say that a uniform expenditure of energy lower than a certain threshold value will yield a non-uniform event, as governed by the number of H-bonds in any given base pair. We will call this relationship between energy expended and the result that follows the governing algorithm, which will be expressed, where the energy is constant, by the following coefficients: A=2 C=3 G=3 T=2 Given an arbitrary DNA sequence: A C G T A A T A T T C T the governing algorithm will generate a set of twos and threes: 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 Certain formal aspects of DNA dissociation in its biological state constrain the expression of the governing algorithm. When dissociation is initiated artificially (by heating), for example, the entire DNA molecule is effected more at less at once. In such a case, A-T rich regions will tend to separate sooner than regions rich in C-G pairs. In vivo, however, the H-bonds are broken linearly, as the dissociation progresses away from the initiation site: A C G T A A T A T T C T -------> ||| || || || || || || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A Thus, when derived from a sequence of DNA, the governing algorithm can be used to generate a predictable and unique temporal event. H-bonds have been observed (again in vivo) to break in a four-based stagger, meaning that there is a pause in the dissociation after four sets of H-bonds. (In this regard, the investigation of DNA dissociation differs markedly from those concerned with the creation of proteins, which emphasize the three-base pattern created by the codons that constitute the genetic code.) The governing algorithm set generated above would, under such conditions, be expressed in groups of four: 2332 2222 2232 Another formal aspect of DNA dissociation that will limit its expression is bidirectionality. Dissociation takes place in two opposite directions along the DNA molecule, to form what is known as a replication bubble or replicon. As a result, two sequences of H-bond breakage are activated simultaneously: A C G T A A T A T T C T || ||| ||| || <-------------> || || ||| || T G C A T T A T A A G A The presence of all these conditions -- i.e., a governing algorithm expressed linearly in opposite directions in a four-base stagger -- will constitute a rhythm engine. These conditions may be applied equally to molecular processes or musical ones. Furthermore, the energy applied to make a rhythm engine run (ATP in the case of DNA, mechanical energy in the case of music) may vary, and indeed may be intentionally varied. We will call the way in which it is varied its energy profile. The variety of energy profiles is theoretically unlimited. One could, for example, propose an energy profile in which the force is sufficient to travel along the successive H-bonds at a statistically uniform rate, while releasing more energy from a cluster of three than from a cluster of two. If the energy used for this profile were mechanical, the governing algorithm would be converted to a series of stress and unstressed "beats," such that: A=2=unstressed beat (-) C=3=stressed beat (´) G=3=stressed beat (´) T=2=unstressed beat (-) Such an outcome, of course, describes a metrical system of scansion. It should be noted that the observation on the four-base stagger is not founded on comprehensive study, and that staggers occurring after any other number of H-bonds may be common. Nevertheless, the similarity to scansion applies equally to any instance of pauses in the dissociation process. Perhaps the chief virtue of the rhythm engine, and its attending energy profile, is its adaptability. A set of rhythm engines based on close observation of DNA dissociation holds out the promise of generating music as yet unexpressed by other means. (This is especially so given the unique bidirectional nature of DNA dissociation, which has few if any analogues in nature.) By the same token, this field of inquiry may cast new light on genetic processes. For the moment, one implication will suffice. Its seems eminently logical that repetitve DNA sequences would facilitate synchronized breakage of H-bonds, simply because, in such cases, the breakage in both directions will follow a built-in symmetry. In other words, H-bonds, or groups of H-bonds on either side of the origin site will tend to break at the same time and so move toward resonance. Non-repetitive sequneces, on the other hand, will be less likely to fall into sychronization or resonance. By this reasoning, where the DNA strand is attached at its ends, non-repetitive sequences will tend to transmit energy to the attached substance (the nucleus wall, for example) or else be contained as heat, while repetitive sequences will tend to disperse energy into the nucleus itself. This assumption, which is testable, follows the same physics as those involved in engineering a suspension bridge. The distinction bears investigating in relation to coding and non-coding DNA. It is well known that non-coding DNA (so-called because it does not code for protein) tends to be highly repetitive in comparison to coding-DNA. By extension, it is proposed here that the properties of non-coding DNA during dissociation may serve to regulate the energy involved in the processes of replication and transcription. 1. Gena, Peter and Charles Strom. "Musical Synthesis of DNA Sequences," Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Electronic Arts (Sept. 1995). For a description of the author's inquiries into genetic copyrighting and how those inquiries led to this paper, click [1]here. [2]A Thousand Apologies - a sample of music based on these principles. For an explanation of how this track was composed, click [3]here. website devoted to genetic music, run by M.A. Clark of Texas Wesleyan University. Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project [1]CRE Personnel What is the CNMAT Rhythm Engine Project? The CNMAT Rhythm Engine (CRE) software provides a flexible and powerful way for representing, constructing, and performing rhythm-oriented music. It represents rhythmic data using quantized subdivision, continuous time, and/or a mixture of the two by allowing fractional deviations from quantization. It allows readily for the combination of different musical phrases or systems, in series or in parallel, to yield larger musical structures. Such operations may be performed in an editing context (ahead of performance time) or in an improvising context (during performance time). The CRE software may be used to drive synthesizers, samplers, or other sound modules. The software consists of rhythmic data structures, programs that handle the data (e.g. editors, scheduler, players) and a graphical user interface that represents these programs and data visually. Expressive timing One crucial aspect that distinguishes this software from currently commercially available drum machines is the subtle and fine-grained control of rhythmic timing that the software offers. Timing, or rhythmic placement, is just as much an expressive parameter as, say, tone, pitch, or loudness; therefore we treat it on equal footing with these other parameters. We control a note's fine rhythmic placement in the same way that we control its loudness or duration. For example, we can create different kinds of apparent accents by playing notes slightly late (behind the beat) or early (ahead of the beat). All the various musical parameters combine dynamically and subtly in human performance. Small deviations from strict metricity combine with manipulation of tone and loudness to embody what some people call a musician's "feel." The importance of expressive timing in rhythm-oriented music is one of the driving concepts behind this project. Composition and combination techniques Another principal distinguishing trait of this software is its facilitation of non-standard composition techniques. These include making large structures by putting together small "cells," layering different-length rhythmic loops, setting up hierarchies and heterarchies, creating arbitrarily complex composite beat schemes, and most importantly, allowing for improvisatory invention and control of such structures. Applications Here are some possible applications of CRE: * Anything that any standard drum machine does * Automated percussion tracks with "human feel" * A program that takes quantized rhythms as input and outputs the same rhythms with "human feel" * Musical pieces of fixed duration whose component parts are variable (e.g. the 30-second commercial) * Cycling multiple phrases or rhythmic cells with irrationally-related durations * Cycling multiple phrases, starting and stopping any given cycle at will, in real time * Making a program that improvises by "driving around in rhythm-space" based on real-time input or by itself (i.e. machine listening and analysis of rhythmic information, and response or invention according to some combination of generative processes) * Let the user start and stop each node of the MOb tree without altering the tree structure. Please send other ideas, suggestions, or comments to Vijay Iyer, since this list provides checkpoints for the software development. __________________________________________________________________ Page maintained by Vijay Iyer Last modified July 15, 1996 __________________________________________________________________ [2]Up to Vijay's page [3]Up to CNMAT homepage [4]Send mail to the CRE group [5]Send mail to Vijay Iyer Références 4. mailto:cdm@icsi.berkeley.edu 5. mailto:vijay@cnmat.berkeley.edu #[1]Suite101: Arts Education [2]Freelance Writing Jobs | [3]Today's Articles | [4]Sign In [icon_searchfilter_1.gif] ____________________ [5][v4_button_widget_search.png] Articles Writers Find [6]Suite101 Browse Sections [7]Home [8]Education & Career [9]Arts Education [10]Music Education [11]Write For Us » [12]Print Article [13]Subscribe [14]Share Article [15]Jennifer Wagaman Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students Lesson Ideas Involving Rhythm for Young Students [16]Dec 16, 2008 [17]Jennifer Wagaman Be creative and resourceful when teaching kindergarten students about rhythm. [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Teaching rhythm to Kindergarten students can be a fun way to get students moving around the classroom. When writing lesson plans with the objective towards learning rhythm, consider not only the manner in which you teach the students, but which songs would provide the best lesson opportunity, as well as which songs will work for the short attention span the students have. How to Teach Rhythm Use the body demonstrate the beat, also called body percussion, will help students feel the beat and learn the rhythm. This can involve having the students clap, tap, or stomp their feet while singing. This reinforces beat in a tactile manner, and helps the students stay focused on what you are doing. You can also use any opportunity you have to get the students up and moving about the room while singing songs. Although this does take decent [18]classroom management skills, it may also help your student's behavior as they are not required to sit still throughout the class period. What Songs Teach Rhythm Teaching children about rhythm can be a great time to introduce some fun songs. Lessons involving rhythm can be taught with any song that has a steady beat, which basically means that most songs are good to teach rhythm. Pick songs that the students either already know or are easy to teach, as this will ensure that they already know the basic rhythm. Some good songs to use for teaching rhythm include songs like Engine Engine Number Nine, and Skip to My Lou. For Engine Engine Number Nine, after teaching the song, have the students form a train and move around the room to the beat of the train in the song. For Skip to My Lou, have the students walk, march, or skip around the room to the beat of the song. Keep Attention Span in Mind Because a Kindergarten age child has a relatively short attention span, keep your songs short and varied. Do several songs per class period. It is better to do 3 five minute songs, assuming a 20 minute class period, than to spend 15 minutes on one song. So once again, choose songs that are either easy to teach, or that the students are already somewhat familiar with. Do not be afraid to experiment with your class as you teach the concept of rhythm. Reflect on your lesson after you have taught it, decide where there is room for improvement, and work to improve it for the next class you teach it to. You may also be interested in using [19]STOMP to teach rhythm in the classroom. Read more [20]tips for music teachers. The copyright of the article Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in [21]Arts Education is owned by [22]Jennifer Wagaman. Permission to republish Teaching Rhythm to Kindergarten Students in print or online must be granted by the author in writing. [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Ideas for Teaching Rhythm, Mary R. Vogt Ideas for Teaching Rhythm [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [comment_icon_f1.png] What do you think about this article? __________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ NOTE: Because you are not a Suite101 member, your comment will be moderated before it is viewable. post your comment What is 5+5? ______ [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Comments Apr 15, 2009 7:59 AM Guest : I particularly like the idea of reflecting on the lesson after its implementation. Reflection and teaching reflectively should be encouraged among music teachers. Cheers Mark Minott [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] 1 Comment: Related Articles [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [23]Lessons about Sound and Rhythm * [24]Kindergarten Drama Lesson on Expressing Feelings * [25]Teaching Poetry Through Movement, Drama & Art * [26]Enhance Student Reading Skills * [27]Group Music Lessons for Young Children * [28]Syllable Count Poems Lesson * [29]How to Make Fun Butterfly Crafts for Kids [30]more in arts education [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Related Topics [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [31]Music Education * [32]Arts Education Curriculum * [33]Dance Education * [34]Drama Education * [35]Theater Education * [36]Visual Arts Education [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] Reference [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] * [37]how to teach rhythm * [38]teaching rhythm to kindergarten students * [39]lesson ideas for teaching rhythm * [40]what songs will teach rhythm * [41]teaching music to kindergarten students * [42]reflection on how a lesson went [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [rounded_corners_5_fff.png] [43]Enter Suite101.com`s New Tagline Contest
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And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons Ready to be hooked on new religions. Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife. Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life." And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee, Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge, Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton, Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Fly, fly, fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Swim, swim, swim to Daddy Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy, And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life, Of life, of life, of life. Yeah! Yeah! Yeah! Man! Related for [56]Sweet Charity: sheet music [57]Buy Musical Sheet Music cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD dvd [59]Buy Musical DVD Links: [60]Broadway Musicals Lyrics Scroller [61]Add/correct lyrics | [62]Request lyrics | [63]Links | [64]Privacy | [65]Contact us © STLyrics.com 2002 - Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]The Rhythm Of Life / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [7]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [8]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life. Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language, instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as the most graceful. Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ, and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres, and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D, of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last. It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life. Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense, so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature. Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt, thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles, there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks. As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become. When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given. We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely, or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall you receive the best. With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in modern times. Continue to: * prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 Tags [46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics, [51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music, [56]vibration [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [57]TOP [58]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [59]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [60]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [61]StasoSphere [ [62]Privacy Policy ] [ [63]Terms of Use ] [ [64]About Us ] [ [65]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:35:04 2009 Références #[1]top [2]search [3]All news stories [4]Spotlight news only [5]Feature stories [6]Customize feed [7]Science and technology news * [8]Home * [9]Nanotechnology * [10]Physics * [11]Space & Earth * [12]Electronics * [13]Technology * [14]Chemistry * [15]Biology * [16]Medicine & Health * [17]Other Sciences * [18]Psychology & Psychiatry * [19]Research * [20]Medications * [21]Cancer * [22]Genetics * [23]HIV & AIDS * [24]Diseases * [25]Other * [26]Health * [27]Neuroscience Keeping the rhythm of life in sync May 28, 2008 Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or physical stress. The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be too fast, too slow, or irregular. All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal rhythm and not even know it. Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath, swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur because of abnormal heart rhythm. To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by placing electrodes on the skin. Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case, other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart catheterization. Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia. Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some of its pumping function. Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm. Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help restore the rhythm of life. Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs [29]print this article [30]email this article [31]download pdf [32]blog this article [33]bookmark this article [34]Stumble it [35]Digg this [36]share on Facebook [37]retweet [38]share on Reddit [39]add to delicious Rate this story - 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * rank * [40]1 * [41]2 * [42]3 * [43]4 * [44]5 [45]view popular Rank Filter _ (Submit) Filter (Submit) Off Move the slider to adjust rank threshold, so that you can hide some of the comments. Display comments: [46]newest first * [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 1 / 5 (1) "...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life..." Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood through our system of vessels. It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy and thin pipes. It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word "pump" to describe the heart. What about "metronome"? + [48]report abuse + o Current rank o [49]1 o [50]2 o [51]3 o [52]4 o [53]5 * [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 4 / 5 (1) Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong. Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels, and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation. As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick, as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation" or taking a highschool biology class. + [55]report abuse + o Current rank o [56]1 o [57]2 o [58]3 o [59]4 o [60]5 * [61]print * [62]email * [63]pdf * [64]txt * [65]blog * [66]bookmark * [67]aA * [68]Aa May 28, 2008 [69]all stories Comments: [70]2 * rank * [71]1 * [72]2 * [73]3 * [74]4 * [75]5 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * [76]Stumble this up * [77]share on Facebook * * [78]Digg this * [79]retweet * * [80]share this * share on Facebook [81]Facebook * retweet [82]ReTweet * share on MySpace [83]MySpace * share on Slashdot [84]Slashdot * share on Google [85]Google * share on Reddit [86]Reddit * add to delicious [87]Delicious * save to Yahoo! bookmarks [88]Yahoo! bookmarks * share on Windows Live [89]Windows Live * Add to Mixx! 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Rhythm Of Life lyrics (Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus) If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus) Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down (repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade) [phone_left.gif] [109]Send "Rhythm Of Life" Ringtone to your Cell Phone! 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[130]www.lastlocation.com [131][get.media?sid=21908&m=3&tp=7&d=s&c=1] Références [1][LOGO-SVART.gif] [MARKERING-raud-firkant-STOR.gif] A new column written by one of our editors is published every two week _______________ Search [Search entire Voices.] powered by [2]FreeFind [3]Toppbanner [4]Toppbanner [5]Toppbanner [6]Toppbanner [7]Toppbanner May 19, 2008 [*bilde.jpg] 5 most recent columns January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By Diego Schapira December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara Wheeler December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice. By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist. By Helen Oosthuizen Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli () 1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful presence. I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the universe is not threatening for me as before. Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office, when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity arising randomly, above the background sound. Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific scenarios I could never imagine before. 2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome. That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances, making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those dangerous noises. When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands. His sounds were so emotionally intense that their message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards, listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside. My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people, without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds. In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes. Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors' desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist. I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing: the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness necessary for improving quality of life. 3rd Movement: Trio In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea which considers that a good development of each system is possible when there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system. Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with rhythm entrainment and music. As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration. To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes schema to structure and order internal and external events using rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the emotional response to music. Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion, and metaphorical thinking. Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration. Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer, because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory. There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks. And, thus, they can still feel joy. 4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy, particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to train psychologists and physicians in this field. This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music. References Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music: The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers. Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of Illinois. To cite this page: Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Moderated discussion Add your comments and responses to this essay in our Moderated Discussions. Contributions should be e-mailed to either [13]Joke Bradt or [14]Thomas Wosch View contributions on this essay: [yet no contribution] [15]Guidelines for discussions ©2009. VOICES. All rights reserved [16]Site Meter Références Liens visibles 13. javascript:decrypt_and_email(1) 14. javascript:decrypt_and_email(2) Liens cachés : 17. mailto: 18. javascript:decrypt_and_email(25) [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] #[1]About.com [2]Lee's Shakespeare Blog ____________________ (Submit) Search [3]About.com [4]Shakespeare 1. [5]Home 2. [6]Education 3. [7]Shakespeare [8][education_shakespeare;kw=;site=shakespeare;chan=education;pos=lb;sz =728x90;ord=1A1JJ840B20SA0c8m] * [9]Share * * [10]Shakespeare * [11]Shakespeare's Life * [12]Plays * [13]Sonnets * Free Shakespeare Newsletter! ____________________ (Submit) Sign Up * [14]Discuss in my Forum [15]Lee Jamieson Lee's Shakespeare Blog By [16]Lee Jamieson, About.com Guide to Shakespeare * [17]My Bio * [18]My Blog * [19]My Forum Add to: * [20]iGoogle * [21]My Yahoo! * [22]RSS Iambic Pentameter: The Rhythm of Life? Sunday March 22, 2009 [bencrystal.jpg] Does the thought of [23]iambic pentameter terrify you? I remember being baffeled by it at school myself because I got bogged down in counting syllables and working out where the stresses go but, I now know that this is a very technical way of studying iambic pentameter. In later life, Ive grown to love iambic pentameter. Theres something beautiful about it that I cant put my finger on. I know for sure that its in the speaking because on the page it is inert. When you [24]speak those words aloud, they literally jump off the tongue and the rhythm is the easiest of all meters to find. I asked Ben Crystal about this [25]in our interview a few months ago. He said that iambic pentameter is the rhythm of our English language and of our bodies a line of that poetry has the same rhythm as our heartbeat. A line of iambic pentameter fills the human lung perfectly, so its the rhythm of speech. I think this is true. When you [26]learn how to speak verse, you soon discover that its a very instinctive rhythm. Once you relax and go with the flow, it comes naturally. And, strange as it might sound, classic iambic pentameter lines like If music be the food of love, play on and Now is the winter of our discontent do happen to fit a single breath perfectly if spoken with passion. So, if youre having trouble with iambic pentameter, remember that its designed to be spoken, not studied. Open your mouth and speak aloud those great words. Photo of Ben Crystal © Scott Wishart * [27]Comments (2) * [28]See All Posts * [29]Share * [30]Prev * [31]Next [32]Leave a Comment Comments March 30, 2009 at 2:29 pm [33](1) [34]Kent Richmond says: In doing verse translations of five Shakespeare plays, I have had to learn how Shakespeares iambic pentameter works in order to give my translations the feel of the original. One of the beauties of iambic pentameter is that the poet can temporarily relax the meter without violating it. In this series of made-up and rather prosaic lines, the first line is straight-ahead iambic pentameter. The second and third lines, if read independently, are less obviously iambic pentameter, yet they do not violate the rhythm. The fourth line is clearly unmetrical and removes the sense that we are listening to verse. 1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes, 2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. (trochaic start; feminine ending) 3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. (Two spondees to start; feminine ending) 4. Dont you ever hit your little sister. (unmetrical) Shakespeare, at least in the plays I have translated, did not write verse lines with the rhythm of (4). To make this line sound a bit more like Shakespeares iambic pentameter, we need to make a few alterations to line 4. 1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes, 2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. 3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. 4. Dont ever hit that little girl again. To make the whole passage sound like prose, we need to change the first line a little. Then her mother took the kids clothes shopping, planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. Dont you ever hit your little sister. The first and fourth lines now have trochaic feet exposed in the wrong places, and most editors would print such a passage as prose. Shakespeares iambic pentameter certainly places constraints on what rhythms are allowed, yet it allows for flexibility and naturalness. Take a look at George Wrights book titled Shakespeares Metrical Art to see the techniques Shakespeare employed. April 11, 2009 at 8:25 pm [35](2) Dave says: The words literally jump off the tongue? I'd like to see that! 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Références Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics [1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics Browse by soundtrack Search in soundtracks Browse by artist name [2]A [3]B [4]C [5]D [6]E [7]F [8]G [9]H [10]I [11]J [12]K [13]L [14]M [15]N [16]O [17]P [18]Q [19]R [20]S [21]T [22]U [23]V [24]W [25]X [26]Y [27]Z [28]# ____________ Search [29]A [30]B [31]C [32]D [33]E [34]F [35]G [36]H [37]I [38]J [39]K [40]L [41]M [42]N [43]O [44]P [45]Q [46]R [47]S [48]T [49]U [50]V [51]W [52]X [53]Y [54]Z [55]# [0.gif] - Rhythm of Life Lyrics Ensemble: Daddy started out in San Francisco, Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean, Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy, Spread the picture on a wider screen." And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons Ready to be hooked on new religions. Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife. Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life." And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee, Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge, Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton, Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Fly, fly, fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Swim, swim, swim to Daddy Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy, And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life, Of life, of life, of life. Yeah! Yeah! Yeah! Man! Related for [56]Sweet Charity: sheet music [57]Buy Musical Sheet Music cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD dvd [59]Buy Musical DVD Links: [60]Broadway Musicals Lyrics Scroller [61]Add/correct lyrics | [62]Request lyrics | [63]Links | [64]Privacy | [65]Contact us © STLyrics.com 2002 - Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]The Rhythm Of Life / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [7]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [8]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life. Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language, instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as the most graceful. Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ, and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres, and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D, of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last. It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life. Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense, so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature. Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt, thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles, there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks. As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become. When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given. We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely, or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall you receive the best. With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in modern times. Continue to: * prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 Tags [46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics, [51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music, [56]vibration [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [57]TOP [58]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [59]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [60]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [61]StasoSphere [ [62]Privacy Policy ] [ [63]Terms of Use ] [ [64]About Us ] [ [65]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:35:04 2009 Références #[1]top [2]search [3]All news stories [4]Spotlight news only [5]Feature stories [6]Customize feed [7]Science and technology news * [8]Home * [9]Nanotechnology * [10]Physics * [11]Space & Earth * [12]Electronics * [13]Technology * [14]Chemistry * [15]Biology * [16]Medicine & Health * [17]Other Sciences * [18]Psychology & Psychiatry * [19]Research * [20]Medications * [21]Cancer * [22]Genetics * [23]HIV & AIDS * [24]Diseases * [25]Other * [26]Health * [27]Neuroscience Keeping the rhythm of life in sync May 28, 2008 Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or physical stress. The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be too fast, too slow, or irregular. All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal rhythm and not even know it. Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath, swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur because of abnormal heart rhythm. To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by placing electrodes on the skin. Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case, other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart catheterization. Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia. Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some of its pumping function. Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm. Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help restore the rhythm of life. Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs [29]print this article [30]email this article [31]download pdf [32]blog this article [33]bookmark this article [34]Stumble it [35]Digg this [36]share on Facebook [37]retweet [38]share on Reddit [39]add to delicious Rate this story - 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * rank * [40]1 * [41]2 * [42]3 * [43]4 * [44]5 [45]view popular Rank Filter _ (Submit) Filter (Submit) Off Move the slider to adjust rank threshold, so that you can hide some of the comments. Display comments: [46]newest first * [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 1 / 5 (1) "...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life..." Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood through our system of vessels. It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy and thin pipes. It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word "pump" to describe the heart. What about "metronome"? + [48]report abuse + o Current rank o [49]1 o [50]2 o [51]3 o [52]4 o [53]5 * [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 4 / 5 (1) Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong. Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels, and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation. As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick, as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation" or taking a highschool biology class. + [55]report abuse + o Current rank o [56]1 o [57]2 o [58]3 o [59]4 o [60]5 * [61]print * [62]email * [63]pdf * [64]txt * [65]blog * [66]bookmark * [67]aA * [68]Aa May 28, 2008 [69]all stories Comments: [70]2 * rank * [71]1 * [72]2 * [73]3 * [74]4 * [75]5 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * [76]Stumble this up * [77]share on Facebook * * [78]Digg this * [79]retweet * * [80]share this * share on Facebook [81]Facebook * retweet [82]ReTweet * share on MySpace [83]MySpace * share on Slashdot [84]Slashdot * share on Google [85]Google * share on Reddit [86]Reddit * add to delicious [87]Delicious * save to Yahoo! bookmarks [88]Yahoo! bookmarks * share on Windows Live [89]Windows Live * Add to Mixx! 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Rhythm Of Life lyrics (Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus) If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus) Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down (repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade) [phone_left.gif] [109]Send "Rhythm Of Life" Ringtone to your Cell Phone! 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[130]www.lastlocation.com [131][get.media?sid=21908&m=3&tp=7&d=s&c=1] Références [1][LOGO-SVART.gif] [MARKERING-raud-firkant-STOR.gif] A new column written by one of our editors is published every two week _______________ Search [Search entire Voices.] powered by [2]FreeFind [3]Toppbanner [4]Toppbanner [5]Toppbanner [6]Toppbanner [7]Toppbanner May 19, 2008 [*bilde.jpg] 5 most recent columns January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By Diego Schapira December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara Wheeler December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice. By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist. By Helen Oosthuizen Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli () 1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful presence. I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the universe is not threatening for me as before. Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office, when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity arising randomly, above the background sound. Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific scenarios I could never imagine before. 2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome. That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances, making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those dangerous noises. When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands. His sounds were so emotionally intense that their message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards, listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside. My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people, without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds. In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes. Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors' desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist. I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing: the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness necessary for improving quality of life. 3rd Movement: Trio In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea which considers that a good development of each system is possible when there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system. Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with rhythm entrainment and music. As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration. To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes schema to structure and order internal and external events using rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the emotional response to music. Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion, and metaphorical thinking. Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration. Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer, because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory. There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks. And, thus, they can still feel joy. 4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy, particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to train psychologists and physicians in this field. This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music. References Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music: The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers. Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of Illinois. To cite this page: Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Moderated discussion Add your comments and responses to this essay in our Moderated Discussions. Contributions should be e-mailed to either [13]Joke Bradt or [14]Thomas Wosch View contributions on this essay: [yet no contribution] [15]Guidelines for discussions ©2009. VOICES. All rights reserved [16]Site Meter Références Liens visibles 13. javascript:decrypt_and_email(1) 14. javascript:decrypt_and_email(2) Liens cachés : 17. mailto: 18. javascript:decrypt_and_email(25) [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] #[1]About.com [2]Lee's Shakespeare Blog ____________________ (Submit) Search [3]About.com [4]Shakespeare 1. [5]Home 2. [6]Education 3. [7]Shakespeare [8][education_shakespeare;kw=;site=shakespeare;chan=education;pos=lb;sz =728x90;ord=1A1HKZ80M20SA1n0T] * [9]Share * * [10]Shakespeare * [11]Shakespeare's Life * [12]Plays * [13]Sonnets * Free Shakespeare Newsletter! ____________________ (Submit) Sign Up * [14]Discuss in my Forum [15]Lee Jamieson Lee's Shakespeare Blog By [16]Lee Jamieson, About.com Guide to Shakespeare * [17]My Bio * [18]My Blog * [19]My Forum Add to: * [20]iGoogle * [21]My Yahoo! * [22]RSS Iambic Pentameter: The Rhythm of Life? Sunday March 22, 2009 [bencrystal.jpg] Does the thought of [23]iambic pentameter terrify you? I remember being baffeled by it at school myself because I got bogged down in counting syllables and working out where the stresses go but, I now know that this is a very technical way of studying iambic pentameter. In later life, Ive grown to love iambic pentameter. Theres something beautiful about it that I cant put my finger on. I know for sure that its in the speaking because on the page it is inert. When you [24]speak those words aloud, they literally jump off the tongue and the rhythm is the easiest of all meters to find. I asked Ben Crystal about this [25]in our interview a few months ago. He said that iambic pentameter is the rhythm of our English language and of our bodies a line of that poetry has the same rhythm as our heartbeat. A line of iambic pentameter fills the human lung perfectly, so its the rhythm of speech. I think this is true. When you [26]learn how to speak verse, you soon discover that its a very instinctive rhythm. Once you relax and go with the flow, it comes naturally. And, strange as it might sound, classic iambic pentameter lines like If music be the food of love, play on and Now is the winter of our discontent do happen to fit a single breath perfectly if spoken with passion. So, if youre having trouble with iambic pentameter, remember that its designed to be spoken, not studied. Open your mouth and speak aloud those great words. Photo of Ben Crystal © Scott Wishart * [27]Comments (2) * [28]See All Posts * [29]Share * [30]Prev * [31]Next [32]Leave a Comment Comments March 30, 2009 at 2:29 pm [33](1) [34]Kent Richmond says: In doing verse translations of five Shakespeare plays, I have had to learn how Shakespeares iambic pentameter works in order to give my translations the feel of the original. One of the beauties of iambic pentameter is that the poet can temporarily relax the meter without violating it. In this series of made-up and rather prosaic lines, the first line is straight-ahead iambic pentameter. The second and third lines, if read independently, are less obviously iambic pentameter, yet they do not violate the rhythm. The fourth line is clearly unmetrical and removes the sense that we are listening to verse. 1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes, 2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. (trochaic start; feminine ending) 3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. (Two spondees to start; feminine ending) 4. Dont you ever hit your little sister. (unmetrical) Shakespeare, at least in the plays I have translated, did not write verse lines with the rhythm of (4). To make this line sound a bit more like Shakespeares iambic pentameter, we need to make a few alterations to line 4. 1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes, 2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. 3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. 4. Dont ever hit that little girl again. To make the whole passage sound like prose, we need to change the first line a little. Then her mother took the kids clothes shopping, planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. Dont you ever hit your little sister. The first and fourth lines now have trochaic feet exposed in the wrong places, and most editors would print such a passage as prose. Shakespeares iambic pentameter certainly places constraints on what rhythms are allowed, yet it allows for flexibility and naturalness. Take a look at George Wrights book titled Shakespeares Metrical Art to see the techniques Shakespeare employed. April 11, 2009 at 8:25 pm [35](2) Dave says: The words literally jump off the tongue? I'd like to see that! 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[70]More > [71]How to Ace the GRE Being well prepared is the first step; here are more essential suggestions. [72]More > [73]About.com [74]Shakespeare 1. [75]Home 2. [76]Education 3. [77]Shakespeare * [78]Most Popular * [79]Latest Articles Add to: * [80]iGoogle * [81]My Yahoo! * [82]RSS * [83]Advertising Info * [84]News & Events * [85]Work at About * [86]SiteMap * [87]All Topics * [88]Reprints * [89]Help * [90]User Agreement * [91]Ethics Policy * [92]Patent Info. * [93]Privacy Policy * [94]Our Story * [95]Write for About ©2010 About.com, a part of [96]The New York Times Company. All rights reserved. Références Drums games, piano games, guitar games [1]Drums games. Music games Drums online games [2]Drums music machine free online music game [3]Drums player Online music machine [4]Drums map Drum flash movie [5]Music machine Ear music training [6]Drums editor Online drum game Music online games [7]Music Free online game Try to repeat music. [8]Ear training 01 Free music game [9]Piano note Free online teacher [10]Chords piano Write chords. then play the melody. [11]Sound memory Improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it. [12]Draw lessons How to draw free lessons [13]Online games Actions, Shooter, Logic online games [acleardot.gif] [acleardot.gif] What is music rhythm? The music rhythm is the beat. It is the most important element in music. It drives the music forward. It is the gasoline of music. Rhythms can be simple or complicated. Essential music vocabulary Meter It's the way we group the beats. We group eggs by the dozen. We group days by the week. We also group beats into two's or three's. That's meter. Rhythm The beat. The beat can be even or uneven, steady or unsteady. Note Values Long and short sounds in music are represented by notes. White notes have longer sounds than black notes. Tempo This is the speed of the music. Time Signature This is a number that appears at the beginning of the music. The top number tells you how many beats are in each measure (bar) and the bottom number tells you what kind of a note gets one beat. The most common times signatures are 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, and 6/8. Whole music notes These notes are whole notes. Each note is four beats long. Click the image to hear the note value. [14][whole.gif] Half music notes Here are half notes. Did you see the stems? These notes are twice as fast as whole notes. These note are two beats long. Click the image to hear the note value. [15][half.gif] Quarter music notes These notes are black. They are quarter notes. Each quarter note gets one beat. How many beats are in each measure? If you guessed four, you'd be right! Click the image to hear the note value. [16][quarter.gif] Eighth music notes These are eighth notes. Notice how the stems are connected by a beam. These notes move twice as fast as quarter notes. Two note are played for each beat of music. Click the image to hear the note value. [17][eighth_.gif] Combining Note Values In 4/4 time, different note values can be combined in each measure as long as they equal four beats. Click the examples to hear the rhythm patterns: [18][combo2.gif] [19][combo3.gif] [20][combo4.gif] Music tempo Tempo means speed. Musicians use Italian terms for different tempos. Here is a melody fragment. Click the image to hear the tune: [21][example.gif] Click the words below to hear this tune played at different tempos. Slow Medium Fast Largo Largo is the slowest tempo. Adagio Largo means slow or leisurely. Andante Andante means a walking pace. Moderato Moderato is medium. It is not too fast or too slow. Allegro Allegro is fast. It means cheerful in Italian. Vivace Vivace is quick and lively. Presto Presto is very fast. Meter Meter is how we hear the groupings of beats in music. Music will be in an even meter (groupings of 2's or 4's) or an odd meter (groupings of 3's). Even Meters Are Groupings of 2 Beats A [22]march is played in a meter of 2, which makes it an even meter. That means you will hear the beats of the march move in patterns of two's. Odd Meters Are Groupings of 3 Beats A [23]waltz is played in a meter of three, which makes it an odd meter. That means you will hear the beats of the waltz move in patterns of three's. Can you hear meter in music? Click the examples below to identify whether you hear the music moving in groups of two's or three's. [24]Example 1 [25]Example 2 [26]Example 3 [27]Example 4 [28]Example 5 Time Signatures The time signature helps us group the notes so we don't get lost. It's the way we organize beats in music. It's like grouping eggs by the dozen or days by the week. The top number tells us how many beats we can have in one measure. In 4/4 time we have four beats in each measure. What was the time signature in all of all the examples above? Remember this: A beat is not the same thing as a note. Notes can have more or less than one beat. A whole note in 4/4 time has four beats. A half note in 4/4 time has two beats. An eighth note in 4/4 time has just 1/2 beat. It takes two eighth notes to make one beat in 4/4 time. Time signatures and meter: The time signature will tell you the music's meter. If you can divide the top number by two, the music is in an even meter. If you can divide the top number by three, the music is in an odd meter. Let's look at some popular time signatures and see if we can add up the beats in each measure. 4/4 Time (Common Time) [Common_time.gif] Did you notice the number at the beginning of all the examples above? That's the time signature. It's 4/4. That means that there are four beats in each measure and the quarter note gets one beat. This time signature is also called Common Time because it is the most popular time signature in music. Listen to [29]Somewhere Over the Rainbow from The Wizard of Oz. It's in 4/4 time. Each measure equals four beats. It is in an even meter. [30][rainbow.gif] 3/4 Time (Waltz Time) [Three_four.gif] A 3/4 time signature would only have three beats per measure. Here is what it looks like. Listen to [31]America played in 3/4 time. 3/4 is also called waltz time. Did you notice the dots after some of the notes. Dotes make the notes longer. This song is in an odd meter because there are three beats per measure. [32][amaerica.gif] 2/4 Time [Two_four.gif] A 2/4 time signature has just two beats per measure. It looks like this. Listen to [33]You're a Grand Old Flag in 2/4 time. Do you see the line connecting the last two notes. It is called a tie. What is the meter of this song? Look at the time signature for your answer. [34][grand.gif] 6/8 Time [Six_eight.gif] A 6/8 time signature has six beats per measure. The bottom number is 8. This tells you that the eighth note gets one beat. Do you recognize the song [35]Follow the Yellow Brick Road from The Wizard of Oz? It's in 6/8 time. This song goes fast, making it sound like 2/4 rather than 6/8 time. This time signature can sound like an even or odd meter because you can divide 6 by 2 or 3. [36][wizaed.gif] Drums online games * [37]Drums music machine free online game * [38]Drums player online music machine * [39]Restore rhythm online ear training * [40]Drums map movie * [41]Drums editor online game Music piano and guitar online games * [42]Computer play a note pitch ear training. You try to understand it and type c,d,e,f,g... * [43]Computer show a note you try to understand it play keyboard * [44]Music machine ear training * [45]Piano music machine free online game you can compose melody and play it. Try compose melody. This is very easy. * [46]Music free online game. Try to repeat music. * [47]Note pair online game. Find all notes. This game is very useful for music memory improvement. * [48]Notes shooter online game. Try to recognize note as fast as you can. * [49]Piano note free online teacher * [50]Sound memory improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it. * [51]Drag music online game. Compose melody by notes. * [52]Piano note editor. Compose melody. Use mouse for composing. * [53]Find error at the melody online game. The computer play melody then replace one note. Try to find error Music machines * [54]Orchestra quiz online music * [55]Music quiz for kids * [56]Virtual band Music games for kids * [57]Rainbow piano for kids. Computer show the color. Kids need to press correct note. * [58]Can you play jingle bells? Look at the note sheet and play. * [59]Piano keyboard online game. Download piano keyboard movie on to your computer and play. Metronomes and fork * [60]Light metronome online movie * [61]Metronome online movie * [62]Guitar tuning fork its help tune guitar Guitar online games * [63]Guitar music machine * [64]Guitar chord finder * [65]Guitar online chords * [66]Guitar chords * [67]Basic guitar chords and how it * [68]Guitar chords machine with sound * [69]Guitar scales __________________________________________________________________ Free music games [70]AbabaSoft.com/music Copyright © 1998 - Références Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics [1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics Browse by soundtrack Search in soundtracks Browse by artist name [2]A [3]B [4]C [5]D [6]E [7]F [8]G [9]H [10]I [11]J [12]K [13]L [14]M [15]N [16]O [17]P [18]Q [19]R [20]S [21]T [22]U [23]V [24]W [25]X [26]Y [27]Z [28]# ____________ Search [29]A [30]B [31]C [32]D [33]E [34]F [35]G [36]H [37]I [38]J [39]K [40]L [41]M [42]N [43]O [44]P [45]Q [46]R [47]S [48]T [49]U [50]V [51]W [52]X [53]Y [54]Z [55]# [0.gif] - Rhythm of Life Lyrics Ensemble: Daddy started out in San Francisco, Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean, Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy, Spread the picture on a wider screen." And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons Ready to be hooked on new religions. Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife. Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life." And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee, Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge, Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton, Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Fly, fly, fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Swim, swim, swim to Daddy Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy, And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life, Of life, of life, of life. Yeah! Yeah! Yeah! Man! Related for [56]Sweet Charity: sheet music [57]Buy Musical Sheet Music cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD dvd [59]Buy Musical DVD Links: [60]Broadway Musicals Lyrics Scroller [61]Add/correct lyrics | [62]Request lyrics | [63]Links | [64]Privacy | [65]Contact us © STLyrics.com 2002 - Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]The Rhythm Of Life / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [7]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [8]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life. Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language, instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as the most graceful. Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ, and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres, and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D, of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last. It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life. Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense, so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature. Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt, thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles, there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks. As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become. When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given. We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely, or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall you receive the best. With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in modern times. Continue to: * prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 Tags [46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics, [51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music, [56]vibration [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [57]TOP [58]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [59]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [60]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [61]StasoSphere [ [62]Privacy Policy ] [ [63]Terms of Use ] [ [64]About Us ] [ [65]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:35:04 2009 Références #[1]top [2]search [3]All news stories [4]Spotlight news only [5]Feature stories [6]Customize feed [7]Science and technology news * [8]Home * [9]Nanotechnology * [10]Physics * [11]Space & Earth * [12]Electronics * [13]Technology * [14]Chemistry * [15]Biology * [16]Medicine & Health * [17]Other Sciences * [18]Psychology & Psychiatry * [19]Research * [20]Medications * [21]Cancer * [22]Genetics * [23]HIV & AIDS * [24]Diseases * [25]Other * [26]Health * [27]Neuroscience Keeping the rhythm of life in sync May 28, 2008 Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or physical stress. The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be too fast, too slow, or irregular. All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal rhythm and not even know it. Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath, swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur because of abnormal heart rhythm. To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by placing electrodes on the skin. Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case, other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart catheterization. Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia. Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some of its pumping function. Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm. Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help restore the rhythm of life. Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs [29]print this article [30]email this article [31]download pdf [32]blog this article [33]bookmark this article [34]Stumble it [35]Digg this [36]share on Facebook [37]retweet [38]share on Reddit [39]add to delicious Rate this story - 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * rank * [40]1 * [41]2 * [42]3 * [43]4 * [44]5 [45]view popular Rank Filter _ (Submit) Filter (Submit) Off Move the slider to adjust rank threshold, so that you can hide some of the comments. Display comments: [46]newest first * [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 1 / 5 (1) "...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life..." Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood through our system of vessels. It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy and thin pipes. It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word "pump" to describe the heart. What about "metronome"? + [48]report abuse + o Current rank o [49]1 o [50]2 o [51]3 o [52]4 o [53]5 * [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 4 / 5 (1) Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong. Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels, and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation. As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick, as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation" or taking a highschool biology class. + [55]report abuse + o Current rank o [56]1 o [57]2 o [58]3 o [59]4 o [60]5 * [61]print * [62]email * [63]pdf * [64]txt * [65]blog * [66]bookmark * [67]aA * [68]Aa May 28, 2008 [69]all stories Comments: [70]2 * rank * [71]1 * [72]2 * [73]3 * [74]4 * [75]5 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * [76]Stumble this up * [77]share on Facebook * * [78]Digg this * [79]retweet * * [80]share this * share on Facebook [81]Facebook * retweet [82]ReTweet * share on MySpace [83]MySpace * share on Slashdot [84]Slashdot * share on Google [85]Google * share on Reddit [86]Reddit * add to delicious [87]Delicious * save to Yahoo! bookmarks [88]Yahoo! bookmarks * share on Windows Live [89]Windows Live * Add to Mixx! 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Rhythm Of Life lyrics (Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus) If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus) Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down (repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade) [phone_left.gif] [109]Send "Rhythm Of Life" Ringtone to your Cell Phone! 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[130]www.lastlocation.com [131][get.media?sid=21908&m=3&tp=7&d=s&c=1] Références [1][LOGO-SVART.gif] [MARKERING-raud-firkant-STOR.gif] A new column written by one of our editors is published every two week _______________ Search [Search entire Voices.] powered by [2]FreeFind [3]Toppbanner [4]Toppbanner [5]Toppbanner [6]Toppbanner [7]Toppbanner May 19, 2008 [*bilde.jpg] 5 most recent columns January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By Diego Schapira December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara Wheeler December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice. By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist. By Helen Oosthuizen Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli () 1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful presence. I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the universe is not threatening for me as before. Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office, when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity arising randomly, above the background sound. Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific scenarios I could never imagine before. 2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome. That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances, making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those dangerous noises. When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands. His sounds were so emotionally intense that their message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards, listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside. My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people, without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds. In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes. Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors' desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist. I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing: the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness necessary for improving quality of life. 3rd Movement: Trio In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea which considers that a good development of each system is possible when there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system. Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with rhythm entrainment and music. As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration. To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes schema to structure and order internal and external events using rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the emotional response to music. Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion, and metaphorical thinking. Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration. Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer, because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory. There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks. And, thus, they can still feel joy. 4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy, particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to train psychologists and physicians in this field. This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music. References Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music: The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers. Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of Illinois. To cite this page: Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Moderated discussion Add your comments and responses to this essay in our Moderated Discussions. Contributions should be e-mailed to either [13]Joke Bradt or [14]Thomas Wosch View contributions on this essay: [yet no contribution] [15]Guidelines for discussions ©2009. VOICES. All rights reserved [16]Site Meter Références Liens visibles 13. javascript:decrypt_and_email(1) 14. javascript:decrypt_and_email(2) Liens cachés : 17. mailto: 18. javascript:decrypt_and_email(25) [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] #[1]About.com [2]Lee's Shakespeare Blog ____________________ (Submit) Search [3]About.com [4]Shakespeare 1. [5]Home 2. [6]Education 3. [7]Shakespeare [8][education_shakespeare;kw=;site=shakespeare;chan=education;pos=lb;sz =728x90;ord=1A1HKZ80M20SA1n0T] * [9]Share * * [10]Shakespeare * [11]Shakespeare's Life * [12]Plays * [13]Sonnets * Free Shakespeare Newsletter! ____________________ (Submit) Sign Up * [14]Discuss in my Forum [15]Lee Jamieson Lee's Shakespeare Blog By [16]Lee Jamieson, About.com Guide to Shakespeare * [17]My Bio * [18]My Blog * [19]My Forum Add to: * [20]iGoogle * [21]My Yahoo! * [22]RSS Iambic Pentameter: The Rhythm of Life? Sunday March 22, 2009 [bencrystal.jpg] Does the thought of [23]iambic pentameter terrify you? I remember being baffeled by it at school myself because I got bogged down in counting syllables and working out where the stresses go but, I now know that this is a very technical way of studying iambic pentameter. In later life, Ive grown to love iambic pentameter. Theres something beautiful about it that I cant put my finger on. I know for sure that its in the speaking because on the page it is inert. When you [24]speak those words aloud, they literally jump off the tongue and the rhythm is the easiest of all meters to find. I asked Ben Crystal about this [25]in our interview a few months ago. He said that iambic pentameter is the rhythm of our English language and of our bodies a line of that poetry has the same rhythm as our heartbeat. A line of iambic pentameter fills the human lung perfectly, so its the rhythm of speech. I think this is true. When you [26]learn how to speak verse, you soon discover that its a very instinctive rhythm. Once you relax and go with the flow, it comes naturally. And, strange as it might sound, classic iambic pentameter lines like If music be the food of love, play on and Now is the winter of our discontent do happen to fit a single breath perfectly if spoken with passion. So, if youre having trouble with iambic pentameter, remember that its designed to be spoken, not studied. Open your mouth and speak aloud those great words. Photo of Ben Crystal © Scott Wishart * [27]Comments (2) * [28]See All Posts * [29]Share * [30]Prev * [31]Next [32]Leave a Comment Comments March 30, 2009 at 2:29 pm [33](1) [34]Kent Richmond says: In doing verse translations of five Shakespeare plays, I have had to learn how Shakespeares iambic pentameter works in order to give my translations the feel of the original. One of the beauties of iambic pentameter is that the poet can temporarily relax the meter without violating it. In this series of made-up and rather prosaic lines, the first line is straight-ahead iambic pentameter. The second and third lines, if read independently, are less obviously iambic pentameter, yet they do not violate the rhythm. The fourth line is clearly unmetrical and removes the sense that we are listening to verse. 1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes, 2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. (trochaic start; feminine ending) 3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. (Two spondees to start; feminine ending) 4. Dont you ever hit your little sister. (unmetrical) Shakespeare, at least in the plays I have translated, did not write verse lines with the rhythm of (4). To make this line sound a bit more like Shakespeares iambic pentameter, we need to make a few alterations to line 4. 1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes, 2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. 3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. 4. Dont ever hit that little girl again. To make the whole passage sound like prose, we need to change the first line a little. Then her mother took the kids clothes shopping, planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. Dont you ever hit your little sister. The first and fourth lines now have trochaic feet exposed in the wrong places, and most editors would print such a passage as prose. Shakespeares iambic pentameter certainly places constraints on what rhythms are allowed, yet it allows for flexibility and naturalness. Take a look at George Wrights book titled Shakespeares Metrical Art to see the techniques Shakespeare employed. April 11, 2009 at 8:25 pm [35](2) Dave says: The words literally jump off the tongue? I'd like to see that! 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[70]More > [71]How to Ace the GRE Being well prepared is the first step; here are more essential suggestions. [72]More > [73]About.com [74]Shakespeare 1. [75]Home 2. [76]Education 3. [77]Shakespeare * [78]Most Popular * [79]Latest Articles Add to: * [80]iGoogle * [81]My Yahoo! * [82]RSS * [83]Advertising Info * [84]News & Events * [85]Work at About * [86]SiteMap * [87]All Topics * [88]Reprints * [89]Help * [90]User Agreement * [91]Ethics Policy * [92]Patent Info. * [93]Privacy Policy * [94]Our Story * [95]Write for About ©2010 About.com, a part of [96]The New York Times Company. All rights reserved. Références Drums games, piano games, guitar games [1]Drums games. Music games Drums online games [2]Drums music machine free online music game [3]Drums player Online music machine [4]Drums map Drum flash movie [5]Music machine Ear music training [6]Drums editor Online drum game Music online games [7]Music Free online game Try to repeat music. [8]Ear training 01 Free music game [9]Piano note Free online teacher [10]Chords piano Write chords. then play the melody. [11]Sound memory Improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it. [12]Draw lessons How to draw free lessons [13]Online games Actions, Shooter, Logic online games [acleardot.gif] [acleardot.gif] What is music rhythm? The music rhythm is the beat. It is the most important element in music. It drives the music forward. It is the gasoline of music. Rhythms can be simple or complicated. Essential music vocabulary Meter It's the way we group the beats. We group eggs by the dozen. We group days by the week. We also group beats into two's or three's. That's meter. Rhythm The beat. The beat can be even or uneven, steady or unsteady. Note Values Long and short sounds in music are represented by notes. White notes have longer sounds than black notes. Tempo This is the speed of the music. Time Signature This is a number that appears at the beginning of the music. The top number tells you how many beats are in each measure (bar) and the bottom number tells you what kind of a note gets one beat. The most common times signatures are 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, and 6/8. Whole music notes These notes are whole notes. Each note is four beats long. Click the image to hear the note value. [14][whole.gif] Half music notes Here are half notes. Did you see the stems? These notes are twice as fast as whole notes. These note are two beats long. Click the image to hear the note value. [15][half.gif] Quarter music notes These notes are black. They are quarter notes. Each quarter note gets one beat. How many beats are in each measure? If you guessed four, you'd be right! Click the image to hear the note value. [16][quarter.gif] Eighth music notes These are eighth notes. Notice how the stems are connected by a beam. These notes move twice as fast as quarter notes. Two note are played for each beat of music. Click the image to hear the note value. [17][eighth_.gif] Combining Note Values In 4/4 time, different note values can be combined in each measure as long as they equal four beats. Click the examples to hear the rhythm patterns: [18][combo2.gif] [19][combo3.gif] [20][combo4.gif] Music tempo Tempo means speed. Musicians use Italian terms for different tempos. Here is a melody fragment. Click the image to hear the tune: [21][example.gif] Click the words below to hear this tune played at different tempos. Slow Medium Fast Largo Largo is the slowest tempo. Adagio Largo means slow or leisurely. Andante Andante means a walking pace. Moderato Moderato is medium. It is not too fast or too slow. Allegro Allegro is fast. It means cheerful in Italian. Vivace Vivace is quick and lively. Presto Presto is very fast. Meter Meter is how we hear the groupings of beats in music. Music will be in an even meter (groupings of 2's or 4's) or an odd meter (groupings of 3's). Even Meters Are Groupings of 2 Beats A [22]march is played in a meter of 2, which makes it an even meter. That means you will hear the beats of the march move in patterns of two's. Odd Meters Are Groupings of 3 Beats A [23]waltz is played in a meter of three, which makes it an odd meter. That means you will hear the beats of the waltz move in patterns of three's. Can you hear meter in music? Click the examples below to identify whether you hear the music moving in groups of two's or three's. [24]Example 1 [25]Example 2 [26]Example 3 [27]Example 4 [28]Example 5 Time Signatures The time signature helps us group the notes so we don't get lost. It's the way we organize beats in music. It's like grouping eggs by the dozen or days by the week. The top number tells us how many beats we can have in one measure. In 4/4 time we have four beats in each measure. What was the time signature in all of all the examples above? Remember this: A beat is not the same thing as a note. Notes can have more or less than one beat. A whole note in 4/4 time has four beats. A half note in 4/4 time has two beats. An eighth note in 4/4 time has just 1/2 beat. It takes two eighth notes to make one beat in 4/4 time. Time signatures and meter: The time signature will tell you the music's meter. If you can divide the top number by two, the music is in an even meter. If you can divide the top number by three, the music is in an odd meter. Let's look at some popular time signatures and see if we can add up the beats in each measure. 4/4 Time (Common Time) [Common_time.gif] Did you notice the number at the beginning of all the examples above? That's the time signature. It's 4/4. That means that there are four beats in each measure and the quarter note gets one beat. This time signature is also called Common Time because it is the most popular time signature in music. Listen to [29]Somewhere Over the Rainbow from The Wizard of Oz. It's in 4/4 time. Each measure equals four beats. It is in an even meter. [30][rainbow.gif] 3/4 Time (Waltz Time) [Three_four.gif] A 3/4 time signature would only have three beats per measure. Here is what it looks like. Listen to [31]America played in 3/4 time. 3/4 is also called waltz time. Did you notice the dots after some of the notes. Dotes make the notes longer. This song is in an odd meter because there are three beats per measure. [32][amaerica.gif] 2/4 Time [Two_four.gif] A 2/4 time signature has just two beats per measure. It looks like this. Listen to [33]You're a Grand Old Flag in 2/4 time. Do you see the line connecting the last two notes. It is called a tie. What is the meter of this song? Look at the time signature for your answer. [34][grand.gif] 6/8 Time [Six_eight.gif] A 6/8 time signature has six beats per measure. The bottom number is 8. This tells you that the eighth note gets one beat. Do you recognize the song [35]Follow the Yellow Brick Road from The Wizard of Oz? It's in 6/8 time. This song goes fast, making it sound like 2/4 rather than 6/8 time. This time signature can sound like an even or odd meter because you can divide 6 by 2 or 3. [36][wizaed.gif] Drums online games * [37]Drums music machine free online game * [38]Drums player online music machine * [39]Restore rhythm online ear training * [40]Drums map movie * [41]Drums editor online game Music piano and guitar online games * [42]Computer play a note pitch ear training. You try to understand it and type c,d,e,f,g... * [43]Computer show a note you try to understand it play keyboard * [44]Music machine ear training * [45]Piano music machine free online game you can compose melody and play it. Try compose melody. This is very easy. * [46]Music free online game. Try to repeat music. * [47]Note pair online game. Find all notes. This game is very useful for music memory improvement. * [48]Notes shooter online game. Try to recognize note as fast as you can. * [49]Piano note free online teacher * [50]Sound memory improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it. * [51]Drag music online game. Compose melody by notes. * [52]Piano note editor. Compose melody. Use mouse for composing. * [53]Find error at the melody online game. The computer play melody then replace one note. Try to find error Music machines * [54]Orchestra quiz online music * [55]Music quiz for kids * [56]Virtual band Music games for kids * [57]Rainbow piano for kids. Computer show the color. Kids need to press correct note. * [58]Can you play jingle bells? Look at the note sheet and play. * [59]Piano keyboard online game. Download piano keyboard movie on to your computer and play. Metronomes and fork * [60]Light metronome online movie * [61]Metronome online movie * [62]Guitar tuning fork its help tune guitar Guitar online games * [63]Guitar music machine * [64]Guitar chord finder * [65]Guitar online chords * [66]Guitar chords * [67]Basic guitar chords and how it * [68]Guitar chords machine with sound * [69]Guitar scales __________________________________________________________________ Free music games [70]AbabaSoft.com/music Copyright © 1998 - Références [1]CAT.INIST [2][USEMAP:bandeau-haut-droit.gif] logo CNRS [3]logo INIST [4]En savoir plus sur CAT.INIST ? © INIST Diffusion S.A. Service Clients / Customer Service 2, allée du parc de Brabois F-54514 Vandoeuvre Cedex France Tél : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.64 Fax : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.66 Courriel : [5]infoclient@inist.fr [6]Accueil / Home Imprimer / Print [7]Contact / Contact Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [8]Bookmark and Share [9]Mendeley Titre du document / Document title Effects of pre-exercise listening to slow and fast rhythm music on supramaximal cycle performance and selected metabolic variables Auteur(s) / Author(s) YAMAMOTO T.^ (1) ; OHKUWA T.^ (2) ; ITOH H.^ (2) ; KITOH M.^ (3) ; TERASAWA J.^ (3) ; TSUDA T.^ (3) ; KITAGAWA S.^ (3) ; SATO Y.^ (1) ; Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s) ^(1) Research Center of Health, Physical Fitness and Sports, Nagoya University, 464-8601, JAPON ^(2) Department of General studies, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON ^(3) Department of Applied Chemistry, Nagoya Institute of Technology, Showa-ku, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON Résumé / Abstract We examined the effect of listening to two different types of music (with slow and fast rhythm), prior to supramaximal cycle exercise, on performance, heart rate, the concentration of lactate and ammonia in blood, and the concentration of catecholamines in plasma. Six male students participated in this study. After listening to slow rhythm or fast rhythm music for 20 min, the subjects performed supramaximal exercise for 45 s using a cycle ergometer. Listening to slow and fast rhythm music prior to supramaximal exercise did not significantly affect the mean power output. The plasma norepinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to slow rhythm music was significantly lower than before listening (p < 0.05). The plasma epinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to fast rhythm music was significantly higher than before listening (p < 0.05). The type of music had no effect on blood lactate and ammonia levels or on plasma catecholamine levels following exercise. In conclusion, listening to slow rhythm music decreases the plasma norepinephrine level, and listening to fast rhythm music increases the plasma epinephrine level. The type of music has no impact on power output during exercise. Revue / Journal Title Archives of physiology and biochemistry ISSN 1381-3455 Source / Source 2003, vol. 111, n^o3, pp. 211-214 [4 page(s) (article)] (14 ref.) Langue / Language Anglais Revue : Français Editeur / Publisher Taylor & Francis, Basingstoke, ROYAUME-UNI (1995) (Revue) Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords Dopamine agonist ; Neurotransmitter ; Catecholamine ; Human ; Bicycle ergometer ; Music ; Rhythm ; Dopamine ; Norepinephrine ; Epinephrine ; Physical performance ; Heart rate ; Physical exercise ; Mots-clés français / French Keywords Stimulant dopaminergique ; Neurotransmetteur ; Catécholamine ; Homme ; Bicyclette ergométrique ; Musique ; Rythme ; Dopamine ; Noradrénaline ; Adrénaline ; Performance physique ; Rythme cardiaque ; Exercice physique ; Mots-clés espagnols / Spanish Keywords Estimulante dopaminérgico ; Neurotransmisor ; Catecolamina ; Hombre ; Bicicleta ergométrica ; Música ; Ritmo ; Dopamina ; Noradrenalina ; Adrenalina ; Rendimiento físico ; Ritmo cardíaco ; Ejercicio físico ; Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords Slow music ; fast music ; epinephrine ; norepinephrine ; dopamine ; supramaximal exercise ; power output ; lactate ; ammonia ; heart rate ; Localisation / Location INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 827, 35400011637312.0030 Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 15397711 Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [10]Bookmark and Share [11]Mendeley CAT.INIST Rechercher / Search _______________________________ OK Références 5. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20CAT.INIST.FR 7. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20Cat@inist.fr [USEMAP] Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics [1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics Browse by soundtrack Search in soundtracks Browse by artist name [2]A [3]B [4]C [5]D [6]E [7]F [8]G [9]H [10]I [11]J [12]K [13]L [14]M [15]N [16]O [17]P [18]Q [19]R [20]S [21]T [22]U [23]V [24]W [25]X [26]Y [27]Z [28]# ____________ Search [29]A [30]B [31]C [32]D [33]E [34]F [35]G [36]H [37]I [38]J [39]K [40]L [41]M [42]N [43]O [44]P [45]Q [46]R [47]S [48]T [49]U [50]V [51]W [52]X [53]Y [54]Z [55]# [0.gif] - Rhythm of Life Lyrics Ensemble: Daddy started out in San Francisco, Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean, Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy, Spread the picture on a wider screen." And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons Ready to be hooked on new religions. Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife. Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life." And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee, Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge, Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton, Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Fly, fly, fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Swim, swim, swim to Daddy Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy, And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life, Of life, of life, of life. Yeah! Yeah! Yeah! Man! Related for [56]Sweet Charity: sheet music [57]Buy Musical Sheet Music cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD dvd [59]Buy Musical DVD Links: [60]Broadway Musicals Lyrics Scroller [61]Add/correct lyrics | [62]Request lyrics | [63]Links | [64]Privacy | [65]Contact us © STLyrics.com 2002 - Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]The Rhythm Of Life / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [7]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [8]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life. Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language, instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as the most graceful. Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ, and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres, and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D, of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last. It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life. Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense, so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature. Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt, thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles, there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks. As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become. When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given. We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely, or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall you receive the best. With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in modern times. Continue to: * prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 Tags [46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics, [51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music, [56]vibration [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [57]TOP [58]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [59]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [60]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [61]StasoSphere [ [62]Privacy Policy ] [ [63]Terms of Use ] [ [64]About Us ] [ [65]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:35:04 2009 Références #[1]top [2]search [3]All news stories [4]Spotlight news only [5]Feature stories [6]Customize feed [7]Science and technology news * [8]Home * [9]Nanotechnology * [10]Physics * [11]Space & Earth * [12]Electronics * [13]Technology * [14]Chemistry * [15]Biology * [16]Medicine & Health * [17]Other Sciences * [18]Psychology & Psychiatry * [19]Research * [20]Medications * [21]Cancer * [22]Genetics * [23]HIV & AIDS * [24]Diseases * [25]Other * [26]Health * [27]Neuroscience Keeping the rhythm of life in sync May 28, 2008 Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or physical stress. The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be too fast, too slow, or irregular. All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal rhythm and not even know it. Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath, swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur because of abnormal heart rhythm. To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by placing electrodes on the skin. Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case, other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart catheterization. Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia. Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some of its pumping function. Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm. Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help restore the rhythm of life. Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs [29]print this article [30]email this article [31]download pdf [32]blog this article [33]bookmark this article [34]Stumble it [35]Digg this [36]share on Facebook [37]retweet [38]share on Reddit [39]add to delicious Rate this story - 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * rank * [40]1 * [41]2 * [42]3 * [43]4 * [44]5 [45]view popular Rank Filter _ (Submit) Filter (Submit) Off Move the slider to adjust rank threshold, so that you can hide some of the comments. Display comments: [46]newest first * [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 1 / 5 (1) "...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life..." Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood through our system of vessels. It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy and thin pipes. It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word "pump" to describe the heart. What about "metronome"? + [48]report abuse + o Current rank o [49]1 o [50]2 o [51]3 o [52]4 o [53]5 * [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 4 / 5 (1) Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong. Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels, and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation. As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick, as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation" or taking a highschool biology class. + [55]report abuse + o Current rank o [56]1 o [57]2 o [58]3 o [59]4 o [60]5 * [61]print * [62]email * [63]pdf * [64]txt * [65]blog * [66]bookmark * [67]aA * [68]Aa May 28, 2008 [69]all stories Comments: [70]2 * rank * [71]1 * [72]2 * [73]3 * [74]4 * [75]5 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * [76]Stumble this up * [77]share on Facebook * * [78]Digg this * [79]retweet * * [80]share this * share on Facebook [81]Facebook * retweet [82]ReTweet * share on MySpace [83]MySpace * share on Slashdot [84]Slashdot * share on Google [85]Google * share on Reddit [86]Reddit * add to delicious [87]Delicious * save to Yahoo! bookmarks [88]Yahoo! bookmarks * share on Windows Live [89]Windows Live * Add to Mixx! 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Rhythm Of Life lyrics (Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus) If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus) Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down (repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade) [phone_left.gif] [109]Send "Rhythm Of Life" Ringtone to your Cell Phone! 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[130]www.lastlocation.com [131][get.media?sid=21908&m=3&tp=7&d=s&c=1] Références [1][LOGO-SVART.gif] [MARKERING-raud-firkant-STOR.gif] A new column written by one of our editors is published every two week _______________ Search [Search entire Voices.] powered by [2]FreeFind [3]Toppbanner [4]Toppbanner [5]Toppbanner [6]Toppbanner [7]Toppbanner May 19, 2008 [*bilde.jpg] 5 most recent columns January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By Diego Schapira December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara Wheeler December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice. By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist. By Helen Oosthuizen Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli () 1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful presence. I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the universe is not threatening for me as before. Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office, when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity arising randomly, above the background sound. Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific scenarios I could never imagine before. 2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome. That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances, making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those dangerous noises. When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands. His sounds were so emotionally intense that their message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards, listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside. My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people, without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds. In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes. Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors' desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist. I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing: the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness necessary for improving quality of life. 3rd Movement: Trio In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea which considers that a good development of each system is possible when there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system. Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with rhythm entrainment and music. As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration. To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes schema to structure and order internal and external events using rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the emotional response to music. Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion, and metaphorical thinking. Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration. Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer, because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory. There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks. And, thus, they can still feel joy. 4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy, particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to train psychologists and physicians in this field. This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music. References Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music: The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers. Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of Illinois. To cite this page: Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Moderated discussion Add your comments and responses to this essay in our Moderated Discussions. Contributions should be e-mailed to either [13]Joke Bradt or [14]Thomas Wosch View contributions on this essay: [yet no contribution] [15]Guidelines for discussions ©2009. VOICES. All rights reserved [16]Site Meter Références Liens visibles 13. javascript:decrypt_and_email(1) 14. javascript:decrypt_and_email(2) Liens cachés : 17. mailto: 18. javascript:decrypt_and_email(25) [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] #[1]About.com [2]Lee's Shakespeare Blog ____________________ (Submit) Search [3]About.com [4]Shakespeare 1. [5]Home 2. [6]Education 3. [7]Shakespeare [8][education_shakespeare;kw=;site=shakespeare;chan=education;pos=lb;sz =728x90;ord=1A1HKZ80M20SA1n0T] * [9]Share * * [10]Shakespeare * [11]Shakespeare's Life * [12]Plays * [13]Sonnets * Free Shakespeare Newsletter! ____________________ (Submit) Sign Up * [14]Discuss in my Forum [15]Lee Jamieson Lee's Shakespeare Blog By [16]Lee Jamieson, About.com Guide to Shakespeare * [17]My Bio * [18]My Blog * [19]My Forum Add to: * [20]iGoogle * [21]My Yahoo! * [22]RSS Iambic Pentameter: The Rhythm of Life? Sunday March 22, 2009 [bencrystal.jpg] Does the thought of [23]iambic pentameter terrify you? I remember being baffeled by it at school myself because I got bogged down in counting syllables and working out where the stresses go but, I now know that this is a very technical way of studying iambic pentameter. In later life, Ive grown to love iambic pentameter. Theres something beautiful about it that I cant put my finger on. I know for sure that its in the speaking because on the page it is inert. When you [24]speak those words aloud, they literally jump off the tongue and the rhythm is the easiest of all meters to find. I asked Ben Crystal about this [25]in our interview a few months ago. He said that iambic pentameter is the rhythm of our English language and of our bodies a line of that poetry has the same rhythm as our heartbeat. A line of iambic pentameter fills the human lung perfectly, so its the rhythm of speech. I think this is true. When you [26]learn how to speak verse, you soon discover that its a very instinctive rhythm. Once you relax and go with the flow, it comes naturally. And, strange as it might sound, classic iambic pentameter lines like If music be the food of love, play on and Now is the winter of our discontent do happen to fit a single breath perfectly if spoken with passion. So, if youre having trouble with iambic pentameter, remember that its designed to be spoken, not studied. Open your mouth and speak aloud those great words. Photo of Ben Crystal © Scott Wishart * [27]Comments (2) * [28]See All Posts * [29]Share * [30]Prev * [31]Next [32]Leave a Comment Comments March 30, 2009 at 2:29 pm [33](1) [34]Kent Richmond says: In doing verse translations of five Shakespeare plays, I have had to learn how Shakespeares iambic pentameter works in order to give my translations the feel of the original. One of the beauties of iambic pentameter is that the poet can temporarily relax the meter without violating it. In this series of made-up and rather prosaic lines, the first line is straight-ahead iambic pentameter. The second and third lines, if read independently, are less obviously iambic pentameter, yet they do not violate the rhythm. The fourth line is clearly unmetrical and removes the sense that we are listening to verse. 1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes, 2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. (trochaic start; feminine ending) 3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. (Two spondees to start; feminine ending) 4. Dont you ever hit your little sister. (unmetrical) Shakespeare, at least in the plays I have translated, did not write verse lines with the rhythm of (4). To make this line sound a bit more like Shakespeares iambic pentameter, we need to make a few alterations to line 4. 1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes, 2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. 3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. 4. Dont ever hit that little girl again. To make the whole passage sound like prose, we need to change the first line a little. Then her mother took the kids clothes shopping, planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. Dont you ever hit your little sister. The first and fourth lines now have trochaic feet exposed in the wrong places, and most editors would print such a passage as prose. Shakespeares iambic pentameter certainly places constraints on what rhythms are allowed, yet it allows for flexibility and naturalness. Take a look at George Wrights book titled Shakespeares Metrical Art to see the techniques Shakespeare employed. April 11, 2009 at 8:25 pm [35](2) Dave says: The words literally jump off the tongue? I'd like to see that! 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[8]Ear training 01 Free music game [9]Piano note Free online teacher [10]Chords piano Write chords. then play the melody. [11]Sound memory Improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it. [12]Draw lessons How to draw free lessons [13]Online games Actions, Shooter, Logic online games [acleardot.gif] [acleardot.gif] What is music rhythm? The music rhythm is the beat. It is the most important element in music. It drives the music forward. It is the gasoline of music. Rhythms can be simple or complicated. Essential music vocabulary Meter It's the way we group the beats. We group eggs by the dozen. We group days by the week. We also group beats into two's or three's. That's meter. Rhythm The beat. The beat can be even or uneven, steady or unsteady. Note Values Long and short sounds in music are represented by notes. White notes have longer sounds than black notes. Tempo This is the speed of the music. Time Signature This is a number that appears at the beginning of the music. The top number tells you how many beats are in each measure (bar) and the bottom number tells you what kind of a note gets one beat. The most common times signatures are 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, and 6/8. Whole music notes These notes are whole notes. Each note is four beats long. Click the image to hear the note value. [14][whole.gif] Half music notes Here are half notes. Did you see the stems? These notes are twice as fast as whole notes. These note are two beats long. Click the image to hear the note value. [15][half.gif] Quarter music notes These notes are black. They are quarter notes. Each quarter note gets one beat. How many beats are in each measure? If you guessed four, you'd be right! Click the image to hear the note value. [16][quarter.gif] Eighth music notes These are eighth notes. Notice how the stems are connected by a beam. These notes move twice as fast as quarter notes. Two note are played for each beat of music. Click the image to hear the note value. [17][eighth_.gif] Combining Note Values In 4/4 time, different note values can be combined in each measure as long as they equal four beats. Click the examples to hear the rhythm patterns: [18][combo2.gif] [19][combo3.gif] [20][combo4.gif] Music tempo Tempo means speed. Musicians use Italian terms for different tempos. Here is a melody fragment. Click the image to hear the tune: [21][example.gif] Click the words below to hear this tune played at different tempos. Slow Medium Fast Largo Largo is the slowest tempo. Adagio Largo means slow or leisurely. Andante Andante means a walking pace. Moderato Moderato is medium. It is not too fast or too slow. Allegro Allegro is fast. It means cheerful in Italian. Vivace Vivace is quick and lively. Presto Presto is very fast. Meter Meter is how we hear the groupings of beats in music. Music will be in an even meter (groupings of 2's or 4's) or an odd meter (groupings of 3's). Even Meters Are Groupings of 2 Beats A [22]march is played in a meter of 2, which makes it an even meter. That means you will hear the beats of the march move in patterns of two's. Odd Meters Are Groupings of 3 Beats A [23]waltz is played in a meter of three, which makes it an odd meter. That means you will hear the beats of the waltz move in patterns of three's. Can you hear meter in music? Click the examples below to identify whether you hear the music moving in groups of two's or three's. [24]Example 1 [25]Example 2 [26]Example 3 [27]Example 4 [28]Example 5 Time Signatures The time signature helps us group the notes so we don't get lost. It's the way we organize beats in music. It's like grouping eggs by the dozen or days by the week. The top number tells us how many beats we can have in one measure. In 4/4 time we have four beats in each measure. What was the time signature in all of all the examples above? Remember this: A beat is not the same thing as a note. Notes can have more or less than one beat. A whole note in 4/4 time has four beats. A half note in 4/4 time has two beats. An eighth note in 4/4 time has just 1/2 beat. It takes two eighth notes to make one beat in 4/4 time. Time signatures and meter: The time signature will tell you the music's meter. If you can divide the top number by two, the music is in an even meter. If you can divide the top number by three, the music is in an odd meter. Let's look at some popular time signatures and see if we can add up the beats in each measure. 4/4 Time (Common Time) [Common_time.gif] Did you notice the number at the beginning of all the examples above? That's the time signature. It's 4/4. That means that there are four beats in each measure and the quarter note gets one beat. This time signature is also called Common Time because it is the most popular time signature in music. Listen to [29]Somewhere Over the Rainbow from The Wizard of Oz. It's in 4/4 time. Each measure equals four beats. It is in an even meter. [30][rainbow.gif] 3/4 Time (Waltz Time) [Three_four.gif] A 3/4 time signature would only have three beats per measure. Here is what it looks like. Listen to [31]America played in 3/4 time. 3/4 is also called waltz time. Did you notice the dots after some of the notes. Dotes make the notes longer. This song is in an odd meter because there are three beats per measure. [32][amaerica.gif] 2/4 Time [Two_four.gif] A 2/4 time signature has just two beats per measure. It looks like this. Listen to [33]You're a Grand Old Flag in 2/4 time. Do you see the line connecting the last two notes. It is called a tie. What is the meter of this song? Look at the time signature for your answer. [34][grand.gif] 6/8 Time [Six_eight.gif] A 6/8 time signature has six beats per measure. The bottom number is 8. This tells you that the eighth note gets one beat. Do you recognize the song [35]Follow the Yellow Brick Road from The Wizard of Oz? It's in 6/8 time. This song goes fast, making it sound like 2/4 rather than 6/8 time. This time signature can sound like an even or odd meter because you can divide 6 by 2 or 3. [36][wizaed.gif] Drums online games * [37]Drums music machine free online game * [38]Drums player online music machine * [39]Restore rhythm online ear training * [40]Drums map movie * [41]Drums editor online game Music piano and guitar online games * [42]Computer play a note pitch ear training. You try to understand it and type c,d,e,f,g... * [43]Computer show a note you try to understand it play keyboard * [44]Music machine ear training * [45]Piano music machine free online game you can compose melody and play it. Try compose melody. This is very easy. * [46]Music free online game. Try to repeat music. * [47]Note pair online game. Find all notes. This game is very useful for music memory improvement. * [48]Notes shooter online game. Try to recognize note as fast as you can. * [49]Piano note free online teacher * [50]Sound memory improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it. * [51]Drag music online game. Compose melody by notes. * [52]Piano note editor. Compose melody. Use mouse for composing. * [53]Find error at the melody online game. The computer play melody then replace one note. Try to find error Music machines * [54]Orchestra quiz online music * [55]Music quiz for kids * [56]Virtual band Music games for kids * [57]Rainbow piano for kids. Computer show the color. Kids need to press correct note. * [58]Can you play jingle bells? Look at the note sheet and play. * [59]Piano keyboard online game. Download piano keyboard movie on to your computer and play. Metronomes and fork * [60]Light metronome online movie * [61]Metronome online movie * [62]Guitar tuning fork its help tune guitar Guitar online games * [63]Guitar music machine * [64]Guitar chord finder * [65]Guitar online chords * [66]Guitar chords * [67]Basic guitar chords and how it * [68]Guitar chords machine with sound * [69]Guitar scales __________________________________________________________________ Free music games [70]AbabaSoft.com/music Copyright © 1998 - Références [1]CAT.INIST [2][USEMAP:bandeau-haut-droit.gif] logo CNRS [3]logo INIST [4]En savoir plus sur CAT.INIST ? © INIST Diffusion S.A. Service Clients / Customer Service 2, allée du parc de Brabois F-54514 Vandoeuvre Cedex France Tél : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.64 Fax : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.66 Courriel : [5]infoclient@inist.fr [6]Accueil / Home Imprimer / Print [7]Contact / Contact Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [8]Bookmark and Share [9]Mendeley Titre du document / Document title Effects of pre-exercise listening to slow and fast rhythm music on supramaximal cycle performance and selected metabolic variables Auteur(s) / Author(s) YAMAMOTO T.^ (1) ; OHKUWA T.^ (2) ; ITOH H.^ (2) ; KITOH M.^ (3) ; TERASAWA J.^ (3) ; TSUDA T.^ (3) ; KITAGAWA S.^ (3) ; SATO Y.^ (1) ; Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s) ^(1) Research Center of Health, Physical Fitness and Sports, Nagoya University, 464-8601, JAPON ^(2) Department of General studies, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON ^(3) Department of Applied Chemistry, Nagoya Institute of Technology, Showa-ku, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON Résumé / Abstract We examined the effect of listening to two different types of music (with slow and fast rhythm), prior to supramaximal cycle exercise, on performance, heart rate, the concentration of lactate and ammonia in blood, and the concentration of catecholamines in plasma. Six male students participated in this study. After listening to slow rhythm or fast rhythm music for 20 min, the subjects performed supramaximal exercise for 45 s using a cycle ergometer. Listening to slow and fast rhythm music prior to supramaximal exercise did not significantly affect the mean power output. The plasma norepinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to slow rhythm music was significantly lower than before listening (p < 0.05). The plasma epinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to fast rhythm music was significantly higher than before listening (p < 0.05). The type of music had no effect on blood lactate and ammonia levels or on plasma catecholamine levels following exercise. In conclusion, listening to slow rhythm music decreases the plasma norepinephrine level, and listening to fast rhythm music increases the plasma epinephrine level. The type of music has no impact on power output during exercise. Revue / Journal Title Archives of physiology and biochemistry ISSN 1381-3455 Source / Source 2003, vol. 111, n^o3, pp. 211-214 [4 page(s) (article)] (14 ref.) Langue / Language Anglais Revue : Français Editeur / Publisher Taylor & Francis, Basingstoke, ROYAUME-UNI (1995) (Revue) Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords Dopamine agonist ; Neurotransmitter ; Catecholamine ; Human ; Bicycle ergometer ; Music ; Rhythm ; Dopamine ; Norepinephrine ; Epinephrine ; Physical performance ; Heart rate ; Physical exercise ; Mots-clés français / French Keywords Stimulant dopaminergique ; Neurotransmetteur ; Catécholamine ; Homme ; Bicyclette ergométrique ; Musique ; Rythme ; Dopamine ; Noradrénaline ; Adrénaline ; Performance physique ; Rythme cardiaque ; Exercice physique ; Mots-clés espagnols / Spanish Keywords Estimulante dopaminérgico ; Neurotransmisor ; Catecolamina ; Hombre ; Bicicleta ergométrica ; Música ; Ritmo ; Dopamina ; Noradrenalina ; Adrenalina ; Rendimiento físico ; Ritmo cardíaco ; Ejercicio físico ; Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords Slow music ; fast music ; epinephrine ; norepinephrine ; dopamine ; supramaximal exercise ; power output ; lactate ; ammonia ; heart rate ; Localisation / Location INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 827, 35400011637312.0030 Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 15397711 Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [10]Bookmark and Share [11]Mendeley CAT.INIST Rechercher / Search _______________________________ OK Références 5. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20CAT.INIST.FR 7. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20Cat@inist.fr [USEMAP] Basic Music Theory. Copyright Neil Hawes 1997 Rhythm * Rhythm in music is dependent on the fact that humans recognise a [1]beat occurring at a regular interval. * Rhythm in music is more than just a [2]beat, however; it is the way that sounds with differing lengths (or gaps between them) and accents can combine to produce patterns in time which contain a [3]beat. + These sounds do not have to be particularly musical; rhythms can be made by striking almost anything, as long as there can be difference in accent. + Differences in accent can mean different sounds or just different loudness (i.e. amplitudes) of sounds * It is common to speak of a particular rhythm, referring to a pattern of [4]note lengths which occurs in a piece of music. + It is important to understand that the rhythm is defined by the pattern; the overall speed of it could vary from performance to performance, but the rhythm would still be the same. + The speed or tempo of a piece of music is indicated by a [5]metronome marking and/or a [6]direction word or phrase; its rhythm is specified by various [7]note lengths creating [8]beats within [9]bars. * Modern songs often include [10]syncopation in their rhythm __________________________________________________________________ [11]Mail me [12]Copyright and disclaimer [13]Content and structure of these pages [14]Return to top Références 11. mailto:website@neilhawes.com Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics [1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics Browse by soundtrack Search in soundtracks Browse by artist name [2]A [3]B [4]C [5]D [6]E [7]F [8]G [9]H [10]I [11]J [12]K [13]L [14]M [15]N [16]O [17]P [18]Q [19]R [20]S [21]T [22]U [23]V [24]W [25]X [26]Y [27]Z [28]# ____________ Search [29]A [30]B [31]C [32]D [33]E [34]F [35]G [36]H [37]I [38]J [39]K [40]L [41]M [42]N [43]O [44]P [45]Q [46]R [47]S [48]T [49]U [50]V [51]W [52]X [53]Y [54]Z [55]# [0.gif] - Rhythm of Life Lyrics Ensemble: Daddy started out in San Francisco, Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean, Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy, Spread the picture on a wider screen." And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons Ready to be hooked on new religions. Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife. Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life." And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee, Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge, Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton, Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Fly, fly, fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Swim, swim, swim to Daddy Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy, And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life, Of life, of life, of life. Yeah! Yeah! Yeah! Man! Related for [56]Sweet Charity: sheet music [57]Buy Musical Sheet Music cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD dvd [59]Buy Musical DVD Links: [60]Broadway Musicals Lyrics Scroller [61]Add/correct lyrics | [62]Request lyrics | [63]Links | [64]Privacy | [65]Contact us © STLyrics.com 2002 - Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]The Rhythm Of Life / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [7]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [8]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life. Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language, instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as the most graceful. Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ, and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres, and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D, of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last. It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life. Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense, so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature. Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt, thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles, there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks. As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become. When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given. We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely, or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall you receive the best. With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in modern times. Continue to: * prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 Tags [46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics, [51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music, [56]vibration [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [57]TOP [58]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [59]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [60]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [61]StasoSphere [ [62]Privacy Policy ] [ [63]Terms of Use ] [ [64]About Us ] [ [65]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:35:04 2009 Références #[1]top [2]search [3]All news stories [4]Spotlight news only [5]Feature stories [6]Customize feed [7]Science and technology news * [8]Home * [9]Nanotechnology * [10]Physics * [11]Space & Earth * [12]Electronics * [13]Technology * [14]Chemistry * [15]Biology * [16]Medicine & Health * [17]Other Sciences * [18]Psychology & Psychiatry * [19]Research * [20]Medications * [21]Cancer * [22]Genetics * [23]HIV & AIDS * [24]Diseases * [25]Other * [26]Health * [27]Neuroscience Keeping the rhythm of life in sync May 28, 2008 Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or physical stress. The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be too fast, too slow, or irregular. All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal rhythm and not even know it. Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath, swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur because of abnormal heart rhythm. To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by placing electrodes on the skin. Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case, other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart catheterization. Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia. Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some of its pumping function. Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm. Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help restore the rhythm of life. Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs [29]print this article [30]email this article [31]download pdf [32]blog this article [33]bookmark this article [34]Stumble it [35]Digg this [36]share on Facebook [37]retweet [38]share on Reddit [39]add to delicious Rate this story - 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * rank * [40]1 * [41]2 * [42]3 * [43]4 * [44]5 [45]view popular Rank Filter _ (Submit) Filter (Submit) Off Move the slider to adjust rank threshold, so that you can hide some of the comments. Display comments: [46]newest first * [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 1 / 5 (1) "...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life..." Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood through our system of vessels. It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy and thin pipes. It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word "pump" to describe the heart. What about "metronome"? + [48]report abuse + o Current rank o [49]1 o [50]2 o [51]3 o [52]4 o [53]5 * [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 4 / 5 (1) Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong. Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels, and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation. As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick, as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation" or taking a highschool biology class. + [55]report abuse + o Current rank o [56]1 o [57]2 o [58]3 o [59]4 o [60]5 * [61]print * [62]email * [63]pdf * [64]txt * [65]blog * [66]bookmark * [67]aA * [68]Aa May 28, 2008 [69]all stories Comments: [70]2 * rank * [71]1 * [72]2 * [73]3 * [74]4 * [75]5 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * [76]Stumble this up * [77]share on Facebook * * [78]Digg this * [79]retweet * * [80]share this * share on Facebook [81]Facebook * retweet [82]ReTweet * share on MySpace [83]MySpace * share on Slashdot [84]Slashdot * share on Google [85]Google * share on Reddit [86]Reddit * add to delicious [87]Delicious * save to Yahoo! bookmarks [88]Yahoo! bookmarks * share on Windows Live [89]Windows Live * Add to Mixx! 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Rhythm Of Life lyrics (Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus) If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus) Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down (repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade) [phone_left.gif] [109]Send "Rhythm Of Life" Ringtone to your Cell Phone! 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[130]www.lastlocation.com [131][get.media?sid=21908&m=3&tp=7&d=s&c=1] Références [1][LOGO-SVART.gif] [MARKERING-raud-firkant-STOR.gif] A new column written by one of our editors is published every two week _______________ Search [Search entire Voices.] powered by [2]FreeFind [3]Toppbanner [4]Toppbanner [5]Toppbanner [6]Toppbanner [7]Toppbanner May 19, 2008 [*bilde.jpg] 5 most recent columns January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By Diego Schapira December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara Wheeler December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice. By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist. By Helen Oosthuizen Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli () 1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful presence. I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the universe is not threatening for me as before. Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office, when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity arising randomly, above the background sound. Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific scenarios I could never imagine before. 2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome. That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances, making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those dangerous noises. When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands. His sounds were so emotionally intense that their message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards, listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside. My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people, without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds. In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes. Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors' desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist. I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing: the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness necessary for improving quality of life. 3rd Movement: Trio In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea which considers that a good development of each system is possible when there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system. Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with rhythm entrainment and music. As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration. To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes schema to structure and order internal and external events using rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the emotional response to music. Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion, and metaphorical thinking. Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration. Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer, because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory. There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks. And, thus, they can still feel joy. 4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy, particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to train psychologists and physicians in this field. This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music. References Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music: The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers. Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of Illinois. To cite this page: Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Moderated discussion Add your comments and responses to this essay in our Moderated Discussions. Contributions should be e-mailed to either [13]Joke Bradt or [14]Thomas Wosch View contributions on this essay: [yet no contribution] [15]Guidelines for discussions ©2009. VOICES. All rights reserved [16]Site Meter Références Liens visibles 13. javascript:decrypt_and_email(1) 14. javascript:decrypt_and_email(2) Liens cachés : 17. mailto: 18. javascript:decrypt_and_email(25) [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] #[1]About.com [2]Lee's Shakespeare Blog ____________________ (Submit) Search [3]About.com [4]Shakespeare 1. [5]Home 2. [6]Education 3. [7]Shakespeare [8][education_shakespeare;kw=;site=shakespeare;chan=education;pos=lb;sz =728x90;ord=1A1HKZ80M20SA1n0T] * [9]Share * * [10]Shakespeare * [11]Shakespeare's Life * [12]Plays * [13]Sonnets * Free Shakespeare Newsletter! ____________________ (Submit) Sign Up * [14]Discuss in my Forum [15]Lee Jamieson Lee's Shakespeare Blog By [16]Lee Jamieson, About.com Guide to Shakespeare * [17]My Bio * [18]My Blog * [19]My Forum Add to: * [20]iGoogle * [21]My Yahoo! * [22]RSS Iambic Pentameter: The Rhythm of Life? Sunday March 22, 2009 [bencrystal.jpg] Does the thought of [23]iambic pentameter terrify you? I remember being baffeled by it at school myself because I got bogged down in counting syllables and working out where the stresses go but, I now know that this is a very technical way of studying iambic pentameter. In later life, Ive grown to love iambic pentameter. Theres something beautiful about it that I cant put my finger on. I know for sure that its in the speaking because on the page it is inert. When you [24]speak those words aloud, they literally jump off the tongue and the rhythm is the easiest of all meters to find. I asked Ben Crystal about this [25]in our interview a few months ago. He said that iambic pentameter is the rhythm of our English language and of our bodies a line of that poetry has the same rhythm as our heartbeat. A line of iambic pentameter fills the human lung perfectly, so its the rhythm of speech. I think this is true. When you [26]learn how to speak verse, you soon discover that its a very instinctive rhythm. Once you relax and go with the flow, it comes naturally. And, strange as it might sound, classic iambic pentameter lines like If music be the food of love, play on and Now is the winter of our discontent do happen to fit a single breath perfectly if spoken with passion. So, if youre having trouble with iambic pentameter, remember that its designed to be spoken, not studied. Open your mouth and speak aloud those great words. Photo of Ben Crystal © Scott Wishart * [27]Comments (2) * [28]See All Posts * [29]Share * [30]Prev * [31]Next [32]Leave a Comment Comments March 30, 2009 at 2:29 pm [33](1) [34]Kent Richmond says: In doing verse translations of five Shakespeare plays, I have had to learn how Shakespeares iambic pentameter works in order to give my translations the feel of the original. One of the beauties of iambic pentameter is that the poet can temporarily relax the meter without violating it. In this series of made-up and rather prosaic lines, the first line is straight-ahead iambic pentameter. The second and third lines, if read independently, are less obviously iambic pentameter, yet they do not violate the rhythm. The fourth line is clearly unmetrical and removes the sense that we are listening to verse. 1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes, 2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. (trochaic start; feminine ending) 3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. (Two spondees to start; feminine ending) 4. Dont you ever hit your little sister. (unmetrical) Shakespeare, at least in the plays I have translated, did not write verse lines with the rhythm of (4). To make this line sound a bit more like Shakespeares iambic pentameter, we need to make a few alterations to line 4. 1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes, 2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. 3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. 4. Dont ever hit that little girl again. To make the whole passage sound like prose, we need to change the first line a little. Then her mother took the kids clothes shopping, planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. Dont you ever hit your little sister. The first and fourth lines now have trochaic feet exposed in the wrong places, and most editors would print such a passage as prose. Shakespeares iambic pentameter certainly places constraints on what rhythms are allowed, yet it allows for flexibility and naturalness. Take a look at George Wrights book titled Shakespeares Metrical Art to see the techniques Shakespeare employed. April 11, 2009 at 8:25 pm [35](2) Dave says: The words literally jump off the tongue? I'd like to see that! 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[70]More > [71]How to Ace the GRE Being well prepared is the first step; here are more essential suggestions. [72]More > [73]About.com [74]Shakespeare 1. [75]Home 2. [76]Education 3. [77]Shakespeare * [78]Most Popular * [79]Latest Articles Add to: * [80]iGoogle * [81]My Yahoo! * [82]RSS * [83]Advertising Info * [84]News & Events * [85]Work at About * [86]SiteMap * [87]All Topics * [88]Reprints * [89]Help * [90]User Agreement * [91]Ethics Policy * [92]Patent Info. * [93]Privacy Policy * [94]Our Story * [95]Write for About ©2010 About.com, a part of [96]The New York Times Company. All rights reserved. Références Drums games, piano games, guitar games [1]Drums games. Music games Drums online games [2]Drums music machine free online music game [3]Drums player Online music machine [4]Drums map Drum flash movie [5]Music machine Ear music training [6]Drums editor Online drum game Music online games [7]Music Free online game Try to repeat music. [8]Ear training 01 Free music game [9]Piano note Free online teacher [10]Chords piano Write chords. then play the melody. [11]Sound memory Improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it. [12]Draw lessons How to draw free lessons [13]Online games Actions, Shooter, Logic online games [acleardot.gif] [acleardot.gif] What is music rhythm? The music rhythm is the beat. It is the most important element in music. It drives the music forward. It is the gasoline of music. Rhythms can be simple or complicated. Essential music vocabulary Meter It's the way we group the beats. We group eggs by the dozen. We group days by the week. We also group beats into two's or three's. That's meter. Rhythm The beat. The beat can be even or uneven, steady or unsteady. Note Values Long and short sounds in music are represented by notes. White notes have longer sounds than black notes. Tempo This is the speed of the music. Time Signature This is a number that appears at the beginning of the music. The top number tells you how many beats are in each measure (bar) and the bottom number tells you what kind of a note gets one beat. The most common times signatures are 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, and 6/8. Whole music notes These notes are whole notes. Each note is four beats long. Click the image to hear the note value. [14][whole.gif] Half music notes Here are half notes. Did you see the stems? These notes are twice as fast as whole notes. These note are two beats long. Click the image to hear the note value. [15][half.gif] Quarter music notes These notes are black. They are quarter notes. Each quarter note gets one beat. How many beats are in each measure? If you guessed four, you'd be right! Click the image to hear the note value. [16][quarter.gif] Eighth music notes These are eighth notes. Notice how the stems are connected by a beam. These notes move twice as fast as quarter notes. Two note are played for each beat of music. Click the image to hear the note value. [17][eighth_.gif] Combining Note Values In 4/4 time, different note values can be combined in each measure as long as they equal four beats. Click the examples to hear the rhythm patterns: [18][combo2.gif] [19][combo3.gif] [20][combo4.gif] Music tempo Tempo means speed. Musicians use Italian terms for different tempos. Here is a melody fragment. Click the image to hear the tune: [21][example.gif] Click the words below to hear this tune played at different tempos. Slow Medium Fast Largo Largo is the slowest tempo. Adagio Largo means slow or leisurely. Andante Andante means a walking pace. Moderato Moderato is medium. It is not too fast or too slow. Allegro Allegro is fast. It means cheerful in Italian. Vivace Vivace is quick and lively. Presto Presto is very fast. Meter Meter is how we hear the groupings of beats in music. Music will be in an even meter (groupings of 2's or 4's) or an odd meter (groupings of 3's). Even Meters Are Groupings of 2 Beats A [22]march is played in a meter of 2, which makes it an even meter. That means you will hear the beats of the march move in patterns of two's. Odd Meters Are Groupings of 3 Beats A [23]waltz is played in a meter of three, which makes it an odd meter. That means you will hear the beats of the waltz move in patterns of three's. Can you hear meter in music? Click the examples below to identify whether you hear the music moving in groups of two's or three's. [24]Example 1 [25]Example 2 [26]Example 3 [27]Example 4 [28]Example 5 Time Signatures The time signature helps us group the notes so we don't get lost. It's the way we organize beats in music. It's like grouping eggs by the dozen or days by the week. The top number tells us how many beats we can have in one measure. In 4/4 time we have four beats in each measure. What was the time signature in all of all the examples above? Remember this: A beat is not the same thing as a note. Notes can have more or less than one beat. A whole note in 4/4 time has four beats. A half note in 4/4 time has two beats. An eighth note in 4/4 time has just 1/2 beat. It takes two eighth notes to make one beat in 4/4 time. Time signatures and meter: The time signature will tell you the music's meter. If you can divide the top number by two, the music is in an even meter. If you can divide the top number by three, the music is in an odd meter. Let's look at some popular time signatures and see if we can add up the beats in each measure. 4/4 Time (Common Time) [Common_time.gif] Did you notice the number at the beginning of all the examples above? That's the time signature. It's 4/4. That means that there are four beats in each measure and the quarter note gets one beat. This time signature is also called Common Time because it is the most popular time signature in music. Listen to [29]Somewhere Over the Rainbow from The Wizard of Oz. It's in 4/4 time. Each measure equals four beats. It is in an even meter. [30][rainbow.gif] 3/4 Time (Waltz Time) [Three_four.gif] A 3/4 time signature would only have three beats per measure. Here is what it looks like. Listen to [31]America played in 3/4 time. 3/4 is also called waltz time. Did you notice the dots after some of the notes. Dotes make the notes longer. This song is in an odd meter because there are three beats per measure. [32][amaerica.gif] 2/4 Time [Two_four.gif] A 2/4 time signature has just two beats per measure. It looks like this. Listen to [33]You're a Grand Old Flag in 2/4 time. Do you see the line connecting the last two notes. It is called a tie. What is the meter of this song? Look at the time signature for your answer. [34][grand.gif] 6/8 Time [Six_eight.gif] A 6/8 time signature has six beats per measure. The bottom number is 8. This tells you that the eighth note gets one beat. Do you recognize the song [35]Follow the Yellow Brick Road from The Wizard of Oz? It's in 6/8 time. This song goes fast, making it sound like 2/4 rather than 6/8 time. This time signature can sound like an even or odd meter because you can divide 6 by 2 or 3. [36][wizaed.gif] Drums online games * [37]Drums music machine free online game * [38]Drums player online music machine * [39]Restore rhythm online ear training * [40]Drums map movie * [41]Drums editor online game Music piano and guitar online games * [42]Computer play a note pitch ear training. You try to understand it and type c,d,e,f,g... * [43]Computer show a note you try to understand it play keyboard * [44]Music machine ear training * [45]Piano music machine free online game you can compose melody and play it. Try compose melody. This is very easy. * [46]Music free online game. Try to repeat music. * [47]Note pair online game. Find all notes. This game is very useful for music memory improvement. * [48]Notes shooter online game. Try to recognize note as fast as you can. * [49]Piano note free online teacher * [50]Sound memory improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it. * [51]Drag music online game. Compose melody by notes. * [52]Piano note editor. Compose melody. Use mouse for composing. * [53]Find error at the melody online game. The computer play melody then replace one note. Try to find error Music machines * [54]Orchestra quiz online music * [55]Music quiz for kids * [56]Virtual band Music games for kids * [57]Rainbow piano for kids. Computer show the color. Kids need to press correct note. * [58]Can you play jingle bells? Look at the note sheet and play. * [59]Piano keyboard online game. Download piano keyboard movie on to your computer and play. Metronomes and fork * [60]Light metronome online movie * [61]Metronome online movie * [62]Guitar tuning fork its help tune guitar Guitar online games * [63]Guitar music machine * [64]Guitar chord finder * [65]Guitar online chords * [66]Guitar chords * [67]Basic guitar chords and how it * [68]Guitar chords machine with sound * [69]Guitar scales __________________________________________________________________ Free music games [70]AbabaSoft.com/music Copyright © 1998 - Références [1]CAT.INIST [2][USEMAP:bandeau-haut-droit.gif] logo CNRS [3]logo INIST [4]En savoir plus sur CAT.INIST ? © INIST Diffusion S.A. Service Clients / Customer Service 2, allée du parc de Brabois F-54514 Vandoeuvre Cedex France Tél : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.64 Fax : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.66 Courriel : [5]infoclient@inist.fr [6]Accueil / Home Imprimer / Print [7]Contact / Contact Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [8]Bookmark and Share [9]Mendeley Titre du document / Document title Effects of pre-exercise listening to slow and fast rhythm music on supramaximal cycle performance and selected metabolic variables Auteur(s) / Author(s) YAMAMOTO T.^ (1) ; OHKUWA T.^ (2) ; ITOH H.^ (2) ; KITOH M.^ (3) ; TERASAWA J.^ (3) ; TSUDA T.^ (3) ; KITAGAWA S.^ (3) ; SATO Y.^ (1) ; Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s) ^(1) Research Center of Health, Physical Fitness and Sports, Nagoya University, 464-8601, JAPON ^(2) Department of General studies, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON ^(3) Department of Applied Chemistry, Nagoya Institute of Technology, Showa-ku, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON Résumé / Abstract We examined the effect of listening to two different types of music (with slow and fast rhythm), prior to supramaximal cycle exercise, on performance, heart rate, the concentration of lactate and ammonia in blood, and the concentration of catecholamines in plasma. Six male students participated in this study. After listening to slow rhythm or fast rhythm music for 20 min, the subjects performed supramaximal exercise for 45 s using a cycle ergometer. Listening to slow and fast rhythm music prior to supramaximal exercise did not significantly affect the mean power output. The plasma norepinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to slow rhythm music was significantly lower than before listening (p < 0.05). The plasma epinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to fast rhythm music was significantly higher than before listening (p < 0.05). The type of music had no effect on blood lactate and ammonia levels or on plasma catecholamine levels following exercise. In conclusion, listening to slow rhythm music decreases the plasma norepinephrine level, and listening to fast rhythm music increases the plasma epinephrine level. The type of music has no impact on power output during exercise. Revue / Journal Title Archives of physiology and biochemistry ISSN 1381-3455 Source / Source 2003, vol. 111, n^o3, pp. 211-214 [4 page(s) (article)] (14 ref.) Langue / Language Anglais Revue : Français Editeur / Publisher Taylor & Francis, Basingstoke, ROYAUME-UNI (1995) (Revue) Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords Dopamine agonist ; Neurotransmitter ; Catecholamine ; Human ; Bicycle ergometer ; Music ; Rhythm ; Dopamine ; Norepinephrine ; Epinephrine ; Physical performance ; Heart rate ; Physical exercise ; Mots-clés français / French Keywords Stimulant dopaminergique ; Neurotransmetteur ; Catécholamine ; Homme ; Bicyclette ergométrique ; Musique ; Rythme ; Dopamine ; Noradrénaline ; Adrénaline ; Performance physique ; Rythme cardiaque ; Exercice physique ; Mots-clés espagnols / Spanish Keywords Estimulante dopaminérgico ; Neurotransmisor ; Catecolamina ; Hombre ; Bicicleta ergométrica ; Música ; Ritmo ; Dopamina ; Noradrenalina ; Adrenalina ; Rendimiento físico ; Ritmo cardíaco ; Ejercicio físico ; Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords Slow music ; fast music ; epinephrine ; norepinephrine ; dopamine ; supramaximal exercise ; power output ; lactate ; ammonia ; heart rate ; Localisation / Location INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 827, 35400011637312.0030 Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 15397711 Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [10]Bookmark and Share [11]Mendeley CAT.INIST Rechercher / Search _______________________________ OK Références 5. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20CAT.INIST.FR 7. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20Cat@inist.fr [USEMAP] Basic Music Theory. Copyright Neil Hawes 1997 Rhythm * Rhythm in music is dependent on the fact that humans recognise a [1]beat occurring at a regular interval. * Rhythm in music is more than just a [2]beat, however; it is the way that sounds with differing lengths (or gaps between them) and accents can combine to produce patterns in time which contain a [3]beat. + These sounds do not have to be particularly musical; rhythms can be made by striking almost anything, as long as there can be difference in accent. + Differences in accent can mean different sounds or just different loudness (i.e. amplitudes) of sounds * It is common to speak of a particular rhythm, referring to a pattern of [4]note lengths which occurs in a piece of music. + It is important to understand that the rhythm is defined by the pattern; the overall speed of it could vary from performance to performance, but the rhythm would still be the same. + The speed or tempo of a piece of music is indicated by a [5]metronome marking and/or a [6]direction word or phrase; its rhythm is specified by various [7]note lengths creating [8]beats within [9]bars. * Modern songs often include [10]syncopation in their rhythm __________________________________________________________________ [11]Mail me [12]Copyright and disclaimer [13]Content and structure of these pages [14]Return to top Références 11. mailto:website@neilhawes.com [jazz-blues-pianist-3.jpg] [1]Home: jazz improvisation : pop blues| [2]Pop music videos| [3]Pop blues jazz albums| [4]Jazz improvisation - harmony| [5]Lingua italiana| [6]HELP - FAQ| Rhythm and swing * Swing jazz rhythm * [7]Music rhythm * [8]Learn music theory : polyrhythms Site menu * [9]Blues singer songwriter jazz pianist * [10]Pop music videos * [11]Jazz piano, tutorial videos * [12]Pop blues jazz albums * [13]Jazz pianist music stores Improvisation and music harmony : MIOP * [14]Jazz improvisation and music harmony : summary * [15]Music harmony concepts * [16]Scales, modes to improvise * [17]Blues improvisation * [18]Jazz melody and improvisation * Swing jazz rhythm * [19]Jazz techniques : practice Swing jazz rhythm in improvisation Swing is very important in improvisation. This word means stressing the upbeat. If you also give a "sliding" or "retardation" between notes, you can create the real swing jazz rhythm, which was born at the beginning of the XX century about. When you stress an upbeat you make perhaps a "swinging" rhythmics, (also being without a dragging or a sliding between notes), for modern rhythm too, (such as pop and rhythm and blues). * When you play swing music, that is Dixieland, blues, ragtime, swing, bebop, cool jazz, hard bop, you have to follow this scheme: basic rhythmic pattern ...in this way: swing jazz rhythm pattern Learn swing jazz rhythm In order to learn how to swing, you simply have to learn how to reason in up beat and stressing with it constantly. In other words, swing means "stressing the upbeat" with an implied octaves triplets clef. It's so a rhythm "sliding" effect created : the meaning of the American word "swing" is just similar to "sliding", "waving" or "rocking". * For example these measures : how to learn jazz swing ..must be played (in general) in this way: fundamental jazz swing rhythm In other words Swing has offbeat (upbeat) accents and an eighth-note triplets rhythmic base. Learning jazz swing Learning swing very well and have the ability to improvise, stressing and giving the right accent of phrases needs much time to practice it. Above all, you must pay attention at the beginning to stress upbeat octave notes constantly and to stop when you realize you are making the contrary. While stressing notes on your instrument, I suggest to upbeat by your foot, so that you can emphasize this rhythmic accent better. You have to get used to reason in upbeat, beginning all over again, as since we were children we have been starting clapping hands in downbeat. Swing-jazz rhythm can be so learned naturally after studying constantly in this direction. * You need some months to learn swing rhythm on your instrument. I remember you to stress always the upbeats. [20]Privacy Policy | musilosophy.com © 2005-2009 | All rights reserved | PIVA IT09999181002 Références Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics [1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics Browse by soundtrack Search in soundtracks Browse by artist name [2]A [3]B [4]C [5]D [6]E [7]F [8]G [9]H [10]I [11]J [12]K [13]L [14]M [15]N [16]O [17]P [18]Q [19]R [20]S [21]T [22]U [23]V [24]W [25]X [26]Y [27]Z [28]# ____________ Search [29]A [30]B [31]C [32]D [33]E [34]F [35]G [36]H [37]I [38]J [39]K [40]L [41]M [42]N [43]O [44]P [45]Q [46]R [47]S [48]T [49]U [50]V [51]W [52]X [53]Y [54]Z [55]# [0.gif] - Rhythm of Life Lyrics Ensemble: Daddy started out in San Francisco, Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean, Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy, Spread the picture on a wider screen." And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons Ready to be hooked on new religions. Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife. Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life." And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee, Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge, Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton, Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Fly, fly, fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Swim, swim, swim to Daddy Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy, And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life, Of life, of life, of life. Yeah! Yeah! Yeah! Man! Related for [56]Sweet Charity: sheet music [57]Buy Musical Sheet Music cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD dvd [59]Buy Musical DVD Links: [60]Broadway Musicals Lyrics Scroller [61]Add/correct lyrics | [62]Request lyrics | [63]Links | [64]Privacy | [65]Contact us © STLyrics.com 2002 - Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]The Rhythm Of Life / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [7]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [8]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life. Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language, instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as the most graceful. Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ, and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres, and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D, of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last. It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life. Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense, so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature. Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt, thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles, there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks. As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become. When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given. We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely, or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall you receive the best. With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in modern times. Continue to: * prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 Tags [46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics, [51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music, [56]vibration [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [57]TOP [58]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [59]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [60]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [61]StasoSphere [ [62]Privacy Policy ] [ [63]Terms of Use ] [ [64]About Us ] [ [65]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:35:04 2009 Références #[1]top [2]search [3]All news stories [4]Spotlight news only [5]Feature stories [6]Customize feed [7]Science and technology news * [8]Home * [9]Nanotechnology * [10]Physics * [11]Space & Earth * [12]Electronics * [13]Technology * [14]Chemistry * [15]Biology * [16]Medicine & Health * [17]Other Sciences * [18]Psychology & Psychiatry * [19]Research * [20]Medications * [21]Cancer * [22]Genetics * [23]HIV & AIDS * [24]Diseases * [25]Other * [26]Health * [27]Neuroscience Keeping the rhythm of life in sync May 28, 2008 Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or physical stress. The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be too fast, too slow, or irregular. All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal rhythm and not even know it. Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath, swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur because of abnormal heart rhythm. To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by placing electrodes on the skin. Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case, other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart catheterization. Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia. Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some of its pumping function. Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm. Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help restore the rhythm of life. Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs [29]print this article [30]email this article [31]download pdf [32]blog this article [33]bookmark this article [34]Stumble it [35]Digg this [36]share on Facebook [37]retweet [38]share on Reddit [39]add to delicious Rate this story - 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * rank * [40]1 * [41]2 * [42]3 * [43]4 * [44]5 [45]view popular Rank Filter _ (Submit) Filter (Submit) Off Move the slider to adjust rank threshold, so that you can hide some of the comments. Display comments: [46]newest first * [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 1 / 5 (1) "...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life..." Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood through our system of vessels. It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy and thin pipes. It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word "pump" to describe the heart. What about "metronome"? + [48]report abuse + o Current rank o [49]1 o [50]2 o [51]3 o [52]4 o [53]5 * [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 4 / 5 (1) Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong. Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels, and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation. As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick, as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation" or taking a highschool biology class. + [55]report abuse + o Current rank o [56]1 o [57]2 o [58]3 o [59]4 o [60]5 * [61]print * [62]email * [63]pdf * [64]txt * [65]blog * [66]bookmark * [67]aA * [68]Aa May 28, 2008 [69]all stories Comments: [70]2 * rank * [71]1 * [72]2 * [73]3 * [74]4 * [75]5 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * [76]Stumble this up * [77]share on Facebook * * [78]Digg this * [79]retweet * * [80]share this * share on Facebook [81]Facebook * retweet [82]ReTweet * share on MySpace [83]MySpace * share on Slashdot [84]Slashdot * share on Google [85]Google * share on Reddit [86]Reddit * add to delicious [87]Delicious * save to Yahoo! bookmarks [88]Yahoo! bookmarks * share on Windows Live [89]Windows Live * Add to Mixx! 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Rhythm Of Life lyrics (Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus) If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus) Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down (repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade) [phone_left.gif] [109]Send "Rhythm Of Life" Ringtone to your Cell Phone! 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[130]www.lastlocation.com [131][get.media?sid=21908&m=3&tp=7&d=s&c=1] Références [1][LOGO-SVART.gif] [MARKERING-raud-firkant-STOR.gif] A new column written by one of our editors is published every two week _______________ Search [Search entire Voices.] powered by [2]FreeFind [3]Toppbanner [4]Toppbanner [5]Toppbanner [6]Toppbanner [7]Toppbanner May 19, 2008 [*bilde.jpg] 5 most recent columns January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By Diego Schapira December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara Wheeler December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice. By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist. By Helen Oosthuizen Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli () 1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful presence. I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the universe is not threatening for me as before. Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office, when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity arising randomly, above the background sound. Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific scenarios I could never imagine before. 2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome. That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances, making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those dangerous noises. When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands. His sounds were so emotionally intense that their message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards, listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside. My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people, without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds. In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes. Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors' desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist. I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing: the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness necessary for improving quality of life. 3rd Movement: Trio In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea which considers that a good development of each system is possible when there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system. Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with rhythm entrainment and music. As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration. To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes schema to structure and order internal and external events using rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the emotional response to music. Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion, and metaphorical thinking. Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration. Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer, because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory. There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks. And, thus, they can still feel joy. 4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy, particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to train psychologists and physicians in this field. This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music. References Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music: The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers. Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of Illinois. To cite this page: Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Moderated discussion Add your comments and responses to this essay in our Moderated Discussions. Contributions should be e-mailed to either [13]Joke Bradt or [14]Thomas Wosch View contributions on this essay: [yet no contribution] [15]Guidelines for discussions ©2009. VOICES. All rights reserved [16]Site Meter Références Liens visibles 13. javascript:decrypt_and_email(1) 14. javascript:decrypt_and_email(2) Liens cachés : 17. mailto: 18. javascript:decrypt_and_email(25) [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] #[1]About.com [2]Lee's Shakespeare Blog ____________________ (Submit) Search [3]About.com [4]Shakespeare 1. [5]Home 2. [6]Education 3. [7]Shakespeare [8][education_shakespeare;kw=;site=shakespeare;chan=education;pos=lb;sz =728x90;ord=1A1HKZ80M20SA1n0T] * [9]Share * * [10]Shakespeare * [11]Shakespeare's Life * [12]Plays * [13]Sonnets * Free Shakespeare Newsletter! ____________________ (Submit) Sign Up * [14]Discuss in my Forum [15]Lee Jamieson Lee's Shakespeare Blog By [16]Lee Jamieson, About.com Guide to Shakespeare * [17]My Bio * [18]My Blog * [19]My Forum Add to: * [20]iGoogle * [21]My Yahoo! * [22]RSS Iambic Pentameter: The Rhythm of Life? Sunday March 22, 2009 [bencrystal.jpg] Does the thought of [23]iambic pentameter terrify you? I remember being baffeled by it at school myself because I got bogged down in counting syllables and working out where the stresses go but, I now know that this is a very technical way of studying iambic pentameter. In later life, Ive grown to love iambic pentameter. Theres something beautiful about it that I cant put my finger on. I know for sure that its in the speaking because on the page it is inert. When you [24]speak those words aloud, they literally jump off the tongue and the rhythm is the easiest of all meters to find. I asked Ben Crystal about this [25]in our interview a few months ago. He said that iambic pentameter is the rhythm of our English language and of our bodies a line of that poetry has the same rhythm as our heartbeat. A line of iambic pentameter fills the human lung perfectly, so its the rhythm of speech. I think this is true. When you [26]learn how to speak verse, you soon discover that its a very instinctive rhythm. Once you relax and go with the flow, it comes naturally. And, strange as it might sound, classic iambic pentameter lines like If music be the food of love, play on and Now is the winter of our discontent do happen to fit a single breath perfectly if spoken with passion. So, if youre having trouble with iambic pentameter, remember that its designed to be spoken, not studied. Open your mouth and speak aloud those great words. Photo of Ben Crystal © Scott Wishart * [27]Comments (2) * [28]See All Posts * [29]Share * [30]Prev * [31]Next [32]Leave a Comment Comments March 30, 2009 at 2:29 pm [33](1) [34]Kent Richmond says: In doing verse translations of five Shakespeare plays, I have had to learn how Shakespeares iambic pentameter works in order to give my translations the feel of the original. One of the beauties of iambic pentameter is that the poet can temporarily relax the meter without violating it. In this series of made-up and rather prosaic lines, the first line is straight-ahead iambic pentameter. The second and third lines, if read independently, are less obviously iambic pentameter, yet they do not violate the rhythm. The fourth line is clearly unmetrical and removes the sense that we are listening to verse. 1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes, 2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. (trochaic start; feminine ending) 3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. (Two spondees to start; feminine ending) 4. Dont you ever hit your little sister. (unmetrical) Shakespeare, at least in the plays I have translated, did not write verse lines with the rhythm of (4). To make this line sound a bit more like Shakespeares iambic pentameter, we need to make a few alterations to line 4. 1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes, 2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. 3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. 4. Dont ever hit that little girl again. To make the whole passage sound like prose, we need to change the first line a little. Then her mother took the kids clothes shopping, planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. Dont you ever hit your little sister. The first and fourth lines now have trochaic feet exposed in the wrong places, and most editors would print such a passage as prose. Shakespeares iambic pentameter certainly places constraints on what rhythms are allowed, yet it allows for flexibility and naturalness. Take a look at George Wrights book titled Shakespeares Metrical Art to see the techniques Shakespeare employed. April 11, 2009 at 8:25 pm [35](2) Dave says: The words literally jump off the tongue? I'd like to see that! 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[70]More > [71]How to Ace the GRE Being well prepared is the first step; here are more essential suggestions. [72]More > [73]About.com [74]Shakespeare 1. [75]Home 2. [76]Education 3. [77]Shakespeare * [78]Most Popular * [79]Latest Articles Add to: * [80]iGoogle * [81]My Yahoo! * [82]RSS * [83]Advertising Info * [84]News & Events * [85]Work at About * [86]SiteMap * [87]All Topics * [88]Reprints * [89]Help * [90]User Agreement * [91]Ethics Policy * [92]Patent Info. * [93]Privacy Policy * [94]Our Story * [95]Write for About ©2010 About.com, a part of [96]The New York Times Company. All rights reserved. Références Drums games, piano games, guitar games [1]Drums games. Music games Drums online games [2]Drums music machine free online music game [3]Drums player Online music machine [4]Drums map Drum flash movie [5]Music machine Ear music training [6]Drums editor Online drum game Music online games [7]Music Free online game Try to repeat music. [8]Ear training 01 Free music game [9]Piano note Free online teacher [10]Chords piano Write chords. then play the melody. [11]Sound memory Improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it. [12]Draw lessons How to draw free lessons [13]Online games Actions, Shooter, Logic online games [acleardot.gif] [acleardot.gif] What is music rhythm? The music rhythm is the beat. It is the most important element in music. It drives the music forward. It is the gasoline of music. Rhythms can be simple or complicated. Essential music vocabulary Meter It's the way we group the beats. We group eggs by the dozen. We group days by the week. We also group beats into two's or three's. That's meter. Rhythm The beat. The beat can be even or uneven, steady or unsteady. Note Values Long and short sounds in music are represented by notes. White notes have longer sounds than black notes. Tempo This is the speed of the music. Time Signature This is a number that appears at the beginning of the music. The top number tells you how many beats are in each measure (bar) and the bottom number tells you what kind of a note gets one beat. The most common times signatures are 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, and 6/8. Whole music notes These notes are whole notes. Each note is four beats long. Click the image to hear the note value. [14][whole.gif] Half music notes Here are half notes. Did you see the stems? These notes are twice as fast as whole notes. These note are two beats long. Click the image to hear the note value. [15][half.gif] Quarter music notes These notes are black. They are quarter notes. Each quarter note gets one beat. How many beats are in each measure? If you guessed four, you'd be right! Click the image to hear the note value. [16][quarter.gif] Eighth music notes These are eighth notes. Notice how the stems are connected by a beam. These notes move twice as fast as quarter notes. Two note are played for each beat of music. Click the image to hear the note value. [17][eighth_.gif] Combining Note Values In 4/4 time, different note values can be combined in each measure as long as they equal four beats. Click the examples to hear the rhythm patterns: [18][combo2.gif] [19][combo3.gif] [20][combo4.gif] Music tempo Tempo means speed. Musicians use Italian terms for different tempos. Here is a melody fragment. Click the image to hear the tune: [21][example.gif] Click the words below to hear this tune played at different tempos. Slow Medium Fast Largo Largo is the slowest tempo. Adagio Largo means slow or leisurely. Andante Andante means a walking pace. Moderato Moderato is medium. It is not too fast or too slow. Allegro Allegro is fast. It means cheerful in Italian. Vivace Vivace is quick and lively. Presto Presto is very fast. Meter Meter is how we hear the groupings of beats in music. Music will be in an even meter (groupings of 2's or 4's) or an odd meter (groupings of 3's). Even Meters Are Groupings of 2 Beats A [22]march is played in a meter of 2, which makes it an even meter. That means you will hear the beats of the march move in patterns of two's. Odd Meters Are Groupings of 3 Beats A [23]waltz is played in a meter of three, which makes it an odd meter. That means you will hear the beats of the waltz move in patterns of three's. Can you hear meter in music? Click the examples below to identify whether you hear the music moving in groups of two's or three's. [24]Example 1 [25]Example 2 [26]Example 3 [27]Example 4 [28]Example 5 Time Signatures The time signature helps us group the notes so we don't get lost. It's the way we organize beats in music. It's like grouping eggs by the dozen or days by the week. The top number tells us how many beats we can have in one measure. In 4/4 time we have four beats in each measure. What was the time signature in all of all the examples above? Remember this: A beat is not the same thing as a note. Notes can have more or less than one beat. A whole note in 4/4 time has four beats. A half note in 4/4 time has two beats. An eighth note in 4/4 time has just 1/2 beat. It takes two eighth notes to make one beat in 4/4 time. Time signatures and meter: The time signature will tell you the music's meter. If you can divide the top number by two, the music is in an even meter. If you can divide the top number by three, the music is in an odd meter. Let's look at some popular time signatures and see if we can add up the beats in each measure. 4/4 Time (Common Time) [Common_time.gif] Did you notice the number at the beginning of all the examples above? That's the time signature. It's 4/4. That means that there are four beats in each measure and the quarter note gets one beat. This time signature is also called Common Time because it is the most popular time signature in music. Listen to [29]Somewhere Over the Rainbow from The Wizard of Oz. It's in 4/4 time. Each measure equals four beats. It is in an even meter. [30][rainbow.gif] 3/4 Time (Waltz Time) [Three_four.gif] A 3/4 time signature would only have three beats per measure. Here is what it looks like. Listen to [31]America played in 3/4 time. 3/4 is also called waltz time. Did you notice the dots after some of the notes. Dotes make the notes longer. This song is in an odd meter because there are three beats per measure. [32][amaerica.gif] 2/4 Time [Two_four.gif] A 2/4 time signature has just two beats per measure. It looks like this. Listen to [33]You're a Grand Old Flag in 2/4 time. Do you see the line connecting the last two notes. It is called a tie. What is the meter of this song? Look at the time signature for your answer. [34][grand.gif] 6/8 Time [Six_eight.gif] A 6/8 time signature has six beats per measure. The bottom number is 8. This tells you that the eighth note gets one beat. Do you recognize the song [35]Follow the Yellow Brick Road from The Wizard of Oz? It's in 6/8 time. This song goes fast, making it sound like 2/4 rather than 6/8 time. This time signature can sound like an even or odd meter because you can divide 6 by 2 or 3. [36][wizaed.gif] Drums online games * [37]Drums music machine free online game * [38]Drums player online music machine * [39]Restore rhythm online ear training * [40]Drums map movie * [41]Drums editor online game Music piano and guitar online games * [42]Computer play a note pitch ear training. You try to understand it and type c,d,e,f,g... * [43]Computer show a note you try to understand it play keyboard * [44]Music machine ear training * [45]Piano music machine free online game you can compose melody and play it. Try compose melody. This is very easy. * [46]Music free online game. Try to repeat music. * [47]Note pair online game. Find all notes. This game is very useful for music memory improvement. * [48]Notes shooter online game. Try to recognize note as fast as you can. * [49]Piano note free online teacher * [50]Sound memory improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it. * [51]Drag music online game. Compose melody by notes. * [52]Piano note editor. Compose melody. Use mouse for composing. * [53]Find error at the melody online game. The computer play melody then replace one note. Try to find error Music machines * [54]Orchestra quiz online music * [55]Music quiz for kids * [56]Virtual band Music games for kids * [57]Rainbow piano for kids. Computer show the color. Kids need to press correct note. * [58]Can you play jingle bells? Look at the note sheet and play. * [59]Piano keyboard online game. Download piano keyboard movie on to your computer and play. Metronomes and fork * [60]Light metronome online movie * [61]Metronome online movie * [62]Guitar tuning fork its help tune guitar Guitar online games * [63]Guitar music machine * [64]Guitar chord finder * [65]Guitar online chords * [66]Guitar chords * [67]Basic guitar chords and how it * [68]Guitar chords machine with sound * [69]Guitar scales __________________________________________________________________ Free music games [70]AbabaSoft.com/music Copyright © 1998 - Références [1]CAT.INIST [2][USEMAP:bandeau-haut-droit.gif] logo CNRS [3]logo INIST [4]En savoir plus sur CAT.INIST ? © INIST Diffusion S.A. Service Clients / Customer Service 2, allée du parc de Brabois F-54514 Vandoeuvre Cedex France Tél : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.64 Fax : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.66 Courriel : [5]infoclient@inist.fr [6]Accueil / Home Imprimer / Print [7]Contact / Contact Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [8]Bookmark and Share [9]Mendeley Titre du document / Document title Effects of pre-exercise listening to slow and fast rhythm music on supramaximal cycle performance and selected metabolic variables Auteur(s) / Author(s) YAMAMOTO T.^ (1) ; OHKUWA T.^ (2) ; ITOH H.^ (2) ; KITOH M.^ (3) ; TERASAWA J.^ (3) ; TSUDA T.^ (3) ; KITAGAWA S.^ (3) ; SATO Y.^ (1) ; Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s) ^(1) Research Center of Health, Physical Fitness and Sports, Nagoya University, 464-8601, JAPON ^(2) Department of General studies, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON ^(3) Department of Applied Chemistry, Nagoya Institute of Technology, Showa-ku, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON Résumé / Abstract We examined the effect of listening to two different types of music (with slow and fast rhythm), prior to supramaximal cycle exercise, on performance, heart rate, the concentration of lactate and ammonia in blood, and the concentration of catecholamines in plasma. Six male students participated in this study. After listening to slow rhythm or fast rhythm music for 20 min, the subjects performed supramaximal exercise for 45 s using a cycle ergometer. Listening to slow and fast rhythm music prior to supramaximal exercise did not significantly affect the mean power output. The plasma norepinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to slow rhythm music was significantly lower than before listening (p < 0.05). The plasma epinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to fast rhythm music was significantly higher than before listening (p < 0.05). The type of music had no effect on blood lactate and ammonia levels or on plasma catecholamine levels following exercise. In conclusion, listening to slow rhythm music decreases the plasma norepinephrine level, and listening to fast rhythm music increases the plasma epinephrine level. The type of music has no impact on power output during exercise. Revue / Journal Title Archives of physiology and biochemistry ISSN 1381-3455 Source / Source 2003, vol. 111, n^o3, pp. 211-214 [4 page(s) (article)] (14 ref.) Langue / Language Anglais Revue : Français Editeur / Publisher Taylor & Francis, Basingstoke, ROYAUME-UNI (1995) (Revue) Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords Dopamine agonist ; Neurotransmitter ; Catecholamine ; Human ; Bicycle ergometer ; Music ; Rhythm ; Dopamine ; Norepinephrine ; Epinephrine ; Physical performance ; Heart rate ; Physical exercise ; Mots-clés français / French Keywords Stimulant dopaminergique ; Neurotransmetteur ; Catécholamine ; Homme ; Bicyclette ergométrique ; Musique ; Rythme ; Dopamine ; Noradrénaline ; Adrénaline ; Performance physique ; Rythme cardiaque ; Exercice physique ; Mots-clés espagnols / Spanish Keywords Estimulante dopaminérgico ; Neurotransmisor ; Catecolamina ; Hombre ; Bicicleta ergométrica ; Música ; Ritmo ; Dopamina ; Noradrenalina ; Adrenalina ; Rendimiento físico ; Ritmo cardíaco ; Ejercicio físico ; Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords Slow music ; fast music ; epinephrine ; norepinephrine ; dopamine ; supramaximal exercise ; power output ; lactate ; ammonia ; heart rate ; Localisation / Location INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 827, 35400011637312.0030 Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 15397711 Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [10]Bookmark and Share [11]Mendeley CAT.INIST Rechercher / Search _______________________________ OK Références 5. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20CAT.INIST.FR 7. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20Cat@inist.fr [USEMAP] Basic Music Theory. Copyright Neil Hawes 1997 Rhythm * Rhythm in music is dependent on the fact that humans recognise a [1]beat occurring at a regular interval. * Rhythm in music is more than just a [2]beat, however; it is the way that sounds with differing lengths (or gaps between them) and accents can combine to produce patterns in time which contain a [3]beat. + These sounds do not have to be particularly musical; rhythms can be made by striking almost anything, as long as there can be difference in accent. + Differences in accent can mean different sounds or just different loudness (i.e. amplitudes) of sounds * It is common to speak of a particular rhythm, referring to a pattern of [4]note lengths which occurs in a piece of music. + It is important to understand that the rhythm is defined by the pattern; the overall speed of it could vary from performance to performance, but the rhythm would still be the same. + The speed or tempo of a piece of music is indicated by a [5]metronome marking and/or a [6]direction word or phrase; its rhythm is specified by various [7]note lengths creating [8]beats within [9]bars. * Modern songs often include [10]syncopation in their rhythm __________________________________________________________________ [11]Mail me [12]Copyright and disclaimer [13]Content and structure of these pages [14]Return to top Références 11. mailto:website@neilhawes.com [jazz-blues-pianist-3.jpg] [1]Home: jazz improvisation : pop blues| [2]Pop music videos| [3]Pop blues jazz albums| [4]Jazz improvisation - harmony| [5]Lingua italiana| [6]HELP - FAQ| Rhythm and swing * Swing jazz rhythm * [7]Music rhythm * [8]Learn music theory : polyrhythms Site menu * [9]Blues singer songwriter jazz pianist * [10]Pop music videos * [11]Jazz piano, tutorial videos * [12]Pop blues jazz albums * [13]Jazz pianist music stores Improvisation and music harmony : MIOP * [14]Jazz improvisation and music harmony : summary * [15]Music harmony concepts * [16]Scales, modes to improvise * [17]Blues improvisation * [18]Jazz melody and improvisation * Swing jazz rhythm * [19]Jazz techniques : practice Swing jazz rhythm in improvisation Swing is very important in improvisation. This word means stressing the upbeat. If you also give a "sliding" or "retardation" between notes, you can create the real swing jazz rhythm, which was born at the beginning of the XX century about. When you stress an upbeat you make perhaps a "swinging" rhythmics, (also being without a dragging or a sliding between notes), for modern rhythm too, (such as pop and rhythm and blues). * When you play swing music, that is Dixieland, blues, ragtime, swing, bebop, cool jazz, hard bop, you have to follow this scheme: basic rhythmic pattern ...in this way: swing jazz rhythm pattern Learn swing jazz rhythm In order to learn how to swing, you simply have to learn how to reason in up beat and stressing with it constantly. In other words, swing means "stressing the upbeat" with an implied octaves triplets clef. It's so a rhythm "sliding" effect created : the meaning of the American word "swing" is just similar to "sliding", "waving" or "rocking". * For example these measures : how to learn jazz swing ..must be played (in general) in this way: fundamental jazz swing rhythm In other words Swing has offbeat (upbeat) accents and an eighth-note triplets rhythmic base. Learning jazz swing Learning swing very well and have the ability to improvise, stressing and giving the right accent of phrases needs much time to practice it. Above all, you must pay attention at the beginning to stress upbeat octave notes constantly and to stop when you realize you are making the contrary. While stressing notes on your instrument, I suggest to upbeat by your foot, so that you can emphasize this rhythmic accent better. You have to get used to reason in upbeat, beginning all over again, as since we were children we have been starting clapping hands in downbeat. Swing-jazz rhythm can be so learned naturally after studying constantly in this direction. * You need some months to learn swing rhythm on your instrument. I remember you to stress always the upbeats. [20]Privacy Policy | musilosophy.com © 2005-2009 | All rights reserved | PIVA IT09999181002 Références Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics [1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics Browse by soundtrack Search in soundtracks Browse by artist name [2]A [3]B [4]C [5]D [6]E [7]F [8]G [9]H [10]I [11]J [12]K [13]L [14]M [15]N [16]O [17]P [18]Q [19]R [20]S [21]T [22]U [23]V [24]W [25]X [26]Y [27]Z [28]# ____________ Search [29]A [30]B [31]C [32]D [33]E [34]F [35]G [36]H [37]I [38]J [39]K [40]L [41]M [42]N [43]O [44]P [45]Q [46]R [47]S [48]T [49]U [50]V [51]W [52]X [53]Y [54]Z [55]# [0.gif] - Rhythm of Life Lyrics Ensemble: Daddy started out in San Francisco, Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean, Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy, Spread the picture on a wider screen." And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons Ready to be hooked on new religions. Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife. Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life." And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee, Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge, Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton, Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Fly, fly, fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Swim, swim, swim to Daddy Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy, And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life, Of life, of life, of life. Yeah! Yeah! Yeah! Man! Related for [56]Sweet Charity: sheet music [57]Buy Musical Sheet Music cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD dvd [59]Buy Musical DVD Links: [60]Broadway Musicals Lyrics Scroller [61]Add/correct lyrics | [62]Request lyrics | [63]Links | [64]Privacy | [65]Contact us © STLyrics.com 2002 - Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]The Rhythm Of Life / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [7]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [8]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life. Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language, instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as the most graceful. Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ, and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres, and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D, of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last. It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life. Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense, so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature. Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt, thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles, there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks. As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become. When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given. We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely, or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall you receive the best. With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in modern times. Continue to: * prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 Tags [46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics, [51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music, [56]vibration [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [57]TOP [58]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [59]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [60]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [61]StasoSphere [ [62]Privacy Policy ] [ [63]Terms of Use ] [ [64]About Us ] [ [65]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:35:04 2009 Références #[1]top [2]search [3]All news stories [4]Spotlight news only [5]Feature stories [6]Customize feed [7]Science and technology news * [8]Home * [9]Nanotechnology * [10]Physics * [11]Space & Earth * [12]Electronics * [13]Technology * [14]Chemistry * [15]Biology * [16]Medicine & Health * [17]Other Sciences * [18]Psychology & Psychiatry * [19]Research * [20]Medications * [21]Cancer * [22]Genetics * [23]HIV & AIDS * [24]Diseases * [25]Other * [26]Health * [27]Neuroscience Keeping the rhythm of life in sync May 28, 2008 Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or physical stress. The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be too fast, too slow, or irregular. All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal rhythm and not even know it. Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath, swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur because of abnormal heart rhythm. To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by placing electrodes on the skin. Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case, other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart catheterization. Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia. Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some of its pumping function. Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm. Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help restore the rhythm of life. Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs [29]print this article [30]email this article [31]download pdf [32]blog this article [33]bookmark this article [34]Stumble it [35]Digg this [36]share on Facebook [37]retweet [38]share on Reddit [39]add to delicious Rate this story - 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * rank * [40]1 * [41]2 * [42]3 * [43]4 * [44]5 [45]view popular Rank Filter _ (Submit) Filter (Submit) Off Move the slider to adjust rank threshold, so that you can hide some of the comments. Display comments: [46]newest first * [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 1 / 5 (1) "...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life..." Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood through our system of vessels. It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy and thin pipes. It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word "pump" to describe the heart. What about "metronome"? + [48]report abuse + o Current rank o [49]1 o [50]2 o [51]3 o [52]4 o [53]5 * [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 4 / 5 (1) Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong. Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels, and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation. As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick, as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation" or taking a highschool biology class. + [55]report abuse + o Current rank o [56]1 o [57]2 o [58]3 o [59]4 o [60]5 * [61]print * [62]email * [63]pdf * [64]txt * [65]blog * [66]bookmark * [67]aA * [68]Aa May 28, 2008 [69]all stories Comments: [70]2 * rank * [71]1 * [72]2 * [73]3 * [74]4 * [75]5 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * [76]Stumble this up * [77]share on Facebook * * [78]Digg this * [79]retweet * * [80]share this * share on Facebook [81]Facebook * retweet [82]ReTweet * share on MySpace [83]MySpace * share on Slashdot [84]Slashdot * share on Google [85]Google * share on Reddit [86]Reddit * add to delicious [87]Delicious * save to Yahoo! bookmarks [88]Yahoo! bookmarks * share on Windows Live [89]Windows Live * Add to Mixx! 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Rhythm Of Life lyrics (Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus) If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus) Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down (repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade) [phone_left.gif] [109]Send "Rhythm Of Life" Ringtone to your Cell Phone! 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[130]www.lastlocation.com [131][get.media?sid=21908&m=3&tp=7&d=s&c=1] Références [1][LOGO-SVART.gif] [MARKERING-raud-firkant-STOR.gif] A new column written by one of our editors is published every two week _______________ Search [Search entire Voices.] powered by [2]FreeFind [3]Toppbanner [4]Toppbanner [5]Toppbanner [6]Toppbanner [7]Toppbanner May 19, 2008 [*bilde.jpg] 5 most recent columns January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By Diego Schapira December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara Wheeler December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice. By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist. By Helen Oosthuizen Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli () 1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful presence. I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the universe is not threatening for me as before. Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office, when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity arising randomly, above the background sound. Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific scenarios I could never imagine before. 2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome. That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances, making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those dangerous noises. When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands. His sounds were so emotionally intense that their message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards, listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside. My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people, without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds. In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes. Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors' desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist. I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing: the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness necessary for improving quality of life. 3rd Movement: Trio In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea which considers that a good development of each system is possible when there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system. Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with rhythm entrainment and music. As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration. To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes schema to structure and order internal and external events using rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the emotional response to music. Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion, and metaphorical thinking. Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration. Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer, because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory. There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks. And, thus, they can still feel joy. 4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy, particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to train psychologists and physicians in this field. This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music. References Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music: The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers. Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of Illinois. To cite this page: Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Moderated discussion Add your comments and responses to this essay in our Moderated Discussions. Contributions should be e-mailed to either [13]Joke Bradt or [14]Thomas Wosch View contributions on this essay: [yet no contribution] [15]Guidelines for discussions ©2009. VOICES. All rights reserved [16]Site Meter Références Liens visibles 13. javascript:decrypt_and_email(1) 14. javascript:decrypt_and_email(2) Liens cachés : 17. mailto: 18. javascript:decrypt_and_email(25) [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] #[1]About.com [2]Lee's Shakespeare Blog ____________________ (Submit) Search [3]About.com [4]Shakespeare 1. [5]Home 2. [6]Education 3. [7]Shakespeare [8][education_shakespeare;kw=;site=shakespeare;chan=education;pos=lb;sz =728x90;ord=1A1HKZ80M20SA1n0T] * [9]Share * * [10]Shakespeare * [11]Shakespeare's Life * [12]Plays * [13]Sonnets * Free Shakespeare Newsletter! ____________________ (Submit) Sign Up * [14]Discuss in my Forum [15]Lee Jamieson Lee's Shakespeare Blog By [16]Lee Jamieson, About.com Guide to Shakespeare * [17]My Bio * [18]My Blog * [19]My Forum Add to: * [20]iGoogle * [21]My Yahoo! * [22]RSS Iambic Pentameter: The Rhythm of Life? Sunday March 22, 2009 [bencrystal.jpg] Does the thought of [23]iambic pentameter terrify you? I remember being baffeled by it at school myself because I got bogged down in counting syllables and working out where the stresses go but, I now know that this is a very technical way of studying iambic pentameter. In later life, Ive grown to love iambic pentameter. Theres something beautiful about it that I cant put my finger on. I know for sure that its in the speaking because on the page it is inert. When you [24]speak those words aloud, they literally jump off the tongue and the rhythm is the easiest of all meters to find. I asked Ben Crystal about this [25]in our interview a few months ago. He said that iambic pentameter is the rhythm of our English language and of our bodies a line of that poetry has the same rhythm as our heartbeat. A line of iambic pentameter fills the human lung perfectly, so its the rhythm of speech. I think this is true. When you [26]learn how to speak verse, you soon discover that its a very instinctive rhythm. Once you relax and go with the flow, it comes naturally. And, strange as it might sound, classic iambic pentameter lines like If music be the food of love, play on and Now is the winter of our discontent do happen to fit a single breath perfectly if spoken with passion. So, if youre having trouble with iambic pentameter, remember that its designed to be spoken, not studied. Open your mouth and speak aloud those great words. Photo of Ben Crystal © Scott Wishart * [27]Comments (2) * [28]See All Posts * [29]Share * [30]Prev * [31]Next [32]Leave a Comment Comments March 30, 2009 at 2:29 pm [33](1) [34]Kent Richmond says: In doing verse translations of five Shakespeare plays, I have had to learn how Shakespeares iambic pentameter works in order to give my translations the feel of the original. One of the beauties of iambic pentameter is that the poet can temporarily relax the meter without violating it. In this series of made-up and rather prosaic lines, the first line is straight-ahead iambic pentameter. The second and third lines, if read independently, are less obviously iambic pentameter, yet they do not violate the rhythm. The fourth line is clearly unmetrical and removes the sense that we are listening to verse. 1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes, 2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. (trochaic start; feminine ending) 3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. (Two spondees to start; feminine ending) 4. Dont you ever hit your little sister. (unmetrical) Shakespeare, at least in the plays I have translated, did not write verse lines with the rhythm of (4). To make this line sound a bit more like Shakespeares iambic pentameter, we need to make a few alterations to line 4. 1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes, 2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. 3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. 4. Dont ever hit that little girl again. To make the whole passage sound like prose, we need to change the first line a little. Then her mother took the kids clothes shopping, planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. Dont you ever hit your little sister. The first and fourth lines now have trochaic feet exposed in the wrong places, and most editors would print such a passage as prose. Shakespeares iambic pentameter certainly places constraints on what rhythms are allowed, yet it allows for flexibility and naturalness. Take a look at George Wrights book titled Shakespeares Metrical Art to see the techniques Shakespeare employed. April 11, 2009 at 8:25 pm [35](2) Dave says: The words literally jump off the tongue? I'd like to see that! 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[8]Ear training 01 Free music game [9]Piano note Free online teacher [10]Chords piano Write chords. then play the melody. [11]Sound memory Improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it. [12]Draw lessons How to draw free lessons [13]Online games Actions, Shooter, Logic online games [acleardot.gif] [acleardot.gif] What is music rhythm? The music rhythm is the beat. It is the most important element in music. It drives the music forward. It is the gasoline of music. Rhythms can be simple or complicated. Essential music vocabulary Meter It's the way we group the beats. We group eggs by the dozen. We group days by the week. We also group beats into two's or three's. That's meter. Rhythm The beat. The beat can be even or uneven, steady or unsteady. Note Values Long and short sounds in music are represented by notes. White notes have longer sounds than black notes. Tempo This is the speed of the music. Time Signature This is a number that appears at the beginning of the music. The top number tells you how many beats are in each measure (bar) and the bottom number tells you what kind of a note gets one beat. The most common times signatures are 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, and 6/8. Whole music notes These notes are whole notes. Each note is four beats long. Click the image to hear the note value. [14][whole.gif] Half music notes Here are half notes. Did you see the stems? These notes are twice as fast as whole notes. These note are two beats long. Click the image to hear the note value. [15][half.gif] Quarter music notes These notes are black. They are quarter notes. Each quarter note gets one beat. How many beats are in each measure? If you guessed four, you'd be right! Click the image to hear the note value. [16][quarter.gif] Eighth music notes These are eighth notes. Notice how the stems are connected by a beam. These notes move twice as fast as quarter notes. Two note are played for each beat of music. Click the image to hear the note value. [17][eighth_.gif] Combining Note Values In 4/4 time, different note values can be combined in each measure as long as they equal four beats. Click the examples to hear the rhythm patterns: [18][combo2.gif] [19][combo3.gif] [20][combo4.gif] Music tempo Tempo means speed. Musicians use Italian terms for different tempos. Here is a melody fragment. Click the image to hear the tune: [21][example.gif] Click the words below to hear this tune played at different tempos. Slow Medium Fast Largo Largo is the slowest tempo. Adagio Largo means slow or leisurely. Andante Andante means a walking pace. Moderato Moderato is medium. It is not too fast or too slow. Allegro Allegro is fast. It means cheerful in Italian. Vivace Vivace is quick and lively. Presto Presto is very fast. Meter Meter is how we hear the groupings of beats in music. Music will be in an even meter (groupings of 2's or 4's) or an odd meter (groupings of 3's). Even Meters Are Groupings of 2 Beats A [22]march is played in a meter of 2, which makes it an even meter. That means you will hear the beats of the march move in patterns of two's. Odd Meters Are Groupings of 3 Beats A [23]waltz is played in a meter of three, which makes it an odd meter. That means you will hear the beats of the waltz move in patterns of three's. Can you hear meter in music? Click the examples below to identify whether you hear the music moving in groups of two's or three's. [24]Example 1 [25]Example 2 [26]Example 3 [27]Example 4 [28]Example 5 Time Signatures The time signature helps us group the notes so we don't get lost. It's the way we organize beats in music. It's like grouping eggs by the dozen or days by the week. The top number tells us how many beats we can have in one measure. In 4/4 time we have four beats in each measure. What was the time signature in all of all the examples above? Remember this: A beat is not the same thing as a note. Notes can have more or less than one beat. A whole note in 4/4 time has four beats. A half note in 4/4 time has two beats. An eighth note in 4/4 time has just 1/2 beat. It takes two eighth notes to make one beat in 4/4 time. Time signatures and meter: The time signature will tell you the music's meter. If you can divide the top number by two, the music is in an even meter. If you can divide the top number by three, the music is in an odd meter. Let's look at some popular time signatures and see if we can add up the beats in each measure. 4/4 Time (Common Time) [Common_time.gif] Did you notice the number at the beginning of all the examples above? That's the time signature. It's 4/4. That means that there are four beats in each measure and the quarter note gets one beat. This time signature is also called Common Time because it is the most popular time signature in music. Listen to [29]Somewhere Over the Rainbow from The Wizard of Oz. It's in 4/4 time. Each measure equals four beats. It is in an even meter. [30][rainbow.gif] 3/4 Time (Waltz Time) [Three_four.gif] A 3/4 time signature would only have three beats per measure. Here is what it looks like. Listen to [31]America played in 3/4 time. 3/4 is also called waltz time. Did you notice the dots after some of the notes. Dotes make the notes longer. This song is in an odd meter because there are three beats per measure. [32][amaerica.gif] 2/4 Time [Two_four.gif] A 2/4 time signature has just two beats per measure. It looks like this. Listen to [33]You're a Grand Old Flag in 2/4 time. Do you see the line connecting the last two notes. It is called a tie. What is the meter of this song? Look at the time signature for your answer. [34][grand.gif] 6/8 Time [Six_eight.gif] A 6/8 time signature has six beats per measure. The bottom number is 8. This tells you that the eighth note gets one beat. Do you recognize the song [35]Follow the Yellow Brick Road from The Wizard of Oz? It's in 6/8 time. This song goes fast, making it sound like 2/4 rather than 6/8 time. This time signature can sound like an even or odd meter because you can divide 6 by 2 or 3. [36][wizaed.gif] Drums online games * [37]Drums music machine free online game * [38]Drums player online music machine * [39]Restore rhythm online ear training * [40]Drums map movie * [41]Drums editor online game Music piano and guitar online games * [42]Computer play a note pitch ear training. You try to understand it and type c,d,e,f,g... * [43]Computer show a note you try to understand it play keyboard * [44]Music machine ear training * [45]Piano music machine free online game you can compose melody and play it. Try compose melody. This is very easy. * [46]Music free online game. Try to repeat music. * [47]Note pair online game. Find all notes. This game is very useful for music memory improvement. * [48]Notes shooter online game. Try to recognize note as fast as you can. * [49]Piano note free online teacher * [50]Sound memory improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it. * [51]Drag music online game. Compose melody by notes. * [52]Piano note editor. Compose melody. Use mouse for composing. * [53]Find error at the melody online game. The computer play melody then replace one note. Try to find error Music machines * [54]Orchestra quiz online music * [55]Music quiz for kids * [56]Virtual band Music games for kids * [57]Rainbow piano for kids. Computer show the color. Kids need to press correct note. * [58]Can you play jingle bells? Look at the note sheet and play. * [59]Piano keyboard online game. Download piano keyboard movie on to your computer and play. Metronomes and fork * [60]Light metronome online movie * [61]Metronome online movie * [62]Guitar tuning fork its help tune guitar Guitar online games * [63]Guitar music machine * [64]Guitar chord finder * [65]Guitar online chords * [66]Guitar chords * [67]Basic guitar chords and how it * [68]Guitar chords machine with sound * [69]Guitar scales __________________________________________________________________ Free music games [70]AbabaSoft.com/music Copyright © 1998 - Références [1]CAT.INIST [2][USEMAP:bandeau-haut-droit.gif] logo CNRS [3]logo INIST [4]En savoir plus sur CAT.INIST ? © INIST Diffusion S.A. Service Clients / Customer Service 2, allée du parc de Brabois F-54514 Vandoeuvre Cedex France Tél : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.64 Fax : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.66 Courriel : [5]infoclient@inist.fr [6]Accueil / Home Imprimer / Print [7]Contact / Contact Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [8]Bookmark and Share [9]Mendeley Titre du document / Document title Effects of pre-exercise listening to slow and fast rhythm music on supramaximal cycle performance and selected metabolic variables Auteur(s) / Author(s) YAMAMOTO T.^ (1) ; OHKUWA T.^ (2) ; ITOH H.^ (2) ; KITOH M.^ (3) ; TERASAWA J.^ (3) ; TSUDA T.^ (3) ; KITAGAWA S.^ (3) ; SATO Y.^ (1) ; Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s) ^(1) Research Center of Health, Physical Fitness and Sports, Nagoya University, 464-8601, JAPON ^(2) Department of General studies, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON ^(3) Department of Applied Chemistry, Nagoya Institute of Technology, Showa-ku, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON Résumé / Abstract We examined the effect of listening to two different types of music (with slow and fast rhythm), prior to supramaximal cycle exercise, on performance, heart rate, the concentration of lactate and ammonia in blood, and the concentration of catecholamines in plasma. Six male students participated in this study. After listening to slow rhythm or fast rhythm music for 20 min, the subjects performed supramaximal exercise for 45 s using a cycle ergometer. Listening to slow and fast rhythm music prior to supramaximal exercise did not significantly affect the mean power output. The plasma norepinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to slow rhythm music was significantly lower than before listening (p < 0.05). The plasma epinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to fast rhythm music was significantly higher than before listening (p < 0.05). The type of music had no effect on blood lactate and ammonia levels or on plasma catecholamine levels following exercise. In conclusion, listening to slow rhythm music decreases the plasma norepinephrine level, and listening to fast rhythm music increases the plasma epinephrine level. The type of music has no impact on power output during exercise. Revue / Journal Title Archives of physiology and biochemistry ISSN 1381-3455 Source / Source 2003, vol. 111, n^o3, pp. 211-214 [4 page(s) (article)] (14 ref.) Langue / Language Anglais Revue : Français Editeur / Publisher Taylor & Francis, Basingstoke, ROYAUME-UNI (1995) (Revue) Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords Dopamine agonist ; Neurotransmitter ; Catecholamine ; Human ; Bicycle ergometer ; Music ; Rhythm ; Dopamine ; Norepinephrine ; Epinephrine ; Physical performance ; Heart rate ; Physical exercise ; Mots-clés français / French Keywords Stimulant dopaminergique ; Neurotransmetteur ; Catécholamine ; Homme ; Bicyclette ergométrique ; Musique ; Rythme ; Dopamine ; Noradrénaline ; Adrénaline ; Performance physique ; Rythme cardiaque ; Exercice physique ; Mots-clés espagnols / Spanish Keywords Estimulante dopaminérgico ; Neurotransmisor ; Catecolamina ; Hombre ; Bicicleta ergométrica ; Música ; Ritmo ; Dopamina ; Noradrenalina ; Adrenalina ; Rendimiento físico ; Ritmo cardíaco ; Ejercicio físico ; Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords Slow music ; fast music ; epinephrine ; norepinephrine ; dopamine ; supramaximal exercise ; power output ; lactate ; ammonia ; heart rate ; Localisation / Location INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 827, 35400011637312.0030 Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 15397711 Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [10]Bookmark and Share [11]Mendeley CAT.INIST Rechercher / Search _______________________________ OK Références 5. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20CAT.INIST.FR 7. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20Cat@inist.fr [USEMAP] Basic Music Theory. Copyright Neil Hawes 1997 Rhythm * Rhythm in music is dependent on the fact that humans recognise a [1]beat occurring at a regular interval. * Rhythm in music is more than just a [2]beat, however; it is the way that sounds with differing lengths (or gaps between them) and accents can combine to produce patterns in time which contain a [3]beat. + These sounds do not have to be particularly musical; rhythms can be made by striking almost anything, as long as there can be difference in accent. + Differences in accent can mean different sounds or just different loudness (i.e. amplitudes) of sounds * It is common to speak of a particular rhythm, referring to a pattern of [4]note lengths which occurs in a piece of music. + It is important to understand that the rhythm is defined by the pattern; the overall speed of it could vary from performance to performance, but the rhythm would still be the same. + The speed or tempo of a piece of music is indicated by a [5]metronome marking and/or a [6]direction word or phrase; its rhythm is specified by various [7]note lengths creating [8]beats within [9]bars. * Modern songs often include [10]syncopation in their rhythm __________________________________________________________________ [11]Mail me [12]Copyright and disclaimer [13]Content and structure of these pages [14]Return to top Références 11. mailto:website@neilhawes.com [jazz-blues-pianist-3.jpg] [1]Home: jazz improvisation : pop blues| [2]Pop music videos| [3]Pop blues jazz albums| [4]Jazz improvisation - harmony| [5]Lingua italiana| [6]HELP - FAQ| Rhythm and swing * Swing jazz rhythm * [7]Music rhythm * [8]Learn music theory : polyrhythms Site menu * [9]Blues singer songwriter jazz pianist * [10]Pop music videos * [11]Jazz piano, tutorial videos * [12]Pop blues jazz albums * [13]Jazz pianist music stores Improvisation and music harmony : MIOP * [14]Jazz improvisation and music harmony : summary * [15]Music harmony concepts * [16]Scales, modes to improvise * [17]Blues improvisation * [18]Jazz melody and improvisation * Swing jazz rhythm * [19]Jazz techniques : practice Swing jazz rhythm in improvisation Swing is very important in improvisation. This word means stressing the upbeat. If you also give a "sliding" or "retardation" between notes, you can create the real swing jazz rhythm, which was born at the beginning of the XX century about. When you stress an upbeat you make perhaps a "swinging" rhythmics, (also being without a dragging or a sliding between notes), for modern rhythm too, (such as pop and rhythm and blues). * When you play swing music, that is Dixieland, blues, ragtime, swing, bebop, cool jazz, hard bop, you have to follow this scheme: basic rhythmic pattern ...in this way: swing jazz rhythm pattern Learn swing jazz rhythm In order to learn how to swing, you simply have to learn how to reason in up beat and stressing with it constantly. In other words, swing means "stressing the upbeat" with an implied octaves triplets clef. It's so a rhythm "sliding" effect created : the meaning of the American word "swing" is just similar to "sliding", "waving" or "rocking". * For example these measures : how to learn jazz swing ..must be played (in general) in this way: fundamental jazz swing rhythm In other words Swing has offbeat (upbeat) accents and an eighth-note triplets rhythmic base. Learning jazz swing Learning swing very well and have the ability to improvise, stressing and giving the right accent of phrases needs much time to practice it. Above all, you must pay attention at the beginning to stress upbeat octave notes constantly and to stop when you realize you are making the contrary. While stressing notes on your instrument, I suggest to upbeat by your foot, so that you can emphasize this rhythmic accent better. You have to get used to reason in upbeat, beginning all over again, as since we were children we have been starting clapping hands in downbeat. Swing-jazz rhythm can be so learned naturally after studying constantly in this direction. * You need some months to learn swing rhythm on your instrument. I remember you to stress always the upbeats. [20]Privacy Policy | musilosophy.com © 2005-2009 | All rights reserved | PIVA IT09999181002 Références #[1]RSS spacer Music Learning Workshop [2]Home [3]MLW Blog [4]Join Community [5]Theory [6]Workshops [7]Store sp [8]Home: [9]Basic Music Theory Elements: Music Theory Rhythm "Music Theory Rhythm" "Your Journey in Music Rhythm" Introduction: Your journey to learn and master the music theory rhythm begins in this section of the Music Learning Workshop. The music rhythm workshop provides us with the basics needed to get rhythm down cold. below we link to the beginner series of lessons. We start with the essential building blocks of how to fundamentally know rhythm and then expand our knowledge of rhythm music theory and know how until we achieve mastery. Learning Pyramid The Basic Building Blocks of Rhythm Rhythm forms the basis of music theory. It is what all other musical elements are based upon. You can only survive so long in your musical journey without the essential building block of rhythm. Ask professional musicians: what one element of music do you find to be most important? The answer will often be rhythm. As it is the one thing that is least forgiven by the listener. Our learning approach assumes a level of maturity in the student. Often it is related to the age of about 8 years old. However, with proper guidance younger ages can use the materials. We don't take a single element to explore, but instead take a bigger picture and zero in on the elements that make it work. When we teach notes names or values we do it all at once, because it is very important that you know how all of them are related right at the start. This allows you jump start and accelerate your learning process. Whatâs really neat is that if you get hung up you can go back and see exactly what that single thing is and how it relates to other items in context. [10]WHAT'S NEW JOIN THE WORKSHOP Sign Up to Claim Your Free Report: Learn a Song - Crucial Steps to Mastering a Song Quickly First Name: _______________ Email Address: _______________ Submit We hate spam as much as you do! Your name and email address will not be sold, shared or disclosed. Beginning Rhythm Music Theory Lessons The sequence of lessons below are designed specifically for the newbie music student. They start with an overview approach of just looking at music components such as what is a measure a note in definition. We then follow the approach detailed above. Take your time Beginning Rhythm [11]Rhythm Definitions [12]Note Symbols [13]Note Symbols Practice [14]Note Time Value [15]Time Signatures [16]Counting Rhythm Beats [17]Counting Rhythm Using Rests [18]Counting Rhythm Duple Pattern [19]Counting Rhythm Quadruple Pattern [20]Counting Rhythm Triplet pattern [21]Note Relationships [22]Reference Chart Beat vs Time There is no hurry, it is far more important that you understand the concepts than to rush through them to get to the next one. The better you understand each step the easier the next one will be. Start with some terms we will need to become familiar with when discussing rhythm and music theory and move on through the lessons to build up on the previous group of knowledge. This outline shows the components of rhythm available on this site that you can start learning. This sequence is designed to quickly lead you through the basics of what is needed to learn rhythm music theory. The Music Learning Workshop "Get It Down Cold" Workbooks will be available soon to lead you through the process. [23]Join the our community and you will be notified when they are available. 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[73]top of Music Theory Rhythm [74]Home | [75]What's New | [76]Workshops | [77]Affiliate Program | [78]Site Map | [79]About Us | [80]Contact Us | [81]Disclaimer | [82]Privacy Policy | [83]Join MLW [84]Powered by Site Build It! | [85]Copyright©2008-2009 MusicLearningWorkshop.com - All Rights Reserved Références Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics [1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics Browse by soundtrack Search in soundtracks Browse by artist name [2]A [3]B [4]C [5]D [6]E [7]F [8]G [9]H [10]I [11]J [12]K [13]L [14]M [15]N [16]O [17]P [18]Q [19]R [20]S [21]T [22]U [23]V [24]W [25]X [26]Y [27]Z [28]# ____________ Search [29]A [30]B [31]C [32]D [33]E [34]F [35]G [36]H [37]I [38]J [39]K [40]L [41]M [42]N [43]O [44]P [45]Q [46]R [47]S [48]T [49]U [50]V [51]W [52]X [53]Y [54]Z [55]# [0.gif] - Rhythm of Life Lyrics Ensemble: Daddy started out in San Francisco, Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean, Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy, Spread the picture on a wider screen." And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons Ready to be hooked on new religions. Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife. Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life." And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee, Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge, Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton, Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Fly, fly, fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Swim, swim, swim to Daddy Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy, And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life, Of life, of life, of life. Yeah! Yeah! Yeah! Man! Related for [56]Sweet Charity: sheet music [57]Buy Musical Sheet Music cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD dvd [59]Buy Musical DVD Links: [60]Broadway Musicals Lyrics Scroller [61]Add/correct lyrics | [62]Request lyrics | [63]Links | [64]Privacy | [65]Contact us © STLyrics.com 2002 - Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]The Rhythm Of Life / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [7]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [8]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life. Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language, instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as the most graceful. Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ, and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres, and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D, of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last. It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life. Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense, so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature. Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt, thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles, there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks. As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become. When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given. We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely, or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall you receive the best. With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in modern times. Continue to: * prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 Tags [46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics, [51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music, [56]vibration [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [57]TOP [58]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [59]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [60]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [61]StasoSphere [ [62]Privacy Policy ] [ [63]Terms of Use ] [ [64]About Us ] [ [65]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:35:04 2009 Références #[1]top [2]search [3]All news stories [4]Spotlight news only [5]Feature stories [6]Customize feed [7]Science and technology news * [8]Home * [9]Nanotechnology * [10]Physics * [11]Space & Earth * [12]Electronics * [13]Technology * [14]Chemistry * [15]Biology * [16]Medicine & Health * [17]Other Sciences * [18]Psychology & Psychiatry * [19]Research * [20]Medications * [21]Cancer * [22]Genetics * [23]HIV & AIDS * [24]Diseases * [25]Other * [26]Health * [27]Neuroscience Keeping the rhythm of life in sync May 28, 2008 Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or physical stress. The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be too fast, too slow, or irregular. All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal rhythm and not even know it. Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath, swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur because of abnormal heart rhythm. To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by placing electrodes on the skin. Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case, other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart catheterization. Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia. Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some of its pumping function. Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm. Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help restore the rhythm of life. Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs [29]print this article [30]email this article [31]download pdf [32]blog this article [33]bookmark this article [34]Stumble it [35]Digg this [36]share on Facebook [37]retweet [38]share on Reddit [39]add to delicious Rate this story - 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * rank * [40]1 * [41]2 * [42]3 * [43]4 * [44]5 [45]view popular Rank Filter _ (Submit) Filter (Submit) Off Move the slider to adjust rank threshold, so that you can hide some of the comments. Display comments: [46]newest first * [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 1 / 5 (1) "...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life..." Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood through our system of vessels. It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy and thin pipes. It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word "pump" to describe the heart. What about "metronome"? + [48]report abuse + o Current rank o [49]1 o [50]2 o [51]3 o [52]4 o [53]5 * [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 4 / 5 (1) Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong. Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels, and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation. As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick, as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation" or taking a highschool biology class. + [55]report abuse + o Current rank o [56]1 o [57]2 o [58]3 o [59]4 o [60]5 * [61]print * [62]email * [63]pdf * [64]txt * [65]blog * [66]bookmark * [67]aA * [68]Aa May 28, 2008 [69]all stories Comments: [70]2 * rank * [71]1 * [72]2 * [73]3 * [74]4 * [75]5 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * [76]Stumble this up * [77]share on Facebook * * [78]Digg this * [79]retweet * * [80]share this * share on Facebook [81]Facebook * retweet [82]ReTweet * share on MySpace [83]MySpace * share on Slashdot [84]Slashdot * share on Google [85]Google * share on Reddit [86]Reddit * add to delicious [87]Delicious * save to Yahoo! bookmarks [88]Yahoo! bookmarks * share on Windows Live [89]Windows Live * Add to Mixx! 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Rhythm Of Life lyrics (Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus) If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus) Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down (repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade) [phone_left.gif] [109]Send "Rhythm Of Life" Ringtone to your Cell Phone! 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[130]www.lastlocation.com [131][get.media?sid=21908&m=3&tp=7&d=s&c=1] Références [1][LOGO-SVART.gif] [MARKERING-raud-firkant-STOR.gif] A new column written by one of our editors is published every two week _______________ Search [Search entire Voices.] powered by [2]FreeFind [3]Toppbanner [4]Toppbanner [5]Toppbanner [6]Toppbanner [7]Toppbanner May 19, 2008 [*bilde.jpg] 5 most recent columns January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By Diego Schapira December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara Wheeler December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice. By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist. By Helen Oosthuizen Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli () 1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful presence. I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the universe is not threatening for me as before. Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office, when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity arising randomly, above the background sound. Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific scenarios I could never imagine before. 2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome. That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances, making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those dangerous noises. When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands. His sounds were so emotionally intense that their message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards, listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside. My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people, without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds. In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes. Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors' desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist. I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing: the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness necessary for improving quality of life. 3rd Movement: Trio In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea which considers that a good development of each system is possible when there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system. Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with rhythm entrainment and music. As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration. To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes schema to structure and order internal and external events using rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the emotional response to music. Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion, and metaphorical thinking. Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration. Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer, because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory. There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks. And, thus, they can still feel joy. 4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy, particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to train psychologists and physicians in this field. This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music. References Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music: The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers. Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of Illinois. To cite this page: Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Moderated discussion Add your comments and responses to this essay in our Moderated Discussions. Contributions should be e-mailed to either [13]Joke Bradt or [14]Thomas Wosch View contributions on this essay: [yet no contribution] [15]Guidelines for discussions ©2009. VOICES. All rights reserved [16]Site Meter Références Liens visibles 13. javascript:decrypt_and_email(1) 14. javascript:decrypt_and_email(2) Liens cachés : 17. mailto: 18. javascript:decrypt_and_email(25) [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] #[1]About.com [2]Lee's Shakespeare Blog ____________________ (Submit) Search [3]About.com [4]Shakespeare 1. [5]Home 2. [6]Education 3. [7]Shakespeare [8][education_shakespeare;kw=;site=shakespeare;chan=education;pos=lb;sz =728x90;ord=1A1HKZQ0D20SA0MM7] * [9]Share * * [10]Shakespeare * [11]Shakespeare's Life * [12]Plays * [13]Sonnets * Free Shakespeare Newsletter! ____________________ (Submit) Sign Up * [14]Discuss in my Forum [15]Lee Jamieson Lee's Shakespeare Blog By [16]Lee Jamieson, About.com Guide to Shakespeare * [17]My Bio * [18]My Blog * [19]My Forum Add to: * [20]iGoogle * [21]My Yahoo! * [22]RSS Iambic Pentameter: The Rhythm of Life? Sunday March 22, 2009 [bencrystal.jpg] Does the thought of [23]iambic pentameter terrify you? I remember being baffeled by it at school myself because I got bogged down in counting syllables and working out where the stresses go but, I now know that this is a very technical way of studying iambic pentameter. In later life, Ive grown to love iambic pentameter. Theres something beautiful about it that I cant put my finger on. I know for sure that its in the speaking because on the page it is inert. When you [24]speak those words aloud, they literally jump off the tongue and the rhythm is the easiest of all meters to find. I asked Ben Crystal about this [25]in our interview a few months ago. He said that iambic pentameter is the rhythm of our English language and of our bodies a line of that poetry has the same rhythm as our heartbeat. A line of iambic pentameter fills the human lung perfectly, so its the rhythm of speech. I think this is true. When you [26]learn how to speak verse, you soon discover that its a very instinctive rhythm. Once you relax and go with the flow, it comes naturally. And, strange as it might sound, classic iambic pentameter lines like If music be the food of love, play on and Now is the winter of our discontent do happen to fit a single breath perfectly if spoken with passion. So, if youre having trouble with iambic pentameter, remember that its designed to be spoken, not studied. Open your mouth and speak aloud those great words. Photo of Ben Crystal © Scott Wishart * [27]Comments (2) * [28]See All Posts * [29]Share * [30]Prev * [31]Next [32]Leave a Comment Comments March 30, 2009 at 2:29 pm [33](1) [34]Kent Richmond says: In doing verse translations of five Shakespeare plays, I have had to learn how Shakespeares iambic pentameter works in order to give my translations the feel of the original. One of the beauties of iambic pentameter is that the poet can temporarily relax the meter without violating it. In this series of made-up and rather prosaic lines, the first line is straight-ahead iambic pentameter. The second and third lines, if read independently, are less obviously iambic pentameter, yet they do not violate the rhythm. The fourth line is clearly unmetrical and removes the sense that we are listening to verse. 1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes, 2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. (trochaic start; feminine ending) 3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. (Two spondees to start; feminine ending) 4. Dont you ever hit your little sister. (unmetrical) Shakespeare, at least in the plays I have translated, did not write verse lines with the rhythm of (4). To make this line sound a bit more like Shakespeares iambic pentameter, we need to make a few alterations to line 4. 1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes, 2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. 3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. 4. Dont ever hit that little girl again. To make the whole passage sound like prose, we need to change the first line a little. Then her mother took the kids clothes shopping, planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. Dont you ever hit your little sister. The first and fourth lines now have trochaic feet exposed in the wrong places, and most editors would print such a passage as prose. Shakespeares iambic pentameter certainly places constraints on what rhythms are allowed, yet it allows for flexibility and naturalness. Take a look at George Wrights book titled Shakespeares Metrical Art to see the techniques Shakespeare employed. April 11, 2009 at 8:25 pm [35](2) Dave says: The words literally jump off the tongue? I'd like to see that! 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Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Rhythm In Nature [7]page up: Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications | by Frederick R. Clow [8]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications. Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual training, recitation, gymnastics, and play. Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human [40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality. The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. . . . When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak. Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. - Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20. . . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight years in [42]duration are superposed. . . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135. Continue to: * prev: [43]Rhythm In Nature * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]The Cycle Of A Generation Tags [46]sociology, [47]communication, [48]congenial groups, [49]cycles of change, [50]democracy, [51]factors of society, [52]government, [53]heredity, [54]human nature, [55]institutions, [56]location, [57]natural selection, [58]organizations, [59]population, [60]primary groups, [61]social classes [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [62]TOP [63]previous page: Rhythm In Nature [64]page up: Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications | by Frederick R. Clow [65]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [66]StasoSphere [ [67]Privacy Policy ] [ [68]Terms of Use ] [ [69]About Us ] [ [70]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:34:34 2009 Références Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics [1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics Browse by soundtrack Search in soundtracks Browse by artist name [2]A [3]B [4]C [5]D [6]E [7]F [8]G [9]H [10]I [11]J [12]K [13]L [14]M [15]N [16]O [17]P [18]Q [19]R [20]S [21]T [22]U [23]V [24]W [25]X [26]Y [27]Z [28]# ____________ Search [29]A [30]B [31]C [32]D [33]E [34]F [35]G [36]H [37]I [38]J [39]K [40]L [41]M [42]N [43]O [44]P [45]Q [46]R [47]S [48]T [49]U [50]V [51]W [52]X [53]Y [54]Z [55]# [0.gif] - Rhythm of Life Lyrics Ensemble: Daddy started out in San Francisco, Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean, Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy, Spread the picture on a wider screen." And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons Ready to be hooked on new religions. Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife. Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life." And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee, Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge, Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton, Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Fly, fly, fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Swim, swim, swim to Daddy Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy, And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life, Of life, of life, of life. Yeah! Yeah! Yeah! Man! Related for [56]Sweet Charity: sheet music [57]Buy Musical Sheet Music cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD dvd [59]Buy Musical DVD Links: [60]Broadway Musicals Lyrics Scroller [61]Add/correct lyrics | [62]Request lyrics | [63]Links | [64]Privacy | [65]Contact us © STLyrics.com 2002 - Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]The Rhythm Of Life / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [7]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [8]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life. Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language, instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as the most graceful. Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ, and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres, and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D, of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last. It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life. Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense, so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature. Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt, thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles, there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks. As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become. When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given. We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely, or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall you receive the best. With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in modern times. Continue to: * prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 Tags [46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics, [51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music, [56]vibration [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [57]TOP [58]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [59]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [60]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [61]StasoSphere [ [62]Privacy Policy ] [ [63]Terms of Use ] [ [64]About Us ] [ [65]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:35:04 2009 Références #[1]top [2]search [3]All news stories [4]Spotlight news only [5]Feature stories [6]Customize feed [7]Science and technology news * [8]Home * [9]Nanotechnology * [10]Physics * [11]Space & Earth * [12]Electronics * [13]Technology * [14]Chemistry * [15]Biology * [16]Medicine & Health * [17]Other Sciences * [18]Psychology & Psychiatry * [19]Research * [20]Medications * [21]Cancer * [22]Genetics * [23]HIV & AIDS * [24]Diseases * [25]Other * [26]Health * [27]Neuroscience Keeping the rhythm of life in sync May 28, 2008 Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or physical stress. The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be too fast, too slow, or irregular. All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal rhythm and not even know it. Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath, swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur because of abnormal heart rhythm. To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by placing electrodes on the skin. Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case, other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart catheterization. Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia. Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some of its pumping function. Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm. Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help restore the rhythm of life. Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs [29]print this article [30]email this article [31]download pdf [32]blog this article [33]bookmark this article [34]Stumble it [35]Digg this [36]share on Facebook [37]retweet [38]share on Reddit [39]add to delicious Rate this story - 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * rank * [40]1 * [41]2 * [42]3 * [43]4 * [44]5 [45]view popular Rank Filter _ (Submit) Filter (Submit) Off Move the slider to adjust rank threshold, so that you can hide some of the comments. Display comments: [46]newest first * [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 1 / 5 (1) "...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life..." Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood through our system of vessels. It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy and thin pipes. It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word "pump" to describe the heart. What about "metronome"? + [48]report abuse + o Current rank o [49]1 o [50]2 o [51]3 o [52]4 o [53]5 * [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 4 / 5 (1) Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong. Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels, and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation. As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick, as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation" or taking a highschool biology class. + [55]report abuse + o Current rank o [56]1 o [57]2 o [58]3 o [59]4 o [60]5 * [61]print * [62]email * [63]pdf * [64]txt * [65]blog * [66]bookmark * [67]aA * [68]Aa May 28, 2008 [69]all stories Comments: [70]2 * rank * [71]1 * [72]2 * [73]3 * [74]4 * [75]5 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * [76]Stumble this up * [77]share on Facebook * * [78]Digg this * [79]retweet * * [80]share this * share on Facebook [81]Facebook * retweet [82]ReTweet * share on MySpace [83]MySpace * share on Slashdot [84]Slashdot * share on Google [85]Google * share on Reddit [86]Reddit * add to delicious [87]Delicious * save to Yahoo! bookmarks [88]Yahoo! bookmarks * share on Windows Live [89]Windows Live * Add to Mixx! 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Rhythm Of Life lyrics (Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus) If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus) Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down (repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade) [phone_left.gif] [109]Send "Rhythm Of Life" Ringtone to your Cell Phone! 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[130]www.lastlocation.com [131][get.media?sid=21908&m=3&tp=7&d=s&c=1] Références [1][LOGO-SVART.gif] [MARKERING-raud-firkant-STOR.gif] A new column written by one of our editors is published every two week _______________ Search [Search entire Voices.] powered by [2]FreeFind [3]Toppbanner [4]Toppbanner [5]Toppbanner [6]Toppbanner [7]Toppbanner May 19, 2008 [*bilde.jpg] 5 most recent columns January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By Diego Schapira December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara Wheeler December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice. By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist. By Helen Oosthuizen Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli () 1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful presence. I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the universe is not threatening for me as before. Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office, when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity arising randomly, above the background sound. Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific scenarios I could never imagine before. 2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome. That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances, making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those dangerous noises. When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands. His sounds were so emotionally intense that their message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards, listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside. My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people, without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds. In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes. Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors' desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist. I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing: the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness necessary for improving quality of life. 3rd Movement: Trio In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea which considers that a good development of each system is possible when there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system. Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with rhythm entrainment and music. As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration. To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes schema to structure and order internal and external events using rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the emotional response to music. Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion, and metaphorical thinking. Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration. Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer, because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory. There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks. And, thus, they can still feel joy. 4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy, particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to train psychologists and physicians in this field. This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music. References Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music: The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers. Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of Illinois. To cite this page: Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Moderated discussion Add your comments and responses to this essay in our Moderated Discussions. Contributions should be e-mailed to either [13]Joke Bradt or [14]Thomas Wosch View contributions on this essay: [yet no contribution] [15]Guidelines for discussions ©2009. VOICES. All rights reserved [16]Site Meter Références Liens visibles 13. javascript:decrypt_and_email(1) 14. javascript:decrypt_and_email(2) Liens cachés : 17. mailto: 18. javascript:decrypt_and_email(25) [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] #[1]About.com [2]Lee's Shakespeare Blog ____________________ (Submit) Search [3]About.com [4]Shakespeare 1. [5]Home 2. [6]Education 3. [7]Shakespeare [8][education_shakespeare;kw=;site=shakespeare;chan=education;pos=lb;sz =728x90;ord=1A1HKZQ0D20SA0MM7] * [9]Share * * [10]Shakespeare * [11]Shakespeare's Life * [12]Plays * [13]Sonnets * Free Shakespeare Newsletter! ____________________ (Submit) Sign Up * [14]Discuss in my Forum [15]Lee Jamieson Lee's Shakespeare Blog By [16]Lee Jamieson, About.com Guide to Shakespeare * [17]My Bio * [18]My Blog * [19]My Forum Add to: * [20]iGoogle * [21]My Yahoo! * [22]RSS Iambic Pentameter: The Rhythm of Life? Sunday March 22, 2009 [bencrystal.jpg] Does the thought of [23]iambic pentameter terrify you? I remember being baffeled by it at school myself because I got bogged down in counting syllables and working out where the stresses go but, I now know that this is a very technical way of studying iambic pentameter. In later life, Ive grown to love iambic pentameter. Theres something beautiful about it that I cant put my finger on. I know for sure that its in the speaking because on the page it is inert. When you [24]speak those words aloud, they literally jump off the tongue and the rhythm is the easiest of all meters to find. I asked Ben Crystal about this [25]in our interview a few months ago. He said that iambic pentameter is the rhythm of our English language and of our bodies a line of that poetry has the same rhythm as our heartbeat. A line of iambic pentameter fills the human lung perfectly, so its the rhythm of speech. I think this is true. When you [26]learn how to speak verse, you soon discover that its a very instinctive rhythm. Once you relax and go with the flow, it comes naturally. And, strange as it might sound, classic iambic pentameter lines like If music be the food of love, play on and Now is the winter of our discontent do happen to fit a single breath perfectly if spoken with passion. So, if youre having trouble with iambic pentameter, remember that its designed to be spoken, not studied. Open your mouth and speak aloud those great words. Photo of Ben Crystal © Scott Wishart * [27]Comments (2) * [28]See All Posts * [29]Share * [30]Prev * [31]Next [32]Leave a Comment Comments March 30, 2009 at 2:29 pm [33](1) [34]Kent Richmond says: In doing verse translations of five Shakespeare plays, I have had to learn how Shakespeares iambic pentameter works in order to give my translations the feel of the original. One of the beauties of iambic pentameter is that the poet can temporarily relax the meter without violating it. In this series of made-up and rather prosaic lines, the first line is straight-ahead iambic pentameter. The second and third lines, if read independently, are less obviously iambic pentameter, yet they do not violate the rhythm. The fourth line is clearly unmetrical and removes the sense that we are listening to verse. 1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes, 2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. (trochaic start; feminine ending) 3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. (Two spondees to start; feminine ending) 4. Dont you ever hit your little sister. (unmetrical) Shakespeare, at least in the plays I have translated, did not write verse lines with the rhythm of (4). To make this line sound a bit more like Shakespeares iambic pentameter, we need to make a few alterations to line 4. 1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes, 2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. 3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. 4. Dont ever hit that little girl again. To make the whole passage sound like prose, we need to change the first line a little. Then her mother took the kids clothes shopping, planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. Dont you ever hit your little sister. The first and fourth lines now have trochaic feet exposed in the wrong places, and most editors would print such a passage as prose. Shakespeares iambic pentameter certainly places constraints on what rhythms are allowed, yet it allows for flexibility and naturalness. Take a look at George Wrights book titled Shakespeares Metrical Art to see the techniques Shakespeare employed. April 11, 2009 at 8:25 pm [35](2) Dave says: The words literally jump off the tongue? I'd like to see that! 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Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Rhythm In Nature [7]page up: Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications | by Frederick R. Clow [8]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications. Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual training, recitation, gymnastics, and play. Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human [40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality. The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. . . . When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak. Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. - Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20. . . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight years in [42]duration are superposed. . . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135. Continue to: * prev: [43]Rhythm In Nature * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]The Cycle Of A Generation Tags [46]sociology, [47]communication, [48]congenial groups, [49]cycles of change, [50]democracy, [51]factors of society, [52]government, [53]heredity, [54]human nature, [55]institutions, [56]location, [57]natural selection, [58]organizations, [59]population, [60]primary groups, [61]social classes [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [62]TOP [63]previous page: Rhythm In Nature [64]page up: Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications | by Frederick R. Clow [65]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [66]StasoSphere [ [67]Privacy Policy ] [ [68]Terms of Use ] [ [69]About Us ] [ [70]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:34:34 2009 Références #[1]Welcome page [2]Help [3]Parent screen [4]skip navigation [5]Geography Compass Select Compass [Geography Compass........................] Go * [6]Home | * [7]My Compass | * [8]Help | * [9]Content Alerts | * [10]Contact Us | * [11]Links * [12]What is Geography Compass? | * [13]Subscribe | * [14]Editors | * [15]Editorial Board | * [16]Authors Cultural Towards Lefebvrian Socio-Nature? A Film about Rhythm, Nature and Science By [17]James Evans and [18]Phil Jones, School of Environment and Development, University of Manchester School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham (April 2008) __________________________________________________________________ Section: [19]Cultural Subjects: [20]Geography, [21]Urban Geography, [22]Environment And Society, [23]Cultural Geography. Key Topics: [24]nature , [25]representation. Abstract The first thing you will notice about this article is that it is actually a film. We did not set out to make a film, it just ended up that way. We started out making music out of environmental data, wondering why we only ever look at scientific data, why we do not listen to it. Wandering around the city passing through the transformed landscapes of channelised rivers and broken industrial spaces, we wanted to reveal the socio-natural rhythms of this hybrid city. The text you see below represents the shooting script for a film that explores Lefebvre's notion of rhythmanalysis in the context of socio-natural rhythms. The video accompanying it is far more interesting, including the environmental music that we produced by feeding scientific data through samplers and drum machines. The video questions the nature of scientific representation and whether the notion of rhythmanalysis can be stretched to explore rhythms beyond the human. Furthermore, the process of actually making the video, submitting it to this journal, and responding to the referees' comments made us question the very nature of what constitutes an academic paper in the twenty-first century. The accompanying commentary is our attempt to deal with these issues. To link to the film please go to DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00107.x This article abstract has been viewed 5359 times. 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By James Donald From [47]Companion to the City * [48]The Production of Nature It may seem strange to include a chapter on the production of nature in a volume about economic geography. ... 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[76][ access key 0 : accessibility information including access key list ] [77][ access key 1 : home page ] [78][ access key 2 : skip navigation] [79][ access key 6 : help ] Références Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics [1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics Browse by soundtrack Search in soundtracks Browse by artist name [2]A [3]B [4]C [5]D [6]E [7]F [8]G [9]H [10]I [11]J [12]K [13]L [14]M [15]N [16]O [17]P [18]Q [19]R [20]S [21]T [22]U [23]V [24]W [25]X [26]Y [27]Z [28]# ____________ Search [29]A [30]B [31]C [32]D [33]E [34]F [35]G [36]H [37]I [38]J [39]K [40]L [41]M [42]N [43]O [44]P [45]Q [46]R [47]S [48]T [49]U [50]V [51]W [52]X [53]Y [54]Z [55]# [0.gif] - Rhythm of Life Lyrics Ensemble: Daddy started out in San Francisco, Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean, Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy, Spread the picture on a wider screen." And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons Ready to be hooked on new religions. Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife. Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life." And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee, Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge, Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton, Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Fly, fly, fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Swim, swim, swim to Daddy Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy, And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life, Of life, of life, of life. Yeah! Yeah! Yeah! Man! Related for [56]Sweet Charity: sheet music [57]Buy Musical Sheet Music cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD dvd [59]Buy Musical DVD Links: [60]Broadway Musicals Lyrics Scroller [61]Add/correct lyrics | [62]Request lyrics | [63]Links | [64]Privacy | [65]Contact us © STLyrics.com 2002 - Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]The Rhythm Of Life / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [7]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [8]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life. Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language, instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as the most graceful. Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ, and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres, and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D, of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last. It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life. Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense, so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature. Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt, thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles, there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks. As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become. When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given. We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely, or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall you receive the best. With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in modern times. Continue to: * prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 Tags [46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics, [51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music, [56]vibration [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [57]TOP [58]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [59]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [60]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [61]StasoSphere [ [62]Privacy Policy ] [ [63]Terms of Use ] [ [64]About Us ] [ [65]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:35:04 2009 Références #[1]top [2]search [3]All news stories [4]Spotlight news only [5]Feature stories [6]Customize feed [7]Science and technology news * [8]Home * [9]Nanotechnology * [10]Physics * [11]Space & Earth * [12]Electronics * [13]Technology * [14]Chemistry * [15]Biology * [16]Medicine & Health * [17]Other Sciences * [18]Psychology & Psychiatry * [19]Research * [20]Medications * [21]Cancer * [22]Genetics * [23]HIV & AIDS * [24]Diseases * [25]Other * [26]Health * [27]Neuroscience Keeping the rhythm of life in sync May 28, 2008 Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or physical stress. The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be too fast, too slow, or irregular. All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal rhythm and not even know it. Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath, swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur because of abnormal heart rhythm. To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by placing electrodes on the skin. Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case, other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart catheterization. Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia. Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some of its pumping function. Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm. Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help restore the rhythm of life. Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs [29]print this article [30]email this article [31]download pdf [32]blog this article [33]bookmark this article [34]Stumble it [35]Digg this [36]share on Facebook [37]retweet [38]share on Reddit [39]add to delicious Rate this story - 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * rank * [40]1 * [41]2 * [42]3 * [43]4 * [44]5 [45]view popular Rank Filter _ (Submit) Filter (Submit) Off Move the slider to adjust rank threshold, so that you can hide some of the comments. Display comments: [46]newest first * [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 1 / 5 (1) "...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life..." Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood through our system of vessels. It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy and thin pipes. It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word "pump" to describe the heart. What about "metronome"? + [48]report abuse + o Current rank o [49]1 o [50]2 o [51]3 o [52]4 o [53]5 * [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 4 / 5 (1) Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong. Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels, and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation. As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick, as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation" or taking a highschool biology class. + [55]report abuse + o Current rank o [56]1 o [57]2 o [58]3 o [59]4 o [60]5 * [61]print * [62]email * [63]pdf * [64]txt * [65]blog * [66]bookmark * [67]aA * [68]Aa May 28, 2008 [69]all stories Comments: [70]2 * rank * [71]1 * [72]2 * [73]3 * [74]4 * [75]5 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * [76]Stumble this up * [77]share on Facebook * * [78]Digg this * [79]retweet * * [80]share this * share on Facebook [81]Facebook * retweet [82]ReTweet * share on MySpace [83]MySpace * share on Slashdot [84]Slashdot * share on Google [85]Google * share on Reddit [86]Reddit * add to delicious [87]Delicious * save to Yahoo! bookmarks [88]Yahoo! bookmarks * share on Windows Live [89]Windows Live * Add to Mixx! 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Rhythm Of Life lyrics (Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus) If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus) Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down (repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade) [phone_left.gif] [109]Send "Rhythm Of Life" Ringtone to your Cell Phone! 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[130]www.lastlocation.com [131][get.media?sid=21908&m=3&tp=7&d=s&c=1] Références [1][LOGO-SVART.gif] [MARKERING-raud-firkant-STOR.gif] A new column written by one of our editors is published every two week _______________ Search [Search entire Voices.] powered by [2]FreeFind [3]Toppbanner [4]Toppbanner [5]Toppbanner [6]Toppbanner [7]Toppbanner May 19, 2008 [*bilde.jpg] 5 most recent columns January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By Diego Schapira December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara Wheeler December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice. By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist. By Helen Oosthuizen Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli () 1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful presence. I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the universe is not threatening for me as before. Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office, when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity arising randomly, above the background sound. Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific scenarios I could never imagine before. 2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome. That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances, making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those dangerous noises. When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands. His sounds were so emotionally intense that their message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards, listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside. My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people, without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds. In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes. Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors' desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist. I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing: the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness necessary for improving quality of life. 3rd Movement: Trio In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea which considers that a good development of each system is possible when there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system. Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with rhythm entrainment and music. As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration. To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes schema to structure and order internal and external events using rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the emotional response to music. Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion, and metaphorical thinking. Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration. Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer, because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory. There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks. And, thus, they can still feel joy. 4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy, particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to train psychologists and physicians in this field. This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music. References Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music: The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers. Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of Illinois. To cite this page: Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Moderated discussion Add your comments and responses to this essay in our Moderated Discussions. Contributions should be e-mailed to either [13]Joke Bradt or [14]Thomas Wosch View contributions on this essay: [yet no contribution] [15]Guidelines for discussions ©2009. VOICES. All rights reserved [16]Site Meter Références Liens visibles 13. javascript:decrypt_and_email(1) 14. javascript:decrypt_and_email(2) Liens cachés : 17. mailto: 18. javascript:decrypt_and_email(25) [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] #[1]About.com [2]Lee's Shakespeare Blog ____________________ (Submit) Search [3]About.com [4]Shakespeare 1. [5]Home 2. [6]Education 3. [7]Shakespeare [8][education_shakespeare;kw=;site=shakespeare;chan=education;pos=lb;sz =728x90;ord=1A1HKZQ0D20SA0MM7] * [9]Share * * [10]Shakespeare * [11]Shakespeare's Life * [12]Plays * [13]Sonnets * Free Shakespeare Newsletter! ____________________ (Submit) Sign Up * [14]Discuss in my Forum [15]Lee Jamieson Lee's Shakespeare Blog By [16]Lee Jamieson, About.com Guide to Shakespeare * [17]My Bio * [18]My Blog * [19]My Forum Add to: * [20]iGoogle * [21]My Yahoo! * [22]RSS Iambic Pentameter: The Rhythm of Life? Sunday March 22, 2009 [bencrystal.jpg] Does the thought of [23]iambic pentameter terrify you? I remember being baffeled by it at school myself because I got bogged down in counting syllables and working out where the stresses go but, I now know that this is a very technical way of studying iambic pentameter. In later life, Ive grown to love iambic pentameter. Theres something beautiful about it that I cant put my finger on. I know for sure that its in the speaking because on the page it is inert. When you [24]speak those words aloud, they literally jump off the tongue and the rhythm is the easiest of all meters to find. I asked Ben Crystal about this [25]in our interview a few months ago. He said that iambic pentameter is the rhythm of our English language and of our bodies a line of that poetry has the same rhythm as our heartbeat. A line of iambic pentameter fills the human lung perfectly, so its the rhythm of speech. I think this is true. When you [26]learn how to speak verse, you soon discover that its a very instinctive rhythm. Once you relax and go with the flow, it comes naturally. And, strange as it might sound, classic iambic pentameter lines like If music be the food of love, play on and Now is the winter of our discontent do happen to fit a single breath perfectly if spoken with passion. So, if youre having trouble with iambic pentameter, remember that its designed to be spoken, not studied. Open your mouth and speak aloud those great words. Photo of Ben Crystal © Scott Wishart * [27]Comments (2) * [28]See All Posts * [29]Share * [30]Prev * [31]Next [32]Leave a Comment Comments March 30, 2009 at 2:29 pm [33](1) [34]Kent Richmond says: In doing verse translations of five Shakespeare plays, I have had to learn how Shakespeares iambic pentameter works in order to give my translations the feel of the original. One of the beauties of iambic pentameter is that the poet can temporarily relax the meter without violating it. In this series of made-up and rather prosaic lines, the first line is straight-ahead iambic pentameter. The second and third lines, if read independently, are less obviously iambic pentameter, yet they do not violate the rhythm. The fourth line is clearly unmetrical and removes the sense that we are listening to verse. 1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes, 2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. (trochaic start; feminine ending) 3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. (Two spondees to start; feminine ending) 4. Dont you ever hit your little sister. (unmetrical) Shakespeare, at least in the plays I have translated, did not write verse lines with the rhythm of (4). To make this line sound a bit more like Shakespeares iambic pentameter, we need to make a few alterations to line 4. 1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes, 2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. 3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. 4. Dont ever hit that little girl again. To make the whole passage sound like prose, we need to change the first line a little. Then her mother took the kids clothes shopping, planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. Dont you ever hit your little sister. The first and fourth lines now have trochaic feet exposed in the wrong places, and most editors would print such a passage as prose. Shakespeares iambic pentameter certainly places constraints on what rhythms are allowed, yet it allows for flexibility and naturalness. Take a look at George Wrights book titled Shakespeares Metrical Art to see the techniques Shakespeare employed. April 11, 2009 at 8:25 pm [35](2) Dave says: The words literally jump off the tongue? I'd like to see that! 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Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Rhythm In Nature [7]page up: Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications | by Frederick R. Clow [8]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications. Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual training, recitation, gymnastics, and play. Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human [40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality. The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. . . . When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak. Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. - Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20. . . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight years in [42]duration are superposed. . . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135. Continue to: * prev: [43]Rhythm In Nature * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]The Cycle Of A Generation Tags [46]sociology, [47]communication, [48]congenial groups, [49]cycles of change, [50]democracy, [51]factors of society, [52]government, [53]heredity, [54]human nature, [55]institutions, [56]location, [57]natural selection, [58]organizations, [59]population, [60]primary groups, [61]social classes [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [62]TOP [63]previous page: Rhythm In Nature [64]page up: Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications | by Frederick R. Clow [65]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [66]StasoSphere [ [67]Privacy Policy ] [ [68]Terms of Use ] [ [69]About Us ] [ [70]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:34:34 2009 Références #[1]Welcome page [2]Help [3]Parent screen [4]skip navigation [5]Geography Compass Select Compass [Geography Compass........................] Go * [6]Home | * [7]My Compass | * [8]Help | * [9]Content Alerts | * [10]Contact Us | * [11]Links * [12]What is Geography Compass? | * [13]Subscribe | * [14]Editors | * [15]Editorial Board | * [16]Authors Cultural Towards Lefebvrian Socio-Nature? A Film about Rhythm, Nature and Science By [17]James Evans and [18]Phil Jones, School of Environment and Development, University of Manchester School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham (April 2008) __________________________________________________________________ Section: [19]Cultural Subjects: [20]Geography, [21]Urban Geography, [22]Environment And Society, [23]Cultural Geography. Key Topics: [24]nature , [25]representation. Abstract The first thing you will notice about this article is that it is actually a film. We did not set out to make a film, it just ended up that way. We started out making music out of environmental data, wondering why we only ever look at scientific data, why we do not listen to it. Wandering around the city passing through the transformed landscapes of channelised rivers and broken industrial spaces, we wanted to reveal the socio-natural rhythms of this hybrid city. The text you see below represents the shooting script for a film that explores Lefebvre's notion of rhythmanalysis in the context of socio-natural rhythms. The video accompanying it is far more interesting, including the environmental music that we produced by feeding scientific data through samplers and drum machines. The video questions the nature of scientific representation and whether the notion of rhythmanalysis can be stretched to explore rhythms beyond the human. Furthermore, the process of actually making the video, submitting it to this journal, and responding to the referees' comments made us question the very nature of what constitutes an academic paper in the twenty-first century. The accompanying commentary is our attempt to deal with these issues. To link to the film please go to DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00107.x This article abstract has been viewed 5359 times. [27]view [28]cite [29]Add to my Compass [30]Add to VLE/CMS [31]feedback __________________________________________________________________ Top 5 related articles * [32]Geographies for Moving Bodies: Thinking, Dancing, Spaces By [33]Derek P. McCormack , Oxford University Centre for the Environment (Vol. 3, October 2008) Geography Compass * [34]Colonialism, Landscape and the Subterranean By [35]Heidi V. Scott , Institute of Geography and Earth Sciences, Aberystwyth University (Vol. 3, October 2008) Geography Compass * [36]Climate-Suicide Relationships: A Research Problem in Need of Geographic Methods and Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives By P. Grady Dixon and Adam J. Kalkstein, Mississippi State UniversityUnited States Military Academy (Vol. 4, September 2009) Geography Compass * [37]Ethnomethodology and the Non-representational: What Are Disaffected Young White Men Capable of? By [38]Rob Loughenbury , University of Durham (Vol. 4, June 2009) Geography Compass * [39]The Legacies of 2007: Remapping the Black Presence in Britain By [40]Caroline Bressey , University College London (Vol. 4, April 2009) Geography Compass [[41]All related articles] Top 5 Related Blackwell Reference Chapters * [42]The Environment of the City ... or the Urbanization of Nature The question that now begins to gnaw at your mind is more anguished: outside Penthesilea does an outside ... By Erik Swyngedouw and Maria Kaïka From [43]Companion to the City * [44]Postcolonialism, Representation, and the City Topicality, the essence of good journalism, is perhaps less important for the longer-term perspectives ... By Anthony D. King From [45]Companion to the City * [46]The Immaterial City: Representation, Imagination, and Media Technologies J.-K. Huysmans's À Rebours (Against Nature) is a fictional study of a certain type of dandy in the latter ... By James Donald From [47]Companion to the City * [48]The Production of Nature It may seem strange to include a chapter on the production of nature in a volume about economic geography. ... By Noel Castree From [49]A Companion to Economic Geography [[50]All Related Reference Chapters] * [51]Economic * [52]Social * [53]Cultural * [54]Political * [55]Urban * [56]Development * [57]Climatology * [58]Hydrology & Water Resources * [59]Geomorphology * [60]Biogeography * [61]GIS * [62]Earth Observation * [63]Environment & Society * [64]Global Issues Quick Search Keyword search: ____________________ Select a section: [All........................] Select a content type: [All.................................] [65]Advanced Search Search Related Blackwell Reference Chapters [66]View Related Reference Books [67]Geography Compass - Personal Subscription Rates [68]Sign up for free Geography Compass content alerts [69]Keep up-to-date "...an indispensable reference tool for teachers, researchers, and students in Geography and related disciplines." Mike Bradshaw and Basil Gomez Geography Compass Editors-in-Chief [70]Blackwell Publishing Copyright © 2005-2007 [71]Blackwell Publishing | [72]Privacy Policy | [73]Contact us | [74]Help | [75]To the top... [76][ access key 0 : accessibility information including access key list ] [77][ access key 1 : home page ] [78][ access key 2 : skip navigation] [79][ access key 6 : help ] Références [1]pmc logo image [2]Logo of nihpa [3]Journal List > [4]NIHPA Author Manuscripts Formats: * [5]Abstract | * Full Text | * [6]PDF (32K) J Public Health Policy. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2008 July 24. Published in final edited form as: [7]J Public Health Policy. 2006; 27(1): 2-12. doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200061. PMCID: PMC2483431 NIHMSID: NIHMS58476 [8]Copyright notice and [9]Disclaimer Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature Elena N. Naumova^* ^*Address for Correspondence: Department of Public Health and Family Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Avenue, Boston, MA 02111, USA. E-mail: elena.naumova/at/tufts.edu Small right arrow pointing to: The publisher's final edited version of this article is available at [10]J Public Health Policy. Small right arrow pointing to: See other articles in PMC that [11]cite the published article. Abstract Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences. Understanding seasonal fluctuations in diseases patterns presents us with a major challenge. To develop efficient strategies for disease prevention and control, we need to grasp the main determinants of temporal variations and their interactions. This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality by outlining several of its factors, using as illustrations respiratory and enteric water- or food-borne infections. Keywords: seasonality, water-borne infection, food-borne infection, respiratory infection * [12] Other Sectionsv + [13]Abstract + [14]Introduction + [15]Notion of Seasonality + [16]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [17]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [18]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [19]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [20]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [21]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [22]References Introduction Now let us consider the seasons and the way we can predict whether it is going to be a healthy or an unhealthy year. (Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 10)^[23]1 Seasonal fluctuations in birth and death, in sickness and health, are the haunting mysteries of mankind. People have made predictions from winds, tides, birds' migrations, spring blooms, sunsets, and constellations in hope of grasping the future. The complexity and uncertainty of ancient and modern means of prediction make us wonder to what extent we are able to understand the rhythm of nature. One might argue the future cannot be known, but from a practical point of view, a better understanding of changes in disease occurrences is essential for building efficient strategies for disease prevention and control. Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences. Since Hippocrates, observers worldwide have noted and documented marked fluctuations in the incidence of many diseases. In the modern view, the main determinants of temporal variations in disease manifestation are evolving host susceptibility, periodicity in pathogen abundance and transmissibility, and the ever-changing environment that can support or repress a host or pathogen. Interactions among these factors responsible for seasonal variation are interwoven into the intricate fabric of life. For many diseases, explanations for self-sustained oscillations still remain elusive. We lack adequate methods and sufficient analytical tools for comprehensive examination of seasonality in public health field studies. A dearth of observations, recorded over long periods at fine resolution, compounded by an enormous number of factors associated with periodic changes, obscure our ability to understand disease variation. Urgent need for effective strategies to prevent and control a spread of emerging infections in the rapidly changing world, however, demands a deeper insight into the cyclic nature of diseases. This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality and outline several factors associated with seasonality using as illustrations enteric water- or food-borne infections and respiratory infections. Then I propose a framework for systematic evaluation of seasonal oscillations. In every part of this presentation, and most importantly, I wish to stimulate discussion on this challenging topic. * [24] Other Sectionsv + [25]Abstract + [26]Introduction + [27]Notion of Seasonality + [28]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [29]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [30]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [31]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [32]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [33]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [34]References Notion of Seasonality Every disease occurs at any season of the year but some of them more frequently occur and are of greater severity at certain times. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 19) Seasonality, as noted above, refers to the cyclic appearance of events over a period of time. A seasonal pattern may appear as a tight cluster of isolated outbreaks that occurred during a relatively short time period, then spreading over a wide geographic area. For example, in a temporal curve of enteric infection cases (i.e. giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, or rotavirus infections), a compact cluster of outbreaks is followed by a long interval of low incidence. Systematic recurrence of such sequences forms a seasonal pattern typical of a specific pathogen in a given population and in a given locality. A seasonal increase in enteric or respiratory infection often produces a well-defined oscillating curve that starts to rise in one season and declines over the next one. The three main features characterize seasonality: * a point in time when a seasonal curve reaches its maximum, * an amplitude from peak to nadir, and * a duration of a seasonal increase defined by a shape of a curve. (The shape of a seasonal pattern reflects how fast a temporal curve reaches its peak and declines to nadir over a course of a full cycle. Depending on the length of a cycle whether it is one year or a half of a year, a seasonal curve would have one or two peaks.) Seasonal patterns, described by these three characteristics, may vary for different diseases, different locations, or different subpopulations. Many viral and bacterial infections in humans show marked seasonal changes. In some diseases, like salmonellosis and influenza, annual oscillations explain up to 60% of variability. Such impact should not be ignored and deserves a proper examination. * [35] Other Sectionsv + [36]Abstract + [37]Introduction + [38]Notion of Seasonality + [39]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [40]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [41]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [42]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [43]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [44]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [45]References Diseases Seasonal Patterns Diseases vary in their relationships one with another; some are opposed, some are mutually agreeable. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 3) Differences in diseases peaks reflect different etiology, heterogeneity in host susceptibility, or route of transmission. In temperate climates, Campylobacter and Salmonella infections are known to rise in summer, giardiasis in early fall, and rotavirus infection in mid-winter, etc. Interestingly, for the same infectious agent, infections recorded in two different locations may present a different pattern of incidence. A seasonal pattern for cryptosporidiosis in the United States exhibits one late summer peak ([46]1); in contrast, in the United Kingdom, two seasonal peaks are seen ([47]2). The UK picture reflects two dominant sources of exposure: one from animals in the late spring, and another from humans in the fall ([48]3). Close temporal clustering of seasonal peaks in diseases that share similar sources of exposure suggests dominant routes of transmissions. Peaks in water-borne cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis often cluster after a summer peak in ambient temperature. Such synchronization in disease manifestation can be governed by environmental and social factors. In some instances, periodicity of a given infection observed in a particular population may be not present in another. A seasonal peak in cryptosporidiosis cases observed in the general population is not apparent in the immunocompromized HIV-positive gay men, even though the incidence of cryptosporidiosis in HIV-positive population is very high. This suggests differences in dominant routes of transmission. Seasonal patterns can change over time. After intense vaccination campaigns in the 1950s and 1970s in the United Kingdom, the patterns of measles and pertussis changed, with the high rates of disease usually seen when children were attending school diminishing for measles and practically disappearing for pertusis ([49]4). Explanations for these phenomena remain elusive. A departure from a systematically observed pattern could reflect the evolution of a pathogen or a change in herd immunity. A simple rule to remember is that a discovery hides in outliers. Faced with an abundance of causal agents, a bare observation of a rise in the incidence of non-specific enteritis should be interpreted with caution. A seasonal pattern can represent a mix of temporal curves. Imagine two periodic curves of similar intensity, but one peaks in a spring and another in a fall; the sum of these two curves might lose the appearance of seasonality, covering two distinctly seasonal phenomena. Some infections are very rare. Their seasonal patterns are difficult to examine because the relevant data must be collected over a very long time and/or aggregated over large spatial units. Precision in evaluating seasonality can thus be jeopardized by time-dependent and/or space-dependent confounders. Seasonal fluctuations can be found beyond infectious diseases; chronic somatic diseases also exhibit substantial temporal variations. Plausibly, exacerbations in chronic conditions are driven by infectious agents or environmental changes. Understanding the interplay of an infection and a chronic disease may lead to better control for both. * [50] Other Sectionsv + [51]Abstract + [52]Introduction + [53]Notion of Seasonality + [54]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [55]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [56]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [57]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [58]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [59]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [60]References Seasonal Host Susceptibility When the weather is seasonable and the crops ripen at the regular times, diseases are regular in their appearance... (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 8) Poor nutrition directly affects host susceptibility. In places of food scarcity, researchers suspect that temporal patterns in birth weight and preterm delivery result from seasonal variations in food availability ([61]5). In general, due to a less developed immune system, young children are susceptible to infection; their immune response may be further weakened by seasonal cutbacks in essential micronutrients and vitamins. Anemnestic responses to an antigen determine whether an infection recurs. Short-lived immune memory together with seasonal changes in pathogen transmissibility contribute further to the complexity of seasonal patterns. Even a perfectly healthy person can experience a change in susceptibility to infection due to stress, injuries, or trauma. The probability of a marked impact of such factors on disease seasonality is virtually unknown. * [62] Other Sectionsv + [63]Abstract + [64]Introduction + [65]Notion of Seasonality + [66]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [67]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [68]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [69]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [70]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [71]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [72]References Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility Some diseases are produced by the manner of life that is followed; others by the life-giving air we breathe. (Hippocrates. The Nature of Man, 9) Temperature, humidity, and precipitation -- the defining factors of seasons -- are important determinants of pathogens' survival. Changes influence pathogens' potency and life expectancy, resulting in temporal fluctuations in pathogens' abundance. In many instances, seasonal changes in pathogen survival and transmission are inseparably related to both biological and social aspects of our lives. They are synchronized by weather. High ambient temperature, for example, provides a supportive environment for food-borne pathogens, favoring their multiplication in food and on food preparation surfaces ([73]6). Food contamination is believed to be a significant mode of transmission for infections caused by Salmonella and Campylobacter ([74]7); therefore, during warm weather, the risk for food-borne diseases increases ([75]8). Seasonal changes in level of contamination, availability of potable water, sanitation and hygiene practices, as well as crowding and person-to-person contacts, affect pathogens' transmissibility. Worldwide, water use differs from season to season ([76]9). In temperate climates, warm weather leads to higher water consumption and encourages outdoor activities -- swimming, camping, and recreational water use. In tropical regions, contamination of surface water increases during wet seasons. Although spread of pathogens via food is certainly possible, contaminated water is the dominant source of exposure for enteric infections caused by protozoa Cryptosporidium and Giardia ([77]10 --[78]12). Depending on locality, outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis associated with drinking or recreational water frequently occur during warm or wet seasons ([79]13,[80]14). With the onset of cooler weather, the "heating season" marks a change in indoor air quality. Inadequate and poorly designed ventilation in crowded public places and urban transit systems may boost exposure to air-borne pathogens by increasing their concentration in stagnant air and by re-circulating contaminated air. Higher relative humidity may also affect the stability of air-borne droplets in which viruses travel from person to person. * [81] Other Sectionsv + [82]Abstract + [83]Introduction + [84]Notion of Seasonality + [85]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [86]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [87]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [88]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [89]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [90]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [91]References Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects You will find, as a general rule, that the constitutions and the habits of a people follow the nature of the land where they live. (Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 24) Diseases do not watch calendars. Their incidence rises and falls because of changes in factors associated with the diseases. However, in every culture all social events are synchronized by calendars; and every calendar reflects the cyclic rhythm of nature. Traditional celebrations and gatherings observed by communities according to calendars affect pathogen transmission. Holidays, social activities, and seasonal travel are often associated with changes in food consumption and preparation, and are therefore associated with changes in disease incidence. Preparing meat on a barbecue increases the risk of Campylobacter infection ([92]15,[93]16) and foreign travel increases the risk for enteric infections. Aggregation of children in schools, daycare centers, and summer camps, reflecting school calendars, facilitates rapid exchange of pathogens. There are marked seasonal variations in transmission, and thus the incidence of enteric and respiratory infections. * [94] Other Sectionsv + [95]Abstract + [96]Introduction + [97]Notion of Seasonality + [98]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [99]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [100]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [101]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [102]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [103]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [104]References Climate Change, Extreme Weather Events, and Disease Seasonality The changes of the seasons are especially liable to beget diseases, as are great changes from heat to cold, or cold to heat in any season. Other changes in the weather have similarly severe effects. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 1) As weather affects human health by creating favorable conditions for pathogen proliferation and transmission, severe weather can affect the timing and intensity of infectious outbreaks, and natural disasters lead to drastic changes in population structure and pathogen ecology. Catastrophic events like tsunamis, hurricanes, devastating floods, and heat waves that cause deaths, population displacement, and infrastructural damage may have dramatic effects on the incidence of infections and their seasonal patterns. Recent work has shown highly significant associations between extreme precipitation and water-borne disease outbreaks ([105]17). Heavy precipitation, rapid snowmelt, and floods flush animal wastes from the land into surface waters and may overwhelm drinking and wastewater treatment systems. The latter leads to discharges in watersheds of untreated human wastes. As a result, pathogens can appear in drinking and recreational water in very high concentrations ([106]18,[107]19). A rapid snowmelt, resultant runoff, and filtration system failure at the overloaded local drinking water treatment plant were implicated in the largest known water-borne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis, which occurred in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1993 ([108]20). This outbreak happened in April, not within the usual seasonal peak for cryptosporidiosis cases. A flood, which also resulted from a rapid snowmelt, has been linked with a similar increased incidence of diarrhea ([109]21). Experts expect that global climate change will increase climate variability and the frequency of extreme precipitation events in temperate regions ([110]22,[111]23). "Global warming" may also increase the frequency and magnitude of other extreme weather events, such as heat waves and droughts, and thereby have profound effects on public health ([112]24,[113]25). In a comprehensive study conducted in the United Kingdom that described a short-term link between temperature and food poisoning, the authors also hypothesized that climate change could lead to changes in rates of food poisoning ([114]26). Integration of environmental parameters into disease forecasting and warning systems could allow public health officials to alert the populace when specific meteorological conditions pose predictable risks to health ([115]27). Simple messages about proper food preparation and refrigeration and the risks of using contaminated recreational waters could, for example, be provided before, during, and after extreme events. Better understanding of disease seasonality would also help to predict outbreaks of infections triggered by climate variability. * [116] Other Sectionsv + [117]Abstract + [118]Introduction + [119]Notion of Seasonality + [120]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [121]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [122]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [123]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [124]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [125]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [126]References Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking Desperate cases need the most desperate remedies. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, I, 6) At first, seasonal fluctuations should be systematically described. This requires a framework with sound definitions and analytic tools suitable for routine use by public health professionals. In public health sciences, the existing methodology currently lacks methods and tests for assessing complex interactions in the time-dependent factors responsible for disease seasonality. Next, reliable data with fine temporal resolution are a must. The vast majority of epidemiological studies have examined seasonal patterns of infections using quarterly or monthly data. This coarse temporal aggregation can thwart an otherwise detailed, accurate, and comprehensive analysis of seasonal patterns and may even be misleading ([127]28). Examination of daily or weekly rates can substantially improve evaluation of seasonal curves, but a systematic approach for using at least weekly aggregates is needed. Finally, reluctance to apply sophisticated mathematical models in public health studies must be overcome. Underlying processes in disease manifestation and spread are complex and multifaceted. Causal pathways are often obscured. To disentangle causal effects of many factors within the circular processes of self-sustaining oscillations demands the careful building of sound conceptual models of seasonality; models that can be tested. The emerging fields of computational epidemiology and intelligent data mining will complement established work in philosophy of science and mathematical biology to become an essential part of thinking in public health and policy. Acknowledgments I thank Drs Eileen O'Neil and Beth Rosenberg for their thoughtful suggestions, and the support of funding agencies: the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (U19AI062627), and the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R01ES013171). Footnotes ^1Hippocrates' citations are taken from: Lloyd, GER, editor. Hippocratic Writings. Trans. Chadwick J and Mann WN. London: Penguin; 1978. * [128] Other Sectionsv + [129]Abstract + [130]Introduction + [131]Notion of Seasonality + [132]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [133]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [134]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [135]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [136]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [137]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [138]References References 1. Naumova EN, Chen JT, Griffiths JK, Matyas BT, Estes-Smargiassi SA, Morris RD. Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. Public Health Rep. 2000;115(5):436-47. [[139]PubMed] 2. Naumova EN, Christodouleas J, Hunter PR, Syed Q. Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance system in 1990 --1999. J Water Health. 2005;3(2):185-96. [[140]PubMed] 3. McLauchlin J, Amar C, Pedraza-Diaz S, Nichols GL. Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in 1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from livestock animals. J Clin Microbiol. 2000;38(11):3984-90. [[141]PubMed] 4. Anderson RM, May RM. Infectious Diseases of Humans. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004. 5. Fallis G, Hilditch J. A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between rural Zaire and Ontario. Can J Public Health. 1989;80(3):205-8. [[142]PubMed] 6. Kusumaningrum HD, Riboldi G, Hazeleger WC, Beumer RR. Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces and cross-contamination to foods. Int J Food Microbiol. 2003;85(3):227-36. [[143]PubMed] 7. Mead PS, Slutsker L, Dietz V, McCaig LF, Bresee JS, Shapiro C, et al. Food-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999;5(5):607-25. [[144]PubMed] 8. Kovats RS, Edwards SJ, Hajat S, Armstrong BG, Ebi KL, Menne B. The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries. Epidemiol Infect. 2004;132(3):443-53. [[145]PubMed] 9. Gofti-Laroche L, Gratacap-Cavallier B, Genoulaz O, Joret JC, Hartemann P, Seigneurin JM, et al. A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study). Water Sci Technol. 2001;43(12):39-48. [[146]PubMed] 10. Pruss A. Review of epidemiological studies on health effects from exposure to recreational water. Int J Epidemiol. 1998;27(1):1-9. [[147]PubMed] 11. Rose JB, Huffman DE, Riley K, Farrah SR, Lukasik JO, Hamann CL. Reduction of enteric microorganisms at the Upper Occoquan Sewage Authority Water Reclamation Plant. Water Environ Res. 2001;73(6):711-20. [[148]PubMed] 12. Rose JB, Slifko TR. Giardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their impact on foods: a review. J Food Prot. 1999;62(9):1059-70. [[149]PubMed] 13. Barwick RS, Levy DA, Craun GF, Beach MJ, Calderon RL. Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks -- United States, 1997 --1998. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000;49(4):1-21. [[150]PubMed] 14. Clavel A, Alivares JL, Fleta J, Castillo J, Varea M, Ramos FJ, et al. Seasonality of cryptosporidiosis in children. Eur J Clin Microbiol Inf Dis. 1996;15:77-9. 15. Kapperud G, Skjerve E, Bean NH, Ostroff SM, Lassen J. Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of a case --control study in southeastern Norway. J Clin Microbiol. 1992;30(12):3117-21. [[151]PubMed] 16. Neimann J, Engberg J, Molbak K, Wegener HC. A case --control study of risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections in Denmark. Epidemiol Infect. 2003;130(3):353-66. [[152]PubMed] 17. Curriero FC, Patz JA, Rose JB, Lele S. The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948 --1994. Am J Pub Health. 2001;91(8):1194-9. [[153]PubMed] 18. Fayer R, Trout JM, Lewis EJ, Xiao L, Lal A, Jenkins MC, et al. Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay. Parasitol Res. 2002;88(11):998-1003. [[154]PubMed] 19. Kistemann T, Classen T, Koch C, Dangendorf F, Fischeder R, Gebel J, et al. Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during extreme rainfall and runoff. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002;68(5):2188-97. [[155]PubMed] 20. MacKenzie WR, Hoxie NJ, Proctor ME, Gradus MS, Blair KA, Peterson DE, et al. A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of Cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med. 1994;331(3):161-7. [[156]PubMed] 21. Wade TJ, Sandhu SK, Levy D, Lee S, LeChevallier MW, Katz L, et al. Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms? Am J Epidemiol. 2004;159(4):398-405. [[157]PubMed] 22. World Health Organization. Using climate to predict infectious disease outbreaks: a review. World Health Organization; Geneva, Switzerland: 2004. Publication no. WHO/SDE/OEH/04.01. 23. Easterling DR, Evans JL. Observed variability and trends in extreme climate events. Bull Am Meteorol Soc. 2000;81:417-25. 24. Charron D, Thomas M, Waltner-Toews D, Aramini J, Edge T, Kent R, et al. Vulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a review. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004;67(20 --22):1667-77. [[158]PubMed] 25. Patz JA, Epstein PR, Burke TA, Balbus JM. Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996;275(3):217-23. [[159]PubMed] 26. Bentham G, Langford IH. Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England and Wales. Int J Biometeorol. 1995;39(2):81-6. [[160]PubMed] 27. Ebi KL, Schmier JK. A stitch in time: improving public health early warning systems for extreme weather events. Epidemiol Rev. 2005;27:115-21. [[161]PubMed] 28. da Silva Lopes ACB. Spurious deterministic seasonality and auto-correlation corrections with quarterly data: further Monte Carlo results. Empir Econ. 1999;24(2):341-59. __________________________________________________________________ PubMed articles by these authors * [162]Naumova, E. PubMed related articles * [163]ReviewSeasonality of infectious diseases. Annu Rev Public Health. 2007; 28:127-43. [Annu Rev Public Health. 2007] * [164]ReviewSeasonality and the dynamics of infectious diseases. Ecol Lett. 2006 Apr; 9(4):467-84. [Ecol Lett. 2006] * [165]Seasonal infectious disease epidemiology. Proc Biol Sci. 2006 Oct 7; 273(1600):2541-50. [Proc Biol Sci. 2006] * [166]Seasonal control for an endemic disease with seasonal fluctuations. Theor Popul Biol. 1988 Apr; 33(2):115-25. [Theor Popul Biol. 1988] * [167]Seasonality of primarily childhood and young adult infectious diseases in the United States. Chronobiol Int. 2006; 23(5):1065-82. [Chronobiol Int. 2006] * » [168]See reviews... | » [169]See all... Recent Activity [170]Clear [171]Turn Off [172]Turn On * [173]Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of NatureMystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature Your browsing activity is empty. Activity recording is turned off. [174]Turn recording back on Links * [175]PubMed * [176]Taxonomy * [177]Taxonomy Tree * [178]Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. Public Health Rep. 2000 Sep-Oct; 115(5):436-47. [Public Health Rep. 2000] * [179]Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance system in 1990-1999. J Water Health. 2005 Jun; 3(2):185-96. [J Water Health. 2005] * [180]Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in 1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from livestock animals. J Clin Microbiol. 2000 Nov; 38(11):3984-90. [J Clin Microbiol. 2000] [181]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [182]A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between rural Zaire and Ontario. Can J Public Health. 1989 May-Jun; 80(3):205-8. [Can J Public Health. 1989] [183]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [184]Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces and cross-contamination to foods. Int J Food Microbiol. 2003 Aug 25; 85(3):227-36. [Int J Food Microbiol. 2003] * [185]ReviewFood-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999 Sep-Oct; 5(5):607-25. [Emerg Infect Dis. 1999] * [186]The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries. Epidemiol Infect. 2004 Jun; 132(3):443-53. [Epidemiol Infect. 2004] [187]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [188]A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study). Water Sci Technol. 2001; 43(12):39-48. [Water Sci Technol. 2001] * [189]ReviewReview of epidemiological studies on health effects from exposure to recreational water. Int J Epidemiol. 1998 Feb; 27(1):1-9. [Int J Epidemiol. 1998] * [190]ReviewGiardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their impact on foods: a review. J Food Prot. 1999 Sep; 62(9):1059-70. [J Food Prot. 1999] * [191]Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks--United States, 1997-1998. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000 May 26; 49(4):1-21. [MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000] [192]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [193]Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of a case-control study in southeastern Norway. J Clin Microbiol. 1992 Dec; 30(12):3117-21. [J Clin Microbiol. 1992] * [194]A case-control study of risk factors for sporadic campylobacter infections in Denmark. Epidemiol Infect. 2003 Jun; 130(3):353-66. [Epidemiol Infect. 2003] [195]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [196]The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948-1994. Am J Public Health. 2001 Aug; 91(8):1194-9. [Am J Public Health. 2001] * [197]Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay. Parasitol Res. 2002 Nov; 88(11):998-1003. [Parasitol Res. 2002] * [198]Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during extreme rainfall and runoff. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002 May; 68(5):2188-97. [Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002] * [199]A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med. 1994 Jul 21; 331(3):161-7. [N Engl J Med. 1994] * [200]Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms? Am J Epidemiol. 2004 Feb 15; 159(4):398-405. [Am J Epidemiol. 2004] [201]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [202]ReviewVulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a review. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004 Oct 22-Nov 26; 67(20-22):1667-77. [J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004] * [203]Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996 Jan 17; 275(3):217-23. [JAMA. 1996] * [204]Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England and Wales. Int J Biometeorol. 1995 Nov; 39(2):81-6. [Int J Biometeorol. 1995] [205]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [206]ReviewA stitch in time: improving public health early warning systems for extreme weather events. Epidemiol Rev. 2005; 27():115-21. [Epidemiol Rev. 2005] [207]See more articles cited in this paragraph You are here: NCBI > [208]Literature > PubMed Central [209]Help Desk Simple NCBI Directory * Getting Started * [210]Site Map * [211]NCBI Help Manual * [212]NCBI Handbook * [213]Training & Tutorials * Resources * [214]Literature * [215]DNA & RNA * [216]Proteins * [217]Sequence Analysis * [218]Genes & Expression * [219]Genomes * [220]Maps & Markers * [221]Domains & Structures * [222]Genetics & Medicine * [223]Taxonomy * [224]Data & Software * [225]Training & Tutorials * [226]Homology * [227]Small Molecules * [228]Variation * Popular * [229]PubMed * [230]PubMed Central * [231]Bookshelf * [232]BLAST * [233]Gene * [234]Nucleotide * [235]Protein * [236]GEO * [237]Conserved Domains * [238]Structure * [239]PubChem * Featured * [240]GenBank * [241]Reference Sequences * [242]Map Viewer * [243]Genome Projects * [244]Human Genome * [245]Mouse Genome * [246]Influenza Virus * [247]Primer-BLAST * [248]Short Read Archive * NCBI Information * [249]About NCBI * [250]Research at NCBI * [251]NCBI Newsletter * [252]NCBI FTP Site * [253]Contact Us [254]NIH [255]DHHS [256]USA.gov [257]Copyright | [258]Disclaimer | [259]Privacy | [260]Accessibility | [261]Contact [262]National Center for Biotechnology Information , U.S. National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville Pike, Bethesda MD, 20894 USA Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [USEMAP] [USEMAP] Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics [1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics Browse by soundtrack Search in soundtracks Browse by artist name [2]A [3]B [4]C [5]D [6]E [7]F [8]G [9]H [10]I [11]J [12]K [13]L [14]M [15]N [16]O [17]P [18]Q [19]R [20]S [21]T [22]U [23]V [24]W [25]X [26]Y [27]Z [28]# ____________ Search [29]A [30]B [31]C [32]D [33]E [34]F [35]G [36]H [37]I [38]J [39]K [40]L [41]M [42]N [43]O [44]P [45]Q [46]R [47]S [48]T [49]U [50]V [51]W [52]X [53]Y [54]Z [55]# [0.gif] - Rhythm of Life Lyrics Ensemble: Daddy started out in San Francisco, Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean, Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy, Spread the picture on a wider screen." And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons Ready to be hooked on new religions. Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife. Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life." And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee, Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge, Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton, Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Fly, fly, fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Swim, swim, swim to Daddy Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy, And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life, Of life, of life, of life. Yeah! Yeah! Yeah! Man! 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Part 2 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life. Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language, instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as the most graceful. Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ, and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres, and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D, of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last. It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life. Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense, so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature. Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt, thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles, there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks. As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become. When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given. We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely, or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall you receive the best. With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in modern times. Continue to: * prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 Tags [46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics, [51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music, [56]vibration [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [57]TOP [58]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [59]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [60]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [61]StasoSphere [ [62]Privacy Policy ] [ [63]Terms of Use ] [ [64]About Us ] [ [65]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:35:04 2009 Références #[1]top [2]search [3]All news stories [4]Spotlight news only [5]Feature stories [6]Customize feed [7]Science and technology news * [8]Home * [9]Nanotechnology * [10]Physics * [11]Space & Earth * [12]Electronics * [13]Technology * [14]Chemistry * [15]Biology * [16]Medicine & Health * [17]Other Sciences * [18]Psychology & Psychiatry * [19]Research * [20]Medications * [21]Cancer * [22]Genetics * [23]HIV & AIDS * [24]Diseases * [25]Other * [26]Health * [27]Neuroscience Keeping the rhythm of life in sync May 28, 2008 Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or physical stress. The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be too fast, too slow, or irregular. All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal rhythm and not even know it. Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath, swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur because of abnormal heart rhythm. To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by placing electrodes on the skin. Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case, other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart catheterization. Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia. Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some of its pumping function. Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm. Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help restore the rhythm of life. Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs [29]print this article [30]email this article [31]download pdf [32]blog this article [33]bookmark this article [34]Stumble it [35]Digg this [36]share on Facebook [37]retweet [38]share on Reddit [39]add to delicious Rate this story - 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * rank * [40]1 * [41]2 * [42]3 * [43]4 * [44]5 [45]view popular Rank Filter _ (Submit) Filter (Submit) Off Move the slider to adjust rank threshold, so that you can hide some of the comments. Display comments: [46]newest first * [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 1 / 5 (1) "...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life..." Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood through our system of vessels. It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy and thin pipes. It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word "pump" to describe the heart. What about "metronome"? + [48]report abuse + o Current rank o [49]1 o [50]2 o [51]3 o [52]4 o [53]5 * [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 4 / 5 (1) Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong. Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels, and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation. As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick, as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation" or taking a highschool biology class. + [55]report abuse + o Current rank o [56]1 o [57]2 o [58]3 o [59]4 o [60]5 * [61]print * [62]email * [63]pdf * [64]txt * [65]blog * [66]bookmark * [67]aA * [68]Aa May 28, 2008 [69]all stories Comments: [70]2 * rank * [71]1 * [72]2 * [73]3 * [74]4 * [75]5 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * [76]Stumble this up * [77]share on Facebook * * [78]Digg this * [79]retweet * * [80]share this * share on Facebook [81]Facebook * retweet [82]ReTweet * share on MySpace [83]MySpace * share on Slashdot [84]Slashdot * share on Google [85]Google * share on Reddit [86]Reddit * add to delicious [87]Delicious * save to Yahoo! bookmarks [88]Yahoo! bookmarks * share on Windows Live [89]Windows Live * Add to Mixx! 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Rhythm Of Life lyrics (Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus) If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus) Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down (repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade) [phone_left.gif] [109]Send "Rhythm Of Life" Ringtone to your Cell Phone! 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[130]www.lastlocation.com [131][get.media?sid=21908&m=3&tp=7&d=s&c=1] Références [1][LOGO-SVART.gif] [MARKERING-raud-firkant-STOR.gif] A new column written by one of our editors is published every two week _______________ Search [Search entire Voices.] powered by [2]FreeFind [3]Toppbanner [4]Toppbanner [5]Toppbanner [6]Toppbanner [7]Toppbanner May 19, 2008 [*bilde.jpg] 5 most recent columns January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By Diego Schapira December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara Wheeler December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice. By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist. By Helen Oosthuizen Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli () 1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful presence. I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the universe is not threatening for me as before. Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office, when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity arising randomly, above the background sound. Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific scenarios I could never imagine before. 2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome. That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances, making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those dangerous noises. When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands. His sounds were so emotionally intense that their message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards, listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside. My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people, without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds. In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes. Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors' desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist. I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing: the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness necessary for improving quality of life. 3rd Movement: Trio In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea which considers that a good development of each system is possible when there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system. Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with rhythm entrainment and music. As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration. To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes schema to structure and order internal and external events using rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the emotional response to music. Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion, and metaphorical thinking. Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration. Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer, because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory. There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks. And, thus, they can still feel joy. 4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy, particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to train psychologists and physicians in this field. This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music. References Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music: The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers. Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of Illinois. To cite this page: Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Moderated discussion Add your comments and responses to this essay in our Moderated Discussions. Contributions should be e-mailed to either [13]Joke Bradt or [14]Thomas Wosch View contributions on this essay: [yet no contribution] [15]Guidelines for discussions ©2009. VOICES. All rights reserved [16]Site Meter Références Liens visibles 13. javascript:decrypt_and_email(1) 14. javascript:decrypt_and_email(2) Liens cachés : 17. mailto: 18. javascript:decrypt_and_email(25) [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] #[1]About.com [2]Lee's Shakespeare Blog ____________________ (Submit) Search [3]About.com [4]Shakespeare 1. [5]Home 2. [6]Education 3. [7]Shakespeare [8][education_shakespeare;kw=;site=shakespeare;chan=education;pos=lb;sz =728x90;ord=1A1HKZQ0D20SA0MM7] * [9]Share * * [10]Shakespeare * [11]Shakespeare's Life * [12]Plays * [13]Sonnets * Free Shakespeare Newsletter! ____________________ (Submit) Sign Up * [14]Discuss in my Forum [15]Lee Jamieson Lee's Shakespeare Blog By [16]Lee Jamieson, About.com Guide to Shakespeare * [17]My Bio * [18]My Blog * [19]My Forum Add to: * [20]iGoogle * [21]My Yahoo! * [22]RSS Iambic Pentameter: The Rhythm of Life? Sunday March 22, 2009 [bencrystal.jpg] Does the thought of [23]iambic pentameter terrify you? I remember being baffeled by it at school myself because I got bogged down in counting syllables and working out where the stresses go but, I now know that this is a very technical way of studying iambic pentameter. In later life, Ive grown to love iambic pentameter. Theres something beautiful about it that I cant put my finger on. I know for sure that its in the speaking because on the page it is inert. When you [24]speak those words aloud, they literally jump off the tongue and the rhythm is the easiest of all meters to find. I asked Ben Crystal about this [25]in our interview a few months ago. He said that iambic pentameter is the rhythm of our English language and of our bodies a line of that poetry has the same rhythm as our heartbeat. A line of iambic pentameter fills the human lung perfectly, so its the rhythm of speech. I think this is true. When you [26]learn how to speak verse, you soon discover that its a very instinctive rhythm. Once you relax and go with the flow, it comes naturally. And, strange as it might sound, classic iambic pentameter lines like If music be the food of love, play on and Now is the winter of our discontent do happen to fit a single breath perfectly if spoken with passion. So, if youre having trouble with iambic pentameter, remember that its designed to be spoken, not studied. Open your mouth and speak aloud those great words. Photo of Ben Crystal © Scott Wishart * [27]Comments (2) * [28]See All Posts * [29]Share * [30]Prev * [31]Next [32]Leave a Comment Comments March 30, 2009 at 2:29 pm [33](1) [34]Kent Richmond says: In doing verse translations of five Shakespeare plays, I have had to learn how Shakespeares iambic pentameter works in order to give my translations the feel of the original. One of the beauties of iambic pentameter is that the poet can temporarily relax the meter without violating it. In this series of made-up and rather prosaic lines, the first line is straight-ahead iambic pentameter. The second and third lines, if read independently, are less obviously iambic pentameter, yet they do not violate the rhythm. The fourth line is clearly unmetrical and removes the sense that we are listening to verse. 1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes, 2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. (trochaic start; feminine ending) 3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. (Two spondees to start; feminine ending) 4. Dont you ever hit your little sister. (unmetrical) Shakespeare, at least in the plays I have translated, did not write verse lines with the rhythm of (4). To make this line sound a bit more like Shakespeares iambic pentameter, we need to make a few alterations to line 4. 1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes, 2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. 3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. 4. Dont ever hit that little girl again. To make the whole passage sound like prose, we need to change the first line a little. Then her mother took the kids clothes shopping, planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. Dont you ever hit your little sister. The first and fourth lines now have trochaic feet exposed in the wrong places, and most editors would print such a passage as prose. Shakespeares iambic pentameter certainly places constraints on what rhythms are allowed, yet it allows for flexibility and naturalness. Take a look at George Wrights book titled Shakespeares Metrical Art to see the techniques Shakespeare employed. April 11, 2009 at 8:25 pm [35](2) Dave says: The words literally jump off the tongue? I'd like to see that! 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Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Rhythm In Nature [7]page up: Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications | by Frederick R. Clow [8]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications. Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual training, recitation, gymnastics, and play. Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human [40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality. The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. . . . When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak. Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. - Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20. . . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight years in [42]duration are superposed. . . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135. Continue to: * prev: [43]Rhythm In Nature * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]The Cycle Of A Generation Tags [46]sociology, [47]communication, [48]congenial groups, [49]cycles of change, [50]democracy, [51]factors of society, [52]government, [53]heredity, [54]human nature, [55]institutions, [56]location, [57]natural selection, [58]organizations, [59]population, [60]primary groups, [61]social classes [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [62]TOP [63]previous page: Rhythm In Nature [64]page up: Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications | by Frederick R. Clow [65]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [66]StasoSphere [ [67]Privacy Policy ] [ [68]Terms of Use ] [ [69]About Us ] [ [70]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:34:34 2009 Références #[1]Welcome page [2]Help [3]Parent screen [4]skip navigation [5]Geography Compass Select Compass [Geography Compass........................] Go * [6]Home | * [7]My Compass | * [8]Help | * [9]Content Alerts | * [10]Contact Us | * [11]Links * [12]What is Geography Compass? | * [13]Subscribe | * [14]Editors | * [15]Editorial Board | * [16]Authors Cultural Towards Lefebvrian Socio-Nature? A Film about Rhythm, Nature and Science By [17]James Evans and [18]Phil Jones, School of Environment and Development, University of Manchester School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham (April 2008) __________________________________________________________________ Section: [19]Cultural Subjects: [20]Geography, [21]Urban Geography, [22]Environment And Society, [23]Cultural Geography. Key Topics: [24]nature , [25]representation. Abstract The first thing you will notice about this article is that it is actually a film. We did not set out to make a film, it just ended up that way. We started out making music out of environmental data, wondering why we only ever look at scientific data, why we do not listen to it. Wandering around the city passing through the transformed landscapes of channelised rivers and broken industrial spaces, we wanted to reveal the socio-natural rhythms of this hybrid city. The text you see below represents the shooting script for a film that explores Lefebvre's notion of rhythmanalysis in the context of socio-natural rhythms. The video accompanying it is far more interesting, including the environmental music that we produced by feeding scientific data through samplers and drum machines. The video questions the nature of scientific representation and whether the notion of rhythmanalysis can be stretched to explore rhythms beyond the human. Furthermore, the process of actually making the video, submitting it to this journal, and responding to the referees' comments made us question the very nature of what constitutes an academic paper in the twenty-first century. The accompanying commentary is our attempt to deal with these issues. To link to the film please go to DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00107.x This article abstract has been viewed 5359 times. [27]view [28]cite [29]Add to my Compass [30]Add to VLE/CMS [31]feedback __________________________________________________________________ Top 5 related articles * [32]Geographies for Moving Bodies: Thinking, Dancing, Spaces By [33]Derek P. McCormack , Oxford University Centre for the Environment (Vol. 3, October 2008) Geography Compass * [34]Colonialism, Landscape and the Subterranean By [35]Heidi V. Scott , Institute of Geography and Earth Sciences, Aberystwyth University (Vol. 3, October 2008) Geography Compass * [36]Climate-Suicide Relationships: A Research Problem in Need of Geographic Methods and Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives By P. Grady Dixon and Adam J. Kalkstein, Mississippi State UniversityUnited States Military Academy (Vol. 4, September 2009) Geography Compass * [37]Ethnomethodology and the Non-representational: What Are Disaffected Young White Men Capable of? By [38]Rob Loughenbury , University of Durham (Vol. 4, June 2009) Geography Compass * [39]The Legacies of 2007: Remapping the Black Presence in Britain By [40]Caroline Bressey , University College London (Vol. 4, April 2009) Geography Compass [[41]All related articles] Top 5 Related Blackwell Reference Chapters * [42]The Environment of the City ... or the Urbanization of Nature The question that now begins to gnaw at your mind is more anguished: outside Penthesilea does an outside ... By Erik Swyngedouw and Maria Kaïka From [43]Companion to the City * [44]Postcolonialism, Representation, and the City Topicality, the essence of good journalism, is perhaps less important for the longer-term perspectives ... By Anthony D. King From [45]Companion to the City * [46]The Immaterial City: Representation, Imagination, and Media Technologies J.-K. Huysmans's À Rebours (Against Nature) is a fictional study of a certain type of dandy in the latter ... By James Donald From [47]Companion to the City * [48]The Production of Nature It may seem strange to include a chapter on the production of nature in a volume about economic geography. ... By Noel Castree From [49]A Companion to Economic Geography [[50]All Related Reference Chapters] * [51]Economic * [52]Social * [53]Cultural * [54]Political * [55]Urban * [56]Development * [57]Climatology * [58]Hydrology & Water Resources * [59]Geomorphology * [60]Biogeography * [61]GIS * [62]Earth Observation * [63]Environment & Society * [64]Global Issues Quick Search Keyword search: ____________________ Select a section: [All........................] Select a content type: [All.................................] [65]Advanced Search Search Related Blackwell Reference Chapters [66]View Related Reference Books [67]Geography Compass - Personal Subscription Rates [68]Sign up for free Geography Compass content alerts [69]Keep up-to-date "...an indispensable reference tool for teachers, researchers, and students in Geography and related disciplines." Mike Bradshaw and Basil Gomez Geography Compass Editors-in-Chief [70]Blackwell Publishing Copyright © 2005-2007 [71]Blackwell Publishing | [72]Privacy Policy | [73]Contact us | [74]Help | [75]To the top... [76][ access key 0 : accessibility information including access key list ] [77][ access key 1 : home page ] [78][ access key 2 : skip navigation] [79][ access key 6 : help ] Références [1]pmc logo image [2]Logo of nihpa [3]Journal List > [4]NIHPA Author Manuscripts Formats: * [5]Abstract | * Full Text | * [6]PDF (32K) J Public Health Policy. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2008 July 24. Published in final edited form as: [7]J Public Health Policy. 2006; 27(1): 2-12. doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200061. PMCID: PMC2483431 NIHMSID: NIHMS58476 [8]Copyright notice and [9]Disclaimer Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature Elena N. Naumova^* ^*Address for Correspondence: Department of Public Health and Family Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Avenue, Boston, MA 02111, USA. E-mail: elena.naumova/at/tufts.edu Small right arrow pointing to: The publisher's final edited version of this article is available at [10]J Public Health Policy. Small right arrow pointing to: See other articles in PMC that [11]cite the published article. Abstract Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences. Understanding seasonal fluctuations in diseases patterns presents us with a major challenge. To develop efficient strategies for disease prevention and control, we need to grasp the main determinants of temporal variations and their interactions. This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality by outlining several of its factors, using as illustrations respiratory and enteric water- or food-borne infections. Keywords: seasonality, water-borne infection, food-borne infection, respiratory infection * [12] Other Sectionsv + [13]Abstract + [14]Introduction + [15]Notion of Seasonality + [16]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [17]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [18]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [19]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [20]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [21]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [22]References Introduction Now let us consider the seasons and the way we can predict whether it is going to be a healthy or an unhealthy year. (Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 10)^[23]1 Seasonal fluctuations in birth and death, in sickness and health, are the haunting mysteries of mankind. People have made predictions from winds, tides, birds' migrations, spring blooms, sunsets, and constellations in hope of grasping the future. The complexity and uncertainty of ancient and modern means of prediction make us wonder to what extent we are able to understand the rhythm of nature. One might argue the future cannot be known, but from a practical point of view, a better understanding of changes in disease occurrences is essential for building efficient strategies for disease prevention and control. Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences. Since Hippocrates, observers worldwide have noted and documented marked fluctuations in the incidence of many diseases. In the modern view, the main determinants of temporal variations in disease manifestation are evolving host susceptibility, periodicity in pathogen abundance and transmissibility, and the ever-changing environment that can support or repress a host or pathogen. Interactions among these factors responsible for seasonal variation are interwoven into the intricate fabric of life. For many diseases, explanations for self-sustained oscillations still remain elusive. We lack adequate methods and sufficient analytical tools for comprehensive examination of seasonality in public health field studies. A dearth of observations, recorded over long periods at fine resolution, compounded by an enormous number of factors associated with periodic changes, obscure our ability to understand disease variation. Urgent need for effective strategies to prevent and control a spread of emerging infections in the rapidly changing world, however, demands a deeper insight into the cyclic nature of diseases. This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality and outline several factors associated with seasonality using as illustrations enteric water- or food-borne infections and respiratory infections. Then I propose a framework for systematic evaluation of seasonal oscillations. In every part of this presentation, and most importantly, I wish to stimulate discussion on this challenging topic. * [24] Other Sectionsv + [25]Abstract + [26]Introduction + [27]Notion of Seasonality + [28]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [29]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [30]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [31]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [32]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [33]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [34]References Notion of Seasonality Every disease occurs at any season of the year but some of them more frequently occur and are of greater severity at certain times. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 19) Seasonality, as noted above, refers to the cyclic appearance of events over a period of time. A seasonal pattern may appear as a tight cluster of isolated outbreaks that occurred during a relatively short time period, then spreading over a wide geographic area. For example, in a temporal curve of enteric infection cases (i.e. giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, or rotavirus infections), a compact cluster of outbreaks is followed by a long interval of low incidence. Systematic recurrence of such sequences forms a seasonal pattern typical of a specific pathogen in a given population and in a given locality. A seasonal increase in enteric or respiratory infection often produces a well-defined oscillating curve that starts to rise in one season and declines over the next one. The three main features characterize seasonality: * a point in time when a seasonal curve reaches its maximum, * an amplitude from peak to nadir, and * a duration of a seasonal increase defined by a shape of a curve. (The shape of a seasonal pattern reflects how fast a temporal curve reaches its peak and declines to nadir over a course of a full cycle. Depending on the length of a cycle whether it is one year or a half of a year, a seasonal curve would have one or two peaks.) Seasonal patterns, described by these three characteristics, may vary for different diseases, different locations, or different subpopulations. Many viral and bacterial infections in humans show marked seasonal changes. In some diseases, like salmonellosis and influenza, annual oscillations explain up to 60% of variability. Such impact should not be ignored and deserves a proper examination. * [35] Other Sectionsv + [36]Abstract + [37]Introduction + [38]Notion of Seasonality + [39]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [40]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [41]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [42]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [43]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [44]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [45]References Diseases Seasonal Patterns Diseases vary in their relationships one with another; some are opposed, some are mutually agreeable. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 3) Differences in diseases peaks reflect different etiology, heterogeneity in host susceptibility, or route of transmission. In temperate climates, Campylobacter and Salmonella infections are known to rise in summer, giardiasis in early fall, and rotavirus infection in mid-winter, etc. Interestingly, for the same infectious agent, infections recorded in two different locations may present a different pattern of incidence. A seasonal pattern for cryptosporidiosis in the United States exhibits one late summer peak ([46]1); in contrast, in the United Kingdom, two seasonal peaks are seen ([47]2). The UK picture reflects two dominant sources of exposure: one from animals in the late spring, and another from humans in the fall ([48]3). Close temporal clustering of seasonal peaks in diseases that share similar sources of exposure suggests dominant routes of transmissions. Peaks in water-borne cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis often cluster after a summer peak in ambient temperature. Such synchronization in disease manifestation can be governed by environmental and social factors. In some instances, periodicity of a given infection observed in a particular population may be not present in another. A seasonal peak in cryptosporidiosis cases observed in the general population is not apparent in the immunocompromized HIV-positive gay men, even though the incidence of cryptosporidiosis in HIV-positive population is very high. This suggests differences in dominant routes of transmission. Seasonal patterns can change over time. After intense vaccination campaigns in the 1950s and 1970s in the United Kingdom, the patterns of measles and pertussis changed, with the high rates of disease usually seen when children were attending school diminishing for measles and practically disappearing for pertusis ([49]4). Explanations for these phenomena remain elusive. A departure from a systematically observed pattern could reflect the evolution of a pathogen or a change in herd immunity. A simple rule to remember is that a discovery hides in outliers. Faced with an abundance of causal agents, a bare observation of a rise in the incidence of non-specific enteritis should be interpreted with caution. A seasonal pattern can represent a mix of temporal curves. Imagine two periodic curves of similar intensity, but one peaks in a spring and another in a fall; the sum of these two curves might lose the appearance of seasonality, covering two distinctly seasonal phenomena. Some infections are very rare. Their seasonal patterns are difficult to examine because the relevant data must be collected over a very long time and/or aggregated over large spatial units. Precision in evaluating seasonality can thus be jeopardized by time-dependent and/or space-dependent confounders. Seasonal fluctuations can be found beyond infectious diseases; chronic somatic diseases also exhibit substantial temporal variations. Plausibly, exacerbations in chronic conditions are driven by infectious agents or environmental changes. Understanding the interplay of an infection and a chronic disease may lead to better control for both. * [50] Other Sectionsv + [51]Abstract + [52]Introduction + [53]Notion of Seasonality + [54]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [55]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [56]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [57]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [58]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [59]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [60]References Seasonal Host Susceptibility When the weather is seasonable and the crops ripen at the regular times, diseases are regular in their appearance... (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 8) Poor nutrition directly affects host susceptibility. In places of food scarcity, researchers suspect that temporal patterns in birth weight and preterm delivery result from seasonal variations in food availability ([61]5). In general, due to a less developed immune system, young children are susceptible to infection; their immune response may be further weakened by seasonal cutbacks in essential micronutrients and vitamins. Anemnestic responses to an antigen determine whether an infection recurs. Short-lived immune memory together with seasonal changes in pathogen transmissibility contribute further to the complexity of seasonal patterns. Even a perfectly healthy person can experience a change in susceptibility to infection due to stress, injuries, or trauma. The probability of a marked impact of such factors on disease seasonality is virtually unknown. * [62] Other Sectionsv + [63]Abstract + [64]Introduction + [65]Notion of Seasonality + [66]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [67]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [68]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [69]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [70]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [71]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [72]References Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility Some diseases are produced by the manner of life that is followed; others by the life-giving air we breathe. (Hippocrates. The Nature of Man, 9) Temperature, humidity, and precipitation -- the defining factors of seasons -- are important determinants of pathogens' survival. Changes influence pathogens' potency and life expectancy, resulting in temporal fluctuations in pathogens' abundance. In many instances, seasonal changes in pathogen survival and transmission are inseparably related to both biological and social aspects of our lives. They are synchronized by weather. High ambient temperature, for example, provides a supportive environment for food-borne pathogens, favoring their multiplication in food and on food preparation surfaces ([73]6). Food contamination is believed to be a significant mode of transmission for infections caused by Salmonella and Campylobacter ([74]7); therefore, during warm weather, the risk for food-borne diseases increases ([75]8). Seasonal changes in level of contamination, availability of potable water, sanitation and hygiene practices, as well as crowding and person-to-person contacts, affect pathogens' transmissibility. Worldwide, water use differs from season to season ([76]9). In temperate climates, warm weather leads to higher water consumption and encourages outdoor activities -- swimming, camping, and recreational water use. In tropical regions, contamination of surface water increases during wet seasons. Although spread of pathogens via food is certainly possible, contaminated water is the dominant source of exposure for enteric infections caused by protozoa Cryptosporidium and Giardia ([77]10 --[78]12). Depending on locality, outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis associated with drinking or recreational water frequently occur during warm or wet seasons ([79]13,[80]14). With the onset of cooler weather, the "heating season" marks a change in indoor air quality. Inadequate and poorly designed ventilation in crowded public places and urban transit systems may boost exposure to air-borne pathogens by increasing their concentration in stagnant air and by re-circulating contaminated air. Higher relative humidity may also affect the stability of air-borne droplets in which viruses travel from person to person. * [81] Other Sectionsv + [82]Abstract + [83]Introduction + [84]Notion of Seasonality + [85]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [86]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [87]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [88]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [89]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [90]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [91]References Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects You will find, as a general rule, that the constitutions and the habits of a people follow the nature of the land where they live. (Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 24) Diseases do not watch calendars. Their incidence rises and falls because of changes in factors associated with the diseases. However, in every culture all social events are synchronized by calendars; and every calendar reflects the cyclic rhythm of nature. Traditional celebrations and gatherings observed by communities according to calendars affect pathogen transmission. Holidays, social activities, and seasonal travel are often associated with changes in food consumption and preparation, and are therefore associated with changes in disease incidence. Preparing meat on a barbecue increases the risk of Campylobacter infection ([92]15,[93]16) and foreign travel increases the risk for enteric infections. Aggregation of children in schools, daycare centers, and summer camps, reflecting school calendars, facilitates rapid exchange of pathogens. There are marked seasonal variations in transmission, and thus the incidence of enteric and respiratory infections. * [94] Other Sectionsv + [95]Abstract + [96]Introduction + [97]Notion of Seasonality + [98]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [99]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [100]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [101]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [102]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [103]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [104]References Climate Change, Extreme Weather Events, and Disease Seasonality The changes of the seasons are especially liable to beget diseases, as are great changes from heat to cold, or cold to heat in any season. Other changes in the weather have similarly severe effects. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 1) As weather affects human health by creating favorable conditions for pathogen proliferation and transmission, severe weather can affect the timing and intensity of infectious outbreaks, and natural disasters lead to drastic changes in population structure and pathogen ecology. Catastrophic events like tsunamis, hurricanes, devastating floods, and heat waves that cause deaths, population displacement, and infrastructural damage may have dramatic effects on the incidence of infections and their seasonal patterns. Recent work has shown highly significant associations between extreme precipitation and water-borne disease outbreaks ([105]17). Heavy precipitation, rapid snowmelt, and floods flush animal wastes from the land into surface waters and may overwhelm drinking and wastewater treatment systems. The latter leads to discharges in watersheds of untreated human wastes. As a result, pathogens can appear in drinking and recreational water in very high concentrations ([106]18,[107]19). A rapid snowmelt, resultant runoff, and filtration system failure at the overloaded local drinking water treatment plant were implicated in the largest known water-borne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis, which occurred in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1993 ([108]20). This outbreak happened in April, not within the usual seasonal peak for cryptosporidiosis cases. A flood, which also resulted from a rapid snowmelt, has been linked with a similar increased incidence of diarrhea ([109]21). Experts expect that global climate change will increase climate variability and the frequency of extreme precipitation events in temperate regions ([110]22,[111]23). "Global warming" may also increase the frequency and magnitude of other extreme weather events, such as heat waves and droughts, and thereby have profound effects on public health ([112]24,[113]25). In a comprehensive study conducted in the United Kingdom that described a short-term link between temperature and food poisoning, the authors also hypothesized that climate change could lead to changes in rates of food poisoning ([114]26). Integration of environmental parameters into disease forecasting and warning systems could allow public health officials to alert the populace when specific meteorological conditions pose predictable risks to health ([115]27). Simple messages about proper food preparation and refrigeration and the risks of using contaminated recreational waters could, for example, be provided before, during, and after extreme events. Better understanding of disease seasonality would also help to predict outbreaks of infections triggered by climate variability. * [116] Other Sectionsv + [117]Abstract + [118]Introduction + [119]Notion of Seasonality + [120]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [121]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [122]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [123]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [124]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [125]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [126]References Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking Desperate cases need the most desperate remedies. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, I, 6) At first, seasonal fluctuations should be systematically described. This requires a framework with sound definitions and analytic tools suitable for routine use by public health professionals. In public health sciences, the existing methodology currently lacks methods and tests for assessing complex interactions in the time-dependent factors responsible for disease seasonality. Next, reliable data with fine temporal resolution are a must. The vast majority of epidemiological studies have examined seasonal patterns of infections using quarterly or monthly data. This coarse temporal aggregation can thwart an otherwise detailed, accurate, and comprehensive analysis of seasonal patterns and may even be misleading ([127]28). Examination of daily or weekly rates can substantially improve evaluation of seasonal curves, but a systematic approach for using at least weekly aggregates is needed. Finally, reluctance to apply sophisticated mathematical models in public health studies must be overcome. Underlying processes in disease manifestation and spread are complex and multifaceted. Causal pathways are often obscured. To disentangle causal effects of many factors within the circular processes of self-sustaining oscillations demands the careful building of sound conceptual models of seasonality; models that can be tested. The emerging fields of computational epidemiology and intelligent data mining will complement established work in philosophy of science and mathematical biology to become an essential part of thinking in public health and policy. Acknowledgments I thank Drs Eileen O'Neil and Beth Rosenberg for their thoughtful suggestions, and the support of funding agencies: the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (U19AI062627), and the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R01ES013171). Footnotes ^1Hippocrates' citations are taken from: Lloyd, GER, editor. Hippocratic Writings. Trans. Chadwick J and Mann WN. London: Penguin; 1978. * [128] Other Sectionsv + [129]Abstract + [130]Introduction + [131]Notion of Seasonality + [132]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [133]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [134]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [135]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [136]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [137]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [138]References References 1. Naumova EN, Chen JT, Griffiths JK, Matyas BT, Estes-Smargiassi SA, Morris RD. Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. Public Health Rep. 2000;115(5):436-47. [[139]PubMed] 2. Naumova EN, Christodouleas J, Hunter PR, Syed Q. Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance system in 1990 --1999. J Water Health. 2005;3(2):185-96. [[140]PubMed] 3. McLauchlin J, Amar C, Pedraza-Diaz S, Nichols GL. Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in 1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from livestock animals. J Clin Microbiol. 2000;38(11):3984-90. [[141]PubMed] 4. Anderson RM, May RM. Infectious Diseases of Humans. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004. 5. Fallis G, Hilditch J. A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between rural Zaire and Ontario. Can J Public Health. 1989;80(3):205-8. [[142]PubMed] 6. Kusumaningrum HD, Riboldi G, Hazeleger WC, Beumer RR. Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces and cross-contamination to foods. Int J Food Microbiol. 2003;85(3):227-36. [[143]PubMed] 7. Mead PS, Slutsker L, Dietz V, McCaig LF, Bresee JS, Shapiro C, et al. Food-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999;5(5):607-25. [[144]PubMed] 8. Kovats RS, Edwards SJ, Hajat S, Armstrong BG, Ebi KL, Menne B. The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries. Epidemiol Infect. 2004;132(3):443-53. [[145]PubMed] 9. Gofti-Laroche L, Gratacap-Cavallier B, Genoulaz O, Joret JC, Hartemann P, Seigneurin JM, et al. A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study). Water Sci Technol. 2001;43(12):39-48. [[146]PubMed] 10. Pruss A. Review of epidemiological studies on health effects from exposure to recreational water. Int J Epidemiol. 1998;27(1):1-9. [[147]PubMed] 11. Rose JB, Huffman DE, Riley K, Farrah SR, Lukasik JO, Hamann CL. Reduction of enteric microorganisms at the Upper Occoquan Sewage Authority Water Reclamation Plant. Water Environ Res. 2001;73(6):711-20. [[148]PubMed] 12. Rose JB, Slifko TR. Giardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their impact on foods: a review. J Food Prot. 1999;62(9):1059-70. [[149]PubMed] 13. Barwick RS, Levy DA, Craun GF, Beach MJ, Calderon RL. Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks -- United States, 1997 --1998. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000;49(4):1-21. [[150]PubMed] 14. Clavel A, Alivares JL, Fleta J, Castillo J, Varea M, Ramos FJ, et al. Seasonality of cryptosporidiosis in children. Eur J Clin Microbiol Inf Dis. 1996;15:77-9. 15. Kapperud G, Skjerve E, Bean NH, Ostroff SM, Lassen J. Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of a case --control study in southeastern Norway. J Clin Microbiol. 1992;30(12):3117-21. [[151]PubMed] 16. Neimann J, Engberg J, Molbak K, Wegener HC. A case --control study of risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections in Denmark. Epidemiol Infect. 2003;130(3):353-66. [[152]PubMed] 17. Curriero FC, Patz JA, Rose JB, Lele S. The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948 --1994. Am J Pub Health. 2001;91(8):1194-9. [[153]PubMed] 18. Fayer R, Trout JM, Lewis EJ, Xiao L, Lal A, Jenkins MC, et al. Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay. Parasitol Res. 2002;88(11):998-1003. [[154]PubMed] 19. Kistemann T, Classen T, Koch C, Dangendorf F, Fischeder R, Gebel J, et al. Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during extreme rainfall and runoff. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002;68(5):2188-97. [[155]PubMed] 20. MacKenzie WR, Hoxie NJ, Proctor ME, Gradus MS, Blair KA, Peterson DE, et al. A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of Cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med. 1994;331(3):161-7. [[156]PubMed] 21. Wade TJ, Sandhu SK, Levy D, Lee S, LeChevallier MW, Katz L, et al. Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms? Am J Epidemiol. 2004;159(4):398-405. [[157]PubMed] 22. World Health Organization. Using climate to predict infectious disease outbreaks: a review. World Health Organization; Geneva, Switzerland: 2004. Publication no. WHO/SDE/OEH/04.01. 23. Easterling DR, Evans JL. Observed variability and trends in extreme climate events. Bull Am Meteorol Soc. 2000;81:417-25. 24. Charron D, Thomas M, Waltner-Toews D, Aramini J, Edge T, Kent R, et al. Vulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a review. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004;67(20 --22):1667-77. [[158]PubMed] 25. Patz JA, Epstein PR, Burke TA, Balbus JM. Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996;275(3):217-23. [[159]PubMed] 26. Bentham G, Langford IH. Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England and Wales. Int J Biometeorol. 1995;39(2):81-6. [[160]PubMed] 27. Ebi KL, Schmier JK. A stitch in time: improving public health early warning systems for extreme weather events. Epidemiol Rev. 2005;27:115-21. [[161]PubMed] 28. da Silva Lopes ACB. Spurious deterministic seasonality and auto-correlation corrections with quarterly data: further Monte Carlo results. Empir Econ. 1999;24(2):341-59. __________________________________________________________________ PubMed articles by these authors * [162]Naumova, E. PubMed related articles * [163]ReviewSeasonality of infectious diseases. Annu Rev Public Health. 2007; 28:127-43. [Annu Rev Public Health. 2007] * [164]ReviewSeasonality and the dynamics of infectious diseases. Ecol Lett. 2006 Apr; 9(4):467-84. [Ecol Lett. 2006] * [165]Seasonal infectious disease epidemiology. Proc Biol Sci. 2006 Oct 7; 273(1600):2541-50. [Proc Biol Sci. 2006] * [166]Seasonal control for an endemic disease with seasonal fluctuations. Theor Popul Biol. 1988 Apr; 33(2):115-25. [Theor Popul Biol. 1988] * [167]Seasonality of primarily childhood and young adult infectious diseases in the United States. Chronobiol Int. 2006; 23(5):1065-82. [Chronobiol Int. 2006] * » [168]See reviews... | » [169]See all... Recent Activity [170]Clear [171]Turn Off [172]Turn On * [173]Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of NatureMystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature Your browsing activity is empty. Activity recording is turned off. [174]Turn recording back on Links * [175]PubMed * [176]Taxonomy * [177]Taxonomy Tree * [178]Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. Public Health Rep. 2000 Sep-Oct; 115(5):436-47. [Public Health Rep. 2000] * [179]Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance system in 1990-1999. J Water Health. 2005 Jun; 3(2):185-96. [J Water Health. 2005] * [180]Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in 1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from livestock animals. J Clin Microbiol. 2000 Nov; 38(11):3984-90. [J Clin Microbiol. 2000] [181]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [182]A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between rural Zaire and Ontario. Can J Public Health. 1989 May-Jun; 80(3):205-8. [Can J Public Health. 1989] [183]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [184]Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces and cross-contamination to foods. Int J Food Microbiol. 2003 Aug 25; 85(3):227-36. [Int J Food Microbiol. 2003] * [185]ReviewFood-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999 Sep-Oct; 5(5):607-25. [Emerg Infect Dis. 1999] * [186]The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries. Epidemiol Infect. 2004 Jun; 132(3):443-53. [Epidemiol Infect. 2004] [187]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [188]A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study). Water Sci Technol. 2001; 43(12):39-48. [Water Sci Technol. 2001] * [189]ReviewReview of epidemiological studies on health effects from exposure to recreational water. Int J Epidemiol. 1998 Feb; 27(1):1-9. [Int J Epidemiol. 1998] * [190]ReviewGiardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their impact on foods: a review. J Food Prot. 1999 Sep; 62(9):1059-70. [J Food Prot. 1999] * [191]Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks--United States, 1997-1998. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000 May 26; 49(4):1-21. [MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000] [192]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [193]Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of a case-control study in southeastern Norway. J Clin Microbiol. 1992 Dec; 30(12):3117-21. [J Clin Microbiol. 1992] * [194]A case-control study of risk factors for sporadic campylobacter infections in Denmark. Epidemiol Infect. 2003 Jun; 130(3):353-66. [Epidemiol Infect. 2003] [195]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [196]The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948-1994. Am J Public Health. 2001 Aug; 91(8):1194-9. [Am J Public Health. 2001] * [197]Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay. Parasitol Res. 2002 Nov; 88(11):998-1003. [Parasitol Res. 2002] * [198]Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during extreme rainfall and runoff. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002 May; 68(5):2188-97. [Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002] * [199]A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med. 1994 Jul 21; 331(3):161-7. [N Engl J Med. 1994] * [200]Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms? Am J Epidemiol. 2004 Feb 15; 159(4):398-405. [Am J Epidemiol. 2004] [201]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [202]ReviewVulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a review. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004 Oct 22-Nov 26; 67(20-22):1667-77. [J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004] * [203]Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996 Jan 17; 275(3):217-23. [JAMA. 1996] * [204]Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England and Wales. Int J Biometeorol. 1995 Nov; 39(2):81-6. [Int J Biometeorol. 1995] [205]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [206]ReviewA stitch in time: improving public health early warning systems for extreme weather events. Epidemiol Rev. 2005; 27():115-21. 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For the online clock, see [8]Humanclock. Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters. A circadian rhythm is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including [9]plants, [10]animals, [11]fungi and [12]cyanobacteria (see [13]bacterial circadian rhythms). The term "circadian", coined by [14]Franz Halberg,^[15][1] comes from the [16]Latin [17]circa, "around", and diem or dies, "day", meaning literally "approximately one day". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [18]tidal, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [19]chronobiology. Circadian rhythms are [20]endogenously generated, and can be entrained by external cues, called [21]zeitgebers, the primary one of which is [22]daylight. Contents * [23]1 History * [24]2 Criteria * [25]3 Origin * [26]4 Importance in animals + [27]4.1 Impact of light-dark cycle + [28]4.2 Arctic animals + [29]4.3 Butterfly migration * [30]5 Biological clock in mammals + [31]5.1 Determining the human circadian rhythm + [32]5.2 Outside the "master clock" * [33]6 Light and the biological clock * [34]7 Enforced longer cycles * [35]8 Human health + [36]8.1 Disruption + [37]8.2 Effect of drugs * [38]9 See also * [39]10 References + [40]10.1 Bibliography + [41]10.2 Notes * [42]11 External links [[43]edit] History The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [44]Alexander the Great, described [45]diurnal leaf movements of the [46]tamarind tree.^[47][2] The first modern observation of endogenous circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [48]Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant [49]Mimosa pudica continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli. In 1918, J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.^[50][3] [51]Joseph Takahashi discovered the genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.^[52][4]^[53][5] [[54]edit] Criteria To differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met: 1) the rhythms persist in the absence of cues, 2) they persist equally precisely over a range of temperatures, and 3) the rhythms can be adjusted to match the local time: * The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those "apparent" rhythms that are merely responses to external periodic cues. A rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been tested in conditions without external periodic input. * The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e., it maintains the same period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway. At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely coincidental. * The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [55]time zones illustrates the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next. Until rhythms are reset, a person usually experiences [56]jet lag. [[57]edit] Origin [58]Question book-new.svg This section needs additional [59]citations for [60]verification. Please help [61]improve this article by adding [62]reliable references. Unsourced material may be [63]challenged and [64]removed. (October 2007) Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [65]ultraviolet radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus [66]Neurospora, which exists today, retains this [67]clock-regulated mechanism. Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment.^[68][6] This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,^[69][7] as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian rhythms in quail.^[70][8] The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [71]cyanobacteria. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of Synechococcus elongatus can be reconstituted in vitro with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [72]ATP. Previous explanations of the [73]prokaryotic circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism. It is an unanswered question whether circadian clocks in eukaryotic organisms require translation/transcription-derived oscillations, for, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture (input - [74]central oscillator - output), they do not share any [75]homology. This implies probable independent origins. In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [76]Seymour Benzer first identified a genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behaviour: one had a shorter period, another had a longer one, and the third had none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named [77]period.^[78][9] The same gene was identified to be defective in the sleep disorder FASPS ([79]Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome) in human beings thirty years later, underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day. A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.^[80][10] At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronize the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [81]eyes travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock. [[82]edit] Importance in animals Circadian rhythmicity is present in the [83]sleeping and feeding patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear patterns of core body temperature, [84]brain wave activity, [85]hormone production, cell regeneration and other biological activities. In addition, [86]photoperiodism, the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation of day length. " Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food availability or predator activity is crucial for survival of many species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the photoperiod ('daylength') is the most predictive environmental cue for the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing of migration, hibernation and reproduction.^[87][11] " [[88]edit] Impact of light-dark cycle The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a [89]freerunning rhythm. Each "day", their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward, depending on whether their [90]endogenous period is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called [91]Zeitgebers (from the German, Time Givers).^[92][12] It is interesting to note that totally-blind subterranean mammals (e.g., [93]blind mole rat Spalax sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors (detect light) are still functional; as well, they do surface periodically.^[[94]citation needed] Freerunning organisms that normally have one consolidated sleep episode will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light/dark cycle in nature. The sleep-wake rhythm may, in these circumstances, become out of phase with other circadian or [95]ultradian rhythms such as [96]temperature and [97]digestion.^[[98]citation needed] Recent research has influenced the design of [99]spacecraft environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.^[[100]citation needed] [[101]edit] Arctic animals Norwegian researchers at the [102]University of Tromsø have shown that some Arctic animals ([103]ptarmigan, [104]reindeer) show circadian rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at [105]70 degrees North showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter, and spring, but not in the summer. Reindeer at [106]78 degrees North showed such rhythms only autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other Arctic animals as well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and the constant dark of winter.^[107][13]^[108][14] However, another study in northern Alaska found that [109]ground squirrels and [110]porcupines strictly maintained their circadian rhythms through 82 days and nights of sunshine. The researchers speculate that these two small mammals see that the apparent distance between the sun and the horizon is shortest once a day, and, thus, a sufficient signal to adjust by.^[111][15] [[112]edit] Butterfly migration The navigation of the fall migration of the [113]Eastern North American monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) to their overwintering grounds in central Mexico uses a time-compensated sun compass that depends upon a circadian clock in their antennae.^[114][16]^[115][17] [[116]edit] Biological clock in mammals Diagram illustrating the influence of light and darkness on circadian rhythms and related [117]physiology and behaviour through the [118]suprachiasmatic nucleus in humans. The primary circadian "clock" in [119]mammals is located in the [120]suprachiasmatic nucleus (or nuclei) ([121]SCN), a pair of distinct groups of [122]cells located in the [123]hypothalamus. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep-wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [124]retina of the eyes contains not only "classical" [125]photoreceptors but also photoresponsive retinal [126]ganglion cells. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called [127]melanopsin, follow a pathway called the [128]retinohypothalamic tract, leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues. It appears that the SCN takes the information on the lengths of the day and night from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [129]pineal gland, a tiny structure shaped like a [130]pine cone and located on the [131]epithalamus. In response the pineal secretes the hormone [132]melatonin. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day and its presence provides information about night-length. The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a 23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural solar day-night cycle on the planet [133]Mars).^[134][18] [[135]edit] Determining the human circadian rhythm The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's circadian rhythm are * melatonin secretion by the pineal gland and * core body temperature. For temperature studies, people must remain awake but calm and semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are taken continuously. The average human adult's temperature reaches its minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake time, though variation is great among normal [136]chronotypes. Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime. Its onset in dim light, dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO), at about 21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Its major [137]metabolite can also be measured in morning urine. Both DLMO and the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or saliva have been used as circadian markers. However, newer research indicates that the melatonin offset may be the most reliable marker. Benloucif et al. in Chicago in 2005 found that melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.^[138][19] One method used for measuring melatonin offset is to analyse a sequence of urine samples throughout the morning for the presence of the melatonin [139]metabolite 6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s). Laberge et al. in Quebec in 1997 used this method in a study that confirmed the frequently found delayed circadian phase in healthy adolescents.^[140][20] [[141]edit] Outside the "master clock" More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the "master clock". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the [142]oesophagus, [143]lungs, [144]liver, [145]pancreas, [146]spleen, [147]thymus, and the [148]skin.^[149][21] Though oscillators in the skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven so far.^[150][22]^[151][23] There is some evidence that also the olfactory bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting that also these structures may be weak oscillators. Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than to [152]light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have freerunning rhythms. [[153]edit] Light and the biological clock Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [154]phase response curve (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required [155]illuminance vary from species to species and lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans. Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm in humans are higher than the levels usually used in artificial lighting in homes. According to some researchers^[156][24] the illumination intensity that excites the circadian system has to reach up to 1000 [157]lux striking the retina. In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or colour) of light is a factor in the entrainment of the body clock. [158]Melanopsin is most efficiently excited by blue light, 420-440 nm^[159][25] according to some researchers while others have reported 470-485 nm. It is thought that the direction of the light may have an effect on entraining the circadian rhythm;^[160][24] light coming from above, resembling an image of a bright sky, has greater effect than light entering our eyes from below. [[161]edit] Enforced longer cycles Modern research under very controlled conditions has shown the human period for adults to be just slightly longer than 24 hours on average. Czeisler et al. at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes. The "clock" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's rotation.^[162][26] The 28-hour day is presented as a concept of [163]time management.^[164][27] It builds on the fact that the week of seven days at 24 hours and a "week" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of 168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours. Each "day" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern. Studies by [165]Nathaniel Kleitman^[166][28] in 1938 and by [167]Derk-Jan Dijk and [168]Charles Czeisler^[169][29]^[170][30] in 1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep-wake cycles, in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day,^[171][31] this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about 24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including [172]sleep latency and other functions.^[173][32] Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli like daylight and timekeeping. Early investigators determined the human circadian period to be 25 hours or more. They went to great lengths to shield subjects from time cues and daylight, but they were not aware of the effects of indoor electric lights. The subjects were allowed to turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase. These results became well known.^[174][26] Researchers allowed subjects to keep electric lighting on in the evening, as it was thought at that time that a couple of 60W bulbs would not have a resetting effect on the circadian rhythms of humans. More recent research^[[175]citation needed] has shown that adults have a built-in day, which averages just over 24 hours, that indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms and that most people attain their best-quality sleep during their [176]chronotype-determined sleep periods. [[177]edit] Human health Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with [178]angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [179]left ventricular (reverse) remodelling.^[[180]citation needed] A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms. A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during the day, a [181]power-nap, does not have any effect on normal circadian rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve productivity.^[182][33]^[183][34] There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the human circadian rhythm, such as [184]seasonal affective disorder (SAD), [185]delayed sleep phase syndrome (DSPS) and other [186]circadian rhythm disorders.^[187][35] Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [188]reticular activating system, which is crucial for maintaining a state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep-wake cycle may be a sign or complication of [189]uremia,^[190][36] [191]azotemia or [192]acute renal failure. [[193]edit] Disruption Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers have experienced the condition known as [194]jet lag, with its associated symptoms of [195]fatigue, disorientation and [196]insomnia. A number of other disorders, for example [197]bipolar disorder and some [198]sleep disorders, are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [199]bipolar disorder are positively influenced by [200]lithium's effect on clock genes.^[201][37] Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease [202][2] The suppression of melatonin production associated with the disruption of the circadian rhythm may increase the risk of developing cancer.^[203][38]^[204][39] [[205]edit] Effect of drugs Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such as [206]cocaine.^[207][40]^[208][41] Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.^[209][42] [[210]edit] See also * [211]Actigraphy (also known as Actimetry) * [212]Advanced sleep phase syndrome * [213]ARNTL * [214]ARNTL2 * [215]Bacterial circadian rhythms * [216]Chronobiology * [217]Chronotype * [218]Circadian oscillator * [219]Circadian rhythm sleep disorders * [220]Cryptochrome * [221]CRY1 and [222]CRY2, the cryptochrome family genes * [223]Delayed sleep phase syndrome * [224]Diurnal cycle * [225]Jet lag * [226]Light effects on circadian rhythm * [227]PER1, [228]PER2, and [229]PER3, the period family genes * [230]Power-nap [[231]edit] References [[232]edit] Bibliography * Aschoff J (ed.) 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[306]^ Campbell, S. and Murphy, P, Science 1998, Vol 279, 16 Jan.: Extraocular Circadian Phototransduction in Humans 24. ^ [307]^a [308]^b Semjonova, Milena (2003). [309]"Healthy Lighting, from a lighting designer's perspective". Milena Lighting Design. 25. [311]^ Newman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: "Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment", Biochemistry. 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8. 26. ^ [312]^a [313]^b [314]"Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour". 1999. Retrieved 2007-09-23. "The variation between our subjects, with a 95 percent level of confidence, was no more than plus or minus 16 minutes, a remarkably small range." 27. [316]^ Digital Beat Productions (1997). [317]"28 Hour Day". 28. [319]^ Kleitman, Nathaniel (1962). Sleep and Wakefullness ed 2. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 29. [320]^ Dijk, Derk-Jan; Czeisler Charles (1994). "Paradoxical timing of the circadian rhythm of sleep propensity serves to consolidate sleep and wakefulness in humans". Neurosci Lett 166 (1): 63. [321]doi:[322]10.1016/0304-3940(94)90841-9. [323]PMID [324]8190360. 30. [325]^ Dijk, Derk-Jan; Czeisler Charles (1995). [326]"Contribution of the Circadian Pacemaker and the Sleep Homeostat to Sleep Propensity, Sleep Structure, Electrocephalographic Slow Waves, and Sleep Spindle Activity in Humans". J. Neurosci 15 (5): 3526. [327]PMID [328]7751928. 31. [330]^ Cromie, William J. (1999-07-15). [331]"Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour". The Harvard University Gazette. Retrieved 2008-02-19. 32. [333]^ Aldrich, Michael S (1999). [334]Sleep medicine. New York: Oxford University Press. [335]ISBN [336]0195129571. pg=RA1-PA65&dq=experimenting+with+the+28+hour+day&source=bl&ots=9R4 mo2fI1O&sig=om2zbYPnXnm_1HuZo2Tch6J1vyo&hl=en&ei=MBZeStGgIoyJkQWd17 znDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2. 33. 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[352]^ Straif K, Baan R, Grosse Y, Secretan B, El Ghissassi F, Bouvard V, Altieri A, Benbrahim-Tallaa L, Cogliano V, WHO International Agency for Research on Cancer Monograph Working Group. Carcinogenicity of shift-work, painting, and fire-fighting. [353][1] Lancet Oncol. 2007; 12(8):1065-1066. 39. [354]^ [355]WebMD: Night Shift Work May Cause Cancer 40. [356]^ Uz T, Akhisaroglu M, Ahmed R, Manev H (2003). "The pineal gland is critical for circadian Period1 expression in the striatum and for circadian cocaine sensitization in mice". Neuropsychopharmacology 28 (12): 2117-23. [357]doi:[358]10.1038/sj.npp.1300254. [359]PMID [360]12865893. 41. [361]^ Kurtuncu M, Arslan A, Akhisaroglu M, Manev H, Uz T (2004). "Involvement of the pineal gland in diurnal cocaine reward in mice". Eur J Pharmacol 489 (3): 203-5. [362]doi:[363]10.1016/j.ejphar.2004.03.010. [364]PMID [365]15087244. 42. [366]^ McClung C, Sidiropoulou K, Vitaterna M, Takahashi J, White F, Cooper D, Nestler E (2005). [367]"Regulation of dopaminergic transmission and cocaine reward by the Clock gene". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102 (26): 9377-81. [368]doi:[369]10.1073/pnas.0503584102. [370]PMID [371]15967985. [[372]edit] External links * [373]Circadian rhythm at the [374]Open Directory Project * Leloup J.C. (2009). "Circadian clocks and phosphorylation: Insights from computational modeling". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 4 (3): 290-303. [375]doi:[376]10.2478/s11535-009-0025-1. * Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A (2007). "Evolutionary mechanisms of circadian clocks". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 2 (2): 233-253. [377]doi:[378]10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z. 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See [440]Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [441]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * [442]Contact us * [443]Privacy policy * [444]About Wikipedia * [445]Disclaimers Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics [1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics Browse by soundtrack Search in soundtracks Browse by artist name [2]A [3]B [4]C [5]D [6]E [7]F [8]G [9]H [10]I [11]J [12]K [13]L [14]M [15]N [16]O [17]P [18]Q [19]R [20]S [21]T [22]U [23]V [24]W [25]X [26]Y [27]Z [28]# ____________ Search [29]A [30]B [31]C [32]D [33]E [34]F [35]G [36]H [37]I [38]J [39]K [40]L [41]M [42]N [43]O [44]P [45]Q [46]R [47]S [48]T [49]U [50]V [51]W [52]X [53]Y [54]Z [55]# [0.gif] - Rhythm of Life Lyrics Ensemble: Daddy started out in San Francisco, Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean, Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy, Spread the picture on a wider screen." And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons Ready to be hooked on new religions. Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife. Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life." And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee, Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge, Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton, Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Fly, fly, fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Swim, swim, swim to Daddy Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy, And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life, Of life, of life, of life. Yeah! Yeah! Yeah! Man! Related for [56]Sweet Charity: sheet music [57]Buy Musical Sheet Music cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD dvd [59]Buy Musical DVD Links: [60]Broadway Musicals Lyrics Scroller [61]Add/correct lyrics | [62]Request lyrics | [63]Links | [64]Privacy | [65]Contact us © STLyrics.com 2002 - Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]The Rhythm Of Life / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [7]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [8]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life. Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language, instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as the most graceful. Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ, and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres, and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D, of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last. It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life. Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense, so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature. Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt, thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles, there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks. As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become. When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given. We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely, or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall you receive the best. With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in modern times. Continue to: * prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 Tags [46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics, [51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music, [56]vibration [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [57]TOP [58]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [59]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [60]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [61]StasoSphere [ [62]Privacy Policy ] [ [63]Terms of Use ] [ [64]About Us ] [ [65]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:35:04 2009 Références #[1]top [2]search [3]All news stories [4]Spotlight news only [5]Feature stories [6]Customize feed [7]Science and technology news * [8]Home * [9]Nanotechnology * [10]Physics * [11]Space & Earth * [12]Electronics * [13]Technology * [14]Chemistry * [15]Biology * [16]Medicine & Health * [17]Other Sciences * [18]Psychology & Psychiatry * [19]Research * [20]Medications * [21]Cancer * [22]Genetics * [23]HIV & AIDS * [24]Diseases * [25]Other * [26]Health * [27]Neuroscience Keeping the rhythm of life in sync May 28, 2008 Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or physical stress. The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be too fast, too slow, or irregular. All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal rhythm and not even know it. Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath, swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur because of abnormal heart rhythm. To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by placing electrodes on the skin. Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case, other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart catheterization. Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia. Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some of its pumping function. Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm. Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help restore the rhythm of life. Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs [29]print this article [30]email this article [31]download pdf [32]blog this article [33]bookmark this article [34]Stumble it [35]Digg this [36]share on Facebook [37]retweet [38]share on Reddit [39]add to delicious Rate this story - 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * rank * [40]1 * [41]2 * [42]3 * [43]4 * [44]5 [45]view popular Rank Filter _ (Submit) Filter (Submit) Off Move the slider to adjust rank threshold, so that you can hide some of the comments. Display comments: [46]newest first * [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 1 / 5 (1) "...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life..." Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood through our system of vessels. It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy and thin pipes. It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word "pump" to describe the heart. What about "metronome"? + [48]report abuse + o Current rank o [49]1 o [50]2 o [51]3 o [52]4 o [53]5 * [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 4 / 5 (1) Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong. Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels, and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation. As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick, as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation" or taking a highschool biology class. + [55]report abuse + o Current rank o [56]1 o [57]2 o [58]3 o [59]4 o [60]5 * [61]print * [62]email * [63]pdf * [64]txt * [65]blog * [66]bookmark * [67]aA * [68]Aa May 28, 2008 [69]all stories Comments: [70]2 * rank * [71]1 * [72]2 * [73]3 * [74]4 * [75]5 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * [76]Stumble this up * [77]share on Facebook * * [78]Digg this * [79]retweet * * [80]share this * share on Facebook [81]Facebook * retweet [82]ReTweet * share on MySpace [83]MySpace * share on Slashdot [84]Slashdot * share on Google [85]Google * share on Reddit [86]Reddit * add to delicious [87]Delicious * save to Yahoo! bookmarks [88]Yahoo! bookmarks * share on Windows Live [89]Windows Live * Add to Mixx! 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Rhythm Of Life lyrics (Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus) If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus) Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down (repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade) [phone_left.gif] [109]Send "Rhythm Of Life" Ringtone to your Cell Phone! 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[130]www.lastlocation.com [131][get.media?sid=21908&m=3&tp=7&d=s&c=1] Références [1][LOGO-SVART.gif] [MARKERING-raud-firkant-STOR.gif] A new column written by one of our editors is published every two week _______________ Search [Search entire Voices.] powered by [2]FreeFind [3]Toppbanner [4]Toppbanner [5]Toppbanner [6]Toppbanner [7]Toppbanner May 19, 2008 [*bilde.jpg] 5 most recent columns January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By Diego Schapira December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara Wheeler December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice. By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist. By Helen Oosthuizen Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli () 1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful presence. I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the universe is not threatening for me as before. Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office, when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity arising randomly, above the background sound. Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific scenarios I could never imagine before. 2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome. That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances, making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those dangerous noises. When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands. His sounds were so emotionally intense that their message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards, listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside. My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people, without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds. In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes. Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors' desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist. I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing: the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness necessary for improving quality of life. 3rd Movement: Trio In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea which considers that a good development of each system is possible when there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system. Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with rhythm entrainment and music. As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration. To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes schema to structure and order internal and external events using rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the emotional response to music. Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion, and metaphorical thinking. Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration. Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer, because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory. There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks. And, thus, they can still feel joy. 4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy, particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to train psychologists and physicians in this field. This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music. References Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music: The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers. Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of Illinois. To cite this page: Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Moderated discussion Add your comments and responses to this essay in our Moderated Discussions. Contributions should be e-mailed to either [13]Joke Bradt or [14]Thomas Wosch View contributions on this essay: [yet no contribution] [15]Guidelines for discussions ©2009. VOICES. All rights reserved [16]Site Meter Références Liens visibles 13. javascript:decrypt_and_email(1) 14. javascript:decrypt_and_email(2) Liens cachés : 17. mailto: 18. javascript:decrypt_and_email(25) [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] #[1]About.com [2]Lee's Shakespeare Blog ____________________ (Submit) Search [3]About.com [4]Shakespeare 1. [5]Home 2. [6]Education 3. [7]Shakespeare [8][education_shakespeare;kw=;site=shakespeare;chan=education;pos=lb;sz =728x90;ord=1A1HKZQ0D20SA0MM7] * [9]Share * * [10]Shakespeare * [11]Shakespeare's Life * [12]Plays * [13]Sonnets * Free Shakespeare Newsletter! ____________________ (Submit) Sign Up * [14]Discuss in my Forum [15]Lee Jamieson Lee's Shakespeare Blog By [16]Lee Jamieson, About.com Guide to Shakespeare * [17]My Bio * [18]My Blog * [19]My Forum Add to: * [20]iGoogle * [21]My Yahoo! * [22]RSS Iambic Pentameter: The Rhythm of Life? Sunday March 22, 2009 [bencrystal.jpg] Does the thought of [23]iambic pentameter terrify you? I remember being baffeled by it at school myself because I got bogged down in counting syllables and working out where the stresses go but, I now know that this is a very technical way of studying iambic pentameter. In later life, Ive grown to love iambic pentameter. Theres something beautiful about it that I cant put my finger on. I know for sure that its in the speaking because on the page it is inert. When you [24]speak those words aloud, they literally jump off the tongue and the rhythm is the easiest of all meters to find. I asked Ben Crystal about this [25]in our interview a few months ago. He said that iambic pentameter is the rhythm of our English language and of our bodies a line of that poetry has the same rhythm as our heartbeat. A line of iambic pentameter fills the human lung perfectly, so its the rhythm of speech. I think this is true. When you [26]learn how to speak verse, you soon discover that its a very instinctive rhythm. Once you relax and go with the flow, it comes naturally. And, strange as it might sound, classic iambic pentameter lines like If music be the food of love, play on and Now is the winter of our discontent do happen to fit a single breath perfectly if spoken with passion. So, if youre having trouble with iambic pentameter, remember that its designed to be spoken, not studied. Open your mouth and speak aloud those great words. Photo of Ben Crystal © Scott Wishart * [27]Comments (2) * [28]See All Posts * [29]Share * [30]Prev * [31]Next [32]Leave a Comment Comments March 30, 2009 at 2:29 pm [33](1) [34]Kent Richmond says: In doing verse translations of five Shakespeare plays, I have had to learn how Shakespeares iambic pentameter works in order to give my translations the feel of the original. One of the beauties of iambic pentameter is that the poet can temporarily relax the meter without violating it. In this series of made-up and rather prosaic lines, the first line is straight-ahead iambic pentameter. The second and third lines, if read independently, are less obviously iambic pentameter, yet they do not violate the rhythm. The fourth line is clearly unmetrical and removes the sense that we are listening to verse. 1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes, 2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. (trochaic start; feminine ending) 3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. (Two spondees to start; feminine ending) 4. Dont you ever hit your little sister. (unmetrical) Shakespeare, at least in the plays I have translated, did not write verse lines with the rhythm of (4). To make this line sound a bit more like Shakespeares iambic pentameter, we need to make a few alterations to line 4. 1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes, 2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. 3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. 4. Dont ever hit that little girl again. To make the whole passage sound like prose, we need to change the first line a little. Then her mother took the kids clothes shopping, planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. Dont you ever hit your little sister. The first and fourth lines now have trochaic feet exposed in the wrong places, and most editors would print such a passage as prose. Shakespeares iambic pentameter certainly places constraints on what rhythms are allowed, yet it allows for flexibility and naturalness. Take a look at George Wrights book titled Shakespeares Metrical Art to see the techniques Shakespeare employed. April 11, 2009 at 8:25 pm [35](2) Dave says: The words literally jump off the tongue? I'd like to see that! 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Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Rhythm In Nature [7]page up: Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications | by Frederick R. Clow [8]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications. Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual training, recitation, gymnastics, and play. Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human [40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality. The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. . . . When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak. Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. - Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20. . . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight years in [42]duration are superposed. . . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135. Continue to: * prev: [43]Rhythm In Nature * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]The Cycle Of A Generation Tags [46]sociology, [47]communication, [48]congenial groups, [49]cycles of change, [50]democracy, [51]factors of society, [52]government, [53]heredity, [54]human nature, [55]institutions, [56]location, [57]natural selection, [58]organizations, [59]population, [60]primary groups, [61]social classes [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [62]TOP [63]previous page: Rhythm In Nature [64]page up: Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications | by Frederick R. Clow [65]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [66]StasoSphere [ [67]Privacy Policy ] [ [68]Terms of Use ] [ [69]About Us ] [ [70]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:34:34 2009 Références #[1]Welcome page [2]Help [3]Parent screen [4]skip navigation [5]Geography Compass Select Compass [Geography Compass........................] Go * [6]Home | * [7]My Compass | * [8]Help | * [9]Content Alerts | * [10]Contact Us | * [11]Links * [12]What is Geography Compass? | * [13]Subscribe | * [14]Editors | * [15]Editorial Board | * [16]Authors Cultural Towards Lefebvrian Socio-Nature? A Film about Rhythm, Nature and Science By [17]James Evans and [18]Phil Jones, School of Environment and Development, University of Manchester School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham (April 2008) __________________________________________________________________ Section: [19]Cultural Subjects: [20]Geography, [21]Urban Geography, [22]Environment And Society, [23]Cultural Geography. Key Topics: [24]nature , [25]representation. Abstract The first thing you will notice about this article is that it is actually a film. We did not set out to make a film, it just ended up that way. We started out making music out of environmental data, wondering why we only ever look at scientific data, why we do not listen to it. Wandering around the city passing through the transformed landscapes of channelised rivers and broken industrial spaces, we wanted to reveal the socio-natural rhythms of this hybrid city. The text you see below represents the shooting script for a film that explores Lefebvre's notion of rhythmanalysis in the context of socio-natural rhythms. The video accompanying it is far more interesting, including the environmental music that we produced by feeding scientific data through samplers and drum machines. The video questions the nature of scientific representation and whether the notion of rhythmanalysis can be stretched to explore rhythms beyond the human. Furthermore, the process of actually making the video, submitting it to this journal, and responding to the referees' comments made us question the very nature of what constitutes an academic paper in the twenty-first century. The accompanying commentary is our attempt to deal with these issues. To link to the film please go to DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00107.x This article abstract has been viewed 5359 times. [27]view [28]cite [29]Add to my Compass [30]Add to VLE/CMS [31]feedback __________________________________________________________________ Top 5 related articles * [32]Geographies for Moving Bodies: Thinking, Dancing, Spaces By [33]Derek P. McCormack , Oxford University Centre for the Environment (Vol. 3, October 2008) Geography Compass * [34]Colonialism, Landscape and the Subterranean By [35]Heidi V. Scott , Institute of Geography and Earth Sciences, Aberystwyth University (Vol. 3, October 2008) Geography Compass * [36]Climate-Suicide Relationships: A Research Problem in Need of Geographic Methods and Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives By P. Grady Dixon and Adam J. Kalkstein, Mississippi State UniversityUnited States Military Academy (Vol. 4, September 2009) Geography Compass * [37]Ethnomethodology and the Non-representational: What Are Disaffected Young White Men Capable of? 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By James Donald From [47]Companion to the City * [48]The Production of Nature It may seem strange to include a chapter on the production of nature in a volume about economic geography. ... By Noel Castree From [49]A Companion to Economic Geography [[50]All Related Reference Chapters] * [51]Economic * [52]Social * [53]Cultural * [54]Political * [55]Urban * [56]Development * [57]Climatology * [58]Hydrology & Water Resources * [59]Geomorphology * [60]Biogeography * [61]GIS * [62]Earth Observation * [63]Environment & Society * [64]Global Issues Quick Search Keyword search: ____________________ Select a section: [All........................] Select a content type: [All.................................] [65]Advanced Search Search Related Blackwell Reference Chapters [66]View Related Reference Books [67]Geography Compass - Personal Subscription Rates [68]Sign up for free Geography Compass content alerts [69]Keep up-to-date "...an indispensable reference tool for teachers, researchers, and students in Geography and related disciplines." Mike Bradshaw and Basil Gomez Geography Compass Editors-in-Chief [70]Blackwell Publishing Copyright © 2005-2007 [71]Blackwell Publishing | [72]Privacy Policy | [73]Contact us | [74]Help | [75]To the top... [76][ access key 0 : accessibility information including access key list ] [77][ access key 1 : home page ] [78][ access key 2 : skip navigation] [79][ access key 6 : help ] Références [1]pmc logo image [2]Logo of nihpa [3]Journal List > [4]NIHPA Author Manuscripts Formats: * [5]Abstract | * Full Text | * [6]PDF (32K) J Public Health Policy. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2008 July 24. Published in final edited form as: [7]J Public Health Policy. 2006; 27(1): 2-12. doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200061. PMCID: PMC2483431 NIHMSID: NIHMS58476 [8]Copyright notice and [9]Disclaimer Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature Elena N. Naumova^* ^*Address for Correspondence: Department of Public Health and Family Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Avenue, Boston, MA 02111, USA. E-mail: elena.naumova/at/tufts.edu Small right arrow pointing to: The publisher's final edited version of this article is available at [10]J Public Health Policy. Small right arrow pointing to: See other articles in PMC that [11]cite the published article. Abstract Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences. Understanding seasonal fluctuations in diseases patterns presents us with a major challenge. To develop efficient strategies for disease prevention and control, we need to grasp the main determinants of temporal variations and their interactions. This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality by outlining several of its factors, using as illustrations respiratory and enteric water- or food-borne infections. Keywords: seasonality, water-borne infection, food-borne infection, respiratory infection * [12] Other Sectionsv + [13]Abstract + [14]Introduction + [15]Notion of Seasonality + [16]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [17]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [18]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [19]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [20]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [21]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [22]References Introduction Now let us consider the seasons and the way we can predict whether it is going to be a healthy or an unhealthy year. (Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 10)^[23]1 Seasonal fluctuations in birth and death, in sickness and health, are the haunting mysteries of mankind. People have made predictions from winds, tides, birds' migrations, spring blooms, sunsets, and constellations in hope of grasping the future. The complexity and uncertainty of ancient and modern means of prediction make us wonder to what extent we are able to understand the rhythm of nature. One might argue the future cannot be known, but from a practical point of view, a better understanding of changes in disease occurrences is essential for building efficient strategies for disease prevention and control. Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences. Since Hippocrates, observers worldwide have noted and documented marked fluctuations in the incidence of many diseases. In the modern view, the main determinants of temporal variations in disease manifestation are evolving host susceptibility, periodicity in pathogen abundance and transmissibility, and the ever-changing environment that can support or repress a host or pathogen. Interactions among these factors responsible for seasonal variation are interwoven into the intricate fabric of life. For many diseases, explanations for self-sustained oscillations still remain elusive. We lack adequate methods and sufficient analytical tools for comprehensive examination of seasonality in public health field studies. A dearth of observations, recorded over long periods at fine resolution, compounded by an enormous number of factors associated with periodic changes, obscure our ability to understand disease variation. Urgent need for effective strategies to prevent and control a spread of emerging infections in the rapidly changing world, however, demands a deeper insight into the cyclic nature of diseases. This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality and outline several factors associated with seasonality using as illustrations enteric water- or food-borne infections and respiratory infections. Then I propose a framework for systematic evaluation of seasonal oscillations. In every part of this presentation, and most importantly, I wish to stimulate discussion on this challenging topic. * [24] Other Sectionsv + [25]Abstract + [26]Introduction + [27]Notion of Seasonality + [28]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [29]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [30]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [31]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [32]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [33]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [34]References Notion of Seasonality Every disease occurs at any season of the year but some of them more frequently occur and are of greater severity at certain times. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 19) Seasonality, as noted above, refers to the cyclic appearance of events over a period of time. A seasonal pattern may appear as a tight cluster of isolated outbreaks that occurred during a relatively short time period, then spreading over a wide geographic area. For example, in a temporal curve of enteric infection cases (i.e. giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, or rotavirus infections), a compact cluster of outbreaks is followed by a long interval of low incidence. Systematic recurrence of such sequences forms a seasonal pattern typical of a specific pathogen in a given population and in a given locality. A seasonal increase in enteric or respiratory infection often produces a well-defined oscillating curve that starts to rise in one season and declines over the next one. The three main features characterize seasonality: * a point in time when a seasonal curve reaches its maximum, * an amplitude from peak to nadir, and * a duration of a seasonal increase defined by a shape of a curve. (The shape of a seasonal pattern reflects how fast a temporal curve reaches its peak and declines to nadir over a course of a full cycle. Depending on the length of a cycle whether it is one year or a half of a year, a seasonal curve would have one or two peaks.) Seasonal patterns, described by these three characteristics, may vary for different diseases, different locations, or different subpopulations. Many viral and bacterial infections in humans show marked seasonal changes. In some diseases, like salmonellosis and influenza, annual oscillations explain up to 60% of variability. Such impact should not be ignored and deserves a proper examination. * [35] Other Sectionsv + [36]Abstract + [37]Introduction + [38]Notion of Seasonality + [39]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [40]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [41]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [42]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [43]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [44]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [45]References Diseases Seasonal Patterns Diseases vary in their relationships one with another; some are opposed, some are mutually agreeable. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 3) Differences in diseases peaks reflect different etiology, heterogeneity in host susceptibility, or route of transmission. In temperate climates, Campylobacter and Salmonella infections are known to rise in summer, giardiasis in early fall, and rotavirus infection in mid-winter, etc. Interestingly, for the same infectious agent, infections recorded in two different locations may present a different pattern of incidence. A seasonal pattern for cryptosporidiosis in the United States exhibits one late summer peak ([46]1); in contrast, in the United Kingdom, two seasonal peaks are seen ([47]2). The UK picture reflects two dominant sources of exposure: one from animals in the late spring, and another from humans in the fall ([48]3). Close temporal clustering of seasonal peaks in diseases that share similar sources of exposure suggests dominant routes of transmissions. Peaks in water-borne cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis often cluster after a summer peak in ambient temperature. Such synchronization in disease manifestation can be governed by environmental and social factors. In some instances, periodicity of a given infection observed in a particular population may be not present in another. A seasonal peak in cryptosporidiosis cases observed in the general population is not apparent in the immunocompromized HIV-positive gay men, even though the incidence of cryptosporidiosis in HIV-positive population is very high. This suggests differences in dominant routes of transmission. Seasonal patterns can change over time. After intense vaccination campaigns in the 1950s and 1970s in the United Kingdom, the patterns of measles and pertussis changed, with the high rates of disease usually seen when children were attending school diminishing for measles and practically disappearing for pertusis ([49]4). Explanations for these phenomena remain elusive. A departure from a systematically observed pattern could reflect the evolution of a pathogen or a change in herd immunity. A simple rule to remember is that a discovery hides in outliers. Faced with an abundance of causal agents, a bare observation of a rise in the incidence of non-specific enteritis should be interpreted with caution. A seasonal pattern can represent a mix of temporal curves. Imagine two periodic curves of similar intensity, but one peaks in a spring and another in a fall; the sum of these two curves might lose the appearance of seasonality, covering two distinctly seasonal phenomena. Some infections are very rare. Their seasonal patterns are difficult to examine because the relevant data must be collected over a very long time and/or aggregated over large spatial units. Precision in evaluating seasonality can thus be jeopardized by time-dependent and/or space-dependent confounders. Seasonal fluctuations can be found beyond infectious diseases; chronic somatic diseases also exhibit substantial temporal variations. Plausibly, exacerbations in chronic conditions are driven by infectious agents or environmental changes. Understanding the interplay of an infection and a chronic disease may lead to better control for both. * [50] Other Sectionsv + [51]Abstract + [52]Introduction + [53]Notion of Seasonality + [54]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [55]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [56]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [57]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [58]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [59]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [60]References Seasonal Host Susceptibility When the weather is seasonable and the crops ripen at the regular times, diseases are regular in their appearance... (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 8) Poor nutrition directly affects host susceptibility. In places of food scarcity, researchers suspect that temporal patterns in birth weight and preterm delivery result from seasonal variations in food availability ([61]5). In general, due to a less developed immune system, young children are susceptible to infection; their immune response may be further weakened by seasonal cutbacks in essential micronutrients and vitamins. Anemnestic responses to an antigen determine whether an infection recurs. Short-lived immune memory together with seasonal changes in pathogen transmissibility contribute further to the complexity of seasonal patterns. Even a perfectly healthy person can experience a change in susceptibility to infection due to stress, injuries, or trauma. The probability of a marked impact of such factors on disease seasonality is virtually unknown. * [62] Other Sectionsv + [63]Abstract + [64]Introduction + [65]Notion of Seasonality + [66]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [67]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [68]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [69]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [70]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [71]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [72]References Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility Some diseases are produced by the manner of life that is followed; others by the life-giving air we breathe. (Hippocrates. The Nature of Man, 9) Temperature, humidity, and precipitation -- the defining factors of seasons -- are important determinants of pathogens' survival. Changes influence pathogens' potency and life expectancy, resulting in temporal fluctuations in pathogens' abundance. In many instances, seasonal changes in pathogen survival and transmission are inseparably related to both biological and social aspects of our lives. They are synchronized by weather. High ambient temperature, for example, provides a supportive environment for food-borne pathogens, favoring their multiplication in food and on food preparation surfaces ([73]6). Food contamination is believed to be a significant mode of transmission for infections caused by Salmonella and Campylobacter ([74]7); therefore, during warm weather, the risk for food-borne diseases increases ([75]8). Seasonal changes in level of contamination, availability of potable water, sanitation and hygiene practices, as well as crowding and person-to-person contacts, affect pathogens' transmissibility. Worldwide, water use differs from season to season ([76]9). In temperate climates, warm weather leads to higher water consumption and encourages outdoor activities -- swimming, camping, and recreational water use. In tropical regions, contamination of surface water increases during wet seasons. Although spread of pathogens via food is certainly possible, contaminated water is the dominant source of exposure for enteric infections caused by protozoa Cryptosporidium and Giardia ([77]10 --[78]12). Depending on locality, outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis associated with drinking or recreational water frequently occur during warm or wet seasons ([79]13,[80]14). With the onset of cooler weather, the "heating season" marks a change in indoor air quality. Inadequate and poorly designed ventilation in crowded public places and urban transit systems may boost exposure to air-borne pathogens by increasing their concentration in stagnant air and by re-circulating contaminated air. Higher relative humidity may also affect the stability of air-borne droplets in which viruses travel from person to person. * [81] Other Sectionsv + [82]Abstract + [83]Introduction + [84]Notion of Seasonality + [85]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [86]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [87]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [88]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [89]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [90]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [91]References Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects You will find, as a general rule, that the constitutions and the habits of a people follow the nature of the land where they live. (Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 24) Diseases do not watch calendars. Their incidence rises and falls because of changes in factors associated with the diseases. However, in every culture all social events are synchronized by calendars; and every calendar reflects the cyclic rhythm of nature. Traditional celebrations and gatherings observed by communities according to calendars affect pathogen transmission. Holidays, social activities, and seasonal travel are often associated with changes in food consumption and preparation, and are therefore associated with changes in disease incidence. Preparing meat on a barbecue increases the risk of Campylobacter infection ([92]15,[93]16) and foreign travel increases the risk for enteric infections. Aggregation of children in schools, daycare centers, and summer camps, reflecting school calendars, facilitates rapid exchange of pathogens. There are marked seasonal variations in transmission, and thus the incidence of enteric and respiratory infections. * [94] Other Sectionsv + [95]Abstract + [96]Introduction + [97]Notion of Seasonality + [98]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [99]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [100]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [101]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [102]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [103]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [104]References Climate Change, Extreme Weather Events, and Disease Seasonality The changes of the seasons are especially liable to beget diseases, as are great changes from heat to cold, or cold to heat in any season. Other changes in the weather have similarly severe effects. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 1) As weather affects human health by creating favorable conditions for pathogen proliferation and transmission, severe weather can affect the timing and intensity of infectious outbreaks, and natural disasters lead to drastic changes in population structure and pathogen ecology. Catastrophic events like tsunamis, hurricanes, devastating floods, and heat waves that cause deaths, population displacement, and infrastructural damage may have dramatic effects on the incidence of infections and their seasonal patterns. Recent work has shown highly significant associations between extreme precipitation and water-borne disease outbreaks ([105]17). Heavy precipitation, rapid snowmelt, and floods flush animal wastes from the land into surface waters and may overwhelm drinking and wastewater treatment systems. The latter leads to discharges in watersheds of untreated human wastes. As a result, pathogens can appear in drinking and recreational water in very high concentrations ([106]18,[107]19). A rapid snowmelt, resultant runoff, and filtration system failure at the overloaded local drinking water treatment plant were implicated in the largest known water-borne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis, which occurred in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1993 ([108]20). This outbreak happened in April, not within the usual seasonal peak for cryptosporidiosis cases. A flood, which also resulted from a rapid snowmelt, has been linked with a similar increased incidence of diarrhea ([109]21). Experts expect that global climate change will increase climate variability and the frequency of extreme precipitation events in temperate regions ([110]22,[111]23). "Global warming" may also increase the frequency and magnitude of other extreme weather events, such as heat waves and droughts, and thereby have profound effects on public health ([112]24,[113]25). In a comprehensive study conducted in the United Kingdom that described a short-term link between temperature and food poisoning, the authors also hypothesized that climate change could lead to changes in rates of food poisoning ([114]26). Integration of environmental parameters into disease forecasting and warning systems could allow public health officials to alert the populace when specific meteorological conditions pose predictable risks to health ([115]27). Simple messages about proper food preparation and refrigeration and the risks of using contaminated recreational waters could, for example, be provided before, during, and after extreme events. Better understanding of disease seasonality would also help to predict outbreaks of infections triggered by climate variability. * [116] Other Sectionsv + [117]Abstract + [118]Introduction + [119]Notion of Seasonality + [120]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [121]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [122]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [123]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [124]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [125]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [126]References Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking Desperate cases need the most desperate remedies. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, I, 6) At first, seasonal fluctuations should be systematically described. This requires a framework with sound definitions and analytic tools suitable for routine use by public health professionals. In public health sciences, the existing methodology currently lacks methods and tests for assessing complex interactions in the time-dependent factors responsible for disease seasonality. Next, reliable data with fine temporal resolution are a must. The vast majority of epidemiological studies have examined seasonal patterns of infections using quarterly or monthly data. This coarse temporal aggregation can thwart an otherwise detailed, accurate, and comprehensive analysis of seasonal patterns and may even be misleading ([127]28). Examination of daily or weekly rates can substantially improve evaluation of seasonal curves, but a systematic approach for using at least weekly aggregates is needed. Finally, reluctance to apply sophisticated mathematical models in public health studies must be overcome. Underlying processes in disease manifestation and spread are complex and multifaceted. Causal pathways are often obscured. To disentangle causal effects of many factors within the circular processes of self-sustaining oscillations demands the careful building of sound conceptual models of seasonality; models that can be tested. The emerging fields of computational epidemiology and intelligent data mining will complement established work in philosophy of science and mathematical biology to become an essential part of thinking in public health and policy. Acknowledgments I thank Drs Eileen O'Neil and Beth Rosenberg for their thoughtful suggestions, and the support of funding agencies: the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (U19AI062627), and the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R01ES013171). Footnotes ^1Hippocrates' citations are taken from: Lloyd, GER, editor. Hippocratic Writings. Trans. Chadwick J and Mann WN. London: Penguin; 1978. * [128] Other Sectionsv + [129]Abstract + [130]Introduction + [131]Notion of Seasonality + [132]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [133]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [134]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [135]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [136]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [137]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [138]References References 1. Naumova EN, Chen JT, Griffiths JK, Matyas BT, Estes-Smargiassi SA, Morris RD. Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. Public Health Rep. 2000;115(5):436-47. [[139]PubMed] 2. Naumova EN, Christodouleas J, Hunter PR, Syed Q. Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance system in 1990 --1999. J Water Health. 2005;3(2):185-96. [[140]PubMed] 3. McLauchlin J, Amar C, Pedraza-Diaz S, Nichols GL. Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in 1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from livestock animals. J Clin Microbiol. 2000;38(11):3984-90. [[141]PubMed] 4. Anderson RM, May RM. Infectious Diseases of Humans. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004. 5. Fallis G, Hilditch J. A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between rural Zaire and Ontario. Can J Public Health. 1989;80(3):205-8. [[142]PubMed] 6. Kusumaningrum HD, Riboldi G, Hazeleger WC, Beumer RR. Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces and cross-contamination to foods. Int J Food Microbiol. 2003;85(3):227-36. [[143]PubMed] 7. Mead PS, Slutsker L, Dietz V, McCaig LF, Bresee JS, Shapiro C, et al. Food-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999;5(5):607-25. [[144]PubMed] 8. Kovats RS, Edwards SJ, Hajat S, Armstrong BG, Ebi KL, Menne B. The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries. Epidemiol Infect. 2004;132(3):443-53. [[145]PubMed] 9. Gofti-Laroche L, Gratacap-Cavallier B, Genoulaz O, Joret JC, Hartemann P, Seigneurin JM, et al. A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study). Water Sci Technol. 2001;43(12):39-48. [[146]PubMed] 10. Pruss A. Review of epidemiological studies on health effects from exposure to recreational water. Int J Epidemiol. 1998;27(1):1-9. [[147]PubMed] 11. Rose JB, Huffman DE, Riley K, Farrah SR, Lukasik JO, Hamann CL. Reduction of enteric microorganisms at the Upper Occoquan Sewage Authority Water Reclamation Plant. Water Environ Res. 2001;73(6):711-20. [[148]PubMed] 12. Rose JB, Slifko TR. Giardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their impact on foods: a review. J Food Prot. 1999;62(9):1059-70. [[149]PubMed] 13. Barwick RS, Levy DA, Craun GF, Beach MJ, Calderon RL. Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks -- United States, 1997 --1998. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000;49(4):1-21. [[150]PubMed] 14. Clavel A, Alivares JL, Fleta J, Castillo J, Varea M, Ramos FJ, et al. Seasonality of cryptosporidiosis in children. Eur J Clin Microbiol Inf Dis. 1996;15:77-9. 15. Kapperud G, Skjerve E, Bean NH, Ostroff SM, Lassen J. Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of a case --control study in southeastern Norway. J Clin Microbiol. 1992;30(12):3117-21. [[151]PubMed] 16. Neimann J, Engberg J, Molbak K, Wegener HC. A case --control study of risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections in Denmark. Epidemiol Infect. 2003;130(3):353-66. [[152]PubMed] 17. Curriero FC, Patz JA, Rose JB, Lele S. The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948 --1994. Am J Pub Health. 2001;91(8):1194-9. [[153]PubMed] 18. Fayer R, Trout JM, Lewis EJ, Xiao L, Lal A, Jenkins MC, et al. Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay. Parasitol Res. 2002;88(11):998-1003. [[154]PubMed] 19. Kistemann T, Classen T, Koch C, Dangendorf F, Fischeder R, Gebel J, et al. Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during extreme rainfall and runoff. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002;68(5):2188-97. [[155]PubMed] 20. MacKenzie WR, Hoxie NJ, Proctor ME, Gradus MS, Blair KA, Peterson DE, et al. A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of Cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med. 1994;331(3):161-7. [[156]PubMed] 21. Wade TJ, Sandhu SK, Levy D, Lee S, LeChevallier MW, Katz L, et al. Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms? Am J Epidemiol. 2004;159(4):398-405. [[157]PubMed] 22. World Health Organization. Using climate to predict infectious disease outbreaks: a review. World Health Organization; Geneva, Switzerland: 2004. Publication no. WHO/SDE/OEH/04.01. 23. Easterling DR, Evans JL. Observed variability and trends in extreme climate events. Bull Am Meteorol Soc. 2000;81:417-25. 24. Charron D, Thomas M, Waltner-Toews D, Aramini J, Edge T, Kent R, et al. Vulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a review. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004;67(20 --22):1667-77. [[158]PubMed] 25. Patz JA, Epstein PR, Burke TA, Balbus JM. Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996;275(3):217-23. [[159]PubMed] 26. Bentham G, Langford IH. Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England and Wales. Int J Biometeorol. 1995;39(2):81-6. [[160]PubMed] 27. Ebi KL, Schmier JK. A stitch in time: improving public health early warning systems for extreme weather events. Epidemiol Rev. 2005;27:115-21. [[161]PubMed] 28. da Silva Lopes ACB. Spurious deterministic seasonality and auto-correlation corrections with quarterly data: further Monte Carlo results. Empir Econ. 1999;24(2):341-59. __________________________________________________________________ PubMed articles by these authors * [162]Naumova, E. PubMed related articles * [163]ReviewSeasonality of infectious diseases. Annu Rev Public Health. 2007; 28:127-43. [Annu Rev Public Health. 2007] * [164]ReviewSeasonality and the dynamics of infectious diseases. Ecol Lett. 2006 Apr; 9(4):467-84. [Ecol Lett. 2006] * [165]Seasonal infectious disease epidemiology. Proc Biol Sci. 2006 Oct 7; 273(1600):2541-50. [Proc Biol Sci. 2006] * [166]Seasonal control for an endemic disease with seasonal fluctuations. Theor Popul Biol. 1988 Apr; 33(2):115-25. [Theor Popul Biol. 1988] * [167]Seasonality of primarily childhood and young adult infectious diseases in the United States. Chronobiol Int. 2006; 23(5):1065-82. [Chronobiol Int. 2006] * » [168]See reviews... | » [169]See all... Recent Activity [170]Clear [171]Turn Off [172]Turn On * [173]Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of NatureMystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature Your browsing activity is empty. Activity recording is turned off. [174]Turn recording back on Links * [175]PubMed * [176]Taxonomy * [177]Taxonomy Tree * [178]Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. Public Health Rep. 2000 Sep-Oct; 115(5):436-47. [Public Health Rep. 2000] * [179]Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance system in 1990-1999. J Water Health. 2005 Jun; 3(2):185-96. [J Water Health. 2005] * [180]Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in 1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from livestock animals. J Clin Microbiol. 2000 Nov; 38(11):3984-90. [J Clin Microbiol. 2000] [181]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [182]A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between rural Zaire and Ontario. Can J Public Health. 1989 May-Jun; 80(3):205-8. [Can J Public Health. 1989] [183]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [184]Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces and cross-contamination to foods. Int J Food Microbiol. 2003 Aug 25; 85(3):227-36. [Int J Food Microbiol. 2003] * [185]ReviewFood-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999 Sep-Oct; 5(5):607-25. [Emerg Infect Dis. 1999] * [186]The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries. Epidemiol Infect. 2004 Jun; 132(3):443-53. [Epidemiol Infect. 2004] [187]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [188]A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study). Water Sci Technol. 2001; 43(12):39-48. [Water Sci Technol. 2001] * [189]ReviewReview of epidemiological studies on health effects from exposure to recreational water. Int J Epidemiol. 1998 Feb; 27(1):1-9. [Int J Epidemiol. 1998] * [190]ReviewGiardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their impact on foods: a review. J Food Prot. 1999 Sep; 62(9):1059-70. [J Food Prot. 1999] * [191]Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks--United States, 1997-1998. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000 May 26; 49(4):1-21. [MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000] [192]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [193]Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of a case-control study in southeastern Norway. J Clin Microbiol. 1992 Dec; 30(12):3117-21. [J Clin Microbiol. 1992] * [194]A case-control study of risk factors for sporadic campylobacter infections in Denmark. Epidemiol Infect. 2003 Jun; 130(3):353-66. [Epidemiol Infect. 2003] [195]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [196]The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948-1994. Am J Public Health. 2001 Aug; 91(8):1194-9. [Am J Public Health. 2001] * [197]Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay. Parasitol Res. 2002 Nov; 88(11):998-1003. [Parasitol Res. 2002] * [198]Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during extreme rainfall and runoff. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002 May; 68(5):2188-97. [Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002] * [199]A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med. 1994 Jul 21; 331(3):161-7. [N Engl J Med. 1994] * [200]Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms? Am J Epidemiol. 2004 Feb 15; 159(4):398-405. [Am J Epidemiol. 2004] [201]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [202]ReviewVulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a review. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004 Oct 22-Nov 26; 67(20-22):1667-77. [J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004] * [203]Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996 Jan 17; 275(3):217-23. [JAMA. 1996] * [204]Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England and Wales. Int J Biometeorol. 1995 Nov; 39(2):81-6. [Int J Biometeorol. 1995] [205]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [206]ReviewA stitch in time: improving public health early warning systems for extreme weather events. Epidemiol Rev. 2005; 27():115-21. [Epidemiol Rev. 2005] [207]See more articles cited in this paragraph You are here: NCBI > [208]Literature > PubMed Central [209]Help Desk Simple NCBI Directory * Getting Started * [210]Site Map * [211]NCBI Help Manual * [212]NCBI Handbook * [213]Training & Tutorials * Resources * [214]Literature * [215]DNA & RNA * [216]Proteins * [217]Sequence Analysis * [218]Genes & Expression * [219]Genomes * [220]Maps & Markers * [221]Domains & Structures * [222]Genetics & Medicine * [223]Taxonomy * [224]Data & Software * [225]Training & Tutorials * [226]Homology * [227]Small Molecules * [228]Variation * Popular * [229]PubMed * [230]PubMed Central * [231]Bookshelf * [232]BLAST * [233]Gene * [234]Nucleotide * [235]Protein * [236]GEO * [237]Conserved Domains * [238]Structure * [239]PubChem * Featured * [240]GenBank * [241]Reference Sequences * [242]Map Viewer * [243]Genome Projects * [244]Human Genome * [245]Mouse Genome * [246]Influenza Virus * [247]Primer-BLAST * [248]Short Read Archive * NCBI Information * [249]About NCBI * [250]Research at NCBI * [251]NCBI Newsletter * [252]NCBI FTP Site * [253]Contact Us [254]NIH [255]DHHS [256]USA.gov [257]Copyright | [258]Disclaimer | [259]Privacy | [260]Accessibility | [261]Contact [262]National Center for Biotechnology Information , U.S. National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville Pike, Bethesda MD, 20894 USA Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [USEMAP] [USEMAP] #[1]Edit this page [2]Wikipedia (en) [3]copyright [4]Wikipedia RSS Feed [5]Wikipedia Atom Feed Circadian rhythm From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search "Human clock" redirects here. For the online clock, see [8]Humanclock. Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters. A circadian rhythm is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including [9]plants, [10]animals, [11]fungi and [12]cyanobacteria (see [13]bacterial circadian rhythms). The term "circadian", coined by [14]Franz Halberg,^[15][1] comes from the [16]Latin [17]circa, "around", and diem or dies, "day", meaning literally "approximately one day". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [18]tidal, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [19]chronobiology. Circadian rhythms are [20]endogenously generated, and can be entrained by external cues, called [21]zeitgebers, the primary one of which is [22]daylight. Contents * [23]1 History * [24]2 Criteria * [25]3 Origin * [26]4 Importance in animals + [27]4.1 Impact of light-dark cycle + [28]4.2 Arctic animals + [29]4.3 Butterfly migration * [30]5 Biological clock in mammals + [31]5.1 Determining the human circadian rhythm + [32]5.2 Outside the "master clock" * [33]6 Light and the biological clock * [34]7 Enforced longer cycles * [35]8 Human health + [36]8.1 Disruption + [37]8.2 Effect of drugs * [38]9 See also * [39]10 References + [40]10.1 Bibliography + [41]10.2 Notes * [42]11 External links [[43]edit] History The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [44]Alexander the Great, described [45]diurnal leaf movements of the [46]tamarind tree.^[47][2] The first modern observation of endogenous circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [48]Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant [49]Mimosa pudica continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli. In 1918, J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.^[50][3] [51]Joseph Takahashi discovered the genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.^[52][4]^[53][5] [[54]edit] Criteria To differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met: 1) the rhythms persist in the absence of cues, 2) they persist equally precisely over a range of temperatures, and 3) the rhythms can be adjusted to match the local time: * The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those "apparent" rhythms that are merely responses to external periodic cues. A rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been tested in conditions without external periodic input. * The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e., it maintains the same period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway. At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely coincidental. * The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [55]time zones illustrates the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next. Until rhythms are reset, a person usually experiences [56]jet lag. [[57]edit] Origin [58]Question book-new.svg This section needs additional [59]citations for [60]verification. Please help [61]improve this article by adding [62]reliable references. Unsourced material may be [63]challenged and [64]removed. (October 2007) Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [65]ultraviolet radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus [66]Neurospora, which exists today, retains this [67]clock-regulated mechanism. Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment.^[68][6] This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,^[69][7] as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian rhythms in quail.^[70][8] The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [71]cyanobacteria. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of Synechococcus elongatus can be reconstituted in vitro with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [72]ATP. Previous explanations of the [73]prokaryotic circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism. It is an unanswered question whether circadian clocks in eukaryotic organisms require translation/transcription-derived oscillations, for, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture (input - [74]central oscillator - output), they do not share any [75]homology. This implies probable independent origins. In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [76]Seymour Benzer first identified a genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behaviour: one had a shorter period, another had a longer one, and the third had none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named [77]period.^[78][9] The same gene was identified to be defective in the sleep disorder FASPS ([79]Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome) in human beings thirty years later, underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day. A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.^[80][10] At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronize the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [81]eyes travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock. [[82]edit] Importance in animals Circadian rhythmicity is present in the [83]sleeping and feeding patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear patterns of core body temperature, [84]brain wave activity, [85]hormone production, cell regeneration and other biological activities. In addition, [86]photoperiodism, the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation of day length. " Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food availability or predator activity is crucial for survival of many species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the photoperiod ('daylength') is the most predictive environmental cue for the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing of migration, hibernation and reproduction.^[87][11] " [[88]edit] Impact of light-dark cycle The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a [89]freerunning rhythm. Each "day", their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward, depending on whether their [90]endogenous period is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called [91]Zeitgebers (from the German, Time Givers).^[92][12] It is interesting to note that totally-blind subterranean mammals (e.g., [93]blind mole rat Spalax sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors (detect light) are still functional; as well, they do surface periodically.^[[94]citation needed] Freerunning organisms that normally have one consolidated sleep episode will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light/dark cycle in nature. The sleep-wake rhythm may, in these circumstances, become out of phase with other circadian or [95]ultradian rhythms such as [96]temperature and [97]digestion.^[[98]citation needed] Recent research has influenced the design of [99]spacecraft environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.^[[100]citation needed] [[101]edit] Arctic animals Norwegian researchers at the [102]University of Tromsø have shown that some Arctic animals ([103]ptarmigan, [104]reindeer) show circadian rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at [105]70 degrees North showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter, and spring, but not in the summer. Reindeer at [106]78 degrees North showed such rhythms only autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other Arctic animals as well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and the constant dark of winter.^[107][13]^[108][14] However, another study in northern Alaska found that [109]ground squirrels and [110]porcupines strictly maintained their circadian rhythms through 82 days and nights of sunshine. The researchers speculate that these two small mammals see that the apparent distance between the sun and the horizon is shortest once a day, and, thus, a sufficient signal to adjust by.^[111][15] [[112]edit] Butterfly migration The navigation of the fall migration of the [113]Eastern North American monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) to their overwintering grounds in central Mexico uses a time-compensated sun compass that depends upon a circadian clock in their antennae.^[114][16]^[115][17] [[116]edit] Biological clock in mammals Diagram illustrating the influence of light and darkness on circadian rhythms and related [117]physiology and behaviour through the [118]suprachiasmatic nucleus in humans. The primary circadian "clock" in [119]mammals is located in the [120]suprachiasmatic nucleus (or nuclei) ([121]SCN), a pair of distinct groups of [122]cells located in the [123]hypothalamus. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep-wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [124]retina of the eyes contains not only "classical" [125]photoreceptors but also photoresponsive retinal [126]ganglion cells. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called [127]melanopsin, follow a pathway called the [128]retinohypothalamic tract, leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues. It appears that the SCN takes the information on the lengths of the day and night from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [129]pineal gland, a tiny structure shaped like a [130]pine cone and located on the [131]epithalamus. In response the pineal secretes the hormone [132]melatonin. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day and its presence provides information about night-length. The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a 23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural solar day-night cycle on the planet [133]Mars).^[134][18] [[135]edit] Determining the human circadian rhythm The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's circadian rhythm are * melatonin secretion by the pineal gland and * core body temperature. For temperature studies, people must remain awake but calm and semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are taken continuously. The average human adult's temperature reaches its minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake time, though variation is great among normal [136]chronotypes. Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime. Its onset in dim light, dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO), at about 21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Its major [137]metabolite can also be measured in morning urine. Both DLMO and the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or saliva have been used as circadian markers. However, newer research indicates that the melatonin offset may be the most reliable marker. Benloucif et al. in Chicago in 2005 found that melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.^[138][19] One method used for measuring melatonin offset is to analyse a sequence of urine samples throughout the morning for the presence of the melatonin [139]metabolite 6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s). Laberge et al. in Quebec in 1997 used this method in a study that confirmed the frequently found delayed circadian phase in healthy adolescents.^[140][20] [[141]edit] Outside the "master clock" More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the "master clock". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the [142]oesophagus, [143]lungs, [144]liver, [145]pancreas, [146]spleen, [147]thymus, and the [148]skin.^[149][21] Though oscillators in the skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven so far.^[150][22]^[151][23] There is some evidence that also the olfactory bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting that also these structures may be weak oscillators. Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than to [152]light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have freerunning rhythms. [[153]edit] Light and the biological clock Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [154]phase response curve (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required [155]illuminance vary from species to species and lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans. Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm in humans are higher than the levels usually used in artificial lighting in homes. According to some researchers^[156][24] the illumination intensity that excites the circadian system has to reach up to 1000 [157]lux striking the retina. In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or colour) of light is a factor in the entrainment of the body clock. [158]Melanopsin is most efficiently excited by blue light, 420-440 nm^[159][25] according to some researchers while others have reported 470-485 nm. It is thought that the direction of the light may have an effect on entraining the circadian rhythm;^[160][24] light coming from above, resembling an image of a bright sky, has greater effect than light entering our eyes from below. [[161]edit] Enforced longer cycles Modern research under very controlled conditions has shown the human period for adults to be just slightly longer than 24 hours on average. Czeisler et al. at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes. The "clock" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's rotation.^[162][26] The 28-hour day is presented as a concept of [163]time management.^[164][27] It builds on the fact that the week of seven days at 24 hours and a "week" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of 168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours. Each "day" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern. Studies by [165]Nathaniel Kleitman^[166][28] in 1938 and by [167]Derk-Jan Dijk and [168]Charles Czeisler^[169][29]^[170][30] in 1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep-wake cycles, in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day,^[171][31] this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about 24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including [172]sleep latency and other functions.^[173][32] Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli like daylight and timekeeping. Early investigators determined the human circadian period to be 25 hours or more. They went to great lengths to shield subjects from time cues and daylight, but they were not aware of the effects of indoor electric lights. The subjects were allowed to turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase. These results became well known.^[174][26] Researchers allowed subjects to keep electric lighting on in the evening, as it was thought at that time that a couple of 60W bulbs would not have a resetting effect on the circadian rhythms of humans. More recent research^[[175]citation needed] has shown that adults have a built-in day, which averages just over 24 hours, that indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms and that most people attain their best-quality sleep during their [176]chronotype-determined sleep periods. [[177]edit] Human health Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with [178]angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [179]left ventricular (reverse) remodelling.^[[180]citation needed] A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms. A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during the day, a [181]power-nap, does not have any effect on normal circadian rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve productivity.^[182][33]^[183][34] There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the human circadian rhythm, such as [184]seasonal affective disorder (SAD), [185]delayed sleep phase syndrome (DSPS) and other [186]circadian rhythm disorders.^[187][35] Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [188]reticular activating system, which is crucial for maintaining a state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep-wake cycle may be a sign or complication of [189]uremia,^[190][36] [191]azotemia or [192]acute renal failure. [[193]edit] Disruption Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers have experienced the condition known as [194]jet lag, with its associated symptoms of [195]fatigue, disorientation and [196]insomnia. A number of other disorders, for example [197]bipolar disorder and some [198]sleep disorders, are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [199]bipolar disorder are positively influenced by [200]lithium's effect on clock genes.^[201][37] Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease [202][2] The suppression of melatonin production associated with the disruption of the circadian rhythm may increase the risk of developing cancer.^[203][38]^[204][39] [[205]edit] Effect of drugs Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such as [206]cocaine.^[207][40]^[208][41] Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.^[209][42] [[210]edit] See also * [211]Actigraphy (also known as Actimetry) * [212]Advanced sleep phase syndrome * [213]ARNTL * [214]ARNTL2 * [215]Bacterial circadian rhythms * [216]Chronobiology * [217]Chronotype * [218]Circadian oscillator * [219]Circadian rhythm sleep disorders * [220]Cryptochrome * [221]CRY1 and [222]CRY2, the cryptochrome family genes * [223]Delayed sleep phase syndrome * [224]Diurnal cycle * [225]Jet lag * [226]Light effects on circadian rhythm * [227]PER1, [228]PER2, and [229]PER3, the period family genes * [230]Power-nap [[231]edit] References [[232]edit] Bibliography * Aschoff J (ed.) (1965) Circadian Clocks. North Holland Press, Amsterdam * Avivi A, Albrecht U, Oster H, Joel A, Beiles A, Nevo E. 2001. Biological clock in total darkness: the Clock/MOP3 circadian system of the blind subterranean mole rat. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:13751-13756. * Avivi A, Oster H, Joel A, Beiles A, Albrecht U, Nevo E. 2002. Circadian genes in a blind subterranean mammal II: conservation and uniqueness of the three Period homologs in the blind subterranean mole rat, Spalax ehrenbergi superspecies. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:11718-11723. * Ditty JL, Williams SB, Golden SS (2003) A cyanobacterial circadian timing mechanism. Annu Rev Genet 37:513-543 * Dunlap JC, Loros J, DeCoursey PJ (2003) Chronobiology: Biological Timekeeping. Sinauer, Sunderland * Dvornyk V, Vinogradova ON, Nevo E (2003) Origin and evolution of circadian clock genes in prokaryotes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100:2495-2500 * Koukkari WL, Sothern RB (2006) Introducing Biological Rhythms. Springer, New York * Martino T, Arab S, Straume M, Belsham DD, Tata N, Cai F, Liu P, Trivieri M, Ralph M, Sole MJ. Day/night rhythms in gene expression of the normal murine heart. J Mol Med. 2004 Apr;82(4):256-64. Epub 2004 Feb 24. PMID: 14985853 * Refinetti R (2006) Circadian Physiology, 2nd ed. CRC Press, Boca Raton * Takahashi JS, Zatz M (1982) Regulation of circadian rhythmicity. Science 217:1104-1111 * Tomita J, Nakajima M, Kondo T, Iwasaki H (2005) No transcription-translation feedback in circadian rhythm of KaiC phosphorylation. Science 307: 251-254 * Moore-Ede, Martin C., Sulszman, Frank M., and Fuller, Charles A. (1982) "The Clocks that Time Us: Physiology of the Circadian Timing System." Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. [233]ISBN 0-674-13581-4. [[234]edit] Notes Centre 2. [237]^ Bretzl H. Botaniche Forchungen des Alexanderzuges. Leipzig: Teubner, 1903. 3. [238]^ Danchin, Antoine. [239]"Important dates 1900-1919". HKU-Pasteur Research Centre (Paris). 0.html. Retrieved 2008-01-12. 4. [241]^ "Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock". Chicago Tribune. April 29, 1994. 5. [242]^ Vitaterna, M.H.; King, D.P.; Chang, A.M.; Kornhauser, J.M.; Lowrey, P.L.; McDonald, J.D.; Dove, W.F.; Pinto, L.H. et al. (1994). "Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior.". Science 264 (264): 719-725. [243]doi:[244]10.1126/science.8171325. 6. [245]^ Sharma, Vijay Kumar (2003). [246]"Adaptive significance of circadian clocks" (Abstract). Chronobiology international 20 (6): 901-919. [247]doi:[248]10.1081/CBI-120026099. [249]ISSN [250]0742-0528. [251]PMID [252]14680135. Retrieved 2009-11-08. 7. [254]^ (Sheeba et al. 1999) 8. [255]^ (Guyomarc'h et al. 1998, Zivkovic et al. 1999) 9. [256]^ Purves, Dale et al (2001) [2001]. [257]"Molecular Mechanisms of Biological Clocks" (e-book). [258]NEUROSCIENCE (second ed.). Sunderland, MA, U.S.A.: Sinauer Associates. [259]ISBN [260]0-87893-742-0. 3. Retrieved 2008-05-30. 10. [262]^ [263]Circadian gene expression in individual fibroblast...[Cell. 2004] - PubMed Result 11. [264]^ Zivkovic, Bora "Coturnix" (2005-08-13 / July 25, 2007). [265]"Clock Tutorial #16: Photoperiodism - Models and Experimental Approaches". A Blog Around the Clock. ScienceBlogs. eriodi_1.php. Retrieved 2007-12-09. 12. [267]^ [268]"Circadian rhythms". Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. Armenian Medical Network. 2007. Retrieved 2007-09-19. 13. [270]^ Spilde, Ingrid (December 2005). [271]"Reinsdyr uten døgnrytme" (in Language: Norwegian, Bokmål). forskning.no. Retrieved 2007-11-24. 14. [273]^ Zivkovic, Bora, aka Coturnix, chronobiologist. [274]"Circadian Rhythms, or Not, in Arctic Reindeer". A Blog around the Clock. ScienceBlogs.com. _in_ar_1.php. Retrieved 2007-11-24. 15. [276]^ Zivkovic, Bora, aka Coturnix, chronobiologist (2007-02-11). [277]"Small Arctic Mammals Entrain to Something during the Long Summer Day". A Blog Around the Clock. ScienceBlogs.com. rain_t.php. Retrieved 2007-11-26. 16. [279]^ Merlin C, Gegear RJ, Reppert SM. (2009). Antennal Circadian Clocks Coordinate Sun Compass Orientation in Migratory Monarch Butterflies. Science 325: 1700-1704. [280]doi:[281]10.1126/science.1176221 17. [282]^ Kyriacou CP. (2009). Unraveling Traveling. Science 325:1629-1630 [283]doi:[284]10.1126/science.1178935 18. [285]^ Scheer, Frank A. J. L.; Kenneth P. Wright, Jr., Richard E. Kronauer, Charles A. Czeisler (2007-08-08). [286]"Plasticity of the Intrinsic Period of the Human Circadian Timing System". PLoS ONE 2 (1): e721. [287]doi:[288]10.1371/journal.pone.0000721. [289]PMID [290]17684566. [291]PMC [292]1934931. pone.0000721. Retrieved 2007-12-31. 19. [294]^ Benloucif, S.; Guico, M.J.; Reid, K.J.; Wolfe, L.F.; L'Hermite-Baleriaux, M.; Zee, P.C. (2005). [295]"Stability of melatonin and temperature as circadian phase markers and their relation to sleep times in humans". J Biol Rhythms (Chicago, Illinois, USA: Center for Sleep and Circadian Biology, Departments of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine) 20 (2): 178-88. [296]doi:[297]10.1177/0748730404273983. [298]PMID [299]15834114. issn=20045590. Retrieved 2007-12-18. 20. [301]^ Laberge, L.; Lesperance, P.; Tremblay, R.; Lambert, C.; Montplaisir, J. (1997). [302]"Phase delay of 6-sulphatoxymelatonin in normal adolescents". Sleep Research (Québec, Canada: Centre d'etude du Sommeil, Hopital du Sacre-Coeur, Département de Psychologie, Département de Pharmacologie, Departement de Psychiatrie, Université de Montréal) 26: 727. issn=19979287. Retrieved 2007-12-18. 21. [304]^ Zanello, S. et al., J. Inv. Dermatol. 2000, Vol. 115, 4 Oct.: Expression of the Circadian Clock Genes clock and period1 in Human Skin 22. [305]^ Kawara, S. et al. J. Inv. Derm. 2002, Vol 119, 6 Dec.: Low-dose UVB Rays Alter the mRNA Expression of the Circadian Clock Genes in cultured Human Keratinocytes 23. [306]^ Campbell, S. and Murphy, P, Science 1998, Vol 279, 16 Jan.: Extraocular Circadian Phototransduction in Humans 24. ^ [307]^a [308]^b Semjonova, Milena (2003). [309]"Healthy Lighting, from a lighting designer's perspective". Milena Lighting Design. 25. [311]^ Newman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: "Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment", Biochemistry. 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8. 26. ^ [312]^a [313]^b [314]"Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour". 1999. Retrieved 2007-09-23. "The variation between our subjects, with a 95 percent level of confidence, was no more than plus or minus 16 minutes, a remarkably small range." 27. [316]^ Digital Beat Productions (1997). [317]"28 Hour Day". 28. [319]^ Kleitman, Nathaniel (1962). Sleep and Wakefullness ed 2. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 29. [320]^ Dijk, Derk-Jan; Czeisler Charles (1994). "Paradoxical timing of the circadian rhythm of sleep propensity serves to consolidate sleep and wakefulness in humans". Neurosci Lett 166 (1): 63. [321]doi:[322]10.1016/0304-3940(94)90841-9. [323]PMID [324]8190360. 30. [325]^ Dijk, Derk-Jan; Czeisler Charles (1995). [326]"Contribution of the Circadian Pacemaker and the Sleep Homeostat to Sleep Propensity, Sleep Structure, Electrocephalographic Slow Waves, and Sleep Spindle Activity in Humans". J. Neurosci 15 (5): 3526. [327]PMID [328]7751928. 31. [330]^ Cromie, William J. (1999-07-15). [331]"Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour". The Harvard University Gazette. Retrieved 2008-02-19. 32. [333]^ Aldrich, Michael S (1999). [334]Sleep medicine. New York: Oxford University Press. [335]ISBN [336]0195129571. pg=RA1-PA65&dq=experimenting+with+the+28+hour+day&source=bl&ots=9R4 mo2fI1O&sig=om2zbYPnXnm_1HuZo2Tch6J1vyo&hl=en&ei=MBZeStGgIoyJkQWd17 znDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2. 33. [338]^ [339]"The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep". The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep. Behavioral medicine. 2001. Retrieved 2008-11-11. 34. [341]^ [342]"Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students". Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students. Liberty University. 2007. 3.htm. Retrieved 2008-11-11. 35. [344]^ [345]"Circadian Rhythms and Sleep". Circadian Rhythms and Sleep. Serendip. 2007. ml. Retrieved 2007-09-19. 36. [347]^ Sinert, Richard; Peter R Peacock, Jr (May 10, 2006). [348]"Renal Failure, Acute". eMedicine from WebMD. 2008-08-03. 37. [350]^ [351]NIMH · Science News from 2006 · Lithium Blocks Enzyme To Help Cells' Clocks Keep On Tickin' 38. [352]^ Straif K, Baan R, Grosse Y, Secretan B, El Ghissassi F, Bouvard V, Altieri A, Benbrahim-Tallaa L, Cogliano V, WHO International Agency for Research on Cancer Monograph Working Group. Carcinogenicity of shift-work, painting, and fire-fighting. [353][1] Lancet Oncol. 2007; 12(8):1065-1066. 39. [354]^ [355]WebMD: Night Shift Work May Cause Cancer 40. [356]^ Uz T, Akhisaroglu M, Ahmed R, Manev H (2003). "The pineal gland is critical for circadian Period1 expression in the striatum and for circadian cocaine sensitization in mice". Neuropsychopharmacology 28 (12): 2117-23. [357]doi:[358]10.1038/sj.npp.1300254. [359]PMID [360]12865893. 41. [361]^ Kurtuncu M, Arslan A, Akhisaroglu M, Manev H, Uz T (2004). "Involvement of the pineal gland in diurnal cocaine reward in mice". Eur J Pharmacol 489 (3): 203-5. [362]doi:[363]10.1016/j.ejphar.2004.03.010. [364]PMID [365]15087244. 42. [366]^ McClung C, Sidiropoulou K, Vitaterna M, Takahashi J, White F, Cooper D, Nestler E (2005). [367]"Regulation of dopaminergic transmission and cocaine reward by the Clock gene". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102 (26): 9377-81. [368]doi:[369]10.1073/pnas.0503584102. [370]PMID [371]15967985. [[372]edit] External links * [373]Circadian rhythm at the [374]Open Directory Project * Leloup J.C. (2009). "Circadian clocks and phosphorylation: Insights from computational modeling". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 4 (3): 290-303. [375]doi:[376]10.2478/s11535-009-0025-1. * Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A (2007). "Evolutionary mechanisms of circadian clocks". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 2 (2): 233-253. [377]doi:[378]10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z. [380]Categories: [381]Sleep | [382]Circadian rhythms | [383]Biology of bipolar disorder Hidden categories: [384]Articles needing additional references from October 2007 | [385]All articles needing additional references | [386]All articles with unsourced statements | [387]Articles with unsourced statements from September 2009 | [388]Articles with unsourced statements from November 2007 | [389]Articles with unsourced statements from January 2009 | [390]Articles with unsourced statements from December 2009 Views * [391]Article * [392]Discussion * [393]Edit this page * [394]History Personal tools * [395]Try Beta * [396]Log in / create account Navigation * [397]Main page * [398]Contents * [399]Featured content * [400]Current events * [401]Random article Search ____________________ Go Search Interaction * [402]About Wikipedia * [403]Community portal * [404]Recent changes * [405]Contact Wikipedia * [406]Donate to Wikipedia * [407]Help Toolbox * [408]What links here * [409]Related changes * [410]Upload file * [411]Special pages * [412]Printable version * [413]Permanent link * [414]Cite this page Languages * [415]Català * [416]Cesky * [417]Dansk * [418]Deutsch * [419]Ellynika' * [420]Español * [421]Français * [422]Italiano * [423]E+B+R+J+T+ * [424]Magyar * [425]Nederlands * [426]¥¬ * [427]ªNorsk (bokmål) * [428]ªNorsk (nynorsk) * [429]Polski * [430]Português * [431]Româna * [432]Russkij * [433]Simple English * [434]Srpski / Srpski * [435]Svenska * [436]a+r+d+w+ [437]Powered by MediaWiki [438]Wikimedia Foundation * This page was last modified on 18 January 2010 at 03:48. * Text is available under the [439]Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See [440]Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [441]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * [442]Contact us * [443]Privacy policy * [444]About Wikipedia * [445]Disclaimers Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1][dailyomlogo2.gif] Today's DailyOM brought to you by: [2]Click Here to Heal Yourself with Writing [3][nav-signup.gif] [nav-line.gif] [4][nav-mydailyom.gif] [nav-line.gif] [5][nav-marketplace.gif] [nav-line.gif] [6][nav-community.gif] [nav-line.gif] [7][nav-courses.gif] [bambooborder2.jpg] [Articles......] _______________ [search.gif]-Submit [8][nav-giftshop.gif] [nav-line.gif] [9][nav-shoppingcart.gif] January 2, 2006 Universal Timing Life's Natural Rhythm Nature's natural rhythms orchestrate when day turns to night, when flowers must bloom, and provides the cue for when it is time for red and brown leaves to fall from trees. As human beings, our own inner rhythm is attuned to this universal sense of timing. Guided by the rising and setting of the sun, changes in temperature, and our own internal rhythm, we know when it is time to sleep, eat, or be active. While our minds and spirits are free to focus on other pursuits, our breath and our heartbeat are always there to remind us of life's pulsing rhythm that moves within and around us. Moving to this rhythm, we know when it is time to stop working and when to rest. Pushing our bodies to work beyond their natural rhythm diminishes our ability to renew and recharge. A feeling much like jet lag lets us know when we've overridden our own natural rhythm. When we feel the frantic calls of all we want to accomplish impelling us to move faster than is natural for us, we may want to breathe deeply instead and look at nature moving to its own organic timing: birds flying south, leaves shedding, or snow falling. A walk in nature can also let us re-attune is to her organic rhythm, while allowing us to move back in time with our own. When we move to our natural rhythm, we can achieve all we need to do with less effort. We may even notice that our soul moves to its own internal, natural rhythm - especially when it comes to our personal evolution. Comparing ourselves to others is unnecessary. Our best guide is to move to our own internal timing, while keeping time with the rhythm of nature. Click to follow DailyOM on [10]Twitter and [11]Facebook What do you think? [12]Discuss this article and share your opinion Want more DailyOM? [13]Register for your free email, or [14]browse all articles Life's Natural Rhythm Share the OM: [15][emailfriend.gif] [16]Email this to a friend [17][printerfriendly.gif] [18]Printable version [19][icon-mydailyom.gif] [20]Save in My DailyOM [21][icon-discuss.gif] [22]Discuss this article [23][horoscopes1.jpg] Today's friend of OM: Register now to receive your [24]free daily horoscope from DailyOM. 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For more information visit [25]DailyOM.com More DailyOM: [26]More Inspiration [27]Today's Horoscopes [28]OM Marketplace [29]Home | [30]Gift Shop | [31]My DailyOM | [32]Marketplace | [33]Community | [34]Archives | [35]Share The OM | [36]Contact Us [37]Subscribe | [38]Change Email | [39]User Settings | [40]Unsubscribe | [41]Privacy Policy | [42]Disclaimer | [43]Gift Shop FAQ | [44]Advertising Info [45]Make DailyOM Your Homepage | [46]Link To Us | [47]Publish DailyOM On Your Website © 2004-08 DailyOM - All Rights Reserved No portion of this site can be reprinted without express permission Artwork by [48]Wang Chang-Ming Références Lyrics, Rhythm of Life Lyrics [1]Sweet Charity soundtrack, Sweet Charity lyrics Browse by soundtrack Search in soundtracks Browse by artist name [2]A [3]B [4]C [5]D [6]E [7]F [8]G [9]H [10]I [11]J [12]K [13]L [14]M [15]N [16]O [17]P [18]Q [19]R [20]S [21]T [22]U [23]V [24]W [25]X [26]Y [27]Z [28]# ____________ Search [29]A [30]B [31]C [32]D [33]E [34]F [35]G [36]H [37]I [38]J [39]K [40]L [41]M [42]N [43]O [44]P [45]Q [46]R [47]S [48]T [49]U [50]V [51]W [52]X [53]Y [54]Z [55]# [0.gif] - Rhythm of Life Lyrics Ensemble: Daddy started out in San Francisco, Tootin' on his trumpet loud and mean, Suddenly a voice said, "Go forth Daddy, Spread the picture on a wider screen." And the voice said, "Brother, there's a million pigeons Ready to be hooked on new religions. Hit the road, Daddy, leave your common-law wife. Spread the religion of The Rhythm Of Life." And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Daddy, spread the gospel in Milwaukee, Took his walkie talkie to Rocky Ridge, Blew his way to Canton, then to Scranton, Till he landed under the Manhattan Bridge. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Daddy was the new sensation, got himself a congregation, Built up quite an operation down below. With the pie-eyed piper blowing, while the muscatel was flowing, All the cats were go, go, go-ing down below. Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Fly, fly, fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Swim, swim, swim to Daddy Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Crawl, crawl, crawl to Daddy, And The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, Puts a tingle in your fingers and a tingle in your feet, Rhythm in your bedroom, Rhythm in the street, Yes, The Rhythm Of Life is a powerful beat, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, To feel The Rhythm Of Life, To feel the powerful beat, To feel the tingle in your fingers, To feel the tingle in your feet, Flip your wings and fly to Daddy, Take a dive and swim to Daddy, Hit the floor and crawl to Daddy, Daddy we got The Rhythm Of Life, Of life, of life, of life. Yeah! Yeah! Yeah! Man! Related for [56]Sweet Charity: sheet music [57]Buy Musical Sheet Music cd [58]Buy Soundtrack CD dvd [59]Buy Musical DVD Links: [60]Broadway Musicals Lyrics Scroller [61]Add/correct lyrics | [62]Request lyrics | [63]Links | [64]Privacy | [65]Contact us © STLyrics.com 2002 - Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]The Rhythm Of Life / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [7]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [8]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]The Rhythm Of Life", by Charles Brodie Patterson. Also available from Amazon: [38]Rhythm of Life. Music Of Other Climes. Part 2 Aristoxenus, an early Greek critic of prosody, distinguished the elements out of which rhythm is composed as: the spoken word, the time of [39]music in song, and the bodily [40]motion. And he defined rhythm so produced as an arrangement of the time periods. The art of the early Greek poets was devoted to a harmonious combination of language, instrument, and gesture, the whole three uniting to form perfect rhythm. Ages ago it was known that rhythm could be put into everything we do with the greatest advantage, so that no matter what work one may be engaged in, the rhythmic way of doing it is the easiest as well as the most graceful. Pythagoras, who lived some six hundred and fifty years before Christ, and is considered one of the greatest of early mathematicians, believed that the universe was created by music. It is said he taught that not the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide in music. He was apparently one of the first Greeks to teach the music of the spheres, and had a scale in which the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn corresponded to the notes E, F, G, A, B, C, and D, of which the Sun formed the middle or the controlling note; thus we can see that the music of 2500 years ago was, in one sense, derived from the heavens, and that heavenly bodies were used as symbols of musical sounds. Unquestionably Greece laid the foundation of her civilisation in music, and the other Muses constituted different degrees of the one great fundamental note that ruled through all from first to last. It is music that comes through man's ear in sound, and it is music that comes through man's eye in colour. Musical sound vibration and musical colour vibration underlie all [41]nature, and give beauty to all life. Take music and colour out of the world and we have a dead world, a world without a soul. The nation that is devoid of the musical sense, so that it neither creates nor loves music, has lost its soul. And the individual who has not awakened to a love of music and colour has not yet found his soul. We feel music and colour far more than we see or hear them. The greatest beauty of sound or colour is a revelation to the soul of man rather than something derived through his sense nature. Greece was a great nation so long as she continued to use the divine principles of rhythm, melody, and [42]harmony in everything she felt, thought, and did. From the time she began to lose these principles, there came a decline. But the spirit which once animated the Greek people did not die; it lives on, and will continue to live on until there shall come a civilisation even greater than that of the Greeks. As Jesus was a prophecy of what man must become, so Greece was a prophecy of what the whole world shall yet become. When we write of the music of the past, let us remember that music is without beginning or ending, that it lives in the heart of the Infinite, that the demand can never exceed the supply. Moreover, the world can have the music it desires if it is willing to seek it. But the things that heart and mind desire are not brought into being without an effort on the part of those desiring them. We must bring of what we have to bear on that which we desire to have; for everything we receive, there must be something in the nature of an equivalent given. We can have what heart and mind desire, when we use heart and mind and bodily effort to get it. It was Plato who said: "The soul which has seen the most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or artist, or musician, or lover." It is through seeing the most of truth and expressing all that we are able to see that there comes the new birth, the new zeal, the new knowledge. Love music for the love of music; love beauty for the love of beauty, and music and beauty will become redoubled, as it were, in your life. If we are going to secure from life all that is highest and best, then we must bring to life all that is highest and best. We cannot barter the unlovely for the lovely, or the unwholesome for that which is wholesome, the discordant for the harmonious. No, it is like that attracts like. Give all the melody that is in your life to the world, and a still greater melody will flow back into it. Give to the world the best, and give only the best, then shall you receive the best. With the decline of music in Greece, there was a long period when the progress of music seemed to have come to an end. The world came under the thraldom of the Roman Empire, and the Muses, save in the most external way, failed to prove of interest to the people. With the coming of materialism into any country, the death-knell of beauty is sounded. The Roman Empire was noted for its building of wonderful roads, and the carrying on of great wars; but it paid little attention to all that goes to make life truly great or beautiful. True it is that, under some of the emperors of Rome, art flourished more than it did under others. With the advent of Christianity as the national religion of the Roman Empire, it might be thought that the Christian Gospel of peace and goodwill would have brought with it something of the true music of life; but there is little evidence that the change from Roman barbarism to Christian civilisation wrought any marked change in the art of the day. Undoubtedly all the persecutions and the curtailments of the religious rights of the early Christians had much to do with keeping them from expressing themselves through music. There were doubtless many other reasons besides this. The majority of them were made up of the poorer classes and it is doubtful whether, even under ordinary circumstances, they would have been able to have expressed themselves through music. It was during the fourth century A.D. that Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, made the first real effort to produce Church music, and he seems to have met with considerable success; later, Pope Gregory the Great carried on still further the work begun by Ambrose. But comparatively little of what might be called good music was produced until the middle or end of the fourteenth century. From that time on the growth of music is a continuous one, and Italy takes a very prominent part; not only did she lay a new foundation of musical art, but she has continued on through the centuries without any break in her career, so that I think it may truthfully be said that the knowledge and love of music possessed by the Italians has not been exceeded by the people of any other nation in modern times. Continue to: * prev: [43]Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 Tags [46]life, [47]colours, [48]music, [49]religion, [50]metaphysics, [51]cosmic consciousness, [52]dance, [53]energy, [54]rhythm, [55]music, [56]vibration [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [57]TOP [58]previous page: Chapter II. Music Of Other Climes [59]page up: The Rhythm Of Life | by Charles Brodie Patterson [60]next page: Music Of Other Climes. Part 3 __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [61]StasoSphere [ [62]Privacy Policy ] [ [63]Terms of Use ] [ [64]About Us ] [ [65]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:35:04 2009 Références #[1]top [2]search [3]All news stories [4]Spotlight news only [5]Feature stories [6]Customize feed [7]Science and technology news * [8]Home * [9]Nanotechnology * [10]Physics * [11]Space & Earth * [12]Electronics * [13]Technology * [14]Chemistry * [15]Biology * [16]Medicine & Health * [17]Other Sciences * [18]Psychology & Psychiatry * [19]Research * [20]Medications * [21]Cancer * [22]Genetics * [23]HIV & AIDS * [24]Diseases * [25]Other * [26]Health * [27]Neuroscience Keeping the rhythm of life in sync May 28, 2008 Beyond symbolically holding our feelings of love and compassion, the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life. Abnormal rhythm in the heart is a condition known as cardiac arrhythmia. A normal heart beats between 60 and 100 times per minute. It goes faster if needed for exercise or to handle emotional or physical stress. The heart beat is regulated by a complex and specialized electrical system that runs through the heart muscle. The muscle itself is indeed electrically active. Alterations in the normal electrical system of the heart and its regulatory mechanisms lead to arrhythmias. These could be too fast, too slow, or irregular. All forms of arrhythmia can cause problems. Patients with abnormal heart rhythms can suffer a variety of health issues. Different people may experience arrhythmias in different ways. Some may have an abnormal rhythm and not even know it. Fatigue, dizziness, lightheadedness, palpitations, heart racing, chest pressure, fainting spells, episodic blurry vision, shortness of breath, swelling of the legs, strokes, heart attacks or sudden death can occur because of abnormal heart rhythm. To evaluate the electrical system of the heart and identify its relation to the symptoms patients may have, physicians use an electrocardiogram. This diagnostic test allows us to look in real time at the graphic tracing of the electrical activity of the heart by placing electrodes on the skin. Most commonly, the arrhythmias occur intermittently and it may be difficult to catch an episode with an electrocardiogram. In this case, other tests may be ordered. One is an electrophysiology study, in which electrodes are placed inside the heart through a form of heart catheterization. Cardiologists with rigorous training in the specialty of electrophysiology can treat rhythm disorders with drugs, catheters, or implantable devices. Catheter ablation is the procedure that allows doctors to thread a catheter through veins in the groin to areas inside the heart where abnormal electrical connections or scar tissue are causing arrhythmias. The catheter then delivers heat or freezing temperatures to these abnormal areas, and tissue is selectively destroyed to prevent the recurrence of the arrhythmia. Implantable devices are sometimes needed to stimulate the heart when the natural pacemaker or the heart's electrical system is not functioning and the heart beats too slow. More complex pacemakers can be used in selected patients with a weakened heart muscle to resynchronize the beating of the chambers of the heart and restore some of its pumping function. Implantable defibrillators can save lives when patients at risk of dangerous arrhythmias collapse from a rhythm that is too fast. The device, a small implantable computer, identifies the abnormality and delivers an electrical shock to restore the normal rhythm. Correcting abnormal heart rhythms can relieve discomfort, prevent disability, prolong life, and frequently allows patients to go back to their normal daily living. Penn State Hershey Heart and Vascular Institute has a team of heart rhythm specialists and the most advanced treatments available to help restore the heart rhythm ... to help restore the rhythm of life. Source: Penn State, By Javier Banchs [29]print this article [30]email this article [31]download pdf [32]blog this article [33]bookmark this article [34]Stumble it [35]Digg this [36]share on Facebook [37]retweet [38]share on Reddit [39]add to delicious Rate this story - 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * rank * [40]1 * [41]2 * [42]3 * [43]4 * [44]5 [45]view popular Rank Filter _ (Submit) Filter (Submit) Off Move the slider to adjust rank threshold, so that you can hide some of the comments. Display comments: [46]newest first * [47]Sepp - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 1 / 5 (1) "...the heart is a very efficient pump with a steady beat that provides the rhythm of life..." Why do we call the heart a "pump" when its principal function is just to give rhythm to a natural circulatory flow of the blood through our system of vessels. It isn't pressurization by the heart that makes the blood circulate. Picture miles and miles of blood vessels getting ever smaller along the way until they are capillaries, then, after supplying blood to tissues, these capillaries gradually open up to become veins. No amount of pressure - even if the heart was capable of supplying it - could squeeze that liquid through such lengthy and thin pipes. It is _rhythm_ we get from the heart, and indeed the article is all about that. So let's find a better term than the misleading word "pump" to describe the heart. What about "metronome"? + [48]report abuse + o Current rank o [49]1 o [50]2 o [51]3 o [52]4 o [53]5 * [54]bmcghie - May 29, 2008 + Rank: 4 / 5 (1) Sorry Sepp, but the heart does supply pressure. That's it. If you don't think that it can generate enough pressure... you are wrong. Your body does a VERY good job of dilating the required vessels, and constricting others to optimize the use of this pressure, and also takes advantage of skeletal muscle movement to help blood return to the heart... but the bottom line is the heart is ONLY used to generate pressure. Resulting fluid movement occurs due to the vessels and their levels of constriction/dilation. As for your "miles and miles"... yeah, if your blood is too thick, as sometimes occurs with blood doping athletes abusing drugs... the thicker blood becomes harder to pump, leading to localized flow loss in some areas, which triggers blood clotting. I apologize if this sounds a little heavy handed, but you really need to do some reading if you understand the heart to be ANYTHING but a massive pump sitting in your chest. I suggest wikipedia-ing "circulation" or taking a highschool biology class. + [55]report abuse + o Current rank o [56]1 o [57]2 o [58]3 o [59]4 o [60]5 * [61]print * [62]email * [63]pdf * [64]txt * [65]blog * [66]bookmark * [67]aA * [68]Aa May 28, 2008 [69]all stories Comments: [70]2 * rank * [71]1 * [72]2 * [73]3 * [74]4 * [75]5 4.5 /5 (4 votes) * [76]Stumble this up * [77]share on Facebook * * [78]Digg this * [79]retweet * * [80]share this * share on Facebook [81]Facebook * retweet [82]ReTweet * share on MySpace [83]MySpace * share on Slashdot [84]Slashdot * share on Google [85]Google * share on Reddit [86]Reddit * add to delicious [87]Delicious * save to Yahoo! bookmarks [88]Yahoo! bookmarks * share on Windows Live [89]Windows Live * Add to Mixx! 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Rhythm Of Life lyrics (Chorus)Get down to the rhythmKeep on movingDown to the rhythm of life Get down to the rhythmYou know you can do itIt's the rhythm of life Better get yourself togetherGotta make you're mind up soon Now that time is running out on youIf you're lostThen I'll find you I'll be right behind youAnd you knowI can catch you when you fall(Chorus) If you're feeling lost and lonelyYou know I can ease your pain Never have to be that way againJust believe you can make it The chance is there so take itIt's your lifeSo don't let it pass you by(Chorus) Get down to the rhythmGet down to the rhythmGet down, get down, get down (repeat x2)(Chorus (x3) to fade) [phone_left.gif] [109]Send "Rhythm Of Life" Ringtone to your Cell Phone! 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[130]www.lastlocation.com [131][get.media?sid=21908&m=3&tp=7&d=s&c=1] Références [1][LOGO-SVART.gif] [MARKERING-raud-firkant-STOR.gif] A new column written by one of our editors is published every two week _______________ Search [Search entire Voices.] powered by [2]FreeFind [3]Toppbanner [4]Toppbanner [5]Toppbanner [6]Toppbanner [7]Toppbanner May 19, 2008 [*bilde.jpg] 5 most recent columns January 11, 2010: [8]Music Therapy Experience in a Public Hospital. By Diego Schapira December 28, 2009: [9]The Honor of Sharing Our History. By Barbara Wheeler December 14, 2009: [10]Challenges on Music Therapy Clinical Practice. By Lia Rejane Mendes Barcellos November 16, 2009: [11]Keeping Music Close to Nature. By Sarah Hoskyns November 2, 2009: [12]Some Thoughts on Being a White Music Therapist. By Helen Oosthuizen Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony By Gabriella Giordanella Perilli () 1st Movement: Introduction and Allegro When I think about my life, I have an image of waves moving rhythmically, at different levels and in different directions, each producing different sounds. These sounds reflect me interacting with other people in various environments. Perhaps I have developed this metaphor as a musician trying to understand what is going inside and around me emotionally. It is a kind of an ecological perception in which each wave, whether sonic or emotional, becomes a meaningful presence. I was astonished the first time I heard the recorded sounds of planets and the composed music sent to Voyager as witness of our human civilization and cultures. While the aural perception of music on this planet is made possible by human sensory organs and functions, in other parts of the Universe perhaps music is a mathematical code immediately grasped by intelligent minds. This leads me to think that space is not empty or chaotically immeasurable; rather it is filled with rhythm, and sounds - or electromagnetic waves. Curiously, the immense space of the universe is not threatening for me as before. Once a very different experience happened at my physician's office, when I first heard my own blood pulsing through my veins, during an echo Doppler imaging. The incessant bubbling flow seemed to nurture each cell in my body, with dynamic contours and peaks of intensity arising randomly, above the background sound. Meeting outstanding people in the Music Therapy field, like Helen Bonny and Ken Bruscia, allowed me to reach a deep level of understanding of sound and rhythm and how they embed our lives. That opened terrific scenarios I could never imagine before. 2nd Movement: Adagio Maestoso Suddenly my mind diverges from such pleasant experiences and goes to a patient of mine, suffering from a severe kind of autistic syndrome. That young man felt people as if they were electrical appliances, making irritating noises. It seemed as if he could perceive when a person had some health or emotional problem which, for him, made unbearable sounds. In such occasion he became very anxious, crying aloud while lying down, moving his body as if tortured by those dangerous noises. When his psychodynamic therapist introduced me to this young man, she told me about an unusual behavior of his. Quite often, during a therapy session, he made vocal sounds while rhythmically wringing his hands. His sounds were so emotionally intense that their message--"Help!"--seemed to flood my being. How could I participate in a meaningful way to share his anxiety and at the same time modify it safely? I decided to experiment with adding my own vocalizations (with overtones) to his. He was very surprised to hear my sounds and his together. We used to tape our nonverbal dialogue and, afterwards, listen to it with curiosity. That became part of our music therapy session: no longer did he isolate himself; instead he accepted vocal interactions with me first, and, then, with other people outside. My opinion was that, by these interactive music experiences, he developed a better selective attention function so that he was able to process only the meaningful sounds, distinguishing them from the huge amount of incoming stimuli. Finally he could enjoy being with people, without being overwhelmed by their presence and their annoying sounds. In contrast, sounds could not be shut off or avoided in the delusional experiences of schizophrenic patients that had I met previously in a Mental Health Community Center. Terrifying voices and crashing sounds were always present in their heads, unless we played music that they liked. Listening to such moving music transformed the perceived nasty words into supportive ones, so that they could feel relieved from their painful situation: the green color of their face turned on in a light pink together with a smile illuminating their eyes. Other examples of unforgettable sounds in my own life come to mind: the roar of bombs exploding during the Second World War, and our neighbors' desperate cry for the deportation of their close relatives. In both situations, my mother took great care to help me to cope with these dramatic events so that as a child I could not be overwhelmed by fearful or anxious sounds. She guided me through each fearful event with a brave heart, looking for strength and possible resources. I was grateful to her then; and later as a music therapist. I particularly appreciated my mother's insights when I began to work with clients in Guided Imagery and Music (GIM), wherein a client may experience similarly difficult and tragic situations. The guide has to be a supportive, trustful presence that allows the client to cope with and explore the situation to discover and develop potentialities available to the client. Every GIM session affords the client and therapist with inexhaustible and surprising alternatives for healing: the rhythm of life is embodied in human beings as well as the environment; music can evoke motion and emotion, while also producing amazing levels of awareness and different states of consciousness necessary for improving quality of life. 3rd Movement: Trio In Hamburg, during the 8th World Congress, Maturana presented his idea which considers that a good development of each system is possible when there is coherence between its internal parts, and it and its environment. Human beings and their environment are in constant interaction. In this way they influence each other with mutual perturbation which trigger off structural modification in each system. Change has to occur at the same time, in a consensual domain of structural coupling, and, he said, this can happen, for example, with rhythm entrainment and music. As I have observed in GIM sessions, the music evokes but does not determine the nature of personal modification. Any change is produced by each individual in a independent and unique way, based on subjective readiness and level of development, as well as the need to maintain the structural characteristics (autopoiesis) and to avoid disintegration. To reach that goal of integrity and coherence, our brain organizes schema to structure and order internal and external events using rhythmic patterns or subjective tempo, both of which are self-referential and carry our own personal meaning. Those temporal structures have a neurophysiological basis, and seem to be biologically determined; moreover, from a psychological point of view, they follow an evolution similar to early psychophysical experiences with a caregiver and the social environment. In some way, those temporal patterns may influence our music perception and evaluation by comparison between the inner and outer different temporalities. As Oliver Sachs says, our brain is a musical score; thus interaction with sound and rhythm is both natural and functional. Neurosciences enlarge our horizon regarding music and the brain, showing that numerous areas are involved in processing musical stimuli. The music effect on human beings and on their self-definition process is, partially, due to the emotional response to music. Musical behavior and musical cognition are expression of the metaphorical process by which our knowledge evolves. The musical behavior and cognition prove that concepts become meaningful because they are associated with embodied functions. It is important to understand that what we call an abstract thought depends from our sensory and motor experiences. By consequence, music, which seems to be the most abstract form of artistic expression, may be considered the most embodied one, reproducing and stimulating rhythm, motion, emotion, and metaphorical thinking. Moment by moment, music builds up both time flow and its duration. Unfortunately, this is not experienced by people with Alzheimer, because their subjective tempo, or internal clocklike system, processes separate instances in an atemporal fashion. In that pathological situation, only sensory and emotional memories seem to function. They do not mentally grasp the present, nor can they demonstrate the capacity of the human nervous system to maintain its viability and integrity from instant to instant, as described in T. Fraser's theory. There is no more the noetic experience of time which combines ideas about present, past, and future necessary to define and construct a conscious unity of selfhood. By hearing music, Alzheimer patients could answer, emotionally, in the instant articulated and defined by music itself. In this experience they can live the organic present in which is still possible to maintain coherence among their biological clocks. And, thus, they can still feel joy. 4th Movement: Finale Allegro con brio All the above experiences stimulated and sustained me in trusting the efficacy of music to enhance human quality of life, in spite of criticism and depreciation expressed for years by some colleagues of mine as far as music therapy. At the same time other colleagues shared my ideas, and appreciated my work. By consequence with their support my dream came true. So that I succeeded to bring music therapy, particularly the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music, at the highest academic level in Italy, founding the post graduation Institute named "School of Psychotherapy and Integrated Music Therapy - SPIM" to train psychologists and physicians in this field. This is my life a meaningful kinetic Symphony moved by, through, and with a sonic universe of feelings evoked by rhythm, sounds, and music. References Bruscia, K.E. & Grocke, D.E. (Eds.) (2002). Guided Imagery and Music: The Bonny Method and Beyond. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers. Fraser T. (1990). Of Time, Passion, and Knowledge: Reflections on the Strategy of Existence. Second edition. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Maturana, H.R. (1970). Biology of Cognition. Urbana: University of Illinois. To cite this page: Perilli, Gabriella (2008). Sound, Rhythm, Life Symphony. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy. Moderated discussion Add your comments and responses to this essay in our Moderated Discussions. Contributions should be e-mailed to either [13]Joke Bradt or [14]Thomas Wosch View contributions on this essay: [yet no contribution] [15]Guidelines for discussions ©2009. VOICES. All rights reserved [16]Site Meter Références Liens visibles 13. javascript:decrypt_and_email(1) 14. javascript:decrypt_and_email(2) Liens cachés : 17. mailto: 18. javascript:decrypt_and_email(25) [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] #[1]About.com [2]Lee's Shakespeare Blog ____________________ (Submit) Search [3]About.com [4]Shakespeare 1. [5]Home 2. [6]Education 3. [7]Shakespeare [8][education_shakespeare;kw=;site=shakespeare;chan=education;pos=lb;sz =728x90;ord=1A1HKZQ0D20SA0MM7] * [9]Share * * [10]Shakespeare * [11]Shakespeare's Life * [12]Plays * [13]Sonnets * Free Shakespeare Newsletter! ____________________ (Submit) Sign Up * [14]Discuss in my Forum [15]Lee Jamieson Lee's Shakespeare Blog By [16]Lee Jamieson, About.com Guide to Shakespeare * [17]My Bio * [18]My Blog * [19]My Forum Add to: * [20]iGoogle * [21]My Yahoo! * [22]RSS Iambic Pentameter: The Rhythm of Life? Sunday March 22, 2009 [bencrystal.jpg] Does the thought of [23]iambic pentameter terrify you? I remember being baffeled by it at school myself because I got bogged down in counting syllables and working out where the stresses go but, I now know that this is a very technical way of studying iambic pentameter. In later life, Ive grown to love iambic pentameter. Theres something beautiful about it that I cant put my finger on. I know for sure that its in the speaking because on the page it is inert. When you [24]speak those words aloud, they literally jump off the tongue and the rhythm is the easiest of all meters to find. I asked Ben Crystal about this [25]in our interview a few months ago. He said that iambic pentameter is the rhythm of our English language and of our bodies a line of that poetry has the same rhythm as our heartbeat. A line of iambic pentameter fills the human lung perfectly, so its the rhythm of speech. I think this is true. When you [26]learn how to speak verse, you soon discover that its a very instinctive rhythm. Once you relax and go with the flow, it comes naturally. And, strange as it might sound, classic iambic pentameter lines like If music be the food of love, play on and Now is the winter of our discontent do happen to fit a single breath perfectly if spoken with passion. So, if youre having trouble with iambic pentameter, remember that its designed to be spoken, not studied. Open your mouth and speak aloud those great words. Photo of Ben Crystal © Scott Wishart * [27]Comments (2) * [28]See All Posts * [29]Share * [30]Prev * [31]Next [32]Leave a Comment Comments March 30, 2009 at 2:29 pm [33](1) [34]Kent Richmond says: In doing verse translations of five Shakespeare plays, I have had to learn how Shakespeares iambic pentameter works in order to give my translations the feel of the original. One of the beauties of iambic pentameter is that the poet can temporarily relax the meter without violating it. In this series of made-up and rather prosaic lines, the first line is straight-ahead iambic pentameter. The second and third lines, if read independently, are less obviously iambic pentameter, yet they do not violate the rhythm. The fourth line is clearly unmetrical and removes the sense that we are listening to verse. 1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes, 2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. (trochaic start; feminine ending) 3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. (Two spondees to start; feminine ending) 4. Dont you ever hit your little sister. (unmetrical) Shakespeare, at least in the plays I have translated, did not write verse lines with the rhythm of (4). To make this line sound a bit more like Shakespeares iambic pentameter, we need to make a few alterations to line 4. 1. Her mother took the kids to shop for clothes, 2. Planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. 3. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. 4. Dont ever hit that little girl again. To make the whole passage sound like prose, we need to change the first line a little. Then her mother took the kids clothes shopping, planning to buy them all some warmer sweaters. No! No! No! No she bellowed at the oldest. Dont you ever hit your little sister. The first and fourth lines now have trochaic feet exposed in the wrong places, and most editors would print such a passage as prose. Shakespeares iambic pentameter certainly places constraints on what rhythms are allowed, yet it allows for flexibility and naturalness. Take a look at George Wrights book titled Shakespeares Metrical Art to see the techniques Shakespeare employed. April 11, 2009 at 8:25 pm [35](2) Dave says: The words literally jump off the tongue? I'd like to see that! 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Références [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Rhythm In Nature [7]page up: Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications | by Frederick R. Clow [8]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications. Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual training, recitation, gymnastics, and play. Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human [40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality. The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. . . . When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak. Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. - Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20. . . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight years in [42]duration are superposed. . . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135. Continue to: * prev: [43]Rhythm In Nature * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]The Cycle Of A Generation Tags [46]sociology, [47]communication, [48]congenial groups, [49]cycles of change, [50]democracy, [51]factors of society, [52]government, [53]heredity, [54]human nature, [55]institutions, [56]location, [57]natural selection, [58]organizations, [59]population, [60]primary groups, [61]social classes [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [62]TOP [63]previous page: Rhythm In Nature [64]page up: Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications | by Frederick R. Clow [65]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [66]StasoSphere [ [67]Privacy Policy ] [ [68]Terms of Use ] [ [69]About Us ] [ [70]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:34:34 2009 Références #[1]Welcome page [2]Help [3]Parent screen [4]skip navigation [5]Geography Compass Select Compass [Geography Compass........................] Go * [6]Home | * [7]My Compass | * [8]Help | * [9]Content Alerts | * [10]Contact Us | * [11]Links * [12]What is Geography Compass? | * [13]Subscribe | * [14]Editors | * [15]Editorial Board | * [16]Authors Cultural Towards Lefebvrian Socio-Nature? A Film about Rhythm, Nature and Science By [17]James Evans and [18]Phil Jones, School of Environment and Development, University of Manchester School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham (April 2008) __________________________________________________________________ Section: [19]Cultural Subjects: [20]Geography, [21]Urban Geography, [22]Environment And Society, [23]Cultural Geography. Key Topics: [24]nature , [25]representation. Abstract The first thing you will notice about this article is that it is actually a film. We did not set out to make a film, it just ended up that way. We started out making music out of environmental data, wondering why we only ever look at scientific data, why we do not listen to it. Wandering around the city passing through the transformed landscapes of channelised rivers and broken industrial spaces, we wanted to reveal the socio-natural rhythms of this hybrid city. The text you see below represents the shooting script for a film that explores Lefebvre's notion of rhythmanalysis in the context of socio-natural rhythms. The video accompanying it is far more interesting, including the environmental music that we produced by feeding scientific data through samplers and drum machines. The video questions the nature of scientific representation and whether the notion of rhythmanalysis can be stretched to explore rhythms beyond the human. Furthermore, the process of actually making the video, submitting it to this journal, and responding to the referees' comments made us question the very nature of what constitutes an academic paper in the twenty-first century. The accompanying commentary is our attempt to deal with these issues. To link to the film please go to DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00107.x This article abstract has been viewed 5359 times. [27]view [28]cite [29]Add to my Compass [30]Add to VLE/CMS [31]feedback __________________________________________________________________ Top 5 related articles * [32]Geographies for Moving Bodies: Thinking, Dancing, Spaces By [33]Derek P. McCormack , Oxford University Centre for the Environment (Vol. 3, October 2008) Geography Compass * [34]Colonialism, Landscape and the Subterranean By [35]Heidi V. Scott , Institute of Geography and Earth Sciences, Aberystwyth University (Vol. 3, October 2008) Geography Compass * [36]Climate-Suicide Relationships: A Research Problem in Need of Geographic Methods and Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives By P. Grady Dixon and Adam J. Kalkstein, Mississippi State UniversityUnited States Military Academy (Vol. 4, September 2009) Geography Compass * [37]Ethnomethodology and the Non-representational: What Are Disaffected Young White Men Capable of? By [38]Rob Loughenbury , University of Durham (Vol. 4, June 2009) Geography Compass * [39]The Legacies of 2007: Remapping the Black Presence in Britain By [40]Caroline Bressey , University College London (Vol. 4, April 2009) Geography Compass [[41]All related articles] Top 5 Related Blackwell Reference Chapters * [42]The Environment of the City ... or the Urbanization of Nature The question that now begins to gnaw at your mind is more anguished: outside Penthesilea does an outside ... By Erik Swyngedouw and Maria Kaïka From [43]Companion to the City * [44]Postcolonialism, Representation, and the City Topicality, the essence of good journalism, is perhaps less important for the longer-term perspectives ... By Anthony D. King From [45]Companion to the City * [46]The Immaterial City: Representation, Imagination, and Media Technologies J.-K. Huysmans's À Rebours (Against Nature) is a fictional study of a certain type of dandy in the latter ... By James Donald From [47]Companion to the City * [48]The Production of Nature It may seem strange to include a chapter on the production of nature in a volume about economic geography. ... By Noel Castree From [49]A Companion to Economic Geography [[50]All Related Reference Chapters] * [51]Economic * [52]Social * [53]Cultural * [54]Political * [55]Urban * [56]Development * [57]Climatology * [58]Hydrology & Water Resources * [59]Geomorphology * [60]Biogeography * [61]GIS * [62]Earth Observation * [63]Environment & Society * [64]Global Issues Quick Search Keyword search: ____________________ Select a section: [All........................] Select a content type: [All.................................] [65]Advanced Search Search Related Blackwell Reference Chapters [66]View Related Reference Books [67]Geography Compass - Personal Subscription Rates [68]Sign up for free Geography Compass content alerts [69]Keep up-to-date "...an indispensable reference tool for teachers, researchers, and students in Geography and related disciplines." Mike Bradshaw and Basil Gomez Geography Compass Editors-in-Chief [70]Blackwell Publishing Copyright © 2005-2007 [71]Blackwell Publishing | [72]Privacy Policy | [73]Contact us | [74]Help | [75]To the top... [76][ access key 0 : accessibility information including access key list ] [77][ access key 1 : home page ] [78][ access key 2 : skip navigation] [79][ access key 6 : help ] Références [1]pmc logo image [2]Logo of nihpa [3]Journal List > [4]NIHPA Author Manuscripts Formats: * [5]Abstract | * Full Text | * [6]PDF (32K) J Public Health Policy. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2008 July 24. Published in final edited form as: [7]J Public Health Policy. 2006; 27(1): 2-12. doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200061. PMCID: PMC2483431 NIHMSID: NIHMS58476 [8]Copyright notice and [9]Disclaimer Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature Elena N. Naumova^* ^*Address for Correspondence: Department of Public Health and Family Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Avenue, Boston, MA 02111, USA. E-mail: elena.naumova/at/tufts.edu Small right arrow pointing to: The publisher's final edited version of this article is available at [10]J Public Health Policy. Small right arrow pointing to: See other articles in PMC that [11]cite the published article. Abstract Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences. Understanding seasonal fluctuations in diseases patterns presents us with a major challenge. To develop efficient strategies for disease prevention and control, we need to grasp the main determinants of temporal variations and their interactions. This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality by outlining several of its factors, using as illustrations respiratory and enteric water- or food-borne infections. Keywords: seasonality, water-borne infection, food-borne infection, respiratory infection * [12] Other Sectionsv + [13]Abstract + [14]Introduction + [15]Notion of Seasonality + [16]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [17]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [18]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [19]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [20]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [21]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [22]References Introduction Now let us consider the seasons and the way we can predict whether it is going to be a healthy or an unhealthy year. (Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 10)^[23]1 Seasonal fluctuations in birth and death, in sickness and health, are the haunting mysteries of mankind. People have made predictions from winds, tides, birds' migrations, spring blooms, sunsets, and constellations in hope of grasping the future. The complexity and uncertainty of ancient and modern means of prediction make us wonder to what extent we are able to understand the rhythm of nature. One might argue the future cannot be known, but from a practical point of view, a better understanding of changes in disease occurrences is essential for building efficient strategies for disease prevention and control. Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences. Since Hippocrates, observers worldwide have noted and documented marked fluctuations in the incidence of many diseases. In the modern view, the main determinants of temporal variations in disease manifestation are evolving host susceptibility, periodicity in pathogen abundance and transmissibility, and the ever-changing environment that can support or repress a host or pathogen. Interactions among these factors responsible for seasonal variation are interwoven into the intricate fabric of life. For many diseases, explanations for self-sustained oscillations still remain elusive. We lack adequate methods and sufficient analytical tools for comprehensive examination of seasonality in public health field studies. A dearth of observations, recorded over long periods at fine resolution, compounded by an enormous number of factors associated with periodic changes, obscure our ability to understand disease variation. Urgent need for effective strategies to prevent and control a spread of emerging infections in the rapidly changing world, however, demands a deeper insight into the cyclic nature of diseases. This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality and outline several factors associated with seasonality using as illustrations enteric water- or food-borne infections and respiratory infections. Then I propose a framework for systematic evaluation of seasonal oscillations. In every part of this presentation, and most importantly, I wish to stimulate discussion on this challenging topic. * [24] Other Sectionsv + [25]Abstract + [26]Introduction + [27]Notion of Seasonality + [28]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [29]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [30]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [31]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [32]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [33]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [34]References Notion of Seasonality Every disease occurs at any season of the year but some of them more frequently occur and are of greater severity at certain times. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 19) Seasonality, as noted above, refers to the cyclic appearance of events over a period of time. A seasonal pattern may appear as a tight cluster of isolated outbreaks that occurred during a relatively short time period, then spreading over a wide geographic area. For example, in a temporal curve of enteric infection cases (i.e. giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, or rotavirus infections), a compact cluster of outbreaks is followed by a long interval of low incidence. Systematic recurrence of such sequences forms a seasonal pattern typical of a specific pathogen in a given population and in a given locality. A seasonal increase in enteric or respiratory infection often produces a well-defined oscillating curve that starts to rise in one season and declines over the next one. The three main features characterize seasonality: * a point in time when a seasonal curve reaches its maximum, * an amplitude from peak to nadir, and * a duration of a seasonal increase defined by a shape of a curve. (The shape of a seasonal pattern reflects how fast a temporal curve reaches its peak and declines to nadir over a course of a full cycle. Depending on the length of a cycle whether it is one year or a half of a year, a seasonal curve would have one or two peaks.) Seasonal patterns, described by these three characteristics, may vary for different diseases, different locations, or different subpopulations. Many viral and bacterial infections in humans show marked seasonal changes. In some diseases, like salmonellosis and influenza, annual oscillations explain up to 60% of variability. Such impact should not be ignored and deserves a proper examination. * [35] Other Sectionsv + [36]Abstract + [37]Introduction + [38]Notion of Seasonality + [39]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [40]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [41]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [42]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [43]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [44]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [45]References Diseases Seasonal Patterns Diseases vary in their relationships one with another; some are opposed, some are mutually agreeable. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 3) Differences in diseases peaks reflect different etiology, heterogeneity in host susceptibility, or route of transmission. In temperate climates, Campylobacter and Salmonella infections are known to rise in summer, giardiasis in early fall, and rotavirus infection in mid-winter, etc. Interestingly, for the same infectious agent, infections recorded in two different locations may present a different pattern of incidence. A seasonal pattern for cryptosporidiosis in the United States exhibits one late summer peak ([46]1); in contrast, in the United Kingdom, two seasonal peaks are seen ([47]2). The UK picture reflects two dominant sources of exposure: one from animals in the late spring, and another from humans in the fall ([48]3). Close temporal clustering of seasonal peaks in diseases that share similar sources of exposure suggests dominant routes of transmissions. Peaks in water-borne cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis often cluster after a summer peak in ambient temperature. Such synchronization in disease manifestation can be governed by environmental and social factors. In some instances, periodicity of a given infection observed in a particular population may be not present in another. A seasonal peak in cryptosporidiosis cases observed in the general population is not apparent in the immunocompromized HIV-positive gay men, even though the incidence of cryptosporidiosis in HIV-positive population is very high. This suggests differences in dominant routes of transmission. Seasonal patterns can change over time. After intense vaccination campaigns in the 1950s and 1970s in the United Kingdom, the patterns of measles and pertussis changed, with the high rates of disease usually seen when children were attending school diminishing for measles and practically disappearing for pertusis ([49]4). Explanations for these phenomena remain elusive. A departure from a systematically observed pattern could reflect the evolution of a pathogen or a change in herd immunity. A simple rule to remember is that a discovery hides in outliers. Faced with an abundance of causal agents, a bare observation of a rise in the incidence of non-specific enteritis should be interpreted with caution. A seasonal pattern can represent a mix of temporal curves. Imagine two periodic curves of similar intensity, but one peaks in a spring and another in a fall; the sum of these two curves might lose the appearance of seasonality, covering two distinctly seasonal phenomena. Some infections are very rare. Their seasonal patterns are difficult to examine because the relevant data must be collected over a very long time and/or aggregated over large spatial units. Precision in evaluating seasonality can thus be jeopardized by time-dependent and/or space-dependent confounders. Seasonal fluctuations can be found beyond infectious diseases; chronic somatic diseases also exhibit substantial temporal variations. Plausibly, exacerbations in chronic conditions are driven by infectious agents or environmental changes. Understanding the interplay of an infection and a chronic disease may lead to better control for both. * [50] Other Sectionsv + [51]Abstract + [52]Introduction + [53]Notion of Seasonality + [54]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [55]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [56]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [57]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [58]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [59]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [60]References Seasonal Host Susceptibility When the weather is seasonable and the crops ripen at the regular times, diseases are regular in their appearance... (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 8) Poor nutrition directly affects host susceptibility. In places of food scarcity, researchers suspect that temporal patterns in birth weight and preterm delivery result from seasonal variations in food availability ([61]5). In general, due to a less developed immune system, young children are susceptible to infection; their immune response may be further weakened by seasonal cutbacks in essential micronutrients and vitamins. Anemnestic responses to an antigen determine whether an infection recurs. Short-lived immune memory together with seasonal changes in pathogen transmissibility contribute further to the complexity of seasonal patterns. Even a perfectly healthy person can experience a change in susceptibility to infection due to stress, injuries, or trauma. The probability of a marked impact of such factors on disease seasonality is virtually unknown. * [62] Other Sectionsv + [63]Abstract + [64]Introduction + [65]Notion of Seasonality + [66]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [67]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [68]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [69]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [70]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [71]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [72]References Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility Some diseases are produced by the manner of life that is followed; others by the life-giving air we breathe. (Hippocrates. The Nature of Man, 9) Temperature, humidity, and precipitation -- the defining factors of seasons -- are important determinants of pathogens' survival. Changes influence pathogens' potency and life expectancy, resulting in temporal fluctuations in pathogens' abundance. In many instances, seasonal changes in pathogen survival and transmission are inseparably related to both biological and social aspects of our lives. They are synchronized by weather. High ambient temperature, for example, provides a supportive environment for food-borne pathogens, favoring their multiplication in food and on food preparation surfaces ([73]6). Food contamination is believed to be a significant mode of transmission for infections caused by Salmonella and Campylobacter ([74]7); therefore, during warm weather, the risk for food-borne diseases increases ([75]8). Seasonal changes in level of contamination, availability of potable water, sanitation and hygiene practices, as well as crowding and person-to-person contacts, affect pathogens' transmissibility. Worldwide, water use differs from season to season ([76]9). In temperate climates, warm weather leads to higher water consumption and encourages outdoor activities -- swimming, camping, and recreational water use. In tropical regions, contamination of surface water increases during wet seasons. Although spread of pathogens via food is certainly possible, contaminated water is the dominant source of exposure for enteric infections caused by protozoa Cryptosporidium and Giardia ([77]10 --[78]12). Depending on locality, outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis associated with drinking or recreational water frequently occur during warm or wet seasons ([79]13,[80]14). With the onset of cooler weather, the "heating season" marks a change in indoor air quality. Inadequate and poorly designed ventilation in crowded public places and urban transit systems may boost exposure to air-borne pathogens by increasing their concentration in stagnant air and by re-circulating contaminated air. Higher relative humidity may also affect the stability of air-borne droplets in which viruses travel from person to person. * [81] Other Sectionsv + [82]Abstract + [83]Introduction + [84]Notion of Seasonality + [85]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [86]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [87]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [88]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [89]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [90]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [91]References Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects You will find, as a general rule, that the constitutions and the habits of a people follow the nature of the land where they live. (Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 24) Diseases do not watch calendars. Their incidence rises and falls because of changes in factors associated with the diseases. However, in every culture all social events are synchronized by calendars; and every calendar reflects the cyclic rhythm of nature. Traditional celebrations and gatherings observed by communities according to calendars affect pathogen transmission. Holidays, social activities, and seasonal travel are often associated with changes in food consumption and preparation, and are therefore associated with changes in disease incidence. Preparing meat on a barbecue increases the risk of Campylobacter infection ([92]15,[93]16) and foreign travel increases the risk for enteric infections. Aggregation of children in schools, daycare centers, and summer camps, reflecting school calendars, facilitates rapid exchange of pathogens. There are marked seasonal variations in transmission, and thus the incidence of enteric and respiratory infections. * [94] Other Sectionsv + [95]Abstract + [96]Introduction + [97]Notion of Seasonality + [98]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [99]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [100]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [101]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [102]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [103]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [104]References Climate Change, Extreme Weather Events, and Disease Seasonality The changes of the seasons are especially liable to beget diseases, as are great changes from heat to cold, or cold to heat in any season. Other changes in the weather have similarly severe effects. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 1) As weather affects human health by creating favorable conditions for pathogen proliferation and transmission, severe weather can affect the timing and intensity of infectious outbreaks, and natural disasters lead to drastic changes in population structure and pathogen ecology. Catastrophic events like tsunamis, hurricanes, devastating floods, and heat waves that cause deaths, population displacement, and infrastructural damage may have dramatic effects on the incidence of infections and their seasonal patterns. Recent work has shown highly significant associations between extreme precipitation and water-borne disease outbreaks ([105]17). Heavy precipitation, rapid snowmelt, and floods flush animal wastes from the land into surface waters and may overwhelm drinking and wastewater treatment systems. The latter leads to discharges in watersheds of untreated human wastes. As a result, pathogens can appear in drinking and recreational water in very high concentrations ([106]18,[107]19). A rapid snowmelt, resultant runoff, and filtration system failure at the overloaded local drinking water treatment plant were implicated in the largest known water-borne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis, which occurred in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1993 ([108]20). This outbreak happened in April, not within the usual seasonal peak for cryptosporidiosis cases. A flood, which also resulted from a rapid snowmelt, has been linked with a similar increased incidence of diarrhea ([109]21). Experts expect that global climate change will increase climate variability and the frequency of extreme precipitation events in temperate regions ([110]22,[111]23). "Global warming" may also increase the frequency and magnitude of other extreme weather events, such as heat waves and droughts, and thereby have profound effects on public health ([112]24,[113]25). In a comprehensive study conducted in the United Kingdom that described a short-term link between temperature and food poisoning, the authors also hypothesized that climate change could lead to changes in rates of food poisoning ([114]26). Integration of environmental parameters into disease forecasting and warning systems could allow public health officials to alert the populace when specific meteorological conditions pose predictable risks to health ([115]27). Simple messages about proper food preparation and refrigeration and the risks of using contaminated recreational waters could, for example, be provided before, during, and after extreme events. Better understanding of disease seasonality would also help to predict outbreaks of infections triggered by climate variability. * [116] Other Sectionsv + [117]Abstract + [118]Introduction + [119]Notion of Seasonality + [120]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [121]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [122]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [123]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [124]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [125]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [126]References Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking Desperate cases need the most desperate remedies. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, I, 6) At first, seasonal fluctuations should be systematically described. This requires a framework with sound definitions and analytic tools suitable for routine use by public health professionals. In public health sciences, the existing methodology currently lacks methods and tests for assessing complex interactions in the time-dependent factors responsible for disease seasonality. Next, reliable data with fine temporal resolution are a must. The vast majority of epidemiological studies have examined seasonal patterns of infections using quarterly or monthly data. This coarse temporal aggregation can thwart an otherwise detailed, accurate, and comprehensive analysis of seasonal patterns and may even be misleading ([127]28). Examination of daily or weekly rates can substantially improve evaluation of seasonal curves, but a systematic approach for using at least weekly aggregates is needed. Finally, reluctance to apply sophisticated mathematical models in public health studies must be overcome. Underlying processes in disease manifestation and spread are complex and multifaceted. Causal pathways are often obscured. To disentangle causal effects of many factors within the circular processes of self-sustaining oscillations demands the careful building of sound conceptual models of seasonality; models that can be tested. The emerging fields of computational epidemiology and intelligent data mining will complement established work in philosophy of science and mathematical biology to become an essential part of thinking in public health and policy. Acknowledgments I thank Drs Eileen O'Neil and Beth Rosenberg for their thoughtful suggestions, and the support of funding agencies: the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (U19AI062627), and the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R01ES013171). Footnotes ^1Hippocrates' citations are taken from: Lloyd, GER, editor. Hippocratic Writings. Trans. Chadwick J and Mann WN. London: Penguin; 1978. * [128] Other Sectionsv + [129]Abstract + [130]Introduction + [131]Notion of Seasonality + [132]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [133]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [134]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [135]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [136]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [137]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [138]References References 1. Naumova EN, Chen JT, Griffiths JK, Matyas BT, Estes-Smargiassi SA, Morris RD. Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. Public Health Rep. 2000;115(5):436-47. [[139]PubMed] 2. Naumova EN, Christodouleas J, Hunter PR, Syed Q. Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance system in 1990 --1999. J Water Health. 2005;3(2):185-96. [[140]PubMed] 3. McLauchlin J, Amar C, Pedraza-Diaz S, Nichols GL. Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in 1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from livestock animals. J Clin Microbiol. 2000;38(11):3984-90. [[141]PubMed] 4. Anderson RM, May RM. Infectious Diseases of Humans. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004. 5. Fallis G, Hilditch J. A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between rural Zaire and Ontario. Can J Public Health. 1989;80(3):205-8. [[142]PubMed] 6. Kusumaningrum HD, Riboldi G, Hazeleger WC, Beumer RR. Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces and cross-contamination to foods. Int J Food Microbiol. 2003;85(3):227-36. [[143]PubMed] 7. Mead PS, Slutsker L, Dietz V, McCaig LF, Bresee JS, Shapiro C, et al. Food-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999;5(5):607-25. [[144]PubMed] 8. Kovats RS, Edwards SJ, Hajat S, Armstrong BG, Ebi KL, Menne B. The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries. Epidemiol Infect. 2004;132(3):443-53. [[145]PubMed] 9. Gofti-Laroche L, Gratacap-Cavallier B, Genoulaz O, Joret JC, Hartemann P, Seigneurin JM, et al. A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study). Water Sci Technol. 2001;43(12):39-48. [[146]PubMed] 10. Pruss A. Review of epidemiological studies on health effects from exposure to recreational water. Int J Epidemiol. 1998;27(1):1-9. [[147]PubMed] 11. Rose JB, Huffman DE, Riley K, Farrah SR, Lukasik JO, Hamann CL. Reduction of enteric microorganisms at the Upper Occoquan Sewage Authority Water Reclamation Plant. Water Environ Res. 2001;73(6):711-20. [[148]PubMed] 12. Rose JB, Slifko TR. Giardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their impact on foods: a review. J Food Prot. 1999;62(9):1059-70. [[149]PubMed] 13. Barwick RS, Levy DA, Craun GF, Beach MJ, Calderon RL. Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks -- United States, 1997 --1998. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000;49(4):1-21. [[150]PubMed] 14. Clavel A, Alivares JL, Fleta J, Castillo J, Varea M, Ramos FJ, et al. Seasonality of cryptosporidiosis in children. Eur J Clin Microbiol Inf Dis. 1996;15:77-9. 15. Kapperud G, Skjerve E, Bean NH, Ostroff SM, Lassen J. Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of a case --control study in southeastern Norway. J Clin Microbiol. 1992;30(12):3117-21. [[151]PubMed] 16. Neimann J, Engberg J, Molbak K, Wegener HC. A case --control study of risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections in Denmark. Epidemiol Infect. 2003;130(3):353-66. [[152]PubMed] 17. Curriero FC, Patz JA, Rose JB, Lele S. The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948 --1994. Am J Pub Health. 2001;91(8):1194-9. [[153]PubMed] 18. Fayer R, Trout JM, Lewis EJ, Xiao L, Lal A, Jenkins MC, et al. Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay. Parasitol Res. 2002;88(11):998-1003. [[154]PubMed] 19. Kistemann T, Classen T, Koch C, Dangendorf F, Fischeder R, Gebel J, et al. Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during extreme rainfall and runoff. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002;68(5):2188-97. [[155]PubMed] 20. MacKenzie WR, Hoxie NJ, Proctor ME, Gradus MS, Blair KA, Peterson DE, et al. A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of Cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med. 1994;331(3):161-7. [[156]PubMed] 21. Wade TJ, Sandhu SK, Levy D, Lee S, LeChevallier MW, Katz L, et al. Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms? Am J Epidemiol. 2004;159(4):398-405. [[157]PubMed] 22. World Health Organization. Using climate to predict infectious disease outbreaks: a review. World Health Organization; Geneva, Switzerland: 2004. Publication no. WHO/SDE/OEH/04.01. 23. Easterling DR, Evans JL. Observed variability and trends in extreme climate events. Bull Am Meteorol Soc. 2000;81:417-25. 24. Charron D, Thomas M, Waltner-Toews D, Aramini J, Edge T, Kent R, et al. Vulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a review. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004;67(20 --22):1667-77. [[158]PubMed] 25. Patz JA, Epstein PR, Burke TA, Balbus JM. Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996;275(3):217-23. [[159]PubMed] 26. Bentham G, Langford IH. Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England and Wales. Int J Biometeorol. 1995;39(2):81-6. [[160]PubMed] 27. Ebi KL, Schmier JK. A stitch in time: improving public health early warning systems for extreme weather events. Epidemiol Rev. 2005;27:115-21. [[161]PubMed] 28. da Silva Lopes ACB. Spurious deterministic seasonality and auto-correlation corrections with quarterly data: further Monte Carlo results. Empir Econ. 1999;24(2):341-59. __________________________________________________________________ PubMed articles by these authors * [162]Naumova, E. PubMed related articles * [163]ReviewSeasonality of infectious diseases. Annu Rev Public Health. 2007; 28:127-43. [Annu Rev Public Health. 2007] * [164]ReviewSeasonality and the dynamics of infectious diseases. Ecol Lett. 2006 Apr; 9(4):467-84. [Ecol Lett. 2006] * [165]Seasonal infectious disease epidemiology. Proc Biol Sci. 2006 Oct 7; 273(1600):2541-50. [Proc Biol Sci. 2006] * [166]Seasonal control for an endemic disease with seasonal fluctuations. Theor Popul Biol. 1988 Apr; 33(2):115-25. [Theor Popul Biol. 1988] * [167]Seasonality of primarily childhood and young adult infectious diseases in the United States. Chronobiol Int. 2006; 23(5):1065-82. [Chronobiol Int. 2006] * » [168]See reviews... | » [169]See all... Recent Activity [170]Clear [171]Turn Off [172]Turn On * [173]Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of NatureMystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature Your browsing activity is empty. Activity recording is turned off. [174]Turn recording back on Links * [175]PubMed * [176]Taxonomy * [177]Taxonomy Tree * [178]Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. Public Health Rep. 2000 Sep-Oct; 115(5):436-47. [Public Health Rep. 2000] * [179]Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance system in 1990-1999. J Water Health. 2005 Jun; 3(2):185-96. [J Water Health. 2005] * [180]Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in 1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from livestock animals. J Clin Microbiol. 2000 Nov; 38(11):3984-90. [J Clin Microbiol. 2000] [181]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [182]A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between rural Zaire and Ontario. Can J Public Health. 1989 May-Jun; 80(3):205-8. [Can J Public Health. 1989] [183]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [184]Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces and cross-contamination to foods. Int J Food Microbiol. 2003 Aug 25; 85(3):227-36. [Int J Food Microbiol. 2003] * [185]ReviewFood-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999 Sep-Oct; 5(5):607-25. [Emerg Infect Dis. 1999] * [186]The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries. Epidemiol Infect. 2004 Jun; 132(3):443-53. [Epidemiol Infect. 2004] [187]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [188]A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study). Water Sci Technol. 2001; 43(12):39-48. [Water Sci Technol. 2001] * [189]ReviewReview of epidemiological studies on health effects from exposure to recreational water. Int J Epidemiol. 1998 Feb; 27(1):1-9. [Int J Epidemiol. 1998] * [190]ReviewGiardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their impact on foods: a review. J Food Prot. 1999 Sep; 62(9):1059-70. [J Food Prot. 1999] * [191]Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks--United States, 1997-1998. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000 May 26; 49(4):1-21. [MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000] [192]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [193]Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of a case-control study in southeastern Norway. J Clin Microbiol. 1992 Dec; 30(12):3117-21. [J Clin Microbiol. 1992] * [194]A case-control study of risk factors for sporadic campylobacter infections in Denmark. Epidemiol Infect. 2003 Jun; 130(3):353-66. [Epidemiol Infect. 2003] [195]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [196]The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948-1994. Am J Public Health. 2001 Aug; 91(8):1194-9. [Am J Public Health. 2001] * [197]Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay. Parasitol Res. 2002 Nov; 88(11):998-1003. [Parasitol Res. 2002] * [198]Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during extreme rainfall and runoff. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002 May; 68(5):2188-97. [Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002] * [199]A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med. 1994 Jul 21; 331(3):161-7. [N Engl J Med. 1994] * [200]Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms? Am J Epidemiol. 2004 Feb 15; 159(4):398-405. [Am J Epidemiol. 2004] [201]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [202]ReviewVulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a review. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004 Oct 22-Nov 26; 67(20-22):1667-77. [J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004] * [203]Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996 Jan 17; 275(3):217-23. [JAMA. 1996] * [204]Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England and Wales. Int J Biometeorol. 1995 Nov; 39(2):81-6. [Int J Biometeorol. 1995] [205]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [206]ReviewA stitch in time: improving public health early warning systems for extreme weather events. Epidemiol Rev. 2005; 27():115-21. 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For the online clock, see [8]Humanclock. Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters. A circadian rhythm is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including [9]plants, [10]animals, [11]fungi and [12]cyanobacteria (see [13]bacterial circadian rhythms). The term "circadian", coined by [14]Franz Halberg,^[15][1] comes from the [16]Latin [17]circa, "around", and diem or dies, "day", meaning literally "approximately one day". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [18]tidal, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [19]chronobiology. Circadian rhythms are [20]endogenously generated, and can be entrained by external cues, called [21]zeitgebers, the primary one of which is [22]daylight. Contents * [23]1 History * [24]2 Criteria * [25]3 Origin * [26]4 Importance in animals + [27]4.1 Impact of light-dark cycle + [28]4.2 Arctic animals + [29]4.3 Butterfly migration * [30]5 Biological clock in mammals + [31]5.1 Determining the human circadian rhythm + [32]5.2 Outside the "master clock" * [33]6 Light and the biological clock * [34]7 Enforced longer cycles * [35]8 Human health + [36]8.1 Disruption + [37]8.2 Effect of drugs * [38]9 See also * [39]10 References + [40]10.1 Bibliography + [41]10.2 Notes * [42]11 External links [[43]edit] History The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [44]Alexander the Great, described [45]diurnal leaf movements of the [46]tamarind tree.^[47][2] The first modern observation of endogenous circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [48]Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant [49]Mimosa pudica continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli. In 1918, J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.^[50][3] [51]Joseph Takahashi discovered the genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.^[52][4]^[53][5] [[54]edit] Criteria To differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met: 1) the rhythms persist in the absence of cues, 2) they persist equally precisely over a range of temperatures, and 3) the rhythms can be adjusted to match the local time: * The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those "apparent" rhythms that are merely responses to external periodic cues. A rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been tested in conditions without external periodic input. * The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e., it maintains the same period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway. At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely coincidental. * The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [55]time zones illustrates the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next. Until rhythms are reset, a person usually experiences [56]jet lag. [[57]edit] Origin [58]Question book-new.svg This section needs additional [59]citations for [60]verification. Please help [61]improve this article by adding [62]reliable references. Unsourced material may be [63]challenged and [64]removed. (October 2007) Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [65]ultraviolet radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus [66]Neurospora, which exists today, retains this [67]clock-regulated mechanism. Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment.^[68][6] This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,^[69][7] as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian rhythms in quail.^[70][8] The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [71]cyanobacteria. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of Synechococcus elongatus can be reconstituted in vitro with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [72]ATP. Previous explanations of the [73]prokaryotic circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism. It is an unanswered question whether circadian clocks in eukaryotic organisms require translation/transcription-derived oscillations, for, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture (input - [74]central oscillator - output), they do not share any [75]homology. This implies probable independent origins. In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [76]Seymour Benzer first identified a genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behaviour: one had a shorter period, another had a longer one, and the third had none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named [77]period.^[78][9] The same gene was identified to be defective in the sleep disorder FASPS ([79]Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome) in human beings thirty years later, underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day. A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.^[80][10] At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronize the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [81]eyes travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock. [[82]edit] Importance in animals Circadian rhythmicity is present in the [83]sleeping and feeding patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear patterns of core body temperature, [84]brain wave activity, [85]hormone production, cell regeneration and other biological activities. In addition, [86]photoperiodism, the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation of day length. " Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food availability or predator activity is crucial for survival of many species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the photoperiod ('daylength') is the most predictive environmental cue for the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing of migration, hibernation and reproduction.^[87][11] " [[88]edit] Impact of light-dark cycle The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a [89]freerunning rhythm. Each "day", their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward, depending on whether their [90]endogenous period is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called [91]Zeitgebers (from the German, Time Givers).^[92][12] It is interesting to note that totally-blind subterranean mammals (e.g., [93]blind mole rat Spalax sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors (detect light) are still functional; as well, they do surface periodically.^[[94]citation needed] Freerunning organisms that normally have one consolidated sleep episode will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light/dark cycle in nature. The sleep-wake rhythm may, in these circumstances, become out of phase with other circadian or [95]ultradian rhythms such as [96]temperature and [97]digestion.^[[98]citation needed] Recent research has influenced the design of [99]spacecraft environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.^[[100]citation needed] [[101]edit] Arctic animals Norwegian researchers at the [102]University of Tromsø have shown that some Arctic animals ([103]ptarmigan, [104]reindeer) show circadian rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at [105]70 degrees North showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter, and spring, but not in the summer. Reindeer at [106]78 degrees North showed such rhythms only autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other Arctic animals as well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and the constant dark of winter.^[107][13]^[108][14] However, another study in northern Alaska found that [109]ground squirrels and [110]porcupines strictly maintained their circadian rhythms through 82 days and nights of sunshine. The researchers speculate that these two small mammals see that the apparent distance between the sun and the horizon is shortest once a day, and, thus, a sufficient signal to adjust by.^[111][15] [[112]edit] Butterfly migration The navigation of the fall migration of the [113]Eastern North American monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) to their overwintering grounds in central Mexico uses a time-compensated sun compass that depends upon a circadian clock in their antennae.^[114][16]^[115][17] [[116]edit] Biological clock in mammals Diagram illustrating the influence of light and darkness on circadian rhythms and related [117]physiology and behaviour through the [118]suprachiasmatic nucleus in humans. The primary circadian "clock" in [119]mammals is located in the [120]suprachiasmatic nucleus (or nuclei) ([121]SCN), a pair of distinct groups of [122]cells located in the [123]hypothalamus. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep-wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [124]retina of the eyes contains not only "classical" [125]photoreceptors but also photoresponsive retinal [126]ganglion cells. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called [127]melanopsin, follow a pathway called the [128]retinohypothalamic tract, leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues. It appears that the SCN takes the information on the lengths of the day and night from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [129]pineal gland, a tiny structure shaped like a [130]pine cone and located on the [131]epithalamus. In response the pineal secretes the hormone [132]melatonin. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day and its presence provides information about night-length. The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a 23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural solar day-night cycle on the planet [133]Mars).^[134][18] [[135]edit] Determining the human circadian rhythm The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's circadian rhythm are * melatonin secretion by the pineal gland and * core body temperature. For temperature studies, people must remain awake but calm and semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are taken continuously. The average human adult's temperature reaches its minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake time, though variation is great among normal [136]chronotypes. Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime. Its onset in dim light, dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO), at about 21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Its major [137]metabolite can also be measured in morning urine. Both DLMO and the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or saliva have been used as circadian markers. However, newer research indicates that the melatonin offset may be the most reliable marker. Benloucif et al. in Chicago in 2005 found that melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.^[138][19] One method used for measuring melatonin offset is to analyse a sequence of urine samples throughout the morning for the presence of the melatonin [139]metabolite 6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s). Laberge et al. in Quebec in 1997 used this method in a study that confirmed the frequently found delayed circadian phase in healthy adolescents.^[140][20] [[141]edit] Outside the "master clock" More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the "master clock". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the [142]oesophagus, [143]lungs, [144]liver, [145]pancreas, [146]spleen, [147]thymus, and the [148]skin.^[149][21] Though oscillators in the skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven so far.^[150][22]^[151][23] There is some evidence that also the olfactory bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting that also these structures may be weak oscillators. Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than to [152]light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have freerunning rhythms. [[153]edit] Light and the biological clock Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [154]phase response curve (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required [155]illuminance vary from species to species and lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans. Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm in humans are higher than the levels usually used in artificial lighting in homes. According to some researchers^[156][24] the illumination intensity that excites the circadian system has to reach up to 1000 [157]lux striking the retina. In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or colour) of light is a factor in the entrainment of the body clock. [158]Melanopsin is most efficiently excited by blue light, 420-440 nm^[159][25] according to some researchers while others have reported 470-485 nm. It is thought that the direction of the light may have an effect on entraining the circadian rhythm;^[160][24] light coming from above, resembling an image of a bright sky, has greater effect than light entering our eyes from below. [[161]edit] Enforced longer cycles Modern research under very controlled conditions has shown the human period for adults to be just slightly longer than 24 hours on average. Czeisler et al. at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes. The "clock" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's rotation.^[162][26] The 28-hour day is presented as a concept of [163]time management.^[164][27] It builds on the fact that the week of seven days at 24 hours and a "week" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of 168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours. Each "day" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern. Studies by [165]Nathaniel Kleitman^[166][28] in 1938 and by [167]Derk-Jan Dijk and [168]Charles Czeisler^[169][29]^[170][30] in 1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep-wake cycles, in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day,^[171][31] this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about 24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including [172]sleep latency and other functions.^[173][32] Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli like daylight and timekeeping. Early investigators determined the human circadian period to be 25 hours or more. They went to great lengths to shield subjects from time cues and daylight, but they were not aware of the effects of indoor electric lights. The subjects were allowed to turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase. These results became well known.^[174][26] Researchers allowed subjects to keep electric lighting on in the evening, as it was thought at that time that a couple of 60W bulbs would not have a resetting effect on the circadian rhythms of humans. More recent research^[[175]citation needed] has shown that adults have a built-in day, which averages just over 24 hours, that indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms and that most people attain their best-quality sleep during their [176]chronotype-determined sleep periods. [[177]edit] Human health Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with [178]angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [179]left ventricular (reverse) remodelling.^[[180]citation needed] A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms. A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during the day, a [181]power-nap, does not have any effect on normal circadian rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve productivity.^[182][33]^[183][34] There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the human circadian rhythm, such as [184]seasonal affective disorder (SAD), [185]delayed sleep phase syndrome (DSPS) and other [186]circadian rhythm disorders.^[187][35] Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [188]reticular activating system, which is crucial for maintaining a state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep-wake cycle may be a sign or complication of [189]uremia,^[190][36] [191]azotemia or [192]acute renal failure. [[193]edit] Disruption Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers have experienced the condition known as [194]jet lag, with its associated symptoms of [195]fatigue, disorientation and [196]insomnia. A number of other disorders, for example [197]bipolar disorder and some [198]sleep disorders, are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [199]bipolar disorder are positively influenced by [200]lithium's effect on clock genes.^[201][37] Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease [202][2] The suppression of melatonin production associated with the disruption of the circadian rhythm may increase the risk of developing cancer.^[203][38]^[204][39] [[205]edit] Effect of drugs Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such as [206]cocaine.^[207][40]^[208][41] Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.^[209][42] [[210]edit] See also * [211]Actigraphy (also known as Actimetry) * [212]Advanced sleep phase syndrome * [213]ARNTL * [214]ARNTL2 * [215]Bacterial circadian rhythms * [216]Chronobiology * [217]Chronotype * [218]Circadian oscillator * [219]Circadian rhythm sleep disorders * [220]Cryptochrome * [221]CRY1 and [222]CRY2, the cryptochrome family genes * [223]Delayed sleep phase syndrome * [224]Diurnal cycle * [225]Jet lag * [226]Light effects on circadian rhythm * [227]PER1, [228]PER2, and [229]PER3, the period family genes * [230]Power-nap [[231]edit] References [[232]edit] Bibliography * Aschoff J (ed.) 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J Biol Rhythms (Chicago, Illinois, USA: Center for Sleep and Circadian Biology, Departments of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine) 20 (2): 178-88. [296]doi:[297]10.1177/0748730404273983. [298]PMID [299]15834114. issn=20045590. Retrieved 2007-12-18. 20. [301]^ Laberge, L.; Lesperance, P.; Tremblay, R.; Lambert, C.; Montplaisir, J. (1997). [302]"Phase delay of 6-sulphatoxymelatonin in normal adolescents". Sleep Research (Québec, Canada: Centre d'etude du Sommeil, Hopital du Sacre-Coeur, Département de Psychologie, Département de Pharmacologie, Departement de Psychiatrie, Université de Montréal) 26: 727. issn=19979287. Retrieved 2007-12-18. 21. [304]^ Zanello, S. et al., J. Inv. Dermatol. 2000, Vol. 115, 4 Oct.: Expression of the Circadian Clock Genes clock and period1 in Human Skin 22. [305]^ Kawara, S. et al. J. Inv. Derm. 2002, Vol 119, 6 Dec.: Low-dose UVB Rays Alter the mRNA Expression of the Circadian Clock Genes in cultured Human Keratinocytes 23. [306]^ Campbell, S. and Murphy, P, Science 1998, Vol 279, 16 Jan.: Extraocular Circadian Phototransduction in Humans 24. ^ [307]^a [308]^b Semjonova, Milena (2003). [309]"Healthy Lighting, from a lighting designer's perspective". Milena Lighting Design. 25. [311]^ Newman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: "Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment", Biochemistry. 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8. 26. ^ [312]^a [313]^b [314]"Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour". 1999. Retrieved 2007-09-23. "The variation between our subjects, with a 95 percent level of confidence, was no more than plus or minus 16 minutes, a remarkably small range." 27. [316]^ Digital Beat Productions (1997). [317]"28 Hour Day". 28. [319]^ Kleitman, Nathaniel (1962). Sleep and Wakefullness ed 2. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 29. [320]^ Dijk, Derk-Jan; Czeisler Charles (1994). "Paradoxical timing of the circadian rhythm of sleep propensity serves to consolidate sleep and wakefulness in humans". Neurosci Lett 166 (1): 63. [321]doi:[322]10.1016/0304-3940(94)90841-9. [323]PMID [324]8190360. 30. [325]^ Dijk, Derk-Jan; Czeisler Charles (1995). [326]"Contribution of the Circadian Pacemaker and the Sleep Homeostat to Sleep Propensity, Sleep Structure, Electrocephalographic Slow Waves, and Sleep Spindle Activity in Humans". J. Neurosci 15 (5): 3526. [327]PMID [328]7751928. 31. [330]^ Cromie, William J. (1999-07-15). [331]"Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour". The Harvard University Gazette. Retrieved 2008-02-19. 32. [333]^ Aldrich, Michael S (1999). [334]Sleep medicine. New York: Oxford University Press. [335]ISBN [336]0195129571. pg=RA1-PA65&dq=experimenting+with+the+28+hour+day&source=bl&ots=9R4 mo2fI1O&sig=om2zbYPnXnm_1HuZo2Tch6J1vyo&hl=en&ei=MBZeStGgIoyJkQWd17 znDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2. 33. [338]^ [339]"The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep". The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep. Behavioral medicine. 2001. Retrieved 2008-11-11. 34. [341]^ [342]"Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students". Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students. Liberty University. 2007. 3.htm. Retrieved 2008-11-11. 35. [344]^ [345]"Circadian Rhythms and Sleep". Circadian Rhythms and Sleep. Serendip. 2007. ml. Retrieved 2007-09-19. 36. [347]^ Sinert, Richard; Peter R Peacock, Jr (May 10, 2006). [348]"Renal Failure, Acute". eMedicine from WebMD. 2008-08-03. 37. [350]^ [351]NIMH · Science News from 2006 · Lithium Blocks Enzyme To Help Cells' Clocks Keep On Tickin' 38. [352]^ Straif K, Baan R, Grosse Y, Secretan B, El Ghissassi F, Bouvard V, Altieri A, Benbrahim-Tallaa L, Cogliano V, WHO International Agency for Research on Cancer Monograph Working Group. Carcinogenicity of shift-work, painting, and fire-fighting. [353][1] Lancet Oncol. 2007; 12(8):1065-1066. 39. [354]^ [355]WebMD: Night Shift Work May Cause Cancer 40. [356]^ Uz T, Akhisaroglu M, Ahmed R, Manev H (2003). "The pineal gland is critical for circadian Period1 expression in the striatum and for circadian cocaine sensitization in mice". Neuropsychopharmacology 28 (12): 2117-23. [357]doi:[358]10.1038/sj.npp.1300254. [359]PMID [360]12865893. 41. [361]^ Kurtuncu M, Arslan A, Akhisaroglu M, Manev H, Uz T (2004). "Involvement of the pineal gland in diurnal cocaine reward in mice". Eur J Pharmacol 489 (3): 203-5. [362]doi:[363]10.1016/j.ejphar.2004.03.010. [364]PMID [365]15087244. 42. [366]^ McClung C, Sidiropoulou K, Vitaterna M, Takahashi J, White F, Cooper D, Nestler E (2005). [367]"Regulation of dopaminergic transmission and cocaine reward by the Clock gene". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102 (26): 9377-81. [368]doi:[369]10.1073/pnas.0503584102. [370]PMID [371]15967985. [[372]edit] External links * [373]Circadian rhythm at the [374]Open Directory Project * Leloup J.C. (2009). "Circadian clocks and phosphorylation: Insights from computational modeling". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 4 (3): 290-303. [375]doi:[376]10.2478/s11535-009-0025-1. * Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A (2007). "Evolutionary mechanisms of circadian clocks". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 2 (2): 233-253. [377]doi:[378]10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z. [380]Categories: [381]Sleep | [382]Circadian rhythms | [383]Biology of bipolar disorder Hidden categories: [384]Articles needing additional references from October 2007 | [385]All articles needing additional references | [386]All articles with unsourced statements | [387]Articles with unsourced statements from September 2009 | [388]Articles with unsourced statements from November 2007 | [389]Articles with unsourced statements from January 2009 | [390]Articles with unsourced statements from December 2009 Views * [391]Article * [392]Discussion * [393]Edit this page * [394]History Personal tools * [395]Try Beta * [396]Log in / create account Navigation * [397]Main page * [398]Contents * [399]Featured content * [400]Current events * [401]Random article Search ____________________ Go Search Interaction * [402]About Wikipedia * [403]Community portal * [404]Recent changes * [405]Contact Wikipedia * [406]Donate to Wikipedia * [407]Help Toolbox * [408]What links here * [409]Related changes * [410]Upload file * [411]Special pages * [412]Printable version * [413]Permanent link * [414]Cite this page Languages * [415]Català * [416]Cesky * [417]Dansk * [418]Deutsch * [419]Ellynika' * [420]Español * [421]Français * [422]Italiano * [423]E+B+R+J+T+ * [424]Magyar * [425]Nederlands * [426]¥¬ * [427]ªNorsk (bokmål) * [428]ªNorsk (nynorsk) * [429]Polski * [430]Português * [431]Româna * [432]Russkij * [433]Simple English * [434]Srpski / Srpski * [435]Svenska * [436]a+r+d+w+ [437]Powered by MediaWiki [438]Wikimedia Foundation * This page was last modified on 18 January 2010 at 03:48. * Text is available under the [439]Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See [440]Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [441]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * [442]Contact us * [443]Privacy policy * [444]About Wikipedia * [445]Disclaimers Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1][dailyomlogo2.gif] Today's DailyOM brought to you by: [2]Click Here to Heal Yourself with Writing [3][nav-signup.gif] [nav-line.gif] [4][nav-mydailyom.gif] [nav-line.gif] [5][nav-marketplace.gif] [nav-line.gif] [6][nav-community.gif] [nav-line.gif] [7][nav-courses.gif] [bambooborder2.jpg] [Articles......] _______________ [search.gif]-Submit [8][nav-giftshop.gif] [nav-line.gif] [9][nav-shoppingcart.gif] January 2, 2006 Universal Timing Life's Natural Rhythm Nature's natural rhythms orchestrate when day turns to night, when flowers must bloom, and provides the cue for when it is time for red and brown leaves to fall from trees. As human beings, our own inner rhythm is attuned to this universal sense of timing. Guided by the rising and setting of the sun, changes in temperature, and our own internal rhythm, we know when it is time to sleep, eat, or be active. While our minds and spirits are free to focus on other pursuits, our breath and our heartbeat are always there to remind us of life's pulsing rhythm that moves within and around us. Moving to this rhythm, we know when it is time to stop working and when to rest. Pushing our bodies to work beyond their natural rhythm diminishes our ability to renew and recharge. A feeling much like jet lag lets us know when we've overridden our own natural rhythm. When we feel the frantic calls of all we want to accomplish impelling us to move faster than is natural for us, we may want to breathe deeply instead and look at nature moving to its own organic timing: birds flying south, leaves shedding, or snow falling. A walk in nature can also let us re-attune is to her organic rhythm, while allowing us to move back in time with our own. When we move to our natural rhythm, we can achieve all we need to do with less effort. We may even notice that our soul moves to its own internal, natural rhythm - especially when it comes to our personal evolution. Comparing ourselves to others is unnecessary. Our best guide is to move to our own internal timing, while keeping time with the rhythm of nature. Click to follow DailyOM on [10]Twitter and [11]Facebook What do you think? [12]Discuss this article and share your opinion Want more DailyOM? [13]Register for your free email, or [14]browse all articles Life's Natural Rhythm Share the OM: [15][emailfriend.gif] [16]Email this to a friend [17][printerfriendly.gif] [18]Printable version [19][icon-mydailyom.gif] [20]Save in My DailyOM [21][icon-discuss.gif] [22]Discuss this article [23][horoscopes1.jpg] Today's friend of OM: Register now to receive your [24]free daily horoscope from DailyOM. Seven days each week, your daily astrological insight offering a more personal variety of guidance will appear in your email inbox. DailyOM Horoscopes are specifically tailored to your life, as influenced by the stars. For more information visit [25]DailyOM.com More DailyOM: [26]More Inspiration [27]Today's Horoscopes [28]OM Marketplace [29]Home | [30]Gift Shop | [31]My DailyOM | [32]Marketplace | [33]Community | [34]Archives | [35]Share The OM | [36]Contact Us [37]Subscribe | [38]Change Email | [39]User Settings | [40]Unsubscribe | [41]Privacy Policy | [42]Disclaimer | [43]Gift Shop FAQ | [44]Advertising Info [45]Make DailyOM Your Homepage | [46]Link To Us | [47]Publish DailyOM On Your Website © 2004-08 DailyOM - All Rights Reserved No portion of this site can be reprinted without express permission Artwork by [48]Wang Chang-Ming Références Drums games, piano games, guitar games [1]Drums games. Music games Drums online games [2]Drums music machine free online music game [3]Drums player Online music machine [4]Drums map Drum flash movie [5]Music machine Ear music training [6]Drums editor Online drum game Music online games [7]Music Free online game Try to repeat music. [8]Ear training 01 Free music game [9]Piano note Free online teacher [10]Chords piano Write chords. then play the melody. [11]Sound memory Improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it. [12]Draw lessons How to draw free lessons [13]Online games Actions, Shooter, Logic online games [acleardot.gif] [acleardot.gif] What is music rhythm? The music rhythm is the beat. It is the most important element in music. It drives the music forward. It is the gasoline of music. Rhythms can be simple or complicated. Essential music vocabulary Meter It's the way we group the beats. We group eggs by the dozen. We group days by the week. We also group beats into two's or three's. That's meter. Rhythm The beat. The beat can be even or uneven, steady or unsteady. Note Values Long and short sounds in music are represented by notes. White notes have longer sounds than black notes. Tempo This is the speed of the music. Time Signature This is a number that appears at the beginning of the music. The top number tells you how many beats are in each measure (bar) and the bottom number tells you what kind of a note gets one beat. The most common times signatures are 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, and 6/8. Whole music notes These notes are whole notes. Each note is four beats long. Click the image to hear the note value. [14][whole.gif] Half music notes Here are half notes. Did you see the stems? These notes are twice as fast as whole notes. These note are two beats long. Click the image to hear the note value. [15][half.gif] Quarter music notes These notes are black. They are quarter notes. Each quarter note gets one beat. How many beats are in each measure? If you guessed four, you'd be right! Click the image to hear the note value. [16][quarter.gif] Eighth music notes These are eighth notes. Notice how the stems are connected by a beam. These notes move twice as fast as quarter notes. Two note are played for each beat of music. Click the image to hear the note value. [17][eighth_.gif] Combining Note Values In 4/4 time, different note values can be combined in each measure as long as they equal four beats. Click the examples to hear the rhythm patterns: [18][combo2.gif] [19][combo3.gif] [20][combo4.gif] Music tempo Tempo means speed. Musicians use Italian terms for different tempos. Here is a melody fragment. Click the image to hear the tune: [21][example.gif] Click the words below to hear this tune played at different tempos. Slow Medium Fast Largo Largo is the slowest tempo. Adagio Largo means slow or leisurely. Andante Andante means a walking pace. Moderato Moderato is medium. It is not too fast or too slow. Allegro Allegro is fast. It means cheerful in Italian. Vivace Vivace is quick and lively. Presto Presto is very fast. Meter Meter is how we hear the groupings of beats in music. Music will be in an even meter (groupings of 2's or 4's) or an odd meter (groupings of 3's). Even Meters Are Groupings of 2 Beats A [22]march is played in a meter of 2, which makes it an even meter. That means you will hear the beats of the march move in patterns of two's. Odd Meters Are Groupings of 3 Beats A [23]waltz is played in a meter of three, which makes it an odd meter. That means you will hear the beats of the waltz move in patterns of three's. Can you hear meter in music? Click the examples below to identify whether you hear the music moving in groups of two's or three's. [24]Example 1 [25]Example 2 [26]Example 3 [27]Example 4 [28]Example 5 Time Signatures The time signature helps us group the notes so we don't get lost. It's the way we organize beats in music. It's like grouping eggs by the dozen or days by the week. The top number tells us how many beats we can have in one measure. In 4/4 time we have four beats in each measure. What was the time signature in all of all the examples above? Remember this: A beat is not the same thing as a note. Notes can have more or less than one beat. A whole note in 4/4 time has four beats. A half note in 4/4 time has two beats. An eighth note in 4/4 time has just 1/2 beat. It takes two eighth notes to make one beat in 4/4 time. Time signatures and meter: The time signature will tell you the music's meter. If you can divide the top number by two, the music is in an even meter. If you can divide the top number by three, the music is in an odd meter. Let's look at some popular time signatures and see if we can add up the beats in each measure. 4/4 Time (Common Time) [Common_time.gif] Did you notice the number at the beginning of all the examples above? That's the time signature. It's 4/4. That means that there are four beats in each measure and the quarter note gets one beat. This time signature is also called Common Time because it is the most popular time signature in music. Listen to [29]Somewhere Over the Rainbow from The Wizard of Oz. It's in 4/4 time. Each measure equals four beats. It is in an even meter. [30][rainbow.gif] 3/4 Time (Waltz Time) [Three_four.gif] A 3/4 time signature would only have three beats per measure. Here is what it looks like. Listen to [31]America played in 3/4 time. 3/4 is also called waltz time. Did you notice the dots after some of the notes. Dotes make the notes longer. This song is in an odd meter because there are three beats per measure. [32][amaerica.gif] 2/4 Time [Two_four.gif] A 2/4 time signature has just two beats per measure. It looks like this. Listen to [33]You're a Grand Old Flag in 2/4 time. Do you see the line connecting the last two notes. It is called a tie. What is the meter of this song? Look at the time signature for your answer. [34][grand.gif] 6/8 Time [Six_eight.gif] A 6/8 time signature has six beats per measure. The bottom number is 8. This tells you that the eighth note gets one beat. Do you recognize the song [35]Follow the Yellow Brick Road from The Wizard of Oz? It's in 6/8 time. This song goes fast, making it sound like 2/4 rather than 6/8 time. This time signature can sound like an even or odd meter because you can divide 6 by 2 or 3. [36][wizaed.gif] Drums online games * [37]Drums music machine free online game * [38]Drums player online music machine * [39]Restore rhythm online ear training * [40]Drums map movie * [41]Drums editor online game Music piano and guitar online games * [42]Computer play a note pitch ear training. You try to understand it and type c,d,e,f,g... * [43]Computer show a note you try to understand it play keyboard * [44]Music machine ear training * [45]Piano music machine free online game you can compose melody and play it. Try compose melody. This is very easy. * [46]Music free online game. Try to repeat music. * [47]Note pair online game. Find all notes. This game is very useful for music memory improvement. * [48]Notes shooter online game. Try to recognize note as fast as you can. * [49]Piano note free online teacher * [50]Sound memory improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it. * [51]Drag music online game. Compose melody by notes. * [52]Piano note editor. Compose melody. Use mouse for composing. * [53]Find error at the melody online game. The computer play melody then replace one note. Try to find error Music machines * [54]Orchestra quiz online music * [55]Music quiz for kids * [56]Virtual band Music games for kids * [57]Rainbow piano for kids. Computer show the color. Kids need to press correct note. * [58]Can you play jingle bells? Look at the note sheet and play. * [59]Piano keyboard online game. Download piano keyboard movie on to your computer and play. Metronomes and fork * [60]Light metronome online movie * [61]Metronome online movie * [62]Guitar tuning fork its help tune guitar Guitar online games * [63]Guitar music machine * [64]Guitar chord finder * [65]Guitar online chords * [66]Guitar chords * [67]Basic guitar chords and how it * [68]Guitar chords machine with sound * [69]Guitar scales __________________________________________________________________ Free music games [70]AbabaSoft.com/music Copyright © 1998 - Références [1]CAT.INIST [2][USEMAP:bandeau-haut-droit.gif] logo CNRS [3]logo INIST [4]En savoir plus sur CAT.INIST ? © INIST Diffusion S.A. Service Clients / Customer Service 2, allée du parc de Brabois F-54514 Vandoeuvre Cedex France Tél : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.64 Fax : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.66 Courriel : [5]infoclient@inist.fr [6]Accueil / Home Imprimer / Print [7]Contact / Contact Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [8]Email Print [9]Bookmark and Share [10]Mendeley Back Titre du document / Document title Effects of pre-exercise listening to slow and fast rhythm music on supramaximal cycle performance and selected metabolic variables Auteur(s) / Author(s) YAMAMOTO T.^ (1) ; OHKUWA T.^ (2) ; ITOH H.^ (2) ; KITOH M.^ (3) ; TERASAWA J.^ (3) ; TSUDA T.^ (3) ; KITAGAWA S.^ (3) ; SATO Y.^ (1) ; Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s) ^(1) Research Center of Health, Physical Fitness and Sports, Nagoya University, 464-8601, JAPON ^(2) Department of General studies, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON ^(3) Department of Applied Chemistry, Nagoya Institute of Technology, Showa-ku, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON Résumé / Abstract We examined the effect of listening to two different types of music (with slow and fast rhythm), prior to supramaximal cycle exercise, on performance, heart rate, the concentration of lactate and ammonia in blood, and the concentration of catecholamines in plasma. Six male students participated in this study. After listening to slow rhythm or fast rhythm music for 20 min, the subjects performed supramaximal exercise for 45 s using a cycle ergometer. Listening to slow and fast rhythm music prior to supramaximal exercise did not significantly affect the mean power output. The plasma norepinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to slow rhythm music was significantly lower than before listening (p < 0.05). The plasma epinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to fast rhythm music was significantly higher than before listening (p < 0.05). The type of music had no effect on blood lactate and ammonia levels or on plasma catecholamine levels following exercise. In conclusion, listening to slow rhythm music decreases the plasma norepinephrine level, and listening to fast rhythm music increases the plasma epinephrine level. The type of music has no impact on power output during exercise. Revue / Journal Title Archives of physiology and biochemistry ISSN 1381-3455 Source / Source 2003, vol. 111, n^o3, pp. 211-214 [4 page(s) (article)] (14 ref.) Langue / Language Anglais Revue : Français Editeur / Publisher Taylor & Francis, Basingstoke, ROYAUME-UNI (1995) (Revue) Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords Dopamine agonist ; Neurotransmitter ; Catecholamine ; Human ; Bicycle ergometer ; Music ; Rhythm ; Dopamine ; Norepinephrine ; Epinephrine ; Physical performance ; Heart rate ; Physical exercise ; Mots-clés français / French Keywords Stimulant dopaminergique ; Neurotransmetteur ; Catécholamine ; Homme ; Bicyclette ergométrique ; Musique ; Rythme ; Dopamine ; Noradrénaline ; Adrénaline ; Performance physique ; Rythme cardiaque ; Exercice physique ; Mots-clés espagnols / Spanish Keywords Estimulante dopaminérgico ; Neurotransmisor ; Catecolamina ; Hombre ; Bicicleta ergométrica ; Música ; Ritmo ; Dopamina ; Noradrenalina ; Adrenalina ; Rendimiento físico ; Ritmo cardíaco ; Ejercicio físico ; Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords Slow music ; fast music ; epinephrine ; norepinephrine ; dopamine ; supramaximal exercise ; power output ; lactate ; ammonia ; heart rate ; Localisation / Location INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 827, 35400011637312.0030 Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 15397711 Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [11]Email Print [12]Bookmark and Share [13]Mendeley Back _______________________________ Rechercher dans CAT.INIST / Search in CAT.INIST Google Custom Search Références 5. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20CAT.INIST.FR 7. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20Cat@inist.fr [USEMAP] Basic Music Theory. Copyright Neil Hawes 1997 Rhythm * Rhythm in music is dependent on the fact that humans recognise a [1]beat occurring at a regular interval. * Rhythm in music is more than just a [2]beat, however; it is the way that sounds with differing lengths (or gaps between them) and accents can combine to produce patterns in time which contain a [3]beat. + These sounds do not have to be particularly musical; rhythms can be made by striking almost anything, as long as there can be difference in accent. + Differences in accent can mean different sounds or just different loudness (i.e. amplitudes) of sounds * It is common to speak of a particular rhythm, referring to a pattern of [4]note lengths which occurs in a piece of music. + It is important to understand that the rhythm is defined by the pattern; the overall speed of it could vary from performance to performance, but the rhythm would still be the same. + The speed or tempo of a piece of music is indicated by a [5]metronome marking and/or a [6]direction word or phrase; its rhythm is specified by various [7]note lengths creating [8]beats within [9]bars. * Modern songs often include [10]syncopation in their rhythm __________________________________________________________________ [11]Mail me [12]Copyright and disclaimer [13]Content and structure of these pages [14]Return to top Références 11. mailto:website@neilhawes.com [jazz-blues-pianist-3.jpg] [1]Home: jazz improvisation : pop blues| [2]Pop music videos| [3]Pop blues jazz albums| [4]Jazz improvisation - harmony| [5]Lingua italiana| [6]HELP - FAQ| Rhythm and swing * Swing jazz rhythm * [7]Music rhythm * [8]Learn music theory : polyrhythms Site menu * [9]Blues singer songwriter jazz pianist * [10]Pop music videos * [11]Jazz piano, tutorial videos * [12]Pop blues jazz albums * [13]Jazz pianist music stores Improvisation and music harmony : MIOP * [14]Jazz improvisation and music harmony : summary * [15]Music harmony concepts * [16]Scales, modes to improvise * [17]Blues improvisation * [18]Jazz melody and improvisation * Swing jazz rhythm * [19]Jazz techniques : practice Swing jazz rhythm in improvisation Swing is very important in improvisation. This word means stressing the upbeat. If you also give a "sliding" or "retardation" between notes, you can create the real swing jazz rhythm, which was born at the beginning of the XX century about. When you stress an upbeat you make perhaps a "swinging" rhythmics, (also being without a dragging or a sliding between notes), for modern rhythm too, (such as pop and rhythm and blues). * When you play swing music, that is Dixieland, blues, ragtime, swing, bebop, cool jazz, hard bop, you have to follow this scheme: basic rhythmic pattern ...in this way: swing jazz rhythm pattern Learn swing jazz rhythm In order to learn how to swing, you simply have to learn how to reason in up beat and stressing with it constantly. In other words, swing means "stressing the upbeat" with an implied octaves triplets clef. It's so a rhythm "sliding" effect created : the meaning of the American word "swing" is just similar to "sliding", "waving" or "rocking". * For example these measures : how to learn jazz swing ..must be played (in general) in this way: fundamental jazz swing rhythm In other words Swing has offbeat (upbeat) accents and an eighth-note triplets rhythmic base. Learning jazz swing Learning swing very well and have the ability to improvise, stressing and giving the right accent of phrases needs much time to practice it. Above all, you must pay attention at the beginning to stress upbeat octave notes constantly and to stop when you realize you are making the contrary. While stressing notes on your instrument, I suggest to upbeat by your foot, so that you can emphasize this rhythmic accent better. You have to get used to reason in upbeat, beginning all over again, as since we were children we have been starting clapping hands in downbeat. Swing-jazz rhythm can be so learned naturally after studying constantly in this direction. * You need some months to learn swing rhythm on your instrument. I remember you to stress always the upbeats. [20]Privacy Policy | musilosophy.com © 2005-2009 | All rights reserved | PIVA IT09999181002 Références #[1]RSS spacer Music Learning Workshop [2]Home [3]MLW Blog [4]Join Community [5]Theory [6]Workshops [7]Store sp [8]Home: [9]Basic Music Theory Elements: Music Theory Rhythm "Music Theory Rhythm" "Your Journey in Music Rhythm" Introduction: Your journey to learn and master the music theory rhythm begins in this section of the Music Learning Workshop. The music rhythm workshop provides us with the basics needed to get rhythm down cold. below we link to the beginner series of lessons. We start with the essential building blocks of how to fundamentally know rhythm and then expand our knowledge of rhythm music theory and know how until we achieve mastery. Learning Pyramid The Basic Building Blocks of Rhythm Rhythm forms the basis of music theory. It is what all other musical elements are based upon. You can only survive so long in your musical journey without the essential building block of rhythm. Ask professional musicians: what one element of music do you find to be most important? The answer will often be rhythm. As it is the one thing that is least forgiven by the listener. Our learning approach assumes a level of maturity in the student. Often it is related to the age of about 8 years old. However, with proper guidance younger ages can use the materials. We don't take a single element to explore, but instead take a bigger picture and zero in on the elements that make it work. When we teach notes names or values we do it all at once, because it is very important that you know how all of them are related right at the start. This allows you jump start and accelerate your learning process. Whatâs really neat is that if you get hung up you can go back and see exactly what that single thing is and how it relates to other items in context. [10]WHAT'S NEW JOIN THE WORKSHOP Sign Up to Claim Your Free Report: Learn a Song - Crucial Steps to Mastering a Song Quickly First Name: _______________ Email Address: _______________ Submit We hate spam as much as you do! Your name and email address will not be sold, shared or disclosed. Beginning Rhythm Music Theory Lessons The sequence of lessons below are designed specifically for the newbie music student. They start with an overview approach of just looking at music components such as what is a measure a note in definition. We then follow the approach detailed above. Take your time Beginning Rhythm [11]Rhythm Definitions [12]Note Symbols [13]Note Symbols Practice [14]Note Time Value [15]Time Signatures [16]Counting Rhythm Beats [17]Counting Rhythm Using Rests [18]Counting Rhythm Duple Pattern [19]Counting Rhythm Quadruple Pattern [20]Counting Rhythm Triplet pattern [21]Note Relationships [22]Reference Chart Beat vs Time There is no hurry, it is far more important that you understand the concepts than to rush through them to get to the next one. The better you understand each step the easier the next one will be. Start with some terms we will need to become familiar with when discussing rhythm and music theory and move on through the lessons to build up on the previous group of knowledge. This outline shows the components of rhythm available on this site that you can start learning. This sequence is designed to quickly lead you through the basics of what is needed to learn rhythm music theory. 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RSS button [60]My MSN RSS button [61]Google RSS button Comments, Feedback, At: [62]Ask-and-Comment [63]Monthly Music Course Ad Zero-in with a [64]Getting It Down Cold Workshop [65]MegaLearning MegaLearning System [66]zzounds ad [67]Free guitar lessons [68]See what's on sale at Sheet Music Plus [69]New Day, New Deal at American Musical Supply [70]5% off all orders over $99 [71]Free Shipping on all orders over $99! [72]125x125 - Coachella Music and Merch at ShockHound. [73]top of Music Theory Rhythm [74]Home | [75]What's New | [76]Workshops | [77]Affiliate Program | [78]Site Map | [79]About Us | [80]Contact Us | [81]Disclaimer | [82]Privacy Policy | [83]Join MLW [84]Powered by Site Build It! | [85]Copyright©2008-2009 MusicLearningWorkshop.com - All Rights Reserved Références JCPA LOGO Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs [1]Daniel Elazar Papers Index [2][USEMAP:nav-back.gif] American Political Culture The Generational Rhythm of American Politics The American Mosaic, Chapter 2 Daniel J. Elazar It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space. Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less pinpointed. This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast developments with great success. At the same time he has applied that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs. Early Studies of Generational Rhythms Students of society have noted the succession of generations since ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology on generational measures. The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs. It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon operating in history.^2 Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression, "forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5 Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The "generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7 Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of its beginnings and its ancestry. Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were the first to articulate systematic theories of generational progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that "History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals comes to dominate society.^9 These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed the principle that generations are articulated through historical events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained. Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a fourfold classification of generations as preparatory, revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10 Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11 Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation century.^13 After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri Peyre (1948).^16 More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused on problems of intergenerational differences and the political socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963) focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966) studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957) utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in Israel and the United States, respectively.^20 All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact, both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive theory. None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods. Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of three generations. Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin. Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature, art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular basis. Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under the heading of "a generation". Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History A number of theories of political cycles in American history have been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect "concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the "more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments" using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process. Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23 Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work. Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable directions. Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s) and the present. Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment occurs in every generation. While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts as follows: 1787-1801-1816 1816-1829-1841 1841-1861-1869 1869-1901-1918 1918-1931-? The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the following pattern: 1790-1796/1800 1800-1824/1828 1828-1824/1860 1860-1888/1896 1896-1932 His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their significance in the periodization process. Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if it is schematized as follows: 1789-1820 1828 1856-1860 1893/1894 1932 Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized as follows: 1896-1912 1912-1920-1932-1952 1952 Pomper also offers election dates and no more: 1836 1864-1876 1876-1892/1896 1928/1932-1952 1952-1964 None of these are complete theories and all must be considered within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit. Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era. In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however, the American people were treated to a display of federal activity -- and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow of time and events.) The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible pattern in the progression of political events in the United States over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26 The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a fixed moment, as individuals do now.... What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case, would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for 14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors. Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that 23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself assembled, can validly extend a debt. On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of 34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not of right. The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme, Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure of location in time. Human Social Rhythms As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the "lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation in any particular civil society and chart the relations among generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical patterns of its politics. During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years, averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited. Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life" ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and political roles as are given to mature men and women in society. Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention, if not physically, considered ready for retirement. Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote, and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be defined as the ending of one's serious political career without suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's 30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship. The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to "retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28 In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly established. Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby allowing a new generation to assume the reins. Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in social and political life than that found in the simple processes of human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings are recorded in history, we can do just that. Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the impact of the change and encourages new political action to assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at the most four generations are alive at any given time creates certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and politically unmanageable. Generations, Centuries and Events Since the founding of the first European settlements along the Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th century is the century of the United States as a world power. Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing point, thus: a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603) and the 17th century began with the opening of the American frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of the times. b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration for both countries. c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff). d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land frontier. Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn, the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments that will replace them. The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence. The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression will be related to major forces and factors shaping American history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the principal challenges facing the American people in each generation and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial, ethnic and religious groups. One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate. Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for analytical purposes than life ever is. The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany, but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies, and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate nation with its own civilization. The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century, which, from the first American recognition of common continental interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism, successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans. The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations, beginning at the point where America turned its back on European entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an industrialized continental nation with a strong national government; abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world power ready for overseas involvements. The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century -- reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the industrial revolution. As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first generation of the transformation of society as a result of the application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically dominant although economically weakened. The results of these phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder of the generation. Generations and Frontier Stages The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other historical and political phenomena. Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of human control over the natural environment and the utilization of the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control, i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American society is a product of this commitment which is virtually self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier situation that has created the major social and economic changes which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's political institutions. America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American life within that stage. The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the westward movement on a basically rural population interested in settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in Alaska. Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States, where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their existence and growth. By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth, in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation. After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and pace of development across the country. The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s, ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution, and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over. By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers, satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges, initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West. Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between the points of generational division and the shifts in the various frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are closely related to the opening of new centuries. Generations and Economic Periods One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a result, the governments of the United States have always maintained a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the governmental response. These changes have also developed on a generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth generation of American history) the American government continued a semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially unregulated by government. Demands for government regulation that built up during the last generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system. Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less government intervention. Centuries, Generations and Federalism The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first generation of American history brought the introduction of federal principles through the contracts and covenants that established the colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly, concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century. The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society. Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed have been major elements in the concrete response to the generation's challenges. Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of American history and politics. The changes in those relationships also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries. British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery. Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste system was in the making. During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation. Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was abolished in the North. The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was reaffirmed through the institution of segregation. From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say, to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American culture. While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era. The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the challenges changes from century to century. During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which, objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular progression of political events revolving around the development of a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and responses that gives each generation its particular character. While the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external -- or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation themselves. In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its sisters, and the other science independence when a common national constitution created a common national politics. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the political challenges that have dominated the American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the 19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the 20th century, they have essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and new generations is marked by several decisive political actions, often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so that they will achieve greater success and at the same time integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be recognized. The Bench Marks of American Political History: Critical Elections and New Deals In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds; first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each generation. The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs of voters, shifting them from one political party to another. Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a "critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one major element to another. Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the 1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and representatives to win control of Congress. The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968, only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the "normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in 1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems, won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the GOP controlled the Senate. A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations, personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders (or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate state parties which form the two national confederations known as the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties are confederations of the state parties, so is the national coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional coalitions. Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution, too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary inroads in the various electoral groups. Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means certain that the majority party will even win all the national elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards for the party faithful during the years of national "famine." As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad electoral groups.^33 While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election. Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical elections."^34 The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the development of the institution of the popularly elected president. Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and the House of Representatives. Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem. It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file" alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from balance to majority. "New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as the historical watersheds they are. In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S. Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B. Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s. The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational consolidation. The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington before undertaking any activities. The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an "outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation, usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time. President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and localities. These were all to become principal issues during the period of generational build-up. The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues of the new generation. Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been invariably preceded by critical elections through which the reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die -- determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to majority status. These critical elections, which attain their visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which face them. Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the 1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans. Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in 1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing period for the Democratic coalition. To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in American politics is not to suggest that events move in any lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the "normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too can be done that gives the theory its power. Summary Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more interest to European social philosophers than American social scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics, often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human social rhythms generally. Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them. The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation, constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political history recurring on a generational basis. Notes 1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970); Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979). 2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973). 3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5 (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers, chapter 32, verse 13. 7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte (London: G. Bell, 1896). 9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive (London, 1862). 10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani (Milano: Monanni, 1929). 11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen, der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4. (1875), pp. 36-41. 12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds., Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane, Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp., 1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). 13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method. 14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933). 15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti, ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales (Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F. Schoeningh, 1933). 16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926); Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig, 1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris: Boivin, 1948). 17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger, 1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4 (1972): 564-78. 18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956). 19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin, American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970). 20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield, Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970). 21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939). 22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key, Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961); Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968); Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). 23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210. 24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co. 1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government from the Civil War to the New Deal. 25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no. 1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992). 26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789. 27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President. 28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W. Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber, Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey, Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.: Brooks/Cole, 1989). 29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York: Macmillan, 1961). 30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965): Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989). 31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18. 32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability," Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171. 33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?" in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed., Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1983). 34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony; David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization, Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter, Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985). [3]Elazar Papers Index / [4]JCPA Home Page / [5]Top of Page Références [USEMAP] 1. javascript:history.go(-1) 3. mailto:jcenter@jcpa.org [USEMAP] Drums games, piano games, guitar games [1]Drums games. Music games Drums online games [2]Drums music machine free online music game [3]Drums player Online music machine [4]Drums map Drum flash movie [5]Music machine Ear music training [6]Drums editor Online drum game Music online games [7]Music Free online game Try to repeat music. [8]Ear training 01 Free music game [9]Piano note Free online teacher [10]Chords piano Write chords. then play the melody. [11]Sound memory Improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it. [12]Draw lessons How to draw free lessons [13]Online games Actions, Shooter, Logic online games [acleardot.gif] [acleardot.gif] What is music rhythm? The music rhythm is the beat. It is the most important element in music. It drives the music forward. It is the gasoline of music. Rhythms can be simple or complicated. Essential music vocabulary Meter It's the way we group the beats. We group eggs by the dozen. We group days by the week. We also group beats into two's or three's. That's meter. Rhythm The beat. The beat can be even or uneven, steady or unsteady. Note Values Long and short sounds in music are represented by notes. White notes have longer sounds than black notes. Tempo This is the speed of the music. Time Signature This is a number that appears at the beginning of the music. The top number tells you how many beats are in each measure (bar) and the bottom number tells you what kind of a note gets one beat. The most common times signatures are 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, and 6/8. Whole music notes These notes are whole notes. Each note is four beats long. Click the image to hear the note value. [14][whole.gif] Half music notes Here are half notes. Did you see the stems? These notes are twice as fast as whole notes. These note are two beats long. Click the image to hear the note value. [15][half.gif] Quarter music notes These notes are black. They are quarter notes. Each quarter note gets one beat. How many beats are in each measure? If you guessed four, you'd be right! Click the image to hear the note value. [16][quarter.gif] Eighth music notes These are eighth notes. Notice how the stems are connected by a beam. These notes move twice as fast as quarter notes. Two note are played for each beat of music. Click the image to hear the note value. [17][eighth_.gif] Combining Note Values In 4/4 time, different note values can be combined in each measure as long as they equal four beats. Click the examples to hear the rhythm patterns: [18][combo2.gif] [19][combo3.gif] [20][combo4.gif] Music tempo Tempo means speed. Musicians use Italian terms for different tempos. Here is a melody fragment. Click the image to hear the tune: [21][example.gif] Click the words below to hear this tune played at different tempos. Slow Medium Fast Largo Largo is the slowest tempo. Adagio Largo means slow or leisurely. Andante Andante means a walking pace. Moderato Moderato is medium. It is not too fast or too slow. Allegro Allegro is fast. It means cheerful in Italian. Vivace Vivace is quick and lively. Presto Presto is very fast. Meter Meter is how we hear the groupings of beats in music. Music will be in an even meter (groupings of 2's or 4's) or an odd meter (groupings of 3's). Even Meters Are Groupings of 2 Beats A [22]march is played in a meter of 2, which makes it an even meter. That means you will hear the beats of the march move in patterns of two's. Odd Meters Are Groupings of 3 Beats A [23]waltz is played in a meter of three, which makes it an odd meter. That means you will hear the beats of the waltz move in patterns of three's. Can you hear meter in music? Click the examples below to identify whether you hear the music moving in groups of two's or three's. [24]Example 1 [25]Example 2 [26]Example 3 [27]Example 4 [28]Example 5 Time Signatures The time signature helps us group the notes so we don't get lost. It's the way we organize beats in music. It's like grouping eggs by the dozen or days by the week. The top number tells us how many beats we can have in one measure. In 4/4 time we have four beats in each measure. What was the time signature in all of all the examples above? Remember this: A beat is not the same thing as a note. Notes can have more or less than one beat. A whole note in 4/4 time has four beats. A half note in 4/4 time has two beats. An eighth note in 4/4 time has just 1/2 beat. It takes two eighth notes to make one beat in 4/4 time. Time signatures and meter: The time signature will tell you the music's meter. If you can divide the top number by two, the music is in an even meter. If you can divide the top number by three, the music is in an odd meter. Let's look at some popular time signatures and see if we can add up the beats in each measure. 4/4 Time (Common Time) [Common_time.gif] Did you notice the number at the beginning of all the examples above? That's the time signature. It's 4/4. That means that there are four beats in each measure and the quarter note gets one beat. This time signature is also called Common Time because it is the most popular time signature in music. Listen to [29]Somewhere Over the Rainbow from The Wizard of Oz. It's in 4/4 time. Each measure equals four beats. It is in an even meter. [30][rainbow.gif] 3/4 Time (Waltz Time) [Three_four.gif] A 3/4 time signature would only have three beats per measure. Here is what it looks like. Listen to [31]America played in 3/4 time. 3/4 is also called waltz time. Did you notice the dots after some of the notes. Dotes make the notes longer. This song is in an odd meter because there are three beats per measure. [32][amaerica.gif] 2/4 Time [Two_four.gif] A 2/4 time signature has just two beats per measure. It looks like this. Listen to [33]You're a Grand Old Flag in 2/4 time. Do you see the line connecting the last two notes. It is called a tie. What is the meter of this song? Look at the time signature for your answer. [34][grand.gif] 6/8 Time [Six_eight.gif] A 6/8 time signature has six beats per measure. The bottom number is 8. This tells you that the eighth note gets one beat. Do you recognize the song [35]Follow the Yellow Brick Road from The Wizard of Oz? It's in 6/8 time. This song goes fast, making it sound like 2/4 rather than 6/8 time. This time signature can sound like an even or odd meter because you can divide 6 by 2 or 3. [36][wizaed.gif] Drums online games * [37]Drums music machine free online game * [38]Drums player online music machine * [39]Restore rhythm online ear training * [40]Drums map movie * [41]Drums editor online game Music piano and guitar online games * [42]Computer play a note pitch ear training. You try to understand it and type c,d,e,f,g... * [43]Computer show a note you try to understand it play keyboard * [44]Music machine ear training * [45]Piano music machine free online game you can compose melody and play it. Try compose melody. This is very easy. * [46]Music free online game. Try to repeat music. * [47]Note pair online game. Find all notes. This game is very useful for music memory improvement. * [48]Notes shooter online game. Try to recognize note as fast as you can. * [49]Piano note free online teacher * [50]Sound memory improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it. * [51]Drag music online game. Compose melody by notes. * [52]Piano note editor. Compose melody. Use mouse for composing. * [53]Find error at the melody online game. The computer play melody then replace one note. Try to find error Music machines * [54]Orchestra quiz online music * [55]Music quiz for kids * [56]Virtual band Music games for kids * [57]Rainbow piano for kids. Computer show the color. Kids need to press correct note. * [58]Can you play jingle bells? Look at the note sheet and play. * [59]Piano keyboard online game. Download piano keyboard movie on to your computer and play. Metronomes and fork * [60]Light metronome online movie * [61]Metronome online movie * [62]Guitar tuning fork its help tune guitar Guitar online games * [63]Guitar music machine * [64]Guitar chord finder * [65]Guitar online chords * [66]Guitar chords * [67]Basic guitar chords and how it * [68]Guitar chords machine with sound * [69]Guitar scales __________________________________________________________________ Free music games [70]AbabaSoft.com/music Copyright © 1998 - Références [1]CAT.INIST [2][USEMAP:bandeau-haut-droit.gif] logo CNRS [3]logo INIST [4]En savoir plus sur CAT.INIST ? © INIST Diffusion S.A. Service Clients / Customer Service 2, allée du parc de Brabois F-54514 Vandoeuvre Cedex France Tél : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.64 Fax : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.66 Courriel : [5]infoclient@inist.fr [6]Accueil / Home Imprimer / Print [7]Contact / Contact Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [8]Email Print [9]Bookmark and Share [10]Mendeley Back Titre du document / Document title Effects of pre-exercise listening to slow and fast rhythm music on supramaximal cycle performance and selected metabolic variables Auteur(s) / Author(s) YAMAMOTO T.^ (1) ; OHKUWA T.^ (2) ; ITOH H.^ (2) ; KITOH M.^ (3) ; TERASAWA J.^ (3) ; TSUDA T.^ (3) ; KITAGAWA S.^ (3) ; SATO Y.^ (1) ; Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s) ^(1) Research Center of Health, Physical Fitness and Sports, Nagoya University, 464-8601, JAPON ^(2) Department of General studies, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON ^(3) Department of Applied Chemistry, Nagoya Institute of Technology, Showa-ku, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON Résumé / Abstract We examined the effect of listening to two different types of music (with slow and fast rhythm), prior to supramaximal cycle exercise, on performance, heart rate, the concentration of lactate and ammonia in blood, and the concentration of catecholamines in plasma. Six male students participated in this study. After listening to slow rhythm or fast rhythm music for 20 min, the subjects performed supramaximal exercise for 45 s using a cycle ergometer. Listening to slow and fast rhythm music prior to supramaximal exercise did not significantly affect the mean power output. The plasma norepinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to slow rhythm music was significantly lower than before listening (p < 0.05). The plasma epinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to fast rhythm music was significantly higher than before listening (p < 0.05). The type of music had no effect on blood lactate and ammonia levels or on plasma catecholamine levels following exercise. In conclusion, listening to slow rhythm music decreases the plasma norepinephrine level, and listening to fast rhythm music increases the plasma epinephrine level. The type of music has no impact on power output during exercise. Revue / Journal Title Archives of physiology and biochemistry ISSN 1381-3455 Source / Source 2003, vol. 111, n^o3, pp. 211-214 [4 page(s) (article)] (14 ref.) Langue / Language Anglais Revue : Français Editeur / Publisher Taylor & Francis, Basingstoke, ROYAUME-UNI (1995) (Revue) Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords Dopamine agonist ; Neurotransmitter ; Catecholamine ; Human ; Bicycle ergometer ; Music ; Rhythm ; Dopamine ; Norepinephrine ; Epinephrine ; Physical performance ; Heart rate ; Physical exercise ; Mots-clés français / French Keywords Stimulant dopaminergique ; Neurotransmetteur ; Catécholamine ; Homme ; Bicyclette ergométrique ; Musique ; Rythme ; Dopamine ; Noradrénaline ; Adrénaline ; Performance physique ; Rythme cardiaque ; Exercice physique ; Mots-clés espagnols / Spanish Keywords Estimulante dopaminérgico ; Neurotransmisor ; Catecolamina ; Hombre ; Bicicleta ergométrica ; Música ; Ritmo ; Dopamina ; Noradrenalina ; Adrenalina ; Rendimiento físico ; Ritmo cardíaco ; Ejercicio físico ; Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords Slow music ; fast music ; epinephrine ; norepinephrine ; dopamine ; supramaximal exercise ; power output ; lactate ; ammonia ; heart rate ; Localisation / Location INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 827, 35400011637312.0030 Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 15397711 Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [11]Email Print [12]Bookmark and Share [13]Mendeley Back _______________________________ Rechercher dans CAT.INIST / Search in CAT.INIST Google Custom Search Références 5. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20CAT.INIST.FR 7. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20Cat@inist.fr [USEMAP] Basic Music Theory. Copyright Neil Hawes 1997 Rhythm * Rhythm in music is dependent on the fact that humans recognise a [1]beat occurring at a regular interval. * Rhythm in music is more than just a [2]beat, however; it is the way that sounds with differing lengths (or gaps between them) and accents can combine to produce patterns in time which contain a [3]beat. + These sounds do not have to be particularly musical; rhythms can be made by striking almost anything, as long as there can be difference in accent. + Differences in accent can mean different sounds or just different loudness (i.e. amplitudes) of sounds * It is common to speak of a particular rhythm, referring to a pattern of [4]note lengths which occurs in a piece of music. + It is important to understand that the rhythm is defined by the pattern; the overall speed of it could vary from performance to performance, but the rhythm would still be the same. + The speed or tempo of a piece of music is indicated by a [5]metronome marking and/or a [6]direction word or phrase; its rhythm is specified by various [7]note lengths creating [8]beats within [9]bars. * Modern songs often include [10]syncopation in their rhythm __________________________________________________________________ [11]Mail me [12]Copyright and disclaimer [13]Content and structure of these pages [14]Return to top Références 11. mailto:website@neilhawes.com [jazz-blues-pianist-3.jpg] [1]Home: jazz improvisation : pop blues| [2]Pop music videos| [3]Pop blues jazz albums| [4]Jazz improvisation - harmony| [5]Lingua italiana| [6]HELP - FAQ| Rhythm and swing * Swing jazz rhythm * [7]Music rhythm * [8]Learn music theory : polyrhythms Site menu * [9]Blues singer songwriter jazz pianist * [10]Pop music videos * [11]Jazz piano, tutorial videos * [12]Pop blues jazz albums * [13]Jazz pianist music stores Improvisation and music harmony : MIOP * [14]Jazz improvisation and music harmony : summary * [15]Music harmony concepts * [16]Scales, modes to improvise * [17]Blues improvisation * [18]Jazz melody and improvisation * Swing jazz rhythm * [19]Jazz techniques : practice Swing jazz rhythm in improvisation Swing is very important in improvisation. This word means stressing the upbeat. If you also give a "sliding" or "retardation" between notes, you can create the real swing jazz rhythm, which was born at the beginning of the XX century about. When you stress an upbeat you make perhaps a "swinging" rhythmics, (also being without a dragging or a sliding between notes), for modern rhythm too, (such as pop and rhythm and blues). * When you play swing music, that is Dixieland, blues, ragtime, swing, bebop, cool jazz, hard bop, you have to follow this scheme: basic rhythmic pattern ...in this way: swing jazz rhythm pattern Learn swing jazz rhythm In order to learn how to swing, you simply have to learn how to reason in up beat and stressing with it constantly. In other words, swing means "stressing the upbeat" with an implied octaves triplets clef. It's so a rhythm "sliding" effect created : the meaning of the American word "swing" is just similar to "sliding", "waving" or "rocking". * For example these measures : how to learn jazz swing ..must be played (in general) in this way: fundamental jazz swing rhythm In other words Swing has offbeat (upbeat) accents and an eighth-note triplets rhythmic base. Learning jazz swing Learning swing very well and have the ability to improvise, stressing and giving the right accent of phrases needs much time to practice it. Above all, you must pay attention at the beginning to stress upbeat octave notes constantly and to stop when you realize you are making the contrary. While stressing notes on your instrument, I suggest to upbeat by your foot, so that you can emphasize this rhythmic accent better. You have to get used to reason in upbeat, beginning all over again, as since we were children we have been starting clapping hands in downbeat. Swing-jazz rhythm can be so learned naturally after studying constantly in this direction. * You need some months to learn swing rhythm on your instrument. I remember you to stress always the upbeats. [20]Privacy Policy | musilosophy.com © 2005-2009 | All rights reserved | PIVA IT09999181002 Références #[1]RSS spacer Music Learning Workshop [2]Home [3]MLW Blog [4]Join Community [5]Theory [6]Workshops [7]Store sp [8]Home: [9]Basic Music Theory Elements: Music Theory Rhythm "Music Theory Rhythm" "Your Journey in Music Rhythm" Introduction: Your journey to learn and master the music theory rhythm begins in this section of the Music Learning Workshop. The music rhythm workshop provides us with the basics needed to get rhythm down cold. below we link to the beginner series of lessons. We start with the essential building blocks of how to fundamentally know rhythm and then expand our knowledge of rhythm music theory and know how until we achieve mastery. Learning Pyramid The Basic Building Blocks of Rhythm Rhythm forms the basis of music theory. It is what all other musical elements are based upon. You can only survive so long in your musical journey without the essential building block of rhythm. Ask professional musicians: what one element of music do you find to be most important? The answer will often be rhythm. As it is the one thing that is least forgiven by the listener. Our learning approach assumes a level of maturity in the student. Often it is related to the age of about 8 years old. However, with proper guidance younger ages can use the materials. We don't take a single element to explore, but instead take a bigger picture and zero in on the elements that make it work. When we teach notes names or values we do it all at once, because it is very important that you know how all of them are related right at the start. This allows you jump start and accelerate your learning process. Whatâs really neat is that if you get hung up you can go back and see exactly what that single thing is and how it relates to other items in context. [10]WHAT'S NEW JOIN THE WORKSHOP Sign Up to Claim Your Free Report: Learn a Song - Crucial Steps to Mastering a Song Quickly First Name: _______________ Email Address: _______________ Submit We hate spam as much as you do! Your name and email address will not be sold, shared or disclosed. Beginning Rhythm Music Theory Lessons The sequence of lessons below are designed specifically for the newbie music student. They start with an overview approach of just looking at music components such as what is a measure a note in definition. We then follow the approach detailed above. Take your time Beginning Rhythm [11]Rhythm Definitions [12]Note Symbols [13]Note Symbols Practice [14]Note Time Value [15]Time Signatures [16]Counting Rhythm Beats [17]Counting Rhythm Using Rests [18]Counting Rhythm Duple Pattern [19]Counting Rhythm Quadruple Pattern [20]Counting Rhythm Triplet pattern [21]Note Relationships [22]Reference Chart Beat vs Time There is no hurry, it is far more important that you understand the concepts than to rush through them to get to the next one. The better you understand each step the easier the next one will be. Start with some terms we will need to become familiar with when discussing rhythm and music theory and move on through the lessons to build up on the previous group of knowledge. This outline shows the components of rhythm available on this site that you can start learning. This sequence is designed to quickly lead you through the basics of what is needed to learn rhythm music theory. The Music Learning Workshop "Get It Down Cold" Workbooks will be available soon to lead you through the process. [23]Join the our community and you will be notified when they are available. [24]Basic Music Theory Elements: [25]Rhythm | [26]Notes | [27]Master Staff | [28]Intervals | [29]Scales | [30]Chords | [31]Key Signatures [32]Home [33]Workshops & Courses [34]Monthly Music Course [35]FAQ Monthly Course [36]Music LearningBlog [37]Music Theory Basics [38]Music Learning Know-How [39]Teaching Music Articles [40]Your Instrument and Theory [41]Playing Music * Playing Technique and Instruction [42]Recommends & Resources * Courses, Methods, Software, Equipment and More [43]MLW Book Store [44]FAQ ================ Beginning Rhythm * [45]Rhythm Definitions * [46]Note Symbols * [47]Note Symbols Practice * [48]Note Time Value * [49]Time Signatures * [50]Rhythm Counting Beats * [51]Rhythm Counting Rests * [52]Rhythm Duple Pattern * [53]Rhythm Quadruple Pattern * [54]Rhythm Triplet Pattern * [55]Note Relationships * [56]Rhythm Beat Chart Subscribe to Blog: [57]XML RSS [58] What is RSS feed? [59]My Yahoo! RSS button [60]My MSN RSS button [61]Google RSS button Comments, Feedback, At: [62]Ask-and-Comment [63]Monthly Music Course Ad Zero-in with a [64]Getting It Down Cold Workshop [65]MegaLearning MegaLearning System [66]zzounds ad [67]Free guitar lessons [68]See what's on sale at Sheet Music Plus [69]New Day, New Deal at American Musical Supply [70]5% off all orders over $99 [71]Free Shipping on all orders over $99! [72]125x125 - Coachella Music and Merch at ShockHound. [73]top of Music Theory Rhythm [74]Home | [75]What's New | [76]Workshops | [77]Affiliate Program | [78]Site Map | [79]About Us | [80]Contact Us | [81]Disclaimer | [82]Privacy Policy | [83]Join MLW [84]Powered by Site Build It! | [85]Copyright©2008-2009 MusicLearningWorkshop.com - All Rights Reserved Références JCPA LOGO Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs [1]Daniel Elazar Papers Index [2][USEMAP:nav-back.gif] American Political Culture The Generational Rhythm of American Politics The American Mosaic, Chapter 2 Daniel J. Elazar It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space. Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less pinpointed. This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast developments with great success. At the same time he has applied that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs. Early Studies of Generational Rhythms Students of society have noted the succession of generations since ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology on generational measures. The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs. It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon operating in history.^2 Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression, "forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5 Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The "generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7 Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of its beginnings and its ancestry. Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were the first to articulate systematic theories of generational progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that "History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals comes to dominate society.^9 These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed the principle that generations are articulated through historical events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained. Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a fourfold classification of generations as preparatory, revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10 Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11 Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation century.^13 After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri Peyre (1948).^16 More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused on problems of intergenerational differences and the political socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963) focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966) studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957) utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in Israel and the United States, respectively.^20 All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact, both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive theory. None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods. Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of three generations. Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin. Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature, art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular basis. Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under the heading of "a generation". Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History A number of theories of political cycles in American history have been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect "concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the "more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments" using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process. Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23 Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work. Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable directions. Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s) and the present. Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment occurs in every generation. While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts as follows: 1787-1801-1816 1816-1829-1841 1841-1861-1869 1869-1901-1918 1918-1931-? The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the following pattern: 1790-1796/1800 1800-1824/1828 1828-1824/1860 1860-1888/1896 1896-1932 His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their significance in the periodization process. Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if it is schematized as follows: 1789-1820 1828 1856-1860 1893/1894 1932 Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized as follows: 1896-1912 1912-1920-1932-1952 1952 Pomper also offers election dates and no more: 1836 1864-1876 1876-1892/1896 1928/1932-1952 1952-1964 None of these are complete theories and all must be considered within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit. Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era. In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however, the American people were treated to a display of federal activity -- and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow of time and events.) The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible pattern in the progression of political events in the United States over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26 The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a fixed moment, as individuals do now.... What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case, would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for 14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors. Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that 23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself assembled, can validly extend a debt. On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of 34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not of right. The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme, Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure of location in time. Human Social Rhythms As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the "lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation in any particular civil society and chart the relations among generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical patterns of its politics. During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years, averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited. Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life" ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and political roles as are given to mature men and women in society. Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention, if not physically, considered ready for retirement. Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote, and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be defined as the ending of one's serious political career without suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's 30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship. The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to "retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28 In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly established. Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby allowing a new generation to assume the reins. Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in social and political life than that found in the simple processes of human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings are recorded in history, we can do just that. Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the impact of the change and encourages new political action to assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at the most four generations are alive at any given time creates certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and politically unmanageable. Generations, Centuries and Events Since the founding of the first European settlements along the Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th century is the century of the United States as a world power. Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing point, thus: a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603) and the 17th century began with the opening of the American frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of the times. b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration for both countries. c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff). d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land frontier. Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn, the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments that will replace them. The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence. The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression will be related to major forces and factors shaping American history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the principal challenges facing the American people in each generation and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial, ethnic and religious groups. One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate. Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for analytical purposes than life ever is. The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany, but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies, and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate nation with its own civilization. The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century, which, from the first American recognition of common continental interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism, successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans. The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations, beginning at the point where America turned its back on European entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an industrialized continental nation with a strong national government; abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world power ready for overseas involvements. The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century -- reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the industrial revolution. As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first generation of the transformation of society as a result of the application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically dominant although economically weakened. The results of these phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder of the generation. Generations and Frontier Stages The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other historical and political phenomena. Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of human control over the natural environment and the utilization of the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control, i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American society is a product of this commitment which is virtually self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier situation that has created the major social and economic changes which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's political institutions. America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American life within that stage. The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the westward movement on a basically rural population interested in settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in Alaska. Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States, where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their existence and growth. By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth, in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation. After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and pace of development across the country. The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s, ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution, and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over. By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers, satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges, initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West. Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between the points of generational division and the shifts in the various frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are closely related to the opening of new centuries. Generations and Economic Periods One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a result, the governments of the United States have always maintained a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the governmental response. These changes have also developed on a generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth generation of American history) the American government continued a semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially unregulated by government. Demands for government regulation that built up during the last generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system. Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less government intervention. Centuries, Generations and Federalism The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first generation of American history brought the introduction of federal principles through the contracts and covenants that established the colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly, concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century. The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society. Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed have been major elements in the concrete response to the generation's challenges. Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of American history and politics. The changes in those relationships also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries. British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery. Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste system was in the making. During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation. Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was abolished in the North. The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was reaffirmed through the institution of segregation. From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say, to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American culture. While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era. The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the challenges changes from century to century. During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which, objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular progression of political events revolving around the development of a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and responses that gives each generation its particular character. While the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external -- or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation themselves. In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its sisters, and the other science independence when a common national constitution created a common national politics. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the political challenges that have dominated the American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the 19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the 20th century, they have essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and new generations is marked by several decisive political actions, often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so that they will achieve greater success and at the same time integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be recognized. The Bench Marks of American Political History: Critical Elections and New Deals In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds; first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each generation. The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs of voters, shifting them from one political party to another. Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a "critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one major element to another. Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the 1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and representatives to win control of Congress. The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968, only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the "normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in 1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems, won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the GOP controlled the Senate. A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations, personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders (or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate state parties which form the two national confederations known as the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties are confederations of the state parties, so is the national coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional coalitions. Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution, too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary inroads in the various electoral groups. Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means certain that the majority party will even win all the national elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards for the party faithful during the years of national "famine." As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad electoral groups.^33 While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election. Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical elections."^34 The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the development of the institution of the popularly elected president. Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and the House of Representatives. Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem. It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file" alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from balance to majority. "New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as the historical watersheds they are. In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S. Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B. Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s. The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational consolidation. The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington before undertaking any activities. The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an "outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation, usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time. President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and localities. These were all to become principal issues during the period of generational build-up. The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues of the new generation. Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been invariably preceded by critical elections through which the reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die -- determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to majority status. These critical elections, which attain their visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which face them. Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the 1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans. Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in 1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing period for the Democratic coalition. To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in American politics is not to suggest that events move in any lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the "normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too can be done that gives the theory its power. Summary Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more interest to European social philosophers than American social scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics, often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human social rhythms generally. Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them. The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation, constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political history recurring on a generational basis. Notes 1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970); Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979). 2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973). 3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5 (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers, chapter 32, verse 13. 7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte (London: G. Bell, 1896). 9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive (London, 1862). 10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani (Milano: Monanni, 1929). 11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen, der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4. (1875), pp. 36-41. 12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds., Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane, Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp., 1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). 13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method. 14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933). 15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti, ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales (Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F. Schoeningh, 1933). 16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926); Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig, 1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris: Boivin, 1948). 17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger, 1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4 (1972): 564-78. 18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956). 19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin, American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970). 20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield, Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970). 21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939). 22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key, Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961); Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968); Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). 23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210. 24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co. 1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government from the Civil War to the New Deal. 25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no. 1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992). 26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789. 27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President. 28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W. Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber, Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey, Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.: Brooks/Cole, 1989). 29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York: Macmillan, 1961). 30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965): Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989). 31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18. 32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability," Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171. 33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?" in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed., Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1983). 34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony; David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization, Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter, Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985). [3]Elazar Papers Index / [4]JCPA Home Page / [5]Top of Page Références [USEMAP] 1. javascript:history.go(-1) 3. mailto:jcenter@jcpa.org [USEMAP] [1]CAT.INIST [2][USEMAP:bandeau-haut-droit.gif] logo CNRS [3]logo INIST [4]En savoir plus sur CAT.INIST ? © INIST Diffusion S.A. Service Clients / Customer Service 2, allée du parc de Brabois F-54514 Vandoeuvre Cedex France Tél : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.64 Fax : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.66 Courriel : [5]infoclient@inist.fr [6]Accueil / Home Imprimer / Print [7]Contact / Contact Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [8]Bookmark and Share [9]Mendeley Titre du document / Document title Rhythms of the secular : The politics of modernizing Arab poetic forms = Rythmes du séculaire : la politique de modernisation des formes poétiques arabes Auteur(s) / Author(s) FURANI Khaled^ (1) ; Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s) ^(1) Tel-Aviv University, ISRAEL Résumé / Abstract In this article, I ethnographically trace how Arab, mainly Palestinian, poets have modernized their literary tradition during the last seven decades. Shortly after the 1948 Israeli occupation of Palestine, the reign of the classical Arabic ode collapsed, and the modern forms of free verse and, later, the prose poem became dominant. Aiming to contribute to the ethnography of modernity, I examine how poets have adopted and abandoned poetic forms by analyzing their narratives on rhythm. I explore the political salience of rhythmical transformations and argue that the secular has been a vital and complex force in the modern abandonment of metrical discipline. The secular affects how poets seek to modernize their rhythm, vocabulary, and relation to public. It also affects, I conclude, the ways in which anthropologists can and do write about modernity. Revue / Journal Title American ethnologist ISSN 0094-0496 Source / Source 2008, vol. 35, n^o2, pp. 290-307 [18 page(s) (article)] (2 p.1/4) Langue / Language Anglais Editeur / Publisher American Ethnological Society, Washington, DC, ETATS-UNIS (1974) (Revue) Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords Rhythm ; Transformation ; Modernization ; Poet ; Modernity ; Poetry ; Israel ; Palestine ; Near East ; Mots-clés français / French Keywords Forme poétique ; Tradition littéraire ; Arabe palestinien ; Rythme ; Transformation ; Modernisation ; Poète ; Modernité ; Poésie ; Israël ; Palestine ; Proche-Orient ; Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords poetic form ; modernity and secularism ; Palestine-Israel ; Localisation / Location INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 16902, 35400019805879.0070 Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 20449527 Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [10]Bookmark and Share [11]Mendeley CAT.INIST Rechercher / Search _______________________________ OK Références 5. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20CAT.INIST.FR 7. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20Cat@inist.fr [USEMAP] Drums games, piano games, guitar games [1]Drums games. Music games Drums online games [2]Drums music machine free online music game [3]Drums player Online music machine [4]Drums map Drum flash movie [5]Music machine Ear music training [6]Drums editor Online drum game Music online games [7]Music Free online game Try to repeat music. [8]Ear training 01 Free music game [9]Piano note Free online teacher [10]Chords piano Write chords. then play the melody. [11]Sound memory Improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it. [12]Draw lessons How to draw free lessons [13]Online games Actions, Shooter, Logic online games [acleardot.gif] [acleardot.gif] What is music rhythm? The music rhythm is the beat. It is the most important element in music. It drives the music forward. It is the gasoline of music. Rhythms can be simple or complicated. Essential music vocabulary Meter It's the way we group the beats. We group eggs by the dozen. We group days by the week. We also group beats into two's or three's. That's meter. Rhythm The beat. The beat can be even or uneven, steady or unsteady. Note Values Long and short sounds in music are represented by notes. White notes have longer sounds than black notes. Tempo This is the speed of the music. Time Signature This is a number that appears at the beginning of the music. The top number tells you how many beats are in each measure (bar) and the bottom number tells you what kind of a note gets one beat. The most common times signatures are 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, and 6/8. Whole music notes These notes are whole notes. Each note is four beats long. Click the image to hear the note value. [14][whole.gif] Half music notes Here are half notes. Did you see the stems? These notes are twice as fast as whole notes. These note are two beats long. Click the image to hear the note value. [15][half.gif] Quarter music notes These notes are black. They are quarter notes. Each quarter note gets one beat. How many beats are in each measure? If you guessed four, you'd be right! Click the image to hear the note value. [16][quarter.gif] Eighth music notes These are eighth notes. Notice how the stems are connected by a beam. These notes move twice as fast as quarter notes. Two note are played for each beat of music. Click the image to hear the note value. [17][eighth_.gif] Combining Note Values In 4/4 time, different note values can be combined in each measure as long as they equal four beats. Click the examples to hear the rhythm patterns: [18][combo2.gif] [19][combo3.gif] [20][combo4.gif] Music tempo Tempo means speed. Musicians use Italian terms for different tempos. Here is a melody fragment. Click the image to hear the tune: [21][example.gif] Click the words below to hear this tune played at different tempos. Slow Medium Fast Largo Largo is the slowest tempo. Adagio Largo means slow or leisurely. Andante Andante means a walking pace. Moderato Moderato is medium. It is not too fast or too slow. Allegro Allegro is fast. It means cheerful in Italian. Vivace Vivace is quick and lively. Presto Presto is very fast. Meter Meter is how we hear the groupings of beats in music. Music will be in an even meter (groupings of 2's or 4's) or an odd meter (groupings of 3's). Even Meters Are Groupings of 2 Beats A [22]march is played in a meter of 2, which makes it an even meter. That means you will hear the beats of the march move in patterns of two's. Odd Meters Are Groupings of 3 Beats A [23]waltz is played in a meter of three, which makes it an odd meter. That means you will hear the beats of the waltz move in patterns of three's. Can you hear meter in music? Click the examples below to identify whether you hear the music moving in groups of two's or three's. [24]Example 1 [25]Example 2 [26]Example 3 [27]Example 4 [28]Example 5 Time Signatures The time signature helps us group the notes so we don't get lost. It's the way we organize beats in music. It's like grouping eggs by the dozen or days by the week. The top number tells us how many beats we can have in one measure. In 4/4 time we have four beats in each measure. What was the time signature in all of all the examples above? Remember this: A beat is not the same thing as a note. Notes can have more or less than one beat. A whole note in 4/4 time has four beats. A half note in 4/4 time has two beats. An eighth note in 4/4 time has just 1/2 beat. It takes two eighth notes to make one beat in 4/4 time. Time signatures and meter: The time signature will tell you the music's meter. If you can divide the top number by two, the music is in an even meter. If you can divide the top number by three, the music is in an odd meter. Let's look at some popular time signatures and see if we can add up the beats in each measure. 4/4 Time (Common Time) [Common_time.gif] Did you notice the number at the beginning of all the examples above? That's the time signature. It's 4/4. That means that there are four beats in each measure and the quarter note gets one beat. This time signature is also called Common Time because it is the most popular time signature in music. Listen to [29]Somewhere Over the Rainbow from The Wizard of Oz. It's in 4/4 time. Each measure equals four beats. It is in an even meter. [30][rainbow.gif] 3/4 Time (Waltz Time) [Three_four.gif] A 3/4 time signature would only have three beats per measure. Here is what it looks like. Listen to [31]America played in 3/4 time. 3/4 is also called waltz time. Did you notice the dots after some of the notes. Dotes make the notes longer. This song is in an odd meter because there are three beats per measure. [32][amaerica.gif] 2/4 Time [Two_four.gif] A 2/4 time signature has just two beats per measure. It looks like this. Listen to [33]You're a Grand Old Flag in 2/4 time. Do you see the line connecting the last two notes. It is called a tie. What is the meter of this song? Look at the time signature for your answer. [34][grand.gif] 6/8 Time [Six_eight.gif] A 6/8 time signature has six beats per measure. The bottom number is 8. This tells you that the eighth note gets one beat. Do you recognize the song [35]Follow the Yellow Brick Road from The Wizard of Oz? It's in 6/8 time. This song goes fast, making it sound like 2/4 rather than 6/8 time. This time signature can sound like an even or odd meter because you can divide 6 by 2 or 3. [36][wizaed.gif] Drums online games * [37]Drums music machine free online game * [38]Drums player online music machine * [39]Restore rhythm online ear training * [40]Drums map movie * [41]Drums editor online game Music piano and guitar online games * [42]Computer play a note pitch ear training. You try to understand it and type c,d,e,f,g... * [43]Computer show a note you try to understand it play keyboard * [44]Music machine ear training * [45]Piano music machine free online game you can compose melody and play it. Try compose melody. This is very easy. * [46]Music free online game. Try to repeat music. * [47]Note pair online game. Find all notes. This game is very useful for music memory improvement. * [48]Notes shooter online game. Try to recognize note as fast as you can. * [49]Piano note free online teacher * [50]Sound memory improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it. * [51]Drag music online game. Compose melody by notes. * [52]Piano note editor. Compose melody. Use mouse for composing. * [53]Find error at the melody online game. The computer play melody then replace one note. Try to find error Music machines * [54]Orchestra quiz online music * [55]Music quiz for kids * [56]Virtual band Music games for kids * [57]Rainbow piano for kids. Computer show the color. Kids need to press correct note. * [58]Can you play jingle bells? Look at the note sheet and play. * [59]Piano keyboard online game. Download piano keyboard movie on to your computer and play. Metronomes and fork * [60]Light metronome online movie * [61]Metronome online movie * [62]Guitar tuning fork its help tune guitar Guitar online games * [63]Guitar music machine * [64]Guitar chord finder * [65]Guitar online chords * [66]Guitar chords * [67]Basic guitar chords and how it * [68]Guitar chords machine with sound * [69]Guitar scales __________________________________________________________________ Free music games [70]AbabaSoft.com/music Copyright © 1998 - Références [1]CAT.INIST [2][USEMAP:bandeau-haut-droit.gif] logo CNRS [3]logo INIST [4]En savoir plus sur CAT.INIST ? © INIST Diffusion S.A. Service Clients / Customer Service 2, allée du parc de Brabois F-54514 Vandoeuvre Cedex France Tél : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.64 Fax : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.66 Courriel : [5]infoclient@inist.fr [6]Accueil / Home Imprimer / Print [7]Contact / Contact Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [8]Email Print [9]Bookmark and Share [10]Mendeley Back Titre du document / Document title Effects of pre-exercise listening to slow and fast rhythm music on supramaximal cycle performance and selected metabolic variables Auteur(s) / Author(s) YAMAMOTO T.^ (1) ; OHKUWA T.^ (2) ; ITOH H.^ (2) ; KITOH M.^ (3) ; TERASAWA J.^ (3) ; TSUDA T.^ (3) ; KITAGAWA S.^ (3) ; SATO Y.^ (1) ; Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s) ^(1) Research Center of Health, Physical Fitness and Sports, Nagoya University, 464-8601, JAPON ^(2) Department of General studies, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON ^(3) Department of Applied Chemistry, Nagoya Institute of Technology, Showa-ku, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON Résumé / Abstract We examined the effect of listening to two different types of music (with slow and fast rhythm), prior to supramaximal cycle exercise, on performance, heart rate, the concentration of lactate and ammonia in blood, and the concentration of catecholamines in plasma. Six male students participated in this study. After listening to slow rhythm or fast rhythm music for 20 min, the subjects performed supramaximal exercise for 45 s using a cycle ergometer. Listening to slow and fast rhythm music prior to supramaximal exercise did not significantly affect the mean power output. The plasma norepinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to slow rhythm music was significantly lower than before listening (p < 0.05). The plasma epinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to fast rhythm music was significantly higher than before listening (p < 0.05). The type of music had no effect on blood lactate and ammonia levels or on plasma catecholamine levels following exercise. In conclusion, listening to slow rhythm music decreases the plasma norepinephrine level, and listening to fast rhythm music increases the plasma epinephrine level. The type of music has no impact on power output during exercise. Revue / Journal Title Archives of physiology and biochemistry ISSN 1381-3455 Source / Source 2003, vol. 111, n^o3, pp. 211-214 [4 page(s) (article)] (14 ref.) Langue / Language Anglais Revue : Français Editeur / Publisher Taylor & Francis, Basingstoke, ROYAUME-UNI (1995) (Revue) Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords Dopamine agonist ; Neurotransmitter ; Catecholamine ; Human ; Bicycle ergometer ; Music ; Rhythm ; Dopamine ; Norepinephrine ; Epinephrine ; Physical performance ; Heart rate ; Physical exercise ; Mots-clés français / French Keywords Stimulant dopaminergique ; Neurotransmetteur ; Catécholamine ; Homme ; Bicyclette ergométrique ; Musique ; Rythme ; Dopamine ; Noradrénaline ; Adrénaline ; Performance physique ; Rythme cardiaque ; Exercice physique ; Mots-clés espagnols / Spanish Keywords Estimulante dopaminérgico ; Neurotransmisor ; Catecolamina ; Hombre ; Bicicleta ergométrica ; Música ; Ritmo ; Dopamina ; Noradrenalina ; Adrenalina ; Rendimiento físico ; Ritmo cardíaco ; Ejercicio físico ; Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords Slow music ; fast music ; epinephrine ; norepinephrine ; dopamine ; supramaximal exercise ; power output ; lactate ; ammonia ; heart rate ; Localisation / Location INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 827, 35400011637312.0030 Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 15397711 Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [11]Email Print [12]Bookmark and Share [13]Mendeley Back _______________________________ Rechercher dans CAT.INIST / Search in CAT.INIST Google Custom Search Références 5. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20CAT.INIST.FR 7. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20Cat@inist.fr [USEMAP] Basic Music Theory. Copyright Neil Hawes 1997 Rhythm * Rhythm in music is dependent on the fact that humans recognise a [1]beat occurring at a regular interval. * Rhythm in music is more than just a [2]beat, however; it is the way that sounds with differing lengths (or gaps between them) and accents can combine to produce patterns in time which contain a [3]beat. + These sounds do not have to be particularly musical; rhythms can be made by striking almost anything, as long as there can be difference in accent. + Differences in accent can mean different sounds or just different loudness (i.e. amplitudes) of sounds * It is common to speak of a particular rhythm, referring to a pattern of [4]note lengths which occurs in a piece of music. + It is important to understand that the rhythm is defined by the pattern; the overall speed of it could vary from performance to performance, but the rhythm would still be the same. + The speed or tempo of a piece of music is indicated by a [5]metronome marking and/or a [6]direction word or phrase; its rhythm is specified by various [7]note lengths creating [8]beats within [9]bars. * Modern songs often include [10]syncopation in their rhythm __________________________________________________________________ [11]Mail me [12]Copyright and disclaimer [13]Content and structure of these pages [14]Return to top Références 11. mailto:website@neilhawes.com [jazz-blues-pianist-3.jpg] [1]Home: jazz improvisation : pop blues| [2]Pop music videos| [3]Pop blues jazz albums| [4]Jazz improvisation - harmony| [5]Lingua italiana| [6]HELP - FAQ| Rhythm and swing * Swing jazz rhythm * [7]Music rhythm * [8]Learn music theory : polyrhythms Site menu * [9]Blues singer songwriter jazz pianist * [10]Pop music videos * [11]Jazz piano, tutorial videos * [12]Pop blues jazz albums * [13]Jazz pianist music stores Improvisation and music harmony : MIOP * [14]Jazz improvisation and music harmony : summary * [15]Music harmony concepts * [16]Scales, modes to improvise * [17]Blues improvisation * [18]Jazz melody and improvisation * Swing jazz rhythm * [19]Jazz techniques : practice Swing jazz rhythm in improvisation Swing is very important in improvisation. This word means stressing the upbeat. If you also give a "sliding" or "retardation" between notes, you can create the real swing jazz rhythm, which was born at the beginning of the XX century about. When you stress an upbeat you make perhaps a "swinging" rhythmics, (also being without a dragging or a sliding between notes), for modern rhythm too, (such as pop and rhythm and blues). * When you play swing music, that is Dixieland, blues, ragtime, swing, bebop, cool jazz, hard bop, you have to follow this scheme: basic rhythmic pattern ...in this way: swing jazz rhythm pattern Learn swing jazz rhythm In order to learn how to swing, you simply have to learn how to reason in up beat and stressing with it constantly. In other words, swing means "stressing the upbeat" with an implied octaves triplets clef. It's so a rhythm "sliding" effect created : the meaning of the American word "swing" is just similar to "sliding", "waving" or "rocking". * For example these measures : how to learn jazz swing ..must be played (in general) in this way: fundamental jazz swing rhythm In other words Swing has offbeat (upbeat) accents and an eighth-note triplets rhythmic base. Learning jazz swing Learning swing very well and have the ability to improvise, stressing and giving the right accent of phrases needs much time to practice it. Above all, you must pay attention at the beginning to stress upbeat octave notes constantly and to stop when you realize you are making the contrary. While stressing notes on your instrument, I suggest to upbeat by your foot, so that you can emphasize this rhythmic accent better. You have to get used to reason in upbeat, beginning all over again, as since we were children we have been starting clapping hands in downbeat. Swing-jazz rhythm can be so learned naturally after studying constantly in this direction. * You need some months to learn swing rhythm on your instrument. I remember you to stress always the upbeats. [20]Privacy Policy | musilosophy.com © 2005-2009 | All rights reserved | PIVA IT09999181002 Références #[1]RSS spacer Music Learning Workshop [2]Home [3]MLW Blog [4]Join Community [5]Theory [6]Workshops [7]Store sp [8]Home: [9]Basic Music Theory Elements: Music Theory Rhythm "Music Theory Rhythm" "Your Journey in Music Rhythm" Introduction: Your journey to learn and master the music theory rhythm begins in this section of the Music Learning Workshop. The music rhythm workshop provides us with the basics needed to get rhythm down cold. below we link to the beginner series of lessons. We start with the essential building blocks of how to fundamentally know rhythm and then expand our knowledge of rhythm music theory and know how until we achieve mastery. Learning Pyramid The Basic Building Blocks of Rhythm Rhythm forms the basis of music theory. It is what all other musical elements are based upon. You can only survive so long in your musical journey without the essential building block of rhythm. Ask professional musicians: what one element of music do you find to be most important? The answer will often be rhythm. As it is the one thing that is least forgiven by the listener. Our learning approach assumes a level of maturity in the student. Often it is related to the age of about 8 years old. However, with proper guidance younger ages can use the materials. We don't take a single element to explore, but instead take a bigger picture and zero in on the elements that make it work. When we teach notes names or values we do it all at once, because it is very important that you know how all of them are related right at the start. This allows you jump start and accelerate your learning process. Whatâs really neat is that if you get hung up you can go back and see exactly what that single thing is and how it relates to other items in context. [10]WHAT'S NEW JOIN THE WORKSHOP Sign Up to Claim Your Free Report: Learn a Song - Crucial Steps to Mastering a Song Quickly First Name: _______________ Email Address: _______________ Submit We hate spam as much as you do! Your name and email address will not be sold, shared or disclosed. Beginning Rhythm Music Theory Lessons The sequence of lessons below are designed specifically for the newbie music student. They start with an overview approach of just looking at music components such as what is a measure a note in definition. We then follow the approach detailed above. Take your time Beginning Rhythm [11]Rhythm Definitions [12]Note Symbols [13]Note Symbols Practice [14]Note Time Value [15]Time Signatures [16]Counting Rhythm Beats [17]Counting Rhythm Using Rests [18]Counting Rhythm Duple Pattern [19]Counting Rhythm Quadruple Pattern [20]Counting Rhythm Triplet pattern [21]Note Relationships [22]Reference Chart Beat vs Time There is no hurry, it is far more important that you understand the concepts than to rush through them to get to the next one. The better you understand each step the easier the next one will be. Start with some terms we will need to become familiar with when discussing rhythm and music theory and move on through the lessons to build up on the previous group of knowledge. This outline shows the components of rhythm available on this site that you can start learning. This sequence is designed to quickly lead you through the basics of what is needed to learn rhythm music theory. The Music Learning Workshop "Get It Down Cold" Workbooks will be available soon to lead you through the process. [23]Join the our community and you will be notified when they are available. [24]Basic Music Theory Elements: [25]Rhythm | [26]Notes | [27]Master Staff | [28]Intervals | [29]Scales | [30]Chords | [31]Key Signatures [32]Home [33]Workshops & Courses [34]Monthly Music Course [35]FAQ Monthly Course [36]Music LearningBlog [37]Music Theory Basics [38]Music Learning Know-How [39]Teaching Music Articles [40]Your Instrument and Theory [41]Playing Music * Playing Technique and Instruction [42]Recommends & Resources * Courses, Methods, Software, Equipment and More [43]MLW Book Store [44]FAQ ================ Beginning Rhythm * [45]Rhythm Definitions * [46]Note Symbols * [47]Note Symbols Practice * [48]Note Time Value * [49]Time Signatures * [50]Rhythm Counting Beats * [51]Rhythm Counting Rests * [52]Rhythm Duple Pattern * [53]Rhythm Quadruple Pattern * [54]Rhythm Triplet Pattern * [55]Note Relationships * [56]Rhythm Beat Chart Subscribe to Blog: [57]XML RSS [58] What is RSS feed? [59]My Yahoo! RSS button [60]My MSN RSS button [61]Google RSS button Comments, Feedback, At: [62]Ask-and-Comment [63]Monthly Music Course Ad Zero-in with a [64]Getting It Down Cold Workshop [65]MegaLearning MegaLearning System [66]zzounds ad [67]Free guitar lessons [68]See what's on sale at Sheet Music Plus [69]New Day, New Deal at American Musical Supply [70]5% off all orders over $99 [71]Free Shipping on all orders over $99! [72]125x125 - Coachella Music and Merch at ShockHound. [73]top of Music Theory Rhythm [74]Home | [75]What's New | [76]Workshops | [77]Affiliate Program | [78]Site Map | [79]About Us | [80]Contact Us | [81]Disclaimer | [82]Privacy Policy | [83]Join MLW [84]Powered by Site Build It! | [85]Copyright©2008-2009 MusicLearningWorkshop.com - All Rights Reserved Références JCPA LOGO Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs [1]Daniel Elazar Papers Index [2][USEMAP:nav-back.gif] American Political Culture The Generational Rhythm of American Politics The American Mosaic, Chapter 2 Daniel J. Elazar It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space. Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less pinpointed. This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast developments with great success. At the same time he has applied that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs. Early Studies of Generational Rhythms Students of society have noted the succession of generations since ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology on generational measures. The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs. It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon operating in history.^2 Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression, "forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5 Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The "generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7 Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of its beginnings and its ancestry. Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were the first to articulate systematic theories of generational progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that "History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals comes to dominate society.^9 These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed the principle that generations are articulated through historical events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained. Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a fourfold classification of generations as preparatory, revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10 Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11 Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation century.^13 After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri Peyre (1948).^16 More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused on problems of intergenerational differences and the political socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963) focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966) studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957) utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in Israel and the United States, respectively.^20 All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact, both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive theory. None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods. Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of three generations. Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin. Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature, art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular basis. Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under the heading of "a generation". Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History A number of theories of political cycles in American history have been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect "concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the "more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments" using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process. Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23 Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work. Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable directions. Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s) and the present. Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment occurs in every generation. While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts as follows: 1787-1801-1816 1816-1829-1841 1841-1861-1869 1869-1901-1918 1918-1931-? The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the following pattern: 1790-1796/1800 1800-1824/1828 1828-1824/1860 1860-1888/1896 1896-1932 His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their significance in the periodization process. Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if it is schematized as follows: 1789-1820 1828 1856-1860 1893/1894 1932 Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized as follows: 1896-1912 1912-1920-1932-1952 1952 Pomper also offers election dates and no more: 1836 1864-1876 1876-1892/1896 1928/1932-1952 1952-1964 None of these are complete theories and all must be considered within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit. Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era. In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however, the American people were treated to a display of federal activity -- and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow of time and events.) The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible pattern in the progression of political events in the United States over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26 The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a fixed moment, as individuals do now.... What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case, would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for 14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors. Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that 23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself assembled, can validly extend a debt. On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of 34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not of right. The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme, Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure of location in time. Human Social Rhythms As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the "lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation in any particular civil society and chart the relations among generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical patterns of its politics. During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years, averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited. Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life" ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and political roles as are given to mature men and women in society. Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention, if not physically, considered ready for retirement. Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote, and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be defined as the ending of one's serious political career without suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's 30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship. The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to "retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28 In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly established. Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby allowing a new generation to assume the reins. Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in social and political life than that found in the simple processes of human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings are recorded in history, we can do just that. Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the impact of the change and encourages new political action to assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at the most four generations are alive at any given time creates certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and politically unmanageable. Generations, Centuries and Events Since the founding of the first European settlements along the Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th century is the century of the United States as a world power. Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing point, thus: a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603) and the 17th century began with the opening of the American frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of the times. b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration for both countries. c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff). d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land frontier. Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn, the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments that will replace them. The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence. The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression will be related to major forces and factors shaping American history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the principal challenges facing the American people in each generation and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial, ethnic and religious groups. One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate. Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for analytical purposes than life ever is. The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany, but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies, and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate nation with its own civilization. The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century, which, from the first American recognition of common continental interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism, successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans. The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations, beginning at the point where America turned its back on European entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an industrialized continental nation with a strong national government; abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world power ready for overseas involvements. The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century -- reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the industrial revolution. As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first generation of the transformation of society as a result of the application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically dominant although economically weakened. The results of these phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder of the generation. Generations and Frontier Stages The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other historical and political phenomena. Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of human control over the natural environment and the utilization of the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control, i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American society is a product of this commitment which is virtually self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier situation that has created the major social and economic changes which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's political institutions. America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American life within that stage. The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the westward movement on a basically rural population interested in settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in Alaska. Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States, where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their existence and growth. By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth, in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation. After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and pace of development across the country. The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s, ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution, and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over. By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers, satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges, initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West. Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between the points of generational division and the shifts in the various frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are closely related to the opening of new centuries. Generations and Economic Periods One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a result, the governments of the United States have always maintained a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the governmental response. These changes have also developed on a generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth generation of American history) the American government continued a semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially unregulated by government. Demands for government regulation that built up during the last generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system. Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less government intervention. Centuries, Generations and Federalism The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first generation of American history brought the introduction of federal principles through the contracts and covenants that established the colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly, concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century. The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society. Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed have been major elements in the concrete response to the generation's challenges. Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of American history and politics. The changes in those relationships also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries. British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery. Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste system was in the making. During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation. Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was abolished in the North. The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was reaffirmed through the institution of segregation. From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say, to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American culture. While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era. The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the challenges changes from century to century. During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which, objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular progression of political events revolving around the development of a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and responses that gives each generation its particular character. While the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external -- or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation themselves. In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its sisters, and the other science independence when a common national constitution created a common national politics. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the political challenges that have dominated the American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the 19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the 20th century, they have essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and new generations is marked by several decisive political actions, often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so that they will achieve greater success and at the same time integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be recognized. The Bench Marks of American Political History: Critical Elections and New Deals In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds; first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each generation. The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs of voters, shifting them from one political party to another. Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a "critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one major element to another. Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the 1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and representatives to win control of Congress. The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968, only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the "normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in 1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems, won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the GOP controlled the Senate. A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations, personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders (or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate state parties which form the two national confederations known as the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties are confederations of the state parties, so is the national coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional coalitions. Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution, too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary inroads in the various electoral groups. Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means certain that the majority party will even win all the national elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards for the party faithful during the years of national "famine." As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad electoral groups.^33 While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election. Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical elections."^34 The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the development of the institution of the popularly elected president. Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and the House of Representatives. Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem. It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file" alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from balance to majority. "New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as the historical watersheds they are. In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S. Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B. Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s. The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational consolidation. The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington before undertaking any activities. The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an "outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation, usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time. President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and localities. These were all to become principal issues during the period of generational build-up. The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues of the new generation. Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been invariably preceded by critical elections through which the reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die -- determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to majority status. These critical elections, which attain their visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which face them. Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the 1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans. Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in 1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing period for the Democratic coalition. To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in American politics is not to suggest that events move in any lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the "normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too can be done that gives the theory its power. Summary Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more interest to European social philosophers than American social scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics, often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human social rhythms generally. Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them. The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation, constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political history recurring on a generational basis. Notes 1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970); Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979). 2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973). 3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5 (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers, chapter 32, verse 13. 7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte (London: G. Bell, 1896). 9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive (London, 1862). 10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani (Milano: Monanni, 1929). 11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen, der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4. (1875), pp. 36-41. 12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds., Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane, Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp., 1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). 13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method. 14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933). 15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti, ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales (Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F. Schoeningh, 1933). 16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926); Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig, 1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris: Boivin, 1948). 17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger, 1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4 (1972): 564-78. 18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956). 19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin, American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970). 20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield, Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970). 21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939). 22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key, Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961); Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968); Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). 23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210. 24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co. 1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government from the Civil War to the New Deal. 25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no. 1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992). 26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789. 27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President. 28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W. Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber, Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey, Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.: Brooks/Cole, 1989). 29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York: Macmillan, 1961). 30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965): Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989). 31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18. 32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability," Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171. 33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?" in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed., Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1983). 34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony; David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization, Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter, Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985). [3]Elazar Papers Index / [4]JCPA Home Page / [5]Top of Page Références [USEMAP] 1. javascript:history.go(-1) 3. mailto:jcenter@jcpa.org [USEMAP] [1]CAT.INIST [2][USEMAP:bandeau-haut-droit.gif] logo CNRS [3]logo INIST [4]En savoir plus sur CAT.INIST ? © INIST Diffusion S.A. Service Clients / Customer Service 2, allée du parc de Brabois F-54514 Vandoeuvre Cedex France Tél : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.64 Fax : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.66 Courriel : [5]infoclient@inist.fr [6]Accueil / Home Imprimer / Print [7]Contact / Contact Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [8]Bookmark and Share [9]Mendeley Titre du document / Document title Rhythms of the secular : The politics of modernizing Arab poetic forms = Rythmes du séculaire : la politique de modernisation des formes poétiques arabes Auteur(s) / Author(s) FURANI Khaled^ (1) ; Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s) ^(1) Tel-Aviv University, ISRAEL Résumé / Abstract In this article, I ethnographically trace how Arab, mainly Palestinian, poets have modernized their literary tradition during the last seven decades. Shortly after the 1948 Israeli occupation of Palestine, the reign of the classical Arabic ode collapsed, and the modern forms of free verse and, later, the prose poem became dominant. Aiming to contribute to the ethnography of modernity, I examine how poets have adopted and abandoned poetic forms by analyzing their narratives on rhythm. I explore the political salience of rhythmical transformations and argue that the secular has been a vital and complex force in the modern abandonment of metrical discipline. The secular affects how poets seek to modernize their rhythm, vocabulary, and relation to public. It also affects, I conclude, the ways in which anthropologists can and do write about modernity. Revue / Journal Title American ethnologist ISSN 0094-0496 Source / Source 2008, vol. 35, n^o2, pp. 290-307 [18 page(s) (article)] (2 p.1/4) Langue / Language Anglais Editeur / Publisher American Ethnological Society, Washington, DC, ETATS-UNIS (1974) (Revue) Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords Rhythm ; Transformation ; Modernization ; Poet ; Modernity ; Poetry ; Israel ; Palestine ; Near East ; Mots-clés français / French Keywords Forme poétique ; Tradition littéraire ; Arabe palestinien ; Rythme ; Transformation ; Modernisation ; Poète ; Modernité ; Poésie ; Israël ; Palestine ; Proche-Orient ; Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords poetic form ; modernity and secularism ; Palestine-Israel ; Localisation / Location INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 16902, 35400019805879.0070 Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 20449527 Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [10]Bookmark and Share [11]Mendeley CAT.INIST Rechercher / Search _______________________________ OK Références 5. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20CAT.INIST.FR 7. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20Cat@inist.fr [USEMAP] * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * [1]LINGUIST List logo [2]Eastern Michigan University [3]Wayne State University * * [4]People & Organizations * [5]Jobs * [6]Calls & Conferences * [7]Publications * [8]Language Resources * [9]Text & Computer Tools * [10]Teaching & Learning * [11]Mailing Lists * [12]Search * * * [13][mail-logo-9.gif] E-mail this message to a friend Title: The Rhythm of Political Oratory Author: [14]Varvara Danilina Email: [15]click here to access email Degree Awarded: Moscow State University , Department of Foreigh Languages Degree Date: 2002 Linguistic Subfield(s): Discourse Analysis Sociolinguistics Subject Language(s): [16]English Director(s): [17]Ludmila Minaeva ___________________________________ Abstract: My doctoral dissertation was completed after four years of research on the rhythm of British and American political oratory. I sought to establish the rhythmic norm for political public speech and to find out, whether any deviations from this norm (i.e. from an expected rhythmic model) influence listeners and provoke their verbal reactions or bursts of applause. To accomplish this task I used a variety of linguistic and rhetorical methods, and drew upon social psychology and political science. There is no single linguistic perspective on speech rhythm. For instance, such distinguished scholars as D. Crystal and D. Abercrombie regard it as a purely phonetic phenomenon. At the same time, according to Moscow University school of thought, to which I belong, speech rhythm is created by a blend of phonetics, syntax and meaning of an utterance. As a result of my research, I established rhythmic regularities for political oratory at five levels. Firstly, I analyzed pauses that divide the stream of speech into segments (syntagmas), and classified all the pauses into syntactic, rhetorical or unintentional (unintentional pauses are caused by hesitation, deliberation, stammering, interruptions by listeners, etc). Secondly, I established the relative frequency of short, medium and long syntagmas between pauses, and thirdly, analyzed the rhythmic structures constituted by linear sequences of syntagmas. Fourthly, I studied the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables inside syntagmas. And finally, I considered all kinds of repetitions, both rhetorical and unintentional. This method of rhythmic analysis is based on earlier analytical models designed by my university colleagues. My own contribution consisted in adapting this method to the study of public speech, describing the typical rhythm of political oratory, and challenging some popular assumptions about speech rhythm. As for the impact of speech rhythm upon listeners, I started by analyzing audiences in order to understand psychological, social and political conditions of that process. G. Le Bon, Z. Freud and other scholars demonstrated conclusively that members of a crowd (and the audience of a public speech is a crowd) are connected with each other and with their leader (in our case, a speaker) by strong subconscious ties. However, the degree of unity or polarization of an audience may differ. Besides, each audience can be characterized according to several other criteria that determine listeners' responsiveness and the nature of their responses: their emotional state, the level of expertise in a particular subject, the demographic and social characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, social status, occupation, education), the existing evaluation of discussed issues, which is largely determined by listeners' ideologies, and finally, the attitude to the speaker, which can be positive, negative or indifferent. I have applied this model of audience analysis to determine peculiarities of the British parliamentary audience in October 1996, and of the US Congress in the aftermath of September 11, 2001. To analyze the reactions of these audiences to the rhythm of Prime Minister Major and President Bush's parliamentary addresses I used M. Atkinson's version of the conversation analysis method. I showed the two speeches as dialogues between the speakers and their listeners, and singled out phrases and syntagmas that immediately preceded audience responses, such as cheering, booing, laughter or bursts of applause. These phrases and syntagmas happened to be quite similar in terms of rhythm to other stretches of speech in the same addresses. Moreover, there proved to be little rhythmic difference between John Major and George Bush's speeches. In short, my research demonstrated that there is no direct interconnection between the rhythm of a public address and audience responses. [18]Add a dissertation [19]Update dissertation Page Updated: 19-Jan-2010 [20]Print This Page __________________________________________________________________ [21][transp.gif] [22][transp.gif] Please [23]report any bad links or misclassified data __________________________________________________________________ [24]LINGUIST Homepage | [25]Read LINGUIST | [26]Contact us [27]NSF Logo While the LINGUIST List makes every effort to ensure the linguistic relevance of sites listed on its pages, it cannot vouch for their contents. Références 13. JavaScript:; 15. JavaScript:; 20. Javascript:window.print(); 22. mailto:cranston@linguistlist.org [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] Drums games, piano games, guitar games [1]Drums games. Music games Drums online games [2]Drums music machine free online music game [3]Drums player Online music machine [4]Drums map Drum flash movie [5]Music machine Ear music training [6]Drums editor Online drum game Music online games [7]Music Free online game Try to repeat music. [8]Ear training 01 Free music game [9]Piano note Free online teacher [10]Chords piano Write chords. then play the melody. [11]Sound memory Improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it. [12]Draw lessons How to draw free lessons [13]Online games Actions, Shooter, Logic online games [acleardot.gif] [acleardot.gif] What is music rhythm? The music rhythm is the beat. It is the most important element in music. It drives the music forward. It is the gasoline of music. Rhythms can be simple or complicated. Essential music vocabulary Meter It's the way we group the beats. We group eggs by the dozen. We group days by the week. We also group beats into two's or three's. That's meter. Rhythm The beat. The beat can be even or uneven, steady or unsteady. Note Values Long and short sounds in music are represented by notes. White notes have longer sounds than black notes. Tempo This is the speed of the music. Time Signature This is a number that appears at the beginning of the music. The top number tells you how many beats are in each measure (bar) and the bottom number tells you what kind of a note gets one beat. The most common times signatures are 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, and 6/8. Whole music notes These notes are whole notes. Each note is four beats long. Click the image to hear the note value. [14][whole.gif] Half music notes Here are half notes. Did you see the stems? These notes are twice as fast as whole notes. These note are two beats long. Click the image to hear the note value. [15][half.gif] Quarter music notes These notes are black. They are quarter notes. Each quarter note gets one beat. How many beats are in each measure? If you guessed four, you'd be right! Click the image to hear the note value. [16][quarter.gif] Eighth music notes These are eighth notes. Notice how the stems are connected by a beam. These notes move twice as fast as quarter notes. Two note are played for each beat of music. Click the image to hear the note value. [17][eighth_.gif] Combining Note Values In 4/4 time, different note values can be combined in each measure as long as they equal four beats. Click the examples to hear the rhythm patterns: [18][combo2.gif] [19][combo3.gif] [20][combo4.gif] Music tempo Tempo means speed. Musicians use Italian terms for different tempos. Here is a melody fragment. Click the image to hear the tune: [21][example.gif] Click the words below to hear this tune played at different tempos. Slow Medium Fast Largo Largo is the slowest tempo. Adagio Largo means slow or leisurely. Andante Andante means a walking pace. Moderato Moderato is medium. It is not too fast or too slow. Allegro Allegro is fast. It means cheerful in Italian. Vivace Vivace is quick and lively. Presto Presto is very fast. Meter Meter is how we hear the groupings of beats in music. Music will be in an even meter (groupings of 2's or 4's) or an odd meter (groupings of 3's). Even Meters Are Groupings of 2 Beats A [22]march is played in a meter of 2, which makes it an even meter. That means you will hear the beats of the march move in patterns of two's. Odd Meters Are Groupings of 3 Beats A [23]waltz is played in a meter of three, which makes it an odd meter. That means you will hear the beats of the waltz move in patterns of three's. Can you hear meter in music? Click the examples below to identify whether you hear the music moving in groups of two's or three's. [24]Example 1 [25]Example 2 [26]Example 3 [27]Example 4 [28]Example 5 Time Signatures The time signature helps us group the notes so we don't get lost. It's the way we organize beats in music. It's like grouping eggs by the dozen or days by the week. The top number tells us how many beats we can have in one measure. In 4/4 time we have four beats in each measure. What was the time signature in all of all the examples above? Remember this: A beat is not the same thing as a note. Notes can have more or less than one beat. A whole note in 4/4 time has four beats. A half note in 4/4 time has two beats. An eighth note in 4/4 time has just 1/2 beat. It takes two eighth notes to make one beat in 4/4 time. Time signatures and meter: The time signature will tell you the music's meter. If you can divide the top number by two, the music is in an even meter. If you can divide the top number by three, the music is in an odd meter. Let's look at some popular time signatures and see if we can add up the beats in each measure. 4/4 Time (Common Time) [Common_time.gif] Did you notice the number at the beginning of all the examples above? That's the time signature. It's 4/4. That means that there are four beats in each measure and the quarter note gets one beat. This time signature is also called Common Time because it is the most popular time signature in music. Listen to [29]Somewhere Over the Rainbow from The Wizard of Oz. It's in 4/4 time. Each measure equals four beats. It is in an even meter. [30][rainbow.gif] 3/4 Time (Waltz Time) [Three_four.gif] A 3/4 time signature would only have three beats per measure. Here is what it looks like. Listen to [31]America played in 3/4 time. 3/4 is also called waltz time. Did you notice the dots after some of the notes. Dotes make the notes longer. This song is in an odd meter because there are three beats per measure. [32][amaerica.gif] 2/4 Time [Two_four.gif] A 2/4 time signature has just two beats per measure. It looks like this. Listen to [33]You're a Grand Old Flag in 2/4 time. Do you see the line connecting the last two notes. It is called a tie. What is the meter of this song? Look at the time signature for your answer. [34][grand.gif] 6/8 Time [Six_eight.gif] A 6/8 time signature has six beats per measure. The bottom number is 8. This tells you that the eighth note gets one beat. Do you recognize the song [35]Follow the Yellow Brick Road from The Wizard of Oz? It's in 6/8 time. This song goes fast, making it sound like 2/4 rather than 6/8 time. This time signature can sound like an even or odd meter because you can divide 6 by 2 or 3. [36][wizaed.gif] Drums online games * [37]Drums music machine free online game * [38]Drums player online music machine * [39]Restore rhythm online ear training * [40]Drums map movie * [41]Drums editor online game Music piano and guitar online games * [42]Computer play a note pitch ear training. You try to understand it and type c,d,e,f,g... * [43]Computer show a note you try to understand it play keyboard * [44]Music machine ear training * [45]Piano music machine free online game you can compose melody and play it. Try compose melody. This is very easy. * [46]Music free online game. Try to repeat music. * [47]Note pair online game. Find all notes. This game is very useful for music memory improvement. * [48]Notes shooter online game. Try to recognize note as fast as you can. * [49]Piano note free online teacher * [50]Sound memory improvement free game. Listen music. Then try to repeat it. * [51]Drag music online game. Compose melody by notes. * [52]Piano note editor. Compose melody. Use mouse for composing. * [53]Find error at the melody online game. The computer play melody then replace one note. Try to find error Music machines * [54]Orchestra quiz online music * [55]Music quiz for kids * [56]Virtual band Music games for kids * [57]Rainbow piano for kids. Computer show the color. Kids need to press correct note. * [58]Can you play jingle bells? Look at the note sheet and play. * [59]Piano keyboard online game. Download piano keyboard movie on to your computer and play. Metronomes and fork * [60]Light metronome online movie * [61]Metronome online movie * [62]Guitar tuning fork its help tune guitar Guitar online games * [63]Guitar music machine * [64]Guitar chord finder * [65]Guitar online chords * [66]Guitar chords * [67]Basic guitar chords and how it * [68]Guitar chords machine with sound * [69]Guitar scales __________________________________________________________________ Free music games [70]AbabaSoft.com/music Copyright © 1998 - Références [1]CAT.INIST [2][USEMAP:bandeau-haut-droit.gif] logo CNRS [3]logo INIST [4]En savoir plus sur CAT.INIST ? © INIST Diffusion S.A. Service Clients / Customer Service 2, allée du parc de Brabois F-54514 Vandoeuvre Cedex France Tél : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.64 Fax : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.66 Courriel : [5]infoclient@inist.fr [6]Accueil / Home Imprimer / Print [7]Contact / Contact Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [8]Email Print [9]Bookmark and Share [10]Mendeley Back Titre du document / Document title Effects of pre-exercise listening to slow and fast rhythm music on supramaximal cycle performance and selected metabolic variables Auteur(s) / Author(s) YAMAMOTO T.^ (1) ; OHKUWA T.^ (2) ; ITOH H.^ (2) ; KITOH M.^ (3) ; TERASAWA J.^ (3) ; TSUDA T.^ (3) ; KITAGAWA S.^ (3) ; SATO Y.^ (1) ; Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s) ^(1) Research Center of Health, Physical Fitness and Sports, Nagoya University, 464-8601, JAPON ^(2) Department of General studies, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON ^(3) Department of Applied Chemistry, Nagoya Institute of Technology, Showa-ku, Nagoya, 466-8555, JAPON Résumé / Abstract We examined the effect of listening to two different types of music (with slow and fast rhythm), prior to supramaximal cycle exercise, on performance, heart rate, the concentration of lactate and ammonia in blood, and the concentration of catecholamines in plasma. Six male students participated in this study. After listening to slow rhythm or fast rhythm music for 20 min, the subjects performed supramaximal exercise for 45 s using a cycle ergometer. Listening to slow and fast rhythm music prior to supramaximal exercise did not significantly affect the mean power output. The plasma norepinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to slow rhythm music was significantly lower than before listening (p < 0.05). The plasma epinephrine concentration immediately before the end of listening to fast rhythm music was significantly higher than before listening (p < 0.05). The type of music had no effect on blood lactate and ammonia levels or on plasma catecholamine levels following exercise. In conclusion, listening to slow rhythm music decreases the plasma norepinephrine level, and listening to fast rhythm music increases the plasma epinephrine level. The type of music has no impact on power output during exercise. Revue / Journal Title Archives of physiology and biochemistry ISSN 1381-3455 Source / Source 2003, vol. 111, n^o3, pp. 211-214 [4 page(s) (article)] (14 ref.) Langue / Language Anglais Revue : Français Editeur / Publisher Taylor & Francis, Basingstoke, ROYAUME-UNI (1995) (Revue) Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords Dopamine agonist ; Neurotransmitter ; Catecholamine ; Human ; Bicycle ergometer ; Music ; Rhythm ; Dopamine ; Norepinephrine ; Epinephrine ; Physical performance ; Heart rate ; Physical exercise ; Mots-clés français / French Keywords Stimulant dopaminergique ; Neurotransmetteur ; Catécholamine ; Homme ; Bicyclette ergométrique ; Musique ; Rythme ; Dopamine ; Noradrénaline ; Adrénaline ; Performance physique ; Rythme cardiaque ; Exercice physique ; Mots-clés espagnols / Spanish Keywords Estimulante dopaminérgico ; Neurotransmisor ; Catecolamina ; Hombre ; Bicicleta ergométrica ; Música ; Ritmo ; Dopamina ; Noradrenalina ; Adrenalina ; Rendimiento físico ; Ritmo cardíaco ; Ejercicio físico ; Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords Slow music ; fast music ; epinephrine ; norepinephrine ; dopamine ; supramaximal exercise ; power output ; lactate ; ammonia ; heart rate ; Localisation / Location INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 827, 35400011637312.0030 Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 15397711 Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [11]Email Print [12]Bookmark and Share [13]Mendeley Back _______________________________ Rechercher dans CAT.INIST / Search in CAT.INIST Google Custom Search Références 5. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20CAT.INIST.FR 7. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20Cat@inist.fr [USEMAP] Basic Music Theory. Copyright Neil Hawes 1997 Rhythm * Rhythm in music is dependent on the fact that humans recognise a [1]beat occurring at a regular interval. * Rhythm in music is more than just a [2]beat, however; it is the way that sounds with differing lengths (or gaps between them) and accents can combine to produce patterns in time which contain a [3]beat. + These sounds do not have to be particularly musical; rhythms can be made by striking almost anything, as long as there can be difference in accent. + Differences in accent can mean different sounds or just different loudness (i.e. amplitudes) of sounds * It is common to speak of a particular rhythm, referring to a pattern of [4]note lengths which occurs in a piece of music. + It is important to understand that the rhythm is defined by the pattern; the overall speed of it could vary from performance to performance, but the rhythm would still be the same. + The speed or tempo of a piece of music is indicated by a [5]metronome marking and/or a [6]direction word or phrase; its rhythm is specified by various [7]note lengths creating [8]beats within [9]bars. * Modern songs often include [10]syncopation in their rhythm __________________________________________________________________ [11]Mail me [12]Copyright and disclaimer [13]Content and structure of these pages [14]Return to top Références 11. mailto:website@neilhawes.com [jazz-blues-pianist-3.jpg] [1]Home: jazz improvisation : pop blues| [2]Pop music videos| [3]Pop blues jazz albums| [4]Jazz improvisation - harmony| [5]Lingua italiana| [6]HELP - FAQ| Rhythm and swing * Swing jazz rhythm * [7]Music rhythm * [8]Learn music theory : polyrhythms Site menu * [9]Blues singer songwriter jazz pianist * [10]Pop music videos * [11]Jazz piano, tutorial videos * [12]Pop blues jazz albums * [13]Jazz pianist music stores Improvisation and music harmony : MIOP * [14]Jazz improvisation and music harmony : summary * [15]Music harmony concepts * [16]Scales, modes to improvise * [17]Blues improvisation * [18]Jazz melody and improvisation * Swing jazz rhythm * [19]Jazz techniques : practice Swing jazz rhythm in improvisation Swing is very important in improvisation. This word means stressing the upbeat. If you also give a "sliding" or "retardation" between notes, you can create the real swing jazz rhythm, which was born at the beginning of the XX century about. When you stress an upbeat you make perhaps a "swinging" rhythmics, (also being without a dragging or a sliding between notes), for modern rhythm too, (such as pop and rhythm and blues). * When you play swing music, that is Dixieland, blues, ragtime, swing, bebop, cool jazz, hard bop, you have to follow this scheme: basic rhythmic pattern ...in this way: swing jazz rhythm pattern Learn swing jazz rhythm In order to learn how to swing, you simply have to learn how to reason in up beat and stressing with it constantly. In other words, swing means "stressing the upbeat" with an implied octaves triplets clef. It's so a rhythm "sliding" effect created : the meaning of the American word "swing" is just similar to "sliding", "waving" or "rocking". * For example these measures : how to learn jazz swing ..must be played (in general) in this way: fundamental jazz swing rhythm In other words Swing has offbeat (upbeat) accents and an eighth-note triplets rhythmic base. Learning jazz swing Learning swing very well and have the ability to improvise, stressing and giving the right accent of phrases needs much time to practice it. Above all, you must pay attention at the beginning to stress upbeat octave notes constantly and to stop when you realize you are making the contrary. While stressing notes on your instrument, I suggest to upbeat by your foot, so that you can emphasize this rhythmic accent better. You have to get used to reason in upbeat, beginning all over again, as since we were children we have been starting clapping hands in downbeat. Swing-jazz rhythm can be so learned naturally after studying constantly in this direction. * You need some months to learn swing rhythm on your instrument. I remember you to stress always the upbeats. [20]Privacy Policy | musilosophy.com © 2005-2009 | All rights reserved | PIVA IT09999181002 Références #[1]RSS spacer Music Learning Workshop [2]Home [3]MLW Blog [4]Join Community [5]Theory [6]Workshops [7]Store sp [8]Home: [9]Basic Music Theory Elements: Music Theory Rhythm "Music Theory Rhythm" "Your Journey in Music Rhythm" Introduction: Your journey to learn and master the music theory rhythm begins in this section of the Music Learning Workshop. The music rhythm workshop provides us with the basics needed to get rhythm down cold. below we link to the beginner series of lessons. We start with the essential building blocks of how to fundamentally know rhythm and then expand our knowledge of rhythm music theory and know how until we achieve mastery. Learning Pyramid The Basic Building Blocks of Rhythm Rhythm forms the basis of music theory. It is what all other musical elements are based upon. You can only survive so long in your musical journey without the essential building block of rhythm. Ask professional musicians: what one element of music do you find to be most important? The answer will often be rhythm. As it is the one thing that is least forgiven by the listener. Our learning approach assumes a level of maturity in the student. Often it is related to the age of about 8 years old. However, with proper guidance younger ages can use the materials. We don't take a single element to explore, but instead take a bigger picture and zero in on the elements that make it work. When we teach notes names or values we do it all at once, because it is very important that you know how all of them are related right at the start. This allows you jump start and accelerate your learning process. Whatâs really neat is that if you get hung up you can go back and see exactly what that single thing is and how it relates to other items in context. [10]WHAT'S NEW JOIN THE WORKSHOP Sign Up to Claim Your Free Report: Learn a Song - Crucial Steps to Mastering a Song Quickly First Name: _______________ Email Address: _______________ Submit We hate spam as much as you do! Your name and email address will not be sold, shared or disclosed. Beginning Rhythm Music Theory Lessons The sequence of lessons below are designed specifically for the newbie music student. They start with an overview approach of just looking at music components such as what is a measure a note in definition. We then follow the approach detailed above. Take your time Beginning Rhythm [11]Rhythm Definitions [12]Note Symbols [13]Note Symbols Practice [14]Note Time Value [15]Time Signatures [16]Counting Rhythm Beats [17]Counting Rhythm Using Rests [18]Counting Rhythm Duple Pattern [19]Counting Rhythm Quadruple Pattern [20]Counting Rhythm Triplet pattern [21]Note Relationships [22]Reference Chart Beat vs Time There is no hurry, it is far more important that you understand the concepts than to rush through them to get to the next one. The better you understand each step the easier the next one will be. Start with some terms we will need to become familiar with when discussing rhythm and music theory and move on through the lessons to build up on the previous group of knowledge. This outline shows the components of rhythm available on this site that you can start learning. This sequence is designed to quickly lead you through the basics of what is needed to learn rhythm music theory. The Music Learning Workshop "Get It Down Cold" Workbooks will be available soon to lead you through the process. [23]Join the our community and you will be notified when they are available. [24]Basic Music Theory Elements: [25]Rhythm | [26]Notes | [27]Master Staff | [28]Intervals | [29]Scales | [30]Chords | [31]Key Signatures [32]Home [33]Workshops & Courses [34]Monthly Music Course [35]FAQ Monthly Course [36]Music LearningBlog [37]Music Theory Basics [38]Music Learning Know-How [39]Teaching Music Articles [40]Your Instrument and Theory [41]Playing Music * Playing Technique and Instruction [42]Recommends & Resources * Courses, Methods, Software, Equipment and More [43]MLW Book Store [44]FAQ ================ Beginning Rhythm * [45]Rhythm Definitions * [46]Note Symbols * [47]Note Symbols Practice * [48]Note Time Value * [49]Time Signatures * [50]Rhythm Counting Beats * [51]Rhythm Counting Rests * [52]Rhythm Duple Pattern * [53]Rhythm Quadruple Pattern * [54]Rhythm Triplet Pattern * [55]Note Relationships * [56]Rhythm Beat Chart Subscribe to Blog: [57]XML RSS [58] What is RSS feed? [59]My Yahoo! RSS button [60]My MSN RSS button [61]Google RSS button Comments, Feedback, At: [62]Ask-and-Comment [63]Monthly Music Course Ad Zero-in with a [64]Getting It Down Cold Workshop [65]MegaLearning MegaLearning System [66]zzounds ad [67]Free guitar lessons [68]See what's on sale at Sheet Music Plus [69]New Day, New Deal at American Musical Supply [70]5% off all orders over $99 [71]Free Shipping on all orders over $99! [72]125x125 - Coachella Music and Merch at ShockHound. [73]top of Music Theory Rhythm [74]Home | [75]What's New | [76]Workshops | [77]Affiliate Program | [78]Site Map | [79]About Us | [80]Contact Us | [81]Disclaimer | [82]Privacy Policy | [83]Join MLW [84]Powered by Site Build It! | [85]Copyright©2008-2009 MusicLearningWorkshop.com - All Rights Reserved Références JCPA LOGO Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs [1]Daniel Elazar Papers Index [2][USEMAP:nav-back.gif] American Political Culture The Generational Rhythm of American Politics The American Mosaic, Chapter 2 Daniel J. Elazar It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space. Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less pinpointed. This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast developments with great success. At the same time he has applied that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs. Early Studies of Generational Rhythms Students of society have noted the succession of generations since ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology on generational measures. The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs. It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon operating in history.^2 Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression, "forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5 Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The "generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7 Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of its beginnings and its ancestry. Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were the first to articulate systematic theories of generational progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that "History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals comes to dominate society.^9 These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed the principle that generations are articulated through historical events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained. Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a fourfold classification of generations as preparatory, revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10 Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11 Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation century.^13 After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri Peyre (1948).^16 More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused on problems of intergenerational differences and the political socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963) focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966) studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957) utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in Israel and the United States, respectively.^20 All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact, both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive theory. None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods. Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of three generations. Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin. Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature, art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular basis. Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under the heading of "a generation". Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History A number of theories of political cycles in American history have been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect "concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the "more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments" using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process. Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23 Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work. Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable directions. Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s) and the present. Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment occurs in every generation. While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts as follows: 1787-1801-1816 1816-1829-1841 1841-1861-1869 1869-1901-1918 1918-1931-? The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the following pattern: 1790-1796/1800 1800-1824/1828 1828-1824/1860 1860-1888/1896 1896-1932 His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their significance in the periodization process. Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if it is schematized as follows: 1789-1820 1828 1856-1860 1893/1894 1932 Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized as follows: 1896-1912 1912-1920-1932-1952 1952 Pomper also offers election dates and no more: 1836 1864-1876 1876-1892/1896 1928/1932-1952 1952-1964 None of these are complete theories and all must be considered within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit. Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era. In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however, the American people were treated to a display of federal activity -- and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow of time and events.) The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible pattern in the progression of political events in the United States over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26 The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a fixed moment, as individuals do now.... What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case, would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for 14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors. Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that 23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself assembled, can validly extend a debt. On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of 34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not of right. The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme, Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure of location in time. Human Social Rhythms As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the "lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation in any particular civil society and chart the relations among generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical patterns of its politics. During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years, averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited. Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life" ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and political roles as are given to mature men and women in society. Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention, if not physically, considered ready for retirement. Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote, and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be defined as the ending of one's serious political career without suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's 30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship. The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to "retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28 In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly established. Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby allowing a new generation to assume the reins. Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in social and political life than that found in the simple processes of human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings are recorded in history, we can do just that. Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the impact of the change and encourages new political action to assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at the most four generations are alive at any given time creates certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and politically unmanageable. Generations, Centuries and Events Since the founding of the first European settlements along the Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th century is the century of the United States as a world power. Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing point, thus: a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603) and the 17th century began with the opening of the American frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of the times. b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration for both countries. c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff). d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land frontier. Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn, the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments that will replace them. The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence. The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression will be related to major forces and factors shaping American history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the principal challenges facing the American people in each generation and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial, ethnic and religious groups. One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate. Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for analytical purposes than life ever is. The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany, but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies, and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate nation with its own civilization. The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century, which, from the first American recognition of common continental interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism, successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans. The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations, beginning at the point where America turned its back on European entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an industrialized continental nation with a strong national government; abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world power ready for overseas involvements. The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century -- reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the industrial revolution. As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first generation of the transformation of society as a result of the application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically dominant although economically weakened. The results of these phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder of the generation. Generations and Frontier Stages The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other historical and political phenomena. Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of human control over the natural environment and the utilization of the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control, i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American society is a product of this commitment which is virtually self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier situation that has created the major social and economic changes which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's political institutions. America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American life within that stage. The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the westward movement on a basically rural population interested in settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in Alaska. Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States, where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their existence and growth. By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth, in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation. After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and pace of development across the country. The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s, ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution, and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over. By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers, satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges, initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West. Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between the points of generational division and the shifts in the various frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are closely related to the opening of new centuries. Generations and Economic Periods One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a result, the governments of the United States have always maintained a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the governmental response. These changes have also developed on a generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth generation of American history) the American government continued a semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially unregulated by government. Demands for government regulation that built up during the last generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system. Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less government intervention. Centuries, Generations and Federalism The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first generation of American history brought the introduction of federal principles through the contracts and covenants that established the colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly, concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century. The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society. Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed have been major elements in the concrete response to the generation's challenges. Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of American history and politics. The changes in those relationships also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries. British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery. Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste system was in the making. During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation. Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was abolished in the North. The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was reaffirmed through the institution of segregation. From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say, to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American culture. While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era. The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the challenges changes from century to century. During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which, objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular progression of political events revolving around the development of a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and responses that gives each generation its particular character. While the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external -- or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation themselves. In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its sisters, and the other science independence when a common national constitution created a common national politics. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the political challenges that have dominated the American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the 19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the 20th century, they have essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and new generations is marked by several decisive political actions, often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so that they will achieve greater success and at the same time integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be recognized. The Bench Marks of American Political History: Critical Elections and New Deals In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds; first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each generation. The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs of voters, shifting them from one political party to another. Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a "critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one major element to another. Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the 1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and representatives to win control of Congress. The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968, only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the "normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in 1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems, won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the GOP controlled the Senate. A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations, personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders (or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate state parties which form the two national confederations known as the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties are confederations of the state parties, so is the national coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional coalitions. Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution, too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary inroads in the various electoral groups. Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means certain that the majority party will even win all the national elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards for the party faithful during the years of national "famine." As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad electoral groups.^33 While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election. Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical elections."^34 The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the development of the institution of the popularly elected president. Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and the House of Representatives. Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem. It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file" alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from balance to majority. "New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as the historical watersheds they are. In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S. Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B. Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s. The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational consolidation. The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington before undertaking any activities. The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an "outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation, usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time. President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and localities. These were all to become principal issues during the period of generational build-up. The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues of the new generation. Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been invariably preceded by critical elections through which the reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die -- determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to majority status. These critical elections, which attain their visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which face them. Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the 1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans. Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in 1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing period for the Democratic coalition. To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in American politics is not to suggest that events move in any lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the "normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too can be done that gives the theory its power. Summary Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more interest to European social philosophers than American social scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics, often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human social rhythms generally. Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them. The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation, constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political history recurring on a generational basis. Notes 1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970); Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979). 2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973). 3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5 (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers, chapter 32, verse 13. 7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte (London: G. Bell, 1896). 9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive (London, 1862). 10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani (Milano: Monanni, 1929). 11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen, der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4. (1875), pp. 36-41. 12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds., Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane, Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp., 1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). 13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method. 14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933). 15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti, ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales (Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F. Schoeningh, 1933). 16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926); Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig, 1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris: Boivin, 1948). 17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger, 1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4 (1972): 564-78. 18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956). 19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin, American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970). 20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield, Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970). 21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939). 22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key, Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961); Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968); Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). 23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210. 24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co. 1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government from the Civil War to the New Deal. 25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no. 1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992). 26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789. 27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President. 28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W. Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber, Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey, Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.: Brooks/Cole, 1989). 29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York: Macmillan, 1961). 30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965): Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989). 31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18. 32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability," Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171. 33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?" in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed., Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1983). 34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony; David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization, Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter, Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985). [3]Elazar Papers Index / [4]JCPA Home Page / [5]Top of Page Références [USEMAP] 1. javascript:history.go(-1) 3. mailto:jcenter@jcpa.org [USEMAP] [1]CAT.INIST [2][USEMAP:bandeau-haut-droit.gif] logo CNRS [3]logo INIST [4]En savoir plus sur CAT.INIST ? © INIST Diffusion S.A. Service Clients / Customer Service 2, allée du parc de Brabois F-54514 Vandoeuvre Cedex France Tél : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.64 Fax : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.66 Courriel : [5]infoclient@inist.fr [6]Accueil / Home Imprimer / Print [7]Contact / Contact Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [8]Bookmark and Share [9]Mendeley Titre du document / Document title Rhythms of the secular : The politics of modernizing Arab poetic forms = Rythmes du séculaire : la politique de modernisation des formes poétiques arabes Auteur(s) / Author(s) FURANI Khaled^ (1) ; Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s) ^(1) Tel-Aviv University, ISRAEL Résumé / Abstract In this article, I ethnographically trace how Arab, mainly Palestinian, poets have modernized their literary tradition during the last seven decades. Shortly after the 1948 Israeli occupation of Palestine, the reign of the classical Arabic ode collapsed, and the modern forms of free verse and, later, the prose poem became dominant. Aiming to contribute to the ethnography of modernity, I examine how poets have adopted and abandoned poetic forms by analyzing their narratives on rhythm. I explore the political salience of rhythmical transformations and argue that the secular has been a vital and complex force in the modern abandonment of metrical discipline. The secular affects how poets seek to modernize their rhythm, vocabulary, and relation to public. It also affects, I conclude, the ways in which anthropologists can and do write about modernity. Revue / Journal Title American ethnologist ISSN 0094-0496 Source / Source 2008, vol. 35, n^o2, pp. 290-307 [18 page(s) (article)] (2 p.1/4) Langue / Language Anglais Editeur / Publisher American Ethnological Society, Washington, DC, ETATS-UNIS (1974) (Revue) Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords Rhythm ; Transformation ; Modernization ; Poet ; Modernity ; Poetry ; Israel ; Palestine ; Near East ; Mots-clés français / French Keywords Forme poétique ; Tradition littéraire ; Arabe palestinien ; Rythme ; Transformation ; Modernisation ; Poète ; Modernité ; Poésie ; Israël ; Palestine ; Proche-Orient ; Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords poetic form ; modernity and secularism ; Palestine-Israel ; Localisation / Location INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 16902, 35400019805879.0070 Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 20449527 Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [10]Bookmark and Share [11]Mendeley CAT.INIST Rechercher / Search _______________________________ OK Références 5. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20CAT.INIST.FR 7. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20Cat@inist.fr [USEMAP] * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * [1]LINGUIST List logo [2]Eastern Michigan University [3]Wayne State University * * [4]People & Organizations * [5]Jobs * [6]Calls & Conferences * [7]Publications * [8]Language Resources * [9]Text & Computer Tools * [10]Teaching & Learning * [11]Mailing Lists * [12]Search * * * [13][mail-logo-9.gif] E-mail this message to a friend Title: The Rhythm of Political Oratory Author: [14]Varvara Danilina Email: [15]click here to access email Degree Awarded: Moscow State University , Department of Foreigh Languages Degree Date: 2002 Linguistic Subfield(s): Discourse Analysis Sociolinguistics Subject Language(s): [16]English Director(s): [17]Ludmila Minaeva ___________________________________ Abstract: My doctoral dissertation was completed after four years of research on the rhythm of British and American political oratory. I sought to establish the rhythmic norm for political public speech and to find out, whether any deviations from this norm (i.e. from an expected rhythmic model) influence listeners and provoke their verbal reactions or bursts of applause. To accomplish this task I used a variety of linguistic and rhetorical methods, and drew upon social psychology and political science. There is no single linguistic perspective on speech rhythm. For instance, such distinguished scholars as D. Crystal and D. Abercrombie regard it as a purely phonetic phenomenon. At the same time, according to Moscow University school of thought, to which I belong, speech rhythm is created by a blend of phonetics, syntax and meaning of an utterance. As a result of my research, I established rhythmic regularities for political oratory at five levels. Firstly, I analyzed pauses that divide the stream of speech into segments (syntagmas), and classified all the pauses into syntactic, rhetorical or unintentional (unintentional pauses are caused by hesitation, deliberation, stammering, interruptions by listeners, etc). Secondly, I established the relative frequency of short, medium and long syntagmas between pauses, and thirdly, analyzed the rhythmic structures constituted by linear sequences of syntagmas. Fourthly, I studied the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables inside syntagmas. And finally, I considered all kinds of repetitions, both rhetorical and unintentional. This method of rhythmic analysis is based on earlier analytical models designed by my university colleagues. My own contribution consisted in adapting this method to the study of public speech, describing the typical rhythm of political oratory, and challenging some popular assumptions about speech rhythm. As for the impact of speech rhythm upon listeners, I started by analyzing audiences in order to understand psychological, social and political conditions of that process. G. Le Bon, Z. Freud and other scholars demonstrated conclusively that members of a crowd (and the audience of a public speech is a crowd) are connected with each other and with their leader (in our case, a speaker) by strong subconscious ties. However, the degree of unity or polarization of an audience may differ. Besides, each audience can be characterized according to several other criteria that determine listeners' responsiveness and the nature of their responses: their emotional state, the level of expertise in a particular subject, the demographic and social characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, social status, occupation, education), the existing evaluation of discussed issues, which is largely determined by listeners' ideologies, and finally, the attitude to the speaker, which can be positive, negative or indifferent. I have applied this model of audience analysis to determine peculiarities of the British parliamentary audience in October 1996, and of the US Congress in the aftermath of September 11, 2001. To analyze the reactions of these audiences to the rhythm of Prime Minister Major and President Bush's parliamentary addresses I used M. Atkinson's version of the conversation analysis method. I showed the two speeches as dialogues between the speakers and their listeners, and singled out phrases and syntagmas that immediately preceded audience responses, such as cheering, booing, laughter or bursts of applause. These phrases and syntagmas happened to be quite similar in terms of rhythm to other stretches of speech in the same addresses. Moreover, there proved to be little rhythmic difference between John Major and George Bush's speeches. In short, my research demonstrated that there is no direct interconnection between the rhythm of a public address and audience responses. [18]Add a dissertation [19]Update dissertation Page Updated: 19-Jan-2010 [20]Print This Page __________________________________________________________________ [21][transp.gif] [22][transp.gif] Please [23]report any bad links or misclassified data __________________________________________________________________ [24]LINGUIST Homepage | [25]Read LINGUIST | [26]Contact us [27]NSF Logo While the LINGUIST List makes every effort to ensure the linguistic relevance of sites listed on its pages, it cannot vouch for their contents. Références 13. JavaScript:; 15. JavaScript:; 20. Javascript:window.print(); 22. mailto:cranston@linguistlist.org [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] #[1]Edit this page [2]Wikipedia (en) [3]copyright [4]Wikipedia RSS Feed [5]Wikipedia Atom Feed Afrobeat From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search Question book-new.svg This article does not [8]cite any [9]references or sources. Please help [10]improve this article by adding citations to [11]reliable sources. Unsourced material may be [12]challenged and [13]removed. (September 2008) Afrobeat is a combination of [14]Yoruba music, [15]jazz, [16]highlife, and [17]funk [18]rhythms, fused with [19]percussion and [20]vocal styles, popularized in [21]Africa in the 1970s. Its main creator was the [22]Nigerian multi-[23]instrumentalist and [24]bandleader [25]Fela Kuti who used it to revolutionise musical structure as well as the political context in his native Nigeria. It was Kuti who coined the term "afrobeat" upon his return from a U.S. tour with his group Nigeria 70 (formerly Koola Lobitos). The new sound hailed from a club that he established called the Afro-Shrine. Upon arriving in Nigeria, Kuti also changed the name of his group to Fela Ransome-Kuti & Africa 70. The band maintained a five-year residency in the Afro-Shrine from 1970 to 1975 while afrobeat thrived among Nigerian youth. Afrobeat is now one of the most recognisable music genres in the world and has influenced as many Western musicians as it has African ones with its exuberant style and polyrhythms. Contents * [26]1 Origins * [27]2 Influence * [28]3 Instrumentation * [29]4 Today * [30]5 External links [[31]edit] Origins Afrobeat originated from the southern part of [32]Nigeria in the 1960s where Kuti experimented with many different forms of contemporary music of the time. Prevalent in him and Lagbaja's music are native African harmonies and rhythms, taking different elements and combining, modernizing and improvising upon them. [33]Politics are essential to afrobeat, since founder Kuti used social criticism to pave the way for social change. His message can be described as confrontational and controversial, which can be related to the political climate of most of the African countries in the 1960s, many of which were dealing with political injustice and military corruption while recovering from the transition from colonial governments to self-determination. As the genre spread throughout the African continent many bands took up the style. The recordings of these bands and their songs were rarely heard or exported outside the originating countries but many can now be found on compilation albums and CDs from specialist record shops. [[34]edit] Influence Many jazz musicians have been attracted to afrobeat. From [35]Roy Ayers in the seventies to [36]Randy Weston in the nineties, there have been collaborations which have resulted in albums such as Africa: Centre of the World by Roy Ayers, released on the Polydor label in 1981. In 1994 [37]Branford Marsalis, the American jazz saxophonist, included samples of Fela's "Beast of No Nation" on his Buckshot leFonque album. The new generation of DJs and musicians of the 2000s who have fallen in love with both Kuti's material and other rare releases have made compilations and remixes of these recordings, thus re-introducing the genre to new generations of listeners and fans of afropop and groove. Afrobeat has profoundly influenced important contemporary producers and musicians like [38]Brian Eno and [39]David Byrne, who credit Fela Kuti as an essential muse. Both worked on [40]Talking Heads' highly-acclaimed 1980 album [41]Remain In Light which brought polyrhythmic afrobeat influences to Western music. More recently, the horn section of [42]Antibalas have been guest musicians on [43]TV On The Radio's highly-acclaimed 2008 album [44]Dear Science, as well as on British band [45]Foals' 2008 album [46]Antidotes. [[47]edit] Instrumentation Big band (15 to 30 pieces: Fela-era afrobeat) and energetic performances * Lead vocals (may play sax/key solos as well) * Chorus vocals (may include horn players) * Rhythm guitar(s) (plays funk strumming pattern) * Tenor guitar (plays a finger-picked osinato groove) * [48]Bass guitar * [49]Drum set, generally in the form [50]polyrhythmic percussion * Saxophone(s) * Trumpet(s) * Trombone(s) * Organ/keyboards * Rhythm [51]conga #1 * Rhythm [52]conga #2 * Solo (lead) [53]conga * [54]Akuba: a set of 3 small stick-hit congas (play flourishes/solos, and ostinatos). Also mistakenly called "gbedu". * "Sticks"/[55]claves (plays ostinato) * [56]Shekere [[57]edit] Today There are several active afrobeat bands worldwide today. Modern afrobeat bands/artistes include: * [58]Kokolo (band), New York City Afrobeat group formed by songwriter/producer Ray Lugo * [59]Odu Afrobeat Orchestra, [60]Detroit based group led by Adeboye Adegbenro, who used to sit in with [61]Fela Kuti when he lived in [62]Lagos, [63]Nigeria. * [64]Nomo, [65]Ann Arbor based group that weaves various styles into a primarily Afrobeat sound. * [66]Chicago Afrobeat Project Chicago based collective that uses afrobeat as a springboard and has an incendiary live show. * [67]Afrodizz, an eight-piece band from [68]Montreal, [69]Canada formed by jazz guitarist Gabriel Aldama * [70]The Afromotive, an Asheville, NC based multiracial seven-piece afrobeat band featuring thirty-third generation djembe player Adama Dembele from Cote d`Ivoire, West Africa. * [71]Tony Allen, the man who held the drum chair during Fela's productive "Africa 70" phase, and whose drumming was, according to [72]James Brown's autobiography, the influence behind his 'discovery' of funk.^[[73]citation needed] * [74]Antibalas, [75]Brooklyn, New York based multiracial Afrobeat Orchestra formed by baritone saxophonist Martin Perna * [76]Aphrodesia, San Francisco based group, first American group to perform with Femi Kuti at The Shrine in Lagos, Nigeria. * [77]Ayetoro, a group led by Nigerian pianist/composer [78]Funsho Ogundipe * [79]Bebe cool lives in Uganda famous for his reggea mixed with luganda pop and English making an Afrobeat rhythm in Uganda known as Luga flow.He also lives in kampala. * [80]Chopteeth, an international 14 piece outfit based in Washington D.C., with former members of Busta Rhymes, The Temptations, The Four Tops, and Gladys Knight & the Pips. * [81]Femi Kuti (Fela's first son and a saxophonist) and the Positive Force * [82]Seun Kuti (another of Kuti's sons, saxophonist now fronting his father's last and late band) * [83]Dele Sosimi's Gbedu Resurrection Dele is a former keyboardist and musical director of Fela's band. He cofounded Femi Kuti's Positive Force. * [84]Zozo Afrobeat A thirteen-member group based in NYC, founded by Kaleta, former Fela guitarist. * [85]Baba Ken and the Afro-Groove Connexion Oakland based multiracial afrobeat ensemble led by Nigerian bassist, Baba Ken Okulolo, founding member of the seminal 1970's afrofunk/afrorock band, Monomono. * [86]Jose Chameleone famous in East, central and South Africa.He stays and live is Uganda in kampala city.He sing pop and Afro beat music.He is one of the most famous artists of Afro beat in Africa and the whole world. * [87]Afrobeat Down Los Angeles based Afrobeat ensemble (est. 2002) working with former Fela Africa '70 member and catalyst of entire afrobeat movement, Sandra Izsadore. * [88]Weird MC Rap artiste who occasionally experinments with Afrobeat rhythm. * [89]Vibe Squad A Ghanaian music crew formed by EaZZY Da Opemfour made of Prego, Culchar, Wizzy Wii and Richie. * [90]Gnl zamba rap artist in Uganda one of the most successful rap afrobeat star in East Africa and central Africa.He is known for his rhythm of 2 pac shakur * [91]Mr. Something Something Canadian afrobeat group * [92]Crime Scene Infunkstigation A 10-piece Afrobeat/Funk/Hip Hop group based out of Calgary, AB [[93]edit] External links * [94]KOKOLO on Myspace * [95]KOKOLO on YouTube * [96]KOKOLO Official Homepage * [97]The Afrobeat Blog * [98]The Unofficial Seun Kuti Fan-Site - Unofficial fan-site for Seun Kuti & Egypt 80 with news, videos, music, pictures and much more] * [99]The Shrine The Unofficial Website for Fela Kuti, Femi Kuti and Afrobeat Music * [100]BBC Afrobeat Documentary [101]v o [102]d o [103]e Genres of [104]African popular music Afrobeat · [105]Apala · [106]Benga · [107]Bikutsi · [108]Cape Jazz · [109]Chimurenga · [110]Fuji · [111]Highlife · [112]Hiplife · [113]Isicathamiya · [114]Jit · [115]Jùjú · [116]Kizomba · [117]Kuduro · [118]Kwaito · [119]Kwela · [120]Makossa · [121]Maloya · [122]Marrabenta · [123]Mbalax · [124]Mbaqanga · [125]Mbube · [126]Morna · [127]Palm-wine · [128]Raï · [129]Sakara · [130]Sega · [131]Soukous/Congo/Lingala/Rumba · [132]Taarab [133]v o [134]d o [135]e [136]Funk music [137]Acid jazz o Afrobeat o [138]Brit funk o [139]Funk metal o [140]Deep Funk o [141]Drumfunk o [142]Free funk o [143]Funkcore o [144]Funktronica o [145]Funk rock o [146]G-funk o [147]Go-go o [148]Jazz-funk o [149]Liquid funk o [150]Neurofunk o [151]Nu-funk o [152]P-Funk o [153]Post-disco o [154]Punk-funk o [155]Skweee Related [156]List of funk musicians o [157]Minneapolis sound [159]Categories: [160]Funk genres | [161]African American music in Africa Hidden categories: [162]Articles lacking sources from September 2008 | [163]All articles lacking sources | [164]All articles with unsourced statements | [165]Articles with unsourced statements from July 2007 Views * [166]Article * [167]Discussion * [168]Edit this page * [169]History Personal tools * [170]Try Beta * [171]Log in / create account Navigation * [172]Main page * [173]Contents * [174]Featured content * [175]Current events * [176]Random article Search ____________________ Go Search Interaction * [177]About Wikipedia * [178]Community portal * [179]Recent changes * [180]Contact Wikipedia * [181]Donate to Wikipedia * [182]Help Toolbox * [183]What links here * [184]Related changes * [185]Upload file * [186]Special pages * [187]Printable version * [188]Permanent link * [189]Cite this page Languages * [190]Català * [191]Deutsch * [192]Español * [193]Français * [194]Hrvatski * [195]Italiano * [196]Nederlands * [197]¥¬ * [198]ªNorsk (bokmål) * [199]Polski * [200]Português * [201]Suomi [202]Powered by MediaWiki [203]Wikimedia Foundation * This page was last modified on 18 January 2010 at 14:27. * Text is available under the [204]Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See [205]Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [206]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * [207]Contact us * [208]Privacy policy * [209]About Wikipedia * [210]Disclaimers Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Rhythm In Nature [7]page up: Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications | by Frederick R. Clow [8]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications. Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual training, recitation, gymnastics, and play. Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human [40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality. The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. . . . When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak. Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. - Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20. . . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight years in [42]duration are superposed. . . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135. Continue to: * prev: [43]Rhythm In Nature * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]The Cycle Of A Generation Tags [46]sociology, [47]communication, [48]congenial groups, [49]cycles of change, [50]democracy, [51]factors of society, [52]government, [53]heredity, [54]human nature, [55]institutions, [56]location, [57]natural selection, [58]organizations, [59]population, [60]primary groups, [61]social classes [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [62]TOP [63]previous page: Rhythm In Nature [64]page up: Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications | by Frederick R. Clow [65]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [66]StasoSphere [ [67]Privacy Policy ] [ [68]Terms of Use ] [ [69]About Us ] [ [70]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:34:34 2009 Références #[1]Welcome page [2]Help [3]Parent screen [4]skip navigation [5]Geography Compass Select Compass [Geography Compass........................] Go * [6]Home | * [7]My Compass | * [8]Help | * [9]Content Alerts | * [10]Contact Us | * [11]Links * [12]What is Geography Compass? | * [13]Subscribe | * [14]Editors | * [15]Editorial Board | * [16]Authors Cultural Towards Lefebvrian Socio-Nature? A Film about Rhythm, Nature and Science By [17]James Evans and [18]Phil Jones, School of Environment and Development, University of Manchester School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham (April 2008) __________________________________________________________________ Section: [19]Cultural Subjects: [20]Environment And Society, [21]Geography, [22]Urban Geography, [23]Cultural Geography. Key Topics: [24]nature , [25]representation. Abstract The first thing you will notice about this article is that it is actually a film. We did not set out to make a film, it just ended up that way. We started out making music out of environmental data, wondering why we only ever look at scientific data, why we do not listen to it. Wandering around the city passing through the transformed landscapes of channelised rivers and broken industrial spaces, we wanted to reveal the socio-natural rhythms of this hybrid city. The text you see below represents the shooting script for a film that explores Lefebvre's notion of rhythmanalysis in the context of socio-natural rhythms. The video accompanying it is far more interesting, including the environmental music that we produced by feeding scientific data through samplers and drum machines. The video questions the nature of scientific representation and whether the notion of rhythmanalysis can be stretched to explore rhythms beyond the human. Furthermore, the process of actually making the video, submitting it to this journal, and responding to the referees' comments made us question the very nature of what constitutes an academic paper in the twenty-first century. The accompanying commentary is our attempt to deal with these issues. To link to the film please go to DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00107.x This article abstract has been viewed 5348 times. [27]view [28]cite [29]Add to my Compass [30]Add to VLE/CMS [31]feedback __________________________________________________________________ Top 5 related articles * [32]Geographies for Moving Bodies: Thinking, Dancing, Spaces By [33]Derek P. McCormack , Oxford University Centre for the Environment (Vol. 3, October 2008) Geography Compass * [34]Colonialism, Landscape and the Subterranean By [35]Heidi V. Scott , Institute of Geography and Earth Sciences, Aberystwyth University (Vol. 3, October 2008) Geography Compass * [36]Climate-Suicide Relationships: A Research Problem in Need of Geographic Methods and Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives By P. Grady Dixon and Adam J. Kalkstein, Mississippi State UniversityUnited States Military Academy (Vol. 4, September 2009) Geography Compass * [37]Ethnomethodology and the Non-representational: What Are Disaffected Young White Men Capable of? 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Mike Bradshaw and Basil Gomez Geography Compass Editors-in-Chief [70]Blackwell Publishing Copyright © 2005-2007 [71]Blackwell Publishing | [72]Privacy Policy | [73]Contact us | [74]Help | [75]To the top... [76][ access key 0 : accessibility information including access key list ] [77][ access key 1 : home page ] [78][ access key 2 : skip navigation] [79][ access key 6 : help ] Références [1]pmc logo image [2]Logo of nihpa [3]Journal List > [4]NIHPA Author Manuscripts Formats: * [5]Abstract | * Full Text | * [6]PDF (32K) J Public Health Policy. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2008 July 24. Published in final edited form as: [7]J Public Health Policy. 2006; 27(1): 2-12. doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200061. PMCID: PMC2483431 NIHMSID: NIHMS58476 [8]Copyright notice and [9]Disclaimer Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature Elena N. Naumova^* ^*Address for Correspondence: Department of Public Health and Family Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Avenue, Boston, MA 02111, USA. E-mail: elena.naumova/at/tufts.edu Small right arrow pointing to: The publisher's final edited version of this article is available at [10]J Public Health Policy. Small right arrow pointing to: See other articles in PMC that [11]cite the published article. Abstract Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences. Understanding seasonal fluctuations in diseases patterns presents us with a major challenge. To develop efficient strategies for disease prevention and control, we need to grasp the main determinants of temporal variations and their interactions. This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality by outlining several of its factors, using as illustrations respiratory and enteric water- or food-borne infections. Keywords: seasonality, water-borne infection, food-borne infection, respiratory infection * [12] Other Sectionsv + [13]Abstract + [14]Introduction + [15]Notion of Seasonality + [16]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [17]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [18]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [19]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [20]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [21]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [22]References Introduction Now let us consider the seasons and the way we can predict whether it is going to be a healthy or an unhealthy year. (Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 10)^[23]1 Seasonal fluctuations in birth and death, in sickness and health, are the haunting mysteries of mankind. People have made predictions from winds, tides, birds' migrations, spring blooms, sunsets, and constellations in hope of grasping the future. The complexity and uncertainty of ancient and modern means of prediction make us wonder to what extent we are able to understand the rhythm of nature. One might argue the future cannot be known, but from a practical point of view, a better understanding of changes in disease occurrences is essential for building efficient strategies for disease prevention and control. Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences. Since Hippocrates, observers worldwide have noted and documented marked fluctuations in the incidence of many diseases. In the modern view, the main determinants of temporal variations in disease manifestation are evolving host susceptibility, periodicity in pathogen abundance and transmissibility, and the ever-changing environment that can support or repress a host or pathogen. Interactions among these factors responsible for seasonal variation are interwoven into the intricate fabric of life. For many diseases, explanations for self-sustained oscillations still remain elusive. We lack adequate methods and sufficient analytical tools for comprehensive examination of seasonality in public health field studies. A dearth of observations, recorded over long periods at fine resolution, compounded by an enormous number of factors associated with periodic changes, obscure our ability to understand disease variation. Urgent need for effective strategies to prevent and control a spread of emerging infections in the rapidly changing world, however, demands a deeper insight into the cyclic nature of diseases. This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality and outline several factors associated with seasonality using as illustrations enteric water- or food-borne infections and respiratory infections. Then I propose a framework for systematic evaluation of seasonal oscillations. In every part of this presentation, and most importantly, I wish to stimulate discussion on this challenging topic. * [24] Other Sectionsv + [25]Abstract + [26]Introduction + [27]Notion of Seasonality + [28]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [29]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [30]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [31]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [32]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [33]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [34]References Notion of Seasonality Every disease occurs at any season of the year but some of them more frequently occur and are of greater severity at certain times. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 19) Seasonality, as noted above, refers to the cyclic appearance of events over a period of time. A seasonal pattern may appear as a tight cluster of isolated outbreaks that occurred during a relatively short time period, then spreading over a wide geographic area. For example, in a temporal curve of enteric infection cases (i.e. giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, or rotavirus infections), a compact cluster of outbreaks is followed by a long interval of low incidence. Systematic recurrence of such sequences forms a seasonal pattern typical of a specific pathogen in a given population and in a given locality. A seasonal increase in enteric or respiratory infection often produces a well-defined oscillating curve that starts to rise in one season and declines over the next one. The three main features characterize seasonality: * a point in time when a seasonal curve reaches its maximum, * an amplitude from peak to nadir, and * a duration of a seasonal increase defined by a shape of a curve. (The shape of a seasonal pattern reflects how fast a temporal curve reaches its peak and declines to nadir over a course of a full cycle. Depending on the length of a cycle whether it is one year or a half of a year, a seasonal curve would have one or two peaks.) Seasonal patterns, described by these three characteristics, may vary for different diseases, different locations, or different subpopulations. Many viral and bacterial infections in humans show marked seasonal changes. In some diseases, like salmonellosis and influenza, annual oscillations explain up to 60% of variability. Such impact should not be ignored and deserves a proper examination. * [35] Other Sectionsv + [36]Abstract + [37]Introduction + [38]Notion of Seasonality + [39]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [40]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [41]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [42]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [43]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [44]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [45]References Diseases Seasonal Patterns Diseases vary in their relationships one with another; some are opposed, some are mutually agreeable. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 3) Differences in diseases peaks reflect different etiology, heterogeneity in host susceptibility, or route of transmission. In temperate climates, Campylobacter and Salmonella infections are known to rise in summer, giardiasis in early fall, and rotavirus infection in mid-winter, etc. Interestingly, for the same infectious agent, infections recorded in two different locations may present a different pattern of incidence. A seasonal pattern for cryptosporidiosis in the United States exhibits one late summer peak ([46]1); in contrast, in the United Kingdom, two seasonal peaks are seen ([47]2). The UK picture reflects two dominant sources of exposure: one from animals in the late spring, and another from humans in the fall ([48]3). Close temporal clustering of seasonal peaks in diseases that share similar sources of exposure suggests dominant routes of transmissions. Peaks in water-borne cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis often cluster after a summer peak in ambient temperature. Such synchronization in disease manifestation can be governed by environmental and social factors. In some instances, periodicity of a given infection observed in a particular population may be not present in another. A seasonal peak in cryptosporidiosis cases observed in the general population is not apparent in the immunocompromized HIV-positive gay men, even though the incidence of cryptosporidiosis in HIV-positive population is very high. This suggests differences in dominant routes of transmission. Seasonal patterns can change over time. After intense vaccination campaigns in the 1950s and 1970s in the United Kingdom, the patterns of measles and pertussis changed, with the high rates of disease usually seen when children were attending school diminishing for measles and practically disappearing for pertusis ([49]4). Explanations for these phenomena remain elusive. A departure from a systematically observed pattern could reflect the evolution of a pathogen or a change in herd immunity. A simple rule to remember is that a discovery hides in outliers. Faced with an abundance of causal agents, a bare observation of a rise in the incidence of non-specific enteritis should be interpreted with caution. A seasonal pattern can represent a mix of temporal curves. Imagine two periodic curves of similar intensity, but one peaks in a spring and another in a fall; the sum of these two curves might lose the appearance of seasonality, covering two distinctly seasonal phenomena. Some infections are very rare. Their seasonal patterns are difficult to examine because the relevant data must be collected over a very long time and/or aggregated over large spatial units. Precision in evaluating seasonality can thus be jeopardized by time-dependent and/or space-dependent confounders. Seasonal fluctuations can be found beyond infectious diseases; chronic somatic diseases also exhibit substantial temporal variations. Plausibly, exacerbations in chronic conditions are driven by infectious agents or environmental changes. Understanding the interplay of an infection and a chronic disease may lead to better control for both. * [50] Other Sectionsv + [51]Abstract + [52]Introduction + [53]Notion of Seasonality + [54]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [55]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [56]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [57]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [58]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [59]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [60]References Seasonal Host Susceptibility When the weather is seasonable and the crops ripen at the regular times, diseases are regular in their appearance... (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 8) Poor nutrition directly affects host susceptibility. In places of food scarcity, researchers suspect that temporal patterns in birth weight and preterm delivery result from seasonal variations in food availability ([61]5). In general, due to a less developed immune system, young children are susceptible to infection; their immune response may be further weakened by seasonal cutbacks in essential micronutrients and vitamins. Anemnestic responses to an antigen determine whether an infection recurs. Short-lived immune memory together with seasonal changes in pathogen transmissibility contribute further to the complexity of seasonal patterns. Even a perfectly healthy person can experience a change in susceptibility to infection due to stress, injuries, or trauma. The probability of a marked impact of such factors on disease seasonality is virtually unknown. * [62] Other Sectionsv + [63]Abstract + [64]Introduction + [65]Notion of Seasonality + [66]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [67]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [68]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [69]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [70]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [71]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [72]References Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility Some diseases are produced by the manner of life that is followed; others by the life-giving air we breathe. (Hippocrates. The Nature of Man, 9) Temperature, humidity, and precipitation -- the defining factors of seasons -- are important determinants of pathogens' survival. Changes influence pathogens' potency and life expectancy, resulting in temporal fluctuations in pathogens' abundance. In many instances, seasonal changes in pathogen survival and transmission are inseparably related to both biological and social aspects of our lives. They are synchronized by weather. High ambient temperature, for example, provides a supportive environment for food-borne pathogens, favoring their multiplication in food and on food preparation surfaces ([73]6). Food contamination is believed to be a significant mode of transmission for infections caused by Salmonella and Campylobacter ([74]7); therefore, during warm weather, the risk for food-borne diseases increases ([75]8). Seasonal changes in level of contamination, availability of potable water, sanitation and hygiene practices, as well as crowding and person-to-person contacts, affect pathogens' transmissibility. Worldwide, water use differs from season to season ([76]9). In temperate climates, warm weather leads to higher water consumption and encourages outdoor activities -- swimming, camping, and recreational water use. In tropical regions, contamination of surface water increases during wet seasons. Although spread of pathogens via food is certainly possible, contaminated water is the dominant source of exposure for enteric infections caused by protozoa Cryptosporidium and Giardia ([77]10 --[78]12). Depending on locality, outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis associated with drinking or recreational water frequently occur during warm or wet seasons ([79]13,[80]14). With the onset of cooler weather, the "heating season" marks a change in indoor air quality. Inadequate and poorly designed ventilation in crowded public places and urban transit systems may boost exposure to air-borne pathogens by increasing their concentration in stagnant air and by re-circulating contaminated air. Higher relative humidity may also affect the stability of air-borne droplets in which viruses travel from person to person. * [81] Other Sectionsv + [82]Abstract + [83]Introduction + [84]Notion of Seasonality + [85]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [86]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [87]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [88]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [89]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [90]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [91]References Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects You will find, as a general rule, that the constitutions and the habits of a people follow the nature of the land where they live. (Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 24) Diseases do not watch calendars. Their incidence rises and falls because of changes in factors associated with the diseases. However, in every culture all social events are synchronized by calendars; and every calendar reflects the cyclic rhythm of nature. Traditional celebrations and gatherings observed by communities according to calendars affect pathogen transmission. Holidays, social activities, and seasonal travel are often associated with changes in food consumption and preparation, and are therefore associated with changes in disease incidence. Preparing meat on a barbecue increases the risk of Campylobacter infection ([92]15,[93]16) and foreign travel increases the risk for enteric infections. Aggregation of children in schools, daycare centers, and summer camps, reflecting school calendars, facilitates rapid exchange of pathogens. There are marked seasonal variations in transmission, and thus the incidence of enteric and respiratory infections. * [94] Other Sectionsv + [95]Abstract + [96]Introduction + [97]Notion of Seasonality + [98]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [99]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [100]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [101]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [102]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [103]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [104]References Climate Change, Extreme Weather Events, and Disease Seasonality The changes of the seasons are especially liable to beget diseases, as are great changes from heat to cold, or cold to heat in any season. Other changes in the weather have similarly severe effects. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 1) As weather affects human health by creating favorable conditions for pathogen proliferation and transmission, severe weather can affect the timing and intensity of infectious outbreaks, and natural disasters lead to drastic changes in population structure and pathogen ecology. Catastrophic events like tsunamis, hurricanes, devastating floods, and heat waves that cause deaths, population displacement, and infrastructural damage may have dramatic effects on the incidence of infections and their seasonal patterns. Recent work has shown highly significant associations between extreme precipitation and water-borne disease outbreaks ([105]17). Heavy precipitation, rapid snowmelt, and floods flush animal wastes from the land into surface waters and may overwhelm drinking and wastewater treatment systems. The latter leads to discharges in watersheds of untreated human wastes. As a result, pathogens can appear in drinking and recreational water in very high concentrations ([106]18,[107]19). A rapid snowmelt, resultant runoff, and filtration system failure at the overloaded local drinking water treatment plant were implicated in the largest known water-borne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis, which occurred in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1993 ([108]20). This outbreak happened in April, not within the usual seasonal peak for cryptosporidiosis cases. A flood, which also resulted from a rapid snowmelt, has been linked with a similar increased incidence of diarrhea ([109]21). Experts expect that global climate change will increase climate variability and the frequency of extreme precipitation events in temperate regions ([110]22,[111]23). "Global warming" may also increase the frequency and magnitude of other extreme weather events, such as heat waves and droughts, and thereby have profound effects on public health ([112]24,[113]25). In a comprehensive study conducted in the United Kingdom that described a short-term link between temperature and food poisoning, the authors also hypothesized that climate change could lead to changes in rates of food poisoning ([114]26). Integration of environmental parameters into disease forecasting and warning systems could allow public health officials to alert the populace when specific meteorological conditions pose predictable risks to health ([115]27). Simple messages about proper food preparation and refrigeration and the risks of using contaminated recreational waters could, for example, be provided before, during, and after extreme events. Better understanding of disease seasonality would also help to predict outbreaks of infections triggered by climate variability. * [116] Other Sectionsv + [117]Abstract + [118]Introduction + [119]Notion of Seasonality + [120]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [121]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [122]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [123]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [124]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [125]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [126]References Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking Desperate cases need the most desperate remedies. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, I, 6) At first, seasonal fluctuations should be systematically described. This requires a framework with sound definitions and analytic tools suitable for routine use by public health professionals. In public health sciences, the existing methodology currently lacks methods and tests for assessing complex interactions in the time-dependent factors responsible for disease seasonality. Next, reliable data with fine temporal resolution are a must. The vast majority of epidemiological studies have examined seasonal patterns of infections using quarterly or monthly data. This coarse temporal aggregation can thwart an otherwise detailed, accurate, and comprehensive analysis of seasonal patterns and may even be misleading ([127]28). Examination of daily or weekly rates can substantially improve evaluation of seasonal curves, but a systematic approach for using at least weekly aggregates is needed. Finally, reluctance to apply sophisticated mathematical models in public health studies must be overcome. Underlying processes in disease manifestation and spread are complex and multifaceted. Causal pathways are often obscured. To disentangle causal effects of many factors within the circular processes of self-sustaining oscillations demands the careful building of sound conceptual models of seasonality; models that can be tested. The emerging fields of computational epidemiology and intelligent data mining will complement established work in philosophy of science and mathematical biology to become an essential part of thinking in public health and policy. Acknowledgments I thank Drs Eileen O'Neil and Beth Rosenberg for their thoughtful suggestions, and the support of funding agencies: the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (U19AI062627), and the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R01ES013171). Footnotes ^1Hippocrates' citations are taken from: Lloyd, GER, editor. Hippocratic Writings. Trans. Chadwick J and Mann WN. London: Penguin; 1978. * [128] Other Sectionsv + [129]Abstract + [130]Introduction + [131]Notion of Seasonality + [132]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [133]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [134]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [135]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [136]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [137]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [138]References References 1. Naumova EN, Chen JT, Griffiths JK, Matyas BT, Estes-Smargiassi SA, Morris RD. Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. Public Health Rep. 2000;115(5):436-47. [[139]PubMed] 2. Naumova EN, Christodouleas J, Hunter PR, Syed Q. Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance system in 1990 --1999. J Water Health. 2005;3(2):185-96. [[140]PubMed] 3. McLauchlin J, Amar C, Pedraza-Diaz S, Nichols GL. Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in 1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from livestock animals. J Clin Microbiol. 2000;38(11):3984-90. [[141]PubMed] 4. Anderson RM, May RM. Infectious Diseases of Humans. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004. 5. Fallis G, Hilditch J. A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between rural Zaire and Ontario. Can J Public Health. 1989;80(3):205-8. [[142]PubMed] 6. Kusumaningrum HD, Riboldi G, Hazeleger WC, Beumer RR. Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces and cross-contamination to foods. Int J Food Microbiol. 2003;85(3):227-36. [[143]PubMed] 7. Mead PS, Slutsker L, Dietz V, McCaig LF, Bresee JS, Shapiro C, et al. Food-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999;5(5):607-25. 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J Food Prot. 1999;62(9):1059-70. [[149]PubMed] 13. Barwick RS, Levy DA, Craun GF, Beach MJ, Calderon RL. Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks -- United States, 1997 --1998. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000;49(4):1-21. [[150]PubMed] 14. Clavel A, Alivares JL, Fleta J, Castillo J, Varea M, Ramos FJ, et al. Seasonality of cryptosporidiosis in children. Eur J Clin Microbiol Inf Dis. 1996;15:77-9. 15. Kapperud G, Skjerve E, Bean NH, Ostroff SM, Lassen J. Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of a case --control study in southeastern Norway. J Clin Microbiol. 1992;30(12):3117-21. [[151]PubMed] 16. Neimann J, Engberg J, Molbak K, Wegener HC. A case --control study of risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections in Denmark. Epidemiol Infect. 2003;130(3):353-66. [[152]PubMed] 17. Curriero FC, Patz JA, Rose JB, Lele S. The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948 --1994. 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Using climate to predict infectious disease outbreaks: a review. World Health Organization; Geneva, Switzerland: 2004. Publication no. WHO/SDE/OEH/04.01. 23. Easterling DR, Evans JL. Observed variability and trends in extreme climate events. Bull Am Meteorol Soc. 2000;81:417-25. 24. Charron D, Thomas M, Waltner-Toews D, Aramini J, Edge T, Kent R, et al. Vulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a review. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004;67(20 --22):1667-77. [[158]PubMed] 25. Patz JA, Epstein PR, Burke TA, Balbus JM. Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996;275(3):217-23. [[159]PubMed] 26. Bentham G, Langford IH. Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England and Wales. Int J Biometeorol. 1995;39(2):81-6. [[160]PubMed] 27. Ebi KL, Schmier JK. A stitch in time: improving public health early warning systems for extreme weather events. Epidemiol Rev. 2005;27:115-21. [[161]PubMed] 28. da Silva Lopes ACB. Spurious deterministic seasonality and auto-correlation corrections with quarterly data: further Monte Carlo results. Empir Econ. 1999;24(2):341-59. __________________________________________________________________ PubMed articles by these authors * [162]Naumova, E. PubMed related articles * [163]ReviewSeasonality of infectious diseases. Annu Rev Public Health. 2007; 28:127-43. [Annu Rev Public Health. 2007] * [164]ReviewSeasonality and the dynamics of infectious diseases. Ecol Lett. 2006 Apr; 9(4):467-84. [Ecol Lett. 2006] * [165]Seasonal infectious disease epidemiology. Proc Biol Sci. 2006 Oct 7; 273(1600):2541-50. [Proc Biol Sci. 2006] * [166]Seasonal control for an endemic disease with seasonal fluctuations. Theor Popul Biol. 1988 Apr; 33(2):115-25. [Theor Popul Biol. 1988] * [167]Seasonality of primarily childhood and young adult infectious diseases in the United States. Chronobiol Int. 2006; 23(5):1065-82. [Chronobiol Int. 2006] * » [168]See reviews... | » [169]See all... 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[J Clin Microbiol. 2000] [181]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [182]A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between rural Zaire and Ontario. Can J Public Health. 1989 May-Jun; 80(3):205-8. [Can J Public Health. 1989] [183]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [184]Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces and cross-contamination to foods. Int J Food Microbiol. 2003 Aug 25; 85(3):227-36. [Int J Food Microbiol. 2003] * [185]ReviewFood-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999 Sep-Oct; 5(5):607-25. [Emerg Infect Dis. 1999] * [186]The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries. Epidemiol Infect. 2004 Jun; 132(3):443-53. [Epidemiol Infect. 2004] [187]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [188]A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study). Water Sci Technol. 2001; 43(12):39-48. [Water Sci Technol. 2001] * [189]ReviewReview of epidemiological studies on health effects from exposure to recreational water. Int J Epidemiol. 1998 Feb; 27(1):1-9. [Int J Epidemiol. 1998] * [190]ReviewGiardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their impact on foods: a review. J Food Prot. 1999 Sep; 62(9):1059-70. [J Food Prot. 1999] * [191]Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks--United States, 1997-1998. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000 May 26; 49(4):1-21. [MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000] [192]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [193]Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of a case-control study in southeastern Norway. J Clin Microbiol. 1992 Dec; 30(12):3117-21. [J Clin Microbiol. 1992] * [194]A case-control study of risk factors for sporadic campylobacter infections in Denmark. Epidemiol Infect. 2003 Jun; 130(3):353-66. [Epidemiol Infect. 2003] [195]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [196]The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948-1994. Am J Public Health. 2001 Aug; 91(8):1194-9. [Am J Public Health. 2001] * [197]Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay. Parasitol Res. 2002 Nov; 88(11):998-1003. [Parasitol Res. 2002] * [198]Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during extreme rainfall and runoff. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002 May; 68(5):2188-97. [Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002] * [199]A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med. 1994 Jul 21; 331(3):161-7. [N Engl J Med. 1994] * [200]Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms? Am J Epidemiol. 2004 Feb 15; 159(4):398-405. [Am J Epidemiol. 2004] [201]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [202]ReviewVulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a review. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004 Oct 22-Nov 26; 67(20-22):1667-77. [J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004] * [203]Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996 Jan 17; 275(3):217-23. [JAMA. 1996] * [204]Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England and Wales. Int J Biometeorol. 1995 Nov; 39(2):81-6. [Int J Biometeorol. 1995] [205]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [206]ReviewA stitch in time: improving public health early warning systems for extreme weather events. Epidemiol Rev. 2005; 27():115-21. [Epidemiol Rev. 2005] [207]See more articles cited in this paragraph You are here: NCBI > [208]Literature > PubMed Central [209]Help Desk Simple NCBI Directory * Getting Started * [210]Site Map * [211]NCBI Help Manual * [212]NCBI Handbook * [213]Training & Tutorials * Resources * [214]Literature * [215]DNA & RNA * [216]Proteins * [217]Sequence Analysis * [218]Genes & Expression * [219]Genomes * [220]Maps & Markers * [221]Domains & Structures * [222]Genetics & Medicine * [223]Taxonomy * [224]Data & Software * [225]Training & Tutorials * [226]Homology * [227]Small Molecules * [228]Variation * Popular * [229]PubMed * [230]PubMed Central * [231]Bookshelf * [232]BLAST * [233]Gene * [234]Nucleotide * [235]Protein * [236]GEO * [237]Conserved Domains * [238]Structure * [239]PubChem * Featured * [240]GenBank * [241]Reference Sequences * [242]Map Viewer * [243]Genome Projects * [244]Human Genome * [245]Mouse Genome * [246]Influenza Virus * [247]Primer-BLAST * [248]Short Read Archive * NCBI Information * [249]About NCBI * [250]Research at NCBI * [251]NCBI Newsletter * [252]NCBI FTP Site * [253]Contact Us [254]NIH [255]DHHS [256]USA.gov [257]Copyright | [258]Disclaimer | [259]Privacy | [260]Accessibility | [261]Contact [262]National Center for Biotechnology Information , U.S. National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville Pike, Bethesda MD, 20894 USA Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [USEMAP] [USEMAP] #[1]Edit this page [2]Wikipedia (en) [3]copyright [4]Wikipedia RSS Feed [5]Wikipedia Atom Feed Circadian rhythm From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search "Human clock" redirects here. For the online clock, see [8]Humanclock. Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters. A circadian rhythm is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including [9]plants, [10]animals, [11]fungi and [12]cyanobacteria (see [13]bacterial circadian rhythms). The term "circadian", coined by [14]Franz Halberg,^[15][1] comes from the [16]Latin [17]circa, "around", and diem or dies, "day", meaning literally "approximately one day". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [18]tidal, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [19]chronobiology. Circadian rhythms are [20]endogenously generated, and can be entrained by external cues, called [21]zeitgebers, the primary one of which is [22]daylight. Contents * [23]1 History * [24]2 Criteria * [25]3 Origin * [26]4 Importance in animals + [27]4.1 Impact of light-dark cycle + [28]4.2 Arctic animals + [29]4.3 Butterfly migration * [30]5 Biological clock in mammals + [31]5.1 Determining the human circadian rhythm + [32]5.2 Outside the "master clock" * [33]6 Light and the biological clock * [34]7 Enforced longer cycles * [35]8 Human health + [36]8.1 Disruption + [37]8.2 Effect of drugs * [38]9 See also * [39]10 References + [40]10.1 Bibliography + [41]10.2 Notes * [42]11 External links [[43]edit] History The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [44]Alexander the Great, described [45]diurnal leaf movements of the [46]tamarind tree.^[47][2] The first modern observation of endogenous circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [48]Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant [49]Mimosa pudica continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli. In 1918, J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.^[50][3] [51]Joseph Takahashi discovered the genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.^[52][4]^[53][5] [[54]edit] Criteria To differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met: 1) the rhythms persist in the absence of cues, 2) they persist equally precisely over a range of temperatures, and 3) the rhythms can be adjusted to match the local time: * The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those "apparent" rhythms that are merely responses to external periodic cues. A rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been tested in conditions without external periodic input. * The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e., it maintains the same period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway. At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely coincidental. * The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [55]time zones illustrates the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next. Until rhythms are reset, a person usually experiences [56]jet lag. [[57]edit] Origin [58]Question book-new.svg This section needs additional [59]citations for [60]verification. Please help [61]improve this article by adding [62]reliable references. Unsourced material may be [63]challenged and [64]removed. (October 2007) Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [65]ultraviolet radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus [66]Neurospora, which exists today, retains this [67]clock-regulated mechanism. Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment.^[68][6] This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,^[69][7] as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian rhythms in quail.^[70][8] The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [71]cyanobacteria. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of Synechococcus elongatus can be reconstituted in vitro with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [72]ATP. Previous explanations of the [73]prokaryotic circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism. It is an unanswered question whether circadian clocks in eukaryotic organisms require translation/transcription-derived oscillations, for, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture (input - [74]central oscillator - output), they do not share any [75]homology. This implies probable independent origins. In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [76]Seymour Benzer first identified a genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behaviour: one had a shorter period, another had a longer one, and the third had none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named [77]period.^[78][9] The same gene was identified to be defective in the sleep disorder FASPS ([79]Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome) in human beings thirty years later, underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day. A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.^[80][10] At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronize the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [81]eyes travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock. [[82]edit] Importance in animals Circadian rhythmicity is present in the [83]sleeping and feeding patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear patterns of core body temperature, [84]brain wave activity, [85]hormone production, cell regeneration and other biological activities. In addition, [86]photoperiodism, the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation of day length. " Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food availability or predator activity is crucial for survival of many species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the photoperiod ('daylength') is the most predictive environmental cue for the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing of migration, hibernation and reproduction.^[87][11] " [[88]edit] Impact of light-dark cycle The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a [89]freerunning rhythm. Each "day", their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward, depending on whether their [90]endogenous period is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called [91]Zeitgebers (from the German, Time Givers).^[92][12] It is interesting to note that totally-blind subterranean mammals (e.g., [93]blind mole rat Spalax sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors (detect light) are still functional; as well, they do surface periodically.^[[94]citation needed] Freerunning organisms that normally have one consolidated sleep episode will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light/dark cycle in nature. The sleep-wake rhythm may, in these circumstances, become out of phase with other circadian or [95]ultradian rhythms such as [96]temperature and [97]digestion.^[[98]citation needed] Recent research has influenced the design of [99]spacecraft environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.^[[100]citation needed] [[101]edit] Arctic animals Norwegian researchers at the [102]University of Tromsø have shown that some Arctic animals ([103]ptarmigan, [104]reindeer) show circadian rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at [105]70 degrees North showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter, and spring, but not in the summer. Reindeer at [106]78 degrees North showed such rhythms only autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other Arctic animals as well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and the constant dark of winter.^[107][13]^[108][14] However, another study in northern Alaska found that [109]ground squirrels and [110]porcupines strictly maintained their circadian rhythms through 82 days and nights of sunshine. The researchers speculate that these two small mammals see that the apparent distance between the sun and the horizon is shortest once a day, and, thus, a sufficient signal to adjust by.^[111][15] [[112]edit] Butterfly migration The navigation of the fall migration of the [113]Eastern North American monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) to their overwintering grounds in central Mexico uses a time-compensated sun compass that depends upon a circadian clock in their antennae.^[114][16]^[115][17] [[116]edit] Biological clock in mammals Diagram illustrating the influence of light and darkness on circadian rhythms and related [117]physiology and behaviour through the [118]suprachiasmatic nucleus in humans. The primary circadian "clock" in [119]mammals is located in the [120]suprachiasmatic nucleus (or nuclei) ([121]SCN), a pair of distinct groups of [122]cells located in the [123]hypothalamus. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep-wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [124]retina of the eyes contains not only "classical" [125]photoreceptors but also photoresponsive retinal [126]ganglion cells. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called [127]melanopsin, follow a pathway called the [128]retinohypothalamic tract, leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues. It appears that the SCN takes the information on the lengths of the day and night from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [129]pineal gland, a tiny structure shaped like a [130]pine cone and located on the [131]epithalamus. In response the pineal secretes the hormone [132]melatonin. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day and its presence provides information about night-length. The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a 23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural solar day-night cycle on the planet [133]Mars).^[134][18] [[135]edit] Determining the human circadian rhythm The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's circadian rhythm are * melatonin secretion by the pineal gland and * core body temperature. For temperature studies, people must remain awake but calm and semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are taken continuously. The average human adult's temperature reaches its minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake time, though variation is great among normal [136]chronotypes. Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime. Its onset in dim light, dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO), at about 21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Its major [137]metabolite can also be measured in morning urine. Both DLMO and the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or saliva have been used as circadian markers. However, newer research indicates that the melatonin offset may be the most reliable marker. Benloucif et al. in Chicago in 2005 found that melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.^[138][19] One method used for measuring melatonin offset is to analyse a sequence of urine samples throughout the morning for the presence of the melatonin [139]metabolite 6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s). Laberge et al. in Quebec in 1997 used this method in a study that confirmed the frequently found delayed circadian phase in healthy adolescents.^[140][20] [[141]edit] Outside the "master clock" More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the "master clock". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the [142]oesophagus, [143]lungs, [144]liver, [145]pancreas, [146]spleen, [147]thymus, and the [148]skin.^[149][21] Though oscillators in the skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven so far.^[150][22]^[151][23] There is some evidence that also the olfactory bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting that also these structures may be weak oscillators. Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than to [152]light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have freerunning rhythms. [[153]edit] Light and the biological clock Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [154]phase response curve (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required [155]illuminance vary from species to species and lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans. Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm in humans are higher than the levels usually used in artificial lighting in homes. According to some researchers^[156][24] the illumination intensity that excites the circadian system has to reach up to 1000 [157]lux striking the retina. In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or colour) of light is a factor in the entrainment of the body clock. [158]Melanopsin is most efficiently excited by blue light, 420-440 nm^[159][25] according to some researchers while others have reported 470-485 nm. It is thought that the direction of the light may have an effect on entraining the circadian rhythm;^[160][24] light coming from above, resembling an image of a bright sky, has greater effect than light entering our eyes from below. [[161]edit] Enforced longer cycles Modern research under very controlled conditions has shown the human period for adults to be just slightly longer than 24 hours on average. Czeisler et al. at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes. The "clock" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's rotation.^[162][26] The 28-hour day is presented as a concept of [163]time management.^[164][27] It builds on the fact that the week of seven days at 24 hours and a "week" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of 168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours. Each "day" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern. Studies by [165]Nathaniel Kleitman^[166][28] in 1938 and by [167]Derk-Jan Dijk and [168]Charles Czeisler^[169][29]^[170][30] in 1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep-wake cycles, in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day,^[171][31] this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about 24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including [172]sleep latency and other functions.^[173][32] Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli like daylight and timekeeping. Early investigators determined the human circadian period to be 25 hours or more. They went to great lengths to shield subjects from time cues and daylight, but they were not aware of the effects of indoor electric lights. The subjects were allowed to turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase. These results became well known.^[174][26] Researchers allowed subjects to keep electric lighting on in the evening, as it was thought at that time that a couple of 60W bulbs would not have a resetting effect on the circadian rhythms of humans. More recent research^[[175]citation needed] has shown that adults have a built-in day, which averages just over 24 hours, that indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms and that most people attain their best-quality sleep during their [176]chronotype-determined sleep periods. [[177]edit] Human health Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with [178]angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [179]left ventricular (reverse) remodelling.^[[180]citation needed] A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms. A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during the day, a [181]power-nap, does not have any effect on normal circadian rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve productivity.^[182][33]^[183][34] There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the human circadian rhythm, such as [184]seasonal affective disorder (SAD), [185]delayed sleep phase syndrome (DSPS) and other [186]circadian rhythm disorders.^[187][35] Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [188]reticular activating system, which is crucial for maintaining a state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep-wake cycle may be a sign or complication of [189]uremia,^[190][36] [191]azotemia or [192]acute renal failure. [[193]edit] Disruption Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers have experienced the condition known as [194]jet lag, with its associated symptoms of [195]fatigue, disorientation and [196]insomnia. A number of other disorders, for example [197]bipolar disorder and some [198]sleep disorders, are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [199]bipolar disorder are positively influenced by [200]lithium's effect on clock genes.^[201][37] Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease [202][2] The suppression of melatonin production associated with the disruption of the circadian rhythm may increase the risk of developing cancer.^[203][38]^[204][39] [[205]edit] Effect of drugs Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such as [206]cocaine.^[207][40]^[208][41] Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.^[209][42] [[210]edit] See also * [211]Actigraphy (also known as Actimetry) * [212]Advanced sleep phase syndrome * [213]ARNTL * [214]ARNTL2 * [215]Bacterial circadian rhythms * [216]Chronobiology * [217]Chronotype * [218]Circadian oscillator * [219]Circadian rhythm sleep disorders * [220]Cryptochrome * [221]CRY1 and [222]CRY2, the cryptochrome family genes * [223]Delayed sleep phase syndrome * [224]Diurnal cycle * [225]Jet lag * [226]Light effects on circadian rhythm * [227]PER1, [228]PER2, and [229]PER3, the period family genes * [230]Power-nap [[231]edit] References [[232]edit] Bibliography * Aschoff J (ed.) (1965) Circadian Clocks. North Holland Press, Amsterdam * Avivi A, Albrecht U, Oster H, Joel A, Beiles A, Nevo E. 2001. Biological clock in total darkness: the Clock/MOP3 circadian system of the blind subterranean mole rat. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:13751-13756. * Avivi A, Oster H, Joel A, Beiles A, Albrecht U, Nevo E. 2002. Circadian genes in a blind subterranean mammal II: conservation and uniqueness of the three Period homologs in the blind subterranean mole rat, Spalax ehrenbergi superspecies. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:11718-11723. * Ditty JL, Williams SB, Golden SS (2003) A cyanobacterial circadian timing mechanism. Annu Rev Genet 37:513-543 * Dunlap JC, Loros J, DeCoursey PJ (2003) Chronobiology: Biological Timekeeping. Sinauer, Sunderland * Dvornyk V, Vinogradova ON, Nevo E (2003) Origin and evolution of circadian clock genes in prokaryotes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100:2495-2500 * Koukkari WL, Sothern RB (2006) Introducing Biological Rhythms. Springer, New York * Martino T, Arab S, Straume M, Belsham DD, Tata N, Cai F, Liu P, Trivieri M, Ralph M, Sole MJ. Day/night rhythms in gene expression of the normal murine heart. J Mol Med. 2004 Apr;82(4):256-64. Epub 2004 Feb 24. PMID: 14985853 * Refinetti R (2006) Circadian Physiology, 2nd ed. CRC Press, Boca Raton * Takahashi JS, Zatz M (1982) Regulation of circadian rhythmicity. Science 217:1104-1111 * Tomita J, Nakajima M, Kondo T, Iwasaki H (2005) No transcription-translation feedback in circadian rhythm of KaiC phosphorylation. Science 307: 251-254 * Moore-Ede, Martin C., Sulszman, Frank M., and Fuller, Charles A. (1982) "The Clocks that Time Us: Physiology of the Circadian Timing System." Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. [233]ISBN 0-674-13581-4. [[234]edit] Notes Centre 2. [237]^ Bretzl H. Botaniche Forchungen des Alexanderzuges. Leipzig: Teubner, 1903. 3. [238]^ Danchin, Antoine. [239]"Important dates 1900-1919". HKU-Pasteur Research Centre (Paris). 0.html. Retrieved 2008-01-12. 4. [241]^ "Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock". Chicago Tribune. April 29, 1994. 5. [242]^ Vitaterna, M.H.; King, D.P.; Chang, A.M.; Kornhauser, J.M.; Lowrey, P.L.; McDonald, J.D.; Dove, W.F.; Pinto, L.H. et al. (1994). "Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior.". Science 264 (264): 719-725. [243]doi:[244]10.1126/science.8171325. 6. [245]^ Sharma, Vijay Kumar (2003). [246]"Adaptive significance of circadian clocks" (Abstract). Chronobiology international 20 (6): 901-919. [247]doi:[248]10.1081/CBI-120026099. [249]ISSN [250]0742-0528. [251]PMID [252]14680135. Retrieved 2009-11-08. 7. [254]^ (Sheeba et al. 1999) 8. [255]^ (Guyomarc'h et al. 1998, Zivkovic et al. 1999) 9. [256]^ Purves, Dale et al (2001) [2001]. [257]"Molecular Mechanisms of Biological Clocks" (e-book). [258]NEUROSCIENCE (second ed.). Sunderland, MA, U.S.A.: Sinauer Associates. [259]ISBN [260]0-87893-742-0. 3. Retrieved 2008-05-30. 10. 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Retrieved 2007-11-26. 16. [279]^ Merlin C, Gegear RJ, Reppert SM. (2009). Antennal Circadian Clocks Coordinate Sun Compass Orientation in Migratory Monarch Butterflies. Science 325: 1700-1704. [280]doi:[281]10.1126/science.1176221 17. [282]^ Kyriacou CP. (2009). Unraveling Traveling. Science 325:1629-1630 [283]doi:[284]10.1126/science.1178935 18. [285]^ Scheer, Frank A. J. L.; Kenneth P. Wright, Jr., Richard E. Kronauer, Charles A. Czeisler (2007-08-08). [286]"Plasticity of the Intrinsic Period of the Human Circadian Timing System". PLoS ONE 2 (1): e721. [287]doi:[288]10.1371/journal.pone.0000721. [289]PMID [290]17684566. [291]PMC [292]1934931. pone.0000721. Retrieved 2007-12-31. 19. [294]^ Benloucif, S.; Guico, M.J.; Reid, K.J.; Wolfe, L.F.; L'Hermite-Baleriaux, M.; Zee, P.C. (2005). [295]"Stability of melatonin and temperature as circadian phase markers and their relation to sleep times in humans". J Biol Rhythms (Chicago, Illinois, USA: Center for Sleep and Circadian Biology, Departments of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine) 20 (2): 178-88. [296]doi:[297]10.1177/0748730404273983. [298]PMID [299]15834114. issn=20045590. Retrieved 2007-12-18. 20. [301]^ Laberge, L.; Lesperance, P.; Tremblay, R.; Lambert, C.; Montplaisir, J. (1997). [302]"Phase delay of 6-sulphatoxymelatonin in normal adolescents". Sleep Research (Québec, Canada: Centre d'etude du Sommeil, Hopital du Sacre-Coeur, Département de Psychologie, Département de Pharmacologie, Departement de Psychiatrie, Université de Montréal) 26: 727. issn=19979287. Retrieved 2007-12-18. 21. [304]^ Zanello, S. et al., J. Inv. Dermatol. 2000, Vol. 115, 4 Oct.: Expression of the Circadian Clock Genes clock and period1 in Human Skin 22. [305]^ Kawara, S. et al. J. Inv. Derm. 2002, Vol 119, 6 Dec.: Low-dose UVB Rays Alter the mRNA Expression of the Circadian Clock Genes in cultured Human Keratinocytes 23. [306]^ Campbell, S. and Murphy, P, Science 1998, Vol 279, 16 Jan.: Extraocular Circadian Phototransduction in Humans 24. ^ [307]^a [308]^b Semjonova, Milena (2003). [309]"Healthy Lighting, from a lighting designer's perspective". Milena Lighting Design. 25. [311]^ Newman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: "Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment", Biochemistry. 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8. 26. ^ [312]^a [313]^b [314]"Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour". 1999. Retrieved 2007-09-23. "The variation between our subjects, with a 95 percent level of confidence, was no more than plus or minus 16 minutes, a remarkably small range." 27. [316]^ Digital Beat Productions (1997). [317]"28 Hour Day". 28. [319]^ Kleitman, Nathaniel (1962). Sleep and Wakefullness ed 2. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 29. [320]^ Dijk, Derk-Jan; Czeisler Charles (1994). "Paradoxical timing of the circadian rhythm of sleep propensity serves to consolidate sleep and wakefulness in humans". Neurosci Lett 166 (1): 63. [321]doi:[322]10.1016/0304-3940(94)90841-9. [323]PMID [324]8190360. 30. [325]^ Dijk, Derk-Jan; Czeisler Charles (1995). [326]"Contribution of the Circadian Pacemaker and the Sleep Homeostat to Sleep Propensity, Sleep Structure, Electrocephalographic Slow Waves, and Sleep Spindle Activity in Humans". J. Neurosci 15 (5): 3526. [327]PMID [328]7751928. 31. [330]^ Cromie, William J. (1999-07-15). [331]"Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour". The Harvard University Gazette. Retrieved 2008-02-19. 32. [333]^ Aldrich, Michael S (1999). [334]Sleep medicine. New York: Oxford University Press. [335]ISBN [336]0195129571. pg=RA1-PA65&dq=experimenting+with+the+28+hour+day&source=bl&ots=9R4 mo2fI1O&sig=om2zbYPnXnm_1HuZo2Tch6J1vyo&hl=en&ei=MBZeStGgIoyJkQWd17 znDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2. 33. [338]^ [339]"The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep". The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep. Behavioral medicine. 2001. Retrieved 2008-11-11. 34. [341]^ [342]"Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students". Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students. Liberty University. 2007. 3.htm. Retrieved 2008-11-11. 35. [344]^ [345]"Circadian Rhythms and Sleep". Circadian Rhythms and Sleep. Serendip. 2007. ml. Retrieved 2007-09-19. 36. [347]^ Sinert, Richard; Peter R Peacock, Jr (May 10, 2006). [348]"Renal Failure, Acute". eMedicine from WebMD. 2008-08-03. 37. [350]^ [351]NIMH · Science News from 2006 · Lithium Blocks Enzyme To Help Cells' Clocks Keep On Tickin' 38. [352]^ Straif K, Baan R, Grosse Y, Secretan B, El Ghissassi F, Bouvard V, Altieri A, Benbrahim-Tallaa L, Cogliano V, WHO International Agency for Research on Cancer Monograph Working Group. Carcinogenicity of shift-work, painting, and fire-fighting. [353][1] Lancet Oncol. 2007; 12(8):1065-1066. 39. [354]^ [355]WebMD: Night Shift Work May Cause Cancer 40. [356]^ Uz T, Akhisaroglu M, Ahmed R, Manev H (2003). "The pineal gland is critical for circadian Period1 expression in the striatum and for circadian cocaine sensitization in mice". Neuropsychopharmacology 28 (12): 2117-23. [357]doi:[358]10.1038/sj.npp.1300254. [359]PMID [360]12865893. 41. [361]^ Kurtuncu M, Arslan A, Akhisaroglu M, Manev H, Uz T (2004). "Involvement of the pineal gland in diurnal cocaine reward in mice". Eur J Pharmacol 489 (3): 203-5. [362]doi:[363]10.1016/j.ejphar.2004.03.010. [364]PMID [365]15087244. 42. [366]^ McClung C, Sidiropoulou K, Vitaterna M, Takahashi J, White F, Cooper D, Nestler E (2005). [367]"Regulation of dopaminergic transmission and cocaine reward by the Clock gene". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102 (26): 9377-81. [368]doi:[369]10.1073/pnas.0503584102. [370]PMID [371]15967985. [[372]edit] External links * [373]Circadian rhythm at the [374]Open Directory Project * Leloup J.C. (2009). "Circadian clocks and phosphorylation: Insights from computational modeling". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 4 (3): 290-303. [375]doi:[376]10.2478/s11535-009-0025-1. * Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A (2007). "Evolutionary mechanisms of circadian clocks". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 2 (2): 233-253. [377]doi:[378]10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z. [380]Categories: [381]Sleep | [382]Circadian rhythms | [383]Biology of bipolar disorder Hidden categories: [384]Articles needing additional references from October 2007 | [385]All articles needing additional references | [386]All articles with unsourced statements | [387]Articles with unsourced statements from September 2009 | [388]Articles with unsourced statements from November 2007 | [389]Articles with unsourced statements from January 2009 | [390]Articles with unsourced statements from December 2009 Views * [391]Article * [392]Discussion * [393]Edit this page * [394]History Personal tools * [395]Try Beta * [396]Log in / create account Navigation * [397]Main page * [398]Contents * [399]Featured content * [400]Current events * [401]Random article Search ____________________ Go Search Interaction * [402]About Wikipedia * [403]Community portal * [404]Recent changes * [405]Contact Wikipedia * [406]Donate to Wikipedia * [407]Help Toolbox * [408]What links here * [409]Related changes * [410]Upload file * [411]Special pages * [412]Printable version * [413]Permanent link * [414]Cite this page Languages * [415]Català * [416]Cesky * [417]Dansk * [418]Deutsch * [419]Ellynika' * [420]Español * [421]Français * [422]Italiano * [423]E+B+R+J+T+ * [424]Magyar * [425]Nederlands * [426]¥¬ * [427]ªNorsk (bokmål) * [428]ªNorsk (nynorsk) * [429]Polski * [430]Português * [431]Româna * [432]Russkij * [433]Simple English * [434]Srpski / Srpski * [435]Svenska * [436]a+r+d+w+ [437]Powered by MediaWiki [438]Wikimedia Foundation * This page was last modified on 16 January 2010 at 17:59. * Text is available under the [439]Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See [440]Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [441]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * [442]Contact us * [443]Privacy policy * [444]About Wikipedia * [445]Disclaimers Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1][dailyomlogo2.gif] Today's DailyOM brought to you by: [2][nav-signup.gif] [nav-line.gif] [3][nav-mydailyom.gif] [nav-line.gif] [4][nav-marketplace.gif] [nav-line.gif] [5][nav-community.gif] [nav-line.gif] [6][nav-courses.gif] [bambooborder2.jpg] [Articles......] _______________ [search.gif]-Submit [7][nav-giftshop.gif] [nav-line.gif] [8][nav-shoppingcart.gif] January 2, 2006 Universal Timing Life's Natural Rhythm Nature's natural rhythms orchestrate when day turns to night, when flowers must bloom, and provides the cue for when it is time for red and brown leaves to fall from trees. As human beings, our own inner rhythm is attuned to this universal sense of timing. Guided by the rising and setting of the sun, changes in temperature, and our own internal rhythm, we know when it is time to sleep, eat, or be active. While our minds and spirits are free to focus on other pursuits, our breath and our heartbeat are always there to remind us of life's pulsing rhythm that moves within and around us. Moving to this rhythm, we know when it is time to stop working and when to rest. Pushing our bodies to work beyond their natural rhythm diminishes our ability to renew and recharge. A feeling much like jet lag lets us know when we've overridden our own natural rhythm. When we feel the frantic calls of all we want to accomplish impelling us to move faster than is natural for us, we may want to breathe deeply instead and look at nature moving to its own organic timing: birds flying south, leaves shedding, or snow falling. A walk in nature can also let us re-attune is to her organic rhythm, while allowing us to move back in time with our own. When we move to our natural rhythm, we can achieve all we need to do with less effort. We may even notice that our soul moves to its own internal, natural rhythm - especially when it comes to our personal evolution. Comparing ourselves to others is unnecessary. Our best guide is to move to our own internal timing, while keeping time with the rhythm of nature. Click to follow DailyOM on [9]Twitter and [10]Facebook What do you think? [11]Discuss this article and share your opinion Want more DailyOM? [12]Register for your free email, or [13]browse all articles Life's Natural Rhythm Share the OM: [14][emailfriend.gif] [15]Email this to a friend [16][printerfriendly.gif] [17]Printable version [18][icon-mydailyom.gif] [19]Save in My DailyOM [20][icon-discuss.gif] [21]Discuss this article [22][horoscopes1.jpg] Today's friend of OM: Register now to receive your [23]free daily horoscope from DailyOM. 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For more information visit [24]DailyOM.com More DailyOM: [25]More Inspiration [26]Today's Horoscopes [27]OM Marketplace [28]Home | [29]Gift Shop | [30]My DailyOM | [31]Marketplace | [32]Community | [33]Archives | [34]Share The OM | [35]Contact Us [36]Subscribe | [37]Change Email | [38]User Settings | [39]Unsubscribe | [40]Privacy Policy | [41]Disclaimer | [42]Gift Shop FAQ | [43]Advertising Info [44]Make DailyOM Your Homepage | [45]Link To Us | [46]Publish DailyOM On Your Website © 2004-08 DailyOM - All Rights Reserved No portion of this site can be reprinted without express permission Artwork by [47]Wang Chang-Ming Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : #[1]Edit this page [2]Wikipedia (en) [3]copyright [4]Wikipedia RSS Feed [5]Wikipedia Atom Feed Rhythm From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search For other uses, see [8]Rhythm (disambiguation). Rhythm (from [9]greek rhuthµo'*s - rhythmos, "any measured flow or movement, symmetry") is the variation of the length and accentuation of a series of sounds or other events. Contents * [10]1 Rhythm in linguistics * [11]2 Origins of human appreciation of rhythm * [12]3 Rhythm notation and the oral tradition + [13]3.1 African music + [14]3.2 Indian music + [15]3.3 Western music * [16]4 Types * [17]5 See also * [18]6 Notes * [19]7 Sources * [20]8 Further reading [[21]edit] Rhythm in linguistics The study of rhythm, stress, and [22]pitch in [23]speech is called [24]prosody; it is a topic in [25]linguistics. Narmour (1980, p. 147-53) describes three categories of prosodic rules which create rhythmic successions which are additive (same duration repeated), cumulative (short-long), or countercumulative (long-short). Cumulation is associated with closure or relaxation, countercumulation with openness or tension, while additive rhythms are open-ended and repetitive. Richard Middleton points out this method cannot account for [26]syncopation and suggests the concept of [27]transformation. A [28]rhythmic unit is a [29]durational pattern which occupies a period of time equivalent to a [30]pulse or pulses on an underlying [31]metric level, as opposed to a [32]rhythmic gesture which does not (DeLone et al. (Eds.), 1975 [[33]edit] Origins of human appreciation of rhythm In his series How Music Works, [34]Howard Goodall presents theories that rhythm recalls how we walk and the heartbeat we heard in the womb. More likely is that a simple pulse or [35]di-dah beat recalls the footsteps of another person. Our sympathetic urge to dance is designed to boost our energy levels in order to cope with someone, or some animal chasing us - a fight or flight response. From a less darwinist perspective, perceiving rhythm is the ability to master the otherwise invisible dimension, time. Rhythm is possibly also rooted in courtship ritual.^[36][1] Neurologist [37]Oliver Sacks posits that human affinity for rhythm is fundamental, so much that a person's sense of rhythm cannot be lost in the way that music and language can (e.g. by [38]stroke). In addition, he states that [39]chimpanzees and other animals show no similar appreciation for rhythm.^[40][2] [[41]edit] Rhythm notation and the oral tradition Worldwide there are many different approaches to passing on rhythmic phrases and patterns, as they exist in traditional music, from generation to generation. [[42]edit] African music In the [43]Griot tradition of Africa everything related to music has been passed on orally. [44]Babatunde Olatunji (1927-2003), a Nigerian drummer who lived and worked in the [45]United States, developed a simple series of spoken sounds for teaching the rhythms of the hand drum. He used six vocal sounds: Goon Doon Go Do Pa Ta. There are three basic sounds on the drum, but each can be played with either the left or the right hand. This simple system is now used worldwide, particularly by [46]Djembe players. [[47]edit] Indian music Indian music has also been passed on orally. Tabla players would learn to speak complex rhythm patterns and phrases before attempting to play them. [48]Sheila Chandra, an English pop singer of Indian descent, made performances based around her singing these patterns. In [49]Indian Classical music, the [50]Tala of a composition is the rhythmic pattern over which the whole piece is structured. [[51]edit] Western music Standard [52]music notation contains rhythmic information and is adapted specifically for drums and percussion instruments. The drums are generally used to keep other instruments in 'time'. They do this by supplying beats/strikes in time at a certain pace, i.e. 70 beats per minute (bpm). In [53]Rock music, a drum beat is used to keep a [54]bass/[55]guitar line in time. [[56]edit] Types In [57]Western music, rhythms are usually arranged with respect to a [58]time signature, partially signifying a meter. The speed of the underlying [59]pulse is sometimes called the [60]beat. The [61]tempo is a measure of how quickly the pulse repeats. The tempo is usually measured in 'beats per minute' (bpm); 60 bpm means a speed of one beat per second. The length of the meter, or metric unit (usually corresponding with [62]measure length), is usually grouped into either two or three beats, being called [63]duple meter and [64]triple meter, respectively. If each beat is divided by two or four, it is [65]simple meter, if by three (or six) [66]compound meter. According to [67]Pierre Boulez, beat structures beyond four are "simply not natural".^[68][3]. His reference is to western European music. Standard notation of a clave pattern on audio clip clave pattern.ogg [69]Syncopated rhythms are rhythms that accent parts of the beat not already stressed by [70]counting. Playing simultaneous rhythms in more than one time signature is called [71]polymeter. See also [72]polyrhythm. In recent years, rhythm and meter have become an important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these areas includes books by [73]Maury Yeston, [74]Fred Lerdahl and [75]Ray Jackendoff, [76]Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty, William Rothstein, and Joel Lester. Grid notation of single a clave pattern Some [77]genres of music make different use of rhythm than others. Most Western music is based on [78]subdivision, while non-Western music uses more [79]additive rhythm. [80]African music makes heavy use of [81]polyrhythms, and [82]Indian music uses [83]complex cycles such as 7 and 13, while [84]Balinese music often uses complex [85]interlocking rhythms. By comparison, a lot of Western [86]classical music is fairly rhythmically (or metrically) simple; it stays in a [87]simple meter such as 4/4 or 3/4 and makes little use of [88]syncopation. [89]Clave is a common underlying rhythm in [90]African, [91]Cuban music, and [92]Brazilian music. [93]Claves (Submit) Play sound Four beats followed by three Clave patterns __________________________________________________________________ Problems listening to this file? See [94]media help. In the 20th century, [95]composers like [96]Igor Stravinsky, [97]Bela Bartok, [98]Philip Glass, and [99]Steve Reich wrote more rhythmically complex music using [100]odd meters, and techniques such as [101]phasing and [102]additive rhythm. At the same time, modernists such as [103]Olivier Messiaen and his pupils used increased complexity to disrupt the sense of a regular beat, leading eventually to the widespread use of [104]irrational rhythms in [105]New Complexity. This use may be explained by a comment of [106]John Cage's^[[107]where?] where he notes that regular rhythms cause sounds to be heard as a group rather than individually; the irregular rhythms highlight the rapidly changing pitch relationships that would otherwise be subsumed into irrelevant rhythmic groupings (Sandow 2004, p. 257). [108]LaMonte Young also wrote music in which the sense of a regular beat is absent because the music consists only of long sustained tones ([109]drones). In the 1930s, [110]Henry Cowell wrote music involving multiple simultaneous periodic rhythms and collaborated with [111]Léon Thérémin to invent the [112]Rhythmicon, the first electronic [113]rhythm machine, in order to perform them. Similarly, [114]Conlon Nancarrow wrote for the [115]player piano. [[116]edit] See also * [117]Meter (music) * [118]Prosody (linguistics) * [119]Riddim * [120]Morse Code * [121]Soul (music) * [122]Time scale (music) * [123]Timing (linguistics) [[124]edit] Notes 1. [125]^ [126]Mithen, Steven (2005). [127]The Singing Neanderthals: The Origins of Music, Language, Mind and Body.. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.. [128]ISBN [129]0297643177. 2. [131]^ [132]Jon Stewart, [133]Oliver Sacks. (2009-06-29). [134]The Daily Show with Jon Stewart. [Television production]. Comedy Central. itle=oliver-sacks. "People often tried to teach their dogs to dance--it doesn't work." 3. [136]^ In [137]Discovering Music: Rhythm with [138]Leonard Slatkin at 5:05 [[139]edit] Sources * Hasty, Christopher (1997). Meter as Rhythm. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [140]ISBN 0-19-510066-2. * London, Justin (2004). Hearing in Time: Psychological Aspects of Musical Meter. [141]ISBN 0-19-516081-9. * Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music. Philadelphia: Open University Press. [142]ISBN 0-335-15275-9. * Narmour (1980). Cited in DeLone et al. (Eds.) (1975). Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. [143]ISBN 0-13-049346-5. * Sandow, Greg (2004). "A Fine Madness", The Pleasure of Modernist Music. [144]ISBN 1-58046-143-3. * Yeston, Maury (1976). "The Stratification of Musical Rhythm". [[145]edit] Further reading * McGaughey, William (2001). "Rhythm and Self-Consciousness: New Ideals for an Electronic Civilization". Minneapolis: Thistlerose Publications. [146]ISBN 0-9605630-4-0. * Honing, H. (2002). [147]"Structure and interpretation of rhythm and timing." Tijdschrift voor Muziektheorie [Dutch Journal of Music Theory] 7(3): 227-232. * Lewis, Andrew (2005). Rhythm--What it is and How to Improve Your Sense of It. San Francisco: [148]RhythmSource Press. [149]ISBN 978-0-9754667-0-4. * Williams, C. F. A., The Aristoxenian Theory of Musical Rhythm, (Cambridge Library Collection - Music), Cambridge University Press; 1st edition, 2009. * Toussaint, G. T., "The geometry of musical rhythm," In J. Akiyama, M. Kano, and X. Tan, editors, Proceedings of the Japan Conference on Discrete and Computational Geometry, Vol. 3742, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2005, pp. 198-212. [150]v o [151]d o [152]e [153]Musical notation and [154]development [155]Staff [156]Bar & Bar line · [157]Clef · [158]Da capo · [159]Dal segno · [160]Key signature · [161]Ledger line · [162]Musical mode · [163]Musical scale · [164]Rehearsal letter · [165]Repeat sign · [166]Time signature · [167]Transposition · [168]Transposing instrument [169]G (treble) clef symbol [170]Notes [171]Accidental ([172]Flat · [173]Natural · [174]Sharp) · [175]Dotted note · [176]Grace note · [177]Note value ([178]Beam · [179]Note head · [180]Stem) · [181]Pitch · [182]Rest · [183]Interval · [184]Letter notation [185]Articulation [186]Dynamics · [187]Ornament ([188]Trill · [189]Mordent · [190]Grace note) · [191]Ossia · [192]Portato · [193]Accent · [194]Legato · [195]Tenuto · [196]Marcato · [197]Staccato · [198]Staccatissimo · [199]Tie · [200]Slur · [201]Fermata [202]Development [203]Coda · [204]Exposition · [205]Harmony · [206]Melody · [207]Motif · [208]Recapitulation · Rhythm ([209]Beat · [210]Meter · [211]Tempo) · [212]Theme · [213]Tonality · [214]Atonality Related [215]Chord chart · [216]Figured bass · [217]Graphic notation · [218]Lead sheet · [219]Eye music · [220]Modern musical symbols · [221]Neume · [222]Tablature [224]Categories: [225]Rhythm | [226]Greek loanwords Hidden categories: [227]Vague or ambiguous geographic scope Views * [228]Article * [229]Discussion * [230]Edit this page * [231]History Personal tools * [232]Try Beta * [233]Log in / create account Navigation * [234]Main page * [235]Contents * [236]Featured content * [237]Current events * [238]Random article Search ____________________ Go Search Interaction * [239]About Wikipedia * [240]Community portal * [241]Recent changes * [242]Contact Wikipedia * [243]Donate to Wikipedia * [244]Help Toolbox * [245]What links here * [246]Related changes * [247]Upload file * [248]Special pages * [249]Printable version * [250]Permanent link * [251]Cite this page Languages * [252]Bosanski * [253]Català * [254]Dansk * [255]Deutsch * [256]Eesti * [257]Español * [258]Esperanto * [259]f+a+r+s+ * [260]Français * [261]­´ * [262]Hrvatski * [263]Bahasa Indonesia * [264]Íslenska * [265]Italiano * [266]E+B+R+J+T+ * [267]¥ £ * [268]Latviesu * [269]Líguru * [270]Makedonski * [271]®²¯¾³ * [272]Nederlands * [273]¥¬ * [274]ªNorsk (bokmål) * [275]ªNorsk (nynorsk) * [276]Polski * [277]Português * [278]Russkij * [279]Simple English * [280]Slovencina * [281]Slovenscina * [282]Suomi * [283]Svenska * [284]Türkçe * [285]Ukrayins'ka * [286]­ [287]Powered by MediaWiki [288]Wikimedia Foundation * This page was last modified on 19 January 2010 at 00:26. * Text is available under the [289]Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See [290]Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [291]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * [292]Contact us * [293]Privacy policy * [294]About Wikipedia * [295]Disclaimers Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Rhythm In Nature [7]page up: Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications | by Frederick R. Clow [8]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications. Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual training, recitation, gymnastics, and play. Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human [40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality. The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. . . . When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak. Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. - Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20. . . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight years in [42]duration are superposed. . . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135. Continue to: * prev: [43]Rhythm In Nature * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]The Cycle Of A Generation Tags [46]sociology, [47]communication, [48]congenial groups, [49]cycles of change, [50]democracy, [51]factors of society, [52]government, [53]heredity, [54]human nature, [55]institutions, [56]location, [57]natural selection, [58]organizations, [59]population, [60]primary groups, [61]social classes [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [62]TOP [63]previous page: Rhythm In Nature [64]page up: Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications | by Frederick R. Clow [65]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [66]StasoSphere [ [67]Privacy Policy ] [ [68]Terms of Use ] [ [69]About Us ] [ [70]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:34:34 2009 Références #[1]Welcome page [2]Help [3]Parent screen [4]skip navigation [5]Geography Compass Select Compass [Geography Compass........................] Go * [6]Home | * [7]My Compass | * [8]Help | * [9]Content Alerts | * [10]Contact Us | * [11]Links * [12]What is Geography Compass? | * [13]Subscribe | * [14]Editors | * [15]Editorial Board | * [16]Authors Cultural Towards Lefebvrian Socio-Nature? A Film about Rhythm, Nature and Science By [17]James Evans and [18]Phil Jones, School of Environment and Development, University of Manchester School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham (April 2008) __________________________________________________________________ Section: [19]Cultural Subjects: [20]Environment And Society, [21]Geography, [22]Urban Geography, [23]Cultural Geography. Key Topics: [24]nature , [25]representation. Abstract The first thing you will notice about this article is that it is actually a film. We did not set out to make a film, it just ended up that way. We started out making music out of environmental data, wondering why we only ever look at scientific data, why we do not listen to it. Wandering around the city passing through the transformed landscapes of channelised rivers and broken industrial spaces, we wanted to reveal the socio-natural rhythms of this hybrid city. The text you see below represents the shooting script for a film that explores Lefebvre's notion of rhythmanalysis in the context of socio-natural rhythms. The video accompanying it is far more interesting, including the environmental music that we produced by feeding scientific data through samplers and drum machines. The video questions the nature of scientific representation and whether the notion of rhythmanalysis can be stretched to explore rhythms beyond the human. Furthermore, the process of actually making the video, submitting it to this journal, and responding to the referees' comments made us question the very nature of what constitutes an academic paper in the twenty-first century. The accompanying commentary is our attempt to deal with these issues. To link to the film please go to DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00107.x This article abstract has been viewed 5348 times. [27]view [28]cite [29]Add to my Compass [30]Add to VLE/CMS [31]feedback __________________________________________________________________ Top 5 related articles * [32]Geographies for Moving Bodies: Thinking, Dancing, Spaces By [33]Derek P. McCormack , Oxford University Centre for the Environment (Vol. 3, October 2008) Geography Compass * [34]Colonialism, Landscape and the Subterranean By [35]Heidi V. Scott , Institute of Geography and Earth Sciences, Aberystwyth University (Vol. 3, October 2008) Geography Compass * [36]Climate-Suicide Relationships: A Research Problem in Need of Geographic Methods and Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives By P. Grady Dixon and Adam J. Kalkstein, Mississippi State UniversityUnited States Military Academy (Vol. 4, September 2009) Geography Compass * [37]Ethnomethodology and the Non-representational: What Are Disaffected Young White Men Capable of? 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By Noel Castree From [49]A Companion to Economic Geography [[50]All Related Reference Chapters] * [51]Economic * [52]Social * [53]Cultural * [54]Political * [55]Urban * [56]Development * [57]Climatology * [58]Hydrology & Water Resources * [59]Geomorphology * [60]Biogeography * [61]GIS * [62]Earth Observation * [63]Environment & Society * [64]Global Issues Quick Search Keyword search: ____________________ Select a section: [All........................] Select a content type: [All.................................] [65]Advanced Search Search Related Blackwell Reference Chapters [66]View Related Reference Books [67]Geography Compass - Personal Subscription Rates [68]Sign up for free Geography Compass content alerts [69]Keep up-to-date "...an indispensable reference tool for teachers, researchers, and students in Geography and related disciplines." Mike Bradshaw and Basil Gomez Geography Compass Editors-in-Chief [70]Blackwell Publishing Copyright © 2005-2007 [71]Blackwell Publishing | [72]Privacy Policy | [73]Contact us | [74]Help | [75]To the top... [76][ access key 0 : accessibility information including access key list ] [77][ access key 1 : home page ] [78][ access key 2 : skip navigation] [79][ access key 6 : help ] Références [1]pmc logo image [2]Logo of nihpa [3]Journal List > [4]NIHPA Author Manuscripts Formats: * [5]Abstract | * Full Text | * [6]PDF (32K) J Public Health Policy. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2008 July 24. Published in final edited form as: [7]J Public Health Policy. 2006; 27(1): 2-12. doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200061. PMCID: PMC2483431 NIHMSID: NIHMS58476 [8]Copyright notice and [9]Disclaimer Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature Elena N. Naumova^* ^*Address for Correspondence: Department of Public Health and Family Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Avenue, Boston, MA 02111, USA. E-mail: elena.naumova/at/tufts.edu Small right arrow pointing to: The publisher's final edited version of this article is available at [10]J Public Health Policy. Small right arrow pointing to: See other articles in PMC that [11]cite the published article. Abstract Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences. Understanding seasonal fluctuations in diseases patterns presents us with a major challenge. To develop efficient strategies for disease prevention and control, we need to grasp the main determinants of temporal variations and their interactions. This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality by outlining several of its factors, using as illustrations respiratory and enteric water- or food-borne infections. Keywords: seasonality, water-borne infection, food-borne infection, respiratory infection * [12] Other Sectionsv + [13]Abstract + [14]Introduction + [15]Notion of Seasonality + [16]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [17]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [18]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [19]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [20]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [21]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [22]References Introduction Now let us consider the seasons and the way we can predict whether it is going to be a healthy or an unhealthy year. (Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 10)^[23]1 Seasonal fluctuations in birth and death, in sickness and health, are the haunting mysteries of mankind. People have made predictions from winds, tides, birds' migrations, spring blooms, sunsets, and constellations in hope of grasping the future. The complexity and uncertainty of ancient and modern means of prediction make us wonder to what extent we are able to understand the rhythm of nature. One might argue the future cannot be known, but from a practical point of view, a better understanding of changes in disease occurrences is essential for building efficient strategies for disease prevention and control. Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences. Since Hippocrates, observers worldwide have noted and documented marked fluctuations in the incidence of many diseases. In the modern view, the main determinants of temporal variations in disease manifestation are evolving host susceptibility, periodicity in pathogen abundance and transmissibility, and the ever-changing environment that can support or repress a host or pathogen. Interactions among these factors responsible for seasonal variation are interwoven into the intricate fabric of life. For many diseases, explanations for self-sustained oscillations still remain elusive. We lack adequate methods and sufficient analytical tools for comprehensive examination of seasonality in public health field studies. A dearth of observations, recorded over long periods at fine resolution, compounded by an enormous number of factors associated with periodic changes, obscure our ability to understand disease variation. Urgent need for effective strategies to prevent and control a spread of emerging infections in the rapidly changing world, however, demands a deeper insight into the cyclic nature of diseases. This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality and outline several factors associated with seasonality using as illustrations enteric water- or food-borne infections and respiratory infections. Then I propose a framework for systematic evaluation of seasonal oscillations. In every part of this presentation, and most importantly, I wish to stimulate discussion on this challenging topic. * [24] Other Sectionsv + [25]Abstract + [26]Introduction + [27]Notion of Seasonality + [28]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [29]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [30]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [31]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [32]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [33]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [34]References Notion of Seasonality Every disease occurs at any season of the year but some of them more frequently occur and are of greater severity at certain times. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 19) Seasonality, as noted above, refers to the cyclic appearance of events over a period of time. A seasonal pattern may appear as a tight cluster of isolated outbreaks that occurred during a relatively short time period, then spreading over a wide geographic area. For example, in a temporal curve of enteric infection cases (i.e. giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, or rotavirus infections), a compact cluster of outbreaks is followed by a long interval of low incidence. Systematic recurrence of such sequences forms a seasonal pattern typical of a specific pathogen in a given population and in a given locality. A seasonal increase in enteric or respiratory infection often produces a well-defined oscillating curve that starts to rise in one season and declines over the next one. The three main features characterize seasonality: * a point in time when a seasonal curve reaches its maximum, * an amplitude from peak to nadir, and * a duration of a seasonal increase defined by a shape of a curve. (The shape of a seasonal pattern reflects how fast a temporal curve reaches its peak and declines to nadir over a course of a full cycle. Depending on the length of a cycle whether it is one year or a half of a year, a seasonal curve would have one or two peaks.) Seasonal patterns, described by these three characteristics, may vary for different diseases, different locations, or different subpopulations. Many viral and bacterial infections in humans show marked seasonal changes. In some diseases, like salmonellosis and influenza, annual oscillations explain up to 60% of variability. Such impact should not be ignored and deserves a proper examination. * [35] Other Sectionsv + [36]Abstract + [37]Introduction + [38]Notion of Seasonality + [39]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [40]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [41]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [42]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [43]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [44]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [45]References Diseases Seasonal Patterns Diseases vary in their relationships one with another; some are opposed, some are mutually agreeable. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 3) Differences in diseases peaks reflect different etiology, heterogeneity in host susceptibility, or route of transmission. In temperate climates, Campylobacter and Salmonella infections are known to rise in summer, giardiasis in early fall, and rotavirus infection in mid-winter, etc. Interestingly, for the same infectious agent, infections recorded in two different locations may present a different pattern of incidence. A seasonal pattern for cryptosporidiosis in the United States exhibits one late summer peak ([46]1); in contrast, in the United Kingdom, two seasonal peaks are seen ([47]2). The UK picture reflects two dominant sources of exposure: one from animals in the late spring, and another from humans in the fall ([48]3). Close temporal clustering of seasonal peaks in diseases that share similar sources of exposure suggests dominant routes of transmissions. Peaks in water-borne cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis often cluster after a summer peak in ambient temperature. Such synchronization in disease manifestation can be governed by environmental and social factors. In some instances, periodicity of a given infection observed in a particular population may be not present in another. A seasonal peak in cryptosporidiosis cases observed in the general population is not apparent in the immunocompromized HIV-positive gay men, even though the incidence of cryptosporidiosis in HIV-positive population is very high. This suggests differences in dominant routes of transmission. Seasonal patterns can change over time. After intense vaccination campaigns in the 1950s and 1970s in the United Kingdom, the patterns of measles and pertussis changed, with the high rates of disease usually seen when children were attending school diminishing for measles and practically disappearing for pertusis ([49]4). Explanations for these phenomena remain elusive. A departure from a systematically observed pattern could reflect the evolution of a pathogen or a change in herd immunity. A simple rule to remember is that a discovery hides in outliers. Faced with an abundance of causal agents, a bare observation of a rise in the incidence of non-specific enteritis should be interpreted with caution. A seasonal pattern can represent a mix of temporal curves. Imagine two periodic curves of similar intensity, but one peaks in a spring and another in a fall; the sum of these two curves might lose the appearance of seasonality, covering two distinctly seasonal phenomena. Some infections are very rare. Their seasonal patterns are difficult to examine because the relevant data must be collected over a very long time and/or aggregated over large spatial units. Precision in evaluating seasonality can thus be jeopardized by time-dependent and/or space-dependent confounders. Seasonal fluctuations can be found beyond infectious diseases; chronic somatic diseases also exhibit substantial temporal variations. Plausibly, exacerbations in chronic conditions are driven by infectious agents or environmental changes. Understanding the interplay of an infection and a chronic disease may lead to better control for both. * [50] Other Sectionsv + [51]Abstract + [52]Introduction + [53]Notion of Seasonality + [54]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [55]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [56]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [57]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [58]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [59]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [60]References Seasonal Host Susceptibility When the weather is seasonable and the crops ripen at the regular times, diseases are regular in their appearance... (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 8) Poor nutrition directly affects host susceptibility. In places of food scarcity, researchers suspect that temporal patterns in birth weight and preterm delivery result from seasonal variations in food availability ([61]5). In general, due to a less developed immune system, young children are susceptible to infection; their immune response may be further weakened by seasonal cutbacks in essential micronutrients and vitamins. Anemnestic responses to an antigen determine whether an infection recurs. Short-lived immune memory together with seasonal changes in pathogen transmissibility contribute further to the complexity of seasonal patterns. Even a perfectly healthy person can experience a change in susceptibility to infection due to stress, injuries, or trauma. The probability of a marked impact of such factors on disease seasonality is virtually unknown. * [62] Other Sectionsv + [63]Abstract + [64]Introduction + [65]Notion of Seasonality + [66]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [67]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [68]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [69]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [70]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [71]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [72]References Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility Some diseases are produced by the manner of life that is followed; others by the life-giving air we breathe. (Hippocrates. The Nature of Man, 9) Temperature, humidity, and precipitation -- the defining factors of seasons -- are important determinants of pathogens' survival. Changes influence pathogens' potency and life expectancy, resulting in temporal fluctuations in pathogens' abundance. In many instances, seasonal changes in pathogen survival and transmission are inseparably related to both biological and social aspects of our lives. They are synchronized by weather. High ambient temperature, for example, provides a supportive environment for food-borne pathogens, favoring their multiplication in food and on food preparation surfaces ([73]6). Food contamination is believed to be a significant mode of transmission for infections caused by Salmonella and Campylobacter ([74]7); therefore, during warm weather, the risk for food-borne diseases increases ([75]8). Seasonal changes in level of contamination, availability of potable water, sanitation and hygiene practices, as well as crowding and person-to-person contacts, affect pathogens' transmissibility. Worldwide, water use differs from season to season ([76]9). In temperate climates, warm weather leads to higher water consumption and encourages outdoor activities -- swimming, camping, and recreational water use. In tropical regions, contamination of surface water increases during wet seasons. Although spread of pathogens via food is certainly possible, contaminated water is the dominant source of exposure for enteric infections caused by protozoa Cryptosporidium and Giardia ([77]10 --[78]12). Depending on locality, outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis associated with drinking or recreational water frequently occur during warm or wet seasons ([79]13,[80]14). With the onset of cooler weather, the "heating season" marks a change in indoor air quality. Inadequate and poorly designed ventilation in crowded public places and urban transit systems may boost exposure to air-borne pathogens by increasing their concentration in stagnant air and by re-circulating contaminated air. Higher relative humidity may also affect the stability of air-borne droplets in which viruses travel from person to person. * [81] Other Sectionsv + [82]Abstract + [83]Introduction + [84]Notion of Seasonality + [85]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [86]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [87]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [88]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [89]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [90]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [91]References Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects You will find, as a general rule, that the constitutions and the habits of a people follow the nature of the land where they live. (Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 24) Diseases do not watch calendars. Their incidence rises and falls because of changes in factors associated with the diseases. However, in every culture all social events are synchronized by calendars; and every calendar reflects the cyclic rhythm of nature. Traditional celebrations and gatherings observed by communities according to calendars affect pathogen transmission. Holidays, social activities, and seasonal travel are often associated with changes in food consumption and preparation, and are therefore associated with changes in disease incidence. Preparing meat on a barbecue increases the risk of Campylobacter infection ([92]15,[93]16) and foreign travel increases the risk for enteric infections. Aggregation of children in schools, daycare centers, and summer camps, reflecting school calendars, facilitates rapid exchange of pathogens. There are marked seasonal variations in transmission, and thus the incidence of enteric and respiratory infections. * [94] Other Sectionsv + [95]Abstract + [96]Introduction + [97]Notion of Seasonality + [98]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [99]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [100]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [101]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [102]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [103]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [104]References Climate Change, Extreme Weather Events, and Disease Seasonality The changes of the seasons are especially liable to beget diseases, as are great changes from heat to cold, or cold to heat in any season. Other changes in the weather have similarly severe effects. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 1) As weather affects human health by creating favorable conditions for pathogen proliferation and transmission, severe weather can affect the timing and intensity of infectious outbreaks, and natural disasters lead to drastic changes in population structure and pathogen ecology. Catastrophic events like tsunamis, hurricanes, devastating floods, and heat waves that cause deaths, population displacement, and infrastructural damage may have dramatic effects on the incidence of infections and their seasonal patterns. Recent work has shown highly significant associations between extreme precipitation and water-borne disease outbreaks ([105]17). Heavy precipitation, rapid snowmelt, and floods flush animal wastes from the land into surface waters and may overwhelm drinking and wastewater treatment systems. The latter leads to discharges in watersheds of untreated human wastes. As a result, pathogens can appear in drinking and recreational water in very high concentrations ([106]18,[107]19). A rapid snowmelt, resultant runoff, and filtration system failure at the overloaded local drinking water treatment plant were implicated in the largest known water-borne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis, which occurred in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1993 ([108]20). This outbreak happened in April, not within the usual seasonal peak for cryptosporidiosis cases. A flood, which also resulted from a rapid snowmelt, has been linked with a similar increased incidence of diarrhea ([109]21). Experts expect that global climate change will increase climate variability and the frequency of extreme precipitation events in temperate regions ([110]22,[111]23). "Global warming" may also increase the frequency and magnitude of other extreme weather events, such as heat waves and droughts, and thereby have profound effects on public health ([112]24,[113]25). In a comprehensive study conducted in the United Kingdom that described a short-term link between temperature and food poisoning, the authors also hypothesized that climate change could lead to changes in rates of food poisoning ([114]26). Integration of environmental parameters into disease forecasting and warning systems could allow public health officials to alert the populace when specific meteorological conditions pose predictable risks to health ([115]27). Simple messages about proper food preparation and refrigeration and the risks of using contaminated recreational waters could, for example, be provided before, during, and after extreme events. Better understanding of disease seasonality would also help to predict outbreaks of infections triggered by climate variability. * [116] Other Sectionsv + [117]Abstract + [118]Introduction + [119]Notion of Seasonality + [120]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [121]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [122]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [123]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [124]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [125]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [126]References Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking Desperate cases need the most desperate remedies. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, I, 6) At first, seasonal fluctuations should be systematically described. This requires a framework with sound definitions and analytic tools suitable for routine use by public health professionals. In public health sciences, the existing methodology currently lacks methods and tests for assessing complex interactions in the time-dependent factors responsible for disease seasonality. Next, reliable data with fine temporal resolution are a must. The vast majority of epidemiological studies have examined seasonal patterns of infections using quarterly or monthly data. This coarse temporal aggregation can thwart an otherwise detailed, accurate, and comprehensive analysis of seasonal patterns and may even be misleading ([127]28). Examination of daily or weekly rates can substantially improve evaluation of seasonal curves, but a systematic approach for using at least weekly aggregates is needed. Finally, reluctance to apply sophisticated mathematical models in public health studies must be overcome. Underlying processes in disease manifestation and spread are complex and multifaceted. Causal pathways are often obscured. To disentangle causal effects of many factors within the circular processes of self-sustaining oscillations demands the careful building of sound conceptual models of seasonality; models that can be tested. The emerging fields of computational epidemiology and intelligent data mining will complement established work in philosophy of science and mathematical biology to become an essential part of thinking in public health and policy. Acknowledgments I thank Drs Eileen O'Neil and Beth Rosenberg for their thoughtful suggestions, and the support of funding agencies: the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (U19AI062627), and the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R01ES013171). Footnotes ^1Hippocrates' citations are taken from: Lloyd, GER, editor. Hippocratic Writings. Trans. Chadwick J and Mann WN. London: Penguin; 1978. * [128] Other Sectionsv + [129]Abstract + [130]Introduction + [131]Notion of Seasonality + [132]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [133]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [134]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [135]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [136]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [137]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [138]References References 1. Naumova EN, Chen JT, Griffiths JK, Matyas BT, Estes-Smargiassi SA, Morris RD. Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. Public Health Rep. 2000;115(5):436-47. [[139]PubMed] 2. Naumova EN, Christodouleas J, Hunter PR, Syed Q. Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance system in 1990 --1999. J Water Health. 2005;3(2):185-96. [[140]PubMed] 3. McLauchlin J, Amar C, Pedraza-Diaz S, Nichols GL. Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in 1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from livestock animals. J Clin Microbiol. 2000;38(11):3984-90. [[141]PubMed] 4. Anderson RM, May RM. Infectious Diseases of Humans. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004. 5. Fallis G, Hilditch J. A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between rural Zaire and Ontario. Can J Public Health. 1989;80(3):205-8. [[142]PubMed] 6. Kusumaningrum HD, Riboldi G, Hazeleger WC, Beumer RR. Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces and cross-contamination to foods. Int J Food Microbiol. 2003;85(3):227-36. [[143]PubMed] 7. Mead PS, Slutsker L, Dietz V, McCaig LF, Bresee JS, Shapiro C, et al. Food-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999;5(5):607-25. [[144]PubMed] 8. Kovats RS, Edwards SJ, Hajat S, Armstrong BG, Ebi KL, Menne B. The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries. Epidemiol Infect. 2004;132(3):443-53. [[145]PubMed] 9. Gofti-Laroche L, Gratacap-Cavallier B, Genoulaz O, Joret JC, Hartemann P, Seigneurin JM, et al. A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study). Water Sci Technol. 2001;43(12):39-48. [[146]PubMed] 10. Pruss A. Review of epidemiological studies on health effects from exposure to recreational water. Int J Epidemiol. 1998;27(1):1-9. [[147]PubMed] 11. Rose JB, Huffman DE, Riley K, Farrah SR, Lukasik JO, Hamann CL. Reduction of enteric microorganisms at the Upper Occoquan Sewage Authority Water Reclamation Plant. Water Environ Res. 2001;73(6):711-20. [[148]PubMed] 12. Rose JB, Slifko TR. Giardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their impact on foods: a review. J Food Prot. 1999;62(9):1059-70. [[149]PubMed] 13. Barwick RS, Levy DA, Craun GF, Beach MJ, Calderon RL. Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks -- United States, 1997 --1998. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000;49(4):1-21. [[150]PubMed] 14. Clavel A, Alivares JL, Fleta J, Castillo J, Varea M, Ramos FJ, et al. Seasonality of cryptosporidiosis in children. Eur J Clin Microbiol Inf Dis. 1996;15:77-9. 15. Kapperud G, Skjerve E, Bean NH, Ostroff SM, Lassen J. Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of a case --control study in southeastern Norway. J Clin Microbiol. 1992;30(12):3117-21. [[151]PubMed] 16. Neimann J, Engberg J, Molbak K, Wegener HC. A case --control study of risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections in Denmark. Epidemiol Infect. 2003;130(3):353-66. [[152]PubMed] 17. Curriero FC, Patz JA, Rose JB, Lele S. The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948 --1994. Am J Pub Health. 2001;91(8):1194-9. [[153]PubMed] 18. Fayer R, Trout JM, Lewis EJ, Xiao L, Lal A, Jenkins MC, et al. Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay. Parasitol Res. 2002;88(11):998-1003. [[154]PubMed] 19. Kistemann T, Classen T, Koch C, Dangendorf F, Fischeder R, Gebel J, et al. Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during extreme rainfall and runoff. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002;68(5):2188-97. [[155]PubMed] 20. MacKenzie WR, Hoxie NJ, Proctor ME, Gradus MS, Blair KA, Peterson DE, et al. A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of Cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med. 1994;331(3):161-7. [[156]PubMed] 21. Wade TJ, Sandhu SK, Levy D, Lee S, LeChevallier MW, Katz L, et al. Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms? Am J Epidemiol. 2004;159(4):398-405. [[157]PubMed] 22. World Health Organization. Using climate to predict infectious disease outbreaks: a review. World Health Organization; Geneva, Switzerland: 2004. Publication no. WHO/SDE/OEH/04.01. 23. Easterling DR, Evans JL. Observed variability and trends in extreme climate events. Bull Am Meteorol Soc. 2000;81:417-25. 24. Charron D, Thomas M, Waltner-Toews D, Aramini J, Edge T, Kent R, et al. Vulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a review. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004;67(20 --22):1667-77. [[158]PubMed] 25. Patz JA, Epstein PR, Burke TA, Balbus JM. Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996;275(3):217-23. [[159]PubMed] 26. Bentham G, Langford IH. Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England and Wales. Int J Biometeorol. 1995;39(2):81-6. [[160]PubMed] 27. Ebi KL, Schmier JK. A stitch in time: improving public health early warning systems for extreme weather events. Epidemiol Rev. 2005;27:115-21. [[161]PubMed] 28. da Silva Lopes ACB. Spurious deterministic seasonality and auto-correlation corrections with quarterly data: further Monte Carlo results. Empir Econ. 1999;24(2):341-59. __________________________________________________________________ PubMed articles by these authors * [162]Naumova, E. PubMed related articles * [163]ReviewSeasonality of infectious diseases. Annu Rev Public Health. 2007; 28:127-43. [Annu Rev Public Health. 2007] * [164]ReviewSeasonality and the dynamics of infectious diseases. Ecol Lett. 2006 Apr; 9(4):467-84. [Ecol Lett. 2006] * [165]Seasonal infectious disease epidemiology. Proc Biol Sci. 2006 Oct 7; 273(1600):2541-50. [Proc Biol Sci. 2006] * [166]Seasonal control for an endemic disease with seasonal fluctuations. Theor Popul Biol. 1988 Apr; 33(2):115-25. [Theor Popul Biol. 1988] * [167]Seasonality of primarily childhood and young adult infectious diseases in the United States. Chronobiol Int. 2006; 23(5):1065-82. [Chronobiol Int. 2006] * » [168]See reviews... | » [169]See all... Recent Activity [170]Clear [171]Turn Off [172]Turn On * [173]Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of NatureMystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature Your browsing activity is empty. Activity recording is turned off. [174]Turn recording back on Links * [175]PubMed * [176]Taxonomy * [177]Taxonomy Tree * [178]Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. Public Health Rep. 2000 Sep-Oct; 115(5):436-47. [Public Health Rep. 2000] * [179]Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance system in 1990-1999. J Water Health. 2005 Jun; 3(2):185-96. [J Water Health. 2005] * [180]Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in 1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from livestock animals. J Clin Microbiol. 2000 Nov; 38(11):3984-90. [J Clin Microbiol. 2000] [181]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [182]A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between rural Zaire and Ontario. Can J Public Health. 1989 May-Jun; 80(3):205-8. [Can J Public Health. 1989] [183]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [184]Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces and cross-contamination to foods. Int J Food Microbiol. 2003 Aug 25; 85(3):227-36. [Int J Food Microbiol. 2003] * [185]ReviewFood-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999 Sep-Oct; 5(5):607-25. [Emerg Infect Dis. 1999] * [186]The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries. Epidemiol Infect. 2004 Jun; 132(3):443-53. [Epidemiol Infect. 2004] [187]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [188]A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study). Water Sci Technol. 2001; 43(12):39-48. [Water Sci Technol. 2001] * [189]ReviewReview of epidemiological studies on health effects from exposure to recreational water. Int J Epidemiol. 1998 Feb; 27(1):1-9. [Int J Epidemiol. 1998] * [190]ReviewGiardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their impact on foods: a review. J Food Prot. 1999 Sep; 62(9):1059-70. [J Food Prot. 1999] * [191]Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks--United States, 1997-1998. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000 May 26; 49(4):1-21. [MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000] [192]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [193]Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of a case-control study in southeastern Norway. J Clin Microbiol. 1992 Dec; 30(12):3117-21. [J Clin Microbiol. 1992] * [194]A case-control study of risk factors for sporadic campylobacter infections in Denmark. Epidemiol Infect. 2003 Jun; 130(3):353-66. [Epidemiol Infect. 2003] [195]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [196]The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948-1994. Am J Public Health. 2001 Aug; 91(8):1194-9. [Am J Public Health. 2001] * [197]Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay. Parasitol Res. 2002 Nov; 88(11):998-1003. [Parasitol Res. 2002] * [198]Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during extreme rainfall and runoff. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002 May; 68(5):2188-97. [Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002] * [199]A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med. 1994 Jul 21; 331(3):161-7. [N Engl J Med. 1994] * [200]Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms? Am J Epidemiol. 2004 Feb 15; 159(4):398-405. [Am J Epidemiol. 2004] [201]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [202]ReviewVulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a review. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004 Oct 22-Nov 26; 67(20-22):1667-77. [J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004] * [203]Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996 Jan 17; 275(3):217-23. [JAMA. 1996] * [204]Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England and Wales. Int J Biometeorol. 1995 Nov; 39(2):81-6. [Int J Biometeorol. 1995] [205]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [206]ReviewA stitch in time: improving public health early warning systems for extreme weather events. Epidemiol Rev. 2005; 27():115-21. [Epidemiol Rev. 2005] [207]See more articles cited in this paragraph You are here: NCBI > [208]Literature > PubMed Central [209]Help Desk Simple NCBI Directory * Getting Started * [210]Site Map * [211]NCBI Help Manual * [212]NCBI Handbook * [213]Training & Tutorials * Resources * [214]Literature * [215]DNA & RNA * [216]Proteins * [217]Sequence Analysis * [218]Genes & Expression * [219]Genomes * [220]Maps & Markers * [221]Domains & Structures * [222]Genetics & Medicine * [223]Taxonomy * [224]Data & Software * [225]Training & Tutorials * [226]Homology * [227]Small Molecules * [228]Variation * Popular * [229]PubMed * [230]PubMed Central * [231]Bookshelf * [232]BLAST * [233]Gene * [234]Nucleotide * [235]Protein * [236]GEO * [237]Conserved Domains * [238]Structure * [239]PubChem * Featured * [240]GenBank * [241]Reference Sequences * [242]Map Viewer * [243]Genome Projects * [244]Human Genome * [245]Mouse Genome * [246]Influenza Virus * [247]Primer-BLAST * [248]Short Read Archive * NCBI Information * [249]About NCBI * [250]Research at NCBI * [251]NCBI Newsletter * [252]NCBI FTP Site * [253]Contact Us [254]NIH [255]DHHS [256]USA.gov [257]Copyright | [258]Disclaimer | [259]Privacy | [260]Accessibility | [261]Contact [262]National Center for Biotechnology Information , U.S. National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville Pike, Bethesda MD, 20894 USA Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [USEMAP] [USEMAP] #[1]Edit this page [2]Wikipedia (en) [3]copyright [4]Wikipedia RSS Feed [5]Wikipedia Atom Feed Circadian rhythm From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search "Human clock" redirects here. For the online clock, see [8]Humanclock. Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters. A circadian rhythm is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including [9]plants, [10]animals, [11]fungi and [12]cyanobacteria (see [13]bacterial circadian rhythms). The term "circadian", coined by [14]Franz Halberg,^[15][1] comes from the [16]Latin [17]circa, "around", and diem or dies, "day", meaning literally "approximately one day". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [18]tidal, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [19]chronobiology. Circadian rhythms are [20]endogenously generated, and can be entrained by external cues, called [21]zeitgebers, the primary one of which is [22]daylight. Contents * [23]1 History * [24]2 Criteria * [25]3 Origin * [26]4 Importance in animals + [27]4.1 Impact of light-dark cycle + [28]4.2 Arctic animals + [29]4.3 Butterfly migration * [30]5 Biological clock in mammals + [31]5.1 Determining the human circadian rhythm + [32]5.2 Outside the "master clock" * [33]6 Light and the biological clock * [34]7 Enforced longer cycles * [35]8 Human health + [36]8.1 Disruption + [37]8.2 Effect of drugs * [38]9 See also * [39]10 References + [40]10.1 Bibliography + [41]10.2 Notes * [42]11 External links [[43]edit] History The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [44]Alexander the Great, described [45]diurnal leaf movements of the [46]tamarind tree.^[47][2] The first modern observation of endogenous circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [48]Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant [49]Mimosa pudica continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli. In 1918, J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.^[50][3] [51]Joseph Takahashi discovered the genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.^[52][4]^[53][5] [[54]edit] Criteria To differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met: 1) the rhythms persist in the absence of cues, 2) they persist equally precisely over a range of temperatures, and 3) the rhythms can be adjusted to match the local time: * The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those "apparent" rhythms that are merely responses to external periodic cues. A rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been tested in conditions without external periodic input. * The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e., it maintains the same period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway. At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely coincidental. * The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [55]time zones illustrates the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next. Until rhythms are reset, a person usually experiences [56]jet lag. [[57]edit] Origin [58]Question book-new.svg This section needs additional [59]citations for [60]verification. Please help [61]improve this article by adding [62]reliable references. Unsourced material may be [63]challenged and [64]removed. (October 2007) Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [65]ultraviolet radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus [66]Neurospora, which exists today, retains this [67]clock-regulated mechanism. Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment.^[68][6] This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,^[69][7] as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian rhythms in quail.^[70][8] The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [71]cyanobacteria. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of Synechococcus elongatus can be reconstituted in vitro with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [72]ATP. Previous explanations of the [73]prokaryotic circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism. It is an unanswered question whether circadian clocks in eukaryotic organisms require translation/transcription-derived oscillations, for, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture (input - [74]central oscillator - output), they do not share any [75]homology. This implies probable independent origins. In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [76]Seymour Benzer first identified a genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behaviour: one had a shorter period, another had a longer one, and the third had none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named [77]period.^[78][9] The same gene was identified to be defective in the sleep disorder FASPS ([79]Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome) in human beings thirty years later, underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day. A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.^[80][10] At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronize the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [81]eyes travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock. [[82]edit] Importance in animals Circadian rhythmicity is present in the [83]sleeping and feeding patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear patterns of core body temperature, [84]brain wave activity, [85]hormone production, cell regeneration and other biological activities. In addition, [86]photoperiodism, the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation of day length. " Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food availability or predator activity is crucial for survival of many species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the photoperiod ('daylength') is the most predictive environmental cue for the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing of migration, hibernation and reproduction.^[87][11] " [[88]edit] Impact of light-dark cycle The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a [89]freerunning rhythm. Each "day", their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward, depending on whether their [90]endogenous period is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called [91]Zeitgebers (from the German, Time Givers).^[92][12] It is interesting to note that totally-blind subterranean mammals (e.g., [93]blind mole rat Spalax sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors (detect light) are still functional; as well, they do surface periodically.^[[94]citation needed] Freerunning organisms that normally have one consolidated sleep episode will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light/dark cycle in nature. The sleep-wake rhythm may, in these circumstances, become out of phase with other circadian or [95]ultradian rhythms such as [96]temperature and [97]digestion.^[[98]citation needed] Recent research has influenced the design of [99]spacecraft environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.^[[100]citation needed] [[101]edit] Arctic animals Norwegian researchers at the [102]University of Tromsø have shown that some Arctic animals ([103]ptarmigan, [104]reindeer) show circadian rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at [105]70 degrees North showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter, and spring, but not in the summer. Reindeer at [106]78 degrees North showed such rhythms only autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other Arctic animals as well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and the constant dark of winter.^[107][13]^[108][14] However, another study in northern Alaska found that [109]ground squirrels and [110]porcupines strictly maintained their circadian rhythms through 82 days and nights of sunshine. The researchers speculate that these two small mammals see that the apparent distance between the sun and the horizon is shortest once a day, and, thus, a sufficient signal to adjust by.^[111][15] [[112]edit] Butterfly migration The navigation of the fall migration of the [113]Eastern North American monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) to their overwintering grounds in central Mexico uses a time-compensated sun compass that depends upon a circadian clock in their antennae.^[114][16]^[115][17] [[116]edit] Biological clock in mammals Diagram illustrating the influence of light and darkness on circadian rhythms and related [117]physiology and behaviour through the [118]suprachiasmatic nucleus in humans. The primary circadian "clock" in [119]mammals is located in the [120]suprachiasmatic nucleus (or nuclei) ([121]SCN), a pair of distinct groups of [122]cells located in the [123]hypothalamus. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep-wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [124]retina of the eyes contains not only "classical" [125]photoreceptors but also photoresponsive retinal [126]ganglion cells. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called [127]melanopsin, follow a pathway called the [128]retinohypothalamic tract, leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues. It appears that the SCN takes the information on the lengths of the day and night from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [129]pineal gland, a tiny structure shaped like a [130]pine cone and located on the [131]epithalamus. In response the pineal secretes the hormone [132]melatonin. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day and its presence provides information about night-length. The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a 23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural solar day-night cycle on the planet [133]Mars).^[134][18] [[135]edit] Determining the human circadian rhythm The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's circadian rhythm are * melatonin secretion by the pineal gland and * core body temperature. For temperature studies, people must remain awake but calm and semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are taken continuously. The average human adult's temperature reaches its minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake time, though variation is great among normal [136]chronotypes. Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime. Its onset in dim light, dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO), at about 21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Its major [137]metabolite can also be measured in morning urine. Both DLMO and the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or saliva have been used as circadian markers. However, newer research indicates that the melatonin offset may be the most reliable marker. Benloucif et al. in Chicago in 2005 found that melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.^[138][19] One method used for measuring melatonin offset is to analyse a sequence of urine samples throughout the morning for the presence of the melatonin [139]metabolite 6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s). Laberge et al. in Quebec in 1997 used this method in a study that confirmed the frequently found delayed circadian phase in healthy adolescents.^[140][20] [[141]edit] Outside the "master clock" More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the "master clock". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the [142]oesophagus, [143]lungs, [144]liver, [145]pancreas, [146]spleen, [147]thymus, and the [148]skin.^[149][21] Though oscillators in the skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven so far.^[150][22]^[151][23] There is some evidence that also the olfactory bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting that also these structures may be weak oscillators. Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than to [152]light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have freerunning rhythms. [[153]edit] Light and the biological clock Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [154]phase response curve (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required [155]illuminance vary from species to species and lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans. Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm in humans are higher than the levels usually used in artificial lighting in homes. According to some researchers^[156][24] the illumination intensity that excites the circadian system has to reach up to 1000 [157]lux striking the retina. In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or colour) of light is a factor in the entrainment of the body clock. [158]Melanopsin is most efficiently excited by blue light, 420-440 nm^[159][25] according to some researchers while others have reported 470-485 nm. It is thought that the direction of the light may have an effect on entraining the circadian rhythm;^[160][24] light coming from above, resembling an image of a bright sky, has greater effect than light entering our eyes from below. [[161]edit] Enforced longer cycles Modern research under very controlled conditions has shown the human period for adults to be just slightly longer than 24 hours on average. Czeisler et al. at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes. The "clock" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's rotation.^[162][26] The 28-hour day is presented as a concept of [163]time management.^[164][27] It builds on the fact that the week of seven days at 24 hours and a "week" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of 168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours. Each "day" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern. Studies by [165]Nathaniel Kleitman^[166][28] in 1938 and by [167]Derk-Jan Dijk and [168]Charles Czeisler^[169][29]^[170][30] in 1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep-wake cycles, in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day,^[171][31] this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about 24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including [172]sleep latency and other functions.^[173][32] Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli like daylight and timekeeping. Early investigators determined the human circadian period to be 25 hours or more. They went to great lengths to shield subjects from time cues and daylight, but they were not aware of the effects of indoor electric lights. The subjects were allowed to turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase. These results became well known.^[174][26] Researchers allowed subjects to keep electric lighting on in the evening, as it was thought at that time that a couple of 60W bulbs would not have a resetting effect on the circadian rhythms of humans. More recent research^[[175]citation needed] has shown that adults have a built-in day, which averages just over 24 hours, that indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms and that most people attain their best-quality sleep during their [176]chronotype-determined sleep periods. [[177]edit] Human health Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with [178]angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [179]left ventricular (reverse) remodelling.^[[180]citation needed] A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms. A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during the day, a [181]power-nap, does not have any effect on normal circadian rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve productivity.^[182][33]^[183][34] There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the human circadian rhythm, such as [184]seasonal affective disorder (SAD), [185]delayed sleep phase syndrome (DSPS) and other [186]circadian rhythm disorders.^[187][35] Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [188]reticular activating system, which is crucial for maintaining a state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep-wake cycle may be a sign or complication of [189]uremia,^[190][36] [191]azotemia or [192]acute renal failure. [[193]edit] Disruption Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers have experienced the condition known as [194]jet lag, with its associated symptoms of [195]fatigue, disorientation and [196]insomnia. A number of other disorders, for example [197]bipolar disorder and some [198]sleep disorders, are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [199]bipolar disorder are positively influenced by [200]lithium's effect on clock genes.^[201][37] Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease [202][2] The suppression of melatonin production associated with the disruption of the circadian rhythm may increase the risk of developing cancer.^[203][38]^[204][39] [[205]edit] Effect of drugs Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such as [206]cocaine.^[207][40]^[208][41] Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.^[209][42] [[210]edit] See also * [211]Actigraphy (also known as Actimetry) * [212]Advanced sleep phase syndrome * [213]ARNTL * [214]ARNTL2 * [215]Bacterial circadian rhythms * [216]Chronobiology * [217]Chronotype * [218]Circadian oscillator * [219]Circadian rhythm sleep disorders * [220]Cryptochrome * [221]CRY1 and [222]CRY2, the cryptochrome family genes * [223]Delayed sleep phase syndrome * [224]Diurnal cycle * [225]Jet lag * [226]Light effects on circadian rhythm * [227]PER1, [228]PER2, and [229]PER3, the period family genes * [230]Power-nap [[231]edit] References [[232]edit] Bibliography * Aschoff J (ed.) (1965) Circadian Clocks. North Holland Press, Amsterdam * Avivi A, Albrecht U, Oster H, Joel A, Beiles A, Nevo E. 2001. Biological clock in total darkness: the Clock/MOP3 circadian system of the blind subterranean mole rat. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:13751-13756. * Avivi A, Oster H, Joel A, Beiles A, Albrecht U, Nevo E. 2002. Circadian genes in a blind subterranean mammal II: conservation and uniqueness of the three Period homologs in the blind subterranean mole rat, Spalax ehrenbergi superspecies. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:11718-11723. * Ditty JL, Williams SB, Golden SS (2003) A cyanobacterial circadian timing mechanism. Annu Rev Genet 37:513-543 * Dunlap JC, Loros J, DeCoursey PJ (2003) Chronobiology: Biological Timekeeping. Sinauer, Sunderland * Dvornyk V, Vinogradova ON, Nevo E (2003) Origin and evolution of circadian clock genes in prokaryotes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100:2495-2500 * Koukkari WL, Sothern RB (2006) Introducing Biological Rhythms. Springer, New York * Martino T, Arab S, Straume M, Belsham DD, Tata N, Cai F, Liu P, Trivieri M, Ralph M, Sole MJ. Day/night rhythms in gene expression of the normal murine heart. J Mol Med. 2004 Apr;82(4):256-64. Epub 2004 Feb 24. PMID: 14985853 * Refinetti R (2006) Circadian Physiology, 2nd ed. CRC Press, Boca Raton * Takahashi JS, Zatz M (1982) Regulation of circadian rhythmicity. Science 217:1104-1111 * Tomita J, Nakajima M, Kondo T, Iwasaki H (2005) No transcription-translation feedback in circadian rhythm of KaiC phosphorylation. Science 307: 251-254 * Moore-Ede, Martin C., Sulszman, Frank M., and Fuller, Charles A. (1982) "The Clocks that Time Us: Physiology of the Circadian Timing System." Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. [233]ISBN 0-674-13581-4. [[234]edit] Notes Centre 2. [237]^ Bretzl H. Botaniche Forchungen des Alexanderzuges. Leipzig: Teubner, 1903. 3. [238]^ Danchin, Antoine. [239]"Important dates 1900-1919". HKU-Pasteur Research Centre (Paris). 0.html. Retrieved 2008-01-12. 4. [241]^ "Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock". Chicago Tribune. April 29, 1994. 5. [242]^ Vitaterna, M.H.; King, D.P.; Chang, A.M.; Kornhauser, J.M.; Lowrey, P.L.; McDonald, J.D.; Dove, W.F.; Pinto, L.H. et al. (1994). "Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior.". Science 264 (264): 719-725. [243]doi:[244]10.1126/science.8171325. 6. [245]^ Sharma, Vijay Kumar (2003). [246]"Adaptive significance of circadian clocks" (Abstract). Chronobiology international 20 (6): 901-919. [247]doi:[248]10.1081/CBI-120026099. [249]ISSN [250]0742-0528. [251]PMID [252]14680135. Retrieved 2009-11-08. 7. [254]^ (Sheeba et al. 1999) 8. [255]^ (Guyomarc'h et al. 1998, Zivkovic et al. 1999) 9. [256]^ Purves, Dale et al (2001) [2001]. [257]"Molecular Mechanisms of Biological Clocks" (e-book). [258]NEUROSCIENCE (second ed.). Sunderland, MA, U.S.A.: Sinauer Associates. [259]ISBN [260]0-87893-742-0. 3. Retrieved 2008-05-30. 10. [262]^ [263]Circadian gene expression in individual fibroblast...[Cell. 2004] - PubMed Result 11. [264]^ Zivkovic, Bora "Coturnix" (2005-08-13 / July 25, 2007). [265]"Clock Tutorial #16: Photoperiodism - Models and Experimental Approaches". A Blog Around the Clock. ScienceBlogs. eriodi_1.php. Retrieved 2007-12-09. 12. [267]^ [268]"Circadian rhythms". Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. Armenian Medical Network. 2007. Retrieved 2007-09-19. 13. [270]^ Spilde, Ingrid (December 2005). [271]"Reinsdyr uten døgnrytme" (in Language: Norwegian, Bokmål). forskning.no. Retrieved 2007-11-24. 14. [273]^ Zivkovic, Bora, aka Coturnix, chronobiologist. [274]"Circadian Rhythms, or Not, in Arctic Reindeer". A Blog around the Clock. ScienceBlogs.com. _in_ar_1.php. Retrieved 2007-11-24. 15. [276]^ Zivkovic, Bora, aka Coturnix, chronobiologist (2007-02-11). [277]"Small Arctic Mammals Entrain to Something during the Long Summer Day". A Blog Around the Clock. ScienceBlogs.com. rain_t.php. Retrieved 2007-11-26. 16. [279]^ Merlin C, Gegear RJ, Reppert SM. (2009). Antennal Circadian Clocks Coordinate Sun Compass Orientation in Migratory Monarch Butterflies. Science 325: 1700-1704. [280]doi:[281]10.1126/science.1176221 17. [282]^ Kyriacou CP. (2009). Unraveling Traveling. Science 325:1629-1630 [283]doi:[284]10.1126/science.1178935 18. [285]^ Scheer, Frank A. J. L.; Kenneth P. Wright, Jr., Richard E. Kronauer, Charles A. Czeisler (2007-08-08). [286]"Plasticity of the Intrinsic Period of the Human Circadian Timing System". PLoS ONE 2 (1): e721. [287]doi:[288]10.1371/journal.pone.0000721. [289]PMID [290]17684566. [291]PMC [292]1934931. pone.0000721. Retrieved 2007-12-31. 19. [294]^ Benloucif, S.; Guico, M.J.; Reid, K.J.; Wolfe, L.F.; L'Hermite-Baleriaux, M.; Zee, P.C. (2005). [295]"Stability of melatonin and temperature as circadian phase markers and their relation to sleep times in humans". J Biol Rhythms (Chicago, Illinois, USA: Center for Sleep and Circadian Biology, Departments of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine) 20 (2): 178-88. [296]doi:[297]10.1177/0748730404273983. [298]PMID [299]15834114. issn=20045590. Retrieved 2007-12-18. 20. [301]^ Laberge, L.; Lesperance, P.; Tremblay, R.; Lambert, C.; Montplaisir, J. (1997). [302]"Phase delay of 6-sulphatoxymelatonin in normal adolescents". Sleep Research (Québec, Canada: Centre d'etude du Sommeil, Hopital du Sacre-Coeur, Département de Psychologie, Département de Pharmacologie, Departement de Psychiatrie, Université de Montréal) 26: 727. issn=19979287. Retrieved 2007-12-18. 21. [304]^ Zanello, S. et al., J. Inv. Dermatol. 2000, Vol. 115, 4 Oct.: Expression of the Circadian Clock Genes clock and period1 in Human Skin 22. [305]^ Kawara, S. et al. J. Inv. Derm. 2002, Vol 119, 6 Dec.: Low-dose UVB Rays Alter the mRNA Expression of the Circadian Clock Genes in cultured Human Keratinocytes 23. [306]^ Campbell, S. and Murphy, P, Science 1998, Vol 279, 16 Jan.: Extraocular Circadian Phototransduction in Humans 24. ^ [307]^a [308]^b Semjonova, Milena (2003). [309]"Healthy Lighting, from a lighting designer's perspective". Milena Lighting Design. 25. [311]^ Newman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: "Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment", Biochemistry. 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8. 26. ^ [312]^a [313]^b [314]"Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour". 1999. Retrieved 2007-09-23. "The variation between our subjects, with a 95 percent level of confidence, was no more than plus or minus 16 minutes, a remarkably small range." 27. [316]^ Digital Beat Productions (1997). [317]"28 Hour Day". 28. [319]^ Kleitman, Nathaniel (1962). Sleep and Wakefullness ed 2. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 29. [320]^ Dijk, Derk-Jan; Czeisler Charles (1994). "Paradoxical timing of the circadian rhythm of sleep propensity serves to consolidate sleep and wakefulness in humans". Neurosci Lett 166 (1): 63. [321]doi:[322]10.1016/0304-3940(94)90841-9. [323]PMID [324]8190360. 30. [325]^ Dijk, Derk-Jan; Czeisler Charles (1995). [326]"Contribution of the Circadian Pacemaker and the Sleep Homeostat to Sleep Propensity, Sleep Structure, Electrocephalographic Slow Waves, and Sleep Spindle Activity in Humans". J. Neurosci 15 (5): 3526. [327]PMID [328]7751928. 31. [330]^ Cromie, William J. (1999-07-15). [331]"Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour". The Harvard University Gazette. Retrieved 2008-02-19. 32. [333]^ Aldrich, Michael S (1999). [334]Sleep medicine. New York: Oxford University Press. [335]ISBN [336]0195129571. pg=RA1-PA65&dq=experimenting+with+the+28+hour+day&source=bl&ots=9R4 mo2fI1O&sig=om2zbYPnXnm_1HuZo2Tch6J1vyo&hl=en&ei=MBZeStGgIoyJkQWd17 znDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2. 33. [338]^ [339]"The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep". The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep. Behavioral medicine. 2001. Retrieved 2008-11-11. 34. [341]^ [342]"Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students". Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students. Liberty University. 2007. 3.htm. Retrieved 2008-11-11. 35. [344]^ [345]"Circadian Rhythms and Sleep". Circadian Rhythms and Sleep. Serendip. 2007. ml. Retrieved 2007-09-19. 36. [347]^ Sinert, Richard; Peter R Peacock, Jr (May 10, 2006). [348]"Renal Failure, Acute". eMedicine from WebMD. 2008-08-03. 37. [350]^ [351]NIMH · Science News from 2006 · Lithium Blocks Enzyme To Help Cells' Clocks Keep On Tickin' 38. [352]^ Straif K, Baan R, Grosse Y, Secretan B, El Ghissassi F, Bouvard V, Altieri A, Benbrahim-Tallaa L, Cogliano V, WHO International Agency for Research on Cancer Monograph Working Group. Carcinogenicity of shift-work, painting, and fire-fighting. [353][1] Lancet Oncol. 2007; 12(8):1065-1066. 39. [354]^ [355]WebMD: Night Shift Work May Cause Cancer 40. [356]^ Uz T, Akhisaroglu M, Ahmed R, Manev H (2003). "The pineal gland is critical for circadian Period1 expression in the striatum and for circadian cocaine sensitization in mice". Neuropsychopharmacology 28 (12): 2117-23. [357]doi:[358]10.1038/sj.npp.1300254. [359]PMID [360]12865893. 41. [361]^ Kurtuncu M, Arslan A, Akhisaroglu M, Manev H, Uz T (2004). "Involvement of the pineal gland in diurnal cocaine reward in mice". Eur J Pharmacol 489 (3): 203-5. [362]doi:[363]10.1016/j.ejphar.2004.03.010. [364]PMID [365]15087244. 42. [366]^ McClung C, Sidiropoulou K, Vitaterna M, Takahashi J, White F, Cooper D, Nestler E (2005). [367]"Regulation of dopaminergic transmission and cocaine reward by the Clock gene". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102 (26): 9377-81. [368]doi:[369]10.1073/pnas.0503584102. [370]PMID [371]15967985. [[372]edit] External links * [373]Circadian rhythm at the [374]Open Directory Project * Leloup J.C. (2009). "Circadian clocks and phosphorylation: Insights from computational modeling". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 4 (3): 290-303. [375]doi:[376]10.2478/s11535-009-0025-1. * Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A (2007). "Evolutionary mechanisms of circadian clocks". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 2 (2): 233-253. [377]doi:[378]10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z. [380]Categories: [381]Sleep | [382]Circadian rhythms | [383]Biology of bipolar disorder Hidden categories: [384]Articles needing additional references from October 2007 | [385]All articles needing additional references | [386]All articles with unsourced statements | [387]Articles with unsourced statements from September 2009 | [388]Articles with unsourced statements from November 2007 | [389]Articles with unsourced statements from January 2009 | [390]Articles with unsourced statements from December 2009 Views * [391]Article * [392]Discussion * [393]Edit this page * [394]History Personal tools * [395]Try Beta * [396]Log in / create account Navigation * [397]Main page * [398]Contents * [399]Featured content * [400]Current events * [401]Random article Search ____________________ Go Search Interaction * [402]About Wikipedia * [403]Community portal * [404]Recent changes * [405]Contact Wikipedia * [406]Donate to Wikipedia * [407]Help Toolbox * [408]What links here * [409]Related changes * [410]Upload file * [411]Special pages * [412]Printable version * [413]Permanent link * [414]Cite this page Languages * [415]Català * [416]Cesky * [417]Dansk * [418]Deutsch * [419]Ellynika' * [420]Español * [421]Français * [422]Italiano * [423]E+B+R+J+T+ * [424]Magyar * [425]Nederlands * [426]¥¬ * [427]ªNorsk (bokmål) * [428]ªNorsk (nynorsk) * [429]Polski * [430]Português * [431]Româna * [432]Russkij * [433]Simple English * [434]Srpski / Srpski * [435]Svenska * [436]a+r+d+w+ [437]Powered by MediaWiki [438]Wikimedia Foundation * This page was last modified on 16 January 2010 at 17:59. * Text is available under the [439]Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See [440]Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [441]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * [442]Contact us * [443]Privacy policy * [444]About Wikipedia * [445]Disclaimers Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1][dailyomlogo2.gif] Today's DailyOM brought to you by: [2][nav-signup.gif] [nav-line.gif] [3][nav-mydailyom.gif] [nav-line.gif] [4][nav-marketplace.gif] [nav-line.gif] [5][nav-community.gif] [nav-line.gif] [6][nav-courses.gif] [bambooborder2.jpg] [Articles......] _______________ [search.gif]-Submit [7][nav-giftshop.gif] [nav-line.gif] [8][nav-shoppingcart.gif] January 2, 2006 Universal Timing Life's Natural Rhythm Nature's natural rhythms orchestrate when day turns to night, when flowers must bloom, and provides the cue for when it is time for red and brown leaves to fall from trees. As human beings, our own inner rhythm is attuned to this universal sense of timing. Guided by the rising and setting of the sun, changes in temperature, and our own internal rhythm, we know when it is time to sleep, eat, or be active. While our minds and spirits are free to focus on other pursuits, our breath and our heartbeat are always there to remind us of life's pulsing rhythm that moves within and around us. Moving to this rhythm, we know when it is time to stop working and when to rest. Pushing our bodies to work beyond their natural rhythm diminishes our ability to renew and recharge. A feeling much like jet lag lets us know when we've overridden our own natural rhythm. When we feel the frantic calls of all we want to accomplish impelling us to move faster than is natural for us, we may want to breathe deeply instead and look at nature moving to its own organic timing: birds flying south, leaves shedding, or snow falling. A walk in nature can also let us re-attune is to her organic rhythm, while allowing us to move back in time with our own. When we move to our natural rhythm, we can achieve all we need to do with less effort. We may even notice that our soul moves to its own internal, natural rhythm - especially when it comes to our personal evolution. Comparing ourselves to others is unnecessary. Our best guide is to move to our own internal timing, while keeping time with the rhythm of nature. Click to follow DailyOM on [9]Twitter and [10]Facebook What do you think? [11]Discuss this article and share your opinion Want more DailyOM? [12]Register for your free email, or [13]browse all articles Life's Natural Rhythm Share the OM: [14][emailfriend.gif] [15]Email this to a friend [16][printerfriendly.gif] [17]Printable version [18][icon-mydailyom.gif] [19]Save in My DailyOM [20][icon-discuss.gif] [21]Discuss this article [22][horoscopes1.jpg] Today's friend of OM: Register now to receive your [23]free daily horoscope from DailyOM. 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For more information visit [24]DailyOM.com More DailyOM: [25]More Inspiration [26]Today's Horoscopes [27]OM Marketplace [28]Home | [29]Gift Shop | [30]My DailyOM | [31]Marketplace | [32]Community | [33]Archives | [34]Share The OM | [35]Contact Us [36]Subscribe | [37]Change Email | [38]User Settings | [39]Unsubscribe | [40]Privacy Policy | [41]Disclaimer | [42]Gift Shop FAQ | [43]Advertising Info [44]Make DailyOM Your Homepage | [45]Link To Us | [46]Publish DailyOM On Your Website © 2004-08 DailyOM - All Rights Reserved No portion of this site can be reprinted without express permission Artwork by [47]Wang Chang-Ming Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : #[1]Edit this page [2]Wikipedia (en) [3]copyright [4]Wikipedia RSS Feed [5]Wikipedia Atom Feed Rhythm From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search For other uses, see [8]Rhythm (disambiguation). Rhythm (from [9]greek rhuthµo'*s - rhythmos, "any measured flow or movement, symmetry") is the variation of the length and accentuation of a series of sounds or other events. Contents * [10]1 Rhythm in linguistics * [11]2 Origins of human appreciation of rhythm * [12]3 Rhythm notation and the oral tradition + [13]3.1 African music + [14]3.2 Indian music + [15]3.3 Western music * [16]4 Types * [17]5 See also * [18]6 Notes * [19]7 Sources * [20]8 Further reading [[21]edit] Rhythm in linguistics The study of rhythm, stress, and [22]pitch in [23]speech is called [24]prosody; it is a topic in [25]linguistics. Narmour (1980, p. 147-53) describes three categories of prosodic rules which create rhythmic successions which are additive (same duration repeated), cumulative (short-long), or countercumulative (long-short). Cumulation is associated with closure or relaxation, countercumulation with openness or tension, while additive rhythms are open-ended and repetitive. Richard Middleton points out this method cannot account for [26]syncopation and suggests the concept of [27]transformation. A [28]rhythmic unit is a [29]durational pattern which occupies a period of time equivalent to a [30]pulse or pulses on an underlying [31]metric level, as opposed to a [32]rhythmic gesture which does not (DeLone et al. (Eds.), 1975 [[33]edit] Origins of human appreciation of rhythm In his series How Music Works, [34]Howard Goodall presents theories that rhythm recalls how we walk and the heartbeat we heard in the womb. More likely is that a simple pulse or [35]di-dah beat recalls the footsteps of another person. Our sympathetic urge to dance is designed to boost our energy levels in order to cope with someone, or some animal chasing us - a fight or flight response. From a less darwinist perspective, perceiving rhythm is the ability to master the otherwise invisible dimension, time. Rhythm is possibly also rooted in courtship ritual.^[36][1] Neurologist [37]Oliver Sacks posits that human affinity for rhythm is fundamental, so much that a person's sense of rhythm cannot be lost in the way that music and language can (e.g. by [38]stroke). In addition, he states that [39]chimpanzees and other animals show no similar appreciation for rhythm.^[40][2] [[41]edit] Rhythm notation and the oral tradition Worldwide there are many different approaches to passing on rhythmic phrases and patterns, as they exist in traditional music, from generation to generation. [[42]edit] African music In the [43]Griot tradition of Africa everything related to music has been passed on orally. [44]Babatunde Olatunji (1927-2003), a Nigerian drummer who lived and worked in the [45]United States, developed a simple series of spoken sounds for teaching the rhythms of the hand drum. He used six vocal sounds: Goon Doon Go Do Pa Ta. There are three basic sounds on the drum, but each can be played with either the left or the right hand. This simple system is now used worldwide, particularly by [46]Djembe players. [[47]edit] Indian music Indian music has also been passed on orally. Tabla players would learn to speak complex rhythm patterns and phrases before attempting to play them. [48]Sheila Chandra, an English pop singer of Indian descent, made performances based around her singing these patterns. In [49]Indian Classical music, the [50]Tala of a composition is the rhythmic pattern over which the whole piece is structured. [[51]edit] Western music Standard [52]music notation contains rhythmic information and is adapted specifically for drums and percussion instruments. The drums are generally used to keep other instruments in 'time'. They do this by supplying beats/strikes in time at a certain pace, i.e. 70 beats per minute (bpm). In [53]Rock music, a drum beat is used to keep a [54]bass/[55]guitar line in time. [[56]edit] Types In [57]Western music, rhythms are usually arranged with respect to a [58]time signature, partially signifying a meter. The speed of the underlying [59]pulse is sometimes called the [60]beat. The [61]tempo is a measure of how quickly the pulse repeats. The tempo is usually measured in 'beats per minute' (bpm); 60 bpm means a speed of one beat per second. The length of the meter, or metric unit (usually corresponding with [62]measure length), is usually grouped into either two or three beats, being called [63]duple meter and [64]triple meter, respectively. If each beat is divided by two or four, it is [65]simple meter, if by three (or six) [66]compound meter. According to [67]Pierre Boulez, beat structures beyond four are "simply not natural".^[68][3]. His reference is to western European music. Standard notation of a clave pattern on audio clip clave pattern.ogg [69]Syncopated rhythms are rhythms that accent parts of the beat not already stressed by [70]counting. Playing simultaneous rhythms in more than one time signature is called [71]polymeter. See also [72]polyrhythm. In recent years, rhythm and meter have become an important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these areas includes books by [73]Maury Yeston, [74]Fred Lerdahl and [75]Ray Jackendoff, [76]Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty, William Rothstein, and Joel Lester. Grid notation of single a clave pattern Some [77]genres of music make different use of rhythm than others. Most Western music is based on [78]subdivision, while non-Western music uses more [79]additive rhythm. [80]African music makes heavy use of [81]polyrhythms, and [82]Indian music uses [83]complex cycles such as 7 and 13, while [84]Balinese music often uses complex [85]interlocking rhythms. By comparison, a lot of Western [86]classical music is fairly rhythmically (or metrically) simple; it stays in a [87]simple meter such as 4/4 or 3/4 and makes little use of [88]syncopation. [89]Clave is a common underlying rhythm in [90]African, [91]Cuban music, and [92]Brazilian music. [93]Claves (Submit) Play sound Four beats followed by three Clave patterns __________________________________________________________________ Problems listening to this file? See [94]media help. In the 20th century, [95]composers like [96]Igor Stravinsky, [97]Bela Bartok, [98]Philip Glass, and [99]Steve Reich wrote more rhythmically complex music using [100]odd meters, and techniques such as [101]phasing and [102]additive rhythm. At the same time, modernists such as [103]Olivier Messiaen and his pupils used increased complexity to disrupt the sense of a regular beat, leading eventually to the widespread use of [104]irrational rhythms in [105]New Complexity. This use may be explained by a comment of [106]John Cage's^[[107]where?] where he notes that regular rhythms cause sounds to be heard as a group rather than individually; the irregular rhythms highlight the rapidly changing pitch relationships that would otherwise be subsumed into irrelevant rhythmic groupings (Sandow 2004, p. 257). [108]LaMonte Young also wrote music in which the sense of a regular beat is absent because the music consists only of long sustained tones ([109]drones). In the 1930s, [110]Henry Cowell wrote music involving multiple simultaneous periodic rhythms and collaborated with [111]Léon Thérémin to invent the [112]Rhythmicon, the first electronic [113]rhythm machine, in order to perform them. Similarly, [114]Conlon Nancarrow wrote for the [115]player piano. [[116]edit] See also * [117]Meter (music) * [118]Prosody (linguistics) * [119]Riddim * [120]Morse Code * [121]Soul (music) * [122]Time scale (music) * [123]Timing (linguistics) [[124]edit] Notes 1. [125]^ [126]Mithen, Steven (2005). [127]The Singing Neanderthals: The Origins of Music, Language, Mind and Body.. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.. [128]ISBN [129]0297643177. 2. [131]^ [132]Jon Stewart, [133]Oliver Sacks. (2009-06-29). [134]The Daily Show with Jon Stewart. [Television production]. Comedy Central. itle=oliver-sacks. "People often tried to teach their dogs to dance--it doesn't work." 3. [136]^ In [137]Discovering Music: Rhythm with [138]Leonard Slatkin at 5:05 [[139]edit] Sources * Hasty, Christopher (1997). Meter as Rhythm. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [140]ISBN 0-19-510066-2. * London, Justin (2004). Hearing in Time: Psychological Aspects of Musical Meter. [141]ISBN 0-19-516081-9. * Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music. Philadelphia: Open University Press. [142]ISBN 0-335-15275-9. * Narmour (1980). Cited in DeLone et al. (Eds.) (1975). Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. [143]ISBN 0-13-049346-5. * Sandow, Greg (2004). "A Fine Madness", The Pleasure of Modernist Music. [144]ISBN 1-58046-143-3. * Yeston, Maury (1976). "The Stratification of Musical Rhythm". [[145]edit] Further reading * McGaughey, William (2001). "Rhythm and Self-Consciousness: New Ideals for an Electronic Civilization". Minneapolis: Thistlerose Publications. [146]ISBN 0-9605630-4-0. * Honing, H. (2002). [147]"Structure and interpretation of rhythm and timing." Tijdschrift voor Muziektheorie [Dutch Journal of Music Theory] 7(3): 227-232. * Lewis, Andrew (2005). Rhythm--What it is and How to Improve Your Sense of It. San Francisco: [148]RhythmSource Press. [149]ISBN 978-0-9754667-0-4. * Williams, C. F. A., The Aristoxenian Theory of Musical Rhythm, (Cambridge Library Collection - Music), Cambridge University Press; 1st edition, 2009. * Toussaint, G. T., "The geometry of musical rhythm," In J. Akiyama, M. Kano, and X. Tan, editors, Proceedings of the Japan Conference on Discrete and Computational Geometry, Vol. 3742, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2005, pp. 198-212. [150]v o [151]d o [152]e [153]Musical notation and [154]development [155]Staff [156]Bar & Bar line · [157]Clef · [158]Da capo · [159]Dal segno · [160]Key signature · [161]Ledger line · [162]Musical mode · [163]Musical scale · [164]Rehearsal letter · [165]Repeat sign · [166]Time signature · [167]Transposition · [168]Transposing instrument [169]G (treble) clef symbol [170]Notes [171]Accidental ([172]Flat · [173]Natural · [174]Sharp) · [175]Dotted note · [176]Grace note · [177]Note value ([178]Beam · [179]Note head · [180]Stem) · [181]Pitch · [182]Rest · [183]Interval · [184]Letter notation [185]Articulation [186]Dynamics · [187]Ornament ([188]Trill · [189]Mordent · [190]Grace note) · [191]Ossia · [192]Portato · [193]Accent · [194]Legato · [195]Tenuto · [196]Marcato · [197]Staccato · [198]Staccatissimo · [199]Tie · [200]Slur · [201]Fermata [202]Development [203]Coda · [204]Exposition · [205]Harmony · [206]Melody · [207]Motif · [208]Recapitulation · Rhythm ([209]Beat · [210]Meter · [211]Tempo) · [212]Theme · [213]Tonality · [214]Atonality Related [215]Chord chart · [216]Figured bass · [217]Graphic notation · [218]Lead sheet · [219]Eye music · [220]Modern musical symbols · [221]Neume · [222]Tablature [224]Categories: [225]Rhythm | [226]Greek loanwords Hidden categories: [227]Vague or ambiguous geographic scope Views * [228]Article * [229]Discussion * [230]Edit this page * [231]History Personal tools * [232]Try Beta * [233]Log in / create account Navigation * [234]Main page * [235]Contents * [236]Featured content * [237]Current events * [238]Random article Search ____________________ Go Search Interaction * [239]About Wikipedia * [240]Community portal * [241]Recent changes * [242]Contact Wikipedia * [243]Donate to Wikipedia * [244]Help Toolbox * [245]What links here * [246]Related changes * [247]Upload file * [248]Special pages * [249]Printable version * [250]Permanent link * [251]Cite this page Languages * [252]Bosanski * [253]Català * [254]Dansk * [255]Deutsch * [256]Eesti * [257]Español * [258]Esperanto * [259]f+a+r+s+ * [260]Français * [261]­´ * [262]Hrvatski * [263]Bahasa Indonesia * [264]Íslenska * [265]Italiano * [266]E+B+R+J+T+ * [267]¥ £ * [268]Latviesu * [269]Líguru * [270]Makedonski * [271]®²¯¾³ * [272]Nederlands * [273]¥¬ * [274]ªNorsk (bokmål) * [275]ªNorsk (nynorsk) * [276]Polski * [277]Português * [278]Russkij * [279]Simple English * [280]Slovencina * [281]Slovenscina * [282]Suomi * [283]Svenska * [284]Türkçe * [285]Ukrayins'ka * [286]­ [287]Powered by MediaWiki [288]Wikimedia Foundation * This page was last modified on 19 January 2010 at 00:26. * Text is available under the [289]Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See [290]Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [291]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * [292]Contact us * [293]Privacy policy * [294]About Wikipedia * [295]Disclaimers Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1]Daniel Laberge music Rhythm explained including 27 rhythm exercises by Daniel Laberge Rhythm figure Hi rhythm lovers, I've devised these exercises in the early seventies while teaching music. I could not find any existing book that saw rhythm the way I did. This method is based on "rhythmic figures" or rhythm possibilities. Each one lasts one beat. I simply counted the rhythmic possibilities one could encounter for each type of beat divisions. There are: o Four rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by two o Eight rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by three o Sixteen rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by four I composed the exercises back then and used them for my teaching, but I only wrote the theory that goes along in 2002. The book is called "Rhythm explained" and I am gradually placing its content here. Each exercise is preceded by a lesson, with graphic representations, and includes an audio rendition to help you. You can choose between three speeds. For jazz musicians, the binary exercises also have a swing or double swing performance. Go to the bottom of the page for a link to the swing version. Choose among the following exercises: Beat exercises [2]Rhythm exercise 1-1 Featured figures [3][onequarternote1.gif] [4] [onehalfnote1.gif] [5] [dottedhalfnote1.gif] [6] [wholenote1.gif] [7]Rhythm exercise 1-2 Featured figures [8][quarternoterest1.gif] [9] [halfnoterest1.gif] [10] [wholenoterest1.gif] [11]Rhythm exercise 1-3 Featured figures [12][quarternoterest1.gif] [13] [halfnoterest1.gif] [14] [dottedhalfnoterest1.gif] [15] [wholenoterest1.gif] Binary beat division The binary family is large as it includes: o Division by two o Division by four o Part of division by six o Division by eight This section is concerned with the simple division by two. Any binary beat has two alternating parts: the downbeat and the upbeat. Binary beat [binarybeat1.gif] As you can see, there are only two places in a beat where events or notes can be positioned or played: o The downbeat o The upbeat How rhythmic possibilities work This means that for any given beat you can have any of the four following possibilities: 1 o Only one event on the downbeat. 2 o Events on both the downbeat and the upbeat. 3 o No event at all. 4 o Only one event on the upbeat. [possibilitiesbytwosimple1.gif] The rhythmic figure used to represent a binary beat is called: TWO EIGHTH NOTES [masterfigurebinary1.gif] Binary master rhythmic figure Simple binary rhythmic figures 4 possibilities: o 2 Primary o 2 Secondary [possibilitiesbytwo1.gif] Secondary rhythmic figures lack the event that falls on the beat. There is a secondary figure for each primary one. Because the beat is so important, secondary figures have appeared after the primary ones had been well established. The absence of event falling on the beat can be due to a silence or a sound that is held over from the preceding beat. Because of this, there are two ways to notate secondary figures: o With a rest o With a tie [primarysecondary1.gif] Primary and secondary rhythmic figures Choose among the following exercises: Binary exercises PRIMARY [16]Rhythm exercise 2-1 Featured figure [17][twoeighthnotes2.gif] [18]Rhythm exercise 2-2 Featured figures [19][twoeighthnotes2.gif] [20] [quarternoterest2.gif] SECONDARY [21]Rhythm exercise 2-3 Featured figure [22][dottedquarternoteeighth2.gif] [23]Rhythm exercise 2-4 Featured figure [24][eighthnotesyncopationa2.gif] [25]Rhythm exercise 2-5 Featured figure [26][twoeighttieonequarter2.gif] MULTIPLE SYNCOPATIONS [27]Rhythm exercise 2-6 Featured figure [28][doublesyncopationa2.gif] Ternary beat division The ternary family is small as it includes: o Division by three o Part of division by six Everything goes in thirds in ternary music. Any ternary beat has one downbeat and two upbeats. Ternary beat [ternarybeat1.gif] The rhythmic figure used to represent a ternary beat is called: THREE EIGHTH NOTES [masterfigureternary1.gif] Ternary master rhythmic figure Writing ternary rhythm In ternary music writing, each eighth note is worth one third of a beat. Since two eighth notes always equal one quarter note, these now equal two thirds of a beat. It takes a dotted quarter note to represent one beat. [ternarywriting1.gif] Ternary rhythmic figures 8 possibilities: o 4 Primary o 4 Secondary [possibilitiesbythree1.gif] Choose among the following exercises: Ternary exercises PRIMARY [29]Rhythm exercise 3-1 Featured figure [30][threeeighth2.gif] [31]Rhythm exercise 3-2 Featured figure [32][onequarteroneeighth2.gif] [33]Rhythm exercise 3-3 Featured figure [34][oneeighthonequarter2.gif] SECONDARY [35]Rhythm exercise 3-1s Featured figure [36][8threst2eighth2.gif] OR [37] [tie3eighth2.gif] [38]Rhythm exercise 3-2s Featured figure [39][quarternoterestoneeighth2.gif] OR [40] [tiequarternote1eighth.gif] [41]Rhythm exercise 3-3s Featured figure [42][8threst1quarternote2.gif] OR [43] [tie1eighth1quarter2.gif] Division by four Beats divided by four are part of the binary family. Everything goes in quarters in this feel. Beat divided by four [binarybeat2.gif] The rhythmic figure used to represent a beat divided by four is called: FOUR SIXTEENTH NOTES [masterfigurebyfour1.gif] Division by four master rhythmic figure Binary rhythmic figures 16 possibilities: o 8 Primary o 8 Secondary [possibilitiesbyfour1.gif] Choose among the following exercises: Division by four exercises PRIMARY [44]Rhythm exercise 4-1 Featured figure [45][foursixteenth2.gif] [46]Rhythm exercise 4-2 Featured figure [47][oneeighthtwosixteenth2.gif] [48]Rhythm exercise 4-3 Featured figure [49][twosixteenthoneeighth2.gif] [50]Rhythm exercise 4-4 Featured figure [51][dottedeighthonesixteenth2.gif] [52]Rhythm exercise 4-5 Featured figure [53][onesixteenthdottedeighth2.gif] [54]Rhythm exercise 4-6 Featured figure [55][16th8th16th2.gif] SECONDARY [56]Rhythm exercise 4-1s Featured figure [57][16threst3sixteenth2.gif] OR [58] [tiefoursixteenth2.gif] [59]Rhythm exercise 4-2s Featured figure [60][8threst2sixteenth2.gif] OR [61] [tie1eighth2sixteenth2.gif] [62]Rhythm exercise 4-3s Featured figure [63][16threst1sixteenth1eighth2.gif] OR [64] [tie2sixteenth1eighth2.gif] [65]Rhythm exercise 4-4s Featured figure [66][dotted8threst1sixteenth2.gif] OR [67] [tiedottereight1sixteenth2.gif] [68]Rhythm exercise 4-5s Featured figure [69][16threstdotted8th.gif] OR [70] [tie16thdotted8th2.gif] [71]Rhythm exercise 4-6s Featured figure [72][16threst1eighth1sixteenth2.gif] OR [73] [tieone16thone8thone16th2.gif] [74]Bugs, problems and comments [75]Daniel Laberge music Références Liens visibles 74. javascript:; Liens cachés : [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Rhythm In Nature [7]page up: Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications | by Frederick R. Clow [8]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications. Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual training, recitation, gymnastics, and play. Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human [40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality. The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. . . . When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak. Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. - Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20. . . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight years in [42]duration are superposed. . . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135. Continue to: * prev: [43]Rhythm In Nature * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]The Cycle Of A Generation Tags [46]sociology, [47]communication, [48]congenial groups, [49]cycles of change, [50]democracy, [51]factors of society, [52]government, [53]heredity, [54]human nature, [55]institutions, [56]location, [57]natural selection, [58]organizations, [59]population, [60]primary groups, [61]social classes [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [62]TOP [63]previous page: Rhythm In Nature [64]page up: Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications | by Frederick R. Clow [65]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [66]StasoSphere [ [67]Privacy Policy ] [ [68]Terms of Use ] [ [69]About Us ] [ [70]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:34:34 2009 Références #[1]Welcome page [2]Help [3]Parent screen [4]skip navigation [5]Geography Compass Select Compass [Geography Compass........................] Go * [6]Home | * [7]My Compass | * [8]Help | * [9]Content Alerts | * [10]Contact Us | * [11]Links * [12]What is Geography Compass? | * [13]Subscribe | * [14]Editors | * [15]Editorial Board | * [16]Authors Cultural Towards Lefebvrian Socio-Nature? A Film about Rhythm, Nature and Science By [17]James Evans and [18]Phil Jones, School of Environment and Development, University of Manchester School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham (April 2008) __________________________________________________________________ Section: [19]Cultural Subjects: [20]Environment And Society, [21]Geography, [22]Urban Geography, [23]Cultural Geography. Key Topics: [24]nature , [25]representation. Abstract The first thing you will notice about this article is that it is actually a film. We did not set out to make a film, it just ended up that way. We started out making music out of environmental data, wondering why we only ever look at scientific data, why we do not listen to it. Wandering around the city passing through the transformed landscapes of channelised rivers and broken industrial spaces, we wanted to reveal the socio-natural rhythms of this hybrid city. The text you see below represents the shooting script for a film that explores Lefebvre's notion of rhythmanalysis in the context of socio-natural rhythms. The video accompanying it is far more interesting, including the environmental music that we produced by feeding scientific data through samplers and drum machines. The video questions the nature of scientific representation and whether the notion of rhythmanalysis can be stretched to explore rhythms beyond the human. Furthermore, the process of actually making the video, submitting it to this journal, and responding to the referees' comments made us question the very nature of what constitutes an academic paper in the twenty-first century. The accompanying commentary is our attempt to deal with these issues. To link to the film please go to DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00107.x This article abstract has been viewed 5348 times. [27]view [28]cite [29]Add to my Compass [30]Add to VLE/CMS [31]feedback __________________________________________________________________ Top 5 related articles * [32]Geographies for Moving Bodies: Thinking, Dancing, Spaces By [33]Derek P. McCormack , Oxford University Centre for the Environment (Vol. 3, October 2008) Geography Compass * [34]Colonialism, Landscape and the Subterranean By [35]Heidi V. Scott , Institute of Geography and Earth Sciences, Aberystwyth University (Vol. 3, October 2008) Geography Compass * [36]Climate-Suicide Relationships: A Research Problem in Need of Geographic Methods and Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives By P. Grady Dixon and Adam J. Kalkstein, Mississippi State UniversityUnited States Military Academy (Vol. 4, September 2009) Geography Compass * [37]Ethnomethodology and the Non-representational: What Are Disaffected Young White Men Capable of? 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By James Donald From [47]Companion to the City * [48]The Production of Nature It may seem strange to include a chapter on the production of nature in a volume about economic geography. ... 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Mike Bradshaw and Basil Gomez Geography Compass Editors-in-Chief [70]Blackwell Publishing Copyright © 2005-2007 [71]Blackwell Publishing | [72]Privacy Policy | [73]Contact us | [74]Help | [75]To the top... [76][ access key 0 : accessibility information including access key list ] [77][ access key 1 : home page ] [78][ access key 2 : skip navigation] [79][ access key 6 : help ] Références [1]pmc logo image [2]Logo of nihpa [3]Journal List > [4]NIHPA Author Manuscripts Formats: * [5]Abstract | * Full Text | * [6]PDF (32K) J Public Health Policy. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2008 July 24. Published in final edited form as: [7]J Public Health Policy. 2006; 27(1): 2-12. doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200061. PMCID: PMC2483431 NIHMSID: NIHMS58476 [8]Copyright notice and [9]Disclaimer Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature Elena N. Naumova^* ^*Address for Correspondence: Department of Public Health and Family Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Avenue, Boston, MA 02111, USA. E-mail: elena.naumova/at/tufts.edu Small right arrow pointing to: The publisher's final edited version of this article is available at [10]J Public Health Policy. Small right arrow pointing to: See other articles in PMC that [11]cite the published article. Abstract Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences. Understanding seasonal fluctuations in diseases patterns presents us with a major challenge. To develop efficient strategies for disease prevention and control, we need to grasp the main determinants of temporal variations and their interactions. This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality by outlining several of its factors, using as illustrations respiratory and enteric water- or food-borne infections. Keywords: seasonality, water-borne infection, food-borne infection, respiratory infection * [12] Other Sectionsv + [13]Abstract + [14]Introduction + [15]Notion of Seasonality + [16]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [17]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [18]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [19]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [20]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [21]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [22]References Introduction Now let us consider the seasons and the way we can predict whether it is going to be a healthy or an unhealthy year. (Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 10)^[23]1 Seasonal fluctuations in birth and death, in sickness and health, are the haunting mysteries of mankind. People have made predictions from winds, tides, birds' migrations, spring blooms, sunsets, and constellations in hope of grasping the future. The complexity and uncertainty of ancient and modern means of prediction make us wonder to what extent we are able to understand the rhythm of nature. One might argue the future cannot be known, but from a practical point of view, a better understanding of changes in disease occurrences is essential for building efficient strategies for disease prevention and control. Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences. Since Hippocrates, observers worldwide have noted and documented marked fluctuations in the incidence of many diseases. In the modern view, the main determinants of temporal variations in disease manifestation are evolving host susceptibility, periodicity in pathogen abundance and transmissibility, and the ever-changing environment that can support or repress a host or pathogen. Interactions among these factors responsible for seasonal variation are interwoven into the intricate fabric of life. For many diseases, explanations for self-sustained oscillations still remain elusive. We lack adequate methods and sufficient analytical tools for comprehensive examination of seasonality in public health field studies. A dearth of observations, recorded over long periods at fine resolution, compounded by an enormous number of factors associated with periodic changes, obscure our ability to understand disease variation. Urgent need for effective strategies to prevent and control a spread of emerging infections in the rapidly changing world, however, demands a deeper insight into the cyclic nature of diseases. This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality and outline several factors associated with seasonality using as illustrations enteric water- or food-borne infections and respiratory infections. Then I propose a framework for systematic evaluation of seasonal oscillations. In every part of this presentation, and most importantly, I wish to stimulate discussion on this challenging topic. * [24] Other Sectionsv + [25]Abstract + [26]Introduction + [27]Notion of Seasonality + [28]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [29]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [30]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [31]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [32]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [33]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [34]References Notion of Seasonality Every disease occurs at any season of the year but some of them more frequently occur and are of greater severity at certain times. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 19) Seasonality, as noted above, refers to the cyclic appearance of events over a period of time. A seasonal pattern may appear as a tight cluster of isolated outbreaks that occurred during a relatively short time period, then spreading over a wide geographic area. For example, in a temporal curve of enteric infection cases (i.e. giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, or rotavirus infections), a compact cluster of outbreaks is followed by a long interval of low incidence. Systematic recurrence of such sequences forms a seasonal pattern typical of a specific pathogen in a given population and in a given locality. A seasonal increase in enteric or respiratory infection often produces a well-defined oscillating curve that starts to rise in one season and declines over the next one. The three main features characterize seasonality: * a point in time when a seasonal curve reaches its maximum, * an amplitude from peak to nadir, and * a duration of a seasonal increase defined by a shape of a curve. (The shape of a seasonal pattern reflects how fast a temporal curve reaches its peak and declines to nadir over a course of a full cycle. Depending on the length of a cycle whether it is one year or a half of a year, a seasonal curve would have one or two peaks.) Seasonal patterns, described by these three characteristics, may vary for different diseases, different locations, or different subpopulations. Many viral and bacterial infections in humans show marked seasonal changes. In some diseases, like salmonellosis and influenza, annual oscillations explain up to 60% of variability. Such impact should not be ignored and deserves a proper examination. * [35] Other Sectionsv + [36]Abstract + [37]Introduction + [38]Notion of Seasonality + [39]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [40]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [41]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [42]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [43]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [44]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [45]References Diseases Seasonal Patterns Diseases vary in their relationships one with another; some are opposed, some are mutually agreeable. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 3) Differences in diseases peaks reflect different etiology, heterogeneity in host susceptibility, or route of transmission. In temperate climates, Campylobacter and Salmonella infections are known to rise in summer, giardiasis in early fall, and rotavirus infection in mid-winter, etc. Interestingly, for the same infectious agent, infections recorded in two different locations may present a different pattern of incidence. A seasonal pattern for cryptosporidiosis in the United States exhibits one late summer peak ([46]1); in contrast, in the United Kingdom, two seasonal peaks are seen ([47]2). The UK picture reflects two dominant sources of exposure: one from animals in the late spring, and another from humans in the fall ([48]3). Close temporal clustering of seasonal peaks in diseases that share similar sources of exposure suggests dominant routes of transmissions. Peaks in water-borne cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis often cluster after a summer peak in ambient temperature. Such synchronization in disease manifestation can be governed by environmental and social factors. In some instances, periodicity of a given infection observed in a particular population may be not present in another. A seasonal peak in cryptosporidiosis cases observed in the general population is not apparent in the immunocompromized HIV-positive gay men, even though the incidence of cryptosporidiosis in HIV-positive population is very high. This suggests differences in dominant routes of transmission. Seasonal patterns can change over time. After intense vaccination campaigns in the 1950s and 1970s in the United Kingdom, the patterns of measles and pertussis changed, with the high rates of disease usually seen when children were attending school diminishing for measles and practically disappearing for pertusis ([49]4). Explanations for these phenomena remain elusive. A departure from a systematically observed pattern could reflect the evolution of a pathogen or a change in herd immunity. A simple rule to remember is that a discovery hides in outliers. Faced with an abundance of causal agents, a bare observation of a rise in the incidence of non-specific enteritis should be interpreted with caution. A seasonal pattern can represent a mix of temporal curves. Imagine two periodic curves of similar intensity, but one peaks in a spring and another in a fall; the sum of these two curves might lose the appearance of seasonality, covering two distinctly seasonal phenomena. Some infections are very rare. Their seasonal patterns are difficult to examine because the relevant data must be collected over a very long time and/or aggregated over large spatial units. Precision in evaluating seasonality can thus be jeopardized by time-dependent and/or space-dependent confounders. Seasonal fluctuations can be found beyond infectious diseases; chronic somatic diseases also exhibit substantial temporal variations. Plausibly, exacerbations in chronic conditions are driven by infectious agents or environmental changes. Understanding the interplay of an infection and a chronic disease may lead to better control for both. * [50] Other Sectionsv + [51]Abstract + [52]Introduction + [53]Notion of Seasonality + [54]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [55]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [56]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [57]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [58]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [59]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [60]References Seasonal Host Susceptibility When the weather is seasonable and the crops ripen at the regular times, diseases are regular in their appearance... (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 8) Poor nutrition directly affects host susceptibility. In places of food scarcity, researchers suspect that temporal patterns in birth weight and preterm delivery result from seasonal variations in food availability ([61]5). In general, due to a less developed immune system, young children are susceptible to infection; their immune response may be further weakened by seasonal cutbacks in essential micronutrients and vitamins. Anemnestic responses to an antigen determine whether an infection recurs. Short-lived immune memory together with seasonal changes in pathogen transmissibility contribute further to the complexity of seasonal patterns. Even a perfectly healthy person can experience a change in susceptibility to infection due to stress, injuries, or trauma. The probability of a marked impact of such factors on disease seasonality is virtually unknown. * [62] Other Sectionsv + [63]Abstract + [64]Introduction + [65]Notion of Seasonality + [66]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [67]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [68]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [69]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [70]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [71]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [72]References Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility Some diseases are produced by the manner of life that is followed; others by the life-giving air we breathe. (Hippocrates. The Nature of Man, 9) Temperature, humidity, and precipitation -- the defining factors of seasons -- are important determinants of pathogens' survival. Changes influence pathogens' potency and life expectancy, resulting in temporal fluctuations in pathogens' abundance. In many instances, seasonal changes in pathogen survival and transmission are inseparably related to both biological and social aspects of our lives. They are synchronized by weather. High ambient temperature, for example, provides a supportive environment for food-borne pathogens, favoring their multiplication in food and on food preparation surfaces ([73]6). Food contamination is believed to be a significant mode of transmission for infections caused by Salmonella and Campylobacter ([74]7); therefore, during warm weather, the risk for food-borne diseases increases ([75]8). Seasonal changes in level of contamination, availability of potable water, sanitation and hygiene practices, as well as crowding and person-to-person contacts, affect pathogens' transmissibility. Worldwide, water use differs from season to season ([76]9). In temperate climates, warm weather leads to higher water consumption and encourages outdoor activities -- swimming, camping, and recreational water use. In tropical regions, contamination of surface water increases during wet seasons. Although spread of pathogens via food is certainly possible, contaminated water is the dominant source of exposure for enteric infections caused by protozoa Cryptosporidium and Giardia ([77]10 --[78]12). Depending on locality, outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis associated with drinking or recreational water frequently occur during warm or wet seasons ([79]13,[80]14). With the onset of cooler weather, the "heating season" marks a change in indoor air quality. Inadequate and poorly designed ventilation in crowded public places and urban transit systems may boost exposure to air-borne pathogens by increasing their concentration in stagnant air and by re-circulating contaminated air. Higher relative humidity may also affect the stability of air-borne droplets in which viruses travel from person to person. * [81] Other Sectionsv + [82]Abstract + [83]Introduction + [84]Notion of Seasonality + [85]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [86]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [87]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [88]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [89]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [90]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [91]References Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects You will find, as a general rule, that the constitutions and the habits of a people follow the nature of the land where they live. (Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 24) Diseases do not watch calendars. Their incidence rises and falls because of changes in factors associated with the diseases. However, in every culture all social events are synchronized by calendars; and every calendar reflects the cyclic rhythm of nature. Traditional celebrations and gatherings observed by communities according to calendars affect pathogen transmission. Holidays, social activities, and seasonal travel are often associated with changes in food consumption and preparation, and are therefore associated with changes in disease incidence. Preparing meat on a barbecue increases the risk of Campylobacter infection ([92]15,[93]16) and foreign travel increases the risk for enteric infections. Aggregation of children in schools, daycare centers, and summer camps, reflecting school calendars, facilitates rapid exchange of pathogens. There are marked seasonal variations in transmission, and thus the incidence of enteric and respiratory infections. * [94] Other Sectionsv + [95]Abstract + [96]Introduction + [97]Notion of Seasonality + [98]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [99]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [100]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [101]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [102]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [103]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [104]References Climate Change, Extreme Weather Events, and Disease Seasonality The changes of the seasons are especially liable to beget diseases, as are great changes from heat to cold, or cold to heat in any season. Other changes in the weather have similarly severe effects. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 1) As weather affects human health by creating favorable conditions for pathogen proliferation and transmission, severe weather can affect the timing and intensity of infectious outbreaks, and natural disasters lead to drastic changes in population structure and pathogen ecology. Catastrophic events like tsunamis, hurricanes, devastating floods, and heat waves that cause deaths, population displacement, and infrastructural damage may have dramatic effects on the incidence of infections and their seasonal patterns. Recent work has shown highly significant associations between extreme precipitation and water-borne disease outbreaks ([105]17). Heavy precipitation, rapid snowmelt, and floods flush animal wastes from the land into surface waters and may overwhelm drinking and wastewater treatment systems. The latter leads to discharges in watersheds of untreated human wastes. As a result, pathogens can appear in drinking and recreational water in very high concentrations ([106]18,[107]19). A rapid snowmelt, resultant runoff, and filtration system failure at the overloaded local drinking water treatment plant were implicated in the largest known water-borne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis, which occurred in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1993 ([108]20). This outbreak happened in April, not within the usual seasonal peak for cryptosporidiosis cases. A flood, which also resulted from a rapid snowmelt, has been linked with a similar increased incidence of diarrhea ([109]21). Experts expect that global climate change will increase climate variability and the frequency of extreme precipitation events in temperate regions ([110]22,[111]23). "Global warming" may also increase the frequency and magnitude of other extreme weather events, such as heat waves and droughts, and thereby have profound effects on public health ([112]24,[113]25). In a comprehensive study conducted in the United Kingdom that described a short-term link between temperature and food poisoning, the authors also hypothesized that climate change could lead to changes in rates of food poisoning ([114]26). Integration of environmental parameters into disease forecasting and warning systems could allow public health officials to alert the populace when specific meteorological conditions pose predictable risks to health ([115]27). Simple messages about proper food preparation and refrigeration and the risks of using contaminated recreational waters could, for example, be provided before, during, and after extreme events. Better understanding of disease seasonality would also help to predict outbreaks of infections triggered by climate variability. * [116] Other Sectionsv + [117]Abstract + [118]Introduction + [119]Notion of Seasonality + [120]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [121]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [122]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [123]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [124]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [125]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [126]References Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking Desperate cases need the most desperate remedies. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, I, 6) At first, seasonal fluctuations should be systematically described. This requires a framework with sound definitions and analytic tools suitable for routine use by public health professionals. In public health sciences, the existing methodology currently lacks methods and tests for assessing complex interactions in the time-dependent factors responsible for disease seasonality. Next, reliable data with fine temporal resolution are a must. The vast majority of epidemiological studies have examined seasonal patterns of infections using quarterly or monthly data. This coarse temporal aggregation can thwart an otherwise detailed, accurate, and comprehensive analysis of seasonal patterns and may even be misleading ([127]28). Examination of daily or weekly rates can substantially improve evaluation of seasonal curves, but a systematic approach for using at least weekly aggregates is needed. Finally, reluctance to apply sophisticated mathematical models in public health studies must be overcome. Underlying processes in disease manifestation and spread are complex and multifaceted. Causal pathways are often obscured. To disentangle causal effects of many factors within the circular processes of self-sustaining oscillations demands the careful building of sound conceptual models of seasonality; models that can be tested. The emerging fields of computational epidemiology and intelligent data mining will complement established work in philosophy of science and mathematical biology to become an essential part of thinking in public health and policy. Acknowledgments I thank Drs Eileen O'Neil and Beth Rosenberg for their thoughtful suggestions, and the support of funding agencies: the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (U19AI062627), and the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R01ES013171). Footnotes ^1Hippocrates' citations are taken from: Lloyd, GER, editor. Hippocratic Writings. Trans. Chadwick J and Mann WN. London: Penguin; 1978. * [128] Other Sectionsv + [129]Abstract + [130]Introduction + [131]Notion of Seasonality + [132]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [133]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [134]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [135]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [136]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [137]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [138]References References 1. Naumova EN, Chen JT, Griffiths JK, Matyas BT, Estes-Smargiassi SA, Morris RD. Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. Public Health Rep. 2000;115(5):436-47. [[139]PubMed] 2. Naumova EN, Christodouleas J, Hunter PR, Syed Q. Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance system in 1990 --1999. J Water Health. 2005;3(2):185-96. [[140]PubMed] 3. McLauchlin J, Amar C, Pedraza-Diaz S, Nichols GL. Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in 1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from livestock animals. J Clin Microbiol. 2000;38(11):3984-90. [[141]PubMed] 4. Anderson RM, May RM. Infectious Diseases of Humans. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004. 5. Fallis G, Hilditch J. A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between rural Zaire and Ontario. Can J Public Health. 1989;80(3):205-8. [[142]PubMed] 6. Kusumaningrum HD, Riboldi G, Hazeleger WC, Beumer RR. Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces and cross-contamination to foods. Int J Food Microbiol. 2003;85(3):227-36. [[143]PubMed] 7. Mead PS, Slutsker L, Dietz V, McCaig LF, Bresee JS, Shapiro C, et al. Food-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999;5(5):607-25. [[144]PubMed] 8. Kovats RS, Edwards SJ, Hajat S, Armstrong BG, Ebi KL, Menne B. The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries. Epidemiol Infect. 2004;132(3):443-53. [[145]PubMed] 9. Gofti-Laroche L, Gratacap-Cavallier B, Genoulaz O, Joret JC, Hartemann P, Seigneurin JM, et al. A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study). Water Sci Technol. 2001;43(12):39-48. [[146]PubMed] 10. Pruss A. Review of epidemiological studies on health effects from exposure to recreational water. Int J Epidemiol. 1998;27(1):1-9. [[147]PubMed] 11. Rose JB, Huffman DE, Riley K, Farrah SR, Lukasik JO, Hamann CL. Reduction of enteric microorganisms at the Upper Occoquan Sewage Authority Water Reclamation Plant. Water Environ Res. 2001;73(6):711-20. [[148]PubMed] 12. Rose JB, Slifko TR. Giardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their impact on foods: a review. J Food Prot. 1999;62(9):1059-70. [[149]PubMed] 13. Barwick RS, Levy DA, Craun GF, Beach MJ, Calderon RL. Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks -- United States, 1997 --1998. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000;49(4):1-21. [[150]PubMed] 14. Clavel A, Alivares JL, Fleta J, Castillo J, Varea M, Ramos FJ, et al. Seasonality of cryptosporidiosis in children. Eur J Clin Microbiol Inf Dis. 1996;15:77-9. 15. Kapperud G, Skjerve E, Bean NH, Ostroff SM, Lassen J. Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of a case --control study in southeastern Norway. J Clin Microbiol. 1992;30(12):3117-21. [[151]PubMed] 16. Neimann J, Engberg J, Molbak K, Wegener HC. A case --control study of risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections in Denmark. Epidemiol Infect. 2003;130(3):353-66. [[152]PubMed] 17. Curriero FC, Patz JA, Rose JB, Lele S. The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948 --1994. Am J Pub Health. 2001;91(8):1194-9. [[153]PubMed] 18. Fayer R, Trout JM, Lewis EJ, Xiao L, Lal A, Jenkins MC, et al. Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay. Parasitol Res. 2002;88(11):998-1003. [[154]PubMed] 19. Kistemann T, Classen T, Koch C, Dangendorf F, Fischeder R, Gebel J, et al. Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during extreme rainfall and runoff. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002;68(5):2188-97. [[155]PubMed] 20. MacKenzie WR, Hoxie NJ, Proctor ME, Gradus MS, Blair KA, Peterson DE, et al. A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of Cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med. 1994;331(3):161-7. [[156]PubMed] 21. Wade TJ, Sandhu SK, Levy D, Lee S, LeChevallier MW, Katz L, et al. Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms? Am J Epidemiol. 2004;159(4):398-405. [[157]PubMed] 22. World Health Organization. Using climate to predict infectious disease outbreaks: a review. World Health Organization; Geneva, Switzerland: 2004. Publication no. WHO/SDE/OEH/04.01. 23. Easterling DR, Evans JL. Observed variability and trends in extreme climate events. Bull Am Meteorol Soc. 2000;81:417-25. 24. Charron D, Thomas M, Waltner-Toews D, Aramini J, Edge T, Kent R, et al. Vulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a review. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004;67(20 --22):1667-77. [[158]PubMed] 25. Patz JA, Epstein PR, Burke TA, Balbus JM. Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996;275(3):217-23. [[159]PubMed] 26. Bentham G, Langford IH. Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England and Wales. Int J Biometeorol. 1995;39(2):81-6. [[160]PubMed] 27. Ebi KL, Schmier JK. A stitch in time: improving public health early warning systems for extreme weather events. Epidemiol Rev. 2005;27:115-21. [[161]PubMed] 28. da Silva Lopes ACB. Spurious deterministic seasonality and auto-correlation corrections with quarterly data: further Monte Carlo results. Empir Econ. 1999;24(2):341-59. __________________________________________________________________ PubMed articles by these authors * [162]Naumova, E. PubMed related articles * [163]ReviewSeasonality of infectious diseases. Annu Rev Public Health. 2007; 28:127-43. [Annu Rev Public Health. 2007] * [164]ReviewSeasonality and the dynamics of infectious diseases. Ecol Lett. 2006 Apr; 9(4):467-84. [Ecol Lett. 2006] * [165]Seasonal infectious disease epidemiology. Proc Biol Sci. 2006 Oct 7; 273(1600):2541-50. [Proc Biol Sci. 2006] * [166]Seasonal control for an endemic disease with seasonal fluctuations. Theor Popul Biol. 1988 Apr; 33(2):115-25. [Theor Popul Biol. 1988] * [167]Seasonality of primarily childhood and young adult infectious diseases in the United States. Chronobiol Int. 2006; 23(5):1065-82. [Chronobiol Int. 2006] * » [168]See reviews... | » [169]See all... Recent Activity [170]Clear [171]Turn Off [172]Turn On * [173]Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of NatureMystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature Your browsing activity is empty. Activity recording is turned off. [174]Turn recording back on Links * [175]PubMed * [176]Taxonomy * [177]Taxonomy Tree * [178]Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. Public Health Rep. 2000 Sep-Oct; 115(5):436-47. [Public Health Rep. 2000] * [179]Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance system in 1990-1999. J Water Health. 2005 Jun; 3(2):185-96. [J Water Health. 2005] * [180]Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in 1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from livestock animals. J Clin Microbiol. 2000 Nov; 38(11):3984-90. [J Clin Microbiol. 2000] [181]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [182]A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between rural Zaire and Ontario. Can J Public Health. 1989 May-Jun; 80(3):205-8. [Can J Public Health. 1989] [183]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [184]Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces and cross-contamination to foods. Int J Food Microbiol. 2003 Aug 25; 85(3):227-36. [Int J Food Microbiol. 2003] * [185]ReviewFood-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999 Sep-Oct; 5(5):607-25. [Emerg Infect Dis. 1999] * [186]The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries. Epidemiol Infect. 2004 Jun; 132(3):443-53. [Epidemiol Infect. 2004] [187]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [188]A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study). Water Sci Technol. 2001; 43(12):39-48. [Water Sci Technol. 2001] * [189]ReviewReview of epidemiological studies on health effects from exposure to recreational water. Int J Epidemiol. 1998 Feb; 27(1):1-9. [Int J Epidemiol. 1998] * [190]ReviewGiardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their impact on foods: a review. J Food Prot. 1999 Sep; 62(9):1059-70. [J Food Prot. 1999] * [191]Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks--United States, 1997-1998. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000 May 26; 49(4):1-21. [MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000] [192]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [193]Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of a case-control study in southeastern Norway. J Clin Microbiol. 1992 Dec; 30(12):3117-21. [J Clin Microbiol. 1992] * [194]A case-control study of risk factors for sporadic campylobacter infections in Denmark. Epidemiol Infect. 2003 Jun; 130(3):353-66. [Epidemiol Infect. 2003] [195]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [196]The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948-1994. Am J Public Health. 2001 Aug; 91(8):1194-9. [Am J Public Health. 2001] * [197]Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay. Parasitol Res. 2002 Nov; 88(11):998-1003. [Parasitol Res. 2002] * [198]Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during extreme rainfall and runoff. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002 May; 68(5):2188-97. [Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002] * [199]A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med. 1994 Jul 21; 331(3):161-7. [N Engl J Med. 1994] * [200]Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms? Am J Epidemiol. 2004 Feb 15; 159(4):398-405. [Am J Epidemiol. 2004] [201]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [202]ReviewVulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a review. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004 Oct 22-Nov 26; 67(20-22):1667-77. [J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004] * [203]Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996 Jan 17; 275(3):217-23. [JAMA. 1996] * [204]Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England and Wales. Int J Biometeorol. 1995 Nov; 39(2):81-6. [Int J Biometeorol. 1995] [205]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [206]ReviewA stitch in time: improving public health early warning systems for extreme weather events. Epidemiol Rev. 2005; 27():115-21. 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For the online clock, see [8]Humanclock. Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters. A circadian rhythm is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including [9]plants, [10]animals, [11]fungi and [12]cyanobacteria (see [13]bacterial circadian rhythms). The term "circadian", coined by [14]Franz Halberg,^[15][1] comes from the [16]Latin [17]circa, "around", and diem or dies, "day", meaning literally "approximately one day". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [18]tidal, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [19]chronobiology. Circadian rhythms are [20]endogenously generated, and can be entrained by external cues, called [21]zeitgebers, the primary one of which is [22]daylight. Contents * [23]1 History * [24]2 Criteria * [25]3 Origin * [26]4 Importance in animals + [27]4.1 Impact of light-dark cycle + [28]4.2 Arctic animals + [29]4.3 Butterfly migration * [30]5 Biological clock in mammals + [31]5.1 Determining the human circadian rhythm + [32]5.2 Outside the "master clock" * [33]6 Light and the biological clock * [34]7 Enforced longer cycles * [35]8 Human health + [36]8.1 Disruption + [37]8.2 Effect of drugs * [38]9 See also * [39]10 References + [40]10.1 Bibliography + [41]10.2 Notes * [42]11 External links [[43]edit] History The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [44]Alexander the Great, described [45]diurnal leaf movements of the [46]tamarind tree.^[47][2] The first modern observation of endogenous circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [48]Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant [49]Mimosa pudica continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli. In 1918, J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.^[50][3] [51]Joseph Takahashi discovered the genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.^[52][4]^[53][5] [[54]edit] Criteria To differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met: 1) the rhythms persist in the absence of cues, 2) they persist equally precisely over a range of temperatures, and 3) the rhythms can be adjusted to match the local time: * The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those "apparent" rhythms that are merely responses to external periodic cues. A rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been tested in conditions without external periodic input. * The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e., it maintains the same period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway. At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely coincidental. * The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [55]time zones illustrates the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next. Until rhythms are reset, a person usually experiences [56]jet lag. [[57]edit] Origin [58]Question book-new.svg This section needs additional [59]citations for [60]verification. Please help [61]improve this article by adding [62]reliable references. Unsourced material may be [63]challenged and [64]removed. (October 2007) Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [65]ultraviolet radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus [66]Neurospora, which exists today, retains this [67]clock-regulated mechanism. Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment.^[68][6] This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,^[69][7] as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian rhythms in quail.^[70][8] The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [71]cyanobacteria. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of Synechococcus elongatus can be reconstituted in vitro with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [72]ATP. Previous explanations of the [73]prokaryotic circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism. It is an unanswered question whether circadian clocks in eukaryotic organisms require translation/transcription-derived oscillations, for, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture (input - [74]central oscillator - output), they do not share any [75]homology. This implies probable independent origins. In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [76]Seymour Benzer first identified a genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behaviour: one had a shorter period, another had a longer one, and the third had none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named [77]period.^[78][9] The same gene was identified to be defective in the sleep disorder FASPS ([79]Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome) in human beings thirty years later, underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day. A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.^[80][10] At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronize the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [81]eyes travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock. [[82]edit] Importance in animals Circadian rhythmicity is present in the [83]sleeping and feeding patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear patterns of core body temperature, [84]brain wave activity, [85]hormone production, cell regeneration and other biological activities. In addition, [86]photoperiodism, the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation of day length. " Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food availability or predator activity is crucial for survival of many species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the photoperiod ('daylength') is the most predictive environmental cue for the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing of migration, hibernation and reproduction.^[87][11] " [[88]edit] Impact of light-dark cycle The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a [89]freerunning rhythm. Each "day", their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward, depending on whether their [90]endogenous period is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called [91]Zeitgebers (from the German, Time Givers).^[92][12] It is interesting to note that totally-blind subterranean mammals (e.g., [93]blind mole rat Spalax sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors (detect light) are still functional; as well, they do surface periodically.^[[94]citation needed] Freerunning organisms that normally have one consolidated sleep episode will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light/dark cycle in nature. The sleep-wake rhythm may, in these circumstances, become out of phase with other circadian or [95]ultradian rhythms such as [96]temperature and [97]digestion.^[[98]citation needed] Recent research has influenced the design of [99]spacecraft environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.^[[100]citation needed] [[101]edit] Arctic animals Norwegian researchers at the [102]University of Tromsø have shown that some Arctic animals ([103]ptarmigan, [104]reindeer) show circadian rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at [105]70 degrees North showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter, and spring, but not in the summer. Reindeer at [106]78 degrees North showed such rhythms only autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other Arctic animals as well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and the constant dark of winter.^[107][13]^[108][14] However, another study in northern Alaska found that [109]ground squirrels and [110]porcupines strictly maintained their circadian rhythms through 82 days and nights of sunshine. The researchers speculate that these two small mammals see that the apparent distance between the sun and the horizon is shortest once a day, and, thus, a sufficient signal to adjust by.^[111][15] [[112]edit] Butterfly migration The navigation of the fall migration of the [113]Eastern North American monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) to their overwintering grounds in central Mexico uses a time-compensated sun compass that depends upon a circadian clock in their antennae.^[114][16]^[115][17] [[116]edit] Biological clock in mammals Diagram illustrating the influence of light and darkness on circadian rhythms and related [117]physiology and behaviour through the [118]suprachiasmatic nucleus in humans. The primary circadian "clock" in [119]mammals is located in the [120]suprachiasmatic nucleus (or nuclei) ([121]SCN), a pair of distinct groups of [122]cells located in the [123]hypothalamus. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep-wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [124]retina of the eyes contains not only "classical" [125]photoreceptors but also photoresponsive retinal [126]ganglion cells. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called [127]melanopsin, follow a pathway called the [128]retinohypothalamic tract, leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues. It appears that the SCN takes the information on the lengths of the day and night from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [129]pineal gland, a tiny structure shaped like a [130]pine cone and located on the [131]epithalamus. In response the pineal secretes the hormone [132]melatonin. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day and its presence provides information about night-length. The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a 23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural solar day-night cycle on the planet [133]Mars).^[134][18] [[135]edit] Determining the human circadian rhythm The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's circadian rhythm are * melatonin secretion by the pineal gland and * core body temperature. For temperature studies, people must remain awake but calm and semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are taken continuously. The average human adult's temperature reaches its minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake time, though variation is great among normal [136]chronotypes. Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime. Its onset in dim light, dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO), at about 21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Its major [137]metabolite can also be measured in morning urine. Both DLMO and the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or saliva have been used as circadian markers. However, newer research indicates that the melatonin offset may be the most reliable marker. Benloucif et al. in Chicago in 2005 found that melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.^[138][19] One method used for measuring melatonin offset is to analyse a sequence of urine samples throughout the morning for the presence of the melatonin [139]metabolite 6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s). Laberge et al. in Quebec in 1997 used this method in a study that confirmed the frequently found delayed circadian phase in healthy adolescents.^[140][20] [[141]edit] Outside the "master clock" More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the "master clock". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the [142]oesophagus, [143]lungs, [144]liver, [145]pancreas, [146]spleen, [147]thymus, and the [148]skin.^[149][21] Though oscillators in the skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven so far.^[150][22]^[151][23] There is some evidence that also the olfactory bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting that also these structures may be weak oscillators. Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than to [152]light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have freerunning rhythms. [[153]edit] Light and the biological clock Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [154]phase response curve (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required [155]illuminance vary from species to species and lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans. Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm in humans are higher than the levels usually used in artificial lighting in homes. According to some researchers^[156][24] the illumination intensity that excites the circadian system has to reach up to 1000 [157]lux striking the retina. In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or colour) of light is a factor in the entrainment of the body clock. [158]Melanopsin is most efficiently excited by blue light, 420-440 nm^[159][25] according to some researchers while others have reported 470-485 nm. It is thought that the direction of the light may have an effect on entraining the circadian rhythm;^[160][24] light coming from above, resembling an image of a bright sky, has greater effect than light entering our eyes from below. [[161]edit] Enforced longer cycles Modern research under very controlled conditions has shown the human period for adults to be just slightly longer than 24 hours on average. Czeisler et al. at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes. The "clock" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's rotation.^[162][26] The 28-hour day is presented as a concept of [163]time management.^[164][27] It builds on the fact that the week of seven days at 24 hours and a "week" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of 168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours. Each "day" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern. Studies by [165]Nathaniel Kleitman^[166][28] in 1938 and by [167]Derk-Jan Dijk and [168]Charles Czeisler^[169][29]^[170][30] in 1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep-wake cycles, in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day,^[171][31] this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about 24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including [172]sleep latency and other functions.^[173][32] Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli like daylight and timekeeping. Early investigators determined the human circadian period to be 25 hours or more. They went to great lengths to shield subjects from time cues and daylight, but they were not aware of the effects of indoor electric lights. The subjects were allowed to turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase. These results became well known.^[174][26] Researchers allowed subjects to keep electric lighting on in the evening, as it was thought at that time that a couple of 60W bulbs would not have a resetting effect on the circadian rhythms of humans. More recent research^[[175]citation needed] has shown that adults have a built-in day, which averages just over 24 hours, that indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms and that most people attain their best-quality sleep during their [176]chronotype-determined sleep periods. [[177]edit] Human health Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with [178]angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [179]left ventricular (reverse) remodelling.^[[180]citation needed] A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms. A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during the day, a [181]power-nap, does not have any effect on normal circadian rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve productivity.^[182][33]^[183][34] There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the human circadian rhythm, such as [184]seasonal affective disorder (SAD), [185]delayed sleep phase syndrome (DSPS) and other [186]circadian rhythm disorders.^[187][35] Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [188]reticular activating system, which is crucial for maintaining a state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep-wake cycle may be a sign or complication of [189]uremia,^[190][36] [191]azotemia or [192]acute renal failure. [[193]edit] Disruption Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers have experienced the condition known as [194]jet lag, with its associated symptoms of [195]fatigue, disorientation and [196]insomnia. A number of other disorders, for example [197]bipolar disorder and some [198]sleep disorders, are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [199]bipolar disorder are positively influenced by [200]lithium's effect on clock genes.^[201][37] Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease [202][2] The suppression of melatonin production associated with the disruption of the circadian rhythm may increase the risk of developing cancer.^[203][38]^[204][39] [[205]edit] Effect of drugs Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such as [206]cocaine.^[207][40]^[208][41] Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.^[209][42] [[210]edit] See also * [211]Actigraphy (also known as Actimetry) * [212]Advanced sleep phase syndrome * [213]ARNTL * [214]ARNTL2 * [215]Bacterial circadian rhythms * [216]Chronobiology * [217]Chronotype * [218]Circadian oscillator * [219]Circadian rhythm sleep disorders * [220]Cryptochrome * [221]CRY1 and [222]CRY2, the cryptochrome family genes * [223]Delayed sleep phase syndrome * [224]Diurnal cycle * [225]Jet lag * [226]Light effects on circadian rhythm * [227]PER1, [228]PER2, and [229]PER3, the period family genes * [230]Power-nap [[231]edit] References [[232]edit] Bibliography * Aschoff J (ed.) 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[306]^ Campbell, S. and Murphy, P, Science 1998, Vol 279, 16 Jan.: Extraocular Circadian Phototransduction in Humans 24. ^ [307]^a [308]^b Semjonova, Milena (2003). [309]"Healthy Lighting, from a lighting designer's perspective". Milena Lighting Design. 25. [311]^ Newman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: "Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment", Biochemistry. 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8. 26. ^ [312]^a [313]^b [314]"Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour". 1999. Retrieved 2007-09-23. "The variation between our subjects, with a 95 percent level of confidence, was no more than plus or minus 16 minutes, a remarkably small range." 27. [316]^ Digital Beat Productions (1997). [317]"28 Hour Day". 28. [319]^ Kleitman, Nathaniel (1962). Sleep and Wakefullness ed 2. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 29. [320]^ Dijk, Derk-Jan; Czeisler Charles (1994). "Paradoxical timing of the circadian rhythm of sleep propensity serves to consolidate sleep and wakefulness in humans". Neurosci Lett 166 (1): 63. [321]doi:[322]10.1016/0304-3940(94)90841-9. [323]PMID [324]8190360. 30. [325]^ Dijk, Derk-Jan; Czeisler Charles (1995). [326]"Contribution of the Circadian Pacemaker and the Sleep Homeostat to Sleep Propensity, Sleep Structure, Electrocephalographic Slow Waves, and Sleep Spindle Activity in Humans". J. Neurosci 15 (5): 3526. [327]PMID [328]7751928. 31. [330]^ Cromie, William J. (1999-07-15). [331]"Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour". The Harvard University Gazette. Retrieved 2008-02-19. 32. [333]^ Aldrich, Michael S (1999). [334]Sleep medicine. New York: Oxford University Press. [335]ISBN [336]0195129571. pg=RA1-PA65&dq=experimenting+with+the+28+hour+day&source=bl&ots=9R4 mo2fI1O&sig=om2zbYPnXnm_1HuZo2Tch6J1vyo&hl=en&ei=MBZeStGgIoyJkQWd17 znDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2. 33. [338]^ [339]"The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep". The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep. Behavioral medicine. 2001. Retrieved 2008-11-11. 34. [341]^ [342]"Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students". Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students. Liberty University. 2007. 3.htm. Retrieved 2008-11-11. 35. [344]^ [345]"Circadian Rhythms and Sleep". Circadian Rhythms and Sleep. Serendip. 2007. ml. Retrieved 2007-09-19. 36. [347]^ Sinert, Richard; Peter R Peacock, Jr (May 10, 2006). [348]"Renal Failure, Acute". eMedicine from WebMD. 2008-08-03. 37. [350]^ [351]NIMH · Science News from 2006 · Lithium Blocks Enzyme To Help Cells' Clocks Keep On Tickin' 38. [352]^ Straif K, Baan R, Grosse Y, Secretan B, El Ghissassi F, Bouvard V, Altieri A, Benbrahim-Tallaa L, Cogliano V, WHO International Agency for Research on Cancer Monograph Working Group. Carcinogenicity of shift-work, painting, and fire-fighting. [353][1] Lancet Oncol. 2007; 12(8):1065-1066. 39. [354]^ [355]WebMD: Night Shift Work May Cause Cancer 40. [356]^ Uz T, Akhisaroglu M, Ahmed R, Manev H (2003). "The pineal gland is critical for circadian Period1 expression in the striatum and for circadian cocaine sensitization in mice". Neuropsychopharmacology 28 (12): 2117-23. [357]doi:[358]10.1038/sj.npp.1300254. [359]PMID [360]12865893. 41. [361]^ Kurtuncu M, Arslan A, Akhisaroglu M, Manev H, Uz T (2004). "Involvement of the pineal gland in diurnal cocaine reward in mice". Eur J Pharmacol 489 (3): 203-5. [362]doi:[363]10.1016/j.ejphar.2004.03.010. [364]PMID [365]15087244. 42. [366]^ McClung C, Sidiropoulou K, Vitaterna M, Takahashi J, White F, Cooper D, Nestler E (2005). [367]"Regulation of dopaminergic transmission and cocaine reward by the Clock gene". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102 (26): 9377-81. [368]doi:[369]10.1073/pnas.0503584102. [370]PMID [371]15967985. [[372]edit] External links * [373]Circadian rhythm at the [374]Open Directory Project * Leloup J.C. (2009). "Circadian clocks and phosphorylation: Insights from computational modeling". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 4 (3): 290-303. [375]doi:[376]10.2478/s11535-009-0025-1. * Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A (2007). "Evolutionary mechanisms of circadian clocks". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 2 (2): 233-253. [377]doi:[378]10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z. [380]Categories: [381]Sleep | [382]Circadian rhythms | [383]Biology of bipolar disorder Hidden categories: [384]Articles needing additional references from October 2007 | [385]All articles needing additional references | [386]All articles with unsourced statements | [387]Articles with unsourced statements from September 2009 | [388]Articles with unsourced statements from November 2007 | [389]Articles with unsourced statements from January 2009 | [390]Articles with unsourced statements from December 2009 Views * [391]Article * [392]Discussion * [393]Edit this page * [394]History Personal tools * [395]Try Beta * [396]Log in / create account Navigation * [397]Main page * [398]Contents * [399]Featured content * [400]Current events * [401]Random article Search ____________________ Go Search Interaction * [402]About Wikipedia * [403]Community portal * [404]Recent changes * [405]Contact Wikipedia * [406]Donate to Wikipedia * [407]Help Toolbox * [408]What links here * [409]Related changes * [410]Upload file * [411]Special pages * [412]Printable version * [413]Permanent link * [414]Cite this page Languages * [415]Català * [416]Cesky * [417]Dansk * [418]Deutsch * [419]Ellynika' * [420]Español * [421]Français * [422]Italiano * [423]E+B+R+J+T+ * [424]Magyar * [425]Nederlands * [426]¥¬ * [427]ªNorsk (bokmål) * [428]ªNorsk (nynorsk) * [429]Polski * [430]Português * [431]Româna * [432]Russkij * [433]Simple English * [434]Srpski / Srpski * [435]Svenska * [436]a+r+d+w+ [437]Powered by MediaWiki [438]Wikimedia Foundation * This page was last modified on 16 January 2010 at 17:59. * Text is available under the [439]Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See [440]Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [441]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * [442]Contact us * [443]Privacy policy * [444]About Wikipedia * [445]Disclaimers Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1][dailyomlogo2.gif] Today's DailyOM brought to you by: [2][nav-signup.gif] [nav-line.gif] [3][nav-mydailyom.gif] [nav-line.gif] [4][nav-marketplace.gif] [nav-line.gif] [5][nav-community.gif] [nav-line.gif] [6][nav-courses.gif] [bambooborder2.jpg] [Articles......] _______________ [search.gif]-Submit [7][nav-giftshop.gif] [nav-line.gif] [8][nav-shoppingcart.gif] January 2, 2006 Universal Timing Life's Natural Rhythm Nature's natural rhythms orchestrate when day turns to night, when flowers must bloom, and provides the cue for when it is time for red and brown leaves to fall from trees. As human beings, our own inner rhythm is attuned to this universal sense of timing. Guided by the rising and setting of the sun, changes in temperature, and our own internal rhythm, we know when it is time to sleep, eat, or be active. While our minds and spirits are free to focus on other pursuits, our breath and our heartbeat are always there to remind us of life's pulsing rhythm that moves within and around us. Moving to this rhythm, we know when it is time to stop working and when to rest. Pushing our bodies to work beyond their natural rhythm diminishes our ability to renew and recharge. A feeling much like jet lag lets us know when we've overridden our own natural rhythm. When we feel the frantic calls of all we want to accomplish impelling us to move faster than is natural for us, we may want to breathe deeply instead and look at nature moving to its own organic timing: birds flying south, leaves shedding, or snow falling. A walk in nature can also let us re-attune is to her organic rhythm, while allowing us to move back in time with our own. When we move to our natural rhythm, we can achieve all we need to do with less effort. We may even notice that our soul moves to its own internal, natural rhythm - especially when it comes to our personal evolution. Comparing ourselves to others is unnecessary. Our best guide is to move to our own internal timing, while keeping time with the rhythm of nature. Click to follow DailyOM on [9]Twitter and [10]Facebook What do you think? [11]Discuss this article and share your opinion Want more DailyOM? [12]Register for your free email, or [13]browse all articles Life's Natural Rhythm Share the OM: [14][emailfriend.gif] [15]Email this to a friend [16][printerfriendly.gif] [17]Printable version [18][icon-mydailyom.gif] [19]Save in My DailyOM [20][icon-discuss.gif] [21]Discuss this article [22][horoscopes1.jpg] Today's friend of OM: Register now to receive your [23]free daily horoscope from DailyOM. 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For more information visit [24]DailyOM.com More DailyOM: [25]More Inspiration [26]Today's Horoscopes [27]OM Marketplace [28]Home | [29]Gift Shop | [30]My DailyOM | [31]Marketplace | [32]Community | [33]Archives | [34]Share The OM | [35]Contact Us [36]Subscribe | [37]Change Email | [38]User Settings | [39]Unsubscribe | [40]Privacy Policy | [41]Disclaimer | [42]Gift Shop FAQ | [43]Advertising Info [44]Make DailyOM Your Homepage | [45]Link To Us | [46]Publish DailyOM On Your Website © 2004-08 DailyOM - All Rights Reserved No portion of this site can be reprinted without express permission Artwork by [47]Wang Chang-Ming Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : #[1]Edit this page [2]Wikipedia (en) [3]copyright [4]Wikipedia RSS Feed [5]Wikipedia Atom Feed Rhythm From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search For other uses, see [8]Rhythm (disambiguation). Rhythm (from [9]greek rhuthµo'*s - rhythmos, "any measured flow or movement, symmetry") is the variation of the length and accentuation of a series of sounds or other events. Contents * [10]1 Rhythm in linguistics * [11]2 Origins of human appreciation of rhythm * [12]3 Rhythm notation and the oral tradition + [13]3.1 African music + [14]3.2 Indian music + [15]3.3 Western music * [16]4 Types * [17]5 See also * [18]6 Notes * [19]7 Sources * [20]8 Further reading [[21]edit] Rhythm in linguistics The study of rhythm, stress, and [22]pitch in [23]speech is called [24]prosody; it is a topic in [25]linguistics. Narmour (1980, p. 147-53) describes three categories of prosodic rules which create rhythmic successions which are additive (same duration repeated), cumulative (short-long), or countercumulative (long-short). Cumulation is associated with closure or relaxation, countercumulation with openness or tension, while additive rhythms are open-ended and repetitive. Richard Middleton points out this method cannot account for [26]syncopation and suggests the concept of [27]transformation. A [28]rhythmic unit is a [29]durational pattern which occupies a period of time equivalent to a [30]pulse or pulses on an underlying [31]metric level, as opposed to a [32]rhythmic gesture which does not (DeLone et al. (Eds.), 1975 [[33]edit] Origins of human appreciation of rhythm In his series How Music Works, [34]Howard Goodall presents theories that rhythm recalls how we walk and the heartbeat we heard in the womb. More likely is that a simple pulse or [35]di-dah beat recalls the footsteps of another person. Our sympathetic urge to dance is designed to boost our energy levels in order to cope with someone, or some animal chasing us - a fight or flight response. From a less darwinist perspective, perceiving rhythm is the ability to master the otherwise invisible dimension, time. Rhythm is possibly also rooted in courtship ritual.^[36][1] Neurologist [37]Oliver Sacks posits that human affinity for rhythm is fundamental, so much that a person's sense of rhythm cannot be lost in the way that music and language can (e.g. by [38]stroke). In addition, he states that [39]chimpanzees and other animals show no similar appreciation for rhythm.^[40][2] [[41]edit] Rhythm notation and the oral tradition Worldwide there are many different approaches to passing on rhythmic phrases and patterns, as they exist in traditional music, from generation to generation. [[42]edit] African music In the [43]Griot tradition of Africa everything related to music has been passed on orally. [44]Babatunde Olatunji (1927-2003), a Nigerian drummer who lived and worked in the [45]United States, developed a simple series of spoken sounds for teaching the rhythms of the hand drum. He used six vocal sounds: Goon Doon Go Do Pa Ta. There are three basic sounds on the drum, but each can be played with either the left or the right hand. This simple system is now used worldwide, particularly by [46]Djembe players. [[47]edit] Indian music Indian music has also been passed on orally. Tabla players would learn to speak complex rhythm patterns and phrases before attempting to play them. [48]Sheila Chandra, an English pop singer of Indian descent, made performances based around her singing these patterns. In [49]Indian Classical music, the [50]Tala of a composition is the rhythmic pattern over which the whole piece is structured. [[51]edit] Western music Standard [52]music notation contains rhythmic information and is adapted specifically for drums and percussion instruments. The drums are generally used to keep other instruments in 'time'. They do this by supplying beats/strikes in time at a certain pace, i.e. 70 beats per minute (bpm). In [53]Rock music, a drum beat is used to keep a [54]bass/[55]guitar line in time. [[56]edit] Types In [57]Western music, rhythms are usually arranged with respect to a [58]time signature, partially signifying a meter. The speed of the underlying [59]pulse is sometimes called the [60]beat. The [61]tempo is a measure of how quickly the pulse repeats. The tempo is usually measured in 'beats per minute' (bpm); 60 bpm means a speed of one beat per second. The length of the meter, or metric unit (usually corresponding with [62]measure length), is usually grouped into either two or three beats, being called [63]duple meter and [64]triple meter, respectively. If each beat is divided by two or four, it is [65]simple meter, if by three (or six) [66]compound meter. According to [67]Pierre Boulez, beat structures beyond four are "simply not natural".^[68][3]. His reference is to western European music. Standard notation of a clave pattern on audio clip clave pattern.ogg [69]Syncopated rhythms are rhythms that accent parts of the beat not already stressed by [70]counting. Playing simultaneous rhythms in more than one time signature is called [71]polymeter. See also [72]polyrhythm. In recent years, rhythm and meter have become an important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these areas includes books by [73]Maury Yeston, [74]Fred Lerdahl and [75]Ray Jackendoff, [76]Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty, William Rothstein, and Joel Lester. Grid notation of single a clave pattern Some [77]genres of music make different use of rhythm than others. Most Western music is based on [78]subdivision, while non-Western music uses more [79]additive rhythm. [80]African music makes heavy use of [81]polyrhythms, and [82]Indian music uses [83]complex cycles such as 7 and 13, while [84]Balinese music often uses complex [85]interlocking rhythms. By comparison, a lot of Western [86]classical music is fairly rhythmically (or metrically) simple; it stays in a [87]simple meter such as 4/4 or 3/4 and makes little use of [88]syncopation. [89]Clave is a common underlying rhythm in [90]African, [91]Cuban music, and [92]Brazilian music. [93]Claves (Submit) Play sound Four beats followed by three Clave patterns __________________________________________________________________ Problems listening to this file? See [94]media help. In the 20th century, [95]composers like [96]Igor Stravinsky, [97]Bela Bartok, [98]Philip Glass, and [99]Steve Reich wrote more rhythmically complex music using [100]odd meters, and techniques such as [101]phasing and [102]additive rhythm. At the same time, modernists such as [103]Olivier Messiaen and his pupils used increased complexity to disrupt the sense of a regular beat, leading eventually to the widespread use of [104]irrational rhythms in [105]New Complexity. This use may be explained by a comment of [106]John Cage's^[[107]where?] where he notes that regular rhythms cause sounds to be heard as a group rather than individually; the irregular rhythms highlight the rapidly changing pitch relationships that would otherwise be subsumed into irrelevant rhythmic groupings (Sandow 2004, p. 257). [108]LaMonte Young also wrote music in which the sense of a regular beat is absent because the music consists only of long sustained tones ([109]drones). In the 1930s, [110]Henry Cowell wrote music involving multiple simultaneous periodic rhythms and collaborated with [111]Léon Thérémin to invent the [112]Rhythmicon, the first electronic [113]rhythm machine, in order to perform them. Similarly, [114]Conlon Nancarrow wrote for the [115]player piano. [[116]edit] See also * [117]Meter (music) * [118]Prosody (linguistics) * [119]Riddim * [120]Morse Code * [121]Soul (music) * [122]Time scale (music) * [123]Timing (linguistics) [[124]edit] Notes 1. [125]^ [126]Mithen, Steven (2005). [127]The Singing Neanderthals: The Origins of Music, Language, Mind and Body.. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.. [128]ISBN [129]0297643177. 2. [131]^ [132]Jon Stewart, [133]Oliver Sacks. (2009-06-29). [134]The Daily Show with Jon Stewart. [Television production]. Comedy Central. itle=oliver-sacks. "People often tried to teach their dogs to dance--it doesn't work." 3. [136]^ In [137]Discovering Music: Rhythm with [138]Leonard Slatkin at 5:05 [[139]edit] Sources * Hasty, Christopher (1997). Meter as Rhythm. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [140]ISBN 0-19-510066-2. * London, Justin (2004). Hearing in Time: Psychological Aspects of Musical Meter. [141]ISBN 0-19-516081-9. * Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music. Philadelphia: Open University Press. [142]ISBN 0-335-15275-9. * Narmour (1980). Cited in DeLone et al. (Eds.) (1975). Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. [143]ISBN 0-13-049346-5. * Sandow, Greg (2004). "A Fine Madness", The Pleasure of Modernist Music. [144]ISBN 1-58046-143-3. * Yeston, Maury (1976). "The Stratification of Musical Rhythm". [[145]edit] Further reading * McGaughey, William (2001). "Rhythm and Self-Consciousness: New Ideals for an Electronic Civilization". Minneapolis: Thistlerose Publications. [146]ISBN 0-9605630-4-0. * Honing, H. (2002). [147]"Structure and interpretation of rhythm and timing." Tijdschrift voor Muziektheorie [Dutch Journal of Music Theory] 7(3): 227-232. * Lewis, Andrew (2005). Rhythm--What it is and How to Improve Your Sense of It. San Francisco: [148]RhythmSource Press. [149]ISBN 978-0-9754667-0-4. * Williams, C. F. A., The Aristoxenian Theory of Musical Rhythm, (Cambridge Library Collection - Music), Cambridge University Press; 1st edition, 2009. * Toussaint, G. T., "The geometry of musical rhythm," In J. Akiyama, M. Kano, and X. Tan, editors, Proceedings of the Japan Conference on Discrete and Computational Geometry, Vol. 3742, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2005, pp. 198-212. [150]v o [151]d o [152]e [153]Musical notation and [154]development [155]Staff [156]Bar & Bar line · [157]Clef · [158]Da capo · [159]Dal segno · [160]Key signature · [161]Ledger line · [162]Musical mode · [163]Musical scale · [164]Rehearsal letter · [165]Repeat sign · [166]Time signature · [167]Transposition · [168]Transposing instrument [169]G (treble) clef symbol [170]Notes [171]Accidental ([172]Flat · [173]Natural · [174]Sharp) · [175]Dotted note · [176]Grace note · [177]Note value ([178]Beam · [179]Note head · [180]Stem) · [181]Pitch · [182]Rest · [183]Interval · [184]Letter notation [185]Articulation [186]Dynamics · [187]Ornament ([188]Trill · [189]Mordent · [190]Grace note) · [191]Ossia · [192]Portato · [193]Accent · [194]Legato · [195]Tenuto · [196]Marcato · [197]Staccato · [198]Staccatissimo · [199]Tie · [200]Slur · [201]Fermata [202]Development [203]Coda · [204]Exposition · [205]Harmony · [206]Melody · [207]Motif · [208]Recapitulation · Rhythm ([209]Beat · [210]Meter · [211]Tempo) · [212]Theme · [213]Tonality · [214]Atonality Related [215]Chord chart · [216]Figured bass · [217]Graphic notation · [218]Lead sheet · [219]Eye music · [220]Modern musical symbols · [221]Neume · [222]Tablature [224]Categories: [225]Rhythm | [226]Greek loanwords Hidden categories: [227]Vague or ambiguous geographic scope Views * [228]Article * [229]Discussion * [230]Edit this page * [231]History Personal tools * [232]Try Beta * [233]Log in / create account Navigation * [234]Main page * [235]Contents * [236]Featured content * [237]Current events * [238]Random article Search ____________________ Go Search Interaction * [239]About Wikipedia * [240]Community portal * [241]Recent changes * [242]Contact Wikipedia * [243]Donate to Wikipedia * [244]Help Toolbox * [245]What links here * [246]Related changes * [247]Upload file * [248]Special pages * [249]Printable version * [250]Permanent link * [251]Cite this page Languages * [252]Bosanski * [253]Català * [254]Dansk * [255]Deutsch * [256]Eesti * [257]Español * [258]Esperanto * [259]f+a+r+s+ * [260]Français * [261]­´ * [262]Hrvatski * [263]Bahasa Indonesia * [264]Íslenska * [265]Italiano * [266]E+B+R+J+T+ * [267]¥ £ * [268]Latviesu * [269]Líguru * [270]Makedonski * [271]®²¯¾³ * [272]Nederlands * [273]¥¬ * [274]ªNorsk (bokmål) * [275]ªNorsk (nynorsk) * [276]Polski * [277]Português * [278]Russkij * [279]Simple English * [280]Slovencina * [281]Slovenscina * [282]Suomi * [283]Svenska * [284]Türkçe * [285]Ukrayins'ka * [286]­ [287]Powered by MediaWiki [288]Wikimedia Foundation * This page was last modified on 19 January 2010 at 00:26. * Text is available under the [289]Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See [290]Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [291]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * [292]Contact us * [293]Privacy policy * [294]About Wikipedia * [295]Disclaimers Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1]Daniel Laberge music Rhythm explained including 27 rhythm exercises by Daniel Laberge Rhythm figure Hi rhythm lovers, I've devised these exercises in the early seventies while teaching music. I could not find any existing book that saw rhythm the way I did. This method is based on "rhythmic figures" or rhythm possibilities. Each one lasts one beat. I simply counted the rhythmic possibilities one could encounter for each type of beat divisions. There are: o Four rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by two o Eight rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by three o Sixteen rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by four I composed the exercises back then and used them for my teaching, but I only wrote the theory that goes along in 2002. The book is called "Rhythm explained" and I am gradually placing its content here. Each exercise is preceded by a lesson, with graphic representations, and includes an audio rendition to help you. You can choose between three speeds. For jazz musicians, the binary exercises also have a swing or double swing performance. Go to the bottom of the page for a link to the swing version. Choose among the following exercises: Beat exercises [2]Rhythm exercise 1-1 Featured figures [3][onequarternote1.gif] [4] [onehalfnote1.gif] [5] [dottedhalfnote1.gif] [6] [wholenote1.gif] [7]Rhythm exercise 1-2 Featured figures [8][quarternoterest1.gif] [9] [halfnoterest1.gif] [10] [wholenoterest1.gif] [11]Rhythm exercise 1-3 Featured figures [12][quarternoterest1.gif] [13] [halfnoterest1.gif] [14] [dottedhalfnoterest1.gif] [15] [wholenoterest1.gif] Binary beat division The binary family is large as it includes: o Division by two o Division by four o Part of division by six o Division by eight This section is concerned with the simple division by two. Any binary beat has two alternating parts: the downbeat and the upbeat. Binary beat [binarybeat1.gif] As you can see, there are only two places in a beat where events or notes can be positioned or played: o The downbeat o The upbeat How rhythmic possibilities work This means that for any given beat you can have any of the four following possibilities: 1 o Only one event on the downbeat. 2 o Events on both the downbeat and the upbeat. 3 o No event at all. 4 o Only one event on the upbeat. [possibilitiesbytwosimple1.gif] The rhythmic figure used to represent a binary beat is called: TWO EIGHTH NOTES [masterfigurebinary1.gif] Binary master rhythmic figure Simple binary rhythmic figures 4 possibilities: o 2 Primary o 2 Secondary [possibilitiesbytwo1.gif] Secondary rhythmic figures lack the event that falls on the beat. There is a secondary figure for each primary one. Because the beat is so important, secondary figures have appeared after the primary ones had been well established. The absence of event falling on the beat can be due to a silence or a sound that is held over from the preceding beat. Because of this, there are two ways to notate secondary figures: o With a rest o With a tie [primarysecondary1.gif] Primary and secondary rhythmic figures Choose among the following exercises: Binary exercises PRIMARY [16]Rhythm exercise 2-1 Featured figure [17][twoeighthnotes2.gif] [18]Rhythm exercise 2-2 Featured figures [19][twoeighthnotes2.gif] [20] [quarternoterest2.gif] SECONDARY [21]Rhythm exercise 2-3 Featured figure [22][dottedquarternoteeighth2.gif] [23]Rhythm exercise 2-4 Featured figure [24][eighthnotesyncopationa2.gif] [25]Rhythm exercise 2-5 Featured figure [26][twoeighttieonequarter2.gif] MULTIPLE SYNCOPATIONS [27]Rhythm exercise 2-6 Featured figure [28][doublesyncopationa2.gif] Ternary beat division The ternary family is small as it includes: o Division by three o Part of division by six Everything goes in thirds in ternary music. Any ternary beat has one downbeat and two upbeats. Ternary beat [ternarybeat1.gif] The rhythmic figure used to represent a ternary beat is called: THREE EIGHTH NOTES [masterfigureternary1.gif] Ternary master rhythmic figure Writing ternary rhythm In ternary music writing, each eighth note is worth one third of a beat. Since two eighth notes always equal one quarter note, these now equal two thirds of a beat. It takes a dotted quarter note to represent one beat. [ternarywriting1.gif] Ternary rhythmic figures 8 possibilities: o 4 Primary o 4 Secondary [possibilitiesbythree1.gif] Choose among the following exercises: Ternary exercises PRIMARY [29]Rhythm exercise 3-1 Featured figure [30][threeeighth2.gif] [31]Rhythm exercise 3-2 Featured figure [32][onequarteroneeighth2.gif] [33]Rhythm exercise 3-3 Featured figure [34][oneeighthonequarter2.gif] SECONDARY [35]Rhythm exercise 3-1s Featured figure [36][8threst2eighth2.gif] OR [37] [tie3eighth2.gif] [38]Rhythm exercise 3-2s Featured figure [39][quarternoterestoneeighth2.gif] OR [40] [tiequarternote1eighth.gif] [41]Rhythm exercise 3-3s Featured figure [42][8threst1quarternote2.gif] OR [43] [tie1eighth1quarter2.gif] Division by four Beats divided by four are part of the binary family. Everything goes in quarters in this feel. Beat divided by four [binarybeat2.gif] The rhythmic figure used to represent a beat divided by four is called: FOUR SIXTEENTH NOTES [masterfigurebyfour1.gif] Division by four master rhythmic figure Binary rhythmic figures 16 possibilities: o 8 Primary o 8 Secondary [possibilitiesbyfour1.gif] Choose among the following exercises: Division by four exercises PRIMARY [44]Rhythm exercise 4-1 Featured figure [45][foursixteenth2.gif] [46]Rhythm exercise 4-2 Featured figure [47][oneeighthtwosixteenth2.gif] [48]Rhythm exercise 4-3 Featured figure [49][twosixteenthoneeighth2.gif] [50]Rhythm exercise 4-4 Featured figure [51][dottedeighthonesixteenth2.gif] [52]Rhythm exercise 4-5 Featured figure [53][onesixteenthdottedeighth2.gif] [54]Rhythm exercise 4-6 Featured figure [55][16th8th16th2.gif] SECONDARY [56]Rhythm exercise 4-1s Featured figure [57][16threst3sixteenth2.gif] OR [58] [tiefoursixteenth2.gif] [59]Rhythm exercise 4-2s Featured figure [60][8threst2sixteenth2.gif] OR [61] [tie1eighth2sixteenth2.gif] [62]Rhythm exercise 4-3s Featured figure [63][16threst1sixteenth1eighth2.gif] OR [64] [tie2sixteenth1eighth2.gif] [65]Rhythm exercise 4-4s Featured figure [66][dotted8threst1sixteenth2.gif] OR [67] [tiedottereight1sixteenth2.gif] [68]Rhythm exercise 4-5s Featured figure [69][16threstdotted8th.gif] OR [70] [tie16thdotted8th2.gif] [71]Rhythm exercise 4-6s Featured figure [72][16threst1eighth1sixteenth2.gif] OR [73] [tieone16thone8thone16th2.gif] [74]Bugs, problems and comments [75]Daniel Laberge music Références Liens visibles 74. javascript:; Liens cachés : #[1]ORGY IN RHYTHM - Atom [2]ORGY IN RHYTHM - RSS IFRAME: IN+RHYTHM&publishMode=PUBLISH_MODE_BLOGSPOT&navbarType=BLACK&layoutType [4]skip to main | [5]skip to sidebar ORGY IN RHYTHM [6]JAZZ HIP TRIO - JAZZ EN RELIEF Jazz Hip Trio for Riviera France from 1967. Jean-Bernard Eisinger Piano ; Roger Luccioni Bass ;Daniel Humair Drums. More beautiful music from France on this the first Jazz Hip Trio LP. "Orange Boom" was the big tune back in the day but the rest is just fabulous. Needless to say.....All Killer No Filler Another first in public blogland here at OIR. [7]17 comments made-how about you? 12.1.10 [8]MAL WALDRON - TOKYO BOUND Mal Waldron for RCA Victor Japan from 1970. Mal Waldron-Piano;Takeshi Inomata-Drums;Yasuo Arakawa-Bass Tremendous all killer trio date with Waldron joined by a top flight Japanese rhythm section on four original compositions which only saw a release in Japan.Check out the rocking intensity of "Rock One For Jimbo San" and "Japanese Island" which builds from an ominous brooding intro into a marvellous modal waltz."Atomic Energy" blows up with a headlong banging vamp from Waldron's left hand while the right runs all over the keys and then to close "Mount Fujiyama" a more introspective rumination and dissection of the tune's theme. Inomata's drumming is a revelation throughout the session intricate yet swinging with fantastic use of cymbals.(Don't forget to check out Inomata's Sound of Sounds lp also recorded in 1970 which I posted [9]here during the summer) Respect to El Goog for introducing me to this great album.I finally picked a copy up from Japan via ebay last month - not cheap but worth every penny. Very highly recomnmended. [10]37 comments made-how about you? 20.12.09 [11]THE HERBIE HANCOCK TRIO Herbie Hancock for Sony Japan from 1977. Herbie Hancock-Piano;Ron Carter-Bass;Tony Williams-Drums The big three keep it strictly acoustic for this Japanese only release from CBS Sony. 4 originals from Herb plus a rapid romp through "Milestones"...tough stuff. The first V.S.O.P. tour triggered a flood of recording activity in July 1977, but only a fraction of it was released in the U.S. This session, recorded in San Francisco just days before the Quintet concerts in Berkeley and San Diego, finds Herbie Hancock, Ron Carter and Tony Williams mixing it up sans the horns and the results are more reflective and cerebral than the full Quintet concerts. Hancock is thoroughly in control of the agenda while Williams throws in those meter-fracturing flurries that keep everyone on their toes. There is a startling re-interpretation of "Speak like a Child" which is significantly tougher and busier than the wistful Blue Note version, as well as challenging Hancock originals like "Watcha Waiting For" and "Watch It." This is uncompromising acoustic jazz, commercial anathema in the electronic '70s -and thus, only Japan got to hear it. Richard S. Ginell. [12]16 comments made-how about you? 13.12.09 [13]JAZZ HIP TRIO - PORTRAITS Jazz Hip Trio for Riviera France from 1968. Jean-Bernard Eisinger Piano ; Roger Luccioni Bass ;Daniel Humair Drums. Piano trios are the theme for my the next few posts and what better way to start than with some beautiful music from France on it's first time out in blogland here at OIR. 10 original compositions which grow and grow on repeated listening - get past the "Sidewinder" influenced dance floor intro tune "Bat Rock" and you're in for a swinging set of subtle trio sounds.Of course it's gotta be...... All Killer No Filler [14]23 comments made-how about you? 6.12.09 [15]THE DIAMOND FIVE - BRILLIANT ! The Diamond Five for Fontana from 1964. Personnel: Cees Slinger: piano; Harry Verbeke: tenor sax; Cees Smal: trumpet, cornet and valve trombone; Jacques Schols: bass; Johnny Engels: drums. Please check the comments as Chazz has also ripped The Five Diamonds-Finally After Forty Years cd reissue from Japan and will be posting the link shortly.Over to you Chazz! I don't post donations at OIR but just had to make an exception when this was winged across the pond to me from Chazz Katz.It's a very rare piece of hard bop from Holland which made a blink and miss it reissue on cd some years ago in Japan (original vinyl goes for silly money anywhere between $600-$1000) and has never appeared in blogland before.Here's the notes and cheers to Chazz for his rip! Nice work chap - All Killer No Filler! The Diamond Five, a Dutch quintet led by pianist Cees Slinger, was founded in 1959 and lasted until 1965. They were based at the Sheherazade Club in Amsterdam and were quite popular, playing all over Holland and accompanying expatriate American musicians on their visits to Amsterdam. However, when the club closed its doors due to a shift in popular interest from jazz to rock music, the quintet disbanded. This 1964 recording is their only session available on CD. The music is hard bop on the surface, but is neither formulaic nor a copy of the genres imported from the U.S. The musicians are quite unique in their style. Slinger plays sparse notes on his solos, utilizing well-placed pauses in the music to create melodic hard bop with hints of more forward-looking styles. The other outstanding soloist is tenor saxophonist Harry Verbeke, whose solos (in contrast to that of the leader) are filled with a multitude of notes played in the modal vein. The others are also quite stellar, the bass and the drums providing a loose bluesy support and horn man Cees Smal adding something unique with the sounds of his different horns, switching between valve trombone, cornet and trumpet. [16]26 comments made-how about you? 26.11.09 [17]BOBBY HUTCHERSON - CIRRUS Bobby Hutcherson for Blue Note from 1974. Hutch is playing four sets in London this weekend so Katonah from Private Press and I will be propping up the bar for his late spot at Scotts tomorrow night. So here's a 3rd repost for his evergreen "Cirrus" ....All Killer No Filler. This was my very first Bobby Hutcherson post here at OIR back in may 2006.It was ripped from my vinyl copy @192 in those days-I've reupped it @320 this time and taken it from the superb Mosaic Select box set.Here's my original narrative: Cirrus finds Bobby Hutcherson resuming his partnership with tenor saxophonist Harold Land, and the results are marvellous. The pair work with pianist Bill Henderson, trumpeter Woody Shaw, bassist Ray Drummond, drummer Larry Hancock, saxophonist/flautist Emmanuel Boyd and percussionist Kenneth Nash on this set of originals.The album starts with a great version of Woody Shaw's "Rosewood" while the rest of the set is written by Hutcherson and includes "Even Later".Highlight of the lp for me is the atmospheric and brooding "Zuri Dance" - what a corker ! [18]36 comments made-how about you? 13.11.09 [19]DAVE PIKE - LET THE MINSTRELS PLAY ON Dave Pike for Muse from 1978. Vibraphone - Dave Pike / Bass - Luther Hughes / Cello - Luther Hughes / Drums - Ted Hawkes / Guitar - Ron Eschete / Keyboards , Sax - Tom Ranier / Vocals - Carol Eschete. KGML has just posted "Spirits Samba" so dug the lp out for those who would like to hear more. Picked this up in Tony Monson's Disc Empire in the early 80s after hearing Chris Bangs spinning "Swan Lake" and found it had yet another bona fide jazz dance classic to be featured in the shape of "Spirits Samba". Here's an apathetic review from amg: Some Afro-Latin, some fusion and things in between from vibist Dave Pike. Pike is a good player, but sometimes his arrangements bog down between pop and jazz. His style is more remniscent of Red Norvo, with its lighter, less aggressive and flowing lines. [20]12 comments made-how about you? 12.11.09 [21]RANDY WESTON - BLUE MOSES Randy Weston For CTI from 1972. Arranged By - Don Sebesky;Bass - Bill Wood (2) (tracks: B1) , Ron Carter ;Drums - Bill Cobham ;English Horn, Clarinet, Flute - George Marge ;Flugelhorn - Alan Rubin , John Frosk , Marvin Stamm ;Flute - Hubert Laws ;French Horn - Brooks Tillotson , James Buffington ;Oboe, Clarinet, Flute - Romeo Penque ;Piano - Randy Weston Saxophone [Tenor] - Grover Washington, Jr ;Synthesizer [Moog] - David Horowitz Trombone - Garnett Brown , Warren Covington , Wayne Andre ;Trombone - Paul Faulise Trumpet - Freddie Hubbard ;Vocals - Madasme Meddah Super heavyweight banger from CTI - trust Randy Weston to dispense with Creed Taylor's saccharine stylings.All Killer blah blah blah.... Another underwhelming review from Mr Yannow: Randy Weston's most popular record, this Lp (which he had mixed feelings about) features Weston not only on piano but electric keyboards. Backed by Don Sebesky arrangements and assisted by trumpeter Freddie Hubbard and tenor-saxophonist Grover Washington Jr., Weston plays quite well on four of his compositions; best-known are "Ganawa (Blue Moses)" and "Marrakesh Blues." The music retains the African feel of most of Weston's latter-day playing but also has some commercial touches that do not hurt the performances. This rewarding date has not yet been reissued on CD. ~ Scott Yanow, All Music Guide Fantastic cover art from Pete Turner - I highly recommend his book[22] here. [23]16 comments made-how about you? 7.11.09 [24]BLACKCLASSICAL - 1ST BIRTHDAY MEGAMIX Blackclassical has taken off his flat cap ,put the racing pigeons away and is celebrating his first year on t'interwebs with a mighty mp3 mash up of spiritual jazz goodness[25] here.Proof indeed that it's not all grim up north. Happy Birthday you old bastard - now get the lagers in and make sure they've got vodka tops you tightarse. [26]3 comments made-how about you? 6.11.09 [27]TUBBT HAYES - TUBBS IN N.Y. Tubby Hayes for Fontana from 1961. Saxophone [Tenor] - Tubby Hayes; Bass - George Duvivier; Drums - Dave Bailey ;Piano - Horace Parlan ; Trumpet - Clark Terry;Vibraphone - Eddie Costa Another first in blogland for this British vinyl rarity at OIR with Tubbs keeping heavy company in NYC . Apparently there was legal wrangling about who owns the masters so don't hold your breath waiting for a cd issue.The last one got pulled pronto upon release in 1990. The swaggering "A Pint Of Bitter" was my very first exposure to Hayes back in the early 80s - I just love that tune - but the rest is just as good with flat out romps through "Opus Ocean" and "Airegin" plus a wonderfuly swinging "Soon" . Nice! [28]26 comments made-how about you? 31.10.09 [29]TUBBY HAYES QUARTET - TUBBY'S GROOVE Tubby Hayes for Tempo from 1960. Tubby Hayes (ts), Terry Shannon (p), Phil Bates (b), Phil Seamen (d). "Tin Tin Deo" killin' it every time for me on this rare piece of British wax from 50 years ago. Simon Spillet has written a fascinating piece on Tubby at[30] Jazzscript and here's his take on this album: I think it's one of Tubby's best ever studio recordings and catches him very much in his prime. I suppose that the stand-out track for me has to be Sunny Monday with its unaccompanied tenor choruses. The tone is big, the rhythmic delivery is full of confidence and the sheer enthusiasm shines through half a century on. [31]23 comments made-how about you? 30.10.09 [32]STAFFAN ABELEEN QUINTET -PERSEPOLIS Staffan Abeleen for Philips Sweden from 1964. Staffan Abeleen-Piano ; Lasse Farnlof - Trumpet ; Bjorn Netz - Tenor ; Bjorn Alke - Bass ; Bosse Skoglund - Drums More top draw business from Sweden making a first appearance in blogland.Modal to bossa to ballads this one's got the lot: ALL KILLER NO FILLER [33]15 comments made-how about you? 15.10.09 [34]BERNT ROSENGREN BIG BAND - FIRST MOVES Bernt Rosengren for EMI Sweden from 1977. Bassoon, Horn - Lars Bagge/Clarinet, Clarinet [Bass], Saxophone [Soprano, Alto, Baritone] - Lennart Jansson /Congas - Johnny Martinez , René Martinez , Sabu Martinez Cornet , Flugelhorn - Lars Färnlöf /Drums - Leif Wennerström/Flute, Saxophone -Bernt Rosengren /Horn [English], Saxophone - Tommy Koverhult / Percussion - Okay Temiz / Piano - Claes-Göran Fagerstedt / Piano, Piano [Electric] - Bobo Stenson / Saxophone [Baritone] - Gunnar Bergsten / Saxophone [Tenor] - Anders Lindskog / Trombone - Jan Jansson , Janus Miezek , Lars Olofsson , Lennart Löfgren / Trombone [Bass] - Sven Larsson /Trumpet - Björn Borg /Trumpet , Flugelhorn - Bertil Lövgren , Maffy Falay / Bass - Torbjörn Hultcrantz Back over to Sweden for this killer big band session led by Bernt Rosengren and featuring some big names such as a pre-ECM Bobo Stenson,the wonderful Lars Farnlof and none other than the mighty Sabu Martinez. Check out the percussion destruction of "Felicidade" with Sabu plus sons Johnny and Rene Martinez beating the crap out of the Jobim bossa standard... Murdah!!! [35]19 comments made-how about you? 1.10.09 [36]JAZZ QUINTET 60 Jazz Quintet 60 from 1962 for Metronome Denmark. Allan Botschinsky (tp), Niels Husum (ts), Bent Axen (p), Niels-Henning Orsted Pedersen (b), Bjarne Rostvold (ds). Legendary Scandinavian rarity (Check the second mortgage prices on [37]Popsike) from Denmark featuring a who's who of the Danish Jazz scene from the past 50 years. First time it's has been posted in public blogland so don't sleep on this one : ALL KILLER NO FILLER ! [38]27 comments made-how about you? 27.9.09 [39]STAFFAN ABELEEN QUINTET - DOWNSTREAM Staffan Abeleen Quintet for Philips Sweden from 1966. Staffan Abeleen - Piano ; Lasse Farnlof - Trumpet ; Bjorn Netz - Sax ; Bosse Skugland - Drums ; Paul Danielsson - Bass. All compositions by Lars Farnlof Scandinavia is the destination for my next batch of posts and what better way to start than with this superb album by The Staffen Abeleen Quintet playing the compositions of the wonderful Lars Farnlof. Another first appearance in blogland but let the music do the talking ... ALL KILLER NO FILLER [40]15 comments made-how about you? 19.9.09 [41]ARCHIE SHEPP & THE FAMILY OF PERCUSSION - HERE COMES THE FAMILY I have had lots of requests for a repost of this bomb from Archie Shepp and The Family of Percussion - so here it is. First posted at OIR september 2006. The Family of Percussion (Peter Giger,Trilok Gurtu,Doug Hammond and Tom Nicholas)are joined by Archie Shepp on this hard to find 1980 release from Nagara in Germany. On "Here Comes the Family"the Family establish the basic form of the piece with their rhythmic and vocal opening with Shepp's flute fluttering above it all.Then he lets rip with what the liner notes call 'Poetic Recitation'but would probably be called rapping these days over a funky percussive backdrop .This tune is why the lp remains in such demand - a big play list favourite of djs world wide. Next up is Shepp's "Street Song" the best cut on the lp for me,on which he blows his tenor freely over the drums,congas,bells and gongs.The piece ends in a crescendo of percussion culminating in a gong crash which fades into silence."Euterpe's Favorit"has Shepp back on flute with the family weaving a mystical feel behind him on bells,whistles,water pipes,gongs,rattles and drums. "Ardopetori"starts side 2 with a mid tempo infectious rhythm established by shakers and log drum which builds slowly with Shepp soloing freely again on tenor. "For Ti Roro"wraps it up and begins with the gentle,caribean sounds of steel drums until Shepp's soprano bursts in with a frenzy of excitement.This is the most free track with all the musicians reacting to each otherboth collectively and singularly until it finishes fittingly with the sound of the congas. This came out on lp and cd but quickly dissapeared without trace.if you want a copy you gonna have to dig hard and have deep pockets! [42]18 comments made-how about you? [43]HIROSHI SUZUKI - CAT Hiroshi Suzuki for Columbia Japan from 1975. Hiroshi Suzuki-Trombone ; Hiromasa Suzuki-Keyboards ; Akira Ishikawa-Drums ; Takeru Muraoka-Sax ; Kunimitsu Inaba-Bass More super rare J Jazz making a first appearance in blogland and this is an absolute beauty made up of 5 long cuts that hit the perfect balance between jazz and fusion.Acoustic bass meshed with subtle funky drums topped with lashings of Rhodes,trombone and sax deliver a really stretched out understated rolling groove. The album just grows and grows with repeated listening and it's a big favourite over here at Bacoso's Big Top - no surprise that it's ALL KILLER NO FILLER ! [44]34 comments made-how about you? 7.9.09 [45]T. INOMATA & SOUND L.T.D. - SOUNDS OF SOUND L.T.D. Takeshi Inomata for Columbia Japan from 1970. Takeshi Inomata (Drums & Percussion) Jun Suzuki (Electric Bass) Shigetok Kamiya (Electric Guitar) Ryo Kawasaki (Electric Guitar) Sho Imai (Trombone & Bass Trombone) Shigemichi Dohmoto (Trombone & Bass Trombone) Takao Uematsu (Tenor Sax & Soprano Sax) Fantastic lp of funky jazz from the Columbia issued Groovy Sound Series. No idea who plays on it as the credits are all in Japanese but it's a monster session. Check out "Mustache" and "Tak's Tune" for some severe beats from drummer/leader Takeshi Inomata. All Killer No Filler - Highly Recommended! [46]22 comments made-how about you? 29.8.09 [47]HIDEO SHIRAKI - IN FIESTA Hideo Shiraki for Teichiku Japan from 1961. Rare super tough hard bop session from Japan featuring the killer koto led and drum driven bomb "In Fiesta". Reissued in Japan by Kyoto Jazz Massive for Think in a blink and miss it moment back in 2005 but now out of print. The old Dusty Groove blurb: A brilliant early album from Japanese drummer Hideo Shiraki a jazz session that bristles with the same intensity as key late 50s work by Benny Golson or Gigi Gryce! Although Hideo's leading the group on drums, his work on the kit is remarkably subtle done with the snappingly rhythmic style that marked some of Golson's best modern experiments of a few years before not nearly as bombastic as his stint with Art Blakey, and more in the rhythmically stepping quality of his work with Art Farmer in the Jazztet. Key players on the session include Hidehiko Matsumoto on tenor and flute and Yuzuru Sera on piano both of whom give the album a fluid grace that's really beautiful soulful edges that allow the record to stand equally next to anything coming out of the US at the time. One track features a bit of koto at the start -- echoing Shiraki's later world jazz experiments but most of the set is straight modern hardbop, with tracks that include "Blue Romeo", "Etude No 1", "Just One Or Eight", "You Don't Know What Love Is", and Benny Golson's "Five Spot After Dark". [48]14 comments made-how about you? 18.8.09 [49]LLOYD MCNEILL - TREASURES Lloyd McNeill for Baobab from 1976. Lloyd McNeill-Flute ; Dom Salvador-Piano ; Cecil McBee-Bass ; Portinho , Brian Brake-Drums ; Ray Armando-Percussion. One for the flute freaks on a private press out of NYC. Heavy Brazilian infuences at work on this wonderful spiritual jazz session from the great Lloyd McNeill.Two originals,one standard and a cracking version of Salvador's "Salvation Army" which featured on Dom's '76 Muse debut "Minha Familia"(Available at [50]Ile Oxumare). Here's some info on Lloyd McNeill from the excellent [51]Hipwax: The first thing to know about Lloyd McNeill is that his are the very best soul-jazz flute LPs, and each is first-rate, a masterpiece of self-direction. The second thing to know is there is much more to him than his recorded legacy. He is one of those incredible, super-sensitive people who excels at every artistic idiom and endeavor; making wonderful music is just part of his flowing creativity. A professor (at Rutgers University, earlier Dartmouth), he has much to say about music and creativity as well as an impeccable gift for saying it...sensibly. McNeill's writings on his musical experiences provide invaluable documents of "the period" (late 1960s-1970s) as well as a rare glimpse at the joy of a relatively unsung master. McNeill has played with jazz legends --Andrew White (his longtime collaborator/producer), Eric Dolphy, Sabu Martinez, Mulatu Astatke, among many others-- and he has had a significant hand in the arts scene of Washington, D.C. The major galleries of art, including those of the Smithsonian, sponsored multi-media "happenings" that soared far above the hippie caricature of acid rock with light show. During the first flowering of post-Civil Rights, African-American culture, the Lloyd McNeill Quartet's improvisitory, simultaneuous jazz and large-scale painting "happened" while a lucky, perhaps unsuspecting public drank it in. McNeill believes his influences and their results in his art, music, and poetry are inseparable and mutually reinforcing. Time spent with Picasso in Cannes, 1965 led to new expressions in all three, for instance. And when one brushes against a force such as Picasso, just the idea of "meeting Picasso" has a certain momentum, never mind the inevitable casting of rays of a different kind of light. Canvas, vinyl, the stage, paper, and books of poetry offer a few key imprints of McNeill, and McNeill consistently pays tribute to many illustrious peers. There are six albums, all produced and entirely under the artist's control. Each title surpasses anything comparable on the major labels, even Blue Note. The Black Jazz label may be roughly similar in style, but Asha and Baobab are wholly Lloyd McNeill. The records reflect none of the usual external trends from the decade in which they were recorded; all sound like 1971 rather than 1979. The final record even reprises the first (the exotic, broodingly moody "Asha"), and the sound throughout remains somewhat interchangeable and timeless. But each record has its own themes and currents, and even improvisation has its signatures and fingerprints. Buying: Long out of print, collectors items, Lloyd McNeill records should be snapped up on sight. Hip Wax is pleased to offer two titles for which limited stock remains [52]here. Warning - McNeill lps can be damaging to the [53]wallet. [54]29 comments made-how about you? 14.8.09 [55]If Spike Lee Did Movies In Audio... Greg's back on the mix with his old mucker Monohub - another mashed up bomb in memory of Coltrane and the late,great George Russell.Grab it [56]HERE. Here's the blurb from big daddy himself: I did a version of this a while back and was planning to publish on July 17th as a memorial to the day that John Coltrane died, but, a combination of lack of time, work commitments and other things got in the way... Anyway I redid it and am glad that i did as it's much better than the original. This one strictly for the heads... and defo not for the feint hearted. If you liked the Black State of Vietnam mix then this is for you... So as i said; In respect of John Coltrane and George Russell. Much thanks to Monohub too although he plays down his part in this, his genius did have a lot to do with it... [57]1 comments made-how about you? 3.8.09 [58]SADAO WATANABE AND CHARLIE MARIANO - IBERIAN WALTZ Sadao and Charlie for Tact Japan from 1967. Sadao Watanabe (as) , Charlie Mariano (as) , Masabumi Kikuchi (p) , Masanaga Harada (b) , Masahiko Togashi (ds) , Fumio Watanabe (ds) This received a "Japan Jazz Award" on release. Some severe blowing on this double alto led sextet featuring a young band of soon to be Japanese jazz luminaries. The fast and furious "Palisades" was comped on the Sleepwalker Shibuya Jazz Classics.However the 16 minute title cut is the stand out tune an intense modal waltz with a Spanish tinge featuring coruscating solos from Mariano and Watanabe - hard core stuff. Recommended. [59]16 comments made-how about you? 28.7.09 [60]JAMES MARENTIC SEXTET - NIMBUS James Marentic for Discovery from 1982. James Marentic-Sax/Flute; Tom Harrell -Trumpet/Flugelhorn; Slide Hampton-Trombone; Larry Willis-Piano; Anthony Cox-Bass; Victor Lewis-Drums. Storming post hard bop outing for Mr Marentic and his all star band. Check out the banging latin romp "Baile de las Cucharachas " which kicks off the lp in fine style and the Coltrane inspired "Nimbus". "Aphrodesia" has the inspiration of Kenny Dorham stamped all over it and no prizes for guessing who "Mr Silver I Presume" is aimed at If you enjoyed Tom Harrell's "Aurora" post then this should be right up your street,round your corner and down your block! [61]8 comments made-how about you? 23.7.09 [62]CARTER JEFFERSON - THE RISE OF ATLANTIS Carter Jefferson for Timeless from 1978. Terrific post bop album with latin influences -All Killer No Filler! John Hicks (Piano), Terumasa Hino (Trumpet), Woody Shaw (Producer), Clint Houston (Bass), Victor Lewis (Drums),Carter Jefferson (Sax ), Lani Groves (Vocals), Shunzo Ohno (Trumpet), Steve Thornton (Percussion), Harry Whitaker (Piano) Here's the customary underwhelming AMG review : Tenor saxophonist Carter Jefferson made somewhat of a name for himself when trumpeter Woody Shaw chose him as a member of his first working quintet. Shaw is the producer of this album, Jefferson's fine debut (and evidently only) recording as a leader. Taking a cue from Shaw, the saxophonist sticks essentially to a quintet of trumpet and sax backed by all-star rhythm sections. Three of the tracks include hard bop trumpeter Terumasa Hino while the other three feature little-known Japanese trumpeter Shunzo Ono. Most of the tunes are firmly in the school of hard bop, the sort of music that Woody Shaw played so well. While there is not any new ground broken, it is all performed competently enough. While not as emotionally charged as his work with Shaw, Jefferson impresses with a fluid, mobile attack that shows a solid grasp of his material. If the groups seem to be sometimes merely going through the motions, there are nonetheless enough fine moments to make this a worthwhile purchase.AMG. A reliable and advanced soloist who spent most of his career as a sideman, Carter Jefferson is best-remembered for his association with Woody Shaw during 1977-1980. Jefferson started on clarinet and played alto before settling on tenor, going on tour early in the backup bands of the Temptations, the Supremes, and Little Richard. In 1971, he moved to New York to attend New York University and soon spent two years with Mongo Santamaria and a period in 1973 as a member of Art Blakey's Jazz Messengers. After his important stint with Woody Shaw (with whom he recorded several times), Jefferson worked with many top players, including Elvin Jones, Roy Haynes, Cedar Walton, Jerry Gonzalez & the Fort Apache Band, Malachi Thompson, and Jack Walrath's Masters of Suspense. His premature death in Poland after emergency surgery was a major loss. Carter Jefferson only led one record, The Rise of Atlantis, on the Timeless label in 1978. AMG. [63]33 comments made-how about you? 10.7.09 [64]JULIO GUTIERREZ - PROGRESSIVE LATIN Julio Gutierrez for Gema from 1960. The title says it all for this groundbreaking heavyweight descarga session...Highly recommended. Has anyone out there got a copy of Gutierrez's "Havana BC" they want to sell me?If so leave me a message in the comments. Progressive Latin should be considered a classic of Latin jazz if it isn't already. "Cosa Buena" cooks, and "Closing Time" is a slower bossa nova with flute and horns that captures the mood of a good night out at its end. "Yambambe," an Afro rhythm behind mostly piano, sounds more sophisticated than its simple construction. "El Altiplano" is supposed to be an Incan melody with Afro elements. In any case, vocal interjections pave the way for a longer descarga where a variety of intriguing elements (horns, flute piano, even organ) work together in their own weird ways and combinations. The "Route 66" theme arrangement is a coup; the sax and flute are recorded gorgeously, and the piano and conga pace it ideally, with brief drum solo breaks. "Sad City" is a haunting flute piece, while "Guantanamera" has an interesting change but there is only so much one can expect from this tune. "Malaguena" is another long descarga that gets a little wild. Progressive Latin is something of a masterpiece from the great arranger Julio Gutierrez. Tony Wilds What impressed me most about this album is Julio's use of space and the length of the tunes, considering that in the era when it was recorded, 2 1/2 minute tunes were standard. Great musicians like El Negro Vivar (trumpet) and Chombo Silva (sax) were able to beautifully stretch out over an almost post-bop/Afro-Cuban jazz setting. There is some serious blowing on this disc. This is another essential Latin jazz gem from the late 50s/early 60s. Jose Rizo [65]22 comments made-how about you? 4.7.09 [66]Older Posts Subscribe to: [67]Posts (Atom) JAZZ - LATIN - SOUNDTRACKS . RARE - OBSCURE -DELETED . ALL RIPS @ 320 FROM ORIGINAL VINYL OR CD. JAZZ - LATIN - SOUNDTRACKS . RARE - OBSCURE -DELETED . ALL RIPS @ 320 FROM ORIGINAL VINYL OR CD. 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Clow [8]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications. Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual training, recitation, gymnastics, and play. Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human [40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality. The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. . . . When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak. Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. - Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20. . . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight years in [42]duration are superposed. . . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135. Continue to: * prev: [43]Rhythm In Nature * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]The Cycle Of A Generation Tags [46]sociology, [47]communication, [48]congenial groups, [49]cycles of change, [50]democracy, [51]factors of society, [52]government, [53]heredity, [54]human nature, [55]institutions, [56]location, [57]natural selection, [58]organizations, [59]population, [60]primary groups, [61]social classes [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [62]TOP [63]previous page: Rhythm In Nature [64]page up: Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications | by Frederick R. Clow [65]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [66]StasoSphere [ [67]Privacy Policy ] [ [68]Terms of Use ] [ [69]About Us ] [ [70]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:34:34 2009 Références #[1]Welcome page [2]Help [3]Parent screen [4]skip navigation [5]Geography Compass Select Compass [Geography Compass........................] Go * [6]Home | * [7]My Compass | * [8]Help | * [9]Content Alerts | * [10]Contact Us | * [11]Links * [12]What is Geography Compass? | * [13]Subscribe | * [14]Editors | * [15]Editorial Board | * [16]Authors Cultural Towards Lefebvrian Socio-Nature? A Film about Rhythm, Nature and Science By [17]James Evans and [18]Phil Jones, School of Environment and Development, University of Manchester School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham (April 2008) __________________________________________________________________ Section: [19]Cultural Subjects: [20]Environment And Society, [21]Geography, [22]Urban Geography, [23]Cultural Geography. Key Topics: [24]nature , [25]representation. Abstract The first thing you will notice about this article is that it is actually a film. We did not set out to make a film, it just ended up that way. We started out making music out of environmental data, wondering why we only ever look at scientific data, why we do not listen to it. Wandering around the city passing through the transformed landscapes of channelised rivers and broken industrial spaces, we wanted to reveal the socio-natural rhythms of this hybrid city. The text you see below represents the shooting script for a film that explores Lefebvre's notion of rhythmanalysis in the context of socio-natural rhythms. The video accompanying it is far more interesting, including the environmental music that we produced by feeding scientific data through samplers and drum machines. The video questions the nature of scientific representation and whether the notion of rhythmanalysis can be stretched to explore rhythms beyond the human. Furthermore, the process of actually making the video, submitting it to this journal, and responding to the referees' comments made us question the very nature of what constitutes an academic paper in the twenty-first century. The accompanying commentary is our attempt to deal with these issues. To link to the film please go to DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00107.x This article abstract has been viewed 5348 times. [27]view [28]cite [29]Add to my Compass [30]Add to VLE/CMS [31]feedback __________________________________________________________________ Top 5 related articles * [32]Geographies for Moving Bodies: Thinking, Dancing, Spaces By [33]Derek P. McCormack , Oxford University Centre for the Environment (Vol. 3, October 2008) Geography Compass * [34]Colonialism, Landscape and the Subterranean By [35]Heidi V. Scott , Institute of Geography and Earth Sciences, Aberystwyth University (Vol. 3, October 2008) Geography Compass * [36]Climate-Suicide Relationships: A Research Problem in Need of Geographic Methods and Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives By P. Grady Dixon and Adam J. Kalkstein, Mississippi State UniversityUnited States Military Academy (Vol. 4, September 2009) Geography Compass * [37]Ethnomethodology and the Non-representational: What Are Disaffected Young White Men Capable of? By [38]Rob Loughenbury , University of Durham (Vol. 4, June 2009) Geography Compass * [39]The Legacies of 2007: Remapping the Black Presence in Britain By [40]Caroline Bressey , University College London (Vol. 4, April 2009) Geography Compass [[41]All related articles] Top 5 Related Blackwell Reference Chapters * [42]The Environment of the City ... or the Urbanization of Nature The question that now begins to gnaw at your mind is more anguished: outside Penthesilea does an outside ... By Erik Swyngedouw and Maria Kaïka From [43]Companion to the City * [44]Postcolonialism, Representation, and the City Topicality, the essence of good journalism, is perhaps less important for the longer-term perspectives ... By Anthony D. King From [45]Companion to the City * [46]The Immaterial City: Representation, Imagination, and Media Technologies J.-K. Huysmans's À Rebours (Against Nature) is a fictional study of a certain type of dandy in the latter ... By James Donald From [47]Companion to the City * [48]The Production of Nature It may seem strange to include a chapter on the production of nature in a volume about economic geography. ... By Noel Castree From [49]A Companion to Economic Geography [[50]All Related Reference Chapters] * [51]Economic * [52]Social * [53]Cultural * [54]Political * [55]Urban * [56]Development * [57]Climatology * [58]Hydrology & Water Resources * [59]Geomorphology * [60]Biogeography * [61]GIS * [62]Earth Observation * [63]Environment & Society * [64]Global Issues Quick Search Keyword search: ____________________ Select a section: [All........................] Select a content type: [All.................................] [65]Advanced Search Search Related Blackwell Reference Chapters [66]View Related Reference Books [67]Geography Compass - Personal Subscription Rates [68]Sign up for free Geography Compass content alerts [69]Keep up-to-date "...an indispensable reference tool for teachers, researchers, and students in Geography and related disciplines." Mike Bradshaw and Basil Gomez Geography Compass Editors-in-Chief [70]Blackwell Publishing Copyright © 2005-2007 [71]Blackwell Publishing | [72]Privacy Policy | [73]Contact us | [74]Help | [75]To the top... [76][ access key 0 : accessibility information including access key list ] [77][ access key 1 : home page ] [78][ access key 2 : skip navigation] [79][ access key 6 : help ] Références [1]pmc logo image [2]Logo of nihpa [3]Journal List > [4]NIHPA Author Manuscripts Formats: * [5]Abstract | * Full Text | * [6]PDF (32K) J Public Health Policy. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2008 July 24. Published in final edited form as: [7]J Public Health Policy. 2006; 27(1): 2-12. doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200061. PMCID: PMC2483431 NIHMSID: NIHMS58476 [8]Copyright notice and [9]Disclaimer Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature Elena N. Naumova^* ^*Address for Correspondence: Department of Public Health and Family Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Avenue, Boston, MA 02111, USA. E-mail: elena.naumova/at/tufts.edu Small right arrow pointing to: The publisher's final edited version of this article is available at [10]J Public Health Policy. Small right arrow pointing to: See other articles in PMC that [11]cite the published article. Abstract Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences. Understanding seasonal fluctuations in diseases patterns presents us with a major challenge. To develop efficient strategies for disease prevention and control, we need to grasp the main determinants of temporal variations and their interactions. This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality by outlining several of its factors, using as illustrations respiratory and enteric water- or food-borne infections. Keywords: seasonality, water-borne infection, food-borne infection, respiratory infection * [12] Other Sectionsv + [13]Abstract + [14]Introduction + [15]Notion of Seasonality + [16]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [17]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [18]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [19]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [20]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [21]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [22]References Introduction Now let us consider the seasons and the way we can predict whether it is going to be a healthy or an unhealthy year. (Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 10)^[23]1 Seasonal fluctuations in birth and death, in sickness and health, are the haunting mysteries of mankind. People have made predictions from winds, tides, birds' migrations, spring blooms, sunsets, and constellations in hope of grasping the future. The complexity and uncertainty of ancient and modern means of prediction make us wonder to what extent we are able to understand the rhythm of nature. One might argue the future cannot be known, but from a practical point of view, a better understanding of changes in disease occurrences is essential for building efficient strategies for disease prevention and control. Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences. Since Hippocrates, observers worldwide have noted and documented marked fluctuations in the incidence of many diseases. In the modern view, the main determinants of temporal variations in disease manifestation are evolving host susceptibility, periodicity in pathogen abundance and transmissibility, and the ever-changing environment that can support or repress a host or pathogen. Interactions among these factors responsible for seasonal variation are interwoven into the intricate fabric of life. For many diseases, explanations for self-sustained oscillations still remain elusive. We lack adequate methods and sufficient analytical tools for comprehensive examination of seasonality in public health field studies. A dearth of observations, recorded over long periods at fine resolution, compounded by an enormous number of factors associated with periodic changes, obscure our ability to understand disease variation. Urgent need for effective strategies to prevent and control a spread of emerging infections in the rapidly changing world, however, demands a deeper insight into the cyclic nature of diseases. This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality and outline several factors associated with seasonality using as illustrations enteric water- or food-borne infections and respiratory infections. Then I propose a framework for systematic evaluation of seasonal oscillations. In every part of this presentation, and most importantly, I wish to stimulate discussion on this challenging topic. * [24] Other Sectionsv + [25]Abstract + [26]Introduction + [27]Notion of Seasonality + [28]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [29]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [30]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [31]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [32]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [33]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [34]References Notion of Seasonality Every disease occurs at any season of the year but some of them more frequently occur and are of greater severity at certain times. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 19) Seasonality, as noted above, refers to the cyclic appearance of events over a period of time. A seasonal pattern may appear as a tight cluster of isolated outbreaks that occurred during a relatively short time period, then spreading over a wide geographic area. For example, in a temporal curve of enteric infection cases (i.e. giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, or rotavirus infections), a compact cluster of outbreaks is followed by a long interval of low incidence. Systematic recurrence of such sequences forms a seasonal pattern typical of a specific pathogen in a given population and in a given locality. A seasonal increase in enteric or respiratory infection often produces a well-defined oscillating curve that starts to rise in one season and declines over the next one. The three main features characterize seasonality: * a point in time when a seasonal curve reaches its maximum, * an amplitude from peak to nadir, and * a duration of a seasonal increase defined by a shape of a curve. (The shape of a seasonal pattern reflects how fast a temporal curve reaches its peak and declines to nadir over a course of a full cycle. Depending on the length of a cycle whether it is one year or a half of a year, a seasonal curve would have one or two peaks.) Seasonal patterns, described by these three characteristics, may vary for different diseases, different locations, or different subpopulations. Many viral and bacterial infections in humans show marked seasonal changes. In some diseases, like salmonellosis and influenza, annual oscillations explain up to 60% of variability. Such impact should not be ignored and deserves a proper examination. * [35] Other Sectionsv + [36]Abstract + [37]Introduction + [38]Notion of Seasonality + [39]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [40]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [41]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [42]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [43]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [44]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [45]References Diseases Seasonal Patterns Diseases vary in their relationships one with another; some are opposed, some are mutually agreeable. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 3) Differences in diseases peaks reflect different etiology, heterogeneity in host susceptibility, or route of transmission. In temperate climates, Campylobacter and Salmonella infections are known to rise in summer, giardiasis in early fall, and rotavirus infection in mid-winter, etc. Interestingly, for the same infectious agent, infections recorded in two different locations may present a different pattern of incidence. A seasonal pattern for cryptosporidiosis in the United States exhibits one late summer peak ([46]1); in contrast, in the United Kingdom, two seasonal peaks are seen ([47]2). The UK picture reflects two dominant sources of exposure: one from animals in the late spring, and another from humans in the fall ([48]3). Close temporal clustering of seasonal peaks in diseases that share similar sources of exposure suggests dominant routes of transmissions. Peaks in water-borne cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis often cluster after a summer peak in ambient temperature. Such synchronization in disease manifestation can be governed by environmental and social factors. In some instances, periodicity of a given infection observed in a particular population may be not present in another. A seasonal peak in cryptosporidiosis cases observed in the general population is not apparent in the immunocompromized HIV-positive gay men, even though the incidence of cryptosporidiosis in HIV-positive population is very high. This suggests differences in dominant routes of transmission. Seasonal patterns can change over time. After intense vaccination campaigns in the 1950s and 1970s in the United Kingdom, the patterns of measles and pertussis changed, with the high rates of disease usually seen when children were attending school diminishing for measles and practically disappearing for pertusis ([49]4). Explanations for these phenomena remain elusive. A departure from a systematically observed pattern could reflect the evolution of a pathogen or a change in herd immunity. A simple rule to remember is that a discovery hides in outliers. Faced with an abundance of causal agents, a bare observation of a rise in the incidence of non-specific enteritis should be interpreted with caution. A seasonal pattern can represent a mix of temporal curves. Imagine two periodic curves of similar intensity, but one peaks in a spring and another in a fall; the sum of these two curves might lose the appearance of seasonality, covering two distinctly seasonal phenomena. Some infections are very rare. Their seasonal patterns are difficult to examine because the relevant data must be collected over a very long time and/or aggregated over large spatial units. Precision in evaluating seasonality can thus be jeopardized by time-dependent and/or space-dependent confounders. Seasonal fluctuations can be found beyond infectious diseases; chronic somatic diseases also exhibit substantial temporal variations. Plausibly, exacerbations in chronic conditions are driven by infectious agents or environmental changes. Understanding the interplay of an infection and a chronic disease may lead to better control for both. * [50] Other Sectionsv + [51]Abstract + [52]Introduction + [53]Notion of Seasonality + [54]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [55]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [56]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [57]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [58]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [59]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [60]References Seasonal Host Susceptibility When the weather is seasonable and the crops ripen at the regular times, diseases are regular in their appearance... (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 8) Poor nutrition directly affects host susceptibility. In places of food scarcity, researchers suspect that temporal patterns in birth weight and preterm delivery result from seasonal variations in food availability ([61]5). In general, due to a less developed immune system, young children are susceptible to infection; their immune response may be further weakened by seasonal cutbacks in essential micronutrients and vitamins. Anemnestic responses to an antigen determine whether an infection recurs. Short-lived immune memory together with seasonal changes in pathogen transmissibility contribute further to the complexity of seasonal patterns. Even a perfectly healthy person can experience a change in susceptibility to infection due to stress, injuries, or trauma. The probability of a marked impact of such factors on disease seasonality is virtually unknown. * [62] Other Sectionsv + [63]Abstract + [64]Introduction + [65]Notion of Seasonality + [66]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [67]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [68]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [69]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [70]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [71]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [72]References Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility Some diseases are produced by the manner of life that is followed; others by the life-giving air we breathe. (Hippocrates. The Nature of Man, 9) Temperature, humidity, and precipitation -- the defining factors of seasons -- are important determinants of pathogens' survival. Changes influence pathogens' potency and life expectancy, resulting in temporal fluctuations in pathogens' abundance. In many instances, seasonal changes in pathogen survival and transmission are inseparably related to both biological and social aspects of our lives. They are synchronized by weather. High ambient temperature, for example, provides a supportive environment for food-borne pathogens, favoring their multiplication in food and on food preparation surfaces ([73]6). Food contamination is believed to be a significant mode of transmission for infections caused by Salmonella and Campylobacter ([74]7); therefore, during warm weather, the risk for food-borne diseases increases ([75]8). Seasonal changes in level of contamination, availability of potable water, sanitation and hygiene practices, as well as crowding and person-to-person contacts, affect pathogens' transmissibility. Worldwide, water use differs from season to season ([76]9). In temperate climates, warm weather leads to higher water consumption and encourages outdoor activities -- swimming, camping, and recreational water use. In tropical regions, contamination of surface water increases during wet seasons. Although spread of pathogens via food is certainly possible, contaminated water is the dominant source of exposure for enteric infections caused by protozoa Cryptosporidium and Giardia ([77]10 --[78]12). Depending on locality, outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis associated with drinking or recreational water frequently occur during warm or wet seasons ([79]13,[80]14). With the onset of cooler weather, the "heating season" marks a change in indoor air quality. Inadequate and poorly designed ventilation in crowded public places and urban transit systems may boost exposure to air-borne pathogens by increasing their concentration in stagnant air and by re-circulating contaminated air. Higher relative humidity may also affect the stability of air-borne droplets in which viruses travel from person to person. * [81] Other Sectionsv + [82]Abstract + [83]Introduction + [84]Notion of Seasonality + [85]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [86]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [87]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [88]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [89]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [90]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [91]References Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects You will find, as a general rule, that the constitutions and the habits of a people follow the nature of the land where they live. (Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 24) Diseases do not watch calendars. Their incidence rises and falls because of changes in factors associated with the diseases. However, in every culture all social events are synchronized by calendars; and every calendar reflects the cyclic rhythm of nature. Traditional celebrations and gatherings observed by communities according to calendars affect pathogen transmission. Holidays, social activities, and seasonal travel are often associated with changes in food consumption and preparation, and are therefore associated with changes in disease incidence. Preparing meat on a barbecue increases the risk of Campylobacter infection ([92]15,[93]16) and foreign travel increases the risk for enteric infections. Aggregation of children in schools, daycare centers, and summer camps, reflecting school calendars, facilitates rapid exchange of pathogens. There are marked seasonal variations in transmission, and thus the incidence of enteric and respiratory infections. * [94] Other Sectionsv + [95]Abstract + [96]Introduction + [97]Notion of Seasonality + [98]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [99]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [100]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [101]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [102]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [103]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [104]References Climate Change, Extreme Weather Events, and Disease Seasonality The changes of the seasons are especially liable to beget diseases, as are great changes from heat to cold, or cold to heat in any season. Other changes in the weather have similarly severe effects. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 1) As weather affects human health by creating favorable conditions for pathogen proliferation and transmission, severe weather can affect the timing and intensity of infectious outbreaks, and natural disasters lead to drastic changes in population structure and pathogen ecology. Catastrophic events like tsunamis, hurricanes, devastating floods, and heat waves that cause deaths, population displacement, and infrastructural damage may have dramatic effects on the incidence of infections and their seasonal patterns. Recent work has shown highly significant associations between extreme precipitation and water-borne disease outbreaks ([105]17). Heavy precipitation, rapid snowmelt, and floods flush animal wastes from the land into surface waters and may overwhelm drinking and wastewater treatment systems. The latter leads to discharges in watersheds of untreated human wastes. As a result, pathogens can appear in drinking and recreational water in very high concentrations ([106]18,[107]19). A rapid snowmelt, resultant runoff, and filtration system failure at the overloaded local drinking water treatment plant were implicated in the largest known water-borne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis, which occurred in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1993 ([108]20). This outbreak happened in April, not within the usual seasonal peak for cryptosporidiosis cases. A flood, which also resulted from a rapid snowmelt, has been linked with a similar increased incidence of diarrhea ([109]21). Experts expect that global climate change will increase climate variability and the frequency of extreme precipitation events in temperate regions ([110]22,[111]23). "Global warming" may also increase the frequency and magnitude of other extreme weather events, such as heat waves and droughts, and thereby have profound effects on public health ([112]24,[113]25). In a comprehensive study conducted in the United Kingdom that described a short-term link between temperature and food poisoning, the authors also hypothesized that climate change could lead to changes in rates of food poisoning ([114]26). Integration of environmental parameters into disease forecasting and warning systems could allow public health officials to alert the populace when specific meteorological conditions pose predictable risks to health ([115]27). Simple messages about proper food preparation and refrigeration and the risks of using contaminated recreational waters could, for example, be provided before, during, and after extreme events. Better understanding of disease seasonality would also help to predict outbreaks of infections triggered by climate variability. * [116] Other Sectionsv + [117]Abstract + [118]Introduction + [119]Notion of Seasonality + [120]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [121]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [122]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [123]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [124]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [125]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [126]References Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking Desperate cases need the most desperate remedies. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, I, 6) At first, seasonal fluctuations should be systematically described. This requires a framework with sound definitions and analytic tools suitable for routine use by public health professionals. In public health sciences, the existing methodology currently lacks methods and tests for assessing complex interactions in the time-dependent factors responsible for disease seasonality. Next, reliable data with fine temporal resolution are a must. The vast majority of epidemiological studies have examined seasonal patterns of infections using quarterly or monthly data. This coarse temporal aggregation can thwart an otherwise detailed, accurate, and comprehensive analysis of seasonal patterns and may even be misleading ([127]28). Examination of daily or weekly rates can substantially improve evaluation of seasonal curves, but a systematic approach for using at least weekly aggregates is needed. Finally, reluctance to apply sophisticated mathematical models in public health studies must be overcome. Underlying processes in disease manifestation and spread are complex and multifaceted. Causal pathways are often obscured. To disentangle causal effects of many factors within the circular processes of self-sustaining oscillations demands the careful building of sound conceptual models of seasonality; models that can be tested. The emerging fields of computational epidemiology and intelligent data mining will complement established work in philosophy of science and mathematical biology to become an essential part of thinking in public health and policy. Acknowledgments I thank Drs Eileen O'Neil and Beth Rosenberg for their thoughtful suggestions, and the support of funding agencies: the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (U19AI062627), and the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R01ES013171). Footnotes ^1Hippocrates' citations are taken from: Lloyd, GER, editor. Hippocratic Writings. Trans. Chadwick J and Mann WN. London: Penguin; 1978. * [128] Other Sectionsv + [129]Abstract + [130]Introduction + [131]Notion of Seasonality + [132]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [133]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [134]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [135]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [136]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [137]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [138]References References 1. Naumova EN, Chen JT, Griffiths JK, Matyas BT, Estes-Smargiassi SA, Morris RD. Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. Public Health Rep. 2000;115(5):436-47. [[139]PubMed] 2. Naumova EN, Christodouleas J, Hunter PR, Syed Q. Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance system in 1990 --1999. J Water Health. 2005;3(2):185-96. [[140]PubMed] 3. McLauchlin J, Amar C, Pedraza-Diaz S, Nichols GL. Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in 1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from livestock animals. J Clin Microbiol. 2000;38(11):3984-90. [[141]PubMed] 4. Anderson RM, May RM. Infectious Diseases of Humans. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004. 5. Fallis G, Hilditch J. A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between rural Zaire and Ontario. Can J Public Health. 1989;80(3):205-8. [[142]PubMed] 6. Kusumaningrum HD, Riboldi G, Hazeleger WC, Beumer RR. Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces and cross-contamination to foods. Int J Food Microbiol. 2003;85(3):227-36. [[143]PubMed] 7. Mead PS, Slutsker L, Dietz V, McCaig LF, Bresee JS, Shapiro C, et al. Food-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999;5(5):607-25. [[144]PubMed] 8. Kovats RS, Edwards SJ, Hajat S, Armstrong BG, Ebi KL, Menne B. The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries. Epidemiol Infect. 2004;132(3):443-53. [[145]PubMed] 9. Gofti-Laroche L, Gratacap-Cavallier B, Genoulaz O, Joret JC, Hartemann P, Seigneurin JM, et al. A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study). Water Sci Technol. 2001;43(12):39-48. [[146]PubMed] 10. Pruss A. Review of epidemiological studies on health effects from exposure to recreational water. Int J Epidemiol. 1998;27(1):1-9. [[147]PubMed] 11. Rose JB, Huffman DE, Riley K, Farrah SR, Lukasik JO, Hamann CL. Reduction of enteric microorganisms at the Upper Occoquan Sewage Authority Water Reclamation Plant. Water Environ Res. 2001;73(6):711-20. [[148]PubMed] 12. Rose JB, Slifko TR. Giardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their impact on foods: a review. J Food Prot. 1999;62(9):1059-70. [[149]PubMed] 13. Barwick RS, Levy DA, Craun GF, Beach MJ, Calderon RL. Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks -- United States, 1997 --1998. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000;49(4):1-21. [[150]PubMed] 14. Clavel A, Alivares JL, Fleta J, Castillo J, Varea M, Ramos FJ, et al. Seasonality of cryptosporidiosis in children. Eur J Clin Microbiol Inf Dis. 1996;15:77-9. 15. Kapperud G, Skjerve E, Bean NH, Ostroff SM, Lassen J. Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of a case --control study in southeastern Norway. J Clin Microbiol. 1992;30(12):3117-21. [[151]PubMed] 16. Neimann J, Engberg J, Molbak K, Wegener HC. A case --control study of risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections in Denmark. Epidemiol Infect. 2003;130(3):353-66. [[152]PubMed] 17. Curriero FC, Patz JA, Rose JB, Lele S. The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948 --1994. Am J Pub Health. 2001;91(8):1194-9. [[153]PubMed] 18. Fayer R, Trout JM, Lewis EJ, Xiao L, Lal A, Jenkins MC, et al. Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay. Parasitol Res. 2002;88(11):998-1003. [[154]PubMed] 19. Kistemann T, Classen T, Koch C, Dangendorf F, Fischeder R, Gebel J, et al. Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during extreme rainfall and runoff. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002;68(5):2188-97. [[155]PubMed] 20. MacKenzie WR, Hoxie NJ, Proctor ME, Gradus MS, Blair KA, Peterson DE, et al. A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of Cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med. 1994;331(3):161-7. [[156]PubMed] 21. Wade TJ, Sandhu SK, Levy D, Lee S, LeChevallier MW, Katz L, et al. Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms? Am J Epidemiol. 2004;159(4):398-405. [[157]PubMed] 22. World Health Organization. Using climate to predict infectious disease outbreaks: a review. World Health Organization; Geneva, Switzerland: 2004. Publication no. WHO/SDE/OEH/04.01. 23. Easterling DR, Evans JL. Observed variability and trends in extreme climate events. Bull Am Meteorol Soc. 2000;81:417-25. 24. Charron D, Thomas M, Waltner-Toews D, Aramini J, Edge T, Kent R, et al. Vulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a review. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004;67(20 --22):1667-77. [[158]PubMed] 25. Patz JA, Epstein PR, Burke TA, Balbus JM. Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996;275(3):217-23. [[159]PubMed] 26. Bentham G, Langford IH. Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England and Wales. Int J Biometeorol. 1995;39(2):81-6. [[160]PubMed] 27. Ebi KL, Schmier JK. A stitch in time: improving public health early warning systems for extreme weather events. Epidemiol Rev. 2005;27:115-21. [[161]PubMed] 28. da Silva Lopes ACB. Spurious deterministic seasonality and auto-correlation corrections with quarterly data: further Monte Carlo results. Empir Econ. 1999;24(2):341-59. __________________________________________________________________ PubMed articles by these authors * [162]Naumova, E. PubMed related articles * [163]ReviewSeasonality of infectious diseases. Annu Rev Public Health. 2007; 28:127-43. [Annu Rev Public Health. 2007] * [164]ReviewSeasonality and the dynamics of infectious diseases. Ecol Lett. 2006 Apr; 9(4):467-84. [Ecol Lett. 2006] * [165]Seasonal infectious disease epidemiology. Proc Biol Sci. 2006 Oct 7; 273(1600):2541-50. [Proc Biol Sci. 2006] * [166]Seasonal control for an endemic disease with seasonal fluctuations. Theor Popul Biol. 1988 Apr; 33(2):115-25. [Theor Popul Biol. 1988] * [167]Seasonality of primarily childhood and young adult infectious diseases in the United States. Chronobiol Int. 2006; 23(5):1065-82. [Chronobiol Int. 2006] * » [168]See reviews... | » [169]See all... Recent Activity [170]Clear [171]Turn Off [172]Turn On * [173]Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of NatureMystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature Your browsing activity is empty. Activity recording is turned off. [174]Turn recording back on Links * [175]PubMed * [176]Taxonomy * [177]Taxonomy Tree * [178]Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. Public Health Rep. 2000 Sep-Oct; 115(5):436-47. [Public Health Rep. 2000] * [179]Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance system in 1990-1999. J Water Health. 2005 Jun; 3(2):185-96. [J Water Health. 2005] * [180]Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in 1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from livestock animals. J Clin Microbiol. 2000 Nov; 38(11):3984-90. [J Clin Microbiol. 2000] [181]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [182]A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between rural Zaire and Ontario. Can J Public Health. 1989 May-Jun; 80(3):205-8. [Can J Public Health. 1989] [183]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [184]Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces and cross-contamination to foods. Int J Food Microbiol. 2003 Aug 25; 85(3):227-36. [Int J Food Microbiol. 2003] * [185]ReviewFood-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999 Sep-Oct; 5(5):607-25. [Emerg Infect Dis. 1999] * [186]The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries. Epidemiol Infect. 2004 Jun; 132(3):443-53. [Epidemiol Infect. 2004] [187]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [188]A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study). Water Sci Technol. 2001; 43(12):39-48. [Water Sci Technol. 2001] * [189]ReviewReview of epidemiological studies on health effects from exposure to recreational water. Int J Epidemiol. 1998 Feb; 27(1):1-9. [Int J Epidemiol. 1998] * [190]ReviewGiardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their impact on foods: a review. J Food Prot. 1999 Sep; 62(9):1059-70. [J Food Prot. 1999] * [191]Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks--United States, 1997-1998. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000 May 26; 49(4):1-21. [MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000] [192]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [193]Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of a case-control study in southeastern Norway. J Clin Microbiol. 1992 Dec; 30(12):3117-21. [J Clin Microbiol. 1992] * [194]A case-control study of risk factors for sporadic campylobacter infections in Denmark. Epidemiol Infect. 2003 Jun; 130(3):353-66. [Epidemiol Infect. 2003] [195]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [196]The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948-1994. Am J Public Health. 2001 Aug; 91(8):1194-9. [Am J Public Health. 2001] * [197]Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay. Parasitol Res. 2002 Nov; 88(11):998-1003. [Parasitol Res. 2002] * [198]Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during extreme rainfall and runoff. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002 May; 68(5):2188-97. [Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002] * [199]A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med. 1994 Jul 21; 331(3):161-7. [N Engl J Med. 1994] * [200]Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms? Am J Epidemiol. 2004 Feb 15; 159(4):398-405. [Am J Epidemiol. 2004] [201]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [202]ReviewVulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a review. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004 Oct 22-Nov 26; 67(20-22):1667-77. [J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004] * [203]Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996 Jan 17; 275(3):217-23. [JAMA. 1996] * [204]Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England and Wales. Int J Biometeorol. 1995 Nov; 39(2):81-6. [Int J Biometeorol. 1995] [205]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [206]ReviewA stitch in time: improving public health early warning systems for extreme weather events. Epidemiol Rev. 2005; 27():115-21. [Epidemiol Rev. 2005] [207]See more articles cited in this paragraph You are here: NCBI > [208]Literature > PubMed Central [209]Help Desk Simple NCBI Directory * Getting Started * [210]Site Map * [211]NCBI Help Manual * [212]NCBI Handbook * [213]Training & Tutorials * Resources * [214]Literature * [215]DNA & RNA * [216]Proteins * [217]Sequence Analysis * [218]Genes & Expression * [219]Genomes * [220]Maps & Markers * [221]Domains & Structures * [222]Genetics & Medicine * [223]Taxonomy * [224]Data & Software * [225]Training & Tutorials * [226]Homology * [227]Small Molecules * [228]Variation * Popular * [229]PubMed * [230]PubMed Central * [231]Bookshelf * [232]BLAST * [233]Gene * [234]Nucleotide * [235]Protein * [236]GEO * [237]Conserved Domains * [238]Structure * [239]PubChem * Featured * [240]GenBank * [241]Reference Sequences * [242]Map Viewer * [243]Genome Projects * [244]Human Genome * [245]Mouse Genome * [246]Influenza Virus * [247]Primer-BLAST * [248]Short Read Archive * NCBI Information * [249]About NCBI * [250]Research at NCBI * [251]NCBI Newsletter * [252]NCBI FTP Site * [253]Contact Us [254]NIH [255]DHHS [256]USA.gov [257]Copyright | [258]Disclaimer | [259]Privacy | [260]Accessibility | [261]Contact [262]National Center for Biotechnology Information , U.S. National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville Pike, Bethesda MD, 20894 USA Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [USEMAP] [USEMAP] #[1]Edit this page [2]Wikipedia (en) [3]copyright [4]Wikipedia RSS Feed [5]Wikipedia Atom Feed Circadian rhythm From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search "Human clock" redirects here. For the online clock, see [8]Humanclock. Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters. A circadian rhythm is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including [9]plants, [10]animals, [11]fungi and [12]cyanobacteria (see [13]bacterial circadian rhythms). The term "circadian", coined by [14]Franz Halberg,^[15][1] comes from the [16]Latin [17]circa, "around", and diem or dies, "day", meaning literally "approximately one day". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [18]tidal, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [19]chronobiology. Circadian rhythms are [20]endogenously generated, and can be entrained by external cues, called [21]zeitgebers, the primary one of which is [22]daylight. Contents * [23]1 History * [24]2 Criteria * [25]3 Origin * [26]4 Importance in animals + [27]4.1 Impact of light-dark cycle + [28]4.2 Arctic animals + [29]4.3 Butterfly migration * [30]5 Biological clock in mammals + [31]5.1 Determining the human circadian rhythm + [32]5.2 Outside the "master clock" * [33]6 Light and the biological clock * [34]7 Enforced longer cycles * [35]8 Human health + [36]8.1 Disruption + [37]8.2 Effect of drugs * [38]9 See also * [39]10 References + [40]10.1 Bibliography + [41]10.2 Notes * [42]11 External links [[43]edit] History The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [44]Alexander the Great, described [45]diurnal leaf movements of the [46]tamarind tree.^[47][2] The first modern observation of endogenous circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [48]Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant [49]Mimosa pudica continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli. In 1918, J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.^[50][3] [51]Joseph Takahashi discovered the genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.^[52][4]^[53][5] [[54]edit] Criteria To differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met: 1) the rhythms persist in the absence of cues, 2) they persist equally precisely over a range of temperatures, and 3) the rhythms can be adjusted to match the local time: * The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those "apparent" rhythms that are merely responses to external periodic cues. A rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been tested in conditions without external periodic input. * The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e., it maintains the same period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway. At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely coincidental. * The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [55]time zones illustrates the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next. Until rhythms are reset, a person usually experiences [56]jet lag. [[57]edit] Origin [58]Question book-new.svg This section needs additional [59]citations for [60]verification. Please help [61]improve this article by adding [62]reliable references. Unsourced material may be [63]challenged and [64]removed. (October 2007) Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [65]ultraviolet radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus [66]Neurospora, which exists today, retains this [67]clock-regulated mechanism. Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment.^[68][6] This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,^[69][7] as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian rhythms in quail.^[70][8] The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [71]cyanobacteria. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of Synechococcus elongatus can be reconstituted in vitro with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [72]ATP. Previous explanations of the [73]prokaryotic circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism. It is an unanswered question whether circadian clocks in eukaryotic organisms require translation/transcription-derived oscillations, for, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture (input - [74]central oscillator - output), they do not share any [75]homology. This implies probable independent origins. In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [76]Seymour Benzer first identified a genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behaviour: one had a shorter period, another had a longer one, and the third had none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named [77]period.^[78][9] The same gene was identified to be defective in the sleep disorder FASPS ([79]Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome) in human beings thirty years later, underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day. A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.^[80][10] At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronize the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [81]eyes travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock. [[82]edit] Importance in animals Circadian rhythmicity is present in the [83]sleeping and feeding patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear patterns of core body temperature, [84]brain wave activity, [85]hormone production, cell regeneration and other biological activities. In addition, [86]photoperiodism, the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation of day length. " Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food availability or predator activity is crucial for survival of many species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the photoperiod ('daylength') is the most predictive environmental cue for the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing of migration, hibernation and reproduction.^[87][11] " [[88]edit] Impact of light-dark cycle The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a [89]freerunning rhythm. Each "day", their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward, depending on whether their [90]endogenous period is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called [91]Zeitgebers (from the German, Time Givers).^[92][12] It is interesting to note that totally-blind subterranean mammals (e.g., [93]blind mole rat Spalax sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors (detect light) are still functional; as well, they do surface periodically.^[[94]citation needed] Freerunning organisms that normally have one consolidated sleep episode will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light/dark cycle in nature. The sleep-wake rhythm may, in these circumstances, become out of phase with other circadian or [95]ultradian rhythms such as [96]temperature and [97]digestion.^[[98]citation needed] Recent research has influenced the design of [99]spacecraft environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.^[[100]citation needed] [[101]edit] Arctic animals Norwegian researchers at the [102]University of Tromsø have shown that some Arctic animals ([103]ptarmigan, [104]reindeer) show circadian rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at [105]70 degrees North showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter, and spring, but not in the summer. Reindeer at [106]78 degrees North showed such rhythms only autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other Arctic animals as well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and the constant dark of winter.^[107][13]^[108][14] However, another study in northern Alaska found that [109]ground squirrels and [110]porcupines strictly maintained their circadian rhythms through 82 days and nights of sunshine. The researchers speculate that these two small mammals see that the apparent distance between the sun and the horizon is shortest once a day, and, thus, a sufficient signal to adjust by.^[111][15] [[112]edit] Butterfly migration The navigation of the fall migration of the [113]Eastern North American monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) to their overwintering grounds in central Mexico uses a time-compensated sun compass that depends upon a circadian clock in their antennae.^[114][16]^[115][17] [[116]edit] Biological clock in mammals Diagram illustrating the influence of light and darkness on circadian rhythms and related [117]physiology and behaviour through the [118]suprachiasmatic nucleus in humans. The primary circadian "clock" in [119]mammals is located in the [120]suprachiasmatic nucleus (or nuclei) ([121]SCN), a pair of distinct groups of [122]cells located in the [123]hypothalamus. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep-wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [124]retina of the eyes contains not only "classical" [125]photoreceptors but also photoresponsive retinal [126]ganglion cells. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called [127]melanopsin, follow a pathway called the [128]retinohypothalamic tract, leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues. It appears that the SCN takes the information on the lengths of the day and night from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [129]pineal gland, a tiny structure shaped like a [130]pine cone and located on the [131]epithalamus. In response the pineal secretes the hormone [132]melatonin. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day and its presence provides information about night-length. The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a 23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural solar day-night cycle on the planet [133]Mars).^[134][18] [[135]edit] Determining the human circadian rhythm The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's circadian rhythm are * melatonin secretion by the pineal gland and * core body temperature. For temperature studies, people must remain awake but calm and semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are taken continuously. The average human adult's temperature reaches its minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake time, though variation is great among normal [136]chronotypes. Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime. Its onset in dim light, dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO), at about 21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Its major [137]metabolite can also be measured in morning urine. Both DLMO and the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or saliva have been used as circadian markers. However, newer research indicates that the melatonin offset may be the most reliable marker. Benloucif et al. in Chicago in 2005 found that melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.^[138][19] One method used for measuring melatonin offset is to analyse a sequence of urine samples throughout the morning for the presence of the melatonin [139]metabolite 6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s). Laberge et al. in Quebec in 1997 used this method in a study that confirmed the frequently found delayed circadian phase in healthy adolescents.^[140][20] [[141]edit] Outside the "master clock" More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the "master clock". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the [142]oesophagus, [143]lungs, [144]liver, [145]pancreas, [146]spleen, [147]thymus, and the [148]skin.^[149][21] Though oscillators in the skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven so far.^[150][22]^[151][23] There is some evidence that also the olfactory bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting that also these structures may be weak oscillators. Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than to [152]light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have freerunning rhythms. [[153]edit] Light and the biological clock Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [154]phase response curve (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required [155]illuminance vary from species to species and lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans. Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm in humans are higher than the levels usually used in artificial lighting in homes. According to some researchers^[156][24] the illumination intensity that excites the circadian system has to reach up to 1000 [157]lux striking the retina. In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or colour) of light is a factor in the entrainment of the body clock. [158]Melanopsin is most efficiently excited by blue light, 420-440 nm^[159][25] according to some researchers while others have reported 470-485 nm. It is thought that the direction of the light may have an effect on entraining the circadian rhythm;^[160][24] light coming from above, resembling an image of a bright sky, has greater effect than light entering our eyes from below. [[161]edit] Enforced longer cycles Modern research under very controlled conditions has shown the human period for adults to be just slightly longer than 24 hours on average. Czeisler et al. at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes. The "clock" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's rotation.^[162][26] The 28-hour day is presented as a concept of [163]time management.^[164][27] It builds on the fact that the week of seven days at 24 hours and a "week" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of 168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours. Each "day" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern. Studies by [165]Nathaniel Kleitman^[166][28] in 1938 and by [167]Derk-Jan Dijk and [168]Charles Czeisler^[169][29]^[170][30] in 1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep-wake cycles, in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day,^[171][31] this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about 24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including [172]sleep latency and other functions.^[173][32] Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli like daylight and timekeeping. Early investigators determined the human circadian period to be 25 hours or more. They went to great lengths to shield subjects from time cues and daylight, but they were not aware of the effects of indoor electric lights. The subjects were allowed to turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase. These results became well known.^[174][26] Researchers allowed subjects to keep electric lighting on in the evening, as it was thought at that time that a couple of 60W bulbs would not have a resetting effect on the circadian rhythms of humans. More recent research^[[175]citation needed] has shown that adults have a built-in day, which averages just over 24 hours, that indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms and that most people attain their best-quality sleep during their [176]chronotype-determined sleep periods. [[177]edit] Human health Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with [178]angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [179]left ventricular (reverse) remodelling.^[[180]citation needed] A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms. A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during the day, a [181]power-nap, does not have any effect on normal circadian rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve productivity.^[182][33]^[183][34] There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the human circadian rhythm, such as [184]seasonal affective disorder (SAD), [185]delayed sleep phase syndrome (DSPS) and other [186]circadian rhythm disorders.^[187][35] Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [188]reticular activating system, which is crucial for maintaining a state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep-wake cycle may be a sign or complication of [189]uremia,^[190][36] [191]azotemia or [192]acute renal failure. [[193]edit] Disruption Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers have experienced the condition known as [194]jet lag, with its associated symptoms of [195]fatigue, disorientation and [196]insomnia. A number of other disorders, for example [197]bipolar disorder and some [198]sleep disorders, are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [199]bipolar disorder are positively influenced by [200]lithium's effect on clock genes.^[201][37] Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease [202][2] The suppression of melatonin production associated with the disruption of the circadian rhythm may increase the risk of developing cancer.^[203][38]^[204][39] [[205]edit] Effect of drugs Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such as [206]cocaine.^[207][40]^[208][41] Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.^[209][42] [[210]edit] See also * [211]Actigraphy (also known as Actimetry) * [212]Advanced sleep phase syndrome * [213]ARNTL * [214]ARNTL2 * [215]Bacterial circadian rhythms * [216]Chronobiology * [217]Chronotype * [218]Circadian oscillator * [219]Circadian rhythm sleep disorders * [220]Cryptochrome * [221]CRY1 and [222]CRY2, the cryptochrome family genes * [223]Delayed sleep phase syndrome * [224]Diurnal cycle * [225]Jet lag * [226]Light effects on circadian rhythm * [227]PER1, [228]PER2, and [229]PER3, the period family genes * [230]Power-nap [[231]edit] References [[232]edit] Bibliography * Aschoff J (ed.) (1965) Circadian Clocks. North Holland Press, Amsterdam * Avivi A, Albrecht U, Oster H, Joel A, Beiles A, Nevo E. 2001. Biological clock in total darkness: the Clock/MOP3 circadian system of the blind subterranean mole rat. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:13751-13756. * Avivi A, Oster H, Joel A, Beiles A, Albrecht U, Nevo E. 2002. Circadian genes in a blind subterranean mammal II: conservation and uniqueness of the three Period homologs in the blind subterranean mole rat, Spalax ehrenbergi superspecies. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:11718-11723. * Ditty JL, Williams SB, Golden SS (2003) A cyanobacterial circadian timing mechanism. Annu Rev Genet 37:513-543 * Dunlap JC, Loros J, DeCoursey PJ (2003) Chronobiology: Biological Timekeeping. Sinauer, Sunderland * Dvornyk V, Vinogradova ON, Nevo E (2003) Origin and evolution of circadian clock genes in prokaryotes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100:2495-2500 * Koukkari WL, Sothern RB (2006) Introducing Biological Rhythms. Springer, New York * Martino T, Arab S, Straume M, Belsham DD, Tata N, Cai F, Liu P, Trivieri M, Ralph M, Sole MJ. Day/night rhythms in gene expression of the normal murine heart. J Mol Med. 2004 Apr;82(4):256-64. Epub 2004 Feb 24. PMID: 14985853 * Refinetti R (2006) Circadian Physiology, 2nd ed. CRC Press, Boca Raton * Takahashi JS, Zatz M (1982) Regulation of circadian rhythmicity. Science 217:1104-1111 * Tomita J, Nakajima M, Kondo T, Iwasaki H (2005) No transcription-translation feedback in circadian rhythm of KaiC phosphorylation. Science 307: 251-254 * Moore-Ede, Martin C., Sulszman, Frank M., and Fuller, Charles A. (1982) "The Clocks that Time Us: Physiology of the Circadian Timing System." Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. [233]ISBN 0-674-13581-4. [[234]edit] Notes Centre 2. [237]^ Bretzl H. Botaniche Forchungen des Alexanderzuges. Leipzig: Teubner, 1903. 3. [238]^ Danchin, Antoine. [239]"Important dates 1900-1919". HKU-Pasteur Research Centre (Paris). 0.html. 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[306]^ Campbell, S. and Murphy, P, Science 1998, Vol 279, 16 Jan.: Extraocular Circadian Phototransduction in Humans 24. ^ [307]^a [308]^b Semjonova, Milena (2003). [309]"Healthy Lighting, from a lighting designer's perspective". Milena Lighting Design. 25. [311]^ Newman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: "Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment", Biochemistry. 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8. 26. ^ [312]^a [313]^b [314]"Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour". 1999. Retrieved 2007-09-23. "The variation between our subjects, with a 95 percent level of confidence, was no more than plus or minus 16 minutes, a remarkably small range." 27. [316]^ Digital Beat Productions (1997). [317]"28 Hour Day". 28. [319]^ Kleitman, Nathaniel (1962). Sleep and Wakefullness ed 2. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 29. [320]^ Dijk, Derk-Jan; Czeisler Charles (1994). "Paradoxical timing of the circadian rhythm of sleep propensity serves to consolidate sleep and wakefulness in humans". Neurosci Lett 166 (1): 63. [321]doi:[322]10.1016/0304-3940(94)90841-9. [323]PMID [324]8190360. 30. [325]^ Dijk, Derk-Jan; Czeisler Charles (1995). [326]"Contribution of the Circadian Pacemaker and the Sleep Homeostat to Sleep Propensity, Sleep Structure, Electrocephalographic Slow Waves, and Sleep Spindle Activity in Humans". J. Neurosci 15 (5): 3526. [327]PMID [328]7751928. 31. [330]^ Cromie, William J. (1999-07-15). [331]"Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour". The Harvard University Gazette. Retrieved 2008-02-19. 32. [333]^ Aldrich, Michael S (1999). [334]Sleep medicine. New York: Oxford University Press. [335]ISBN [336]0195129571. pg=RA1-PA65&dq=experimenting+with+the+28+hour+day&source=bl&ots=9R4 mo2fI1O&sig=om2zbYPnXnm_1HuZo2Tch6J1vyo&hl=en&ei=MBZeStGgIoyJkQWd17 znDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2. 33. 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[352]^ Straif K, Baan R, Grosse Y, Secretan B, El Ghissassi F, Bouvard V, Altieri A, Benbrahim-Tallaa L, Cogliano V, WHO International Agency for Research on Cancer Monograph Working Group. Carcinogenicity of shift-work, painting, and fire-fighting. [353][1] Lancet Oncol. 2007; 12(8):1065-1066. 39. [354]^ [355]WebMD: Night Shift Work May Cause Cancer 40. [356]^ Uz T, Akhisaroglu M, Ahmed R, Manev H (2003). "The pineal gland is critical for circadian Period1 expression in the striatum and for circadian cocaine sensitization in mice". Neuropsychopharmacology 28 (12): 2117-23. [357]doi:[358]10.1038/sj.npp.1300254. [359]PMID [360]12865893. 41. [361]^ Kurtuncu M, Arslan A, Akhisaroglu M, Manev H, Uz T (2004). "Involvement of the pineal gland in diurnal cocaine reward in mice". Eur J Pharmacol 489 (3): 203-5. [362]doi:[363]10.1016/j.ejphar.2004.03.010. [364]PMID [365]15087244. 42. [366]^ McClung C, Sidiropoulou K, Vitaterna M, Takahashi J, White F, Cooper D, Nestler E (2005). [367]"Regulation of dopaminergic transmission and cocaine reward by the Clock gene". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102 (26): 9377-81. [368]doi:[369]10.1073/pnas.0503584102. [370]PMID [371]15967985. [[372]edit] External links * [373]Circadian rhythm at the [374]Open Directory Project * Leloup J.C. (2009). "Circadian clocks and phosphorylation: Insights from computational modeling". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 4 (3): 290-303. [375]doi:[376]10.2478/s11535-009-0025-1. * Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A (2007). "Evolutionary mechanisms of circadian clocks". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 2 (2): 233-253. [377]doi:[378]10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z. [380]Categories: [381]Sleep | [382]Circadian rhythms | [383]Biology of bipolar disorder Hidden categories: [384]Articles needing additional references from October 2007 | [385]All articles needing additional references | [386]All articles with unsourced statements | [387]Articles with unsourced statements from September 2009 | [388]Articles with unsourced statements from November 2007 | [389]Articles with unsourced statements from January 2009 | [390]Articles with unsourced statements from December 2009 Views * [391]Article * [392]Discussion * [393]Edit this page * [394]History Personal tools * [395]Try Beta * [396]Log in / create account Navigation * [397]Main page * [398]Contents * [399]Featured content * [400]Current events * [401]Random article Search ____________________ Go Search Interaction * [402]About Wikipedia * [403]Community portal * [404]Recent changes * [405]Contact Wikipedia * [406]Donate to Wikipedia * [407]Help Toolbox * [408]What links here * [409]Related changes * [410]Upload file * [411]Special pages * [412]Printable version * [413]Permanent link * [414]Cite this page Languages * [415]Català * [416]Cesky * [417]Dansk * [418]Deutsch * [419]Ellynika' * [420]Español * [421]Français * [422]Italiano * [423]E+B+R+J+T+ * [424]Magyar * [425]Nederlands * [426]¥¬ * [427]ªNorsk (bokmål) * [428]ªNorsk (nynorsk) * [429]Polski * [430]Português * [431]Româna * [432]Russkij * [433]Simple English * [434]Srpski / Srpski * [435]Svenska * [436]a+r+d+w+ [437]Powered by MediaWiki [438]Wikimedia Foundation * This page was last modified on 16 January 2010 at 17:59. * Text is available under the [439]Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See [440]Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [441]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * [442]Contact us * [443]Privacy policy * [444]About Wikipedia * [445]Disclaimers Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1][dailyomlogo2.gif] Today's DailyOM brought to you by: [2][nav-signup.gif] [nav-line.gif] [3][nav-mydailyom.gif] [nav-line.gif] [4][nav-marketplace.gif] [nav-line.gif] [5][nav-community.gif] [nav-line.gif] [6][nav-courses.gif] [bambooborder2.jpg] [Articles......] _______________ [search.gif]-Submit [7][nav-giftshop.gif] [nav-line.gif] [8][nav-shoppingcart.gif] January 2, 2006 Universal Timing Life's Natural Rhythm Nature's natural rhythms orchestrate when day turns to night, when flowers must bloom, and provides the cue for when it is time for red and brown leaves to fall from trees. As human beings, our own inner rhythm is attuned to this universal sense of timing. Guided by the rising and setting of the sun, changes in temperature, and our own internal rhythm, we know when it is time to sleep, eat, or be active. While our minds and spirits are free to focus on other pursuits, our breath and our heartbeat are always there to remind us of life's pulsing rhythm that moves within and around us. Moving to this rhythm, we know when it is time to stop working and when to rest. Pushing our bodies to work beyond their natural rhythm diminishes our ability to renew and recharge. A feeling much like jet lag lets us know when we've overridden our own natural rhythm. When we feel the frantic calls of all we want to accomplish impelling us to move faster than is natural for us, we may want to breathe deeply instead and look at nature moving to its own organic timing: birds flying south, leaves shedding, or snow falling. A walk in nature can also let us re-attune is to her organic rhythm, while allowing us to move back in time with our own. When we move to our natural rhythm, we can achieve all we need to do with less effort. We may even notice that our soul moves to its own internal, natural rhythm - especially when it comes to our personal evolution. Comparing ourselves to others is unnecessary. Our best guide is to move to our own internal timing, while keeping time with the rhythm of nature. Click to follow DailyOM on [9]Twitter and [10]Facebook What do you think? [11]Discuss this article and share your opinion Want more DailyOM? [12]Register for your free email, or [13]browse all articles Life's Natural Rhythm Share the OM: [14][emailfriend.gif] [15]Email this to a friend [16][printerfriendly.gif] [17]Printable version [18][icon-mydailyom.gif] [19]Save in My DailyOM [20][icon-discuss.gif] [21]Discuss this article [22][horoscopes1.jpg] Today's friend of OM: Register now to receive your [23]free daily horoscope from DailyOM. 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For more information visit [24]DailyOM.com More DailyOM: [25]More Inspiration [26]Today's Horoscopes [27]OM Marketplace [28]Home | [29]Gift Shop | [30]My DailyOM | [31]Marketplace | [32]Community | [33]Archives | [34]Share The OM | [35]Contact Us [36]Subscribe | [37]Change Email | [38]User Settings | [39]Unsubscribe | [40]Privacy Policy | [41]Disclaimer | [42]Gift Shop FAQ | [43]Advertising Info [44]Make DailyOM Your Homepage | [45]Link To Us | [46]Publish DailyOM On Your Website © 2004-08 DailyOM - All Rights Reserved No portion of this site can be reprinted without express permission Artwork by [47]Wang Chang-Ming Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : #[1]Edit this page [2]Wikipedia (en) [3]copyright [4]Wikipedia RSS Feed [5]Wikipedia Atom Feed Rhythm From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search For other uses, see [8]Rhythm (disambiguation). Rhythm (from [9]greek rhuthµo'*s - rhythmos, "any measured flow or movement, symmetry") is the variation of the length and accentuation of a series of sounds or other events. Contents * [10]1 Rhythm in linguistics * [11]2 Origins of human appreciation of rhythm * [12]3 Rhythm notation and the oral tradition + [13]3.1 African music + [14]3.2 Indian music + [15]3.3 Western music * [16]4 Types * [17]5 See also * [18]6 Notes * [19]7 Sources * [20]8 Further reading [[21]edit] Rhythm in linguistics The study of rhythm, stress, and [22]pitch in [23]speech is called [24]prosody; it is a topic in [25]linguistics. Narmour (1980, p. 147-53) describes three categories of prosodic rules which create rhythmic successions which are additive (same duration repeated), cumulative (short-long), or countercumulative (long-short). Cumulation is associated with closure or relaxation, countercumulation with openness or tension, while additive rhythms are open-ended and repetitive. Richard Middleton points out this method cannot account for [26]syncopation and suggests the concept of [27]transformation. A [28]rhythmic unit is a [29]durational pattern which occupies a period of time equivalent to a [30]pulse or pulses on an underlying [31]metric level, as opposed to a [32]rhythmic gesture which does not (DeLone et al. (Eds.), 1975 [[33]edit] Origins of human appreciation of rhythm In his series How Music Works, [34]Howard Goodall presents theories that rhythm recalls how we walk and the heartbeat we heard in the womb. More likely is that a simple pulse or [35]di-dah beat recalls the footsteps of another person. Our sympathetic urge to dance is designed to boost our energy levels in order to cope with someone, or some animal chasing us - a fight or flight response. From a less darwinist perspective, perceiving rhythm is the ability to master the otherwise invisible dimension, time. Rhythm is possibly also rooted in courtship ritual.^[36][1] Neurologist [37]Oliver Sacks posits that human affinity for rhythm is fundamental, so much that a person's sense of rhythm cannot be lost in the way that music and language can (e.g. by [38]stroke). In addition, he states that [39]chimpanzees and other animals show no similar appreciation for rhythm.^[40][2] [[41]edit] Rhythm notation and the oral tradition Worldwide there are many different approaches to passing on rhythmic phrases and patterns, as they exist in traditional music, from generation to generation. [[42]edit] African music In the [43]Griot tradition of Africa everything related to music has been passed on orally. [44]Babatunde Olatunji (1927-2003), a Nigerian drummer who lived and worked in the [45]United States, developed a simple series of spoken sounds for teaching the rhythms of the hand drum. He used six vocal sounds: Goon Doon Go Do Pa Ta. There are three basic sounds on the drum, but each can be played with either the left or the right hand. This simple system is now used worldwide, particularly by [46]Djembe players. [[47]edit] Indian music Indian music has also been passed on orally. Tabla players would learn to speak complex rhythm patterns and phrases before attempting to play them. [48]Sheila Chandra, an English pop singer of Indian descent, made performances based around her singing these patterns. In [49]Indian Classical music, the [50]Tala of a composition is the rhythmic pattern over which the whole piece is structured. [[51]edit] Western music Standard [52]music notation contains rhythmic information and is adapted specifically for drums and percussion instruments. The drums are generally used to keep other instruments in 'time'. They do this by supplying beats/strikes in time at a certain pace, i.e. 70 beats per minute (bpm). In [53]Rock music, a drum beat is used to keep a [54]bass/[55]guitar line in time. [[56]edit] Types In [57]Western music, rhythms are usually arranged with respect to a [58]time signature, partially signifying a meter. The speed of the underlying [59]pulse is sometimes called the [60]beat. The [61]tempo is a measure of how quickly the pulse repeats. The tempo is usually measured in 'beats per minute' (bpm); 60 bpm means a speed of one beat per second. The length of the meter, or metric unit (usually corresponding with [62]measure length), is usually grouped into either two or three beats, being called [63]duple meter and [64]triple meter, respectively. If each beat is divided by two or four, it is [65]simple meter, if by three (or six) [66]compound meter. According to [67]Pierre Boulez, beat structures beyond four are "simply not natural".^[68][3]. His reference is to western European music. Standard notation of a clave pattern on audio clip clave pattern.ogg [69]Syncopated rhythms are rhythms that accent parts of the beat not already stressed by [70]counting. Playing simultaneous rhythms in more than one time signature is called [71]polymeter. See also [72]polyrhythm. In recent years, rhythm and meter have become an important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these areas includes books by [73]Maury Yeston, [74]Fred Lerdahl and [75]Ray Jackendoff, [76]Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty, William Rothstein, and Joel Lester. Grid notation of single a clave pattern Some [77]genres of music make different use of rhythm than others. Most Western music is based on [78]subdivision, while non-Western music uses more [79]additive rhythm. [80]African music makes heavy use of [81]polyrhythms, and [82]Indian music uses [83]complex cycles such as 7 and 13, while [84]Balinese music often uses complex [85]interlocking rhythms. By comparison, a lot of Western [86]classical music is fairly rhythmically (or metrically) simple; it stays in a [87]simple meter such as 4/4 or 3/4 and makes little use of [88]syncopation. [89]Clave is a common underlying rhythm in [90]African, [91]Cuban music, and [92]Brazilian music. [93]Claves (Submit) Play sound Four beats followed by three Clave patterns __________________________________________________________________ Problems listening to this file? See [94]media help. In the 20th century, [95]composers like [96]Igor Stravinsky, [97]Bela Bartok, [98]Philip Glass, and [99]Steve Reich wrote more rhythmically complex music using [100]odd meters, and techniques such as [101]phasing and [102]additive rhythm. At the same time, modernists such as [103]Olivier Messiaen and his pupils used increased complexity to disrupt the sense of a regular beat, leading eventually to the widespread use of [104]irrational rhythms in [105]New Complexity. This use may be explained by a comment of [106]John Cage's^[[107]where?] where he notes that regular rhythms cause sounds to be heard as a group rather than individually; the irregular rhythms highlight the rapidly changing pitch relationships that would otherwise be subsumed into irrelevant rhythmic groupings (Sandow 2004, p. 257). [108]LaMonte Young also wrote music in which the sense of a regular beat is absent because the music consists only of long sustained tones ([109]drones). In the 1930s, [110]Henry Cowell wrote music involving multiple simultaneous periodic rhythms and collaborated with [111]Léon Thérémin to invent the [112]Rhythmicon, the first electronic [113]rhythm machine, in order to perform them. Similarly, [114]Conlon Nancarrow wrote for the [115]player piano. [[116]edit] See also * [117]Meter (music) * [118]Prosody (linguistics) * [119]Riddim * [120]Morse Code * [121]Soul (music) * [122]Time scale (music) * [123]Timing (linguistics) [[124]edit] Notes 1. [125]^ [126]Mithen, Steven (2005). [127]The Singing Neanderthals: The Origins of Music, Language, Mind and Body.. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.. [128]ISBN [129]0297643177. 2. [131]^ [132]Jon Stewart, [133]Oliver Sacks. (2009-06-29). [134]The Daily Show with Jon Stewart. [Television production]. Comedy Central. itle=oliver-sacks. "People often tried to teach their dogs to dance--it doesn't work." 3. [136]^ In [137]Discovering Music: Rhythm with [138]Leonard Slatkin at 5:05 [[139]edit] Sources * Hasty, Christopher (1997). Meter as Rhythm. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [140]ISBN 0-19-510066-2. * London, Justin (2004). Hearing in Time: Psychological Aspects of Musical Meter. [141]ISBN 0-19-516081-9. * Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music. Philadelphia: Open University Press. [142]ISBN 0-335-15275-9. * Narmour (1980). Cited in DeLone et al. (Eds.) (1975). Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. [143]ISBN 0-13-049346-5. * Sandow, Greg (2004). "A Fine Madness", The Pleasure of Modernist Music. [144]ISBN 1-58046-143-3. * Yeston, Maury (1976). "The Stratification of Musical Rhythm". [[145]edit] Further reading * McGaughey, William (2001). "Rhythm and Self-Consciousness: New Ideals for an Electronic Civilization". Minneapolis: Thistlerose Publications. [146]ISBN 0-9605630-4-0. * Honing, H. (2002). [147]"Structure and interpretation of rhythm and timing." Tijdschrift voor Muziektheorie [Dutch Journal of Music Theory] 7(3): 227-232. * Lewis, Andrew (2005). Rhythm--What it is and How to Improve Your Sense of It. San Francisco: [148]RhythmSource Press. [149]ISBN 978-0-9754667-0-4. * Williams, C. F. A., The Aristoxenian Theory of Musical Rhythm, (Cambridge Library Collection - Music), Cambridge University Press; 1st edition, 2009. * Toussaint, G. T., "The geometry of musical rhythm," In J. Akiyama, M. Kano, and X. Tan, editors, Proceedings of the Japan Conference on Discrete and Computational Geometry, Vol. 3742, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2005, pp. 198-212. 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See [290]Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [291]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * [292]Contact us * [293]Privacy policy * [294]About Wikipedia * [295]Disclaimers Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1]Daniel Laberge music Rhythm explained including 27 rhythm exercises by Daniel Laberge Rhythm figure Hi rhythm lovers, I've devised these exercises in the early seventies while teaching music. I could not find any existing book that saw rhythm the way I did. This method is based on "rhythmic figures" or rhythm possibilities. Each one lasts one beat. I simply counted the rhythmic possibilities one could encounter for each type of beat divisions. There are: o Four rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by two o Eight rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by three o Sixteen rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by four I composed the exercises back then and used them for my teaching, but I only wrote the theory that goes along in 2002. The book is called "Rhythm explained" and I am gradually placing its content here. Each exercise is preceded by a lesson, with graphic representations, and includes an audio rendition to help you. You can choose between three speeds. For jazz musicians, the binary exercises also have a swing or double swing performance. Go to the bottom of the page for a link to the swing version. Choose among the following exercises: Beat exercises [2]Rhythm exercise 1-1 Featured figures [3][onequarternote1.gif] [4] [onehalfnote1.gif] [5] [dottedhalfnote1.gif] [6] [wholenote1.gif] [7]Rhythm exercise 1-2 Featured figures [8][quarternoterest1.gif] [9] [halfnoterest1.gif] [10] [wholenoterest1.gif] [11]Rhythm exercise 1-3 Featured figures [12][quarternoterest1.gif] [13] [halfnoterest1.gif] [14] [dottedhalfnoterest1.gif] [15] [wholenoterest1.gif] Binary beat division The binary family is large as it includes: o Division by two o Division by four o Part of division by six o Division by eight This section is concerned with the simple division by two. Any binary beat has two alternating parts: the downbeat and the upbeat. Binary beat [binarybeat1.gif] As you can see, there are only two places in a beat where events or notes can be positioned or played: o The downbeat o The upbeat How rhythmic possibilities work This means that for any given beat you can have any of the four following possibilities: 1 o Only one event on the downbeat. 2 o Events on both the downbeat and the upbeat. 3 o No event at all. 4 o Only one event on the upbeat. [possibilitiesbytwosimple1.gif] The rhythmic figure used to represent a binary beat is called: TWO EIGHTH NOTES [masterfigurebinary1.gif] Binary master rhythmic figure Simple binary rhythmic figures 4 possibilities: o 2 Primary o 2 Secondary [possibilitiesbytwo1.gif] Secondary rhythmic figures lack the event that falls on the beat. There is a secondary figure for each primary one. Because the beat is so important, secondary figures have appeared after the primary ones had been well established. The absence of event falling on the beat can be due to a silence or a sound that is held over from the preceding beat. Because of this, there are two ways to notate secondary figures: o With a rest o With a tie [primarysecondary1.gif] Primary and secondary rhythmic figures Choose among the following exercises: Binary exercises PRIMARY [16]Rhythm exercise 2-1 Featured figure [17][twoeighthnotes2.gif] [18]Rhythm exercise 2-2 Featured figures [19][twoeighthnotes2.gif] [20] [quarternoterest2.gif] SECONDARY [21]Rhythm exercise 2-3 Featured figure [22][dottedquarternoteeighth2.gif] [23]Rhythm exercise 2-4 Featured figure [24][eighthnotesyncopationa2.gif] [25]Rhythm exercise 2-5 Featured figure [26][twoeighttieonequarter2.gif] MULTIPLE SYNCOPATIONS [27]Rhythm exercise 2-6 Featured figure [28][doublesyncopationa2.gif] Ternary beat division The ternary family is small as it includes: o Division by three o Part of division by six Everything goes in thirds in ternary music. Any ternary beat has one downbeat and two upbeats. Ternary beat [ternarybeat1.gif] The rhythmic figure used to represent a ternary beat is called: THREE EIGHTH NOTES [masterfigureternary1.gif] Ternary master rhythmic figure Writing ternary rhythm In ternary music writing, each eighth note is worth one third of a beat. Since two eighth notes always equal one quarter note, these now equal two thirds of a beat. It takes a dotted quarter note to represent one beat. [ternarywriting1.gif] Ternary rhythmic figures 8 possibilities: o 4 Primary o 4 Secondary [possibilitiesbythree1.gif] Choose among the following exercises: Ternary exercises PRIMARY [29]Rhythm exercise 3-1 Featured figure [30][threeeighth2.gif] [31]Rhythm exercise 3-2 Featured figure [32][onequarteroneeighth2.gif] [33]Rhythm exercise 3-3 Featured figure [34][oneeighthonequarter2.gif] SECONDARY [35]Rhythm exercise 3-1s Featured figure [36][8threst2eighth2.gif] OR [37] [tie3eighth2.gif] [38]Rhythm exercise 3-2s Featured figure [39][quarternoterestoneeighth2.gif] OR [40] [tiequarternote1eighth.gif] [41]Rhythm exercise 3-3s Featured figure [42][8threst1quarternote2.gif] OR [43] [tie1eighth1quarter2.gif] Division by four Beats divided by four are part of the binary family. Everything goes in quarters in this feel. Beat divided by four [binarybeat2.gif] The rhythmic figure used to represent a beat divided by four is called: FOUR SIXTEENTH NOTES [masterfigurebyfour1.gif] Division by four master rhythmic figure Binary rhythmic figures 16 possibilities: o 8 Primary o 8 Secondary [possibilitiesbyfour1.gif] Choose among the following exercises: Division by four exercises PRIMARY [44]Rhythm exercise 4-1 Featured figure [45][foursixteenth2.gif] [46]Rhythm exercise 4-2 Featured figure [47][oneeighthtwosixteenth2.gif] [48]Rhythm exercise 4-3 Featured figure [49][twosixteenthoneeighth2.gif] [50]Rhythm exercise 4-4 Featured figure [51][dottedeighthonesixteenth2.gif] [52]Rhythm exercise 4-5 Featured figure [53][onesixteenthdottedeighth2.gif] [54]Rhythm exercise 4-6 Featured figure [55][16th8th16th2.gif] SECONDARY [56]Rhythm exercise 4-1s Featured figure [57][16threst3sixteenth2.gif] OR [58] [tiefoursixteenth2.gif] [59]Rhythm exercise 4-2s Featured figure [60][8threst2sixteenth2.gif] OR [61] [tie1eighth2sixteenth2.gif] [62]Rhythm exercise 4-3s Featured figure [63][16threst1sixteenth1eighth2.gif] OR [64] [tie2sixteenth1eighth2.gif] [65]Rhythm exercise 4-4s Featured figure [66][dotted8threst1sixteenth2.gif] OR [67] [tiedottereight1sixteenth2.gif] [68]Rhythm exercise 4-5s Featured figure [69][16threstdotted8th.gif] OR [70] [tie16thdotted8th2.gif] [71]Rhythm exercise 4-6s Featured figure [72][16threst1eighth1sixteenth2.gif] OR [73] [tieone16thone8thone16th2.gif] [74]Bugs, problems and comments [75]Daniel Laberge music Références Liens visibles 74. javascript:; Liens cachés : #[1]ORGY IN RHYTHM - Atom [2]ORGY IN RHYTHM - RSS IFRAME: IN+RHYTHM&publishMode=PUBLISH_MODE_BLOGSPOT&navbarType=BLACK&layoutType [4]skip to main | [5]skip to sidebar ORGY IN RHYTHM [6]JAZZ HIP TRIO - JAZZ EN RELIEF Jazz Hip Trio for Riviera France from 1967. Jean-Bernard Eisinger Piano ; Roger Luccioni Bass ;Daniel Humair Drums. More beautiful music from France on this the first Jazz Hip Trio LP. "Orange Boom" was the big tune back in the day but the rest is just fabulous. Needless to say.....All Killer No Filler Another first in public blogland here at OIR. [7]17 comments made-how about you? 12.1.10 [8]MAL WALDRON - TOKYO BOUND Mal Waldron for RCA Victor Japan from 1970. Mal Waldron-Piano;Takeshi Inomata-Drums;Yasuo Arakawa-Bass Tremendous all killer trio date with Waldron joined by a top flight Japanese rhythm section on four original compositions which only saw a release in Japan.Check out the rocking intensity of "Rock One For Jimbo San" and "Japanese Island" which builds from an ominous brooding intro into a marvellous modal waltz."Atomic Energy" blows up with a headlong banging vamp from Waldron's left hand while the right runs all over the keys and then to close "Mount Fujiyama" a more introspective rumination and dissection of the tune's theme. Inomata's drumming is a revelation throughout the session intricate yet swinging with fantastic use of cymbals.(Don't forget to check out Inomata's Sound of Sounds lp also recorded in 1970 which I posted [9]here during the summer) Respect to El Goog for introducing me to this great album.I finally picked a copy up from Japan via ebay last month - not cheap but worth every penny. Very highly recomnmended. [10]37 comments made-how about you? 20.12.09 [11]THE HERBIE HANCOCK TRIO Herbie Hancock for Sony Japan from 1977. Herbie Hancock-Piano;Ron Carter-Bass;Tony Williams-Drums The big three keep it strictly acoustic for this Japanese only release from CBS Sony. 4 originals from Herb plus a rapid romp through "Milestones"...tough stuff. The first V.S.O.P. tour triggered a flood of recording activity in July 1977, but only a fraction of it was released in the U.S. This session, recorded in San Francisco just days before the Quintet concerts in Berkeley and San Diego, finds Herbie Hancock, Ron Carter and Tony Williams mixing it up sans the horns and the results are more reflective and cerebral than the full Quintet concerts. Hancock is thoroughly in control of the agenda while Williams throws in those meter-fracturing flurries that keep everyone on their toes. There is a startling re-interpretation of "Speak like a Child" which is significantly tougher and busier than the wistful Blue Note version, as well as challenging Hancock originals like "Watcha Waiting For" and "Watch It." This is uncompromising acoustic jazz, commercial anathema in the electronic '70s -and thus, only Japan got to hear it. Richard S. Ginell. [12]16 comments made-how about you? 13.12.09 [13]JAZZ HIP TRIO - PORTRAITS Jazz Hip Trio for Riviera France from 1968. Jean-Bernard Eisinger Piano ; Roger Luccioni Bass ;Daniel Humair Drums. Piano trios are the theme for my the next few posts and what better way to start than with some beautiful music from France on it's first time out in blogland here at OIR. 10 original compositions which grow and grow on repeated listening - get past the "Sidewinder" influenced dance floor intro tune "Bat Rock" and you're in for a swinging set of subtle trio sounds.Of course it's gotta be...... All Killer No Filler [14]23 comments made-how about you? 6.12.09 [15]THE DIAMOND FIVE - BRILLIANT ! The Diamond Five for Fontana from 1964. Personnel: Cees Slinger: piano; Harry Verbeke: tenor sax; Cees Smal: trumpet, cornet and valve trombone; Jacques Schols: bass; Johnny Engels: drums. Please check the comments as Chazz has also ripped The Five Diamonds-Finally After Forty Years cd reissue from Japan and will be posting the link shortly.Over to you Chazz! I don't post donations at OIR but just had to make an exception when this was winged across the pond to me from Chazz Katz.It's a very rare piece of hard bop from Holland which made a blink and miss it reissue on cd some years ago in Japan (original vinyl goes for silly money anywhere between $600-$1000) and has never appeared in blogland before.Here's the notes and cheers to Chazz for his rip! Nice work chap - All Killer No Filler! The Diamond Five, a Dutch quintet led by pianist Cees Slinger, was founded in 1959 and lasted until 1965. They were based at the Sheherazade Club in Amsterdam and were quite popular, playing all over Holland and accompanying expatriate American musicians on their visits to Amsterdam. However, when the club closed its doors due to a shift in popular interest from jazz to rock music, the quintet disbanded. This 1964 recording is their only session available on CD. The music is hard bop on the surface, but is neither formulaic nor a copy of the genres imported from the U.S. The musicians are quite unique in their style. Slinger plays sparse notes on his solos, utilizing well-placed pauses in the music to create melodic hard bop with hints of more forward-looking styles. The other outstanding soloist is tenor saxophonist Harry Verbeke, whose solos (in contrast to that of the leader) are filled with a multitude of notes played in the modal vein. The others are also quite stellar, the bass and the drums providing a loose bluesy support and horn man Cees Smal adding something unique with the sounds of his different horns, switching between valve trombone, cornet and trumpet. [16]26 comments made-how about you? 26.11.09 [17]BOBBY HUTCHERSON - CIRRUS Bobby Hutcherson for Blue Note from 1974. Hutch is playing four sets in London this weekend so Katonah from Private Press and I will be propping up the bar for his late spot at Scotts tomorrow night. So here's a 3rd repost for his evergreen "Cirrus" ....All Killer No Filler. This was my very first Bobby Hutcherson post here at OIR back in may 2006.It was ripped from my vinyl copy @192 in those days-I've reupped it @320 this time and taken it from the superb Mosaic Select box set.Here's my original narrative: Cirrus finds Bobby Hutcherson resuming his partnership with tenor saxophonist Harold Land, and the results are marvellous. The pair work with pianist Bill Henderson, trumpeter Woody Shaw, bassist Ray Drummond, drummer Larry Hancock, saxophonist/flautist Emmanuel Boyd and percussionist Kenneth Nash on this set of originals.The album starts with a great version of Woody Shaw's "Rosewood" while the rest of the set is written by Hutcherson and includes "Even Later".Highlight of the lp for me is the atmospheric and brooding "Zuri Dance" - what a corker ! [18]36 comments made-how about you? 13.11.09 [19]DAVE PIKE - LET THE MINSTRELS PLAY ON Dave Pike for Muse from 1978. Vibraphone - Dave Pike / Bass - Luther Hughes / Cello - Luther Hughes / Drums - Ted Hawkes / Guitar - Ron Eschete / Keyboards , Sax - Tom Ranier / Vocals - Carol Eschete. KGML has just posted "Spirits Samba" so dug the lp out for those who would like to hear more. Picked this up in Tony Monson's Disc Empire in the early 80s after hearing Chris Bangs spinning "Swan Lake" and found it had yet another bona fide jazz dance classic to be featured in the shape of "Spirits Samba". Here's an apathetic review from amg: Some Afro-Latin, some fusion and things in between from vibist Dave Pike. Pike is a good player, but sometimes his arrangements bog down between pop and jazz. His style is more remniscent of Red Norvo, with its lighter, less aggressive and flowing lines. [20]12 comments made-how about you? 12.11.09 [21]RANDY WESTON - BLUE MOSES Randy Weston For CTI from 1972. Arranged By - Don Sebesky;Bass - Bill Wood (2) (tracks: B1) , Ron Carter ;Drums - Bill Cobham ;English Horn, Clarinet, Flute - George Marge ;Flugelhorn - Alan Rubin , John Frosk , Marvin Stamm ;Flute - Hubert Laws ;French Horn - Brooks Tillotson , James Buffington ;Oboe, Clarinet, Flute - Romeo Penque ;Piano - Randy Weston Saxophone [Tenor] - Grover Washington, Jr ;Synthesizer [Moog] - David Horowitz Trombone - Garnett Brown , Warren Covington , Wayne Andre ;Trombone - Paul Faulise Trumpet - Freddie Hubbard ;Vocals - Madasme Meddah Super heavyweight banger from CTI - trust Randy Weston to dispense with Creed Taylor's saccharine stylings.All Killer blah blah blah.... Another underwhelming review from Mr Yannow: Randy Weston's most popular record, this Lp (which he had mixed feelings about) features Weston not only on piano but electric keyboards. Backed by Don Sebesky arrangements and assisted by trumpeter Freddie Hubbard and tenor-saxophonist Grover Washington Jr., Weston plays quite well on four of his compositions; best-known are "Ganawa (Blue Moses)" and "Marrakesh Blues." The music retains the African feel of most of Weston's latter-day playing but also has some commercial touches that do not hurt the performances. This rewarding date has not yet been reissued on CD. ~ Scott Yanow, All Music Guide Fantastic cover art from Pete Turner - I highly recommend his book[22] here. [23]16 comments made-how about you? 7.11.09 [24]BLACKCLASSICAL - 1ST BIRTHDAY MEGAMIX Blackclassical has taken off his flat cap ,put the racing pigeons away and is celebrating his first year on t'interwebs with a mighty mp3 mash up of spiritual jazz goodness[25] here.Proof indeed that it's not all grim up north. Happy Birthday you old bastard - now get the lagers in and make sure they've got vodka tops you tightarse. [26]3 comments made-how about you? 6.11.09 [27]TUBBT HAYES - TUBBS IN N.Y. Tubby Hayes for Fontana from 1961. Saxophone [Tenor] - Tubby Hayes; Bass - George Duvivier; Drums - Dave Bailey ;Piano - Horace Parlan ; Trumpet - Clark Terry;Vibraphone - Eddie Costa Another first in blogland for this British vinyl rarity at OIR with Tubbs keeping heavy company in NYC . Apparently there was legal wrangling about who owns the masters so don't hold your breath waiting for a cd issue.The last one got pulled pronto upon release in 1990. The swaggering "A Pint Of Bitter" was my very first exposure to Hayes back in the early 80s - I just love that tune - but the rest is just as good with flat out romps through "Opus Ocean" and "Airegin" plus a wonderfuly swinging "Soon" . Nice! [28]26 comments made-how about you? 31.10.09 [29]TUBBY HAYES QUARTET - TUBBY'S GROOVE Tubby Hayes for Tempo from 1960. Tubby Hayes (ts), Terry Shannon (p), Phil Bates (b), Phil Seamen (d). "Tin Tin Deo" killin' it every time for me on this rare piece of British wax from 50 years ago. Simon Spillet has written a fascinating piece on Tubby at[30] Jazzscript and here's his take on this album: I think it's one of Tubby's best ever studio recordings and catches him very much in his prime. I suppose that the stand-out track for me has to be Sunny Monday with its unaccompanied tenor choruses. The tone is big, the rhythmic delivery is full of confidence and the sheer enthusiasm shines through half a century on. [31]23 comments made-how about you? 30.10.09 [32]STAFFAN ABELEEN QUINTET -PERSEPOLIS Staffan Abeleen for Philips Sweden from 1964. Staffan Abeleen-Piano ; Lasse Farnlof - Trumpet ; Bjorn Netz - Tenor ; Bjorn Alke - Bass ; Bosse Skoglund - Drums More top draw business from Sweden making a first appearance in blogland.Modal to bossa to ballads this one's got the lot: ALL KILLER NO FILLER [33]15 comments made-how about you? 15.10.09 [34]BERNT ROSENGREN BIG BAND - FIRST MOVES Bernt Rosengren for EMI Sweden from 1977. Bassoon, Horn - Lars Bagge/Clarinet, Clarinet [Bass], Saxophone [Soprano, Alto, Baritone] - Lennart Jansson /Congas - Johnny Martinez , René Martinez , Sabu Martinez Cornet , Flugelhorn - Lars Färnlöf /Drums - Leif Wennerström/Flute, Saxophone -Bernt Rosengren /Horn [English], Saxophone - Tommy Koverhult / Percussion - Okay Temiz / Piano - Claes-Göran Fagerstedt / Piano, Piano [Electric] - Bobo Stenson / Saxophone [Baritone] - Gunnar Bergsten / Saxophone [Tenor] - Anders Lindskog / Trombone - Jan Jansson , Janus Miezek , Lars Olofsson , Lennart Löfgren / Trombone [Bass] - Sven Larsson /Trumpet - Björn Borg /Trumpet , Flugelhorn - Bertil Lövgren , Maffy Falay / Bass - Torbjörn Hultcrantz Back over to Sweden for this killer big band session led by Bernt Rosengren and featuring some big names such as a pre-ECM Bobo Stenson,the wonderful Lars Farnlof and none other than the mighty Sabu Martinez. Check out the percussion destruction of "Felicidade" with Sabu plus sons Johnny and Rene Martinez beating the crap out of the Jobim bossa standard... Murdah!!! [35]19 comments made-how about you? 1.10.09 [36]JAZZ QUINTET 60 Jazz Quintet 60 from 1962 for Metronome Denmark. Allan Botschinsky (tp), Niels Husum (ts), Bent Axen (p), Niels-Henning Orsted Pedersen (b), Bjarne Rostvold (ds). Legendary Scandinavian rarity (Check the second mortgage prices on [37]Popsike) from Denmark featuring a who's who of the Danish Jazz scene from the past 50 years. First time it's has been posted in public blogland so don't sleep on this one : ALL KILLER NO FILLER ! [38]27 comments made-how about you? 27.9.09 [39]STAFFAN ABELEEN QUINTET - DOWNSTREAM Staffan Abeleen Quintet for Philips Sweden from 1966. Staffan Abeleen - Piano ; Lasse Farnlof - Trumpet ; Bjorn Netz - Sax ; Bosse Skugland - Drums ; Paul Danielsson - Bass. All compositions by Lars Farnlof Scandinavia is the destination for my next batch of posts and what better way to start than with this superb album by The Staffen Abeleen Quintet playing the compositions of the wonderful Lars Farnlof. Another first appearance in blogland but let the music do the talking ... ALL KILLER NO FILLER [40]15 comments made-how about you? 19.9.09 [41]ARCHIE SHEPP & THE FAMILY OF PERCUSSION - HERE COMES THE FAMILY I have had lots of requests for a repost of this bomb from Archie Shepp and The Family of Percussion - so here it is. First posted at OIR september 2006. The Family of Percussion (Peter Giger,Trilok Gurtu,Doug Hammond and Tom Nicholas)are joined by Archie Shepp on this hard to find 1980 release from Nagara in Germany. On "Here Comes the Family"the Family establish the basic form of the piece with their rhythmic and vocal opening with Shepp's flute fluttering above it all.Then he lets rip with what the liner notes call 'Poetic Recitation'but would probably be called rapping these days over a funky percussive backdrop .This tune is why the lp remains in such demand - a big play list favourite of djs world wide. Next up is Shepp's "Street Song" the best cut on the lp for me,on which he blows his tenor freely over the drums,congas,bells and gongs.The piece ends in a crescendo of percussion culminating in a gong crash which fades into silence."Euterpe's Favorit"has Shepp back on flute with the family weaving a mystical feel behind him on bells,whistles,water pipes,gongs,rattles and drums. "Ardopetori"starts side 2 with a mid tempo infectious rhythm established by shakers and log drum which builds slowly with Shepp soloing freely again on tenor. "For Ti Roro"wraps it up and begins with the gentle,caribean sounds of steel drums until Shepp's soprano bursts in with a frenzy of excitement.This is the most free track with all the musicians reacting to each otherboth collectively and singularly until it finishes fittingly with the sound of the congas. This came out on lp and cd but quickly dissapeared without trace.if you want a copy you gonna have to dig hard and have deep pockets! [42]18 comments made-how about you? [43]HIROSHI SUZUKI - CAT Hiroshi Suzuki for Columbia Japan from 1975. Hiroshi Suzuki-Trombone ; Hiromasa Suzuki-Keyboards ; Akira Ishikawa-Drums ; Takeru Muraoka-Sax ; Kunimitsu Inaba-Bass More super rare J Jazz making a first appearance in blogland and this is an absolute beauty made up of 5 long cuts that hit the perfect balance between jazz and fusion.Acoustic bass meshed with subtle funky drums topped with lashings of Rhodes,trombone and sax deliver a really stretched out understated rolling groove. The album just grows and grows with repeated listening and it's a big favourite over here at Bacoso's Big Top - no surprise that it's ALL KILLER NO FILLER ! [44]34 comments made-how about you? 7.9.09 [45]T. INOMATA & SOUND L.T.D. - SOUNDS OF SOUND L.T.D. Takeshi Inomata for Columbia Japan from 1970. Takeshi Inomata (Drums & Percussion) Jun Suzuki (Electric Bass) Shigetok Kamiya (Electric Guitar) Ryo Kawasaki (Electric Guitar) Sho Imai (Trombone & Bass Trombone) Shigemichi Dohmoto (Trombone & Bass Trombone) Takao Uematsu (Tenor Sax & Soprano Sax) Fantastic lp of funky jazz from the Columbia issued Groovy Sound Series. No idea who plays on it as the credits are all in Japanese but it's a monster session. Check out "Mustache" and "Tak's Tune" for some severe beats from drummer/leader Takeshi Inomata. All Killer No Filler - Highly Recommended! [46]22 comments made-how about you? 29.8.09 [47]HIDEO SHIRAKI - IN FIESTA Hideo Shiraki for Teichiku Japan from 1961. Rare super tough hard bop session from Japan featuring the killer koto led and drum driven bomb "In Fiesta". Reissued in Japan by Kyoto Jazz Massive for Think in a blink and miss it moment back in 2005 but now out of print. The old Dusty Groove blurb: A brilliant early album from Japanese drummer Hideo Shiraki a jazz session that bristles with the same intensity as key late 50s work by Benny Golson or Gigi Gryce! Although Hideo's leading the group on drums, his work on the kit is remarkably subtle done with the snappingly rhythmic style that marked some of Golson's best modern experiments of a few years before not nearly as bombastic as his stint with Art Blakey, and more in the rhythmically stepping quality of his work with Art Farmer in the Jazztet. Key players on the session include Hidehiko Matsumoto on tenor and flute and Yuzuru Sera on piano both of whom give the album a fluid grace that's really beautiful soulful edges that allow the record to stand equally next to anything coming out of the US at the time. One track features a bit of koto at the start -- echoing Shiraki's later world jazz experiments but most of the set is straight modern hardbop, with tracks that include "Blue Romeo", "Etude No 1", "Just One Or Eight", "You Don't Know What Love Is", and Benny Golson's "Five Spot After Dark". [48]14 comments made-how about you? 18.8.09 [49]LLOYD MCNEILL - TREASURES Lloyd McNeill for Baobab from 1976. Lloyd McNeill-Flute ; Dom Salvador-Piano ; Cecil McBee-Bass ; Portinho , Brian Brake-Drums ; Ray Armando-Percussion. One for the flute freaks on a private press out of NYC. Heavy Brazilian infuences at work on this wonderful spiritual jazz session from the great Lloyd McNeill.Two originals,one standard and a cracking version of Salvador's "Salvation Army" which featured on Dom's '76 Muse debut "Minha Familia"(Available at [50]Ile Oxumare). Here's some info on Lloyd McNeill from the excellent [51]Hipwax: The first thing to know about Lloyd McNeill is that his are the very best soul-jazz flute LPs, and each is first-rate, a masterpiece of self-direction. The second thing to know is there is much more to him than his recorded legacy. He is one of those incredible, super-sensitive people who excels at every artistic idiom and endeavor; making wonderful music is just part of his flowing creativity. A professor (at Rutgers University, earlier Dartmouth), he has much to say about music and creativity as well as an impeccable gift for saying it...sensibly. McNeill's writings on his musical experiences provide invaluable documents of "the period" (late 1960s-1970s) as well as a rare glimpse at the joy of a relatively unsung master. McNeill has played with jazz legends --Andrew White (his longtime collaborator/producer), Eric Dolphy, Sabu Martinez, Mulatu Astatke, among many others-- and he has had a significant hand in the arts scene of Washington, D.C. The major galleries of art, including those of the Smithsonian, sponsored multi-media "happenings" that soared far above the hippie caricature of acid rock with light show. During the first flowering of post-Civil Rights, African-American culture, the Lloyd McNeill Quartet's improvisitory, simultaneuous jazz and large-scale painting "happened" while a lucky, perhaps unsuspecting public drank it in. McNeill believes his influences and their results in his art, music, and poetry are inseparable and mutually reinforcing. Time spent with Picasso in Cannes, 1965 led to new expressions in all three, for instance. And when one brushes against a force such as Picasso, just the idea of "meeting Picasso" has a certain momentum, never mind the inevitable casting of rays of a different kind of light. Canvas, vinyl, the stage, paper, and books of poetry offer a few key imprints of McNeill, and McNeill consistently pays tribute to many illustrious peers. There are six albums, all produced and entirely under the artist's control. Each title surpasses anything comparable on the major labels, even Blue Note. The Black Jazz label may be roughly similar in style, but Asha and Baobab are wholly Lloyd McNeill. The records reflect none of the usual external trends from the decade in which they were recorded; all sound like 1971 rather than 1979. The final record even reprises the first (the exotic, broodingly moody "Asha"), and the sound throughout remains somewhat interchangeable and timeless. But each record has its own themes and currents, and even improvisation has its signatures and fingerprints. Buying: Long out of print, collectors items, Lloyd McNeill records should be snapped up on sight. Hip Wax is pleased to offer two titles for which limited stock remains [52]here. Warning - McNeill lps can be damaging to the [53]wallet. [54]29 comments made-how about you? 14.8.09 [55]If Spike Lee Did Movies In Audio... Greg's back on the mix with his old mucker Monohub - another mashed up bomb in memory of Coltrane and the late,great George Russell.Grab it [56]HERE. Here's the blurb from big daddy himself: I did a version of this a while back and was planning to publish on July 17th as a memorial to the day that John Coltrane died, but, a combination of lack of time, work commitments and other things got in the way... Anyway I redid it and am glad that i did as it's much better than the original. This one strictly for the heads... and defo not for the feint hearted. If you liked the Black State of Vietnam mix then this is for you... So as i said; In respect of John Coltrane and George Russell. Much thanks to Monohub too although he plays down his part in this, his genius did have a lot to do with it... [57]1 comments made-how about you? 3.8.09 [58]SADAO WATANABE AND CHARLIE MARIANO - IBERIAN WALTZ Sadao and Charlie for Tact Japan from 1967. Sadao Watanabe (as) , Charlie Mariano (as) , Masabumi Kikuchi (p) , Masanaga Harada (b) , Masahiko Togashi (ds) , Fumio Watanabe (ds) This received a "Japan Jazz Award" on release. Some severe blowing on this double alto led sextet featuring a young band of soon to be Japanese jazz luminaries. The fast and furious "Palisades" was comped on the Sleepwalker Shibuya Jazz Classics.However the 16 minute title cut is the stand out tune an intense modal waltz with a Spanish tinge featuring coruscating solos from Mariano and Watanabe - hard core stuff. Recommended. [59]16 comments made-how about you? 28.7.09 [60]JAMES MARENTIC SEXTET - NIMBUS James Marentic for Discovery from 1982. James Marentic-Sax/Flute; Tom Harrell -Trumpet/Flugelhorn; Slide Hampton-Trombone; Larry Willis-Piano; Anthony Cox-Bass; Victor Lewis-Drums. Storming post hard bop outing for Mr Marentic and his all star band. Check out the banging latin romp "Baile de las Cucharachas " which kicks off the lp in fine style and the Coltrane inspired "Nimbus". "Aphrodesia" has the inspiration of Kenny Dorham stamped all over it and no prizes for guessing who "Mr Silver I Presume" is aimed at If you enjoyed Tom Harrell's "Aurora" post then this should be right up your street,round your corner and down your block! [61]8 comments made-how about you? 23.7.09 [62]CARTER JEFFERSON - THE RISE OF ATLANTIS Carter Jefferson for Timeless from 1978. Terrific post bop album with latin influences -All Killer No Filler! John Hicks (Piano), Terumasa Hino (Trumpet), Woody Shaw (Producer), Clint Houston (Bass), Victor Lewis (Drums),Carter Jefferson (Sax ), Lani Groves (Vocals), Shunzo Ohno (Trumpet), Steve Thornton (Percussion), Harry Whitaker (Piano) Here's the customary underwhelming AMG review : Tenor saxophonist Carter Jefferson made somewhat of a name for himself when trumpeter Woody Shaw chose him as a member of his first working quintet. Shaw is the producer of this album, Jefferson's fine debut (and evidently only) recording as a leader. Taking a cue from Shaw, the saxophonist sticks essentially to a quintet of trumpet and sax backed by all-star rhythm sections. Three of the tracks include hard bop trumpeter Terumasa Hino while the other three feature little-known Japanese trumpeter Shunzo Ono. Most of the tunes are firmly in the school of hard bop, the sort of music that Woody Shaw played so well. While there is not any new ground broken, it is all performed competently enough. While not as emotionally charged as his work with Shaw, Jefferson impresses with a fluid, mobile attack that shows a solid grasp of his material. If the groups seem to be sometimes merely going through the motions, there are nonetheless enough fine moments to make this a worthwhile purchase.AMG. A reliable and advanced soloist who spent most of his career as a sideman, Carter Jefferson is best-remembered for his association with Woody Shaw during 1977-1980. Jefferson started on clarinet and played alto before settling on tenor, going on tour early in the backup bands of the Temptations, the Supremes, and Little Richard. In 1971, he moved to New York to attend New York University and soon spent two years with Mongo Santamaria and a period in 1973 as a member of Art Blakey's Jazz Messengers. After his important stint with Woody Shaw (with whom he recorded several times), Jefferson worked with many top players, including Elvin Jones, Roy Haynes, Cedar Walton, Jerry Gonzalez & the Fort Apache Band, Malachi Thompson, and Jack Walrath's Masters of Suspense. His premature death in Poland after emergency surgery was a major loss. Carter Jefferson only led one record, The Rise of Atlantis, on the Timeless label in 1978. AMG. [63]33 comments made-how about you? 10.7.09 [64]JULIO GUTIERREZ - PROGRESSIVE LATIN Julio Gutierrez for Gema from 1960. The title says it all for this groundbreaking heavyweight descarga session...Highly recommended. Has anyone out there got a copy of Gutierrez's "Havana BC" they want to sell me?If so leave me a message in the comments. Progressive Latin should be considered a classic of Latin jazz if it isn't already. "Cosa Buena" cooks, and "Closing Time" is a slower bossa nova with flute and horns that captures the mood of a good night out at its end. "Yambambe," an Afro rhythm behind mostly piano, sounds more sophisticated than its simple construction. "El Altiplano" is supposed to be an Incan melody with Afro elements. In any case, vocal interjections pave the way for a longer descarga where a variety of intriguing elements (horns, flute piano, even organ) work together in their own weird ways and combinations. The "Route 66" theme arrangement is a coup; the sax and flute are recorded gorgeously, and the piano and conga pace it ideally, with brief drum solo breaks. "Sad City" is a haunting flute piece, while "Guantanamera" has an interesting change but there is only so much one can expect from this tune. "Malaguena" is another long descarga that gets a little wild. Progressive Latin is something of a masterpiece from the great arranger Julio Gutierrez. Tony Wilds What impressed me most about this album is Julio's use of space and the length of the tunes, considering that in the era when it was recorded, 2 1/2 minute tunes were standard. Great musicians like El Negro Vivar (trumpet) and Chombo Silva (sax) were able to beautifully stretch out over an almost post-bop/Afro-Cuban jazz setting. There is some serious blowing on this disc. This is another essential Latin jazz gem from the late 50s/early 60s. Jose Rizo [65]22 comments made-how about you? 4.7.09 [66]Older Posts Subscribe to: [67]Posts (Atom) JAZZ - LATIN - SOUNDTRACKS . RARE - OBSCURE -DELETED . ALL RIPS @ 320 FROM ORIGINAL VINYL OR CD. JAZZ - LATIN - SOUNDTRACKS . RARE - OBSCURE -DELETED . ALL RIPS @ 320 FROM ORIGINAL VINYL OR CD. [68]My Photo Bacoso [69]View my complete profile PLACES & SPACES * [70]Axelgrease * [71]Call It Anything * [72]Cuban Posters * [73]Djalma's Soul Food * [74]El Goog Ja * [75]Far From Ubiquit * [76]Flying Dutchman Records * [77]Groovy Merchant * [78]Ile Oxumare * [79]India Navigation * [80]jazzfluteweinstein * [81]Killer Groove Music Library * [82]LiquidJazz.com * [83]Magic Purple Sunshine * [84]Mainstream shad shack * [85]My Favourite Sound© * [86]My Jazz World * [87]never enough rhodes * [88]Nine Sisters * [89]Nothing Is v2.0 * [90]pharaoh's dance * [91]private press * [92]Quimsy's Mumbo Jumbo * [93]SG Canvas * [94]Strata-East Fan Club * [95]The CTI never sleeps * [96]Von Fat Bakon * [97]WONDERFULSOUND DIGGIN' IN THE CRATES * [98]Jan 2010 (1) * [99]Dec 2009 (3) * [100]Nov 2009 (5) * [101]Oct 2009 (4) * [102]Sep 2009 (4) * [103]Aug 2009 (4) * [104]Jul 2009 (4) * [105]Jun 2009 (8) * [106]May 2009 (5) * [107]Apr 2009 (1) * [108]Mar 2009 (4) * [109]Feb 2009 (9) * [110]Jan 2009 (13) * [111]Dec 2008 (6) * [112]Nov 2008 (15) * [113]Oct 2008 (9) * [114]Sep 2008 (3) * [115]Jul 2008 (1) * [116]Jun 2008 (28) * [117]May 2008 (4) * [118]Apr 2008 (6) * [119]Mar 2008 (26) * [120]Feb 2008 (17) * [121]Jan 2008 (10) * [122]Dec 2007 (12) * [123]Nov 2007 (16) * [124]Oct 2007 (21) * [125]Sep 2007 (21) * [126]Aug 2007 (16) * [127]Jul 2007 (10) * [128]Jun 2007 (19) * [129]May 2007 (18) * [130]Apr 2007 (17) * [131]Mar 2007 (19) * [132]Feb 2007 (17) * [133]Jan 2007 (21) * [134]Dec 2006 (19) * [135]Nov 2006 (29) * [136]Oct 2006 (20) * [137]Sep 2006 (29) * [138]Aug 2006 (34) * [139]Jul 2006 (18) * [140]Jun 2006 (22) * [141]May 2006 (40) * [142]Apr 2006 (52) * [143]Mar 2006 (19) Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [spacer1.gif] [blackrainbowhdr01.jpg] IFRAME: uments&banner=0JB0A4VDS5FZSF8J66G2&f=ifr About Rhythmweb A Grassroots Network [dada01a.jpg] (at left: World Unity Drum Festival, Club Dada, Dallas, August 1994. My son Jules, shown at age 12 at left) Rhythmweb started in December of 1996, as a reflection of my virtual search for music and musicians on the Web, and as an excuse to woodshed web design. Since then we have been amazed by the reponse we have recieved, from all corners of the globe. From the Mid-East to Australia, and from South Africa to Europe to New Orleans to Brazil to Papua, NewGuinea, musicians are connecting. Truly, rhythm is a universal language, love of music a universal love. Thanks to all our new friends for connecting with us. Our mission is to further the use of rhythm, music, and percussion & related arts as a healing tool. We LOVE music. We LOVE the Web. When our schedule permits, we surf several [kids097.jpg] hours a night, then we post the fruits of our travels... Every time we meet someone interesting with a rhythm related website, we post a link. Some very worthwhile friendships have evolved along the way, and we've discovered lots of good music. We have since integrated affiliate links to CDs, books, and so forth, but our basic mission remains the same. We are NOT a bunch of suits, drooling e-commerce. We're musicians, artists. We believe it's important for people at the grassroots level to network during this crucial moment in history. If you'll notice, the vast majority of links on rhythmweb are GRASSROOTS musicians, trying to get over in this new economy. You will see no big over-rated stars from the conglomerate record companies. Plenty of that elsewhere. [eric_october03-01b-225.jpg] There are also fan pages and correspondent pages here, on a large number of working musicians. Thanks very much to all for your help. We are actively seeking musicians in various parts of the world to drop us a line now and then, and let us know what the percussion scene is like in your area. If you have a drum lesson you'd like to share with our readers, please let us know, and perhaps we can steer you some traffic in return. If you have an instrument, a CD, or a DVD you'd like for us to review, we may do that too, time permitting; please drop us a line about it. And to the thousands of hobbyist , semi-pro and professional percussionists who come seeking info, and bringing life and enthusiasm, welcome. Don't hesitate to introduce yourself, and send us some feedback, and some links. Drum on, Stu IFRAME: m&mode=books&p=13&o=1&f=ifr [3]Shop at Amazon.com [4]Previous Page | [5]Contact | [6]Home [7][clown.gif] © 1996-2008 Eric Stuer All rights reserved RHYTHMWEB P.O. Box 836711 Richardson TX 75083 RHYTHM WEB(TM); and RHYTHMWEB(TM); are trademarks, and any unauthorized use of the names is a violation of applicable law. Références 4. javascript:history.go(-1); [USEMAP] [1]Chest of Books: Read Books Online [trans_pix.gif] [2]Free Books / [3]Society / [4]Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications / [5]books [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [6]previous page: Rhythm In Nature [7]page up: Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications | by Frederick R. Clow [8]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications. Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual training, recitation, gymnastics, and play. Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human [40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality. The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. . . . When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak. Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. - Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20. . . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight years in [42]duration are superposed. . . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135. Continue to: * prev: [43]Rhythm In Nature * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]The Cycle Of A Generation Tags [46]sociology, [47]communication, [48]congenial groups, [49]cycles of change, [50]democracy, [51]factors of society, [52]government, [53]heredity, [54]human nature, [55]institutions, [56]location, [57]natural selection, [58]organizations, [59]population, [60]primary groups, [61]social classes [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [62]TOP [63]previous page: Rhythm In Nature [64]page up: Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications | by Frederick R. Clow [65]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [66]StasoSphere [ [67]Privacy Policy ] [ [68]Terms of Use ] [ [69]About Us ] [ [70]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:34:34 2009 Références #[1]Welcome page [2]Help [3]Parent screen [4]skip navigation [5]Geography Compass Select Compass [Geography Compass........................] Go * [6]Home | * [7]My Compass | * [8]Help | * [9]Content Alerts | * [10]Contact Us | * [11]Links * [12]What is Geography Compass? | * [13]Subscribe | * [14]Editors | * [15]Editorial Board | * [16]Authors Cultural Towards Lefebvrian Socio-Nature? A Film about Rhythm, Nature and Science By [17]James Evans and [18]Phil Jones, School of Environment and Development, University of Manchester School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham (April 2008) __________________________________________________________________ Section: [19]Cultural Subjects: [20]Environment And Society, [21]Geography, [22]Urban Geography, [23]Cultural Geography. Key Topics: [24]nature , [25]representation. Abstract The first thing you will notice about this article is that it is actually a film. We did not set out to make a film, it just ended up that way. We started out making music out of environmental data, wondering why we only ever look at scientific data, why we do not listen to it. Wandering around the city passing through the transformed landscapes of channelised rivers and broken industrial spaces, we wanted to reveal the socio-natural rhythms of this hybrid city. The text you see below represents the shooting script for a film that explores Lefebvre's notion of rhythmanalysis in the context of socio-natural rhythms. The video accompanying it is far more interesting, including the environmental music that we produced by feeding scientific data through samplers and drum machines. The video questions the nature of scientific representation and whether the notion of rhythmanalysis can be stretched to explore rhythms beyond the human. Furthermore, the process of actually making the video, submitting it to this journal, and responding to the referees' comments made us question the very nature of what constitutes an academic paper in the twenty-first century. The accompanying commentary is our attempt to deal with these issues. To link to the film please go to DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00107.x This article abstract has been viewed 5348 times. [27]view [28]cite [29]Add to my Compass [30]Add to VLE/CMS [31]feedback __________________________________________________________________ Top 5 related articles * [32]Geographies for Moving Bodies: Thinking, Dancing, Spaces By [33]Derek P. McCormack , Oxford University Centre for the Environment (Vol. 3, October 2008) Geography Compass * [34]Colonialism, Landscape and the Subterranean By [35]Heidi V. Scott , Institute of Geography and Earth Sciences, Aberystwyth University (Vol. 3, October 2008) Geography Compass * [36]Climate-Suicide Relationships: A Research Problem in Need of Geographic Methods and Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives By P. Grady Dixon and Adam J. Kalkstein, Mississippi State UniversityUnited States Military Academy (Vol. 4, September 2009) Geography Compass * [37]Ethnomethodology and the Non-representational: What Are Disaffected Young White Men Capable of? 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Mike Bradshaw and Basil Gomez Geography Compass Editors-in-Chief [70]Blackwell Publishing Copyright © 2005-2007 [71]Blackwell Publishing | [72]Privacy Policy | [73]Contact us | [74]Help | [75]To the top... [76][ access key 0 : accessibility information including access key list ] [77][ access key 1 : home page ] [78][ access key 2 : skip navigation] [79][ access key 6 : help ] Références [1]pmc logo image [2]Logo of nihpa [3]Journal List > [4]NIHPA Author Manuscripts Formats: * [5]Abstract | * Full Text | * [6]PDF (32K) J Public Health Policy. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2008 July 24. Published in final edited form as: [7]J Public Health Policy. 2006; 27(1): 2-12. doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200061. PMCID: PMC2483431 NIHMSID: NIHMS58476 [8]Copyright notice and [9]Disclaimer Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature Elena N. Naumova^* ^*Address for Correspondence: Department of Public Health and Family Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Avenue, Boston, MA 02111, USA. E-mail: elena.naumova/at/tufts.edu Small right arrow pointing to: The publisher's final edited version of this article is available at [10]J Public Health Policy. Small right arrow pointing to: See other articles in PMC that [11]cite the published article. Abstract Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences. Understanding seasonal fluctuations in diseases patterns presents us with a major challenge. To develop efficient strategies for disease prevention and control, we need to grasp the main determinants of temporal variations and their interactions. This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality by outlining several of its factors, using as illustrations respiratory and enteric water- or food-borne infections. Keywords: seasonality, water-borne infection, food-borne infection, respiratory infection * [12] Other Sectionsv + [13]Abstract + [14]Introduction + [15]Notion of Seasonality + [16]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [17]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [18]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [19]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [20]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [21]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [22]References Introduction Now let us consider the seasons and the way we can predict whether it is going to be a healthy or an unhealthy year. (Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 10)^[23]1 Seasonal fluctuations in birth and death, in sickness and health, are the haunting mysteries of mankind. People have made predictions from winds, tides, birds' migrations, spring blooms, sunsets, and constellations in hope of grasping the future. The complexity and uncertainty of ancient and modern means of prediction make us wonder to what extent we are able to understand the rhythm of nature. One might argue the future cannot be known, but from a practical point of view, a better understanding of changes in disease occurrences is essential for building efficient strategies for disease prevention and control. Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences. Since Hippocrates, observers worldwide have noted and documented marked fluctuations in the incidence of many diseases. In the modern view, the main determinants of temporal variations in disease manifestation are evolving host susceptibility, periodicity in pathogen abundance and transmissibility, and the ever-changing environment that can support or repress a host or pathogen. Interactions among these factors responsible for seasonal variation are interwoven into the intricate fabric of life. For many diseases, explanations for self-sustained oscillations still remain elusive. We lack adequate methods and sufficient analytical tools for comprehensive examination of seasonality in public health field studies. A dearth of observations, recorded over long periods at fine resolution, compounded by an enormous number of factors associated with periodic changes, obscure our ability to understand disease variation. Urgent need for effective strategies to prevent and control a spread of emerging infections in the rapidly changing world, however, demands a deeper insight into the cyclic nature of diseases. This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality and outline several factors associated with seasonality using as illustrations enteric water- or food-borne infections and respiratory infections. Then I propose a framework for systematic evaluation of seasonal oscillations. In every part of this presentation, and most importantly, I wish to stimulate discussion on this challenging topic. * [24] Other Sectionsv + [25]Abstract + [26]Introduction + [27]Notion of Seasonality + [28]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [29]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [30]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [31]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [32]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [33]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [34]References Notion of Seasonality Every disease occurs at any season of the year but some of them more frequently occur and are of greater severity at certain times. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 19) Seasonality, as noted above, refers to the cyclic appearance of events over a period of time. A seasonal pattern may appear as a tight cluster of isolated outbreaks that occurred during a relatively short time period, then spreading over a wide geographic area. For example, in a temporal curve of enteric infection cases (i.e. giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, or rotavirus infections), a compact cluster of outbreaks is followed by a long interval of low incidence. Systematic recurrence of such sequences forms a seasonal pattern typical of a specific pathogen in a given population and in a given locality. A seasonal increase in enteric or respiratory infection often produces a well-defined oscillating curve that starts to rise in one season and declines over the next one. The three main features characterize seasonality: * a point in time when a seasonal curve reaches its maximum, * an amplitude from peak to nadir, and * a duration of a seasonal increase defined by a shape of a curve. (The shape of a seasonal pattern reflects how fast a temporal curve reaches its peak and declines to nadir over a course of a full cycle. Depending on the length of a cycle whether it is one year or a half of a year, a seasonal curve would have one or two peaks.) Seasonal patterns, described by these three characteristics, may vary for different diseases, different locations, or different subpopulations. Many viral and bacterial infections in humans show marked seasonal changes. In some diseases, like salmonellosis and influenza, annual oscillations explain up to 60% of variability. Such impact should not be ignored and deserves a proper examination. * [35] Other Sectionsv + [36]Abstract + [37]Introduction + [38]Notion of Seasonality + [39]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [40]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [41]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [42]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [43]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [44]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [45]References Diseases Seasonal Patterns Diseases vary in their relationships one with another; some are opposed, some are mutually agreeable. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 3) Differences in diseases peaks reflect different etiology, heterogeneity in host susceptibility, or route of transmission. In temperate climates, Campylobacter and Salmonella infections are known to rise in summer, giardiasis in early fall, and rotavirus infection in mid-winter, etc. Interestingly, for the same infectious agent, infections recorded in two different locations may present a different pattern of incidence. A seasonal pattern for cryptosporidiosis in the United States exhibits one late summer peak ([46]1); in contrast, in the United Kingdom, two seasonal peaks are seen ([47]2). The UK picture reflects two dominant sources of exposure: one from animals in the late spring, and another from humans in the fall ([48]3). Close temporal clustering of seasonal peaks in diseases that share similar sources of exposure suggests dominant routes of transmissions. Peaks in water-borne cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis often cluster after a summer peak in ambient temperature. Such synchronization in disease manifestation can be governed by environmental and social factors. In some instances, periodicity of a given infection observed in a particular population may be not present in another. A seasonal peak in cryptosporidiosis cases observed in the general population is not apparent in the immunocompromized HIV-positive gay men, even though the incidence of cryptosporidiosis in HIV-positive population is very high. This suggests differences in dominant routes of transmission. Seasonal patterns can change over time. After intense vaccination campaigns in the 1950s and 1970s in the United Kingdom, the patterns of measles and pertussis changed, with the high rates of disease usually seen when children were attending school diminishing for measles and practically disappearing for pertusis ([49]4). Explanations for these phenomena remain elusive. A departure from a systematically observed pattern could reflect the evolution of a pathogen or a change in herd immunity. A simple rule to remember is that a discovery hides in outliers. Faced with an abundance of causal agents, a bare observation of a rise in the incidence of non-specific enteritis should be interpreted with caution. A seasonal pattern can represent a mix of temporal curves. Imagine two periodic curves of similar intensity, but one peaks in a spring and another in a fall; the sum of these two curves might lose the appearance of seasonality, covering two distinctly seasonal phenomena. Some infections are very rare. Their seasonal patterns are difficult to examine because the relevant data must be collected over a very long time and/or aggregated over large spatial units. Precision in evaluating seasonality can thus be jeopardized by time-dependent and/or space-dependent confounders. Seasonal fluctuations can be found beyond infectious diseases; chronic somatic diseases also exhibit substantial temporal variations. Plausibly, exacerbations in chronic conditions are driven by infectious agents or environmental changes. Understanding the interplay of an infection and a chronic disease may lead to better control for both. * [50] Other Sectionsv + [51]Abstract + [52]Introduction + [53]Notion of Seasonality + [54]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [55]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [56]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [57]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [58]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [59]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [60]References Seasonal Host Susceptibility When the weather is seasonable and the crops ripen at the regular times, diseases are regular in their appearance... (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 8) Poor nutrition directly affects host susceptibility. In places of food scarcity, researchers suspect that temporal patterns in birth weight and preterm delivery result from seasonal variations in food availability ([61]5). In general, due to a less developed immune system, young children are susceptible to infection; their immune response may be further weakened by seasonal cutbacks in essential micronutrients and vitamins. Anemnestic responses to an antigen determine whether an infection recurs. Short-lived immune memory together with seasonal changes in pathogen transmissibility contribute further to the complexity of seasonal patterns. Even a perfectly healthy person can experience a change in susceptibility to infection due to stress, injuries, or trauma. The probability of a marked impact of such factors on disease seasonality is virtually unknown. * [62] Other Sectionsv + [63]Abstract + [64]Introduction + [65]Notion of Seasonality + [66]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [67]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [68]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [69]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [70]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [71]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [72]References Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility Some diseases are produced by the manner of life that is followed; others by the life-giving air we breathe. (Hippocrates. The Nature of Man, 9) Temperature, humidity, and precipitation -- the defining factors of seasons -- are important determinants of pathogens' survival. Changes influence pathogens' potency and life expectancy, resulting in temporal fluctuations in pathogens' abundance. In many instances, seasonal changes in pathogen survival and transmission are inseparably related to both biological and social aspects of our lives. They are synchronized by weather. High ambient temperature, for example, provides a supportive environment for food-borne pathogens, favoring their multiplication in food and on food preparation surfaces ([73]6). Food contamination is believed to be a significant mode of transmission for infections caused by Salmonella and Campylobacter ([74]7); therefore, during warm weather, the risk for food-borne diseases increases ([75]8). Seasonal changes in level of contamination, availability of potable water, sanitation and hygiene practices, as well as crowding and person-to-person contacts, affect pathogens' transmissibility. Worldwide, water use differs from season to season ([76]9). In temperate climates, warm weather leads to higher water consumption and encourages outdoor activities -- swimming, camping, and recreational water use. In tropical regions, contamination of surface water increases during wet seasons. Although spread of pathogens via food is certainly possible, contaminated water is the dominant source of exposure for enteric infections caused by protozoa Cryptosporidium and Giardia ([77]10 --[78]12). Depending on locality, outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis associated with drinking or recreational water frequently occur during warm or wet seasons ([79]13,[80]14). With the onset of cooler weather, the "heating season" marks a change in indoor air quality. Inadequate and poorly designed ventilation in crowded public places and urban transit systems may boost exposure to air-borne pathogens by increasing their concentration in stagnant air and by re-circulating contaminated air. Higher relative humidity may also affect the stability of air-borne droplets in which viruses travel from person to person. * [81] Other Sectionsv + [82]Abstract + [83]Introduction + [84]Notion of Seasonality + [85]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [86]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [87]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [88]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [89]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [90]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [91]References Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects You will find, as a general rule, that the constitutions and the habits of a people follow the nature of the land where they live. (Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 24) Diseases do not watch calendars. Their incidence rises and falls because of changes in factors associated with the diseases. However, in every culture all social events are synchronized by calendars; and every calendar reflects the cyclic rhythm of nature. Traditional celebrations and gatherings observed by communities according to calendars affect pathogen transmission. Holidays, social activities, and seasonal travel are often associated with changes in food consumption and preparation, and are therefore associated with changes in disease incidence. Preparing meat on a barbecue increases the risk of Campylobacter infection ([92]15,[93]16) and foreign travel increases the risk for enteric infections. Aggregation of children in schools, daycare centers, and summer camps, reflecting school calendars, facilitates rapid exchange of pathogens. There are marked seasonal variations in transmission, and thus the incidence of enteric and respiratory infections. * [94] Other Sectionsv + [95]Abstract + [96]Introduction + [97]Notion of Seasonality + [98]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [99]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [100]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [101]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [102]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [103]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [104]References Climate Change, Extreme Weather Events, and Disease Seasonality The changes of the seasons are especially liable to beget diseases, as are great changes from heat to cold, or cold to heat in any season. Other changes in the weather have similarly severe effects. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 1) As weather affects human health by creating favorable conditions for pathogen proliferation and transmission, severe weather can affect the timing and intensity of infectious outbreaks, and natural disasters lead to drastic changes in population structure and pathogen ecology. Catastrophic events like tsunamis, hurricanes, devastating floods, and heat waves that cause deaths, population displacement, and infrastructural damage may have dramatic effects on the incidence of infections and their seasonal patterns. Recent work has shown highly significant associations between extreme precipitation and water-borne disease outbreaks ([105]17). Heavy precipitation, rapid snowmelt, and floods flush animal wastes from the land into surface waters and may overwhelm drinking and wastewater treatment systems. The latter leads to discharges in watersheds of untreated human wastes. As a result, pathogens can appear in drinking and recreational water in very high concentrations ([106]18,[107]19). A rapid snowmelt, resultant runoff, and filtration system failure at the overloaded local drinking water treatment plant were implicated in the largest known water-borne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis, which occurred in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1993 ([108]20). This outbreak happened in April, not within the usual seasonal peak for cryptosporidiosis cases. A flood, which also resulted from a rapid snowmelt, has been linked with a similar increased incidence of diarrhea ([109]21). Experts expect that global climate change will increase climate variability and the frequency of extreme precipitation events in temperate regions ([110]22,[111]23). "Global warming" may also increase the frequency and magnitude of other extreme weather events, such as heat waves and droughts, and thereby have profound effects on public health ([112]24,[113]25). In a comprehensive study conducted in the United Kingdom that described a short-term link between temperature and food poisoning, the authors also hypothesized that climate change could lead to changes in rates of food poisoning ([114]26). Integration of environmental parameters into disease forecasting and warning systems could allow public health officials to alert the populace when specific meteorological conditions pose predictable risks to health ([115]27). Simple messages about proper food preparation and refrigeration and the risks of using contaminated recreational waters could, for example, be provided before, during, and after extreme events. Better understanding of disease seasonality would also help to predict outbreaks of infections triggered by climate variability. * [116] Other Sectionsv + [117]Abstract + [118]Introduction + [119]Notion of Seasonality + [120]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [121]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [122]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [123]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [124]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [125]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [126]References Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking Desperate cases need the most desperate remedies. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, I, 6) At first, seasonal fluctuations should be systematically described. This requires a framework with sound definitions and analytic tools suitable for routine use by public health professionals. In public health sciences, the existing methodology currently lacks methods and tests for assessing complex interactions in the time-dependent factors responsible for disease seasonality. Next, reliable data with fine temporal resolution are a must. The vast majority of epidemiological studies have examined seasonal patterns of infections using quarterly or monthly data. This coarse temporal aggregation can thwart an otherwise detailed, accurate, and comprehensive analysis of seasonal patterns and may even be misleading ([127]28). Examination of daily or weekly rates can substantially improve evaluation of seasonal curves, but a systematic approach for using at least weekly aggregates is needed. Finally, reluctance to apply sophisticated mathematical models in public health studies must be overcome. Underlying processes in disease manifestation and spread are complex and multifaceted. Causal pathways are often obscured. To disentangle causal effects of many factors within the circular processes of self-sustaining oscillations demands the careful building of sound conceptual models of seasonality; models that can be tested. The emerging fields of computational epidemiology and intelligent data mining will complement established work in philosophy of science and mathematical biology to become an essential part of thinking in public health and policy. Acknowledgments I thank Drs Eileen O'Neil and Beth Rosenberg for their thoughtful suggestions, and the support of funding agencies: the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (U19AI062627), and the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R01ES013171). Footnotes ^1Hippocrates' citations are taken from: Lloyd, GER, editor. Hippocratic Writings. Trans. Chadwick J and Mann WN. London: Penguin; 1978. * [128] Other Sectionsv + [129]Abstract + [130]Introduction + [131]Notion of Seasonality + [132]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [133]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [134]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [135]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [136]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [137]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [138]References References 1. Naumova EN, Chen JT, Griffiths JK, Matyas BT, Estes-Smargiassi SA, Morris RD. Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. Public Health Rep. 2000;115(5):436-47. [[139]PubMed] 2. Naumova EN, Christodouleas J, Hunter PR, Syed Q. Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance system in 1990 --1999. J Water Health. 2005;3(2):185-96. [[140]PubMed] 3. McLauchlin J, Amar C, Pedraza-Diaz S, Nichols GL. Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in 1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from livestock animals. J Clin Microbiol. 2000;38(11):3984-90. [[141]PubMed] 4. Anderson RM, May RM. Infectious Diseases of Humans. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004. 5. Fallis G, Hilditch J. A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between rural Zaire and Ontario. Can J Public Health. 1989;80(3):205-8. [[142]PubMed] 6. Kusumaningrum HD, Riboldi G, Hazeleger WC, Beumer RR. Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces and cross-contamination to foods. Int J Food Microbiol. 2003;85(3):227-36. [[143]PubMed] 7. Mead PS, Slutsker L, Dietz V, McCaig LF, Bresee JS, Shapiro C, et al. Food-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999;5(5):607-25. [[144]PubMed] 8. Kovats RS, Edwards SJ, Hajat S, Armstrong BG, Ebi KL, Menne B. The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries. Epidemiol Infect. 2004;132(3):443-53. [[145]PubMed] 9. Gofti-Laroche L, Gratacap-Cavallier B, Genoulaz O, Joret JC, Hartemann P, Seigneurin JM, et al. A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study). Water Sci Technol. 2001;43(12):39-48. [[146]PubMed] 10. Pruss A. Review of epidemiological studies on health effects from exposure to recreational water. Int J Epidemiol. 1998;27(1):1-9. [[147]PubMed] 11. Rose JB, Huffman DE, Riley K, Farrah SR, Lukasik JO, Hamann CL. Reduction of enteric microorganisms at the Upper Occoquan Sewage Authority Water Reclamation Plant. Water Environ Res. 2001;73(6):711-20. [[148]PubMed] 12. Rose JB, Slifko TR. Giardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their impact on foods: a review. J Food Prot. 1999;62(9):1059-70. [[149]PubMed] 13. Barwick RS, Levy DA, Craun GF, Beach MJ, Calderon RL. Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks -- United States, 1997 --1998. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000;49(4):1-21. [[150]PubMed] 14. Clavel A, Alivares JL, Fleta J, Castillo J, Varea M, Ramos FJ, et al. Seasonality of cryptosporidiosis in children. Eur J Clin Microbiol Inf Dis. 1996;15:77-9. 15. Kapperud G, Skjerve E, Bean NH, Ostroff SM, Lassen J. Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of a case --control study in southeastern Norway. J Clin Microbiol. 1992;30(12):3117-21. [[151]PubMed] 16. Neimann J, Engberg J, Molbak K, Wegener HC. A case --control study of risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections in Denmark. Epidemiol Infect. 2003;130(3):353-66. [[152]PubMed] 17. Curriero FC, Patz JA, Rose JB, Lele S. The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948 --1994. Am J Pub Health. 2001;91(8):1194-9. [[153]PubMed] 18. Fayer R, Trout JM, Lewis EJ, Xiao L, Lal A, Jenkins MC, et al. Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay. Parasitol Res. 2002;88(11):998-1003. [[154]PubMed] 19. Kistemann T, Classen T, Koch C, Dangendorf F, Fischeder R, Gebel J, et al. Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during extreme rainfall and runoff. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002;68(5):2188-97. [[155]PubMed] 20. MacKenzie WR, Hoxie NJ, Proctor ME, Gradus MS, Blair KA, Peterson DE, et al. A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of Cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med. 1994;331(3):161-7. [[156]PubMed] 21. Wade TJ, Sandhu SK, Levy D, Lee S, LeChevallier MW, Katz L, et al. Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms? Am J Epidemiol. 2004;159(4):398-405. [[157]PubMed] 22. World Health Organization. Using climate to predict infectious disease outbreaks: a review. World Health Organization; Geneva, Switzerland: 2004. Publication no. WHO/SDE/OEH/04.01. 23. Easterling DR, Evans JL. Observed variability and trends in extreme climate events. Bull Am Meteorol Soc. 2000;81:417-25. 24. Charron D, Thomas M, Waltner-Toews D, Aramini J, Edge T, Kent R, et al. Vulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a review. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004;67(20 --22):1667-77. [[158]PubMed] 25. Patz JA, Epstein PR, Burke TA, Balbus JM. Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996;275(3):217-23. [[159]PubMed] 26. Bentham G, Langford IH. Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England and Wales. Int J Biometeorol. 1995;39(2):81-6. [[160]PubMed] 27. Ebi KL, Schmier JK. A stitch in time: improving public health early warning systems for extreme weather events. Epidemiol Rev. 2005;27:115-21. [[161]PubMed] 28. da Silva Lopes ACB. Spurious deterministic seasonality and auto-correlation corrections with quarterly data: further Monte Carlo results. Empir Econ. 1999;24(2):341-59. __________________________________________________________________ PubMed articles by these authors * [162]Naumova, E. PubMed related articles * [163]ReviewSeasonality of infectious diseases. Annu Rev Public Health. 2007; 28:127-43. [Annu Rev Public Health. 2007] * [164]ReviewSeasonality and the dynamics of infectious diseases. Ecol Lett. 2006 Apr; 9(4):467-84. [Ecol Lett. 2006] * [165]Seasonal infectious disease epidemiology. Proc Biol Sci. 2006 Oct 7; 273(1600):2541-50. [Proc Biol Sci. 2006] * [166]Seasonal control for an endemic disease with seasonal fluctuations. Theor Popul Biol. 1988 Apr; 33(2):115-25. [Theor Popul Biol. 1988] * [167]Seasonality of primarily childhood and young adult infectious diseases in the United States. Chronobiol Int. 2006; 23(5):1065-82. [Chronobiol Int. 2006] * » [168]See reviews... | » [169]See all... Recent Activity [170]Clear [171]Turn Off [172]Turn On * [173]Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of NatureMystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature Your browsing activity is empty. Activity recording is turned off. [174]Turn recording back on Links * [175]PubMed * [176]Taxonomy * [177]Taxonomy Tree * [178]Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. Public Health Rep. 2000 Sep-Oct; 115(5):436-47. [Public Health Rep. 2000] * [179]Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance system in 1990-1999. J Water Health. 2005 Jun; 3(2):185-96. [J Water Health. 2005] * [180]Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in 1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from livestock animals. J Clin Microbiol. 2000 Nov; 38(11):3984-90. [J Clin Microbiol. 2000] [181]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [182]A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between rural Zaire and Ontario. Can J Public Health. 1989 May-Jun; 80(3):205-8. [Can J Public Health. 1989] [183]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [184]Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces and cross-contamination to foods. Int J Food Microbiol. 2003 Aug 25; 85(3):227-36. [Int J Food Microbiol. 2003] * [185]ReviewFood-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999 Sep-Oct; 5(5):607-25. [Emerg Infect Dis. 1999] * [186]The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries. Epidemiol Infect. 2004 Jun; 132(3):443-53. [Epidemiol Infect. 2004] [187]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [188]A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study). Water Sci Technol. 2001; 43(12):39-48. [Water Sci Technol. 2001] * [189]ReviewReview of epidemiological studies on health effects from exposure to recreational water. Int J Epidemiol. 1998 Feb; 27(1):1-9. [Int J Epidemiol. 1998] * [190]ReviewGiardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their impact on foods: a review. J Food Prot. 1999 Sep; 62(9):1059-70. [J Food Prot. 1999] * [191]Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks--United States, 1997-1998. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000 May 26; 49(4):1-21. [MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000] [192]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [193]Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of a case-control study in southeastern Norway. J Clin Microbiol. 1992 Dec; 30(12):3117-21. [J Clin Microbiol. 1992] * [194]A case-control study of risk factors for sporadic campylobacter infections in Denmark. Epidemiol Infect. 2003 Jun; 130(3):353-66. [Epidemiol Infect. 2003] [195]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [196]The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948-1994. Am J Public Health. 2001 Aug; 91(8):1194-9. [Am J Public Health. 2001] * [197]Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay. Parasitol Res. 2002 Nov; 88(11):998-1003. [Parasitol Res. 2002] * [198]Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during extreme rainfall and runoff. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002 May; 68(5):2188-97. [Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002] * [199]A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med. 1994 Jul 21; 331(3):161-7. [N Engl J Med. 1994] * [200]Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms? Am J Epidemiol. 2004 Feb 15; 159(4):398-405. [Am J Epidemiol. 2004] [201]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [202]ReviewVulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a review. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004 Oct 22-Nov 26; 67(20-22):1667-77. [J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004] * [203]Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996 Jan 17; 275(3):217-23. [JAMA. 1996] * [204]Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England and Wales. Int J Biometeorol. 1995 Nov; 39(2):81-6. [Int J Biometeorol. 1995] [205]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [206]ReviewA stitch in time: improving public health early warning systems for extreme weather events. Epidemiol Rev. 2005; 27():115-21. [Epidemiol Rev. 2005] [207]See more articles cited in this paragraph You are here: NCBI > [208]Literature > PubMed Central [209]Help Desk Simple NCBI Directory * Getting Started * [210]Site Map * [211]NCBI Help Manual * [212]NCBI Handbook * [213]Training & Tutorials * Resources * [214]Literature * [215]DNA & RNA * [216]Proteins * [217]Sequence Analysis * [218]Genes & Expression * [219]Genomes * [220]Maps & Markers * [221]Domains & Structures * [222]Genetics & Medicine * [223]Taxonomy * [224]Data & Software * [225]Training & Tutorials * [226]Homology * [227]Small Molecules * [228]Variation * Popular * [229]PubMed * [230]PubMed Central * [231]Bookshelf * [232]BLAST * [233]Gene * [234]Nucleotide * [235]Protein * [236]GEO * [237]Conserved Domains * [238]Structure * [239]PubChem * Featured * [240]GenBank * [241]Reference Sequences * [242]Map Viewer * [243]Genome Projects * [244]Human Genome * [245]Mouse Genome * [246]Influenza Virus * [247]Primer-BLAST * [248]Short Read Archive * NCBI Information * [249]About NCBI * [250]Research at NCBI * [251]NCBI Newsletter * [252]NCBI FTP Site * [253]Contact Us [254]NIH [255]DHHS [256]USA.gov [257]Copyright | [258]Disclaimer | [259]Privacy | [260]Accessibility | [261]Contact [262]National Center for Biotechnology Information , U.S. National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville Pike, Bethesda MD, 20894 USA Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [USEMAP] [USEMAP] #[1]Edit this page [2]Wikipedia (en) [3]copyright [4]Wikipedia RSS Feed [5]Wikipedia Atom Feed Circadian rhythm From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search "Human clock" redirects here. For the online clock, see [8]Humanclock. Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters. A circadian rhythm is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including [9]plants, [10]animals, [11]fungi and [12]cyanobacteria (see [13]bacterial circadian rhythms). The term "circadian", coined by [14]Franz Halberg,^[15][1] comes from the [16]Latin [17]circa, "around", and diem or dies, "day", meaning literally "approximately one day". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [18]tidal, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [19]chronobiology. Circadian rhythms are [20]endogenously generated, and can be entrained by external cues, called [21]zeitgebers, the primary one of which is [22]daylight. Contents * [23]1 History * [24]2 Criteria * [25]3 Origin * [26]4 Importance in animals + [27]4.1 Impact of light-dark cycle + [28]4.2 Arctic animals + [29]4.3 Butterfly migration * [30]5 Biological clock in mammals + [31]5.1 Determining the human circadian rhythm + [32]5.2 Outside the "master clock" * [33]6 Light and the biological clock * [34]7 Enforced longer cycles * [35]8 Human health + [36]8.1 Disruption + [37]8.2 Effect of drugs * [38]9 See also * [39]10 References + [40]10.1 Bibliography + [41]10.2 Notes * [42]11 External links [[43]edit] History The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [44]Alexander the Great, described [45]diurnal leaf movements of the [46]tamarind tree.^[47][2] The first modern observation of endogenous circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [48]Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant [49]Mimosa pudica continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli. In 1918, J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.^[50][3] [51]Joseph Takahashi discovered the genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.^[52][4]^[53][5] [[54]edit] Criteria To differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met: 1) the rhythms persist in the absence of cues, 2) they persist equally precisely over a range of temperatures, and 3) the rhythms can be adjusted to match the local time: * The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those "apparent" rhythms that are merely responses to external periodic cues. A rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been tested in conditions without external periodic input. * The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e., it maintains the same period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway. At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely coincidental. * The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [55]time zones illustrates the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next. Until rhythms are reset, a person usually experiences [56]jet lag. [[57]edit] Origin [58]Question book-new.svg This section needs additional [59]citations for [60]verification. Please help [61]improve this article by adding [62]reliable references. Unsourced material may be [63]challenged and [64]removed. (October 2007) Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [65]ultraviolet radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus [66]Neurospora, which exists today, retains this [67]clock-regulated mechanism. Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment.^[68][6] This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,^[69][7] as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian rhythms in quail.^[70][8] The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [71]cyanobacteria. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of Synechococcus elongatus can be reconstituted in vitro with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [72]ATP. Previous explanations of the [73]prokaryotic circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism. It is an unanswered question whether circadian clocks in eukaryotic organisms require translation/transcription-derived oscillations, for, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture (input - [74]central oscillator - output), they do not share any [75]homology. This implies probable independent origins. In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [76]Seymour Benzer first identified a genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behaviour: one had a shorter period, another had a longer one, and the third had none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named [77]period.^[78][9] The same gene was identified to be defective in the sleep disorder FASPS ([79]Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome) in human beings thirty years later, underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day. A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.^[80][10] At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronize the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [81]eyes travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock. [[82]edit] Importance in animals Circadian rhythmicity is present in the [83]sleeping and feeding patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear patterns of core body temperature, [84]brain wave activity, [85]hormone production, cell regeneration and other biological activities. In addition, [86]photoperiodism, the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation of day length. " Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food availability or predator activity is crucial for survival of many species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the photoperiod ('daylength') is the most predictive environmental cue for the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing of migration, hibernation and reproduction.^[87][11] " [[88]edit] Impact of light-dark cycle The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a [89]freerunning rhythm. Each "day", their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward, depending on whether their [90]endogenous period is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called [91]Zeitgebers (from the German, Time Givers).^[92][12] It is interesting to note that totally-blind subterranean mammals (e.g., [93]blind mole rat Spalax sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors (detect light) are still functional; as well, they do surface periodically.^[[94]citation needed] Freerunning organisms that normally have one consolidated sleep episode will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light/dark cycle in nature. The sleep-wake rhythm may, in these circumstances, become out of phase with other circadian or [95]ultradian rhythms such as [96]temperature and [97]digestion.^[[98]citation needed] Recent research has influenced the design of [99]spacecraft environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.^[[100]citation needed] [[101]edit] Arctic animals Norwegian researchers at the [102]University of Tromsø have shown that some Arctic animals ([103]ptarmigan, [104]reindeer) show circadian rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at [105]70 degrees North showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter, and spring, but not in the summer. Reindeer at [106]78 degrees North showed such rhythms only autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other Arctic animals as well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and the constant dark of winter.^[107][13]^[108][14] However, another study in northern Alaska found that [109]ground squirrels and [110]porcupines strictly maintained their circadian rhythms through 82 days and nights of sunshine. The researchers speculate that these two small mammals see that the apparent distance between the sun and the horizon is shortest once a day, and, thus, a sufficient signal to adjust by.^[111][15] [[112]edit] Butterfly migration The navigation of the fall migration of the [113]Eastern North American monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) to their overwintering grounds in central Mexico uses a time-compensated sun compass that depends upon a circadian clock in their antennae.^[114][16]^[115][17] [[116]edit] Biological clock in mammals Diagram illustrating the influence of light and darkness on circadian rhythms and related [117]physiology and behaviour through the [118]suprachiasmatic nucleus in humans. The primary circadian "clock" in [119]mammals is located in the [120]suprachiasmatic nucleus (or nuclei) ([121]SCN), a pair of distinct groups of [122]cells located in the [123]hypothalamus. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep-wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [124]retina of the eyes contains not only "classical" [125]photoreceptors but also photoresponsive retinal [126]ganglion cells. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called [127]melanopsin, follow a pathway called the [128]retinohypothalamic tract, leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues. It appears that the SCN takes the information on the lengths of the day and night from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [129]pineal gland, a tiny structure shaped like a [130]pine cone and located on the [131]epithalamus. In response the pineal secretes the hormone [132]melatonin. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day and its presence provides information about night-length. The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a 23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural solar day-night cycle on the planet [133]Mars).^[134][18] [[135]edit] Determining the human circadian rhythm The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's circadian rhythm are * melatonin secretion by the pineal gland and * core body temperature. For temperature studies, people must remain awake but calm and semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are taken continuously. The average human adult's temperature reaches its minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake time, though variation is great among normal [136]chronotypes. Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime. Its onset in dim light, dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO), at about 21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Its major [137]metabolite can also be measured in morning urine. Both DLMO and the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or saliva have been used as circadian markers. However, newer research indicates that the melatonin offset may be the most reliable marker. Benloucif et al. in Chicago in 2005 found that melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.^[138][19] One method used for measuring melatonin offset is to analyse a sequence of urine samples throughout the morning for the presence of the melatonin [139]metabolite 6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s). Laberge et al. in Quebec in 1997 used this method in a study that confirmed the frequently found delayed circadian phase in healthy adolescents.^[140][20] [[141]edit] Outside the "master clock" More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the "master clock". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the [142]oesophagus, [143]lungs, [144]liver, [145]pancreas, [146]spleen, [147]thymus, and the [148]skin.^[149][21] Though oscillators in the skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven so far.^[150][22]^[151][23] There is some evidence that also the olfactory bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting that also these structures may be weak oscillators. Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than to [152]light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have freerunning rhythms. [[153]edit] Light and the biological clock Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [154]phase response curve (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required [155]illuminance vary from species to species and lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans. Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm in humans are higher than the levels usually used in artificial lighting in homes. According to some researchers^[156][24] the illumination intensity that excites the circadian system has to reach up to 1000 [157]lux striking the retina. In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or colour) of light is a factor in the entrainment of the body clock. [158]Melanopsin is most efficiently excited by blue light, 420-440 nm^[159][25] according to some researchers while others have reported 470-485 nm. It is thought that the direction of the light may have an effect on entraining the circadian rhythm;^[160][24] light coming from above, resembling an image of a bright sky, has greater effect than light entering our eyes from below. [[161]edit] Enforced longer cycles Modern research under very controlled conditions has shown the human period for adults to be just slightly longer than 24 hours on average. Czeisler et al. at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes. The "clock" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's rotation.^[162][26] The 28-hour day is presented as a concept of [163]time management.^[164][27] It builds on the fact that the week of seven days at 24 hours and a "week" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of 168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours. Each "day" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern. Studies by [165]Nathaniel Kleitman^[166][28] in 1938 and by [167]Derk-Jan Dijk and [168]Charles Czeisler^[169][29]^[170][30] in 1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep-wake cycles, in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day,^[171][31] this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about 24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including [172]sleep latency and other functions.^[173][32] Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli like daylight and timekeeping. Early investigators determined the human circadian period to be 25 hours or more. They went to great lengths to shield subjects from time cues and daylight, but they were not aware of the effects of indoor electric lights. The subjects were allowed to turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase. These results became well known.^[174][26] Researchers allowed subjects to keep electric lighting on in the evening, as it was thought at that time that a couple of 60W bulbs would not have a resetting effect on the circadian rhythms of humans. More recent research^[[175]citation needed] has shown that adults have a built-in day, which averages just over 24 hours, that indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms and that most people attain their best-quality sleep during their [176]chronotype-determined sleep periods. [[177]edit] Human health Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with [178]angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [179]left ventricular (reverse) remodelling.^[[180]citation needed] A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms. A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during the day, a [181]power-nap, does not have any effect on normal circadian rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve productivity.^[182][33]^[183][34] There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the human circadian rhythm, such as [184]seasonal affective disorder (SAD), [185]delayed sleep phase syndrome (DSPS) and other [186]circadian rhythm disorders.^[187][35] Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [188]reticular activating system, which is crucial for maintaining a state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep-wake cycle may be a sign or complication of [189]uremia,^[190][36] [191]azotemia or [192]acute renal failure. [[193]edit] Disruption Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers have experienced the condition known as [194]jet lag, with its associated symptoms of [195]fatigue, disorientation and [196]insomnia. A number of other disorders, for example [197]bipolar disorder and some [198]sleep disorders, are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [199]bipolar disorder are positively influenced by [200]lithium's effect on clock genes.^[201][37] Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease [202][2] The suppression of melatonin production associated with the disruption of the circadian rhythm may increase the risk of developing cancer.^[203][38]^[204][39] [[205]edit] Effect of drugs Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such as [206]cocaine.^[207][40]^[208][41] Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.^[209][42] [[210]edit] See also * [211]Actigraphy (also known as Actimetry) * [212]Advanced sleep phase syndrome * [213]ARNTL * [214]ARNTL2 * [215]Bacterial circadian rhythms * [216]Chronobiology * [217]Chronotype * [218]Circadian oscillator * [219]Circadian rhythm sleep disorders * [220]Cryptochrome * [221]CRY1 and [222]CRY2, the cryptochrome family genes * [223]Delayed sleep phase syndrome * [224]Diurnal cycle * [225]Jet lag * [226]Light effects on circadian rhythm * [227]PER1, [228]PER2, and [229]PER3, the period family genes * [230]Power-nap [[231]edit] References [[232]edit] Bibliography * Aschoff J (ed.) (1965) Circadian Clocks. North Holland Press, Amsterdam * Avivi A, Albrecht U, Oster H, Joel A, Beiles A, Nevo E. 2001. Biological clock in total darkness: the Clock/MOP3 circadian system of the blind subterranean mole rat. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:13751-13756. * Avivi A, Oster H, Joel A, Beiles A, Albrecht U, Nevo E. 2002. Circadian genes in a blind subterranean mammal II: conservation and uniqueness of the three Period homologs in the blind subterranean mole rat, Spalax ehrenbergi superspecies. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:11718-11723. * Ditty JL, Williams SB, Golden SS (2003) A cyanobacterial circadian timing mechanism. Annu Rev Genet 37:513-543 * Dunlap JC, Loros J, DeCoursey PJ (2003) Chronobiology: Biological Timekeeping. Sinauer, Sunderland * Dvornyk V, Vinogradova ON, Nevo E (2003) Origin and evolution of circadian clock genes in prokaryotes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100:2495-2500 * Koukkari WL, Sothern RB (2006) Introducing Biological Rhythms. Springer, New York * Martino T, Arab S, Straume M, Belsham DD, Tata N, Cai F, Liu P, Trivieri M, Ralph M, Sole MJ. Day/night rhythms in gene expression of the normal murine heart. J Mol Med. 2004 Apr;82(4):256-64. Epub 2004 Feb 24. PMID: 14985853 * Refinetti R (2006) Circadian Physiology, 2nd ed. CRC Press, Boca Raton * Takahashi JS, Zatz M (1982) Regulation of circadian rhythmicity. Science 217:1104-1111 * Tomita J, Nakajima M, Kondo T, Iwasaki H (2005) No transcription-translation feedback in circadian rhythm of KaiC phosphorylation. Science 307: 251-254 * Moore-Ede, Martin C., Sulszman, Frank M., and Fuller, Charles A. (1982) "The Clocks that Time Us: Physiology of the Circadian Timing System." Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. [233]ISBN 0-674-13581-4. [[234]edit] Notes Centre 2. [237]^ Bretzl H. Botaniche Forchungen des Alexanderzuges. Leipzig: Teubner, 1903. 3. [238]^ Danchin, Antoine. [239]"Important dates 1900-1919". HKU-Pasteur Research Centre (Paris). 0.html. Retrieved 2008-01-12. 4. [241]^ "Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock". Chicago Tribune. April 29, 1994. 5. [242]^ Vitaterna, M.H.; King, D.P.; Chang, A.M.; Kornhauser, J.M.; Lowrey, P.L.; McDonald, J.D.; Dove, W.F.; Pinto, L.H. et al. (1994). "Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior.". Science 264 (264): 719-725. [243]doi:[244]10.1126/science.8171325. 6. [245]^ Sharma, Vijay Kumar (2003). [246]"Adaptive significance of circadian clocks" (Abstract). Chronobiology international 20 (6): 901-919. [247]doi:[248]10.1081/CBI-120026099. [249]ISSN [250]0742-0528. [251]PMID [252]14680135. Retrieved 2009-11-08. 7. [254]^ (Sheeba et al. 1999) 8. [255]^ (Guyomarc'h et al. 1998, Zivkovic et al. 1999) 9. [256]^ Purves, Dale et al (2001) [2001]. [257]"Molecular Mechanisms of Biological Clocks" (e-book). [258]NEUROSCIENCE (second ed.). Sunderland, MA, U.S.A.: Sinauer Associates. [259]ISBN [260]0-87893-742-0. 3. Retrieved 2008-05-30. 10. [262]^ [263]Circadian gene expression in individual fibroblast...[Cell. 2004] - PubMed Result 11. [264]^ Zivkovic, Bora "Coturnix" (2005-08-13 / July 25, 2007). [265]"Clock Tutorial #16: Photoperiodism - Models and Experimental Approaches". A Blog Around the Clock. ScienceBlogs. eriodi_1.php. Retrieved 2007-12-09. 12. [267]^ [268]"Circadian rhythms". Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. Armenian Medical Network. 2007. Retrieved 2007-09-19. 13. [270]^ Spilde, Ingrid (December 2005). [271]"Reinsdyr uten døgnrytme" (in Language: Norwegian, Bokmål). forskning.no. Retrieved 2007-11-24. 14. [273]^ Zivkovic, Bora, aka Coturnix, chronobiologist. [274]"Circadian Rhythms, or Not, in Arctic Reindeer". A Blog around the Clock. ScienceBlogs.com. _in_ar_1.php. Retrieved 2007-11-24. 15. [276]^ Zivkovic, Bora, aka Coturnix, chronobiologist (2007-02-11). [277]"Small Arctic Mammals Entrain to Something during the Long Summer Day". A Blog Around the Clock. ScienceBlogs.com. rain_t.php. Retrieved 2007-11-26. 16. [279]^ Merlin C, Gegear RJ, Reppert SM. (2009). Antennal Circadian Clocks Coordinate Sun Compass Orientation in Migratory Monarch Butterflies. Science 325: 1700-1704. [280]doi:[281]10.1126/science.1176221 17. [282]^ Kyriacou CP. (2009). Unraveling Traveling. Science 325:1629-1630 [283]doi:[284]10.1126/science.1178935 18. [285]^ Scheer, Frank A. J. L.; Kenneth P. Wright, Jr., Richard E. Kronauer, Charles A. Czeisler (2007-08-08). [286]"Plasticity of the Intrinsic Period of the Human Circadian Timing System". PLoS ONE 2 (1): e721. [287]doi:[288]10.1371/journal.pone.0000721. [289]PMID [290]17684566. [291]PMC [292]1934931. pone.0000721. Retrieved 2007-12-31. 19. [294]^ Benloucif, S.; Guico, M.J.; Reid, K.J.; Wolfe, L.F.; L'Hermite-Baleriaux, M.; Zee, P.C. (2005). [295]"Stability of melatonin and temperature as circadian phase markers and their relation to sleep times in humans". J Biol Rhythms (Chicago, Illinois, USA: Center for Sleep and Circadian Biology, Departments of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine) 20 (2): 178-88. [296]doi:[297]10.1177/0748730404273983. [298]PMID [299]15834114. issn=20045590. Retrieved 2007-12-18. 20. [301]^ Laberge, L.; Lesperance, P.; Tremblay, R.; Lambert, C.; Montplaisir, J. (1997). [302]"Phase delay of 6-sulphatoxymelatonin in normal adolescents". Sleep Research (Québec, Canada: Centre d'etude du Sommeil, Hopital du Sacre-Coeur, Département de Psychologie, Département de Pharmacologie, Departement de Psychiatrie, Université de Montréal) 26: 727. issn=19979287. Retrieved 2007-12-18. 21. [304]^ Zanello, S. et al., J. Inv. Dermatol. 2000, Vol. 115, 4 Oct.: Expression of the Circadian Clock Genes clock and period1 in Human Skin 22. [305]^ Kawara, S. et al. J. Inv. Derm. 2002, Vol 119, 6 Dec.: Low-dose UVB Rays Alter the mRNA Expression of the Circadian Clock Genes in cultured Human Keratinocytes 23. [306]^ Campbell, S. and Murphy, P, Science 1998, Vol 279, 16 Jan.: Extraocular Circadian Phototransduction in Humans 24. ^ [307]^a [308]^b Semjonova, Milena (2003). [309]"Healthy Lighting, from a lighting designer's perspective". Milena Lighting Design. 25. [311]^ Newman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: "Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment", Biochemistry. 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8. 26. ^ [312]^a [313]^b [314]"Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour". 1999. Retrieved 2007-09-23. "The variation between our subjects, with a 95 percent level of confidence, was no more than plus or minus 16 minutes, a remarkably small range." 27. [316]^ Digital Beat Productions (1997). [317]"28 Hour Day". 28. [319]^ Kleitman, Nathaniel (1962). Sleep and Wakefullness ed 2. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 29. [320]^ Dijk, Derk-Jan; Czeisler Charles (1994). "Paradoxical timing of the circadian rhythm of sleep propensity serves to consolidate sleep and wakefulness in humans". Neurosci Lett 166 (1): 63. [321]doi:[322]10.1016/0304-3940(94)90841-9. [323]PMID [324]8190360. 30. [325]^ Dijk, Derk-Jan; Czeisler Charles (1995). [326]"Contribution of the Circadian Pacemaker and the Sleep Homeostat to Sleep Propensity, Sleep Structure, Electrocephalographic Slow Waves, and Sleep Spindle Activity in Humans". J. Neurosci 15 (5): 3526. [327]PMID [328]7751928. 31. [330]^ Cromie, William J. (1999-07-15). [331]"Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour". The Harvard University Gazette. Retrieved 2008-02-19. 32. [333]^ Aldrich, Michael S (1999). [334]Sleep medicine. New York: Oxford University Press. [335]ISBN [336]0195129571. pg=RA1-PA65&dq=experimenting+with+the+28+hour+day&source=bl&ots=9R4 mo2fI1O&sig=om2zbYPnXnm_1HuZo2Tch6J1vyo&hl=en&ei=MBZeStGgIoyJkQWd17 znDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2. 33. [338]^ [339]"The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep". The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep. Behavioral medicine. 2001. Retrieved 2008-11-11. 34. [341]^ [342]"Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students". Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students. Liberty University. 2007. 3.htm. Retrieved 2008-11-11. 35. [344]^ [345]"Circadian Rhythms and Sleep". Circadian Rhythms and Sleep. Serendip. 2007. ml. Retrieved 2007-09-19. 36. [347]^ Sinert, Richard; Peter R Peacock, Jr (May 10, 2006). [348]"Renal Failure, Acute". eMedicine from WebMD. 2008-08-03. 37. [350]^ [351]NIMH · Science News from 2006 · Lithium Blocks Enzyme To Help Cells' Clocks Keep On Tickin' 38. [352]^ Straif K, Baan R, Grosse Y, Secretan B, El Ghissassi F, Bouvard V, Altieri A, Benbrahim-Tallaa L, Cogliano V, WHO International Agency for Research on Cancer Monograph Working Group. Carcinogenicity of shift-work, painting, and fire-fighting. [353][1] Lancet Oncol. 2007; 12(8):1065-1066. 39. [354]^ [355]WebMD: Night Shift Work May Cause Cancer 40. [356]^ Uz T, Akhisaroglu M, Ahmed R, Manev H (2003). "The pineal gland is critical for circadian Period1 expression in the striatum and for circadian cocaine sensitization in mice". Neuropsychopharmacology 28 (12): 2117-23. [357]doi:[358]10.1038/sj.npp.1300254. [359]PMID [360]12865893. 41. [361]^ Kurtuncu M, Arslan A, Akhisaroglu M, Manev H, Uz T (2004). "Involvement of the pineal gland in diurnal cocaine reward in mice". Eur J Pharmacol 489 (3): 203-5. [362]doi:[363]10.1016/j.ejphar.2004.03.010. [364]PMID [365]15087244. 42. [366]^ McClung C, Sidiropoulou K, Vitaterna M, Takahashi J, White F, Cooper D, Nestler E (2005). [367]"Regulation of dopaminergic transmission and cocaine reward by the Clock gene". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102 (26): 9377-81. [368]doi:[369]10.1073/pnas.0503584102. [370]PMID [371]15967985. [[372]edit] External links * [373]Circadian rhythm at the [374]Open Directory Project * Leloup J.C. (2009). "Circadian clocks and phosphorylation: Insights from computational modeling". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 4 (3): 290-303. [375]doi:[376]10.2478/s11535-009-0025-1. * Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A (2007). "Evolutionary mechanisms of circadian clocks". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 2 (2): 233-253. [377]doi:[378]10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z. [380]Categories: [381]Sleep | [382]Circadian rhythms | [383]Biology of bipolar disorder Hidden categories: [384]Articles needing additional references from October 2007 | [385]All articles needing additional references | [386]All articles with unsourced statements | [387]Articles with unsourced statements from September 2009 | [388]Articles with unsourced statements from November 2007 | [389]Articles with unsourced statements from January 2009 | [390]Articles with unsourced statements from December 2009 Views * [391]Article * [392]Discussion * [393]Edit this page * [394]History Personal tools * [395]Try Beta * [396]Log in / create account Navigation * [397]Main page * [398]Contents * [399]Featured content * [400]Current events * [401]Random article Search ____________________ Go Search Interaction * [402]About Wikipedia * [403]Community portal * [404]Recent changes * [405]Contact Wikipedia * [406]Donate to Wikipedia * [407]Help Toolbox * [408]What links here * [409]Related changes * [410]Upload file * [411]Special pages * [412]Printable version * [413]Permanent link * [414]Cite this page Languages * [415]Català * [416]Cesky * [417]Dansk * [418]Deutsch * [419]Ellynika' * [420]Español * [421]Français * [422]Italiano * [423]E+B+R+J+T+ * [424]Magyar * [425]Nederlands * [426]¥¬ * [427]ªNorsk (bokmål) * [428]ªNorsk (nynorsk) * [429]Polski * [430]Português * [431]Româna * [432]Russkij * [433]Simple English * [434]Srpski / Srpski * [435]Svenska * [436]a+r+d+w+ [437]Powered by MediaWiki [438]Wikimedia Foundation * This page was last modified on 16 January 2010 at 17:59. * Text is available under the [439]Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See [440]Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [441]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * [442]Contact us * [443]Privacy policy * [444]About Wikipedia * [445]Disclaimers Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1][dailyomlogo2.gif] Today's DailyOM brought to you by: [2][nav-signup.gif] [nav-line.gif] [3][nav-mydailyom.gif] [nav-line.gif] [4][nav-marketplace.gif] [nav-line.gif] [5][nav-community.gif] [nav-line.gif] [6][nav-courses.gif] [bambooborder2.jpg] [Articles......] _______________ [search.gif]-Submit [7][nav-giftshop.gif] [nav-line.gif] [8][nav-shoppingcart.gif] January 2, 2006 Universal Timing Life's Natural Rhythm Nature's natural rhythms orchestrate when day turns to night, when flowers must bloom, and provides the cue for when it is time for red and brown leaves to fall from trees. As human beings, our own inner rhythm is attuned to this universal sense of timing. Guided by the rising and setting of the sun, changes in temperature, and our own internal rhythm, we know when it is time to sleep, eat, or be active. While our minds and spirits are free to focus on other pursuits, our breath and our heartbeat are always there to remind us of life's pulsing rhythm that moves within and around us. Moving to this rhythm, we know when it is time to stop working and when to rest. Pushing our bodies to work beyond their natural rhythm diminishes our ability to renew and recharge. A feeling much like jet lag lets us know when we've overridden our own natural rhythm. When we feel the frantic calls of all we want to accomplish impelling us to move faster than is natural for us, we may want to breathe deeply instead and look at nature moving to its own organic timing: birds flying south, leaves shedding, or snow falling. A walk in nature can also let us re-attune is to her organic rhythm, while allowing us to move back in time with our own. When we move to our natural rhythm, we can achieve all we need to do with less effort. We may even notice that our soul moves to its own internal, natural rhythm - especially when it comes to our personal evolution. Comparing ourselves to others is unnecessary. Our best guide is to move to our own internal timing, while keeping time with the rhythm of nature. Click to follow DailyOM on [9]Twitter and [10]Facebook What do you think? [11]Discuss this article and share your opinion Want more DailyOM? [12]Register for your free email, or [13]browse all articles Life's Natural Rhythm Share the OM: [14][emailfriend.gif] [15]Email this to a friend [16][printerfriendly.gif] [17]Printable version [18][icon-mydailyom.gif] [19]Save in My DailyOM [20][icon-discuss.gif] [21]Discuss this article [22][horoscopes1.jpg] Today's friend of OM: Register now to receive your [23]free daily horoscope from DailyOM. 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For more information visit [24]DailyOM.com More DailyOM: [25]More Inspiration [26]Today's Horoscopes [27]OM Marketplace [28]Home | [29]Gift Shop | [30]My DailyOM | [31]Marketplace | [32]Community | [33]Archives | [34]Share The OM | [35]Contact Us [36]Subscribe | [37]Change Email | [38]User Settings | [39]Unsubscribe | [40]Privacy Policy | [41]Disclaimer | [42]Gift Shop FAQ | [43]Advertising Info [44]Make DailyOM Your Homepage | [45]Link To Us | [46]Publish DailyOM On Your Website © 2004-08 DailyOM - All Rights Reserved No portion of this site can be reprinted without express permission Artwork by [47]Wang Chang-Ming Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : #[1]Edit this page [2]Wikipedia (en) [3]copyright [4]Wikipedia RSS Feed [5]Wikipedia Atom Feed Rhythm From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search For other uses, see [8]Rhythm (disambiguation). Rhythm (from [9]greek rhuthµo'*s - rhythmos, "any measured flow or movement, symmetry") is the variation of the length and accentuation of a series of sounds or other events. Contents * [10]1 Rhythm in linguistics * [11]2 Origins of human appreciation of rhythm * [12]3 Rhythm notation and the oral tradition + [13]3.1 African music + [14]3.2 Indian music + [15]3.3 Western music * [16]4 Types * [17]5 See also * [18]6 Notes * [19]7 Sources * [20]8 Further reading [[21]edit] Rhythm in linguistics The study of rhythm, stress, and [22]pitch in [23]speech is called [24]prosody; it is a topic in [25]linguistics. Narmour (1980, p. 147-53) describes three categories of prosodic rules which create rhythmic successions which are additive (same duration repeated), cumulative (short-long), or countercumulative (long-short). Cumulation is associated with closure or relaxation, countercumulation with openness or tension, while additive rhythms are open-ended and repetitive. Richard Middleton points out this method cannot account for [26]syncopation and suggests the concept of [27]transformation. A [28]rhythmic unit is a [29]durational pattern which occupies a period of time equivalent to a [30]pulse or pulses on an underlying [31]metric level, as opposed to a [32]rhythmic gesture which does not (DeLone et al. (Eds.), 1975 [[33]edit] Origins of human appreciation of rhythm In his series How Music Works, [34]Howard Goodall presents theories that rhythm recalls how we walk and the heartbeat we heard in the womb. More likely is that a simple pulse or [35]di-dah beat recalls the footsteps of another person. Our sympathetic urge to dance is designed to boost our energy levels in order to cope with someone, or some animal chasing us - a fight or flight response. From a less darwinist perspective, perceiving rhythm is the ability to master the otherwise invisible dimension, time. Rhythm is possibly also rooted in courtship ritual.^[36][1] Neurologist [37]Oliver Sacks posits that human affinity for rhythm is fundamental, so much that a person's sense of rhythm cannot be lost in the way that music and language can (e.g. by [38]stroke). In addition, he states that [39]chimpanzees and other animals show no similar appreciation for rhythm.^[40][2] [[41]edit] Rhythm notation and the oral tradition Worldwide there are many different approaches to passing on rhythmic phrases and patterns, as they exist in traditional music, from generation to generation. [[42]edit] African music In the [43]Griot tradition of Africa everything related to music has been passed on orally. [44]Babatunde Olatunji (1927-2003), a Nigerian drummer who lived and worked in the [45]United States, developed a simple series of spoken sounds for teaching the rhythms of the hand drum. He used six vocal sounds: Goon Doon Go Do Pa Ta. There are three basic sounds on the drum, but each can be played with either the left or the right hand. This simple system is now used worldwide, particularly by [46]Djembe players. [[47]edit] Indian music Indian music has also been passed on orally. Tabla players would learn to speak complex rhythm patterns and phrases before attempting to play them. [48]Sheila Chandra, an English pop singer of Indian descent, made performances based around her singing these patterns. In [49]Indian Classical music, the [50]Tala of a composition is the rhythmic pattern over which the whole piece is structured. [[51]edit] Western music Standard [52]music notation contains rhythmic information and is adapted specifically for drums and percussion instruments. The drums are generally used to keep other instruments in 'time'. They do this by supplying beats/strikes in time at a certain pace, i.e. 70 beats per minute (bpm). In [53]Rock music, a drum beat is used to keep a [54]bass/[55]guitar line in time. [[56]edit] Types In [57]Western music, rhythms are usually arranged with respect to a [58]time signature, partially signifying a meter. The speed of the underlying [59]pulse is sometimes called the [60]beat. The [61]tempo is a measure of how quickly the pulse repeats. The tempo is usually measured in 'beats per minute' (bpm); 60 bpm means a speed of one beat per second. The length of the meter, or metric unit (usually corresponding with [62]measure length), is usually grouped into either two or three beats, being called [63]duple meter and [64]triple meter, respectively. If each beat is divided by two or four, it is [65]simple meter, if by three (or six) [66]compound meter. According to [67]Pierre Boulez, beat structures beyond four are "simply not natural".^[68][3]. His reference is to western European music. Standard notation of a clave pattern on audio clip clave pattern.ogg [69]Syncopated rhythms are rhythms that accent parts of the beat not already stressed by [70]counting. Playing simultaneous rhythms in more than one time signature is called [71]polymeter. See also [72]polyrhythm. In recent years, rhythm and meter have become an important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these areas includes books by [73]Maury Yeston, [74]Fred Lerdahl and [75]Ray Jackendoff, [76]Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty, William Rothstein, and Joel Lester. Grid notation of single a clave pattern Some [77]genres of music make different use of rhythm than others. Most Western music is based on [78]subdivision, while non-Western music uses more [79]additive rhythm. [80]African music makes heavy use of [81]polyrhythms, and [82]Indian music uses [83]complex cycles such as 7 and 13, while [84]Balinese music often uses complex [85]interlocking rhythms. By comparison, a lot of Western [86]classical music is fairly rhythmically (or metrically) simple; it stays in a [87]simple meter such as 4/4 or 3/4 and makes little use of [88]syncopation. [89]Clave is a common underlying rhythm in [90]African, [91]Cuban music, and [92]Brazilian music. [93]Claves (Submit) Play sound Four beats followed by three Clave patterns __________________________________________________________________ Problems listening to this file? See [94]media help. In the 20th century, [95]composers like [96]Igor Stravinsky, [97]Bela Bartok, [98]Philip Glass, and [99]Steve Reich wrote more rhythmically complex music using [100]odd meters, and techniques such as [101]phasing and [102]additive rhythm. At the same time, modernists such as [103]Olivier Messiaen and his pupils used increased complexity to disrupt the sense of a regular beat, leading eventually to the widespread use of [104]irrational rhythms in [105]New Complexity. This use may be explained by a comment of [106]John Cage's^[[107]where?] where he notes that regular rhythms cause sounds to be heard as a group rather than individually; the irregular rhythms highlight the rapidly changing pitch relationships that would otherwise be subsumed into irrelevant rhythmic groupings (Sandow 2004, p. 257). [108]LaMonte Young also wrote music in which the sense of a regular beat is absent because the music consists only of long sustained tones ([109]drones). In the 1930s, [110]Henry Cowell wrote music involving multiple simultaneous periodic rhythms and collaborated with [111]Léon Thérémin to invent the [112]Rhythmicon, the first electronic [113]rhythm machine, in order to perform them. Similarly, [114]Conlon Nancarrow wrote for the [115]player piano. [[116]edit] See also * [117]Meter (music) * [118]Prosody (linguistics) * [119]Riddim * [120]Morse Code * [121]Soul (music) * [122]Time scale (music) * [123]Timing (linguistics) [[124]edit] Notes 1. [125]^ [126]Mithen, Steven (2005). [127]The Singing Neanderthals: The Origins of Music, Language, Mind and Body.. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.. [128]ISBN [129]0297643177. 2. [131]^ [132]Jon Stewart, [133]Oliver Sacks. (2009-06-29). [134]The Daily Show with Jon Stewart. [Television production]. Comedy Central. itle=oliver-sacks. "People often tried to teach their dogs to dance--it doesn't work." 3. [136]^ In [137]Discovering Music: Rhythm with [138]Leonard Slatkin at 5:05 [[139]edit] Sources * Hasty, Christopher (1997). Meter as Rhythm. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [140]ISBN 0-19-510066-2. * London, Justin (2004). Hearing in Time: Psychological Aspects of Musical Meter. [141]ISBN 0-19-516081-9. * Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music. Philadelphia: Open University Press. [142]ISBN 0-335-15275-9. * Narmour (1980). Cited in DeLone et al. (Eds.) (1975). Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. [143]ISBN 0-13-049346-5. * Sandow, Greg (2004). "A Fine Madness", The Pleasure of Modernist Music. [144]ISBN 1-58046-143-3. * Yeston, Maury (1976). "The Stratification of Musical Rhythm". [[145]edit] Further reading * McGaughey, William (2001). "Rhythm and Self-Consciousness: New Ideals for an Electronic Civilization". Minneapolis: Thistlerose Publications. [146]ISBN 0-9605630-4-0. * Honing, H. (2002). [147]"Structure and interpretation of rhythm and timing." Tijdschrift voor Muziektheorie [Dutch Journal of Music Theory] 7(3): 227-232. * Lewis, Andrew (2005). Rhythm--What it is and How to Improve Your Sense of It. San Francisco: [148]RhythmSource Press. [149]ISBN 978-0-9754667-0-4. * Williams, C. F. A., The Aristoxenian Theory of Musical Rhythm, (Cambridge Library Collection - Music), Cambridge University Press; 1st edition, 2009. * Toussaint, G. T., "The geometry of musical rhythm," In J. Akiyama, M. Kano, and X. Tan, editors, Proceedings of the Japan Conference on Discrete and Computational Geometry, Vol. 3742, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2005, pp. 198-212. 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See [290]Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [291]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * [292]Contact us * [293]Privacy policy * [294]About Wikipedia * [295]Disclaimers Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1]Daniel Laberge music Rhythm explained including 27 rhythm exercises by Daniel Laberge Rhythm figure Hi rhythm lovers, I've devised these exercises in the early seventies while teaching music. I could not find any existing book that saw rhythm the way I did. This method is based on "rhythmic figures" or rhythm possibilities. Each one lasts one beat. I simply counted the rhythmic possibilities one could encounter for each type of beat divisions. There are: o Four rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by two o Eight rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by three o Sixteen rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by four I composed the exercises back then and used them for my teaching, but I only wrote the theory that goes along in 2002. The book is called "Rhythm explained" and I am gradually placing its content here. Each exercise is preceded by a lesson, with graphic representations, and includes an audio rendition to help you. You can choose between three speeds. For jazz musicians, the binary exercises also have a swing or double swing performance. Go to the bottom of the page for a link to the swing version. Choose among the following exercises: Beat exercises [2]Rhythm exercise 1-1 Featured figures [3][onequarternote1.gif] [4] [onehalfnote1.gif] [5] [dottedhalfnote1.gif] [6] [wholenote1.gif] [7]Rhythm exercise 1-2 Featured figures [8][quarternoterest1.gif] [9] [halfnoterest1.gif] [10] [wholenoterest1.gif] [11]Rhythm exercise 1-3 Featured figures [12][quarternoterest1.gif] [13] [halfnoterest1.gif] [14] [dottedhalfnoterest1.gif] [15] [wholenoterest1.gif] Binary beat division The binary family is large as it includes: o Division by two o Division by four o Part of division by six o Division by eight This section is concerned with the simple division by two. Any binary beat has two alternating parts: the downbeat and the upbeat. Binary beat [binarybeat1.gif] As you can see, there are only two places in a beat where events or notes can be positioned or played: o The downbeat o The upbeat How rhythmic possibilities work This means that for any given beat you can have any of the four following possibilities: 1 o Only one event on the downbeat. 2 o Events on both the downbeat and the upbeat. 3 o No event at all. 4 o Only one event on the upbeat. [possibilitiesbytwosimple1.gif] The rhythmic figure used to represent a binary beat is called: TWO EIGHTH NOTES [masterfigurebinary1.gif] Binary master rhythmic figure Simple binary rhythmic figures 4 possibilities: o 2 Primary o 2 Secondary [possibilitiesbytwo1.gif] Secondary rhythmic figures lack the event that falls on the beat. There is a secondary figure for each primary one. Because the beat is so important, secondary figures have appeared after the primary ones had been well established. The absence of event falling on the beat can be due to a silence or a sound that is held over from the preceding beat. Because of this, there are two ways to notate secondary figures: o With a rest o With a tie [primarysecondary1.gif] Primary and secondary rhythmic figures Choose among the following exercises: Binary exercises PRIMARY [16]Rhythm exercise 2-1 Featured figure [17][twoeighthnotes2.gif] [18]Rhythm exercise 2-2 Featured figures [19][twoeighthnotes2.gif] [20] [quarternoterest2.gif] SECONDARY [21]Rhythm exercise 2-3 Featured figure [22][dottedquarternoteeighth2.gif] [23]Rhythm exercise 2-4 Featured figure [24][eighthnotesyncopationa2.gif] [25]Rhythm exercise 2-5 Featured figure [26][twoeighttieonequarter2.gif] MULTIPLE SYNCOPATIONS [27]Rhythm exercise 2-6 Featured figure [28][doublesyncopationa2.gif] Ternary beat division The ternary family is small as it includes: o Division by three o Part of division by six Everything goes in thirds in ternary music. Any ternary beat has one downbeat and two upbeats. Ternary beat [ternarybeat1.gif] The rhythmic figure used to represent a ternary beat is called: THREE EIGHTH NOTES [masterfigureternary1.gif] Ternary master rhythmic figure Writing ternary rhythm In ternary music writing, each eighth note is worth one third of a beat. Since two eighth notes always equal one quarter note, these now equal two thirds of a beat. It takes a dotted quarter note to represent one beat. [ternarywriting1.gif] Ternary rhythmic figures 8 possibilities: o 4 Primary o 4 Secondary [possibilitiesbythree1.gif] Choose among the following exercises: Ternary exercises PRIMARY [29]Rhythm exercise 3-1 Featured figure [30][threeeighth2.gif] [31]Rhythm exercise 3-2 Featured figure [32][onequarteroneeighth2.gif] [33]Rhythm exercise 3-3 Featured figure [34][oneeighthonequarter2.gif] SECONDARY [35]Rhythm exercise 3-1s Featured figure [36][8threst2eighth2.gif] OR [37] [tie3eighth2.gif] [38]Rhythm exercise 3-2s Featured figure [39][quarternoterestoneeighth2.gif] OR [40] [tiequarternote1eighth.gif] [41]Rhythm exercise 3-3s Featured figure [42][8threst1quarternote2.gif] OR [43] [tie1eighth1quarter2.gif] Division by four Beats divided by four are part of the binary family. Everything goes in quarters in this feel. Beat divided by four [binarybeat2.gif] The rhythmic figure used to represent a beat divided by four is called: FOUR SIXTEENTH NOTES [masterfigurebyfour1.gif] Division by four master rhythmic figure Binary rhythmic figures 16 possibilities: o 8 Primary o 8 Secondary [possibilitiesbyfour1.gif] Choose among the following exercises: Division by four exercises PRIMARY [44]Rhythm exercise 4-1 Featured figure [45][foursixteenth2.gif] [46]Rhythm exercise 4-2 Featured figure [47][oneeighthtwosixteenth2.gif] [48]Rhythm exercise 4-3 Featured figure [49][twosixteenthoneeighth2.gif] [50]Rhythm exercise 4-4 Featured figure [51][dottedeighthonesixteenth2.gif] [52]Rhythm exercise 4-5 Featured figure [53][onesixteenthdottedeighth2.gif] [54]Rhythm exercise 4-6 Featured figure [55][16th8th16th2.gif] SECONDARY [56]Rhythm exercise 4-1s Featured figure [57][16threst3sixteenth2.gif] OR [58] [tiefoursixteenth2.gif] [59]Rhythm exercise 4-2s Featured figure [60][8threst2sixteenth2.gif] OR [61] [tie1eighth2sixteenth2.gif] [62]Rhythm exercise 4-3s Featured figure [63][16threst1sixteenth1eighth2.gif] OR [64] [tie2sixteenth1eighth2.gif] [65]Rhythm exercise 4-4s Featured figure [66][dotted8threst1sixteenth2.gif] OR [67] [tiedottereight1sixteenth2.gif] [68]Rhythm exercise 4-5s Featured figure [69][16threstdotted8th.gif] OR [70] [tie16thdotted8th2.gif] [71]Rhythm exercise 4-6s Featured figure [72][16threst1eighth1sixteenth2.gif] OR [73] [tieone16thone8thone16th2.gif] [74]Bugs, problems and comments [75]Daniel Laberge music Références Liens visibles 74. javascript:; Liens cachés : #[1]ORGY IN RHYTHM - Atom [2]ORGY IN RHYTHM - RSS IFRAME: IN+RHYTHM&publishMode=PUBLISH_MODE_BLOGSPOT&navbarType=BLACK&layoutType [4]skip to main | [5]skip to sidebar ORGY IN RHYTHM [6]JAZZ HIP TRIO - JAZZ EN RELIEF Jazz Hip Trio for Riviera France from 1967. Jean-Bernard Eisinger Piano ; Roger Luccioni Bass ;Daniel Humair Drums. More beautiful music from France on this the first Jazz Hip Trio LP. "Orange Boom" was the big tune back in the day but the rest is just fabulous. Needless to say.....All Killer No Filler Another first in public blogland here at OIR. [7]17 comments made-how about you? 12.1.10 [8]MAL WALDRON - TOKYO BOUND Mal Waldron for RCA Victor Japan from 1970. Mal Waldron-Piano;Takeshi Inomata-Drums;Yasuo Arakawa-Bass Tremendous all killer trio date with Waldron joined by a top flight Japanese rhythm section on four original compositions which only saw a release in Japan.Check out the rocking intensity of "Rock One For Jimbo San" and "Japanese Island" which builds from an ominous brooding intro into a marvellous modal waltz."Atomic Energy" blows up with a headlong banging vamp from Waldron's left hand while the right runs all over the keys and then to close "Mount Fujiyama" a more introspective rumination and dissection of the tune's theme. Inomata's drumming is a revelation throughout the session intricate yet swinging with fantastic use of cymbals.(Don't forget to check out Inomata's Sound of Sounds lp also recorded in 1970 which I posted [9]here during the summer) Respect to El Goog for introducing me to this great album.I finally picked a copy up from Japan via ebay last month - not cheap but worth every penny. Very highly recomnmended. [10]37 comments made-how about you? 20.12.09 [11]THE HERBIE HANCOCK TRIO Herbie Hancock for Sony Japan from 1977. Herbie Hancock-Piano;Ron Carter-Bass;Tony Williams-Drums The big three keep it strictly acoustic for this Japanese only release from CBS Sony. 4 originals from Herb plus a rapid romp through "Milestones"...tough stuff. The first V.S.O.P. tour triggered a flood of recording activity in July 1977, but only a fraction of it was released in the U.S. This session, recorded in San Francisco just days before the Quintet concerts in Berkeley and San Diego, finds Herbie Hancock, Ron Carter and Tony Williams mixing it up sans the horns and the results are more reflective and cerebral than the full Quintet concerts. Hancock is thoroughly in control of the agenda while Williams throws in those meter-fracturing flurries that keep everyone on their toes. There is a startling re-interpretation of "Speak like a Child" which is significantly tougher and busier than the wistful Blue Note version, as well as challenging Hancock originals like "Watcha Waiting For" and "Watch It." This is uncompromising acoustic jazz, commercial anathema in the electronic '70s -and thus, only Japan got to hear it. Richard S. Ginell. [12]16 comments made-how about you? 13.12.09 [13]JAZZ HIP TRIO - PORTRAITS Jazz Hip Trio for Riviera France from 1968. Jean-Bernard Eisinger Piano ; Roger Luccioni Bass ;Daniel Humair Drums. Piano trios are the theme for my the next few posts and what better way to start than with some beautiful music from France on it's first time out in blogland here at OIR. 10 original compositions which grow and grow on repeated listening - get past the "Sidewinder" influenced dance floor intro tune "Bat Rock" and you're in for a swinging set of subtle trio sounds.Of course it's gotta be...... All Killer No Filler [14]23 comments made-how about you? 6.12.09 [15]THE DIAMOND FIVE - BRILLIANT ! The Diamond Five for Fontana from 1964. Personnel: Cees Slinger: piano; Harry Verbeke: tenor sax; Cees Smal: trumpet, cornet and valve trombone; Jacques Schols: bass; Johnny Engels: drums. Please check the comments as Chazz has also ripped The Five Diamonds-Finally After Forty Years cd reissue from Japan and will be posting the link shortly.Over to you Chazz! I don't post donations at OIR but just had to make an exception when this was winged across the pond to me from Chazz Katz.It's a very rare piece of hard bop from Holland which made a blink and miss it reissue on cd some years ago in Japan (original vinyl goes for silly money anywhere between $600-$1000) and has never appeared in blogland before.Here's the notes and cheers to Chazz for his rip! Nice work chap - All Killer No Filler! The Diamond Five, a Dutch quintet led by pianist Cees Slinger, was founded in 1959 and lasted until 1965. They were based at the Sheherazade Club in Amsterdam and were quite popular, playing all over Holland and accompanying expatriate American musicians on their visits to Amsterdam. However, when the club closed its doors due to a shift in popular interest from jazz to rock music, the quintet disbanded. This 1964 recording is their only session available on CD. The music is hard bop on the surface, but is neither formulaic nor a copy of the genres imported from the U.S. The musicians are quite unique in their style. Slinger plays sparse notes on his solos, utilizing well-placed pauses in the music to create melodic hard bop with hints of more forward-looking styles. The other outstanding soloist is tenor saxophonist Harry Verbeke, whose solos (in contrast to that of the leader) are filled with a multitude of notes played in the modal vein. The others are also quite stellar, the bass and the drums providing a loose bluesy support and horn man Cees Smal adding something unique with the sounds of his different horns, switching between valve trombone, cornet and trumpet. [16]26 comments made-how about you? 26.11.09 [17]BOBBY HUTCHERSON - CIRRUS Bobby Hutcherson for Blue Note from 1974. Hutch is playing four sets in London this weekend so Katonah from Private Press and I will be propping up the bar for his late spot at Scotts tomorrow night. So here's a 3rd repost for his evergreen "Cirrus" ....All Killer No Filler. This was my very first Bobby Hutcherson post here at OIR back in may 2006.It was ripped from my vinyl copy @192 in those days-I've reupped it @320 this time and taken it from the superb Mosaic Select box set.Here's my original narrative: Cirrus finds Bobby Hutcherson resuming his partnership with tenor saxophonist Harold Land, and the results are marvellous. The pair work with pianist Bill Henderson, trumpeter Woody Shaw, bassist Ray Drummond, drummer Larry Hancock, saxophonist/flautist Emmanuel Boyd and percussionist Kenneth Nash on this set of originals.The album starts with a great version of Woody Shaw's "Rosewood" while the rest of the set is written by Hutcherson and includes "Even Later".Highlight of the lp for me is the atmospheric and brooding "Zuri Dance" - what a corker ! [18]36 comments made-how about you? 13.11.09 [19]DAVE PIKE - LET THE MINSTRELS PLAY ON Dave Pike for Muse from 1978. Vibraphone - Dave Pike / Bass - Luther Hughes / Cello - Luther Hughes / Drums - Ted Hawkes / Guitar - Ron Eschete / Keyboards , Sax - Tom Ranier / Vocals - Carol Eschete. KGML has just posted "Spirits Samba" so dug the lp out for those who would like to hear more. Picked this up in Tony Monson's Disc Empire in the early 80s after hearing Chris Bangs spinning "Swan Lake" and found it had yet another bona fide jazz dance classic to be featured in the shape of "Spirits Samba". Here's an apathetic review from amg: Some Afro-Latin, some fusion and things in between from vibist Dave Pike. Pike is a good player, but sometimes his arrangements bog down between pop and jazz. His style is more remniscent of Red Norvo, with its lighter, less aggressive and flowing lines. [20]12 comments made-how about you? 12.11.09 [21]RANDY WESTON - BLUE MOSES Randy Weston For CTI from 1972. Arranged By - Don Sebesky;Bass - Bill Wood (2) (tracks: B1) , Ron Carter ;Drums - Bill Cobham ;English Horn, Clarinet, Flute - George Marge ;Flugelhorn - Alan Rubin , John Frosk , Marvin Stamm ;Flute - Hubert Laws ;French Horn - Brooks Tillotson , James Buffington ;Oboe, Clarinet, Flute - Romeo Penque ;Piano - Randy Weston Saxophone [Tenor] - Grover Washington, Jr ;Synthesizer [Moog] - David Horowitz Trombone - Garnett Brown , Warren Covington , Wayne Andre ;Trombone - Paul Faulise Trumpet - Freddie Hubbard ;Vocals - Madasme Meddah Super heavyweight banger from CTI - trust Randy Weston to dispense with Creed Taylor's saccharine stylings.All Killer blah blah blah.... Another underwhelming review from Mr Yannow: Randy Weston's most popular record, this Lp (which he had mixed feelings about) features Weston not only on piano but electric keyboards. Backed by Don Sebesky arrangements and assisted by trumpeter Freddie Hubbard and tenor-saxophonist Grover Washington Jr., Weston plays quite well on four of his compositions; best-known are "Ganawa (Blue Moses)" and "Marrakesh Blues." The music retains the African feel of most of Weston's latter-day playing but also has some commercial touches that do not hurt the performances. This rewarding date has not yet been reissued on CD. ~ Scott Yanow, All Music Guide Fantastic cover art from Pete Turner - I highly recommend his book[22] here. [23]16 comments made-how about you? 7.11.09 [24]BLACKCLASSICAL - 1ST BIRTHDAY MEGAMIX Blackclassical has taken off his flat cap ,put the racing pigeons away and is celebrating his first year on t'interwebs with a mighty mp3 mash up of spiritual jazz goodness[25] here.Proof indeed that it's not all grim up north. Happy Birthday you old bastard - now get the lagers in and make sure they've got vodka tops you tightarse. [26]3 comments made-how about you? 6.11.09 [27]TUBBT HAYES - TUBBS IN N.Y. Tubby Hayes for Fontana from 1961. Saxophone [Tenor] - Tubby Hayes; Bass - George Duvivier; Drums - Dave Bailey ;Piano - Horace Parlan ; Trumpet - Clark Terry;Vibraphone - Eddie Costa Another first in blogland for this British vinyl rarity at OIR with Tubbs keeping heavy company in NYC . Apparently there was legal wrangling about who owns the masters so don't hold your breath waiting for a cd issue.The last one got pulled pronto upon release in 1990. The swaggering "A Pint Of Bitter" was my very first exposure to Hayes back in the early 80s - I just love that tune - but the rest is just as good with flat out romps through "Opus Ocean" and "Airegin" plus a wonderfuly swinging "Soon" . Nice! [28]26 comments made-how about you? 31.10.09 [29]TUBBY HAYES QUARTET - TUBBY'S GROOVE Tubby Hayes for Tempo from 1960. Tubby Hayes (ts), Terry Shannon (p), Phil Bates (b), Phil Seamen (d). "Tin Tin Deo" killin' it every time for me on this rare piece of British wax from 50 years ago. Simon Spillet has written a fascinating piece on Tubby at[30] Jazzscript and here's his take on this album: I think it's one of Tubby's best ever studio recordings and catches him very much in his prime. I suppose that the stand-out track for me has to be Sunny Monday with its unaccompanied tenor choruses. The tone is big, the rhythmic delivery is full of confidence and the sheer enthusiasm shines through half a century on. [31]23 comments made-how about you? 30.10.09 [32]STAFFAN ABELEEN QUINTET -PERSEPOLIS Staffan Abeleen for Philips Sweden from 1964. Staffan Abeleen-Piano ; Lasse Farnlof - Trumpet ; Bjorn Netz - Tenor ; Bjorn Alke - Bass ; Bosse Skoglund - Drums More top draw business from Sweden making a first appearance in blogland.Modal to bossa to ballads this one's got the lot: ALL KILLER NO FILLER [33]15 comments made-how about you? 15.10.09 [34]BERNT ROSENGREN BIG BAND - FIRST MOVES Bernt Rosengren for EMI Sweden from 1977. Bassoon, Horn - Lars Bagge/Clarinet, Clarinet [Bass], Saxophone [Soprano, Alto, Baritone] - Lennart Jansson /Congas - Johnny Martinez , René Martinez , Sabu Martinez Cornet , Flugelhorn - Lars Färnlöf /Drums - Leif Wennerström/Flute, Saxophone -Bernt Rosengren /Horn [English], Saxophone - Tommy Koverhult / Percussion - Okay Temiz / Piano - Claes-Göran Fagerstedt / Piano, Piano [Electric] - Bobo Stenson / Saxophone [Baritone] - Gunnar Bergsten / Saxophone [Tenor] - Anders Lindskog / Trombone - Jan Jansson , Janus Miezek , Lars Olofsson , Lennart Löfgren / Trombone [Bass] - Sven Larsson /Trumpet - Björn Borg /Trumpet , Flugelhorn - Bertil Lövgren , Maffy Falay / Bass - Torbjörn Hultcrantz Back over to Sweden for this killer big band session led by Bernt Rosengren and featuring some big names such as a pre-ECM Bobo Stenson,the wonderful Lars Farnlof and none other than the mighty Sabu Martinez. Check out the percussion destruction of "Felicidade" with Sabu plus sons Johnny and Rene Martinez beating the crap out of the Jobim bossa standard... Murdah!!! [35]19 comments made-how about you? 1.10.09 [36]JAZZ QUINTET 60 Jazz Quintet 60 from 1962 for Metronome Denmark. Allan Botschinsky (tp), Niels Husum (ts), Bent Axen (p), Niels-Henning Orsted Pedersen (b), Bjarne Rostvold (ds). Legendary Scandinavian rarity (Check the second mortgage prices on [37]Popsike) from Denmark featuring a who's who of the Danish Jazz scene from the past 50 years. First time it's has been posted in public blogland so don't sleep on this one : ALL KILLER NO FILLER ! [38]27 comments made-how about you? 27.9.09 [39]STAFFAN ABELEEN QUINTET - DOWNSTREAM Staffan Abeleen Quintet for Philips Sweden from 1966. Staffan Abeleen - Piano ; Lasse Farnlof - Trumpet ; Bjorn Netz - Sax ; Bosse Skugland - Drums ; Paul Danielsson - Bass. All compositions by Lars Farnlof Scandinavia is the destination for my next batch of posts and what better way to start than with this superb album by The Staffen Abeleen Quintet playing the compositions of the wonderful Lars Farnlof. Another first appearance in blogland but let the music do the talking ... ALL KILLER NO FILLER [40]15 comments made-how about you? 19.9.09 [41]ARCHIE SHEPP & THE FAMILY OF PERCUSSION - HERE COMES THE FAMILY I have had lots of requests for a repost of this bomb from Archie Shepp and The Family of Percussion - so here it is. First posted at OIR september 2006. The Family of Percussion (Peter Giger,Trilok Gurtu,Doug Hammond and Tom Nicholas)are joined by Archie Shepp on this hard to find 1980 release from Nagara in Germany. On "Here Comes the Family"the Family establish the basic form of the piece with their rhythmic and vocal opening with Shepp's flute fluttering above it all.Then he lets rip with what the liner notes call 'Poetic Recitation'but would probably be called rapping these days over a funky percussive backdrop .This tune is why the lp remains in such demand - a big play list favourite of djs world wide. Next up is Shepp's "Street Song" the best cut on the lp for me,on which he blows his tenor freely over the drums,congas,bells and gongs.The piece ends in a crescendo of percussion culminating in a gong crash which fades into silence."Euterpe's Favorit"has Shepp back on flute with the family weaving a mystical feel behind him on bells,whistles,water pipes,gongs,rattles and drums. "Ardopetori"starts side 2 with a mid tempo infectious rhythm established by shakers and log drum which builds slowly with Shepp soloing freely again on tenor. "For Ti Roro"wraps it up and begins with the gentle,caribean sounds of steel drums until Shepp's soprano bursts in with a frenzy of excitement.This is the most free track with all the musicians reacting to each otherboth collectively and singularly until it finishes fittingly with the sound of the congas. This came out on lp and cd but quickly dissapeared without trace.if you want a copy you gonna have to dig hard and have deep pockets! [42]18 comments made-how about you? [43]HIROSHI SUZUKI - CAT Hiroshi Suzuki for Columbia Japan from 1975. Hiroshi Suzuki-Trombone ; Hiromasa Suzuki-Keyboards ; Akira Ishikawa-Drums ; Takeru Muraoka-Sax ; Kunimitsu Inaba-Bass More super rare J Jazz making a first appearance in blogland and this is an absolute beauty made up of 5 long cuts that hit the perfect balance between jazz and fusion.Acoustic bass meshed with subtle funky drums topped with lashings of Rhodes,trombone and sax deliver a really stretched out understated rolling groove. The album just grows and grows with repeated listening and it's a big favourite over here at Bacoso's Big Top - no surprise that it's ALL KILLER NO FILLER ! [44]34 comments made-how about you? 7.9.09 [45]T. INOMATA & SOUND L.T.D. - SOUNDS OF SOUND L.T.D. Takeshi Inomata for Columbia Japan from 1970. Takeshi Inomata (Drums & Percussion) Jun Suzuki (Electric Bass) Shigetok Kamiya (Electric Guitar) Ryo Kawasaki (Electric Guitar) Sho Imai (Trombone & Bass Trombone) Shigemichi Dohmoto (Trombone & Bass Trombone) Takao Uematsu (Tenor Sax & Soprano Sax) Fantastic lp of funky jazz from the Columbia issued Groovy Sound Series. No idea who plays on it as the credits are all in Japanese but it's a monster session. Check out "Mustache" and "Tak's Tune" for some severe beats from drummer/leader Takeshi Inomata. All Killer No Filler - Highly Recommended! [46]22 comments made-how about you? 29.8.09 [47]HIDEO SHIRAKI - IN FIESTA Hideo Shiraki for Teichiku Japan from 1961. Rare super tough hard bop session from Japan featuring the killer koto led and drum driven bomb "In Fiesta". Reissued in Japan by Kyoto Jazz Massive for Think in a blink and miss it moment back in 2005 but now out of print. The old Dusty Groove blurb: A brilliant early album from Japanese drummer Hideo Shiraki a jazz session that bristles with the same intensity as key late 50s work by Benny Golson or Gigi Gryce! Although Hideo's leading the group on drums, his work on the kit is remarkably subtle done with the snappingly rhythmic style that marked some of Golson's best modern experiments of a few years before not nearly as bombastic as his stint with Art Blakey, and more in the rhythmically stepping quality of his work with Art Farmer in the Jazztet. Key players on the session include Hidehiko Matsumoto on tenor and flute and Yuzuru Sera on piano both of whom give the album a fluid grace that's really beautiful soulful edges that allow the record to stand equally next to anything coming out of the US at the time. One track features a bit of koto at the start -- echoing Shiraki's later world jazz experiments but most of the set is straight modern hardbop, with tracks that include "Blue Romeo", "Etude No 1", "Just One Or Eight", "You Don't Know What Love Is", and Benny Golson's "Five Spot After Dark". [48]14 comments made-how about you? 18.8.09 [49]LLOYD MCNEILL - TREASURES Lloyd McNeill for Baobab from 1976. Lloyd McNeill-Flute ; Dom Salvador-Piano ; Cecil McBee-Bass ; Portinho , Brian Brake-Drums ; Ray Armando-Percussion. One for the flute freaks on a private press out of NYC. Heavy Brazilian infuences at work on this wonderful spiritual jazz session from the great Lloyd McNeill.Two originals,one standard and a cracking version of Salvador's "Salvation Army" which featured on Dom's '76 Muse debut "Minha Familia"(Available at [50]Ile Oxumare). Here's some info on Lloyd McNeill from the excellent [51]Hipwax: The first thing to know about Lloyd McNeill is that his are the very best soul-jazz flute LPs, and each is first-rate, a masterpiece of self-direction. The second thing to know is there is much more to him than his recorded legacy. He is one of those incredible, super-sensitive people who excels at every artistic idiom and endeavor; making wonderful music is just part of his flowing creativity. A professor (at Rutgers University, earlier Dartmouth), he has much to say about music and creativity as well as an impeccable gift for saying it...sensibly. McNeill's writings on his musical experiences provide invaluable documents of "the period" (late 1960s-1970s) as well as a rare glimpse at the joy of a relatively unsung master. McNeill has played with jazz legends --Andrew White (his longtime collaborator/producer), Eric Dolphy, Sabu Martinez, Mulatu Astatke, among many others-- and he has had a significant hand in the arts scene of Washington, D.C. The major galleries of art, including those of the Smithsonian, sponsored multi-media "happenings" that soared far above the hippie caricature of acid rock with light show. During the first flowering of post-Civil Rights, African-American culture, the Lloyd McNeill Quartet's improvisitory, simultaneuous jazz and large-scale painting "happened" while a lucky, perhaps unsuspecting public drank it in. McNeill believes his influences and their results in his art, music, and poetry are inseparable and mutually reinforcing. Time spent with Picasso in Cannes, 1965 led to new expressions in all three, for instance. And when one brushes against a force such as Picasso, just the idea of "meeting Picasso" has a certain momentum, never mind the inevitable casting of rays of a different kind of light. Canvas, vinyl, the stage, paper, and books of poetry offer a few key imprints of McNeill, and McNeill consistently pays tribute to many illustrious peers. There are six albums, all produced and entirely under the artist's control. Each title surpasses anything comparable on the major labels, even Blue Note. The Black Jazz label may be roughly similar in style, but Asha and Baobab are wholly Lloyd McNeill. The records reflect none of the usual external trends from the decade in which they were recorded; all sound like 1971 rather than 1979. The final record even reprises the first (the exotic, broodingly moody "Asha"), and the sound throughout remains somewhat interchangeable and timeless. But each record has its own themes and currents, and even improvisation has its signatures and fingerprints. Buying: Long out of print, collectors items, Lloyd McNeill records should be snapped up on sight. Hip Wax is pleased to offer two titles for which limited stock remains [52]here. Warning - McNeill lps can be damaging to the [53]wallet. [54]29 comments made-how about you? 14.8.09 [55]If Spike Lee Did Movies In Audio... Greg's back on the mix with his old mucker Monohub - another mashed up bomb in memory of Coltrane and the late,great George Russell.Grab it [56]HERE. Here's the blurb from big daddy himself: I did a version of this a while back and was planning to publish on July 17th as a memorial to the day that John Coltrane died, but, a combination of lack of time, work commitments and other things got in the way... Anyway I redid it and am glad that i did as it's much better than the original. This one strictly for the heads... and defo not for the feint hearted. If you liked the Black State of Vietnam mix then this is for you... So as i said; In respect of John Coltrane and George Russell. Much thanks to Monohub too although he plays down his part in this, his genius did have a lot to do with it... [57]1 comments made-how about you? 3.8.09 [58]SADAO WATANABE AND CHARLIE MARIANO - IBERIAN WALTZ Sadao and Charlie for Tact Japan from 1967. Sadao Watanabe (as) , Charlie Mariano (as) , Masabumi Kikuchi (p) , Masanaga Harada (b) , Masahiko Togashi (ds) , Fumio Watanabe (ds) This received a "Japan Jazz Award" on release. Some severe blowing on this double alto led sextet featuring a young band of soon to be Japanese jazz luminaries. The fast and furious "Palisades" was comped on the Sleepwalker Shibuya Jazz Classics.However the 16 minute title cut is the stand out tune an intense modal waltz with a Spanish tinge featuring coruscating solos from Mariano and Watanabe - hard core stuff. Recommended. [59]16 comments made-how about you? 28.7.09 [60]JAMES MARENTIC SEXTET - NIMBUS James Marentic for Discovery from 1982. James Marentic-Sax/Flute; Tom Harrell -Trumpet/Flugelhorn; Slide Hampton-Trombone; Larry Willis-Piano; Anthony Cox-Bass; Victor Lewis-Drums. Storming post hard bop outing for Mr Marentic and his all star band. Check out the banging latin romp "Baile de las Cucharachas " which kicks off the lp in fine style and the Coltrane inspired "Nimbus". "Aphrodesia" has the inspiration of Kenny Dorham stamped all over it and no prizes for guessing who "Mr Silver I Presume" is aimed at If you enjoyed Tom Harrell's "Aurora" post then this should be right up your street,round your corner and down your block! [61]8 comments made-how about you? 23.7.09 [62]CARTER JEFFERSON - THE RISE OF ATLANTIS Carter Jefferson for Timeless from 1978. Terrific post bop album with latin influences -All Killer No Filler! John Hicks (Piano), Terumasa Hino (Trumpet), Woody Shaw (Producer), Clint Houston (Bass), Victor Lewis (Drums),Carter Jefferson (Sax ), Lani Groves (Vocals), Shunzo Ohno (Trumpet), Steve Thornton (Percussion), Harry Whitaker (Piano) Here's the customary underwhelming AMG review : Tenor saxophonist Carter Jefferson made somewhat of a name for himself when trumpeter Woody Shaw chose him as a member of his first working quintet. Shaw is the producer of this album, Jefferson's fine debut (and evidently only) recording as a leader. Taking a cue from Shaw, the saxophonist sticks essentially to a quintet of trumpet and sax backed by all-star rhythm sections. Three of the tracks include hard bop trumpeter Terumasa Hino while the other three feature little-known Japanese trumpeter Shunzo Ono. Most of the tunes are firmly in the school of hard bop, the sort of music that Woody Shaw played so well. While there is not any new ground broken, it is all performed competently enough. While not as emotionally charged as his work with Shaw, Jefferson impresses with a fluid, mobile attack that shows a solid grasp of his material. If the groups seem to be sometimes merely going through the motions, there are nonetheless enough fine moments to make this a worthwhile purchase.AMG. A reliable and advanced soloist who spent most of his career as a sideman, Carter Jefferson is best-remembered for his association with Woody Shaw during 1977-1980. Jefferson started on clarinet and played alto before settling on tenor, going on tour early in the backup bands of the Temptations, the Supremes, and Little Richard. In 1971, he moved to New York to attend New York University and soon spent two years with Mongo Santamaria and a period in 1973 as a member of Art Blakey's Jazz Messengers. After his important stint with Woody Shaw (with whom he recorded several times), Jefferson worked with many top players, including Elvin Jones, Roy Haynes, Cedar Walton, Jerry Gonzalez & the Fort Apache Band, Malachi Thompson, and Jack Walrath's Masters of Suspense. His premature death in Poland after emergency surgery was a major loss. Carter Jefferson only led one record, The Rise of Atlantis, on the Timeless label in 1978. AMG. [63]33 comments made-how about you? 10.7.09 [64]JULIO GUTIERREZ - PROGRESSIVE LATIN Julio Gutierrez for Gema from 1960. The title says it all for this groundbreaking heavyweight descarga session...Highly recommended. Has anyone out there got a copy of Gutierrez's "Havana BC" they want to sell me?If so leave me a message in the comments. Progressive Latin should be considered a classic of Latin jazz if it isn't already. "Cosa Buena" cooks, and "Closing Time" is a slower bossa nova with flute and horns that captures the mood of a good night out at its end. "Yambambe," an Afro rhythm behind mostly piano, sounds more sophisticated than its simple construction. "El Altiplano" is supposed to be an Incan melody with Afro elements. In any case, vocal interjections pave the way for a longer descarga where a variety of intriguing elements (horns, flute piano, even organ) work together in their own weird ways and combinations. The "Route 66" theme arrangement is a coup; the sax and flute are recorded gorgeously, and the piano and conga pace it ideally, with brief drum solo breaks. "Sad City" is a haunting flute piece, while "Guantanamera" has an interesting change but there is only so much one can expect from this tune. "Malaguena" is another long descarga that gets a little wild. Progressive Latin is something of a masterpiece from the great arranger Julio Gutierrez. Tony Wilds What impressed me most about this album is Julio's use of space and the length of the tunes, considering that in the era when it was recorded, 2 1/2 minute tunes were standard. Great musicians like El Negro Vivar (trumpet) and Chombo Silva (sax) were able to beautifully stretch out over an almost post-bop/Afro-Cuban jazz setting. There is some serious blowing on this disc. This is another essential Latin jazz gem from the late 50s/early 60s. Jose Rizo [65]22 comments made-how about you? 4.7.09 [66]Older Posts Subscribe to: [67]Posts (Atom) JAZZ - LATIN - SOUNDTRACKS . RARE - OBSCURE -DELETED . ALL RIPS @ 320 FROM ORIGINAL VINYL OR CD. JAZZ - LATIN - SOUNDTRACKS . RARE - OBSCURE -DELETED . ALL RIPS @ 320 FROM ORIGINAL VINYL OR CD. [68]My Photo Bacoso [69]View my complete profile PLACES & SPACES * [70]Axelgrease * [71]Call It Anything * [72]Cuban Posters * [73]Djalma's Soul Food * [74]El Goog Ja * [75]Far From Ubiquit * [76]Flying Dutchman Records * [77]Groovy Merchant * [78]Ile Oxumare * [79]India Navigation * [80]jazzfluteweinstein * [81]Killer Groove Music Library * [82]LiquidJazz.com * [83]Magic Purple Sunshine * [84]Mainstream shad shack * [85]My Favourite Sound© * [86]My Jazz World * [87]never enough rhodes * [88]Nine Sisters * [89]Nothing Is v2.0 * [90]pharaoh's dance * [91]private press * [92]Quimsy's Mumbo Jumbo * [93]SG Canvas * [94]Strata-East Fan Club * [95]The CTI never sleeps * [96]Von Fat Bakon * [97]WONDERFULSOUND DIGGIN' IN THE CRATES * [98]Jan 2010 (1) * [99]Dec 2009 (3) * [100]Nov 2009 (5) * [101]Oct 2009 (4) * [102]Sep 2009 (4) * [103]Aug 2009 (4) * [104]Jul 2009 (4) * [105]Jun 2009 (8) * [106]May 2009 (5) * [107]Apr 2009 (1) * [108]Mar 2009 (4) * [109]Feb 2009 (9) * [110]Jan 2009 (13) * [111]Dec 2008 (6) * [112]Nov 2008 (15) * [113]Oct 2008 (9) * [114]Sep 2008 (3) * [115]Jul 2008 (1) * [116]Jun 2008 (28) * [117]May 2008 (4) * [118]Apr 2008 (6) * [119]Mar 2008 (26) * [120]Feb 2008 (17) * [121]Jan 2008 (10) * [122]Dec 2007 (12) * [123]Nov 2007 (16) * [124]Oct 2007 (21) * [125]Sep 2007 (21) * [126]Aug 2007 (16) * [127]Jul 2007 (10) * [128]Jun 2007 (19) * [129]May 2007 (18) * [130]Apr 2007 (17) * [131]Mar 2007 (19) * [132]Feb 2007 (17) * [133]Jan 2007 (21) * [134]Dec 2006 (19) * [135]Nov 2006 (29) * [136]Oct 2006 (20) * [137]Sep 2006 (29) * [138]Aug 2006 (34) * [139]Jul 2006 (18) * [140]Jun 2006 (22) * [141]May 2006 (40) * [142]Apr 2006 (52) * [143]Mar 2006 (19) Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [spacer1.gif] [blackrainbowhdr01.jpg] IFRAME: uments&banner=0JB0A4VDS5FZSF8J66G2&f=ifr About Rhythmweb A Grassroots Network [dada01a.jpg] (at left: World Unity Drum Festival, Club Dada, Dallas, August 1994. My son Jules, shown at age 12 at left) Rhythmweb started in December of 1996, as a reflection of my virtual search for music and musicians on the Web, and as an excuse to woodshed web design. Since then we have been amazed by the reponse we have recieved, from all corners of the globe. From the Mid-East to Australia, and from South Africa to Europe to New Orleans to Brazil to Papua, NewGuinea, musicians are connecting. Truly, rhythm is a universal language, love of music a universal love. Thanks to all our new friends for connecting with us. Our mission is to further the use of rhythm, music, and percussion & related arts as a healing tool. We LOVE music. We LOVE the Web. When our schedule permits, we surf several [kids097.jpg] hours a night, then we post the fruits of our travels... Every time we meet someone interesting with a rhythm related website, we post a link. Some very worthwhile friendships have evolved along the way, and we've discovered lots of good music. We have since integrated affiliate links to CDs, books, and so forth, but our basic mission remains the same. We are NOT a bunch of suits, drooling e-commerce. We're musicians, artists. We believe it's important for people at the grassroots level to network during this crucial moment in history. If you'll notice, the vast majority of links on rhythmweb are GRASSROOTS musicians, trying to get over in this new economy. You will see no big over-rated stars from the conglomerate record companies. Plenty of that elsewhere. [eric_october03-01b-225.jpg] There are also fan pages and correspondent pages here, on a large number of working musicians. Thanks very much to all for your help. We are actively seeking musicians in various parts of the world to drop us a line now and then, and let us know what the percussion scene is like in your area. If you have a drum lesson you'd like to share with our readers, please let us know, and perhaps we can steer you some traffic in return. 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ABSTRACT FULL TEXT FULL-TEXT PDF (2346 KB) CITATION ALERT CITED BY RELATED ARTICLES EXPORT CITATION EMAIL TO A COLLEAGUE RIGHTS/PERMISSIONS [37]Standard image available [38]DOWNLOAD IMAGES NEED REPRINTS? BOOKMARK ARTICLE RR-interval irregularity precedes ventricular fibrillation in ST elevation acute myocardial infarction [39]Miguel E. Lemmert, MD[40]a[41] Corresponding Author Information [42]email address , [43]Mohamed Majidi, MD[44]a, [45]Mitchell W. Krucoff, MD[46]*, [47]Sebastiaan C.A.M. Bekkers, MD[48]a, [49]Harry J.G.M. Crijns, MD, PhD, FHRS[50]a, [51]Hein J.J. Wellens, MD, PhD, FHRS[52]a, [53]Andrzej S. Kosinski, PhD[54]*, [55]Anton P.M. Gorgels, MD, PhD, FHRS[56]a Received 9 August 2009; accepted 15 September 2009. published online 22 September 2009. Background Sudden cardiac arrest is a leading cause of death in industrialized countries, and ischemic ventricular fibrillation (VF) is a frequent cause. Objective The purpose of this study was to determine whether patients with ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) who develop ischemic VF show more overall RR-interval irregularity (RRI) than do STEMI patients without ischemic VF. Methods Ischemic VF was identified in 41 patients from 1,473 digital 12-lead Holter recordings from three separate STEMI studies. Continuous 3-lead and 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG) snapshots recorded every minute were compared between all ischemic VF patients and 123 random patients without ischemic VF. Time intervals from start of Holter to ischemic VF and equivalent intervals in the controls were used for calculations. ECG variables related to conduction intervals and severity of ischemia were measured using the most ischemic 12-lead ECG. RRI was calculated as the square root of the mean squared differences of successive RR intervals. For RRI, all QRS complexes, including ventricular ectopic beats, were used. Results No baseline differences were observed between the study and control groups, except for male preponderance among ischemic VF patients (90% vs 72%, P = .019). QRS interval, ECG ischemia severity, RRI, and number of ventricular ectopic beats were significantly associated with ischemic VF. Multivariate analysis revealed RRI (odds ratio 1.006, 95% confidence interval 1.001-1.010, P = .016) and ST deviation score (odds ratio 1.073, 95% confidence interval 1.041-1.106, P <.001) as the only statistically significant predictors of ischemic VF. Conclusion In the period before ischemic VF, RRI and ST deviation score are associated with ischemic VF in STEMI patients. These findings could have important pathophysiologic and clinical implications. Keywords: [57]Cardiac arrest, [58]Electrocardiography, [59]Myocardial infarction, [60]Sudden death, [61]Ventricular fibrillation Abbreviations: [62]AUC, [63]area under receiver operating characteristic curve, [64]AV, [65]atrioventricular, [66]ECG, [67]electrocardiogram, [68]HRV, [69]heart rate variability, [70]IQR, [71]interquartile range, [72]ROC, [73]receiver operating characteristic, [74]RRI, [75]RR-interval irregularity, [76]STEMI, [77]ST elevation myocardial infarction, [78]VF, [79]ventricular fibrillation Article Outline o [80]Abstract o [81]Introduction o [82]Methods o [83]Patient population o [84]ECG data o [85]RRI and ventricular ectopic beats o [86]Twelve-lead ECG measurements o [87]Statistical analysis o [88]Results o [89]Baseline characteristics and laboratory values o [90]ECG characteristics o [91]Cutoff values o [92]Discussion o [93]Baseline characteristics o [94]Single 12-lead ECG measurements o [95]Continuous ECG measurements o [96]RRI and total number of ventricular ectopic beats o [97]Heart rate variability o [98]Study limitations o [99]Clinical implications and future research o [100]Conclusion o [101]Acknowledgment o [102]References o [103]Copyright Introduction [104]return to Article Outline Sudden cardiac arrest is one of the leading causes of death in industrialized countries, and ischemic ventricular fibrillation (VF) is one of the most frequent causes.[105]1, [106]2 To date, research aimed at predicting VF has predominantly focused on the postmyocardial infarction stage and nonischemic conditions. Familial history of sudden death recently was demonstrated to be an important risk factor for VF in an ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) population,[107]3 suggesting that genetic factors are involved and that predisposition to ischemic VF differs among patients. Inhomogeneity of intramyocardial conduction velocity plays a role as a substrate for reentrant ventricular arrhythmias and sudden death during acute ischemia.[108]4, [109]5, [110]6, [111]7, [112]8 In the current study, we introduce the novel electrocardiographic (ECG) parameter of overall RR-interval irregularity (RRI), which is measured by taking all QRS complexes into account, irrespective of their origin. A greater RRI could lead to increased inhomogeneity of conduction velocities and refractory periods, facilitating ischemic VF. Using single 12-lead ECGs, our group recently demonstrated longer PR and QRS conduction intervals in first STEMI patients developing ischemic VF.[113]9 This finding supports the concept of increased inhomogeneity in conduction velocity and calls upon further elucidation of the concept. Thus, we tested the hypothesis that cardiac rhythm characteristics preceding ischemic VF are different from those in ischemic patients without VF, particularly with regard to the novel ECG parameter RRI. Methods [114]return to Article Outline Patient population A retrospective database consisting of 1,473 24-hour Holter recordings was retrieved from the ECG core laboratory of the Duke Clinical Research Institute (Durham, NC, USA). The database consists of Holter recordings from STEMI patients who were included in three separate safety-efficacy STEMI studies between April 2002 and November 2003. The database includes all analyzable Holter recordings from two cohorts (CASTEMI[115]10 and EMERALD,[116]11 n = 1,031) treated with direct percutaneous coronary intervention and one cohort treated with thrombolytic therapy (RAPSODY, n = 442). All of these patients were older than 18 years, had presented with diagnostic ST elevation on standard ECG, and had symptom duration <= 6 hours. As part of the study protocols, all patients were connected to 24-hour digital 12-lead Holter recorders immediately after hospital admission, prior to any therapeutic intervention in the hospital. For the current study, all 1,473 Holter recordings were examined for ischemic VF. Ischemic VF was defined as irregular undulations of varying shape and amplitude on ECG without discrete QRS or T waves. To ensure the ischemic nature of the VF, only patients with VF that occurred before percutaneous coronary intervention and/or in the presence of persisting ST deviation were included in the study. Patients in whom VF occurred in conjunction with ECG signs of reperfusion were considered to have reperfusion VF rather than ischemic VF and were not included in the study (n = 5). Patients who showed regular monomorphic ventricular tachycardias rather than VF also were excluded from the study (n = 19). Forty-one patients (2.8%) with ischemic VF were identified (study group). For comparison, for each VF patient, three patients without ischemic VF (control group) were selected, only matched for the original study cohort. Selection was done randomly using the statistical software SPSS for Windows (release 12.0.1, SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL, USA), providing a total of 123 control patients. Clinical descriptors noted include baseline characteristics (gender, age, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, current smoking, and history of acute myocardial infarction), coronary angiographic data (culprit lesion), and plasma levels of cardiac enzymes. ECG data Holter recordings (DR180+, NorthEast Monitoring, Maynard, MA, USA) consisted of digital 24-hour 3-lead recordings (leads V5, V1, and III), with a complete Mason-Likar 12-lead ECG (calibration 10 mm/mV, speed 25 mm/s) available every minute and featured designated analysis software (Holter 5 LX Analysis version 5.2, NorthEast Monitoring). For each VF patient, the time interval from start of recording to onset of ischemic VF and the equivalent time interval in the three matched controls were used for analysis, disregarding the residual recording time. Computerized labeling of QRS complexes and RR intervals on Holter recordings was reviewed and corrected on a beat-to-beat basis by a trained physician (M.E.L.). RRI and ventricular ectopic beats For this analysis, we introduce RRI as a novel parameter. RRI was calculated using the designated software's capability to calculate heart rate variability (HRV). HRV is the variation in heart rate resulting from sympathetic and vagal influences on the sinus node. HRV disregards all ECG complexes other than sinus beats. Using continuous 3-lead Holter recordings, the software is capable of several HRV measurements within the time domain. Similar to standard HRV measurements, RRI calculations were performed using the three leads of the Holter recordings. Contrary to standard HRV measurements, RRI takes all ECG complexes, irrespective of their origin, into account, including (episodes of) atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter, paced rhythms, and supraventricular and ventricular complexes. To enable RRI measurements by the software, all ECG complexes were manually labeled as sinus beats. Time intervals before onset of ischemic VF frequently were short. Therefore, the square root of the mean squared differences of successive RR intervals method was used because it reflects short-term variations in RR intervals, as previously described in detail.[117]12 For the software to perform HRV measurements and thus RRI measurements, a minimum of 5 minutes of recording time is required. The total number of ventricular ectopic beats was counted for each patient, again during the time interval from start of recording to onset of ischemic VF and the equivalent time interval in the control patients. Twelve-lead ECG measurements Our group recently showed significant differences in PR and QRS conduction intervals as well as severity of ischemia between VF patients and control patients. For this reason, similar measurements were made in the current study using the designated software, which features electronic calipers for 12-lead ECGs. For each patient, one 12-lead ECG showing the most pronounced ST-segment deviation was used because these ECGs are expected to be the best representation of ischemia-induced conduction defects. The measurements have been described previously,[118]9 with the difference that, because of the digital ECG data and the accompanying Holter software, the measurements were done using the electronic calipers of the analysis software instead of manually. Statistical analysis Data analysis and case-control randomization were performed using SPSS for Windows (release 12.0.1). Continuous variables are expressed as median and interquartile range (IQR) and categorical variables as percentages. For comparison of continuous variables, a Student's t-test for normally distributed data or a Mann-Whitney test or Wilcoxon signed-rank test for non-normally distributed data was used. For comparison of categorical variables, a Pearson chi-square test or Fisher exact test was used. All statistical tests were two-tailed, and P <.05 was considered significant. ECG characteristics showing a significant univariate relation with the occurrence of VF but lacking multicollinearity (defined as r > 0.4) were included in multivariate logistic regression. Variables were removed stepwise from the model when P was >.10. Variables with P <.05 in the final model were considered independent contributors and are reported in the results. In the final model, tests were done for interactions between main predictors. The predictive accuracy of the final model is reported as the area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (AUC). Cutoff values for ECG characteristics by which most VF patients can be correctly classified are identified by applying the Pythagorean theorem to ROC curves, which is a mathematical determination of the cutoff value with the graphically shortest distance to a sensitivity and specificity of 1. Results [119]return to Article Outline Baseline characteristics and laboratory values No statistically significant differences regarding baseline characteristics and laboratory values were found between the VF patients and the controls, except for a significantly higher percentage of males among the VF patients (90% vs 72%, P = .019; [120]Table 1). Table 1. Baseline characteristics of the study population Ischemic VF (n = 41) No ischemic VF (n = 123) P value Age (years) 61 (54-71) 59 (52-71) .54 Male 90 72 .019 Anterior wall infarction 31 29 .84 Culprit artery .32 Left anterior descending branch 20 21 Right coronary artery 77 66 Left circumflex branch 3 13 Comorbidity/risk factor Diabetes mellitus 10 18 .32 Hypertension 39 42 .71 Hypercholesterolemia 33 26 .41 Smoking 38 38 1 Prior myocardial infarction 11 11 1 Original study cohort .30 CASTEMI[121]10 3 97 EMERALD[122]11 3 97 RAPSODY 2 98 Laboratory values Initial CK 1.6 (0.3-10.3) 2.6 (0.7-6.9) .70 Post PCI CK 8.1 (5.6-21.9) 10.1 (5.0-14.5) .75 Initial CK-MB 3.1 (1.7-7.7) 4.2 (0.6-7.6) .77 Post PCI CK-MB 6.9 (2.0-11.0) 8.5 (4.1-13.1) .41 Post PCI troponin-T 50.9 (27.5-74.2) 15.4 (8.2-61.8) 1 Note: Information on the culprit artery was available for 127 patients from the PCI cohorts (CASTEMI and EMERALD). For the thrombolytics cohort (RAPSODY), the distinction between anterior wall infarctions and nonanterior wall infarctions was available. Values are given as median (interquartile range) or percent. CK = creatine kinase; CK-MB = creatine kinase-MB isoenzyme; PCI = percutaneous coronary intervention; VF = ventricular fibrillation. ECG characteristics ECG characteristics are listed in [123]Table 2. All patients were in sinus rhythm, except for six (four VF patients, two controls) with atrial fibrillation, which precluded assessment of sinus rate and PR interval. One VF patient had a paced rhythm during part of the Holter recording. One VF patient and two control patients showed atrioventricular (AV) nodal escape rhythms. Two additional control patients had high-degree AV block. Table 2. ECG characteristics of the study population Ischemic VF (n = 41) No ischemic VF (n = 123) P value Sinus rate (min-1) 74 (62-85) 73 (65-85) .719 PQ (ms) 177 (160-216) 164 (153-181) .055 QRS (ms) 103 (88-115) 93 (83-104) .018 QTc Bazett (ms) 417 (390-446) 414 (396-414) .822 Peak ST deviation (mm) 7 (5-10) 4 (2-7) <.001 Grade of ischemia 3 (2-3) 2 (2-3) .004 No. of leads with ST deviation 10 (9-11) 7 (4-10) <.001 STdev (mm) 36 (26-50) 20 (11-30) <.001 Measuring time (minutes) 29 (16-57) 29 (16-57) N/A Total no. of ventricular ectopic beats 73 (19-268) 19 (2-106) .006 RRI (ms) 132 (100-197) 73 (39-122) <.001 RRI-5 min (ms) 186 (97-237) 44 (22-101) <.001 Values are given as median (interquartile range). RRI = RR-interval irregularity; RRI-5 min = RR-interval irregularity in the last 5 minutes of measuring time; STdev = ST deviation score, the sum of all ST deviations on 12-lead ECG; VF = ventricular fibrillation. With regard to measurements using single 12-lead ECGs, VF patients showed a longer QRS interval [103 ms (IQR 88-115 ms) vs 93 ms (IQR 83-104 ms), P = .018] and a larger amount of ischemia, as measured by peak ST deviation, grade of ischemia,[124]13 total number of leads with ST deviation, and ST deviation score. With regard to continuous ECG measurements, the median measuring time was 29 minutes (IQR 16-57 minutes). Because the requirement of at least 5 minutes of recording time prior to ischemic VF could not be met, the computer software did not allow RRI measurement in three VF patients and subsequently nine control patients. VF patients showed a higher RRI [132 ms (IQR 100-197 ms) vs 73 ms (IQR 39-122 ms), P <.001] and more ventricular ectopic beats [73 (IQR 19-268) vs 19 (2-106), P = .006]. Excluding the recordings with atrial fibrillation from the analysis, did not affect the results regarding the RRI measurements. Logistic regression was applied, with presence of ischemic VF as the dependent variable and variables showing univariate significance (QRS interval, ST deviation score, total number of ventricular ectopic beats, RRI) as the independent variables. Because we recently showed ST deviation score to be an independent predictor of ischemic VF[125]9 and we wanted to correct for multicollinearity between the variables measuring the amount of ischemia, ST deviation score was the only ischemia parameter entered in the logistic regression. This multivariate analysis revealed that only a higher RRI (odds ratio 1.006, 95% confidence interval 1.001-1.010, P = .016) and a higher ST deviation score (odds ratio 1.073, 95% confidence interval 1.041-1.106, P <.001) were independently associated with an increased chance of ischemic VF ([126]Table 3). The interpretation of these odds ratios is that an increase in RRI of 1 ms corresponds to an increased chance of ischemic VF of 0.6%. Table 3. Multivariate analysis of the study population Odds ratio 95% Confidence interval P value RR-interval irregularity (ms) 1.006 1.001-1.010 .016 STdev (mm) 1.073 1.041-1.106 <.001 Area under the receiver operating characteristic curve is 0.835. STdev = ST deviation score, the sum of all ST deviations on 12-lead ECG. For our study population, this means that, based on only RRI measurements, patients who developed VF had a 41.5% (1.006 ^ [132 ms - 73 ms] = 1.415) more chance of doing so than the patients who did not develop VF. Similarly, an increase in ST deviation score of 1 mm implies an increased chance of ischemic VF of 7.3%. The predictive accuracy of this model assessed by the AUC was 0.835. In addition, to examine a fixed and shortest possible time frame prior to ischemic VF, RRI was measured in the last 5 minutes of measuring time. This showed an even more marked difference in RRI between VF and control patients [186 ms (97-237 ms) vs 44 ms (22-101 ms), P <.001]. Multivariate analysis using this RRI of the last 5 minutes yielded an RRI odds ratio of 1.012 (95% confidence interval 1.007-1.018, P <.001), with a predictive model accuracy (AUC) of 0.896 (not shown in [127]Table 3). Of note, measurement of RRI in the last 5 minutes was not possible in 7 VF patients and 27 controls because occasional artifact during this time period in these patients reduced the analyzable recording time to less than the required 5 minutes. Cutoff values Based on the optimal (mathematical) balance between sensitivity and specificity, cutoff values for RRI and the ST deviation score were identified. According to these criteria, the cutoff value for RRI is 110 ms, with sensitivity of 74% and specificity of 75%. The cutoff value for the ST deviation score is 27 mm, yielding sensitivity of 74% and specificity of 70%. Discussion [128]return to Article Outline To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to show that heart rate irregularity, measured as the novel parameter RRI, plays a significant role preceding ischemic VF on continuous ECG recordings retrieved from a large STEMI database. Baseline characteristics No differences in baseline characteristics were found, except for male preponderance in the VF patients. This is not in accordance with previous research in which no gender difference with regard to ischemic VF or sudden cardiac arrest was found.[129]9, [130]14, [131]15, [132]16, [133]17, [134]18 Our finding could be an observation by chance, due to multiple exploratory tests that in no way are related to any hypothesis tested in this study. Single 12-lead ECG measurements The significantly longer QRS interval and the larger amount of ischemia in the VF patients are in agreement with our previous findings on single 12-lead STEMI ECGs.[135]9 Briefly, in that study we found longer conduction intervals in VF patients that may, depending on the site of the occlusion and amount of ischemia, indicate an inhomogeneity in conduction velocity providing the substrate for ischemic VF. The current study adds a continuous aspect to the period preceding ischemic VF. In a multivariate regression model including continuous ECG measurements, only RRI and the amount of ischemia appear to be independently associated with the occurrence of ischemic VF. Continuous ECG measurements The parameters related specifically to the continuous ECG measurements are RRI and total number of ventricular ectopic beats. RRI and total number of ventricular ectopic beats RRI is a novel and unique ECG parameter that combines into a single parameter the multitude of ECG complexes and rhythms occurring in the acute phase of a STEMI by measuring RRI resulting from all such complexes. Examples of large and small RRIs are shown in [136]Figure 1. [137]View full-size image. [138]View Large Image [139]Download to PowerPoint [140]Standard image available Figure 1. RR-interval irregularity (RRI) in ventricular fibrillation (VF) patient (A) and matched control patient (B). Primarily due to irregular runs of ventricular ectopic beats, the VF patient had an RRI of 257 ms prior to the ischemic VF (red arrow), whereas the control patient had an RRI of 20 ms in the equivalent time interval. Green complexes indicate sinus beats; red complexes indicate ventricular ectopic beats; blue complexes indicate artifact (not used for any calculations). To our knowledge, the only continuous ECG parameter suggested to be associated with ischemic VF occurring in the acute phase of a STEMI is an increased number of ventricular ectopic beats prior to ischemic VF.[141]19 However, the predictive value of these so-called warning arrhythmias has been questioned by other researchers.[142]20, [143]21 In our study population, we were able to reproduce the finding that frequent ventricular ectopic beats represent a harbinger of ischemic VF. These previously reported contradictory results may be explained by our additional finding that the total number of ventricular ectopic beats was not an independent predictor of ischemic VF. RRI was the only independent continuous ECG predictor of ischemic VF, suggesting that the mere presence of ventricular ectopic beats is less important than rhythm irregularity. The manner in which RRI is associated with ischemic VF could be as follows. RRI leads to inhomogeneity in conduction velocity and refractory periods. Beat-to-beat changes in refractoriness, induced by RRI, may become pronounced in ischemic areas due to ischemia-related postrepolarization refractoriness, an effect suggested by our data to be even more pronounced in the final 5 minutes preceding ischemic VF. Subsequent, relatively shortly coupled beats may block or conduct slowly in these areas and instantaneously create a substrate vulnerable to ischemic VF. Shortly coupled beats do not necessarily induce reentry and VF; rather, they set the stage. The finding that the number of leads showing ST deviation was associated with ischemic VF might indicate a role for more widespread myocardial ischemia rather than merely local severity of ischemia. This could add to the heterogeneity of postrepolarization refractoriness. Although not an independent predictor, this concept is supported by a larger region at risk associated with VF found in a previous study using coronary angiography.[144]16 Heart rate variability The RRI measurements were performed using the software's mathematical capabilities to calculate HRV. Although technically possible, actual HRV measurements are not reported here. HRV has been recognized as a marker of the relationship between the autonomic nervous system and cardiac mortality. A decreased HRV has been proposed as a predictor of ventricular arrhythmias and sudden death in different patient populations, mostly consisting of patients in the postmyocardial infarction phase or with nonischemic cardiac diseases.[145]12, [146]22, [147]23, [148]24, [149]25 Most studies attributing a predictive role to HRV were specifically designed to measure this parameter for sufficiently long periods of sinus rhythm in a chronic care setting. The current study relates to a completely different clinical situation, not only because of its acutely ischemic population but also because of the relatively short measuring times with frequent ventricular ectopy. Thus, the clinical meaning of standard HRV measurements would be questionable in our study population. Study limitations The population studied was a selected population because all patients survived until hospital admission. Therefore, whether our findings can be generalized to the situation outside the hospital is not known. The study variables were derived from three separate studies, so possibly the study population was not homogeneous. In spite of this, the association we found between RRI, amount of ischemia, and ischemic VF was very consistent across studies. All patients were derived from STEMI intervention trials who met certain ST-segment criteria for inclusion. Therefore, whether the results are applicable to non-STEMI patients or patients with demand ischemia rather than supply ischemia is not known. Finally, we have no information on use of medication. However, in a previous study we found no influence of any type of medication on development of ischemic VF.[150]9 Furthermore, it is more likely that medications such as beta-blocking agents would influence RR-interval duration rather than RRI. In this regard, it should be noted that there was no difference in sinus rate between VF patients and control patients. However, it should be taken into account that the current database of Holter recordings prior to ischemic VF is unique in its size and possibly the best available. Clinical implications and future research The results of this study are important for a better understanding of ischemic VF. Moreover, it provides simple variables with possible implications for clinical use. There is an increased need for monitoring high-risk cardiac patients outside the hospital setting, and the development of monitoring devices with alarm features has been advocated by our group and others.[151]26, [152]27, [153]28 When incorporated within the algorithms of arrhythmia sensing devices, a warning predictor of ischemic VF could lead to improved early identification of individuals at risk. The predictive accuracy of 0.835 by multivariate analysis was high ([154]Table 3). This indicates that RRI and the ST deviation score may be useful as predictors of ischemic VF in STEMI patients. The cutoff value for RRI is 110 ms, with sensitivity of 74% and specificity of 75%. The cutoff value for the ST deviation score is 27 mm, yielding sensitivity of 74% and specificity of 70%. Because false-positive identification of STEMI patients at risk for ischemic VF is preferable to false-negative failure to identify, it could be speculated that different (ranges of) cutoff values with higher sensitivities at the cost of lower specificities should be chosen. Sensitivities of (approximately) 80% and 90% and corresponding cutoff values for RRI and the ST deviation score are shown in [155]Figure 2, [156]Figure 3. [157]View full-size image. [158]View Large Image [159]Download to PowerPoint [160]Standard image available Figure 2. Sensitivity and specificity for all cutoff values for RR-interval irregularity (RRI). [161]View full-size image. [162]View Large Image [163]Download to PowerPoint [164]Standard image available Figure 3. Sensitivity and specificity for all cutoff values for the ST deviation score (STdev). This study was aimed at STEMI patients who suffer from supply ischemia. One could speculate whether the results can be extrapolated to patients suffering from demand ischemia due to a severe stenosis. In that case, RRI could play a similar role in these patients, leading to ischemic VF (e.g., during exercise or diminished blood supply during sleep). Because the majority of sudden cardiac arrests occurs outside the hospital, a warning predictor of ischemic VF could be useful in patients with known coronary artery disease. The model proposed in the current study could serve as an ischemia model that could be used in future research studying patients who are potential victims of ischemic VF due to demand ischemia. Such populations are currently being studied by our group. Conclusion [165]return to Article Outline Overall RRI and the amount of ischemia are suggested to be useful predictors of ischemic VF occurring in the acute phase of STEMI. Acknowledgments [166]return to Article Outline We thank W.R. Dassen, PhD, for statistical advice. 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[174]6. 6Kokolis S, Clark LT, Kokolis R, et al. Ventricular arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2006;6:426-444. [175]7. 7Lazzara R. From first class to third class: recent upheaval in antiarrhythmic therapy--lessons from clinical trials. Am J Cardiol. 1996;4A:28-33. [176]8. 8Pratt CM, Moye LA. The Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial: background, interim results and implications. Am J Cardiol. 1990;4:20B-29B. [177]9. 9Lemmert ME, de Jong JS, van Stipdonk AM, et al. Electrocardiographic factors playing a role in ischemic ventricular fibrillation in ST elevation myocardial infarction are related to the culprit artery. Heart Rhythm. 2008;1:71-78. [178]10. 10Bar FW, Tzivoni D, Dirksen MT, et al. Results of the first clinical study of adjunctive CAldaret (MCC-135) in patients undergoing primary percutaneous coronary intervention for ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction: the randomized multicentre CASTEMI study. Eur Heart J. 2006;21:2516-2523. [179]11. 11Stone GW, Webb J, Cox DA, et al.Enhanced Myocardial Efficacy and Recovery by Aspiration of Liberated Debris (EMERALD) Investigators Distal microcirculatory protection during percutaneous coronary intervention in acute ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2005;293:1063-1072. [180]CrossRef [181]12. 12Heart rate variability: standards of measurement, physiological interpretation and clinical use (Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and the North American Society of Pacing and Electrophysiology). Circulation. 1996;5:1043-1065. [182]13. 13Birnbaum Y, Sclarovsky S. The grades of ischemia on the presenting electrocardiogram of patients with ST elevation acute myocardial infarction. J Electrocardiol. 2001;34(Suppl):17-26. [183]Abstract | [184]Full-Text PDF (306 KB) | [185]CrossRef [186]14. 14Behar S, Goldbourt U, Reicher-Reiss H, et al. Prognosis of acute myocardial infarction complicated by primary ventricular fibrillation (Principal Investigators of the SPRINT Study). Am J Cardiol. 1990;17:1208-1211. [187]15. 15Brezins M, Elyassov S, Elimelech I, et al. Comparison of patients with acute myocardial infarction with and without ventricular fibrillation. Am J Cardiol. 1996;8:948-950. [188]16. 16Gheeraert PJ, Henriques JP, De Buyzere ML, et al. Out-of-hospital ventricular fibrillation in patients with acute myocardial infarction: coronary angiographic determinants. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000;1:144-150. [189]17. 17Ruiz-Bailén M, Hoyos EAd, Ruiz-Navarro S, et al. Ventricular fibrillation in acute myocardial infarction in Spanish patients: results of the ARIAM database. Crit Care Med. 2003;8:2144-2151. [190]18. 18Thompson CA, Yarzebsky J, Goldberg RJ, et al. Changes over time in the incidence and case-fatality rates of primary ventricular fibrillation complicating acute myocardial infarction: perspectives from the Worcester Heart Attack Study. Am Heart J. 2000;6:1014-1021. [191]19. 19Lown B. Sudden cardiac death--1978. Circulation. 1979;7:1593-1599. [192]20. 20Lie KI, Wellens HJ, Downar E, et al. Observations on patients with primary ventricular fibrillation complicating acute myocardial infarction. Circulation. 1975;5:755-759. [193]21. 21El-Sherif N, Myerburg RJ, Scherlag BJ, et al. Electrocardiographic antecedents of primary ventricular fibrillation (Value of the R-on-T phenomenon in myocardial infarction). Br Heart J. 1976;4:415-422. [194]22. 22Fauchier L, Babuty D, Cosnay P, et al. Prognostic value of heart rate variability for sudden death and major arrhythmic events in patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1999;5:1203-1207. [195]23. 23Hermida JS, Leenhardt A, Cauchemez B, et al. Decreased nocturnal standard deviation of averaged NN intervals (An independent marker to identify patients at risk in the Brugada Syndrome). Eur Heart J. 2003;22:2061-2069. [196]24. 24Carpeggiani C, L'Abbate A, Landi P, et al. Early assessment of heart rate variability is predictive of in-hospital death and major complications after acute myocardial infarction. Int J Cardiol. 2004;3:361-368. [197]25. 25Reed MJ, Robertson CE, Addison PS. Heart rate variability measurements and the prediction of ventricular arrhythmias. QJM. 2005;2:87-95. [198]26. 26Wellens HJ, Gorgels AP, de Munter H. Cardiac arrest outside of a hospital: how can we improve results of resuscitation?. Circulation. 2003;15:1948-1950. [199]27. 27Arzbaecher R, Jenkins J, Burke M, et al. Database testing of a subcutaneous monitor with wireless alarm. J Electrocardiol. 2006;4(Suppl):S50-S53. [200]28. 28Fischell TA, Fischell DR, Fischell RE, et al. Real-time detection and alerting for acute ST-segment elevation myocardial ischemia using an implantable, high-fidelity, intracardiac electrogram monitoring system with long-range telemetry in an ambulatory porcine model. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;11:2306-2314. [201]a Department of Cardiology, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands [202]* Duke University Medical Center/Duke Clinical Research Institute, Durham, North Carolina, USA [203]Corresponding Author Information Address reprint requests and correspondence: Dr. Miguel E. Lemmert, Maastricht University Medical Center, Department of Cardiology, PO Box 5800, 6202 AZ Maastricht, The Netherlands This research was supported by an unrestricted grant from Philips Healthcare, Seattle, Washington. PII: S1547-5271(09)01043-1 doi:10.1016/j.hrthm.2009.09.024 © 2010 Heart Rhythm Society. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. [204]View previous. 12 of 28 [205]View next. [206]Copyright © 2010 Elsevier, Inc. 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Clow [8]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] [trans_pix.gif] Search ______________ Search Titles * [9]Animals * [10]Architecture * [11]Arts * [12]Business * [13]Computers * [14]Crafts * [15]Finance * [16]Flora and Plants * [17]Cooking * [18]Gardening * [19]Health and Healing * [20]History * [21]Home Improvements * [22]Languages * [23]New Age * [24]Novels * [25]Real Estate * [26]Reference * [27]Religion * [28]Science * [29]Society * [30]Sports * [31]Travel * [32]Outdoors * [33]Site Listing Discover * [34]Find Articles * [35]FAQ Help Tutorials * [36]Travel Articles Description This section is from the book "[37]Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications", by Frederick R. Clow. Also available from Amazon: [38]Principles of sociology with educational applications. Rhythm Of Groups Based On Nature This metabolic rhythm impresses itself on all group activity, and no one can be a successful "social engineer" who does not take account of it. The public speaker allows times in his address when his hearers may relax their attention or change the kind of mental process which he requires of them, and herein is the real reason for the jokes and anecdotes with which a long address is interspersed. A teacher does the same thing in a recitation by having a variety of work done. To the same end, the school program combines periods for study, manual training, recitation, gymnastics, and play. Some of the longer periods of the metabolic rhythm are synchronized with those of nature. The earth's daily rotation makes a [39]cycle which has become inherent in the constitution of every living thing, of every person, and of every form of social life. The school assembles in the morning, has "morning exercises," and goes through those forms of work which demand the highest degree of mental efficiency; then there is an interval for lunch, and then the afternoon and evening have their appropriate exercises. The daily round repeats itself with more or less of regularity. The weekly cycle does not appear to correspond to anything in organic nature, but it probably has a metabolic basis else it would not be so prevalent. The lunar month is a cycle in nature from which the month of our calendar is derived; it is therefore a cycle with which many social arrangements are timed, such as the payment of salaries, and the making of reports. The cycle of seasons resulting from the annual revolution of the earth around the sun forces human [40]society everywhere through a corresponding cycle of important changes which vary according to the climate of the particular locality. The [41]principle involved in all the forms of relaxation ... is relief from tension or release from some form of restraint. Although this tension and restraint on the part of the individual are necessary conditions of all social evolution, they have been greatly intensified by the manner of life which characterizes the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. . . . When this everlasting urge of progress is excessive, as it has been in recent times, we may say that there is in a way a constant subconscious rebellion against it and a constant disposition to escape from it, and the method of escape is always the temporary reversion to simpler and more primitive forms of behavior, - a return to nature, so to speak. Sudden momentary and unexpected release from this tension, with instinctive reinstatement of primitive forms of expression, is laughter. Daily or periodic systematic return to primitive forms of activity is sport or play. War is a violent social reversion to elemental and natural intertribal relations. Profanity is a resort to primitive forms of vocal expression to relieve a situation which threatens one's well-being. Alcohol is an artificial means of relieving mental tension by the narcotizing of the higher brain centers. - Patrick, The Psychology of Relaxation, pp. 18-20. . . . The course of annual rainfall in the great cereal-producing area of the United States has been shown to move in cycles: there is a ground-swell of thirty-three years in length upon which cycles of eight years in [42]duration are superposed. . . . The rhythm in the activity of economic life, the alternation of buoyant, purposeful expansion with aimless depression, is caused by the rhythm in the yield per acre of the crops; while the rhythm in the production of the crops is, in turn, caused by the rhythm of changing weather which is represented by the cyclical changes in the amount of rainfall. ... - Moore, Economic Cycles, pp. 36, 135. Continue to: * prev: [43]Rhythm In Nature * [44]Table of Contents * next: [45]The Cycle Of A Generation Tags [46]sociology, [47]communication, [48]congenial groups, [49]cycles of change, [50]democracy, [51]factors of society, [52]government, [53]heredity, [54]human nature, [55]institutions, [56]location, [57]natural selection, [58]organizations, [59]population, [60]primary groups, [61]social classes [trans_pix.gif] __________________________________________________ Search [trans_pix.gif] [62]TOP [63]previous page: Rhythm In Nature [64]page up: Principles Of Sociology With Educational Applications | by Frederick R. Clow [65]next page: The Cycle Of A Generation __________________________________________________________________ © 2007-2009 [66]StasoSphere [ [67]Privacy Policy ] [ [68]Terms of Use ] [ [69]About Us ] [ [70]Search ] Last modified Sat Feb 21 12:34:34 2009 Références #[1]Welcome page [2]Help [3]Parent screen [4]skip navigation [5]Geography Compass Select Compass [Geography Compass........................] Go * [6]Home | * [7]My Compass | * [8]Help | * [9]Content Alerts | * [10]Contact Us | * [11]Links * [12]What is Geography Compass? | * [13]Subscribe | * [14]Editors | * [15]Editorial Board | * [16]Authors Cultural Towards Lefebvrian Socio-Nature? A Film about Rhythm, Nature and Science By [17]James Evans and [18]Phil Jones, School of Environment and Development, University of Manchester School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham (April 2008) __________________________________________________________________ Section: [19]Cultural Subjects: [20]Environment And Society, [21]Geography, [22]Urban Geography, [23]Cultural Geography. Key Topics: [24]nature , [25]representation. Abstract The first thing you will notice about this article is that it is actually a film. We did not set out to make a film, it just ended up that way. We started out making music out of environmental data, wondering why we only ever look at scientific data, why we do not listen to it. Wandering around the city passing through the transformed landscapes of channelised rivers and broken industrial spaces, we wanted to reveal the socio-natural rhythms of this hybrid city. The text you see below represents the shooting script for a film that explores Lefebvre's notion of rhythmanalysis in the context of socio-natural rhythms. The video accompanying it is far more interesting, including the environmental music that we produced by feeding scientific data through samplers and drum machines. The video questions the nature of scientific representation and whether the notion of rhythmanalysis can be stretched to explore rhythms beyond the human. Furthermore, the process of actually making the video, submitting it to this journal, and responding to the referees' comments made us question the very nature of what constitutes an academic paper in the twenty-first century. The accompanying commentary is our attempt to deal with these issues. To link to the film please go to DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00107.x This article abstract has been viewed 5348 times. [27]view [28]cite [29]Add to my Compass [30]Add to VLE/CMS [31]feedback __________________________________________________________________ Top 5 related articles * [32]Geographies for Moving Bodies: Thinking, Dancing, Spaces By [33]Derek P. McCormack , Oxford University Centre for the Environment (Vol. 3, October 2008) Geography Compass * [34]Colonialism, Landscape and the Subterranean By [35]Heidi V. Scott , Institute of Geography and Earth Sciences, Aberystwyth University (Vol. 3, October 2008) Geography Compass * [36]Climate-Suicide Relationships: A Research Problem in Need of Geographic Methods and Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives By P. Grady Dixon and Adam J. Kalkstein, Mississippi State UniversityUnited States Military Academy (Vol. 4, September 2009) Geography Compass * [37]Ethnomethodology and the Non-representational: What Are Disaffected Young White Men Capable of? 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Mike Bradshaw and Basil Gomez Geography Compass Editors-in-Chief [70]Blackwell Publishing Copyright © 2005-2007 [71]Blackwell Publishing | [72]Privacy Policy | [73]Contact us | [74]Help | [75]To the top... [76][ access key 0 : accessibility information including access key list ] [77][ access key 1 : home page ] [78][ access key 2 : skip navigation] [79][ access key 6 : help ] Références [1]pmc logo image [2]Logo of nihpa [3]Journal List > [4]NIHPA Author Manuscripts Formats: * [5]Abstract | * Full Text | * [6]PDF (32K) J Public Health Policy. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2008 July 24. Published in final edited form as: [7]J Public Health Policy. 2006; 27(1): 2-12. doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200061. PMCID: PMC2483431 NIHMSID: NIHMS58476 [8]Copyright notice and [9]Disclaimer Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature Elena N. Naumova^* ^*Address for Correspondence: Department of Public Health and Family Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Avenue, Boston, MA 02111, USA. E-mail: elena.naumova/at/tufts.edu Small right arrow pointing to: The publisher's final edited version of this article is available at [10]J Public Health Policy. Small right arrow pointing to: See other articles in PMC that [11]cite the published article. Abstract Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences. Understanding seasonal fluctuations in diseases patterns presents us with a major challenge. To develop efficient strategies for disease prevention and control, we need to grasp the main determinants of temporal variations and their interactions. This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality by outlining several of its factors, using as illustrations respiratory and enteric water- or food-borne infections. Keywords: seasonality, water-borne infection, food-borne infection, respiratory infection * [12] Other Sectionsv + [13]Abstract + [14]Introduction + [15]Notion of Seasonality + [16]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [17]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [18]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [19]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [20]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [21]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [22]References Introduction Now let us consider the seasons and the way we can predict whether it is going to be a healthy or an unhealthy year. (Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 10)^[23]1 Seasonal fluctuations in birth and death, in sickness and health, are the haunting mysteries of mankind. People have made predictions from winds, tides, birds' migrations, spring blooms, sunsets, and constellations in hope of grasping the future. The complexity and uncertainty of ancient and modern means of prediction make us wonder to what extent we are able to understand the rhythm of nature. One might argue the future cannot be known, but from a practical point of view, a better understanding of changes in disease occurrences is essential for building efficient strategies for disease prevention and control. Seasonality, a systematic periodic occurrence of events over the course of a year, is a well-known phenomenon in life and health sciences. Since Hippocrates, observers worldwide have noted and documented marked fluctuations in the incidence of many diseases. In the modern view, the main determinants of temporal variations in disease manifestation are evolving host susceptibility, periodicity in pathogen abundance and transmissibility, and the ever-changing environment that can support or repress a host or pathogen. Interactions among these factors responsible for seasonal variation are interwoven into the intricate fabric of life. For many diseases, explanations for self-sustained oscillations still remain elusive. We lack adequate methods and sufficient analytical tools for comprehensive examination of seasonality in public health field studies. A dearth of observations, recorded over long periods at fine resolution, compounded by an enormous number of factors associated with periodic changes, obscure our ability to understand disease variation. Urgent need for effective strategies to prevent and control a spread of emerging infections in the rapidly changing world, however, demands a deeper insight into the cyclic nature of diseases. This paper will introduce the notion of seasonality and outline several factors associated with seasonality using as illustrations enteric water- or food-borne infections and respiratory infections. Then I propose a framework for systematic evaluation of seasonal oscillations. In every part of this presentation, and most importantly, I wish to stimulate discussion on this challenging topic. * [24] Other Sectionsv + [25]Abstract + [26]Introduction + [27]Notion of Seasonality + [28]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [29]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [30]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [31]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [32]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [33]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [34]References Notion of Seasonality Every disease occurs at any season of the year but some of them more frequently occur and are of greater severity at certain times. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 19) Seasonality, as noted above, refers to the cyclic appearance of events over a period of time. A seasonal pattern may appear as a tight cluster of isolated outbreaks that occurred during a relatively short time period, then spreading over a wide geographic area. For example, in a temporal curve of enteric infection cases (i.e. giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, or rotavirus infections), a compact cluster of outbreaks is followed by a long interval of low incidence. Systematic recurrence of such sequences forms a seasonal pattern typical of a specific pathogen in a given population and in a given locality. A seasonal increase in enteric or respiratory infection often produces a well-defined oscillating curve that starts to rise in one season and declines over the next one. The three main features characterize seasonality: * a point in time when a seasonal curve reaches its maximum, * an amplitude from peak to nadir, and * a duration of a seasonal increase defined by a shape of a curve. (The shape of a seasonal pattern reflects how fast a temporal curve reaches its peak and declines to nadir over a course of a full cycle. Depending on the length of a cycle whether it is one year or a half of a year, a seasonal curve would have one or two peaks.) Seasonal patterns, described by these three characteristics, may vary for different diseases, different locations, or different subpopulations. Many viral and bacterial infections in humans show marked seasonal changes. In some diseases, like salmonellosis and influenza, annual oscillations explain up to 60% of variability. Such impact should not be ignored and deserves a proper examination. * [35] Other Sectionsv + [36]Abstract + [37]Introduction + [38]Notion of Seasonality + [39]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [40]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [41]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [42]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [43]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [44]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [45]References Diseases Seasonal Patterns Diseases vary in their relationships one with another; some are opposed, some are mutually agreeable. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 3) Differences in diseases peaks reflect different etiology, heterogeneity in host susceptibility, or route of transmission. In temperate climates, Campylobacter and Salmonella infections are known to rise in summer, giardiasis in early fall, and rotavirus infection in mid-winter, etc. Interestingly, for the same infectious agent, infections recorded in two different locations may present a different pattern of incidence. A seasonal pattern for cryptosporidiosis in the United States exhibits one late summer peak ([46]1); in contrast, in the United Kingdom, two seasonal peaks are seen ([47]2). The UK picture reflects two dominant sources of exposure: one from animals in the late spring, and another from humans in the fall ([48]3). Close temporal clustering of seasonal peaks in diseases that share similar sources of exposure suggests dominant routes of transmissions. Peaks in water-borne cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis often cluster after a summer peak in ambient temperature. Such synchronization in disease manifestation can be governed by environmental and social factors. In some instances, periodicity of a given infection observed in a particular population may be not present in another. A seasonal peak in cryptosporidiosis cases observed in the general population is not apparent in the immunocompromized HIV-positive gay men, even though the incidence of cryptosporidiosis in HIV-positive population is very high. This suggests differences in dominant routes of transmission. Seasonal patterns can change over time. After intense vaccination campaigns in the 1950s and 1970s in the United Kingdom, the patterns of measles and pertussis changed, with the high rates of disease usually seen when children were attending school diminishing for measles and practically disappearing for pertusis ([49]4). Explanations for these phenomena remain elusive. A departure from a systematically observed pattern could reflect the evolution of a pathogen or a change in herd immunity. A simple rule to remember is that a discovery hides in outliers. Faced with an abundance of causal agents, a bare observation of a rise in the incidence of non-specific enteritis should be interpreted with caution. A seasonal pattern can represent a mix of temporal curves. Imagine two periodic curves of similar intensity, but one peaks in a spring and another in a fall; the sum of these two curves might lose the appearance of seasonality, covering two distinctly seasonal phenomena. Some infections are very rare. Their seasonal patterns are difficult to examine because the relevant data must be collected over a very long time and/or aggregated over large spatial units. Precision in evaluating seasonality can thus be jeopardized by time-dependent and/or space-dependent confounders. Seasonal fluctuations can be found beyond infectious diseases; chronic somatic diseases also exhibit substantial temporal variations. Plausibly, exacerbations in chronic conditions are driven by infectious agents or environmental changes. Understanding the interplay of an infection and a chronic disease may lead to better control for both. * [50] Other Sectionsv + [51]Abstract + [52]Introduction + [53]Notion of Seasonality + [54]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [55]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [56]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [57]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [58]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [59]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [60]References Seasonal Host Susceptibility When the weather is seasonable and the crops ripen at the regular times, diseases are regular in their appearance... (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 8) Poor nutrition directly affects host susceptibility. In places of food scarcity, researchers suspect that temporal patterns in birth weight and preterm delivery result from seasonal variations in food availability ([61]5). In general, due to a less developed immune system, young children are susceptible to infection; their immune response may be further weakened by seasonal cutbacks in essential micronutrients and vitamins. Anemnestic responses to an antigen determine whether an infection recurs. Short-lived immune memory together with seasonal changes in pathogen transmissibility contribute further to the complexity of seasonal patterns. Even a perfectly healthy person can experience a change in susceptibility to infection due to stress, injuries, or trauma. The probability of a marked impact of such factors on disease seasonality is virtually unknown. * [62] Other Sectionsv + [63]Abstract + [64]Introduction + [65]Notion of Seasonality + [66]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [67]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [68]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [69]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [70]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [71]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [72]References Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility Some diseases are produced by the manner of life that is followed; others by the life-giving air we breathe. (Hippocrates. The Nature of Man, 9) Temperature, humidity, and precipitation -- the defining factors of seasons -- are important determinants of pathogens' survival. Changes influence pathogens' potency and life expectancy, resulting in temporal fluctuations in pathogens' abundance. In many instances, seasonal changes in pathogen survival and transmission are inseparably related to both biological and social aspects of our lives. They are synchronized by weather. High ambient temperature, for example, provides a supportive environment for food-borne pathogens, favoring their multiplication in food and on food preparation surfaces ([73]6). Food contamination is believed to be a significant mode of transmission for infections caused by Salmonella and Campylobacter ([74]7); therefore, during warm weather, the risk for food-borne diseases increases ([75]8). Seasonal changes in level of contamination, availability of potable water, sanitation and hygiene practices, as well as crowding and person-to-person contacts, affect pathogens' transmissibility. Worldwide, water use differs from season to season ([76]9). In temperate climates, warm weather leads to higher water consumption and encourages outdoor activities -- swimming, camping, and recreational water use. In tropical regions, contamination of surface water increases during wet seasons. Although spread of pathogens via food is certainly possible, contaminated water is the dominant source of exposure for enteric infections caused by protozoa Cryptosporidium and Giardia ([77]10 --[78]12). Depending on locality, outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis associated with drinking or recreational water frequently occur during warm or wet seasons ([79]13,[80]14). With the onset of cooler weather, the "heating season" marks a change in indoor air quality. Inadequate and poorly designed ventilation in crowded public places and urban transit systems may boost exposure to air-borne pathogens by increasing their concentration in stagnant air and by re-circulating contaminated air. Higher relative humidity may also affect the stability of air-borne droplets in which viruses travel from person to person. * [81] Other Sectionsv + [82]Abstract + [83]Introduction + [84]Notion of Seasonality + [85]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [86]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [87]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [88]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [89]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [90]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [91]References Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects You will find, as a general rule, that the constitutions and the habits of a people follow the nature of the land where they live. (Hippocrates. Air, Waters, Places, 24) Diseases do not watch calendars. Their incidence rises and falls because of changes in factors associated with the diseases. However, in every culture all social events are synchronized by calendars; and every calendar reflects the cyclic rhythm of nature. Traditional celebrations and gatherings observed by communities according to calendars affect pathogen transmission. Holidays, social activities, and seasonal travel are often associated with changes in food consumption and preparation, and are therefore associated with changes in disease incidence. Preparing meat on a barbecue increases the risk of Campylobacter infection ([92]15,[93]16) and foreign travel increases the risk for enteric infections. Aggregation of children in schools, daycare centers, and summer camps, reflecting school calendars, facilitates rapid exchange of pathogens. There are marked seasonal variations in transmission, and thus the incidence of enteric and respiratory infections. * [94] Other Sectionsv + [95]Abstract + [96]Introduction + [97]Notion of Seasonality + [98]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [99]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [100]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [101]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [102]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [103]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [104]References Climate Change, Extreme Weather Events, and Disease Seasonality The changes of the seasons are especially liable to beget diseases, as are great changes from heat to cold, or cold to heat in any season. Other changes in the weather have similarly severe effects. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, III, 1) As weather affects human health by creating favorable conditions for pathogen proliferation and transmission, severe weather can affect the timing and intensity of infectious outbreaks, and natural disasters lead to drastic changes in population structure and pathogen ecology. Catastrophic events like tsunamis, hurricanes, devastating floods, and heat waves that cause deaths, population displacement, and infrastructural damage may have dramatic effects on the incidence of infections and their seasonal patterns. Recent work has shown highly significant associations between extreme precipitation and water-borne disease outbreaks ([105]17). Heavy precipitation, rapid snowmelt, and floods flush animal wastes from the land into surface waters and may overwhelm drinking and wastewater treatment systems. The latter leads to discharges in watersheds of untreated human wastes. As a result, pathogens can appear in drinking and recreational water in very high concentrations ([106]18,[107]19). A rapid snowmelt, resultant runoff, and filtration system failure at the overloaded local drinking water treatment plant were implicated in the largest known water-borne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis, which occurred in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1993 ([108]20). This outbreak happened in April, not within the usual seasonal peak for cryptosporidiosis cases. A flood, which also resulted from a rapid snowmelt, has been linked with a similar increased incidence of diarrhea ([109]21). Experts expect that global climate change will increase climate variability and the frequency of extreme precipitation events in temperate regions ([110]22,[111]23). "Global warming" may also increase the frequency and magnitude of other extreme weather events, such as heat waves and droughts, and thereby have profound effects on public health ([112]24,[113]25). In a comprehensive study conducted in the United Kingdom that described a short-term link between temperature and food poisoning, the authors also hypothesized that climate change could lead to changes in rates of food poisoning ([114]26). Integration of environmental parameters into disease forecasting and warning systems could allow public health officials to alert the populace when specific meteorological conditions pose predictable risks to health ([115]27). Simple messages about proper food preparation and refrigeration and the risks of using contaminated recreational waters could, for example, be provided before, during, and after extreme events. Better understanding of disease seasonality would also help to predict outbreaks of infections triggered by climate variability. * [116] Other Sectionsv + [117]Abstract + [118]Introduction + [119]Notion of Seasonality + [120]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [121]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [122]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [123]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [124]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [125]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [126]References Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking Desperate cases need the most desperate remedies. (Hippocrates. Aphorisms, I, 6) At first, seasonal fluctuations should be systematically described. This requires a framework with sound definitions and analytic tools suitable for routine use by public health professionals. In public health sciences, the existing methodology currently lacks methods and tests for assessing complex interactions in the time-dependent factors responsible for disease seasonality. Next, reliable data with fine temporal resolution are a must. The vast majority of epidemiological studies have examined seasonal patterns of infections using quarterly or monthly data. This coarse temporal aggregation can thwart an otherwise detailed, accurate, and comprehensive analysis of seasonal patterns and may even be misleading ([127]28). Examination of daily or weekly rates can substantially improve evaluation of seasonal curves, but a systematic approach for using at least weekly aggregates is needed. Finally, reluctance to apply sophisticated mathematical models in public health studies must be overcome. Underlying processes in disease manifestation and spread are complex and multifaceted. Causal pathways are often obscured. To disentangle causal effects of many factors within the circular processes of self-sustaining oscillations demands the careful building of sound conceptual models of seasonality; models that can be tested. The emerging fields of computational epidemiology and intelligent data mining will complement established work in philosophy of science and mathematical biology to become an essential part of thinking in public health and policy. Acknowledgments I thank Drs Eileen O'Neil and Beth Rosenberg for their thoughtful suggestions, and the support of funding agencies: the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (U19AI062627), and the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R01ES013171). Footnotes ^1Hippocrates' citations are taken from: Lloyd, GER, editor. Hippocratic Writings. Trans. Chadwick J and Mann WN. London: Penguin; 1978. * [128] Other Sectionsv + [129]Abstract + [130]Introduction + [131]Notion of Seasonality + [132]Diseases Seasonal Patterns + [133]Seasonal Host Susceptibility + [134]Seasonality in Pathogens Survival and Transmissibility + [135]Disease Seasonality and Calendar Effects + [136]Climate Change, [dot.gif] Extreme Weather Events, [dot.gif] and Disease Seasonality + [137]Methodology in Studying Seasonality: Brining Mathematics and Philosophy to Public Health Thinking + [138]References References 1. Naumova EN, Chen JT, Griffiths JK, Matyas BT, Estes-Smargiassi SA, Morris RD. Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. Public Health Rep. 2000;115(5):436-47. [[139]PubMed] 2. Naumova EN, Christodouleas J, Hunter PR, Syed Q. Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance system in 1990 --1999. J Water Health. 2005;3(2):185-96. [[140]PubMed] 3. McLauchlin J, Amar C, Pedraza-Diaz S, Nichols GL. Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in 1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from livestock animals. J Clin Microbiol. 2000;38(11):3984-90. [[141]PubMed] 4. Anderson RM, May RM. Infectious Diseases of Humans. New York: Oxford University Press; 2004. 5. Fallis G, Hilditch J. A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between rural Zaire and Ontario. Can J Public Health. 1989;80(3):205-8. [[142]PubMed] 6. Kusumaningrum HD, Riboldi G, Hazeleger WC, Beumer RR. Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces and cross-contamination to foods. Int J Food Microbiol. 2003;85(3):227-36. [[143]PubMed] 7. Mead PS, Slutsker L, Dietz V, McCaig LF, Bresee JS, Shapiro C, et al. Food-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999;5(5):607-25. [[144]PubMed] 8. Kovats RS, Edwards SJ, Hajat S, Armstrong BG, Ebi KL, Menne B. The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries. Epidemiol Infect. 2004;132(3):443-53. [[145]PubMed] 9. Gofti-Laroche L, Gratacap-Cavallier B, Genoulaz O, Joret JC, Hartemann P, Seigneurin JM, et al. A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study). Water Sci Technol. 2001;43(12):39-48. [[146]PubMed] 10. Pruss A. Review of epidemiological studies on health effects from exposure to recreational water. Int J Epidemiol. 1998;27(1):1-9. [[147]PubMed] 11. Rose JB, Huffman DE, Riley K, Farrah SR, Lukasik JO, Hamann CL. Reduction of enteric microorganisms at the Upper Occoquan Sewage Authority Water Reclamation Plant. Water Environ Res. 2001;73(6):711-20. [[148]PubMed] 12. Rose JB, Slifko TR. Giardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their impact on foods: a review. J Food Prot. 1999;62(9):1059-70. [[149]PubMed] 13. Barwick RS, Levy DA, Craun GF, Beach MJ, Calderon RL. Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks -- United States, 1997 --1998. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000;49(4):1-21. [[150]PubMed] 14. Clavel A, Alivares JL, Fleta J, Castillo J, Varea M, Ramos FJ, et al. Seasonality of cryptosporidiosis in children. Eur J Clin Microbiol Inf Dis. 1996;15:77-9. 15. Kapperud G, Skjerve E, Bean NH, Ostroff SM, Lassen J. Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of a case --control study in southeastern Norway. J Clin Microbiol. 1992;30(12):3117-21. [[151]PubMed] 16. Neimann J, Engberg J, Molbak K, Wegener HC. A case --control study of risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections in Denmark. Epidemiol Infect. 2003;130(3):353-66. [[152]PubMed] 17. Curriero FC, Patz JA, Rose JB, Lele S. The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948 --1994. Am J Pub Health. 2001;91(8):1194-9. [[153]PubMed] 18. Fayer R, Trout JM, Lewis EJ, Xiao L, Lal A, Jenkins MC, et al. Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay. Parasitol Res. 2002;88(11):998-1003. [[154]PubMed] 19. Kistemann T, Classen T, Koch C, Dangendorf F, Fischeder R, Gebel J, et al. Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during extreme rainfall and runoff. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002;68(5):2188-97. [[155]PubMed] 20. MacKenzie WR, Hoxie NJ, Proctor ME, Gradus MS, Blair KA, Peterson DE, et al. A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of Cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med. 1994;331(3):161-7. [[156]PubMed] 21. Wade TJ, Sandhu SK, Levy D, Lee S, LeChevallier MW, Katz L, et al. Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms? Am J Epidemiol. 2004;159(4):398-405. [[157]PubMed] 22. World Health Organization. Using climate to predict infectious disease outbreaks: a review. World Health Organization; Geneva, Switzerland: 2004. Publication no. WHO/SDE/OEH/04.01. 23. Easterling DR, Evans JL. Observed variability and trends in extreme climate events. Bull Am Meteorol Soc. 2000;81:417-25. 24. Charron D, Thomas M, Waltner-Toews D, Aramini J, Edge T, Kent R, et al. Vulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a review. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004;67(20 --22):1667-77. [[158]PubMed] 25. Patz JA, Epstein PR, Burke TA, Balbus JM. Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996;275(3):217-23. [[159]PubMed] 26. Bentham G, Langford IH. Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England and Wales. Int J Biometeorol. 1995;39(2):81-6. [[160]PubMed] 27. Ebi KL, Schmier JK. A stitch in time: improving public health early warning systems for extreme weather events. Epidemiol Rev. 2005;27:115-21. [[161]PubMed] 28. da Silva Lopes ACB. Spurious deterministic seasonality and auto-correlation corrections with quarterly data: further Monte Carlo results. Empir Econ. 1999;24(2):341-59. __________________________________________________________________ PubMed articles by these authors * [162]Naumova, E. PubMed related articles * [163]ReviewSeasonality of infectious diseases. Annu Rev Public Health. 2007; 28:127-43. [Annu Rev Public Health. 2007] * [164]ReviewSeasonality and the dynamics of infectious diseases. Ecol Lett. 2006 Apr; 9(4):467-84. [Ecol Lett. 2006] * [165]Seasonal infectious disease epidemiology. Proc Biol Sci. 2006 Oct 7; 273(1600):2541-50. [Proc Biol Sci. 2006] * [166]Seasonal control for an endemic disease with seasonal fluctuations. Theor Popul Biol. 1988 Apr; 33(2):115-25. [Theor Popul Biol. 1988] * [167]Seasonality of primarily childhood and young adult infectious diseases in the United States. Chronobiol Int. 2006; 23(5):1065-82. [Chronobiol Int. 2006] * » [168]See reviews... | » [169]See all... Recent Activity [170]Clear [171]Turn Off [172]Turn On * [173]Mystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of NatureMystery of Seasonality: Getting the Rhythm of Nature Your browsing activity is empty. Activity recording is turned off. [174]Turn recording back on Links * [175]PubMed * [176]Taxonomy * [177]Taxonomy Tree * [178]Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. Public Health Rep. 2000 Sep-Oct; 115(5):436-47. [Public Health Rep. 2000] * [179]Effect of precipitation on seasonal variability in cryptosporidiosis recorded by the North West England surveillance system in 1990-1999. J Water Health. 2005 Jun; 3(2):185-96. [J Water Health. 2005] * [180]Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in 1,705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from livestock animals. J Clin Microbiol. 2000 Nov; 38(11):3984-90. [J Clin Microbiol. 2000] [181]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [182]A comparison of seasonal variation in birthweights between rural Zaire and Ontario. Can J Public Health. 1989 May-Jun; 80(3):205-8. [Can J Public Health. 1989] [183]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [184]Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces and cross-contamination to foods. Int J Food Microbiol. 2003 Aug 25; 85(3):227-36. [Int J Food Microbiol. 2003] * [185]ReviewFood-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999 Sep-Oct; 5(5):607-25. [Emerg Infect Dis. 1999] * [186]The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries. Epidemiol Infect. 2004 Jun; 132(3):443-53. [Epidemiol Infect. 2004] [187]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [188]A new analytical tool to assess health risks associated with the virological quality of drinking water (EMIRA study). Water Sci Technol. 2001; 43(12):39-48. [Water Sci Technol. 2001] * [189]ReviewReview of epidemiological studies on health effects from exposure to recreational water. Int J Epidemiol. 1998 Feb; 27(1):1-9. [Int J Epidemiol. 1998] * [190]ReviewGiardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their impact on foods: a review. J Food Prot. 1999 Sep; 62(9):1059-70. [J Food Prot. 1999] * [191]Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks--United States, 1997-1998. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000 May 26; 49(4):1-21. [MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 2000] [192]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [193]Risk factors for sporadic Campylobacter infections: results of a case-control study in southeastern Norway. J Clin Microbiol. 1992 Dec; 30(12):3117-21. [J Clin Microbiol. 1992] * [194]A case-control study of risk factors for sporadic campylobacter infections in Denmark. Epidemiol Infect. 2003 Jun; 130(3):353-66. [Epidemiol Infect. 2003] [195]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [196]The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948-1994. Am J Public Health. 2001 Aug; 91(8):1194-9. [Am J Public Health. 2001] * [197]Temporal variability of Cryptosporidium in the Chesapeake Bay. Parasitol Res. 2002 Nov; 88(11):998-1003. [Parasitol Res. 2002] * [198]Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during extreme rainfall and runoff. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002 May; 68(5):2188-97. [Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002] * [199]A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med. 1994 Jul 21; 331(3):161-7. [N Engl J Med. 1994] * [200]Did a severe flood in the Midwest cause an increase in the incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms? Am J Epidemiol. 2004 Feb 15; 159(4):398-405. [Am J Epidemiol. 2004] [201]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [202]ReviewVulnerability of waterborne diseases to climate change in Canada: a review. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004 Oct 22-Nov 26; 67(20-22):1667-77. [J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2004] * [203]Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases. JAMA. 1996 Jan 17; 275(3):217-23. [JAMA. 1996] * [204]Climate change and the incidence of food poisoning in England and Wales. Int J Biometeorol. 1995 Nov; 39(2):81-6. [Int J Biometeorol. 1995] [205]See more articles cited in this paragraph * [206]ReviewA stitch in time: improving public health early warning systems for extreme weather events. Epidemiol Rev. 2005; 27():115-21. [Epidemiol Rev. 2005] [207]See more articles cited in this paragraph You are here: NCBI > [208]Literature > PubMed Central [209]Help Desk Simple NCBI Directory * Getting Started * [210]Site Map * [211]NCBI Help Manual * [212]NCBI Handbook * [213]Training & Tutorials * Resources * [214]Literature * [215]DNA & RNA * [216]Proteins * [217]Sequence Analysis * [218]Genes & Expression * [219]Genomes * [220]Maps & Markers * [221]Domains & Structures * [222]Genetics & Medicine * [223]Taxonomy * [224]Data & Software * [225]Training & Tutorials * [226]Homology * [227]Small Molecules * [228]Variation * Popular * [229]PubMed * [230]PubMed Central * [231]Bookshelf * [232]BLAST * [233]Gene * [234]Nucleotide * [235]Protein * [236]GEO * [237]Conserved Domains * [238]Structure * [239]PubChem * Featured * [240]GenBank * [241]Reference Sequences * [242]Map Viewer * [243]Genome Projects * [244]Human Genome * [245]Mouse Genome * [246]Influenza Virus * [247]Primer-BLAST * [248]Short Read Archive * NCBI Information * [249]About NCBI * [250]Research at NCBI * [251]NCBI Newsletter * [252]NCBI FTP Site * [253]Contact Us [254]NIH [255]DHHS [256]USA.gov [257]Copyright | [258]Disclaimer | [259]Privacy | [260]Accessibility | [261]Contact [262]National Center for Biotechnology Information , U.S. National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville Pike, Bethesda MD, 20894 USA Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [USEMAP] [USEMAP] #[1]Edit this page [2]Wikipedia (en) [3]copyright [4]Wikipedia RSS Feed [5]Wikipedia Atom Feed Circadian rhythm From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search "Human clock" redirects here. For the online clock, see [8]Humanclock. Overview of human circadian biological clock with some physiological parameters. A circadian rhythm is a roughly 24-hour cycle in the biochemical, physiological or behavioural processes of living entities, including [9]plants, [10]animals, [11]fungi and [12]cyanobacteria (see [13]bacterial circadian rhythms). The term "circadian", coined by [14]Franz Halberg,^[15][1] comes from the [16]Latin [17]circa, "around", and diem or dies, "day", meaning literally "approximately one day". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, [18]tidal, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called [19]chronobiology. Circadian rhythms are [20]endogenously generated, and can be entrained by external cues, called [21]zeitgebers, the primary one of which is [22]daylight. Contents * [23]1 History * [24]2 Criteria * [25]3 Origin * [26]4 Importance in animals + [27]4.1 Impact of light-dark cycle + [28]4.2 Arctic animals + [29]4.3 Butterfly migration * [30]5 Biological clock in mammals + [31]5.1 Determining the human circadian rhythm + [32]5.2 Outside the "master clock" * [33]6 Light and the biological clock * [34]7 Enforced longer cycles * [35]8 Human health + [36]8.1 Disruption + [37]8.2 Effect of drugs * [38]9 See also * [39]10 References + [40]10.1 Bibliography + [41]10.2 Notes * [42]11 External links [[43]edit] History The earliest known account of a circadian rhythm dates from the 4th century BC, when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under [44]Alexander the Great, described [45]diurnal leaf movements of the [46]tamarind tree.^[47][2] The first modern observation of endogenous circadian oscillation was by the French scientist [48]Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan in the 1700s; he noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant [49]Mimosa pudica continued even when the plants were isolated from external stimuli. In 1918, J. S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature.^[50][3] [51]Joseph Takahashi discovered the genetic basis for the rodent circadian rhythm in 1994.^[52][4]^[53][5] [[54]edit] Criteria To differentiate genuinely endogenous circadian rhythms from coincidental or apparent ones, three general criteria must be met: 1) the rhythms persist in the absence of cues, 2) they persist equally precisely over a range of temperatures, and 3) the rhythms can be adjusted to match the local time: * The rhythm persists in constant conditions (for example, constant dark) with a period of about 24 hours. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from those "apparent" rhythms that are merely responses to external periodic cues. A rhythm cannot be declared to be endogenous unless it has been tested in conditions without external periodic input. * The rhythm is temperature-compensated, i.e., it maintains the same period over a range of temperatures. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other biological rhythms arising due to the circular nature of a reaction pathway. At a low enough or high enough temperature, the period of a circular reaction may reach 24 hours, but it will be merely coincidental. * The rhythm can be reset by exposure to an external stimulus. The rationale for this criterion is to distinguish circadian rhythms from other imaginable endogenous 24-hour rhythms that are immune to resetting by external cues and, hence, do not serve the purpose of estimating the local time. Travel across [55]time zones illustrates the necessity of the ability to adjust the biological clock so that it can reflect the local time and anticipate what will happen next. Until rhythms are reset, a person usually experiences [56]jet lag. [[57]edit] Origin [58]Question book-new.svg This section needs additional [59]citations for [60]verification. Please help [61]improve this article by adding [62]reliable references. Unsourced material may be [63]challenged and [64]removed. (October 2007) Photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms are believed to have originated in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting the replicating of DNA from high [65]ultraviolet radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. The fungus [66]Neurospora, which exists today, retains this [67]clock-regulated mechanism. Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes; they have great value in relation to the outside world. The rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment.^[68][6] This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions,^[69][7] as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioural but not physiological circadian rhythms in quail.^[70][8] The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic [71]cyanobacteria. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of Synechococcus elongatus can be reconstituted in vitro with just the three proteins of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of [72]ATP. Previous explanations of the [73]prokaryotic circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription / translation feedback mechanism. It is an unanswered question whether circadian clocks in eukaryotic organisms require translation/transcription-derived oscillations, for, although the circadian systems of eukaryotes and prokaryotes have the same basic architecture (input - [74]central oscillator - output), they do not share any [75]homology. This implies probable independent origins. In 1971, Ronald J. Konopka and [76]Seymour Benzer first identified a genetic component of the biological clock using the fruit fly as a model system. Three mutant lines of flies displayed aberrant behaviour: one had a shorter period, another had a longer one, and the third had none. All three mutations mapped to the same gene, which was named [77]period.^[78][9] The same gene was identified to be defective in the sleep disorder FASPS ([79]Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome) in human beings thirty years later, underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day. A great deal of research on biological clocks was done in the latter half of the 20th century. It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous.^[80][10] At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronized output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronize the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the [81]eyes travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronized. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock. [[82]edit] Importance in animals Circadian rhythmicity is present in the [83]sleeping and feeding patterns of animals, including human beings. There are also clear patterns of core body temperature, [84]brain wave activity, [85]hormone production, cell regeneration and other biological activities. In addition, [86]photoperiodism, the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night, is vital to both plants and animals, and the circadian system plays a role in the measurement and interpretation of day length. " Timely prediction of seasonal periods of weather conditions, food availability or predator activity is crucial for survival of many species. Although not the only parameter, the changing length of the photoperiod ('daylength') is the most predictive environmental cue for the seasonal timing of physiology and behavior, most notably for timing of migration, hibernation and reproduction.^[87][11] " [[88]edit] Impact of light-dark cycle The rhythm is linked to the light-dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a [89]freerunning rhythm. Each "day", their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward, depending on whether their [90]endogenous period is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that each day reset the rhythms are called [91]Zeitgebers (from the German, Time Givers).^[92][12] It is interesting to note that totally-blind subterranean mammals (e.g., [93]blind mole rat Spalax sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors (detect light) are still functional; as well, they do surface periodically.^[[94]citation needed] Freerunning organisms that normally have one consolidated sleep episode will still have it when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is, of course, not entrained to the 24-hour light/dark cycle in nature. The sleep-wake rhythm may, in these circumstances, become out of phase with other circadian or [95]ultradian rhythms such as [96]temperature and [97]digestion.^[[98]citation needed] Recent research has influenced the design of [99]spacecraft environments, as systems that mimic the light/dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.^[[100]citation needed] [[101]edit] Arctic animals Norwegian researchers at the [102]University of Tromsø have shown that some Arctic animals ([103]ptarmigan, [104]reindeer) show circadian rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at [105]70 degrees North showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter, and spring, but not in the summer. Reindeer at [106]78 degrees North showed such rhythms only autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other Arctic animals as well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and the constant dark of winter.^[107][13]^[108][14] However, another study in northern Alaska found that [109]ground squirrels and [110]porcupines strictly maintained their circadian rhythms through 82 days and nights of sunshine. The researchers speculate that these two small mammals see that the apparent distance between the sun and the horizon is shortest once a day, and, thus, a sufficient signal to adjust by.^[111][15] [[112]edit] Butterfly migration The navigation of the fall migration of the [113]Eastern North American monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) to their overwintering grounds in central Mexico uses a time-compensated sun compass that depends upon a circadian clock in their antennae.^[114][16]^[115][17] [[116]edit] Biological clock in mammals Diagram illustrating the influence of light and darkness on circadian rhythms and related [117]physiology and behaviour through the [118]suprachiasmatic nucleus in humans. The primary circadian "clock" in [119]mammals is located in the [120]suprachiasmatic nucleus (or nuclei) ([121]SCN), a pair of distinct groups of [122]cells located in the [123]hypothalamus. Destruction of the SCN results in the complete absence of a regular sleep-wake rhythm. The SCN receives information about illumination through the eyes. The [124]retina of the eyes contains not only "classical" [125]photoreceptors but also photoresponsive retinal [126]ganglion cells. These cells, which contain a photo pigment called [127]melanopsin, follow a pathway called the [128]retinohypothalamic tract, leading to the SCN. If cells from the SCN are removed and cultured, they maintain their own rhythm in the absence of external cues. It appears that the SCN takes the information on the lengths of the day and night from the retina, interprets it, and passes it on to the [129]pineal gland, a tiny structure shaped like a [130]pine cone and located on the [131]epithalamus. In response the pineal secretes the hormone [132]melatonin. Secretion of melatonin peaks at night and ebbs during the day and its presence provides information about night-length. The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard have recently shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a 23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural solar day-night cycle on the planet [133]Mars).^[134][18] [[135]edit] Determining the human circadian rhythm The classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's circadian rhythm are * melatonin secretion by the pineal gland and * core body temperature. For temperature studies, people must remain awake but calm and semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are taken continuously. The average human adult's temperature reaches its minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake time, though variation is great among normal [136]chronotypes. Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime. Its onset in dim light, dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO), at about 21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Its major [137]metabolite can also be measured in morning urine. Both DLMO and the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or saliva have been used as circadian markers. However, newer research indicates that the melatonin offset may be the most reliable marker. Benloucif et al. in Chicago in 2005 found that melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found that both sleep offset and melatonin offset were more strongly correlated with the various phase markers than sleep onset. In addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels was more reliable and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.^[138][19] One method used for measuring melatonin offset is to analyse a sequence of urine samples throughout the morning for the presence of the melatonin [139]metabolite 6-sulphatoxymelatonin (aMT6s). Laberge et al. in Quebec in 1997 used this method in a study that confirmed the frequently found delayed circadian phase in healthy adolescents.^[140][20] [[141]edit] Outside the "master clock" More-or-less independent circadian rhythms are found in many organs and cells in the body outside the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the "master clock". These clocks, called peripheral oscillators, are found in the [142]oesophagus, [143]lungs, [144]liver, [145]pancreas, [146]spleen, [147]thymus, and the [148]skin.^[149][21] Though oscillators in the skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven so far.^[150][22]^[151][23] There is some evidence that also the olfactory bulb and prostate may experience oscillations when cultured, suggesting that also these structures may be weak oscillators. Furthermore, liver cells, for example, appear to respond to feeding rather than to [152]light. Cells from many parts of the body appear to have freerunning rhythms. [[153]edit] Light and the biological clock Light resets the biological clock in accordance with the [154]phase response curve (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required [155]illuminance vary from species to species and lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans. Lighting levels that affect circadian rhythm in humans are higher than the levels usually used in artificial lighting in homes. According to some researchers^[156][24] the illumination intensity that excites the circadian system has to reach up to 1000 [157]lux striking the retina. In addition to light intensity, wavelength (or colour) of light is a factor in the entrainment of the body clock. [158]Melanopsin is most efficiently excited by blue light, 420-440 nm^[159][25] according to some researchers while others have reported 470-485 nm. It is thought that the direction of the light may have an effect on entraining the circadian rhythm;^[160][24] light coming from above, resembling an image of a bright sky, has greater effect than light entering our eyes from below. [[161]edit] Enforced longer cycles Modern research under very controlled conditions has shown the human period for adults to be just slightly longer than 24 hours on average. Czeisler et al. at Harvard found the range for normal, healthy adults of all ages to be quite narrow: 24 hours and 11 minutes ± 16 minutes. The "clock" resets itself daily to the 24-hour cycle of the Earth's rotation.^[162][26] The 28-hour day is presented as a concept of [163]time management.^[164][27] It builds on the fact that the week of seven days at 24 hours and a "week" of six days at 28 hours both equal a week of 168 hours. To live on the 28-hour day and six-day week would require staying awake for 19 to 20 hours and sleeping for eight to nine hours. Each "day" on this system has a unique light/dark pattern. Studies by [165]Nathaniel Kleitman^[166][28] in 1938 and by [167]Derk-Jan Dijk and [168]Charles Czeisler^[169][29]^[170][30] in 1994/5 have put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep-wake cycles, in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day,^[171][31] this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about 24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including [172]sleep latency and other functions.^[173][32] Early research into circadian rhythms suggested that most people preferred a day closer to 25 hours when isolated from external stimuli like daylight and timekeeping. Early investigators determined the human circadian period to be 25 hours or more. They went to great lengths to shield subjects from time cues and daylight, but they were not aware of the effects of indoor electric lights. The subjects were allowed to turn on light when they were awake and to turn it off when they wanted to sleep. Electric light in the evening delayed their circadian phase. These results became well known.^[174][26] Researchers allowed subjects to keep electric lighting on in the evening, as it was thought at that time that a couple of 60W bulbs would not have a resetting effect on the circadian rhythms of humans. More recent research^[[175]citation needed] has shown that adults have a built-in day, which averages just over 24 hours, that indoor lighting does affect circadian rhythms and that most people attain their best-quality sleep during their [176]chronotype-determined sleep periods. [[177]edit] Human health Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions. For example, appropriately timed treatment with [178]angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) may reduce nocturnal blood pressure and also benefit [179]left ventricular (reverse) remodelling.^[[180]citation needed] A short nap during the day does not affect circadian rhythms. A number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during the day, a [181]power-nap, does not have any effect on normal circadian rhythm, but can decrease stress and improve productivity.^[182][33]^[183][34] There are many health problems associated with disturbances of the human circadian rhythm, such as [184]seasonal affective disorder (SAD), [185]delayed sleep phase syndrome (DSPS) and other [186]circadian rhythm disorders.^[187][35] Circadian rhythms also play a part in the [188]reticular activating system, which is crucial for maintaining a state of consciousness. In addition, a reversal in the sleep-wake cycle may be a sign or complication of [189]uremia,^[190][36] [191]azotemia or [192]acute renal failure. [[193]edit] Disruption Disruption to rhythms usually has a negative effect. Many travellers have experienced the condition known as [194]jet lag, with its associated symptoms of [195]fatigue, disorientation and [196]insomnia. A number of other disorders, for example [197]bipolar disorder and some [198]sleep disorders, are associated with irregular or pathological functioning of circadian rhythms. Recent research suggests that circadian rhythm disturbances found in [199]bipolar disorder are positively influenced by [200]lithium's effect on clock genes.^[201][37] Disruption to rhythms in the longer term is believed to have significant adverse health consequences on peripheral organs outside the brain, particularly in the development or exacerbation of cardiovascular disease [202][2] The suppression of melatonin production associated with the disruption of the circadian rhythm may increase the risk of developing cancer.^[203][38]^[204][39] [[205]edit] Effect of drugs Circadian rhythms and clock genes expressed in brain regions outside the SCN may significantly influence the effects produced by drugs such as [206]cocaine.^[207][40]^[208][41] Moreover, genetic manipulations of clock genes profoundly affect cocaine's actions.^[209][42] [[210]edit] See also * [211]Actigraphy (also known as Actimetry) * [212]Advanced sleep phase syndrome * [213]ARNTL * [214]ARNTL2 * [215]Bacterial circadian rhythms * [216]Chronobiology * [217]Chronotype * [218]Circadian oscillator * [219]Circadian rhythm sleep disorders * [220]Cryptochrome * [221]CRY1 and [222]CRY2, the cryptochrome family genes * [223]Delayed sleep phase syndrome * [224]Diurnal cycle * [225]Jet lag * [226]Light effects on circadian rhythm * [227]PER1, [228]PER2, and [229]PER3, the period family genes * [230]Power-nap [[231]edit] References [[232]edit] Bibliography * Aschoff J (ed.) (1965) Circadian Clocks. North Holland Press, Amsterdam * Avivi A, Albrecht U, Oster H, Joel A, Beiles A, Nevo E. 2001. Biological clock in total darkness: the Clock/MOP3 circadian system of the blind subterranean mole rat. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:13751-13756. * Avivi A, Oster H, Joel A, Beiles A, Albrecht U, Nevo E. 2002. Circadian genes in a blind subterranean mammal II: conservation and uniqueness of the three Period homologs in the blind subterranean mole rat, Spalax ehrenbergi superspecies. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:11718-11723. * Ditty JL, Williams SB, Golden SS (2003) A cyanobacterial circadian timing mechanism. Annu Rev Genet 37:513-543 * Dunlap JC, Loros J, DeCoursey PJ (2003) Chronobiology: Biological Timekeeping. Sinauer, Sunderland * Dvornyk V, Vinogradova ON, Nevo E (2003) Origin and evolution of circadian clock genes in prokaryotes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100:2495-2500 * Koukkari WL, Sothern RB (2006) Introducing Biological Rhythms. Springer, New York * Martino T, Arab S, Straume M, Belsham DD, Tata N, Cai F, Liu P, Trivieri M, Ralph M, Sole MJ. Day/night rhythms in gene expression of the normal murine heart. J Mol Med. 2004 Apr;82(4):256-64. Epub 2004 Feb 24. PMID: 14985853 * Refinetti R (2006) Circadian Physiology, 2nd ed. CRC Press, Boca Raton * Takahashi JS, Zatz M (1982) Regulation of circadian rhythmicity. Science 217:1104-1111 * Tomita J, Nakajima M, Kondo T, Iwasaki H (2005) No transcription-translation feedback in circadian rhythm of KaiC phosphorylation. Science 307: 251-254 * Moore-Ede, Martin C., Sulszman, Frank M., and Fuller, Charles A. (1982) "The Clocks that Time Us: Physiology of the Circadian Timing System." Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. [233]ISBN 0-674-13581-4. [[234]edit] Notes Centre 2. [237]^ Bretzl H. Botaniche Forchungen des Alexanderzuges. Leipzig: Teubner, 1903. 3. [238]^ Danchin, Antoine. [239]"Important dates 1900-1919". HKU-Pasteur Research Centre (Paris). 0.html. Retrieved 2008-01-12. 4. [241]^ "Gene Discovered in Mice that Regulates Biological Clock". Chicago Tribune. April 29, 1994. 5. [242]^ Vitaterna, M.H.; King, D.P.; Chang, A.M.; Kornhauser, J.M.; Lowrey, P.L.; McDonald, J.D.; Dove, W.F.; Pinto, L.H. et al. (1994). "Mutagenesis and mapping of a mouse gene, Clock, essential for circadian behavior.". Science 264 (264): 719-725. [243]doi:[244]10.1126/science.8171325. 6. [245]^ Sharma, Vijay Kumar (2003). [246]"Adaptive significance of circadian clocks" (Abstract). Chronobiology international 20 (6): 901-919. [247]doi:[248]10.1081/CBI-120026099. [249]ISSN [250]0742-0528. [251]PMID [252]14680135. Retrieved 2009-11-08. 7. [254]^ (Sheeba et al. 1999) 8. [255]^ (Guyomarc'h et al. 1998, Zivkovic et al. 1999) 9. [256]^ Purves, Dale et al (2001) [2001]. [257]"Molecular Mechanisms of Biological Clocks" (e-book). [258]NEUROSCIENCE (second ed.). Sunderland, MA, U.S.A.: Sinauer Associates. [259]ISBN [260]0-87893-742-0. 3. Retrieved 2008-05-30. 10. [262]^ [263]Circadian gene expression in individual fibroblast...[Cell. 2004] - PubMed Result 11. [264]^ Zivkovic, Bora "Coturnix" (2005-08-13 / July 25, 2007). [265]"Clock Tutorial #16: Photoperiodism - Models and Experimental Approaches". A Blog Around the Clock. ScienceBlogs. eriodi_1.php. Retrieved 2007-12-09. 12. [267]^ [268]"Circadian rhythms". Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. Armenian Medical Network. 2007. Retrieved 2007-09-19. 13. [270]^ Spilde, Ingrid (December 2005). [271]"Reinsdyr uten døgnrytme" (in Language: Norwegian, Bokmål). forskning.no. Retrieved 2007-11-24. 14. [273]^ Zivkovic, Bora, aka Coturnix, chronobiologist. [274]"Circadian Rhythms, or Not, in Arctic Reindeer". A Blog around the Clock. ScienceBlogs.com. _in_ar_1.php. Retrieved 2007-11-24. 15. [276]^ Zivkovic, Bora, aka Coturnix, chronobiologist (2007-02-11). [277]"Small Arctic Mammals Entrain to Something during the Long Summer Day". A Blog Around the Clock. ScienceBlogs.com. rain_t.php. Retrieved 2007-11-26. 16. [279]^ Merlin C, Gegear RJ, Reppert SM. (2009). Antennal Circadian Clocks Coordinate Sun Compass Orientation in Migratory Monarch Butterflies. Science 325: 1700-1704. [280]doi:[281]10.1126/science.1176221 17. [282]^ Kyriacou CP. (2009). Unraveling Traveling. Science 325:1629-1630 [283]doi:[284]10.1126/science.1178935 18. [285]^ Scheer, Frank A. J. L.; Kenneth P. Wright, Jr., Richard E. Kronauer, Charles A. Czeisler (2007-08-08). [286]"Plasticity of the Intrinsic Period of the Human Circadian Timing System". PLoS ONE 2 (1): e721. [287]doi:[288]10.1371/journal.pone.0000721. [289]PMID [290]17684566. [291]PMC [292]1934931. pone.0000721. Retrieved 2007-12-31. 19. [294]^ Benloucif, S.; Guico, M.J.; Reid, K.J.; Wolfe, L.F.; L'Hermite-Baleriaux, M.; Zee, P.C. (2005). [295]"Stability of melatonin and temperature as circadian phase markers and their relation to sleep times in humans". J Biol Rhythms (Chicago, Illinois, USA: Center for Sleep and Circadian Biology, Departments of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine) 20 (2): 178-88. [296]doi:[297]10.1177/0748730404273983. [298]PMID [299]15834114. issn=20045590. Retrieved 2007-12-18. 20. [301]^ Laberge, L.; Lesperance, P.; Tremblay, R.; Lambert, C.; Montplaisir, J. (1997). [302]"Phase delay of 6-sulphatoxymelatonin in normal adolescents". Sleep Research (Québec, Canada: Centre d'etude du Sommeil, Hopital du Sacre-Coeur, Département de Psychologie, Département de Pharmacologie, Departement de Psychiatrie, Université de Montréal) 26: 727. issn=19979287. Retrieved 2007-12-18. 21. [304]^ Zanello, S. et al., J. Inv. Dermatol. 2000, Vol. 115, 4 Oct.: Expression of the Circadian Clock Genes clock and period1 in Human Skin 22. [305]^ Kawara, S. et al. J. Inv. Derm. 2002, Vol 119, 6 Dec.: Low-dose UVB Rays Alter the mRNA Expression of the Circadian Clock Genes in cultured Human Keratinocytes 23. [306]^ Campbell, S. and Murphy, P, Science 1998, Vol 279, 16 Jan.: Extraocular Circadian Phototransduction in Humans 24. ^ [307]^a [308]^b Semjonova, Milena (2003). [309]"Healthy Lighting, from a lighting designer's perspective". Milena Lighting Design. 25. [311]^ Newman LA, Walker MT, Brown RL, Cronin TW, Robinson PR: "Melanopsin forms a functional short-wavelength photopigment", Biochemistry. 2003 Nov 11;42(44):12734-8. 26. ^ [312]^a [313]^b [314]"Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour". 1999. Retrieved 2007-09-23. "The variation between our subjects, with a 95 percent level of confidence, was no more than plus or minus 16 minutes, a remarkably small range." 27. [316]^ Digital Beat Productions (1997). [317]"28 Hour Day". 28. [319]^ Kleitman, Nathaniel (1962). Sleep and Wakefullness ed 2. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 29. [320]^ Dijk, Derk-Jan; Czeisler Charles (1994). "Paradoxical timing of the circadian rhythm of sleep propensity serves to consolidate sleep and wakefulness in humans". Neurosci Lett 166 (1): 63. [321]doi:[322]10.1016/0304-3940(94)90841-9. [323]PMID [324]8190360. 30. [325]^ Dijk, Derk-Jan; Czeisler Charles (1995). [326]"Contribution of the Circadian Pacemaker and the Sleep Homeostat to Sleep Propensity, Sleep Structure, Electrocephalographic Slow Waves, and Sleep Spindle Activity in Humans". J. Neurosci 15 (5): 3526. [327]PMID [328]7751928. 31. [330]^ Cromie, William J. (1999-07-15). [331]"Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour". The Harvard University Gazette. Retrieved 2008-02-19. 32. [333]^ Aldrich, Michael S (1999). [334]Sleep medicine. New York: Oxford University Press. [335]ISBN [336]0195129571. pg=RA1-PA65&dq=experimenting+with+the+28+hour+day&source=bl&ots=9R4 mo2fI1O&sig=om2zbYPnXnm_1HuZo2Tch6J1vyo&hl=en&ei=MBZeStGgIoyJkQWd17 znDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2. 33. [338]^ [339]"The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep". The prevalence of daytime napping and its relationship to nighttime sleep. Behavioral medicine. 2001. Retrieved 2008-11-11. 34. [341]^ [342]"Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students". Power-Napping: Effects on Cognitive Ability and Stress Levels Among College Students. Liberty University. 2007. 3.htm. Retrieved 2008-11-11. 35. [344]^ [345]"Circadian Rhythms and Sleep". Circadian Rhythms and Sleep. Serendip. 2007. ml. Retrieved 2007-09-19. 36. [347]^ Sinert, Richard; Peter R Peacock, Jr (May 10, 2006). [348]"Renal Failure, Acute". eMedicine from WebMD. 2008-08-03. 37. [350]^ [351]NIMH · Science News from 2006 · Lithium Blocks Enzyme To Help Cells' Clocks Keep On Tickin' 38. [352]^ Straif K, Baan R, Grosse Y, Secretan B, El Ghissassi F, Bouvard V, Altieri A, Benbrahim-Tallaa L, Cogliano V, WHO International Agency for Research on Cancer Monograph Working Group. Carcinogenicity of shift-work, painting, and fire-fighting. [353][1] Lancet Oncol. 2007; 12(8):1065-1066. 39. [354]^ [355]WebMD: Night Shift Work May Cause Cancer 40. [356]^ Uz T, Akhisaroglu M, Ahmed R, Manev H (2003). "The pineal gland is critical for circadian Period1 expression in the striatum and for circadian cocaine sensitization in mice". Neuropsychopharmacology 28 (12): 2117-23. [357]doi:[358]10.1038/sj.npp.1300254. [359]PMID [360]12865893. 41. [361]^ Kurtuncu M, Arslan A, Akhisaroglu M, Manev H, Uz T (2004). "Involvement of the pineal gland in diurnal cocaine reward in mice". Eur J Pharmacol 489 (3): 203-5. [362]doi:[363]10.1016/j.ejphar.2004.03.010. [364]PMID [365]15087244. 42. [366]^ McClung C, Sidiropoulou K, Vitaterna M, Takahashi J, White F, Cooper D, Nestler E (2005). [367]"Regulation of dopaminergic transmission and cocaine reward by the Clock gene". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102 (26): 9377-81. [368]doi:[369]10.1073/pnas.0503584102. [370]PMID [371]15967985. [[372]edit] External links * [373]Circadian rhythm at the [374]Open Directory Project * Leloup J.C. (2009). "Circadian clocks and phosphorylation: Insights from computational modeling". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 4 (3): 290-303. [375]doi:[376]10.2478/s11535-009-0025-1. * Rodrigo G, Carrera J, Jaramillo A (2007). "Evolutionary mechanisms of circadian clocks". Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 2 (2): 233-253. [377]doi:[378]10.2478/s11535-007-0016-z. [380]Categories: [381]Sleep | [382]Circadian rhythms | [383]Biology of bipolar disorder Hidden categories: [384]Articles needing additional references from October 2007 | [385]All articles needing additional references | [386]All articles with unsourced statements | [387]Articles with unsourced statements from September 2009 | [388]Articles with unsourced statements from November 2007 | [389]Articles with unsourced statements from January 2009 | [390]Articles with unsourced statements from December 2009 Views * [391]Article * [392]Discussion * [393]Edit this page * [394]History Personal tools * [395]Try Beta * [396]Log in / create account Navigation * [397]Main page * [398]Contents * [399]Featured content * [400]Current events * [401]Random article Search ____________________ Go Search Interaction * [402]About Wikipedia * [403]Community portal * [404]Recent changes * [405]Contact Wikipedia * [406]Donate to Wikipedia * [407]Help Toolbox * [408]What links here * [409]Related changes * [410]Upload file * [411]Special pages * [412]Printable version * [413]Permanent link * [414]Cite this page Languages * [415]Català * [416]Cesky * [417]Dansk * [418]Deutsch * [419]Ellynika' * [420]Español * [421]Français * [422]Italiano * [423]E+B+R+J+T+ * [424]Magyar * [425]Nederlands * [426]¥¬ * [427]ªNorsk (bokmål) * [428]ªNorsk (nynorsk) * [429]Polski * [430]Português * [431]Româna * [432]Russkij * [433]Simple English * [434]Srpski / Srpski * [435]Svenska * [436]a+r+d+w+ [437]Powered by MediaWiki [438]Wikimedia Foundation * This page was last modified on 16 January 2010 at 17:59. * Text is available under the [439]Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See [440]Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [441]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * [442]Contact us * [443]Privacy policy * [444]About Wikipedia * [445]Disclaimers Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1][dailyomlogo2.gif] Today's DailyOM brought to you by: [2][nav-signup.gif] [nav-line.gif] [3][nav-mydailyom.gif] [nav-line.gif] [4][nav-marketplace.gif] [nav-line.gif] [5][nav-community.gif] [nav-line.gif] [6][nav-courses.gif] [bambooborder2.jpg] [Articles......] _______________ [search.gif]-Submit [7][nav-giftshop.gif] [nav-line.gif] [8][nav-shoppingcart.gif] January 2, 2006 Universal Timing Life's Natural Rhythm Nature's natural rhythms orchestrate when day turns to night, when flowers must bloom, and provides the cue for when it is time for red and brown leaves to fall from trees. As human beings, our own inner rhythm is attuned to this universal sense of timing. Guided by the rising and setting of the sun, changes in temperature, and our own internal rhythm, we know when it is time to sleep, eat, or be active. While our minds and spirits are free to focus on other pursuits, our breath and our heartbeat are always there to remind us of life's pulsing rhythm that moves within and around us. Moving to this rhythm, we know when it is time to stop working and when to rest. Pushing our bodies to work beyond their natural rhythm diminishes our ability to renew and recharge. A feeling much like jet lag lets us know when we've overridden our own natural rhythm. When we feel the frantic calls of all we want to accomplish impelling us to move faster than is natural for us, we may want to breathe deeply instead and look at nature moving to its own organic timing: birds flying south, leaves shedding, or snow falling. A walk in nature can also let us re-attune is to her organic rhythm, while allowing us to move back in time with our own. When we move to our natural rhythm, we can achieve all we need to do with less effort. We may even notice that our soul moves to its own internal, natural rhythm - especially when it comes to our personal evolution. Comparing ourselves to others is unnecessary. Our best guide is to move to our own internal timing, while keeping time with the rhythm of nature. Click to follow DailyOM on [9]Twitter and [10]Facebook What do you think? [11]Discuss this article and share your opinion Want more DailyOM? [12]Register for your free email, or [13]browse all articles Life's Natural Rhythm Share the OM: [14][emailfriend.gif] [15]Email this to a friend [16][printerfriendly.gif] [17]Printable version [18][icon-mydailyom.gif] [19]Save in My DailyOM [20][icon-discuss.gif] [21]Discuss this article [22][horoscopes1.jpg] Today's friend of OM: Register now to receive your [23]free daily horoscope from DailyOM. 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For more information visit [24]DailyOM.com More DailyOM: [25]More Inspiration [26]Today's Horoscopes [27]OM Marketplace [28]Home | [29]Gift Shop | [30]My DailyOM | [31]Marketplace | [32]Community | [33]Archives | [34]Share The OM | [35]Contact Us [36]Subscribe | [37]Change Email | [38]User Settings | [39]Unsubscribe | [40]Privacy Policy | [41]Disclaimer | [42]Gift Shop FAQ | [43]Advertising Info [44]Make DailyOM Your Homepage | [45]Link To Us | [46]Publish DailyOM On Your Website © 2004-08 DailyOM - All Rights Reserved No portion of this site can be reprinted without express permission Artwork by [47]Wang Chang-Ming Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : #[1]Edit this page [2]Wikipedia (en) [3]copyright [4]Wikipedia RSS Feed [5]Wikipedia Atom Feed Rhythm From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search For other uses, see [8]Rhythm (disambiguation). Rhythm (from [9]greek rhuthµo'*s - rhythmos, "any measured flow or movement, symmetry") is the variation of the length and accentuation of a series of sounds or other events. Contents * [10]1 Rhythm in linguistics * [11]2 Origins of human appreciation of rhythm * [12]3 Rhythm notation and the oral tradition + [13]3.1 African music + [14]3.2 Indian music + [15]3.3 Western music * [16]4 Types * [17]5 See also * [18]6 Notes * [19]7 Sources * [20]8 Further reading [[21]edit] Rhythm in linguistics The study of rhythm, stress, and [22]pitch in [23]speech is called [24]prosody; it is a topic in [25]linguistics. Narmour (1980, p. 147-53) describes three categories of prosodic rules which create rhythmic successions which are additive (same duration repeated), cumulative (short-long), or countercumulative (long-short). Cumulation is associated with closure or relaxation, countercumulation with openness or tension, while additive rhythms are open-ended and repetitive. Richard Middleton points out this method cannot account for [26]syncopation and suggests the concept of [27]transformation. A [28]rhythmic unit is a [29]durational pattern which occupies a period of time equivalent to a [30]pulse or pulses on an underlying [31]metric level, as opposed to a [32]rhythmic gesture which does not (DeLone et al. (Eds.), 1975 [[33]edit] Origins of human appreciation of rhythm In his series How Music Works, [34]Howard Goodall presents theories that rhythm recalls how we walk and the heartbeat we heard in the womb. More likely is that a simple pulse or [35]di-dah beat recalls the footsteps of another person. Our sympathetic urge to dance is designed to boost our energy levels in order to cope with someone, or some animal chasing us - a fight or flight response. From a less darwinist perspective, perceiving rhythm is the ability to master the otherwise invisible dimension, time. Rhythm is possibly also rooted in courtship ritual.^[36][1] Neurologist [37]Oliver Sacks posits that human affinity for rhythm is fundamental, so much that a person's sense of rhythm cannot be lost in the way that music and language can (e.g. by [38]stroke). In addition, he states that [39]chimpanzees and other animals show no similar appreciation for rhythm.^[40][2] [[41]edit] Rhythm notation and the oral tradition Worldwide there are many different approaches to passing on rhythmic phrases and patterns, as they exist in traditional music, from generation to generation. [[42]edit] African music In the [43]Griot tradition of Africa everything related to music has been passed on orally. [44]Babatunde Olatunji (1927-2003), a Nigerian drummer who lived and worked in the [45]United States, developed a simple series of spoken sounds for teaching the rhythms of the hand drum. He used six vocal sounds: Goon Doon Go Do Pa Ta. There are three basic sounds on the drum, but each can be played with either the left or the right hand. This simple system is now used worldwide, particularly by [46]Djembe players. [[47]edit] Indian music Indian music has also been passed on orally. Tabla players would learn to speak complex rhythm patterns and phrases before attempting to play them. [48]Sheila Chandra, an English pop singer of Indian descent, made performances based around her singing these patterns. In [49]Indian Classical music, the [50]Tala of a composition is the rhythmic pattern over which the whole piece is structured. [[51]edit] Western music Standard [52]music notation contains rhythmic information and is adapted specifically for drums and percussion instruments. The drums are generally used to keep other instruments in 'time'. They do this by supplying beats/strikes in time at a certain pace, i.e. 70 beats per minute (bpm). In [53]Rock music, a drum beat is used to keep a [54]bass/[55]guitar line in time. [[56]edit] Types In [57]Western music, rhythms are usually arranged with respect to a [58]time signature, partially signifying a meter. The speed of the underlying [59]pulse is sometimes called the [60]beat. The [61]tempo is a measure of how quickly the pulse repeats. The tempo is usually measured in 'beats per minute' (bpm); 60 bpm means a speed of one beat per second. The length of the meter, or metric unit (usually corresponding with [62]measure length), is usually grouped into either two or three beats, being called [63]duple meter and [64]triple meter, respectively. If each beat is divided by two or four, it is [65]simple meter, if by three (or six) [66]compound meter. According to [67]Pierre Boulez, beat structures beyond four are "simply not natural".^[68][3]. His reference is to western European music. Standard notation of a clave pattern on audio clip clave pattern.ogg [69]Syncopated rhythms are rhythms that accent parts of the beat not already stressed by [70]counting. Playing simultaneous rhythms in more than one time signature is called [71]polymeter. See also [72]polyrhythm. In recent years, rhythm and meter have become an important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these areas includes books by [73]Maury Yeston, [74]Fred Lerdahl and [75]Ray Jackendoff, [76]Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty, William Rothstein, and Joel Lester. Grid notation of single a clave pattern Some [77]genres of music make different use of rhythm than others. Most Western music is based on [78]subdivision, while non-Western music uses more [79]additive rhythm. [80]African music makes heavy use of [81]polyrhythms, and [82]Indian music uses [83]complex cycles such as 7 and 13, while [84]Balinese music often uses complex [85]interlocking rhythms. By comparison, a lot of Western [86]classical music is fairly rhythmically (or metrically) simple; it stays in a [87]simple meter such as 4/4 or 3/4 and makes little use of [88]syncopation. [89]Clave is a common underlying rhythm in [90]African, [91]Cuban music, and [92]Brazilian music. [93]Claves (Submit) Play sound Four beats followed by three Clave patterns __________________________________________________________________ Problems listening to this file? See [94]media help. In the 20th century, [95]composers like [96]Igor Stravinsky, [97]Bela Bartok, [98]Philip Glass, and [99]Steve Reich wrote more rhythmically complex music using [100]odd meters, and techniques such as [101]phasing and [102]additive rhythm. At the same time, modernists such as [103]Olivier Messiaen and his pupils used increased complexity to disrupt the sense of a regular beat, leading eventually to the widespread use of [104]irrational rhythms in [105]New Complexity. This use may be explained by a comment of [106]John Cage's^[[107]where?] where he notes that regular rhythms cause sounds to be heard as a group rather than individually; the irregular rhythms highlight the rapidly changing pitch relationships that would otherwise be subsumed into irrelevant rhythmic groupings (Sandow 2004, p. 257). [108]LaMonte Young also wrote music in which the sense of a regular beat is absent because the music consists only of long sustained tones ([109]drones). In the 1930s, [110]Henry Cowell wrote music involving multiple simultaneous periodic rhythms and collaborated with [111]Léon Thérémin to invent the [112]Rhythmicon, the first electronic [113]rhythm machine, in order to perform them. Similarly, [114]Conlon Nancarrow wrote for the [115]player piano. [[116]edit] See also * [117]Meter (music) * [118]Prosody (linguistics) * [119]Riddim * [120]Morse Code * [121]Soul (music) * [122]Time scale (music) * [123]Timing (linguistics) [[124]edit] Notes 1. [125]^ [126]Mithen, Steven (2005). [127]The Singing Neanderthals: The Origins of Music, Language, Mind and Body.. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.. [128]ISBN [129]0297643177. 2. [131]^ [132]Jon Stewart, [133]Oliver Sacks. (2009-06-29). [134]The Daily Show with Jon Stewart. [Television production]. Comedy Central. itle=oliver-sacks. "People often tried to teach their dogs to dance--it doesn't work." 3. [136]^ In [137]Discovering Music: Rhythm with [138]Leonard Slatkin at 5:05 [[139]edit] Sources * Hasty, Christopher (1997). Meter as Rhythm. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [140]ISBN 0-19-510066-2. * London, Justin (2004). Hearing in Time: Psychological Aspects of Musical Meter. [141]ISBN 0-19-516081-9. * Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music. Philadelphia: Open University Press. [142]ISBN 0-335-15275-9. * Narmour (1980). Cited in DeLone et al. (Eds.) (1975). Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. [143]ISBN 0-13-049346-5. * Sandow, Greg (2004). "A Fine Madness", The Pleasure of Modernist Music. [144]ISBN 1-58046-143-3. * Yeston, Maury (1976). "The Stratification of Musical Rhythm". [[145]edit] Further reading * McGaughey, William (2001). "Rhythm and Self-Consciousness: New Ideals for an Electronic Civilization". Minneapolis: Thistlerose Publications. [146]ISBN 0-9605630-4-0. * Honing, H. (2002). [147]"Structure and interpretation of rhythm and timing." Tijdschrift voor Muziektheorie [Dutch Journal of Music Theory] 7(3): 227-232. * Lewis, Andrew (2005). Rhythm--What it is and How to Improve Your Sense of It. San Francisco: [148]RhythmSource Press. [149]ISBN 978-0-9754667-0-4. * Williams, C. F. A., The Aristoxenian Theory of Musical Rhythm, (Cambridge Library Collection - Music), Cambridge University Press; 1st edition, 2009. * Toussaint, G. T., "The geometry of musical rhythm," In J. Akiyama, M. Kano, and X. Tan, editors, Proceedings of the Japan Conference on Discrete and Computational Geometry, Vol. 3742, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2005, pp. 198-212. 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See [290]Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [291]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * [292]Contact us * [293]Privacy policy * [294]About Wikipedia * [295]Disclaimers Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [1]Daniel Laberge music Rhythm explained including 27 rhythm exercises by Daniel Laberge Rhythm figure Hi rhythm lovers, I've devised these exercises in the early seventies while teaching music. I could not find any existing book that saw rhythm the way I did. This method is based on "rhythmic figures" or rhythm possibilities. Each one lasts one beat. I simply counted the rhythmic possibilities one could encounter for each type of beat divisions. There are: o Four rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by two o Eight rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by three o Sixteen rhythmic possibilities if the beat is divided by four I composed the exercises back then and used them for my teaching, but I only wrote the theory that goes along in 2002. The book is called "Rhythm explained" and I am gradually placing its content here. Each exercise is preceded by a lesson, with graphic representations, and includes an audio rendition to help you. You can choose between three speeds. For jazz musicians, the binary exercises also have a swing or double swing performance. Go to the bottom of the page for a link to the swing version. Choose among the following exercises: Beat exercises [2]Rhythm exercise 1-1 Featured figures [3][onequarternote1.gif] [4] [onehalfnote1.gif] [5] [dottedhalfnote1.gif] [6] [wholenote1.gif] [7]Rhythm exercise 1-2 Featured figures [8][quarternoterest1.gif] [9] [halfnoterest1.gif] [10] [wholenoterest1.gif] [11]Rhythm exercise 1-3 Featured figures [12][quarternoterest1.gif] [13] [halfnoterest1.gif] [14] [dottedhalfnoterest1.gif] [15] [wholenoterest1.gif] Binary beat division The binary family is large as it includes: o Division by two o Division by four o Part of division by six o Division by eight This section is concerned with the simple division by two. Any binary beat has two alternating parts: the downbeat and the upbeat. Binary beat [binarybeat1.gif] As you can see, there are only two places in a beat where events or notes can be positioned or played: o The downbeat o The upbeat How rhythmic possibilities work This means that for any given beat you can have any of the four following possibilities: 1 o Only one event on the downbeat. 2 o Events on both the downbeat and the upbeat. 3 o No event at all. 4 o Only one event on the upbeat. [possibilitiesbytwosimple1.gif] The rhythmic figure used to represent a binary beat is called: TWO EIGHTH NOTES [masterfigurebinary1.gif] Binary master rhythmic figure Simple binary rhythmic figures 4 possibilities: o 2 Primary o 2 Secondary [possibilitiesbytwo1.gif] Secondary rhythmic figures lack the event that falls on the beat. There is a secondary figure for each primary one. Because the beat is so important, secondary figures have appeared after the primary ones had been well established. The absence of event falling on the beat can be due to a silence or a sound that is held over from the preceding beat. Because of this, there are two ways to notate secondary figures: o With a rest o With a tie [primarysecondary1.gif] Primary and secondary rhythmic figures Choose among the following exercises: Binary exercises PRIMARY [16]Rhythm exercise 2-1 Featured figure [17][twoeighthnotes2.gif] [18]Rhythm exercise 2-2 Featured figures [19][twoeighthnotes2.gif] [20] [quarternoterest2.gif] SECONDARY [21]Rhythm exercise 2-3 Featured figure [22][dottedquarternoteeighth2.gif] [23]Rhythm exercise 2-4 Featured figure [24][eighthnotesyncopationa2.gif] [25]Rhythm exercise 2-5 Featured figure [26][twoeighttieonequarter2.gif] MULTIPLE SYNCOPATIONS [27]Rhythm exercise 2-6 Featured figure [28][doublesyncopationa2.gif] Ternary beat division The ternary family is small as it includes: o Division by three o Part of division by six Everything goes in thirds in ternary music. Any ternary beat has one downbeat and two upbeats. Ternary beat [ternarybeat1.gif] The rhythmic figure used to represent a ternary beat is called: THREE EIGHTH NOTES [masterfigureternary1.gif] Ternary master rhythmic figure Writing ternary rhythm In ternary music writing, each eighth note is worth one third of a beat. Since two eighth notes always equal one quarter note, these now equal two thirds of a beat. It takes a dotted quarter note to represent one beat. [ternarywriting1.gif] Ternary rhythmic figures 8 possibilities: o 4 Primary o 4 Secondary [possibilitiesbythree1.gif] Choose among the following exercises: Ternary exercises PRIMARY [29]Rhythm exercise 3-1 Featured figure [30][threeeighth2.gif] [31]Rhythm exercise 3-2 Featured figure [32][onequarteroneeighth2.gif] [33]Rhythm exercise 3-3 Featured figure [34][oneeighthonequarter2.gif] SECONDARY [35]Rhythm exercise 3-1s Featured figure [36][8threst2eighth2.gif] OR [37] [tie3eighth2.gif] [38]Rhythm exercise 3-2s Featured figure [39][quarternoterestoneeighth2.gif] OR [40] [tiequarternote1eighth.gif] [41]Rhythm exercise 3-3s Featured figure [42][8threst1quarternote2.gif] OR [43] [tie1eighth1quarter2.gif] Division by four Beats divided by four are part of the binary family. Everything goes in quarters in this feel. Beat divided by four [binarybeat2.gif] The rhythmic figure used to represent a beat divided by four is called: FOUR SIXTEENTH NOTES [masterfigurebyfour1.gif] Division by four master rhythmic figure Binary rhythmic figures 16 possibilities: o 8 Primary o 8 Secondary [possibilitiesbyfour1.gif] Choose among the following exercises: Division by four exercises PRIMARY [44]Rhythm exercise 4-1 Featured figure [45][foursixteenth2.gif] [46]Rhythm exercise 4-2 Featured figure [47][oneeighthtwosixteenth2.gif] [48]Rhythm exercise 4-3 Featured figure [49][twosixteenthoneeighth2.gif] [50]Rhythm exercise 4-4 Featured figure [51][dottedeighthonesixteenth2.gif] [52]Rhythm exercise 4-5 Featured figure [53][onesixteenthdottedeighth2.gif] [54]Rhythm exercise 4-6 Featured figure [55][16th8th16th2.gif] SECONDARY [56]Rhythm exercise 4-1s Featured figure [57][16threst3sixteenth2.gif] OR [58] [tiefoursixteenth2.gif] [59]Rhythm exercise 4-2s Featured figure [60][8threst2sixteenth2.gif] OR [61] [tie1eighth2sixteenth2.gif] [62]Rhythm exercise 4-3s Featured figure [63][16threst1sixteenth1eighth2.gif] OR [64] [tie2sixteenth1eighth2.gif] [65]Rhythm exercise 4-4s Featured figure [66][dotted8threst1sixteenth2.gif] OR [67] [tiedottereight1sixteenth2.gif] [68]Rhythm exercise 4-5s Featured figure [69][16threstdotted8th.gif] OR [70] [tie16thdotted8th2.gif] [71]Rhythm exercise 4-6s Featured figure [72][16threst1eighth1sixteenth2.gif] OR [73] [tieone16thone8thone16th2.gif] [74]Bugs, problems and comments [75]Daniel Laberge music Références Liens visibles 74. javascript:; Liens cachés : #[1]ORGY IN RHYTHM - Atom [2]ORGY IN RHYTHM - RSS IFRAME: IN+RHYTHM&publishMode=PUBLISH_MODE_BLOGSPOT&navbarType=BLACK&layoutType [4]skip to main | [5]skip to sidebar ORGY IN RHYTHM [6]JAZZ HIP TRIO - JAZZ EN RELIEF Jazz Hip Trio for Riviera France from 1967. Jean-Bernard Eisinger Piano ; Roger Luccioni Bass ;Daniel Humair Drums. More beautiful music from France on this the first Jazz Hip Trio LP. "Orange Boom" was the big tune back in the day but the rest is just fabulous. Needless to say.....All Killer No Filler Another first in public blogland here at OIR. [7]17 comments made-how about you? 12.1.10 [8]MAL WALDRON - TOKYO BOUND Mal Waldron for RCA Victor Japan from 1970. Mal Waldron-Piano;Takeshi Inomata-Drums;Yasuo Arakawa-Bass Tremendous all killer trio date with Waldron joined by a top flight Japanese rhythm section on four original compositions which only saw a release in Japan.Check out the rocking intensity of "Rock One For Jimbo San" and "Japanese Island" which builds from an ominous brooding intro into a marvellous modal waltz."Atomic Energy" blows up with a headlong banging vamp from Waldron's left hand while the right runs all over the keys and then to close "Mount Fujiyama" a more introspective rumination and dissection of the tune's theme. Inomata's drumming is a revelation throughout the session intricate yet swinging with fantastic use of cymbals.(Don't forget to check out Inomata's Sound of Sounds lp also recorded in 1970 which I posted [9]here during the summer) Respect to El Goog for introducing me to this great album.I finally picked a copy up from Japan via ebay last month - not cheap but worth every penny. Very highly recomnmended. [10]37 comments made-how about you? 20.12.09 [11]THE HERBIE HANCOCK TRIO Herbie Hancock for Sony Japan from 1977. Herbie Hancock-Piano;Ron Carter-Bass;Tony Williams-Drums The big three keep it strictly acoustic for this Japanese only release from CBS Sony. 4 originals from Herb plus a rapid romp through "Milestones"...tough stuff. The first V.S.O.P. tour triggered a flood of recording activity in July 1977, but only a fraction of it was released in the U.S. This session, recorded in San Francisco just days before the Quintet concerts in Berkeley and San Diego, finds Herbie Hancock, Ron Carter and Tony Williams mixing it up sans the horns and the results are more reflective and cerebral than the full Quintet concerts. Hancock is thoroughly in control of the agenda while Williams throws in those meter-fracturing flurries that keep everyone on their toes. There is a startling re-interpretation of "Speak like a Child" which is significantly tougher and busier than the wistful Blue Note version, as well as challenging Hancock originals like "Watcha Waiting For" and "Watch It." This is uncompromising acoustic jazz, commercial anathema in the electronic '70s -and thus, only Japan got to hear it. Richard S. Ginell. [12]16 comments made-how about you? 13.12.09 [13]JAZZ HIP TRIO - PORTRAITS Jazz Hip Trio for Riviera France from 1968. Jean-Bernard Eisinger Piano ; Roger Luccioni Bass ;Daniel Humair Drums. Piano trios are the theme for my the next few posts and what better way to start than with some beautiful music from France on it's first time out in blogland here at OIR. 10 original compositions which grow and grow on repeated listening - get past the "Sidewinder" influenced dance floor intro tune "Bat Rock" and you're in for a swinging set of subtle trio sounds.Of course it's gotta be...... All Killer No Filler [14]23 comments made-how about you? 6.12.09 [15]THE DIAMOND FIVE - BRILLIANT ! The Diamond Five for Fontana from 1964. Personnel: Cees Slinger: piano; Harry Verbeke: tenor sax; Cees Smal: trumpet, cornet and valve trombone; Jacques Schols: bass; Johnny Engels: drums. Please check the comments as Chazz has also ripped The Five Diamonds-Finally After Forty Years cd reissue from Japan and will be posting the link shortly.Over to you Chazz! I don't post donations at OIR but just had to make an exception when this was winged across the pond to me from Chazz Katz.It's a very rare piece of hard bop from Holland which made a blink and miss it reissue on cd some years ago in Japan (original vinyl goes for silly money anywhere between $600-$1000) and has never appeared in blogland before.Here's the notes and cheers to Chazz for his rip! Nice work chap - All Killer No Filler! The Diamond Five, a Dutch quintet led by pianist Cees Slinger, was founded in 1959 and lasted until 1965. They were based at the Sheherazade Club in Amsterdam and were quite popular, playing all over Holland and accompanying expatriate American musicians on their visits to Amsterdam. However, when the club closed its doors due to a shift in popular interest from jazz to rock music, the quintet disbanded. This 1964 recording is their only session available on CD. The music is hard bop on the surface, but is neither formulaic nor a copy of the genres imported from the U.S. The musicians are quite unique in their style. Slinger plays sparse notes on his solos, utilizing well-placed pauses in the music to create melodic hard bop with hints of more forward-looking styles. The other outstanding soloist is tenor saxophonist Harry Verbeke, whose solos (in contrast to that of the leader) are filled with a multitude of notes played in the modal vein. The others are also quite stellar, the bass and the drums providing a loose bluesy support and horn man Cees Smal adding something unique with the sounds of his different horns, switching between valve trombone, cornet and trumpet. [16]26 comments made-how about you? 26.11.09 [17]BOBBY HUTCHERSON - CIRRUS Bobby Hutcherson for Blue Note from 1974. Hutch is playing four sets in London this weekend so Katonah from Private Press and I will be propping up the bar for his late spot at Scotts tomorrow night. So here's a 3rd repost for his evergreen "Cirrus" ....All Killer No Filler. This was my very first Bobby Hutcherson post here at OIR back in may 2006.It was ripped from my vinyl copy @192 in those days-I've reupped it @320 this time and taken it from the superb Mosaic Select box set.Here's my original narrative: Cirrus finds Bobby Hutcherson resuming his partnership with tenor saxophonist Harold Land, and the results are marvellous. The pair work with pianist Bill Henderson, trumpeter Woody Shaw, bassist Ray Drummond, drummer Larry Hancock, saxophonist/flautist Emmanuel Boyd and percussionist Kenneth Nash on this set of originals.The album starts with a great version of Woody Shaw's "Rosewood" while the rest of the set is written by Hutcherson and includes "Even Later".Highlight of the lp for me is the atmospheric and brooding "Zuri Dance" - what a corker ! [18]36 comments made-how about you? 13.11.09 [19]DAVE PIKE - LET THE MINSTRELS PLAY ON Dave Pike for Muse from 1978. Vibraphone - Dave Pike / Bass - Luther Hughes / Cello - Luther Hughes / Drums - Ted Hawkes / Guitar - Ron Eschete / Keyboards , Sax - Tom Ranier / Vocals - Carol Eschete. KGML has just posted "Spirits Samba" so dug the lp out for those who would like to hear more. Picked this up in Tony Monson's Disc Empire in the early 80s after hearing Chris Bangs spinning "Swan Lake" and found it had yet another bona fide jazz dance classic to be featured in the shape of "Spirits Samba". Here's an apathetic review from amg: Some Afro-Latin, some fusion and things in between from vibist Dave Pike. Pike is a good player, but sometimes his arrangements bog down between pop and jazz. His style is more remniscent of Red Norvo, with its lighter, less aggressive and flowing lines. [20]12 comments made-how about you? 12.11.09 [21]RANDY WESTON - BLUE MOSES Randy Weston For CTI from 1972. Arranged By - Don Sebesky;Bass - Bill Wood (2) (tracks: B1) , Ron Carter ;Drums - Bill Cobham ;English Horn, Clarinet, Flute - George Marge ;Flugelhorn - Alan Rubin , John Frosk , Marvin Stamm ;Flute - Hubert Laws ;French Horn - Brooks Tillotson , James Buffington ;Oboe, Clarinet, Flute - Romeo Penque ;Piano - Randy Weston Saxophone [Tenor] - Grover Washington, Jr ;Synthesizer [Moog] - David Horowitz Trombone - Garnett Brown , Warren Covington , Wayne Andre ;Trombone - Paul Faulise Trumpet - Freddie Hubbard ;Vocals - Madasme Meddah Super heavyweight banger from CTI - trust Randy Weston to dispense with Creed Taylor's saccharine stylings.All Killer blah blah blah.... Another underwhelming review from Mr Yannow: Randy Weston's most popular record, this Lp (which he had mixed feelings about) features Weston not only on piano but electric keyboards. Backed by Don Sebesky arrangements and assisted by trumpeter Freddie Hubbard and tenor-saxophonist Grover Washington Jr., Weston plays quite well on four of his compositions; best-known are "Ganawa (Blue Moses)" and "Marrakesh Blues." The music retains the African feel of most of Weston's latter-day playing but also has some commercial touches that do not hurt the performances. This rewarding date has not yet been reissued on CD. ~ Scott Yanow, All Music Guide Fantastic cover art from Pete Turner - I highly recommend his book[22] here. [23]16 comments made-how about you? 7.11.09 [24]BLACKCLASSICAL - 1ST BIRTHDAY MEGAMIX Blackclassical has taken off his flat cap ,put the racing pigeons away and is celebrating his first year on t'interwebs with a mighty mp3 mash up of spiritual jazz goodness[25] here.Proof indeed that it's not all grim up north. Happy Birthday you old bastard - now get the lagers in and make sure they've got vodka tops you tightarse. [26]3 comments made-how about you? 6.11.09 [27]TUBBT HAYES - TUBBS IN N.Y. Tubby Hayes for Fontana from 1961. Saxophone [Tenor] - Tubby Hayes; Bass - George Duvivier; Drums - Dave Bailey ;Piano - Horace Parlan ; Trumpet - Clark Terry;Vibraphone - Eddie Costa Another first in blogland for this British vinyl rarity at OIR with Tubbs keeping heavy company in NYC . Apparently there was legal wrangling about who owns the masters so don't hold your breath waiting for a cd issue.The last one got pulled pronto upon release in 1990. The swaggering "A Pint Of Bitter" was my very first exposure to Hayes back in the early 80s - I just love that tune - but the rest is just as good with flat out romps through "Opus Ocean" and "Airegin" plus a wonderfuly swinging "Soon" . Nice! [28]26 comments made-how about you? 31.10.09 [29]TUBBY HAYES QUARTET - TUBBY'S GROOVE Tubby Hayes for Tempo from 1960. Tubby Hayes (ts), Terry Shannon (p), Phil Bates (b), Phil Seamen (d). "Tin Tin Deo" killin' it every time for me on this rare piece of British wax from 50 years ago. Simon Spillet has written a fascinating piece on Tubby at[30] Jazzscript and here's his take on this album: I think it's one of Tubby's best ever studio recordings and catches him very much in his prime. I suppose that the stand-out track for me has to be Sunny Monday with its unaccompanied tenor choruses. The tone is big, the rhythmic delivery is full of confidence and the sheer enthusiasm shines through half a century on. [31]23 comments made-how about you? 30.10.09 [32]STAFFAN ABELEEN QUINTET -PERSEPOLIS Staffan Abeleen for Philips Sweden from 1964. Staffan Abeleen-Piano ; Lasse Farnlof - Trumpet ; Bjorn Netz - Tenor ; Bjorn Alke - Bass ; Bosse Skoglund - Drums More top draw business from Sweden making a first appearance in blogland.Modal to bossa to ballads this one's got the lot: ALL KILLER NO FILLER [33]15 comments made-how about you? 15.10.09 [34]BERNT ROSENGREN BIG BAND - FIRST MOVES Bernt Rosengren for EMI Sweden from 1977. Bassoon, Horn - Lars Bagge/Clarinet, Clarinet [Bass], Saxophone [Soprano, Alto, Baritone] - Lennart Jansson /Congas - Johnny Martinez , René Martinez , Sabu Martinez Cornet , Flugelhorn - Lars Färnlöf /Drums - Leif Wennerström/Flute, Saxophone -Bernt Rosengren /Horn [English], Saxophone - Tommy Koverhult / Percussion - Okay Temiz / Piano - Claes-Göran Fagerstedt / Piano, Piano [Electric] - Bobo Stenson / Saxophone [Baritone] - Gunnar Bergsten / Saxophone [Tenor] - Anders Lindskog / Trombone - Jan Jansson , Janus Miezek , Lars Olofsson , Lennart Löfgren / Trombone [Bass] - Sven Larsson /Trumpet - Björn Borg /Trumpet , Flugelhorn - Bertil Lövgren , Maffy Falay / Bass - Torbjörn Hultcrantz Back over to Sweden for this killer big band session led by Bernt Rosengren and featuring some big names such as a pre-ECM Bobo Stenson,the wonderful Lars Farnlof and none other than the mighty Sabu Martinez. Check out the percussion destruction of "Felicidade" with Sabu plus sons Johnny and Rene Martinez beating the crap out of the Jobim bossa standard... Murdah!!! [35]19 comments made-how about you? 1.10.09 [36]JAZZ QUINTET 60 Jazz Quintet 60 from 1962 for Metronome Denmark. Allan Botschinsky (tp), Niels Husum (ts), Bent Axen (p), Niels-Henning Orsted Pedersen (b), Bjarne Rostvold (ds). Legendary Scandinavian rarity (Check the second mortgage prices on [37]Popsike) from Denmark featuring a who's who of the Danish Jazz scene from the past 50 years. First time it's has been posted in public blogland so don't sleep on this one : ALL KILLER NO FILLER ! [38]27 comments made-how about you? 27.9.09 [39]STAFFAN ABELEEN QUINTET - DOWNSTREAM Staffan Abeleen Quintet for Philips Sweden from 1966. Staffan Abeleen - Piano ; Lasse Farnlof - Trumpet ; Bjorn Netz - Sax ; Bosse Skugland - Drums ; Paul Danielsson - Bass. All compositions by Lars Farnlof Scandinavia is the destination for my next batch of posts and what better way to start than with this superb album by The Staffen Abeleen Quintet playing the compositions of the wonderful Lars Farnlof. Another first appearance in blogland but let the music do the talking ... ALL KILLER NO FILLER [40]15 comments made-how about you? 19.9.09 [41]ARCHIE SHEPP & THE FAMILY OF PERCUSSION - HERE COMES THE FAMILY I have had lots of requests for a repost of this bomb from Archie Shepp and The Family of Percussion - so here it is. First posted at OIR september 2006. The Family of Percussion (Peter Giger,Trilok Gurtu,Doug Hammond and Tom Nicholas)are joined by Archie Shepp on this hard to find 1980 release from Nagara in Germany. On "Here Comes the Family"the Family establish the basic form of the piece with their rhythmic and vocal opening with Shepp's flute fluttering above it all.Then he lets rip with what the liner notes call 'Poetic Recitation'but would probably be called rapping these days over a funky percussive backdrop .This tune is why the lp remains in such demand - a big play list favourite of djs world wide. Next up is Shepp's "Street Song" the best cut on the lp for me,on which he blows his tenor freely over the drums,congas,bells and gongs.The piece ends in a crescendo of percussion culminating in a gong crash which fades into silence."Euterpe's Favorit"has Shepp back on flute with the family weaving a mystical feel behind him on bells,whistles,water pipes,gongs,rattles and drums. "Ardopetori"starts side 2 with a mid tempo infectious rhythm established by shakers and log drum which builds slowly with Shepp soloing freely again on tenor. "For Ti Roro"wraps it up and begins with the gentle,caribean sounds of steel drums until Shepp's soprano bursts in with a frenzy of excitement.This is the most free track with all the musicians reacting to each otherboth collectively and singularly until it finishes fittingly with the sound of the congas. This came out on lp and cd but quickly dissapeared without trace.if you want a copy you gonna have to dig hard and have deep pockets! [42]18 comments made-how about you? [43]HIROSHI SUZUKI - CAT Hiroshi Suzuki for Columbia Japan from 1975. Hiroshi Suzuki-Trombone ; Hiromasa Suzuki-Keyboards ; Akira Ishikawa-Drums ; Takeru Muraoka-Sax ; Kunimitsu Inaba-Bass More super rare J Jazz making a first appearance in blogland and this is an absolute beauty made up of 5 long cuts that hit the perfect balance between jazz and fusion.Acoustic bass meshed with subtle funky drums topped with lashings of Rhodes,trombone and sax deliver a really stretched out understated rolling groove. The album just grows and grows with repeated listening and it's a big favourite over here at Bacoso's Big Top - no surprise that it's ALL KILLER NO FILLER ! [44]34 comments made-how about you? 7.9.09 [45]T. INOMATA & SOUND L.T.D. - SOUNDS OF SOUND L.T.D. Takeshi Inomata for Columbia Japan from 1970. Takeshi Inomata (Drums & Percussion) Jun Suzuki (Electric Bass) Shigetok Kamiya (Electric Guitar) Ryo Kawasaki (Electric Guitar) Sho Imai (Trombone & Bass Trombone) Shigemichi Dohmoto (Trombone & Bass Trombone) Takao Uematsu (Tenor Sax & Soprano Sax) Fantastic lp of funky jazz from the Columbia issued Groovy Sound Series. No idea who plays on it as the credits are all in Japanese but it's a monster session. Check out "Mustache" and "Tak's Tune" for some severe beats from drummer/leader Takeshi Inomata. All Killer No Filler - Highly Recommended! [46]22 comments made-how about you? 29.8.09 [47]HIDEO SHIRAKI - IN FIESTA Hideo Shiraki for Teichiku Japan from 1961. Rare super tough hard bop session from Japan featuring the killer koto led and drum driven bomb "In Fiesta". Reissued in Japan by Kyoto Jazz Massive for Think in a blink and miss it moment back in 2005 but now out of print. The old Dusty Groove blurb: A brilliant early album from Japanese drummer Hideo Shiraki a jazz session that bristles with the same intensity as key late 50s work by Benny Golson or Gigi Gryce! Although Hideo's leading the group on drums, his work on the kit is remarkably subtle done with the snappingly rhythmic style that marked some of Golson's best modern experiments of a few years before not nearly as bombastic as his stint with Art Blakey, and more in the rhythmically stepping quality of his work with Art Farmer in the Jazztet. Key players on the session include Hidehiko Matsumoto on tenor and flute and Yuzuru Sera on piano both of whom give the album a fluid grace that's really beautiful soulful edges that allow the record to stand equally next to anything coming out of the US at the time. One track features a bit of koto at the start -- echoing Shiraki's later world jazz experiments but most of the set is straight modern hardbop, with tracks that include "Blue Romeo", "Etude No 1", "Just One Or Eight", "You Don't Know What Love Is", and Benny Golson's "Five Spot After Dark". [48]14 comments made-how about you? 18.8.09 [49]LLOYD MCNEILL - TREASURES Lloyd McNeill for Baobab from 1976. Lloyd McNeill-Flute ; Dom Salvador-Piano ; Cecil McBee-Bass ; Portinho , Brian Brake-Drums ; Ray Armando-Percussion. One for the flute freaks on a private press out of NYC. Heavy Brazilian infuences at work on this wonderful spiritual jazz session from the great Lloyd McNeill.Two originals,one standard and a cracking version of Salvador's "Salvation Army" which featured on Dom's '76 Muse debut "Minha Familia"(Available at [50]Ile Oxumare). Here's some info on Lloyd McNeill from the excellent [51]Hipwax: The first thing to know about Lloyd McNeill is that his are the very best soul-jazz flute LPs, and each is first-rate, a masterpiece of self-direction. The second thing to know is there is much more to him than his recorded legacy. He is one of those incredible, super-sensitive people who excels at every artistic idiom and endeavor; making wonderful music is just part of his flowing creativity. A professor (at Rutgers University, earlier Dartmouth), he has much to say about music and creativity as well as an impeccable gift for saying it...sensibly. McNeill's writings on his musical experiences provide invaluable documents of "the period" (late 1960s-1970s) as well as a rare glimpse at the joy of a relatively unsung master. McNeill has played with jazz legends --Andrew White (his longtime collaborator/producer), Eric Dolphy, Sabu Martinez, Mulatu Astatke, among many others-- and he has had a significant hand in the arts scene of Washington, D.C. The major galleries of art, including those of the Smithsonian, sponsored multi-media "happenings" that soared far above the hippie caricature of acid rock with light show. During the first flowering of post-Civil Rights, African-American culture, the Lloyd McNeill Quartet's improvisitory, simultaneuous jazz and large-scale painting "happened" while a lucky, perhaps unsuspecting public drank it in. McNeill believes his influences and their results in his art, music, and poetry are inseparable and mutually reinforcing. Time spent with Picasso in Cannes, 1965 led to new expressions in all three, for instance. And when one brushes against a force such as Picasso, just the idea of "meeting Picasso" has a certain momentum, never mind the inevitable casting of rays of a different kind of light. Canvas, vinyl, the stage, paper, and books of poetry offer a few key imprints of McNeill, and McNeill consistently pays tribute to many illustrious peers. There are six albums, all produced and entirely under the artist's control. Each title surpasses anything comparable on the major labels, even Blue Note. The Black Jazz label may be roughly similar in style, but Asha and Baobab are wholly Lloyd McNeill. The records reflect none of the usual external trends from the decade in which they were recorded; all sound like 1971 rather than 1979. The final record even reprises the first (the exotic, broodingly moody "Asha"), and the sound throughout remains somewhat interchangeable and timeless. But each record has its own themes and currents, and even improvisation has its signatures and fingerprints. Buying: Long out of print, collectors items, Lloyd McNeill records should be snapped up on sight. Hip Wax is pleased to offer two titles for which limited stock remains [52]here. Warning - McNeill lps can be damaging to the [53]wallet. [54]29 comments made-how about you? 14.8.09 [55]If Spike Lee Did Movies In Audio... Greg's back on the mix with his old mucker Monohub - another mashed up bomb in memory of Coltrane and the late,great George Russell.Grab it [56]HERE. Here's the blurb from big daddy himself: I did a version of this a while back and was planning to publish on July 17th as a memorial to the day that John Coltrane died, but, a combination of lack of time, work commitments and other things got in the way... Anyway I redid it and am glad that i did as it's much better than the original. This one strictly for the heads... and defo not for the feint hearted. If you liked the Black State of Vietnam mix then this is for you... So as i said; In respect of John Coltrane and George Russell. Much thanks to Monohub too although he plays down his part in this, his genius did have a lot to do with it... [57]1 comments made-how about you? 3.8.09 [58]SADAO WATANABE AND CHARLIE MARIANO - IBERIAN WALTZ Sadao and Charlie for Tact Japan from 1967. Sadao Watanabe (as) , Charlie Mariano (as) , Masabumi Kikuchi (p) , Masanaga Harada (b) , Masahiko Togashi (ds) , Fumio Watanabe (ds) This received a "Japan Jazz Award" on release. Some severe blowing on this double alto led sextet featuring a young band of soon to be Japanese jazz luminaries. The fast and furious "Palisades" was comped on the Sleepwalker Shibuya Jazz Classics.However the 16 minute title cut is the stand out tune an intense modal waltz with a Spanish tinge featuring coruscating solos from Mariano and Watanabe - hard core stuff. Recommended. [59]16 comments made-how about you? 28.7.09 [60]JAMES MARENTIC SEXTET - NIMBUS James Marentic for Discovery from 1982. James Marentic-Sax/Flute; Tom Harrell -Trumpet/Flugelhorn; Slide Hampton-Trombone; Larry Willis-Piano; Anthony Cox-Bass; Victor Lewis-Drums. Storming post hard bop outing for Mr Marentic and his all star band. Check out the banging latin romp "Baile de las Cucharachas " which kicks off the lp in fine style and the Coltrane inspired "Nimbus". "Aphrodesia" has the inspiration of Kenny Dorham stamped all over it and no prizes for guessing who "Mr Silver I Presume" is aimed at If you enjoyed Tom Harrell's "Aurora" post then this should be right up your street,round your corner and down your block! [61]8 comments made-how about you? 23.7.09 [62]CARTER JEFFERSON - THE RISE OF ATLANTIS Carter Jefferson for Timeless from 1978. Terrific post bop album with latin influences -All Killer No Filler! John Hicks (Piano), Terumasa Hino (Trumpet), Woody Shaw (Producer), Clint Houston (Bass), Victor Lewis (Drums),Carter Jefferson (Sax ), Lani Groves (Vocals), Shunzo Ohno (Trumpet), Steve Thornton (Percussion), Harry Whitaker (Piano) Here's the customary underwhelming AMG review : Tenor saxophonist Carter Jefferson made somewhat of a name for himself when trumpeter Woody Shaw chose him as a member of his first working quintet. Shaw is the producer of this album, Jefferson's fine debut (and evidently only) recording as a leader. Taking a cue from Shaw, the saxophonist sticks essentially to a quintet of trumpet and sax backed by all-star rhythm sections. Three of the tracks include hard bop trumpeter Terumasa Hino while the other three feature little-known Japanese trumpeter Shunzo Ono. Most of the tunes are firmly in the school of hard bop, the sort of music that Woody Shaw played so well. While there is not any new ground broken, it is all performed competently enough. While not as emotionally charged as his work with Shaw, Jefferson impresses with a fluid, mobile attack that shows a solid grasp of his material. If the groups seem to be sometimes merely going through the motions, there are nonetheless enough fine moments to make this a worthwhile purchase.AMG. A reliable and advanced soloist who spent most of his career as a sideman, Carter Jefferson is best-remembered for his association with Woody Shaw during 1977-1980. Jefferson started on clarinet and played alto before settling on tenor, going on tour early in the backup bands of the Temptations, the Supremes, and Little Richard. In 1971, he moved to New York to attend New York University and soon spent two years with Mongo Santamaria and a period in 1973 as a member of Art Blakey's Jazz Messengers. After his important stint with Woody Shaw (with whom he recorded several times), Jefferson worked with many top players, including Elvin Jones, Roy Haynes, Cedar Walton, Jerry Gonzalez & the Fort Apache Band, Malachi Thompson, and Jack Walrath's Masters of Suspense. His premature death in Poland after emergency surgery was a major loss. Carter Jefferson only led one record, The Rise of Atlantis, on the Timeless label in 1978. AMG. [63]33 comments made-how about you? 10.7.09 [64]JULIO GUTIERREZ - PROGRESSIVE LATIN Julio Gutierrez for Gema from 1960. The title says it all for this groundbreaking heavyweight descarga session...Highly recommended. Has anyone out there got a copy of Gutierrez's "Havana BC" they want to sell me?If so leave me a message in the comments. Progressive Latin should be considered a classic of Latin jazz if it isn't already. "Cosa Buena" cooks, and "Closing Time" is a slower bossa nova with flute and horns that captures the mood of a good night out at its end. "Yambambe," an Afro rhythm behind mostly piano, sounds more sophisticated than its simple construction. "El Altiplano" is supposed to be an Incan melody with Afro elements. In any case, vocal interjections pave the way for a longer descarga where a variety of intriguing elements (horns, flute piano, even organ) work together in their own weird ways and combinations. The "Route 66" theme arrangement is a coup; the sax and flute are recorded gorgeously, and the piano and conga pace it ideally, with brief drum solo breaks. "Sad City" is a haunting flute piece, while "Guantanamera" has an interesting change but there is only so much one can expect from this tune. "Malaguena" is another long descarga that gets a little wild. Progressive Latin is something of a masterpiece from the great arranger Julio Gutierrez. Tony Wilds What impressed me most about this album is Julio's use of space and the length of the tunes, considering that in the era when it was recorded, 2 1/2 minute tunes were standard. Great musicians like El Negro Vivar (trumpet) and Chombo Silva (sax) were able to beautifully stretch out over an almost post-bop/Afro-Cuban jazz setting. There is some serious blowing on this disc. This is another essential Latin jazz gem from the late 50s/early 60s. Jose Rizo [65]22 comments made-how about you? 4.7.09 [66]Older Posts Subscribe to: [67]Posts (Atom) JAZZ - LATIN - SOUNDTRACKS . RARE - OBSCURE -DELETED . ALL RIPS @ 320 FROM ORIGINAL VINYL OR CD. JAZZ - LATIN - SOUNDTRACKS . RARE - OBSCURE -DELETED . ALL RIPS @ 320 FROM ORIGINAL VINYL OR CD. [68]My Photo Bacoso [69]View my complete profile PLACES & SPACES * [70]Axelgrease * [71]Call It Anything * [72]Cuban Posters * [73]Djalma's Soul Food * [74]El Goog Ja * [75]Far From Ubiquit * [76]Flying Dutchman Records * [77]Groovy Merchant * [78]Ile Oxumare * [79]India Navigation * [80]jazzfluteweinstein * [81]Killer Groove Music Library * [82]LiquidJazz.com * [83]Magic Purple Sunshine * [84]Mainstream shad shack * [85]My Favourite Sound© * [86]My Jazz World * [87]never enough rhodes * [88]Nine Sisters * [89]Nothing Is v2.0 * [90]pharaoh's dance * [91]private press * [92]Quimsy's Mumbo Jumbo * [93]SG Canvas * [94]Strata-East Fan Club * [95]The CTI never sleeps * [96]Von Fat Bakon * [97]WONDERFULSOUND DIGGIN' IN THE CRATES * [98]Jan 2010 (1) * [99]Dec 2009 (3) * [100]Nov 2009 (5) * [101]Oct 2009 (4) * [102]Sep 2009 (4) * [103]Aug 2009 (4) * [104]Jul 2009 (4) * [105]Jun 2009 (8) * [106]May 2009 (5) * [107]Apr 2009 (1) * [108]Mar 2009 (4) * [109]Feb 2009 (9) * [110]Jan 2009 (13) * [111]Dec 2008 (6) * [112]Nov 2008 (15) * [113]Oct 2008 (9) * [114]Sep 2008 (3) * [115]Jul 2008 (1) * [116]Jun 2008 (28) * [117]May 2008 (4) * [118]Apr 2008 (6) * [119]Mar 2008 (26) * [120]Feb 2008 (17) * [121]Jan 2008 (10) * [122]Dec 2007 (12) * [123]Nov 2007 (16) * [124]Oct 2007 (21) * [125]Sep 2007 (21) * [126]Aug 2007 (16) * [127]Jul 2007 (10) * [128]Jun 2007 (19) * [129]May 2007 (18) * [130]Apr 2007 (17) * [131]Mar 2007 (19) * [132]Feb 2007 (17) * [133]Jan 2007 (21) * [134]Dec 2006 (19) * [135]Nov 2006 (29) * [136]Oct 2006 (20) * [137]Sep 2006 (29) * [138]Aug 2006 (34) * [139]Jul 2006 (18) * [140]Jun 2006 (22) * [141]May 2006 (40) * [142]Apr 2006 (52) * [143]Mar 2006 (19) Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : [spacer1.gif] [blackrainbowhdr01.jpg] IFRAME: uments&banner=0JB0A4VDS5FZSF8J66G2&f=ifr About Rhythmweb A Grassroots Network [dada01a.jpg] (at left: World Unity Drum Festival, Club Dada, Dallas, August 1994. My son Jules, shown at age 12 at left) Rhythmweb started in December of 1996, as a reflection of my virtual search for music and musicians on the Web, and as an excuse to woodshed web design. Since then we have been amazed by the reponse we have recieved, from all corners of the globe. From the Mid-East to Australia, and from South Africa to Europe to New Orleans to Brazil to Papua, NewGuinea, musicians are connecting. Truly, rhythm is a universal language, love of music a universal love. Thanks to all our new friends for connecting with us. Our mission is to further the use of rhythm, music, and percussion & related arts as a healing tool. We LOVE music. We LOVE the Web. When our schedule permits, we surf several [kids097.jpg] hours a night, then we post the fruits of our travels... Every time we meet someone interesting with a rhythm related website, we post a link. Some very worthwhile friendships have evolved along the way, and we've discovered lots of good music. We have since integrated affiliate links to CDs, books, and so forth, but our basic mission remains the same. We are NOT a bunch of suits, drooling e-commerce. We're musicians, artists. We believe it's important for people at the grassroots level to network during this crucial moment in history. If you'll notice, the vast majority of links on rhythmweb are GRASSROOTS musicians, trying to get over in this new economy. You will see no big over-rated stars from the conglomerate record companies. Plenty of that elsewhere. [eric_october03-01b-225.jpg] There are also fan pages and correspondent pages here, on a large number of working musicians. Thanks very much to all for your help. We are actively seeking musicians in various parts of the world to drop us a line now and then, and let us know what the percussion scene is like in your area. If you have a drum lesson you'd like to share with our readers, please let us know, and perhaps we can steer you some traffic in return. 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ABSTRACT FULL TEXT FULL-TEXT PDF (2346 KB) CITATION ALERT CITED BY RELATED ARTICLES EXPORT CITATION EMAIL TO A COLLEAGUE RIGHTS/PERMISSIONS [37]Standard image available [38]DOWNLOAD IMAGES NEED REPRINTS? BOOKMARK ARTICLE RR-interval irregularity precedes ventricular fibrillation in ST elevation acute myocardial infarction [39]Miguel E. Lemmert, MD[40]a[41] Corresponding Author Information [42]email address , [43]Mohamed Majidi, MD[44]a, [45]Mitchell W. Krucoff, MD[46]*, [47]Sebastiaan C.A.M. Bekkers, MD[48]a, [49]Harry J.G.M. Crijns, MD, PhD, FHRS[50]a, [51]Hein J.J. Wellens, MD, PhD, FHRS[52]a, [53]Andrzej S. Kosinski, PhD[54]*, [55]Anton P.M. Gorgels, MD, PhD, FHRS[56]a Received 9 August 2009; accepted 15 September 2009. published online 22 September 2009. Background Sudden cardiac arrest is a leading cause of death in industrialized countries, and ischemic ventricular fibrillation (VF) is a frequent cause. Objective The purpose of this study was to determine whether patients with ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) who develop ischemic VF show more overall RR-interval irregularity (RRI) than do STEMI patients without ischemic VF. Methods Ischemic VF was identified in 41 patients from 1,473 digital 12-lead Holter recordings from three separate STEMI studies. Continuous 3-lead and 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG) snapshots recorded every minute were compared between all ischemic VF patients and 123 random patients without ischemic VF. Time intervals from start of Holter to ischemic VF and equivalent intervals in the controls were used for calculations. ECG variables related to conduction intervals and severity of ischemia were measured using the most ischemic 12-lead ECG. RRI was calculated as the square root of the mean squared differences of successive RR intervals. For RRI, all QRS complexes, including ventricular ectopic beats, were used. Results No baseline differences were observed between the study and control groups, except for male preponderance among ischemic VF patients (90% vs 72%, P = .019). QRS interval, ECG ischemia severity, RRI, and number of ventricular ectopic beats were significantly associated with ischemic VF. Multivariate analysis revealed RRI (odds ratio 1.006, 95% confidence interval 1.001-1.010, P = .016) and ST deviation score (odds ratio 1.073, 95% confidence interval 1.041-1.106, P <.001) as the only statistically significant predictors of ischemic VF. Conclusion In the period before ischemic VF, RRI and ST deviation score are associated with ischemic VF in STEMI patients. These findings could have important pathophysiologic and clinical implications. Keywords: [57]Cardiac arrest, [58]Electrocardiography, [59]Myocardial infarction, [60]Sudden death, [61]Ventricular fibrillation Abbreviations: [62]AUC, [63]area under receiver operating characteristic curve, [64]AV, [65]atrioventricular, [66]ECG, [67]electrocardiogram, [68]HRV, [69]heart rate variability, [70]IQR, [71]interquartile range, [72]ROC, [73]receiver operating characteristic, [74]RRI, [75]RR-interval irregularity, [76]STEMI, [77]ST elevation myocardial infarction, [78]VF, [79]ventricular fibrillation Article Outline o [80]Abstract o [81]Introduction o [82]Methods o [83]Patient population o [84]ECG data o [85]RRI and ventricular ectopic beats o [86]Twelve-lead ECG measurements o [87]Statistical analysis o [88]Results o [89]Baseline characteristics and laboratory values o [90]ECG characteristics o [91]Cutoff values o [92]Discussion o [93]Baseline characteristics o [94]Single 12-lead ECG measurements o [95]Continuous ECG measurements o [96]RRI and total number of ventricular ectopic beats o [97]Heart rate variability o [98]Study limitations o [99]Clinical implications and future research o [100]Conclusion o [101]Acknowledgment o [102]References o [103]Copyright Introduction [104]return to Article Outline Sudden cardiac arrest is one of the leading causes of death in industrialized countries, and ischemic ventricular fibrillation (VF) is one of the most frequent causes.[105]1, [106]2 To date, research aimed at predicting VF has predominantly focused on the postmyocardial infarction stage and nonischemic conditions. Familial history of sudden death recently was demonstrated to be an important risk factor for VF in an ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) population,[107]3 suggesting that genetic factors are involved and that predisposition to ischemic VF differs among patients. Inhomogeneity of intramyocardial conduction velocity plays a role as a substrate for reentrant ventricular arrhythmias and sudden death during acute ischemia.[108]4, [109]5, [110]6, [111]7, [112]8 In the current study, we introduce the novel electrocardiographic (ECG) parameter of overall RR-interval irregularity (RRI), which is measured by taking all QRS complexes into account, irrespective of their origin. A greater RRI could lead to increased inhomogeneity of conduction velocities and refractory periods, facilitating ischemic VF. Using single 12-lead ECGs, our group recently demonstrated longer PR and QRS conduction intervals in first STEMI patients developing ischemic VF.[113]9 This finding supports the concept of increased inhomogeneity in conduction velocity and calls upon further elucidation of the concept. Thus, we tested the hypothesis that cardiac rhythm characteristics preceding ischemic VF are different from those in ischemic patients without VF, particularly with regard to the novel ECG parameter RRI. Methods [114]return to Article Outline Patient population A retrospective database consisting of 1,473 24-hour Holter recordings was retrieved from the ECG core laboratory of the Duke Clinical Research Institute (Durham, NC, USA). The database consists of Holter recordings from STEMI patients who were included in three separate safety-efficacy STEMI studies between April 2002 and November 2003. The database includes all analyzable Holter recordings from two cohorts (CASTEMI[115]10 and EMERALD,[116]11 n = 1,031) treated with direct percutaneous coronary intervention and one cohort treated with thrombolytic therapy (RAPSODY, n = 442). All of these patients were older than 18 years, had presented with diagnostic ST elevation on standard ECG, and had symptom duration <= 6 hours. As part of the study protocols, all patients were connected to 24-hour digital 12-lead Holter recorders immediately after hospital admission, prior to any therapeutic intervention in the hospital. For the current study, all 1,473 Holter recordings were examined for ischemic VF. Ischemic VF was defined as irregular undulations of varying shape and amplitude on ECG without discrete QRS or T waves. To ensure the ischemic nature of the VF, only patients with VF that occurred before percutaneous coronary intervention and/or in the presence of persisting ST deviation were included in the study. Patients in whom VF occurred in conjunction with ECG signs of reperfusion were considered to have reperfusion VF rather than ischemic VF and were not included in the study (n = 5). Patients who showed regular monomorphic ventricular tachycardias rather than VF also were excluded from the study (n = 19). Forty-one patients (2.8%) with ischemic VF were identified (study group). For comparison, for each VF patient, three patients without ischemic VF (control group) were selected, only matched for the original study cohort. Selection was done randomly using the statistical software SPSS for Windows (release 12.0.1, SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL, USA), providing a total of 123 control patients. Clinical descriptors noted include baseline characteristics (gender, age, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, current smoking, and history of acute myocardial infarction), coronary angiographic data (culprit lesion), and plasma levels of cardiac enzymes. ECG data Holter recordings (DR180+, NorthEast Monitoring, Maynard, MA, USA) consisted of digital 24-hour 3-lead recordings (leads V5, V1, and III), with a complete Mason-Likar 12-lead ECG (calibration 10 mm/mV, speed 25 mm/s) available every minute and featured designated analysis software (Holter 5 LX Analysis version 5.2, NorthEast Monitoring). For each VF patient, the time interval from start of recording to onset of ischemic VF and the equivalent time interval in the three matched controls were used for analysis, disregarding the residual recording time. Computerized labeling of QRS complexes and RR intervals on Holter recordings was reviewed and corrected on a beat-to-beat basis by a trained physician (M.E.L.). RRI and ventricular ectopic beats For this analysis, we introduce RRI as a novel parameter. RRI was calculated using the designated software's capability to calculate heart rate variability (HRV). HRV is the variation in heart rate resulting from sympathetic and vagal influences on the sinus node. HRV disregards all ECG complexes other than sinus beats. Using continuous 3-lead Holter recordings, the software is capable of several HRV measurements within the time domain. Similar to standard HRV measurements, RRI calculations were performed using the three leads of the Holter recordings. Contrary to standard HRV measurements, RRI takes all ECG complexes, irrespective of their origin, into account, including (episodes of) atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter, paced rhythms, and supraventricular and ventricular complexes. To enable RRI measurements by the software, all ECG complexes were manually labeled as sinus beats. Time intervals before onset of ischemic VF frequently were short. Therefore, the square root of the mean squared differences of successive RR intervals method was used because it reflects short-term variations in RR intervals, as previously described in detail.[117]12 For the software to perform HRV measurements and thus RRI measurements, a minimum of 5 minutes of recording time is required. The total number of ventricular ectopic beats was counted for each patient, again during the time interval from start of recording to onset of ischemic VF and the equivalent time interval in the control patients. Twelve-lead ECG measurements Our group recently showed significant differences in PR and QRS conduction intervals as well as severity of ischemia between VF patients and control patients. For this reason, similar measurements were made in the current study using the designated software, which features electronic calipers for 12-lead ECGs. For each patient, one 12-lead ECG showing the most pronounced ST-segment deviation was used because these ECGs are expected to be the best representation of ischemia-induced conduction defects. The measurements have been described previously,[118]9 with the difference that, because of the digital ECG data and the accompanying Holter software, the measurements were done using the electronic calipers of the analysis software instead of manually. Statistical analysis Data analysis and case-control randomization were performed using SPSS for Windows (release 12.0.1). Continuous variables are expressed as median and interquartile range (IQR) and categorical variables as percentages. For comparison of continuous variables, a Student's t-test for normally distributed data or a Mann-Whitney test or Wilcoxon signed-rank test for non-normally distributed data was used. For comparison of categorical variables, a Pearson chi-square test or Fisher exact test was used. All statistical tests were two-tailed, and P <.05 was considered significant. ECG characteristics showing a significant univariate relation with the occurrence of VF but lacking multicollinearity (defined as r > 0.4) were included in multivariate logistic regression. Variables were removed stepwise from the model when P was >.10. Variables with P <.05 in the final model were considered independent contributors and are reported in the results. In the final model, tests were done for interactions between main predictors. The predictive accuracy of the final model is reported as the area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (AUC). Cutoff values for ECG characteristics by which most VF patients can be correctly classified are identified by applying the Pythagorean theorem to ROC curves, which is a mathematical determination of the cutoff value with the graphically shortest distance to a sensitivity and specificity of 1. Results [119]return to Article Outline Baseline characteristics and laboratory values No statistically significant differences regarding baseline characteristics and laboratory values were found between the VF patients and the controls, except for a significantly higher percentage of males among the VF patients (90% vs 72%, P = .019; [120]Table 1). Table 1. Baseline characteristics of the study population Ischemic VF (n = 41) No ischemic VF (n = 123) P value Age (years) 61 (54-71) 59 (52-71) .54 Male 90 72 .019 Anterior wall infarction 31 29 .84 Culprit artery .32 Left anterior descending branch 20 21 Right coronary artery 77 66 Left circumflex branch 3 13 Comorbidity/risk factor Diabetes mellitus 10 18 .32 Hypertension 39 42 .71 Hypercholesterolemia 33 26 .41 Smoking 38 38 1 Prior myocardial infarction 11 11 1 Original study cohort .30 CASTEMI[121]10 3 97 EMERALD[122]11 3 97 RAPSODY 2 98 Laboratory values Initial CK 1.6 (0.3-10.3) 2.6 (0.7-6.9) .70 Post PCI CK 8.1 (5.6-21.9) 10.1 (5.0-14.5) .75 Initial CK-MB 3.1 (1.7-7.7) 4.2 (0.6-7.6) .77 Post PCI CK-MB 6.9 (2.0-11.0) 8.5 (4.1-13.1) .41 Post PCI troponin-T 50.9 (27.5-74.2) 15.4 (8.2-61.8) 1 Note: Information on the culprit artery was available for 127 patients from the PCI cohorts (CASTEMI and EMERALD). For the thrombolytics cohort (RAPSODY), the distinction between anterior wall infarctions and nonanterior wall infarctions was available. Values are given as median (interquartile range) or percent. CK = creatine kinase; CK-MB = creatine kinase-MB isoenzyme; PCI = percutaneous coronary intervention; VF = ventricular fibrillation. ECG characteristics ECG characteristics are listed in [123]Table 2. All patients were in sinus rhythm, except for six (four VF patients, two controls) with atrial fibrillation, which precluded assessment of sinus rate and PR interval. One VF patient had a paced rhythm during part of the Holter recording. One VF patient and two control patients showed atrioventricular (AV) nodal escape rhythms. Two additional control patients had high-degree AV block. Table 2. ECG characteristics of the study population Ischemic VF (n = 41) No ischemic VF (n = 123) P value Sinus rate (min-1) 74 (62-85) 73 (65-85) .719 PQ (ms) 177 (160-216) 164 (153-181) .055 QRS (ms) 103 (88-115) 93 (83-104) .018 QTc Bazett (ms) 417 (390-446) 414 (396-414) .822 Peak ST deviation (mm) 7 (5-10) 4 (2-7) <.001 Grade of ischemia 3 (2-3) 2 (2-3) .004 No. of leads with ST deviation 10 (9-11) 7 (4-10) <.001 STdev (mm) 36 (26-50) 20 (11-30) <.001 Measuring time (minutes) 29 (16-57) 29 (16-57) N/A Total no. of ventricular ectopic beats 73 (19-268) 19 (2-106) .006 RRI (ms) 132 (100-197) 73 (39-122) <.001 RRI-5 min (ms) 186 (97-237) 44 (22-101) <.001 Values are given as median (interquartile range). RRI = RR-interval irregularity; RRI-5 min = RR-interval irregularity in the last 5 minutes of measuring time; STdev = ST deviation score, the sum of all ST deviations on 12-lead ECG; VF = ventricular fibrillation. With regard to measurements using single 12-lead ECGs, VF patients showed a longer QRS interval [103 ms (IQR 88-115 ms) vs 93 ms (IQR 83-104 ms), P = .018] and a larger amount of ischemia, as measured by peak ST deviation, grade of ischemia,[124]13 total number of leads with ST deviation, and ST deviation score. With regard to continuous ECG measurements, the median measuring time was 29 minutes (IQR 16-57 minutes). Because the requirement of at least 5 minutes of recording time prior to ischemic VF could not be met, the computer software did not allow RRI measurement in three VF patients and subsequently nine control patients. VF patients showed a higher RRI [132 ms (IQR 100-197 ms) vs 73 ms (IQR 39-122 ms), P <.001] and more ventricular ectopic beats [73 (IQR 19-268) vs 19 (2-106), P = .006]. Excluding the recordings with atrial fibrillation from the analysis, did not affect the results regarding the RRI measurements. Logistic regression was applied, with presence of ischemic VF as the dependent variable and variables showing univariate significance (QRS interval, ST deviation score, total number of ventricular ectopic beats, RRI) as the independent variables. Because we recently showed ST deviation score to be an independent predictor of ischemic VF[125]9 and we wanted to correct for multicollinearity between the variables measuring the amount of ischemia, ST deviation score was the only ischemia parameter entered in the logistic regression. This multivariate analysis revealed that only a higher RRI (odds ratio 1.006, 95% confidence interval 1.001-1.010, P = .016) and a higher ST deviation score (odds ratio 1.073, 95% confidence interval 1.041-1.106, P <.001) were independently associated with an increased chance of ischemic VF ([126]Table 3). The interpretation of these odds ratios is that an increase in RRI of 1 ms corresponds to an increased chance of ischemic VF of 0.6%. Table 3. Multivariate analysis of the study population Odds ratio 95% Confidence interval P value RR-interval irregularity (ms) 1.006 1.001-1.010 .016 STdev (mm) 1.073 1.041-1.106 <.001 Area under the receiver operating characteristic curve is 0.835. STdev = ST deviation score, the sum of all ST deviations on 12-lead ECG. For our study population, this means that, based on only RRI measurements, patients who developed VF had a 41.5% (1.006 ^ [132 ms - 73 ms] = 1.415) more chance of doing so than the patients who did not develop VF. Similarly, an increase in ST deviation score of 1 mm implies an increased chance of ischemic VF of 7.3%. The predictive accuracy of this model assessed by the AUC was 0.835. In addition, to examine a fixed and shortest possible time frame prior to ischemic VF, RRI was measured in the last 5 minutes of measuring time. This showed an even more marked difference in RRI between VF and control patients [186 ms (97-237 ms) vs 44 ms (22-101 ms), P <.001]. Multivariate analysis using this RRI of the last 5 minutes yielded an RRI odds ratio of 1.012 (95% confidence interval 1.007-1.018, P <.001), with a predictive model accuracy (AUC) of 0.896 (not shown in [127]Table 3). Of note, measurement of RRI in the last 5 minutes was not possible in 7 VF patients and 27 controls because occasional artifact during this time period in these patients reduced the analyzable recording time to less than the required 5 minutes. Cutoff values Based on the optimal (mathematical) balance between sensitivity and specificity, cutoff values for RRI and the ST deviation score were identified. According to these criteria, the cutoff value for RRI is 110 ms, with sensitivity of 74% and specificity of 75%. The cutoff value for the ST deviation score is 27 mm, yielding sensitivity of 74% and specificity of 70%. Discussion [128]return to Article Outline To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to show that heart rate irregularity, measured as the novel parameter RRI, plays a significant role preceding ischemic VF on continuous ECG recordings retrieved from a large STEMI database. Baseline characteristics No differences in baseline characteristics were found, except for male preponderance in the VF patients. This is not in accordance with previous research in which no gender difference with regard to ischemic VF or sudden cardiac arrest was found.[129]9, [130]14, [131]15, [132]16, [133]17, [134]18 Our finding could be an observation by chance, due to multiple exploratory tests that in no way are related to any hypothesis tested in this study. Single 12-lead ECG measurements The significantly longer QRS interval and the larger amount of ischemia in the VF patients are in agreement with our previous findings on single 12-lead STEMI ECGs.[135]9 Briefly, in that study we found longer conduction intervals in VF patients that may, depending on the site of the occlusion and amount of ischemia, indicate an inhomogeneity in conduction velocity providing the substrate for ischemic VF. The current study adds a continuous aspect to the period preceding ischemic VF. In a multivariate regression model including continuous ECG measurements, only RRI and the amount of ischemia appear to be independently associated with the occurrence of ischemic VF. Continuous ECG measurements The parameters related specifically to the continuous ECG measurements are RRI and total number of ventricular ectopic beats. RRI and total number of ventricular ectopic beats RRI is a novel and unique ECG parameter that combines into a single parameter the multitude of ECG complexes and rhythms occurring in the acute phase of a STEMI by measuring RRI resulting from all such complexes. Examples of large and small RRIs are shown in [136]Figure 1. [137]View full-size image. [138]View Large Image [139]Download to PowerPoint [140]Standard image available Figure 1. RR-interval irregularity (RRI) in ventricular fibrillation (VF) patient (A) and matched control patient (B). Primarily due to irregular runs of ventricular ectopic beats, the VF patient had an RRI of 257 ms prior to the ischemic VF (red arrow), whereas the control patient had an RRI of 20 ms in the equivalent time interval. Green complexes indicate sinus beats; red complexes indicate ventricular ectopic beats; blue complexes indicate artifact (not used for any calculations). To our knowledge, the only continuous ECG parameter suggested to be associated with ischemic VF occurring in the acute phase of a STEMI is an increased number of ventricular ectopic beats prior to ischemic VF.[141]19 However, the predictive value of these so-called warning arrhythmias has been questioned by other researchers.[142]20, [143]21 In our study population, we were able to reproduce the finding that frequent ventricular ectopic beats represent a harbinger of ischemic VF. These previously reported contradictory results may be explained by our additional finding that the total number of ventricular ectopic beats was not an independent predictor of ischemic VF. RRI was the only independent continuous ECG predictor of ischemic VF, suggesting that the mere presence of ventricular ectopic beats is less important than rhythm irregularity. The manner in which RRI is associated with ischemic VF could be as follows. RRI leads to inhomogeneity in conduction velocity and refractory periods. Beat-to-beat changes in refractoriness, induced by RRI, may become pronounced in ischemic areas due to ischemia-related postrepolarization refractoriness, an effect suggested by our data to be even more pronounced in the final 5 minutes preceding ischemic VF. Subsequent, relatively shortly coupled beats may block or conduct slowly in these areas and instantaneously create a substrate vulnerable to ischemic VF. Shortly coupled beats do not necessarily induce reentry and VF; rather, they set the stage. The finding that the number of leads showing ST deviation was associated with ischemic VF might indicate a role for more widespread myocardial ischemia rather than merely local severity of ischemia. This could add to the heterogeneity of postrepolarization refractoriness. Although not an independent predictor, this concept is supported by a larger region at risk associated with VF found in a previous study using coronary angiography.[144]16 Heart rate variability The RRI measurements were performed using the software's mathematical capabilities to calculate HRV. Although technically possible, actual HRV measurements are not reported here. HRV has been recognized as a marker of the relationship between the autonomic nervous system and cardiac mortality. A decreased HRV has been proposed as a predictor of ventricular arrhythmias and sudden death in different patient populations, mostly consisting of patients in the postmyocardial infarction phase or with nonischemic cardiac diseases.[145]12, [146]22, [147]23, [148]24, [149]25 Most studies attributing a predictive role to HRV were specifically designed to measure this parameter for sufficiently long periods of sinus rhythm in a chronic care setting. The current study relates to a completely different clinical situation, not only because of its acutely ischemic population but also because of the relatively short measuring times with frequent ventricular ectopy. Thus, the clinical meaning of standard HRV measurements would be questionable in our study population. Study limitations The population studied was a selected population because all patients survived until hospital admission. Therefore, whether our findings can be generalized to the situation outside the hospital is not known. The study variables were derived from three separate studies, so possibly the study population was not homogeneous. In spite of this, the association we found between RRI, amount of ischemia, and ischemic VF was very consistent across studies. All patients were derived from STEMI intervention trials who met certain ST-segment criteria for inclusion. Therefore, whether the results are applicable to non-STEMI patients or patients with demand ischemia rather than supply ischemia is not known. Finally, we have no information on use of medication. However, in a previous study we found no influence of any type of medication on development of ischemic VF.[150]9 Furthermore, it is more likely that medications such as beta-blocking agents would influence RR-interval duration rather than RRI. In this regard, it should be noted that there was no difference in sinus rate between VF patients and control patients. However, it should be taken into account that the current database of Holter recordings prior to ischemic VF is unique in its size and possibly the best available. Clinical implications and future research The results of this study are important for a better understanding of ischemic VF. Moreover, it provides simple variables with possible implications for clinical use. There is an increased need for monitoring high-risk cardiac patients outside the hospital setting, and the development of monitoring devices with alarm features has been advocated by our group and others.[151]26, [152]27, [153]28 When incorporated within the algorithms of arrhythmia sensing devices, a warning predictor of ischemic VF could lead to improved early identification of individuals at risk. The predictive accuracy of 0.835 by multivariate analysis was high ([154]Table 3). This indicates that RRI and the ST deviation score may be useful as predictors of ischemic VF in STEMI patients. The cutoff value for RRI is 110 ms, with sensitivity of 74% and specificity of 75%. The cutoff value for the ST deviation score is 27 mm, yielding sensitivity of 74% and specificity of 70%. Because false-positive identification of STEMI patients at risk for ischemic VF is preferable to false-negative failure to identify, it could be speculated that different (ranges of) cutoff values with higher sensitivities at the cost of lower specificities should be chosen. Sensitivities of (approximately) 80% and 90% and corresponding cutoff values for RRI and the ST deviation score are shown in [155]Figure 2, [156]Figure 3. [157]View full-size image. [158]View Large Image [159]Download to PowerPoint [160]Standard image available Figure 2. Sensitivity and specificity for all cutoff values for RR-interval irregularity (RRI). [161]View full-size image. [162]View Large Image [163]Download to PowerPoint [164]Standard image available Figure 3. Sensitivity and specificity for all cutoff values for the ST deviation score (STdev). This study was aimed at STEMI patients who suffer from supply ischemia. One could speculate whether the results can be extrapolated to patients suffering from demand ischemia due to a severe stenosis. In that case, RRI could play a similar role in these patients, leading to ischemic VF (e.g., during exercise or diminished blood supply during sleep). Because the majority of sudden cardiac arrests occurs outside the hospital, a warning predictor of ischemic VF could be useful in patients with known coronary artery disease. The model proposed in the current study could serve as an ischemia model that could be used in future research studying patients who are potential victims of ischemic VF due to demand ischemia. Such populations are currently being studied by our group. Conclusion [165]return to Article Outline Overall RRI and the amount of ischemia are suggested to be useful predictors of ischemic VF occurring in the acute phase of STEMI. Acknowledgments [166]return to Article Outline We thank W.R. Dassen, PhD, for statistical advice. References [167]return to Article Outline [168]1. 1Zipes DP, Wellens HJJ. Sudden cardiac death. Circulation. 1998;98:2334-2351. [169]MEDLINE [170]2. 2Vreede-Swagemakers JJ, Gorgels APM, Dubois-Arbouw WI, et al. Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest in the 1990s: a population-based study in the Maastricht area on incidence, characteristics and survival. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1997;6:1500-1505. [171]3. 3Dekker LR, Bezzina CR, Henriques JP, et al. Familial sudden death is an important risk factor for primary ventricular fibrillation: a case-control study in acute myocardial infarction patients. Circulation. 2006;11:1140-1145. [172]4. 4Janse MJ, Kleber AG, Capucci A, et al. Electrophysiological basis for arrhythmias caused by acute ischemia (Role of the subendocardium). J Mol Cell Cardiol. 1986;4:339-355. [173]5. 5Kleber AG, Janse MJ, Wilms-Schopmann FJ, et al. Changes in conduction velocity during acute ischemia in ventricular myocardium of the isolated porcine heart. Circulation. 1986;1:189-198. [174]6. 6Kokolis S, Clark LT, Kokolis R, et al. Ventricular arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2006;6:426-444. [175]7. 7Lazzara R. From first class to third class: recent upheaval in antiarrhythmic therapy--lessons from clinical trials. Am J Cardiol. 1996;4A:28-33. [176]8. 8Pratt CM, Moye LA. The Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial: background, interim results and implications. Am J Cardiol. 1990;4:20B-29B. [177]9. 9Lemmert ME, de Jong JS, van Stipdonk AM, et al. Electrocardiographic factors playing a role in ischemic ventricular fibrillation in ST elevation myocardial infarction are related to the culprit artery. Heart Rhythm. 2008;1:71-78. [178]10. 10Bar FW, Tzivoni D, Dirksen MT, et al. Results of the first clinical study of adjunctive CAldaret (MCC-135) in patients undergoing primary percutaneous coronary intervention for ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction: the randomized multicentre CASTEMI study. Eur Heart J. 2006;21:2516-2523. [179]11. 11Stone GW, Webb J, Cox DA, et al.Enhanced Myocardial Efficacy and Recovery by Aspiration of Liberated Debris (EMERALD) Investigators Distal microcirculatory protection during percutaneous coronary intervention in acute ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2005;293:1063-1072. [180]CrossRef [181]12. 12Heart rate variability: standards of measurement, physiological interpretation and clinical use (Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and the North American Society of Pacing and Electrophysiology). Circulation. 1996;5:1043-1065. [182]13. 13Birnbaum Y, Sclarovsky S. The grades of ischemia on the presenting electrocardiogram of patients with ST elevation acute myocardial infarction. J Electrocardiol. 2001;34(Suppl):17-26. [183]Abstract | [184]Full-Text PDF (306 KB) | [185]CrossRef [186]14. 14Behar S, Goldbourt U, Reicher-Reiss H, et al. Prognosis of acute myocardial infarction complicated by primary ventricular fibrillation (Principal Investigators of the SPRINT Study). Am J Cardiol. 1990;17:1208-1211. [187]15. 15Brezins M, Elyassov S, Elimelech I, et al. Comparison of patients with acute myocardial infarction with and without ventricular fibrillation. Am J Cardiol. 1996;8:948-950. [188]16. 16Gheeraert PJ, Henriques JP, De Buyzere ML, et al. Out-of-hospital ventricular fibrillation in patients with acute myocardial infarction: coronary angiographic determinants. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000;1:144-150. [189]17. 17Ruiz-Bailén M, Hoyos EAd, Ruiz-Navarro S, et al. Ventricular fibrillation in acute myocardial infarction in Spanish patients: results of the ARIAM database. Crit Care Med. 2003;8:2144-2151. [190]18. 18Thompson CA, Yarzebsky J, Goldberg RJ, et al. Changes over time in the incidence and case-fatality rates of primary ventricular fibrillation complicating acute myocardial infarction: perspectives from the Worcester Heart Attack Study. Am Heart J. 2000;6:1014-1021. [191]19. 19Lown B. Sudden cardiac death--1978. Circulation. 1979;7:1593-1599. [192]20. 20Lie KI, Wellens HJ, Downar E, et al. Observations on patients with primary ventricular fibrillation complicating acute myocardial infarction. Circulation. 1975;5:755-759. [193]21. 21El-Sherif N, Myerburg RJ, Scherlag BJ, et al. Electrocardiographic antecedents of primary ventricular fibrillation (Value of the R-on-T phenomenon in myocardial infarction). Br Heart J. 1976;4:415-422. [194]22. 22Fauchier L, Babuty D, Cosnay P, et al. Prognostic value of heart rate variability for sudden death and major arrhythmic events in patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1999;5:1203-1207. [195]23. 23Hermida JS, Leenhardt A, Cauchemez B, et al. Decreased nocturnal standard deviation of averaged NN intervals (An independent marker to identify patients at risk in the Brugada Syndrome). Eur Heart J. 2003;22:2061-2069. [196]24. 24Carpeggiani C, L'Abbate A, Landi P, et al. Early assessment of heart rate variability is predictive of in-hospital death and major complications after acute myocardial infarction. Int J Cardiol. 2004;3:361-368. [197]25. 25Reed MJ, Robertson CE, Addison PS. Heart rate variability measurements and the prediction of ventricular arrhythmias. QJM. 2005;2:87-95. [198]26. 26Wellens HJ, Gorgels AP, de Munter H. Cardiac arrest outside of a hospital: how can we improve results of resuscitation?. Circulation. 2003;15:1948-1950. [199]27. 27Arzbaecher R, Jenkins J, Burke M, et al. Database testing of a subcutaneous monitor with wireless alarm. J Electrocardiol. 2006;4(Suppl):S50-S53. [200]28. 28Fischell TA, Fischell DR, Fischell RE, et al. Real-time detection and alerting for acute ST-segment elevation myocardial ischemia using an implantable, high-fidelity, intracardiac electrogram monitoring system with long-range telemetry in an ambulatory porcine model. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;11:2306-2314. [201]a Department of Cardiology, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands [202]* Duke University Medical Center/Duke Clinical Research Institute, Durham, North Carolina, USA [203]Corresponding Author Information Address reprint requests and correspondence: Dr. Miguel E. Lemmert, Maastricht University Medical Center, Department of Cardiology, PO Box 5800, 6202 AZ Maastricht, The Netherlands This research was supported by an unrestricted grant from Philips Healthcare, Seattle, Washington. PII: S1547-5271(09)01043-1 doi:10.1016/j.hrthm.2009.09.024 © 2010 Heart Rhythm Society. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. [204]View previous. 12 of 28 [205]View next. [206]Copyright © 2010 Elsevier, Inc. 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Références Liens visibles 37. javascript:openPopupWin('/imagesinfo','',400,200,200,200); 42. mailto:mlemmert@gmail.com 137. javascript:openImgWin('/article/S1547-5271(09)01043-1/journalimage?img=PIIS1547527109010431.gr1.lrg.gif&fig=fig1&kwhquery=&issn=1547-5271&ishighres=false&allhighres=false&free=yes','journalimage'); 138. javascript:openImgWin('/article/S1547-5271(09)01043-1/journalimage?img=PIIS1547527109010431.gr1.lrg.gif&fig=fig1&kwhquery=&issn=1547-5271&ishighres=false&allhighres=false&free=yes','journalimage'); 140. javascript:openPopupWin('/imagesinfo','',400,200,200,200); 157. javascript:openImgWin('/article/S1547-5271(09)01043-1/journalimage?img=PIIS1547527109010431.gr2.lrg.gif&fig=fig2&kwhquery=&issn=1547-5271&ishighres=false&allhighres=false&free=yes','journalimage'); 158. javascript:openImgWin('/article/S1547-5271(09)01043-1/journalimage?img=PIIS1547527109010431.gr2.lrg.gif&fig=fig2&kwhquery=&issn=1547-5271&ishighres=false&allhighres=false&free=yes','journalimage'); 160. javascript:openPopupWin('/imagesinfo','',400,200,200,200); 161. javascript:openImgWin('/article/S1547-5271(09)01043-1/journalimage?img=PIIS1547527109010431.gr3.lrg.gif&fig=fig3&kwhquery=&issn=1547-5271&ishighres=false&allhighres=false&free=yes','journalimage'); 162. javascript:openImgWin('/article/S1547-5271(09)01043-1/journalimage?img=PIIS1547527109010431.gr3.lrg.gif&fig=fig3&kwhquery=&issn=1547-5271&ishighres=false&allhighres=false&free=yes','journalimage'); 164. javascript:openPopupWin('/imagesinfo','',400,200,200,200); Liens cachés : Wheeler English Lines & Rhymes: Rhythm from The teachers and Writers Handbook of Poetic Forms, edited by Ron Padgett. and your text, Elements of Literature, Second Course (Holt, Rinehart) Rhythm is a musical quality produced by the repetition of stressed and unstressed syllables. Rhythm occurs in all forms of language, both written and spoken, but is particularly important in poetry The most obvious king of rhythm is the regular repetition of stressed and unstessed syllables found in some poetry. Writers also create rhythm by repeating words and phrases or even by repeating whole lines and sentences, as Walt Whitman does in "Song of Myself": I hear the sound I love, the soung of the hyman voice, I hear all sounds running together, combined, fused, or following, Sounds of the city and sounds out of the city, sounds of the day and night, Talkative young ones to those that like them, the loud laugh of work-people at their meals... [yellowrose_l.jpg] [whitedaisy1_l.jpg] People often use a combination of two words to describe regular rhythm or meter. For example, you might refer to the meter of a sonnet as iambic pentameter The first word, such as iambic, refers to the beat pattern, in this case an unaccented syllable followed by an accented syllable (the most common in English). The second refers to the length of the line. In the case of pentameter we mean five feet (or ten syllables, long. Below are some commonly used words to describe the meter of regular poetry. The most common units ("feet") of rhythm in English are: The iamb, consisting of two syllables, only the second accented (as in "good-bye") The trochee, two syllables, only the first accented (as in "awful") The anapest, three syllables, with only the third stressed (as in "Halloween") The dactyl, one stressed syllable followed by two unstressed (as in "wonderful") The spondee, two consecutive syllables that are both stressed (as in "big deal") Many American poets in the past thirty years have written poetry using everyday language, and because much American speech is iambic in pattern, the poetry shows a lot of iambic rhythm. [golddaisy_l.jpg] Rhythm (or "measure") in writing is like the beat in music. In poetry, rhythm implies that certain words are produced more force- fully than others, and may be held for longer duration. The repetition of a pattern of such emphasis is what produces a "rhythmic effect." The word rhythm comes from the Greek, meaning "measured motion." In speech, we use rhythm without consciously creating recognizable patterns. For example, almost every telephone conversation ends rhythmically, with the conversants understanding as much by rhythm as by the meaning of the words, that it is time to hang up. Frequently such conversations end with Conversant A uttering a five- or six-syllable line, followed by Conversant B's five to six syllables, followed by A's two- to four-syllable line, followed by B's two to four syllables, and so on until the receivers are cradled. Well I gotta go now. Okay, see you later. Sure, pal. So long. See you. Take care. Bye bye. Bye bye. In poems, as in songs, a rhythm may be obvious or muted. A poem like Vachel Lindsay's "The Congo" consciously recreates the rhythms of a tribal dance: Fat black bucks in a wine-barrel room Barrel-house kings, with feet unstable, Sagged and reeled and pounded on the table, Pounded on the table, Beat an empty barrel with the handle of a broom, Hard as they were able Boom, boom, BOOM, With a silk umbrella and the handle of a broom, Boomlay, boomlay, boomlay, BOOM. On the other hand, some "free verse" has underlying rhythmical patterns that, while variable and not "regular" like Vachel Lindsay's, do nonetheless give a feeling of unity to the work. For example, read aloud the following lines a few times: A chimney, breathing a little smoke. The sun, I can't see making a bit of pink I can't quite see in the blue. The pink of five tulips at five P.M. on the day before March first. -From "February" by James Schuyler [1]suggested assignments [2]project [3]rhythm [4]rhyme [5]repetition [6]figures of speech [7]schoolnotes [8]home Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : JCPA LOGO Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs [1]Daniel Elazar Papers Index [2][USEMAP:nav-back.gif] American Political Culture The Generational Rhythm of American Politics The American Mosaic, Chapter 2 Daniel J. Elazar It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space. Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less pinpointed. This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast developments with great success. At the same time he has applied that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs. Early Studies of Generational Rhythms Students of society have noted the succession of generations since ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology on generational measures. The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs. It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon operating in history.^2 Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression, "forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5 Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The "generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7 Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of its beginnings and its ancestry. Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were the first to articulate systematic theories of generational progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that "History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals comes to dominate society.^9 These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed the principle that generations are articulated through historical events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained. Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a fourfold classification of generations as preparatory, revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10 Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11 Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation century.^13 After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri Peyre (1948).^16 More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused on problems of intergenerational differences and the political socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963) focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966) studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957) utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in Israel and the United States, respectively.^20 All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact, both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive theory. None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods. Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of three generations. Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin. Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature, art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular basis. Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under the heading of "a generation". Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History A number of theories of political cycles in American history have been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect "concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the "more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments" using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process. Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23 Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work. Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable directions. Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s) and the present. Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment occurs in every generation. While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts as follows: 1787-1801-1816 1816-1829-1841 1841-1861-1869 1869-1901-1918 1918-1931-? The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the following pattern: 1790-1796/1800 1800-1824/1828 1828-1824/1860 1860-1888/1896 1896-1932 His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their significance in the periodization process. Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if it is schematized as follows: 1789-1820 1828 1856-1860 1893/1894 1932 Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized as follows: 1896-1912 1912-1920-1932-1952 1952 Pomper also offers election dates and no more: 1836 1864-1876 1876-1892/1896 1928/1932-1952 1952-1964 None of these are complete theories and all must be considered within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit. Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era. In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however, the American people were treated to a display of federal activity -- and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow of time and events.) The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible pattern in the progression of political events in the United States over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26 The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a fixed moment, as individuals do now.... What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case, would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for 14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors. Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that 23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself assembled, can validly extend a debt. On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of 34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not of right. The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme, Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure of location in time. Human Social Rhythms As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the "lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation in any particular civil society and chart the relations among generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical patterns of its politics. During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years, averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited. Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life" ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and political roles as are given to mature men and women in society. Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention, if not physically, considered ready for retirement. Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote, and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be defined as the ending of one's serious political career without suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's 30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship. The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to "retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28 In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly established. Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby allowing a new generation to assume the reins. Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in social and political life than that found in the simple processes of human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings are recorded in history, we can do just that. Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the impact of the change and encourages new political action to assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at the most four generations are alive at any given time creates certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and politically unmanageable. Generations, Centuries and Events Since the founding of the first European settlements along the Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th century is the century of the United States as a world power. Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing point, thus: a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603) and the 17th century began with the opening of the American frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of the times. b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration for both countries. c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff). d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land frontier. Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn, the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments that will replace them. The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence. The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression will be related to major forces and factors shaping American history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the principal challenges facing the American people in each generation and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial, ethnic and religious groups. One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate. Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for analytical purposes than life ever is. The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany, but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies, and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate nation with its own civilization. The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century, which, from the first American recognition of common continental interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism, successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans. The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations, beginning at the point where America turned its back on European entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an industrialized continental nation with a strong national government; abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world power ready for overseas involvements. The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century -- reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the industrial revolution. As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first generation of the transformation of society as a result of the application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically dominant although economically weakened. The results of these phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder of the generation. Generations and Frontier Stages The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other historical and political phenomena. Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of human control over the natural environment and the utilization of the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control, i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American society is a product of this commitment which is virtually self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier situation that has created the major social and economic changes which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's political institutions. America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American life within that stage. The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the westward movement on a basically rural population interested in settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in Alaska. Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States, where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their existence and growth. By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth, in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation. After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and pace of development across the country. The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s, ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution, and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over. By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers, satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges, initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West. Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between the points of generational division and the shifts in the various frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are closely related to the opening of new centuries. Generations and Economic Periods One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a result, the governments of the United States have always maintained a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the governmental response. These changes have also developed on a generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth generation of American history) the American government continued a semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially unregulated by government. Demands for government regulation that built up during the last generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system. Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less government intervention. Centuries, Generations and Federalism The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first generation of American history brought the introduction of federal principles through the contracts and covenants that established the colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly, concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century. The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society. Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed have been major elements in the concrete response to the generation's challenges. Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of American history and politics. The changes in those relationships also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries. British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery. Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste system was in the making. During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation. Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was abolished in the North. The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was reaffirmed through the institution of segregation. From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say, to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American culture. While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era. The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the challenges changes from century to century. During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which, objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular progression of political events revolving around the development of a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and responses that gives each generation its particular character. While the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external -- or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation themselves. In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its sisters, and the other science independence when a common national constitution created a common national politics. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the political challenges that have dominated the American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the 19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the 20th century, they have essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and new generations is marked by several decisive political actions, often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so that they will achieve greater success and at the same time integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be recognized. The Bench Marks of American Political History: Critical Elections and New Deals In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds; first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each generation. The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs of voters, shifting them from one political party to another. Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a "critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one major element to another. Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the 1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and representatives to win control of Congress. The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968, only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the "normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in 1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems, won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the GOP controlled the Senate. A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations, personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders (or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate state parties which form the two national confederations known as the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties are confederations of the state parties, so is the national coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional coalitions. Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution, too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary inroads in the various electoral groups. Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means certain that the majority party will even win all the national elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards for the party faithful during the years of national "famine." As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad electoral groups.^33 While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election. Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical elections."^34 The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the development of the institution of the popularly elected president. Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and the House of Representatives. Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem. It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file" alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from balance to majority. "New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as the historical watersheds they are. In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S. Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B. Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s. The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational consolidation. The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington before undertaking any activities. The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an "outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation, usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time. President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and localities. These were all to become principal issues during the period of generational build-up. The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues of the new generation. Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been invariably preceded by critical elections through which the reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die -- determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to majority status. These critical elections, which attain their visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which face them. Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the 1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans. Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in 1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing period for the Democratic coalition. To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in American politics is not to suggest that events move in any lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the "normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too can be done that gives the theory its power. Summary Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more interest to European social philosophers than American social scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics, often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human social rhythms generally. Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them. The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation, constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political history recurring on a generational basis. Notes 1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970); Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979). 2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973). 3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5 (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers, chapter 32, verse 13. 7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte (London: G. Bell, 1896). 9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive (London, 1862). 10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani (Milano: Monanni, 1929). 11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen, der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4. (1875), pp. 36-41. 12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds., Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane, Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp., 1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). 13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method. 14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933). 15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti, ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales (Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F. Schoeningh, 1933). 16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926); Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig, 1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris: Boivin, 1948). 17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger, 1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4 (1972): 564-78. 18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956). 19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin, American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970). 20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield, Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970). 21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939). 22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key, Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961); Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968); Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). 23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210. 24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co. 1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government from the Civil War to the New Deal. 25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no. 1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992). 26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789. 27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President. 28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W. Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber, Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey, Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.: Brooks/Cole, 1989). 29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York: Macmillan, 1961). 30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965): Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989). 31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18. 32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability," Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171. 33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?" in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed., Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1983). 34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony; David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization, Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter, Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985). [3]Elazar Papers Index / [4]JCPA Home Page / [5]Top of Page Références [USEMAP] 1. javascript:history.go(-1) 3. mailto:jcenter@jcpa.org [USEMAP] [1]CAT.INIST [2][USEMAP:bandeau-haut-droit.gif] logo CNRS [3]logo INIST [4]En savoir plus sur CAT.INIST ? © INIST Diffusion S.A. Service Clients / Customer Service 2, allée du parc de Brabois F-54514 Vandoeuvre Cedex France Tél : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.64 Fax : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.66 Courriel : [5]infoclient@inist.fr [6]Accueil / Home Imprimer / Print [7]Contact / Contact Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [8]Email Print [9]Bookmark and Share [10]Mendeley Back Titre du document / Document title Rhythms of the secular : The politics of modernizing Arab poetic forms = Rythmes du séculaire : la politique de modernisation des formes poétiques arabes Auteur(s) / Author(s) FURANI Khaled^ (1) ; Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s) ^(1) Tel-Aviv University, ISRAEL Résumé / Abstract In this article, I ethnographically trace how Arab, mainly Palestinian, poets have modernized their literary tradition during the last seven decades. Shortly after the 1948 Israeli occupation of Palestine, the reign of the classical Arabic ode collapsed, and the modern forms of free verse and, later, the prose poem became dominant. Aiming to contribute to the ethnography of modernity, I examine how poets have adopted and abandoned poetic forms by analyzing their narratives on rhythm. I explore the political salience of rhythmical transformations and argue that the secular has been a vital and complex force in the modern abandonment of metrical discipline. The secular affects how poets seek to modernize their rhythm, vocabulary, and relation to public. It also affects, I conclude, the ways in which anthropologists can and do write about modernity. Revue / Journal Title American ethnologist ISSN 0094-0496 Source / Source 2008, vol. 35, n^o2, pp. 290-307 [18 page(s) (article)] (2 p.1/4) Langue / Language Anglais Editeur / Publisher American Ethnological Society, Washington, DC, ETATS-UNIS (1974) (Revue) Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords Rhythm ; Transformation ; Modernization ; Poet ; Modernity ; Poetry ; Israel ; Palestine ; Near East ; Mots-clés français / French Keywords Forme poétique ; Tradition littéraire ; Arabe palestinien ; Rythme ; Transformation ; Modernisation ; Poète ; Modernité ; Poésie ; Israël ; Palestine ; Proche-Orient ; Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords poetic form ; modernity and secularism ; Palestine-Israel ; Localisation / Location INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 16902, 35400019805879.0070 Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 20449527 Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [11]Email Print [12]Bookmark and Share [13]Mendeley Back _______________________________ Rechercher dans CAT.INIST / Search in CAT.INIST Google Custom Search Références 5. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20CAT.INIST.FR 7. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20Cat@inist.fr [USEMAP] * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * [1]LINGUIST List logo [2]Eastern Michigan University [3]Wayne State University * * [4]People & Organizations * [5]Jobs * [6]Calls & Conferences * [7]Publications * [8]Language Resources * [9]Text & Computer Tools * [10]Teaching & Learning * [11]Mailing Lists * [12]Search * * * [13][mail-logo-9.gif] E-mail this message to a friend Title: The Rhythm of Political Oratory Author: [14]Varvara Danilina Email: [15]click here to access email Degree Awarded: Moscow State University , Department of Foreigh Languages Degree Date: 2002 Linguistic Subfield(s): Discourse Analysis Sociolinguistics Subject Language(s): [16]English Director(s): [17]Ludmila Minaeva ___________________________________ Abstract: My doctoral dissertation was completed after four years of research on the rhythm of British and American political oratory. I sought to establish the rhythmic norm for political public speech and to find out, whether any deviations from this norm (i.e. from an expected rhythmic model) influence listeners and provoke their verbal reactions or bursts of applause. To accomplish this task I used a variety of linguistic and rhetorical methods, and drew upon social psychology and political science. There is no single linguistic perspective on speech rhythm. For instance, such distinguished scholars as D. Crystal and D. Abercrombie regard it as a purely phonetic phenomenon. At the same time, according to Moscow University school of thought, to which I belong, speech rhythm is created by a blend of phonetics, syntax and meaning of an utterance. As a result of my research, I established rhythmic regularities for political oratory at five levels. Firstly, I analyzed pauses that divide the stream of speech into segments (syntagmas), and classified all the pauses into syntactic, rhetorical or unintentional (unintentional pauses are caused by hesitation, deliberation, stammering, interruptions by listeners, etc). Secondly, I established the relative frequency of short, medium and long syntagmas between pauses, and thirdly, analyzed the rhythmic structures constituted by linear sequences of syntagmas. Fourthly, I studied the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables inside syntagmas. And finally, I considered all kinds of repetitions, both rhetorical and unintentional. This method of rhythmic analysis is based on earlier analytical models designed by my university colleagues. My own contribution consisted in adapting this method to the study of public speech, describing the typical rhythm of political oratory, and challenging some popular assumptions about speech rhythm. As for the impact of speech rhythm upon listeners, I started by analyzing audiences in order to understand psychological, social and political conditions of that process. G. Le Bon, Z. Freud and other scholars demonstrated conclusively that members of a crowd (and the audience of a public speech is a crowd) are connected with each other and with their leader (in our case, a speaker) by strong subconscious ties. However, the degree of unity or polarization of an audience may differ. Besides, each audience can be characterized according to several other criteria that determine listeners' responsiveness and the nature of their responses: their emotional state, the level of expertise in a particular subject, the demographic and social characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, social status, occupation, education), the existing evaluation of discussed issues, which is largely determined by listeners' ideologies, and finally, the attitude to the speaker, which can be positive, negative or indifferent. I have applied this model of audience analysis to determine peculiarities of the British parliamentary audience in October 1996, and of the US Congress in the aftermath of September 11, 2001. To analyze the reactions of these audiences to the rhythm of Prime Minister Major and President Bush's parliamentary addresses I used M. Atkinson's version of the conversation analysis method. I showed the two speeches as dialogues between the speakers and their listeners, and singled out phrases and syntagmas that immediately preceded audience responses, such as cheering, booing, laughter or bursts of applause. These phrases and syntagmas happened to be quite similar in terms of rhythm to other stretches of speech in the same addresses. Moreover, there proved to be little rhythmic difference between John Major and George Bush's speeches. In short, my research demonstrated that there is no direct interconnection between the rhythm of a public address and audience responses. [18]Add a dissertation [19]Update dissertation Page Updated: 17-Jan-2010 [20]Print This Page __________________________________________________________________ [21][transp.gif] [22][transp.gif] Please [23]report any bad links or misclassified data __________________________________________________________________ [24]LINGUIST Homepage | [25]Read LINGUIST | [26]Contact us [27]NSF Logo While the LINGUIST List makes every effort to ensure the linguistic relevance of sites listed on its pages, it cannot vouch for their contents. Références 13. JavaScript:; 15. JavaScript:; 20. Javascript:window.print(); 22. mailto:cranston@linguistlist.org [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] #[1]Edit this page [2]Wikipedia (en) [3]copyright [4]Wikipedia RSS Feed [5]Wikipedia Atom Feed Afrobeat From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search Question book-new.svg This article does not [8]cite any [9]references or sources. Please help [10]improve this article by adding citations to [11]reliable sources. Unsourced material may be [12]challenged and [13]removed. (September 2008) Afrobeat is a combination of [14]Yoruba music, [15]jazz, [16]highlife, and [17]funk [18]rhythms, fused with [19]percussion and [20]vocal styles, popularized in [21]Africa in the 1970s. Its main creator was the [22]Nigerian multi-[23]instrumentalist and [24]bandleader [25]Fela Kuti who used it to revolutionise musical structure as well as the political context in his native Nigeria. It was Kuti who coined the term "afrobeat" upon his return from a U.S. tour with his group Nigeria 70 (formerly Koola Lobitos). The new sound hailed from a club that he established called the Afro-Shrine. Upon arriving in Nigeria, Kuti also changed the name of his group to Fela Ransome-Kuti & Africa 70. The band maintained a five-year residency in the Afro-Shrine from 1970 to 1975 while afrobeat thrived among Nigerian youth. Afrobeat is now one of the most recognisable music genres in the world and has influenced as many Western musicians as it has African ones with its exuberant style and polyrhythms. Contents * [26]1 Origins * [27]2 Influence * [28]3 Instrumentation * [29]4 Today * [30]5 External links [[31]edit] Origins Afrobeat originated from the southern part of [32]Nigeria in the 1960s where Kuti experimented with many different forms of contemporary music of the time. Prevalent in him and Lagbaja's music are native African harmonies and rhythms, taking different elements and combining, modernizing and improvising upon them. [33]Politics are essential to afrobeat, since founder Kuti used social criticism to pave the way for social change. His message can be described as confrontational and controversial, which can be related to the political climate of most of the African countries in the 1960s, many of which were dealing with political injustice and military corruption while recovering from the transition from colonial governments to self-determination. As the genre spread throughout the African continent many bands took up the style. The recordings of these bands and their songs were rarely heard or exported outside the originating countries but many can now be found on compilation albums and CDs from specialist record shops. [[34]edit] Influence Many jazz musicians have been attracted to afrobeat. From [35]Roy Ayers in the seventies to [36]Randy Weston in the nineties, there have been collaborations which have resulted in albums such as Africa: Centre of the World by Roy Ayers, released on the Polydor label in 1981. In 1994 [37]Branford Marsalis, the American jazz saxophonist, included samples of Fela's "Beast of No Nation" on his Buckshot leFonque album. The new generation of DJs and musicians of the 2000s who have fallen in love with both Kuti's material and other rare releases have made compilations and remixes of these recordings, thus re-introducing the genre to new generations of listeners and fans of afropop and groove. Afrobeat has profoundly influenced important contemporary producers and musicians like [38]Brian Eno and [39]David Byrne, who credit Fela Kuti as an essential muse. Both worked on [40]Talking Heads' highly-acclaimed 1980 album [41]Remain In Light which brought polyrhythmic afrobeat influences to Western music. More recently, the horn section of [42]Antibalas have been guest musicians on [43]TV On The Radio's highly-acclaimed 2008 album [44]Dear Science, as well as on British band [45]Foals' 2008 album [46]Antidotes. [[47]edit] Instrumentation Big band (15 to 30 pieces: Fela-era afrobeat) and energetic performances * Lead vocals (may play sax/key solos as well) * Chorus vocals (may include horn players) * Rhythm guitar(s) (plays funk strumming pattern) * Tenor guitar (plays a finger-picked osinato groove) * [48]Bass guitar * [49]Drum set, generally in the form [50]polyrhythmic percussion * Saxophone(s) * Trumpet(s) * Trombone(s) * Organ/keyboards * Rhythm [51]conga #1 * Rhythm [52]conga #2 * Solo (lead) [53]conga * [54]Akuba: a set of 3 small stick-hit congas (play flourishes/solos, and ostinatos). Also mistakenly called "gbedu". * "Sticks"/[55]claves (plays ostinato) * [56]Shekere [[57]edit] Today There are several active afrobeat bands worldwide today. Modern afrobeat bands/artistes include: * [58]Kokolo (band), New York City Afrobeat/Afrofunk group formed by songwriter/producer Ray Lugo * [59]Nomo, [60]Ann Arbor based group that weaves various styles into a primarily Afrobeat sound. * [61]Chicago Afrobeat Project Chicago based collective that uses afrobeat as a springboard and has an incendiary live show. * [62]Afrodizz, an eight-piece band from [63]Montreal, [64]Canada formed by jazz guitarist Gabriel Aldama * [65]The Afromotive, an Asheville, NC based multiracial seven-piece afrobeat band featuring thirty-third generation djembe player Adama Dembele from Cote d`Ivoire, West Africa. * [66]Tony Allen, the man who held the drum chair during Fela's productive "Africa 70" phase, and whose drumming was, according to [67]James Brown's autobiography, the influence behind his 'discovery' of funk.^[[68]citation needed] * [69]Antibalas, [70]Brooklyn, New York based multiracial Afrobeat Orchestra formed by baritone saxophonist Martin Perna * [71]Aphrodesia, San Francisco based group, first American group to perform with Femi Kuti at The Shrine in Lagos, Nigeria. * [72]Ayetoro, a group led by Nigerian pianist/composer [73]Funsho Ogundipe * [74]Bebe cool lives in Uganda famous for his reggea mixed with luganda pop and English making an Afrobeat rhythm in Uganda known as Luga flow.He also lives in kampala. * [75]Chopteeth, an international 14 piece outfit based in Washington D.C., with former members of Busta Rhymes, The Temptations, The Four Tops, and Gladys Knight & the Pips. * [76]Femi Kuti (Fela's first son and a saxophonist) and the Positive Force * [77]Seun Kuti (another of Kuti's sons, saxophonist now fronting his father's last and late band) * [78]Dele Sosimi's Gbedu Resurrection Dele is a former keyboardist and musical director of Fela's band. He cofounded Femi Kuti's Positive Force. * [79]Zozo Afrobeat A thirteen-member group based in NYC, founded by Kaleta, former Fela guitarist. * [80]Baba Ken and the Afro-Groove Connexion Oakland based multiracial afrobeat ensemble led by Nigerian bassist, Baba Ken Okulolo, founding member of the seminal 1970's afrofunk/afrorock band, Monomono. * [81]Jose Chameleone famous in East, central and South Africa.He stays and live is Uganda in kampala city.He sing pop and Afro beat music.He is one of the most famous artists of Afro beat in Africa and the whole world. * [82]Afrobeat Down Los Angeles based Afrobeat ensemble (est. 2002) working with former Fela Africa '70 member and catalyst of entire afrobeat movement, Sandra Izsadore. * [83]Weird MC Rap artiste who occasionally experinments with Afrobeat rhythm. * [84]Vibe Squad A Ghanaian music crew formed by EaZZY Da Opemfour made of Prego, Culchar, Wizzy Wii and Richie. * [85]Gnl zamba rap artist in Uganda one of the most successful rap afrobeat star in East Africa and central Africa.He is known for his rhythm of 2 pac shakur * [86]Mr. Something Something Canadian afrobeat group * [87]Crime Scene Infunkstigation A 10-piece Afrobeat/Funk/Hip Hop group based out of Calgary, AB [[88]edit] External links * [89]KOKOLO on Myspace * [90]KOKOLO on YouTube * [91]KOKOLO Official Homepage * [92]The Afrobeat Blog * [93]The Unofficial Seun Kuti Fan-Site - Unofficial fan-site for Seun Kuti & Egypt 80 with news, videos, music, pictures and much more] * [94]The Shrine The Unofficial Website for Fela Kuti, Femi Kuti and Afrobeat Music * [95]BBC Afrobeat Documentary [96]v o [97]d o [98]e Genres of [99]African popular music Afrobeat · [100]Apala · [101]Benga · [102]Bikutsi · [103]Cape Jazz · [104]Chimurenga · [105]Fuji · [106]Highlife · [107]Hiplife · [108]Isicathamiya · [109]Jit · [110]Jùjú · [111]Kizomba · [112]Kuduro · [113]Kwaito · [114]Kwela · [115]Makossa · [116]Maloya · [117]Marrabenta · [118]Mbalax · [119]Mbaqanga · [120]Mbube · [121]Morna · [122]Palm-wine · [123]Raï · [124]Sakara · [125]Sega · [126]Soukous/Congo/Lingala/Rumba · [127]Taarab [128]v o [129]d o [130]e [131]Funk music [132]Acid jazz o Afrobeat o [133]Brit funk o [134]Funk metal o [135]Deep Funk o [136]Drumfunk o [137]Free funk o [138]Funkcore o [139]Funktronica o [140]Funk rock o [141]G-funk o [142]Go-go o [143]Jazz-funk o [144]Liquid funk o [145]Neurofunk o [146]Nu-funk o [147]P-Funk o [148]Post-disco o [149]Punk-funk o [150]Skweee Related [151]List of funk musicians o [152]Minneapolis sound [154]Categories: [155]Funk genres | [156]African American music in Africa Hidden categories: [157]Articles lacking sources from September 2008 | [158]All articles lacking sources | [159]All articles with unsourced statements | [160]Articles with unsourced statements from July 2007 Views * [161]Article * [162]Discussion * [163]Edit this page * [164]History Personal tools * [165]Try Beta * [166]Log in / create account Navigation * [167]Main page * [168]Contents * [169]Featured content * [170]Current events * [171]Random article Search ____________________ Go Search Interaction * [172]About Wikipedia * [173]Community portal * [174]Recent changes * [175]Contact Wikipedia * [176]Donate to Wikipedia * [177]Help Toolbox * [178]What links here * [179]Related changes * [180]Upload file * [181]Special pages * [182]Printable version * [183]Permanent link * [184]Cite this page Languages * [185]Català * [186]Deutsch * [187]Español * [188]Français * [189]Hrvatski * [190]Italiano * [191]Nederlands * [192]¥¬ * [193]ªNorsk (bokmål) * [194]Polski * [195]Português * [196]Suomi [197]Powered by MediaWiki [198]Wikimedia Foundation * This page was last modified on 12 January 2010 at 06:03. * Text is available under the [199]Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See [200]Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [201]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * [202]Contact us * [203]Privacy policy * [204]About Wikipedia * [205]Disclaimers Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : #[1]rss [2]Jump to content Year * 1996 * 1997 * 1998 * 1999 * 2000 * 2001 * 2002 * 2003 * 2004 * [3]2005 * [4]2006 * [5]2007 * [6]2008 * [7]2009 * 2010 * 2011 * 2012 * 2013 * 2014 * 2015 * 2016 * 2017 * 2018 * 2019 Day * [8]24 * [9]23 * [10]22 * [11]21 * [12]20 * [13]19 * [14]18 * [15]17 * [16]16 * [17]15 * [18]14 * [19]13 * [20]12 * [21]11 * [22]10 * [23]09 * [24]08 * [25]07 * [26]06 * [27]05 * [28]04 * [29]03 * [30]02 * [31]01 [32]24 Ways to impress your friends * [33]Home * [34]Archives * [35]Authors * [36]Twitter * [37]RSS * ____________________ Go 12 12/2006 [38]Compose to a Vertical Rhythm by [39]Richard Rutter * [40]Article * [41]29 comments "Space in typography is like time in music. It is infinitely divisible, but a few proportional intervals can be much more useful than a limitless choice of arbitrary quantities." So says the typographer Robert Bringhurst, and just as regular use of time provides rhythm in music, so regular use of space provides rhythm in typography, and without rhythm the listener, or the reader, becomes disorientated and lost. On the Web, vertical rhythm - the spacing and arrangement of text as the reader descends the page - is contributed to by three factors: font size, line height and margin or padding. All of these factors must calculated with care in order that the rhythm is maintained. The basic unit of vertical space is line height. Establishing a suitable line height that can be applied to all text on the page, be it heading, body copy or sidenote, is the key to a solid dependable vertical rhythm, which will engage and guide the reader down the page. To see this in action, I've created [42]an example with headings, footnotes and sidenotes. Establishing a suitable line height The easiest place to begin determining a basic line height unit is with the font size of the body copy. For [43]the example I've chosen 12px. To ensure readability the body text will almost certainly need some leading, that is to say spacing between the lines. A line-height of 1.5em would give 6px spacing between the lines of body copy. This will create a total line height of 18px, which becomes our basic unit. Here's the CSS to get us to this point: 1. body { 2. font-size: 75%; 3. } 4. 5. html>body { 6. font-size: 12px; 7. } 8. 9. p { 10. line-height 1.5em; 11. } 12. Source: [44]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/1.txt There are many ways to size text in CSS and the above approach provides and accessible method of achieving the pixel-precision solid typography requires. By way of explanation, the first font-size reduces the body text from the 16px default (common to most browsers and OS set-ups) down to the 12px we require. This rule is primarily there for Internet Explorer 6 and below on Windows: the percentage value means that the text will scale predictably should a user bump the text size up or down. The second font-size sets the text size specifically and is ignored by IE6, but used by Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels. Spacing between paragraphs With our rhythmic unit set at 18px we need to ensure that it is maintained throughout the body copy. A common place to lose the rhythm is the gaps set between margins. The default treatment by web browsers of paragraphs is to insert a top- and bottom-margin of 1em. In our case this would give a spacing between the paragraphs of 12px and hence throw the text out of rhythm. If the rhythm of the page is to be maintained, the spacing of paragraphs should be related to the basic line height unit. This is achieved simply by setting top- and bottom-margins equal to the line height. In order that typographic integrity is maintained when text is resized by the user we must use ems for all our vertical measurements, including line-height, padding and margins. 1. p { 2. font-size:1em; 3. margin-top: 1.5em; 4. margin-bottom: 1.5em; 5. } 6. Source: [45]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/2.txt Browsers set margins on all block-level elements (such as headings, lists and blockquotes) so a way of ensuring that typographic attention is paid to all such elements is to reset the margins at the beginning of your style sheet. You could use a rule such as: 1. body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl ockquote,th,td { 2. margin:0; 3. padding:0; 4. } 5. Source: [46]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/3.txt Alternatively you could look into using the [47]Yahoo! UI Reset style sheet which removes most default styling, so providing a solid foundation upon which you can explicitly declare your design intentions. Variations in text size When there is a change in text size, perhaps with a heading or sidenotes, the differing text should also take up a multiple of the basic leading. This means that, in our example, every diversion from the basic text size should take up multiples of 18px. This can be accomplished by adjusting the line-height and margin accordingly, as described following. Headings Subheadings in the [48]example page are set to 14px. In order that the height of each line is 18px, the line-height should be set to 18 ÷ 14 = 1.286. Similarly the margins above and below the heading must be adjusted to fit. The temptation is to set heading margins to a simple 1em, but in order to maintain the rhythm, the top and bottom margins should be set at 1.286em so that the spacing is equal to the full 18px unit. 1. h2 { 2. font-size:1.1667em; 3. line-height: 1.286em; 4. margin-top: 1.286em; 5. margin-bottom: 1.286em; 6. } 7. Source: [49]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/4.txt One can also set asymmetrical margins for headings, provided the margins combine to be multiples of the basic line height. In our example, a top margin of 1½ lines is combined with a bottom margin of half a line as follows: 1. h2 { 2. font-size:1.1667em; 3. line-height: 1.286em; 4. margin-top: 1.929em; 5. margin-bottom: 0.643em; 6. } 7. Source: [50]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/5.txt Also in our example, the main heading is given a text size of 18px, therefore the line-height has been set to 1em, as has the margin: 1. h1 { 2. font-size:1.5em; 3. line-height: 1em; 4. margin-top: 0; 5. margin-bottom: 1em; 6. } 7. Source: [51]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/6.txt Sidenotes Sidenotes (and other supplementary material) are often set at a smaller size to the basic text. To keep the rhythm, this smaller text should still line up with body copy, so a calculation similar to that for headings is required. In our example, the sidenotes are set at 10px and so their line-height must be increased to 18 ÷ 10 = 1.8. 1. .sidenote { 2. font-size:0.8333em; 3. line-height:1.8em; 4. } 5. Source: [52]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/7.txt Borders One additional point where vertical rhythm is often lost is with the introduction of horizontal borders. These effectively act as shims pushing the subsequent text downwards, so a two pixel horizontal border will throw out the vertical rhythm by two pixels. A way around this is to specify horizontal lines using background images or, as in our example, specify the width of the border in ems and adjust the padding to take up the slack. The design of the footnote in our example requires a 1px horizontal border. The footnote contains 12px text, so 1px in ems is 1 ÷ 12 = 0.0833. I have added a margin of 1½ lines above the border (1.5 × 18 ÷ 12 = 2.5ems), so to maintain the rhythm the border + padding must equal a ½ (9px). We know the border is set to 1px, so the padding must be set to 8px. To specify this in ems we use the familiar calculation: 8 ÷ 12 = 0.667. Hit me with your rhythm stick Composing to a vertical rhythm helps engage and guide the reader down the page, but it takes typographic discipline to do so. It may seem like a lot of fiddly maths is involved (a few divisions and multiplications never hurt anyone) but good type setting is all about numbers, and it is this attention to detail which is the key to success. Like what you read? * [53]Tweet this article * or * [54]Leave a comment Comments * [55]12/12/2006 Wow this is a good article. * [57]12/12/2006 [58]Will thanks so much, this is great. * [59]12/12/2006 Interesting stuff. Also worth reading Eric Meyer's post on unitless line-heights: * [61]12/12/2006 It's worth mentioning that IE6 and below can go a bit extreme when resizing fonts set as ems. You can fix this by applying font-size: 100% to html. Don't know why this works, it just does. Oh, if you're working in quirks mode you'll also need to apply it to thead, tbody and tfoot, beacuse the fix doesn't inherit (don't apply it to table unless you want table to inherit font-sizes). You don't need thead, tbody or tfoot in your tables as tbody is implied. Obviously, you can't then apply your own font-sizes to html or tbody etc, else you'll overwrite the fix, which is why I chose those particular elements as they're rarely used for font-sizes. Jake. * [63]12/12/2006 [64]Mike Stenhouse donotremove.co.uk Hmmmmm, interesting! I've not tried this but I think there might be an easier way to set those heights... What if the line-height is set to, say, 1.5em on the body and 1 (unit-less - it's valid!) on each descendant element? Or maybe some variation on that. It might force the 18px to inherit into the children without awkward calculations. * [65]12/12/2006 Great article, Richard! Web typography--like all typography--deserves this level of detailed thinking, and I hope to see more designers embracing it. * [67]12/12/2006 [68]michael h Good introduction to typography theory, but I am convinced that the Owen Briggs method is the best approach to sizing. * [69]13/12/2006 I've been working on something similar recently, and I've discovered that if you set the line-height in pixels, most browsers will still scale it proportionally along with the text. As IE6's numbers fall off, I hope we can leave all this black magic scaling math behind and go back to setting font sizes in pixels and letting the browsers handle the scaling. * [71]13/12/2006 Mike - you're right about being able to simplify the line-height specifications, but it doesn't require setting unitless line-heights. In the example I use, I've set the font-size to be 12px on the body and calculated line-heights for all the subsequent elements. As I required one line height - 18px - for all elements I can remove the multiple statements and simply set line-height:1.5em on the body. The calculated line-height of 18px is inherited by all elements on the page. I've modifed the example to show this (checked in Firefox, Safari and IE6): However the maths would still need to be performed to calculate the correct margins, so while the extra line-height specifications are not strictly necessary (at least while the same line height for all text is required) you unfortunately don't save much on the calculations. * [73]13/12/2006 Jake - the extreme text sizing in IE can be fixed by applying any percentage font size to the body - it doesn't have to be 100% (hence my use of 75% fixed this too). You're right about the tables though. This rule does the job nicely to inherit the text size: table, thead, tbody, tr, th, td {font-size:1em} * [75]13/12/2006 [76]GreLI In the article next rule is used to reset margins: body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl ockquote,th,td { margin:0; padding:0; } I think it easier to use universal selector (* { margin: 0; padding: 0 }) instead. To fix table font-size inheritance it's enough to set table { font-size: 1em } Opera AFAIK don't change font-size if it set in pixels, but it can zoom pages (so does IE7). * [77]13/12/2006 GreLI - using the universal selector like that to zero all margins and padding can cause unpredictable results in some form controls (e.g. SELECT elements) in certain browsers. Rich - great article; now all someone needs to do is knock up a nice little app that spits out the right line-heights and margins for the elements you tell it... :) * [79]13/12/2006 It's unfortunate that pretty much no one composes with a scale when publishing for the web. Your article is a great step forward. Also overlooked are line lengths. Since the beginning of the web, It has been a standard practice to expand the line lengths out with the width of the browser (like your site is currently :), causing line lengths to expand way too long. If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even smaller. * [81]14/12/2006 I don't see it mentioned in the comments yet, but your quote above: "...Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels." is not correct, as IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized. * [83]18/12/2006 If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even smaller. You're right to mention line length as something that is overlooked, but on the screen it is not as simple as setting the measure in ems as their are more factors involved (screen size, liquid layouts, etc). Also I'd disagree that web line lengths should be shorter on the web. My personal preference would be for them to be longer - I find short line lengths on screen extremely hard work to read. That's just my opinion though. IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized. If you think of the reasons for changing text size then zooming a layout is just another form of resizing text and achieves the same goal. * [85]20/12/2006 Theodore, I think you would enjoy Richard's article entitled "Choose a comfortable measure" over at webtypography.net :) 1.2/ * [87]22/12/2006 [88]Rachel Maxim You've said in a few pages what has taken me years to figure out and refine :) - great info! * [89]23/12/2006 I really enjoyed this article. I have read your Elements of....for the web, as well as your blog about sizing text in ems. I have really been looking in to using this and getting the best `flow' with my typography. I also ordered the book Elements of Typographic Style just to give a better understanding. I think its a common misconception that text on the web will always look bland, and you have proved that it can have rhythm and style. * [91]02/01/2007 I've just been using some of these techniques on a client's site who needed 8 tabs all the same width, which fill the available space - I had it working fine in Firefox, but the tabs didn't fill the space in Safari or IE. I found that you really have to do the maths, rather than just use trial and error - they all round the numbers slightly differently. Once I'd checked my calculations, rather than tinkered with the numbers, it works fine everywhere, at least at standard font size. One other correction from someone's comment earlier on - you can resize text in IE7 - click the page icon at top right. Why you need both this and the ability to zoom, I'm not sure, but it's there at any rate. * [93]03/01/2007 [94]Ben G Can you set the margin above or below headings or paragraphs to less than your 18px base measurement? Won't margin collapsing cause whichever the largest margin is to take effect? Ben * [95]31/01/2009 [96]Daniel I've been using this article as the basis for designing my site with some "vertical rhythm". Everything is going well except with forms (input, textarea, etc.). I just haven't been able to use css to maintain the vertical rhythm (based on total line height of 18px). Any advise or insight as to how to get forms to play nicely? * [97]15/02/2009 [98]Silver Firefly I wanted to clarify something about the default browser text size and using the em unit. The article was a tad misleading when it covered the default browser text size and the em unit. A lot of designers have it in their heads that an em is equivalent to 16 pixels. An em is not equivalent to 16 pixels. It is equivalent to whatever is set in the user's browser, which is commonly 16px but depending on the user, it can be 20px or 12px or whatever they have set in their browser's settings. I hope after reading that statement, designers will start to realise that they have little control over how their website appears in other users' browsers. The majority of the control lies in the user's hands. Other than that, the article was very good. * [99]17/04/2009 Great article... and AWESOME site design. Inspirational! * [101]27/04/2009 Typesetting for websites is the future, like all things content-related. The Google knows it :). Thank you for that useful post. You webdesigners take care of your text! * [103]05/06/2009 [104]bonfield Inline bolding of elements (I'm using Helvetica, e.g.) seems to add a px of height on any line that uses it, and that subtly throws off the vertical rhythm for each line and it can add up depending -- anybody else run into this and solve it? * [105]18/06/2009 [106]Anonymous Does this truly keep the vertical rhythm? If you zoom in on the example, you'll see that the descender of the letter g in the H1 header "New England" crosses your rhythm marker's background line, while a lowercase g in the following paragraph does not. There appears to be some fudging going on. * [107]08/07/2009 I find it humorous that this site itself does not compose to a vertical rhythm. I've seen very few online that do. It's so difficult to implement across browsers it is usually brushed aside except for in the most simple design schemes. * [109]03/08/2009 [110]eric I've yet to see any empirical evidence that "vertical rhythm" applied to this degree has any impact on how well a reader is able to extract signal from the noise of the page. Meanwhile, I've seen many, many examples of mis-applied "vertical rhythms" resulting in squashed headings where the underlning on a link impinges on the text below. Which just looks clunky. When you've got something other than an aesthetic opinion from the margins -- maybe some actual data -- then I'll be interested in expending the effort needed to support real vertical rhythm. Until then, I just don't see how it's cost-effective. * [111]02/09/2009 Now, that was the kind of article I was looking for. That goes a lot deeper than I've been into the realms of line-spacing, leading (no kerning here though - can we do kerning with css?). I love the analogy to musical rhythym > therefore probably following on to mathematics/geometry/proportion. That is a great lead-in. Is there any room for the `golden ratio' in web design? Do graphic designers use it with/without realising it? Just that I haven't seen it discussed in the myriad pages concerning page layout/design that I've read so far... Thanks, Darren Impress us Name _________________________ Email _________________________ Website _________________________ Message _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ Be friendly / use [113]Textile Preview Submit About the author [114]Richard Rutter Richard Rutter is a user experience consultant and director of [115]Clearleft. He runs an ongoing project called [116]The Elements of Typographic Style Applied to the Web, where he extols the virtues of good web typography. Richard occasionally blogs at [117]Clagnut, where he writes about design, accessibility and web standards issues, as well as his passion for music and mountain biking. [118]More information Related articles * [119]Real Fonts and Rendering: The New Elephant in the Room 22/12/2009 by [120]Jeffrey Zeldman * [121]Spruce It Up 19/12/2009 by [122]Jonathan Snook * [123]Designing For The Switch 16/12/2009 by [124]Mark Boulton * [125]Type-Inspired Interfaces 07/12/2009 by [126]Dan Mall * [127]A Festive Type Folly 17/12/2008 by [128]Jon Tan * [129]Increase Your Font Stacks With Font Matrix 17/12/2007 by [130]Richard Rutter * [131]Typesetting Tables 07/12/2007 by [132]Mark Boulton * [133]Knockout Type - Thin Is Always In 17/12/2006 by [134]Shaun Inman * [135]An Explanation of Ems 02/12/2005 by [136]Richard Rutter [137]Article archives... In association with: [138]Perch - a really little cms * 24 ways is an [139]edgeofmyseat.com production. * Edited by [140]Drew McLellan and [141]Brian Suda. * Design delivered by [142]Made by Elephant. * Possible only with the help of [143]our terrific authors. * Grab our [144]RSS feed and follow us on [145]Twitter for daily updates. * Hosted by [146]Memset. * * * * Références JCPA LOGO Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs [1]Daniel Elazar Papers Index [2][USEMAP:nav-back.gif] American Political Culture The Generational Rhythm of American Politics The American Mosaic, Chapter 2 Daniel J. Elazar It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space. Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less pinpointed. This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast developments with great success. At the same time he has applied that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs. Early Studies of Generational Rhythms Students of society have noted the succession of generations since ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology on generational measures. The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs. It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon operating in history.^2 Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression, "forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5 Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The "generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7 Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of its beginnings and its ancestry. Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were the first to articulate systematic theories of generational progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that "History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals comes to dominate society.^9 These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed the principle that generations are articulated through historical events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained. Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a fourfold classification of generations as preparatory, revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10 Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11 Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation century.^13 After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri Peyre (1948).^16 More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused on problems of intergenerational differences and the political socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963) focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966) studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957) utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in Israel and the United States, respectively.^20 All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact, both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive theory. None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods. Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of three generations. Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin. Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature, art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular basis. Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under the heading of "a generation". Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History A number of theories of political cycles in American history have been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect "concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the "more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments" using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process. Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23 Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work. Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable directions. Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s) and the present. Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment occurs in every generation. While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts as follows: 1787-1801-1816 1816-1829-1841 1841-1861-1869 1869-1901-1918 1918-1931-? The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the following pattern: 1790-1796/1800 1800-1824/1828 1828-1824/1860 1860-1888/1896 1896-1932 His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their significance in the periodization process. Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if it is schematized as follows: 1789-1820 1828 1856-1860 1893/1894 1932 Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized as follows: 1896-1912 1912-1920-1932-1952 1952 Pomper also offers election dates and no more: 1836 1864-1876 1876-1892/1896 1928/1932-1952 1952-1964 None of these are complete theories and all must be considered within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit. Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era. In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however, the American people were treated to a display of federal activity -- and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow of time and events.) The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible pattern in the progression of political events in the United States over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26 The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a fixed moment, as individuals do now.... What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case, would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for 14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors. Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that 23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself assembled, can validly extend a debt. On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of 34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not of right. The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme, Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure of location in time. Human Social Rhythms As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the "lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation in any particular civil society and chart the relations among generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical patterns of its politics. During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years, averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited. Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life" ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and political roles as are given to mature men and women in society. Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention, if not physically, considered ready for retirement. Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote, and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be defined as the ending of one's serious political career without suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's 30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship. The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to "retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28 In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly established. Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby allowing a new generation to assume the reins. Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in social and political life than that found in the simple processes of human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings are recorded in history, we can do just that. Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the impact of the change and encourages new political action to assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at the most four generations are alive at any given time creates certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and politically unmanageable. Generations, Centuries and Events Since the founding of the first European settlements along the Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th century is the century of the United States as a world power. Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing point, thus: a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603) and the 17th century began with the opening of the American frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of the times. b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration for both countries. c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff). d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land frontier. Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn, the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments that will replace them. The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence. The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression will be related to major forces and factors shaping American history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the principal challenges facing the American people in each generation and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial, ethnic and religious groups. One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate. Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for analytical purposes than life ever is. The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany, but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies, and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate nation with its own civilization. The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century, which, from the first American recognition of common continental interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism, successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans. The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations, beginning at the point where America turned its back on European entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an industrialized continental nation with a strong national government; abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world power ready for overseas involvements. The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century -- reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the industrial revolution. As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first generation of the transformation of society as a result of the application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically dominant although economically weakened. The results of these phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder of the generation. Generations and Frontier Stages The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other historical and political phenomena. Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of human control over the natural environment and the utilization of the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control, i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American society is a product of this commitment which is virtually self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier situation that has created the major social and economic changes which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's political institutions. America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American life within that stage. The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the westward movement on a basically rural population interested in settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in Alaska. Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States, where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their existence and growth. By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth, in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation. After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and pace of development across the country. The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s, ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution, and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over. By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers, satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges, initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West. Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between the points of generational division and the shifts in the various frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are closely related to the opening of new centuries. Generations and Economic Periods One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a result, the governments of the United States have always maintained a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the governmental response. These changes have also developed on a generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth generation of American history) the American government continued a semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially unregulated by government. Demands for government regulation that built up during the last generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system. Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less government intervention. Centuries, Generations and Federalism The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first generation of American history brought the introduction of federal principles through the contracts and covenants that established the colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly, concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century. The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society. Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed have been major elements in the concrete response to the generation's challenges. Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of American history and politics. The changes in those relationships also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries. British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery. Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste system was in the making. During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation. Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was abolished in the North. The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was reaffirmed through the institution of segregation. From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say, to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American culture. While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era. The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the challenges changes from century to century. During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which, objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular progression of political events revolving around the development of a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and responses that gives each generation its particular character. While the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external -- or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation themselves. In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its sisters, and the other science independence when a common national constitution created a common national politics. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the political challenges that have dominated the American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the 19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the 20th century, they have essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and new generations is marked by several decisive political actions, often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so that they will achieve greater success and at the same time integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be recognized. The Bench Marks of American Political History: Critical Elections and New Deals In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds; first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each generation. The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs of voters, shifting them from one political party to another. Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a "critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one major element to another. Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the 1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and representatives to win control of Congress. The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968, only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the "normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in 1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems, won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the GOP controlled the Senate. A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations, personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders (or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate state parties which form the two national confederations known as the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties are confederations of the state parties, so is the national coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional coalitions. Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution, too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary inroads in the various electoral groups. Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means certain that the majority party will even win all the national elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards for the party faithful during the years of national "famine." As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad electoral groups.^33 While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election. Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical elections."^34 The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the development of the institution of the popularly elected president. Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and the House of Representatives. Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem. It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file" alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from balance to majority. "New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as the historical watersheds they are. In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S. Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B. Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s. The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational consolidation. The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington before undertaking any activities. The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an "outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation, usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time. President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and localities. These were all to become principal issues during the period of generational build-up. The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues of the new generation. Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been invariably preceded by critical elections through which the reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die -- determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to majority status. These critical elections, which attain their visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which face them. Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the 1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans. Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in 1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing period for the Democratic coalition. To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in American politics is not to suggest that events move in any lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the "normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too can be done that gives the theory its power. Summary Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more interest to European social philosophers than American social scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics, often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human social rhythms generally. Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them. The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation, constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political history recurring on a generational basis. Notes 1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970); Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979). 2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973). 3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5 (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers, chapter 32, verse 13. 7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte (London: G. Bell, 1896). 9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive (London, 1862). 10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani (Milano: Monanni, 1929). 11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen, der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4. (1875), pp. 36-41. 12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds., Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane, Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp., 1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). 13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method. 14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933). 15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti, ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales (Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F. Schoeningh, 1933). 16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926); Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig, 1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris: Boivin, 1948). 17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger, 1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4 (1972): 564-78. 18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956). 19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin, American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970). 20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield, Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970). 21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939). 22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key, Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961); Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968); Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). 23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210. 24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co. 1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government from the Civil War to the New Deal. 25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no. 1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992). 26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789. 27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President. 28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W. Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber, Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey, Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.: Brooks/Cole, 1989). 29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York: Macmillan, 1961). 30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965): Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989). 31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18. 32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability," Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171. 33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?" in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed., Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1983). 34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony; David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization, Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter, Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985). [3]Elazar Papers Index / [4]JCPA Home Page / [5]Top of Page Références [USEMAP] 1. javascript:history.go(-1) 3. mailto:jcenter@jcpa.org [USEMAP] [1]CAT.INIST [2][USEMAP:bandeau-haut-droit.gif] logo CNRS [3]logo INIST [4]En savoir plus sur CAT.INIST ? © INIST Diffusion S.A. Service Clients / Customer Service 2, allée du parc de Brabois F-54514 Vandoeuvre Cedex France Tél : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.64 Fax : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.66 Courriel : [5]infoclient@inist.fr [6]Accueil / Home Imprimer / Print [7]Contact / Contact Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [8]Email Print [9]Bookmark and Share [10]Mendeley Back Titre du document / Document title Rhythms of the secular : The politics of modernizing Arab poetic forms = Rythmes du séculaire : la politique de modernisation des formes poétiques arabes Auteur(s) / Author(s) FURANI Khaled^ (1) ; Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s) ^(1) Tel-Aviv University, ISRAEL Résumé / Abstract In this article, I ethnographically trace how Arab, mainly Palestinian, poets have modernized their literary tradition during the last seven decades. Shortly after the 1948 Israeli occupation of Palestine, the reign of the classical Arabic ode collapsed, and the modern forms of free verse and, later, the prose poem became dominant. Aiming to contribute to the ethnography of modernity, I examine how poets have adopted and abandoned poetic forms by analyzing their narratives on rhythm. I explore the political salience of rhythmical transformations and argue that the secular has been a vital and complex force in the modern abandonment of metrical discipline. The secular affects how poets seek to modernize their rhythm, vocabulary, and relation to public. It also affects, I conclude, the ways in which anthropologists can and do write about modernity. Revue / Journal Title American ethnologist ISSN 0094-0496 Source / Source 2008, vol. 35, n^o2, pp. 290-307 [18 page(s) (article)] (2 p.1/4) Langue / Language Anglais Editeur / Publisher American Ethnological Society, Washington, DC, ETATS-UNIS (1974) (Revue) Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords Rhythm ; Transformation ; Modernization ; Poet ; Modernity ; Poetry ; Israel ; Palestine ; Near East ; Mots-clés français / French Keywords Forme poétique ; Tradition littéraire ; Arabe palestinien ; Rythme ; Transformation ; Modernisation ; Poète ; Modernité ; Poésie ; Israël ; Palestine ; Proche-Orient ; Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords poetic form ; modernity and secularism ; Palestine-Israel ; Localisation / Location INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 16902, 35400019805879.0070 Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 20449527 Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [11]Email Print [12]Bookmark and Share [13]Mendeley Back _______________________________ Rechercher dans CAT.INIST / Search in CAT.INIST Google Custom Search Références 5. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20CAT.INIST.FR 7. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20Cat@inist.fr [USEMAP] * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * [1]LINGUIST List logo [2]Eastern Michigan University [3]Wayne State University * * [4]People & Organizations * [5]Jobs * [6]Calls & Conferences * [7]Publications * [8]Language Resources * [9]Text & Computer Tools * [10]Teaching & Learning * [11]Mailing Lists * [12]Search * * * [13][mail-logo-9.gif] E-mail this message to a friend Title: The Rhythm of Political Oratory Author: [14]Varvara Danilina Email: [15]click here to access email Degree Awarded: Moscow State University , Department of Foreigh Languages Degree Date: 2002 Linguistic Subfield(s): Discourse Analysis Sociolinguistics Subject Language(s): [16]English Director(s): [17]Ludmila Minaeva ___________________________________ Abstract: My doctoral dissertation was completed after four years of research on the rhythm of British and American political oratory. I sought to establish the rhythmic norm for political public speech and to find out, whether any deviations from this norm (i.e. from an expected rhythmic model) influence listeners and provoke their verbal reactions or bursts of applause. To accomplish this task I used a variety of linguistic and rhetorical methods, and drew upon social psychology and political science. There is no single linguistic perspective on speech rhythm. For instance, such distinguished scholars as D. Crystal and D. Abercrombie regard it as a purely phonetic phenomenon. At the same time, according to Moscow University school of thought, to which I belong, speech rhythm is created by a blend of phonetics, syntax and meaning of an utterance. As a result of my research, I established rhythmic regularities for political oratory at five levels. Firstly, I analyzed pauses that divide the stream of speech into segments (syntagmas), and classified all the pauses into syntactic, rhetorical or unintentional (unintentional pauses are caused by hesitation, deliberation, stammering, interruptions by listeners, etc). Secondly, I established the relative frequency of short, medium and long syntagmas between pauses, and thirdly, analyzed the rhythmic structures constituted by linear sequences of syntagmas. Fourthly, I studied the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables inside syntagmas. And finally, I considered all kinds of repetitions, both rhetorical and unintentional. This method of rhythmic analysis is based on earlier analytical models designed by my university colleagues. My own contribution consisted in adapting this method to the study of public speech, describing the typical rhythm of political oratory, and challenging some popular assumptions about speech rhythm. As for the impact of speech rhythm upon listeners, I started by analyzing audiences in order to understand psychological, social and political conditions of that process. G. Le Bon, Z. Freud and other scholars demonstrated conclusively that members of a crowd (and the audience of a public speech is a crowd) are connected with each other and with their leader (in our case, a speaker) by strong subconscious ties. However, the degree of unity or polarization of an audience may differ. Besides, each audience can be characterized according to several other criteria that determine listeners' responsiveness and the nature of their responses: their emotional state, the level of expertise in a particular subject, the demographic and social characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, social status, occupation, education), the existing evaluation of discussed issues, which is largely determined by listeners' ideologies, and finally, the attitude to the speaker, which can be positive, negative or indifferent. I have applied this model of audience analysis to determine peculiarities of the British parliamentary audience in October 1996, and of the US Congress in the aftermath of September 11, 2001. To analyze the reactions of these audiences to the rhythm of Prime Minister Major and President Bush's parliamentary addresses I used M. Atkinson's version of the conversation analysis method. I showed the two speeches as dialogues between the speakers and their listeners, and singled out phrases and syntagmas that immediately preceded audience responses, such as cheering, booing, laughter or bursts of applause. These phrases and syntagmas happened to be quite similar in terms of rhythm to other stretches of speech in the same addresses. Moreover, there proved to be little rhythmic difference between John Major and George Bush's speeches. In short, my research demonstrated that there is no direct interconnection between the rhythm of a public address and audience responses. [18]Add a dissertation [19]Update dissertation Page Updated: 17-Jan-2010 [20]Print This Page __________________________________________________________________ [21][transp.gif] [22][transp.gif] Please [23]report any bad links or misclassified data __________________________________________________________________ [24]LINGUIST Homepage | [25]Read LINGUIST | [26]Contact us [27]NSF Logo While the LINGUIST List makes every effort to ensure the linguistic relevance of sites listed on its pages, it cannot vouch for their contents. Références 13. JavaScript:; 15. JavaScript:; 20. Javascript:window.print(); 22. mailto:cranston@linguistlist.org [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] #[1]Edit this page [2]Wikipedia (en) [3]copyright [4]Wikipedia RSS Feed [5]Wikipedia Atom Feed Afrobeat From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search Question book-new.svg This article does not [8]cite any [9]references or sources. Please help [10]improve this article by adding citations to [11]reliable sources. Unsourced material may be [12]challenged and [13]removed. (September 2008) Afrobeat is a combination of [14]Yoruba music, [15]jazz, [16]highlife, and [17]funk [18]rhythms, fused with [19]percussion and [20]vocal styles, popularized in [21]Africa in the 1970s. Its main creator was the [22]Nigerian multi-[23]instrumentalist and [24]bandleader [25]Fela Kuti who used it to revolutionise musical structure as well as the political context in his native Nigeria. It was Kuti who coined the term "afrobeat" upon his return from a U.S. tour with his group Nigeria 70 (formerly Koola Lobitos). The new sound hailed from a club that he established called the Afro-Shrine. Upon arriving in Nigeria, Kuti also changed the name of his group to Fela Ransome-Kuti & Africa 70. The band maintained a five-year residency in the Afro-Shrine from 1970 to 1975 while afrobeat thrived among Nigerian youth. Afrobeat is now one of the most recognisable music genres in the world and has influenced as many Western musicians as it has African ones with its exuberant style and polyrhythms. Contents * [26]1 Origins * [27]2 Influence * [28]3 Instrumentation * [29]4 Today * [30]5 External links [[31]edit] Origins Afrobeat originated from the southern part of [32]Nigeria in the 1960s where Kuti experimented with many different forms of contemporary music of the time. Prevalent in him and Lagbaja's music are native African harmonies and rhythms, taking different elements and combining, modernizing and improvising upon them. [33]Politics are essential to afrobeat, since founder Kuti used social criticism to pave the way for social change. His message can be described as confrontational and controversial, which can be related to the political climate of most of the African countries in the 1960s, many of which were dealing with political injustice and military corruption while recovering from the transition from colonial governments to self-determination. As the genre spread throughout the African continent many bands took up the style. The recordings of these bands and their songs were rarely heard or exported outside the originating countries but many can now be found on compilation albums and CDs from specialist record shops. [[34]edit] Influence Many jazz musicians have been attracted to afrobeat. From [35]Roy Ayers in the seventies to [36]Randy Weston in the nineties, there have been collaborations which have resulted in albums such as Africa: Centre of the World by Roy Ayers, released on the Polydor label in 1981. In 1994 [37]Branford Marsalis, the American jazz saxophonist, included samples of Fela's "Beast of No Nation" on his Buckshot leFonque album. The new generation of DJs and musicians of the 2000s who have fallen in love with both Kuti's material and other rare releases have made compilations and remixes of these recordings, thus re-introducing the genre to new generations of listeners and fans of afropop and groove. Afrobeat has profoundly influenced important contemporary producers and musicians like [38]Brian Eno and [39]David Byrne, who credit Fela Kuti as an essential muse. Both worked on [40]Talking Heads' highly-acclaimed 1980 album [41]Remain In Light which brought polyrhythmic afrobeat influences to Western music. More recently, the horn section of [42]Antibalas have been guest musicians on [43]TV On The Radio's highly-acclaimed 2008 album [44]Dear Science, as well as on British band [45]Foals' 2008 album [46]Antidotes. [[47]edit] Instrumentation Big band (15 to 30 pieces: Fela-era afrobeat) and energetic performances * Lead vocals (may play sax/key solos as well) * Chorus vocals (may include horn players) * Rhythm guitar(s) (plays funk strumming pattern) * Tenor guitar (plays a finger-picked osinato groove) * [48]Bass guitar * [49]Drum set, generally in the form [50]polyrhythmic percussion * Saxophone(s) * Trumpet(s) * Trombone(s) * Organ/keyboards * Rhythm [51]conga #1 * Rhythm [52]conga #2 * Solo (lead) [53]conga * [54]Akuba: a set of 3 small stick-hit congas (play flourishes/solos, and ostinatos). Also mistakenly called "gbedu". * "Sticks"/[55]claves (plays ostinato) * [56]Shekere [[57]edit] Today There are several active afrobeat bands worldwide today. Modern afrobeat bands/artistes include: * [58]Kokolo (band), New York City Afrobeat/Afrofunk group formed by songwriter/producer Ray Lugo * [59]Nomo, [60]Ann Arbor based group that weaves various styles into a primarily Afrobeat sound. * [61]Chicago Afrobeat Project Chicago based collective that uses afrobeat as a springboard and has an incendiary live show. * [62]Afrodizz, an eight-piece band from [63]Montreal, [64]Canada formed by jazz guitarist Gabriel Aldama * [65]The Afromotive, an Asheville, NC based multiracial seven-piece afrobeat band featuring thirty-third generation djembe player Adama Dembele from Cote d`Ivoire, West Africa. * [66]Tony Allen, the man who held the drum chair during Fela's productive "Africa 70" phase, and whose drumming was, according to [67]James Brown's autobiography, the influence behind his 'discovery' of funk.^[[68]citation needed] * [69]Antibalas, [70]Brooklyn, New York based multiracial Afrobeat Orchestra formed by baritone saxophonist Martin Perna * [71]Aphrodesia, San Francisco based group, first American group to perform with Femi Kuti at The Shrine in Lagos, Nigeria. * [72]Ayetoro, a group led by Nigerian pianist/composer [73]Funsho Ogundipe * [74]Bebe cool lives in Uganda famous for his reggea mixed with luganda pop and English making an Afrobeat rhythm in Uganda known as Luga flow.He also lives in kampala. * [75]Chopteeth, an international 14 piece outfit based in Washington D.C., with former members of Busta Rhymes, The Temptations, The Four Tops, and Gladys Knight & the Pips. * [76]Femi Kuti (Fela's first son and a saxophonist) and the Positive Force * [77]Seun Kuti (another of Kuti's sons, saxophonist now fronting his father's last and late band) * [78]Dele Sosimi's Gbedu Resurrection Dele is a former keyboardist and musical director of Fela's band. He cofounded Femi Kuti's Positive Force. * [79]Zozo Afrobeat A thirteen-member group based in NYC, founded by Kaleta, former Fela guitarist. * [80]Baba Ken and the Afro-Groove Connexion Oakland based multiracial afrobeat ensemble led by Nigerian bassist, Baba Ken Okulolo, founding member of the seminal 1970's afrofunk/afrorock band, Monomono. * [81]Jose Chameleone famous in East, central and South Africa.He stays and live is Uganda in kampala city.He sing pop and Afro beat music.He is one of the most famous artists of Afro beat in Africa and the whole world. * [82]Afrobeat Down Los Angeles based Afrobeat ensemble (est. 2002) working with former Fela Africa '70 member and catalyst of entire afrobeat movement, Sandra Izsadore. * [83]Weird MC Rap artiste who occasionally experinments with Afrobeat rhythm. * [84]Vibe Squad A Ghanaian music crew formed by EaZZY Da Opemfour made of Prego, Culchar, Wizzy Wii and Richie. * [85]Gnl zamba rap artist in Uganda one of the most successful rap afrobeat star in East Africa and central Africa.He is known for his rhythm of 2 pac shakur * [86]Mr. Something Something Canadian afrobeat group * [87]Crime Scene Infunkstigation A 10-piece Afrobeat/Funk/Hip Hop group based out of Calgary, AB [[88]edit] External links * [89]KOKOLO on Myspace * [90]KOKOLO on YouTube * [91]KOKOLO Official Homepage * [92]The Afrobeat Blog * [93]The Unofficial Seun Kuti Fan-Site - Unofficial fan-site for Seun Kuti & Egypt 80 with news, videos, music, pictures and much more] * [94]The Shrine The Unofficial Website for Fela Kuti, Femi Kuti and Afrobeat Music * [95]BBC Afrobeat Documentary [96]v o [97]d o [98]e Genres of [99]African popular music Afrobeat · [100]Apala · [101]Benga · [102]Bikutsi · [103]Cape Jazz · [104]Chimurenga · [105]Fuji · [106]Highlife · [107]Hiplife · [108]Isicathamiya · [109]Jit · [110]Jùjú · [111]Kizomba · [112]Kuduro · [113]Kwaito · [114]Kwela · [115]Makossa · [116]Maloya · [117]Marrabenta · [118]Mbalax · [119]Mbaqanga · [120]Mbube · [121]Morna · [122]Palm-wine · [123]Raï · [124]Sakara · [125]Sega · [126]Soukous/Congo/Lingala/Rumba · [127]Taarab [128]v o [129]d o [130]e [131]Funk music [132]Acid jazz o Afrobeat o [133]Brit funk o [134]Funk metal o [135]Deep Funk o [136]Drumfunk o [137]Free funk o [138]Funkcore o [139]Funktronica o [140]Funk rock o [141]G-funk o [142]Go-go o [143]Jazz-funk o [144]Liquid funk o [145]Neurofunk o [146]Nu-funk o [147]P-Funk o [148]Post-disco o [149]Punk-funk o [150]Skweee Related [151]List of funk musicians o [152]Minneapolis sound [154]Categories: [155]Funk genres | [156]African American music in Africa Hidden categories: [157]Articles lacking sources from September 2008 | [158]All articles lacking sources | [159]All articles with unsourced statements | [160]Articles with unsourced statements from July 2007 Views * [161]Article * [162]Discussion * [163]Edit this page * [164]History Personal tools * [165]Try Beta * [166]Log in / create account Navigation * [167]Main page * [168]Contents * [169]Featured content * [170]Current events * [171]Random article Search ____________________ Go Search Interaction * [172]About Wikipedia * [173]Community portal * [174]Recent changes * [175]Contact Wikipedia * [176]Donate to Wikipedia * [177]Help Toolbox * [178]What links here * [179]Related changes * [180]Upload file * [181]Special pages * [182]Printable version * [183]Permanent link * [184]Cite this page Languages * [185]Català * [186]Deutsch * [187]Español * [188]Français * [189]Hrvatski * [190]Italiano * [191]Nederlands * [192]¥¬ * [193]ªNorsk (bokmål) * [194]Polski * [195]Português * [196]Suomi [197]Powered by MediaWiki [198]Wikimedia Foundation * This page was last modified on 12 January 2010 at 06:03. * Text is available under the [199]Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See [200]Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [201]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * [202]Contact us * [203]Privacy policy * [204]About Wikipedia * [205]Disclaimers Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : #[1]rss [2]Jump to content Year * 1996 * 1997 * 1998 * 1999 * 2000 * 2001 * 2002 * 2003 * 2004 * [3]2005 * [4]2006 * [5]2007 * [6]2008 * [7]2009 * 2010 * 2011 * 2012 * 2013 * 2014 * 2015 * 2016 * 2017 * 2018 * 2019 Day * [8]24 * [9]23 * [10]22 * [11]21 * [12]20 * [13]19 * [14]18 * [15]17 * [16]16 * [17]15 * [18]14 * [19]13 * [20]12 * [21]11 * [22]10 * [23]09 * [24]08 * [25]07 * [26]06 * [27]05 * [28]04 * [29]03 * [30]02 * [31]01 [32]24 Ways to impress your friends * [33]Home * [34]Archives * [35]Authors * [36]Twitter * [37]RSS * ____________________ Go 12 12/2006 [38]Compose to a Vertical Rhythm by [39]Richard Rutter * [40]Article * [41]29 comments "Space in typography is like time in music. It is infinitely divisible, but a few proportional intervals can be much more useful than a limitless choice of arbitrary quantities." So says the typographer Robert Bringhurst, and just as regular use of time provides rhythm in music, so regular use of space provides rhythm in typography, and without rhythm the listener, or the reader, becomes disorientated and lost. On the Web, vertical rhythm - the spacing and arrangement of text as the reader descends the page - is contributed to by three factors: font size, line height and margin or padding. All of these factors must calculated with care in order that the rhythm is maintained. The basic unit of vertical space is line height. Establishing a suitable line height that can be applied to all text on the page, be it heading, body copy or sidenote, is the key to a solid dependable vertical rhythm, which will engage and guide the reader down the page. To see this in action, I've created [42]an example with headings, footnotes and sidenotes. Establishing a suitable line height The easiest place to begin determining a basic line height unit is with the font size of the body copy. For [43]the example I've chosen 12px. To ensure readability the body text will almost certainly need some leading, that is to say spacing between the lines. A line-height of 1.5em would give 6px spacing between the lines of body copy. This will create a total line height of 18px, which becomes our basic unit. Here's the CSS to get us to this point: 1. body { 2. font-size: 75%; 3. } 4. 5. html>body { 6. font-size: 12px; 7. } 8. 9. p { 10. line-height 1.5em; 11. } 12. Source: [44]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/1.txt There are many ways to size text in CSS and the above approach provides and accessible method of achieving the pixel-precision solid typography requires. By way of explanation, the first font-size reduces the body text from the 16px default (common to most browsers and OS set-ups) down to the 12px we require. This rule is primarily there for Internet Explorer 6 and below on Windows: the percentage value means that the text will scale predictably should a user bump the text size up or down. The second font-size sets the text size specifically and is ignored by IE6, but used by Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels. Spacing between paragraphs With our rhythmic unit set at 18px we need to ensure that it is maintained throughout the body copy. A common place to lose the rhythm is the gaps set between margins. The default treatment by web browsers of paragraphs is to insert a top- and bottom-margin of 1em. In our case this would give a spacing between the paragraphs of 12px and hence throw the text out of rhythm. If the rhythm of the page is to be maintained, the spacing of paragraphs should be related to the basic line height unit. This is achieved simply by setting top- and bottom-margins equal to the line height. In order that typographic integrity is maintained when text is resized by the user we must use ems for all our vertical measurements, including line-height, padding and margins. 1. p { 2. font-size:1em; 3. margin-top: 1.5em; 4. margin-bottom: 1.5em; 5. } 6. Source: [45]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/2.txt Browsers set margins on all block-level elements (such as headings, lists and blockquotes) so a way of ensuring that typographic attention is paid to all such elements is to reset the margins at the beginning of your style sheet. You could use a rule such as: 1. body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl ockquote,th,td { 2. margin:0; 3. padding:0; 4. } 5. Source: [46]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/3.txt Alternatively you could look into using the [47]Yahoo! UI Reset style sheet which removes most default styling, so providing a solid foundation upon which you can explicitly declare your design intentions. Variations in text size When there is a change in text size, perhaps with a heading or sidenotes, the differing text should also take up a multiple of the basic leading. This means that, in our example, every diversion from the basic text size should take up multiples of 18px. This can be accomplished by adjusting the line-height and margin accordingly, as described following. Headings Subheadings in the [48]example page are set to 14px. In order that the height of each line is 18px, the line-height should be set to 18 ÷ 14 = 1.286. Similarly the margins above and below the heading must be adjusted to fit. The temptation is to set heading margins to a simple 1em, but in order to maintain the rhythm, the top and bottom margins should be set at 1.286em so that the spacing is equal to the full 18px unit. 1. h2 { 2. font-size:1.1667em; 3. line-height: 1.286em; 4. margin-top: 1.286em; 5. margin-bottom: 1.286em; 6. } 7. Source: [49]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/4.txt One can also set asymmetrical margins for headings, provided the margins combine to be multiples of the basic line height. In our example, a top margin of 1½ lines is combined with a bottom margin of half a line as follows: 1. h2 { 2. font-size:1.1667em; 3. line-height: 1.286em; 4. margin-top: 1.929em; 5. margin-bottom: 0.643em; 6. } 7. Source: [50]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/5.txt Also in our example, the main heading is given a text size of 18px, therefore the line-height has been set to 1em, as has the margin: 1. h1 { 2. font-size:1.5em; 3. line-height: 1em; 4. margin-top: 0; 5. margin-bottom: 1em; 6. } 7. Source: [51]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/6.txt Sidenotes Sidenotes (and other supplementary material) are often set at a smaller size to the basic text. To keep the rhythm, this smaller text should still line up with body copy, so a calculation similar to that for headings is required. In our example, the sidenotes are set at 10px and so their line-height must be increased to 18 ÷ 10 = 1.8. 1. .sidenote { 2. font-size:0.8333em; 3. line-height:1.8em; 4. } 5. Source: [52]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/7.txt Borders One additional point where vertical rhythm is often lost is with the introduction of horizontal borders. These effectively act as shims pushing the subsequent text downwards, so a two pixel horizontal border will throw out the vertical rhythm by two pixels. A way around this is to specify horizontal lines using background images or, as in our example, specify the width of the border in ems and adjust the padding to take up the slack. The design of the footnote in our example requires a 1px horizontal border. The footnote contains 12px text, so 1px in ems is 1 ÷ 12 = 0.0833. I have added a margin of 1½ lines above the border (1.5 × 18 ÷ 12 = 2.5ems), so to maintain the rhythm the border + padding must equal a ½ (9px). We know the border is set to 1px, so the padding must be set to 8px. To specify this in ems we use the familiar calculation: 8 ÷ 12 = 0.667. Hit me with your rhythm stick Composing to a vertical rhythm helps engage and guide the reader down the page, but it takes typographic discipline to do so. It may seem like a lot of fiddly maths is involved (a few divisions and multiplications never hurt anyone) but good type setting is all about numbers, and it is this attention to detail which is the key to success. Like what you read? * [53]Tweet this article * or * [54]Leave a comment Comments * [55]12/12/2006 Wow this is a good article. * [57]12/12/2006 [58]Will thanks so much, this is great. * [59]12/12/2006 Interesting stuff. Also worth reading Eric Meyer's post on unitless line-heights: * [61]12/12/2006 It's worth mentioning that IE6 and below can go a bit extreme when resizing fonts set as ems. You can fix this by applying font-size: 100% to html. Don't know why this works, it just does. Oh, if you're working in quirks mode you'll also need to apply it to thead, tbody and tfoot, beacuse the fix doesn't inherit (don't apply it to table unless you want table to inherit font-sizes). You don't need thead, tbody or tfoot in your tables as tbody is implied. Obviously, you can't then apply your own font-sizes to html or tbody etc, else you'll overwrite the fix, which is why I chose those particular elements as they're rarely used for font-sizes. Jake. * [63]12/12/2006 [64]Mike Stenhouse donotremove.co.uk Hmmmmm, interesting! I've not tried this but I think there might be an easier way to set those heights... What if the line-height is set to, say, 1.5em on the body and 1 (unit-less - it's valid!) on each descendant element? Or maybe some variation on that. It might force the 18px to inherit into the children without awkward calculations. * [65]12/12/2006 Great article, Richard! Web typography--like all typography--deserves this level of detailed thinking, and I hope to see more designers embracing it. * [67]12/12/2006 [68]michael h Good introduction to typography theory, but I am convinced that the Owen Briggs method is the best approach to sizing. * [69]13/12/2006 I've been working on something similar recently, and I've discovered that if you set the line-height in pixels, most browsers will still scale it proportionally along with the text. As IE6's numbers fall off, I hope we can leave all this black magic scaling math behind and go back to setting font sizes in pixels and letting the browsers handle the scaling. * [71]13/12/2006 Mike - you're right about being able to simplify the line-height specifications, but it doesn't require setting unitless line-heights. In the example I use, I've set the font-size to be 12px on the body and calculated line-heights for all the subsequent elements. As I required one line height - 18px - for all elements I can remove the multiple statements and simply set line-height:1.5em on the body. The calculated line-height of 18px is inherited by all elements on the page. I've modifed the example to show this (checked in Firefox, Safari and IE6): However the maths would still need to be performed to calculate the correct margins, so while the extra line-height specifications are not strictly necessary (at least while the same line height for all text is required) you unfortunately don't save much on the calculations. * [73]13/12/2006 Jake - the extreme text sizing in IE can be fixed by applying any percentage font size to the body - it doesn't have to be 100% (hence my use of 75% fixed this too). You're right about the tables though. This rule does the job nicely to inherit the text size: table, thead, tbody, tr, th, td {font-size:1em} * [75]13/12/2006 [76]GreLI In the article next rule is used to reset margins: body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl ockquote,th,td { margin:0; padding:0; } I think it easier to use universal selector (* { margin: 0; padding: 0 }) instead. To fix table font-size inheritance it's enough to set table { font-size: 1em } Opera AFAIK don't change font-size if it set in pixels, but it can zoom pages (so does IE7). * [77]13/12/2006 GreLI - using the universal selector like that to zero all margins and padding can cause unpredictable results in some form controls (e.g. SELECT elements) in certain browsers. Rich - great article; now all someone needs to do is knock up a nice little app that spits out the right line-heights and margins for the elements you tell it... :) * [79]13/12/2006 It's unfortunate that pretty much no one composes with a scale when publishing for the web. Your article is a great step forward. Also overlooked are line lengths. Since the beginning of the web, It has been a standard practice to expand the line lengths out with the width of the browser (like your site is currently :), causing line lengths to expand way too long. If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even smaller. * [81]14/12/2006 I don't see it mentioned in the comments yet, but your quote above: "...Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels." is not correct, as IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized. * [83]18/12/2006 If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even smaller. You're right to mention line length as something that is overlooked, but on the screen it is not as simple as setting the measure in ems as their are more factors involved (screen size, liquid layouts, etc). Also I'd disagree that web line lengths should be shorter on the web. My personal preference would be for them to be longer - I find short line lengths on screen extremely hard work to read. That's just my opinion though. IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized. If you think of the reasons for changing text size then zooming a layout is just another form of resizing text and achieves the same goal. * [85]20/12/2006 Theodore, I think you would enjoy Richard's article entitled "Choose a comfortable measure" over at webtypography.net :) 1.2/ * [87]22/12/2006 [88]Rachel Maxim You've said in a few pages what has taken me years to figure out and refine :) - great info! * [89]23/12/2006 I really enjoyed this article. I have read your Elements of....for the web, as well as your blog about sizing text in ems. I have really been looking in to using this and getting the best `flow' with my typography. I also ordered the book Elements of Typographic Style just to give a better understanding. I think its a common misconception that text on the web will always look bland, and you have proved that it can have rhythm and style. * [91]02/01/2007 I've just been using some of these techniques on a client's site who needed 8 tabs all the same width, which fill the available space - I had it working fine in Firefox, but the tabs didn't fill the space in Safari or IE. I found that you really have to do the maths, rather than just use trial and error - they all round the numbers slightly differently. Once I'd checked my calculations, rather than tinkered with the numbers, it works fine everywhere, at least at standard font size. One other correction from someone's comment earlier on - you can resize text in IE7 - click the page icon at top right. Why you need both this and the ability to zoom, I'm not sure, but it's there at any rate. * [93]03/01/2007 [94]Ben G Can you set the margin above or below headings or paragraphs to less than your 18px base measurement? Won't margin collapsing cause whichever the largest margin is to take effect? Ben * [95]31/01/2009 [96]Daniel I've been using this article as the basis for designing my site with some "vertical rhythm". Everything is going well except with forms (input, textarea, etc.). I just haven't been able to use css to maintain the vertical rhythm (based on total line height of 18px). Any advise or insight as to how to get forms to play nicely? * [97]15/02/2009 [98]Silver Firefly I wanted to clarify something about the default browser text size and using the em unit. The article was a tad misleading when it covered the default browser text size and the em unit. A lot of designers have it in their heads that an em is equivalent to 16 pixels. An em is not equivalent to 16 pixels. It is equivalent to whatever is set in the user's browser, which is commonly 16px but depending on the user, it can be 20px or 12px or whatever they have set in their browser's settings. I hope after reading that statement, designers will start to realise that they have little control over how their website appears in other users' browsers. The majority of the control lies in the user's hands. Other than that, the article was very good. * [99]17/04/2009 Great article... and AWESOME site design. Inspirational! * [101]27/04/2009 Typesetting for websites is the future, like all things content-related. The Google knows it :). Thank you for that useful post. You webdesigners take care of your text! * [103]05/06/2009 [104]bonfield Inline bolding of elements (I'm using Helvetica, e.g.) seems to add a px of height on any line that uses it, and that subtly throws off the vertical rhythm for each line and it can add up depending -- anybody else run into this and solve it? * [105]18/06/2009 [106]Anonymous Does this truly keep the vertical rhythm? If you zoom in on the example, you'll see that the descender of the letter g in the H1 header "New England" crosses your rhythm marker's background line, while a lowercase g in the following paragraph does not. There appears to be some fudging going on. * [107]08/07/2009 I find it humorous that this site itself does not compose to a vertical rhythm. I've seen very few online that do. It's so difficult to implement across browsers it is usually brushed aside except for in the most simple design schemes. * [109]03/08/2009 [110]eric I've yet to see any empirical evidence that "vertical rhythm" applied to this degree has any impact on how well a reader is able to extract signal from the noise of the page. Meanwhile, I've seen many, many examples of mis-applied "vertical rhythms" resulting in squashed headings where the underlning on a link impinges on the text below. Which just looks clunky. When you've got something other than an aesthetic opinion from the margins -- maybe some actual data -- then I'll be interested in expending the effort needed to support real vertical rhythm. Until then, I just don't see how it's cost-effective. * [111]02/09/2009 Now, that was the kind of article I was looking for. That goes a lot deeper than I've been into the realms of line-spacing, leading (no kerning here though - can we do kerning with css?). I love the analogy to musical rhythym > therefore probably following on to mathematics/geometry/proportion. That is a great lead-in. Is there any room for the `golden ratio' in web design? Do graphic designers use it with/without realising it? Just that I haven't seen it discussed in the myriad pages concerning page layout/design that I've read so far... Thanks, Darren Impress us Name _________________________ Email _________________________ Website _________________________ Message _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ Be friendly / use [113]Textile Preview Submit About the author [114]Richard Rutter Richard Rutter is a user experience consultant and director of [115]Clearleft. He runs an ongoing project called [116]The Elements of Typographic Style Applied to the Web, where he extols the virtues of good web typography. Richard occasionally blogs at [117]Clagnut, where he writes about design, accessibility and web standards issues, as well as his passion for music and mountain biking. [118]More information Related articles * [119]Real Fonts and Rendering: The New Elephant in the Room 22/12/2009 by [120]Jeffrey Zeldman * [121]Spruce It Up 19/12/2009 by [122]Jonathan Snook * [123]Designing For The Switch 16/12/2009 by [124]Mark Boulton * [125]Type-Inspired Interfaces 07/12/2009 by [126]Dan Mall * [127]A Festive Type Folly 17/12/2008 by [128]Jon Tan * [129]Increase Your Font Stacks With Font Matrix 17/12/2007 by [130]Richard Rutter * [131]Typesetting Tables 07/12/2007 by [132]Mark Boulton * [133]Knockout Type - Thin Is Always In 17/12/2006 by [134]Shaun Inman * [135]An Explanation of Ems 02/12/2005 by [136]Richard Rutter [137]Article archives... 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Text Alignment [15]Close Table of Contents [16]< Back Page 4 of 4 * [17]Print [18]Print * [19]Share This [20]Share This * [21]Discuss [22]Discuss [23]Close Window Jason Cranford Teague Jason Cranford Teague [24]Learn more... * [25]Articles * [26]Store * [27]Blogs [28]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm Dec 23, 2009 [29]Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers: Creating Meaning through Syntax Jul 23, 2009 [30]Designing Webbed Environments: The Importance of the Define and Design Phases May 12, 2006 [31]Creating Web Pages for Screen, Print, and Email Apr 28, 2006 [32]How to Style Forms in CSS Mar 17, 2006 [33]What Are CSS Sprites? Mar 3, 2006 [34]Ten Things You Can Do with CSS (That You Might Not Have Known You Could Do) Dec 22, 2005 [35]Fluid Web Typography [36]Fluid Web Typography Nov 24, 2009 [37]Fluid Web Typography, Adobe Reader [38]Fluid Web Typography, Adobe Reader Nov 24, 2009 [39]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers [40]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers Jun 30, 2009 [41]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers, Adobe Reader [42]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers, Adobe Reader Jun 30, 2009 [43]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, 4th Edition [44]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, 4th Edition Oct 17, 2006 [45]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, Adobe Reader, 4th Edition [46]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, Adobe Reader, 4th Edition Oct 17, 2006 [47]DHTML and CSS Advanced: Visual QuickPro Guide [48]DHTML and CSS Advanced: Visual QuickPro Guide Dec 15, 2004 [49]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 3rd Edition [50]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 3rd Edition Feb 20, 2004 [51]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 2nd Edition [52]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 2nd Edition May 30, 2001 [53]10 Last-minute Gifts for Web Designers By on December 17, 2009 1 Comment Q: What do I get for the Web designer who has everything? The short answer is real estate. The slightly longer answer is, anything that helps spark their creativity. The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah, Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [54]Saturnalia myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has everything they need to actually make Web sites? Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect. [55]Choosing the Right Color Value By on December 14, 2009 No Comments Q: Should I use Hex or RGB values to define colors in CSS? The short answer is RGB. The slightly longer answer is that Hex values have become the de facto standard for use in CSS code and both developers and designers are used to them. The long answer is that, in the final design on the screen, there is no difference between using Hex or RGB values in your code. Which system you use is really a matter of you own personal preference (and those of the team you are working with) as to whether or not you use Hex or RGB values to define colors. [56]Expand Your Font Repertoire By on November 30, 2009 No Comments Q: Are there alternatives to Arial, Times, and Georgia for Web designers? The short answer is YES! The slightly longer answer is that most designers use Arial, Times, or Georgia, and, to a lesser degree, Verdana, Trebuchet MS, Courier, and Comic Sans because they think that's all they have at their disposal, but they are wrong. The long answer is that the core Web fonts (the one listed above plus Impact and Web Dings) are used because they are almost guaranteed to be installed on the vast majority of computers your designs are likely to be installed on. One fact of life in Web design is that unless the end user's computer has access to the font file, then the browser cannot use it. [57]Pixels or Ems in Your Web Designs By on November 18, 2009 No Comments Q: What is the practical difference between px (pixel) and em (pronounced m)? When is it best to use one over the other? The short answer is that pixels measure dimensions relative to the screen while ems measure dimensions relative to type size. The slightly longer answer is that pixels are the natural unit for measuring dimensions on a screen and are often used when precise design is required. Ems are the natural unit for measuring type and used when you want to allow maximum design flexibility. [58]To CSS Reset or Not to CSS Reset By on November 10, 2009 No Comments Question: Which Global Reset for CSS Should I Use? The short answer is the simplest one possible. The slightly longer answer is that you should reset some styles, but do so with a good reason. The long answer is that the exact CSS reset you choose will depend on the needs of your design. I like to keep my own reset simple, relying on adding styles to specific tags as needed. However, there are several styles that are inconsistent or (in my opinion) poorly set in most browsers. [59]HTML 5 NOW! By on August 25, 20092 Comments Q: Can I start using HTML 5 now? The short answer is, yes. The slightly longer answer is, you can use some of the new features, but you will need to do a little [60]kludging to get it to work. The long answer is that HTML is a mark-up language meant to indicate the structure of a document. HTML 5 is the next evolutionary step in mark-up languages for the Web, but it is not implemented on most browsers that your audiences are likely to be using and it may be some time before it is. That said, there are some things you can do now to prepare for the future. [61]Big Things Ahead for HTML 5 By on August 17, 2009 No Comments Q: Will HTML5 or XHTML5 be the next big thing or just another collection of past standards and browser war fodder? The short answer is that, yes, [62]HTML 5 is the next big thing. The slightly longer answer is that it's going to be a while before you have to start worrying about HTML 5. The long answer is that, as with all standards, before it becomes relevant, the browser makers have to implement it and then you'll have to wait even longer before legacy browsers are no longer an issue. So, you have some time before you have to run out and buy a new HTML 5 Visual QuickStart Guide. The good news is that HTML 5 has gone to great lengths to stay backwards compatible, so you can begin to learn and implement it today. [63]Everyone is a Web Designer By on August 10, 2009 No Comments Q: What is a Web Designer anymore? It was easier to make Web sites all by yourself, even 5 years ago, but now there is just too much technology for one person to handle. If I want to make a Web site for a very small business, don't have I to be web "developer" now? The short answer is that everybody is a Web designer now. The slightly longer answer is that Web designers are practitioners of a highly specialized discipline that requires years of study to truly master. The long answer is that a good Web designer is a good designer, and this can come "naturally" or from training, but is not medium-dependent. However, a professional Web designer has to understand the medium well enough to know its strengths and limitations. Any designer can pump out something that looks brilliant when displayed in a Web browser window, but is slow to load, static when loaded, and completely unusable. [64]Frames are Dead, Long Live Iframes! By on July 24, 2009 No Comments Q: Is there a suitable alternative to frames? My wife is president of a local woman's club. She and I administer the club's web site, and the ladies like the list of links down one side of the pages. But I read that frames have been deprecated. Regardless, I want to keep the site simple. The short answer is yes-- use iframes. The slightly longer answer is no, not exactly, but we can get close. The long answer is there are a variety of ways to add content to your Web pages, but the question is: once it's on the page what are you going to do with it (or to it)? [65]Q: If I ask ten different web designers what pixel dimensions to use for web pages and whether to make them fixed-width or "stretchy," I get ten different answers. What's your answer, and why? By on July 20, 2009 No Comments The short answer is fixed at 974 pixels (px) wide. The slightly longer answer is whatever it takes to get the job done. The long answer is that asking a Web designer what size a Web page should be is like asking a painter what size a canvas should be or an architect how large a a building should be. While it's not purely a matter of taste--there are certain physical and ergonomic constraints--personal preference accounts for the wide variety of answers you might hear. [66]Ask me, ask me, ask me By on July 1, 2009 No Comments Do you have a question about Web standards, CSS, JavaScript, Ajax, interaction design, user experience, or Web typography? Maybe you just want to know "How'd they do that?" Ask me questions, and each week I will select a question to answer via my Peachpit.com blog. [67]Ask the Web Designer: Why Can't I Use Any Font I Want in My Web Designs? By on June 30, 2009 No Comments The short answer is that you can. The slightly longer answer is that you can't, at least not in any meaningful way yet. The long answer is that the ability to download fonts has actually been a part of the CSS standard (the language used to create Web designs) for over 10 years. The snag comes with what font formats a given browser supports. [NOTE: You may want to stop reading now, as the rest of this explanation might make your eyes bleed in frustration.] [68]Fluid Web Typography This chapter is from the book [69]Fluid Web Typography Jason Cranford Teague shows how giving careful consideration to the measurements and scale you are designing for is what separates good Web typography from great Web typography. Text Alignment Text alignment is generally taken for granted on the Web--left alignment suits most purposes most of the time. In order to create a sense of rhythm and movement on your page, helping to guide the reader's eye around and adding visual interest to the page, a little alignment variation can go a long way. Set body text alignment to minimize gaps and maximize scanning Text alignment in Web pages is, by default, to the left, with ragged edges on the right. Justified text--sometimes called newspaper columns, where both edges of the text are aligned--is rare on the Web. text-align: left; text-align: justify; In print, justified text is created using a variety of techniques including word spacing, letterspacing, hyphenation, and glyph reshaping. In addition, well-formed justification is calculated on a paragraph level to prevent "rivers" of white space flowing down the middle. On the Web, unfortunately, justification is simply created by adding small amounts of space between words. On the screen, where you can only add whole pixels, this often results in uncomfortably large amounts of space between some words, especially in narrower columns. Hyphenation is inexplicably absent from CSS. While it is proposed for inclusion in CSS 3, no work has currently been done on it. When choosing to use left or justified alignment, keep in mind these factors: * Justified text is often seen as more formal and structured, while left alignment is more informal and approachable. * Justified text reinforces the grid structure of a page but can be harder to scan, since it often creates rivers of white space throughout the text, which interrupts the eye path. * Left-aligned text adds an element of white space to the right edge, softening the overall appearance of the page. Combining Alignments [70]craigmod.com Craig Mod combines right-and left-justified columns of text to create motion and rhythm around his page. [71]04-17.jpg [72]Click to view larger image Center or right-justify text for effect and variety More rarely used, centering or right-justifying text can create a specific feeling on the page. text-align: center; text-align: right; Centering and right aligning text is integrally dependent on the design you are creating and how you want your readers to scan the page. While using a variety of justifications helps create rhythm and motion on your page, it can quickly seem cluttered or obnoxious. Always have a specific purpose for the variance of alignment, and use it sparingly. Here are a few ideas: * Bulleted or numbered lists should not be centered or right aligned, as this makes them harder to scan by moving the beginning of each line around. * Center section or module titles/headers if you want to make your site look a little different. Generally, section titles are best when left aligned, but centering them gives your designs a unique feel and may also improve scannability. * Right-align text in the left column of a page or table if it helps show a closer relationship between the elements in adjacent columns. Centered Section Titles [73]jontangerine.com Jon Tangerine combines centered subheadings with justified text in his blog (detail shown) to create solid structure with visual movement. [74]04-18.jpg [75]Click to view larger image Increase margins for longer quotations and style the citation Short quotes of less than three lines are included in a paragraph surround by quotation marks, requiring no other special formatting. In HTML, the blockquote tag is used to set off a block of text as a quotation, generally of two lines of text or longer. The quotation should be styled to distinguish it from other text by indenting its left and right margins and increasing the top and bottom margins. The amount of left/right indentation is based on the width of the column and then adjusted so that it does not conflict with any other indents. A good measure to offset blockquotes is to double the font size (2em), although more or less space may be required for wider or narrower columns: blockquote { margin: 2em; } note.jpg In this chapter, we are only considering spacing issues with blockquotes and citations. Chapters 5 and 6 offer other ways to style text, including weights, italics, backgrounds, and borders. These can be deployed to creatively display longer quotations. This will clearly space the blockquote away from the rest of the text, but it's also up to the copywriter to make it clear that the text is a quote and to supply its source, possibly using the cite tag, which indicates a citation. Turning the cite tag into a block-level element and right-aligning it when it is included in a blockquote creates a strong style. blockquote cite { display: block; text-align: right; } Blockquote Ideas [76]css-tricks.com/examples/Blockquotes CSS-Tricks has a page of blockquote ideas with sample code. The code above will force any text marked by the citation tag to a new line and right-align it. [77]04-20.jpg [78]Click to view larger image Set footnotes and scientific or mathematical annotations using positioning rather than vertical alignment Vertical text alignment allows you to adjust the position of inline text in relation to its natural baseline, shifting it up or down. For footnotes, mathematics, and scientific notation, it will not be enough to simply raise or lower the characters; you will also need to reduce their size relative to the surrounding text. These styles can be applied to the superscript and subscript tags, setting the vertical position to the baseline and then setting a position relative to that: sup, sub { font-size: .5em; vertical-align: baseline; position: relative; } sup { top: -.65em; } sup.math { top: -.8em } sub { top: .2em; } Although vertical-align provides several values to set the vertical position of the text, these have proved to be unreliable in multi-column layouts. The exact values will vary depending on the font, and you may also need to add some left/right margins to add breathing room. [79]04-21.jpg [80]Click to view larger image Type Inspirations: Jon Tangerine Beautiful typographic contrast. Insightful typography editorials. [81]jontangerine.com Jon is a designer living in Bristol, UK, with some of the cleanest pure Web typography I've seen. On top of this, his information and opinions on Web typography are required reading for anyone interested in the ongoing issues we face. [82]04-22.jpg [83]Click to view larger image How he does it: Jon uses a font stack of Web safe fonts, including Cochin, Baskerville, and Palatino Linotype, down to Georgia. He then combines a wide variety of sizes, styles, weights, and colors all scaled and spaced within a strong grid to provide clear eye paths and legible text. [84]04-25.jpg [85]Click to view larger image [86]04-26.jpg [87]Click to view larger image [88]04-27.jpg [89]Click to view larger image [90]04-28.jpg [91]Click to view larger image [92]< Back Page 4 of 4 * [93]Share This [94]Share This * [95][save_16.png] [96]Your Account Discussions Make a New Comment You must [97]log in in order to post a comment. 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The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah, Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [122]Saturnalia myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has everything they need to actually make Web sites? Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect. [123]Kara Murphy [124]Just in time for the holidays: Our video-a-day giveaway By [125]Kara Murphy on December 16, 2009 No Comments It's the holiday season, and I bet some of you are already thinking of your New Year's resolutions. If one of them is to learn something new in the field of Web design, development, presentation, branding, and much more, then you're in luck. 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All rights reserved. 1249 Eighth Street, Berkeley, CA 94710 [192]Informit Network [Other Network Sites......] Références Liens visibles 8. javascript:void(0); 9. javascript:void(0); 10. javascript:hideTOC(); 11. javascript:hideTOC(); 15. javascript:hideTOC(); 23. javascript:showme('authorInformation','closed'); 71. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-17.jpg') 72. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-17.jpg') 74. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-18.jpg') 75. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-18.jpg') 77. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-20.jpg') 78. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-20.jpg') 79. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-21.jpg') 80. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-21.jpg') 82. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-22.jpg') 83. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-22.jpg') 84. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-25.jpg') 85. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-25.jpg') 86. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-26.jpg') 87. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-26.jpg') 88. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-27.jpg') 89. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-27.jpg') 90. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-28.jpg') 91. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-28.jpg') Liens cachés : JCPA LOGO Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs [1]Daniel Elazar Papers Index [2][USEMAP:nav-back.gif] American Political Culture The Generational Rhythm of American Politics The American Mosaic, Chapter 2 Daniel J. Elazar It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space. Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less pinpointed. This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast developments with great success. At the same time he has applied that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs. Early Studies of Generational Rhythms Students of society have noted the succession of generations since ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology on generational measures. The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs. It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon operating in history.^2 Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression, "forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5 Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The "generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7 Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of its beginnings and its ancestry. Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were the first to articulate systematic theories of generational progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that "History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals comes to dominate society.^9 These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed the principle that generations are articulated through historical events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained. Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a fourfold classification of generations as preparatory, revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10 Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11 Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation century.^13 After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri Peyre (1948).^16 More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused on problems of intergenerational differences and the political socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963) focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966) studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957) utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in Israel and the United States, respectively.^20 All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact, both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive theory. None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods. Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of three generations. Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin. Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature, art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular basis. Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under the heading of "a generation". Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History A number of theories of political cycles in American history have been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect "concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the "more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments" using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process. Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23 Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work. Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable directions. Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s) and the present. Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment occurs in every generation. While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts as follows: 1787-1801-1816 1816-1829-1841 1841-1861-1869 1869-1901-1918 1918-1931-? The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the following pattern: 1790-1796/1800 1800-1824/1828 1828-1824/1860 1860-1888/1896 1896-1932 His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their significance in the periodization process. Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if it is schematized as follows: 1789-1820 1828 1856-1860 1893/1894 1932 Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized as follows: 1896-1912 1912-1920-1932-1952 1952 Pomper also offers election dates and no more: 1836 1864-1876 1876-1892/1896 1928/1932-1952 1952-1964 None of these are complete theories and all must be considered within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit. Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era. In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however, the American people were treated to a display of federal activity -- and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow of time and events.) The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible pattern in the progression of political events in the United States over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26 The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a fixed moment, as individuals do now.... What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case, would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for 14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors. Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that 23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself assembled, can validly extend a debt. On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of 34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not of right. The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme, Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure of location in time. Human Social Rhythms As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the "lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation in any particular civil society and chart the relations among generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical patterns of its politics. During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years, averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited. Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life" ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and political roles as are given to mature men and women in society. Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention, if not physically, considered ready for retirement. Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote, and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be defined as the ending of one's serious political career without suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's 30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship. The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to "retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28 In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly established. Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby allowing a new generation to assume the reins. Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in social and political life than that found in the simple processes of human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings are recorded in history, we can do just that. Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the impact of the change and encourages new political action to assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at the most four generations are alive at any given time creates certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and politically unmanageable. Generations, Centuries and Events Since the founding of the first European settlements along the Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th century is the century of the United States as a world power. Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing point, thus: a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603) and the 17th century began with the opening of the American frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of the times. b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration for both countries. c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff). d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land frontier. Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn, the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments that will replace them. The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence. The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression will be related to major forces and factors shaping American history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the principal challenges facing the American people in each generation and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial, ethnic and religious groups. One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate. Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for analytical purposes than life ever is. The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany, but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies, and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate nation with its own civilization. The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century, which, from the first American recognition of common continental interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism, successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans. The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations, beginning at the point where America turned its back on European entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an industrialized continental nation with a strong national government; abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world power ready for overseas involvements. The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century -- reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the industrial revolution. As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first generation of the transformation of society as a result of the application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically dominant although economically weakened. The results of these phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder of the generation. Generations and Frontier Stages The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other historical and political phenomena. Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of human control over the natural environment and the utilization of the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control, i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American society is a product of this commitment which is virtually self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier situation that has created the major social and economic changes which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's political institutions. America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American life within that stage. The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the westward movement on a basically rural population interested in settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in Alaska. Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States, where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their existence and growth. By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth, in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation. After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and pace of development across the country. The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s, ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution, and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over. By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers, satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges, initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West. Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between the points of generational division and the shifts in the various frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are closely related to the opening of new centuries. Generations and Economic Periods One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a result, the governments of the United States have always maintained a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the governmental response. These changes have also developed on a generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth generation of American history) the American government continued a semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially unregulated by government. Demands for government regulation that built up during the last generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system. Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less government intervention. Centuries, Generations and Federalism The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first generation of American history brought the introduction of federal principles through the contracts and covenants that established the colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly, concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century. The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society. Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed have been major elements in the concrete response to the generation's challenges. Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of American history and politics. The changes in those relationships also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries. British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery. Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste system was in the making. During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation. Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was abolished in the North. The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was reaffirmed through the institution of segregation. From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say, to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American culture. While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era. The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the challenges changes from century to century. During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which, objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular progression of political events revolving around the development of a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and responses that gives each generation its particular character. While the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external -- or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation themselves. In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its sisters, and the other science independence when a common national constitution created a common national politics. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the political challenges that have dominated the American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the 19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the 20th century, they have essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and new generations is marked by several decisive political actions, often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so that they will achieve greater success and at the same time integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be recognized. The Bench Marks of American Political History: Critical Elections and New Deals In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds; first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each generation. The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs of voters, shifting them from one political party to another. Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a "critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one major element to another. Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the 1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and representatives to win control of Congress. The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968, only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the "normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in 1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems, won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the GOP controlled the Senate. A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations, personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders (or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate state parties which form the two national confederations known as the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties are confederations of the state parties, so is the national coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional coalitions. Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution, too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary inroads in the various electoral groups. Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means certain that the majority party will even win all the national elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards for the party faithful during the years of national "famine." As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad electoral groups.^33 While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election. Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical elections."^34 The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the development of the institution of the popularly elected president. Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and the House of Representatives. Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem. It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file" alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from balance to majority. "New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as the historical watersheds they are. In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S. Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B. Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s. The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational consolidation. The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington before undertaking any activities. The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an "outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation, usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time. President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and localities. These were all to become principal issues during the period of generational build-up. The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues of the new generation. Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been invariably preceded by critical elections through which the reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die -- determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to majority status. These critical elections, which attain their visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which face them. Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the 1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans. Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in 1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing period for the Democratic coalition. To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in American politics is not to suggest that events move in any lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the "normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too can be done that gives the theory its power. Summary Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more interest to European social philosophers than American social scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics, often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human social rhythms generally. Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them. The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation, constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political history recurring on a generational basis. Notes 1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970); Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979). 2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973). 3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5 (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers, chapter 32, verse 13. 7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte (London: G. Bell, 1896). 9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive (London, 1862). 10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani (Milano: Monanni, 1929). 11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen, der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4. (1875), pp. 36-41. 12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds., Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane, Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp., 1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). 13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method. 14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933). 15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti, ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales (Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F. Schoeningh, 1933). 16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926); Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig, 1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris: Boivin, 1948). 17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger, 1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4 (1972): 564-78. 18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956). 19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin, American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970). 20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield, Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970). 21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939). 22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key, Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961); Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968); Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). 23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210. 24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co. 1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government from the Civil War to the New Deal. 25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no. 1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992). 26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789. 27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President. 28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W. Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber, Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey, Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.: Brooks/Cole, 1989). 29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York: Macmillan, 1961). 30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965): Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989). 31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18. 32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability," Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171. 33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?" in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed., Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1983). 34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony; David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization, Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter, Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985). [3]Elazar Papers Index / [4]JCPA Home Page / [5]Top of Page Références [USEMAP] 1. javascript:history.go(-1) 3. mailto:jcenter@jcpa.org [USEMAP] [1]CAT.INIST [2][USEMAP:bandeau-haut-droit.gif] logo CNRS [3]logo INIST [4]En savoir plus sur CAT.INIST ? © INIST Diffusion S.A. Service Clients / Customer Service 2, allée du parc de Brabois F-54514 Vandoeuvre Cedex France Tél : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.64 Fax : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.66 Courriel : [5]infoclient@inist.fr [6]Accueil / Home Imprimer / Print [7]Contact / Contact Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [8]Email Print [9]Bookmark and Share [10]Mendeley Back Titre du document / Document title Rhythms of the secular : The politics of modernizing Arab poetic forms = Rythmes du séculaire : la politique de modernisation des formes poétiques arabes Auteur(s) / Author(s) FURANI Khaled^ (1) ; Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s) ^(1) Tel-Aviv University, ISRAEL Résumé / Abstract In this article, I ethnographically trace how Arab, mainly Palestinian, poets have modernized their literary tradition during the last seven decades. Shortly after the 1948 Israeli occupation of Palestine, the reign of the classical Arabic ode collapsed, and the modern forms of free verse and, later, the prose poem became dominant. Aiming to contribute to the ethnography of modernity, I examine how poets have adopted and abandoned poetic forms by analyzing their narratives on rhythm. I explore the political salience of rhythmical transformations and argue that the secular has been a vital and complex force in the modern abandonment of metrical discipline. The secular affects how poets seek to modernize their rhythm, vocabulary, and relation to public. It also affects, I conclude, the ways in which anthropologists can and do write about modernity. Revue / Journal Title American ethnologist ISSN 0094-0496 Source / Source 2008, vol. 35, n^o2, pp. 290-307 [18 page(s) (article)] (2 p.1/4) Langue / Language Anglais Editeur / Publisher American Ethnological Society, Washington, DC, ETATS-UNIS (1974) (Revue) Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords Rhythm ; Transformation ; Modernization ; Poet ; Modernity ; Poetry ; Israel ; Palestine ; Near East ; Mots-clés français / French Keywords Forme poétique ; Tradition littéraire ; Arabe palestinien ; Rythme ; Transformation ; Modernisation ; Poète ; Modernité ; Poésie ; Israël ; Palestine ; Proche-Orient ; Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords poetic form ; modernity and secularism ; Palestine-Israel ; Localisation / Location INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 16902, 35400019805879.0070 Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 20449527 Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [11]Email Print [12]Bookmark and Share [13]Mendeley Back _______________________________ Rechercher dans CAT.INIST / Search in CAT.INIST Google Custom Search Références 5. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20CAT.INIST.FR 7. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20Cat@inist.fr [USEMAP] * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * [1]LINGUIST List logo [2]Eastern Michigan University [3]Wayne State University * * [4]People & Organizations * [5]Jobs * [6]Calls & Conferences * [7]Publications * [8]Language Resources * [9]Text & Computer Tools * [10]Teaching & Learning * [11]Mailing Lists * [12]Search * * * [13][mail-logo-9.gif] E-mail this message to a friend Title: The Rhythm of Political Oratory Author: [14]Varvara Danilina Email: [15]click here to access email Degree Awarded: Moscow State University , Department of Foreigh Languages Degree Date: 2002 Linguistic Subfield(s): Discourse Analysis Sociolinguistics Subject Language(s): [16]English Director(s): [17]Ludmila Minaeva ___________________________________ Abstract: My doctoral dissertation was completed after four years of research on the rhythm of British and American political oratory. I sought to establish the rhythmic norm for political public speech and to find out, whether any deviations from this norm (i.e. from an expected rhythmic model) influence listeners and provoke their verbal reactions or bursts of applause. To accomplish this task I used a variety of linguistic and rhetorical methods, and drew upon social psychology and political science. There is no single linguistic perspective on speech rhythm. For instance, such distinguished scholars as D. Crystal and D. Abercrombie regard it as a purely phonetic phenomenon. At the same time, according to Moscow University school of thought, to which I belong, speech rhythm is created by a blend of phonetics, syntax and meaning of an utterance. As a result of my research, I established rhythmic regularities for political oratory at five levels. Firstly, I analyzed pauses that divide the stream of speech into segments (syntagmas), and classified all the pauses into syntactic, rhetorical or unintentional (unintentional pauses are caused by hesitation, deliberation, stammering, interruptions by listeners, etc). Secondly, I established the relative frequency of short, medium and long syntagmas between pauses, and thirdly, analyzed the rhythmic structures constituted by linear sequences of syntagmas. Fourthly, I studied the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables inside syntagmas. And finally, I considered all kinds of repetitions, both rhetorical and unintentional. This method of rhythmic analysis is based on earlier analytical models designed by my university colleagues. My own contribution consisted in adapting this method to the study of public speech, describing the typical rhythm of political oratory, and challenging some popular assumptions about speech rhythm. As for the impact of speech rhythm upon listeners, I started by analyzing audiences in order to understand psychological, social and political conditions of that process. G. Le Bon, Z. Freud and other scholars demonstrated conclusively that members of a crowd (and the audience of a public speech is a crowd) are connected with each other and with their leader (in our case, a speaker) by strong subconscious ties. However, the degree of unity or polarization of an audience may differ. Besides, each audience can be characterized according to several other criteria that determine listeners' responsiveness and the nature of their responses: their emotional state, the level of expertise in a particular subject, the demographic and social characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, social status, occupation, education), the existing evaluation of discussed issues, which is largely determined by listeners' ideologies, and finally, the attitude to the speaker, which can be positive, negative or indifferent. I have applied this model of audience analysis to determine peculiarities of the British parliamentary audience in October 1996, and of the US Congress in the aftermath of September 11, 2001. To analyze the reactions of these audiences to the rhythm of Prime Minister Major and President Bush's parliamentary addresses I used M. Atkinson's version of the conversation analysis method. I showed the two speeches as dialogues between the speakers and their listeners, and singled out phrases and syntagmas that immediately preceded audience responses, such as cheering, booing, laughter or bursts of applause. These phrases and syntagmas happened to be quite similar in terms of rhythm to other stretches of speech in the same addresses. Moreover, there proved to be little rhythmic difference between John Major and George Bush's speeches. In short, my research demonstrated that there is no direct interconnection between the rhythm of a public address and audience responses. [18]Add a dissertation [19]Update dissertation Page Updated: 17-Jan-2010 [20]Print This Page __________________________________________________________________ [21][transp.gif] [22][transp.gif] Please [23]report any bad links or misclassified data __________________________________________________________________ [24]LINGUIST Homepage | [25]Read LINGUIST | [26]Contact us [27]NSF Logo While the LINGUIST List makes every effort to ensure the linguistic relevance of sites listed on its pages, it cannot vouch for their contents. Références 13. JavaScript:; 15. JavaScript:; 20. Javascript:window.print(); 22. mailto:cranston@linguistlist.org [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] #[1]Edit this page [2]Wikipedia (en) [3]copyright [4]Wikipedia RSS Feed [5]Wikipedia Atom Feed Afrobeat From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search Question book-new.svg This article does not [8]cite any [9]references or sources. Please help [10]improve this article by adding citations to [11]reliable sources. Unsourced material may be [12]challenged and [13]removed. (September 2008) Afrobeat is a combination of [14]Yoruba music, [15]jazz, [16]highlife, and [17]funk [18]rhythms, fused with [19]percussion and [20]vocal styles, popularized in [21]Africa in the 1970s. Its main creator was the [22]Nigerian multi-[23]instrumentalist and [24]bandleader [25]Fela Kuti who used it to revolutionise musical structure as well as the political context in his native Nigeria. It was Kuti who coined the term "afrobeat" upon his return from a U.S. tour with his group Nigeria 70 (formerly Koola Lobitos). The new sound hailed from a club that he established called the Afro-Shrine. Upon arriving in Nigeria, Kuti also changed the name of his group to Fela Ransome-Kuti & Africa 70. The band maintained a five-year residency in the Afro-Shrine from 1970 to 1975 while afrobeat thrived among Nigerian youth. Afrobeat is now one of the most recognisable music genres in the world and has influenced as many Western musicians as it has African ones with its exuberant style and polyrhythms. Contents * [26]1 Origins * [27]2 Influence * [28]3 Instrumentation * [29]4 Today * [30]5 External links [[31]edit] Origins Afrobeat originated from the southern part of [32]Nigeria in the 1960s where Kuti experimented with many different forms of contemporary music of the time. Prevalent in him and Lagbaja's music are native African harmonies and rhythms, taking different elements and combining, modernizing and improvising upon them. [33]Politics are essential to afrobeat, since founder Kuti used social criticism to pave the way for social change. His message can be described as confrontational and controversial, which can be related to the political climate of most of the African countries in the 1960s, many of which were dealing with political injustice and military corruption while recovering from the transition from colonial governments to self-determination. As the genre spread throughout the African continent many bands took up the style. The recordings of these bands and their songs were rarely heard or exported outside the originating countries but many can now be found on compilation albums and CDs from specialist record shops. [[34]edit] Influence Many jazz musicians have been attracted to afrobeat. From [35]Roy Ayers in the seventies to [36]Randy Weston in the nineties, there have been collaborations which have resulted in albums such as Africa: Centre of the World by Roy Ayers, released on the Polydor label in 1981. In 1994 [37]Branford Marsalis, the American jazz saxophonist, included samples of Fela's "Beast of No Nation" on his Buckshot leFonque album. The new generation of DJs and musicians of the 2000s who have fallen in love with both Kuti's material and other rare releases have made compilations and remixes of these recordings, thus re-introducing the genre to new generations of listeners and fans of afropop and groove. Afrobeat has profoundly influenced important contemporary producers and musicians like [38]Brian Eno and [39]David Byrne, who credit Fela Kuti as an essential muse. Both worked on [40]Talking Heads' highly-acclaimed 1980 album [41]Remain In Light which brought polyrhythmic afrobeat influences to Western music. More recently, the horn section of [42]Antibalas have been guest musicians on [43]TV On The Radio's highly-acclaimed 2008 album [44]Dear Science, as well as on British band [45]Foals' 2008 album [46]Antidotes. [[47]edit] Instrumentation Big band (15 to 30 pieces: Fela-era afrobeat) and energetic performances * Lead vocals (may play sax/key solos as well) * Chorus vocals (may include horn players) * Rhythm guitar(s) (plays funk strumming pattern) * Tenor guitar (plays a finger-picked osinato groove) * [48]Bass guitar * [49]Drum set, generally in the form [50]polyrhythmic percussion * Saxophone(s) * Trumpet(s) * Trombone(s) * Organ/keyboards * Rhythm [51]conga #1 * Rhythm [52]conga #2 * Solo (lead) [53]conga * [54]Akuba: a set of 3 small stick-hit congas (play flourishes/solos, and ostinatos). Also mistakenly called "gbedu". * "Sticks"/[55]claves (plays ostinato) * [56]Shekere [[57]edit] Today There are several active afrobeat bands worldwide today. Modern afrobeat bands/artistes include: * [58]Kokolo (band), New York City Afrobeat/Afrofunk group formed by songwriter/producer Ray Lugo * [59]Nomo, [60]Ann Arbor based group that weaves various styles into a primarily Afrobeat sound. * [61]Chicago Afrobeat Project Chicago based collective that uses afrobeat as a springboard and has an incendiary live show. * [62]Afrodizz, an eight-piece band from [63]Montreal, [64]Canada formed by jazz guitarist Gabriel Aldama * [65]The Afromotive, an Asheville, NC based multiracial seven-piece afrobeat band featuring thirty-third generation djembe player Adama Dembele from Cote d`Ivoire, West Africa. * [66]Tony Allen, the man who held the drum chair during Fela's productive "Africa 70" phase, and whose drumming was, according to [67]James Brown's autobiography, the influence behind his 'discovery' of funk.^[[68]citation needed] * [69]Antibalas, [70]Brooklyn, New York based multiracial Afrobeat Orchestra formed by baritone saxophonist Martin Perna * [71]Aphrodesia, San Francisco based group, first American group to perform with Femi Kuti at The Shrine in Lagos, Nigeria. * [72]Ayetoro, a group led by Nigerian pianist/composer [73]Funsho Ogundipe * [74]Bebe cool lives in Uganda famous for his reggea mixed with luganda pop and English making an Afrobeat rhythm in Uganda known as Luga flow.He also lives in kampala. * [75]Chopteeth, an international 14 piece outfit based in Washington D.C., with former members of Busta Rhymes, The Temptations, The Four Tops, and Gladys Knight & the Pips. * [76]Femi Kuti (Fela's first son and a saxophonist) and the Positive Force * [77]Seun Kuti (another of Kuti's sons, saxophonist now fronting his father's last and late band) * [78]Dele Sosimi's Gbedu Resurrection Dele is a former keyboardist and musical director of Fela's band. He cofounded Femi Kuti's Positive Force. * [79]Zozo Afrobeat A thirteen-member group based in NYC, founded by Kaleta, former Fela guitarist. * [80]Baba Ken and the Afro-Groove Connexion Oakland based multiracial afrobeat ensemble led by Nigerian bassist, Baba Ken Okulolo, founding member of the seminal 1970's afrofunk/afrorock band, Monomono. * [81]Jose Chameleone famous in East, central and South Africa.He stays and live is Uganda in kampala city.He sing pop and Afro beat music.He is one of the most famous artists of Afro beat in Africa and the whole world. * [82]Afrobeat Down Los Angeles based Afrobeat ensemble (est. 2002) working with former Fela Africa '70 member and catalyst of entire afrobeat movement, Sandra Izsadore. * [83]Weird MC Rap artiste who occasionally experinments with Afrobeat rhythm. * [84]Vibe Squad A Ghanaian music crew formed by EaZZY Da Opemfour made of Prego, Culchar, Wizzy Wii and Richie. * [85]Gnl zamba rap artist in Uganda one of the most successful rap afrobeat star in East Africa and central Africa.He is known for his rhythm of 2 pac shakur * [86]Mr. Something Something Canadian afrobeat group * [87]Crime Scene Infunkstigation A 10-piece Afrobeat/Funk/Hip Hop group based out of Calgary, AB [[88]edit] External links * [89]KOKOLO on Myspace * [90]KOKOLO on YouTube * [91]KOKOLO Official Homepage * [92]The Afrobeat Blog * [93]The Unofficial Seun Kuti Fan-Site - Unofficial fan-site for Seun Kuti & Egypt 80 with news, videos, music, pictures and much more] * [94]The Shrine The Unofficial Website for Fela Kuti, Femi Kuti and Afrobeat Music * [95]BBC Afrobeat Documentary [96]v o [97]d o [98]e Genres of [99]African popular music Afrobeat · [100]Apala · [101]Benga · [102]Bikutsi · [103]Cape Jazz · [104]Chimurenga · [105]Fuji · [106]Highlife · [107]Hiplife · [108]Isicathamiya · [109]Jit · [110]Jùjú · [111]Kizomba · [112]Kuduro · [113]Kwaito · [114]Kwela · [115]Makossa · [116]Maloya · [117]Marrabenta · [118]Mbalax · [119]Mbaqanga · [120]Mbube · [121]Morna · [122]Palm-wine · [123]Raï · [124]Sakara · [125]Sega · [126]Soukous/Congo/Lingala/Rumba · [127]Taarab [128]v o [129]d o [130]e [131]Funk music [132]Acid jazz o Afrobeat o [133]Brit funk o [134]Funk metal o [135]Deep Funk o [136]Drumfunk o [137]Free funk o [138]Funkcore o [139]Funktronica o [140]Funk rock o [141]G-funk o [142]Go-go o [143]Jazz-funk o [144]Liquid funk o [145]Neurofunk o [146]Nu-funk o [147]P-Funk o [148]Post-disco o [149]Punk-funk o [150]Skweee Related [151]List of funk musicians o [152]Minneapolis sound [154]Categories: [155]Funk genres | [156]African American music in Africa Hidden categories: [157]Articles lacking sources from September 2008 | [158]All articles lacking sources | [159]All articles with unsourced statements | [160]Articles with unsourced statements from July 2007 Views * [161]Article * [162]Discussion * [163]Edit this page * [164]History Personal tools * [165]Try Beta * [166]Log in / create account Navigation * [167]Main page * [168]Contents * [169]Featured content * [170]Current events * [171]Random article Search ____________________ Go Search Interaction * [172]About Wikipedia * [173]Community portal * [174]Recent changes * [175]Contact Wikipedia * [176]Donate to Wikipedia * [177]Help Toolbox * [178]What links here * [179]Related changes * [180]Upload file * [181]Special pages * [182]Printable version * [183]Permanent link * [184]Cite this page Languages * [185]Català * [186]Deutsch * [187]Español * [188]Français * [189]Hrvatski * [190]Italiano * [191]Nederlands * [192]¥¬ * [193]ªNorsk (bokmål) * [194]Polski * [195]Português * [196]Suomi [197]Powered by MediaWiki [198]Wikimedia Foundation * This page was last modified on 12 January 2010 at 06:03. * Text is available under the [199]Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See [200]Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [201]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * [202]Contact us * [203]Privacy policy * [204]About Wikipedia * [205]Disclaimers Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : #[1]rss [2]Jump to content Year * 1996 * 1997 * 1998 * 1999 * 2000 * 2001 * 2002 * 2003 * 2004 * [3]2005 * [4]2006 * [5]2007 * [6]2008 * [7]2009 * 2010 * 2011 * 2012 * 2013 * 2014 * 2015 * 2016 * 2017 * 2018 * 2019 Day * [8]24 * [9]23 * [10]22 * [11]21 * [12]20 * [13]19 * [14]18 * [15]17 * [16]16 * [17]15 * [18]14 * [19]13 * [20]12 * [21]11 * [22]10 * [23]09 * [24]08 * [25]07 * [26]06 * [27]05 * [28]04 * [29]03 * [30]02 * [31]01 [32]24 Ways to impress your friends * [33]Home * [34]Archives * [35]Authors * [36]Twitter * [37]RSS * ____________________ Go 12 12/2006 [38]Compose to a Vertical Rhythm by [39]Richard Rutter * [40]Article * [41]29 comments "Space in typography is like time in music. It is infinitely divisible, but a few proportional intervals can be much more useful than a limitless choice of arbitrary quantities." So says the typographer Robert Bringhurst, and just as regular use of time provides rhythm in music, so regular use of space provides rhythm in typography, and without rhythm the listener, or the reader, becomes disorientated and lost. On the Web, vertical rhythm - the spacing and arrangement of text as the reader descends the page - is contributed to by three factors: font size, line height and margin or padding. All of these factors must calculated with care in order that the rhythm is maintained. The basic unit of vertical space is line height. Establishing a suitable line height that can be applied to all text on the page, be it heading, body copy or sidenote, is the key to a solid dependable vertical rhythm, which will engage and guide the reader down the page. To see this in action, I've created [42]an example with headings, footnotes and sidenotes. Establishing a suitable line height The easiest place to begin determining a basic line height unit is with the font size of the body copy. For [43]the example I've chosen 12px. To ensure readability the body text will almost certainly need some leading, that is to say spacing between the lines. A line-height of 1.5em would give 6px spacing between the lines of body copy. This will create a total line height of 18px, which becomes our basic unit. Here's the CSS to get us to this point: 1. body { 2. font-size: 75%; 3. } 4. 5. html>body { 6. font-size: 12px; 7. } 8. 9. p { 10. line-height 1.5em; 11. } 12. Source: [44]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/1.txt There are many ways to size text in CSS and the above approach provides and accessible method of achieving the pixel-precision solid typography requires. By way of explanation, the first font-size reduces the body text from the 16px default (common to most browsers and OS set-ups) down to the 12px we require. This rule is primarily there for Internet Explorer 6 and below on Windows: the percentage value means that the text will scale predictably should a user bump the text size up or down. The second font-size sets the text size specifically and is ignored by IE6, but used by Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels. Spacing between paragraphs With our rhythmic unit set at 18px we need to ensure that it is maintained throughout the body copy. A common place to lose the rhythm is the gaps set between margins. The default treatment by web browsers of paragraphs is to insert a top- and bottom-margin of 1em. In our case this would give a spacing between the paragraphs of 12px and hence throw the text out of rhythm. If the rhythm of the page is to be maintained, the spacing of paragraphs should be related to the basic line height unit. This is achieved simply by setting top- and bottom-margins equal to the line height. In order that typographic integrity is maintained when text is resized by the user we must use ems for all our vertical measurements, including line-height, padding and margins. 1. p { 2. font-size:1em; 3. margin-top: 1.5em; 4. margin-bottom: 1.5em; 5. } 6. Source: [45]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/2.txt Browsers set margins on all block-level elements (such as headings, lists and blockquotes) so a way of ensuring that typographic attention is paid to all such elements is to reset the margins at the beginning of your style sheet. You could use a rule such as: 1. body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl ockquote,th,td { 2. margin:0; 3. padding:0; 4. } 5. Source: [46]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/3.txt Alternatively you could look into using the [47]Yahoo! UI Reset style sheet which removes most default styling, so providing a solid foundation upon which you can explicitly declare your design intentions. Variations in text size When there is a change in text size, perhaps with a heading or sidenotes, the differing text should also take up a multiple of the basic leading. This means that, in our example, every diversion from the basic text size should take up multiples of 18px. This can be accomplished by adjusting the line-height and margin accordingly, as described following. Headings Subheadings in the [48]example page are set to 14px. In order that the height of each line is 18px, the line-height should be set to 18 ÷ 14 = 1.286. Similarly the margins above and below the heading must be adjusted to fit. The temptation is to set heading margins to a simple 1em, but in order to maintain the rhythm, the top and bottom margins should be set at 1.286em so that the spacing is equal to the full 18px unit. 1. h2 { 2. font-size:1.1667em; 3. line-height: 1.286em; 4. margin-top: 1.286em; 5. margin-bottom: 1.286em; 6. } 7. Source: [49]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/4.txt One can also set asymmetrical margins for headings, provided the margins combine to be multiples of the basic line height. In our example, a top margin of 1½ lines is combined with a bottom margin of half a line as follows: 1. h2 { 2. font-size:1.1667em; 3. line-height: 1.286em; 4. margin-top: 1.929em; 5. margin-bottom: 0.643em; 6. } 7. Source: [50]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/5.txt Also in our example, the main heading is given a text size of 18px, therefore the line-height has been set to 1em, as has the margin: 1. h1 { 2. font-size:1.5em; 3. line-height: 1em; 4. margin-top: 0; 5. margin-bottom: 1em; 6. } 7. Source: [51]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/6.txt Sidenotes Sidenotes (and other supplementary material) are often set at a smaller size to the basic text. To keep the rhythm, this smaller text should still line up with body copy, so a calculation similar to that for headings is required. In our example, the sidenotes are set at 10px and so their line-height must be increased to 18 ÷ 10 = 1.8. 1. .sidenote { 2. font-size:0.8333em; 3. line-height:1.8em; 4. } 5. Source: [52]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/7.txt Borders One additional point where vertical rhythm is often lost is with the introduction of horizontal borders. These effectively act as shims pushing the subsequent text downwards, so a two pixel horizontal border will throw out the vertical rhythm by two pixels. A way around this is to specify horizontal lines using background images or, as in our example, specify the width of the border in ems and adjust the padding to take up the slack. The design of the footnote in our example requires a 1px horizontal border. The footnote contains 12px text, so 1px in ems is 1 ÷ 12 = 0.0833. I have added a margin of 1½ lines above the border (1.5 × 18 ÷ 12 = 2.5ems), so to maintain the rhythm the border + padding must equal a ½ (9px). We know the border is set to 1px, so the padding must be set to 8px. To specify this in ems we use the familiar calculation: 8 ÷ 12 = 0.667. Hit me with your rhythm stick Composing to a vertical rhythm helps engage and guide the reader down the page, but it takes typographic discipline to do so. It may seem like a lot of fiddly maths is involved (a few divisions and multiplications never hurt anyone) but good type setting is all about numbers, and it is this attention to detail which is the key to success. Like what you read? * [53]Tweet this article * or * [54]Leave a comment Comments * [55]12/12/2006 Wow this is a good article. * [57]12/12/2006 [58]Will thanks so much, this is great. * [59]12/12/2006 Interesting stuff. Also worth reading Eric Meyer's post on unitless line-heights: * [61]12/12/2006 It's worth mentioning that IE6 and below can go a bit extreme when resizing fonts set as ems. You can fix this by applying font-size: 100% to html. Don't know why this works, it just does. Oh, if you're working in quirks mode you'll also need to apply it to thead, tbody and tfoot, beacuse the fix doesn't inherit (don't apply it to table unless you want table to inherit font-sizes). You don't need thead, tbody or tfoot in your tables as tbody is implied. Obviously, you can't then apply your own font-sizes to html or tbody etc, else you'll overwrite the fix, which is why I chose those particular elements as they're rarely used for font-sizes. Jake. * [63]12/12/2006 [64]Mike Stenhouse donotremove.co.uk Hmmmmm, interesting! I've not tried this but I think there might be an easier way to set those heights... What if the line-height is set to, say, 1.5em on the body and 1 (unit-less - it's valid!) on each descendant element? Or maybe some variation on that. It might force the 18px to inherit into the children without awkward calculations. * [65]12/12/2006 Great article, Richard! Web typography--like all typography--deserves this level of detailed thinking, and I hope to see more designers embracing it. * [67]12/12/2006 [68]michael h Good introduction to typography theory, but I am convinced that the Owen Briggs method is the best approach to sizing. * [69]13/12/2006 I've been working on something similar recently, and I've discovered that if you set the line-height in pixels, most browsers will still scale it proportionally along with the text. As IE6's numbers fall off, I hope we can leave all this black magic scaling math behind and go back to setting font sizes in pixels and letting the browsers handle the scaling. * [71]13/12/2006 Mike - you're right about being able to simplify the line-height specifications, but it doesn't require setting unitless line-heights. In the example I use, I've set the font-size to be 12px on the body and calculated line-heights for all the subsequent elements. As I required one line height - 18px - for all elements I can remove the multiple statements and simply set line-height:1.5em on the body. The calculated line-height of 18px is inherited by all elements on the page. I've modifed the example to show this (checked in Firefox, Safari and IE6): However the maths would still need to be performed to calculate the correct margins, so while the extra line-height specifications are not strictly necessary (at least while the same line height for all text is required) you unfortunately don't save much on the calculations. * [73]13/12/2006 Jake - the extreme text sizing in IE can be fixed by applying any percentage font size to the body - it doesn't have to be 100% (hence my use of 75% fixed this too). You're right about the tables though. This rule does the job nicely to inherit the text size: table, thead, tbody, tr, th, td {font-size:1em} * [75]13/12/2006 [76]GreLI In the article next rule is used to reset margins: body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl ockquote,th,td { margin:0; padding:0; } I think it easier to use universal selector (* { margin: 0; padding: 0 }) instead. To fix table font-size inheritance it's enough to set table { font-size: 1em } Opera AFAIK don't change font-size if it set in pixels, but it can zoom pages (so does IE7). * [77]13/12/2006 GreLI - using the universal selector like that to zero all margins and padding can cause unpredictable results in some form controls (e.g. SELECT elements) in certain browsers. Rich - great article; now all someone needs to do is knock up a nice little app that spits out the right line-heights and margins for the elements you tell it... :) * [79]13/12/2006 It's unfortunate that pretty much no one composes with a scale when publishing for the web. Your article is a great step forward. Also overlooked are line lengths. Since the beginning of the web, It has been a standard practice to expand the line lengths out with the width of the browser (like your site is currently :), causing line lengths to expand way too long. If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even smaller. * [81]14/12/2006 I don't see it mentioned in the comments yet, but your quote above: "...Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels." is not correct, as IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized. * [83]18/12/2006 If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even smaller. You're right to mention line length as something that is overlooked, but on the screen it is not as simple as setting the measure in ems as their are more factors involved (screen size, liquid layouts, etc). Also I'd disagree that web line lengths should be shorter on the web. My personal preference would be for them to be longer - I find short line lengths on screen extremely hard work to read. That's just my opinion though. IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized. If you think of the reasons for changing text size then zooming a layout is just another form of resizing text and achieves the same goal. * [85]20/12/2006 Theodore, I think you would enjoy Richard's article entitled "Choose a comfortable measure" over at webtypography.net :) 1.2/ * [87]22/12/2006 [88]Rachel Maxim You've said in a few pages what has taken me years to figure out and refine :) - great info! * [89]23/12/2006 I really enjoyed this article. I have read your Elements of....for the web, as well as your blog about sizing text in ems. I have really been looking in to using this and getting the best `flow' with my typography. I also ordered the book Elements of Typographic Style just to give a better understanding. I think its a common misconception that text on the web will always look bland, and you have proved that it can have rhythm and style. * [91]02/01/2007 I've just been using some of these techniques on a client's site who needed 8 tabs all the same width, which fill the available space - I had it working fine in Firefox, but the tabs didn't fill the space in Safari or IE. I found that you really have to do the maths, rather than just use trial and error - they all round the numbers slightly differently. Once I'd checked my calculations, rather than tinkered with the numbers, it works fine everywhere, at least at standard font size. One other correction from someone's comment earlier on - you can resize text in IE7 - click the page icon at top right. Why you need both this and the ability to zoom, I'm not sure, but it's there at any rate. * [93]03/01/2007 [94]Ben G Can you set the margin above or below headings or paragraphs to less than your 18px base measurement? Won't margin collapsing cause whichever the largest margin is to take effect? Ben * [95]31/01/2009 [96]Daniel I've been using this article as the basis for designing my site with some "vertical rhythm". Everything is going well except with forms (input, textarea, etc.). I just haven't been able to use css to maintain the vertical rhythm (based on total line height of 18px). Any advise or insight as to how to get forms to play nicely? * [97]15/02/2009 [98]Silver Firefly I wanted to clarify something about the default browser text size and using the em unit. The article was a tad misleading when it covered the default browser text size and the em unit. A lot of designers have it in their heads that an em is equivalent to 16 pixels. An em is not equivalent to 16 pixels. It is equivalent to whatever is set in the user's browser, which is commonly 16px but depending on the user, it can be 20px or 12px or whatever they have set in their browser's settings. I hope after reading that statement, designers will start to realise that they have little control over how their website appears in other users' browsers. The majority of the control lies in the user's hands. Other than that, the article was very good. * [99]17/04/2009 Great article... and AWESOME site design. Inspirational! * [101]27/04/2009 Typesetting for websites is the future, like all things content-related. The Google knows it :). Thank you for that useful post. You webdesigners take care of your text! * [103]05/06/2009 [104]bonfield Inline bolding of elements (I'm using Helvetica, e.g.) seems to add a px of height on any line that uses it, and that subtly throws off the vertical rhythm for each line and it can add up depending -- anybody else run into this and solve it? * [105]18/06/2009 [106]Anonymous Does this truly keep the vertical rhythm? If you zoom in on the example, you'll see that the descender of the letter g in the H1 header "New England" crosses your rhythm marker's background line, while a lowercase g in the following paragraph does not. There appears to be some fudging going on. * [107]08/07/2009 I find it humorous that this site itself does not compose to a vertical rhythm. I've seen very few online that do. It's so difficult to implement across browsers it is usually brushed aside except for in the most simple design schemes. * [109]03/08/2009 [110]eric I've yet to see any empirical evidence that "vertical rhythm" applied to this degree has any impact on how well a reader is able to extract signal from the noise of the page. Meanwhile, I've seen many, many examples of mis-applied "vertical rhythms" resulting in squashed headings where the underlning on a link impinges on the text below. Which just looks clunky. When you've got something other than an aesthetic opinion from the margins -- maybe some actual data -- then I'll be interested in expending the effort needed to support real vertical rhythm. Until then, I just don't see how it's cost-effective. * [111]02/09/2009 Now, that was the kind of article I was looking for. That goes a lot deeper than I've been into the realms of line-spacing, leading (no kerning here though - can we do kerning with css?). I love the analogy to musical rhythym > therefore probably following on to mathematics/geometry/proportion. That is a great lead-in. Is there any room for the `golden ratio' in web design? Do graphic designers use it with/without realising it? Just that I haven't seen it discussed in the myriad pages concerning page layout/design that I've read so far... Thanks, Darren Impress us Name _________________________ Email _________________________ Website _________________________ Message _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ Be friendly / use [113]Textile Preview Submit About the author [114]Richard Rutter Richard Rutter is a user experience consultant and director of [115]Clearleft. He runs an ongoing project called [116]The Elements of Typographic Style Applied to the Web, where he extols the virtues of good web typography. Richard occasionally blogs at [117]Clagnut, where he writes about design, accessibility and web standards issues, as well as his passion for music and mountain biking. [118]More information Related articles * [119]Real Fonts and Rendering: The New Elephant in the Room 22/12/2009 by [120]Jeffrey Zeldman * [121]Spruce It Up 19/12/2009 by [122]Jonathan Snook * [123]Designing For The Switch 16/12/2009 by [124]Mark Boulton * [125]Type-Inspired Interfaces 07/12/2009 by [126]Dan Mall * [127]A Festive Type Folly 17/12/2008 by [128]Jon Tan * [129]Increase Your Font Stacks With Font Matrix 17/12/2007 by [130]Richard Rutter * [131]Typesetting Tables 07/12/2007 by [132]Mark Boulton * [133]Knockout Type - Thin Is Always In 17/12/2006 by [134]Shaun Inman * [135]An Explanation of Ems 02/12/2005 by [136]Richard Rutter [137]Article archives... In association with: [138]Perch - a really little cms * 24 ways is an [139]edgeofmyseat.com production. * Edited by [140]Drew McLellan and [141]Brian Suda. * Design delivered by [142]Made by Elephant. * Possible only with the help of [143]our terrific authors. * Grab our [144]RSS feed and follow us on [145]Twitter for daily updates. * Hosted by [146]Memset. * * * * Références [1]Home > [2]Articles > [3]Design > [4]Typography [5]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm [6]Jason Cranford Teague * By [7]Jason Cranford Teague * Dec 23, 2009 [8]Toggle Open Article Table of Contents [9]Article Contents [10]Close Table of Contents [11]Article Contents 1. [12]Web Measurements 2. [13]Type Size & Line Height 3. [14]Type Space 4. Text Alignment [15]Close Table of Contents [16]< Back Page 4 of 4 * [17]Print [18]Print * [19]Share This [20]Share This * [21]Discuss [22]Discuss [23]Close Window Jason Cranford Teague Jason Cranford Teague [24]Learn more... * [25]Articles * [26]Store * [27]Blogs [28]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm Dec 23, 2009 [29]Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers: Creating Meaning through Syntax Jul 23, 2009 [30]Designing Webbed Environments: The Importance of the Define and Design Phases May 12, 2006 [31]Creating Web Pages for Screen, Print, and Email Apr 28, 2006 [32]How to Style Forms in CSS Mar 17, 2006 [33]What Are CSS Sprites? Mar 3, 2006 [34]Ten Things You Can Do with CSS (That You Might Not Have Known You Could Do) Dec 22, 2005 [35]Fluid Web Typography [36]Fluid Web Typography Nov 24, 2009 [37]Fluid Web Typography, Adobe Reader [38]Fluid Web Typography, Adobe Reader Nov 24, 2009 [39]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers [40]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers Jun 30, 2009 [41]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers, Adobe Reader [42]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers, Adobe Reader Jun 30, 2009 [43]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, 4th Edition [44]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, 4th Edition Oct 17, 2006 [45]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, Adobe Reader, 4th Edition [46]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, Adobe Reader, 4th Edition Oct 17, 2006 [47]DHTML and CSS Advanced: Visual QuickPro Guide [48]DHTML and CSS Advanced: Visual QuickPro Guide Dec 15, 2004 [49]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 3rd Edition [50]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 3rd Edition Feb 20, 2004 [51]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 2nd Edition [52]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 2nd Edition May 30, 2001 [53]10 Last-minute Gifts for Web Designers By on December 17, 2009 1 Comment Q: What do I get for the Web designer who has everything? The short answer is real estate. The slightly longer answer is, anything that helps spark their creativity. The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah, Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [54]Saturnalia myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has everything they need to actually make Web sites? Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect. [55]Choosing the Right Color Value By on December 14, 2009 No Comments Q: Should I use Hex or RGB values to define colors in CSS? The short answer is RGB. The slightly longer answer is that Hex values have become the de facto standard for use in CSS code and both developers and designers are used to them. The long answer is that, in the final design on the screen, there is no difference between using Hex or RGB values in your code. Which system you use is really a matter of you own personal preference (and those of the team you are working with) as to whether or not you use Hex or RGB values to define colors. [56]Expand Your Font Repertoire By on November 30, 2009 No Comments Q: Are there alternatives to Arial, Times, and Georgia for Web designers? The short answer is YES! The slightly longer answer is that most designers use Arial, Times, or Georgia, and, to a lesser degree, Verdana, Trebuchet MS, Courier, and Comic Sans because they think that's all they have at their disposal, but they are wrong. The long answer is that the core Web fonts (the one listed above plus Impact and Web Dings) are used because they are almost guaranteed to be installed on the vast majority of computers your designs are likely to be installed on. One fact of life in Web design is that unless the end user's computer has access to the font file, then the browser cannot use it. [57]Pixels or Ems in Your Web Designs By on November 18, 2009 No Comments Q: What is the practical difference between px (pixel) and em (pronounced m)? When is it best to use one over the other? The short answer is that pixels measure dimensions relative to the screen while ems measure dimensions relative to type size. The slightly longer answer is that pixels are the natural unit for measuring dimensions on a screen and are often used when precise design is required. Ems are the natural unit for measuring type and used when you want to allow maximum design flexibility. [58]To CSS Reset or Not to CSS Reset By on November 10, 2009 No Comments Question: Which Global Reset for CSS Should I Use? The short answer is the simplest one possible. The slightly longer answer is that you should reset some styles, but do so with a good reason. The long answer is that the exact CSS reset you choose will depend on the needs of your design. I like to keep my own reset simple, relying on adding styles to specific tags as needed. However, there are several styles that are inconsistent or (in my opinion) poorly set in most browsers. [59]HTML 5 NOW! By on August 25, 20092 Comments Q: Can I start using HTML 5 now? The short answer is, yes. The slightly longer answer is, you can use some of the new features, but you will need to do a little [60]kludging to get it to work. The long answer is that HTML is a mark-up language meant to indicate the structure of a document. HTML 5 is the next evolutionary step in mark-up languages for the Web, but it is not implemented on most browsers that your audiences are likely to be using and it may be some time before it is. That said, there are some things you can do now to prepare for the future. [61]Big Things Ahead for HTML 5 By on August 17, 2009 No Comments Q: Will HTML5 or XHTML5 be the next big thing or just another collection of past standards and browser war fodder? The short answer is that, yes, [62]HTML 5 is the next big thing. The slightly longer answer is that it's going to be a while before you have to start worrying about HTML 5. The long answer is that, as with all standards, before it becomes relevant, the browser makers have to implement it and then you'll have to wait even longer before legacy browsers are no longer an issue. So, you have some time before you have to run out and buy a new HTML 5 Visual QuickStart Guide. The good news is that HTML 5 has gone to great lengths to stay backwards compatible, so you can begin to learn and implement it today. [63]Everyone is a Web Designer By on August 10, 2009 No Comments Q: What is a Web Designer anymore? It was easier to make Web sites all by yourself, even 5 years ago, but now there is just too much technology for one person to handle. If I want to make a Web site for a very small business, don't have I to be web "developer" now? The short answer is that everybody is a Web designer now. The slightly longer answer is that Web designers are practitioners of a highly specialized discipline that requires years of study to truly master. The long answer is that a good Web designer is a good designer, and this can come "naturally" or from training, but is not medium-dependent. However, a professional Web designer has to understand the medium well enough to know its strengths and limitations. Any designer can pump out something that looks brilliant when displayed in a Web browser window, but is slow to load, static when loaded, and completely unusable. [64]Frames are Dead, Long Live Iframes! By on July 24, 2009 No Comments Q: Is there a suitable alternative to frames? My wife is president of a local woman's club. She and I administer the club's web site, and the ladies like the list of links down one side of the pages. But I read that frames have been deprecated. Regardless, I want to keep the site simple. The short answer is yes-- use iframes. The slightly longer answer is no, not exactly, but we can get close. The long answer is there are a variety of ways to add content to your Web pages, but the question is: once it's on the page what are you going to do with it (or to it)? [65]Q: If I ask ten different web designers what pixel dimensions to use for web pages and whether to make them fixed-width or "stretchy," I get ten different answers. What's your answer, and why? By on July 20, 2009 No Comments The short answer is fixed at 974 pixels (px) wide. The slightly longer answer is whatever it takes to get the job done. The long answer is that asking a Web designer what size a Web page should be is like asking a painter what size a canvas should be or an architect how large a a building should be. While it's not purely a matter of taste--there are certain physical and ergonomic constraints--personal preference accounts for the wide variety of answers you might hear. [66]Ask me, ask me, ask me By on July 1, 2009 No Comments Do you have a question about Web standards, CSS, JavaScript, Ajax, interaction design, user experience, or Web typography? Maybe you just want to know "How'd they do that?" Ask me questions, and each week I will select a question to answer via my Peachpit.com blog. [67]Ask the Web Designer: Why Can't I Use Any Font I Want in My Web Designs? By on June 30, 2009 No Comments The short answer is that you can. The slightly longer answer is that you can't, at least not in any meaningful way yet. The long answer is that the ability to download fonts has actually been a part of the CSS standard (the language used to create Web designs) for over 10 years. The snag comes with what font formats a given browser supports. [NOTE: You may want to stop reading now, as the rest of this explanation might make your eyes bleed in frustration.] [68]Fluid Web Typography This chapter is from the book [69]Fluid Web Typography Jason Cranford Teague shows how giving careful consideration to the measurements and scale you are designing for is what separates good Web typography from great Web typography. Text Alignment Text alignment is generally taken for granted on the Web--left alignment suits most purposes most of the time. In order to create a sense of rhythm and movement on your page, helping to guide the reader's eye around and adding visual interest to the page, a little alignment variation can go a long way. Set body text alignment to minimize gaps and maximize scanning Text alignment in Web pages is, by default, to the left, with ragged edges on the right. Justified text--sometimes called newspaper columns, where both edges of the text are aligned--is rare on the Web. text-align: left; text-align: justify; In print, justified text is created using a variety of techniques including word spacing, letterspacing, hyphenation, and glyph reshaping. In addition, well-formed justification is calculated on a paragraph level to prevent "rivers" of white space flowing down the middle. On the Web, unfortunately, justification is simply created by adding small amounts of space between words. On the screen, where you can only add whole pixels, this often results in uncomfortably large amounts of space between some words, especially in narrower columns. Hyphenation is inexplicably absent from CSS. While it is proposed for inclusion in CSS 3, no work has currently been done on it. When choosing to use left or justified alignment, keep in mind these factors: * Justified text is often seen as more formal and structured, while left alignment is more informal and approachable. * Justified text reinforces the grid structure of a page but can be harder to scan, since it often creates rivers of white space throughout the text, which interrupts the eye path. * Left-aligned text adds an element of white space to the right edge, softening the overall appearance of the page. Combining Alignments [70]craigmod.com Craig Mod combines right-and left-justified columns of text to create motion and rhythm around his page. [71]04-17.jpg [72]Click to view larger image Center or right-justify text for effect and variety More rarely used, centering or right-justifying text can create a specific feeling on the page. text-align: center; text-align: right; Centering and right aligning text is integrally dependent on the design you are creating and how you want your readers to scan the page. While using a variety of justifications helps create rhythm and motion on your page, it can quickly seem cluttered or obnoxious. Always have a specific purpose for the variance of alignment, and use it sparingly. Here are a few ideas: * Bulleted or numbered lists should not be centered or right aligned, as this makes them harder to scan by moving the beginning of each line around. * Center section or module titles/headers if you want to make your site look a little different. Generally, section titles are best when left aligned, but centering them gives your designs a unique feel and may also improve scannability. * Right-align text in the left column of a page or table if it helps show a closer relationship between the elements in adjacent columns. Centered Section Titles [73]jontangerine.com Jon Tangerine combines centered subheadings with justified text in his blog (detail shown) to create solid structure with visual movement. [74]04-18.jpg [75]Click to view larger image Increase margins for longer quotations and style the citation Short quotes of less than three lines are included in a paragraph surround by quotation marks, requiring no other special formatting. In HTML, the blockquote tag is used to set off a block of text as a quotation, generally of two lines of text or longer. The quotation should be styled to distinguish it from other text by indenting its left and right margins and increasing the top and bottom margins. The amount of left/right indentation is based on the width of the column and then adjusted so that it does not conflict with any other indents. A good measure to offset blockquotes is to double the font size (2em), although more or less space may be required for wider or narrower columns: blockquote { margin: 2em; } note.jpg In this chapter, we are only considering spacing issues with blockquotes and citations. Chapters 5 and 6 offer other ways to style text, including weights, italics, backgrounds, and borders. These can be deployed to creatively display longer quotations. This will clearly space the blockquote away from the rest of the text, but it's also up to the copywriter to make it clear that the text is a quote and to supply its source, possibly using the cite tag, which indicates a citation. Turning the cite tag into a block-level element and right-aligning it when it is included in a blockquote creates a strong style. blockquote cite { display: block; text-align: right; } Blockquote Ideas [76]css-tricks.com/examples/Blockquotes CSS-Tricks has a page of blockquote ideas with sample code. The code above will force any text marked by the citation tag to a new line and right-align it. [77]04-20.jpg [78]Click to view larger image Set footnotes and scientific or mathematical annotations using positioning rather than vertical alignment Vertical text alignment allows you to adjust the position of inline text in relation to its natural baseline, shifting it up or down. For footnotes, mathematics, and scientific notation, it will not be enough to simply raise or lower the characters; you will also need to reduce their size relative to the surrounding text. These styles can be applied to the superscript and subscript tags, setting the vertical position to the baseline and then setting a position relative to that: sup, sub { font-size: .5em; vertical-align: baseline; position: relative; } sup { top: -.65em; } sup.math { top: -.8em } sub { top: .2em; } Although vertical-align provides several values to set the vertical position of the text, these have proved to be unreliable in multi-column layouts. The exact values will vary depending on the font, and you may also need to add some left/right margins to add breathing room. [79]04-21.jpg [80]Click to view larger image Type Inspirations: Jon Tangerine Beautiful typographic contrast. Insightful typography editorials. [81]jontangerine.com Jon is a designer living in Bristol, UK, with some of the cleanest pure Web typography I've seen. On top of this, his information and opinions on Web typography are required reading for anyone interested in the ongoing issues we face. [82]04-22.jpg [83]Click to view larger image How he does it: Jon uses a font stack of Web safe fonts, including Cochin, Baskerville, and Palatino Linotype, down to Georgia. He then combines a wide variety of sizes, styles, weights, and colors all scaled and spaced within a strong grid to provide clear eye paths and legible text. [84]04-25.jpg [85]Click to view larger image [86]04-26.jpg [87]Click to view larger image [88]04-27.jpg [89]Click to view larger image [90]04-28.jpg [91]Click to view larger image [92]< Back Page 4 of 4 * [93]Share This [94]Share This * [95][save_16.png] [96]Your Account Discussions Make a New Comment You must [97]log in in order to post a comment. 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The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah, Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [122]Saturnalia myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has everything they need to actually make Web sites? Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect. [123]Kara Murphy [124]Just in time for the holidays: Our video-a-day giveaway By [125]Kara Murphy on December 16, 2009 No Comments It's the holiday season, and I bet some of you are already thinking of your New Year's resolutions. If one of them is to learn something new in the field of Web design, development, presentation, branding, and much more, then you're in luck. 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All rights reserved. 1249 Eighth Street, Berkeley, CA 94710 [192]Informit Network [Other Network Sites......] Références Liens visibles 8. javascript:void(0); 9. javascript:void(0); 10. javascript:hideTOC(); 11. javascript:hideTOC(); 15. javascript:hideTOC(); 23. javascript:showme('authorInformation','closed'); 71. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-17.jpg') 72. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-17.jpg') 74. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-18.jpg') 75. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-18.jpg') 77. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-20.jpg') 78. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-20.jpg') 79. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-21.jpg') 80. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-21.jpg') 82. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-22.jpg') 83. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-22.jpg') 84. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-25.jpg') 85. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-25.jpg') 86. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-26.jpg') 87. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-26.jpg') 88. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-27.jpg') 89. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-27.jpg') 90. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-28.jpg') 91. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-28.jpg') Liens cachés : #[1]Latest articles [2]Most viewed [3]Latest comments [4]PDF [5]XML version [6][1048314841@Top,Bottom,x96!Top] [7]Log on / register [8]BioMed Central home | [9]Journals A-Z | [10]Feedback | [11]Support | [12]My details [13]Home | [14]Browse articles | [15]Search | [16]Weblinks | [17]Submit article | [18]My JCR | [19]About JCR * [20]Top * [21]Abstract * [22]Background * [23]Methods * [24]Results * [25]Discussion * [26]Conclusion * [27]Competing interests * [28]Authors' contributions * [29]Acknowledgements * [30]References [31][1973347444@Top,Bottom,x96%21x96] [32]Journal of Circadian Rhythms [33]Volume 7 Viewing options: * [34]Abstract * Full text * [35]PDF (243KB) Associated material: * [36]Readers' comments [37]RSS * [38]PubMed record Related literature: * Articles citing this article [39]on Google Scholar [40]on PubMed Central * Other articles by authors [41]on Google Scholar [42]Nagane M [43]Yoshimura K [44]Watanabe SI [45]Nomura M [46]on PubMed [47]Nagane M [48]Yoshimura K [49]Watanabe SI [50]Nomura M * Related articles/pages [51]on Google [52]on Google Scholar [53]on PubMed Tools: * [54]Download citation(s) * [55]Download XML * [56]Email to a friend * [57]Order reprints * [58]Post a comment * [59]Nominate for award Post to: * [60]Citeulike * [61]Connotea * [62]Del.icio.us * [63]Facebook * [64]Twitter [65]Open Access Research A possible connection between psychosomatic symptoms and daily rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion in healthy Japanese students Mitsuo Nagane^1 [66]email , Kazunori Yoshimura^2 [67]email , Shu-Ichi Watanabe^3 [68]email and Masahiko Nomura^4 [69]email ^1 Department of Educational Physiology, Chiba University, Chiba 263-8522, Japan ^2 Department of Rehabilitation, Nihon Institute of Medical Science, Japan ^3 Department of Physiology, Saitama Medical University, Japan ^4 International Education and Training Center, Saitama Medical University, Japan [email.gif] author email [email-ca.gif] corresponding author email Journal of Circadian Rhythms 2009, 7:10doi:10.1186/1740-3391-7-10 The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be Received: 3 February 2009 Accepted: 5 August 2009 Published: 5 August 2009 © 2009 Nagane et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Abstract Background Students suffering from psychosomatic symptoms, including drowsiness and feelings of melancholy, often have basic lifestyle problems. The aim of this study was to investigate whether psychosomatic complaints may be related to circadian dysfunction. Methods We examined 15 healthy students (4 men and 11 women) between 21 and 22 years old. To assess the presence of psychosomatic symptoms among the subjects, we developed a self-assessment psychosomatic complaints questionnaire consisting of five items pertaining to physical symptoms and five items concerning mental symptoms. The subjects rated their psychosomatic symptoms twice a day (08:00 and 20:00 h). We also assessed growth hormone secretion patterns by fluorescence enzyme immunoassay (FEIA). Salivary samples were collected from the subjects at home five times a day (20:00, 24:00, 04:00, 08:00, and 12:00 h) in Salivette tubes. Results The results indicated a relationship between the self-assessment scores and the salivary levels of growth hormone. Subjects with high self-assessment scores showed significant variability in growth hormone secretion over the day, whereas subjects with low self-assessment scores did not. Conclusion Psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with circadian dysfunction, as inferred from blunted rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion. Background Japanese students suffering from psychosomatic disorders, such as those involving mood and sleep, may exhibit basic problems in their lifestyle, including deleterious changes in their living environment and dietary or lifestyle disturbances [[72]1]. In particular, staying up late is associated with decreased appetite and missed breakfast the following morning, irregular bowel movements and sleepiness. Perhaps the biggest problem facing today's Japanese students is their lack of daily physical exercise, brought on by stressful academic courses over long periods of time, too much television and computer games and increased automobile use [[73]2]. Many Japanese youngsters stay up late at night [[74]3]. A circadian pacemaker in the central nervous system regulates human sleep cycles, hormone secretion, subject alertness, objective performance levels and other physiologic functions over a 24-h period. Core body temperature, plasma cortisol, and plasma melatonin are three variables frequently used to estimate the phase of the human pacemaker [[75]4], although many other hormones, including growth hormone, exhibit daily rhythmicity. Technical advances that make the assessment of biomarkers in saliva possible have enabled researchers to non-invasively study biosocial processes related to stress in naturalistic contexts. Chiappin et al [[76]5] showed the usefulness and possibility of salivary hormone analysis containing growth hormone. Rantonen [[77]6] found a linear correlation between salivary and serum growth hormone. Carroll et al. [[78]7] described negative effects of growth hormone insufficiency on psychological well-being, including reduced vitality and energy, depressed mood, emotional lability, impaired self-control, anxiety, and increased social isolation. Patients with growth hormone deficiencies report decreased energy levels, greater emotional lability, increased difficulties with sexual relationships and a greater sense of social isolation than control subjects [[79]8]. However, no direct relationship has been shown between growth hormone deficiency and psychometrically measured depression, apathy or psychosomatic well-being [[80]9]. The purpose of the present study was to investigate individual variation in the levels of growth hormone in healthy subjects and to examine the relationship between an individual's hormone profile and his or her psychosomatic complaints. Methods The subjects and self-assessment questionnaire Fifteen subjects (4 men and 11 women) without major medical disorders ranging in age from 21 to 22 years participated in this study. The study design was approved by the Ethics Committee of Chiba University, Japan, and informed consent was obtained from all subjects. A self-assessment questionnaire concerning psychosomatic symptoms was developed in accordance with data from the Health Behavior in School-Aged Children (HBSC) study of the WHO [[81]10]. The questionnaire for this study contained five items related to physical symptoms and five items pertaining to mental symptoms (Table [82]1). The questionnaire was used to measure each individual's psychosomatic symptoms at home twice each day (08:00 and 20:00 h). The items were rated on a 4-point scale, with 1 = not true at all and 4 = completely true. The total score for the 10-item scale ranged from 10 to 40, with higher scores indicating a greater degree of psychosomatic complaints. The subjects were allocated post hoc (median split) to a High (n = 7) or Low (n = 8) Self-Assessment Group based on their total morning score (with higher scores corresponding to lower self-assessment). [83]Table 1. Morning and evening psychosomatic condition scores collected from the self-assessment psychosomatic complaint questionnaire Sample collection Saliva was collected into Salivette tubes (Sarstedt, Germany) using polyester swabs from the subjects' mouths following 2 min of chewing. Samples were collected five times a day at home (20:00, 24:00, 04:00, 08:00, and 12:00 h). Both the day of sampling and the preceding day were required to be normal days (i.e., without special events or stressful circumstances). After sample collection, the saliva was stored at -20°C until being analysed. Salivary growth hormone assay On the day of testing, the samples were centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for 10 min to remove all mucin. A standard fluorescent determination immunoassay was used to assess the growth hormone concentrations in each sample. To avoid inter-assay variability, all determinations were performed in a single series. In the first step, 96-well fluoro-nunc plates (Nunc, Black MicroWell 137101, Denmark) were pre-coated with 100 µl of anti-growth hormone antibody (Quartett, 2071800210, Germany) and incubated for 1.5 h at room temperature. After incubation, the plate was washed three times with phosphate-buffered saline and blocked for 1 h. After washing, 100 µl of saliva or a standard solution was dispensed into each well and left for 1.5 h. After washing, primary antibody (Funakoshi, FU47500254, Japan) was added to the plates and incubated for 1.5 h. Next, incubation with a secondary antibody (Novus Biologicals, NB120-7112, USA) was performed for 1 h. After washing, rabbit anti-ovine immunoglobulin (Amersham Biosciences, ECF Western Blotting Reagent Pack, USA) was added. After 20 min of incubation, the plate was scanned using a Fluoromark Microplate Fluorometer (Bio-Rad, USA) with excitation at 485 nm and emission at 590 nm. Data analysis The significance of differences between group means was tested by analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by protected t tests when appropriate. The presence of daily rhythmicity in salivary growth hormone was tested by ANOVA and by the cosinor procedure [[84]11]. Results Self-assessment psychosomatic complaints questionnaire A factorial repeated measures ANOVA (high/low self-assessment versus morning/evening self-assessment scores) was conducted. ANOVA results showed significant differences (p < .05) between morning and evening self-assessment scores. Post hoc analyses revealed that, as shown in Table [85]1, the high self-assessment group (total 19.00) differed significantly from the low self-assessment group (total 32.75) in terms of their morning scores (Welch's t-test, t = -3.96, df = 7.57, p < 0.01). The low self-assessment group subjects complained of negative psychosomatic conditions including being easily irritated (p < .05), feeling melancholy (p < .05), having a desire to rest (p < .05), and feeling anxious (p < .01). Assessment of daily rhythmicity of salivary growth hormone secretion We collected saliva profiles from 15 healthy students (4 men and 11 women). The amplitude of salivary growth hormone, defined as the difference between the highest and lowest salivary concentrations, was used to produce a standardisation, or Z, score. As shown in Figure [86]1, noticeable variation was observed in the hormonal rhythms of the subjects, including differences in the salivary growth hormone secretion profiles of the high and low self-assessment groups. Cosinor analysis revealed no significant 24-hour rhythmicity in the secretion profiles of either group (p > .50), but a repeated measures ANOVA identified statistically significant (p < .05) time-related variations for growth hormone in the high self-assessment group. The secretion profile of the low self-assessment group did not exhibit the typical, sharp peak in the early morning [[87]12], and ANOVA showed no time-related variation (p > .10). At 08:00 h, salivary growth hormone levels were significantly lower (p < .05) in the low self-assessment group than in the high self-assessment group. [88]thumbnail Figure 1. Daily variation in salivary level of growth hormone in the high and low self-assessment groups. The results are presented as means ± S.E.M. * p < .05. Discussion Psychosocial factors have been previously shown to affect the psychosomatic symptoms reported by Japanese school children [[89]13]. Psychosomatic symptoms, which are largely mediated by the autonomic nervous system, are strongly influenced by an individual's lifestyle, and the current so-called 24-h society in Japan may have changed the environmental conditions of students. More than 80% of school refusal cases (school phobia) suffer from sleep disorders, with a tendency towards day/night reversal and easy fatigability, especially during the period immediately following their school social life [[90]14]. Thus, impairment in circadian rhythmicity may be a cause of school refusal in Japan. The present study was the first step in an attempt to investigate this hypothesis. Our assessment of salivary growth hormone secretion was not sensitive enough to detect significant daily rhythmicity, but the highest level measured in the subjects of our high self-assessment group occurred earlier in the day than the peak of the daily rhythm measured in a previous study [[91]15]. Peak hormonal secretions often shift to the morning if an activity continues long into the night. A link between deficiency of growth hormone and reduced quality of life or well-being has been reported by many researchers [[92]7]. Our results indicate a relationship between the self-assessment scores and the levels of growth hormone. Subjects with high self-assessment scores in the morning showed significant variability in growth hormone secretion during the day, whereas subjects with low self-assessment scores did not. Thus, psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with hormonal rhythms related to basic lifestyle habits. Nocturnal melatonin secretion can be suppressed by exposure to light on the order of several hundred lux, such as ordinary room light [[93]16]. Thus, a subject's pattern of melatonin secretion may reflect his or her life rhythm, and melatonin secretion appears to be an important index of circadian rhythmicity. Based on our previous finding that growth hormone and melatonin exhibit similar daily rhythmicity [[94]17], we believe that estimates of the state of the central circadian clock can be most accurate if they are based on the analysis of the secretion patterns of both melatonin and growth hormone. Some limitations of our study must be emphasized. First, it is possible that the sleep-disrupting effect of waking at 00.00 and 04.00 to produce a saliva sample had a disruptive effect on hormonal secretion. Second, we observed a larger difference in terms of gender than has been previously described [[95]18], with women having sevenfold higher serum growth hormone concentrations than men during the day. Though we did not directly examine sex differences in growth hormone secretion, we recognise it as an important topic for further research. Conclusion Psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with circadian dysfunction, as inferred from blunted rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Authors' contributions MN designed the experiments, collected data and wrote the manuscript. KY managed the laboratory and adjusted the schedule of subjects. SW participated in the design of the study and performed statistical analysis. MN supervised the study. All authors read and approved the final version of the article. Acknowledgements This study was supported in part by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (C) from the Japanese Ministry of Education to Nagane M. References 1. Okamoto M, Tan F, Suyama A, Okada H, Miyamoto T, Kishimoto T: The characteristics of fatigue symptoms and their association with the life style and the health status in school children. J Epidemiol 2000, 10:241-248. [96]PubMed Abstract [97]OpenURL 2. Murata M: Secular trends in growth and changes in eating patterns of Japanese children. Am J Clin Nutr 2000, 72(suppl):1379S-1383S. [98]PubMed Abstract | [99]Publisher Full Text [100]OpenURL 3. Harada T: Effects of evening light conditions on salivary melatonin of Japanese junior high school students. J Circadian Rhythms 2004, 2:4. [101]PubMed Abstract | [102]BioMed Central Full Text | [103]PubMed Central Full Text [104]OpenURL 4. Klerman E, Gershengorn HB, Duffy JF, Kronauer RE: Comparisons of the variability of three markers of the human circadian pacemaker. 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Références Liens visibles 41. javascript:/// 46. javascript:/// Liens cachés : JCPA LOGO Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs [1]Daniel Elazar Papers Index [2][USEMAP:nav-back.gif] American Political Culture The Generational Rhythm of American Politics The American Mosaic, Chapter 2 Daniel J. Elazar It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space. Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less pinpointed. This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast developments with great success. At the same time he has applied that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs. Early Studies of Generational Rhythms Students of society have noted the succession of generations since ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology on generational measures. The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs. It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon operating in history.^2 Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression, "forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5 Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The "generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7 Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of its beginnings and its ancestry. Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were the first to articulate systematic theories of generational progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that "History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals comes to dominate society.^9 These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed the principle that generations are articulated through historical events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained. Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a fourfold classification of generations as preparatory, revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10 Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11 Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation century.^13 After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri Peyre (1948).^16 More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused on problems of intergenerational differences and the political socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963) focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966) studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957) utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in Israel and the United States, respectively.^20 All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact, both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive theory. None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods. Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of three generations. Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin. Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature, art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular basis. Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under the heading of "a generation". Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History A number of theories of political cycles in American history have been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect "concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the "more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments" using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process. Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23 Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work. Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable directions. Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s) and the present. Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment occurs in every generation. While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts as follows: 1787-1801-1816 1816-1829-1841 1841-1861-1869 1869-1901-1918 1918-1931-? The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the following pattern: 1790-1796/1800 1800-1824/1828 1828-1824/1860 1860-1888/1896 1896-1932 His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their significance in the periodization process. Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if it is schematized as follows: 1789-1820 1828 1856-1860 1893/1894 1932 Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized as follows: 1896-1912 1912-1920-1932-1952 1952 Pomper also offers election dates and no more: 1836 1864-1876 1876-1892/1896 1928/1932-1952 1952-1964 None of these are complete theories and all must be considered within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit. Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era. In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however, the American people were treated to a display of federal activity -- and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow of time and events.) The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible pattern in the progression of political events in the United States over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26 The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a fixed moment, as individuals do now.... What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case, would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for 14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors. Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that 23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself assembled, can validly extend a debt. On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of 34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not of right. The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme, Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure of location in time. Human Social Rhythms As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the "lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation in any particular civil society and chart the relations among generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical patterns of its politics. During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years, averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited. Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life" ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and political roles as are given to mature men and women in society. Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention, if not physically, considered ready for retirement. Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote, and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be defined as the ending of one's serious political career without suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's 30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship. The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to "retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28 In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly established. Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby allowing a new generation to assume the reins. Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in social and political life than that found in the simple processes of human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings are recorded in history, we can do just that. Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the impact of the change and encourages new political action to assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at the most four generations are alive at any given time creates certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and politically unmanageable. Generations, Centuries and Events Since the founding of the first European settlements along the Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th century is the century of the United States as a world power. Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing point, thus: a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603) and the 17th century began with the opening of the American frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of the times. b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration for both countries. c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff). d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land frontier. Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn, the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments that will replace them. The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence. The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression will be related to major forces and factors shaping American history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the principal challenges facing the American people in each generation and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial, ethnic and religious groups. One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate. Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for analytical purposes than life ever is. The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany, but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies, and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate nation with its own civilization. The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century, which, from the first American recognition of common continental interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism, successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans. The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations, beginning at the point where America turned its back on European entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an industrialized continental nation with a strong national government; abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world power ready for overseas involvements. The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century -- reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the industrial revolution. As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first generation of the transformation of society as a result of the application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically dominant although economically weakened. The results of these phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder of the generation. Generations and Frontier Stages The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other historical and political phenomena. Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of human control over the natural environment and the utilization of the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control, i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American society is a product of this commitment which is virtually self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier situation that has created the major social and economic changes which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's political institutions. America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American life within that stage. The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the westward movement on a basically rural population interested in settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in Alaska. Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States, where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their existence and growth. By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth, in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation. After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and pace of development across the country. The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s, ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution, and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over. By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers, satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges, initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West. Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between the points of generational division and the shifts in the various frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are closely related to the opening of new centuries. Generations and Economic Periods One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a result, the governments of the United States have always maintained a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the governmental response. These changes have also developed on a generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth generation of American history) the American government continued a semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially unregulated by government. Demands for government regulation that built up during the last generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system. Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less government intervention. Centuries, Generations and Federalism The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first generation of American history brought the introduction of federal principles through the contracts and covenants that established the colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly, concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century. The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society. Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed have been major elements in the concrete response to the generation's challenges. Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of American history and politics. The changes in those relationships also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries. British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery. Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste system was in the making. During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation. Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was abolished in the North. The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was reaffirmed through the institution of segregation. From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say, to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American culture. While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era. The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the challenges changes from century to century. During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which, objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular progression of political events revolving around the development of a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and responses that gives each generation its particular character. While the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external -- or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation themselves. In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its sisters, and the other science independence when a common national constitution created a common national politics. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the political challenges that have dominated the American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the 19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the 20th century, they have essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and new generations is marked by several decisive political actions, often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so that they will achieve greater success and at the same time integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be recognized. The Bench Marks of American Political History: Critical Elections and New Deals In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds; first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each generation. The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs of voters, shifting them from one political party to another. Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a "critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one major element to another. Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the 1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and representatives to win control of Congress. The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968, only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the "normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in 1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems, won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the GOP controlled the Senate. A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations, personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders (or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate state parties which form the two national confederations known as the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties are confederations of the state parties, so is the national coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional coalitions. Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution, too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary inroads in the various electoral groups. Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means certain that the majority party will even win all the national elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards for the party faithful during the years of national "famine." As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad electoral groups.^33 While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election. Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical elections."^34 The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the development of the institution of the popularly elected president. Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and the House of Representatives. Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem. It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file" alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from balance to majority. "New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as the historical watersheds they are. In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S. Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B. Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s. The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational consolidation. The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington before undertaking any activities. The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an "outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation, usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time. President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and localities. These were all to become principal issues during the period of generational build-up. The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues of the new generation. Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been invariably preceded by critical elections through which the reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die -- determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to majority status. These critical elections, which attain their visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which face them. Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the 1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans. Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in 1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing period for the Democratic coalition. To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in American politics is not to suggest that events move in any lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the "normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too can be done that gives the theory its power. Summary Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more interest to European social philosophers than American social scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics, often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human social rhythms generally. Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them. The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation, constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political history recurring on a generational basis. Notes 1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970); Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979). 2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973). 3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5 (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers, chapter 32, verse 13. 7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte (London: G. Bell, 1896). 9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive (London, 1862). 10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani (Milano: Monanni, 1929). 11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen, der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4. (1875), pp. 36-41. 12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds., Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane, Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp., 1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). 13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method. 14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933). 15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti, ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales (Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F. Schoeningh, 1933). 16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926); Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig, 1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris: Boivin, 1948). 17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger, 1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4 (1972): 564-78. 18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956). 19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin, American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970). 20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield, Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970). 21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939). 22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key, Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961); Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968); Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). 23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210. 24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co. 1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government from the Civil War to the New Deal. 25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no. 1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992). 26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789. 27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President. 28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W. Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber, Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey, Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.: Brooks/Cole, 1989). 29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York: Macmillan, 1961). 30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965): Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989). 31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18. 32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability," Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171. 33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?" in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed., Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1983). 34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony; David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization, Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter, Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985). [3]Elazar Papers Index / [4]JCPA Home Page / [5]Top of Page Références [USEMAP] 1. javascript:history.go(-1) 3. mailto:jcenter@jcpa.org [USEMAP] [1]CAT.INIST [2][USEMAP:bandeau-haut-droit.gif] logo CNRS [3]logo INIST [4]En savoir plus sur CAT.INIST ? © INIST Diffusion S.A. Service Clients / Customer Service 2, allée du parc de Brabois F-54514 Vandoeuvre Cedex France Tél : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.64 Fax : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.66 Courriel : [5]infoclient@inist.fr [6]Accueil / Home Imprimer / Print [7]Contact / Contact Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [8]Email Print [9]Bookmark and Share [10]Mendeley Back Titre du document / Document title Rhythms of the secular : The politics of modernizing Arab poetic forms = Rythmes du séculaire : la politique de modernisation des formes poétiques arabes Auteur(s) / Author(s) FURANI Khaled^ (1) ; Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s) ^(1) Tel-Aviv University, ISRAEL Résumé / Abstract In this article, I ethnographically trace how Arab, mainly Palestinian, poets have modernized their literary tradition during the last seven decades. Shortly after the 1948 Israeli occupation of Palestine, the reign of the classical Arabic ode collapsed, and the modern forms of free verse and, later, the prose poem became dominant. Aiming to contribute to the ethnography of modernity, I examine how poets have adopted and abandoned poetic forms by analyzing their narratives on rhythm. I explore the political salience of rhythmical transformations and argue that the secular has been a vital and complex force in the modern abandonment of metrical discipline. The secular affects how poets seek to modernize their rhythm, vocabulary, and relation to public. It also affects, I conclude, the ways in which anthropologists can and do write about modernity. Revue / Journal Title American ethnologist ISSN 0094-0496 Source / Source 2008, vol. 35, n^o2, pp. 290-307 [18 page(s) (article)] (2 p.1/4) Langue / Language Anglais Editeur / Publisher American Ethnological Society, Washington, DC, ETATS-UNIS (1974) (Revue) Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords Rhythm ; Transformation ; Modernization ; Poet ; Modernity ; Poetry ; Israel ; Palestine ; Near East ; Mots-clés français / French Keywords Forme poétique ; Tradition littéraire ; Arabe palestinien ; Rythme ; Transformation ; Modernisation ; Poète ; Modernité ; Poésie ; Israël ; Palestine ; Proche-Orient ; Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords poetic form ; modernity and secularism ; Palestine-Israel ; Localisation / Location INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 16902, 35400019805879.0070 Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 20449527 Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [11]Email Print [12]Bookmark and Share [13]Mendeley Back _______________________________ Rechercher dans CAT.INIST / Search in CAT.INIST Google Custom Search Références 5. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20CAT.INIST.FR 7. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20Cat@inist.fr [USEMAP] * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * [1]LINGUIST List logo [2]Eastern Michigan University [3]Wayne State University * * [4]People & Organizations * [5]Jobs * [6]Calls & Conferences * [7]Publications * [8]Language Resources * [9]Text & Computer Tools * [10]Teaching & Learning * [11]Mailing Lists * [12]Search * * * [13][mail-logo-9.gif] E-mail this message to a friend Title: The Rhythm of Political Oratory Author: [14]Varvara Danilina Email: [15]click here to access email Degree Awarded: Moscow State University , Department of Foreigh Languages Degree Date: 2002 Linguistic Subfield(s): Discourse Analysis Sociolinguistics Subject Language(s): [16]English Director(s): [17]Ludmila Minaeva ___________________________________ Abstract: My doctoral dissertation was completed after four years of research on the rhythm of British and American political oratory. I sought to establish the rhythmic norm for political public speech and to find out, whether any deviations from this norm (i.e. from an expected rhythmic model) influence listeners and provoke their verbal reactions or bursts of applause. To accomplish this task I used a variety of linguistic and rhetorical methods, and drew upon social psychology and political science. There is no single linguistic perspective on speech rhythm. For instance, such distinguished scholars as D. Crystal and D. Abercrombie regard it as a purely phonetic phenomenon. At the same time, according to Moscow University school of thought, to which I belong, speech rhythm is created by a blend of phonetics, syntax and meaning of an utterance. As a result of my research, I established rhythmic regularities for political oratory at five levels. Firstly, I analyzed pauses that divide the stream of speech into segments (syntagmas), and classified all the pauses into syntactic, rhetorical or unintentional (unintentional pauses are caused by hesitation, deliberation, stammering, interruptions by listeners, etc). Secondly, I established the relative frequency of short, medium and long syntagmas between pauses, and thirdly, analyzed the rhythmic structures constituted by linear sequences of syntagmas. Fourthly, I studied the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables inside syntagmas. And finally, I considered all kinds of repetitions, both rhetorical and unintentional. This method of rhythmic analysis is based on earlier analytical models designed by my university colleagues. My own contribution consisted in adapting this method to the study of public speech, describing the typical rhythm of political oratory, and challenging some popular assumptions about speech rhythm. As for the impact of speech rhythm upon listeners, I started by analyzing audiences in order to understand psychological, social and political conditions of that process. G. Le Bon, Z. Freud and other scholars demonstrated conclusively that members of a crowd (and the audience of a public speech is a crowd) are connected with each other and with their leader (in our case, a speaker) by strong subconscious ties. However, the degree of unity or polarization of an audience may differ. Besides, each audience can be characterized according to several other criteria that determine listeners' responsiveness and the nature of their responses: their emotional state, the level of expertise in a particular subject, the demographic and social characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, social status, occupation, education), the existing evaluation of discussed issues, which is largely determined by listeners' ideologies, and finally, the attitude to the speaker, which can be positive, negative or indifferent. I have applied this model of audience analysis to determine peculiarities of the British parliamentary audience in October 1996, and of the US Congress in the aftermath of September 11, 2001. To analyze the reactions of these audiences to the rhythm of Prime Minister Major and President Bush's parliamentary addresses I used M. Atkinson's version of the conversation analysis method. I showed the two speeches as dialogues between the speakers and their listeners, and singled out phrases and syntagmas that immediately preceded audience responses, such as cheering, booing, laughter or bursts of applause. These phrases and syntagmas happened to be quite similar in terms of rhythm to other stretches of speech in the same addresses. Moreover, there proved to be little rhythmic difference between John Major and George Bush's speeches. In short, my research demonstrated that there is no direct interconnection between the rhythm of a public address and audience responses. [18]Add a dissertation [19]Update dissertation Page Updated: 17-Jan-2010 [20]Print This Page __________________________________________________________________ [21][transp.gif] [22][transp.gif] Please [23]report any bad links or misclassified data __________________________________________________________________ [24]LINGUIST Homepage | [25]Read LINGUIST | [26]Contact us [27]NSF Logo While the LINGUIST List makes every effort to ensure the linguistic relevance of sites listed on its pages, it cannot vouch for their contents. Références 13. JavaScript:; 15. JavaScript:; 20. Javascript:window.print(); 22. mailto:cranston@linguistlist.org [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] #[1]Edit this page [2]Wikipedia (en) [3]copyright [4]Wikipedia RSS Feed [5]Wikipedia Atom Feed Afrobeat From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search Question book-new.svg This article does not [8]cite any [9]references or sources. Please help [10]improve this article by adding citations to [11]reliable sources. Unsourced material may be [12]challenged and [13]removed. (September 2008) Afrobeat is a combination of [14]Yoruba music, [15]jazz, [16]highlife, and [17]funk [18]rhythms, fused with [19]percussion and [20]vocal styles, popularized in [21]Africa in the 1970s. Its main creator was the [22]Nigerian multi-[23]instrumentalist and [24]bandleader [25]Fela Kuti who used it to revolutionise musical structure as well as the political context in his native Nigeria. It was Kuti who coined the term "afrobeat" upon his return from a U.S. tour with his group Nigeria 70 (formerly Koola Lobitos). The new sound hailed from a club that he established called the Afro-Shrine. Upon arriving in Nigeria, Kuti also changed the name of his group to Fela Ransome-Kuti & Africa 70. The band maintained a five-year residency in the Afro-Shrine from 1970 to 1975 while afrobeat thrived among Nigerian youth. Afrobeat is now one of the most recognisable music genres in the world and has influenced as many Western musicians as it has African ones with its exuberant style and polyrhythms. Contents * [26]1 Origins * [27]2 Influence * [28]3 Instrumentation * [29]4 Today * [30]5 External links [[31]edit] Origins Afrobeat originated from the southern part of [32]Nigeria in the 1960s where Kuti experimented with many different forms of contemporary music of the time. Prevalent in him and Lagbaja's music are native African harmonies and rhythms, taking different elements and combining, modernizing and improvising upon them. [33]Politics are essential to afrobeat, since founder Kuti used social criticism to pave the way for social change. His message can be described as confrontational and controversial, which can be related to the political climate of most of the African countries in the 1960s, many of which were dealing with political injustice and military corruption while recovering from the transition from colonial governments to self-determination. As the genre spread throughout the African continent many bands took up the style. The recordings of these bands and their songs were rarely heard or exported outside the originating countries but many can now be found on compilation albums and CDs from specialist record shops. [[34]edit] Influence Many jazz musicians have been attracted to afrobeat. From [35]Roy Ayers in the seventies to [36]Randy Weston in the nineties, there have been collaborations which have resulted in albums such as Africa: Centre of the World by Roy Ayers, released on the Polydor label in 1981. In 1994 [37]Branford Marsalis, the American jazz saxophonist, included samples of Fela's "Beast of No Nation" on his Buckshot leFonque album. The new generation of DJs and musicians of the 2000s who have fallen in love with both Kuti's material and other rare releases have made compilations and remixes of these recordings, thus re-introducing the genre to new generations of listeners and fans of afropop and groove. Afrobeat has profoundly influenced important contemporary producers and musicians like [38]Brian Eno and [39]David Byrne, who credit Fela Kuti as an essential muse. Both worked on [40]Talking Heads' highly-acclaimed 1980 album [41]Remain In Light which brought polyrhythmic afrobeat influences to Western music. More recently, the horn section of [42]Antibalas have been guest musicians on [43]TV On The Radio's highly-acclaimed 2008 album [44]Dear Science, as well as on British band [45]Foals' 2008 album [46]Antidotes. [[47]edit] Instrumentation Big band (15 to 30 pieces: Fela-era afrobeat) and energetic performances * Lead vocals (may play sax/key solos as well) * Chorus vocals (may include horn players) * Rhythm guitar(s) (plays funk strumming pattern) * Tenor guitar (plays a finger-picked osinato groove) * [48]Bass guitar * [49]Drum set, generally in the form [50]polyrhythmic percussion * Saxophone(s) * Trumpet(s) * Trombone(s) * Organ/keyboards * Rhythm [51]conga #1 * Rhythm [52]conga #2 * Solo (lead) [53]conga * [54]Akuba: a set of 3 small stick-hit congas (play flourishes/solos, and ostinatos). Also mistakenly called "gbedu". * "Sticks"/[55]claves (plays ostinato) * [56]Shekere [[57]edit] Today There are several active afrobeat bands worldwide today. Modern afrobeat bands/artistes include: * [58]Kokolo (band), New York City Afrobeat/Afrofunk group formed by songwriter/producer Ray Lugo * [59]Nomo, [60]Ann Arbor based group that weaves various styles into a primarily Afrobeat sound. * [61]Chicago Afrobeat Project Chicago based collective that uses afrobeat as a springboard and has an incendiary live show. * [62]Afrodizz, an eight-piece band from [63]Montreal, [64]Canada formed by jazz guitarist Gabriel Aldama * [65]The Afromotive, an Asheville, NC based multiracial seven-piece afrobeat band featuring thirty-third generation djembe player Adama Dembele from Cote d`Ivoire, West Africa. * [66]Tony Allen, the man who held the drum chair during Fela's productive "Africa 70" phase, and whose drumming was, according to [67]James Brown's autobiography, the influence behind his 'discovery' of funk.^[[68]citation needed] * [69]Antibalas, [70]Brooklyn, New York based multiracial Afrobeat Orchestra formed by baritone saxophonist Martin Perna * [71]Aphrodesia, San Francisco based group, first American group to perform with Femi Kuti at The Shrine in Lagos, Nigeria. * [72]Ayetoro, a group led by Nigerian pianist/composer [73]Funsho Ogundipe * [74]Bebe cool lives in Uganda famous for his reggea mixed with luganda pop and English making an Afrobeat rhythm in Uganda known as Luga flow.He also lives in kampala. * [75]Chopteeth, an international 14 piece outfit based in Washington D.C., with former members of Busta Rhymes, The Temptations, The Four Tops, and Gladys Knight & the Pips. * [76]Femi Kuti (Fela's first son and a saxophonist) and the Positive Force * [77]Seun Kuti (another of Kuti's sons, saxophonist now fronting his father's last and late band) * [78]Dele Sosimi's Gbedu Resurrection Dele is a former keyboardist and musical director of Fela's band. He cofounded Femi Kuti's Positive Force. * [79]Zozo Afrobeat A thirteen-member group based in NYC, founded by Kaleta, former Fela guitarist. * [80]Baba Ken and the Afro-Groove Connexion Oakland based multiracial afrobeat ensemble led by Nigerian bassist, Baba Ken Okulolo, founding member of the seminal 1970's afrofunk/afrorock band, Monomono. * [81]Jose Chameleone famous in East, central and South Africa.He stays and live is Uganda in kampala city.He sing pop and Afro beat music.He is one of the most famous artists of Afro beat in Africa and the whole world. * [82]Afrobeat Down Los Angeles based Afrobeat ensemble (est. 2002) working with former Fela Africa '70 member and catalyst of entire afrobeat movement, Sandra Izsadore. * [83]Weird MC Rap artiste who occasionally experinments with Afrobeat rhythm. * [84]Vibe Squad A Ghanaian music crew formed by EaZZY Da Opemfour made of Prego, Culchar, Wizzy Wii and Richie. * [85]Gnl zamba rap artist in Uganda one of the most successful rap afrobeat star in East Africa and central Africa.He is known for his rhythm of 2 pac shakur * [86]Mr. Something Something Canadian afrobeat group * [87]Crime Scene Infunkstigation A 10-piece Afrobeat/Funk/Hip Hop group based out of Calgary, AB [[88]edit] External links * [89]KOKOLO on Myspace * [90]KOKOLO on YouTube * [91]KOKOLO Official Homepage * [92]The Afrobeat Blog * [93]The Unofficial Seun Kuti Fan-Site - Unofficial fan-site for Seun Kuti & Egypt 80 with news, videos, music, pictures and much more] * [94]The Shrine The Unofficial Website for Fela Kuti, Femi Kuti and Afrobeat Music * [95]BBC Afrobeat Documentary [96]v o [97]d o [98]e Genres of [99]African popular music Afrobeat · [100]Apala · [101]Benga · [102]Bikutsi · [103]Cape Jazz · [104]Chimurenga · [105]Fuji · [106]Highlife · [107]Hiplife · [108]Isicathamiya · [109]Jit · [110]Jùjú · [111]Kizomba · [112]Kuduro · [113]Kwaito · [114]Kwela · [115]Makossa · [116]Maloya · [117]Marrabenta · [118]Mbalax · [119]Mbaqanga · [120]Mbube · [121]Morna · [122]Palm-wine · [123]Raï · [124]Sakara · [125]Sega · [126]Soukous/Congo/Lingala/Rumba · [127]Taarab [128]v o [129]d o [130]e [131]Funk music [132]Acid jazz o Afrobeat o [133]Brit funk o [134]Funk metal o [135]Deep Funk o [136]Drumfunk o [137]Free funk o [138]Funkcore o [139]Funktronica o [140]Funk rock o [141]G-funk o [142]Go-go o [143]Jazz-funk o [144]Liquid funk o [145]Neurofunk o [146]Nu-funk o [147]P-Funk o [148]Post-disco o [149]Punk-funk o [150]Skweee Related [151]List of funk musicians o [152]Minneapolis sound [154]Categories: [155]Funk genres | [156]African American music in Africa Hidden categories: [157]Articles lacking sources from September 2008 | [158]All articles lacking sources | [159]All articles with unsourced statements | [160]Articles with unsourced statements from July 2007 Views * [161]Article * [162]Discussion * [163]Edit this page * [164]History Personal tools * [165]Try Beta * [166]Log in / create account Navigation * [167]Main page * [168]Contents * [169]Featured content * [170]Current events * [171]Random article Search ____________________ Go Search Interaction * [172]About Wikipedia * [173]Community portal * [174]Recent changes * [175]Contact Wikipedia * [176]Donate to Wikipedia * [177]Help Toolbox * [178]What links here * [179]Related changes * [180]Upload file * [181]Special pages * [182]Printable version * [183]Permanent link * [184]Cite this page Languages * [185]Català * [186]Deutsch * [187]Español * [188]Français * [189]Hrvatski * [190]Italiano * [191]Nederlands * [192]¥¬ * [193]ªNorsk (bokmål) * [194]Polski * [195]Português * [196]Suomi [197]Powered by MediaWiki [198]Wikimedia Foundation * This page was last modified on 12 January 2010 at 06:03. * Text is available under the [199]Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See [200]Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [201]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * [202]Contact us * [203]Privacy policy * [204]About Wikipedia * [205]Disclaimers Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : #[1]rss [2]Jump to content Year * 1996 * 1997 * 1998 * 1999 * 2000 * 2001 * 2002 * 2003 * 2004 * [3]2005 * [4]2006 * [5]2007 * [6]2008 * [7]2009 * 2010 * 2011 * 2012 * 2013 * 2014 * 2015 * 2016 * 2017 * 2018 * 2019 Day * [8]24 * [9]23 * [10]22 * [11]21 * [12]20 * [13]19 * [14]18 * [15]17 * [16]16 * [17]15 * [18]14 * [19]13 * [20]12 * [21]11 * [22]10 * [23]09 * [24]08 * [25]07 * [26]06 * [27]05 * [28]04 * [29]03 * [30]02 * [31]01 [32]24 Ways to impress your friends * [33]Home * [34]Archives * [35]Authors * [36]Twitter * [37]RSS * ____________________ Go 12 12/2006 [38]Compose to a Vertical Rhythm by [39]Richard Rutter * [40]Article * [41]29 comments "Space in typography is like time in music. It is infinitely divisible, but a few proportional intervals can be much more useful than a limitless choice of arbitrary quantities." So says the typographer Robert Bringhurst, and just as regular use of time provides rhythm in music, so regular use of space provides rhythm in typography, and without rhythm the listener, or the reader, becomes disorientated and lost. On the Web, vertical rhythm - the spacing and arrangement of text as the reader descends the page - is contributed to by three factors: font size, line height and margin or padding. All of these factors must calculated with care in order that the rhythm is maintained. The basic unit of vertical space is line height. Establishing a suitable line height that can be applied to all text on the page, be it heading, body copy or sidenote, is the key to a solid dependable vertical rhythm, which will engage and guide the reader down the page. To see this in action, I've created [42]an example with headings, footnotes and sidenotes. Establishing a suitable line height The easiest place to begin determining a basic line height unit is with the font size of the body copy. For [43]the example I've chosen 12px. To ensure readability the body text will almost certainly need some leading, that is to say spacing between the lines. A line-height of 1.5em would give 6px spacing between the lines of body copy. This will create a total line height of 18px, which becomes our basic unit. Here's the CSS to get us to this point: 1. body { 2. font-size: 75%; 3. } 4. 5. html>body { 6. font-size: 12px; 7. } 8. 9. p { 10. line-height 1.5em; 11. } 12. Source: [44]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/1.txt There are many ways to size text in CSS and the above approach provides and accessible method of achieving the pixel-precision solid typography requires. By way of explanation, the first font-size reduces the body text from the 16px default (common to most browsers and OS set-ups) down to the 12px we require. This rule is primarily there for Internet Explorer 6 and below on Windows: the percentage value means that the text will scale predictably should a user bump the text size up or down. The second font-size sets the text size specifically and is ignored by IE6, but used by Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels. Spacing between paragraphs With our rhythmic unit set at 18px we need to ensure that it is maintained throughout the body copy. A common place to lose the rhythm is the gaps set between margins. The default treatment by web browsers of paragraphs is to insert a top- and bottom-margin of 1em. In our case this would give a spacing between the paragraphs of 12px and hence throw the text out of rhythm. If the rhythm of the page is to be maintained, the spacing of paragraphs should be related to the basic line height unit. This is achieved simply by setting top- and bottom-margins equal to the line height. In order that typographic integrity is maintained when text is resized by the user we must use ems for all our vertical measurements, including line-height, padding and margins. 1. p { 2. font-size:1em; 3. margin-top: 1.5em; 4. margin-bottom: 1.5em; 5. } 6. Source: [45]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/2.txt Browsers set margins on all block-level elements (such as headings, lists and blockquotes) so a way of ensuring that typographic attention is paid to all such elements is to reset the margins at the beginning of your style sheet. You could use a rule such as: 1. body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl ockquote,th,td { 2. margin:0; 3. padding:0; 4. } 5. Source: [46]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/3.txt Alternatively you could look into using the [47]Yahoo! UI Reset style sheet which removes most default styling, so providing a solid foundation upon which you can explicitly declare your design intentions. Variations in text size When there is a change in text size, perhaps with a heading or sidenotes, the differing text should also take up a multiple of the basic leading. This means that, in our example, every diversion from the basic text size should take up multiples of 18px. This can be accomplished by adjusting the line-height and margin accordingly, as described following. Headings Subheadings in the [48]example page are set to 14px. In order that the height of each line is 18px, the line-height should be set to 18 ÷ 14 = 1.286. Similarly the margins above and below the heading must be adjusted to fit. The temptation is to set heading margins to a simple 1em, but in order to maintain the rhythm, the top and bottom margins should be set at 1.286em so that the spacing is equal to the full 18px unit. 1. h2 { 2. font-size:1.1667em; 3. line-height: 1.286em; 4. margin-top: 1.286em; 5. margin-bottom: 1.286em; 6. } 7. Source: [49]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/4.txt One can also set asymmetrical margins for headings, provided the margins combine to be multiples of the basic line height. In our example, a top margin of 1½ lines is combined with a bottom margin of half a line as follows: 1. h2 { 2. font-size:1.1667em; 3. line-height: 1.286em; 4. margin-top: 1.929em; 5. margin-bottom: 0.643em; 6. } 7. Source: [50]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/5.txt Also in our example, the main heading is given a text size of 18px, therefore the line-height has been set to 1em, as has the margin: 1. h1 { 2. font-size:1.5em; 3. line-height: 1em; 4. margin-top: 0; 5. margin-bottom: 1em; 6. } 7. Source: [51]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/6.txt Sidenotes Sidenotes (and other supplementary material) are often set at a smaller size to the basic text. To keep the rhythm, this smaller text should still line up with body copy, so a calculation similar to that for headings is required. In our example, the sidenotes are set at 10px and so their line-height must be increased to 18 ÷ 10 = 1.8. 1. .sidenote { 2. font-size:0.8333em; 3. line-height:1.8em; 4. } 5. Source: [52]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/7.txt Borders One additional point where vertical rhythm is often lost is with the introduction of horizontal borders. These effectively act as shims pushing the subsequent text downwards, so a two pixel horizontal border will throw out the vertical rhythm by two pixels. A way around this is to specify horizontal lines using background images or, as in our example, specify the width of the border in ems and adjust the padding to take up the slack. The design of the footnote in our example requires a 1px horizontal border. The footnote contains 12px text, so 1px in ems is 1 ÷ 12 = 0.0833. I have added a margin of 1½ lines above the border (1.5 × 18 ÷ 12 = 2.5ems), so to maintain the rhythm the border + padding must equal a ½ (9px). We know the border is set to 1px, so the padding must be set to 8px. To specify this in ems we use the familiar calculation: 8 ÷ 12 = 0.667. Hit me with your rhythm stick Composing to a vertical rhythm helps engage and guide the reader down the page, but it takes typographic discipline to do so. It may seem like a lot of fiddly maths is involved (a few divisions and multiplications never hurt anyone) but good type setting is all about numbers, and it is this attention to detail which is the key to success. Like what you read? * [53]Tweet this article * or * [54]Leave a comment Comments * [55]12/12/2006 Wow this is a good article. * [57]12/12/2006 [58]Will thanks so much, this is great. * [59]12/12/2006 Interesting stuff. Also worth reading Eric Meyer's post on unitless line-heights: * [61]12/12/2006 It's worth mentioning that IE6 and below can go a bit extreme when resizing fonts set as ems. You can fix this by applying font-size: 100% to html. Don't know why this works, it just does. Oh, if you're working in quirks mode you'll also need to apply it to thead, tbody and tfoot, beacuse the fix doesn't inherit (don't apply it to table unless you want table to inherit font-sizes). You don't need thead, tbody or tfoot in your tables as tbody is implied. Obviously, you can't then apply your own font-sizes to html or tbody etc, else you'll overwrite the fix, which is why I chose those particular elements as they're rarely used for font-sizes. Jake. * [63]12/12/2006 [64]Mike Stenhouse donotremove.co.uk Hmmmmm, interesting! I've not tried this but I think there might be an easier way to set those heights... What if the line-height is set to, say, 1.5em on the body and 1 (unit-less - it's valid!) on each descendant element? Or maybe some variation on that. It might force the 18px to inherit into the children without awkward calculations. * [65]12/12/2006 Great article, Richard! Web typography--like all typography--deserves this level of detailed thinking, and I hope to see more designers embracing it. * [67]12/12/2006 [68]michael h Good introduction to typography theory, but I am convinced that the Owen Briggs method is the best approach to sizing. * [69]13/12/2006 I've been working on something similar recently, and I've discovered that if you set the line-height in pixels, most browsers will still scale it proportionally along with the text. As IE6's numbers fall off, I hope we can leave all this black magic scaling math behind and go back to setting font sizes in pixels and letting the browsers handle the scaling. * [71]13/12/2006 Mike - you're right about being able to simplify the line-height specifications, but it doesn't require setting unitless line-heights. In the example I use, I've set the font-size to be 12px on the body and calculated line-heights for all the subsequent elements. As I required one line height - 18px - for all elements I can remove the multiple statements and simply set line-height:1.5em on the body. The calculated line-height of 18px is inherited by all elements on the page. I've modifed the example to show this (checked in Firefox, Safari and IE6): However the maths would still need to be performed to calculate the correct margins, so while the extra line-height specifications are not strictly necessary (at least while the same line height for all text is required) you unfortunately don't save much on the calculations. * [73]13/12/2006 Jake - the extreme text sizing in IE can be fixed by applying any percentage font size to the body - it doesn't have to be 100% (hence my use of 75% fixed this too). You're right about the tables though. This rule does the job nicely to inherit the text size: table, thead, tbody, tr, th, td {font-size:1em} * [75]13/12/2006 [76]GreLI In the article next rule is used to reset margins: body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl ockquote,th,td { margin:0; padding:0; } I think it easier to use universal selector (* { margin: 0; padding: 0 }) instead. To fix table font-size inheritance it's enough to set table { font-size: 1em } Opera AFAIK don't change font-size if it set in pixels, but it can zoom pages (so does IE7). * [77]13/12/2006 GreLI - using the universal selector like that to zero all margins and padding can cause unpredictable results in some form controls (e.g. SELECT elements) in certain browsers. Rich - great article; now all someone needs to do is knock up a nice little app that spits out the right line-heights and margins for the elements you tell it... :) * [79]13/12/2006 It's unfortunate that pretty much no one composes with a scale when publishing for the web. Your article is a great step forward. Also overlooked are line lengths. Since the beginning of the web, It has been a standard practice to expand the line lengths out with the width of the browser (like your site is currently :), causing line lengths to expand way too long. If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even smaller. * [81]14/12/2006 I don't see it mentioned in the comments yet, but your quote above: "...Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels." is not correct, as IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized. * [83]18/12/2006 If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even smaller. You're right to mention line length as something that is overlooked, but on the screen it is not as simple as setting the measure in ems as their are more factors involved (screen size, liquid layouts, etc). Also I'd disagree that web line lengths should be shorter on the web. My personal preference would be for them to be longer - I find short line lengths on screen extremely hard work to read. That's just my opinion though. IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized. If you think of the reasons for changing text size then zooming a layout is just another form of resizing text and achieves the same goal. * [85]20/12/2006 Theodore, I think you would enjoy Richard's article entitled "Choose a comfortable measure" over at webtypography.net :) 1.2/ * [87]22/12/2006 [88]Rachel Maxim You've said in a few pages what has taken me years to figure out and refine :) - great info! * [89]23/12/2006 I really enjoyed this article. I have read your Elements of....for the web, as well as your blog about sizing text in ems. I have really been looking in to using this and getting the best `flow' with my typography. I also ordered the book Elements of Typographic Style just to give a better understanding. I think its a common misconception that text on the web will always look bland, and you have proved that it can have rhythm and style. * [91]02/01/2007 I've just been using some of these techniques on a client's site who needed 8 tabs all the same width, which fill the available space - I had it working fine in Firefox, but the tabs didn't fill the space in Safari or IE. I found that you really have to do the maths, rather than just use trial and error - they all round the numbers slightly differently. Once I'd checked my calculations, rather than tinkered with the numbers, it works fine everywhere, at least at standard font size. One other correction from someone's comment earlier on - you can resize text in IE7 - click the page icon at top right. Why you need both this and the ability to zoom, I'm not sure, but it's there at any rate. * [93]03/01/2007 [94]Ben G Can you set the margin above or below headings or paragraphs to less than your 18px base measurement? Won't margin collapsing cause whichever the largest margin is to take effect? Ben * [95]31/01/2009 [96]Daniel I've been using this article as the basis for designing my site with some "vertical rhythm". Everything is going well except with forms (input, textarea, etc.). I just haven't been able to use css to maintain the vertical rhythm (based on total line height of 18px). Any advise or insight as to how to get forms to play nicely? * [97]15/02/2009 [98]Silver Firefly I wanted to clarify something about the default browser text size and using the em unit. The article was a tad misleading when it covered the default browser text size and the em unit. A lot of designers have it in their heads that an em is equivalent to 16 pixels. An em is not equivalent to 16 pixels. It is equivalent to whatever is set in the user's browser, which is commonly 16px but depending on the user, it can be 20px or 12px or whatever they have set in their browser's settings. I hope after reading that statement, designers will start to realise that they have little control over how their website appears in other users' browsers. The majority of the control lies in the user's hands. Other than that, the article was very good. * [99]17/04/2009 Great article... and AWESOME site design. Inspirational! * [101]27/04/2009 Typesetting for websites is the future, like all things content-related. The Google knows it :). Thank you for that useful post. You webdesigners take care of your text! * [103]05/06/2009 [104]bonfield Inline bolding of elements (I'm using Helvetica, e.g.) seems to add a px of height on any line that uses it, and that subtly throws off the vertical rhythm for each line and it can add up depending -- anybody else run into this and solve it? * [105]18/06/2009 [106]Anonymous Does this truly keep the vertical rhythm? If you zoom in on the example, you'll see that the descender of the letter g in the H1 header "New England" crosses your rhythm marker's background line, while a lowercase g in the following paragraph does not. There appears to be some fudging going on. * [107]08/07/2009 I find it humorous that this site itself does not compose to a vertical rhythm. I've seen very few online that do. It's so difficult to implement across browsers it is usually brushed aside except for in the most simple design schemes. * [109]03/08/2009 [110]eric I've yet to see any empirical evidence that "vertical rhythm" applied to this degree has any impact on how well a reader is able to extract signal from the noise of the page. Meanwhile, I've seen many, many examples of mis-applied "vertical rhythms" resulting in squashed headings where the underlning on a link impinges on the text below. Which just looks clunky. When you've got something other than an aesthetic opinion from the margins -- maybe some actual data -- then I'll be interested in expending the effort needed to support real vertical rhythm. Until then, I just don't see how it's cost-effective. * [111]02/09/2009 Now, that was the kind of article I was looking for. That goes a lot deeper than I've been into the realms of line-spacing, leading (no kerning here though - can we do kerning with css?). I love the analogy to musical rhythym > therefore probably following on to mathematics/geometry/proportion. That is a great lead-in. Is there any room for the `golden ratio' in web design? Do graphic designers use it with/without realising it? Just that I haven't seen it discussed in the myriad pages concerning page layout/design that I've read so far... Thanks, Darren Impress us Name _________________________ Email _________________________ Website _________________________ Message _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ Be friendly / use [113]Textile Preview Submit About the author [114]Richard Rutter Richard Rutter is a user experience consultant and director of [115]Clearleft. He runs an ongoing project called [116]The Elements of Typographic Style Applied to the Web, where he extols the virtues of good web typography. Richard occasionally blogs at [117]Clagnut, where he writes about design, accessibility and web standards issues, as well as his passion for music and mountain biking. [118]More information Related articles * [119]Real Fonts and Rendering: The New Elephant in the Room 22/12/2009 by [120]Jeffrey Zeldman * [121]Spruce It Up 19/12/2009 by [122]Jonathan Snook * [123]Designing For The Switch 16/12/2009 by [124]Mark Boulton * [125]Type-Inspired Interfaces 07/12/2009 by [126]Dan Mall * [127]A Festive Type Folly 17/12/2008 by [128]Jon Tan * [129]Increase Your Font Stacks With Font Matrix 17/12/2007 by [130]Richard Rutter * [131]Typesetting Tables 07/12/2007 by [132]Mark Boulton * [133]Knockout Type - Thin Is Always In 17/12/2006 by [134]Shaun Inman * [135]An Explanation of Ems 02/12/2005 by [136]Richard Rutter [137]Article archives... 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Text Alignment [15]Close Table of Contents [16]< Back Page 4 of 4 * [17]Print [18]Print * [19]Share This [20]Share This * [21]Discuss [22]Discuss [23]Close Window Jason Cranford Teague Jason Cranford Teague [24]Learn more... * [25]Articles * [26]Store * [27]Blogs [28]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm Dec 23, 2009 [29]Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers: Creating Meaning through Syntax Jul 23, 2009 [30]Designing Webbed Environments: The Importance of the Define and Design Phases May 12, 2006 [31]Creating Web Pages for Screen, Print, and Email Apr 28, 2006 [32]How to Style Forms in CSS Mar 17, 2006 [33]What Are CSS Sprites? Mar 3, 2006 [34]Ten Things You Can Do with CSS (That You Might Not Have Known You Could Do) Dec 22, 2005 [35]Fluid Web Typography [36]Fluid Web Typography Nov 24, 2009 [37]Fluid Web Typography, Adobe Reader [38]Fluid Web Typography, Adobe Reader Nov 24, 2009 [39]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers [40]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers Jun 30, 2009 [41]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers, Adobe Reader [42]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers, Adobe Reader Jun 30, 2009 [43]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, 4th Edition [44]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, 4th Edition Oct 17, 2006 [45]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, Adobe Reader, 4th Edition [46]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, Adobe Reader, 4th Edition Oct 17, 2006 [47]DHTML and CSS Advanced: Visual QuickPro Guide [48]DHTML and CSS Advanced: Visual QuickPro Guide Dec 15, 2004 [49]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 3rd Edition [50]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 3rd Edition Feb 20, 2004 [51]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 2nd Edition [52]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 2nd Edition May 30, 2001 [53]10 Last-minute Gifts for Web Designers By on December 17, 2009 1 Comment Q: What do I get for the Web designer who has everything? The short answer is real estate. The slightly longer answer is, anything that helps spark their creativity. The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah, Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [54]Saturnalia myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has everything they need to actually make Web sites? Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect. [55]Choosing the Right Color Value By on December 14, 2009 No Comments Q: Should I use Hex or RGB values to define colors in CSS? The short answer is RGB. The slightly longer answer is that Hex values have become the de facto standard for use in CSS code and both developers and designers are used to them. The long answer is that, in the final design on the screen, there is no difference between using Hex or RGB values in your code. Which system you use is really a matter of you own personal preference (and those of the team you are working with) as to whether or not you use Hex or RGB values to define colors. [56]Expand Your Font Repertoire By on November 30, 2009 No Comments Q: Are there alternatives to Arial, Times, and Georgia for Web designers? The short answer is YES! The slightly longer answer is that most designers use Arial, Times, or Georgia, and, to a lesser degree, Verdana, Trebuchet MS, Courier, and Comic Sans because they think that's all they have at their disposal, but they are wrong. The long answer is that the core Web fonts (the one listed above plus Impact and Web Dings) are used because they are almost guaranteed to be installed on the vast majority of computers your designs are likely to be installed on. One fact of life in Web design is that unless the end user's computer has access to the font file, then the browser cannot use it. [57]Pixels or Ems in Your Web Designs By on November 18, 2009 No Comments Q: What is the practical difference between px (pixel) and em (pronounced m)? When is it best to use one over the other? The short answer is that pixels measure dimensions relative to the screen while ems measure dimensions relative to type size. The slightly longer answer is that pixels are the natural unit for measuring dimensions on a screen and are often used when precise design is required. Ems are the natural unit for measuring type and used when you want to allow maximum design flexibility. [58]To CSS Reset or Not to CSS Reset By on November 10, 2009 No Comments Question: Which Global Reset for CSS Should I Use? The short answer is the simplest one possible. The slightly longer answer is that you should reset some styles, but do so with a good reason. The long answer is that the exact CSS reset you choose will depend on the needs of your design. I like to keep my own reset simple, relying on adding styles to specific tags as needed. However, there are several styles that are inconsistent or (in my opinion) poorly set in most browsers. [59]HTML 5 NOW! By on August 25, 20092 Comments Q: Can I start using HTML 5 now? The short answer is, yes. The slightly longer answer is, you can use some of the new features, but you will need to do a little [60]kludging to get it to work. The long answer is that HTML is a mark-up language meant to indicate the structure of a document. HTML 5 is the next evolutionary step in mark-up languages for the Web, but it is not implemented on most browsers that your audiences are likely to be using and it may be some time before it is. That said, there are some things you can do now to prepare for the future. [61]Big Things Ahead for HTML 5 By on August 17, 2009 No Comments Q: Will HTML5 or XHTML5 be the next big thing or just another collection of past standards and browser war fodder? The short answer is that, yes, [62]HTML 5 is the next big thing. The slightly longer answer is that it's going to be a while before you have to start worrying about HTML 5. The long answer is that, as with all standards, before it becomes relevant, the browser makers have to implement it and then you'll have to wait even longer before legacy browsers are no longer an issue. So, you have some time before you have to run out and buy a new HTML 5 Visual QuickStart Guide. The good news is that HTML 5 has gone to great lengths to stay backwards compatible, so you can begin to learn and implement it today. [63]Everyone is a Web Designer By on August 10, 2009 No Comments Q: What is a Web Designer anymore? It was easier to make Web sites all by yourself, even 5 years ago, but now there is just too much technology for one person to handle. If I want to make a Web site for a very small business, don't have I to be web "developer" now? The short answer is that everybody is a Web designer now. The slightly longer answer is that Web designers are practitioners of a highly specialized discipline that requires years of study to truly master. The long answer is that a good Web designer is a good designer, and this can come "naturally" or from training, but is not medium-dependent. However, a professional Web designer has to understand the medium well enough to know its strengths and limitations. Any designer can pump out something that looks brilliant when displayed in a Web browser window, but is slow to load, static when loaded, and completely unusable. [64]Frames are Dead, Long Live Iframes! By on July 24, 2009 No Comments Q: Is there a suitable alternative to frames? My wife is president of a local woman's club. She and I administer the club's web site, and the ladies like the list of links down one side of the pages. But I read that frames have been deprecated. Regardless, I want to keep the site simple. The short answer is yes-- use iframes. The slightly longer answer is no, not exactly, but we can get close. The long answer is there are a variety of ways to add content to your Web pages, but the question is: once it's on the page what are you going to do with it (or to it)? [65]Q: If I ask ten different web designers what pixel dimensions to use for web pages and whether to make them fixed-width or "stretchy," I get ten different answers. What's your answer, and why? By on July 20, 2009 No Comments The short answer is fixed at 974 pixels (px) wide. The slightly longer answer is whatever it takes to get the job done. The long answer is that asking a Web designer what size a Web page should be is like asking a painter what size a canvas should be or an architect how large a a building should be. While it's not purely a matter of taste--there are certain physical and ergonomic constraints--personal preference accounts for the wide variety of answers you might hear. [66]Ask me, ask me, ask me By on July 1, 2009 No Comments Do you have a question about Web standards, CSS, JavaScript, Ajax, interaction design, user experience, or Web typography? Maybe you just want to know "How'd they do that?" Ask me questions, and each week I will select a question to answer via my Peachpit.com blog. [67]Ask the Web Designer: Why Can't I Use Any Font I Want in My Web Designs? By on June 30, 2009 No Comments The short answer is that you can. The slightly longer answer is that you can't, at least not in any meaningful way yet. The long answer is that the ability to download fonts has actually been a part of the CSS standard (the language used to create Web designs) for over 10 years. The snag comes with what font formats a given browser supports. [NOTE: You may want to stop reading now, as the rest of this explanation might make your eyes bleed in frustration.] [68]Fluid Web Typography This chapter is from the book [69]Fluid Web Typography Jason Cranford Teague shows how giving careful consideration to the measurements and scale you are designing for is what separates good Web typography from great Web typography. Text Alignment Text alignment is generally taken for granted on the Web--left alignment suits most purposes most of the time. In order to create a sense of rhythm and movement on your page, helping to guide the reader's eye around and adding visual interest to the page, a little alignment variation can go a long way. Set body text alignment to minimize gaps and maximize scanning Text alignment in Web pages is, by default, to the left, with ragged edges on the right. Justified text--sometimes called newspaper columns, where both edges of the text are aligned--is rare on the Web. text-align: left; text-align: justify; In print, justified text is created using a variety of techniques including word spacing, letterspacing, hyphenation, and glyph reshaping. In addition, well-formed justification is calculated on a paragraph level to prevent "rivers" of white space flowing down the middle. On the Web, unfortunately, justification is simply created by adding small amounts of space between words. On the screen, where you can only add whole pixels, this often results in uncomfortably large amounts of space between some words, especially in narrower columns. Hyphenation is inexplicably absent from CSS. While it is proposed for inclusion in CSS 3, no work has currently been done on it. When choosing to use left or justified alignment, keep in mind these factors: * Justified text is often seen as more formal and structured, while left alignment is more informal and approachable. * Justified text reinforces the grid structure of a page but can be harder to scan, since it often creates rivers of white space throughout the text, which interrupts the eye path. * Left-aligned text adds an element of white space to the right edge, softening the overall appearance of the page. Combining Alignments [70]craigmod.com Craig Mod combines right-and left-justified columns of text to create motion and rhythm around his page. [71]04-17.jpg [72]Click to view larger image Center or right-justify text for effect and variety More rarely used, centering or right-justifying text can create a specific feeling on the page. text-align: center; text-align: right; Centering and right aligning text is integrally dependent on the design you are creating and how you want your readers to scan the page. While using a variety of justifications helps create rhythm and motion on your page, it can quickly seem cluttered or obnoxious. Always have a specific purpose for the variance of alignment, and use it sparingly. Here are a few ideas: * Bulleted or numbered lists should not be centered or right aligned, as this makes them harder to scan by moving the beginning of each line around. * Center section or module titles/headers if you want to make your site look a little different. Generally, section titles are best when left aligned, but centering them gives your designs a unique feel and may also improve scannability. * Right-align text in the left column of a page or table if it helps show a closer relationship between the elements in adjacent columns. Centered Section Titles [73]jontangerine.com Jon Tangerine combines centered subheadings with justified text in his blog (detail shown) to create solid structure with visual movement. [74]04-18.jpg [75]Click to view larger image Increase margins for longer quotations and style the citation Short quotes of less than three lines are included in a paragraph surround by quotation marks, requiring no other special formatting. In HTML, the blockquote tag is used to set off a block of text as a quotation, generally of two lines of text or longer. The quotation should be styled to distinguish it from other text by indenting its left and right margins and increasing the top and bottom margins. The amount of left/right indentation is based on the width of the column and then adjusted so that it does not conflict with any other indents. A good measure to offset blockquotes is to double the font size (2em), although more or less space may be required for wider or narrower columns: blockquote { margin: 2em; } note.jpg In this chapter, we are only considering spacing issues with blockquotes and citations. Chapters 5 and 6 offer other ways to style text, including weights, italics, backgrounds, and borders. These can be deployed to creatively display longer quotations. This will clearly space the blockquote away from the rest of the text, but it's also up to the copywriter to make it clear that the text is a quote and to supply its source, possibly using the cite tag, which indicates a citation. Turning the cite tag into a block-level element and right-aligning it when it is included in a blockquote creates a strong style. blockquote cite { display: block; text-align: right; } Blockquote Ideas [76]css-tricks.com/examples/Blockquotes CSS-Tricks has a page of blockquote ideas with sample code. The code above will force any text marked by the citation tag to a new line and right-align it. [77]04-20.jpg [78]Click to view larger image Set footnotes and scientific or mathematical annotations using positioning rather than vertical alignment Vertical text alignment allows you to adjust the position of inline text in relation to its natural baseline, shifting it up or down. For footnotes, mathematics, and scientific notation, it will not be enough to simply raise or lower the characters; you will also need to reduce their size relative to the surrounding text. These styles can be applied to the superscript and subscript tags, setting the vertical position to the baseline and then setting a position relative to that: sup, sub { font-size: .5em; vertical-align: baseline; position: relative; } sup { top: -.65em; } sup.math { top: -.8em } sub { top: .2em; } Although vertical-align provides several values to set the vertical position of the text, these have proved to be unreliable in multi-column layouts. The exact values will vary depending on the font, and you may also need to add some left/right margins to add breathing room. [79]04-21.jpg [80]Click to view larger image Type Inspirations: Jon Tangerine Beautiful typographic contrast. Insightful typography editorials. [81]jontangerine.com Jon is a designer living in Bristol, UK, with some of the cleanest pure Web typography I've seen. On top of this, his information and opinions on Web typography are required reading for anyone interested in the ongoing issues we face. [82]04-22.jpg [83]Click to view larger image How he does it: Jon uses a font stack of Web safe fonts, including Cochin, Baskerville, and Palatino Linotype, down to Georgia. He then combines a wide variety of sizes, styles, weights, and colors all scaled and spaced within a strong grid to provide clear eye paths and legible text. [84]04-25.jpg [85]Click to view larger image [86]04-26.jpg [87]Click to view larger image [88]04-27.jpg [89]Click to view larger image [90]04-28.jpg [91]Click to view larger image [92]< Back Page 4 of 4 * [93]Share This [94]Share This * [95][save_16.png] [96]Your Account Discussions Make a New Comment You must [97]log in in order to post a comment. 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The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah, Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [122]Saturnalia myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has everything they need to actually make Web sites? Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect. [123]Kara Murphy [124]Just in time for the holidays: Our video-a-day giveaway By [125]Kara Murphy on December 16, 2009 No Comments It's the holiday season, and I bet some of you are already thinking of your New Year's resolutions. If one of them is to learn something new in the field of Web design, development, presentation, branding, and much more, then you're in luck. 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All rights reserved. 1249 Eighth Street, Berkeley, CA 94710 [192]Informit Network [Other Network Sites......] Références Liens visibles 8. javascript:void(0); 9. javascript:void(0); 10. javascript:hideTOC(); 11. javascript:hideTOC(); 15. javascript:hideTOC(); 23. javascript:showme('authorInformation','closed'); 71. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-17.jpg') 72. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-17.jpg') 74. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-18.jpg') 75. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-18.jpg') 77. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-20.jpg') 78. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-20.jpg') 79. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-21.jpg') 80. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-21.jpg') 82. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-22.jpg') 83. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-22.jpg') 84. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-25.jpg') 85. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-25.jpg') 86. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-26.jpg') 87. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-26.jpg') 88. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-27.jpg') 89. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-27.jpg') 90. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-28.jpg') 91. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-28.jpg') Liens cachés : #[1]Latest articles [2]Most viewed [3]Latest comments [4]PDF [5]XML version [6][1048314841@Top,Bottom,x96!Top] [7]Log on / register [8]BioMed Central home | [9]Journals A-Z | [10]Feedback | [11]Support | [12]My details [13]Home | [14]Browse articles | [15]Search | [16]Weblinks | [17]Submit article | [18]My JCR | [19]About JCR * [20]Top * [21]Abstract * [22]Background * [23]Methods * [24]Results * [25]Discussion * [26]Conclusion * [27]Competing interests * [28]Authors' contributions * [29]Acknowledgements * [30]References [31][1973347444@Top,Bottom,x96%21x96] [32]Journal of Circadian Rhythms [33]Volume 7 Viewing options: * [34]Abstract * Full text * [35]PDF (243KB) Associated material: * [36]Readers' comments [37]RSS * [38]PubMed record Related literature: * Articles citing this article [39]on Google Scholar [40]on PubMed Central * Other articles by authors [41]on Google Scholar [42]Nagane M [43]Yoshimura K [44]Watanabe SI [45]Nomura M [46]on PubMed [47]Nagane M [48]Yoshimura K [49]Watanabe SI [50]Nomura M * Related articles/pages [51]on Google [52]on Google Scholar [53]on PubMed Tools: * [54]Download citation(s) * [55]Download XML * [56]Email to a friend * [57]Order reprints * [58]Post a comment * [59]Nominate for award Post to: * [60]Citeulike * [61]Connotea * [62]Del.icio.us * [63]Facebook * [64]Twitter [65]Open Access Research A possible connection between psychosomatic symptoms and daily rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion in healthy Japanese students Mitsuo Nagane^1 [66]email , Kazunori Yoshimura^2 [67]email , Shu-Ichi Watanabe^3 [68]email and Masahiko Nomura^4 [69]email ^1 Department of Educational Physiology, Chiba University, Chiba 263-8522, Japan ^2 Department of Rehabilitation, Nihon Institute of Medical Science, Japan ^3 Department of Physiology, Saitama Medical University, Japan ^4 International Education and Training Center, Saitama Medical University, Japan [email.gif] author email [email-ca.gif] corresponding author email Journal of Circadian Rhythms 2009, 7:10doi:10.1186/1740-3391-7-10 The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be Received: 3 February 2009 Accepted: 5 August 2009 Published: 5 August 2009 © 2009 Nagane et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Abstract Background Students suffering from psychosomatic symptoms, including drowsiness and feelings of melancholy, often have basic lifestyle problems. The aim of this study was to investigate whether psychosomatic complaints may be related to circadian dysfunction. Methods We examined 15 healthy students (4 men and 11 women) between 21 and 22 years old. To assess the presence of psychosomatic symptoms among the subjects, we developed a self-assessment psychosomatic complaints questionnaire consisting of five items pertaining to physical symptoms and five items concerning mental symptoms. The subjects rated their psychosomatic symptoms twice a day (08:00 and 20:00 h). We also assessed growth hormone secretion patterns by fluorescence enzyme immunoassay (FEIA). Salivary samples were collected from the subjects at home five times a day (20:00, 24:00, 04:00, 08:00, and 12:00 h) in Salivette tubes. Results The results indicated a relationship between the self-assessment scores and the salivary levels of growth hormone. Subjects with high self-assessment scores showed significant variability in growth hormone secretion over the day, whereas subjects with low self-assessment scores did not. Conclusion Psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with circadian dysfunction, as inferred from blunted rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion. Background Japanese students suffering from psychosomatic disorders, such as those involving mood and sleep, may exhibit basic problems in their lifestyle, including deleterious changes in their living environment and dietary or lifestyle disturbances [[72]1]. In particular, staying up late is associated with decreased appetite and missed breakfast the following morning, irregular bowel movements and sleepiness. Perhaps the biggest problem facing today's Japanese students is their lack of daily physical exercise, brought on by stressful academic courses over long periods of time, too much television and computer games and increased automobile use [[73]2]. Many Japanese youngsters stay up late at night [[74]3]. A circadian pacemaker in the central nervous system regulates human sleep cycles, hormone secretion, subject alertness, objective performance levels and other physiologic functions over a 24-h period. Core body temperature, plasma cortisol, and plasma melatonin are three variables frequently used to estimate the phase of the human pacemaker [[75]4], although many other hormones, including growth hormone, exhibit daily rhythmicity. Technical advances that make the assessment of biomarkers in saliva possible have enabled researchers to non-invasively study biosocial processes related to stress in naturalistic contexts. Chiappin et al [[76]5] showed the usefulness and possibility of salivary hormone analysis containing growth hormone. Rantonen [[77]6] found a linear correlation between salivary and serum growth hormone. Carroll et al. [[78]7] described negative effects of growth hormone insufficiency on psychological well-being, including reduced vitality and energy, depressed mood, emotional lability, impaired self-control, anxiety, and increased social isolation. Patients with growth hormone deficiencies report decreased energy levels, greater emotional lability, increased difficulties with sexual relationships and a greater sense of social isolation than control subjects [[79]8]. However, no direct relationship has been shown between growth hormone deficiency and psychometrically measured depression, apathy or psychosomatic well-being [[80]9]. The purpose of the present study was to investigate individual variation in the levels of growth hormone in healthy subjects and to examine the relationship between an individual's hormone profile and his or her psychosomatic complaints. Methods The subjects and self-assessment questionnaire Fifteen subjects (4 men and 11 women) without major medical disorders ranging in age from 21 to 22 years participated in this study. The study design was approved by the Ethics Committee of Chiba University, Japan, and informed consent was obtained from all subjects. A self-assessment questionnaire concerning psychosomatic symptoms was developed in accordance with data from the Health Behavior in School-Aged Children (HBSC) study of the WHO [[81]10]. The questionnaire for this study contained five items related to physical symptoms and five items pertaining to mental symptoms (Table [82]1). The questionnaire was used to measure each individual's psychosomatic symptoms at home twice each day (08:00 and 20:00 h). The items were rated on a 4-point scale, with 1 = not true at all and 4 = completely true. The total score for the 10-item scale ranged from 10 to 40, with higher scores indicating a greater degree of psychosomatic complaints. The subjects were allocated post hoc (median split) to a High (n = 7) or Low (n = 8) Self-Assessment Group based on their total morning score (with higher scores corresponding to lower self-assessment). [83]Table 1. Morning and evening psychosomatic condition scores collected from the self-assessment psychosomatic complaint questionnaire Sample collection Saliva was collected into Salivette tubes (Sarstedt, Germany) using polyester swabs from the subjects' mouths following 2 min of chewing. Samples were collected five times a day at home (20:00, 24:00, 04:00, 08:00, and 12:00 h). Both the day of sampling and the preceding day were required to be normal days (i.e., without special events or stressful circumstances). After sample collection, the saliva was stored at -20°C until being analysed. Salivary growth hormone assay On the day of testing, the samples were centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for 10 min to remove all mucin. A standard fluorescent determination immunoassay was used to assess the growth hormone concentrations in each sample. To avoid inter-assay variability, all determinations were performed in a single series. In the first step, 96-well fluoro-nunc plates (Nunc, Black MicroWell 137101, Denmark) were pre-coated with 100 µl of anti-growth hormone antibody (Quartett, 2071800210, Germany) and incubated for 1.5 h at room temperature. After incubation, the plate was washed three times with phosphate-buffered saline and blocked for 1 h. After washing, 100 µl of saliva or a standard solution was dispensed into each well and left for 1.5 h. After washing, primary antibody (Funakoshi, FU47500254, Japan) was added to the plates and incubated for 1.5 h. Next, incubation with a secondary antibody (Novus Biologicals, NB120-7112, USA) was performed for 1 h. After washing, rabbit anti-ovine immunoglobulin (Amersham Biosciences, ECF Western Blotting Reagent Pack, USA) was added. After 20 min of incubation, the plate was scanned using a Fluoromark Microplate Fluorometer (Bio-Rad, USA) with excitation at 485 nm and emission at 590 nm. Data analysis The significance of differences between group means was tested by analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by protected t tests when appropriate. The presence of daily rhythmicity in salivary growth hormone was tested by ANOVA and by the cosinor procedure [[84]11]. Results Self-assessment psychosomatic complaints questionnaire A factorial repeated measures ANOVA (high/low self-assessment versus morning/evening self-assessment scores) was conducted. ANOVA results showed significant differences (p < .05) between morning and evening self-assessment scores. Post hoc analyses revealed that, as shown in Table [85]1, the high self-assessment group (total 19.00) differed significantly from the low self-assessment group (total 32.75) in terms of their morning scores (Welch's t-test, t = -3.96, df = 7.57, p < 0.01). The low self-assessment group subjects complained of negative psychosomatic conditions including being easily irritated (p < .05), feeling melancholy (p < .05), having a desire to rest (p < .05), and feeling anxious (p < .01). Assessment of daily rhythmicity of salivary growth hormone secretion We collected saliva profiles from 15 healthy students (4 men and 11 women). The amplitude of salivary growth hormone, defined as the difference between the highest and lowest salivary concentrations, was used to produce a standardisation, or Z, score. As shown in Figure [86]1, noticeable variation was observed in the hormonal rhythms of the subjects, including differences in the salivary growth hormone secretion profiles of the high and low self-assessment groups. Cosinor analysis revealed no significant 24-hour rhythmicity in the secretion profiles of either group (p > .50), but a repeated measures ANOVA identified statistically significant (p < .05) time-related variations for growth hormone in the high self-assessment group. The secretion profile of the low self-assessment group did not exhibit the typical, sharp peak in the early morning [[87]12], and ANOVA showed no time-related variation (p > .10). At 08:00 h, salivary growth hormone levels were significantly lower (p < .05) in the low self-assessment group than in the high self-assessment group. [88]thumbnail Figure 1. Daily variation in salivary level of growth hormone in the high and low self-assessment groups. The results are presented as means ± S.E.M. * p < .05. Discussion Psychosocial factors have been previously shown to affect the psychosomatic symptoms reported by Japanese school children [[89]13]. Psychosomatic symptoms, which are largely mediated by the autonomic nervous system, are strongly influenced by an individual's lifestyle, and the current so-called 24-h society in Japan may have changed the environmental conditions of students. More than 80% of school refusal cases (school phobia) suffer from sleep disorders, with a tendency towards day/night reversal and easy fatigability, especially during the period immediately following their school social life [[90]14]. Thus, impairment in circadian rhythmicity may be a cause of school refusal in Japan. The present study was the first step in an attempt to investigate this hypothesis. Our assessment of salivary growth hormone secretion was not sensitive enough to detect significant daily rhythmicity, but the highest level measured in the subjects of our high self-assessment group occurred earlier in the day than the peak of the daily rhythm measured in a previous study [[91]15]. Peak hormonal secretions often shift to the morning if an activity continues long into the night. A link between deficiency of growth hormone and reduced quality of life or well-being has been reported by many researchers [[92]7]. Our results indicate a relationship between the self-assessment scores and the levels of growth hormone. Subjects with high self-assessment scores in the morning showed significant variability in growth hormone secretion during the day, whereas subjects with low self-assessment scores did not. Thus, psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with hormonal rhythms related to basic lifestyle habits. Nocturnal melatonin secretion can be suppressed by exposure to light on the order of several hundred lux, such as ordinary room light [[93]16]. Thus, a subject's pattern of melatonin secretion may reflect his or her life rhythm, and melatonin secretion appears to be an important index of circadian rhythmicity. Based on our previous finding that growth hormone and melatonin exhibit similar daily rhythmicity [[94]17], we believe that estimates of the state of the central circadian clock can be most accurate if they are based on the analysis of the secretion patterns of both melatonin and growth hormone. Some limitations of our study must be emphasized. First, it is possible that the sleep-disrupting effect of waking at 00.00 and 04.00 to produce a saliva sample had a disruptive effect on hormonal secretion. Second, we observed a larger difference in terms of gender than has been previously described [[95]18], with women having sevenfold higher serum growth hormone concentrations than men during the day. Though we did not directly examine sex differences in growth hormone secretion, we recognise it as an important topic for further research. Conclusion Psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with circadian dysfunction, as inferred from blunted rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Authors' contributions MN designed the experiments, collected data and wrote the manuscript. KY managed the laboratory and adjusted the schedule of subjects. SW participated in the design of the study and performed statistical analysis. MN supervised the study. All authors read and approved the final version of the article. Acknowledgements This study was supported in part by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (C) from the Japanese Ministry of Education to Nagane M. References 1. Okamoto M, Tan F, Suyama A, Okada H, Miyamoto T, Kishimoto T: The characteristics of fatigue symptoms and their association with the life style and the health status in school children. J Epidemiol 2000, 10:241-248. [96]PubMed Abstract [97]OpenURL 2. Murata M: Secular trends in growth and changes in eating patterns of Japanese children. Am J Clin Nutr 2000, 72(suppl):1379S-1383S. [98]PubMed Abstract | [99]Publisher Full Text [100]OpenURL 3. Harada T: Effects of evening light conditions on salivary melatonin of Japanese junior high school students. J Circadian Rhythms 2004, 2:4. [101]PubMed Abstract | [102]BioMed Central Full Text | [103]PubMed Central Full Text [104]OpenURL 4. Klerman E, Gershengorn HB, Duffy JF, Kronauer RE: Comparisons of the variability of three markers of the human circadian pacemaker. 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Nagane M, Yoshimura K, Watanabe SI, Nomura M: Examination of the validity of growth hormone as an index of the biological rhythm in comparison with cortisol and melatonin in Japanese healthy students. J Physiol Sci 2008, 58(Suppl):S87. [140]OpenURL 18. Engström BE, Karlsson FA, Wide L: Gender differences in diurnal growth hormone and epinephrine values in young adults during ambulation. Clin Chem 1999, 45:1235-1239. [141]PubMed Abstract | [142]Publisher Full Text [143]OpenURL [144]Have something to say? Post a comment on this article! __________________________________________________________________ [145][1048314841@Top,Bottom,x96!Bottom] [146]Terms and Conditions [147]Privacy statement [148]Information for advertisers [149]Jobs at BMC [150]Contact us © 1999-2010 BioMed Central Ltd unless otherwise stated. Part of [151]Springer Science+Business Media. Références Liens visibles 41. javascript:/// 46. javascript:/// Liens cachés : #[1]Latest articles [2]Most viewed [3]Latest comments [4]PDF [5]XML version [6][1352965720@Top,Bottom,x96!Top] [7]Log on / register [8]BioMed Central home | [9]Journals A-Z | [10]Feedback | [11]Support | [12]My details [13]Home | [14]Browse articles | [15]Search | [16]Weblinks | [17]Submit article | [18]My JCR | [19]About JCR * [20]Top * [21]Abstract * [22]Background * [23]Methods * [24]Results * [25]Discussion * [26]Conclusion * [27]List of abbre... * [28]Competing interests * [29]Authors' contributions * [30]Acknowledgements * [31]References [32][1973347444@Top,Bottom,x96%21x96] [33]Journal of Circadian Rhythms [34]Volume 3 Viewing options: * [35]Abstract * Full text * [36]PDF (651KB) Associated material: * [37]Readers' comments [38]RSS * [39]PubMed record Related literature: * Articles citing this article [40]on Google Scholar [41]on PubMed Central * Other articles by authors [42]on Google Scholar [43]Conroy DA [44]Spielman AJ [45]Scott RQ [46]on PubMed [47]Conroy DA [48]Spielman AJ [49]Scott RQ * Related articles/pages [50]on Google [51]on Google Scholar [52]on PubMed Tools: * [53]Download citation(s) * [54]Download XML * [55]Email to a friend * [56]Order reprints * [57]Post a comment Post to: * [58]Citeulike * [59]Connotea * [60]Del.icio.us * [61]Facebook * [62]Twitter [63]Open Access [64]Highly Access Research Daily rhythm of cerebral blood flow velocity Deirdre A Conroy^1 [65]email , Arthur J Spielman^1^,2 [66]email and Rebecca Q Scott^3 [67]email ^1 Department of Psychology, The Graduate School and University Center of the City University of New York, New York, USA ^2 Department of Neurology and Neuroscience, New York Presbyterian Hospital, New York, USA ^3 Department of Health Psychology, Albert Einstein Medical College at Yeshiva University, Bronx, USA [email.gif] author email [email-ca.gif] corresponding author email Journal of Circadian Rhythms 2005, 3:3doi:10.1186/1740-3391-3-3 The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be Received: 21 December 2004 Accepted: 10 March 2005 Published: 10 March 2005 © 2005 Conroy et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Abstract Background CBFV (cerebral blood flow velocity) is lower in the morning than in the afternoon and evening. Two hypotheses have been proposed to explain the time of day changes in CBFV: 1) CBFV changes are due to sleep-associated processes or 2) time of day changes in CBFV are due to an endogenous circadian rhythm independent of sleep. The aim of this study was to examine CBFV over 30 hours of sustained wakefulness to determine whether CBFV exhibits fluctuations associated with time of day. Methods Eleven subjects underwent a modified constant routine protocol. CBFV from the middle cerebral artery was monitored by chronic recording of Transcranial Doppler (TCD) ultrasonography. Other variables included core body temperature (CBT), end-tidal carbon dioxide (EtCO2), blood pressure, and heart rate. Salivary dim light melatonin onset (DLMO) served as a measure of endogenous circadian phase position. Results A non-linear multiple regression, cosine fit analysis revealed that both the CBT and CBFV rhythm fit a 24 hour rhythm (R^2 = 0.62 and R^2 = 0.68, respectively). Circadian phase position of CBT occurred at 6:05 am while CBFV occurred at 12:02 pm, revealing a six hour, or 90 degree difference between these two rhythms (t = 4.9, df = 10, p < 0.01). Once aligned, the rhythm of CBFV closely tracked the rhythm of CBT as demonstrated by the substantial correlation between these two measures (r = 0.77, p < 0.01). Conclusion In conclusion, time of day variations in CBFV have an approximately 24 hour rhythm under constant conditions, suggesting regulation by a circadian oscillator. The 90 degree-phase angle difference between the CBT and CBFV rhythms may help explain previous findings of lower CBFV values in the morning. The phase difference occurs at a time period during which cognitive performance decrements have been observed and when both cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events occur more frequently. The mechanisms underlying this phase angle difference require further exploration. Background It has been well documented that cerebral blood flow velocity (CBFV) is lower in sleep [[70]1-[71]7] and in the morning shortly after awakening [[72]8-[73]10] than in the afternoon or evening. Generally accepted theories about the time of day changes in CBFV attribute the fall in CBFV to the physiological processes of the sleep period and the increase during the day to waking processes. The low CBFV in the morning is thought to be a consequence of the fall in the overall reduced metabolic level [[74]8,[75]10 ,[76]11] and reduced cognitive processing [[77]12]. Additionally, the reduced physical activity [[78]13], reduced body temperature, and the recumbent sleeping position have also been proposed as contributors [[79]14] to the decline in CBFV and analogous brain processes. An alternative to these explanations that attribute changes in CBFV to sleep and wake dependent processes is that this pattern of fluctuation reflects an endogenous process with circadian rhythmicity. The decline of CBFV across the sleep period and rise after subjects are awakened in the morning resemble the endogenous circadian changes in core body temperature (CBT), a reliable index of endogenous circadian rhythmicity. Both patterns are low during sleep, start to rise in the morning, reach their peak in the late afternoon, and then drop during the sleep period. The aim of this study was to examine CBFV over ~30 hours of sustained wakefulness to unmask and quantify contributions of the endogenous circadian system. By not permitting sleep, the evoked changes dependent on this change of state will not contribute to the observed CBFV changes. We hypothesized that time of day changes in CBFV are due to endogenous circadian regulation. Previous studies have been limited by several factors. First, the environmental conditions (light level) and the behavior of the subject (sleep, meals, and caffeine intake) were not controlled [[80]15,[81]13,[82]1 ,[83]16]. Second, CBFV measurements were obtained at only a few circadian points. For example, Ameriso et al. [[84]15] and Qureshi et al. [[85]16] assessed CBFV between 6-8 am, 1-3 pm, and 7-9 pm. Diamant et al [[86]13] assessed CBFV during the first 15 minutes of every hour across a 24 hour period. Given these brief time periods, the findings are only a schematic of the 24 hour profile. Third, primary output markers of the endogenous circadian pacemaker (such as core body temperature and melatonin production) were not assessed. We employed the "constant routine" protocol, which was designed specifically to unmask underlying circadian rhythms in constant conditions [[87]17]. CBFV was collected by Transcranial Doppler (TCD) ultrasonography for the entire study period. Core body temperature and salivary dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO) were measured for determination of circadian phase. Continuous electroencephalography (EEG) was performed to ensure wakefulness across the study. Additionally, measurements of blood pressure, heart rate, and end tidal carbon dioxide (Et[CO2]), three of the main regulators of CBFV, were collected every half hour. Methods Subject selection Twelve subjects (10 men and 2 women; ages 19-38, mean 28 years) agreed to participate. One subject discontinued her participation because of a headache 15 hours into the study. Subjects were in good health, as assessed by medical history, semi-structured clinical interview, and physical exam. Information regarding menstrual cycle was not obtained from female subjects. Subjects also underwent an independent standard cerebrovascular assessment and were determined to be normal. They reported no symptoms of sleep problems (such as insomnia, obstructive sleep apnea, narcolepsy, or restless legs syndrome). Subjects that were selected to participate kept to a designated sleep-wake schedule (that was negotiated from the subject's typical pattern) and filled out a sleep diary for the two weeks prior to the time in the laboratory. According to sleep diary reports, bedtimes ranged from 10:30 pm to 1:00 am and waketimes ranged from 6:00 am to 10:00 am. Alcohol and caffeine intake was discontinued for the entire week before the study. During the data collection, subjects were not permitted either alcohol or caffeine. All subjects were non-smokers. Laboratory constant routine protocol The study protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Boards of New York Presbyterian Hospital - Weill Medical College of Cornell University and The City College of New York. Subjects gave written and informed consent before participating. Subjects arrived at the sleep laboratory between 9:30 am and 10:00 am. They were oriented to the study procedures and to their bedroom. Electrodes were placed on the subject's head and face as they sat in a chair next to the bed. Data collection began at 11 am. Subjects remained in bed and awake in a semi recumbent position for 30 hours in an established "constant routine" (CR) protocol. Subjects remained in low (<25 lux) light levels which have been shown to have little or no entraining effect on the circadian pacemaker [[88]18]. They were not allowed to get out of bed to urinate. Instead they urinated in private in a urinal or bedpan. Subjects remained awake from 11:00 a.m. on Day 1 until 5 p.m. on Day 2. Throughout the study, subjects were provided small meals (Ensure ^® liquid formula plus one-quarter nutritional food bar) every 2 hours. Subject's typical total food and liquid intake for a day and a quarter were divided into 15 relatively equal portions. Only one subject participated in the CR per 30-hour period. This protocol represents a modified CR in two ways. First, subjects were allowed to watch television and were therefore were not in "time isolation." Television content was monitored so that subjects were not exposed to programs with highly emotional themes. Second, subjects needing to defecate were allowed to go to the bathroom, which was located a few steps away from the bedside. We chose this method as an alternative to using the bedpan to ensure subject's comfort and study compliance. Three subjects (subjects 05, 06, and 10) got out of bed once at 3:30, 21:30, and 15:30, respectively, to defecate. One subject, subject 12, got out of bed twice, at 22:30 and 6:35. Subject 10 used the bathroom only during the adaptation period. A paired-samples t-test was conducted to evaluate the impact of getting out of bed to defecate on subject's CBT and CBFV values. The CBT and CBFV values in the two hours before getting up were compared to the two hours after the subject got up. Subjects 5 showed a slight decrease in CBT from before (M = 98.12, SD = 0.14) to after the subject returned to the bed (M = 97.91, SD = 0.08), t(3) = -5.17, p = .014). Subject 6 showed a decline in CBFV from before (M = 56.14, SD = 2.3) to after the subject returned to the bed (M = 45.67, SD = 3.7), t(3) = 5.49, p = 0.012). There were no other significant differences detected between these two time periods for subject 5's CBFV, subject 6's CBT, or for both times subject 12 got out of the bed. By visual inspection, the overall shape of the curves in these subjects was not affected and therefore these subject's data were included in subsequent analyses. Transcranial Doppler ultrasound recordings The current study utilized TCD ultrasonography to measure cerebral blood flow velocity. TCD is a non-invasive instrument (consisting of one or two 2-Mhz transducers fitted to a headband, MARC500, Spencer Technologies, Nicolet Biomedical Inc) that is used predominantly as a diagnostic tool to assess cerebral hemodynamics in normal and pathological conditions. TCD ultrasonography is predicated on a theory that involves the measurement of moving objects when combined with radar. When the instrument emits the sound wave, it is reflected by the blood cells that are moving in the vector of the sound wave [[89]19]. CBFV was measured using either the right or left middle cerebral artery (MCA) using TCD sonography (TCD: DWL Multidop X-2, DWL Elektronische Systeme GmbH, D-78354 Sipplingen/Germany) through the temporal window. An observer who was present continuously during the recordings evaluated the quality of the signal. This enabled long-term recording of CBFV throughout the study. Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT) of the signal was used to analyze the velocity spectra. The mean velocity of the MCA was obtained from the integral of the maximal TCD frequency shifts over one beat divided by the corresponding beat interval and expressed in cm/sec. Analysis was conducted off line. Measurement of standard markers of the circadian pacemaker Body temperature recordings Core body temperature was recorded at 1-minute intervals with an indwelling rectal probe (MiniMitter, Co. Bend, OR). A wire lead connected the sensor out of the rectum to a data collection system worn on the belt. Temperature readings were collected and saved into the device and monitored at hourly intervals by the investigator. After the study, the recordings were visually inspected and artifacts resulting from removal or malfunction of the probe were excluded from further analysis. Salivary melatonin Salivary samples of 3 ml were collected every hour from 11:00 a.m. on Day 1 to 4:00 p.m. on Day 2. Ten of these samples were used only for the determination of the timing of the salivary dim light melatonin onset (DLMO). For nine subjects, salivary DLMO was assessed across a ten-hour time window that included the ten hours before the CBT minimum. Immediately after collection, each saliva sample was frozen and stored at -20°C. Saliva samples were assayed using Bühlmann Melatonin Radio Immunoassay (RIA) test kit for direct melatonin in human saliva (American Laboratory Products Co., Windham, NH). Analysis was conducted at New York State Institute for Basic Research. Salivary DLMO time was selected based on two criteria. The saliva sample needed to have melatonin concentration 3 pg/ml or above and later samples needed to show higher levels (Bühlmann laboratories). Second, the 3 pg/ml threshold needed to occur within 6-10 hours before core body temperature minimum [[90]20]. Polygraphic recordings Electroencephalography (EEG) was continually assessed across the 30 hours to ensure that subjects maintained wakefulness. The following montage was used according to the international 10-20 system: C3-A2, C4-A1, O1-A2, O2-A1, ROC-A1, LOC-A2, and submentalis electromyogram (EMG). One channel of electrocardiogram was continuously recorded by monitoring from two electrodes (one on each side of the body at the shoulder chest junction). The EEG software (Rembrant Sleep Collection Software Version 7.0) was used for data acquisition and display of the signals on a personal computer. Throughout the CR, the investigator (DAC) monitored the quality of the recordings. The recordings were scored by RQS and DAC. Blood pressure, heart rate, and end-tidal CO2 An automated blood pressure cuff was placed on the bicep of the subject and inflated two times each hour in order to determine changes in blood pressure and heart rate over time. Blood pressure and heart rate in one subject (02) was recorded via a finger blood pressure monitor (Omron Marshall Products, Model F-88). Blood pressure and heart rate in subjects 03, 04, 05, 06, and 07 were recorded with Omron Healthcare, Inc, Vernon Hills, Illinois 60061 Model # HEM-705CP Rating: DC 6V 4W Serial No: 2301182L. Blood pressure and heart rate for subjects 08, 09 and 10 was recorded with a similar blood pressure monitor (CVS Pharmacy Inc, Woonsocket, RI 02895 Model # 1086CVS). Blood pressure and heart rate recordings were not measured in subjects 11 and 12. Et[CO2 ]was continuously obtained. A nasal cannula for monitoring expired gases was placed under the nose. Relative changes in carbon dioxide content were measured by an Ohmeda 4700 Oxicap (BOC healthcare). Mean Et[CO2 ]levels were analyzed off-line. Et[CO2 ]recordings were not measured in subjects 11 and 12. Data Analyses Data reduction and statistical procedures CBT and CBFV values were first subjected to data rejection. All CBT values less than 96 degrees were determined to be artifact and were rejected. All CBFV values less than 20 cm/sec were determined to be artifact according to the clinical criteria set by the staff neurologist. Data reduction was accomplished by averaging into one minute, 30 minute or hourly bins. Correlations presented here were performed on mean values in 30 minute bins. To ensure that circadian measurements were made under basal conditions, the first five hours of the constant routine were excluded from all analyses to eliminate effects of study adaptation. The last hour was excluded to eliminate confounding effects such as expectation effects. The data are presented in this article in three ways. First, CBT and CBFV values were plotted according to time of day (Figures [91]1 and [92]2). Second, CBFV values were aligned according to the CBT nadir (Figure [93]3) and third, the CBFV nadir was aligned to the CBT nadir (Figure [94]4). To align CBFV to the CBT circadian nadir as shown in Figure [95]3, the CBT nadir of each individual subject was set to circadian time 0, or 0°. The CBFV value that corresponded to the CBT nadir was then also set to 0. Each half hour data point after the temperature nadir and corresponding CBFV values were then set to a circadian degree. There were a total of 48 data points across the 24 hour period. Therefore, each data point was equal to 7.5 degrees so that each data point would accumulate to 360°. Lastly, mean values were obtained for CBT and CBFV at each circadian degree. [96]thumbnail Figure 1. 24-hour Cosine Curve fit to Mean Core Body Temperature (°F). Time course of CBT according to time of day. Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/- SEM) of CBT (blue diamonds) fit with a 24-hour cosine curve (purple squares). Time of day is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate shows CBT values (degrees F). The vertical line indicates where the data was double plotted. Also displayed in the upper right corner is the non-linear cosine curve fit for mean CBT, R^2 = 0.62. The overall mean circadian phase position of the minimum was 6:05 am. [97]thumbnail Figure 2. 24-hour Cosine Curve fit to Mean Cerebral Blood Flow Velocity (cm/sec). Time course of CBFV according to time of day. Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/- SEM) of CBFV (blue diamonds) fit with a 24-hour cosine curve (purple squares). Time of day is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate shows CBFV values (cm/sec). The vertical line indicates where the data was double plotted. Also displayed in the upper right corner is the non-linear cosine curve fit for mean CBFV, R^2 = 0.67. The overall mean circadian phase position of the minimum was 12:02 pm. [98]thumbnail Figure 3. Mean CBT and CBFV Aligned to CBT Nadir. Time course of mean CBFV and mean CBT aligned to the nadir of CBT and then averaged. Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/-SEM) of CBT (purple squares) and CBFV (blue circles) aligned to the phase of the circadian temperature cycle. Circadian time in degrees is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate on the left shows CBT values (degrees F) and CBFV (cm/sec) on the right. The vertical line indicates the CBT nadir. [99]thumbnail Figure 4. Mean CBT and CBFV Aligned to Their Respective Nadir. Time course of mean CBFV and mean CBT aligned to each of their respective nadirs and then averaged. Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/-SEM) of CBT (purple squares) and CBFV (blue circles) aligned to the phase of the circadian temperature cycle. Circadian time in degrees is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate on the left shows CBT values (degrees F) and CBFV (cm/sec) on the right. The vertical line indicates both the CBT nadir and the CBFV nadir. The correlation coefficient between the aligned rhythms is 0.77 (p < 0.01). To align the CBFV nadir to the CBT nadir, first, the lowest value of CBT and the lowest value of CBFV were identified and set to circadian time 0, or 0°. Each half hour data point after the CBT nadir and CBFV nadir were then set to a circadian degree. There were a total of 48 data points across the 24 hour period. Therefore, each data point was equal to 7.5 degrees so that each data point would accumulate to 360°. Lastly, mean values were obtained for CBT and CBFV at each circadian degree. Estimation of circadian phase A 24-hour non-linear multiple regression -cosine curve fit analysis was performed on the CBT and CBFV data (SAS Institute, Cary, NC). This technique constrains the circadian period of CBT and CBFV to be within 24 hours. This technique used the following equations: model cbt = &avg_cbt + r * cos((2 * 3.1415) * (hours-&max_cbt)/24; model cbfv = &avg_cbt + r * cos((2 * 3.1415) * (hours-&max_cbfv)/24, where & = constants that center the curve at the actual average for each series (vertical centering) and the predicted maximum at the actual maximum (horizontal centering); r = the amplitude of the cosine wave. An additional analysis was performed which also yielded the estimated clock time for the CBT nadir and CBFV nadir (Synergy software, Kaleidagraph Version 3.6). Third, the minimum of the circadian rhythm of CBT and salivary DLMO were also used as markers of the endogenous circadian phase. A paired t-test was used to determine the overall phase difference between CBT and CBFV. Results Eleven subjects completed the protocol. The TCD probe was placed on either the right or left temple, whichever gave the better signal. Mean isonation depth of the TCD signal was 56.5 mm for the right MCA and 55.6 mm for the left MCA (range 53-60 mm). The constant routine ranged from 28 to 30 hours in duration. Polygraphic recordings confirmed sustained wakefulness across essentially the entire protocol in all but one subject. Subjects that had difficulty remaining awake were monitored closely and aroused when needed by engagement in conversation. Results from the polygraphic recordings are not presented here. We do not present the results of the polygraphic recordings because, for the purposes of this study, these recordings were used solely to monitor whether subjects were awake or asleep. The first five hours and the final hour of data from the constant routine were excluded from analysis. Core body temperature, cerebral blood flow velocity and the 24-hour day A 24 hour non-linear multiple regression, cosine fit analysis revealed that the overall mean CBT rhythm (n = 11) fit a 24 hour cosine rhythm (R^2 = 0.62, p < 0.01), Figure [100]1. The mean CBT across all subjects was 98.6 °F (+/- 0.03 °F). Figure [101]2 shows that a 24-hour non-linear multiple regression, cosine analysis fit a 24 hour cosine rhythm (R^2 = 0.67, p < 0.01), Figure [102]2. The mean CBFV across subjects was 40.6 cm/sec (+/- 0.54 cm/sec). Salivary DLMO occurred 7.7 hours prior to the CBT nadir in nine subjects, which served only as a secondary measure of endogenous circadian phase position in those subjects. The mean salivary melatonin concentration across the ten hour window was 15.3 pg/ml (+/-3.05 pg/ml). CBFV rhythm is 90 degrees out of phase with the CBT rhythm The overall mean circadian position of CBT occurred at 6:05 am and the mean position of CBFV occurred at 12:02 pm (Figure [103]3), yielding a 6 hour or 90 degree statistically significant difference (t = 4.9, DF = 10, p < 0.01). In individual subject data, the differences ranged from 0 to 8.5 hours. In eight subjects, the CBFV phase occurred later than the respective CBT phase, with mean difference of 5.2 hours. In two subjects, the CBFV nadir occurred earlier than the respective CBT nadir, with a mean difference of 6 hours. In one subject, there was no difference between the phase of CBT and CBFV. However, this subject's CBT rhythm was highly unusual, with the nadir occurring at 11:35 am on Day 2. Nevertheless, we felt the most appropriate way to present the data was to include this subject in the overall analysis. When the phase of CBFV was shifted so that the lowest value was aligned to the lowest CBT value, the two parameters were highly correlated (see Figure [104]4; r = 0.77, n = 98, p < 0.01). While the difference in the two rhythms variability was large, Fisher's z-transformed values revealed that the amplitudes of the two parameters were similar. The amplitude of CBFV yielded a z score of 4.25 and CBT yielded a z score of 3.06. Blood pressure recordings and systemic hemodynamic variables A Pearson correlation revealed a positive relationship between CBT and heart rate (r = 0.40, p < 0.01) across the 24 hour period. Diastolic blood pressure (DBP) and CBT showed a negative correlation (r = -0.30, p < 0.05). Et[CO2 ]showed a trend towards a direct relationship with CBFV (r = 0.24, p = 0.10). Blood pressure, heart rate, and Et[CO2 ]served only as regulators of CBFV and were not analyzed according to circadian phase. Discussion This study is the first to use the constant routine (CR) protocol to determine whether the endogenous circadian pacemaker contributes to the previously reported diurnal changes in CBFV. The current work demonstrates that, with limited periodic external stimuli and a constant posture, there is 24-hour rhythmicity in CBFV. Subjects showed a cycle of approximately 24 hours in CBT, which has been previously demonstrated with the CR [[105]21]. Figure [106]3 illustrates the intricate relationship between the rhythms across the study period. At approximately the CBT acrophase, the relationship between the two rhythms undergoes a transition. Between 180 and 240 degrees, CBFV is still rising and CBT is changing directions (first rising, reaching its peak and then falling). This period between 180 and 240 has been described as a "wake maintenance zone", a time in the circadian cycle during which humans are less likely to fall asleep [[107]22]. In our subjects, the CBT is near its zenith or just starting to fall at this time and CBFV is still steadily rising. Higher values in CBT and CBFV are associated with activation and therefore these two endogenous rhythms may be promoting wakefulness during this "wake maintenance zone". However, at the end of this transition period, CBT is falling and CBFV is still rising, perhaps reflecting continued activation of the cerebral cortex. Whereas the two-process model predicts increased tendency to sleep as CBT falls [[108]23], our finding may provide the mechanism by which wakefulness is effortlessly maintained before bedtime. Figure [109]3 further illustrates that as wakefulness is extended past the subject's habitual bedtime (approximately 270 degrees), the two rhythms decline together. Between 0 and 60 degrees, CBFV steadily declines and CBT is steadily rising. The lower CBFV values in the morning may play a role in cognitive performance impairments [[110]24], particularly the 3-4.5 hour phase difference in neurobehavioral functioning relative to the CBT rhythm that has been previously demonstrated in constant routine protocols [[111]25]. Earlier studies using simultaneous EEG and TCD to continuously measure CBFV across the sleep period have concluded that, except for periods of REM sleep, [[112]26 ,[113]27], there is a linear decline in CBFV across the night during periods of non-REM sleep [[114]1,[115]28]. Other groups utilizing these techniques simultaneously speculated that the decline in CBFV through the night was a "decoupling" of cerebral electrical activity and cerebral perfusion during non-REM sleep [[116]8-[117]10]. In all studies [[118]1,[119]8-[120]10,[121]28], CBFV values were lower in the morning during wakefulness than during wakefulness prior to sleep at night. The current findings show that the decline in CBFV is present during wakefulness in the night time hours and therefore may not be attributed solely to sleep and associated changes that normally influence CBFV (including factors such as the shift to recumbency, and reduced activity, metabolic rate and respiratory rate). Moreover, our interaction with the subjects and the monitoring of EEG for signs of sleep resulted in no sleep in all but one subject. The one exception was in a subject who lapsed into brief periods of sleep. Therefore, the fall in CBFV in 10 out of 11 subjects cannot be explained by the occurrence of non-REM sleep. It is possible, however, that the decline of CBFV across the night and early morning may be secondary to the sleep deprivation that is part of the constant routine. Brain imaging studies across sustained periods of wakefulness have shown significant decreases in absolute regional cerebral glucose metabolic rate in several areas of the brain [[122]29-[123]34]. The drop in CBT which preceded the parallel fall in CBFV needs to be considered as a possible explanation for the CBFV changes. The fall in CBT during sleeping hours is attributed in part to sleep-associated changes and in part to strong regular circadian forces independent of the sleep period. CBT is, in fact, one of the key and most extensively studied indices of the circadian phase. It is also known that CBT is highly correlated with brain temperature and brain metabolic rate [[124]35]. Imaging studies have documented the intimate relation between brain activity and increased metabolic rate and oxygen delivery through perfusion. Therefore, it is plausible that CBT is a direct influence on CBFV or an index of decreased metabolic need for blood flow. The prevailing hypothesis that there is tight coupling of normal neuronal activity and blood flow was formulated over 100 years ago [[125]36]. The drop in CBFV may be a consequence of the lowered cerebral activity secondary to lowered brain temperature. In contrast, two studies of exercise-induced hyperthermia showing decreased global and middle cerebral artery CBFV [[126]37 ,[127]38] do not support this hypothesized direct relationship between the two variables. However, one of the main purported mechanisms for the fall in CBFV in these exercise studies, the hyperventilation induced lowering of Pa[CO2], is unlikely present during waking while lying in bed at night. Therefore, CBT declines remain a plausible explanation for the portion of the 24 hours when CBFV declined. Mechanisms of CBFV regulation This protocol allowed the unique opportunity to evaluate blood pressure, heart rate, and Et[CO2 ]in the absence of sleep, in subjects with constant posture, and highly restricted movements. While blood pressure clearly falls during sleep in normal individuals, the absence of sleep in the current study obviates the explanation that CBFV declines are secondary to lowered blood pressure. Furthermore, we sampled blood pressure throughout the day and night and found a weak inverse relationship between DBP and CBT. This finding is in contrast to a careful study of circadian influence on blood pressure in the absence of sleep which showed no change in blood pressure during the descending portion of the body temperature curve [[128]39]. Nevertheless, our finding was weak and likely does not provide the explanation for the CBFV changes. The small-inverse relationship between Et [CO2 ]and CBT is similar to that found by Spengler et al. [[129]40], who showed a consistent but small amplitude circadian rhythm in mean end-tidal Et[CO2 ]on a CR protocol. Et[CO2 ]showed a trend towards a direct relationship with CBFV, which is consistent with previous studies showing that changes in Et[CO2 ]are associated with changes in CBFV [[130]41 ,[131]42]. Heart rate was correlated with CBT, consistent with the findings of Van Dongen et al [[132]39]. Clinical correlation The approximate 6 hour (90 degree) phase angle difference between the CBFV and CBT suggests that CBFV continues to decline into the early to mid-morning hours. This finding is consistent with a time window in the morning during which several physiological changes have been observed. For example, cerebral vasomotor reactivity to hypocapnia, hypercapnia, and normoventilation has been found to be most reduced in the morning [[133]15 ,[134]16]. It is tempting to suggest that the the low CBFV values in the morning may also help explain the well established diurnal variation of the onset of cerebrovascular accidents (CVAs) [[135]43]. A meta-analyses of 11,816 publications between 1966 to 1997 found that there was a 49% increased risk of strokes between 6 am and 12 pm [[136]44]. This time period is in agreement with studies on myocardial infarction (MI) and sudden death [[137]45]. The increased incidence of these events has been attributed, in part, to the surge of blood pressure [[138]13,[139]46,[140]47] and platelet aggregability [[141]48,[142]49] in the morning when patients are getting out of bed. Our results demonstrate that even in the absence of surges in blood pressure, the phase of CBFV reaches its lowest values during the hours before 12 pm. This further suggests that the endogenous rhythm of CBFV may be associated with the risk of CVAs in the late morning hours even without changes in posture or activity. Conclusion Overall, the results demonstrate that CBFV, in the absence of sleep, exhibits properties of a circadian rhythm, as it rises and falls across a 24 hour period. The 6 hour (90 degree) phase angle difference in the CBFV rhythm with respect to the CBT rhythm may help explain previous findings of lower CBFV values in the morning. The phase difference occurs at a time period during which cognitive performance decrements have been observed and when both cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events occur more frequently. The mechanisms underlying this phase angle difference require further exploration. List of abbreviations CBFV Cerebral Blood Flow Velocity CBT Core Body Temperature TCD Transcranial Doppler EtCO2 End tidal Carbon Dioxide DLMO Dim Light Melatonin Onset EEG Electroencephalogram MCA Middle Cerebral Artery FFT Fast Fourier Transformation CR Constant routine EMG Electromyogram SBP Systolic Blood Pressure DBP Diastolic Blood Pressure CVA Cerebrovascular accident MI Myocardial infarction Competing interests The author(s) declare that they have no competing interests. Authors' contributions DAC coordinated, carried out, analyzed, and interpreted the study. AJS participated in the analysis and interpretation of the findings. DAC drafted the manuscript and AJS provided final approval of this version. RQS participated in data collection and data analysis. DAC and AJS co-designed the study. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the volunteer participants who completed this extremely difficult protocol, to the research assistants: Jason Birnbaum, Will Carias, RN, Laura Diaz, Boris Dubrovsky, Mathew Ebben, Ph.D., Carrie Hildebrand, Lars Ross, Greg Sahlem, Mathew Tucker, Ayesha Udin, to those who helped with the data analysis: Scott Campbell, Ph.D. of New York Presbyterian Hospital, White Plains, Abdeslem ElIdrissi, Ph.D. of The Institute for Basic Research, Staten Island, NY, Larry Krasnoff, Ph.D. of Digitas, New York, and Andrew Scott, MBA, to those who provided their expert advice: William Fishbein, Ph.D. of The City College of New York, Paul Glovinsky, Ph.D. of The Sleep Disorders Center, Albany, NY, Margaret Moline, Ph.D. of Eisai, Inc, Charles Pollak, MD of The Center for Sleep Medicine, New York Presbyterian Hospital-Cornell, and Alan Segal, MD of The Department of Neurology, New York Presbyterian Hospital, and to others who helped make this study possible: Stacy Goldstein, Neil B. 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Post a comment on this article! __________________________________________________________________ [254][1352965720@Top,Bottom,x96!Bottom] [255]Terms and Conditions [256]Privacy statement [257]Information for advertisers [258]Jobs at BMC [259]Contact us © 1999-2010 BioMed Central Ltd unless otherwise stated. Part of [260]Springer Science+Business Media. Références Liens visibles 42. javascript:/// 46. javascript:/// Liens cachés : JCPA LOGO Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs [1]Daniel Elazar Papers Index [2][USEMAP:nav-back.gif] American Political Culture The Generational Rhythm of American Politics The American Mosaic, Chapter 2 Daniel J. Elazar It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space. Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less pinpointed. This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast developments with great success. At the same time he has applied that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs. Early Studies of Generational Rhythms Students of society have noted the succession of generations since ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology on generational measures. The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs. It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon operating in history.^2 Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression, "forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5 Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The "generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7 Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of its beginnings and its ancestry. Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were the first to articulate systematic theories of generational progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that "History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals comes to dominate society.^9 These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed the principle that generations are articulated through historical events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained. Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a fourfold classification of generations as preparatory, revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10 Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11 Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation century.^13 After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri Peyre (1948).^16 More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused on problems of intergenerational differences and the political socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963) focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966) studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957) utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in Israel and the United States, respectively.^20 All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact, both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive theory. None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods. Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of three generations. Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin. Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature, art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular basis. Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under the heading of "a generation". Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History A number of theories of political cycles in American history have been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect "concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the "more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments" using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process. Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23 Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work. Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable directions. Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s) and the present. Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment occurs in every generation. While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts as follows: 1787-1801-1816 1816-1829-1841 1841-1861-1869 1869-1901-1918 1918-1931-? The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the following pattern: 1790-1796/1800 1800-1824/1828 1828-1824/1860 1860-1888/1896 1896-1932 His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their significance in the periodization process. Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if it is schematized as follows: 1789-1820 1828 1856-1860 1893/1894 1932 Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized as follows: 1896-1912 1912-1920-1932-1952 1952 Pomper also offers election dates and no more: 1836 1864-1876 1876-1892/1896 1928/1932-1952 1952-1964 None of these are complete theories and all must be considered within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit. Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era. In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however, the American people were treated to a display of federal activity -- and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow of time and events.) The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible pattern in the progression of political events in the United States over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26 The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a fixed moment, as individuals do now.... What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case, would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for 14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors. Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that 23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself assembled, can validly extend a debt. On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of 34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not of right. The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme, Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure of location in time. Human Social Rhythms As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the "lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation in any particular civil society and chart the relations among generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical patterns of its politics. During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years, averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited. Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life" ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and political roles as are given to mature men and women in society. Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention, if not physically, considered ready for retirement. Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote, and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be defined as the ending of one's serious political career without suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's 30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship. The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to "retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28 In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly established. Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby allowing a new generation to assume the reins. Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in social and political life than that found in the simple processes of human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings are recorded in history, we can do just that. Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the impact of the change and encourages new political action to assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at the most four generations are alive at any given time creates certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and politically unmanageable. Generations, Centuries and Events Since the founding of the first European settlements along the Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th century is the century of the United States as a world power. Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing point, thus: a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603) and the 17th century began with the opening of the American frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of the times. b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration for both countries. c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff). d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land frontier. Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn, the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments that will replace them. The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence. The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression will be related to major forces and factors shaping American history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the principal challenges facing the American people in each generation and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial, ethnic and religious groups. One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate. Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for analytical purposes than life ever is. The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany, but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies, and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate nation with its own civilization. The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century, which, from the first American recognition of common continental interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism, successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans. The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations, beginning at the point where America turned its back on European entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an industrialized continental nation with a strong national government; abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world power ready for overseas involvements. The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century -- reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the industrial revolution. As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first generation of the transformation of society as a result of the application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically dominant although economically weakened. The results of these phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder of the generation. Generations and Frontier Stages The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other historical and political phenomena. Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of human control over the natural environment and the utilization of the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control, i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American society is a product of this commitment which is virtually self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier situation that has created the major social and economic changes which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's political institutions. America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American life within that stage. The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the westward movement on a basically rural population interested in settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in Alaska. Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States, where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their existence and growth. By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth, in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation. After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and pace of development across the country. The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s, ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution, and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over. By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers, satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges, initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West. Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between the points of generational division and the shifts in the various frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are closely related to the opening of new centuries. Generations and Economic Periods One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a result, the governments of the United States have always maintained a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the governmental response. These changes have also developed on a generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth generation of American history) the American government continued a semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially unregulated by government. Demands for government regulation that built up during the last generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system. Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less government intervention. Centuries, Generations and Federalism The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first generation of American history brought the introduction of federal principles through the contracts and covenants that established the colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly, concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century. The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society. Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed have been major elements in the concrete response to the generation's challenges. Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of American history and politics. The changes in those relationships also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries. British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery. Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste system was in the making. During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation. Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was abolished in the North. The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was reaffirmed through the institution of segregation. From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say, to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American culture. While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era. The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the challenges changes from century to century. During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which, objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular progression of political events revolving around the development of a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and responses that gives each generation its particular character. While the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external -- or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation themselves. In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its sisters, and the other science independence when a common national constitution created a common national politics. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the political challenges that have dominated the American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the 19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the 20th century, they have essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and new generations is marked by several decisive political actions, often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so that they will achieve greater success and at the same time integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be recognized. The Bench Marks of American Political History: Critical Elections and New Deals In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds; first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each generation. The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs of voters, shifting them from one political party to another. Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a "critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one major element to another. Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the 1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and representatives to win control of Congress. The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968, only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the "normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in 1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems, won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the GOP controlled the Senate. A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations, personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders (or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate state parties which form the two national confederations known as the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties are confederations of the state parties, so is the national coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional coalitions. Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution, too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary inroads in the various electoral groups. Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means certain that the majority party will even win all the national elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards for the party faithful during the years of national "famine." As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad electoral groups.^33 While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election. Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical elections."^34 The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the development of the institution of the popularly elected president. Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and the House of Representatives. Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem. It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file" alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from balance to majority. "New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as the historical watersheds they are. In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S. Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B. Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s. The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational consolidation. The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington before undertaking any activities. The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an "outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation, usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time. President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and localities. These were all to become principal issues during the period of generational build-up. The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues of the new generation. Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been invariably preceded by critical elections through which the reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die -- determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to majority status. These critical elections, which attain their visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which face them. Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the 1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans. Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in 1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing period for the Democratic coalition. To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in American politics is not to suggest that events move in any lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the "normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too can be done that gives the theory its power. Summary Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more interest to European social philosophers than American social scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics, often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human social rhythms generally. Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them. The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation, constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political history recurring on a generational basis. Notes 1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970); Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979). 2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973). 3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5 (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers, chapter 32, verse 13. 7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte (London: G. Bell, 1896). 9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive (London, 1862). 10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani (Milano: Monanni, 1929). 11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen, der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4. (1875), pp. 36-41. 12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds., Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane, Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp., 1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). 13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method. 14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933). 15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti, ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales (Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F. Schoeningh, 1933). 16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926); Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig, 1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris: Boivin, 1948). 17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger, 1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4 (1972): 564-78. 18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956). 19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin, American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970). 20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield, Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970). 21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939). 22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key, Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961); Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968); Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). 23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210. 24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co. 1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government from the Civil War to the New Deal. 25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no. 1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992). 26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789. 27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President. 28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W. Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber, Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey, Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.: Brooks/Cole, 1989). 29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York: Macmillan, 1961). 30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965): Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989). 31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18. 32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability," Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171. 33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?" in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed., Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1983). 34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony; David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization, Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter, Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985). [3]Elazar Papers Index / [4]JCPA Home Page / [5]Top of Page Références [USEMAP] 1. javascript:history.go(-1) 3. mailto:jcenter@jcpa.org [USEMAP] [1]CAT.INIST [2][USEMAP:bandeau-haut-droit.gif] logo CNRS [3]logo INIST [4]En savoir plus sur CAT.INIST ? © INIST Diffusion S.A. Service Clients / Customer Service 2, allée du parc de Brabois F-54514 Vandoeuvre Cedex France Tél : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.64 Fax : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.66 Courriel : [5]infoclient@inist.fr [6]Accueil / Home Imprimer / Print [7]Contact / Contact Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [8]Email Print [9]Bookmark and Share [10]Mendeley Back Titre du document / Document title Rhythms of the secular : The politics of modernizing Arab poetic forms = Rythmes du séculaire : la politique de modernisation des formes poétiques arabes Auteur(s) / Author(s) FURANI Khaled^ (1) ; Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s) ^(1) Tel-Aviv University, ISRAEL Résumé / Abstract In this article, I ethnographically trace how Arab, mainly Palestinian, poets have modernized their literary tradition during the last seven decades. Shortly after the 1948 Israeli occupation of Palestine, the reign of the classical Arabic ode collapsed, and the modern forms of free verse and, later, the prose poem became dominant. Aiming to contribute to the ethnography of modernity, I examine how poets have adopted and abandoned poetic forms by analyzing their narratives on rhythm. I explore the political salience of rhythmical transformations and argue that the secular has been a vital and complex force in the modern abandonment of metrical discipline. The secular affects how poets seek to modernize their rhythm, vocabulary, and relation to public. It also affects, I conclude, the ways in which anthropologists can and do write about modernity. Revue / Journal Title American ethnologist ISSN 0094-0496 Source / Source 2008, vol. 35, n^o2, pp. 290-307 [18 page(s) (article)] (2 p.1/4) Langue / Language Anglais Editeur / Publisher American Ethnological Society, Washington, DC, ETATS-UNIS (1974) (Revue) Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords Rhythm ; Transformation ; Modernization ; Poet ; Modernity ; Poetry ; Israel ; Palestine ; Near East ; Mots-clés français / French Keywords Forme poétique ; Tradition littéraire ; Arabe palestinien ; Rythme ; Transformation ; Modernisation ; Poète ; Modernité ; Poésie ; Israël ; Palestine ; Proche-Orient ; Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords poetic form ; modernity and secularism ; Palestine-Israel ; Localisation / Location INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 16902, 35400019805879.0070 Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 20449527 Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [11]Email Print [12]Bookmark and Share [13]Mendeley Back _______________________________ Rechercher dans CAT.INIST / Search in CAT.INIST Google Custom Search Références 5. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20CAT.INIST.FR 7. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20Cat@inist.fr [USEMAP] * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * [1]LINGUIST List logo [2]Eastern Michigan University [3]Wayne State University * * [4]People & Organizations * [5]Jobs * [6]Calls & Conferences * [7]Publications * [8]Language Resources * [9]Text & Computer Tools * [10]Teaching & Learning * [11]Mailing Lists * [12]Search * * * [13][mail-logo-9.gif] E-mail this message to a friend Title: The Rhythm of Political Oratory Author: [14]Varvara Danilina Email: [15]click here to access email Degree Awarded: Moscow State University , Department of Foreigh Languages Degree Date: 2002 Linguistic Subfield(s): Discourse Analysis Sociolinguistics Subject Language(s): [16]English Director(s): [17]Ludmila Minaeva ___________________________________ Abstract: My doctoral dissertation was completed after four years of research on the rhythm of British and American political oratory. I sought to establish the rhythmic norm for political public speech and to find out, whether any deviations from this norm (i.e. from an expected rhythmic model) influence listeners and provoke their verbal reactions or bursts of applause. To accomplish this task I used a variety of linguistic and rhetorical methods, and drew upon social psychology and political science. There is no single linguistic perspective on speech rhythm. For instance, such distinguished scholars as D. Crystal and D. Abercrombie regard it as a purely phonetic phenomenon. At the same time, according to Moscow University school of thought, to which I belong, speech rhythm is created by a blend of phonetics, syntax and meaning of an utterance. As a result of my research, I established rhythmic regularities for political oratory at five levels. Firstly, I analyzed pauses that divide the stream of speech into segments (syntagmas), and classified all the pauses into syntactic, rhetorical or unintentional (unintentional pauses are caused by hesitation, deliberation, stammering, interruptions by listeners, etc). Secondly, I established the relative frequency of short, medium and long syntagmas between pauses, and thirdly, analyzed the rhythmic structures constituted by linear sequences of syntagmas. Fourthly, I studied the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables inside syntagmas. And finally, I considered all kinds of repetitions, both rhetorical and unintentional. This method of rhythmic analysis is based on earlier analytical models designed by my university colleagues. My own contribution consisted in adapting this method to the study of public speech, describing the typical rhythm of political oratory, and challenging some popular assumptions about speech rhythm. As for the impact of speech rhythm upon listeners, I started by analyzing audiences in order to understand psychological, social and political conditions of that process. G. Le Bon, Z. Freud and other scholars demonstrated conclusively that members of a crowd (and the audience of a public speech is a crowd) are connected with each other and with their leader (in our case, a speaker) by strong subconscious ties. However, the degree of unity or polarization of an audience may differ. Besides, each audience can be characterized according to several other criteria that determine listeners' responsiveness and the nature of their responses: their emotional state, the level of expertise in a particular subject, the demographic and social characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, social status, occupation, education), the existing evaluation of discussed issues, which is largely determined by listeners' ideologies, and finally, the attitude to the speaker, which can be positive, negative or indifferent. I have applied this model of audience analysis to determine peculiarities of the British parliamentary audience in October 1996, and of the US Congress in the aftermath of September 11, 2001. To analyze the reactions of these audiences to the rhythm of Prime Minister Major and President Bush's parliamentary addresses I used M. Atkinson's version of the conversation analysis method. I showed the two speeches as dialogues between the speakers and their listeners, and singled out phrases and syntagmas that immediately preceded audience responses, such as cheering, booing, laughter or bursts of applause. These phrases and syntagmas happened to be quite similar in terms of rhythm to other stretches of speech in the same addresses. Moreover, there proved to be little rhythmic difference between John Major and George Bush's speeches. In short, my research demonstrated that there is no direct interconnection between the rhythm of a public address and audience responses. [18]Add a dissertation [19]Update dissertation Page Updated: 17-Jan-2010 [20]Print This Page __________________________________________________________________ [21][transp.gif] [22][transp.gif] Please [23]report any bad links or misclassified data __________________________________________________________________ [24]LINGUIST Homepage | [25]Read LINGUIST | [26]Contact us [27]NSF Logo While the LINGUIST List makes every effort to ensure the linguistic relevance of sites listed on its pages, it cannot vouch for their contents. Références 13. JavaScript:; 15. JavaScript:; 20. Javascript:window.print(); 22. mailto:cranston@linguistlist.org [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] #[1]Edit this page [2]Wikipedia (en) [3]copyright [4]Wikipedia RSS Feed [5]Wikipedia Atom Feed Afrobeat From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search Question book-new.svg This article does not [8]cite any [9]references or sources. Please help [10]improve this article by adding citations to [11]reliable sources. Unsourced material may be [12]challenged and [13]removed. (September 2008) Afrobeat is a combination of [14]Yoruba music, [15]jazz, [16]highlife, and [17]funk [18]rhythms, fused with [19]percussion and [20]vocal styles, popularized in [21]Africa in the 1970s. Its main creator was the [22]Nigerian multi-[23]instrumentalist and [24]bandleader [25]Fela Kuti who used it to revolutionise musical structure as well as the political context in his native Nigeria. It was Kuti who coined the term "afrobeat" upon his return from a U.S. tour with his group Nigeria 70 (formerly Koola Lobitos). The new sound hailed from a club that he established called the Afro-Shrine. Upon arriving in Nigeria, Kuti also changed the name of his group to Fela Ransome-Kuti & Africa 70. The band maintained a five-year residency in the Afro-Shrine from 1970 to 1975 while afrobeat thrived among Nigerian youth. Afrobeat is now one of the most recognisable music genres in the world and has influenced as many Western musicians as it has African ones with its exuberant style and polyrhythms. Contents * [26]1 Origins * [27]2 Influence * [28]3 Instrumentation * [29]4 Today * [30]5 External links [[31]edit] Origins Afrobeat originated from the southern part of [32]Nigeria in the 1960s where Kuti experimented with many different forms of contemporary music of the time. Prevalent in him and Lagbaja's music are native African harmonies and rhythms, taking different elements and combining, modernizing and improvising upon them. [33]Politics are essential to afrobeat, since founder Kuti used social criticism to pave the way for social change. His message can be described as confrontational and controversial, which can be related to the political climate of most of the African countries in the 1960s, many of which were dealing with political injustice and military corruption while recovering from the transition from colonial governments to self-determination. As the genre spread throughout the African continent many bands took up the style. The recordings of these bands and their songs were rarely heard or exported outside the originating countries but many can now be found on compilation albums and CDs from specialist record shops. [[34]edit] Influence Many jazz musicians have been attracted to afrobeat. From [35]Roy Ayers in the seventies to [36]Randy Weston in the nineties, there have been collaborations which have resulted in albums such as Africa: Centre of the World by Roy Ayers, released on the Polydor label in 1981. In 1994 [37]Branford Marsalis, the American jazz saxophonist, included samples of Fela's "Beast of No Nation" on his Buckshot leFonque album. The new generation of DJs and musicians of the 2000s who have fallen in love with both Kuti's material and other rare releases have made compilations and remixes of these recordings, thus re-introducing the genre to new generations of listeners and fans of afropop and groove. Afrobeat has profoundly influenced important contemporary producers and musicians like [38]Brian Eno and [39]David Byrne, who credit Fela Kuti as an essential muse. Both worked on [40]Talking Heads' highly-acclaimed 1980 album [41]Remain In Light which brought polyrhythmic afrobeat influences to Western music. More recently, the horn section of [42]Antibalas have been guest musicians on [43]TV On The Radio's highly-acclaimed 2008 album [44]Dear Science, as well as on British band [45]Foals' 2008 album [46]Antidotes. [[47]edit] Instrumentation Big band (15 to 30 pieces: Fela-era afrobeat) and energetic performances * Lead vocals (may play sax/key solos as well) * Chorus vocals (may include horn players) * Rhythm guitar(s) (plays funk strumming pattern) * Tenor guitar (plays a finger-picked osinato groove) * [48]Bass guitar * [49]Drum set, generally in the form [50]polyrhythmic percussion * Saxophone(s) * Trumpet(s) * Trombone(s) * Organ/keyboards * Rhythm [51]conga #1 * Rhythm [52]conga #2 * Solo (lead) [53]conga * [54]Akuba: a set of 3 small stick-hit congas (play flourishes/solos, and ostinatos). Also mistakenly called "gbedu". * "Sticks"/[55]claves (plays ostinato) * [56]Shekere [[57]edit] Today There are several active afrobeat bands worldwide today. Modern afrobeat bands/artistes include: * [58]Kokolo (band), New York City Afrobeat/Afrofunk group formed by songwriter/producer Ray Lugo * [59]Nomo, [60]Ann Arbor based group that weaves various styles into a primarily Afrobeat sound. * [61]Chicago Afrobeat Project Chicago based collective that uses afrobeat as a springboard and has an incendiary live show. * [62]Afrodizz, an eight-piece band from [63]Montreal, [64]Canada formed by jazz guitarist Gabriel Aldama * [65]The Afromotive, an Asheville, NC based multiracial seven-piece afrobeat band featuring thirty-third generation djembe player Adama Dembele from Cote d`Ivoire, West Africa. * [66]Tony Allen, the man who held the drum chair during Fela's productive "Africa 70" phase, and whose drumming was, according to [67]James Brown's autobiography, the influence behind his 'discovery' of funk.^[[68]citation needed] * [69]Antibalas, [70]Brooklyn, New York based multiracial Afrobeat Orchestra formed by baritone saxophonist Martin Perna * [71]Aphrodesia, San Francisco based group, first American group to perform with Femi Kuti at The Shrine in Lagos, Nigeria. * [72]Ayetoro, a group led by Nigerian pianist/composer [73]Funsho Ogundipe * [74]Bebe cool lives in Uganda famous for his reggea mixed with luganda pop and English making an Afrobeat rhythm in Uganda known as Luga flow.He also lives in kampala. * [75]Chopteeth, an international 14 piece outfit based in Washington D.C., with former members of Busta Rhymes, The Temptations, The Four Tops, and Gladys Knight & the Pips. * [76]Femi Kuti (Fela's first son and a saxophonist) and the Positive Force * [77]Seun Kuti (another of Kuti's sons, saxophonist now fronting his father's last and late band) * [78]Dele Sosimi's Gbedu Resurrection Dele is a former keyboardist and musical director of Fela's band. He cofounded Femi Kuti's Positive Force. * [79]Zozo Afrobeat A thirteen-member group based in NYC, founded by Kaleta, former Fela guitarist. * [80]Baba Ken and the Afro-Groove Connexion Oakland based multiracial afrobeat ensemble led by Nigerian bassist, Baba Ken Okulolo, founding member of the seminal 1970's afrofunk/afrorock band, Monomono. * [81]Jose Chameleone famous in East, central and South Africa.He stays and live is Uganda in kampala city.He sing pop and Afro beat music.He is one of the most famous artists of Afro beat in Africa and the whole world. * [82]Afrobeat Down Los Angeles based Afrobeat ensemble (est. 2002) working with former Fela Africa '70 member and catalyst of entire afrobeat movement, Sandra Izsadore. * [83]Weird MC Rap artiste who occasionally experinments with Afrobeat rhythm. * [84]Vibe Squad A Ghanaian music crew formed by EaZZY Da Opemfour made of Prego, Culchar, Wizzy Wii and Richie. * [85]Gnl zamba rap artist in Uganda one of the most successful rap afrobeat star in East Africa and central Africa.He is known for his rhythm of 2 pac shakur * [86]Mr. Something Something Canadian afrobeat group * [87]Crime Scene Infunkstigation A 10-piece Afrobeat/Funk/Hip Hop group based out of Calgary, AB [[88]edit] External links * [89]KOKOLO on Myspace * [90]KOKOLO on YouTube * [91]KOKOLO Official Homepage * [92]The Afrobeat Blog * [93]The Unofficial Seun Kuti Fan-Site - Unofficial fan-site for Seun Kuti & Egypt 80 with news, videos, music, pictures and much more] * [94]The Shrine The Unofficial Website for Fela Kuti, Femi Kuti and Afrobeat Music * [95]BBC Afrobeat Documentary [96]v o [97]d o [98]e Genres of [99]African popular music Afrobeat · [100]Apala · [101]Benga · [102]Bikutsi · [103]Cape Jazz · [104]Chimurenga · [105]Fuji · [106]Highlife · [107]Hiplife · [108]Isicathamiya · [109]Jit · [110]Jùjú · [111]Kizomba · [112]Kuduro · [113]Kwaito · [114]Kwela · [115]Makossa · [116]Maloya · [117]Marrabenta · [118]Mbalax · [119]Mbaqanga · [120]Mbube · [121]Morna · [122]Palm-wine · [123]Raï · [124]Sakara · [125]Sega · [126]Soukous/Congo/Lingala/Rumba · [127]Taarab [128]v o [129]d o [130]e [131]Funk music [132]Acid jazz o Afrobeat o [133]Brit funk o [134]Funk metal o [135]Deep Funk o [136]Drumfunk o [137]Free funk o [138]Funkcore o [139]Funktronica o [140]Funk rock o [141]G-funk o [142]Go-go o [143]Jazz-funk o [144]Liquid funk o [145]Neurofunk o [146]Nu-funk o [147]P-Funk o [148]Post-disco o [149]Punk-funk o [150]Skweee Related [151]List of funk musicians o [152]Minneapolis sound [154]Categories: [155]Funk genres | [156]African American music in Africa Hidden categories: [157]Articles lacking sources from September 2008 | [158]All articles lacking sources | [159]All articles with unsourced statements | [160]Articles with unsourced statements from July 2007 Views * [161]Article * [162]Discussion * [163]Edit this page * [164]History Personal tools * [165]Try Beta * [166]Log in / create account Navigation * [167]Main page * [168]Contents * [169]Featured content * [170]Current events * [171]Random article Search ____________________ Go Search Interaction * [172]About Wikipedia * [173]Community portal * [174]Recent changes * [175]Contact Wikipedia * [176]Donate to Wikipedia * [177]Help Toolbox * [178]What links here * [179]Related changes * [180]Upload file * [181]Special pages * [182]Printable version * [183]Permanent link * [184]Cite this page Languages * [185]Català * [186]Deutsch * [187]Español * [188]Français * [189]Hrvatski * [190]Italiano * [191]Nederlands * [192]¥¬ * [193]ªNorsk (bokmål) * [194]Polski * [195]Português * [196]Suomi [197]Powered by MediaWiki [198]Wikimedia Foundation * This page was last modified on 12 January 2010 at 06:03. * Text is available under the [199]Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See [200]Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [201]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * [202]Contact us * [203]Privacy policy * [204]About Wikipedia * [205]Disclaimers Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : #[1]rss [2]Jump to content Year * 1996 * 1997 * 1998 * 1999 * 2000 * 2001 * 2002 * 2003 * 2004 * [3]2005 * [4]2006 * [5]2007 * [6]2008 * [7]2009 * 2010 * 2011 * 2012 * 2013 * 2014 * 2015 * 2016 * 2017 * 2018 * 2019 Day * [8]24 * [9]23 * [10]22 * [11]21 * [12]20 * [13]19 * [14]18 * [15]17 * [16]16 * [17]15 * [18]14 * [19]13 * [20]12 * [21]11 * [22]10 * [23]09 * [24]08 * [25]07 * [26]06 * [27]05 * [28]04 * [29]03 * [30]02 * [31]01 [32]24 Ways to impress your friends * [33]Home * [34]Archives * [35]Authors * [36]Twitter * [37]RSS * ____________________ Go 12 12/2006 [38]Compose to a Vertical Rhythm by [39]Richard Rutter * [40]Article * [41]29 comments "Space in typography is like time in music. It is infinitely divisible, but a few proportional intervals can be much more useful than a limitless choice of arbitrary quantities." So says the typographer Robert Bringhurst, and just as regular use of time provides rhythm in music, so regular use of space provides rhythm in typography, and without rhythm the listener, or the reader, becomes disorientated and lost. On the Web, vertical rhythm - the spacing and arrangement of text as the reader descends the page - is contributed to by three factors: font size, line height and margin or padding. All of these factors must calculated with care in order that the rhythm is maintained. The basic unit of vertical space is line height. Establishing a suitable line height that can be applied to all text on the page, be it heading, body copy or sidenote, is the key to a solid dependable vertical rhythm, which will engage and guide the reader down the page. To see this in action, I've created [42]an example with headings, footnotes and sidenotes. Establishing a suitable line height The easiest place to begin determining a basic line height unit is with the font size of the body copy. For [43]the example I've chosen 12px. To ensure readability the body text will almost certainly need some leading, that is to say spacing between the lines. A line-height of 1.5em would give 6px spacing between the lines of body copy. This will create a total line height of 18px, which becomes our basic unit. Here's the CSS to get us to this point: 1. body { 2. font-size: 75%; 3. } 4. 5. html>body { 6. font-size: 12px; 7. } 8. 9. p { 10. line-height 1.5em; 11. } 12. Source: [44]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/1.txt There are many ways to size text in CSS and the above approach provides and accessible method of achieving the pixel-precision solid typography requires. By way of explanation, the first font-size reduces the body text from the 16px default (common to most browsers and OS set-ups) down to the 12px we require. This rule is primarily there for Internet Explorer 6 and below on Windows: the percentage value means that the text will scale predictably should a user bump the text size up or down. The second font-size sets the text size specifically and is ignored by IE6, but used by Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels. Spacing between paragraphs With our rhythmic unit set at 18px we need to ensure that it is maintained throughout the body copy. A common place to lose the rhythm is the gaps set between margins. The default treatment by web browsers of paragraphs is to insert a top- and bottom-margin of 1em. In our case this would give a spacing between the paragraphs of 12px and hence throw the text out of rhythm. If the rhythm of the page is to be maintained, the spacing of paragraphs should be related to the basic line height unit. This is achieved simply by setting top- and bottom-margins equal to the line height. In order that typographic integrity is maintained when text is resized by the user we must use ems for all our vertical measurements, including line-height, padding and margins. 1. p { 2. font-size:1em; 3. margin-top: 1.5em; 4. margin-bottom: 1.5em; 5. } 6. Source: [45]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/2.txt Browsers set margins on all block-level elements (such as headings, lists and blockquotes) so a way of ensuring that typographic attention is paid to all such elements is to reset the margins at the beginning of your style sheet. You could use a rule such as: 1. body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl ockquote,th,td { 2. margin:0; 3. padding:0; 4. } 5. Source: [46]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/3.txt Alternatively you could look into using the [47]Yahoo! UI Reset style sheet which removes most default styling, so providing a solid foundation upon which you can explicitly declare your design intentions. Variations in text size When there is a change in text size, perhaps with a heading or sidenotes, the differing text should also take up a multiple of the basic leading. This means that, in our example, every diversion from the basic text size should take up multiples of 18px. This can be accomplished by adjusting the line-height and margin accordingly, as described following. Headings Subheadings in the [48]example page are set to 14px. In order that the height of each line is 18px, the line-height should be set to 18 ÷ 14 = 1.286. Similarly the margins above and below the heading must be adjusted to fit. The temptation is to set heading margins to a simple 1em, but in order to maintain the rhythm, the top and bottom margins should be set at 1.286em so that the spacing is equal to the full 18px unit. 1. h2 { 2. font-size:1.1667em; 3. line-height: 1.286em; 4. margin-top: 1.286em; 5. margin-bottom: 1.286em; 6. } 7. Source: [49]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/4.txt One can also set asymmetrical margins for headings, provided the margins combine to be multiples of the basic line height. In our example, a top margin of 1½ lines is combined with a bottom margin of half a line as follows: 1. h2 { 2. font-size:1.1667em; 3. line-height: 1.286em; 4. margin-top: 1.929em; 5. margin-bottom: 0.643em; 6. } 7. Source: [50]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/5.txt Also in our example, the main heading is given a text size of 18px, therefore the line-height has been set to 1em, as has the margin: 1. h1 { 2. font-size:1.5em; 3. line-height: 1em; 4. margin-top: 0; 5. margin-bottom: 1em; 6. } 7. Source: [51]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/6.txt Sidenotes Sidenotes (and other supplementary material) are often set at a smaller size to the basic text. To keep the rhythm, this smaller text should still line up with body copy, so a calculation similar to that for headings is required. In our example, the sidenotes are set at 10px and so their line-height must be increased to 18 ÷ 10 = 1.8. 1. .sidenote { 2. font-size:0.8333em; 3. line-height:1.8em; 4. } 5. Source: [52]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/7.txt Borders One additional point where vertical rhythm is often lost is with the introduction of horizontal borders. These effectively act as shims pushing the subsequent text downwards, so a two pixel horizontal border will throw out the vertical rhythm by two pixels. A way around this is to specify horizontal lines using background images or, as in our example, specify the width of the border in ems and adjust the padding to take up the slack. The design of the footnote in our example requires a 1px horizontal border. The footnote contains 12px text, so 1px in ems is 1 ÷ 12 = 0.0833. I have added a margin of 1½ lines above the border (1.5 × 18 ÷ 12 = 2.5ems), so to maintain the rhythm the border + padding must equal a ½ (9px). We know the border is set to 1px, so the padding must be set to 8px. To specify this in ems we use the familiar calculation: 8 ÷ 12 = 0.667. Hit me with your rhythm stick Composing to a vertical rhythm helps engage and guide the reader down the page, but it takes typographic discipline to do so. It may seem like a lot of fiddly maths is involved (a few divisions and multiplications never hurt anyone) but good type setting is all about numbers, and it is this attention to detail which is the key to success. Like what you read? * [53]Tweet this article * or * [54]Leave a comment Comments * [55]12/12/2006 Wow this is a good article. * [57]12/12/2006 [58]Will thanks so much, this is great. * [59]12/12/2006 Interesting stuff. Also worth reading Eric Meyer's post on unitless line-heights: * [61]12/12/2006 It's worth mentioning that IE6 and below can go a bit extreme when resizing fonts set as ems. You can fix this by applying font-size: 100% to html. Don't know why this works, it just does. Oh, if you're working in quirks mode you'll also need to apply it to thead, tbody and tfoot, beacuse the fix doesn't inherit (don't apply it to table unless you want table to inherit font-sizes). You don't need thead, tbody or tfoot in your tables as tbody is implied. Obviously, you can't then apply your own font-sizes to html or tbody etc, else you'll overwrite the fix, which is why I chose those particular elements as they're rarely used for font-sizes. Jake. * [63]12/12/2006 [64]Mike Stenhouse donotremove.co.uk Hmmmmm, interesting! I've not tried this but I think there might be an easier way to set those heights... What if the line-height is set to, say, 1.5em on the body and 1 (unit-less - it's valid!) on each descendant element? Or maybe some variation on that. It might force the 18px to inherit into the children without awkward calculations. * [65]12/12/2006 Great article, Richard! Web typography--like all typography--deserves this level of detailed thinking, and I hope to see more designers embracing it. * [67]12/12/2006 [68]michael h Good introduction to typography theory, but I am convinced that the Owen Briggs method is the best approach to sizing. * [69]13/12/2006 I've been working on something similar recently, and I've discovered that if you set the line-height in pixels, most browsers will still scale it proportionally along with the text. As IE6's numbers fall off, I hope we can leave all this black magic scaling math behind and go back to setting font sizes in pixels and letting the browsers handle the scaling. * [71]13/12/2006 Mike - you're right about being able to simplify the line-height specifications, but it doesn't require setting unitless line-heights. In the example I use, I've set the font-size to be 12px on the body and calculated line-heights for all the subsequent elements. As I required one line height - 18px - for all elements I can remove the multiple statements and simply set line-height:1.5em on the body. The calculated line-height of 18px is inherited by all elements on the page. I've modifed the example to show this (checked in Firefox, Safari and IE6): However the maths would still need to be performed to calculate the correct margins, so while the extra line-height specifications are not strictly necessary (at least while the same line height for all text is required) you unfortunately don't save much on the calculations. * [73]13/12/2006 Jake - the extreme text sizing in IE can be fixed by applying any percentage font size to the body - it doesn't have to be 100% (hence my use of 75% fixed this too). You're right about the tables though. This rule does the job nicely to inherit the text size: table, thead, tbody, tr, th, td {font-size:1em} * [75]13/12/2006 [76]GreLI In the article next rule is used to reset margins: body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl ockquote,th,td { margin:0; padding:0; } I think it easier to use universal selector (* { margin: 0; padding: 0 }) instead. To fix table font-size inheritance it's enough to set table { font-size: 1em } Opera AFAIK don't change font-size if it set in pixels, but it can zoom pages (so does IE7). * [77]13/12/2006 GreLI - using the universal selector like that to zero all margins and padding can cause unpredictable results in some form controls (e.g. SELECT elements) in certain browsers. Rich - great article; now all someone needs to do is knock up a nice little app that spits out the right line-heights and margins for the elements you tell it... :) * [79]13/12/2006 It's unfortunate that pretty much no one composes with a scale when publishing for the web. Your article is a great step forward. Also overlooked are line lengths. Since the beginning of the web, It has been a standard practice to expand the line lengths out with the width of the browser (like your site is currently :), causing line lengths to expand way too long. If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even smaller. * [81]14/12/2006 I don't see it mentioned in the comments yet, but your quote above: "...Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels." is not correct, as IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized. * [83]18/12/2006 If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even smaller. You're right to mention line length as something that is overlooked, but on the screen it is not as simple as setting the measure in ems as their are more factors involved (screen size, liquid layouts, etc). Also I'd disagree that web line lengths should be shorter on the web. My personal preference would be for them to be longer - I find short line lengths on screen extremely hard work to read. That's just my opinion though. IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized. If you think of the reasons for changing text size then zooming a layout is just another form of resizing text and achieves the same goal. * [85]20/12/2006 Theodore, I think you would enjoy Richard's article entitled "Choose a comfortable measure" over at webtypography.net :) 1.2/ * [87]22/12/2006 [88]Rachel Maxim You've said in a few pages what has taken me years to figure out and refine :) - great info! * [89]23/12/2006 I really enjoyed this article. I have read your Elements of....for the web, as well as your blog about sizing text in ems. I have really been looking in to using this and getting the best `flow' with my typography. I also ordered the book Elements of Typographic Style just to give a better understanding. I think its a common misconception that text on the web will always look bland, and you have proved that it can have rhythm and style. * [91]02/01/2007 I've just been using some of these techniques on a client's site who needed 8 tabs all the same width, which fill the available space - I had it working fine in Firefox, but the tabs didn't fill the space in Safari or IE. I found that you really have to do the maths, rather than just use trial and error - they all round the numbers slightly differently. Once I'd checked my calculations, rather than tinkered with the numbers, it works fine everywhere, at least at standard font size. One other correction from someone's comment earlier on - you can resize text in IE7 - click the page icon at top right. Why you need both this and the ability to zoom, I'm not sure, but it's there at any rate. * [93]03/01/2007 [94]Ben G Can you set the margin above or below headings or paragraphs to less than your 18px base measurement? Won't margin collapsing cause whichever the largest margin is to take effect? Ben * [95]31/01/2009 [96]Daniel I've been using this article as the basis for designing my site with some "vertical rhythm". Everything is going well except with forms (input, textarea, etc.). I just haven't been able to use css to maintain the vertical rhythm (based on total line height of 18px). Any advise or insight as to how to get forms to play nicely? * [97]15/02/2009 [98]Silver Firefly I wanted to clarify something about the default browser text size and using the em unit. The article was a tad misleading when it covered the default browser text size and the em unit. A lot of designers have it in their heads that an em is equivalent to 16 pixels. An em is not equivalent to 16 pixels. It is equivalent to whatever is set in the user's browser, which is commonly 16px but depending on the user, it can be 20px or 12px or whatever they have set in their browser's settings. I hope after reading that statement, designers will start to realise that they have little control over how their website appears in other users' browsers. The majority of the control lies in the user's hands. Other than that, the article was very good. * [99]17/04/2009 Great article... and AWESOME site design. Inspirational! * [101]27/04/2009 Typesetting for websites is the future, like all things content-related. The Google knows it :). Thank you for that useful post. You webdesigners take care of your text! * [103]05/06/2009 [104]bonfield Inline bolding of elements (I'm using Helvetica, e.g.) seems to add a px of height on any line that uses it, and that subtly throws off the vertical rhythm for each line and it can add up depending -- anybody else run into this and solve it? * [105]18/06/2009 [106]Anonymous Does this truly keep the vertical rhythm? If you zoom in on the example, you'll see that the descender of the letter g in the H1 header "New England" crosses your rhythm marker's background line, while a lowercase g in the following paragraph does not. There appears to be some fudging going on. * [107]08/07/2009 I find it humorous that this site itself does not compose to a vertical rhythm. I've seen very few online that do. It's so difficult to implement across browsers it is usually brushed aside except for in the most simple design schemes. * [109]03/08/2009 [110]eric I've yet to see any empirical evidence that "vertical rhythm" applied to this degree has any impact on how well a reader is able to extract signal from the noise of the page. Meanwhile, I've seen many, many examples of mis-applied "vertical rhythms" resulting in squashed headings where the underlning on a link impinges on the text below. Which just looks clunky. When you've got something other than an aesthetic opinion from the margins -- maybe some actual data -- then I'll be interested in expending the effort needed to support real vertical rhythm. Until then, I just don't see how it's cost-effective. * [111]02/09/2009 Now, that was the kind of article I was looking for. That goes a lot deeper than I've been into the realms of line-spacing, leading (no kerning here though - can we do kerning with css?). I love the analogy to musical rhythym > therefore probably following on to mathematics/geometry/proportion. That is a great lead-in. Is there any room for the `golden ratio' in web design? Do graphic designers use it with/without realising it? Just that I haven't seen it discussed in the myriad pages concerning page layout/design that I've read so far... Thanks, Darren Impress us Name _________________________ Email _________________________ Website _________________________ Message _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ Be friendly / use [113]Textile Preview Submit About the author [114]Richard Rutter Richard Rutter is a user experience consultant and director of [115]Clearleft. He runs an ongoing project called [116]The Elements of Typographic Style Applied to the Web, where he extols the virtues of good web typography. Richard occasionally blogs at [117]Clagnut, where he writes about design, accessibility and web standards issues, as well as his passion for music and mountain biking. [118]More information Related articles * [119]Real Fonts and Rendering: The New Elephant in the Room 22/12/2009 by [120]Jeffrey Zeldman * [121]Spruce It Up 19/12/2009 by [122]Jonathan Snook * [123]Designing For The Switch 16/12/2009 by [124]Mark Boulton * [125]Type-Inspired Interfaces 07/12/2009 by [126]Dan Mall * [127]A Festive Type Folly 17/12/2008 by [128]Jon Tan * [129]Increase Your Font Stacks With Font Matrix 17/12/2007 by [130]Richard Rutter * [131]Typesetting Tables 07/12/2007 by [132]Mark Boulton * [133]Knockout Type - Thin Is Always In 17/12/2006 by [134]Shaun Inman * [135]An Explanation of Ems 02/12/2005 by [136]Richard Rutter [137]Article archives... In association with: [138]Perch - a really little cms * 24 ways is an [139]edgeofmyseat.com production. * Edited by [140]Drew McLellan and [141]Brian Suda. * Design delivered by [142]Made by Elephant. * Possible only with the help of [143]our terrific authors. * Grab our [144]RSS feed and follow us on [145]Twitter for daily updates. * Hosted by [146]Memset. * * * * Références [1]Home > [2]Articles > [3]Design > [4]Typography [5]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm [6]Jason Cranford Teague * By [7]Jason Cranford Teague * Dec 23, 2009 [8]Toggle Open Article Table of Contents [9]Article Contents [10]Close Table of Contents [11]Article Contents 1. [12]Web Measurements 2. [13]Type Size & Line Height 3. [14]Type Space 4. Text Alignment [15]Close Table of Contents [16]< Back Page 4 of 4 * [17]Print [18]Print * [19]Share This [20]Share This * [21]Discuss [22]Discuss [23]Close Window Jason Cranford Teague Jason Cranford Teague [24]Learn more... * [25]Articles * [26]Store * [27]Blogs [28]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm Dec 23, 2009 [29]Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers: Creating Meaning through Syntax Jul 23, 2009 [30]Designing Webbed Environments: The Importance of the Define and Design Phases May 12, 2006 [31]Creating Web Pages for Screen, Print, and Email Apr 28, 2006 [32]How to Style Forms in CSS Mar 17, 2006 [33]What Are CSS Sprites? Mar 3, 2006 [34]Ten Things You Can Do with CSS (That You Might Not Have Known You Could Do) Dec 22, 2005 [35]Fluid Web Typography [36]Fluid Web Typography Nov 24, 2009 [37]Fluid Web Typography, Adobe Reader [38]Fluid Web Typography, Adobe Reader Nov 24, 2009 [39]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers [40]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers Jun 30, 2009 [41]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers, Adobe Reader [42]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers, Adobe Reader Jun 30, 2009 [43]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, 4th Edition [44]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, 4th Edition Oct 17, 2006 [45]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, Adobe Reader, 4th Edition [46]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, Adobe Reader, 4th Edition Oct 17, 2006 [47]DHTML and CSS Advanced: Visual QuickPro Guide [48]DHTML and CSS Advanced: Visual QuickPro Guide Dec 15, 2004 [49]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 3rd Edition [50]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 3rd Edition Feb 20, 2004 [51]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 2nd Edition [52]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 2nd Edition May 30, 2001 [53]10 Last-minute Gifts for Web Designers By on December 17, 2009 1 Comment Q: What do I get for the Web designer who has everything? The short answer is real estate. The slightly longer answer is, anything that helps spark their creativity. The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah, Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [54]Saturnalia myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has everything they need to actually make Web sites? Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect. [55]Choosing the Right Color Value By on December 14, 2009 No Comments Q: Should I use Hex or RGB values to define colors in CSS? The short answer is RGB. The slightly longer answer is that Hex values have become the de facto standard for use in CSS code and both developers and designers are used to them. The long answer is that, in the final design on the screen, there is no difference between using Hex or RGB values in your code. Which system you use is really a matter of you own personal preference (and those of the team you are working with) as to whether or not you use Hex or RGB values to define colors. [56]Expand Your Font Repertoire By on November 30, 2009 No Comments Q: Are there alternatives to Arial, Times, and Georgia for Web designers? The short answer is YES! The slightly longer answer is that most designers use Arial, Times, or Georgia, and, to a lesser degree, Verdana, Trebuchet MS, Courier, and Comic Sans because they think that's all they have at their disposal, but they are wrong. The long answer is that the core Web fonts (the one listed above plus Impact and Web Dings) are used because they are almost guaranteed to be installed on the vast majority of computers your designs are likely to be installed on. One fact of life in Web design is that unless the end user's computer has access to the font file, then the browser cannot use it. [57]Pixels or Ems in Your Web Designs By on November 18, 2009 No Comments Q: What is the practical difference between px (pixel) and em (pronounced m)? When is it best to use one over the other? The short answer is that pixels measure dimensions relative to the screen while ems measure dimensions relative to type size. The slightly longer answer is that pixels are the natural unit for measuring dimensions on a screen and are often used when precise design is required. Ems are the natural unit for measuring type and used when you want to allow maximum design flexibility. [58]To CSS Reset or Not to CSS Reset By on November 10, 2009 No Comments Question: Which Global Reset for CSS Should I Use? The short answer is the simplest one possible. The slightly longer answer is that you should reset some styles, but do so with a good reason. The long answer is that the exact CSS reset you choose will depend on the needs of your design. I like to keep my own reset simple, relying on adding styles to specific tags as needed. However, there are several styles that are inconsistent or (in my opinion) poorly set in most browsers. [59]HTML 5 NOW! By on August 25, 20092 Comments Q: Can I start using HTML 5 now? The short answer is, yes. The slightly longer answer is, you can use some of the new features, but you will need to do a little [60]kludging to get it to work. The long answer is that HTML is a mark-up language meant to indicate the structure of a document. HTML 5 is the next evolutionary step in mark-up languages for the Web, but it is not implemented on most browsers that your audiences are likely to be using and it may be some time before it is. That said, there are some things you can do now to prepare for the future. [61]Big Things Ahead for HTML 5 By on August 17, 2009 No Comments Q: Will HTML5 or XHTML5 be the next big thing or just another collection of past standards and browser war fodder? The short answer is that, yes, [62]HTML 5 is the next big thing. The slightly longer answer is that it's going to be a while before you have to start worrying about HTML 5. The long answer is that, as with all standards, before it becomes relevant, the browser makers have to implement it and then you'll have to wait even longer before legacy browsers are no longer an issue. So, you have some time before you have to run out and buy a new HTML 5 Visual QuickStart Guide. The good news is that HTML 5 has gone to great lengths to stay backwards compatible, so you can begin to learn and implement it today. [63]Everyone is a Web Designer By on August 10, 2009 No Comments Q: What is a Web Designer anymore? It was easier to make Web sites all by yourself, even 5 years ago, but now there is just too much technology for one person to handle. If I want to make a Web site for a very small business, don't have I to be web "developer" now? The short answer is that everybody is a Web designer now. The slightly longer answer is that Web designers are practitioners of a highly specialized discipline that requires years of study to truly master. The long answer is that a good Web designer is a good designer, and this can come "naturally" or from training, but is not medium-dependent. However, a professional Web designer has to understand the medium well enough to know its strengths and limitations. Any designer can pump out something that looks brilliant when displayed in a Web browser window, but is slow to load, static when loaded, and completely unusable. [64]Frames are Dead, Long Live Iframes! By on July 24, 2009 No Comments Q: Is there a suitable alternative to frames? My wife is president of a local woman's club. She and I administer the club's web site, and the ladies like the list of links down one side of the pages. But I read that frames have been deprecated. Regardless, I want to keep the site simple. The short answer is yes-- use iframes. The slightly longer answer is no, not exactly, but we can get close. The long answer is there are a variety of ways to add content to your Web pages, but the question is: once it's on the page what are you going to do with it (or to it)? [65]Q: If I ask ten different web designers what pixel dimensions to use for web pages and whether to make them fixed-width or "stretchy," I get ten different answers. What's your answer, and why? By on July 20, 2009 No Comments The short answer is fixed at 974 pixels (px) wide. The slightly longer answer is whatever it takes to get the job done. The long answer is that asking a Web designer what size a Web page should be is like asking a painter what size a canvas should be or an architect how large a a building should be. While it's not purely a matter of taste--there are certain physical and ergonomic constraints--personal preference accounts for the wide variety of answers you might hear. [66]Ask me, ask me, ask me By on July 1, 2009 No Comments Do you have a question about Web standards, CSS, JavaScript, Ajax, interaction design, user experience, or Web typography? Maybe you just want to know "How'd they do that?" Ask me questions, and each week I will select a question to answer via my Peachpit.com blog. [67]Ask the Web Designer: Why Can't I Use Any Font I Want in My Web Designs? By on June 30, 2009 No Comments The short answer is that you can. The slightly longer answer is that you can't, at least not in any meaningful way yet. The long answer is that the ability to download fonts has actually been a part of the CSS standard (the language used to create Web designs) for over 10 years. The snag comes with what font formats a given browser supports. [NOTE: You may want to stop reading now, as the rest of this explanation might make your eyes bleed in frustration.] [68]Fluid Web Typography This chapter is from the book [69]Fluid Web Typography Jason Cranford Teague shows how giving careful consideration to the measurements and scale you are designing for is what separates good Web typography from great Web typography. Text Alignment Text alignment is generally taken for granted on the Web--left alignment suits most purposes most of the time. In order to create a sense of rhythm and movement on your page, helping to guide the reader's eye around and adding visual interest to the page, a little alignment variation can go a long way. Set body text alignment to minimize gaps and maximize scanning Text alignment in Web pages is, by default, to the left, with ragged edges on the right. Justified text--sometimes called newspaper columns, where both edges of the text are aligned--is rare on the Web. text-align: left; text-align: justify; In print, justified text is created using a variety of techniques including word spacing, letterspacing, hyphenation, and glyph reshaping. In addition, well-formed justification is calculated on a paragraph level to prevent "rivers" of white space flowing down the middle. On the Web, unfortunately, justification is simply created by adding small amounts of space between words. On the screen, where you can only add whole pixels, this often results in uncomfortably large amounts of space between some words, especially in narrower columns. Hyphenation is inexplicably absent from CSS. While it is proposed for inclusion in CSS 3, no work has currently been done on it. When choosing to use left or justified alignment, keep in mind these factors: * Justified text is often seen as more formal and structured, while left alignment is more informal and approachable. * Justified text reinforces the grid structure of a page but can be harder to scan, since it often creates rivers of white space throughout the text, which interrupts the eye path. * Left-aligned text adds an element of white space to the right edge, softening the overall appearance of the page. Combining Alignments [70]craigmod.com Craig Mod combines right-and left-justified columns of text to create motion and rhythm around his page. [71]04-17.jpg [72]Click to view larger image Center or right-justify text for effect and variety More rarely used, centering or right-justifying text can create a specific feeling on the page. text-align: center; text-align: right; Centering and right aligning text is integrally dependent on the design you are creating and how you want your readers to scan the page. While using a variety of justifications helps create rhythm and motion on your page, it can quickly seem cluttered or obnoxious. Always have a specific purpose for the variance of alignment, and use it sparingly. Here are a few ideas: * Bulleted or numbered lists should not be centered or right aligned, as this makes them harder to scan by moving the beginning of each line around. * Center section or module titles/headers if you want to make your site look a little different. Generally, section titles are best when left aligned, but centering them gives your designs a unique feel and may also improve scannability. * Right-align text in the left column of a page or table if it helps show a closer relationship between the elements in adjacent columns. Centered Section Titles [73]jontangerine.com Jon Tangerine combines centered subheadings with justified text in his blog (detail shown) to create solid structure with visual movement. [74]04-18.jpg [75]Click to view larger image Increase margins for longer quotations and style the citation Short quotes of less than three lines are included in a paragraph surround by quotation marks, requiring no other special formatting. In HTML, the blockquote tag is used to set off a block of text as a quotation, generally of two lines of text or longer. The quotation should be styled to distinguish it from other text by indenting its left and right margins and increasing the top and bottom margins. The amount of left/right indentation is based on the width of the column and then adjusted so that it does not conflict with any other indents. A good measure to offset blockquotes is to double the font size (2em), although more or less space may be required for wider or narrower columns: blockquote { margin: 2em; } note.jpg In this chapter, we are only considering spacing issues with blockquotes and citations. Chapters 5 and 6 offer other ways to style text, including weights, italics, backgrounds, and borders. These can be deployed to creatively display longer quotations. This will clearly space the blockquote away from the rest of the text, but it's also up to the copywriter to make it clear that the text is a quote and to supply its source, possibly using the cite tag, which indicates a citation. Turning the cite tag into a block-level element and right-aligning it when it is included in a blockquote creates a strong style. blockquote cite { display: block; text-align: right; } Blockquote Ideas [76]css-tricks.com/examples/Blockquotes CSS-Tricks has a page of blockquote ideas with sample code. The code above will force any text marked by the citation tag to a new line and right-align it. [77]04-20.jpg [78]Click to view larger image Set footnotes and scientific or mathematical annotations using positioning rather than vertical alignment Vertical text alignment allows you to adjust the position of inline text in relation to its natural baseline, shifting it up or down. For footnotes, mathematics, and scientific notation, it will not be enough to simply raise or lower the characters; you will also need to reduce their size relative to the surrounding text. These styles can be applied to the superscript and subscript tags, setting the vertical position to the baseline and then setting a position relative to that: sup, sub { font-size: .5em; vertical-align: baseline; position: relative; } sup { top: -.65em; } sup.math { top: -.8em } sub { top: .2em; } Although vertical-align provides several values to set the vertical position of the text, these have proved to be unreliable in multi-column layouts. The exact values will vary depending on the font, and you may also need to add some left/right margins to add breathing room. [79]04-21.jpg [80]Click to view larger image Type Inspirations: Jon Tangerine Beautiful typographic contrast. Insightful typography editorials. [81]jontangerine.com Jon is a designer living in Bristol, UK, with some of the cleanest pure Web typography I've seen. On top of this, his information and opinions on Web typography are required reading for anyone interested in the ongoing issues we face. [82]04-22.jpg [83]Click to view larger image How he does it: Jon uses a font stack of Web safe fonts, including Cochin, Baskerville, and Palatino Linotype, down to Georgia. He then combines a wide variety of sizes, styles, weights, and colors all scaled and spaced within a strong grid to provide clear eye paths and legible text. [84]04-25.jpg [85]Click to view larger image [86]04-26.jpg [87]Click to view larger image [88]04-27.jpg [89]Click to view larger image [90]04-28.jpg [91]Click to view larger image [92]< Back Page 4 of 4 * [93]Share This [94]Share This * [95][save_16.png] [96]Your Account Discussions Make a New Comment You must [97]log in in order to post a comment. 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The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah, Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [122]Saturnalia myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has everything they need to actually make Web sites? Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect. [123]Kara Murphy [124]Just in time for the holidays: Our video-a-day giveaway By [125]Kara Murphy on December 16, 2009 No Comments It's the holiday season, and I bet some of you are already thinking of your New Year's resolutions. If one of them is to learn something new in the field of Web design, development, presentation, branding, and much more, then you're in luck. 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All rights reserved. 1249 Eighth Street, Berkeley, CA 94710 [192]Informit Network [Other Network Sites......] Références Liens visibles 8. javascript:void(0); 9. javascript:void(0); 10. javascript:hideTOC(); 11. javascript:hideTOC(); 15. javascript:hideTOC(); 23. javascript:showme('authorInformation','closed'); 71. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-17.jpg') 72. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-17.jpg') 74. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-18.jpg') 75. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-18.jpg') 77. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-20.jpg') 78. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-20.jpg') 79. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-21.jpg') 80. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-21.jpg') 82. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-22.jpg') 83. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-22.jpg') 84. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-25.jpg') 85. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-25.jpg') 86. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-26.jpg') 87. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-26.jpg') 88. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-27.jpg') 89. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-27.jpg') 90. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-28.jpg') 91. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-28.jpg') Liens cachés : #[1]Latest articles [2]Most viewed [3]Latest comments [4]PDF [5]XML version [6][1048314841@Top,Bottom,x96!Top] [7]Log on / register [8]BioMed Central home | [9]Journals A-Z | [10]Feedback | [11]Support | [12]My details [13]Home | [14]Browse articles | [15]Search | [16]Weblinks | [17]Submit article | [18]My JCR | [19]About JCR * [20]Top * [21]Abstract * [22]Background * [23]Methods * [24]Results * [25]Discussion * [26]Conclusion * [27]Competing interests * [28]Authors' contributions * [29]Acknowledgements * [30]References [31][1973347444@Top,Bottom,x96%21x96] [32]Journal of Circadian Rhythms [33]Volume 7 Viewing options: * [34]Abstract * Full text * [35]PDF (243KB) Associated material: * [36]Readers' comments [37]RSS * [38]PubMed record Related literature: * Articles citing this article [39]on Google Scholar [40]on PubMed Central * Other articles by authors [41]on Google Scholar [42]Nagane M [43]Yoshimura K [44]Watanabe SI [45]Nomura M [46]on PubMed [47]Nagane M [48]Yoshimura K [49]Watanabe SI [50]Nomura M * Related articles/pages [51]on Google [52]on Google Scholar [53]on PubMed Tools: * [54]Download citation(s) * [55]Download XML * [56]Email to a friend * [57]Order reprints * [58]Post a comment * [59]Nominate for award Post to: * [60]Citeulike * [61]Connotea * [62]Del.icio.us * [63]Facebook * [64]Twitter [65]Open Access Research A possible connection between psychosomatic symptoms and daily rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion in healthy Japanese students Mitsuo Nagane^1 [66]email , Kazunori Yoshimura^2 [67]email , Shu-Ichi Watanabe^3 [68]email and Masahiko Nomura^4 [69]email ^1 Department of Educational Physiology, Chiba University, Chiba 263-8522, Japan ^2 Department of Rehabilitation, Nihon Institute of Medical Science, Japan ^3 Department of Physiology, Saitama Medical University, Japan ^4 International Education and Training Center, Saitama Medical University, Japan [email.gif] author email [email-ca.gif] corresponding author email Journal of Circadian Rhythms 2009, 7:10doi:10.1186/1740-3391-7-10 The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be Received: 3 February 2009 Accepted: 5 August 2009 Published: 5 August 2009 © 2009 Nagane et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Abstract Background Students suffering from psychosomatic symptoms, including drowsiness and feelings of melancholy, often have basic lifestyle problems. The aim of this study was to investigate whether psychosomatic complaints may be related to circadian dysfunction. Methods We examined 15 healthy students (4 men and 11 women) between 21 and 22 years old. To assess the presence of psychosomatic symptoms among the subjects, we developed a self-assessment psychosomatic complaints questionnaire consisting of five items pertaining to physical symptoms and five items concerning mental symptoms. The subjects rated their psychosomatic symptoms twice a day (08:00 and 20:00 h). We also assessed growth hormone secretion patterns by fluorescence enzyme immunoassay (FEIA). Salivary samples were collected from the subjects at home five times a day (20:00, 24:00, 04:00, 08:00, and 12:00 h) in Salivette tubes. Results The results indicated a relationship between the self-assessment scores and the salivary levels of growth hormone. Subjects with high self-assessment scores showed significant variability in growth hormone secretion over the day, whereas subjects with low self-assessment scores did not. Conclusion Psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with circadian dysfunction, as inferred from blunted rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion. Background Japanese students suffering from psychosomatic disorders, such as those involving mood and sleep, may exhibit basic problems in their lifestyle, including deleterious changes in their living environment and dietary or lifestyle disturbances [[72]1]. In particular, staying up late is associated with decreased appetite and missed breakfast the following morning, irregular bowel movements and sleepiness. Perhaps the biggest problem facing today's Japanese students is their lack of daily physical exercise, brought on by stressful academic courses over long periods of time, too much television and computer games and increased automobile use [[73]2]. Many Japanese youngsters stay up late at night [[74]3]. A circadian pacemaker in the central nervous system regulates human sleep cycles, hormone secretion, subject alertness, objective performance levels and other physiologic functions over a 24-h period. Core body temperature, plasma cortisol, and plasma melatonin are three variables frequently used to estimate the phase of the human pacemaker [[75]4], although many other hormones, including growth hormone, exhibit daily rhythmicity. Technical advances that make the assessment of biomarkers in saliva possible have enabled researchers to non-invasively study biosocial processes related to stress in naturalistic contexts. Chiappin et al [[76]5] showed the usefulness and possibility of salivary hormone analysis containing growth hormone. Rantonen [[77]6] found a linear correlation between salivary and serum growth hormone. Carroll et al. [[78]7] described negative effects of growth hormone insufficiency on psychological well-being, including reduced vitality and energy, depressed mood, emotional lability, impaired self-control, anxiety, and increased social isolation. Patients with growth hormone deficiencies report decreased energy levels, greater emotional lability, increased difficulties with sexual relationships and a greater sense of social isolation than control subjects [[79]8]. However, no direct relationship has been shown between growth hormone deficiency and psychometrically measured depression, apathy or psychosomatic well-being [[80]9]. The purpose of the present study was to investigate individual variation in the levels of growth hormone in healthy subjects and to examine the relationship between an individual's hormone profile and his or her psychosomatic complaints. Methods The subjects and self-assessment questionnaire Fifteen subjects (4 men and 11 women) without major medical disorders ranging in age from 21 to 22 years participated in this study. The study design was approved by the Ethics Committee of Chiba University, Japan, and informed consent was obtained from all subjects. A self-assessment questionnaire concerning psychosomatic symptoms was developed in accordance with data from the Health Behavior in School-Aged Children (HBSC) study of the WHO [[81]10]. The questionnaire for this study contained five items related to physical symptoms and five items pertaining to mental symptoms (Table [82]1). The questionnaire was used to measure each individual's psychosomatic symptoms at home twice each day (08:00 and 20:00 h). The items were rated on a 4-point scale, with 1 = not true at all and 4 = completely true. The total score for the 10-item scale ranged from 10 to 40, with higher scores indicating a greater degree of psychosomatic complaints. The subjects were allocated post hoc (median split) to a High (n = 7) or Low (n = 8) Self-Assessment Group based on their total morning score (with higher scores corresponding to lower self-assessment). [83]Table 1. Morning and evening psychosomatic condition scores collected from the self-assessment psychosomatic complaint questionnaire Sample collection Saliva was collected into Salivette tubes (Sarstedt, Germany) using polyester swabs from the subjects' mouths following 2 min of chewing. Samples were collected five times a day at home (20:00, 24:00, 04:00, 08:00, and 12:00 h). Both the day of sampling and the preceding day were required to be normal days (i.e., without special events or stressful circumstances). After sample collection, the saliva was stored at -20°C until being analysed. Salivary growth hormone assay On the day of testing, the samples were centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for 10 min to remove all mucin. A standard fluorescent determination immunoassay was used to assess the growth hormone concentrations in each sample. To avoid inter-assay variability, all determinations were performed in a single series. In the first step, 96-well fluoro-nunc plates (Nunc, Black MicroWell 137101, Denmark) were pre-coated with 100 µl of anti-growth hormone antibody (Quartett, 2071800210, Germany) and incubated for 1.5 h at room temperature. After incubation, the plate was washed three times with phosphate-buffered saline and blocked for 1 h. After washing, 100 µl of saliva or a standard solution was dispensed into each well and left for 1.5 h. After washing, primary antibody (Funakoshi, FU47500254, Japan) was added to the plates and incubated for 1.5 h. Next, incubation with a secondary antibody (Novus Biologicals, NB120-7112, USA) was performed for 1 h. After washing, rabbit anti-ovine immunoglobulin (Amersham Biosciences, ECF Western Blotting Reagent Pack, USA) was added. After 20 min of incubation, the plate was scanned using a Fluoromark Microplate Fluorometer (Bio-Rad, USA) with excitation at 485 nm and emission at 590 nm. Data analysis The significance of differences between group means was tested by analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by protected t tests when appropriate. The presence of daily rhythmicity in salivary growth hormone was tested by ANOVA and by the cosinor procedure [[84]11]. Results Self-assessment psychosomatic complaints questionnaire A factorial repeated measures ANOVA (high/low self-assessment versus morning/evening self-assessment scores) was conducted. ANOVA results showed significant differences (p < .05) between morning and evening self-assessment scores. Post hoc analyses revealed that, as shown in Table [85]1, the high self-assessment group (total 19.00) differed significantly from the low self-assessment group (total 32.75) in terms of their morning scores (Welch's t-test, t = -3.96, df = 7.57, p < 0.01). The low self-assessment group subjects complained of negative psychosomatic conditions including being easily irritated (p < .05), feeling melancholy (p < .05), having a desire to rest (p < .05), and feeling anxious (p < .01). Assessment of daily rhythmicity of salivary growth hormone secretion We collected saliva profiles from 15 healthy students (4 men and 11 women). The amplitude of salivary growth hormone, defined as the difference between the highest and lowest salivary concentrations, was used to produce a standardisation, or Z, score. As shown in Figure [86]1, noticeable variation was observed in the hormonal rhythms of the subjects, including differences in the salivary growth hormone secretion profiles of the high and low self-assessment groups. Cosinor analysis revealed no significant 24-hour rhythmicity in the secretion profiles of either group (p > .50), but a repeated measures ANOVA identified statistically significant (p < .05) time-related variations for growth hormone in the high self-assessment group. The secretion profile of the low self-assessment group did not exhibit the typical, sharp peak in the early morning [[87]12], and ANOVA showed no time-related variation (p > .10). At 08:00 h, salivary growth hormone levels were significantly lower (p < .05) in the low self-assessment group than in the high self-assessment group. [88]thumbnail Figure 1. Daily variation in salivary level of growth hormone in the high and low self-assessment groups. The results are presented as means ± S.E.M. * p < .05. Discussion Psychosocial factors have been previously shown to affect the psychosomatic symptoms reported by Japanese school children [[89]13]. Psychosomatic symptoms, which are largely mediated by the autonomic nervous system, are strongly influenced by an individual's lifestyle, and the current so-called 24-h society in Japan may have changed the environmental conditions of students. More than 80% of school refusal cases (school phobia) suffer from sleep disorders, with a tendency towards day/night reversal and easy fatigability, especially during the period immediately following their school social life [[90]14]. Thus, impairment in circadian rhythmicity may be a cause of school refusal in Japan. The present study was the first step in an attempt to investigate this hypothesis. Our assessment of salivary growth hormone secretion was not sensitive enough to detect significant daily rhythmicity, but the highest level measured in the subjects of our high self-assessment group occurred earlier in the day than the peak of the daily rhythm measured in a previous study [[91]15]. Peak hormonal secretions often shift to the morning if an activity continues long into the night. A link between deficiency of growth hormone and reduced quality of life or well-being has been reported by many researchers [[92]7]. Our results indicate a relationship between the self-assessment scores and the levels of growth hormone. Subjects with high self-assessment scores in the morning showed significant variability in growth hormone secretion during the day, whereas subjects with low self-assessment scores did not. Thus, psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with hormonal rhythms related to basic lifestyle habits. Nocturnal melatonin secretion can be suppressed by exposure to light on the order of several hundred lux, such as ordinary room light [[93]16]. Thus, a subject's pattern of melatonin secretion may reflect his or her life rhythm, and melatonin secretion appears to be an important index of circadian rhythmicity. Based on our previous finding that growth hormone and melatonin exhibit similar daily rhythmicity [[94]17], we believe that estimates of the state of the central circadian clock can be most accurate if they are based on the analysis of the secretion patterns of both melatonin and growth hormone. Some limitations of our study must be emphasized. First, it is possible that the sleep-disrupting effect of waking at 00.00 and 04.00 to produce a saliva sample had a disruptive effect on hormonal secretion. Second, we observed a larger difference in terms of gender than has been previously described [[95]18], with women having sevenfold higher serum growth hormone concentrations than men during the day. Though we did not directly examine sex differences in growth hormone secretion, we recognise it as an important topic for further research. Conclusion Psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with circadian dysfunction, as inferred from blunted rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Authors' contributions MN designed the experiments, collected data and wrote the manuscript. KY managed the laboratory and adjusted the schedule of subjects. SW participated in the design of the study and performed statistical analysis. MN supervised the study. All authors read and approved the final version of the article. Acknowledgements This study was supported in part by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (C) from the Japanese Ministry of Education to Nagane M. References 1. Okamoto M, Tan F, Suyama A, Okada H, Miyamoto T, Kishimoto T: The characteristics of fatigue symptoms and their association with the life style and the health status in school children. J Epidemiol 2000, 10:241-248. [96]PubMed Abstract [97]OpenURL 2. Murata M: Secular trends in growth and changes in eating patterns of Japanese children. Am J Clin Nutr 2000, 72(suppl):1379S-1383S. [98]PubMed Abstract | [99]Publisher Full Text [100]OpenURL 3. Harada T: Effects of evening light conditions on salivary melatonin of Japanese junior high school students. J Circadian Rhythms 2004, 2:4. [101]PubMed Abstract | [102]BioMed Central Full Text | [103]PubMed Central Full Text [104]OpenURL 4. Klerman E, Gershengorn HB, Duffy JF, Kronauer RE: Comparisons of the variability of three markers of the human circadian pacemaker. J Biol Rhyth 2002, 17:181-193. [105]Publisher Full Text [106]OpenURL 5. Chiappin S, Antonelli G, Gatti R, De Palo EF: Saliva specimen: A new laboratory tool for diagnostic and basic investigation. Clinica Chimica Acta 2007, 383:30-40. [107]Publisher Full Text [108]OpenURL 6. Rantonen PJ, Penttila I, Meurman JH, Savolainen K, Narvanen S, Helenius T: Growth hormone and cortisol in serum and saliva. Acta Odontol Scand 2000, 58:299-303. [109]PubMed Abstract | [110]Publisher Full Text [111]OpenURL 7. Carroll PV, Christ ER: Growth Hormone Deficiency in Adulthood and the effects of growth hormone replacement: A review. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998, 83:382-395. [112]PubMed Abstract | [113]Publisher Full Text [114]OpenURL 8. Rosen T, Wiren L, Wilhelmsen L, Wiklund I, Bengtsson BA: Decreased psychological well-being in adult patients with growth hormone deficiency. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1994, 40:111-116. [115]PubMed Abstract | [116]Publisher Full Text [117]OpenURL 9. Zenker S, Haverkamp F, Klingmuller D: Growth hormone deficiency in pituitary disease: relationship to depression, apathy and somatic complaints. Eur J Endocrinol 2002, 147:165-171. [118]PubMed Abstract | [119]Publisher Full Text [120]OpenURL 10. Haugland S, Wold B, Stevenson J, Aaroe LE, Woynarowska B: Subjective health complaints in adolescence. Eur J Public Health 2001, 11:4-10. [121]PubMed Abstract | [122]Publisher Full Text [123]OpenURL 11. Nelson W, Tong YL, Lee JK, Halberg F: Methods for cosinor rhythmometry. Chronobiologia 1979, 6:305-323. [124]PubMed Abstract [125]OpenURL 12. Cauter EV, Leproult R, Plat L: Age-related changes in slow wave sleep and REM sleep and relationship with growth hormone and cortisol levels in healthy men. J Am Med Asso 2000, 284:861-868. [126]Publisher Full Text [127]OpenURL 13. Tanaka H, Tamai H, Terashima S, Takenaka Y, Tanaka T: Psychosocial factors affecting psychosomatic symptoms in Japanese schoolchildren. Pediatr Int 2000, 42:354-358. [128]PubMed Abstract | [129]Publisher Full Text [130]OpenURL 14. Miike T, Tomoda A, Jhodoi T, Iwatani N, Mabe H: Learning and memorization impairment in childhood chronic fatigue syndrome manifesting as school phobia in Japan. Brain Dev 2004, 26:442-447. [131]PubMed Abstract | [132]Publisher Full Text [133]OpenURL 15. Albertsson-Wikland K, Rosberg S, Karlberg J, Groth T: Analysis of 24-hour growth hormone profiles in healthy boys and girls of normal stature: relation to puberty. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994, 78:1195-1201. [134]PubMed Abstract | [135]Publisher Full Text [136]OpenURL 16. Aoki H, Yamada N, Ozeki Y, Yamane H, Kato N: Minimum light intensity required to suppress nocturnal melatonin concentration in human saliva. Neurosci Lett 1998, 252:91-94. [137]PubMed Abstract | [138]Publisher Full Text [139]OpenURL 17. Nagane M, Yoshimura K, Watanabe SI, Nomura M: Examination of the validity of growth hormone as an index of the biological rhythm in comparison with cortisol and melatonin in Japanese healthy students. J Physiol Sci 2008, 58(Suppl):S87. [140]OpenURL 18. Engström BE, Karlsson FA, Wide L: Gender differences in diurnal growth hormone and epinephrine values in young adults during ambulation. Clin Chem 1999, 45:1235-1239. [141]PubMed Abstract | [142]Publisher Full Text [143]OpenURL [144]Have something to say? Post a comment on this article! __________________________________________________________________ [145][1048314841@Top,Bottom,x96!Bottom] [146]Terms and Conditions [147]Privacy statement [148]Information for advertisers [149]Jobs at BMC [150]Contact us © 1999-2010 BioMed Central Ltd unless otherwise stated. Part of [151]Springer Science+Business Media. Références Liens visibles 41. javascript:/// 46. javascript:/// Liens cachés : #[1]Latest articles [2]Most viewed [3]Latest comments [4]PDF [5]XML version [6][1352965720@Top,Bottom,x96!Top] [7]Log on / register [8]BioMed Central home | [9]Journals A-Z | [10]Feedback | [11]Support | [12]My details [13]Home | [14]Browse articles | [15]Search | [16]Weblinks | [17]Submit article | [18]My JCR | [19]About JCR * [20]Top * [21]Abstract * [22]Background * [23]Methods * [24]Results * [25]Discussion * [26]Conclusion * [27]List of abbre... * [28]Competing interests * [29]Authors' contributions * [30]Acknowledgements * [31]References [32][1973347444@Top,Bottom,x96%21x96] [33]Journal of Circadian Rhythms [34]Volume 3 Viewing options: * [35]Abstract * Full text * [36]PDF (651KB) Associated material: * [37]Readers' comments [38]RSS * [39]PubMed record Related literature: * Articles citing this article [40]on Google Scholar [41]on PubMed Central * Other articles by authors [42]on Google Scholar [43]Conroy DA [44]Spielman AJ [45]Scott RQ [46]on PubMed [47]Conroy DA [48]Spielman AJ [49]Scott RQ * Related articles/pages [50]on Google [51]on Google Scholar [52]on PubMed Tools: * [53]Download citation(s) * [54]Download XML * [55]Email to a friend * [56]Order reprints * [57]Post a comment Post to: * [58]Citeulike * [59]Connotea * [60]Del.icio.us * [61]Facebook * [62]Twitter [63]Open Access [64]Highly Access Research Daily rhythm of cerebral blood flow velocity Deirdre A Conroy^1 [65]email , Arthur J Spielman^1^,2 [66]email and Rebecca Q Scott^3 [67]email ^1 Department of Psychology, The Graduate School and University Center of the City University of New York, New York, USA ^2 Department of Neurology and Neuroscience, New York Presbyterian Hospital, New York, USA ^3 Department of Health Psychology, Albert Einstein Medical College at Yeshiva University, Bronx, USA [email.gif] author email [email-ca.gif] corresponding author email Journal of Circadian Rhythms 2005, 3:3doi:10.1186/1740-3391-3-3 The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be Received: 21 December 2004 Accepted: 10 March 2005 Published: 10 March 2005 © 2005 Conroy et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Abstract Background CBFV (cerebral blood flow velocity) is lower in the morning than in the afternoon and evening. Two hypotheses have been proposed to explain the time of day changes in CBFV: 1) CBFV changes are due to sleep-associated processes or 2) time of day changes in CBFV are due to an endogenous circadian rhythm independent of sleep. The aim of this study was to examine CBFV over 30 hours of sustained wakefulness to determine whether CBFV exhibits fluctuations associated with time of day. Methods Eleven subjects underwent a modified constant routine protocol. CBFV from the middle cerebral artery was monitored by chronic recording of Transcranial Doppler (TCD) ultrasonography. Other variables included core body temperature (CBT), end-tidal carbon dioxide (EtCO2), blood pressure, and heart rate. Salivary dim light melatonin onset (DLMO) served as a measure of endogenous circadian phase position. Results A non-linear multiple regression, cosine fit analysis revealed that both the CBT and CBFV rhythm fit a 24 hour rhythm (R^2 = 0.62 and R^2 = 0.68, respectively). Circadian phase position of CBT occurred at 6:05 am while CBFV occurred at 12:02 pm, revealing a six hour, or 90 degree difference between these two rhythms (t = 4.9, df = 10, p < 0.01). Once aligned, the rhythm of CBFV closely tracked the rhythm of CBT as demonstrated by the substantial correlation between these two measures (r = 0.77, p < 0.01). Conclusion In conclusion, time of day variations in CBFV have an approximately 24 hour rhythm under constant conditions, suggesting regulation by a circadian oscillator. The 90 degree-phase angle difference between the CBT and CBFV rhythms may help explain previous findings of lower CBFV values in the morning. The phase difference occurs at a time period during which cognitive performance decrements have been observed and when both cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events occur more frequently. The mechanisms underlying this phase angle difference require further exploration. Background It has been well documented that cerebral blood flow velocity (CBFV) is lower in sleep [[70]1-[71]7] and in the morning shortly after awakening [[72]8-[73]10] than in the afternoon or evening. Generally accepted theories about the time of day changes in CBFV attribute the fall in CBFV to the physiological processes of the sleep period and the increase during the day to waking processes. The low CBFV in the morning is thought to be a consequence of the fall in the overall reduced metabolic level [[74]8,[75]10 ,[76]11] and reduced cognitive processing [[77]12]. Additionally, the reduced physical activity [[78]13], reduced body temperature, and the recumbent sleeping position have also been proposed as contributors [[79]14] to the decline in CBFV and analogous brain processes. An alternative to these explanations that attribute changes in CBFV to sleep and wake dependent processes is that this pattern of fluctuation reflects an endogenous process with circadian rhythmicity. The decline of CBFV across the sleep period and rise after subjects are awakened in the morning resemble the endogenous circadian changes in core body temperature (CBT), a reliable index of endogenous circadian rhythmicity. Both patterns are low during sleep, start to rise in the morning, reach their peak in the late afternoon, and then drop during the sleep period. The aim of this study was to examine CBFV over ~30 hours of sustained wakefulness to unmask and quantify contributions of the endogenous circadian system. By not permitting sleep, the evoked changes dependent on this change of state will not contribute to the observed CBFV changes. We hypothesized that time of day changes in CBFV are due to endogenous circadian regulation. Previous studies have been limited by several factors. First, the environmental conditions (light level) and the behavior of the subject (sleep, meals, and caffeine intake) were not controlled [[80]15,[81]13,[82]1 ,[83]16]. Second, CBFV measurements were obtained at only a few circadian points. For example, Ameriso et al. [[84]15] and Qureshi et al. [[85]16] assessed CBFV between 6-8 am, 1-3 pm, and 7-9 pm. Diamant et al [[86]13] assessed CBFV during the first 15 minutes of every hour across a 24 hour period. Given these brief time periods, the findings are only a schematic of the 24 hour profile. Third, primary output markers of the endogenous circadian pacemaker (such as core body temperature and melatonin production) were not assessed. We employed the "constant routine" protocol, which was designed specifically to unmask underlying circadian rhythms in constant conditions [[87]17]. CBFV was collected by Transcranial Doppler (TCD) ultrasonography for the entire study period. Core body temperature and salivary dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO) were measured for determination of circadian phase. Continuous electroencephalography (EEG) was performed to ensure wakefulness across the study. Additionally, measurements of blood pressure, heart rate, and end tidal carbon dioxide (Et[CO2]), three of the main regulators of CBFV, were collected every half hour. Methods Subject selection Twelve subjects (10 men and 2 women; ages 19-38, mean 28 years) agreed to participate. One subject discontinued her participation because of a headache 15 hours into the study. Subjects were in good health, as assessed by medical history, semi-structured clinical interview, and physical exam. Information regarding menstrual cycle was not obtained from female subjects. Subjects also underwent an independent standard cerebrovascular assessment and were determined to be normal. They reported no symptoms of sleep problems (such as insomnia, obstructive sleep apnea, narcolepsy, or restless legs syndrome). Subjects that were selected to participate kept to a designated sleep-wake schedule (that was negotiated from the subject's typical pattern) and filled out a sleep diary for the two weeks prior to the time in the laboratory. According to sleep diary reports, bedtimes ranged from 10:30 pm to 1:00 am and waketimes ranged from 6:00 am to 10:00 am. Alcohol and caffeine intake was discontinued for the entire week before the study. During the data collection, subjects were not permitted either alcohol or caffeine. All subjects were non-smokers. Laboratory constant routine protocol The study protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Boards of New York Presbyterian Hospital - Weill Medical College of Cornell University and The City College of New York. Subjects gave written and informed consent before participating. Subjects arrived at the sleep laboratory between 9:30 am and 10:00 am. They were oriented to the study procedures and to their bedroom. Electrodes were placed on the subject's head and face as they sat in a chair next to the bed. Data collection began at 11 am. Subjects remained in bed and awake in a semi recumbent position for 30 hours in an established "constant routine" (CR) protocol. Subjects remained in low (<25 lux) light levels which have been shown to have little or no entraining effect on the circadian pacemaker [[88]18]. They were not allowed to get out of bed to urinate. Instead they urinated in private in a urinal or bedpan. Subjects remained awake from 11:00 a.m. on Day 1 until 5 p.m. on Day 2. Throughout the study, subjects were provided small meals (Ensure ^® liquid formula plus one-quarter nutritional food bar) every 2 hours. Subject's typical total food and liquid intake for a day and a quarter were divided into 15 relatively equal portions. Only one subject participated in the CR per 30-hour period. This protocol represents a modified CR in two ways. First, subjects were allowed to watch television and were therefore were not in "time isolation." Television content was monitored so that subjects were not exposed to programs with highly emotional themes. Second, subjects needing to defecate were allowed to go to the bathroom, which was located a few steps away from the bedside. We chose this method as an alternative to using the bedpan to ensure subject's comfort and study compliance. Three subjects (subjects 05, 06, and 10) got out of bed once at 3:30, 21:30, and 15:30, respectively, to defecate. One subject, subject 12, got out of bed twice, at 22:30 and 6:35. Subject 10 used the bathroom only during the adaptation period. A paired-samples t-test was conducted to evaluate the impact of getting out of bed to defecate on subject's CBT and CBFV values. The CBT and CBFV values in the two hours before getting up were compared to the two hours after the subject got up. Subjects 5 showed a slight decrease in CBT from before (M = 98.12, SD = 0.14) to after the subject returned to the bed (M = 97.91, SD = 0.08), t(3) = -5.17, p = .014). Subject 6 showed a decline in CBFV from before (M = 56.14, SD = 2.3) to after the subject returned to the bed (M = 45.67, SD = 3.7), t(3) = 5.49, p = 0.012). There were no other significant differences detected between these two time periods for subject 5's CBFV, subject 6's CBT, or for both times subject 12 got out of the bed. By visual inspection, the overall shape of the curves in these subjects was not affected and therefore these subject's data were included in subsequent analyses. Transcranial Doppler ultrasound recordings The current study utilized TCD ultrasonography to measure cerebral blood flow velocity. TCD is a non-invasive instrument (consisting of one or two 2-Mhz transducers fitted to a headband, MARC500, Spencer Technologies, Nicolet Biomedical Inc) that is used predominantly as a diagnostic tool to assess cerebral hemodynamics in normal and pathological conditions. TCD ultrasonography is predicated on a theory that involves the measurement of moving objects when combined with radar. When the instrument emits the sound wave, it is reflected by the blood cells that are moving in the vector of the sound wave [[89]19]. CBFV was measured using either the right or left middle cerebral artery (MCA) using TCD sonography (TCD: DWL Multidop X-2, DWL Elektronische Systeme GmbH, D-78354 Sipplingen/Germany) through the temporal window. An observer who was present continuously during the recordings evaluated the quality of the signal. This enabled long-term recording of CBFV throughout the study. Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT) of the signal was used to analyze the velocity spectra. The mean velocity of the MCA was obtained from the integral of the maximal TCD frequency shifts over one beat divided by the corresponding beat interval and expressed in cm/sec. Analysis was conducted off line. Measurement of standard markers of the circadian pacemaker Body temperature recordings Core body temperature was recorded at 1-minute intervals with an indwelling rectal probe (MiniMitter, Co. Bend, OR). A wire lead connected the sensor out of the rectum to a data collection system worn on the belt. Temperature readings were collected and saved into the device and monitored at hourly intervals by the investigator. After the study, the recordings were visually inspected and artifacts resulting from removal or malfunction of the probe were excluded from further analysis. Salivary melatonin Salivary samples of 3 ml were collected every hour from 11:00 a.m. on Day 1 to 4:00 p.m. on Day 2. Ten of these samples were used only for the determination of the timing of the salivary dim light melatonin onset (DLMO). For nine subjects, salivary DLMO was assessed across a ten-hour time window that included the ten hours before the CBT minimum. Immediately after collection, each saliva sample was frozen and stored at -20°C. Saliva samples were assayed using Bühlmann Melatonin Radio Immunoassay (RIA) test kit for direct melatonin in human saliva (American Laboratory Products Co., Windham, NH). Analysis was conducted at New York State Institute for Basic Research. Salivary DLMO time was selected based on two criteria. The saliva sample needed to have melatonin concentration 3 pg/ml or above and later samples needed to show higher levels (Bühlmann laboratories). Second, the 3 pg/ml threshold needed to occur within 6-10 hours before core body temperature minimum [[90]20]. Polygraphic recordings Electroencephalography (EEG) was continually assessed across the 30 hours to ensure that subjects maintained wakefulness. The following montage was used according to the international 10-20 system: C3-A2, C4-A1, O1-A2, O2-A1, ROC-A1, LOC-A2, and submentalis electromyogram (EMG). One channel of electrocardiogram was continuously recorded by monitoring from two electrodes (one on each side of the body at the shoulder chest junction). The EEG software (Rembrant Sleep Collection Software Version 7.0) was used for data acquisition and display of the signals on a personal computer. Throughout the CR, the investigator (DAC) monitored the quality of the recordings. The recordings were scored by RQS and DAC. Blood pressure, heart rate, and end-tidal CO2 An automated blood pressure cuff was placed on the bicep of the subject and inflated two times each hour in order to determine changes in blood pressure and heart rate over time. Blood pressure and heart rate in one subject (02) was recorded via a finger blood pressure monitor (Omron Marshall Products, Model F-88). Blood pressure and heart rate in subjects 03, 04, 05, 06, and 07 were recorded with Omron Healthcare, Inc, Vernon Hills, Illinois 60061 Model # HEM-705CP Rating: DC 6V 4W Serial No: 2301182L. Blood pressure and heart rate for subjects 08, 09 and 10 was recorded with a similar blood pressure monitor (CVS Pharmacy Inc, Woonsocket, RI 02895 Model # 1086CVS). Blood pressure and heart rate recordings were not measured in subjects 11 and 12. Et[CO2 ]was continuously obtained. A nasal cannula for monitoring expired gases was placed under the nose. Relative changes in carbon dioxide content were measured by an Ohmeda 4700 Oxicap (BOC healthcare). Mean Et[CO2 ]levels were analyzed off-line. Et[CO2 ]recordings were not measured in subjects 11 and 12. Data Analyses Data reduction and statistical procedures CBT and CBFV values were first subjected to data rejection. All CBT values less than 96 degrees were determined to be artifact and were rejected. All CBFV values less than 20 cm/sec were determined to be artifact according to the clinical criteria set by the staff neurologist. Data reduction was accomplished by averaging into one minute, 30 minute or hourly bins. Correlations presented here were performed on mean values in 30 minute bins. To ensure that circadian measurements were made under basal conditions, the first five hours of the constant routine were excluded from all analyses to eliminate effects of study adaptation. The last hour was excluded to eliminate confounding effects such as expectation effects. The data are presented in this article in three ways. First, CBT and CBFV values were plotted according to time of day (Figures [91]1 and [92]2). Second, CBFV values were aligned according to the CBT nadir (Figure [93]3) and third, the CBFV nadir was aligned to the CBT nadir (Figure [94]4). To align CBFV to the CBT circadian nadir as shown in Figure [95]3, the CBT nadir of each individual subject was set to circadian time 0, or 0°. The CBFV value that corresponded to the CBT nadir was then also set to 0. Each half hour data point after the temperature nadir and corresponding CBFV values were then set to a circadian degree. There were a total of 48 data points across the 24 hour period. Therefore, each data point was equal to 7.5 degrees so that each data point would accumulate to 360°. Lastly, mean values were obtained for CBT and CBFV at each circadian degree. [96]thumbnail Figure 1. 24-hour Cosine Curve fit to Mean Core Body Temperature (°F). Time course of CBT according to time of day. Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/- SEM) of CBT (blue diamonds) fit with a 24-hour cosine curve (purple squares). Time of day is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate shows CBT values (degrees F). The vertical line indicates where the data was double plotted. Also displayed in the upper right corner is the non-linear cosine curve fit for mean CBT, R^2 = 0.62. The overall mean circadian phase position of the minimum was 6:05 am. [97]thumbnail Figure 2. 24-hour Cosine Curve fit to Mean Cerebral Blood Flow Velocity (cm/sec). Time course of CBFV according to time of day. Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/- SEM) of CBFV (blue diamonds) fit with a 24-hour cosine curve (purple squares). Time of day is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate shows CBFV values (cm/sec). The vertical line indicates where the data was double plotted. Also displayed in the upper right corner is the non-linear cosine curve fit for mean CBFV, R^2 = 0.67. The overall mean circadian phase position of the minimum was 12:02 pm. [98]thumbnail Figure 3. Mean CBT and CBFV Aligned to CBT Nadir. Time course of mean CBFV and mean CBT aligned to the nadir of CBT and then averaged. Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/-SEM) of CBT (purple squares) and CBFV (blue circles) aligned to the phase of the circadian temperature cycle. Circadian time in degrees is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate on the left shows CBT values (degrees F) and CBFV (cm/sec) on the right. The vertical line indicates the CBT nadir. [99]thumbnail Figure 4. Mean CBT and CBFV Aligned to Their Respective Nadir. Time course of mean CBFV and mean CBT aligned to each of their respective nadirs and then averaged. Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/-SEM) of CBT (purple squares) and CBFV (blue circles) aligned to the phase of the circadian temperature cycle. Circadian time in degrees is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate on the left shows CBT values (degrees F) and CBFV (cm/sec) on the right. The vertical line indicates both the CBT nadir and the CBFV nadir. The correlation coefficient between the aligned rhythms is 0.77 (p < 0.01). To align the CBFV nadir to the CBT nadir, first, the lowest value of CBT and the lowest value of CBFV were identified and set to circadian time 0, or 0°. Each half hour data point after the CBT nadir and CBFV nadir were then set to a circadian degree. There were a total of 48 data points across the 24 hour period. Therefore, each data point was equal to 7.5 degrees so that each data point would accumulate to 360°. Lastly, mean values were obtained for CBT and CBFV at each circadian degree. Estimation of circadian phase A 24-hour non-linear multiple regression -cosine curve fit analysis was performed on the CBT and CBFV data (SAS Institute, Cary, NC). This technique constrains the circadian period of CBT and CBFV to be within 24 hours. This technique used the following equations: model cbt = &avg_cbt + r * cos((2 * 3.1415) * (hours-&max_cbt)/24; model cbfv = &avg_cbt + r * cos((2 * 3.1415) * (hours-&max_cbfv)/24, where & = constants that center the curve at the actual average for each series (vertical centering) and the predicted maximum at the actual maximum (horizontal centering); r = the amplitude of the cosine wave. An additional analysis was performed which also yielded the estimated clock time for the CBT nadir and CBFV nadir (Synergy software, Kaleidagraph Version 3.6). Third, the minimum of the circadian rhythm of CBT and salivary DLMO were also used as markers of the endogenous circadian phase. A paired t-test was used to determine the overall phase difference between CBT and CBFV. Results Eleven subjects completed the protocol. The TCD probe was placed on either the right or left temple, whichever gave the better signal. Mean isonation depth of the TCD signal was 56.5 mm for the right MCA and 55.6 mm for the left MCA (range 53-60 mm). The constant routine ranged from 28 to 30 hours in duration. Polygraphic recordings confirmed sustained wakefulness across essentially the entire protocol in all but one subject. Subjects that had difficulty remaining awake were monitored closely and aroused when needed by engagement in conversation. Results from the polygraphic recordings are not presented here. We do not present the results of the polygraphic recordings because, for the purposes of this study, these recordings were used solely to monitor whether subjects were awake or asleep. The first five hours and the final hour of data from the constant routine were excluded from analysis. Core body temperature, cerebral blood flow velocity and the 24-hour day A 24 hour non-linear multiple regression, cosine fit analysis revealed that the overall mean CBT rhythm (n = 11) fit a 24 hour cosine rhythm (R^2 = 0.62, p < 0.01), Figure [100]1. The mean CBT across all subjects was 98.6 °F (+/- 0.03 °F). Figure [101]2 shows that a 24-hour non-linear multiple regression, cosine analysis fit a 24 hour cosine rhythm (R^2 = 0.67, p < 0.01), Figure [102]2. The mean CBFV across subjects was 40.6 cm/sec (+/- 0.54 cm/sec). Salivary DLMO occurred 7.7 hours prior to the CBT nadir in nine subjects, which served only as a secondary measure of endogenous circadian phase position in those subjects. The mean salivary melatonin concentration across the ten hour window was 15.3 pg/ml (+/-3.05 pg/ml). CBFV rhythm is 90 degrees out of phase with the CBT rhythm The overall mean circadian position of CBT occurred at 6:05 am and the mean position of CBFV occurred at 12:02 pm (Figure [103]3), yielding a 6 hour or 90 degree statistically significant difference (t = 4.9, DF = 10, p < 0.01). In individual subject data, the differences ranged from 0 to 8.5 hours. In eight subjects, the CBFV phase occurred later than the respective CBT phase, with mean difference of 5.2 hours. In two subjects, the CBFV nadir occurred earlier than the respective CBT nadir, with a mean difference of 6 hours. In one subject, there was no difference between the phase of CBT and CBFV. However, this subject's CBT rhythm was highly unusual, with the nadir occurring at 11:35 am on Day 2. Nevertheless, we felt the most appropriate way to present the data was to include this subject in the overall analysis. When the phase of CBFV was shifted so that the lowest value was aligned to the lowest CBT value, the two parameters were highly correlated (see Figure [104]4; r = 0.77, n = 98, p < 0.01). While the difference in the two rhythms variability was large, Fisher's z-transformed values revealed that the amplitudes of the two parameters were similar. The amplitude of CBFV yielded a z score of 4.25 and CBT yielded a z score of 3.06. Blood pressure recordings and systemic hemodynamic variables A Pearson correlation revealed a positive relationship between CBT and heart rate (r = 0.40, p < 0.01) across the 24 hour period. Diastolic blood pressure (DBP) and CBT showed a negative correlation (r = -0.30, p < 0.05). Et[CO2 ]showed a trend towards a direct relationship with CBFV (r = 0.24, p = 0.10). Blood pressure, heart rate, and Et[CO2 ]served only as regulators of CBFV and were not analyzed according to circadian phase. Discussion This study is the first to use the constant routine (CR) protocol to determine whether the endogenous circadian pacemaker contributes to the previously reported diurnal changes in CBFV. The current work demonstrates that, with limited periodic external stimuli and a constant posture, there is 24-hour rhythmicity in CBFV. Subjects showed a cycle of approximately 24 hours in CBT, which has been previously demonstrated with the CR [[105]21]. Figure [106]3 illustrates the intricate relationship between the rhythms across the study period. At approximately the CBT acrophase, the relationship between the two rhythms undergoes a transition. Between 180 and 240 degrees, CBFV is still rising and CBT is changing directions (first rising, reaching its peak and then falling). This period between 180 and 240 has been described as a "wake maintenance zone", a time in the circadian cycle during which humans are less likely to fall asleep [[107]22]. In our subjects, the CBT is near its zenith or just starting to fall at this time and CBFV is still steadily rising. Higher values in CBT and CBFV are associated with activation and therefore these two endogenous rhythms may be promoting wakefulness during this "wake maintenance zone". However, at the end of this transition period, CBT is falling and CBFV is still rising, perhaps reflecting continued activation of the cerebral cortex. Whereas the two-process model predicts increased tendency to sleep as CBT falls [[108]23], our finding may provide the mechanism by which wakefulness is effortlessly maintained before bedtime. Figure [109]3 further illustrates that as wakefulness is extended past the subject's habitual bedtime (approximately 270 degrees), the two rhythms decline together. Between 0 and 60 degrees, CBFV steadily declines and CBT is steadily rising. The lower CBFV values in the morning may play a role in cognitive performance impairments [[110]24], particularly the 3-4.5 hour phase difference in neurobehavioral functioning relative to the CBT rhythm that has been previously demonstrated in constant routine protocols [[111]25]. Earlier studies using simultaneous EEG and TCD to continuously measure CBFV across the sleep period have concluded that, except for periods of REM sleep, [[112]26 ,[113]27], there is a linear decline in CBFV across the night during periods of non-REM sleep [[114]1,[115]28]. Other groups utilizing these techniques simultaneously speculated that the decline in CBFV through the night was a "decoupling" of cerebral electrical activity and cerebral perfusion during non-REM sleep [[116]8-[117]10]. In all studies [[118]1,[119]8-[120]10,[121]28], CBFV values were lower in the morning during wakefulness than during wakefulness prior to sleep at night. The current findings show that the decline in CBFV is present during wakefulness in the night time hours and therefore may not be attributed solely to sleep and associated changes that normally influence CBFV (including factors such as the shift to recumbency, and reduced activity, metabolic rate and respiratory rate). Moreover, our interaction with the subjects and the monitoring of EEG for signs of sleep resulted in no sleep in all but one subject. The one exception was in a subject who lapsed into brief periods of sleep. Therefore, the fall in CBFV in 10 out of 11 subjects cannot be explained by the occurrence of non-REM sleep. It is possible, however, that the decline of CBFV across the night and early morning may be secondary to the sleep deprivation that is part of the constant routine. Brain imaging studies across sustained periods of wakefulness have shown significant decreases in absolute regional cerebral glucose metabolic rate in several areas of the brain [[122]29-[123]34]. The drop in CBT which preceded the parallel fall in CBFV needs to be considered as a possible explanation for the CBFV changes. The fall in CBT during sleeping hours is attributed in part to sleep-associated changes and in part to strong regular circadian forces independent of the sleep period. CBT is, in fact, one of the key and most extensively studied indices of the circadian phase. It is also known that CBT is highly correlated with brain temperature and brain metabolic rate [[124]35]. Imaging studies have documented the intimate relation between brain activity and increased metabolic rate and oxygen delivery through perfusion. Therefore, it is plausible that CBT is a direct influence on CBFV or an index of decreased metabolic need for blood flow. The prevailing hypothesis that there is tight coupling of normal neuronal activity and blood flow was formulated over 100 years ago [[125]36]. The drop in CBFV may be a consequence of the lowered cerebral activity secondary to lowered brain temperature. In contrast, two studies of exercise-induced hyperthermia showing decreased global and middle cerebral artery CBFV [[126]37 ,[127]38] do not support this hypothesized direct relationship between the two variables. However, one of the main purported mechanisms for the fall in CBFV in these exercise studies, the hyperventilation induced lowering of Pa[CO2], is unlikely present during waking while lying in bed at night. Therefore, CBT declines remain a plausible explanation for the portion of the 24 hours when CBFV declined. Mechanisms of CBFV regulation This protocol allowed the unique opportunity to evaluate blood pressure, heart rate, and Et[CO2 ]in the absence of sleep, in subjects with constant posture, and highly restricted movements. While blood pressure clearly falls during sleep in normal individuals, the absence of sleep in the current study obviates the explanation that CBFV declines are secondary to lowered blood pressure. Furthermore, we sampled blood pressure throughout the day and night and found a weak inverse relationship between DBP and CBT. This finding is in contrast to a careful study of circadian influence on blood pressure in the absence of sleep which showed no change in blood pressure during the descending portion of the body temperature curve [[128]39]. Nevertheless, our finding was weak and likely does not provide the explanation for the CBFV changes. The small-inverse relationship between Et [CO2 ]and CBT is similar to that found by Spengler et al. [[129]40], who showed a consistent but small amplitude circadian rhythm in mean end-tidal Et[CO2 ]on a CR protocol. Et[CO2 ]showed a trend towards a direct relationship with CBFV, which is consistent with previous studies showing that changes in Et[CO2 ]are associated with changes in CBFV [[130]41 ,[131]42]. Heart rate was correlated with CBT, consistent with the findings of Van Dongen et al [[132]39]. Clinical correlation The approximate 6 hour (90 degree) phase angle difference between the CBFV and CBT suggests that CBFV continues to decline into the early to mid-morning hours. This finding is consistent with a time window in the morning during which several physiological changes have been observed. For example, cerebral vasomotor reactivity to hypocapnia, hypercapnia, and normoventilation has been found to be most reduced in the morning [[133]15 ,[134]16]. It is tempting to suggest that the the low CBFV values in the morning may also help explain the well established diurnal variation of the onset of cerebrovascular accidents (CVAs) [[135]43]. A meta-analyses of 11,816 publications between 1966 to 1997 found that there was a 49% increased risk of strokes between 6 am and 12 pm [[136]44]. This time period is in agreement with studies on myocardial infarction (MI) and sudden death [[137]45]. The increased incidence of these events has been attributed, in part, to the surge of blood pressure [[138]13,[139]46,[140]47] and platelet aggregability [[141]48,[142]49] in the morning when patients are getting out of bed. Our results demonstrate that even in the absence of surges in blood pressure, the phase of CBFV reaches its lowest values during the hours before 12 pm. This further suggests that the endogenous rhythm of CBFV may be associated with the risk of CVAs in the late morning hours even without changes in posture or activity. Conclusion Overall, the results demonstrate that CBFV, in the absence of sleep, exhibits properties of a circadian rhythm, as it rises and falls across a 24 hour period. The 6 hour (90 degree) phase angle difference in the CBFV rhythm with respect to the CBT rhythm may help explain previous findings of lower CBFV values in the morning. The phase difference occurs at a time period during which cognitive performance decrements have been observed and when both cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events occur more frequently. The mechanisms underlying this phase angle difference require further exploration. List of abbreviations CBFV Cerebral Blood Flow Velocity CBT Core Body Temperature TCD Transcranial Doppler EtCO2 End tidal Carbon Dioxide DLMO Dim Light Melatonin Onset EEG Electroencephalogram MCA Middle Cerebral Artery FFT Fast Fourier Transformation CR Constant routine EMG Electromyogram SBP Systolic Blood Pressure DBP Diastolic Blood Pressure CVA Cerebrovascular accident MI Myocardial infarction Competing interests The author(s) declare that they have no competing interests. Authors' contributions DAC coordinated, carried out, analyzed, and interpreted the study. AJS participated in the analysis and interpretation of the findings. DAC drafted the manuscript and AJS provided final approval of this version. RQS participated in data collection and data analysis. DAC and AJS co-designed the study. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the volunteer participants who completed this extremely difficult protocol, to the research assistants: Jason Birnbaum, Will Carias, RN, Laura Diaz, Boris Dubrovsky, Mathew Ebben, Ph.D., Carrie Hildebrand, Lars Ross, Greg Sahlem, Mathew Tucker, Ayesha Udin, to those who helped with the data analysis: Scott Campbell, Ph.D. of New York Presbyterian Hospital, White Plains, Abdeslem ElIdrissi, Ph.D. of The Institute for Basic Research, Staten Island, NY, Larry Krasnoff, Ph.D. of Digitas, New York, and Andrew Scott, MBA, to those who provided their expert advice: William Fishbein, Ph.D. of The City College of New York, Paul Glovinsky, Ph.D. of The Sleep Disorders Center, Albany, NY, Margaret Moline, Ph.D. of Eisai, Inc, Charles Pollak, MD of The Center for Sleep Medicine, New York Presbyterian Hospital-Cornell, and Alan Segal, MD of The Department of Neurology, New York Presbyterian Hospital, and to others who helped make this study possible: Stacy Goldstein, Neil B. 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[194]OpenURL 24. Jewett ME, Wyatt JK, Ritz-De Cecco A, Khalsa SB, Dijk DJ, Czeisler CA: Time course of sleep inertia dissipation in human performance and alertness. J Sleep Res 1999, 8:1-8. [195]PubMed Abstract | [196]Publisher Full Text [197]OpenURL 25. Van Dongen HPA, Dinges D: Circadian rhythms in fatigue, alertness, and performance. In Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine. 3rd edition. Edited by: Kryger MH, Roth R, Dement WC. Saunders, Philadelphia; 2000:391-399. [198]OpenURL 26. Madsen PL, Holm S, Vorstrup S, Friberg L, Lassen NA, Wildschiodtz G: Human regional cerebral blood flow during Rapid Eye Movement Sleep. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 1991, 11:502-507. [199]PubMed Abstract [200]OpenURL 27. Madsen PL, Vorstrup S: Cerebral blood flow and metabolism during sleep. Cerebrovascul Brain Metab Rev 1991, 3:281-296. [201]OpenURL 28. Kuboyama T, Hori A, Sato T, Mikami T, Yamaki T, Ueda S: Changes in cerebral blood flow velocity in healthy young men during overnight sleep and while awake. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1997, 102:125-131. [202]PubMed Abstract | [203]Publisher Full Text [204]OpenURL 29. Wu J, Gillin J, Bucshsbaum M, Hershey T, Hazlett E, Sicotte N, Bunney W: The effect of sleep deprivation on cerebral glucose metabolic rate in normal humans assessed with Positron Emission Tomography. Sleep 1991, 14:155-162. [205]PubMed Abstract [206]OpenURL 30. Drummond SP, Brown GG, Stricker JL, Buxton RB, Wong EC, Gillin JC: Sleep deprivation-induced reduction in cortical functional response to serial subtraction. NeuroReport 1999, 10(18):3745-3748. [207]PubMed Abstract | [208]Publisher Full Text [209]OpenURL 31. Thomas M, Sing H, Belensky G, Holcomb H, Mayberg H, Dannals R, Wagner H, Thorne D, Popp K, Rowland L, Welsh A, Balwinski S, Redmond D: Neural basis of alertness and cognitive performance impairments during sleepiness. I. effects of 24 h of sleep deprivation on waking human regional brain activity. J Sleep Res 2000, 9:335-352. [210]PubMed Abstract | [211]Publisher Full Text [212]OpenURL 32. Volk S, Kaendler SH, Weber R, Georgi K, Maul F, Hertel A, Pflug B, Hor G: Evaluation of the effects of total sleep deprivation on cerebral blood flow using single photon emission computerized tomography. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1992, 86(6):478-483. [213]PubMed Abstract [214]OpenURL 33. Wu JC, Gillin JC, Buchsbaum MS, Hershey T, Johnson JC, Bunney WE: Effect of sleep deprivation on brain metabolism of depressed patients. Am J Psychiatry 1992, 149(4):538-543. [215]PubMed Abstract [216]OpenURL 34. Volk SA, Kaendler SH, Hertel A, Maul FD, Manoocheri R, Weber R, Georgi K, Pflug B, Hor G: Can response to partial sleep deprivation in depressed patients be predicted by regional changes of cerebral blood flow? Psychiatry Res 1997, 75(2):67-74. [217]PubMed Abstract [218]OpenURL 35. Glotzbach SF, Heller HC: Temperature regulation. In Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine. 3rd edition. Edited by: Kryger MH, Roth R, Dement WC. Saunders, Philadelphia; 2000:289-304. [219]OpenURL 36. Roy CW, Sherrington CS: On the regulation of the blood supply of the brain. J Physiol Lond 1890, 11:85-108. [220]OpenURL 37. Nybo L, Nielsen B: Middle cerebral artery blood flow velocity is reduced with hyperthermia during prolonged exercise in humans. J Physiol Lond 2001, 534:279-286. [221]PubMed Abstract | [222]Publisher Full Text [223]OpenURL 38. Nybo L, Moller K, Volianitis S, Nielsen B, Secher NH: Effects of hyperthermia on cerebral blood flow and metabolism during prolonged exercise in humans. 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Wroe SJ, Sandercock P, Bamford J, Dennis M, Slattery J, Warlow C: Diurnal variation in incidence of stroke: Oxfordshire Community St. Project. Br Med J 1992, 304:155-157. [237]OpenURL 44. Elliot W: Circadian variation in the timing of stroke onset: Meta analysis. Stroke 1998, 29:992-996. [238]PubMed Abstract | [239]Publisher Full Text [240]OpenURL 45. Muller JE, Stone P, Turi ZG, Rutherford JD, Czeisler CA, Parker C, Poole K, Passamani E, Roberts R, Robertson T, Sobel B, Wilerson JT, Braunwald E, the MILIS Study Group: Circadian variation in the frequency of onset of acute myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 1985, 313(21):1315-1322. [241]PubMed Abstract [242]OpenURL 46. Stergiou G, Vemmos K, Pliarchopoulou K, Synetos A, Roussias L, Mountokalakis T: Parallel morning and evening surge in stroke onset, blood pressure, and physical activity. Stroke 2002, 33:1480-1486. [243]PubMed Abstract | [244]Publisher Full Text [245]OpenURL 47. 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Post a comment on this article! __________________________________________________________________ [254][1352965720@Top,Bottom,x96!Bottom] [255]Terms and Conditions [256]Privacy statement [257]Information for advertisers [258]Jobs at BMC [259]Contact us © 1999-2010 BioMed Central Ltd unless otherwise stated. Part of [260]Springer Science+Business Media. Références Liens visibles 42. javascript:/// 46. javascript:/// Liens cachés : Rhythm and Meter in English Poetry English poetry employs five basic rhythms of varying stressed (/) and unstressed (x) syllables. The meters are iambs, trochees, spondees, anapests and dactyls. In this document the stressed syllables are marked in boldface type rather than the tradition al "/" and "x." Each unit of rhythm is called a "foot" of poetry. The meters with two-syllable feet are * IAMBIC (x /) : That time of year thou mayst in me behold * TROCHAIC (/ x): Tell me not in mournful numbers * SPONDAIC (/ /): Break, break, break/ On thy cold gray stones, O Sea! Meters with three-syllable feet are * ANAPESTIC (x x /): And the sound of a voice that is still * DACTYLIC (/ x x): This is the forest primeval, the murmuring pines and the hemlock (a trochee replaces the final dactyl) Each line of a poem contains a certain number of feet of iambs, trochees, spondees, dactyls or anapests. A line of one foot is a monometer, 2 feet is a dimeter, and so on--trimeter (3), tetrameter (4), pentameter (5), hexameter (6), heptameter (7), and o ctameter (8). The number of syllables in a line varies therefore according to the meter. A good example of trochaic monometer, for example, is this poem entitled "Fleas": Adam Had'em. Here are some more serious examples of the various meters. iambic pentameter (5 iambs, 10 syllables) * That time | of year | thou mayst | in me | behold trochaic tetrameter (4 trochees, 8 syllables) * Tell me | not in | mournful | numbers anapestic trimeter (3 anapests, 9 syllables) * And the sound | of a voice | that is still dactylic hexameter (6 dactyls, 17 syllables; a trochee replaces the last dactyl) * This is the | forest pri | meval, the | murmuring | pine and the | hemlocks __________________________________________________________________ [1]A note on the source. __________________________________________________________________ [2]POETRY HOME | [3]ENGLISH 88 READING LIST | [4]POETRY NEWS | [5]FILREIS HOME ________________________________________ Search __________________________________________________________________ Last modified: Wednesday, 18-Jul-2007 16:27:43 EDT Références JCPA LOGO Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs [1]Daniel Elazar Papers Index [2][USEMAP:nav-back.gif] American Political Culture The Generational Rhythm of American Politics The American Mosaic, Chapter 2 Daniel J. Elazar It should be clear that the spatial divisions of the United States combine a certain continuity over time along with a certain amount of change brought about by "changing times." Location in time is no less important a factor in shaping politics than location in space. Hence, we need to understand how time is organized so that location within its seemingly undifferentiated vastness can be more or less pinpointed. This chapter will suggest a way in which political time actually is structured in the United States. It rests on a theory of generational rhythms which the author has successfully applied to the course of American politics since the mid-1950s to forecast developments with great success. At the same time he has applied that model to the American polity from the beginning, in a way that very usefully charts the flows of American political affairs. Early Studies of Generational Rhythms Students of society have noted the succession of generations since ancient times.^1 Indeed, the Bible explicitly bases its chronology on generational measures. The Bible was the first great work to concern itself with linear time and human movement through history and is the classic beginning of human understanding of the generational pattern in human affairs. It was also the first work explaining why the pattern transcends the individual lives that call it into existence. As such, it is the starting point for our understanding of the generational phenomenon and it offers classic paradigmatic examples of the phenomenon operating in history.^2 Time in the Bible is almost invariably measured on a generational basis, beginning with the "generations of man" - the first recounting of human history in Genesis and continuing through the system of Divine rewards and punishments (the latter unto the third and fourth generation and the former unto the thousandth by the Biblical account).^3 A human being is allotted two average generations (70 years) as his normal life span and three full generations (120) for exceptional virtue.^4 Indeed, Biblical scholars have clearly demonstrated that the Biblical expression, "forty years" is an idiomatic phrase that means a "generation".^5 Generations in the Biblical sense also are collective affairs. The "generation of the wilderness" is the best example of a collectivity of people linked primarily by their existence as adults during a common time span.^6 The concept is applied even more frequently to a time period or, perhaps more accurately, a period that embraces time-plus-people. Thus the Book of Judges describes the rise of new judges in each generation to meet the challenges of that generation and to restore peace for the remainder of its allotted span.^7 Moreover, the Bible recognizes that all civil societies have beginnings whose echoes are never lost. The character of the founders persists among their heirs. Israel, the people of central interest in the Biblical narrative, is at every point reminded of its beginnings and its ancestry. Nineteenth-century philosophers, sociologists, and historians were the first to articulate systematic theories of generational progression and its influence on human development. Auguste Comte viewed the duration of human life, and most particularly the thirty-year term of full activity in adulthood, as decisive in shaping the velocity of human evolution, suggesting that "the unanimous adherence to certain fundamental notions" transforms the aggregate of individuals alive at a particular time into a social cohort.^8 John Stuart Mill, influenced by Comte and convinced that "History does, when Judiciously examined, afford Empirical Laws of Society," added the idea that in every generation, the "principle phenomena" of society are different, suggesting that the differences appeared at generational intervals as each "now set" of individuals comes to dominate society.^9 These general theories led to efforts at statistical and empirical verification and elaboration, especially during the last forty years of the nineteenth century, when historians were trying to develop the scientific study of history. Antoine Augustin Cournot developed the principle that generations are articulated through historical events and suggested how continuity among generations is maintained. Giuseppe Ferrari emphasized the thirty-year interval and suggested a fourfold classification of generations as preparatory, revolutionary, reactionary, and conciliatory in repeating cycle.^10 Wilhelm Dilthey applied the concept to cultural development.^11 Leopold von Ranke and his student Ottokar Lorenz emphasized that generational periodization was one of the keys to the scientific study of history, utilizing as tools the study of genealogy and heredity.^12 Lorenz introduced the concept of the three-generation century.^13 After World War I, Jose Ortega y Gasset (1933, 1962) made the succession of generations the basis for his philosophical theory of social life, adding, among other concepts, the distinction between contemporaries (those alive at the same time) and coevals (those who are part of the same generation).^14 His work was continued by his student, Julian Marias. Sociologist Karl Mannheim (1952) also worked on this problem, as did such scholars as Francois Mentre (1920) and Engelbert Drerup (1933).^15 The thesis was applied to art by Wilhelm Pinder (1928) and literature by Julius Peterson (1930) and Henri Peyre (1948).^16 More recent efforts by political and social scientists have focused on problems of intergenerational differences and the political socialization of new generations primarily in totalitarian regimes or in reference to parties of the extreme left or right. Sigmund Neumann (1965) was the first to apply this perspective in his study of the rise of Nazism.^17 Bauer et al. (1956) included it in their study of the Soviet system.^18 Marvin Rintala (1958, 1962, 1963) focused on right and left in Finland while Maurice Zeitlin (1966) studies Cuba.^19 S.N. Eisenstadt (1956) and Joseph Gusfield (1957) utilized the generational concept in entirely different settings, in Israel and the United States, respectively.^20 All these studies have provided basic data for the development of a comprehensive theory of the generational rhythm of politics. Most of their authors have not attempted to formulate such a theory and those few who have not attempted to apply their theories, leaving many questions remaining to be clarified. Thus, for example, the studies have shown that generations can be conceptualized in two parallel ways: as discrete series of interrelated events and as the people who actively inhabit a particular period of time. In fact, both phenomena represent reality, just as physicists have determined that light consists, simultaneously, of waves and particles. The linkage of the two phenomena is a prerequisite to any comprehensive theory. None of these authors is concerned with the inner composition of a generation. Rather, they look at it as something resembling a black box that can be added with others to form even larger time periods. Some of them indeed put more emphasis on the century, consisting of three generations. Many authors use the term in a common sensical way without defining way they exactly mean by the term generation. This makes an empirical verification of their use impossible. The only one who is somewhat more precise in this regard is Gustav Ruemelin. Consistent with the field of interest of these scholars (literature, art, music), they are interested in generations as a sequence of eminent men rather than putting their scheme on a more popular basis. Some authors (notably Mannheim) try to solve the problem of how to embrace peoples of different cultural and geographic settings under the heading of "a generation". Efforts to Delineate Political Cycles in American History A number of theories of political cycles in American history have been advanced since Arthur M. Schlesinger wrote The Tides of American Politics in 1939 that are related to the generational thesis presented here.^21 Schlesinger saw American history as a series of alternating periods of conservatism and liberalism based on "the dominate national mood as expressed in effective governmental action (or inaction)". Conservative periods reflect "concern for the rights of the few", emphasis on the welfare of property" and "inaction". Liberal periods reflect "concern for the wrongs of the many", "emphasis on human welfare", and "rapid movement". Aside from Schlesinger, the authors of such theories include V.O. Key, Jr., Charles Sellers, Gerald Pomper and Walter Dean Burnham.^22 V.O. Key's theory is based on his historical theories of party loyalty and critical elections. He traced the "more or less durable" shifts in "traditional party attachments" using the latter as "bench marks" in studying the electoral process. Key was primarily interested in the "secular realignment" of the interest coalitions that make up the party vote in the United States. Since Key made no attempt to deal explicitly with historical periodization, his efforts are insightful but incomplete.^23 Charles Sellers and Gerald Pomper look at political cycles in the manner established by Key with the intention of refining Key's work. Sellers looks at the party distribution of electoral votes in presidential elections and seats won in off-year elections to the House of Representatives to discover "the oscillations in actual party voting strength" as the basis for the cyclical pattern in American politics which he, like Schlesinger bases on the notion of an equilibrium cycle. On this basis, Sellers divides American history into six periods, each of approximately a generation in length but with minimum consistency in their results. He concludes that the equilibrium cycle is of little value as a predictive device since the oscillations move in irregular and unpredictable directions. Pomper avoids some of the problems created by Sellers in his emphasis on geographic rather than personal realignment but, by using the states as his primary units does not cope with shifts of voting behavior that do not affect his correlations of the state vote as such. Beginning with the election of 1828, he delineates five periods; the Populist (1890s-1928), the New Deal (1928-1960s) and the present. Walter Dean Burnham links his theory of political cycles to the level of public discontent. On that basis, he identifies five periods since 1789, each of which has gone through a cycle of stability, crystallization and discontent. "The intrusion of approximate tension-producing event" acts as a catalyst causing already growing discontent to be focused on the capture of an established political party or the creation of a new one. This, in turn, leads to voter realignment. Burnham sees a generational basis to this pattern and, in effect, suggests that such a realignment occurs in every generation. While only one of the five (Schlesinger) attempts to deal with American history prior to the adoption of the Constitution (he begins with the generational buildup to the Revolution), all three of those who begin in the eighteenth century see something decisive happening between 1787 and 1790, viewing those years as a beginning point. If we accept 1787 as a starting point, we find that Schlesinger gives implicit recognition to the existence of a generational cycle based on conservative-liberal-conservative shifts as follows: 1787-1801-1816 1816-1829-1841 1841-1861-1869 1869-1901-1918 1918-1931-? The political scientists all use critical elections to mark the beginning or ending of particular political periods, viewing them primarily as causitive factors in the generation of political cycles rather than primarily as responses to other factors as they have been viewed here. Hence, even when they reveal generational patterns, the patterns are somewhat confused. Sellers shows the following pattern: 1790-1796/1800 1800-1824/1828 1828-1824/1860 1860-1888/1896 1896-1932 His assessment of which are the critical elections comes close to that presented here though there is serious disagreement as to their significance in the periodization process. Burnham's scheme diverges most from that presented here although even his outline of the generational pattern is at least visible if it is schematized as follows: 1789-1820 1828 1856-1860 1893/1894 1932 Key simply offers certain bench mark dates which can be schematized as follows: 1896-1912 1912-1920-1932-1952 1952 Pomper also offers election dates and no more: 1836 1864-1876 1876-1892/1896 1928/1932-1952 1952-1964 None of these are complete theories and all must be considered within a larger context which their proponents leave implicit. Beyond these efforts at systemization, there are rough approximations of the generations or segments of generation in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., The revolutionary period, the Populist era. In others, the periods of generational response have recognized names: e.g., Jackson Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., The Jefferson era, The Jacksonian era. In the first few years of the 1960s a number of political observers developed cogent and well-elaborated theories to explain why the federal government, particularly Congress, was paralyzed and could not respond to the needs of the time.^24 A few years later, however, the American people were treated to a display of federal activity -- and particularly Congressional legislation -- paralleled only by FDR's "100 days" after March, 1933. Why did these theories miss the mark so badly? What brought about the shift from the apparent truth of this thesis in the 1950s to the veritable revolution of the mid-1960s? The answer to these questions lie in a proper understanding of the temporal rhythm of political life in the United States. (Rhythm in the sense used here refers to the structured flow of time and events.) The American political system, like all others, has a rhythm of its own, which, in turn, is linked with the overall rhythm of human time. By tracing those links, we can begin to lay out a discernible pattern in the progression of political events in the United States over the years and get some sense of why things happen (or do not happen) when they do.^25 The historical pattern of political events in the United States follows a generational rhythm which flows in cycles ranging from 25 to 40 years each, approximately the biological time-span of the mature or active portion of a human life. The sequence and impact of discrete political events is substantially shaped by the rhythm of the generations, even though the events themselves may seem random. Thomas Jefferson noted this phenomenon and built a constitutional theory around it:^26 The question Whether one generation of men has a right to bind another...is a question of such consequences as not only to merit decision, but place also among the fundamental principles of every government...let us suppose a whole generation of men to be born on the same day, to attain mature age on the same day, and to die on the same day, leaving a succeeding generation in the moment of attaining their mature age, all together. Let the ripe age be supposed of 21 years, and their period of life, 34 years more, that being the average term given by the bills of mortality to persons who have already attained 21 years of age. Each successive generation would, in this way, come on and go off the stage at a fixed moment, as individuals do now.... What is true of a generation all arriving to self-government on the same day, and dying all on the same day, is true of those on a constant course of decay and renewal, with this only difference. A generation coming in and going out entire, as in the first case, would have a right in the first year of their self dominion to contract a debt for 33. years, in the 10th. for 24. in the 20th. for 14. in the 30th. for 4. whereas generation changing daily, by daily deaths and births, have one constant term beginning at the date of their contract, and ending when a majority of those of full age at that date shall be dead. The length of that term may be estimated from the tables of mortality, corrected by the circumstances of climate, occupation &c. peculiar to the country of the contractors. Take, for instance, the table of M. de Buffon wherein he states that 23,994 deaths, and the ages at which they happened. Suppose a society in which 23,994 persons are born every year and live to the ages stated in this table. The conditions of that society will be as follows. 1st. it will consist constantly of 617,703 persons of all ages. 2dly. of those living at any one instant of time, one half will be dead in 24. years 8. months. 3dly. 10,675 will arrive every year at the age of 21. years complete. 4thly. it will constantly have 348,417 persons of all ages above 21. years. 5ly. and the half of those of 21. years and upward living at any one instant of time will be dead in 18. years 8. months, or say 19. years as the nearest integral number. Then 19. years is the term beyond which neither the representatives of a nation, nor even the whole nation itself assembled, can validly extend a debt. On similar ground, it may be proved, that no society can make a perceptual constitution, or even a perpetual law...Every constitution, then, and every law, naturally expires at the end of 34. years. If it be enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not of right. The elaborate scheme that Jefferson, in his search for a system that would provide the maximum degree of individual liberty, proposed to his friend and colleague, James Madison, at the outset of the French Revolution, represented a transient thought on his part. Once the sage of Monticello experienced the problems of constitution-making on a large scale, he did not actively try to begin anew every nineteen years. Yet in proposing his rather radical scheme, Jefferson did come to grips with an important social phenomenon, one which perceptive statesmen of every age have reckoned with in one way or another, namely, the succession of generations as the measure of location in time. Human Social Rhythms As Jefferson noted, the human biological heritage provides a natural measure of time. We often use the concept of the generation in a common-sense way for just that purpose, as when we talk about the "lost generation" or the "generation gap." In fact, social time does appear to move in sufficiently precise generational units to account for the rhythm of social and political action. If we look closely and carefully, we can map the internal structure of each generation in any particular civil society and chart the relations among generations so as to formulate a coherent picture of the historical patterns of its politics. During a period of no less than 25 and no more than 40 years, averaging 30 to 35, (Jefferson gives 34 as the average) most people will pass through the productive phase of their life cycles and then pass into retirement, turning their places over to others. Every individual begins life with childhood, a period of dependency in which one's role as an independent actor is extremely limited. Depending upon the average life expectancy in a society, he or she begins to assume an active role as a member of society sometime between the ages of fifteen and thirty (Jefferson's average: 21) at which point he or she has between 25 and 40 years of "active life" ahead during which one is responsible for such economic, social, and political roles as are given to mature men and women in society. Sometimes between the ages of 55 and 70, if one is still alive, a person is relieved of those responsibilities and is by convention, if not physically, considered ready for retirement. Political life reflects this generational pattern on both an individual and collective basis. Politically speaking, for the first fifteen to twenty years of life an individual is essentially powerless from a political point of view, having no right to vote, and dependent upon one's elders for political opinions. After attaining the suffrage, individuals must still pass through a period of political apprenticeships before the right to vote can be translated into the chance for political leadership. Even among those who choose to be active in politics, most reach their 30s before assuming positions of responsibility of any significance on the larger political scene.^27 It is only then that they become serious contenders for political power and, with good fortune, are able to replace the incumbent power-holders who depart from the scene as a result of physical or political death (which may be defined as the ending of one's serious political career without suffering actual physical death). By and large the years from one's 30s into one's 60s represent the period in which the potential influence is at its maximum. A few people begin to exercise influence earlier and some very exceptional people remain political leaders longer, but rare indeed is a political career that exceeds forty years of meaningful influence past one's apprenticeship. The voting behavior of the average citizen reflects a similar cycle of participation. A very high percentage of newly enfranchised young people do no bother to vote. The percentage of eligible voters actually exercising this right, increases significantly for people in their 30s, remains much the same until retirement age and then declines again. It seems that voters as well as leaders tend to "retire" after a generation's worth of activity.^28 In addition to the generational pattern that is reflected in each individual, as Jefferson noted indirectly, a nation or civil society is, in effect, a sequential combination of generations sharing a common history and heritage. The generational pattern for any particular society, nation or group is set at the beginning of its history by its founders. Take the United States. The historical record shows that the "founders" of the colonies, the Republic, and the western states and settlements, were generally "young" men, at the beginning of the productive phase of their life cycles.^29 In the process of founding new settlement or institutions, they formed leadership groups which in the normal course of events remained in power throughout the years of their maturity. They retired when age and an entirely new generation forced them to do so and, as a result, were replaced according to the cycle which they, willy-nilly established. Thus, in the first third of the 17th century, groups of young adults settled virgin territory at key points along the Atlantic coast and in that way initiated what was to become in time the generational progression of the United States with what was, for all intents and purposes, a free hand. Since the first generation of Americans began more or less "even", its people (particularly its leaders) passed from the scene at approximately the same time, thereby opening the door for a new generation of leaders to enter the picture and to begin the process all over again. Thus it was that at every stage of the advancing frontier, new people would pioneer, establish their patterns and pass from the scene at roughly the same time, thereby allowing a new generation to assume the reins. Because such beginnings occur in history from time to time, they establish a much greater regularity of generational progressions in social and political life than that found in the simple processes of human biology which, theoretically should, if other things were equal, maintain a constant "changing of the guard." In this way the biological basis for the progression of generations is modified by locational factors. Given sufficient data, we could probably trace the generational cycles and patterns back to the very foundations of organized society. In the United States, a society whose foundings are recorded in history, we can do just that. Such changes as occur in any society are intimately tied to the progression of generations. Each new generation to assume the reins of power is necessarily a product of different influences and is shaped to respond to different problems. This reality heightens the impact of the change and encourages new political action to assimilate the changes into the lives of the members of the new generation. At the same time, the biological fact that three or at the most four generations are alive at any given time creates certain linkages between generations (for example, the influence of grandparents on grandchildren) that insure a measure of inter-generational contacts and social continuity. Those contact help shape every generation's perception of its past and future. In this respect, Jefferson's effort to separate generations sharply is socially inaccurate just as it is biologically impossible and politically unmanageable. Generations, Centuries and Events Since the founding of the first European settlements along the Atlantic seaboard three and a half centuries ago, eleven generations of Americans have led the United States through a continuing series of challenges and responses and we are now near the middle of the twelfth. In due course, the centuries (which are essentially three generation units) as well as the generations have acquired a certain distinctiveness of their own. Again, there is a common sense recognition of this in the treatment of American history. The 17th century stands out clearly as the century of the founding of American settlement. The 18th century stands out as the century in which an independent American nation was forged; the 19th century stands out as the century of continental expansion; and the 20th century is the century of the United States as a world power. Historical centuries do not cover precisely the same time periods as chronological centuries. In American history, as in modern European history, historical centuries have come to an end and new ones have begun some seven to fifteen years after the chronological dividing point, thus: a. 16th century ended with the death of Queen Elizabeth I (1522-1603) and the 17th century began with the opening of the American frontier at Jamestown (1607) and the emergence of conflict between the Stuarts and the Puritans as the decisive political factor of the times. b. The 17th century ended and the 18th century began with the Treaty of Utrecht and the conclusion of Queen Anne's War (1713) which eliminated the Netherlands as a world power and turned the Anglo-French conflict in the New World into a primary consideration for both countries. c. The 18th century ended with the fall of Napoleon and the end of the War of 1812 (1815) and the nineteenth century began with the "era of good feeling" and the American turn west (1816ff). d. The 19th century ended and the 20th century began with the inauguration of Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom" (1913), the outbreak of World War I (1914), and the final closing of America's last land frontier. Perhaps even more salient, the fundamental issues and alignments that form the hidden dimension in shaping political behavior show every sign of persisting over three generation periods and then dissipating in the fourth. Two examples from American history are immediately relevant. The issues and alignments revolving around the nature of the federal union and the slavery issue that emerged during the sixth generation of American life -- the first generation under the Constitution -- persisted through the eighth generation (a century later) when they were resolved in the Civil War. In turn, the war created a new set of fundamental issues and alignments having to do with economic reform and the location of a pluralistic society. These took form in the ninth generation and dominated American politics for a century. Those issues and alignments disintegrated in the eleventh generation and Americans are presently in the process of defining the issues and shaping the alignments that will replace them. The issues of the past century are being replaced in the twelfth generation by new issues that have surfaced in American life in the past decade. Indeed, the crisis of the 1960s, which commentators have described as the most divisive since the Civil War, came just when it would have been predicted to come in the flow of generations,that is, when one century's set of "just" issues was ceasing to hold the American people and a new set of issues of equal intensity was moving to center stage. This is why the conflicts of the late 1960s and early 1970s was so intense, the sense of alienation from the American past so deep among the members of the generation then coming to maturity, and the changes in American life so vast. Since then, great healing has taken place. While it began after Gerald Ford entered the White House, its peak was presided over and encouraged by Ronald Reagan in a decade which witnessed the renewal of American patriotism and self-confidence. The progression of centuries and generations since 1607 may be delineated graphically. In the course of this book, the progression will be related to major forces and factors shaping American history: (1) the stages of the continuing American frontier; (2) the principal challenges facing the American people in each generation and the central responses to those challenges; (3) the changing forms and patterns of American federalism (4) the sequence of critical elections; (5) the dominant modes of economic organization in the country; and (6) the changing relationships between racial, ethnic and religious groups. One note of caution: the dates must be viewed as approximate. Historical eras can be delineated but they do no begin and end with such sharpness. Convenience demands that we be more precise for analytical purposes than life ever is. The first three generations together comprised the 17th century, the period of initial colonization. By 1713, immigrants from the Old World, mostly from the British Isles, the Netherlands and Germany, but already including Africans and small numbers from from virtually every corner of Europe, had founded all but one of the original thirteen colonies, giving birth to the first generation of native Americans of European and African descent in the English colonies, and starting those colonies on the road toward becoming a separate nation with its own civilization. The fourth through sixth generations encompassed the 18th century, which, from the first American recognition of common continental interests in 1713 to the conclusion of the "Second War for Independence" in 1815, was devoted to forging an independent American nation. They created the idea of American nationalism, successfully fought for the independence of the united colonies and established the United States as a democratic federal republic. The idea bequeathed by those three generations form the core of the political heritage of all subsequent generations of Americans. The 19th century covered the seventh, eight and ninth generations, beginning at the point where America turned its back on European entanglements after 1815 and ending at the point where it reembraced them in World War I. They transformed the young republic into an industrialized continental nation with a strong national government; abolished slavery, settled the west and created an embryonic world power ready for overseas involvements. The tenth generation -- the first of the twentieth century -- reformed the nation's industrial system and led the country into the arena or world politics. The eleventh generation was charged with the task of shaping America's role as a world power and of presiding over massive efforts to adjust socially and politically to the results of a technological transformation at least the equal of the industrial revolution. As the twelfth generation began forming, it seemed to be faced with the task of adjusting to a world role of reduced dominance for the United States, one in which American industrial might is diminished relative to Japan and Western Europe. It is also the first generation of the transformation of society as a result of the application of cybernetics, faced with adjustment to this new frontier. The generational climax, however, came with the collapse of Communism and the Soviet Union, leaving the U.S.A. politically dominant although economically weakened. The results of these phenomenon will constitute the basis for working out the remainder of the generation. Generations and Frontier Stages The challenges to which each generation has had to respond are products of the country's continuing frontier experience. In American history, the continuing frontier has been the crucial, if not the decisive factor, in the progression of generation and centuries. The chart delineates the course of several American frontiers, their interrelationship and their relationships to other historical and political phenomena. Since the first settlement on these shores, American society has been a frontier society, geared to the progressive extension of human control over the natural environment and the utilization of the social and economic benefits gained from widening that control, i.e., pushing the frontier line back. The very dynamism of American society is a product of this commitment which is virtually self-generating since, like a chain reaction, the conquest of one frontier has led to the opening of another. It is this frontier situation that has created the major social and economic changes which have, in turn, forced periodic adjustments in the nation's political institutions. America's continuing frontier has manifested itself in four stages to date: the rural-land frontier, the urban-industrial frontier, the metropolitan-technological frontier, and now, the rurban-cybernetic frontier. Each stage has involved its own form of settlement coupled with a dominant form of economic activity that together have been decisively influential in shaping virtually all aspects of American life within that stage. The rural-land frontier was the classic "frontier" described by the historians that set the tone for American development. It lasted from the beginning of settlement in the seventeenth century to the end of the nineteenth century on the eve of World War I. Based on the conquest of the land - the American share of the North American continent, it was oriented toward the direct exploitation of the products of the land even in its cities. It was characterized by the westward movement on a basically rural population interested in settling and exploiting the land and by the development of a socio-economic system based on agricultural and extractive pursuits in both its urban and rural components. The rural-land frontier was dominant through the middle of the ninth generation, remained an active and potent force for the remainder of that generation and still exists as a factor on the fringes of the country, primarily in Alaska. Early in the nineteenth century, the rural-land frontier gave birth the the urban-industrial frontier, which began in the Northeast and spread westward, in the course of which it transformed the nation into an industrial society settled in cities and dedicated to the spread of new technology as the primary source of the nation's economic and social forms. The urban-industrial frontier represented the unique impact of the industrial revolution on the United States, where it went hand in hand with the first settlement of the greater part of the country. An outgrowth of the rural-land frontier when it first emerged as a recognizable frontier in its own right at the beginning of the seventh generation, it remained tied to the demands of that classic frontier through the next two generations, finally superseding it as the dominant frontier in the middle of the ninth generation. It remained the dominant frontier nationally until the end of the tenth generation and continues to be important in various localities, particularly in the South and West. The dominant characteristics of this frontier was the transformation of cities from service centers or workshops for the rural areas into independent centers of opportunity, producers of new wealth, and social innovators possessing internally generated reasons for their existence and growth. By the mid-twentieth century, the urban-industrial had given birth, in turn, to the metropolitan-technological frontier which is characterized by the radical reordering of an industrial society through rapidly changing technologies and settlement patterns that encourages the diffusion of an urbanized population within large metropolitan regions. These radically new technologies, ranging from atomic energy and automation to synthetics and cybernetics and the accompanying suburbanization of the population influenced further changes in the nation's social and economic forms in accord with their new demands. At the same time, metropolitan expansion offered a new kind of land base for a transformed industrial society. Like the first two frontier stages, the metropolitan-technological frontier has also moved from east to west since the 1920s, taking on a clear identity of its own at the outset of the tenth generation. After World War II, in the eleventh generation, it became clearly and exclusively the dominant frontier, setting the framework for and pace of development across the country. The metropolitan frontier reached its peak in the mid-1960s and by the mid-1970s, most of its impetus had been spent. It continues to be a force in selected areas of current metropolitanization. The late 1960s and 1970s were notable for the dominance of the backlash from that frontier -- in the form of political radicalism challenging the frontier assumptions and policies of the 1950s, ecological challenges to frontier-generated environmental pollution, and a new school of no-growth economics that attacked the growth premises of a frontier society -- all stimulated by new problems of resource management brought on by the energy crisis. Pundits were saying that, after centuries, the frontier was over. By 1980, however, there were signs that a new frontier stage was emerging, based on the cybernetic technologies developed on the metropolitan frontier. These technologies -- minicomputers, satellite-transmitted communications, cable television, and new data-processing devices -- fostered a settlement pattern of large belts of relatively small cities, towns, and rural areas populated by urbanites engaged in traditionally urban (that is to say, not connected with rural) pursuits, but living lives that mixed city and small town or rural elements. These rurban belts have no single metropolitan center, only a number of specialized ones for different purposes. While this phenomenon started along the northeastern coast, as did earlier frontiers, its major expression is to be found in the sun belt. This rurban-cybernetic frontier is still in its early stages, but it is already bringing its own challenges, initially manifested in the 1980s in the Reagan presidency and its renewed commitment to the market economy which let loose a bevy of financial entrepreneurs who changed the face of the American economy. Globally, the end of the decade witnessed the collapse of Communism, the end of the Cold War, and the triumph of the West. Each successive frontier stage has opened new vistas and new avenues of opportunity for the American people. At the same time, each new frontier has brought changes in economic activities, new settlement patterns, different human requirements, political changes, and its own social problems that grow out of the collision of old patterns and new demands as much as they are generated by the new demands themselves. Most important for our purposes, the coincidence between the points of generational division and the shifts in the various frontier stages is as exact as possible, as will be shown in greater detail in the following chapters. Such shifts invariably came as part of the initiating events of a new generation and, indeed, are closely related to the opening of new centuries. Generations and Economic Periods One major consequence of the continuing frontier has been a continuing demand for public-generally governmental - activity to meet frontier-generated problems, particularly economic ones. As a result, the governments of the United States have always maintained a more or less active relationship to the American economy even in the so-called "era of laissez-faire". What has changed from era to era is the nature of the relationship and the character of the governmental response. These changes have also developed on a generational basis, with some shift in every generation since the founding of the Republic. Inheriting a mercantilistic economic policy, in the first generation under the Constitution (the sixth generation of American history) the American government continued a semi-mercantilist policy. The next generation - the first of the nineteenth century - brought a transition from intensive government involvement in the economy to free enterprise capitalism, during which the forms remained mixed. It was succeeded by a generation in which free enterprise flourished as never before or since, the outcome of which was the emergence of the more successful competitors as monopoly-oriented corporations leading to a generation of concentrated enterprise capitalism, still essentially unregulated by government. Demands for government regulation that built up during the last generation of the nineteenth century led to the reintroduction of intensive government involvement of a different kind in the first generation of the twentieth, another transition generation. In the eleventh generation, the question was resolved in favor of active government involvement leading to a regulated enterprise system. Then, at the beginning of the twelfth, there was a sharp turn around toward reinvigorating the market economy, free enterprise, and less government intervention. Centuries, Generations and Federalism The use of federal principles and the whole problem of union can also be traced on a generational and century basis. The very first generation of American history brought the introduction of federal principles through the contracts and covenants that established the colonies and the local settlements within them as well as through Puritan theology. In the remaining two generations of the seventeenth century, experiments with federation were made on a local and regional basis. During the eighteenth century, the idea of national federation was developed and introduced, as an idea whose strength spread through the first generation, in increasingly, concrete ways in the second, and in firmly institutionalized form in the third. The nineteenth century was a period of testing and crystallizing the character of the federal union building up to and then beyond the Civil War, the synthesizing event of the century. The thrust of the twentieth century from Wilson through Reagan has been to accommodate federalism and a modern technological society. Each generation has not only had its own particular need to deal with questions of federalism but in most, if not all, new techniques have also been devised to handle intergovernmental relations. These new techniques and the systemic adaptations which they have entailed have been major elements in the concrete response to the generation's challenges. Generations and Ethno-Religious Interrelationship The relationship between racial, ethnic and religious groups (and their various combinations) stand with the frontier and the challenge-response relationship as central factors in the shaping of American history and politics. The changes in those relationships also coincide closely with the flow of generations and centuries. British America's first generation saw an attempt to allow religious pluralism on a strictly territorial basis; that is to say, through giving particular religious groups exclusive control over particular territories. At the same time, Africans were introduced as indentured servants to initiate a racial division in the country. In the second and third generations, heterodox elements were recognized in most of the colonies as ethnic diversity and sectarian differentiation spread while the Africans were reduced to slavery. Thus by the end of the first century, a modified religious pluralism was the norm with locally favored churches and tolerated ones existing side by side. At the same time a racially-based caste system was in the making. During the three generations of the second century, ethnic and sectarian pluralism increased radically, rendering most of the original territorial arrangements obsolete and resulting in the virtual elimination of established churches in the new nation. Slavery, after increasing moderately in the South, was given a new lease on life by technological change while at the same time it was abolished in the North. The first generation of the nineteenth century saw the unofficial establishment of a generalized Protestant republicanism which was almost immediately challenged by the rise of non-Protestant immigration. The second generation was one of transition to a new post-Protestant pluralism which remained an antagonistic one through the third generation when the non-Protestant non-British migration reached its height. Slavery boomed, was abolished and allowed to reappear in the course of the century as the caste system was reaffirmed through the institution of segregation. From the first, the twentieth century has been the century of open pluralism-religious, ethnic and racial - in American life. The barriers of full participation by non-White Anglo-Saxon Protestants began to fall in the tenth generation and the elimination of those barriers has been the priority problem of the eleventh. Indeed, by the late 1960s, pluralism in morals and life styles began to shape up as the great issue of the coming generation. By the middle of the twelfth generation, not only were there no more excluded groups, but those once excluded were calling for the further redefinition of American society as one based on "multiculturalism," that is to say, to giving equal weight to all groups in the expression of American culture. While the generation thesis suggested here has not heretofore been presented in detail, there are rough approximations of the generation or segment of generations in the commonly accepted descriptions of historical periods in the United States. In some cases whole generations have identities; e.g., the revolutionary period, the Populist era. In other, the periods of generational responses have recognized names: e.g., Jacksonian Democracy, The New Deal, The Great Society. In still others, periods of political dominance flowing from critical elections are named: e.g., the Jeffersonian era, the Jacksonian era. The Internal Structure of the Generation: Challenges and Responses Each generation has had to face and respond to its own particular challenge. With perhaps one exception, each has also developed its own very clear and widely recognized response.^30 The challenges and the responses provide the skeletal structure of each generation. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In others, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the challenges changes from century to century. During the seventeenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the eighteenth century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the nineteenth century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the twentieth century, they have been essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. The emergence of the challenge is a phenomena associated with the initial stages of each generation during which the challenges which, objectively speaking, may have originated earlier, is progressively recognized as a challenge by the body politic. It is this growing recognition of the challenge that, in conjunction with other factors such as the replacement of populations and the consequent shifts in voting behavior, brings the intensive response associated with mid-generation national activity. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities, while the challenge is coming to public attention and only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. Aside from the fact that each generation acquires a certain discreet existence of its own, within each there is a more or less regular progression of political events revolving around the development of a particular set of challenges confronting that generation and its response to them. It is this recurring pattern of challenges and responses that gives each generation its particular character. While the shape of the challenges is primarily determined by external -- or environmental -- forces, the mode of handling those challenges is primarily determined internally, by the members of the generation themselves. In American history, the pattern of challenges and responses has taken two generalized forms, one in the colonial period when each colony had its own internal politics essentially independent of its sisters, and the other science independence when a common national constitution created a common national politics. In some cases, particularly after independence when the nation could act decisively, the responses have been very clear-cut indeed. In other, particularly in the colonial period, they were more diffuse. The character of the political challenges that have dominated the American scene has changed from century to century. During the 17th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of founding a new society as manifested in the various colonies. In the 18th century, they were essentially related to the tasks of consolidating the supremacy, unity and independence of British America. In the 19th century, they were essentially related to expanding the scope, wealth, and purposes of the American national enterprise. In the 20th century, they have essentially related to the metropolitanization of American society and the assumption of an American role in world affairs. In a generalized map of the pattern of challenge and response within each generation since independence, the "border" between the old and new generations is marked by several decisive political actions, often involving constitutional change, whose characteristic feature is the simultaneous completion of the major responses of the old generation and the opening of new directions, challenges and opportunities for the new. The first half of the new generation is a time for recognizing the new challenge confronting it and the issues they raise, and developing and testing proposals for political action to meet them. At the same time, it is a period of population change as old voters and leaders pass from the scene of political activity and new ones come onto it. During that period there occur the generation's expressions of public will that point it in the direction which the response will take, generally by raising leaders to office who have indicated that they are ready to respond to the generation's developing challenges. In fact, the response itself builds up in a diffused way in various public quarters, particularly in the states and localities. Only after it has been tested in many quarters does it emerge as a concentrated national effort. The second half of the generation begins with a great spurt of governmental innovation on the national place designed to respond to the now-recognized challenge. That effort lasts for three to five years. The remainder of the generation is then occupied with digesting the results of that spurt, modifying the new programs so that they will achieve greater success and at the same time integrating them into the country's overall political fabric. The end of the generation is marked by political acts that both ratify and codify its accomplishments while also serving to open up the issues of the next generation. By that time, voices calling for political responses to new challenges are already beginning to be recognized. The Bench Marks of American Political History: Critical Elections and New Deals In the course of mapping the topographic characteristics of a particular landscape, geologists mark off crucial points through a system of bench marks. Crucial points in the passage of time can also be seen to be marked off in some way. In American political history, the crucial points of demarcation are very much in tune with the generational rhythm of events. They are of two kinds; first, the critical elections that determine who shall govern in a particular generation and, second, the "new deals," or periods of intensive federal legislative innovation, through which government initiates a systematic response to the challenges of each generation. The Generational Recurrence of Critical Elections A major element in the movement from challenge to response is the sequence of critical elections that has preceded every major period of national response since the adoption of the Constitution. The generational thesis takes on particular clarity in light of this pattern of critical elections. A critical election is one which brings about major alterations in the party loyalties of major blocs of voters, shifting them from one political party to another. Professor V. O. Key, who first suggested the term, defined a "critical election" as one in which "the depth and intensity of electoral involvement are high, in which more or less profound readjustments occur in the relations of power within in the community, and in which new and durable electoral groups are formed."^31 These shifts and readjustments which occur as a result of the critical elections lead to the formation of new nationwide electoral coalitions and either to a change in political ascendency from one party to the other or, within the major party, from one major element to another. Students of American electoral behavior have clearly shown that there is a tendency for one of the major parties to command the allegiance of a majority of the national electorate for a relatively long period of time.^32 Thus, for example, according to public opinion polls and the election returns, between the 1930s and the 1970s a majority of the nation's voters who identify themselves with a political party have considered themselves to be Democrats. In consequence, in every national election since 1932 the Democrats have started with the advantage of having a plurality of the voters identified with them while the Republican Party, as the minority party, has had to overcome a "normal" Democratic majority in order to elect presidents or even a sufficient number of senators and representatives to win control of Congress. The results of this situation are well-known. Between 1932 and 1968, only one Republican had won the Presidency and the GOP controlled the Congress for only two years (1952-1954). Dwight D. Eisenhower, a military hero with non-partisan appeal, was able to overcome the "normal" Democratic majority to capture the White House for his party twice because of his personal appeal coupled, at least in 1952, with a general feeling that it was "time for a change" after twenty years of Democratic incumbency. All of this was upset by the Vietnam War. Republican Richard M. Nixon squeaked into the Presidency in 1968 in the wake of the Democrats' Vietnam problems, won a second term at the expense of an extremely unpopular Democratic alternative, but could not in either case carry a Republican majority into either house of Congress. Nevertheless, his victory hastened the weakening of the majority Democratic coalition and broke the Democratic lock on the presidency. It ushered in a period of split ticket voting that has kept Republicans in the White House for all but four years (1977-1981) since 1969, but left the Democrats in full control of Congress except for 1980-1984 when the GOP controlled the Senate. A party becomes the majority party when it is able to put together a nation-wide coalition comprising a majority of the various permanent and transient electoral groups. These electoral groups are based on a variety of economic and geographic interests, differing historical loyalties, racial or ethnic backgrounds, religious affiliations, personal or family ties, and responses to the specific problems of the age. These coalitions are not national so much as they are nation-wide. They are inspired and held together by national leaders (or leadership) but are actually activated through the separate state parties which form the two national confederations known as the Democratic and Republican parties. Just as the national parties are confederations of the state parties, so is the national coalition of electoral groups a confederation of state and sectional coalitions. Once one of the parties is able to put together such a coalition and thereby capture the majority of the votes, the tendency of the electorate to remain stable in its allegiances will enable it to remain the majority party until positive reasons develop that lead to the dissolution of the winning combination. This dissolution, too, is virtually inevitable. Times and moods change, new problems attract voter attention, the opposition party exploits the dissatisfactions that develop and sooner or later make the necessary inroads in the various electoral groups. Even during its period of dominance, the majority party faces opposition and loses elections as a result of temporary shifts in public opinion. Since its coalition is never of equal strength in the fifty states, some states remain in the control of the party that is in the minority nationally. Of course it is by no means certain that the majority party will even win all the national elections during its ascendency. Indeed it is both possible and usual for a party to suffer losses on the national plane for a limited time without forfeiting its majority status as long as its losses are aberrations that do not dissolve the coalition. The states which remain in the hands of the minority party serve as bases that enable it to maintain its effective existence and mend its political fences until it is able to develop the new majority coalition when the time is ripe, by providing candidates for national office and sources of patronage and other political rewards for the party faithful during the years of national "famine." As the majority coalition begins to weaken, its constituent electoral groups will become alienated from each other. Their changing needs may even bring former confederates into conflict with each other. The members of these electoral groups may begin to find the other party more receptive to their new demands. As issues pass and problems change, whole electoral groups may decline radically in importance and new, still uncommitted, groups may emerge to be wooed and won by the opposition. When the time is ripe for a change, the realignment takes place. This is not the oft-discussed realignment of the liberal and conservative wings of the two parties, but a reshuffling of the parties' constituent elements, the myriad electoral groups.^33 While the beginnings of every realignment can be found in the state and congressional elections, the shift becomes a national phenomenon only through the medium of the quadrennial presidential election. Once every four years, sufficient voter interest is aroused to make embryonic realignment actual ones. Once the realignment become fixed, they are further reflected in the state and congressional elections that follow. The series of presidential and congressional election in which the realignment takes place are the "critical elections."^34 The first pair of critical elections actually antedated the development of the institution of the popularly elected president. Despite the difference in modes of election the same factors of electoral bloc representation that later came to symbolize presidential politics when the votes of the people were solicited apparently were present in the contests in the electoral college and the House of Representatives. Key's thesis regarding the shift of political allegiance on the part of individual voters has been challenged as unprovable through the use of aggregate voting data. Moreover, some doubt has been cast on the notion that many voters do indeed shift allegiances. The generational thesis offers the key to the solution of this problem. It may very well be that the "realignment" that takes place does not so much involve changes in the allegiance of specific voters but a disruption of the common pattern whereby children tend to vote as did (or do) their parents - along lines determined by issues current during their grandparents' prime. A "realignment" thus becomes the end result of an event or compact series of events so crucial that they disrupt this "normal" progression and lead a significant percentage of children to reassess their family voting patterns and alter them in light of a situation which has made the old issues lose their primary importance. As the parents die (or cease to vote as is often the case with oldsters), the votes of their children came to represent first the balance in the electorate and then the majority. The shift is first felt in the period of generational buildup which is precisely the period when this "challenging of the guard" is taking place among political actives and "rank and file" alike. That is why the critical elections occur during that part of each generation and serve to bring it to an end. By the time the ratifying election, the new generation of "children" has moved from balance to majority. "New Deals" -- Bursts of Federal Government Activity The culmination of each series of critical elections is a bursts of innovative federal activity, legislative activity of the kind usually referred to in connection with the New Deal of Franklin Delano Roosevelt. These periods become fixed in the public mind as the historical watersheds they are. In the six and a half generations since the adoption of the U.S. Constitution, there have been five such concentrations of reform activity. Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson are well-known for their reforms. We still speak of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian Democracy. It is less well-known that Abraham Lincoln presided over a period of domestic reform legislation of major proportions that enabled the country to adjust to the industrial revolution the way the New Deal provided the basis for overcoming the social problems of industrialization. The Civil War upstaged that dimension of his Presidency but the period, as such, stands out in the public mind because of that struggle. Only in the ninth generation was the moment of reform aborted. It began at the appropriate point but was cut short by a series of decisions of an extremely unsympathetic U.S. Supreme Court. The reforms, perforce, were delayed until nearly the end of the generation when Theodore Roosevelt was able to use the Presidency to overcome some of the resistance to them. Next came Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal which has become the model for all such periods of federal action. In the 1960s, Lyndon B. Johnson's "Great Society" carried on the pattern, "on schedule," as it were. The next such concentration should come in the 1990s. The burst of legislative activity in the Great Society lasted approximately three years. While the acceleration of the curve of governmental involvement continued within the executive branch of the federal government and in the intergovernmental system for another two or three years, in effect, the election of Richard Nixon to the presidency ushered in the appropriate period of generational consolidation. The first postwar generation came to an end in the three years between 1973 and 1976, during which time the American effort in Vietnam collapsed and the United States became "gun-shy" of extensive overseas involvements as the world's policeman. President Nixon became involved in the Watergate scandal and was forced to resign his presidency, putting an end to the growth of the "imperial presidency" and bringing about a Congressional reassertion of its power. The energy crisis and some of the more critical domestic problems that arose in the last days of the Nixon administration led the governors of the American states to reassert themselves to fill the vacuum left by Washington, thereby considerably weakening the hierarchical understanding of American federalism whereby the states and localities had come to await marching orders from Washington before undertaking any activities. The election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1976 as an "outsider" whose task it was to clean up the Washington community marked the beginning of the second postwar generation, the twelfth in American history. The Carter administration, although scarred by many difficulties, began to define the issues of the new generation, usually in a way that was unrecognized by the public at the time. President Carter was faced with the task of restructuring America's international role in the wake of the post-Vietnam mood. He tried to shift federal government concern from social welfare to a new set of infrastructure issues revolving around energy. He tried to bring the Washington bureaucracy under control in the name of the states and localities. These were all to become principal issues during the period of generational build-up. The election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980 brought to the White House a figure whose ability to communicate issues to the American people in a simple and direct manner intensified the tendencies introduced in the Carter years. In the eight years that followed, all those issues required more intensified expression. By the end of the Reagan administration voices were being raised on behalf of a new wave of government activity to respond to what were referred to as the issues of the 1980s but were actually the issues of the new generation. Politically speaking, the new programs of each generation have been invariably preceded by critical elections through which the reconstituted electorate -- which changes from generation to generation as new people reach voting age and old ones die -- determines the basic pattern of party voting for the new era, either by reaffirming the majority party's hold on the public by granting them an extended mandate or by rejecting the majority party as unable to meet those demands and elevating the minority party to majority status. These critical elections, which attain their visibility in presidential contests, allow voters, blocs, and interests to realign themselves according to the new problems which face them. Three times in American history critical elections have elevated the party previously in the minority to majority status. In the series of elections beginning in 1796 and culminating in 1800, the Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans replaced the Federalists. In the 1856 and 1860 series, the Republicans replaced the Democrats who had become the heirs of the Jeffersonians and in 1928-1932, the Democrats in turn replaced the Republicans. Between each shift, the critical elections served to reinforce the majority party which was successful in adapting itself to new times and new conditions. Thus, in 1824-1828, the Jacksonian Democrats picked up the reins from their Jeffersonian predecessors; in 1892-1896, the Republicans were able to reconstitute their party coalition to maintain their majority position and even strengthen it. In 1956-1960 the Democrats were able to do the same thing. The old coalition put together by FDR and the New Deal, which underwent severe strains in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was reconstituted and reshaped by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson to give the Democrats an even stronger majority than before. This made the programs of the 1960s possible, but in turn led to a new testing period for the Democratic coalition. To suggest that a generational rhythm is clearly apparent in American politics is not to suggest that events move in any lock-step, that the rhythm of every generation is exactly the same as that of every other, or that there are no exceptions to the "normal" rules. Obviously history does not work in that way. Hence we must not the exceptions as well as the rule and account for them for the theory to be an accurate one. It is the fact that this too can be done that gives the theory its power. Summary Chapter 2 has focused in detail on the generational rhythm of American politics. Ultimately derived from the biblical understanding of time, the generational theory has been of more interest to European social philosophers than American social scientists until recently. Most systematic American attention to the question has been concerned with the cycles of American politics, often confined to electoral ones and, hence, limited in their theory. A more systematic biostatistical basis for the generation rhythm was provided by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson points the way to understanding that the rhythm of generations is based upon human social rhythms generally. Political events follow the rhythm of the generations, both in their internal rhythm and on an intergenerational basis. Centuries represent three generations and also have a certain pattern to them. The chapter examines the internal structure of the generation, constructed around the generation's challenges and the responses to them. The chapter concludes with the presentation of critical elections and new deals as the benchmarks of American political history recurring on a generational basis. Notes 1. Julian Marias, Generations: A Historical Method, translated by Harold C. Raley (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970); Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence: Essays on Generational Themes (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979). 2. George E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973). 3. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Exodus chapter 20, verse 5 (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 4. E.A. Spieser, The Anchor Bible: Genesis (Garden City: Doubleday, 1987). 5. For citation in the Bible of the idiomatic expression for a generation, see The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 6. See The Anchor Bible: Joshua, chapter 5, verse 6; and Numbers, chapter 32, verse 13. 7. See The Anchor Bible: Book of Judges, chapter 3, verse 11; chapter 5, verse 31; chapter 8, verse 28. 8. Harriet Nartineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte (London: G. Bell, 1896). 9. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive (London, 1862). 10. Giuseppe Ferrari, Coros Su Gli Scrittori Politici Italiani (Milano: Monanni, 1929). 11. Wilhelm Dilthey, Das Leben Schleiermachers (1870) or Menschen, der Gesellschaft und dem Staat, in Gesammelte Schriften, Band 4. (1875), pp. 36-41. 12. Leopold von Ranke and Ottokar Lorenz. For more information on Leopold von Ranke, see George G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds., Leopold von Ranke and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); Peter Gary, Style in History (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Theodore Hermann Van Lane, Leopold Ranke: The Formative Years (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp., 1970); Felix Gilbert, History, Politics or Culture? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). 13. Marias, Generations: A Historical Method. 14. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Modern Theme (New York: Norton, 1933). 15. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kecsdemeti, ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., 1972); Francois Mentre, Less Generations Sociales (Paris: Bossard, 1920); Engelbert Drerup, Das Generations Problem in der Griechischen und Griechisch-Roemischen Kultur (Paderborn: F. Schoeningh, 1933). 16. Wilheim Pinder, Das Problem der Generation in der Kunstgeschichte Europas (Berlin: Frankfurter Verlags-Anstalt, 1926); Julius Peterson, Die Literarischen Generationen (Berlin: Junker and Duennhaupt, 1930) and Die Wesenbestimmung der Romantik (Leipzig, 1925), Ch.6; Henri Peyre, Les Generations Litteraires (Paris: Boivin, 1948). 17. Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution: Totalitarianism in the Age of International Civil War, 2nd ed. (New York: F.A. Praeger, 1965), and "The Conflict of Generations," Partisan Review 39, No. 4 (1972): 564-78. 18. Raymond A. Bauer, Alex Inkeles, and Clyde Kluckhohn, How the Soviet System Works: Cultural, Psychological, and Social Themes (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956). 19. Marvin Rintala, The Constitution of Silence; Maurice Zeitlin, American Society (Chicago: Markham, 1970). 20. S.N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and Social Structure (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1956); Joseph Gusfield, Protest, Reform, and Revolt (New York: J. Wiley, 1970). 21. Arthur Schlesinger, "The Tides of American Politics." (1939). 22. Charles G. Sellers, A Synopsis of American History (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1969); Walter Dean Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970); V.O. Key, Jr., Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961); Gerald M. Pomper, Elections in America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1968); Aletta Biersack, et al., The New Cultural History: Essays (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). 23. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18, and "Secular Realignment and the Party System," Journal of Politics, 21 (1959): 198-210. 24. See, for example, James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963). Over the years various theories have been propounded to explain the cycles of American politics. Perhaps the best known is that of Arthur Schlesinger, Sr., Paths to the Present (New York: Macmillan Co. 1949), which proposes a cycle of swings from liberalism to conservatism approximately 50 years in duration. Unfortunately the article itself is extremely time-bound, first of all in using liberalism and conservatism, constructs particularly relevant in the generation between World Wars I and II when the article was written as the fundamental basis of American political ideas, something which is simply not the case. Moreover the cycles themselves best reflect the swings from more activist to less activist government from the Civil War to the New Deal. 25. The discussion to be advanced in the following pages was first presented in Daniel J. Elazar, "Generational Rhythm of American Politics," American Political Quarterly (January 1978) vol. 6, no. 1, and in "Generational Breaks," Nissan Oren, ed., When Patterns Change: Turning Points in International Politics (1984). See also Daniel J. Elazar, Building Toward Civil War (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America and Center for the Study of Federalism, 1992). 26. Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789. 27. Note that the U.S. Constitution requires a person to be 25 years old to serve in the House of Representatives, 30 years old to serve in the Senate, and 35 years old to be President. 28. See Angus Campbell, Phillip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller and Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba and Jae-on Kim, "Political Participation and the Life Cycle," Comparative Politics, 6 (April 1974): 319-340; Mary M. Conway, Political Participation in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1985); Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba, John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Alex Inkeles, "The American Character," The Center Magazine (Santa Barbara, Calif: Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions, Nov/Dec 1983); Morris Janowitz, The Last Half-Century: Societal Change and Politics in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Lester W. Milbrath, Political Participation: How and Why do People Get Involved in Politics (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965); Roger W. Cobb and Charles D. Elder, Participation in American Politics: Agenda Building (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972); James David Barber, Politics By Humans: Collected Research on American Leadership (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988); Clifton McCleskey, Political Power and American Democracy (Pacific Grove, Cal.: Brooks/Cole, 1989). 29. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick discuss this phenomenon with special reference to the revolutionary and constitutional years in The Founding Fathers: Young Men of the Revolution (New York: Macmillan, 1961). 30. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (New York: Dell, 1965): Jhurgen Habermas, The New Conservatism; Cultural Criticism and the Historians Debate (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989). 31. V.O. Key, Jr., "A Theory of Critical Elections," in Journal of Politics 17 (1955): 3-18. 32. Campbell, et al., The American Voter; Gerald Pomper, Elections in America; Phillip E. Converse, "Of Time and Partisan Stability," Comparative Political Studies, 2 (July 1969): 139-171. 33. On realignment, see, V.O. Key, Jr., The Responsible Electorate (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); James L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute, 1973); Walter D. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York: Norton, 1970), and "American Politics in the 1970s: Beyond Party?" in William Nisbet Chambers and Burnham, eds., The American Party Systems: Stages of Political Development, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), pp. 316-317; Samuel P. Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 122-129; Anthony King, ed., Both Ends of the Avenue: The Presidency, the Executive Branch, and Congress in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1983). 34. Burnham, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics, and The Current Crisis in American Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982); Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System; Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony; David R. Mayhew, Placing Parties in American Politics: Organization, Electoral Settings, and Government Activity in the Twentieth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); James Clotfelter, Political Choices: A Study of Elections and Voters (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1980); Bruce A. Campbell, The American Electorate: Attitudes and Action (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979); Peter B. Natchez, Images of Voting: Visions of Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 1985). [3]Elazar Papers Index / [4]JCPA Home Page / [5]Top of Page Références [USEMAP] 1. javascript:history.go(-1) 3. mailto:jcenter@jcpa.org [USEMAP] [1]CAT.INIST [2][USEMAP:bandeau-haut-droit.gif] logo CNRS [3]logo INIST [4]En savoir plus sur CAT.INIST ? © INIST Diffusion S.A. Service Clients / Customer Service 2, allée du parc de Brabois F-54514 Vandoeuvre Cedex France Tél : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.64 Fax : +33 (0) 3.83.50.46.66 Courriel : [5]infoclient@inist.fr [6]Accueil / Home Imprimer / Print [7]Contact / Contact Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [8]Email Print [9]Bookmark and Share [10]Mendeley Back Titre du document / Document title Rhythms of the secular : The politics of modernizing Arab poetic forms = Rythmes du séculaire : la politique de modernisation des formes poétiques arabes Auteur(s) / Author(s) FURANI Khaled^ (1) ; Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s) ^(1) Tel-Aviv University, ISRAEL Résumé / Abstract In this article, I ethnographically trace how Arab, mainly Palestinian, poets have modernized their literary tradition during the last seven decades. Shortly after the 1948 Israeli occupation of Palestine, the reign of the classical Arabic ode collapsed, and the modern forms of free verse and, later, the prose poem became dominant. Aiming to contribute to the ethnography of modernity, I examine how poets have adopted and abandoned poetic forms by analyzing their narratives on rhythm. I explore the political salience of rhythmical transformations and argue that the secular has been a vital and complex force in the modern abandonment of metrical discipline. The secular affects how poets seek to modernize their rhythm, vocabulary, and relation to public. It also affects, I conclude, the ways in which anthropologists can and do write about modernity. Revue / Journal Title American ethnologist ISSN 0094-0496 Source / Source 2008, vol. 35, n^o2, pp. 290-307 [18 page(s) (article)] (2 p.1/4) Langue / Language Anglais Editeur / Publisher American Ethnological Society, Washington, DC, ETATS-UNIS (1974) (Revue) Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords Rhythm ; Transformation ; Modernization ; Poet ; Modernity ; Poetry ; Israel ; Palestine ; Near East ; Mots-clés français / French Keywords Forme poétique ; Tradition littéraire ; Arabe palestinien ; Rythme ; Transformation ; Modernisation ; Poète ; Modernité ; Poésie ; Israël ; Palestine ; Proche-Orient ; Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords poetic form ; modernity and secularism ; Palestine-Israel ; Localisation / Location INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 16902, 35400019805879.0070 Nº notice refdoc (ud4) : 20449527 Commander cette copie de document / Order a copy [11]Email Print [12]Bookmark and Share [13]Mendeley Back _______________________________ Rechercher dans CAT.INIST / Search in CAT.INIST Google Custom Search Références 5. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20CAT.INIST.FR 7. mailto:infoclient@inist.fr?subject=Message%20depuis%20Cat@inist.fr [USEMAP] * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * [1]LINGUIST List logo [2]Eastern Michigan University [3]Wayne State University * * [4]People & Organizations * [5]Jobs * [6]Calls & Conferences * [7]Publications * [8]Language Resources * [9]Text & Computer Tools * [10]Teaching & Learning * [11]Mailing Lists * [12]Search * * * [13][mail-logo-9.gif] E-mail this message to a friend Title: The Rhythm of Political Oratory Author: [14]Varvara Danilina Email: [15]click here to access email Degree Awarded: Moscow State University , Department of Foreigh Languages Degree Date: 2002 Linguistic Subfield(s): Discourse Analysis Sociolinguistics Subject Language(s): [16]English Director(s): [17]Ludmila Minaeva ___________________________________ Abstract: My doctoral dissertation was completed after four years of research on the rhythm of British and American political oratory. I sought to establish the rhythmic norm for political public speech and to find out, whether any deviations from this norm (i.e. from an expected rhythmic model) influence listeners and provoke their verbal reactions or bursts of applause. To accomplish this task I used a variety of linguistic and rhetorical methods, and drew upon social psychology and political science. There is no single linguistic perspective on speech rhythm. For instance, such distinguished scholars as D. Crystal and D. Abercrombie regard it as a purely phonetic phenomenon. At the same time, according to Moscow University school of thought, to which I belong, speech rhythm is created by a blend of phonetics, syntax and meaning of an utterance. As a result of my research, I established rhythmic regularities for political oratory at five levels. Firstly, I analyzed pauses that divide the stream of speech into segments (syntagmas), and classified all the pauses into syntactic, rhetorical or unintentional (unintentional pauses are caused by hesitation, deliberation, stammering, interruptions by listeners, etc). Secondly, I established the relative frequency of short, medium and long syntagmas between pauses, and thirdly, analyzed the rhythmic structures constituted by linear sequences of syntagmas. Fourthly, I studied the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables inside syntagmas. And finally, I considered all kinds of repetitions, both rhetorical and unintentional. This method of rhythmic analysis is based on earlier analytical models designed by my university colleagues. My own contribution consisted in adapting this method to the study of public speech, describing the typical rhythm of political oratory, and challenging some popular assumptions about speech rhythm. As for the impact of speech rhythm upon listeners, I started by analyzing audiences in order to understand psychological, social and political conditions of that process. G. Le Bon, Z. Freud and other scholars demonstrated conclusively that members of a crowd (and the audience of a public speech is a crowd) are connected with each other and with their leader (in our case, a speaker) by strong subconscious ties. However, the degree of unity or polarization of an audience may differ. Besides, each audience can be characterized according to several other criteria that determine listeners' responsiveness and the nature of their responses: their emotional state, the level of expertise in a particular subject, the demographic and social characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, social status, occupation, education), the existing evaluation of discussed issues, which is largely determined by listeners' ideologies, and finally, the attitude to the speaker, which can be positive, negative or indifferent. I have applied this model of audience analysis to determine peculiarities of the British parliamentary audience in October 1996, and of the US Congress in the aftermath of September 11, 2001. To analyze the reactions of these audiences to the rhythm of Prime Minister Major and President Bush's parliamentary addresses I used M. Atkinson's version of the conversation analysis method. I showed the two speeches as dialogues between the speakers and their listeners, and singled out phrases and syntagmas that immediately preceded audience responses, such as cheering, booing, laughter or bursts of applause. These phrases and syntagmas happened to be quite similar in terms of rhythm to other stretches of speech in the same addresses. Moreover, there proved to be little rhythmic difference between John Major and George Bush's speeches. In short, my research demonstrated that there is no direct interconnection between the rhythm of a public address and audience responses. [18]Add a dissertation [19]Update dissertation Page Updated: 17-Jan-2010 [20]Print This Page __________________________________________________________________ [21][transp.gif] [22][transp.gif] Please [23]report any bad links or misclassified data __________________________________________________________________ [24]LINGUIST Homepage | [25]Read LINGUIST | [26]Contact us [27]NSF Logo While the LINGUIST List makes every effort to ensure the linguistic relevance of sites listed on its pages, it cannot vouch for their contents. Références 13. JavaScript:; 15. JavaScript:; 20. Javascript:window.print(); 22. mailto:cranston@linguistlist.org [USEMAP] [USEMAP] [USEMAP] #[1]Edit this page [2]Wikipedia (en) [3]copyright [4]Wikipedia RSS Feed [5]Wikipedia Atom Feed Afrobeat From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search Question book-new.svg This article does not [8]cite any [9]references or sources. Please help [10]improve this article by adding citations to [11]reliable sources. Unsourced material may be [12]challenged and [13]removed. (September 2008) Afrobeat is a combination of [14]Yoruba music, [15]jazz, [16]highlife, and [17]funk [18]rhythms, fused with [19]percussion and [20]vocal styles, popularized in [21]Africa in the 1970s. Its main creator was the [22]Nigerian multi-[23]instrumentalist and [24]bandleader [25]Fela Kuti who used it to revolutionise musical structure as well as the political context in his native Nigeria. It was Kuti who coined the term "afrobeat" upon his return from a U.S. tour with his group Nigeria 70 (formerly Koola Lobitos). The new sound hailed from a club that he established called the Afro-Shrine. Upon arriving in Nigeria, Kuti also changed the name of his group to Fela Ransome-Kuti & Africa 70. The band maintained a five-year residency in the Afro-Shrine from 1970 to 1975 while afrobeat thrived among Nigerian youth. Afrobeat is now one of the most recognisable music genres in the world and has influenced as many Western musicians as it has African ones with its exuberant style and polyrhythms. Contents * [26]1 Origins * [27]2 Influence * [28]3 Instrumentation * [29]4 Today * [30]5 External links [[31]edit] Origins Afrobeat originated from the southern part of [32]Nigeria in the 1960s where Kuti experimented with many different forms of contemporary music of the time. Prevalent in him and Lagbaja's music are native African harmonies and rhythms, taking different elements and combining, modernizing and improvising upon them. [33]Politics are essential to afrobeat, since founder Kuti used social criticism to pave the way for social change. His message can be described as confrontational and controversial, which can be related to the political climate of most of the African countries in the 1960s, many of which were dealing with political injustice and military corruption while recovering from the transition from colonial governments to self-determination. As the genre spread throughout the African continent many bands took up the style. The recordings of these bands and their songs were rarely heard or exported outside the originating countries but many can now be found on compilation albums and CDs from specialist record shops. [[34]edit] Influence Many jazz musicians have been attracted to afrobeat. From [35]Roy Ayers in the seventies to [36]Randy Weston in the nineties, there have been collaborations which have resulted in albums such as Africa: Centre of the World by Roy Ayers, released on the Polydor label in 1981. In 1994 [37]Branford Marsalis, the American jazz saxophonist, included samples of Fela's "Beast of No Nation" on his Buckshot leFonque album. The new generation of DJs and musicians of the 2000s who have fallen in love with both Kuti's material and other rare releases have made compilations and remixes of these recordings, thus re-introducing the genre to new generations of listeners and fans of afropop and groove. Afrobeat has profoundly influenced important contemporary producers and musicians like [38]Brian Eno and [39]David Byrne, who credit Fela Kuti as an essential muse. Both worked on [40]Talking Heads' highly-acclaimed 1980 album [41]Remain In Light which brought polyrhythmic afrobeat influences to Western music. More recently, the horn section of [42]Antibalas have been guest musicians on [43]TV On The Radio's highly-acclaimed 2008 album [44]Dear Science, as well as on British band [45]Foals' 2008 album [46]Antidotes. [[47]edit] Instrumentation Big band (15 to 30 pieces: Fela-era afrobeat) and energetic performances * Lead vocals (may play sax/key solos as well) * Chorus vocals (may include horn players) * Rhythm guitar(s) (plays funk strumming pattern) * Tenor guitar (plays a finger-picked osinato groove) * [48]Bass guitar * [49]Drum set, generally in the form [50]polyrhythmic percussion * Saxophone(s) * Trumpet(s) * Trombone(s) * Organ/keyboards * Rhythm [51]conga #1 * Rhythm [52]conga #2 * Solo (lead) [53]conga * [54]Akuba: a set of 3 small stick-hit congas (play flourishes/solos, and ostinatos). Also mistakenly called "gbedu". * "Sticks"/[55]claves (plays ostinato) * [56]Shekere [[57]edit] Today There are several active afrobeat bands worldwide today. Modern afrobeat bands/artistes include: * [58]Kokolo (band), New York City Afrobeat/Afrofunk group formed by songwriter/producer Ray Lugo * [59]Nomo, [60]Ann Arbor based group that weaves various styles into a primarily Afrobeat sound. * [61]Chicago Afrobeat Project Chicago based collective that uses afrobeat as a springboard and has an incendiary live show. * [62]Afrodizz, an eight-piece band from [63]Montreal, [64]Canada formed by jazz guitarist Gabriel Aldama * [65]The Afromotive, an Asheville, NC based multiracial seven-piece afrobeat band featuring thirty-third generation djembe player Adama Dembele from Cote d`Ivoire, West Africa. * [66]Tony Allen, the man who held the drum chair during Fela's productive "Africa 70" phase, and whose drumming was, according to [67]James Brown's autobiography, the influence behind his 'discovery' of funk.^[[68]citation needed] * [69]Antibalas, [70]Brooklyn, New York based multiracial Afrobeat Orchestra formed by baritone saxophonist Martin Perna * [71]Aphrodesia, San Francisco based group, first American group to perform with Femi Kuti at The Shrine in Lagos, Nigeria. * [72]Ayetoro, a group led by Nigerian pianist/composer [73]Funsho Ogundipe * [74]Bebe cool lives in Uganda famous for his reggea mixed with luganda pop and English making an Afrobeat rhythm in Uganda known as Luga flow.He also lives in kampala. * [75]Chopteeth, an international 14 piece outfit based in Washington D.C., with former members of Busta Rhymes, The Temptations, The Four Tops, and Gladys Knight & the Pips. * [76]Femi Kuti (Fela's first son and a saxophonist) and the Positive Force * [77]Seun Kuti (another of Kuti's sons, saxophonist now fronting his father's last and late band) * [78]Dele Sosimi's Gbedu Resurrection Dele is a former keyboardist and musical director of Fela's band. He cofounded Femi Kuti's Positive Force. * [79]Zozo Afrobeat A thirteen-member group based in NYC, founded by Kaleta, former Fela guitarist. * [80]Baba Ken and the Afro-Groove Connexion Oakland based multiracial afrobeat ensemble led by Nigerian bassist, Baba Ken Okulolo, founding member of the seminal 1970's afrofunk/afrorock band, Monomono. * [81]Jose Chameleone famous in East, central and South Africa.He stays and live is Uganda in kampala city.He sing pop and Afro beat music.He is one of the most famous artists of Afro beat in Africa and the whole world. * [82]Afrobeat Down Los Angeles based Afrobeat ensemble (est. 2002) working with former Fela Africa '70 member and catalyst of entire afrobeat movement, Sandra Izsadore. * [83]Weird MC Rap artiste who occasionally experinments with Afrobeat rhythm. * [84]Vibe Squad A Ghanaian music crew formed by EaZZY Da Opemfour made of Prego, Culchar, Wizzy Wii and Richie. * [85]Gnl zamba rap artist in Uganda one of the most successful rap afrobeat star in East Africa and central Africa.He is known for his rhythm of 2 pac shakur * [86]Mr. Something Something Canadian afrobeat group * [87]Crime Scene Infunkstigation A 10-piece Afrobeat/Funk/Hip Hop group based out of Calgary, AB [[88]edit] External links * [89]KOKOLO on Myspace * [90]KOKOLO on YouTube * [91]KOKOLO Official Homepage * [92]The Afrobeat Blog * [93]The Unofficial Seun Kuti Fan-Site - Unofficial fan-site for Seun Kuti & Egypt 80 with news, videos, music, pictures and much more] * [94]The Shrine The Unofficial Website for Fela Kuti, Femi Kuti and Afrobeat Music * [95]BBC Afrobeat Documentary [96]v o [97]d o [98]e Genres of [99]African popular music Afrobeat · [100]Apala · [101]Benga · [102]Bikutsi · [103]Cape Jazz · [104]Chimurenga · [105]Fuji · [106]Highlife · [107]Hiplife · [108]Isicathamiya · [109]Jit · [110]Jùjú · [111]Kizomba · [112]Kuduro · [113]Kwaito · [114]Kwela · [115]Makossa · [116]Maloya · [117]Marrabenta · [118]Mbalax · [119]Mbaqanga · [120]Mbube · [121]Morna · [122]Palm-wine · [123]Raï · [124]Sakara · [125]Sega · [126]Soukous/Congo/Lingala/Rumba · [127]Taarab [128]v o [129]d o [130]e [131]Funk music [132]Acid jazz o Afrobeat o [133]Brit funk o [134]Funk metal o [135]Deep Funk o [136]Drumfunk o [137]Free funk o [138]Funkcore o [139]Funktronica o [140]Funk rock o [141]G-funk o [142]Go-go o [143]Jazz-funk o [144]Liquid funk o [145]Neurofunk o [146]Nu-funk o [147]P-Funk o [148]Post-disco o [149]Punk-funk o [150]Skweee Related [151]List of funk musicians o [152]Minneapolis sound [154]Categories: [155]Funk genres | [156]African American music in Africa Hidden categories: [157]Articles lacking sources from September 2008 | [158]All articles lacking sources | [159]All articles with unsourced statements | [160]Articles with unsourced statements from July 2007 Views * [161]Article * [162]Discussion * [163]Edit this page * [164]History Personal tools * [165]Try Beta * [166]Log in / create account Navigation * [167]Main page * [168]Contents * [169]Featured content * [170]Current events * [171]Random article Search ____________________ Go Search Interaction * [172]About Wikipedia * [173]Community portal * [174]Recent changes * [175]Contact Wikipedia * [176]Donate to Wikipedia * [177]Help Toolbox * [178]What links here * [179]Related changes * [180]Upload file * [181]Special pages * [182]Printable version * [183]Permanent link * [184]Cite this page Languages * [185]Català * [186]Deutsch * [187]Español * [188]Français * [189]Hrvatski * [190]Italiano * [191]Nederlands * [192]¥¬ * [193]ªNorsk (bokmål) * [194]Polski * [195]Português * [196]Suomi [197]Powered by MediaWiki [198]Wikimedia Foundation * This page was last modified on 12 January 2010 at 06:03. * Text is available under the [199]Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See [200]Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [201]Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * [202]Contact us * [203]Privacy policy * [204]About Wikipedia * [205]Disclaimers Références Liens visibles Liens cachés : #[1]rss [2]Jump to content Year * 1996 * 1997 * 1998 * 1999 * 2000 * 2001 * 2002 * 2003 * 2004 * [3]2005 * [4]2006 * [5]2007 * [6]2008 * [7]2009 * 2010 * 2011 * 2012 * 2013 * 2014 * 2015 * 2016 * 2017 * 2018 * 2019 Day * [8]24 * [9]23 * [10]22 * [11]21 * [12]20 * [13]19 * [14]18 * [15]17 * [16]16 * [17]15 * [18]14 * [19]13 * [20]12 * [21]11 * [22]10 * [23]09 * [24]08 * [25]07 * [26]06 * [27]05 * [28]04 * [29]03 * [30]02 * [31]01 [32]24 Ways to impress your friends * [33]Home * [34]Archives * [35]Authors * [36]Twitter * [37]RSS * ____________________ Go 12 12/2006 [38]Compose to a Vertical Rhythm by [39]Richard Rutter * [40]Article * [41]29 comments "Space in typography is like time in music. It is infinitely divisible, but a few proportional intervals can be much more useful than a limitless choice of arbitrary quantities." So says the typographer Robert Bringhurst, and just as regular use of time provides rhythm in music, so regular use of space provides rhythm in typography, and without rhythm the listener, or the reader, becomes disorientated and lost. On the Web, vertical rhythm - the spacing and arrangement of text as the reader descends the page - is contributed to by three factors: font size, line height and margin or padding. All of these factors must calculated with care in order that the rhythm is maintained. The basic unit of vertical space is line height. Establishing a suitable line height that can be applied to all text on the page, be it heading, body copy or sidenote, is the key to a solid dependable vertical rhythm, which will engage and guide the reader down the page. To see this in action, I've created [42]an example with headings, footnotes and sidenotes. Establishing a suitable line height The easiest place to begin determining a basic line height unit is with the font size of the body copy. For [43]the example I've chosen 12px. To ensure readability the body text will almost certainly need some leading, that is to say spacing between the lines. A line-height of 1.5em would give 6px spacing between the lines of body copy. This will create a total line height of 18px, which becomes our basic unit. Here's the CSS to get us to this point: 1. body { 2. font-size: 75%; 3. } 4. 5. html>body { 6. font-size: 12px; 7. } 8. 9. p { 10. line-height 1.5em; 11. } 12. Source: [44]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/1.txt There are many ways to size text in CSS and the above approach provides and accessible method of achieving the pixel-precision solid typography requires. By way of explanation, the first font-size reduces the body text from the 16px default (common to most browsers and OS set-ups) down to the 12px we require. This rule is primarily there for Internet Explorer 6 and below on Windows: the percentage value means that the text will scale predictably should a user bump the text size up or down. The second font-size sets the text size specifically and is ignored by IE6, but used by Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels. Spacing between paragraphs With our rhythmic unit set at 18px we need to ensure that it is maintained throughout the body copy. A common place to lose the rhythm is the gaps set between margins. The default treatment by web browsers of paragraphs is to insert a top- and bottom-margin of 1em. In our case this would give a spacing between the paragraphs of 12px and hence throw the text out of rhythm. If the rhythm of the page is to be maintained, the spacing of paragraphs should be related to the basic line height unit. This is achieved simply by setting top- and bottom-margins equal to the line height. In order that typographic integrity is maintained when text is resized by the user we must use ems for all our vertical measurements, including line-height, padding and margins. 1. p { 2. font-size:1em; 3. margin-top: 1.5em; 4. margin-bottom: 1.5em; 5. } 6. Source: [45]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/2.txt Browsers set margins on all block-level elements (such as headings, lists and blockquotes) so a way of ensuring that typographic attention is paid to all such elements is to reset the margins at the beginning of your style sheet. You could use a rule such as: 1. body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl ockquote,th,td { 2. margin:0; 3. padding:0; 4. } 5. Source: [46]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/3.txt Alternatively you could look into using the [47]Yahoo! UI Reset style sheet which removes most default styling, so providing a solid foundation upon which you can explicitly declare your design intentions. Variations in text size When there is a change in text size, perhaps with a heading or sidenotes, the differing text should also take up a multiple of the basic leading. This means that, in our example, every diversion from the basic text size should take up multiples of 18px. This can be accomplished by adjusting the line-height and margin accordingly, as described following. Headings Subheadings in the [48]example page are set to 14px. In order that the height of each line is 18px, the line-height should be set to 18 ÷ 14 = 1.286. Similarly the margins above and below the heading must be adjusted to fit. The temptation is to set heading margins to a simple 1em, but in order to maintain the rhythm, the top and bottom margins should be set at 1.286em so that the spacing is equal to the full 18px unit. 1. h2 { 2. font-size:1.1667em; 3. line-height: 1.286em; 4. margin-top: 1.286em; 5. margin-bottom: 1.286em; 6. } 7. Source: [49]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/4.txt One can also set asymmetrical margins for headings, provided the margins combine to be multiples of the basic line height. In our example, a top margin of 1½ lines is combined with a bottom margin of half a line as follows: 1. h2 { 2. font-size:1.1667em; 3. line-height: 1.286em; 4. margin-top: 1.929em; 5. margin-bottom: 0.643em; 6. } 7. Source: [50]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/5.txt Also in our example, the main heading is given a text size of 18px, therefore the line-height has been set to 1em, as has the margin: 1. h1 { 2. font-size:1.5em; 3. line-height: 1em; 4. margin-top: 0; 5. margin-bottom: 1em; 6. } 7. Source: [51]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/6.txt Sidenotes Sidenotes (and other supplementary material) are often set at a smaller size to the basic text. To keep the rhythm, this smaller text should still line up with body copy, so a calculation similar to that for headings is required. In our example, the sidenotes are set at 10px and so their line-height must be increased to 18 ÷ 10 = 1.8. 1. .sidenote { 2. font-size:0.8333em; 3. line-height:1.8em; 4. } 5. Source: [52]/code/compose-to-a-vertical-rhythm/7.txt Borders One additional point where vertical rhythm is often lost is with the introduction of horizontal borders. These effectively act as shims pushing the subsequent text downwards, so a two pixel horizontal border will throw out the vertical rhythm by two pixels. A way around this is to specify horizontal lines using background images or, as in our example, specify the width of the border in ems and adjust the padding to take up the slack. The design of the footnote in our example requires a 1px horizontal border. The footnote contains 12px text, so 1px in ems is 1 ÷ 12 = 0.0833. I have added a margin of 1½ lines above the border (1.5 × 18 ÷ 12 = 2.5ems), so to maintain the rhythm the border + padding must equal a ½ (9px). We know the border is set to 1px, so the padding must be set to 8px. To specify this in ems we use the familiar calculation: 8 ÷ 12 = 0.667. Hit me with your rhythm stick Composing to a vertical rhythm helps engage and guide the reader down the page, but it takes typographic discipline to do so. It may seem like a lot of fiddly maths is involved (a few divisions and multiplications never hurt anyone) but good type setting is all about numbers, and it is this attention to detail which is the key to success. Like what you read? * [53]Tweet this article * or * [54]Leave a comment Comments * [55]12/12/2006 Wow this is a good article. * [57]12/12/2006 [58]Will thanks so much, this is great. * [59]12/12/2006 Interesting stuff. Also worth reading Eric Meyer's post on unitless line-heights: * [61]12/12/2006 It's worth mentioning that IE6 and below can go a bit extreme when resizing fonts set as ems. You can fix this by applying font-size: 100% to html. Don't know why this works, it just does. Oh, if you're working in quirks mode you'll also need to apply it to thead, tbody and tfoot, beacuse the fix doesn't inherit (don't apply it to table unless you want table to inherit font-sizes). You don't need thead, tbody or tfoot in your tables as tbody is implied. Obviously, you can't then apply your own font-sizes to html or tbody etc, else you'll overwrite the fix, which is why I chose those particular elements as they're rarely used for font-sizes. Jake. * [63]12/12/2006 [64]Mike Stenhouse donotremove.co.uk Hmmmmm, interesting! I've not tried this but I think there might be an easier way to set those heights... What if the line-height is set to, say, 1.5em on the body and 1 (unit-less - it's valid!) on each descendant element? Or maybe some variation on that. It might force the 18px to inherit into the children without awkward calculations. * [65]12/12/2006 Great article, Richard! Web typography--like all typography--deserves this level of detailed thinking, and I hope to see more designers embracing it. * [67]12/12/2006 [68]michael h Good introduction to typography theory, but I am convinced that the Owen Briggs method is the best approach to sizing. * [69]13/12/2006 I've been working on something similar recently, and I've discovered that if you set the line-height in pixels, most browsers will still scale it proportionally along with the text. As IE6's numbers fall off, I hope we can leave all this black magic scaling math behind and go back to setting font sizes in pixels and letting the browsers handle the scaling. * [71]13/12/2006 Mike - you're right about being able to simplify the line-height specifications, but it doesn't require setting unitless line-heights. In the example I use, I've set the font-size to be 12px on the body and calculated line-heights for all the subsequent elements. As I required one line height - 18px - for all elements I can remove the multiple statements and simply set line-height:1.5em on the body. The calculated line-height of 18px is inherited by all elements on the page. I've modifed the example to show this (checked in Firefox, Safari and IE6): However the maths would still need to be performed to calculate the correct margins, so while the extra line-height specifications are not strictly necessary (at least while the same line height for all text is required) you unfortunately don't save much on the calculations. * [73]13/12/2006 Jake - the extreme text sizing in IE can be fixed by applying any percentage font size to the body - it doesn't have to be 100% (hence my use of 75% fixed this too). You're right about the tables though. This rule does the job nicely to inherit the text size: table, thead, tbody, tr, th, td {font-size:1em} * [75]13/12/2006 [76]GreLI In the article next rule is used to reset margins: body,div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,fieldset,p,bl ockquote,th,td { margin:0; padding:0; } I think it easier to use universal selector (* { margin: 0; padding: 0 }) instead. To fix table font-size inheritance it's enough to set table { font-size: 1em } Opera AFAIK don't change font-size if it set in pixels, but it can zoom pages (so does IE7). * [77]13/12/2006 GreLI - using the universal selector like that to zero all margins and padding can cause unpredictable results in some form controls (e.g. SELECT elements) in certain browsers. Rich - great article; now all someone needs to do is knock up a nice little app that spits out the right line-heights and margins for the elements you tell it... :) * [79]13/12/2006 It's unfortunate that pretty much no one composes with a scale when publishing for the web. Your article is a great step forward. Also overlooked are line lengths. Since the beginning of the web, It has been a standard practice to expand the line lengths out with the width of the browser (like your site is currently :), causing line lengths to expand way too long. If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even smaller. * [81]14/12/2006 I don't see it mentioned in the comments yet, but your quote above: "...Firefox, Safari, IE7, Opera and other modern browsers which allow users to resize text sized in pixels." is not correct, as IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized. * [83]18/12/2006 If an optimal line length for print is 66 characters, line lengths for web should be even smaller. You're right to mention line length as something that is overlooked, but on the screen it is not as simple as setting the measure in ems as their are more factors involved (screen size, liquid layouts, etc). Also I'd disagree that web line lengths should be shorter on the web. My personal preference would be for them to be longer - I find short line lengths on screen extremely hard work to read. That's just my opinion though. IE7 does not allow users to resize text sized in pixels. The layout can be zoomed, but the text can not be resized. If you think of the reasons for changing text size then zooming a layout is just another form of resizing text and achieves the same goal. * [85]20/12/2006 Theodore, I think you would enjoy Richard's article entitled "Choose a comfortable measure" over at webtypography.net :) 1.2/ * [87]22/12/2006 [88]Rachel Maxim You've said in a few pages what has taken me years to figure out and refine :) - great info! * [89]23/12/2006 I really enjoyed this article. I have read your Elements of....for the web, as well as your blog about sizing text in ems. I have really been looking in to using this and getting the best `flow' with my typography. I also ordered the book Elements of Typographic Style just to give a better understanding. I think its a common misconception that text on the web will always look bland, and you have proved that it can have rhythm and style. * [91]02/01/2007 I've just been using some of these techniques on a client's site who needed 8 tabs all the same width, which fill the available space - I had it working fine in Firefox, but the tabs didn't fill the space in Safari or IE. I found that you really have to do the maths, rather than just use trial and error - they all round the numbers slightly differently. Once I'd checked my calculations, rather than tinkered with the numbers, it works fine everywhere, at least at standard font size. One other correction from someone's comment earlier on - you can resize text in IE7 - click the page icon at top right. Why you need both this and the ability to zoom, I'm not sure, but it's there at any rate. * [93]03/01/2007 [94]Ben G Can you set the margin above or below headings or paragraphs to less than your 18px base measurement? Won't margin collapsing cause whichever the largest margin is to take effect? Ben * [95]31/01/2009 [96]Daniel I've been using this article as the basis for designing my site with some "vertical rhythm". Everything is going well except with forms (input, textarea, etc.). I just haven't been able to use css to maintain the vertical rhythm (based on total line height of 18px). Any advise or insight as to how to get forms to play nicely? * [97]15/02/2009 [98]Silver Firefly I wanted to clarify something about the default browser text size and using the em unit. The article was a tad misleading when it covered the default browser text size and the em unit. A lot of designers have it in their heads that an em is equivalent to 16 pixels. An em is not equivalent to 16 pixels. It is equivalent to whatever is set in the user's browser, which is commonly 16px but depending on the user, it can be 20px or 12px or whatever they have set in their browser's settings. I hope after reading that statement, designers will start to realise that they have little control over how their website appears in other users' browsers. The majority of the control lies in the user's hands. Other than that, the article was very good. * [99]17/04/2009 Great article... and AWESOME site design. Inspirational! * [101]27/04/2009 Typesetting for websites is the future, like all things content-related. The Google knows it :). Thank you for that useful post. You webdesigners take care of your text! * [103]05/06/2009 [104]bonfield Inline bolding of elements (I'm using Helvetica, e.g.) seems to add a px of height on any line that uses it, and that subtly throws off the vertical rhythm for each line and it can add up depending -- anybody else run into this and solve it? * [105]18/06/2009 [106]Anonymous Does this truly keep the vertical rhythm? If you zoom in on the example, you'll see that the descender of the letter g in the H1 header "New England" crosses your rhythm marker's background line, while a lowercase g in the following paragraph does not. There appears to be some fudging going on. * [107]08/07/2009 I find it humorous that this site itself does not compose to a vertical rhythm. I've seen very few online that do. It's so difficult to implement across browsers it is usually brushed aside except for in the most simple design schemes. * [109]03/08/2009 [110]eric I've yet to see any empirical evidence that "vertical rhythm" applied to this degree has any impact on how well a reader is able to extract signal from the noise of the page. Meanwhile, I've seen many, many examples of mis-applied "vertical rhythms" resulting in squashed headings where the underlning on a link impinges on the text below. Which just looks clunky. When you've got something other than an aesthetic opinion from the margins -- maybe some actual data -- then I'll be interested in expending the effort needed to support real vertical rhythm. Until then, I just don't see how it's cost-effective. * [111]02/09/2009 Now, that was the kind of article I was looking for. That goes a lot deeper than I've been into the realms of line-spacing, leading (no kerning here though - can we do kerning with css?). I love the analogy to musical rhythym > therefore probably following on to mathematics/geometry/proportion. That is a great lead-in. Is there any room for the `golden ratio' in web design? Do graphic designers use it with/without realising it? Just that I haven't seen it discussed in the myriad pages concerning page layout/design that I've read so far... Thanks, Darren Impress us Name _________________________ Email _________________________ Website _________________________ Message _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ Be friendly / use [113]Textile Preview Submit About the author [114]Richard Rutter Richard Rutter is a user experience consultant and director of [115]Clearleft. He runs an ongoing project called [116]The Elements of Typographic Style Applied to the Web, where he extols the virtues of good web typography. Richard occasionally blogs at [117]Clagnut, where he writes about design, accessibility and web standards issues, as well as his passion for music and mountain biking. [118]More information Related articles * [119]Real Fonts and Rendering: The New Elephant in the Room 22/12/2009 by [120]Jeffrey Zeldman * [121]Spruce It Up 19/12/2009 by [122]Jonathan Snook * [123]Designing For The Switch 16/12/2009 by [124]Mark Boulton * [125]Type-Inspired Interfaces 07/12/2009 by [126]Dan Mall * [127]A Festive Type Folly 17/12/2008 by [128]Jon Tan * [129]Increase Your Font Stacks With Font Matrix 17/12/2007 by [130]Richard Rutter * [131]Typesetting Tables 07/12/2007 by [132]Mark Boulton * [133]Knockout Type - Thin Is Always In 17/12/2006 by [134]Shaun Inman * [135]An Explanation of Ems 02/12/2005 by [136]Richard Rutter [137]Article archives... 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Text Alignment [15]Close Table of Contents [16]< Back Page 4 of 4 * [17]Print [18]Print * [19]Share This [20]Share This * [21]Discuss [22]Discuss [23]Close Window Jason Cranford Teague Jason Cranford Teague [24]Learn more... * [25]Articles * [26]Store * [27]Blogs [28]Fluid Web Typography: Scale & Rhythm Dec 23, 2009 [29]Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers: Creating Meaning through Syntax Jul 23, 2009 [30]Designing Webbed Environments: The Importance of the Define and Design Phases May 12, 2006 [31]Creating Web Pages for Screen, Print, and Email Apr 28, 2006 [32]How to Style Forms in CSS Mar 17, 2006 [33]What Are CSS Sprites? Mar 3, 2006 [34]Ten Things You Can Do with CSS (That You Might Not Have Known You Could Do) Dec 22, 2005 [35]Fluid Web Typography [36]Fluid Web Typography Nov 24, 2009 [37]Fluid Web Typography, Adobe Reader [38]Fluid Web Typography, Adobe Reader Nov 24, 2009 [39]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers [40]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers Jun 30, 2009 [41]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers, Adobe Reader [42]Speaking in Styles: Fundamentals of CSS for Web Designers, Adobe Reader Jun 30, 2009 [43]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, 4th Edition [44]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, 4th Edition Oct 17, 2006 [45]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, Adobe Reader, 4th Edition [46]CSS, DHTML, and Ajax, Fourth Edition: Visual QuickStart Guide, Adobe Reader, 4th Edition Oct 17, 2006 [47]DHTML and CSS Advanced: Visual QuickPro Guide [48]DHTML and CSS Advanced: Visual QuickPro Guide Dec 15, 2004 [49]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 3rd Edition [50]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 3rd Edition Feb 20, 2004 [51]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 2nd Edition [52]DHTML and CSS for the World Wide Web: Visual QuickStart Guide, 2nd Edition May 30, 2001 [53]10 Last-minute Gifts for Web Designers By on December 17, 2009 1 Comment Q: What do I get for the Web designer who has everything? The short answer is real estate. The slightly longer answer is, anything that helps spark their creativity. The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah, Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [54]Saturnalia myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has everything they need to actually make Web sites? Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect. [55]Choosing the Right Color Value By on December 14, 2009 No Comments Q: Should I use Hex or RGB values to define colors in CSS? The short answer is RGB. The slightly longer answer is that Hex values have become the de facto standard for use in CSS code and both developers and designers are used to them. The long answer is that, in the final design on the screen, there is no difference between using Hex or RGB values in your code. Which system you use is really a matter of you own personal preference (and those of the team you are working with) as to whether or not you use Hex or RGB values to define colors. [56]Expand Your Font Repertoire By on November 30, 2009 No Comments Q: Are there alternatives to Arial, Times, and Georgia for Web designers? The short answer is YES! The slightly longer answer is that most designers use Arial, Times, or Georgia, and, to a lesser degree, Verdana, Trebuchet MS, Courier, and Comic Sans because they think that's all they have at their disposal, but they are wrong. The long answer is that the core Web fonts (the one listed above plus Impact and Web Dings) are used because they are almost guaranteed to be installed on the vast majority of computers your designs are likely to be installed on. One fact of life in Web design is that unless the end user's computer has access to the font file, then the browser cannot use it. [57]Pixels or Ems in Your Web Designs By on November 18, 2009 No Comments Q: What is the practical difference between px (pixel) and em (pronounced m)? When is it best to use one over the other? The short answer is that pixels measure dimensions relative to the screen while ems measure dimensions relative to type size. The slightly longer answer is that pixels are the natural unit for measuring dimensions on a screen and are often used when precise design is required. Ems are the natural unit for measuring type and used when you want to allow maximum design flexibility. [58]To CSS Reset or Not to CSS Reset By on November 10, 2009 No Comments Question: Which Global Reset for CSS Should I Use? The short answer is the simplest one possible. The slightly longer answer is that you should reset some styles, but do so with a good reason. The long answer is that the exact CSS reset you choose will depend on the needs of your design. I like to keep my own reset simple, relying on adding styles to specific tags as needed. However, there are several styles that are inconsistent or (in my opinion) poorly set in most browsers. [59]HTML 5 NOW! By on August 25, 20092 Comments Q: Can I start using HTML 5 now? The short answer is, yes. The slightly longer answer is, you can use some of the new features, but you will need to do a little [60]kludging to get it to work. The long answer is that HTML is a mark-up language meant to indicate the structure of a document. HTML 5 is the next evolutionary step in mark-up languages for the Web, but it is not implemented on most browsers that your audiences are likely to be using and it may be some time before it is. That said, there are some things you can do now to prepare for the future. [61]Big Things Ahead for HTML 5 By on August 17, 2009 No Comments Q: Will HTML5 or XHTML5 be the next big thing or just another collection of past standards and browser war fodder? The short answer is that, yes, [62]HTML 5 is the next big thing. The slightly longer answer is that it's going to be a while before you have to start worrying about HTML 5. The long answer is that, as with all standards, before it becomes relevant, the browser makers have to implement it and then you'll have to wait even longer before legacy browsers are no longer an issue. So, you have some time before you have to run out and buy a new HTML 5 Visual QuickStart Guide. The good news is that HTML 5 has gone to great lengths to stay backwards compatible, so you can begin to learn and implement it today. [63]Everyone is a Web Designer By on August 10, 2009 No Comments Q: What is a Web Designer anymore? It was easier to make Web sites all by yourself, even 5 years ago, but now there is just too much technology for one person to handle. If I want to make a Web site for a very small business, don't have I to be web "developer" now? The short answer is that everybody is a Web designer now. The slightly longer answer is that Web designers are practitioners of a highly specialized discipline that requires years of study to truly master. The long answer is that a good Web designer is a good designer, and this can come "naturally" or from training, but is not medium-dependent. However, a professional Web designer has to understand the medium well enough to know its strengths and limitations. Any designer can pump out something that looks brilliant when displayed in a Web browser window, but is slow to load, static when loaded, and completely unusable. [64]Frames are Dead, Long Live Iframes! By on July 24, 2009 No Comments Q: Is there a suitable alternative to frames? My wife is president of a local woman's club. She and I administer the club's web site, and the ladies like the list of links down one side of the pages. But I read that frames have been deprecated. Regardless, I want to keep the site simple. The short answer is yes-- use iframes. The slightly longer answer is no, not exactly, but we can get close. The long answer is there are a variety of ways to add content to your Web pages, but the question is: once it's on the page what are you going to do with it (or to it)? [65]Q: If I ask ten different web designers what pixel dimensions to use for web pages and whether to make them fixed-width or "stretchy," I get ten different answers. What's your answer, and why? By on July 20, 2009 No Comments The short answer is fixed at 974 pixels (px) wide. The slightly longer answer is whatever it takes to get the job done. The long answer is that asking a Web designer what size a Web page should be is like asking a painter what size a canvas should be or an architect how large a a building should be. While it's not purely a matter of taste--there are certain physical and ergonomic constraints--personal preference accounts for the wide variety of answers you might hear. [66]Ask me, ask me, ask me By on July 1, 2009 No Comments Do you have a question about Web standards, CSS, JavaScript, Ajax, interaction design, user experience, or Web typography? Maybe you just want to know "How'd they do that?" Ask me questions, and each week I will select a question to answer via my Peachpit.com blog. [67]Ask the Web Designer: Why Can't I Use Any Font I Want in My Web Designs? By on June 30, 2009 No Comments The short answer is that you can. The slightly longer answer is that you can't, at least not in any meaningful way yet. The long answer is that the ability to download fonts has actually been a part of the CSS standard (the language used to create Web designs) for over 10 years. The snag comes with what font formats a given browser supports. [NOTE: You may want to stop reading now, as the rest of this explanation might make your eyes bleed in frustration.] [68]Fluid Web Typography This chapter is from the book [69]Fluid Web Typography Jason Cranford Teague shows how giving careful consideration to the measurements and scale you are designing for is what separates good Web typography from great Web typography. Text Alignment Text alignment is generally taken for granted on the Web--left alignment suits most purposes most of the time. In order to create a sense of rhythm and movement on your page, helping to guide the reader's eye around and adding visual interest to the page, a little alignment variation can go a long way. Set body text alignment to minimize gaps and maximize scanning Text alignment in Web pages is, by default, to the left, with ragged edges on the right. Justified text--sometimes called newspaper columns, where both edges of the text are aligned--is rare on the Web. text-align: left; text-align: justify; In print, justified text is created using a variety of techniques including word spacing, letterspacing, hyphenation, and glyph reshaping. In addition, well-formed justification is calculated on a paragraph level to prevent "rivers" of white space flowing down the middle. On the Web, unfortunately, justification is simply created by adding small amounts of space between words. On the screen, where you can only add whole pixels, this often results in uncomfortably large amounts of space between some words, especially in narrower columns. Hyphenation is inexplicably absent from CSS. While it is proposed for inclusion in CSS 3, no work has currently been done on it. When choosing to use left or justified alignment, keep in mind these factors: * Justified text is often seen as more formal and structured, while left alignment is more informal and approachable. * Justified text reinforces the grid structure of a page but can be harder to scan, since it often creates rivers of white space throughout the text, which interrupts the eye path. * Left-aligned text adds an element of white space to the right edge, softening the overall appearance of the page. Combining Alignments [70]craigmod.com Craig Mod combines right-and left-justified columns of text to create motion and rhythm around his page. [71]04-17.jpg [72]Click to view larger image Center or right-justify text for effect and variety More rarely used, centering or right-justifying text can create a specific feeling on the page. text-align: center; text-align: right; Centering and right aligning text is integrally dependent on the design you are creating and how you want your readers to scan the page. While using a variety of justifications helps create rhythm and motion on your page, it can quickly seem cluttered or obnoxious. Always have a specific purpose for the variance of alignment, and use it sparingly. Here are a few ideas: * Bulleted or numbered lists should not be centered or right aligned, as this makes them harder to scan by moving the beginning of each line around. * Center section or module titles/headers if you want to make your site look a little different. Generally, section titles are best when left aligned, but centering them gives your designs a unique feel and may also improve scannability. * Right-align text in the left column of a page or table if it helps show a closer relationship between the elements in adjacent columns. Centered Section Titles [73]jontangerine.com Jon Tangerine combines centered subheadings with justified text in his blog (detail shown) to create solid structure with visual movement. [74]04-18.jpg [75]Click to view larger image Increase margins for longer quotations and style the citation Short quotes of less than three lines are included in a paragraph surround by quotation marks, requiring no other special formatting. In HTML, the blockquote tag is used to set off a block of text as a quotation, generally of two lines of text or longer. The quotation should be styled to distinguish it from other text by indenting its left and right margins and increasing the top and bottom margins. The amount of left/right indentation is based on the width of the column and then adjusted so that it does not conflict with any other indents. A good measure to offset blockquotes is to double the font size (2em), although more or less space may be required for wider or narrower columns: blockquote { margin: 2em; } note.jpg In this chapter, we are only considering spacing issues with blockquotes and citations. Chapters 5 and 6 offer other ways to style text, including weights, italics, backgrounds, and borders. These can be deployed to creatively display longer quotations. This will clearly space the blockquote away from the rest of the text, but it's also up to the copywriter to make it clear that the text is a quote and to supply its source, possibly using the cite tag, which indicates a citation. Turning the cite tag into a block-level element and right-aligning it when it is included in a blockquote creates a strong style. blockquote cite { display: block; text-align: right; } Blockquote Ideas [76]css-tricks.com/examples/Blockquotes CSS-Tricks has a page of blockquote ideas with sample code. The code above will force any text marked by the citation tag to a new line and right-align it. [77]04-20.jpg [78]Click to view larger image Set footnotes and scientific or mathematical annotations using positioning rather than vertical alignment Vertical text alignment allows you to adjust the position of inline text in relation to its natural baseline, shifting it up or down. For footnotes, mathematics, and scientific notation, it will not be enough to simply raise or lower the characters; you will also need to reduce their size relative to the surrounding text. These styles can be applied to the superscript and subscript tags, setting the vertical position to the baseline and then setting a position relative to that: sup, sub { font-size: .5em; vertical-align: baseline; position: relative; } sup { top: -.65em; } sup.math { top: -.8em } sub { top: .2em; } Although vertical-align provides several values to set the vertical position of the text, these have proved to be unreliable in multi-column layouts. The exact values will vary depending on the font, and you may also need to add some left/right margins to add breathing room. [79]04-21.jpg [80]Click to view larger image Type Inspirations: Jon Tangerine Beautiful typographic contrast. Insightful typography editorials. [81]jontangerine.com Jon is a designer living in Bristol, UK, with some of the cleanest pure Web typography I've seen. On top of this, his information and opinions on Web typography are required reading for anyone interested in the ongoing issues we face. [82]04-22.jpg [83]Click to view larger image How he does it: Jon uses a font stack of Web safe fonts, including Cochin, Baskerville, and Palatino Linotype, down to Georgia. He then combines a wide variety of sizes, styles, weights, and colors all scaled and spaced within a strong grid to provide clear eye paths and legible text. [84]04-25.jpg [85]Click to view larger image [86]04-26.jpg [87]Click to view larger image [88]04-27.jpg [89]Click to view larger image [90]04-28.jpg [91]Click to view larger image [92]< Back Page 4 of 4 * [93]Share This [94]Share This * [95][save_16.png] [96]Your Account Discussions Make a New Comment You must [97]log in in order to post a comment. 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The long answer is that, whether it's Christmas, Hanukkah, Kwanzaa or another December holiday (I prefer [122]Saturnalia myself) the Winter Solstice is traditionally a time of gift giving. So, what to give to that Web designer you know who has everything they need to actually make Web sites? Here are 10 ideas for gifts they will love but not expect. [123]Kara Murphy [124]Just in time for the holidays: Our video-a-day giveaway By [125]Kara Murphy on December 16, 2009 No Comments It's the holiday season, and I bet some of you are already thinking of your New Year's resolutions. If one of them is to learn something new in the field of Web design, development, presentation, branding, and much more, then you're in luck. 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All rights reserved. 1249 Eighth Street, Berkeley, CA 94710 [192]Informit Network [Other Network Sites......] Références Liens visibles 8. javascript:void(0); 9. javascript:void(0); 10. javascript:hideTOC(); 11. javascript:hideTOC(); 15. javascript:hideTOC(); 23. javascript:showme('authorInformation','closed'); 71. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-17.jpg') 72. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-17.jpg') 74. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-18.jpg') 75. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-18.jpg') 77. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-20.jpg') 78. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-20.jpg') 79. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-21.jpg') 80. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-21.jpg') 82. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-22.jpg') 83. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-22.jpg') 84. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-25.jpg') 85. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-25.jpg') 86. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-26.jpg') 87. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-26.jpg') 88. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-27.jpg') 89. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-27.jpg') 90. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-28.jpg') 91. javascript:popUp('/content/images/chap4_9780321679987/elementLinks/04-28.jpg') Liens cachés : #[1]Latest articles [2]Most viewed [3]Latest comments [4]PDF [5]XML version [6][1048314841@Top,Bottom,x96!Top] [7]Log on / register [8]BioMed Central home | [9]Journals A-Z | [10]Feedback | [11]Support | [12]My details [13]Home | [14]Browse articles | [15]Search | [16]Weblinks | [17]Submit article | [18]My JCR | [19]About JCR * [20]Top * [21]Abstract * [22]Background * [23]Methods * [24]Results * [25]Discussion * [26]Conclusion * [27]Competing interests * [28]Authors' contributions * [29]Acknowledgements * [30]References [31][1973347444@Top,Bottom,x96%21x96] [32]Journal of Circadian Rhythms [33]Volume 7 Viewing options: * [34]Abstract * Full text * [35]PDF (243KB) Associated material: * [36]Readers' comments [37]RSS * [38]PubMed record Related literature: * Articles citing this article [39]on Google Scholar [40]on PubMed Central * Other articles by authors [41]on Google Scholar [42]Nagane M [43]Yoshimura K [44]Watanabe SI [45]Nomura M [46]on PubMed [47]Nagane M [48]Yoshimura K [49]Watanabe SI [50]Nomura M * Related articles/pages [51]on Google [52]on Google Scholar [53]on PubMed Tools: * [54]Download citation(s) * [55]Download XML * [56]Email to a friend * [57]Order reprints * [58]Post a comment * [59]Nominate for award Post to: * [60]Citeulike * [61]Connotea * [62]Del.icio.us * [63]Facebook * [64]Twitter [65]Open Access Research A possible connection between psychosomatic symptoms and daily rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion in healthy Japanese students Mitsuo Nagane^1 [66]email , Kazunori Yoshimura^2 [67]email , Shu-Ichi Watanabe^3 [68]email and Masahiko Nomura^4 [69]email ^1 Department of Educational Physiology, Chiba University, Chiba 263-8522, Japan ^2 Department of Rehabilitation, Nihon Institute of Medical Science, Japan ^3 Department of Physiology, Saitama Medical University, Japan ^4 International Education and Training Center, Saitama Medical University, Japan [email.gif] author email [email-ca.gif] corresponding author email Journal of Circadian Rhythms 2009, 7:10doi:10.1186/1740-3391-7-10 The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be Received: 3 February 2009 Accepted: 5 August 2009 Published: 5 August 2009 © 2009 Nagane et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Abstract Background Students suffering from psychosomatic symptoms, including drowsiness and feelings of melancholy, often have basic lifestyle problems. The aim of this study was to investigate whether psychosomatic complaints may be related to circadian dysfunction. Methods We examined 15 healthy students (4 men and 11 women) between 21 and 22 years old. To assess the presence of psychosomatic symptoms among the subjects, we developed a self-assessment psychosomatic complaints questionnaire consisting of five items pertaining to physical symptoms and five items concerning mental symptoms. The subjects rated their psychosomatic symptoms twice a day (08:00 and 20:00 h). We also assessed growth hormone secretion patterns by fluorescence enzyme immunoassay (FEIA). Salivary samples were collected from the subjects at home five times a day (20:00, 24:00, 04:00, 08:00, and 12:00 h) in Salivette tubes. Results The results indicated a relationship between the self-assessment scores and the salivary levels of growth hormone. Subjects with high self-assessment scores showed significant variability in growth hormone secretion over the day, whereas subjects with low self-assessment scores did not. Conclusion Psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with circadian dysfunction, as inferred from blunted rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion. Background Japanese students suffering from psychosomatic disorders, such as those involving mood and sleep, may exhibit basic problems in their lifestyle, including deleterious changes in their living environment and dietary or lifestyle disturbances [[72]1]. In particular, staying up late is associated with decreased appetite and missed breakfast the following morning, irregular bowel movements and sleepiness. Perhaps the biggest problem facing today's Japanese students is their lack of daily physical exercise, brought on by stressful academic courses over long periods of time, too much television and computer games and increased automobile use [[73]2]. Many Japanese youngsters stay up late at night [[74]3]. A circadian pacemaker in the central nervous system regulates human sleep cycles, hormone secretion, subject alertness, objective performance levels and other physiologic functions over a 24-h period. Core body temperature, plasma cortisol, and plasma melatonin are three variables frequently used to estimate the phase of the human pacemaker [[75]4], although many other hormones, including growth hormone, exhibit daily rhythmicity. Technical advances that make the assessment of biomarkers in saliva possible have enabled researchers to non-invasively study biosocial processes related to stress in naturalistic contexts. Chiappin et al [[76]5] showed the usefulness and possibility of salivary hormone analysis containing growth hormone. Rantonen [[77]6] found a linear correlation between salivary and serum growth hormone. Carroll et al. [[78]7] described negative effects of growth hormone insufficiency on psychological well-being, including reduced vitality and energy, depressed mood, emotional lability, impaired self-control, anxiety, and increased social isolation. Patients with growth hormone deficiencies report decreased energy levels, greater emotional lability, increased difficulties with sexual relationships and a greater sense of social isolation than control subjects [[79]8]. However, no direct relationship has been shown between growth hormone deficiency and psychometrically measured depression, apathy or psychosomatic well-being [[80]9]. The purpose of the present study was to investigate individual variation in the levels of growth hormone in healthy subjects and to examine the relationship between an individual's hormone profile and his or her psychosomatic complaints. Methods The subjects and self-assessment questionnaire Fifteen subjects (4 men and 11 women) without major medical disorders ranging in age from 21 to 22 years participated in this study. The study design was approved by the Ethics Committee of Chiba University, Japan, and informed consent was obtained from all subjects. A self-assessment questionnaire concerning psychosomatic symptoms was developed in accordance with data from the Health Behavior in School-Aged Children (HBSC) study of the WHO [[81]10]. The questionnaire for this study contained five items related to physical symptoms and five items pertaining to mental symptoms (Table [82]1). The questionnaire was used to measure each individual's psychosomatic symptoms at home twice each day (08:00 and 20:00 h). The items were rated on a 4-point scale, with 1 = not true at all and 4 = completely true. The total score for the 10-item scale ranged from 10 to 40, with higher scores indicating a greater degree of psychosomatic complaints. The subjects were allocated post hoc (median split) to a High (n = 7) or Low (n = 8) Self-Assessment Group based on their total morning score (with higher scores corresponding to lower self-assessment). [83]Table 1. Morning and evening psychosomatic condition scores collected from the self-assessment psychosomatic complaint questionnaire Sample collection Saliva was collected into Salivette tubes (Sarstedt, Germany) using polyester swabs from the subjects' mouths following 2 min of chewing. Samples were collected five times a day at home (20:00, 24:00, 04:00, 08:00, and 12:00 h). Both the day of sampling and the preceding day were required to be normal days (i.e., without special events or stressful circumstances). After sample collection, the saliva was stored at -20°C until being analysed. Salivary growth hormone assay On the day of testing, the samples were centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for 10 min to remove all mucin. A standard fluorescent determination immunoassay was used to assess the growth hormone concentrations in each sample. To avoid inter-assay variability, all determinations were performed in a single series. In the first step, 96-well fluoro-nunc plates (Nunc, Black MicroWell 137101, Denmark) were pre-coated with 100 µl of anti-growth hormone antibody (Quartett, 2071800210, Germany) and incubated for 1.5 h at room temperature. After incubation, the plate was washed three times with phosphate-buffered saline and blocked for 1 h. After washing, 100 µl of saliva or a standard solution was dispensed into each well and left for 1.5 h. After washing, primary antibody (Funakoshi, FU47500254, Japan) was added to the plates and incubated for 1.5 h. Next, incubation with a secondary antibody (Novus Biologicals, NB120-7112, USA) was performed for 1 h. After washing, rabbit anti-ovine immunoglobulin (Amersham Biosciences, ECF Western Blotting Reagent Pack, USA) was added. After 20 min of incubation, the plate was scanned using a Fluoromark Microplate Fluorometer (Bio-Rad, USA) with excitation at 485 nm and emission at 590 nm. Data analysis The significance of differences between group means was tested by analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by protected t tests when appropriate. The presence of daily rhythmicity in salivary growth hormone was tested by ANOVA and by the cosinor procedure [[84]11]. Results Self-assessment psychosomatic complaints questionnaire A factorial repeated measures ANOVA (high/low self-assessment versus morning/evening self-assessment scores) was conducted. ANOVA results showed significant differences (p < .05) between morning and evening self-assessment scores. Post hoc analyses revealed that, as shown in Table [85]1, the high self-assessment group (total 19.00) differed significantly from the low self-assessment group (total 32.75) in terms of their morning scores (Welch's t-test, t = -3.96, df = 7.57, p < 0.01). The low self-assessment group subjects complained of negative psychosomatic conditions including being easily irritated (p < .05), feeling melancholy (p < .05), having a desire to rest (p < .05), and feeling anxious (p < .01). Assessment of daily rhythmicity of salivary growth hormone secretion We collected saliva profiles from 15 healthy students (4 men and 11 women). The amplitude of salivary growth hormone, defined as the difference between the highest and lowest salivary concentrations, was used to produce a standardisation, or Z, score. As shown in Figure [86]1, noticeable variation was observed in the hormonal rhythms of the subjects, including differences in the salivary growth hormone secretion profiles of the high and low self-assessment groups. Cosinor analysis revealed no significant 24-hour rhythmicity in the secretion profiles of either group (p > .50), but a repeated measures ANOVA identified statistically significant (p < .05) time-related variations for growth hormone in the high self-assessment group. The secretion profile of the low self-assessment group did not exhibit the typical, sharp peak in the early morning [[87]12], and ANOVA showed no time-related variation (p > .10). At 08:00 h, salivary growth hormone levels were significantly lower (p < .05) in the low self-assessment group than in the high self-assessment group. [88]thumbnail Figure 1. Daily variation in salivary level of growth hormone in the high and low self-assessment groups. The results are presented as means ± S.E.M. * p < .05. Discussion Psychosocial factors have been previously shown to affect the psychosomatic symptoms reported by Japanese school children [[89]13]. Psychosomatic symptoms, which are largely mediated by the autonomic nervous system, are strongly influenced by an individual's lifestyle, and the current so-called 24-h society in Japan may have changed the environmental conditions of students. More than 80% of school refusal cases (school phobia) suffer from sleep disorders, with a tendency towards day/night reversal and easy fatigability, especially during the period immediately following their school social life [[90]14]. Thus, impairment in circadian rhythmicity may be a cause of school refusal in Japan. The present study was the first step in an attempt to investigate this hypothesis. Our assessment of salivary growth hormone secretion was not sensitive enough to detect significant daily rhythmicity, but the highest level measured in the subjects of our high self-assessment group occurred earlier in the day than the peak of the daily rhythm measured in a previous study [[91]15]. Peak hormonal secretions often shift to the morning if an activity continues long into the night. A link between deficiency of growth hormone and reduced quality of life or well-being has been reported by many researchers [[92]7]. Our results indicate a relationship between the self-assessment scores and the levels of growth hormone. Subjects with high self-assessment scores in the morning showed significant variability in growth hormone secretion during the day, whereas subjects with low self-assessment scores did not. Thus, psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with hormonal rhythms related to basic lifestyle habits. Nocturnal melatonin secretion can be suppressed by exposure to light on the order of several hundred lux, such as ordinary room light [[93]16]. Thus, a subject's pattern of melatonin secretion may reflect his or her life rhythm, and melatonin secretion appears to be an important index of circadian rhythmicity. Based on our previous finding that growth hormone and melatonin exhibit similar daily rhythmicity [[94]17], we believe that estimates of the state of the central circadian clock can be most accurate if they are based on the analysis of the secretion patterns of both melatonin and growth hormone. Some limitations of our study must be emphasized. First, it is possible that the sleep-disrupting effect of waking at 00.00 and 04.00 to produce a saliva sample had a disruptive effect on hormonal secretion. Second, we observed a larger difference in terms of gender than has been previously described [[95]18], with women having sevenfold higher serum growth hormone concentrations than men during the day. Though we did not directly examine sex differences in growth hormone secretion, we recognise it as an important topic for further research. Conclusion Psychosomatic symptoms may be associated with circadian dysfunction, as inferred from blunted rhythmicity in growth hormone secretion. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Authors' contributions MN designed the experiments, collected data and wrote the manuscript. KY managed the laboratory and adjusted the schedule of subjects. SW participated in the design of the study and performed statistical analysis. MN supervised the study. All authors read and approved the final version of the article. Acknowledgements This study was supported in part by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (C) from the Japanese Ministry of Education to Nagane M. References 1. Okamoto M, Tan F, Suyama A, Okada H, Miyamoto T, Kishimoto T: The characteristics of fatigue symptoms and their association with the life style and the health status in school children. J Epidemiol 2000, 10:241-248. [96]PubMed Abstract [97]OpenURL 2. Murata M: Secular trends in growth and changes in eating patterns of Japanese children. Am J Clin Nutr 2000, 72(suppl):1379S-1383S. [98]PubMed Abstract | [99]Publisher Full Text [100]OpenURL 3. Harada T: Effects of evening light conditions on salivary melatonin of Japanese junior high school students. J Circadian Rhythms 2004, 2:4. [101]PubMed Abstract | [102]BioMed Central Full Text | [103]PubMed Central Full Text [104]OpenURL 4. Klerman E, Gershengorn HB, Duffy JF, Kronauer RE: Comparisons of the variability of three markers of the human circadian pacemaker. 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Nagane M, Yoshimura K, Watanabe SI, Nomura M: Examination of the validity of growth hormone as an index of the biological rhythm in comparison with cortisol and melatonin in Japanese healthy students. J Physiol Sci 2008, 58(Suppl):S87. [140]OpenURL 18. Engström BE, Karlsson FA, Wide L: Gender differences in diurnal growth hormone and epinephrine values in young adults during ambulation. Clin Chem 1999, 45:1235-1239. [141]PubMed Abstract | [142]Publisher Full Text [143]OpenURL [144]Have something to say? Post a comment on this article! __________________________________________________________________ [145][1048314841@Top,Bottom,x96!Bottom] [146]Terms and Conditions [147]Privacy statement [148]Information for advertisers [149]Jobs at BMC [150]Contact us © 1999-2010 BioMed Central Ltd unless otherwise stated. Part of [151]Springer Science+Business Media. Références Liens visibles 41. javascript:/// 46. javascript:/// Liens cachés : #[1]Latest articles [2]Most viewed [3]Latest comments [4]PDF [5]XML version [6][1352965720@Top,Bottom,x96!Top] [7]Log on / register [8]BioMed Central home | [9]Journals A-Z | [10]Feedback | [11]Support | [12]My details [13]Home | [14]Browse articles | [15]Search | [16]Weblinks | [17]Submit article | [18]My JCR | [19]About JCR * [20]Top * [21]Abstract * [22]Background * [23]Methods * [24]Results * [25]Discussion * [26]Conclusion * [27]List of abbre... * [28]Competing interests * [29]Authors' contributions * [30]Acknowledgements * [31]References [32][1973347444@Top,Bottom,x96%21x96] [33]Journal of Circadian Rhythms [34]Volume 3 Viewing options: * [35]Abstract * Full text * [36]PDF (651KB) Associated material: * [37]Readers' comments [38]RSS * [39]PubMed record Related literature: * Articles citing this article [40]on Google Scholar [41]on PubMed Central * Other articles by authors [42]on Google Scholar [43]Conroy DA [44]Spielman AJ [45]Scott RQ [46]on PubMed [47]Conroy DA [48]Spielman AJ [49]Scott RQ * Related articles/pages [50]on Google [51]on Google Scholar [52]on PubMed Tools: * [53]Download citation(s) * [54]Download XML * [55]Email to a friend * [56]Order reprints * [57]Post a comment Post to: * [58]Citeulike * [59]Connotea * [60]Del.icio.us * [61]Facebook * [62]Twitter [63]Open Access [64]Highly Access Research Daily rhythm of cerebral blood flow velocity Deirdre A Conroy^1 [65]email , Arthur J Spielman^1^,2 [66]email and Rebecca Q Scott^3 [67]email ^1 Department of Psychology, The Graduate School and University Center of the City University of New York, New York, USA ^2 Department of Neurology and Neuroscience, New York Presbyterian Hospital, New York, USA ^3 Department of Health Psychology, Albert Einstein Medical College at Yeshiva University, Bronx, USA [email.gif] author email [email-ca.gif] corresponding author email Journal of Circadian Rhythms 2005, 3:3doi:10.1186/1740-3391-3-3 The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be Received: 21 December 2004 Accepted: 10 March 2005 Published: 10 March 2005 © 2005 Conroy et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Abstract Background CBFV (cerebral blood flow velocity) is lower in the morning than in the afternoon and evening. Two hypotheses have been proposed to explain the time of day changes in CBFV: 1) CBFV changes are due to sleep-associated processes or 2) time of day changes in CBFV are due to an endogenous circadian rhythm independent of sleep. The aim of this study was to examine CBFV over 30 hours of sustained wakefulness to determine whether CBFV exhibits fluctuations associated with time of day. Methods Eleven subjects underwent a modified constant routine protocol. CBFV from the middle cerebral artery was monitored by chronic recording of Transcranial Doppler (TCD) ultrasonography. Other variables included core body temperature (CBT), end-tidal carbon dioxide (EtCO2), blood pressure, and heart rate. Salivary dim light melatonin onset (DLMO) served as a measure of endogenous circadian phase position. Results A non-linear multiple regression, cosine fit analysis revealed that both the CBT and CBFV rhythm fit a 24 hour rhythm (R^2 = 0.62 and R^2 = 0.68, respectively). Circadian phase position of CBT occurred at 6:05 am while CBFV occurred at 12:02 pm, revealing a six hour, or 90 degree difference between these two rhythms (t = 4.9, df = 10, p < 0.01). Once aligned, the rhythm of CBFV closely tracked the rhythm of CBT as demonstrated by the substantial correlation between these two measures (r = 0.77, p < 0.01). Conclusion In conclusion, time of day variations in CBFV have an approximately 24 hour rhythm under constant conditions, suggesting regulation by a circadian oscillator. The 90 degree-phase angle difference between the CBT and CBFV rhythms may help explain previous findings of lower CBFV values in the morning. The phase difference occurs at a time period during which cognitive performance decrements have been observed and when both cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events occur more frequently. The mechanisms underlying this phase angle difference require further exploration. Background It has been well documented that cerebral blood flow velocity (CBFV) is lower in sleep [[70]1-[71]7] and in the morning shortly after awakening [[72]8-[73]10] than in the afternoon or evening. Generally accepted theories about the time of day changes in CBFV attribute the fall in CBFV to the physiological processes of the sleep period and the increase during the day to waking processes. The low CBFV in the morning is thought to be a consequence of the fall in the overall reduced metabolic level [[74]8,[75]10 ,[76]11] and reduced cognitive processing [[77]12]. Additionally, the reduced physical activity [[78]13], reduced body temperature, and the recumbent sleeping position have also been proposed as contributors [[79]14] to the decline in CBFV and analogous brain processes. An alternative to these explanations that attribute changes in CBFV to sleep and wake dependent processes is that this pattern of fluctuation reflects an endogenous process with circadian rhythmicity. The decline of CBFV across the sleep period and rise after subjects are awakened in the morning resemble the endogenous circadian changes in core body temperature (CBT), a reliable index of endogenous circadian rhythmicity. Both patterns are low during sleep, start to rise in the morning, reach their peak in the late afternoon, and then drop during the sleep period. The aim of this study was to examine CBFV over ~30 hours of sustained wakefulness to unmask and quantify contributions of the endogenous circadian system. By not permitting sleep, the evoked changes dependent on this change of state will not contribute to the observed CBFV changes. We hypothesized that time of day changes in CBFV are due to endogenous circadian regulation. Previous studies have been limited by several factors. First, the environmental conditions (light level) and the behavior of the subject (sleep, meals, and caffeine intake) were not controlled [[80]15,[81]13,[82]1 ,[83]16]. Second, CBFV measurements were obtained at only a few circadian points. For example, Ameriso et al. [[84]15] and Qureshi et al. [[85]16] assessed CBFV between 6-8 am, 1-3 pm, and 7-9 pm. Diamant et al [[86]13] assessed CBFV during the first 15 minutes of every hour across a 24 hour period. Given these brief time periods, the findings are only a schematic of the 24 hour profile. Third, primary output markers of the endogenous circadian pacemaker (such as core body temperature and melatonin production) were not assessed. We employed the "constant routine" protocol, which was designed specifically to unmask underlying circadian rhythms in constant conditions [[87]17]. CBFV was collected by Transcranial Doppler (TCD) ultrasonography for the entire study period. Core body temperature and salivary dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO) were measured for determination of circadian phase. Continuous electroencephalography (EEG) was performed to ensure wakefulness across the study. Additionally, measurements of blood pressure, heart rate, and end tidal carbon dioxide (Et[CO2]), three of the main regulators of CBFV, were collected every half hour. Methods Subject selection Twelve subjects (10 men and 2 women; ages 19-38, mean 28 years) agreed to participate. One subject discontinued her participation because of a headache 15 hours into the study. Subjects were in good health, as assessed by medical history, semi-structured clinical interview, and physical exam. Information regarding menstrual cycle was not obtained from female subjects. Subjects also underwent an independent standard cerebrovascular assessment and were determined to be normal. They reported no symptoms of sleep problems (such as insomnia, obstructive sleep apnea, narcolepsy, or restless legs syndrome). Subjects that were selected to participate kept to a designated sleep-wake schedule (that was negotiated from the subject's typical pattern) and filled out a sleep diary for the two weeks prior to the time in the laboratory. According to sleep diary reports, bedtimes ranged from 10:30 pm to 1:00 am and waketimes ranged from 6:00 am to 10:00 am. Alcohol and caffeine intake was discontinued for the entire week before the study. During the data collection, subjects were not permitted either alcohol or caffeine. All subjects were non-smokers. Laboratory constant routine protocol The study protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Boards of New York Presbyterian Hospital - Weill Medical College of Cornell University and The City College of New York. Subjects gave written and informed consent before participating. Subjects arrived at the sleep laboratory between 9:30 am and 10:00 am. They were oriented to the study procedures and to their bedroom. Electrodes were placed on the subject's head and face as they sat in a chair next to the bed. Data collection began at 11 am. Subjects remained in bed and awake in a semi recumbent position for 30 hours in an established "constant routine" (CR) protocol. Subjects remained in low (<25 lux) light levels which have been shown to have little or no entraining effect on the circadian pacemaker [[88]18]. They were not allowed to get out of bed to urinate. Instead they urinated in private in a urinal or bedpan. Subjects remained awake from 11:00 a.m. on Day 1 until 5 p.m. on Day 2. Throughout the study, subjects were provided small meals (Ensure ^® liquid formula plus one-quarter nutritional food bar) every 2 hours. Subject's typical total food and liquid intake for a day and a quarter were divided into 15 relatively equal portions. Only one subject participated in the CR per 30-hour period. This protocol represents a modified CR in two ways. First, subjects were allowed to watch television and were therefore were not in "time isolation." Television content was monitored so that subjects were not exposed to programs with highly emotional themes. Second, subjects needing to defecate were allowed to go to the bathroom, which was located a few steps away from the bedside. We chose this method as an alternative to using the bedpan to ensure subject's comfort and study compliance. Three subjects (subjects 05, 06, and 10) got out of bed once at 3:30, 21:30, and 15:30, respectively, to defecate. One subject, subject 12, got out of bed twice, at 22:30 and 6:35. Subject 10 used the bathroom only during the adaptation period. A paired-samples t-test was conducted to evaluate the impact of getting out of bed to defecate on subject's CBT and CBFV values. The CBT and CBFV values in the two hours before getting up were compared to the two hours after the subject got up. Subjects 5 showed a slight decrease in CBT from before (M = 98.12, SD = 0.14) to after the subject returned to the bed (M = 97.91, SD = 0.08), t(3) = -5.17, p = .014). Subject 6 showed a decline in CBFV from before (M = 56.14, SD = 2.3) to after the subject returned to the bed (M = 45.67, SD = 3.7), t(3) = 5.49, p = 0.012). There were no other significant differences detected between these two time periods for subject 5's CBFV, subject 6's CBT, or for both times subject 12 got out of the bed. By visual inspection, the overall shape of the curves in these subjects was not affected and therefore these subject's data were included in subsequent analyses. Transcranial Doppler ultrasound recordings The current study utilized TCD ultrasonography to measure cerebral blood flow velocity. TCD is a non-invasive instrument (consisting of one or two 2-Mhz transducers fitted to a headband, MARC500, Spencer Technologies, Nicolet Biomedical Inc) that is used predominantly as a diagnostic tool to assess cerebral hemodynamics in normal and pathological conditions. TCD ultrasonography is predicated on a theory that involves the measurement of moving objects when combined with radar. When the instrument emits the sound wave, it is reflected by the blood cells that are moving in the vector of the sound wave [[89]19]. CBFV was measured using either the right or left middle cerebral artery (MCA) using TCD sonography (TCD: DWL Multidop X-2, DWL Elektronische Systeme GmbH, D-78354 Sipplingen/Germany) through the temporal window. An observer who was present continuously during the recordings evaluated the quality of the signal. This enabled long-term recording of CBFV throughout the study. Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT) of the signal was used to analyze the velocity spectra. The mean velocity of the MCA was obtained from the integral of the maximal TCD frequency shifts over one beat divided by the corresponding beat interval and expressed in cm/sec. Analysis was conducted off line. Measurement of standard markers of the circadian pacemaker Body temperature recordings Core body temperature was recorded at 1-minute intervals with an indwelling rectal probe (MiniMitter, Co. Bend, OR). A wire lead connected the sensor out of the rectum to a data collection system worn on the belt. Temperature readings were collected and saved into the device and monitored at hourly intervals by the investigator. After the study, the recordings were visually inspected and artifacts resulting from removal or malfunction of the probe were excluded from further analysis. Salivary melatonin Salivary samples of 3 ml were collected every hour from 11:00 a.m. on Day 1 to 4:00 p.m. on Day 2. Ten of these samples were used only for the determination of the timing of the salivary dim light melatonin onset (DLMO). For nine subjects, salivary DLMO was assessed across a ten-hour time window that included the ten hours before the CBT minimum. Immediately after collection, each saliva sample was frozen and stored at -20°C. Saliva samples were assayed using Bühlmann Melatonin Radio Immunoassay (RIA) test kit for direct melatonin in human saliva (American Laboratory Products Co., Windham, NH). Analysis was conducted at New York State Institute for Basic Research. Salivary DLMO time was selected based on two criteria. The saliva sample needed to have melatonin concentration 3 pg/ml or above and later samples needed to show higher levels (Bühlmann laboratories). Second, the 3 pg/ml threshold needed to occur within 6-10 hours before core body temperature minimum [[90]20]. Polygraphic recordings Electroencephalography (EEG) was continually assessed across the 30 hours to ensure that subjects maintained wakefulness. The following montage was used according to the international 10-20 system: C3-A2, C4-A1, O1-A2, O2-A1, ROC-A1, LOC-A2, and submentalis electromyogram (EMG). One channel of electrocardiogram was continuously recorded by monitoring from two electrodes (one on each side of the body at the shoulder chest junction). The EEG software (Rembrant Sleep Collection Software Version 7.0) was used for data acquisition and display of the signals on a personal computer. Throughout the CR, the investigator (DAC) monitored the quality of the recordings. The recordings were scored by RQS and DAC. Blood pressure, heart rate, and end-tidal CO2 An automated blood pressure cuff was placed on the bicep of the subject and inflated two times each hour in order to determine changes in blood pressure and heart rate over time. Blood pressure and heart rate in one subject (02) was recorded via a finger blood pressure monitor (Omron Marshall Products, Model F-88). Blood pressure and heart rate in subjects 03, 04, 05, 06, and 07 were recorded with Omron Healthcare, Inc, Vernon Hills, Illinois 60061 Model # HEM-705CP Rating: DC 6V 4W Serial No: 2301182L. Blood pressure and heart rate for subjects 08, 09 and 10 was recorded with a similar blood pressure monitor (CVS Pharmacy Inc, Woonsocket, RI 02895 Model # 1086CVS). Blood pressure and heart rate recordings were not measured in subjects 11 and 12. Et[CO2 ]was continuously obtained. A nasal cannula for monitoring expired gases was placed under the nose. Relative changes in carbon dioxide content were measured by an Ohmeda 4700 Oxicap (BOC healthcare). Mean Et[CO2 ]levels were analyzed off-line. Et[CO2 ]recordings were not measured in subjects 11 and 12. Data Analyses Data reduction and statistical procedures CBT and CBFV values were first subjected to data rejection. All CBT values less than 96 degrees were determined to be artifact and were rejected. All CBFV values less than 20 cm/sec were determined to be artifact according to the clinical criteria set by the staff neurologist. Data reduction was accomplished by averaging into one minute, 30 minute or hourly bins. Correlations presented here were performed on mean values in 30 minute bins. To ensure that circadian measurements were made under basal conditions, the first five hours of the constant routine were excluded from all analyses to eliminate effects of study adaptation. The last hour was excluded to eliminate confounding effects such as expectation effects. The data are presented in this article in three ways. First, CBT and CBFV values were plotted according to time of day (Figures [91]1 and [92]2). Second, CBFV values were aligned according to the CBT nadir (Figure [93]3) and third, the CBFV nadir was aligned to the CBT nadir (Figure [94]4). To align CBFV to the CBT circadian nadir as shown in Figure [95]3, the CBT nadir of each individual subject was set to circadian time 0, or 0°. The CBFV value that corresponded to the CBT nadir was then also set to 0. Each half hour data point after the temperature nadir and corresponding CBFV values were then set to a circadian degree. There were a total of 48 data points across the 24 hour period. Therefore, each data point was equal to 7.5 degrees so that each data point would accumulate to 360°. Lastly, mean values were obtained for CBT and CBFV at each circadian degree. [96]thumbnail Figure 1. 24-hour Cosine Curve fit to Mean Core Body Temperature (°F). Time course of CBT according to time of day. Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/- SEM) of CBT (blue diamonds) fit with a 24-hour cosine curve (purple squares). Time of day is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate shows CBT values (degrees F). The vertical line indicates where the data was double plotted. Also displayed in the upper right corner is the non-linear cosine curve fit for mean CBT, R^2 = 0.62. The overall mean circadian phase position of the minimum was 6:05 am. [97]thumbnail Figure 2. 24-hour Cosine Curve fit to Mean Cerebral Blood Flow Velocity (cm/sec). Time course of CBFV according to time of day. Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/- SEM) of CBFV (blue diamonds) fit with a 24-hour cosine curve (purple squares). Time of day is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate shows CBFV values (cm/sec). The vertical line indicates where the data was double plotted. Also displayed in the upper right corner is the non-linear cosine curve fit for mean CBFV, R^2 = 0.67. The overall mean circadian phase position of the minimum was 12:02 pm. [98]thumbnail Figure 3. Mean CBT and CBFV Aligned to CBT Nadir. Time course of mean CBFV and mean CBT aligned to the nadir of CBT and then averaged. Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/-SEM) of CBT (purple squares) and CBFV (blue circles) aligned to the phase of the circadian temperature cycle. Circadian time in degrees is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate on the left shows CBT values (degrees F) and CBFV (cm/sec) on the right. The vertical line indicates the CBT nadir. [99]thumbnail Figure 4. Mean CBT and CBFV Aligned to Their Respective Nadir. Time course of mean CBFV and mean CBT aligned to each of their respective nadirs and then averaged. Shown is a double plot of the group (n = 11) mean levels (+/-SEM) of CBT (purple squares) and CBFV (blue circles) aligned to the phase of the circadian temperature cycle. Circadian time in degrees is shown on the abscissa. The ordinate on the left shows CBT values (degrees F) and CBFV (cm/sec) on the right. The vertical line indicates both the CBT nadir and the CBFV nadir. The correlation coefficient between the aligned rhythms is 0.77 (p < 0.01). To align the CBFV nadir to the CBT nadir, first, the lowest value of CBT and the lowest value of CBFV were identified and set to circadian time 0, or 0°. Each half hour data point after the CBT nadir and CBFV nadir were then set to a circadian degree. There were a total of 48 data points across the 24 hour period. Therefore, each data point was equal to 7.5 degrees so that each data point would accumulate to 360°. Lastly, mean values were obtained for CBT and CBFV at each circadian degree. Estimation of circadian phase A 24-hour non-linear multiple regression -cosine curve fit analysis was performed on the CBT and CBFV data (SAS Institute, Cary, NC). This technique constrains the circadian period of CBT and CBFV to be within 24 hours. This technique used the following equations: model cbt = &avg_cbt + r * cos((2 * 3.1415) * (hours-&max_cbt)/24; model cbfv = &avg_cbt + r * cos((2 * 3.1415) * (hours-&max_cbfv)/24, where & = constants that center the curve at the actual average for each series (vertical centering) and the predicted maximum at the actual maximum (horizontal centering); r = the amplitude of the cosine wave. An additional analysis was performed which also yielded the estimated clock time for the CBT nadir and CBFV nadir (Synergy software, Kaleidagraph Version 3.6). Third, the minimum of the circadian rhythm of CBT and salivary DLMO were also used as markers of the endogenous circadian phase. A paired t-test was used to determine the overall phase difference between CBT and CBFV. Results Eleven subjects completed the protocol. The TCD probe was placed on either the right or left temple, whichever gave the better signal. Mean isonation depth of the TCD signal was 56.5 mm for the right MCA and 55.6 mm for the left MCA (range 53-60 mm). The constant routine ranged from 28 to 30 hours in duration. Polygraphic recordings confirmed sustained wakefulness across essentially the entire protocol in all but one subject. Subjects that had difficulty remaining awake were monitored closely and aroused when needed by engagement in conversation. Results from the polygraphic recordings are not presented here. We do not present the results of the polygraphic recordings because, for the purposes of this study, these recordings were used solely to monitor whether subjects were awake or asleep. The first five hours and the final hour of data from the constant routine were excluded from analysis. Core body temperature, cerebral blood flow velocity and the 24-hour day A 24 hour non-linear multiple regression, cosine fit analysis revealed that the overall mean CBT rhythm (n = 11) fit a 24 hour cosine rhythm (R^2 = 0.62, p < 0.01), Figure [100]1. The mean CBT across all subjects was 98.6 °F (+/- 0.03 °F). Figure [101]2 shows that a 24-hour non-linear multiple regression, cosine analysis fit a 24 hour cosine rhythm (R^2 = 0.67, p < 0.01), Figure [102]2. The mean CBFV across subjects was 40.6 cm/sec (+/- 0.54 cm/sec). Salivary DLMO occurred 7.7 hours prior to the CBT nadir in nine subjects, which served only as a secondary measure of endogenous circadian phase position in those subjects. The mean salivary melatonin concentration across the ten hour window was 15.3 pg/ml (+/-3.05 pg/ml). CBFV rhythm is 90 degrees out of phase with the CBT rhythm The overall mean circadian position of CBT occurred at 6:05 am and the mean position of CBFV occurred at 12:02 pm (Figure [103]3), yielding a 6 hour or 90 degree statistically significant difference (t = 4.9, DF = 10, p < 0.01). In individual subject data, the differences ranged from 0 to 8.5 hours. In eight subjects, the CBFV phase occurred later than the respective CBT phase, with mean difference of 5.2 hours. In two subjects, the CBFV nadir occurred earlier than the respective CBT nadir, with a mean difference of 6 hours. In one subject, there was no difference between the phase of CBT and CBFV. However, this subject's CBT rhythm was highly unusual, with the nadir occurring at 11:35 am on Day 2. Nevertheless, we felt the most appropriate way to present the data was to include this subject in the overall analysis. When the phase of CBFV was shifted so that the lowest value was aligned to the lowest CBT value, the two parameters were highly correlated (see Figure [104]4; r = 0.77, n = 98, p < 0.01). While the difference in the two rhythms variability was large, Fisher's z-transformed values revealed that the amplitudes of the two parameters were similar. The amplitude of CBFV yielded a z score of 4.25 and CBT yielded a z score of 3.06. Blood pressure recordings and systemic hemodynamic variables A Pearson correlation revealed a positive relationship between CBT and heart rate (r = 0.40, p < 0.01) across the 24 hour period. Diastolic blood pressure (DBP) and CBT showed a negative correlation (r = -0.30, p < 0.05). Et[CO2 ]showed a trend towards a direct relationship with CBFV (r = 0.24, p = 0.10). Blood pressure, heart rate, and Et[CO2 ]served only as regulators of CBFV and were not analyzed according to circadian phase. Discussion This study is the first to use the constant routine (CR) protocol to determine whether the endogenous circadian pacemaker contributes to the previously reported diurnal changes in CBFV. The current work demonstrates that, with limited periodic external stimuli and a constant posture, there is 24-hour rhythmicity in CBFV. Subjects showed a cycle of approximately 24 hours in CBT, which has been previously demonstrated with the CR [[105]21]. Figure [106]3 illustrates the intricate relationship between the rhythms across the study period. At approximately the CBT acrophase, the relationship between the two rhythms undergoes a transition. Between 180 and 240 degrees, CBFV is still rising and CBT is changing directions (first rising, reaching its peak and then falling). This period between 180 and 240 has been described as a "wake maintenance zone", a time in the circadian cycle during which humans are less likely to fall asleep [[107]22]. In our subjects, the CBT is near its zenith or just starting to fall at this time and CBFV is still steadily rising. Higher values in CBT and CBFV are associated with activation and therefore these two endogenous rhythms may be promoting wakefulness during this "wake maintenance zone". However, at the end of this transition period, CBT is falling and CBFV is still rising, perhaps reflecting continued activation of the cerebral cortex. Whereas the two-process model predicts increased tendency to sleep as CBT falls [[108]23], our finding may provide the mechanism by which wakefulness is effortlessly maintained before bedtime. Figure [109]3 further illustrates that as wakefulness is extended past the subject's habitual bedtime (approximately 270 degrees), the two rhythms decline together. Between 0 and 60 degrees, CBFV steadily declines and CBT is steadily rising. The lower CBFV values in the morning may play a role in cognitive performance impairments [[110]24], particularly the 3-4.5 hour phase difference in neurobehavioral functioning relative to the CBT rhythm that has been previously demonstrated in constant routine protocols [[111]25]. Earlier studies using simultaneous EEG and TCD to continuously measure CBFV across the sleep period have concluded that, except for periods of REM sleep, [[112]26 ,[113]27], there is a linear decline in CBFV across the night during periods of non-REM sleep [[114]1,[115]28]. Other groups utilizing these techniques simultaneously speculated that the decline in CBFV through the night was a "decoupling" of cerebral electrical activity and cerebral perfusion during non-REM sleep [[116]8-[117]10]. In all studies [[118]1,[119]8-[120]10,[121]28], CBFV values were lower in the morning during wakefulness than during wakefulness prior to sleep at night. The current findings show that the decline in CBFV is present during wakefulness in the night time hours and therefore may not be attributed solely to sleep and associated changes that normally influence CBFV (including factors such as the shift to recumbency, and reduced activity, metabolic rate and respiratory rate). Moreover, our interaction with the subjects and the monitoring of EEG for signs of sleep resulted in no sleep in all but one subject. The one exception was in a subject who lapsed into brief periods of sleep. Therefore, the fall in CBFV in 10 out of 11 subjects cannot be explained by the occurrence of non-REM sleep. It is possible, however, that the decline of CBFV across the night and early morning may be secondary to the sleep deprivation that is part of the constant routine. Brain imaging studies across sustained periods of wakefulness have shown significant decreases in absolute regional cerebral glucose metabolic rate in several areas of the brain [[122]29-[123]34]. The drop in CBT which preceded the parallel fall in CBFV needs to be considered as a possible explanation for the CBFV changes. The fall in CBT during sleeping hours is attributed in part to sleep-associated changes and in part to strong regular circadian forces independent of the sleep period. CBT is, in fact, one of the key and most extensively studied indices of the circadian phase. It is also known that CBT is highly correlated with brain temperature and brain metabolic rate [[124]35]. Imaging studies have documented the intimate relation between brain activity and increased metabolic rate and oxygen delivery through perfusion. Therefore, it is plausible that CBT is a direct influence on CBFV or an index of decreased metabolic need for blood flow. The prevailing hypothesis that there is tight coupling of normal neuronal activity and blood flow was formulated over 100 years ago [[125]36]. The drop in CBFV may be a consequence of the lowered cerebral activity secondary to lowered brain temperature. In contrast, two studies of exercise-induced hyperthermia showing decreased global and middle cerebral artery CBFV [[126]37 ,[127]38] do not support this hypothesized direct relationship between the two variables. However, one of the main purported mechanisms for the fall in CBFV in these exercise studies, the hyperventilation induced lowering of Pa[CO2], is unlikely present during waking while lying in bed at night. Therefore, CBT declines remain a plausible explanation for the portion of the 24 hours when CBFV declined. Mechanisms of CBFV regulation This protocol allowed the unique opportunity to evaluate blood pressure, heart rate, and Et[CO2 ]in the absence of sleep, in subjects with constant posture, and highly restricted movements. While blood pressure clearly falls during sleep in normal individuals, the absence of sleep in the current study obviates the explanation that CBFV declines are secondary to lowered blood pressure. Furthermore, we sampled blood pressure throughout the day and night and found a weak inverse relationship between DBP and CBT. This finding is in contrast to a careful study of circadian influence on blood pressure in the absence of sleep which showed no change in blood pressure during the descending portion of the body temperature curve [[128]39]. Nevertheless, our finding was weak and likely does not provide the explanation for the CBFV changes. The small-inverse relationship between Et [CO2 ]and CBT is similar to that found by Spengler et al. [[129]40], who showed a consistent but small amplitude circadian rhythm in mean end-tidal Et[CO2 ]on a CR protocol. Et[CO2 ]showed a trend towards a direct relationship with CBFV, which is consistent with previous studies showing that changes in Et[CO2 ]are associated with changes in CBFV [[130]41 ,[131]42]. Heart rate was correlated with CBT, consistent with the findings of Van Dongen et al [[132]39]. Clinical correlation The approximate 6 hour (90 degree) phase angle difference between the CBFV and CBT suggests that CBFV continues to decline into the early to mid-morning hours. This finding is consistent with a time window in the morning during which several physiological changes have been observed. For example, cerebral vasomotor reactivity to hypocapnia, hypercapnia, and normoventilation has been found to be most reduced in the morning [[133]15 ,[134]16]. It is tempting to suggest that the the low CBFV values in the morning may also help explain the well established diurnal variation of the onset of cerebrovascular accidents (CVAs) [[135]43]. A meta-analyses of 11,816 publications between 1966 to 1997 found that there was a 49% increased risk of strokes between 6 am and 12 pm [[136]44]. This time period is in agreement with studies on myocardial infarction (MI) and sudden death [[137]45]. The increased incidence of these events has been attributed, in part, to the surge of blood pressure [[138]13,[139]46,[140]47] and platelet aggregability [[141]48,[142]49] in the morning when patients are getting out of bed. Our results demonstrate that even in the absence of surges in blood pressure, the phase of CBFV reaches its lowest values during the hours before 12 pm. This further suggests that the endogenous rhythm of CBFV may be associated with the risk of CVAs in the late morning hours even without changes in posture or activity. Conclusion Overall, the results demonstrate that CBFV, in the absence of sleep, exhibits properties of a circadian rhythm, as it rises and falls across a 24 hour period. The 6 hour (90 degree) phase angle difference in the CBFV rhythm with respect to the CBT rhythm may help explain previous findings of lower CBFV values in the morning. The phase difference occurs at a time period during which cognitive performance decrements have been observed and when both cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events occur more frequently. The mechanisms underlying this phase angle difference require further exploration. List of abbreviations CBFV Cerebral Blood Flow Velocity CBT Core Body Temperature TCD Transcranial Doppler EtCO2 End tidal Carbon Dioxide DLMO Dim Light Melatonin Onset EEG Electroencephalogram MCA Middle Cerebral Artery FFT Fast Fourier Transformation CR Constant routine EMG Electromyogram SBP Systolic Blood Pressure DBP Diastolic Blood Pressure CVA Cerebrovascular accident MI Myocardial infarction Competing interests The author(s) declare that they have no competing interests. Authors' contributions DAC coordinated, carried out, analyzed, and interpreted the study. AJS participated in the analysis and interpretation of the findings. DAC drafted the manuscript and AJS provided final approval of this version. RQS participated in data collection and data analysis. DAC and AJS co-designed the study. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the volunteer participants who completed this extremely difficult protocol, to the research assistants: Jason Birnbaum, Will Carias, RN, Laura Diaz, Boris Dubrovsky, Mathew Ebben, Ph.D., Carrie Hildebrand, Lars Ross, Greg Sahlem, Mathew Tucker, Ayesha Udin, to those who helped with the data analysis: Scott Campbell, Ph.D. of New York Presbyterian Hospital, White Plains, Abdeslem ElIdrissi, Ph.D. of The Institute for Basic Research, Staten Island, NY, Larry Krasnoff, Ph.D. of Digitas, New York, and Andrew Scott, MBA, to those who provided their expert advice: William Fishbein, Ph.D. of The City College of New York, Paul Glovinsky, Ph.D. of The Sleep Disorders Center, Albany, NY, Margaret Moline, Ph.D. of Eisai, Inc, Charles Pollak, MD of The Center for Sleep Medicine, New York Presbyterian Hospital-Cornell, and Alan Segal, MD of The Department of Neurology, New York Presbyterian Hospital, and to others who helped make this study possible: Stacy Goldstein, Neil B. 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Post a comment on this article! __________________________________________________________________ [254][1352965720@Top,Bottom,x96!Bottom] [255]Terms and Conditions [256]Privacy statement [257]Information for advertisers [258]Jobs at BMC [259]Contact us © 1999-2010 BioMed Central Ltd unless otherwise stated. Part of [260]Springer Science+Business Media. Références Liens visibles 42. javascript:/// 46. javascript:/// Liens cachés : Rhythm and Meter in English Poetry English poetry employs five basic rhythms of varying stressed (/) and unstressed (x) syllables. The meters are iambs, trochees, spondees, anapests and dactyls. In this document the stressed syllables are marked in boldface type rather than the tradition al "/" and "x." Each unit of rhythm is called a "foot" of poetry. The meters with two-syllable feet are * IAMBIC (x /) : That time of year thou mayst in me behold * TROCHAIC (/ x): Tell me not in mournful numbers * SPONDAIC (/ /): Break, break, break/ On thy cold gray stones, O Sea! Meters with three-syllable feet are * ANAPESTIC (x x /): And the sound of a voice that is still * DACTYLIC (/ x x): This is the forest primeval, the murmuring pines and the hemlock (a trochee replaces the final dactyl) Each line of a poem contains a certain number of feet of iambs, trochees, spondees, dactyls or anapests. A line of one foot is a monometer, 2 feet is a dimeter, and so on--trimeter (3), tetrameter (4), pentameter (5), hexameter (6), heptameter (7), and o ctameter (8). The number of syllables in a line varies therefore according to the meter. A good example of trochaic monometer, for example, is this poem entitled "Fleas": Adam Had'em. Here are some more serious examples of the various meters. iambic pentameter (5 iambs, 10 syllables) * That time | of year | thou mayst | in me | behold trochaic tetrameter (4 trochees, 8 syllables) * Tell me | not in | mournful | numbers anapestic trimeter (3 anapests, 9 syllables) * And the sound | of a voice | that is still dactylic hexameter (6 dactyls, 17 syllables; a trochee replaces the last dactyl) * This is the | forest pri | meval, the | murmuring | pine and the | hemlocks __________________________________________________________________ [1]A note on the source. __________________________________________________________________ [2]POETRY HOME | [3]ENGLISH 88 READING LIST | [4]POETRY NEWS | [5]FILREIS HOME ________________________________________ Search __________________________________________________________________ Last modified: Wednesday, 18-Jul-2007 16:27:43 EDT Références #[1]Edit this page [2]Wikipedia (en) [3]copyright [4]Wikipedia RSS Feed [5]Wikipedia Atom Feed Meter (poetry) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: [6]navigation, [7]search [8]Question book-new.svg This article needs additional [9]citations for [10]verification. Please help [11]improve this article by adding [12]reliable references. Unsourced material may be [13]challenged and [14]removed. (February 2009) In [15]poetry, the meter (or metre) is the basic [16]rhythmic structure of a [17]verse. Many traditional [18]verse forms prescribe a specific verse meter, or a certain set of meters alternating in a particular order. [19]Prosody is a more general [20]linguistic term, that includes poetical meter but also the rhythmic aspects of [21]prose, whether formal or informal. The [22]scansion of a [23]poem is the analysis of its metrical structure. Contents * [24]1 Fundamentals + [25]1.1 Feet + [26]1.2 Caesurae + [27]1.3 Metric variations + [28]1.4 Enumeration * [29]2 Meter in various languages + [30]2.1 Sanskrit + [31]2.2 Greek and Latin + [32]2.3 Classical Arabic o [33]2.3.1 The Arabic Meters + [34]2.4 Old English + [35]2.5 Modern English o [36]2.5.1 Metrical systems o [37]2.5.2 Frequently-used meters + [38]2.6 French + [39]2.7 Spanish + [40]2.8 Italian + [41]2.9 Ottoman Turkish + [42]2.10 Brazilian Portuguese * [43]3 History * [44]4 Dissent * [45]5 Notes * [46]6 See also [[47]edit] Fundamentals The meter usually depends on [48]acoustic properties of the [49]spoken words, such as the [50]length or [51]stress of their [52]syllables, independently of their meaning. The sound attributes that determine the meter may vary from language to language, and sometimes between poetic traditions. [[53]edit] Feet In most [54]Western classical poetic traditions, the meter of a verse can be described as a sequence of [55]feet, each foot being a specific sequence of syllable types -- such as unstressed/stressed (the norm for [56]English poetry) or long/short (as in most classical [57]Latin and [58]Greek poetry). The most common meter in English poetry, the so-called [59]iambic pentameter, is a sequence of five [60]iambic feet or iambs, each consisting of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one ("da-DUM") : So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see, So long lives this, and this gives life to thee. da DUM da DUM da DUM da DUM da DUM This approach to analyzing and classifying meters originates from [61]ancient Greek tragedians and poets such as [62]Homer, [63]Pindar, [64]Hesiod, and [65]Sappho. [[66]edit] Caesurae Another component of a verse's meter are the [67]caesurae (literally, cuts), which are pauses inserted between certain syllables of the verse. In Latin and Greek poetry, a caesura is a break within a foot caused by the end of a word. In English poetry, a caesura refers to a break within a line, for example: Till the Spinner of the Years Said 'Now!' And each one hears, And consumation comes, and jars two hemispheres. The caesura would be the 'Now!' [[68]edit] Metric variations Poems with a well-defined overall metric pattern often have a few lines that violate that pattern. A common variation is the inversion of a foot, which turns an iamb ("da-DUM") into a [69]trochee ("DUM-da"). Another common variation is a headless verse, which lacks the first syllable of the first foot. Yet a third variation is [70]catalexis, where the end of a line is shortened by a foot, or two or part thereof - an example of this is at the end of each verse in Keats' 'La Belle Dame sans Merci': 'And on thy cheeks a fading rose (4 feet) Fast withereth too' (2 feet) [[71]edit] Enumeration In [72]South Asian and Indian traditions where syllabic scripts are used metric patterns are enumerated using two symbols, a [73]breve and a [74]macron (or 'u' and '-'), to represent syllables of one time unit and two time units respectively. They are named 'Laghu' and 'Guru'. A meter is defined by specifying the count of time units for each line, number of lines, position of Laghu and Guru, and sequence of these symbols in each line.. [[75]edit] Meter in various languages [[76]edit] Sanskrit Main article: [77]Sanskrit prosody Main article: [78]Vedic meter Classical Sanskrit and Vedic Sanskrit use meters for most ancient treatises that are set to verse. Prominent Vedic meters include Gayatri, Ushnik, Anushtupa, Brhati, Pankti, Tristubh and Jagati. The basic meter for epic verse is the Sloka. Sanskrit meter is quantitative, similar in general principles to classical Greek and Latin meter. The [79]Bhagavad Gita is mainly written in anustupa (with some vasanta-tilaka sections) interspersed with some [80]Tristubh. For example, when [81]Krishna reveals his divinity to [82]Arjuna the meter changes to [83]Tristubh. [84]Tristubh is the most prevalent meter of the ancient [85]Rigveda, accounting for roughly 40% of its verses [[86]edit] Greek and Latin The metrical "feet" in the classical languages were based on the length of time taken to pronounce each syllable, which were categorized according to their [87]weight as either "long" syllables or "short" syllables (indicated as daa and duh below). These are also called "heavy" and "light" syllables, respectively, to distinguish from long and short vowels. The foot is often compared to a musical measure and the long and short syllables to whole notes and half notes. In English poetry, feet are determined by emphasis rather than length, with stressed and unstressed syllables serving the same function as long and short syllables in classical meter. The basic unit in Greek and Latin prosody is a [88]mora, which is defined as a single short syllable. A long syllable is equivalent to two moras. A long syllable contains either a long vowel, a [89]diphthong, or a short vowel followed by two or more consonants. Various rules of [90]elision sometimes prevent a grammatical syllable from making a full syllable, and certain other lengthening and shortening rules (such as [91]correption) can create long or short syllables in contexts where one would expect the opposite. The most important Classical meter is the [92]dactylic hexameter, the meter of Homer and Virgil. This form uses verses of six feet. The first four feet are [93]dactyls (daa-duh-duh), but can be [94]spondees (daa-daa). The fifth foot is almost always a dactyl. The sixth foot is either a spondee or a [95]trochee (daa-duh). The initial syllable of either foot is called the ictus, the basic "beat" of the verse. There is usually a [96]caesura after the ictus of the third foot. The opening line of the [97]Æneid is a typical line of dactylic hexameter: Arma vi | rumque ca | no, Troi | ae qui | primus ab | oris ("I sing of arms and the man, who first from the shores of Troy. . . ") In this example, the first and second feet are dactyls; their first syllables, "Ar" and "rum" respectively, contain short vowels, but count as long because the vowels are both followed by two consonants. The third and fourth feet are spondees, the first of which is divided by the main [98]caesura of the verse. The fifth foot is a dactyl, as is nearly always the case. The final foot is a spondee. The dactylic hexameter was imitated in English by [99]Henry Wadsworth Longfellow in his poem [100]Evangeline: This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the hemlocks, Bearded with moss, and in garments green, indistinct in the twilight, Stand like Druids of old, with voices sad and prophetic, Stand like harpers hoar, with beards that rest on their bosoms. Also important in Greek and Latin poetry is the [101]dactylic pentameter. This was a line of verse, made up of two equal parts, each of which contains two dactyls followed by a long syllable, which counts as a half foot. In this way, the number of feet amounts to five in total. Spondees can take the place of the dactyls in the first half, but never in the second. The long syllable at the close of the first half of the verse always ends a word, giving rise to a [102]caesura. Dactylic pentameter is never used in isolation. Rather, a line of dactylic pentameter follows a line of dactylic hexameter in the [103]elegiac [104]distich or [105]elegiac couplet, a form of verse that was used for the composition of elegies and other [106]tragic and solemn verse in the Greek and Latin world, as well as love poetry that was sometimes light and cheerful. An example from [107]Ovid's [108]Tristia: Vergili | um vi | di tan | tum, nec a | mara Ti | bullo Tempus a | miciti | ae || fata de | dere me | ae. ("I saw only Vergil, greedy Fate gave Tibullus no time for me.") The Greeks and Romans also used a number of [109]lyric meters, which were typically used for shorter poems than elegiacs or hexameter. In [110]Aeolic verse, one important line was called the [111]hendecasyllabic, a line of eleven syllables. This meter was used most often in the [112]Sapphic stanza, named after the Greek poet [113]Sappho, who wrote many of her poems in the form. A hendecasyllabic is a line with a never-varying structure: two trochees, followed by a dactyl, then two more trochees. In the Sapphic [114]stanza, three hendecasyllabics are followed by an "Adonic" line, made up of a dactyl and a trochee. This is the form of [115]Catullus 51 (itself an homage to Sappho 31): Ille | mi par | esse de | o vi | detur; ille, | si fas | est, supe | rare | divos, qui se | dens ad | versus i | denti | dem te spectat et | audit ("He seems to me to be like a god; if it is permitted, he seems above the gods, he who sitting across from you gazes at you and listens to you.") The Sapphic stanza was imitated in [116]English by [117]Algernon Charles Swinburne in a poem he simply called Sapphics: Saw the white implacable Aphrodite, Saw the hair unbound and the feet unsandalled Shine as fire of sunset on western waters; Saw the reluctant... [[118]edit] Classical Arabic The metrical system of Classical Arabic poetry, like those of classical Greek and Latin, is based on the weight of syllables classified as either "long" or "short." A short syllable contains a short vowel with no following consonants. For example, the word kataba, which syllabifies as ka-ta-ba, contains three short vowels. A long syllable contains either a long vowel, or a short vowel followed by a consonant as is the case in the word maktubun which syllabifies as mak-tu-bun. These are the only syllable types possible in Arabic phonology which, by and large, does not allow a syllable to end in more than one consonant or a consonant to occur in the same syllable after a long vowel. In other words, with very few exceptions, syllables of the type -ak- or -akr- are not found in classical Arabic. Each verse consists of a certain number of metrical feet (tafa`il or ajza') and a certain combination of possible feet constitutes a meter (baHr.) The traditional Arabic practice for writing out a poem's meter is to use a concatenation of various derivations of the verbal root F-`-L ( f+e+l+). Thus, the following hemistich qifa nabki min dhikra Habibin wamanzili q+f+a+ n+b+k+ m+n+ dkk+r+j+ hkb+y+b+=+ w+m+n+z+l+1+ Would be traditionally scanned as Fa`ulun mafa`ilun fa`ulun mafa`ilun f+e+w+l+n+ m+f+a+e+y+l+n+ f+e+w+l+n+ m+f+a+e+l+n+ Which, according to the system more current in the west, can be represented as: u-- u--- u-- u-u- [[119]edit] The Arabic Meters Classical Arabic has sixteen established metres. Though each of them allows for a certain amount of variation, their basic patterns are as follows, using "-" for a long syllable, "u" for a short one, "x" for a syllable that can be long or short and "o" for a position that can either contain one long or two shorts: The T-.awil (a+l+tjw+y+l+): u-x u-x- u-x u-u- f+e+w+l+n+ m+f+a+e+y+l+n+ f+e+w+l+n+ m+f+a+e+y+l+n+ The Madid (a+l+m+d+y+d+): xu-- xu- xu- f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ f+a+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ The Basit-. (a+l+b+s+y+tj): x-u- xu- x-u- uu- m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+n+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+e+l+n+ The Kamil (a+l+k+a+m+l+): o-u- o-u- o-u- m+t+f+a+e+l+n+ m+t+f+a+e+l+n+ m+t+f+a+e+l+n+ The Wafir (a+l+w+a+f+r+): u-o- u-o- u-- m+f+a+e+l+t+n+ m+f+a+e+l+t+n+ f+e+w+l+n+ The Hajaz (a+l+h+g+z+): u--x u--x m+f+a+e+y+l+n+ m+f+a+e+y+l+n+ The Rajaz (a+l+r+g+z+): x-u- x-u- x-u- m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ The Ramal (a+l+r+m+l+): xu-- xu-- xu- f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ f+a+e+l+n+ The Sari` (a+l+s+r+y+e+): xxu- xxu- -u- m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+n+ The MunsariH (a+l+m+n+s+r+hk): x-u- -x-u -uu- m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+'+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ The Khafif (a+l+x+f+y+f+): xu-- x-u- xu-- f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ The Mud-.ari` (a+l+m+dda+r+e+): u-x x-u-- m+f+a+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ The Muqtad-.ib (a+l+m+q+t+ddb+): xu- u- uu- f+a+e+l+a+t+'+ m+f+t+e+l+n+ The Mujtathth (a+l+m+g+t+tk): x-u- xu-- m+s+t+f+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+a+t+n+ The Mutadarik (a+l+m+t+d+a+r+k+): o- o- o- o- (Here, each "o" can also be "xu") f+a+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+n+ f+a+e+l+n+ The Mutaqarib (a+l+m+t+q+a+r+b+): u-x u-x u-x u- f+e+w+l+n+ f+e+w+l+n+ f+e+w+l+n+ f+e+w+l+ [[120]edit] Old English The metric system of [121]Old English poetry was different from that of modern English, and more related to the verse forms of most of older [122]Germanic languages. It used [123]alliterative verse, a metrical pattern involving varied numbers of syllables but a fixed number (usually four) of strong stresses in each line. The unstressed syllables were relatively unimportant, but the caesurae played a major role in [124]Old English poetry. [[125]edit] Modern English Most English meter is classified according to the same system as Classical meter with an important difference. English is an accentual language, and therefore beats and offbeats (stressed and unstressed syllables) take the place of the long and short syllables of classical systems. In most English verse, the meter can be considered as a sort of back beat, against which natural speech rhythms vary expressively. The most common characteristic feet of English verse are the [126]iamb in two syllables and the [127]anapest in three. (See [128]Foot (prosody) for a complete list of the metrical feet and their names.) [[129]edit] Metrical systems The number of metrical systems in English is not agreed upon.^[130][1] The four major types^[131][2] are: [132]accentual verse, [133]accentual-syllabic verse, [134]syllabic verse and [135]quantitative verse. The [136]alliterative verse of Old English could also be added to this list, or included as a special type of accentual verse. Accentual verse focuses on the number of stresses in a line, while ignoring the number of offbeats and syllables; accentual-syllabic verse focuses on regulating both the number of stresses and the total number of syllables in a line; syllabic verse only counts the number of syllables in a line; quantitative verse regulates the patterns of long and short syllables (this sort of verse is often considered alien to English).^[137][3] It is to be noted, however, that the use of foreign meters in English is all but exceptional.^[138][4] [[139]edit] Frequently-used meters The most frequently encountered meter of English verse is the [140]iambic pentameter, in which the metrical norm is five iambic feet per line, though metrical substitution is common and rhythmic variations practically inexhaustible. [141]John Milton's [142]Paradise Lost, most [143]sonnets, and much else besides in English are written in iambic pentameter. Lines of unrhymed iambic pentameter are commonly known as [144]blank verse. Blank verse in the English language is most famously represented in the plays of [145]William Shakespeare and the great works of Milton, though [146]Tennyson ([147]Ulysses, [148]The Princess) and [149]Wordsworth ([150]The Prelude) also make notable use of it. A rhymed pair of lines of iambic pentameter make a [151]heroic couplet, a [152]verse form which was used so often in the eighteenth century that it is now used mostly for humorous effect (although see [153]Pale Fire for a non-trivial case). The most famous writers of heroic couplets are [154]Dryden and [155]Pope. Another important meter in English is the [156]ballad meter, also called the "common meter", which is a four line stanza, with two pairs of a line of [157]iambic tetrameter followed by a line of [158]iambic trimeter; the [159]rhymes usually fall on the lines of trimeter, although in many instances the tetrameter also rhymes. This is the meter of most of the Border and Scots or English ballads. In [160]hymnody it is called the "common meter", as it is the most common of the named [161]hymn meters used to pair many hymn lyrics with melodies, such as [162]Amazing Grace:^[163][5] Amazing Grace! how sweet the sound That saved a wretch like me; I once was lost, but now am found; Was blind, but now I see. [164]Emily Dickinson is famous for her frequent use of ballad meter: Great streets of silence led away To neighborhoods of pause; Here was no notice -- no dissent -- No universe -- no laws. [[165]edit] French In [166]French poetry, meter is determined solely by the number of syllables in a line, because it is considered as less important than rhymes. A silent 'e' counts as a syllable before a consonant, but is elided before a vowel (where [167]h aspiré counts as a consonant). At the end of a line, the "e" remains unelided but is hypermetrical (outside the count of syllables, like a feminine ending in English verse), in that case, the rhyme is also called "feminine", whereas it is called "masculine" in the other cases. The most frequently encountered meter in Classical French poetry is the [168]alexandrine, composed of two [169]hemistiches of six syllables each. Two famous alexandrines are La fille de Minos et de Pasiphaë ([170]Jean Racine) (the daughter of Minos and Pasiphae), and Waterloo ! Waterloo ! Waterloo ! Morne plaine! ([171]Victor Hugo) (Waterloo! Waterloo! Waterloo! Gloomy plain!) Classical French poetry also had a complex set of [172]rules for rhymes that goes beyond how words merely sound. These are usually taken into account when describing the meter of a poem. [[173]edit] Spanish In [174]Spanish poetry the meter is determined by the number of syllables the verse has. Still it is the phonetic accent in the last word of the verse that decides the final count of the line. If the accent of the final word is at the last syllable, then the poetic rule states that one syllable shall be added to the actual count of syllables in the said line, thus having a higher number of poetic syllables than the number of grammatical syllables. If the accent lies on the second to last syllable of the last word in the verse, then the final count of poetic syllables will be the same as the grammatical number of syllables. Furthermore, if the accent lies on the third to last syllable, then one syllable is subtracted from the actual count, having then less poetic syllables than grammatical syllables. Interestingly, Spanish poetry uses poetic licenses, unique to Romance languages, to change the number of syllables by manipulating mainly the vowels in the line. For example: Cuando salí de Collores, fue en una jaquita baya, por un sendero entre mayas, arropás de cundiamores... This stanza from Valle de Collores by [175]Luis Llorens Torres, uses eight poetic syllables. Given that all words at the end of each line have their phonetic accent on the second to last syllables, no syllables in the final count is either added or subtracted. Still in the second and third verse the grammatical count of syllables is nine. Poetic licenses permit the union of two vowels that are next to each other but in different syllables and count them as one. "Fue en..." has actually two syllables, but applying this license both vowels unite and form only one, giving the final count of eight syllables. "Sendero entre..." has five grammatical syllables, but uniting the "o" from "sendero" and the first "e" from "entre", gives only four syllables, permitting it to have eight syllables in the verse as well. This license is called a [176]synalepha (Spanish: [177]sinalefa). There are many types of licenses, used either to add or subtract syllables, that may be applied when needed after taking in consideration the poetic rules of the last word. Yet all have in common that they only manipulate vowels that are close to each other and not interrupted by consonants. Some common meters in Spanish verse are: * [178]Septenary: A line with the seven poetic syllables * [179]Octosyllable: A line with eight poetic syllables. This meter is commonly used in romances, narrative poems similar to English ballads, and in most proverbs. * [180]Hendecasyllable: A line with eleven poetic syllables. This meter plays a similar role to pentameter in English verse. It is commonly used in sonnets, among other things. * [181]Alexandrine: A line consisting of twelve syllables. [[182]edit] Italian In Italian poetry, meter is determined solely by the position of the last accent in a line. Syllables are enumerated with respect to a verse which ends with a paroxytone, so that a Septenary (having seven syllables) is defined as a verse whose last accent falls on the sixth syllable: it may so contain eight syllables (Ei fu. Siccome immobile) or just six (la terra al nunzio sta). Moreover, when a word ends with a vowel and the next one starts with a vowel, they are considered to be in the same syllable: so Gli anni e i giorni consists of only four syllables ("Gli an" "ni e i" "gior" "ni"). Even-syllabic verses have a fixed stress pattern. Because of the mostly [183]trochaic nature of the Italian language, verses with an even number of syllables are far easier to compose, and the [184]Novenary is usually regarded as the most difficult verse. Some common meters in Italian verse are: * Sexenary: A line whose last stressed syllabe is on the fifth, with a fixed stress on the second one as well (Al Re Travicello / Piovuto ai ranocchi, Giusti) * [185]Septenary: A line whose last stressed syllable is the sixth one. * [186]Octosyllable: A line whose last accent falls on the seventh syllable. More often than not, the secondary accents fall on the first, third and fifth syllable, especially in nursery rhymes for which this meter is particularly well-suited. * [187]Hendecasyllable: A line whose last accent falls on the tenth syllable. It therefore usually consists of eleven syllables; there are various kinds of possible accentations . It is used in sonnets, in ottava rima, and in many other works. [188]The Divine Comedy, in particular, is composed entirely of hendecasyllables, whose main stress pattern is 4th and 10th syllable. [[189]edit] Ottoman Turkish In the [190]Ottoman Turkish language, the structures of the poetic foot (t+f+e+l+ tef'ile) and of poetic meter (w+z+n+ vezin) were indirectly borrowed from the [191]Arabic poetic tradition through the medium of the [192]Persian language. [193]Ottoman poetry, also known as Dîvân poetry, was generally written in quantitative, [194]mora-timed meter. The [195]moras, or syllables, are divided into three basic types: * Open, or [196]light, syllables (açik hece) consist of either a short [197]vowel alone, or a [198]consonant followed by a short vowel + Examples: a-dam ("man"); zir-ve ("summit, peak") * Closed, or heavy, syllables (kapali hece) consist of either a long vowel alone, a consonant followed by a long vowel, or a short vowel followed by a consonant + Examples: Â-dem ("[199]Adam"); kâ-fir ("non-Muslim"); at ("horse") * Lengthened, or superheavy, syllables (meddli hece) count as one closed plus one open syllable and consist of a vowel followed by a [200]consonant cluster, or a long vowel followed by a consonant + Examples: kürk ("fur"); âb ("water") In writing out a poem's poetic meter, open syllables are symbolized by "." and closed syllables are symbolized by "-". From the different syllable types, a total of sixteen different types of poetic foot--the majority of which are either three or four syllables in length--are constructed, which are named and scanned as follows: fa` (-) fe ul (. -) fa` lün (- -) fe i lün (. . -) fâ i lün (- . -) fe û lün (. - -) mef' û lü (- - .) fe i lâ tün (. . - -) fâ i lâ tün (- . - -) fâ i lâ tü (- . - .) me fâ i lün (. - . -) me fâ' î lün (. - - -) me fâ î lü (. - - .) müf te i lün (- . . -) müs tef i lün (- - . -) mü te fâ i lün (. . - . -) These individual poetic feet are then combined in a number of different ways, most often with four feet per line, so as to give the poetic meter for a line of verse. Some of the most commonly used meters are the following: * me fâ' î lün / me fâ' î lün / me fâ' î lün / me fâ' î lün . - - - / . - - - / . - - - / . - - - Ezelden sah-i `ask-.uñ bende-i fermaniyüz cana Mah-.abbet mülkinüñ sultan-i `ali-saniyüz cana Oh beloved, since the origin we have been the slaves of the shah of love Oh beloved, we are the famed sultan of the heart's domain^[201][6] --[202]Bâkî (1526-1600) * me fâ i lün / fe i lâ tün / me fâ i lün / fe i lün . - . - / . . - - / . - . - / . . - H-.ata' o nerkis-i sehladadir sözümde degil Egerçi her süh-.anim bi-bedel begendiremem Though I may fail to please with my matchless verse The fault lies in those languid eyes and not my words --Seyh Gâlib (1757-1799) * fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lün - . - - / - . - - / - . - - / - . - Bir seker h-.and ile bezm-i sevka cam ettiñ beni Nim s-.un peymaneyi sak-.i tamam ettiñ beni At the gathering of desire you made me a wine-cup with your sugar smile Oh saki, give me only half a cup of wine, you've made me drunk enough^[203][7] --[204]Nedîm (1681?-1730) * fe i lâ tün / fe i lâ tün / fe i lâ tün / fe i lün . . - - / . . - - / . . - - / . . - Men ne h-.acet ki k-.ilam derd-i dilüm yara `ayan K-.amu derd-i dilümi yar bilübdür bilübem What use in revealing my sickness of heart to my love I know my love knows the whole of my sickness of heart --[205]Fuzûlî (1483?-1556) * mef' û lü / me fâ î lü / me fâ î lü / fâ û lün - - . / . - - . / . - - . / - - . Sevk-.uz ki dem-i bülbül-i seydada nihanuz H-.unuz ki dil-i gonçe-i h-.amrada nihanuz We are desire hidden in the love-crazed call of the nightingale We are blood hidden in the crimson heart of the unbloomed rose^[206][8] --[207]Nesâtî (?-1674) [[208]edit] Brazilian Portuguese Meters were extensively explored in Brazilian literature, notably during [209]Parnassianism. The most notable ones were: * Redondilha menor: composed of 5 syllables. * Redondilha maior: composed of 7 syllables. * [210]Decasyllable (decassílabo): composed of 10 syllables. Mostly used in [211]Parnassian [212]sonnets. + Heroic (heróico): stresses on the sixth and tenth syllables. + [213]Sapphic (sáfico): stresses on the fourth, eighth and tenth syllables. + Martelo: stresses on the third, sixth and tenth syllables. + Gaita galega or moinheira: stresses on the fourth, seventh and tenth syllables. * [214]Hendecasyllable (dodecassílabo): composed of 12 syllables. + [215]Alexandrine (alexandrino): divided into two [216]hemistiches. * Barbarian (bárbaro): composed of 13 or more syllables. + Lucasian (lucasiano): composed of 16 feet, divided into two [217]hemistiches of 8 syllables each. [[218]edit] History Further information: [219]History of poetry Metrical texts are first attested in early [220]Indo-European languages. The earliest known unambiguously metrical texts, and at the same time the only metrical texts with a claim of dating to the [221]Late Bronze Age, are the hymns of the [222]Rigveda. That the texts of the [223]Ancient Near East (Sumerian, Egyptian or Semitic) should not exhibit meter is surprising, and may be partly due to the nature of [224]Bronze Age writing. There were, in fact, attempts to reconstruct metrical qualities of the poetic portions of the [225]Hebrew Bible, e.g. by [226]Gustav Bickell^[227][9] or [228]Julius Ley^[229][10], but they remained inconclusive^[230][11] (see [231]Biblical poetry). Early Iron Age metrical poetry is found in the Iranian [232]Avesta and in the Greek works attributed to [233]Homer and [234]Hesiod. [235]Latin verse survives from the [236]Old Latin period (ca. 2nd c. BC), in the [237]Saturnian meter. [238]Persian poetry arises in the [239]Sassanid era. [240]Tamil poetry of the early centuries AD may be the earliest known non-Indo-European metrical texts (with the possible exception of the Chinese [241]Shi Jing). The oldest surviving fragment of [242]Germanic poetry is the verse on one of the [243]Gallehus horns (ca. AD 400). [244]Irish and [245]Arabic poetry both have early records dating from about the 6th century. [246]Medieval poetry was metrical without exception, spanning traditions as diverse as European [247]Minnesang, [248]Trouvère or [249]Bardic poetry, Classical [250]Persian and [251]Sanskrit poetry, [252]Tang dynasty [253]Chinese poetry or the [254]Japanese [255]Heian period [256]Man'yoshu. Renaissance and Early Modern poetry in Europe is characterized by a return to templates of Classical Antiquity, a tradition begun by [257]Petrarca's generation and continued into the time of [258]Shakespeare and [259]Milton. [[260]edit] Dissent Not all poets accept the idea that meter is a fundamental part of poetry. Twentieth century [261]American poets [262]Marianne Moore, [263]William Carlos Williams, and [264]Robinson Jeffers, were poets who believed that meter was imposed into poetry by man, not a fundamental part of its nature. In an essay titled "Robinson Jeffers, & The Metric Fallacy" [265]Dan Schneider echoes Jeffers' sentiments: "What if someone actually said to you that all music was composed of just 2 notes? Or if someone claimed that there were just 2 colors in creation? Now, ponder if such a thing were true. Imagine the clunkiness & mechanicality of such music. Think of the visual arts devoid of not just color, but sepia tones, & even shades of gray." Jeffers called his technique "rolling stresses". Moore went even further than Jeffers, openly declaring her poetry was written in syllabic form, and wholly denying meter. These syllabic lines from her famous poem [266]"Poetry" illustrate her contempt for meter, and other poetic tools (even the syllabic pattern of this poem does not remain perfectly consistent): nor is it valid to discriminate against "business documents and school-books": all these phenomena are important. One must make a distinction however: when dragged into prominence by half poets, the result is not poetry Williams tried to form poetry whose subject matter was centered on the lives of common people. He came up with the concept of the [267]variable foot. Williams spurned traditional meter in most of his poems, preferring what he called "colloquial idioms." Another poet that turned his back on traditional concepts of meter was Britain's [268]Gerard Manley Hopkins. Hopkins' major innovation was what he called [269]sprung rhythm. He claimed most poetry was written in this older rhythmic structure inherited from the Norman side of the English literary heritage, based on repeating groups of two or three syllables, with the stressed syllable falling in the same place on each repetition. Sprung rhythm is structured around feet with a variable number of syllables, generally between one and four syllables per foot, with the stress always falling on the first syllable in a foot. [[270]edit] Notes 1. [271]^ For example, [272]Robert Wallace, in his 1993 essay '[273]Meter in English (essay)' asserts that there is only one meter in English: Accentual-Syllabic. The essay is reprinted in [274]David Baker (editor), [275]Meter in English, A Critical Engagement, University of Arkansas Press, 1996. [276]ISBN 1-55728-444-X. 2. [277]^ see for example, [278]Paul Fussell, [279]Poetic Meter and Poetic Form, McGraw Hill, 1965, revised 1979. [280]ISBN 0-07-553606-4. 3. [281]^ [282]Charles O. Hartman writes that quantitative meters "continue to resist importation in English" ([283]Free Verse: An Essay on Prosody, Northwestern University Press, 1980. [284]ISBN 0-8101-1316-3, page 34). 4. [285]^ According to [286]Leonardo Malcovati (Prosody in England and Elsewhere: A Comparative Approach, Gival Press, 2006. [287]ISBN 1-928589-26-X), '[very] little of it is native'. 5. [288]^ The [289]ballad meter commonality among a wide range of song lyrics allow words and music to be interchanged seamlessly between various songs, such as [290]Amazing Grace, the Ballad of [291]Gilligan's Isle, [292]House of the Rising Sun, theme from the [293]Mickey Mouse Club, and others. 6. [294]^ Andrews, Walter G. Ottoman Lyric Poetry: An Anthology. [295]ISBN 0-292-70472-0. p. 93. 7. [296]^ Ibid. p. 134. 8. [297]^ Ibid. p. 131. 9. [298]^ "Metrices biblicae regulae exemplis illustratae", 1879, "Carmina Vet. Test. metrice", 1882 10. [299]^ "Leitfaden der Metrik der hebräischen Poesie", 1887 11. [300]^ the [301]Catholic Encyclopedia s.v. Hebrew Poetry of the Old Testament calls them 'Procrustean'. [[302]edit] See also * [303]Foot (prosody) * [304]Meter (music) * [305]List of classical meters. 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